,,wood ,,& ,,=e/    ,by ,,william       
,,noyes1 ,m4,a4    ,=m]ly ,assi/ant     
,pr(essor ( ,indu/rial ,arts   ,tea*]s  
,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity    ,,new 
,,york ,,city    ,illu/ration    ,,!    
,,manual ,,arts ,,press    ,,peoria1    
,,ill9ois     ,,copyright    ,,william  
,,noyes    #aiab    ,,fif? ,,edition1   
#aiba    ,pr9t$ 9 ,unit$ ,/ates (       
,am]ica     ,,=eword   ,?is book has be5
 prep>$ z a companion volume to !       
au?or's ,h&work 9 ,wood4#a ,x is an     
attempt to collect & arrange 9 available
 =m useful in=mation1 n[ widely scatt]$1
 ab\t our common woods1 _! s\rces1 gr[?1
 prop]ties & uses4  ,z 9 ! o!r volume1 !
 cr$it = ! successful completion ( !    
book is to be giv5 to my wife1 ,anna    
,gausmann ,noyes1 :o has made ! draw+s &
 maps1 correct$ ! text1 read ! pro(1 &  
c>ri$ ! "w ?ru to its f9al completion4  
,ackn[l$gm5ts are h]eby ?ankfully made =
 corrections & sugge/ions 9 ! text to ! 
foll[+ p]sons3  ,mr4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopk9s1 ( 
! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t (             

,agriculture1 ,bureau ( ,entomology1 =  
revision ( ! text relat+ to ,insect     
,enemies ( ! ,=e/1 9 ,*apt] ,,vi4  ,mr4 
,george ,g4 ,h$gcock1 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 
,bureau ( ,agriculture1 ,bureau ( ,plant
 ,indu/ry1 = revision ( ! text relat+ to
 ! fungal enemies ( ! =e/1 9 ,*apt]     
,,vi4  ,mr4 ,s4 ,t4 ,dana & ,mr4        
,burnett ,b>r[s1 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates      
,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,=e/ ,s]vice1 
= revision ( ,*apt]s ,,iv1 ,v1 ,,vi1    
,,vii1 & ,,viii4  ,pr(essor ,*>les ,r4  
,ri*>ds1 =m]ly ,head ( ! ,manual ,tra9+ 
,dep>tm5t ( ,tea*]s ,college1 my        
pr$ecessor z lectur] ( ! c\rse out ( :i*
 ?is book has gr[n4  ,pr(essor ,m4 ,a4  
,bigel[1 ,head ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,botany (
 ,tea*]s ,college1 = revision ( ,*apt]  
,i1 on ! ,/ructure ( ,wood4  ,mr4       
,romeyn ,b4 ,h\gh1 ( ,l[ville1 ,n4 ,y41 
au?or ( ,am]ican ,woods & ,h&book ( !   
,trees ( ! ,nor!rn ,/ates & ,canada1 =  
sugge/ions 9 prep>+ ! maps 9 ,*apt]     
,,iii4  ,! ,=e/ ,s]vice1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4  
,c41 = photographs & maps cr$it$ to x1 &

 = p]mission to repr9t ! key to !       
id5tification ( woods :i* appe>s 9 ,=e/ 
,s]vice ,bullet9 ,no4 #aj1 ,timb]1 by   
,filib]t ,ro?4  ,! ,division (          
,publications1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t (      
,agriculture1 = p]mission to copy       
illu/rations 9 bullet9s4  ,! ,macmillan 
,company1 ,new ,york1 = p]mission to    
reproduce ,fig4 #hf1 ,portion ( !       
,mycelium ( ,dry ,rot1 f ,timb] & ,"s ( 
its ,diseases1 by ,h4 ,m4 ,w>d4  ,mrs4  
,ka?>9e ,gold5 ,bitt+1 ( ,lafayette1    
,indiana1 = ! photograph ( !            
cross-section ( a bud1 ,figure #e4      
,f9ally & n lea/ ,i h]eby ackn[l$ge my  
obligations to ! v>i\s writ]s & publi%]s
 ^: books & articles ,i h freely us$4 ,z
 f> z possible1 appropriate cr$it is    
giv5 9 ! pag$ ref]5ces at ! end ( ea*   
*apt]4      ,footnote #a3 ,william      
,noyes1 ,h&work 9 ,wood1 ,peoria1 ,ill4 
,! ,manual ,arts ,press1 #bca pp41 #b4  
,,cont5ts4    ,,*apt]                   
,,page           ,g5]al ,bibliography   
#d       ,i   ,! ,/ructure ( ,wood      

#i      ,,ii   ,prop]ties ( ,wood       
#da     ,,iii   ,! ,pr9cipal ,species ( 
,am]ican ,woods                 #eg     
,,iv   ,! ,di/ribution & ,composition ( 
!          ,nor? ,am]ican ,=e/s         
#aig       ,v   ,! ,=e/ ,organism       
#baa      ,,vi   ,natural ,enemies ( !  
,=e/                          #bbi      
,,vii   ,! ,exhau/ion ( ! ,=e/          
#bea    ,,viii   ,! ,use ( ! ,=e/       
#bga           ,app5dix                 
#bhi           ,index                   
#cjd     ,,g5]al ,,bibliography   ,apg>1
 ,a4 ,g41 ,trees ( ! ,nor!rn ,unit$     
,/ates4 ,n4 ,y43     ,am]ican ,book     
,co41 #bbd pp4 ,a small book deal+ ) !  
botany     ( trees1 giv+ descriptions ( 
_! ess5tial organs1 &     p>ticul>ly    
valuable = ! leaf key to ! trees4 ,x    
%\ld     be supplem5t$ by ,keel] or     
,h\gh's ,h&book4  ,bat]d51 ,j4 ,r41     
,timb]4 ,n4 ,y43 ,d4 ,van ,no/r& ,co41  
#aijh1     #cea pp4 ,a description ( !  
timb]s ( v>i\s c\ntries1     discussion 
( timb] defects1 timb] te/s1 etc4       

,bitt+1 ,k4 ,g41 ,! ,/ructure ( ,wood4  
,wood ,craft1 #e3 #gf1     #ajf1 #add1  
#agb1 ,june-,sept41 '#jf4 ,a v s*ol>ly &
 valuable     s]ies ( articles on wood  
/ructure & gr[?4 ,excell5t              
microphotographs4  ,britton1 ,na?aniel  
,"l1 ,nor? ,am]ican ,trees4 ,n4 ,y43    
,h5ry     ,holt  ,co41 #aijh1 #hid pp4  
,a description ( all ! k9ds ( trees     
gr[+ indep5d5tly ( cultivation 9 ,nor?  
,am]ica1 nor? (     ,mexico1 & ! ,we/   
,indies4 ,! /&>d ,botany ( trees4       
,b\lg]1 ,g4 ,s41 ,wood4 ,london3 ,edw>d 
,arnold1 #cfi pp4 ,a ?oro     discussion
 ( wood /ructure1 ) *apt]s on !         
recognition     & classification (      
woods1 defects1 pres]vation1 uses1 te/s1
     supplies1 & s\rces ( wood4 ,good   
illu/rations4  ,bruce1 ,e4 ,s41 ,fro/   
,*ecks & ,w9d ,%akes4 ,=e/ry &          
,irrigation1 #h3 #aei1 ,april1 '#jb4 ,an
 orig9al /udy ( !     splitt+ ( trees by
 sudd5 fro/ & ?aw4  ,brunck51 ,erne/1   
,nor? ,am]ican ,=e/s & ,=e/ry4 ,n4 ,y43 
,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 #bfe pp4 ,a    

compreh5sive survey ( ,am]ican          
,=e/ry conditions includ+ ! =e/         
indu/ries1 fires1     taxation1 &       
managem5t4 ,no illu/rations4            
,busbridge1 ,h>old1 ,! ,%r9kage & ,w>p+ 
( ,timb]4     ,sci4 ,am]4 ,suppl41 ,no4 
#aejj1 ,oct4 #a1 #aijd4 ,good           
photographic     illu/rations4          
,com/ock1 ,j4 ,h4 & ,a4 ,b41 ,a ,manual 
= ! ,/udy ( ,insects4     ,i?aca1 ,n4   
,y43 ,com/ock ,publi%+ ,co41 #gja pp4   
,valuable = ref]5ce 9 classify+ insects 
injuri\s to wood4  ,curtis1 ,c>leton    
,c41 ,nature & ,developm5t ( ,plants4   
,n4 ,y43     ,h5ry ,holt  ,co41 #aijg1  
#dga pp4 ,*apt] ,,iii is a v cle> &     
excell5t discussion ( ! /ructure ( ! /em
 ( plants     7includ+ wood74           
,encyclop$ia ,brittannica1 ,elev5?      
,edition1 ,cambridge3 ,at !             
,univ]sity ,press4 ,article3 ,=e/s &    
,=e/ry1 ,vol4 #aj1 p4     #fde4         
,article3 ,plants1 ,anatomy (1 ,vol4    
#ba1 p4 #gda4 ,article3     ,timb] ,vol4
 #bf1 p4 #igh4  ,felt1 ,e4 ,p41 ,!      

,gypsy & ,br[n ,tail ,mo?s4 ,n4 ,y4     
,/ate ,museum3     ,bullet9 #ajc1       
,entomology1 #be4 ,valuable = color$    
illu/rations     z well z = detail$     
descriptions4  ,f]n[1 ,b4 ,e41          
,economics ( ,=e/ry4 ,n4 ,y43 ,t4 ,y4   
,cr[ell      ,co4 #aijb1 qu>to #ebj pp4 
,a treatm5t ( =e/s & =e/ry     f !      
/&po9t ( economics1 includ+ a           
compreh5sive     exposition ( ! =e/]'s  
art1 ) *apt]s on =e/     conditions1    
silviculture1 =e/ policies1 & me?ods (  
bus9ess conduct1 ) a bibliography4      
,f]n[1 ,b4 ,e41 ,report ^u ! ,=e/ry     
,inve/igation ( ! ,u4 ,s4     ,dep>tm5t 
( ,agriculture1 #ahhg-ahih4 ,fifty-fif? 
,congress1     ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 
,docum5t ,no4 #aha4 ,qu>to1 #dja pp4    
,a review ( =e/s & =e/ry 9 ! ,u4 ,s41 ( 
=e/ policies     ( ,european nations1   
p>ticul>ly ( ,g]many1 ( ! pr9ciples     
( silviculture1 ( a discussion ( =e/    
influ5ces1 & a     section on timb]     
physics4  ,h>wood1 ,w4 ,s41 ,! ,new     
,e>?4 ,n4 ,y43 ,! ,macmillan ,co41      

#aijf4     #cgh pp4 ,a recital ( !      
triumphs ( mod]n agriculture4     ,*ap4 
,x on mod]n =e/ry1 describes :at has be5
 done 9     diff]5t /ates 9 cons]vative 
lumb]+4  ,h\gh1 ,romeyn ,b41 ,am]ican   
,woods4 ,l[ville1 ,n4 ,y43 ,!     au?or4
 ,an invaluable collection 9 elev5      
volumes 7boxes7     ( sections ( #bge   
species ( ,am]ican woods4 ,!re are ?ree 
sections ( ea* species1 cross1 radial1 &
 tang5tial1     m\nt$ 9 c>dbo>d panels4 
,accompani$ by a li/ (     descriptions 
& analytical keys4  ,h\gh1 ,romeyn ,b41 
,h&book ( ! ,trees ( ! ,nor!rn          
,/ates & ,canada4 ,l[ville1 ,n4 ,y43 ,! 
au?or4 #dgj pp4     ,a unique1 elegant1 
& sumptu\sly illu/rat$ book1 )          
photographs ( tree1 trunk1 leaf1 fruit1 
bud1 & sometimes     wood1 a map ( !    
habitat ( ea* species1 & a full &       
c>eful description ( tree & wood4       
,int5d$ = botani/s1     =e/]s & lumb]m54
  ,johnson1 ,j4 ,b41 ,! ,mat]ials (     
,con/ruction4 ,n4 ,y43 ,john     ,wiley 
,sons4 #ahih4 #gge pp4 ,*apt] ,,xiii is 

id5tical )     ,=e/ry ,bullet9 ,x1      
,ro?'s ,timb]4  ,keel]1 ,h>riet1 ,our   
,native ,trees4 ,n4 ,y43 ,scribn]'s4    
#aijj4     #ecc pp4 ,a v attractive &   
popul> book %[+ great     famili>ity ) !
 common trees & love ( !m4 ,num]\s      
photographs & draw+s4  ,l\nsb]ry1       
,alice1 ,a ,guide to ! ,trees4 ,n4 ,y43 
,fr$]ick     ,a4 ,/okes ,co4 #cac pp4 ,a
 popul> description ( "s #bjj common    
trees1 ) pl5tiful illu/rations4  ,p9*ot1
 ,gif=d1 ,a ,prim] ( ,=e/ry4 ,p>ts ,i & 
,,ii1 ,u4     ,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agric4 ,=4  
,s]v4 ,bull4 ,no4 #bd4 #hh pp4 & #hh    
pp4 ,a concise1 cle>1 & fully illu/rat$ 
little manual (     =e/ry conditions1   
=e/ enemies1 =e/ry pr9ciples &          
practice abroad & 9 ! ,u4 ,s4  ,p9*ot1  
,gif=d4 ,! ,adirondack ,spruce4 ,n4 ,y43
 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's     ,sons4 ,a        
te*nical acc\nt ( ! au?or's             
inve/igations on a     =e/ e/ate 9      
,nor!rn ,new ,york4  ,price1 ,o4 ,w41   
,sav+ ! ,s\!rn ,=e/s4 ,_w's ,"w1     #e3
 #cbjg1 ,m>*1 '#jc4 ,a plea =           

cons]vative lumb]+2     excell5t        
illu/rations4  ,record1 ,samuel ,j41    
,*>act]ization ( ! ,gra9 & ,texture     
( ,wood4 ,woodcraft1 #ae3 #c1 ,june1    
#aiaa4  ,ro?1 ,filib]t1 ,a ,fir/ ,book (
 ,=e/ry4 ,bo/on3 ,g9n  ,co4     #bia pp4
 ,a book = "y p1 giv+ 9 an int]e/+ =m   
_m valuable facts ab\t ,am]ican =e/s &  
_! c>e &     use4 ,x includes a leaf key
 to ! trees4  ,s>g5t1 ,*>les ,sprague1  
,=e/ ,trees ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,u4     ,s4
 #aj? ,c5sus1 ,vol4 #i4 ,qu>to1 #fab pp4
 ,"p ,i deals )     ! di/ribution ( !   
=e/s1 & gives a catalog &               
description ( ! =e/ trees ( ,nor?       
,am]ica1 exclusive (     ,mexico4 ,"p   
,,ii4 ,tables ( prop]ties ( ! woods ( ! 
,u4     ,s4 ,"p ,,iii4 ,! economic      
aspects ( ! =e/s ( ! ,u4 ,s4            
consid]$ geographically1 & maps %[+     
di/ributions &     d5sities4 ,exce$+ly  
valuable4  ,s>g5t1 ,*>les ,sprague1     
,jesup ,collection1 ,! ,woods (     !   
,u4 ,s4 ,n4 ,y43 ,d4 ,appleton  ,co41   
#bjc pp4 ,a detail$     description ( ! 

,jesup ,collection ( ,nor? ,am]ican     
,woods     9 ! ,am]ican ,museum (       
,natural ,hi/ory1 ,n4 ,y4 ,city1 )      
valuable tables z to /r5g?1 ela/icity1  
h>dness1 weight1     etc4 ,cond5s$ f    
,vol4 ,,ix ( #aj? ,u4 ,s4 ,c5sus4       
,s>g5t1 ,*>les ,sprague1 ,manual ( !    
,trees ( ,nor?     ,am]ica4 ,bo/on3     
,h\ghton1 ,miffl9  ,co4 #hbf pp4 ,a     
compact     m9e ( in=mation1 ) "s       
errors1 ab\t ! kn[n trees     ( ,nor?   
,am]ica & _! woods1 summ>iz$ f ,s>g5t's 
l>g] "w1 ,! ,silva ( ,nor? ,am]ica4     
7,see bel[47  ,s>g5t1 ,*>les ,sprague1  
,! ,silva ( ,nor? ,am]ica4     ,bo/on3  
,h\ghton1 ,miffl9 ,co4 ,a monum5tal &   
sumptu\s "w     ( #ad qu>to volumes1    
describ+ 9 great detail all ! kn[n      
trees ( ,nor? ,am]ica & _! woods1 )     
beautiful l9e     draw+s ( leaves &     
fruits4  ,%al]1 ,na?aniel ,s41 ,! ,unit$
 ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,vol4 #a1     pp4    
#dhe-eag4 ,n4 ,y43 ,d4 ,appleton  ,co4  
,*apt] ,,ix is a popul>     description 
( ,am]ican =e/s & ! ,lumb] ,indu/ry4    

,sn[1 ,*as4 ,h5ry1 ,! ,pr9cipal ,species
 ( ,wood4 ,n4 ,y43     ,john ,wiley     
,sons4 #bjc pp4 ,descriptions & data    
reg>d+     ! economically important     
v>ieties ( wood1 ) excell5t             
photographs ( trees & woods4            
,/rasburg]1 ,noll1 ,s*5ck1 & ,s*imp]4 ,a
 ,text ,book (     ,botany4 ,n4 ,y43    
,macmillan  ,co4 #gdf pp4 ,valuable =   
m9ute     in=mation ab\t ! morphology ( 
wood4  ,u4 ,s4 ,t5? ,c5sus1 ,vol4 ,,ix4 
,see ,s>g5t4  ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t (       
,agriculture1 ,=e/ ,s]vice ,bullet9s4   
,! "* ( ^! gov]nm5t pamphlets is well   
indicat$     by _! titles4 ,no4 #aj is  
an exce$+ly valuable summ>y (     !     
facts ab\t ! /ructure & prop]ties (     
wood1 conta9s     ! be/ available key to
 id5tification ( common ,am]ican        
woods 7n trees7 & a concise description 
( ea*4 ,x is     incorporat$1 z ,*ap4   
,,xiii1 9 ,johnson's1 ,! ,mat]ials =    
,con/ruction4 ,n4 ,y43 ,john ,wiley     
,sons4 ,nos4 #ac & #bb are     l>ge     
monographs conta9+ mu* valuable         

in=mation4      ,no4 #aj4 ,filib]t ,ro?1
 ,timb]4      ,no4 #ac4 ,*>les ,mohr1 ,!
 ,timb] ,p9es ( ! ,s\!rn ,unit$         
,/ates4      ,no4 #ae4 ,fr$]ick ,v4     
,coville1 ,=e/ ,gr[? & ,%eep ,graz+     
9 ! ,cascade ,m\nta9s ( ,oregon4        
,no4 #af4 ,filib]t ,ro?1 ,=e/ry         
,conditions 9 ,wiscons94      ,no4 #ag4 
,george ,b4 ,sudwor?1 ,*eck ,li/ ( !    
,=e/ ,trees (     ! ,unit$ ,/ates1      
#ahih4      ,no4 #ah4 ,*>les ,a4 ,keff]1
 ,exp]im5tal ,tree ,plant+ on !         
,pla9s4      ,no4 #bb4 ,v4 ,m4 ,spald+ &
 ,f4 ,h4 ,*itt5d51 ,! ,:ite ,p9e4       
,no4 #bd4 ,gif=d ,p9*ot1 ,a ,prim] (    
,=e/ry4      ,no4 #bf4 ,h5ry ,s4        
,graves1 ,practical ,=e/ry 9 !          
,adirondacks4      ,no4 #da4 ,h]man von 
,s*r5ck1 ,season+ ( ,timb]4      ,no4   
#de4 ,h>old ,b4 ,kempton1 ,! ,plant+ (  
,:ite ,p9e 9 ,new     ,engl&4      ,no4 
#eb4 ,royal ,s4 ,kellogg1 ,=e/ ,plant+ 9
 ,we/]n ,kansas4      ,no4 #fa4 ,t]ms   
,us$ 9 ,=e/ry & ,logg+4      ,no4 #fe4  
,george ,l4 ,clo?i]1 ,advice = ,=e/     

,plant]s 9     ,oklahoma & ,adjac5t     
,regions4      ,no4 #gd4 ,r4 ,s4        
,kellogg & ,h4 ,m4 ,hale1 ,=e/ ,products
 ( !     ,u4 ,s41 #aije4  ,u4 ,s4       
,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,=e/ ,s]vice  
,circul>s4      ,no4 #c4 ,george        
,william ,hill1 ,publications = ,sale4  
,no4 #be4 ,gif=d ,p9*ot1 ,! ,lumb]man & 
! ,=e/]4      ,no4 #bf4 ,h4 ,m4 ,sut]1  
,=e/ ,fires 9 ! ,adirondacks 9          
#aijc4      ,no4 #cf4 ,! ,=e/ ,s]vice3  
,:at x is1 & h[ x deals )     ,=e/      
,problems4 ,also ,classifi$ ,li/ (      
,publications &     ,guide to ,_!       
,cont5ts4      ,no4 #cg4 ,=e/ ,plant+ 9 
! ,s& ,hill ,region ( ,nebraska4        
,no4 #dj4 ,h4 ,b4 ,holroyd1 ,!          
,utilization ( ,tupelo4      ,no4 #da4  
,s4 ,n4 ,spr+1 ,=e/ ,plant+ on ,coal    
,l&s 9     ,we/]n ,p5nsylvania4         
,no4 #de4 ,frank ,g4 ,mill]1 ,=e/       
,plant+ 9 ,ea/]n     ,nebraska4         
,no4 #ha4 ,r4 ,s4 ,kellogg1 ,=e/ ,plant+
 9 ,ill9ois4      ,no4 #ig4 ,r4 ,s4     
,kellogg1 ,timb] ,supply ( ! ,unit$     

,/ates4      ,no4 #aec4 ,a4 ,h4 ,pi]son1
 ,exports & ,imports ( ,=e/             
,products1 #aijg4  ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t (  
,agriculture ,ye> ,books =3      #ahif4 
,filib]t ,ro?1 ,! ,uses ( ,wood4        
#ahih1 p4 #aha4 ,gif=d ,p9*ot1 ,notes on
 "s ,=e/     ,problems4      #ahii1 p4  
#dae4 ,h5ry ,s4 ,graves1 ,! ,practice ( 
,=e/ry by     ,private ,own]s4          
#aijj1 p4 #aii4 ,h]mann von ,s*r5ck1    
,fung\s ,diseases (     ,=e/ ,trees4    
#aijb1 p4 #ade4 ,william ,l4 ,hall1 ,=e/
 ,ext5sion 9 ! ,middle     ,we/4        
#aijb1 p4 #bfe4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopk9s1 ,"s ( !
 ,pr9cipal ,insect     ,enemies (       
,conif]\s ,=e/s 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4      
#aijb1 p4 #cji4 ,ov]ton1 ,w4 ,price1    
,influ5ce ( ,=e/ry on !     ,lumb]      
,supply4      #aijc1 p4 #bgi4 ,james ,w4
 ,t\mey1 ,! ,relation ( ,=e/s to        
,/ream ,fl[4      #aijc1 p4 #cac4 ,a4   
,d4 ,hopk9s1 ,insect ,injuries to       
,h>dwood     ,=e/ ,trees4      #aijd1 p4
 #acc4 ,e4 ,a4 ,/]l+1 ,! ,attitude (    
,lumb]m5     t[>d ,=e/ ,fires4          

#aijd1 p4 #cha4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopk9s1 ,insect
 ,injuries to ,=e/ ,products4           
#aije1 p4 #dee4 ,h5ry ,gr9ell1 ,prolong+
 ! ,life ( ,telephone     ,poles4       
#aije1 p4 #dhc4 ,j4 ,griv9 ,pet]s1 ,wa/e
 9 ,logg+ ,s\!rn     ,yell[ ,p9e4       
#aije1 p4 #fcf4 ,qu9cy ,r4 ,craft1      
,progress ( ,=e/ry 9 #aije4      #aijg1 
p #bgg4 ,raphael ,zon & ,e4 ,h4 ,clapp1 
,cutt+ ,timb] 9     ! ,national ,=e/s4  
,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1       
,division ( ,entomology     ,bullet9s3  
,no4 #aa4 n4 s4 ,l4 ,o4 ,h[>d1 ,! ,gypsy
 ,mo? 9 ,am]ica4      ,no4 #bh4 ,a4 ,d4 
,hopk9s1 ,insect ,enemies ( ! ,spruce 9 
!     ,nor!a/4      ,no4 #cb4 n4 s4 ,a4 
,d4 ,hopk9s1 ,insect ,enemies ( ! ,p9e 9
     ! ,black ,hills ,=e/ ,res]ve4      
,no4 #dh4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopk9s1 ,catalog (   
,exhibits ( ,insect ,enemies     ( ,=e/ 
& ,=e/ ,products at ! ,l\isiana ,pur*ase
     ,exposition1 ,/4 ,l\is1 ,mo41      
#aijd4      ,no4 #ef4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopk9s1  
,! ,black ,hills ,beetle4      ,no4 #eh4
 ,"p #a1 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopk9s1 ,! ,locu/     

,bor]4      ,no4 #eh4 ,"p ,,ii1 ,j4 ,l4 
,webb1 ,! ,we/]n ,p9e ,de/roy+ ,b>k     
,beetle4  ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t (           
,agriculture1 ,bureau ( ,plant ,indu/ry1
     ,bullet9s3      ,no4 #cb4 ,h]man   
von ,s*r5ck1 ,a ,disease ( ! ,:ite ,a%  
,caus$ by ,polyporus ,frax9ophilus1     
#aijc4      ,no4 #cf4 ,h]mann von       
,s*r5ck1 ,! ,blu+ & ,r$ ,rot (     !    
,we/]n ,yell[ ,p9e1 #aijc4  ,report ( ! 
,commission] ( ,corporations on ! ,lumb]
     ,indu/ry1 ,"p ,i1 ,/&+ ,timb]1     
,febru>y1 #aiaa4 ,!     late/ & mo/     
reliable inve/igation into ! am\nt &    
own]%ip ( ! =e/s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4     
,w>d1 ,h4 ,m>%all1 ,timb] & "s ( its    
,diseases4     ,london3 ,macmillan      
,co41 #bie pp4 ,an ,engli% book t ne$s  
supplem5t+ by in=mation on ,am]ican wood
 diseases1 su*     z is includ$ 9 ! li/ 
( gov]nm5t publications giv5     h]e)4  
,! book includes a description ( ! "*1  
/ructure1 prop]ties1 v>ieties1 &        
classification (     timb]s4     ,,*apt]
 ,i4  ,,! ,,/ructure ,,( ,,wood4   ,:5 x

 is rememb]$ t ! suitability ( wood = a 
p>ticul> purpose dep5ds mo/ ( all ^u its
 int]nal /ructure1 x is pla9 t !        
woodwork] %\ld "k ! ess5tial *>act]i/ics
 ( t /ructure4 ,:ile 8 ma9 int]e/ 9 wood
 is z lumb]1 dead mat]ial to be us$ 9   
woodwork+1 he c prop]ly und]/& its      
/ructure only by kn[+ some?+ ( x z a    
live1 gr[+ organism4 ,to facilitate ?is1
 a k ( its position 9 ! plant _w is     
helpful4  ,all ! useful woods are to be 
f\nd 9 ! highe/ sub-k+dom ( ! plant _w1 
! fl[]+ plants or ,phan]ogamia ( !      
botani/4 ,^! fl[]+ plants are to be     
classifi$ z foll[s3                     
,i4 ,gymnosp]ms4  7,nak$ se$s47         
#a4 ,cycadaceae4  7,palms1 f]ns1 etc47  
#b4 ,gnetaceae4  7,jo9t firs47          
#c4 ,conif]s4 ,p9es1 firs1 etc4         
,phan]ogamia1             ,,ii4         
,angiosp]ms4 7,fruits47 7,fl[]+ plants7 
#a4 ,monocotyl$ons4 7,"o se$-leaf47     
7,palms1 bamboos1 grasses1 etc47        
#b4 ,dicotyl$ons4 7,two se$-leaves47    
a4  ,h]bs4                              

b4  ,broad-leav$ trees4  ,"u ! division 
( nak$-se$$ plants 7gymnosp]ms71        
practically ! only valuable timb]-be>+  
plants are ! ne$le-leav$ trees or !     
conif]s1 includ+ su* trees z ! p9es1    
c$>s1 spruces1 firs1 etc4 ,_! wood gr[s 
rapidly 9 conc5tric annual r+s1 l t ( ! 
broad-leav$ trees2 is easily work$1 & is
 m widely us$ ?an ! wood ( any o!r class
 ( trees4  ,( fruit-be>+ trees          
7angiosp]ms71 !re are two classes1 ^? t 
h "o se$-leaf z !y g]m9ate1 & ^? t h two
 se$-leaves4  ,! "o se$-leaf plants     
7monocotyl$ons7 include ! grasses1      
lilies1 bananas1 palms1 etc4 ,( ^! !re  
are only a few t rea* ! dim5sions (     
trees4 ,!y are /rik+ly di/+ui%$ by !    
/ructure ( _! /ems4 ,!y h no cambium    
lay] & no di/9ct b>k & pi?2 !y h        
unbran*$ /ems1 :i* z a rule d n increase
 9 diamet] aft] ! fir/ /ages ( gr[?1 b  
gr[ only t]m9ally4 ,in/ead ( hav+       
conc5tric annual r+s & ?us gr[+ l>g] ye>
 by ye>1 ! woody tissue gr[s "h & !re   
?ru ! /em1 b mo/ly cr[d$ toge!r t[>d !  

out] surfaces4 ,ev5 :]e !re is radial   
gr[?1 z 9 yucca1 ! /ructure is n 9      
annual r+s1 b irregul>4 ,^! "o se$-leaf 
trees 7monocotyl$ons7 are n ( mu*       
economic value z lumb]1 be+ us$ *iefly 9
 ! r\nd1 & to "s ext5t = v5e]s & inlays2
 e4g41 cocoanut-palm & porcup9e wood are
 s us$4  ,! mo/ useful ( !              
monocotyl$ons1 or endog5s1 7inside      
gr[]s1 z !y are sometimes call$17 are ! 
bamboos1 :i* are giant memb]s ( ! gr\p (
 grasses1 ,fig4 #a4 ,!y gr[ 9 d5se =e/s1
 "s v>ieties (t5 #gj feet high & #f     
in*es 9 diamet]1 %oot+ up _! entire     
height 9 a s+le season4 ,bamboo is v    
highly valu$ 9 ! ,ori5t1 :]e x is us$ = 
ma/s1 = h\se raft]s1 & o!r build+       
purposes1 = gutt]s & wat]-pipes & 9     
c\ntless o!r ways4 ,x is twice z /rong z
 any ( our woods4  ,"u ! fruit-be>+     
trees 7angiosp]ms71 timb] trees are     
*iefly f\nd among ^? t h two se$-leaves 
7! dicotyl$ons7 & include ! great mass (
 broad-leav$ or decidu\s trees su* z    
*e/nut1 oak1 a% & maple4 ,x is to ^! &  

to ! conif]s t our pr9cipal att5tion w  
be giv51 s9ce !y con/itute ! bulk ( !   
wood 9 common use4  ,! timb]-be>+ trees1
 !n1 are !3  7#a7 ,conif]s1 !           
ne$le-leav$1 nak$-se$$ trees1 su* z p9e1
 c$>1 etc4 ,fig4 #de1 p4 #aii4  7#b7    
,endog5s1 :i* h "o se$-leaf1 su* z      
bamboos1 ,fig4 #a4  7#c7 ,broad-leav$   
trees1 hav+ two se$-leaves1 su* z oak1  
bee*1 & elm4 ,fig4 #dh1 p4 #bjb4  ,!    
common classifications ( trees are q    
inaccurate4 ,_m ( ! s-call$ decidu\s    
7,lat91 deciduus1 fall+ (f7 trees are   
ev]gre51 su* z holly1 &1 9 ! s\?1 live  
oak1 magnolia & *]ry4 ,s1 too1 "s ( !   
alleg$ ev]gre5s1 l bald cypress &       
tam>ack1 %$ _! leaves annually4         
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,a ,bamboo      
,grove1 ,kioto1 ,japan4  ,n all ( !     
conif]s be> cones4 ,= example1 ! junip] 
be>s a b]ry4 ,! g9ko1 ,fig4 #b1 ?o      
class$ among ! conif]s1 ! ev]gre5s1 & ! 
ne$le-leaf trees1 be>s no cones1 has    
broad leaves & is decidu\s4 ,x has an   
especial int]e/ z be+ ! sole survivor ( 

_m species :i* grew abundantly 9 !      
c>bonif]\s age4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4
 ,g9ko ,leaf4  ,also1 ! t]ms us$ by     
lumb]m51 h>d woods = broad-leav$ trees &
 s(t woods = conif]s1 are /ill less     
exact1 = ! wood ( "s broad-leav$ trees1 
z bass & popl>1 is mu* s(t] ?an t ( "s  
conif]s1 z ,georgia p9e & lignum vitae4 
,ano!r classification commonly made is t
 ( endog5s 7inside gr[]s7 includ+       
bamboos1 palms1 etc41 & exog5s 7outside 
gr[]s7 :i* w\ld include bo? conif]s &   
broad-leav$ trees4  ,"o reason :y s _m  
classifications h come into use is t    
none ( !m is q accurate4 ,a bett] "o w  
be expla9$ lat]4 ,see p4 #bc4  ,z 9 !   
/udy ( all woods ?ree sections are made1
 x is well at ! outset to und]/& cle>ly 
:at ^! are4  ,! sections ( a tree made =
 its /udy are 7,fig4 #c73  7#a7         
,transv]se1 a plane at "r angles to !   
organic axis4  7#b7 ,radial1 a          
longitud9al plane1 includ+ ! organic    
axis4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4  ,a4     
,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,transv]se ,section4    

,b1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,radial ,section4   ,g1 
,h1 ,i1 ,j1 ,tang5tial ,section4  ,b4   
,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,transv]se ,section4   ,a1  
,b1 ,d1 ,e1 ,radial ,section4   ,b1 ,c1 
,e1 ,f1 ,tang5tial ,section4   7#c7     
,tang5tial1 a longitud9al plane n       
includ+ ! organic axis4  ,if a transv]se
 section ( ! trunk ( a conif] or ( a    
broad-leav$ tree is made1 x is to be    
not$ t x consi/s ( sev]al di/9ct p>ts4  
,see ,fig4 #d4 ,^!1 beg9n+ at ! outside1
 are3  7#a7 ,r9d or b>k   7a7 ,cortex   
7b7 ,ba/  7#b7 ,cambium  7#c7 ,wood     
7a7 ,sap-wood   7b7 ,he>t-wood  7#d7    
,pi?4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,diagram 
( ,cross-section ( ,?ree ,ye> ,old ,/em 
( ,basswood4  7#a7 ,! r9d or b>k is made
 up ( two lay]s1 ! out] ( :i*1 ! cortex1
 is corky & usually scales or pulls (f  
easily2 :ile ! inn] "o is a fibr\s coat 
call$ ba/ or phloem4 ,toge!r !y =m a    
cone1 wide/1 ?icke/1 & r\ghe/ at ! base 
& becom+ n>r[] t[>d ! top ( ! tree4 ,!  
cortex or out] b>k s]ves to protect !   
/em ( ! tree f extremes ( heat & cold1 f

 atmosph]ic *anges1 & f ! br[s+ (       
animals4 ,x is made up ( a t\gh         
wat]-pro( lay] ( cork :i* has tak5 !    
place ( ! t5d] sk9 or epid]mis ( ! twig4
 ,because x is wat]-pro( ! outside      
tissue is cut (f f ! wat] supply ( !    
tree1 & s dries up & peels (f1 a mass ( 
dead matt]4 ,! cork & ! dead /uff toge!r
 are call$ ! b>k4 ,z we %all see lat]1 !
 cork gr[s f ! inside1 be+ =m$ 9 ! inn] 
lay]s ( ! cortex1 ! out] lay]s ( dry b>k
 be+ ?us successively cut (f4  ,!       
*>act]i/ics ( ! tree b>k are due to !   
positions & k9ds ( tissue ( ^! new lay]s
 ( cork4 ,ea* tree has its own k9d (    
b>k1 & ! b>k ( "s is s *>act]i/ic z to  
make ! tree easily recognizable4  ,b>k  
may be classifi$ accord+ to =mation &   
me?od ( sep>ation1 z scale b>k1 :i*     
deta*es f ! tree 9 plates1 z 9 ! will[s2
 membrane\s b>k1 :i* comes (f 9 ribbons 
& films1 z 9 ! bir*es2 fibr\s b>k1 :i*  
is 9 ! =m ( /iff ?reads1 z 9 ! grape    
v9e2 & fissur$ b>k1 :i* breaks up 9     
longitud9al fissures1 %[+ ridges1       

grooves & broad1 angul> pat*es1 z 9 oak1
 *e/nut & locu/4 ,! la/ is ! commone/ =m
 ( b>k4  ,! b>k ( c]ta9 k9ds ( trees1 z 
*]ry & bir*1 has peculi> m>k+s :i*      
consi/ ( oblong rais$ spots or m>ks1    
especially on ! "y bran*es4 ,^! are     
call$ l5ticels 7,lat9 l5ticula1         
freckle71 & h two purposes3 !y admit air
 to ! int]nal tissues1 z x 7 = brea?+1 &
 !y also emit wat] vapor4 ,^! l5ticels  
are to be f\nd on all trees1 ev5 :]e !  
b>k is v ?ick1 z old oaks & *e/nuts1 b 9
 ^! ! l5ticels are 9 ! bottoms ( ! deep 
cracks4 ,!re is a great diff]5ce 9 !    
inflammability ( b>k1 "s1 l t ( ! big   
trees ( ,cali=nia1 ,fig4 #ed1 p4 #bji1  
:i* is (t5 two feet ?ick1 be+           
practically incombu/ible1 & h5ce s]v+ to
 protect ! tree2 :ile "s b>k1 z canoe   
bir*1 is lad5 ) an oil :i* burns        
furi\sly4 ,x !re=e makes admirable k9dl+
 = camp fires1 ev5 9 wet wea!r4  ,inside
 ! cork is ! phloem or ba/1 :i*1 by !   
way1 gives its "n to ! bass tree1 ! inn]
 b>k ( :i* is v t\gh & fibr\s & !re=e   

us$ = mat & rope mak+4 ,9 a liv+ tree1 !
 ba/ fib]s s]ve to conduct ! n\ri%m5t   
:i* has be5 made 9 ! leaves d[n ?ru !   
/em to ! gr[+ p>ts4  7#b7 ,! cambium4   
,inside ( ! r9d & betwe5 x & ! wood1 !re
 is1 on liv+ trees1 a slimy coat call$  
cambium 7,m$4 ,lat91 ex*ange74 ,?is is !
 liv+1 gr[+ "p ( ! /em1 famili> to all  
:o h peel$ x z ! /icky1 slimy coat      
betwe5 ! b>k & ! wood ( a twig4 ,?is is 
:at con/itutes ! fragrant1 mucilag9\s   
inn] "p ( ! b>k ( slipp]y elm4 ,cambium 
is a tissue ( "y & gr[+ cells1 9 :i* !  
new cells are =m$1 ! inn] ones =m+ !    
wood & ! out] ones ! b>k4  ,9 ord] to   
und]/& ! cambium & its function1 consid]
 its appe>ance 9 a bud1 ,fig4 #e4 ,a    
cross-section ( ! bud ( a gr[+ /em      
exam9$ "u ! microscope1 looks l a       
delicate me% ( ?9 membrane1 fill$ 9 ) a 
viscid semi-fluid sub/ance :i* is call$ 
protoplasm 7,greek1 protos1 fir/2       
plasma1 =m74 ,^! me%es 7 fir/ call$     
cells by ,rob]t ,hooke1 9 #affg1 because
 ( _! resemblance to ! *amb]s ( a       

honeycomb4 ,! walls ( ^! cells are _!   
mo/ prom95t feature &1 :5 fir/ /udi$1 7 
suppos$ to be ! ess5tial "p2 b lat] !   
slimy1 colorless sub/ance :i* fill$ !   
cells 0 f\nd to be ! ess5tial "p4 ,?is  
slimy sub/ance1 call$ protoplasm1       
con/itutes ! primal /uff ( all liv+ ?+s4
 ,! cell walls !mselves are =m$ f x4 ,^!
 "y cells1 at ! apex ( a /em1 are all   
alike1 v small1 fill$ ) protoplasm1 & z 
yet1 unalt]$4 ,!y =m embryonic tissue1  
i4e4 "o :i* w *ange4 ,"o *ange to :i* an
 cell fill$ ) protoplasm is liable is   
division into two1 a new p>tition wall  
=m+ )9 x4 ,?is is ! way plant cells     
increase4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,"y  
,/em1 ,magnifi$ #ah-a_/b ,diamet]s1 ,%[+
 ,prim>y & ,second>y ,bundles4 ,by      
,c\rtesy ( ,mrs4 ,ka?>9e ,gold5 ,bitt+4 
,e1 epid]mis1 ! s+le outside lay] (     
cells4  ,c1 cortex1 ! region outside ( !
 bundles4  ,,hb1 h>d ba/1 ! black1      
irregul> r+ protect+ ! s(t ba/4  ,,sb1  
s(t ba/1 ! light1 cresc5t-%ap$ p>ts4    
,ca1 cambium1 ! l9e betwe5 ! s(t ba/ & !

 wood4  ,w1 wood1 segm5ts %[+ pores4    
,,mr1 m$ull>y rays1 l9es betwe5 !       
bundles connect+ ! pi? & ! cortex4      
,,ms1 m$ull>y %ea?1 ! d>k1 irregul> r+ j
 inside ! bundles4  ,p1 pi?1 ! c5tral   
mass ( cells4  ,9 "y plant cells1 ! :ole
 cavity ( ! *amb] is fill$ ) protoplasm1
 b z ! cells gr[ old] & l>g]1 !         
protoplasm develops into diff]5t p>ts1  
"o "p =m+ ! cell wall & 9 _m cases leav+
 cavities )9 ! cell1 :i* become fill$ ) 
sap4 ,! sub/ance ( ! cell wall is call$ 
cellulose 7cotton & flax fib]s consi/ ( 
almo/ pure cellulose74 ,at fir/ x has no
 def9ite /ructure1 b z gr[? goes on1 x  
may become ?ick5$ 9 lay]s1 or gummy1 or 
h>d5$ into lign9 7wood71 accord+ to !   
function to be p]=m$4 ,:]e !re are a    
gr\p ( simil> cells p]=m+ ! same        
functions1 ! gr\p is call$ a tissue or1 
if l>ge en\gh1 a tissue sy/em4  ,:5     
cells are *ang$ into new =ms1 or        
diff]5tiat$1 z x is call$1 !y become    
p]man5t tissues4 ,^! p]man5t tissues ( !
 tree trunk con/itute ! v>i\s p>ts :i*  

we h notic$1 viz41 ! r9d1 ! pi? & !     
wood4  ,! ess5tially liv+ "p ( ! tree1 x
 %\ld be rememb]$1 is ! protoplasm3 :]e 
!re is protoplasm1 !re is life & gr[?4  
,9 ! /ems ( ! conif]s & broad-leav$     
trees--sometimes toge!r call$           
exog5s--?is protoplasm is to be f\nd 9 !
 buds & 9 ! cambium %ea?1 & ^! are !    
gr[+ p>ts ( ! tree4 ,if we foll[$ up !  
%ea? ( cambium :i* envelopes a /em1 into
 a t]m9al bud1 we %\ld f9d t x pass$ )\t
 break into ! protoplasm ( ! bud4  ,9 ! 
cross-section ( a "y %oot1 we might see 
ar\nd ! c5tral pi? or m$ulla1 a r+ (    
w$ge-%ap$ pat*es4 ,^! are really bundles
 ( cells runn+ longitud9ally f !        
rudim5ts ( leaves ?ru ! /em to ! roots4 
,!y are made ( protoplasm & are call$ ! 
procambium /r&s1 ,fig4 #f4              
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,?ree ,/ages 9 !
 ,developm5t ( an ,exog5\s ,/em4 ,p1    
pi?2 ,,pb1 prim>y ba/2 ,,sb1 second>y   
ba/2 ,c1 cambium2 ,,pr1 pi? ray2 ,,pw1  
prim>y wood2 ,,sw1 second>y wood2 ,,ps1 
procambium /r&s4 ,aft] ,b\lg]4  ,9 !    

monocotyl$ons 7endog5s7 ^! procambium   
/r&s *ange completely into wood & ba/1 &
 s los+ all _! protoplasmic cambium1    
become incapable ( fur!r gr[?4 ,?is is  
:y palms c gr[ only l5g?wise1 or else by
 =m+ new fib]s m d5sely 9 ! c5tral mass4
 ,b 9 ! conif]s & broad-leav$ trees1 !  
inn] "p ( ea* /r& becomes wood & ! out] 
"p ba/ 7b>k74 ,betwe5 ^! bundles1       
connect+ ! pi? 9 ! c5t] ) ! cortex on ! 
outside ( ! r+ ( bundles1 are p>ts ( !  
orig9al pi? tissue ( ! /em4 ,!y are !   
prim>y pi? or m$ull>y rays 7,lat91      
m$ulla1 pi?74 ,! numb] ( m$ull>y rays   
dep5ds ^u ! numb] ( ! bundles2 & _! =m1 
on ! wid? ( ! bundles1 s t !y are (t5   
l>ge & conspicu\s1 z 9 oak1 or small &  
inde$ invisible1 z 9 "s ( ! conif]s4 ,b 
!y are pres5t 9 all exog5\s woods1 & c  
readily be se5 ) ! microscope4 ,/ret*+  
across ^! pi? rays f ! cambium lay] 9 "o
 procambium /r& to t 9 ! o!rs1 ! cambium
 =mation ext5ds1 mak+ a complete        
cyl9drical %ea? f ! bud d[nw>d ov] !    
:ole /em4 ,?is is ! cambium %ea? & is ! 

liv+1 gr[+ "p ( ! /em f :i* is =m$ !    
wood on ! inside & ! r9d 7b>k7 on !     
outside4  ,9 ! fir/ ye> ! wood & ! ba/  
are =m$ directly by ! gr[? & *ange ( !  
inn] & out] cells respectively ( !      
procambium /r&1 & all su* mat]ial is    
call$ prim>y2 b 9 subsequ5t ye>s all    
wood1 pi? rays1 & ba/1 orig9ate 9 !     
cambium1 & ^! gr[?s are call$ second>y4 
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,sap-wood &     
,he>t-wood1 ,lignum ,vitae4  7#c7 ,!    
wood ( mo/ exog5s is made up ( two p>ts1
 a light] "p call$ ! sap-wood or        
spl9t-wood or alburnum1 & a d>k] "p     
call$ ! he>t-wood or duram51 ,fig4 #g4  
,sap-wood is really immature he>twood4  
,! diff]5ce 9 color betwe5 !m is v m>k$ 
9 "s woods1 z 9 lignum vitae & black    
walnut1 & v slight 9 o!rs1 z spruce &   
bass4 ,inde$1 "s species nev] =m a      
di/9ct he>t-wood1 bir* 7,betula alba7   
be+ an example4  ,9 a liv+ tree1        
sap-wood & he>t-wood p]=m prim>ily q    
diff]5t functions4 ,! sap-wood c>ries ! 
wat] f ! roots to ! leaves1 /ores away  

/>* at lea/ 9 w9t]1 & 9 o!r ways assi/s 
! life ( ! tree4 ,! proportional am\nt (
 sapwood v>ies greatly1 (t51 z 9        
long-leaf p9e1 con/itut+ #dj p] c5t4 ( !
 /em4  ,z ! sap-wood gr[s old]1 its     
cells become *ok$ s t ! sap c no long]  
fl[ ?ru !m4 ,x loses its protoplasm &   
/>* & becomes he>twood1 9 :i* all cells 
are dead & s]ve only ! me*anical        
function ( hold+ up ! great weight ( !  
tree & 9 resi/+ w9d pressures4 ,?is is !
 reason :y a tree may become decay$ &   
holl[ & yet be alive & be> fruit4 ,9 a  
tree t is actually dead ! sap-wood rots 
fir/4  ,*emical sub/ances infiltrate    
into ! cell walls ( he>t-wood & h5ce x  
has a d>k] color ?an ! sap-wood4        
,p]simmon turns black1 walnut purpli%   
br[n1 sumac yell[1 oak light br[n1 tulip
 & popl> yell[i%1 r$wood & c$> br[ni%   
r$4 ,_m woods1 z mahogany & oak1 d>k5 "u
 exposure1 :i* %[s t ! sub/ances produc+
 ! color are oxidizable & un/able4 ,wood
 dyes are obta9$ by boil+ & di/ill+ su* 
woods z suma*1 logwood1 r$ s&]s1 &      

fu/ic4 ,_m woods also acquire di/9ct    
odors1 z camphor1 s&alwood1 c$>1        
cypress1 p9e & mahogany1 indicat+ !     
pres5ce ( oil4  ,z a rule he>t-wood is m
 valuable = timb]1 be+ h>d]1 heavi]1 &  
dri] ?an sap-wood4 ,9 woods l hickory & 
a%1 h[ev]1 :i* are us$ = purposes t     
require pliability1 z 9 baskets1 or     
ela/icity z 9 h&les ( rakes & hoes1     
sap-wood is m valuable ?an he>t-wood4   
,9 a transv]se section ( a conif]1 =    
example ,d\glas spruce1 ,fig4 #h1 ! wood
 is se5 to lie 9 conc5tric r+s1 ! out]  
"p ( ! r+ be+ d>k] 9 color ?an ! inn]   
"p4 ,9 reality ea* ( ^! r+s is a section
 ( an irregul> holl[ cone1 ea* cone     
envelop+ its inn] neighbor4 ,ea* cone   
ord9>ily con/itutes a ye>'s gr[?1 &     
!re=e !re is a great] numb] ( !m at !   
base ( a tree ?an high] up4 ,^! cones   
v>y greatly 9 ?ickness1 or1 look+ at a  
cross-section1 ! r+s v>y 9 wid?2 9      
g5]al1 ^? at ! c5t] be+ ?ick] ?an ^?    
t[>d ! b>k4 ,v>iations f ye> to ye> may 
also be notic$1 %[+ t ! tree 0 well     

n\ri%$ "o ye> & poorly n\ri%$ ano!r ye>4
 ,r+s1 h[ev]1 d n always indicate a     
ye>'s gr[?4 ,false r+s are sometimes =m$
 by a cessation 9 ! gr[? due to dr\?1   
fire or o!r accid5t1 foll[$ by r5ew$    
gr[? ! same season4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4
 #h4 ,section ( ,d\glas ,fir1 ,%[+      
,annual ,r+s & ,knots at ,c5t] ( ,trunk4
 ,am]ican ,museum ( ,natural ,hi/ory1   
,n4 ,y4  ,9 a radial section ( a log1   
,fig4 #h1 ^! r+s appe> z a s]ies (      
p>allel l9es & if "o c\ld exam9e a long 
en\gh log ^! l9es w\ld conv]ge1 z w\ld !
 cut edges 9 a ne/ ( cones1 if !y 7 cut 
up ?ru ! c5t]1 z 9 ,fig4 #i4            
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,diagram (      
,radial ,section ( ,log 7exagg]at$7 ,%[+
 ,annual ,cones ( ,gr[?4  ,9 a tang5tial
 section1 ! l9es appe> z broad b&s1 &   
s9ce almo/ no tree gr[s p]fectly        
/raight1 ^! l9es are wavy1 & give !     
*>act]i/ic pleas+ gra9 ( wood4 ,fig4    
#bg1 p4 #ce4 ,! annual r+s c sometimes  
be disc]n$ 9 ! b>k z well z 9 ! wood1 z 
9 corks1 :i* are made ( ! out] b>k ( !  

cork oak1 a product ( s\!rn ,europe &   
nor!rn ,africa4 ,fig4 #aj4              
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,annual ,r+s 9 
,b>k 7cork74  ,! gr[? ( ! wood ( exog5\s
 trees takes place ?ru ! ability1       
already not$1 ( protoplasmic cells to   
divide4 ,! cambium cells1 :i* h v ?9    
walls1 are rectangul> 9 %ape1 broad]    
tang5tially ?an radially1 & tap]+ above 
& bel[ to a *isel edge1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,aft]
 !y h gr[n some:at radially1 p>tition   
walls =m across !m 9 ! longitud9al1     
tang5tial direction1 s t 9 place ( "o   
initial cell1 !re are two daught] cells 
radially dispos$4 ,ea* ( ^! small cells 
gr[s & re-divides1 z 9 ,fig4 #ab4       
,f9ally ! inn]mo/ cell ceases to divide1
 & uses its protoplasm to become ?ick & 
h>d wood4 ,9 l mann] ! out]mo/ cambium  
cell becomes ba/1 :ile ! cells betwe5 !m
 cont9ue to gr[ & divide1 & s ! process 
goes on4 ,9 ne>ly all /ems1 !re is mu* m
 abundant =mation ( wood ?an ( ba/      
cells4 ,9 o!r words1 m cambium cells    
turn to wood ?an to ba/4  ,illu/ration3 

,fig4 #aa4 ,diagram ,%[+ ,gra9 ( ,spruce
 ,highly ,magnifi$4 ,,pr1 pi? rays2     
,,bp1 bord]$ pits2 ,sp ,w1 spr+ wood2   
,,sw1 summ] wood2 ,,cc1 ov]lapp+ ( *isel
 %ap$ ends4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4   
,diagram ,%[+ ! ,mode ( ,division ( !   
,cambium ,cells4 ,! cambium cell is %ad$
 to di/+ui% x f ! cells d]iv$ f x4 ,note
 9 ! la/ division at ! "r t ! inn]      
daught] cell becomes ! cambium cell :ile
 ! out] cell develops into a ba/ cell4  
,f ,curtis3 ,nature & ,developm5t (     
,plants4  ,9 ! spr+ :5 !re is           
comp>atively little light & heat1 :5 !  
roots & leaves are inactive & feeble1 & 
:5 ! b>k1 split by w9t]1 does n b9d v   
tightly1 ! inn] cambium cells produce   
radially wide wood cells ) relatively ?9
 walls4 ,^! con/itute ! spr+ wood4 ,b 9 
summ] ! jacket ( b>k b9ds tightly1 !re  
is pl5ty ( heat & light1 & ! leaves &   
roots are v active1 s t ! cambium cells 
produce ?ick] wall$ cells1 call$ summ]  
wood4 ,dur+ ! w9t] ! trees re/1 & no    
developm5t takes place until spr+1 :5 ! 

l>ge ?9-wall$ cells are =m$ aga91 mak+ a
 %>p contra/ ) ^? =m$ at ! end ( !      
previ\s season4  ,x is only at ! tips ( 
! bran*es t ! cambium cells gr[ mu* 9   
l5g?2 s t if a nail 7 driv5 into a tree 
tw5ty ye>s old at1 say1 f\r feet f !    
gr\nd1 x w\ld /ill be f\r feet f ! gr\nd
 "o hundr$ ye>s lat]4  ,look+ once m at 
! cross-section1 say1 ( spruce1 ! inn]  
portion ( ea* r+ is light] 9 color &    
s(t] 9 texture ?an ! out] portion4 ,on a
 radial or tang5tial section1 "o's f+]  
nail c easily ind5t ! inn] portion ( !  
r+1 ?o ! out] d>k "p ( ! r+ may be v    
h>d4 ,! inn]1 light1 s(t portion ( ! r+ 
is ! "p t gr[s 9 ! spr+ & e>ly summ]1 & 
is call$ ! spr+ wood :ile ! "p t gr[s   
lat] 9 ! season is call$ summ] wood4 ,z 
! summ] wood is h>d & heavy1 x l>gely   
det]m9es ! /r5g? & weight ( ! wood1 s t 
z a rule1 ! great] ! proportion ( !     
summ] gr[?1 ! bett] ! wood4 ,?is c be   
controll$ to "s ext5t by prop] =e/ry    
me?ods1 z is done 9 ,european l>* =e/s1 
by und]plant+ !m ) bee*4  ,9 a normal   

tree1 ! summ] gr[? =ms a great]         
proportion ( ! wood =m$ dur+ ! p]iod (  
?riftie/ gr[?1 s t 9 nei!r y\? nor old  
age1 is !re s great a proportion ( summ]
 wood z 9 middle age4  ,x w help to make
 cle> ! g5]al /ructure ( wood if "o     
imag9es ! trunk ( a tree to consi/ ( a  
bundle ( rubb] tubes cru%$ toge!r1 s t  
!y assume angul> %apes & h no spaces    
betwe5 !m4 ,if ! tubes are laid 9       
conc5tric lay]s1 fir/ a lay] :i* has ?9 
walls1 !n successive lay]s hav+ ?ick] & 
?ick] walls1 !n sudd5ly a lay] (        
?9-wall$ tubes & increas+ aga9 to       
?ick-wall$ ones & s on1 su* an          
arrangem5t w\ld repres5t ! successive   
annual r+s ( conif]s4  ,! m$ull>y rays4 
,:ile mo/ ( ! elem5ts 9 wood run        
longitud9ally 9 ! log1 x is also to be  
not$ t runn+ at "r angles to ^! &       
radially to ! log1 are o!r gr\ps ( cells
 call$ pi? rays or m$ull>y rays 7,lat91 
m$ulla1 :i* means pi?74 ,^! are ! l>ge  
silv] flakes to be se5 9 qu>t]$ oak1 :i*
 give x its beautiful & di/9ctive gra91 

,fig4 #cb1 p4 #ch4 ,!y appe> z long1    
grayi% l9es on a cross-section1 z broad1
 %9+ b&s on ! radial section1 & z %ort1 
?ick l9es tap]+ at ea* end on !         
tang5tial section4 ,9 o!r words1 !y are 
l flat1 rectangul> plates /&+ on edge & 
radiat+ l5g?wise f ! c5t] ( ! tree4 ,!y 
v>y greatly 9 size 9 diff]5t woods4 ,9  
sycamore !y are v prom95t1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,9
 oak !y are (t5 sev]al hundr$ cells wide
 7i4e41 up & d[n 9 ! tree74 ,?is may    
am\nt to an in* or two4 ,!y are (t5     
tw5ty cells ?ick1 tap]+ to "o cell at ! 
edge4 ,9 oak v _m are also small1 ev5   
microscopic4 ,b 9 ! conif]s & also 9 "s 
( ! broad-leav$ trees1 al?o !y c be     
disc]n$ ) ! nak$ eye on a split radial  
surface1 /ill !y are all v small4 ,9 p9e
 !re are "s #ae1jjj ( !m to a squ>e in* 
( a tang5tial section4 ,!y are to be    
f\nd 9 all exog5s4 ,9 a cross-section1  
say ( oak1 ,fig4 #ad1 x c readily be se5
 t "s pi? rays beg9 at ! c5t] ( ! tree &
 "s f>!r out4 ,^? t />t f ! pi? are =m$ 
! fir/ ye> & are call$ prim>y pi? rays1 

:ile ^? t beg9 9 a subsequ5t ye>1 />t+  
at ! cambium ( t ye>1 are call$ second>y
 rays4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4        
,tang5tial ,section ( ,sycamore1        
,magnifi$ #cg ,diamet]s4 ,note ! l>ge   
size ( ! pi? rays1 ,a1 ,a 7end view74   
,! function ( ! pi? rays is tw(old4 7#a7
 ,!y transf] =mative mat]ial f "o "p ( a
 /em to ano!r1 communicat+ ) bo? wood & 
b>k by means ( ! simple & bord]$ pits 9 
!m1 & 7#b7 !y b9d ! trunk toge!r f pi?  
to b>k4 ,on ! o!r h& _! pres5ce makes x 
easi] = ! wood to split radially4  ,!   
sub/ance ( :i* !y are compos$ is p>5*yma
 7,greek1 beside1 to p\r71 :i* also     
con/itutes ! pi?1 ! rays =m+ a sort (   
connect+ l9k betwe5 ! fir/ & la/ gr[? ( 
! tree1 z ! cambium cells =m new wood   
ea* ye>4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad       
,cross-section ( ,:ite ,oak4 ,! ,radiat+
 ,:ite ,l9es are ! ,pi? ,rays4  ,if a   
cambium cell is opposite to a pi? ray1 x
 divides crosswise 7transv]sely7 into   
eight or t5 cells "o above ano!r1 :i*   
/ret* out radially1 reta9+ _!           

protoplasm1 & s cont9ue ! pi? ray4 ,z ! 
tree gr[s l>g]1 new1 or second>y m$ull>y
 rays />t f ! cambium !n active1 s t e  
ye> new rays are =m$ bo? ?9n] & %ort]   
?an ! prim>y rays1 ,fig4 #ad4  ,n[      
suppose t laid among ! ord9>y ?9-wall$  
tubes 7 q l>ge tubes1 s t "o c\ld tell !
 r+ n only by ! ?9 walls b by ! pres5ce 
( l>ge tubes4 ,t w\ld repres5t !        
r+-por\s woods1 & ! l>ge tubes w\ld be  
call$ vessels1 or tra*eae4 ,suppose aga9
 t ^! l>ge tubes 7 scatt]$ 9 disord] ?ru
 ! lay]s4 ,?is arrangem5t w\ld repres5t 
! diffuse-por\s woods4  ,by hold+ up to 
! light1 ?9 cross-sections ( spruce or  
p9e1 ,fig4 #ae1 oak or a%1 ,fig4 #af1 & 
bass or maple1 ,fig4 #ag1 ^! ?ree q     
di/9ct arrangem5ts 9 ! /ructure may be  
di/+ui%$4 ,?is fact has l$ to !         
classification ( woods accord+ to !     
pres5ce & di/ribution ( pores1 or z !y  
are te*nically call$1 vessels or        
tra*eae4 ,by ?is classification we h3   
7#a7 ,non-por\s woods1 :i* comprise !   
conif]s1 z p9e & spruce4  7#b7 ,r+-por\s

 woods1 9 :i* ! pores appe> 79 a        
cross-section7 9 conc5tric r+s1 z 9     
*e/nut1 a% & elm4  7#c7 ,diffuse-por\s  
woods1 9 :i* 79 a cross-section7 ! r+s  
are scatt]$ irregul>ly ?ru ! wood1 z 9  
bass1 maple & yell[ popl>4  ,9 ord] to  
fully und]/& ! /ructure ( wood1 x is    
necess>y to exam9e x /ill m closely ?ru 
! microscope1 & s9ce ! ?ree classes (   
wood1 non-por\s1 r+-por\s &             
diffuse-por\s1 diff] consid]ably 9 _!   
m9ute /ructure1 x is well to consid] !m 
sep>ately1 tak+ ! simple/ fir/4         
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,cross-section 
( ,non-por\s ,wood1 ,:ite ,p9e1 ,full   
,size 7top t[>d pi?74  ,non-por\s woods4
 ,9 exam9+ ?ru ! microscope a transv]se 
section ( :ite p9e1 ,fig4 #ah3  7#a7 ,! 
mo/ noticeable *>act]i/ic is ! regul>ity
 ( arrangem5t ( ! cells4 ,!y are r\ghly 
rectangul> & arrang$ 9 ranks & files4   
7#b7 ,ano!r noticeable feature is t !y  
are arrang$ 9 belts1 ! ?ickness ( _!    
walls gradually increas+ z ! size ( !   
cells dim9i%es4 ,!n ! l>ge ?9-wall$     

cells sudd5ly beg9 aga91 & s on4 ,! wid?
 ( "o ( ^! belts is ! am\nt ( a s+le    
ye>'s gr[?1 ! ?9-wall$ cells be+ ^? t   
=m$ 9 spr+1 & ! ?ick-wall$ ones ^? t =m$
 9 summ]1 ! d>k] color ( ! summ] wood z 
well z its great] /r5g? be+ caus$ by !re
 be+ m mat]ial 9 ! same volume4         
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,cross-section 
( ,r+-por\s ,wood1 ,:ite ,a%1 ,full     
,size 7top t[>d pi?74  ,illu/ration3    
,fig4 #ag4 ,cross-section (             
,diffuse-por\s ,wood1 ,h>d ,maple1 full 
size 7top t[>d pi?74  7#c7 ,runn+       
radially 7up & d[n 9 ! picture7 directly
 ?ru ! annual belts or r+s are to be se5
 :at looks l fib]s4 ,^! are ! pi? or    
m$ull>y rays4 ,!y s]ve to transf]       
=mative mat]ial f "o "p ( ! /em to ano!r
 & to b9d ! tree toge!r f pi? to b>k4   
7#d7 ,scatt]$ "h & !re among ! regul>   
cells1 are to be se5 irregul> gray or   
yell[ dots :i* di/urb ! regul>ity ( !   
arrangem5t4 ,^! are res9 ducts4 7,see   
cross-section ( :ite p9e1 ,fig4 #ah47   
,!y are n cells1 b op5+s betwe5 cells1 9

