,,beauty2 ,,illustrated ,,chiefly ,,by ,,an ,,analysis ,,and ,,classification ,,of ,,beauty ,,in ,,woman1 ,,by ,,alexander ,,walker1 ,,author ,,of ,,intermarriage1 ,,woman1 ,,physiognomy ,,founded ,,on ,,physiology1 ,,the ,,nervous ,,system1 ,,etc4 ,,edited ,,by ,,an ,,american ,,physician ,,new ,,york3 ,,henry ,g4 ,,langley1 #h ,,astor-,,house4 #ahde4 ,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahdj1 ,,by ,j4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,langley1 in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,southern ,district of ,new ,york ,,stereotyped ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,redfield1 #ac ,chambers ,street1 ,new ,york ,,dedication4 ,,to ,,george ,,birbeck1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,london ,,mechanics' ,,institution1 c41 c41 c4 ,a department of science1 which in many respects must be regarded as new1 cannot so properly be dedicated to any one as to the inventor of the best mode of diffusing scientific knowledge among the most meritorious and most oppressed classes of society4 ,when the enemies of freedom1 in order effectually to blind the victims of their spoliation1 imposed a tax upon knowledge1 you rendered the acquirement of science easy by the establishment of mechanics' institutions--you gave the first and greatest impulse to that diffusion of knowledge which will render the repetition of such a conspiracy against humanity impossible4 ,you more than once also wrested a reluctant concession1 in behalf of untaxed knowledge1 from the men who had evidently succeeded1 in some degree1 to the spirit1 as well as to the office1 of the original conspirators1 and who unwisely hesitated between the bad interest which is soon felt by all participators in expensive government1 and their dread of the new and triumphant power of public opinion1 before which they know and feel that they are but as the chaff before the whirlwind4 ,for these services1 accept this respectful dedication1 as the expression of a homage1 in which ,i am sure that ,i am joined by thousands of ,britons4 ,nor1 in writing this1 on a subject of which your extensive knowledge enables you so well to judge1 am ,i without a peculiar and personal motive4 ,i gratefully acknowledge that1 in one of the most earnest and strenuous mental efforts ,i ever made1 in my work on ,the ,nervous ,system1 ,i owed to your cautions as to logical reasoning and careful induction1 an anxiety at least1 and a zeal in these respects1 which1 whatever success may have attended them1 could not well be exceeded4 ,i have endeavored to act conformably with the same cautions in the present work4 ,he must be weak-minded1 indeed1 who can seek for aught in philosophy but the discovery of truth2 and he must be a coward who1 believing he has discovered it1 has any scruple to announce it4 ,,alexander ,,walker4 ,,april #aj1 #ahcf4 ,,american ,,advertisement4 ,the present volume completes the series of ,mr4 ,walker's anthropological works4 ,to say that they have met with a favorable reception from the ,american public1 would be but a very inadequate expression of the unprecedented success which has attended their publication4 ,,intermarriage1 the first of the series1 passed through six large editions within eighteen months1 and ,,woman1 has met with a sale scarcely less extensive4 ,the numerous calls for the present work1 have compelled the publishers to issue it sooner than they had contemplated2 and1 it is believed1 that it will be found not less worthy of attention than the preceding4 ,all must acknowledge the interesting nature of the subject treated in the present work1 as well as its intimate connexion with those which have already passed under discussion4 ,the analysis of beauty on philosophical principles1 is attended with numerous difficulties1 not the least of which arises from the want of any fixed and acknowledged standard4 ,the term ,beauty is1 indeed1 generally considered as a vague generality1 varying according to national1 and even individual taste and judgment4 ,mr4 ,walker claims1 in his advertisement1 numerous points of originality1 some of which1 on examination1 may perhaps prove to have been proposed previously by other writers4 ,enough1 however1 will remain to entitle him to the credit of great ingenuity and acuteness4 ,as treated by him1 the subject assumes an aspect very different from that exhibited in any other publication4 ,to trace the connexion of beauty with1 and its dependance on1 anatomical structure and physiological laws--to show how it may be modified by causes within our control--to describe its different forms and modifications1 and defects1 as indicated by certain physical signs--to analyze its elements1 with a view to its influence on individuals and society1 in connexion with its perpetration in posterity--all these were novel topics of vast and exciting interest1 and well adapted to the genius1 taste1 and research of our author4 ,in preparing the present edition1 it has been thought expedient to make some verbal alterations1 and omit a few paragraphs1 to which a refined taste might perhaps object1 and to bring together in the ,appendix such collateral matter1 as might serve to correct1 extend1 or illustrate the views presented in the text4 ,with these explanations1 the work is confidently commended to the popular as well as philosophical reader1 as worthy of studious examination4 ,,contents4 ,,preliminary ,,essay ,page ix ,english ,advertisement #a ,,chapter ,i4--,importance of the ,subject #aa ,,chapter ,,ii4--,urgency of the ,discussion of this ,subject in relation to the ,interests of ,decency and ,morality #ba ,,chapter ,,iii4--,cautions to ,youth #ce ,,chapter ,,iv4--,nature of ,beauty #df ,,chapter ,v4--,standard of ,taste in ,beauty #ef ,,chapter ,,vi4--,the ,elements of ,beauty #gb ,,section ,i4--,elements of ,beauty in ,inanimate ,beings #gd ,,section ,,ii4--,elements of ,beauty in ,living ,beings #hh ,,section ,,iii4--,elements of ,beauty in ,thinking ,beings #ic ,,section ,,iv4--,elements of ,beauty as employed in ,objects of ,art #ajc ,beauty of ,useful ,objects #ajd ,beauty of ,ornamental ,objects #ajh ,beauty of ,intellectual ,objects #aac ,summary of this ,chapter #abj ,,appendix to the ,preceding ,chapters #abc ,,section ,i4--,nature of the ,picturesque #abc ,,section ,,ii4--,cause of ,laughter #abe ,,section ,,iii4--,cause of the ,pleasure received from ,representations exciting ,pity #aca ,,chapter ,,vii4--,anatomical and ,physiological ,principles #aci ,,chapter ,,viii4--,of the ,ages of ,women in relation to ,beauty #aeb ,,chapter ,,ix4--,of the ,causes of ,beauty in ,woman #aff ,,chapter ,x4--,of the ,standard of ,beauty in ,woman #aga ,,chapter ,,xi4--,of the ,three ,species of ,female ,beauty generally viewed #ahe ,,chapter ,,xii4--,first ,species of ,beauty3 ,beauty of the ,locomotive ,system #ahi ,first ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty #aia ,second ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty #aig ,third ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty #aih ,,chapter ,,xiii4--,second ,species of ,beauty3 ,beauty of the ,nutritive ,system #bjc ,first ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty #bjh ,second ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty #baj ,third ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty #bab ,,chapter ,,xiv4--,third ,species of ,beauty3 ,beauty of the ,thinking ,system #bbe ,first ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty #bbf ,second ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty #bbg ,third ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty #bbi ,,chapter ,,xv4--,beauty of the ,face in particular #bcc ,,chapter ,,xvi4--,combinations and ,transitions of the ,three ,species of ,female ,beauty #bed ,,chapter ,,xvii4--,proportion1 ,character1 ,expression1 c4 #bei ,,chapter ,,xviii4--,the ,greek ,ideal ,beauty #bhj ,,chapter ,,xix4--,the ,ideal of ,female ,beauty #cjg ,,chapter ,,xx4--,defects of ,beauty #cbj ,defects of the ,locomotive ,system #cbj ,defects of the ,vital ,system #cbc ,defects of the ,mental ,system #cbg ,,chapter ,,xxi4--,external ,indications1 or ,art of ,determining the precise ,figure1 the degree of ,beauty1 the ,mind1 the ,habits1 and the ,age of ,women1 notwithstanding the ,aids and ,disguises of ,dress #cbi ,external ,indications of ,figure #cbi ,external ,indications of ,beauty #ccb ,external ,indications of ,mind #cce ,external ,indications of ,habits #ccg ,external ,indications of ,age #cci ,appendix #cdc ,,preliminary ,,essay1 ,,by ,,the ,,american ,,editor4 ,her beauty hangs upon the cheek of night ,like a rich jewel in an ,ethiop's ear3 99 99 99 99 99 ,death hath no power yet upon thy beauty-- ,thou art not conquered2 beauty's ensign yet ,is crimson on thy lips1 and in thy cheeks4--,,shakspeare4 ,it maybe set down1 we suppose1 as a matter sufficiently settled to become a principle1 that men are moved by nothing more generally and certainly than by the power of ,beauty--particularly ,beauty in ,woman4 ,that it has an influence upon all of one sex1 like that which ,master ,shakspeare has given picture of in the lines we have set upon our front1 we would not pretend to say3 but that the wild bard was no freshman in his knowledge of humanity so far as heart and mind matters were concerned1 we feel safe to assert--and feel confident that the passionate language of ,romeo trespasses no bounds1 and is but a faithful declaration of a power that rules with a milder or a mightier sway in the bosoms of all who answer to the distinctive name of ,man4 ,this may seem a wide assertion4 ,but it is no less true4 ,the reason of the slow belief in this universality is1 that men are not always subject to the influence1 while the principle of it is always a tenant within them4 ,there is a time--and with the time comes the development4 ,the mind1 as it unfolds1 becomes acquainted with nothing so calculated to excite its wonder1 as its own properties and capabilities--its new perceptions--its new affections4 ,till progress brings with it this knowledge of ourselves1 we remain ignorant of half that is within us to affect us like a spell1 and within whose reach we have been unconsciously passing onward and upward1 by a ,providential ordering1 from our childhood at least1 if not from our cradles4 ,keeping this in view1 let us consider for a moment something of the elements of ,beauty1 and their influence1 as a principle1 upon the principles of our nature4--,and first it must be admitted that they are good--of a good origin--and tend to a good result4 ,they are good elements1 we believe1 for we find them almost ever associated with what is pleasing1 improving1 and satisfactory to us4 ,indeed1 in this connexion1 we find them a source of consolation and delight1 where all else has failed to minister or even suggest them4 ,they are of a good origin--for1 if they were not1 no such effect would be wrought upon a system so sadly prone to evil and villanous principles1 and so little open to pure1 and elevating1 and comforting ones1 that they may be said to come about it1 most emphatically1 like angel-visits4 ,they are elements1 again1 that tend to a good result1 in their operation1 for their consequences are almost ever1 to make men better satisfied with their condition--where they come in1 as an influence upon it1 at all--better satisfied with almost everything about them1 so long as they are conscious they are creatures of proportions and proprieties1 and affected intrinsically by them4 ,if what we here set down respecting the elements of ,beauty be true1 it is certainly of an interesting importance in view of the influence of that quality upon the principles of our nature4 ,we call it quality4 ,perhaps this is not name enough for something so peculiar and powerful in its connexion with the total of our spirits4 ,we will term it such1 however1 for want of a wider language--and leave men to feel out such definition as they may deem more good and grateful4 ,implanted1 then1 so deeply as ,beauty is in the human heart--so universal1 that millions bow to it as something to fear while they worship--so certain1 as a principle1 that scarcely a human being can be said to walk without the sphere of its influence--it would be needless as well as unphilosophical to deny that the great object of its fixture--its enthronement upon its high place1 should be one of no common character1 or of a tendency and effect within us1 which it would be wrong and inexcusable to overlook4 ,what then is the design of this singular and mysterious power1 in connexion with this sad and unaccountable nature--so often the theme of eulogy and lament--of lofty1 long1 and desperate satire1 among men8 ,the best answer1 we think1 is rendered in the influence1 where operation is open to every one who thinks1 observes1 reasons1 acts1 among his fellows4--,to enter into particular definitions here1 would be needless as well as wearisome4 ,the general effect upon man1 as a sentient and moral being1 must be the point to which our simple remarks and reasons must be confined4 ,we have somewhere seen it observed--and have little doubt in the publicity and good sense of the thought--that there was perhaps no one thing which tended so materially to awaken lofty and good sentiments among the people--to qualify the rough outline of character--and soften and harmonize the untaught elements of their nature1 as the frequent1 unrestrained1 and encouraged contemplation of the perfect statuary1 which their master sculptors were continually erecting in their temples4 ,this freedom was a perpetual lesson to a nation4 ,the principle was developed1 and the power of ,beauty had a new1 and forming1 and mastering sway4 ,a people were coming into the light of better feeling--better society--better government1 under the gradual but no less certain operation of a living principle1 brought into great and beautiful action1 under the commanding hand of ,genius1 that seemed to pass at once from the sky1 whose perfect things it presented to the sons of earth6--,it is not singular1 we think1 that such a leading forth of ,beauty to the contemplation of awakened man1 should produce effects like those to which we have adverted4 ,it strikes us that it would have been strange had this consequence not been generated1 and noble sculpture thus have stood before a world as cold as the marble from which it was stricken4 ,we believe that ,beauty saw a renovating power in the wonder of the ,venus--and it would be a sad thing to feel that it had ever ceased in its progress where woman or the chisel were doing such things to advance it4 ,nor has it ceased4 ,history presents too many instances of the monarch power of ,beauty in woman1 to permit us to doubt upon this subject4 ,it has passed upon the spirit of ,man like a thing of necromance--winning him to its command1 and bowing him to its will1 until royalty itself has stood powerless in its presence1 and the poor mass of mortals1 stricken and panting like cornered deer before the inexorable hunter4 ,it has been the salvation and ruin of nations1 as well as families and individuals--for queens have obeyed its supremacy as well as maidens1 and kings squared their mandates1 and regulated their course1 by the line of beauty4 ,all this is matter of record4 ,sacred and profane story abounds with instances which admit of no denial1 while they excite our wonder4 ,but the wonder ceases1 notwithstanding1 when we turn from record to our own experience1 and see the effect1 on others and ourselves1 of what we once read about in the curious annals of our species4 ,we now see the finished sculpture that delighted and softened the people of an age1 gazed on and admired by every being whom we are accustomed to regard as rational4 ,no one pretends to question1 much less to deny the beauty of the lovely statue1 in which the perfection of woman is portrayed in the finished feature or the swelling form4 ,insensibility here would properly be regarded as a thing to be ashamed of--as little better than a moral paralysis1 which might well exclude the questionable man from the circle of reasonable1 enlightened1 and rising people1 as a sad fellow1 and a poor pilgrim on the earth4 ,you will rarely find the roughest nature with a cuticle that will not confess some sensibility in a presence such as this--and ,i think we may set it down as a thing well ascertained1 that the picture or chiselling of a beautiful woman will command the tribute of delight--the acknowledgment--and loud one too--of a whole and hearty worship from the tar1 as well as the amateur4 ,the galleries of our artists1 in which the principle of ,beauty is made to speak and command1 sufficiently prove that there is no passing away of this power which has moved1 ruled1 and regulated1 to a degree almost incredible1 the world of ,man1 from the time he came to this school1 and this trial of the passions and affections4 ,let the question be asked of any one1 whose spirit is in healthful action1 if his experience before the work of art1 imbodying the ,beauty we speak of1 is not of a humanizing--and we will add civilizing1 as well as elevating character1 and we are willing to abide the issue of his answer1 in full support of the position we have taken4 ,such is our belief on the universality of this influence or element4 ,we have heard it denied1 it is certain--but it was even by those who have never tested the power by an application of it to themselves1 or a surrender to its mysteries1 by an approach to the real presence--and who1 like bachelors upon the fearful subject of matrimony1 only betray a silliness just in proportion to their ignorance4 ,these are the men who have not yet unfolded4 ,they are in the chrysalis condition--and to be pitied accordingly4 ,they may depend upon it1 when they pass from the slough1 they will be ready to confess they are1 alas6 too deep in that other ,slough of ,despond1 which is too well represented by a sad sensitiveness to the magic of ,beauty1 and as sad a consciousness that there is no approach for them1 which can be crowned by a capture of the citadel1 or the least enjoyment of the glorious delights it encloses4 ,when we hear men deteriorating this power1 or thanking the gods they never bent knee or uttered vow at its shrine1 we are ever ready to believe they have either bowed all their days to far other and sadder principles1 and made oath to idols of bad material and worse sculpture1 or that they are as much beyond the reach of any good1 and proper1 and beautiful influence1 as the clod of the valley to which they are hastening4 ,they may take pride in denial of such influence--but what is there to boast of in insensibility of any kind1 where the very betrayal of admiration is the best evidence of a good taste--a good feeling--a good faith--a good principle8 ,it cannot have escaped common observation1 we presume1 that a love of ,beauty--or1 at least1 any peculiar sensitiveness to that quality in the female sex1 has been held--and by sensible men1 too--as a weakness1 or an index only of a weak mind1 or a feminine spirit4 ,this is certainly very foolish--and a lamentable mistake4 ,but it is easily accounted for4 ,it will be observed that the doctrine is never held save by men who see beauty in things which other persons would hold abhorrent4 ,they are men who are in love with metaphysics1 or glory in a mathematical existence4 ,they like1 beyond all1 the features of a problem1 and think only of the good face of a speculation4 ,they see1 as they profess1 at least1 no proportions1 save in some cold system of an absurd philosophy1 and are only fit for judgment in things either too abstract for the mass of men1 or too decidedly earthy to be worthy the attention of beings made for a better sphere1 and capable of seeing something in much that is around us1 which intimates the order and beauty by which that sphere is distinguished4 ,this is enough to put an end to this objection1 in reference to the subtle element of which we are venturing our humble1 but we believe1 orthodox sentiments4 ,for ourselves1 we know of no more sad or senseless mental condition in which we could be placed--we mean in the social relation--than this one of such ungraceful stupidity1 as this of which a boast is made by such weary fellows as we have adverted to4 ,if ,beauty is an outside principle1 which they argue is of no utility1 and quite unworthy of one who should look beyond the mere coating of this existence for his reward or his satisfaction1 then we say that even an outside of loveliness and grace1 is better than an interior of deformity1 uselessness1 indefiniteness1 chaos--even though it pretend to be all spiritual1 while it suggests little but nonsense1 and is quite certain to end in nothing4 ,there is another thought in connexion with this element of ,beauty in ,woman1 which certainly deserves consideration4 ,we believe the philosophy which it intimates is founded in very good sense1 and withal1 in propriety4 ,insensibility to the power1 we have observed1 is no index of anything virtuous or elevated4 ,it is rather1 in all cases1 a bad omen4 ,men look upon it--and that very rationally--as indicative of something unhealthy in the moral system4 ,it seems to tell of a hardness--bad propensities--a crustaceous nature4 ,in short1 man regards his fellow1 who is dead to this influence1 as rather to be suspected at all times1 than to be trusted at any4 ,but this is not his saddest trial--or what should be regarded as such1 if he can sign himself a man1 with any conscience whatever4 ,his estimation by woman is unqualified and unquestioned4 ,he is set down by her as a creature as unworthy of regard by the sisterhood1 as he is devoid of warmth or wit in anything that has to do with the social relations1 and1 above all1 with the mysteries of the passions and affections4 ,he is marked by them with a timble brand4 ,he is set apart as a poor thing1 who knows nothing of what he was made for1 and whose ideas of the graceful and lovely in life are about as defined and worthy as those of the brutes that perish4 ,he is run upon and laughed at by the playful1 and satirised and scathed by the witty4 ,in the circle he is treated--not pitied--as a piece of circulating insensibility2 in the street he is pointed at as one who might be well set up as a mark at its corners4 ,and this is right4 ,it is well he should be visited by rebuke from her who presents so continually around him the elements of that power he is foolish to resist1 and unable1 after all1 to depreciate4 ,woman's opinion1 here1 is a part of the great system which the influence she defends is meant to support--and we truly hope that she will maintain it aloud as long as she can utter it4 ,of the power of ,beauty1 both the world of fact1 and the world of fancy1 are abounding in instances4 ,the records of ancient story present us with their ,helens and their ,cleopatras1 who wrought upon nations by the magic of their faces4 ,later times show us the wonder of the power in ,mary of ,scotland1 and many a page might be adverted to1 full of the adventures which marked the love passages of kings as well as clowns1 originating in this mysterious influence1 as developed in the graces and glories of woman4 ,the power of ,beauty operates widely1 and everywhere4 ,it takes the good man captive as well as the miscellaneous one1 who has no definite rule to guide him on his wanderings4 ,it bows the masters and teachers of men at its shrine1 as well as the scholars and children of life4 ,it draws the merchant from his desk--the philosopher from his chair4 ,it gives new utterance to the poet1 while it wins the statesman to confess that there is some virtue in the outside of the world1 after all1 and some attraction apart from the chaos of cabinets and broad seals4 ,there is a beautiful exemplification of this power given by ,florian1 in his story of a ,theban sculptor4 ,he is a wandering orphan in the streets of his native city1 and his first entrance into the workshop of the celebrated ,praxitiles well proves the truth of what we have set down in the foregoing pages4--,he is suddenly transported on beholding so many masterpieces of art6 ,he gazes upon them--he is lost in admiration6 and turning to ,praxitiles with an air of grace and juvenile freedom1 ,father1 cried he1 give me the chisel1 and teach me to become as great as thou art4 ,praxitiles stared at the boy1 astonished at the fire of enthusiasm which kindled in his eyes1 and embracing him with affection1 ,yes6 said he1 remain with me2 ,i will now be your master1 but my hope shall be that you may soon be mine4 ,the pupil soon becomes worthy of his teacher4 ,he becomes the heir of his fortune1 and removes to ,miletus4 ,there1 the daughter of the governor visits his statuary1 and from the time of that visit1 his destiny is sealed4 ,love usurps the place of every other passion1 and the chisel is cast aside in silence1 under that supremacy4 ,the ,venus of marble that adorned his study1 was no longer a ,venus before that living one which filled his eye and his bosom4 ,he felt that he must tell his love1 or die4 ,he declares it1 in a hurried letter--a slave betrays him--and the indignant father accuses him before the council4 ,he is banished from the city--and embarks in a ,cretan vessel4 ,at this time pirates surprise the city1 and pillage the temple of ,venus4 ,the statue of that goddess is torn from its pedestal4 ,it was the ,palladium of the island1 and on its possession hung the happiness of the ,milesians4 ,the oracle of ,delphos was consulted1 and it was answered that ,miletus would not be safe till a new statue of ,venus1 beautiful as the ,goddess herself1 should replace that ravished by the pirates4 ,the inhabitants were in despair4 ,they accused the governor of unjustly banishing the only man who might now save the city4 ,he is seized1 and hurried in chains to a dungeon4 ,now came the trial of the daughter1 whose beauty had brought on this fearful crisis4 ,she equips her vessel1 and with treasures about her1 determines to go in person to ,athens--,corinth--,thebes--to find some artist who should emancipate her father4 ,tempted to land on a delicious island1 she there comes suddenly upon her lover1 whom she had been taught to believe had been long laid under the waters that lashed the heights of ,naxos4 ,the story is soon told4 ,in the humble cabin of his solitude he had prepared a statue which he said would meet the demand of the sybil4 ,but he claimed to have it placed veiled upon the pedestal in the temple of ,miletus1 before she should even look upon the marble4 ,she consents--and they embark for that island4 ,the artist is received with shoutings and joy4 ,the statue is borne to its trial on the altar of ,venus4 ,it stands erect4 ,he fears nothing--and it is unveiled4 ,the features are not mistaken--and the people utter cries of joy as they behold the image of his mistress6 ,the enamored sculptor had made her1 in his loneliness1 the model of his ,venus6--,he is called on to claim his reward4 ,release him you have imprisoned1 he cried--release her father--and ,i ask no more4--,it is done--and the father gives up the daughter to his preserver1 at the foot of her statue4 ,can the power of ,beauty be better illustrated than in this simple tale8 ,we are not shown simply its effect upon an uneducated1 artless individual--upon a mind in its singleness1 and just awakened to its own capabilities of suffering and joy--but we see it operating in a wide and unquestioned influence1 upon the spirit of a whole people4 ,it was not demanded by fate that there should be merely a replacing of the piece of marble upon the pedestal from which it had been torn--it was required that the statue should be as royal in its ,beauty as that was whose place it should supply4 ,beauty was the spirit-word of the destiny of ,miletus4 ,it was ,beauty which had been guardian of the city--and it was ,beauty which must now restore it1 by her return to her temple4 ,but we will not dwell upon this story1 though it so beautifully exemplifies the position we maintain4 ,there are many instances of frequent occurrence in the world1 which tell as strong a tale1 of the influence of ,grace and ,beauty1 as is here presented in the ,grecian record4 ,we may not witness them--but the power is working ever like fate in the mingled material of our life2 and it only requires a sober faith1 together with a moderate observation1 to convince all men that they are the creatures of ,beauty1 as much as they are of destiny and dust4 ,but there is another consideration connected with this subject--an important one1 too--and for that reason we have reserved it to the last4 ,we are settled in our conviction that there is something in ,personal ,beauty1 of a representative and correspondent character4 ,it represents a spiritual beauty--corresponds with a moral symmetry4 ,though we call it an outward property1 still it must be a picture of the internal4 ,it would seem impossible that there can be a speaking expression of grace and loveliness1 upon a face that is but a telegraph of an inward deformity and ugliness4 ,perhaps all this may seem somewhat ideal in its philosophy--and1 perhaps1 almost transcendental4 ,but we hold it to be true4 ,it certainly appears to us reasonable that the minor should reflect the reality1 as well in this heaven-made humanity1 as amid the earthy art of our drawing-rooms4 ,that the spirit should speak out in the language of the countenance1 is to us as excellent sense as that it should tell its story in protuberances and indentations4 ,who can deny this--and where will the argument fail8 ,we pause for a reply4 ,let us be understood1 however4 ,we have no idea of going beyond reason in a theory1 which1 though it may appear more than plausible to us1 may seem far this side of plausible to others4 ,yet we think we are borne out by example4 ,we do not maintain1 it will be remembered1 that beauty of person must necessarily be the representative of moral beauty1 according to the best and highest definition of that term4 ,that definition1 we presume1 would include the virtuous and the heavenly4 ,that these traits are unfailing accompaniments of noble features--the beautiful countenance--the finished form--it would be hazardous and foolish to assert4 ,what we intend to say is this--that we believe external beauty is the representation of an internal and spiritual quality of the same nature4 ,that ,beauty may be spiritual1 though it may not be moral--the ,beauty of ,virtue4 ,it may be the beauty of superior and surpassing powers--the ,beauty of ,genius4 ,it may be the beauty of a mind1 uncommon in its attractions1 and in its proportions beyond fault or question4 ,it may be the beauty of intellectual symmetry--and this may find its speaking resemblance in the chiseled face and figure1 as certainly as the moral loveliness of the heaven-inspired--the emphatically good man4 ,of what more perfect mental proportions could the human countenance have been indicative1 than the countenance of ,napoleon8 ,the symmetry of ,genius spake there1 if it was true--as it certainly was--that moral beauty had no telegraph in that splendid sculpture of the man4 ,but we have said as much as we can afford to--though the more particular subject of our remarks--or what in good faith should have been1 if it has not--,beauty in ,woman1 would seem to be one on which it would not be deemed unknightly to give way to a pretty expression4 ,we must1 however1 leave all considerations of gallantry on this score1 to others who can amplify better than we can1 when we have got to the end of our chapter4 ,,advertisement4 ,there is perhaps no subject more universally or more deeply interesting than that which is the chief subject of the present work4 ,yet no book1 even pretending to science or accuracy1 has hitherto appeared upon it4 ,the forms and proportions of animals--as of the horse and the dog--have been examined in a hundred volumes3 not one has been devoted to woman1 on whose physical and moral qualities the happiness of individuals1 and the perpetual improvement of the human race1 are dependant4 ,the cause of this has been1 probably1 the neglect on the part of individuals1 to combine anatomical and physiological knowledge with the critical observation of the external forms of woman2 and1 perhaps1 some repugnance to anthropological knowledge on the part of the public4 ,the last obstacle1 if ever it existed1 is now gone by1 as many circumstances show2 and it will be the business of the author1 in this work1 to endeavor to obviate the former4 ,the present work1 beside giving new views of the theory of beauty1 and of its application to the arts1 presents an analysis and classification of beauty in woman4 ,a subsequent work will apply the principles here established to intermarriages and crossings among mankind1 and will explain their results in relation to the happiness of individuals1 and to the beauty and the freedom from insanity of their offspring4 ,a final work will examine the relations of woman in society1 will expose the extravagant hypothesis of writers on this subject who have been ignorant of anthropology1 and will describe the reforms which the common interests of mankind demand in this respect4 ,it is now to be seen1 whether a branch of science which is strictly founded on anatomy and physiology--one which entangles the reader in no mystical and delusive hypothesis1 and presents to him only indisputable facts--one which is applicable to the subject most universally and deeply interesting to mankind1 the critical judgment of female beauty1 as founded on necessary functions--and one which unravels the greater difficulties which that subject presents--may not excite and permanently command a great degree of public interest4 ,a preliminary view of the importance of this subject is given in the first chapter2 the urgency of its discussion1 in relation to the interests of decency and morality1 is established in the second2 and some useful cautions as to youth are offered in the third4 ,in regard to the importance of the subject1 ,i may1 even here1 avail myself of the highest authorities4 ,,thomas ,,more1 speaking of the people of his commonwealth1 says3 ,they do greatly wonder at the folly of all other nations1 which1 in buying a colt 7whereas1 a little money is in hazard71 be so chary and circumspect1 that1 though he be almost all bare1 yet they will not buy him1 unless the saddle and all the harness be taken off--lest1 under those coverings1 be hid some gall or sore4 ,and yet1 in choosing a wife1 which shall be either pleasure or displeasure to them all their life after1 they be so reckless1 that1 all the residue of the woman's body being covered with clothes1 they esteem her scarcely by one hand-breadth 7for they can see no more but her face71 and so to join her to them1 not without great jeopardy of evil agreeing together--if anything in her body afterward should chance to offend and mislike them4#a ,,francis ,,bacon is of similar opinion4 ,happily1 the advancement of anthropological science in modern times1 may1 as is here shown1 be so applied as to render quite unnecessary the objectionable methods proposed by both these philosophers1 in order to carry their doctrines into practice4 ,shall ,i be blamed1 because ,i avail myself of the progress of knowledge to render all that these great men desired on this subject of easy attainment and inoffensive to woman8 ,shall ,i be blamed1 because ,i first facilitate that which the still farther advancement of knowledge will inevitably render an everyday occurrence1 and the guide of the most important act of human life8--,i care not4 ,in the details as to female beauty1 it will be seen how incorrectly ,winckelmann says3 ,in female figures1 the forms of beauty are not so different1 nor the gradations so various1 as in those of males2 and therefore in general they present no other difference than that which is dependant upon age4444 ,hence1 in treating of female beauty1 few observations occur as necessary to be made1 and the study of the artist is more limited and more easy4444 ,it is to be observed1 that1 in speaking of the resemblance of nude female figures1 ,i speak solely of the body1 without concluding from it that they also resemble each other in the distinctive characters of the head1 which are particularly marked in each1 whether goddess or heroine4--,the differences1 even in the bodies of females1 are here shown to be both numerous and capable of distinct classification4 ,it is right to observe1 that this work has nothing to do with an early production of the writer1 a consciousness of the small value of which prevented his attaching his name to it1 which he now knows to be utterly worthless1 and which has since been vamped up with things which are more worthless still4 ,the most valuable features of the present work are entirely new and original4 ,others are such as the writer thought not unworthy of preservation from earlier essays4 ,he has also1 throughout this work1 adopted from other writers1 with no other alteration than accuracy required1 every view1 opinion1 or remark1 which he thought applicable to a department of science1 of which all the great features are new4 ,such being the case1 he thinks it just1 at once to himself and others1 to indicate here the only points on which he can himself lay any claim to originality4 ,these are as follows3-- ,the more complete establishment of the truth that1 in relation to man and woman in particular1 beauty is the external sign of goodness in organization and function1 and thence its importance4--,chapter ,i41 and the work generally4 ,the showing that the discussion of this subject1 though involving the examination of the naked figure1 is urgent in relation to decency 7the theory of which is discussed71 morality1 and happy intermarriage4--,chapter ,,ii4 ,the showing that the ancient religion was the cause of the perfection of the fine arts in ,greece1 by its personification of simple attributes or virtues1 as objects of adoration4--,chapter ,,ii4 ,the exposition of the nature1 the kinds1 and the characteristics of beauty2 and of some errors of ,burke1 ,knight1 c41 on this subject4--,chapter ,,iv4 ,the showing that there are elements of beauty invariable in their nature and effect1 and that these are modified and complicated in advancing from simple to complex beings1 and the arts relating to them4--,chapter ,,vi4 ,the pointing out these elements of beauty1 and their mode of operation in inanimate beings2 and the errors of ,knight and ,allison on this subject4--,sect4 ,i41 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,the pointing out these elements1 and others which are superadded1 in living beings2 and the errors of ,allison on this subject4--,sect4 ,,ii41 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,the pointing out these elements1 and others which are farther superadded1 in thinking beings2 and the errors of ,burke and ,knight on this subject4--,sect4 ,,iii41 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,the exposition of these elements1 as differing1 or variously modified1 in the useful1 ornamental1 and intellectual arts1 respectively2 and some remarks on ornament in architecture1 and in female dress4--,sect4 ,,iv41 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,the explanation of the nature of the picturesque1 after the failure of ,knight and ,price in this respect4--,sect4 ,i41 ,appendix to preceding chapters4 ,the vindication of the doctrine of ,hobbes1 as to the cause of laughter2 and exposition of the errors of ,campbell and ,beattie on this subject4--,sect4 ,,ii41 ,appendix4 ,the explanation of the cause of the pleasure received from representations exciting pity2 and of the errors of ,burke1 c41 on that subject4--,sect4 ,,iii41 ,appendix4 ,the arrangement of anatomy and physiology1 and the application of the principles of these sciences to the distinguishing and judging of beauty4--,chapter ,,vii4 ,the explanation of the difference in the beauty of the two sexes even in the same country4--,chapter ,,ix4 ,various arguments establishing the standard of beauty in woman2 and exposure of the sophistry of ,knight1 on this subject4--,chapter ,x4 ,the showing1 by the preceding arrangements1 that the ancient temperaments are partial or complex views of anthropological phenomena4--,chapter ,,xi41 et seq4 ,the description of the first species of beauty1 or that of the locomotive system1 and of its varieties1 as founded on examination of structure4--,chapter ,,xii4 ,the description of the second species of beauty1 or that of the nutritive system1 and of its varieties1 as founded on examination of structure4--,chapter ,,xiii4 ,the description of the third species of beauty1 or that of the thinking system1 and of its varieties1 as founded on examination of structure4--,chapter ,,xiv4 ,the explanation of the cause of the deformity produced by the obliquely placed eyes of the ,chinese1 c4--,chapter ,,xv4 ,the explanation of the mode in which the action of the muscles of the face becomes physiognomically expressive4--,ibid4 ,the explanation of the physiognomical character of the different kinds of the hair4--,ibid4 ,the explanation of the cause of the different effects of the same face1 even in a state of repose4--,ibid4 ,the indication of the faulty feature1 and its gradual increase1 even in beautiful faces4--,ibid4 ,the exposition of the different organization of ,greek and ,roman heads4--,ibid4 ,the explanation of the combinations and transitions of beauty4--,chapter ,,xvi4 ,the explanation of the numerical1 geometrical1 and harmonic methods of proportion1 employed by the ancient ,greeks4--,chapter ,,xvii4 ,some remarks on character1 expression1 and detail in art4--,ibid4 ,some observations on the ,greek forehead1 actual as well as ideal4--,chapter ,,xviii4 ,the explanation of the reason of the ,greek ideal rule1 as to the proportion between the forehead and the other parts of the face4--,ibid4 ,the explanation of the reason of the ,greek ideal rule1 as to the profile of the forehead and nose1 or as to the direction of the mesial line which they form1 and the exposition of ,winckelmann's blunder respecting it4--,ibid4 ,the explanation of the reason why the ,greeks suppressed all great degrees of impassioned expression4--,ibid4 ,the mere indication of the ,greek idealizations as applied to the nutritive and locomotive systems1 and the explanation of the latter in the ,apollo4--,ibid4 ,the replies to the objections of ,burke and ,alison1 as to ideal beauty4--,ibid4 ,the enunciation of the ideal in attitude4--,ibid4 ,various views as to the ,venus de ,medici1 the conformation of the nose1 and the connexion of odor with love1 in animals and plants4--,chapter ,,xix4 ,some remarks on the ,venus de ,medici4--,ibid4 ,the pointing out and explanation of various defects in beauty4--,chapter ,,xx4 ,the pointing out and explanation of various external indications of figure1 beauty1 mind1 habits1 and age4--,chapter ,,xxi4 ,the writer may possibly be mistaken as to the originality of one or two of these points2 but1 leaving the critical reader to deduct as many of these as it is in his power to do1 enough of novelty would remain for the writer's ambition1 in this respect1 if he had done no more than exposed the errors of ,burke1 ,knight1 ,alison1 c41 and established the true doctrine of beauty1 in the first chapters--given an analysis and classification of beauty in woman1 in the chapters which follow--and applied this to the fine arts1 and solved the difficulty of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 c41 in the last chapters4 ,,analysis ,,and ,,classification ,,of ,,beauty ,,in ,,woman4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,subject4 ,it is observed by ,home1 in his ,elements of ,criticism1 that a perception of beauty in external objects is requisite to attach us to them2 that it greatly promotes industry1 by promoting a desire to possess things that are beautiful2 and that it farther joins with utility1 in prompting us to embellish our houses and enrich our fields4 ,these1 however1 he says1 are but slight effects1 compared with the connexions which are formed among individuals in society by means of this singular mechanism3 the qualifications of the head and heart are undoubtedly the most solid and most permanent foundations of such connexions2 but as external beauty lies more in view1 and is more obvious to the bulk of mankind1 than the qualities now mentioned1 the sense of beauty possesses the more universal influence in forming these connexions2 at any rate1 it concurs in an eminent degree1 with mental qualifications1 to produce social intercourse1 mutual good-will1 and1 consequently1 mutual aid and support1 which are the life of society4 ,dr4 ,pritchard similarly observes1 that the perception of beauty is the chief principle in every country which directs men in their marriages4 ,advancing a step farther1 ,sir ,anthony ,carlisle thinks a taste for beauty worthy of being cultivated4 ,man1 he observes1 dwells with felicity even on ideal female attributes1 and in imagination discovers beauties and perfections which solace his wearied hours1 far beyond any other resource within the scope of human life4 ,it cannot1 then1 be unwise to cultivate and refine this natural tendency1 and to enhance1 if possible1 these charms of life4 ,we increase and heighten all our pleasures by awakening and cultivating reflections which do not exist in a state of ignorance4 ,thus1 the botanist perceives elegances in plants and flowers unknown and unfelt by the vulgar1 and the landscape-painter revels in natural or imaginary scenery1 with feelings which are unknown to the multitude4 ,it would be absurd to pretend that the more exquisite and more deeply attractive beauty of woman is not worthy of more profound1 as well as more universal cultivation4 ,such are the observations of philosophical anthropologists1 who1 nevertheless1 in these remarks1 consider mere physical beauty independent of its connexion with corresponding functions or moral qualities4 ,if1 however1 the external beauty of woman1 calculated as it is to flatter the most experienced eye1 limited its effect to a local impression1 to an optical enjoyment1 the sentiment of beauty would be far from having all its extent and value4 ,happily1 ideas of goodness1 of suitableness1 of sympathy1 of progressive perfection1 and of mutual happiness1 are1 by an intimate and inevitable association1 connected with the first impression made by the sight of beauty4 ,the foundation of this feeling is well expressed by ,dr4 ,pritchard1 in his observation that the idea of beauty of person is synonymous with that of health and perfect organization4 ,hence1 it has been observed1 the great ideal models of beauty please us1 not merely because their forms are disposed and combined so as to affect agreeably the organ of sight1 but because their exterior appears to correspond to admirable qualities1 and to announce an elevation in the condition of humanity4 ,such do the ,greek monuments appear to physiologists and philosophical artists1 whose minds pass rapidly from the beauty of forms to that locomotive1 vital1 or mental excellence which it compels them to suppose4 ,goodness and beauty in woman will accordingly be found to bear a strict relation to each other2 and the latter will be seen always to be the external sign of the former4 ,there are1 however 7slightly to anticipate what must afterward be explained71 different kinds1 both of beauty and of goodness1 which are confounded by vulgar observers2 or rather there are beauty and goodness belonging to different systems of which the body is composed1 and which ought never to be confounded with each other4 ,where1 consequently1 one of these kinds of beauty and of goodness is wanting1 even in a remarkable degree1 others may be found2 and1 as the vulgar do not distinguish1 it is this which leads to the gross error that these qualities have no strict relations to their signs4 ,want of beauty1 then1 in any one of the systems of which the body is composed1 indicates want of goodness only in that system2 but it is not less a truth1 and scarcely of less importance1 on that account4--,i will now illustrate this by brief examples4 ,there may1 in any individual1 exist deformity of limbs2 and this will assuredly indicate want of goodness in the locomotive system1 of that or general motion4 ,there may exist coarseness of skin1 or paleness of complexion2 and either of these will as certainly indicate want of goodness in the vital system1 or that of nutrition4 ,there may exist a malformation of the brain1 externally evident2 and this no less certainly will indicate want of goodness in the mental system1 or that of thought4 ,it follows that even the different kinds and combinations of beauty1 which are the objects of taste to different persons1 are founded upon the same general principle of organic superiority4 ,nay1 even the preferences which1 in beauty1 appear to depend most on fancy1 depend in reality on that cause2 and the impression which every degree and modification of beauty makes on mankind1 has as a fundamental rule only their sentiment1 more or less delicate and just1 of physical advantage in relation to each individual4 ,such is the foundation of all our sentiments of admiration and of love4 ,the existence or non-existence of these advantages1 and the power of determining this1 or the judgment of beauty1 are therefore of transcendent importance to individuals and to families4 ,such judgment can be attained by analysis and classification alone4 ,nothing1 therefore1 can more nearly affect all human interests than that analysis and classification of beauty which are here proposed4 ,to place beyond a doubt1 and to illustrate more minutely1 the extraordinary importance of this subject1 as regards advantages real to the species1 ,i may anticipate some of the more minute applications of my doctrine4 ,if1 in the locomotive system of the female1 much of the delicacy of form1 and the ease and grace of her movements1 depend upon the more perfect development of the muscles of the pelvis1 and its easily adapting itself to great and remarkable changes1 how important must be the ability to determine1 even by walk or gesture1 the existence of this condition6 ,if1 in the vital system1 the elasticity and freshness of the skin are the characteristics of health1 and their absence warns us that the condition of woman is unfavorable to the plan of nature relatively to the maintenance of the species--or1 if the capacity of the pelvis1 and the consequent breadth of the haunches1 are necessary to all those functions which are most essentially feminine1 impregnation1 gestation1 and parturition1 without danger either to parent or to child--of what extreme importance must be the ability to determine this with certainty and ease6 ,if1 in the mental system1 the capacity and delicacy of the organs of sense1 and the softness and mobility of the nervous system1 are necessary to the vivid and varying sensibility of woman--if it is in consequence of this1 that woman is enabled to act on man by the continual observation of all that can captivate his imagination or secure his affection1 and by the irresistible seduction of her manners--if it is these qualities which enable her to accommodate herself to his taste1 to yield1 without constraint1 even to the caprice of the moment1 and to seize the time when observations1 made as it were accidentally1 may produce the effect which she desires--if it is by these means that she fulfils her first duty1 namely1 to please him to whom she has united her days1 and to attach him to her and to home by rendering both delightful--if all this is the case1 of what inexpressible importance must be the ability to determine1 in each individual1 the possession of the power and the will to produce such effects6 ,if 7descending to still more minute inquiries7 external indications as to figure are required as to parts concealed by drapery--if such indications would obviate deception even with regard to those parts of the figure which are more exposed to observation by the closer adaptation of dress--if1 even when the face is seen1 the deception as to the degree of beauty1 is such that a correct estimate of it is perhaps never formed--if indications as to mind may be derived from many external circumstances--if external indications as to the personal habits of women are both numerous and interesting--if such indications even of age and health are sometimes essential--if all this be the case1 let the reader say what other object of human inquiry exceeds this in importance4 ,let us not then deceive ourselves respecting the source of those impressions which one sex experiences from the sight of the other4 ,it is evidently nothing else than the more or less delicate and just perception of a certain conformity of means with a want which has been created by nature1 and which must be satisfied4 ,it is very obvious1 says ,dr4 ,pritchard1 that this peculiarity in the constitution of man must have considerable effects on the physical character of the race1 and that it must act as a constant principle of improvement1 supplying the place in our own kind of the beneficial control in the crossing of races which we exercise over the brute creation4 ,and he adds3 ,this is probably the final cause for which the instinctive perception of human beauty was implanted by ,providence in our nature4 ,we need not wonder1 then1 that the ,greeks should have preferred beauty to all other advantages1 should have placed it immediately after virtue in the order of their affections1 or should have made it an object of worship4 ,even the practical application of this principle to the improvement of the human race is not a matter of conjecture4 ,we have seen both families and nations ameliorated by the means which it affords4 ,of this1 the ,turks are a striking example4 ,nothing1 therefore1 can better deserve the researches of the physiologist1 or the exertions of the philanthropist1 than the fact that there are laws1 of which we have yet only a glimpse1 according to which we may influence the amelioration of the human race in a manner the most extensive and profound1 by acting according to a uniform and uninterrupted system4 ,well might ,cabanis exclaim3 ,after having occupied ourselves so curiously with the means of rendering more beautiful and better the races of animals or of plants which are useful or agreeable--after having remodelled a hundred times that of horses and dogs--after having transplanted1 grafted1 cultivated1 in all manners1 fruits and flowers--how shameful is it to have totally neglected the race of man6 ,as if it affected us less nearly6 as if it were more essential to have large and strong oxen than vigorous and healthy men1 highly odorous peaches or finely striped tulips1 than wise and good citizens6 ,i actually know a man who is so deeply interested in the doctrine of crossing1 that every hour of his life is devoted to the improvement of a race of bantam fowls and curious pigeons1 and who yet married a mad woman1 whom he confines in a garret1 and by whom he has some insane progeny4 ,let it not be imagined that the discovery of the precise laws of crossing or intermarriage1 and the best direction of physical living forces1 in relation both to the vital faculties and to those of the mind1 upon which knowledge and skill may operate for the improvement of our race1 is a matter of difficulty4 ,it will be shown in this work1 that there exist not only an influence of beauty and defects on offspring1 but peculiar laws regulating the resemblance of progeny to parents--laws which regard the mode in which the organization of parents affects that of children1 or regulates the organs which each parent respectively bestows4 ,it will accordingly be shown1 that1 as1 on the size1 form1 and proportion1 of the various organs1 depend their functions1 the importance of such laws is indescribable--whether we regard intermarriages1 and that immunity from mental or bodily disease which1 when well directed1 they may ensure1 or the determination of the parentage of a child--or the education of children1 in conformity with their faculties--or the employment of men in society4 ,i conclude this brief view in the words of the writer just quoted3 ,it is assuredly time for us to attempt to do for ourselves that which we have done so successfully for several of our companions in existence1 to review and correct this work of nature--a noble enterprise1 which truly merits all our cares1 and which nature itself appears to have especially recommended to us by the sympathies and the powers which it has given us4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,urgency ,,of ,,the ,,discussion ,,of ,,this ,,subject ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,interests ,,of ,,decency ,,and ,,morality4 ,it has now been seen that beauty results from the perfection1 chiefly of external forms1 and the correspondence of that perfection with superiority of internal functions2 on the more or less perfect perception of which1 love1 intermarriage1 and the condition of our race1 are dependant4 ,this mode of considering the elements1 the nature1 and the consequences of beauty1 is equally applicable to the two sexes2 but1 in woman1 the form of the species presents peculiar modifications4 ,in this work1 it is the form of woman which is chosen for examination1 because it will be found1 by the contrast which is perpetually necessary1 to involve a knowledge of the form of man1 because it is best calculated to ensure attention from men1 and because it is men who1 exercising the power of selection1 have alone the ability thus to ensure individual happiness1 and to ameliorate the species2 which are the objects of this work4 ,let it not be imagined that the views now taken are less favorable to woman than to man4 ,whatever ensures the happiness of one ensures that of the other2 and as the variety of forms and functions in man requires as many varieties in woman1 it is not to exclusion or rejection with regard to woman that this work tends1 but to a reasoned guidance in man's choice1 to the greater suitableness of all intermarriages1 and to the greater happiness of woman as well as man1 both in herself and in her progeny4 ,but notwithstanding the importance of any work which is in any degree calculated to promote such an object1 some will tell us that the analysis of female beauty1 on which it can alone be founded1 is indelicate4--,i shall1 on the contrary1 show that decency demands this analysis2 that the interests of nature1 of truth1 of the arts1 and of morality1 demand it4 ,our present notions of sexual decency belong more to art than to nature1 and may be divided into artificial and artful decencies4 ,artificial decencies are illustrated in the habits of various nations4 ,they have their origin in cold countries1 where clothing is necessary1 and where a deviation from the degree or mode of clothing constitutes indecency4 ,they could not exist in hot climates1 where clothing is scarcely possible4 ,in hot climates1 natural decency can alone exist2 and there is not1 ,i believe1 one traveller in such countries whose works do not prove that natural decency there exists as much as in cold countries4 ,in exemplification of this1 ,i make a single quotation3 it would be easy to make thousands4 ,burchell1 speaking of the ,bushmen ,hottentots1 says3 ,the natural bashful reserve of youth and innocence is to be seen as much among these savages1 as in more polished nations2 and the young girls1 though wanting but little of being perfectly naked1 evinced as just a sense of modesty as the most rigid and careful education could have given them4 ,in mild climates1 the half-clothed or slightly-clothed people appear to be somewhat at a loss what to do4 ,fond of decorations1 like all savage or half-civilized people1 they seem to be divided between the tatooing and painting of hot climates1 and the clothing of cold ones2 and when they adopt the latter1 they do not rightly know what to conceal4 ,the works of all travellers afford the same illustrations of this fact4 ,i quote one4 ,kotzebue describes the custom among the ,tartar women of ,kasan1 of flying or of concealing their countenance from the sight of a stranger4 ,the necessity of conforming to this custom threw into great embarrassment a young woman who was obliged to pass several times before the ,german traveller4 ,she at first concealed her face with her hands2 but1 soon embarrassed by that attitude1 she removed the veil which covered her bosom1 and threw it over her face4 ,that1 adds ,kotzebue1 was1 as we say1 uncovering ,paul to cover ,jacques3 the bosom remained naked4 ,to cover that1 she next showed what should have been concealed2 and if anything escaped from her hands1 she stooped1 and then1 says ,kotzebue1 ,i saw both one and the other4 ,in colder or more uncertain climates1 the greatest degree of covering constitutes the greatest degree of artificial decency3 fashion and decency are confounded4 ,among old-fashioned people1 of whom a good example may be found in old countrywomen of the middle class in ,england1 it is indecent to be seen with the head unclothed2 such a woman is terrified at the chance of being seen in that condition2 and if intruded on at such a time1 she shrieks with terror and flies to conceal herself4 ,in the equally polished dandy of the metropolis1 it is indecent to be seen without gloves4 ,which of these respectable creatures is the most enlightened1 ,i do not take upon me to say2 but ,i believe that the majority of suffrages would be in favor of the old woman4 ,so entirely are these decencies artificial1 that any number of them may easily be created1 not merely with regard to man or woman1 but even with regard to domesticated animals4 ,if it should please some persons partially to clothe horses1 cows1 or dogs1 it would ere long be felt that their appearing in the streets without trowsers or aprons was grossly indecent4 ,we might thus create a real feeling of indecency1 the perception of a new impurity1 which would take the place of the former absence of all impure thought1 and once established1 the evil would be as real as our whims have made it in other respects4 ,moral feeling is deeply injured by this substitution of impure thoughts1 however fancifully founded1 for pure ones1 or rather for the entire absence of thought about worthless things4 ,artificial crimes are thus made1 which are not the less real because artificial2 for if aught of this kind is believed to be right1 there is weakness or wrong in its violation4 ,but violated it must be1 if it were but accidentally4 ,to corrupt minds1 this very violation of artificial decency in the case of woman affords the zest for the sake of which many of these decencies seem to have been instituted2 and thus are created the artful decencies4 ,the purpose and the zest of artful decency are well illustrated by coquetry4 ,coquetry adopts a general concealment1 which it well knows can alone give a sensual and seductive power to momentary exposure4 ,coquetry eschews permanent exposure as the bane of sensuality and seduction2 and where these are great1 as among the women of ,spain1 the concealment of dress is increased1 even in warm climates4 ,nothing can throw greater light than this does on the nature of these decencies4 ,that coquetry has well calculated her procedure1 does not admit of a doubt4 ,she appeals to imagination1 which she knows will spread charms over even ugly forms2 she seeks the concealment under which sensuality and lust are engendered2 and1 in marriage1 she at last lifts the veil which gratifies1 only to disgust1 and repays a sensual hallucination by years of misery4 ,ought religion to claim the right of saying grace to such unveiling of concealment and the nuptial rites that follow it8 ,ought religion to profit by the impurities of sexual association8 ,marriage is a civil ceremony in other countries1 even in ,scotland4 ,such profane and profitable sanctions have nothing to do with primitive ,christianity3 they are abhorrent to its letter as well as to its spirit4 ,but worldly and profitable religion is connected in business with government1 under the firm of ,church and ,state1 and drives a thriving trade1 in which the junior partner is contented with the profit arising from the common acts of life1 while the senior one draws much of his living from other rites4#b ,what is said here1 is no argument for living nudity3 that1 our climate and our customs forbid2 and1 in so doing1 we can only regret that they are unfavorable to natural purity2 while perfect familiarity with the figure ensures that feeling in the highest degree4 ,a distinguished artist informs me that greater modesty is nowhere to be seen than at the ,life academy2 and it was an observation of the great ,flaxman1 that the students1 in entering the academy1 seemed to hang up their passions with their hats4 ,i can1 from personal experience1 give the same testimony in behalf of medical students at the dissecting-rooms4 ,the familiarity of both these classes with natural beauty leads them only to seek to inform their minds and to purify their taste4#c ,sinibaldi observes1 that nothing is more injurious to morals and to health1 than the incitements of the women who in such numbers walk our streets1 and that the laws as to offences against morals ought certainly to affect them the moment their language or actions can be deemed offensive4 ,but it is not to those who are critically conversant with the highest beauty of the human figure1 that defective forms1 ill-painted skins1 rude manners1 and contagious diseases1 are at all seductive4 ,nothing1 then1 can be more favorable to virtue than the decoration of every house with the beautiful copies of the glorious works of ancient ,greece2 and it is only humiliating to think that what has been so extensively done in this respect in the best houses1 is less owing to our own taste than to the poor wanderers from ,lucca or ,barga4 ,experiment on this subject is peculiarly easy in ,london3 let any one spend an hour in the shop of the very able ,mr4 ,sarti1 of ,dean street1 where he will meet the most liberal attention1 and let him ask himself1 in coming out1 whether his moral feeling1 as well as his taste1 is not improved4 ,those who cannot make this experiment1 will perhaps be satisfied with the assurance of ,hogarth1 who says3 ,the rest of the body1 not having advantages in common with the face1 would soon satiate the eye1 were it to be as constantly exposed1 nor would it have more effect than a marble statue4 ,surely this is decisive enough in its way6 ,now let them mark what follows4 ,but1 he continues1 when it is artfully clothed and decorated1 the mind at every turn resumes its imaginary pursuits concerning it4 ,thus1 if ,i may be allowed a simile1 the angler chooses not to see the fish he angles for1 until it is fairly caught4 ,he meant of course--the fish chooses not to see the angler1 until it is fairly caught6 ,be it known then to all1 even the most aristocratic as to sexual association--,i say the most aristocratic1 and not the most religious1 because religion is in some countries made the pander to aristocracy--be it known that the critical judgment and pure taste for beauty are the sole protection against low and degrading connexions4 ,home observes that the sense of beauty does not tend to advance the interests of society1 but when in a due mean with respect to strength4 ,love in particular arising from a sense of beauty1 loses1 when excessive1 its sociable character3 the appetite for gratification1 prevailing over affection for the beloved object1 is ungovernable1 and tends violently to its end1 regardless of the misery that must follow4 ,love in this state is no longer a sweet agreeable passion3 it becomes painful1 like hunger or thirst1 and produces no happiness but in the instant of fruition4 ,this discovery suggests a most important lesson1 that moderation in our desires and appetites1 which fits us for doing our duty1 contributes at the same time the most to happiness3 even social passions1 when moderate1 are more pleasant than when they swell beyond proper bounds4 ,payne ,knight says3 ,when1 at the age of puberty1 animal desire obtrudes itself on a mind already qualified to feel and enjoy the charms of intellectual merit1 the imagination immediately begins to form pictures of perfection1 by exaggerating and combining in one hypothetic object every excellence that can possibly belong to the whole sex2 and the first individual that meets the eye1 with any exterior signs of any of these ideal excellences1 is immediately decorated with them all1 by the creative magic of a vigorous and fertile fancy4 ,hence1 she instantaneously becomes the object of the most fervent affection1 which is as instantaneously cooled by possession3 for1 as it was not the object herself1 but a false idea of her raised in heated imagination1 that called forth all the lover's raptures1 all immediately vanish at the detection of his delusion2 and a degree of disgust proportioned to the disappointment1 of which it is the inevitable consequence1 instantly succeeds4 ,thus it happens that what are called love-matches are seldom or ever happy4 ,now1 