,,wood ,,and ,,forest ,by ,,william ,,noyes1 ,m4,a4 ,formerly ,assistant ,professor of ,industrial ,arts ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university ,,new ,,york ,,city ,illustration ,,the ,,manual ,,arts ,,press ,,peoria1 ,,illinois ,,copyright ,,william ,,noyes #aiab ,,fifth ,,edition1 #aiba ,printed in ,united ,states of ,america ,,foreword ,this book has been prepared as a companion volume to the author's ,handwork in ,wood4#a ,it is an attempt to collect and arrange in available form useful information1 now widely scattered1 about our common woods1 their sources1 growth1 properties and uses4 ,as in the other volume1 the credit for the successful completion of the book is to be given to my wife1 ,anna ,gausmann ,noyes1 who has made the drawings and maps1 corrected the text1 read the proof1 and carried the work thru to its final completion4 ,acknowledgments are hereby thankfully made for corrections and suggestions in the text to the following persons3 ,mr4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopkins1 of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,entomology1 for revision of the text relating to ,insect ,enemies of the ,forest1 in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,mr4 ,george ,g4 ,hedgcock1 of the ,united ,states ,bureau of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 for revision of the text relating to the fungal enemies of the forest1 in ,chapter ,,vi4 ,mr4 ,s4 ,t4 ,dana and ,mr4 ,burnett ,barrows1 of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,forest ,service1 for revision of ,chapters ,,iv1 ,v1 ,,vi1 ,,vii1 and ,,viii4 ,professor ,charles ,r4 ,richards1 formerly ,head of the ,manual ,training ,department of ,teachers ,college1 my predecessor as lecturer of the course out of which this book has grown4 ,professor ,m4 ,a4 ,bigelow1 ,head of the ,department of ,botany of ,teachers ,college1 for revision of ,chapter ,i1 on the ,structure of ,wood4 ,mr4 ,romeyn ,b4 ,hough1 of ,lowville1 ,n4 ,y41 author of ,american ,woods and ,handbook of the ,trees of the ,northern ,states and ,canada1 for suggestions in preparing the maps in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,forest ,service1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 for photographs and maps credited to it1 and for permission to reprint the key to the identification of woods which appears in ,forest ,service ,bulletin ,no4 #aj1 ,timber1 by ,filibert ,roth4 ,the ,division of ,publications1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 for permission to copy illustrations in bulletins4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 ,new ,york1 for permission to reproduce ,fig4 #hf1 ,portion of the ,mycelium of ,dry ,rot1 from ,timber and ,some of its ,diseases1 by ,h4 ,m4 ,ward4 ,mrs4 ,katharine ,golden ,bitting1 of ,lafayette1 ,indiana1 for the photograph of the cross-section of a bud1 ,figure #e4 ,finally and not least ,i hereby acknowledge my obligations to the various writers and publishers whose books and articles ,i have freely used4 ,as far as possible1 appropriate credit is given in the paged references at the end of each chapter4 ,footnote #a3 ,william ,noyes1 ,handwork in ,wood1 ,peoria1 ,ill4 ,the ,manual ,arts ,press1 #bca pp41 #b4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,general ,bibliography #d ,i ,the ,structure of ,wood #i ,,ii ,properties of ,wood #da ,,iii ,the ,principal ,species of ,american ,woods #eg ,,iv ,the ,distribution and ,composition of the ,north ,american ,forests #aig ,v ,the ,forest ,organism #baa ,,vi ,natural ,enemies of the ,forest #bbi ,,vii ,the ,exhaustion of the ,forest #bea ,,viii ,the ,use of the ,forest #bga ,appendix #bhi ,index #cjd ,,general ,,bibliography ,apgar1 ,a4 ,g41 ,trees of the ,northern ,united ,states4 ,n4 ,y43 ,american ,book ,co41 #bbd pp4 ,a small book dealing with the botany of trees1 giving descriptions of their essential organs1 and particularly valuable for the leaf key to the trees4 ,it should be supplemented by ,keeler or ,hough's ,handbook4 ,baterden1 ,j4 ,r41 ,timber4 ,n4 ,y43 ,d4 ,van ,nostrand ,co41 #aijh1 #cea pp4 ,a description of the timbers of various countries1 discussion of timber defects1 timber tests1 etc4 ,bitting1 ,k4 ,g41 ,the ,structure of ,wood4 ,wood ,craft1 #e3 #gf1 #ajf1 #add1 #agb1 ,june-,sept41 '#jf4 ,a very scholarly and valuable series of articles on wood structure and growth4 ,excellent microphotographs4 ,britton1 ,nathaniel ,lord1 ,north ,american ,trees4 ,n4 ,y43 ,henry ,holt ,co41 #aijh1 #hid pp4 ,a description of all the kinds of trees growing independently of cultivation in ,north ,america1 north of ,mexico1 and the ,west ,indies4 ,the standard ,botany of trees4 ,boulger1 ,g4 ,s41 ,wood4 ,london3 ,edward ,arnold1 #cfi pp4 ,a thoro discussion of wood structure1 with chapters on the recognition and classification of woods1 defects1 preservation1 uses1 tests1 supplies1 and sources of wood4 ,good illustrations4 ,bruce1 ,e4 ,s41 ,frost ,checks and ,wind ,shakes4 ,forestry and ,irrigation1 #h3 #aei1 ,april1 '#jb4 ,an original study of the splitting of trees by sudden frost and thaw4 ,bruncken1 ,ernest1 ,north ,american ,forests and ,forestry4 ,n4 ,y43 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 #bfe pp4 ,a comprehensive survey of ,american ,forestry conditions including the forest industries1 fires1 taxation1 and management4 ,no illustrations4 ,busbridge1 ,harold1 ,the ,shrinkage and ,warping of ,timber4 ,sci4 ,amer4 ,suppl41 ,no4 #aejj1 ,oct4 #a1 #aijd4 ,good photographic illustrations4 ,comstock1 ,j4 ,h4 and ,a4 ,b41 ,a ,manual for the ,study of ,insects4 ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y43 ,comstock ,publishing ,co41 #gja pp4 ,valuable for reference in classifying insects injurious to wood4 ,curtis1 ,carleton ,c41 ,nature and ,development of ,plants4 ,n4 ,y43 ,henry ,holt ,co41 #aijg1 #dga pp4 ,chapter ,,iii is a very clear and excellent discussion of the structure of the stem of plants 7including wood74 ,encyclopedia ,brittannica1 ,eleventh ,edition1 ,cambridge3 ,at the ,university ,press4 ,article3 ,forests and ,forestry1 ,vol4 #aj1 p4 #fde4 ,article3 ,plants1 ,anatomy of1 ,vol4 #ba1 p4 #gda4 ,article3 ,timber ,vol4 #bf1 p4 #igh4 ,felt1 ,e4 ,p41 ,the ,gypsy and ,brown ,tail ,moths4 ,n4 ,y4 ,state ,museum3 ,bulletin #ajc1 ,entomology1 #be4 ,valuable for colored illustrations as well as for detailed descriptions4 ,fernow1 ,b4 ,e41 ,economics of ,forestry4 ,n4 ,y43 ,t4 ,y4 ,crowell ,co4 #aijb1 quarto #ebj pp4 ,a treatment of forests and forestry from the standpoint of economics1 including a comprehensive exposition of the forester's art1 with chapters on forest conditions1 silviculture1 forest policies1 and methods of business conduct1 with a bibliography4 ,fernow1 ,b4 ,e41 ,report upon the ,forestry ,investigation of the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 #ahhg-ahih4 ,fifty-fifth ,congress1 ,house of ,representatives1 ,document ,no4 #aha4 ,quarto1 #dja pp4 ,a review of forests and forestry in the ,u4 ,s41 of forest policies of ,european nations1 particularly of ,germany1 of the principles of silviculture1 of a discussion of forest influences1 and a section on timber physics4 ,harwood1 ,w4 ,s41 ,the ,new ,earth4 ,n4 ,y43 ,the ,macmillan ,co41 #aijf4 #cgh pp4 ,a recital of the triumphs of modern agriculture4 ,chap4 ,x on modern forestry1 describes what has been done in different states in conservative lumbering4 ,hough1 ,romeyn ,b41 ,american ,woods4 ,lowville1 ,n4 ,y43 ,the author4 ,an invaluable collection in eleven volumes 7boxes7 of sections of #bge species of ,american woods4 ,there are three sections of each species1 cross1 radial1 and tangential1 mounted in cardboard panels4 ,accompanied by a list of descriptions and analytical keys4 ,hough1 ,romeyn ,b41 ,handbook of the ,trees of the ,northern ,states and ,canada4 ,lowville1 ,n4 ,y43 ,the author4 #dgj pp4 ,a unique1 elegant1 and sumptuously illustrated book1 with photographs of tree1 trunk1 leaf1 fruit1 bud1 and sometimes wood1 a map of the habitat of each species1 and a full and careful description of tree and wood4 ,intended for botanists1 foresters and lumbermen4 ,johnson1 ,j4 ,b41 ,the ,materials of ,construction4 ,n4 ,y43 ,john ,wiley ,sons4 #ahih4 #gge pp4 ,chapter ,,xiii is identical with ,forestry ,bulletin ,x1 ,roth's ,timber4 ,keeler1 ,harriet1 ,our ,native ,trees4 ,n4 ,y43 ,scribner's4 #aijj4 #ecc pp4 ,a very attractive and popular book showing great familiarity with the common trees and love of them4 ,numerous photographs and drawings4 ,lounsberry1 ,alice1 ,a ,guide to the ,trees4 ,n4 ,y43 ,frederick ,a4 ,stokes ,co4 #cac pp4 ,a popular description of some #bjj common trees1 with plentiful illustrations4 ,pinchot1 ,gifford1 ,a ,primer of ,forestry4 ,parts ,i and ,,ii1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 of ,agric4 ,for4 ,serv4 ,bull4 ,no4 #bd4 #hh pp4 and #hh pp4 ,a concise1 clear1 and fully illustrated little manual of forestry conditions1 forest enemies1 forestry principles and practice abroad and in the ,u4 ,s4 ,pinchot1 ,gifford4 ,the ,adirondack ,spruce4 ,n4 ,y43 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,a technical account of the author's investigations on a forest estate in ,northern ,new ,york4 ,price1 ,o4 ,w41 ,saving the ,southern ,forests4 ,world's ,work1 #e3 #cbjg1 ,march1 '#jc4 ,a plea for conservative lumbering2 excellent illustrations4 ,record1 ,samuel ,j41 ,characterization of the ,grain and ,texture of ,wood4 ,woodcraft1 #ae3 #c1 ,june1 #aiaa4 ,roth1 ,filibert1 ,a ,first ,book of ,forestry4 ,boston3 ,ginn ,co4 #bia pp4 ,a book for young people1 giving in an interesting form many valuable facts about ,american forests and their care and use4 ,it includes a leaf key to the trees4 ,sargent1 ,charles ,sprague1 ,forest ,trees of ,north ,america4 ,u4 ,s4 #ajth ,census1 ,vol4 #i4 ,quarto1 #fab pp4 ,part ,i deals with the distribution of the forests1 and gives a catalog and description of the forest trees of ,north ,america1 exclusive of ,mexico4 ,part ,,ii4 ,tables of properties of the woods of the ,u4 ,s4 ,part ,,iii4 ,the economic aspects of the forests of the ,u4 ,s4 considered geographically1 and maps showing distributions and densities4 ,exceedingly valuable4 ,sargent1 ,charles ,sprague1 ,jesup ,collection1 ,the ,woods of the ,u4 ,s4 ,n4 ,y43 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 #bjc pp4 ,a detailed description of the ,jesup ,collection of ,north ,american ,woods in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,n4 ,y4 ,city1 with valuable tables as to strength1 elasticity1 hardness1 weight1 etc4 ,condensed from ,vol4 ,,ix of #ajth ,u4 ,s4 ,census4 ,sargent1 ,charles ,sprague1 ,manual of the ,trees of ,north ,america4 ,boston3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 #hbf pp4 ,a compact mine of information1 with some errors1 about the known trees of ,north ,america and their woods1 summarized from ,sargent's larger work1 ,the ,silva of ,north ,america4 7,see below47 ,sargent1 ,charles ,sprague1 ,the ,silva of ,north ,america4 ,boston3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 ,a monumental and sumptuous work of #ad quarto volumes1 describing in great detail all the known trees of ,north ,america and their woods1 with beautiful line drawings of leaves and fruits4 ,shaler1 ,nathaniel ,s41 ,the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,vol4 #a1 pp4 #dhe-eag4 ,n4 ,y43 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 ,chapter ,,ix is a popular description of ,american forests and the ,lumber ,industry4 ,snow1 ,chas4 ,henry1 ,the ,principal ,species of ,wood4 ,n4 ,y43 ,john ,wiley ,sons4 #bjc pp4 ,descriptions and data regarding the economically important varieties of wood1 with excellent photographs of trees and woods4 ,strasburger1 ,noll1 ,schenck1 and ,schimper4 ,a ,text ,book of ,botany4 ,n4 ,y43 ,macmillan ,co4 #gdf pp4 ,valuable for minute information about the morphology of wood4 ,u4 ,s4 ,tenth ,census1 ,vol4 ,,ix4 ,see ,sargent4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,forest ,service ,bulletins4 ,the character of these government pamphlets is well indicated by their titles4 ,no4 #aj is an exceedingly valuable summary of the facts about the structure and properties of wood1 contains the best available key to identification of common ,american woods 7not trees7 and a concise description of each4 ,it is incorporated1 as ,chap4 ,,xiii1 in ,johnson's1 ,the ,materials for ,construction4 ,n4 ,y43 ,john ,wiley ,sons4 ,nos4 #ac and #bb are large monographs containing much valuable information4 ,no4 #aj4 ,filibert ,roth1 ,timber4 ,no4 #ac4 ,charles ,mohr1 ,the ,timber ,pines of the ,southern ,united ,states4 ,no4 #ae4 ,frederick ,v4 ,coville1 ,forest ,growth and ,sheep ,grazing in the ,cascade ,mountains of ,oregon4 ,no4 #af4 ,filibert ,roth1 ,forestry ,conditions in ,wisconsin4 ,no4 #ag4 ,george ,b4 ,sudworth1 ,check ,list of the ,forest ,trees of the ,united ,states1 #ahih4 ,no4 #ah4 ,charles ,a4 ,keffer1 ,experimental ,tree ,planting on the ,plains4 ,no4 #bb4 ,v4 ,m4 ,spalding and ,f4 ,h4 ,chittenden1 ,the ,white ,pine4 ,no4 #bd4 ,gifford ,pinchot1 ,a ,primer of ,forestry4 ,no4 #bf4 ,henry ,s4 ,graves1 ,practical ,forestry in the ,adirondacks4 ,no4 #da4 ,herman von ,schrenck1 ,seasoning of ,timber4 ,no4 #de4 ,harold ,b4 ,kempton1 ,the ,planting of ,white ,pine in ,new ,england4 ,no4 #eb4 ,royal ,s4 ,kellogg1 ,forest ,planting in ,western ,kansas4 ,no4 #fa4 ,terms ,used in ,forestry and ,logging4 ,no4 #fe4 ,george ,l4 ,clothier1 ,advice for ,forest ,planters in ,oklahoma and ,adjacent ,regions4 ,no4 #gd4 ,r4 ,s4 ,kellogg and ,h4 ,m4 ,hale1 ,forest ,products of the ,u4 ,s41 #aije4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,forest ,service ,circulars4 ,no4 #c4 ,george ,william ,hill1 ,publications for ,sale4 ,no4 #be4 ,gifford ,pinchot1 ,the ,lumberman and the ,forester4 ,no4 #bf4 ,h4 ,m4 ,suter1 ,forest ,fires in the ,adirondacks in #aijc4 ,no4 #cf4 ,the ,forest ,service3 ,what it is1 and how it deals with ,forest ,problems4 ,also ,classified ,list of ,publications and ,guide to ,their ,contents4 ,no4 #cg4 ,forest ,planting in the ,sand ,hill ,region of ,nebraska4 ,no4 #dj4 ,h4 ,b4 ,holroyd1 ,the ,utilization of ,tupelo4 ,no4 #da4 ,s4 ,n4 ,spring1 ,forest ,planting on ,coal ,lands in ,western ,pennsylvania4 ,no4 #de4 ,frank ,g4 ,miller1 ,forest ,planting in ,eastern ,nebraska4 ,no4 #ha4 ,r4 ,s4 ,kellogg1 ,forest ,planting in ,illinois4 ,no4 #ig4 ,r4 ,s4 ,kellogg1 ,timber ,supply of the ,united ,states4 ,no4 #aec4 ,a4 ,h4 ,pierson1 ,exports and ,imports of ,forest ,products1 #aijg4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,year ,books for3 #ahif4 ,filibert ,roth1 ,the ,uses of ,wood4 #ahih1 p4 #aha4 ,gifford ,pinchot1 ,notes on some ,forest ,problems4 #ahii1 p4 #dae4 ,henry ,s4 ,graves1 ,the ,practice of ,forestry by ,private ,owners4 #aijj1 p4 #aii4 ,hermann von ,schrenck1 ,fungous ,diseases of ,forest ,trees4 #aijb1 p4 #ade4 ,william ,l4 ,hall1 ,forest ,extension in the ,middle ,west4 #aijb1 p4 #bfe4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopkins1 ,some of the ,principal ,insect ,enemies of ,coniferous ,forests in the ,united ,states4 #aijb1 p4 #cji4 ,overton1 ,w4 ,price1 ,influence of ,forestry on the ,lumber ,supply4 #aijc1 p4 #bgi4 ,james ,w4 ,toumey1 ,the ,relation of ,forests to ,stream ,flow4 #aijc1 p4 #cac4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopkins1 ,insect ,injuries to ,hardwood ,forest ,trees4 #aijd1 p4 #acc4 ,e4 ,a4 ,sterling1 ,the ,attitude of ,lumbermen toward ,forest ,fires4 #aijd1 p4 #cha4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopkins1 ,insect ,injuries to ,forest ,products4 #aije1 p4 #dee4 ,henry ,grinell1 ,prolonging the ,life of ,telephone ,poles4 #aije1 p4 #dhc4 ,j4 ,grivin ,peters1 ,waste in ,logging ,southern ,yellow ,pine4 #aije1 p4 #fcf4 ,quincy ,r4 ,craft1 ,progress of ,forestry in #aije4 #aijg1 p #bgg4 ,raphael ,zon and ,e4 ,h4 ,clapp1 ,cutting ,timber in the ,national ,forests4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,division of ,entomology ,bulletins3 ,no4 #aa4 n4 s4 ,l4 ,o4 ,howard1 ,the ,gypsy ,moth in ,america4 ,no4 #bh4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopkins1 ,insect ,enemies of the ,spruce in the ,northeast4 ,no4 #cb4 n4 s4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopkins1 ,insect ,enemies of the ,pine in the ,black ,hills ,forest ,reserve4 ,no4 #dh4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopkins1 ,catalog of ,exhibits of ,insect ,enemies of ,forest and ,forest ,products at the ,louisiana ,purchase ,exposition1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo41 #aijd4 ,no4 #ef4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopkins1 ,the ,black ,hills ,beetle4 ,no4 #eh4 ,part #a1 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopkins1 ,the ,locust ,borer4 ,no4 #eh4 ,part ,,ii1 ,j4 ,l4 ,webb1 ,the ,western ,pine ,destroying ,bark ,beetle4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 ,bulletins3 ,no4 #cb4 ,herman von ,schrenck1 ,a ,disease of the ,white ,ash ,caused by ,polyporus ,fraxinophilus1 #aijc4 ,no4 #cf4 ,hermann von ,schrenck1 ,the ,bluing and ,red ,rot of the ,western ,yellow ,pine1 #aijc4 ,report of the ,commissioner of ,corporations on the ,lumber ,industry1 ,part ,i1 ,standing ,timber1 ,february1 #aiaa4 ,the latest and most reliable investigation into the amount and ownership of the forests of the ,united ,states4 ,ward1 ,h4 ,marshall1 ,timber and some of its ,diseases4 ,london3 ,macmillan ,co41 #bie pp4 ,an ,english book that needs supplementing by information on ,american wood diseases1 such as is included in the list of government publications given herewith4 ,the book includes a description of the character1 structure1 properties1 varieties1 and classification of timbers4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,wood4 ,when it is remembered that the suitability of wood for a particular purpose depends most of all upon its internal structure1 it is plain that the woodworker should know the essential characteristics of that structure4 ,while his main interest in wood is as lumber1 dead material to be used in woodworking1 he can properly understand its structure only by knowing something of it as a live1 growing organism4 ,to facilitate this1 a knowledge of its position in the plant world is helpful4 ,all the useful woods are to be found in the highest sub-kingdom of the plant world1 the flowering plants or ,phanerogamia of the botanist4 ,these flowering plants are to be classified as follows3 ,i4 ,gymnosperms4 7,naked seeds47 #a4 ,cycadaceae4 7,palms1 ferns1 etc47 #b4 ,gnetaceae4 7,joint firs47 #c4 ,conifers4 ,pines1 firs1 etc4 ,phanerogamia1 ,,ii4 ,angiosperms4 7,fruits47 7,flowering plants7 #a4 ,monocotyledons4 7,one seed-leaf47 7,palms1 bamboos1 grasses1 etc47 #b4 ,dicotyledons4 7,two seed-leaves47 a4 ,herbs4 b4 ,broad-leaved trees4 ,under the division of naked-seeded plants 7gymnosperms71 practically the only valuable timber-bearing plants are the needle-leaved trees or the conifers1 including such trees as the pines1 cedars1 spruces1 firs1 etc4 ,their wood grows rapidly in concentric annual rings1 like that of the broad-leaved trees2 is easily worked1 and is more widely used than the wood of any other class of trees4 ,of fruit-bearing trees 7angiosperms71 there are two classes1 those that have one seed-leaf as they germinate1 and those that have two seed-leaves4 ,the one seed-leaf plants 7monocotyledons7 include the grasses1 lilies1 bananas1 palms1 etc4 ,of these there are only a few that reach the dimensions of trees4 ,they are strikingly distinguished by the structure of their stems4 ,they have no cambium layer and no distinct bark and pith2 they have unbranched stems1 which as a rule do not increase in diameter after the first stages of growth1 but grow only terminally4 ,instead of having concentric annual rings and thus growing larger year by year1 the woody tissue grows here and there thru the stem1 but mostly crowded together toward the outer surfaces4 ,even where there is radial growth1 as in yucca1 the structure is not in annual rings1 but irregular4 ,these one seed-leaf trees 7monocotyledons7 are not of much economic value as lumber1 being used chiefly in the round1 and to some extent for veneers and inlays2 e4g41 cocoanut-palm and porcupine wood are so used4 ,the most useful of the monocotyledons1 or endogens1 7inside growers1 as they are sometimes called17 are the bamboos1 which are giant members of the group of grasses1 ,fig4 #a4 ,they grow in dense forests1 some varieties often #gj feet high and #f inches in diameter1 shooting up their entire height in a single season4 ,bamboo is very highly valued in the ,orient1 where it is used for masts1 for house rafters1 and other building purposes1 for gutters and water-pipes and in countless other ways4 ,it is twice as strong as any of our woods4 ,under the fruit-bearing trees 7angiosperms71 timber trees are chiefly found among those that have two seed-leaves 7the dicotyledons7 and include the great mass of broad-leaved or deciduous trees such as chestnut1 oak1 ash and maple4 ,it is to these and to the conifers that our principal attention will be given1 since they constitute the bulk of the wood in common use4 ,the timber-bearing trees1 then1 are the3 7#a7 ,conifers1 the needle-leaved1 naked-seeded trees1 such as pine1 cedar1 etc4 ,fig4 #de1 p4 #aii4 7#b7 ,endogens1 which have one seed-leaf1 such as bamboos1 ,fig4 #a4 7#c7 ,broad-leaved trees1 having two seed-leaves1 such as oak1 beech1 and elm4 ,fig4 #dh1 p4 #bjb4 ,the common classifications of trees are quite inaccurate4 ,many of the so-called deciduous 7,latin1 deciduus1 falling off7 trees are evergreen1 such as holly1 and1 in the south1 live oak1 magnolia and cherry4 ,so1 too1 some of the alleged evergreens1 like bald cypress and tamarack1 shed their leaves annually4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,a ,bamboo ,grove1 ,kioto1 ,japan4 ,not all of the conifers bear cones4 ,for example1 the juniper bears a berry4 ,the ginko1 ,fig4 #b1 tho classed among the conifers1 the evergreens1 and the needle-leaf trees1 bears no cones1 has broad leaves and is deciduous4 ,it has an especial interest as being the sole survivor of many species which grew abundantly in the carboniferous age4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,ginko ,leaf4 ,also1 the terms used by lumbermen1 hard woods for broad-leaved trees and soft woods for conifers1 are still less exact1 for the wood of some broad-leaved trees1 as bass and poplar1 is much softer than that of some conifers1 as ,georgia pine and lignum vitae4 ,another classification commonly made is that of endogens 7inside growers7 including bamboos1 palms1 etc41 and exogens 7outside growers7 which would include both conifers and broad-leaved trees4 ,one reason why so many classifications have come into use is that none of them is quite accurate4 ,a better one will be explained later4 ,see p4 #bc4 ,as in the study of all woods three sections are made1 it is well at the outset to understand clearly what these are4 ,the sections of a tree made for its study are 7,fig4 #c73 7#a7 ,transverse1 a plane at right angles to the organic axis4 7#b7 ,radial1 a longitudinal plane1 including the organic axis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,a4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,transverse ,section4 ,b1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,radial ,section4 ,g1 ,h1 ,i1 ,j1 ,tangential ,section4 ,b4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,transverse ,section4 ,a1 ,b1 ,d1 ,e1 ,radial ,section4 ,b1 ,c1 ,e1 ,f1 ,tangential ,section4 7#c7 ,tangential1 a longitudinal plane not including the organic axis4 ,if a transverse section of the trunk of a conifer or of a broad-leaved tree is made1 it is to be noted that it consists of several distinct parts4 ,see ,fig4 #d4 ,these1 beginning at the outside1 are3 7#a7 ,rind or bark 7a7 ,cortex 7b7 ,bast 7#b7 ,cambium 7#c7 ,wood 7a7 ,sap-wood 7b7 ,heart-wood 7#d7 ,pith4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,diagram of ,cross-section of ,three ,year ,old ,stem of ,basswood4 7#a7 ,the rind or bark is made up of two layers1 the outer of which1 the cortex1 is corky and usually scales or pulls off easily2 while the inner one is a fibrous coat called bast or phloem4 ,together they form a cone1 widest1 thickest1 and roughest at the base and becoming narrower toward the top of the tree4 ,the cortex or outer bark serves to protect the stem of the tree from extremes of heat and cold1 from atmospheric changes1 and from the browsing of animals4 ,it is made up of a tough water-proof layer of cork which has taken the place of the tender skin or epidermis of the twig4 ,because it is water-proof the outside tissue is cut off from the water supply of the tree1 and so dries up and peels off1 a mass of dead matter4 ,the cork and the dead stuff together are called the bark4 ,as we shall see later1 the cork grows from the inside1 being formed in the inner layers of the cortex1 the outer layers of dry bark being thus successively cut off4 ,the characteristics of the tree bark are due to the positions and kinds of tissue of these new layers of cork4 ,each tree has its own kind of bark1 and the bark of some is so characteristic as to make the tree easily recognizable4 ,bark may be classified according to formation and method of separation1 as scale bark1 which detaches from the tree in plates1 as in the willows2 membraneous bark1 which comes off in ribbons and films1 as in the birches2 fibrous bark1 which is in the form of stiff threads1 as in the grape vine2 and fissured bark1 which breaks up in longitudinal fissures1 showing ridges1 grooves and broad1 angular patches1 as in oak1 chestnut and locust4 ,the last is the commonest form of bark4 ,the bark of certain kinds of trees1 as cherry and birch1 has peculiar markings which consist of oblong raised spots or marks1 especially on the young branches4 ,these are called lenticels 7,latin lenticula1 freckle71 and have two purposes3 they admit air to the internal tissues1 as it were for breathing1 and they also emit water vapor4 ,these lenticels are to be found on all trees1 even where the bark is very thick1 as old oaks and chestnuts1 but in these the lenticels are in the bottoms of the deep cracks4 ,there is a great difference in the inflammability of bark1 some1 like that of the big trees of ,california1 ,fig4 #ed1 p4 #bji1 which is often two feet thick1 being practically incombustible1 and hence serving to protect the tree2 while some bark1 as canoe birch1 is laden with an oil which burns furiously4 ,it therefore makes admirable kindling for camp fires1 even in wet weather4 ,inside the cork is the phloem or bast1 which1 by the way1 gives its name to the bass tree1 the inner bark of which is very tough and fibrous and therefore used for mat and rope making4 ,in a living tree1 the bast fibers serve to conduct the nourishment which has been made in the leaves down thru the stem to the growing parts4 7#b7 ,the cambium4 ,inside of the rind and between it and the wood1 there is1 on living trees1 a slimy coat called cambium 7,med4 ,latin1 exchange74 ,this is the living1 growing part of the stem1 familiar to all who have peeled it as the sticky1 slimy coat between the bark and the wood of a twig4 ,this is what constitutes the fragrant1 mucilaginous inner part of the bark of slippery elm4 ,cambium is a tissue of young and growing cells1 in which the new cells are formed1 the inner ones forming the wood and the outer ones the bark4 ,in order to understand the cambium and its function1 consider its appearance in a bud1 ,fig4 #e4 ,a cross-section of the bud of a growing stem examined under the microscope1 looks like a delicate mesh of thin membrane1 filled in with a viscid semi-fluid substance which is called protoplasm 7,greek1 protos1 first2 plasma1 form74 ,these meshes were first called cells by ,robert ,hooke1 in #affg1 because of their resemblance to the chambers of a honeycomb4 ,the walls of these cells are their most prominent feature and1 when first studied1 were supposed to be the essential part2 but later the slimy1 colorless substance which filled the cells was found to be the essential part4 ,this slimy substance1 called protoplasm1 constitutes the primal stuff of all living things4 ,the cell walls themselves are formed from it4 ,these young cells1 at the apex of a stem1 are all alike1 very small1 filled with protoplasm1 and as yet1 unaltered4 ,they form embryonic tissue1 i4e4 one which will change4 ,one change to which an cell filled with protoplasm is liable is division into two1 a new partition wall forming within it4 ,this is the way plant cells increase4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,young ,stem1 ,magnified #ah-a_/b ,diameters1 ,showing ,primary and ,secondary ,bundles4 ,by ,courtesy of ,mrs4 ,katharine ,golden ,bitting4 ,e1 epidermis1 the single outside layer of cells4 ,c1 cortex1 the region outside of the bundles4 ,,hb1 hard bast1 the black1 irregular ring protecting the soft bast4 ,,sb1 soft bast1 the light1 crescent-shaped parts4 ,ca1 cambium1 the line between the soft bast and the wood4 ,w1 wood1 segments showing pores4 ,,mr1 medullary rays1 lines between the bundles connecting the pith and the cortex4 ,,ms1 medullary sheath1 the dark1 irregular ring just inside the bundles4 ,p1 pith1 the central mass of cells4 ,in young plant cells1 the whole cavity of the chamber is filled with protoplasm1 but as the cells grow older and larger1 the protoplasm develops into different parts1 one part forming the cell wall and in many cases leaving cavities within the cell1 which become filled with sap4 ,the substance of the cell wall is called cellulose 7cotton and flax fibers consist of almost pure cellulose74 ,at first it has no definite structure1 but as growth goes on1 it may become thickened in layers1 or gummy1 or hardened into lignin 7wood71 according to the function to be performed4 ,where there are a group of similar cells performing the same functions1 the group is called a tissue or1 if large enough1 a tissue system4 ,when cells are changed into new forms1 or differentiated1 as it is called1 they become permanent tissues4 ,these permanent tissues of the tree trunk constitute the various parts which we have noticed1 viz41 the rind1 the pith and the wood4 ,the essentially living part of the tree1 it should be remembered1 is the protoplasm3 where there is protoplasm1 there is life and growth4 ,in the stems of the conifers and broad-leaved trees--sometimes together called exogens--this protoplasm is to be found in the buds and in the cambium sheath1 and these are the growing parts of the tree4 ,if we followed up the sheath of cambium which envelopes a stem1 into a terminal bud1 we should find that it passed without break into the protoplasm of the bud4 ,in the cross-section of a young shoot1 we might see around the central pith or medulla1 a ring of wedge-shaped patches4 ,these are really bundles of cells running longitudinally from the rudiments of leaves thru the stem to the roots4 ,they are made of protoplasm and are called the procambium strands1 ,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,three ,stages in the ,development of an ,exogenous ,stem4 ,p1 pith2 ,,pb1 primary bast2 ,,sb1 secondary bast2 ,c1 cambium2 ,,pr1 pith ray2 ,,pw1 primary wood2 ,,sw1 secondary wood2 ,,ps1 procambium strands4 ,after ,boulger4 ,in the monocotyledons 7endogens7 these procambium strands change completely into wood and bast1 and so losing all their protoplasmic cambium1 become incapable of further growth4 ,this is why palms can grow only lengthwise1 or else by forming new fibers more densely in the central mass4 ,but in the conifers and broad-leaved trees1 the inner part of each strand becomes wood and the outer part bast 7bark74 ,between these bundles1 connecting the pith in the center with the cortex on the outside of the ring of bundles1 are parts of the original pith tissue of the stem4 ,they are the primary pith or medullary rays 7,latin1 medulla1 pith74 ,the number of medullary rays depends upon the number of the bundles2 and their form1 on the width of the bundles1 so that they are often large and conspicuous1 as in oak1 or small and indeed invisible1 as in some of the conifers4 ,but they are present in all exogenous woods1 and can readily be seen with the microscope4 ,stretching across these pith rays from the cambium layer in one procambium strand to that in the others1 the cambium formation extends1 making a complete cylindrical sheath from the bud downward over the whole stem4 ,this is the cambium sheath and is the living1 growing part of the stem from which is formed the wood on the inside and the rind 7bark7 on the outside4 ,in the first year the wood and the bast are formed directly by the growth and change of the inner and outer cells respectively of the procambium strand1 and all such material is called primary2 but in subsequent years all wood1 pith rays1 and bast1 originate in the cambium1 and these growths are called secondary4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,sap-wood and ,heart-wood1 ,lignum ,vitae4 7#c7 ,the wood of most exogens is made up of two parts1 a lighter part called the sap-wood or splint-wood or alburnum1 and a darker part called the heart-wood or duramen1 ,fig4 #g4 ,sap-wood is really immature heartwood4 ,the difference in color between them is very marked in some woods1 as in lignum vitae and black walnut1 and very slight in others1 as spruce and bass4 ,indeed1 some species never form a distinct heart-wood1 birch 7,betula alba7 being an example4 ,in a living tree1 sap-wood and heart-wood perform primarily quite different functions4 ,the sap-wood carries the water from the roots to the leaves1 stores away starch at least in winter1 and in other ways assists the life of the tree4 ,the proportional amount of sapwood varies greatly1 often1 as in long-leaf pine1 constituting #dj per cent4 of the stem4 ,as the sap-wood grows older1 its cells become choked so that the sap can no longer flow thru them4 ,it loses its protoplasm and starch and becomes heartwood1 in which all cells are dead and serve only the mechanical function of holding up the great weight of the tree and in resisting wind pressures4 ,this is the reason why a tree may become decayed and hollow and yet be alive and bear fruit4 ,in a tree that is actually dead the sap-wood rots first4 ,chemical substances infiltrate into the cell walls of heart-wood and hence it has a darker color than the sap-wood4 ,persimmon turns black1 walnut purplish brown1 sumac yellow1 oak light brown1 tulip and poplar yellowish1 redwood and cedar brownish red4 ,many woods1 as mahogany and oak1 darken under exposure1 which shows that the substances producing the color are oxidizable and unstable4 ,wood dyes are obtained by boiling and distilling such woods as sumach1 logwood1 red sanders1 and fustic4 ,many woods also acquire distinct odors1 as camphor1 sandalwood1 cedar1 cypress1 pine and mahogany1 indicating the presence of oil4 ,as a rule heart-wood is more valuable for timber1 being harder1 heavier1 and drier than sap-wood4 ,in woods like hickory and ash1 however1 which are used for purposes that require pliability1 as in baskets1 or elasticity as in handles of rakes and hoes1 sap-wood is more valuable than heart-wood4 ,in a transverse section of a conifer1 for example ,douglas spruce1 ,fig4 #h1 the wood is seen to lie in concentric rings1 the outer part of the ring being darker in color than the inner part4 ,in reality each of these rings is a section of an irregular hollow cone1 each cone enveloping its inner neighbor4 ,each cone ordinarily constitutes a year's growth1 and therefore there is a greater number of them at the base of a tree than higher up4 ,these cones vary greatly in thickness1 or1 looking at a cross-section1 the rings vary in width2 in general1 those at the center being thicker than those toward the bark4 ,variations from year to year may also be noticed1 showing that the tree was well nourished one year and poorly nourished another year4 ,rings1 however1 do not always indicate a year's growth4 ,false rings are sometimes formed by a cessation in the growth due to drouth1 fire or other accident1 followed by renewed growth the same season4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,section of ,douglas ,fir1 ,showing ,annual ,rings and ,knots at ,center of ,trunk4 ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,n4 ,y4 ,in a radial section of a log1 ,fig4 #h1 these rings appear as a series of parallel lines and if one could examine a long enough log these lines would converge1 as would the cut edges in a nest of cones1 if they were cut up thru the center1 as in ,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,diagram of ,radial ,section of ,log 7exaggerated7 ,showing ,annual ,cones of ,growth4 ,in a tangential section1 the lines appear as broad bands1 and since almost no tree grows perfectly straight1 these lines are wavy1 and give the characteristic pleasing grain of wood4 ,fig4 #bg1 p4 #ce4 ,the annual rings can sometimes be discerned in the bark as well as in the wood1 as in corks1 which are made of the outer bark of the cork oak1 a product of southern ,europe and northern ,africa4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,annual ,rings in ,bark 7cork74 ,the growth of the wood of exogenous trees takes place thru the ability1 already noted1 of protoplasmic cells to divide4 ,the cambium cells1 which have very thin walls1 are rectangular in shape1 broader tangentially than radially1 and tapering above and below to a chisel edge1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,after they have grown somewhat radially1 partition walls form across them in the longitudinal1 tangential direction1 so that in place of one initial cell1 there are two daughter cells radially disposed4 ,each of these small cells grows and re-divides1 as in ,fig4 #ab4 ,finally the innermost cell ceases to divide1 and uses its protoplasm to become thick and hard wood4 ,in like manner the outermost cambium cell becomes bast1 while the cells between them continue to grow and divide1 and so the process goes on4 ,in nearly all stems1 there is much more abundant formation of wood than of bast cells4 ,in other words1 more cambium cells turn to wood than to bast4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,diagram ,showing ,grain of ,spruce ,highly ,magnified4 ,,pr1 pith rays2 ,,bp1 bordered pits2 ,sp ,w1 spring wood2 ,,sw1 summer wood2 ,,cc1 overlapping of chisel shaped ends4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,diagram ,showing the ,mode of ,division of the ,cambium ,cells4 ,the cambium cell is shaded to distinguish it from the cells derived from it4 ,note in the last division at the right that the inner daughter cell becomes the cambium cell while the outer cell develops into a bast cell4 ,from ,curtis3 ,nature and ,development of ,plants4 ,in the spring when there is comparatively little light and heat1 when the roots and leaves are inactive and feeble1 and when the bark1 split by winter1 does not bind very tightly1 the inner cambium cells produce radially wide wood cells with relatively thin walls4 ,these constitute the spring wood4 ,but in summer the jacket of bark binds tightly1 there is plenty of heat and light1 and the leaves and roots are very active1 so that the cambium cells produce thicker walled cells1 called summer wood4 ,during the winter the trees rest1 and no development takes place until spring1 when the large thin-walled cells are formed again1 making a sharp contrast with those formed at the end of the previous season4 ,it is only at the tips of the branches that the cambium cells grow much in length2 so that if a nail were driven into a tree twenty years old at1 say1 four feet from the ground1 it would still be four feet from the ground one hundred years later4 ,looking once more at the cross-section1 say1 of spruce1 the inner portion of each ring is lighter in color and softer in texture than the outer portion4 ,on a radial or tangential section1 one's finger nail can easily indent the inner portion of the ring1 tho the outer dark part of the ring may be very hard4 ,the inner1 light1 soft portion of the ring is the part that grows in the spring and early summer1 and is called the spring wood while the part that grows later in the season is called summer wood4 ,as the summer wood is hard and heavy1 it largely determines the strength and weight of the wood1 so that as a rule1 the greater the proportion of the summer growth1 the better the wood4 ,this can be controlled to some extent by proper forestry methods1 as is done in ,european larch forests1 by underplanting them with beech4 ,in a normal tree1 the summer growth forms a greater proportion of the wood formed during the period of thriftiest growth1 so that in neither youth nor old age1 is there so great a proportion of summer wood as in middle age4 ,it will help to make clear the general structure of wood if one imagines the trunk of a tree to consist of a bundle of rubber tubes crushed together1 so that they assume angular shapes and have no spaces between them4 ,if the tubes are laid in concentric layers1 first a layer which has thin walls1 then successive layers having thicker and thicker walls1 then suddenly a layer of thin-walled tubes and increasing again to thick-walled ones and so on1 such an arrangement would represent the successive annual rings of conifers4 ,the medullary rays4 ,while most of the elements in wood run longitudinally in the log1 it is also to be noted that running at right angles to these and radially to the log1 are other groups of cells called pith rays or medullary rays 7,latin1 medulla1 which means pith74 ,these are the large silver flakes to be seen in quartered oak1 which give it its beautiful and distinctive grain1 ,fig4 #cb1 p4 #ch4 ,they appear as long1 grayish lines on a cross-section1 as broad1 shining bands on the radial section1 and as short1 thick lines tapering at each end on the tangential section4 ,in other words1 they are like flat1 rectangular plates standing on edge and radiating lengthwise from the center of the tree4 ,they vary greatly in size in different woods4 ,in sycamore they are very prominent1 ,fig4 #ac4 ,in oak they are often several hundred cells wide 7i4e41 up and down in the tree74 ,this may amount to an inch or two4 ,they are often twenty cells thick1 tapering to one cell at the edge4 ,in oak very many are also small1 even microscopic4 ,but in the conifers and also in some of the broad-leaved trees1 altho they can be discerned with the naked eye on a split radial surface1 still they are all very small4 ,in pine there are some #ae1jjj of them to a square inch of a tangential section4 ,they are to be found in all exogens4 ,in a cross-section1 say of oak1 ,fig4 #ad1 it can readily be seen that some pith rays begin at the center of the tree and some farther out4 ,those that start from the pith are formed the first year and are called primary pith rays1 while those that begin in a subsequent year1 starting at the cambium of that year1 are called secondary rays4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,tangential ,section of ,sycamore1 ,magnified #cg ,diameters4 ,note the large size of the pith rays1 ,a1 ,a 7end view74 ,the function of the pith rays is twofold4 7#a7 ,they transfer formative material from one part of a stem to another1 communicating with both wood and bark by means of the simple and bordered pits in them1 and 7#b7 they bind the trunk together from pith to bark4 ,on the other hand their presence makes it easier for the wood to split radially4 ,the substance of which they are composed is parenchyma 7,greek1 beside1 to pour71 which also constitutes the pith1 the rays forming a sort of connecting link between the first and last growth of the tree1 as the cambium cells form new wood each year4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad ,cross-section of ,white ,oak4 ,the ,radiating ,white ,lines are the ,pith ,rays4 ,if a cambium cell is opposite to a pith ray1 it divides crosswise 7transversely7 into eight or ten cells one above another1 which stretch out radially1 retaining their protoplasm1 and so continue the pith ray4 ,as the tree grows larger1 new1 or secondary medullary rays start from the cambium then active1 so that every year new rays are formed both thinner and shorter than the primary rays1 ,fig4 #ad4 ,now suppose that laid among the ordinary thin-walled tubes were quite large tubes1 so that one could tell the ring not only by the thin walls but by the presence of large tubes4 ,that would represent the ring-porous woods1 and the large tubes would be called vessels1 or tracheae4 ,suppose again that these large tubes were scattered in disorder thru the layers4 ,this arrangement would represent the diffuse-porous woods4 ,by holding up to the light1 thin cross-sections of spruce or pine1 ,fig4 #ae1 oak or ash1 ,fig4 #af1 and bass or maple1 ,fig4 #ag1 these three quite distinct arrangements in the structure may be distinguished4 ,this fact has led to the classification of woods according to the presence and distribution of pores1 or as they are technically called1 vessels or tracheae4 ,by this classification we have3 7#a7 ,non-porous woods1 which comprise the conifers1 as pine and spruce4 7#b7 ,ring-porous woods1 in which the pores appear 7in a cross-section7 in concentric rings1 as in chestnut1 ash and elm4 7#c7 ,diffuse-porous woods1 in which 7in a cross-section7 the rings are scattered irregularly thru the wood1 as in bass1 maple and yellow poplar4 ,in order to fully understand the structure of wood1 it is necessary to examine it still more closely thru the microscope1 and since the three classes of wood1 non-porous1 ring-porous and diffuse-porous1 differ considerably in their minute structure1 it is well to consider them separately1 taking the simplest first4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,cross-section of ,non-porous ,wood1 ,white ,pine1 ,full ,size 7top toward pith74 ,non-porous woods4 ,in examining thru the microscope a transverse section of white pine1 ,fig4 #ah3 7#a7 ,the most noticeable characteristic is the regularity of arrangement of the cells4 ,they are roughly rectangular and arranged in ranks and files4 7#b7 ,another noticeable feature is that they are arranged in belts1 the thickness of their walls gradually increasing as the size of the cells diminishes4 ,then the large thin-walled cells suddenly begin again1 and so on4 ,the width of one of these belts is the amount of a single year's growth1 the thin-walled cells being those that formed in spring1 and the thick-walled ones those that formed in summer1 the darker color of the summer wood as well as its greater strength being caused by there being more material in the same volume4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,cross-section of ,ring-porous ,wood1 ,white ,ash1 ,full ,size 7top toward pith74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,cross-section of ,diffuse-porous ,wood1 ,hard ,maple1 full size 7top toward pith74 7#c7 ,running radially 7up and down in the picture7 directly thru the annual belts or rings are to be seen what looks like fibers4 ,these are the pith or medullary rays4 ,they serve to transfer formative material from one part of the stem to another and to bind the tree together from pith to bark4 7#d7 ,scattered here and there among the regular cells1 are to be seen irregular gray or yellow dots which disturb the regularity of the arrangement4 ,these are resin ducts4 7,see cross-section of white pine1 ,fig4 #ah47 ,they are not cells1 but openings between cells1 in which the resin1 an excretion of the tree1 accumulates1 oozing out when the tree is injured4 ,at least one function of resin is to protect the tree from attacks of fungi4 ,looking now at the radial section1 ,fig4 #ah3 7#e7 ,the first thing to notice is the straightness of the long cells and their overlapping where they meet endwise1 like the ends of two chisels laid together1 ,fig4 #aa4 7#f7 ,on the walls of the cells can be seen round spots called pits4 ,these are due to the fact that as the cell grows1 the cell walls thicken1 except in these small spots1 where the walls remain thin and delicate4 ,the pit in a cell wall always coincides with the pit in an adjoining cell1 there being only a thin membrane between1 so that there is practically free communication of fluids between the two cells4 ,in a cross-section the pit appears as a canal1 the length of which depends upon the thickness of the walls4 ,in some cells1 the thickening around the pits becomes elevated1 forming a border1 perforated in the center4 ,such pits are called bordered pits4 ,these pits1 both simple and bordered1 are waterways between the different cells4 ,they are helps in carrying the sap up the tree4 7#g7 ,the pith rays are also to be seen running across and interwoven in the other cells4 ,it is to be noticed that they consist of several cells1 one above another4 ,in the tangential section1 ,fig4 #ah3 7#h7 ,the straightness and overlapping of the cells is to be seen again1 and 7#i7 ,the numerous ends of the pith rays appear4 ,in a word1 the structure of coniferous wood is very regular and simple1 consisting mainly of cells of one sort1 the pith rays being comparatively unnoticeable4 ,this uniformity is what makes the wood of conifers technically valuable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,the cells of conifers are called tracheids1 meaning like tracheae4 ,they are cells in which the end walls persist1 that is1 are not absorbed and broken down when they meet end to end4 ,in other words1 conifers do not have continuous pores or vessels or tracheae1 and hence are called non-porous