 :i* ! res91 an excretion ( ! tree1     
accumulates1 ooz+ out :5 ! tree is      
injur$4 ,at lea/ "o function ( res9 is  
to protect ! tree f attacks ( fungi4    
,look+ n[ at ! radial section1 ,fig4    
#ah3  7#e7 ,! fir/ ?+ to notice is !    
/raightness ( ! long cells & _! ov]lapp+
 :]e !y meet endwise1 l ! ends ( two    
*isels laid toge!r1 ,fig4 #aa4  7#f7 ,on
 ! walls ( ! cells c be se5 r\nd spots  
call$ pits4 ,^! are due to ! fact t z ! 
cell gr[s1 ! cell walls ?ick51 except 9 
^! small spots1 :]e ! walls rema9 ?9 &  
delicate4 ,! pit 9 a cell wall always   
co9cides ) ! pit 9 an adjo9+ cell1 !re  
be+ only a ?9 membrane betwe51 s t !re  
is practically free communication (     
fluids betwe5 ! two cells4 ,9 a         
cross-section ! pit appe>s z a canal1 ! 
l5g? ( :i* dep5ds ^u ! ?ickness ( !     
walls4 ,9 "s cells1 ! ?ick5+ ar\nd !    
pits becomes elevat$1 =m+ a bord]1      
p]=at$ 9 ! c5t]4 ,su* pits are call$    
bord]$ pits4 ,^! pits1 bo? simple &     
bord]$1 are wat]ways betwe5 ! diff]5t   

cells4 ,!y are helps 9 c>ry+ ! sap up ! 
tree4  7#g7 ,! pi? rays are also to be  
se5 runn+ across & int]wov5 9 ! o!r     
cells4 ,x is to be notic$ t !y consi/ ( 
sev]al cells1 "o above ano!r4  ,9 !     
tang5tial section1 ,fig4 #ah3  7#h7 ,!  
/raightness & ov]lapp+ ( ! cells is to  
be se5 aga91 &  7#i7 ,! num]\s ends ( ! 
pi? rays appe>4  ,9 a ^w1 ! /ructure (  
conif]\s wood is v regul> & simple1     
consi/+ ma9ly ( cells ( "o sort1 ! pi?  
rays be+ comp>atively unnoticeable4 ,?is
 uni=mity is :at makes ! wood ( conif]s 
te*nically valuable4  ,illu/ration3     
,fig4 #ah4  ,! cells ( conif]s are call$
 tra*eids1 mean+ l tra*eae4 ,!y are     
cells 9 :i* ! end walls p]si/1 t is1 are
 n absorb$ & brok5 d[n :5 !y meet end to
 end4 ,9 o!r words1 conif]s d n h       
cont9u\s pores or vessels or tra*eae1 & 
h5ce are call$ non-por\s woods4  ,b 9   
o!r woods1 ! ends ( "s cells :i* meet   
endwise are absorb$1 ?us =m+ a cont9u\s 
s]ies ( elem5ts :i* con/itute an op5    
tube4 ,su* tubes are kn[n z pores1 or   

vessels1 or tra*eae1 & sometimes ext5d  
?ru ! :ole /em4 ,besides ?is m>k$       
diff]5ce betwe5 ! por\s & non-por\s     
woods1 ! por\s woods are also di/+ui%$  
by ! fact t in/ead ( be+ made up1 l !   
conif]s ( cells ( practically only "o   
k9d1 namely tra*eids1 !y are compos$ (  
sev]al v>ieties ( cells4 ,besides !     
tra*eae & tra*eids already not$ are su* 
cells z wood fib]1 fibr\s cells1 &      
p>5*yma4 ,fig4 #ai4 ,wood fib] prop] has
 mu* ?ick5$ lignifi$ walls & no pits1 & 
its ma9 function is me*anical support4  
,fibr\s cells are l ! wood fib]s except 
t !y reta9 _! protoplasm4 ,p>5*yma is   
compos$ ( v]tical gr\ps ( %ort cells1 ! 
end ones ( ea* gr\p tap]+ to a po9t1 &  
ea* gr\p orig9ates f ! transv]se        
division ( "o cambium cell4 ,!y are     
commonly gr\p$ ar\nd ! vessels          
7tra*eae74 ,p>5*yma con/itutes ! pi?    
rays & o!r simil> fib]s1 reta9s its     
protoplasm1 & becomes fill$ ) />* 9     
autumn4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4       
,isolat$ ,fib]s & ,cells4 a1 f\r cells (

 wood p>5*yma2 b1 two cells f a pi? ray2
 c1 a s+le cell or jo9t ( a vessel1 !   
op5+s1 x1 x1 lead+ into its upp] & l[]  
neighbors2 d1 tra*eid2 e1 wood fib]     
prop]4 ,aft] ,ro?4  ,! mo/ common type (
 /ructure among ! broad-leav$ trees     
conta9s tra*eae1 tra*aeids1 woody fib]1 
fibr\s cells & p>5*yma4 ,examples are   
popl>s1 bir*1 walnut1 l9d5 & locu/4 ,9  
"s1 z a%1 ! tra*eids are want+2 apple & 
maple h no woody fib]1 & oak & plum no  
fibr\s cells4  ,?is recital is en\gh to 
%[ t ! wood ( ! broad-leav$ trees is mu*
 m complex 9 /ructure ?an t ( ! conif]s4
 ,x is by means ( ! numb] & di/ribution 
( ^! elem5ts t p>ticul> woods are       
id5tifi$ microscopically4 ,see p4 #bhi4 
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4  ,r+-por\s     
woods4 ,look+ ?ru ! microscope at a     
cross-section ( a%1 a r+-por\s wood1    
,fig4 #bj3  7#a7 ,! l>ge r\nd or oval   
pores or vessels gr\p$ mo/ly 9 ! spr+   
wood fir/ attract att5tion4 ,small]     
ones1 b /ill q di/9ct1 are to be se5    
scatt]$ all ?ru ! wood4 ,x is by ! numb]

 & di/ribution ( ^! pores t ! diff]5t   
oak woods are di/+ui%$1 ^? 9 :ite oak   
be+ small] & m num]\s1 :ile 9 r$ oak !y 
are few] & l>g]4 ,x is evid5t t ! great]
 _! %>e 9 ! volume1 ! light] 9 weight & 
! weak] w be ! wood4 ,9 a magnifi$      
cross-section ( "s woods1 z black locu/1
 :ite elm & *e/nut1 see ,*ap4 ,,iii1    
beautiful patt]ns are to be se5 compos$ 
( ^! pores4 ,x is because ( ! size ( ^! 
pores & _! great numb] t *e/nut is s    
weak4  7#b7 ,! summ] wood is also       
di/+ui%able by ! fact t1 z ) ! conif]s1 
its cells are small] & its cell walls   
?ick] ?an ^? ( ! spr+ wood4 ,! summ]    
wood appe>s only z a n>r[1 d>k l9e along
 ! l>ge/ pores 9 ea* r+4  7#c7 ,! l9es (
 ! pi? rays are v pla9 9 "s woods1 z 9  
oak4 ,no4 #dg1 ,*ap4 ,,iii4  7#d7 ,!    
irregul> arrangem5t &  7#e7 ,complex    
/ructure are evid5t1 & ^! are due to !  
fact t ! wood sub/ance consi/s ( a numb]
 ( diff]5t elem5ts & n "o 7tra*eids7 z 9
 ! conif]s4  ,look+ at ! radial section1
 ,fig4 #bj3  7#f7 ,if ! piece is oak1 ! 

great size ( ! m$ull>y rays is mo/      
noticeable4 ,fig4 #cb1 p4 #ch4 ,!y are  
(t5 an in* or m wide2 t is1 high1 z !y  
gr[ 9 ! tree4 ,9 a% !y are pla91 se5 ?ru
 ! microscope1 b are n prom95t4  7#g7 ,!
 int]weav+ ( ! diff]5t fib]s & ! v>iety 
( _! =ms %[ ! /ructure z be+ v complex4 
,9 ! tang5tial section1 ,fig4 #bj3  7#h7
 ,! patt]n ( ! gra9 is se5 to be m>k$ n 
s mu* by ! d5s5ess ( ! summ] wood z by !
 pres5ce ( ! vessels 7pores74  7#i7 ,!  
ends ( ! pi? rays are also cle>4  ,9    
diffuse por\s woods1 ! ma9 features to  
be notic$ are3 ,9 ! transv]se section1  
,fig4 #ba3  7#a7 ,! irregul>ity ) :i* ! 
pores are scatt]$1  7#b7 ,! f9e l9e (   
d5se cells :i* m>k ! end ( ! ye>'s gr[?1
  7#c7 ,! radiat+ pi? rays1  7#d7 ,!    
irregul> arrangem5t &1  7#e7 ,! complex 
/ructure4  ,9 ! radial section1 ,fig4   
#ba3  7#f7 ,! pi? rays are evid5t4 ,9   
sycamore1 ,no4 #ec1 ,*ap4 ,,iii1 !y are 
q l>ge4  7#g7 ,! int]weav+ ( ! fib]s is 
to be not$ & also _! v>iety4  ,9 !      
tang5tial section1 ,fig4 #ba3  7#h7 ,!  

gra9 is to be trac$ only dimly1 b !     
fib]s are se5 to run 9 waves ar\nd ! pi?
 rays4  7#i7 ,! pi? rays1 ! ends ( :i*  
are pla9ly visible4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4
 #ba4   ,,! ,,gra9 ,,( ,,wood4  ,! t]m  
gra9 is us$ 9 a v>iety ( mean+s :i* is  
likely to cause confusion4 ,?is         
confusion may be avoid$1 at lea/ 9 "p1  
by di/+ui%+ betwe5 gra9 & texture1 us+ !
 ^w gra9 to ref] to ! arrangem5t or     
direction ( ! wood elem5ts1 & ! ^w      
texture to ref] to _! size or quality1 s
 f> z ^! affect ! /ructural "* ( ! wood4
 ,h5ce su* qualify+ adjectives z co>se &
 f9e1 ev5 & unev51 /raight & cross1     
includ+ spiral1 twi/$1 wavy1 curly1     
mottl$1 bird's-eye1 gn>ly1 etc41 may all
 be appli$ to gra9 to give x def9ite    
mean+1 :ile to texture ! prop] modify+  
adjectives are co>se & f9e1 ev5 & unev54
  ,usually ! ^w gra9 means ! patt]n or  
figure =m$ by ! di/9ction betwe5 ! spr+ 
wood & ! summ] wood4 ,if ! annual r+s   
are wide1 ! wood is1 9 common usage1    
call$ co>se gra9$1 if n>r[1 f9e gra9$1 s

 t ( two trees ( ! same species1 "o may 
be co>se gra9$ & ! o!r f9e gra9$1 dep5d+
 solely on ! accid5t ( fa/ or sl[ gr[?4 
,! t]ms co>se gra9 & f9e gra9 are also  
frequ5tly us$ to di/+ui% su* r+-por\s   
woods z h l>ge prom95t pores1 l *e/nut &
 a%1 f ^? hav+ small or no pores1 z *]ry
 & lignum vitae4 ,a bett] expression 9  
?is case w\ld be co>se & f9e textur$4   
,:5 su* co>se textur$ woods are /a9$1 ! 
l>ge pores 9 ! spr+ wood absorb m /a9   
?an ! small] elem5ts 9 ! summ] wood1 &  
h5ce ! =m] "p appe>s d>k]4 ,9 ! f9e     
gra9$ 7or bett]1 f9e textur$17 woods !  
pores are abs5t or are small & scatt]$1 
& ! wood is h>d1 s t !y are capable (   
tak+ a high poli%4 ,?is indicates !     
mean+ ( ! words co>se & f9e 9 ! m9d ( ! 
cab9et-mak]1 ! ref]5ce be+ prim>ily to  
texture4  ,if ! elem5ts ( :i* a wood are
 compos$ are ( approximately uni=m size1
 x w\ld be said to h a uni=m texture1 z 
9 :ite p9e1 :ile uni=m gra9 w\ld mean1 t
 ! elem5ts1 ?o ( v>y+ sizes1 7 ev5ly    
di/ribut$1 z 9 ! diffuse-por\s woods4   

,! t]m gra9 also ref]s to ! regul>ity ( 
! wood /ructure4 ,an ideal tree w\ld be 
compos$ ( a succession ( regul> cones1 b
 few trees are truly circul> 9          
cross-section & ev5 9 ^? t are circul>1 
! pi? is r>ely 9 ! c5t]1 %[+ t "o side (
 ! tree1 usually ! s\? side1 is bett]   
n\ri%$ ?an ! o!r1 ,fig4 #ad1 p4 #bc4  ,!
 normal direction ( ! fib]s ( wood is   
p>allel to ! axis ( ! /em 9 :i* !y gr[4 
,su* wood is call$ /raight-gra9$1 ,fig4 
#bb1 b !re are _m deviations f ?is rule4
 ,:5ev] ! gra9 ( ! wood 9 a bo>d is1 9  
:ole or 9 "p1 oblique to ! sides ( !    
bo>d1 x is call$ cross-gra9$4 ,an       
illu/ration ( ?is is a b5d 9 ! fib]s1   
due to a b5d 9 ! :ole tree or to !      
pres5ce ( a neighbor+ knot4 ,?is b5d    
makes ! bo>d m difficult to plane4 ,9 _m
 cases1 probably 9 m cases ?an n1 ! wood
 fib]s twi/ ar\nd ! tree4 7,see "s ( !  
logs 9 ,fig4 #ajg1 p4 #bed47 ,?is       
produces spiral or twi/$ gra94          
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,/raight ,gra9$
 ,long-leaf ,p9e 7full size74  ,(t51 z 9

 mahogany & sweet gum1 ! fib]s ( sev]al 
lay]s twi/ fir/ 9 "o direction & !n ^? (
 ! next few lay]s twi/ ! o!r way1 ,fig4 
#bd4 ,su* wood is peculi>ly cross-gra9$1
 & is ( c\rse h>d to plane smoo?4 ,b :5 
a piece is smoo?ly f9i%$ ! *ang+        
reflection ( light f ! surface gives a  
beautiful appe>ance1 :i* c be enhanc$ by
 /a9+ & poli%+4 ,x con/itutes !         
*>act]i/ic gra9 ( /rip$ mahogany1 ,fig4 
#bc4 ,x is r>ely f\nd 9 ! inn] "p ( !   
tree4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4         
,mahogany1 ,%[+ ,alt]nately ,twi/$ ,gra9
 7full size74  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4 
,spiral ,gra9 9 ,cypress4 ,aft] ,ro?4   
,sometimes ! gra9 ( wood is cross1      
because x is wavy ei!r 9 a radial or a  
tang5tial section1 z 9 maple1 ,fig4 #be1
 & ,fig4 #bf4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 
,plan$ ,surface ( ,wavy-,gra9$ ,maple   
7full size74  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4  
,split ,surface ( ,wavy-,gra9$ ,maple   
7full size74  ,curly gra9 ref]s to !    
figure ( circlets & islets & cont\rs1   
(t5 ( great beauty1 caus$ by cutt+ a    

flat surface 9 crook$-gra9$ wood4 ,see  
,fig4 #bg1 curly long-leaf p9e1 & ,fig4 
#bh1 yell[ popl>4 ,:5 su* crook$ness is 
f9e & ! fib]s are contort$ &1 z x 71    
cr[d$ out ( place1 z is common 9 & ne> !
 roots ( trees1 ! effect is call$ burl1 
,fig4 #bi4 ,! t]m burl is also us$ to   
designate knots & knobs on tree trunks1 
,fig4 #ca4 ,burl is us$ *iefly 9 v5e]s4 
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,curly ,gra9$  
,long-leaf ,p9e 7full size74            
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,curly ,yell[  
,popl> 7full size74  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4
 #bi4 ,r$wood ,burl 7full size74        
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,bird's-eye    
,maple 7full size47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4
 #ca4 ,burl on ,:ite ,oak4  ,irregul>ity
 ( gra9 is (t5 caus$ by ! pres5ce (     
adv5titi\s & dormant buds1 :i* may be   
pla9ly se5 z little knobs on ! surface (
 "s trees "u ! b>k4 ,9 mo/ trees1 ^!    
irregul>ities are soon buri$ & smoo!d   
ov] by ! successive annual lay]s ( wood1
 b 9 "s woods !re is a t5d5cy to pres]ve
 ! irregul>ities4 ,on sla% 7tang5t7     

bo>ds ( su* wood1 a great numb] ( little
 circlets appe>1 giv+ a beautiful gra91 
z 9 ,bird's-eye maple1 ,fig4 #cj4 ,^!   
m>k+s are f\nd to pr$om9ate 9 ! inn] "p 
( ! tree4 ,?is is n at all a di/9ct     
v>iety ( maple1 z is sometimes suppos$1 
b ! common v>iety1 9 :i* ! ph5om5on     
frequ5tly appe>s4 ,logs ( great value1  
hav+ bird's-eyes1 h (t5 unsuspect+ly be5
 *opp$ up = fire wood4  ,! t]m gra9 may 
also mean ! figure =m$ by ! pres5ce (   
pi? rays1 z 9 oak1 ,fig4 #cb1 or bee*1  
or ! ^w gra9 may ref] simply to ! unev5 
deposit ( color+ matt] z is common 9    
sweet gum1 ,fig4 #cc1 black a%1 or      
,circassian walnut4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4
 #cb4 ,figure ,=m$ by ,pi? ,rays 9 ,oak 
7full size74  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4  
,sweet ,gum1 ,%[+ ,unev5 ,deposit (     
,color+ ,matt] 7full size47  ,! pres5ce 
( a limb con/itutes a knot & makes great
 irregul>ity 9 ! gra9 ( wood1 ,fig4 #cd4
 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! fib]s on ! upp] &   
l[] sides ( ! limb behave diff]5tly1 ^? 
on ! l[] side runn+ un9t]rupt$ly f ! /em

 into ! limb1 :ile on ! upp] side !     
fib]s b5d aside mak+ an imp]fect        
connection4 ,consequ5tly to split a knot
 x is always necess>y to />t ! split f !
 l[] side4 ,on ! o!r h& x is easi] to   
split ar\nd a knot ?an ?ru x4 ,! texture
 z well z ! gra9 ( wood is modifi$ by ! 
pres5ce ( a bran*4 ,! wood 9 & ar\nd a  
knot is mu* h>d] ?an ! ma9 body ( !     
trunk on acc\nt ( ! cr[d+ toge!r ( !    
elem5ts4 ,knots are ! remnants ( bran*es
 left 9 ! trunk4 ,^! once _h all ! p>ts 
( ! trunk itself1 namely b>k1 cambium1  
wood1 & pi?4 ,normally1 bran*es gr[ f ! 
pi?1 ?o "s trees1 z ,jack p9e & r$wood1 
among ! conif]s1 & mo/ ( ! broad-leaf   
trees h ! p[] ( putt+ out at any "t     
adv5titi\s buds :i* may develop into    
bran*es4 ,:5 a bran* dies1 ! annual lay]
 ( wood no long] gr[s ^u x1 b !         
successive lay]s ( wood on ! trunk      
itself close tight] & tight] ar\nd x1   
until x is brok5 (f4 ,!n1 unless x has  
begun to decay1 x is successively       
ov]gr[n by annual lay]s1 s t no sign ( x

 appe>s until ! trunk is cut op54 ,a    
l>ge trunk p]fectly clean ( bran*es on !
 outside may h _m knots ar\nd its c5t]1 
remnants ( bran*es :i* grew !re 9 its   
y\?1 z 9 ,fig4 #cd1 & ,fig4 #h1 p4 #ah4 
,! g5]al effect ( ! pres5ce ( a knot is1
 t ! fib]s t gr[ ar\nd & ov] x are b5t1 
& ?is1 ( c\rse1 produces crook$ gra94   
,foll[+ are ! designations giv5 to      
diff]5t knots by lumb]m53 ,a s\nd knot  
is "o :i* is solid across its face & is 
z h>d z ! wood surr\nd+ x & fix$ 9      
position4 ,a p9 knot is s\nd1 b n ov]   
#a_/d 9 diamet]4 ,a /&>d knot is s\nd1 b
 n ov] #a-a_/b 9 diamet]4 ,a l>ge knot  
is s\nd1 & ov] #a-a_/b 9 diamet]4 ,a    
spike knot is "o sawn 9 a l5g?wise      
position4 ,a dead1 or1 loose knot is "o 
n firmly held 9 place by gr[? or        
position4  7#d7 ,pi?4 ,at ! c5t] or axis
 ( ! tree is ! pi? or m$ulla1 ,fig4 #cd4
 ,9 e bud1 t is1 at ! apex ( e /em &    
bran*1 ! pi? is ! gr[+ "p2 b z ! /em    
l5g!ns & becomes ov]gr[n by successive  
lay]s ( wood ! pi? loses its vital      

function4 ,x does n gr[ ) ! plant except
 at ! buds4 ,x v>ies 9 ?ickness1 be+ v  
small1--h>dly m ?an #a_/af1 9 c$> &     
l>*1--& s small 9 oak z to be h>dly     
disc]nible2 & :at !re is ( x turns h>d &
 d>k4 ,9 h]bs & %oots x is relatively   
l>ge1 ,fig4 #e1 p4 #ae1 9 a ?ree-ye> old
 %oot ( eld]1 = example1 be+ z wide z ! 
wood4 ,9 eld]1 moreov]1 x dies e>ly &   
pulv]izes1 leav+ ! /em holl[4 ,its      
function is "o ( only tempor>y value to 
! plant4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4      
,section ,?ru ! ,trunk ( a ,sev5 ,ye>   
,old ,tree1 ,%[+ ,relation ( ,bran*es to
 ,ma9 ,/em4 ,a1 ,b1 two bran*es :i* 7   
kill$ aft] a few ye>s' gr[? by %ad+1 &  
:i* h be5 ov]gr[n by ! annual r+s (     
wood2 ,c1 a limb :i* liv$ f\r ye>s1 !n  
di$ & broke (f ne> ! /em1 leav+ ! "p to 
! left ( ,,xy a s\nd knot1 & ! "p to !  
"r a dead knot1 :i* unless rott+ sets 91
 w\ld 9 "t be entirely cov]$ by ! gr[+  
trunk2 ,d1 a bran* t has rema9$ alive & 
has increas$ 9 size l ! ma9 /em2 ,p1 ,p1
 pi? ( bo? /em & limb4   ,,! ,,/ructure 

,,( ,,wood4  ,,ref]5ces3,a  ,ro?1 ,=e/  
,bull4 ,no4 #aj1 pp4 #aa-bc4 ,b\lg]1 pp4
 #a-ci4 ,sickles1 pp4 #aa-bj4 ,p9*ot1   
,=e/ ,bull4 ,no4 #bd1 ,i1 pp4 #aa-bd4   
,keel]1 pp4 #ead-eag4 ,curtis1 pp4      
#fb-he4 ,woodcraft1 #ae3 #c1 p4 #ij4    
,bitt+1 ,wood ,craft1 #e3 #gf1 #ajf1    
#add1 #agb1 7,june-,sept4 #aijf74 ,w>d1 
pp4 #a-ch4 ,encyc4 ,brit41 #aa? ,ed41   
,plants1 p4 #gda4 ,/rasburg]1 pp4       
#abj-add & ,"p ,,ii1 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,sn[1  
pp4 #g-i1 #ahc4      ,footnote ,a3 ,=   
g5]al bibliography1 see p4 #d4          
,,*apt] ,,ii4  ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,wood4  
,!re are _m prop]ties ( wood1--"s       
pr$om9ant 9 "o species1 "s 9 ano!r1--t  
make x suitable = a great v>iety ( uses4
 ,sometimes x is a comb9ation (         
prop]ties t gives value to a wood4      
,among ^! prop]ties are hygroscopicity1 
%r9kage1 weight1 /r5g?1 cleavability1   
ela/icity1 h>dness1 & t\ghness4   ,,!   
,,hygroscopicity#a ,,( ,,wood4  ,x is   
evid5t t wat] plays a l>ge "p 9 !       
economy ( ! tree4 ,x occurs 9 wood 9    

?ree diff]5t ways3 ,9 ! sap :i* fills or
 p>tly fills ! cavities ( ! wood cells1 
9 ! cell walls :i* x saturates1 & 9 !   
live protoplasm1 ( :i* x con/itutes #ij 
p] c5t4 ,! y\ng] ! wood1 ! m wat] x     
conta9s1 h5ce ! sap-wood conta9s mu* m  
?an ! he>t-wood1 at times ev5 twice z   
mu*4  ,9 fre% sap-wood1 #fj p] c5t4 ( ! 
wat] is 9 ! cell cavities1 #ce p] c5t4 9
 ! cell walls1 & only #e p] c5t4 9 !    
protoplasm4 ,!re is s mu* wat] 9 gre5   
wood t a sappy pole w soon s9k :5 set   
afloat4 ,! reason :y !re is mu* less    
wat] 9 he>t-wood is because its cells   
are dead & inactive1 & h5ce )\t sap &   
)\t protoplasm4 ,!re is only :at        
saturates ! cell walls4 ,ev5 s1 !re is  
consid]able wat] 9 he>t-wood4#b  ,!     
light] k9ds h ! mo/ wat] 9 ! sap-wood1  
?us sycamore has m ?an hickory4         
,curi\sly en\gh1 a tree conta9s ab\t z  
mu* wat] 9 w9t] z 9 summ]4 ,! wat] is   
held !re1 x is suppos$1 by capill>y     
attraction1 s9ce ! cells are inactive1 s
 t at all times ! wat] 9 wood keeps !   

cell walls di/5d$4   ,,! ,,%r9kage ,,(  
,,wood4  ,:5 a tree is cut d[n1 its wat]
 at once beg9s to evaporate4 ,?is       
process is call$ season+4,a ,9 dry+1 !  
free wat] )9 ! cells keeps ! cell walls 
saturat$2 b :5 all ! free wat] has be5  
remov$1 ! cell walls beg9 to yield up _!
 moi/ure4 ,wat] w n fl[ out ( wood      
unless x is =c$ out by heat1 z :5 gre5  
wood is put on a fire4 ,ord9>ily x      
evaporates sl[ly4      ,footnote ,a3    
,see ,h&work 9 ,wood1 ,*apt] ,,iii4  ,! 
wat] evaporates fa/] f "s k9ds ( wood   
?an f o!r k9ds1 e4g41 f :ite p9e ?an f  
oak1 f small pieces ?an f l>ge1 & f end 
gra9 ?an f a longitud9al section2 & x   
also evaporates fa/] 9 high ?an 9 l[    
temp]atures4  ,evaporation affects wood 
9 ?ree respects1 weight1 /r5g?1 & size4 
,! weight is r$uc$1 ! /r5g? is increas$1
 & %r9kage takes place4 ,! r$uction 9   
weight & increase 9 /r5g?1 important z  
!y are1 are ( less importance ?an !     
%r9kage1 :i* (t5 involves w>p+ & o!r    
di/ortions4 ,! wat] 9 wood affects its  

size by keep+ ! cell walls di/5d$4  ,if 
all ! cells ( a piece ( wood 7 ! same   
size1 & _h walls ! same ?ickness1 & all 
ran 9 ! same direction1 !n ! %r9kage    
w\ld be uni=m4 ,b1 z we h se51 !        
/ructure ( wood is n homog5e\s4 ,"s     
cellul> elem5ts are l>ge1 "s small1 "s h
 ?ick walls1 "s ?9 walls1 "s run        
longitud9ally & "s 7! pi? rays7 run     
radially4 ,! effects w be v>i\s 9       
diff]5tly %ap$ pieces ( wood b !y c     
easily be acc\nt$ = if "o be>s 9 m9d ^! 
?ree facts3 7#a7 t ! %r9kage is 9 ! cell
 wall1 & !re=e 7#b7 t ! ?ick-wall$ cells
 %r9k m ?an ?9-wall$ cells & 7#c7 t !   
cells d n %r9k mu*1 if any1 l5g?wise4   
7#a7 ,! %r9kage ( wood takes place 9 !  
walls ( ! cells t compose x1 t is1 !    
cell walls become ?9n]1 z indicat$ by ! 
dott$ l9es 9 ,fig4 #ce1 :i* is a        
cross-section ( a s+le cell4 ,! diamet] 
( ! :ole cell becomes less1 & ! op5+1 or
 lum51 ( ! cell becomes l>g]4           
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,h[ ,cell      
,walls ,%r9k4  7#b7 ,?ick-wall$ cells   

%r9k m ?an ?9-wall$ cells1 t is1 summ]  
cells m ?an spr+ cells4 ,?is is due to !
 fact t !y conta9 m %r9kable sub/ance4  
,! ?ick] ! wall1 ! m ! %r9kage4         
,consid] ! effects ( ^! *anges2 ord9>ily
 a log :5 dry+ beg9s to *eck at ! end4  
,?is is to be expla9$ ?us3 ,inasmu* z   
evaporation takes place fa/] f a cross  
?an f a longitud9al section1 because at 
! cross-section all ! cells are cut op51
 x is to be expect$ t ! end ( a piece ( 
timb]1 ,fig4 #cf1 ,a1 w %r9k fir/4 ,?is 
w\ld t5d to make ! end fib]s b5d t[>d ! 
c5t] ( ! piece z 9 ,b1 ,fig4 #cf4 ,b !  
fib]s are /iff & resi/ ?is b5d+ ) !     
result t ! end splits or *ecks z 9 ,c1  
,fig4 #cf4 ,b lat]1 z ! re/ ( ! timb]   
dries out & %r9ks1 x becomes ( equal    
?ickness aga9 & ! *ecks t5d to close4   
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,! ,%r9kage &  
,*eck+ at ! ,end ( a ,beam4  7#c7 ,= "s 
reason1 :i* has n be5 discov]$1 ! cells 
or fib]s ( wood d n %r9k 9 l5g? to any  
appreciable ext5t4 ,?is is z true ( !   
cells ( pi? rays1 :i* run radially 9 !  

log1 z ( ! ord9>y cells1 :i* run        
longitud9ally 9 x4  ,9 addition to *eck+
 at ! end1 logs ord9>ily %[ ! effect (  
%r9kage by splitt+ op5 radially1 z 9    
,fig4 #cg4 ,?is is to be expla9$ by two 
factors1 7#a7 ! disposition ( ! pi? 7or 
m$ull>y7 rays1 & 7#b7 ! arrangem5t ( !  
wood 9 annual r+s4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 
#cg4 ,! ,%r9kage & ,splitt+ ( a ,log4   
7#a7 ,! cells ( ! pi? rays1 z we h se5 9
 ,*apt] ,i1 run at "r angles to !       
direction ( ! mass ( wood fib]s1 & s9ce 
!y %r9k accord+ to ! same laws t o!r    
cells d1 viz41 by ! cell wall becom+    
?9n] b n %ort]1 ! /ra9 ( _! %r9kage is  
contr>y to t ( ! ma9 cells4 ,! pi? rays1
 :i* consi/ ( a numb] ( cells "o above !
 o!r1 t5d to %r9k p>allel to ! l5g? ( ! 
wood1 & :atev] little longitud9al       
%r9kage !re is 9 a bo>d is probably due 
mo/ly to ! %r9kage ( ! pi? rays4 ,b     
because ! cells ( pi? rays d n          
appreciably %r9k 9 _! l5g?1 ?is fact    
t5ds to prev5t ! ma9 body ( wood f %r9k+
 radially1 & ! result is t wood %r9ks   

less radially ?an tang5tially4          
,tang5tially is ! only way left = x to  
%r9k4 ,! pi? rays may be comp>$ to !    
ribs ( a fold+ fan1 :i* keep ! radius ( 
unalt]$ l5g? :ile p]mitt+ comp>ative    
fre$om = circumf]5tial contraction4     
7#b7 ,x is evid5t t s9ce summ] wood     
%r9ks m ?an spr+ wood1 ?is fact w       
int]f]e ) ! ev5 %r9kage ( ! log4        
,consid] fir/ ! tang5tial %r9kage4 ,if a
 section ( a s+le annual r+ ( gre5 wood 
( ! %ape ,a ,b ,c ,d1 9 ,fig4 #ch1 is   
dri$ & ! mass %r9ks accord+ to !        
?ickness ( ! cell walls1 x w assume !   
%ape ,a' ,b' ,c' ,d'4 ,:5 a numb] ( r+s 
toge!r %r9k1 ! tang5tial %r9kage ( !    
summ] wood t5ds to contract ! adjo9+ r+s
 ( spr+ wood m ?an !y w\ld naturally    
%r9k ( !mselves4 ,s9ce !re is m ( !     
summ]-wood sub/ance1 ! spr+-wood mu/    
yield1 & ! log %r9ks circumf]5tially4 ,!
 radial %r9kage ( ! summ]-wood1 h[ev]1  
is con/antly int]rupt$ by ! alt]nate r[s
 ( spr+-wood1 s t !re w\ld n be s mu*   
radial z circumf]5tial %r9kage4 ,z a    

matt] ( fact1 ! tang5tial or            
circumf]5tial %r9kage is twice z great z
 ! radial %r9kage4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 
#ch4 ,diagram to ,%[ ! ,great] ,%r9kage 
( ,summ] ,cells1 ,a1 ,b1 ?an ( ,spr+    
,cells1 ,c1 ,d4  ,putt+ ^! two factors  
toge!r1 namely1 ! l5g?wise resi/ance ( !
 pi? rays to ! radial %r9kage ( ! mass (
 o!r fib]s1 & second1 ! cont9u\s b&s (  
summ] wood1 comp>atively free to %r9k   
circumf]5tially1 & ! inevitable happ5s2 
! log splits4 ,if ! b>k is left on &    
evaporation h9d]$1 ! splits w n op5 s   
wide4  ,!re is /ill ano!r effect (      
%r9kage4 ,if1 imm$iately aft] fell+1 a  
log is sawn 9 two l5g?wise1 ! radial    
splitt+ may be l>gely avoid$1 b ! flat  
sides w t5d to become convex1 z 9 ,fig4 
#ci4 ,?is is expla9$ by ! fact t        
circumf]5tial %r9kage is great] ?an     
radial %r9kage4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4    
#ci4 ,%r9kage ( a ,halv$ ,log4  ,if a   
log is qu>t]$1,a ! qu>t]s split /ill    
less1 z ! inevitable %r9kage takes place
 m easily4 ,! qu>t]s !n t5d to assume ! 

%ape %[n 9 ,fig4 #dj1 ,c4 ,if a log is  
saw$ into timb]1 x *ecks f ! c5t] ( !   
faces t[>d ! pi?1 ,fig4 #dj1 ,d4        
,sometimes ! :ole am\nt ( %r9kage may be
 collect$ 9 "o l>ge split4 ,:5 a log is 
sla%-saw$1 ,fig4 #dj1 ,i1 ea* bo>d t5ds 
to w>p s t ! concave side is away f !   
c5t] ( ! tree4 ,if "o plank includes !  
pi?1 ,fig4 #dj1 ,e & ,h1 t bo>d w become
 ?9n] at its edges ?an at its c5t]1     
i4e41 convex on bo? faces4 ,o!r =ms     
assum$ by wood 9 %r9k+ are %[n 9 ,fig4  
#dj4 ,9 ! cases ,a-,f ! explanation is !
 same2 ! circumf]5tial %r9kage is m ?an 
! radial4 ,9 ,j & ,k ! %apes are acc\nt$
 = by ! fact t wood %r9ks v little      
longitud9ally4      ,footnote ,a3 ,see  
,h&work 9 ,wood1 p4 #db4  ,illu/ration3 
,fig4 #dj4 ,%apes ,assum$ by ,wood 9    
,%r9k+4  ,w>p+ is unev5 %r9kage1 "o side
 ( ! bo>d contract+ m ?an ! o!r4 ,:5ev] 
a sla% bo>d w>ps "u ord9>y conditions1 !
 convex side is ! "o :i* 0 t[>d ! c5t] (
 ! tree4 ,h[ev]1 a bo>d may be made to  
w>p artificially ! o!r way by apply+    

heat to ! side ( ! bo>d t[>d ! c5t] ( ! 
tree1 & by keep+ ! o!r side moi/4 ,!    
bo>d w w>p only sidewise2 l5g?wise x    
rema9s /raight unless ! treatm5t is v   
sev]e4 ,?is %[s aga9 t wat] di/5ds !    
cells lat]ally b n longitud9ally4  ,!   
?9n+ ( ! cell walls due to evaporation1 
is ?us se5 to h ?ree results1 all       
includ$ 9 ! t]m work+1 viz43 %r9kage1 a 
dim9ution 9 size1 splitt+1 due to !     
inability ( p>ts to coh]e "u ! /ra9s to 
:i* !y are subject$1 & w>p+1 or unev5   
%r9kage4  ,9 ord] to neutralize w>p+ z  
mu* z possible 9 broad bo>d /ructures1 x
 is common to jo9t ! bo>d ) ! annual r+s
 ( ea* alt]nate bo>d curv+ 9 opposite   
directions1 z %[n 9 ,h&work 9 ,wood1    
,fig4 #bhj1 a1 p4 #ahh4  ,"u w>p+ is    
includ$ b[+4 ,b[+1 t is1 b5d+ 9 ! =m ( a
 b[1 is1 s to speak1 longitud9al w>p+4  
,x is l>gely due to crook$ness or       
irregul>ity ( gra91 & is likely to occur
 9 bo>ds ) l>ge pi? rays1 z oak &       
sycamore4 ,b ev5 a /raight-gra9$ piece (
 wood1 left /&+ on end or subject$ to   

heat on "o side & dampness on ! o!r1 w  
b[1 z1 = in/ance a bo>d ly+ on ! damp   
gr\nd & 9 ! sun4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4   
#da4 a1 ,/> ,%akes2 b1 ,he>t ,%akes2 c1 
,cup ,%akes or ,r+ ,%akes2 d1           
,honeycomb+4  ,splitt+ takes v>i\s      
names1 accord+ to its =m 9 ! tree4 ,*eck
 is a t]m us$ = all sorts ( cracks1 & m 
p>ticul>ly = a longitud9al crack 9      
timb]4 ,%akes are splits ( v>i\s =ms z3 
/> %akes1 ,fig4 #da1 a1 splits :i*      
radiate f ! pi? along ! pi? rays & wid5 
outw>d2 he>t %akes1 ,fig4 #da1 b1 splits
 cross+ ! c5tral r+s & wid5+ t[>d !     
c5t]2 & cup or r+ %akes1 ,fig4 #da1 c1  
splits betwe5 ! annual r+s4 ,honeycomb+1
 ,fig4 #da1 d1 is splitt+ along ! pi?   
rays & is due l>gely to case h>d5+4  ,^!
 are n all due to %r9kage 9 dry+1 b may 
occur 9 ! gr[+ tree f v>i\s h>mful      
causes4 ,see p4 #bcb4  ,wood t has once 
be5 dri$ may aga9 be swell$ to ne>ly if 
n fully its orig9al size1 by be+ soak$ 9
 wat] or subject$ to wet /eam4 ,?is fact
 is tak5 advantage ( 9 wett+ wood5 w$ges

 to split "s k9ds ( s(t /one4 ,!        
processes ( %r9k+ & swell+ c be repeat$ 
indef9itely1 & no temp]ature %ort (     
burn+1 completely prev5ts wood f %r9k+ &
 swell+4  ,rapid dry+ ( wood t5ds to    
case h>d5 x1 i4e41 to dry & %r9k ! out] 
"p be=e ! inside has _h a *ance to d !  
same4 ,?is results 9 *eck+ sep>ately bo?
 ! outside & ! inside1 h5ce special     
precautions ne$ to be tak5 9 ! season+ (
 wood to prev5t ?is4 ,:5 wood is once   
?oroly b5t out ( %ape 9 %r9k+1 x is v   
difficult to /raight5 x aga94  ,woods   
v>y consid]ably 9 ! am\nts ( _! %r9kage4
 ,! conif]s ) _! regul> /ructure %r9k   
less & %r9k m ev5ly ?an ! broad-leav$   
woods4#c ,wood1 ev5 aft] x has be5 well 
season$1 is subject to frequ5t *anges 9 
volume due to ! v>y+ am\nt ( moi/ure 9 !
 atmosph]e4 ,?is involves con/ant c>e 9 
h&l+ x & wisdom 9 its use4 ,^! matt]s   
are consid]$ 9 ,h&work 9 ,wood1 ,*apt]  
,,iii1 on ! ,season+ ( ,wood4   ,,!     
,,weight ,,( ,,wood4  ,wood sub/ance    
itself is heavi] ?an wat]1 z c readily  

be prov$ by imm]s+ a v ?9 cross-section 
( p9e 9 wat]4 ,s9ce ! cells are cut     
across1 ! wat] readily ent]s ! cavities1
 & ! wood be+ heavi] ?an ! wat]1 s9ks4  
,9 fact1 x is ! air enclos$ 9 ! cell    
cavities t ord9>ily keeps wood afloat1 j
 z x does a cork$ empty bottle1 al?o    
glass is heavi] ?an wat]4 ,a longitud9al
 %av+ ( p9e w float long] ?an a cross   
%av+ = ! simple reason t x takes long] =
 ! wat] to p5etrate ! cells1 & a good   
siz$ :ite p9e log w\ld be ye>s 9 gett+  
wat]-soak$ en\gh to s9k4 ,z long z a    
majority ( ! cells are fill$ ) air x    
w\ld float4  ,9 any giv5 piece ( wood1  
!n1 ! weight is det]m9$ by two factors1 
! am\nt ( wood sub/ance & ! am\nt ( wat]
 conta9$ !re94 ,! am\nt ( wood sub/ance 
is con/ant1 b ! am\nt ( wat] conta9$ is 
v>iable1 & h5ce ! weight v>ies          
accord+ly4 ,moreov]1 consid]+ ! wood    
sub/ance alone1 ! weight ( wood sub/ance
 ( diff]5t k9ds ( wood is ab\t ! same2  
namely1 #a4f times z heavy z wat]1 :e!r 
x is oak or p9e1 ebony or popl>4 ,!     

reason :y a giv5 bulk ( "s woods is     
light] ?an an equal bulk ( o!rs1 is     
because !re are m ?9-wall$ & air-fill$  
cells 9 ! light woods4 ,_m h>d woods1 z 
lignum vitae1 are s heavy t !y w n float
 at all4 ,?is is because ! wall ( ! wood
 cells is v ?ick1 & ! lum9a are small4  
,9 ord]1 !n1 to f9d out ! comp>ative    
weights ( diff]5t woods1 t is1 to see h[
 mu* wood sub/ance !re is 9 a giv5      
volume ( any wood1 x is necess>y to te/ 
absolutely dry specim5s4  ,! weight (   
wood is indicat$ ei!r z ! weight p]     
cubic foot or z specific gravity4  ,x is
 an int]e/+ fact t diff]5t p>ts ( ! same
 tree h diff]5t weights1 ! wood at !    
base ( ! tree weigh+ m ?an t high] up1 &
 ! wood midway betwe5 ! pi? & b>k weigh+
 m ?an ei!r ! c5t] or ! outside4#d  ,!  
weight ( wood has a v important be>+ ^u 
its use4 ,a mallet-head1 = example1 ne$s
 weight 9 a small volume1 b x mu/ also  
be t\gh to resi/ %ocks1 & ela/ic s z to 
imp>t its mom5tum gradually & n all at  
once1 z an iron head does4  ,weight is  

important1 too1 9 objects ( wood t are  
movable4 ,! light] ! wood ! bett]1 if x 
is /rong en\gh4 ,t is :y spruce is      
valuable = ladd]s2 x is bo? light &     
/rong4 ,*e/nut w\ld be a valuable wood =
 furniture if x 7 n weak1 especially 9 !
 spr+ wood4  ,! weight ( wood is "o     
measure ( its /r5g?4 ,heavy wood is     
/rong] ?an light wood ( ! same k9d1 = ! 
simple reason t weight & /r5g? are      
dep5d5t ^u ! numb] & compactness ( !    
fib]s4#e   ,,! ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,wood4      
,/r5g? is a factor ( prime importance 9 
wood4 ,by /r5g? is meant ! ability to   
resi/ /resses1 ei!r ( t5sion 7pull+71 or
 ( compression 7pu%+71 or bo? toge!r1   
cross /resses4 ,:5 a horizontal timb] is
 subject$ to a d[nw>d cross /ress1 ! l[]
 half is "u t5sion1 ! upp] half is "u   
compression & ! l9e betwe5 is call$ !   
neutral axis1 ,fig4 #db4  ,illu/ration3 
,fig4 #db4 ,a ,timb] ,"u ,cross ,/ress1 
,%[+ ,neutral ,axis1 & ! ,l9es ( ,t5sion
 & ,compression4 ,a knot occurr+ 9 su* a
 timb] %\ld be 9 ! upp] half1 z at ,a4  

,wood is mu* /rong] ?an is commonly     
suppos$4 ,a hickory b> w /& m /ra9 "u   
t5sion ?an a wr\ght iron b> ( ! same    
l5g? & weight1 & a block ( long-leaf p9e
 a great] compression endwise ?an a     
block ( wr\ght iron ( ! same height &   
weight4 ,x approa*es ! /r5g? ( ca/ iron 
"u ! same conditions4  ,/r5g? dep5ds on 
two factors3 ! /r5g? ( ! individual     
fib]s1 & ! adhesive p[] ( ! fib]s to ea*
 o!r4 ,s1 :5 a piece ( wood is pull$    
ap>t1 "s ( ! fib]s break & "s are pull$ 
out f among _! neighbors4 ,"u           
compression1 h[ev]1 ! fib]s seem to act 
q indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r1 ea* b5d+ ov] l 
! /r&s ( a rope :5 ! ends are pu%$      
toge!r4 ,z a consequ5ce1 we f9d t wood  
is f> /rong] "u t5sion ?an "u           
compression1 v>y+ f two to f\r times4   
,woods d n v>y ne>ly s mu* "u           
compression z "u t5sion1 ! /raight-gra9$
 conif]s1 l l>* & longleaf p9e1 be+     
ne>ly z /rong "u compression z ! h>d    
woods1 l hickory & elm1 :i* h entangl$  
fib]s1 :]eas ! h>d woods are ne>ly twice

 z /rong z ! conif]s "u t5sion4         
,moi/ure has m effect on ! /r5g? ( wood 
?an any o!r extr9sic condition4 ,9 s\nd 
wood "u ord9>y conditions1 x outweighs  
all o!r causes :i* affect /r5g?4 ,:5    
?oroly season$1 wood is two or ?ree     
times /rong]1 bo? "u compression & 9    
b5d+1 ?an :5 gre5 or wat] soak$4#f  ,!  
t5sion or pull+ /r5g? ( wood is mu*     
affect$ by ! direction ( ! gra91 a      
cross-gra9$ piece be+ only #a_/aj? to   
#a_/bj? z /rong z a /raight-gra9$ piece4
 ,b "u compression !re is n mu*         
diff]5ce2 s t if a timb] is to be       
subject$ to cross /ra91 t is ! l[] half 
"u t5sion & ! upp] half "u compression1 
a knot or o!r cross-gra9$ portion %\ld  
be 9 ! upp] half4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4  
#dc4 ,%e>+ ,/r5g? is ,measur$ by !      
,adhesion ( ! ,portion ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d or
 to ! ,wood on bo? sides ( x4  ,/r5g?   
also includes ! ability to resi/ %e>4   
,?is is call$ %e>+ /r5g?4 ,x is a       
measure ( ! adhesion ( "o "p ( ! wood to
 an adjo9+ "p4 ,%e>+ is :at takes place 

:5 ! portion ( wood beyond a mortise ne>
 ! end ( a timb]1 ,a ,b ,c ,d1 ,fig4    
#dc1 is =c$ out by ! t5on4 ,9 ?is case x
 w\ld be %e>+ along ! gra91 sometimes   
call$ detrusion4 ,! resi/ance ( !       
portion ,a ,b ,c ,d1 i4e41 its p[] (    
adhesion to ! wood adjac5t to x on bo?  
sides1 is its %e>+ /r5g?4 ,if ! mortis$ 
piece 7 =c$ d[nw>d until x broke (f !   
t5on at ! %\ld]1 t w\ld be %e>+ across !
 gra94 ,! %e>+ resi/ance ei!r ) or      
across ! gra9 is small comp>$ ) t5sion &
 compression4 ,gre5 wood %e>s mu* m     
easily ?an dry1 because moi/ure s(t5s ! 
wood & ?is r$uces ! adhesion ( ! fib]s  
to ea* o!r4#g   ,,cleavability ,,(      
,,wood4  ,closely connect$ ) %e>+ /r5g? 
is cohesion1 a prop]ty usually consid]$ 
"u ! "n ( its opposite1 cleavability1   
i4e41 ! ease ( splitt+4  ,:5 an ax is   
/uck into ! end ( a piece ( wood1 ! wood
 splits 9 advance ( ! ax edge4 ,see     
,h&work 9 ,wood1 ,fig4 #ei1 p4 #eb4 ,!  
wood is n cut b pull$ across ! gra9 j z 
truly z if "o edge 7 held & a weight 7  

atta*$ to ! o!r edge & x 7 torn ap>t by 
t5sion4 ,! l5g? ( ! cleft ahead ( !     
blade is det]m9$ by ! ela/icity ( !     
wood4 ,! long] ! cleft1 ! easi] to      
split4 ,ela/icity helps splitt+1 & %e>+ 
/r5g? & h>dness h9d] x4  ,a normal piece
 ( wood splits easily along two         
surfaces1 7#a7 along any radial plane1  
pr9cipally because ( ! pres5ce ( ! pi?  
rays1 &1 9 regul> gra9$ wood l p9e1     
because ! cells are radially regul>2 &  
7#b7 along ! annual r+s1 because !      
spr+-wood sep>ates easily f ! next r+ ( 
summ]-wood4 ,( ! two1 radial cleavage is
 #ej to #ajj p] c5t4 easi]4             
,/raight-gra9$ wood is mu* easi] to     
split ?an cross-gra9$ wood 9 :i* ! fib]s
 are int]lac$1 & s(t wood1 provid$ x is 
ela/ic1 splits easi] ?an h>d4 ,woods )  
%>p contra/ betwe5 spr+ & summ] wood1 l 
yell[ p9e & *e/nut1 split v easily      
tang5tially4  ,all ^! facts are         
important 9 relation to ! use ( nails4  
,= in/ance1 ! reason :y yell[ p9e is h>d
 to nail & bass easy is because ( _!    

diff]5ce 9 cleavability4   ,,ela/icity  
,,( ,,wood4  ,ela/icity is ! ability ( a
 sub/ance :5 =c$ out ( %ape1--b5t1      
twi/$1 compress$ or /ret*$1 to rega9 its
 =m] %ape4 ,:5 ! ela/icity ( wood is    
spok5 (1 its ability to spr+ back f b5d+
 is usually meant4 ,! opposite (        
ela/icity is brittl5ess4 ,hickory is    
ela/ic1 :ite p9e is brittle4  ,/iffness 
is ! ability to resi/ b5d+1 & h5ce is ! 
opposite ( pliability or flexibility4 ,a
 wood may be bo? /iff & ela/ic2 x may be
 ev5 /iff & pliable1 z a%1 :i* may be   
made into spl9ts = baskets & may also be
 us$ = o>s4 ,will[ spr\ts are flexible  
:5 gre51 b q brittle :5 dry4  ,ela/icity
 is ( great importance 9 "s uses ( wood1
 z 9 long tool h&les us$ 9 agricultural 
implem5ts1 su* z rakes1 hoes1 scy!s1 & 9
 axes1 9 ar*]y b[s1 9 golf /icks1 etc41 
9 all ( :i*1 hickory1 our mo/ ela/ic    
wood1 is us$4#h   ,,h>dness ,,( ,,wood4 
,h>dness is ! ability ( wood to resi/   
ind5tations1 & dep5ds prim>ily ^u !     
?ickness ( ! cell walls & ! smallness ( 

! cell cavities1 or1 9 g5]al1 ^u !      
d5sity ( ! wood /ructure4 ,summ] wood1 z
 we h se51 is mu* h>d] ?an spr+ wood1   
h5ce x is important 9 us+ su* wood z    
yell[ p9e on floors to use comb-gra9    
bo>ds1 s z to pres5t ! s(t] spr+ wood 9 
z n>r[ surfaces z possible4 ,see ,h&work
 9 ,wood1 p4 #da1 & ,fig4 #ee4 ,9       
sla%-gra9 bo>ds1 broad surfaces ( bo?   
spr+ & summ] wood appe>4 ,maple :i* is  
uni=mly h>d makes ! be/ floors1 ev5     
bett] ?an oak1 p>ts ( :i* are           
comp>atively s(t4  ,! h>dness ( wood is 
( mu* consequ5ce 9 glu+ pieces toge!r4  
,s(t woods1 l p9e1 c be glu$ easily1    
because ! fib]s c be =c$ close toge!r4  
,z a matt] ( fact1 ! jo9t :5 dry is     
/rong] ?an ! re/ ( ! bo>d4 ,9 glu+ h>d  
woods1 h[ev]1 x is necess>y to scrat* ! 
surfaces to be glu$ 9 ord] to insure a  
/rong jo9t4 ,x is = ! same reason t a   
jo9t made ) liquid glue is safe on s(t  
wood :5 x w\ld be weak on h>d wood4#i   
,,t\ghness ,,( ,,wood4  ,t\ghness may be
 def9$ z ! ability to resi/ sudd5 %ocks 

& bl[s4 ,?is requires a comb9ation (    
v>i\s qualities1 /r5g?1 h>dness1        
ela/icity & pliability4 ,! t\gh woods1  
p> excell5ce1 are hickory1 rock elm &   
a%4 ,!y c be p\nd$1 pull$1 compress$ &  
%e>$4 ,x is because ( ?is quality t     
hickory is us$ = :eel spokes & = h&les1 
elm = hubs1 etc4  ,9 ! selection ( wood 
= p>ticul> purposes1 x is sometimes "o1 
sometimes ano!r1 & m (t5 /ill1 a        
comb9ation ( qualities t makes x fit =  
use4#aj  ,x w be rememb]$ t x 0 k ( !   
special values ( diff]5t woods t made ! 
"o horse %ay1 ,! ,deacon's ,ma/]piece4  
,s ! ,deacon inquir$ ( ! village folk   
,:]e he c\ld f9d ! /ronge/ oak1   ,t    
c\ldn't be split nor b5t nor broke1--   
,t 0 = spokes & floor & sills2   ,he s5t
 = lancewood to make ! ?ills2   ,! cross
 b>s 7 a%1 f ! /raighte/ trees1   ,!    
panels ( :itewood1 t cuts l *eese1   ,b 
la/s l iron = ?+s l ^!4   ,! hubs ( logs
 f ! ,settl]'s ,ellum1--   ,la/ ( its   
timb]1--!y c\ldn't sell 'em4   ,nev] an 
ax _h se5 _! *ips1   ,& ! w$ges flew f  

betwe5 _! lips1   ,_! blunt ends frizzl$
 l cel]y tips2   ,/ep & prop-iron1 bolt 
& screw1   ,spr+1 tire1 axle & l9* p9   
too1   ,/eel ( ! f9e/1 bright & blue2   
,?or\gh brace1 bison sk91 ?ick & wide2  
,boot1 top da%] f t\gh old hide1   ,f\nd
 9 ! pit :5 ! tann] di$4   ,t 0 ! way to
 put h] ?r\gh4   ',!re6' said ! ,deacon1
 'na[ %e'll dew6'      ,footnote #a3    
,hygroscopicity1 ! prop]ty possess$ by  
vegetable tissues ( absorb+ or dis*>g+  
moi/ure &     exp&+ or %r9k+            
accord+ly4--,c5tury ,diction>y4         
,footnote #b3 ,?is is %[n by ! foll[+   
table1 f     ,=e/ry ,bullet9 ,no4 #aj1  
p4 #ca1 ,timb]1 by ,filib]t ,ro?3       
,,p\nds ,,( ,,wat] ,,lo/ ,,9 ,,dry+ #ajj
 ,,p\nds ,,( ,,gre5 ,,wood ,,9 ,,!      
,,kiln4                                 
,sap-wood or  ,he>t-wood                
out] "p4  or int]ior4      #a4 ,p9es1   
c$>s1 spruces1 & firs             #de-fe
        #af-be     #b4 ,cypress1        
extremely v>iable                       
#ej-fe        #ah-fj     #c4 ,popl>1    

cottonwood1 basswood                    
#fj-fe        #dj-fj     #d4 ,oak1 bee*1
 a%1 elm1 maple1 bir*1 hickory1         
*e/nut1 walnut1 & sycamore              
#dj-ej        #cj-dj           ,footnote
 #c3 ,! foll[+ table f ,ro?1 p4 #cg1    
gives !     approximate %r9kage ( a     
bo>d1 or set ( bo>ds1 #ajj in*es        
wide1 dry+ 9 ! op5 air3                 
,%r9kage                                
,in*es4     #a4 ,all light conif]s 7s(t 
p9e1 spruce1 c$>1 cypress7  #c      #b4 
,heavy conif]s 7h>d p9e1 tam>ack1 yew1  
honey locu/1     box eld]1 wood ( old   
oaks7                               #d  
#c4 ,a%1 elm1 walnut1 popl>1 maple1     
bee*1 sycamore1     *]ry1 black locu/   
#e      #d4 ,basswood1 bir*1 *e/nut1    
horse *e/nut1 blue bee*1     "y locu/   
#f      #e4 ,hickory1 "y oak1 especially
 r$ oak           ,up to #aj      ,!    
figures are ! av]age ( radial &         
tang5tial     %r9kages4      ,footnote  
#d3 ,h[ mu* diff]5t woods v>y may be se5
 by !     foll[+ table1 tak5 f ,filib]t 

,ro?1 ,timb]1 ,=e/     ,s]vice ,bullet9 
,no4 #aj1 p4 #bh3      ,,weight ,,(     
,,kiln-,,dri$ ,,wood ,,( ,,diff]5t      
,,species4                              
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,approximate4                           
--------------------------------        
,weight (                               
--------------------                    
,specific   #a cubic  #a1jjj feet       
weight4    foot4   ( lumb]4             
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,p\nds   ,p\nds 7a7 ,v heavy woods3     
,hickory1 oak1 p]simmon1                
osage1 orange1 black                    
locu/1 hackb]ry1 blue                   
bee*1 be/ ( elm1 & a%   #j4gj-j4hj      
#db-dh    #c1gjj 7b7 ,heavy woods3      
,a%1 elm1 *]ry1 bir*1                   
maple1 bee*1 walnut1 s\r                
gum1 c(fee tree1 honey                  
locu/1 be/ ( s\!rn                      
p9e1 & tam>ack             4#fj-4gj     

#cf-db    #c1bjj 7c7 ,woods ( m$ium     
weight3                                 
,s\!rn p9e1 pit* p9e1                   
tam>ack1 ,d\glas spruce1                
we/]n hemlock1 sweet gum1               
s(t maple1 sycamore1 light              
sassafras1 mulb]ry1                     
grades ( bir* & *]ry     4#ej-4fj       
#cj-cf    #b1gjj 7d7 ,light woods3      
,norway & bull p9e1 r$                  
c$>1 cypress1 hemlock1                  
! heavi] spruce & fir1                  
r$wood1 basswood1 *e/nut1               
butt]nut1 tulip1 catalpa1               
buckeye1 heavi] grades (                
popl>                         4#dj-4ej  
#bd-cj    #b1bjj 7e7 ,v light woods3    
,:ite p9e1 spruce1 fir1 :ite            
c$>1 popl>                  4#cj-4dj    
#ah-bd    #a1hjj                        
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,footnote #e3 ,= table ( weights (      
diff]5t woods see     ,s>g5t1 ,jesup    
,collection1 pp4 #aec-aeg4              

,footnote #f3 ,see ,=e/ry ,bullet9 ,no4 
#gj1 pp4 #aa1 #ab1 &     ,=e/ry ,circul>
 ,no4 #ajh4      ,footnote #g3 ,= table 
( /r5g?s ( diff]5t woods1 see           
,s>g5t1 ,jesup ,collection1 pp4 #aff ff4
      ,footnote #h3 ,= table ( ela/icity
 ( diff]5t woods1 see     ,s>g5t1 ,jesup
 ,collection1 pp4 #afc ff4              
,footnote #i3 ,= table ( h>dnesses (    
diff]5t woods1 see     ,s>g5t1 ,jesup   
,collection1 pp4 #agc ff4      ,footnote
 #aj3 ,= detail$ *>act]i/ics ( diff]5t  
woods     see ,*apt] ,,iii4   ,,!       
,,prop]ties ,,( ,,wood4  ,,ref]5ces,a   
,moi/ure & ,%r9kage4    ,ro?1 ,=4       
,bull41 ,no4 #aj1 pp4 #be-cg4           
,busbridge1 ,sci4 ,am4 ,sup4 ,no4 #aejj4
 ,oct4 #a1 '#jd4  ,weight1 ,/r5g?1      
,cleavability1 ,ela/icity & ,t\ghness4  
,ro?1 ,=4 ,bull41 #aj1 p4 #cg-ej4       
,b\lg]1 pp4 #hi-ajh1 #abi-adj4   ,ro?1  
,fir/ ,book1 pp4 #bbi-bcc4   ,s>g5t1    
,jesup ,collection1 pp4 #aec-agf4  ,=e/ 
,circul>s ,nos4 #ajh & #aci4            
,footnote ,a3 ,= g5]al bibliography1 see

 p4 #d4     ,,*apt] ,,iii4  ,,!         
,,pr9cipal ,,species ,,( ,,am]ican      
,,woods4  ,,notes4   ,! photographs (   
tang5tial & radial sections are life    
size4 ,! microphotographs are (         
cross-sections & are enl>g$ #cg-a_/b    
diamet]s4  ,foll[+ ! prec$5t ( ,u4 ,s4  
,=e/ ,bullet9 ,no4 #ag1 ,sudwor?'s ,*eck
 ,li/ ( ! ,=e/ ,trees ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1
 ! complicat$ rules = ! capitalization (
 ! names ( species are ab&on$ & !y are  
uni=mly n capitaliz$4  ,on pages        
#aib-aie w be f\nd li/s ( ! woods       
describ$1 arrang$ 9 ! ord] ( _!         
comp>ative weight1 /r5g?1 ela/icity1 &  
h>dness4 ,^! li/s are bas$ ^u ! figures 
9 ,s>g5t's ,! ,jesup ,collection4  ,9 ! 
app5dix1 p4 #bhi1 w be f\nd a key =     
di/+ui%+ ! v>i\s k9ds ( wood4           
,in=mation z to curr5t :olesale prices 9
 ! pr9cipal m>kets ( ! c\ntry c be _h f 
! ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agriculture1 ,! ,=e/
 ,s]vice1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c41 ,record (  
,:olesale ,prices ( ,lumb]1 ,li/ ,a4 ,^!
 li/s are publi%$ p]iodically4 ,no      

attempt is made 9 ?is book to give      
prices because3 7#a7 only li/s (        
:olesale prices are available2 7#b7 !   
cuts & grades diff] consid]ably1        
especially 9 s(t woods 7conif]s72 7#c7  
prices are con/antly v>y+2 7#d7 ! prices
 diff] mu* 9 diff]5t localities4   #a   
,,:ite ,,p9e1 ,,weym\? ,,p9e4      ,nam$
 = ,"l ,weym\?1 :o cultivat$ x 9 ,engl&4
  ,p9us /robus ,l9naeus4      ,p9us1 !  
classical ,lat9 "n2 /robus ref]s to !   
cone1 or /robile1 f a ,greek ^w1 /robus1
 mean+     twi/4   ,illu/ration3        
,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 n[ be/
 9 ,mi*igan1 ,wiscons9 & ,m9nesota4     
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#ajj'-abj'1 ev5 #bjj'2 diamet]1 #b'-d'2 
bran*es 9 :orls1 cleans poorly2 b>k1 d>k
 gray1 divid$ by deep longitud9al       
fissures into broad ridges2 leaves 9    
clu/]s ( #e1 #c-e long2 cone droop+1    
#d-aj long4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3    
,color1 he>t-wood1 v light br[n1 almo/  
cream color1 sap-wood1 ne>ly :ite2      
non-por\s2 r+s1 f9e b di/9ct2 gra91     

/raight2 pi? rays1 v fa9t2 res9 ducts1  
small1 inconspicu\s4  ,illu/ration3     
,leaf4  ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1
 v light 7#ei? 9 ?is li/72 #bg lbs4 p]  
cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4ched2 /r5g?1 m$ium  
7#ee? 9 ?is li/72 ela/icity1 m$ium 7#dg?
 9 ?is li/72 s(t 7#eg? 9 ?is li/72      
%r9kage #c p] c5t42 w>ps v little2      
durability1 mod]ate2 works easily 9 e   
way2 splits easily b nails well4        
,,common ,,uses3 ,doors1 w9d[ sa%es &   
o!r c>p5try1 patt]n-mak+1 cab9et-"w1    
mat*es4  ,,rem>ks3 ,?is be/ ( ,am]ican  
woods is n[ rapidly becom+ sc>ce & high]
 9 price4 ,its uses are due to its uni=m
 gra91 on acc\nt ( :i* x is easily work$
 & /&s well4 ,kn[n 9 ! ,engli% m>ket z  
yell[ p9e4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial       
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #b  ,,we/]n      
,,:ite ,,p9e4  ,p9us monticola ,d\glas4 
,p9us1 ! classical ,lat9 "n2 monticola  
means     m\nta9-dwell]4  ,illu/ration3 

,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 gr[s  
at great elevations1 #g1jjj'-aj1jjj'4   
,be/ 9 nor!rn ,idaho4  ,illu/ration3    
,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3   
,height1 #ajj'-afj'2 diamet]1 #d' to ev5
 #h'2 bran*es1 sl5d]1 spread+2 b>k1 gray
 & br[n1 divid$ into squ>i% plates by   
deep longitud9al & cross fissures2      
leaves1 #e 9 %ea?2 cones1 #abx#ah long4 
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 light   
br[n or r$1 sap-wood ne>ly :ite2        
non-por\s2 r+s1 summ] wood1 ?9 & n      
conspicu\s2 gra91 /raight2 rays1 num]\s1
 obscure2 res9 ducts1 num]\s &          
conspicu\s ?o n l>ge4  ,,physical       
,,qualities3 ,weight1 v light 7#eh? 9   
?is li/72 #bd lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4  
#j4cijh2 /r5g?1 m$ium 7#ef? 9 ?is li/72 
ela/ic 7#ce? 9 ?is li/72 s(t 7#fc;d 9   
?is li/72 %r9kage1 #c p] c5t42 w>ps     
little2 mod]ately durable2 easy to "w2  
splits readily b nails well4  ,,common  
,,uses3 ,lumb] = con/ruction & int]ior  
f9i%4  ,,rem>ks3 ,closely resembles     
,p9us ,/robus 9 appe>ance & quality (   

wood4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1  
life size4  ,illu/ration3               
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #c  ,,sug> ,,p9e4
      ,sug> ref]s to sweeti% exudation4 
,p9us lamb]tiana ,d\glas4      ,p9us1 ! 
classical ,lat9 "n2 lamb]tiana1 f !     
botani/1 ,a4 ,b4 ,lamb]t1 ^: *ief "w 0  
on ,p9es4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4      
,,habitat3 7,see map72 gr[s on high     
elevations 7#e1jjj'71 be/ 9 nor!rn      
,cali=nia4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4        
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#ajj'-cjj'2 diamet]1 #ae-bj2 bran*es1 9 
remote regul> :orls2 b>k1 ri* purple or 
br[n1 ?ick1 deep irregul> fissures mak+ 
long1 flaky ridges2 leaves1 /\t1 rigid1 
9 bundles ( five2 cones1 #aj-ah long4   
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 p9ki%   
br[n1 sap-wood1 cream :ite2 non-por\s2  
r+s1 di/9ct2 gra91 /raight2 rays1       
num]\s1 obscure2 res9 ducts1 num]\s1    
l>ge & conspicu\s4  ,,physical          
,,qualities3 ,weight1 v light 7#fa/ 9   