nothing can more effectually prevent even the existence of the mania described by these two philosophers than a critical judgment and a pure taste for beauty1 which again therefore are the sole protection against low and degrading connexions4 ,a just sense of this truth will give high encouragement to sculpture and painting--arts which may everywhere be looked upon as the best tests1 as well as the best records1 of civilization4 ,such encouragement they need in truth2 for the monstrous monopoly of landed property and the accumulation of wealth in few hands--the great aim of our political economy--renders art poor1 indeed4 ,i am aware that the vulgar among artists think otherwise2 from the few rich they obtain employment2 and1 like the dog with his master1 they look not beyond the hand that doles out their pittance4 ,but the rich are few2 and their palaces are already filled4 ,a diffusion of wealth alone can give encouragement to art2 nor can this ever be while ,british industry is crushed under the weight of enormous taxation4 ,having removed some objections to art1 ,i would add a few words to artists on the cause of the fine arts in ,greece1 from a paper ,i1 two years ago1 contributed to a monthly periodical4#d ,that the mythology of ,greece had an influence over its arts1 is generally granted2 but ,i am not aware1 that it has either been shown to be exclusively their cause1 or that its mode of operation has ever been explained4 ,religion1 ,i may observe1 is as natural to man as his weakness and helplessness4 ,there is not one of its systems1 not even the vilest1 which has not afforded him consolation4 ,of its higher and better systems1 some are equally admirable for the grandeur and the beauty of the truths on which they are founded1 the simplicity and the elegance of their ostensible forms1 the power and applicability of their symbols1 and their sympathy with1 and control over1 the affections and the imagination4 ,these high characteristics peculiarly distinguished the religion of ancient ,greece4 ,by bigots1 we are indeed told1 that1 though ,homer is our model in epic1 ,anacreon in lyric1 and schylus in dramatic poetry--though the music of ,greece doubtless corresponded to its poetry in beauty1 pathos1 and grandeur--though the mere wreck of her sculpture is never overlooked in modern war and negotiation--though the mere sight of her ruined ,parthenon is more than a reward for the fatigue or the peril of a journey to the ,eternal city--though these products of art are the test of the highest civilization which the world has witnessed--though to these chiefly ,rome owed the little civilization of which she was capable1 and we ourselves the circumstance that1 at this hour1 we are not1 like our ancestors1 covered only with blue paint or the skins of brutes--though all this is true as to the arts of ,greece1 we are told that1 by the strangest exception1 the religion of ,greece was a base superstition4 ,that religion1 however1 was the creator of these arts4 ,they not only could not have existed without it1 but they probably could never have been called into existence by any other religion4 ,the personification of simple ,beauty1 ,valor1 ,wisdom1 or ,omnipotence1 in ,venus1 ,mars1 ,minerva1 or ,jupiter1 respectively1 was essential to the purity and the power of expression of these attributes in the worship of the deities to whom they respectively belonged4 ,the union of absolute beauty and valor in one being1 is not more impossible than their union in one expression of homage and admiration4 ,delicacy1 elegance1 and grace1 were as characteristic of the statue1 the worship1 and the temple1 of the goddess of beauty1 as attributes nearly opposite to these were of the statue1 the worship1 and the temple1 of the god of war4 ,thus1 were the fine arts in ,greece created by the personification of simple attributes or virtues as objects of adoration2 and thus is excellence in these fine arts incapable of being elicited by any system of religion in which more than one attribute is ascribed to the god4 ,they must be ignorant1 indeed1 of the wonderful people of whom ,i now speak1 who allege1 that the ,greeks worshipped the mere statue of the god and not the personified virtue4 ,even the history of their religion proves the reverse4 ,it was the tomb which became the altar1 and retained nearly its form4 ,it was the expression of love1 of regret1 and of veneration for departed virtue1 which became divine adoration2 and1 as individual acts and even individual names were ultimately lost in one transcendent attribute1 so were individual forms and features1 in its purified and ideal representation4 ,here1 then1 instead of finding the worship of men or of their representations1 we discover a gradual advance from beings to attributes--from mortal man to eternal virtue--and a corresponding and suitable advance from simple veneration to divine adoration4 ,when1 in great emergencies of the state1 the sages and the soldiers of ,athens1 in solemn procession repaired to the temple of ,minerva1 turned their faces toward the statue of the goddess1 and prostrated themselves in spirit before her--let the beautiful history of ,grecian science tell1 whether in the statue they worshipped the mere marble structure1 or1 in its forms and attributes1 beheld and adored a personification of eternal truth and wisdom1 and so prepared the mind for deeds which have rendered ,greece for ever illustrious4 ,or1 when returning from a ,marathon1 or a ,salamis1 the warriors of ,athens1 followed by trains of maidens1 and matrons1 and old men1 returned thanks to the god of victories--let the immortal record of the long series of glorious achievements which succeeded these1 tell1 whether gratitude to their heroes was not there identified with homage to the spirit or the divinity that inspired them4 ,true it is1 that1 whenever physical or moral principles are personified1 the ignorant may be led to mistake the sign for that which is signified2 but one of the most admirable characteristics of the ,grecian religion is1 that1 with little effort1 every external form may be traced to the spirit which it represents1 and every fable may be resolved into a beautiful illustration of physical or moral truth4 ,so that when mystic influences1 with increasing knowledge1 ceased to sway the imagination1 all-powerful truths directed the reason4 ,the natural and poetical religion of ,greece1 therefore1 differed from false and vulgar religions in this1 that it was calculated to hold equal empire over the minds of the ignorant and the wise2 and the initiations of ,eleusis were apparently the solemn acts by which the youths and maidens of ,greece passed from ignorance and blind obedience to knowledge and enlightened zeal4 ,thus1 in that happy region1 neither were the priests knaves1 nor the people their dupes4#e ,and what has been the result of this fundamental excellence8--that no interpolated fooleries have been able to destroy it2--that the religion of ,greece exists1 and must ever exist1 the religion of nature1 genius1 and taste2--and that neither poetry nor the arts can have being without it4 ,schiller has well expressed this truth in the following lines3-- ,the intelligible forms of ancient poets1 ,the fair humanities of old religion1 ,the power1 the beauty1 and the majesty1 ,that had their haunts in dale1 or piny mountains1 ,or forest1 by slow stream1 or pebbly spring1 ,or chasms1 and watery depths--all these have vanished2 ,they live no longer in the faith of reason2 ,but still the heart doth need a language2 still ,doth the old instinct bring back the old names2 99 99 ,and even1 at this day1 ',tis ,jupiter who brings whate'er is great1 ,and ,venus who brings everything that's fair4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,cautions ,,as ,,to ,,youth4 ,in relation to early sexual association1 it cannot be doubted1 that1 when the instinct of reproduction begins to be developed1 the reserve which parents1 relatives1 and instructers1 adopt on this subject1 is often the means of producing injurious effects2 because1 a system of concealment on this subject1 as observed in the preceding chapter1 is quite impracticable4 ,discoveries made by young persons in obscene books1 the unguarded language or shameless conduct of grown-up persons1 even the wild flights of an imagination which is then easily excited1 will have the most fatal consequences4 ,parents or instructers ought1 therefore1 at that critical period1 to give rational explanations as to the nature and the object of the propensity1 the mechanism of reproduction in various vegetable and animal beings1 and the fatal consequences to which this propensity may lead4 ,such procedure1 if well conducted1 cannot but have the most beneficial results2 because1 in order that a sane person should avoid any danger1 it is only necessary that he should see it distinctly4 ,the advantage1 it has been observed1 which the parent1 relative1 or instructer1 derives1 from himself in forming the adolescent in the new faculty which is developed in him1 is to prevent his choosing1 among corrupt servants or ignorant youths of his own age1 the confidants of his passion4 ,the parent or instructer1 moreover1 is then justly entitled to1 and has gratefully given to him1 the entire confidence of the adolescent2 and he is thereby enabled exactly to appreciate the degree of power of the propensity which he desires to divert or to guide4 ,such being the case1 it is the business of the parent to present a true picture of the effects of too early association of this kind1 on the stature1 the various development of the figure1 the muscular power1 the quality of the voice1 the health1 the moral sense1 and especially on the acuteness1 the power1 the dignity1 and the courage1 of the mind4 ,in doing this1 it would be as stupid as injurious to employ the slightest degree of false representation1 of unjust reprimand1 or too much of what is called moralizing1 which is often only the contemptible cant of a being who cannot reason1 especially when it takes the place of a simple and powerful statement of facts4 ,all of these would only render the young man a dissembler1 and would compel him to choose another confidant4 ,among other considerations1 varying according to the circumstances of the case1 those stated below may with advantage be presented4 ,at a certain period in the life both of plants and animals1 varying according to their kind and the climate they live in1 they are fit for and disposed to the reproduction of their species4 ,the sexes in both are then attracted to each other4 ,in plants1 the powder termed pollen1 in animals a peculiar liquid which1 deriving its name by analogy from the seeds of plants1 is termed seminal1 is secreted by the male plant or animal1 and1 by organs differently formed in each kind1 is cast upon ova or eggs either contained within1 or deposited by1 the female4 ,the details of this process are among the most beautiful and interesting of the living economy4 ,in mankind1 the attainment of this period is termed puberty4 ,it is with this critical period1 and his conduct during it1 that all that the youth deems most valuable1 all that can decide his fortunes and his happiness in the world1 his stature1 figure1 strength1 voice1 health1 and mental powers1 are most intimately connected4 ,in regard to stature1 the body appears to complete its increase in height chiefly at the age of puberty1 and during the first years which succeed that age4 ,to be assured of the powerful influence of his own conduct1 at this period1 upon his stature1 the youth has only to compare the tall men and women of the country as in ,yorkshire1 ,lancashire1 ,westmoreland1 ,cumberland1 and the ,scottish borders1 where they have not been overworked1 with the stunted and dwarfed creatures of the metropolis1 where a stranger1 when he first enters it1 is apt to think he sees so many ugly boys and girls1 whereas1 they are full-grown ,london men and women4 ,half the population of the metropolis is affected in this way2 and it is the obvious consequence of the acceleration of puberty by confinement1 stimulating food1 indecent plays1 and sexual association4 ,in regard to the perfect development and beauty of the figure1 the youth is probably aware that the most beautiful races of horses and dogs rapidly deteriorate1 if men do not carefully maintain them by continence as well as by crossing4 ,the too early employment1 the depraved abuses1 the injury1 or the removal1 of the sexual organs1 are all of them causes still more certain of deformity4 ,the latter of these causes acts1 of course1 most obviously2 and it is evidenced in the almost universal malformation of eunuchs1 geldings1 c4 ,that1 in regard to bodily strength1 sexual continence adds energy to the muscular fibre1 is clearly seen by observing the most ardent quadrupeds previous to the time of the union of their sexes4 ,but1 this being past1 precisely in the same proportion does the act of reproduction debilitate and break down the strongest animal4 ,many male animals even fall almost exhausted by a single act of union with the opposite sex4 ,every classical student has read the beautiful allegory of ,hercules1 who1 having spun at the knees of ,omphale 7,greek3 omphalos the navel1 here put for the most essential part of the female generative organ71 thereby lost his strength3 this beautifully expresses the abasement of power amid the indulgences of love4 ,euripides also depicts the terrible ,achilles as timid before women1 and respectful with ,clytemnestra and ,iphigenia4 ,hence1 when a foolish lord reproached the poet ,dryden with having given too much timidity toward women to a personage in one of his tragedies1 and added that he knew better how to employ his time with the ladies1 the poet answered3 ,you now acknowledge that you are no hero1 which ,i intended that personage to be4 ,as to voice1 which depends on the muscles of respiration1 and more immediately on those of the mouth and throat1 as general strength does on the muscles of the whole body1 both merely affording expressions of the mind1 the influence of the sexual union upon it is prodigious4 ,how entirely it is altered by the removal of the testes in eunuchs is known to every one3 in corresponding proportion1 is it altered by every act of the generative organs1 but especially by sexual indulgence during puberty4 ,the horrible voice of early libertines and prostitutes presents an alarming example of this4 ,to those who value voice in conversation1 in the delightful and humanizing exercise of music1 or in the grander efforts of public speaking1 nothing more need be said4 ,as to health1 the less we are prodigal of life1 the longer we preserve it4 ,every one capable of observing may see that the stag loses his horns and his hair after procreation2 that birds fall into moulting and sadness2 and that male insects even perish after this effort1 as if they yielded their individual life to their progeny4 ,indeed1 everything perishes so much the more readily1 as it has thus transmitted life to its descendants1 or has cast it away in vain pleasures4 ,in mankind1 as in other animals1 to procreate is in effect to die to one's self1 and to leave one's life to posterity2 especially1 if this takes place in early life4 ,it is then that man becomes bald and bent2 and that the charms of woman fade4 ,even in advanced age1 epicures are so well aware of this1 that they are known to abstain from amorous excess1 as the acknowledged cause of premature death4 ,in relation to mind--as the generative power is the source of several characteristics of genius1 the exhaustion of that power at an early age must take away these characteristics4 ,genius as surely languishes and is extinguished amid early sexual indulgence1 as do the faculties of voice and locomotion1 which are merely its signs and expressions4 ,it is thus with all our faculties1 locomotive1 vital1 mental1 at an early age4 ,they are strengthened by all that they do not dissipate2 and that which their organs too abundantly dispense is not only taken immediately from their own power1 and mediately from that of the other organs1 but it ensures the permanent debility of the whole4 ,it is true that the strong passions which are modified or characterized by the sexual impulse1 excite the imagination and impel the mind to sublime exertions2 but the sole means of either obtaining or preserving such impulsion is1 to shun the indulgence of pleasure in early life1 and its waste at later periods4 ,it has accordingly been observed1 that the passion of love appears to be most excessive in animals which least excel in mental faculties4 ,thus the beasts which are the most lascivious1 the ass1 the boar1 c41 are also the most stupid2 and idiots and cretins display a sensuality which brutifies them still more4 ,hence1 the ,homeric fable that ,circe transformed men into beasts4 ,it would also appear that the most stupid animals1 swine1 rabbits1 c41 in general produce the greatest number of young2 while men of genius have engendered the fewest4 ,it is remarked that none of the greatest men of antiquity were much given to sexual pleasure4 ,it is1 then1 of the greatest importance to young men who are ambitious of excellence1 to mark well this truth1 that the most powerful and distinguished in mental faculties1 other things being equal1 will be he who wastes them least in early life by sexual indulgence--who most economizes the vital stimulant1 in order to excite the mental powers on great occasions4 ,by such means may a man surely surpass others1 if he have received from his parents proportional mental energy4 ,beside the means already indicated1 there is one proposed by an able writer1 as serving to divert the instinct of propagation when too early and excessive1 and consequently dangerous3 that is1 the sentiment of love4 ,to employ this means1 he observes1 it is necessary to search early1 after knowing the character of the adolescent whom it is wished to direct1 for a young woman whose beauty and good qualities may inspire him with attachment4 ,this means will serve1 more than can easily be imagined1 to preserve the adolescent both from the grosser attractions of libertinism and the disease it entails1 and from the more dangerous snares of coquetry4 ,it is1 he adds1 a virtuous young woman and a solid attachment that are here spoken of4--,at some future period ,i shall probably show how wise this recommendation is1 as well as the necessity and the advantages of early marriages1 under favorable circumstances4 ,having now shown the evils of early sexual association1 ,i may briefly notice those of later libertinism4 ,if1 even in more advanced life1 and when the constitution is stronger1 the instinct of propagation be not restrained within just limits1 it degenerates into inordinate lewdness or real mania3 ,repperit obscnas veneres vitiosa libido4 ,by such depravation1 nobleness of character is utterly destroyed4 ,this scarcely evitable consequence of great fortune and of the facility of indulgence1 it has been justly observed1 will ever be the ruin of the rich1 and a mode of enervating the most vigorous branches of the most powerful house4 ,the libertine1 then1 owing to exhaustion1 by sexual indulgence1 is characterized by physical and moral impotence1 or has a brain as incapable of thinking1 as his muscles are of acting4 ,as libertines are enfeebled by indulgence1 it follows that they are proportionally distinguished by fear and cowardice4 ,nothing1 indeed1 destroys courage more than sexual abuses4 ,but1 from cowardice1 spring cunning1 duplicity1 lying1 and perfidy4 ,these common results of cowardice are uniformly found in eunuchs1 slaves1 courtiers1 and sycophants2 while boldness1 frankness1 and generosity1 belong to virtuous1 free1 and magnanimous men4 ,again1 cowardice1 artifice1 falsehood1 and perfidy1 are the usual elements of cruelty4 ,men feel more wounded in self-love1 as they are conscious of being more contemptible2 and they avenge themselves with more malignity upon their enemy1 as they find themselves more weak and worthless1 and as they consequently dread him more4 ,these are the causes of that malignant revenge which princes have often shown1 as1 in ancient times1 ,tiberius1 ,caligula1 ,nero1 ,domitian1 ,heliogabalus1 c4 ,in later times1 ,catharine de ,medici solicited the massacre of the ,protestants2 ,paul1 ,constantine1 and ,nicholas1 of ,russia1 were happy only when they wallowed in blood2 ,charles ,x41 equally effeminate and bigoted1 perpetrated the massacre of the ,parisians2 ,don ,miguel covered ,portugal with his assassinations2 and nearly all the sovereigns and sycophants in ,europe upheld or palliated his atrocities4#g ,the strong and brave man1 on the contrary1 scarcely feels hurt1 and scorns revenge4 ,it is not cruelty only with which we may reproach these effeminate individuals3 it is every vice which springs from baseness of character4 ,libertinism1 moreover1 is not hurtful only to the health and welfare of these individuals3 it is so also to those of their posterity4 ,finally1 the results of libertinism have constantly marked1 not merely the ruin of families1 but the degeneration of races1 and the decay of empires4 ,the delights of ,capua caused the ruin of ,hannibal2 and the ,roman1 once so proud before kings1 finally transformed himself into the wretched slave of monsters degraded far below the rank of humanity4 ,so little1 however1 do men look to remote consequences that perhaps the most frightful punishments of libertinism are the diseases which it inflicts4 ,man may1 then1 be said to meet only death on the path of life4 ,the dangers of promiscuous love are1 indeed1 far beyond what young men will easily believe4 ,i do not exaggerate when ,i state1 that1 out of every three women1 and those the least common of the promiscuous1 two at least are certainly in a state of disease capable of the most destructive infection4 ,a surgeon in the habit of receiving foul patients at a public hospital tells me1 ,i might safely say that nine out of every ten are in this state4#h ,while writing this1 ,sir ,anthony ,carlisle observes to me1 that1 the special disease which appears to be a punishment for sexual profligacy1 is not only malignant1 painful1 and hideous1 in every stage of it1 but the only remedy known for its cure1 mercury1 is a poison which generally leaves its own evils for the venom which it destroys4 ,this frightful disease has no natural termination but in a disgusting disgraceful death1 after disfiguring the countenance1 by causing blindness1 loss of the nose1 the palate and teeth1 and by the spoliation of the sinning organs4 ,the miserables1 who thus perish in public hospitals1 are so offensive to the more respectable patients1 that they are confined to appointed rooms1 termed foul wards1 where they linger and die in the bloom of life1 either of the penalty inflicted by their profligacy1 of the poison administered to them1 or of incurable consequent diseases1 such as consumption1 palsy1 or madness4 ,hence1 it has been observed1 that1 if we have to deal with a young man incapable of guidance by the nobler motives1 of feeling contempt for vice1 and horror for debauchery1 there yet remain means to be employed4 ,let him be conducted to the hospital1 where he will find collected the poor victims of debauchery--the unhappy women whom1 even the day before1 he may have seen in the streets1 with faces dressed in smiles1 amid the torments1 the corrosion1 and the contagion of disease4 ,this may leave an impression sufficiently deep4 ,but let him also know that these unhappy creatures are a thousand times more pitiable than the libertine who destroys them1 and who forfeits the only good we cannot refuse to other wretches1 compassion for the misery he endures4#i ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,nature ,,of ,,beauty4 ,in this chapter1 my aim is to show that there is more than one kind of beauty1 and that much confusion has arisen among writers1 from not clearly distinguishing the characteristics of these kinds4 ,an essential condition1 then1 of all excitement and action in animal bodies1 is a greater or less degree of novelty in the objects impressing them--even if this novelty should arise only from a previous cessation of excitement4 ,now1 objects of greater or less novelty are the causes of excitement1 pleasurable or painful1 by means of their various relations4 ,the lowest degree of bodily pleasure 7though1 owing to its constancy1 immense in its total amount7 is that which arises1 during health1 from those relations of bodies and that excitement which cause the mere local exercise of the organs--a source of pleasure which is seldom the object of our voluntary attention1 but which seems to me to be the chief cause of attachment to life amid its more definite and conspicuous evils4 ,all higher mental emotions consist of pleasure or pain superadded to more or less definite ideas4 ,pleasurable emotions arise from the agreeable relations of things2 painful emotions1 from the disagreeable ones4 ,the term by which we express the influence which objects1 by means of their relations1 possess of exciting emotions of pleasure in the mind1 is ,,beauty4 ,beauty1 when founded on the relations of objects1 or of the parts of objects1 to each other1 forms a first class1 and may be termed intrinsic beauty4 ,when beauty is farther considered in relation to ourselves1 it forms a second class1 and may be termed extrinsic beauty4 ,we are next led 7hitherto this has apparently been done without analyzing or defining the operation7 to a division of the latter into two genera2 namely1 the minor beauty1 of which prettiness1 delicacy1 c41 are modifications1 and that which is called grandeur or sublimity4 ,the characters of the minor beauty or prettiness1 with relation to ourselves1 are smallness1 subordination1 and subjection4 ,hence female beauty1 in relation to the male4 ,the characters of grandeur or sublimity1 with relation to ourselves1 are greatness1 superordination1 and power4 ,hence male beauty1 in relation to the female4 ,by the preceding brief train of analysis and definition1 is1 ,i believe1 answered the question--whether the emotion of grandeur make a branch of the emotion of beauty1 or be entirely distinct from it4 ,having1 by this concise statement of my own views on these subjects1 made the reader acquainted with some of the materials of future consideration here employed1 ,i may now examine the opinions of some philosophers1 in order to see how far they accord with these first principles1 and what answer can be given to them where they differ4 ,that beauty1 generally considered1 has nothing to do with particular size1 is very well shown by ,payne ,knight1 who1 though he argues incorrectly about it in many other respects1 here truly says3 ,all degrees of magnitude contribute to beauty in proportion as they show objects to be perfect in their kind4 ,the dimensions of a beautiful horse are very different from those of a beautiful lapdog2 and those of a beautiful oak from those of a beautiful myrtle2 because1 nature has formed these different kinds of animals and vegetables upon different scales4 ,the notion of objects being rendered beautiful by being gradually diminished1 or tapered1 is equally unfounded2 for the same object1 which is small by degrees1 and beautifully less1 when seen in one direction1 is large by degrees1 and beautifully bigger1 when seen in another4 ,the stems of trees are tapered upward2 and the columns of ,grecian architecture1 having been taken from them1 and therefore retaining a degree of analogy with them1 were tapered upward too3 but the legs of animals are tapered downward1 and the inverted obelisks1 upon which busts were placed1 having a similar analogy to them1 were tapered downward also2 while pilasters1 which had no analogy with either1 but were mere square posts terminating a wall1 never tapered at all4 ,speaking of beauty generally1 and without seeing the distinctions ,i have made above1 ,burke1 on the contrary1 states the first quality of beauty to be comparative smallness1 and says3 ,in ordinary conversation1 it is usual to add the endearing name of little to everything we love2 and in most languages1 the objects of love are spoken of under diminutive epithets4 ,this is evidently true only of the objects of minor or subordinate beauty1 which ,burke confusedly thought the only kind of it1 though he elsewhere grants1 that beauty may be connected with sublimity6 ,it shows1 however1 that relative littleness is essential to that first kind of beauty4 ,with greater knowledge of facts than ,burke possessed1 and with as feeble reasoning powers1 but with less taste1 and with a perverse whimsicality which was all his own1 ,payne ,knight similarly1 making no distinction in beauty1 considered smallness as an accidental association1 failed to see that it characterized a kind of beauty1 and argued1 that if we join the diminutive to a term which precludes all such affection1 or does not even1 in some degree1 express it1 it immediately converts it into a term of contempt and reproach3 thus1 a bantling1 a fondling1 a darling1 c41 are terms of endearment2 but a witling1 a changeling1 a lordling1 c41 are invariably terms of scorn3 so in ,french1 'mon petit enfant1' is an expression of endearment2 but 'mon petit monsieur1' is an expression of the most pointed reproach and contempt4 ,now1 this chatter of grammatical termination and ,french phrase1 though meant to look vastly clever1 is merely a blunder4 ,there is no analogy in the cases compared3 a darling or little dear unites dear1 an expression of love1 with little1 implying that dependance which enhances love2 while witling or little wit unites wit1 an expression of talent1 with little1 meaning the small quantity or absence of the talent alluded to2 and it is because the latter term means1 not physical littleness1 which well associates with love1 but moral littleness and mental degradation1 that it becomes a term of contempt4 ,even from the little already said1 it seems evident that much of the confusion on this subject has arisen from not distinguishing the two genera of beauty1 and not seeing that the emotion of grandeur is merely a branch of the emotion of beauty4 ,the other genus of beauty1 grand or sublime beauty1 is well described by the names given to it1 grandeur or sublimity4 ,some have considered sublimity as expressing grandeur in the highest degree3 it would perhaps be as well to express the cause of the emotion by grandeur1 and the emotion itself by sublimity4 ,nothing is sublime that is not vast or powerful1 or that does not make him who feels it sensible of its physical or moral superiority4 ,the simplest cause of sublimity is presented by all objects of vast magnitude or extent--a seemingly boundless plain1 the sky1 the ocean1 c42 and the particular direction of the magnitude or extent always correspondingly modifies the emotion--height giving more especially the idea of power1 breadth of resistance1 depth of danger1 c4 ,of the objects mentioned above1 the ocean is the most sublime1 because1 to vastness in length and breadth1 it adds depth1 and a force perpetually active4 ,now1 that these objects1 though sublime1 are beautiful1 is very evident2 and it is therefore also evident how much ,burke erred in asserting comparative smallness to be the first character of beauty generally considered4 ,this and similar errors1 as already said1 have greatly obscured this subject1 and have led ,burke and others so to modify and qualify their doctrines1 as to take from them all precision and certainty4 ,hence1 in one place1 ,burke says3 ,as1 in the animal world1 and in a good measure in the vegetable world likewise1 the qualities that constitute beauty may possibly be united to things of greater dimensions that is1 littleness may be united with bigness62 when they are so united they constitute a species something different both from the sublime and beautiful1 which ,i have before called1 ,fine4 ,so also he says3 ,ugliness ,i imagine likewise to be consistent enough with an idea of the sublime4 ,but ,i would by no means insinuate that ugliness of itself is a sublime idea1 unless united with such qualities as excite a strong terror4 ,here1 he confounds sublimity with terror1 as do ,blair and other writers1 when they say that exact proportion of parts1 though it enters often into the beautiful1 is much disregarded in the sublime4 ,it is a fact1 that exactly in proportion as ugliness is substituted for beauty in vast objects1 is sublimity taken away1 until at last it is utterly lost in the terrible4 ,even ,blair shows that sublimity may exist without terror or pain4 ,the proper sensation of sublimity appears1 he observes1 to be distinguishable from the sensation of either of these1 and1 on several occasions1 to be entirely separated from them4 ,in many grand objects1 there is no coincidence with terror at all2 as in the magnificent prospect of wide-extended plains1 and of the starry firmament2 or in the moral dispositions and sentiments1 which we view with high admiration2 and in many painful and terrible objects also1 it is clear1 there is no sort of grandeur4 ,the amputation of a limb1 or the bite of a snake1 is exceedingly terrible1 but is destitute of all claim whatever to sublimity4 ,payne ,knight shows that terror is even opposed to sublimity3 ,all the great and terrible convulsions of nature2 such as storms1 tempests1 hurricanes1 earthquakes1 volcanoes1 c41 excite sublime ideas1 and impress sublime sentiments by the prodigious exertions of energy and power which they seem to display3 for though these objects are1 in their nature1 terrible1 and generally known to be so1 it is not this attribute of terror that contributes1 in the smallest degree to render them sublime4444 ,timid women fly to a cellar1 or a darkened room1 to avoid the sublime effects of a thunder-storm2 because to them they are not sublime1 but terrible4 ,to those only are they sublime1 'qui formidine nulla imbuti spectant1' who behold them without any fear at all2 and to whom1 therefore1 they are in no degree terrible4 ,this farther confirms the distinction which ,i made of beauty into minor or subordinate1 and grand or sublime beauty1 although ,knight adopted other principles1 if principles they may be called1 and neglected such distinction4 ,there is but one other error on this subject which ,i need to notice4 ,burke says3 ,to make anything very terrible1 obscurity seems in general to be necessary4 ,when we know the full extent of any danger1 when we can accustom our eyes to it1 a great deal of the apprehension vanishes4 ,every one will be sensible of this1 who considers how greatly night adds to our dread1 in all cases of danger4444 ,those despotic governments which are founded on the passions of men1 and principally upon the passion of fear1 keep their chief as much as may be from the public eye4 ,the policy has been the same in many cases of religion4 ,almost all the heathen temples were dark4 ,from what has already been said1 it is evident that all this contributes to terror1 not to sublimity2 and that the same error is made by ,blair when he says1 ,as obscurity1 so disorder1 too1 is very compatible with grandeur1 nay1 frequently heightens it4 ,to expose the weakness and to destroy the authority of some writers on this subject1 can only set the mind free for the investigation of truth4 ,i may1 therefore1 conclude this chapter by quoting the shrewd remarks of ,knight on some of the principles of ,burke4 ,i shall afterward be forced critically to examine the notions of ,knight in their turn4 ,burke states that the highest degree of sublime sensation is astonishment2 and the subordinate degrees1 awe1 reverence1 and respect2 all which he considers as modes of terror4 ,and ,knight observes that this graduated scale of the sublime1 from respect to astonishment1 cannot1 perhaps be better illustrated than by applying it to his own character4 ,he was certainly1 says ,knight1 a very respectable man1 and reverenced by all who knew him intimately4 ,at one period of his life1 too1 when he became the disinterested patron of remote and injured nations1 who had none to help them1 his character was truly sublime2 but1 unless upon those whom he so ably and eloquently arraigned1 ,i do not believe that it impressed any awe4444 ,if1 during this period1 he had suddenly appeared among the managers in ,westminster ,hall without his wig and coat1 or had walked up ,st4 ,james's street without his breeches1 it would have occasioned great and universal astonishment2 and if he had1 at the same time1 carried a loaded blunderbuss in his hands1 the astonishment would have been mixed with no small portion of terror3 but ,i do not believe that the united effects of these two powerful passions would have produced any sentiment or sensation approaching to sublime1 even in the breasts of those who had the strongest sense of self-preservation and the quickest sensibility of danger4 ,thus1 ,i believe1 it now appears that novelty#aj is the exciting cause of pleasurable emotion1 and of the consequent perception of beauty in the relations of things1 and that the two genera of beauty--the minor or subordinate beauty1 and grandeur or sublimity--have distinct characteristics1 the confounding of which by writers has led to the obscurity of this part of the subject4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,standard ,,of ,,taste ,,in ,,beauty4 ,the expression1 standard of taste1 is used to signify the basis or foundation of our judgments respecting beauty and deformity1 and their consequent certainty4 ,setting aside such objection as might be raised to a standard of taste on the doctrine of ,berkeley 7which ,i refuted in #ahji1 and which ,i need not enter into here71 this matter was long ago settled by ,david ,hume2 and ,i have nothing new to say upon the subject 7there is probably enough of novelty in other chapters1 whatever its worth may be71 except that ,burke appears to have borrowed all he knew about it from that incomparably more profound philosopher4 ,as ,i ought not1 however1 to omit here a view of the subject1 ,i cannot do better than transcribe the words of ,hume and ,burke respectively4 ,while this will put the reader in possession of all that ,i think necessary upon this subject1 it will farther tend to show in what ,burke's ability as a philosopher consisted4 ,i must first1 however1 observe that the word taste1 as expressing our judgment of beauty1 is a metaphor whimsically borrowed from the lowest of our senses1 and is applied to our exercise of that faculty1 as regards both natural objects1 and the fine arts which imitate these4 ,it is not wonderful that the variety and inconstancy of tastes respecting the attributes and the characters of beauty1 should have led many philosophers to deny that there exist any certain combinations of forms and of effects to which the term beauty ought to be invariably attached4 ,in his ,philosophical ,dictionary1 ,voltaire1 after quoting some nonsense from the crazy dreamer who did so much injury to ,greek philosophy1 says3 ,i am willing to believe that nothing can be more beautiful than this discourse of ,plato2 but it does not give us very clear ideas of the nature of the beautiful4 ,ask of a toad what is beauty1 pure beauty1 the ,greek3 to kalon2 he will answer you that it is his female1 with two large round eyes projecting from her little head1 a large and flat throat1 a yellow belly1 and a brown back4 ,ask the devil1 and he will tell you that the beautiful is a pair of horns1 four claws1 and a tail4 ,consult1 lastly1 the philosophers1 and they will answer you by rigmarole3 they want something conformable to the archetype of the beautiful in essence1 to the ,greek3 to kalon4 ,this is wit1 not reason3 let us look for that to a deeper thinker--as proposed above4 ,david ,hume says3 ,it appears that1 amid all the variety and caprice of taste1 there are certain general principles of approbation or blame1 whose influence a careful eye may trace in all operations of the mind4 ,some particular forms or qualities from the original structure of the internal fabric1 are calculated to please1 and others to displease4444 ,if they fail of their effect in any particular instance1 it is from some apparent defect or imperfection in the organ4 ,in each creature there is a sound and a defective state2 and the former alone can be supposed to afford us a true standard of taste and sentiment4 ,if1 in the sound state of the organ1 there be an entire or a considerable uniformity of sentiment among men1 we may thence derive an idea of the perfect beauty2 in like manner as the appearance of objects in daylight1 to the eye of a man in health1 is denominated their true and real color4 ,to the same purpose writes ,burke1 after some preliminary observations3-- ,all the natural powers in man1 which ,i know1 that are conversant about external objects1 are the senses1 the imagination1 and the judgment4 ,first1 with regard to the senses4 ,we do and we must suppose1 that1 as the conformations of their organs are nearly or altogether the same in all men1 so the manner of perceiving external objects is in all men the same1 or with little difference4 ,as there will be little doubt that bodies present similar images to the whole species1 it must necessarily be allowed1 that the pleasures and the pains which every object excites in one man1 it must raise in all mankind1 while it operates naturally1 simply1 and by its proper powers only4 ,custom1 and some other causes1 have made many deviations from the natural pleasures or pains which belong to these several tastes2 but then the power of distinguishing between the natural and the acquired relish remains to the very last4 ,there is in all men a sufficient remembrance of the original natural causes of pleasure1 to enable them to bring all things offered to their senses to that standard1 and to regulate their feelings and opinions by it4 ,suppose one who had so vitiated his palate as to take more pleasure in the taste of opium than in that of butter or honey1 to be presented with a bolus of squills2 there is hardly any doubt but that he would prefer the butter or honey to this nauseous morsel1 or to any other bitter drug to which he had not been accustomed2 which proves that his palate was naturally like that of other men in all things1 that it is still like the palate of other men in many things1 and only vitiated in some particular points4 ,in the same manner1 ,payne ,knight observes that things1 naturally the most nauseous1 become most grateful2 and things1 naturally most grateful1 most insipid4 ,this extreme effect1 however1 only takes place where the palate has become morbid and vitiated by continued1 and even forced gratification2 and even when the metaphors taken from this sense1 and employed to express intellectual qualities1 show that it is always felt and considered as a corruption1 even by those who are most corrupted3 for though there are many who prefer port wine to malmsey1 and tobacco to sugar1 yet no one ever spoke of a sour or bitter temper as pleasant1 or of a sweet one as unpleasant4 ,by this concession1 ,knight answers several of his own objections4 ,when it is said1 farther observes ,burke1 very properly1 taste cannot be disputed1 it can only mean1 that no one can strictly answer what pleasure or pain some particular man may find from the taste of some particular thing4 ,this indeed cannot be disputed2 but we may dispute1 and with sufficient clearness too1 concerning the things which are naturally pleasing or disagreeable to the sense4 ,but when we talk of any peculiar or acquired relish1 then we must know the habits1 the prejudices1 or the distempers of this particular man1 and we must draw our conclusions from those4 ,hume proceeds to a second point1 by observing that one obvious cause1 why many feel not the proper sentiment of beauty1 is the want of that delicacy of imagination which is requisite to convey a sensibility of those finer emotions4 ,where the organs are so fine1 as to allow nothing to escape them1 and at the same time so exact1 as to perceive every ingredient in the composition2 this we call delicacy of taste1 whether we employ these terms in the literal or metaphorical sense4 ,burke enlarges on this1 after preliminary observing that the power of the imagination is incapable of producing anything absolutely new2 it can only vary the disposition of those ideas which it has received from the senses4 ,now1 the imagination is the most extensive province of pleasure and pain1 as it is the region of our fears and our hopes1 and of all our passions that are connected with them4 ,since the imagination is only the representation of the senses1 it can only be pleased or displeased with the images1 from the same principle on which the sense is pleased or displeased with the realities2 and consequently there must be just as close an agreement in the imaginations as in the senses of men4 ,there are some men formed with feelings so blunt1 with tempers so cold and phlegmatic1 that they can hardly be said to be awake during the whole course of their lives4 ,upon such persons1 the most striking objects make but a faint and obscure impression4 ,there are others so continually in the agitation of gross and merely sensual pleasures1 or so occupied in the low drudgery of avarice1 or so heated in the chase of honors and distinction1 that their minds1 which had been used continually to the storms of these violent and tempestuous passions1 can hardly be put in motion by the delicate and refined play of the imagination4 ,these men1 though from a different cause1 become as stupid and insensible as the former2 but whenever either of these happen to be struck with any natural elegance or greatness1 or with these qualities in any work of art1 they are moved upon the same principle4 ,on a third point1 ,hume says3 ,but though there be naturally a wide difference in point of delicacy between one person and another1 nothing tends farther to increase and improve this talent1 than practice in a particular art1 and the frequent survey or contemplation of a particular species of beauty4 ,so advantageous is practice to the discernment of beauty1 that1 before we can give judgment on any work of importance1 it will even be requisite that that very individual performance be more than once perused by us1 and be surveyed in different lights with attention and deliberation4 ,this is well illustrated by ,burke1 who observes3 ,it is known that the taste 7whatever it is7 is improved exactly as we improve our knowledge1 by a steady attention to our object1 and by frequent exercise4 ,to illustrate this--7that there is a difference1 not in the causes1 nor in the manner of men's being affected1 but in the degree1 owing to natural sensibility1 or greater attention to the object7--to illustrate this by the procedure of the senses in which the same difference is found1 let us suppose a very smooth marble-table to be set before two men2 they both perceive it to be smooth1 and they are both pleased with it because of this quality4 ,so far they agree4 ,but suppose another1 and after that another table1 the latter still smoother than the former1 to be set before them4 ,it is now very probable that these men1 who are so agreed upon what is smooth1 and in the pleasure thence1 will disagree when they come to settle which table has the advantage in point of polish4444 ,nor is it easy1 when such a difference arises1 to settle the point1 if the excess or diminution be not glaring4 ,in these nice cases1 supposing the acuteness of the sense equal1 the greater attention and habit in such things will have the advantage4 ,in the question about the tables1 the marble-polisher will unquestionably determine the most accurately4 ,in the imagination1 beside the pain or pleasure arising from the properties of the natural object1 a pleasure is perceived from the resemblance which the imitation has to the original4 ,all men are nearly equal in this point1 as far as their knowledge of the things represented or compared extends4 ,the principle of this knowledge is very much accidental1 as it depends upon experience and observation1 and not on the strength or weakness of any natural faculty2 and it is from this difference in knowledge that what we commonly1 though with no great exactness1 call a difference in taste1 proceeds4 ,a man to whom sculpture is new sees a barber's block1 or some ordinary piece of statuary2 he is immediately struck and pleased1 because he sees something like a human figure2 and entirely taken up with this likeness1 he does not at all attend to its defects4 ,no person1 ,i believe1 at the first time of seeing a piece of imitation1 ever did4 ,some time after1 we suppose that this novice lights upon a more artificial work of the same nature2 he begins to look with contempt on what he admired at first2 not that he admired it even then for its unlikeness to a man1 but for that general though inaccurate resemblance which it bore to the human figure4 ,what he admired at different times in these so different figures1 is strictly the same2 and though his knowledge is improved1 his taste is not altered4 ,hitherto his mistake was from a want of knowledge in art1 and this arose from his inexperience2 but he may be still deficient1 from a want of knowledge in nature4 ,for it is possible that the man in question may stop here1 and that the masterpiece of a great hand may please him no more than the middling performance of a vulgar artist2 and this not for want of better or higher relish1 but because all men do not observe with sufficient accuracy on the human figure1 to enable them to judge properly of an imitation of it4 ,on other points1 ,hume makes the following observations3-- ,without being frequently obliged to form comparisons between the several species and degrees of excellence1 and estimating their proportion to each other 444 a man is indeed totally unqualified to pronounce an opinion with regard to any object presented to him4 ,by comparison alone1 we fix the epithets of praise or blame1 and learn how to assign the due degree of each4 ,but to enable a critic more fully to execute this undertaking1 he must preserve his mind free from all prejudice and allow nothing to enter into his consideration1 but the very object which is submitted to his examination4 ,it is well known1 that1 in all questions submitted to the understanding1 prejudice is destructive of sound judgment1 and perverts all operations of the intellectual faculties3 it is no less contrary to good taste2 nor has it less influence to corrupt our sentiments of beauty4 ,it belongs to good sense to check its influence in both cases2 and in this respect1 as well as in many others1 reason1 if not an essential part of taste1 is at least requisite to the operations of this latter faculty4 ,in all the nobler productions of genius1 there is a mutual relation and correspondence of parts2 nor can either the beauties or blemishes be perceived by him whose thought is not capacious enough to comprehend all those parts1 and compare them with each other1 in order to perceive the consistence and uniformity of the whole4 ,every work of art has also a certain end or purpose for which it is calculated2 and is to be deemed more or less perfect1 as it is more or less fitted to attain this end4 ,to a repetition of this1 ,burke adds some useful remarks3-- ,as many of the works of imagination are not confined to representation of sensible objects1 nor to efforts upon the passions1 but extend themselves to the manners1 the characters1 the actions1 and designs of men1 their relations1 their virtues and vices1 they come within the province of the judgment1 which is improved by attention and by the habit of reasoning4 ,the cause of a wrong taste is a defect of judgment4 ,and this may arise from a natural weakness of understanding 7in whatever the strength of that faculty may consist71 or which is much more commonly the case1 it may arise from a want of proper and well-directed exercise1 which alone can make it strong and ready4 ,beside that ignorance1 inattention1 prejudice1 rashness1 levity1 obstinacy1 in short1 all those passions1 and all those vices which pervert the judgment in other matters1 prejudice it no less in this its more refined and elegant province4 ,these causes produce different opinions upon everything which is an object of the understanding1 without inducing us to suppose1 that there are no settled principles of reason4 ,a rectitude of judgment in the arts1 which may be called a good taste1 does in a great measure depend upon sensibility2 because1 if the mind has no bent to the pleasures of the imagination1 it will never apply itself sufficiently to works of that species to acquire a competent knowledge in them4 ,but though a degree of sensibility is requisite to form a good judgment1 yet a good judgment does not necessarily arise from a quick sensibility of pleasure2 it frequently happens that a very poor judge1 merely by force of a greater complexional sensibility1 is more affected by a poor piece1 than the best judge by the most perfect2 for as everything new1 extraordinary1 grand1 or passionate1 is well calculated to affect such a person1 and that the faults do not affect him1 his pleasure is more pure and unmixed4 ,in the morning of our days1 when the senses are unworn and tender1 when the whole man is awake in every part1 and the gloss of novelty fresh upon all the objects that surround us1 how lively at that time are our sensations1 but how false and inaccurate the judgments we form of things6 ,every trivial cause of pleasure is apt to affect the man of too sanguine a complexion3 his appetite is to keen to suffer his taste to be delicate4444 ,one of this character can never be a refined judge2 never what the comic poet calls 'elegans formarum spectator4' ,the rude hearer is affected by the principles which operate in these arts even in their rudest condition2 and he is not skilful enough to perceive the defects4 ,but as arts advance toward their perfection1 the science of criticism advances with equal pace1 and the pleasure of judges is frequently interrupted by the faults which are discovered in the most finished compositions4 ,the chief idea above expressed1 is again repeated by ,sir ,j4 ,reynolds1 who says3 ,the principles of these 7the imagination and the passions7 are as invariable as the former 7the senses71 and are to be known and reasoned upon in the same manner1 by an appeal to common sense deciding upon the common feelings of mankind4 ,these views are thus summed by ,hume3 ,the organs of internal sensation are seldom so perfect as to allow the general principles their full play1 and produce a feeling correspondent to those principles4 ,they either labor under some defect1 or are vitiated by some disorder2 and by that means1 excite a sentiment1 which may be pronounced erroneous4 ,when the critic has no delicacy1 he judges without any distinction1 and is only affected by the grosser and more palpable qualities of the object3 the finer touches pass unnoticed and disregarded4 ,where he is not aided by practice1 his verdict is attended with confusion and hesitation4 ,where no comparison has been employed1 the most frivolous beauties1 such as rather merit the name of defects1 are the object of his admiration4 ,where he lies under the influence of prejudice1 all his natural sentiments are perverted4 ,where good sense is wanting1 he is not qualified to discern the beauties of design and reasoning1 which are the highest and most excellent4 ,under some or other of these imperfections1 the generality of men labor2 and hence1 a true judge in the finer arts is observed1 even during the most polished ages1 to be so rare a character3 strong sense1 united to delicate sentiment1 improved by practice1 perfected by comparison1 and cleared of all prejudice1 can alone entitle critics to this valuable character2 and the joint verdict of such1 wherever they are to be found1 is the true standard of taste and beauty4 ,taking the principal ideas above1 ,burke also concludes3 ,on the whole it appears to me1 that what is called taste1 in its most general acceptation1 is not a simple idea1 but is partly made up of a perception of the primary pleasures of sense1 of the secondary pleasures of the imagination1 and of the conclusions of the reasoning faculty1 concerning the various relations of these1 and concerning the human passions1 manners1 and actions4 ,it is sufficient for our present purpose1 ,hume farther observes1 if we have proved that the taste of all individuals is not upon an equal footing1 and that some men in general1 however difficult to be particularly pitched upon1 will be acknowledged by universal sentiment to have a preference above others4 ,though men of delicate taste be rare1 they are easily to be distinguished in society by the soundness of their understanding1 and the superiority of their faculties above the rest of mankind4 ,the ascendant which they acquire1 gives a prevalence to that lively approbation1 with which they receive any productions of genius1 and renders it generally predominant4 ,many men1 when left to themselves1 have but a faint and dubious perception of beauty1 who yet are capable of relishing any fine stroke which is pointed out to them4 ,every convert to the admiration of the real poet or orator1 is the cause of some new conversion4 ,and though prejudices may prevail for a time1 they never unite in celebrating any rival to the true genius1 but yield at last to the force of nature and just sentiment4 ,hume finally obviates some apparent difficulties3-- ,but notwithstanding all our endeavors to fix a standard of taste1 and reconcile the discordant apprehensions of men1 there still remain two sources of variation1 which are not sufficient indeed to confound all the boundaries of beauty and deformity1 but will often serve to produce a difference in the degrees of our approbation or blame4 ,the one is the different humors of particular men2 the other1 the particular manner and opinions of our age and country4 ,a young man1 whose passions are warm1 will be more sensibly touched with amorous and tender images1 than a man more advanced in years1 who takes pleasure in wise1 philosophical reflections concerning the conduct of life and moderation of the passions4 ,at twenty1 ,ovid may be the favorite author2 ,horace at forty2 and perhaps ,tacitus at fifty4 ,vainly would we1 in such cases1 endeavor to enter into the sentiments of others1 and divest ourselves of those propensities which are natural to us4 ,we choose our favorite author as we do our friend1 from a conformity of humor and disposition4 ,such preferences are innocent and unavoidable1 and can never reasonably be the object of dispute1 because there is no standard by which they can be decided4 ,for a like reason1 we are more pleased1 in the course of our reading1 with pictures and characters that resemble objects which are found in our own age or country1 than with those which describe a different set of customs4 ,a man of learning and reflection can make allowance for these peculiarities of manners2 but a common audience can never divest themselves so far of their usual ideas and sentiments1 as to relish pictures which nowise resemble them4 ,thus ,i believe the reader has before him a view1 sufficiently clear1 of that popular topic1 the standard of taste1 as well as of the agreement which subsists among the best writers on the subject4 ,in the next chapter1 we proceed to a more fundamental and difficult inquiry4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,elements ,,of ,,beauty4#aa ,on the subject of the preceding chapter1 even the reasonings of ,hume appear to me to be of too vague and indefinite a kind4 ,it requires the more minute scrutiny into which ,i shall now enter1 in order to place it upon a deeper and more scientific foundation4 ,if ,i can here show that1 in the material qualities of the objects of nature and art1 there exist elements of beauty equally invariable in themselves and in the kind of effect they produce upon the mind1 it is evident there can be no farther dispute about a standard of beauty4 ,many attempts have been made to determine the material elements of beauty1 by ,hogarth1 ,home1 and others4 ,all have more or less failed1 from not observing that these elements are modified1 varied1 and complicated1 as we advance from the most simple to the most complex class of natural beings1 or of the arts which relate to these respectively4 ,many partial views of perfect truth and great interest have been taken1 and by every one of these it will be my duty here to profit3 but1 from the failure just pointed out1 no philosophical and systematic doctrine of beauty1 ascending from its origin in elements through its higher combinations1 has ever been attained by any of the numerous1 deep1 acute1 and elegant thinkers who have devoted their time to this subject1 as the foundation of taste and of the fine or intellectual arts4 ,profiting1 as ,i ought to do1 by the partial views of these philosophers1 ,i pretend here only to take one larger view--to analyze1 to generalize1 to systematize1 the materials which they present to me4 ,in the hope of accomplishing this1 ,i shall now endeavor successively to trace the elements of beauty which belong respectively to inanimate1 living1 and thinking beings1 and to the useful1 ornamental1 and intellectual arts which have a reference to these1 the neglect of all which ,i have described as the fundamental cause of previous failure4 ,again1 ,i repeat1 it is to this analysis and generalization alone1 and to the systemization founded upon it1 that ,i make any pretence4 ,the materials have long been presented by all the great writers on the subject3 they have only left them in confusion1 and without conclusion4 ,i shall now proceed to employ them4 ,,section ,i4 ,,elements ,,of ,,beauty ,,in ,,inanimate ,,beings4 ,though ,burke did not accurately trace the elements of beauty in any one class of the objects of nature or art1 he yet states a preliminary truth on this subject so well1 that ,i here quote it3 ,it would be absurd1 he observes1 to say that all things affect us by association only2 since some things must have been originally and naturally agreeable or disagreeable1 from which the others derive their associated powers2 and it would be1 ,i fancy1 to little purpose to look for the cause of our passions in association1 until we fail of it in the natural properties of things4 ,home1 advancing farther1 says3 ,if a tree be beautiful by means of its color1 its figure1 its size1 its motion1 it is in reality possessed of so many different beauties1 which ought to be examined separately1 in order to have a clear notion of the whole4 ,when any body is viewed as a whole1 the beauty of its figure arises from regularity#ab and simplicity2 and viewing the parts with relation to each other1 from uniformity#ab1 proportion1 and order4 ,i will here only observe that these are the qualities1 as will speedily appear1 which ,burke should have set down as the fundamental and first characteristics of beauty1 instead of relative littleness1 which belongs not to beauty generally1 but only to the minor or subordinate beauty4 ,even ,home1 having arrived thus far1 says3 ,to inquire why an object1 by means of the particulars mentioned1 appears beautiful1 would1 ,i am afraid1 be a vain attempt4 ,but he truly adds3 ,one thing is clear1 that regularity1 uniformity1 order1 and simplicity1 contribute each of them to readiness of apprehension1 and enable us to form more distinct images of objects than can be done1 with the utmost attention1 where these particulars are not found4 ,and he subjoins3 ,this final cause is1 ,i acknowledge1 too slight1 to account satisfactorily for a taste that makes a figure so illustrious in the nature of man2 and that this branch of our constitution has a purpose still more important1 we have great reason to believe4 ,now had ,home seen that the characteristics of general beauty always are1 with regard to the object1 accordant and agreeable relations1 the importance of the qualities he has just enumerated would have been evident2 for1 without them1 these characteristics of the object could not exist3 simplicity1 regularity1 uniformity1 order1 c41 are the very elements of accordant and agreeable relations4 ,this is in reality the still more important purpose in which ,home believed1 and to which the readiness of apprehension he now alludes to eminently contributes4 ,as to simplicity1 he observes1 that a multitude of objects crowding into the mind at once1 disturb the attention1 and pass without making any impression1 or any lasting impression2 and in a group1 no single object makes the figure it would do apart1 when it occupies the whole attention4 ,for the same reason1 even a single object1 when it divides the attention by the multiplicity of its parts1 equals not1 in strength of impression1 a more simple object comprehended in a single view3 parts extremely complex must be considered in portions successively2 and a number of impressions in succession1 which cannot unite because not simultaneous1 never touch the mind like one entire impression made as it were at one stroke4 ,a square is less beautiful than a circle1 because it is less simple3 a circle has parts as well as a square2 but its parts not being distinct like those of a square1 it makes one entire impression2 whereas1 the attention is divided among the sides and angles of a square4444 ,a square1 though not more regular than a hexagon or octagon1 is more beautiful than either1 because a square is more simple1 and the attention less divided4 ,simplicity thus contributes to beauty4 ,by regularity is meant that circumstance in a figure by which we perceive it to be formed according to a certain rule4 ,thus1 a circle1 a square1 a parallelogram1 or triangle1 pleases by its regularity4 ,a square1 says ,home--7who here furnishes the best materials to a more general view1 because he most frequently assigns physical causes1 and whom1 with some abbreviation1 ,i therefore continue to quote7--a square is more beautiful than a parallelogram1 because the former exceeds the latter in regularity and in uniformity of parts4 ,this is true with respect to intrinsic beauty only2 for in many instances1 utility comes in to cast the balance on the side of the parallelogram3 this figure for the doors and windows of a dwelling-house1 is preferred because of utility2 and here we find the beauty of utility prevailing over that of regularity and uniformity4 ,thus regularity and uniformity contribute to intrinsic beauty4 ,a parallelogram1 again1 depends for its beauty on the proportion or relation of quantity of its sides4 ,its beauty is lost by a great inequality of these sides3 it is also lost by their approximating toward equality2 for proportion there degenerates into imperfect uniformity1 and the figure appears an unsuccessful attempt toward a square4 ,thus proportion contributes to beauty4 ,an equilateral triangle yields not to a square in regularity nor in uniformity of parts1 and it is more simple4 ,its inferiority in beauty is at least partly owing to inferiority of order in the position of its parts3 the sides of an equilateral triangle incline to each other in the same angle1 which is the most perfect order they are susceptible of2 but this order is obscure1 and far from being so perfect as the parallelism of the sides of a square4 ,thus order contributes to the beauty of visible objects4 ,a mountain1 it may be objected1 is an agreeable object1 without so much as the appearance of regularity2 and a chain of mountains is still more agreeable1 without being arranged in any order4 ,but though regularity1 uniformity1 and order1 are causes of beauty1 there are also other causes of it1 as color2 and when we pass from small to great objects1 and consider grandeur instead of beauty1 very little regularity is required4 ,it follows1 from all that has been here said1 and this has been shown by ,burke1 that any rugged1 any sudden projection1 any sharp angle1 is in the highest degree contrary to the idea of beauty4 ,such projections and angles are destitute of all the qualities which have just been enumerated--simplicity1 regularity1 uniformity1 proportion1 order2 and conformably to the principles ,i have laid down in a previous chapter1 they can present only relations which are naturally disagreeable4 ,this view is corroborated by the fact1 that all very sharp1 broken1 or angular objects1 were disagreeable to the boy couched by ,cheselden1 as they are to all eyes of very nice sensibility4 ,now1 as angular forms give1 to the sense of touch1 sharpness1 roughness1 or harshness1 so do opposite forms give smoothness or fineness4 ,hence1 ,burke makes smoothness his second characteristic of beauty1 and that far more truly than he makes littleness its first1 for1 as he observes1 smoothness is a quality so essential to beauty1 that ,i do not now recollect anything beautiful that is not smooth4 ,such being really the case1 ,i am bound to expose ,knight's sophistry on this point4 ,this elegant author1 says he1 has expatiated upon the gratifications of feeling smooth and undulating surfaces in general3 but1 ,i believe1 these gratifications have been confined to himself2 