woods4 ,but in other woods1 the ends of some cells which meet endwise are absorbed1 thus forming a continuous series of elements which constitute an open tube4 ,such tubes are known as pores1 or vessels1 or tracheae1 and sometimes extend thru the whole stem4 ,besides this marked difference between the porous and non-porous woods1 the porous woods are also distinguished by the fact that instead of being made up1 like the conifers of cells of practically only one kind1 namely tracheids1 they are composed of several varieties of cells4 ,besides the tracheae and tracheids already noted are such cells as wood fiber1 fibrous cells1 and parenchyma4 ,fig4 #ai4 ,wood fiber proper has much thickened lignified walls and no pits1 and its main function is mechanical support4 ,fibrous cells are like the wood fibers except that they retain their protoplasm4 ,parenchyma is composed of vertical groups of short cells1 the end ones of each group tapering to a point1 and each group originates from the transverse division of one cambium cell4 ,they are commonly grouped around the vessels 7tracheae74 ,parenchyma constitutes the pith rays and other similar fibers1 retains its protoplasm1 and becomes filled with starch in autumn4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,isolated ,fibers and ,cells4 a1 four cells of wood parenchyma2 b1 two cells from a pith ray2 c1 a single cell or joint of a vessel1 the openings1 x1 x1 leading into its upper and lower neighbors2 d1 tracheid2 e1 wood fiber proper4 ,after ,roth4 ,the most common type of structure among the broad-leaved trees contains tracheae1 trachaeids1 woody fiber1 fibrous cells and parenchyma4 ,examples are poplars1 birch1 walnut1 linden and locust4 ,in some1 as ash1 the tracheids are wanting2 apple and maple have no woody fiber1 and oak and plum no fibrous cells4 ,this recital is enough to show that the wood of the broad-leaved trees is much more complex in structure than that of the conifers4 ,it is by means of the number and distribution of these elements that particular woods are identified microscopically4 ,see p4 #bhi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,ring-porous woods4 ,looking thru the microscope at a cross-section of ash1 a ring-porous wood1 ,fig4 #bj3 7#a7 ,the large round or oval pores or vessels grouped mostly in the spring wood first attract attention4 ,smaller ones1 but still quite distinct1 are to be seen scattered all thru the wood4 ,it is by the number and distribution of these pores that the different oak woods are distinguished1 those in white oak being smaller and more numerous1 while in red oak they are fewer and larger4 ,it is evident that the greater their share in the volume1 the lighter in weight and the weaker will be the wood4 ,in a magnified cross-section of some woods1 as black locust1 white elm and chestnut1 see ,chap4 ,,iii1 beautiful patterns are to be seen composed of these pores4 ,it is because of the size of these pores and their great number that chestnut is so weak4 7#b7 ,the summer wood is also distinguishable by the fact that1 as with the conifers1 its cells are smaller and its cell walls thicker than those of the spring wood4 ,the summer wood appears only as a narrow1 dark line along the largest pores in each ring4 7#c7 ,the lines of the pith rays are very plain in some woods1 as in oak4 ,no4 #dg1 ,chap4 ,,iii4 7#d7 ,the irregular arrangement and 7#e7 ,complex structure are evident1 and these are due to the fact that the wood substance consists of a number of different elements and not one 7tracheids7 as in the conifers4 ,looking at the radial section1 ,fig4 #bj3 7#f7 ,if the piece is oak1 the great size of the medullary rays is most noticeable4 ,fig4 #cb1 p4 #ch4 ,they are often an inch or more wide2 that is1 high1 as they grow in the tree4 ,in ash they are plain1 seen thru the microscope1 but are not prominent4 7#g7 ,the interweaving of the different fibers and the variety of their forms show the structure as being very complex4 ,in the tangential section1 ,fig4 #bj3 7#h7 ,the pattern of the grain is seen to be marked not so much by the denseness of the summer wood as by the presence of the vessels 7pores74 7#i7 ,the ends of the pith rays are also clear4 ,in diffuse porous woods1 the main features to be noticed are3 ,in the transverse section1 ,fig4 #ba3 7#a7 ,the irregularity with which the pores are scattered1 7#b7 ,the fine line of dense cells which mark the end of the year's growth1 7#c7 ,the radiating pith rays1 7#d7 ,the irregular arrangement and1 7#e7 ,the complex structure4 ,in the radial section1 ,fig4 #ba3 7#f7 ,the pith rays are evident4 ,in sycamore1 ,no4 #ec1 ,chap4 ,,iii1 they are quite large4 7#g7 ,the interweaving of the fibers is to be noted and also their variety4 ,in the tangential section1 ,fig4 #ba3 7#h7 ,the grain is to be traced only dimly1 but the fibers are seen to run in waves around the pith rays4 7#i7 ,the pith rays1 the ends of which are plainly visible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,,the ,,grain ,,of ,,wood4 ,the term grain is used in a variety of meanings which is likely to cause confusion4 ,this confusion may be avoided1 at least in part1 by distinguishing between grain and texture1 using the word grain to refer to the arrangement or direction of the wood elements1 and the word texture to refer to their size or quality1 so far as these affect the structural character of the wood4 ,hence such qualifying adjectives as coarse and fine1 even and uneven1 straight and cross1 including spiral1 twisted1 wavy1 curly1 mottled1 bird's-eye1 gnarly1 etc41 may all be applied to grain to give it definite meaning1 while to texture the proper modifying adjectives are coarse and fine1 even and uneven4 ,usually the word grain means the pattern or figure formed by the distinction between the spring wood and the summer wood4 ,if the annual rings are wide1 the wood is1 in common usage1 called coarse grained1 if narrow1 fine grained1 so that of two trees of the same species1 one may be coarse grained and the other fine grained1 depending solely on the accident of fast or slow growth4 ,the terms coarse grain and fine grain are also frequently used to distinguish such ring-porous woods as have large prominent pores1 like chestnut and ash1 from those having small or no pores1 as cherry and lignum vitae4 ,a better expression in this case would be coarse and fine textured4 ,when such coarse textured woods are stained1 the large pores in the spring wood absorb more stain than the smaller elements in the summer wood1 and hence the former part appears darker4 ,in the fine grained 7or better1 fine textured17 woods the pores are absent or are small and scattered1 and the wood is hard1 so that they are capable of taking a high polish4 ,this indicates the meaning of the words coarse and fine in the mind of the cabinet-maker1 the reference being primarily to texture4 ,if the elements of which a wood are composed are of approximately uniform size1 it would be said to have a uniform texture1 as in white pine1 while uniform grain would mean1 that the elements1 tho of varying sizes1 were evenly distributed1 as in the diffuse-porous woods4 ,the term grain also refers to the regularity of the wood structure4 ,an ideal tree would be composed of a succession of regular cones1 but few trees are truly circular in cross-section and even in those that are circular1 the pith is rarely in the center1 showing that one side of the tree1 usually the south side1 is better nourished than the other1 ,fig4 #ad1 p4 #bc4 ,the normal direction of the fibers of wood is parallel to the axis of the stem in which they grow4 ,such wood is called straight-grained1 ,fig4 #bb1 but there are many deviations from this rule4 ,whenever the grain of the wood in a board is1 in whole or in part1 oblique to the sides of the board1 it is called cross-grained4 ,an illustration of this is a bend in the fibers1 due to a bend in the whole tree or to the presence of a neighboring knot4 ,this bend makes the board more difficult to plane4 ,in many cases1 probably in more cases than not1 the wood fibers twist around the tree4 7,see some of the logs in ,fig4 #ajg1 p4 #bed47 ,this produces spiral or twisted grain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,straight ,grained ,long-leaf ,pine 7full size74 ,often1 as in mahogany and sweet gum1 the fibers of several layers twist first in one direction and then those of the next few layers twist the other way1 ,fig4 #bd4 ,such wood is peculiarly cross-grained1 and is of course hard to plane smooth4 ,but when a piece is smoothly finished the changing reflection of light from the surface gives a beautiful appearance1 which can be enhanced by staining and polishing4 ,it constitutes the characteristic grain of striped mahogany1 ,fig4 #bc4 ,it is rarely found in the inner part of the tree4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,mahogany1 ,showing ,alternately ,twisted ,grain 7full size74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,spiral ,grain in ,cypress4 ,after ,roth4 ,sometimes the grain of wood is cross1 because it is wavy either in a radial or a tangential section1 as in maple1 ,fig4 #be1 and ,fig4 #bf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,planed ,surface of ,wavy-,grained ,maple 7full size74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,split ,surface of ,wavy-,grained ,maple 7full size74 ,curly grain refers to the figure of circlets and islets and contours1 often of great beauty1 caused by cutting a flat surface in crooked-grained wood4 ,see ,fig4 #bg1 curly long-leaf pine1 and ,fig4 #bh1 yellow poplar4 ,when such crookedness is fine and the fibers are contorted and1 as it were1 crowded out of place1 as is common in and near the roots of trees1 the effect is called burl1 ,fig4 #bi4 ,the term burl is also used to designate knots and knobs on tree trunks1 ,fig4 #ca4 ,burl is used chiefly in veneers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,curly ,grained ,long-leaf ,pine 7full size74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,curly ,yellow ,poplar 7full size74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,redwood ,burl 7full size74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,bird's-eye ,maple 7full size47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,burl on ,white ,oak4 ,irregularity of grain is often caused by the presence of adventitious and dormant buds1 which may be plainly seen as little knobs on the surface of some trees under the bark4 ,in most trees1 these irregularities are soon buried and smoothed over by the successive annual layers of wood1 but in some woods there is a tendency to preserve the irregularities4 ,on slash 7tangent7 boards of such wood1 a great number of little circlets appear1 giving a beautiful grain1 as in ,bird's-eye maple1 ,fig4 #cj4 ,these markings are found to predominate in the inner part of the tree4 ,this is not at all a distinct variety of maple1 as is sometimes supposed1 but the common variety1 in which the phenomenon frequently appears4 ,logs of great value1 having bird's-eyes1 have often unsuspectingly been chopped up for fire wood4 ,the term grain may also mean the figure formed by the presence of pith rays1 as in oak1 ,fig4 #cb1 or beech1 or the word grain may refer simply to the uneven deposit of coloring matter as is common in sweet gum1 ,fig4 #cc1 black ash1 or ,circassian walnut4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,figure ,formed by ,pith ,rays in ,oak 7full size74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,sweet ,gum1 ,showing ,uneven ,deposit of ,coloring ,matter 7full size47 ,the presence of a limb constitutes a knot and makes great irregularity in the grain of wood1 ,fig4 #cd4 ,in the first place1 the fibers on the upper and lower sides of the limb behave differently1 those on the lower side running uninterruptedly from the stem into the limb1 while on the upper side the fibers bend aside making an imperfect connection4 ,consequently to split a knot it is always necessary to start the split from the lower side4 ,on the other hand it is easier to split around a knot than thru it4 ,the texture as well as the grain of wood is modified by the presence of a branch4 ,the wood in and around a knot is much harder than the main body of the trunk on account of the crowding together of the elements4 ,knots are the remnants of branches left in the trunk4 ,these once had all the parts of the trunk itself1 namely bark1 cambium1 wood1 and pith4 ,normally1 branches grow from the pith1 tho some trees1 as ,jack pine and redwood1 among the conifers1 and most of the broad-leaf trees have the power of putting out at any time adventitious buds which may develop into branches4 ,when a branch dies1 the annual layer of wood no longer grows upon it1 but the successive layers of wood on the trunk itself close tighter and tighter around it1 until it is broken off4 ,then1 unless it has begun to decay1 it is successively overgrown by annual layers1 so that no sign of it appears until the trunk is cut open4 ,a large trunk perfectly clean of branches on the outside may have many knots around its center1 remnants of branches which grew there in its youth1 as in ,fig4 #cd1 and ,fig4 #h1 p4 #ah4 ,the general effect of the presence of a knot is1 that the fibers that grow around and over it are bent1 and this1 of course1 produces crooked grain4 ,following are the designations given to different knots by lumbermen3 ,a sound knot is one which is solid across its face and is as hard as the wood surrounding it and fixed in position4 ,a pin knot is sound1 but not over #a_/d in diameter4 ,a standard knot is sound1 but not over #a-a_/b in diameter4 ,a large knot is sound1 and over #a-a_/b in diameter4 ,a spike knot is one sawn in a lengthwise position4 ,a dead1 or1 loose knot is one not firmly held in place by growth or position4 7#d7 ,pith4 ,at the center or axis of the tree is the pith or medulla1 ,fig4 #cd4 ,in every bud1 that is1 at the apex of every stem and branch1 the pith is the growing part2 but as the stem lengthens and becomes overgrown by successive layers of wood the pith loses its vital function4 ,it does not grow with the plant except at the buds4 ,it varies in thickness1 being very small1--hardly more than #a_/af1 in cedar and larch1--and so small in oak as to be hardly discernible2 and what there is of it turns hard and dark4 ,in herbs and shoots it is relatively large1 ,fig4 #e1 p4 #ae1 in a three-year old shoot of elder1 for example1 being as wide as the wood4 ,in elder1 moreover1 it dies early and pulverizes1 leaving the stem hollow4 ,its function is one of only temporary value to the plant4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,section ,thru the ,trunk of a ,seven ,year ,old ,tree1 ,showing ,relation of ,branches to ,main ,stem4 ,a1 ,b1 two branches which were killed after a few years' growth by shading1 and which have been overgrown by the annual rings of wood2 ,c1 a limb which lived four years1 then died and broke off near the stem1 leaving the part to the left of ,,xy a sound knot1 and the part to the right a dead knot1 which unless rotting sets in1 would in time be entirely covered by the growing trunk2 ,d1 a branch that has remained alive and has increased in size like the main stem2 ,p1 ,p1 pith of both stem and limb4 ,,the ,,structure ,,of ,,wood4 ,,references3,a ,roth1 ,forest ,bull4 ,no4 #aj1 pp4 #aa-bc4 ,boulger1 pp4 #a-ci4 ,sickles1 pp4 #aa-bj4 ,pinchot1 ,forest ,bull4 ,no4 #bd1 ,i1 pp4 #aa-bd4 ,keeler1 pp4 #ead-eag4 ,curtis1 pp4 #fb-he4 ,woodcraft1 #ae3 #c1 p4 #ij4 ,bitting1 ,wood ,craft1 #e3 #gf1 #ajf1 #add1 #agb1 7,june-,sept4 #aijf74 ,ward1 pp4 #a-ch4 ,encyc4 ,brit41 #aath ,ed41 ,plants1 p4 #gda4 ,strasburger1 pp4 #abj-add and ,part ,,ii1 ,sec4 ,,ii4 ,snow1 pp4 #g-i1 #ahc4 ,footnote ,a3 ,for general bibliography1 see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,properties ,,of ,,wood4 ,there are many properties of wood1--some predominant in one species1 some in another1--that make it suitable for a great variety of uses4 ,sometimes it is a combination of properties that gives value to a wood4 ,among these properties are hygroscopicity1 shrinkage1 weight1 strength1 cleavability1 elasticity1 hardness1 and toughness4 ,,the ,,hygroscopicity#a ,,of ,,wood4 ,it is evident that water plays a large part in the economy of the tree4 ,it occurs in wood in three different ways3 ,in the sap which fills or partly fills the cavities of the wood cells1 in the cell walls which it saturates1 and in the live protoplasm1 of which it constitutes #ij per cent4 ,the younger the wood1 the more water it contains1 hence the sap-wood contains much more than the heart-wood1 at times even twice as much4 ,in fresh sap-wood1 #fj per cent4 of the water is in the cell cavities1 #ce per cent4 in the cell walls1 and only #e per cent4 in the protoplasm4 ,there is so much water in green wood that a sappy pole will soon sink when set afloat4 ,the reason why there is much less water in heart-wood is because its cells are dead and inactive1 and hence without sap and without protoplasm4 ,there is only what saturates the cell walls4 ,even so1 there is considerable water in heart-wood4#b ,the lighter kinds have the most water in the sap-wood1 thus sycamore has more than hickory4 ,curiously enough1 a tree contains about as much water in winter as in summer4 ,the water is held there1 it is supposed1 by capillary attraction1 since the cells are inactive1 so that at all times the water in wood keeps the cell walls distended4 ,,the ,,shrinkage ,,of ,,wood4 ,when a tree is cut down1 its water at once begins to evaporate4 ,this process is called seasoning4,a ,in drying1 the free water within the cells keeps the cell walls saturated2 but when all the free water has been removed1 the cell walls begin to yield up their moisture4 ,water will not flow out of wood unless it is forced out by heat1 as when green wood is put on a fire4 ,ordinarily it evaporates slowly4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,handwork in ,wood1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,the water evaporates faster from some kinds of wood than from other kinds1 e4g41 from white pine than from oak1 from small pieces than from large1 and from end grain than from a longitudinal section2 and it also evaporates faster in high than in low temperatures4 ,evaporation affects wood in three respects1 weight1 strength1 and size4 ,the weight is reduced1 the strength is increased1 and shrinkage takes place4 ,the reduction in weight and increase in strength1 important as they are1 are of less importance than the shrinkage1 which often involves warping and other distortions4 ,the water in wood affects its size by keeping the cell walls distended4 ,if all the cells of a piece of wood were the same size1 and had walls the same thickness1 and all ran in the same direction1 then the shrinkage would be uniform4 ,but1 as we have seen1 the structure of wood is not homogeneous4 ,some cellular elements are large1 some small1 some have thick walls1 some thin walls1 some run longitudinally and some 7the pith rays7 run radially4 ,the effects will be various in differently shaped pieces of wood but they can easily be accounted for if one bears in mind these three facts3 7#a7 that the shrinkage is in the cell wall1 and therefore 7#b7 that the thick-walled cells shrink more than thin-walled cells and 7#c7 that the cells do not shrink much1 if any1 lengthwise4 7#a7 ,the shrinkage of wood takes place in the walls of the cells that compose it1 that is1 the cell walls become thinner1 as indicated by the dotted lines in ,fig4 #ce1 which is a cross-section of a single cell4 ,the diameter of the whole cell becomes less1 and the opening1 or lumen1 of the cell becomes larger4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,how ,cell ,walls ,shrink4 7#b7 ,thick-walled cells shrink more than thin-walled cells1 that is1 summer cells more than spring cells4 ,this is due to the fact that they contain more shrinkable substance4 ,the thicker the wall1 the more the shrinkage4 ,consider the effects of these changes2 ordinarily a log when drying begins to check at the end4 ,this is to be explained thus3 ,inasmuch as evaporation takes place faster from a cross than from a longitudinal section1 because at the cross-section all the cells are cut open1 it is to be expected that the end of a piece of timber1 ,fig4 #cf1 ,a1 will shrink first4 ,this would tend to make the end fibers bend toward the center of the piece as in ,b1 ,fig4 #cf4 ,but the fibers are stiff and resist this bending with the result that the end splits or checks as in ,c1 ,fig4 #cf4 ,but later1 as the rest of the timber dries out and shrinks1 it becomes of equal thickness again and the checks tend to close4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,the ,shrinkage and ,checking at the ,end of a ,beam4 7#c7 ,for some reason1 which has not been discovered1 the cells or fibers of wood do not shrink in length to any appreciable extent4 ,this is as true of the cells of pith rays1 which run radially in the log1 as of the ordinary cells1 which run longitudinally in it4 ,in addition to checking at the end1 logs ordinarily show the effect of shrinkage by splitting open radially1 as in ,fig4 #cg4 ,this is to be explained by two factors1 7#a7 the disposition of the pith 7or medullary7 rays1 and 7#b7 the arrangement of the wood in annual rings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,the ,shrinkage and ,splitting of a ,log4 7#a7 ,the cells of the pith rays1 as we have seen in ,chapter ,i1 run at right angles to the direction of the mass of wood fibers1 and since they shrink according to the same laws that other cells do1 viz41 by the cell wall becoming thinner but not shorter1 the strain of their shrinkage is contrary to that of the main cells4 ,the pith rays1 which consist of a number of cells one above the other1 tend to shrink parallel to the length of the wood1 and whatever little longitudinal shrinkage there is in a board is probably due mostly to the shrinkage of the pith rays4 ,but because the cells of pith rays do not appreciably shrink in their length1 this fact tends to prevent the main body of wood from shrinking radially1 and the result is that wood shrinks less radially than tangentially4 ,tangentially is the only way left for it to shrink4 ,the pith rays may be compared to the ribs of a folding fan1 which keep the radius of unaltered length while permitting comparative freedom for circumferential contraction4 7#b7 ,it is evident that since summer wood shrinks more than spring wood1 this fact will interfere with the even shrinkage of the log4 ,consider first the tangential shrinkage4 ,if a section of a single annual ring of green wood of the shape ,a ,b ,c ,d1 in ,fig4 #ch1 is dried and the mass shrinks according to the thickness of the cell walls1 it will assume the shape ,a' ,b' ,c' ,d'4 ,when a number of rings together shrink1 the tangential shrinkage of the summer wood tends to contract the adjoining rings of spring wood more than they would naturally shrink of themselves4 ,since there is more of the summer-wood substance1 the spring-wood must yield1 and the log shrinks circumferentially4 ,the radial shrinkage of the summer-wood1 however1 is constantly interrupted by the alternate rows of spring-wood1 so that there would not be so much radial as circumferential shrinkage4 ,as a matter of fact1 the tangential or circumferential shrinkage is twice as great as the radial shrinkage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,diagram to ,show the ,greater ,shrinkage of ,summer ,cells1 ,a1 ,b1 than of ,spring ,cells1 ,c1 ,d4 ,putting these two factors together1 namely1 the lengthwise resistance of the pith rays to the radial shrinkage of the mass of other fibers1 and second1 the continuous bands of summer wood1 comparatively free to shrink circumferentially1 and the inevitable happens2 the log splits4 ,if the bark is left on and evaporation hindered1 the splits will not open so wide4 ,there is still another effect of shrinkage4 ,if1 immediately after felling1 a log is sawn in two lengthwise1 the radial splitting may be largely avoided1 but the flat sides will tend to become convex1 as in ,fig4 #ci4 ,this is explained by the fact that circumferential shrinkage is greater than radial shrinkage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,shrinkage of a ,halved ,log4 ,if a log is quartered1,a the quarters split still less1 as the inevitable shrinkage takes place more easily4 ,the quarters then tend to assume the shape shown in ,fig4 #dj1 ,c4 ,if a log is sawed into timber1 it checks from the center of the faces toward the pith1 ,fig4 #dj1 ,d4 ,sometimes the whole amount of shrinkage may be collected in one large split4 ,when a log is slash-sawed1 ,fig4 #dj1 ,i1 each board tends to warp so that the concave side is away from the center of the tree4 ,if one plank includes the pith1 ,fig4 #dj1 ,e and ,h1 that board will become thinner at its edges than at its center1 i4e41 convex on both faces4 ,other forms assumed by wood in shrinking are shown in ,fig4 #dj4 ,in the cases ,a-,f the explanation is the same2 the circumferential shrinkage is more than the radial4 ,in ,j and ,k the shapes are accounted for by the fact that wood shrinks very little longitudinally4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,handwork in ,wood1 p4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,shapes ,assumed by ,wood in ,shrinking4 ,warping is uneven shrinkage1 one side of the board contracting more than the other4 ,whenever a slash board warps under ordinary conditions1 the convex side is the one which was toward the center of the tree4 ,however1 a board may be made to warp artificially the other way by applying heat to the side of the board toward the center of the tree1 and by keeping the other side moist4 ,the board will warp only sidewise2 lengthwise it remains straight unless the treatment is very severe4 ,this shows again that water distends the cells laterally but not longitudinally4 ,the thinning of the cell walls due to evaporation1 is thus seen to have three results1 all included in the term working1 viz43 shrinkage1 a diminution in size1 splitting1 due to the inability of parts to cohere under the strains to which they are subjected1 and warping1 or uneven shrinkage4 ,in order to neutralize warping as much as possible in broad board structures1 it is common to joint the board with the annual rings of each alternate board curving in opposite directions1 as shown in ,handwork in ,wood1 ,fig4 #bhj1 a1 p4 #ahh4 ,under warping is included bowing4 ,bowing1 that is1 bending in the form of a bow1 is1 so to speak1 longitudinal warping4 ,it is largely due to crookedness or irregularity of grain1 and is likely to occur in boards with large pith rays1 as oak and sycamore4 ,but even a straight-grained piece of wood1 left standing on end or subjected to heat on one side and dampness on the other1 will bow1 as1 for instance a board lying on the damp ground and in the sun4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 a1 ,star ,shakes2 b1 ,heart ,shakes2 c1 ,cup ,shakes or ,ring ,shakes2 d1 ,honeycombing4 ,splitting takes various names1 according to its form in the tree4 ,check is a term used for all sorts of cracks1 and more particularly for a longitudinal crack in timber4 ,shakes are splits of various forms as3 star shakes1 ,fig4 #da1 a1 splits which radiate from the pith along the pith rays and widen outward2 heart shakes1 ,fig4 #da1 b1 splits crossing the central rings and widening toward the center2 and cup or ring shakes1 ,fig4 #da1 c1 splits between the annual rings4 ,honeycombing1 ,fig4 #da1 d1 is splitting along the pith rays and is due largely to case hardening4 ,these are not all due to shrinkage in drying1 but may occur in the growing tree from various harmful causes4 ,see p4 #bcb4 ,wood that has once been dried may again be swelled to nearly if not fully its original size1 by being soaked in water or subjected to wet steam4 ,this fact is taken advantage of in wetting wooden wedges to split some kinds of soft stone4 ,the processes of shrinking and swelling can be repeated indefinitely1 and no temperature short of burning1 completely prevents wood from shrinking and swelling4 ,rapid drying of wood tends to case harden it1 i4e41 to dry and shrink the outer part before the inside has had a chance to do the same4 ,this results in checking separately both the outside and the inside1 hence special precautions need to be taken in the seasoning of wood to prevent this4 ,when wood is once thoroly bent out of shape in shrinking1 it is very difficult to straighten it again4 ,woods vary considerably in the amounts of their shrinkage4 ,the conifers with their regular structure shrink less and shrink more evenly than the broad-leaved woods4#c ,wood1 even after it has been well seasoned1 is subject to frequent changes in volume due to the varying amount of moisture in the atmosphere4 ,this involves constant care in handling it and wisdom in its use4 ,these matters are considered in ,handwork in ,wood1 ,chapter ,,iii1 on the ,seasoning of ,wood4 ,,the ,,weight ,,of ,,wood4 ,wood substance itself is heavier than water1 as can readily be proved by immersing a very thin cross-section of pine in water4 ,since the cells are cut across1 the water readily enters the cavities1 and the wood being heavier than the water1 sinks4 ,in fact1 it is the air enclosed in the cell cavities that ordinarily keeps wood afloat1 just as it does a corked empty bottle1 altho glass is heavier than water4 ,a longitudinal shaving of pine will float longer than a cross shaving for the simple reason that it takes longer for the water to penetrate the cells1 and a good sized white pine log would be years in getting water-soaked enough to sink4 ,as long as a majority of the cells are filled with air it would float4 ,in any given piece of wood1 then1 the weight is determined by two factors1 the amount of wood substance and the amount of water contained therein4 ,the amount of wood substance is constant1 but the amount of water contained is variable1 and hence the weight varies accordingly4 ,moreover1 considering the wood substance alone1 the weight of wood substance of different kinds of wood is about the same2 namely1 #a4f times as heavy as water1 whether it is oak or pine1 ebony or poplar4 ,the reason why a given bulk of some woods is lighter than an equal bulk of others1 is because there are more thin-walled and air-filled cells in the light woods4 ,many hard woods1 as lignum vitae1 are so heavy that they will not float at all4 ,this is because the wall of the wood cells is very thick1 and the lumina are small4 ,in order1 then1 to find out the comparative weights of different woods1 that is1 to see how much wood substance there is in a given volume of any wood1 it is necessary to test absolutely dry specimens4 ,the weight of wood is indicated either as the weight per cubic foot or as specific gravity4 ,it is an interesting fact that different parts of the same tree have different weights1 the wood at the base of the tree weighing more than that higher up1 and the wood midway between the pith and bark weighing more than either the center or the outside4#d ,the weight of wood has a very important bearing upon its use4 ,a mallet-head1 for example1 needs weight in a small volume1 but it must also be tough to resist shocks1 and elastic so as to impart its momentum gradually and not all at once1 as an iron head does4 ,weight is important1 too1 in objects of wood that are movable4 ,the lighter the wood the better1 if it is strong enough4 ,that is why spruce is valuable for ladders2 it is both light and strong4 ,chestnut would be a valuable wood for furniture if it were not weak1 especially in the spring wood4 ,the weight of wood is one measure of its strength4 ,heavy wood is stronger than light wood of the same kind1 for the simple reason that weight and strength are dependent upon the number and compactness of the fibers4#e ,,the ,,strength ,,of ,,wood4 ,strength is a factor of prime importance in wood4 ,by strength is meant the ability to resist stresses1 either of tension 7pulling71 or of compression 7pushing71 or both together1 cross stresses4 ,when a horizontal timber is subjected to a downward cross stress1 the lower half is under tension1 the upper half is under compression and the line between is called the neutral axis1 ,fig4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,a ,timber ,under ,cross ,stress1 ,showing ,neutral ,axis1 and the ,lines of ,tension and ,compression4 ,a knot occurring in such a timber should be in the upper half1 as at ,a4 ,wood is much stronger than is commonly supposed4 ,a hickory bar will stand more strain under tension than a wrought iron bar of the same length and weight1 and a block of long-leaf pine a greater compression endwise than a block of wrought iron of the same height and weight4 ,it approaches the strength of cast iron under the same conditions4 ,strength depends on two factors3 the strength of the individual fibers1 and the adhesive power of the fibers to each other4 ,so1 when a piece of wood is pulled apart1 some of the fibers break and some are pulled out from among their neighbors4 ,under compression1 however1 the fibers seem to act quite independently of each other1 each bending over like the strands of a rope when the ends are pushed together4 ,as a consequence1 we find that wood is far stronger under tension than under compression1 varying from two to four times4 ,woods do not vary nearly so much under compression as under tension1 the straight-grained conifers1 like larch and longleaf pine1 being nearly as strong under compression as the hard woods1 like hickory and elm1 which have entangled fibers1 whereas the hard woods are nearly twice as strong as the conifers under tension4 ,moisture has more effect on the strength of wood than any other extrinsic condition4 ,in sound wood under ordinary conditions1 it outweighs all other causes which affect strength4 ,when thoroly seasoned1 wood is two or three times stronger1 both under compression and in bending1 than when green or water soaked4#f ,the tension or pulling strength of wood is much affected by the direction of the grain1 a cross-grained piece being only #a_/ajth to #a_/bjth as strong as a straight-grained piece4 ,but under compression there is not much difference2 so that if a timber is to be subjected to cross strain1 that is the lower half under tension and the upper half under compression1 a knot or other cross-grained portion should be in the upper half4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,shearing ,strength is ,measured by the ,adhesion of the ,portion ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d or to the ,wood on both sides of it4 ,strength also includes the ability to resist shear4 ,this is called shearing strength4 ,it is a measure of the adhesion of one part of the wood to an adjoining part4 ,shearing is what takes place when the portion of wood beyond a mortise near the end of a timber1 ,a ,b ,c ,d1 ,fig4 #dc1 is forced out by the tenon4 ,in this case it would be shearing along the grain1 sometimes called detrusion4 ,the resistance of the portion ,a ,b ,c ,d1 i4e41 its power of adhesion to the wood adjacent to it on both sides1 is its shearing strength4 ,if the mortised piece were forced downward until it broke off the tenon at the shoulder1 that would be shearing across the grain4 ,the shearing resistance either with or across the grain is small compared with tension and compression4 ,green wood shears much more easily than dry1 because moisture softens the wood and this reduces the adhesion of the fibers to each other4#g ,,cleavability ,,of ,,wood4 ,closely connected with shearing strength is cohesion1 a property usually considered under the name of its opposite1 cleavability1 i4e41 the ease of splitting4 ,when an ax is stuck into the end of a piece of wood1 the wood splits in advance of the ax edge4 ,see ,handwork in ,wood1 ,fig4 #ei1 p4 #eb4 ,the wood is not cut but pulled across the grain just as truly as if one edge were held and a weight were attached to the other edge and it were torn apart by tension4 ,the length of the cleft ahead of the blade is determined by the elasticity of the wood4 ,the longer the cleft1 the easier to split4 ,elasticity helps splitting1 and shearing strength and hardness hinder it4 ,a normal piece of wood splits easily along two surfaces1 7#a7 along any radial plane1 principally because of the presence of the pith rays1 and1 in regular grained wood like pine1 because the cells are radially regular2 and 7#b7 along the annual rings1 because the spring-wood separates easily from the next ring of summer-wood4 ,of the two1 radial cleavage is #ej to #ajj per cent4 easier4 ,straight-grained wood is much easier to split than cross-grained wood in which the fibers are interlaced1 and soft wood1 provided it is elastic1 splits easier than hard4 ,woods with sharp contrast between spring and summer wood1 like yellow pine and chestnut1 split very easily tangentially4 ,all these facts are important in relation to the use of nails4 ,for instance1 the reason why yellow pine is hard to nail and bass easy is because of their difference in cleavability4 ,,elasticity ,,of ,,wood4 ,elasticity is the ability of a substance when forced out of shape1--bent1 twisted1 compressed or stretched1 to regain its former shape4 ,when the elasticity of wood is spoken of1 its ability to spring back from bending is usually meant4 ,the opposite of elasticity is brittleness4 ,hickory is elastic1 white pine is brittle4 ,stiffness is the ability to resist bending1 and hence is the opposite of pliability or flexibility4 ,a wood may be both stiff and elastic2 it may be even stiff and pliable1 as ash1 which may be made into splints for baskets and may also be used for oars4 ,willow sprouts are flexible when green1 but quite brittle when dry4 ,elasticity is of great importance in some uses of wood1 as in long tool handles used in agricultural implements1 such as rakes1 hoes1 scythes1 and in axes1 in archery bows1 in golf sticks1 etc41 in all of which1 hickory1 our most elastic wood1 is used4#h ,,hardness ,,of ,,wood4 ,hardness is the ability of wood to resist indentations1 and depends primarily upon the thickness of the cell walls and the smallness of the cell cavities1 or1 in general1 upon the density of the wood structure4 ,summer wood1 as we have seen1 is much harder than spring wood1 hence it is important in using such wood as yellow pine on floors to use comb-grain boards1 so as to present the softer spring wood in as narrow surfaces as possible4 ,see ,handwork in ,wood1 p4 #da1 and ,fig4 #ee4 ,in slash-grain boards1 broad surfaces of both spring and summer wood appear4 ,maple which is uniformly hard makes the best floors1 even better than oak1 parts of which are comparatively soft4 ,the hardness of wood is of much consequence in gluing pieces together4 ,soft woods1 like pine1 can be glued easily1 because the fibers can be forced close together4 ,as a matter of fact1 the joint when dry is stronger than the rest of the board4 ,in gluing hard woods1 however1 it is necessary to scratch the surfaces to be glued in order to insure a strong joint4 ,it is for the same reason that a joint made with liquid glue is safe on soft wood when it would be weak on hard wood4#i ,,toughness ,,of ,,wood4 ,toughness may be defined as the ability to resist sudden shocks and blows4 ,this requires a combination of various qualities1 strength1 hardness1 elasticity and pliability4 ,the tough woods1 par excellence1 are hickory1 rock elm and ash4 ,they can be pounded1 pulled1 compressed and sheared4 ,it is because of this quality that hickory is used for wheel spokes and for handles1 elm for hubs1 etc4 ,in the selection of wood for particular purposes1 it is sometimes one1 sometimes another1 and more often still1 a combination of qualities that makes it fit for use4#aj ,it will be remembered that it was knowledge of the special values of different woods that made the one horse shay1 ,the ,deacon's ,masterpiece4 ,so the ,deacon inquired of the village folk ,where he could find the strongest oak1 ,that couldn't be split nor bent nor broke1-- ,that was for spokes and floor and sills2 ,he sent for lancewood to make the thills2 ,the cross bars were ash1 from the straightest trees1 ,the panels of whitewood1 that cuts like cheese1 ,but lasts like iron for things like these4 ,the hubs of logs from the ,settler's ,ellum1-- ,last of its timber1--they couldn't sell 'em4 ,never an ax had seen their chips1 ,and the wedges flew from between their lips1 ,their blunt ends frizzled like celery tips2 ,step and prop-iron1 bolt and screw1 ,spring1 tire1 axle and linch pin too1 ,steel of the finest1 bright and blue2 ,thorough brace1 bison skin1 thick and wide2 ,boot1 top dasher from tough old hide1 ,found in the pit when the tanner died4 ,that was the way to put her through4 ',there6' said the ,deacon1 'naow she'll dew6' ,footnote #a3 ,hygroscopicity1 the property possessed by vegetable tissues of absorbing or discharging moisture and expanding or shrinking accordingly4--,century ,dictionary4 ,footnote #b3 ,this is shown by the following table1 from ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #aj1 p4 #ca1 ,timber1 by ,filibert ,roth3 ,,pounds ,,of ,,water ,,lost ,,in ,,drying #ajj ,,pounds ,,of ,,green ,,wood ,,in ,,the ,,kiln4 ,sap-wood or ,heart-wood outer part4 or interior4 #a4 ,pines1 cedars1 spruces1 and firs #de-fe #af-be #b4 ,cypress1 extremely variable #ej-fe #ah-fj #c4 ,poplar1 cottonwood1 basswood #fj-fe #dj-fj #d4 ,oak1 beech1 ash1 elm1 maple1 birch1 hickory1 chestnut1 walnut1 and sycamore #dj-ej #cj-dj ,footnote #c3 ,the following table from ,roth1 p4 #cg1 gives the approximate shrinkage of a board1 or set of boards1 #ajj inches wide1 drying in the open air3 ,shrinkage ,inches4 #a4 ,all light conifers 7soft pine1 spruce1 cedar1 cypress7 #c #b4 ,heavy conifers 7hard pine1 tamarack1 yew1 honey locust1 box elder1 wood of old oaks7 #d #c4 ,ash1 elm1 walnut1 poplar1 maple1 beech1 sycamore1 cherry1 black locust #e #d4 ,basswood1 birch1 chestnut1 horse chestnut1 blue beech1 young locust #f #e4 ,hickory1 young oak1 especially red oak ,up to #aj ,the figures are the average of radial and tangential shrinkages4 ,footnote #d3 ,how much different woods vary may be seen by the following table1 taken from ,filibert ,roth1 ,timber1 ,forest ,service ,bulletin ,no4 #aj1 p4 #bh3 ,,weight ,,of ,,kiln-,,dried ,,wood ,,of ,,different ,,species4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,approximate4 -------------------------------- ,weight of -------------------- ,specific #a cubic #a1jjj feet weight4 foot4 of lumber4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,pounds ,pounds 7a7 ,very heavy woods3 ,hickory1 oak1 persimmon1 osage1 orange1 black locust1 hackberry1 blue beech1 best of elm1 and ash #j4gj-j4hj #db-dh #c1gjj 7b7 ,heavy woods3 ,ash1 elm1 cherry1 birch1 maple1 beech1 walnut1 sour gum1 coffee tree1 honey locust1 best of southern pine1 and tamarack 4#fj-4gj #cf-db #c1bjj 7c7 ,woods of medium weight3 ,southern pine1 pitch pine1 tamarack1 ,douglas spruce1 western hemlock1 sweet gum1 soft maple1 sycamore1 light sassafras1 mulberry1 grades of birch and cherry 4#ej-4fj #cj-cf #b1gjj 7d7 ,light woods3 ,norway and bull pine1 red cedar1 cypress1 hemlock1 the heavier spruce and fir1 redwood1 basswood1 chestnut1 butternut1 tulip1 catalpa1 buckeye1 heavier grades of poplar 4#dj-4ej #bd-cj #b1bjj 7e7 ,very light woods3 ,white pine1 spruce1 fir1 white cedar1 poplar 4#cj-4dj #ah-bd #a1hjj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,footnote #e3 ,for table of weights of different woods see ,sargent1 ,jesup ,collection1 pp4 #aec-aeg4 ,footnote #f3 ,see ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #gj1 pp4 #aa1 #ab1 and ,forestry ,circular ,no4 #ajh4 ,footnote #g3 ,for table of strengths of different woods1 see ,sargent1 ,jesup ,collection1 pp4 #aff ff4 ,footnote #h3 ,for table of elasticity of different woods1 see ,sargent1 ,jesup ,collection1 pp4 #afc ff4 ,footnote #i3 ,for table of hardnesses of different woods1 see ,sargent1 ,jesup ,collection1 pp4 #agc ff4 ,footnote #aj3 ,for detailed characteristics of different woods see ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,properties ,,of ,,wood4 ,,references,a ,moisture and ,shrinkage4 ,roth1 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #aj1 pp4 #be-cg4 ,busbridge1 ,sci4 ,am4 ,sup4 ,no4 #aejj4 ,oct4 #a1 '#jd4 ,weight1 ,strength1 ,cleavability1 ,elasticity and ,toughness4 ,roth1 ,for4 ,bull41 #aj1 p4 #cg-ej4 ,boulger1 pp4 #hi-ajh1 #abi-adj4 ,roth1 ,first ,book1 pp4 #bbi-bcc4 ,sargent1 ,jesup ,collection1 pp4 #aec-agf4 ,forest ,circulars ,nos4 #ajh and #aci4 ,footnote ,a3 ,for general bibliography1 see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,principal ,,species ,,of ,,american ,,woods4 ,,notes4 ,the photographs of tangential and radial sections are life size4 ,the microphotographs are of cross-sections and are enlarged #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,following the precedent of ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,bulletin ,no4 #ag1 ,sudworth's ,check ,list of the ,forest ,trees of the ,united ,states1 the complicated rules for the capitalization of the names of species are abandoned and they are uniformly not capitalized4 ,on pages #aib-aie will be found lists of the woods described1 arranged in the order of their comparative weight1 strength1 elasticity1 and hardness4 ,these lists are based upon the figures in ,sargent's ,the ,jesup ,collection4 ,in the appendix1 p4 #bhi1 will be found a key for distinguishing the various kinds of wood4 ,information as to current wholesale prices in the principal markets of the country can be had from the ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 of ,agriculture1 ,the ,forest ,service1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,record of ,wholesale ,prices of ,lumber1 ,list ,a4 ,these lists are published periodically4 ,no attempt is made in this book to give prices because3 7#a7 only lists of wholesale prices are available2 7#b7 the cuts and grades differ considerably1 especially in soft woods 7conifers72 7#c7 prices are constantly varying2 7#d7 the prices differ much in different localities4 #a ,,white ,,pine1 ,,weymouth ,,pine4 ,named for ,lord ,weymouth1 who cultivated it in ,england4 ,pinus strobus ,linnaeus4 ,pinus1 the classical ,latin name2 strobus refers to the cone1 or strobile1 from a ,greek word1 strobus1 meaning twist4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 now best in ,michigan1 ,wisconsin and ,minnesota4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ajj'-abj'1 even #bjj'2 diameter1 #b'-d'2 branches in whorls1 cleans poorly2 bark1 dark gray1 divided by deep longitudinal fissures into broad ridges2 leaves in clusters of #e1 #c-e long2 cone drooping1 #d-aj long4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 heart-wood1 very light brown1 almost cream color1 sap-wood1 nearly white2 non-porous2 rings1 fine but distinct2 grain1 straight2 pith rays1 very faint2 resin ducts1 small1 inconspicuous4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 very light 7#eith in this list72 #bg lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4ched2 strength1 medium 7#eeth in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#dgth in this list72 soft 7#egth in this list72 shrinkage #c per cent42 warps very little2 durability1 moderate2 works easily in every way2 splits easily but nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,doors1 window sashes and other carpentry1 pattern-making1 cabinet-work1 matches4 ,,remarks3 ,this best of ,american woods is now rapidly becoming scarce and higher in price4 ,its uses are due to its uniform grain1 on account of which it is easily worked and stands well4 ,known in the ,english market as yellow pine4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #b ,,western ,,white ,,pine4 ,pinus monticola ,douglas4 ,pinus1 the classical ,latin name2 monticola means mountain-dweller4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 grows at great elevations1 #g1jjj'-aj1jjj'4 ,best in northern ,idaho4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ajj'-afj'2 diameter1 #d' to even #h'2 branches1 slender1 spreading2 bark1 gray and brown1 divided into squarish plates by deep longitudinal and cross fissures2 leaves1 #e in sheath2 cones1 #abx#ah long4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown or red1 sap-wood nearly white2 non-porous2 rings1 summer wood1 thin and not conspicuous2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 obscure2 resin ducts1 numerous and conspicuous tho not large4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 very light 7#ehth in this list72 #bd lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4cijh2 strength1 medium 7#efth in this list72 elastic 7#ceth in this list72 soft 7#fc;d in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps little2 moderately durable2 easy to work2 splits readily but nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,lumber for construction and interior finish4 ,,remarks3 ,closely resembles ,pinus ,strobus in appearance and quality of wood4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #c ,,sugar ,,pine4 ,sugar refers to sweetish exudation4 ,pinus lambertiana ,douglas4 ,pinus1 the classical ,latin name2 lambertiana1 from the botanist1 ,a4 ,b4 ,lambert1 whose chief work was on ,pines4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 grows on high elevations 7#e1jjj'71 best in northern ,california4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ajj'-cjj'2 diameter1 #ae-bj2 branches1 in remote regular whorls2 bark1 rich purple or brown1 