?is li/72 #bb lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4  
#j4cfhd2 /r5g?1 weak 7#ei? 9 ?is li/72  
ela/icity1 m$ium 7#ef? 9 ?is li/72 s(t  
7#ec;d 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #c p] c5t42 
w>ps little2 durable2 easily work$2     
splits little1 nails well4  ,,common    
,,uses3 ,c>p5try1 int]ior f9i%1 doors1  
bl9ds1 %+les1 b>rels1 etc4  ,,rem>ks3   
,exudes a sweet sub/ance f he>t-wood4 ,a
 magnific5t & important lumb] tree on   
,pacific coa/4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial   
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #d  ,,norway     
,,p9e4 ,,r$ ,,p9e4      ,r$ ref]s to    
color ( b>k4  ,p9us res9osa ,sol&]4     
,p9us1 ! classical ,lat9 "n2 res9osa    
ref]s to v     res9\s wood4             
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 gr[s be/ 9 nor!rn ,mi*igan1 
,wiscons91 & ,m9nesota4  ,illu/ration3  
,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3   
,height1 #gj'-ij'2 diamet]1 #b'-c'2     
tall1 /raight2 bran*es 9 :orls1 l[2 b>k1

 ?91 scaly1 purpli% & r$di%-br[n2       
longitud9al furr[s1 broad flat ridges2  
leaves1 9 twos 9 long %ea?s2 cones1 #b4 
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color ( wood1  
pale r$1 sap-wood1 wide1 :iti%2         
non-por\s2 r+s summ] wood broad1 d>k2   
gra91 /raight2 rays1 num]\s1 pron\nc$1  
?92 v res9\s1 b ducts small & few4      
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 light1 
7#dc;d 9 ?is li/72 #ca lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 
sp4 gr4 #j4dhed2 /rong 7#ci? 9 ?is li/72
 ela/ic 7#af? 9 ?is li/72 s(t 7#dh? 9   
?is li/72 %r9kage1 #c p] c5t42 w>ps     
mod]ately2 n durable2 easy to "w2 splits
 readily1 nails well4  ,,common ,,uses3 
,piles1 electric wire poles1 ma/s1      
floor+4  ,,rem>ks3 ,(t5 sold ) & z :ite 
p9e4 ,resembles ,scot* p9e 7,p9us       
sylve/ris74 ,b>k us$ to "s ext5t =      
tann+4 ,gr[s 9 op5 groves4              
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #e  ,,we/]n ,,yell[ ,,p9e4      

,,bull ,,p9e4      ,bull ref]s to great 
size ( trunk4  ,p9us pond]osa ,lawson4  
,p9us1 ! classical ,lat9 "n2 pond]osa   
ref]s to great     size ( trunk4        
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 ,rocky ,m\nta9s4      
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #ajj' to #cjj'2    
diamet]1 #f' to ev5 #ab'2 bran*es1 l[1  
%ort trunk2 b>k1 ?ick1 d>k br[n1 deep1  
me&]+ furr[s1 l>ge1 irregul> plates1    
scaly2 leaves1 9 twos or ?rees1 #e to   
#aa long2 cones #c to #f long4          
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 light   
r$1 sap-wood1 ?ick1 ne>ly :ite1 & v     
di/9ct2 non-por\s2 r+s1 conspicu\s2     
gra91 /raight2 rays1 num]\s1 obscure2 v 
res9\s b ducts small4  ,,physical       
,,qualities3 ,weight1 light 7#dd? 9 ?is 
li/72 #be-cj lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4   
#j4dgae2 /r5g?1 m$ium 7#de? 9 ?is li/72 
ela/icity1 m$ium 7#da/ 9 ?is li/72      
h>dness1 m$ium 7#dbnd 9 ?is li/72       
%r9kage1 #d p] c5t42 w>ps 444444444442 n
 durable2 h>d to "w1 brittle2 splits    

easily 9 nail+4  ,,common ,,uses3       
,lumb]1 railway ties1 m9e timb]s4       
,,rem>ks3 ,=ms ext5sive op5 =e/s4       
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #f  ,,long-,,leaf ,,p9e4        
,,georgia ,,p9e4  ,p9us palu/ris ,mill]4
      ,p9us1 ! classical ,lat9 "n2      
palu/ris means swampy1     inappropriate
 "h4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4           
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 ,l\isiana &
 ,ea/ ,texas4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4     
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#hj'-ajj'2 diamet]1 #b'-c'2 trunk1      
/raight1 clean1 bran*es high2 b>k1 light
 br[n1 l>ge1 ?91 irregul> pap]y scales2 
leaves #h-ab long1 #c 9 a %ea?2 cones   
#f-aj long4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3    
,he>t-wood1 spr+ wood light yell[1 summ]
 wood1 r$ br[n2 sap wood1 light]2       
non-por\s2 r+s1 v pla9 & /rongly m>k$2  
gra91 /raight2 rays1 num]\s1 conspicu\s2
 v res9\s1 b res9 ducts few & n l>ge4   

,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#ah? 9  
?is li/72 #ch lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4  
#j4fiii2 v /rong 7#g? 9 ?is li/72 v     
ela/ic 7#d? 9 ?is li/72 h>dness1 m$ium  
7#cc;d 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #d p] c5t42 
w>ps v little2 q durable2 works h>d1    
t\gh2 splits badly 9 nail+4  ,,common   
,,uses3 ,joi/s1 beams1 bridge & build+  
trusses1 int]ior f9i%1 %ip build+1 &    
g5]al con/ruction "w4  ,,rem>ks3 ,almo/ 
exclusively ! s\rce ( turp5t9e1 t>1 pit*
 & res9 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,kn[n 9 !    
,engli% m>ket z pit* p9e4  ,illu/ration3
 ,radial ,section1 life size4           
,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1 magnifi$  
#cg-a_/b diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3       
,tang5tial ,section1 life size4   #g    
,,%ort-,,leaf ,,p9e4 ,,yell[ ,,p9e4     
,p9us e*9ata ,mill]4      ,p9us1 !      
classical ,lat9 "n2 e*9ata ref]s to sp9y
     cones4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4    
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 l[]        
,mississippi bas94  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4
  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3         
,/raight1 tall trunk1 sometimes #ajj'   

high2 bran*es high2 diamet] #b'-d'2 b>k1
 pale grayi% r$-br[n1 fissures1 runn+   
helt]-skelt]1 mak+ l>ge irregul> plates1
 cov]$ ) small scales2 leaves 9 twos1 #c
 long2 cones small4  ,,appe>ance ,,(    
,,wood3 ,color1 he>twood1 summ] wood1   
r$1 spr+-wood1 yell[2 sap-wood1 light]2 
non-por\s2 annual r+s v pla91 %>p       
contra/ betwe5 spr+ & summ] wood2 gra91 
/raight1 co>se2 rays1 num]\s1           
conspicu\s2 v res9\s1 ducts l>ge & _m4  
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 m$ium  
7#cbnd 9 ?is li/72 #cb lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 
sp4 gr41 #j4fajd2 v /rong 7#ah? 9 ?is   
li/72 v ela/ic 7#h? 9 ?is li/72 s(t     
7#ch? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #d p] c5t42  
w>ps little2 durable2 tr\blesome to "w2 
likely to split along annual r+s 9      
nail+4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,heavy         
con/ruction1 railroad ties1 h\se trim1  
%ip build+1 c>s1 docks1 bridges4        
,,rem>ks3 ,wood h>dly di/+ui%able f     
long-leaf p9e4 ,(t5 =ms pure =e/s4 ,!   
mo/ desirable yell[ p9e1 mu* less res9\s
 & m easily work$ ?an o!rs4             

,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #h  ,,loblolly ,,p9e4 ,,old     
,,field ,,p9e4      ,loblolly may ref]  
to ! inf]iority ( ! wood2 old field     
ref]s to habit ( spontane\s gr[? on old 
fields4  ,p9us ta$a ,l9naeus4           
,p9us1 ! classical ,lat9 "n2 ta$a1 !    
classical     ,lat9 "n = pit*-p9e1 :i* 0
 us$ = tor*es4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4 
,,habitat3 7,see map72 gr[s be/ 9 ea/]n 
,virg9ia1 & ea/]n ,nor? ,c>ol9a4        
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #ajj'-aej'2        
diamet]1 (t5 #d'-e'2 bran*es high2 b>k1 
purpli% br[n1 %all[1 me&]+ fissures1    
broad1 flat1 scaly ridges2 leaves1 #c 9 
%ea?1 #d-g long2 cones #c-e long4       
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1         
he>t-wood orange1 sap-wood light]2      
non-por\s2 r+s v pla91 %>p contra/      
betwe5 spr+ wood & summ] wood2 gra91    
/raight1 co>se2 rays conspicu\s2 v      

res9\s1 b ducts few & small4  ,,physical
 ,,qualities3 ,weight1 m$ium 7#ci? 9 ?is
 li/72 #cc lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4     
#j4edda2 /rong 7#bf? 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic 
7#ag? 9 ?is li/72 m$ium h>d 7#dc;d 9 ?is
 li/72 %r9kage1 #d p] c5t42 w>ps little2
 n durable2 difficult to "w1 brittle2   
splits along r+s 9 nail+4  ,,common     
,,uses3 ,heavy con/ruction1 beams1 %ip  
build+1 docks1 bridges1 floor+1 h\se    
trim4  ,,rem>ks3 ,resembles ,long-leaf  
,p9e1 & (t5 sold z su*4 ,r>ely makes    
pure =e/s4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial       
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #i  ,,sla% ,,p9e4
 ,,cuban ,,p9e4  ,p9us c>ibaea ,morelet4
 ,p9us het]ophylla 7,ell47 ,sudwor?4    
,p9us1 ! classical ,lat9 "n2 c>ibaea    
ref]s to !     ,c>ibbean ,isl&s2        
het]ophylla ref]s to two k9ds (         
leaves4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4        
,,habitat3 7,see map72 gr[s be/ 9       
,alabama1 ,mississippi1 & ,l\isiana4    

,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 sometimes #aaj'1   
/raight1 tall1 bran*+ high2 diamet]     
#a'-c'2 b>k1 d>k r$ & br[n1 %all[       
irregul> fissures2 leaves1 #b or #c 9 a 
%ea?1 #h-ab long2 cones1 #d-e long4     
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 d>k     
orange1 sapwood light]2 non-por\s2      
annual r+s1 pla91 %>p contra/ betwe5    
spr+ wood & summ] wood2 gra91 /raight2  
rays num]\s1 r prom95t2 v res9\s1 b     
ducts few4  ,,physical ,,qualities3     
,heavy 7#g? 9 ?is li/72 #ci lbs4 p] cu4 
ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4gejd2 v /rong 7#f? 9 ?is
 li/72 v ela/ic 7#c;d 9 ?is li/72 h>d   
7#bd? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #d p] c5t42  
w>ps little2 q durable2 tr\blesome to   
"w2 splits along annual r+s 9 nail+4    
,,common ,,uses3 ,heavy con/ruction1 %ip
 build+1 railroad ties1 docks1 bridges1 
h\se trim4  ,,rem>ks3 ,simil> to & (t5  
sold z ,long-leaf ,p9e4  ,illu/ration3  
,radial ,section1 life size4            
,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1 magnifi$  
#cg-a_/b diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3       

,tang5tial ,section1 life size4   #aj   
,,tam>ack4 ,,l>*4 ,,hackmatack4  ,l>ix  
l>ic9a 7,du ,roi7 ,ko*4 ,l>ix am]icana  
,mi*aux4      ,l>ix1 ! classical ,lat9  
"n4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3
 7,see map72 pref]s swamps1 ,tam>ack    
swamps4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4           
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#ej'-fj' & ev5 #ij'1 diamet] #a'-c'2    
intol]ant2 tall1 sl5d] trunk2 b>k1      
c9namon br[n1 no ridges1 break+ into    
flakes2 leaves1 decidu\s1 pea-gre51 9   
tufts2 cone1 #a_/b-c_/d1 bright br[n4   
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 light   
br[n1 sapwood h>dly di/+ui%able2        
non-por\s2 r+s1 summ] wood1 ?9 b di/9ct1
 d>k color$2 gra91 /raight1 co>se2 rays1
 num]\s1 h>dly di/+ui%able2 v res9\s1 b 
ducts few & small4  ,,physical          
,,qualities3 ,weight1 m$ium 7#bi? 9 ?is 
li/72 #ci lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4      
#j4fbcf2 /rong 7#bd? 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic 
7#aa? 9 ?is li/72 m$ium h>d 7#dj? 9 ?is 
li/72 %r9kage1 #c p] c5t42 w>ps         
4444444442 v durable2 easy to "w2 splits

 easily4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,%ip build+1 
electric wire poles1 & railroad ties2   
us$ = boat ribs because ( its naturally 
crook$ knees2 sl5d]ness prev5ts common  
use z lumb]4  ,,rem>ks3 ,tree desolate  
look+ 9 w9t]4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial    
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #aa  ,,we/]n     
,,l>*4 ,,tam>ack4  ,l>ix occid5talis    
,nuttall4      ,l>ix1 ! classical ,lat9 
"n2 occid5talis means     we/]n4        
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 nor!rn ,montana &     
,idaho1 on high elevations4             
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #ij'-acj'1 ev5     
#bej'2 diamet] #f'-h'2 tall1 sl5d]1 nak$
 trunk1 ) bran*es high2 b>k1 c9namon r$ 
or purpli%1 (t5 #ab ?ick1 break+ into   
irregul> plates1 (t5 #b' long2 leaves1 9
 tufts2 decidu\s2 cones small4          
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 light   
r$1 ?91 :iti%1 sap-wood2 non-por\s2     

gra91 /raight1 f9e2 rays num]\s1 ?92 v  
res9\s1 b ducts small & obscure4        
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 heavy  
7#aa? 9 ?is li/72 #df lbs4 p] cu4 ft42  
sp4 gr4 #j4gdjg2 v /rong 7#c;d 9 ?is    
li/72 v ela/ic 7#a/ 9 ?is li/72 m$ium   
h>d 7#ce? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #d p]    
c5t42 w>ps 44444444442 v durable2 r h>d 
to "w1 takes f9e poli%2 splits )        
difficulty4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,po/s1    
railroad ties1 f5c+1 cab9et mat]ial &   
fuel4  ,,rem>ks3 ,a valuable tree 9 !   
,nor?we/4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial        
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #ab  ,,:ite      
,,spruce4  ,picea canad5sis 7,mill]7 ,b4
 ,s4 ,p4 ,picea alba ,l9k4      ,picea1 
! classical ,lat9 "n2 :ite & alba ref]s 
to     ! pale color ( ! leaves1         
especially :5 "y1 & to     ! :iti% b>k4 
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map74  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4       
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  

#fj'-ajj' & ev5 #aej'2 diamet]1 #a'-b' &
 ev5 #d'2 long1 ?ick bran*es2 b>k1 light
 grayi% br[n1 sep>at+ into ?9 plate-l   
scales1 r smoo? appe>ance1 res9 f cuts  
=ms :ite gum2 leaves1 set ?ickly on all 
sides ( bran*1 f9] ?an r$ spruce1 odor  
disagreeable2 cones1 #b long1           
cyl9drical1 sl5d]1 fall dur+ second     
summ]4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 
light yell[1 sap-wood1 h>dly            
di/+ui%able2 non-por\s2 r+s1 wide1 summ]
 wood ?91 n conspicu\s2 gra91 /raight2  
rays1 num]\s1 prom95t2 res9 ducts1 few &
 m9ute4  ,,physical ,,qualities3        
,weight1 light 7#ea/ 9 ?is li/72 #be    
lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4djea2 m$ium
 /rong 7#db;d 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic 7#bi? 9
 ?is li/72 s(t 7#eh? 9 ?is li/72 %r9ks  
#c p] c5t42 w>ps 444444442 fairly       
durable2 easy to "w1 sat9y surface2     
splits readily4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,lumb]
 & pap] pulp2 7n di/+ui%$ f ,r$ & ,black
 ,spruce 9 m>ket74  ,,rem>ks3 ,wood v   
resonant1 h5ce us$ = s\nd+ bo>ds4 ,! mo/
 important lumb] tree ( ! sub-arctic =e/

 ( ,briti% ,columbia4  ,illu/ration3    
,radial ,section1 life size4            
,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1 magnifi$  
#cg-a_/b diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3       
,tang5tial ,section1 life size4   #ac   
,,r$ ,,spruce4,a  ,picea rub5s ,s>g5t4  
,picea1 ! classical ,lat9 "n = ! pit*   
p9e2 rub5s     ref]s to r$di% b>k1 &    
p]haps to ! r$di% /reaks 9     ! wood4  
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 /unt$ 9 nor?4  ,illu/ration3
 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3  
,height1 #gj'-hj'1 ev5 #ajj'2 diamet]1  
#b'-c'1 gr[s sl[ly2 trunk1 /raight1     
column>1 bran*es 9 :orls1 cleans well 9 
=e/2 b>k1 r$di% br[n ) ?9 irregul>      
scales2 leaves1 ne$le-%ap$1 f\r-sid$1   
po9t+ ev]y:]e2 cones1 #a-a_/d-b long1   
p5d5t1 fall dur+ ! fir/ w9t]4           
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 dull    
:ite ) occasional r$di% /reaks2 sap-wood
 n di/9ct2 non-por\s2 r+s1 summ] r+s ?91
 b cle>ly def9$2 gra91 /raight2 rays1   
fa9tly disc]nible2 res9 ducts1 few &    
small4  ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1

 light 7#dg? 9 ?is li/72 #bh lbs4 p] cu4
 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4dehd2 m$ium /rong     
7#da/ 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic 7#ba/ 9 ?is    
li/72 s(t 7#ed? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #c 
p] c5t42 w>ps little2 n durable2 easy to
 plane1 tol]ably easy to saw1 h>d to    
*isel neatly2 splits easily 9 nail+4    
,,common ,,uses3 ,s\nd+ bo>ds1          
con/ruction1 pap] pulp1 ladd]s4         
,,rem>ks3 ,! exudations f ?is species   
are us$ z *ew+ gum4 ,b>k ( twigs is us$ 
9 ! dome/ic manufacture ( be]4 ,! use ( 
! wood = s\nd+ bo>ds is due to its      
resonance1 & = ladd]s to its /r5g? &    
lightness4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial       
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4      ,footnote ,a3 
,n di/+ui%$ 9 ! ,jesup collection f     
,picea nigra4   #ad  ,,black ,,spruce4,a
  ,picea m>iana 7,mill]7 ,b4 ,s4 ,p4    
,picea nigra ,l9k4      ,picea1 !       
classical ,lat9 "n = ! pit* p9e2        
m>iana nam$ = ,que5 ,m>y2 black & nigra 

ref] to     d>k foliage4  ,illu/ration3 
,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 
,canada4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4          
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#ej'-hj' & ev5 #ajj'2 diamet]1 #f-a' ev5
 #b'2 bran*es1 :orl$1 p5dul\s ) upw>d   
curve2 b>k1 gray1 loosely atta*$ flakes2
 leaves1 pale blue-gre51 spirally set1  
po9t+ 9 all directions2 cones1 small1   
ovate-oblong1 p]si/5t = _m ye>s4        
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 pale1   
r$di%1 sap-wood1 ?91 :ite1 n v di/9ct2  
non-por\s2 r+s1 summ] wood1 small ?9    
cells2 gra91 /raight2 rays1 few1        
conspicu\s2 res9 ducts1 few & m9ute4    
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 light  
7#dg? 9 ?is li/72 #cc lbs4 p] cu4 ft42  
sp4 gr41 #j4dehd2 m$ium /rong 7#da/ 9   
?is li/72 ela/ic 7#ba/ 9 ?is li/72 s(t  
7#ed? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #c p] c5t42  
w>ps little2 n durable2 easy to "w2     
splits easily 9 nail+4  ,,common ,,uses3
 ,s\nd+ bo>ds1 lumb] 9 ,manitoba4       
,,rem>ks3 ,n di/+ui%$ f ,r$ ,spruce     
comm]cially4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial     

,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4      ,footnote ,a3 
,n di/+ui%$ 9 ,jesup ,collection f      
,picea     rub5s4   #ae  ,,:ite         
,,spruce4 ,,engelmann',s ,,spruce4      
,picea engelmanni 7,p>ry7 ,engelmann4   
,nam$ = ,george ,engelmann1 an ,am]ican 
botani/4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4       
,,habitat3 7,see map72 gr[s at v high   
elevations1 =m+ =e/ at #h1jjj'-aj1jjj'2 
be/ 9 ,briti% ,columbia4  ,illu/ration3 
,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3   
,height1 #ge'-ajj'1 ev5 #aej'2 diamet]1 
#b'-c'1 ev5 #e'2 bran*es :orl$1 spread+2
 b>k1 deeply furr[$1 r$-br[n to purpli% 
br[n1 ?91 l>ge1 loose scales2 leaves1   
blue-gre51 po9t 9 all directions2 cones1
 #b long1 oblong1 cyl9drical4           
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 pale    
yell[ or r$di%1 sap-wood h>dly          
di/+ui%able2 non-por\s2 r+s1 v f9e1     
summ] wood1 n>r[1 n conspicu\s2 gra91   
/raight1 close2 rays1 num]\s1           

conspicu\s2 res9 ducts1 small & few4    
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 v light
 7#eg? 9 ?is li/72 #bb lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 
sp4 gr4 #j4cddi2 weak 7#fa/ 9 ?is li/72 
ela/icity m$ium 7#ee? 9 ?is li/72 s(t   
7#ef? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #c p] c5t42  
w>ps 4444444442 durable2 easy to "w2    
splits easily4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,lumb]4
  ,,rem>ks3 ,a valuable lumb] tree 9 !  
,rocky ,m\nta9s & ! ,cascades4 ,b>k us$ 
= tann+4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial         
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #af  ,,tidel&    
,,spruce4 ,,sitka ,,spruce4  ,picea     
sit*5sis 7,bong>d7 ,c>ri]e4      ,picea1
 ! classical ,lat9 "n = ! pit* p9e4     
,tidel& ref]s to its habit ( gr[? along 
! sea coa/2     sit*5sis1 nam$ = ,sitka4
  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3   
7,see map72 be/ on ,pacific slope (     
,briti% ,columbia & nor?we/]n ,unit$    
,/ates4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4           
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  

#ajj'-aej' & ev5 #bjj' high2 diamet]    
#c'-d' & ev5 #ae'2 trunk base enl>g$2   
b>k1 ?ick1 r$-br[n1 scaly2 leaves1 /&+  
out 9 all directions2 cones1 #b-a_/b-d  
long1 p5d5t1 cyl9drical1 oval4          
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 light   
br[n1 sap-wood :iti%2 non-por\s2 r+s1   
wide1 summ] wood1 ?9 b v di/9ct1 spr+   
wood1 n pla92 gra91 /raight1 co>se2     
rays1 num]\s1 r prom95t2 res9 ducts1 few
 & small4  ,,physical ,,qualities3      
,weight1 light 7#eb;d 9 ?is li/72 #bg   
lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4dbhg2 m$ium 
/rong 7#ec;d 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic 7#ca/ 9 
?is li/72 s(t 7#ei? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1
 #c p] c5t42 w>ps 444444444442 durable2 
easy to "w2 splits easily4  ,,common    
,,uses3 ,int]ior f9i%1 boat build+ &    
coop]age4  ,,rem>ks3 ,l>ge/ ( ! spruces4
 ,common 9 ! coa/ belt =e/4             
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #ag  ,,hemlock4  ,tsuga         

canad5sis 7,l9naeus7 ,c>ri]e4           
,tsuga1 ! ,japanese "n lat9iz$2         
canad5sis nam$ =     ,canada4           
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a &       
,t5nessee4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4        
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#fj'-gj'1 sometimes #ajj'2 diamet]1     
#b'-c'2 bran*es1 p]si/5t1 mak+ trunk n v
 clean2 b>k1 r$-gray1 n>r[1 r\nd$       
ridges1 deeply & irregul>ly fissur$2    
leaves1 spirally arrang$1 b appe>       
two-rank$2 cones1 #c_/d long1 graceful4 
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 r$di%   
br[n1 sap-wood j di/+ui%able2 non-por\s2
 r+s1 r broad1 conspicu\s2 gra91 crook$2
 rays1 num]\s1 ?92 non-res9\s4          
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 light  
7#ec;d 9 ?is li/72 #bf lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 
sp4 gr4 #j4dbci2 m$ium /rong 7#dd? 9 ?is
 li/72 ela/icity1 m$ium 7#dj? 9 ?is     
li/72 s(t 7#ea/ 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #c 
p] c5t42 w>ps & *ecks badly2 n durable2 
difficult to "w1 spl9t]y1 brittle2      
splits easily1 holds nails well4        

,,common ,,uses3 ,co>se1 *eap lumb]1 z  
joi/s1 raft]s1 plank walks & la?s4      
,,rem>ks3 ,! poore/ lumb]4 ,b>k *ief    
s\rce ( tann+ mat]ial4  ,illu/ration3   
,radial ,section1 life size4            
,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1 magnifi$  
#cg-a_/b diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3       
,tang5tial ,section1 life size4   #ah   
,,we/]n ,,hemlock4 ,,black ,,hemlock4   
,tsuga het]ophylla 7,raf9esque7 ,s>g5t4 
,tsuga1 ! ,japanese "n lat9iz$2         
het]ophylla ref]s to     two k9ds (     
leaves4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4        
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ on coa/ (    
,wa%+ton & ,oregon4  ,illu/ration3      
,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3   
,height1 #aej'-bjj'2 diamet]1 #f'-aj'2  
bran*es1 p5d5t1 sl5d]2 b>k1 r$di% gray1 
deep1 longitud9al fissures betwe51      
broad1 oblique1 flat ridges2 leaves1 d>k
 gre51 two-rank$2 cones1 small1 l ,ea/]n
 ,hemlock4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3     
,color1 pale br[n1 sap-wood ?91 :iti%2  
non-por\s2 r+s1 n>r[1 summ] wood ?9 b   
di/9ct2 gra91 /raight1 close2 rays1     

num]\s1 prom95t2 non-res9\s4  ,,physical
 ,,qualities3 ,light 9 weight1 /rong1   
ela/ic1 h>d2,a %r9kage1 #c p] c5t42 w>ps
 44444444442 durable1 m s ?an o!r       
,am]ican hemlocks2 easi] to "w ?an ea/]n
 v>iety2 splits badly4  ,,common ,,uses3
 ,lumb] = con/ruction4  ,,rem>ks3 ,com+ 
to be recogniz$ z a valuable lumb] tree4
  ,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life  
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4      ,footnote ,a3 ,n 9 ,jesup    
,collection4   #ai  ,,d\glas ,,spruce4  
,,oregon ,,p9e4 ,,r$ ,,fir4 ,,d\glas    
,,fir4  ,pseudotsuga mucronata          
7,raf9esque7 ,sudwor?4  ,pseudotsuga    
taxifolia 7,lamb]t7 ,britton4           
,pseudotsuga means false hemlock2       
mucronata ref]s to     abrupt %ort po9t 
( leaf2 taxifolia means yew leaf4       
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 ,puget ,s\nd region4  
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #age'-cjj'2        

diamet]1 #c'-e'1 sometimes #aj'2 bran*es
 high1 leav+ clean trunk2 b>k1 r\gh1    
gray1 great broad-r\nd$ ridges1 (t5     
appe>s braid$2 leaves1 radiat+ f /em2   
cones1 #b-d long4  ,,appe>ance ,,(      
,,wood3 ,color1 light r$ to yell[1      
sap-wood :ite2 non-por\s2 r+s1 d>k      
color$1 conspicu\s1 v pron\nc$ summ]    
wood2 gra91 /raight1 co>se2 rays1       
num]\s1 obscure2 res9\s4  ,,physical    
,,qualities3 ,weight1 m$ium 7#da/ 9 ?is 
li/72 #cb lbs4 p] cu4 ft1 sp4 gr4       
#j4eaeg2 /rong 7#ba/ 9 ?is li/72 v      
ela/ic 7#aj? 9 ?is li/72 m$ium h>d 7#de?
 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #c p] c5t4 or #d  
p] c5t421 w>ps 4444444444444442 durable2
 difficult to "w1 fl9ty1 splits readily4
  ,,common ,,uses3 ,heavy con/ruction1  
ma/s1 flag poles1 piles1 railway ties4  
,,rem>ks3 ,"o ( ! greate/ & ! mo/       
valuable ( ! we/]n timb] trees4 ,=ms    
ext5sive =e/s4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial   
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     

,section1 life size4   #bj  ,,gr& ,,fir4
 ,,:ite ,,fir4 ,,l[l& ,,fir4 ,,silv]    
,,fir4  ,abies gr&is ,l9dley4           
,abies1 ! classical ,lat9 "n4           
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 ,puget ,s\nd region4  
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 9 int]ior #ajj'2   
diamet]1 #b'2 on coa/1 #bej'-cjj' high2 
diamet]1 #b'-e'2 long p5dul\s bran*es2  
b>k1 q gray or gray br[n1 %all[         
fissures1 flat ridges2 leaves1 %9y gre5 
above1 silv]y bel[1 #a-a_/b-b long1     
r\ghly two-rank$2 cones1 cyl9drical1    
#b-d long4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3     
,color1 light br[n1 sap-wood light]2    
non-por\s2 r+s1 summ] cells broad] ?an 9
 o!r ,am]ican species1 d>k color$1      
conspicu\s2 gra9 /raight1 co>se2 rays1  
num]\s1 obscure2 res9\s4  ,,physical    
,,qualities3 ,v light 7#fb;d 9 ?is li/72
 #bb lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4cede2 
weak 7#fb;d 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic 7#cd? 9  
?is li/72 s(t 7#fe? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1
 #c p] c5t42 w>ps little2 n durable2    

works easily2 splits readily4  ,,common 
,,uses3 ,lumb] & pack+ cases4  ,,rem>ks3
 ,no res9 ducts4 ,n a v valuable wood4  
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #ba  ,,big ,,tree4 ,,sequoia4   
,,giant ,,sequoia4  ,sequoia wa%+toniana
 7,w9sl[7 ,sudwor?4 ,sequoia gigantea1  
,decaisne4      ,sequoia lat9iz$ f      
,sequoiah1 a ,*]okee ,indian2           
wa%+toniana1 9 honor ( ,george ,wa%+ton4
  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3   
7,see map72 9 t5 groves 9 s\!rn         
,cali=nia1 at high elevation4           
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #bge'1 sometimes   
#cbj'2 diamet]1 #bj'1 sometimes #ce'2   
trunk1 swoll5 & (t5 buttress$ at base1  
ridg$1 (t5 cle> = #aej'2 ?ick horizontal
 bran*es2 b>k1 #a'-b' ?ick1 9 great     
ridges1 sep>ates into loose1 fibr\s1    
c9namon r$ scales1 almo/ non-combu/ible2
 leaves1 v small1 gr[+ close to /em2    

cones1 #b-c long4  ,,appe>ance ,,(      
,,wood3 ,color1 r$1 turn+ d>k on        
exposure1 sap-wood ?91 :iti%2 non-por\s2
 r+s1 v pla92 gra9 /raight1 co>se2 rays1
 num]\s1 ?92 non-res9\s4  ,,physical    
,,qualities3 ,light 7#fe? 9 ?is li/72   
#ah lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4bhhb2  
weak 7#fc;d 9 ?is li/72 brittle 7#fb;d 9
 ?is li/72 v s(t 7#fa/ 9 ?is li/72 %r9ks
 little2 w>ps little2 rem>kably durable2
 easy to "w1 splits readily1 takes nails
 well4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,con/ruction1  
lumb]1 c(f9s1 %+les4  ,,rem>ks3         
,dim5sions & age are unequall$2 ,big    
,tree & ,r$wood survivors ( a prehi/oric
 g5us1 once widely di/ribut$4 ,"s       
specim5s #cfjj ye>s old4  ,illu/ration3 
,radial ,section1 life size4            
,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1 magnifi$  
#cg-a_/b diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3       
,tang5tial ,section1 life size4   #bb   
,,r$wood4 ,,coa/ ,,r$wood4 ,,sequoia4   
,sequoia semp]vir5s 7,lamb]t7 ,endli*]4 
,sequoia1 lat9iz$ f ,sequoiah1 a ,*]okee
 ,indian2     semp]vir5s means ev] liv+4

  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3   
7,see map72 be/ 9 s\!rn ,oregon & nor!rn
 ,cali=nia1 ne> coa/4  ,illu/ration3    
,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3   
,height1 #bjj'-cdj'2 diamet]1 #aj'-ae'1 
r>ely #be'2 clean trunk1 mu* buttress$ &
 swoll5 at base1 some:at flut$1 bran*es 
v high2 b>k1 v ?ick1 #f-ab1 r\nd$       
ridges1 d>k scales fall+ reveal inn] r$ 
b>k2 leaves1 small1 two-rank$2 cones1   
small1 #a long4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3
 ,color1 r$1 turn+ to br[n on season+1  
sap-wood :iti%2 non-por\s2 r+s1 di/9ct2 
gra91 /raight2 rays1 num]\s1 v obscure2 
non-res9\s4  ,,physical ,,qualities3    
,light 9 weight 7#ee? 9 ?is li/72 #bf   
lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4dbjh2 weak  
7#eh? 9 ?is li/72 brittle 7#fj? 9 ?is   
li/72 s(t 7#ee? 9 ?is li/72 %r9ks       
little2 w>ps little2 v durable2 easily  
work$2 splits readily2 takes nails well4
  ,,common ,,uses3 ,%+les1 con/ruction1 
timb]1 f5ce po/s1 c(f9s1 railway ties1  
wat] pipes1 curly specim5s us$ 9 cab9et 
"w4  ,,rem>ks3 ,l[ bran*es r>e4 ,burns )

 difficulty4 ,*ief con/ruction wood (   
,pacific ,coa/4 ,use det]m9$ l>gely by  
durability4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial      
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #bc  ,,bald      
,,cypress4      ,bald ref]s to          
leaflessness ( tree 9 w9t]4  ,taxodium  
di/i*um 7,l9naeus7 ,l4 ,c4 ,ri*>d4      
,taxodium means yew-l2 di/i*um ref]s to 
!     two-rank$ leaves4  ,illu/ration3  
,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 
,s\? ,atlantic & ,gulf ,/ates4          
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #ge'1 occasionally 
#aej'2 diamet]1 #d'-e'2 roots project   
upw>d into peculi> knees2 trunk /rongly 
buttress$ at base1 /raight1 maje/ic &   
tap]+2 b>k1 light r$1 %all[ fissures1   
flat plates1 peel+ into fibr\s /rips2   
leaves1 long1 ?91 two-rank$1 decidu\s2  
cones1 ne>ly globul>1 #a 9 diamet]4     
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1         
he>t-wood1 r$di% br[n1 sap-wood1 ne>ly  

:ite2 non-por\s2 r+s1 f9e & well m>k$2  
gra91 ne>ly /raight1 burl is beautifully
 figur$2 rays1 v obscure2 non-res9\s4   
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light 9 weight 
7#dh? 9 ?is li/72 #bi lbs4 p] cu4 ft42  
sp4 gr4 #j4dedc2 m$ium /rong 7#dh? 9 ?is
 li/72 ela/ic 7#bh? 9 ?is li/72 s(t     
7#eb;d 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #c p] c5t42 
w>ps b little1 likely to *eck2 v        
durable2 easy to "w1 9 splitt+1 crumbles
 or breaks2 nails well4  ,,common       
,,uses3 ,%+les1 po/s1 int]ior f9i%1     
coop]age1 railroad ties1 boats1 & v>i\s 
con/ruction "w1 especially              
cons]vatories4  ,,rem>ks3 ,=ms =e/s 9   
swamps2 subject to a fung\s disease1    
mak+ wood peggy or pecky2 use l>gely    
det]m9$ by its durability4 ,9 ,new      
,orleans #ij1jjj fre% wat] ci/]ns are   
said to be made ( x4  ,illu/ration3     
,radial ,section1 life size4            
,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1 magnifi$  
#cg-a_/b diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3       
,tang5tial ,section1 life size4   #bd   
,,we/]n ,,r$ ,,c$>4 ,,canoe ,,c$>4      

,,giant ,,arborvitae4  ,?uja plicata ,d4
 ,don4 ,?uya gigantea ,nuttall4         
,?uya or ,?uja1 ! classical ,greek "n2  
plicata ref]s     to ! fold$ leaves2    
gigantea ref]s to ! gigantic size     ( 
! tree4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4        
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 ,puget     
,s\nd region4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4     
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#ajj'-bjj'2 diamet]1 #b'-aj'1 ev5 #ae'2 
trunk has imm5se buttresses1 (t5 #af' 9 
diamet]1 !n tap]s2 bran*es1 horizontal1 
%ort1 mak+ a d5se conical tree2 b>k1    
bright c9namon r$1 %all[ fissures1 broad
 ridges1 peel+ into long1 n>r[1 /r+y    
scales2 leaves1 v small1 ov]lapp+ 9 #d  
ranks1 on old] twigs1 %>p] & m remote2  
cones1 #a_/b long1 small1 erect4        
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 dull    
br[n or r$1 ?9 sap-wood ne>ly :ite2     
non-por\s2 r+s1 summ] b&s ?91 d>k       
color$1 di/9ct2 gra91 /raight1 r co>se2 
rays1 num]\s1 obscure2 non-res9\s4      
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,v light 9      
weight 7#fj? 9 ?is li/72 m$ium /rong    

7#dj? 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic 7#bf? 9 ?is    
li/72 s(t 7#fj? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #c 
p] c5t42 w>ps & *ecks little2 v durable2
 easy to "w2 splits easily4  ,,common   
,,uses3 ,int]ior f9i%1 cab9et mak+1     
coop]age1 %+les1 electric wire poles4   
,,rem>ks3 ,wood us$ by ,indians = w>    
canoes1 totems & planks = lodges2 inn]  
b>k us$ = ropes & textiles4             
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #be  ,,:ite ,,c$>4  ,*amaecyp>is
 ?yoides 7,l9naeus7 ,b4 ,s4 ,p4         
,*amaecyp>is means l[ cypress2 ?yoides  
means l     ?uya 7,aborvitae74          
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 ,virg9ia & ,nor?      
,c>ol9a4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4          
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#fj'-hj'2 diamet]1 #b'-d'2 bran*es1 l[1 
(t5 =m+ imp5etrable ?ickets2 b>k1 light 
r$di% br[n1 _m f9e longitud9al fissures1
 (t5 spirally twi/$ ar\nd /em2 leaves1  

scale-l1 f\r-rank$2 cones1 globul>1     
#a_/d diamet]4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 
,color1 p9k to br[n1 sap-wood light]2   
non-por\s2 r+s1 %>p & di/9ct2 gra91     
/raight2 rays1 num]\s1 obscure2         
non-res9\s4  ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,v 
light 9 weight 7#fd? 9 ?is li/72 #bc    
lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4ccbb72 weak 
7#fd? 9 ?is li/72 brittle 7#fc;d 9 ?is  
li/2 s(t 7#fb;d 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage #c  
p] c5t42 w>ps little2 extremely durable2
 easily work$2 splits easily2 nails     
well4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,boats1 %+les1  
po/s1 railway ties1 coop]age4  ,,rem>ks3
 ,gr[s *iefly 9 swamps1 (t5 9 d5se pure 
=e/s4 ,uses det]m9$ l>gely by its       
durability4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial      
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #bf  ,,lawson    
,,cypress4 ,,port ,,or=d ,,c$>4 ,,oregon
 ,,c$>4 ,,:ite ,,c$>4  ,*amaecyp>is     
lawsoniana 7,a4 ,murray7 ,p>latore4     
,*amaecyp>is means l[ cypress4          

,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,illu/ration3  
,leaf4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ on   
coa/ ( ,oregon4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,!  
,,tree3 ,height1 #ajj'-bjj'2 diamet]1   
#d'-h'1 ev5 #ab'2 base ( trunk abruptly 
enl>g$2 b>k1 v ?ick1 ev5 #aj at base (  
trunk1 inn] & out] lay]s di/9ct1 v deep 
fissures1 r\nd$ ridges2 leaves1 v small1
 #a_/af long1 f\r-rank$1 ov]lapp$1 flat 
sprays2 cones1 small1 #a_/d1 globul>4   
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 p9ki%   
br[n1 sap-wood h>dly di/+ui%able2       
non-por\s2 r+s1 summ] wood ?91 n        
conspicu\s2 gra91 /raight1 close2 rays1 
num]\s1 v obscure2 non-res9\s4          
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light 9 weight 
7#df? 9 ?is li/72 #bh lbs4 p] cu4 ft42  
sp4 gr4 #j4dfba2 /rong 7#be? 9 ?is li/72
 ela/ic 7#ab? 9 ?is li/72 s(t 7#ej? 9   
?is li/72 %r9kage #c or #d p] c5t42 w>ps
 little2 durable2 easily work$2 splits  
easily4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,mat*es 7almo/
 exclusively on ! ,pacific ,coa/71      
int]ior f9i%1 %ip & boat build+4        
,,rem>ks3 ,res91 a p[]ful diuretic &    

insecticide4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial     
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #bg  ,,r$ ,,c$>4 
,junip]us virg9iana ,l9naeus4           
,junip]us1 ! classical ,lat9 "n2        
virg9iana1 9 honor     ( ! ,/ate (      
,virg9ia4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4      
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 ,gulf      
,/ates 9 swamps1 especially on ! we/    
coa/ ( ,florida4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#dj'-ej'1 ev5 #hj'2 diamet]1 #a'-b'2    
trunk1 ridg$1 sometimes exp&$2 bran*es1 
l[2 b>k1 light br[n1 loose1 ragg$1      
sep>at+ into long1 n>r[1 p]si/5t1 /r+y  
scales2 leaves1 opposite1 ( two k9ds1   
awl-%ap$1 & scale-%ap$2 fruit1 d>k blue 
b]ry4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1  
dull r$1 sap-wood :ite2 non-por\s2 r+s1 
easily di/+ui%$2 gra91 /raight2 rays1   
num]\s1 v obscure2 non-res9\s4          
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,v light 9      
weight 7#db;d 9 ?is li/72 #cj lbs4 p]   

cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4dhbf2 m$ium /rong   
7#dc;d 9 ?is li/72 brittle 7#fa/ 9 ?is  
li/72 m$ium h>d 7#cd? 9 ?is li/72       
%r9kage1 #c p] c5t42 w>ps little2 v     
durable2 easy to "w2 splits readily1    
takes nails well4  ,,common ,,uses3     
,p5cils1 *e/s1 cig> boxes1 pails1       
int]ior f9i%4  ,,rem>ks3 ,fragrant4     
,p5cils are made almo/ exclusively ( ?is
 wood1 because x is light1 /rong1 /iff1 
/raight & f9e-gra9$ & easily :ittl$2    
supply be+ rapidly deplet$4             
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #bh  ,,black ,,will[4  ,salix   
nigra ,m>%all4      ,salix1 f two       
,celtic words mean+ ne>-wat]2 nigra     
ref]s to ! d>k b>k4  ,illu/ration3      
,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 gr[s  
l>ge/ 9 s\!rn ,ill9ois1 ,indiana &      
,texas1 on moi/ banks4  ,illu/ration3   
,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3   
,height1 #cj'-dj'1 sometimes #abj'2     

diamet]1 #a'-b'1 r>ely #c'-d'2 /\t1     
upright1 spread+ bran*es1 f common base2
 b>k1 r\gh & d>k br[n or black1 (t5 t+$ 
) yell[ or br[n2 leaves1 lanceolate1 (t5
 scy!-%ap$1 s]rate edges2 fruit1 a      
capsule conta9+ small1 hairy se$s4      
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 light   
r$di% br[n1 sap-wood1 ?91 :iti%2        
diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 obscure2 gra91 close
 & weak2 rays1 obscure4  ,,physical     
,,qualities3 ,light 9 weight 7#ea/ 9 ?is
 li/72 #bg4gg lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4  
#j4ddef2 weak 7#fe? 9 ?is li/72 v       
brittle 7#fd? 9 ?is li/72 s(t 7#df? 9   
?is li/72 %r9ks consid]ably2 w>ps &     
*ecks badly2 s(t1 weak1 ind5ts )\t      
break+2 splits easily4  ,,common ,,uses3
 ,lap-bo>ds1 baskets1 wat] :eels1 fuel &
 *>coal = gunp[d]4  ,,rem>ks3 ,its      
*>act]i/ic ( ind5t+ )\t break+ has giv5 
x use z l9+ = c>ts & z cricket bats4 ,( 
! _m will[s1 ! mo/ tree l 9 proportion 9
 ea/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,b>k conta9s      
salycylic acid4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial  
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     

,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #bi  ,,butt]nut4 
,,:ite ,,walnut4      ,butt]nut1 because
 ! nuts are ri* 9 oil4  ,juglans c9]ea  
,l9naeus4      ,juglans means ,jove's   
nut2 c9]ea ref]s to a%-color$     b>k4  
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat33    
7,see map72 be/ 9 ,ohio bas94           
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #ge'-ajj'2 diamet]1
 #b'-d'2 bran*es l[1 broad spread+ deep 
roots2 b>k1 grayi% br[n1 deep fissures  
broad ridges2 leaves #ae-cj long1       
comp\nd #aa to #ag leaflets1 hairy &    
r\gh2 fruit1 oblong1 po9t$1 edible1 oily
 nut4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1  
light br[n1 d>k5+ ) exposure1 sap-wood  
:iti%2 diffuse1 por\s2 r+s1 n prom95t2  
gra91 fairly /raight1 co>se1 takes high 
poli%2 rays1 di/9ct1 ?91 obscure4       
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light 9 weight 
7#ef? 9 ?is li/72 #be lbs4 p] cu4 ft42  
sp4 gr4 #j4djhf2 weak 7#eg? 9 ?is li/72 
ela/icity1 m$ium 7#eb;d 9 ?is li/72 s(t 

7#dg? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage 4444444 p]    
c5t42 w>ps little2 durable2 easy to "w2 
splits easily4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,cab9et
 "w1 inside trim4  ,,rem>ks3 ,gre5 husks
 ( fruit give yell[ dye4 ,sug> made f   
sap4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1   
life size4  ,illu/ration3               
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #cj  ,,black     
,,walnut4  ,juglans nigra ,l9naeus4     
,juglans means ,jove's nut2 nigra ref]s 
to ! d>k wood4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4 
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 we/]n ,nor?
 ,c>ol9a & ,t5nessee4  ,illu/ration3    
,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3   
,height1 #ij'-abj'1 ev5 #aej'2 diamet]1 
#c' to ev5 #h'2 clean ( bran*es = #ej'  
to #fj'2 b>k1 br[ni%1 almo/ black1 deep 
fissures1 & broad1 r\nd$ ridges2 leaves1
 #a'-b' long1 comp\nd p9nate1 #ae to #bc
 leaflets1 fall e>ly2 fruit1 nut1 )     
adh]5t husk1 & edible k]nel4            
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 *ocolate
 br[n1 sap-wood mu* light]2             

diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 m>k$ by slightly    
l>g] pores2 gra91 /raight2 rays1 num]\s1
 ?91 n conspicu\s4  ,,physical          
,,qualities3 ,weight1 m$ium 7#ca/ 9 ?is 
li/72 #ch lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4      
#j4faae2 /rong 7#cb;d 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic
 7#bc;d 9 ?is li/72 h>d 7#ba/ 9 ?is     
li/72 %r9kage1 #e p] c5t42 w>ps little2 
v durable2 easy to "w2 splits ) "s      
difficulty1 takes & holds nails well4   
,,common ,,uses3 ,gun /ocks 7s9ce #ag?  
c5tury71 v5e]s1 cab9et mak+4  ,,rem>ks3 
,=m]ly mu* us$ = furniture1 n[ sc>ce4   
,pl5tiful 9 ,cali=nia4 ,mo/ valuable    
wood ( ,nor? ,am]ican =e/s4 ,wood       
sup]ior to ,european v>iety4            
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #ca  ,,mock]nut4 ,,black        
,,hickory4 ,,bull-,,nut4 ,,big-,,bud    
,,hickory4 ,,:ite-,,he>t ,,hickory4 ,,k+
 ,,nut4      ,mock]nut ref]s to         
disappo9t+ "* ( nuts4  ,hicoria alba    

7,l9naeus7 ,britton4 ,c>ya tom5tosa     
,nuttall4      ,hicoria1 %ort5$ &       
lat9iz$ f ,pawcohicora1 !     ,indian "n
 = ! liquor obta9$ f ! k]nels2 alba     
ref]s to ! :ite wood1 c>ya1 ! ,greek "n 
= walnut2     tom5tosa ref]s to hairy "u
 surface ( leaf4  ,illu/ration3         
,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 
l[] ,ohio valley1 ,miss\ri & ,arkansas4 
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #ge'1 r>ely #ajj'2 
diamet]1 #b'-c'2 rises high 9 =e/2 b>k1 
d>k gray1 %all[1 irregul> int]rupt$     
fissures1 r\gh b n %aggy 9 old trees2   
leaves1 #h-ab long1 comp\nd1 #g-i       
leaflets1 fragrant :5 cru%$2 fruit1     
sph]ical nut1 ?ick %ell1 edible k]nel4  
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 d>k     
br[n1 sap-wood ne>ly :ite2 r+-por\s2    
r+s1 m>k$ by few l>ge regul>ly di/ribut$
 op5 ducts2 gra91 usually /raight1      
close2 rays1 num]\s1 ?91 obscure4       
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,v heavy 7#c;d 9
 ?is li/72 #ec lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41
 #j4hbah2 v /rong 7#aa? 9 ?is li/72 v   

ela/ic 7#ad? 9 ?is li/72 v h>d 7#c;d 9  
?is li/72 %r9kage1 #aj p] c5t42 w>ps    
44444444442 n durable2 v h>d to "w2     
splits ) great difficulty1 almo/        
impossible to nail4  ,,common ,,uses3   
,:eels1 runn]s1 tool & axe h&les1       
agricultural implem5ts4  ,,rem>ks3      
,conf\nd$ comm]cially ) %ellb>k hickory4
  ,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life  
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #cb  ,,%ellb>k ,,hickory4       
,,%agb>k ,,hickory4  ,hicoria ovata     
7,mill>7 ,britton4 ,c>ya alba ,nuttall4 
,hickory is %ort5$ & lat9iz$ f          
,pawcohicora1 !     ,indian "n = !      
liquor obta9$ f ! k]nels2 ovata         
ref]s to oval nut2 c>ya1 ! ,greek "n =  
walnut4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4        
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 l[] ,ohio  
valley4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4           
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#gj'-ij' & ev5 #abj'2 diamet]1 #b'-c'1  
ev5 #d'2 /raight1 column> trunk2 b>k1   

d>k gray1 sep>ates into long1 h>d1      
plate-l /rips1 :i* cl+ to tree by       
middle1 on "y trees v smoo? & close2    
leaves1 #h-bj long1 comp\nd #e or 7#g7  
leaflets2 nuts1 globul>1 husk1          
f\r-valv$1 split easily1 ?9-%ell$1      
edible4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1
 r$di% br[n1 sap-wood :iti%2 r+-por\s2  
r+s1 cle>ly m>k$2 gra91 /raight2 rays1  
num]\s1 ?94  ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,v 
,heavy 7#a/ 9 ?is li/72 #ea lbs4 p] cu4 
ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4hcgb2 v /rong 7#e? 9   
?is li/72 v ela/ic 7#g? 9 ?is li/72 v   
h>d 7#e? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #aj p]    
c5t42 w>ps badly2 n v durable "u        
exposure2 h>d to "w1 v t\gh2 h>d to     
split1 v difficult to nail4  ,,common   
,,uses3 ,agricultural implem5ts1 h&les1 
:eel spokes4  ,,rem>ks3 ,am]ican hickory
 is fam\s bo? = buggies & ax h&les1     
because x is flexible & v t\gh 9        
resi/ance to bl[s4   ,illu/ration3      
,radial ,section1 life size4            
,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1 magnifi$  
#cg-a_/b diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3       

,tang5tial ,section1 life size4   #cc   
,,pignut4  ,nuts eat5 by sw9e4  ,hicoria
 glabra 7,mill]7 ,britton4 ,c>ya porc9a4
      ,hicoria is %ort5$ & lat9iz$ f    
,pawcohicora1 !     ,indian "n = !      
liquor obta9$ f ! k]nel2 glabra         
ref]s to smoo? b>k2 ,c>ya ! ,greek "n = 
walnut2     porc9a means p]ta9+ to hogs4
  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3   
7,see map72 be/ 9 l[] ,ohio valley4     
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #hj'-ajj'2 diamet] 
#b'-d'2 trunk (t5 =k$2 b>k1 light gray1 
%all[ fissures1 r smoo?1 r>ely          
exfoliates2 leaves1 #h-ab long1 comp\nd 
#g leaflets1 %>ply s]rate2 fruit1 a     
?ick-%ell$ nut1 bitt] k]nel4            
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 light or
 d>k br[n1 ! ?ick sap-wood light]1 (t5  
ne>ly :ite2 r+-por\s2 r+s m>k$ by _m    
l>ge op5 ducts2 gra91 /raight2 rays1    
small & insignificant4  ,,physical      
,,qualities3 ,v heavy 7#d? 9 ?is li/72  
#ef lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4hbag2 v
 /rong 7#ae? 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic 7#bg? 9 

?is li/72 v h>d 7#b;d 9 ?is li/72       
%r9kage1 #aj p] c5t42 w>ps 44444444442  
h>d to "w2 splits ) difficulty1 h>d to  
drive nails into4  ,,common ,,uses3     
,agricultural implem5ts1 :eels1 runn]s1 
tool h&les4  ,,rem>ks3 ,wood n di/+ui%$ 
f %ellb>k hickory 9 comm]ce4            
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #cd  ,,blue ,,bee*4 ,,hornbeam4 
,,wat] ,,bee*4 ,,iron-,,wood4  ,blue    
ref]s to color ( b>k2 ! trunk resembles 
bee*2 horn ref]s to horny texture (     
wood4  ,c>p9us c>ol9iana ,walt]4        
,c>p9us1 classical ,lat9 "n2 c>ol9iana1 
nam$ f     ! /ate4  ,illu/ration3       
,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ on
 we/]n slopes ( ,s\!rn ,allegh5y        
,m\nta9s & 9 s\!rn ,arkansas & ,texas4  
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 a small tree1      
#cj'-ej' high2 diamet]1 #f-b'2 %ort1    
flut$1 s9ewy trunk2 b>k1 smoo?1 blui%   

gray2 leaves1 falcate1 d\bly s]rate2    
fruit1 small oval nut1 enclos$ 9 leaf-l 
bract4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 
light br[n1 sap-wood ?ick1 :iti%2       
diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 obscure2 gra91      
close2 rays1 num]\s1 broad4  ,,physical 
,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#ac? 9 ?is li/72   
#de lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4gbhf2 v 
/rong 7#i? 9 ?is li/72 v /iff 7#ae? 9   
?is li/72 h>d 7#ad? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1
 #f p] c5t42 w>ps & *ecks badly2 n      
durable2 h>d to "w2 splits ) great      
difficulty4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,lev]s1   
tool h&les4  ,,rem>ks3 ,no o!r wood s   
good = lev]s1 because ( /iffness4       
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #ce  ,,canoe ,,bir*4 ,,:ite     
,,bir*4 ,,pap] ,,bir*4      ,all names  
ref] to b>k4  ,betula papyrif]a ,m>%all4
      ,betula1 ! classical ,lat9 "n2    
papyrif]a ref]s to     pap] be>+ b>k4   
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     

7,see map72 be/ we/ ( ,rocky ,m\nta9s4  
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #fj'-hj'2 diamet]1 
#b'-c'2 /em r>ely q /raight2 b>k1 smoo?1
 :ite1 ext]ior m>k$ ) l5ticels1 peel+   
freely horizontally into ?9 pap]y lay]s1
 %[+ br[n or orange b5ea?1 conta9s oil  
:i* burns hotly1 =m]ly us$ by ,indians =
 canoes1 v rem>kable 7see ,keel]1 page  
#cjd72 leaves1 he>t-%ap$1 irregul>ly    
s]rate2 fruit1 p5dul\s /robiles4        
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 br[n or 
r$di%1 sap-wood :ite2 diffuse-por\s2    
r+s1 obscure2 gra91 fairly /raight2     
rays1 num]\s1 obscure4  ,,physical      
,,qualities3 ,weight1 m$ium 7#cc;d 9 ?is
 li/72 #cg lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4     
#j4eiee2 v /rong 7#ad? 9 ?is li/72 v    
ela/ic 7#b;d 9 ?is li/72 m$ium h>d 7#ci?
 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #f p] c5t42 w>ps1 
4444444442 n durable1 except b>k2 easy  
to "w2 splits ) difficulty1 nails well1 
t\gh4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,spools1 %oe    
la/s & pegs1 turn]y1 b>k = canoes4      
,,rem>ks3 ,=ms =e/s4 ,sap yields syrup4 

,b>k yields />*4 ,valuable to woodsm5 9 
_m ways4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial         
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #cf  ,,r$ ,,bir*4
 ,,riv] ,,bir*4      ,r$ ref]s to color 
( b>k2 riv]1 pref]s riv] bottoms4       
,betula nigra ,l9naeus4      ,betula1 ! 
classical ,lat9 "n4  ,illu/ration3      
,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 
,florida1 ,l\isiana & ,texas4           
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #cj'-hj'1 & ev5    
high]2 diamet]1 #a'1 ev5 #e'2 trunk1 (t5
 divid$ l[2 b>k1 d>k br[n1 m>k$ by      
horizontal l5ticels1 peels into pap]    
plates1 curl+ back2 leaves1 d\bly       
s]rate1 (t5 almo/ lob$2 fruit1 pubesc5t1
 erect1 /robiles4  ,,appe>ance ,,(      
,,wood3 ,color1 light br[n1 ?ick        
sap-wood1 :iti%2 diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 n  
pla92 gra91 close1 r crook$2 rays1      
num]\s1 obscure4  ,,physical            
,,qualities3 ,weight1 m$ium 7#cf? 9 ?is 

li/72 #ce lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4      
#j4egfb2 /rong 7#bb;d 9 ?is li/72 v     
ela/ic 7#ai? 9 ?is li/72 m$ium h>d 7#cg?
 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #f p] c5t42 w>ps1 
44444442 n durable :5 expos$2 h>d to "w1
 t\gh2 splits ) difficulty1 nails well4 
,,common ,,uses3 ,%oe la/s1 yokes1      
furniture4  ,,rem>ks3 ,pref]s moi/ l&4  
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #cg  ,,*]ry ,,bir*4 ,,sweet     
,,bir*4 ,,black ,,bir*4 ,,mahogany      
,,bir*4      ,*]ry1 because b>k         
resembles t ( *]ry tree2 sweet1         
ref]s to ! ta/e ( ! spicy b>k4  ,betula 
l5ta ,l9naeus4      ,betula1 ! classical
 ,lat9 "n2 l5ta1 mean+     t5aci\s1     
/icky1 may ref] to ! gum :i* exudes f ! 
trunk4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4         
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 ,t5nessee  
,m\nta9s4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4         
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#ej'-hj'2 diamet]1 #b'-e'2 trunk1 r>ely 

/raight2 b>k1 d>k r$di% br[n1 on old    
trunks deeply furr[$ & brok5 into ?ick1 
irregul> plates1 m>k$ ) horizontal      
l5ticels2 resembles *]ry2 spicy1        
aromatic2 leaves1 ovate1 oblong1 #b-f   
long1 irregul>ly s]rate2 fruit1 erect   
/robiles4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3      
,color1 d>k1 r$di% br[n2 diffuse-por\s2 
r+s1 obscure2 gra91 close1 sat9y1       
poli%es well1 (t5 /a9$ to imitate       
mahogany2 rays1 num]\s1 obscure4        
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#f? 9   
?is li/72 #dg lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 
#j4gfag2 v /rong 7#d? 9 ?is li/72 v     
ela/ic 7#f? 9 ?is li/72 h>d 7#aa? 9 ?is 
li/72 %r9kage1 #f p] c5t42 w>ps1 little2
 n durable if expos$2 r h>d to "w2      
splits h>d1 t\gh4  ,,common ,,uses3     
,d[el p9s1 wood5 w>e1 boats & %ips4     
,,rem>ks3 ,! bir*es are n usually       
di/+ui%$ f "o ano!r 9 ! m>ket4          
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 

size4   #ch  ,,yell[ ,,bir*4 ,,gray     
,,bir*4  ,yell[ & gray1 bo? ref] to !   
color ( ! b>k4  ,betula lutea ,f4 ,a4   
,mi*aux4      ,betula1 ! classical ,lat9
 "n2 lutea ref]s to !     yell[ color ( 
! b>k4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4         
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 nor!rn ,new
 ,york & ,new ,engl&4  ,illu/ration3    
,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3   
,height1 #fj'-ajj'2 diamet]1 #c'-d'2    
bran*es1 l[2 b>k1 silv]y1 yell[1 gray1  
peel+ horizontally into ?91 pap]y1      
p]si/5t lay]s1 b on v old trunks1 !re   
are r\gh1 irregul>1 plate-l scales2     
leaves1 ovate1 %>ply1 d\bly s]rate2     
fruit1 erect1 #a /robiles4  ,,appe>ance 
,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 light r$di% br[n1   
sap-wood :ite2 diffuse-por\s2 r+s1      
obscure2 gra91 close1 fairly /raight2   
rays1 num]\s1 obscure4  ,,physical      
,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#ba/ 9 ?is li/72   
#dj lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4feec2 v
 /rong 7#bnd 9 ?is li/72 v ela/ic 7#b;d 
9 ?is li/72 m$ium h>d 7#bb;d 9 ?is li/72
 %r9kage1 #f p] c5t42 w>ps 4444444442 n 

durable2 r h>d to "w1 poli%es well2     
splits ) difficulty1 holds nails well4  
,,common ,,uses3 ,furniture1 spools1    
button molds1 %oe la/s1 %oe pegs1 pill  
boxes1 yokes4  ,,rem>ks3 ,! bir*es are n
 usually di/+ui%$ f "o ano!r 9 ! m>ket4 
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #ci  ,,bee*4  ,fagus gr&ifolia  
,ehrh>t4 ,fagus am]icana ,sweet4 ,fagus 
f]rug9ea ,aiton4 ,fagus atropunicea     
7,m>%all7 ,sudwor?4      ,fagus 7,greek 
phago means to eat71 ref]s to edible    
nut2     f]rug9ea1 ref]s to ! iron ru/  
color ( ! leaves 9     ! fall2          
atropunicea1 mean+ d>k r$ or purple1 may
 ref]     to ! color ( ! leaves ( !     
copp] bee*4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4    
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 s\!rn      
,alleghany ,m\nta9s & l[] ,ohio valley4 
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-hj' & ev5     
#abj'2 diamet]1 #c'-d'2 9 =e/1 trunk    

tall1 sl5d]1 s9ewy2 b>k1 smoo?1 a%y     
gray2 leaves1 fea!r-ve9$1 w$ge-%ap$1    
s]rate2 leaf buds1 long1 po9t$2 fruit1  
#b small triangul> nuts1 enclos$ 9 burr1
 se$s ab\t once 9 #c ye>s4  ,,appe>ance 
,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 r$di%1 v>iable1     
sap-wood :ite2 diffuse-por\s2 r+s1      
obscure2 gra91 /raight2 rays1 broad1 v  
conspicu\s4  ,,physical ,,qualities3    
,heavy 7#bj? 9 ?is li/72 #db lbs4 p] cu4
 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4fhhc2 v /rong 7#aj? 9 
?is li/72 ela/ic 7#ac? 9 ?is li/72 h>d  
7#bb;d 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #e p] c5t42 
w>ps & *ecks dur+ season+2 n durable2   
h>d to "w1 takes f9e poli%2 splits )    
difficulty1 h>d to nail4  ,,common      
,,uses3 ,plane /ocks1 %oe la/s1 tool    
h&les1 *airs4  ,,rem>ks3 ,(t5 =ms pure  
=e/s4 ,uses due to its h>dness4         
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #dj  ,,*e/nut4  ,ca/anea d5tata 
7,m>%all7 ,borkhaus54      ,ca/anea1 !  