and probably to his own imagination acting through the medium of his favorite system3 for1 except in the communication of the sexes1 which affords no general illustration1 and ought therefore to be kept entirely out of the question1 ,i have never heard of any person being addicted to such luxuries2 though a feeling-board would certainly afford as cheap and innocent a gratification1 as either a smelling-bottle1 a picture1 or a flute1 provided it were capable of affording any gratification at all4 ,this is a good specimen of the kind of perverted reasoning1 which peculiarly distinguishes ,knight4 ,a man affecting the character of philosopher1 ought calmly to have observed that1 by young people before puberty1 and1 consequently1 when there is not the slightest sexual bias1 smooth objects are generally found to be agreeable1 and rough or harsh ones to be the reverse4 ,this would at once have set him right upon this point4 ,if1 to such a man1 it should for a moment have appeared worth while to ask why we do not make use of feeling-boards1 as well as of smelling-bottles1 he ought to have sought the solution of his difficulty in the nature of the senses2 and then1 with a trifle more of ability than ,payne ,knight hereby shows himself to have possessed1 he would have seen that smoothness affords us as much pleasure as any smell1 but that1 as it would have been always troublesome1 and often impossible1 to apply our fingers to smooth surfaces1 we generally receive the varied and incessant pleasure it affords1 by means of sight2 that it is borne by light to the eye1 as smell is by the air2 and that this is the reason why1 except when contact is indispensable1 we have no need of anything in the way of a feeling-board4 ,but ,knight says3 ,smoothness being properly a quality1 perceivable only by the touch1 and applied metaphorically to the objects of the other senses1 we often apply it1 very improperly1 to those of vision2 assigning smoothness as a cause of visible beauty1 to things which1 though smooth to the touch1 cast the most sharp1 harsh1 and angular reflections of light upon the eyes2 and these reflections are all that the eye feels1 or naturally perceives4444 ,such are all objects of cut-glass or polished metal2 as may be seen by the manner in which painters imitate them3 for1 as the imitations of painting extend only to the visible qualities of bodies1 they show those visible qualities fairly and impartially4444 ,yet the imitative representation of such objects in painting is far less harsh and dazzling than the effects of them in reality3 for there are no materials that a painter can employ1 capable of expressing the sharpness and brilliancy of those angular reflections of the collected and condensed rays1 which are emitted from the surfaces of polished metals4 ,it seems1 to me1 scarcely possible to find sophistry more worthless than this1 or rather a more contemptible quibble2 for that which1 availing himself of our technicalities about light1 he calls angularity1 sharpness1 c41 has no analogy with disagreeable angularity of form4 ,to produce the brilliance and splendor which he calls angular1 and describes as so offensive1 we polish crystalline and metallic bodies in the highest degree6--we value precisely those which thus admit of greatest splendor6--and1 on that very account1 the diamond 7rightly or wrongly1 is not the question7 is deemed the most valuable object on earth6 ,so much for those elements of beauty1 in inanimate things1 which fall under the cognizance of our fundamental sense1 or that of touch4 ,as to sight and its objects1 it is true that1 as this organ varies in different persons1 their taste is modified1 with regard to colors4 ,but the preference of light and delicate colors to dark and glaring ones1 is almost universal among persons of sensibility4 ,alison1 indeed1 ascribes the effects of all colors to association4 ,white1 he says1 as it is the color of day1 is expressive to us of the cheerfulness or gayety which the return of day brings3 black1 as the color of darkness night1 is expressive of gloom and melancholy4 ,and he adds3 ,whether some colors may not of themselves produce agreeable sensations1 and others disagreeable sensations1 ,i am not anxious to dispute4 ,but this is the very point into which ,alison ought to have inquired4 ,nature does nothing without foundation in the simplest principles2 and this foundation is not only anterior to1 but is the cause of all association4 ,that1 independent of any association1 blackness is naturally disagreeable1 if not painful1 is happily determined by the case of the boy restored to sight by ,cheselden1 who tells us that the first time the boy saw a black object1 it gave him great uneasiness2 and that1 some time after1 upon accidentally seeing a negro-woman1 he was struck with great horror at the sight4 ,this appears to be perfectly conclusive4 ,knight indeed says3 ,as to the uneasiness which the boy1 couched by ,cheselden1 felt at the first sight of a black object1 it arose either from the harshness of its outline1 or from its appearing to act as a partial extinguisher applied to his eyes1 which1 as every object that he saw1 seemed to touch them1 would1 of course1 be its effect4 ,it is highly probable that black operates in both these ways2 and it has therefore natural effects1 independent of all association4 ,as to sounds1 ,alison observes1 that the cries of some animals are sublime1 as the roar of the lion1 the scream of the eagle1 c42 and he thinks they become so1 because we associate them with the strength and ferocity of the animals which utter them4 ,by opposite associations1 he accounts for the beauty of the notes of birds4 ,and he says1 that there is a similar sublimity or beauty1 in the tones of the human voice1 and that such sounds are associated1 in our imaginations1 with the qualities of mind of which they are in general expressive1 and naturally produce in us the conception of these qualities4 ,this writer endeavors to establish his views on this subject1 by observing1 that grandeur or sublimity of sound1 can no otherwise arise from its loudness1 than as that loudness excites an idea of power in the sonorous object1 or in some other associated with it in the mind3 for a child's drum1 close to the ear1 fills it with more real noise1 than the discharge of a cannon a mile off2 and the rattling of a carriage in the street1 when faintly and indistinctly heard1 has often been mistaken for thunder at a distance4 ,yet no one ever imagined the beating of a child's drum1 or the rattling of a carriage over the stones1 to be grand or sublime2 which1 nevertheless1 they must be1 if grandeur or sublimity belong at all to the sensation of loudness4 ,but artillery and lightning are powerful engines of destruction2 and with their power we sympathize1 whenever the sound of them excites any sentiments of sublimity4 ,now1 all this is directly opposed to the doctrine it is meant to support4 ,it distinctly implies that loudness is so natural and so frequent a result of the violent contact of bodies1 that we sometimes mistakenly ascribe power to objects1 of which we have not correctly distinguished the sounds1 owing to imitation1 distance1 c4 ,the occasional mistake implies the general truth4 ,alison1 himself1 notwithstanding his doctrine of association1 is accordingly led to observe1 that there are some philosophers who consider these as the natural signs of passion or affection1 and who believe that it is not from experience1 but by means of an original faculty1 that we interpret them3 and this opinion is supported by great authorities4 ,he adds the following observations1 which1 notwithstanding the error they involve1 are too much to the purpose to be omitted here1 and which in reality illustrate a natural and true theory1 better than they do his own3-- ,it is natural1 however1 to suppose1 that in this1 as in every case1 our experience should gradually lead to the formation of some general rules1 with regard to this expression4 ,the great divisions of sound are into loud and low1 grave and acute1 long and short1 increasing and diminishing4 ,the two first divisions are expressive in themselves3 the two last1 only in conjunction with others4 ,loud sound is connected with ideas of power and danger4 ,many objects in nature which have such qualities1 are distinguished by such sounds2 and this association is farther confirmed from the human voice1 in which all violent and impetuous passions are expressed in loud tones4 ,low sound has a contrary expression1 and is connected with ideas of weakness1 gentleness1 and delicacy4 ,this association takes its rise1 not only from the observation of inanimate nature1 or of animals1 where1 in a great number of cases1 such sounds distinguish objects with such qualities1 but particularly from the human voice1 where all gentle1 or delicate1 or sorrowful affections are expressed by such tones4 ,grave sound is connected with ideas of moderation1 dignity1 solemnity1 c41 principally1 ,i believe1 from all moderate1 or restrained1 or chastened affections being distinguished by such tones in the human voice4 ,acute sound is expressive of pain1 or fear1 or surprise1 c41 and generally operates by producing some degree of astonishment4 ,this association1 also1 seems principally to arise from our experience of such connexions in the human voice4 ,long or lengthened sound seems to me to have no expression in itself1 but only to signify the continuance of that quality which is signified by other qualities of sound4 ,a loud or a low1 a grave or an acute sound prolonged expresses to us no more than the continuance of the quality which is generally signified by such sounds4 ,short or abrupt sound has a contrary expression1 and signifies the sudden cessation of the quality thus expressed4 ,increasing sound signifies1 in the same manner1 the increase of the quality expressed4 ,decreasing sound signifies the gradual diminution of such qualities4 ,motion furnishes another sort of beauty4 ,figure1 color1 and motion1 readily blend in one object1 and one general perception of beauty4 ,in many beautiful objects they all unite1 and render the beauty greater4 ,these characteristics are too universal not to support the doctrine of natural appropriation and power1 of which association is merely a consequence4 ,it may be said1 that all this chiefly regards mere geometrical forms1 not objects in nature4 ,but1 on referring to inanimate objects1 it will be found that they everywhere present these forms4 ,the round1 the simplest form appears to characterize all elementary bodies and all that are free from compression1 to be in fact the most elementary and the most readily assumed in nature4 ,this form1 accordingly1 is presented by the drops of water and of every liquid1 by every atom probably of oxygen1 hydrogen1 and azote1 by the smallest as well as the largest bodies1 even the innumerable celestial orbs4 ,all the other1 the angular forms are presented by inanimate bodies under compression1 or by mineral crystals4 ,thus1 then1 do these simple geometrical forms characterize the simplest bodies in nature2 and it appears that this first kind of beauty is peculiarly their own4 ,it will1 in the sequel1 be as clearly seen1 that each of the other classes of natural beings presents beauty of a different kind1 which similarly characterizes it4 ,hence1 no rational theory of beauty could be formed by writers1 who indiscriminatingly jumbled together the characteristics of all the kinds of beauty1 and expected to find them everywhere4 ,as1 then1 from all that has been said1 it appears that all the elements of beauty which have thus been noticed1 belong to inanimate beings1 and as this is shown by the passages ,i have quoted from the best writers1 it seems surprising1 not merely that they should not have seen this to be the case1 but1 that it should not have led them to observe1 that there exists also a second beauty1 of living beings1 and third1 of thinking beings1 as well as others of the useful1 the ornamental1 and the intellectual arts respectively1 in each of which some new element was only added to the characters of the preceding species4 ,it seems still more surprising that ,alison1 who deviates so widely from all fundamental principles1 should have actually stumbled upon an observation of a few of the characteristics of inanimate beings1 and traced them as they pass upward through some living and thinking beings--whose new characteristics1 however1 he did not discriminate4 ,he observes1 that the greater part of those bodies in nature1 which possess hardness1 strength1 or durability1 are distinguished by angular forms4 ,the greater part of those bodies1 on the contrary1 which possess weakness1 fragility1 or delicacy1 are distinguished by winding or curvilinear forms4 ,in the mineral kingdom1 all rocks1 stones1 and metals1 the hardest and most durable bodies we know1 assume universally angular forms4 ,in the vegetable kingdom1 all strong and durable plants are in general distinguished by similar forms4 ,the feebler and more delicate race of vegetables1 on the contrary1 are mostly distinguished by winding forms4 ,in the animal kingdom1 in the same manner1 strong and powerful animals are generally characterized by angular forms2 feeble and delicate animals1 by forms of the contrary kind4#ac ,,section ,,ii4 ,,elements ,,of ,,beauty ,,in ,,living ,,beings4 ,i have now to show that1 in living beings1 while the characters of the first and fundamental beauty1 that of inanimate beings1 are still partially continued1 new characteristics are added to them4 ,plants accordingly possess both rigid parts1 like some of those described in the preceding section1 and delicate parts1 which1 in ascending through the classes of natural beings from the simplest to the most complex1 are the very first to present to us new and additional characters totally distinct from those of the preceding class4 ,i4 ,to begin as nature does1 then1 we find the trunks and stems of plants1 which are near the ground1 resembling most in character the inanimate bodies from among which they spring4 ,they assume the simplest and most universal form in nature1 the round one2 but as growth is their great function1 they extend in height and become cylindrical4 ,even the branches1 the twigs1 and the tendrils1 continue this elementary character2 but it is in them1 or in the stem when1 like them1 it is tender1 that such elementary characters give way to the purposes of life1 namely1 growth and reproduction1 and that we discover the new and additional characters of beauty which this class presents to us4 ,,ii4 ,to render this matter plain1 ,i must observe that the formation of rings1 which unite in tubes1 appears to be almost universally the material condition of growth and reproduction4 ,every new portion of these tubes1 moreover1 and every superadded ring1 is less than that which preceded it4 ,it is from this that results the first characteristic of this second kind of beauty1 namely1 fineness or delicacy4 ,hence1 ,burke made the possession of a delicate frame1 without any remarkable appearance of strength1 his fifth condition in beauty2 and he here erred only from that want of discrimination which led him to confound together all the conditions of beauty1 and prevented his seeing that they belonged to different genera4 ,now1 as fine and delicate bodies1 which are growing1 will shoot in that direction where space1 air1 and light1 can best be had1 and as this1 amid other twigs and tendrils1 will greatly vary1 so will their productions rarely continue long in the same straight line1 but will1 on the contrary1 bend4 ,hence1 the curved or bending form is the second characteristic of this kind of beauty4 ,it is worthy of remark1 that1 as the trunks1 stems1 twigs1 and tendrils1 of plants assume the simplest and most universal form in nature1 the round one1 so their more delicate parts have again the tendency to bend into a similar form4 ,in the young and feeble branches of plants1 it is observed by ,alison1 that the bending form is beautiful1 when we perceive that it is the consequence of the delicacy of their texture1 and of their being overpowered by the weight of the flower4444 ,in the smaller and feebler tribe of flowers1 as in the violet1 the daisy1 or the lily of the valley1 the bending of the stem constitutes a very beautiful form1 because we immediately perceive that it is the consequence of the weakness and delicacy of the flower4 ,from the circumstances now described1 it results that all the parts of plants present the most surprising variety4 ,they vary their direction every moment1 as ,burke observes1 and they change under the eye by a deviation continually carrying on1 but for whose beginning or end you will find it difficult to ascertain a point4 ,variety is therefore the third characteristic of this second kind of beauty2 and in the indiscriminating views of ,burke1 he made two similar conditions1 viz3 ,thirdly1 to have a variety in the direction of the parts2 but1 fourthly1 to have those parts not angular1 but melted as it were into each other2 thus applying these to beauty generally1 to which they are not applicable1 but in a confused and imperfect way4 ,it is scarcely necessary to observe that variety1 as a character of beauty1 owes its effect to the need of changing impressions1 in order to enliven our sensibility1 which does not fail to become inactive under the long-continued impression of the same stimulant4 ,it is connected with this variety that unequal numbers are preferred1 as we see in the number of flowers and of their petals1 in that of leaves grouped together1 and in the indentations of these leaves4 ,from all this springs the fourth and last characteristic of this second species of beauty1 namely1 contrast4 ,this strikes us when we at once look at the rigid stem and bending boughs1 and all the variety which the latter display4 ,it will be observed1 that1 of all the characteristics of beauty1 none tend to render our perceptions so vivid as variety and contrast4 ,i conclude this section with a few remarks on the errors which ,alison has committed on this subject4 ,in the rose1 says that writer1 and the white lily1 and in the tribe of flowering shrubs1 the same bending form assumed by the stem is felt as a defect2 and instead of impressing us with the idea of delicacy1 leads us to believe the operation of some force to twist it into this direction4--,this1 however1 is no defect arising from the bending form not being abstractly more beautiful1 but from its being contrary to the nature of the stem of flowering shrubs to bend1 from its being1 as he himself observes1 the result of some force to twist it4 ,he asserts1 however1 that in plants1 angular forms are beautiful1 when they are expressive of fineness1 of tenderness1 of delicacy1 or such affecting qualities2 and he thinks that this may perhaps appear from the consideration of the following instances3-- ,the myrtle1 for instance1 is generally reckoned a beautiful form1 yet the growth of its stem is perpendicular1 the junction of its branches form regular and similar angles1 and their direction is in straight or angular lines4 ,the known delicacy1 however1 and tenderness of the vegetable1 at least in this climate1 prevail over the general expression of the form1 and give it the same beauty which we generally find in forms of a contrary kind4--,the mistake here committed is in supposing the beauty of the myrtle to depend on its angularity1 instead of its being evergreen1 fragrant1 and suggesting pleasures of association4 ,how much more beautiful1 he says1 is the rose-tree when its buds begin to blow1 than afterward1 when its flowers are full and in their greatest perfection6 yet1 in this first situation1 its form has much less winding surface1 and is much more composed of straight lines and of angles1 than afterward when the weight of the flower weighs down the feeble branches1 and describes the easiest and most varied curves4--,but he answers himself by adding3 ,the circumstance of its youth1 a circumstance in all cases so affecting1 the delicacy of its blossom1 so well expressed by the care which ,nature has taken in surrounding the opening bud with leaves1 prevail so much upon our imagination1 that we behold the form itself with more delight in this situation than afterward1 when it assumes the more general form of delicacy4 ,there are few things in the vegetable world1 he says1 more beautiful than the knotted and angular stem of the balsam1 merely from its singular transparency1 which it is impossible to look at without a strong impression of the fineness and delicacy of the vegetable4--,but it is its transparency1 not its angularity1 that is beautiful4 ,the beauty of color is not less conspicuous than that of form in this class of beings4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,elements ,,of ,,beauty ,,in ,,thinking ,,beings4 ,i have next to show that1 in thinking beings1 while the characters of inanimate1 and those of living beauty1 are still more or less continued1 new characteristics are also added to them4 ,i4 ,in animals1 accordingly1 the bones bear a close analogy to the wood of plants4 ,they generally assume the same rounded form2 but1 as thinking beings are necessarily moving ones1 their bones are hollow to combine lightness with strength1 and they are separated by joints to permit flexion and extension4 ,,ii4 ,as animals1 like plants1 grow and reproduce1 a portion of their general organization1 their vascular system1 which serves the purpose of growth and reproduction1 consists1 like plants1 of trunks1 branches1 c42 and the surface of their bodies1 the skin1 is formed by a tissue of these vessels4 ,accordingly1 both the vessels themselves1 and the tissue which they form1 present the delicacy1 the bending1 the variety1 and the contrast1 which are the characters of the preceding species of beauty4 ,the undulating and serpentine lines which art seeks always to design in its most beautiful productions1 exist in greater number at the surface of the human body than at that of any other animal4 ,wherever1 as ,hogarth observes1 for the sake of the necessary motion of the parts1 with proper strength and agility1 the insertions of the muscles are too hard and sudden1 their swellings too bold1 or the hollows between them too deep1 for their outlines to be beautiful2 nature softens these hardnesses1 and plumps up these vacancies with a proper supply of fat1 and covers the whole with the soft1 smooth1 springy1 and1 in delicate life1 almost transparent skin1 which1 conforming itself to the external shape of all the parts beneath1 expresses to the eye the idea of its contents with the utmost delicacy of beauty and grace4 ,it is principally in the features of the face1 as has often been observed1 and on the surface of the torso and of the members of a beautiful woman1 that these delicate1 bending1 varied1 and contrasted lines are multiplied3 by their union1 they mark the outlines of different parts1 as in the region of the neck1 of the bosom1 at the shoulders1 on the surface of the abdomen1 on the sides1 and principally in the gradual transitions from the head to the neck1 and from the loins to the inferior extremities4 ,these lines vary under different circumstances2 much enbonpoint producing round lines1 and leanness or old age producing straight ones4 ,woman and man stand pre-eminent among animals as to this kind of beauty2 and to them succeed the swifter animals1 as the horse1 the stag1 c4 ,the animals1 on the contrary1 of which the surface presents right lines and square forms1 are correspondingly deprived of beauty2 as the toad1 the hog1 and all the animals which seem to us ugly4 ,in all animals1 also1 the beauty of color1 even when slightly varied1 becomes extremely interesting4--,in human beauty1 considerable variety is produced by the different shades of the skin4 ,such1 indeed1 is the variety resulting from all this1 that some degree even of intricacy is produced4 ,the undulating lines which cross in every direction1 and the tortuous paths of the eye1 are the means of an agreeable complication4 ,hence ,burke1 following ,hogarth1 says3 ,observe that part of a beautiful woman where she is perhaps the most beautiful1 about the neck and breasts3 the smoothness1 the softness1 the easy and insensible swell1 the variety of the surface1 which is never for the smallest space the same1 the deceitful maze1 through which the unsteady eye slides giddily1 without knowing where to fix1 or whither it is carried4 ,is not this a demonstration of that change of surface1 continual1 and yet hardly perceptible at any point1 which forms one of the great constituents of beauty8 ,the hair affords an excellent instance of this agreeable complication4 ,soft curls agitated by the wind have been the theme of every poet4 ,and yet1 says ,hogarth1 to show how excess ought to be avoided in intricacy1 as well as in every other principle1 the very same head of hair1 wisped and matted together1 would make the most disagreeable figure2 because the eye would be perplexed1 and at a fault1 and unable to trace such a confused number of uncomposed and entangled lines4 ,,iii4 ,but animals have a higher system of organs and functions which peculiarly distinguishes them1 and which presents new and peculiar characteristics of beauty4 ,this consists of the organs by which they receive impressions from1 and react upon the objects around them--the first organs which ,nature presents having altogether external relations1 and the first1 consequently1 in which we look for fitness for any purpose4 ,the importance of fitness to the beauty of such objects is learned imperceptibly4 ,lines and forms1 though the most elegant1 fail to please us1 if ill distributed in this respect3 and objects1 to a great extent destitute of the other characters of natural beauty1 become beautiful when regarded in relation to fitness4 ,thus would this sense appear to be so powerful1 as in some measure to regulate our other perceptions of beauty4 ,it is fitness which leads us to admire in one animal1 what would displease us if found in another4 ,the variety1 says ,barry1 and union of parts1 which we call beautiful in a greyhound1 are pleasing in consequence of the idea of agility which they convey4 ,in other animals1 less agility is united with more strength2 and1 indeed1 all the different arrangements please because they indicate either different qualities1 different degrees of qualities1 or the different combinations of them4 ,in relation to the various fitness of the human body1 the same writer says3 ,we should not increase the beauty of the female bosom1 by the addition of another protuberance2 and the exquisite undulating transitions from the convex to the concave tendencies1 could not be multiplied with any success4 ,in fine1 our rule for judging of the mode and degree of this combination of variety and unity1 seems to be no other than that of its fitness and conformity to the designation of each species4 ,but it is less necessary for me to adduce authorities in support of this truth1 than to answer the objections that have been made to it by some of the ablest writers on the subject--objections which have generally their origin in the narrow views which these men have taken1 and in those partial hypotheses which1 even when true1 led them to reject all other truth4 ,it is said1 observes ,burke1 that the idea of a part's being well adapted to answer its end1 is one cause of beauty1 or indeed beauty itself4444 ,in framing this theory1 ,i am apprehensive that experience was not sufficiently consulted4 ,for1 on that principle1 the wedgelike snout of a swine with its tough cartilage at the end1 the little sunk eyes1 and the whole make of the head1 so well adapted to its offices of digging and rooting1 would be extremely beautiful4--,and so they are1 when the beauty of fitness for their purpose is considered2 but that purpose being the mere growth and fattening of an animal of sensual and dirty habits1 it is a fallacy to represent this1 without explanation1 as a fair proof of the absence of connexion between fitness and beauty4 ,if beauty in our species1 says the same writer1 was annexed to use1 men would be much more lovely than women2 and strength and agility would be considered as the only beauties4--,burke was a stringer of fine words1 not for woman1 but for queens1 when that served a selfish and venal purpose4 ,the sentence just quoted shows that his gallantry was as ignorant as it was mean4 ,he here asserts by implication that women are less useful than men1 although it is to women that the care of the whole human race1 during its most helpless years1 is committed1 and although they take upon themselves all that half of the duties of life which men are as little capable of performing1 as women are of performing the portion suited to men4 ,and1 says he1 ,i appeal to the first and most natural feelings of mankind1 whether1 on beholding a beautiful eye1 or a well-fashioned mouth1 or a well-turned leg1 any ideas of their being well fitted for seeing1 eating1 or running1 ever present themselves4--,is running1 then1 the proper use of the leg in woman6 ,rousseau more truly thought its use was to fail in running1 or not to run6 ,is eating the only use of her mouth6 ,this1 too from the man who deplored that the age of chivalry was gone6--,nevertheless1 ,i will venture to assert that such things never were and never will be seen1 without suggesting ideas of fitness of some kind or other4 ,there is1 he proceeds1 another notion current1 pretty closely allied to the former2 that perfection is the constituent cause of beauty4 ,this opinion has been made to extend much farther than to sensible objects4 ,but in these1 so far is perfection1 considered as such1 from being the cause of beauty1 that this quality1 where it is highest in the female sex1 almost always carries with it an idea of weakness and imperfection4--,for this plain reason1 that female perfection is utterly incompatible with great muscular perfection or strength1 which would indeed be injurious to the performance of every feminine function4 ,we may now advance another step in the subject under discussion4 ,what1 then1 are the peculiar physical characters of beings thus possessing sense and motion1 and thus characterized by fitness8 ,it must be remembered1 says ,knight1 that irregularity is the general characteristic of trees1 and regularity that of animals4--,it would have been more correct to say that symmetry is this peculiar characteristic4 ,there is little resemblance between the parts of one side2 and it is symmetry which results from the uniform disposition of double parts1 and from the regular division of single ones4 ,hence an agreeable impression is produced by the corresponding disposition and the exact resemblance of the eyes1 of the eyebrows1 of the ears1 of the hemispheres of the bosom1 and of the different parts of which the limbs are composed2 and the forehead1 the nose1 the mouth1 the abdomen1 the back1 are agreeably distinguished by means of the median line which divides them4 ,it appears that the eye is pleased by the exactness of corresponding parts2 and that symmetry is the first character of beauty in thinking beings4 ,occasional irregularity makes us better appreciate the importance of symmetry4 ,the oblique direction of the eyes1 squinting1 twisting of the nose or lips1 unequal magnitude of the hemispheres of the bosom1 or unequal length of the limbs1 disfigure the most beautiful person4 ,but how does symmetry contribute to fitness1 or why is it necessary8 ,all our limbs and organs1 says ,payne ,knight1 serve us in pairs1 and by mutual co-operation with each other3 whence the habitual association of ideas has taught us to consider this uniformity as indispensable to the beauty and perfection of the animal form4 ,there is no reason to be deduced from any abstract consideration of the nature of things1 why an animal should be more ugly and disgusting for having only one eye1 or one ear1 than for having only one nose or one mouth2 yet if we were to meet with a beast with one eye1 or two noses1 or two mouths1 in any part of the world1 we should1 without inquiry1 decide it to be a monster1 and turn from it with abhorrence3 neither is there any reason1 in the nature of things1 why a strict parity1 or relative equality1 in the correspondent limbs and features of a man or a horse1 should be absolutely essential to beauty1 and absolutely destructive of it in the roots and branches of a tree4 ,but1 nevertheless1 the ,creator having formed the one regular1 and the other irregular1 we habitually associate ideas of regularity to the perfection of one1 and ideas of irregularity to the perfection of the other2 and this habit has been so unvaried1 as to have become natural4 ,this is the common cant of every weak man at loss for a reason4 ,now1 it is not by any habitual association with our limbs and organs serving us in pairs1 that we are taught to consider this uniformity indispensable to beauty1 but because1 independent of all association1 we could not conveniently walk upon one leg1 or1 indeed1 on any unequal number of legs3 and there being two sides in the moving organs1 there are necessarily two in the sensitive organs1 which are mere portions of the same general system4 ,thus it is locomotion to be performed that renders a strict parity1 or relative equality1 in the correspondent limbs and features of a man or a horse absolutely essential to beauty2 and it is the absence of locomotion which renders it utterly worthless1 and therefore very rare1 in the roots and branches of a tree4 ,in animals1 proportion is not less essential than symmetry4 ,it is indeed the second character of this kind of beauty4 ,as this part of the subject has been perfectly well treated by ,mr4 ,alison1 ,i need only quote what he has said3-- ,it is this expression of fitness which is1 ,i apprehend1 the source of the beauty of what is strictly and properly called proportion in the parts of the human form4 ,we expect a different form1 and a different conformation of limbs1 in a running footman and a waterman1 in a wrestler and a racing groom1 in a shepherd and a sailor1 c4 ,they who are conversant in the productions of the fine arts1 must have equally observed1 that the forms and proportions of features1 which the sculptor and the painter have given to their works1 are very different1 according to the nature of the character they represent1 and the emotion they wish to excite4 ,the form or proportions of the features of ,jove are different from those of ,hercules2 those of ,apollo1 from those of ,ganymede2 those of the ,fawn1 from those of the ,gladiator4 ,in female beauty1 the form and proportions in the features of ,juno are very different from those of ,venus2 those of ,minerva1 from those of ,diana2 those of ,niobe1 from those of the ,graces4 ,all1 however1 are beautiful2 because all are adapted with exquisite taste to the characters they wish the countenance to express4 ,in the ,hercules and the ,antinous1 the ,jupiter and the ,apollo1 we find that not only the proportions of the form1 but those of every limb1 are different2 and that the pleasure we feel in these proportions arises from their exquisite fitness for the physical ends which the artists were consulting4 ,the illustration1 however1 may be made still more precise2 for1 even in the same countenance1 and in the same hour1 the same form of feature may be beautiful or otherwise4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,,elements ,,of ,,beauty ,,as ,,employed ,,in ,,objects ,,of ,,art4 ,i divide the arts into the useful1 the ornamental1 and the intellectual1 commonly called the fine arts2 and ,i shall endeavor to show1 that the objects of each of these are characterized by a peculiar kind of beauty1 corresponding to one of those already described4 ,i shall endeavor to show that the objects of the useful arts are characterized by the simple geometrical forms which belong to inanimate beings2 that those of the ornamental arts are characterized by the delicate1 bending1 varied1 and contrasted forms of living beings2 and that those of the intellectual arts are1 in their highest efforts1 characterized chiefly by thinking forms1 as in gesture1 sculpture1 painting1 or by functions of mind actually exercised1 in oratory1 poetry1 music4 ,in all these arts1 purpose is implied--not purpose in the hypothetical sense1 as applied to the existence1 conditions1 and objects1 of natural beings--but in the common intelligible sense of the word1 as expressing the intention of men in the pursuit of these arts4 ,beauty of ,useful ,objects4 ,here the purpose being utility1 this kind of beauty arises from the perception of means as adapted to an end1 which of course implies1 the parts of anything being fitted to answer the purpose of the whole4 ,this implies an act of understanding and judgment2 for of no product of useful art can we perceive the extrinsic beauty1 until we know its destination1 and the relations which that involves4 ,when these are known1 so powerful is the sense of utility1 that1 though deviation from the elementary beauty never ceases to be felt1 yet that sense sanctions it to a great extent4 ,hence it is that an irregular dwelling-house may become beautiful1 when its convenience is striking4 ,hence it is that1 in the forms of furniture1 machines1 and instruments1 their beauty arises chiefly from this consideration2 and that every form becomes beautiful by association1 where it is perfectly adapted to its end4 ,the greater1 however1 the elementary beauty1 that can be introduced in useful objects1 the more obvious will their utility be1 and the more beautiful will they universally appear4 ,this will be granted the moment ,i mention simplicity4 ,of all the elements of beauty already spoken of--of all the means of producing accordant and agreeable relations--simplicity appears to be the most efficient2 and in all the useful arts1 no elementary consideration recommends their objects so much4 ,this implies all the rest1 regularity1 uniformity1 proportion1 order1 c41 as far as is compatible with purpose4 ,thus1 in regard to uniformity1 says some one1 a number of things destined for the same purpose1 as chairs1 spoons1 c41 cannot be too uniform1 because they are adapted to uniform purposes2 but it would be absurd to give to objects destined for one purpose the form suited to those destined for another4 ,so also the objects of useful art will resemble in form precisely as they resemble in purpose2 and where the purpose is similar1 and the deviation which is admissible is slight1 this becomes a subject of great nicety1 and1 if ornament be at the same time admissible1 a subject of exquisite taste4 ,it was by the transcendent exercise of these qualities1 that the ,greeks succeeded in fixing the orders of architecture4 ,the most beautiful columns would have shocked the sight1 if their mass had not corresponded to that of the edifice which they sustained2 and the difference which existed in this respect1 required a difference of ornament4 ,home indeed observes1 that writers on architecture insist much upon the proportions of a column1 and assign different proportions to the ,doric1 ,ionic1 and ,corinthian2 but no architect will maintain1 that the most accurate proportions contribute more to use1 than several that are less accurate and less agreeable4 ,that such a man should have committed such an error is surprising4 ,it seems evident that the different proportion in the columns of these orders is admirably suited to the different quantity of matter in their entablatures4 ,a greater superincumbent mass1 required shorter and thicker columns2 a less superincumbent mass1 longer and slender ones4 ,many experiments1 much observation1 were requisite to determine this2 but the ,greeks had the means of making them1 and solved every problem on the subject2 and the result of the perfection they attained is1 that all err who depart from the truth they have determined4 ,it was1 again1 the differing quantities of matter in the entablatures1 and the accurately-corresponding dimensions of the columns that determined1 of course amid infinite experiment and observation1 the nature of their ornaments4 ,hence1 the ,doric is distinguished by simplicity2 the ,ionic by elegance2 and the ,corinthian by lightness1 in ornament as well as in proportion4 ,even1 therefore1 if we were to destroy all the associations of elegance1 of magnificence1 of costliness1 and1 still more than all1 of antiquity1 which are so strongly connected with such forms1 the pleasure which their proportions would afford1 would remain1 as in all cases where means are best adapted to their end4 ,in his objections to proportion as an element of beauty1 ,burke only confounds this kind of beauty with that which ,i have next to describe4 ,the effects of proportion and fitness1 he says1 at least so far as they proceed from a mere consideration of the work itself1 produce approbation1 the acquiescence of the understanding1 but not love1 nor any passion of that species4 ,when we examine the structure of a watch1 when we come to know thoroughly the use of every part of it1 satisfied as we are with the fitness of the whole1 we are far enough from perceiving anything like beauty in the watchwork itself2 but let us look on the case1 the labor of some curious artist in engraving1 with little or no idea of use1 we shall have a much livelier idea of beauty than we ever could have had from the watch itself1 though the masterpiece of ,graham4 ,it is an emotion of pleasure which is the inevitable result of the perception of beauty1 not love1 nor any passion of the kind4 ,these will or will not follow1 according to the nature of the object1 and of the mind of the observer4 ,a hill1 a valley1 or a rivulet1 may be beautiful1 and it will excite an emotion of pleasure when its beauty is discerned2 but it may produce no desire or passion of love4 ,there may exist1 then1 the beauty of utility1 as to the structure of the watch1 and that of ornament as to its case2 and some minds will more readily perceive the one2 others1 the other4 ,when ,burke adds1 ,in beauty1 the effect is previous to any knowledge of the use2 but to judge of proportion1 we must know the end for which any work is designed2 he forgets1 that1 in the instance of the barber's block1 c41 he showed that the perception of beauty1 as well as proportion1 required observation1 experience1 and reflection4 ,beauty of ,ornamental ,objects4 ,there are three great arts which1 under circumstances of high civilization1 become ornamental1 namely1 landscape-gardening1 architecture1 and dress--the particular arts by which our persons are more or less closely invested2#ad and all of them1 then1 require beauty of the second kind1 that which belongs particularly to vegetable beings1 and is characterized by delicate1 bending varied1 and contrasted forms4 ,all these1 regarded as ornamental arts1 have chiefly bodily and sensual pleasures for their purpose2 and this ,i consider as distinguishing them from the intellectual arts1 which have a higher purpose4 ,of landscape-gardening1 the materials are plants1 and therefore its beauty is evidently dependant on1 or rather composed of1 theirs4 ,the same kind of beauty will be found in every ornamental art4 ,hence1 ,alison says3 ,the greater part of beautiful forms in nature1 are to be found in the vegetable kingdom1 in the forms of flowers1 of foliage1 of shrubs1 and in those assumed by the young shoots of trees4 ,it is from them1 accordingly1 that almost all those forms have been imitated1 which have been employed by artists for the purposes of ornament and elegance4 ,on this kind of beauty1 mistaking it for the only one1 ,hogarth founded his peculiar doctrine4 ,he adopts two lines1 on which1 according to him1 the beauty of figure principally depends4 ,one is the waving line1 or a curve bending gently in opposite directions4 ,this he calls the line of beauty2 and he shows how often it is found in flowers1 shells1 and various works of nature2 while it is common also in the figures designed by painters and sculptors1 for the purpose of decoration4 ,the other line1 which he calls the line of grace1 is the former waving line1 twisted round some solid body4 ,twisted pillars and twisted horns exhibit it4 ,in all the instances which he mentions1 variety plainly appears to be so important an element of this kind of beauty1 that he states a portion of the truth1 when he defines the art of drawing pleasing forms to be the art of varying well2 for the curve line1 so much the favorite of painters1 derives much of its beauty from its perpetual bending and variation from the stiff regularity of the straight line4 ,it is evident1 however1 that in this1 he mistakes one kind of beauty for all4 ,of architecture1 considered as a fine art1 much of the beauty depends on the imitation of vegetable forms4 ,employing materials which require the best characteristics of the first kind of beauty1 it1 in its choicest and ornamented parts1 imitates both the rigid trunks1 and the delicate and bending forms of plants4 ,its columns1 tapering upward1 are copied from the trunks of trees2 and their decorations are suited with consummate art to their dimensions1 and the weight they support4 ,the simple ,doric has little ornament2 the elegant ,ionic has more2 the light ,corinthian has most4 ,on the subject of these finely-calculated ornaments1 some observations have struck me1 which ,i have not seen mentioned elsewhere4 ,the ,doric presents only columns1 without any other ornament than that of which their mere form admits4 ,the ,ionic expresses increased lightness1 by the interposition of its volute1 as if the superincumbent weight had but gently pressed a soft solid into a scroll4 ,the ,corinthian expresses the utmost lightness1 by forming its capitals of foliage1 as if the weight above them could not crush even a leaf4 ,the ,composite expresses gayety1 by adding flowers to the foliage4 ,it is from imperfect views of this1 that the meaning and effect of caryatides have been mistaken3 instead of being oppressed by weight1 they seem1 when well employed1 to have no weight to support4 ,in nearly all internal architectural decorations1 it is the delicate1 bending1 varied1 and contrasted vegetable forms which are imitated4 ,there is scarce a room1 in any house whatever1 says ,hogarth1 where one does not see the waving line employed in some way or other4 ,how inelegant would the shapes of all our moveables be without it8 how very plain and unornamental the mouldings of cornices and chimney-pieces1 without the variety introduced by the ogee member1 which is entirely composed of waving lines4 ,the distinctions ,i have here made1 are farther illustrated by the remarks of ,alison1 who says3 ,these ornaments being executed in a very hard and durable substance1 are in fact only beautiful when they appear but as minute parts of the whole4 ,the great constituent parts of every building require direct and angular lines1 because in such parts we require the expression of stability and strength4 ,it is only in the minute and delicate parts of the work1 that any kind of ornament is attempted with propriety2 and whenever ornaments exceed in size1 in their quantity of matter1 or in the prominence of their relief1 that proportion which1 in point of lightness or delicacy1 we expect them to hold with respect to the whole of the building1 the imitation of the most beautiful vegetable forms does not preserve them from the censure of clumsiness and deformity4 ,in dress1 considered as an ornamental art1 and1 as practised by the sex which chiefly studies it1 the chief beauty depends on the adoption of winding forms in drapery1 and of wreaths of flowers for the head1 c4 ,these are essential to the variety and contrast1 as well as to the gayety which that sex desires4 ,uniformity1 says ,hogarth1 is chiefly complied with in dress1 on account of fitness1 and seems to be extended not much farther than dressing both arms alike1 and having the shoes of the same color4 ,for when any part of dress has not the excuse of fitness or propriety for its uniformity of parts1 the ladies always call it formal4 ,these irregular1 varying1 and somewhat complicated draperies excite that active curiosity1 and those movements of imagination1 to which skilful women never neglect to address themselves in modern costume4 ,it is with the same feeling and intention1 whether these be defined or not1 that1 in the head-dress1 they seek for bending lines and circumvolutions1 and that they combine variously the waves and the tresses of the hair4 ,for the same reason1 a feather or a flower is never placed precisely over the middle of the forehead2 and if two are employed1 great care is taken that their positions are dissimilar4 ,it has sometimes struck me as remarkable1 that precious stones are almost always arranged differently from flowers4 ,while the latter are placed irregularly1 and in waving lines1 not only on the head1 but the bosom1 and the skirt of the dress1 the former are in general regularly placed1 either on the median line of the person1 as the middle of the forehead and1 in ,eastern countries1 of the nose1 or symmetrically in similar pendants from each ear1 and bracelets on the arms and wrists4 ,the instinctive feeling which gives origin to this is1 that flowers adorn the system of life and reproduction1 and by their color and smell1 associate with its emotions1 which they also express and communicate to others--they1 therefore1 assume the varied forms of that system2 whereas1 diamonds1 attached generally to mental organs1 or organs of sense1 are significant of mental feelings1 love of splendor1 distinction1 pride1 c4--they1 therefore1 assume the symmetrical form of these organs4 ,hence1 too1 flowers are recommended to the young2 diamonds are permitted only to the old4 ,beauty of ,intellectual ,objects4 ,i have already said1 that the intellectual arts are1 in their highest efforts1 characterized chiefly by animal forms1 as in gesture1 sculpture1 and painting1 or by animal functions actually exercised1 in oratory1 poetry1 and music4 ,in the useful arts1 the purpose is utility2 in the ornamental arts1 it is bodily or sensual pleasure2 and in the intellectual arts1 it is the pleasure of imagination4 ,the first elements of beauty1 however1 are not forgotten in these arts4 ,as simplicity is conspicuous in the works of nature1 so is it a condition of beauty in all the operations of mind4 ,in philosophy1 general theorems become beautiful from this simplicity2 and polished manners receive from it dignity and grace4 ,the intellectual arts are especially dependant upon it3 it has been a striking character of their most illustrious cultivators1 and of their very highest efforts4 ,how much the characters and accidents of elementary beauty influence intellectual art1 has been well shown by ,mr4 ,knight4 ,in the higher class of landscapes1 he says1 whether in nature or in art1 the mere sensual gratification of the eye is comparatively so small1 as scarcely to be attended to3 but yet1 if there occur a single spot1 either in the scene or the picture1 offensively harsh and glaring--if the landscape-gardener1 in the one1 or the picture-cleaner1 in the other1 have exerted their unhappy talents of polishing1 all the magic instantly vanishes1 and the imagination avenges the injury offered to the sense4 ,the glaring and unharmonious spot1 being the most prominent and obtrusive1 irresistibly attracts the attention1 so as to interrupt the repose of the whole1 and leaves the mind no place to rest upon4 ,it is1 in some respects1 he observes1 the same with the sense of hearing4 ,the mere sensual gratification1 arising from the melody of an actor's voice1 is a very small part1 indeed1 of the pleasure which we receive from the representation of a fine drama3 but1 nevertheless1 if a single note of the voice be absolutely cracked and out of tune1 so as to offend and disgust the ear1 it will completely destroy the effect of the most skilful acting1 and render all the sublimity and pathos of the finest tragedy ludicrous4 ,this1 ,i may observe1 is a concession of much that he elsewhere inconsistently contends for2 for sensual beauty could never act thus powerfully1 if it possessed not fundamental importance as an element even in the most complex beauty4 ,that the second kind of beauty also enters into the acts or products of intellectual beauty1 is sufficiently illustrated by the observation of ,hogarth1 who on this subject observes1 that all the common and necessary motions for the business of life are performed by men in straight or plain lines1 while all the graceful and ornamental movements are made in waving lines4 ,as ,alison has given the best view of the history and character of beauty in the intellectual arts1 as that indeed constitutes the most valuable portion of his work1 ,i shall conclude this section by a greatly abridged view of these as nearly as possible in his own words4 ,there is no production of taste1 which has not many qualities of a very indifferent kind2 and our sense of the beauty or sublimity of every object accordingly depends upon the quality or qualities of it which we consider4 ,this1 ,mr4 ,alison might have observed1 is in great measure dependant upon our will4 ,we can generally1 when we please1 confine our consideration of it to the qualities that least excite pleasurable or painful emotion1 and that can least interest the imagination4 ,it is in consequence of this1 that the exercise of criticism always destroys1 for the time1 our sensibility to the beauty of every composition1 and that habits of this kind generally destroy the sensibility of taste4 ,when1 on the other hand1 the emotions of sublimity or beauty are produced1 it will be found that some affection is uniformly first excited by the presence of the object2 and whether the general impression we receive is that of gayety1 or tenderness1 or melancholy1 or solemnity1 or terror1 c41 we have never any difficulty of determining4 ,but whatever may be the nature of that simple emotion which any object is fitted to excite1 if it produce not a train of kindred thought in our minds1 we are conscious only of that simple emotion4 ,in many cases1 on the contrary1 we are conscious of a train of thought being immediately awakened in the imagination1 analogous to the character of expression of the original object4 ,thus1 when we feel either the beauty or sublimity of natural scenery--the gay lustre of a morning in spring1 or the mild radiance of a summer-evening--the savage majesty of a wintry storm1 or the wild magnificence of the tempestuous ocean--we are conscious of a variety of images in our minds1 very different from those which the objects themselves present to the eye4 ,trains of pleasing or of solemn thought arise spontaneously within our minds2 our hearts swell with emotions1 of which the objects before us seem to afford no adequate cause2 and we are never so much satiated with delight1 as when1 in recalling our attention1 we are unable 7little able1 perhaps1 and less disposed7 to trace either the progress or the connexion of those thoughts1 which have passed with so much rapidity through our imagination4 ,the effect of the different arts of taste is similar4 ,the landscapes of ,claude ,lorraine1 the poetry of ,milton1 the music of the greatest masters1 excite feeble emotions in our minds when our attention is confined to the qualities they present to our senses1 or when it is to such qualities of their composition that we turn our regard4 ,it is then only we feel the sublimity or beauty of their productions1 when our imaginations are kindled by their power1 when we lose ourselves amid the number of images that pass before our minds1 and when we waken at last from this play of fancy1 as from the charm of a romantic dream4 ,the degree in which the emotions of sublimity or beauty are felt1 is in general proportioned to the prevalence of those relations of thought in the mind1 upon which this exercise of imagination depends4 ,the principal relation which seems to take place in those trains of thought that are produced by objects of taste1 is that of resemblance2 the relation1 of all others the most loose and general1 and which affords the greatest range of thought for our imagination to pursue4 ,wherever1 accordingly1 these emotions are felt1 it will be found1 not only that this is the relation which principally prevails among our ideas1 but that the emotion itself is proportioned to the degree in which it prevails4 ,what1 for instance1 is the impression we feel from the scenery of spring8 ,the soft and gentle green with which the earth is spread1 the feeble texture of the plants and flowers1 the young of animals just entering into life1 and the remains of winter yet lingering among the woods and hills--all conspire to infuse into our minds somewhat of that fearful tenderness with which infancy is usually beheld4 ,with such a sentiment1 how innumerable are the ideas which present themselves to our imagination6 ideas1 it is apparent1 by no means confined to the scene before our eyes1 or to the possible desolation which may yet await its infant beauty1 but which almost involuntarily extend themselves to analogies with the life of man1 and bring before us all those images of hope or fear1 which1 according to our peculiar situations1 have the dominion of our heart6--,the beauty of autumn is accompanied with a similar exercise of thought4 ,whatever increases this exercise or employment of imagination1 increases also the emotion of beauty or sublimity4 ,this is very obviously the effect of all associations4 ,there is no man who has not some interesting associations with particular scenes1 or airs1 or books1 and who does not feel their beauty or sublimity enhanced to him by such connexions4 ,the view of the house where one was born1 of the school where one was educated1 and where the gay years of infancy were passed1 is indifferent to no man4 ,in the case of those trains of thought1 which are suggested by objects either of sublimity or beauty1 it will be found1 that they are in all cases composed of ideas capable of exciting some affection or emotion2 and that not only the whole succession is accompanied with that peculiar emotion which we call the emotion of beauty or sublimity1 but that every individual idea of such a succession is in itself productive of some simple emotion or other4 ,thus the ideas suggested by the scenery of spring1 are ideas productive of emotions of cheer fulness1 of gladness1 and of tenderness4 ,the images suggested by the prospect of ruins1 are images belonging to pity1 to melancholy1 and to admiration4 ,the ideas1 in the same manner1 awakened by the view of the ocean in a storm1 are ideas of power1 of majesty1 and of terror4 ,to prevent circumlocution1 such ideas may be termed ideas of emotion2 and the effect which is produced upon the mind1 by objects of taste1 may be considered as consisting in the production of a regular or consistent train of ideas of emotion4 ,in those trains which are suggested by objects of sublimity or beauty1 however slight the connexion between individual thoughts may be1 it will be found1 that there is always some general principle of connexion which pervades the whole1 and gives them some certain definite character4 ,they are either gay1 or pathetic1 or melancholy1 or solemn1 or awful1 or elevating1 c41 according to the nature of the emotion which is first excited4 ,thus the prospect of a serene evening in summer1 produces first an emotion of peacefulness and tranquillity1 and then suggests a variety of images corresponding to this primary impression4 ,the sight of a torrent1 or of a storm1 in the same manner1 impresses us first with sentiments of awe or solemnity1 or terror1 and then awakens in our minds a series of conceptions allied to this peculiar emotion4 ,the intellectual1 or fine arts are those whose objects are thus addressed to the imagination2 and the pleasures they afford are described1 by way of distinction1 as the pleasures of the imagination4 ,,summary ,,of ,,this ,,chapter4 ,thus1 by analysis1 generalization1 and systematization1 of the materials which the best writers present1 ,i have1 in this chapter1 endeavored to take new and larger views2 and1 by an examination of the elements of beauty1 ,i have endeavored to fix its doctrines upon an immoveable basis4 ,i have shown that there exist elements of beauty equally invariable in themselves1 and in the kind of effect they produce upon the mind2 that these elements are modified1 varied1 and complicated1 as we advance from the most simple to the most complex class of natural beings1 or of the arts which relate to these respectively2 that the elements of beauty in inanimate beings1 consist in the simplicity1 regularity1 uniformity1 proportion1 order1 c41 of those geometrical forms which are so intimately connected with mere existence2 that the elements of beauty in living beings1 consist in adding to the preceding the delicacy1 bending1 variety1 contrast1 c41 which are connected with growth1 and reproduction2 that the elements of beauty in thinking beings1 consist in adding to the preceding the symmetry1 proportion1#ae c41 which are connected with fitness for sense1 thought1 and motion2 that the elements of beauty in the objects of useful art1 consist in the same simplicity1 regularity1 uniformity1 proportion1 order1 of geometrical forms which belong to inanimate beings2 that the elements of beauty in the objects of ornamental art consist in the same delicacy1 bending1 variety1 contrast1 which belong to living beings2 and that the elements of beauty in the objects of intellectual art consist in thinking forms1 in gesture1 sculpture1 and painting1 or in functions of mind actually exercised1 in oratory1 poetry1 and music4 ,the elements of beauty have hitherto been confounded by many writers1 as more or less applicable to objects of all kinds2 and as this general and confused application was easily disproved as to many objects1 uncertainty and doubt have been thrown over the whole4 ,the remaining writers have consequently been led to adopt1 as characters of beauty1 only one or two of these elements1 which were consequently capable of application only to one or two classes of its objects4 ,hence1 no subject of human inquiry has hitherto been left in a more disgraceful condition than this1 the very foundation of taste4 ,i do not hesitate to state that1 owing to the near approximations to truth1 and the insensible transitions into error1 which ,i have found in every writer1 and the immense mass of confused materials which they present1 this subject has cost me more trouble than any one ,i have ever investigated1 except that of my work on the mind2#af nor without some physiological knowledge1 do ,i think tasks of this kind at all practicable4 ,generally speaking1 each branch of knowledge is most surely advanced by acquaintance with its related branches2 and philosophers cannot too much bear in mind the words of ,cicero3 ,etenim omnes artes qu ad humanitatem pertinent1 habent quoddam commune vinculum1 et quasi cognatione quadam inter se continentur4 ,,appendix ,,to ,,the ,,preceding ,,chapters4 ,,section ,i4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,picturesque4#ag ,in landscape1 the nature of the beautiful and the sublime seems to be better understood than that of the picturesque4 ,there are few disputes as to the former2 many as to the latter4 ,these disputes1 moreover1 are not as to what is picturesque1 but as to what picturesque is4 ,payne ,knight asserts1 that the picturesque has no distinctive character1 and merely designates what a painter would imitate4 ,price1 on the contrary1 has given so many admirable illustrations of it1 that its characteristics are before every reader4 ,strange to tell1 its nature or essence has not been penetrated1 because these characteristics have not been rigidly analyzed4 ,price has1 indeed1 generalized considerably on this subject1 by showing that irregularity1 roughness1 c41 enter into all scenes of a picturesque description2 and the examination of any one of them will certainly verify the truth of his observation4 ,thus1 on a remote country-road1 we often observe the deep ruts on its surface which in winter would render it impassable--the huge and loose moss-grown stone1 ready to encumber it by falling from the bank--the stunted pollard by its side1 whose roots are exposed by the earth falling away from it1 and which must itself be swept away by the first wind that may blow against it in an unfavorable direction--the almost ruined cottage1 above and beyond these1 whose gable is propped up by an old and broken wheel1 and whose thatched roof1 stained with every hue of moss or lichen1 has1 at one part1 long fallen in--the shaggy and ragged horse that browses among the rank weeds around it--and the old man1 bent with age1 who leans over the broken gate in front of it4 ,here1 in every circumstance1 is verified the irregularity and roughness which ,price ascribes to the picturesque4 ,but he has failed to observe1 that the irregularity and roughness are but the signs of that which interests the mind far more deeply1 namely1 the universal ,,decay which causes them4 ,this is the essence of the picturesque--the charm in it which begets our sympathy4 ,confining his remark merely to ruins1 the author of ,observations on ,gardening1 says3 ,at the sight of a ruin1 reflections on the change1 the decay1 and the desolation1 before us naturally occur2 and they introduce a long succession of others1 all tinctured with that melancholy which these have inspired2 or if the monument revive the memory of former times1 we do not stop at the simple fact which it records1 but recollect many more coeval circumstances which we see1 nor perhaps as they were1 but as they are come down to us1 venerable with age1 and magnified by fame4--,what is here said of ruins1 and is indeed as to them sufficiently striking1 is true of the picturesque universally1 and it is only surprising that1 amid such disputes1 this simple and obvious truth should not have been observed4 ,in landscape1 therefore1 the picturesque stands in the same relation to the beautiful and sublime1 that the pathetic does to them in poetry4 ,hence1 speaking also of ruins only1 ,alison says3 ,the images suggested by the prospect of ruins1 are images belonging to pity1 to melancholy1 and to admiration4 ,a thousand illustrations might be given in support of this truth and the principle which it affords2 but ,i think it better to leave these to the suggestion or the choice of every reader4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,cause ,,of ,,laughter4 ,this has been partly explained by ,beattie1 partly by ,hobbes2 and it is chiefly to vindicate the latter1 who knew much more of the human mind than the people who have attacked him1 that ,i write the pages immediately following4 ,speaking of the quality in things1 which makes them provoke the pleasing emotion or sentiment of which laughter is the external sign1 ,beattie says3 ,it is an uncommon mixture of relation and contrariety1 exhibited1 or supposed to be united1 in the same assemblage4 ,and elsewhere he says3 ,laughter arises from the view of two or more inconsistent1 unsuitable1 or incongruous parts or circumstances1 considered as united in one complex object or assemblage1 or as acquiring a sort of mutual relation from the peculiar manner in which the mind takes notice of them4 ,the latter may arise from contiguity1 from the relation of cause and effect1 from unexpected likeness1 from dignity and meanness1 from absurdity1 c4 ,thus1 at first view1 the dawn of the morning and a boiled lobster seem utterly incongruous1 but when a change of color from black to red is suggested1 we recognise a likeness1 and consequently a relation1 or ground of comparison4 ,and here let it be observed1 that the greater the number of incongruities that are blended in the same assemblage1 the more ludicrous it will probably be4 ,if1 as in the last example1 there be an opposition of dignity and meanness1 as well as of likeness and dissimilitude1 the effect of the contrast will be more powerful1 than if only one of these oppositions had appeared in the ludicrous idea4 ,the first part of the subject seems1 indeed1 so clear as to admit of no objection4 ,hobbes1 viewing more particularly the act of the mind1 defines laughter to be a sudden glory1 arising from a sudden conception of some eminency in ourselves1 by comparison with the infirmity of others1 or with our own formerly4 ,and elsewhere he says3 ,men laugh at jests1 the wit whereof always consisteth in the elegant discovering and conveying to our minds1 some absurdity of another4#ah ,dr4 ,campbell objects that contempt may be raised in a very high degree1 both suddenly and unexpectedly1 without producing the least tendency to laugh4 ,but if there exist that incongruity in the same assemblage described as the fundamental cause of this sudden conception of our own superiority1 laughter1 as ,beattie has shown1 will always1 or for the most part1 excite the risible emotion1 unless when the perception of it is attended with some other emotion of greater authority1 dependant on custom1 politeness1 c4 ,dr4 ,campbell also observes1 that laughter may