thick1 deep irregular fissures making long1 flaky ridges2 leaves1 stout1 rigid1 in bundles of five2 cones1 #aj-ah long4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 pinkish brown1 sap-wood1 cream white2 non-porous2 rings1 distinct2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 obscure2 resin ducts1 numerous1 large and conspicuous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 very light 7#fast in this list72 #bb lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4cfhd2 strength1 weak 7#eith in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#efth in this list72 soft 7#ec;d in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps little2 durable2 easily worked2 splits little1 nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,carpentry1 interior finish1 doors1 blinds1 shingles1 barrels1 etc4 ,,remarks3 ,exudes a sweet substance from heart-wood4 ,a magnificent and important lumber tree on ,pacific coast4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #d ,,norway ,,pine4 ,,red ,,pine4 ,red refers to color of bark4 ,pinus resinosa ,solander4 ,pinus1 the classical ,latin name2 resinosa refers to very resinous wood4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 grows best in northern ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 and ,minnesota4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-ij'2 diameter1 #b'-c'2 tall1 straight2 branches in whorls1 low2 bark1 thin1 scaly1 purplish and reddish-brown2 longitudinal furrows1 broad flat ridges2 leaves1 in twos in long sheaths2 cones1 #b4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color of wood1 pale red1 sap-wood1 wide1 whitish2 non-porous2 rings summer wood broad1 dark2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 pronounced1 thin2 very resinous1 but ducts small and few4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 light1 7#dc;d in this list72 #ca lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4dhed2 strong 7#cith in this list72 elastic 7#afth in this list72 soft 7#dhth in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps moderately2 not durable2 easy to work2 splits readily1 nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,piles1 electric wire poles1 masts1 flooring4 ,,remarks3 ,often sold with and as white pine4 ,resembles ,scotch pine 7,pinus sylvestris74 ,bark used to some extent for tanning4 ,grows in open groves4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #e ,,western ,,yellow ,,pine4 ,,bull ,,pine4 ,bull refers to great size of trunk4 ,pinus ponderosa ,lawson4 ,pinus1 the classical ,latin name2 ponderosa refers to great size of trunk4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,rocky ,mountains4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ajj' to #cjj'2 diameter1 #f' to even #ab'2 branches1 low1 short trunk2 bark1 thick1 dark brown1 deep1 meandering furrows1 large1 irregular plates1 scaly2 leaves1 in twos or threes1 #e to #aa long2 cones #c to #f long4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light red1 sap-wood1 thick1 nearly white1 and very distinct2 non-porous2 rings1 conspicuous2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 obscure2 very resinous but ducts small4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 light 7#ddth in this list72 #be-cj lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4dgae2 strength1 medium 7#deth in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#dast in this list72 hardness1 medium 7#dbnd in this list72 shrinkage1 #d per cent42 warps 444444444442 not durable2 hard to work1 brittle2 splits easily in nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,lumber1 railway ties1 mine timbers4 ,,remarks3 ,forms extensive open forests4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #f ,,long-,,leaf ,,pine4 ,,georgia ,,pine4 ,pinus palustris ,miller4 ,pinus1 the classical ,latin name2 palustris means swampy1 inappropriate here4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,louisiana and ,east ,texas4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #hj'-ajj'2 diameter1 #b'-c'2 trunk1 straight1 clean1 branches high2 bark1 light brown1 large1 thin1 irregular papery scales2 leaves #h-ab long1 #c in a sheath2 cones #f-aj long4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,heart-wood1 spring wood light yellow1 summer wood1 red brown2 sap wood1 lighter2 non-porous2 rings1 very plain and strongly marked2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 conspicuous2 very resinous1 but resin ducts few and not large4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#ahth in this list72 #ch lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4fiii2 very strong 7#gth in this list72 very elastic 7#dth in this list72 hardness1 medium 7#cc;d in this list72 shrinkage1 #d per cent42 warps very little2 quite durable2 works hard1 tough2 splits badly in nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,joists1 beams1 bridge and building trusses1 interior finish1 ship building1 and general construction work4 ,,remarks3 ,almost exclusively the source of turpentine1 tar1 pitch and resin in the ,united ,states4 ,known in the ,english market as pitch pine4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #g ,,short-,,leaf ,,pine4 ,,yellow ,,pine4 ,pinus echinata ,miller4 ,pinus1 the classical ,latin name2 echinata refers to spiny cones4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in lower ,mississippi basin4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,straight1 tall trunk1 sometimes #ajj' high2 branches high2 diameter #b'-d'2 bark1 pale grayish red-brown1 fissures1 running helter-skelter1 making large irregular plates1 covered with small scales2 leaves in twos1 #c long2 cones small4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 heartwood1 summer wood1 red1 spring-wood1 yellow2 sap-wood1 lighter2 non-porous2 annual rings very plain1 sharp contrast between spring and summer wood2 grain1 straight1 coarse2 rays1 numerous1 conspicuous2 very resinous1 ducts large and many4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#cbnd in this list72 #cb lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4fajd2 very strong 7#ahth in this list72 very elastic 7#hth in this list72 soft 7#chth in this list72 shrinkage1 #d per cent42 warps little2 durable2 troublesome to work2 likely to split along annual rings in nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,heavy construction1 railroad ties1 house trim1 ship building1 cars1 docks1 bridges4 ,,remarks3 ,wood hardly distinguishable from long-leaf pine4 ,often forms pure forests4 ,the most desirable yellow pine1 much less resinous and more easily worked than others4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #h ,,loblolly ,,pine4 ,,old ,,field ,,pine4 ,loblolly may refer to the inferiority of the wood2 old field refers to habit of spontaneous growth on old fields4 ,pinus taeda ,linnaeus4 ,pinus1 the classical ,latin name2 taeda1 the classical ,latin name for pitch-pine1 which was used for torches4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 grows best in eastern ,virginia1 and eastern ,north ,carolina4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ajj'-aej'2 diameter1 often #d'-e'2 branches high2 bark1 purplish brown1 shallow1 meandering fissures1 broad1 flat1 scaly ridges2 leaves1 #c in sheath1 #d-g long2 cones #c-e long4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 heart-wood orange1 sap-wood lighter2 non-porous2 rings very plain1 sharp contrast between spring wood and summer wood2 grain1 straight1 coarse2 rays conspicuous2 very resinous1 but ducts few and small4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#cith in this list72 #cc lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4edda2 strong 7#bfth in this list72 elastic 7#agth in this list72 medium hard 7#dc;d in this list72 shrinkage1 #d per cent42 warps little2 not durable2 difficult to work1 brittle2 splits along rings in nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,heavy construction1 beams1 ship building1 docks1 bridges1 flooring1 house trim4 ,,remarks3 ,resembles ,long-leaf ,pine1 and often sold as such4 ,rarely makes pure forests4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #i ,,slash ,,pine4 ,,cuban ,,pine4 ,pinus caribaea ,morelet4 ,pinus heterophylla 7,ell47 ,sudworth4 ,pinus1 the classical ,latin name2 caribaea refers to the ,caribbean ,islands2 heterophylla refers to two kinds of leaves4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 grows best in ,alabama1 ,mississippi1 and ,louisiana4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 sometimes #aaj'1 straight1 tall1 branching high2 diameter #a'-c'2 bark1 dark red and brown1 shallow irregular fissures2 leaves1 #b or #c in a sheath1 #h-ab long2 cones1 #d-e long4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 dark orange1 sapwood lighter2 non-porous2 annual rings1 plain1 sharp contrast between spring wood and summer wood2 grain1 straight2 rays numerous1 rather prominent2 very resinous1 but ducts few4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#gth in this list72 #ci lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4gejd2 very strong 7#fth in this list72 very elastic 7#c;d in this list72 hard 7#bdth in this list72 shrinkage1 #d per cent42 warps little2 quite durable2 troublesome to work2 splits along annual rings in nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,heavy construction1 ship building1 railroad ties1 docks1 bridges1 house trim4 ,,remarks3 ,similar to and often sold as ,long-leaf ,pine4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #aj ,,tamarack4 ,,larch4 ,,hackmatack4 ,larix laricina 7,du ,roi7 ,koch4 ,larix americana ,michaux4 ,larix1 the classical ,latin name4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 prefers swamps1 ,tamarack swamps4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ej'-fj' and even #ij'1 diameter #a'-c'2 intolerant2 tall1 slender trunk2 bark1 cinnamon brown1 no ridges1 breaking into flakes2 leaves1 deciduous1 pea-green1 in tufts2 cone1 #a_/b-c_/d1 bright brown4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown1 sapwood hardly distinguishable2 non-porous2 rings1 summer wood1 thin but distinct1 dark colored2 grain1 straight1 coarse2 rays1 numerous1 hardly distinguishable2 very resinous1 but ducts few and small4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#bith in this list72 #ci lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4fbcf2 strong 7#bdth in this list72 elastic 7#aath in this list72 medium hard 7#djth in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps 4444444442 very durable2 easy to work2 splits easily4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,ship building1 electric wire poles1 and railroad ties2 used for boat ribs because of its naturally crooked knees2 slenderness prevents common use as lumber4 ,,remarks3 ,tree desolate looking in winter4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #aa ,,western ,,larch4 ,,tamarack4 ,larix occidentalis ,nuttall4 ,larix1 the classical ,latin name2 occidentalis means western4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in northern ,montana and ,idaho1 on high elevations4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ij'-acj'1 even #bej'2 diameter #f'-h'2 tall1 slender1 naked trunk1 with branches high2 bark1 cinnamon red or purplish1 often #ab thick1 breaking into irregular plates1 often #b' long2 leaves1 in tufts2 deciduous2 cones small4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light red1 thin1 whitish1 sap-wood2 non-porous2 grain1 straight1 fine2 rays numerous1 thin2 very resinous1 but ducts small and obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 heavy 7#aath in this list72 #df lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4gdjg2 very strong 7#c;d in this list72 very elastic 7#ast in this list72 medium hard 7#ceth in this list72 shrinkage1 #d per cent42 warps 44444444442 very durable2 rather hard to work1 takes fine polish2 splits with difficulty4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,posts1 railroad ties1 fencing1 cabinet material and fuel4 ,,remarks3 ,a valuable tree in the ,northwest4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ab ,,white ,,spruce4 ,picea canadensis 7,miller7 ,b4 ,s4 ,p4 ,picea alba ,link4 ,picea1 the classical ,latin name2 white and alba refers to the pale color of the leaves1 especially when young1 and to the whitish bark4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map74 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #fj'-ajj' and even #aej'2 diameter1 #a'-b' and even #d'2 long1 thick branches2 bark1 light grayish brown1 separating into thin plate-like scales1 rather smooth appearance1 resin from cuts forms white gum2 leaves1 set thickly on all sides of branch1 finer than red spruce1 odor disagreeable2 cones1 #b long1 cylindrical1 slender1 fall during second summer4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light yellow1 sap-wood1 hardly distinguishable2 non-porous2 rings1 wide1 summer wood thin1 not conspicuous2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 prominent2 resin ducts1 few and minute4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 light 7#east in this list72 #be lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4djea2 medium strong 7#db;d in this list72 elastic 7#bith in this list72 soft 7#ehth in this list72 shrinks #c per cent42 warps 444444442 fairly durable2 easy to work1 satiny surface2 splits readily4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,lumber and paper pulp2 7not distinguished from ,red and ,black ,spruce in market74 ,,remarks3 ,wood very resonant1 hence used for sounding boards4 ,the most important lumber tree of the sub-arctic forest of ,british ,columbia4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ac ,,red ,,spruce4,a ,picea rubens ,sargent4 ,picea1 the classical ,latin name for the pitch pine2 rubens refers to reddish bark1 and perhaps to the reddish streaks in the wood4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 stunted in north4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-hj'1 even #ajj'2 diameter1 #b'-c'1 grows slowly2 trunk1 straight1 columnar1 branches in whorls1 cleans well in forest2 bark1 reddish brown with thin irregular scales2 leaves1 needle-shaped1 four-sided1 pointing everywhere2 cones1 #a-a_/d-b long1 pendent1 fall during the first winter4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 dull white with occasional reddish streaks2 sap-wood not distinct2 non-porous2 rings1 summer rings thin1 but clearly defined2 grain1 straight2 rays1 faintly discernible2 resin ducts1 few and small4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 light 7#dgth in this list72 #bh lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4dehd2 medium strong 7#dast in this list72 elastic 7#bast in this list72 soft 7#edth in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps little2 not durable2 easy to plane1 tolerably easy to saw1 hard to chisel neatly2 splits easily in nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,sounding boards1 construction1 paper pulp1 ladders4 ,,remarks3 ,the exudations from this species are used as chewing gum4 ,bark of twigs is used in the domestic manufacture of beer4 ,the use of the wood for sounding boards is due to its resonance1 and for ladders to its strength and lightness4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 ,footnote ,a3 ,not distinguished in the ,jesup collection from ,picea nigra4 #ad ,,black ,,spruce4,a ,picea mariana 7,miller7 ,b4 ,s4 ,p4 ,picea nigra ,link4 ,picea1 the classical ,latin name for the pitch pine2 mariana named for ,queen ,mary2 black and nigra refer to dark foliage4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,canada4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ej'-hj' and even #ajj'2 diameter1 #f-a' even #b'2 branches1 whorled1 pendulous with upward curve2 bark1 gray1 loosely attached flakes2 leaves1 pale blue-green1 spirally set1 pointing in all directions2 cones1 small1 ovate-oblong1 persistent for many years4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 pale1 reddish1 sap-wood1 thin1 white1 not very distinct2 non-porous2 rings1 summer wood1 small thin cells2 grain1 straight2 rays1 few1 conspicuous2 resin ducts1 few and minute4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 light 7#dgth in this list72 #cc lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4dehd2 medium strong 7#dast in this list72 elastic 7#bast in this list72 soft 7#edth in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps little2 not durable2 easy to work2 splits easily in nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,sounding boards1 lumber in ,manitoba4 ,,remarks3 ,not distinguished from ,red ,spruce commercially4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 ,footnote ,a3 ,not distinguished in ,jesup ,collection from ,picea rubens4 #ae ,,white ,,spruce4 ,,engelmann',s ,,spruce4 ,picea engelmanni 7,parry7 ,engelmann4 ,named for ,george ,engelmann1 an ,american botanist4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 grows at very high elevations1 forming forest at #h1jjj'-aj1jjj'2 best in ,british ,columbia4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ge'-ajj'1 even #aej'2 diameter1 #b'-c'1 even #e'2 branches whorled1 spreading2 bark1 deeply furrowed1 red-brown to purplish brown1 thin1 large1 loose scales2 leaves1 blue-green1 point in all directions2 cones1 #b long1 oblong1 cylindrical4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 pale yellow or reddish1 sap-wood hardly distinguishable2 non-porous2 rings1 very fine1 summer wood1 narrow1 not conspicuous2 grain1 straight1 close2 rays1 numerous1 conspicuous2 resin ducts1 small and few4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 very light 7#egth in this list72 #bb lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4cddi2 weak 7#fast in this list72 elasticity medium 7#eeth in this list72 soft 7#efth in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps 4444444442 durable2 easy to work2 splits easily4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,lumber4 ,,remarks3 ,a valuable lumber tree in the ,rocky ,mountains and the ,cascades4 ,bark used for tanning4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #af ,,tideland ,,spruce4 ,,sitka ,,spruce4 ,picea sitchensis 7,bongard7 ,carriere4 ,picea1 the classical ,latin name for the pitch pine4 ,tideland refers to its habit of growth along the sea coast2 sitchensis1 named for ,sitka4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best on ,pacific slope of ,british ,columbia and northwestern ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ajj'-aej' and even #bjj' high2 diameter #c'-d' and even #ae'2 trunk base enlarged2 bark1 thick1 red-brown1 scaly2 leaves1 standing out in all directions2 cones1 #b-a_/b-d long1 pendent1 cylindrical1 oval4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown1 sap-wood whitish2 non-porous2 rings1 wide1 summer wood1 thin but very distinct1 spring wood1 not plain2 grain1 straight1 coarse2 rays1 numerous1 rather prominent2 resin ducts1 few and small4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 light 7#eb;d in this list72 #bg lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4dbhg2 medium strong 7#ec;d in this list72 elastic 7#cast in this list72 soft 7#eith in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps 444444444442 durable2 easy to work2 splits easily4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,interior finish1 boat building and cooperage4 ,,remarks3 ,largest of the spruces4 ,common in the coast belt forest4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ag ,,hemlock4 ,tsuga canadensis 7,linnaeus7 ,carriere4 ,tsuga1 the ,japanese name latinized2 canadensis named for ,canada4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,north ,carolina and ,tennessee4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #fj'-gj'1 sometimes #ajj'2 diameter1 #b'-c'2 branches1 persistent1 making trunk not very clean2 bark1 red-gray1 narrow1 rounded ridges1 deeply and irregularly fissured2 leaves1 spirally arranged1 but appear two-ranked2 cones1 #c_/d long1 graceful4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 reddish brown1 sap-wood just distinguishable2 non-porous2 rings1 rather broad1 conspicuous2 grain1 crooked2 rays1 numerous1 thin2 non-resinous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 light 7#ec;d in this list72 #bf lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4dbci2 medium strong 7#ddth in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#djth in this list72 soft 7#east in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps and checks badly2 not durable2 difficult to work1 splintery1 brittle2 splits easily1 holds nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,coarse1 cheap lumber1 as joists1 rafters1 plank walks and laths4 ,,remarks3 ,the poorest lumber4 ,bark chief source of tanning material4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ah ,,western ,,hemlock4 ,,black ,,hemlock4 ,tsuga heterophylla 7,rafinesque7 ,sargent4 ,tsuga1 the ,japanese name latinized2 heterophylla refers to two kinds of leaves4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best on coast of ,washington and ,oregon4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #aej'-bjj'2 diameter1 #f'-aj'2 branches1 pendent1 slender2 bark1 reddish gray1 deep1 longitudinal fissures between1 broad1 oblique1 flat ridges2 leaves1 dark green1 two-ranked2 cones1 small1 like ,eastern ,hemlock4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 pale brown1 sap-wood thin1 whitish2 non-porous2 rings1 narrow1 summer wood thin but distinct2 grain1 straight1 close2 rays1 numerous1 prominent2 non-resinous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light in weight1 strong1 elastic1 hard2,a shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps 44444444442 durable1 more so than other ,american hemlocks2 easier to work than eastern variety2 splits badly4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,lumber for construction4 ,,remarks3 ,coming to be recognized as a valuable lumber tree4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 ,footnote ,a3 ,not in ,jesup ,collection4 #ai ,,douglas ,,spruce4 ,,oregon ,,pine4 ,,red ,,fir4 ,,douglas ,,fir4 ,pseudotsuga mucronata 7,rafinesque7 ,sudworth4 ,pseudotsuga taxifolia 7,lambert7 ,britton4 ,pseudotsuga means false hemlock2 mucronata refers to abrupt short point of leaf2 taxifolia means yew leaf4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,puget ,sound region4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #age'-cjj'2 diameter1 #c'-e'1 sometimes #aj'2 branches high1 leaving clean trunk2 bark1 rough1 gray1 great broad-rounded ridges1 often appears braided2 leaves1 radiating from stem2 cones1 #b-d long4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light red to yellow1 sap-wood white2 non-porous2 rings1 dark colored1 conspicuous1 very pronounced summer wood2 grain1 straight1 coarse2 rays1 numerous1 obscure2 resinous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#dast in this list72 #cb lbs4 per cu4 ft1 sp4 gr4 #j4eaeg2 strong 7#bast in this list72 very elastic 7#ajth in this list72 medium hard 7#deth in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent4 or #d per cent421 warps 4444444444444442 durable2 difficult to work1 flinty1 splits readily4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,heavy construction1 masts1 flag poles1 piles1 railway ties4 ,,remarks3 ,one of the greatest and the most valuable of the western timber trees4 ,forms extensive forests4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #bj ,,grand ,,fir4 ,,white ,,fir4 ,,lowland ,,fir4 ,,silver ,,fir4 ,abies grandis ,lindley4 ,abies1 the classical ,latin name4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,puget ,sound region4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 in interior #ajj'2 diameter1 #b'2 on coast1 #bej'-cjj' high2 diameter1 #b'-e'2 long pendulous branches2 bark1 quite gray or gray brown1 shallow fissures1 flat ridges2 leaves1 shiny green above1 silvery below1 #a-a_/b-b long1 roughly two-ranked2 cones1 cylindrical1 #b-d long4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown1 sap-wood lighter2 non-porous2 rings1 summer cells broader than in other ,american species1 dark colored1 conspicuous2 grain straight1 coarse2 rays1 numerous1 obscure2 resinous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,very light 7#fb;d in this list72 #bb lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4cede2 weak 7#fb;d in this list72 elastic 7#cdth in this list72 soft 7#feth in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps little2 not durable2 works easily2 splits readily4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,lumber and packing cases4 ,,remarks3 ,no resin ducts4 ,not a very valuable wood4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ba ,,big ,,tree4 ,,sequoia4 ,,giant ,,sequoia4 ,sequoia washingtoniana 7,winslow7 ,sudworth4 ,sequoia gigantea1 ,decaisne4 ,sequoia latinized from ,sequoiah1 a ,cherokee ,indian2 washingtoniana1 in honor of ,george ,washington4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 in ten groves in southern ,california1 at high elevation4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #bge'1 sometimes #cbj'2 diameter1 #bj'1 sometimes #ce'2 trunk1 swollen and often buttressed at base1 ridged1 often clear for #aej'2 thick horizontal branches2 bark1 #a'-b' thick1 in great ridges1 separates into loose1 fibrous1 cinnamon red scales1 almost non-combustible2 leaves1 very small1 growing close to stem2 cones1 #b-c long4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 red1 turning dark on exposure1 sap-wood thin1 whitish2 non-porous2 rings1 very plain2 grain straight1 coarse2 rays1 numerous1 thin2 non-resinous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light 7#feth in this list72 #ah lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4bhhb2 weak 7#fc;d in this list72 brittle 7#fb;d in this list72 very soft 7#fast in this list72 shrinks little2 warps little2 remarkably durable2 easy to work1 splits readily1 takes nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,construction1 lumber1 coffins1 shingles4 ,,remarks3 ,dimensions and age are unequalled2 ,big ,tree and ,redwood survivors of a prehistoric genus1 once widely distributed4 ,some specimens #cfjj years old4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #bb ,,redwood4 ,,coast ,,redwood4 ,,sequoia4 ,sequoia sempervirens 7,lambert7 ,endlicher4 ,sequoia1 latinized from ,sequoiah1 a ,cherokee ,indian2 sempervirens means ever living4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in southern ,oregon and northern ,california1 near coast4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #bjj'-cdj'2 diameter1 #aj'-ae'1 rarely #be'2 clean trunk1 much buttressed and swollen at base1 somewhat fluted1 branches very high2 bark1 very thick1 #f-ab1 rounded ridges1 dark scales falling reveal inner red bark2 leaves1 small1 two-ranked2 cones1 small1 #a long4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 red1 turning to brown on seasoning1 sap-wood whitish2 non-porous2 rings1 distinct2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 very obscure2 non-resinous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light in weight 7#eeth in this list72 #bf lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4dbjh2 weak 7#ehth in this list72 brittle 7#fjth in this list72 soft 7#eeth in this list72 shrinks little2 warps little2 very durable2 easily worked2 splits readily2 takes nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,shingles1 construction1 timber1 fence posts1 coffins1 railway ties1 water pipes1 curly specimens used in cabinet work4 ,,remarks3 ,low branches rare4 ,burns with difficulty4 ,chief construction wood of ,pacific ,coast4 ,use determined largely by durability4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #bc ,,bald ,,cypress4 ,bald refers to leaflessness of tree in winter4 ,taxodium distichum 7,linnaeus7 ,l4 ,c4 ,richard4 ,taxodium means yew-like2 distichum refers to the two-ranked leaves4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf ,states4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ge'1 occasionally #aej'2 diameter1 #d'-e'2 roots project upward into peculiar knees2 trunk strongly buttressed at base1 straight1 majestic and tapering2 bark1 light red1 shallow fissures1 flat plates1 peeling into fibrous strips2 leaves1 long1 thin1 two-ranked1 deciduous2 cones1 nearly globular1 #a in diameter4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 heart-wood1 reddish brown1 sap-wood1 nearly white2 non-porous2 rings1 fine and well marked2 grain1 nearly straight1 burl is beautifully figured2 rays1 very obscure2 non-resinous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light in weight 7#dhth in this list72 #bi lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4dedc2 medium strong 7#dhth in this list72 elastic 7#bhth in this list72 soft 7#eb;d in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps but little1 likely to check2 very durable2 easy to work1 in splitting1 crumbles or breaks2 nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,shingles1 posts1 interior finish1 cooperage1 railroad ties1 boats1 and various construction work1 especially conservatories4 ,,remarks3 ,forms forests in swamps2 subject to a fungous disease1 making wood peggy or pecky2 use largely determined by its durability4 ,in ,new ,orleans #ij1jjj fresh water cisterns are said to be made of it4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #bd ,,western ,,red ,,cedar4 ,,canoe ,,cedar4 ,,giant ,,arborvitae4 ,thuja plicata ,d4 ,don4 ,thuya gigantea ,nuttall4 ,thuya or ,thuja1 the classical ,greek name2 plicata refers to the folded leaves2 gigantea refers to the gigantic size of the tree4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,puget ,sound region4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ajj'-bjj'2 diameter1 #b'-aj'1 even #ae'2 trunk has immense buttresses1 often #af' in diameter1 then tapers2 branches1 horizontal1 short1 making a dense conical tree2 bark1 bright cinnamon red1 shallow fissures1 broad ridges1 peeling into long1 narrow1 stringy scales2 leaves1 very small1 overlapping in #d ranks1 on older twigs1 sharper and more remote2 cones1 #a_/b long1 small1 erect4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 dull brown or red1 thin sap-wood nearly white2 non-porous2 rings1 summer bands thin1 dark colored1 distinct2 grain1 straight1 rather coarse2 rays1 numerous1 obscure2 non-resinous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,very light in weight 7#fjth in this list72 medium strong 7#djth in this list72 elastic 7#bfth in this list72 soft 7#fjth in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps and checks little2 very durable2 easy to work2 splits easily4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,interior finish1 cabinet making1 cooperage1 shingles1 electric wire poles4 ,,remarks3 ,wood used by ,indians for war canoes1 totems and planks for lodges2 inner bark used for ropes and textiles4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #be ,,white ,,cedar4 ,chamaecyparis thyoides 7,linnaeus7 ,b4 ,s4 ,p4 ,chamaecyparis means low cypress2 thyoides means like thuya 7,aborvitae74 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,virginia and ,north ,carolina4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #fj'-hj'2 diameter1 #b'-d'2 branches1 low1 often forming impenetrable thickets2 bark1 light reddish brown1 many fine longitudinal fissures1 often spirally twisted around stem2 leaves1 scale-like1 four-ranked2 cones1 globular1 #a_/d diameter4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 pink to brown1 sap-wood lighter2 non-porous2 rings1 sharp and distinct2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 obscure2 non-resinous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,very light in weight 7#fdth in this list72 #bc lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4ccbb72 weak 7#fdth in this list72 brittle 7#fc;d in this list2 soft 7#fb;d in this list72 shrinkage #c per cent42 warps little2 extremely durable2 easily worked2 splits easily2 nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,boats1 shingles1 posts1 railway ties1 cooperage4 ,,remarks3 ,grows chiefly in swamps1 often in dense pure forests4 ,uses determined largely by its durability4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #bf ,,lawson ,,cypress4 ,,port ,,orford ,,cedar4 ,,oregon ,,cedar4 ,,white ,,cedar4 ,chamaecyparis lawsoniana 7,a4 ,murray7 ,parlatore4 ,chamaecyparis means low cypress4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best on coast of ,oregon4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ajj'-bjj'2 diameter1 #d'-h'1 even #ab'2 base of trunk abruptly enlarged2 bark1 very thick1 even #aj at base of trunk1 inner and outer layers distinct1 very deep fissures1 rounded ridges2 leaves1 very small1 #a_/af long1 four-ranked1 overlapped1 flat sprays2 cones1 small1 #a_/d1 globular4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 pinkish brown1 sap-wood hardly distinguishable2 non-porous2 rings1 summer wood thin1 not conspicuous2 grain1 straight1 close2 rays1 numerous1 very obscure2 non-resinous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light in weight 7#dfth in this list72 #bh lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4dfba2 strong 7#beth in this list72 elastic 7#abth in this list72 soft 7#ejth in this list72 shrinkage #c or #d per cent42 warps little2 durable2 easily worked2 splits easily4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,matches 7almost exclusively on the ,pacific ,coast71 interior finish1 ship and boat building4 ,,remarks3 ,resin1 a powerful diuretic and insecticide4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #bg ,,red ,,cedar4 ,juniperus virginiana ,linnaeus4 ,juniperus1 the classical ,latin name2 virginiana1 in honor of the ,state of ,virginia4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,gulf ,states in swamps1 especially on the west coast of ,florida4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #dj'-ej'1 even #hj'2 diameter1 #a'-b'2 trunk1 ridged1 sometimes expanded2 branches1 low2 bark1 light brown1 loose1 ragged1 separating into long1 narrow1 persistent1 stringy scales2 leaves1 opposite1 of two kinds1 awl-shaped1 and scale-shaped2 fruit1 dark blue berry4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 dull red1 sap-wood white2 non-porous2 rings1 easily distinguished2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 very obscure2 non-resinous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,very light in weight 7#db;d in this list72 #cj lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4dhbf2 medium strong 7#dc;d in this list72 brittle 7#fast in this list72 medium hard 7#cdth in this list72 shrinkage1 #c per cent42 warps little2 very durable2 easy to work2 splits readily1 takes nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,pencils1 chests1 cigar boxes1 pails1 interior finish4 ,,remarks3 ,fragrant4 ,pencils are made almost exclusively of this wood1 because it is light1 strong1 stiff1 straight and fine-grained and easily whittled2 supply being rapidly depleted4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #bh ,,black ,,willow4 ,salix nigra ,marshall4 ,salix1 from two ,celtic words meaning near-water2 nigra refers to the dark bark4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 grows largest in southern ,illinois1 ,indiana and ,texas1 on moist banks4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #cj'-dj'1 sometimes #abj'2 diameter1 #a'-b'1 rarely #c'-d'2 stout1 upright1 spreading branches1 from common base2 bark1 rough and dark brown or black1 often tinged with yellow or brown2 leaves1 lanceolate1 often scythe-shaped1 serrate edges2 fruit1 a capsule containing small1 hairy seeds4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light reddish brown1 sap-wood1 thin1 whitish2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 obscure2 grain1 close and weak2 rays1 obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light in weight 7#east in this list72 #bg4gg lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4ddef2 weak 7#feth in this list72 very brittle 7#fdth in this list72 soft 7#dfth in this list72 shrinks considerably2 warps and checks badly2 soft1 weak1 indents without breaking2 splits easily4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,lap-boards1 baskets1 water wheels1 fuel and charcoal for gunpowder4 ,,remarks3 ,its characteristic of indenting without breaking has given it use as lining for carts and as cricket bats4 ,of the many willows1 the most tree like in proportion in eastern ,north ,america4 ,bark contains salycylic acid4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #bi ,,butternut4 ,,white ,,walnut4 ,butternut1 because the nuts are rich in oil4 ,juglans cinerea ,linnaeus4 ,juglans means ,jove's nut2 cinerea refers to ash-colored bark4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat33 7,see map72 best in ,ohio basin4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ge'-ajj'2 diameter1 #b'-d'2 branches low1 broad spreading deep roots2 bark1 grayish brown1 deep fissures broad ridges2 leaves #ae-cj long1 compound #aa to #ag leaflets1 hairy and rough2 fruit1 oblong1 pointed1 edible1 oily nut4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown1 darkening with exposure1 sap-wood whitish2 diffuse1 porous2 rings1 not prominent2 grain1 fairly straight1 coarse1 takes high polish2 rays1 distinct1 thin1 obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light in weight 7#efth in this list72 #be lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4djhf2 weak 7#egth in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#eb;d in this list72 soft 7#dgth in this list72 shrinkage 4444444 per cent42 warps little2 durable2 easy to work2 splits easily4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,cabinet work1 inside trim4 ,,remarks3 ,green husks of fruit give yellow dye4 ,sugar made from sap4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #cj ,,black ,,walnut4 ,juglans nigra ,linnaeus4 ,juglans means ,jove's nut2 nigra refers to the dark wood4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in western ,north ,carolina and ,tennessee4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ij'-abj'1 even #aej'2 diameter1 #c' to even #h'2 clean of branches for #ej' to #fj'2 bark1 brownish1 almost black1 deep fissures1 and broad1 rounded ridges2 leaves1 #a'-b' long1 compound pinnate1 #ae to #bc leaflets1 fall early2 fruit1 nut1 with adherent husk1 and edible kernel4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 chocolate brown1 sap-wood much lighter2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 marked by slightly larger pores2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 thin1 not conspicuous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#cast in this list72 #ch lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4faae2 strong 7#cb;d in this list72 elastic 7#bc;d in this list72 hard 7#bast in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps little2 very durable2 easy to work2 splits with some difficulty1 takes and holds nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,gun stocks 7since #agth century71 veneers1 cabinet making4 ,,remarks3 ,formerly much used for furniture1 now scarce4 ,plentiful in ,california4 ,most valuable wood of ,north ,american forests4 ,wood superior to ,european variety4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ca ,,mockernut4 ,,black ,,hickory4 ,,bull-,,nut4 ,,big-,,bud ,,hickory4 ,,white-,,heart ,,hickory4 ,,king ,,nut4 ,mockernut refers to disappointing character of nuts4 ,hicoria alba 7,linnaeus7 ,britton4 ,carya tomentosa ,nuttall4 ,hicoria1 shortened and latinized from ,pawcohicora1 the ,indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernels2 alba refers to the white wood1 carya1 the ,greek name for walnut2 tomentosa refers to hairy under surface of leaf4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in lower ,ohio valley1 ,missouri and ,arkansas4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ge'1 rarely #ajj'2 diameter1 #b'-c'2 rises high in forest2 bark1 dark gray1 shallow1 irregular interrupted fissures1 rough but not shaggy in old trees2 leaves1 #h-ab long1 compound1 #g-i leaflets1 fragrant when crushed2 fruit1 spherical nut1 thick shell1 edible kernel4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 dark brown1 sap-wood nearly white2 ring-porous2 rings1 marked by few large regularly distributed open ducts2 grain1 usually straight1 close2 rays1 numerous1 thin1 obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,very heavy 7#c;d in this list72 #ec lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4hbah2 very strong 7#aath in this list72 very elastic 7#adth in this list72 very hard 7#c;d in this list72 shrinkage1 #aj per cent42 warps 44444444442 not durable2 very hard to work2 splits with great difficulty1 almost impossible to nail4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,wheels1 runners1 tool and axe handles1 agricultural implements4 ,,remarks3 ,confounded commercially with shellbark hickory4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #cb ,,shellbark ,,hickory4 ,,shagbark ,,hickory4 ,hicoria ovata 7,millar7 ,britton4 ,carya alba ,nuttall4 ,hickory is shortened and latinized from ,pawcohicora1 the ,indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernels2 ovata refers to oval nut2 carya1 the ,greek name for walnut4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in lower ,ohio valley4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-ij' and even #abj'2 diameter1 #b'-c'1 even #d'2 straight1 columnar trunk2 bark1 dark gray1 separates into long1 hard1 plate-like strips1 which cling to tree by middle1 on young trees very smooth and close2 leaves1 #h-bj long1 compound #e or 7#g7 leaflets2 nuts1 globular1 husk1 four-valved1 split easily1 thin-shelled1 edible4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 reddish brown1 sap-wood whitish2 ring-porous2 rings1 clearly marked2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 thin4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,very ,heavy 7#ast in this list72 #ea lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4hcgb2 very strong 7#eth in this list72 very elastic 7#gth in this list72 very hard 7#eth in this list72 shrinkage1 #aj per cent42 warps badly2 not very durable under exposure2 hard to work1 very tough2 hard to split1 very difficult to nail4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,agricultural implements1 handles1 wheel spokes4 ,,remarks3 ,american hickory is famous both for buggies and ax handles1 because it is flexible and very tough in resistance to blows4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #cc ,,pignut4 ,nuts eaten by swine4 ,hicoria glabra 7,miller7 ,britton4 ,carya porcina4 ,hicoria is shortened and latinized from ,pawcohicora1 the ,indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernel2 glabra refers to smooth bark2 ,carya the ,greek name for walnut2 porcina means pertaining to hogs4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in lower ,ohio valley4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #hj'-ajj'2 diameter #b'-d'2 trunk often forked2 bark1 light gray1 shallow fissures1 rather smooth1 rarely exfoliates2 leaves1 #h-ab long1 compound #g leaflets1 sharply serrate2 fruit1 a thick-shelled nut1 bitter kernel4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light or dark brown1 the thick sap-wood lighter1 often nearly white2 ring-porous2 rings marked by many large open ducts2 grain1 straight2 rays1 small and insignificant4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,very heavy 7#dth in this list72 #ef lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4hbag2 very strong 7#aeth in this list72 elastic 7#bgth in this list72 very hard 7#b;d in this list72 shrinkage1 #aj per cent42 warps 44444444442 hard to work2 splits with difficulty1 hard to drive nails into4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,agricultural implements1 wheels1 runners1 tool handles4 ,,remarks3 ,wood not distinguished from shellbark hickory in commerce4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #cd ,,blue ,,beech4 ,,hornbeam4 ,,water ,,beech4 ,,iron-,,wood4 ,blue refers to color of bark2 the trunk resembles beech2 horn refers to horny texture of wood4 ,carpinus caroliniana ,walter4 ,carpinus1 classical ,latin name2 caroliniana1 named from the state4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best on western slopes of ,southern ,allegheny ,mountains and in southern ,arkansas and ,texas4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 a small tree1 #cj'-ej' high2 diameter1 #f-b'2 short1 fluted1 sinewy trunk2 bark1 smooth1 bluish gray2 leaves1 falcate1 doubly serrate2 fruit1 small oval nut1 enclosed in leaf-like bract4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown1 sap-wood thick1 whitish2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 obscure2 grain1 close2 rays1 numerous1 broad4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#acth in this list72 #de lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4gbhf2 very strong 7#ith in this list72 very stiff 7#aeth in this list72 hard 7#adth in this list72 shrinkage1 #f per cent42 warps and checks badly2 not durable2 hard to work2 splits with great difficulty4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,levers1 tool handles4 ,,remarks3 ,no other wood so good for levers1 because of stiffness4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ce ,,canoe ,,birch4 ,,white ,,birch4 ,,paper ,,birch4 ,all names refer to bark4 ,betula papyrifera ,marshall4 ,betula1 the classical ,latin name2 papyrifera refers to paper bearing bark4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best west of ,rocky ,mountains4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #fj'-hj'2 diameter1 #b'-c'2 stem rarely quite straight2 bark1 smooth1 white1 exterior marked with lenticels1 peeling freely horizontally into thin papery layers1 showing brown or orange beneath1 contains oil which burns hotly1 formerly used by ,indians for canoes1 very remarkable 7see ,keeler1 page #cjd72 leaves1 heart-shaped1 irregularly serrate2 fruit1 pendulous strobiles4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 brown or reddish1 sap-wood white2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 obscure2 grain1 fairly straight2 rays1 numerous1 obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#cc;d in this list72 #cg lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4eiee2 very strong 7#adth in this list72 very elastic 7#b;d in this list72 medium hard 7#cith in this list72 shrinkage1 #f per cent42 warps1 4444444442 not durable1 except bark2 easy to work2 splits with difficulty1 nails well1 tough4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,spools1 shoe lasts and pegs1 turnery1 bark for canoes4 ,,remarks3 ,forms forests4 ,sap yields syrup4 ,bark yields starch4 ,valuable to woodsmen in many ways4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #cf ,,red ,,birch4 ,,river ,,birch4 ,red refers to color of bark2 river1 prefers river bottoms4 ,betula nigra ,linnaeus4 ,betula1 the classical ,latin name4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,florida1 ,louisiana and ,texas4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #cj'-hj'1 and even higher2 diameter1 #a'1 even #e'2 trunk1 often divided low2 bark1 dark brown1 marked by horizontal lenticels1 peels into paper plates1 curling back2 leaves1 doubly serrate1 often almost lobed2 fruit1 pubescent1 erect1 strobiles4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown1 thick sap-wood1 whitish2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 not plain2 grain1 close1 rather crooked2 rays1 numerous1 obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#cfth in this list72 #ce lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4egfb2 strong 7#bb;d in this list72 very elastic 7#aith in this list72 medium hard 7#cgth in this list72 shrinkage1 #f per cent42 warps1 44444442 not durable when exposed2 hard to work1 tough2 splits with difficulty1 nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,shoe lasts1 yokes1 furniture4 ,,remarks3 ,prefers moist land4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #cg ,,cherry ,,birch4 ,,sweet ,,birch4 ,,black ,,birch4 ,,mahogany ,,birch4 ,cherry1 because bark resembles that of cherry tree2 sweet1 refers to the taste of the spicy bark4 ,betula lenta ,linnaeus4 ,betula1 the classical ,latin name2 lenta1 meaning tenacious1 sticky1 may refer to the gum which exudes from the trunk4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,tennessee ,mountains4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ej'-hj'2 diameter1 #b'-e'2 trunk1 rarely straight2 bark1 dark reddish brown1 on old trunks deeply furrowed and broken into thick1 irregular plates1 marked with horizontal lenticels2 resembles cherry2 spicy1 aromatic2 leaves1 ovate1 oblong1 #b-f long1 irregularly serrate2 fruit1 erect strobiles4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 dark1 reddish brown2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 obscure2 grain1 close1 satiny1 polishes well1 often stained to imitate mahogany2 rays1 numerous1 obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#fth in this list72 #dg lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gfag2 very strong 7#dth in this list72 very elastic 7#fth in this list72 hard 7#aath in this list72 shrinkage1 #f per cent42 warps1 little2 