classical ,greek & ,lat9 "n2 d5tata1    
ref]s to too!d leaf4  ,illu/ration3     
,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 
we/]n ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 & ea/]n ,t5nessee4 
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #ge'-ajj'2 diamet]1
 #c'-d'1 & ev5 #ab'2 bran*es1 l[2 b>k1  
?ick1 %all[1 irregul>1 fissures1 broad1 
grayi% br[n ridges2 leaves1 lanceolate1 
co>sely s]rate1 midribs & ve9s prom95t2 
fruit1 nuts1 ?9-%ell$1 sweet1 enclos$ 9 
prickly burrs4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 
,color1 r$di% br[n1 sap-wood light]2    
r+-por\s2 r+s1 pla91 pores l>ge2 gra91  
/raight2 rays1 num]\s1 obscure4         
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 light  
7#ej? 9 ?is li/72 #bh lbs4 p] cu4 ft42  
sp4 gr41 #j4dejd2 m$ium /rong 7#df? 9   
?is li/72 ela/icity1 m$ium 7#df? 9 ?is  
li/72 m$ium h>d 7#dd? 9 ?is li/72       
%r9kage1 #f p] c5t42 w>ps badly2 v      
durable1 especially 9 contact ) soil1   
fairly easy to plane1 *isel & saw2      
splits easily4  ,,common ,,uses3        
,railway ties1 f5ce po/s1 int]ior f9i%4 

,,rem>ks3 ,gr[s rapidly1 & lives to     
great age4 ,wood conta9s mu* tannic     
acid4 ,uses dep5d l>gely ^u its         
durability4 ,lately :ole regions deplet$
 by fung\s pe/4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial  
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #da  ,,r$ ,,oak4 
,qu]cus rubra ,l9naeus4      ,qu]cus1 ! 
classical ,lat9 "n2 rubra1 ref]s to r$  
color ( wood4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9            
,massa*usetts & nor? ( ! ,ohio riv]4    
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-ajj'1 ev5     
#aej'2 diamet]1 #c'-f'2 a tall1 h&some  
tree1 bran*es r l[2 b>k1 br[ni% gray1   
broad1 ?91 r\nd$ ridges1 r smoo?2       
leaves1 #g to #i triangul> po9t$ lobes1 
) r\nd$ s9uses2 acorns1 *>act]i/ically  
l>ge1 9 flat %all[ cups4  ,,appe>ance   
,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 r$di% br[n1 sap-wood
 d>k]2 r+-por\s2 r+s1 m>k$ by sev]al r[s
 ( v l>ge op5 ducts2 gra91 crook$1      

co>se2 rays1 few1 b broad1 conspicu\s4  
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#bc;d 9 
?is li/72 #de lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 
#j4fedj2 /rong 7#ba/ 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic 
7#ah? 9 ?is li/72 h>d 7#bf? 9 ?is li/72 
%r9kage #f to #aj p] c5t42 w>ps & *ecks 
badly2 mod]ately durable2 easi] to "w   
?an :ite oak2 splits readily1 nails     
badly4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,coop]age1     
int]ior f9i%1 furniture4  ,,rem>ks3     
,gr[s rapidly4 ,an inf]ior sub/itute =  
:ite oak4 ,b>k us$ 9 tann+4             
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #db  ,,black ,,oak4 ,,yell[     
,,b>k ,,oak4      ,black ref]s to color 
( out] b>k2 yell[ b>k1 ref]s to     !   
inn] b>k1 :i* is orange yell[4  ,qu]cus 
velut9a ,lam>ck4 ,qu]cus t9ctoria       
,mi*aux4      ,qu]cus1 ! classical ,lat9
 "n2 velut9a1 ref]s to !     velvety    
surface ( ! "y leaf2 t9ctoria1 ref]s to 
dye     obta9$ f inn] b>k4              

,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 l[] ,ohio valley4     
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-hj'1 ev5      
#aej'2 diamet] #c'-d'2 bran*es1 l[2 b>k1
 d>k gray to black1 deep fissures1      
broad1 r\nd$1 firm ridges1 inn] b>k1    
yell[1 yield+ dye2 leaves1 l>ge1 lu/r\s1
 lea!ry1 ( v>i$ =ms2 acorns1 small2     
k]nel1 yell[1 bitt]4  ,,appe>ance ,,(   
,,wood3 ,color1 r$di% br[n1 sap-wood    
light]2 r+-por\s2 r+s1 m>k$ by sev]al   
r[s ( v l>ge op5 ducts2 gra91 crook$2   
rays1 ?94  ,,physical ,,qualities3      
,heavy 7#ag? 9 ?is li/72 #de lbs4 p] cu4
 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gjde2 v /rong 7#ag? 9 
?is li/72 ela/ic 7#be? 9 ?is li/72 h>d  
7#ah? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #d p] c5t4 or
 m2 w>ps & *ecks 9 dry+2 durable2 r h>d 
to "w2 splits readily1 nails badly4     
,,common ,,uses3 ,furniture1 int]ior    
trim1 coop]age1 con/ruction4  ,,rem>ks3 
,foliage h&some 9 fall2 p]si/s ?ru w9t]4
  ,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life  
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    

magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #dc  ,,basket ,,oak4 ,,c[ ,,oak4
      ,c[ ref]s to ! fact t its acorns  
are eat5 by cattle4  ,qu]cus mi*auxii   
,nuttall4      ,qu]cus1 ! classical     
,lat9 "n2 mi*auxii1 nam$ =     ! botani/
 ,mi*aux4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4      
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 ,arkansas &
 ,l\isiana1 especially 9 riv] bottoms4  
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #hj'-ajj'2 diamet] 
#c'1 ev5 #g'2 trunk1 (t5 clean & /raight
 = #dj' or #ej'2 b>k1 conspicu\s1 light 
gray1 r\gh ) loose a%y gray1 scaly      
ridges2 leaves1 obovate1 regul>ly       
scallop$2 acorns1 edible = cattle4      
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 light   
br[n1 sap-wood light buff2 r+-por\s2    
r+s1 m>k$ by few r l>ge1 op5 ducts2     
gra91 likely to be crook$2 rays1 broad1 
conspicu\s4  ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,v 
heavy 7#e? 9 ?is li/72 #df lbs4 p] cu4  
ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4hjci2 v /rong 7#ab? 9  
?is li/72 ela/ic 7#cc;d 9 ?is li/72 h>d 

7#aj? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #d p] c5t4 or
 m2 w>ps unless c>efully season$2       
durable2 h>d & t\gh to "w2 splits       
easily1 bad to nail4  ,,common ,,uses3  
,con/ruction1 agricultural implem5ts1   
:eel /ock1 baskets4  ,,rem>ks3 ,! be/   
:ite oak ( ! s\?4 ,n di/+ui%$ f :ite oak
 9 ! m>ket4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial      
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #dd  ,,bur ,,oak4
 ,,mossy-,,cup ,,oak4 ,,ov]-,,cup ,,oak4
  ,qu]cus macroc>pa ,mi*aux4            
,qu]cus1 ! classical ,lat9 "n2          
macroc>pa1 ref]s to     ! l>ge acorn4   
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 s\!rn ,indiana1       
,ill9ois & ,kansas4  ,illu/ration3      
,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3   
,height1 #gj'-acj'1 ev5 #agj'2 diamet]1 
#e'-g'2 bran*es1 high2 corky w+s on "y  
bran*es2 b>k1 gray br[n1 deeply furr[$2 
deep opposite s9uses on l>ge leaves2    
acorns1 half enclos$ 9 mossy-fr+$ cup4  

,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 ri*     
br[n1 sap-wood1 ?91 light]2 r+-por\s2   
r+s1 m>k$ by #a to #c r[s ( small op5   
ducts2 gra91 crook$2 rays1 broad1 &     
conspicu\s4  ,,physical ,,qualities3    
,heavy 7#i? 9 ?is li/72 #df lbs4 p] cu4 
ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gdec2 v /rong 7#af? 9  
?is li/72 ela/ic 7#cg? 9 ?is li/72 h>d  
7#i? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #d p] c5t4 or 
m2 w>ps1 44444444442 h>d1 & t\gh to "w2 
splits easily1 resi/s nail+4  ,,common  
,,uses3 ,%ip build+1 cab9et "w1 railway 
ties1 coop]age4  ,,rem>ks3 ,good =      
prairie plant+4 ,"o ( ! mo/ valuable    
woods ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,n di/+ui%$ f    
,:ite ,oak 9 comm]ce4  ,illu/ration3    
,radial ,section1 life size4            
,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1 magnifi$  
#cg-a_/b diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3       
,tang5tial ,section1 life size4   #de   
,,:ite ,,oak 7,we/]n74  ,qu]cus g>ryana 
,d\glas4      ,qu]cus1 ! classical ,lat9
 "n2 g>ryana1 nam$ =     ,g>ry4         
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 we/]n ,wa%+ton &      

,oregon4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4          
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#fj'-gj'1 ev5 #ajj'2 diamet]1 #b'-c'2   
bran*es1 spread+2 b>k1 light br[n1 %all[
 fissures1 broad ridges2 leaves1 co>sely
 p9natifi$1 lob$2 fruit1 l>ge acorns4   
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 light   
br[n1 sap-wood :iti%2 r+-por\s2 r+s1    
m>k$ by #a to #c r[s ( op5 ducts2 gra91 
close1 crook$2 rays1 v>y+ greatly 9     
wid?1 (t5 conspicu\s4  ,,physical       
,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#aj? 9 ?is li/72   
#df lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gddi2  
/rong 7#bh? 9 ?is li/72 ela/icity m$ium 
7#ed? 9 ?is li/72 h>d 7#h? 9 ?is li/72  
%r9kage1 #e or #f p] c5t42 w>ps1 unless 
c>efully season$2 durable2 h>d to "w1 v 
t\gh2 splits badly 9 nail+4  ,,common   
,,uses3 ,%ip build+1 vehicles1          
furniture1 int]ior f9i%4  ,,rem>ks3 ,be/
 ( ,pacific oaks4 ,%rubby at high       
elevations4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial      
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     

,section1 life size4   #df  ,,po/ ,,oak4
  ,qu]cus /ellata ,wang5heim4 ,qu]cus   
m9or 7,m>%7 ,s>g5t4 ,qu]cus obtusiloba  
,mi*aux4      ,qu]cus1 ! classical ,lat9
 "n2 /ellata1 ref]s to !     /ellate    
hairs on upp] side ( leaf2 m9or1 ref]s  
to size     ( tree1 :i* is (t5 %rubby2  
obtusiloba1 ref]s to !     blunt lobes (
 leaves4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4       
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9            
,mississippi bas94  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4
  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1
 #ej'-ge'1 ev5 #ajj'2 b (t5 a %rub2     
diamet]1 #b'-c'2 bran*es1 spread+ into  
d5se r\nd-topp$ head2 b>k1 r$ or br[n1  
deep1 v]tical1 almo/ cont9u\s1 fissures 
& broad ridges1 looks corrugat$2 leaves1
 9 l>ge tufts at ends ( bran*lets2      
acorns1 small1 sessile4  ,,appe>ance ,,(
 ,,wood3 ,color1 br[n1 ?ick1 sap-wood1  
light]2 r+-por\s2 r+s1 #a to #c r[s ( n 
l>ge op5 ducts2 gra91 crook$2 rays1     
num]\s1 conspicu\s4  ,,physical         
,,qualities3 ,v heavy 7#b;d 9 ?is li/72 
#ej lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4hcfg2  

/rong 7#bi? 9 ?is li/72 m$ium ela/ic    
7#ej? 9 ?is li/72 v h>d 7#d? 9 ?is li/72
 %r9kage1 #d p] c5t4 or m2 w>ps & *ecks 
badly 9 season+2 durable2 h>d to "w2    
splits readily1 bad to nail4  ,,common  
,,uses3 ,coop]age1 railway ties1 f5c+1  
con/ruction4  ,,rem>ks3 ,wood (t5       
undi/+ui%$ f :ite oak4  ,illu/ration3   
,radial ,section1 life size4            
,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1 magnifi$  
#cg-a_/b diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3       
,tang5tial ,section1 life size4   #dg   
,,:ite ,,oak4 ,,/ave ,,oak4  ,qu]cus    
alba ,l9naeus4      ,qu]cus1 ! classical
 ,lat9 "n2 :ite & alba1 ref]     to :ite
 b>k4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4          
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ on we/]n     
slopes ( ,s\!rn ,alleghany ,m\nta9s1 & 9
 l[] ,ohio riv] valley4  ,illu/ration3  
,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3   
,height1 #hj'-ajj'2 diamet]1 #c'-e'2    
trunk1 9 =e/1 tall1 9 op51 %ort2 b>k1   
easily di/+ui%$1 light gray ) %all[     
fissures1 scaly2 leaves1 r\nd$ lobes1 & 
s9uses2 acorns1 #c_/d to #a long1 rip5  

fir/ ye>4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3      
,color1 light br[n1 sap-wood pal]2      
r+-por\s2 r+s1 pla9ly def9$ by pores2   
gra9 crook$2 rays1 broad1 v conspicu\s &
 irregul>4  ,,physical ,,qualities3     
,heavy 7#h? 9 ?is li/72 #ej lbs4 p] cu4 
ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gdgj2 /rong 7#bc;d 9   
?is li/72 ela/ic 7#cb;d 9 ?is li/72 h>d 
7#ac? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 f #d to #aj  
p] c5t42 w>ps & *ecks consid]ably1      
unless c>efully season$2 v durable1 h>d 
to "w2 splits some:at h>d1 v difficult  
to nail4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,int]ior     
f9i%1 furniture1 con/ruction1 %ip       
build+1 f>m implem5ts1 cab9et mak+4     
,,rem>ks3 ,! mo/ important ( ,am]ican   
oaks4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1  
life size4  ,illu/ration3               
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #dh  ,,cork      
,,elm4 ,,rock ,,elm4 ,,hickory ,,elm4   
,,:ite ,,elm4 ,,cliff ,,elm4      ,cork 
ref]s to corky ridges on bran*es4       
,ulmus ?omasi ,s>g5t4 ,ulmus racemosa   

,?omas4      ,ulmus1 ! classical ,lat9  
"n2 racemosa1 ref]s to     racemes (    
fl[]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4         
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 ,ont>io &  
s\!rn ,mi*igan4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4   
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#hj'-ajj'2 diamet]1 #b'-c'1 trunk (t5   
cle> = #fj'2 b>k1 gray t+$ ) r$1 corky1 
irregul> projections1 give %aggy        
appe>ance2 leaves1 obovate1 d\bly       
s]rate1 #c-d long2 fruit1 pubesc5t1     
sam>as4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1
 light br[n or r$2 sap-wood yell[i%2    
r+-por\s2 r+s1 m>k$ ) "o or two r[s (   
small op5 ducts2 gra91 int]lac$2 rays1  
num]\s1 obscure4  ,,physical            
,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#ae? 9 ?is li/72   
#de lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gbfc2 v
 /rong 7#ac? 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic 7#bb;d 9
 ?is li/72 h>d 7#ae? 9 ?is li/72        
%r9kage1 #e p] c5t42 w>ps1 444444442 v  
durable2 h>d to "w2 splits & nails )    
difficulty4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,hubs1    
agricultural implem5ts1 sills1 bridge   
timb]s4  ,,rem>ks3 ,! be/ ( ! elm woods4

  ,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life  
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #di  ,,:ite ,,elm4 ,,am]ican    
,,elm4 ,,wat] ,,elm4      ,wat]1 because
 x fl\ri%es on riv] banks4  ,ulmus      
am]icana ,l9naeus4      ,ulmus1 !       
classical ,lat9 "n4  ,illu/ration3      
,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/   
nor?w>d on riv] bottoms4  ,illu/ration3 
,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3   
,height1 #ij'1 ev5 #abj'2 diamet]1      
#c'-h'2 trunk1 usually divides at       
#cj'-dj' f gr\nd into upright bran*es1  
mak+ triangul> outl9e2 b>k1 a%y gray1   
deep longitud9al fissures1 broad ridges2
 leaves1 #d-f long1 oblique obovate1    
d\bly s]rate1 smoo? "o way2 fruit1      
small1 r\ndi%1 flat1 smoo?1 sam>as4     
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 light   
br[n1 sap-wood yell[i%2 r+-por\s2 r+s1  
m>k$ by sev]al r[s ( l>ge op5 ducts2    
gra91 int]lac$2 rays1 num]\s1 ?94       
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#bd? 9  

?is li/72 #cd lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 
#j4fejf2 /rong 7#cc;d 9 ?is li/72       
ela/icity1 m$ium 7#ei? 9 ?is li/72 m$ium
 h>d 7#bh? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #e p]   
c5t42 w>ps 4444444442 n durable2 h>d to 
"w1 t\gh1 w n poli%2 splits )           
difficulty4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,coop]age1
 :eel /ock1 floor+4  ,,rem>ks3 ,favorite
 ornam5tal tree1 b %ade light1 & leaves 
fall e>ly4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial       
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #ej  ,,cucumb]   
,,tree4 ,,m\nta9 ,,magnolia4            
,cucumb]1 ref]s to ! %ape ( ! fruit4    
,magnolia acum9ata ,l9naeus4            
,magnolia1 nam$ = ,pi]re ,magnol1 a     
,fr5* botani/2     acum9ata1 ref]s to   
po9t$ fruit4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4   
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ at ! base (  
m\nta9s 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a & ,s\? ,c>ol9a &
 ,t5nessee4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4       
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#fj'-ij'2 diamet]1 #c'-d'2 9 =e/1 cle>  

trunk = #b_/c ( height 7#dj' or #ej'72  
b>k1 d>k br[n1 ?ick1 furr[$2 leaves1    
l>ge1 smoo?2 fl[]s1 l>ge gre5i% yell[2  
fruit1 d>k r$ cones =m$ ( two se$$      
follicles4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3     
,color1 yell[ br[n1 ?ick sapwood1       
light]2 diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 obscure2    
gra91 v /raight1 close1 sat9y2 rays1    
num]\s ?94  ,,physical ,,qualities3     
,light 7#de? 9 ?is li/72 4444 lbs4 p]   
cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4dfij2 m$ium /rong  
7#di? 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic 7#ch? 9 ?is    
li/72 m$ium h>d 7#da/ 9 ?is li/72       
%r9kage1 #e p] c5t42 w>ps 4444444442 v  
durable2 easy to "w2 splits easily1     
takes nails well4  ,,common ,,uses3     
,pump logs1 *eap furniture1 %elv+4      
,,rem>ks3 ,wood simil> to yell[ popl>1 &
 (t5 sold ) x4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial   
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #ea  ,,yell[     
,,popl>4 ,,:itewood4 ,,tulip ,,tree4    
,popl>1 inappropriate1 inasmu* z ! tree 

does n belong to     popl> family4      
,:ite1 ref]s inappropriately to ! color 
(     ! wood1 :i* is gre5i% yell[4      
,liriod5dron tulipif]a ,l9naeus4        
,liriod5dron1 means lily-tree2 tulipif]a
 means     tulip-be>+4  ,illu/ration3   
,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 
l[] ,ohio valley & s\!rn ,appala*ian    
m\nta9s4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4          
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#gj'-ij'2 ev5 #bjj'2 diamet]1 #f'-h'1   
ev5 #ab'2 tall1 magnific5t trunk1       
unsurpass$ 9 gr&eur by any ea/]n        
,am]ican tree2 b>k1 br[n1 aromatic1     
ev5ly furr[$ s z to make clean1         
neat-look+ trunk2 leaves1 #d lob$1 apex1
 peculi>ly truncat$1 clean cut2 fl[]s1  
tulip-l2 fruit1 cone1 consi/+ ( _m      
scales4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1
 light gre5i% or yell[ br[n1 sap-wood1  
creamy :ite2 diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 close b
 di/9ct2 gra91 /raight2 rays1 num]\s &  
pla94  ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light   
7#ed? 9 ?is li/72 #bf lbs4 p] cu4 ft42  
sp4 gr41 #j4dbcj2 m$ium /rong 7#ea/ 9   

?is li/72 ela/ic 7#ci? 9 ?is li/72 s(t  
7#di? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #e p] c5t42  
w>ps little2 durable2 easy to "w2       
brittle & does n split readily1 nails v 
well4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,con/ruction "w1
 furniture1 int]iors1 boats1 c>riage    
bodies1 wood5 pumps4  ,,rem>ks3 ,be+    
sub/itut$ l>gely = :ite p9e4            
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #eb      ,,sweet ,,gum4 ,gum1   
ref]s to exudations4  ,liquidamb>       
/yraciflua ,l9naeus4      ,liquidamb>1  
means liquid gum2 /yraciflua1 means     
fluid     res9 7/orax74  ,illu/ration3  
,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 
! l[] ,mississippi valley4              
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #hj'-adj'2 diamet]1
 #c'-e'2 trunk1 tall1 /raight2 b>k1     
light br[n t+$ ) r$1 deeply fissur$2    
bran*lets (t5 hav+ corky w+s2 leaves1   
/>-%ap$1 five po9t$2 conspicu\sly purple

 & crimson 9 autumn2 fruit1             
multi-capsul>1 sph]ical1 p]si/5t heads4 
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 light r$
 br[n1 sap-wood almo/ :ite2             
diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 f9e & difficult to  
di/+ui%2 gra91 /raight1 close1 poli%es  
well2 rays1 num]\s1 v obscure4          
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 m$ium  
7#cd? 9 ?is li/72 #cg lbs4 p] cu4 ft42  
sp4 gr41 #j4eiji2 m$ium /rong 7#eb;d 9  
?is li/72 ela/icity m$ium 7#dd? 9 ?is   
li/72 m$ium h>d 7#cf? 9 ?is li/72       
%r9kage1 #f p] c5t42 w>ps & twi/s badly 
9 season+2 n durable :5 expos$2 easy to 
"w2 crumbles 9 splitt+2 nails badly4    
,,common ,,uses3 ,build+ con/ruction1   
cab9et-"w1 v5e]+1 /reet pavem5t1 b>rel  
/aves & heads4  ,,rem>ks3 ,l>gely us$ 9 
v5e]s1 because :5 solid x w>ps & twi/s  
badly4 ,exudations us$ 9 m$ic9e to "s   
ext5t4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 
life size4  ,illu/ration3               
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #ec  ,,sycamore4 

,,buttonwood4 ,,button ,,ball4 ,,wat]   
,,bee*4      ,sycamore1 f two ,greek    
words mean+ fig & mulb]ry2              
buttonwood & button-ball1 ref] to fruit 
balls4  ,platanus occid5talis ,l9naeus4 
,platanus1 ref]s to ! broad leaves2     
occid5talis1     we/]n1 to di/+ui% x f  
,european species4  ,illu/ration3       
,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 
valley ( l[] ,ohio & ,mississippi4      
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-ajj'1 & ev5   
#agj'2 diamet]1 #f'-ab'2 trunk1 commonly
 divides into #b or #c l>ge bran*es1    
limbs spread+1 (t5 divid+ angul>ly2 b>k1
 flakes (f 9 great irregul> masses1     
leav+ mottl$ surface1 gre5i% gray &     
br[n1 ?is peculi>ity due to its rigid   
texture2 leaves1 palmately #c to #e     
lob$1 #d-i long1 petiole enl>g$1 enclos+
 buds2 fruit1 l>ge r\gh balls1 p]si/5t  
?r\gh w9t]4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3    
,color1 r$di% br[n1 sap-wood light]2    
diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 m>k$ by broad b&s ( 
small ducts2 gra91 cross1 close2 rays1  

num]\s1 l>ge1 conspicu\s4  ,,physical   
,,qualities3 ,weight1 m$ium 7#ch? 9 ?is 
li/72 #ce lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41     
#j4efgh2 m$ium /rong 7#ed? 9 ?is li/72  
ela/icity1 m$ium 7#dc;d 9 ?is li/72     
m$ium h>d 7#cj? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #e 
p] c5t42 w>ps little2 v durable1 once   
us$ = mummy c(f9s2 h>d to "w2 splits v  
h>d4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,tobacco boxes1  
yokes1 furniture1 but*] blocks4         
,,rem>ks3 ,trunks (t5 v l>ge & holl[4   
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #ed  ,,wild ,,black ,,*]ry4     
,padus s]ot9a 7,ehrh>t7 ,ag>dh4 ,prunus 
s]ot9a ,ehrh>t4      ,padus1 ! old      
,greek "n2 prunus1 ! classical ,lat9    
"n2 s]ot9a1 because x blossoms late     
7,june74  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4       
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ on s\!rn     
,allegh5y m\nta9s4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4
  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1
 #dj'-ej'1 ev5 #ajj'2 diamet]1 #b'-d'2  

/raight1 column> trunk1 (t5 free f      
bran*es = #gj'2 b>k1 blacki% & r\gh1    
fissur$ 9 all directions1 brok5 into    
small1 irregul>1 scaly plates1 ) rais$  
edges2 leaves1 oblong to lanceolate1    
deep1 %9y gre52 fruit1 black drupe1     
#a_/b4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 
light br[n or r$1 sap-wood yell[2       
diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 obscure2 gra91      
/raight1 close1 f9e1 takes f9e poli%2   
rays1 num]\s4  ,,physical ,,qualities3  
,weight1 m$ium 7#ce? 9 ?is li/72 #cf    
lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4ehbb2 /rong
 7#ce? 9 ?is li/72 ela/icity m$ium 7#de?
 9 ?is li/72 h>d 7#af? 9 ?is li/72      
%r9kage1 #e p] c5t42 w>ps1 little2      
durability 4444444442 easily work$2     
splits easily1 mu/ be nail$ ) c>e4      
,,common ,,uses3 ,cab9et-"w1 co/ly      
int]ior trim4  ,,rem>ks3 ,gr[s rapidly4 
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #ee  ,,black ,,locu/4 ,,locu/4  

,,yell[ ,,locu/4      ,yell[1 f color ( 
sap-wood4  ,rob9ia pseudacacia ,l9naeus4
      ,rob9ia1 9 honor ( ,jean ,rob91 ( 
,france2 pseudacacia1     means false   
acacia4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4        
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ on we/]n     
,allegh5y m\nta9s 9 ,we/ ,virg9ia4      
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #ej'-hj'2 diamet]1 
#c'-d'2 b>k1 /rik+ly deeply furr[$1 d>k 
br[n2 prickles on small bran*es1 gr[s   
fa/1 =ms ?ickets1 on acc\nt ( und]gr\nd 
%oots2 leaves1 #h-ad long1 p9nately     
comp\nd2 #g to #i leaflets1 close at    
night & 9 ra9y wea!r2 fruit1 pod #c-d   
long4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1  
br[n1 sap-wood ?91 yell[i%2 r+-por\s2   
r+s1 cle>ly m>k$ by #b or #c r[s ( l>ge 
op5 ducts2 gra91 crook$1 compact4       
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#ab? 9  
?is li/72 #de lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 
#j4gccc2 v /rong 7#a/ 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic
 7#i? 9 ?is li/72 v h>d 7#f? 9 ?is li/72
 %r9kage1 #e p] c5t42 w>ps badly1 v     
durable2 h>d to "w1 t\gh2 splits 9      

nail+4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,%ipbuild+1    
con/ruction1 tree-nails or p9s1 wagon   
hubs4  ,,rem>ks3 ,widely plant$ &       
cultivat$ ea/ & we/4 ,likely to be      
infe/$ ) bor]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial  
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #ef  ,,mahogany4 
,swiet5ia mahagoni ,jacqu94             
,swiet5ia1 9 honor ( ,dr4 ,g]>d ,van    
,swiet5 ( ,au/ria2     mahagoni1 a ,s\? 
,am]ican ^w4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4   
,,habitat3 7,see map72 only on ,florida 
,keys 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4  ,illu/ration3 
,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3   
,height1 #dj'-ej'2 diamet]1 #b' or m1   
=eign trees l>g]2 imm5se buttresses at  
base ( trunk2 b>k1 ?ick1 d>k r$-br[n1   
hav+ surface ( broad1 ?ick scales2      
leaves1 #d-f long1 comp\nd1 #d pairs (  
leaflets2 fruit1 #d-e long1 conta9+     
se$s4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1  
r$-br[n1 sap-wood1 ?91 yell[2           
diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 inconspicu\s2 gra91 

crook$2 rays1 f9e & scatt]$1 b pla94    
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#ad? 9  
?is li/72 #de lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 
#j4gbhb2 v /rong 7#bj? 9 ?is li/72      
ela/ic 7#bd? 9 ?is li/72 v h>d 7#a/ 9   
?is li/72 %r9kage1 #e p] c5t42 w>ps v   
little2 v durable2 g5u9e mahogany1 h>d  
to "w2 especially if gra9 is cross2     
some:at brittle1 & comp>atively easy to 
split1 nails ) difficulty2 poli%es &    
takes glue well4  ,,common ,,uses3      
,*iefly = cab9et-mak+1 furniture1       
int]ior f9i%es & v5e]s4  ,,rem>ks3      
,mahogany1 n[ 9 great dem& 9 ! ,am]ican 
m>ket = f9e furniture & int]ior trim    
comes f ! ,we/ ,indies1 ,c5tral ,am]ica 
& ,we/ ,africa4 ,! s-call$ ,spani%      
mahogany1 ! mo/ highly priz$ v>iety1    
came orig9ally f ! s\? ( ,hayti4 ,!     
,honduras ,mahogany 0 (t5 call$ baywood4
 ,botanically ! v>ieties are n c>efully 
di/+ui%$2 9 ! lumb] y>d ! lumb] is kn[n 
by its s\rces4 ,! ,cuba wood c be p>tly 
di/+ui%$ by ! :ite *alk-l specks 9 !    
pores & is cold to ! t\*1 :ile !        

,honduras wood c be recogniz$ by ! black
 specks or l9es 9 ! gra94 ,bo? !        
,honduras & ,we/ ,india woods h a s(t]  
feel ?an ! ,african wood1 :5 rubb$ ) !  
?umb4 ,! ,cuba & ,/4 ,dom+o wood are    
pref]r$ to ! ,honduras1 & /ill m to !   
,african1 b ev5 exp]ts h difficulty 9   
di/+ui%+ ! v>ieties4  ,spani% c$>1 or   
furniture c$> 7,c$rela odorata7 belongs 
to ! same family z mahogany & is (t5    
sold = x4 ,x is s(t]1 light]1 & easi] to
 "w4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1   
life size4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial    
,section1 life size4   #eg  ,,oregon    
,,maple4 ,,:ite ,,maple4 ,,l>ge ,,leav$ 
,,maple4  ,ac] macrophyllum ,pur%4      
,ac]1 ! classical ,lat9 "n2             
macrophyllum1 ref]s to     ! l>ge       
leaves4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4        
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 s\!rn      
,oregon4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4          
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#gj'-ajj'2 diamet]1 #c'-e'2 /\t1 (t5    
p5dul\s bran*es1 mak+ a h&some tree2    
b>k1 r$di% br[n1 deeply furr[$1 squ>e   

scales2 leaves1 v l>ge1 #h-ab & long    
petioles1 deep1 n>r[ s9uses2 fruit1     
hairy sam>as4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3  
,color1 ri* br[n & r$1 sap-wood ?ick1   
ne>ly :ite2 diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 obscure2
 gra91 close1 fibres int]lac$1 sometimes
 figur$1 poli%es well2 rays1 num]\s &   
?94  ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light 9   
weight 7#bf? 9 ?is li/72 #cj lbs4 p] cu4
 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4diji2 m$ium /rong 7#dg?
 9 ?is li/72 ela/icity m$ium 7#eg? 9 ?is
 li/72 m$ium h>d 7#ca/ 9 ?is li/72      
%r9kage1 #d p] c5t42 w>ps 44444444442 n 
durable2 r h>d to "w2 splits )          
difficulty4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,tool & ax
 h&les1 furniture1 int]ior f9i%4        
,,rem>ks3 ,a valuable wood on ! ,pacific
 coa/4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 
life size4  ,illu/ration3               
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #eh  ,,s(t       
,,maple4 ,,:ite ,,maple4 ,,silv]        
,,maple4      ,silv]1 ref]s to :ite     
color ( und]side ( leaf4  ,ac] sac*>9um 

,l9naeus4 ,ac] dasyc>pum ,ehrh>t4       
,ac]1 ! classical ,lat9 "n2 sac*>9um1   
ref]s to     sweeti% juice2 dasyc>pum1  
ref]s to ! wool9ess ( !     fruit :5 "y4
  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3   
7,see map72 be/ 9 l[] ,ohio valley4     
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #ej'-ij'1 ev5      
#abj'2 diamet]1 #c'-e'2 =m sugge/s elm2 
b>k1 r$di% br[n1 furr[$1 surface sep>at+
 into l>ge1 loose scales2 leaves1       
palmately #e lob$1 ) n>r[1 acute s9uses1
 silv]y :ite b5ea?1 turn only yell[ 9   
autumn2 fruit1 div]g5t1 w+$ sam>as4     
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 br[n &  
r$di%1 sap-wood1 cream2 diffuse-por\s2  
r+s1 obscure2 gra91 twi/$1 wavy1 f9e1   
poli%es well2 rays1 ?91 num]\s4         
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 m$ium  
7#dj? 9 ?is li/72 #cb lbs4 p] cu4 ft42  
sp4 gr41 #j4ebfi2 v /rong 7#ai? 9 ?is   
li/72 v ela/ic 7#bj? 9 ?is li/72 h>d    
7#be? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #e p] c5t42  
w>ps1 4444444444442 n durable "u        
exposure2 easily work$2 splits 9 nail+4 

,,common ,,uses3 ,floor+1 furniture1    
turn]y1 wood5 w>e4  ,,rem>ks3 ,gr[s     
rapidly4 ,curly v>ieties f\nd4 ,sap     
produces "s sug>4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial
 ,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3    
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #ei  ,,r$        
,,maple4  ,ac] rubrum ,l9naeus4         
,ac]1 ! classical ,lat9 "n2 rubrum1     
ref]s to r$     fl[]s & autumn leaves4  
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 l[] ,ohio valley4     
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #hj'-abj'2 diamet]1
 #b'-d'2 bran*es1 l[2 b>k1 d>k gray1    
%aggy1 divid$ by long ridges2 leaves1   
palmately #e lob$1 acute s9uses2 fruit1 
d\ble sam>as1 =m+ *>act]i/ic maple key4 
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 light   
r$di% br[n1 sap-wood1 light]2           
diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 obscure2 gra91      
crook$2 rays1 num]\s1 obscure4          
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 m$ium  
7#cj? 9 ?is li/72 #ch lbs4 p] cu4 ft42  

sp4 gr41 #j4fagh2 /rong 7#cf? 9 ?is     
li/72 ela/ic 7#cf? 9 ?is li/72 h>d 7#bg?
 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #e p] c5t42 w>ps  
44444442 n durable2 fairly h>d to "w2   
splits ) difficulty1 splits badly 9     
nail+4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,floor+1 turn+1
 wood5 w>e4  ,,rem>ks3 ,gr[s rapidly4   
,has r$ fl[]s1 r$ keys1 r$ leaf /ems1 & 
leaves sc>let or crimson 9 autumn4      
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #fj  ,,h>d ,,maple4 ,,sug>      
,,maple4 ,,rock ,,maple4  ,ac] sac*>um  
,m>%all4      ,ac]1 ! classical ,lat9   
"n2 sac*>um1 ref]s to sweet     sap4    
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 regions ( ,great      
,lakes4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4           
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#ajj'-abj'2 diamet]1 #a-a_/b'-c'1 ev5   
#d'2 (t5 trees 9 =e/ are )\t bran*es =  
#fj'-gj' f gr\nd1 9 ! op51 l>ge         
impressive tree2 b>k1 gray br[n1 ?ick1  

deep1 longitud9al fissures1 h>d & r\gh2 
leaves1 opposite1 #c to #e lob$1 sc>let 
& yell[ 9 autumn2 fruit1 d\ble1 slightly
 div]g5t sam>as4  ,,appe>ance ,,(       
,,wood3 ,color1 light br[n t+$ ) r$2    
diffuse-por\s r+s1 close b di/9ct2 gra91
 crook$1 f9e1 close1 poli%es well2 rays1
 f9e b conspicu\s4  ,,physical          
,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#ai? 9 ?is li/72   
#dc lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4fiab2 v
 /rong 7#h? 9 ?is li/72 v ela/ic 7#e? 9 
?is li/72 v h>d 7#g? 9 ?is li/72        
%r9kage1 #e p] c5t42 w>ps badly2 n      
durable :5 expos$2 h>d to "w2 splits    
badly 9 nail+4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,s*ool 
& o!r furniture1 c> con/ruction1 c>v+1  
wood5 type1 tool h&les1 %oe la/s1 piano 
actions1 %ips' keels4  ,,rem>ks3 ,tree v
 tol]ant4 ,! uses ( ?is wood are *iefly 
due to its h>dness4 ,bird's-,eye ,maple 
& ,curly ,maple are accid5tal v>ieties4 
,pure maple sug> is made *iefly f ?is   
species4 ,its a%es yield l>ge quantities
 ( pota%4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial        
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     

,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #fa  ,,basswood4 
,,l9d54      ,bass1 ref]s to ba/ or inn]
 b>k4  ,tilia am]icana ,l9naeus4        
,tilia1 ! classical ,lat9 "n4           
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 bottom l&s ( l[] ,ohio
 ,riv]4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4           
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#fj'-gj'1 ev5 #acj'2 diamet]1 #b'-d'2   
trunk1 erect1 pill>-l1 bran*es spread+1 
mak+ r\nd heads2 b>k1 light br[n1       
furr[$1 scaly surface1 inn] b>k fibr\s &
 t\gh1 us$ = matt+2 leaves1 oblique1    
he>t-%ap$1 side ne>e/ bran* l>g]2 fruit 
clu/]$ on long p5dul\s /em1 atta*$ to   
ve9 ( n>r[ bract4  ,,appe>ance ,,(      
,,wood3 ,color1 v light br[n1 approa*+  
cream color1 sap-wood1 h>dly            
di/+ui%able2 diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 f9e &  
close b cle>2 gra91 /raight2 rays1      
num]\s1 obscure4  ,,physical            
,,qualities3 ,light 9 weight 7#di? 9 ?is
 li/72 #bh lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41    

#j4debe2 weak 7#fj? 9 ?is li/72         
ela/icity1 m$ium 7#di? 9 ?is li/72 s(t  
7#fd? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #f p] c5t42  
w>ps comp>atively little2 q durable2 v  
easily work$2 some:at t\gh to split1    
nails well4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,wood5w>e1
 c>riage bodies1 etc41 picture mold+1   
pap] pulp1 etc4  ,,rem>ks3 ,may be      
propagat$ by graft+ z well z by se$4 ,is
 subject to attack by _m insects4 ,wood 
us$ = c>riage bodies because flexible & 
easily nail$4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial    
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #fb  ,,s\r ,,gum4
 ,,tupelo4 ,,pepp]idge4 ,,black ,,gum4  
,tupelo1 ! ,indian "n4  ,nyssa sylvatica
 ,m>%al4      ,nyssa1 f ,nysa1 ! realm (
 moi/ vegetation & ! home     (         
,dio-nysus 7,bac*us7 7! tree gr[s 9 l[  
wet l&s72     sylvatica1 ref]s to its   
habit ( =e/ gr[?4  ,illu/ration3        
,habitat4  ,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 
,s\!rn ,appala*ian m\nta9s4             

,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #dj'-ej'1 ev5      
#ajj'2 diamet]1 #a'f-c'f1 ev5 #e'2      
v>iable 9 =m2 b>k1 br[n1 deeply fissur$ 
& scaly2 leaves1 9 sprays1 %ort1        
petiol$1 brilliant sc>let 9 autumn2     
fruit1 blui% black1 s\r1 fle%y drupe4   
,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3 ,color1 pale    
yell[1 sap-wood1 :ite1 h>dly            
di/+ui%able2 diffuse-por\s2 r+s1 n pla92
 gra9 f9e1 twi/$ & int]wov52 rays1      
num]\s1 ?94  ,,physical ,,qualities3    
,m$ium heavy 7#be? 9 ?is li/72 #ci lbs4 
p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4fcef2 /rong     
7#cd? 9 ?is li/72 ela/icity1 m$ium 7#ea/
 9 ?is li/72 h>d 7#bj? 9 ?is li/72      
%r9kage1 #e or #f p] c5t42 w>ps & *ecks 
badly2 n durable if expos$2 h>d to "w2  
splits h>d1 t\gh4  ,,common ,,uses3     
,wagon hubs1 h&les1 yokes1 wood5 %oe    
soles1 docks & :>ves1 roll]s 9 glass    
factories4  ,,rem>ks3 ,! be/ grades     
closely resemble yell[ popl>4           
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    

magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #fc  ,,black ,,a%4 ,,hoop ,,a%4 
,hoop1 ref]s to its use = b>rel hoops4  
,frax9us nigra ,m>%all4 ,frax9us        
sambucifolia4      ,frax9us1 f a ,greek 
^w 7phraxis7 mean+ split1     ref]s to !
 cleavability ( ! wood2 sambucifolia1   
ref]s     to ! fact t ! leaves are 9    
odor l ^? ( ,eld]     7,sambucus74      
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 moi/ places4          
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #hj'-ij'2 diamet]1 
#a'-a-a_/b'2 sl5d]e/ ( ! =e/ trees1     
upright bran*es2 b>k1 gray t+$ ) r$1    
irregul> plates1 ) ?9 scales2 leaves1   
#aj-af long1 comp\nd1 #g to #aa         
leaflets1 9 autumn ru/y br[n2 fruit1    
s+le sam>as 9 panicles4  ,,appe>ance ,,(
 ,,wood3 ,color1 d>k br[n1 sap-wood     
light2 r+-por\s2 r+s1 well def9$2 gra91 
/raight1 burls (t5 =m highly priz$      
v5e]s2 rays1 num]\s & ?94  ,,physical   
,,qualities3 ,m$ium heavy 7#bg? 9 ?is   

li/72 #ci lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41     
#j4fcah2 /rong 7#ch? 9 ?is li/72        
ela/icity1 m$ium 7#ab? 9 ?is li/72 h>d  
7#bc;d 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #e p] c5t42 
w>ps1 b n v mu*2 n durable :5 expos$2   
h>d to "w2 sep>ates easily 9 lay]s1 h5ce
 us$ = spl9ts4  ,,common ,,uses3        
,int]ior f9i%1 cab9et "w1 f5c+1 b>rel   
hoops4  ,,rem>ks3 ,! flexibility ( !    
wood l>gely det]m9es its uses4          
,illu/ration3 ,radial ,section1 life    
size4  ,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1    
magnifi$ #cg-a_/b diamet]s4             
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #fd  ,,oregon ,,a%4  ,frax9us   
oregona ,nuttall4      ,frax9us1 f a    
,greek ^w 7phraxis7 mean+ split1        
ref]s to ! cleavability ( ! wood2       
oregona1 nam$ =     ! ,/ate ( ,oregon4  
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ 9 s\!rn ,oregon4        
,illu/ration3 ,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( 
,,! ,,tree3 ,height1 #ej'-hj'2 diamet]1 
#a'-a-a_/b'1 ev5 #d'2 bran*es1 /\t1     
erect2 b>k1 grayi% br[n1 deep int]rupt$ 

fissures1 broad1 flat ridges1           
exfoliates2 leaves1 #e-ad long2 p9nately
 comp\nd1 #e to #g leaflets2 fruit1 s+le
 sam>as 9 clu/]s4  ,,appe>ance ,,(      
,,wood3 ,color1 br[n1 sap-wood ?ick1    
light]2 r+-por\s2 r+s1 pla9ly m>k$ by   
l>ge1 op51 scatt]$ pores2 gra91 co>se1  
/raight2 rays1 num]\s1 ?94  ,,physical  
,,qualities3 ,weight1 m$ium 7#cg? 9 ?is 
li/72 #ce lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41     
#j4egca2 m$ium /rong 7#ej? 9 ?is li/72  
ela/icity1 m$ium 7#dh? 9 ?is li/72 m$ium
 h>d 7#bi? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #e p]   
c5t42 w>ps14444444444442 n durable2 h>d 
to "w1 t\gh2 splits ) difficulty4       
,,common ,,uses3 ,furniture1 vehicles1  
coop]age4  ,,rem>ks3 ,a valuable timb]  
tree ( ! ,pacific coa/4  ,illu/ration3  
,radial ,section1 life size4            
,illu/ration3 ,cross-section1 magnifi$  
#cg-a_/b diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3       
,tang5tial ,section1 life size4   #fe   
,,blue ,,a%4      ,blue1 ref]s to blue  
dye obta9$ f inn] b>k4  ,frax9us        
quadrangulata ,mi*aux4      ,frax9us1 f 

a ,greek ^w 7phraxis7 mean+ split1      
ref]s to ! cleavability ( ! wood2       
quadrangulata1     ref]s to f\r-angl$   
bran*lets4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4     
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 l[] ,waba% 
valley4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4           
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#fj'-gj'1 ev5 #abj'2 diamet]1 #a'-b'2   
tall1 sl5d]1 f\r-angl$1 bran*lets2 b>k1 
light gray1 irregul>ly divid$ into l>ge 
plate-l scales1 inside b>k1 blui%1      
yield+ dye2 leaves1 #h-ab long1 comp\nd 
p9nate1 #e to #i leaflets2 fruit1 w+$   
sam>as 9 panicles4  ,,appe>ance ,,(     
,,wood3 ,color1 light yell[1 /reak$ )   
br[n1 sap-wood light]2 r+-por\s2 r+s1   
cle>ly m>k$ by #a to #c r[s ( l>ge1 op5 
ducts2 gra91 /raight2 rays1 num]\s1     
obscure4  ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy
 7#af? 9 ?is li/72 #dd lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 
sp4 gr41 #j4gahd2 /rong 7#cg? 9 ?is     
li/72 ela/icity1 m$ium 7#eh? 9 ?is li/72
 h>d 7#ab? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #e p]   
c5t42 w>ps1 4444444444442 mo/ durable ( 
! a%es2 h>d to "w2 splits readily1 bad =

 nail+4  ,,common ,,uses3 ,c>riage      
build+1 tool h&les4  ,,rem>ks3 ,blue a% 
pit*=k h&les are fam\s4  ,illu/ration3  
,radial ,section1 life size4            
,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial ,section1 life 
size4   #ff  ,,r$ ,,a%4      ,r$1 f     
color ( inn] b>k4  ,frax9us p5nsylvanica
 ,m>%all4 ,frax9us pubesc5s ,lamb]t4    
,frax9us1 f a ,greek ^w 7phraxis7 mean+ 
split1     ref]s to ! cleavability ( !  
wood2 p5nsylvanica1 9     honor ( !     
,/ate ( ,p5nsylvania2 pubesc5s1 ref]s to
     d[n on new leaves & twigs4         
,illu/ration3 ,habitat4  ,,habitat3     
7,see map72 be/ ea/ ( ,alleghany        
m\nta9s4  ,illu/ration3 ,leaf4          
,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3 ,height1  
#dj'-fj'2 diamet]1 #ab-ah2 small1 slim1 
upright bran*es2 b>k1 br[n or a%y1      
great1 %all[1 longitud9al furr[s2       
leaves1 #aj-ab long1 p9nately comp\nd1  
#g to #i leaflets1 cov]$ ) d[n2 fruit1  
s+le sam>a4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3    
,color1 light br[n1 sap-wood light] &   
yell[i%2 r+ por\s2 r+s1 m>k$ by pores2  

gra91 /raight1 co>se2 rays1 num]\s1 ?94 
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 m$ium  
7#bh? 9 ?is li/72 #ci lbs4 p] cu4 ft42  
sp4 gr41 #j4fbea2 /rong 7#cj? 9 ?is     
li/72 ela/icity1 m$ium 7#ec;d 9 ?is     
li/72 h>d 7#ag? 9 ?is li/72 %r9kage1 #e 
p] c5t42 w>ps little2 n durable2 h>d to 
"w2 splits 9 nail+4  ,,common ,,uses3   
,agricultural implem5ts1 o>s1 h&les1    
boats4  ,,rem>ks3 ,(t5 sold ) & z !     
sup]ior :ite a%4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial 
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     
,section1 life size4   #fg  ,,:ite ,,a%4
      ,:ite1 ref]s to :iti% color (     
wood4  ,frax9us am]icana ,l9naeus4      
,frax9us1 f a ,greek ^w 7phraxis7 mean+ 
split1     ref]s to ! cleavability ( !  
wood4  ,illu/ration3 ,habitat4          
,,habitat3 7,see map72 be/ 9 ! bottom   
l&s ( l[] ,ohio valley4  ,illu/ration3  
,leaf4  ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,tree3   
,height1 #gj'-hj'1 ev5 #abj'2 diamet]1  
#c'-f'2 bran*es r high1 tree s+ul>ly    

graceful2 b>k1 gray1 n>r[ furr[s1 clean1
 neat trunk2 leaves1 #h-ae long1        
comp\nd1 tuft$1 smoo?1 turns 9 autumn to
 beautiful purples1 br[ns & yell[s2     
fruit1 panicles ( sam>as1 p]si/5t till  
midw9t]4  ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,wood3       
,color1 light r$di% br[n1 sap-wood      
:iti%2 r+-por\s1 r+s cle>ly m>k$ by     
pores2 /raight-gra9$2 pi? rays obscure4 
,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#bb;d 9 
?is li/72 #ci lbs4 p] cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 
#j4fedc2 /rong 7#ca/ 9 ?is li/72 ela/ic 
7#cj? 9 ?is li/72 h>d 7#ag? 9 ?is li/72 
%r9kage1 #e p] c5t42 w>ps little2 n     
durable 9 contact ) soil2 h>d & t\gh2   
splits readily1 nails badly4  ,,common  
,,uses3 ,inside f9i%1 f>m implem5ts1    
b>rels1 baskets1 o>s1 c>riages4         
,,rem>ks3 ,=ms no =e/s1 occurs scatt]$4 
,its uses = h&les & o>s det]m9$ by      
comb9ation ( /r5g?1 lightness &         
ela/icity4  ,illu/ration3 ,radial       
,section1 life size4  ,illu/ration3     
,cross-section1 magnifi$ #cg-a_/b       
diamet]s4  ,illu/ration3 ,tang5tial     

,section1 life size4   ,,li/ ,,( #ff    
,,common ,,woods ,,arrang$ ,,9 ,,!      
,,ord] ,,( ,,_! ,,weight4     #a4       
,%ellb>k hickory4    #b4 ,po/ oak4      
#c4 ,mock]nut4    #d4 ,pignut4    #e4   
,basket oak4    #f4 ,*]ry bir*4    #g4  
,sla% p9e4    #h4 ,:ite oak4    #i4 ,bur
 oak4   #aj4 ,we/]n :ite oak4   #aa4    
,we/]n l>*4   #ab4 ,black locu/4   #ac4 
,blue bee*4   #ad4 ,mahogany4   #ae4    
,cork elm4   #af4 ,blue a%4   #ag4      
,black oak4   #ah4 ,longleaf p9e4   #ai4
 ,h>d maple4   #bj4 ,bee*4   #ba4 ,yell[
 bir*4   #bb4 ,:ite a%4   #bc4 ,r$ oak4 
#bd4 ,:ite elm4   #be4 ,s\r gum4   #bf4 
,oregon maple4   #bg4 ,black a%4   #bh4 
,r$ a%4   #bi4 ,tam>ack4   #cj4 ,r$     
maple4   #ca4 ,black walnut4   #cb4     
,%ortleaf p9e4   #cc4 ,canoe bir*4      
#cd4 ,sweet gum4   #ce4 ,wild black     
*]ry4   #cf4 ,r$ bir*4   #cg4 ,oregon   
a%4   #ch4 ,sycamore4   #ci4 ,loblolly  
p9e4   #dj4 ,s(t maple4   #da4 ,d\glas  
spruce4   #db4 ,r$ c$>4   #dc4 ,norway  
p9e4   #dd4 ,we/]n yell[ p9e4   #de4    

,cucumb] tree4   #df4 ,lawson cypress4  
#dg4 ,black spruce & ,r$ spruce4   #dh4 
,bald cypress4   #di4 ,basswood4   #ej4 
,*e/nut4   #ea4 ,black will[4   #eb4    
,tidel& spruce4   #ec4 ,hemlock4   #ed4 
,yell[ popl>4   #ee4 ,r$wood4   #ef4    
,butt]nut4   #eg4 ,:ite spruce4   #eh4  
,we/]n :ite p9e4   #ei4 ,:ite p9e4      
#fj4 ,we/]n r$ c$>4   #fa4 ,sug> p9e4   
#fb4 ,gr& fir4   #fc4 ,engelmann's      
spruce4   #fd4 ,:ite c$>4   #fe4 ,big   
tree4   ,,li/ ,,( #ff ,,common ,,woods  
,,arrang$ ,,9 ,,! ,,ord] ,,( ,,_!       
,,/r5g?4     #a4 ,black locu/4    #b4   
,yell[ bir*4    #c4 ,we/]n l>*4    #d4  
,*]ry bir*4    #e4 ,%ellb>k hickory4    
#f4 ,sla% p9e4    #g4 ,longleaf p9e4    
#h4 ,h>d maple4    #i4 ,blue bee*4      
#aj4 ,bee*4   #aa4 ,mock]nut4   #ab4    
,basket ,oak4   #ac4 ,cork elm4   #ad4  
,canoe bir*4   #ae4 ,pignut hickory4    
#af4 ,bur oak4   #ag4 ,black oak4   #ah4
 ,%ortleaf p9e4   #ai4 ,s(t maple4      
#bj4 ,mahogany4   #ba4 ,r$ oak4   #bb4  
,r$ bir*4   #bc4 ,:ite oak4   #bd4      

,tam>ack4   #be4 ,lawson cypress4   #bf4
 ,loblolly p9e4   #bg4 ,d\glas spruce4  
#bh4 ,we/]n :ite oak4   #bi4 ,po/ oak4  
#cj4 ,r$ a%4   #ca4 ,:ite a%4   #cb4    
,black walnut4   #cc4 ,:ite elm4   #cd4 
,s\r gum4   #ce4 ,wild black *]ry4      
#cf4 ,r$ maple4   #cg4 ,blue a%4   #ch4 
,black a%4   #ci4 ,norway p9e4   #dj4   
,we/]n r$ c$>4   #da4 ,black spruce &   
,r$ spruce4   #db4 ,:ite spruce4   #dc4 
,r$ c$>4   #dd4 ,hemlock4   #de4 ,we/]n 
yell[ p9e4   #df4 ,*e/nut4   #dg4       
,oregon maple4   #dh4 ,bald cypress4    
#di4 ,cucumb] tree4   #ej4 ,oregon a%4  
#ea4 ,yell[ popl>4   #eb4 ,sweet gum4   
#ec4 ,tidel& spruce4   #ed4 ,sycamore4  
#ee4 ,:ite p9e4   #ef4 ,we/]n :ite p9e4 
#eg4 ,butt]nut4   #eh4 ,r$wood4   #ei4  
,sug> p9e4   #fj4 ,basswood4   #fa4     
,engelmann's spruce4   #fb4 ,gr& fir4   
#fc4 ,big tree4   #fd4 ,:ite c$>4   #fe4
 ,black will[4   ,,li/ ,,( #ff ,,common 
,,woods ,,arrang$ ,,9 ,,! ,,ord] ,,(    
,,_! ,,ela/icity4     #a4 ,we/]n l>*4   
#b4 ,canoe bir* & ,yell[ bir*4    #c4   

,sla% p9e4    #d4 ,longleaf p9e4    #e4 
,h>d maple4    #f4 ,*]ry bir*4    #g4   
,%ortleaf p9e4    #h4 ,%ellb>k hickory4 
#i4 ,black locu/4   #aj4 ,d\glas spruce4
   #aa4 ,tam>ack4   #ab4 ,lawson        
cypress4   #ac4 ,bee*4   #ad4 ,mock]nut4
   #ae4 ,blue bee*4   #af4 ,norway p9e4 
#ag4 ,loblolly p9e4   #ah4 ,r$ oak4     
#ai4 ,r$ bir*4   #bj4 ,s(t maple4   #ba4
 ,r$ spruce & ,black spruce4   #bb4     
,cork elm4   #bc4 ,black walnut4   #bd4 
,mahogany4   #be4 ,black oak4   #bf4    
,we/]n r$ c$>4   #bg4 ,pignut hickory4  
#bh4 ,bald cypress4   #bi4 ,:ite spruce4
   #cj4 ,:ite a%4   #ca4 ,tidel& spruce4
   #cb4 ,:ite oak4   #cc4 ,basket oak4  
#cd4 ,gr& fir4   #ce4 ,we/]n :ite p9e4  
#cf4 ,r$ maple4   #cg4 ,bur oak4   #ch4 
,cucumb] tree4   #ci4 ,yell[ popl>4     
#dj4 ,hemlock4   #da4 ,we/]n yell[ p9e4 
#db4 ,black a%4   #dc4 ,sycamore4   #dd4
 ,sweet gum4   #de4 ,wild black *]ry4   
#df4 ,*e/nut4   #dg4 ,:ite p9e4   #dh4  
,oregon a%4   #di4 ,bass4   #ej4 ,po/   
oak4   #ea4 ,s\r gum4   #eb4 ,butt]nut4 

#ec4 ,r$ a%4   #ed4 ,we/]n :ite oak4    
#ee4 ,engelmann's spruce4   #ef4 ,sug>  
p9e4   #eg4 ,oregon maple4   #eh4 ,blue 
a%4   #ei4 ,:ite elm4   #fj4 ,r$wood4   
#fa4 ,r$ c$>4   #fb4 ,big tree4   #fc4  
,:ite c$>4   #fd4 ,black will[4   ,,li/ 
,,( #ff ,,common ,,woods ,,arrang$ ,,9  
,,! ,,ord] ,,( ,,_! ,,h>dness4     #a4  
,mahogany4    #b4 ,pignut4    #c4       
,mock]nut4    #d4 ,po/ oak4    #e4      
,%ellb>k hickory4    #f4 ,black locu/4  
#g4 ,h>d maple4    #h4 ,we/]n :ite oak4 
#i4 ,bur oak4   #aj4 ,basket oak4   #aa4
 ,*]ry bir*4   #ab4 ,blue a%4   #ac4    
,:ite oak4   #ad4 ,blue bee*4   #ae4    
,cork elm4   #af4 ,wild black *]ry4     
#ag4 ,r$ a%4   #ah4 ,black oak4   #ai4  
,:ite a%4   #bj4 ,s\r gum4   #ba4 ,black
 walnut4   #bb4 ,bee*4   #bc4 ,black a%4
   #bd4 ,sla% p9e4   #be4 ,s(t maple4   
#bf4 ,r$ oak4   #bg4 ,r$ maple4   #bh4  
,:ite elm4   #bi4 ,oregon a%4   #cj4    
,sycamore4   #ca4 ,oregon maple4   #cb4 
,yell[ bir*4   #cc4 ,long leaf p9e4     
#cd4 ,r$ c$>4   #ce4 ,we/]n l>*4   #cf4 

,sweet gum4   #cg4 ,r$ bir*4   #ch4     
,%ort leaf p9e4   #ci4 ,canoe bir*4     
#dj4 ,tam>ack4   #da4 ,cucumb] tree4    
#db4 ,we/]n yell[ p9e4   #dc4 ,loblolly 
p9e4   #dd4 ,*e/nut4   #de4 ,d\glas     
spruce4   #df4 ,black will[4   #dg4     
,butt]nut4   #dh4 ,norway p9e4   #di4   
,yell[ popl>4   #ej4 ,lawson cypress4   
#ea4 ,hemlock4   #eb4 ,bald cypress4    
#ec4 ,sug> p9e4   #ed4 ,r$ spruce &     
,black spruce4   #ee4 ,r$wood4   #ef4   
,engelmann's spruce4   #eg4 ,:ite p9e4  
#eh4 ,:ite spruce4   #ei4 ,tidel&       
spruce4   #fj4 ,we/]n :ite c$>4   #fa4  
,big tree4   #fb4 ,:ite c$>4   #fc4     
,we/]n :ite p9e4   #fd4 ,basswood4      
#fe4 ,gr& fir4   ,,! ,,pr9cipal         
,,species ,,( ,,woods4  ,,ref]5ces3,a   
,s>g5t1 ,jesup ,collection4 ,s>g5t1     
,manual4 ,britton4 ,ro?1 ,timb]4 ,h\gh1 
,h&book4 ,keel]4 ,apg>4 ,mohr4 ,=4      
,bull41 ,no4 #bb4 ,f]n[1 ,=e/ry         
,inve/igations4 ,lumb] ,trade ,j\rnals4 
,bat]d54 ,s>g5t1 ,silva4 ,s>g5t1 ,=e/   
,trees1 #aj? ,c5sus1 ,vol4 ,,ix4 ,b\lg]4

 ,h\gh1 ,am]ican ,woods4 ,sn[4          
,l\nsb]ry4 ,spauld+4 ,=4 ,bull41 ,no4   
#ac4 ,sudwor?4 ,=4 ,bull41 ,no4 #ag4    
,=e/ ,s]vice ,records ( ,:olesale       
,prices ( ,lumb]1 ,li/4 ,a4  ,= p>ticul>
 trees consult ,=4 ,s]v41 ,bullet9s &   
,circul>s4 ,see ,=4 ,s]vice ,classifi$  
,li/ ( ,publications4      ,footnote ,a3
 ,= g5]al bibliography1 see p4 #d4      
,,*apt] ,,iv4  ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,&    
,,composition ,,( ,,! ,,nor? ,,am]ican  
,,=e/s4   ,! =e/s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1    
,map1 ,fig4 #dd1 may be conv5i5tly      
divid$ into two great regions1 ! ,ea/]n 
or ,atlantic ,=e/1 & ! ,we/]n or        
,pacific ,=e/4 ,^! are sep>at$ by !     
great treeless pla9s :i* are we/ ( !    
,mississippi ,riv]1 & ea/ ( ! ,rocky    
,m\nta9s1 & :i* ext5d f ,nor? ,dakota to
 we/]n ,texas4#a  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4   
#dd4 ,=e/ ,regions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4   
,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,! ,ea/]n ,=e/   
once consi/$ ( an almo/ unbrok5 mass1   
ly+ 9 ?ree q di/9ct regions1 7#a7 !     
nor!rn belt ( conif]s1 7#b7 ! s\!rn belt

 ( conif]s1 & 7#c7 ! great decidu\s     
7h>dwood7 =e/ ly+ betwe5 ^! two4  7#a7  
,! nor!rn belt ( conif]s or ,nor? ,woods
 ext5d$ ?ru nor!rn ,new ,engl& & ,new   
,york & ran s\? along ! ,appala*ians4 ,x
 reappe>$ aga9 9 nor!rn ,mi*igan1       
,wiscons9 & ,m9nesota4 ,:ite p9e1 ,fig4 
#de1 0 ! *>act]i/ic tree 9 ! ea/]n "p ( 
?is belt1 ?o spruce 0 common1 ,fig4 #ef1
 p4 #bac1 & :ite & ,norway p9e & hemlock
 di/+ui%$ x 9 ! we/]n "p4 ,al?o ! m     
valuable timb]1 especially ! p9e1 has   
be5 cut out1 x /ill rema9s a l>gely     
unbrok5 =e/ ma9ly ( spruce1 second gr[? 
p9e1 hemlock & "s h>dwood4              
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,int]ior (     
,d5se ,:ite ,p9e ,=e/1 ,cass ,lake1     
,m9n4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  7#b7 ,!    
s\!rn p9e =e/ =m]ly ext5d$ f ! ,potomac 
,riv] 9 a belt f "o to two hundr$ miles 
wide along ! ,atlantic coa/1 across !   
,florida p59sula1 & along ! gulf (      
,mexico1 skipp+ ! ,mississippi ,riv] &  
reappe>+ 9 a great =e/ 9 ,l\isiana &    
,ea/]n ,texas4 ,x 0 compos$ ( almo/ pure

 /&s ( p9e1 ! long-leaf1 ,fig4 #df1 !   
%ort-leaf1 & ! loblolly1 ) cypress 9 !  
swamps & bottom l&s4 ,9 s\!rn ,florida !
 =e/ is tropical1 ,fig4 #dg1 l t ( !    
,we/ ,indies1 & 9 s\!rn ,texas x p>takes
 ( ! "* ( ! ,mexican =e/4  ,illu/ration3
 ,fig4 #df4 ,long-leaf ,p9e ,=e/4       
,oscilla1 ,georgia4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/        
,s]vice4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4      
,semi-tropical ,=e/1 ,florida4 ,live    
,oak1 ,surr\nd$ by ,cabbage ,palmetto1 &
 ,hung ,) ,spani% ,moss4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/   
,s]vice4  7#c7 ,betwe5 ^! nor? & s\?    
conif]\s belts1 lay ! great broad-leaf  
or h>dwood =e/1 ,fig4 #dh1 :i* con/itut$
 ! great] "p ( ! ,ea/]n ,=e/ & *>act]iz$
 x4 ,x 0 divid$ into two p>ts by an     
irregul> nor!a/ & s\?we/ l9e1 runn+ f   
s\!rn ,new ,engl& to ,miss\ri4 ,! s\!a/ 
portion consi/$ ( h>dwoods int]mix$ )   
conif]s4 ,! high] ridges ( ! ,appala*ian
 ,range1 really a leg ( ! nor!rn =e/1 7 
occupi$ by conif]s1 ma9ly spruce1 :ite  
p9e1 & hemlock4 ,! nor?we/ portion ( !  
region1 p>ticul>ly ,ohio1 ,indiana1 &   

,ill9ois1 0 )\t ! conif]s4 ,x 0         
ess5tially a mix$ =e/1 l>gely oak1 ) a  
v>iable mixture ( maples1 bee*1 *e/nut1 
yell[ popl>1 hickory1 sycamore1 elm1 &  
a%1 ) bir* appe>+ t[>d ! nor? & p9e t[>d
 ! s\?4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4       
,broad-leaf ,=e/1 ,protect$ f ,cattle & 
,fire4 ,hancock ,co41 ,indiana4 ,u4 ,s4 
,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,tak+ ! ,ea/]n ,=e/ z a  
:ole1 its mo/ di/+ui%+ feature 0 !      
preval5ce ( broad-leav$ trees1 s t x    
might prop]ly be call$ a decidu\s =e/4  
,! greate/ div]sity ( trees 0 to be f\nd
 9 ,k5tucky1 ,t5nessee & ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 
& ?is region is /ill ! s\rce ( ! be/    
h>dwood lumb]4  ,?is great ea/]n =e/1   
:i* once ext5d$ un9t]rupt$ly f !        
,atlantic to ! ,mississippi & beyond1   
has n[ be5 l>gely lumb]$ (f1 p>ticul>ly 
?ru ! middle or h>dwood portion1 mak+   
way = f>ms & t[ns4 ,! nor? & s\?        
conif]\s belts are /ill ma9ly unbrok51 &
 are sp>sely settl$1 b ! big timb] is   
cut out1 giv+ place to poor] trees4 ,?is
 is p>ticul>ly true ( ! :ite p9e1 ! k+ (