be1 and is daily1 produced by the perception of incongruous associations1 when there is no contempt4 ,we often smile at a witty performance or passage1 such as ,butler's allusion to a boiled lobster1 in his picture of the morning1 when we are so far from conceiving any inferiority or turpitude in the author1 that we greatly admire his genius1 and wish ourselves possessed of that very turn of fancy which produced the drollery in question4 ,many have laughed at the queerness of the comparison in these lines1 ',for rhyme the rudder is of verses1 ,with which like ships they steer their courses1' who never dreamed that there was any person or party1 practice or opinion1 derided in them4 ,if any admirer of the ,hobbesian philosophy should pretend to discover some class of men whom the poet here meant to ridicule1 he ought to consider1 that if any one hath been tickled with the passage to whom the same thought never occurred1 that single instance would be sufficient to subvert the doctrine1 as it would show that there may be laughter where there is no triumph or glorying over anybody1 and1 consequently1 no conceit of one's own superiority4 ,now1 the class of men laughed at in both cases is the same1 namely1 poets1 whose lofty allusions are ridiculed by the former1 and silly rhymes by the latter2 nor can any one duly appreciate or be pleased with either1 to whom this intention of the writer is not obvious4 ,who ever dreamed of turpitude in the author1 as ,dr4 ,campbell supposes6 ,as to the wag1 says ,beattie1 who amuses himself on the first of ,april with telling lies1 he must be shallow1 indeed1 if he hope1 by so doing1 to acquire any superiority over another man whom he knows to be wiser and better than himself2 for1 on these occasions1 the greatness of the joke1 and the loudness of the laugh1 are1 if ,i rightly remember1 in exact proportion to the sagacity of the person imposed on4--,no doubt2 but it is because he is thrown into an apparent and whimsical1 though momentary inferiority2 and the greater his sagacity1 the more amusing does this appear4 ,do we not1 says he1 sometimes laugh at fortuitous combinations1 in which1 as no mental energy is concerned in producing them1 there cannot be either fault or turpitude8 ,could not one imagine a set of people jumbled together by accident1 so as to present a laughable group to those who know their characters8--,undoubtedly2 but then the slouch of one1 and the rigidity of the other1 c41 make both contemptible1 as to physical characteristics at least1 and there is no need of turpitude in either4 ,the strongest apparent objection1 however1 is that of ,dr4 ,campbell1 who says3 ,indeed1 men's telling their own blunders1 even blunders recently committed1 and laughing at them1 a thing not uncommon in very risible dispositions1 is utterly inexplicable upon ,hobbes's system4 ,for1 to consider the thing only with regard to the laugher himself1 there is to him no subject of glorying1 that is not counterbalanced by an equal subject of humiliation 7he being both the person laughing1 and the person laughed at71 and these two subjects must destroy one another4 ,but he overlooks the precise terms employed by ,hobbes1 who says3 ,the passion of laughter is nothing else but sudden glory1 arising from a sudden conception of some eminency in ourselves1 by comparison with the infirmity of others1 or with our own formerly4 ,for men laugh at the follies of themselves past1 when they come suddenly to remembrance1 except they bring with them any present dishonor4 ,it is not therefore true1 as ,dr4 ,campbell says1 that with regard to others1 he appears solely under the notion of inferiority1 as the person triumphed over4 ,he1 on the contrary1 appears as achieving a very glorious triumph1 that1 namely1 over his own errors4 ,this shows also the error of ,addison's remarks1 that according to this account1 when we hear a man laugh excessively1 instead of saying that he is very merry1 we ought to tell him that he is very proud4--,a man may contemn the errors both of himself and others1 without pride3 and1 indeed1 in contemning the former1 he proves himself to be far above that sentiment1 and verifies ,dr4 ,campbell's remark that no two characters more rarely meet in the same person1 than that of a very risible man1 and a very self-conceited supercilious man4 ,it is curious to see a great man1 like ,hobbes1 thus attacked by less ones1 who do not even understand him4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,cause ,,of ,,the ,,pleasure ,,received ,,from ,,representations ,,exciting ,,pity4 ,many hypotheses have been proposed to explain this cause4 ,according to the ,abb ,du ,bos1#ai in order to get rid of listlessness1 the mind seeks for emotions2 and the stronger these are the better4 ,hence1 the passions which in themselves are the most distressing1 are1 for this purpose1 preferable to the pleasant1 because they most effectually relieve the mind from the less endurable languor which preys upon it during inaction4 ,the sophistry of this explanation is evident4 ,pleasant passions1 as ,dr4 ,campbell has shown1 ought in every respect to have the advantage1 because1 while they preserve the mind from this state of inaction1 they convey a feeling which is agreeable4 ,nor is it true that the stronger the emotion is1 so much the fitter for this purpose2 for if we exceed a certain measure1 instead of a sympathetic and delightful sorrow1 we excite only horror and aversion4 ,the most1 therefore1 that can be concluded from the ,abb's premises1 is1 that it is useful to excite passion of some kind or other1 but not that the distressing ones are the fittest4 ,according to ,fontenelle1#bj theatrical representation has almost the effect of reality3 but yet not altogether4 ,we have still a certain idea of falsehood in the whole of what we see4 ,we weep for the misfortunes of a hero to whom we are attached4 ,in the same instant1 we comfort ourselves by reflecting1 that it is nothing but a fiction4 ,the short answer to this is1 that we are conscious of no such alternation as that here described4 ,according to ,david ,hume1 whose hypothesis is a kind of supplement to the former two1 that which when the sorrow is not softened by fiction1 raises a pleasure from the bosom of uneasiness1 a pleasure which still retains all the features and outward symptoms of distress and sorrow1 is that very eloquence with which the melancholy scene is represented4 ,in reply1 ,dr4 ,campbell has shown that the aggravating of all the circumstances of misery in the representation1 cannot make it be contemplated with pleasure1 but must be the most effectual method for making it give greater pain2 that the detection of the speaker's talents and address1 which ,hume's hypothesis implies1 is in direct opposition to the fundamental maxim1 that it is essential to the art to conceal the art2 and that the supposition that there are two distinct effects produced by the eloquence on the hearers1 one the sentiment of beauty1 or of the harmony of oratorical numbers1 the other the passion which the speaker purposes to raise in their minds1 and that when the first predominates1 the mixture of the two effects becomes exceedingly pleasant1 and the reverse when the second is superior1 is altogether imaginary4 ,according to ,hawkesworth1#ba the compassion in question may be resolved into that power of imagination1 by which we apply the misfortunes of others to ourselves2 and we are said to pity no longer than we fancy ourselves to suffer1 and to be pleased only by reflecting that our sufferings are not real2 thus indulging a dream of distress1 from which we can awake whenever we please1 to exult in our security1 and enjoy the comparison of the fiction with the truth4 ,this hypothesis is evidently too gross to need reply4 ,dr4 ,campbell has answered the preceding hypotheses at great length1 and quite satisfactorily4 ,i regret to say that his own is as worthless1 as well as remarkably confused and unintelligible4 ,to ,burke1 who wrote at a later period1 it falls to my lot to reply at greater length4 ,to examine this point concerning the effect of tragedy in a proper manner1 says that writer1 we must previously consider how we are affected by the feelings of our fellow-creatures in circumstances of real distress4 ,i am convinced we have a degree of delight1 and that no small one1 in the real misfortunes and pains of others2 for1 let the affection be what it will in appearance1 if it does not make us shun such objects1 if on the contrary it induces us to approach them1 if it makes us dwell upon them1 in this case ,i conceive we must have a delight or pleasure of some species or other in contemplating objects of this kind4444 ,our delight in cases of this kind is very greatly heightened1 if the sufferer be some excellent person who sinks under an unworthy fortune4444 ,the delight we have in such things hinders us from shunning scenes of misery2 and the pains we feel1 prompt us to relieve ourselves1 in relieving those who suffer4444 ,in imitated distress1 the only difference is the pleasure resulting from the effects of imitation4 ,a more monstrous doctrine than this was never perhaps enunciated4 ,a very little analysis will expose its fallacy4 ,in relation to events of this kind1 there are three very distinct cases--real occurrence1 subsequent inspection or historical narration1 and dramatic representation2 in each1 the affection of the mind is very different2 and nearly all the errors on this subject seem to have occurred from confounding them4 ,burke has done this in the greatest degree4 ,the real occurrence of unmerited suffering is beheld with no delight1 but with unmixed pain1 by every well-constituted mind4 ,hume1#bb therefore1 justly observes1 that the same object of distress1 which pleases in a tragedy1 were it really set before us1 would give the most unfeigned uneasiness4 ,it is only by confounding this with the next case1 of subsequent inspection or historical narration1 that ,burke gets into error here4 ,we do not1 says ,burke1 sufficiently distinguish what we would by no means choose to do or to see done--he should have added from what we should be eager enough to see if it was once done4 ,we delight in seeing things after they are done--he should have added1 which1 so far from doing1 our heartiest wishes would be to see redressed4 ,that the additions ,i have made1 more truly state the case1 seems as evident1 as it is1 that they afford a very different conclusion from ,burke's1 of our beholding unmerited suffering with delight4 ,but he himself proves this by the very instance which he gives in illustration of his doctrine4 ,this noble capital1 he says1 the pride of ,england and of ,europe1 ,i believe no man is so strangely wicked as to desire to see destroyed by a conflagration or an earthquake1 though he should be removed himself to the greatest distance from the danger4 ,but suppose such a fatal accident to have happened1 what numbers from all parts would crowd to behold the ruins1 and among them many who would have been content never to have seen ,london in its glory6 ,here the words which ,i have put in italics clearly show that ,i was right in the additions ,i suggested in his previous statement1 and that he there confounded delight in seeing the infliction of unmerited suffering1 with delight in seeing it after infliction1 or of seeing it historically narrated2 for1 in this his illustration1 it is the latter1 and not the former1 that he supposes--nay he now says no man is so strangely wicked as to desire to see destroyed6 c4 ,indeed1 it is quite plain that1 supposing an attempt made to destroy ,london1 so far would every one be from being delighted to see it done1 that he would eagerly prevent it4 ,there is here1 therefore1 on the part of this writer1 only his common and characteristic confusion of ideas4 ,choose a day1 he says1 on which to represent the most sublime and affecting tragedy we have2 appoint the most favorite actors2 spare no cost upon the scenes and decorations2 unite the greatest efforts of poetry1 painting1 and music2 and when you have collected your audience1 just at the moment when their minds are erect with expectation1 let it be reported that a state-criminal1 of high rank1 is on the point of being executed in the adjoining square2 in a moment the emptiness of the theatre would demonstrate the comparative weakness of the imitative arts1 and proclaim the triumph of the real sympathy4 ,this presents only another instance of want of discrimination4 ,if the state-criminal1 of high rank1 were not a real criminal--if he were an unmerited sufferer1 the place of execution1 supposing his rescue impossible1 would assuredly be fled from by every person of feeling and honor2 as we read of in the public papers1 lately1 when a murder of that kind was perpetrating by some one of the base little jailor-princes of ,germany4 ,and we know that1 in the case of legal perpetrations of that kind in ,england1 even upon real criminals1 none but the most degraded wretches go to witness such scenes4 ,in tragic representation1 then1 we know that the suffering is not real1 else should we fly4 ,there have1 indeed1 in such cases1 been instances of a sort of momentary deception1 but it is only children1 and very simple people1 utter strangers to theatrical amusements1 who are apt to be so deceived2 and as their case always excites the surprise and laughter of every one1 it clearly proves that others are under no sort of deception4 ,even ,burke1 notwithstanding his want of discrimination1 and his monstrous hypothesis1 says3 ,imitated distress is never so perfect1 but we can perceive it is imitation1 and on that principle are somewhat pleased with it4 ,and his case of desertion of the theatre1 if it occur under any circumstances1 illustrates this4 ,burke adds1 indeed3 ,but then ,i imagine we shall be much mistaken if we attribute any considerable part of our satisfaction in tragedy to the consideration that tragedy is a deceit1 and its representations no realities4 ,we seek no satisfaction of the kind3 we know it to be a deceit throughout6 ,the nearer it approaches the reality1 and the farther it removes us from all idea of fiction1 the more perfect is its power4 ,the nearest possible approach to reality1 is only necessary to the success of fiction1 to the pleasure of imagination4 ,he himself has said3 ,imitated distress is never so perfect1 but we can perceive it is imitation6 ,again1 therefore1 here is only ,burke's characteristic confusion of ideas4 ,my own doctrine on this subject is already obvious from the remarks made on others4 ,we never cease to know that tragic representation is a mere deception2 our reason is never imposed upon2 our imagination is alone engaged2 we are perfectly conscious that it is so2 and we have all the sensibility1 fine feeling1 and generosity of pity1 as well as the satisfaction of being thereby raised wonderfully in our own esteem1 at the small cost of three shillings6 ,it is not a little curious1 that this should not have been evident to those who have written so much about it4 ,dr4 ,campbell1 alone1 has approached it4 ,so great1 he says1 is the anomaly which sometimes displays itself in human characters1 that it is not impossible to find persons who are quickly made to cry at seeing a tragedy1 or reading a romance1 which they know to be fictions1 and yet are both inattentive and unfeeling in respect of the actual objects of compassion who live in their neighborhood1 and are daily under their eye4444 ,men may be of a selfish1 contracted1 and even avaricious disposition1 who are not what we should denominate hard-hearted1 or unsusceptible of sympathetic feeling4 ,such will gladly enjoy the luxury of pity 7as ,hawkesworth terms it7 when it nowise interferes with their more powerful passions2 that is1 when it comes unaccompanied with a demand upon their pockets4--,this should have led him to the simple truth1 and should have prevented his framing the most confused1 unintelligible1 and worthless hypothesis upon this subject4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,anatomical ,,and ,,physiological ,,principles4 ,to any inquiry respecting the beauty of woman1 the replies are1 in general1 various1 inconsistent1 or contradictory4 ,the assertion might1 therefore1 appear to be true1 that1 even under the same climate1 beauty is not always the same4 ,our vague perceptions1 however1 and our vague expressions respecting beauty1 will be found to be1 in a great measure1 owing to the inaccuracy of our mode of examining it1 and1 in some measure1 to the imperfect nomenclature which we possess for describing it4 ,beauty1 and even true taste1 respecting it1 are always the same2 but1 in the first place1 we observe beauty partially and imperfectly2 and in the second place1 our actual preferences are dependant on our particular wants1 and will be found to differ only because these wants differ in every individual1 and even in the same individual at different periods of life4 ,the laws regulating beauty in woman1 and taste respecting it in man1 have not been attempted to be explained1 except in the worthless work alluded to in the advertisement4 ,yet nothing perhaps is more universally interesting4 ,as1 in this view1 the kinds of beauty demand the first and chief attention1 the following illustrations are necessary3-- ,we observe a woman possessing one species of beauty3--,her face is generally oblong2 her neck is rather long and tapering3 her shoulders1 without being angular1 are sufficiently broad and definite2 her bosom is of moderate dimensions2 her waist1 remarkable for fine proportion1 resembles in some respects an inverted cone2 her haunches are moderately expanded2 her thighs1 proportional2 her arms1 as well as her limbs1 are rather long and tapering2 her hands and feet are moderately small2 her complexion is often rather dark2 and her hair is frequently abundant1 dark1 and strong4--,the whole figure is precise1 striking1 and brilliant4 ,yet1 has she few or none of the qualities of the succeeding species4 ,we observe1 next1 another species of beauty3--,her face is generally round2 her eyes are generally of the softest azure2 her neck is often rather short2 her shoulders are softly rounded1 and owe any breadth they may possess rather to the expanded chest1 than to the size of the shoulders themselves2 her bosom1 in its luxuriance1 seems laterally to protrude on the space occupied by the arms2 her waist1 though sufficiently marked1 is1 as it were1 encroached on by the enbonpoint of all the contiguous parts2 her haunches are greatly expanded2 her thighs are large in proportion2 but her limbs and arms1 tapering and becoming delicate1 terminate in feet and hands which1 compared with the ample trunk1 are peculiarly small2 her complexion has the rose and lily so exquisitely blended1 that we are surprised it should defy the usual operation of the elements2 and she boasts a luxuriant profusion of soft and fine flaxen or auburn hair4--,the whole figure is soft and voluptuous in the extreme4 ,yet has she not the almost measured proportions and the brilliant air of the preceding species2 nor has she the qualities of the succeeding one4 ,we observe1 then1 a beauty of a third species3--,her face is generally oval2 her high and pale forehead announces the intellectuality of her character2 her intensely expressive eye is full of sensibility2 in her lower features1 modesty and dignity are often united2 she has not the expanded bosom1 the general embonpoint1 or the beautiful complexion1 of the second species2 and she boasts easy and graceful motion1 rather than the elegant proportion of the first4--,the whole figure is characterized by intellectuality and grace4 ,such are the three species of beauty of which all the rest are varieties4 ,now1 as it is in general one only of these species which characterizes any one woman1 and as each of these species is suited to the wants of1 and is consequently agreeable to1 a different individual1 it is obvious why the common vague reports of the beauty of any woman are always so various1 inconsistent1 or contradictory4 ,in the more accurate study of this subject1 it is indispensable that the reader should understand the scientific principles on which the preceding brief analysis of female beauty1 as reducible to three species1 is founded4 ,to attain this knowledge1 and to acquire facility in the art of distinguishing and judging of beauty in woman1 a little general knowledge of anatomy is absolutely essential4 ,the writer begs1 therefore1 attention to the following sketch4 ,it may not at first seem interesting to the general reader2 but it is the sole basis of a scientific knowledge of female beauty2 the study of it during one hour is sufficient to apprehend it in all its bearings2 and it will obviate every future difficulty4 ,in viewing the human organs in a general manner1 a class of these organs at once obtrudes itself upon our notice1 from its consisting of an apparatus of levers1 from its performing motion from place to place or locomotion1 and from these motions being of the most obvious kind4--,a little more observation presents to us another class1 which is distinguished from the preceding by its consisting of cylindrical tubes1 by its transmitting and transmuting liquids1 performing vascular action or nutrition1 and by its motions being barely apparent4--,farther investigation discovers a third1 which differs essentially from both these1 in its consisting of nervous particles1 in its transmitting impressions from external objects1 performing nervous action or thought1 and in that action being altogether invisible4 ,thus1 each of these classes of organs is distinguished from another by the structure of its parts1 by the purposes which it serves1 and by the greater or less obviousness of its motions4 ,the first consists of levers2 the second1 of cylindrical tubes2 and the third1 of nervous particles4 ,the first performs motion from place to place or locomotion2 the second transmits and transmutes liquids1 performing vascular action or nutrition2 and the third transmits impressions from external objects1 performing nervous action or thought4 ,the motion of the first is extremely obvious2 that of the second is barely apparent2 and that of the third is altogether invisible4 ,not one of them can be confounded with another3 for1 considering their purposes only1 it is evident that that which performs locomotion1 neither transmits liquids nor sensations2 that which transmits liquids1 neither performs locomotion nor is the means of sensibility2 and that which is the means of sensibility1 neither performs locomotion nor transmits liquids4 ,now1 the organs employed in locomotion are the bones1 ligaments1 and muscles2 those employed in transmitting liquids or in nutrition1 are the absorbent1 circulating1 and secreting vessels2 and those employed about sensations or in thought1 are the organs of sense1 cerebrum1 and cerebel1 with the nerves which connect them4 ,the first class of organs may1 therefore1 be termed locomotive1 or 7from their very obvious action7 mechanical2 the second1 vascular or nutritive1 or 7as even vegetables1 from their possessing vessels1 have life7 they may be termed vital2 and the third may be named nervous or thinking1 or 7as mind results from them7 mental4 ,the human body1 then1 consists of organs of three kinds4 ,by the first kind1 locomotive or mechanical action is effected2 by the second1 nutritive or vital action is maintained2 and by the third1 thinking or mental action is permitted4 ,anatomy is1 therefore1 divided into three parts1 namely1 that which considers the mechanical or locomotive organs2 that which considers the nutritive or vital organs2 and that which considers the thinking or mental organs4 ,under the mechanical or locomotive organs are classed1 first1 the bones or organs of support2 second1 the ligaments or organs of articulation2 and third1 the muscles or organs of motion4 ,under the nutritive or vital organs are classed1 first1 the absorbent vessels or organs of absorption2 second1 the bloodvessels1 which derive their contents from the absorbed lymph1 or organs of circulation2 and third1 the secreting vessels1 which separate various matters from the blood1 or organs of secretion4#bc ,under the thinking or mental organs are classed1 first1 the organs of sense1 where impressions take place2 second1 the cerebrum or organ of thought1 properly so called1 where these excite ideas1 emotions1 and passions2 and third1 the cerebel or organ of volition1 where acts of the will result from the last4#bd ,we may now more particularly notice the functions of these organs1 which are the subject of physiology4 ,in the locomotive functions1 the bones at once give support1 and form levers for motion2 the ligaments form articulations1 and afford the points of support2 and the muscles are the moving powers4 ,to the first1 are owing all the symmetry and elegance of human form2 to the second1 its beautiful flexibility2 and to the third1 all the brilliance and grace of motion which fancy can inspire1 or skill can execute4 ,in the nutritive functions1 the food1 having passed into the mouth1 is1 after mastication1 aided by mixture with the saliva1 thrown back1 by the tongue and contiguous parts1 into the cavity behind1 called fauces and pharynx2 this contracting1 presses it into the oesophagus or gullet2 this also contracting1 propels it into the stomach1 which1 after its due digestion aided by the gastric juice1 similarly contracting1 transmits whatever portion of it1 now called chyme1 is sufficiently comminuted to pass through its lower opening1 the pylorus1 into the intestines2 these1 at the commencement of which it receives the bile and pancreatic juice1 similarly pressing it on all sides1 urge forward its most solid part to the anus2 while its liquid portion partly escapes from the pressure into the mouths of the absorbents4 ,the absorbents arising by minute openings from all the internal surfaces1 and continuing a similar contractile motion1 transmit it1 now called chyle1 by all their gradually-enlarging branches1 and through their general trunk1 the thoracic duct1 where it is blended with the lymph brought from other parts1 into the great veins contiguous to the heart1 where it is mixed with the venous or returning and dark-colored blood1 and whence it flows into the anterior side of that organ4 ,the anterior side of the heart1 forcibly repeating this contraction1 propels it1 commixed with the venous blood1 into the lungs1 which perform the office of respiration1 and in some measure of sanguification2 there1 giving off carbonaceous matter1 and assuming a vermilion hue and new vivifying properties1 it flows back as arterial blood1 into the posterior side of the heart4 ,the posterior side of the heart1 still similarly contracting1 discharges it into the arteries2 these1 maintaining a like contraction1 carry it over all the system2 and a great portion of it1 impregnated with carbon1 and of a dark color1 returns through the veins in order to undergo the same course4 ,much1 however1 of its gelatinous and fibrous parts is retained in the cells of the parenchyma1 or cellular1 vascular1 and nervous substance forming the basis of the whole fabric1 and constitutes nutrition1 properly so called2 while other portions of it become entangled in the peculiarly-formed labyrinths of the glands1 and form secretion and excretion--the products of the former contributing to the exercise of other functions1 and those of the latter being rejected4 ,as digestion precedes the first1 so generation follows the last of these functions1 and not only continues the same species of action1 but propagates it widely to new existences in the manner just described4 ,in the thinking functions1 the organs of sense receive external impressions1 which excite in them sensations2 the cerebrum1 having these transmitted to it1 performs the more complicated functions of mental operation1 whence result ideas1 emotions1 and passions2 and the cerebel1 being similarly influenced1 performs the function of volition1 or causes the acts of the will4 ,it is not unusual to consider the body as being divided into the head1 the trunk1 and the extremities2 but1 in consequence of the hitherto universal neglect of the natural arrangement of the organs and functions into locomotive1 nutritive1 and thinking1 the beauty and interest which may be attached to this division1 have equally escaped the notice of anatomists4 ,it is a curious fact1 and strongly confirmative of the preceding arrangements1 that one of these parts1 the extremities1 consists almost entirely of locomotive organs1 namely1 of bones1 ligaments1 and muscles2 that another1 the trunk1 consists of all the greater nutritive organs1 namely1 absorbents1 bloodvessels1 and glands2 and that the third1 the head1 contains all the thinking organs1 namely1 the organs of sense1 cerebrum1 and cerebel4#be ,it is a fact not less curious1 nor less confirmative of the preceding arrangements1 that1 of these parts1 those which consist chiefly of locomotive or mechanical organs--organs which1 as to mere structure1 and considered apart from the influence of the nervous system over them1 are common to us with the lowest class of beings1 namely1 minerals#bf--;are placed in the lowest situation1 namely1 the extremities2 that which consists chiefly of nutritive or vital organs--organs common to us with a higher class of beings1 namely1 vegetables#bg--;is placed in a higher situation1 namely1 the trunk2 and that which consists chiefly of thinking or mental organs--organs peculiar to the highest class of beings1 namely1 animals#bh--;is placed in the highest situation1 namely1 the head4 ,it is not less remarkable1 that this analogy is supported even in its minutest details2 for1 to choose the nutritive organs contained in the trunk as an illustration1 it is a fact1 that those of absorption and secretion1 which are most common to us with plants1 a lower class of beings1 have a lower situation--in the cavity of the abdomen2 while those of circulation1 which are very imperfect in plants1#bi and more peculiar to animals1 a higher class of beings1 hold a higher situation--in the cavity of the thorax4 ,it is1 moreover1 worthy of remark1 and still illustrative of the preceding arrangements1 that1 in each of these three situations1 the bones differ both in1 position and in form4 ,in the extremities1 they are situated internally to the soft parts1 and are generally of cylindrical form2 in the trunk1 they begin to assume a more external situation and a flatter form1 because they protect nutritive and more important parts1 which they do not1 however1 altogether cover2 and1 in the head1 they obtain the most external situation and the flattest form1 especially in its highest part1 because they protect thinking and most important organs1 which1 in some parts1 they completely invest4 ,the loss of such general views is the consequence of arbitrary methods4#cj ,we may now apply these anatomical and physiological views to the art of distinguishing and judging of beauty in woman4 ,it is evidently the locomotive or mechanical system which is highly developed in the beauty whose figure is precise1 striking1 and brilliant4 ,it is evidently the nutritive or vital system which is highly developed in the beauty whose figure is soft and voluptuous4 ,it is not less evidently the thinking or mental system which is highly developed in the beauty whose figure is characterized by intellectuality and grace4 ,thus can anatomical principles alone at once illustrate and establish the accuracy of the three species of beauty which ,i have analytically described4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,of ,,the ,,ages ,,of ,,woman ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,beauty4 ,the variations of the organization of woman do not distinctly mark the seasons of life4 ,many connected phenomena glide on imperceptibly2 and we can distinguish the strong characters of different and distinct ages1 only at periods remote from each other4 ,although1 therefore1 woman is perpetually changing1 it requires some care to discriminate the principal epochs of her life4 ,the first age of woman extends from birth to the period of puberty4 ,in beginning the career of life1 woman is not yet truly woman2 the characters of her sex are not yet decided2 she is an equivocal being1 who does not differ from the male of the same age even by the delicacy of the organs2 and we observe between them a perfect identity of wants1 functions1 and movements4 ,their existence is1 then1 purely individual2 we perceive none of the relations which afterward establish between them a mutual dependance2 each lives only for self4 ,this conformity and independence of the sexes are the more remarkable1 the earlier the age and the less advanced the development4 ,confining our view to woman alone1 it is not only in dimensions that1 at this age1 her person differs from that in which the growth is terminated3 it presents another model4 ,the various parts have not1 in relation to each other1 the same proportions4 ,the head is much more voluminous2 and this is not a result of the extent of the face1 for that is small and contracted1 because the apparatus of smell and of mastication are not yet developed4 ,nor is the head only more voluminous2 it is also more active1 and forms a centre toward which is directed all the effort of life4 ,the spine of the back has not either the minuter prominences or the general inflexions which favor the action of the extensor muscles1 a circumstance which is opposed to standing perpendicularly during the first months4 ,the infant consequently can only crawl like a quadruped4 ,little distinction can then be drawn1 and that with difficulty1 from the comparative width of the haunches1 and magnitude of the pelvis4 ,that part is scarcely more developed in the female than in the male2 its general form is the same2 and its different diameters have similar relations to each other4 ,the length of the trunk is great in proportion to the limbs1 which are slightly and imperfectly developed4 ,owing to the great length of the chest1 and the imperfection of the inferior members1 the middle of the body then corresponds to the region of the umbilicus4 ,an infant having other proportions1 would appear to be deprived of the characters of its age4 ,in the locomotive system1 the muscles have not yet acted with sufficient power and frequency to modify the direction of the bones1 and to bestow a peculiar character upon their combination in the skeleton4 ,the fleshy and other soft parts do not yet appear to differ from those of the male1 either as to form or as to relative volume4 ,the vital functions of digestion1 of circulation and respiration1 of nutrition1 secretion1 and excretion1 are performed in the same manner4 ,the want of nourishment is unceasingly renewed1 and the movements of the pulse1 and of inspiration and expiration1 are rapidly performed1 owing to the extreme irritability of all the organs4 ,the mental functions present the same resemblance2 the ideas1 the appetites1 the passions1 have the greatest analogy2 and similar moral dispositions prevail4 ,little girls1 it has been observed1 have in some measure the petulance of little boys1 and these have in some measure the mobility and the inconstancy of little girls4 ,owing to the pelvis not being yet developed1 little girls walk nearly like children of the other sex4 ,these points of resemblance do not continue during a long period3 the female begins to acquire a distinct physiognomy1 and traits which are peculiar to her1 long before we can discern any of the symptoms of puberty2 and although the especial marks which distinguish her sex do not yet show themselves1 the general forms which characterize it may be perceived4 ,these differences1 however1 are only slight modifications1 more easily felt than determined4 ,the cartilaginous extremities of the bones appear to enlarge2 and the mucous substance1 which ultimately gives the soft reliefs which distinguish woman1 is not yet secreted4 ,she is now perhaps more easily distinguished by the nature of her inclinations and the general character of her mind3 while man now seeks to make use of his strength1 woman endeavors to acquire agreeable arts4 ,the movements1 the gait1 of the little girl begin to change4 ,these shades are so much the more sensible as the development is more advanced4 ,still1 woman1 in advancing toward puberty1 appears to remove less than man from her primitive constitution2 she always preserves something of the character proper to children2 and the texture of her organs never loses all its original softness4 ,at the near approach to puberty1 woman becomes daily more perfect4 ,we observe a predominance of the action of the lungs and the arteries2 the pelvis enlarges2 the haunches are rounded2 and the figure acquires elegance4 ,there is in particular a remarkable increase of the capacity of the pelvis1 of which the circumference at last presents the circular form2 it being no longer1 as in the little girl and in man1 the anteroposterior diameter which is the greatest1 but the transverse one4 ,it has been observed that the same occurs in the females of the greater quadrupeds4 ,the pelvis1 however1 does not acquire1 till the moment of perfect puberty1 its proper form and dimensions4 ,the changes which the same cause produces at the surface1 are a general development of the cellular tissue1 the delicacy of all the outlines1 the fineness and the animation of the skin1 and the new state of the bosom4 ,the fire of the eyes1 and the altogether new expression of the physiognomy1 show that there now also exists the sensation of a new want1 which various circumstances may for a time enfeeble or silence1 but can never entirely stifle2 and with it come those tastes1 that direction of the mind1 and those habits1 which are the effect of an internal power now called into activity4 ,the gait and bearing of woman are now no longer the same2 and the voice changes as well as the physiognomy4 ,in all that has yet occurred1 it will be observed that nutrition and growth take place with great rapidity in woman4 ,her internal structure1 her external form1 her faculties1 are all developed promptly4 ,it would appear that the parts which compose her body1 being less1 less compact1 and less strong1 than those of man1 require less time to attain their complete development4 ,woman consequently arrives earlier at the age of puberty1 and her body is commonly1 at twenty years of age1 as completely formed as that of a man at thirty4 ,thus beauty and grace1 as has been observed1 seem to demand of nature less labor and time than the attributes of force and grandeur4 ,in many women1 however1 nutrition languishes even until the sexual organs enter into action1 and determine a revolution under the influence of which growth is accomplished4 ,still it is certain that1 for several years1 the locomotive system predominates in young women1 even in figures promising the ultimate development of the vital system in the highest degree4 ,the second age of woman extends from puberty to the cessation of the menses1 or1 we may say1 from the period of full growth1 the general time of bearing children1 to the time of ceasing to bear--generally perhaps from twenty to forty4 ,it is at the beginning of this period that woman has acquired all her attributes1 her most seducing graces4 ,she is not now distinguished merely by the organs which are the direct instruments of reproduction3 many other differences of structure1 having a relation to her part in life1 present themselves to our view4 ,at this maturer age1 the whole figure is1 in the female1 smaller and slenderer than in the male4 ,the ancients accordingly gave seven heads and a half to the ,venus1 and eight heads and some modules to the ,apollo4 ,the relations between the dimensions of the different parts differ also in the two sexes4 ,in woman1 the head1 shoulders1 and chest1 are small and compact1 while the haunches1 the hips1 the thighs1 and the parts connected with the abdomen1 are ample and large4 ,hence1 her body tapers upward1 as her limbs taper downward4 ,and this is the most remarkable circumstance in her general form4 ,owing to smaller stature1 and to greater size of the abdominal region1 the middle point1 which is at the pubis in the male1 is situated higher in the female4 ,this is the next remarkable circumstance in a general view4 ,the inferior members still continue shorter4 ,in general1 woman is not only less in stature1 and different in her general proportions1 but her haunches are more apart1 her hips more elevated1 her abdomen larger1 her members more rounded1 her soft parts less compact1 her forms more softened1 her traits finer4 ,during youth1 especially1 and among civilized nations1 woman is farther distinguished by the softness1 the smoothness1 the delicacy1 and the polish1 of all the forms1 by the gradual and easy transitions between all the parts1 by the number and the harmony of the undulating lines which these present in every view1 by the beautiful outline of the reliefs1 and by the fineness and the animation of the skin4 ,the soft parts which enter into the composition of woman1 and the cellular tissue which serves to unite them1 are also more delicate and more supple than those of man4 ,all these circumstances indicate very clearly the passive state to which nature has destined woman1 and which will be fully illustrated in a future volume4 ,if1 in a living body1 any part liable to be distended had too much firmness1 or even elasticity1 it might press against some essential organ2 and the liquids being impeded in their course1 would in that case be speedily altered1 if the neighboring parts offered not flexible vessels for their reception4 ,now1 in the body of woman1 certain parts are exposed to suffer great distentions and compressions4 ,it is therefore necessary that her organs should be of such structure as to yield readily to these impressions1 and to supply each other when their respective functions are impeded4 ,from this it follows1 that woman never enjoys existence better1 than when a moderate plumpness bestows on her organs1 without too much weakening them1 all the suppleness of which they are capable4 ,this leads to the consideration of the natural mobility of the organs of woman4 ,their mobility is a necessary consequence1 in the first place1 of their littleness4 ,the movements of all animals1 appear to be executed with more rapidity1 the less their bulk4 ,it has been observed1 that the arteries of the ox beat only thirty-five times1 while those of the sheep beat sixty1 and that the pulse of women is smaller and more rapid than that of men4 ,a second physical quality1 which concurs to render more mobile the various parts of woman1 is their softness4 ,a certain feebleness is the necessary consequence of these two circumstances4 ,but it is thence that spring woman's suppleness and lightness of movement1 and her capacity for grace of attitude4 ,it has been conjectured1 that even the elements of the parts which constitute woman1 have a particular organization1 on which depends the elegance of the forms1 the vivacity of the sensations1 and the lightness of the movements1 which characterize her4 ,the result of these circumstances is that1 while man possesses force and majesty1 woman is distinguished by beauty and grace4 ,the characteristics of woman are less imposing and more amiable2 they inspire less admiration than love4 ,as has been observed1 a single trait of rudeness1 a severe air1 or even the character of majesty1 would injure the effect of womanly beauty4 ,lucian admirably represents to us the god of love frightened at the masculine air of ,minerva4 ,while man1 by force and activity1 surmounts the obstacles which embarrass him1 woman1 by yielding1 withdraws from their action1 and adds to beauty1 a gentle and winning grace which places all the vaunted power of man at her disposal4 ,it is evidently the influence of the organs distinguishing the two sexes1 which is the primary cause of their peculiar beauty4 ,as the liquid which1 in man1 is secreted in certain vessels for the purpose of reproduction1 communicates a general excitement and activity to the character1 so when1 in woman1 the periodical excretion appears1 the breasts expand1 the eyes sparkle1 the countenance becomes more expressive1 but at the same time more timid and reserved1 and a character of flexibility and grace distinguishes every motion4 ,conformably with this view1 the appearance and the manners of eunuchs approach to those of women1 by the softness and feebleness of their organization1 as well as by their timidity1 and by their acute voice4 ,the very opposite is naturally the result of the extirpation of the ovaries in women4 ,pott1 giving an account of the case of a female1 in whom both the ovaries were extirpated1 says1 the person has become thinner1 and more apparently muscular2 her breasts1 which were large1 are gone2 nor has she ever menstruated since the operation1 which is now some years4 ,haighton found that1 by dividing the ,fallopian tubes1 which connect the ovaries with the womb1 sexual feelings were destroyed1 and the ovaries gradually wasted4 ,the women1 also1 in whom the uterus and the ovaries remain inert during life1 approximate in forms and habits to men4 ,it is stated1 in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #ahje1 that an adult female1 in whom the ovaries were defective1 presented a corresponding defect in the state of the constitution4 ,to the same general principle1 it has been observed1 we must refer the partial growth of a beard on females in the decline of life1 and the circumstance that female-birds1 when they have ceased to lay eggs1 occasionally assume the plumage1 and1 to a certain extent1 the other characters of the male4 ,under the influence of this cause1 the first exercise of her new faculty determines remarkable modifications in woman4 ,her neck swells and augments in size-- ,non illam nutrix orienti luce revisens ,hesterno collum poterit circumdare filo2#ca her voice assumes another expression2 her moral habits totally change3 and many women owe to love and marriage more splendid beauty4 ,the women thus happily constituted are not those of hot climates1 but those of cooler regions and calmer temperament1 whose placid features and more elastic forms announce a gentler and more passive love4 ,impassioned women1 on the contrary1 do not so long preserve their freshness3 the expansive force1 from which the organs derived their form and coloring1 abates2 and a less agreeable flaccidity succeeds to the elasticity with which they were endowed1 if the plumpness which adult age commonly brings does not sustain them4 ,during pregnancy and suckling1 the firstmentioned class of women retain a remarkable freshness and plumpness4 ,the lastmentioned class of women most frequently become meager1 and lose their freshness during the continuance of these states4 ,if1 however1 during these states1 suitable precautions and preservative cares be not employed1 it is the first class who most suffer from traces of maternity4 ,conception1 pregnancy1 delivery1 and suckling1 being renewed more or less frequently during the second age1 hasten debility in feeble and ill-constituted women2 especially if misery or an improper mode of life increase the influence of these causes4 ,in the third age of woman1 extending generally from forty to sixty1 the physical form does not suddenly deteriorate2 and1 as has often been observed1 when premature infirmities or misfortunes1 the exercise of an unfavorable profession1 or a wrong employment of life1 have not hastened old age1 women during the third age preserve many of the charms of the preceding one4 ,at this period1 in well-constituted women1 the fat1 being absorbed with less activity1 is accumulated in the cellular tissue under the skin and elsewhere2 and this effaces any wrinkles which might have begun to furrow the skin1 rounds the outlines anew1 and again restores an air of youth and freshness4 ,hence1 this period is called the age of return4 ,this plumpness1 though juvenile lightness and freshness be wanting1 sustains the forms1 and sometimes confers a majestic air1 which1 in women otherwise favorably organized1 still interests for a number of years4 ,the shape certainly is no longer so elegant2 the articulations have less elasticity2 the muscles are more feeble2 the movements are less light2 and in plump women we observe those broken motions1 and in meager ones that stiffness1 which mark the walk or the dance at that age4 ,at this period occurs a remarkable alteration in the organs of voice4 ,women1 therefore1 to whom singing is a profession1 ought to limit its exercise4 ,when women pass happily from the third to the fourth age1 their constitution1 as every one must have observed1 changes entirely2 it becomes stronger3 and nature abandons to individual life all the rest of existence4 ,beauty1 however1 is no more2 form and shape have disappeared2 the plumpness which supported the reliefs has abandoned them2 the sinkings and wrinkles are multiplied2 the skin has lost its polish2 color and freshness have fled for ever4 ,these injuries of time1 it has been observed1 commonly begin by the abdomen1 which loses its polish and its firmness2 the hemispheres of the bosom no longer sustain themselves2 the clavicles project2 the neck becomes meager2 all the reliefs are effaced2 all the forms are altered from roundness and softness to angularity and hardness4 ,that which1 amid these ruins1 still survives for a long time1 is the entireness of the hair1 the placidity or the fineness of the look1 the air of sentiment1 the amiable expression of the countenance1 and1 in women of elegant mind and great accomplishments1 caressing manners and charming graces1 which almost make us forget youth and beauty4 ,finally1 and especially in muscular or nervous women1 the temperament changes1 and the constitution of woman approaches to that of man2 the organs become rigid2 and1 in some unhappy cases1 a beard protrudes4 ,old age and decrepitude finally succeed4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,of ,,the ,,causes ,,of ,,beauty ,,in ,,woman4 ,the crossing of races is often spoken of as a means of perfecting the form of man1 and of developing beauty2 and we are told that it is in this manner that the ,persians have become a beautiful people1 and that many tribes of ,tartar origin have been improved1 especially the ,turks1 who now present to us scarcely anything of the ,mongol4 ,in these general and vague statements1 however1 the mere crossing of different races is always deemed sufficient2 whereas1 every improvement depends on the circumstance that the organization of the races subjected to this operation is duly suited to each other4 ,it is in that way only1 that we can explain the following facts stated by ,moreau3-- ,in one of the great towns of the north of ,france1 the women1 half a century ago1 were rather ugly than pretty2 but a detachment of the guards being quartered there1 and remaining during several years1 the population changed in appearance1 and1 favored by this circumstance1 the town is now indebted to strangers for the beauty of the most interesting portion of its inhabitants4 ,the monks of ,citeaux exercised an influence no less remarkable upon the beauty of the inhabitants of the country around their monastery2 and it may be stated1 as the result of actual observation1 that the young female-peasants of their neighborhood were much more beautiful than those of other cantons4 ,and1 adds this writer1 there can be no doubt that the same effect occurred in the different places whither religious houses attracted foreign inmates1 whom love and pleasure speedily united with the indigenous inhabitants6 ,the other circumstances which contribute to female beauty1 are1 a mild climate1 a fertile soil1 a generous but temperate diet1 a regular mode of life1 favorable education1 the guidance and suppression of passions1 easy manners1 good moral1 social1 and political institutions1 and occupations which do not injure the beautiful proportions of the body4 ,beauty1 accordingly1 is more especially to be found in certain countries4 ,thus1 as has often been observed1 the sanguine temperament is that of the nations of the north2 the phlegmatic is that of cold and moist countries2 and the bilious is that of the greater part of the inhabitants of southern regions4 ,each of these has its degree and modification of beauty4 ,the native country of beauty is not to be found either in regions where cold freezes up the living juices1 or in those where the animal structure is withered by heat4 ,a climate removed from the excessive influence of both these causes constitutes an essential condition in the production of beauty2 and this1 with its effect1 we find between the #ceth and #feth degree of northern latitude1 in ,persia1 the countries bordering upon ,caucasus1 and principally ,tchercassia1 ,georgia and ,mongrelia1 ,turkey in ,europe and ,asia1 ,greece1 ,italy1 some part of ,spain1 a very small part of ,france1 ,england1 ,holland1 some parts of ,germany1 ,poland1 ,denmark1 ,sweden1 and a part of ,norway and even of ,russia4 ,even under the same degree of latitude1 it is observed that the position of the place1 its elevation1 its vicinity to the sea1 the direction of the winds1 the nature of the soil1 and all the peculiarities of locality which constitute the climate proper to each place1 occasion great differences in beauty4 ,in relation to the causes of beauty1 some observations which seem to be important1 arise out of the remarks of de ,pauw on the ,greeks4 ,de ,pauw endeavored to show1 that1 though the men of ancient ,greece were handsome1 the women of that country were never beautiful4 ,he thence accounted for the excessive admiration which there prevailed of courtesans from ,ionia1 c4 ,this1 however1 was so contrary to the notions formed of the beauty of that people from what was known of their taste1 that it was considered as a paradox4 ,travellers1 accordingly1 sought for such beauty in the women of modern ,greece4 ,they were disappointed in not finding it4 ,what rendered this the more remarkable was1 that in various places they found the ancient and beautiful cast of countenance among the men1 and not among the women of that country--thus corroborating in all respects the doctrine of de ,pauw4 ,on considering that doctrine1 however1 and comparing it with more extended observations1 it would seem to be only a particular application of a more general law unknown to de ,pauw--that1 in most countries1 one of the sexes excels the other in beauty4 ,thus1 in some parts of the highlands of ,scotland1 we find the men as remarkable for beauty as the women for ugliness2 while1 in some eastern counties of ,england1 we find precisely the reverse4 ,the strong features1 the dark curled hair and the muscular form1 of the highlander1 are as unsuitable to the female sex1 as the soft features1 the flaxen hair1 and the short and tapering limbs1 of the woman of the eastern coast1 are unsuitable to the male4 ,if the soil1 climate1 and productions1 of these countries be considered1 we discover the causes of the differences alluded to4 ,the hardships of mountain life are favorable to the stronger development of the locomotive system1 which ought more or less to characterize the male2 and the luxuriance of the plains is favorable to those developments of the nutritive system1 which ought to characterize the female4 ,this is illustrated even in inferior animals4 ,oxen become large-bodied and fat in low and rich soils1 but are remarkable for shortness of legs2 while1 in higher and drier situations1 the bulk of the body is less1 and the limbs are stronger and more muscular4 ,the quantity and quality of the aliments are another cause1 not less powerful in regard to beauty4 ,abundance1 or rather a proper mediocrity1 as to nutritious food1 contributes to perfection in this respect4 ,beauty is also1 in some measure1 a result of civilization4 ,women1 accordingly1 of consummate beauty1 are found only in civilized nations4 ,professions can rarely be said to favor beauty2 but they do not impede its development when their exercise does not compel to laborious employments an organization suited only to sedentary occupations4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,of ,,the ,,standard ,,of ,,beauty ,,in ,,woman4 ,the ideas of the beautiful vary in different individuals1 and in different nations4 ,hence1 many men of talent have thought them altogether relative and arbitrary4 ,ask1 says ,voltaire1 a ,negro of ,guinea what is beauty3 the beautiful is for him a black oily skin1 deep-seated eyes1 and a broad flat nose4 ,perfect beauty1 says ,payne ,knight1 taking perfect in its most strict1 and beauty in its most comprehensive signification1 ought to be equally pleasing to all2 but of this1 instances are scarcely to be found3 for1 as to taking them1 or1 indeed1 any examples for illustration1 from the other sex of our own species1 it is extremely fallacious2 as there can be little doubt that all male animals think the females of their own species the most beautiful productions of nature4 ,at least we know this to be the case among the different varieties of men1 whose respective ideas of the beauty of their females are as widely different as those of man1 and any other animal1 can be4 ,the sable ,africans view with pity and contempt the marked deformity of the ,europeans2 whose mouths are compressed1 their noses pinched1 their cheeks shrunk1 their hair rendered lank and flimsy1 their bodies lengthened and emaciated1 and their skins unnaturally bleached by shade and seclusion1 and the baneful influence of a cold humid climate4444 ,who shall decide which party is right1 or which is wrong2 or whether the black or white model be1 according to the laws of nature1 the most perfect specimen of a perfect woman8444 ,the sexual desires of brutes are probably more strictly natural inclinations1 and less changed or modified by the influence of acquired ideas1 or social habits1 than those of any race of mankind2 but their desires seem1 in general1 to be excited by smell1 rather than by sight or contact4 ,if1 however1 a boar can think a sow the sweetest and most lovely of living creatures1 we can have no difficulty in believing that he also thinks her the most beautiful4 ,among the various reasons1 says ,reynolds1 why we prefer one part of nature's works to another1 the most general1 ,i believe1 is habit and custom2 custom makes1 in a certain sense1 white black1 and black white2 it is custom alone determines our preference of the color of the ,europeans to the ,ethiopians1 and they1 for the same reason1 prefer their own color to ours4 ,i suppose nobody will doubt1 if one of their painters were to paint the goddess of beauty1 but that he would represent her black1 with thick lips1 flat nose1 and woolly hair2 and it seems to me1 he would act very unnaturally if he did not2 for by what criterion will any one dispute the propriety of his idea8 ,we indeed say1 that the form and color of the ,european are preferable to those of the ,ethiopian2 but ,i know of no other reason we have for it1 but that we are more accustomed to it4 ,the coquetry of several tribes1 it has been observed1 leads them to mutilate and disfigure themselves1 to flatten their forehead1 to enlarge their mouth and ears1 to blacken their skin1 and cover it with the marks of suffering4--,we make ugliness in that way1 says ,montaigne4 ,but1 to confine our observations to individual nations1 and these civilized ones2 we every day see irregular or even common figures preferred to those which the enlightened judge deems beautiful4 ,how1 then1 it is asked1 amid these different tastes1 these opposite opinions1 are we to admit ideas of absolute beauty8 ,these are the strongest objections against all ideas of absolute and essential beauty in woman4 ,to establish1 in opposition to these objections1 a standard of womanly beauty1 equal talent has been employed2 but the reasoning1 though sufficient for such objections1 has been rather of a vague description4 ,as1 however1 the subject is of great importance1 ,i shall endeavor to abridge and concentrate the arguments of which it consists1 before ,i point out the surer method which is founded on the ,elements of ,beauty already established4 ,to refute these objections1 it has been thought sufficient to examine the chief conditions which are necessary1 in order to appreciate properly the impression of those combinations1 which woman presents1 and to expose the principal circumstances which are opposed to the accuracy of opinions1 and judgments respecting them4 ,the conditions necessary to enable us to pronounce respecting the real attributes of beauty1 are1 first1 a temperate climate1 under which nature brings to perfection all her productions1 and gives to their forms and functions1 generally1 and to those of man in particular1 all the development of which they are capable1 without excess in the action of some1 and defect in that of others2--secondly1 in man in particular1 a brain capable of vigorous thought1 sound judgment1 and exquisite taste2--and thirdly1 a very advanced civilization1 without which these faculties cannot be duly exercised or attain any perfection4 ,it is evident enough that none of these conditions are to be met with in the whimsical judgments and tastes of many nations4 ,the consequence of the absence of these conditions1 in relation to the uncivilized and ignorant inhabitants of hot climates1 is marked in their deeming characteristics of beauty1 the thick lips of ,negresses1 the long and pendent mamm of the women in several nations both of ,africa and ,america1 or the gross forms of those of ,egypt4 ,the consequence of the absence of these conditions1 in relation to the uncivilized and ignorant inhabitants of cold climates1 is equally marked in their deeming characteristics of beauty the short figures of the women of icy regions1 in which1 deprived of the vivifying action of heat and light1 living beings appear only in a state of deformity and alteration2 and in their similarly deeming beautiful the obliquely-placed eyes of the ,chinese and ,japanese1 and the crushed nose of the ,calmucs1 c41 c4 ,those who take these views1 which are true1 though somewhat vague and inconclusive1 should1 ,i think1 have seen and added1 that the deviations from beauty in the forms of the women of hot climates are commonly in excess1 owing to the great development of organs of sense or of sex2 while the deviations from beauty1 in the forms of the women of cold climates1 are commonly in defect1 owing to the imperfect development of organs of sense1 and of the general figure4 ,this view renders it more clear that both these kinds of deviation are deformities1 incompatible with the consistent and harmonious development of the whole4 ,and without this view1 the preceding arguments are indeed too vague to be easily tenable4 ,in relation more especially to the second of the preceding conditions1 the possession of a brain capable of vigorous thought1 sound judgment1 and exquisite taste1 ,hume observes that the same excellence of faculties which contributes to the improvement of reason1 the same clearness of conception1 the same exactness of distinction1 the same vivacity of apprehension1 are essential to the operations of true taste4 ,here1 again1 those who take these true1 but vague and inconclusive views1 should1 ,i think1 have seen and added that this excellence of the thinking faculties is incompatible with the obviously constricted brain1 which is a defect common both to the ,negro and the ,mongol--a defect which is incompatible with beauty either of form or function1 and which ,i have shown1 in my work on physiognomy1 to be intimately connected with climate4 ,this renders the argument sufficiently strong4 ,those who employ these arguments as to a standard of beauty in woman1 proceed to show the modes in which defects of this kind unfit persons to judge of beauty2 and though their farther arguments are similarly vague1 they nevertheless tend to support the truth4 ,if1 say they1 among the forms and the features which we compare1 some are associated by us with certain qualities or sentiments which please us1 they equally lead us to a predilection or prejudice1 in consequence of which the most common or the least beautiful figure is preferred to the most perfect4 ,in this case1 the imagination has perverted the judgment4 ,winckelmann truly observes1 that young people are most exposed to such errors3 placed under the influence of sentiment and of illusion1 they often regard1 as very beautiful1 women who have nothing capable of charming1 but an animated physiognomy1 in which breathe desire1 voluptuousness1 and languor4 ,the results of this as to life may easily be foreseen4 ,of the excess to which such prejudice may go1 a good instance is adduced in ,descartes1 who preferred women who squinted to the most perfect beauties1 because squinting was one of the most remarkable features of the woman who was the first object of his affections4 ,winckelmann observes that even artists themselves have not always an exquisite sentiment of beauty3 their first impressions have often an influence which they cannot overcome1 nor even weaken1 especially when1 at a distance from the admirable productions of the ancients1 they cannot rectify their first judgments4 ,circumstances of profession1 it is truly observed1 may also lead to associations of ideas capable of deceiving us in our opinions respecting beauty4 ,men are apt to refer everything to their exclusive knowledge and the mode of judging which it employs4 ,the what does that prove of the mathematician1 when judging the finest products of imagination1 has passed into a proverb4 ,and every one knows of that other cultivator of the same science1 who declared that he never could discover anything sublime in ,milton's ,paradise ,lost1 but that he could never read the queries at the end of one of the books in ,newton's ,optics1 without his hair standing on end and his blood running cold4 ,the necessity of the third condition1 namely1 advanced civilization1 to a right judgment respecting a standard of beauty in woman1 is evident1 when we consider that it requires a taste formed by the habit of bringing things together and of comparing them4 ,one accustomed to see1 says ,hume1 and examine1 and weigh the several performances1 admired in different ages and nations1 can alone rate the merits of a work exhibited to his view1 and assign its proper rank among the productions of genius4 ,from all this1 it is certainly evident--not merely that that which pleases us is not always beautiful2 that numerous causes may form so many sources of diversity and of error on this subject2 and that we cannot thence conclude that the ideas of beauty are relative and arbitrary--but that certain conditions are indispensable to form the judgment respecting beauty2 and that the principal of these conditions are1 a temperate climate and fertile soil1 a well-developed brain1 sound judgment1 and delicate taste1 and a highly-advanced civilization4 ,this is perfectly conformable with the practical fact that it was under a most delightful climate1 among a people of unrivalled judgment1 genius1 and taste1 and amid a civilization which the world has never since witnessed1 that the laws of ,nature as to beauty were discovered1 and applied to the production of those immortal forms which the unfavorable accidents occurring to the existence of all beings1 have never permitted ,nature herself to combine in any one individual4 ,though ,i have endeavored to amend these arguments respecting a standard of beauty in woman1 ,i prefer those which may be founded on the doctrine ,i have laid down respecting the ,elements of ,beauty4 ,it will be found that the greatest number of these elements are combined in the woman whom we commonly deem the most beautiful4 ,to illustrate this1 it will be sufficient to examine their most striking and distinctive characteristic1 namely1 their fair complexion1 which is intimately connected with all their other characteristics1 and which gives increased splendor and effect to their form and features4 ,it is remarkable that even ,alison1 though the advocate of all beauty being dependant on association1 grants that the pure white of the countenance is expressive to us1 according to its different degrees1 of purity1 fineness1 gayety2 that the dark complexion1 on the other hand1 is expressive to us of melancholy1 gloom1 or sadness2 and that so far is this from being a fanciful relation1 that it is generally admitted by those who have the best opportunities of ascertaining it1 the professors of medical science4 ,he also observes that black eyes are commonly united with the dark1 and blue eyes with the fair complexion2 and that1 in the color of the eyes1 blue1 according to its different degrees1 is expressive of softness1 gentleness1 cheerfulness1 or severity2 and black1 of thought1 or gravity1 or of sadness4 ,even this1 however1 is less conclusive than the pathological or physiological facts stated by ,cheselden1 as to the boy restored by him to sight1 namely1 that the first view of a black object gave him