not durable if exposed2 rather hard to work2 splits hard1 tough4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,dowel pins1 wooden ware1 boats and ships4 ,,remarks3 ,the birches are not usually distinguished from one another in the market4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ch ,,yellow ,,birch4 ,,gray ,,birch4 ,yellow and gray1 both refer to the color of the bark4 ,betula lutea ,f4 ,a4 ,michaux4 ,betula1 the classical ,latin name2 lutea refers to the yellow color of the bark4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in northern ,new ,york and ,new ,england4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #fj'-ajj'2 diameter1 #c'-d'2 branches1 low2 bark1 silvery1 yellow1 gray1 peeling horizontally into thin1 papery1 persistent layers1 but on very old trunks1 there are rough1 irregular1 plate-like scales2 leaves1 ovate1 sharply1 doubly serrate2 fruit1 erect1 #a strobiles4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light reddish brown1 sap-wood white2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 obscure2 grain1 close1 fairly straight2 rays1 numerous1 obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#bast in this list72 #dj lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4feec2 very strong 7#bnd in this list72 very elastic 7#b;d in this list72 medium hard 7#bb;d in this list72 shrinkage1 #f per cent42 warps 4444444442 not durable2 rather hard to work1 polishes well2 splits with difficulty1 holds nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,furniture1 spools1 button molds1 shoe lasts1 shoe pegs1 pill boxes1 yokes4 ,,remarks3 ,the birches are not usually distinguished from one another in the market4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ci ,,beech4 ,fagus grandifolia ,ehrhart4 ,fagus americana ,sweet4 ,fagus ferruginea ,aiton4 ,fagus atropunicea 7,marshall7 ,sudworth4 ,fagus 7,greek phago means to eat71 refers to edible nut2 ferruginea1 refers to the iron rust color of the leaves in the fall2 atropunicea1 meaning dark red or purple1 may refer to the color of the leaves of the copper beech4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in southern ,alleghany ,mountains and lower ,ohio valley4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-hj' and even #abj'2 diameter1 #c'-d'2 in forest1 trunk tall1 slender1 sinewy2 bark1 smooth1 ashy gray2 leaves1 feather-veined1 wedge-shaped1 serrate2 leaf buds1 long1 pointed2 fruit1 #b small triangular nuts1 enclosed in burr1 seeds about once in #c years4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 reddish1 variable1 sap-wood white2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 obscure2 grain1 straight2 rays1 broad1 very conspicuous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#bjth in this list72 #db lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4fhhc2 very strong 7#ajth in this list72 elastic 7#acth in this list72 hard 7#bb;d in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps and checks during seasoning2 not durable2 hard to work1 takes fine polish2 splits with difficulty1 hard to nail4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,plane stocks1 shoe lasts1 tool handles1 chairs4 ,,remarks3 ,often forms pure forests4 ,uses due to its hardness4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #dj ,,chestnut4 ,castanea dentata 7,marshall7 ,borkhausen4 ,castanea1 the classical ,greek and ,latin name2 dentata1 refers to toothed leaf4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in western ,north ,carolina1 and eastern ,tennessee4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ge'-ajj'2 diameter1 #c'-d'1 and even #ab'2 branches1 low2 bark1 thick1 shallow1 irregular1 fissures1 broad1 grayish brown ridges2 leaves1 lanceolate1 coarsely serrate1 midribs and veins prominent2 fruit1 nuts1 thin-shelled1 sweet1 enclosed in prickly burrs4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 reddish brown1 sap-wood lighter2 ring-porous2 rings1 plain1 pores large2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 light 7#ejth in this list72 #bh lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4dejd2 medium strong 7#dfth in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#dfth in this list72 medium hard 7#ddth in this list72 shrinkage1 #f per cent42 warps badly2 very durable1 especially in contact with soil1 fairly easy to plane1 chisel and saw2 splits easily4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,railway ties1 fence posts1 interior finish4 ,,remarks3 ,grows rapidly1 and lives to great age4 ,wood contains much tannic acid4 ,uses depend largely upon its durability4 ,lately whole regions depleted by fungous pest4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #da ,,red ,,oak4 ,quercus rubra ,linnaeus4 ,quercus1 the classical ,latin name2 rubra1 refers to red color of wood4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,massachusetts and north of the ,ohio river4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-ajj'1 even #aej'2 diameter1 #c'-f'2 a tall1 handsome tree1 branches rather low2 bark1 brownish gray1 broad1 thin1 rounded ridges1 rather smooth2 leaves1 #g to #i triangular pointed lobes1 with rounded sinuses2 acorns1 characteristically large1 in flat shallow cups4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 reddish brown1 sap-wood darker2 ring-porous2 rings1 marked by several rows of very large open ducts2 grain1 crooked1 coarse2 rays1 few1 but broad1 conspicuous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#bc;d in this list72 #de lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4fedj2 strong 7#bast in this list72 elastic 7#ahth in this list72 hard 7#bfth in this list72 shrinkage #f to #aj per cent42 warps and checks badly2 moderately durable2 easier to work than white oak2 splits readily1 nails badly4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,cooperage1 interior finish1 furniture4 ,,remarks3 ,grows rapidly4 ,an inferior substitute for white oak4 ,bark used in tanning4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #db ,,black ,,oak4 ,,yellow ,,bark ,,oak4 ,black refers to color of outer bark2 yellow bark1 refers to the inner bark1 which is orange yellow4 ,quercus velutina ,lamarck4 ,quercus tinctoria ,michaux4 ,quercus1 the classical ,latin name2 velutina1 refers to the velvety surface of the young leaf2 tinctoria1 refers to dye obtained from inner bark4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in lower ,ohio valley4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-hj'1 even #aej'2 diameter #c'-d'2 branches1 low2 bark1 dark gray to black1 deep fissures1 broad1 rounded1 firm ridges1 inner bark1 yellow1 yielding dye2 leaves1 large1 lustrous1 leathery1 of varied forms2 acorns1 small2 kernel1 yellow1 bitter4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 reddish brown1 sap-wood lighter2 ring-porous2 rings1 marked by several rows of very large open ducts2 grain1 crooked2 rays1 thin4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#agth in this list72 #de lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gjde2 very strong 7#agth in this list72 elastic 7#beth in this list72 hard 7#ahth in this list72 shrinkage1 #d per cent4 or more2 warps and checks in drying2 durable2 rather hard to work2 splits readily1 nails badly4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,furniture1 interior trim1 cooperage1 construction4 ,,remarks3 ,foliage handsome in fall2 persists thru winter4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #dc ,,basket ,,oak4 ,,cow ,,oak4 ,cow refers to the fact that its acorns are eaten by cattle4 ,quercus michauxii ,nuttall4 ,quercus1 the classical ,latin name2 michauxii1 named for the botanist ,michaux4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,arkansas and ,louisiana1 especially in river bottoms4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #hj'-ajj'2 diameter #c'1 even #g'2 trunk1 often clean and straight for #dj' or #ej'2 bark1 conspicuous1 light gray1 rough with loose ashy gray1 scaly ridges2 leaves1 obovate1 regularly scalloped2 acorns1 edible for cattle4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown1 sap-wood light buff2 ring-porous2 rings1 marked by few rather large1 open ducts2 grain1 likely to be crooked2 rays1 broad1 conspicuous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,very heavy 7#eth in this list72 #df lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4hjci2 very strong 7#abth in this list72 elastic 7#cc;d in this list72 hard 7#ajth in this list72 shrinkage1 #d per cent4 or more2 warps unless carefully seasoned2 durable2 hard and tough to work2 splits easily1 bad to nail4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,construction1 agricultural implements1 wheel stock1 baskets4 ,,remarks3 ,the best white oak of the south4 ,not distinguished from white oak in the market4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #dd ,,bur ,,oak4 ,,mossy-,,cup ,,oak4 ,,over-,,cup ,,oak4 ,quercus macrocarpa ,michaux4 ,quercus1 the classical ,latin name2 macrocarpa1 refers to the large acorn4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in southern ,indiana1 ,illinois and ,kansas4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-acj'1 even #agj'2 diameter1 #e'-g'2 branches1 high2 corky wings on young branches2 bark1 gray brown1 deeply furrowed2 deep opposite sinuses on large leaves2 acorns1 half enclosed in mossy-fringed cup4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 rich brown1 sap-wood1 thin1 lighter2 ring-porous2 rings1 marked by #a to #c rows of small open ducts2 grain1 crooked2 rays1 broad1 and conspicuous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#ith in this list72 #df lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gdec2 very strong 7#afth in this list72 elastic 7#cgth in this list72 hard 7#ith in this list72 shrinkage1 #d per cent4 or more2 warps1 44444444442 hard1 and tough to work2 splits easily1 resists nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,ship building1 cabinet work1 railway ties1 cooperage4 ,,remarks3 ,good for prairie planting4 ,one of the most valuable woods of ,north ,america4 ,not distinguished from ,white ,oak in commerce4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #de ,,white ,,oak 7,western74 ,quercus garryana ,douglas4 ,quercus1 the classical ,latin name2 garryana1 named for ,garry4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in western ,washington and ,oregon4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #fj'-gj'1 even #ajj'2 diameter1 #b'-c'2 branches1 spreading2 bark1 light brown1 shallow fissures1 broad ridges2 leaves1 coarsely pinnatified1 lobed2 fruit1 large acorns4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown1 sap-wood whitish2 ring-porous2 rings1 marked by #a to #c rows of open ducts2 grain1 close1 crooked2 rays1 varying greatly in width1 often conspicuous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#ajth in this list72 #df lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gddi2 strong 7#bhth in this list72 elasticity medium 7#edth in this list72 hard 7#hth in this list72 shrinkage1 #e or #f per cent42 warps1 unless carefully seasoned2 durable2 hard to work1 very tough2 splits badly in nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,ship building1 vehicles1 furniture1 interior finish4 ,,remarks3 ,best of ,pacific oaks4 ,shrubby at high elevations4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #df ,,post ,,oak4 ,quercus stellata ,wangenheim4 ,quercus minor 7,marsh7 ,sargent4 ,quercus obtusiloba ,michaux4 ,quercus1 the classical ,latin name2 stellata1 refers to the stellate hairs on upper side of leaf2 minor1 refers to size of tree1 which is often shrubby2 obtusiloba1 refers to the blunt lobes of leaves4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,mississippi basin4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ej'-ge'1 even #ajj'2 but often a shrub2 diameter1 #b'-c'2 branches1 spreading into dense round-topped head2 bark1 red or brown1 deep1 vertical1 almost continuous1 fissures and broad ridges1 looks corrugated2 leaves1 in large tufts at ends of branchlets2 acorns1 small1 sessile4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 brown1 thick1 sap-wood1 lighter2 ring-porous2 rings1 #a to #c rows of not large open ducts2 grain1 crooked2 rays1 numerous1 conspicuous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,very heavy 7#b;d in this list72 #ej lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4hcfg2 strong 7#bith in this list72 medium elastic 7#ejth in this list72 very hard 7#dth in this list72 shrinkage1 #d per cent4 or more2 warps and checks badly in seasoning2 durable2 hard to work2 splits readily1 bad to nail4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,cooperage1 railway ties1 fencing1 construction4 ,,remarks3 ,wood often undistinguished from white oak4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #dg ,,white ,,oak4 ,,stave ,,oak4 ,quercus alba ,linnaeus4 ,quercus1 the classical ,latin name2 white and alba1 refer to white bark4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best on western slopes of ,southern ,alleghany ,mountains1 and in lower ,ohio river valley4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #hj'-ajj'2 diameter1 #c'-e'2 trunk1 in forest1 tall1 in open1 short2 bark1 easily distinguished1 light gray with shallow fissures1 scaly2 leaves1 rounded lobes1 and sinuses2 acorns1 #c_/d to #a long1 ripen first year4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown1 sap-wood paler2 ring-porous2 rings1 plainly defined by pores2 grain crooked2 rays1 broad1 very conspicuous and irregular4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#hth in this list72 #ej lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gdgj2 strong 7#bc;d in this list72 elastic 7#cb;d in this list72 hard 7#acth in this list72 shrinkage1 from #d to #aj per cent42 warps and checks considerably1 unless carefully seasoned2 very durable1 hard to work2 splits somewhat hard1 very difficult to nail4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,interior finish1 furniture1 construction1 ship building1 farm implements1 cabinet making4 ,,remarks3 ,the most important of ,american oaks4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #dh ,,cork ,,elm4 ,,rock ,,elm4 ,,hickory ,,elm4 ,,white ,,elm4 ,,cliff ,,elm4 ,cork refers to corky ridges on branches4 ,ulmus thomasi ,sargent4 ,ulmus racemosa ,thomas4 ,ulmus1 the classical ,latin name2 racemosa1 refers to racemes of flowers4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,ontario and southern ,michigan4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #hj'-ajj'2 diameter1 #b'-c'1 trunk often clear for #fj'2 bark1 gray tinged with red1 corky1 irregular projections1 give shaggy appearance2 leaves1 obovate1 doubly serrate1 #c-d long2 fruit1 pubescent1 samaras4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown or red2 sap-wood yellowish2 ring-porous2 rings1 marked with one or two rows of small open ducts2 grain1 interlaced2 rays1 numerous1 obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#aeth in this list72 #de lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gbfc2 very strong 7#acth in this list72 elastic 7#bb;d in this list72 hard 7#aeth in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps1 444444442 very durable2 hard to work2 splits and nails with difficulty4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,hubs1 agricultural implements1 sills1 bridge timbers4 ,,remarks3 ,the best of the elm woods4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #di ,,white ,,elm4 ,,american ,,elm4 ,,water ,,elm4 ,water1 because it flourishes on river banks4 ,ulmus americana ,linnaeus4 ,ulmus1 the classical ,latin name4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best northward on river bottoms4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ij'1 even #abj'2 diameter1 #c'-h'2 trunk1 usually divides at #cj'-dj' from ground into upright branches1 making triangular outline2 bark1 ashy gray1 deep longitudinal fissures1 broad ridges2 leaves1 #d-f long1 oblique obovate1 doubly serrate1 smooth one way2 fruit1 small1 roundish1 flat1 smooth1 samaras4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown1 sap-wood yellowish2 ring-porous2 rings1 marked by several rows of large open ducts2 grain1 interlaced2 rays1 numerous1 thin4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#bdth in this list72 #cd lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4fejf2 strong 7#cc;d in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#eith in this list72 medium hard 7#bhth in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps 4444444442 not durable2 hard to work1 tough1 will not polish2 splits with difficulty4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,cooperage1 wheel stock1 flooring4 ,,remarks3 ,favorite ornamental tree1 but shade light1 and leaves fall early4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ej ,,cucumber ,,tree4 ,,mountain ,,magnolia4 ,cucumber1 refers to the shape of the fruit4 ,magnolia acuminata ,linnaeus4 ,magnolia1 named for ,pierre ,magnol1 a ,french botanist2 acuminata1 refers to pointed fruit4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best at the base of mountains in ,north ,carolina and ,south ,carolina and ,tennessee4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #fj'-ij'2 diameter1 #c'-d'2 in forest1 clear trunk for #b_/c of height 7#dj' or #ej'72 bark1 dark brown1 thick1 furrowed2 leaves1 large1 smooth2 flowers1 large greenish yellow2 fruit1 dark red cones formed of two seeded follicles4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 yellow brown1 thick sapwood1 lighter2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 obscure2 grain1 very straight1 close1 satiny2 rays1 numerous thin4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light 7#deth in this list72 4444 lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4dfij2 medium strong 7#dith in this list72 elastic 7#chth in this list72 medium hard 7#dast in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps 4444444442 very durable2 easy to work2 splits easily1 takes nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,pump logs1 cheap furniture1 shelving4 ,,remarks3 ,wood similar to yellow poplar1 and often sold with it4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ea ,,yellow ,,poplar4 ,,whitewood4 ,,tulip ,,tree4 ,poplar1 inappropriate1 inasmuch as the tree does not belong to poplar family4 ,white1 refers inappropriately to the color of the wood1 which is greenish yellow4 ,liriodendron tulipifera ,linnaeus4 ,liriodendron1 means lily-tree2 tulipifera means tulip-bearing4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in lower ,ohio valley and southern ,appalachian mountains4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-ij'2 even #bjj'2 diameter1 #f'-h'1 even #ab'2 tall1 magnificent trunk1 unsurpassed in grandeur by any eastern ,american tree2 bark1 brown1 aromatic1 evenly furrowed so as to make clean1 neat-looking trunk2 leaves1 #d lobed1 apex1 peculiarly truncated1 clean cut2 flowers1 tulip-like2 fruit1 cone1 consisting of many scales4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light greenish or yellow brown1 sap-wood1 creamy white2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 close but distinct2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous and plain4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light 7#edth in this list72 #bf lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4dbcj2 medium strong 7#east in this list72 elastic 7#cith in this list72 soft 7#dith in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps little2 durable2 easy to work2 brittle and does not split readily1 nails very well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,construction work1 furniture1 interiors1 boats1 carriage bodies1 wooden pumps4 ,,remarks3 ,being substituted largely for white pine4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #eb ,,sweet ,,gum4 ,gum1 refers to exudations4 ,liquidambar styraciflua ,linnaeus4 ,liquidambar1 means liquid gum2 styraciflua1 means fluid resin 7storax74 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in the lower ,mississippi valley4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #hj'-adj'2 diameter1 #c'-e'2 trunk1 tall1 straight2 bark1 light brown tinged with red1 deeply fissured2 branchlets often having corky wings2 leaves1 star-shaped1 five pointed2 conspicuously purple and crimson in autumn2 fruit1 multi-capsular1 spherical1 persistent heads4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light red brown1 sap-wood almost white2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 fine and difficult to distinguish2 grain1 straight1 close1 polishes well2 rays1 numerous1 very obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#cdth in this list72 #cg lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4eiji2 medium strong 7#eb;d in this list72 elasticity medium 7#ddth in this list72 medium hard 7#cfth in this list72 shrinkage1 #f per cent42 warps and twists badly in seasoning2 not durable when exposed2 easy to work2 crumbles in splitting2 nails badly4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,building construction1 cabinet-work1 veneering1 street pavement1 barrel staves and heads4 ,,remarks3 ,largely used in veneers1 because when solid it warps and twists badly4 ,exudations used in medicine to some extent4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ec ,,sycamore4 ,,buttonwood4 ,,button ,,ball4 ,,water ,,beech4 ,sycamore1 from two ,greek words meaning fig and mulberry2 buttonwood and button-ball1 refer to fruit balls4 ,platanus occidentalis ,linnaeus4 ,platanus1 refers to the broad leaves2 occidentalis1 western1 to distinguish it from ,european species4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in valley of lower ,ohio and ,mississippi4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-ajj'1 and even #agj'2 diameter1 #f'-ab'2 trunk1 commonly divides into #b or #c large branches1 limbs spreading1 often dividing angularly2 bark1 flakes off in great irregular masses1 leaving mottled surface1 greenish gray and brown1 this peculiarity due to its rigid texture2 leaves1 palmately #c to #e lobed1 #d-i long1 petiole enlarged1 enclosing buds2 fruit1 large rough balls1 persistent through winter4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 reddish brown1 sap-wood lighter2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 marked by broad bands of small ducts2 grain1 cross1 close2 rays1 numerous1 large1 conspicuous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#chth in this list72 #ce lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4efgh2 medium strong 7#edth in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#dc;d in this list72 medium hard 7#cjth in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps little2 very durable1 once used for mummy coffins2 hard to work2 splits very hard4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,tobacco boxes1 yokes1 furniture1 butcher blocks4 ,,remarks3 ,trunks often very large and hollow4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ed ,,wild ,,black ,,cherry4 ,padus serotina 7,ehrhart7 ,agardh4 ,prunus serotina ,ehrhart4 ,padus1 the old ,greek name2 prunus1 the classical ,latin name2 serotina1 because it blossoms late 7,june74 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best on southern ,allegheny mountains4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #dj'-ej'1 even #ajj'2 diameter1 #b'-d'2 straight1 columnar trunk1 often free from branches for #gj'2 bark1 blackish and rough1 fissured in all directions1 broken into small1 irregular1 scaly plates1 with raised edges2 leaves1 oblong to lanceolate1 deep1 shiny green2 fruit1 black drupe1 #a_/b4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown or red1 sap-wood yellow2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 obscure2 grain1 straight1 close1 fine1 takes fine polish2 rays1 numerous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#ceth in this list72 #cf lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4ehbb2 strong 7#ceth in this list72 elasticity medium 7#deth in this list72 hard 7#afth in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps1 little2 durability 4444444442 easily worked2 splits easily1 must be nailed with care4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,cabinet-work1 costly interior trim4 ,,remarks3 ,grows rapidly4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ee ,,black ,,locust4 ,,locust4 ,,yellow ,,locust4 ,yellow1 from color of sap-wood4 ,robinia pseudacacia ,linnaeus4 ,robinia1 in honor of ,jean ,robin1 of ,france2 pseudacacia1 means false acacia4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best on western ,allegheny mountains in ,west ,virginia4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ej'-hj'2 diameter1 #c'-d'2 bark1 strikingly deeply furrowed1 dark brown2 prickles on small branches1 grows fast1 forms thickets1 on account of underground shoots2 leaves1 #h-ad long1 pinnately compound2 #g to #i leaflets1 close at night and in rainy weather2 fruit1 pod #c-d long4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 brown1 sap-wood thin1 yellowish2 ring-porous2 rings1 clearly marked by #b or #c rows of large open ducts2 grain1 crooked1 compact4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#abth in this list72 #de lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gccc2 very strong 7#ast in this list72 elastic 7#ith in this list72 very hard 7#fth in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps badly1 very durable2 hard to work1 tough2 splits in nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,shipbuilding1 construction1 tree-nails or pins1 wagon hubs4 ,,remarks3 ,widely planted and cultivated east and west4 ,likely to be infested with borers4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ef ,,mahogany4 ,swietenia mahagoni ,jacquin4 ,swietenia1 in honor of ,dr4 ,gerard ,van ,swieten of ,austria2 mahagoni1 a ,south ,american word4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 only on ,florida ,keys in the ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #dj'-ej'2 diameter1 #b' or more1 foreign trees larger2 immense buttresses at base of trunk2 bark1 thick1 dark red-brown1 having surface of broad1 thick scales2 leaves1 #d-f long1 compound1 #d pairs of leaflets2 fruit1 #d-e long1 containing seeds4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 red-brown1 sap-wood1 thin1 yellow2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 inconspicuous2 grain1 crooked2 rays1 fine and scattered1 but plain4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#adth in this list72 #de lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gbhb2 very strong 7#bjth in this list72 elastic 7#bdth in this list72 very hard 7#ast in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps very little2 very durable2 genuine mahogany1 hard to work2 especially if grain is cross2 somewhat brittle1 and comparatively easy to split1 nails with difficulty2 polishes and takes glue well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,chiefly for cabinet-making1 furniture1 interior finishes and veneers4 ,,remarks3 ,mahogany1 now in great demand in the ,american market for fine furniture and interior trim comes from the ,west ,indies1 ,central ,america and ,west ,africa4 ,the so-called ,spanish mahogany1 the most highly prized variety1 came originally from the south of ,hayti4 ,the ,honduras ,mahogany was often called baywood4 ,botanically the varieties are not carefully distinguished2 in the lumber yard the lumber is known by its sources4 ,the ,cuba wood can be partly distinguished by the white chalk-like specks in the pores and is cold to the touch1 while the ,honduras wood can be recognized by the black specks or lines in the grain4 ,both the ,honduras and ,west ,india woods have a softer feel than the ,african wood1 when rubbed with the thumb4 ,the ,cuba and ,st4 ,domingo wood are preferred to the ,honduras1 and still more to the ,african1 but even experts have difficulty in distinguishing the varieties4 ,spanish cedar1 or furniture cedar 7,cedrela odorata7 belongs to the same family as mahogany and is often sold for it4 ,it is softer1 lighter1 and easier to work4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #eg ,,oregon ,,maple4 ,,white ,,maple4 ,,large ,,leaved ,,maple4 ,acer macrophyllum ,pursh4 ,acer1 the classical ,latin name2 macrophyllum1 refers to the large leaves4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in southern ,oregon4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-ajj'2 diameter1 #c'-e'2 stout1 often pendulous branches1 making a handsome tree2 bark1 reddish brown1 deeply furrowed1 square scales2 leaves1 very large1 #h-ab and long petioles1 deep1 narrow sinuses2 fruit1 hairy samaras4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 rich brown and red1 sap-wood thick1 nearly white2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 obscure2 grain1 close1 fibres interlaced1 sometimes figured1 polishes well2 rays1 numerous and thin4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light in weight 7#bfth in this list72 #cj lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr4 #j4diji2 medium strong 7#dgth in this list72 elasticity medium 7#egth in this list72 medium hard 7#cast in this list72 shrinkage1 #d per cent42 warps 44444444442 not durable2 rather hard to work2 splits with difficulty4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,tool and ax handles1 furniture1 interior finish4 ,,remarks3 ,a valuable wood on the ,pacific coast4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #eh ,,soft ,,maple4 ,,white ,,maple4 ,,silver ,,maple4 ,silver1 refers to white color of underside of leaf4 ,acer saccharinum ,linnaeus4 ,acer dasycarpum ,ehrhart4 ,acer1 the classical ,latin name2 saccharinum1 refers to sweetish juice2 dasycarpum1 refers to the wooliness of the fruit when young4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in lower ,ohio valley4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ej'-ij'1 even #abj'2 diameter1 #c'-e'2 form suggests elm2 bark1 reddish brown1 furrowed1 surface separating into large1 loose scales2 leaves1 palmately #e lobed1 with narrow1 acute sinuses1 silvery white beneath1 turn only yellow in autumn2 fruit1 divergent1 winged samaras4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 brown and reddish1 sap-wood1 cream2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 obscure2 grain1 twisted1 wavy1 fine1 polishes well2 rays1 thin1 numerous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#djth in this list72 #cb lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4ebfi2 very strong 7#aith in this list72 very elastic 7#bjth in this list72 hard 7#beth in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps1 4444444444442 not durable under exposure2 easily worked2 splits in nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,flooring1 furniture1 turnery1 wooden ware4 ,,remarks3 ,grows rapidly4 ,curly varieties found4 ,sap produces some sugar4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ei ,,red ,,maple4 ,acer rubrum ,linnaeus4 ,acer1 the classical ,latin name2 rubrum1 refers to red flowers and autumn leaves4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in lower ,ohio valley4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #hj'-abj'2 diameter1 #b'-d'2 branches1 low2 bark1 dark gray1 shaggy1 divided by long ridges2 leaves1 palmately #e lobed1 acute sinuses2 fruit1 double samaras1 forming characteristic maple key4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light reddish brown1 sap-wood1 lighter2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 obscure2 grain1 crooked2 rays1 numerous1 obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#cjth in this list72 #ch lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4fagh2 strong 7#cfth in this list72 elastic 7#cfth in this list72 hard 7#bgth in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps 44444442 not durable2 fairly hard to work2 splits with difficulty1 splits badly in nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,flooring1 turning1 wooden ware4 ,,remarks3 ,grows rapidly4 ,has red flowers1 red keys1 red leaf stems1 and leaves scarlet or crimson in autumn4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #fj ,,hard ,,maple4 ,,sugar ,,maple4 ,,rock ,,maple4 ,acer saccharum ,marshall4 ,acer1 the classical ,latin name2 saccharum1 refers to sweet sap4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in regions of ,great ,lakes4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ajj'-abj'2 diameter1 #a-a_/b'-c'1 even #d'2 often trees in forest are without branches for #fj'-gj' from ground1 in the open1 large impressive tree2 bark1 gray brown1 thick1 deep1 longitudinal fissures1 hard and rough2 leaves1 opposite1 #c to #e lobed1 scarlet and yellow in autumn2 fruit1 double1 slightly divergent samaras4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown tinged with red2 diffuse-porous rings1 close but distinct2 grain1 crooked1 fine1 close1 polishes well2 rays1 fine but conspicuous4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#aith in this list72 #dc lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4fiab2 very strong 7#hth in this list72 very elastic 7#eth in this list72 very hard 7#gth in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps badly2 not durable when exposed2 hard to work2 splits badly in nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,school and other furniture1 car construction1 carving1 wooden type1 tool handles1 shoe lasts1 piano actions1 ships' keels4 ,,remarks3 ,tree very tolerant4 ,the uses of this wood are chiefly due to its hardness4 ,bird's-,eye ,maple and ,curly ,maple are accidental varieties4 ,pure maple sugar is made chiefly from this species4 ,its ashes yield large quantities of potash4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #fa ,,basswood4 ,,linden4 ,bass1 refers to bast or inner bark4 ,tilia americana ,linnaeus4 ,tilia1 the classical ,latin name4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in bottom lands of lower ,ohio ,river4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #fj'-gj'1 even #acj'2 diameter1 #b'-d'2 trunk1 erect1 pillar-like1 branches spreading1 making round heads2 bark1 light brown1 furrowed1 scaly surface1 inner bark fibrous and tough1 used for matting2 leaves1 oblique1 heart-shaped1 side nearest branch larger2 fruit clustered on long pendulous stem1 attached to vein of narrow bract4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 very light brown1 approaching cream color1 sap-wood1 hardly distinguishable2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 fine and close but clear2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,light in weight 7#dith in this list72 #bh lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4debe2 weak 7#fjth in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#dith in this list72 soft 7#fdth in this list72 shrinkage1 #f per cent42 warps comparatively little2 quite durable2 very easily worked2 somewhat tough to split1 nails well4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,woodenware1 carriage bodies1 etc41 picture molding1 paper pulp1 etc4 ,,remarks3 ,may be propagated by grafting as well as by seed4 ,is subject to attack by many insects4 ,wood used for carriage bodies because flexible and easily nailed4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #fb ,,sour ,,gum4 ,,tupelo4 ,,pepperidge4 ,,black ,,gum4 ,tupelo1 the ,indian name4 ,nyssa sylvatica ,marshal4 ,nyssa1 from ,nysa1 the realm of moist vegetation and the home of ,dio-nysus 7,bacchus7 7the tree grows in low wet lands72 sylvatica1 refers to its habit of forest growth4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in ,southern ,appalachian mountains4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #dj'-ej'1 even #ajj'2 diameter1 #a'f-c'f1 even #e'2 variable in form2 bark1 brown1 deeply fissured and scaly2 leaves1 in sprays1 short1 petioled1 brilliant scarlet in autumn2 fruit1 bluish black1 sour1 fleshy drupe4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 pale yellow1 sap-wood1 white1 hardly distinguishable2 diffuse-porous2 rings1 not plain2 grain fine1 twisted and interwoven2 rays1 numerous1 thin4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,medium heavy 7#beth in this list72 #ci lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4fcef2 strong 7#cdth in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#east in this list72 hard 7#bjth in this list72 shrinkage1 #e or #f per cent42 warps and checks badly2 not durable if exposed2 hard to work2 splits hard1 tough4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,wagon hubs1 handles1 yokes1 wooden shoe soles1 docks and wharves1 rollers in glass factories4 ,,remarks3 ,the best grades closely resemble yellow poplar4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #fc ,,black ,,ash4 ,,hoop ,,ash4 ,hoop1 refers to its use for barrel hoops4 ,fraxinus nigra ,marshall4 ,fraxinus sambucifolia4 ,fraxinus1 from a ,greek word 7phraxis7 meaning split1 refers to the cleavability of the wood2 sambucifolia1 refers to the fact that the leaves are in odor like those of ,elder 7,sambucus74 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in moist places4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #hj'-ij'2 diameter1 #a'-a-a_/b'2 slenderest of the forest trees1 upright branches2 bark1 gray tinged with red1 irregular plates1 with thin scales2 leaves1 #aj-af long1 compound1 #g to #aa leaflets1 in autumn rusty brown2 fruit1 single samaras in panicles4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 dark brown1 sap-wood light2 ring-porous2 rings1 well defined2 grain1 straight1 burls often form highly prized veneers2 rays1 numerous and thin4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,medium heavy 7#bgth in this list72 #ci lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4fcah2 strong 7#chth in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#abth in this list72 hard 7#bc;d in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps1 but not very much2 not durable when exposed2 hard to work2 separates easily in layers1 hence used for splints4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,interior finish1 cabinet work1 fencing1 barrel hoops4 ,,remarks3 ,the flexibility of the wood largely determines its uses4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #fd ,,oregon ,,ash4 ,fraxinus oregona ,nuttall4 ,fraxinus1 from a ,greek word 7phraxis7 meaning split1 refers to the cleavability of the wood2 oregona1 named for the ,state of ,oregon4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in southern ,oregon4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #ej'-hj'2 diameter1 #a'-a-a_/b'1 even #d'2 branches1 stout1 erect2 bark1 grayish brown1 deep interrupted fissures1 broad1 flat ridges1 exfoliates2 leaves1 #e-ad long2 pinnately compound1 #e to #g leaflets2 fruit1 single samaras in clusters4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 brown1 sap-wood thick1 lighter2 ring-porous2 rings1 plainly marked by large1 open1 scattered pores2 grain1 coarse1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 thin4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#cgth in this list72 #ce lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4egca2 medium strong 7#ejth in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#dhth in this list72 medium hard 7#bith in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps14444444444442 not durable2 hard to work1 tough2 splits with difficulty4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,furniture1 vehicles1 cooperage4 ,,remarks3 ,a valuable timber tree of the ,pacific coast4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #fe ,,blue ,,ash4 ,blue1 refers to blue dye obtained from inner bark4 ,fraxinus quadrangulata ,michaux4 ,fraxinus1 from a ,greek word 7phraxis7 meaning split1 refers to the cleavability of the wood2 quadrangulata1 refers to four-angled branchlets4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in lower ,wabash valley4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #fj'-gj'1 even #abj'2 diameter1 #a'-b'2 tall1 slender1 four-angled1 branchlets2 bark1 light gray1 irregularly divided into large plate-like scales1 inside bark1 bluish1 yielding dye2 leaves1 #h-ab long1 compound pinnate1 #e to #i leaflets2 fruit1 winged samaras in panicles4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light yellow1 streaked with brown1 sap-wood lighter2 ring-porous2 rings1 clearly marked by #a to #c rows of large1 open ducts2 grain1 straight2 rays1 numerous1 obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#afth in this list72 #dd lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4gahd2 strong 7#cgth in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#ehth in this list72 hard 7#abth in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps1 4444444444442 most durable of the ashes2 hard to work2 splits readily1 bad for nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,carriage building1 tool handles4 ,,remarks3 ,blue ash pitchfork handles are famous4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #ff ,,red ,,ash4 ,red1 from color of inner bark4 ,fraxinus pennsylvanica ,marshall4 ,fraxinus pubescens ,lambert4 ,fraxinus1 from a ,greek word 7phraxis7 meaning split1 refers to the cleavability of the wood2 pennsylvanica1 in honor of the ,state of ,pennsylvania2 pubescens1 refers to down on new leaves and twigs4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best east of ,alleghany mountains4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #dj'-fj'2 diameter1 #ab-ah2 small1 slim1 upright branches2 bark1 brown or ashy1 great1 shallow1 longitudinal furrows2 leaves1 #aj-ab long1 pinnately compound1 #g to #i leaflets1 covered with down2 fruit1 single samara4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light brown1 sap-wood lighter and yellowish2 ring porous2 rings1 marked by pores2 grain1 straight1 coarse2 rays1 numerous1 thin4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,weight1 medium 7#bhth in this list72 #ci lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4fbea2 strong 7#cjth in this list72 elasticity1 medium 7#ec;d in this list72 hard 7#agth in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps little2 not durable2 hard to work2 splits in nailing4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,agricultural implements1 oars1 handles1 boats4 ,,remarks3 ,often sold with and as the superior white ash4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 #fg ,,white ,,ash4 ,white1 refers to whitish color of wood4 ,fraxinus americana ,linnaeus4 ,fraxinus1 from a ,greek word 7phraxis7 meaning split1 refers to the cleavability of the wood4 ,illustration3 ,habitat4 ,,habitat3 7,see map72 best in the bottom lands of lower ,ohio valley4 ,illustration3 ,leaf4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,tree3 ,height1 #gj'-hj'1 even #abj'2 diameter1 #c'-f'2 branches rather high1 tree singularly graceful2 bark1 gray1 narrow furrows1 clean1 neat trunk2 leaves1 #h-ae long1 compound1 tufted1 smooth1 turns in autumn to beautiful purples1 browns and yellows2 fruit1 panicles of samaras1 persistent till midwinter4 ,,appearance ,,of ,,wood3 ,color1 light reddish brown1 sap-wood whitish2 ring-porous1 rings clearly marked by pores2 straight-grained2 pith rays obscure4 ,,physical ,,qualities3 ,heavy 7#bb;d in this list72 #ci lbs4 per cu4 ft42 sp4 gr41 #j4fedc2 strong 7#cast in this list72 elastic 7#cjth in this list72 hard 7#agth in this list72 shrinkage1 #e per cent42 warps little2 not durable in contact with soil2 hard and tough2 splits readily1 nails badly4 ,,common ,,uses3 ,inside finish1 farm implements1 barrels1 baskets1 oars1 carriages4 ,,remarks3 ,forms no forests1 occurs scattered4 ,its uses for handles and oars determined by combination of strength1 lightness and elasticity4 ,illustration3 ,radial ,section1 life size4 ,illustration3 ,cross-section1 magnified #cg-a_/b diameters4 ,illustration3 ,tangential ,section1 life size4 ,,list ,,of #ff ,,common ,,woods ,,arranged ,,in ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,their ,,weight4 #a4 ,shellbark hickory4 #b4 ,post oak4 #c4 ,mockernut4 #d4 ,pignut4 #e4 ,basket oak4 #f4 ,cherry birch4 #g4 ,slash pine4 #h4 ,white oak4 #i4 ,bur oak4 #aj4 ,western white oak4 #aa4 ,western larch4 #ab4 ,black locust4 #ac4 ,blue beech4 #ad4 ,mahogany4 #ae4 ,cork elm4 #af4 ,blue ash4 #ag4 ,black oak4 #ah4 ,longleaf pine4 #ai4 ,hard maple4 #bj4 ,beech4 #ba4 ,yellow birch4 #bb4 ,white ash4 #bc4 ,red oak4 #bd4 ,white elm4 #be4 ,sour gum4 #bf4 ,oregon maple4 #bg4 ,black ash4 #bh4 ,red ash4 #bi4 ,tamarack4 #cj4 ,red maple4 #ca4 ,black walnut4 #cb4 ,shortleaf pine4 #cc4 ,canoe birch4 #cd4 ,sweet gum4 #ce4 ,wild black cherry4 #cf4 ,red birch4 #cg4 ,oregon ash4 #ch4 ,sycamore4 #ci4 ,loblolly pine4 #dj4 ,soft maple4 #da4 ,douglas spruce4 #db4 ,red cedar4 #dc4 ,norway pine4 #dd4 ,western yellow pine4 #de4 ,cucumber tree4 #df4 ,lawson cypress4 #dg4 ,black spruce and ,red spruce4 #dh4 ,bald cypress4 #di4 ,basswood4 #ej4 ,chestnut4 #ea4 ,black willow4 #eb4 ,tideland spruce4 #ec4 ,hemlock4 #ed4 ,yellow poplar4 #ee4 ,redwood4 #ef4 ,butternut4 #eg4 ,white spruce4 #eh4 ,western white pine4 #ei4 ,white pine4 #fj4 ,western red cedar4 #fa4 ,sugar pine4 #fb4 ,grand fir4 #fc4 ,engelmann's spruce4 #fd4 ,white cedar4 #fe4 ,big tree4 ,,list ,,of #ff ,,common ,,woods ,,arranged ,,in ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,their ,,strength4 #a4 ,black locust4 #b4 ,yellow birch4 #c4 ,western larch4 #d4 ,cherry birch4 #e4 ,shellbark hickory4 #f4 ,slash pine4 #g4 ,longleaf pine4 #h4 ,hard maple4 #i4 ,blue beech4 #aj4 ,beech4 #aa4 ,mockernut4 #ab4 ,basket ,oak4 #ac4 ,cork elm4 #ad4 ,canoe birch4 #ae4 ,pignut hickory4 #af4 ,bur oak4 #ag4 ,black oak4 #ah4 ,shortleaf pine4 #ai4 ,soft maple4 #bj4 ,mahogany4 #ba4 ,red oak4 #bb4 ,red birch4 #bc4 ,white oak4 #bd4 ,tamarack4 #be4 ,lawson cypress4 #bf4 ,loblolly pine4 #bg4 ,douglas spruce4 #bh4 ,western white oak4 #bi4 ,post oak4 #cj4 ,red ash4 #ca4 ,white ash4 #cb4 ,black walnut4 #cc4 ,white elm4 #cd4 ,sour gum4 #ce4 ,wild black cherry4 #cf4 ,red maple4 #cg4 ,blue ash4 #ch4 ,black ash4 #ci4 ,norway pine4 #dj4 ,western red cedar4 #da4 ,black spruce and ,red spruce4 #db4 ,white spruce4 #dc4 ,red cedar4 #dd4 ,hemlock4 #de4 ,western yellow pine4 #df4 ,chestnut4 #dg4 ,oregon maple4 #dh4 ,bald cypress4 #di4 ,cucumber tree4 #ej4 ,oregon ash4 #ea4 ,yellow poplar4 #eb4 ,sweet gum4 #ec4 ,tideland spruce4 #ed4 ,sycamore4 #ee4 ,white pine4 #ef4 ,western white pine4 #eg4 ,butternut4 #eh4 ,redwood4 #ei4 ,sugar pine4 #fj4 ,basswood4 #fa4 ,engelmann's spruce4 #fb4 ,grand fir4 #fc4 ,big tree4 #fd4 ,white cedar4 #fe4 ,black willow4 ,,list ,,of #ff ,,common ,,woods ,,arranged ,,in ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,their ,,elasticity4 #a4 ,western larch4 #b4 ,canoe birch and ,yellow birch4 #c4 ,slash pine4 #d4 ,longleaf pine4 #e4 ,hard maple4 #f4 ,cherry birch4 #g4 ,shortleaf pine4 #h4 ,shellbark hickory4 #i4 ,black locust4 #aj4 ,douglas spruce4 #aa4 ,tamarack4 #ab4 ,lawson cypress4 #ac4 ,beech4 #ad4 ,mockernut4 #ae4 ,blue beech4 #af4 ,norway pine4 #ag4 ,loblolly pine4 #ah4 ,red oak4 #ai4 ,red birch4 #bj4 ,soft maple4 #ba4 ,red spruce and ,black spruce4 #bb4 ,cork elm4 #bc4 ,black walnut4 #bd4 ,mahogany4 #be4 ,black oak4 #bf4 ,western red cedar4 #bg4 ,pignut hickory4 #bh4 ,bald cypress4 #bi4 ,white spruce4 #cj4 ,white ash4 #ca4 ,tideland spruce4 #cb4 ,white oak4 #cc4 ,basket oak4 #cd4 ,grand fir4 #ce4 ,western white pine4 #cf4 ,red maple4 #cg4 ,bur oak4 #ch4 ,cucumber tree4 #ci4 ,yellow poplar4 #dj4 ,hemlock4 #da4 ,western yellow pine4 #db4 ,black ash4 #dc4 ,sycamore4 #dd4 ,sweet gum4 #de4 ,wild black cherry4 #df4 ,chestnut4 #dg4 ,white pine4 #dh4 ,oregon ash4 #di4 ,bass4 #ej4 ,post oak4 #ea4 ,sour gum4 #eb4 ,butternut4 #ec4 ,red ash4 #ed4 ,western white oak4 #ee4 ,engelmann's spruce4 #ef4 ,sugar pine4 #eg4 ,oregon maple4 #eh4 ,blue ash4 #ei4 ,white elm4 #fj4 ,redwood4 #fa4 ,red cedar4 #fb4 ,big tree4 #fc4 ,white cedar4 #fd4 ,black willow4 ,,list ,,of #ff ,,common ,,woods ,,arranged ,,in ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,their ,,hardness4 #a4 ,mahogany4 #b4 ,pignut4 #c4 ,mockernut4 #d4 ,post oak4 #e4 ,shellbark hickory4 #f4 ,black locust4 #g4 ,hard maple4 #h4 ,western white oak4 #i4 ,bur oak4 #aj4 ,basket oak4 #aa4 ,cherry birch4 #ab4 ,blue ash4 #ac4 ,white oak4 #ad4 ,blue beech4 #ae4 ,cork elm4 #af4 ,wild black cherry4 #ag4 ,red ash4 #ah4 ,black oak4 #ai4 ,white ash4 #bj4 ,sour gum4 #ba4 ,black walnut4 #bb4 ,beech4 #bc4 ,black ash4 #bd4 ,slash pine4 #be4 ,soft maple4 #bf4 ,red oak4 #bg4 ,red maple4 #bh4 ,white elm4 #bi4 ,oregon ash4 #cj4 ,sycamore4 #ca4 ,oregon maple4 #cb4 ,yellow birch4 #cc4 ,long leaf pine4 #cd4 ,red cedar4 #ce4 ,western larch4 #cf4 ,sweet gum4 #cg4 ,red birch4 #ch4 ,short leaf pine4 #ci4 ,canoe birch4 #dj4 ,tamarack4 #da4 ,cucumber tree4 #db4 ,western yellow pine4 #dc4 ,loblolly pine4 #dd4 ,chestnut4 #de4 ,douglas spruce4 #df4 ,black willow4 #dg4 ,butternut4 #dh4 ,norway pine4 #di4 ,yellow poplar4 #ej4 ,lawson cypress4 #ea4 ,hemlock4 #eb4 ,bald cypress4 #ec4 ,sugar pine4 #ed4 ,red spruce and ,black spruce4 #ee4 ,redwood4 #ef4 ,engelmann's spruce4 #eg4 ,white pine4 #eh4 ,white spruce4 #ei4 ,tideland spruce4 #fj4 ,western white cedar4 #fa4 ,big tree4 #fb4 ,white cedar4 #fc4 ,western white pine4 #fd4 ,basswood4 #fe4 ,grand fir4 ,,the ,,principal ,,species ,,of ,,woods4 ,,references3,a ,sargent1 ,jesup ,collection4 ,sargent1 ,manual4 ,britton4 ,roth1 ,timber4 ,hough1 ,handbook4 ,keeler4 ,apgar4 ,mohr4 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #bb4 ,fernow1 ,forestry ,investigations4 ,lumber ,trade ,journals4 ,baterden4 ,sargent1 ,silva4 ,sargent1 ,forest ,trees1 #ajth ,census1 ,vol4 ,,ix4 ,boulger4 ,hough1 ,american ,woods4 ,snow4 ,lounsberry4 ,spaulding4 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #ac4 ,sudworth4 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #ag4 ,forest ,service ,records of ,wholesale ,prices of ,lumber1 ,list4 ,a4 ,for particular trees consult ,for4 ,serv41 ,bulletins and ,circulars4 ,see ,for4 ,service ,classified ,list of ,publications4 ,footnote ,a3 ,for general bibliography1 see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,distribution ,,and ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,north ,,american ,,forests4 ,the forests of the ,united ,states1 ,map1 ,fig4 #dd1 may be conveniently divided into two great regions1 the ,eastern or ,atlantic ,forest1 and the ,western or ,pacific ,forest4 ,these are separated by the great treeless plains which are west of the ,mississippi ,river1 and east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and which extend from ,north ,dakota to western ,texas4#a ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,forest ,regions of the ,united ,states4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,the ,eastern ,forest once consisted of an almost unbroken mass1 lying in three quite distinct regions1 7#a7 the northern belt of conifers1 7#b7 the southern belt of conifers1 and 7#c7 the great deciduous 7hardwood7 forest lying between these two4 7#a7 ,the northern belt of conifers or ,north ,woods extended thru northern ,new ,england and ,new ,york and ran south along the ,appalachians4 ,it reappeared again in northern ,michigan1 ,wisconsin and ,minnesota4 ,white pine1 ,fig4 #de1 was the characteristic tree in the eastern part of this belt1 tho spruce was common1 ,fig4 #ef1 p4 #bac1 and white and ,norway pine and hemlock distinguished it in the western part4 ,altho the more valuable timber1 especially the pine1 has been cut out1 it still remains a largely unbroken forest mainly of spruce1 second growth pine1 hemlock and some hardwood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,interior of ,dense ,white ,pine ,forest1 ,cass ,lake1 ,minn4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 7#b7 ,the southern pine forest formerly extended from the ,potomac ,river in a belt from one to two hundred miles wide along the ,atlantic coast1 across the ,florida peninsula1 and along the gulf of ,mexico1 skipping the ,mississippi ,river and reappearing in a great forest in ,louisiana and ,eastern ,texas4 ,it was composed of almost pure stands of pine1 the long-leaf1 ,fig4 #df1 the short-leaf1 and the loblolly1 with cypress in the swamps and bottom lands4 ,in southern ,florida the forest is tropical1 ,fig4 #dg1 like that of the ,west ,indies1 and in southern ,texas it partakes of the character of the ,mexican forest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,long-leaf ,pine ,forest4 ,oscilla1 ,georgia4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,semi-tropical ,forest1 ,florida4 ,live ,oak1 ,surrounded by ,cabbage ,palmetto1 and ,hung ,with ,spanish ,moss4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 7#c7 ,between these north and south coniferous belts1 lay the great broad-leaf or hardwood forest1 ,fig4 #dh1 which constituted the greater part of the ,eastern ,forest and characterized it4 ,it was divided into two parts by an irregular northeast and southwest line1 running from southern ,new ,england to ,missouri4 ,the southeast portion consisted of hardwoods intermixed with conifers4 ,the higher ridges of the ,appalachian ,range1 really a leg of the northern forest1 were occupied by conifers1 mainly spruce1 white pine1 and hemlock4 ,the northwest portion of the region1 particularly ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,illinois1 was without the conifers4 ,it was essentially a mixed forest1 largely oak1 with a variable mixture of maples1 beech1 chestnut1 yellow poplar1 hickory1 sycamore1 elm1 and ash1 with birch appearing toward the north and pine toward the south4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,broad-leaf ,forest1 ,protected from ,cattle and ,fire4 ,hancock ,co41 ,indiana4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,taking the ,eastern ,forest as a whole1 its most distinguishing feature was the prevalence of broad-leaved trees1 so that it might properly be called a deciduous forest4 ,the greatest diversity of trees was to be found in ,kentucky1 ,tennessee and ,north ,carolina1 and this region is still the source of the best hardwood lumber4 ,this great eastern forest1 which once extended uninterruptedly from the ,atlantic to the ,mississippi and beyond1 has now been largely lumbered off1 particularly thru the middle or hardwood portion1 making way for farms and towns4 ,the north and south coniferous belts are still mainly unbroken1 and are sparsely settled1 but the big timber is cut out1 giving place to poorer trees4 ,this is particularly true of the white pine1 the king of ,american trees1 only a little of which1 in valuable sizes1 is left in ,michigan1 ,wisconsin and ,minnesota4 ,in the same way in the south1 the long-leaf pine1 once the characteristic tree1 is fast being lumbered out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,irrigated ,ranch on ,treeless ,alkali ,plain4 ,rio ,blanco ,co41 ,colorada4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,the ,western or ,pacific forest extends two great legs1 one down the ,rocky ,mountain ,range1 and the other along the ,pacific coast4 ,between them lies the great treeless alkali plain centering around ,nevada1 ,fig4 #di4 ,in these two regions coniferous trees have almost a monopoly4 ,broad-leaved trees are to be found there1 along the river beds and in ravines1 but they are of comparatively little importance4 ,the forest is essentially an evergreen forest4 ,another marked feature of this western forest1 except in the ,puget ,sound region1 is that the trees1 in many cases1 stand far apart1 their crowns not even touching1 so that the sun beats down and dries up the forest floor1 ,fig4 #ej4 ,there is no dense forest cover or canopy as in the ,eastern ,forest4 ,moreover these western forests are largely broken up1 covering but a part of the mountains1 many of which are snow-clad1 and interrupted by bare plains4 ,along the creeks there grow a variety of hardwoods4 ,it was never a continuous forest as was the ,eastern ,forest4 ,the openness of this forest on the ,rockies and on the eastern slopes of the ,sierra ,nevadas is in marked contrast to the western slopes of the ,sierras1 where there are to be seen the densest and most remarkable woods of the world1 ,fig4 #ea4 ,this is due to the peculiar distribution of the rainfall of the region4 ,the precipitation of the moisture upon the northwest coast where the trees are dripping with fog a large part of the time1 is unequaled by that of any other locality on the continent4 ,but the interior of this region1 which is shut off by the high ,sierra ,nevadas from the western winds1 has a very light and irregular rainfall4 ,where the rainfall is heavy1 the forests are dense2 and where the rainfall is light1 the trees are sparse4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,open ,western ,forest1 ,bull ,pine4 ,flagstaff1 ,arizona4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,along the ,rockies the characteristic trees are ,engelmann's spruce1 bull pine1 ,douglas fir1 and lodgepole pine4 ,as one goes west1 the variety of trees increases and becomes1 so far as conifers are concerned1 far greater than in the east4 ,of #aji conifers in the ,united ,states1 #hj belong to the western forests and #bh to the eastern4 ,the ,pacific forest is rich in the possession of half a dozen leading species--,douglas fir1 western hemlock1 sugar pine1 bull pine1 cedar and redwood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,dense ,forest of ,puget ,sound ,region1 ,red ,fir and ,red ,cedar4 ,pierce ,co41 ,washington4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,but the far western conifers are remarkable1 not only for their variety1 but still more for the density of their growth1 already mentioned1 and for their great size1 ,fig4 #eb4 ,the pines1 spruces and hemlocks of the ,puget ,sound region make eastern trees look small1 and both the red fir and the redwood often grow to be over #bej feet high1 and yield #ajj1jjj feet1 ,b4,m41 to the acre as against #aj1jjj feet1 ,b4,m41 of good spruce in ,maine4 ,the redwood1 ,fig4 #ec1 occupies a belt some twenty miles wide along the coast from southern ,oregon to a point not far north of ,san ,francisco and grows even taller than the famous big trees4 ,the big trees are the largest known trees in diameter1 occasionally reaching in that measurement #ce feet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,virgin ,forest of ,red ,fir1 ,red ,cedar1 ,western ,hemlock1 and ,oregon ,maple4 ,ashford1 ,washington4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,redwood ,forest4 ,santa ,cruz ,co41 ,calif4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,the big tree1 ,fig4 #ed1 occurs exclusively in groves1 which1 however1 are not pure1 but are scattered among a much larger number of trees of other kinds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,big ,tree ,forest4 ,sierra ,national ,forest1 ,california4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,the great and unsurpassed ,puget ,sound forest is destined to be before long the center of the lumber trade of this country4 ,these two great forests of the east and the west both run northward into ,british ,america1 and are there united in a broad belt of subarctic forest which extends across the continent4 ,at the far north it is characterized by the white spruce and aspen4 ,the forest is open1 stunted1 and of no economic value4 ,taking all the genera and species together1 there is a far greater variety in the eastern than in the western forests4 ,a considerable number of genera1 perhaps a third of the total1 grow within both regions1 but the species having continental range are few4 ,they are the following3 ,larch 7,larix laricina71 white spruce 7,picea canadensis71 dwarf juniper 7,juniperus communis71 black willow 7,salix nigra71 almond leaf willow 7,salix amygdaloides71 long leaf willow 7,salix fluviatilis71 aspen 7,populus tremuloides71 balm of ,gilead 7,populus balsamifera71 and hackberry 7,celtis occidentalis74 ,footnote #a3 ,,original ,,forest ,,regions ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,area ,area ,thousand acres ,per cent4 ,northern forest #aeh1ich #h4d ,hardwood forest #cbh1ahc #ag4c ,southern forest #bdi1ffi #ac4a ,rocky ,mountains forest #aee1jad #h4a ,pacific forest #aba1cef #f4d ,treeless area #hhg1ghg #df4g --------- ----- ,total land area #a1ijj1idg #ajj4j ,,the ,,distribution ,,and ,,composition ,,of ,,north ,,american ,,forests4 ,,references3,a ,sargent1 ,forest ,trees1 ,intro41 pp4 #c-aj4 ,bruncken1 pp4 #e-af4 ,roth1 ,first ,book1 pp4 #bji-bab4 ,shaler1 ,i1 pp4 #dhi-dih4 ,fernow1 ,for4 ,inves41 pp4 #de-ea4 ,fernow1 ,economics1 pp4 #cca-cfh4 ,footnote ,a3 ,for general bibliography1 see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,forest ,,organism4 ,the forest is much more than an assemblage of different trees1 it is an organism2 that is1 the trees that compose it have a vital relation to each other4 ,it may almost be said to have a life of its own1 since it has a soil and a climate1 largely of its own making4 ,without these conditions1 and without the help and hindrance which forest trees give to each other1 these trees would not have their present characteristics1 either in shape1 habits of growth or nature of wood grain4 ,indeed1 some of them could not live at all4 ,since by far the greater number of timber trees grow in the forest1 in order to understand the facts about trees and woods1 it is necessary to know something about the conditions of forest life4 ,a tree is made up of three distinct parts3 7#a7 the roots which anchor it in the ground1 and draw its nourishment from the moist soil2 7#b7 the trunk1 or bole1 or stem1 which carries the weight of the branches and leaves1 and conveys the nourishment to and from the leaves2 7#c7 the crown1 composed of the leaves1 the branches on which they hang1 and the buds at the ends of the branches4 ,as trees stand together in the forest1 their united crowns make a sort of canopy or cover1 ,fig4 #ee1 which1 more than anything1 determines the factors affecting forest life1 viz41 the soil1 the temperature1 the moisture1 and most important of all1 the light4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,the ,forest ,cover4 ,spruce ,forest1 ,bavaria1 ,germany4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,on the other hand1 every species of tree has its own requirements in respect to these very factors of temperature1--moisture1 soil and light4 ,these are called its silvical characteristics4 ,,soil4 ,some trees1 as black walnut1 flourish on good soil1 supplanting others because they are better able to make use of the richness of the soil2 while some trees occupy poor soil because they alone are able to live there at all4 ,spruce1 ,fig4 #ef1 will grow in the north woods on such poor soil that it has no competitors1 and birches1 too1 will grow anywhere in the north woods4 ,in general1 it is true that mixed forests1 ,fig4 #eg1 i4e41 those having a variety of species1 grow on good loamy soil4 ,the great central1 deciduous ,atlantic ,forest grew on such soil until it was removed to make room for farms4 ,on the other hand1 pure stands--i4e41 forests made up of single varieties--of pine occupy poor sandy soil4 ,within a distance of a few yards in the midst of a pure stand of pine in the south1 a change in the soil will produce a dense mixed growth of broad-leaves and conifers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,virgin ,stand of ,red ,spruce4 ,white ,mountains1 ,new ,hampshire4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,typical ,mixed ,forest1--,red ,spruce1 ,hemlock1 ,white ,ash1 ,yellow ,birch1 ,balsam ,fir1 and ,red ,maple4 ,raquette ,lake1 ,new ,york4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,the soil in the forest is largely determined by the forest itself4 ,in addition to the earth1 it is composed of the fallen and decayed leaves and twigs and tree trunks1 altogether called the forest floor4 ,it is spongy and hence has the ability to retain moisture1 a fact of great importance to the forest4 ,,moisture4 ,some trees1 as black ash and cypress1 ,fig4 #eh1 and cotton gum1 ,fig4 #ei1 grow naturally only in moist places2 some1 as the pinon and mesquite1 a kind of locust1 grow only in dry places2 while others1 as the juniper and ,douglas fir1 adapt themselves to either4 ,both excessively wet and dry soils tend to diminish the number of kinds of trees4 ,in many instances the demand for water controls the distribution altogether4 ,in the ,puget ,sound region1 where there is a heavy rain-fall1 the densest forests in the world are found1 whereas on the eastern slopes of the same mountains1 altho the soil is not essentially different1 there are very few trees1 because of the constant drouth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,cypress and ,cypress ,knees4 ,jasper ,co41 ,texas4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,cotton ,gums1 ,showing ,buttresses4 ,st4 ,francis ,river1 ,arkansas4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,,temperature4 ,the fact that some trees1 as paper birch and white spruce1 grow only in cold regions1 and some1 as rubber trees and cypress1 only in the tropics1 is commonplace2 but a fact not so well known is that it is not the average temperature1 but the extremes which largely determine the habitat of trees of different kinds4 ,trees which would not live at all where there is frost1 might flourish well in a region where the average temperature was considerably lower4 ,on the other hand1 provided the growing season is long enough for the species1 there is no place on earth too cold for trees to live4 ,fig4 #fj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,northern ,forest1--,young ,spruce ,growing ,under ,yellow ,birch4 ,santa ,clara1 ,new ,york4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,in general1 cold affects the forest just as poor soil and drought do1 simplifying its composition and stunting its growth4 ,in ,canada there are only a few kinds of trees1 of which the hardwoods are stunted2 south of the ,great ,lakes1 there is a great variety of large trees2 farther south in the southern ,appalachian region1 there is a still greater variety1 and the trees are just as large2 and still farther south in tropical ,florida1 there is the greatest variety of all4 ,the slopes of a high mountain furnish an illustration of the effect of temperature4 ,in ascending it1 one may pass from a tropical forest at the base1 thru a belt of evergreen1 broad-leaved trees1 then thru a belt of deciduous broad-leaved trees1 then thru a belt of conifers and up to the timber line where tree life ceases4 ,figs4 #fa1 and #fb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,mixed ,hardwoods on ,lower ,levels4 ,spruce and ,balsam ,dominate on ,higher ,elevations4 ,mt4 ,mc,intyre1 ,adirondack ,mountains1 ,new ,york4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,scrub ,growth on ,mountain ,top4 ,mt4 ,webster1 ,new ,hampshire4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,,light4 ,more than by any other factor1 the growth of trees in a forest is determined by the effect of light4 ,all trees need light sooner or later1 but some trees have much more ability than others to grow in the shade when young4 ,such trees1 of which maple and spruce are examples1 are called tolerant1 while others1 for instance1 larch1 which will endure only a comparatively thin cover or none at all1 are called intolerant4 ,the leaves of tolerant trees endure shade well1 so that their inner and lower leaves flourish under the shadow of their upper and outer leaves1 with the result that the whole tree1 as beech and maple1 makes a dense shadow2 whereas the leaves of intolerant trees are either sparse1 as in the larch1 or are so hung that the light sifts thru them1 as in poplar and oak4 ,the spruces and balsam fir have the remarkable power of growing slowly under heavy shade for many years1 and then of growing vigorously when the light is let in by the fall of their overshadowing neighbors4 ,this can plainly be seen in the cross-section of balsam fir1 ,fig4 #fc1 where the narrow annual rings of the early growth1 are followed by the wider ones of later growth4 ,a common sight in the dense woods is the maple sending up a long1 spindly stem thru the trees about it and having at its top a little tuft of leaves1 ,fig4 #fd4 ,by so doing it survives4 ,the fact that a tree can grow without shade often determines its possession of a burnt-over tract4 ,the order in the ,north ,woods after a fire is commonly1 first1 a growth of fire weed1 then raspberries or blackberries1 then aspen1 a very intolerant tree whose light shade in turn permits under it the growth of the spruce1 to which it is a nurse1 ,fig4 #fe4 ,in general it may be said that all seedling conifers require some shade the first two years1 while hardwoods in temperate climates1 as a rule1 do not4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,cross section of ,balsam ,fir1 ,showing ,fast ,growth ,after ,years of ,suppression4 ,notice the width of the annual rings in later age compared with early4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,tolerant ,maple4 ,the trees are too slender to stand alone4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,intolerant ,aspen1 a nurse of ,tolerant ,spruce4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,this matter of tolerance has also much to do with the branching of trees4 ,the leaves on the lower branches of an intolerant tree will not thrive1 with the result that those branches die and later drop off4 ,this is called cleaning1 or natural pruning4 ,intolerant trees1 like aspen and tulip1 ,fig4 #ff1 clean themselves well and hence grow with long1 straight boles1 while tolerant trees1 like spruce and fir1 retain their branches longer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,intolerant ,tulip4 ,notice the long1 straight boles4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,the distribution of a species may also be determined by geographical barriers1 like mountain ranges and oceans4 ,this is why the western forests differ radically from the eastern forests and why the forest of ,australasia is sharply distinct from any other forest in the world4 ,any one or several of these factors1 soil1 moisture1 heat1 and light1 may be the determining factor in the make-up of a forest1 or it may be that a particular tree may survive1 because of a faster rate of growth1 thus enabling it to overtop its fellows and cut off their light4 ,the struggle for survival is constant1 and that tree survives which can take the best advantage of the existent conditions4 ,besides these topographical and climatic factors which help determine the distribution of trees1 a very important factor is the historical one4 ,for example1 the only reason by which the location of the few isolated groves of big trees in ,california can be accounted for is the rise and fall of glacial sheets1 which left them1 as it were1 islands stranded in a sea of ice4 ,as the glaciers retreated1 the region gradually became re-forested1 those trees coming up first which were best able to take advantage of the conditions1 whether due to the character of their seeds1 their tolerance1 their endurance of moisture or whatever4 ,this process is still going on and hardwoods are probably gaining ground4 ,besides these external factors which determine the composition and organic life of the forest1 the trees themselves furnish an important factor in their methods of reproduction4 ,these1 in general1 are two1 7#a7 by sprouts1 and 7#b7 by seeds4 7#a7 ,most conifers have no power of sprouting4 ,the chief exceptions are pitch pine and1 to a remarkable degree1 the redwood1 ,fig4 #fg4 ,this power1 however1 is common in broad-leaved trees1 as may be seen after a fire has swept thru second growth1 hardwood timber4 ,altho all the young trees are killed down to the ground1 the young sprouts spring up from the still living roots4 ,this may happen repeatedly4 ,coppice woods1 as of chestnut and oak1 which sprout with great freedom1 are the result of this ability4 ,the wood is poor so that it is chiefly used for fuel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,sprouting ,redwood ,stumps4 ,glen ,blair1 ,calif4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 7#b7 ,most trees1 however1 are reproduced by seeds4 ,trees yield these in great abundance1 to provide for waste1--nature's method4 ,many seeds never ripen1 many perish1 many are eaten by animals1 many fall on barren ground or rocks1 and many sprout1 only to die4 ,the weight of seeds has much to do with their distribution4 ,heavy seeds like acorns1 chestnuts1 hickory and other nuts1 grow where they fall1 unless carried down hill by gravity or by water1 or scattered by birds and squirrels4 ,trees with winged seeds1 however1 ,fig4 #fh1 as bass1 maple and pine1 or with light seeds1 as poplar1 often have their seeds carried by the wind to great distances4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,winged ,seeds4 #a1 ,basswood2 #b1 ,box-elder2 #c1 ,elm2 #d1 ,fir2 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 ,pines4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,again some trees1 as spruce1 are very fertile1 while others1 like beech1 have only occasional seed-bearing seasons1 once in three or four years4 ,willow seeds lose their power of germination in a few days1 and hence1 unless they soon reach ground where there is plenty of moisture1 they die4 ,this is why they grow mostly along water courses4 ,on the other hand1 black locust pods and the cones of some pines keep their seeds perfect for many years1 often until a fire bursts them open1 and so they live at the expense of their competitors4 ,it is such facts as these that help to account for some of the acts of forest composition1--why in one place at one time there is a growth of aspens1 at another time pines1 at still another oaks2 and why beeches spring up one year and not another4 ,that red cedars grow in avenues along fences1 is explained by the fact that the seeds are dropped there by birds1 ,fig4 #fi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,red ,cedar ,avenue4 ,seeds dropped by birds which perched on the fences4 ,indiana4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,the fact that conifers1 as the longleaf pine1 ,fig4 #df1 p4 #bjj1 and spruce1 ,fig4 #ee1 p4 #bab1 are more apt to grow in pure stands than broad-leaved trees1 is largely accounted for by their winged seeds2 whereas the broad-leaved trees grow mostly in mixed stands because their heavy seeds are not plentifully and widely scattered4 ,this is a rule not without exceptions1 for beech sometimes covers a whole mountain side1 as ,slide ,mountain in the ,catskills1 and aspens come in over a wide area after a fire2 but later other trees creep in until at length it becomes a mixed forest4 ,the essential facts of the relation of trees to each other in the forest has been clearly stated by ,gifford ,pinchot thus3#a ,the history of the life of a forest is a story of the help and harm which trees receive from one another4 ,on one side every tree is engaged in a relentless struggle against its neighbors for light1 water and food1 the three things trees need most4 ,on the other side each tree is constantly working with all its neighbors1 even those which stand at some distance1 to bring about the best condition of the soil and air for the growth and fighting power of every other tree4 ,the trees in a forest help each other by enriching the soil in which they stand with their fallen leaves and twigs1 which are not quickly blown or washed away as are those under a tree in the open4 ,this collection of duff or the forest floor retains the moisture about their roots1 and this moist mass tends to keep the temperature of the forest warmer in winter and cooler in summer4 ,the forest cover1 ,fig4 #ee1 p4 #bab1 consisting largely of foliage1 has the same effect1 and in addition protects the bark1 the roots1 and the seedlings of the trees from the direct and continuous hot rays of the sun4 ,without the shade of the leaves1 many trees1 as white pine1 would quickly die1 as may readily be seen by transplanting them to the open4 ,the mass of standing trees tempers the force of the wind1 which might overthrow some of them1 and hinders the drying up of the duff4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,shallow ,roots of ,hemlock4 ,bronx ,park1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,but trees hinder as well as help each other4 ,there is a constant struggle between them for nourishment and light4 ,to get food and water1 some trees1 as spruces and hemlocks1 ,fig4 #gj1 spread their roots out flat2 others1 as oak and pine1 send down a deep tap root4 ,those succeed in any environment that find the nourishment they need4 ,still more evident is the struggle for light and air4 ,however well a tree is nourished thru its roots1 unless its leaves have an abundance of light and air it will not thrive and make wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,long-bodied ,white ,oak of the ,forest4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,even the trees most tolerant of shade in youth1 like spruce1 must have light later or perish1 and hence in a forest there is the constant upward reach4 ,this produces the characteristic long-bodied trunk of the forest tree1 ,fig4 #ga1 in contrast to the short-bodied tree of the open1 where the branches reach out in all directions1 ,fig4 #gb4 ,in this constant struggle for existence is involved the persistent attempt of scattered seeds to sprout whenever there is an opening4 ,the result is that a typical forest is one in which all sizes and ages of trees grow together4 ,scattered among these are bushes and scrubby trees1 called forest weeds1 such as mountain maple and dogwood1 ,fig4 #hj1 p4 #bcd1 which do not produce timber4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,short-bodied ,white ,oak of the ,open4 ,fort ,lee1 ,n4 ,j4 ,by foresters the trees themselves are classified according to their size into3 ,seedlings1 less than #c' high1 ,saplings1 ,small1 #c'-aj' high4 ,large1 #d in diameter1 at breast height 7#d' #f74 ,poles1 ,small1 #d-h in diameter1 at breast height4 ,large1 #h-ab in diameter1 at breast height4 ,standards1 #a'-b' in diameter1 at breast height4 ,veterans1 over #b' in diameter1 at breast height4 ,every age has its own dangers4 ,many seeds never germinate1 many seedlings perish because they do not reach soil1 or are killed by too much or too little moisture1 or by heat or cold1 or shade4 ,at the sapling age1 the side branches begin to interfere with those of other saplings4 ,buds are bruised and lower branches broken by thrashing in the wind1 and their leaves have less light4 ,only the upper branches have room and light1 and they flourish at the expense of lower ones1 which gradually die and are thus pruned off4 ,some trees naturally grow faster than others1 and they attain additional light and room to spread laterally1 thus overtopping others which are suppressed and finally killed1 beaten in the race for life4 ,if the growth should remain about even so that the trees grew densely packed together1 the whole group would be likely to be of a poorer quality1 but ordinarily the few outgrow the many and they are called dominant trees4 ,even then1 they still have to struggle against their neighbors1 and at this1 the large sapling stage1 many perish1 and of those that survive there are great differences in size4 ,trees make their most rapid growth in height1 and lay on the widest yearly rings1 at the large sapling and small pole age1 ,fig4 #aad1 p4 #bfc4 ,it is at this stage1 too1 if the growth is at all dense1 that the young trees 7poles7 clean themselves most thoroly of their branches4 ,the growth in diameter continues to the end of the tree's life1 long after the height growth has ceased4 ,when trees become standards1 and reach the limit of height growth1 thru their inability to raise water to their tops1 their branches must perforce grow sidewise1 or not at all4 ,the struggle for life thus takes a new form4 ,how trees are able to raise water as high as they do is still unexplained1 but we know that the chief reason why some trees grow taller than others1 is due to their ability to raise water4 ,the most remarkable in this respect are the ,california redwoods1 the big trees1 and certain eucalypts in ,australia4 ,this inability of trees to grow above a certain height results in a flattening of the crown1 ,fig4 #gc1 and at this stage1 the trees struggle against each other by crowding at the side4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,flattened ,crown of ,red ,pine4 ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,inasmuch as trees grow more sensitive to shade with advancing age1 the taller trees have the advantage4 ,each survivor is one of a thousand1 and has outlived the others because it is best fitted for the place4 ,this fact has its effect upon the next generation1 because it is these dominant surviving trees which bear seed most abundantly4 ,after the tree has finished growing in height and diameter most vigorously--the pole stage--and proved to be fitted for the place1 its energy is largely spent in raising seed4 ,as this process goes on generation after generation1 only the best coming to maturity in each1 the poorer sorts are sifted out1 and each region and continent has those species best fitted to meet the conditions of life there4 ,this is the reason why exotics are very likely to be sensitive and perhaps succumb to influences to which native trees are immune4 ,standards and veterans are the survivors of all the lower stages1 each of which has had its especial dangers4 ,if left alone1 the tree gradually dies and at last falls and decays1 adding somewhat to the fertility of the forest soil4 ,from the point of view of human use1 it would far better have been cut when ripe and turned into lumber4 ,it is a mistake to suppose that the natural virgin forest is the best possible forest1 and that it should therefore be left alone4 ,in the ,national ,forests the ripe lumber is sold and a considerable revenue is thus available4 ,but nature's way with the dead tree is to use it to produce more life4 ,how she does so will be explained in the next chapter1 on the enemies of the forest4 ,footnote #a3 ,gifford ,pinchot1 ,primer of ,forestry1 p4 #dd4 ,,the ,,forest ,,organism4 ,,references3,a ,pinchot1 ,for4 ,bull4 ,no4 #bd1 ,i1 pp4 #be-ff4 ,bruncken1 pp4 #ac-ca4 ,for4 ,circ4 ,no4 #cf1 p4 #h4 ,fernow1 ,economics1 pp4 #adj-afd4 ,footnote ,a3 ,for general bibliography1 see p4 #d ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,natural ,,enemies ,,of ,,the ,,forest4 ,the natural enemies of the forest--as distinct from its human enemies--fall into three groups3 7#a7 ,meteorological1 7#b7 ,vegetable1 7#c7 ,animal4 ,,meteorological ,,forces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,effect of ,wind1 ,july1 #aijb1 ,cass ,county1 ,minnesota4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,wind4 ,windfalls are not an uncommon sight in any forest4 ,frequently only small areas are blown down1 one large tree upsetting a few others1 or again a vast region is destroyed by great storms1 ,fig4 #gd4 ,an area of many square miles in ,florida covered with long-leaf pine was thus destroyed several years ago4 ,the slash thus formed1 when well dried1 is particularly liable to catch fire and burn furiously4 ,windfalls are especially common among shallow-rooted trees1 as hemlock1 basswood and spruce1 on sandy soil and on shallow soil underlaid with solid stone1 especially where open spaces give the wind free sweep4 ,it follows that an unbroken forest is a great protection to itself4 ,the only precautions against wind therefore1 that can be taken by the forester1 are to keep the forest unbroken by selecting only the larger trees for felling or to cut down a given tract by beginning at the side opposite the direction of prevailing storms and working toward them4 ,in sandy regions1 the wind does immense harm by blowing the sand to and fro in constantly shifting dunes1 ,figs4 #ge and #gf4 ,these dunes occupy long stretches of the ,atlantic coast and the shore of ,lake ,michigan4 ,such dunes have been estimated to cover #bj1jjj square miles of ,europe4 ,along the ,bay of ,biscay in ,france1 the sand dunes formerly drifted in ridges along the shore1 damming up the streams and converting what was once a forest into a pestilential marsh4 ,this region has been reclaimed at great expense by building fences along the shore to break the wind and thus keep the moving sand within limits4 ,in this way a million acres of productive forest have been obtained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,sand-dunes1 ,cape ,may1 ,new ,jersey4 ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,sand-dune4 ,oregon4 ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,on the other hand winds are beneficial to the forest in scattering seeds1 weeding out weak trees1 and developing strength in tree trunks4 ,drouth both injures the foliage of trees and causes defects in the grain of wood1 the latter appearing as false rings4 ,these arise from the effort of the tree to resume growth when the water supply is restored4 ,see p4 #ai4 ,water4 ,certain trees have become accustomed to living in much water1 as cedar and cypress have in swamps1 and certain trees have become accustomed to periodical floods1 but other trees are killed by much water4 ,so when lumbermen make a pond which overflows forest land1 the trees soon die1 ,fig4 #gg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,effect of ,flooding4 ,first ,connecticut ,lake1 ,new ,hampshire4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,lightning frequently blasts single trees1 and in dry seasons may set fire to forests4 ,this is a much more important factor in the west than in the east1--in the ,rockies1 for instance1 where there are electrical storms without rain4 ,fires will be considered later under man's relation to the forest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,slim ,trees ,bent ,over by ,snow2 ,stouter ,trees ,unharmed4 ,zurich1 ,switzerland4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,snow and ice often bring serious harm to saplings by permanently bending them over1 ,fig4 #gh1 or by breaking off tops and branches4 ,frost kills young plants2 and sudden changes in temperature seriously affect grown timber1 producing frost checks and wind shakes4 ,when there is a sudden fall in temperature1 the outside layers of the tree1 which are full of sap1 contract more rapidly than the inner portions1 with the result that the tree splits with a sudden pistol-like report1 the check running radially up and down the tree4 ,this is called a frost check or star shake1 ,fig4 #da4;a1 p4 #dg1 and such wounds rarely heal1 ,fig4 #gi4 ,on the other hand when the temperature rapidly rises1 the outside layers of the tree expand so much more rapidly than the inside1 that they separate with a dull muffled chug1 the check extending in a circular direction following the annual rings4 ,such checks are often called wind shakes and cup shakes1 ,fig4 #da4;c1 p4 #dg4 ,these injuries are found in regions where sudden changes of temperature occur1 rather than in the tropics or in very cold climates4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,contraction ,frost ,check4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,,vegetable ,,enemies4 ,under this head may be classed1 in addition to fungi1 a number of unrelated plants1 including such as3 moosewood and dogwood1 ,fig4 #hj1 which crowd out young trees2 vines1 like bitter-sweet1 which wind about trees and often choke them by pressure1 cutting thru the bark and cambium2 saprophytes1 which smother the foliage of trees1 of which ,spanish moss1 ,fig4 #dg1 p4 #bja1 is an example2 and finally such parasites as the mistletoes1 which weaken and deform the trees4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,a ,forest ,weed1 ,flowering ,dogwood4 ,north ,carolina4 ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,the most important of the vegetable enemies of trees are fungi4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that1 without the decay produced by them1 the fallen trees would soon cover the ground1 and prevent any new growth1 thus destroying the natural forest4 ,every tree1 as has been noted 7p4 #ag71 is composed of two parts1 one part1 including leaves1 young branches1 roots and sap-wood1 living1 and the other part1 namely1 the heart-wood1 practically dead4 ,fungi that attack the live parts of a tree are called parasites1 while those that live on dead trunks and branches are designated as saprophytes4 ,the line1 however1 between these two classes of fungi is not well defined1 since some parasites live on both living and dead wood4 ,the parasites are of first importance1 for1 since they kill many trees1 they control to a large extent the supply of living timber4 ,nearly all parasitic fungi have two portions1 an external fruiting portion which bears the spores--which correspond to the seeds of flowering plants--and an internal portion consisting of a tangle of threads or filaments1 which ramify the tissues of the tree and whose function is to absorb nutriment for the fungus4 ,fungi are classified botanically according to the spore-bearing bodies1 their form1 color1 etc4 ,the parasitic fungi which are especially destructive to wood are those that have naked spores growing on exposed fruiting surfaces 7the ,hymenomycetes74 ,in toadstools 7the agarics7 these exposed surfaces are thin1 flat plates called gills4 ,in the polypores1 which include the shelf fungi1 the spore surfaces are tubes whose openings constitute the pores4 ,in the dry-rot1 or tear fungus 7,merulius lacrymans71 the spore surfaces are shallow cavities4 ,some varieties1 called true parasites1 develop in uninjured trees1 while others1 called wound parasites1 can penetrate the tissues of trees1 only where a cut or injury makes a suitable lodgment for the spores4 ,some fungi attack only a single species of trees1 others whole genera2 some attack only conifers1 others deciduous trees1 while a few attack trees of nearly all kinds alike4 ,fungal spores when brought in contact with a wound on a tree or other suitable place1 and provided with suitable conditions of growth1 germinate1 penetrate the tissues and grow very rapidly4 ,these spores send out long threads or filaments which run thru the cells lengthwise and also pierce them in all directions1 soon forming a network in the wood called the mycelium4 ,rotting1 in a large number of cases1 is due to the ravages of fungi4 ,this sometimes shows in the color1 as the red rot of pine or the bluing of ash4 ,sometimes as in pecky or peggy cypress1 the decayed tracts are tubular4 ,more commonly the decayed parts are of irregular shape4 ,the decay of wood is due to the ravages of low forms of plant life1 both bacteria and fungi4 ,a few of the more destructive forms may be noted4 ,trametes pini 7,brot47 ,fr4 ,foremost among the timber destroying fungi is the large brown punk or conch found in its typical development on the long-leaf and short-leaf pines1 ,pinus palustris and ,pinus echinata1 ,fig4 #ha4 ,the fruiting bodies form large masses which grow out from a knot1 oftentimes as large as a child's head4 ,they are cinnamon brown on the lower surface1 and much fissured and broken1 on the black charcoal-like upper surface4 ,this fungus probably causes four-fifths of the destruction brought about by the timber destroying fungi4 ,it occurs on most of the conifers in the ,united ,states which have any value as lumber trees1 and brings about a characteristic white spotting of the wood1 ,fig4 #hb1 which varies with the kind of tree attacked4 7,von ,schrenk1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijj1 p4 #bjf47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,a ,conch1 the fruiting body of ,trametes pini1 on ,sugar ,pine4 ,agric4 ,year ,book1 #aijj1 ,pl4 ,,xxii1 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,effect of ,fungus4 7,trametes pini47 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agric4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,shelf ,fungus on ,pine4 a4 ,sound wood2 b4 ,resinous light wood2 c4 ,partly decayed wood or punk2 d4 ,layer of living spore tubes2 e4 ,old filled-up spore tubes2 f4 ,fluted upper surface of the fruiting body of the fungus1 which gets its food thru a great number of fine threads 7the mycelium71 its vegetative tissue penetrating the wood and causing its decay4 ,after ,hartig4 ,of the shelf fungi1 which project like brackets from the stems of trees1 and have their pores on their under surfaces1 one of the commonest in many localities is the yellow cheese-like ,polyporus sulphureus1 ,fig4 #hc4 ,this is found on oak1 poplar1 willow1 larch1 and other standing timber4 ,its spawnlike threads spread from any exposed portion of cambium into the pith-rays and between the annual rings1 forming thick layers of yellowish-white felt1 and penetrating the vessels of the wood1 which thereupon becomes a deep brown color and decays4 ,of the umbrella-shaped gill-bearing fungi1 a yellow toadstool1 called the honey mushroom 7,agaricus melleus71 is a good example1 ,fig4 #hd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,honey ,mushroom4 ,agaricus melleus4 #a4 ,cluster of small sporophores4 #b4 ,larger sporophore with root-like organ of attachment4 ,forestry ,bulletin #bb4 ,plate ,,xii1 ,figs4 #a and #b4 ,this fungus1 of common occurrence in the ,united ,states as well as in ,europe1 is exceedingly destructive to coniferous trees1 the white pine in particular suffering greatly from its attacks4 ,it also fastens upon various deciduous species as a parasite1 attacking living trees of all ages1 but living as well upon dead roots and stumps and on wood that has been cut and worked up1 occurring frequently on bridges1 railroad ties1 and the like1 and causing prompt decay wherever it has effected an entrance4 ,the most conspicuous part of the fungus is found frequently in the summer and fall on the diseased parts of the tree or timber infested by it4 ,it is one of the common toadstools1 this particular species being recognized by its yellowish color1 gills extending downward upon the stem1 which is encircled a little lower down by a ring1 and by its habit of growing in tufts or little clumps of several or many individuals together4 ,it is also particularly distinguished by the formation of slender1 dark-colored strings1 consisting of compact mycelium1 from which the fruiting parts just described arise4 ,these hard root-like strings 7called rhizomorphs7 extend along just beneath the surface of the ground1 often a distance of several feet1 and penetrate the roots of sound trees4 ,by carefully removing the bark from a root thus invaded the fungus is seen in the form of a dense1 nearly white1 mass of mycelium1 which1 as the parts around decay1 gradually produces again the rhizomorphs already described4 ,these rhizomorphs are a characteristic part of the fungus4 ,occurring both in the decayed wood from which they spread to the adjacent parts1 and extending in the soil from root to root1 they constitute a most effective agency in the extension of the disease4 99 99 99 ,external symptoms1 to be observed especially in young specimens recently attacked1 consist in a change of the leaves to a pale sickly color and often the production of short stunted shoots4 ,a still more marked symptom is the formation of great quantities of resin1 which flow downward thru the injured parts and out into the ground4 7,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #bb1 p4 #ea47 ,of the irregular shaped fungi1 one of the most destructive is a true parasite1 i4e41 one that finds lodgment without help1 called ,polyporus annosus and also ,trametes radiciperda1 ,fig4 #he4 ,it is peculiar in developing its fructifications on the exterior of roots1 beneath the soil4 ,its pores appear on the upper side of the fructifications4 ,it attacks only conifers4 ,its spores1 which can be readily conveyed in the fur of mice or other burrowing animals1 germinate in the moisture around the roots3 the fine threads of spawn penetrate the cortex1 and spread thru and destroy the cambium1 extending in thin1 flat1 fan-like1 white1 silky bands1 and1 here and there1 bursting thru the cortex in white1 oval cushions1 on which the subterranean fructifications are produced4 ,each of these is a yellowish-white1 felt-like mass1 with its outer surface covered with crowded minute tubes or pores in which the spores are produced4 ,the wood attacked by this fungus first becomes rosy or purple1 then turns yellowish1 and then exhibits minute black dots1 which surround themselves with extending soft white patches4 7,boulger1 p4 #gc47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 #a4 ,stump of ,norway ,spruce1 with a sporophore of polyporus annosus several years old2 the inner portions of the stump wholly decayed4 #b4 ,roots of a diseased spruce tree1 with numerous small sporophores of polyporus annosus attached4 ,forestry ,bulletin #bb1 ,plate ,,xiii1 ,figs4 #a and #b4 ,of the fungi which attack converted timber1 the most important is dry rot or tear fungus 7,merulius lachrymans71 ,fig4 #hf4 ,it flourishes on damp wood in still air1 especially around stables and ill ventilated cellars4 ,it gets its name lachrymans 7weeping7 from its habit of dripping moisture4 ,the fungus destroys the substance of the timber1 lessening its weight and causing it to warp and crack2 until at length it crumbles up when dry into a fine brown powder1 or1 readily absorbing any moisture in its neighborhood1 becomes a soft1 cheese-like mass4 99 99 99 ,imperfectly seasoned timber is most susceptible to dry rot3 the fungus can be spread either by its spawn or by spores1 and these latter can be carried even by the clothes or saws of workmen1 and are1 of course1 only too likely to reach sound wood if diseased timber is left about near it2 but on the other hand dry timber kept dry is proof against dry rot1 and exposure to really dry air is fatal to the fungus4 7,boulger1 p4 #ge47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,portion of the mycelium of dry rot or tear fungus1 ,merulius lachrymans4 ,this cakelike mass spreads over the surface of the timber4 ,in a moist environment pellucid drops or tears distil from its lower surface3 ,hence its name4 ,ward3 ,timber2 ,fig4 #ba4 ,about all that can be done to protect the forest against fungi is to keep it clean1 that is1 to clear out fallen timber and slash1 and in some cases to dig trenches around affected trees to prevent spreading or to cut them out and destroy them4 ,such methods have heretofore been too expensive to employ in any ordinary ,american forest1 but the time is at hand when such action will prove profitable in many localities4 ,for the preservation of cut timber from decay1 several methods are used4 ,fungi need heat1 air1 moisture and food4 ,if any one of these is lacking the fungus cannot grow4 ,air and heat are hard to exclude from wood1 but moisture and food can be kept from fungi4 ,the removal of moisture is