 ,am]ican trees1 only a little ( :i*1 9 
valuable sizes1 is left 9 ,mi*igan1     
,wiscons9 & ,m9nesota4 ,9 ! same way 9 !
 s\?1 ! long-leaf p9e1 once ! *>act]i/ic
 tree1 is fa/ be+ lumb]$ out4           
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,irrigat$ ,ran*
 on ,treeless ,alkali ,pla94 ,rio       
,blanco ,co41 ,colorada4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/   
,s]vice4  ,! ,we/]n or ,pacific =e/     
ext5ds two great legs1 "o d[n ! ,rocky  
,m\nta9 ,range1 & ! o!r along ! ,pacific
 coa/4 ,betwe5 !m lies ! great treeless 
alkali pla9 c5t]+ ar\nd ,nevada1 ,fig4  
#di4 ,9 ^! two regions conif]\s trees h 
almo/ a monopoly4 ,broad-leav$ trees are
 to be f\nd !re1 along ! riv] b$s & 9   
rav9es1 b !y are ( comp>atively little  
importance4 ,! =e/ is ess5tially an     
ev]gre5 =e/4 ,ano!r m>k$ feature ( ?is  
we/]n =e/1 except 9 ! ,puget ,s\nd      
region1 is t ! trees1 9 _m cases1 /& f> 
ap>t1 _! cr[ns n ev5 t\*+1 s t ! sun    
beats d[n & dries up ! =e/ floor1 ,fig4 
#ej4 ,!re is no d5se =e/ cov] or canopy 
z 9 ! ,ea/]n ,=e/4 ,moreov] ^! we/]n    

=e/s are l>gely brok5 up1 cov]+ b a "p (
 ! m\nta9s1 _m ( :i* are sn[-clad1 &    
int]rupt$ by b>e pla9s4 ,along ! creeks 
!re gr[ a v>iety ( h>dwoods4 ,x 0 nev] a
 cont9u\s =e/ z 0 ! ,ea/]n ,=e/4 ,!     
op5ness ( ?is =e/ on ! ,rockies & on !  
ea/]n slopes ( ! ,si]ra ,nevadas is 9   
m>k$ contra/ to ! we/]n slopes ( !      
,si]ras1 :]e !re are to be se5 ! d5se/ &
 mo/ rem>kable woods ( ! _w1 ,fig4 #ea4 
,?is is due to ! peculi> di/ribution ( !
 ra9fall ( ! region4 ,! precipitation ( 
! moi/ure ^u ! nor?we/ coa/ :]e ! trees 
are dripp+ ) fog a l>ge "p ( ! "t1 is   
unequal$ by t ( any o!r locality on !   
cont95t4 ,b ! int]ior ( ?is region1 :i* 
is %ut (f by ! high ,si]ra ,nevadas f ! 
we/]n w9ds1 has a v light & irregul>    
ra9fall4 ,:]e ! ra9fall is heavy1 ! =e/s
 are d5se2 & :]e ! ra9fall is light1 !  
trees are sp>se4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4   
#ej4 ,op5 ,we/]n ,=e/1 ,bull ,p9e4      
,flag/aff1 ,arizona4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/       
,s]vice4  ,along ! ,rockies ! *>act]i/ic
 trees are ,engelmann's spruce1 bull    

p9e1 ,d\glas fir1 & lodgepole p9e4 ,z "o
 goes we/1 ! v>iety ( trees increases & 
becomes1 s f> z conif]s are conc]n$1 f> 
great] ?an 9 ! ea/4 ,( #aji conif]s 9 ! 
,unit$ ,/ates1 #hj belong to ! we/]n    
=e/s & #bh to ! ea/]n4 ,! ,pacific =e/  
is ri* 9 ! possession ( half a doz5     
lead+ species--,d\glas fir1 we/]n       
hemlock1 sug> p9e1 bull p9e1 c$> &      
r$wood4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,d5se 
,=e/ ( ,puget ,s\nd ,region1 ,r$ ,fir & 
,r$ ,c$>4 ,pi]ce ,co41 ,wa%+ton4 ,u4 ,s4
 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,b ! f> we/]n conif]s   
are rem>kable1 n only = _! v>iety1 b    
/ill m = ! d5sity ( _! gr[?1 already    
m5tion$1 & = _! great size1 ,fig4 #eb4  
,! p9es1 spruces & hemlocks ( ! ,puget  
,s\nd region make ea/]n trees look      
small1 & bo? ! r$ fir & ! r$wood (t5 gr[
 to be ov] #bej feet high1 & yield      
#ajj1jjj feet1 ,b4,m41 to ! acre z aga9/
 #aj1jjj feet1 ,b4,m41 ( good spruce 9  
,ma9e4 ,! r$wood1 ,fig4 #ec1 occupies a 
belt "s tw5ty miles wide along ! coa/ f 
s\!rn ,oregon to a po9t n f> nor? ( ,san

 ,francisco & gr[s ev5 tall] ?an ! fam\s
 big trees4 ,! big trees are ! l>ge/    
kn[n trees 9 diamet]1 occasionally rea*+
 9 t measurem5t #ce feet4  ,illu/ration3
 ,fig4 #eb4 ,virg9 ,=e/ ( ,r$ ,fir1 ,r$ 
,c$>1 ,we/]n ,hemlock1 & ,oregon ,maple4
 ,a%=d1 ,wa%+ton4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4 
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,r$wood ,=e/4  
,santa ,cruz ,co41 ,calif4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ 
,s]vice4  ,! big tree1 ,fig4 #ed1 occurs
 exclusively 9 groves1 :i*1 h[ev]1 are n
 pure1 b are scatt]$ among a mu* l>g]   
numb] ( trees ( o!r k9ds4  ,illu/ration3
 ,fig4 #ed4 ,big ,tree ,=e/4 ,si]ra     
,national ,=e/1 ,cali=nia4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ 
,s]vice4  ,! great & unsurpass$ ,puget  
,s\nd =e/ is de/9$ to be be=e long !    
c5t] ( ! lumb] trade ( ?is c\ntry4  ,^! 
two great =e/s ( ! ea/ & ! we/ bo? run  
nor?w>d into ,briti% ,am]ica1 & are !re 
unit$ 9 a broad belt ( sub>ctic =e/ :i* 
ext5ds across ! cont95t4 ,at ! f> nor? x
 is *>act]iz$ by ! :ite spruce & asp54  
,! =e/ is op51 /unt$1 & ( no economic   
value4  ,tak+ all ! g5]a & species      

toge!r1 !re is a f> great] v>iety 9 !   
ea/]n ?an 9 ! we/]n =e/s4 ,a consid]able
 numb] ( g5]a1 p]haps a ?ird ( ! total1 
gr[ )9 bo? regions1 b ! species hav+    
cont95tal range are few4 ,!y are !      
foll[+3 ,l>* 7,l>ix l>ic9a71 :ite spruce
 7,picea canad5sis71 dw>f junip]        
7,junip]us communis71 black will[       
7,salix nigra71 almond leaf will[       
7,salix amygdaloides71 long leaf will[  
7,salix fluviatilis71 asp5 7,populus    
tremuloides71 balm ( ,gilead 7,populus  
balsamif]a71 & hackb]ry 7,celtis        
occid5talis74      ,footnote #a3        
,,orig9al ,,=e/ ,,regions ,,( ,,!       
,,unit$ ,,/ates4                        
,area        ,area                      
,?\s& acres  ,p] c5t4     ,nor!rn =e/   
#aeh1ich        #h4d     ,h>dwood =e/   
#cbh1ahc       #ag4c     ,s\!rn =e/     
#bdi1ffi       #ac4a     ,rocky ,m\nta9s
 =e/            #aee1jad        #h4a    
,pacific =e/                    #aba1cef
        #f4d     ,treeless area         
#hhg1ghg       #df4g                    

---------      -----     ,total l& area 
#a1ijj1idg      #ajj4j        ,,!       
,,di/ribution ,,& ,,composition ,,(     
,,nor? ,,am]ican ,,=e/s4  ,,ref]5ces3,a 
,s>g5t1 ,=e/ ,trees1 ,intro41 pp4 #c-aj4
 ,brunck51 pp4 #e-af4 ,ro?1 ,fir/ ,book1
 pp4 #bji-bab4 ,%al]1 ,i1 pp4 #dhi-dih4 
,f]n[1 ,=4 ,inves41 pp4 #de-ea4 ,f]n[1  
,economics1 pp4 #cca-cfh4      ,footnote
 ,a3 ,= g5]al bibliography1 see p4 #d4  
,,*apt] ,v4  ,,! ,,=e/ ,,organism4   ,! 
=e/ is mu* m ?an an assemblage ( diff]5t
 trees1 x is an organism2 t is1 ! trees 
t compose x h a vital relation to ea*   
o!r4 ,x may almo/ be said to h a life ( 
its own1 s9ce x has a soil & a climate1 
l>gely ( its own mak+4  ,)\t ^!         
conditions1 & )\t ! help & h9drance :i* 
=e/ trees give to ea* o!r1 ^! trees w\ld
 n h _! pres5t *>act]i/ics1 ei!r 9 %ape1
 habits ( gr[? or nature ( wood gra94   
,inde$1 "s ( !m c\ld n live at all4     
,s9ce by f> ! great] numb] ( timb] trees
 gr[ 9 ! =e/1 9 ord] to und]/& ! facts  
ab\t trees & woods1 x is necess>y to "k 

some?+ ab\t ! conditions ( =e/ life4  ,a
 tree is made up ( ?ree di/9ct p>ts3    
7#a7 ! roots :i* an*or x 9 ! gr\nd1 &   
draw its n\ri%m5t f ! moi/ soil2 7#b7 ! 
trunk1 or bole1 or /em1 :i* c>ries !    
weight ( ! bran*es & leaves1 & conveys !
 n\ri%m5t to & f ! leaves2 7#c7 ! cr[n1 
compos$ ( ! leaves1 ! bran*es on :i* !y 
hang1 & ! buds at ! ends ( ! bran*es4 ,z
 trees /& toge!r 9 ! =e/1 _! unit$ cr[ns
 make a sort ( canopy or cov]1 ,fig4    
#ee1 :i*1 m ?an any?+1 det]m9es !       
factors affect+ =e/ life1 viz41 ! soil1 
! temp]ature1 ! moi/ure1 & mo/ important
 ( all1 ! light4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4   
#ee4 ,! ,=e/ ,cov]4 ,spruce ,=e/1       
,bav>ia1 ,g]many4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4 
,on ! o!r h&1 e species ( tree has its  
own requirem5ts 9 respect to ^! v       
factors ( temp]ature1--moi/ure1 soil &  
light4 ,^! are call$ its silvical       
*>act]i/ics4   ,,soil4  ,"s trees1 z    
black walnut1 fl\ri% on good soil1      
supplant+ o!rs because !y are bett] able
 to make use ( ! ri*ness ( ! soil2 :ile 

"s trees occupy poor soil because !y    
alone are able to live !re at all4      
,spruce1 ,fig4 #ef1 w gr[ 9 ! nor? woods
 on su* poor soil t x has no            
competitors1 & bir*es1 too1 w gr[ any:]e
 9 ! nor? woods4 ,9 g5]al1 x is true t  
mix$ =e/s1 ,fig4 #eg1 i4e41 ^? hav+ a   
v>iety ( species1 gr[ on good loamy     
soil4 ,! great c5tral1 decidu\s         
,atlantic ,=e/ grew on su* soil until x 
0 remov$ to make room = f>ms4 ,on ! o!r 
h&1 pure /&s--i4e41 =e/s made up ( s+le 
v>ieties--( p9e occupy poor s&y soil4   
,)9 a di/ance ( a few y>ds 9 ! mid/ ( a 
pure /& ( p9e 9 ! s\?1 a *ange 9 ! soil 
w produce a d5se mix$ gr[? (            
broad-leaves & conif]s4  ,illu/ration3  
,fig4 #ef4 ,virg9 ,/& ( ,r$ ,spruce4    
,:ite ,m\nta9s1 ,new ,hamp%ire4 ,u4 ,s4 
,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 
,typical ,mix$ ,=e/1--,r$ ,spruce1      
,hemlock1 ,:ite ,a%1 ,yell[ ,bir*1      
,balsam ,fir1 & ,r$ ,maple4 ,raquette   
,lake1 ,new ,york4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4
  ,! soil 9 ! =e/ is l>gely det]m9$ by !

 =e/ itself4 ,9 addition to ! e>?1 x is 
compos$ ( ! fall5 & decay$ leaves &     
twigs & tree trunks1 altoge!r call$ !   
=e/ floor4 ,x is spongy & h5ce has !    
ability to reta9 moi/ure1 a fact ( great
 importance to ! =e/4   ,,moi/ure4  ,"s 
trees1 z black a% & cypress1 ,fig4 #eh1 
& cotton gum1 ,fig4 #ei1 gr[ naturally  
only 9 moi/ places2 "s1 z ! p9on &      
mesquite1 a k9d ( locu/1 gr[ only 9 dry 
places2 :ile o!rs1 z ! junip] & ,d\glas 
fir1 adapt !mselves to ei!r4 ,bo?       
excessively wet & dry soils t5d to      
dim9i% ! numb] ( k9ds ( trees4 ,9 _m    
in/ances ! dem& = wat] controls !       
di/ribution altoge!r4 ,9 ! ,puget ,s\nd 
region1 :]e !re is a heavy ra9-fall1 !  
d5se/ =e/s 9 ! _w are f\nd1 :]eas on !  
ea/]n slopes ( ! same m\nta9s1 al?o !   
soil is n ess5tially diff]5t1 !re are v 
few trees1 because ( ! con/ant dr\?4    
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,cypress &     
,cypress ,knees4 ,jasp] ,co41 ,texas4   
,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,illu/ration3    
,fig4 #ei4 ,cotton ,gums1 ,%[+          

,buttresses4 ,/4 ,francis ,riv]1        
,arkansas4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4        
,,temp]ature4  ,! fact t "s trees1 z    
pap] bir* & :ite spruce1 gr[ only 9 cold
 regions1 & "s1 z rubb] trees & cypress1
 only 9 ! tropics1 is commonplace2 b a  
fact n s well kn[n is t x is n ! av]age 
temp]ature1 b ! extremes :i* l>gely     
det]m9e ! habitat ( trees ( diff]5t     
k9ds4 ,trees :i* w\ld n live at all :]e 
!re is fro/1 might fl\ri% well 9 a      
region :]e ! av]age temp]ature 0        
consid]ably l[]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 provid$ !
 gr[+ season is long en\gh = ! species1 
!re is no place on e>? too cold = trees 
to live4 ,fig4 #fj4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4
 #fj4 ,nor!rn ,=e/1--,"y ,spruce ,gr[+  
,"u ,yell[ ,bir*4 ,santa ,cl>a1 ,new    
,york4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,9 g5]al1 
cold affects ! =e/ j z poor soil &      
dr\ght d1 simplify+ its composition &   
/unt+ its gr[?4 ,9 ,canada !re are only 
a few k9ds ( trees1 ( :i* ! h>dwoods are
 /unt$2 s\? ( ! ,great ,lakes1 !re is a 
great v>iety ( l>ge trees2 f>!r s\? 9 ! 

s\!rn ,appala*ian region1 !re is a /ill 
great] v>iety1 & ! trees are j z l>ge2 &
 /ill f>!r s\? 9 tropical ,florida1 !re 
is ! greate/ v>iety ( all4 ,! slopes ( a
 high m\nta9 furni% an illu/ration ( !  
effect ( temp]ature4 ,9 asc5d+ x1 "o may
 pass f a tropical =e/ at ! base1 ?ru a 
belt ( ev]gre51 broad-leav$ trees1 !n   
?ru a belt ( decidu\s broad-leav$ trees1
 !n ?ru a belt ( conif]s & up to ! timb]
 l9e :]e tree life ceases4 ,figs4 #fa1 &
 #fb4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,mix$   
,h>dwoods on ,l[] ,levels4 ,spruce &    
,balsam ,dom9ate on ,high] ,elevations4 
,mt4 ,mc,intyre1 ,adirondack ,m\nta9s1  
,new ,york4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4       
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,scrub ,gr[? on
 ,m\nta9 ,top4 ,mt4 ,web/]1 ,new        
,hamp%ire4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4        
,,light4  ,m ?an by any o!r factor1 !   
gr[? ( trees 9 a =e/ is det]m9$ by !    
effect ( light4 ,all trees ne$ light    
soon] or lat]1 b "s trees h mu* m       
ability ?an o!rs to gr[ 9 ! %ade :5 "y4 
,su* trees1 ( :i* maple & spruce are    

examples1 are call$ tol]ant1 :ile o!rs1 
= in/ance1 l>*1 :i* w endure only a     
comp>atively ?9 cov] or none at all1 are
 call$ intol]ant4 ,! leaves ( tol]ant   
trees endure %ade well1 s t _! inn] &   
l[] leaves fl\ri% "u ! %ad[ ( _! upp] & 
out] leaves1 ) ! result t ! :ole tree1 z
 bee* & maple1 makes a d5se %ad[2 :]eas 
! leaves ( intol]ant trees are ei!r     
sp>se1 z 9 ! l>*1 or are s hung t !     
light sifts ?ru !m1 z 9 popl> & oak4 ,! 
spruces & balsam fir h ! rem>kable p[] (
 gr[+ sl[ly "u heavy %ade = _m ye>s1 &  
!n ( gr[+ vigor\sly :5 ! light is let 9 
by ! fall ( _! ov]%ad[+ neighbors4 ,?is 
c pla9ly be se5 9 ! cross-section (     
balsam fir1 ,fig4 #fc1 :]e ! n>r[ annual
 r+s ( ! e>ly gr[?1 are foll[$ by ! wid]
 ones ( lat] gr[?4 ,a common sight 9 !  
d5se woods is ! maple s5d+ up a long1   
sp9dly /em ?ru ! trees ab\t x & hav+ at 
its top a little tuft ( leaves1 ,fig4   
#fd4 ,by s do+ x survives4 ,! fact t a  
tree c gr[ )\t %ade (t5 det]m9es its    
possession ( a burnt-ov] tract4 ,! ord] 

9 ! ,nor? ,woods aft] a fire is         
commonly1 fir/1 a gr[? ( fire we$1 !n   
raspb]ries or blackb]ries1 !n asp51 a v 
intol]ant tree ^: light %ade 9 turn     
p]mits "u x ! gr[? ( ! spruce1 to :i* x 
is a nurse1 ,fig4 #fe4 ,9 g5]al x may be
 said t all se$l+ conif]s require "s    
%ade ! fir/ two ye>s1 :ile h>dwoods 9   
temp]ate climates1 z a rule1 d n4       
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,cross section 
( ,balsam ,fir1 ,%[+ ,fa/ ,gr[? ,aft]   
,ye>s ( ,suppression4 ,notice ! wid? ( !
 annual r+s 9 lat] age comp>$ ) e>ly4   
,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,illu/ration3    
,fig4 #fd4 ,tol]ant ,maple4 ,! trees are
 too sl5d] to /& alone4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/    
,s]vice4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4      
,intol]ant ,asp51 a nurse ( ,tol]ant    
,spruce4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,?is    
matt] ( tol]ance has also mu* to d ) !  
bran*+ ( trees4 ,! leaves on ! l[]      
bran*es ( an intol]ant tree w n ?rive1 )
 ! result t ^? bran*es die & lat] drop  
(f4 ,?is is call$ clean+1 or natural    
prun+4 ,intol]ant trees1 l asp5 & tulip1

 ,fig4 #ff1 clean !mselves well & h5ce  
gr[ ) long1 /raight boles1 :ile tol]ant 
trees1 l spruce & fir1 reta9 _! bran*es 
long]4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4        
,intol]ant ,tulip4 ,notice ! long1      
/raight boles4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,!
 di/ribution ( a species may also be    
det]m9$ by geographical b>ri]s1 l m\nta9
 ranges & oceans4 ,?is is :y ! we/]n    
=e/s diff] radically f ! ea/]n =e/s & :y
 ! =e/ ( ,au/ralasia is %>ply di/9ct f  
any o!r =e/ 9 ! _w4  ,any "o or sev]al (
 ^! factors1 soil1 moi/ure1 heat1 &     
light1 may be ! det]m9+ factor 9 !      
make-up ( a =e/1 or x may be t a        
p>ticul> tree may survive1 because ( a  
fa/] rate ( gr[?1 ?us enabl+ x to ov]top
 its fell[s & cut (f _! light4 ,!       
/ruggle = survival is con/ant1 & t tree 
survives :i* c take ! be/ advantage ( ! 
exi/5t conditions4  ,besides ^!         
topographical & climatic factors :i*    
help det]m9e ! di/ribution ( trees1 a v 
important factor is ! hi/orical "o4 ,=  
example1 ! only reason by :i* ! location

 ( ! few isolat$ groves ( big trees 9   
,cali=nia c be acc\nt$ = is ! rise &    
fall ( glacial %eets1 :i* left !m1 z x  
71 isl&s /r&$ 9 a sea ( ice4 ,z !       
glaci]s retreat$1 ! region gradually    
became re-=e/$1 ^? trees com+ up fir/   
:i* 7 be/ able to take advantage ( !    
conditions1 :e!r due to ! "* ( _! se$s1 
_! tol]ance1 _! endurance ( moi/ure or  
:atev]4 ,?is process is /ill go+ on &   
h>dwoods are probably ga9+ gr\nd4       
,besides ^! ext]nal factors :i* det]m9e 
! composition & organic life ( ! =e/1 ! 
trees !mselves furni% an important      
factor 9 _! me?ods ( reproduction4 ,^!1 
9 g5]al1 are two1 7#a7 by spr\ts1 & 7#b7
 by se$s4  7#a7 ,mo/ conif]s h no p[] ( 
spr\t+4 ,! *ief exceptions are pit* p9e 
&1 to a rem>kable degree1 ! r$wood1     
,fig4 #fg4 ,?is p[]1 h[ev]1 is common 9 
broad-leav$ trees1 z may be se5 aft] a  
fire has swept ?ru second gr[?1 h>dwood 
timb]4 ,al?o all ! "y trees are kill$   
d[n to ! gr\nd1 ! "y spr\ts spr+ up f ! 
/ill liv+ roots4 ,?is may happ5         

repeat$ly4 ,coppice woods1 z ( *e/nut & 
oak1 :i* spr\t ) great fre$om1 are !    
result ( ?is ability4 ,! wood is poor s 
t x is *iefly us$ = fuel4  ,illu/ration3
 ,fig4 #fg4 ,spr\t+ ,r$wood ,/umps4 ,gl5
 ,blair1 ,calif4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  
7#b7 ,mo/ trees1 h[ev]1 are reproduc$ by
 se$s4 ,trees yield ^! 9 great          
abundance1 to provide = wa/e1--nature's 
me?od4 ,_m se$s nev] rip51 _m p]i%1 _m  
are eat5 by animals1 _m fall on b>r5    
gr\nd or rocks1 & _m spr\t1 only to die4
 ,! weight ( se$s has mu* to d ) _!     
di/ribution4 ,heavy se$s l acorns1      
*e/nuts1 hickory & o!r nuts1 gr[ :]e !y 
fall1 unless c>ri$ d[n hill by gravity  
or by wat]1 or scatt]$ by birds &       
squirrels4  ,trees ) w+$ se$s1 h[ev]1   
,fig4 #fh1 z bass1 maple & p9e1 or )    
light se$s1 z popl>1 (t5 h _! se$s c>ri$
 by ! w9d to great di/ances4            
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,w+$ ,se$s4 #a1
 ,basswood2 #b1 ,box-eld]2 #c1 ,elm2 #d1
 ,fir2 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 ,p9es4 ,u4 ,s4   
,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,aga9 "s trees1 z spruce1

 are v f]tile1 :ile o!rs1 l bee*1 h only
 occasional se$-be>+ seasons1 once 9    
?ree or f\r ye>s4 ,will[ se$s lose _!   
p[] ( g]m9ation 9 a few days1 & h5ce1   
unless !y soon rea* gr\nd :]e !re is    
pl5ty ( moi/ure1 !y die4 ,?is is :y !y  
gr[ mo/ly along wat] c\rses4 ,on ! o!r  
h&1 black locu/ pods & ! cones ( "s p9es
 keep _! se$s p]fect = _m ye>s1 (t5     
until a fire bur/s !m op51 & s !y live  
at ! exp5se ( _! competitors4  ,x is su*
 facts z ^! t help to acc\nt = "s ( !   
acts ( =e/ composition1--:y 9 "o place  
at "o "t !re is a gr[? ( asp5s1 at ano!r
 "t p9es1 at /ill ano!r oaks2 & :y      
bee*es spr+ up "o ye> & n ano!r4 ,t r$  
c$>s gr[ 9 av5ues along f5ces1 is       
expla9$ by ! fact t ! se$s are dropp$   
!re by birds1 ,fig4 #fi4  ,illu/ration3 
,fig4 #fi4 ,r$ ,c$> ,av5ue4 ,se$s dropp$
 by birds :i* p]*$ on ! f5ces4 ,indiana4
 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,! fact t       
conif]s1 z ! longleaf p9e1 ,fig4 #df1 p4
 #bjj1 & spruce1 ,fig4 #ee1 p4 #bab1 are
 m apt to gr[ 9 pure /&s ?an broad-leav$

 trees1 is l>gely acc\nt$ = by _! w+$   
se$s2 :]eas ! broad-leav$ trees gr[     
mo/ly 9 mix$ /&s because _! heavy se$s  
are n pl5tifully & widely scatt]$4 ,?is 
is a rule n )\t exceptions1 = bee*      
sometimes cov]s a :ole m\nta9 side1 z   
,slide ,m\nta9 9 ! ,catskills1 & asp5s  
come 9 ov] a wide area aft] a fire2 b   
lat] o!r trees creep 9 until at l5g? x  
becomes a mix$ =e/4  ,! ess5tial facts (
 ! relation ( trees to ea* o!r 9 ! =e/  
has be5 cle>ly /at$ by ,gif=d ,p9*ot    
?us3#a      ,! hi/ory ( ! life ( a =e/  
is a /ory ( ! help &     h>m :i* trees  
receive f "o ano!r4 ,on "o side e       
tree is engag$ 9 a rel5tless /ruggle    
aga9/ its neighbors     = light1 wat] & 
food1 ! ?ree ?+s trees ne$ mo/4     ,on 
! o!r side ea* tree is con/antly work+ )
 all its     neighbors1 ev5 ^? :i* /& at
 "s di/ance1 to br+     ab\t ! be/      
condition ( ! soil & air = ! gr[?     & 
fight+ p[] ( e o!r tree4  ,! trees 9 a  
=e/ help ea* o!r by enri*+ ! soil 9 :i* 
!y /& ) _! fall5 leaves & twigs1 :i* are

 n quickly bl[n or wa%$ away z are ^? "u
 a tree 9 ! op54 ,?is collection ( duff 
or ! =e/ floor reta9s ! moi/ure ab\t _! 
roots1 & ?is moi/ mass t5ds to keep !   
temp]ature ( ! =e/ w>m] 9 w9t] & cool] 9
 summ]4 ,! =e/ cov]1 ,fig4 #ee1 p4 #bab1
 consi/+ l>gely ( foliage1 has ! same   
effect1 & 9 addition protects ! b>k1 !  
roots1 & ! se$l+s ( ! trees f ! direct &
 cont9u\s hot rays ( ! sun4 ,)\t ! %ade 
( ! leaves1 _m trees1 z :ite p9e1 w\ld  
quickly die1 z may readily be se5 by    
transplant+ !m to ! op54 ,! mass ( /&+  
trees temp]s ! =ce ( ! w9d1 :i* might   
ov]?r[ "s ( !m1 & h9d]s ! dry+ up ( !   
duff4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,%all[  
,roots ( ,hemlock4 ,bronx ,p>k1 ,new    
,york1 ,n4 ,y4  ,b trees h9d] z well z  
help ea* o!r4 ,!re is a con/ant /ruggle 
betwe5 !m = n\ri%m5t & light4 ,to get   
food & wat]1 "s trees1 z spruces &      
hemlocks1 ,fig4 #gj1 spread _! roots out
 flat2 o!rs1 z oak & p9e1 s5d d[n a deep
 tap root4 ,^? succe$ 9 any environm5t t
 f9d ! n\ri%m5t !y ne$4 ,/ill m evid5t  

is ! /ruggle = light & air4 ,h[ev] well 
a tree is n\ri%$ ?ru its roots1 unless  
its leaves h an abundance ( light & air 
x w n ?rive & make wood4  ,illu/ration3 
,fig4 #ga4 ,long-bodi$ ,:ite ,oak ( !   
,=e/4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,ev5 !     
trees mo/ tol]ant ( %ade 9 y\?1 l       
spruce1 mu/ h light lat] or p]i%1 & h5ce
 9 a =e/ !re is ! con/ant upw>d rea*4   
,?is produces ! *>act]i/ic long-bodi$   
trunk ( ! =e/ tree1 ,fig4 #ga1 9 contra/
 to ! %ort-bodi$ tree ( ! op51 :]e !    
bran*es rea* out 9 all directions1 ,fig4
 #gb4 ,9 ?is con/ant /ruggle = exi/5ce  
is involv$ ! p]si/5t attempt ( scatt]$  
se$s to spr\t :5ev] !re is an op5+4 ,!  
result is t a typical =e/ is "o 9 :i*   
all sizes & ages ( trees gr[ toge!r4    
,scatt]$ among ^! are bu%es & scrubby   
trees1 call$ =e/ we$s1 su* z m\nta9     
maple & dogwood1 ,fig4 #hj1 p4 #bcd1 :i*
 d n produce timb]4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4
 #gb4 ,%ort-bodi$ ,:ite ,oak ( ! ,op54  
,=t ,lee1 ,n4 ,j4  ,by =e/]s ! trees    
!mselves are classifi$ accord+ to _!    

size into3  ,se$l+s1 less ?an #c' high1 
,sapl+s1   ,small1 #c'-aj' high4        
,l>ge1 #d 9 diamet]1 at brea/ height    
7#d' #f74 ,poles1   ,small1 #d-h 9      
diamet]1 at brea/ height4   ,l>ge1 #h-ab
 9 diamet]1 at brea/ height4   ,/&>ds1  
#a'-b' 9 diamet]1 at brea/ height4      
,vet]ans1 ov] #b' 9 diamet]1 at brea/   
height4  ,e age has its own dang]s4 ,_m 
se$s nev] g]m9ate1 _m se$l+s p]i%       
because !y d n rea* soil1 or are kill$  
by too mu* or too little moi/ure1 or by 
heat or cold1 or %ade4 ,at ! sapl+ age1 
! side bran*es beg9 to int]f]e ) ^? (   
o!r sapl+s4 ,buds are bruis$ & l[]      
bran*es brok5 by ?ra%+ 9 ! w9d1 & _!    
leaves h less light4 ,only ! upp]       
bran*es h room & light1 & !y fl\ri% at !
 exp5se ( l[] ones1 :i* gradually die & 
are ?us prun$ (f4 ,"s trees naturally   
gr[ fa/] ?an o!rs1 & !y atta9 additional
 light & room to spread lat]ally1 ?us   
ov]topp+ o!rs :i* are suppress$ & f9ally
 kill$1 beat5 9 ! race = life4  ,if !   
gr[? %\ld rema9 ab\t ev5 s t ! trees    

grew d5sely pack$ toge!r1 ! :ole gr\p   
w\ld be likely to be ( a poor] quality1 
b ord9>ily ! few outgr[ ! _m & !y are   
call$ dom9ant trees4 ,ev5 !n1 !y /ill h 
to /ruggle aga9/ _! neighbors1 & at ?is1
 ! l>ge sapl+ /age1 _m p]i%1 & ( ^? t   
survive !re are great diff]5ces 9 size4 
,trees make _! mo/ rapid gr[? 9 height1 
& lay on ! wide/ ye>ly r+s1 at ! l>ge   
sapl+ & small pole age1 ,fig4 #aad1 p4  
#bfc4 ,x is at ?is /age1 too1 if ! gr[? 
is at all d5se1 t ! "y trees 7poles7    
clean !mselves mo/ ?oroly ( _! bran*es4 
,! gr[? 9 diamet] cont9ues to ! end ( ! 
tree's life1 long aft] ! height gr[? has
 ceas$4  ,:5 trees become /&>ds1 & rea* 
! limit ( height gr[?1 ?ru _! inability 
to raise wat] to _! tops1 _! bran*es mu/
 p]=ce gr[ sidewise1 or n at all4 ,!    
/ruggle = life ?us takes a new =m4  ,h[ 
trees are able to raise wat] z high z !y
 d is /ill unexpla9$1 b we "k t ! *ief  
reason :y "s trees gr[ tall] ?an o!rs1  
is due to _! ability to raise wat]4 ,!  
mo/ rem>kable 9 ?is respect are !       

,cali=nia r$woods1 ! big trees1 & c]ta9 
eucalypts 9 ,au/ralia4 ,?is inability ( 
trees to gr[ above a c]ta9 height       
results 9 a flatt5+ ( ! cr[n1 ,fig4 #gc1
 & at ?is /age1 ! trees /ruggle aga9/   
ea* o!r by cr[d+ at ! side4             
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,flatt5$ ,cr[n 
( ,r$ ,p9e4 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4        
,inasmu* z trees gr[ m s5sitive to %ade 
) advanc+ age1 ! tall] trees h !        
advantage4 ,ea* survivor is "o ( a ?\s&1
 & has outliv$ ! o!rs because x is be/  
fitt$ = ! place4  ,?is fact has its     
effect ^u ! next g5]ation1 because x is 
^! dom9ant surviv+ trees :i* be> se$ mo/
 abundantly4 ,aft] ! tree has f9i%$ gr[+
 9 height & diamet] mo/ vigor\sly--!    
pole /age--& prov$ to be fitt$ = !      
place1 its en]gy is l>gely sp5t 9 rais+ 
se$4 ,z ?is process goes on g5]ation    
aft] g5]ation1 only ! be/ com+ to       
maturity 9 ea*1 ! poor] sorts are sift$ 
out1 & ea* region & cont95t has ^?      
species be/ fitt$ to meet ! conditions (
 life !re4  ,?is is ! reason :y exotics 

are v likely to be s5sitive & p]haps    
succumb to influ5ces to :i* native trees
 are immune4  ,/&>ds & vet]ans are !    
survivors ( all ! l[] /ages1 ea* ( :i*  
has _h its especial dang]s4 ,if left    
alone1 ! tree gradually dies & at la/   
falls & decays1 add+ some:at to !       
f]tility ( ! =e/ soil4 ,f ! po9t ( view 
( human use1 x w\ld f> bett] h be5 cut  
:5 ripe & turn$ into lumb]4 ,x is a     
mi/ake to suppose t ! natural virg9 =e/ 
is ! be/ possible =e/1 & t x %\ld !re=e 
be left alone4 ,9 ! ,national ,=e/s !   
ripe lumb] is sold & a consid]able      
rev5ue is ?us available4 ,b nature's way
 ) ! dead tree is to use x to produce m 
life4 ,h[ %e does s w be expla9$ 9 !    
next *apt]1 on ! enemies ( ! =e/4       
,footnote #a3 ,gif=d ,p9*ot1 ,prim] (   
,=e/ry1 p4 #dd4   ,,! ,,=e/ ,,organism4 
,,ref]5ces3,a  ,p9*ot1 ,=4 ,bull4 ,no4  
#bd1 ,i1 pp4 #be-ff4 ,brunck51 pp4      
#ac-ca4 ,=4 ,circ4 ,no4 #cf1 p4 #h4     
,f]n[1 ,economics1 pp4 #adj-afd4        
,footnote ,a3 ,= g5]al bibliography1 see

 p4 #d     ,,*apt] ,,vi4  ,,natural     
,,enemies ,,( ,,! ,,=e/4   ,! natural   
enemies ( ! =e/--z di/9ct f its human   
enemies--fall into ?ree gr\ps3 7#a7     
,meteorological1 7#b7 ,vegetable1 7#c7  
,animal4   ,,meteorological ,,=ces4     
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,effect ( ,w9d1
 ,july1 #aijb1 ,cass ,c\nty1 ,m9nesota4 
,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,w9d4 ,w9dfalls  
are n an uncommon sight 9 any =e/4      
,frequ5tly only small areas are bl[n    
d[n1 "o l>ge tree upsett+ a few o!rs1 or
 aga9 a va/ region is de/roy$ by great  
/orms1 ,fig4 #gd4 ,an area ( _m squ>e   
miles 9 ,florida cov]$ ) long-leaf p9e 0
 ?us de/roy$ sev]al ye>s ago4 ,! sla%   
?us =m$1 :5 well dri$1 is p>ticul>ly    
liable to cat* fire & burn furi\sly4    
,w9dfalls are especially common among   
%all[-root$ trees1 z hemlock1 basswood &
 spruce1 on s&y soil & on %all[ soil    
und]laid ) solid /one1 especially :]e   
op5 spaces give ! w9d free sweep4 ,x    
foll[s t an unbrok5 =e/ is a great      
protection to itself4 ,! only           

precautions aga9/ w9d !re=e1 t c be tak5
 by ! =e/]1 are to keep ! =e/ unbrok5 by
 select+ only ! l>g] trees = fell+ or to
 cut d[n a giv5 tract by beg9n+ at !    
side opposite ! direction ( prevail+    
/orms & work+ t[>d !m4  ,9 s&y regions1 
! w9d does imm5se h>m by bl[+ ! s& to & 
fro 9 con/antly %ift+ dunes1 ,figs4 #ge 
& #gf4 ,^! dunes occupy long /ret*es ( !
 ,atlantic coa/ & ! %ore ( ,lake        
,mi*igan4 ,su* dunes h be5 e/imat$ to   
cov] #bj1jjj squ>e miles ( ,europe4     
,along ! ,bay ( ,biscay 9 ,france1 ! s& 
dunes =m]ly drift$ 9 ridges along !     
%ore1 damm+ up ! /reams & conv]t+ :at 0 
once a =e/ into a pe/il5tial m>%4 ,?is  
region has be5 reclaim$ at great exp5se 
by build+ f5ces along ! %ore to break ! 
w9d & ?us keep ! mov+ s& )9 limits4 ,9  
?is way a million acres ( productive =e/
 h be5 obta9$4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4
 ,s&-dunes1 ,cape ,may1 ,new ,j]sey4    
,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,illu/ration3     
,fig4 #gf4 ,s&-dune4 ,oregon4 ,u4,s4    
,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,on ! o!r h& w9ds are    

b5eficial to ! =e/ 9 scatt]+ se$s1 we$+ 
out weak trees1 & develop+ /r5g? 9 tree 
trunks4  ,dr\? bo? injures ! foliage (  
trees & causes defects 9 ! gra9 ( wood1 
! latt] appe>+ z false r+s4 ,^! arise f 
! ef=t ( ! tree to resume gr[? :5 ! wat]
 supply is re/or$4 ,see p4 #ai4  ,wat]4 
,c]ta9 trees h become accu/om$ to liv+ 9
 mu* wat]1 z c$> & cypress h 9 swamps1 &
 c]ta9 trees h become accu/om$ to       
p]iodical floods1 b o!r trees are kill$ 
by mu* wat]4 ,s :5 lumb]m5 make a pond  
:i* ov]fl[s =e/ l&1 ! trees soon die1   
,fig4 #gg4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4    
,effect ( ,flood+4 ,fir/ ,connecticut   
,lake1 ,new ,hamp%ire4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/     
,s]vice4  ,lightn+ frequ5tly bla/s s+le 
trees1 & 9 dry seasons may set fire to  
=e/s4 ,?is is a mu* m important factor 9
 ! we/ ?an 9 ! ea/1--9 ! ,rockies1 =    
in/ance1 :]e !re are electrical /orms   
)\t ra94  ,fires w be consid]$ lat] "u  
man's relation to ! =e/4  ,illu/ration3 
,fig4 #gh4 ,slim ,trees ,b5t ,ov] by    
,sn[2 ,/\t] ,trees ,unh>m$4 ,zuri*1     

,switz]l&4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,sn[ &
 ice (t5 br+ s]i\s h>m to sapl+s by     
p]man5tly b5d+ !m ov]1 ,fig4 #gh1 or by 
break+ (f tops & bran*es4  ,fro/ kills  
"y plants2 & sudd5 *anges 9 temp]ature  
s]i\sly affect gr[n timb]1 produc+ fro/ 
*ecks & w9d %akes4 ,:5 !re is a sudd5   
fall 9 temp]ature1 ! outside lay]s ( !  
tree1 :i* are full ( sap1 contract m    
rapidly ?an ! inn] portions1 ) ! result 
t ! tree splits ) a sudd5 pi/ol-l       
report1 ! *eck runn+ radially up & d[n !
 tree4 ,?is is call$ a fro/ *eck or />  
%ake1 ,fig4 #da4;a1 p4 #dg1 & su* w\nds 
r>ely heal1 ,fig4 #gi4  ,on ! o!r h& :5 
! temp]ature rapidly rises1 ! outside   
lay]s ( ! tree exp& s mu* m rapidly ?an 
! inside1 t !y sep>ate ) a dull muffl$  
*ug1 ! *eck ext5d+ 9 a circul> direction
 foll[+ ! annual r+s4 ,su* *ecks are (t5
 call$ w9d %akes & cup %akes1 ,fig4     
#da4;c1 p4 #dg4 ,^! injuries are f\nd 9 
regions :]e sudd5 *anges ( temp]ature   
occur1 r ?an 9 ! tropics or 9 v cold    
climates4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4     

,contraction ,fro/ ,*eck4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/  
,s]vice4   ,,vegetable ,,enemies4  ,"u  
?is head may be class$1 9 addition to   
fungi1 a numb] ( unrelat$ plants1       
includ+ su* z3 moosewood & dogwood1     
,fig4 #hj1 :i* cr[d out "y trees2 v9es1 
l bitt]-sweet1 :i* w9d ab\t trees & (t5 
*oke !m by pressure1 cutt+ ?ru ! b>k &  
cambium2 saprophytes1 :i* smo!r !       
foliage ( trees1 ( :i* ,spani% moss1    
,fig4 #dg1 p4 #bja1 is an example2 &    
f9ally su* p>asites z ! mi/letoes1 :i*  
weak5 & de=m ! trees4  ,illu/ration3    
,fig4 #hj4 ,a ,=e/ ,we$1 ,fl[]+         
,dogwood4 ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,u4,s4 ,=e/    
,s]vice4  ,! mo/ important ( ! vegetable
 enemies ( trees are fungi4 ,x %\ld be  
rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t1 )\t ! decay produc$ 
by !m1 ! fall5 trees w\ld soon cov] !   
gr\nd1 & prev5t any new gr[?1 ?us       
de/roy+ ! natural =e/4  ,e tree1 z has  
be5 not$ 7p4 #ag71 is compos$ ( two     
p>ts1 "o "p1 includ+ leaves1 "y bran*es1
 roots & sap-wood1 liv+1 & ! o!r "p1    
namely1 ! he>t-wood1 practically dead4  

,fungi t attack ! live p>ts ( a tree are
 call$ p>asites1 :ile ^? t live on dead 
trunks & bran*es are designat$ z        
saprophytes4 ,! l9e1 h[ev]1 betwe5 ^!   
two classes ( fungi is n well def9$1    
s9ce "s p>asites live on bo? liv+ & dead
 wood4 ,! p>asites are ( fir/           
importance1 =1 s9ce !y kill _m trees1 !y
 control to a l>ge ext5t ! supply ( liv+
 timb]4  ,ne>ly all p>asitic fungi h two
 portions1 an ext]nal fruit+ portion :i*
 be>s ! spores--:i* correspond to ! se$s
 ( fl[]+ plants--& an int]nal portion   
consi/+ ( a tangle ( ?reads or filam5ts1
 :i* ramify ! tissues ( ! tree & ^:     
function is to absorb nutrim5t = !      
fungus4 ,fungi are classifi$ botanically
 accord+ to ! spore-be>+ bodies1 _! =m1 
color1 etc4  ,! p>asitic fungi :i* are  
especially de/ructive to wood are ^? t h
 nak$ spores gr[+ on expos$ fruit+      
surfaces 7! ,hym5omycetes74 ,9 toad/ools
 7! ag>ics7 ^! expos$ surfaces are ?91  
flat plates call$ gills4 ,9 ! polypores1
 :i* include ! %elf fungi1 ! spore      

surfaces are tubes ^: op5+s con/itute ! 
pores4 ,9 ! dry-rot1 or te> fungus      
7,m]ulius lacrymans71 ! spore surfaces  
are %all[ cavities4  ,"s v>ieties1 call$
 true p>asites1 develop 9 un9jur$ trees1
 :ile o!rs1 call$ w\nd p>asites1 c      
p5etrate ! tissues ( trees1 only :]e a  
cut or injury makes a suitable lodgm5t =
 ! spores4 ,"s fungi attack only a s+le 
species ( trees1 o!rs :ole g5]a2 "s     
attack only conif]s1 o!rs decidu\s      
trees1 :ile a few attack trees ( ne>ly  
all k9ds alike4  ,fungal spores :5      
br\ght 9 contact ) a w\nd on a tree or  
o!r suitable place1 & provid$ ) suitable
 conditions ( gr[?1 g]m9ate1 p5etrate ! 
tissues & gr[ v rapidly4 ,^! spores s5d 
out long ?reads or filam5ts :i* run ?ru 
! cells l5g?wise & also pi]ce !m 9 all  
directions1 soon =m+ a network 9 ! wood 
call$ ! mycelium4  ,rott+1 9 a l>ge     
numb] ( cases1 is due to ! ravages (    
fungi4 ,?is sometimes %[s 9 ! color1 z !
 r$ rot ( p9e or ! blu+ ( a%4 ,sometimes
 z 9 pecky or peggy cypress1 ! decay$   

tracts are tubul>4 ,m commonly ! decay$ 
p>ts are ( irregul> %ape4  ,! decay (   
wood is due to ! ravages ( l[ =ms (     
plant life1 bo? bact]ia & fungi4  ,a few
 ( ! m de/ructive =ms may be not$4      
,trametes p9i 7,brot47 ,fr4 ,=emo/ among
 ! timb]     de/roy+ fungi is ! l>ge    
br[n punk or con* f\nd 9     its typical
 developm5t on ! long-leaf & %ort-leaf  
p9es1     ,p9us palu/ris & ,p9us e*9ata1
 ,fig4 #ha4 ,!     fruit+ bodies =m l>ge
 masses :i* gr[ out f a knot1           
(t5times z l>ge z a *ild's head4 ,!y are
 c9namon br[n     on ! l[] surface1 &   
mu* fissur$ & brok51 on !     black     
*>coal-l upp] surface4 ,?is fungus      
probably causes     f\r-fif?s ( !       
de/ruction br\ght ab\t by ! timb]       
de/roy+ fungi4 ,x occurs on mo/ ( !     
conif]s 9 !     ,unit$ ,/ates :i* h any 
value z lumb] trees1 & br+s     ab\t a  
*>act]i/ic :ite spott+ ( ! wood1 ,fig4  
#hb1     :i* v>ies ) ! k9d ( tree       
attack$4 7,von ,s*r5k1     ,agric4 ,yr4 
,bk41 #aijj1 p4 #bjf47  ,illu/ration3   

,fig4 #ha4 ,a ,con*1 ! fruit+ body (    
,trametes p9i1 on ,sug> ,p9e4 ,agric4   
,ye> ,book1 #aijj1 ,pl4 ,,xxii1 ,fig4   
#b4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,effect ( 
,fungus4 7,trametes p9i47 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4
 ,agric4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,%elf
 ,fungus on ,p9e4 a4 ,s\nd wood2 b4     
,res9\s light wood2 c4 ,p>tly decay$    
wood or punk2 d4 ,lay] ( liv+ spore     
tubes2 e4 ,old fill$-up spore tubes2 f4 
,flut$ upp] surface ( ! fruit+ body ( ! 
fungus1 :i* gets its food ?ru a great   
numb] ( f9e ?reads 7! mycelium71 its    
vegetative tissue p5etrat+ ! wood &     
caus+ its decay4 ,aft] ,h>tig4  ,( !    
%elf fungi1 :i* project l brackets f !  
/ems ( trees1 & h _! pores on _! "u     
surfaces1 "o ( ! commone/ 9 _m          
localities is ! yell[ *eese-l ,polyporus
 sulphureus1 ,fig4 #hc4 ,?is is f\nd on 
oak1 popl>1 will[1 l>*1 & o!r /&+ timb]4
      ,its spawnlike ?reads spread f any
 expos$ portion (     cambium into !    
pi?-rays & betwe5 ! annual r+s1     =m+ 
?ick lay]s ( yell[i%-:ite felt1 &       

p5etrat+     ! vessels ( ! wood1 :i*    
!reupon becomes a deep br[n     color & 
decays4  ,( ! umbrella-%ap$ gill-be>+   
fungi1 a yell[ toad/ool1 call$ ! honey  
mu%room 7,ag>icus melleus71 is a good   
example1 ,fig4 #hd4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4
 #hd4 ,honey ,mu%room4 ,ag>icus melleus4
 #a4 ,clu/] ( small sporophores4 #b4    
,l>g] sporophore ) root-l organ (       
atta*m5t4 ,=e/ry ,bullet9 #bb4 ,plate   
,,xii1 ,figs4 #a & #b4      ,?is fungus1
 ( common occurr5ce 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates z 
well     z 9 ,europe1 is exce$+ly       
de/ructive to conif]\s trees1     ! :ite
 p9e 9 p>ticul> suff]+ greatly f its    
attacks4 ,x also fa/5s ^u v>i\s decidu\s
 species z a     p>asite1 attack+ liv+  
trees ( all ages1 b liv+ z     well ^u  
dead roots & /umps & on wood t has be5  
cut     & work$ up1 occurr+ frequ5tly on
 bridges1 railroad     ties1 & ! l1 &   
caus+ prompt decay :]ev] x has          
effect$ an entrance4 ,! mo/ conspicu\s  
"p ( ! fungus     is f\nd frequ5tly 9 ! 
summ] & fall on ! diseas$     p>ts ( !  

tree or timb] infe/$ by x4 ,x is "o ( ! 
common toad/ools1 ?is p>ticul> species  
be+ recogniz$ by     its yell[i% color1 
gills ext5d+ d[nw>d ^u ! /em1     :i* is
 encircl$ a little l[] d[n by a r+1 & by
 its     habit ( gr[+ 9 tufts or little 
clumps ( sev]al or _m     individuals   
toge!r4 ,x is also p>ticul>ly di/+ui%$  
by     ! =mation ( sl5d]1 d>k-color$    
/r+s1 consi/+ (     compact mycelium1 f 
:i* ! fruit+ p>ts j describ$     arise4 
,^! h>d root-l /r+s 7call$ rhizomorphs7 
ext5d along j b5ea? ! surface ( ! gr\nd1
 (t5     a di/ance ( sev]al feet1 &     
p5etrate ! roots ( s\nd     trees4 ,by  
c>efully remov+ ! b>k f a root ?us      
invad$     ! fungus is se5 9 ! =m ( a   
d5se1 ne>ly :ite1     mass ( mycelium1  
:i*1 z ! p>ts ar\nd decay1 gradually    
produces aga9 ! rhizomorphs already     
describ$4 ,^!     rhizomorphs are a     
*>act]i/ic "p ( ! fungus4 ,occurr+      
bo? 9 ! decay$ wood f :i* !y spread to !
     adjac5t p>ts1 & ext5d+ 9 ! soil f  
root to root1     !y con/itute a mo/    

effective ag5cy 9 ! ext5sion (     !    
disease4 99 99 99      ,ext]nal         
symptoms1 to be obs]v$ especially 9 "y  
specim5s rec5tly attack$1 consi/ 9 a    
*ange ( ! leaves     to a pale sickly   
color & (t5 ! production ( %ort         
/unt$ %oots4 ,a /ill m m>k$ symptom is !
 =mation     ( great quantities ( res91 
:i* fl[ d[nw>d ?ru !     injur$ p>ts &  
out into ! gr\nd4 7,=e/ry ,bullet9      
,no4 #bb1 p4 #ea47  ,( ! irregul> %ap$  
fungi1 "o ( ! mo/ de/ructive is a true  
p>asite1 i4e41 "o t f9ds lodgm5t )\t    
help1 call$ ,polyporus annosus & also   
,trametes radicip]da1 ,fig4 #he4 ,x is  
peculi> 9 develop+ its fructifications  
on ! ext]ior ( roots1 b5ea? ! soil4 ,its
 pores appe> on ! upp] side ( !         
fructifications4 ,x attacks only        
conif]s4      ,its spores1 :i* c be     
readily convey$ 9 ! fur ( mice     or   
o!r burr[+ animals1 g]m9ate 9 ! moi/ure 
ar\nd     ! roots3 ! f9e ?reads ( spawn 
p5etrate ! cortex1     & spread ?ru &   
de/roy ! cambium1 ext5d+ 9 ?91     flat1

 fan-l1 :ite1 silky b&s1 &1 "h & !re1   
bur/+ ?ru ! cortex 9 :ite1 oval cu%ions1
 on :i* !     subt]ranean               
fructifications are produc$4 ,ea* ( ^!  
is     a yell[i%-:ite1 felt-l mass1 )   
its out] surface     cov]$ ) cr[d$ m9ute
 tubes or pores 9 :i* !     spores are  
produc$4 ,! wood attack$ by ?is fungus  
fir/     becomes rosy or purple1 !n     
turns yell[i%1 & !n     exhibits m9ute  
black dots1 :i* surr\nd !mselves )      
ext5d+ s(t :ite pat*es4 7,b\lg]1 p4     
#gc47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #he4 #a4     
,/ump ( ,norway ,spruce1 ) a sporophore 
( polyporus annosus sev]al ye>s old2 !  
inn] portions ( ! /ump :olly decay$4    
#b4 ,roots ( a diseas$ spruce tree1 )   
num]\s small sporophores ( polyporus    
annosus atta*$4 ,=e/ry ,bullet9 #bb1    
,plate ,,xiii1 ,figs4 #a & #b4  ,( !    
fungi :i* attack conv]t$ timb]1 ! mo/   
important is dry rot or te> fungus      
7,m]ulius la*rymans71 ,fig4 #hf4 ,x     
fl\ri%es on damp wood 9 /ill air1       
especially ar\nd /ables & ill v5tilat$  

cell>s4 ,x gets its "n la*rymans 7weep+7
 f its habit ( dripp+ moi/ure4      ,!  
fungus de/roys ! sub/ance ( ! timb]1    
less5+ its     weight & caus+ x to w>p &
 crack2 until at l5g? x     crumbles up 
:5 dry into a f9e br[n p[d]1 or1 readily
     absorb+ any moi/ure 9 its          
neighborhood1 becomes a s(t1     *eese-l
 mass4 99 99 99 ,imp]fectly season$     
timb] is mo/     susceptible to dry rot3
 ! fungus c be spread ei!r by its       
spawn or by spores1 & ^! latt] c be     
c>ri$ ev5 by     ! clo!s or saws (      
workm51 & are1 ( c\rse1 only too        
likely to rea* s\nd wood if diseas$     
timb] is left ab\t     ne> x2 b on ! o!r
 h& dry timb] kept dry is pro(     aga9/
 dry rot1 & exposure to really dry air  
is fatal to     ! fungus4 7,b\lg]1 p4   
#ge47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,portion
 ( ! mycelium ( dry rot or te> fungus1  
,m]ulius la*rymans4 ,?is cakelike mass  
spreads ov] ! surface ( ! timb]4 ,9 a   
moi/ environm5t pellucid drops or te>s  
di/il f its l[] surface3 ,h5ce its "n4  

,w>d3 ,timb]2 ,fig4 #ba4  ,ab\t all t c 
be done to protect ! =e/ aga9/ fungi is 
to keep x clean1 t is1 to cle> out fall5
 timb] & sla%1 & 9 "s cases to dig      
tr5*es ar\nd affect$ trees to prev5t    
spread+ or to cut !m out & de/roy !m4   
,su* me?ods h h]et(ore be5 too exp5sive 
to employ 9 any ord9>y ,am]ican =e/1 b !
 "t is at h& :5 su* action w prove      
pr(itable 9 _m localities4  ,= !        
pres]vation ( cut timb] f decay1 sev]al 
me?ods are us$4 ,fungi ne$ heat1 air1   
moi/ure & food4 ,if any "o ( ^! is lack+
 ! fungus _c gr[4 ,air & heat are h>d to
 exclude f wood1 b moi/ure & food c be  
kept f fungi4 ,! removal ( moi/ure is   
call$ season+1 & ! poison+ ( ! food (   
fungi is a process ( impregnat+ wood )  
c]ta9 *emicals4 ,bo? ^! processes are   
describ$ 9 ,h&work 9 ,wood1 ,*apt]      
,,iii4   ,,animal ,,enemies4  ,! l>g]   
animals work+ damage to our =e/s are    
*iefly rod5ts & graz+ animals4 ,beav]s  
gnaw ! b>k1 :ile mice & squirrels rob ! 
=e/ ( se$ & consequ5tly ( new trees4 ,! 

acorns ( :ite oak are p>ticul>ly liable 
to be dev\r$ because ( _! sweetness1    
:ile ^? ( r$ & black oak1 :i* af=d timb]
 ( comp>atively little value1 are all[$ 
to spr\t1 & ?us come to possess ! l&4   
,hogs annually consume enorm\s          
quantities ( ma/1 i4e41 acorns or o!r   
nuts1 by pa/ur+ 9 oak & o!r =e/s4 ,!y1  
toge!r ) goats & %eep1 ,figs4 #hg & #hh1
 de] & cattle1 "w h>m by trampl+ &      
br[s+4 ,br[s+ de/roys ! t5d] %oots1     
especially ( decidu\s trees1 b trampl+  
entirely kills out ! se$l+s4 ,! cutt+ up
 ( ! soil by ! %>p cleft ho(s injures ! 
=e/ floor1 by pulv]iz+ x & all[+ x to be
 readily wa%$ away by /orms until       
de=e/ation may result1 z 0 ! case 9     
,france aft] ! ,revolution4 ,x has co/ !
 ,fr5* p f ?irty to =ty million doll>s  
to repair ! damage begun by ! %eep4 ,9  
?is c\ntry1 ?is matt] has become a v    
s]i\s "o on ! ,pacific ,coa/1 :]e !re   
are enorm\s flocks ( %eep1 & !re=e !    
gov]nm5t is try+ to regulate ! graz+ on 
public l&s !re1 especially on /eep      

slopes1 :]e erosion takes place         
rapidly4#a      ,footnote #a3 ,! evils (
 graz+ are increas$ by ! fact     t     
fires are sometimes />t$ int5tionally 9 
ord] to     increase ! area ( graz+ l&4 
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,goats ,eat+   
,foliage1 ,new ,mexico4 ,u4,s4 ,=e/     
,s]vice4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,%eep
 ,graz+ 9 ,=e/1 ,idaho4 ,u4,s4 ,=e/     
,s]vice4  ,! mo/ de/ructive animal      
enemies ( ! =e/ are ! insects4 ,! av]age
 annual loss ( trees 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates f
 ?is cause alone has be5 e/imat$ to be  
"o hundr$ million doll>s4  ,insects h   
two objects 9 _! attack on trees1 "o is 
to obta9 food1 z :5 !y are 9 ! l>val    
/age1 & ! o!r is to provide = (fspr+1 z 
d c]ta9 beetles4  ,! numb] ( insect     
enemies ( ! =e/ is enorm\s4 ,at ! ,/4   
,l\is ,exposition1 !re 7 on exhibit     
ne>ly ?ree hundr$ su* insects4 ,^!      
belong to "s tw5ty ord]s1 ( :i* !       
beetles 7,coleopt]a71 :i* h horny w+s & 
bit+ m\? p>ts1 & ! mo?s & butt]flies    
7,lepidopt]a71 ) membrane\s w+s & suck+ 

m\? p>ts1 are ! mo/ de/ructive4 ,insects
 attack e "p ( ! tree1 ! se$1 ! %oot1 ! 
fl[]1 ! root1 ! leaf1 ! b>k & ! wood1   
bo? /&+ & cut4  ,( ! fruit & se$ pe/s1 !
 mo/ de/ructive are weevils1 worms &    
gall insects4  ,( ! twig & %oot pe/s1   
beetles1 weevils & cat]pill>s are !     
wor/4  ,among insects t attack roots1 ! 
p]iodical cicada 7#ag ye> old locu/7 may
 be not$4  ,! leaf pe/s are f> m s]i\s4 
,!y include ! true & false cat]pill>s1  
mo?s1 gall insects & plant lice4  ,( !  
b>k pe/s1 ! b>k beetles are ! mo/       
de/ructive4 ,^! are also call$ ,engrav] 
,beetles f ! smoo?ly cut figures :i* are
 _! burr[s "u ! b>k1 ,figs4 #hi1 #ij1   
#ia4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,"w ( !  
,spruce ,de/roy+ ,beetle3 a4 ,prim>y    
gall]y2 b4 ,bor+s pack$ 9 side2 c4      
,entrance & c5tral burr[ ?ru ! pack$    
bor+s2 d4 ,l>val m9es4 ,note h[ ! eggs  
are gr\p$ on ! sides4 ,agric4 ,ye>      
,book1 #aijb1 ,fig4 #bd1 p4 #bfh4       
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,complete brood
 ,gall]ies ( ! ,hickory ,b>k ,beetle 9  

,surface ( ,wood4 ,agric4 ,ye> ,book1   
#aijc1 ,fig4 #bh1 p4 #caf4              
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,brood         
,gall]ies ( ! ,oak ,b>k ,beetle1 %[+ ,"*
 ( ,prim>y ,gall]y at b2 ,l>val or      
,brood ,m9es at a4 ,agric4 ,ye> ,book1  
#aijc1 ,fig4 #cj1 page #cah4      ,_m   
pairs ( beetles make a simultane\s      
attack on ! l[]     half ( ! ma9 trunk (
 m$ium-siz$ to l>ge trees4 ,!y     bore 
?ru ! out] b>k to ! inn] liv+ portion1 &
 ?ru     ! inn] lay]s ( ! latt]2 !y     
excavate long1 irregul>1     longitud9al
 gall]ies1 & along ! sides ( ^! at      
irregul> int]vals1 num]\s eggs are      
closely plac$4 ,!     eggs soon hat* & !
 l>vae at once comm5ce to fe$ on !      
inn] b>k1 & z !y increase 9 size1 ext5d 
& enl>ge     _! food burr[s 9 a g5]al   
transv]se b irregul>     c\rse1 away f !
 "m gall]ies 7see illu/ration74     ,:5 
^! "y & l>val =ms are full gr[n1 ea*    
excavates a cavity or cell at ! end (   
its burr[ & next     to ! out] corky    
b>k4 7,hopk9s1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41       

#aijb47  ,"s ( ! species attack liv+    
trees1 caus+ _! rapid dea?1 & are among 
! mo/ de/ructive enemies ( ,am]ican     
=e/s4  ,all ( ! above indirectly affect 
bo? ! quantity & quality ( ! wood       
supply4 ,!y c be /udi$ m 9 detail 9 !   
publications ( ! ,u4,s4 ,bureau (       
,entomology4  ,( ! insects directly     
attack+ wood1 ! mo/ important are !     
ambrosia or timb] beetles1 ! bor]s1 !   
ants1 & ! c>p5t] bees4 ,! mo/ rem>kable 
feature ( ! beetle is ! mann] ( its bor+
 into ! h>d] p>ts ( ! wood4 ,its jaws   
are p>ticul>ly con/ruct$ = ?is "w1 be+  
heavy & /rong4 ,! bor+ is done some?+   
aft] ! mann] ( c\nt]s9k+1 & ! jaws are  
believ$ to be self-%>p5+1 by reason ( ! 
peculi> "r to left & left to "r motion4 
,ambrosia or timb] beetles1 ,fig4 #ib4  
,?is class ( insects     attacks liv+1  
dead1 & fell$ trees1 sawlogs1 gre5      
lumb]1     & /ave-bolts1 (t5 caus+ s]i\s
 injury & loss f     ! p9-hole &        
/a9$-wood defects caus$ by _! brood     
gall]ies4 ,! gall]ies are excavat$ by ! 

p>5t beetles     9 ! s\nd sap-wood      
sometimes ext5d+ into ! he>t-wood1     &
 ! "y /ages fe$ on a fungus gr[? :i*    
gr[s on     ! walls ( gall]ies4         
7,hopk9s1 ,entom4 ,bullet9 ,no4 #dh1 p4 
#aj47 ,! gr[? ( ?is ambrosia-l fungus is
 induc$ or     controll$ by ! p>5t      
beetles & ! "y are dep5d5t     on x =   
food4 7,hopk9s1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41      
#aijd47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,"w ( 
,ambrosia ,beetle1 ,xyloborus celsus1 9 
,hickory ,wood3 a1 ,l>va2 b1 ,pupa2 c1  
,adult beetle2 d1 ,"* ( "w 9 lumb] cut f
 injur$ log2 e1 ,b>k2 f1 ,sap wood2 g1  
,he>twood4 ,agric4 ,ye> ,book1 #aijd1   
,fig4 #dd1 p4 #chd4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4
 #ic4 ,"w ( ,ambrosia ,beetles 9 ,oak3  
a1 ,mon>?um mali1 & "w2 b1 ,platypus    
compositus1 & "w2 c1 ,b>k2 d1 ,sap-wood2
 e1 ,he>t-wood2 f1 ,"* ( "w 9 lumb] f   
injur$ log4 ,agric4 ,ye> ,book1 #aijd1  
,fig4 #de1 p4 #chd4      ,!re are two   
g5]al types or classes ( ^! gall]ies1 "o
     9 :i* ! broods develop toge!r 9 !  
ma9 burr[s1 !     o!r1 9 :i* !          