great pain1 and that that of a negro-woman struck him with horror4 ,independently of this1 white1 as every one is aware1 is the color which reflects the greatest number of luminous rays2 and1 for that reason1 it bestows the brilliance and splendor upon beautiful forms with which all are charmed4 ,winckelmann1 indeed1 observes that the head of ,scipio the elder1 in the ,palazzo ,rospigliosi1 executed in basalt of a deep green1 is very beautiful4 ,but1 in that case1 it is the form1 not the color1 of the head1 that is beautiful4 ,while greenness of complexion would not be beautiful in a man1 it would certainly be hideously ugly in a woman4 ,moreover1 while1 in a dead black or any dark color of face1 it cannot be pretended that1 considering its color only1 we should have more than blackness or darkness for admiration1 it is evident that1 in a fair complexion1 we have1 in addition to its general brilliance or splendor1 the infinite variety of its teints1 their exquisite blendings1 and the beautiful expression of every transient emotion4 ,i have now only to expose the sophistry which ,payne ,knight has employed upon this subject4 ,i am aware1 he says1 indeed1 that it would be no easy task to persuade a lover that the forms upon which he dotes with such rapture1 are not really beautiful1 independent of the medium of affection1 passion1 and appetite1 through which he views them4 ,but before he pronounces either the infidel or the skeptic guilty of blasphemy against nature1 let him take a mould from the lovely features or lovely bosom of this masterpiece of creation1 and cast a plum-pudding in it 7an object by no means disgusting to most men's appetite71 and ,i think he will no longer be in raptures with the form1 whatever he may be with the substance4 ,now1 it happens that a grosser incongruity can scarcely be supposed than that which exists between lovely features or a lovely bosom and a plum-pudding1 or between the sentiment of love and the propensity to gluttony2 and therefore to place the substance of the pudding1 in which internal composition is alone of importance1 and shape of none1 under the form of features or a bosom1 in which internal structure is unknown or unthought of1 and shape or other external properties are alone considered1 is a gross and offensive substitution1 intended1 not to enlighten judgment respecting form1 but to pervert it1 and to degrade the higher object by comparison with the lower one4 ,the shape1 moreover1 is a true sign in the one case1 and a false one in the other4--,of nearly similar character is the following3-- ,if a man1 perfectly possessed both of feeling and sight--conversant with1 and sensible to the charms of women--were even to be in contact with what he conceived to be the most beautiful and lovely of the sex1 and at the moment when he was going to embrace her1 he was to discover that the parts which he touched only were feminine or human2 and that1 in the rest of her form1 she was an animal of a different species1 or a person of his own sex1 the total and instantaneous change of his sentiments from one extreme to another1 would abundantly convince him that his sexual desires depended as little upon that abstract sense of touch1 as upon that of sight4 ,that1 in detecting an imposture of this kind1 admiration would give place to disgust1 only proves that the external qualities which were admired were the natural and appropriate signs of the internal qualities expected to be found under them1 and that they now cease to interest only because they have become1 not naturally less the signs of these qualities1 but because they have by a mere trick been rendered insignificant1 because truth and nature have been violated1 and because the mind feels only disgust at the imposture4 ,i cannot help saying that if ,knight was in earnest when he framed such arguments1 his mind was sometimes dull as well as perverse4 ,the redness of any morbid inflammation1 he says1 may display a gradation of teint1 which1 in a pink or a rose1 we should think as beautiful as 'the purple light of love and bloom of young desire2' and the cadaverous paleness of death or disease1 a degree of whiteness1 which1 in a piece of marble or alabaster1 we should deem to be as pure1 as that of the most delicate skin of the fairest damsel of the frigid zone3 consequently1 the mere visible beauty is in both the same2 and the difference consists entirely in mental sympathies1 excited by certain internal stimuli1 and guided by habit4 ,there is here the same confusion of heterogeneous and inconsistent objects1 as in the preceding cases4 ,to judge of beauty in simple objects1 each quality may be separately considered2 and in this view1 if the inflammation presented the same teint as the pink or the rose1 then1 as a mere teint1 abstracted from every other quality of the respective objects1 it would be precisely as beautiful in the one as in the other2 but as the color of a rose on the human body would indicate that flow of blood to the skin which can result only from excessive action1 it ceases to be considered intrinsically1 and is regarded only as a sign of disease4 ,the same observations are applicable to the other case here adduced4 ,the ,african black1 he says1 when he first beholds an ,european complexion1 thinks both its red and white morbid and unnatural1 and of course disgusting4 ,his sunburnt beauties express their modesty and sensibility by variations in the sable teints of their countenances1 which are equally attractive to him1 as the most delicate blush of red to us4 ,in treating of the ,elements of ,beauty1 ,i have endeavored to show1 that the more those simpler elements of beauty1 which characterize inanimate bodies1 are retained in more compound ones1 the more beautiful these become2 but that the latter retain these elements in very different degrees1 dependant upon internal or external circumstances1 and that such elementary beauty is often sacrificed to the higher ones of life or mind4 ,now1 in the case of the ,african1 he is born whitish1 like the ,european1 but he speedily loses such beauty for that of adaptation1 by his color1 to the hot climate in which he exists4 ,the latter beauty is the higher and more important one1 and forms for the ,african a profitable exchange2 but the ,european is still more fortunate1 because1 in the region he inhabits1 the simple and elementary beauty is compatible with that of adaptation to climate4 ,the climate of ,africa1 the cerebral structure of its inhabitants1 and the degree of their civilization1 are as unfavorable to the existence of beauty as to the power of judging respecting it4 ,what he adds as to variation in sable countenances is a mere exaggeration4 ,were it possible for a person to judge of the beauty of color in his own species1 upon the same principles and with the same impartiality as he judges of it in other objects1 both animal1 vegetable1 and mineral1 there can be no doubt that mixed teints would be preferred2 and a pimpled face have the same superiority over a smooth one1 as a zebra has over an ass1 a variegated tulip over a plain one1 or a column of jasper or porphyry over one of a common red or white marble4 ,here the same mistake is committed4 ,elementary beauty is preferred to that of adaptation to climate1 fitness for physiognomical expression1 c4 ,knight's other arguments all involve similar errors1 and admit of similar answers4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,three ,,species ,,of ,,female ,,beauty ,,generally ,,viewed4 ,these have been already briefly mentioned4 ,they are repeated and illustrated here4 ,the view which is given of them will throw light on the celebrated temperaments of the ancients4 ,it will appear that all the disputes which have occurred respecting these1 have arisen from their being founded1 not on precise data1 but on empirical observation1 at a time when the great truths of anatomy and physiology were unknown2 that1 to the rectification of the doctrine of temperaments1 the arrangement of these sciences1 laid down in a preceding chapter1 is indispensable2 that some of these temperaments are comparatively simple1 and consist in an excessive or a defective action of locomotive1 nutritive1 or thinking organs2 that others1 which have been confounded with these1 are1 on the contrary1 compound2 and that1 from this want of classification1 their nature has been imperfectly understood4 ,to make this clear1 it is necessary to lay before the reader a succinct view of the doctrine of temperaments4 ,the ancients classed individuals in one or other of four temperaments1 founded on the hypothesis of four humors1 of which the blood was supposed to be composed--the red part1 phlegm1 yellow and black bile4 ,these were regarded as the elements of the body1 and their respective predominance passed for the cause of the differences which it presented4 ,hence were derived the names of the sanguine1 the phlegmatic1 the choleric1 and the melancholic temperament4 ,although the hypothesis on which this doctrine was founded is universally discarded1 the phenomena which observation had taught the ancients1 and which they had hypothetically connected with these elements1 were so true1 that that classification has been more or less employed in all the hypotheses which have since been invented to explain their cause2 and their nomenclature has continued in use to the present day4 ,a temperament may be defined a peculiar state of the system1 depending on the relative proportion of its different masses1 and the relative energy of its different functions1 by which it acquires a tendency to certain actions4 ,the predominance of any particular organ or system of organs1 its excess of force1 extends its sphere of activity to all the other functions1 and modifies them in a peculiar manner4 ,thus1 conforming in the illustration to the preceding arrangement1 in one person1 the muscles are more frequently employed than the brain2 in another1 the stomach or the organs of reproduction are more employed than the muscles2 and in a third1 the brain and nerves are more employed than either4 ,this predominance or excess establishes the temperament4 ,the relative feebleness of any organ or system of organs1 similarly forms modifications not less important4 ,thus in one person1 the organs of the abdomen are less employed2 in another1 those of the chest2 in a third1 the brain4 ,disease1 it is observed1 commonly enters into the organization by these feeble points3 death even attacks them first2 extends afterward from one to another2 and makes progress more or less rapid1 according to the importance of the organ primitively affected4 ,temperaments1 however1 vary infinitely4 ,it may be said that every individual has a peculiar one1 to which he owes his mode of existence and his degree of health1 ability1 and happiness4 ,the temperament1 moreover1 of each individual is not always characterized by well-marked symptoms2 and even where it has been strongly marked by nature1 education1 age1 the influence of climate1 the exercise of professions and trades1 and various habits1 produce in it infinite changes4 ,temperaments also combine together1 so that all men are1 in some degree1 at once sanguine and bilious1 or otherwise compound4 ,thus all intermediate shades of temperament are produced2 and it is often difficult1 or1 under particular circumstances1 impossible1 to determine under which temperament individuals may be classed4 ,the simple temperaments are therefore abstractions1 which it is difficult to realize2 and the influence of any temperament is sometimes undiscoverable except in some extraordinary circumstances of disorder or disease1 during which it may be observed4 ,cullen admits the four temperaments of ,hippocrates1 and remarks concerning them1 that it is probable they were first founded upon observation1 and afterward adapted to the theory of the ancients1 since we find they have a real existence4 ,dr4 ,prichard remarks1 that this division of temperaments is by no means a fanciful distinction4 ,to the four temperaments of ,hippocrates1 ,gregory adds a fifth1 the nervous temperament4 ,thus are formed five temperaments generally admitted1 namely1 #ast1 the phlegmatic or relaxed2 #b;d1 the sanguine arterial2 #c;d1 the sanguine venous or bilious2 #dth1 the nervous2 and1 #eth1 the muscular or athletic4 ,some writers join to these the partial temperaments which determine the ascendency of the functions exercised by particular organs2 whence principally come the temperaments which they call the cerebral1 epigastric1 abdominal1 hepatic1 genital1 c4 ,as already said1 it will in the sequel appear that some of these temperaments are comparatively simple1 that others are compound1 and that from this want of classification1 their nature has been imperfectly understood4#cb ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,first ,,species ,,of ,,beauty--,,beauty ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive ,,system4 ,the average stature of woman1 as already said1 is two or three inches less than that of man4 ,the bones of woman remain always smaller than those of man2 the cylindrical ones being more slender1 and the flat ones thinner1 while the former are also rounder4 ,the muscles render the surfaces of the bones less uneven2 the projections of the latter are less2 and all their cavities and impressions have less depth4 ,the bones of woman have likewise less hardness than those of man4 ,such being the solid and fundamental parts of this system in woman1 the most remarkable circumstances in their combination should next be noticed4 ,in woman1 the magnitude of the pelvis or lower part of the trunk1 has the greatest influence on the apparent proportion of parts1 and on the general figure4 ,the most remarkable differences between the two sexes1 in relation to this system1 are consequently those presented by the inferior and superior part of the trunk in each4 ,the breast and the haunches are in an inverse proportion in the two sexes4 ,man has the breast larger and wider than that of woman3 woman has the haunches less circumscribed than those of man4 ,the upper part of the body is also less prominent1 and the lower part more prominent1 in woman than in man2 and therefore1 when they stand upright1 or lie on the back1 the breast is most prominent in the male1 and the pubes in the female4 ,the indication this affords of the fitness of woman for impregnation1 gestation1 and parturition1 is obvious4 ,from the same cause1 the back of woman is more hollow4 ,still farther to increase the capacity of the lower part of the body1 woman has the loins more extended than man4 ,this portion of her body is in every way enlarged at the expense of neighboring parts4 ,hence1 the chest is shorter above2 and the thighs and legs are shorter below4 ,the thigh-bones of woman are also more separated superiorly2 the knees are more approximated2 the feet are smaller2 and the base of support is less extended4 ,the reader desirous of thoroughly understanding these matters1 should compare the beautiful plates of the male and female skeletons by ,albinus and ,soemmerring4 ,beauty of the locomotive system in woman1 depends especially upon these fundamental facts1 and those tendencies of structure which thus distinguish her from man4 ,in the woman possessing ,,this ,,species of beauty1 therefore1 the face is generally somewhat bony and oblong2--the neck1 less connected with the nutritive system1 is rather long and tapering2--the shoulders1 without being angular1 are sufficiently broad and definite for muscular attachments2--the bosom1 a vital organ1 is of but moderate dimensions2--the waist1 enclosing smaller nutritive organs1 is remarkable for fine proportion1 and resembles1 in some respects1 an inverted cone2--the haunches1 for the same reason1 are but moderately expanded2--the thighs are proportional2--the arms1 as well as the limbs1 being formed chiefly of locomotive organs1 are rather long and moderately tapering2--the hands and feet are moderately small2--the complexion1 owing to the inferiority of the nutritive system1 is often rather dark2--and the hair is frequently dark and strong4--,the whole figure is precise1 striking1 and often brilliant4--,from its proportions1 it sometimes seems almost aerial2 and we would imagine1 that1 if our hands were placed under the lateral parts of the tapering waist of a woman thus characterized1 the slightest pressure would suffice to throw her into the air4 ,to this class belong generally the more firm1 vigorous1 and even actively-impassioned women3 though it may doubtless boast many of greatly modified character4 ,first ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty4 ,it may here be observed1 that the varieties or modifications of each species of beauty naturally correspond with the greater or less development of some one of the various organs on which the species is founded4 ,thus1 the modifications of beauty of the locomotive system correspond with the greater or less development of the bones1 the ligaments1 or the muscles2 those of the nutritive system correspond with the greater or less development of the absorbents1 the bloodvessels1 or the glands2 and those of the thinking system correspond with the greater or less development of the organs of sense1 the brain1 or the cerebel4 ,a little reflection will show1 that some of these modifications will be more1 and others less beautiful4 ,to understand the present variety1 the bony structure on which it especially depends1 must now be more minutely described4 ,commencing with the trunk of the body--the chest in woman is shorter but more expanded2 the breast-bone is shorter but wider2 the two upper ribs are flatter2 the collar-bones are more straight or less curved1 and do not present that prominent relief which appears on the chest of man2 the shoulders are carried farther back1 and project less from the trunk4 ,the haunches1 as already stated1 are proportionally wider in woman than in man1 and the interior cavity of the pelvis1 which is between them1 being adapted to gestation1 is more capacious4 ,this greater capacity of the pelvis arises from the lateral parts having in woman more convexity outward2 from the bones called ossa pubis1 which form the anterior part1 touching at a smaller number of points1 and running obliquely or forming a greater angle1 to enlarge the space which is between them and the inferior extremity of the posterior part of the pelvis2 from the arch of the pubis being larger2 from the greater concavity and breadth of the os sacrum or posterior bone of the pelvis1 its posterior part forming a greater prominence outward2 and from the whole pelvis being thus wider and less deep1 its circumference approaching more to the circular form4 ,the cavities1 it may be added1 in which the heads of the thigh-bones are received1 are of course farther apart3 they are also oblique and less deep4 ,the arms of woman are shorter than in man4--,as these members are well marked in beauty of the locomotive system1 they may the more fully be considered here4--,the arms1 and especially their extremities1 are susceptible of a degree of beauty of which we see few examples4 ,their bases1 the bones1 ligaments1 and muscles1 belong to the locomotive system2 and their fundamental beauty consequently depends upon its proportions2 but to the nutritive system are owing the circumstances that1 in woman1 the arm is fatter and more rounded1 has softer forms and more flowing and purer outlines4 ,the hand in woman is smaller1 more plump1 more soft1 and more white4 ,it is peculiarly beautiful when full2 when it is gently dimpled over the first joints2 when the fingers are long1 round1 tapering toward the ends2 when the other joints are marked by slight reliefs and shadows2 and when the fingers are delicate and flexible4 ,beauty of the hand becomes the more precious1 because it is the principal organ of a sense which may be considered as the most valuable of all4 ,in regard to the lower extremities1 it has been observed1 that the lateral convexity of the pelvis causes the bones of the thighs attached to them to be farther separated from each other2 and this separation of the bones of the thighs causes an increase of the size of the haunches4 ,it is over the posterior part of the space thus produced1 that we observe the reliefs which the inferior members present superiorly1 and which unite them with the trunk1 by forms so beautifully rounded4 ,the thighs are also proportionally larger1 on account of this separation3 they are more rounded1 as well as much more voluminous3 they are also more curved before than in man4 ,at their inferior part1 they approximate2 and the knees project a little inward4 ,it has been truly observed1 that this conformation manifests1 relatively to gestation and parturition1 advantages of which the exterior expression is not found in the women who are commonly regarded as well made1 and who1 however1 are not so1 if the best conformation or beauty result from a direct and well-marked relation between the form of the organs and their functions4 ,it is owing to the thighs of woman being thus carried more inward when she walks1 that the change of the point of gravity which marks each step1 is in her much more remarkable4 ,all the other parts of the inferior members are in general distinguished by forms more softly rounded2 the leg is remarkable for its delicacy2 the long line of the anterior bone is entirely hid under its envelope2 its inferior part is shaped with more elegance2 the foot is smaller2 and the base of support is less extended4 ,the feet1 like the hands1 are susceptible of a kind of beauty of which nature is sparing4 ,from all this it appears that the only bones which nature tends to enlarge in woman are those of the pelvis2 that all the rest are small2 and that they proportionally diminish in size1 as we pass from that central part to the extremities4 ,the ,,first ,,modification1 therefore1 of this species of beauty1 is that in which the development of the bones1 those of the pelvis excepted1 is proportionally small4 ,this character will be especially apparent where the long bones approach the surface2 as in the arm immediately above the wrist1 and1 in the leg1 immediately above the ankle4 ,its effect will be proportionally delicate and feminine4 ,various subordinate modifications of this kind of beauty are found in various countries1 and under the influence of various circumstances4 ,the women of ,rome1 we are told1 present beauty of the shoulders in the highest degree1 when they arrive at that period of life in which plumpness succeeds to juvenile elasticity4 ,it has been suggested1 that the ,greek or ,ionian women1 whose arms were of so perfect a form1 owed that beauty in some measure to the custom of leaving them nude1 or covered only by loose drapery3 as in that case1 no pressure constricted the roundness of the fleshy parts1 and prevented their development2 no ligature1 binding the upper part of the arm1 altered the color of the skin2 and the arm1 being always uncovered1 received at the toilet the same attention as other parts4 ,hence1 it is supposed antique statuary has left us such admirable models of the beauty of this part4 ,it is certainly not improbable that we may attribute the absence of this beauty1 in some measure1 to a custom which1 in many cases1 medicine may approve1 but which is unfavorable to the arm1 that of wearing long sleeves2 but want of exercise is its great cause4 ,the form of the hand often announces the occupation of the person to whom it belongs1 and sometimes even her particular capabilities4 ,there certainly are hands that we may call intellectual2 and there are others that we may call foolish or stupid4 ,of the hand1 ,lavater says1 that1 whether in movement or in repose1 its expression cannot be mistaken3 its most tranquil position indicates our natural dispositions2 its flexions1 our actions and our passions4 ,the ancients1 it has been observed1 attached much importance to the form of the feet3 the philosophers did not neglect it in the general view of the physiognomy2 and the historians as well as the poets made mention of their beauty1 in speaking of ,polyxene1 ,aspasia1 and others2 as they did of their deformities in speaking of the emperor ,domitian4 ,perfection or deformity of the feet is no doubt in general hereditary2 but good management will preserve the former of these1 and repair the latter4 ,we commonly deform these parts by means of our shoes3 the second toe1 observes a writer on this subject1 which naturally projects most1 as we see from the antique1 is arrested in its development1 and the foot1 which ought1 in the outline of its extremity1 to approach to the elegant form of the ellipsis1 is rounded without beauty1 and is disfigured by our ridiculous compressions4#cc ,second ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty4 ,the joints generally are small in woman1 and especially so in the extremities4 ,the elbow joint is softly rounded2 and the various joints of the fingers are marked chiefly by little reliefs and faint shadows4 ,the articulation of the knee is feebly indicated2 the ankles are disposed in such a manner as to offer only agreeable outlines2 and there are dimples over the first joints of the toes1 with exceedingly gentle indications of the other joints4 ,the ,,second ,,modification1 therefore1 of this species of beauty1 is that in which the development of the ligaments and the articulations they form1 is proportionally small4 ,this conformation will be especially apparent--in the arm1 at the wrist--and1 in the leg1 at the ankle4 ,its effect will be proportionally handsome4 ,third ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty4 ,the muscles of women are more slender and feeble than those of man2 their bundles are rounder2 their fibres are finer1 more humid1 soft1 and delicate1 and less compact2 their central parts or bellies are less prominent2 their reliefs do not appear in any strength at the surface of the body2 but being1 on the contrary1 surrounded on all sides by a loose cellular tissue1 they only render that surface beautifully rounded4 ,although1 however1 the muscular system of woman is weaker1 and the muscles proportionally smaller1 yet1 as already said1 in some parts the muscular system is more developed than in man4 ,this1 owing to the magnitude of the pelvis1 is most remarkable about the thighs4 ,the muscles of these parts having larger origins from the pelvis1 and being less compressed by reciprocal contact1 have more liberty to extend themselves4 ,it is from this1 that results much of the delicacy of the female form1 as well as the ease1 suppleness1 and capability of grace in its movements4 ,it is otherwise in all parts remote from the pelvis4 ,women1 accordingly1 can less be said to have calves1 than legs which1 like their arms and fingers1 gently taper4 ,the ,,third ,,modification1 therefore1 of this species of beauty1 is that in which the development of the muscles is proportionally large around the pelvis1 and delicate elsewhere4 ,this conformation being concealed by the drapery1 may nevertheless be conjectured from the imperfect view of the hip1 or of the calf of the leg1 or more accurately by means of the external indications of forms which are given in a subsequent chapter4 ,its effect will be proportionally elegant4 ,woman's power of muscular motion being thus limited to the vicinity of the pelvis1 that of her extremities is generally feeble4 ,other causes contribute to this4 ,thus1 with regard to the upper extremities1 it has been observed1 that the collar-bone1 not separating so much the arm from the axis of the body1 the extent of its movements is limited2 and this circumstance explains why women1 who wish to overcome great resistances with the superior members1 experience difficulty in doing so--why1 for example1 when they wish to throw a stone1 they are obliged to turn the body on the foot opposite to the arm with which they throw4 ,thus also the largeness of the pelvis1 and the approximation of the knees1 influence the gait of woman1 and render it vacillating and unsteady4 ,conscious of this1 women1 in countries where the nutritive system in general and the pelvis in particular are large1 affect a greater degree of this vacillation and unsteadiness4 ,an example of this is seen in the lateral and rotary motion which is given to the pelvis in walking1 by certain classes of the women of ,london4 ,for the same reason1 united to a smaller foot1 and some other circumstances1 women1 it is observed1 who execute gentle and light movements with so much skill1 do not attempt with advantage great evolutions1 run with difficulty and without grace1 and fly--in order to be caught1 as ,rousseau has said4 ,in woman1 however1 the muscular fibre is thus soft1 yielding1 feeble1 and incapable of great evolutions1 because it is necessary that it should easily adapt itself to remarkable changes4 ,from all this1 from women having more address in the use of their fingers1 from their aptitude for little and light domestic works1 the care of children1 and sedentary occupations1 it is evident that they cannot devote themselves to toilsome labors without struggling against their organization1 and suffering proportionally4 ,the voice being connected with the motive organs1 it may here be noticed that the larynx or flute part of the throat in woman is more contracted and less prominent than in man2 that the glottis does not enlarge in the same proportion2 that the tongue-bone is much smaller2 and that the tongue1 its muscles1 and the organs of speech in general1 being1 like all the other parts1 more mobile1 young girls articulate and pronounce much more quickly4 ,their voice is also so much more acute1 that if man and woman sing in unison1 there is always between them the relation of an octave1 which forms the most natural and most agreeable consonance4 ,it is evidently the ,,union of all that is good in these varieties which renders beauty in the locomotive system perfect4 ,this is perfectly represented in the ,diana of ,grecian sculpture1 in which1 with admirable taste1 it is neither the nutritive nor the thinking1 but the locomotive system1 which is developed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i have already said1 that the temperaments of the ancients are only partial views of some of the varieties ,i am now describing4 ,the athletic temperament falls under the last of these varieties2 and it is the only one that falls under this species4 ,happily1 it does not occur in woman4 ,this temperament results from a great development of the bones and muscles1 and it is that of mere physical strength4 ,it is marked by all the outward signs of strength3 the head is small1 the neck thick behind1 the shoulders broad1 the chest expanded1 the haunches firm1 the intervals of the muscles deeply marked1 the tendons apparent through the skin1 and all the joints not covered by muscles1 seemingly small4 ,in this temperament1 muscular strength prevails over the functions of the other organs1 and especially usurps the energies necessary to the production of thought2 the perceptions are deficient in quickness1 delicacy1 accuracy1 and strength2 and all the mental functions are with difficulty excited2 but the body is capable of great exertion1 and it surmounts great physical resistance when roused4 ,the ,farnese ,hercules1 says a ,french physiologist1 exhibits a model of the physical attributes of this constitution2 and that which fabulous antiquity relates of the exploits of this demi-god1 gives us the idea of the moral dispositions that accompany it4 ,in the history of his twelve labors1 without reflection1 and as by instinct1 we see him courageous1 because he is strong1 seeking obstacles to conquer them1 certain of overwhelming whatever resists him1 but joining to such strength so little subtlety1 that he is cheated by all the kings he serves1 and by all the women he loves4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,second ,,species ,,of ,,beauty--,,beauty ,,of ,,the ,,nutritive ,,system4 ,with the vital system of woman1 the capacity of the pelvis1 and the consequent breadth of the haunches1 are still more connected than with the locomotive system2 for1 with these1 all those functions which are most essentially feminine--impregnation1 gestation1 and parturition--are intimately connected4 ,camper1 in a memoir on physical beauty1 read to the ,academy of ,design1 at ,amsterdam1#cd showed1 that1 in tracing the forms of the male and female within two elliptical areas of equal size1 the female pelvis extended beyond the ellipsis1 while the shoulders were within2 and the male shoulders reached beyond their ellipsis1 while the pelvis was within4--,the pelvis of the ,african woman is said by some to be greater than that of the ,european4 ,the abdominal and lumbar portion of the trunk1 as already said1 is longer in woman4 ,in persons above the common stature1 there is almost half a face more in the part of the body which is between the mamm and the bifurcation of the trunk4 ,the abdomen1 placed below the chest1 has more projection and roundness in woman than in man3 but it has little fulness in a figure capable of serving as a model2 and the slightest alteration in its outlines or its polish is injurious4 ,the waist1 which is most distinctly marked in the back and loins1 owes all its advantages to its elegance1 softness1 and flexibility4 ,the neck should1 by the gentlest curvature1 form an almost insensible transition between the body and the head4 ,it should also present fulness sufficient to conceal the projection of the flute part of the throat in front1 and of the two large muscles which descend from behind the ears toward the pit above the breast-bone4#ce ,over all these parts1 the predominance of the cellular tissue1 and the soft and moderate plumpness which is connected with it1 are a remarkable characteristic of the vital system in woman4 ,while this facilitates the adaptation of the locomotive system to every change1 it at the same time obliterates the projection of the muscles1 and invests the whole figure with rounded and beautiful forms4 ,it has been well observed that the principal effect of such forms upon the observer must be referred to the faculties which they reveal2 for1 as remarked by ,roussel1 if we examine the greater part of the attributes which constitute beauty1 if reason analyze that which instinct judges at a glance1 we shall find that these attributes have a reference to real advantages for the species4 ,a light shape1 supple movements1 whence spring brilliance and grace1 are qualities which please1 because they announce the good condition of the individual who possesses them1 and the greater degree of aptitude for the functions which that individual ought to fulfil4 ,beauty1 then1 of the nutritive system in woman1 depends especially upon these fundamental facts1 and those tendencies of structure which thus distinguish her from man4 ,in the woman possessing ,,this ,,species of beauty1 therefore1 the face is generally rounded1 to give greater room to the cavities connected with nutrition2--the eyes are generally of the softest azure1 which is similarly associated2--the neck is often rather short1 in order intimately to connect the head with the nutritive organs in the trunk2--the shoulders are softly rounded1 and owe any breadth they may possess rather to the expanded chest1 containing these organs1 than to any bony or muscular size of the shoulders themselves2--the bosom1 a vital organ1 in its luxuriance seems laterally to protrude on the space occupied by the arms2--the waist1 though sufficiently marked1 is1 as it were1 encroached on by that plumpness of all the contiguous parts1 which the powerful nutritive system affords2--the haunches are greatly expanded for the vital purposes of gestation and parturition2--the thighs are large in proportion2--but the locomotive organs1 the limbs and arms1 tapering and becoming delicate1 terminate in feet and hands which1 compared with the ample trunk1 are peculiarly small2--the complexion1 dependant upon nutrition1 has the rose and lily so exquisitely blended1 that we are surprised it should defy the usual operation of the elements2--and there is a luxuriant profusion of soft and fine flaxen or auburn hair4--,the whole figure is soft and voluptuous in the extreme4 ,to this class belong all the more feminine1 soft1 and exquisitely-graceful women4 ,the kind of beauty thus characterized is seen chiefly in the ,saxon races of our eastern coast2 and it is certainly more frequent in women of short stature4 ,the vital system is peculiarly the system of woman2 and so truly is this the case1 that any great employment1 either of the locomotive or mental organs1 deranges the peculiar functions of woman1 and destroys the characteristics of her sex4 ,women who greatly occupy the locomotive organs1 acquire a coarse and masculine appearance2 and so well is this incompatibility of power1 in the use of locomotive organs with the exercise of vital ones1 known to the best female dancers1 that1 during the time of their engagements1 they generally live apart from their husbands4 ,as to intellectual ladies1 they either seldom become mothers1 or they become intellectual when they cease to be mothers4 ,these few facts are worth a thousand hypotheses and dreams1 however amiable they may be4 ,the vital system is relatively largest in little women1 especially after they have been mothers4 ,the shorter stature of woman ensures1 indeed1 in almost all1 a relative excess of the vital system after1 if not before1 they become mothers2 for1 whatever the stature1 the mamm1 abdomen1 c41 necessarily expand4 ,in those of short stature1 these parts1 of course1 become nearly as large as in the tall2 and this circumstance causes them to touch on the limits of each other in little women4 ,as1 in pregnancy and suckling1 the abdomen and mamm necessarily expand1 and as they would afterward collapse and become wrinkled1 were not a certain degree of plumpness acquired1 that acquisition is essential to beauty in mothers4 ,meagerness in them1 accordingly1 becomes deformity4 ,a ,french writer indeed says3 ,most of our fashionables are extremely slender2 they have constituted this an essential to beauty2 leanness is in ,france necessary to the air lgant4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that the vital system--that which we have just said is peculiarly the system of woman--is1 in its most beautiful parts1 peculiarly defective in ,france2 and that1 owing in a great measure to that circumstance1 the women of ,france are among the ugliest in ,europe4--,but of that in its proper place4 ,first ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty4 ,it may here be observed1 that the varieties of beauty of the locomotive system1 and also those of beauty of the mental system1 are easily explicable1 because these systems are1 in some respects1 more limited and simple4 ,the varieties of beauty of the vital system are1 on the contrary1 more difficult of explanation1 because that system is1 in some respects1 more diffused and complicated4 ,even the preparatory vital organs and functions differ somewhat in the two sexes4 ,woman has frequently a smaller number of molar teeth than man2 those called wisdom teeth not always appearing4 ,mastication is also less energetic in woman4 ,the stomach1 in woman1 is much smaller2 the appetite for food is less2 hunger does not appear to press her so imperiously2 and her consumption of food is much less considerable4#cf ,hence1 indubitable cases of long abstinence from food1 have generally occurred in females4 ,in the choice and the preference of certain aliments1 woman also differs much from man4 ,in general1 women prefer light and agreeable food1 which flatters the palate by its perfume and its savor4 ,their appetites are also much more varied4 ,women1 whom vicious habits have not depraved1 use also beverages less abundantly than men4 ,fermented1 vinous1 and spirituous beverages are indeed used only by the monsters engendered in the corruptions of towns--amid the insane dissipation of the rich1 or the wretched and pitiable suffering of the poor2 and both are then brought to one humiliating level1 marked by the red and pimpled1 or the pallid face1 the swimming eye1 the haggard features1 the pestilential breath4 ,the scarf-skin in these cases divides all that may be worthy from all that is utterly worthless3 the worthy part may be external to the cuticle1 in substantial1 though polluted clothing2 the worthless is the yet living portion1 which1 whether called body or soul1 is no longer worth picking off a dunghill4#cg ,digestion in woman is made1 however1 with great rapidity2 and the whole canal interested in that process1 possesses great irritability4 ,the absorbent vessels in woman are much more developed1 and seem to enjoy a more active vitality4 ,the circumstances of pregnancy and suckling1 appear also to augment the energy of these vessels4 ,the ,,first ,,modification1 therefore1 of this species of beauty1 is that in which the digestive and absorbent system is small but active2 for the great purpose of life in woman is secretion1 whether it regard the formation of the superficial adipose substance which invests her with beautiful and attractive forms1 or the nutrition of the new being which is the object of her attractions and of her life4 ,hence it is1 that women naturally and instinctively affect abstemiousness and delicacy of appetite4 ,hence it is1 that they compress the waist1 and endeavor to render it slender4 ,second ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty4 ,women have1 in greater abundance than men1 several of the fluids which enter into the composition of the body4 ,they appear to have a greater quantity of blood2 and they certainly have more frequent and more considerable hemorrhages4 ,there is less force in the circulation and respiration2 but the heart beats more rapidly4 ,the pulse also is less full1 but it is quicker4 ,in woman1 the purer lily and more vivid rose of complexion1 depend on various causes4 ,it would appear that1 in women1 the blood is in general carried less abundantly to the surface and to the extremities1 where also the white vessels are more developed2 and that1 to this1 as well as to the subjacent adipose substance1 the skin owes its whiteness4 ,in youth1 however1 one of the constituent parts of the skin1 the reticular tissue1 or whatever the substance under the scarf-skin may be called1 appears to be more expanded1 especially in women2 and it would seem that this tissue is then filled with a blood which is less dark1 and which forms the coloring of youth4 ,this1 differently modified by the scarf-skin1 gives the blue1 the purple1 and all the teints formed by these and the color of the skin4 ,where the vessels are more patent1 and the skin more thin1 delicate1 and transparent1 as in the cheeks1 the hue of the rose is cast over that of the lily4 ,in addition to this1 the slightest emotions of surprise1 of pleasure1 of love1 of shame1 of fear1 often diversify all these teints4 ,lightness of complexion1 however1 is probably dependant more particularly on the arterial circulation1 and darkness of complexion on the venous circulation2 for we know that in fairer woman the arteries possess greater energy1 while in darker man the veins are more developed1 larger1 and fuller4 ,farther confirmation of this is afforded by an observation1 which physiologists have neglected to make1 that the kidneys1 receiving arterial blood1 are the artery-relieving glands1 while the liver1 receiving venous blood1 is the vein-relieving gland4 ,now1 it is certain that1 in cold climates1 the urinary secretion and fairness prevail2 while1 in hot climates1 the hepatic secretion and darkness prevail4 ,many physiologists have indeed made the insulated remark1 that the dark complexion has much to do with the hepatic secretion4 ,the more abundant urinary and hepatic secretions1 however1 may not be the causes1 but only concomitant effects of the same cause with fairness and darkness of complexion4 ,the ,,second ,,modification1 therefore1 of this species of beauty1 is that in which the circulating vessels1 being moderately active and finely ramified1 bestow upon the skin a whiteness1 a transparency1 and a complexion1 which are necessary to beauty4 ,the whiteness1 the transparency1 and the color of the skin1 have1 in all highly civilized nations1 been deemed essential conditions of beauty4 ,the ancients regarded whiteness1 in particular1 as the distinctive character of beauty2 and they estimated that character so highly1 that the name of ,venus1 from the ,celtic ven1 ben1 or ban1 signifies white1 or whiteness2 and ,venus herself is said to be fair and golden-haired4 ,among the civilized moderns1 also a taste which women seek always to satisfy1 is that for whiteness of the skin3 hence1 the white lily1 new-fallen snow1 white marble1 or alabaster1 are the images which poetry employs1 when the color of a woman is its subject4 ,so greatly1 indeed1 does whiteness contribute to beauty1 that many women deemed beautiful by us1 have little other right to that epithet except what they derive from a beautiful skin4 ,third ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty4 ,the branches of the great artery of the body1 the aorta1 supplying the abdomen and pelvis1 are larger in woman than in man1 as well as more habitually liable to variation in the quantity of their contents4 ,the quantity of blood1 also1 which passes to the abdomen1 is greater4 ,at the same time1 the excretions are generally less in woman4 ,hippocrates says3 ,nam corpus muliebre minus dissipatur quam virile2 the expenditure of the body of woman is less than that of man4 ,it is evident1 then1 that the secretions1 nutrition1 in particular1 must be greater4 ,we actually know them to be so4 ,but the nourishment of the organs concerned in locomotion is less active1 and that of the cellular and adipose substance is generally more active1 than in man4 ,and on this1 important consequences depend4 ,woman is subject to crises which would destroy all her organs1 if they offered too powerful a resistance4 ,some parts of her body are exposed to great shocks1 to alternate extensions1 compressions1 and reductions1 which could not take place with impunity1 but by means of this predominance of the cellular and adipose structure4 ,the cellular expansion1 the general basis of the structure1 appears then to be more abundant in woman1 more lax and yielding1 more dilated and fuller of liquids2 and it is by yielding gradually1 by decomposing and weakening shocks by means of the general suppleness of the different organs1 thus procured1 that nature seems1 in woman1 to avoid1 or to destroy1 every hurtful effort4 ,it is observed1 moreover1 that certain parts1 naturally more loose1 receive into all their vessels a more considerable quantity of liquid1 and assume a particular enlargement1 at the moment when their sympathy with the uterus causes them to enter into action in concert with it2 and it is also observed that they dilate more easily during pregnancy4 ,it is thus1 then1 that nature gives to all the parts of woman that suppleness which renders her capable of easily yielding to the great revolutions which affect her organization in regard to reproduction1 as well as mark the different periods of her life4 ,the great development of the cellular and fatty tissue in woman is illustrated by the remarkable fact1 that anciently the ,romans1 in order to burn the bodies of dead men1 were obliged to join to them those of women1 the fat of which greatly facilitated combustion4 ,now1 with the great purposes described above1 beauty is naturally associated4 ,it is principally this excess of the cellular and fatty tissues which gives to the members of woman those round and beautiful outlines1 that soft and polished surface1 which the body of man does not possess4 ,in every part1 however1 of the human figure1 as observed by ,reynolds1 when not spoiled by too great corpulency1 will be found distinctness1 the parts never appearing uncertain or confused1 or as a musician would say1 slurred2 and all those smaller parts which are comprehended in the larger compartment are still found to be there1 however marked4 ,now1 while all this is the case1 it appears that the true skin is much thinner and more delicate in woman than in man1 and that it derives more or less of its clear whiteness from the quantity of fat which is below it2 for meagerness inevitably tarnishes and dries it4 ,hence1 to possess a fine1 soft1 white1 and fresh skin1 it is also indispensable to possess plumpness4 ,in relation to this purer white1 it must also be observed1 that transpiration1 which might soil it1 appears to be much less abundant in woman2 and that the liver or vein-relieving gland1 is very large4 ,the excretions of the skin in women are indeed chiefly limited to certain parts2 and it is thence that it has1 in various parts1 an odor which a ,french writer observes it is difficult to describe1 but which an exercised sense of smell easily succeeds in distinguishing in women who fully enjoy all the attributes of their sex1 and who are women even in the atmosphere which exhales from them4 ,while the skin is thus more white in women1 it is also more transparent4 ,the reticular tissue1 or substance interposed between the true skin and scarf-skin1 appears to have more clearness and turgescence1 especially on the face1 where1 under the influence of various emotions1 it easily permits a passage to the blood1 as we see in blushing4 ,it is in youth that this turgescence and clearness are most evident4 ,hence1 the skin in woman less conceals the veins1 of which the color1 only enfeebled or modified by the skin1 gives all those shades of azure which the charmed eye follows with so much pleasure on the surface of the bosom and of all the parts where the skin has least of thickness4 ,all this constitutes freshness1 or animation1 which is nearly synonymous with health1 and without which there is no beauty4 ,when that quality1 as observed by ,roussel1 is wanting1 all other attractions strike but feebly1 because the prompt judgment1 which instinct suggests1 warns us that the woman whose person does not present all the characters of perfect health1 is in a disposition little favorable to the plan of nature1 relatively to the maintenance of the species4 ,the whiteness and the animation of the skin1 however1 do not alone constitute its beauty3 there is still another quality which is absolutely necessary to it4 ,this is the softness and the polish which1 as the reader has seen1 is one of the first conditions of physical beauty4 ,in woman1 this is probably derived from a slight degree of oleaginous secretion4 ,hence1 she has few asperities of the skin1 especially on the surface of the bosom1 and other parts1 where the skin is excessively smooth4 ,brown women1 who probably have more of this oleaginous secretion1 are said to possess in a greater degree the polish of skin which gives impressions so agreeable to the organ of touch2 and hence1 ,winckelmann has said that persons who prefer brown women to fair ones allow themselves to be captivated by the touch rather than the sight4 ,there is reason1 however1 to doubt the accuracy of this4 ,brown women appear to have greater softness1 but less smoothness of skin4 ,the body of woman is nearly deprived of hairs upon all parts1 except the head1 axill1 c42 and the hair of her head is generally long1 fine1 and flexible4 ,the quantity and the color of the hair are always in relation to the constitution of the individual to which it belongs1 and generally to the temperature of the place4 ,the people of northern countries have the hair of a silken fineness and of surprising length4 ,the hair which is most admired is not only very fine and flexible1 but light colored4 ,fair golden hair was1 of all its teints1 that which the ancient artists preferred4 ,in woman1 the hair of the head whitens and falls later than in man4 ,it is curious that1 in regard to the hair1 the distinctive characters of the sexes should not always have been preserved4 ,though nature gives long hair to woman1 it has sometimes been the fashion to wear it short2 and though man has naturally shorter hair1 it has sometimes been the fashion to cherish its growth1 and to shave the beard from his face4 ,the latter has especially been the case in degenerate and effeminate times2 and this has sometimes been accompanied by remarkable consequences4 ,one of the greatest misfortunes1 says a ,french writer1 which ,france ever had to lament1 the divorce of ,louis le ,jeune from ,elinor of ,guyenne1 resulted from the fashion1 which this prince wished to introduce1 of shaving his chin and cropping his head4 ,the queen1 his wife1 who appears to have possessed1 with a masculine beauty1 considerable acuteness of intellect1 observed with some displeasure1 that she imagined herself to have espoused a monarch1 not a monk4 ,the obstinacy of ,louis in shaving himself1 and the horror conceived by ,elinor at the sight of a beardless chin1 occasioned ,france the loss of those fine provinces which constituted the dowry of this princess2 and which1 devolving to ,england by a second marriage1 became the source of wars which desolated ,france during four hundred years4 ,the habit of wearing the beard is a manly and noble one4 ,nature made it distinctive of the male and female2 and its abandonment has commonly been accompanied not only by periods of general effeminacy1 but even by the decline and fall of states4 ,they were bearded ,romans who conquered the then beardless ,greeks2 they were bearded ,goths who vanquished the then beardless ,romans2 and they are bearded ,tartars who now promise once more to inundate the regions occupied by the shaven and effeminate people of western ,europe4 ,in farther illustration of the manliness of this habit we may observe1 that throughout ,europe1 wars have generally led to its temporary and partial introduction1 as at the present day4 ,those assuredly blunder1 who ridicule the wearing of the beard4 ,silly affectation1 on the contrary1 is imputable only to those who1 by removing the beard1 take the trouble so far to emasculate themselves6 and who think themselves beautified by an unnatural imitation of the smoother face of woman6 ,as appendages of the skin1 the nails may here be noticed4 ,their beauty consists in their figure1 their surface1 and their color4 ,by their figure1 they serve as a defence to the delicate extremities of the fingers1 which would otherwise be easily hurt against hard bodies4 ,they form at once shields and supporting arches to the fingers2 and they give facility in laying hold of bodies which would escape from their smallness4 ,they ought accordingly to be arched1 and to extend as far as the flesh which terminates the fingers4--,the form of the nails depends much on the care employed in cutting them during infancy1 and still more on the mode of employing the hand4 ,the nails ought also to be smooth and polished1 somewhat transparent1 and rose-colored4 ,their rosy color seems to show that their texture has less density and more transparence4 ,it is in this view of the nutritive system and the characteristics which render it beautiful1 and especially after this portion of it which regards the organs and functions of secretion1 that the mamm and their beauty should be considered4 ,in woman1 the bust is smaller and more rounded than in man2 and it is distinguished by the volume and the elegant form of the bosom4 ,the external and elevated position of the mamm is by far the most suitable for a nursling1 which1 no longer deriving subsistence from within the mother1 nor yet able of itself to find it without1 must be gently and softly borne toward her2 an admirable position1 says a ,french writer1 which1 in keeping the infant under the eyes and in the arms of the mother1 establishes between them an interesting exchange of tenderness1 of cares1 and of innocent caresses1 which enables the one the better to express its wants1 and the other to enjoy the sacrifices which she makes1 in continually contemplating their object4 ,according to ,buffon1 in order that the mamm be well placed1 it is necessary that the space between them should be as great as that from the mamm to the middle of the depression between the clavicles1 so that these three points form an equilateral triangle4 ,the two portions of the mamm should be well detached4 ,the whole presents1 in beautiful models1 more elegance than volume2 and the areola1 it may be observed1 is red in fair women and deeper colored in brown ones4 ,winckelmann observes that1 in the antique statues1 the mamm terminate gently in a point1 and that they have always virginal forms1 as a consequence of the system of the ancient artists1 which consists in not recalling in the ideal the wants and the accidents of humanity4 ,finally on this particular head1 ,i must observe that the reproduction of the species is1 in woman1 the most important object of life1 and that every thing in her physical organization has evident reference to it4 ,of all the passions in woman1 says ,richerand1 love has the greatest sway3 it has even been said to be her only passion4 ,all the others are modified by it1 and receive from it a peculiar cast1 which distinguishes them from those of man4444 ,fontenelle used to say of the devotion of some women1 ',one may see that love has been here4' ,it has been said1 in speaking of ,st4 ,theresa1 ',to love ,god1 is still to love4' ,thomas maintains that1 ',with women a man is more than a nation4'--',love1' says ,madame de ,stael1 'is but an episode in the life of man2 it is the whole history of the life of woman4' ,the ,,third ,,modification1 therefore1 of this species of beauty1 is that in which the secreting vessels being active1 not only cause the plumpness1 c41 necessary to beauty1 but furnish the mammary and uterine secretions1 on which progeny is dependant4 ,this must inevitably be followed by moderate excretions4 ,it should not pass unobserved that there exist1 in some women1 a fair skin and dark hair1 forming a rather extraordinary and striking combination4 ,as such women have the skin remarkably smooth and moist1 this is probably connected with some peculiarity of secretion and excretion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is evidently the ,,union of all that is good in these varieties which renders beauty in the vital system perfect4 ,this union is nowhere so frequently to be seen1 as in ,england and in ,holland4 ,it is curious that cleanliness among women seems necessarily to increase with the development of this system2 and that1 in general slovenliness and filth increase as we pass from ,england and ,holland1 toward ,france1 ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,portugal1 even among women of the highest condition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of the temperaments of the ancients1 which1 as already said1 are only partial views of some of the varieties ,i am now describing1 two1 the phlegmatic temperament and the sanguine temperament1 appear to belong fundamentally to this species4 ,it has been supposed1 that the first affects the absorbent1 the second the circulating system4 ,they appear to me to be exactly opposite affections of the whole nutritive system at least4 ,the phlegmatic temperament may exist in both sexes4 ,the causes which tend to develop it1 are infancy1 humidity with cold1 the absence of light1 indolence1 and the feeble influence of the reproductive functions upon the general system4 ,in this temperament1 there exists an excess in the proportions of the absorbent vessels2 the pulse is weak1 slow1 and soft2 there is a turgescence of the cellular tissue1 and a more marked development of the glands2 the internal stimulants1 having less energy than in the other temperaments1 life is less active1 and all its actions are more or less languid2 even the uterus is not endowed with suitable energy4 ,but these characteristics are not confined to the nutritive system3 they extend to the thinking one4 ,the attention is not continuous2 the perceptions succeed with some difficulty2 the memory is not to be trusted2 the imagination is weak2 and the propensities1 the appetites1 and the passions1 are so languid1 as to be scarcely capable of troubling the quietude and the indolence which depend on such a constitution4 ,these characteristics of the phlegmatic temperament1 present to us forms more rounded and less expressive1 a general softness1 a feeble color of the skin1 a sort of etiolation1 a pale countenance1 a light and abundant hair1 and1 generally1 an insurmountable inclination to sloth1 averse alike to labors of the mind and body4 ,it has been observed1 that the sanguine temperament1 so generally met with among northern nations1 is the necessary consequence of the continual and very energetic reaction of the powers of circulation1 against the effects of external cold2 that it is only by the constant activity of the heart and vessels that calorification can be effected with the necessary vigor3 and that the effects of this redoubled action are the same to the organs of circulation as to the muscles1 under the influence of volition2 exertion in both increasing the power of the organs exerted4 ,in the sanguine temperament1 the lymphatic1 circulating1 and secreting systems appear to be in a sort of equilibrium2 the chest is larger1 and the lungs more voluminous2 the circulation is more rapid1 the arterial predominance is obvious2 the pulse is sharp1 frequent1 and regular2 the complexion is ruddy2 all the vital actions are extremely easy2 and the health is rarely altered4 ,the mental functions correspond4 ,the conception is quick2 the memory is prompt2 the imagination is lively2 the judgment has more readiness than depth and extent2 the mind1 easily affected by the impressions of outward objects1 passes rapidly from one idea to another2 the tastes1 propensities1 appetites1 passions1 are equally ephemeral2 and there is much activity1 but the strength is soon exhausted4 ,in persons of this temperament1 the countenance is animated2 the hair is fair1 and inclining to chestnut2 the shape is good2 the form is softened1 though distinct2 and the muscles are of tolerable consistence1 and moderate development4 ,the whole appearance is generally so amiable1 that this temperament may be called that of health1 beauty1 and happiness4 ,in the women who present the attributes of their sex with the greatest unity1 we distinguish1 especially during youth and adult age1 the traits of the sanguine temperament1 which may be regarded as the most suitable to the organization of woman4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,third ,,species ,,of ,,beauty--,,beauty ,,of ,,the ,,thinking ,,system4 ,in woman1 the organs of sense are proportionally larger1 and the sensibility is more quick and delicate than in man4 ,hence1 also1 the mental quickness and delicacy of woman are greater4 ,her perceptions succeed with rapidity and intenseness2 and the last of them generally predominates4 ,in well-organized women1 accordingly1 the forehead and the observing faculties are peculiarly developed4 ,the general nervous system of woman is likewise far more mobile than that of man4 ,beauty of the thinking system in woman depends especially upon these fundamental facts1 and those tendencies of structure1 which thus distinguish her from man4 ,in the woman possessing ,,this ,,species of beauty1 accordingly1 the greater development of its upper part gives to the head1 in every view1 a pyriform appearance2--the face is generally oval2--the high and pale forehead announces the excellence of the observing faculties2--the intensely expressive eye is full of sensibility2--in the lower features1 modesty and dignity are often united2--she has not the expanded bosom1 the general plumpness1 or the beautiful complexion1 of the second species of beauty2--and she boasts easy and graceful motion1 rather than the elegant proportion of the first4--,the whole figure is characterized by intellectuality and grace4 ,this species of beauty is less proper to woman1 less feminine1 than the preceding4 ,it is not the intellectual system1 but the vital one1 which is1 and ought to be most developed in woman4 ,first ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty4 ,in woman1 the nervous extremities appear to be larger than in man2 a pulpy appearance is more remarkable in them2 and the papill in which they terminate1 appear to have less rigidity4 ,the organs of sense are proportionally larger1 and more delicately outlined4 ,there is indeed in woman more development in the organs of sensation1 than in that of understanding1 reasoning1 and judging2 while the contrary is the case in man4 ,the sensations1 accordingly1 are in woman more acute1 and their minute differences are more easily discerned4 ,man reflects more than he feels3 woman always feels more than she reflects4 ,the ,,first ,,modification1 therefore1 of this species of beauty1 is that in which the development of the organs of sense is proportionally large1 and the sensibility greater4 ,it ought to be observed1 that though1 in woman1 when well organized1 the whole head is proportionally less than in man1 yet1 the organs of sense will be found to be proportionally larger4 ,this sufficiently indicates the importance of such proportional development4 ,upon it1 indeed1 depend that increased sensibility and quickness of observation1 which are essential to the female character4 ,second ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty4 ,of all parts of the brain in woman1 when well formed1 the forehead1 especially1 is found to be large4 ,without this1 she would have sensibility without observation1 a most unhappy condition of the nervous system4 ,in woman1 the brain partakes of the softness of all the other parts of her structure4 ,the cellular tissue which covers it1 and which descends between its convolutions1 is more abundant1 mucous1 and loose4 ,the mind1 correspondingly1 is more impressed by any new object of thought2 the whole nervous system is more extensively affected by impressions on the brain2 the propensity to emotion is stronger1 and women are more habitually under its influence4 ,the intimate connexion of the thinking1 with a peculiar modification of the reproductive faculties1 inspires in woman the want of maternity1 which is more powerful than life1 and which renders her capable of every sacrifice4 ,associated with this1 are her affection1 tenderness1 and compassion4 ,upon the whole1 sensibility in woman is greater than understanding2 the involuntary play of the imagination1 more active than its regulated combinations2 and passion1 generally of the gentler kind1 predominates rather than resolve or determination4 ,she has1 therefore1 more finesse and activity1 than depth or force of thought2 and her nervous system is also more frequently deranged by accidents unknown to man4 ,the extent of the brain1 anteriorly1 is measured by the different degrees of the opening of an angle1 which ,camper has called the facial angle2 and so far it is favorable to woman well conformed2 but it gives no notion of the magnitude of the brain superiorly1 posteriorly1 or laterally4#ch ,the brain of woman1 however1 in general1 extends a good deal posteriorly as well as anteriorly1 though it narrows in the former of these directions2 and1 to the proportional length thus acquired1 is owing that intensity in her functions1 which ,i have just described4 ,superiorly1 centrally1 and laterally1 the brain of woman is generally much less than that of man2 and hence the want of elevation1 depth1 and endurance1 in her mental faculties4#ci ,upon the whole1 the brain of woman is less than that of man1 and it is especially less in its superior1 central1 and1 intellectually considered1 more important portions4 ,the ,,second ,,modification1 therefore1 of this species of beauty1 is that in which the development of the brain is proportionally small4 ,this is an evident corollary from what we have just stated as to the first modification of this species2 for it is not possible that the organs of sense should be proportionally large1 without the rest of the head being proportionally small4 ,this is not quite conformable with the wishes of phrenology2 but we must leave any dispute between that art and nature to its own issue4 ,a ,venus1 moreover1 with a small1 yet beautifully proportioned head1 is often seen to be the mother of a boy who has a large head2 the difference of sex causing a vast modification and difference of development4 ,third ,variety or ,modification of this ,species of ,beauty4 ,from what has been already said1 it may be concluded that1 in action or conduct1 women are less guided by intellect1 and are more biased by feeling and emotion2 and it may also be concluded1 that all their movements to fulfil the purposes of feeling and emotion1 are made in a manner more easy and more prompt1 though less sustained4 ,this is increased by the ready obedience of the muscular fibre1 and the relative shortness of the stature4 ,this more easy and less forcible action is perfectly conformable physically with the small and elongated form of the cerebel1 or organ of the will1 in woman2 as it is morally with the part which woman performs