called seasoning1 and the poisoning of the food of fungi is a process of impregnating wood with certain chemicals4 ,both these processes are described in ,handwork in ,wood1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,animal ,,enemies4 ,the larger animals working damage to our forests are chiefly rodents and grazing animals4 ,beavers gnaw the bark1 while mice and squirrels rob the forest of seed and consequently of new trees4 ,the acorns of white oak are particularly liable to be devoured because of their sweetness1 while those of red and black oak1 which afford timber of comparatively little value1 are allowed to sprout1 and thus come to possess the land4 ,hogs annually consume enormous quantities of mast1 i4e41 acorns or other nuts1 by pasturing in oak and other forests4 ,they1 together with goats and sheep1 ,figs4 #hg and #hh1 deer and cattle1 work harm by trampling and browsing4 ,browsing destroys the tender shoots1 especially of deciduous trees1 but trampling entirely kills out the seedlings4 ,the cutting up of the soil by the sharp cleft hoofs injures the forest floor1 by pulverizing it and allowing it to be readily washed away by storms until deforestation may result1 as was the case in ,france after the ,revolution4 ,it has cost the ,french people from thirty to forty million dollars to repair the damage begun by the sheep4 ,in this country1 this matter has become a very serious one on the ,pacific ,coast1 where there are enormous flocks of sheep1 and therefore the government is trying to regulate the grazing on public lands there1 especially on steep slopes1 where erosion takes place rapidly4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the evils of grazing are increased by the fact that fires are sometimes started intentionally in order to increase the area of grazing land4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,goats ,eating ,foliage1 ,new ,mexico4 ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,sheep ,grazing in ,forest1 ,idaho4 ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,the most destructive animal enemies of the forest are the insects4 ,the average annual loss of trees in the ,united ,states from this cause alone has been estimated to be one hundred million dollars4 ,insects have two objects in their attack on trees1 one is to obtain food1 as when they are in the larval stage1 and the other is to provide for offspring1 as do certain beetles4 ,the number of insect enemies of the forest is enormous4 ,at the ,st4 ,louis ,exposition1 there were on exhibit nearly three hundred such insects4 ,these belong to some twenty orders1 of which the beetles 7,coleoptera71 which have horny wings and biting mouth parts1 and the moths and butterflies 7,lepidoptera71 with membraneous wings and sucking mouth parts1 are the most destructive4 ,insects attack every part of the tree1 the seed1 the shoot1 the flower1 the root1 the leaf1 the bark and the wood1 both standing and cut4 ,of the fruit and seed pests1 the most destructive are weevils1 worms and gall insects4 ,of the twig and shoot pests1 beetles1 weevils and caterpillars are the worst4 ,among insects that attack roots1 the periodical cicada 7#ag year old locust7 may be noted4 ,the leaf pests are far more serious4 ,they include the true and false caterpillars1 moths1 gall insects and plant lice4 ,of the bark pests1 the bark beetles are the most destructive4 ,these are also called ,engraver ,beetles from the smoothly cut figures which are their burrows under the bark1 ,figs4 #hi1 #ij1 #ia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,work of the ,spruce ,destroying ,beetle3 a4 ,primary gallery2 b4 ,borings packed in side2 c4 ,entrance and central burrow thru the packed borings2 d4 ,larval mines4 ,note how the eggs are grouped on the sides4 ,agric4 ,year ,book1 #aijb1 ,fig4 #bd1 p4 #bfh4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,complete brood ,galleries of the ,hickory ,bark ,beetle in ,surface of ,wood4 ,agric4 ,year ,book1 #aijc1 ,fig4 #bh1 p4 #caf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,brood ,galleries of the ,oak ,bark ,beetle1 showing ,character of ,primary ,gallery at b2 ,larval or ,brood ,mines at a4 ,agric4 ,year ,book1 #aijc1 ,fig4 #cj1 page #cah4 ,many pairs of beetles make a simultaneous attack on the lower half of the main trunk of medium-sized to large trees4 ,they bore thru the outer bark to the inner living portion1 and thru the inner layers of the latter2 they excavate long1 irregular1 longitudinal galleries1 and along the sides of these at irregular intervals1 numerous eggs are closely placed4 ,the eggs soon hatch and the larvae at once commence to feed on the inner bark1 and as they increase in size1 extend and enlarge their food burrows in a general transverse but irregular course1 away from the mother galleries 7see illustration74 ,when these young and larval forms are full grown1 each excavates a cavity or cell at the end of its burrow and next to the outer corky bark4 7,hopkins1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijb47 ,some of the species attack living trees1 causing their rapid death1 and are among the most destructive enemies of ,american forests4 ,all of the above indirectly affect both the quantity and quality of the wood supply4 ,they can be studied more in detail in the publications of the ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,entomology4 ,of the insects directly attacking wood1 the most important are the ambrosia or timber beetles1 the borers1 the ants1 and the carpenter bees4 ,the most remarkable feature of the beetle is the manner of its boring into the harder parts of the wood4 ,its jaws are particularly constructed for this work1 being heavy and strong4 ,the boring is done something after the manner of countersinking1 and the jaws are believed to be self-sharpening1 by reason of the peculiar right to left and left to right motion4 ,ambrosia or timber beetles1 ,fig4 #ib4 ,this class of insects attacks living1 dead1 and felled trees1 sawlogs1 green lumber1 and stave-bolts1 often causing serious injury and loss from the pin-hole and stained-wood defects caused by their brood galleries4 ,the galleries are excavated by the parent beetles in the sound sap-wood sometimes extending into the heart-wood1 and the young stages feed on a fungus growth which grows on the walls of galleries4 7,hopkins1 ,entom4 ,bulletin ,no4 #dh1 p4 #aj47 ,the growth of this ambrosia-like fungus is induced or controlled by the parent beetles and the young are dependent on it for food4 7,hopkins1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijd47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,work of ,ambrosia ,beetle1 ,xyloborus celsus1 in ,hickory ,wood3 a1 ,larva2 b1 ,pupa2 c1 ,adult beetle2 d1 ,character of work in lumber cut from injured log2 e1 ,bark2 f1 ,sap wood2 g1 ,heartwood4 ,agric4 ,year ,book1 #aijd1 ,fig4 #dd1 p4 #chd4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,work of ,ambrosia ,beetles in ,oak3 a1 ,monarthum mali1 and work2 b1 ,platypus compositus1 and work2 c1 ,bark2 d1 ,sap-wood2 e1 ,heart-wood2 f1 ,character of work in lumber from injured log4 ,agric4 ,year ,book1 #aijd1 ,fig4 #de1 p4 #chd4 ,there are two general types or classes of these galleries1 one in which the broods develop together in the main burrows1 the other1 in which the individuals develop in short separate side chambers extending at right angles from the primary gallery1 ,fig4 #ic4 ,the galleries of the latter type are usually accompanied by a distinct staining of the wood1 while those of the former are not4 7,hopkins1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijd1 p4 #chc47 ,bark and wood borers1 ,fig4 #id4 ,this class of enemies differs from the preceding in the fact that the parent beetles do not burrow into the wood or bark1 but deposit their eggs on the surface4 ,the elongate1 whitish1 round-headed 7,cerambycid71 flat-headed 7,buprestid71 or short1 stout 7,curculionid7 grubs hatching from these eggs cause injury by burrowing beneath the bark1 or deep into the sap-wood and heart-wood of living1 injured and dead trees1 sawlogs1 etc4 ,some of the species infest living trees1 ,fig4 #ie1 causing serious injury or death4 ,others attack only dead or dying bark and wood1 but this injury often results in great loss from the so-called wormhole defects4 7,a4 ,d4 ,hopkins1 ,entom4 ,bull41 ,no4 #dh1 p4 #aj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,work of ,round-,headed and ,flat-,headed ,borers in ,pine3 a1 ,work of round-headed borers1 sawyer1 ,monohamnus sp42 b1 ,ergates spiculatus2 c1 ,work of flat-headed borer1 ,buprestis1 larva and adult4 ,agric4 ,year ,book1 #aijd1 ,fig4 #df1 p4 #che4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,hemlock ,killed by ,buprestid ,worms4 ,hoquiam1 ,washington4 ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,the pine sawyers are among the most troublesome pests in the mill yard1 and their large1 white larvae often do much damage to logs by eating great holes thru their solid interior4 ,while burrowing in the wood the larvae make a peculiar grating sound that may be heard on quiet nights at a considerable distance4 ,this is a familiar sound in the lumber camps of the ,north1 and has probably given rise to the name of the pine sawyers by which these insects are known4 7,forestry ,bulletin1 ,no4 #bb1 p4 #eh47 ,powder-post beetles1 ,fig4 #if4 ,this is a class of insects representing two or three families of beetles1 the larvae of which infest and convert into fine powder many different kinds of dry and seasoned wood products1 such as hickory and ash handles1 wagon spokes1 lumber1 etc41 when wholly or in part from the sap-wood of trees4 ,oak and hemlock tan-bark is sometimes injured to a great extent1 and the structural timbers of old houses1 barns1 etc41 are often seriously injured1 while hop poles and like products are attacked by one set of these insects1 the adults of which burrow into the wood for the purpose of depositing their eggs4 7,hopkins1 ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #dh1 p4 #aa47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,work of ,powder ,post ,beetle1 ,sinoxylon basilare1 in hickory pole3 a1 ,character of work by larvae2 b1 ,exit holes made by emerging broods4 ,agric4 ,year ,book1 #aijd1 ,fig4 #di4 ,timber worms1 ,fig4 #ig4 ,this class of true wood-boring worms1 or grubs1 are the larvae of beetles4 ,they enter the wood from eggs deposited in wounds in living trees1 from which they burrow deep into the heart-wood4 ,generation after generation may develop in the wood of a tree without affecting its life but the wood is rendered worthless for most purposes by the so-called wormhole and pinhole defects resulting from their burrows4 ,the same species also breed in the wood of dying and dead standing trees1 and in the stumps and logs of felled ones1 often for many years after the trees are felled4 ,one species sometimes attacks freshly sawed oak lumber1 new stave bolts1 etc4 ,they are among the most destructive enemies of hardwood forest trees1 especially in reducing the value of the wood of the best part of the trunks4 7,hopkins1 ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #dh1 p4 #aj47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,work of ,timber ,worms in ,oak3 a1 ,work of oak timber worm1 ,eupsalis minuta2 b4 ,barked surface2 c4 ,bark2 d4 ,sap-wood timber worm1 ,hylocaetus lugubris1 and its work2 e4 ,sap-wood4 ,agric4 ,year ,book1 #aijd1 ,fig4 #dg1 p4 #chf4 ,the carpenter worms1 ,fig4 #ih4 ,these are large pinkish caterpillars which are the larvae of stout-bodied moths4 ,they enter the bark and wood of living oak1 locust1 poplar and other trees1 from eggs deposited by the moths in the crevices of uninjured bark1 or in the edges of wounds4 ,they burrow deep into the solid wood1 where they live for two or three years before transforming to the adult4 ,the wood is seriously injured by the very large wormhole defects1 and while the life of the tree is but slightly1 if at all1 affected by the earlier attacks1 the continued operations of this class of borers year after year1 finally results in the decay of the heart-wood1 or a hollow trunk and a dead top4 7,hopkins1 ,forestry ,bulletin1 ,no4 #dh1 p4 #aa47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,worm ,holes in ,red ,oak1 ,work of the ,oak ,carpenter ,worm4 ,agric4 ,year ,book1 #aijc1 ,fig4 #cg1 p4 #cbd4 ,columbian ,timber-beetle ,one of the commonest wormhole defects in white oak1 rock oak1 beech1 and tulip 7whitewood or yellow poplar7 is one known to the lumber trade as grease spots1 patch-worm1 or black holes1 ,fig4 #ii1 steam boats1 ,fig4 #ajj1 etc41 caused by the ,columbian timber beetle 7,corthylus columbianus ,hopk47 ,the characteristic feature of this wormhole defect1 which will enable it to be readily recognized in oak and beech1 is transverse series of two or more black holes about the size of the lead in an ordinary lead pencil1 with a streak of stained wood extending with the grain two or three or more inches each side1 as in ,fig4 #ii4 ,in quarter-sawed oak or split or sawed staves1 a short longitudinal section of one of these black holes is seen attended by the stained streak on one side of a thick or curly growth or grain1 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,it is this form which is called steamboats4 ,in whitewood 7yellow poplar7 the black holes are attended by very long black1 greenish1 or bluish streaks1 sometimes five or six feet long4 ,when this is common in the lumber it is called calico poplar4 ,fig4 #aja represents the characteristic appearance of this defect greatly reduced4 7,hopkins1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijc1 p4 #cbg47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,work of the ,columbian ,timber ,beetle3 ,black holes and grease spots in white oak4 ,agric4 ,year ,book1 #aijc1 ,fig4 #ch1 p4 #cbe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,work of the ,columbian ,timber ,beetle3 ,steamboats in quartered or ,split white oak4 ,agric4 ,year ,book1 #aijc1 ,fig4 #ci1 p4 #cbf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,work of the ,columbian ,timber ,beetle in ,tulip ,wood1 ,calico ,poplar1 ,agric4 ,year ,book #aijc1 ,fig4 #dj1 p4 #cbf4 ,carpenter bees4 ,the work of this class of woodboring bees is shown in ,fig4 #ajb4 ,the injury consists of large augerlike tunnels in exposed1 solid dry wood of buildings and other structures4 ,it is most common in soft woods1 such as pine1 poplar1 redwood and the like4 7,hopkins1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijd1 p4 #cij47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,work of the ,carpenter ,bee1 ,xylocopa orpifex1 in ,redwood ,lumber3 a1 entrance2 b1 galleries2 c1 cells2 d1 larva2 e1 adult4 ,agric4 ,year ,book1 #aijd1 ,fig4 #ec1 p4 #cij4 ,horn tails4 ,this is a class of borers which are the larvae of the so-called wood wasps4 ,they may enter the exposed dead wood of wounds of living trees1 but more commonly attack the wood of dead standing conifers and hard woods1 in the sap-wood of which they excavate irregular burrows1 which are packed with their borings4 ,when the adults emerge they leave the surface perforated with numerous round holes4 ,water and fungi entering these holes cause a very rapid decay of the wood4 7,hopkins1 ,entom4 ,bull4 ,no4 #dh1 p4 #aa47 ,the tunnels of these various wood pests are most frequently to be seen in chestnut1 ash1 hickory1 oak1 tulip1 and cypress4 ,one would think that with such an array of enemies1 the forest would hardly survive1 but on the other hand there are many enemies of these pests4 ,the most destructive are the predaceous and parasitic insects4 ,many insects are simply predaceous1 pouncing upon and destroying such other insects as they can overcome4 ,still others are parasites1 some external1 but most of them living within the bodies of their victims where they pass their entire larval life4 ,the eggs are laid on or in the body of the victim1 so that as soon as one hatches1 it has suitable food4 ,the ichneumon fly1 ,fig4 #ajc1 is such a parasite2 it destroys millions of insect pests4 ,it has a long and peculiar ovipositor with which it drills a hole into the tree and deposits the egg in a burrow of the ,pigeon ,horntail1 a wood wasp that burrows into deciduous trees4 ,the larva soon finds its victim1 the grub of the ,pigeon ,horntail1 and lives on it to its destruction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,ichneumon ,fly whose ,larva ,feeds on the ,larva of the ,pigeon ,horn-tail4 ,it would seem that it is a hopeless task to control the insect enemies of forest trees and forest products or to prevent losses from their ravages1 but the writer is informed by ,dr4 ,a4 ,d4 ,hopkins1 the expert in the ,bureau of ,entomology in charge of forest insect investigations1 that the results of their investigations show conclusively that there are many practical and inexpensive methods of control now available thru the suggestions and recommendations in recent ,department publications on forest insects1 as well as thru direct correspondence with the ,department4 ,these methods are based on the principle of prevention and not on that of extermination4 ,it has been shown that thru proper adjustment of the details in management of forests and of the business of manufacturing1 storing1 transporting1 and utilizing the products a large percentage of the losses can be prevented at small additional expense1 and that even when considerable cost is involved the amount saved will often represent a handsome profit4 ,,the ,,natural ,,enemies ,,of ,,the ,,forest4 ,,references3,a 7#a7 ,meterological4 ,pinchot1 ,primer ,i1 pp4 #ge-gf4 ,roth1 ,first ,book1 pp4 #aih-bjb4 ,bruncken1 pp4 #bg-bi4 ,water4 ,roth1 ,first ,book1 p4 #bg4 ,snow1 ice and frost4 ,pinchot1 ,primer1 ,i1 p4 #gf4 ,bruce1 ,for4 and ,irr41 #h3 #aei1 ,ap4 '#jb4 7#b7 ,vegetable4 ,roth1 ,first ,book1 p4 #d4 ,boulger1 pp4 #gj-ge4 ,spaulding1 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #bb4 ,ward1 ,chaps4 ,v1 ,,vi1 ,,vii4 ,sickles1 pp4 #da-de4 von ,schrenck1 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #da1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,sherfesee4 ,for4 ,circ4 ,no4 #aci4 von ,schrenck1 ,bur4 ,plant ,ind4 ,bull4 ,no4 #cf4 von ,schrenck1 ,bur4 ,plant ,ind4 ,bull4 ,no4 #cb4 von ,schrenck1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijj1 p4 #aii4 7#c7 ,animal4 ,grazing4 ,pinchot1 ,primer ,i1 pp4 #fi-gc1 ,,ii1 p4 #gc4 ,pinchot1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #ahih1 p4 #ahg ,coville1 ,for4 ,bull4 ,no4 #ae1 pp4 #bh-ca4 ,roth1 ,first ,bk41 p4 #acj1 #agh4 ,insects4 ,comstock1 passim4 ,hopkins1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijb1 pp4 #bfe-bhb4 ,roth1 ,first ,book1 pp4 #aae-acj4 ,howard1 ,entom4 ,bull41 ,no4 #aa1 n4 s4 ,hopkins1 ,spaulding1 ,entom4 ,bull41 ,no4 #bh4 ,hopkins1 ,entom4 ,bull41 ,no4 #dh4 ,hopkins1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijc1 pp4 #cac-cbi4 ,hopkins1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijd1 pp4 #chb-chi1 ,figs4 #dc-ef4 ,pinchot1 ,primer1 ,i1 p4 #gc4 ,felt1 ,n4 ,y4 ,state ,museum ,bull41 #ajc1 ,ent4 #be4 ,hopkins1 ,entom4 ,bull4 ,no4 #cb4 ,hopkins1 ,entom4 ,bull4 ,no4 #ef4 ,hopkins1 ,entom4 ,bull4 ,no4 #eh4 ,spaulding and ,chittenden1 ,for4 ,bull4 ,no4 #bb1 pp4 #ee-fa4 ,footnote ,a3 ,for general bibliography1 see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,exhaustion ,,of ,,the ,,forest4 ,the exhaustion of the forest in the ,united ,states is due to two main causes3 7#a7 ,fire1 and 7#b7 ,destructive ,lumbering4 ,,fire4 ,it is not commonly realized that forest fires are almost entirely the result of human agency4 ,when cruisers first began to locate claims in this country1 practically no regions had been devastated by fire4 ,now such regions are to be seen everywhere4 ,altho lightning occasionally sets fire to forests1 especially in the ,rocky ,mountains1 the losses from this cause are trifling compared with the total loss4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,slash1 ,left in the ,woods1 and ,ready to ,catch ,fire4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,opportunities for fire4 ,there are a number of facts that make the forest peculiarly liable to fire4 ,especially in the fall there are great quantities of inflammable material1 such as dry leaves1 twigs1 and duff lying loose ready for ignition4 ,the bark of some trees1 as paper birch1 and the leaves of others1 as conifers1 are very inflammable4 ,it follows that fires are more common in coniferous than in deciduous forests4 ,after lumbering or windfalls1 the accumulated slash burns easily and furiously1 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,moreover a region once burned over1 is particularly liable to burn again1 on account of the accumulation of dry trunks and branches4 ,see ,fig4 #ajg4 ,long dry seasons and high wind furnish particularly favorable conditions for fire4 ,on the other hand1 the wind by changing in direction may extinguish the fire by turning it back upon its track4 ,indeed the destructive power of fires depends largely upon the wind4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,forest ,fire4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,causes of fire4 ,forest fires are due to all sorts of causes1 accidental and intentional4 ,dropped matches1 smouldering tobacco1 neglected camp fires and brush fires1 locomotive sparks1 may all be accidental causes that under favorable conditions entail tremendous loss4 ,there is good reason to believe that many forest fires are set intentionally4 ,the fact that grass and berry bushes will soon spring up after a fire1 leads sheep men1 cattle and pig owners1 and berry pickers to set fires4 ,vast areas are annually burned over in the ,united ,states for these reasons4 ,most fires run only along the surface of the ground1 doing little harm to the big timber1 and if left alone will even go out of themselves2 but if the duff is dry1 the fire may smoulder in it a long time1 ready to break out into flame when it reaches good fuel or when it is fanned by the wind1 ,fig4 #aje4 ,even these ground fires do incalculable damage to seeds and seedlings1 and the safest plan is to put out every fire no matter how small4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,burned ,forest of ,engelmann ,spruce4 ,foreground1 ,lodgepole ,pine ,coming in4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,altho it is true that the loss of a forest is not irremediable because vegetation usually begins again at once1 ,fig4 #ajf1 yet the actual damage is almost incalculable4 ,the tract may lie year after year1 covered with only worthless weeds and bushes1 and if hilly1 the region at once begins to be eroded by the rains4 ,after the fire1 may come high winds that blow down the trunks of the trees1 preparing material for another fire1 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,effect of ,fire and ,wind4 ,colorado4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,the statistics of the actual annual money loss of the timber burned in the ,united ,states are not gathered4 ,in #ahhj ,professor ,sargent collected much information1 and in the census of that year 7#ajth ,census1 ,vol4 ,,ix7 reported #aj1jjj1jjj acres burned that year at a value of #be1jjj1jjj4 ,in #ahia1 the ,division of ,forestry collected authentic records of #ab1jjj1jjj acres burned over in a single year1 at an estimated value of #ej1jjj1jjj4 ,in the ,adironacks in the spring of #aijc1 an unprecedentedly dry season1 fire after fire caused a direct loss of about #c1ejj1jjj4 ,in #aijb1 a fire on the dividing line between ,washington and ,oregon destroyed property amounting to #ab1jjj1jjj4 ,within comparatively recent years1 the ,pacific ,coast states have lost over #ajj1jjj1jjj worth of timber by fire alone4 ,during ,september1 #aijh1 forest fires raged in ,minnesota1 ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 ,maine1 ,new ,york and ,pennsylvania4 ,the estimates of loss for northern ,michigan alone amounted to #dj1jjj1jjj4 ,for two weeks the loss was set at #a1jjj1jjj a day4 ,the two towns of ,hibbing and ,chisholm were practically wiped out of existence1 and #bif lives were lost4 ,certain forest fires have been so gigantic and terrible as to become historic4 ,one of these is the ,miramichi fire of #ahbe4 ,it began its greatest destruction about one o'clock in the afternoon of ,october #gth of that year1 at a place about sixty miles above the town of ,newcastle1 on the ,miramichi ,river1 in ,new ,brunswick4 ,before ten o'clock at night it was twenty miles below ,new ,castle4 ,in nine hours it had destroyed a belt of forest eighty miles long and twenty-five miles wide4 ,over more than two and a half million acres almost every living thing was killed4 ,even the fish were afterwards found dead in heaps on the river banks4 ,many buildings and towns were destroyed1 one hundred and sixty persons perished1 and nearly a thousand head of stock4 ,the loss from the ,miramichi fire is estimated at #cjj1jjj1 not including the value of the timber4 7,pinchot1 ,part #a4 p4 #gi-hj47 ,of such calamities1 one of the worst that is on record is that known as the ,peshtigo fire1 which1 in #ahga1 during the same month1 ,october1 when ,chicago was laid in ashes1 devastated the country about the shores of ,green ,bay in ,wisconsin4 ,more than #c1jjj1jjj worth of property was burnt1 at least two thousand families of settlers were made homeless1 villages were destroyed and over a thousand lives lost4 7,bruncken1 p4 #aaj47 ,the most destructive fire of more recent years was that which started near ,hinckley1 ,minn41 ,september #a1 #ahid4 ,while the area burned over was less than in some other great fires1 the loss of life and property was very heavy4 ,hinckley and six other towns were destroyed1 about #ejj lives were lost1 more than #b1jjj persons were left destitute1 and the estimated loss in property of various kinds was #be1jjj1jjj4 ,except for the heroic conduct of locomotive engineers and other railroad men1 the loss of life would have been far greater4 ,this fire was all the more deplorable1 because it was wholly unnecessary4 ,for many days before the high wind came and drove it into uncontrollable fury1 it was burning slowly close to the town of ,hinckley and could have been put out4 7,pinchot1 ,part ,i1 #hb-hc47 ,one of the most remarkable features of these crown fires1 is the rapidity with which they travel4 ,the ,miramichi fire traveled nine miles an hour4 ,to get an idea of the fury of a forest fire1 read this description from ,bruncken4 ,after describing the steady1 slow progress of a duff fire1 he proceeds3 ,but there comes an evening when nobody thinks of going to bed4 ,all day the smoke has become denser and denser1 until it is no longer a haze1 but a thick yellowish mass of vapor1 carrying large particles of sooty cinders1 filling one's eyes and nostrils with biting dust1 making breathing oppressive4 ,there is no escape from it4 ,closing windows and doors does not bar it out of the houses2 it seems as if it could penetrate solid walls4 ,everything it touches feels rough1 as if covered with fine ashes4 ,the heat is horrible altho no ray of sunshine penetrates the heavy pall of smoke4 ,in the distance a rumbling1 rushing sound is heard4 ,it is the fire roaring in the tree tops on the hill sides1 several miles from town4 ,this is no longer a number of small fires1 slowly smouldering away to eat up a fallen log2 nor little dancing flames running along the dry litter on the ground1 trying to creep up the bark of a tree1 where the lichens are thick and dry1 but presently falling back exhausted4 ,the wind has risen1 fanning the flames on all sides1 till they leap higher and higher1 reaching the lower branches of the standing timber1 enveloping the mighty boles of cork pine in a sheet of flame1 seizing the tall poles of young trees and converting them into blazing beacons that herald the approach of destruction4 ,fiercer and fiercer blows the wind1 generated by the fire itself as it sends currents of heated air rushing upward into infinity4 ,louder and louder the cracking of the branches as the flames seize one after the other1 leaping from crown to crown1 rising high above the tree tops in whirling wreaths of fire1 and belching forth clouds of smoke hundreds of feet still higher4 ,as the heated air rises more and more1 rushing along with a sound like that of a thousand foaming mountain torrents1 burning brands are carried along1 whirling on across the firmament like evil spirits of destruction1 bearing the fire miles away from its origin1 then falling among the dry brush heaps of windfall or slashing1 and starting another fire to burn as fiercely as the first4 99 99 99 ,there is something horrible in the slow1 steady approach of a top fire4 ,it comes on with the pitiless determination of unavoidable destiny1 not faster than a man can walk4 ,but there is no stopping it4 ,you cannot fight a fire that seizes tree top after tree top1 far above your reach1 and showers down upon the pigmy mortals that attempt to oppose it an avalanch of burning branches1 driving them away to escape the torture and death that threatens them4 7,bruncken1 ,american ,forests and ,forestry1 #ajf-aji47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,fighting ,forest ,fire4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,real forest fires are not usually put out2 men only try to limit them4 ,a common method of limitation is to cut trenches thru the duff so that the fire cannot pass across1 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,in serious cases back fires are built on the side of the paths or roads or trenches toward the fire1 in the expectation that the two fires will meet4 ,in such cases great care has to be taken that the back fire itself does not escape4 ,small fires1 however1 can sometimes be beaten out or smothered with dirt and sand1 since water is usually unavailable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,fire ,lane4 ,worcester ,co41 ,mass4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,but an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure4 ,one of the best of these preventions is a system of fire lanes4 ,even narrow paths of dirt will stop an ordinary fire4 ,roads1 of course1 are still better4 ,systems of fire lanes1 ,fig4 #aji1 are made great use of in ,europe and ,british ,india4 ,belts of hardwood trees are also cultivated along railways1 and to break up large bodies of conifers4 ,if in lumbering1 the slash were destroyed or even cut up so as to lie near the ground and rot quickly1 many fires would be prevented4 ,some states1 as ,new ,york1 have a fairly well organized system of fire wardens1 who have the authority to draft as much male help as they need at #b4jj a day to fight forest fires4 ,unfortunately ne'er-do-wells sometimes set fire to the woods1 in order to make work for themselves4 ,much preventive work is also done by educating the public in schools and by the posting of the fire notices1#a ,fig4 #aaj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,look out for ,fire4 ,rules and ,laws4 ,,destructive ,,lumbering4 ,how the reckless and destructive methods of lumbering common in ,america came into vogue1 is worth noting4#b ,the great historical fact of the first half century of our country was the conquest of the wilderness4 ,that wilderness was largely an unbroken forest4 ,to the early settler1 this forest was the greatest of barriers to agriculture4 ,the crash of a felled tree was to him a symbol of advancing civilization4 ,the woods were something to be got rid of to make room for farms1 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,in ,virginia1 for example1 where the soil was soon exhausted by tobacco culture and modern fertilizers were unknown1 there was a continual advance into the woods to plant on new and richer land4 ,the forest was also full of enemies to the settler1 both animals and ,indians1 and was a dreaded field for fire4 ,so there grew up a feeling of hate and fear for the forest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,forest ,giving ,place to ,farm ,land4 ,north ,carolina4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,more than that the forest seemed exhaustless4 ,the clearings were at first only specks in the woods1 and even when they were pushed farther and farther back from the seacoast1 there was plenty of timber beyond4 ,the idea that the area of this forest could ever be diminished by human hands to any appreciable extent so that people would become afraid of not having woodland enough to supply them with the needed lumber1 would have seemed an utter absurdity to the backwoodsman4 99 99 99 ,thus the legend arose of the inexhaustible supply of lumber in ,american forests1 a legend which only within the last twenty years has given place to juster notions4 7,bruncken1 p4 #eg47 ,this tradition of abundant supply and the feeling of hostility to the forest lasted long after the reasons for them had disappeared4 ,when we remember that every farm in the eastern ,united ,states1 is made from reclaimed forest land and that for decades lumber was always within reach up the rivers1 down which it was floated1 it is not strange that reckless and extravagant methods of cutting and using it prevailed4 ,following the settler came the lumberman1 who continued the same method of laying waste the forest land4 ,the lumber market grew slowly at first1 but later developed by leaps and bounds1 until now the output is enormous4 ,lumbering in ,america has come to be synonymous with the clearing off of all the marketable timber1 regardless of the future4 ,it treats the forest as tho it were a mine1 not a crop1 ,fig4 #aab4 ,since #ahhj the total cut has been over #gjj1jjj1jjj feet1 enough to make a one inch floor over ,vermont1 ,massachusetts1 ,connecticut1 ,rhode ,island and ,delaware1 or one-half of the ,state of ,new ,york1 an area of #be1jjj square miles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,redwood ,forest ,turned ,into ,pasture4 ,california4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,other countries1 too1 have devastated their forests4 ,portugal has a forest area of only #e per cent4 of the total land area1 ,spain and ,greece1 each #ac per cent41 ,italy #ad per cent4 and ,turkey #bj per cent4 ,whether the destruction of the ,american forests shall go as far as this is now a live question which has only just begun to be appreciated4 ,another reason for the reckless ,american attitude toward the forest is the frequency and severity of forest fires4 ,this has led to the fear on the part of lumbermen of losing what stumpage they had1 and so they have cleared their holdings quickly and sold the timber4 ,their motto was cut or lose4 ,a third incentive to devastative methods was the levy of what were considered unjust taxes4 ,hundreds of thousands of acres in the white pine region1 notably in ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 and ,minnesota1 have been cut over1 abandoned1 sold for taxes1 and finally reduced by fire to a useless wilderness because of the shortsighted policy of heavy taxation4 ,to lay heavy taxes on timber land is to set a premium on forest destruction1 a premium that is doing more than any other single factor to hinder the spread of conservative lumbering among the owners of large bodies of timber land4 99 99 99 ,heavy taxes are responsible for the barrenness of thousands of square miles which should never have ceased to be productive1 and which must now lie fallow for many decades before they can be counted again among the wealth-making assets of the nation4 7,pinchot1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #ahih1 pp4 #ahd-ahe47 ,on the treatment of the questions of fire and taxes depends the future of ,american forest industries4 7,bruncken1 p4 #bbf47 ,undoubtedly much waste has been caused by sheer ignorance of forest conditions and methods1 which1 if followed1 would secure successive crops instead of one1 but it is safe to say that the desire for immediate profits has been the dominant cause of reckless lumbering4 ,so short-sighted has the policy of private owners proved itself1 that it is a question whether any large extent of forest land can safely be left in private hands4 ,no individual lives long enough to reap more than one forest crop4 ,only corporations and ,states can be expected to have an interest long enough continued to justify the methods of conservative lumbering4 ,as a matter of fact1 nearly one-half of the privately owned timber of the ,united ,states is held by #aie great holders1 the principal ones being the ,southern ,pacific ,company1 the ,weyerhauser ,timber ,company1 and the ,northern ,pacific ,railway ,company1 which together own nearly #aa per cent4 of the privately owned forests of the country4 ,these large holders are cutting little of their timber1 their object1 however1 being not so much to conserve the forests as to reserve to themselves the incalculable private profits which are expected to come with the future enormous increase in the value of timber4 ,over against this policy1 stands that of the ,united ,states ,forest ,service of increasing the area of the ,national ,forests in order to conserve them for the public welfare4 ,the pity is that the government ever let the forests pass out of its hands4 ,only forty years ago seventy-five per cent4 of the timber now standing was publicly owned4 ,now about eighty per cent4 of it is privately owned4 ,in the meanwhile its value has increased anywhere from ten to fifty fold1 according to locality4#c ,some large corporations1 however1 like the ,pennsylvania ,railroad1 the ,kirby ,lumber ,company1 of ,texas1 and the ,international ,paper ,company1 have entered upon a policy of conservative lumbering4 ,of the actual practices which distinguish destructive lumbering1 a few may be cited4 ,stumps are cut too high and tops too low4 ,good lumber is wasted on lumber roads and bridges1 ,fig4 #aac4 ,saplings are torn down in dragging out logs4 ,slash is left in condition to foster fires and left with no shade protection4 ,seedlings are smothered with slash4 ,seed trees are all cut out leaving no chance for reproduction4 ,only poorer sorts of trees are left standing1 thus insuring deterioration4 ,paper pulp cutting goes even farther than lumbering1 and ordinarily leaves nothing behind but a howling wilderness4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,red ,spruce ,used in ,building ,skidway1 and ,left in the ,woods4 ,hamilton ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,the production of turpentine from the long-leaf pine1 ,fig4 #aad1 at the annual rate of #dj1jjj barrels has meant the devastation of #gj1jjj acres of virgin forest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,turpentine ,boxing1 ,cup ,system4 ,georgia4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,in view of this wholesale destruction it becomes of interest to know how much still remains of the timber supply of the ,united ,states4 ,the latest and most authoritative estimate of standing timber in continental ,united ,states1 excluding ,alaska1 gives a total of #b1hjj1jjj1jjj ,m feet ,b4,m41#d of which #b1bjj1jjj1jjj ,m feet are privately owned1 about #eci1jjj1jjj ,m feet are in the ,national ,forests 7,fig4 #aai1 p4 #bga17 and #ij1jjj1jjj ,m feet are on the unreserved public lands1 ,national parks1 ,state lands and ,indian reservations4 ,earlier estimates were hardly more than guesses4 ,for example the census of #ahhj estimated the stumpage of the ,u4 ,s4 at #hef1bij1ajj ,m feet1 while the census of #aijj gives a total of #a1cij1jjj1jjj ,m feet4 ,the discrepancy appears still greater when it is remembered that in the meantime #gjj1jjj1jjj ,m feet were cut4 ,of this amount #ejj1jjj1jjj ,m feet were of conifers or #hj1jjj1jjj ,m feet more than were included in the estimate of #ahhj4 ,the simple fact is of course that the earlier estimates were gross underestimates1 due to the fact that they were based on entirely inadequate data1 and therefore can not be used to obscure the now unquestionable fact that the timber supply of this country is surely and rapidly melting away4 ,the ,forest ,service estimates that the present annual cut of saw timber is about #ej1jjj1jjj ,m feet4 ,at this rate the present stand would last about #ee years and the privately owned timber only #dd years4 ,this estimate does not allow for growth and decay4 ,while the population of the ,united ,states increased #eb per cent4 from #ahhj to #aijj1 during the same period the lumber-cut increased #id per cent4 ,in other words the yearly increase in use is #bj to #be per cent4 per capita1 that is1 fast as the population grows1 the lumber consumption increases nearly twice as fast4 ,this increase in the lumber-cut far overbalances the growth of trees4 ,it is also to be remembered that this increase in the use of lumber is in spite of the enormous increase of substitutes for lumber1 such as brick1 cement and steel for building1 and steel for bridges1 vehicles1 fences1 machinery1 tools1 and implements of all kinds4 ,how lavishly we use lumber may further be appreciated from the fact that we consume #bfj cubic feet#e per capita1 while the average for #ac ,european countries is but #di cubic feet per capita4 ,in other words every person in the ,u4 ,s4 is using five times as much wood as he would use if he lived in ,europe4 ,it is estimated that on an average each person in this country uses annually the product of #be acres of forest4 ,the country as a whole1 cuts every year1 between three and four times more wood than all the forests grow in the meantime4 ,by contrast1 the principal countries of ,europe1 cut just the annual growth1 while ,russia1 ,sweden and ,japan1 cut less than the growth4 ,in other words1 the #b1hjj1jjj1jjj1jjj feet ,b4,m4 of the stumpage of the ,united ,states is a capital which is constantly drawn upon1 whereas1 the #idd1gjj1jjj1jjj board feet of the forest of the ,german ,empire is a capital which is untouched but produces annually #cjj board feet per acre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aae4 7,lumber ,production by ,regions1 #aijg74 ,southern ,states include3 ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 ,south ,carolina1 ,georgia1 ,florida1 ,alabama1 ,mississippi1 ,louisiana1 ,arkansas1 ,texas and ,oklahoma4 ,pacific ,states include3 ,washington1 ,oregon and ,california4 ,north ,atlantic ,states include3 ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,jersey1 ,delaware1 and ,maryland4 ,lake ,states include3 ,michigan1 ,wisconsin1 and ,minnesota4 ,central ,states include3 ,ohio1 ,west ,virginia1 ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1 and ,missouri4 ,rocky ,mountain ,states include3 ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,wyoming1 ,nevada1 ,utah1 ,colorado1 ,arizona1 and ,new ,mexico4 ,one striking evidence of the decrease of the timber supply is the shifting of its sources4 ,once the northeastern ,states produced over half of the lumber product4 ,they reached their relative maximum in #ahgj when they produced #cf per cent4 ,at that time the ,lake ,states produced about #bd per cent4 ,by #ahij the ,lake ,states came to their maximum of #cf per cent4 ,today the southern ,states are near their maximum with #da per cent41 but the center will soon shift to the ,pacific ,states4 ,their product rose from less than #aj per cent4 of the whole in #aijj to #ag per cent4 in #aijh1 ,figs4 #aae and #aaf4 ,when that virgin forest has been cut off1 there will be no new region to exploit2 whereas1 heretofore1 when a region was exhausted1 the lumbermen have always had a new one to which to move4 ,at the annual meeting of the ,northern ,pine ,manufacturers' ,association in ,minneapolis1 ,minn41 ,january #bb1 #aijg1 ,secretary ,j4 ,e4 ,rhodes made this striking statement3 ,since #ahie1 #bdh firms1 representing an annual aggregate output of pine lumber of #d-a_/d billion feet1 have retired from business1 due to the exhaustion of their timber supply4 ,plants representing approximately #ejj million feet capacity1 which sawed in #aijf1 will not be operated in #aijg4 ,the shifting of the chief sources of supply has1 of course1 been accompanied by a change in the kinds of lumber produced4 ,there was a time when white pine alone constituted one-half of the total quantity4 ,in #aijj this species furnished but #ba4e per cent41 in #aijd only #ae per cent41 of the lumber cut4#f ,we do not use less pine because we have found something better1 but because we have to put up with something worse4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 7,lumber ,production by ,states74 ,the present annual cut of southern yellow pine is about #ac-a_/d million ,m feet1 or a little less than one-third of the total cut of all the species4 ,at the present rate of consumption1 it is evident that within ten or fifteen years1 there will be a most serious shortage of it4 ,meanwhile the cut of ,douglas fir on the ,pacific coast has increased from #e per cent4 of the total lumber cut in #aijj to #ab per cent4 in #aije4 ,this increase is in spite of the fact1 already noted 7p4 #bfb7 that the great timber owning companies of the northwest are holding their stumpage for an expected great increase in value4 ,another evidence of shortage is the almost total disappearance of certain valuable species4 ,hickory1 which once made ,american buggies famous1 is getting very scarce1 and black walnut once commonly used for furniture1 is available now for only fine cabinet work1 veneers1 gun stocks1 etc4 ,hardwoods that are fit for the saw are rapidly decreasing4 ,the hardwood cut of #aijj of #h1fcd1jjj ,m feet diminished in #aijd to #f1gha1jjj ,m feet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 7,lumber ,production by ,species74 ,a still further evidence of the decreasing supply1 is the rising scale of prices4 ,white pine1 which sold for #de4jj per ,m during #ahhg-ahib1 sold for #ajj4jj f4o4b4 ,n4 ,y41 ,jan4 #a1 #aiaa4 ,yellow poplar went up in the same period1 #ahhg-aiaa1 from #bi4jj to #fc4jj4 ,yellow pine rose from #ah4jj in #ahif to #dg4jj in #aiaa1 and hemlock1 the meanest of all woods1 from #aa4ej in #ahhi to #ba4jj in #aiaa1 ,fig4 #aah4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,wholesale lumber prices1 #ahhg-aiaa4 ,the qualities of lumber shown in the above chart are as follows3 ,white ,ash1 #ast and #b;d1 #a and #a-a_/b x #h and up by #ab'-af'4 ,basswood1 #ast and #b;d1 #a x #h and up by x #jj4 ,white ,oak1 quarter-sawed1 #ast and #b;d1 all figured1 #a x #f and up x #aj'-af'4 ,yellow poplar1 #ast and #b;d1 #a x #g-ag x #ab'-af'4 ,hemlock1 boards ,spruce1 ,no4 #a and clear1 #a and #a-a_/d x #d x #ac'4 ,white pine1 rough uppers1 #a x #h and up x #jj'4 ,yellow pine1 edge grain flooring4 ,the curve is approximately correct1 for the standard of quality has been changed several times4 ,it is to be remembered1 moreover1 that as the timber in any region becomes scarcer1 the minimum cutting limit is constantly lowered1 and the standard of quality constantly depreciated4 ,poorer species and qualities and smaller sizes1 which were once rejected1 are now accepted in the market4 ,for example1 #f inches is now a common cutting diameter for pine and spruce1 whereas #ab inches was the minimum limit1 and on the ,pacific coast there is still nothing cut below #ah inches4 ,this cutting of smaller sizes is largely due to the capacious maw of the pulp mill1 which swallows even the poorest stuff4 ,altho the amount of wood used for paper pulp is small in comparison with the total lumber production1 being about #e4d per cent41 yet this cutting of young growth keeps the forest land devastated4 ,in #aijf nearly #i1jjj1jjj tons of wood were used for paper pulp in the ,united ,states4 ,no one who is at all familiar with the situation doubts for an instant that we are rapidly using up our forest capital4 ,in fact it is unquestionably safe to say that our present annual consumption of wood in all forms is from three to four times as great as the annual increment of our forests4 ,even by accepting the highest estimate of the amount of timber standing we postpone for only a few years the time when there must be a great curtailment in the use of wood1 if the present methods of forest exploitation are continued4 ,every indication points to the fact that under present conditions the maximum annual yield of forest products for the country as a whole has been reached1 and that in a comparatively short time1 there will be a marked decrease in the total output1 as there is now in several items4 7,kellogg1 ,forestry ,circular1 ,no4 #ig1 p4 #ab47 ,on the other hand1 it is to be remembered that there are influences which tend to save and extend the forest area4 ,these will be considered in the next chapter1 on the ,use of the ,forest4 ,footnote #a3 ,,look ,,out ,,for ,,fire6 ,,rules ,,and ,,laws4 ,fires for clearing land near a forest must not be started until the trees are in full leaf4 ,before lighting such fires three days' notice1 at least1 must be given to the ,firewarden and occupants of adjoining lands4 ,after such fires are lighted1 competent persons must remain to guard them until the fire is completely extinguished1 and the persons starting such fires will be held responsible for all damages notwithstanding notice had been given to the ,firewarden4 ,fires will be permitted for the purposes of cooking1 warmth and insect smudges1 but before such fires are kindled1 sufficient space around the spot where the fire is to be lighted must be cleared from all combustible material2 and before the place is abandoned1 fires so lighted must be thoroly quenched4 ,all fires other than those hereinbefore mentioned are absolutely prohibited4 ,hunters and smokers are