individuals develop 9 %ort sep>ate side 
*amb]s ext5d+ at "r angles f ! prim>y   
gall]y1     ,fig4 #ic4 ,! gall]ies ( !  
latt] type are usually     accompani$ by
 a di/9ct /a9+ ( ! wood1 :ile ^? (     !
 =m] are n4 7,hopk9s1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41
 #aijd1 p4 #chc47      ,b>k & wood      
bor]s1 ,fig4 #id4 ,?is class ( enemies  
diff]s f ! prec$+ 9 ! fact t ! p>5t     
beetles     d n burr[ into ! wood or    
b>k1 b deposit _! eggs     on ! surface4
 ,! elongate1 :iti%1 r\nd-head$         
7,c]ambycid71 flat-head$ 7,bupre/id71 or
 %ort1 /\t     7,curculionid7 grubs     
hat*+ f ^! eggs cause injury     by     
burr[+ b5ea? ! b>k1 or deep into !      
sap-wood &     he>t-wood ( liv+1 injur$ 
& dead trees1 sawlogs1 etc4     ,"s ( ! 
species infe/ liv+ trees1 ,fig4 #ie1    
caus+     s]i\s injury or dea?4 ,o!rs   
attack only dead or dy+ b>k     & wood1 
b ?is injury (t5 results 9 great loss f 
!     s-call$ wormhole defects4 7,a4 ,d4
 ,hopk9s1 ,entom4 ,bull41 ,no4     #dh1 
p4 #aj47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,"w (

 ,r\nd-,head$ & ,flat-,head$ ,bor]s 9   
,p9e3 a1 ,"w ( r\nd-head$ bor]s1 sawy]1 
,monohamnus sp42 b1 ,ergates spiculatus2
 c1 ,"w ( flat-head$ bor]1 ,bupre/is1   
l>va & adult4 ,agric4 ,ye> ,book1 #aijd1
 ,fig4 #df1 p4 #che4  ,illu/ration3     
,fig4 #ie4 ,hemlock ,kill$ by ,bupre/id 
,worms4 ,hoquiam1 ,wa%+ton4 ,u4,s4 ,=e/ 
,s]vice4      ,! p9e sawy]s are among ! 
mo/ tr\blesome pe/s 9 !     mill y>d1 & 
_! l>ge1 :ite l>vae (t5 d mu* damage    
to logs by eat+ great holes ?ru _! solid
 int]ior4 ,:ile     burr[+ 9 ! wood !   
l>vae make a peculi> grat+ s\nd     t   
may be he>d on quiet nights at a        
consid]able di/ance4     ,?is is a      
famili> s\nd 9 ! lumb] camps ( ! ,nor?1 
& has probably giv5 rise to ! "n ( ! p9e
 sawy]s by     :i* ^! insects are kn[n4 
7,=e/ry ,bullet91 ,no4 #bb1     p4 #eh47
      ,p[d]-po/ beetles1 ,fig4 #if4 ,?is
 is a class ( insects     repres5t+ two 
or ?ree families ( beetles1 ! l>vae (   
:i* infe/ & conv]t into f9e p[d] _m     
diff]5t k9ds     ( dry & season$ wood   

products1 su* z hickory & a%     h&les1 
wagon spokes1 lumb]1 etc41 :5 :olly or 9
 "p     f ! sap-wood ( trees4 ,oak &    
hemlock tan-b>k is     sometimes injur$ 
to a great ext5t1 & ! /ructural         
timb]s ( old h\ses1 b>ns1 etc41 are (t5 
s]i\sly     injur$1 :ile hop poles & l  
products are attack$ by "o     set ( ^! 
insects1 ! adults ( :i* burr[ into !    
wood     = ! purpose ( deposit+ _! eggs4
 7,hopk9s1 ,=e/ry     ,bullet9 ,no4 #dh1
 p4 #aa47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,"w 
( ,p[d] ,po/ ,beetle1 ,s9oxylon basil>e1
 9 hickory pole3 a1 ,"* ( "w by l>vae2  
b1 ,exit holes made by em]g+ broods4    
,agric4 ,ye> ,book1 #aijd1 ,fig4 #di4   
,timb] worms1 ,fig4 #ig4 ,?is class (   
true wood-bor+     worms1 or grubs1 are 
! l>vae ( beetles4 ,!y ent] !     wood f
 eggs deposit$ 9 w\nds 9 liv+ trees1 f  
:i* !y burr[ deep into ! he>t-wood4     
,g5]ation aft]     g5]ation may develop 
9 ! wood ( a tree )\t affect+     its   
life b ! wood is r5d]$ wor?less = mo/   
purposes     by ! s-call$ wormhole &    

p9hole defects result+ f     _! burr[s4 
,! same species also bre$ 9 ! wood (    
dy+ & dead /&+ trees1 & 9 ! /umps & logs
 (     fell$ ones1 (t5 = _m ye>s aft] ! 
trees are fell$4     ,"o species        
sometimes attacks fre%ly saw$ oak lumb]1
 new     /ave bolts1 etc4 ,!y are among 
! mo/ de/ructive enemies     ( h>dwood  
=e/ trees1 especially 9 r$uc+ ! value ( 
! wood ( ! be/ "p ( ! trunks4 7,hopk9s1 
,=e/ry     ,bullet9 ,no4 #dh1 p4 #aj47  
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,"w ( ,timb]   
,worms 9 ,oak3 a1 ,"w ( oak timb] worm1 
,eupsalis m9uta2 b4 ,b>k$ surface2 c4   
,b>k2 d4 ,sap-wood timb] worm1          
,hylocaetus lugubris1 & its "w2 e4      
,sap-wood4 ,agric4 ,ye> ,book1 #aijd1   
,fig4 #dg1 p4 #chf4      ,! c>p5t]      
worms1 ,fig4 #ih4 ,^! are l>ge p9ki%    
cat]pill>s :i* are ! l>vae ( /\t-bodi$  
mo?s4 ,!y     ent] ! b>k & wood ( liv+  
oak1 locu/1 popl> &     o!r trees1 f    
eggs deposit$ by ! mo?s 9 ! crevices    
( un9jur$ b>k1 or 9 ! edges ( w\nds4 ,!y
 burr[ deep     into ! solid wood1 :]e  

!y live = two or ?ree ye>s     be=e     
trans=m+ to ! adult4 ,! wood is s]i\sly 
injur$ by ! v l>ge wormhole defects1 &  
:ile !     life ( ! tree is b slightly1 
if at all1 affect$ by !     e>li]       
attacks1 ! cont9u$ op]ations ( ?is class
 (     bor]s ye> aft] ye>1 f9ally       
results 9 ! decay (     ! he>t-wood1 or 
a holl[ trunk & a dead top4 7,hopk9s1   
,=e/ry ,bullet91 ,no4 #dh1 p4 #aa47     
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,worm ,holes 9 
,r$ ,oak1 ,"w ( ! ,oak ,c>p5t] ,worm4   
,agric4 ,ye> ,book1 #aijc1 ,fig4 #cg1 p4
 #cbd4      ,columbian ,timb]-beetle ,"o
 ( ! commone/ wormhole defects     9    
:ite oak1 rock oak1 bee*1 & tulip       
7:itewood or     yell[ popl>7 is "o kn[n
 to ! lumb] trade z grease     spots1   
pat*-worm1 or black holes1 ,fig4 #ii1   
/eam boats1 ,fig4     #ajj1 etc41 caus$ 
by ! ,columbian timb] beetle 7,cor?ylus 
columbianus ,hopk47 ,! *>act]i/ic       
feature ( ?is     wormhole defect1 :i* w
 enable x to be readily recogniz$     9 
oak & bee*1 is transv]se s]ies ( two or 

m black     holes ab\t ! size ( ! lead 9
 an ord9>y lead p5cil1     ) a /reak (  
/a9$ wood ext5d+ ) ! gra9 two     or    
?ree or m in*es ea* side1 z 9 ,fig4 #ii4
 ,9     qu>t]-saw$ oak or split or saw$ 
/aves1 a %ort     longitud9al section ( 
"o ( ^! black holes is se5     att5d$ by
 ! /a9$ /reak on "o side ( a ?ick or    
curly     gr[? or gra91 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,x  
is ?is =m :i* is call$     /eamboats4 ,9
 :itewood 7yell[ popl>7 ! black holes   
are att5d$ by v long black1 gre5i%1 or  
blui% /reaks1     sometimes five or six 
feet long4 ,:5 ?is is common 9 !        
lumb] x is call$ calico popl>4 ,fig4    
#aja repres5ts !     *>act]i/ic         
appe>ance ( ?is defect greatly r$uc$4   
7,hopk9s1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijc1 p4  
#cbg47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,"w ( !
 ,columbian ,timb] ,beetle3 ,black holes
 & grease spots 9 :ite oak4 ,agric4 ,ye>
 ,book1 #aijc1 ,fig4 #ch1 p4 #cbe4      
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,"w ( !       
,columbian ,timb] ,beetle3 ,/eamboats 9 
qu>t]$ or ,split :ite oak4 ,agric4 ,ye> 

,book1 #aijc1 ,fig4 #ci1 p4 #cbf4       
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,"w ( !       
,columbian ,timb] ,beetle 9 ,tulip      
,wood1 ,calico ,popl>1 ,agric4 ,ye>     
,book #aijc1 ,fig4 #dj1 p4 #cbf4        
,c>p5t] bees4 ,! "w ( ?is class (       
woodbor+ bees     is %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajb4  
,! injury consi/s ( l>ge aug]like       
tunnels 9 expos$1 solid dry wood (      
build+s & o!r     /ructures4 ,x is mo/  
common 9 s(t woods1 su* z p9e1          
popl>1 r$wood & ! l4 7,hopk9s1 ,agric4  
,yr4 ,bk41     #aijd1 p4 #cij47         
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,"w ( !       
,c>p5t] ,bee1 ,xylocopa orpifex1 9      
,r$wood ,lumb]3 a1 entrance2 b1         
gall]ies2 c1 cells2 d1 l>va2 e1 adult4  
,agric4 ,ye> ,book1 #aijd1 ,fig4 #ec1 p4
 #cij4      ,horn tails4 ,?is is a class
 ( bor]s :i* are ! l>vae     ( ! s-call$
 wood wasps4 ,!y may ent] ! expos$ dead 
wood ( w\nds ( liv+ trees1 b m commonly 
attack !     wood ( dead /&+ conif]s &  
h>d woods1 9 ! sap-wood     ( :i* !y    
excavate irregul> burr[s1 :i* are pack$ 

) _! bor+s4 ,:5 ! adults em]ge !y leave 
!     surface p]=at$ ) num]\s r\nd      
holes4 ,wat] & fungi     ent]+ ^! holes 
cause a v rapid decay ( ! wood4         
7,hopk9s1 ,entom4 ,bull4 ,no4 #dh1 p4   
#aa47  ,! tunnels ( ^! v>i\s wood pe/s  
are mo/ frequ5tly to be se5 9 *e/nut1   
a%1 hickory1 oak1 tulip1 & cypress4  ,"o
 w\ld ?9k t ) su* an array ( enemies1 ! 
=e/ w\ld h>dly survive1 b on ! o!r h&   
!re are _m enemies ( ^! pe/s4 ,! mo/    
de/ructive are ! pr$ace\s & p>asitic    
insects4 ,_m insects are simply         
pr$ace\s1 p\nc+ ^u & de/roy+ su* o!r    
insects z !y c ov]come4 ,/ill o!rs are  
p>asites1 "s ext]nal1 b mo/ ( !m liv+ )9
 ! bodies ( _! victims :]e !y pass _!   
entire l>val life4 ,! eggs are laid on  
or 9 ! body ( ! victim1 s t z soon z "o 
hat*es1 x has suitable food4 ,! i*neumon
 fly1 ,fig4 #ajc1 is su* a p>asite2 x   
de/roys millions ( insect pe/s4 ,x has a
 long & peculi> ovipositor ) :i* x      
drills a hole into ! tree & deposits !  
egg 9 a burr[ ( ! ,pigeon ,horntail1 a  

wood wasp t burr[s into decidu\s trees4 
,! l>va soon f9ds its victim1 ! grub ( !
 ,pigeon ,horntail1 & lives on x to its 
de/ruction4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc4  
,i*neumon ,fly ^: ,l>va ,fe$s on ! ,l>va
 ( ! ,pigeon ,horn-tail4  ,x w\ld seem t
 x is a hopeless task to control !      
insect enemies ( =e/ trees & =e/        
products or to prev5t losses f _!       
ravages1 b ! writ] is in=m$ by ,dr4 ,a4 
,d4 ,hopk9s1 ! exp]t 9 ! ,bureau (      
,entomology 9 *>ge ( =e/ insect         
inve/igations1 t ! results ( _!         
inve/igations %[ conclusively t !re are 
_m practical & inexp5sive me?ods (      
control n[ available ?ru ! sugge/ions & 
recomm5dations 9 rec5t ,dep>tm5t        
publications on =e/ insects1 z well z   
?ru direct correspond5ce ) ! ,dep>tm5t4 
,^! me?ods are bas$ on ! pr9ciple (     
prev5tion & n on t ( ext]m9ation4 ,x has
 be5 %[n t ?ru prop] adju/m5t ( !       
details 9 managem5t ( =e/s & ( ! bus9ess
 ( manufactur+1 /or+1 transport+1 &     
utiliz+ ! products a l>ge p]c5tage ( !  

losses c be prev5t$ at small additional 
exp5se1 & t ev5 :5 consid]able co/ is   
involv$ ! am\nt sav$ w (t5 repres5t a   
h&some pr(it4   ,,! ,,natural ,,enemies 
,,( ,,! ,,=e/4  ,,ref]5ces3,a  7#a7     
,met]ological4        ,p9*ot1 ,prim] ,i1
 pp4 #ge-gf4       ,ro?1 ,fir/ ,book1   
pp4 #aih-bjb4       ,brunck51 pp4       
#bg-bi4      ,wat]4       ,ro?1 ,fir/   
,book1 p4 #bg4      ,sn[1 ice & fro/4   
,p9*ot1 ,prim]1 ,i1 p4 #gf4             
,bruce1 ,=4 & ,irr41 #h3 #aei1 ,ap4     
'#jb4   7#b7 ,vegetable4        ,ro?1   
,fir/ ,book1 p4 #d4       ,b\lg]1 pp4   
#gj-ge4       ,spauld+1 ,=4 ,bull41 ,no4
 #bb4       ,w>d1 ,*aps4 ,v1 ,,vi1      
,,vii4       ,sickles1 pp4 #da-de4      
von ,s*r5ck1 ,=4 ,bull41 ,no4 #da1 ,pl4 
,,iii4       ,%]fesee4 ,=4 ,circ4 ,no4  
#aci4       von ,s*r5ck1 ,bur4 ,plant   
,ind4 ,bull4 ,no4 #cf4       von        
,s*r5ck1 ,bur4 ,plant ,ind4 ,bull4 ,no4 
#cb4       von ,s*r5ck1 ,agric4 ,yr4    
,bk41 #aijj1 p4 #aii4   7#c7 ,animal4   
,graz+4       ,p9*ot1 ,prim] ,i1 pp4    

#fi-gc1 ,,ii1 p4 #gc4       ,p9*ot1     
,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #ahih1 p4 #ahg       
,coville1 ,=4 ,bull4 ,no4 #ae1 pp4      
#bh-ca4       ,ro?1 ,fir/ ,bk41 p4 #acj1
 #agh4      ,insects4       ,com/ock1   
passim4       ,hopk9s1 ,agric4 ,yr4     
,bk41 #aijb1 pp4 #bfe-bhb4       ,ro?1  
,fir/ ,book1 pp4 #aae-acj4       ,h[>d1 
,entom4 ,bull41 ,no4 #aa1 n4 s4         
,hopk9s1 ,spauld+1 ,entom4 ,bull41 ,no4 
#bh4       ,hopk9s1 ,entom4 ,bull41 ,no4
 #dh4       ,hopk9s1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 
#aijc1 pp4 #cac-cbi4       ,hopk9s1     
,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijd1 pp4 #chb-chi1 
,figs4 #dc-ef4       ,p9*ot1 ,prim]1 ,i1
 p4 #gc4       ,felt1 ,n4 ,y4 ,/ate     
,museum ,bull41 #ajc1 ,ent4 #be4        
,hopk9s1 ,entom4 ,bull4 ,no4 #cb4       
,hopk9s1 ,entom4 ,bull4 ,no4 #ef4       
,hopk9s1 ,entom4 ,bull4 ,no4 #eh4       
,spauld+ & ,*itt5d51 ,=4 ,bull4 ,no4    
#bb1 pp4 #ee-fa4      ,footnote ,a3 ,=  
g5]al bibliography1 see p4 #d4          
,,*apt] ,,vii4  ,,! ,,exhau/ion ,,( ,,! 
,,=e/4   ,! exhau/ion ( ! =e/ 9 ! ,unit$

 ,/ates is due to two ma9 causes3 7#a7  
,fire1 & 7#b7 ,de/ructive ,lumb]+4      
,,fire4  ,x is n commonly realiz$ t =e/ 
fires are almo/ entirely ! result (     
human ag5cy4 ,:5 cruis]s fir/ began to  
locate claims 9 ?is c\ntry1 practically 
no regions _h be5 deva/at$ by fire4 ,n[ 
su* regions are to be se5 ev]y:]e4 ,al?o
 lightn+ occasionally sets fire to =e/s1
 especially 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 !      
losses f ?is cause are trifl+ comp>$ ) !
 total loss4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 
,sla%1 ,left 9 ! ,woods1 & ,ready to    
,cat* ,fire4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4      
,opportunities = fire4 ,!re are a numb] 
( facts t make ! =e/ peculi>ly liable to
 fire4 ,especially 9 ! fall !re are     
great quantities ( inflammable mat]ial1 
su* z dry leaves1 twigs1 & duff ly+     
loose ready = ignition4 ,! b>k ( "s     
trees1 z pap] bir*1 & ! leaves ( o!rs1 z
 conif]s1 are v inflammable4 ,x foll[s t
 fires are m common 9 conif]\s ?an 9    
decidu\s =e/s4 ,aft] lumb]+ or w9dfalls1
 ! accumulat$ sla% burns easily &       

furi\sly1 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,moreov] a region 
once burn$ ov]1 is p>ticul>ly liable to 
burn aga91 on acc\nt ( ! accumulation ( 
dry trunks & bran*es4 ,see ,fig4 #ajg4  
,long dry seasons & high w9d furni%     
p>ticul>ly favorable conditions = fire4 
,on ! o!r h&1 ! w9d by *ang+ 9 direction
 may ext+ui% ! fire by turn+ x back ^u  
its track4 ,inde$ ! de/ructive p[] (    
fires dep5ds l>gely ^u ! w9d4           
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,=e/ ,fire4   
,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,causes ( fire4  
,=e/ fires are due to all sorts (       
causes1 accid5tal & int5tional4 ,dropp$ 
mat*es1 sm\ld]+ tobacco1 neglect$ camp  
fires & bru% fires1 locomotive sp>ks1   
may all be accid5tal causes t "u        
favorable conditions entail trem5d\s    
loss4 ,!re is good reason to believe t  
_m =e/ fires are set int5tionally4 ,!   
fact t grass & b]ry bu%es w soon spr+ up
 aft] a fire1 leads %eep m51 cattle &   
pig own]s1 & b]ry pick]s to set fires4  
,va/ areas are annually burn$ ov] 9 !   
,unit$ ,/ates = ^! reasons4 ,mo/ fires  

run only along ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 do+ 
little h>m to ! big timb]1 & if left    
alone w ev5 g out ( !mselves2 b if !    
duff is dry1 ! fire may sm\ld] 9 x a    
long "t1 ready to break out into flame  
:5 x rea*es good fuel or :5 x is fann$  
by ! w9d1 ,fig4 #aje4 ,ev5 ^! gr\nd     
fires d incalculable damage to se$s &   
se$l+s1 & ! safe/ plan is to put out e  
fire no matt] h[ small4  ,illu/ration3  
,fig4 #ajf4 ,burn$ ,=e/ ( ,engelmann    
,spruce4 ,=egr\nd1 ,lodgepole ,p9e ,com+
 94 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,al?o x is   
true t ! loss ( a =e/ is n irrem$iable  
because vegetation usually beg9s aga9 at
 once1 ,fig4 #ajf1 yet ! actual damage  
is almo/ incalculable4 ,! tract may lie 
ye> aft] ye>1 cov]$ ) only wor?less we$s
 & bu%es1 & if hilly1 ! region at once  
beg9s to be erod$ by ! ra9s4  ,aft] !   
fire1 may come high w9ds t bl[ d[n !    
trunks ( ! trees1 prep>+ mat]ial = ano!r
 fire1 ,fig4 #ajg4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 
#ajg4 ,effect ( ,fire & ,w9d4 ,colorado4
 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,! /ati/ics ( ! 

actual annual money loss ( ! timb] burn$
 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates are n ga!r$4 ,9 #ahhj
 ,pr(essor ,s>g5t collect$ mu*          
in=mation1 & 9 ! c5sus ( t ye> 7#aj?    
,c5sus1 ,vol4 ,,ix7 report$ #aj1jjj1jjj 
acres burn$ t ye> at a value (          
#be1jjj1jjj4  ,9 #ahia1 ! ,division (   
,=e/ry collect$ au!ntic records (       
#ab1jjj1jjj acres burn$ ov] 9 a s+le    
ye>1 at an e/imat$ value ( #ej1jjj1jjj4 
,9 ! ,adironacks 9 ! spr+ ( #aijc1 an   
unprec$5t$ly dry season1 fire aft] fire 
caus$ a direct loss ( ab\t #c1ejj1jjj4  
,9 #aijb1 a fire on ! divid+ l9e betwe5 
,wa%+ton & ,oregon de/roy$ prop]ty      
am\nt+ to #ab1jjj1jjj4 ,)9 comp>atively 
rec5t ye>s1 ! ,pacific ,coa/ /ates h lo/
 ov] #ajj1jjj1jjj wor? ( timb] by fire  
alone4  ,dur+ ,septemb]1 #aijh1 =e/     
fires rag$ 9 ,m9nesota1 ,mi*igan1       
,wiscons91 ,ma9e1 ,new ,york &          
,p5nsylvania4 ,! e/imates ( loss =      
nor!rn ,mi*igan alone am\nt$ to         
#dj1jjj1jjj4 ,= two weeks ! loss 0 set  
at #a1jjj1jjj a day4 ,! two t[ns (      

,hibb+ & ,*i%olm 7 practically wip$ out 
( exi/5ce1 & #bif lives 7 lo/4  ,c]ta9  
=e/ fires h be5 s gigantic & t]rible z  
to become hi/oric4      ,"o ( ^! is !   
,mirami*i fire ( #ahbe4 ,x began its    
greate/ de/ruction ab\t "o o'clock 9 !  
aft]noon (     ,octob] #g? ( t ye>1 at a
 place ab\t sixty miles     above ! t[n 
( ,newca/le1 on ! ,mirami*i ,riv]1 9    
,new     ,brunswick4 ,be=e t5 o'clock at
 night x 0 tw5ty miles     bel[ ,new    
,ca/le4 ,9 n9e h\rs x _h de/roy$ a belt 
(     =e/ eighty miles long & tw5ty-five
 miles wide4 ,ov] m     ?an two & a half
 million acres almo/ e liv+ ?+     0    
kill$4 ,ev5 ! fi% 7 aft]w>ds f\nd dead 9
 heaps     on ! riv] banks4 ,_m build+s 
& t[ns 7 de/roy$1     "o hundr$ & sixty 
p]sons p]i%$1 & ne>ly a ?\s&     head ( 
/ock4 ,! loss f ! ,mirami*i fire is     
e/imat$     at #cjj1jjj1 n includ+ !    
value ( ! timb]4 7,p9*ot1     ,"p #a4 p4
 #gi-hj47      ,( su* calamities1 "o ( !
 wor/ t is on record is t     kn[n z !  
,pe%tigo fire1 :i*1 9 #ahga1 dur+ ! same

     mon?1 ,octob]1 :5 ,*icago 0 laid 9 
a%es1 deva/at$ !     c\ntry ab\t ! %ores
 ( ,gre5 ,bay 9 ,wiscons94 ,m ?an       
#c1jjj1jjj wor? ( prop]ty 0 burnt1 at   
lea/ two ?\s&     families ( settl]s 7  
made homeless1 villages 7     de/roy$ & 
ov] a ?\s& lives lo/4 7,brunck51 p4     
#aaj47      ,! mo/ de/ructive fire ( m  
rec5t ye>s 0 t :i*     />t$ ne>         
,h9ckley1 ,m9n41 ,septemb] #a1 #ahid4   
,:ile !     area burn$ ov] 0 less ?an 9 
"s o!r great fires1 !     loss ( life & 
prop]ty 0 v heavy4 ,h9ckley & six       
o!r t[ns 7 de/roy$1 ab\t #ejj lives 7   
lo/1 m     ?an #b1jjj p]sons 7 left     
de/itute1 & ! e/imat$ loss     9 prop]ty
 ( v>i\s k9ds 0 #be1jjj1jjj4 ,except = !
     h]oic conduct ( locomotive eng9e]s 
& o!r railroad m51     ! loss ( life    
w\ld h be5 f> great]4      ,?is fire 0  
all ! m deplorable1 because x 0 :olly   
unnecess>y4 ,= _m days be=e ! high w9d  
came & drove     x into uncontrollable  
fury1 x 0 burn+ sl[ly close to     ! t[n
 ( ,h9ckley & c\ld h be5 put out4       

7,p9*ot1     ,"p ,i1 #hb-hc47  ,"o ( !  
mo/ rem>kable features ( ^! cr[n fires1 
is ! rapidity ) :i* !y travel4 ,!       
,mirami*i fire travel$ n9e miles an h\r4
  ,to get an idea ( ! fury ( a =e/ fire1
 read ?is description f ,brunck54 ,aft] 
describ+ ! /eady1 sl[ progress ( a duff 
fire1 he proce$s3      ,b !re comes an  
ev5+ :5 nobody ?9ks ( go+ to b$4        
,all day ! smoke has become d5s] & d5s]1
 until x is no     long] a haze1 b a    
?ick yell[i% mass ( vapor1 c>ry+        
l>ge p>ticles ( sooty c9d]s1 fill+ "o's 
eyes &     no/rils ) bit+ du/1 mak+     
brea?+ oppressive4 ,!re     is no escape
 f x4 ,clos+ w9d[s & doors does n b>    
x out ( ! h\ses2 x seems z if x c\ld    
p5etrate solid     walls4 ,ev]y?+ x     
t\*es feels r\gh1 z if cov]$ )     f9e  
a%es4 ,! heat is horrible al?o no ray ( 
sun%9e     p5etrates ! heavy pall (     
smoke4      ,9 ! di/ance a rumbl+1 ru%+ 
s\nd is he>d4 ,x is !     fire ro>+ 9 ! 
tree tops on ! hill sides1 sev]al miles 
f t[n4 ,?is is no long] a numb] ( small 

fires1 sl[ly     sm\ld]+ away to eat up 
a fall5 log2 nor little danc+     flames
 runn+ along ! dry litt] on ! gr\nd1    
try+ to     creep up ! b>k ( a tree1 :]e
 ! li*5s are ?ick &     dry1 b pres5tly 
fall+ back exhau/$4 ,! w9d has ris51    
fann+ ! flames on all sides1 till !y    
leap high] &     high]1 rea*+ ! l[]     
bran*es ( ! /&+ timb]1     envelop+ !   
mighty boles ( cork p9e 9 a %eet (      
flame1     seiz+ ! tall poles ( "y trees
 & conv]t+ !m     into blaz+ beacons t  
h]ald ! approa* ( de/ruction4     ,fi]c]
 & fi]c] bl[s ! w9d1 g5]at$ by ! fire   
itself z x s5ds curr5ts ( heat$ air ru%+
 upw>d into     inf9ity4 ,l\d] & l\d] ! 
crack+ ( ! bran*es z     ! flames seize 
"o aft] ! o!r1 leap+ f cr[n to     cr[n1
 ris+ high above ! tree tops 9 :irl+    
wrea?s     ( fire1 & bel*+ =? cl\ds (   
smoke hundr$s ( feet     /ill high]4 ,z 
! heat$ air rises m & m1 ru%+     along 
) a s\nd l t ( a ?\s& foam+ m\nta9      
torr5ts1 burn+ br&s are c>ri$ along1    
:irl+ on across     ! firmam5t l evil   

spirits ( de/ruction1 be>+ !     fire   
miles away f its orig91 !n fall+ among !
 dry     bru% heaps ( w9dfall or sla%+1 
& />t+ ano!r fire     to burn z fi]cely 
z ! fir/4 99 99 99      ,!re is some?+  
horrible 9 ! sl[1 /eady approa* (     a 
top fire4 ,x comes on ) ! pitiless      
det]m9ation (     unavoidable de/9y1 n  
fa/] ?an a man c walk4 ,b !re     is no 
/opp+ x4 ,y _c fight a fire t seizes    
tree     top aft] tree top1 f> above y\r
 rea*1 & %[]s d[n     ^u ! pigmy mortals
 t attempt to oppose x an avalan*     ( 
burn+ bran*es1 driv+ !m away to escape !
 torture     & dea? t ?reat5s !m4       
7,brunck51 ,am]ican ,=e/s     & ,=e/ry1 
#ajf-aji47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajh4   
,fight+ ,=e/ ,fire4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/        
,s]vice4  ,real =e/ fires are n usually 
put out2 m5 only try to limit !m4 ,a    
common me?od ( limitation is to cut     
tr5*es ?ru ! duff s t ! fire _c pass    
across1 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,9 s]i\s cases back 
fires are built on ! side ( ! pa?s or   
roads or tr5*es t[>d ! fire1 9 !        

expectation t ! two fires w meet4 ,9 su*
 cases great c>e has to be tak5 t ! back
 fire itself does n escape4 ,small      
fires1 h[ev]1 c sometimes be beat5 out  
or smo!r$ ) dirt & s&1 s9ce wat] is     
usually unavailable4  ,illu/ration3     
,fig4 #aji4 ,fire ,lane4 ,worce/] ,co41 
,mass4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,b an     
ounce ( prev5tion is wor? a p\nd ( cure4
 ,"o ( ! be/ ( ^! prev5tions is a sy/em 
( fire lanes4 ,ev5 n>r[ pa?s ( dirt w   
/op an ord9>y fire4 ,roads1 ( c\rse1 are
 /ill bett]4 ,sy/ems ( fire lanes1 ,fig4
 #aji1 are made great use ( 9 ,europe & 
,briti% ,india4 ,belts ( h>dwood trees  
are also cultivat$ along railways1 & to 
break up l>ge bodies ( conif]s4  ,if 9  
lumb]+1 ! sla% 7 de/roy$ or ev5 cut up s
 z to lie ne> ! gr\nd & rot quickly1 _m 
fires w\ld be prev5t$4  ,"s /ates1 z    
,new ,york1 h a fairly well organiz$    
sy/em ( fire w>d5s1 :o h ! au?ority to  
draft z mu* male help z !y ne$ at #b4jj 
a day to fight =e/ fires4 ,un=tunately  
ne'er-d-wells sometimes set fire to !   

woods1 9 ord] to make "w = !mselves4    
,mu* prev5tive "w is also done by       
educat+ ! public 9 s*ools & by ! po/+ ( 
! fire notices1#a ,fig4 #aaj4           
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,look out =   
,fire4 ,rules & ,laws4   ,,de/ructive   
,,lumb]+4  ,h[ ! reckless & de/ructive  
me?ods ( lumb]+ common 9 ,am]ica came   
into vogue1 is wor? not+4#b  ,! great   
hi/orical fact ( ! fir/ half c5tury (   
our c\ntry 0 ! conque/ ( ! wild]ness4 ,t
 wild]ness 0 l>gely an unbrok5 =e/4 ,to 
! e>ly settl]1 ?is =e/ 0 ! greate/ (    
b>ri]s to agriculture4 ,! cra% ( a fell$
 tree 0 to him a symbol ( advanc+       
civilization4 ,! woods 7 some?+ to be   
got rid ( to make room = f>ms1 ,fig4    
#aaa4 ,9 ,virg9ia1 = example1 :]e ! soil
 0 soon exhau/$ by tobacco culture &    
mod]n f]tiliz]s 7 unkn[n1 !re 0 a       
cont9ual advance into ! woods to plant  
on new & ri*] l&4 ,! =e/ 0 also full (  
enemies to ! settl]1 bo? animals &      
,indians1 & 0 a dread$ field = fire4 ,s 
!re grew up a feel+ ( hate & fe> = !    

=e/4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,=e/    
,giv+ ,place to ,f>m ,l&4 ,nor? ,c>ol9a4
 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,m ?an t ! =e/  
seem$ exhau/less4 ,! cle>+s 7 at fir/   
only specks 9 ! woods1 & ev5 :5 !y 7    
pu%$ f>!r & f>!r back f ! seacoa/1 !re 0
 pl5ty ( timb] beyond4      ,! idea t ! 
area ( ?is =e/ c\ld ev] be dim9i%$      
by human h&s to any appreciable ext5t s 
t p w\ld     become afraid ( n hav+     
woodl& en\gh to supply !m     ) ! ne$$  
lumb]1 w\ld h seem$ an utt] absurdity   
to ! backwoodsman4 99 99 99 ,?us ! leg5d
 arose ( !     inexhau/ible supply (    
lumb] 9 ,am]ican =e/s1 a leg5d     :i*  
only )9 ! la/ tw5ty ye>s has giv5 place 
to     ju/] notions4 7,brunck51 p4 #eg47
  ,?is tradition ( abundant supply & !  
feel+ ( ho/ility to ! =e/ la/$ long aft]
 ! reasons = !m _h disappe>$4 ,:5 we    
rememb] t e f>m 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1
 is made f reclaim$ =e/ l& & t = decades
 lumb] 0 always )9 rea* up ! riv]s1 d[n 
:i* x 0 float$1 x is n /range t reckless
 & extravagant me?ods ( cutt+ & us+ x   

prevail$4  ,foll[+ ! settl] came !      
lumb]man1 :o cont9u$ ! same me?od ( lay+
 wa/e ! =e/ l&4 ,! lumb] m>ket grew     
sl[ly at fir/1 b lat] develop$ by leaps 
& b\nds1 until n[ ! output is enorm\s4  
,lumb]+ 9 ,am]ica has come to be        
synonym\s ) ! cle>+ (f ( all ! m>ketable
 timb]1 reg>dless ( ! future4 ,x treats 
! =e/ z ?o x 7 a m9e1 n a crop1 ,fig4   
#aab4 ,s9ce #ahhj ! total cut has be5   
ov] #gjj1jjj1jjj feet1 en\gh to make a  
"o in* floor ov] ,v]mont1 ,massa*usetts1
 ,connecticut1 ,rhode ,isl& & ,delaw>e1 
or "o-half ( ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 an   
area ( #be1jjj squ>e miles4             
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,r$wood ,=e/  
,turn$ ,into ,pa/ure4 ,cali=nia4 ,u4 ,s4
 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,o!r c\ntries1 too1 h   
deva/at$ _! =e/s4 ,portugal has a =e/   
area ( only #e p] c5t4 ( ! total l&     
area1 ,spa9 & ,greece1 ea* #ac p] c5t41 
,italy #ad p] c5t4 & ,turkey #bj p] c5t4
 ,:e!r ! de/ruction ( ! ,am]ican =e/s   
%all g z f> z ?is is n[ a live "q :i*   
has only j begun to be appreciat$4      

,ano!r reason = ! reckless ,am]ican     
attitude t[>d ! =e/ is ! frequ5cy &     
sev]ity ( =e/ fires4 ,?is has l$ to !   
fe> on ! "p ( lumb]m5 ( los+ :at /umpage
 !y _h1 & s !y h cle>$ _! hold+s quickly
 & sold ! timb]4 ,_! motto 0 cut or     
lose4  ,a ?ird inc5tive to deva/ative   
me?ods 0 ! levy ( :at 7 consid]$ unju/  
taxes4      ,hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( acres 9 !
 :ite p9e region1     notably 9         
,mi*igan1 ,wiscons91 & ,m9nesota1 h be5 
cut     ov]1 ab&on$1 sold = taxes1 &    
f9ally r$uc$ by fire     to a useless   
wild]ness because ( ! %ortsight$ policy 
(     heavy taxation4 ,to lay heavy     
taxes on timb] l& is to set     a       
premium on =e/ de/ruction1 a premium t  
is do+     m ?an any o!r s+le factor to 
h9d] ! spread (     cons]vative lumb]+  
among ! own]s ( l>ge bodies     ( timb] 
l&4 99 99 99 ,heavy taxes are           
responsible = !     b>r5ness ( ?\s&s (  
squ>e miles :i* %\ld nev]     h ceas$ to
 be productive1 & :i* mu/ n[ lie fall[  
= _m decades be=e !y c be c\nt$ aga9    

among !     weal?-mak+ assets ( !       
nation4 7,p9*ot1 ,agric4 ,yr4     ,bk41 
#ahih1 pp4 #ahd-ahe47      ,on !        
treatm5t ( ! que/ions ( fire & taxes    
dep5ds     ! future ( ,am]ican =e/      
indu/ries4 7,brunck51 p4 #bbf47         
,und\bt$ly mu* wa/e has be5 caus$ by %e]
 ignorance ( =e/ conditions & me?ods1   
:i*1 if foll[$1 w\ld secure successive  
crops in/ead ( "o1 b x is safe to say t 
! desire = imm$iate pr(its has be5 !    
dom9ant cause ( reckless lumb]+4 ,s     
%ort-sight$ has ! policy ( private own]s
 prov$ itself1 t x is a "q :e!r any l>ge
 ext5t ( =e/ l& c safely be left 9      
private h&s4 ,no individual lives long  
en\gh to reap m ?an "o =e/ crop4 ,only  
corporations & ,/ates c be expect$ to h 
an int]e/ long en\gh cont9u$ to ju/ify !
 me?ods ( cons]vative lumb]+4  ,z a     
matt] ( fact1 ne>ly "o-half ( !         
privately own$ timb] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates  
is held by #aie great hold]s1 ! pr9cipal
 ones be+ ! ,s\!rn ,pacific ,company1 ! 
,wey]haus] ,timb] ,company1 & ! ,nor!rn 

,pacific ,railway ,company1 :i* toge!r  
own ne>ly #aa p] c5t4 ( ! privately own$
 =e/s ( ! c\ntry4 ,^! l>ge hold]s are   
cutt+ little ( _! timb]1 _! object1     
h[ev]1 be+ n s mu* to cons]ve ! =e/s z  
to res]ve to !mselves ! incalculable    
private pr(its :i* are expect$ to come )
 ! future enorm\s increase 9 ! value (  
timb]4  ,ov] aga9/ ?is policy1 /&s t ( !
 ,unit$ ,/ates ,=e/ ,s]vice ( increas+ !
 area ( ! ,national ,=e/s 9 ord] to     
cons]ve !m = ! public welf>e4 ,! pity is
 t ! gov]nm5t ev] let ! =e/s pass out ( 
its h&s4 ,only =ty ye>s ago sev5ty-five 
p] c5t4 ( ! timb] n[ /&+ 0 publicly     
own$4 ,n[ ab\t eighty p] c5t4 ( x is    
privately own$4 ,9 ! mean:ile its value 
has increas$ any:]e f t5 to fifty fold1 
accord+ to locality4#c ,"s l>ge         
corporations1 h[ev]1 l ! ,p5nsylvania   
,railroad1 ! ,kirby ,lumb] ,company1 (  
,texas1 & ! ,int]national ,pap]         
,company1 h ent]$ ^u a policy (         
cons]vative lumb]+4  ,( ! actual        
practices :i* di/+ui% de/ructive lumb]+1

 a few may be cit$4 ,/umps are cut too  
high & tops too l[4 ,good lumb] is wa/$ 
on lumb] roads & bridges1 ,fig4 #aac4   
,sapl+s are torn d[n 9 dragg+ out logs4 
,sla% is left 9 condition to fo/] fires 
& left ) no %ade protection4 ,se$l+s are
 smo!r$ ) sla%4 ,se$ trees are all cut  
out leav+ no *ance = reproduction4 ,only
 poor] sorts ( trees are left /&+1 ?us  
insur+ det]ioration4 ,pap] pulp cutt+   
goes ev5 f>!r ?an lumb]+1 & ord9>ily    
leaves no?+ beh9d b a h[l+ wild]ness4   
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,r$ ,spruce   
,us$ 9 ,build+ ,skidway1 & ,left 9 !    
,woods4 ,hamilton ,co41 ,new ,york4  ,! 
production ( turp5t9e f ! long-leaf p9e1
 ,fig4 #aad1 at ! annual rate ( #dj1jjj 
b>rels has meant ! deva/ation ( #gj1jjj 
acres ( virg9 =e/4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 
#aad4 ,turp5t9e ,box+1 ,cup ,sy/em4     
,georgia4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,9 view
 ( ?is :olesale de/ruction x becomes (  
int]e/ to "k h[ mu* /ill rema9s ( !     
timb] supply ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! late/
 & mo/ au?oritative e/imate ( /&+ timb] 

9 cont95tal ,unit$ ,/ates1 exclud+      
,alaska1 gives a total ( #b1hjj1jjj1jjj 
,m feet ,b4,m41#d ( :i* #b1bjj1jjj1jjj  
,m feet are privately own$1 ab\t        
#eci1jjj1jjj ,m feet are 9 ! ,national  
,=e/s 7,fig4 #aai1 p4 #bga17 &          
#ij1jjj1jjj ,m feet are on ! unres]v$   
public l&s1 ,national p>ks1 ,/ate l&s & 
,indian res]vations4  ,e>li] e/imates 7 
h>dly m ?an guesses4 ,= example ! c5sus 
( #ahhj e/imat$ ! /umpage ( ! ,u4 ,s4 at
 #hef1bij1ajj ,m feet1 :ile ! c5sus (   
#aijj gives a total ( #a1cij1jjj1jjj ,m 
feet4 ,! discrepancy appe>s /ill great] 
:5 x is rememb]$ t 9 ! meantime         
#gjj1jjj1jjj ,m feet 7 cut4 ,( ?is am\nt
 #ejj1jjj1jjj ,m feet 7 ( conif]s or    
#hj1jjj1jjj ,m feet m ?an 7 includ$ 9 ! 
e/imate ( #ahhj4 ,! simple fact is (    
c\rse t ! e>li] e/imates 7 gross        
und]e/imates1 due to ! fact t !y 7 bas$ 
on entirely inadequate data1 & !re=e c n
 be us$ to obscure ! n[ unque/ionable   
fact t ! timb] supply ( ?is c\ntry is   
surely & rapidly melt+ away4  ,! ,=e/   

,s]vice e/imates t ! pres5t annual cut (
 saw timb] is ab\t #ej1jjj1jjj ,m feet4 
,at ?is rate ! pres5t /& w\ld la/ ab\t  
#ee ye>s & ! privately own$ timb] only  
#dd ye>s4 ,?is e/imate does n all[ =    
gr[? & decay4  ,:ile ! population ( !   
,unit$ ,/ates increas$ #eb p] c5t4 f    
#ahhj to #aijj1 dur+ ! same p]iod !     
lumb]-cut increas$ #id p] c5t4 ,9 o!r   
words ! ye>ly increase 9 use is #bj to  
#be p] c5t4 p] capita1 t is1 fa/ z !    
population gr[s1 ! lumb] consumption    
increases ne>ly twice z fa/4 ,?is       
increase 9 ! lumb]-cut f> ov]balances ! 
gr[? ( trees4  ,x is also to be rememb]$
 t ?is increase 9 ! use ( lumb] is 9    
spite ( ! enorm\s increase ( sub/itutes 
= lumb]1 su* z brick1 cem5t & /eel =    
build+1 & /eel = bridges1 vehicles1     
f5ces1 ma*9]y1 tools1 & implem5ts ( all 
k9ds4  ,h[ lavi%ly we use lumb] may     
fur!r be appreciat$ f ! fact t we       
consume #bfj cubic feet#e p] capita1    
:ile ! av]age = #ac ,european c\ntries  
is b #di cubic feet p] capita4 ,9 o!r   

words e p]son 9 ! ,u4 ,s4 is us+ five   
times z mu* wood z he w\ld use if he    
liv$ 9 ,europe4 ,x is e/imat$ t on an   
av]age ea* p]son 9 ?is c\ntry uses      
annually ! product ( #be acres ( =e/4 ,!
 c\ntry z a :ole1 cuts e ye>1 betwe5    
?ree & f\r times m wood ?an all ! =e/s  
gr[ 9 ! meantime4 ,by contra/1 !        
pr9cipal c\ntries ( ,europe1 cut j !    
annual gr[?1 :ile ,russia1 ,sw$5 &      
,japan1 cut less ?an ! gr[?4 ,9 o!r     
words1 ! #b1hjj1jjj1jjj1jjj feet ,b4,m4 
( ! /umpage ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is a      
capital :i* is con/antly drawn ^u1      
:]eas1 ! #idd1gjj1jjj1jjj bo>d feet ( ! 
=e/ ( ! ,g]man ,empire is a capital :i* 
is unt\*$ b produces annually #cjj bo>d 
feet p] acre4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aae4
 7,lumb] ,production by ,regions1       
#aijg74  ,s\!rn ,/ates include3         
,virg9ia1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1  
,georgia1 ,florida1 ,alabama1           
,mississippi1 ,l\isiana1 ,arkansas1     
,texas & ,oklahoma4  ,pacific ,/ates    
include3 ,wa%+ton1 ,oregon & ,cali=nia4 

,nor? ,atlantic ,/ates include3 ,new    
,engl&1 ,new ,york1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,new  
,j]sey1 ,delaw>e1 & ,m>yl&4  ,lake      
,/ates include3 ,mi*igan1 ,wiscons91 &  
,m9nesota4  ,c5tral ,/ates include3     
,ohio1 ,we/ ,virg9ia1 ,k5tucky1         
,t5nessee1 ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 &        
,miss\ri4  ,rocky ,m\nta9 ,/ates        
include3 ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,wyom+1      
,nevada1 ,utah1 ,colorado1 ,arizona1 &  
,new ,mexico4  ,"o /rik+ evid5ce ( !    
decrease ( ! timb] supply is ! %ift+ (  
its s\rces4 ,once ! nor!a/]n ,/ates     
produc$ ov] half ( ! lumb] product4 ,!y 
rea*$ _! relative maximum 9 #ahgj :5 !y 
produc$ #cf p] c5t4 ,at t "t ! ,lake    
,/ates produc$ ab\t #bd p] c5t4 ,by     
#ahij ! ,lake ,/ates came to _! maximum 
( #cf p] c5t4 ,today ! s\!rn ,/ates are 
ne> _! maximum ) #da p] c5t41 b ! c5t] w
 soon %ift to ! ,pacific ,/ates4 ,_!    
product rose f less ?an #aj p] c5t4 ( ! 
:ole 9 #aijj to #ag p] c5t4 9 #aijh1    
,figs4 #aae & #aaf4 ,:5 t virg9 =e/ has 
be5 cut (f1 !re w be no new region to   

exploit2 :]eas1 h]et(ore1 :5 a region 0 
exhau/$1 ! lumb]m5 h always _h a new "o 
to :i* to move4 ,at ! annual meet+ ( !  
,nor!rn ,p9e ,manufactur]s' ,association
 9 ,m9neapolis1 ,m9n41 ,janu>y #bb1     
#aijg1 ,secret>y ,j4 ,e4 ,rhodes made   
?is /rik+ /atem5t3      ,s9ce #ahie1    
#bdh firms1 repres5t+ an annual         
aggregate     output ( p9e lumb] (      
#d-a_/d billion feet1 h retir$ f        
bus9ess1 due to ! exhau/ion ( _! timb]  
supply4 ,plants     repres5t+           
approximately #ejj million feet         
capacity1 :i*     saw$ 9 #aijf1 w n be  
op]at$ 9 #aijg4      ,! %ift+ ( ! *ief  
s\rces ( supply has1 ( c\rse1     be5   
accompani$ by a *ange 9 ! k9ds ( lumb]  
produc$4     ,!re 0 a "t :5 :ite p9e    
alone con/itut$ "o-half     ( ! total   
quantity4 ,9 #aijj ?is species furni%$ b
 #ba4e     p] c5t41 9 #aijd only #ae p] 
c5t41 ( ! lumb] cut4#f ,we     d n use  
less p9e because we h f\nd some?+ bett]1
     b because we h to put up ) some?+  
worse4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaf4       

7,lumb] ,production by ,/ates74  ,!     
pres5t annual cut ( s\!rn yell[ p9e is  
ab\t #ac-a_/d million ,m feet1 or a     
little less ?an "o-?ird ( ! total cut ( 
all ! species4 ,at ! pres5t rate (      
consumption1 x is evid5t t )9 t5 or     
fifte5 ye>s1 !re w be a mo/ s]i\s       
%ortage ( x4 ,mean:ile ! cut ( ,d\glas  
fir on ! ,pacific coa/ has increas$ f #e
 p] c5t4 ( ! total lumb] cut 9 #aijj to 
#ab p] c5t4 9 #aije4 ,?is increase is 9 
spite ( ! fact1 already not$ 7p4 #bfb7 t
 ! great timb] own+ companies ( !       
nor?we/ are hold+ _! /umpage = an       
expect$ great increase 9 value4  ,ano!r 
evid5ce ( %ortage is ! almo/ total      
disappe>ance ( c]ta9 valuable species4  
,hickory1 :i* once made ,am]ican buggies
 fam\s1 is gett+ v sc>ce1 & black walnut
 once commonly us$ = furniture1 is      
available n[ = only f9e cab9et "w1      
v5e]s1 gun /ocks1 etc4 ,h>dwoods t are  
fit = ! saw are rapidly decreas+4 ,!    
h>dwood cut ( #aijj ( #h1fcd1jjj ,m feet
 dim9i%$ 9 #aijd to #f1gha1jjj ,m feet4 

,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4 7,lumb]       
,production by ,species74  ,a /ill fur!r
 evid5ce ( ! decreas+ supply1 is ! ris+ 
scale ( prices4 ,:ite p9e1 :i* sold =   
#de4jj p] ,m dur+ #ahhg-ahib1 sold =    
#ajj4jj f4o4b4 ,n4 ,y41 ,jan4 #a1 #aiaa4
 ,yell[ popl> w5t up 9 ! same p]iod1    
#ahhg-aiaa1 f #bi4jj to #fc4jj4 ,yell[  
p9e rose f #ah4jj 9 #ahif to #dg4jj 9   
#aiaa1 & hemlock1 ! meane/ ( all woods1 
f #aa4ej 9 #ahhi to #ba4jj 9 #aiaa1     
,fig4 #aah4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aah4  
,:olesale lumb] prices1 #ahhg-aiaa4  ,! 
qualities ( lumb] %[n 9 ! above *>t are 
z foll[s3  ,:ite ,a%1 #a/ & #b;d1 #a &  
#a-a_/b x #h & up by #ab'-af'4          
,basswood1 #a/ & #b;d1 #a x #h & up by x
 #jj4  ,:ite ,oak1 qu>t]-saw$1 #a/ &    
#b;d1 all figur$1 #a x #f & up x        
#aj'-af'4  ,yell[ popl>1 #a/ & #b;d1 #a 
x #g-ag x #ab'-af'4  ,hemlock1 bo>ds    
,spruce1 ,no4 #a & cle>1 #a & #a-a_/d x 
#d x #ac'4  ,:ite p9e1 r\gh upp]s1 #a x 
#h & up x #jj'4  ,yell[ p9e1 edge gra9  
floor+4 ,! curve is approximately       

correct1 = ! /&>d ( quality has be5     
*ang$ sev]al times4  ,x is to be        
rememb]$1 moreov]1 t z ! timb] 9 any    
region becomes sc>c]1 ! m9imum cutt+    
limit is con/antly l[]$1 & ! /&>d (     
quality con/antly depreciat$4 ,poor]    
species & qualities & small] sizes1 :i* 
7 once reject$1 are n[ accept$ 9 !      
m>ket4 ,= example1 #f in*es is n[ a     
common cutt+ diamet] = p9e & spruce1    
:]eas #ab in*es 0 ! m9imum limit1 & on !
 ,pacific coa/ !re is /ill no?+ cut bel[
 #ah in*es4 ,?is cutt+ ( small] sizes is
 l>gely due to ! capaci\s maw ( ! pulp  
mill1 :i* swall[s ev5 ! poore/ /uff4    
,al?o ! am\nt ( wood us$ = pap] pulp is 
small 9 comp>ison ) ! total lumb]       
production1 be+ ab\t #e4d p] c5t41 yet  
?is cutt+ ( "y gr[? keeps ! =e/ l&      
deva/at$4 ,9 #aijf ne>ly #i1jjj1jjj tons
 ( wood 7 us$ = pap] pulp 9 ! ,unit$    
,/ates4      ,no "o :o is at all famili>
 ) ! situation d\bts = an     in/ant t  
we are rapidly us+ up our =e/ capital4  
,9     fact x is unque/ionably safe to  

say t our pres5t annual     consumption 
( wood 9 all =ms is f ?ree to f\r times 
z great z ! annual increm5t ( our =e/s4 
,ev5     by accept+ ! highe/ e/imate ( !
 am\nt ( timb]     /&+ we po/pone = only
 a few ye>s ! "t :5 !re     mu/ be a    
great curtailm5t 9 ! use ( wood1 if !   
pres5t     me?ods ( =e/ exploitation are
 cont9u$4 ,e indication     po9ts to !  
fact t "u pres5t conditions ! maximum   
annual yield ( =e/ products = ! c\ntry z
 a :ole has     be5 rea*$1 & t 9 a      
comp>atively %ort "t1 !re     w be a    
m>k$ decrease 9 ! total output1 z !re is
 n[     9 sev]al items4 7,kellogg1      
,=e/ry ,circul>1 ,no4 #ig1 p4     #ab47 
,on ! o!r h&1 x is to be rememb]$ t !re 
are influ5ces :i* t5d to save & ext5d ! 
=e/ area4 ,^! w be consid]$ 9 ! next    
*apt]1 on ! ,use ( ! ,=e/4              
,footnote #a3      ,,look ,,out ,,=     
,,fire6      ,,rules ,,& ,,laws4        
,fires = cle>+ l& ne> a =e/ mu/ n be    
/>t$     until ! trees are 9 full leaf4 
,be=e light+ su* fires     ?ree days'   

notice1 at lea/1 mu/ be giv5 to !       
,firew>d5     & occupants ( adjo9+ l&s4 
,aft] su* fires are     light$1 compet5t
 p]sons mu/ rema9 to gu>d !m until !    
fire is completely ext+ui%$1 & ! p]sons 
/>t+ su*     fires w be held responsible
 = all damages not)/&+     notice _h be5
 giv5 to ! ,firew>d54      ,fires w be  
p]mitt$ = ! purposes ( cook+1 w>m?     &
 insect smudges1 b be=e su* fires are   
k9dl$1     suffici5t space ar\nd ! spot 
:]e ! fire is to be     light$ mu/ be   
cle>$ f all combu/ible mat]ial2 &       
be=e ! place is ab&on$1 fires s light$  
mu/ be     ?oroly qu5*$4      ,all fires
 o!r ?an ^? h]e9be=e m5tion$ are        
absolutely prohibit$4      ,hunt]s &    
smok]s are caution$ aga9/ all[+ fires to
     orig9ate f ! use ( fire>ms1 cig>s &
 pipes4      ,especial c>e %\ld be tak5 
t light$ mat*es are     ext+ui%$ be=e   
?r[+ !m d[n4      ,all p]sons are w>n$ t
 !y w be held responsible =     any     
damage or injury to ! =e/ :i* may result
 f _!     c>elessness or neglect4       

,girdl+ & peel+ b>k f /&+ trees on /ate 
l& is     prohibit$4 ,fall5 timb] only  
may be us$ = firewood4      ,all citiz5s
 are reque/$ to report imm$iately any   
cases     :i* may come to _! k ( injury 
to woodl&s     aris+ f a violation ( ^! 
rules4      ,!n foll[ quotations f !    
laws ( ! /ate ( ,new ,york4             
,footnote #b3 ,= ! common me?ods ( logg+
 see ,h&work     9 ,wood1 ,*apt] ,i4    
,footnote #c3 ,see ,summ>y ( ,report ( !
 ,commission] (     ,corporations on !  
,lumb] ,indu/ry4 ,febru>y #ac1 #aiaa4   
,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4      ,footnote #d3 ,a 
bo>d foot is "o foot squ>e & "o in*     
?ick4      ,footnote #e3 #afg cubic feet
 equal ab\t #ajjj bo>d feet4            
,footnote #f3 ,=e/ry ,circul>1 ,no4 #ig4
   ,,! ,,exhau/ion ,,( ,,! ,,=e/        
,,ref]5ces3,a  7#a7 ,fires4             
,brunck51 pp4 #ahc-bjg4       ,p9*ot1   
,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 p4 #ahi4       ,sut]1
 ,=4 ,circ4 ,no4 #cf4       ,u4 ,s4 ,t5?
 ,c5sus1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 p4 #dia ff4        
,p9*ot1 ,prim]1 pp4 #gg-hh4       ,ro?1 

,fir/ ,book1 pp4 #ajd-aab4       ,/]l+1 
,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijd1 p4 #acc4  7#b7
 ,de/ructive ,lumb]+4      ,! ,settl]'s 
,tradition4       ,brunck51 pp4 #dj-ei1 
#id4       ,ro?1 ,fir/ ,book1 pp4       
#da-de4       ,p9*ot1 ,prim]1 ,,ii1 p4  
#hb4      ,taxation4       ,=4 & ,irr41 
,april1 '#jf4       ,p9*ot1 ,agric4 ,yr4
 ,bk41 #ahih1 p4 #ahd4      ,reckless   
,practices4       ,p9*ot1 ,prim] ,,ii1  
#db-dg4       ,p9*ot1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41
 #ahih1 p4 #ahd4       ,p9*ot1 ,=4      
,circ41 ,no4 #be1 p4 #aa4       ,price1 
,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijb1 p4 #caj4      
,fox1 ,=4 ,bull41 ,no4 #cd1 p4 #dj4     
,pet]s1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aije1 pp4   
#dhc-did4       ,graves1 ,agric4 ,yr4   
,bk41 #ahii1 p4 #dae4       ,sut]1 ,=4  
,bull41 #bf1 pp4 #eh1 #fi1 #gf4         
,mohr1 ,=4 ,bull4 ,no4 #ac1 p4 #fa4     
,brunck51 pp4 #ij-ih4      ,! ,timb]    
,supply4       ,kellogg1 ,=4 ,circ41    
,no4 #ig 444       ,zon1 ,=4 ,bull41    
,no4 #hc4       ,f]n[1 ,economics1 pp4  
#ce-de4       ,report ( ! ,commission] (

 ,corporations on ! ,lumb] ,indu/ry4    
,"p ,i1 ,feb4 #ac1 #aiaa4      ,footnote
 ,a3 ,= g5]al bibliography1 see p4 #d4  
,,*apt] ,,viii4  ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,!      
,,=e/4   ,man's relation to ! =e/ has n 
be5 entirely de/ructive & injuri\s4 ,he 
has ex]t$ & is m & m ex]t+ influ5ces :i*
 :ile /ill enabl+ him to use ! =e/1 also
 pres]ve & improve x4 ,^! activities may
 all be includ$ "u ! t]m ,=e/ry4  ,!    
objects ( mod]n =e/ry !n are ?reefold3  
#a4 ,! utilization ( ! =e/ & its        
products1 ! ma9 object2 #b4 ,!          
pres]vation ( ! =e/1 i4e41 its cont9u$  
reproduction2 #c4 ,! improvem5t ( ! =e/4
   ,,utilization4  ,! uses ( ! =e/ are  
?reefold3 7#a7 ,protective1 7#b7        
,productive1 & 7#c7 ,e/hetic4  7#a7     
,protective4 ,! =e/ may be us$ z a      
protection aga9/ floods1 w9d1 %ift+ s&1 
heat1 dr\ght1 etc4 ,! ,national ,=e/s ( 
! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,fig4 #aai1 ) ! /ate   
=e/s1 :i* include "o-fif? ( ! total =e/ 
area1 are l>gely treat$ z protection    
=e/s to ma9ta9 ! head wat]s ( /reams1   

,fig4 #abj1 us$ = irrigation1 = p[] or =
 comm]ce4 ,! attempt n[ be+ made to     
res]ve l>ge areas 9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s &  
s\!rn ,appala*ians is *iefly = ?is      
purpose ( protection4  ,illu/ration3    
,fig4 #aai4 ,national ,=e/s 9 ! ,unit$  
,/ates4  ,a comp>ison ( ,figs4 #abj &   
#aba %[s cle>ly ! diff]5ce betwe5 a     
region protect$ by =e/ & "o             
unprotect$4#a  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4
 ,a ,protection ,=e/1 ,ma9ta9+ !        
,headwat]s ( ,/reams4 ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 ,u4
 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 
#aba4 ,hillside ,erosion4 ,nor? ,c>ol9a4
 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice  7#b7 ,productive4
 ,all practical =e/]s h z _! fir/ aim ! 
yield ( ! =e/4 ,?is di/+ui%es =e/ry f   
l&scape ar*itecture1 ! object ( :i* may 
equally be ! pres]vation & improvem5t ( 
a giv5 tract4 ,! crop to be produc$ is z
 truly ! prime conc]n ( ! =e/] z ! rais+
 ( agricultural crops is ! prime conc]n 
( ! f>m]4 ,x is = ?is reason t =e/ry is 
said to be ! same ?+ z cons]vative      
lumb]+1 ,fig4 #abb4 ,! prejudice (      

lumb]m5 aga9/ =e/ry has aris5 f a       
misund]/&+ ( its aim4 ,its aim is n to  
prev5t ! cutt+ d[n ( trees1 b to direct 
_! cutt+ 9 su* ways t 9 ! future !re w  
/ill be trees to cut4 ,?ru use to a     
great] use1 is ! motto ( ! ,=e/ ,s]vice4
 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 de/ructive lumb]+ & 
cons]vative lumb]+ is t ! =m] cuts "o   
crop reg>dless ( ! future2 :ile ! latt] 
plans to cut crop aft] crop indef9itely4
 ,9 o!r words1 9 cons]vative lumb]+1 !  
trees to be cut are n select$ solely )  
ref]5ce to _! imm$iate m>ket value4 ,n  
"o crop1 b _m1 is ! =e/]'s motto4       
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,cons]vative  
,lumb]+4 ,black ,hills ,national ,=e/1  
,s\? ,dakota4 ,note ! bru%1 cord-wood1 &
 logs pil$ sep>ately1--a f9e clean-up4  
,no?+ cut bel[ #ab diamet]4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/
 ,s]vice4  ,s long z ! supply seem$     
exhau/less1 =e/s might be & 7 treat$ z  
m9es are1 i4e41 exploit$ = ! sake (     
imm$iate pr(it2 b n[ t lumb]m5 beg9 to  
realize t ! end ( ! supply is 9 sight1 m
 cons]vative me?ods are be+ adopt$4 ,we 

_c af=d to kill ! goose t lays ! gold5  
eggs4 ,9 ord] !n to obta9 z ri* h>ve/s z
 possible1 ! mod]n =e/] makes use (     
v>i\s me?ods1 "s negative1 "s positive4 
,wa/e is avoid$ 9 all possible ways1    
/umps are cut l[ & tops high on ! trunk1
 fir/ class trees are n us$ = skids1    
bridges1 roads1 etc41 c>e is tak5 9     
fall+ trees & 9 dragg+ out logs1 t !y w 
n injure o!r trees4 ,j z economical     
disposal ( ! log has already be5 c>ri$  
to a high degree ( p]fection 9 !        
saw-mill1 7see ,h&work 9 ,wood1 ,*apt]  
,,ii17 s "o object ( =e/ry is to c>ry   
?is economy back into ! woods4  ,"o ( ! 
und]ly+ ideas 9 cons]vative lumb]+ is t 
! yield1 i4e41 ! am\nt ( wood tak5 out (
 a heal?y =e/ 9 a giv5 "t1 %all be equal
 to ! am\nt gr[n dur+ ! same p]iod4 ,if 
less is tak5 out ?an gr[s1 "s trees w   
ov]mature & decay2 if m is tak5 out ?an 
gr[s1 ! =e/ w ultimately be exhau/$4    
,?is pr9ciple may be c>ri$ out 9 a numb]
 ( ways2 b 9 any case x is necess>y to  
"k h[ fa/ ! =e/ is reproduc+ itself1 &  