in life1 and her desire to please1 while it is that of man to protect and to defend4 ,conformably with the smaller size of the cerebel1 and especially with its smaller breadth 7the influence of which is explained in the work last referred to71 the disposition of woman to sustained exertion1 whether mental or bodily1 is much less2 and hence the character varium et mutabile semper foemina4 ,it is1 then1 the prompt and easily-affected sensibility of woman1 not her understanding or force of mind1 which renders her so eminently fit to be interested in infancy1 which enables her to surmount maternal pains by the sentiment of affection and pity1 and which makes agreeable to her the cares and the details of housekeeping2 and it is this which sometimes renders nothing too irksome or too painful for a mother1 a wife1 or a mistress1 to endure4 ,hence1 the constitution of woman is perfectly adapted to these functions2 hence1 her existence is more sedentary than man's2 hence1 she has more gentleness of character than he2 and hence1 she is less acquainted with great crimes4 ,the ,,third ,,modification1 therefore1 of this species of beauty1 is that in which the development of the cerebel or organ of the will1 as well as the muscles which it actuates1 is proportionally small4 ,the situation of this considerable organ is in the back and lower part of the head1 and may be pretty accurately indicated by saying1 that a line passing through it would complete1 posteriorly1 a longer line passing backward from the nose through the lower part of the ear4 ,when this organ1 which is that of the will1 is high1 and more especially when it is large1 a determination and force seem to be given by it to the character1 which render it the reverse of feminine4 ,having spoken here of the ready exercise of the will in woman1 and its adaptation to her wish to please1 it seems to be here that some circumstances dependant on these should be noticed4 ,with this ready exercise of the will and desire to please1 are evidently connected the light carelessness1 the graceful ease1 and the gentle softness1 which add so much to the power of beauty4 ,hence1 artists give to woman the bending form which associates so well with all her characteristics2 for all feel with ,hogarth that undulating lines are more or less formed in all movements executed with the intention of expressing sentiments of courtesy1 respect1 benevolence1 or love4 ,but it is grace that we must especially consider here--grace which directly emanates from this ready exercise of the will and desire to please1 especially when combined with observing faculties so perfect and so perpetually active as those of woman4 ,gracefulness1 says ,burke1 is an idea not very different from beauty2 it consists in much the same thing4444 ,gracefulness is an idea belonging to posture and motion4 ,in both these1 to be graceful1 it is requisite that there be no appearance of difficulty2 there is required a small inflexion of the body2 and a composure of the parts in such a manner1 as not to encumber each other1 nor to appear divided by sharp and sudden angles4 ,in this ease1 this roundness1 this delicacy of attitude and motion1 it is that all the magic of grace consists1 and what is called 'je ne scais quoi4' ,it is not in these mere physical qualities1 that all the magic of grace consists1 which1 in the state of ,burke's knowledge1 he might indeed well call je ne scais quoi6 ,let the reader hear what is said on this subject by a man who could look a little deeper than ,burke1 and who owed no fame to the little art of substituting a flash of words for depth of thought1 and serving by it a venal purpose as little as the art itself4 ,what grace1 says ,smith1 what noble propriety do we not feel in the conduct of those who exert that recollection and self-command which constitute the dignity of every passion1 and which bring it down to what others can enter into6 ,we are disgusted with that clamorous grief1 which1 without any delicacy1 calls upon our compassion with sighs and tears1 and importunate lamentation4 ,but we reverence that reserved1 that silent and majestic sorrow1 which discovers itself only in the swelling of the eyes1 in the quivering of the lips and cheeks1 and in the distant1 but affecting address of the whole behavior4 ,it imposes the like silence upon us2 we regard it with respectful attention1 and watch over our whole behavior1 lest1 by any impropriety1 we should disturb that concerted tranquillity which it requires so great an effort to support4 ,this is eloquence1 indeed4 ,alison duly appreciates this earliest definition of grace4 ,it is1 he says1 this 'recollection and self-command1' which in such scenes constitute what even in common language is called the graceful in behavior or deportment2 and it is the expression of the same qualities in the attitude and gesture1 which constitutes1 in my apprehension1 the grace of such gestures or attitudes4444 ,wherever1 in the movements of the form1 self-command or self-possession is expressed1 some degree of grace1 at least1 is always produced4444 ,whenever in such motions grace is actually perceived1 ,i think it will always be found to be in slow1 and1 if ,i may use the expression1 in restrained or measured motions4 ,the motions of the horse1 when wild in the pasture1 are beautiful2 when urged to his speed1 and straining for victory1 they may be felt as sublime2 but it is chiefly in movements of a different kind that we feel them as graceful1 when1 in the impatience of the field1 or in the curvetting of the manege1 he seems to be conscious of all the powers with which he is animated1 and yet to restrain them1 from some principle of beneficence or of dignity4 ,every movement of the stag almost is beautiful1 from the fineness of his form and the ease of his gestures2 yet it is not in these or in the heat of the chase that he is graceful3 it is when he pauses upon some eminence in the pursuit1 when he erects his crested head1 and when1 looking with disdain upon the enemy who follows1 he bounds to the freedom of his hills4 ,it is not1 in the same manner1 in the rapid speed of the eagle when he darts upon his prey1 that we perceive the grace of which his motions are capable4 ,it is when he soars slowly upward to the sun1 or when he wheels with easy and continuous motion in airy circles in the sky4 ,in the personification which we naturally give to all inanimate objects which are susceptible of movement1 we may easily perceive the influence of the same association4 ,we speak commonly1 for instance1 of the graceful motions of trees1 and of the graceful movements of a river4 ,it is never1 however1 when these motions are violent or extreme1 that we apply to them the term of grace4 ,it is the gentle waving of the tree in slow and measured cadence which is graceful1 not the tossing of its branches amid the storm4 ,it is the slow and easy winding which is graceful in the movements of the river1 and not the burst of the cataract1 or the fury of the torrent4 ,it is only in the perfection of the human system1 in the age when the form has assumed all its powers1 and the mind is awake to the consciousness of all the capacities it possesses1 and the lofty obligations they impose1 that the reign of physical grace commences2 and that the form is capable of expressing1 under the dominion of every passion or emotion1 the high and habitual superiority which it possesses1 either to the allurements of pleasure or the apprehensions of pain4 ,it is this age1 accordingly1 which the artists of antiquity have uniformly represented1 when they sought to display the perfection of grace1 and when they succeeded in leaving their compositions as models of this perfection to every succeeding age4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is evidently the ,,union of all that is good in the varieties now described which renders beauty1 in the thinking system1 perfect4 ,this is well illustrated in the ,minerva of the ,giustiniani gallery1 which1 in this respect1 is scarcely the less valuable because it is draped1 for it is the head that ever bears the greatest impress of intellectuality4 ,this union is by no means perfect in the ,english female head1 although1 from the considerable development of the forehead and the moderate one of the backhead1 the general form of that head is beautiful4 ,as to the ,french female head1 a ,frenchman1 writing under the name of ,count ,stendhal1 scruples not to say3 ,the form of the head in ,paris is ugly2 the cranium approaches to that of the ape2 and this occasions the women to have the appearance of age very early in life4 ,the women of ,paris differ not1 in this respect1 from those of ,france generally4 ,nearly all have the character here described4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is under this species that the nervous temperament falls1 which is constituted by great sensibility and corresponding mobility1 and therefore belongs to the first and the last of those varieties2 a temperament chiefly to be found among women4 ,this temperament scarcely exists in the athletic1 is weak in the phlegmatic1 is moderate in the sanguine1 and is rather active in the bilious4 ,it is characterized by the smallness and the emaciation of the muscles1 the quickness and intensity of the sensations1 and the suddenness and fickleness of the determinations4 ,it is seldom natural1 but commonly depends on a sedentary and inactive life1 on a diseased condition of the brain produced by reading works of imagination1 and on habits of sensual indulgence4 ,in confirmation of this1 we are told that the ,roman ladies became subject to nervous affections only in consequence of those depraved manners which marked the decline of the empire2 and that these affections were extremely common in ,france in the licentious times preceding the fall of the corrupt and corrupting monarchy4 ,another partial view falling under this species1 and properly under the second variety1 is the cerebral temperament1 which results from the energy and influence of the brain4 ,this temperament1 being thus determined by an excess in the power of the brain1 has been called the temperament of genius4 ,when it is increased by education and habits1 the other organs are generally more feeble4 ,in woman1 the cerebral temperament is more particularly characterized by a predominance of imagination1 which is evidently dependant on the organization which has already been described4 ,it has been truly observed1 that to contribute to the perfection of reason as well as to the preservation of health1 the brain ought to be exercised and developed in every direction2 that the mere exercise of memory carried too far renders persons foolish2 that the predominance of imagination disposes to nervous affections1 and even to alienation2 that meditation alters the digestive functions2 and that the dry and minute contention which business requires1 disposes1 when joined to a defect of exercise 7and ,i may add the vinous excesses in which men of business indulge71 to apoplexy and to paralysis4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,beauty ,,of ,,the ,,face ,,in ,,particular4 ,it is probable1 says ,dr4 ,prichard1 that the natural idea of the beautiful in the human person has been more or less distorted in almost every nation4 ,peculiar characters of countenance1 in many countries1 accidentally enter into the ideal standard4 ,this observation has been made particularly of the negroes of ,africa1 who are said to consider a flat nose and thick lips as principal ingredients of beauty2 and we are informed by ,pallas that the ,kalmucs#dj esteem no face as handsome1 which has not the eyes in angular position1 and the other characteristics of their race4 ,the ,aztecs of ,mexico have ever preferred a depressed forehead1#da which forms the strongest contrast to the majestic contour of the ,grecian busts3 the former represented their divinities with a head more flattened than it is ever seen among the ,caribs1 and the ,greeks1 on the contrary1 gave to their gods and heroes a still more unnatural elevation4 ,knowing1 as the reader now does1 what constitutes the worth1 the dignity1 and the beauty1 of the various organs1 this statement tends to show the value of that standard of beauty which we owe to the ,greeks4 ,i proceed to illustrate it in regard to the ,,face4 ,the beauty of the human countenance is described by various writers1 as including the beauty of form1 in the various features of the face2 the beauty of color1 in the shades of the complexion2 the beauty of character1 in some distinctive and permanent relations2 and the beauty of expression1 in some immediate and temporary feeling4 ,in regard to the form of the face1 considered as a whole1 the opening of the facial angle of ,camper1 in measuring geometrically the extent of the upper part of the head1 marks the development of the brain or organ of thought1 and shows the proportion which it bears to the middle and lower part of the face1 or to the organs of sense and expression4 ,this development of the upper part of the head contributes essentially to beauty1 by giving to the whole head that pyriform appearance already described1 by which in every view it is larger at the superior part1 diminishes gradually as it descends1 and terminates by the agreeable outline of the chin4 ,in the most beautiful race of men1 the facial angle extends to eighty-five degrees1 acquiring an increase of ten degrees above the inferior varieties2 the face is diminished2 the eyes are better placed2 the nose assumes a more elegant form2 and all appearance of muzzle vanishes4 ,in the ,greek ideal head1 the development presenting a facial angle of ninety degrees1 confers the highest beauty of the form of the head1 the majesty of the forehead1 the position of the eyes upon a line which divides the face into two equal parts1 the elegant projection of the nose1 the absence of all tumidity of the lips4--,but of that1 in the sequel4 ,in the face1 generally1 as observed by ,winckelmann1 beauty of form depends greatly upon the profile1 and particularly on the line described by the forehead and nose1 by the greater or less degree of the concavity or declivity of which1 beauty is increased or diminished4 ,the nearer the profile approaches to a straight line1 the more majestic1 and at the same time softer1 does the countenance appear1 the unity and simplicity of this line being1 as in everything else1 the cause of this grand1 yet soft harmony4 ,the face being the seat of several organs1 each must be examined in its turn4 ,winckelmann observes1 that a large high ,,forehead an excess1 in this respect was regarded by the ancients as a deformity4--,and ,arnobius says1 that those women who had a high forehead1 covered a part of it with a fillet4 ,the reason of this will afterward be pointed out4 ,the sense of ,,touch resides in all parts of the face1 but especially in the lips4 ,it is most perfect1 however1 at the tips of the fingers4 ,a thinner skin permits to the touch of woman1 more vivacity1 delicacy1 and profoundness4 ,it seizes the details which generally escape the touch of man4 ,it is more easily hurt by hard1 rough and angular1 cold or hot bodies4 ,hence1 woman requires vestments which are light and smooth2 and she enjoys more than man the pleasure of reposing on flocculent substances which softly resist her pressure4 ,in the face1 the lips are peculiarly the organ of touch4 ,of all the organs of sense1 the mouth admits1 ,i believe1 of the greatest beauty and the greatest deformity4 ,considered in repose1 nothing certainly is more lovely than this organ when beautifully formed in a beautiful woman4 ,and in action1 during speech1 the simplest words passing through it receive a charm altogether peculiar4 ,the mouth ought to be small1 and not to extend much beyond the nostrils3 a large mouth and thick lips are contrary to beauty4 ,the curve of the upper lip is said to have served as a model to the ancient artists for the bow of ,love4 ,the lower lip should be most developed1 rounded and turned outward2 so as to produce1 between it and the chin1 that beautiful hollow which assists so much in giving the latter a more perfect rotundity4 ,both1 but especially the upper1 should become thin toward the angle of the mouth4 ,although we see many lips without evident and offensive defects1 there are very few of them really beautiful2 and indeed it is only persons of great delicacy and of refined taste who attach the highest value to perfect beauty of the lips4 ,lips of beautiful form and of vermillion hue1 teeth which are small1 equal1 slightly rounded1 white1 clean1 and well arranged1 and a pure breath1 are the circumstances which constitute a beautiful mouth4 ,the sense of ,,taste is more delicate and more exquisite in woman than in man4 ,she accordingly seeks for savors which are less rough and irritating than those which are agreeable to him4 ,the ,,nose is the most prominent and conspicuous feature of the face2 it is the central fixed point around which are arranged all its other parts2 and it is thus essential to the regularity of the features4 ,when these1 moreover1 are in action1 the nose1 by its immobility1 marks the degree of change which they undergo1 and renders intelligible all the movements produced by admiration1 joy1 sadness1 fear1 c4 ,to perfect beauty of the nose1 it is necessary that it should be nearly in the same direction with the forehead1 and should unite with that part1 without leaving more than a slight inflexion to be seen4 ,this constitutes the ,greek profile2 and the various degrees of deviation from it constitute1 as to this organ1 the various degenerations from beauty the most consummate to ugliness the most disgusting4 ,nature says ,winckelmann1 is sparing of this beauty both in burning climates and in frozen regions4#db ,the same writer says3 ,the flat compressed nose of the ,kalmucs1 ,chinese1 and other distant nations1 is also a defect1 because it destroys the harmony of forms1 according to which all the other parts are constructed3 nor is there any reason why nature should compress and hollow it1 instead of continuing the straight line begun in the forehead4 ,the fact is true2 the reasoning false1 as will be seen in a subsequent chapter1 to which this point properly belongs4 ,under the influence of passion1 the nostrils expand and are drawn upward2 and these two motions are the only ones of which the lower and moveable part of the nose is capable4 ,the sense of smell1 like that of taste1 is more delicate and more exquisite in woman than in man4 ,woman accordingly enjoys more1 and suffers more1 by that sense than man does2 and its influence is said to dispose her more than man to those pleasures which have remarkable relations to that sense4 ,to beauty of the ,,eye1 magnitude and elongated form contribute more perhaps than color3 if its form be bad1 no color will render it beautiful4 ,in woman1 however1 the most beautiful eyes1 in relation to color1 are those which appear to be blue1 hazel1 or black4 ,but no color of the eye is beautiful without clearness in every part4 ,the more obliquely1 and at an angle to each other1 says ,winckelmann1 that the eyes are placed1 as in cats1 the more their position is removed from the base1 or from the fundamental lines of the human face1 which form a cross that divides it into four parts1 the nose dividing it perpendicularly into two equal parts1 and the eyes dividing it horizontally4 ,when the eyes are placed obliquely1 they form an angle with a line parallel to that which we suppose to pass through their centre4 ,and this indeed is doubtless the reason why it displeases us to see a mouth which goes awry1 because it generally offends the eye to see two lines diverging from each other without any reason4 ,thus eyes placed obliquely1 as may be seen sometimes among ourselves1 and commonly among the ,chinese1 ,japanese1 and in ,egyptian heads1 are an irregularity and a deformity4 ,here1 again1 ,winckelmann's fact is true1 and his reasoning false1 or rather1 perhaps1 superficial4 ,the real cause of the deformity of obliquely-placed eyes is1 that the vital parts of the head preponderate4 ,the cavities of the upper jaw1 which open into the internal nose1 are1 in the ,mongelic races1 so large1 that they raise the cheek-bones1 throw the orbit upward at its lateral part1 and encroach apparently upon the space which should contain a nobler organ1 the brain4 ,the causes assigned by ,winckelmann are but consequences of this4 ,the eyelids in woman1 when well formed1 present the gentlest inflexions4 ,the eyelashes1 when long and silky1 form a sign of gentleness1 and sometimes of softness4 ,the eyebrows ought to be furnished with fine hairs1 arched1 and separated3 if they are too thin1 they do not sufficiently protect the organ of sight3 if they unite1 they render the physiognomy sombre2 their too-marked approximation1 and their extreme separation1 are real deformities4 ,the sense of sight in woman is rapid and active2 yet1 in her1 the slow and languid motion of the eye is generally employed1 and is more beautiful than a brisk one4 ,woman requires a mild light1 and colors of moderate vividness1 rather than otherwise4 ,the beauty of the ,,ear is too little regarded4 ,to an experienced eye it presents great beauties1 and great deformities1 in form1 magnitude1 and projection4 ,the size and prominence of the ear1 which characterize several nomadic tribes1 are contrary to beauty1 not merely because they alter the regularity of the oval of the head1 and surcharge its outline with prominences1 but because they are in themselves ugly1 indicating rather the coarse strength common to inferior animals than the delicacy to be found in man4 ,in woman1 the ear is also more delicate1 more sensible1 but more feeble1 than in man4 ,strong sounds1 loud noises1 which may be agreeable to the ear of man1 are offensive to her4 ,she prefers soft and tender1 gay1 or pathetic music1 to every other2 and whatever may be the perfection of her musical education1 she also prefers sweet and tender melody to the most complicated ,sclavonic harmony4 ,such are the organs of sense or those of impression1 which form the first and most important portion of the face of woman4--,the organs of expression1 the ,,muscles of the face1 on the contrary1 are feeble in her2 and correspondingly feeble and rounded are the bony points to which they are attached4 ,woman presents very little prominence of the frontal sinuses2 the cheek-bones display beautiful curves2 the edges of the alveoli containing the teeth are much more elliptical than in man2 and the chin is softly rounded4 ,of the chin1 it should be observed that it is a distinctive character of the human species1 and is not found in any other animal4 ,when well formed1 it is full1 united1 and generally without a dimple2 and it passes gently and almost insensibly into the neighboring parts4 ,in woman especially1 the chin ought to be finely rounded2 for when projecting1 it expresses1 owing to its connexion with muscular action and power1 a firmness and a determination which we do not wish to discover in her character4 ,the apparent convexity of the cheeks1 says ,winckelmann1 which in many heads appears greater than natural1 contributes to this rotundity3 it is not1 however1 ideal1 but taken from natural beauty4 ,the muscles of the face express all the shades of emotion and passion1 not because such expression is the primary1 or the proper object of their motion1 but because their various motions adapt the organs to the farther purposes required of them in consequence of preceding impressions2 and these motions become expressive to us only because we are thus enabled to infer the feeling and purpose of the person in whom they occur4 ,this is a fundamental principle of physiognomy2 and its not being understood has led to many of our errors in that science4 ,in woman1 the countenance is more rounded1 as well as more abundantly furnished with that cellular and1 fatty tissue which fills all the chasms1 effaces1 all the angles1 and unites all the parts by the gentlest transitions4 ,at the same time1 the muscles are feebler1 more mobile1 resigned for a shorter time to the same contraction1 and as inconstant as the emotions and passions which their rapid play expresses4 ,the result of all this is1 that the muscles do not profoundly modify the face1 which consequently has not so much of permanent character as that of a man1 and which permits us more difficultly to discover1 through the rounded1 short1 and shifting parts1 the nature of her various feelings4 ,as1 however1 the abundance of the cellular tissue diminishes with age1 and as the sentiments become at the same time less ephemeral1 the physiognomical character and expression of woman become more decided4 ,as to ,,color of the face1 it may be observed that the forehead1 the temples1 the eyelids1 the nose1 the upper part of the superior lip1 and the lower part of the inferior lip1 ought in woman to be of a beautiful and rather opaque white4 ,the approach to the cheeks and the middle of the chin ought to have a slight teint of rose-color1 and the middle of the cheeks ought to be altogether rosy1 but of a delicate hue4--,cheeks of an animated white are preferable to those of a red color1 although less beautiful than those of rosy hue4 ,with regard to the ,,hair1 it may be observed1 that sometimes1 rising from its bulbs1 it turns in irregular rings1 and1 by displaying a forehead rather large1 confers a certain sanguine1 as well as open air upon the physiognomy4 ,this1 however1 is most frequently seen in men1 and chiefly in men of exuberant vitality1 rather than intellectuality3 it indeed depends entirely on the former4 ,in other men1 and almost always in women1 the hair generally divides in a line extending from the crown to the forehead1 and falls over the temples4 ,the line thus formed1 uniting with the median line1 of the face in general1 and that of the nose in particular1 gives to the whole of the features a peculiar symmetry and beauty4 ,i have said1 already1 that symmetry is a characteristic of thinking beings1 and ,i have explained the reason of this4 ,the present case admirably illustrates it4 ,this symmetrical arrangement of the hair bestows an intellectual air2 and it well may1 for1 when natural1 it derives its tendency to fall on each side1 from the top of the head1 either from the general elevation of the calvarium1 or from the particular elevation of the forehead1 which is characteristic of beauty in woman4 ,it accordingly announces in the individual higher observing faculties3 hence1 the ancient sculptors never omitted this in their highest personages3 hence1 we find it in the heads of ,raffaelle and ,guido4 ,a fair hue1 ,greek3 xanthos1 says ,winckelmann1 has ever been regarded as the most beautiful2 and flaxen-colored hair was assigned to the most beautiful1 not only among the gods1 as ,apollo ,greek3 chrysokoman ,apollna1 golden-haired ,apollo and ,bacchus1 but also among the heroes3 ,alexander the ,great had flaxen hair4 ,the modern ,italians call ,cupid ,il biondo ,dio4 ,having concluded what ,i have here to say of the parts of the face1 ,i may observe1 that the different effects of the same face1 even in a state of repose1 have often been observed1 never explained4 ,i have1 however1 in another work1 shown that the face is composed of motive1 nutritive1 and thinking parts or organs4 ,now1 circumstances bring these variously into action2 and the different effects alluded to1 in reality depend on the motive1 or the nutritive1 or the intellectual expression being at the time1 respectively1 most apparent1 or most attended to by us4 ,the study of this subject1 which ,i have not space here to develop1 is of infinite importance to the man of taste1 the physiognomist1 and the artist4 ,the latter cannot easily excel without understanding it4 ,another curious fact1 not hitherto observed1 is1 that though beauty of face is1 owing to the power of the vital system1 almost universal at a certain age1 there is always a faulty feature1 which the physiognomist may observe1 and which ever continues to exaggerate1 until it terminate in relative ugliness4 ,thus we scarcely observe the long upper lip during youth1 in some women2 and yet it afterward gives to them the sober grimace of baboons4 ,we admire in youth the spirit of the piercing eye1 and aquiline nose in others1 to whom these afterward give the look of so many old hawks4 ,in others1 still1 we are charmed with the round1 rosy1 and innocent cheeks1 which1 when they become paler and more pendent1 confer on them the aspect either of seals or of mastiffs1 according to other circumstances of temper and disposition4 ,i could easily trace these1 and many more1 from youth to middle age1 and illustrate them convincingly1 by drawings3 but ,i have no room for it here4 ,each1 indeed1 of the subjects of the two immediately preceding paragraphs1 is worthy of a volume2 for the first is as essential to all judgment of existing beauty at the instant of its being before us1 as the second is to all prescience of what beauty will very soon be--to all who have no love for a leap in the dark4 ,i add to this chapter but a few words on the very different organization of the head and face1 and the very different mind1 of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,whoever1 for the purpose of comparing the heads of these two nations1 may walk into the ,british ,museum1 will be struck with the difference between them4 ,the forehead is almost always rather narrow1 and rather high1 in the most illustrious ,greeks2 and this could not so uniformly have been so represented1 in sculpture1 unless it had been so also in fact4 ,this is verified1 in the third room of the ,townley collection1 by the heads of ,homer1 ,hippocrates1 ,epicurus1 ,pericles1 c4--by the almost universal conformation of ,greek heads1 to which there are but few exceptions3 ,sophocles1 in this room1 and ,demosthenes1 in the eleventh1 are rather broader4 ,on the contrary1 the forehead1 the face1 the jaws1 are excessively broad1 and the cranium is depressed and low1 in the ,romans--in ,severus1 ,nero1 ,caracalla1 c41 in the sixth room1 and in ,tiberius and ,augustus1 in the eleventh2 nor is this owing to the circumstance that these generally were men degraded in feeling or intellect1 for nearly the same configuration is found in ,trajan1 ,hadrian1 c41 in the fourth1 sixth1 and other rooms4 ,the faces of the ,romans are not less ugly than their heads2 and those of their women are absolutely detestable1 as may be seen in ,faustina1 ,plautilla1 ,sabina1 ,domitia1 c41 in the sixth of these rooms4 ,if farther illustration of this be wanting1 it may be found in the circumstance that1 while the ,greeks preferred the rather high forehead1 and invented the ideal one1 the ,romans1 on the contrary1 preferred a little forehead and united eyebrows4 ,ovid assures us that the women of his time painted their eyebrows in such a manner1 that they might appear to form only one4 ,in the work so often referred to1 ,i have shown that the intensity of functions is as the length of their organs1 and the permanence of functions as the breadth of their organs4 ,no truth can be better illustrated than this is1 in the organization and the faculties of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,with the higher and larger head of the ,greeks was united an intensity of genius1 which no other people has yet rivalled2 and with the broader head of the ,romans1 a perseverance1 equally obstinate and unfeeling1 which has been similarly unrivalled4 ,a good illustration of the vaunted ,roman virtue is recorded in ,porcia1 the daughter of ,cato1 the wife of ,brutus1 who plunged a toilet-knife into her thigh1 and kept it eight days in the wound1 without complaining1 to prove to her husband that her courage and her discretion rendered her worthy of entering into the conspiracy1 which he meditated2 and who also destroyed herself by swallowing burning coals1 when she heard of his defeat4 ,obstinacy and insensibility were great sources of the crimes either perpetrated1 or1 by their lying historians1 pretended to be perpetrated1 under the name of ,roman virtue4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it would be out of place1 here1 to enter farther into the character and expression of the face4 ,those whom these remarks dispose to do so1 may refer to the physiognomical work1 which ,i have been so often compelled to allude to4#dc ,to those who are satisfied1 neither with the vague1 though tasteful inspirations of ,lavater1 nor with the empyrical or unreasoned manifestations of ,gall and ,spurzheim1 but who desire the assignment of a reason for every description of physiognomical character or expression1 that work may afford some satisfaction4 ,that the ,greeks1 either intuitively or reasonedly1 distinguished the three species of beauty as to the figure1 has been already seen4 ,the heads of ,diana1 ,venus1 and ,minerva1 respectively present beauty of the locomotive1 vital1 and mental systems4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,combinations ,,and ,,transitions ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,species ,,of ,,female ,,beauty4 ,as to the ,,combinations of beauty1 it must now be observed1 that some one of these species of beauty always characterize the same individual during every stage of life2 and1 to the experienced observer1 it never is difficult to say which of them predominates4 ,attention to the preceding principles will render this easy4 ,it is right to mention here the cause of this general predominance of one species of beauty over the rest4 ,it depends on this1 that the slightest original or accidental preponderance of strength in one system above that of the rest1 though unobserved at first1 leads to a more frequent employment of its functions1 and therefore to a more perfect development of its organs1 until at last the disproportion between these and those of the other systems1 becomes characteristic of the individual4 ,in a truly beautiful woman1 none of the systems described can exist in a great degree of degradation2 but of the three1 the nutritive or vital system is to woman the most essential4 ,in ,england1 from thirty to forty is generally the age of its highest perfection4 ,it often1 however1 occurs1 that two1 or even the whole of these species of beauty1 are blended in considerable perfection4 ,in those females in which it is found1 the locomotive system is well developed in the length and elegance of the limbs2 the vital or nutritive system everywhere presents soft forms1 and rounds both body and limbs2 and the mental or thinking system displays a capability of grace in action1 notwithstanding the constrained attitude assumed to conceal the face4 ,although there can indeed be no great degree of beauty in which this combination is not more or less the case1 yet a union of all the three species of beauty1 in the greatest compatible degree1 is to be found only in some of those immortal images of ideal beauty1 which were created by the genius and the chisel of the ,greeks4 ,having briefly spoken of these combinations1 ,i may notice also those combinations which similarly occur among the temperaments1 which1 as already said1 constitute partial views of the varieties ,i have been describing4 ,in relation to a combination of the phlegmatic and nervous temperament1 ,i may refer to ,richerand1 who says1 that1 among the moderns1 the easy ,michael ,montaigne1 all of whose passions were so moderate1 who reasoned on everything1 even on feeling1 was truly pituitous4 ,but in him the predominance of the lymphatic system was not carried so far1 but that he joined to it a good deal of nervous susceptibility4 ,of women1 more especially1 it is observed1 that they rarely present examples of the lymphatic temperament1 unmodified by nervous mobility2 whence come extreme vivacity in the sensations with great feebleness1 determinations equally precipitate and unsteady1 excited imagination and ephemeral tastes1 absolute will1 c4 ,the sanguine temperament is similarly combined with the nervous one4 ,hence1 the physiologist above quoted says1 that to the extreme love of pleasure1 sanguine men join1 when circumstances require it he should have said1 in some cases1 great elevation of thought and character1 and can bring into action the highest talents in every department3 the history of ,henry ,,iv41 of ,mirabeau1 and others1 proves that4 ,the ancients gave the name of bilious1 to a temperament in which the sanguineous system is energetic1 the pulse strong1 hard1 and frequent1 the subcutaneous veins prominent1 the development of the liver excessive1 the superabundance of bile remarkable1 the sensibility easily excited1 yet capable of dwelling upon one object1 the passions violent1 the movements abrupt and impetuous1 and the character inflexible4 ,this is evidently a very compound temperament1 and should never have been classed1 any more than the two preceding1 with the simple temperaments1 the athletic or muscular1 the phlegmatic or lymphatic1 the sanguine1 and the nervous1 which ,i have noticed under the heads to which they belong4 ,in persons of this temperament1 the skin is of a yellowish brown1 the hair black1 the muscles marked1 the form harshly expressed4 ,bold in the conception of a project1 says ,richerand1 constant and indefatigable in its execution1 it is among men of this temperament1 that we find those who1 in different ages1 have governed the destinies of the world3 full of courage1 boldness1 and activity1 they have signalized themselves by great virtues or great crimes1 and have been the terror or admiration of the universe4 ,such were ,alexander1 ,julius ,cesar1 ,brutus1 ,mahomet1 ,charles ,,xii41 the ,czar ,peter1 ,cromwell1 ,sixtus ,v41 ,cardinal ,richelieu and1 he should have added1 ,bonaparte4444 ,to attain to results of such importance1 the profoundest dissimulation and the most obstinate constancy are equally necessary2 and these are the most eminent qualities of the bilious4 ,a still more compound temperament is the melancholic1 in which disease is added to the bilious temperament1 a derangement of the functions of the nervous system1 and the diseased obstruction of some one of the organs of the abdomen1 so that the nutritive functions are feebly or irregularly performed1 the bowels sluggish1 the pulse hard and contracted1 the excretions difficult1 the imagination gloomy1 the disposition suspicious4 ,in persons of this temperament1 the skin is of a still deeper hue1 and the look uneasy and gloomy4 ,rousseau and ,tiberius are excellent examples of this temperament1 as associated with genius and virtue in one1 and with truly royal vice in the other4 ,in women1 this temperament is rarely so intense as in men4 ,of the ,,transitions of beauty1 ,i have now to observe1 that1 though one species of beauty always characterizes the same individual during every stage of life1 yet it is remarkable1 that the young woman 7whatever species of beauty predominates7 has always a tendency to beauty of the locomotive system2--that the middle-aged woman has always a tendency to beauty of the nutritive system2--and that the woman of advanced age has always a tendency to beauty of the thinking system4 ,some women would seem1 in the progress of life1 to pass through all these systems 7and the more perfect the whole organization1 the more will this seem to be the case72 but the accurate observer will always see the predominance of the same system4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,proportion1 ,,character1 ,,expression1 ,,etc4 ,winckelmann says3 ,i cannot imagine beauty without the ,,proportion which is always its foundation4--,the drawing of the naked figure is founded upon the idea and the knowledge of beauty2 and this idea consists partly in measures and relations1 and partly in forms1 the beauty of which was1 as ,cicero observes1 the object of the first ,grecian artists3 the latter determine the figure2 the former fix the proportions4 ,the great variety of proportions presented by the human body causes much difficulty in determining with precision what are the best4 ,the difficulty becomes quite insurmountable if we attempt to assign precise dimensions to the details of configuration or to minute parts4 ,many circumstances are opposed to the exactness of these measures4 ,even in the same person1 one part is rarely in all respects similar to the corresponding part2 we are taller in the morning than in the evening2 and the proportions change at different periods of life4 ,in different individuals1 the differences are still more evident4 ,moreover1 habits1 professions1 trades1 all unite to oppose regularity in the proportions4 ,it has farther been observed that1 in the conformation of woman1 both as regards the whole and as regards the various parts1 nature still more rarely approaches determinate proportions than in man4 ,it is remarked by ,hogarth1 whose views ,i now abridge1 that in society we every day hear women pronounce perfectly correct opinions as to the proportions of the neck1 the bosom1 the hands1 and the arms of other women1 whom they have an interest in observing with severity4 ,it is evident that1 for such an examination1 they ought to be capable of seizing1 with great precision1 the relation of length and thickness1 and of following the slight sinuosities1 the swellings1 the depressions1 almost insensible and continually varying1 at the surface of the parts observed4 ,if so1 it is certainly in the power of a man of science1 with as observing an eye1 to go still farther1 and conceive many other necessary circumstances concerning proportion4 ,but he says3 ,though much of this matter may be easily understood by common observation1 assisted by science1 still ,i fear it will be difficult to raise a very clear idea of what constitutes or composes the utmost beauty of proportion4444 ,we shall soon find that it is chiefly to be effected by means of the nice sensation we naturally have of what certain quantities or dimensions of parts are fittest to produce the utmost strength for moving or supporting great weights1 and of what are most fit for the utmost light agility1 as also for every degree1 between these two extremes4 ,after some illustrations of this1 which naturally leave the method very vague1 he adds3 ,i am apprehensive that this part of my scheme1 for explaining exact proportion1 may not be thought so sufficiently determinate as could be wished4 ,so that ,hogarth's method as to proportions1 both general and particular1 reduces itself to the employment of the eye and the nice sensation we have of quantities or dimensions4 ,but the ,greek artists had not only done what ,hogarth thus vaguely speaks of1 but advanced much farther2 and indeed all that has been done on this important subject belongs rather to the history of art than that of nature4 ,it is not1 says ,buffon1 by the comparison of the body of one man with that of another man1 or by measures actually taken in a great number of subjects1 that we can acquire this knowledge that of proportion3 it is by the efforts which have been made exactly to copy and imitate nature2 it is to the art of design that we owe all that we know in this respect4 ,feeling and taste have done all that mechanics could not do2 the rule and the compass have been quitted in order to profit by the eye2 all the forms1 all the outlines1 and all the parts of the human body1 have been realized in marble2 and we have known nature better by the representation than by nature itself4 ,it is by great exercise of the art of design and by an exquisite sentiment1 that great statuaries have succeeded in making us feel the just proportions of the works of nature4 ,the ,greeks have formed such admirable statues1 that with one consent they are regarded as the most exact representation of the most perfect human body4 ,these statues1 which were only copies from man1 are become originals1 because these copies were not made from any individual1 but from the whole human species well observed1 so well indeed1 that no man has been found whose figure is so well proportioned as these statues3 it is then from these models that the measures of the human body have been taken4 ,it is now necessary to lay before the reader the principles of the ,greeks1 as to the proportions of the human body4 ,much has been well done on this subject by ,winckelmann1 ,bossi1 and others2 but1 at the same time1 from want of enlarged anatomical and physiological views1 they have overlooked some fundamental considerations1 and have failed to unravel the greatest difficulties which the subject presents4 ,that the reader may be satisfied of the accuracy of my representations1 ,i shall lay the statements of these writers before him in their own words1 rendering them only as succinct as possible4#dd ,of the first epoch of art among the ,etruscans and ,greeks1 ,mengs says3 ,they preferred the most necessary things to those which were less so2 and therefore they directed their attention first to the muscles1 and next to proportion1 these constituting the two parts the most useful and necessary of the human form2 and this is1 throughout1 the character of their primitive taste4 ,all this we observe in history1 and in the divine and human figures which they have represented4 ,in these figures1 he farther observes1 we find a proportion1 impossible to be known and practised1 without an art which furnishes sure rules4 ,these rules could not be founded otherwise than in proportion1 which was invented and practised by the ,greeks4 ,in this1 ,flaxman agrees1 when he says3 ,it must not be supposed that those simple geometrical forms of body and limbs1 in the divinities and heroes of antiquity1 depended upon accidental choice1 or blind and ignorant arbitration4 ,they are1 on the contrary1 a consequence of the strict and extensive examination of nature1 of rational inquiry into its most perfect organization and physical well-being1 expressed in outward appearance4 ,that the ,greeks1 says ,bossi1 wrote much on this subject their doctrine respecting symmetry we have ample evidence in ,pliny1 ,vitruvius himself1 ,philostratus the younger1 and others4 ,polycletus did not confine himself to giving a commentary upon this fundamental point1 but1 in illustration of his treatise1 according to ,galen1 made an admirable statue that confirmed the precepts laid down in the work2 and ',the ,rule of ,polycletus1' the name given to this statue1 became so famous for its beauty1 that it passed into a proverb to express a perfect body1 as we may find in ,lucian4 ,but of so many writings1 which ought at least to equal the works that remain to us1 and probably were superior1 inasmuch as it is easier to lay down precepts than to put them in execution--of so many treatises1 ,i say1 not a fragment remains except the few lines of ,vitruvius1 nor is there1 now1 any hope that a vestige will be found1 unless something may remain for posterity among the papyri of ,herculaneum4 ,now1 to approach to the ancients in excellence is quite impossible1 until some one shall explain the great principles on which they acted4 ,assuredly they are1 in some of the most important respects1 unknown at present4 ,servile imitation will never answer the purpose2 and to learn as the ancients did1 and reach perfection1 perhaps1 in as many ages1 is not very rational1 when we can avail ourselves of their practice to discover their principles4 ,i will1 in this chapter1 endeavor to point out some of these principles in the practice of art1 as ,i have already done in the general theory of beauty4 ,it is probable1 says ,winckelmann1 that the ,grecian artists1 in imitation of the ,egyptians1 had fixed1 by well-determined rules1 not only the largest1 but even the very smallest proportions1 and the measure of the length proper to every age and to every kind of contour2 and probably all these rules were learned by young persons1 from books that treated of symmetry4 ,these rules1 we know1 were of three kinds--numerical1 geometrical1 and harmonic2 and we shall see1 in the sequel1 that the loss of them has been much deplored4 ,it is not a little curious1 however1 that the numerical and geometrical methods are1 in some measure1 actually practised even at the present day1 and that the harmonic method 7the loss of which has caused the greatest confusion7 is easily deducible from anatomical and physiological principles1 as ,i shall endeavor to show4 ,as to the ,,numerical ,,method1 it is evidently that of which ,vitruvius has preserved some notions1 and which is at present practised by artists4 ,as it is the painter's business1 says ,bossi1 to imitate a great variety of human bodies1 and as the difference of parts in beautiful bodies is generally slight1 and becomes1 as it were1 imperceptible1 in the most usual imitations less than life1 ,leonardo perceived it was necessary for the artist to use a general measure1 for the purpose of preparing historical compositions quickly4 ,he required that the figure to be employed should be carefully selected on the model of some natural body1 the proportions of which were generally considered beautiful4--,this measure1 he required1 should be employed solely for length1 and not for width1 which requires more evident variety4 ,it has been observed1 says ,flaxman1 that ,vitruvius1 from the writings of the most eminent ,greek painters and sculptors1 informs us that they made their figures eight heads high1 or ten faces1 and he instances different parts of the figure measured according to that rule1 which the great ,michael ,angelo adopted1 as we see by a print from a drawing of his4 ,winckelmann1 however1 shows that the foot served the ,greeks as a measure for all their larger dimensions1 and that their sculptors regulated their proportions by it1 in giving six times its length1 as the model of the human figure4 ,vitruvius says1 ,pes vero altitudinis corporis sext4 ,the foot1 says ,winckelmann1 which among the ancients was used as the standard of measures of every magnitude 7for a given measure of fluids was also called by this name71 was very useful to sculptors in fixing the proportions of the body1 and with reason2 for the foot was a more determinate measure than that of the head or face1 of which the moderns generally make use4 ,the ancient artists regulated the size of their statues by the length of the foot1 making them1 according to ,vitruvius1 six times the length of the foot4 ,upon this principle1 ,pythagoras determined the height of ,hercules1 by the length of the feet with which he measured the ,olympic stadium at ,elis4 ,this proportion of six to one between the foot and the body1 is founded upon experience of nature1 even in slender figures3 it is found correct1 not only in the ,egyptian statues1 but also in the ,grecian2 and it will be discovered in the greater part of the ancient figures where the feet are preserved4 ,we would not omit mentioning1 says ,bossi1 the erroneous opinion of those1 who esteem the feet of females beautiful in proportion to their smallness4 ,the beauty of the feet consists in the handsomeness and neatness of their shape1 not in their being short1 or extremely small3 were it otherwise1 the feet of the ,chinese and ,japanese women would be beautiful1 and those of the ,venus de ,medici frightful4 ,such1 then1 is evidently the numerical method of the ancients4--,of the ,,geometrical ,,method1 we have many illustrations4 ,a man standing upright1 with his arms extended1 is1 as ,leonardo da ,vinci has shown1 enclosed in a square1 the extreme extent of his arms being equal to his height4 ,this is evidently the most general measure of the latter kind4 ,of the latter kind1 also1 is ,camper's ellipsis for measuring the relative size of the shoulders in the male1 and the pelvis in the female4 ,so also is the measure from the centre of one mamm to that of the other1 as equal to the distance from each to the pit over the breast-bone4 ,we now approach the chief difficulty1 which evidently formed a stumbling-block even to ,leonardo da ,vinci--that ,,harmonic ,,method which1 strange as it may appear1 will be found to afford rules that are at once perfectly precise1 and yet infinitely variable4 ,the apparent impossibility indeed of such a rule seems to have embarrassed every one4 ,and the statement which ,bossi makes in regard to ,leonardo da ,vinci1 in this respect1 is exceedingly interesting4 ,he thought1 says ,bossi1 but little of any general measure of the species2 and that the true proportion admitted by him1 and acknowledged to be of difficult investigation1 is solely the proportion of an individual in regard to himself1 which1 according to true imitation1 should be different in all the individuals of a species1 as is the case in nature4 ,thus1 says he1 'all the parts of any animal should correspond with the whole2 that which is short and thick1 should have every member short and thick2 that which is long and thin1 every member long and thin2 and that which is between the two1 members of a proportionate size4' ,from this and other precepts1 it follows1 that1 when he speaks of proportion1 he is to be understood as referring to the harmony of the parts of an individual1 and not to the general rule of imitation in reference to dimensions4--,how clearly 7notwithstanding the error as to all being short and thick7 does this point to the harmonic method of proportion forthwith to be explained8 ,it would seem he felt within himself that he did not reach the perfection of those wonderful ancients of whom he professed himself the admirer and disciple4 ,it became1 therefore1 ,leonardo's particular care and study to approach as nearly as he could to the ancients in the true imitation of beautiful nature under the guidance of philosophy4 ,but whether from want of great examples1 or from not sufficiently penetrating1 as he himself thought1 into these artifices1 or from comprehending them too late1 he modestly laments that he did not possess the ancient art of proportions4 ,he then protests that he has done the little he was able to do1 and asks pardon of posterity that he has not done more4 ,such are the sentiments that ,platino exhibits in the following epitaph3 ,leonardus ,vincia 7sic7 ,florentinus ,statuarius ,pictor que nobilissimus de se parce loquitur4 ,non sum ,lysippus2 nec ,apelles2 nec ,policletus1 ,nec ,zeuxis2 nec sum nobilis re ,myron4 ,sum ,florentinus ,leonardus ,vincia proles2 ,mirator veterum discipulusque memor4 ,defuit una mihi symmetria prisca3 peregi ,quod potui3 veniam da mihi posteritas4 ,it is evident that these sentiments are not to be attributed to the imagination of the poet4 ,bossi1 having no glimpse of the great principles for which ,leonardo sought in vain1 says3 ,since1 then1 this great man could not satisfy himself in the difficult task of dimensions1 while on other points he seems to dread no censure1 it should give us a strong idea of the difficulty of determining the laws of beautiful symmetry1 and preserving it in works with that harmony which is felt1 but cannot be explained1 and which varies in every figure1 according to the age1 circumstances1 and particular character of each4 ,and when we recollect that1 though ,leonardo sought successfully in ,vitruvius the proportions which ,vitruvius himself seems to have drawn from the ,greeks1 he yet lamented that he did not possess the ancient symmetry1 it is easily seen that he did not mean by this science1 as already stated1 a determinate general measure for man1 but that harmony of parts which is suited to each individual1 according to the respective circumstances of sex1 age1 character1 and the like4 ,again1 how clearly does this point to the harmonic method of proportion to be presently explained6 ,but1 ,bossi proceeds1 how difficult it is to combine the beautiful and elegant1 with easy and harmonic measures1 may be judged from the vain attempts of many otherwise ingenious men1 as ,i will here relate for the benefit of artists4 ,the difficulty will be still more evident if we reflect how arduous a task it is to make the proportions that the ,greeks denominated numerical1 harmonic1 and geometrical1 agree together1 and to apply them thus agreeing1 to the formation of rules and measures of a visible object so various in its component parts as the human body4--,in despair1 ,bossi tries to show its absolute impossibility6 ,in the second place1 to penetrate completely the natural reason of the proportions of the human body1 would require a knowledge of physics1 which it is not in man's power to obtain4 ,the universal equilibrium of the numerous constituent parts of the human machine1 every one of which eminently attains the end for which it was destined1 without interrupting the course that every other part takes to its respective end1 in which true proportion seems to consist1 is more easily stated than understood4 ,and even if an artist could arrive at such a knowledge of man as to be able1 so to speak1 to compose him1 he would have done but little1 because he would have made but one man4 ,by the alteration of only one of the infinite parts that compose the human frame1 the equilibrium and respective relation of the others are necessarily altered3 in short1 each separate individual would be the subject of a totally new study4 ,every human habit1 of whatever nature it may be1 has an influence over the human figure1 and from the indefinable variety and incalculable mixture of such habits1 there results an infinite variety of figures4 ,thus1 it is evident that true general proportions cannot be laid down without violating nature1 which it is the object of art to imitate4--,if1 by general proportions1 ,bossi here means proportions applicable to all or to a great number1 he completely loses sight of the object of the great man on whose opinions he comments2 for he sought a rule for the harmony of parts in each distinct individual6 ,again1 ,bossi abandons1 as impossible1 the finding of the harmonic rule1 which was the great object of ,leonardo4--,from what has been said1 we may finally conclude that large proportions only can be established1 and that placing too much confidence in measures1 retards1 rather than favors the arts4 ,it was written of ,raphael1 and is seen1 that he had as many proportions as he made figures4 ,michael ,angelo did the same1 and it was his saying1 that he who had not the compasses in his eye1 would never be able to supply the deficiency by artificial means4 ,vincentio ,danti1 who treasured the doctrine of ,michael ,angelo1 asserts in his work1 that the proportions do not fall under any measure of quantity4 ,we have seen the infinite exceptions of ,leonardo1 respecting the measurement of man1 and his own few works confirm it4 ,i speak no more of inferior persons among the moderns2 but turning to the ancients1 ,i find that the proportions of every good statue are different4--,and this will be found conformable to the harmonic rule4 ,and speaking generally of works in relievo1 what canons can determine the largeness or smallness of some parts1 so as to obtain a greater effect according to the circumstances of light1 distance1 material1 visual point1 c48 ,certainly none4--,this was not to be expected from the rule sought for4 ,i shall deem that ,i have gained some recompense for the toil of wading through so many tedious works1 if it shall induce any faith in the advice ,i now give1 namely1 that 'every student of painting should himself measure many bodies of acknowledged beauty1 compare them with the finest imitations in painting and sculpture1 and from these measures make a canon for himself1 dividing it in the manner best suited to his genius and memory4 ,if this plan were more generally adopted1 art and its productions would both be gainers4'--,it might do so1 among as ingenious a people as the ,greeks1 in as many ages as the same method cost them to do it in6 ,leonardo da ,vinci wanted to abridge the time1 instead of beginning again6 ,winckelmann as little understands this great man's object1 when1 after saying1 ,as the ancients made ideal beauty their principal study1 they determined its relations and proportions1 he adds from which1 however1 they allowed themselves to deviate1 when they had a good reason1 and yielded themselves to the guidance of their genius4 ,why1 the whole purpose of the rule sought for was to regulate every possible deviation1 as will now be seen4 ,the harmonic method of the ,greeks--that measure which ,leonardo calls the true proportion--the proportion of an individual in regard to himself--which should be different in all the individuals of a species1 but in which all the parts of any animal should correspond with the whole1 which constitutes the harmony of the parts of an individual1 and which1 as ,bossi adds1 varies in every figure1 according to the age1 circumstances1 and particular character of each--in short1 this method for the harmony of parts in each distinct individual--this method presenting rules1 perfectly precise1 and yet infinitely variable1 has1 in all its elements1 been clearly laid before the reader 7though not enunciated as a rule7--in the relative proportions of the locomotive1 nutritive1 and thinking systems1 or1 generally speaking1 of the limbs1 trunk1 and head1 and in the three species of beauty which are founded on them4 ,these1 it is evident1 present to the philosophic observer1 the sole means of judging of beauty by harmonic rule1 the great object of ,leonardo da ,vinci's desires and regrets4 ,they present the great features of the ,greek method--if that method conformed to truth and nature1 as it undoubtedly did4 ,this will be rendered still clearer by a single example4 ,thus1 if any individual be characterized by the development of the nutritive system1 this harmonic rule of nature demands not only that1 as in the ,saxon-,english1 the ,dutch1 and many ,germans1 the trunk shall be large1 but consequently1 that the other two portions1 the head and the limbs1 shall be relatively small2 that the calvarium shall be small and round1 and the intellectual powers restricted2 that the head shall1 nevertheless1 be broad1 because the vital cavities of the head are large1 and because large jaws and muscles of mastication are necessary for the supply of such a system2 that the neck shall be short1 because the locomotive system is little developed2 that it shall be thick1 because the vessels which connect the head to the trunk are large and full1 the former being only an appendage of the latter2 that the lower limbs shall be both short and slender2 that the calves of the legs shall be small and high2#de that the feet shall be little turned out1 c41 c4 ,so also1 if any individual be characterized by the development of the locomotive system1 the harmonic rule demands1 not only that the limbs shall be large1 but1 consequently1 that the other two portions1 the head and the trunk1 shall be relatively small2 that the calvarium shall be small and long1 and the intellectual powers limited2 that the head shall be long1 because the jaws and their muscles are extended1 c41 c4 ,so likewise1 if any individual be characterized by the development of the thinking system1 the harmonic rule demands1 not only that the head shall be large1 but1 consequently1 that the other two portions1 the trunk and limbs1 shall be relatively small2 that the head shall not only be large1 but that its upper part1 the calvarium1 shall be largest1 giving a pyramidal appearance to the head2 that the trunk and limbs1 however elegantly formed1 shall be relatively feeble1 the former often liable to disease1 the latter to accident1 as we have seen in the most illustrious examples1 c41 c4 ,it must be borne in mind1 however1 as already explained1 that there may be innumerable combinations and modifications of these characteristics2 certain greater ones1 nevertheless1 generally predominating4 ,such1 doubtless1 was the harmonic method of the ,greeks2 whether1 by them1 it was thus clearly founded on anthropology1 or not4 ,it is curious that several writers1 and ,winckelmann among the rest1 should have adopted a triple division of the body--without1 however1 duly founding it in anthropology4 ,thus ,winckelmann says the entire body is divided into three parts1 and the principal members are also divided into three4 ,the parts of the body are the trunk1 the thighs1 and the legs6--a distribution and division founded neither in nature nor in truth4 ,that the ,greeks were more or less aware of the principles here stated1 though their writings have not descended to us1 is proved by their idealizations founded upon them4 ,if different proportions1 says ,winckelmann1 are sometimes met with in any figure1 as for example1 in the beautiful trunk of a naked female figure in the possession of ,signior ,cavaceppi at ,rome1 in which the body from the navel to the sexual parts is of an uncommon length1 it is most probable that such figures have been copied from nature1 that is1 from persons so formed4--,nothing certainly would be better founded in natural tendency than such idealization4 ,all the three ,greek methods of proportion being now before the reader1 ,i must briefly notice other circumstances4 ,in the head in particular1 may be observed ,,character1 or a permanent and invariable form1 which defines its capabilities1 and ,,expression1 or temporary and variable forms1 which indicate its actual functions4 ,the teachers of anatomy for artists have not1 that ,i know of1 clearly described the causes of these4 ,i may therefore observe1 that as character is permanent and invariable1 it depends fundamentally on permanent and invariable parts--the bones2 and as expression is temporary and variable1 it depends on shifting and variable parts--the muscles4 ,it is well observed by ,mengs that1 in relation to character1 the peculiar distinction of the ancients is1 that from one part of the face1 we may know the character of the whole4 ,and1 of expression1 ,winckelmann observes that the portion which possesses beauty of expression or action1 or beauty of both added to the figure of any person1 is like the resemblance of one who views himself in a fountain2 the reflection is not seen plainly unless the surface of the water be still1 limpid1 and clear2 quiet and tranquillity are as suitable to beauty as to the sea4 ,expression and action being1 in art as in nature1 the evidence of the active or passive state of the mind1 perfect beauty can never exist in the countenance unless the mind be calm and free from all agitation1 at least from everything likely to change and disturb the lineaments of which beauty is composed4 ,now the details which1 during the period of perfection in art1 were so skilfully employed1 were these very means of expression or circumstances attending and indicating them--minuter forms which are universal1 and without which nature is imperfectly represented--minuter forms of the highest order1 because the means of expressing intellect1 emotion1 and passion1 if required4 ,these higher details we find1 for instance1 in the turn of the inner end of the eyebrow1 or constriction and elevation of the under eyelid1 or a hundred other traits dependant on subjacent muscles4 ,we find them in slight risings of mere cutaneous parts1 when they lie over and are elevated by the attachment of muscles1 as at the inner angles of the eyes1 the corners of the mouth1 and elsewhere4 ,we find them in depressions or furrows1 when they are drawn down by contiguous muscles4 ,these are of higher character1 because they belong to expression or its means2 and there is a corresponding want of completeness1 of truth1 of nature1 without them4 ,between these intellectual means1 these higher details1 and those of a lower order1 accidental details1 the great artists of ,greece distinguished4 ,accidental details have nothing to do with expression or the means of expression2 they depend upon an inferior system1 that merely of life1 and constitute all the depositions1 excrescences1 and growths1 which confuse the vision of the inexperienced1 and embarrass that of the most discriminating1 in the examination of higher beauty4 ,these lower details we find1 for instance1 in the puffings of adipose substance which project from the spaces between the muscles of the face1 and from other accidents of the vital system1 as wrinkles or folds from the absence of adipose substance1 fulness or emptiness of the vessels1 projecting veins1 peculiar conditions of the skin1 turbidity of the eyes1 hairs of the head1 beard1 or skin1 c4 ,these have always characterized inferior artists and inferior periods of art4 ,from these observations1 it will be seen that such unqualified statements as the following by ,azara1 lead only to misconception3 ,a human face1 for example1 is composed of the forehead1 brows1 eyes1 nose1 cheeks1 mouth1 chin1 and beard4 ,these are the great parts2 but each of these contains many other minor parts1 which also contain an infinity of others still less4 ,if the painter will content himself to express well the great parts which ,i have taken notice of1 he will have a grand style2 if he depicts also the second1 his style will be that of mediocrity2 and if he pretends to introduce the last1 his style will be insignificant and ridiculous4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,greek ,,ideal ,,beauty4 ,on this important doctrine of art1 of which ,winckelmann says3 ,the ideal is as much more noble than the mechanical as the mind is superior to the body1 ,i shall follow1 so far as ,i can advantageously1 the great writers on this subject1 in order that the reader may have all the confidence in its recognised portions that authority can bestow1 and that he may the better distinguish them from the new views which are here added4 ,there are1 says ,winckelmann1 two kinds of beauty1 individual and ideal3 the former is a combination of the beauties of an individual2 the latter1 a selection of beautiful parts from several4 ,the formation of beauty was begun from some beautiful individual1 that is1 from the imitation of some beautiful person1 as in the representation of some divinity4 ,even in the ages when the arts were flourishing1 the goddesses were formed from the models of beautiful women1 and even from those who publicly sold their charms3 such was ,theodota1 of whom ,xenophon speaks4 ,nor was any one scandalized at it1 for the opinion of the ancients on these matters was very different from ours4 ,winckelmann adds3 ,there is rarely or never1 a body without fault1 all the parts of which are such that it is impossible to find or draw them more perfect in other persons4 ,the wisest artists1 being aware of this 444 did not confine themselves to copying the forms of beauty from one individual 444 but seeking what is beautiful from various objects1 they endeavored to combine them together1 as the celebrated ,parrhasius says in his discourse with ,socrates4 ,thus1 in the formation of their figures1 they were not guided by any personal affections1 by which we are frequently led1 in the pursuit of beauty that pleases us1 to abandon true beauty4 ,from the selection of the most beautiful parts and their harmonious union in one figure1 arises ideal beauty3 nor is this a metaphysical idea1 because all the portions of the human figure taken separately are not ideal2 but merely the entire figure4 ,and he elsewhere says3 ,it is called ideal1 not as regards its parts1 but as a whole1 in which nature can be surpassed by art4 ,with deeper observation still1 he adds that1 though nature tends to perfection in the formation of individuals1 yet she is so constantly thwarted by the numerous accidents to which humanity is subject1 that she cannot attain the end proposed2 so that it is in a manner impossible to find an individual in whom all parts of the body are perfectly beautiful4 ,it was to the same purport that ,proclus had in ancient times said3 ,he who takes for his model such forms as nature produces1 and confines himself to an exact imitation of them1 will never attain to what is perfectly beautiful4 ,for the works of nature are full of disproportion1 and fall very short of the true standard of beauty4 ,so that ,phidias1 when he formed his ,jupiter1 did not copy any object ever presented to his sight1 but contemplated only that image which he had conceived in his mind from ,homer's description4#df ,in short1 while the ,greek artists perpetually studied nature1 they discovered her best and highest tendencies even in her most perfect forms2 their works accordingly present nothing foreign to that which is strictly beautiful2 they present not only no inferior forms1 but no idle ornaments2 and everything in them is accordingly at once simple and sublime4 ,barry#dg affords me the means of continuing the view ,i now wish to present4 ,in all individuals1 he says1 of every species1 there is necessarily a visible tendency to a certain point or form4 ,in this point or form1 the standard of each species rests4 ,the deviations from this1 either by excess or deficiency1 are of two kinds3 first1 deviations indicating a more peculiar adaptation of certain characters of advantage and utility1 such as strength1 agility1 and so forth2 even mental as well as corporeal1 since they sometimes result from habit and education1 as well as from original conformation4 ,in these deviations1 are to be found those ingredients which1 in their composition and union1 exhibit the abstract or ideal perfection in the several classes or species of character4 ,the second kind of deviation is that which1 having no reference to anything useful or advantageous1 but rather visibly indicating the contrary1 as being useless1 cumbersome1 or deficient1 is considered as deformity2 and this deformity will be always found different in the several individuals1 by either not being in the same part1 in the same manner1 or in the same degree4 ,the points of agreement which indicate the species1 are therefore many2 of difference which indicate the deformity1 few4 ,barry1 however1 wrongly says3 ,mere beauty1 then1 though always interesting1 is1 notwithstanding1 vague and indeterminate2 as it indicates no particular expression either of body or mind4 ,but it indicates the highest character1 the capability of all noble expression1 and this is better than its sacrifice to actuality in one4 ,i am now led to the greater rules which their ideal method suggested to the ,greeks4 ,payne ,knight indeed says3 ,precise rules and definitions1 in matters of this sort1 are merely the playthings or tools of system-builders2 and1 unchecked by any recollection of the practical and unrivalled excellence of the founders of these rules1 he adds a great deal of narrow-minded and mistaken nonsense upon the subject1 never distinguishing between rules in themselves rational1 and the stretching of them to utter inapplicability4 ,on this subject1 even ,reynolds properly observes1 that some of the greatest names of antiquity1 and those who have most distinguished themselves in works of genius and imagination1 were equally eminent for their critical skill4 ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,cicero1 and ,horace2 and among the moderns1 ,boileau1 ,corneille1 ,pope1 and ,dryden1 are at least instances of genius not being destroyed by attention or subjection to rules and science4 ,but the grossest errors on this subject have been committed by ,alison1 who says3 ,artists1 in every age1 have taken pains to ascertain the most exact measurement of the human form1 and of all its parts4444 ,if the beauty of form consisted in any original proportion1 the productions of the fine arts would everywhere have testified it2 and1 in the works of the statuary and the painter1 we should have found only this sole and sacred system of proportion4 ,the fact however is1 as every one knows1 that1 in such productions1 no such rule is observed2 that there is no one proportion of parts which belongs to the most beautiful productions of these arts2 that the proportions of the ,apollo1 for instance1 are different from those of the ,hercules1 the ,antinous1 the ,gladiator1 c42 and that there are not1 in the whole catalogue of ancient statues1 two1 perhaps1 of which the proportions are actually the same4 ,now1 ,i believe1 we may say that this original or most perfect proportion is presented in the ,apollo1 which is not1 as generally supposed1 an example of peculiar1 but of universal beauty--the locomotive system presenting as much strength as is compatible with agility1 and as much agility as is compatible with strength1 and any other modification of either ensuring diminution of power2 while the vital and mental systems are equally perfect4 ,wherever this model is deviated from by the ancient artists it is peculiar beauty1 ,i believe1 that is represented4 ,he farther says3 ,they have imagined also various standards of this measurement2 and many disputes have arisen1 whether the length of the head1 of the foot1 or of the nose1 was to be considered as this central and sacred standard4 ,of such questions and such disputes1 it is not possible to speak with seriousness1 when they occur in the present times4 ,so also ,burke says3 ,it must be likewise shown1 that these parts stand in such a relation to each other1 that the comparison between them may be easily made1 and that the affection of the mind may naturally result from it4 ,now1 no man in his senses ever cared which of these measures was adopted1 except as a matter of convenience1 or ever imagined that peculiar virtue resided in any of them4 ,the following are some of the principal rules which either by intuition or with due definition1 resulted from and guided the practice of the ancient ,greeks4 ,first1 in regard to the ,,thinking ,,system1 when the ancient artists1 either from taste or from principle1 gave greater opening to the facial angle than eighty degrees1 they believed that an increase of intelligence corresponded to that conformation4 ,by increasing the angle beyond eighty-five degrees1 they impressed upon their figures the grandest character1 as we see in the heads of the ,apollo1 the ,venus1 and others whose facial angle extends to or exceeds ninety degrees4 ,in regard to the forehead1 then1 this afforded their rule for distinguishing beings of a superior kind4 ,how well they observed the tendency of nature to increase that angle with the increase of some of the thinking faculties1 we now know4 ,this ideal rule was1 therefore1 admirably founded4 ,whoever reflects on the nature of this angle will perceive that its increase tended nowise to raise the forehead1 but to throw it forward1 and therefore to lengthen the head4 ,this conforms to the metaphor by which a long head is used for a wise head1 and which has not yet given place to a broad head1 preferred by the ,german craniologists1 in compliment to their own organization4 ,with regard to the height of the forehead1 it has already been observed that it was1 among the ancient ,greeks1 more considerable than its breadth1 as may be seen by the busts of their most illustrious men4 ,still1 neither the natural nor the ideal forehead much exceeded the space from the forehead to the bottom of the nose1 or that from the nose to the bottom of the chin4 ,winckelmann accordingly says3 ,the forehead to be beautiful should be low meaning1 as his expressions elsewhere show1 no higher than the other two spaces just mentioned2 and its lowness was so fixed among the ideas of beauty by the ,grecian artists1 that it serves as a mark to distinguish modern heads from ancient4 ,the reason of this appears founded in the very rules of proportion1 which1 as in the whole human body1 was among the ancients tripartite3 thus1 the face also was divided into three parts2 so that the forehead should be of the same length as the nose1 and the remainder of the face to the chin of the same length likewise4 ,this proportion was founded on observation1 and we may at any time convince ourselves of it in any individual with a low forehead1 by covering with a finger the hair at the top of the forehead1 so as to render it so much higher1 and we shall then see a want of harmony of proportion and how detrimental a high forehead is to beauty4 ,these views of ,winckelmann1 the ideal rule which they illustrate1 and1 above all1 the actual dimension of the forehead among the philosophers1 the poets1 and the legislators of ,greece1 whose genius has been unequalled in modern times1 show the folly of the craniological hypothesis4 ,the reason of the ideal rule has not1 indeed1 been assigned3 it appears to me to be this1 that the three parts of the face which1 as ,i have shown both here and in my work on physiognomy1 are respectively connected with ideas1 emotions1 and passions1 should be equal one to another1 or that these acts of the organs of sense and brain should be in due proportion and harmony4 ,while1 therefore1 ,i do not1 with the craniologists1 seek the predominance of any one of them1 neither do ,i1 with ,giovani de ,laet1 take no notice of the space between the top of the head and the commencement of the forehead1 and say this part is not to be considered in the height of a man1 quia pars excrementosa est6 ,their next rule regarded the form of the nose1 in nearly the same line with the forehead1 and with little indentation between these parts4 ,the foundation of this rule ,i have not seen pointed out2 and it was indeed difficult of discovery1 without previous knowledge of the physiological fact first mentioned in my physiognomical work1 namely1 that the nose is the inlet of vital emotion or pleasure1 as the eye is of mental emotion2 while the passions connected with nutrition and thought respectively1 depend upon other organs1 the mouth and the ear4 ,anatomists know how closely associated are the nose and the eyes1 and the mouth and the ears1 respectively4 ,now1 as in these ideal representations1 their object was to increase the means of emotion1 but not those of passion1 the organs of the former1 the nose and the eyes1 were all1 at the same time1 enlarged by raising the junction of the forehead and the nose2 while those of passion1 the mouth and the ears1 were relatively decreased4 ,not only was the passage of nose or of the olfactory nerves to the brain strikingly dilated by this elevation of the intermediate part1 but the orbits of the eyes were enlarged4 ,as then we naturally associate the increase of organs with the increase of their sensations and with corresponding effects upon the brain1 and as the tendency to such configuration is as conspicuous in the countries they inhabited1 as is the energy of the emotions with which they are connected1 this rule was as admirably founded as the former in natural tendencies4 ,i deem this a pendant to ,camper's discovery of the facial angle1 and one too which was not quite so obvious or so easy to be made4 ,it disposes of this middle or intermediate part of the face1 and shows that the ,greeks in beings of the highest character1 desired the gradual predominance of emotion over passion1 and of ideas or intellect over emotion4 ,a vague feeling of the curious fact ,i have here explained1 ,alison1 as a man of taste1 had1 when he said3 ,apply1 however1 this beautiful form1 to the countenance of the warrior1 the bandit1 the martyr1 c41 or to any countenance which is meant to express deep or powerful passion1 and the most vulgar spectator would be sensible of dissatisfaction1 if not disgust4 ,in endeavoring to assign a reason for the configuration which ,i have just explained1 ,winckelmann1 in ascribing it to the mere production of effect1 is driven into a ridiculous inconsistency4 ,he thinks that for large statues seen at a distance1 it was necessary1 and so came to be used for small medals seen near1 for which it was not necessary4 ,in the heads of statues1 and particularly in ideal heads1 the eyes are deeper set3 the bulb remains more deep than is usual in nature1 in which sunken eyes render the countenance austere and cunning instead of calm and joyful4 ,in this respect1 art has departed with reason from nature2 for1 in figures placed to be seen at a distance1 if the bulb of the eye were level with the edge of the orbit1 there would be no effect produced of light and shade2 and the eye itself1 placed under the eyebrows which do not project1 would be dull and inexpressive4 ,this maxim1 adopted for large statues1 became in time universal2 so that it may be observed even on medals1 not only in ideal heads but in portraits4 ,and elsewhere he says3 ,art subsequently established it as a rule to give this form to the eyes even in small figures1 as may be seen in the heads on coins4 ,thus ,winckelmann's reason avowedly explains only the half of that to which it is applied1 and in reality explains nothing1 because it leaves a gross inconsistency1 of which ,greek genius was incapable4 ,of the general outline thus formed of the face1 ,winckelmann more truly says3 ,in the formation of the face1 the ,greek profile is the principal characteristic of sublime beauty4 ,this profile is produced by the straight line1 or the line but very slightly indented1 which the forehead and nose form in youthful faces1 especially female ones4 ,nature seems less disposed to accord this form to the face in cold than in mild and temperate climes2 but wherever this profile is found1 it is always beautiful4 ,the straight full line expresses a kind of greatness1 and1 gently curved1 it presents the idea of agreeable delicacy4 ,that in these profiles exists one cause of beauty is proved by the character of the opposite line2 for the greater the inflection of the nose1 the less beautiful is the face2 and if1 when seen sidewise1 it presents a bad profile1 it is useless to look for beauty in any other view4 ,a third rule of the ,greek artists1 in heads of the highest character1 is greatly illustrated by the new views just stated4 ,if1 in these1 they desired to render ideas and intellect more dominant than emotions of pleasure or pain1 and emotions more dominant than passion1 it becomes evident why they equally sought to avoid the convulsions of impassioned expression4 ,a very beautiful object of this1 is mistaken by ,winckelmann4 ,i quote his words3-- ,taken in either sense of action or of passion1 expression changes the features of the face1 and the disposition of the body1 and1 consequently1 the forms which constitute beauty2 and the greater the change1 the greater the loss of beauty4 ,therefore1 the state of tranquillity and repose was considered as a fundamental point in the art4 ,tranquillity is the state proper to beauty4 ,the handsomest men are generally the most mild and the best disposed4 ,besides1 tranquillity and repose1 both in men and animals1 is the state which allows us best to examine and represent their nature and qualities2 as we can see the bottom of the sea or rivers only when the waves are tranquil and the stream runs smoothly4 ,therefore1 the ,grecian artists1 wishing to depict1 in their representations of their deities1 the perfection of human beauty1 strove to produce1 in their countenances and actions1 a certain placidity without the slightest change or perturbation1 which1 according to their philosophy1 was at variance with the nature and character of the gods4 ,the figures produced in this state of repose1 expressed a perfect equilibrium of feeling4 ,but1 as complete tranquillity and repose cannot exist in figures in action1 and even the gods are represented in human form1 and subject to human affections1 we must not always expect to find in them the most sublime idea of beauty4 ,this is then compensated for by expression4 ,the ancient artists1 however1 never lost sight of it3 it was always their principal object1 to which expression was in some sort made subservient4 ,beauty without expression would be insignificant1 and expression without beauty would be unpleasing2 but1 from their influence over each other1 from combining together their apparently discordant qualities1 results an eloquent1 persuasive1 and interesting beauty4 ,some of these remarks are true and beautiful2 but the great object of the ,greeks1 in suppressing the convulsions of impassioned expression1 was the bestowal of grace1 the highest quality in all representation4 ,it is surprising that this should have been so universally overlooked1 that1 even among artists1 nothing is more common than to hear regrets that the ,greeks gave so little expression to their figures6 ,let the reader now peruse again ,dr4 ,smith's and ,mr4 ,alison's account of grace1 and if he is acquainted with the productions of ancient art1 he will see that the ,greeks suppressed impassioned expression only to bestow the highest degree of grace4 ,those1 therefore1 who complain of this1 show themselves ignorant of the best object of their art4 ,if the explanation of this great purpose be clearly borne in mind1 the remaining observations of ,winckelmann will receive a better application than that to which he limited them3-- ,repose and tranquillity may be regarded as the effect of that composed manner which the ,grecians studied to show in their actions and gestures4 ,among them1 a hurried gait was regarded as contrary to the idea of decent deportment1 and partaking somewhat of expressive boldness4444 ,while on the other hand1 slow and regulated motions of the body were proofs among the ancients of a great mind4 ,the highest idea of tranquillity and composure is found expressed in the representations of the divinities2 so that from the father of the gods to the inferior deities1 their figures appear free from the influence of any affection4 ,the greatest of the poets thus describes ,jupiter as making all ,olympus tremble by merely moving his eyebrow or shaking his locks4444 ,all the figures of ,jupiter are not however made in the same style4 ,the ,vatican ,apollo represents this god quiet and tranquil after the death of the serpent ,python which he had slain with a dart1 and should also express a certain contempt for a victory so easy to him4 ,the skilful artist1 who wished to imbody the most beautiful of the gods1 has depicted anger in the nose1 which according to the most ancient poets was the seat of it1 and contempt in the lips3 contempt is expressed by the drawing up of the under lip1 and anger by the expansion of the nostrils4 ,the expression of the passions in the face should accord with the attitude and gestures of the body2 and the latter should be suitable to the dignity of the gods in their statues and figures3 from this results its propriety4 ,in representing the figures of heroes1 the ancient artist exercised equal care and judgment2 and expressed only those human affections which are suitable for a wise man1 who represses the violence of his passions1 and scarcely allows a spark of the internal flame to be seen1 so as to leave to those who are desirous of it1 the trouble of finding out what remains concealed4 ,we have examples of this in two of the most beautiful works of antiquity1 one of which is the image of the fear of certain death1 the other of suffering exceeding anguish4 ,niobe and her daughters1 against whom ,diana shot her fatal arrows1 are represented as seized with terror and horror1 in that state of indescribable anguish1 when the sight of instant and inevitable death deprives the mind of the power of thought4 ,of this state of stupor and insensibility1 the fable gives us an idea in the metamorphosis of ,niobe into a stone2 and hence schylus introduces her in his tragedy as stunned and speechless4 ,in such a moment1 when all thought and feeling ceases1 in a state bordering upon insensibility1 the appearance is not altered nor any feature of the face disturbed1 and the mighty artist could here depict the most sublime beauty1 and has indeed done so4 ,niobe and her daughters are1 and ever will be1 the most perfect models of beauty4 ,laocoon is the image of the most acute grief1 that puts the nerves1 the muscles1 and the veins1 in action4 ,his blood is in a state of extreme agitation from the venomous bite of the serpents2 every part of his body evinces pain and suffering2 and the artist has put in motion1 so to speak1 all the springs of nature1 and thus made known the extent of his art and the depth of his knowledge4 ,in the representation1 however1 of this excessive torment1 we can still recognise the conduct of a brave man struggling against his misfortunes1 stifling the emotions of his anguish1 and striving to repress them4 ,the ancient artists have preserved this air of composure even in their dancing figures1 except the ,bacchanals2 and thus an opinion obtained that the action of their figures should be modelled on the manners adopted in their ancient dances1 and therefore1 in their later dances1 the ancient figures served as a model to the performers to prevent their overstepping the bounds of a modest deportment3 ,molli diducunt candida gestu ,brachia4 ,propert4 ,no immoderate or violent passions are ever found expressed in the public works of the ancients4 ,the knowledge of the ancients cannot be better known than by comparing their performances with the majority of those of the moderns1 in which a little is expressed by much1 instead of much by a little4 ,this is what the ,greeks call ,greek3 parenthyrsos2 a word that aptly expresses the defect produced by too much expression in modern artists4 ,their figures resemble in action the comedians of the ancient theatre1 who1 to render themselves visible even to the most distant portion of the audience1 were compelled to exceed the limits of nature and truth2 and the faces of modern figures are like the ancient masks1 which for the same reason1 the increase of expression1 became hideous4 ,this excess of expression is taught in a book which goes into the hands of all young artists1 ',a ,treatise on the ,passions1' by ,carlo ,le ,brun1 and in the annexed drawings1 not only is the highest degree of passion expressed on the face1 but in some even to madness4 ,hence1 we may say with ,azara1 that the ,greeks possessed that art in such perfection1 that in their statues one scarcely discovers that they had thought of expression1 and nevertheless each says that which it ought to say4 ,they are in a repose which shows all the beauty without any alteration2 and a soft and sweet motion1 of the mouth1 the eyes1 or the mere action1 expresses the effect1 enchanting at once the mind and the senses4 ,in the inferior beings1 however1 when passion is expressed1 the features are varied by the ,greek artists as they are in nature4 ,such are the great ideal rules with regard to the head and the functions of thought4 ,with regard to the body and the ,,nutritive ,,system1 the ,greeks similarly idealized4 ,seeking for images of worship1 consequently of a nature superior to our own1 so that they might awaken in the mind veneration and love1 they thought that the representations most worthy of the ,divinity1 and most likely to attract the attention of man1 would be those expressing the continuance of the gods in eternal youth and in the prime of life4 ,to the idea derived from the poets1 of the eternal youth of the deities1 whether male or female1 was added another by which they supposed the female divinities should have all the appearance of virgins4 ,the form of the breast in the figures of the divinities1 is like that of a virgin1 which1 to be beautiful1 must possess a moderate fulness4 ,this was particularly shown in the breasts1 which the artists represented without nipples1 like those of young girls1 whose cincture1 in the poet's phrase1 ,lucina has not yet undone4 ,on their treatment of the limbs and ,,locomotive ,,system1 ,hogarth throws light2 and1 as ,i am not aware that he was anticipated in this respect1 ,i quote him3-- ,may be1 he says1 ,i cannot throw a stronger light on what has been hitherto said of proportion1 than by animadverting on a remarkable beauty in the ,apollo ,belvidere1 which hath given it the preference even to the ,antinous3 ,i mean a superaddition of greatness1 to at least as much beauty and grace as is found in the latter4 ,these two masterpieces of art are seen together in the same apartment at ,rome1 where the ,antinous fills the spectator with admiration only1 while the ,apollo strikes him with surprise1 and1 as travellers express themselves1 with an appearance of something more than human2 which they of course are always at a loss to describe3 and this effect1 they say1 is the more astonishing1 as1 upon examination1 its disproportion is evident even to a common eye4 ,one of the best sculptors we have in ,england1 who lately went to see them1 confirmed to me what has been now said1 particularly as to the legs and thighs being too long1 and too large for the upper parts4 ,although1 in very great works1 we often see an inferior part neglected1 yet here it cannot be the case1 because1 in a fine statue1 just proportion is one of its essential beauties3 therefore1 it stands to reason1 that these limbs must have been lengthened on purpose1 otherwise it might have been easily avoided4 ,so that if we examine the beauties of this figure thoroughly we may reasonably conclude1 that what has been hitherto thought so unaccountably excellent in its general appearance1 has been owing to what has seemed a blemish in a part of it3 but let us endeavor to make this matter as clear as possible1 as it may add more force to what has been said4 ,statues1 by being bigger than life 7as this one is1 and larger than the ,antinous71 always gain some nobleness in effect1 according to the principle of quantity1 but this alone is not sufficient to give what is properly to be called greatness in proportion4444 ,greatness of proportion must be considered as depending on the application of quantity to those parts of the body where it can give more scope to its grace in movement1 as to the neck for the larger and swanlike turns of the head1 and to the legs and thighs1 for the more ample sway of all the upper parts together4 ,by which we find that the ,antinous being equally magnified to the ,apollo's height1 would not sufficiently produce that superiority of effect1 as to greatness1 so evidently seen in the latter4 ,the additions necessary to the production of this greatness in proportion1 as it there appears added to grace1 must then be1 by the proper application of them to the parts mentioned only4 ,i know not how farther to prove this matter than by appealing to the reader's eye1 and common observation1 as before4444 ,the ,antinous being allowed to have the justest proportion possible1 let us see what addition1 upon the principle of quantity1 can be made to it1 without taking away any of its beauty4 ,if we imagine an addition of dimensions to the head1 we shall immediately conceive it would only deform--if to the hands or feet1 we are sensible of something gross and ungenteel--if to the whole lengths of the arms1 we feel they would be dangling and awkward--if1 by an addition of length or breadth to the body1 we know it would appear heavy and clumsy--there remains then only the neck1 with the legs and thighs to speak of2 but to these we find1 that not only certain additions may be admitted without causing any disagreeable effect1 but that thereby greatness1 the last perfection as to the proportion1 is given to the human form1 as is evidently expressed in the ,apollo4 ,this is well done by ,hogarth4 ,it required but a little anatomical knowledge to see the reason of this4 ,the length of the neck1 by which the head is farther detached from the trunk1 shows the independence of the higher intellectual system upon the lower one of mere nutrition2 and the length of limbs shows that the mind had ready obedience in locomotive power4 ,i have now to obviate some ,,objections to the existence of simple1 pure1 high1 and perfect ideal beauty1 objections1 which writers on this subject have hitherto neglected4 ,alison says3 ,the proportions of the form of the infant are very different from those of youth2 these again from those of manhood2 and these again perhaps still more from those of old age and decay4444 ,yet every one knows1 not only that each of these periods is susceptible of beautiful form1 but1 what is much more1 that the actual beauty in every period consists in the preservation of the proportions peculiar to that period1 and that these differ in every article almost from those that are beautiful in other periods of the life of the same individual4 ,but the beauty of the infant is not perfect beauty3 it is that1 on the contrary1 of mere promise1 not that of fulfilment4 ,so also the beauty of old age is not perfect beauty3 it is that1 on the contrary1 which affects and interests us chiefly by the regret we feel that its perfection has passed1 or is gradually vanishing4 ,the same observation1 says ,alison1 is yet still more obvious with regard to the difference of sex4 ,in every part of the form1 the proportions which are beautiful in the two sexes are different2 and the application of the proportions of the one to the form of the other1 is everywhere felt as painful and disgusting4 ,so also says ,burke3 ,let us rest a moment on this point2 and consider how much difference there is between the measures that prevail in many similar parts of the body1 in the two sexes of this single species only4 ,if you assign any determinate proportions to the limbs of man1 and if you limit human beauty to these proportions1 when you find a woman who differs in the make and measure of almost every part1 you must conclude her not to be beautiful in spite of the suggestions of your imagination2 or in obedience to your imagination you must renounce your rules2 you must lay by the scale and compass1 and look out for some other cause of beauty4 ,for1 if beauty be attached to certain measures which operate from a principle in nature1 why should similar parts with different measures of proportion be found to have beauty1 and this1 too1 in the very same species8 ,to this ,i might say the beauty of woman is not the highest beauty3 it is beauty of the nutritive more than of the higher thinking system4 ,but there is another and a better answer3 the difference of sex which affects all the higher animals is a greater difference than that which subsists between some of their varieties or even of their species2 and the same laws of ideal beauty are as inapplicable to different sexes as to different species4 ,we see1 every day1 around us1 says ,alison1 some forms of our species which affect us with sentiments of beauty4 ,in our own sex1 we see the forms of the legislator1 the man of rank1 the general1 the man of science1 the private soldier1 the sailor1 the laborer1 the beggar1 c4 ,in the other sex1 we see the forms of the matron1 the widow1 the young woman1 the nurse1 the domestic servant1 c4444 ,we expect different proportions of form from the painter1 in his representation of a warrior and a shepherd1 of a senator and of a peasant1 of a wrestler and a boatman1 of a savage and of a man of cultivated manners4444 ,we expect1 in the same manner1 from the statuary1 very different proportions in the forms of ,jove and of ,apollo this should have been excepted1 of ,hercules and of ,antinous1 of a ,grace and of ,andromache1 of a ,bacchanal and of ,minerva1 c4 ,that1 in all these cases1 the beauty is partial1 is evident from the circumstance that what is found in one is wanting in another2 and partial beauty is not perfect beauty4 ,but this last point has been well stated by ,reynolds and ,barry4 ,to the principle ,i have laid down1 says ,reynolds1 that the idea of beauty in each species of being is an invariable one1 it may be objected1 that in every particular species there are various central forms which are separate and distinct from each other1 and yet are undeniably beautiful2 that in the human figure1 for instance1 the beauty of ,hercules is one1 of the ,gladiator another1 of the ,apollo another again the same error2 which makes so many different ideas of beauty4444 ,it is true1 indeed1 that these figures are each perfect in their kind1 though of different character and proportions2 but still none of them is the representation of an individual1 but of a class4 ,and as there is one general form1 which1 as ,i have said1 belongs to the human kind at large1 so in each of these classes there is one common idea and central form1 which is the abstract of the various individual forms belonging to that class4 ,thus1 though the forms of childhood and age differ exceedingly1 there is a common form in childhood1 and a common form in age1 which is the more perfect1 as it is more remote from all peculiarities4 ,but ,i must add farther1 that though the most perfect forms of each of the general divisions of the human figure are ideal1 and superior to any individual form of that class1 yet the highest perfection of the human figure is not to be found in any one of them4 ,it is not in the ,hercules1 nor in the ,gladiator1 nor in the ,apollo1 but in that form which is taken from all1 and which partakes equally of the activity of the ,gladiator1 of the delicacy of the ,apollo1 and of the muscular strength of the ,hercules4 ,for perfect beauty in any species must combine all the characters which are beautiful in that species4 ,it cannot consist in any one to the exclusion of the rest3 no one1 therefore1 must be predominant1 that no one may be deficient4 ,a high degree of particular character1 says ,barry1 cannot be superinduced upon pure or simple beauty without altering its constituent parts2 this is peculiar to grace only2 for particular characters consist1 as has been observed before1 in those deviations from the general standard for the better purpose of effecting utility and power1 and become so many species of a higher order2 where nature is elevated into grandeur1 majesty1 and sublimity4 ,there is ,,an ,,ideal ,,in ,,attitude as well as in the form of the head and body4 ,this ideal is exactly opposed to the academical rule mentioned by ,dufresnoy1 ,reynolds1 and others1 namely1 that the right leg and left arm1 or the left leg and right arm1 should be advanced or withdrawn together4 ,these are the mere attitudes of progression1 not those of expression2 and the academical rule is only an academical blunder4 ,to anything but walking--to the free and unembarrassed expressions of the body1 it is1 indeed1 quite inapplicable1 and could produce only contortion4 ,the rule of ideal attitude1 which ,i long ago deduced1 both from physiological principles1 and from the practice of the ,greek artists1 is that all the parts of one side of the body should be advanced or withdrawn together2 that when one side is advanced1 the other should be withdrawn2 and that when the right arm is elevated1 extended1 or bent forward1 the left leg should be elevated1 extended1 or bent backward--in all respects the reverse of the academical rule1 so complacently mentioned by ,dufresnoy1 ,reynolds1 c4 ,the foundation of this rule in the necessary balance of the body1 and that distribution of motion which equally animates every part1 must be obvious to every one4 ,it is illustrated by the finest statues of the ,greeks1 wherever the expression intended was free and unembarrassed1 and even in those1 as the ,laocoon and his sons1 where1 though the action was constrained and convulsive1 the sculptor was yet at liberty to employ the most beautiful attitude4 ,it is abandoned in these great works1 when either action embarrassed by purpose1 or clownishness1 as in the ,dancing ,faun1 are expressed4#dh ,i have now only to add1 with ,moreau1 that individual beauty1 the most perfect1 differs always greatly from the ideal1 and that which is least removed from it1 is very difficult to be found4 ,hence1 in all languages1 the epithet rare is attached to beauty2 and the ,italians even call it pellegrina1 foreign1 to indicate that they have not frequently an opportunity of seeing it3 they speak of bellezze pellegrine1--leggiadria singolare e pellegrina4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,ideal ,,of ,,female ,,beauty4 ,hominum divmque voluptas1 alma ,venus4 ,of this1 the most perfect models have been created by ,grecian art4 ,few1 we are told1 were the living beauties1 from whom such ideal model could be framed4 ,the difficulty of finding these among the women of ,greece1 must have been considerable1 when ,praxiteles and ,apelles were obliged to have recourse1 in a greater or less degree1 to the same person1 for the beauties of the ,venus of ,cnidos1 executed in white marble1 and the ,venus of ,cos1 painted in colors4 ,it is asserted by ,atheneus1 that both these productions were1 in some measure1 taken from ,phryne of ,thespia1 in ,boeotia1 then a courtesan at ,athens4 ,both productions are said to have represented ,phryne coming out of the sea1 on the beach of ,sciron1 in the ,saronic gulf1 between ,athens and ,eleusis1 where she was wont to bathe4 ,it is said1 that there1 at the feast of ,neptune1 ,phryne1 in the presence of the people of ,eleusis1 having cast aside her dress1 and allowing her long hair to fall over her shoulders1 plunged into the sea1 and sported long amid its waves4 ,an immense number of spectators covered the shore2 and when she came out of it1 all exclaimed1 ,it is ,venus who rises from the waters6 ,the people would actually have taken her for the goddess1 if she had not been well known to them4 ,apelles and ,praxiteles1 we are told1 were both upon the shore2 and both resolved to represent the birth of ,venus according to the beautiful model which they had just beheld4 ,such is said to have been the origin of two of the greatest works of antiquity4 ,the work of ,apelles1 known under the name of ,venus ,anadyomene1 was placed by ,cesar in the temple of ,venus ,genitrix1 after the conquest of ,greece4 ,an idea of the sculpture of ,praxiteles is supposed to have been imperfectly preserved to modern times in the ,venus de ,medici4 ,we are farther told1 that1 after having studied several attitudes1 ,phryne fancied to have discovered one more favorable than the rest for displaying all her perfections2 and that both painter and sculptor were obliged to adopt her favorite posture4 ,from this cause1 the ,venus of ,cnidos1 and the ,venus of ,cos1 were so perfectly alike1 that it was impossible to remark any difference in their features1 contour1 or more particularly in their attitude4 ,the painting of ,apelles1 it is added1 was far from exciting so much enthusiasm among the ,greeks1 as the sculpture of ,praxiteles4 ,they fancied that the marble moved2 that it seemed to speak2 and their illusion1 says ,lucian1 was so great1 that they ended by applying their lips to those of the goddess4#di ,praxiteles1 says ,flaxman1 excelled in the highest graces of youth and beauty4 ,he is said to have excelled not only other sculptors1 but himself1 by his marble statues in the ,ceramicus of ,athens2 but his ,venus was preferable to all others in the world1 and many sailed to ,cnidos for the purpose of seeing it4 ,this sculptor having made two statues of ,venus1 one with drapery1 the other without1 the ,coans preferred the clothed figure1 on account of its severe modesty1 the same price being set upon each4 ,the citizens of ,cnidos took the rejected statue1 and afterward refused it to ,king ,nicomedes1 who would have forgiven them an immense debt in return2 but they were resolved to suffer anything so long as this statue by ,praxiteles ennobled ,cnidos4444 ,this figure is known by the descriptions of ,lucian and ,cedrenus1 and it is represented on a medal of ,caracalla and ,plautilla1 in the imperial cabinet of ,france4 ,this ,venus was still in ,cnidos during the reign of the emperor ,alcadius1 about four hundred years after ,christ4 ,this statue seems to offer the first idea of the ,venus de ,medici1 which is likely to be the repetition of another ,venus1 the work of this artist4 ,he elsewhere says of the ,venus of ,praxiteles1 it was the most admired female statue of all antiquity1 whose beauty is as perfect as it is elevated1 and as innocent as perfect2 from which the ,medicean ,venus seems but a deteriorated variety4 ,flaxman states that he himself had seen1 in the stables of the ,braschi palace1 a statue which he supposed might be the original work of ,praxiteles4 ,strange to tell1 nothing is now known of its fate6 ,a supposed cast from this1 or from a copy of it1 conforming to the figure on the model of ,caracalla1 is to be seen at the ,royal ,academy4 ,of the ,,venus ,,de ,,medici1 ,flaxman says1 it was so much a favorite of the ,greeks and ,romans1 that a hundred ancient repetitions of this statue have been noticed by travellers4 ,the individual figure is said to have been found in the forum of ,octavia4 ,the style of sculpture seems to have been later than ,alexander the ,great4 ,let us now briefly examine this ,model of ,female ,beauty4 ,the ,venus de ,medici represents woman at that age when every beauty has just been perfected4 ,the ,venus de ,medici at ,florence1 says ,winckelmann1 is like a rose which1 after a beautiful daybreak1 expands its leaves to the first ray of the sun1 and represents that age when the limbs assume a more finished form and the breast begins to develop itself4 ,the size of the head is sufficiently small to leave that predominance to the vital organs in the chest1 which1 as already said1 makes the nutritive system peculiarly that of woman4 ,this is the first and most striking proof of the profound knowledge of the artist1 the principles of whose art taught him that the vast head1 on the contrary1 was the characteristic of a very different female personage4#ej--;,in mentioning the head1 it is scarcely possible to avoid noticing the rich curls of the hair4 ,the eyes next fix our attention by their soft1 sweet1 and glad expression4 ,this is produced with exquisite art4 ,to give softness1 the ridges of the eyebrows are rounded4 ,to give sweetness1 the under eyelid1 which ,i would call the expressive one1 is slightly raised4 ,the eyes of ,venus1 says ,winckelmann1 are smaller1 and the slight elevation of the lower eyelid produces that languishing look called by the ,greeks ,greek3 hygron4 ,to give the expression of gladness or of pleasure1 the opening of the eyelids is diminished1 in order to diminish1 or partially to exclude1 the excess of those impressions1 which make even pleasure painful4 ,other exquisite details about those eyes1 confer on them unparalleled beauty4 ,still1 as observed by the same writer1 this look is far from those traits indicative of lasciviousness1 with which some modern artists have thought to characterize their ,venuses4 ,love was considered by the ancient masters1 as by the wise philosophers of those times1 to use the expression of ,euripides1 as the counsellor of wisdom3 ,greek3 t sophia paredrous ertas4 ,one thing must be observed3 there is not here1 as in some less happy representations of ,venus1 any downcast look1 but that aspect of which ,metastasio1 in his ,inno a ,venere1 says3 ,tu colle lucide ,pupille chiare1 ,fai lieta e fertile ,la terra e'l mare4 ,and again3 ,presto tuoi placidi ,astri ridenti1 ,le nubi fuggono1 ,fuggono i venti4#ea ,art still profounder was perhaps shown in the configuration of the nose4 ,the peculiar connexion of this sense with love was evidently well understood by the great artist2 and it is only gross ignorance that has made some persons question the appropriateness of that development of the organ which is here represented4 ,not only is smell peculiarly associated with love1 in all the higher animals1 but it is associated with reproduction in plants1 the majority of which evolve delicious odors only when the flowers or organs of fructification are displayed4#eb--;,connected1 indeed1 with the capacity of the nose1 and the cavities which open into it1 is the projection of the whole middle part of the face4 ,in the mouth1 also1 is transcendent art displayed4 ,it is rendered sweet and delicate by the lips being undeveloped at their angles1#ec and by the upper lip continuing so1 for a considerable portion of its length4 ,it expresses love of pleasure by the central development of both lips1 and active love by the especial development of the lower lip4#ed ,by the slight opening of the lips1 it expresses desire4#ee ,these exquisite details1 and the omission of nothing intellectually expressive that nature presents1 have led some to imagine the ,venus de ,medici to be a portrait4 ,in doing so1 however1 they see not the profound calculation required for nearly every feature thus imbodied4 ,more strangely still1 they forget the ideal character of the whole3 the notion of this ideal head being too small1 is especially opposed to such an opinion4 ,if more is wanting1 it will surely be enough that the other works which we are supposed to possess of ,praxiteles1 the ,faun and the ,cupid1 present similar fine details4#ef ,withal1 the look is amorous and languishing1 without being lascivious1 and is as powerfully marked by gay coquetry1 as by charming innocence4 ,the young neck is exquisitely formed4 ,its beautiful curves show a thousand capabilities of motion2 and its admirably-calculated swell over the organ of voice1 results from1 and marks1 the struggling expression of still mysterious love4 ,in short1 ,i know no antique figure that displays such profound knowledge1 both physiological and physiognomical1 even in the most minute details2 and all who are capable of appreciating these things1 may well smile at those who pretend to compare with this any other head of ,venus now known to us4 ,with regard to the rest of the figure1 the admirable form of the mamm1 which1 without being too large1 occupy the bosom1 rise from it with various curves on every side1 and all terminate in their apices1 leaving the inferior part in each precisely as pendent as gravity demands2 the flexile waist gently tapering little farther than the middle of the trunk2 the lower portion of it beginning gradually to swell out higher even than the umbilicus2 the gradual expansion of the haunches1 those expressive characteristics of the female1 indicating at once her fitness for the office of generation and that of parturition--expansions which increase till they reach their greatest extent at the superior part of the thighs2 the fulness behind their upper part1 and on each side of the lower part of the spine1 commencing as high as the waist1 and terminating in the still greater swell of the distinctly-separated hips2 the flat expanse between these1 and immediately over the fissure of the hips1 relieved by a considerable dimple on each side1 and caused by the elevation of all the surrounding parts2 the fine swell of the broad abdomen which1 soon reaching its greatest height1 immediately under the umbilicus1 slopes gently to the mons veneris1 but1 narrow at its upper part1 expands more widely as it descends1 while1 throughout1 it is laterally distinguished by a gentle depression from the more muscular parts on the sides of the pelvis2 the beautiful elevation of the mons veneris2 the contiguous elevation of the thighs which1 almost at their commencement1 rise as high as it does2 the admirable expansion of these bodies inward1 or toward each other1 by which they almost seem to intrude upon each other1 and to exclude each from its respective place2 the general narrowness of the upper1 and the unembraceable expansion of the lower part thus exquisitely formed2--all these admirable characteristics of female form1 the mere existence of which in woman must1 one is tempted to imagine1 be1 even to herself1 a source of ineffable pleasure--these constitute a being worthy1 as the personification of beauty1 of occupying the temples of ,greece2 present an object finer1 alas6 than nature seems even capable of producing2 and offer to all nations and ages a theme of admiration and delight4 ,well might ,thomson say3-- ,so stands the statue that enchants the world1 ,so bending tries to veil the matchless boast1 ,the mingled beauties of exulting ,greece4 ,and ,byron1 in yet higher strain3-- ,there1 too1 the goddess loves in stone1 and fills ,the air around with beauty2 within the pale ,we stand1 and in that form and face behold ,what ,mind can make1 when ,nature's self would fail2 ,and to the fond idolaters of old ,envy the innate flash which such a soul could mould3 ,we gaze and turn away1 and know not where1 ,dazzled and drunk with beauty1 till the heart ,reels with its fulness2 there--for ever there-- ,chained to the chariot of triumphal ,art1 ,we stand as captives1 and would not depart4 ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,venus ,,de ,,medici4 ,has seven heads1 seven parts1 and three minutes in height4 ,from the top of the head to the root of the hair1 three parts4 ,from the root of the hair to the eyebrows1 three parts4 ,from the eyebrows to the bottom of the nose1 three parts4 ,from the bottom of the nose1 to that of the chin1 three parts4 ,from the bottom of the chin to the depression between the clavicles1 four parts1 three minutes and a half4 ,from the depression between the clavicles to the lowest part of the breast1 ten parts1 five minutes4 ,from the lowest part of the breast to the middle of the navel1 eight parts1 three minutes4 ,from the middle of the navel to the base of the belly and beginning of the thighs1 eleven parts1 four minutes and a half4 ,from the bottom of the belly to the middle of the kneepan1 eighteen parts1 two minutes4 ,from the middle of the kneepan to the beginning of the flank1 twenty-seven parts1 three minutes4 ,from the middle of the kneepan to the ground1 twenty-five parts1 three minutes4 ,the greatest height of the foot1 three parts1 five minutes and a half4 ,from the neck of the leg to the end of the toes1 nine parts and half a minute4 ,from the commencement of the humerus to the elbow1 twenty parts1 two minutes4 ,from the elbow to the beginning of the hand1 fourteen parts4 ,the greatest breadth of the forearm1 five parts4 ,the greatest breadth of the arm1 four parts1 five minutes4 ,from the depression between the clavicles to the beginning of the deltoid1 six parts1 four minutes4 ,from the depression between the clavicles to the point of the nipple1 ten parts and half a minute4 ,between the points of the nipples1 eleven parts1 two minutes4 ,the breadth of the torso1 at the level of the lowest part of the breast1 fifteen parts1 four minutes and a half4 ,the least breadth of the torso1 at the commencement of the flanks1 fourteen parts1 one minute4 ,the greatest breadth of the torso1 at the bottom of the flanks1 seventeen parts1 five minutes4 ,the breadth from the trochanter of one thigh to that of the other1 nineteen parts1 three minutes4 ,the greatest breadth of the thigh1 nine parts1 five minutes4 ,the greatest breadth of the knee1 six parts4 ,the greatest breadth of the calf of the leg1 six parts1 three minutes and a half4 ,the breadth from one ankle to another1 four parts4 ,the least breadth of the foot1 three parts1 three minutes and a half4 ,the greatest breadth of the foot1 five parts and one minute4 ,the arms of the ,venus de ,medici1 it should be observed1 are of modern construction1 and unworthy of the figure4 ,the ,,venus ,,of ,,naples is of altogether a different species of beauty4 ,that figure represents an ample and rather voluptuous matron1 in an attitude of scarcely surpassable grace4 ,the character of the face is beautiful1 in profile especially1 and its expression is grave4 ,the mouth has much of nature about it1 resembling greatly in character that feature as seen in ,southern ,europe2 but its expression1 though tender1 is somewhat serious or fretful4 ,it presents1 however1 many faults4 ,the head is monstrous4 ,the neck is equally so1 as well as coarse4 ,the forehead1 eyes1 nose1 and cheeks1 present none of the finely-calculated details1 which surprise and delight us in the ,venus de ,medici4 ,the mamm are not true4 ,after these1 the androgynous being1 called the ,,venus ,,of ,,arles1 is scarcely worthy of being mentioned4 ,she derives some grandeur from antique character and symmetry1 and some from her masculine features4 ,the head is monstrous2 the neck horrid2 the nose heavy2 the mouth contemptuous4 ,upon the whole1 neither the graceful matron of ,naples1 nor the manlike woman of the ,louvre1 can be brought into competition with the ,venus de ,medici4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,defects ,,of ,,beauty4 ,defects of the ,locomotive ,system4 #a4 ,if the whole figure be either too broad or too tall2 because1 the first is inelegant1 and the last unfeminine4 ,persons who are too tall are generally ill at ease and destitute of grace1 a greater misfortune to a woman than to a man4--,too low a stature is a defect less disagreeable1 especially for women4 ,if1 however1 on the one side1 it gives prettiness1 on the other1 it deprives of all imposing appearance4 #b4 ,if the bones1 except those of the pelvis1 be not proportionally small2 because1 in woman1 this portion of the locomotive system ought to be completely subordinate to the vital4 #c4 ,if the ligaments1 and the articulations they form1 be not proportionally small2 because1 in woman1 this portion of the locomotive system ought also to be completely subordinate to the vital4 ,either of the last two defects will produce what is termed clumsiness4 #d4 ,if the muscles1 generally more slender1 feeble1 soft and yielding than in man1 be not large around the pelvis1 and delicate elsewhere2 because1 this is necessary1 for reasons which will be afterward assigned1 as well as to permit the ease and suppleness of the movements4 #e4 ,if1 in a mature female1 the length of the neck1 compared with the trunk1 be not proportionally somewhat less than in the male2 because1 in her1 the subordination of the locomotive system1 the predominance of the vital1 and the dependance of the mental1 are naturally connected with the shorter vertebrae and shorter course of the vessels of the neck4 99 99 99 99 99 7,the following defects1 from #f to #ae inclusive1 have necessarily a reference also to the vital system2 because1 the form and capacity of the cavities here spoken of1 as formed by the osseous frame of the locomotive system1 have an obvious relation to the vital organs1 which these cavities are destined to contain47 #f4 ,if the upper part of the body 7exclusive of the bosom7 be proportionally more1 and the lower part of the body less prominent1 than in man1 so that1 when she stands perfectly upright or lies on the back1 the space between the breasts is more prominent than the mons veneris2 because1 such conformation is injurious to impregnation1 gestation1 and parturition4 #g4 ,if the shoulders seem wider than the haunches2 because1 this appearance generally arises from the narrowness of the pelvis1 and its consequent unfitness for gestation and parturition4 #h4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the shoulders be much narrower than the pelvis2 because1 this indicates extreme weakness of the locomotive system4 #i4 ,if the shoulders do not slope from the lower part of the neck2 because1 this shows that the upper part of the chest is not sufficiently wide of itself1 but is rendered angular by the muscularity1 c41 of the shoulders4 #aj4 ,if the upper part of the chest be not relatively short and wide1 and if it owe not its width rather to itself than to the size of the shoulders2 because1 this shows that the vital organs contained in the chest are not sufficiently expanded4 #aa4 ,if1 in youth1 the upper part of the trunk1 including the muscles moving the shoulders1 do not form an inverted cone1 whose apex is the waist2 because1 in that case1 the lightness and beauty of the locomotive system are destroyed by the unrestrained expansion of the vital4 #ab4 ,if the loins be not extended at the expense of the chest above and of the limbs below2 because1 on this depends their capacity to receive organs enlarged or displaced during gestation4 #ac4 ,if the back be not hollow2 because1 this shows that the pelvis is not sufficiently deep to project posteriorly1 nor consequently of sufficient capacity for gestation and parturition4 #ad4 ,if the haunches be not widely expanded 7as already implied in speaking of the shoulders72 because1 the interior cavity of the pelvis is then insufficient for gestation and parturition4 #ae4 ,if1 in consequence of the form of the pelvis1 and the arch of the pubis being larger1 the mons veneris be not more prominent than the chest2 because1 the pelvic cavity is then also insufficient for gestation and parturition4 99 99 99 99 99 #af4 ,if the thighs of woman be not wider than those of man2 because1 the width of the female pelvis1 and the purposes which it serves1 require this4 #ag4 ,if the size of the thighs be not large1 the haunches as it were increasing till they reach their greatest extent at the upper part of the thigh1 which anteriorly rises as high as the mons veneris1 and if the knees do not approximate4 #ah4 ,if the arms and the limbs be not relatively short1 if they do not taper greatly as they recede from the trunk1 and if the hands and feet be not small2 because1 it is the vital system and the trunk1 which is by far the most important part in the female4 #ai4 ,if the larynx or flute part of the throat be not small2 because their magnitude indicates a masculine character4 ,defects of the ,vital ,system4 7,defects of the contained vital parts1 which have been already implied in enumerating those of the containing locomotive parts1 are not again mentioned here1 as the intelligent reader can easily supply these and similar omissions47 #a4 ,if1 in consequence of marriage taking place before their full growth1 women remain always of diminished stature1 weak1 and pale4 #b4 ,if the digestive organs being large rather than active1 is inconsistent with the greater activity and less permanence of all the other functions1 secretion1 gestation1 c41 excepted4 #c4 ,if the absorbing vessels1 being inactive1 are insufficient for large secretions4 #d4 ,if the circulating vessels1 being inactive and imperfectly ramified1 leave the skin cold1 opaque1 and destitute of complexion4 #e4 ,if the secreting vessels1 being inactive1 furnish neither the plumpness necessary to beauty1 nor those ovarian1 uterine1 and mammary excretions on which progeny is dependant4 #f4 ,if the neck form not an insensible transition between the body and head1 being sufficiently full to conceal the muscles of the neck and the flute part of the throat4 #g4 ,if1 in a young woman1 the mamm1 without being too large1 do not occupy the bosom1 and rise from it with nearly equal curves on every side1 which similarly terminate in their apices2 or if1 in the mature woman1 they do not1 when supported1 seem laterally to protrude somewhat on the space occupied by the arms2 because1 these show that this important part of the vital system is insufficiently developed4 #h4 ,if the waist1 tapering little farther than the middle of the trunk1 and being sufficiently marked1 especially in the back and loins1 by the approximation of the expanded pelvis1 be not also slightly encroached on by the plumpness of all the contiguous parts1 without however destroying its elegance1 softness and flexibility2 because1 this similarly shows feebleness in a portion of that system1 which is by far the most important to woman4 #i4 ,if the waist be broader than the upper part of the trunk1 including the muscles moving the shoulders2 because1 this indicates that expansion of the stomach1 liver1 and other glands1 which is generally the result of their excessive use or excitement4 ,it is attended with a common look and an inelegant appearance4 #aj4 ,if the abdomen be not moderately expanded1 its upper portion beginning to swell out1 higher even than the umbilicus1 and its greatest projection being almost immediately under that point2 because1 this shows a weakness of the vital system1 and a disproportion to the parts immediately above4 #aa4 ,if the abdomen1 which should be highest immediately under the umbilicus1 slope not gently toward the mons veneris1 and be more prominent elsewhere2 because this is the result of that excessive expansion which takes place during parturition4 #ab4 ,if the abdomen1 which1 as well as being elevated1 should be narrow at its upper part1 become as broad there as below1 and lose that gentle lateral depression by which it is distinguished from the more muscular parts on the sides of the pelvis2 because1 this indicates the operation of the causes mentioned in the preceding paragraph4 #ac4 ,if a remarkable fulness exist not behind the upper part of the haunches1 and on each side of the lower part of the spine1 commencing as high as the waist1 and terminating in the still greater swell of the distinctly separated hips2 the flat expanse between these and immediately over the fissure of the hips1 being relieved by a considerable dimple on each side1 caused by the elevation of all the surrounding parts2 because1 it indicates feebleness in that system which is most essential to woman4 #ad4 ,if the cellular tissue and the plumpness which is connected with it1 do not predominate1 so as to obliterate all distinct projection of the muscles2 because1 this likewise shows that an important portion of the vital system is feeble1 and it deprives woman of the forms which are necessary to love4 ,nothing can completely compensate1 in woman1 for the absolute want of plumpness4 ,the features of meager persons are hard2 they have a dry and arid physiognomy2 the mouth is without charm2 the color is without freshness2 their limbs seem ill united with their body2 and all their movements are abrupt and coarse4 #ae4 ,if plumpness be too predominant2 because1 it then destroys the distinctness of parts1 and constitutes an excess productive of inconvenience4 #af4 ,if that excessive plumpness be broken1 as it were1 into masses2 because1 it constitutes coarseness of the vital system4 #ag4 ,if former plumpness have left the previously-filled cellular tissue and expanded integuments enfeebled2 because1 that constitutes flaccidity4 #ah4 ,if the almost entire absorption of adipose substance have finally left the bones angular1 the muscles and other parts permanently rigid1 and the skin dry2 because1 that indicates decay of the vital system1 and characterizes age4 #ai4 ,if the skin be not fine1 soft1 and white1 delicate1 thin1 and transparent1 fresh and animated1 if the complexion be not pure and vivid1 if the hair be not fine1 soft1 and luxuriant1 and if the nails be not smooth1 transparent1 and rose-colored2 because1 these likewise show the feebleness of that system which is most important to woman4 ,defects of the ,mental ,system4 #a4 ,if the head1 compared with the trunk1 be not less than that of the male2 because1 the mental system1 in the female1 ought to be subordinate to the vital1 and the reverse is inconsistent with the healthful and happy exercise of her faculties as woman4 #b4 ,if the organs of sense be not proportionally larger1 when compared with the brain1 and more delicately outlined than in the male2 because1 sensibility should exceed reasoning power1 in the female4 #c4 ,if the brain 7in other words7 be not proportionally smaller1 when compared with the organs of sense1 than in the male2 because1 reasoning power should be subordinate to sensibility in the female4 #d4 ,if the cerebel be not proportionally smaller1 when compared with the organs of sense1 than in the male2 because1 voluntary power should also be subordinate to sensibility1 in the female4 #e4 ,if the cerebel be not narrow and pointed posteriorly1 that is1 long rather than broad 7its general form in woman72 because1 the volitions of woman should be intense1 not permanent4 #f4 ,if the forehead be not large in proportion to the backhead1 but on the contrary low1 or very narrow2 because1 the former being the seat of observation1 if the organ be small1 the function must be correspondingly so1 and in that case passion will probably predominate4 #g4 ,if the delicacy of the skin permit not to the touch of woman corresponding delicacy4 #h4 ,if the mouth be not small1 or extend much beyond the nostrils1 and if the lips be not delicately outlined and of vermillion hue4 #i4 ,if the nose be not nearly in the same direction with the forehead1 or if more than a slight inflexion is to be seen4 #aj4 ,if the eyes be not relatively large and perfectly clear in every part4 #aa4 ,if the eyelids1 instead of an oblong1 form nearly a circular aperture1 resembling somewhat the eye of monkeys1 cats1 or birds2 because1 this round eye1 when large1 and especially when dark1 is always indicative of a bold1 and1 when small1 of a pert insensibility of character4 #ab4 ,if the eyelashes be not long and silky1 and if the eyebrows be not furnished with fine hairs1 and be not arched and distinctly separated4 #ac4 ,if the ears be prominent1 so as to alter the regularity of the oval of the head1 or surcharge its outline with prominences4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,external ,,indications2 ,,or ,,art ,,of ,,determining ,,the ,,precise ,,figure1 ,,the ,,degree ,,of ,,beauty1 ,,the ,,mind1 ,,the ,,habits1 ,,and ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,woman1 ,,notwithstanding ,,the ,,aids ,,and ,,disguises ,,of ,,dress4 ,external ,indications of ,figure4 ,external indications as to figure are required chiefly as to the limbs which are concealed by drapery4 ,such indications are afforded by the walk1 to every careful observer4 ,in considering the proportion of the limbs to the body--if1 even in a young woman1 the walk1 though otherwise good1 be heavy1 or the fall on each foot alternately be sudden1 and rather upon the heel1 the limbs1 though well formed1 will be found to be slender1 compared with the body4 ,this conformation accompanies any great proportional development of the vital system2 and it is frequently observable in the women of the ,saxon population of ,england1 as in the counties of ,norfolk1 ,suffolk1 c4 ,in women of this conformation1 moreover1 the slightest indisposition or debility is indicated by a slight vibration of the shoulders1 and upper part of the chest1 at every step1 in walking4 ,in considering the line or direction of the limbs--if1 viewed behind1 the feet1 at every step1 are thrown out backward1 and somewhat laterally1 the knees are certainly much inclined inward4 ,if1 viewed in front1 the dress1 at every step1 is as it were1 gathered toward the front1 and then tossed more or less to the opposite side1 the knees are certainly too much inclined4 ,in considering the relative size of each portion of the limbs--if1 in the walk1 there be a greater or less approach to the marching pace1 the hip is large2 for we naturally employ the joint which is surrounded with the most powerful muscles1 and1 in any approach to the march1 it is the hip-joint which is used1 and