cautioned against allowing fires to originate from the use of firearms1 cigars and pipes4 ,especial care should be taken that lighted matches are extinguished before throwing them down4 ,all persons are warned that they will be held responsible for any damage or injury to the forest which may result from their carelessness or neglect4 ,girdling and peeling bark from standing trees on state land is prohibited4 ,fallen timber only may be used for firewood4 ,all citizens are requested to report immediately any cases which may come to their knowledge of injury to woodlands arising from a violation of these rules4 ,then follow quotations from the laws of the state of ,new ,york4 ,footnote #b3 ,for the common methods of logging see ,handwork in ,wood1 ,chapter ,i4 ,footnote #c3 ,see ,summary of ,report of the ,commissioner of ,corporations on the ,lumber ,industry4 ,february #ac1 #aiaa4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,footnote #d3 ,a board foot is one foot square and one inch thick4 ,footnote #e3 #afg cubic feet equal about #ajjj board feet4 ,footnote #f3 ,forestry ,circular1 ,no4 #ig4 ,,the ,,exhaustion ,,of ,,the ,,forest ,,references3,a 7#a7 ,fires4 ,bruncken1 pp4 #ahc-bjg4 ,pinchot1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 p4 #ahi4 ,suter1 ,for4 ,circ4 ,no4 #cf4 ,u4 ,s4 ,tenth ,census1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 p4 #dia ff4 ,pinchot1 ,primer1 pp4 #gg-hh4 ,roth1 ,first ,book1 pp4 #ajd-aab4 ,sterling1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijd1 p4 #acc4 7#b7 ,destructive ,lumbering4 ,the ,settler's ,tradition4 ,bruncken1 pp4 #dj-ei1 #id4 ,roth1 ,first ,book1 pp4 #da-de4 ,pinchot1 ,primer1 ,,ii1 p4 #hb4 ,taxation4 ,for4 and ,irr41 ,april1 '#jf4 ,pinchot1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #ahih1 p4 #ahd4 ,reckless ,practices4 ,pinchot1 ,primer ,,ii1 #db-dg4 ,pinchot1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #ahih1 p4 #ahd4 ,pinchot1 ,for4 ,circ41 ,no4 #be1 p4 #aa4 ,price1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijb1 p4 #caj4 ,fox1 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #cd1 p4 #dj4 ,peters1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aije1 pp4 #dhc-did4 ,graves1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #ahii1 p4 #dae4 ,suter1 ,for4 ,bull41 #bf1 pp4 #eh1 #fi1 #gf4 ,mohr1 ,for4 ,bull4 ,no4 #ac1 p4 #fa4 ,bruncken1 pp4 #ij-ih4 ,the ,timber ,supply4 ,kellogg1 ,for4 ,circ41 ,no4 #ig 444 ,zon1 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #hc4 ,fernow1 ,economics1 pp4 #ce-de4 ,report of the ,commissioner of ,corporations on the ,lumber ,industry4 ,part ,i1 ,feb4 #ac1 #aiaa4 ,footnote ,a3 ,for general bibliography1 see p4 #d4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,forest4 ,man's relation to the forest has not been entirely destructive and injurious4 ,he has exerted and is more and more exerting influences which while still enabling him to use the forest1 also preserve and improve it4 ,these activities may all be included under the term ,forestry4 ,the objects of modern forestry then are threefold3 #a4 ,the utilization of the forest and its products1 the main object2 #b4 ,the preservation of the forest1 i4e41 its continued reproduction2 #c4 ,the improvement of the forest4 ,,utilization4 ,the uses of the forest are threefold3 7#a7 ,protective1 7#b7 ,productive1 and 7#c7 ,esthetic4 7#a7 ,protective4 ,the forest may be used as a protection against floods1 wind1 shifting sand1 heat1 drought1 etc4 ,the ,national ,forests of the ,united ,states1 ,fig4 #aai1 with the state forests1 which include one-fifth of the total forest area1 are largely treated as protection forests to maintain the head waters of streams1 ,fig4 #abj1 used for irrigation1 for power or for commerce4 ,the attempt now being made to reserve large areas in the ,white ,mountains and southern ,appalachians is chiefly for this purpose of protection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,national ,forests in the ,united ,states4 ,a comparison of ,figs4 #abj and #aba shows clearly the difference between a region protected by forest and one unprotected4#a ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,a ,protection ,forest1 ,maintaining the ,headwaters of ,streams4 ,north ,carolina4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,hillside ,erosion4 ,north ,carolina4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service 7#b7 ,productive4 ,all practical foresters have as their first aim the yield of the forest4 ,this distinguishes forestry from landscape architecture1 the object of which may equally be the preservation and improvement of a given tract4 ,the crop to be produced is as truly the prime concern of the forester as the raising of agricultural crops is the prime concern of the farmer4 ,it is for this reason that forestry is said to be the same thing as conservative lumbering1 ,fig4 #abb4 ,the prejudice of lumbermen against forestry has arisen from a misunderstanding of its aim4 ,its aim is not to prevent the cutting down of trees1 but to direct their cutting in such ways that in the future there will still be trees to cut4 ,thru use to a greater use1 is the motto of the ,forest ,service4 ,the difference between destructive lumbering and conservative lumbering is that the former cuts one crop regardless of the future2 while the latter plans to cut crop after crop indefinitely4 ,in other words1 in conservative lumbering1 the trees to be cut are not selected solely with reference to their immediate market value4 ,not one crop1 but many1 is the forester's motto4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,conservative ,lumbering4 ,black ,hills ,national ,forest1 ,south ,dakota4 ,note the brush1 cord-wood1 and logs piled separately1--a fine clean-up4 ,nothing cut below #ab diameter4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,so long as the supply seemed exhaustless1 forests might be and were treated as mines are1 i4e41 exploited for the sake of immediate profit2 but now that lumbermen begin to realize that the end of the supply is in sight1 more conservative methods are being adopted4 ,we cannot afford to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs4 ,in order then to obtain as rich harvests as possible1 the modern forester makes use of various methods1 some negative1 some positive4 ,waste is avoided in all possible ways1 stumps are cut low and tops high on the trunk1 first class trees are not used for skids1 bridges1 roads1 etc41 care is taken in falling trees and in dragging out logs1 that they will not injure other trees4 ,just as economical disposal of the log has already been carried to a high degree of perfection in the saw-mill1 7see ,handwork in ,wood1 ,chapter ,,ii17 so one object of forestry is to carry this economy back into the woods4 ,one of the underlying ideas in conservative lumbering is that the yield1 i4e41 the amount of wood taken out of a healthy forest in a given time1 shall be equal to the amount grown during the same period4 ,if less is taken out than grows1 some trees will overmature and decay2 if more is taken out than grows1 the forest will ultimately be exhausted4 ,this principle may be carried out in a number of ways2 but in any case it is necessary to know how fast the forest is reproducing itself1 and this is one of the functions of the forester4 ,the ,united ,states ,forest ,service makes a definite offer of cooperation with farmers and lumbermen and owners of forests to provide them with skilled foresters for direction in this matter4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the most practicable way of determining the yield is by area1 i4e41 a certain fraction of a forest is to be cut over once in a given length of time1 a year or longer4 ,the time between two successive cuttings on the same area must be long enough to allow the young trees left standing to ripen4 ,in a word1 conservative lumbering involves 7#a7 the treatment of the forest as a source of crops1 7#b7 systematic gathering1 and 7#c7 young growth so left as to replace the outgo4 ,the important place that forests fill in the national economy may be realized partly by the citation of a few facts as to the forest products4 ,the lumber industry is the fourth in value of products among the great manufacturing industries of the ,united ,states1 being exceeded only by the iron and steel1 the textile1 and the meat industries4 ,it turns out a finished product worth #efg1jjj1jjj4jj4 ,and yet lumber constitutes only about one-half of the value of the total output of forest products4 ,its annual value is three-fourths of a billion dollars1 7#fff1fda1cfg in #aijg17 while the annual value of wood fuel1 is #cej1jjj1jjj4 ,more than two-thirds of the people burn wood for fuel4 ,the next largest single item in the list is shingles and laths1 #cb1jjj1jjj4 7,see ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #gd1 p4 #g47 ,outside of food products1 no material is so universally used and so indispensable in human economy as wood4 7,fernow1 ,econ41 p4 #ba47 ,the importance of forest products may also be learned from a mere list of the varied uses to which they are put4 ,such a list would include3 fuel1 wood and charcoal2 houses 7over half the population of the ,united ,states live in wooden houses72 the wooden parts of masonry and steel buildings2 scaffolding2 barns1 sheds and outhouses2 ships1 with all their parts1 and the masts and trim of steel ships1 boats and canoes2 oars and paddles2 railway ties 7annual expenditure #ej1jjj1jjj71 railway cars1 a million in number2 trestles and bridges 7more than #b1jjj miles in length72 posts and fencing2 cooperage stock 7low estimate1 #be1jjj1jjj annually72 packing crates1 including coffins2 baskets2 electric wire poles 7annual cost about #aj1jjj1jjj72 piles and submerged structures1 like canal locks and water-wheels2 windmills2 mining timbers 7yearly cost1 #g1ejj1jjj71 indispensable in all mining operations 7for every #ajj tons of coal mined1 #b tons of mining timber are needed72 street paving2 veneers 7#e1jjj1jjj4jj worth made annually72 vehicles1 including carriages1 wagons1 automobiles and sleighs2 furniture2 machines and their parts2 patterns for metal molding2 tools and tool handles2 musical instruments2 cigar boxes2 matches2 toothpicks2 pencils2 7#cae million a year in the ,u4 ,s41 requiring over #g million cubic feet of wood72 engraving blocks2 shoe lasts1 shoe trees and parts of shoes2 hat blocks2 agricultural implements2 hop and bean poles2 playthings and toys1 for both children and adults2 ,christmas trees and decorations2 pipes2 walking sticks2 umbrella handles2 crutches and artificial limbs2 household utensils2 excelsior4 ,products other than wood3 ,turpentine and resin 7worth #bj1jjj1jjj a year72 tar2 oils2 tan-bark1 #a-a_/b million cords 7worth #ac1jjj1jjj a year72 wood alcohol2 wood pulp 7worth #ae1jjj1jjj a year72 nuts2 cellulose for collars1 combs and car wheels2 balsam1 medicines2 lampblack2 dyes2 paper fiber 7xylolin7 for textiles2 shellac and varnish 7#h1ejj1jjj worth imported in #aijg72 vinegar and acetic acid2 confections 7including maple sugar and syrup at #b1ejj1jjj a year74 7#c7 ,the ,esthetic and sentimental uses of the forest1 tho not to be estimated in dollars and cents1 are nevertheless of incalculable benefit to the community4 ,they would include the use of the forest as pleasure grounds1 for hunting1 fishing1 camping1 photography1 and general sightseeing4 ,notable instances of the growing appreciation of these uses of the forest are the reservation of the ,yellowstone and ,yosemite ,parks as pleasure grounds4 ,,preservation4 ,the second object of forestry is the preservation of the forest1 or continued reproduction4 ,in addition to obtaining crops of trees1 the forester plans to keep the forest in such condition that it will constantly reproduce itself and never become exhausted4 ,this does not mean that no forests are to be cut down1 or that a given area1 once a forest1 is to be always a forest4 ,just as the individual farmer needs some land for fields1 some for pasture1 and some for woodlots1 so the nation needs some for cities1 some for farms1 some for pleasure grounds1 and some for forests4 ,but it does mean that fruitful forests shall not be turned into wildernesses as thousands of square miles now are1 by the methods of destructive lumbering4 ,in general1 better land is necessary for agriculture than for forestry1 and it is therefore only the part of wisdom to use the better land for fields and reserve the poorer land for forests4 ,there are in the ,united ,states enormous regions that are fit for nothing but forests1 but many of these1 as in ,wisconsin1 ,minnesota1 and ,michigan1 have simply been denuded of their trees and no provision has been made for their reproduction4 ,this then is the second aim of forestry1--to treat the forest so that it will continue to reproduce itself4 ,in order to obtain this result1 certain forest conditions have to be preserved4 ,what these conditions are1 we have already noticed 7see ,chap4 ,v1 ,the ,forest ,organism74 ,they are partly topographical and climatic and partly historical4 ,they include such factors as1 soil1 moisture1 temperature1 and light1 the forest cover1 the forest floor1 the density and mixture of growth1 all conditions of forest growth4 ,it is only as the forester preserves these conditions1 or to put it otherwise1 it is only as he obeys the laws of the forest organism that he can preserve the forest4 ,for a long period of our national history1 we ,americans were compelled to conform our life and institutions to the presence of the primeval forest1 but by long observation of what happens naturally in the forest1 there have been developed in ,europe and in ,america certain ways of handling it so as to make it our servant and not our master4 ,these ways are called silvicultural systems4 ,they are all based on the nature of the forest itself1 and they succeed only because they are modifications of what takes place naturally in the woods4 ,as we have seen above 7p4 #bbj7 trees reproduce themselves either by sprouts or by seeds4 ,this fact gives rise to two general methods of reproduction1 called the coppice systems and the seed systems4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,chestnut ,coppice4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,coppice1 ,fig4 #abc4 ,in the simpler form of this system1 the forest is divided into a certain number of parts1 say thirty1 and one part is cut down each year4 ,new sprouts at once start up1 which will mature a year later than those in the part cut the previous year4 ,where the trees of each part are thirty years old at cutting1 thirty years is called the rotation period4 ,the coppice is said to be managed on a thirty-year rotation4 ,the system is widely used in eastern ,united ,states1 for fuel1 posts1 charcoal1 railway ties1 and other small stuff1 as well as for tan-bark4 ,this system is modified by maintaining an overwood composed of seedling trees or selected sprouts above a stand of sprouts4 ,this is called the ,reserve ,sprout method and is used with admirable results by the ,french4 ,seed ,forests4 ,in contrast with coppice forests1 those raised from seeds produce the best class of timber1 such as is used for saw logs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,seeding from the ,side4 ,white ,pine4 ,new ,hampshire4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,seeding from the side1 ,fig4 #abd4 ,many forests naturally spread at their borders from the scattering of their seeds4 ,old field pine is so called from its tendency to spread in this way on old fields4 ,this natural ,seeding from the ,side has given rise to the ,group ,system1 in which an area of ripe trees is cut off and the trees alongside are depended upon to reproduce new ones on the cut-over area4 ,the openings are gradually enlarged until all the old timber is cut out1 and the young growth has taken its place4 ,in its best form there is a definite rotation period1 say eighty years4 ,this system is simple1 safe1 and very useful1 especially for small openings in woodlots4 ,a modification of this is the ,strip ,system1 in which long narrow openings1 say seventy-five yards wide1 are cut out and gradually widened4 ,the strips are cut in the proper direction so that the prevailing winds will cross them1 both for the sake of avoiding windfalls and to help scatter the seed4 ,where the soil is very dry1 the strips may run east and west to protect the seedlings from the sun4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,virgin ,forest1 ,trees of ,all ,ages4 ,jackson ,co41 ,north ,carolina4 ,u4,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,selection ,forests4 ,the typical virgin forest1 ,fig4 #abe1 is one in which trees of all ages are closely intermingled1 and it may be either mixed or pure4 ,if a farmer had a woodlot of this character and every year went over it with the ax1 cutting out such trees as he needed for his purpose1 and also trees whose removal would improve the woods1 but taking care not to cut out each year more than the amount of the average growth1 he would be using the ,selection ,system4 ,this system is the best way of keeping a forest dense and of preserving one which is difficult to start afresh1 as on a mountain slope2 it is practicable where the woods are small or under a high state of care1 as in ,europe1 where this system has been in use for seven centuries4 ,but the cost of road maintenance and of logging is high and it is therefore impracticable in most lumber regions in the ,united ,states1 except for woods of especial value1 like black walnut4 ,localized ,selection4 ,if instead of the whole forest being treated in this way every year1 it were divided up into perhaps twenty parts1 and from each part there were taken out each year as much lumber as would equal the annual growth of the whole forest1 such a system would be called ,localized ,selection4 ,the cost of logging would be greatly reduced and if care were taken to leave standing some seed trees and to cut no trees below a determined size1 as twelve inches1 the forest would maintain itself in good condition4 ,this system has been applied with great success in certain private forests in the ,adirondacks4 ,regular ,seed ,forest or ,high ,forest4 ,in the system already mentioned above of seeding from the side1 the trees near the cut areas are depended upon to seed these areas4 ,moreover1 no especial pains are taken to preserve the forest floor and the forest cover4 ,but all trees do not bear seeds annually1 nor do their seedlings thrive under such conditions4 ,in other words1 in some forests especial pains must be taken to secure reproduction1 and the forest conditions must be maintained with special reference to the growing crop4 ,for this purpose1 the cuttings take place thru a series of years1 sometimes lasting even twenty years4 ,these reproduction cuttings have reference1 now to a stimulus to the seed trees1 now to the preparation of the seed bed1 now to the encouragement of the seedlings4 ,then later1 the old crop is gradually cut away4 ,later still1 in twenty or thirty years1 the new forest is thinned1 and when it reaches maturity1 perhaps in one hundred or two hundred years1 the process is repeated4 ,this is called the ,regular ,seed ,forest4 ,it produces very valuable timber1 and has been used for a long time in ,switzerland1 especially for beech and balsam4 ,the system is complicated and therefore unsafe in ignorant hands1 and the logging is expensive4 ,two-storied ,seed ,forest4 ,a modification of the system of ,regular ,seed ,forest is the planting of another and a tolerant species of tree under older intolerant trees to make a cover for the soil1 to prevent the growth of grass and weeds1 and to improve the quality of the upper growth4#b ,an illustration of a natural two-storied seed forest is shown in ,fig4 #abf4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abf4 ,two-storied ,seed ,forest4 ,fir under ,beech1 ,germany4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,planting4 ,the planting of forest trees is a comparatively unimportant part of modern forestry4 ,it is a mistaken idea1 not uncommon1 that the usual way of reproducing forests is to plant trees4 ,it is true that in the pineries of ,north ,germany and in the spruce forests of ,saxony1 it is common to cut clean and then replant1 but it is absurd to conclude1 as some have done1 that forestry consists of planting a tree every time one is cut4 ,even if planting were the best method1 many more than one tree would have to be planted for each one cut1 in order to maintain the forest4 ,so far as ,america is concerned1 not for a long time will planting be much used for reproduction4 ,the greater portion of ,american woodlands is in the condition of culled forests1 that is1 forests from which the merchantable trees have been cut1 leaving the younger individuals1 as well as all trees belonging to unmarketable species4 ,even on the areas where the lumbermen have made a clean cut of the original timber1 new trees will come up of themselves from seeds blown from the surrounding forests or falling from occasional individuals left standing4 7,bruncken1 p4 #acc47 ,the usefulness of planting in ,america is mainly for reclaiming treeless regions1 as in the west1 and where timber is high priced4 ,the area of planted timber in the ,middle ,west aggregates many hundred thousand acres1 once waste land1 now converted into useful woods4#c ,planting has been made possible in the far west by extensive irrigation systems1 and farther east by the lessening of prairie fires1 which once set the limit to tree growth in the prairie states4 ,in many parts of ,illinois1 southern ,wisconsin and other prairie ,states1 there is much more forest land than there was twenty-five years ago4 ,what planting can do1 may be seen on some worn out pastures in ,new ,england1 ,fig4 #abg4 ,with the western movement of agriculture1 the abandoned farms of ,new ,england are to some extent becoming re-forested1 both naturally and by planting1 as with white pine1 which grows even on sandy soil4 ,between #ahbj and #ahhj1 there was a period of enthusiastic white-pine planting in ,new ,england1 and tho the interest died on account of the cheap transportation of western lumber1 those early plantations prove that white pine can be planted at a profit even on sand barrens4 ,once worn out and useless pastures are now worth #aej an acre and produce yearly a net income of #c or more an acre4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,planted ,white ,pine1 ,fifty ,years ,old1 ,bridgewater1 ,mass4 ,u4 ,s4 ,forest ,service4 ,,improvement4 ,besides utilization and preservation1 the third main object of forestry is the improvement of the forest4 ,it is not an uncommon mistake to suppose that the virgin forest is the best forest for human purposes4 ,it is a comparatively new idea1 especially in ,america1 that a forest can be improved2 that is1 that better trees can be raised than those which grow naturally4 ,lumbermen commonly say1 ,you never can raise a second growth of white pine as good as the first growth4 ,as if this first growth were not itself the successsor of thousands of other generations6 ,there is even a legend that white pine will not grow in its old habitat4 ,says ,bruncken1 ,many people probably imagine that a primeval wood1 by nature's own hand planted1 cannot be surpassed in the number and size of its trees1 and consequently in the amount of wood to be derived from it4 ,but the very opposite is true4 ,no wild forest can ever equal a cultivated one in productiveness4 ,to hope that it will1 is very much as if a farmer were to expect a full harvest from the grain that may spring up spontaneously in his fields without his sowing4 ,a tract of wild forest in the first place does not contain so many trees as might grow thereon1 but only so many as may have survived the struggle for life with their own and other species of plants occupying the locality4 ,many of the trees so surviving never attain their best development1 being suppressed1 overshadowed1 and hindered by stronger neighbors4 ,finally much of the space that might be occupied by valuable timber may be given up to trees having little or no market value4 ,the rule is universal that the amount and value of material that can be taken from an area of wild forest remains far behind what the same land may bear if properly treated by the forester4 ,it is certain1 therefore1 that in the future1 when most ,american forests shall be in a high state of cultivation1 the annual output of forests will1 from a much restricted area1 exceed everything known at the present day4 7,bruncken1 ,north ,american ,forests and ,forestry1 pp4 #acd-ace47 ,it is probable that the virgin forest produces but a tithe of the useful material which it is capable of producing4 7,fernow1 p4 #ih47 ,mr4 ,burbank has demonstrated that trees can be bred for any particular quality1--for largeness1 strength1 shape1 amount of pitch1 tannin1 sugar and the like1 and for rapidity of growth2 in fact that any desirable attribute of a tree may be developed simply by breeding and selecting4 ,he has created walnut trees1 by crossing common varieties1 that have grown six times as much in thirteen years as their ancestors did in twenty-eight years1 preserving at the same time1 the strength1 hardness and texture of their forebears4 ,the grain of the wood has been made more beautiful at the same time4 ,the trees are fine for fuel and splendidly adapted to furniture manufacture4 7,harwood1 ,the ,new ,earth1 p4 #agi47 ,nature provides in the forest merely those varieties that will survive4 ,man1 by interfering in ,nature's processes but obeying her laws1 raises what he wants4 ,nature says3 those trees that survive are fit and does not care whether the trees be straight or crooked1 branched or clear4 ,man says3 those trees shall survive which are fit for human uses4 ,man raises better grains and fruits and vegetables than ,nature1 unaided1 can1 and1 in ,europe1 better trees for lumber4 ,in ,america there has been such an abundance of trees good enough for our purposes that we have simply gone out and gathered them1 just as a savage goes out to gather berries and nuts4 ,some day our descendants will smile at our treatment of forests much as we smile at root-digging savages1 unless1 indeed1 we so far destroy the forests that they will be more angered than amused4 ,in ,europe and ,japan1 the original supply of trees having been exhausted1 forests have been cultivated for centuries with the purpose of raising crops larger in quantity and better in quality4 ,there are various methods used in forest improvement4 ,improvement cuttings1 as the name implies1 are cuttings made to improve the quality of the forest1 whether by thinning out poor species of trees1 unsound trees1 trees crowding more valuable ones1 or trees called wolves2 that is1 trees unduly overshadowing others4 ,improvement cuttings are often necessary as a preliminary step before any silvicultural system can be applied4 ,indeed1 many of the silvicultural systems involve steady improvement of the forest4 ,the pruning of branches is a method of improvement1 carrying on the natural method by which trees in a forest clean themselves of their branches4 ,seeds of valuable species are often sowed1 when the conditions are proper1 in order to introduce a valuable species1 just as brooks and ponds are stocked with fine fish4 ,in general it may be said that improvement methods are only in their infancy1 especially in ,america4 ,footnote #a3 ,a concise and interesting statement of the relation of the forest to rain and floods is to be found in ,pinchot3 ,primer of ,forestry1 ,bulletin ,no4 #bd1 ,part ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,,iii4 ,footnote #b3 ,for an interesting account of an application of this method1 see ,ward1 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #c3 ,to encourage such forest extension1 the ,forest ,service is doing much by the publication of bulletins recommending methods and trees suited to special regions1 as1 e4g41 on ,forest ,planting in ,illinois1 in the ,sand ,hill ,region of ,nebraska1 on ,coal ,lands in ,western ,pennsylvania1 in ,western ,kansas1 in ,oklahoma and adjacent regions1 etc4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,forest4 ,,references3,a ,i ,utilization4 ,pinchot1 ,primer1 ,,ii1 pp4 #ad-ah1 #ch-dh4 ,bruncken1 pp4 #aba-aca1 ,for4 ,bull4 ,no4 #fa4 7#a7 ,protective4 ,pinchot1 ,primer1 ,,ii1 pp4 #ff-gc4 ,craft1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aije1 pp4 #fcf-fda1 7,map4 p4 #fci47 ,toumey1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijc1 p4 #bgi4 ,bruncken1 pp4 #aff-agc4 ,for4 and ,irrig41 passim4 ,shaler1 ,i1 pp4 #dhe-dhi4 7#b7 ,productive4 ,kellogg1 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #gd1 ,fernow1 ,for4 ,invest41 p4 #i4 ,roth1 ,first ,book1 p4 #acc4 ,zon ,clark1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijg1 p4 #bgg4 ,boulger1 pp4 #fj-gf4 ,roth1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #ahif1 p4 #cia4 ,fernow1 ,economics1 pp4 #bc-cc4 7#c7 ,esthetic4 ,roth1 ,first ,book1 p4 #ahj4 ,,ii ,preservation4 ,pinchot1 ,primer1 ,,ii1 pp4 #ah-cf4 ,bruncken1 pp4 #ie1 #aij4 ,graves1 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #bf1 pp4 #fg-gj4 ,roth1 ,first ,book1 pp4 #da-gf1 #aic-aid4 ,roth1 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #af1 pp4 #h1 #i4 ,fernow1 ,economics1 #afe-aif4 ,planting4 ,roth1 ,first ,book1 pp4 #gf-id1 #aie-aih4 ,hall1 ,agric4 ,yr4 ,bk41 #aijb1 pp4 #ade-aef4 ,for4 ,circs41 ,nos4 #cg1 #da1 #de1 #ha4 ,bruncken1 pp4 #ib1 #acc4 ,forestry ,bulletins ,nos4 #ah1 #de1 #eb1 #fe4 ,,iii ,improvement4 ,bruncken1 pp4 #acd-ace1 #aeb-afj4 ,graves1 ,for4 ,bull41 ,no4 #bf1 p4 #ci4 ,pinchot1 ,adirondack ,spruce1 p4 #d4 ,harwood1 pp4 #adc-aha4 ,footnote ,a3 ,for general bibliography1 see p4 #d4 ,,appendix4 ,,how ,,to ,,distinguish ,,the ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,wood4,a ,,by ,b4 ,e4 ,,fernow ,,and ,,filibert ,,roth4 ,the carpenter or other artisan who handles different woods1 becomes familiar with those he employs frequently1 and learns to distinguish them thru this familiarity1 without usually being able to state the points of distinction4 ,if a wood comes before him with which he is not familiar1 he has1 of course1 no means of determining what it is1 and it is possible to select pieces even of those with which he is well acquainted1 different in appearance from the general run1 that will make him doubtful as to their identification4 ,furthermore1 he may distinguish between hard and soft pines1 between oak and ash1 or between maple and birch1 which are characteristically different2 but when it comes to distinguishing between the several species of pine or oak or ash or birch1 the absence of readily recognizable characters is such that but few practitioners can be relied upon to do it4 ,hence1 in the market we find many species mixed and sold indiscriminately4 ,to identify the different woods it is necessary to have a knowledge of the definite1 invariable differences in their structure1 besides that of the often variable differences in their appearance4 ,these structural differences may either be readily visible to the naked eye or with a magnifier1 or they may require a microscopical examination4 ,in some cases such an examination can not be dispensed with1 if we would make absolutely sure4 ,there are instances1 as in the pines1 where even our knowledge of the minute anatomical structure is not yet sufficient to make a sure identification4 ,in the following key an attempt has been made--the first1 so far as we know1 in ,english literature--to give a synoptical view of the distinctive features of the commoner woods of the ,united ,states1 which are found in the markets or are used in the arts4 ,it will be observed that the distinction has been carried in most instances no further than to genera or classes of woods1 since the distinction of species can hardly be accomplished without elaborate microscopic study1 and also that1 as far as possible1 reliance has been placed only on such characteristics as can be distinguished with the naked eye or a simple magnifying glass1 in order to make the key useful to the largest number4 ,recourse has also been taken for the same reason to the less reliable and more variable general external appearance1 color1 taste1 smell1 weight1 etc4 ,the user of the key must1 however1 realize that external appearance1 such1 for example1 as color1 is not only very variable but also very difficult to describe1 individual observers differing especially in seeing and describing shades of color4 ,the same is true of statements of size1 when relative1 and not accurately measured1 while weight and hardness can perhaps be more readily approximated4 ,whether any feature is distinctly or only indistinctly seen will also depend somewhat on individual eyesight1 opinion1 or practice4 ,in some cases the resemblance of different species is so close that only one other expedient will make distinction possible1 namely1 a knowledge of the region from which the wood has come4 ,we know1 for instance1 that no longleaf pine grows in ,arkansas and that no white pine can come from ,alabama1 and we can separate the white cedar1 giant arbor vitae of the ,west and the arbor vitae of the ,northeast1 only by the difference of the locality from which the specimen comes4 ,with all these limitations properly appreciated1 the key will be found helpful toward greater familiarity with the woods which are more commonly met with4 ,the features which have been utilized in the key and with which--their names as well as their appearance--therefore1 the reader must familiarize himself before attempting to use the key1 are mostly described as they appear in cross-section4 ,they are3 7#a7 ,sap-wood and heart-wood 7see p4 #ag71 the former being the wood from the outer and the latter from the inner part of the tree4 ,in some cases they differ only in shade1 and in others in kind of color1 the heart-wood exhibiting either a darker shade or a pronounced color4 ,since one can not always have the two together1 or be certain whether he has sap-wood or heart-wood1 reliance upon this feature is1 to be sure1 unsatisfactory1 yet sometimes it is the only general characteristic that can be relied upon4 ,if further assurance is desired1 microscopic structure must be examined2 in such cases reference has been made to the presence or absence of tracheids in pith rays and the structure of their walls1 especially projections and spirals4 7#b7 ,annual rings1 their formation having been described on page #ai4 7,see also ,figs4 #abh-acj47 ,they are more or less distinctly marked1 and by such marking a classification of three great groups of wood is possible4 7#c7 ,spring wood and summer wood1 the former being the interior 7first formed wood of the year71 the latter the exterior 7last formed7 part of the ring4 ,the proportion of each and the manner in which the one merges into the other are sometimes used1 but more frequently the manner in which the pores appear distributed in either4 7#d7 ,pores1 which are vessels cut thru1 appearing as holes in cross-section1 in longitudinal section as channels1 scratches1 or identifications4 7,see p4 #bc and ,figs4 #abi and #acj47 ,they appear only in the broad-leaved1 so called1 hard woods2 their relative size 7large1 medium1 small1 minute1 and indistinct when they cease to be visible individually by the naked eye7 and manner of distribution in the ring being of much importance1 and especially in the summer wood1 where they appear singly1 in groups1 or short broken lines1 in continuous concentric1 often wavy lines1 or in radial branching lines4 7#e7 ,resin ducts 7see p4 #bf and ,fig4 #abh7 which appear very much like pores in cross-section1 namely1 as holes or lighter or darker colored dots1 but much more scattered4 ,they occur only in coniferous woods1 and their presence or absence1 size1 number1 and distribution are an important distinction in these woods4 7#f7 ,pith rays 7see p4 #ba and ,figs4 #abi and #acj71 which in cross-section appear as radial lines1 and in radial section as interrupted bands of varying breadth1 impart a peculiar luster to that section in some woods4 ,they are most readily visible with the naked eye or with a magnifier in the broad-leaved woods4 ,in coniferous woods they are usually so fine and closely packed that to the casual observer they do not appear4 ,their breadth and their greater or less distinctness are used as distinguishing marks1 being styled fine1 broad1 distinct1 very distinct1 conspicuous1 and indistinct when no longer visible by the naked 7strong7 eye4 7#g7 ,concentric lines1 appearing in the summer wood of certain species more or less distinct1 resembling distantly the lines of pores but much finer and not consisting of pores4 7,see ,fig4 #abi47 ,of microscopic features1 the following only have been referred to3 7#h7 ,tracheids1 a description of which is to be found on page #bh4 7#i7 ,pits1 simple and bordered1 especially the number of simple pits in the cells of the pith rays1 which lead into each of the adjoining tracheids4 ,for standards of weight1 consult table on pages #ej and #aib2 for standards of hardness1 table on page #aie4 ,unless otherwise stated the color refers always to the fresh cross-section of a piece of dry wood2 sometimes distinct kinds of color1 sometimes only shades1 and often only general color effects appear4 ,footnote ,a3 ,from ,forestry ,bulletin ,no4 #aj1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,the ,,key4 ,nobody need expect to be able to use successfully any key for the distinction of woods or of any other class of natural objects without some practice4 ,this is especially true with regard to woods1 which are apt to vary much1 and when the key is based on such meager general data as the present4 ,the best course to adopt is to supply one's self with a small sample collection of woods1 accurately named4 ,small1 polished tablets are of little use for this purpose4 ,the pieces should be large enough1 if possible1 to include pith and bark1 and of sufficient width to permit ready inspection of the cross-section4 ,by examining these with the aid of the key1 beginning with the better-known woods1 one will soon learn to see the features described and to form an idea of the relative standards which the maker of the key had in mind4 ,to aid in this1 the accompanying illustrations will be of advantage4 ,when the reader becomes familiar with the key1 the work of identifying any given piece will be comparatively easy4 ,the material to be examined must1 of course1 be suitably prepared4 ,it should be moistened2 all cuts should be made with a very sharp knife or razor and be clean and smooth1 for a bruised surface reveals but little structure4 ,the most useful cut may be made along one of the edges4 ,instructive1 thin1 small sections may be made with a sharp penknife or razor1 and when placed on a piece of thin glass1 moistened and covered with another piece of glass1 they may be examined by holding them toward the light4 ,finding1 on examination with the magnifier1 that it contains pores1 we know it is not coniferous or non-porous4 ,finding no pores collected in the spring-wood portion of the annual ring1 but all scattered 7diffused7 thru the ring1 we turn at once to the class of ,diffuse-porous woods4 ,we now note the size and manner in which the pores are distributed thru the ring4 ,finding them very small and neither conspicuously grouped1 nor larger nor more abundant in the spring-wood1 we turn to the third group of this class4 ,we now note the pith rays1 and finding them neither broad nor conspicuous1 but difficult to distinguish1 even with the magnifier1 we at once exclude the wood from the first two sections of this group and place it in the third1 which is represented by only one kind1 cottonwood4 ,finding the wood very soft1 white1 and on the longitudinal section with a silky luster1 we are further assured that our determination is correct4 ,we may now turn to the list of woods and obtain further information regarding the occurrence1 qualities1 and uses of the wood4 ,sometimes our progress is not so easy2 we may waver in what group or section to place the wood before us4 ,in such cases we may try each of the doubtful roads until we reach a point where we find ourselves entirely wrong and then return and take up another line2 or we may anticipate some of the later mentioned features and finding them apply to our specimen1 gain additional assurance of the direction we ought to travel4 ,color will often help us to arrive at a speedy decision4 ,in many cases1 especially with conifers1 which are rather difficult to distinguish1 a knowledge of the locality from which the specimen comes is at once decisive4 ,thus1 northern white cedar1 and bald cypress1 and the cedar of the ,pacific will be identified1 even without the somewhat indefinite criteria given in the key4 ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,more ,,important ,,woods ,,of ,,north ,,america4 ,i4 ,,non-,,porous ,,woods--,pores not visible or conspicuous on cross-section1 even with magnifier4 ,annual rings distinct by denser 7dark colored7 bands of summer wood 7,fig4 #abh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,non-porous ,woods4 ,a1 fir2 ,b1 hard pine2 ,c1 soft pine2 ar1 annual ring2 o4e41 outer edge of ring2 i4e41 inner edge of ring2 s4w41 summer wood2 sp4w41 spring wood2 rd41 resin ducts4 ,,ii4 ,,ring-,,porous ,,woods--,pores numerous1 usually visible on cross-section without magnifier4 ,annual rings distinct by a zone of large pores collected in the spring wood1 alternating with the denser summer wood 7,fig4 #abi74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,ring-porous ,woods ,white ,oak and ,hickory4 a4 r41 annual ring2 su4 w41 summer wood2 sp4 w41 spring wood2 v1 vessels or pores2 c4 l41 concentric lines2 rt1 darker tracts of hard fibers forming the firm part of oak wood2 pr1 pith rays4 ,,iii4 ,,diffuse-,,porous ,,woods--,pores numerous1 usually not plainly visible on cross-section without magnifier4 ,annual rings distinct by a fine line of denser summer wood cells1 often quite indistinct2 pores scattered thru annual ring1 no zone of collected pores in spring wood 7,fig4 #acj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,diffuse-porous ,woods4 ar1 annual ring2 pr1 pith rays which are broad at a1 fine at b1 indistinct at d4 ,,note4--,the above described three groups are exogenous1 i4e41 they grow by adding annually wood on their circumference4 ,a fourth group is formed by the endogenous woods1 like yuccas and palms1 which do not grow by such additions4 ,i4--,,non-,,porous ,,woods4 7,includes all coniferous woods47 ,a4 ,resin ducts wanting4#a #a4 ,no distinct heart-wood4 a4 ,color effect yellowish white2 summer wood darker yellowish 7under microscope pith ray without tracheids74444444444,,firs4 b4 ,color effect reddish 7roseate7 7under microscope pith ray with tracheids7 44444444444444444444444444444444,,hemloc k4 #b4 ,heart-wood present1 color decidedly different in kind from sap-wood4 a4 ,heart-wood light orange red2 sap-wood1 pale lemon2 wood1 heavy and hard 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4,,yew4 b4 ,heartwood purplish to brownish red2 sap-wood yellowish white2 wood soft to medium hard1 light1 usually with aromatic odor1 44444444444444444444444444444444444,,red ,,cedar4 c4 ,heart-wood maroon to terra cotta or deep brownish red2 sap-wood light orange to dark amber1 very soft and light1 no odor2 pith rays very distinct1 specially pronounced on radial section 4444444444444444444444444444444444,,redw ood4 #c4 ,heart-wood present1 color only different in shade from sap-wood1 dingy-yellowish brown4 a4 ,odorless and tasteless 444444444444444444444444,,bald ,,cypress4 b4 ,wood with mild resinous odor1 but tasteless 4444,,white ,,cedar4 c4 ,wood with strong resinous odor and peppery taste when freshly cut1 44444444444444444444444444444444,,incens e ,,cedar4 ,b4 ,resin ducts present4 #a4 ,no distinct heartwood2 color white1 resin ducts very small1 not numerous 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444,,spruce4 #b4 ,distinct heart-wood present4 a4 ,resin ducts numerous1 evenly scattered thru the ring4 a4' ,transition from spring wood to summer wood gradual2 annual ring distinguished by a fine line of dense summer-wood cells2 color1 white to yellowish red2 wood soft and light 44444444444444444444444,,soft ,,pines4#b b4' ,transition from spring wood to summer wood more or less abrupt2 broad bands of dark-colored summer wood2 color from light to deep orange2 wood medium hard and heavy 4444444444444444444444444444,,hard ,,pines4#b b4 ,resin ducts not numerous nor evenly distributed4 a'4 ,color of heart-wood orange-reddish1 sap-wood yellowish 7same as hard pine72 resin ducts frequently combined in groups of #h to #cj1 forming lines on the cross-section 7tracheids with spirals71 44444444444444,,douglas ,,spruce4 b'4 ,color of heart-wood light russet brown2 of sap-wood yellowish brown2 resin ducts very few1 irregularly scattered 7tracheids without spirals7 44444444,,tamarack4 ,footnote #a3 ,soft and hard pines are arbitrary distinctions and the two not distinguishable at the limit4 ,footnote #b3 ,to discover the resin ducts a very smooth surface is necessary1 since resin ducts are frequently seen only with difficulty1 appearing on the cross-section as fine whiter or darker spots normally scattered singly1 rarely in groups1 usually in the summer wood of the annual ring4 ,they are often much more easily seen on radial1 and still more so on tangential sections1 appearing there as fine lines or dots of open structure of different color or as indentations or pin scratches in a longitudinal direction4 ,,additional ,,notes ,,for ,,distinctions ,,in ,,the ,,group4 ,spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir1 except by the existence of the resin ducts1 and microscopically by the presence of tracheids in the medullary rays4 ,spruce may also be confounded with soft pine1 except for the heart-wood color of the latter and the larger1 more frequent1 and more readily visible resin ducts4 ,in the lumber yard1 hemlock is usually recognized by color and the silvery character of its surface4 ,western hemlocks partake of this last character to a less degree4 ,microscopically the white pine can be distinguished by having usually only one large pit1 while spruce shows three to five very small pits in the parenchyma cells of the pith ray communicating with the tracheid4 ,the distinction of the pines is possible only by microscopic examination4 ,the following distinctive features may assist in recognizing1 when in the log or lumber pile1 those usually found in the market3 ,the light1 straw color1 combined with great lightness and softness1 distinguishes the white pines 7white pine and sugar pine7 from the hard pines 7all others in the market71 which may also be recognized by the gradual change of spring wood into summer wood4 ,this change in hard pines is abrupt1 making the summer wood appear as a sharply defined and more or less broad band4 ,the ,norway pine1 which may be confounded with the shortleaf pine1 can be distinguished by being much lighter and softer4 ,it may also1 but more rarely1 be confounded with heavier white pine1 but for the sharper definition of the annual ring1 weight1 and hardness4 ,the longleaf pine is strikingly heavy1 hard1 and resinous1 and usually very regular and narrow ringed1 showing little sap-wood1 and differing in this respect from the shortleaf pine and loblolly pine1 which usually have wider rings and more sap-wood1 the latter excelling in that respect4 ,the following convenient and useful classification of pines into four groups1 proposed by ,dr4 ,h4 ,mayr1 is based on the appearance of the pith ray as seen in a radial section of the spring wood of any ring3 ,section ,i4 ,walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate projections4 a4 ,one to two large1 simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of the cells of the pith ray4--,group #a4 ,represented in this country only by ,p4 resinosa4 b4 ,three to six simple pits to each tracheid1 on the walls of the cells of the pith ray4--,group #b4 ,p4 taeda1 palustris1 etc41 including most of our hard and yellow pines4 ,section ,,ii4 ,walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth1 without dentate projections4 a4 ,one or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray4--,group #c4 ,p4 strobus1 lambertiana1 and other true white pines4 b4 ,three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray4 ,group #d4 ,p4 parryana1 and other nut pines1 including also ,p4 balfouriana4 ,,ii4--,,ring-,,porous ,,woods4 7,some of ,group ,d and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porous47 ,a4 ,pores in the summer wood minute1 scattered singly or in groups1 or in short broken lines1 the course of which is never radial4 #a4 ,pith rays minute1 scarcely distinct4 a4 ,wood heavy and hard2 pores in the summer wood not in clusters4 a4' ,color of radial section not yellow44444444444444444,,ash4 b4' ,color of radial section light yellow2 by which1 together with its hardness and weight1 this species is easily recognized1 444444444444,,osage ,,orange4 b4 ,wood light and soft2 pores in the summer wood in clusters of #aj to #cj 444444444444444444444444444444444444444, ,catalpa4 #b4 ,pith rays very fine1 yet distinct2 pores in summer wood usually single or in short lines2 color of heart-wood reddish brown2 of sap-wood yellowish white2 peculiar odor on fresh section 4444444444444444444444444444444444444,,s assafras4 #c4 ,pith rays fine1 but distinct4 a4 ,very heavy and hard2 heart-wood yellowish