?is is "o ( ! functions ( ! =e/]4 ,!    
,unit$ ,/ates ,=e/ ,s]vice makes a      
def9ite (f] ( coop]ation ) f>m]s &      
lumb]m5 & own]s ( =e/s to provide !m )  
skill$ =e/]s = direction 9 ?is matt]4   
,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! mo/ practicable   
way ( det]m9+ ! yield is by area1 i4e41 
a c]ta9 fraction ( a =e/ is to be cut   
ov] once 9 a giv5 l5g? ( "t1 a ye> or   
long]4 ,! "t betwe5 two successive      
cutt+s on ! same area mu/ be long en\gh 
to all[ ! "y trees left /&+ to rip54  ,9
 a ^w1 cons]vative lumb]+ involves 7#a7 
! treatm5t ( ! =e/ z a s\rce ( crops1   
7#b7 sy/ematic ga!r+1 & 7#c7 "y gr[? s  
left z to replace ! outgo4  ,! important
 place t =e/s fill 9 ! national economy 
may be realiz$ p>tly by ! citation ( a  
few facts z to ! =e/ products4 ,! lumb] 
indu/ry is ! f\r? 9 value ( products    
among ! great manufactur+ indu/ries ( ! 
,unit$ ,/ates1 be+ exce$$ only by ! iron
 & /eel1 ! textile1 & ! meat indu/ries4 
,x turns out a f9i%$ product wor?       
#efg1jjj1jjj4jj4 ,& yet lumb] con/itutes

 only ab\t "o-half ( ! value ( ! total  
output ( =e/ products4 ,its annual value
 is ?ree-f\r?s ( a billion doll>s1      
7#fff1fda1cfg 9 #aijg17 :ile ! annual   
value ( wood fuel1 is #cej1jjj1jjj4 ,m  
?an two-?irds ( ! p burn wood = fuel4 ,!
 next l>ge/ s+le item 9 ! li/ is %+les &
 la?s1 #cb1jjj1jjj4 7,see ,=e/ry        
,bullet9 ,no4 #gd1 p4 #g47      ,outside
 ( food products1 no mat]ial is s       
univ]sally     us$ & s indisp5sable 9   
human economy z wood4 7,f]n[1           
,econ41 p4 #ba47  ,! importance ( =e/   
products may also be le>n$ f a m]e li/ (
 ! v>i$ uses to :i* !y are put4 ,su* a  
li/ w\ld include3 fuel1 wood & *>coal2  
h\ses 7ov] half ! population ( ! ,unit$ 
,/ates live 9 wood5 h\ses72 ! wood5 p>ts
 ( masonry & /eel build+s2 scaffold+2   
b>ns1 %$s & ou?\ses2 %ips1 ) all _!     
p>ts1 & ! ma/s & trim ( /eel %ips1 boats
 & canoes2 o>s & paddles2 railway ties  
7annual exp5diture #ej1jjj1jjj71 railway
 c>s1 a million 9 numb]2 tre/les &      
bridges 7m ?an #b1jjj miles 9 l5g?72    

po/s & f5c+2 coop]age /ock 7l[ e/imate1 
#be1jjj1jjj annually72 pack+ crates1    
includ+ c(f9s2 baskets2 electric wire   
poles 7annual co/ ab\t #aj1jjj1jjj72    
piles & subm]g$ /ructures1 l canal locks
 & wat]-:eels2 w9dmills2 m9+ timb]s     
7ye>ly co/1 #g1ejj1jjj71 indisp5sable 9 
all m9+ op]ations 7= e #ajj tons ( coal 
m9$1 #b tons ( m9+ timb] are ne$$72     
/reet pav+2 v5e]s 7#e1jjj1jjj4jj wor?   
made annually72 vehicles1 includ+       
c>riages1 wagons1 automobiles & sleighs2
 furniture2 ma*9es & _! p>ts2 patt]ns = 
metal mold+2 tools & tool h&les2 musical
 in/rum5ts2 cig> boxes2 mat*es2         
too?picks2 p5cils2 7#cae million a ye> 9
 ! ,u4 ,s41 requir+ ov] #g million cubic
 feet ( wood72 engrav+ blocks2 %oe la/s1
 %oe trees & p>ts ( %oes2 hat blocks2   
agricultural implem5ts2 hop & bean      
poles2 play?+s & toys1 = bo? *ildr5 &   
adults2 ,*ri/mas trees & decorations2   
pipes2 walk+ /icks2 umbrella h&les2     
crut*es & artificial limbs2 h\sehold    
ut5sils2 excelsior4  ,products o!r ?an  

wood3 ,turp5t9e & res9 7wor? #bj1jjj1jjj
 a ye>72 t>2 oils2 tan-b>k1 #a-a_/b     
million cords 7wor? #ac1jjj1jjj a ye>72 
wood alcohol2 wood pulp 7wor?           
#ae1jjj1jjj a ye>72 nuts2 cellulose =   
coll>s1 combs & c> :eels2 balsam1       
m$ic9es2 lampblack2 dyes2 pap] fib]     
7xylol97 = textiles2 %ellac & v>ni%     
7#h1ejj1jjj wor? import$ 9 #aijg72 v9eg>
 & acetic acid2 confections 7includ+    
maple sug> & syrup at #b1ejj1jjj a ye>74
  7#c7 ,! ,e/hetic & s5tim5tal uses ( ! 
=e/1 ?o n to be e/imat$ 9 doll>s & c5ts1
 are nev]!less ( incalculable b5efit to 
! community4 ,!y w\ld include ! use ( ! 
=e/ z pleasure gr\nds1 = hunt+1 fi%+1   
camp+1 photography1 & g5]al sightsee+4  
,notable in/ances ( ! gr[+ appreciation 
( ^! uses ( ! =e/ are ! res]vation ( !  
,yell[/one & ,yosemite ,p>ks z pleasure 
gr\nds4   ,,pres]vation4  ,! second     
object ( =e/ry is ! pres]vation ( ! =e/1
 or cont9u$ reproduction4  ,9 addition  
to obta9+ crops ( trees1 ! =e/] plans to
 keep ! =e/ 9 su* condition t x w       

con/antly reproduce itself & nev] become
 exhau/$4  ,?is does n mean t no =e/s   
are to be cut d[n1 or t a giv5 area1    
once a =e/1 is to be always a =e/4 ,j z 
! individual f>m] ne$s "s l& = fields1  
"s = pa/ure1 & "s = woodlots1 s ! nation
 ne$s "s = cities1 "s = f>ms1 "s =      
pleasure gr\nds1 & "s = =e/s4 ,b x does 
mean t fruitful =e/s %all n be turn$    
into wild]nesses z ?\s&s ( squ>e miles  
n[ are1 by ! me?ods ( de/ructive lumb]+4
  ,9 g5]al1 bett] l& is necess>y =      
agriculture ?an = =e/ry1 & x is !re=e   
only ! "p ( wisdom to use ! bett] l& =  
fields & res]ve ! poor] l& = =e/s4 ,!re 
are 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates enorm\s regions t 
are fit = no?+ b =e/s1 b _m ( ^!1 z 9   
,wiscons91 ,m9nesota1 & ,mi*igan1 h     
simply be5 d5ud$ ( _! trees & no        
provision has be5 made = _!             
reproduction4 ,?is !n is ! second aim ( 
=e/ry1--to treat ! =e/ s t x w cont9ue  
to reproduce itself4  ,9 ord] to obta9  
?is result1 c]ta9 =e/ conditions h to be
 pres]v$4 ,:at ^! conditions are1 we h  

already notic$ 7see ,*ap4 ,v1 ,! ,=e/   
,organism74 ,!y are p>tly topographical 
& climatic & p>tly hi/orical4 ,!y       
include su* factors z1 soil1 moi/ure1   
temp]ature1 & light1 ! =e/ cov]1 ! =e/  
floor1 ! d5sity & mixture ( gr[?1 all   
conditions ( =e/ gr[?4 ,x is only z !   
=e/] pres]ves ^! conditions1 or to put x
 o!rwise1 x is only z he obeys ! laws ( 
! =e/ organism t he c pres]ve ! =e/4 ,= 
a long p]iod ( our national hi/ory1 we  
,am]icans 7 compell$ to con=m our life &
 in/itutions to ! pres5ce ( ! primeval  
=e/1 b by long obs]vation ( :at happ5s  
naturally 9 ! =e/1 !re h be5 develop$ 9 
,europe & 9 ,am]ica c]ta9 ways ( h&l+ x 
s z to make x our s]vant & n our ma/]4  
,^! ways are call$ silvicultural sy/ems4
 ,!y are all bas$ on ! nature ( ! =e/   
itself1 & !y succe$ only because !y are 
modifications ( :at takes place         
naturally 9 ! woods4  ,z we h se5 above 
7p4 #bbj7 trees reproduce !mselves ei!r 
by spr\ts or by se$s4 ,?is fact gives   
rise to two g5]al me?ods ( reproduction1

 call$ ! coppice sy/ems & ! se$ sy/ems4 
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,*e/nut       
,coppice4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4         
,coppice1 ,fig4 #abc4 ,9 ! simpl] =m (  
?is sy/em1 ! =e/ is divid$ into a c]ta9 
numb] ( p>ts1 say ?irty1 & "o "p is cut 
d[n ea* ye>4 ,new spr\ts at once />t up1
 :i* w mature a ye> lat] ?an ^? 9 ! "p  
cut ! previ\s ye>4 ,:]e ! trees ( ea* "p
 are ?irty ye>s old at cutt+1 ?irty ye>s
 is call$ ! rotation p]iod4 ,! coppice  
is said to be manag$ on a ?irty-ye>     
rotation4 ,! sy/em is widely us$ 9 ea/]n
 ,unit$ ,/ates1 = fuel1 po/s1 *>coal1   
railway ties1 & o!r small /uff1 z well z
 = tan-b>k4 ,?is sy/em is modifi$ by    
ma9ta9+ an ov]wood compos$ ( se$l+ trees
 or select$ spr\ts above a /& ( spr\ts4 
,?is is call$ ! ,res]ve ,spr\t me?od &  
is us$ ) admirable results by ! ,fr5*4  
,se$ ,=e/s4 ,9 contra/ ) coppice =e/s1  
^? rais$ f se$s produce ! be/ class (   
timb]1 su* z is us$ = saw logs4         
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,se$+ f !     
,side4 ,:ite ,p9e4 ,new ,hamp%ire4 ,u4  

,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,se$+ f ! side1 ,fig4
 #abd4 ,_m =e/s naturally spread at _!  
bord]s f ! scatt]+ ( _! se$s4 ,old field
 p9e is s call$ f its t5d5cy to spread 9
 ?is way on old fields4 ,?is natural    
,se$+ f ! ,side has giv5 rise to ! ,gr\p
 ,sy/em1 9 :i* an area ( ripe trees is  
cut (f & ! trees alongside are dep5d$ ^u
 to reproduce new ones on ! cut-ov]     
area4 ,! op5+s are gradually enl>g$     
until all ! old timb] is cut out1 & ! "y
 gr[? has tak5 its place4 ,9 its be/ =m 
!re is a def9ite rotation p]iod1 say    
eighty ye>s4 ,?is sy/em is simple1 safe1
 & v useful1 especially = small op5+s 9 
woodlots4 ,a modification ( ?is is !    
,/rip ,sy/em1 9 :i* long n>r[ op5+s1 say
 sev5ty-five y>ds wide1 are cut out &   
gradually wid5$4 ,! /rips are cut 9 !   
prop] direction s t ! prevail+ w9ds w   
cross !m1 bo? = ! sake ( avoid+ w9dfalls
 & to help scatt] ! se$4 ,:]e ! soil is 
v dry1 ! /rips may run ea/ & we/ to     
protect ! se$l+s f ! sun4  ,illu/ration3
 ,fig4 #abe4 ,virg9 ,=e/1 ,trees ( ,all 

,ages4 ,jackson ,co41 ,nor? ,c>ol9a4    
,u4,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  ,selection ,=e/s4 
,! typical virg9 =e/1 ,fig4 #abe1 is "o 
9 :i* trees ( all ages are closely      
int]m+l$1 & x may be ei!r mix$ or pure4 
,if a f>m] _h a woodlot ( ?is "* & e ye>
 w5t ov] x ) ! ax1 cutt+ out su* trees z
 he ne$$ = 8 purpose1 & also trees ^:   
removal w\ld improve ! woods1 b tak+ c>e
 n to cut out ea* ye> m ?an ! am\nt ( ! 
av]age gr[?1 he w\ld be us+ ! ,selection
 ,sy/em4 ,?is sy/em is ! be/ way ( keep+
 a =e/ d5se & ( pres]v+ "o :i* is       
difficult to />t afre%1 z on a m\nta9   
slope2 x is practicable :]e ! woods are 
small or "u a high /ate ( c>e1 z 9      
,europe1 :]e ?is sy/em has be5 9 use =  
sev5 c5turies4 ,b ! co/ ( road ma9t5ance
 & ( logg+ is high & x is !re=e         
impracticable 9 mo/ lumb] regions 9 !   
,unit$ ,/ates1 except = woods ( especial
 value1 l black walnut4  ,localiz$      
,selection4 ,if in/ead ( ! :ole =e/ be+ 
treat$ 9 ?is way e ye>1 x 7 divid$ up   
into p]haps tw5ty p>ts1 & f ea* "p !re 7

 tak5 out ea* ye> z mu* lumb] z w\ld    
equal ! annual gr[? ( ! :ole =e/1 su* a 
sy/em w\ld be call$ ,localiz$           
,selection4 ,! co/ ( logg+ w\ld be      
greatly r$uc$ & if c>e 7 tak5 to leave  
/&+ "s se$ trees & to cut no trees bel[ 
a det]m9$ size1 z twelve in*es1 ! =e/   
w\ld ma9ta9 itself 9 good condition4    
,?is sy/em has be5 appli$ ) great       
success 9 c]ta9 private =e/s 9 !        
,adirondacks4  ,regul> ,se$ ,=e/ or     
,high ,=e/4 ,9 ! sy/em already m5tion$  
above ( se$+ f ! side1 ! trees ne> ! cut
 areas are dep5d$ ^u to se$ ^! areas4   
,moreov]1 no especial pa9s are tak5 to  
pres]ve ! =e/ floor & ! =e/ cov]4 ,b all
 trees d n be> se$s annually1 nor d _!  
se$l+s ?rive "u su* conditions4 ,9 o!r  
words1 9 "s =e/s especial pa9s mu/ be   
tak5 to secure reproduction1 & ! =e/    
conditions mu/ be ma9ta9$ ) special     
ref]5ce to ! gr[+ crop4 ,= ?is purpose1 
! cutt+s take place ?ru a s]ies ( ye>s1 
sometimes la/+ ev5 tw5ty ye>s4 ,^!      
reproduction cutt+s h ref]5ce1 n[ to a  

/imulus to ! se$ trees1 n[ to !         
prep>ation ( ! se$ b$1 n[ to !          
enc\ragem5t ( ! se$l+s4 ,!n lat]1 ! old 
crop is gradually cut away4 ,lat] /ill1 
9 tw5ty or ?irty ye>s1 ! new =e/ is     
?9n$1 & :5 x rea*es maturity1 p]haps 9  
"o hundr$ or two hundr$ ye>s1 ! process 
is repeat$4 ,?is is call$ ! ,regul> ,se$
 ,=e/4 ,x produces v valuable timb]1 &  
has be5 us$ = a long "t 9 ,switz]l&1    
especially = bee* & balsam4  ,! sy/em is
 complicat$ & !re=e unsafe 9 ignorant   
h&s1 & ! logg+ is exp5sive4  ,two-/ori$ 
,se$ ,=e/4 ,a modification ( ! sy/em (  
,regul> ,se$ ,=e/ is ! plant+ ( ano!r & 
a tol]ant species ( tree "u old]        
intol]ant trees to make a cov] = ! soil1
 to prev5t ! gr[? ( grass & we$s1 & to  
improve ! quality ( ! upp] gr[?4#b  ,an 
illu/ration ( a natural two-/ori$ se$   
=e/ is %[n 9 ,fig4 #abf4  ,illu/ration3 
,no4 #abf4 ,two-/ori$ ,se$ ,=e/4 ,fir "u
 ,bee*1 ,g]many4 ,u4 ,s4 ,=e/ ,s]vice4  
,plant+4 ,! plant+ ( =e/ trees is a     
comp>atively unimportant "p ( mod]n     

=e/ry4 ,x is a mi/ak5 idea1 n uncommon1 
t ! usual way ( reproduc+ =e/s is to    
plant trees4 ,x is true t 9 ! p9]ies (  
,nor? ,g]many & 9 ! spruce =e/s (       
,saxony1 x is common to cut clean & !n  
replant1 b x is absurd to conclude1 z "s
 h done1 t =e/ry consi/s ( plant+ a tree
 e "t "o is cut4 ,ev5 if plant+ 7 ! be/ 
me?od1 _m m ?an "o tree w\ld h to be    
plant$ = ea* "o cut1 9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! 
=e/4 ,s f> z ,am]ica is conc]n$1 n = a  
long "t w plant+ be mu* us$ =           
reproduction4      ,! great] portion (  
,am]ican woodl&s is 9 !     condition ( 
cull$ =e/s1 t is1 =e/s f :i*     !      
m]*antable trees h be5 cut1 leav+ !     
y\ng]     individuals1 z well z all     
trees belong+ to unm>ketable            
species4 ,ev5 on ! areas :]e ! lumb]m5 h
 made a     clean cut ( ! orig9al timb]1
 new trees w come up (     !mselves f   
se$s bl[n f ! surr\nd+ =e/s or     fall+
 f occasional individuals left /&+4     
7,brunck51     p4 #acc47  ,! usefulness 
( plant+ 9 ,am]ica is ma9ly = reclaim+  

treeless regions1 z 9 ! we/1 & :]e timb]
 is high pric$4 ,! area ( plant$ timb] 9
 ! ,middle ,we/ aggregates _m hundr$    
?\s& acres1 once wa/e l&1 n[ conv]t$    
into useful woods4#c  ,plant+ has be5   
made possible 9 ! f> we/ by ext5sive    
irrigation sy/ems1 & f>!r ea/ by !      
less5+ ( prairie fires1 :i* once set !  
limit to tree gr[? 9 ! prairie /ates4 ,9
 _m p>ts ( ,ill9ois1 s\!rn ,wiscons9 &  
o!r prairie ,/ates1 !re is mu* m =e/ l& 
?an !re 0 tw5ty-five ye>s ago4  ,:at    
plant+ c d1 may be se5 on "s worn out   
pa/ures 9 ,new ,engl&1 ,fig4 #abg4 ,) ! 
we/]n movem5t ( agriculture1 ! ab&on$   
f>ms ( ,new ,engl& are to "s ext5t      
becom+ re-=e/$1 bo? naturally & by      
plant+1 z ) :ite p9e1 :i* gr[s ev5 on   
s&y soil4 ,betwe5 #ahbj & #ahhj1 !re 0 a
 p]iod ( en?usia/ic :ite-p9e plant+ 9   
,new ,engl&1 & ?o ! int]e/ di$ on acc\nt
 ( ! *eap transportation ( we/]n lumb]1 
^? e>ly plantations prove t :ite p9e c  
be plant$ at a pr(it ev5 on s& b>r5s4   
,once worn out & useless pa/ures are n[ 

wor? #aej an acre & produce ye>ly a net 
income ( #c or m an acre4  ,illu/ration3
 ,fig4 #abg4 ,plant$ ,:ite ,p9e1 ,fifty 
,ye>s ,old1 ,bridgewat]1 ,mass4 ,u4 ,s4 
,=e/ ,s]vice4   ,,improvem5t4  ,besides 
utilization & pres]vation1 ! ?ird ma9   
object ( =e/ry is ! improvem5t ( ! =e/4 
,x is n an uncommon mi/ake to suppose t 
! virg9 =e/ is ! be/ =e/ = human        
purposes4 ,x is a comp>atively new idea1
 especially 9 ,am]ica1 t a =e/ c be     
improv$2 t is1 t bett] trees c be rais$ 
?an ^? :i* gr[ naturally4 ,lumb]m5      
commonly say1 ,y nev] c raise a second  
gr[? ( :ite p9e z good z ! fir/ gr[?4 ,z
 if ?is fir/ gr[? 7 n itself !          
successsor ( ?\s&s ( o!r g5]ations6 ,!re
 is ev5 a leg5d t :ite p9e w n gr[ 9 its
 old habitat4 ,says ,brunck51      ,_m p
 probably imag9e t a primeval wood1 by  
nature's own h& plant$1 _c be surpass$ 9
 ! numb]     & size ( its trees1 &      
consequ5tly 9 ! am\nt ( wood     to be  
d]iv$ f x4 ,b ! v opposite is true4 ,no 
wild     =e/ c ev] equal a cultivat$ "o 

9 productiv5ess4 ,to     hope t x w1 is 
v mu* z if a f>m] 7 to expect     a full
 h>ve/ f ! gra9 t may spr+ up           
spontane\sly     9 8 fields )\t 8 s[+4  
,a tract ( wild =e/ 9     ! fir/ place  
does n conta9 s _m trees z might gr[    
!reon1 b only s _m z may h surviv$ !    
/ruggle     = life ) _! own & o!r       
species ( plants occupy+     ! locality4
 ,_m ( ! trees s surviv+ nev] atta9     
_! be/ developm5t1 be+ suppress$1       
ov]%ad[$1 &     h9d]$ by /rong]         
neighbors4 ,f9ally mu* ( ! space t      
might be occupi$ by valuable timb] may  
be giv5 up to trees     hav+ little or  
no m>ket value4 ,! rule is univ]sal t   
! am\nt & value ( mat]ial t c be tak5 f 
an     area ( wild =e/ rema9s f> beh9d  
:at ! same l&     may be> if prop]ly    
treat$ by ! =e/]4 ,x is c]ta91          
!re=e1 t 9 ! future1 :5 mo/ ,am]ican    
=e/s     %all be 9 a high /ate (        
cultivation1 ! annual output (     =e/s 
w1 f a mu* re/rict$ area1 exce$ ev]y?+  
kn[n at ! pres5t day4 7,brunck51 ,nor?  

,am]ican ,=e/s     & ,=e/ry1 pp4        
#acd-ace47      ,x is probable t ! virg9
 =e/ produces b a ti! (     ! useful    
mat]ial :i* x is capable ( produc+4     
7,f]n[1     p4 #ih47      ,mr4 ,burbank 
has demon/rat$ t trees c be br$ = any   
p>ticul> quality1--= l>g5ess1 /r5g?1    
%ape1 am\nt (     pit*1 tann91 sug> & ! 
l1 & = rapidity (     gr[?2 9 fact t any
 desirable attribute ( a tree may     be
 develop$ simply by bre$+ & select+4 ,he
 has creat$     walnut trees1 by cross+ 
common v>ieties1 t h gr[n     six times 
z mu* 9 ?irte5 ye>s z _! ance/ors did 9 
tw5ty-eight ye>s1 pres]v+ at ! same "t1 
! /r5g?1     h>dness & texture ( _!     
=ebe>s4 ,! gra9 ( ! wood     has be5    
made m beautiful at ! same "t4 ,! trees 
are     f9e = fuel & spl5didly adapt$ to
 furniture manufacture4     7,h>wood1 ,!
 ,new ,e>?1 p4 #agi47  ,nature provides 
9 ! =e/ m]ely ^? v>ieties t w survive4  
,man1 by int]f]+ 9 ,nature's processes b
 obey+ h] laws1 raises :at he wants4    
,nature says3 ^? trees t survive are fit

 & does n c>e :e!r ! trees be /raight or
 crook$1 bran*$ or cle>4 ,man says3 ^?  
trees %all survive :i* are fit = human  
uses4 ,man raises bett] gra9s & fruits &
 vegetables ?an ,nature1 unaid$1 c1 &1 9
 ,europe1 bett] trees = lumb]4 ,9       
,am]ica !re has be5 su* an abundance (  
trees good en\gh = our purposes t we h  
simply gone out & ga!r$ !m1 j z a savage
 goes out to ga!r b]ries & nuts4 ,"s day
 our desc5dants w smile at our treatm5t 
( =e/s mu* z we smile at root-digg+     
savages1 unless1 inde$1 we s f> de/roy !
 =e/s t !y w be m ang]$ ?an amus$4 ,9   
,europe & ,japan1 ! orig9al supply (    
trees hav+ be5 exhau/$1 =e/s h be5      
cultivat$ = c5turies ) ! purpose ( rais+
 crops l>g] 9 quantity & bett] 9        
quality4  ,!re are v>i\s me?ods us$ 9   
=e/ improvem5t4 ,improvem5t cutt+s1 z ! 
"n implies1 are cutt+s made to improve !
 quality ( ! =e/1 :e!r by ?9n+ out poor 
species ( trees1 uns\nd trees1 trees    
cr[d+ m valuable ones1 or trees call$   
wolves2 t is1 trees unduly ov]%ad[+     

o!rs4 ,improvem5t cutt+s are (t5        
necess>y z a prelim9>y /ep be=e any     
silvicultural sy/em c be appli$4 ,inde$1
 _m ( ! silvicultural sy/ems involve    
/eady improvem5t ( ! =e/4  ,! prun+ (   
bran*es is a me?od ( improvem5t1 c>ry+  
on ! natural me?od by :i* trees 9 a =e/ 
clean !mselves ( _! bran*es4  ,se$s (   
valuable species are (t5 s[$1 :5 !      
conditions are prop]1 9 ord] to         
introduce a valuable species1 j z brooks
 & ponds are /ock$ ) f9e fi%4 ,9 g5]al x
 may be said t improvem5t me?ods are    
only 9 _! infancy1 especially 9 ,am]ica4
      ,footnote #a3 ,a concise & int]e/+
 /atem5t ( !     relation ( ! =e/ to ra9
 & floods is to be f\nd 9     ,p9*ot3   
,prim] ( ,=e/ry1 ,bullet9 ,no4 #bd1 ,"p 
,,ii1 ,*ap4     ,,iii4      ,footnote   
#b3 ,= an int]e/+ acc\nt ( an           
application (     ?is me?od1 see ,w>d1  
p4 #ce4      ,footnote #c3 ,to enc\rage 
su* =e/ ext5sion1 ! ,=e/     ,s]vice is 
do+ mu* by ! publication ( bullet9s     
recomm5d+ me?ods & trees suit$ to       

special regions1 z1     e4g41 on ,=e/   
,plant+ 9 ,ill9ois1 9 ! ,s& ,hill       
,region     ( ,nebraska1 on ,coal ,l&s 9
 ,we/]n ,p5nsylvania1 9 ,we/]n          
,kansas1 9 ,oklahoma & adjac5t regions1 
etc4   ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,! ,,=e/4         
,,ref]5ces3,a     ,i ,utilization4      
,p9*ot1 ,prim]1 ,,ii1 pp4 #ad-ah1       
#ch-dh4       ,brunck51 pp4 #aba-aca1   
,=4 ,bull4 ,no4 #fa4    7#a7            
,protective4          ,p9*ot1 ,prim]1   
,,ii1 pp4 #ff-gc4         ,craft1       
,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aije1 pp4  #fcf-fda1
 7,map4 p4 #fci47         ,t\mey1       
,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijc1 p4 #bgi4      
,brunck51 pp4 #aff-agc4         ,=4 &   
,irrig41 passim4         ,%al]1 ,i1 pp4 
#dhe-dhi4    7#b7 ,productive4          
,kellogg1 ,=4 ,bull41 ,no4 #gd1         
,f]n[1 ,=4 ,inve/41 p4 #i4         ,ro?1
 ,fir/ ,book1 p4 #acc4         ,zon     
,cl>k1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijg1 p4     
#bgg4         ,b\lg]1 pp4 #fj-gf4       
,ro?1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #ahif1 p4 #cia4
         ,f]n[1 ,economics1 pp4 #bc-cc4 

7#c7 ,e/hetic4          ,ro?1 ,fir/     
,book1 p4 #ahj4   ,,ii ,pres]vation4    
,p9*ot1 ,prim]1 ,,ii1 pp4 #ah-cf4       
,brunck51 pp4 #ie1 #aij4       ,graves1 
,=4 ,bull41 ,no4 #bf1 pp4 #fg-gj4       
,ro?1 ,fir/ ,book1 pp4 #da-gf1 #aic-aid4
       ,ro?1 ,=4 ,bull41 ,no4 #af1 pp4  
#h1 #i4       ,f]n[1 ,economics1        
#afe-aif4       ,plant+4          ,ro?1 
,fir/ ,book1 pp4 #gf-id1 #aie-aih4      
,hall1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijb1 pp4    
#ade-aef4         ,=4 ,circs41 ,nos4    
#cg1 #da1 #de1 #ha4         ,brunck51   
pp4 #ib1 #acc4         ,=e/ry ,bullet9s 
,nos4 #ah1 #de1 #eb1 #fe4  ,,iii        
,improvem5t4          ,brunck51 pp4     
#acd-ace1 #aeb-afj4         ,graves1 ,=4
 ,bull41 ,no4 #bf1 p4 #ci4              
,p9*ot1 ,adirondack ,spruce1 p4 #d4     
,h>wood1 pp4 #adc-aha4      ,footnote   
,a3 ,= g5]al bibliography1 see p4 #d4   
,,app5dix4  ,,h[ ,,to ,,di/+ui% ,,!     
,,diff]5t ,,k9ds ,,( ,,wood4,a  ,,by ,b4
 ,e4 ,,f]n[ ,,& ,,filib]t ,,ro?4   ,!   
c>p5t] or o!r artisan :o h&les diff]5t  

woods1 becomes famili> ) ^? he employs  
frequ5tly1 & le>ns to di/+ui% !m ?ru ?is
 famili>ity1 )\t usually be+ able to    
/ate ! po9ts ( di/9ction4 ,if a wood    
comes be=e him ) :i* he is n famili>1 he
 has1 ( c\rse1 no means ( det]m9+ :at x 
is1 & x is possible to select pieces ev5
 ( ^? ) :i* he is well acqua9t$1 diff]5t
 9 appe>ance f ! g5]al run1 t w make him
 d\btful z to _! id5tification4         
,fur!rmore1 he may di/+ui% betwe5 h>d & 
s(t p9es1 betwe5 oak & a%1 or betwe5    
maple & bir*1 :i* are *>act]i/ically    
diff]5t2 b :5 x comes to di/+ui%+ betwe5
 ! sev]al species ( p9e or oak or a% or 
bir*1 ! abs5ce ( readily recognizable   
*>act]s is su* t b few practition]s c be
 reli$ ^u to d x4 ,h5ce1 9 ! m>ket we   
f9d _m species mix$ & sold              
indiscrim9ately4  ,to id5tify ! diff]5t 
woods x is necess>y to h a k ( !        
def9ite1 inv>iable diff]5ces 9 _!       
/ructure1 besides t ( ! (t5 v>iable     
diff]5ces 9 _! appe>ance4 ,^! /ructural 
diff]5ces may ei!r be readily visible to

 ! nak$ eye or ) a magnifi]1 or !y may  
require a microscopical exam9ation4 ,9  
"s cases su* an exam9ation c n be       
disp5s$ )1 if we w\ld make absolutely   
sure4 ,!re are in/ances1 z 9 ! p9es1 :]e
 ev5 our k ( ! m9ute anatomical /ructure
 is n yet suffici5t to make a sure      
id5tification4  ,9 ! foll[+ key an      
attempt has be5 made--! fir/1 s f> z we 
"k1 9 ,engli% lit]ature--to give a      
synoptical view ( ! di/9ctive features (
 ! common] woods ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* 
are f\nd 9 ! m>kets or are us$ 9 ! arts4
 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! di/9ction has be5   
c>ri$ 9 mo/ in/ances no fur!r ?an to    
g5]a or classes ( woods1 s9ce !         
di/9ction ( species c h>dly be          
accompli%$ )\t elaborate microscopic    
/udy1 & also t1 z f> z possible1        
reliance has be5 plac$ only on su*      
*>act]i/ics z c be di/+ui%$ ) ! nak$ eye
 or a simple magnify+ glass1 9 ord] to  
make ! key useful to ! l>ge/ numb]4     
,rec\rse has also be5 tak5 = ! same     
reason to ! less reliable & m v>iable   

g5]al ext]nal appe>ance1 color1 ta/e1   
smell1 weight1 etc4  ,! us] ( ! key mu/1
 h[ev]1 realize t ext]nal appe>ance1    
su*1 = example1 z color1 is n only v    
v>iable b also v difficult to describe1 
individual obs]v]s diff]+ especially 9  
see+ & describ+ %ades ( color4 ,! same  
is true ( /atem5ts ( size1 :5 relative1 
& n accurately measur$1 :ile weight &   
h>dness c p]haps be m readily           
approximat$4 ,:e!r any feature is       
di/9ctly or only indi/9ctly se5 w also  
dep5d some:at on individual eyesight1   
op9ion1 or practice4 ,9 "s cases !      
resemblance ( diff]5t species is s close
 t only "o o!r exp$i5t w make di/9ction 
possible1 namely1 a k ( ! region f :i* !
 wood has come4 ,we "k1 = in/ance1 t no 
longleaf p9e gr[s 9 ,arkansas & t no    
:ite p9e c come f ,alabama1 & we c      
sep>ate ! :ite c$>1 giant arbor vitae ( 
! ,we/ & ! arbor vitae ( ! ,nor!a/1 only
 by ! diff]5ce ( ! locality f :i* !     
specim5 comes4 ,) all ^! limitations    
prop]ly appreciat$1 ! key w be f\nd     

helpful t[>d great] famili>ity ) ! woods
 :i* are m commonly met )4  ,! features 
:i* h be5 utiliz$ 9 ! key & ) :i*--_!   
names z well z _! appe>ance--!re=e1 !   
read] mu/ famili>ize himself be=e       
attempt+ to use ! key1 are mo/ly        
describ$ z !y appe> 9 cross-section4 ,!y
 are3  7#a7 ,sap-wood & he>t-wood 7see  
p4 #ag71 ! =m] be+ ! wood f ! out] & !  
latt] f ! inn] "p ( ! tree4 ,9 "s cases 
!y diff] only 9 %ade1 & 9 o!rs 9 k9d (  
color1 ! he>t-wood exhibit+ ei!r a d>k] 
%ade or a pron\nc$ color4 ,s9ce "o c n  
always h ! two toge!r1 or be c]ta9 :e!r 
he has sap-wood or he>t-wood1 reliance  
^u ?is feature is1 to be sure1          
unsatisfactory1 yet sometimes x is !    
only g5]al *>act]i/ic t c be reli$ ^u4  
,if fur!r assurance is desir$1          
microscopic /ructure mu/ be exam9$2 9   
su* cases ref]5ce has be5 made to !     
pres5ce or abs5ce ( tra*eids 9 pi? rays 
& ! /ructure ( _! walls1 especially     
projections & spirals4  7#b7 ,annual    
r+s1 _! =mation hav+ be5 describ$ on    

page #ai4 7,see also ,figs4 #abh-acj47  
,!y are m or less di/9ctly m>k$1 & by   
su* m>k+ a classification ( ?ree great  
gr\ps ( wood is possible4  7#c7 ,spr+   
wood & summ] wood1 ! =m] be+ ! int]ior  
7fir/ =m$ wood ( ! ye>71 ! latt] !      
ext]ior 7la/ =m$7 "p ( ! r+4 ,!         
proportion ( ea* & ! mann] 9 :i* ! "o   
m]ges into ! o!r are sometimes us$1 b m 
frequ5tly ! mann] 9 :i* ! pores appe>   
di/ribut$ 9 ei!r4  7#d7 ,pores1 :i* are 
vessels cut ?ru1 appe>+ z holes 9       
cross-section1 9 longitud9al section z  
*annels1 scrat*es1 or id5tifications4   
7,see p4 #bc & ,figs4 #abi & #acj47 ,!y 
appe> only 9 ! broad-leav$1 s call$1 h>d
 woods2 _! relative size 7l>ge1 m$ium1  
small1 m9ute1 & indi/9ct :5 !y cease to 
be visible individually by ! nak$ eye7 &
 mann] ( di/ribution 9 ! r+ be+ ( mu*   
importance1 & especially 9 ! summ] wood1
 :]e !y appe> s+ly1 9 gr\ps1 or %ort    
brok5 l9es1 9 cont9u\s conc5tric1 (t5   
wavy l9es1 or 9 radial bran*+ l9es4     
7#e7 ,res9 ducts 7see p4 #bf & ,fig4    

#abh7 :i* appe> v mu* l pores 9         
cross-section1 namely1 z holes or light]
 or d>k] color$ dots1 b mu* m scatt]$4  
,!y occur only 9 conif]\s woods1 & _!   
pres5ce or abs5ce1 size1 numb]1 &       
di/ribution are an important di/9ction 9
 ^! woods4  7#f7 ,pi? rays 7see p4 #ba &
 ,figs4 #abi & #acj71 :i* 9             
cross-section appe> z radial l9es1 & 9  
radial section z int]rupt$ b&s ( v>y+   
bread?1 imp>t a peculi> lu/] to t       
section 9 "s woods4 ,!y are mo/ readily 
visible ) ! nak$ eye or ) a magnifi] 9 !
 broad-leav$ woods4 ,9 conif]\s woods !y
 are usually s f9e & closely pack$ t to 
! casual obs]v] !y d n appe>4 ,_! bread?
 & _! great] or less di/9ctness are us$ 
z di/+ui%+ m>ks1 be+ /yl$ f9e1 broad1   
di/9ct1 v di/9ct1 conspicu\s1 & indi/9ct
 :5 no long] visible by ! nak$ 7/rong7  
eye4  7#g7 ,conc5tric l9es1 appe>+ 9 !  
summ] wood ( c]ta9 species m or less    
di/9ct1 resembl+ di/antly ! l9es ( pores
 b mu* f9] & n consi/+ ( pores4 7,see   
,fig4 #abi47  ,( microscopic features1 !

 foll[+ only h be5 ref]r$ to3  7#h7     
,tra*eids1 a description ( :i* is to be 
f\nd on page #bh4  7#i7 ,pits1 simple & 
bord]$1 especially ! numb] ( simple pits
 9 ! cells ( ! pi? rays1 :i* lead into  
ea* ( ! adjo9+ tra*eids4  ,= /&>ds (    
weight1 consult table on pages #ej &    
#aib2 = /&>ds ( h>dness1 table on page  
#aie4  ,unless o!rwise /at$ ! color     
ref]s always to ! fre% cross-section ( a
 piece ( dry wood2 sometimes di/9ct k9ds
 ( color1 sometimes only %ades1 & (t5   
only g5]al color effects appe>4         
,footnote ,a3 ,f ,=e/ry ,bullet9 ,no4   
#aj1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t     (            
,agriculture4   ,,h[ ,,to ,,use ,,!     
,,key4  ,nobody ne$ expect to be able to
 use successfully any key = ! di/9ction 
( woods or ( any o!r class ( natural    
objects )\t "s practice4 ,?is is        
especially true ) reg>d to woods1 :i*   
are apt to v>y mu*1 & :5 ! key is bas$  
on su* meag] g5]al data z ! pres5t4 ,!  
be/ c\rse to adopt is to supply "o's    
self ) a small sample collection (      

woods1 accurately nam$4 ,small1 poli%$  
tablets are ( little use = ?is purpose4 
,! pieces %\ld be l>ge en\gh1 if        
possible1 to include pi? & b>k1 & (     
suffici5t wid? to p]mit ready inspection
 ( ! cross-section4 ,by exam9+ ^! ) !   
aid ( ! key1 beg9n+ ) ! bett]-kn[n      
woods1 "o w soon le>n to see ! features 
describ$ & to =m an idea ( ! relative   
/&>ds :i* ! mak] ( ! key _h 9 m9d4 ,to  
aid 9 ?is1 ! accompany+ illu/rations w  
be ( advantage4 ,:5 ! read] becomes     
famili> ) ! key1 ! "w ( id5tify+ any    
giv5 piece w be comp>atively easy4 ,!   
mat]ial to be exam9$ mu/1 ( c\rse1 be   
suitably prep>$4 ,x %\ld be moi/5$2 all 
cuts %\ld be made ) a v %>p knife or    
razor & be clean & smoo?1 = a bruis$    
surface reveals b little /ructure4 ,!   
mo/ useful cut may be made along "o ( ! 
edges4 ,in/ructive1 ?91 small sections  
may be made ) a %>p p5knife or razor1 & 
:5 plac$ on a piece ( ?9 glass1 moi/5$ &
 cov]$ ) ano!r piece ( glass1 !y may be 
exam9$ by hold+ !m t[>d ! light4  ,f9d+1

 on exam9ation ) ! magnifi]1 t x conta9s
 pores1 we "k x is n conif]\s or        
non-por\s4 ,f9d+ no pores collect$ 9 !  
spr+-wood portion ( ! annual r+1 b all  
scatt]$ 7diffus$7 ?ru ! r+1 we turn at  
once to ! class ( ,diffuse-por\s woods4 
,we n[ note ! size & mann] 9 :i* ! pores
 are di/ribut$ ?ru ! r+4 ,f9d+ !m v     
small & nei!r conspicu\sly gr\p$1 nor   
l>g] nor m abundant 9 ! spr+-wood1 we   
turn to ! ?ird gr\p ( ?is class4 ,we n[ 
note ! pi? rays1 & f9d+ !m nei!r broad  
nor conspicu\s1 b difficult to di/+ui%1 
ev5 ) ! magnifi]1 we at once exclude !  
wood f ! fir/ two sections ( ?is gr\p & 
place x 9 ! ?ird1 :i* is repres5t$ by   
only "o k9d1 cottonwood4 ,f9d+ ! wood v 
s(t1 :ite1 & on ! longitud9al section ) 
a silky lu/]1 we are fur!r assur$ t our 
det]m9ation is correct4 ,we may n[ turn 
to ! li/ ( woods & obta9 fur!r in=mation
 reg>d+ ! occurr5ce1 qualities1 & uses (
 ! wood4  ,sometimes our progress is n s
 easy2 we may wav] 9 :at gr\p or section
 to place ! wood be=e u4 ,9 su* cases we

 may try ea* ( ! d\btful roads until we 
rea* a po9t :]e we f9d ourselves        
entirely wrong & !n return & take up    
ano!r l9e2 or we may anticipate "s ( !  
lat] m5tion$ features & f9d+ !m apply to
 our specim51 ga9 additional assurance (
 ! direction we ought to travel4 ,color 
w (t5 help u to arrive at a spe$y       
decision4 ,9 _m cases1 especially )     
conif]s1 :i* are r difficult to di/+ui%1
 a k ( ! locality f :i* ! specim5 comes 
is at once decisive4 ,?us1 nor!rn :ite  
c$>1 & bald cypress1 & ! c$> ( !        
,pacific w be id5tifi$1 ev5 )\t !       
some:at indef9ite crit]ia giv5 9 ! key4 
,,key ,,to ,,! ,,m ,,important ,,woods  
,,( ,,nor? ,,am]ica4  ,i4 ,,non-,,por\s 
,,woods--,pores n visible or conspicu\s 
on cross-section1 ev5 ) magnifi]4       
,annual r+s di/9ct by d5s] 7d>k color$7 
b&s ( summ] wood 7,fig4 #abh74          
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,non-por\s    
,woods4 ,a1 fir2 ,b1 h>d p9e2 ,c1 s(t   
p9e2 ar1 annual r+2 o4e41 out] edge (   
r+2 i4e41 inn] edge ( r+2 s4w41 summ]   

wood2 sp4w41 spr+ wood2 rd41 res9 ducts4
  ,,ii4 ,,r+-,,por\s ,,woods--,pores    
num]\s1 usually visible on cross-section
 )\t magnifi]4 ,annual r+s di/9ct by a  
zone ( l>ge pores collect$ 9 ! spr+     
wood1 alt]nat+ ) ! d5s] summ] wood      
7,fig4 #abi74  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abi4
 ,r+-por\s ,woods ,:ite ,oak & ,hickory4
 a4 r41 annual r+2 su4 w41 summ] wood2  
sp4 w41 spr+ wood2 v1 vessels or pores2 
c4 l41 conc5tric l9es2 rt1 d>k] tracts (
 h>d fib]s =m+ ! firm "p ( oak wood2 pr1
 pi? rays4  ,,iii4 ,,diffuse-,,por\s    
,,woods--,pores num]\s1 usually n pla9ly
 visible on cross-section )\t magnifi]4 
,annual r+s di/9ct by a f9e l9e ( d5s]  
summ] wood cells1 (t5 q indi/9ct2 pores 
scatt]$ ?ru annual r+1 no zone (        
collect$ pores 9 spr+ wood 7,fig4 #acj74
  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acj4             
,diffuse-por\s ,woods4 ar1 annual r+2   
pr1 pi? rays :i* are broad at a1 f9e at 
b1 indi/9ct at d4  ,,note4--,! above    
describ$ ?ree gr\ps are exog5\s1 i4e41  
!y gr[ by add+ annually wood on _!      

circumf]5ce4 ,a f\r? gr\p is =m$ by !   
endog5\s woods1 l yuccas & palms1 :i* d 
n gr[ by su* additions4                 
,i4--,,non-,,por\s ,,woods4  7,includes 
all conif]\s woods47  ,a4 ,res9 ducts   
want+4#a     #a4 ,no di/9ct he>t-wood4  
a4 ,color effect yell[i% :ite2 summ]    
wood d>k] yell[i%           7"u         
microscope pi? ray )\t                  
tra*eids74444444444,,firs4       b4     
,color effect r$di% 7roseate7 7"u       
microscope pi?           ray ) tra*eids7
                                        
44444444444444444444444444444444,,hemloc
k4     #b4 ,he>t-wood pres5t1 color     
decid$ly diff]5t 9 k9d f       sap-wood4
       a4 ,he>t-wood light orange r$2   
sap-wood1 pale lemon2 wood1             
heavy & h>d                             
4444444444444444444444444444444444444444
4,,yew4       b4 ,he>twood purpli% to   
br[ni% r$2 sap-wood yell[i%             
:ite2 wood s(t to m$ium h>d1 light1     
usually )           aromatic odor1      
44444444444444444444444444444444444,,r$ 

,,c$>4       c4 ,he>t-wood m>oon to t]ra
 cotta or deep br[ni% r$2               
sap-wood light orange to d>k amb]1 v s(t
 & light1           no odor2 pi? rays  v
 di/9ct1 specially pron\nc$           on
 radial section                         
4444444444444444444444444444444444,,r$wo
od4     #c4 ,he>t-wood pres5t1 color    
only diff]5t 9 %ade f sap-wood1         
d+y-yell[i% br[n4       a4 ,odorless &  
ta/eless 444444444444444444444444,,bald 
,,cypress4       b4 ,wood ) mild res9\s 
odor1 b ta/eless 4444,,:ite ,,c$>4      
c4 ,wood ) /rong res9\s odor & pepp]y   
ta/e :5            fre%ly cut1          
44444444444444444444444444444444,,inc5se
 ,,c$>4  ,b4 ,res9 ducts pres5t4    #a4 
,no di/9ct he>twood2 color :ite1 res9   
ducts v small1       n num]\s           
4444444444444444444444444444444444444444
4444,,spruce4     #b4 ,di/9ct he>t-wood 
pres5t4       a4 ,res9 ducts num]\s1    
ev5ly scatt]$ ?ru ! r+4           a4'   
,transition f spr+ wood to summ] wood   
gradual2                annual r+       

di/+ui%$ by a f9e l9e ( d5se            
summ]-wood cells2 color1 :ite to yell[i%
 r$2                wood s(t & light    
44444444444444444444444,,s(t ,,p9es4#b  
b4' ,transition f spr+ wood to summ]    
wood m or                less abrupt2   
broad b&s ( d>k-color$ summ]            
wood2 color f light to deep orange2 wood
 m$ium                h>d & heavy       
4444444444444444444444444444,,h>d       
,,p9es4#b       b4 ,res9 ducts n num]\s 
nor ev5ly di/ribut$4           a'4      
,color ( he>t-wood orange-r$di%1        
sap-wood yell[i%                7same z 
h>d p9e72 res9 ducts frequ5tly comb9$ 9 
gr\ps ( #h to #cj1 =m+ l9es on !        
cross-section                7tra*eids )
 spirals71 44444444444444,,d\glas       
,,spruce4           b'4 ,color (        
he>t-wood light russet br[n2 ( sap-wood 
yell[i% br[n2 res9 ducts v few1         
irregul>ly                scatt]$       
7tra*eids )\t spirals7                  
44444444,,tam>ack4       ,footnote #a3  
,s(t & h>d p9es are arbitr>y di/9ctions 

& ! two n di/+ui%able at ! limit4       
,footnote #b3 ,to discov] ! res9 ducts a
 v smoo? surface     is necess>y1 s9ce  
res9 ducts are frequ5tly se5 only )     
difficulty1 appe>+ on ! cross-section z 
f9e :it]     or d>k] spots normally     
scatt]$ s+ly1 r>ely 9 gr\ps1     usually
 9 ! summ] wood ( ! annual r+4 ,!y are  
(t5 mu* m easily se5 on radial1 & /ill m
 s on     tang5tial sections1 appe>+ !re
 z f9e l9es or dots (     op5 /ructure (
 diff]5t color or z ind5tations or p9   
scrat*es 9 a longitud9al direction4     
,,additional ,,notes ,,= ,,di/9ctions   
,,9 ,,! ,,gr\p4  ,spruce is h>dly       
di/+ui%able f fir1 except by ! exi/5ce (
 ! res9 ducts1 & microscopically by !   
pres5ce ( tra*eids 9 ! m$ull>y rays4    
,spruce may also be conf\nd$ ) s(t p9e1 
except = ! he>t-wood color ( ! latt] & !
 l>g]1 m frequ5t1 & m readily visible   
res9 ducts4  ,9 ! lumb] y>d1 hemlock is 
usually recogniz$ by color & ! silv]y "*
 ( its surface4 ,we/]n hemlocks p>take (
 ?is la/ "* to a less degree4           

,microscopically ! :ite p9e c be        
di/+ui%$ by hav+ usually only "o l>ge   
pit1 :ile spruce %[s ?ree to five v     
small pits 9 ! p>5*yma cells ( ! pi? ray
 communicat+ ) ! tra*eid4  ,! di/9ction 
( ! p9es is possible only by microscopic
 exam9ation4 ,! foll[+ di/9ctive        
features may assi/ 9 recogniz+1 :5 9 !  
log or lumb] pile1 ^? usually f\nd 9 !  
m>ket3  ,! light1 /raw color1 comb9$ )  
great lightness & s(tness1 di/+ui%es !  
:ite p9es 7:ite p9e & sug> p9e7 f ! h>d 
p9es 7all o!rs 9 ! m>ket71 :i* may also 
be recogniz$ by ! gradual *ange ( spr+  
wood into summ] wood4 ,?is *ange 9 h>d  
p9es is abrupt1 mak+ ! summ] wood appe> 
z a %>ply def9$ & m or less broad b&4   
,! ,norway p9e1 :i* may be conf\nd$ ) ! 
%ortleaf p9e1 c be di/+ui%$ by be+ mu*  
light] & s(t]4 ,x may also1 b m r>ely1  
be conf\nd$ ) heavi] :ite p9e1 b = !    
%>p] def9ition ( ! annual r+1 weight1 & 
h>dness4  ,! longleaf p9e is /rik+ly    
heavy1 h>d1 & res9\s1 & usually v regul>
 & n>r[ r+$1 %[+ little sap-wood1 &     

diff]+ 9 ?is respect f ! %ortleaf p9e & 
loblolly p9e1 :i* usually h wid] r+s & m
 sap-wood1 ! latt] excell+ 9 t respect4 
,! foll[+ conv5i5t & useful             
classification ( p9es into f\r gr\ps1   
propos$ by ,dr4 ,h4 ,mayr1 is bas$ on ! 
appe>ance ( ! pi? ray z se5 9 a radial  
section ( ! spr+ wood ( any r+3         
,section ,i4 ,walls ( ! tra*eids ( ! pi?
 ray ) d5tate            projections4   
a4 ,"o to two l>ge1 simple pits to ea*  
tra*eid on ! radial         walls ( !   
cells ( ! pi? ray4--,gr\p #a4 ,repres5t$
 9         ?is c\ntry only by ,p4       
res9osa4     b4 ,?ree to six simple pits
 to ea* tra*eid1 on ! walls (         ! 
cells ( ! pi? ray4--,gr\p #b4 ,p4 ta$a1 
palu/ris1         etc41 includ+ mo/ (   
our h>d & yell[ p9es4  ,section ,,ii4   
,walls ( tra*eids ( pi? ray smoo?1 )\t  
d5tate             projections4     a4  
,"o or two l>ge pits to ea* tra*eid on !
 radial walls (         ea* cell ( ! pi?
 ray4--,gr\p #c4 ,p4 /robus1 lamb]tiana1
         & o!r true :ite p9es4     b4   

,?ree to six small pits on ! radial     
walls ( ea* cell (         ! pi? ray4   
,gr\p #d4 ,p4 p>ryana1 & o!r nut p9es1  
includ+ also ,p4 balf\riana4            
,,ii4--,,r+-,,por\s ,,woods4  7,"s (    
,gr\p ,d & c$> elm imp]fectly r+-por\s47
  ,a4 ,pores 9 ! summ] wood m9ute1      
scatt]$ s+ly or 9 gr\ps1 or 9    %ort   
brok5 l9es1 ! c\rse ( :i* is nev]       
radial4     #a4 ,pi? rays m9ute1 sc>cely
 di/9ct4        a4 ,wood heavy & h>d2   
pores 9 ! summ] wood n 9 clu/]s4        
a4' ,color ( radial section n           
yell[44444444444444444,,a%4             
b4' ,color ( radial section light yell[2
 by :i*1                toge!r ) its    
h>dness & weight1 ?is                   
species is easily recogniz$1            
444444444444,,osage ,,orange4        b4 
,wood light & s(t2 pores 9 ! summ] wood 
9 clu/]s            ( #aj to #cj        
444444444444444444444444444444444444444,
,catalpa4     #b4 ,pi? rays v f9e1 yet  
di/9ct2 pores 9 summ] wood       usually
 s+le or 9 %ort l9es2 color ( he>t-wood 

r$di% br[n2 ( sap-wood yell[i% :ite2    
peculi> odor       on fre% section      
4444444444444444444444444444444444444,,s
assafras4     #c4 ,pi? rays f9e1 b      
di/9ct4         a4 ,v heavy & h>d2      
he>t-wood yell[i% br[n4                 
,,black ,,locu/4         b4 ,heavy2     
m$ium h>d to h>d4            a4' ,pores 
9 summ] wood v m9ute1 usually 9 small   
clu/]s ( #c to #h2 he>t-wood light      
orange br[n4                            
,,r$ ,,mulb]ry4            b4' ,pores 9 
summ] wood small to m9ute1 usually      
isolat$2 he>t-wood *]ry r$              
4444444444,,c(fee ,,tree4      #d4 ,pi? 
rays f9e b v conspicu\s1 ev5 )\t        
magnifi]4       ,color ( he>t-wood r$2 (
 sap-wood pale lemon 444,,honey ,,locu/4
  ,b4 ,pores ( summ] wood m9ute or      
small1 9 conc5tric wavy &    sometimes  
bran*+ l9es1 appe>+ z f9ely-fea!r$      
hat*+s    on tang5tial section4     #a4 
,pi? rays f9e1 b v di/9ct2 color gre5i% 
:ite4       ,he>t-wood abs5t or         
imp]fectly develop$                     

44444444444,,hackb]ry4     #b4 ,pi? rays
 indi/9ct2 color ( he>t-wood r$di% br[n2
       sap-wood grayi% to r$di% :ite    
4444444444444444444444444,,elms4  ,c4   
,pores ( summ] wood arrang$ 9 radial    
bran*+ l9es 7:5 v    cr[d$ radial       
arrangem5t some:at obscur$74     #a4    
,pi? rays v m9ute1 h>dly visible        
44444444444444444,,*e/nut4     #b4 ,pi? 
rays v broad & conspicu\s               
44444444444444444444444,,oak4  ,d4      
,pores ( summ] wood mo/ly b little      
small] ?an ^? ( !    spr+ wood1 isolat$ 
& scatt]$2 v heavy & h>d woods4    ,!   
pores ( ! spr+ wood sometimes =m b an   
imp]fect zone4    7,"s diffuse-por\s    
woods ( gr\ps ,a & ,b may seem to belong
    "h47     #a4 ,f9e conc5tric l9es 7n 
( pores7 z di/9ct1 or ne>ly s1       z !
 v f9e pi? rays2 out] summ] wood ) a t+e
 (       r$2 he>t-wood light r$di% br[n 
44444444444444444444,,hickory4     #b4  
,f9e conc5tric l9es1 mu* f9] ?an ! pi?  
rays2 no       r$di% t+e 9 summ] wood2  
sap-wood :ite2 he>t-wood       blacki%  

4444444444444444444444444444444444444444
44444,,p]simmon4     ,,additional       
,,notes ,,= ,,di/9ctions ,,9 ,,! ,,gr\p4
  ,sassafras & mulb]ry may be conf\nd$ b
 = ! great] weight & h>dness & ! abs5ce 
( odor 9 ! mulb]ry2 ! radial section (  
mulb]ry also %[s ! pi? rays             
conspicu\sly4  ,honey locu/1 c(fee tree1
 & black locu/ are also v simil> 9      
appe>ance4 ,! honey locu/ /&s out by !  
conspicu\sness ( ! pi? rays1 especially 
on radial sections1 on acc\nt ( _!      
height1 :ile ! black locu/ is di/+ui%$  
by ! extremely great weight & h>dness1  
toge!r ) its d>k] br[n color4           
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,wood ( ,c(fee
 ,tree4  ,! a%es1 elms1 hickories1 &    
oaks may1 on casual obs]vation1 appe> to
 resemble "o ano!r on acc\nt ( !        
pron\nc$ zone ( por\s spr+ wood4 7,figs4
 #abi1 #acb1 #ace47 ,! %>ply def9$ l>ge 
pi? rays ( ! oak exclude ^! at once2 !  
wavy l9es ( pores 9 ! summ] wood1 appe>+
 z conspicu\s f9ely-fea!r$ hat*+s on    
tang5tial section1 di/+ui% ! elms2 :ile 

! a%es diff] f ! hickory by ! v         
conspicu\sly def9$ zone ( spr+ wood     
pores1 :i* 9 hickory appe> m or less    
int]rupt$4 ,! r$di% hue ( ! hickory & ! 
m or less br[n hue ( ! a% may also aid 9
 ready recognition4 ,! smoo?1 radial    
surface ( split hickory w readily       
sep>ate x f ! re/4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 
#acb4 ,a1 black a%2 ,b1 :ite a%2 ,c1    
gre5 a%4  ,! diff]5t species ( a% may be
 id5tifi$ z foll[s 7,fig4 #acb73    #a4 
,pores 9 ! summ] wood m or less unit$   
into l9es4      a4 ,! l9es %ort & brok51
 occurr+ mo/ly ne> ! limit          ( ! 
r+                                      
444444444444444444444444444444444444444,
,:ite ,,a%4      b4 ,! l9es q long &    
conspicu\s 9 mo/ p>ts ( !          summ]
 wood                                   
444444444444444444444444444444444444444,
,gre5 ,,a%4    #b4 ,pores 9 ! summ] wood
 n unit$ into l9es1 or r>ely s4      a4 
,he>t-wood r$di% br[n & v firm          
44444444444444,,r$ ,,a%4      b4        
,he>t-wood grayi% br[n1 & mu* m por\s   

4444,,black ,,a%4  ,9 ! oaks1 two gr\ps 
c be readily di/+ui%$ by ! mann] 9 :i* !
 pores are di/ribut$ 9 ! summ] wood4    
7,fig4 #acc47 ,9 ! :ite oaks ! pores are
 v f9e & num]\s & cr[d$ 9 ! out] "p ( ! 
summ] wood1 :ile 9 ! black or r$ oaks ! 
pores are l>g]1 few 9 numb]1 & mo/ly    
isolat$4 ,! live oaks1 z f> z /ructure  
is conc]n$1 belong to ! black oaks1 b   
are mu* less por\s1 & are exce$+ly heavy
 & h>d4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,wood
 ( ,r$ ,oak4 7,= :ite oak see fig4 #abi1
 p4 #bia47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acd4   
,wood ( ,*e/nut4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4   
#ace4 ,wood ( ,hickory4                 
,,iii4--,,diffuse-,,por\s ,,woods4  7,a 
few indi/9ctly r+-por\s woods ( ,gr\p   
,,ii1 ,d1 & c$> elm may seem to belong  
"h47  ,a4 ,pores v>y+ 9 size f l>ge to  
m9ute2 l>ge/ 9 spr+ wood1    !reby giv+ 
sometimes ! appe>ance ( a r+-por\s      
arrangem5t4     #a4 ,heavy & h>d2 color 
( he>t-wood 7especially on longitud9al  
section7 *ocolate br[n                  
44444444444444444444444444,,black       

,,walnut4     #b4 ,light & s(t2 color ( 
he>t-wood light r$di% br[n              
,,butt]nut4  ,b4 ,pores all m9ute &     
indi/9ct2 mo/ num]\s 9 spr+ wood1       
giv+ rise to a light] color$ zone or l9e
 7especially on    longitud9al section71
 !reby appe>+ sometimes r+-por\s2       
wood h>d1 he>t-wood v9\s r$di%2 pi? rays
 v f9e1 b v    di/9ct4 7,see also !     
sometimes indi/9ct r+-por\s c$> elm1    
& occasionally w+$ elm1 :i* are readily 
di/+ui%$ by !    conc5tric wavy l9es (  
pores 9 ! summ] wood7 444444444,,*]ry4  
,c4 ,pores m9ute or indi/9ct1 nei!r     
conspicu\sly l>g] nor m    num]\s 9 !   
spr+ wood & ev5ly di/ribut$4     #a4    
,broad pi? rays pres5t4       a4 ,all or
 mo/ pi? rays broad1 num]\s1 & cr[d$1   
especially on tang5tial sections1 m$ium 
heavy & h>d1          difficult to      
split4                                  
44444444444444444444444444444444,,sycamo
re4       b4 ,only "p ( ! pi? rays      
broad4          a4' ,broad pi? rays well
 def9$1 q num]\s2               wood    

r$di% :ite to r$di%                     
44444444444444444444,,bee*4          b4'
 ,broad pi? rays n %>ply def9$1 made up 
( _m               small rays1 n num]\s4
 ,/em furr[$1 & !re=e               !   
p]iph]y ( section1 & ) x ! annual r+s   
s9u\s1 b5d+ 9 & out1 & ! l>ge pi? rays  
g5]ally limit$ to ! furr[s or concave   
portions4               ,wood :ite1 n   
r$di% 444444444444444444444,,blue       
,,bee*4     #b4 ,no broad pi? rays      
pres5t4        a4 ,pi? rays small to v  
small1 b q di/9ct4           a4' ,wood  
h>d4              a4 ,color r$di% :ite1 
) d>k r$di% t+e 9                       
out] summ] wood                         
444444444444444444444444444,,maple4     
b4 ,color :ite1 )\t r$di% t+e           
44444444444,,holly4          b4' ,wood  
s(t to v s(t4            a4 ,pores      
cr[d$1 occupy+ ne>ly all ! space betwe5 
pi? rays4              a4' ,color       
yell[i% :ite1 (t5 ) a gre5i% t+e        
9 he>t-wood                             
444444444444444444444444,,tulip ,,popl>4

                                        
,,cucumb] ,,tree4              b4'      
,color ( sap-wood grayi%1 ( he>t-wood   
light to                    d>k r$di%   
br[n 4444444444444444444444,,sweet      
,,gum4            b4 ,pores n cr[d$1    
occupy+ n ov] "o-?ird !                 
space betwe5 pi? rays2 he>t-wood br[ni% 
:ite                 to v light br[n    
4444444444444444444444444,,basswood4    
b4 ,pi? rays sc>cely di/9ct1 yet if     
view$ ) ord9>y            magnifi]1     
pla9ly visible4           a4' ,pores    
indi/9ct to ! nak$ eye4              a4 
,color uni=m pale yell[2 pi? rays n     
conspicu\s ev5 on ! radial section      
44444,,buckeye4              b4         
,sap-wood yell[i% gray1 he>t-wood grayi%
 br[n2                   pi? rays       
conspicu\s on ! radial section4         
,,s\r ,,gum4           b4' ,pores       
sc>cely di/9ct1 b mo/ly visible z grayi%
                specks on !             
cross-section2 sap-wood :iti%1          
he>t-wood r$di%                         

444444444444444444444444444444,,bir*4   
,d4 ,pi? rays n visible or else         
indi/9ct1 ev5 if view$ )    magnifi]4   
#a4 ,wood v s(t1 :ite1 or 9 %ades (     
br[n1 usually ) a     silky lu/]        
444444444444444444444444444444444,,cotto
nwood 7,,popl>74     ,,additional       
,,notes ,,= ,,di/9ctions ,,9 ,,! ,,gr\p4
  ,*]ry & bir* are sometimes conf\nd$1 !
 high pi? rays on ! *]ry on radial      
sections readily di/+ui%es x2 di/9ct    
pores on bir* & spr+ wood zone 9 *]ry z 
well z ! d>k] v9\s-br[n color ( ! latt] 
w prove helpful4  ,two gr\ps ( bir*es c 
be readily di/+ui%$1 ?o specific        
di/9ction is n always possible4    #a4  
,pi? rays fairly di/9ct1 ! pores r few &
 n m      abundant 9 ! spr+ wood3 wood  
heavy1 usually d>k]1                    
,,*]ry ,,bir* & ,,yell[ ,,bir*4    #b4  
,pi? rays b>ely di/9ct1 pores m num]\s &
 commonly      =m+ a m por\s spr+ wood  
zone2 wood ( m$ium weight1              
,,canoe ,,or ,,pap] ,,bir*4             
,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acf4 ,wood ( ,bee*1

 ,sycamore & ,bir*4  ,! species ( maple 
may be di/+ui%$ z foll[s3     #a4 ,mo/ (
 ! pi? rays broad] ?an ! pores & v      
conspicu\s                              
4444444444444444444444444444444444444444
,,sug> ,,maple4     #b4 ,pi? rays n or  
r>ely broad] ?an ! pores1 f9e b         
conspicu\s4       a4 ,wood heavy & h>d1 
usually ( d>k] r$di% color &            
commonly spott$ on cross-section        
444444444444444,,r$ ,,maple4       b4   
,wood ( m$ium weight & h>dness1 usually 
light color$4                           
,,silv] ,,maple4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4   
#acg4 ,wood ( ,maple4  ,r$ maple is n   
always safely di/+ui%$ f s(t maple4 ,9  
box eld] ! pores are f9] & m num]\s ?an 
9 s(t maple4 ,! v>i\s species ( elm may 
be di/+ui%$ z foll[s3     #a4 ,pores (  
spr+ wood =m a broad b& ( sev]al r[s2   
easy       splitt+1 d>k br[n he>t       
4444444444444444444444444444,,r$ ,,elm4 
#b4 ,pores ( spr+ wood usually 9 a s+le 
r[1 or ne>ly s4       a4 ,pores ( spr+  
wood l>ge1 conspicu\sly s               