brown4 ,,black ,,locust4 b4 ,heavy2 medium hard to hard4 a4' ,pores in summer wood very minute1 usually in small clusters of #c to #h2 heart-wood light orange brown4 ,,red ,,mulberry4 b4' ,pores in summer wood small to minute1 usually isolated2 heart-wood cherry red 4444444444,,coffee ,,tree4 #d4 ,pith rays fine but very conspicuous1 even without magnifier4 ,color of heart-wood red2 of sap-wood pale lemon 444,,honey ,,locust4 ,b4 ,pores of summer wood minute or small1 in concentric wavy and sometimes branching lines1 appearing as finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section4 #a4 ,pith rays fine1 but very distinct2 color greenish white4 ,heart-wood absent or imperfectly developed 44444444444,,hackberry4 #b4 ,pith rays indistinct2 color of heart-wood reddish brown2 sap-wood grayish to reddish white 4444444444444444444444444,,elms4 ,c4 ,pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching lines 7when very crowded radial arrangement somewhat obscured74 #a4 ,pith rays very minute1 hardly visible 44444444444444444,,chestnut4 #b4 ,pith rays very broad and conspicuous 44444444444444444444444,,oak4 ,d4 ,pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the spring wood1 isolated and scattered2 very heavy and hard woods4 ,the pores of the spring wood sometimes form but an imperfect zone4 7,some diffuse-porous woods of groups ,a and ,b may seem to belong here47 #a4 ,fine concentric lines 7not of pores7 as distinct1 or nearly so1 as the very fine pith rays2 outer summer wood with a tinge of red2 heart-wood light reddish brown 44444444444444444444,,hickory4 #b4 ,fine concentric lines1 much finer than the pith rays2 no reddish tinge in summer wood2 sap-wood white2 heart-wood blackish 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444,,persimmon4 ,,additional ,,notes ,,for ,,distinctions ,,in ,,the ,,group4 ,sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight and hardness and the absence of odor in the mulberry2 the radial section of mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously4 ,honey locust1 coffee tree1 and black locust are also very similar in appearance4 ,the honey locust stands out by the conspicuousness of the pith rays1 especially on radial sections1 on account of their height1 while the black locust is distinguished by the extremely great weight and hardness1 together with its darker brown color4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,wood of ,coffee ,tree4 ,the ashes1 elms1 hickories1 and oaks may1 on casual observation1 appear to resemble one another on account of the pronounced zone of porous spring wood4 7,figs4 #abi1 #acb1 #ace47 ,the sharply defined large pith rays of the oak exclude these at once2 the wavy lines of pores in the summer wood1 appearing as conspicuous finely-feathered hatchings on tangential section1 distinguish the elms2 while the ashes differ from the hickory by the very conspicuously defined zone of spring wood pores1 which in hickory appear more or less interrupted4 ,the reddish hue of the hickory and the more or less brown hue of the ash may also aid in ready recognition4 ,the smooth1 radial surface of split hickory will readily separate it from the rest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,a1 black ash2 ,b1 white ash2 ,c1 green ash4 ,the different species of ash may be identified as follows 7,fig4 #acb73 #a4 ,pores in the summer wood more or less united into lines4 a4 ,the lines short and broken1 occurring mostly near the limit of the ring 444444444444444444444444444444444444444, ,white ,,ash4 b4 ,the lines quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the summer wood 444444444444444444444444444444444444444, ,green ,,ash4 #b4 ,pores in the summer wood not united into lines1 or rarely so4 a4 ,heart-wood reddish brown and very firm 44444444444444,,red ,,ash4 b4 ,heart-wood grayish brown1 and much more porous 4444,,black ,,ash4 ,in the oaks1 two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in which the pores are distributed in the summer wood4 7,fig4 #acc47 ,in the white oaks the pores are very fine and numerous and crowded in the outer part of the summer wood1 while in the black or red oaks the pores are larger1 few in number1 and mostly isolated4 ,the live oaks1 as far as structure is concerned1 belong to the black oaks1 but are much less porous1 and are exceedingly heavy and hard4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,wood of ,red ,oak4 7,for white oak see fig4 #abi1 p4 #bia47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,wood of ,chestnut4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,wood of ,hickory4 ,,iii4--,,diffuse-,,porous ,,woods4 7,a few indistinctly ring-porous woods of ,group ,,ii1 ,d1 and cedar elm may seem to belong here47 ,a4 ,pores varying in size from large to minute2 largest in spring wood1 thereby giving sometimes the appearance of a ring-porous arrangement4 #a4 ,heavy and hard2 color of heart-wood 7especially on longitudinal section7 chocolate brown 44444444444444444444444444,,black ,,walnut4 #b4 ,light and soft2 color of heart-wood light reddish brown ,,butternut4 ,b4 ,pores all minute and indistinct2 most numerous in spring wood1 giving rise to a lighter colored zone or line 7especially on longitudinal section71 thereby appearing sometimes ring-porous2 wood hard1 heart-wood vinous reddish2 pith rays very fine1 but very distinct4 7,see also the sometimes indistinct ring-porous cedar elm1 and occasionally winged elm1 which are readily distinguished by the concentric wavy lines of pores in the summer wood7 444444444,,cherry4 ,c4 ,pores minute or indistinct1 neither conspicuously larger nor more numerous in the spring wood and evenly distributed4 #a4 ,broad pith rays present4 a4 ,all or most pith rays broad1 numerous1 and crowded1 especially on tangential sections1 medium heavy and hard1 difficult to split4 44444444444444444444444444444444,,sycamo re4 b4 ,only part of the pith rays broad4 a4' ,broad pith rays well defined1 quite numerous2 wood reddish white to reddish 44444444444444444444,,beech4 b4' ,broad pith rays not sharply defined1 made up of many small rays1 not numerous4 ,stem furrowed1 and therefore the periphery of section1 and with it the annual rings sinuous1 bending in and out1 and the large pith rays generally limited to the furrows or concave portions4 ,wood white1 not reddish 444444444444444444444,,blue ,,beech4 #b4 ,no broad pith rays present4 a4 ,pith rays small to very small1 but quite distinct4 a4' ,wood hard4 a4 ,color reddish white1 with dark reddish tinge in outer summer wood 444444444444444444444444444,,maple4 b4 ,color white1 without reddish tinge 44444444444,,holly4 b4' ,wood soft to very soft4 a4 ,pores crowded1 occupying nearly all the space between pith rays4 a4' ,color yellowish white1 often with a greenish tinge in heart-wood 444444444444444444444444,,tulip ,,poplar4 ,,cucumber ,,tree4 b4' ,color of sap-wood grayish1 of heart-wood light to dark reddish brown 4444444444444444444444,,sweet ,,gum4 b4 ,pores not crowded1 occupying not over one-third the space between pith rays2 heart-wood brownish white to very light brown 4444444444444444444444444,,basswood4 b4 ,pith rays scarcely distinct1 yet if viewed with ordinary magnifier1 plainly visible4 a4' ,pores indistinct to the naked eye4 a4 ,color uniform pale yellow2 pith rays not conspicuous even on the radial section 44444,,buckeye4 b4 ,sap-wood yellowish gray1 heart-wood grayish brown2 pith rays conspicuous on the radial section4 ,,sour ,,gum4 b4' ,pores scarcely distinct1 but mostly visible as grayish specks on the cross-section2 sap-wood whitish1 heart-wood reddish 444444444444444444444444444444,,birch4 ,d4 ,pith rays not visible or else indistinct1 even if viewed with magnifier4 #a4 ,wood very soft1 white1 or in shades of brown1 usually with a silky luster 444444444444444444444444444444444,,cotto nwood 7,,poplar74 ,,additional ,,notes ,,for ,,distinctions ,,in ,,the ,,group4 ,cherry and birch are sometimes confounded1 the high pith rays on the cherry on radial sections readily distinguishes it2 distinct pores on birch and spring wood zone in cherry as well as the darker vinous-brown color of the latter will prove helpful4 ,two groups of birches can be readily distinguished1 tho specific distinction is not always possible4 #a4 ,pith rays fairly distinct1 the pores rather few and not more abundant in the spring wood3 wood heavy1 usually darker1 ,,cherry ,,birch and ,,yellow ,,birch4 #b4 ,pith rays barely distinct1 pores more numerous and commonly forming a more porous spring wood zone2 wood of medium weight1 ,,canoe ,,or ,,paper ,,birch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4 ,wood of ,beech1 ,sycamore and ,birch4 ,the species of maple may be distinguished as follows3 #a4 ,most of the pith rays broader than the pores and very conspicuous 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 ,,sugar ,,maple4 #b4 ,pith rays not or rarely broader than the pores1 fine but conspicuous4 a4 ,wood heavy and hard1 usually of darker reddish color and commonly spotted on cross-section 444444444444444,,red ,,maple4 b4 ,wood of medium weight and hardness1 usually light colored4 ,,silver ,,maple4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4 ,wood of ,maple4 ,red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple4 ,in box elder the pores are finer and more numerous than in soft maple4 ,the various species of elm may be distinguished as follows3 #a4 ,pores of spring wood form a broad band of several rows2 easy splitting1 dark brown heart 4444444444444444444444444444,,red ,,elm4 #b4 ,pores of spring wood usually in a single row1 or nearly so4 a4 ,pores of spring wood large1 conspicuously so ,,white ,,elm4 b4 ,pores of spring wood small to minute4 a4' ,lines of pores in summer wood fine1 not as wide as the intermediate spaces1 giving rise to very compact grain ,,rock ,,elm4 b4' ,lines of pores broad1 commonly as wide as the intermediate spaces 4444444444444444444444444,,winged ,,elm4 c4 ,pores in spring wood indistinct1 and therefore hardly a ring-porous wood 444444444444444444444444444444444,,cedar ,,elm4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,wood of ,elm4 a red elm2 b1 white elm2 c1 winged elm4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,walnut4 p4r41 pith rays2 c4l41 concentric lines2 v1 vessels or pores2 su4 w41 summer wood2 sp4 w41 spring wood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4 ,wood of ,cherry4 ,,index4 ,abies grandis1 #if4 ,acer dasycarpum1 #agb4 ,acer macrophyllum1 #agj4 ,acer rubrum1 #agd4 ,acer saccharinum1 #agb4 ,acer saccharum1 #agf4 ,agaricus melleus1 #bcf4 ,agarics1 #bcd1 #bcf4 ,alburnum1 #ag4 ,ambrosia beetles1 #bdb4 ,angiosperms1 #i4 ,animal enemies1 #bci4 ,arborvitae1 ,giant1 #ajd4 ,ash1 #ahb-aia1 #bif4 ,ash1 ,black1 #ahb1 #bih4 ,ash1 ,blue1 #ahf4 ,ash1 ,hoop1 #ahb4 ,ash1 ,oregon1 #ahd4 ,ash1 ,red1 #ahh1 #bih4 ,ash1 ,white1 #be1 #aij1 #bih4 ,bamboo1 #aj1 #aa4 ,bark1 #aj1 #ac1 #ad4 ,bark borers1 #bdc4 ,basswood1 #ad1 #agh1 #cja4 ,bast1 #ac1 #ae1 #af1 #bj4 ,beech1 #acd1 #cjj4 ,beech1 ,blue1 #abd1 #cjj4 ,beech1 ,water1 #abd4 ,beech1 ,water1 #afb4 ,bees1 carpenter1 #bdf4 ,beetles1 #bda-bdf4 ,betula lenta1 #acj4 ,betula lutea1 #acb4 ,betula nigra1 #abh4 ,betula papyrifera1 #abf4 ,big ,tree1 #ih1 #bjh1 #bji1 #bbj4 ,birch1 ,black1 #acj4 ,birch1 ,canoe1 #abf4 ,birch1 ,cherry1 #acj4 ,birch1 ,gray1 #acb4 ,birch1 ,mahogany1 #acj4 ,birch1 ,paper1 #abf4 ,birch1 ,red1 #abh4 ,birch1 ,river1 #abh4 ,birch1 ,sweet1 #acj4 ,birch1 ,white1 #abf4 ,birch1 ,yellow1 #acb4 ,bird's eye maple1 #cf4 ,bluing1 #bcd4 ,bole1 #baa1 #bah4 ,borers1 #bdc-bdf4 ,bowing1 #dg4 ,branches1 #cg1 #bah1 #bbf1 #bhf4 ,brittleness1 #ec4 ,broad-leaved trees4 ,see ,trees1 ,broad-leaved4 ,browsing1 #bdj4 ,buckeye1 #cja4 ,bud1 #ad1 #af1 #cf4 ,buds1 ,adventitious1 #cf1 #cg4 ,bullnut1 #aah4 ,buprestid1 #bdc4 ,burl1 #ce4 ,butternut1 #add1 #cjj4 ,button ,ball1 #afb4 ,buttonwood1 #afb4 ,calico poplar1 #bdf4 ,cambium1 #aj1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #bb1 #bcg4 ,canopy1 #bjd1 #baa1 #bab4 ,carpenter worms1 #bde4 ,carpenter bees1 #bdf4 ,carpinus caroliniana1 #abd4 ,catalpa1 #bif4 ,castanea dentata1 #acf4 ,case-hardening1 #dh4 ,carya tomentosa1 #aah4 ,carya porcina1 #abb4 ,carya alba1 #abj4 ,cedar1 ,canoe1 #ajd4 ,cedar ,incense1 #bie4 ,cedar1 ,oregon1 #ajh4 ,cedar1 ,port ,orford1 #ajh4 ,cedar1 ,red1 #aaj1 #bbc1 #bie4 ,cedar1 ,western ,red1 #ajd1 #bjf1 #bjg4 ,cedar1 ,white1 #ajf1 #bie4 ,cedar1 ,white1 #ajh4 ,cells1 ,wood1 #ae1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd1 #bf1 #da1 #db4 ,cells1 ,fibrous1 #bh4 ,cellulose1 #ae4 ,cerambycid1 #bdc4 ,chamaecyparis lawsoniana1 #ajh4 ,chamaecyparis thyordes1 #ajf4 ,checks1 #dc1 #dg1 #bcb4 ,cherry1 ,wild ,black1 #afd1 #cjj4 ,chestnut1 #acf1 #bih4 ,cleaning1 #bah1 #bhf4 ,cleavability of wood1 #da1 #ec4 ,coffee ,tree1 #big4 ,color of wood1 #ah4 ,cold1 #bad1 #baf4 ,coleoptera1 #bda4 ,colors of woods1 #ag1 #ah1 #bij4 ,columbian timber beetle1 #bde4 ,comb-grain1 #ed4 ,composition of forest1 #aig-baj1 #bbc4 ,compression1 #ea1 #eb4 ,conch1 #bce4 ,cones1 ,annual1 #ai4 ,conifers1 #i1 #aj1 #ab1 #bd-bf1 #bi1 #cj1 #dh1 #eh-aaa1 #bje1 #bbj1 #bcg1 #bea4 ,conservation of forests1 #bfb4 ,coppice1 #bbj1 #bgh1 #bgi4 ,cork1 #ac1 #ai4 ,cortex1 #ac1 #ae4 ,corthylus columbianus1 #bde4 ,cottonwood1 #cja4 ,cover1 #baa4 ,crop1 ,the ,forest1 #bgd4 ,crown1 #baa1 #bbg4 ,cucumber ,tree1 #aef1 #cja4 ,curculionid1 #bdc4 ,cypress1 ,bald1 #ajb1 #bae1 #bie4 ,cypress1 ,lawson1 #ajh4 ,decay1 #bce4 ,deciduous trees1 #aj4 ,dicotoledons1 #i1 #aj4 ,differentiation of cells1 #af4 ,diffuse-porous4 ,see wood1 diffuse-porous4 ,distribution of species1 #bah4 ,distribution of forests1 #aig-baj4 ,drouth1 #bac1 #bca4 ,dry-rot1 #bcd1 #bch4 ,duff1 #bbd1 #bea4 ,duramen1 #ag4 ,elasticity of wood1 #da1 #ec4 ,elm1 #aeb-aee1 #bih4 ,elm1 ,american1 #aed4 ,elm1 ,cedar1 #cjc4 ,elm1 ,cliff1 #aeb4 ,elm1 ,cork1 #aeb4 ,elm1 ,hickory1 #aeb4 ,elm1 ,red1 #cjb4 ,elm1 ,rock1 #aeb1 #cjc4 ,elm1 ,slippery1 #ad4 ,elm1 ,water1 #aed4 ,elm1 ,white1 #aeb4 ,elm1 ,white1 #aed1 #cjb4 ,elm1 ,winged1 #cjc4 ,endogens1 #aj1 #ag4 ,see ,monocotoledons4 ,enemies of the ,forest1 #bbi-bdi4 ,engraver beetles1 #bda4 ,entomology1 ,bureau of1 #bdg4 ,epidermis1 #ac1 #ae4 ,erosion1 #bgc4 ,evaporation1 #db1 #dg4 ,evergreens1 #aj4 ,exotics1 #bbg4 ,exogens1 #ab1 #af4 ,fagus americana1 #acd4 ,fagus atropunicea1 #acd4 ,fagus ferruginea1 #acd4 ,fagus grandifolia1 #acd4 ,figure1 #cg4 ,fir1 #if1 #bid4 ,fir1 ,douglas1 #id4 ,fir1 ,grand1 #if4 ,fir1 ,lowland1 #if4 ,fir1 ,red1 #id1 #bjf1 #bjg4 ,fir1 ,silver1 #if4 ,fir1 ,white1 #if4 ,fire1 #bcb1 #bea-beh4 ,fire lanes1 #beg4 ,fire losses1 #bec4 ,fire 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,southern1 #aig4 ,forest1 ,subarctic1 #bji4 ,forest1 ,two-storied ,seed1 #bhb4 ,forest1 ,use of1 #bga-bhg4 ,forest1 ,utilization of1 #bga-bgg4 ,forest1 ,virgin1 #bhj4 ,forest1 ,western1 #aig4 ,forestry1 #bga-bhg4 ,forests1 ,composition of ,north ,american1 #aig4 ,forests1 ,national1 #bbh4 ,forests and agriculture1 #beh1 #bgg4 ,forest conditions1 #baa-bbh1 #bgh4 ,forest conservation1 #bfb4 ,forest cover1 #bjd1 #baa1 #bab1 #bbd4 ,forest crop1 #bgd1 #bgf4 ,forest devastation1 #bfa4 ,forest fires1 #bea-beh1 #bfa4 ,forest floor1 #bac1 #bbd4 ,forest improvement1 #bhd-bhf4 ,forest map1 #aih4 ,forest organism1 ,the1 ,chapter ,v41 pp4 #baa-bbh4 ,forest ownership1 #bfb4 ,forest planting1 #bhb-bhd4 ,forest preservation1 #bgg-bhd4 ,forest products1 #bgf4 ,forest ,service1 ,u4 ,s41 #bfb1 #bfd1 #bge4 ,fraxinus americana1 #aij4 ,fraxinus nigra1 #ahb4 ,fraxinus oregona1 #ahd4 ,fraxinus pennsylvanica1 #ahh4 ,fraxinus quadrangulata1 #ahf4 ,frost1 #bcb4 ,frost-check1 #bcb4 ,fungi1 #bj1 #bcc-bci4 ,ginko1 #ab4 ,gluing1 #ed4 ,goats1 #bdj4 ,grain of wood1 #ai1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb-cg1 #ec4 ,grain1 ,bird's eye4 ,grain1 coarse1 #cb4 ,grain1 cross1 #cc1 #ec4 ,grain1 curly1 #ce4 ,grain1 fine1 #cb4 ,grain1 spiral1 #cc4 ,grain1 straight1 #cc1 #ec4 ,grain1 twisted1 #cc4 ,grain1 wavy1 #cd4 ,grazing1 #bci4 ,group system1 #bgi4 ,grubs1 #bdc1 #bdd4 ,gum1 ,black1 #ahj4 ,gum1 ,sour1 #ahj1 #cja4 ,gum1 ,sweet1 #afj1 #cja4 ,gymnosperms1 #i4 ,hackberry1 #big4 ,hackmatack1 #gf4 ,hardness of wood1 #da1 #ed4 ,hardwoods1 #ab4 ,heart-wood1 #ac1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bij4 ,hemlock1 #ij1 #bie4 ,hemlock1 ,black1 #ib4 ,hemlock1 ,western1 #ib1 #bjf4 ,hicoria alba1 #aah4 ,hicoria glabra1 #abb4 ,hicoria ovata1 #abj4 ,hickory1 #aah-abc1 #bih4 ,hickory1 ,big-bud1 #aah4 ,hickory1 ,black1 #aah4 ,hickory1 ,shagbark1 #abj4 ,hickory1 ,shellbark1 #abj4 ,hickory1 ,white-heart1 #aah4 ,high ,forest1 #bha4 ,holly1 #cja4 ,honeycombing1 #dh4 ,hornbeam1 #abd4 ,horn-tails1 #bdf4 ,hygroscopicity of wood1 #da4 ,hymenomycetes1 #bcd4 ,ice1 #bcb4 ,ichneumon fly1 #bdg4 ,identification of woods1 #bhi-cjc4 ,improvement of forests1 #bhd-bhf4 ,inflammability of bark1 #ad1 #bea4 ,insects1 #bdj-bdh4 ,insects1 parasitic1 #bdg4 ,insects1 predaceous1 #bdg4 ,intolerance1 #baf1 #bai1 #bba4 ,iron-wood1 #abd4 ,juglans cinerea1 #aad4 ,juglans nigra1 #aaf4 ,juniperus virginiana1 #aaj4 ,key for the distinction of woods1 #bib-cjc4 ,king-nut1 #aah4 ,knot1 #ce1 #cg1 #ch4 ,larch1 #gf4 ,larch1 ,western1 #gh4 ,larix americana1 #gf4 ,larix laricina1 #gf4 ,larix occidentales1 #gh4 ,leaves1 #ad1 #baf4 ,lenticels1 #ad4 ,lepidoptera1 #bda4 ,light1 #baf-bah4 ,lightning1 #bca1 #bea4 ,lignin1 #af4 ,linden1 #agh4 ,liquidambar styraciflua1 #afj4 ,liriodendron tulipifera1 #aeh4 ,localized ,selection system1 #bha4 ,locust1 #aff4 ,locust1 ,black1 #aff1 #bif4 ,locust1 ,honey1 #aff1 #big4 ,locust1 ,yellow1 #aff4 ,long-bodied trunk1 #bbe4 ,lumber consumption1 #bfd4 ,lumber1 #i1 #aj4 ,lumber prices1 #bfg1 #bfh4 ,lumber production1 #bfe-bfg4 ,lumber1 substitutes for1 #bfd4 ,lumbering1 conservative1 #bgd1 #bgf4 ,lumbering1 destructive1 #bea1 #beh-bfc4 ,lumberman1 #bfj4 ,magnolia acuminata1 #aef4 ,magnolia1 ,mountain1 #aef4 ,mahogany1 #afh4 ,maple1 #agj-agg1 #cja4 ,maple1 ,hard1 #be1 #agf4 ,maple1 ,large ,leaved1 #agj4 ,maple1 ,oregon1 #agj1 #bjg4 ,maple1 ,red1 #agd1 #cjb4 ,maple1 ,rock1 #be1 #agf4 ,maple1 ,silver1 #agb1 #cjb4 ,maple1 ,soft1 #agb4 ,maple1 ,sugar1 #agf4 ,maple1 ,white1 #agj4 ,maple1 ,white1 #agb4 ,medullary rays4 ,see ,rays4 ,medullary ,sheath4 ,see ,sheath4 ,merulius lachrymans1 #bcd1 #bch4 ,meteorological enemies1 #bbi-bcc4 ,mice1 #bcg4 ,microscope1 #ad1 #bd-ca1 #bij4 ,mine1 ,forest treated as1 #bfa1 #bgd4 ,mockernut1 #aah4 ,moisture1 #bac4 ,moisture in wood1 #da1 #eb4 ,monocotoledons1 #i1 #aj1 #ag4 ,see also ,endogens4 ,mountain1 #baf4 ,mulberry1 ,red1 #big4 ,mushroom1 #bcf4 ,mutual aid1 #bbd4 ,nailing1 #ec4 ,needle-leaf trees1 #ab4 ,non-porous4 ,see ,wood1 non-porous4 ,north ,woods1 #aig1 #bah4 ,nurse1 #bah1 #bai4 ,nyssa 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,properties of wood1 ,chap ,,ii41 p4 #da4 ,protoplasm1 #ad1 #af1 #bc1 #da4 ,pruning of branches1 #bhf4 ,prunus serotina1 #afd4 ,pseudotsuga mucronata1 #id4 ,pseudotsuga taxifolia1 #id4 ,quartering a log1 #de4 ,quartered oak1 #bb4 ,quercus alba1 #aej4 ,quercus garryana1 #adf4 ,quercus macrocarpa1 #add4 ,quercus michauxii1 #adb4 ,quercus minor1 #adh4 ,quercus obtusiloba1 #adh4 ,quercus rubra1 #ach4 ,quercus stellata1 #adh4 ,quercus tinctoria1 #adj4 ,quercus velutina1 #adj4 ,rainfall1 effect on forest1 #bje1 #bac4 ,rays1 medullary1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bf1 #cj1 #ca1 #cg1 #dd1 #ec1 #bia4 ,red rot1 #bcd4 ,redwood1 #ajj1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #bbb1 #bie4 ,regularity of cells1 #bd4 ,reproduction1 #bbj4 ,reserve sprout method1 #bgi4 ,resin ducts1 #bf1 #bia4 ,rhizomorphs1 #bcf4 ,rind1 #ac4 ,ring-porous4 ,see ,wood1 ring-porous4 ,rings1 ,annual1 #i1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba1 #bc1 #dd1 #bbf1 #bij4 ,rings1 ,false1 #ai1 #bca4 ,robinia pseudacacia1 #aff4 ,rodents1 #bci4 ,roots1 #baa1 #bbd4 ,rotation period1 #bgi4 ,rotting1 #bcd4 ,salix nigra1 #aab4 ,sand dunes1 #bcj1 #bca4 ,saplings1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,saprophytes1 #bcc4 ,sap-wood1 #ac1 #ag1 #ah1 #da1 #db1 #bij4 ,sassafras1 #bif4 ,sawyers1 ,pine1 #bdd4 ,secondary growth1 #ag4 ,section1 cross1 #ba1 #bb1 #bi4 ,see also ,section1 transverse4 ,section1 radial1 #ai1 #bb1 #bf1 #cj1 #ca4 ,section1 tangential1 #ai1 #bb1 #bf1 #cj1 #ca4 ,section1 transverse1 #ai1 #bd1 #bi1 #cj4 ,seasoning1 #db4 ,sections1 transverse1 radial and tangential1 #ab4 ,seed forests1 #bgi-bhb4 ,seeding from the side1 #bgi4 ,seedlings1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,seeds1 #bbj-bbc1 #bbf4 ,sequoia1 #ih4 ,sequoia1 #ajj4 ,sequoia1 ,giant1 #ih4 ,sequoia gigantea1 #ih4 ,sequoia sempervirens1 #ajj4 ,sequoia washingtoniana1 #ih4 ,settler1 #beh4 ,shake1 #dg1 #bcb1 #bcc4 ,shearing strength1 #eb4 ,sheep1 #bdj4 ,shelf fungus1 #bcd1 #bcf4 ,short-bodied trunk1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,shrinkage of wood1 #da1 #db-dg4 ,silver flakes1 #bb4 ,see ,rays1 ,medullary4 ,silvical characteristics1 #baa4 ,silvicultural systems1 #bgh-bhd4 ,slash1 #bbi1 #bea1 #beg4 ,slash-grain1 #ed4 ,snow1 #bcb4 ,slash-sawing1 #de1 #dg4 ,softwoods1 #ab4 ,soil1 #baa1 #bac4 ,specific gravity4 ,see ,weight4 ,splint-wood1 #ag4 ,splitting4 ,see ,cleavability4 ,spores1 #bcd4 ,spring-wood1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd1 #cj1 #cb1 #dd1 #ec1 #ed1 #bia4 ,sprouts1 #bbj1 #bbb4 ,spruce1 #hj-hi1 #bie4 ,spruce1 ,black1 #hd4 ,spruce1 ,douglas1 #id1 #bif4 ,spruce1 ,engelmann's1 #hf4 ,spruce1 ,red1 #hb1 #bac4 ,spruce1 ,sitka1 #hh4 ,spruce1 ,tideland1 #hh4 ,spruce1 ,western ,white1 #hf4 ,spruce1 ,white1 #hj4 ,stand1 mixed1 #bac1 #bbc4 ,stand1 pure1 #bac1 #bbc4 ,standards1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,steamboats1 #bdf4 ,stem1 diagram of cross section1 ,fig4 #d1 p4 #ac1 fig4 #e1 p4 #ae1 #baa4 ,strength of wood1 #da1 #ea-ec4 ,strip system1 #bgi4 ,structure of wood1 #i-dj1 #bi1 #cj1 #cb4 ,struggle for existence1 #bbd1 #bbf1 #bbg4 ,summer-wood1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd1 #cj1 #cb1 #dd1 #ec1 #ed1 #bia4 ,swietenia mahagoni1 #afh4 ,sycamore1 #bb1 #afb1 #cjj4 ,tamarack1 #gf1 #bif4 ,tamarack1 ,western1 #gh4 ,taxes on forests1 #bfa4 ,taxodium distichum1 #ajb4 ,tear fungus1 #bcd1 #bch4 ,temperature1 #bad4 ,tension1 #ea1 #eb4 ,texture of wood1 #cb4 ,thuja gigantea1 #ajd4 ,thuja plicata1 #ajd4 ,tilia americana1 #agh4 ,timber beetles1 #bdb1 #bde4 ,timber supply of ,u4 ,s41 #bfd-bfi4 ,timber trees1 #aj4 ,timber worms1 #bdd4 ,tissue1 #af4 ,toadstools1 #bcd4 ,tolerance1 #baf1 #bai4 ,toughness of wood1 #da1 #ed4 ,tracheae1 #bc1 #bh4 ,tracheid1 #bh1 #cj1 #bij1 #bib4 ,trametes pini1 #bce4 ,trametes radiciperda1 #bcg4 ,tree1 parts of1 #baa4 ,treeless area1 #aig1 #bjc4 ,trees1 ,broad-leaved1 #i1 #aj1 #bh1 #bi4 ,trees1 deciduous1 #aj4 ,trunk1 #ac1 #baa4 ,long-bodied1 #bbe4 ,short-bodied1 #bbe4 ,tsuga canadensis1 #ij4 ,tsuga heterophylla1 #ib4 ,tulip ,tree1 #aeh4 ,see ,poplar ,yellow ,tupelo1 #ahj4 ,turpentine1 #bfc4 ,two-storied ,seed ,forest1 #bhb4 ,ulmus americana1 #aed4 ,ulmus racemosa1 #aeb4 ,ulmus thomasi1 #aeb4 ,utilization of forests1 #bga-bgg4 ,vegetable enemies1 #bcc-bci4 ,veneer1 #aj1 #ce4 ,vessels1 #bc1 #bh1 #bi4 ,veterans1 #bbe4 ,walnut1 ,black1 #aaf1 #cjj4 ,walnut1 ,white1 #aad4 ,warping1 #de-dg4 ,waste1 ,avoidance of1 #bgd4 ,waste in lumbering1 #bfc4 ,water1 #da1 #db1 #bbf1 #bca4 ,weeds1 ,forest1 #bbe4 ,weight of wood1 #da1 #di-ea4 ,whitewood1 #aeh4 ,wilderness1 ,conquest of1 #beh4 ,willow1 ,black1 #aab4 ,wind1 #bbi1 #beb1 #bec4 ,windfalls1 #bbi4 ,wood1 ,diffuse-porous1 #bc1 #cj1 #cjj-cjc4 ,wood1 ,non-porous1 #bd-bf1 #eh-aaa1 #bid-bif4 ,wood1 ,primary1 #ag4 ,wood1 ,properties of1 ,chap4 ,,ii41 #da-ef4 ,wood1 ,ring-porous1 #bc1 #bi1 #bif-bii4 ,wood1 ,spring1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd1 #cj1 #cb1 #dd1 #ec1 #ed1 #bia4 ,wood1 ,structure of1 #i-dj4 ,wood1 secondary1 #ag4 ,wood1 summer1 #bj1 #ba1 #bd1 #cj1 #cb1 #dd1 #ec1 #ed1 #bia4 ,wood borers1 #bdc4 ,wood cells4 ,see ,cells4 ,wood4 ,see ,sap-wood1 ,heart wood4 ,wood dyes1 #ah4 ,wood fiber1 #bh4 ,woods1 ,color of1 #ag1 #ah1 #bij4 ,woods1 ,the distinguishing of1 #bhi-cjc4 ,working1 #dg4 ,worm-holes1 #bdc4 ,worms1 carpenter1 #bde4 ,worms1 ,timber1 #bdd4 ,wound parasites1 #bcd4 ,yew1 #bie4 ,yield1 #bge4 ,yucca1 #aj4 ,books on the ,manual ,arts ,,design ,,and ,,construction ,,in ,,wood4 ,by ,william ,noyes4 ,a book full of charm and distinction and the first to give due consideration to the esthetic side of wood-working4 ,it is intended to give to beginners practice in designing simple projects in wood and an opportunity to acquire skill in handling tools4 ,the book illustrates a series of projects and gives suggestions for other similar projects together with information regarding tools and processes for making4 ,a pleasing volume abundantly and beautifully illustrated4 ,,handwork ,,in ,,wood4 ,by ,william ,noyes4 ,a handbook for teachers and a textbook for normal school and college students4 ,a comprehensive and scholarly treatise1 covering logging1 saw-milling1 seasoning and measuring1 hand tools1 wood fastenings1 equipment and care of the shop1 the common joints1 types of wood structures1 principles of joinery1 and wood finishing4 #cjd illustrations--excellent pen drawings and many photographs4 ,,wood ,,and ,,forest4 ,by ,william ,noyes4 ,a companion volume to ,handwork in ,wood1 by the same author4 ,especially adapted as a reference book for teachers of woodworking4 ,not too difficult for use as a textbook for normal school and college students4 ,treats of wood1 distribution of ,american forests1 life of the forest1 enemies of the forest1 destruction1 conservation and uses of the forest1 with a key to the common woods by ,filibert ,roth4 ,describes #fg principal species of wood with maps of the habitat1 leaf drawings1 life size photographs and microphotographs of sections4 ,contains a general bibliography of books and articles on wood and forest4 ,profusely illustrated with photographs from the ,united ,states forest service and with pen and ink drawings by ,anna ,gausmann ,noyes and photographs by the author4 #cji pages4 ,,woodwork ,,for ,,beginners4 ,by ,ira ,s4 ,griffith4 ,a remarkably simple treatment of elementary woodworking for students in the seventh and eighth grades4 ,it deals with tools1 processes and materials and includes only such subject matter as should be taught to grammar grade students4 ,it meets the requirements of students working in large classes and devoting the minimum of time to manual training4 ,a practical and unusually attractive textbook and one that can be used with any course of models and in any order4 ,,beginning ,,woodwork1 ,at ,home and in ,school4 ,by ,clinton ,s4 ,van,deusen4 ,a full and clear description in detail of the fundamental processes of elementary benchwork in wood4 ,this description is given thru directions for making a few simple1 useful articles1 suitable either for school or home problems4 ,the book contains more than one hundred original sketches and ten working drawings4 ,,problems ,,in ,,farm ,,woodwork4 ,by ,samuel ,a4 ,blackburn4 ,a book of working drawings of #ajj practical problems relating to agriculture and farm life4 ,especially valuable to the student or teacher of agriculture or manual arts in rural schools and in high schools in agricultural communities1 and to the boy on the farm4 ,there are #fj full-page plates of working drawings1 each accompanied by a page or more of text treating of ,purpose1 ,material1 ,bill of ,stock1 ,tools1 ,directions1 and ,assembly4 ,a wonderfully practical book4 ,,problems ,,in ,,furniture ,,making4 ,by ,fred ,d4 ,crawshaw4 ,this book1 revised and enlarged1 consists of #dc plates of working drawings suitable for use in grammar and high schools1 and #cf pages of text1 including chapters on design1 construction and finishes1 and notes on the problems4 ,,furniture ,,design ,,for ,,schools ,,and ,,shops4 ,by ,fred ,d4 ,crawshaw4 ,a manual on furniture design4 ,a book that will stimulate and encourage designing and initiation on the part of the student4 ,it contains a collection of plates showing perspective drawings of typical designs1 representing particular types of furniture4 ,each perspective is accompanied by suggestions for rearrangement and the modeling of parts4 ,the text discusses and illustrates principles of design as applied to furniture4 ,a practical and helpful book that should be in the hands of every teacher of cabinet making and designing4 ,,problems ,,in ,,woodworking4 ,by ,m4 ,w4 ,murray4 ,a convenient collection of good problems consisting of forty plates of working drawings1 of problems in benchwork that have been successfully worked out by boys in grades seven to nine inclusive4 ,,shop ,,problems4 7,on ,tracing ,paper74 ,by ,albert ,f4 ,siepert4 ,a collection of working drawings of a large variety of projects printed on tracing paper and ready for blue printing4 ,the projects have all been worked out in manual arts classes and have proved their value from the standpoint of design1 construction1 use1 human interest1 etc4 ,they are of convenient size1 #fx#i-;inch1 and are enclosed in a portfolio4 ,to the teacher1 in search of additional projects to supplement and enrich his course these tracings are worth far more than the price asked4 ,published in series4 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 and #g4 ,,workshop ,,note-,,book--,,woodworking4 ,by ,george ,g4 ,greene4 ,a small-size textbook and notebook combined4 ,it furnishes a few general and extremely important directions about tools and processes2 and provides space for additional notes and working drawings of exercises and articles which the pupil is to construct4 ,it is essentially a collection of helps1 ideas1 hints1 suggestions1 questions1 facts1 illustrations1 etc41 which have been prepared by a practical teacher to meet a real need in his own shop4 ,the notebook is full of suggestions2 shows a keen insight into subject matter and teaching methods and is an effective teaching tool4 ,,problems ,,in ,,wood-,,turning4 ,by ,fred ,d4 ,crawshaw4 ,in the first place this is a book of problems--#be plates covering spindle1 face-plate1 and chuck turning4 ,in the second place it is a textbook on the science and art of wood-turning illustrated by fifty pen sketches4 ,it gives the mathematical basis for the cuts used in turning4 ,in the third place it is a helpful discussion of the principles of design as applied to objects turned in wood4 ,it is a clear1 practical and suggestive book on wood-turning4 ,,wood ,,pattern-,,making4 ,by ,horace ,t4 ,purfield4 ,this book was written expressly for use as a textbook for high school1 trade school1 technical school1 and engineering college students4 ,it is a revised1 enlarged1 and newly illustrated edition4 ,,correlated ,,courses ,,in ,,woodwork ,,and ,,mechanical ,,drawing4 ,by ,ira ,s4 ,griffith4 ,this book is designed to meet the every-day need of the teacher of woodworking and mechanical drawing for reliable information concerning organization of courses1 subject matter and methods of teaching4 ,it covers classification and arrangement of tool operations for grades1 #g1 #h1 #i1 and #aj1 shop organization1 allotment of time design1 shop excursions1 stock bills1 cost of material1 records1 shop conduct1 the lesson1 maintenance1 equipment1 and lesson outlines for grammar and high schools4 ,it is based on sound pedagogy1 thoro technical knowledge and successful teaching experience4 ,it is practical4 ,,essentials ,,of ,,woodworking4 ,by ,ira ,s4 ,griffith4 ,a textbook written especially for the use of grammar and high school students4 ,a clear and comprehensive treatment of woodworking tools1 materials1 and processes1 to supplement1 but not to take the place of the instruction given by the teacher4 ,the book does not contain a course of models2 it may be used with any course4 ,it is illustrated with photographs and numerous pen drawings4 ,,projects ,,for ,,beginning ,,woodwork ,,and ,,mechanical ,,drawing4 ,by ,ira ,s4 ,griffith4 ,a work book for the use of students in grammar grade classes4 ,it consists of working drawings and working directions4 ,the projects are such as have proven of exceptional service where woodworking and mechanical drawing are taught in a thoro1 systematic manner in the seventh and eighth grades4 ,the aim has been to provide successful rather than unique problems4 ,the #ej projects in the book were selected and organized with the constant aim of securing the highest educational results4 ,the book is especially suited for use in connection with ,essentials of ,woodworking1 by the same author4 ,,furniture ,,making4 7,advanced ,projects in ,woodwork47 ,by ,ira ,s4 ,griffith4 ,this book is similar to ,projects for ,beginning ,woodwork and ,mechanical ,drawing1 but is suited to high school needs4 ,it consists of fifty plates of problems and accompanying notes4 ,it is essentially a collection of problems in furniture making selected or designed with reference to school use4 ,on the plate with each working drawing is a good perspective sketch of the completed object4 ,in draftsmanship and refinement of design these problems are of superior quality4 ,it is in every respect an excellent collection4 ,,problems ,,in ,,mechanical ,,drawing4 ,by ,charles ,a4 ,bennett4 ,this book consists of #hj plates and a few explanatory notes4 ,its purpose is to furnish teachers of classes beginning mechanical drawing with a large number of simple1 practical problems4 ,these have been selected with reference to the formation of good habits in technique1 the interest of the pupils1 and the subjects generally included in a grammar and first-year high school course4 ,each problem given is unsolved and therefore in proper form to hand to the pupil for solution4 ,,mechanical ,,drawing ,,problems4 ,by ,edward ,berg and ,emil ,f4 ,kronquist4 ,a direct and concise text adapted for high school students beginning mechanical drawing4 ,it covers two year's work and contains #abh full-page plates--excellent examples of draftsmanship4 ,text accompanies each plate1 giving necessary facts and helpful hints wherever needed4 ,the underlying principles of drafting are thoroly covered and the practical applications1 which are abundant1 have been most skilfully chosen and admirably presented4 ,the plates tell what to do1 almost at a glance1 yet prevent mere copy work4 ,each problem tests the ability of the student to think and execute graphically and unconsciously develops an excellent technique4 ,,mechanical ,,drafting4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,miller4 7,revised edition74 ,a textbook for advanced high school students which presents drafting room practice in practical textbook form4 ,it is so written that it may be used with any course of exercises or problems and supplements the instruction of the teacher in such a way as to reduce lecture work to a minimum4 ,it is a direct and simple treatment of mechanical drafting1 giving due consideration to the needs of the student1 the beginning draftsman and the requirements of the best teaching methods4 ,it is complete1 yet condensed and is well adapted for handbook use by the student and draftsman4 ,it is well illustrated and is bound in flexible binding1 pocket size4 ,a thoroughly practical1 modern textbook4 ,,grammar ,,grade ,,problems ,,in ,,mechanical ,,drawing4 ,by ,charles ,a4 ,bennett4 ,a remarkably simple and carefully graded treatment of the fundamentals of mechanical drawing for the use of students in the #gth and #hth grades4 ,it combines an abundance of text and simple problems1 accompanied by notes and directions4 ,its use insures the early formation of correct habits of technique and makes possible the development of a standard in grammar grade mechanical drawing parallel with woodworking4 ,abundantly and well illustrated4 ,,mechanical ,,drawing ,,for ,,beginners4 ,by ,charles ,h4 ,bailey4 ,a textbook suitable wherever this subject is taught to beginners1 in ,junior ,high ,schools1 ,high and ,continuation ,schools4 ,it successfully combines instructions which are minute and complete1 with problems1 gradually leading the student to learn with little or no other help1 the essentials and technique of the work4 ,the matter is condensed but leaves no important points not covered4 ,,progressive ,,steps ,,in ,,architectural ,,drawing4 ,by ,george ,w4 ,seaman4 ,a textbook and practical handbook1 describing and illustrating every successive step in drawing of floor plans1 elevations and various details for successful dwellings4 ,numerous plates illustrate details of doors1 windows1 mouldings1 cornices1 porches1 etc4 ,architectural orders shown in practical working forms4 ,single line sketches illustrate method of practical designer in planning a house4 ,,architectural ,,drawing ,,plates4 ,by ,franklin ,g4 ,elwood4 ,a collection of #ae plates showing the various details included in the plans for frame houses4 ,names and typical sizes are given and much information helpful to the student or draftsman4 ,one plate shows eleven ,plan ,studies1 another ,how ,elevations are ,worked ,up from ,plans and ,sections4 ,a wonderfully convenient help in architectural drawing4 ,,simplified ,,mechanical ,,perspective4 ,by ,frank ,forrest ,frederick4 ,a book of simple problems covering the essentials of mechanical perspective4 ,it is planned for pupils of high school age who have already received some elementary training in mechanical drawing4 ,it is simple1 direct and practical4 ,,woodwork ,,for ,,secondary ,,schools4 ,by ,ira ,s4 ,griffith4 ,the most complete and comprehensive textbook on secondary school woodworking ever published4 ,treats of ,common ,woods1 ,tools and ,processes1 ,woodworking ,machines1 ,joinery1 ,wood-,turning1 ,inlaying and ,wood ,carving1 ,wood ,finishing1 ,furniture ,construction1 ,pattern-,making4 ,although written for the student1 every teacher of high school or normal school woodwork will find this text a valuable and necessary volume for reference use4 ,it contains #cgj pages and #ehj special illustrations4 ,,carpentry4 ,by ,ira ,s4 ,griffith4 ,a well illustrated textbook for use in vocational schools1 trade schools1 technical schools1 and by apprentices to the trade1 presenting the principles of house construction in a clear and fundamental way4 ,it treats of the everyday practical problems of the carpenter and house builder from the laying of foundations to the completion of the interior finish4 ,it meets every requirement as a textbook and is also well adapted for reference use4 ,it is well illustrated by photographs taken on the job4 ,,boy ,,activity ,,projects4 ,by ,samuel ,a4 ,blackburn4 ,a book of full-page plates and accompanying text giving complete directions for making #hf projects of interest to the energetic ,american boy4 ,the projects are for the school1 the home1 the playground1 the camp1 the out-of-doors1 and include a complete wireless telegraph apparatus4 ,the plates give every required dimension1 and show each project complete and in detail4 ,the text is in reality working directions telling just how to make1 including bills of material1 lists of tools required1 etc4 ,a thoroly practical and suggestive book for school use and rich in inspiration for the boy in his own home shop4 ,,seat ,,weaving4 ,by ,l4 ,day ,perry4 ,a handbook for teacher or student4 ,tells how to cane chairs1 how to use cane webbing1 how to do rush seating1 how to do reed and splint weaving1 how to make seats of reeds and splints1 how to prepare raw materials1 how to stain1 finish and refinish1 etc4 ,also treats of the use of cane and other seating materials as a decorative element in furniture construction4 ,well illustrated1 practical and authoritative4 ,,furniture ,,upholstery ,,for ,,schools4 ,by ,emil ,a4 ,johnson4 ,the only text and reference book on upholstery written for school use4 ,contains detailed1 practical instructions telling how to upholster a variety of articles1 also how to re-upholster old furniture and how to do spring-edge upholstery work4 ,describes necessary tools and materials4 ,abundantly and beautifully illustrated4 ,,practical ,,typography4 ,by ,george ,e4 ,mc,clellan4 ,a remarkable textbook for students of printing4 ,it contains a course of exercises ready to place in the hands of pupils1 and explains and illustrates the most approved methods used in correct composition4 ,a valuable feature of the book lies in the fact that in the early stages of the course the pupil sets up in type a description of what he is doing with his hands4 ,it contains #fc exercises1 treating of composition from ,correct ,spacing to the ,making up of a ,book1 and the ,composition of ,tables4 ,,art ,,metalwork4 ,by ,arthur ,f4 ,payne4 ,a textbook written by an expert craftsman and experienced teacher4 ,it treats of the various materials and their production1 ores1 alloys1 commercial forms1 etc42 of tools and equipments suitable for the work1 the inexpensive equipment of the practical craftsman2 and of the correlation of art metalwork with design and other school subjects4 ,it describes in detail all the processes involved in making articles ranging from a watch fob to a silver loving-cup4 ,it gives new methods of construction1 new finishes1 new problems4 ,it is abundantly and beautifully illustrated1 showing work done by students under ordinary school conditions in a manual training shop4 ,the standard book on the subject4 ,,teaching ,,the ,,manual ,,and ,,industrial ,,arts4 ,by ,ira ,s4 ,griffith4 ,a text for normal schools or colleges and a reference for manual and vocational teachers4 ,presents the philosophy of teaching manual and vocational education in terms of psychology1 social science1 and economics4 ,it gives the conclusions of ,thorndike1 ,judd1 ,bagley1 ,dewey and others1 and illustrates them so they serve the teacher as a basis for evaluating the manual and industrial arts4 ,a book of value to the beginning teacher1 the experienced supervisor or the educational expert2 an exceptional source of information on the theory and practice of its subject4 ,,the ,,manual ,,arts4 ,by ,charles ,a4 ,bennett4 ,a treatise on the selection and organization of subject matter in the manual arts and on the methods of teaching4 ,it states what manual arts should be taught in the schools1 their place as concerns general and vocational education1 principles underlying the making of courses of instruction and methods of teaching1 and shows the place of the factory system in industrial schools1 etc4 ,heretofore no book has dealt with the pedagogy of the manual arts in so definite and clear cut a manner4 ,the author has brought together1 with ripened judgment1 the result of years of experience4 ,it is especially adapted for normal class and reading circle use and should be read and studied by every teacher or prospective teacher of the manual arts4 ,,educational ,,toys4 ,by ,louis ,c4 ,petersen4 ,a comprehensive book on toy-making for the school or home4 ,shows #eg toys including animals1 wheeled toys1 stationary toys1 moving toys1 puzzles1 etc41 made chiefly from thin wood1 with the coping saw and easily constructed in the ordinary school room or in the home4 ,tells how to make each toy1 how to finish and color1 about the few simple tools and materials required4 ,well illustrated with photographs and full-size pattern drawings4 ,,toy ,,patterns4 ,by ,michael ,c4 ,dank4 ,a portfolio of toy patterns4 ,among them are ,animals1 ,animal ,rocking ,toys1 ,wheeled ,platform ,toys1 ,string ,toys1 ,lever ,toys1 ,freak ,toys and ,novelties4 ,each toy is shown complete and each part is also shown full-size4 ,they are designed to be made with the coping saw out of thin wood4 ,twelve sheets1 size #aj-a_/b x #ad1 enclosed in a portfolio with an attractive color design4 ,,bird ,,houses ,,boys ,,can ,,build4 ,by ,albert ,f4 ,siepert4 ,a book of rare interest to boys4 ,it is written in the boy spirit and combines the charm of nature with the allurements of continuation work in wood4 ,it illustrates hundreds of bird houses and shows working drawings of various designs1 also feeders1 shelters1 sparrow traps1 and other bird accessories4 ,the common house nesting birds are pictured and described with information regarding houses1 foods1 etc41 suitable for each4 ,a pleasing and practical book for wide-awake boys4 ,,manual ,,training ,,toys4 ,,for ,,the ,,boys' ,,workshop4 ,by ,harris ,w4 ,moore4 ,a popular boys' book that is truly educational4 ,it is a collection of forty-two projects overflowing with boy interest and new in the manual training shop4 ,full-page working drawings show each project in detail and the text gives instructions for making1 together with information on tools and tool processes4 ,,kitecraft ,,and ,,kite ,,tournaments4 ,by ,charles ,m4 ,miller4 ,an authoritative and comprehensive treatment of kitecraft4 ,the book deals with the construction and flying of all kinds of kites1 and the making and using of kite accessories4 ,also aeroplanes1 gliders1 propellers1 motors1 etc4 ,four chapters are devoted to presenting a detailed description of kite flying tournaments4 ,abundantly illustrated and attractively bound4 ,,the ,,construction ,,and ,,flying ,,of ,,kites4 ,by ,charles ,m4 ,miller4 ,this contains seven full-page plates of drawings of kites1 and fifteen figures--over forty kites shown4 ,details of construction given2 a kite tournament is described4 ,full of interesting suggestions4 ,,coping ,,saw ,,work4 ,by ,ben ,w4 ,johnson4 ,contains working drawings and suggestions for teaching a course of work in thin wood that is full of fun for the children1 and affords ample means for training in form study1 construction1 invention and careful work4 ,has been called applied mechanics for the fourth grade4 ,,selected ,,shop ,,problems4 ,by ,george ,a4 ,seaton4 ,a collection of sixteen problems in woodworking made to meet the needs of busy teachers of manual training4 ,each problem has been put to the test and has proven satisfactory to the teacher who designed it and to the pupil who made it4 ,,manual ,,training ,,magazine4 ,a magazine of quality4 ,the professional journal of the teachers of manual1 vocational and industrial education4 ,it publishes practical articles on the ways and means of doing things4 ,it discusses vital problems in teaching the manual arts and presents the best current thought on the development of manual training and vocational education4 ,to the inexperienced teacher1 it is valuable in solving numerous problems1 and to the experienced teacher1 it is a means of keeping abreast of the times4 ,it is ably edited1 attractively printed1 and well illustrated with photographs and drawings made especially for its pages4 ,published monthly4 #a4ej a year2 ,canada1 #a4hj2 ,foreign1 #b4jj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,published by ,manual ,arts ,press 33 ,peoria1 ,illinois ,we can supply you with any book on the ,manual ,arts 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,transcriber's ,note3 ',m'1 in the context of lumber measurement1 means '#ajjj feet'4 ,from ',handwork in ,wood'1 ,chapter ,,iii1 page #dh4 ,also 7ibid73 ,there are several methods of measuring lumber4 ,the general rule is to multiply the length in feet by the width and thickness in inches and divide by #ab1 thus3 #a x #f x #ae' _/ #ab #ga_/b feet4 ,in the interests of clarity1 some ,illustrations have been moved closer to their descriptive text4 ,hyphenation and spelling are not uniform throughout this book1 e4g41 'sapwood' and 'sap-wood' both occur2 ',columbian ,timber-beetle' and ',columbian timber beetle' occur in the same paragraph4 ,chapter ,,ii has three types of footnotes1 with different notations4 ,references to the author's previous book1 being short1 are placed at the end of the paragraph2 numbered technical or tabular footnotes1 or footnotes referencing other publications are collected at the end of the ,chapter1 before the ,chapter ,bibliography2 and ,chapter ,bibliography footnotes are placed at the end of the ,chapter ,bibliography4 ,in later ,chapters1 numbered footnotes are placed either at the end of the ,chapter 7before the ,bibliography7 or at the end of a relevant section of a ,chapter4 ,chapter ,,iii lists #fg trees2 ,the 7following7 ,lists from the ,jesup ,collection list #ff trees1 including the 'tied place' trees4 ,the tree missing from the ,jesup ,collection is ,no4 #ah3 ,western ,hemlock1 or ,black ,hemlock4 ,damaged or missing punctuation has been repaired4 ,page #ah3 'sumac' and 'sumach'4 ,both spellings correct4 ,also 'sumak'1 shoomak4 ,from ,arabic 'summaq'4 ,page #ai3 'charactistic' corrected to 'characteristic' 444 and give the characteristic pleasing grain of wood4 ,page #bc3 inconsistent spelling--tracheae1 tracheae4 ,the two spellings occur in the book2 also trachaeids1 tracheids4 ,all have been retained4 ,the author's bibliography is extensive4 ,page #abd etc43 ,the ,allegheny ,mountain ,range 7also spelled ,alleghany and ,allegany1 ,wikipedia74 ,page #adc3 'distinguised' corrected to 'distinguished' 444 ,not distinguished from white oak in the market4 ,page #ahj3 diameter1 '#a-f1 even #e'2' corrected to 'diameter1 #a'f-c'f1 even #e'2' 7,wikipedia7 ,page #ahb3 'scambucifolia' corrected to 'sambucifolia' 444 ,fraxinus nigra ,marshall4 ,fraxinus sambucifolia4 ,page #ahf3 'cleavabilty' corrected to 'cleavability' 444 refers to the cleavability of the wood2 ,page #bfh3 ,fig4 #aah text3 ,basswood1 #ast and #b;d1 #a x #h and up by x #jj4 and3 ,white pine1 rough uppers1 #a x #h and up x #jj'4 ,this is as printed2 the transcriber has no idea what was meant by '#jj' and '#jj''1 or what it should have been4 ,page #bib3 'miscroscopic' corrected to 'microscopic' 444 ,of microscopic features1 the following only have been referred to3 ,page #cjd3 ',agaricus mellens' corrected to ',agaricus melleus'4 ,the 7archaic7 ,u4,s4 ,american spellings1 'drouth' 7'drought'71 'thoroly'1 'tho'1 'altho'1 'tire' 7'tyre'71 etc41 are correct4