,,:ite ,,elm4       b4 ,pores ( spr+    
wood small to m9ute4          a4' ,l9es 
( pores 9 summ] wood f9e1 n z wide z !  
int]m$iate spaces1 giv+ rise to v       
compact gra9                            
,,rock ,,elm4          b4' ,l9es ( pores
 broad1 commonly z wide z !             
int]m$iate spaces                       
4444444444444444444444444,,w+$ ,,elm4   
c4 ,pores 9 spr+ wood indi/9ct1 & !re=e 
h>dly a           r+-por\s wood         
444444444444444444444444444444444,,c$>  
,,elm4  ,illu/ration3  ,fig4 #ach4 ,wood
 ( ,elm4 a r$ elm2 b1 :ite elm2 c1 w+$  
elm4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,walnut4
 p4r41 pi? rays2 c4l41 conc5tric l9es2  
v1 vessels or pores2 su4 w41 summ] wood2
 sp4 w41 spr+ wood4  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4
 #adj4 ,wood ( ,*]ry4     ,,index4      
,abies gr&is1 #if4  ,ac] dasyc>pum1     
#agb4  ,ac] macrophyllum1 #agj4  ,ac]   
rubrum1 #agd4  ,ac] sac*>9um1 #agb4     
,ac] sac*>um1 #agf4  ,ag>icus melleus1  
#bcf4  ,ag>ics1 #bcd1 #bcf4  ,alburnum1 
#ag4  ,ambrosia beetles1 #bdb4          

,angiosp]ms1 #i4  ,animal enemies1 #bci4
  ,arborvitae1 ,giant1 #ajd4  ,a%1      
#ahb-aia1 #bif4  ,a%1 ,black1 #ahb1     
#bih4  ,a%1 ,blue1 #ahf4  ,a%1 ,hoop1   
#ahb4  ,a%1 ,oregon1 #ahd4  ,a%1 ,r$1   
#ahh1 #bih4  ,a%1 ,:ite1 #be1 #aij1     
#bih4   ,bamboo1 #aj1 #aa4  ,b>k1 #aj1  
#ac1 #ad4  ,b>k bor]s1 #bdc4  ,basswood1
 #ad1 #agh1 #cja4  ,ba/1 #ac1 #ae1 #af1 
#bj4  ,bee*1 #acd1 #cjj4  ,bee*1 ,blue1 
#abd1 #cjj4  ,bee*1 ,wat]1 #abd4  ,bee*1
 ,wat]1 #afb4  ,bees1 c>p5t]1 #bdf4     
,beetles1 #bda-bdf4  ,betula l5ta1 #acj4
  ,betula lutea1 #acb4  ,betula nigra1  
#abh4  ,betula papyrif]a1 #abf4  ,big   
,tree1 #ih1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bbj4  ,bir*1   
,black1 #acj4  ,bir*1 ,canoe1 #abf4     
,bir*1 ,*]ry1 #acj4  ,bir*1 ,gray1 #acb4
  ,bir*1 ,mahogany1 #acj4  ,bir*1 ,pap]1
 #abf4  ,bir*1 ,r$1 #abh4  ,bir*1 ,riv]1
 #abh4  ,bir*1 ,sweet1 #acj4  ,bir*1    
,:ite1 #abf4  ,bir*1 ,yell[1 #acb4      
,bird's eye maple1 #cf4  ,blu+1 #bcd4   
,bole1 #baa1 #bah4  ,bor]s1 #bdc-bdf4   
,b[+1 #dg4  ,bran*es1 #cg1 #bah1 #bbf1  

#bhf4  ,brittl5ess1 #ec4  ,broad-leav$  
trees4   ,see ,trees1 ,broad-leav$4     
,br[s+1 #bdj4  ,buckeye1 #cja4  ,bud1   
#ad1 #af1 #cf4  ,buds1 ,adv5titi\s1 #cf1
 #cg4  ,bullnut1 #aah4  ,bupre/id1 #bdc4
  ,burl1 #ce4  ,butt]nut1 #add1 #cjj4   
,button ,ball1 #afb4  ,buttonwood1 #afb4
   ,calico popl>1 #bdf4  ,cambium1 #aj1 
#ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #bb1 #bcg4  ,canopy1
 #bjd1 #baa1 #bab4  ,c>p5t] worms1 #bde4
  ,c>p5t] bees1 #bdf4  ,c>p9us          
c>ol9iana1 #abd4  ,catalpa1 #bif4       
,ca/anea d5tata1 #acf4  ,case-h>d5+1    
#dh4  ,c>ya tom5tosa1 #aah4  ,c>ya      
porc9a1 #abb4  ,c>ya alba1 #abj4  ,c$>1 
,canoe1 #ajd4  ,c$> ,inc5se1 #bie4      
,c$>1 ,oregon1 #ajh4  ,c$>1 ,port ,or=d1
 #ajh4  ,c$>1 ,r$1 #aaj1 #bbc1 #bie4    
,c$>1 ,we/]n ,r$1 #ajd1 #bjf1 #bjg4     
,c$>1 ,:ite1 #ajf1 #bie4  ,c$>1 ,:ite1  
#ajh4  ,cells1 ,wood1 #ae1 #ai1 #bj1    
#ba1 #bd1 #bf1 #da1 #db4  ,cells1       
,fibr\s1 #bh4  ,cellulose1 #ae4         
,c]ambycid1 #bdc4  ,*amaecyp>is         
lawsoniana1 #ajh4  ,*amaecyp>is ?yordes1

 #ajf4  ,*ecks1 #dc1 #dg1 #bcb4  ,*]ry1 
,wild ,black1 #afd1 #cjj4  ,*e/nut1     
#acf1 #bih4  ,clean+1 #bah1 #bhf4       
,cleavability ( wood1 #da1 #ec4  ,c(fee 
,tree1 #big4  ,color ( wood1 #ah4       
,cold1 #bad1 #baf4  ,coleopt]a1 #bda4   
,colors ( woods1 #ag1 #ah1 #bij4        
,columbian timb] beetle1 #bde4          
,comb-gra91 #ed4  ,composition ( =e/1   
#aig-baj1 #bbc4  ,compression1 #ea1 #eb4
  ,con*1 #bce4  ,cones1 ,annual1 #ai4   
,conif]s1 #i1 #aj1 #ab1 #bd-bf1 #bi1    
#cj1 #dh1 #eh-aaa1 #bje1 #bbj1 #bcg1    
#bea4  ,cons]vation ( =e/s1 #bfb4       
,coppice1 #bbj1 #bgh1 #bgi4  ,cork1 #ac1
 #ai4  ,cortex1 #ac1 #ae4  ,cor?ylus    
columbianus1 #bde4  ,cottonwood1 #cja4  
,cov]1 #baa4  ,crop1 ,! ,=e/1 #bgd4     
,cr[n1 #baa1 #bbg4  ,cucumb] ,tree1     
#aef1 #cja4  ,curculionid1 #bdc4        
,cypress1 ,bald1 #ajb1 #bae1 #bie4      
,cypress1 ,lawson1 #ajh4   ,decay1 #bce4
  ,decidu\s trees1 #aj4  ,dicotol$ons1  
#i1 #aj4  ,diff]5tiation ( cells1 #af4  
,diffuse-por\s4 ,see wood1              

diffuse-por\s4  ,di/ribution ( species1 
#bah4  ,di/ribution ( =e/s1 #aig-baj4   
,dr\?1 #bac1 #bca4  ,dry-rot1 #bcd1     
#bch4  ,duff1 #bbd1 #bea4  ,duram51 #ag4
   ,ela/icity ( wood1 #da1 #ec4  ,elm1  
#aeb-aee1 #bih4  ,elm1 ,am]ican1 #aed4  
,elm1 ,c$>1 #cjc4  ,elm1 ,cliff1 #aeb4  
,elm1 ,cork1 #aeb4  ,elm1 ,hickory1     
#aeb4  ,elm1 ,r$1 #cjb4  ,elm1 ,rock1   
#aeb1 #cjc4  ,elm1 ,slipp]y1 #ad4  ,elm1
 ,wat]1 #aed4  ,elm1 ,:ite1 #aeb4  ,elm1
 ,:ite1 #aed1 #cjb4  ,elm1 ,w+$1 #cjc4  
,endog5s1 #aj1 #ag4   ,see              
,monocotol$ons4  ,enemies ( ! ,=e/1     
#bbi-bdi4  ,engrav] beetles1 #bda4      
,entomology1 ,bureau (1 #bdg4           
,epid]mis1 #ac1 #ae4  ,erosion1 #bgc4   
,evaporation1 #db1 #dg4  ,ev]gre5s1 #aj4
  ,exotics1 #bbg4  ,exog5s1 #ab1 #af4   
,fagus am]icana1 #acd4  ,fagus          
atropunicea1 #acd4  ,fagus f]rug9ea1    
#acd4  ,fagus gr&ifolia1 #acd4  ,figure1
 #cg4  ,fir1 #if1 #bid4  ,fir1 ,d\glas1 
#id4  ,fir1 ,gr&1 #if4  ,fir1 ,l[l&1    
#if4  ,fir1 ,r$1 #id1 #bjf1 #bjg4  ,fir1

 ,silv]1 #if4  ,fir1 ,:ite1 #if4  ,fire1
 #bcb1 #bea-beh4  ,fire lanes1 #beg4    
,fire losses1 #bec4  ,fire notice1 #beh4
  ,fire tr5*es1 #bef4  ,fire ,w>d5s1    
#beg4  ,fires1 ,causes (1 #beb4  ,fires1
 ,control (1 #bef-beh4  ,fires1 ,cr[n1  
#bee4  ,fires1 ,description (1 #bed-bef4
  ,fires1 ,fe> (1 #bfa4  ,fires1        
,opportunities =1 #bea4  ,fires1        
,/ati/ics (1 #bec4  ,fires1 ,surface1   
#beb4  ,floor1 ,=e/1 #bac1 #bbd4  ,=e/1 
,abundance (1 #bfj4  ,=e/1 ,appala*ian1 
#bjd4  ,=e/1 ,atlantic1 #aig4  ,=e/1    
,broadleaf1 #bjb4  ,=e/1 ,ea/]n1        
#aig-bjd4  ,=e/1 ,enemies (1 #bbi-bdi4  
,=e/1 ,exhau/ion (1 #bda-bgj4  ,=e/1    
,e/hetic use (1 #bgg4  ,=e/1 ,fe> (1    
#bfj4  ,=e/1 ,h>dwood1 #aig4  ,=e/1     
,high1 #bha4  ,=e/1 ,ho/ility t[>d1     
#bfj4  ,=e/1 ,mix$1 #bjd1 #bac1 #bad4   
,=e/1 ,nor!rn1 #aig1 #baf4  ,=e/1       
,pacific1 #aig1 #bjd-bjh4  ,=e/1        
,productive1 #bgd-bgg4  ,=e/1           
,protective1 #bga-bgd4  ,=e/1 ,puget    
,s\nd1 #bjf4  ,=e/1 ,regul> ,se$1 #bha4 

,=e/1 ,rocky ,m\nta91 #aig1 #bjd1 #bje4 
,=e/1 ,se$1 #big-bhb4  ,=e/1 ,selection1
 #bhj-bha4  ,=e/1 ,s\!rn1 #aig4  ,=e/1  
,sub>ctic1 #bji4  ,=e/1 ,two-/ori$ ,se$1
 #bhb4  ,=e/1 ,use (1 #bga-bhg4  ,=e/1  
,utilization (1 #bga-bgg4  ,=e/1 ,virg91
 #bhj4  ,=e/1 ,we/]n1 #aig4  ,=e/ry1    
#bga-bhg4  ,=e/s1 ,composition ( ,nor?  
,am]ican1 #aig4  ,=e/s1 ,national1 #bbh4
  ,=e/s & agriculture1 #beh1 #bgg4  ,=e/
 conditions1 #baa-bbh1 #bgh4  ,=e/      
cons]vation1 #bfb4  ,=e/ cov]1 #bjd1    
#baa1 #bab1 #bbd4  ,=e/ crop1 #bgd1     
#bgf4  ,=e/ deva/ation1 #bfa4  ,=e/     
fires1 #bea-beh1 #bfa4  ,=e/ floor1     
#bac1 #bbd4  ,=e/ improvem5t1 #bhd-bhf4 
,=e/ map1 #aih4  ,=e/ organism1 ,!1     
,*apt] ,v41 pp4 #baa-bbh4  ,=e/ own]%ip1
 #bfb4  ,=e/ plant+1 #bhb-bhd4  ,=e/    
pres]vation1 #bgg-bhd4  ,=e/ products1  
#bgf4  ,=e/ ,s]vice1 ,u4 ,s41 #bfb1     
#bfd1 #bge4  ,frax9us am]icana1 #aij4   
,frax9us nigra1 #ahb4  ,frax9us oregona1
 #ahd4  ,frax9us p5nsylvanica1 #ahh4    
,frax9us quadrangulata1 #ahf4  ,fro/1   

#bcb4  ,fro/-*eck1 #bcb4  ,fungi1 #bj1  
#bcc-bci4   ,g9ko1 #ab4  ,glu+1 #ed4    
,goats1 #bdj4  ,gra9 ( wood1 #ai1 #cj1  
#ca1 #cb-cg1 #ec4  ,gra91 ,bird's eye4  
,gra91 co>se1 #cb4  ,gra91 cross1 #cc1  
#ec4  ,gra91 curly1 #ce4  ,gra91 f9e1   
#cb4  ,gra91 spiral1 #cc4  ,gra91       
/raight1 #cc1 #ec4  ,gra91 twi/$1 #cc4  
,gra91 wavy1 #cd4  ,graz+1 #bci4  ,gr\p 
sy/em1 #bgi4  ,grubs1 #bdc1 #bdd4  ,gum1
 ,black1 #ahj4  ,gum1 ,s\r1 #ahj1 #cja4 
,gum1 ,sweet1 #afj1 #cja4  ,gymnosp]ms1 
#i4   ,hackb]ry1 #big4  ,hackmatack1    
#gf4  ,h>dness ( wood1 #da1 #ed4        
,h>dwoods1 #ab4  ,he>t-wood1 #ac1 #ag1  
#ah1 #ai1 #bij4  ,hemlock1 #ij1 #bie4   
,hemlock1 ,black1 #ib4  ,hemlock1       
,we/]n1 #ib1 #bjf4  ,hicoria alba1 #aah4
  ,hicoria glabra1 #abb4  ,hicoria      
ovata1 #abj4  ,hickory1 #aah-abc1 #bih4 
,hickory1 ,big-bud1 #aah4  ,hickory1    
,black1 #aah4  ,hickory1 ,%agb>k1 #abj4 
,hickory1 ,%ellb>k1 #abj4  ,hickory1    
,:ite-he>t1 #aah4  ,high ,=e/1 #bha4    
,holly1 #cja4  ,honeycomb+1 #dh4        

,hornbeam1 #abd4  ,horn-tails1 #bdf4    
,hygroscopicity ( wood1 #da4            
,hym5omycetes1 #bcd4   ,ice1 #bcb4      
,i*neumon fly1 #bdg4  ,id5tification (  
woods1 #bhi-cjc4  ,improvem5t ( =e/s1   
#bhd-bhf4  ,inflammability ( b>k1 #ad1  
#bea4  ,insects1 #bdj-bdh4  ,insects1   
p>asitic1 #bdg4  ,insects1 pr$ace\s1    
#bdg4  ,intol]ance1 #baf1 #bai1 #bba4   
,iron-wood1 #abd4   ,juglans c9]ea1     
#aad4  ,juglans nigra1 #aaf4  ,junip]us 
virg9iana1 #aaj4   ,key = ! di/9ction ( 
woods1 #bib-cjc4  ,k+-nut1 #aah4  ,knot1
 #ce1 #cg1 #ch4   ,l>*1 #gf4  ,l>*1     
,we/]n1 #gh4  ,l>ix am]icana1 #gf4      
,l>ix l>ic9a1 #gf4  ,l>ix occid5tales1  
#gh4  ,leaves1 #ad1 #baf4  ,l5ticels1   
#ad4  ,lepidopt]a1 #bda4  ,light1       
#baf-bah4  ,lightn+1 #bca1 #bea4        
,lign91 #af4  ,l9d51 #agh4  ,liquidamb> 
/yraciflua1 #afj4  ,liriod5dron         
tulipif]a1 #aeh4  ,localiz$ ,selection  
sy/em1 #bha4  ,locu/1 #aff4  ,locu/1    
,black1 #aff1 #bif4  ,locu/1 ,honey1    
#aff1 #big4  ,locu/1 ,yell[1 #aff4      

,long-bodi$ trunk1 #bbe4  ,lumb]        
consumption1 #bfd4  ,lumb]1 #i1 #aj4    
,lumb] prices1 #bfg1 #bfh4  ,lumb]      
production1 #bfe-bfg4  ,lumb]1          
sub/itutes =1 #bfd4  ,lumb]+1           
cons]vative1 #bgd1 #bgf4  ,lumb]+1      
de/ructive1 #bea1 #beh-bfc4  ,lumb]man1 
#bfj4   ,magnolia acum9ata1 #aef4       
,magnolia1 ,m\nta91 #aef4  ,mahogany1   
#afh4  ,maple1 #agj-agg1 #cja4  ,maple1 
,h>d1 #be1 #agf4  ,maple1 ,l>ge ,leav$1 
#agj4  ,maple1 ,oregon1 #agj1 #bjg4     
,maple1 ,r$1 #agd1 #cjb4  ,maple1 ,rock1
 #be1 #agf4  ,maple1 ,silv]1 #agb1 #cjb4
  ,maple1 ,s(t1 #agb4  ,maple1 ,sug>1   
#agf4  ,maple1 ,:ite1 #agj4  ,maple1    
,:ite1 #agb4  ,m$ull>y rays4 ,see ,rays4
  ,m$ull>y ,%ea?4 ,see ,%ea?4  ,m]ulius 
la*rymans1 #bcd1 #bch4  ,meteorological 
enemies1 #bbi-bcc4  ,mice1 #bcg4        
,microscope1 #ad1 #bd-ca1 #bij4  ,m9e1  
,=e/ treat$ z1 #bfa1 #bgd4  ,mock]nut1  
#aah4  ,moi/ure1 #bac4  ,moi/ure 9 wood1
 #da1 #eb4  ,monocotol$ons1 #i1 #aj1    
#ag4   ,see also ,endog5s4  ,m\nta91    

#baf4  ,mulb]ry1 ,r$1 #big4  ,mu%room1  
#bcf4  ,mutual aid1 #bbd4   ,nail+1 #ec4
  ,ne$le-leaf trees1 #ab4  ,non-por\s4  
,see ,wood1 non-por\s4  ,nor? ,woods1   
#aig1 #bah4  ,nurse1 #bah1 #bai4  ,nyssa
 sylvatica1 #ahj4   ,oak1 #ach-aea1     
#bih4  ,oak1 ,basket1 #adb4  ,oak1      
,black1 #adj4  ,oak1 ,bur1 #add4  ,oak1 
,c[1 #adb4  ,oak1 ,live1 #bja4  ,oak1   
,mossy-cup1 #add4  ,oak1 ,ov]-cup1 #add4
  ,oak1 ,po/1 #adh4  ,oak1 ,r$1 #ach4   
,oak1 ,/ave1 #aej4  ,oak1 ,:ite1 #aej4  
,oak1 ,:ite 7,we/]n71 #adf4  ,oak1      
,yell[ b>k1 #adj4  ,odors ( wood1 #ah4  
,osage ,orange1 #bif4  ,organism1 ,=e/1 
#baa4   ,padus s]ot9a1 #afd4  ,palm1 #i1
 #ag4  ,pap] pulp1 #bfc4  ,p>asites1    
#bcc4  ,p>5*yma1 #bc1 #bh4  ,pecky      
cypress1 #bcd4  ,peggy cypress1 #bcd4   
,pepp]idge1 #ahj4  ,p]simmon1 #bih4     
,phan]ogamia1 #i4  ,phloem1 #ac4  ,picea
 alba1 #hj4  ,picea canad5sis1 #hj4     
,picea engelmanni1 #hf4  ,picea m>iana1 
#hd4  ,picea nigra1 #hd4  ,picea rub5s1 
#hb4  ,picea sit*5sis1 #hh4  ,pigeon    

,horn-tail1 #bdg4  ,pignut1 #abb4       
,p9es1 #eh-ge1 #bie4  ,p9e1 ,bull1 #ff1 
#bje1 #bhb4  ,p9e1 ,cuban1 #gd4  ,p9e1  
,georgia1 #fh4  ,p9e1 ,loblolly1 #gb4   
,p9e1 ,long-leaf1 #fh1 #bjj4  ,p9e1     
,norway1 #fd4  ,p9e1 ,old ,field1 #gb4  
,p9e1 ,oregon1 #id4  ,p9e1 ,r$1 #fd4    
,p9e1 ,%ort-leaf1 #gj4  ,p9e1 ,sla%1    
#gd4  ,p9e1 ,sug>1 #fb4  ,p9e1 ,we/]n   
,:ite1 #fj4  ,p9e1 ,we/]n ,yell[1 #ff4  
,p9e1 ,weym\?1 #eh4  ,p9e1 ,:ite1 #bd1  
#eh1 #aii4  ,p9e1 ,yell[1 #gj4  ,p9e    
sawy]s1 #bdd4  ,p9us c>ibaea1 #gd4      
,p9us e*9ata1 #gj4  ,p9us het]ophylla1  
#gd4  ,p9us lamb]tiana1 #fb4  ,p9us     
monticola1 #fj4  ,p9us palu/ris1 #fh4   
,p9us pond]osa1 #ff4  ,p9us res9osa1    
#fd4  ,p9us /robus1 #eh4  ,p9us ta$a1   
#gb4  ,pi?1 #aj1 #ac1 #ae1 #af1 #bc1    
#cb1 #ci4  ,pi? ray4 ,see ,ray1 m$ull>y4
  ,pits1 #bf1 #bib4  ,plant+1 #bhb-bhd4 
,platanus occid5talis1 #afb4  ,poles1   
#bbe4  ,polypores1 #bcd  ,polyporus     
annosus1 #bcg4  ,polyporus sulphureus1  
#bcf4  ,popl>1 yell[1 #aeh1 #bba1 #bde1 

#bdf1 #cja4  ,pores1 #bc1 #bh1 #bi1     
#bia4  ,p[d]-po/ beetles1 #bdd4         
,pres]vation ( =e/s1 #bgg-bhd4  ,prices 
( lumb]1 #bfg1 #bfh4  ,prim>y gr[?1 #ag1
 #bb4  ,procambium /r&s1 #af4           
,protection aga9/ fungi1 #bci4          
,protection aga9/ insects1 #bdg4        
,prop]ties ( wood1 ,*ap ,,ii41 p4 #da4  
,protoplasm1 #ad1 #af1 #bc1 #da4  ,prun+
 ( bran*es1 #bhf4  ,prunus s]ot9a1 #afd4
  ,pseudotsuga mucronata1 #id4          
,pseudotsuga taxifolia1 #id4   ,qu>t]+ a
 log1 #de4  ,qu>t]$ oak1 #bb4  ,qu]cus  
alba1 #aej4  ,qu]cus g>ryana1 #adf4     
,qu]cus macroc>pa1 #add4  ,qu]cus       
mi*auxii1 #adb4  ,qu]cus m9or1 #adh4    
,qu]cus obtusiloba1 #adh4  ,qu]cus      
rubra1 #ach4  ,qu]cus /ellata1 #adh4    
,qu]cus t9ctoria1 #adj4  ,qu]cus        
velut9a1 #adj4   ,ra9fall1 effect on    
=e/1 #bje1 #bac4  ,rays1 m$ull>y1 #ae1  
#af1 #ag1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bf1 #cj1 #ca1 
#cg1 #dd1 #ec1 #bia4  ,r$ rot1 #bcd4    
,r$wood1 #ajj1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bbb1 #bie4  
,regul>ity ( cells1 #bd4  ,reproduction1

 #bbj4  ,res]ve spr\t me?od1 #bgi4      
,res9 ducts1 #bf1 #bia4  ,rhizomorphs1  
#bcf4  ,r9d1 #ac4  ,r+-por\s4 ,see      
,wood1 r+-por\s4  ,r+s1 ,annual1 #i1    
#ah1 #ai1 #ba1 #bc1 #dd1 #bbf1 #bij4    
,r+s1 ,false1 #ai1 #bca4  ,rob9ia       
pseudacacia1 #aff4  ,rod5ts1 #bci4      
,roots1 #baa1 #bbd4  ,rotation p]iod1   
#bgi4  ,rott+1 #bcd4   ,salix nigra1    
#aab4  ,s& dunes1 #bcj1 #bca4  ,sapl+s1 
#bbe1 #bbf4  ,saprophytes1 #bcc4        
,sap-wood1 #ac1 #ag1 #ah1 #da1 #db1     
#bij4  ,sassafras1 #bif4  ,sawy]s1 ,p9e1
 #bdd4  ,second>y gr[?1 #ag4  ,section1 
cross1 #ba1 #bb1 #bi4   ,see also       
,section1 transv]se4  ,section1 radial1 
#ai1 #bb1 #bf1 #cj1 #ca4  ,section1     
tang5tial1 #ai1 #bb1 #bf1 #cj1 #ca4     
,section1 transv]se1 #ai1 #bd1 #bi1 #cj4
  ,season+1 #db4  ,sections1 transv]se1 
radial & tang5tial1 #ab4  ,se$ =e/s1    
#bgi-bhb4  ,se$+ f ! side1 #bgi4        
,se$l+s1 #bbe1 #bbf4  ,se$s1 #bbj-bbc1  
#bbf4  ,sequoia1 #ih4  ,sequoia1 #ajj4  
,sequoia1 ,giant1 #ih4  ,sequoia        

gigantea1 #ih4  ,sequoia semp]vir5s1    
#ajj4  ,sequoia wa%+toniana1 #ih4       
,settl]1 #beh4  ,%ake1 #dg1 #bcb1 #bcc4 
,%e>+ /r5g?1 #eb4  ,%eep1 #bdj4  ,%elf  
fungus1 #bcd1 #bcf4  ,%ort-bodi$ trunk1 
#bbe1 #bbf4  ,%r9kage ( wood1 #da1      
#db-dg4  ,silv] flakes1 #bb4   ,see     
,rays1 ,m$ull>y4  ,silvical *>act]i/ics1
 #baa4  ,silvicultural sy/ems1 #bgh-bhd4
  ,sla%1 #bbi1 #bea1 #beg4  ,sla%-gra91 
#ed4  ,sn[1 #bcb4  ,sla%-saw+1 #de1 #dg4
  ,s(twoods1 #ab4  ,soil1 #baa1 #bac4   
,specific gravity4 ,see ,weight4        
,spl9t-wood1 #ag4  ,splitt+4 ,see       
,cleavability4  ,spores1 #bcd4          
,spr+-wood1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd1 #cj1 #cb1    
#dd1 #ec1 #ed1 #bia4  ,spr\ts1 #bbj1    
#bbb4  ,spruce1 #hj-hi1 #bie4  ,spruce1 
,black1 #hd4  ,spruce1 ,d\glas1 #id1    
#bif4  ,spruce1 ,engelmann's1 #hf4      
,spruce1 ,r$1 #hb1 #bac4  ,spruce1      
,sitka1 #hh4  ,spruce1 ,tidel&1 #hh4    
,spruce1 ,we/]n ,:ite1 #hf4  ,spruce1   
,:ite1 #hj4  ,/&1 mix$1 #bac1 #bbc4     
,/&1 pure1 #bac1 #bbc4  ,/&>ds1 #bbe1   

#bbf4  ,/eamboats1 #bdf4  ,/em1 diagram 
( cross section1 ,fig4 #d1 p4 #ac1 fig4 
#e1 p4 #ae1 #baa4  ,/r5g? ( wood1 #da1  
#ea-ec4  ,/rip sy/em1 #bgi4  ,/ructure (
 wood1 #i-dj1 #bi1 #cj1 #cb4  ,/ruggle =
 exi/5ce1 #bbd1 #bbf1 #bbg4             
,summ]-wood1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd1 #cj1 #cb1   
#dd1 #ec1 #ed1 #bia4  ,swiet5ia         
mahagoni1 #afh4  ,sycamore1 #bb1 #afb1  
#cjj4   ,tam>ack1 #gf1 #bif4  ,tam>ack1 
,we/]n1 #gh4  ,taxes on =e/s1 #bfa4     
,taxodium di/i*um1 #ajb4  ,te> fungus1  
#bcd1 #bch4  ,temp]ature1 #bad4         
,t5sion1 #ea1 #eb4  ,texture ( wood1    
#cb4  ,?uja gigantea1 #ajd4  ,?uja      
plicata1 #ajd4  ,tilia am]icana1 #agh4  
,timb] beetles1 #bdb1 #bde4  ,timb]     
supply ( ,u4 ,s41 #bfd-bfi4  ,timb]     
trees1 #aj4  ,timb] worms1 #bdd4        
,tissue1 #af4  ,toad/ools1 #bcd4        
,tol]ance1 #baf1 #bai4  ,t\ghness (     
wood1 #da1 #ed4  ,tra*eae1 #bc1 #bh4    
,tra*eid1 #bh1 #cj1 #bij1 #bib4         
,trametes p9i1 #bce4  ,trametes         
radicip]da1 #bcg4  ,tree1 p>ts (1 #baa4 

,treeless area1 #aig1 #bjc4  ,trees1    
,broad-leav$1 #i1 #aj1 #bh1 #bi4        
,trees1 decidu\s1 #aj4  ,trunk1 #ac1    
#baa4   ,long-bodi$1 #bbe4              
,%ort-bodi$1 #bbe4  ,tsuga canad5sis1   
#ij4  ,tsuga het]ophylla1 #ib4  ,tulip  
,tree1 #aeh4   ,see ,popl> ,yell[       
,tupelo1 #ahj4  ,turp5t9e1 #bfc4        
,two-/ori$ ,se$ ,=e/1 #bhb4   ,ulmus    
am]icana1 #aed4  ,ulmus racemosa1 #aeb4 
,ulmus ?omasi1 #aeb4  ,utilization (    
=e/s1 #bga-bgg4   ,vegetable enemies1   
#bcc-bci4  ,v5e]1 #aj1 #ce4  ,vessels1  
#bc1 #bh1 #bi4  ,vet]ans1 #bbe4         
,walnut1 ,black1 #aaf1 #cjj4  ,walnut1  
,:ite1 #aad4  ,w>p+1 #de-dg4  ,wa/e1    
,avoidance (1 #bgd4  ,wa/e 9 lumb]+1    
#bfc4  ,wat]1 #da1 #db1 #bbf1 #bca4     
,we$s1 ,=e/1 #bbe4  ,weight ( wood1 #da1
 #di-ea4  ,:itewood1 #aeh4  ,wild]ness1 
,conque/ (1 #beh4  ,will[1 ,black1 #aab4
  ,w9d1 #bbi1 #beb1 #bec4  ,w9dfalls1   
#bbi4  ,wood1 ,diffuse-por\s1 #bc1 #cj1 
#cjj-cjc4  ,wood1 ,non-por\s1 #bd-bf1   
#eh-aaa1 #bid-bif4  ,wood1 ,prim>y1 #ag4

  ,wood1 ,prop]ties (1 ,*ap4 ,,ii41     
#da-ef4  ,wood1 ,r+-por\s1 #bc1 #bi1    
#bif-bii4  ,wood1 ,spr+1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd1 
#cj1 #cb1 #dd1 #ec1 #ed1 #bia4  ,wood1  
,/ructure (1 #i-dj4  ,wood1 second>y1   
#ag4  ,wood1 summ]1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd1 #cj1 
#cb1 #dd1 #ec1 #ed1 #bia4  ,wood bor]s1 
#bdc4  ,wood cells4 ,see ,cells4  ,wood4
 ,see ,sap-wood1 ,he>t wood4  ,wood     
dyes1 #ah4  ,wood fib]1 #bh4  ,woods1   
,color (1 #ag1 #ah1 #bij4  ,woods1 ,!   
di/+ui%+ (1 #bhi-cjc4  ,work+1 #dg4     
,worm-holes1 #bdc4  ,worms1 c>p5t]1     
#bde4  ,worms1 ,timb]1 #bdd4  ,w\nd     
p>asites1 #bcd4   ,yew1 #bie4  ,yield1  
#bge4  ,yucca1 #aj4     ,books on !     
,manual ,arts   ,,design ,,&            
,,con/ruction ,,9 ,,wood4 ,by ,william  
,noyes4      ,a book full ( *>m &       
di/9ction & ! fir/ to give     due      
consid]ation to ! e/hetic side (        
wood-work+4 ,x     is int5d$ to give to 
beg9n]s practice 9 design+ simple       
projects 9 wood & an opportunity to     
acquire skill 9     h&l+ tools4 ,! book 

illu/rates a s]ies ( projects &         
gives sugge/ions = o!r simil> projects  
toge!r )     in=mation reg>d+ tools &   
processes = mak+4 ,a     pleas+ volume  
abundantly & beautifully illu/rat$4     
,,h&work ,,9 ,,wood4 ,by ,william       
,noyes4      ,a h&book = tea*]s & a     
textbook = normal s*ool &     college   
/ud5ts4 ,a compreh5sive & s*ol>ly       
treatise1     cov]+ logg+1 saw-mill+1   
season+ & measur+1 h&     tools1 wood   
fa/5+s1 equipm5t & c>e ( ! %op1     !   
common jo9ts1 types ( wood /ructures1   
pr9ciples (     jo9]y1 & wood f9i%+4    
#cjd illu/rations--excell5t p5          
draw+s & _m photographs4  ,,wood ,,&    
,,=e/4 ,by ,william ,noyes4      ,a     
companion volume to ,h&work 9 ,wood1 by 
! same au?or4     ,especially adapt$ z a
 ref]5ce book = tea*]s (     woodwork+4 
,n too difficult = use z a textbook     
= normal s*ool & college /ud5ts4 ,treats
 ( wood1     di/ribution ( ,am]ican     
=e/s1 life ( ! =e/1 enemies     ( ! =e/1
 de/ruction1 cons]vation & uses ( !     

=e/1 ) a key to ! common woods by       
,filib]t ,ro?4     ,describes #fg       
pr9cipal species ( wood ) maps (     !  
habitat1 leaf draw+s1 life size         
photographs &     microphotographs (    
sections4 ,conta9s a g5]al bibliography 
( books & articles on wood & =e/4       
,pr(usely     illu/rat$ ) photographs f 
! ,unit$ ,/ates =e/     s]vice & ) p5 & 
ink draw+s by ,anna ,gausmann ,noyes    
& photographs by ! au?or4 #cji pages4   
,,woodwork ,,= ,,beg9n]s4 ,by ,ira ,s4  
,griffi?4      ,a rem>kably simple      
treatm5t ( elem5t>y woodwork+ =         
/ud5ts 9 ! sev5? & eigh? grades4 ,x     
deals )     tools1 processes & mat]ials 
& includes only su* subject     matt] z 
%\ld be taught to gramm> grade /ud5ts4  
,x meets     ! requirem5ts ( /ud5ts     
work+ 9 l>ge classes &     devot+ !     
m9imum ( "t to manual tra9+4 ,a         
practical     & unusually attractive    
textbook & "o t c be us$     ) any c\rse
 ( models & 9 any ord]4  ,,beg9n+       
,,woodwork1 ,at ,home & 9 ,s*ool4 ,by   

,cl9ton ,s4 ,van,deusen4      ,a full & 
cle> description 9 detail ( ! fundam5tal
     processes ( elem5t>y b5*work 9     
wood4 ,?is description     is giv5 ?ru  
directions = mak+ a few simple1 useful  
articles1 suitable ei!r = s*ool or home 
problems4 ,!     book conta9s m ?an "o  
hundr$ orig9al sket*es & t5     work+   
draw+s4  ,,problems ,,9 ,,f>m           
,,woodwork4 ,by ,samuel ,a4 ,blackburn4 
,a book ( work+ draw+s ( #ajj practical 
problems relat+     to agriculture & f>m
 life4 ,especially valuable to !        
/ud5t or tea*] ( agriculture or manual  
arts 9 rural     s*ools & 9 high s*ools 
9 agricultural communities1     & to !  
boy on ! f>m4 ,!re are #fj full-page    
plates (     work+ draw+s1 ea*          
accompani$ by a page or m ( text        
treat+ ( ,purpose1 ,mat]ial1 ,bill (    
,/ock1 ,tools1     ,directions1 &       
,assembly4 ,a wond]fully practical book4
  ,,problems ,,9 ,,furniture ,,mak+4 ,by
 ,fr$ ,d4 ,craw%aw4      ,?is book1     
revis$ & enl>g$1 consi/s ( #dc plates ( 

work+ draw+s suitable = use 9 gramm> &  
high     s*ools1 & #cf pages ( text1    
includ+ *apt]s on design1               
con/ruction & f9i%es1 & notes on !      
problems4  ,,furniture ,,design ,,=     
,,s*ools ,,& ,,%ops4 ,by ,fr$ ,d4       
,craw%aw4      ,a manual on furniture   
design4 ,a book t w /imulate &          
enc\rage design+ & initiation on ! "p ( 
! /ud5t4     ,x conta9s a collection (  
plates %[+ p]spective     draw+s (      
typical designs1 repres5t+ p>ticul>     
types (     furniture4 ,ea* p]spective  
is accompani$ by sugge/ions =           
re>rangem5t & ! model+ ( p>ts4 ,! text  
discusses     & illu/rates pr9ciples (  
design z appli$ to furniture4     ,a    
practical & helpful book t %\ld be 9 !  
h&s (     e tea*] ( cab9et mak+ &       
design+4  ,,problems ,,9 ,,woodwork+4   
,by ,m4 ,w4 ,murray4      ,a conv5i5t   
collection ( good problems consi/+ ( =ty
     plates ( work+ draw+s1 ( problems 9
 b5*work t h     be5 successfully work$ 
out by boys 9 grades sev5 to n9e        

inclusive4  ,,%op ,,problems4 7,on      
,trac+ ,pap]74 ,by ,alb]t ,f4 ,siep]t4  
,a collection ( work+ draw+s ( a l>ge   
v>iety (     projects pr9t$ on trac+    
pap] & ready = blue pr9t+4     ,!       
projects h all be5 work$ out 9 manual   
arts classes     & h prov$ _! value f ! 
/&po9t ( design1     con/ruction1 use1  
human int]e/1 etc4 ,!y are ( conv5i5t   
size1 #fx#i-;in*1 & are enclos$ 9 a     
portfolio4 ,to !     tea*]1 9 se>* (    
additional projects to supplem5t &      
enri* 8 c\rse ^! trac+s are wor? f> m   
?an !     price ask$4 ,publi%$ 9 s]ies4 
,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 &     #g4 
,,work%op ,,note-,,book--,,woodwork+4   
,by ,george ,g4 ,gre5e4      ,a         
small-size textbook & notebook comb9$4  
,x furni%es a     few g5]al & extremely 
important directions ab\t tools &       
processes2 & provides space = additional
 notes & work+     draw+s ( ex]cises &  
articles :i* ! pupil is to     con/ruct4
 ,x is ess5tially a collection ( helps1 
ideas1     h9ts1 sugge/ions1 que/ions1  

facts1 illu/rations1 etc41     :i* h be5
 prep>$ by a practical tea*] to meet a  
real     ne$ 9 8 own %op4 ,! notebook is
 full ( sugge/ions2     %[s a ke5       
insight into subject matt] & tea*+      
me?ods     & is an effective tea*+ tool4
  ,,problems ,,9 ,,wood-,,turn+4 ,by    
,fr$ ,d4 ,craw%aw4      ,9 ! fir/ place 
?is is a book ( problems--#be plates    
cov]+ sp9dle1 face-plate1 & *uck turn+4 
,9 ! second     place x is a textbook on
 ! sci5ce & art ( wood-turn+            
illu/rat$ by fifty p5 sket*es4 ,x gives 
! ma!matical     basis = ! cuts us$ 9   
turn+4 ,9 ! ?ird place x is     a       
helpful discussion ( ! pr9ciples (      
design z appli$     to objects turn$ 9  
wood4 ,x is a cle>1 practical &         
sugge/ive book on wood-turn+4  ,,wood   
,,patt]n-,,mak+4 ,by ,horace ,t4        
,purfield4      ,?is book 0 writt5      
expressly = use z a textbook =     high 
s*ool1 trade s*ool1 te*nical s*ool1 &   
eng9e]+     college /ud5ts4 ,x is a     
revis$1 enl>g$1 & newly     illu/rat$   

edition4  ,,correlat$ ,,c\rses ,,9      
,,woodwork ,,& ,,me*anical ,,draw+4 ,by 
,ira ,s4 ,griffi?4      ,?is book is    
design$ to meet ! e-day ne$ ( !         
tea*] ( woodwork+ & me*anical draw+ =   
reliable     in=mation conc]n+          
organization ( c\rses1 subject     matt]
 & me?ods ( tea*+4 ,x cov]s             
classification &     arrangem5t ( tool  
op]ations = grades1 #g1 #h1 #i1 & #aj1  
%op organization1 allotm5t ( "t design1 
%op excursions1     /ock bills1 co/ (   
mat]ial1 records1 %op conduct1 !        
lesson1 ma9t5ance1 equipm5t1 & lesson   
outl9es =     gramm> & high s*ools4 ,x  
is bas$ on s\nd p$agogy1 ?oro           
te*nical k & successful tea*+ exp]i5ce4 
,x is     practical4  ,,ess5tials ,,(   
,,woodwork+4 ,by ,ira ,s4 ,griffi?4     
,a textbook writt5 especially = ! use ( 
gramm> &     high s*ool /ud5ts4 ,a cle> 
& compreh5sive treatm5t (     woodwork+ 
tools1 mat]ials1 & processes1 to        
supplem5t1     b n to take ! place ( !  
in/ruction giv5 by !     tea*]4 ,! book 

does n conta9 a c\rse ( models2 x may   
be us$ ) any c\rse4 ,x is illu/rat$ )   
photographs     & num]\s p5 draw+s4     
,,projects ,,= ,,beg9n+ ,,woodwork ,,&  
,,me*anical ,,draw+4 ,by ,ira ,s4       
,griffi?4      ,a "w book = ! use (     
/ud5ts 9 gramm> grade classes4     ,x   
consi/s ( work+ draw+s & work+          
directions4 ,!     projects are su* z h 
prov5 ( exceptional s]vice :]e          
woodwork+ & me*anical draw+ are taught 9
 a ?oro1     sy/ematic mann] 9 ! sev5? &
 eigh? grades4 ,! aim     has be5 to    
provide successful r ?an unique         
problems4     ,! #ej projects 9 ! book 7
 select$ & organiz$ )     ! con/ant aim 
( secur+ ! highe/ educational results4  
,! book is especially suit$ = use 9     
connection )     ,ess5tials (           
,woodwork+1 by ! same au?or4            
,,furniture ,,mak+4 7,advanc$ ,projects 
9 ,woodwork47 ,by ,ira ,s4 ,griffi?4    
,?is book is simil> to ,projects =      
,beg9n+ ,woodwork &     ,me*anical      
,draw+1 b is suit$ to high s*ool ne$s4  

,x     consi/s ( fifty plates ( problems
 & accompany+ notes4     ,x is          
ess5tially a collection ( problems 9    
furniture mak+     select$ or design$ ) 
ref]5ce to s*ool use4 ,on !     plate ) 
ea* work+ draw+ is a good p]spective    
sket*     ( ! complet$ object4 ,9       
draftsman%ip & ref9em5t (     design ^! 
problems are ( sup]ior quality4 ,x is 9 
e     respect an excell5t collection4   
,,problems ,,9 ,,me*anical ,,draw+4 ,by 
,*>les ,a4 ,b5nett4      ,?is book      
consi/s ( #hj plates & a few explanatory
 notes4     ,its purpose is to furni%   
tea*]s ( classes beg9n+     me*anical   
draw+ ) a l>ge numb] ( simple1 practical
     problems4 ,^! h be5 select$ )      
ref]5ce to !     =mation ( good habits 9
 te*nique1 ! int]e/ ( !     pupils1 & ! 
subjects g5]ally includ$ 9 a gramm> &   
fir/-ye> high s*ool c\rse4 ,ea* problem 
giv5 is unsolv$     & !re=e 9 prop] =m  
to h& to ! pupil =     solution4        
,,me*anical ,,draw+ ,,problems4 ,by     
,edw>d ,b]g & ,emil ,f4 ,kronqui/4      

,a direct & concise text adapt$ = high  
s*ool /ud5ts     beg9n+ me*anical draw+4
 ,x cov]s two ye>'s "w     & conta9s    
#abh full-page plates--excell5t examples
 (     draftsman%ip4 ,text accompanies  
ea* plate1 giv+ necess>y     facts &    
helpful h9ts :]ev] ne$$4 ,! und]ly+     
pr9ciples ( draft+ are ?oroly cov]$ & ! 
practical     applications1 :i* are     
abundant1 h be5 mo/ skilfully     *os5 &
 admirably pres5t$4 ,! plates tell :at  
to d1     almo/ at a glance1 yet prev5t 
m]e copy "w4 ,ea* problem     te/s !    
ability ( ! /ud5t to ?9k & execute      
graphically & unconsci\sly develops an  
excell5t te*nique4  ,,me*anical         
,,draft+4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,mill]4           
7,revis$ edition74 ,a textbook = advanc$
 high s*ool     /ud5ts :i* pres5ts      
draft+ room practice 9 practical        
textbook =m4 ,x is s writt5 t x may be  
us$ )     any c\rse ( ex]cises or       
problems & supplem5ts !     in/ruction (
 ! tea*] 9 su* a way z to r$uce lecture 
"w to a m9imum4 ,x is a direct & simple 

treatm5t (     me*anical draft+1 giv+   
due consid]ation to ! ne$s (     !      
/ud5t1 ! beg9n+ draftsman & !           
requirem5ts (     ! be/ tea*+ me?ods4 ,x
 is complete1 yet cond5s$ &     is well 
adapt$ = h&book use by ! /ud5t &        
draftsman4     ,x is well illu/rat$ & is
 b\nd 9 flexible b9d+1     pocket size4 
,a ?or\ghly practical1 mod]n textbook4  
,,gramm> ,,grade ,,problems ,,9         
,,me*anical ,,draw+4 ,by ,*>les ,a4     
,b5nett4      ,a rem>kably simple &     
c>efully grad$ treatm5t ( !             
fundam5tals ( me*anical draw+ = ! use ( 
/ud5ts 9     ! #g? & #h? grades4 ,x     
comb9es an abundance ( text &     simple
 problems1 accompani$ by notes &        
directions4 ,its use     insures ! e>ly 
=mation ( correct habits ( te*nique &   
makes possible ! developm5t ( a /&>d 9  
gramm> grade     me*anical draw+ p>allel
 ) woodwork+4 ,abundantly &     well    
illu/rat$4  ,,me*anical ,,draw+ ,,=     
,,beg9n]s4 ,by ,*>les ,h4 ,bailey4      
,a textbook suitable :]ev] ?is subject  

is taught to     beg9n]s1 9 ,junior     
,high ,s*ools1 ,high & ,cont9uation     
,s*ools4 ,x successfully comb9es        
in/ructions :i* are     m9ute &         
complete1 ) problems1 gradually lead+ ! 
/ud5t to le>n ) little or no o!r help1 !
 ess5tials     & te*nique ( ! "w4 ,!    
matt] is cond5s$ b leaves     no        
important po9ts n cov]$4  ,,progressive 
,,/eps ,,9 ,,ar*itectural ,,draw+4 ,by  
,george ,w4 ,seaman4      ,a textbook & 
practical h&book1 describ+ & illu/rat+  
e successive /ep 9 draw+ ( floor plans1 
elevations     & v>i\s details =        
successful dwell+s4 ,num]\s plates      
illu/rate details ( doors1 w9d[s1       
m\ld+s1 cornices1     por*es1 etc4      
,ar*itectural ord]s %[n 9 practical     
work+     =ms4 ,s+le l9e sket*es        
illu/rate me?od ( practical     design] 
9 plann+ a h\se4  ,,ar*itectural ,,draw+
 ,,plates4 ,by ,frankl9 ,g4 ,elwood4    
,a collection ( #ae plates %[+ ! v>i\s  
details includ$     9 ! plans = frame   
h\ses4 ,names & typical sizes     are   

giv5 & mu* in=mation helpful to ! /ud5t 
or     draftsman4 ,"o plate %[s elev5   
,plan ,/udies1 ano!r     ,h[ ,elevations
 are ,work$ ,up f ,plans & ,sections4 ,a
     wond]fully conv5i5t help 9         
ar*itectural draw+4  ,,simplifi$        
,,me*anical ,,p]spective4 ,by ,frank    
,=re/ ,fr$]ick4      ,a book ( simple   
problems cov]+ ! ess5tials (            
me*anical p]spective4 ,x is plann$ =    
pupils ( high     s*ool age :o h already
 receiv$ "s elem5t>y tra9+     9        
me*anical draw+4 ,x is simple1 direct & 
practical4  ,,woodwork ,,= ,,second>y   
,,s*ools4 ,by ,ira ,s4 ,griffi?4      ,!
 mo/ complete & compreh5sive textbook on
 second>y     s*ool woodwork+ ev]       
publi%$4 ,treats ( ,common     ,woods1  
,tools & ,processes1 ,woodwork+ ,ma*9es1
 ,jo9]y1     ,wood-,turn+1 ,inlay+ &    
,wood ,c>v+1 ,wood ,f9i%+1              
,furniture ,con/ruction1 ,patt]n-,mak+4 
,al?\gh writt5 =     ! /ud5t1 e tea*] ( 
high s*ool or normal s*ool     woodwork 
w f9d ?is text a valuable & necess>y    

volume     = ref]5ce use4 ,x conta9s    
#cgj pages & #ehj special               
illu/rations4  ,,c>p5try4 ,by ,ira ,s4  
,griffi?4      ,a well illu/rat$        
textbook = use 9 vocational s*ools1     
trade s*ools1 te*nical s*ools1 & by     
appr5tices to !     trade1 pres5t+ !    
pr9ciples ( h\se con/ruction 9     a    
cle> & fundam5tal way4 ,x treats ( !    
ev]yday     practical problems ( !      
c>p5t] & h\se build] f     ! lay+ (     
f\ndations to ! completion ( ! int]ior  
f9i%4 ,x meets e requirem5t z a textbook
 & is also     well adapt$ = ref]5ce    
use4 ,x is well illu/rat$ by            
photographs tak5 on ! job4  ,,boy       
,,activity ,,projects4 ,by ,samuel ,a4  
,blackburn4      ,a book ( full-page    
plates & accompany+ text giv+           
complete directions = mak+ #hf projects 
( int]e/ to !     en]getic ,am]ican boy4
 ,! projects are = ! s*ool1 !     home1 
! playgr\nd1 ! camp1 ! out-(-doors1 &   
include     a complete wireless         
telegraph app>atus4 ,! plates give e    

requir$ dim5sion1 & %[ ea* project      
complete & 9     detail4 ,! text is 9   
reality work+ directions tell+ j     h[ 
to make1 includ+ bills ( mat]ial1 li/s (
 tools     requir$1 etc4 ,a ?oroly      
practical & sugge/ive book     = s*ool  
use & ri* 9 inspiration = ! boy 9 8 own 
home %op4  ,,seat ,,weav+4 ,by ,l4 ,day 
,p]ry4      ,a h&book = tea*] or /ud5t4 
,tells h[ to cane *airs1     h[ to use  
cane webb+1 h[ to d ru% seat+1 h[ to    
d re$ & spl9t weav+1 h[ to make seats ( 
re$s &     spl9ts1 h[ to prep>e raw     
mat]ials1 h[ to /a91 f9i%     & ref9i%1 
etc4 ,also treats ( ! use ( cane & o!r  
seat+ mat]ials z a decorative elem5t 9  
furniture     con/ruction4 ,well        
illu/rat$1 practical & au?oritative4    
,,furniture ,,uphol/]y ,,= ,,s*ools4 ,by
 ,emil ,a4 ,johnson4      ,! only text &
 ref]5ce book on uphol/]y writt5 =      
s*ool use4 ,conta9s detail$1 practical  
in/ructions     tell+ h[ to uphol/] a   
v>iety ( articles1 also h[     to       
re-uphol/] old furniture & h[ to d      

spr+-edge     uphol/]y "w4 ,describes   
necess>y tools & mat]ials4              
,abundantly & beautifully illu/rat$4    
,,practical ,,typography4 ,by ,george   
,e4 ,mc,clellan4      ,a rem>kable      
textbook = /ud5ts ( pr9t+4 ,x conta9s a 
c\rse ( ex]cises ready to place 9 ! h&s 
( pupils1     & expla9s & illu/rates !  
mo/ approv$ me?ods us$     9 correct    
composition4 ,a valuable feature ( !    
book lies 9     ! fact t 9 ! e>ly /ages 
( ! c\rse ! pupil sets     up 9 type a  
description ( :at he is do+ ) 8 h&s4    
,x conta9s #fc ex]cises1 treat+ (       
composition f     ,correct ,spac+ to !  
,mak+ up ( a ,book1 & !     ,composition
 ( ,tables4  ,,art ,,metalwork4 ,by     
,ar?ur ,f4 ,payne4      ,a textbook     
writt5 by an exp]t craftsman & exp]i5c$ 
tea*]4 ,x treats ( ! v>i\s mat]ials & _!
     production1 ores1 alloys1 comm]cial
 =ms1 etc42 ( tools &     equipm5ts     
suitable = ! "w1 ! inexp5sive equipm5t  
( ! practical craftsman2 & ( !          
correlation ( art     metalwork ) design

 & o!r s*ool subjects4 ,x describes     
9 detail all ! processes involv$ 9 mak+ 
articles     rang+ f a wat* fob to a    
silv] lov+-cup4 ,x gives new     me?ods 
( con/ruction1 new f9i%es1 new problems4
 ,x is     abundantly & beautifully     
illu/rat$1 %[+ "w done by     /ud5ts "u 
ord9>y s*ool conditions 9 a manual tra9+
     %op4 ,! /&>d book on ! subject4    
,,tea*+ ,,! ,,manual ,,& ,,indu/rial    
,,arts4 ,by ,ira ,s4 ,griffi?4      ,a  
text = normal s*ools or colleges & a    
ref]5ce =     manual & vocational       
tea*]s4 ,pres5ts ! philosophy     (     
tea*+ manual & vocational education 9   
t]ms (     psy*ology1 social sci5ce1 &  
economics4 ,x gives !     conclusions ( 
,?orndike1 ,judd1 ,bagley1 ,dewey &     
o!rs1     & illu/rates !m s !y s]ve !   
tea*] z a basis =     evaluat+ ! manual 
& indu/rial arts4 ,a book ( value     to
 ! beg9n+ tea*]1 ! exp]i5c$ sup]visor or
 !     educational exp]t2 an exceptional
 s\rce ( in=mation on     ! !ory &      
practice ( its subject4  ,,! ,,manual   

,,arts4 ,by ,*>les ,a4 ,b5nett4      ,a 
treatise on ! selection & organization (
 subject matt]     9 ! manual arts & on 
! me?ods ( tea*+4 ,x /ates     :at      
manual arts %\ld be taught 9 ! s*ools1  
_! place     z conc]ns g5]al &          
vocational education1 pr9ciples         
und]ly+ ! mak+ ( c\rses ( in/ruction &  
me?ods     ( tea*+1 & %[s ! place ( !   
factory sy/em 9     indu/rial s*ools1   
etc4 ,h]et(ore no book has dealt )     !
 p$agogy ( ! manual arts 9 s def9ite &  
cle> cut     a mann]4 ,! au?or has      
br\ght toge!r1 ) rip5$     judgm5t1 !   
result ( ye>s ( exp]i5ce4      ,x is    
especially adapt$ = normal class & read+
 circle     use & %\ld be read & /udi$  
by e tea*] or     prospective tea*] ( ! 
manual arts4  ,,educational ,,toys4 ,by 
,l\is ,c4 ,pet]s54      ,a compreh5sive 
book on toy-mak+ = ! s*ool or home4     
,%[s #eg toys includ+ animals1 :eel$    
toys1 /ation>y     toys1 mov+ toys1     
puzzles1 etc41 made *iefly f ?9 wood1   
) ! cop+ saw & easily con/ruct$ 9 !     

ord9>y     s*ool room or 9 ! home4      
,tells h[ to make ea* toy1 h[     to    
f9i% & color1 ab\t ! few simple tools & 
mat]ials     requir$4 ,well illu/rat$ ) 
photographs & full-size     patt]n      
draw+s4  ,,toy ,,patt]ns4 ,by ,mi*ael   
,c4 ,dank4      ,a portfolio ( toy      
patt]ns4 ,among !m are ,animals1 ,animal
     ,rock+ ,toys1 ,:eel$ ,plat=m ,toys1
 ,/r+ ,toys1 ,lev] ,toys1     ,freak    
,toys & ,novelties4 ,ea* toy is %[n     
complete & ea*     "p is also %[n       
full-size4 ,!y are design$ to be made   
) ! cop+ saw out ( ?9 wood4 ,twelve     
%eets1 size     #aj-a_/b x #ad1 enclos$ 
9 a portfolio ) an attractive     color 
design4  ,,bird ,,h\ses ,,boys ,,c      
,,build4 ,by ,alb]t ,f4 ,siep]t4      ,a
 book ( r>e int]e/ to boys4 ,x is writt5
 9 ! boy     _s & comb9es ! *>m ( nature
 ) ! allurem5ts     ( cont9uation "w 9  
wood4 ,x illu/rates hundr$s ( bird      
h\ses & %[s work+ draw+s ( v>i\s        
designs1 also     fe$]s1 %elt]s1 sp>r[  
traps1 & o!r bird accessories4     ,!   

common h\se ne/+ birds are pictur$ &    
describ$ )     in=mation reg>d+ h\ses1  
foods1 etc41 suitable = ea*4     ,a     
pleas+ & practical book = wide-awake    
boys4  ,,manual ,,tra9+ ,,toys4 ,,= ,,! 
,,boys' ,,work%op4 ,by ,h>ris ,w4       
,moore4      ,a popul> boys' book t is  
truly educational4 ,x is a              
collection ( =ty-two projects ov]fl[+ ) 
boy     int]e/ & new 9 ! manual tra9+   
%op4 ,full-page     work+ draw+s %[ ea* 
project 9 detail & ! text     gives     
in/ructions = mak+1 toge!r ) in=mation  
on     tools & tool processes4          
,,kitecraft ,,& ,,kite ,,t\rnam5ts4 ,by 
,*>les ,m4 ,mill]4      ,an au?oritative
 & compreh5sive treatm5t ( kitecraft4 ,!
     book deals ) ! con/ruction & fly+ (
 all k9ds (     kites1 & ! mak+ & us+ ( 
kite accessories4 ,also     a]oplanes1  
glid]s1 propell]s1 motors1 etc4 ,f\r    
*apt]s     are devot$ to pres5t+ a      
detail$ description ( kite     fly+     
t\rnam5ts4 ,abundantly illu/rat$ &      
attractively     b\nd4  ,,!             

,,con/ruction ,,& ,,fly+ ,,( ,,kites4   
,by ,*>les ,m4 ,mill]4      ,?is conta9s
 sev5 full-page plates ( draw+s ( kites1
     & fifte5 figures--ov] =ty kites    
%[n4 ,details (     con/ruction giv52 a 
kite t\rnam5t is describ$4 ,full (      
int]e/+ sugge/ions4  ,,cop+ ,,saw ,,"w4 
,by ,b5 ,w4 ,johnson4      ,conta9s     
work+ draw+s & sugge/ions = tea*+ a     
c\rse ( "w 9 ?9 wood t is full ( fun = !
     *ildr51 & af=ds ample means = tra9+
 9 =m /udy1     con/ruction1 inv5tion & 
c>eful "w4 ,has be5 call$     appli$    
me*anics = ! f\r? grade4  ,,select$     
,,%op ,,problems4 ,by ,george ,a4       
,seaton4      ,a collection ( sixte5    
problems 9 woodwork+ made to meet     ! 
ne$s ( busy tea*]s ( manual tra9+4 ,ea* 
problem     has be5 put to ! te/ & has  
prov5 satisfactory to !     tea*] :o    
design$ x & to ! pupil :o made x4       
,,manual ,,tra9+ ,,magaz9e4      ,a     
magaz9e ( quality4 ,! pr(essional j\rnal
 ( !     tea*]s ( manual1 vocational &  
indu/rial education4 ,x     publi%es    

practical articles on ! ways & means (  
do+     ?+s4 ,x discusses vital problems
 9 tea*+ ! manual     arts & pres5ts !  
be/ curr5t ?\ght on ! developm5t     (  
manual tra9+ & vocational education4 ,to
 !     inexp]i5c$ tea*]1 x is valuable 9
 solv+ num]\s     problems1 & to !      
exp]i5c$ tea*]1 x is a means (     keep+
 abrea/ ( ! times4 ,x is ably edit$1    
attractively     pr9t$1 & well illu/rat$
 ) photographs & draw+s     made        
especially = its pages4 ,publi%$ mon?ly4
 #a4ej a     ye>2 ,canada1 #a4hj2       
,=eign1 #b4jj4         99       99      
99       99       99  ,publi%$ by       
,manual ,arts ,press 33 ,peoria1        
,ill9ois  ,we c supply y ) any book on !
 ,manual ,arts         99       99      
99       99       99  ,transcrib]'s     
,note3  ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ',m'1 9 !  
context ( lumb] measurem5t1 means '#ajjj
 feet'4 ,f ',h&work 9 ,wood'1 ,*apt]    
,,iii1 page #dh4 ,also 7ibid73 ,!re are 
sev]al me?ods ( measur+ lumb]4 ,! g5]al 
rule is to multiply ! l5g? 9 feet by !  

wid? & ?ickness 9 in*es & divide by #ab1
 ?us3 #a x #f x #ae' _/ #ab  #ga_/b     
feet4  ,9 ! int]e/s ( cl>ity1 "s        
,illu/rations h be5 mov$ clos] to _!    
descriptive text4  ,hyph5ation & spell+ 
are n uni=m ?r\gh\t ?is book1 e4g41     
'sapwood' & 'sap-wood' bo? occur2       
',columbian ,timb]-beetle' & ',columbian
 timb] beetle' occur 9 ! same p>agraph4 
,*apt] ,,ii has ?ree types ( footnotes1 
) diff]5t notations4 ,ref]5ces to !     
au?or's previ\s book1 be+ %ort1 are     
plac$ at ! end ( ! p>agraph2 numb]$     
te*nical or tabul> footnotes1 or        
footnotes ref]5c+ o!r publications are  
collect$ at ! end ( ! ,*apt]1 be=e !    
,*apt] ,bibliography2 & ,*apt]          
,bibliography footnotes are plac$ at !  
end ( ! ,*apt] ,bibliography4 ,9 lat]   
,*apt]s1 numb]$ footnotes are plac$ ei!r
 at ! end ( ! ,*apt] 7be=e !            
,bibliography7 or at ! end ( a relevant 
section ( a ,*apt]4  ,*apt] ,,iii li/s  
#fg trees2 ,! 7foll[+7 ,li/s f ! ,jesup 
,collection li/ #ff trees1 includ+ !    

'ti$ place' trees4 ,! tree miss+ f !    
,jesup ,collection is ,no4 #ah3 ,we/]n  
,hemlock1 or ,black ,hemlock4  ,damag$  
or miss+ punctuation has be5 repair$4   
,page #ah3 'sumac' & 'suma*'4 ,bo?      
spell+s correct4 ,also 'sumak'1 %oomak4 
,f ,arabic 'summaq'4  ,page #ai3        
'*>acti/ic' correct$ to '*>act]i/ic' 444
 & give ! *>act]i/ic pleas+ gra9 ( wood4
  ,page #bc3 inconsi/5t spell+--tra*eae1
 tra*eae4 ,! two spell+s occur 9 ! book2
 also tra*aeids1 tra*eids4 ,all h be5   
reta9$4 ,! au?or's bibliography is      
ext5sive4  ,page #abd etc43 ,! ,allegh5y
 ,m\nta9 ,range 7also spell$ ,alleghany 
& ,allegany1 ,wikip$ia74  ,page #adc3   
'di/+uis$' correct$ to 'di/+ui%$' 444 ,n
 di/+ui%$ f :ite oak 9 ! m>ket4  ,page  
#ahj3 diamet]1 '#a-f1 ev5 #e'2' correct$
 to 'diamet]1 #a'f-c'f1 ev5 #e'2'       
7,wikip$ia7  ,page #ahb3 'scambucifolia'
 correct$ to 'sambucifolia' 444 ,frax9us
 nigra ,m>%all4 ,frax9us sambucifolia4  
,page #ahf3 'cleavabilty' correct$ to   
'cleavability' 444 ref]s to !           

cleavability ( ! wood2  ,page #bfh3     
,fig4 #aah text3 ,basswood1 #a/ & #b;d1 
#a x #h & up by x #jj4 &3 ,:ite p9e1    
r\gh upp]s1 #a x #h & up x #jj'4 ,?is is
 z pr9t$2 ! transcrib] has no idea :at 0
 meant by '#jj' & '#jj''1 or :at x %\ld 
h be54  ,page #bib3 'miscroscopic'      
correct$ to 'microscopic' 444 ,(        
microscopic features1 ! foll[+ only h   
be5 ref]r$ to3  ,page #cjd3 ',ag>icus   
mell5s' correct$ to ',ag>icus melleus'4 
,! 7ar*aic7 ,u4,s4 ,am]ican spell+s1    
'dr\?' 7'dr\ght'71 '?oroly'1 '?o'1      
'al?o'1 'tire' 7'tyre'71 etc41 are      
correct4