the knee and ankle-joints which remain proportionally unemployed4 ,if1 in the walk1 the tripping pace be used1 as in an approach to walking on tiptoes1 the calf is large2 for it is only by the power of its muscles that1 under the weight of the whole body1 the foot can be extended for this purpose4 ,if1 in the walk1 the foot be raised in a slovenly manner1 and the heel be seen1 at each step1 to lift the bottom of the dress upward and backward1 neither the hip nor the calf is well developed4 ,even with regard to the parts of the figure which are more exposed to observation by the closer adaptation of dress1 much deception occurs4 ,it is1 therefore1 necessary to understand the arts employed for this purpose1 at least by skilful women4 ,a person having a narrow face1 wears a bonnet with wide front1 exposing the lower part of the cheeks4--,one having a broad face1 wears a closer front2 and1 if the jaw be wide1 it is in appearance diminished1 by bringing the corners of the bonnet sloping to the point of the chin4 ,a person having a long neck has the neck of the bonnet descending1 the neck of the dress rising1 and filling more or less of the intermediate space4 ,one having a short neck has the whole bonnet short and close in the perpendicular direction1 and the neck of the dress neither high nor wide4 ,persons with narrow shoulders have the shoulders or epaulets of the dress formed on the outer edge of the natural shoulder1 very full1 and both the bosom and back of the dress running in oblique folds1 from the point of the shoulder to the middle of the bust4 ,persons with waists too large1 render them less before by a stomacher1 or something equivalent1 and behind by a corresponding form of the dress1 making the top of the dress smooth across the shoulders1 and drawing it in plaits to a narrow point at the bottom of the waist4 ,those who have the bosom too small1 enlarge it by the oblique folds of the dress being gathered above1 and by other means4 ,those who have the lower posterior part of the body too flat1 elevate it by the top of the skirt being gathered behind1 and by other less skilful adjustments1 which though hid1 are easily detected4 ,those who have the lower part of the body too prominent anteriorly1 render it less apparent by shortening the waist1 by a corresponding projection behind1 and by increasing the bosom above4 ,those who have the haunches too narrow1 take care not to have the bottom of the dress too wide4 ,tall women have a wide skirt1 or several flounces1 or both of these3 shorter women1 a moderate one1 but as long as can be conveniently worn1 with the flounces1 c41 as low as possible4#eg ,external ,indications of ,beauty4 ,additional indications as to beauty are required chiefly where the woman observed precedes the observer1 and may1 by her figure1 naturally and reasonably excite his interest1 while at the same time it would be rude to turn and look in her face on passing4 ,there can1 therefore1 be no impropriety in observing1 that the conduct of those who may happen to meet the woman thus preceding1 will differ according to the sex of the person who meets her4--,if the person meeting her be a man1 and the lady observed be beautiful1 he will not only look with an expression of pleasure at her countenance1 but will afterward turn more or less completely to survey her from behind4--,if the person meeting her be a woman1 the case becomes more complex4 ,if both be either ugly or beautiful1 or if the person meeting her be beautiful and the lady observed be ugly1 then it is probable1 that the approaching person may pass by inattentively1 casting merely an indifferent glance3 if1 on the contrary1 the woman meeting her be ugly1 and the lady observed be beautiful1 then the former will examine the latter with the severest scrutiny1 and if she sees features and shape without defect1 she will instantly fix her eyes on the head-dress or gown1 in order to find some object for censure of the beautiful woman1 and for consolation in her own ugliness4 ,thus he who happens to follow a female may be aided in determining whether it is worth his while to glance at her face in passing1 or to devise other means of seeing it4 ,even when the face is seen1 as in meeting in the streets or elsewhere1 infinite deception occurs as to the degree of beauty4 ,this operates so powerfully1 that a correct estimate of beauty is perhaps never formed at first4 ,this depends on the forms and still more on the colors of dress in relation to the face4 ,for this reason1 it is necessary to understand the principles according to which colors are employed at least by skilful women4#eh ,when it is the fault of a face to contain too much yellow1 then yellow around the face is used to remove it by contrast1 and to cause the red and blue to predominate4 ,when it is the fault of a face to contain too much red1 then red around the face is used to remove it by contrast1 and to cause the yellow and blue to predominate4 ,when it is the fault of a face to contain too much blue1 then blue around the face is used to remove it by contrast1 and to cause the yellow and red to predominate4 ,when it is the fault of a face to contain too much yellow and red1 then orange is used4 ,when it is the fault of a face to contain too much red and blue1 then purple is used4 ,when it is the fault of a face to contain too much blue and yellow1 then green is used4 ,it is necessary to observe that the linings of bonnets reflect their color on the face1 and transparent bonnets transmit that color1 and equally tinge it4 ,in both these cases1 the color employed is no longer that which is placed around the face1 and which acts on it by contrast1 but the opposite4 ,as green around the face heightens a faint red in the cheeks by contrast1 so the pink lining of the bonnet aids it by reflection4 ,hence linings which reflect1 are generally of the teint which is wanted in the face2 and care is then taken that these linings do not come into the direct view of the observer1 and operate prejudicially on the face by contrast1 overpowering the little color which by reflection they should heighten4 ,the fronts of bonnets so lined1 therefore1 do not widen greatly forward1 and bring their color into contrast4 ,when bonnets do widen1 the proper contrast is used as a lining2 but then it has not a surface much adapted for reflection1 otherwise it may perform that office1 and injure the complexion4 ,understanding1 then1 the application of these colors in a general way1 it may be noticed1 that fair faces are by contrast best acted on by light colors1 and dark faces by darker colors4 ,dark faces are best affected by darker colors1 evidently because they tend to render the complexion fairer2 and fair faces do not require dark colors1 because the opposition would be too strong4 ,objects which constitute a background to the face1 or which1 on the contrary1 reflect their hues upon it1 always either improve or injure the complexion4 ,for this and some other reasons1 many persons look better at home in their apartments than in the streets4 ,apartments may1 indeed1 be peculiarly calculated to improve individual complexions4 ,external ,indications of ,mind4 ,external indications as to mind may be derived from figure1 from gait1 and from dress4 ,as to figure1 a certain symmetry or disproportion of parts 7either of which depends immediately upon the locomotive system7--or a certain softness or hardness of form 7which belongs exclusively to the vital system7--or a certain delicacy or coarseness of outline 7which belongs exclusively to the mental system7--these reciprocally denote a locomotive symmetry or disproportion--or a vital softness or hardness--or a mental delicacy or coarseness1 which will be found also indicated by the features of the face4 ,these qualities are marked in pairs1 as each belonging to its respective system2 for1 without this1 there can be no accurate or useful observation4 ,as to gait1 that progression which advances1 unmodified by any lateral movement of the body1 or any perpendicular rising of the head1 and which belongs exclusively to the locomotive system--or that soft lateral rolling of the body1 which belongs exclusively to the vital system--or that perpendicular rising or falling of the head at every impulse to step1 which belongs exclusively to the mental system--these reciprocally indicate a corresponding locomotive1 or vital1 or mental character1 which will be found also indicated by the features of the face4 ,to put to the test the utility of these elements of observation and indication1 let us take a few instances4--,if1 in any individual1 locomotive symmetry of figure is combined with direct and linear gait1 a character of mind and countenance not absolutely repulsive1 but cold and insipid1 is indicated4--,if vital softness of figure is combined1 with a gentle lateral rolling of the body in its gait1 voluptuous character and expression of countenance are indicated4--,if delicacy of outline in the figure1 be combined with perpendicular rising of the head1 levity1 perhaps vanity1 is indicated4--,but there are innumerable combinations and modifications of the elements which we have just described4 ,expressions of pride1 determination1 obstinacy1 c41 are all observable4 ,the gait1 however1 is often formed1 in a great measure1 by local or other circumstances1 by which it is necessary that the observer should avoid being misled4 ,dress1 as affording indications1 though less to be relied on than the preceding1 is not without its value4 ,the woman who possesses a cultivated taste1 and a corresponding expression of countenance1 will generally be tastefully dressed2 and the vulgar woman1 with features correspondingly rude1 will easily be seen through the inappropriate mask in which her milliner or dressmaker may have invested her4 ,external ,indications of ,habits4 ,external indications as to the personal habits of women are both numerous and interesting4 ,the habit of child-bearing is indicated by a flatter breast1 a broader back1 and thicker cartilages of the bones of the pubis1 necessary widening the pelvis4 ,the same habit is also indicated by a high rise of the nape of the neck1 so that the neck from that point bends considerably forward1 and by an elevation which is diffused between the neck and shoulders4 ,these all arise from temporary distensions of the trunk in women whose secretions are powerful1 from the habit of throwing the shoulders backward during pregnancy1 and the head again forward1 to balance the abdominal weight2 and they bestow a character of vitality peculiarly expressive4 ,the same habit is likewise indicated by an excess of that lateral rolling of the body in walking1 which was already described as connected with voluptuous character4 ,this is a very certain indication1 as it arises from temporary distensions of the pelvis1 which nothing else can occasion4 ,as in consequence of this lateral rolling of the body1 and of the weight of the body being much thrown forward in gestation1 the toes are turned somewhat inward1 they aid in the indication4 ,the habit of nursing children is indicated1 both in mothers and nursery-maids1 by the right shoulder being larger and more elevated than the left4 ,the habits of the seamstress are indicated by the neck suddenly bending forward1 and the arms being1 even in walking1 considerably bent forward or folded more or less upward from the elbows4 ,habits of labor are indicated by a considerable thickness of the shoulders below1 where they form an angle with the inner part of the arm2 and1 where these habits are of the lowest menial kind1 the elbows are turned outward and the palms of the hands backward4 ,the habits of many of the inferior female professions might easily be indicated2 but they would be unsuitable to a work like this4 ,external ,indications of ,age4 ,external indications of age are required chiefly where the face is veiled1 or where the woman observed precedes the observer and may reasonably excite his interest4 ,in either of these cases1 if the foot and ankle have lost a certain moderate plumpness1 and assumed a certain sinewy or bony appearance1 the woman has generally passed the period of youth4 ,if in walking1 instead of the ball or outer edge of the foot first striking the ground1 it is the heel which does so1 then has the woman in general passed the meridian of life4--,unlike the last indication1 this is apparent1 however the foot and ankle may be clothed4--,the reason of this indication is the decrease of power which unfits the muscles to receive the weight of the body by maintaining the extension of the ankle-joint4 ,exceptions to this last indication are to be found chiefly in women in whom the developments of the body are proportionally much greater1 either from a temporary or a permanent cause1 than those of the limbs1 the muscles of which are consequently incapable of receiving the weight of the body by maintaining the extension of the ankle-joint4 ,,appendix ,,appendix4 ,a4 ,mr4 ,walker's extravagant admiration of the ,grecian mythology has led him to over-estimate its influence upon poetry and the arts4 ,that these were influenced1 in a very important degree1 by the religion of ,greece1 no one acquainted with the history of that nation1 can doubt2 but1 that the arts cannot exist where the ,grecian mythology is not the popular religion1 is an opinion unsupported by the history of the past1 and altogether opposed to their present flourishing state in civilized countries4 ,in no age or nation has the art of painting1 for example1 attained higher perfection1 than in ,italy during the #acth and #adth centuries2 a period which has been called the golden age of ,italian art1 and its high excellence has been justly attributed to the introduction of ,christianity4 ,the walls and cupolas1 says a late writer1 of new and splendid churches were immediately covered1 as if by enchantment1 with the miracles of paintings and sculpture--the eager multitude were not compelled to wait till genius had labored for years on what it had been years in conceiving4 ,those eager spirits seemed to breathe out their creations in full and mature beauty--performing at once1 by the buoyant energies of well-disciplined genius1 more than all the cold precision of mechanical knowledge can ever accomplish4 ,allan ,cunningham1 in his life of ,flaxman1 the artist1 speaking of these paintings1 remarks3 ,into these ,flaxman looked with the eye of a sculptor and of a ,christian4 ,he saw1 he said1 that the mistress to whom the great artists of ,italy had dedicated their genius was the ,church2 that they were unto her as chief priests1 to interpret her tenets and her legends to the world in a more brilliant language than that of relics and images4 ,to her illiterate people1 the ,church addressed herself through the eye1 and led their senses captive by the external magnificence with which she overwhelmed them4 ,but it is unnecessary to multiply quotations to prove this point4 ,flaxman never uttered a truer saying1 than when he remarked1 that the ,christian religion presents personages and subjects no less favorable to painting and sculpture than the ancient classics4 ,accordingly1 we find among his own immortal productions1 that the monument erected in memory of ,miss ,lushington1 in ,kent1 representing a mother mourning for her daughter1 comforted by a ministering angel1 was inspired by that text of holy writ1 ,blessed are they that mourn2 and the monument in memory of the family of ,sir ,francis ,baring imbodies these words1 ,thy will be done--thy kingdom come--deliver us from evil4 ,to the first motto belongs a devotional figure as large as life-- ,her looks communing with the skies2 a perfect image of piety and resignation4 ,on one side1 imbodying ,thy kingdom come1 a mother and daughter ascend to the skies welcomed rather than supported by angels2 and on the other1 expressing the sentiment ,deliver us from evil1 a male figure1 in subdued agony1 appears in the air1 while spirits of good and evil contend for the mastery4 ,this has been considered one of the finest pieces of motionless poetry in ,england4 ,we hold1 then1 that ,mr4 ,walker's remark that neither poetry nor the arts can have being1 without the religion of ,greece1 is far from being sustained1 either by history or observation4 ,b4 ,the remarks of ,mr4 ,walker1 in relation to the duty of parents and teachers1 seem to us well-founded and judicious4 ,if moral1 as well as intellectual and physical education1 be part of the parental duty1 then it would seem to follow1 that it should embrace those subjects which are of the most importance1 both to the physical and moral well-being of the child2 and surely1 the relation of the sexes1 and the due subjection of the animal propensities1 are not the least important of these4 ,there is a delicacy generally felt and observed on this point1 which springs from a principle that we honor and respect1 while1 at the same time1 we doubt whether it leads to favorable and auspicious results4 ,no one1 who looks back upon the years of his own childhood1 can for a moment doubt that judicious advice and seasonable information on certain subjects1 which were probably considered of a too delicate nature to be even hinted at1 would have been highly useful4 ,the young will inevitably become initiated into certain vices and evil practices1 unless put on their guard1 by the warning voice of those they love and respect4 ,there are a variety of passions1 affections1 and appetites1 which belong to our nature1 and were intended when properly directed and indulged1 to promote our interest and happiness4 ,those under consideration1 early begin to manifest themselves1 and1 when left without the restraints of enlightened intellect and the moral sense1 invariably lead to disastrous consequences4 ,the question then is1 shall the young and inexperienced be left to the mere accidents of its condition1 without an effort to give it sound principles to govern it1 or without bringing some conservative influence to bear upon it8 ,we think1 with ,mr4 ,walker1 that it should not4 ,both philosophy and reason prove the danger of such a course4 ,the circumstances which are connected with sexual vices cannot be wholly kept out of view4 ,they meet the eye1 or are suggested to the imagination1 at almost every turn4 ,a thousand scenes and incidents occur to excite the passions1 if the mind is not fortified against their influence4 ,those who are fastidious1 and believe that delicacy forbids all allusion to such subjects1 will say1 ,keep the youth in ignorance--conceal1 if possible1 everything from his view1 that may excite the passions4 ,still1 there remain the constitutional susceptibilities2 passion and appetite cannot be eradicated1 and they will often be excited by incidents1 which the most wakeful vigilance will not detect or suspect4 ,the fact is1 that long before parents are aware of it1 the child has obtained knowledge on these subjects through many corrupt channels2 and the associations first formed1 are destined to exert1 ever afterward1 a powerful influence for evil4 ,the early associations might1 by judicious instruction on the part of parents1 be of such character1 as to throw around the youth a barrier almost impregnable4 ,as to the time and manner of imparting this instruction1 it must be left to the wisdom and prudence of teachers and parents and1 perhaps1 as a general rule1 it should be left wholly to the latter4 ,c4 ,much has been written on the nature of beauty1 from the divine ,plato1 who dedicated one of his dialogues to this subject1 to ,lord ,jeffries1 the editor of the ,edinburgh ,review2 who1 in his celebrated article in the ,supplement to the ,encyclopedia ,britannica1 has excelled all previous efforts in its elucidation1 and produced an essay1 which will stand an imperishable monument of his taste1 learning1 and genius4 ,it is not our design to enter upon a consideration of beauty in the abstract1 or to attempt its analysis1 as this has been done by our author in a very able1 if not satisfactory manner4 ,we take it1 however1 to denote that quality1 or assemblage and union of qualities in the objects of our perception1 whether material1 intellectual1 or moral1 which we contemplate with emotions of pleasure2 and we refer it to that internal sense1 which is usually called taste4 ,when it is asked1 why a thing is beautiful1 it is not always easy to find a satisfactory answer4 ,we find beauty in color1 in sound1 in form1 in motion1 in everything4 ,we have beauties of speech1 beauties of thought1 beauties in art1 in nature1 in the sciences1 in actions1 in affections1 and in characters4 ,dr4 ,reid well asks1 ,in things so different1 and so unlike1 is there any quality1 the same in all1 which we may call by the name of beauty8 ,we shall not attempt to fathom this difficulty2 indeed1 it could not be done1 without entering upon a metaphysical discussion1 dry in detail1 and uninteresting in result4 ,when we come to inquire in what female beauty consists1 we shall find that there is something which enters into it1 beside physical goodness4 ,it is not a mere matter of flesh and blood2 but color1 form1 expression1 and grace1 are all essential to its perfection4 ,the two first have been called the body1 the two latter1 the soul of beauty--and without the soul1 the body is but a mass of deformed and inanimate matter3-- ,mind1 mind1 alone6 bear witness earth and heaven1 ,the living fountains in itself contains ,of beauteous and sublime4 ,here1 hand-in-hand1 ,sit paramount the ,graces4 ,here1 enthroned1 ,celestial ,venus1 with divinest airs1 ,invites the soul to never-failing joy4 ,,akenside ,color and form are only beautiful1 because they are expressive of health1 delicacy1 and softness1 in the female sex4 ,it has been remarked1 that expression has greater power than either beauty or form1 as it is only the expression of the tender and kind passions that gives beauty2 that all the cruel and unkind ones add to deformity1 and that1 on their account1 good-nature may very properly be said to be the best feature1 even in the finest face4 ,modesty1 sensibility1 and sweetness1 blended together1 so as either to enliven or correct each other1 give almost as much attraction as the passions are capable of adding to a very pretty face4 ,it is owing to this force of pleasingness1 which attends all the kinder passions1 that lovers not only seem1 but really are1 more beautiful to each other than to the rest of the world2 and in their mutual presence and intercourse1 says a ,french writer1 there is a soul upon their countenances1 which does not appear when they are absent from each other or even in company that lays a restraint upon their features4 ,indeed1 it will appear that all the ingredients of beauty terminate in expression1 and this may be1 either perfection of the body1 or the qualities of the mind4 ,dr4 ,reid indeed goes so far as to say1 that beauty originally dwells in the moral and intellectual perfections of mind1 and in its active powers4 ,thus beauty may be ascribed to all those qualities which are the natural objects of love and kind affections1 as the moral virtues1 innocence1 gentleness1 condescension1 humanity1 natural affections1 and the whole train of soft and gentle virtues--qualities amiable in their nature1 and on account of their moral worth4 ,so also do intellectual talents excite our love and esteem of those who possess them2 these are knowledge1 good sense1 wit1 humor1 cheerfulness1 good taste1 excellence in any of the fine arts--as music1 painting1 sculpture1 embroidery1 c4 ,thus1 for example1 the beauty of good breeding is not originally in the external behavior in which it consists1 but is derived from the qualities of mind which it expresses2 for it has been well observed1 that though there may be good breeding without the amiable qualities of mind1 its beauty is still derived from what it naturally expresses4 ,flaxman has truly said1 that neither mind nor any one of its qualities or powers1 is an immediate object of perception to men4 ,these are perceived through the medium of material objects1 on which their signatures are impressed4 ,the signs of these qualities are immediately perceived by the senses1 and by them reflected to the understanding2 and we are apt to attribute to the sign1 the beauty which is properly and originally in the thing signified4 ,thus1 the invisible ,creator hath stamped on his works signatures of his divine wisdom1 power1 and benignity1 which are visible to all men4 ,the works of men in science1 in the arts of taste1 and in the mechanical arts1 bear the signatures of those qualities of mind which were employed in their production4 ,their external behavior or conduct in life1 expresses the good or bad qualities of their minds4 ,in every species of animals we perceive1 by visible signs1 their instincts1 appetites1 affections1 or sagacity2 and even in the inanimate world1 there are many things analogous to the qualities of mind2 so that there is hardly anything belonging to mind which may not be represented by images taken from objects of sense2 and1 on the other hand1 every object of sense is beautiful1 by borrowing attire from attributes of the mind4 ,thus1 the beauties of mind1 though invisible in themselves1 are perceived in the objects of sense1 in which their beauty is impressed4 ,thus1 also1 in those qualities of sensible objects to which we ascribe beauty1 we discover in them some relation to mind1 and the greatest in those that are most beautiful4 ,every beauty in the vegetable creation1 of which we can form any rational judgment1 expresses some perfection in the object1 or some wise contrivance in the author4 ,in the animal kingdom we perceive superior beauties1 resulting from life1 sense1 activity1 various instincts and affections1 and1 in many cases1 great sagacity2 which are attributes of mind1 and possess an original beauty4 ,in their manner of life1 we observe that they possess powers1 outward form1 and inward structure1 exactly adapted to it2 and the more perfectly any individual is fitted for its end and manner of life1 the greater is its beauty4 ,this1 also1 was manifestly ,milton's theory of beauty2 for1 in his unrivalled description of our first parents in ,paradise1 he derives their beauty from those expressions of moral and intellectual qualities which shone forth in their outward form and demeanor3-- ,two of far nobler shape1 erect and tall1 ,god-like erect6 with native honor clad1 ,in naked majesty1 seemed lords of all1 ,and worthy seemed1 for1 in their looks divine1 ,the image of their glorious ,maker1 shone ,truth1 wisdom1 sanctitude1 severe and pure2 ,severe1 but in true filial freedom placed1 ,whence true authority in man2 though both ,not equal1 as their sex not equal seemed1 ,for contemplation he1 and valor formed1 ,for softness she1 and sweet attractive grace4 ,from these remarks1 it will appear that we do not regard novelty alone as being the exciting cause of pleasurable emotions1 and of the consequent perception of beauty in the relation of things4 ,the beautiful1 both in statuary and painting1 we believe to depend chiefly on the perfection with which the artist succeeds in expressing the qualities of the mind1 whether good or evil2 and it is worthy of notice1 that ,plato1 in his ,dialogues1 declares that the good and the beautiful are one and the same4 ,hence1 the ,greeks called the beautiful ,greek3 ,,kalos4 ,the influence of novelty has been so well illustrated in an ,essay by the author of a ,treatise on ,happiness1 that we trust no apology will be required for transferring a portion of it to our pages3-- ,the term novelty applies to everything new--either newly invented1 or newly exhibited to us2 in the former case the thing is novel to the world1 in the latter it is novel to ourselves4 ,novelty powerfully influences the senses1 the passions1 and the manners of human beings2 it furnishes amusement1 employment1 and maintenance for man2 it accompanies him in his progress through this variable being1 from the commencement of life to the period of dissolution4 ,novelty may be either pleasing or unpleasing4 ,when it affects the senses by grateful influences1 it occasions admiration and delight4 ,how powerfully must the vision of ,adam have been affected1 when he was introduced to being6 ,everything which he beheld was new4 ,there was drawn out before him1 the plain1 the fruitful valley1 the verdant hill4 ,shrubs and trees were distributed around him4 ,the earth was strewed with flowers3 rivulets and rivers diversified the scene-- ',rolling on orient pearl1 and sands of gold4' ,the ocean1 perhaps1 was stretched out as a plain of silver in the distant view2 the heavens were robed in splendor2 the sun shone brilliantly4 ,his own person--himself1 was an inextricable mystery4 ,he could move2 he could think2 he could behold the display of creation2 he could close his eyes1 and exclude every impression4 ,all was new2 and everything1 he might naturally have fancied1 would remain the same2 but1 he was destined to behold a series of novelties4 ,in a short time1 he saw the sun sinking below the horizon4 ,the heavens were adorned in their most splendid robes1 like the gorgeous display of an ,eastern monarch4 ,a shade was cast over the valleys1 and darkness began to gather among the trees1 while their tops and branches were still illumined in the sunbeams4 ,the shadows of evening are now gathered around him2 the twinkling stars adorn the heavens2 but the beauties of hill1 vale1 waters1 trees1 and flowers1 are departed6 ,how sensibly must he have been affected6 ,he would now conclude that his future time must be spent in darkness2 but he looks toward the ,east1 and across the wide expanse of waters he beholds a gleam of light1 which leads the eye to some great luminary1 rising above the horizon1 to cheer the nightly solitude2 and1 as it mounts to the zenith1 new beauties delight the vision of this lonely and astonished inhabitant of the earth4 ,after a short period the moon sinks1 the sun rises in the heavens1 and the same delightful scenery is exhibited which was beheld the previous day4 ,we can imagine the effect of novelty in producing admiration2 when travellers1 who having been toiling for many days or weeks on the burning sands of interminable deserts1 come suddenly upon some lovely valley1 watered by cooling streams1 shaded by groves of trees1 and beautified with clusters of flowers4 ,or1 we can fancy the pleasure which would be produced on wayworn voyagers1 who had been long toiling on the great deep and they come to some blest isle1 ----',where the voluptuous breeze ,the peaceful native breathes1 at eventide1 ,from nutmeg-groves1 and bowers of cinnamon4' ,to the infant everything is novel1 and almost everything is a source of admiration4 ,the people who move to and fro2 the walls and furniture of the room2 the fire and the candles2 the bustle and movement of men and carriages2 the heavens1 sunshine1 and rain4 ,these occasion interest and surprise4 ,dr4 ,brown has inquired1 ',what metaphysician is there1 however subtile and profound in his analytical inquiries1 and however successful in the analyses which he has made1 who would not give all his past discovery1 and all his hopes of future discovery1 for the certainty of knowing1 with exactness1 what every infant feels8 ,but he would1 probably1 meet with few who would sacrifice so much for the purpose2 and yet the feelings of an infant must be exceedingly interesting4 ,we can easily suppose the effect which would be produced on a company of savages1 if1 in the midst of their woods1 one of our best military bands were to strike up a powerful strain of martial music4 ,at first they would sit motionless1 or stand as statues2 then look toward the place whence the sounds proceeded1 where they would behold a company of persons1 in many-colored dresses1 and splendid ornaments1 with curious musical instruments1 dropped1 as they would fancy1 from the clouds4 ,but the effect of novelty may be painful2 and this feeling will be powerful in the same proportion as the circumstances are important and new4 ,suppose1 for instance1 a person who had been trained in the ways of propriety and virtue were introduced1 for the first time1 to a village-wake1 or some such brutal holyday1 where he would behold bull-baiting and cock-fighting1 boxing and drunkenness2 where he would listen to quarrelling and profane swearing2 how would his feelings be shocked6 ,he would scarcely have fancied that a spot so small1 on the surface of the globe1 could have exhibited so great a variety of wickedness4 ,or1 we may imagine some one endowed with a delicate ear for music1 who had been accustomed to the practice of delightful harmony1 obliged1 for the first time1 to listen to the harsh scraping of some barbarous laborer on the violin1 or the useless attempts of some tasteless practitioners to perform a piece of music6 ,how irksome and insufferable must such an ordeal be to a man of refinement2 and how would its painfulness be increased by its novelty6 ,by the same rule1 a person who may have been accustomed to luxury and dainty food1 but is obliged1 for the first time1 to feed on loathsome bread and nauseous water1 feels doubly the misery of his condition4 ,and thus the man who has been used to salubrious air and grateful scents1 will be the more effected by disgusting smells4 ,novelty operates also in powerfully exciting the passions4 ,suppose a general to be usually unfortunate in his combats with the enemy1 and his army to be consequently dispirited2 but1 upon some particular occasion1 the favors of fortune and of ,providence are bestowed upon them1 their efforts are successful1 and the main body of the enemy begin to waver1 how would this inspirit them1 and brighten their courage6 ,they would rush forward1 unconscious and careless of danger1 and the foe must fly before such unconquerable ardor6 ,if a man who had lived in poverty1 in dependance on others for a subsistence1 had constantly wished for independence and comparative influence1 and had endeavored to swim against the stream of adversity but had never succeeded1 and1 all at once1 a handsome fortune were left to him1 how would his eyes sparkle with exultation6 ,if a person had been separated from his friends and doomed to spend his days in the solitude of a foreign land and he met1 unexpectedly1 with some of his nearest and kindest friends1 how would his countenance beam with delight6 ,the novelty of the circumstance would increase the amount of his joy6 ,a traveller in a foreign country would be exceedingly pleased to discover some trinket which had been made in his native city2 and especially if he saw on it the name of an intimate friend as the manufacturer4 ,a toy1 a dog1 or a cat1 under some circumstances1 has occasioned tears4 ,a beautiful female has appeared more lovely1 when interesting events have introduced her to our notice2 and one who is not usually attractive1 has appeared so1 when novelty has thrown its fascinations around her4 ,the feeling of hope may be excited most powerfully by novel and unexpected circumstances4 ,when the mariner has been long toiling in storms and dangers2 when the heavens have been covered with darkness1 and no information or guidance could be gained from the stars or the sun1 the tempest suddenly ceases1 the cheering sunbeams break upon him1 and he finds himself1 unexpectedly1 near the haven where he would be--how does his heart exult with hope1 and the consciousness of security6 ,the passions may be excited1 also1 in an unpleasing manner2 the feeling of fear may be powerfully produced by novelty4 ,suppose1 for instance1 a youth1 who was trained in the ways of tranquillity and enjoyment1 with a feeling heart for the sufferings of others1 to be brought1 all at once1 on the field of war and bloodshed4 ,suppose him passing along some narrow defile1 where the distant scenes could scarcely affect him1 and where he would perceive only a din of discordant sounds4 ,but1 on a sudden1 he reaches the termination of the passage1 and all the pomp1 and circumstance1 and horror of war1 are exhibited before him4 ,here he beholds rank opposed to rank1 in deadly conflict2 troops of horsemen butchering each other2 forests of deadly weapons gleaming in the sunbeams4 ,now he listens to the shouts of victors1 the cries of the vanquished1 the groans of the wounded and dying2 to the swelling notes of some musical band2 the discordant sounds of the drum2 the clashing of arms1 and the shrill clamor of trumpets2 to the rattling of musketry and the roaring of artillery6 ,how would his heart sink within him at these novel scenes6 ,novelty will also occasion sorrow2 as1 when a man has been accustomed to independence1 and the comforts which wealth1 judiciously managed1 may produce1 and his riches are suddenly swept away1 he is reduced from affluence to dependance1 from comforts to privations4 ,and when a person has been used to the society of pleasant friends1 and these are removed by the hand of death1 and the clay-cold body alone remains as the representative of a cheerful and amiable companion1 the novelty of this event will occasion heartfelt sorrow4 ,when those who have been accustomed to associate as faithful friends2 or1 when a monarch has been surrounded by persons who have pretended feelings of attachment1 and evinced much hypocritical fidelity1 and1 all at once1 the veil of deception has been drawn aside1 and an aspect has presented itself of a new and treacherous kind1 how powerful have been the feelings of abhorrence and anger6 ,and when a person1 who has been nurtured in the lap of ease and comfort1 and blessed with that best of all blessings 7if it be rightly managed71 the gift of liberty1 is torn from his home1 and his family1 and his engagements1 and carried into a land of slavery1 where he is laden with oppressive chains1 and insulted by a cruel task-master1 with no chance of freedom1 nor any ray of happiness1 how will his spirits sink1 and how will the haggard lineaments of despair be drawn on that countenance which was formed for cheerfulness6 ,or1 suppose a person who was accustomed to a dwelling in some verdant valley1 undisturbed by storms or the hazards of the sea2 and he was introduced1 for the first time1 to some of the most aggravated dangers of that boisterous element4 ,suppose the winds were driving furiously over the ocean1 and the huge billows were breaking on the helpless bark1 while the darkness of the night was varied only by the gleam of the lightning1 which exhibited breakers1 and rocks1 and over-hanging precipices1 how would this new and dangerous condition agitate his mind1 and drive him to despair6 ,novelty influences the customs or habits of mankind4 ,on some occasions novel engagements are pleasing2 and thus we practise them again1 and acquire a habit of performing them4 ,for instance1 the citizen who has walked into the country as a novelty1 has been pleased with his ramble1 and induced to practise it daily4 ,it sometimes occasions a progress in the arts2 and thus the first attempts at music1 at painting1 and at sculpture1 have produced a pleasure which has stimulated the person to future and continued labors4 ,sometimes1 when the first impression has been rather unpleasing1 a custom has been acquired1 because1 afterward1 it had been found pleasing or advantageous4 ,thus there are many kinds of food1 which were originally ungrateful1 but are now esteemed delicious4 ,port wine is nauseous for a child1 but it is pleasing to the taste of a person who has been accustomed to it4 ,smoking1 the taking of snuff1 and masticating of tobacco1 with many other useless and dirty customs1 are not produced by the pleasing influence of novelty2 but they are rather opposed to it4 ,they arise principally from the inclination of following injurious examples4 ,in some cases ladies have set their faces against such customs1 and have prohibited the practice among those who would gain their esteem3 in other cases they have been more lenient1 because they have found that a flame of love may burn amid volumes of smoke from cigars or tobacco-pipes4 ,novelty has occasioned a sensation of unpleasantness1 with regard to particular modes of dress2 but afterward these fashions have become necessary to our comfort4 ,in some instances1 the very things which we commonly hate most1 become essential to our happiness4 ,when ,louis ,,xvi4 ascended the throne of ,france1 the doors of some of the dark cells in the ,bastile were opened1 and the hapless residents were allowed once more to breathe the pure air of heaven4 ,among the rest1 there was one man who had been immured for nearly fifty years in a wretched cell1 the area of which was so small as scarcely to allow him room to move about2 but1 having a vigorous body and a firm mind1 he supported himself1 until he had almost forgotten the world in which he lived1 having had no intercourse with any one but the jailer1 who brought him his daily food4 ,when he received the summons to depart1 which seemed like a message in a dream1 he was astonished2 but when he walked through the spacious passages and the open courts1 and saw the heavens extended above him1 and the sun shining in his splendor1 he was overcome by his feelings4 ,he could badly walk1 and badly speak1 and he seemed as if he had entered a new world4 ,he went into the city1 and found the street in which he had formerly lived1 but his friends were dead2 there was no living being in the world that knew him1 and the poor man wept with sorrow4 ,he was a stranger in a strange country4 ,he went to the minister who had given him his freedom1 and said3 ',sir1 ,i can bear to die1 but to live in a world unknown and forlorn1 the last human being of my race1 is insupportable2 do1 therefore1 send me to my cell1 that ,i may finish my days there6' ,no blessing of ,providence will be felt as a benefit1 unless it be possessed by a person for whom it is adapted4 ,impressions of a novel and pleasing kind soon lose their attraction2 and thus the honors which are acquired by civil and literary eminence1 quickly fade away4 ,they are like a beautiful cloud in the heavens1 or a dew-drop on a leaf1 which glitters and exhibits its beauties for a while1 but the fervent sun absorbs both2 or1 they are like a gaudy flower1 which a man fixes in his bosom--very lovely at first1 but its attractions soon vanish4 ,on the other hand1 painful occurrences leave but a faint impression4 ,although1 at first1 a man may be bowed down with trouble1 yet he will soon regain an erect position and a smiling countenance4 ,a few weeks or months hide most of our sorrows from us2 and this is an eminent proof of the wisdom and beneficence of the ,deity3 for the general amount of human happiness is by this means more equally divided4 ,a state of elation is temporary1 and so is a state of depression2 and thus1 whether a man rises or sinks in worldly possessions and honors1 although there will be some difference in the amount of enjoyment1 yet there will be much less than we are generally disposed to imagine4 ,a taste for novelty affects the engagements of society3 it is the source of fashion2 it gives labor to the mechanic1 to the artist1 and to almost every man who obtains his maintenance by industry4 ,and thus there are new buildings1 new vehicles1 new machines1 and new methods of doing most things4 ,there are dresses of various kinds the result of ingenuity and taste4 ,one thing is new and attractive1 but it soon becomes stale1 and then we look for something novel4 ,some kinds of food are scarce and costly3 these are approved by the great1 but they become plentiful and cheap1 and then the rich man looks for something rare1 some new discovery in the art of cookery4 ,the round of pleasures and amusements is continually varying4 ,formerly the men1 and even the ladies1 were delighted by exhibitions of combats among savage beasts--lions1 elephants1 and tigers2 they feasted their eyes on the bloody combats of human beings with each other1 or with bulls and other furious animals4 ,they attended dog-fights1 cock-fights1 and other barbarous diversions4 ,but the taste has become improved2 novelty has taken a praiseworthy direction3 boxing1 wrestling1 and other disgraceful exhibitions1 are now transferred to the vulgar and disreputable2 many innocent amusements have been introduced1 and these also have been regulated by the universal love of novelty4 ,the same variety has existed in language4 ,a certain style of speech1 and certain phrases1 are fashionable in the best society2 these are gradually introduced among the lower ranks1 and then the better classes look for something novel4 ,many words and phrases originally introduced for the purpose of expressing things delicately1 become vulgar3 terms which were primarily intended as a reproach become a designation of honor1 and those once deemed honorable become reproachful4 ,the love of novelty occasions the great variety of tunes which we possess1 and the diversity of musical skill4 ,a newly-constructed instrument1 a new or superior mode of performing on it and the last new tune1 are objects of universal attraction4 ,the same disposition arises with respect to books4 ,novelty has occasioned all the variety which the history of literature exhibits1 from the bulky folio to the penny pamphlet1 and the annual publication to the daily newspaper3 it has occasioned1 also1 in a great degree1 the multitude of opinions which have deluged the world4 ,something new1 as the loungers of ,athens demanded1 has been the requirement of the public in all ages4 ,if it be new1 it will be attractive1 and if pleasing or convenient1 it will be embraced1 and then its strength and consistency will soon be deemed demonstrated3 but when the writers on the subject1 and the readers of those writings1 become cool2 when reason takes the place of imagination1 then the system will be often discovered to be defective1 the vapory fabric will fade away1 and some other will obtain its place4 ,we are too frequently going round in our progress1 rather than forward4 ,in many respects we are not much farther advanced than the ancients1 and yet we ought to be1 and should be if we had pursued a direct course4 ,but one of the most pleasing sources of novelty is that which the ,almighty has given us in the seasons of the year2 and this distinctly shows us that the love of novelty is not only natural1 but it is allowable and praiseworthy1 if it be regulated by reason2 for the ,great ,creator himself indulges us in this respect4 ,and thus we have all the variety of summer and winter1 of sultry and frosty days1 of clear and cloudy skies2 of the budding and blooming of spring1 and the richness and luxuriance of autumn2 the breaking forth of the sun in the morning1 and the setting of that glorious luminary2 the light of the stars2 the silvery splendor of the moon2 the glare of lightnings and meteors1 the rolling of thunder1 with vapors1 rain1 hail1 and snow4 ,the love of novelty is injurious only when it is carried beyond what the ,almighty intended2 when it does not animate a person to perform his necessary engagements1 but carries him away from them2 when it makes him restless and wavering4 ,novelty accompanies man in infancy and in youth2 it cheers and exalts him in the changing scenes of manhood2 and when we leave this earthly sphere1 and the soul bursts forth from its corporeal dwelling1 it will fly upward to regions of still greater novelty1 and never-failing interest6 ,d4 ,mr4 ,walker1 in various places of his work1 calls the cerebel or cerebellum1 the organ of volition1 and1 at page #ade1 he attributes ideas1 emotions1 and passions1 to the cerebrum1 though he states that acts of the will result from these4 ,now1 if there is any truth established1 it is that the will is the result of the simultaneous action of the higher intellectual powers1 and supposes attention1 reflection1 comparison1 and judgment1 mental operations1 which ,mr4 ,walker himself attributes to the cerebrum4 ,gall has made it very evident1 that the will is not the impulse that results from the activity of a single organ1 but the concurrent action of many of the higher intellectual faculties--motives must be weighed1 compared1 and judged1 before there can be any will1 or determination of mind4 ,the decision resulting from this determination1 is called will4 ,we consider it then proved1 that there is no particular organ of the will4 ,every fundamental faculty1 says ,dr4 ,gall1 accompanied by a clear notion of its existence1 and by reflection1 is intellect or intelligence4 ,each individual intelligence1 therefore1 has its proper organ2 but reason supposes the concerted action of the higher faculties4 ,it is the judgment pronounced by the higher intellectual faculties4 ,a single one of these1 however1 could not constitute reason1 which is the compliment1 the result of the simultaneous action of all the intellectual faculties4 ,it is reason that distinguishes man from the brute2 intellect they have in common to a certain degree4 ,there are many intelligent men1 but few reasoning ones4 ,nature produces an intelligent man2 a happy organization1 cultivated by experience and reflection1 forms the reasoning man4 ,nearly all physiologists deserving of the name1 are now united in the opinion that the cerebellum is the organ of amativeness1 as well as concerned in the regulation of voluntary motion4 ,it is impossible1 says ,dr4 ,spurzheim1 to unite a greater number of proofs in demonstration of any natural truth than may be presented to determine the function of the cerebellum4--,mr4 ,scott1 says ,george ,combe1 in an excellent essay on the influence of amativeness on the higher sentiments and intellect1 observes that it has been regarded by some individuals1 as almost synonymous with pollution2 and the notion has been entertained1 that it cannot be even approached without defilement4 ,this mistake has originated from attention being directed too exclusively to the abuses of the propensity4 ,like everything that forms part of the system of nature1 it bears the stamp of wisdom and excellence in itself1 although liable to abuse4 ,it exerts a quiet but effectual influence in the general intercourse between the sexes1 giving rise in each to a sort of kindly interest in all concerns the other4 ,this disposition to mutual kindness between the sexes1 does not arise from benevolence or adhesiveness1 or any other sentiment or propensity alone2 because1 if such were its sources1 it would have an equal effect in the intercourse of the individuals of each sex among themselves1 which it has not4 ',in this quiet and unobtrusive state of the feeling1' says ,mr4 ,scott1 'there is nothing in the least gross or offensive to the most sensitive delicacy4 ,so far the contrary1 that the want of some feeling of this sort is required1 wherever it appears1 as a very palpable defect1 and a most unamiable trait in the character4 ,it softens all the proud1 irascible1 and antisocial principles of our nature1 in everything which regards that sex which is the object of it2 and it increases the activity and force of all the kindly and benevolent affections4 ,this explains many facts which appear in the mutual regards of the sexes toward each other4 ,men are1 generally speaking1 more generous and kind1 more benevolent and charitable1 toward women1 than they are to men1 or than women are to one another4' ,the abuses of this propensity are the sources of innumerable evils in life2 and as the organ and feeling exist1 and produce an influence on the mind1 independently of external communication1 ,dr4 ,spurzheim suggests the propriety of instructing young persons in the consequences of its improper indulgence as preferable to keeping them in a state of ignorance that may provoke a fatal curiosity1 compromising in the end their own and their descendants' bodily and mental constitution4 ,it may be proper in this place1 to point out some of the anatomical differences of the sexes more definitely than has been done by ,mr4 ,walker1 as they are intimately connected with the form and contour of the body1 and must be understood to appreciate fully the bearing of much that is laid down by our author3-- ,,anatomical ,,sexual ,,differences4 ,,digestive ,,system4 ,the stomach is the only portion of the alimentary canal which presents sexual differences4 ,it is larger1 shorter1 and broader1 in the male2 smaller1 narrower1 and longer1 in the female4 ,its muscular coat1 like that in the whole alimentary canal1 is generally also thinner in the female4 ,,osseous ,,system4 ,ribs4--,the ribs of the female are generally straighter than those of the male4 ,the posterior segment unites sooner with the anterior2 its curve differs less from that of the last1 and disappears sooner in the female2 hence1 the chest is narrower4 ,the ribs are usually thinner2 hence1 the edges are sharper4 ,sometimes1 however1 this is far from being true4 ,their length is nearly the same2 but according to ,mechel1 the length of the two upper ribs is proportionally1 and when the subject is short1 absolutely greater in the female than in the male4 ,clavicle4--,the clavicle is generally straighter1 and proportionably smaller in the female than in the male4 ,the greater straightness depends particularly on the lesser curve of its external portion1 while in man it extends far backward1 and then comes forward4 ,the internal anterior half presents nearly the same curve in both sexes4 ,the clavicle of the female is rounder than that of the male2 we however find clavicles of females perfectly like those of males1 and vice versa4 ,sometimes1 of the two clavicles in the same body1 one is constructed in the type of the male1 and the other in that of the female4 ,pelvis4--,the chief points of difference between the male and female skeleton1 beside the disparity in the size and the greater smoothness of the bones1 lie in the pelvis4 ,in the female this is less strong and thick1 and contains less osseous matter than that of the male4 ,in the female1 the arch of the pubis is much the greatest1 and the long diameter of the brim of the pelvis is from side to side2 in the male it is from before backward2 in the female1 the brim is more of the oval shape1 in the male more triangular2 in the female1 the ilia are more distant2 the tuberosities of the ischia are also more remote from each other1 and from the os coccygis1 and as these three points are farther apart1 the notches between them are consequently wider1 and there is of necessity a considerably greater space between the os coccygis and pubis than in the male4 ,the female sacrum is broader and less curved than in the other sex4 ,the ligamentous cartilage at the symphysis pubis is broader and shorter4 ,in consequence of the cavity of the pelvis being wider in woman1 the superior articulations of their thigh bones are farther removed from each other1 which circumstance occasions their peculiarity in walking2 they seem to require a greater effort than men to preserve the centre of gravity1 when the leg is raised2 owing to the greater length of the crural arch1 there is less resistance to the pressure of the abdominal viscera2 consequently females are more subject to femoral hernia than males4 ,the angle of union of the ossa pubis in the male is from sixty to eighty degrees1 whereas1 in the female it is ninety degrees4 ,the mean height of the male1 at the period of maturity1 is about five feet eight and a half inches1 and that of the female about five feet five inches2 a well-formed pelvis has a circumference equal to one-fourth of the height of the female4 ,,organ ,,of ,,voice4 ,the larynx is one of the organs which presents most manifestly the differences of sex4 ,that of the female is usually one third1 and sometimes one half smaller than that of the male3 all its constituent cartilages are much thinner2 the thyroid cartilage also is even flatter1 because its two lateral halves unite at a less acute angle4 ,hence the reason why the larynx in the male forms at the upper part of the neck a prominence which is not visible in the female4 ,the glottis in the female is much smaller than in the male1 and the vocal cords are shorter4 ,these sexual differences do not appear till puberty2 until then the larynx has precisely the same form in the two sexes1 and consequently the voice is nearly the same in both4 ,in eunuchs it is small as in females4 ,,physiological ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,beauty ,,of ,,form4 ,a very ingenious ,physiological explanation of the beauty of form1 has been suggested by ,professor ,b4 ,t4 ,joslin1 of the ,university of the city of ,new ,york1 which is published in the ,transactions of the ,new ,york ,state ,medical ,society for #ahcf4 ,as this theory is characterized by great originality and genius1 and but little known1 we shall present our readers with some extracts from the ,essay1 calculated to elucidate the views of the talented author4 ,speaking of material objects1 not including the human form1 ,dr4 ,j4 remarks3-- ,there is in objects a kind of beauty which is intrinsic and physical1 which belongs to them in every association1 and whether at rest or in motion2 such is the beauty of color1 and that of configuration4 ,the contemplation of the beauty of coloring and of form gives physical pleasure1 i4 e41 physical as opposed to mental1 but physiological as opposed to physical4 ,employing physical in its comprehensive sense1 ,i say that this physical pleasure attending vision is of two distinct kinds2 #ast1 that which depends on the character of the impression on the retina1 and consequently on the intensity and nature of the light2 and #b;dly1 that which depends upon the form of the object1 and1 consequently1 on the muscular actions employed in tracing its outlines4 ,as the latter constitutes the proper subject of this essay1 ,i shall dismiss the former with a single remark4 ,some colors are more agreeable than others1 but these differ with different eyes1 and with the nature of the color to which the eyes have been previously exposed4 ,a bluish green relieves the eye when over-excited with red1 and a mild red is agreeable after the protracted action of intense green2 and in general1 the complementary colors are most agreeable in succession4 ,again1 it is well known1 that no kind of light is painful1 unless excessively vivid2 we are pleased with a mild radiance in objects of every hue1 from the whiteness of the moon to the crimson of the setting sun4 ,but is there no other physical property by which these luminaries directly contribute to the gratification of taste8 ,it is true that light1 abstractedly from all objects is agreeable1 and agreeable on the same principle that sweetness is to the taste1 i4 e41 from the mere character of the nervous impression4 ,but this is a pleasure merely passive1 and in an active being it is1 perhaps1 on that account1 one grade lower than the gratification afforded by the beauty of form1 and is more allied to the gross pleasure of literal taste4 ,hence1 we scarcely employ a figurative expression1 in declaring that light is sweet4 ,but the highest degree of physical gratification is not enjoyed by the eye1 unless this agreeable excitant proceeds from an object of beautiful form4 ,light is sweet1 but it is a pleasant thing for the eyes to behold the sun4 ,what is the source of this additional pleasure which we receive1 when light proceeds either by radiation or reflection from regular curvilinear objects8 ,i shall offer what ,i believe to be an original and satisfactory explanation of the beauty of form1 on principles purely physiological4 ,it is based on the proposition1 that the action of every muscle is attended with a sensation which1 is at first agreeable1 but which1 if the action is continued for a short time with intensity1 and without intermission1 becomes painful4 ,that there is pleasure attending those varied motions which depend upon the actions of different muscles in succession after intervals of rest in each1 we know from our own consciousness as well as from that instinctive propensity to play which we observe in children and young animals4 ,that the prolonged action of a muscle is painful1 we may readily convince ourselves by endeavoring to hold the arm for some time at right angles with the erect trunk4 ,with the arm in this position1 a pound weight on the hand or even the weight of the arm itself becomes in a few minutes almost insupportable4 ,we presently begin to feel pain in the shoulder and anterior part of the arm1 the former from fatigue of those muscles which originate from the scapula and keep the os humeri elevated1 and the latter from fatigue of the muscles which originate from the scapula and os humeri1 whose muscular fibres are in front of the os humeri and by their contraction elevate the fore-arm in consequence of their tendinous attachment to its bones4 ,yet a man may labor all day with his arms without this painful sensation2 because a muscle requires but a momentary rest1 in order to regain that degree of energy which is momentarily lost by action4 ,none but an anatomist can duly appreciate the variety of separate actions1 on which depend the motions of a single limb1 and the consequently numerous opportunities of rest which the muscles enjoy4 ,to the superficial and unscientific observer1 an arm is an arm2 it is a single member which may be fatigued by a day's work and recruited by a night's rest4 ,but to the anatomist the arm is a complex object1 and its muscular energy is that of its component muscles1 each of which may be fatigued by a minute's action and recruited by a minute's repose4 ,it would be easy to extend this farther1 and state reasons for believing that the component fasciculi and fibres of an individual muscle act still more transiently1 and that their momentary and successive actions constitute the action of a single muscle4 ,but waiving this refinement1 it will be sufficient for our purpose to consider a single muscle as having a simple action1 an action which cannot be sustained with uniformity a minute of time without actual pain1 nor a second of time with positive pleasure4 ,this1 however1 is not to be understood as an attempt to fix these limits with precision4 ,to express the law in more general terms1 as we diminish the duration of a muscle's action we diminish the pain until we arrive at an action whose attendant sensation is neutral1 i4 e41 neither painful nor pleasurable2 as soon as we have passed that point and have begun to execute motions a little more transient1 the attendant sensation becomes positively pleasurable1 and the pleasure increases as the separate actions become more transient4 ,it is not necessary to infer that there is attending each action of shorter duration a pleasure exceeding that which attends each action of greater duration2 for the more transient actions are1 in a given time1 more numerous2 so that with the same amount of pleasure for each muscular contraction1 the amount of pleasurable sensation in a given time--say a second--would exceed the amount attending the less frequent and more prolonged actions in the same period3 a greater number of separate impressions become--so to speak--crowded together and condensed1 and thus produce a more vivid pleasure4 ,several contiguous impressions thus conspire to heighten the contemporaneous effect1 inasmuch as we are unable to distinguish those impressions which are made at very short intervals on the muscular sense1 any more than we are those made at very short intervals on the retina4 ,we have an example of the latter in the familiar experiment of swinging a coal of fire in a circle1 and in various optical instruments for combining colors and images4 ,the proposition which ,i have endeavored to establish is1 that there is a neutral point to which1 if constant action is prolonged1 its pleasurable character begins to be reversed2 that the vividness of the sensation increases with the distance from this point1 being on the one side pleasurable1 on the other painful2 the more transient the actions are1 the more pleasurable2 the more prolonged they are1 the more painful4 ,i am of opinion that this physiological principle is susceptible of interesting applications to a class of pleasures1 which metaphysicians have regarded as exclusively mental1 and dependant upon certain supposed ultimate principles of the constitution of mind1 principles not resolvable into others more elementary4 ,as physiology shall advance1 it may be expected that many of these imaginary elements will yield to its searching analysis4 ,whether the writer has been so fortunate as to resolve any of the generally admitted elements of mental taste1 the reader will be able to judge from the sequel4 ,as preparatory to the consideration of the beauty of form1 it will be necessary to give an explanation of the gracefulness of motion4 ,although this has been vaguely and in part referred to ease of execution1 yet1 the physiological principle on which ease of execution depends1 not having been clearly understood and distinctly stated1 the gracefulness of all motions could not be referred to their true source4 ,thus1 writers on taste have been under the necessity of admitting1 as a distinct and independent source of gracefulness1 the curvilinear direction of motions1 and have been able to generalize this fact no farther than by referring it to the beauty of curved forms1 which beauty was considered an ultimate fact4 ,in applying the principles above developed1 to the explanation of the pleasure or pain attending the contemplation of particular motions1 we shall defer for the present the investigation of the intrinsic beauty of curved motions1 which is the same as that of curved lines1 and assume that in general those motions which are physically pleasurable to the agent are agreeable to the observer4 ,the pleasure or pain of the agent will engage the sympathy of the observer2 for he associates the observed action with his own experience4 ,to make a single application1 suppose a public speaker extend his arm horizontally and move it slowly in a horizontal position1 through one third of a circle4 ,this motion would not appear graceful4 ,that it would not be performed with perfect ease1 any one might prove by experiment4 ,the principal difficulty is in preserving for a long time the horizontal position4 ,in the ordinary state of the muscular system1 and within certain limits1 the motion of the eye in any direction is pleasurable4 ,whenever the power of directing the eye is acquired1 the tracing of a line will1 to a certain extent and for a certain time1 afford some degree of positive pleasure2 in other words1 any short line will possess some degree of positive beauty1 and the infant becomes conscious of an emotion of which he was previously ignorant--the emotion of beauty of form4 ,a point awakens no such emotion2 it never will2 it can possess no beauty4 ,it must be recollected1 that this has been restricted to minute points of inappreciable form4 ,circular dots will be considered under the head of figures4 ,the colorific property of a dot as compared with that of the ground on which it is placed1 may afford that kind of ocular pleasure which is foreign to the present inquiry4 ,from points as compared with lines1 we naturally proceed to lines as compared with each other4 ,when the head is erect1 in examining a straight horizontal line we employ one of the lateral recti2 if the line be vertical we employ the rectus inferior or superior4 ,in either case1 but one muscle acts1 and that continuously4 ,the muscle is not relieved1 and its action is not attended with the maximum amount of pleasurable sensation4 ,when the vision has been extended along the whole line1 if we then immediately proceed to examine it in the opposite direction1 the opposite rectus must at one exert a force sufficient to overcome the momentum of the eyeball1 and then exert a continuous action4 ,both these circumstances are unfavorable to pleasure4 ,if the line is oblique1 one lateral together with one inferior or one superior muscle is exerted1 and the same principles which have been applied to the single muscles1 apply to the muscles acting in pairs4 ,the ,beauty of ,curved ,lines4--,as from the foregoing analysis of the vision of straight lines in general1 it results that they are deficient in the elements of ocular agreeableness1 in other words1 of beauty2 little more need be said of regular and gentle curves1 than that the survey of them is not attended with the abovementioned disadvantages4 ,in viewing a regular curve1 no muscle of the eyeball acts continuously and uniformly1 but enjoys partial relief by remissions1 or total relief by intermissions of its action2 and the regularity of these remissions and intermissions1 as well as the equal distribution of exercise1 is promoted by the regularity of the curve4 ,acting in succession1 the muscles afford mutual relief after actions of such short duration and variable intensity1 as to afford positive pleasure2 and in this muscular pleasure of the eye consists the beauty of configuration4 ,the successive and accurate survey of distant points is not1 however1 invariably requisite to a degree of similar pleasure1 in viewing a figure of such small angular extent as to be instantly recognised by one location of its image1 as analogous to a larger one whose survey has directly afforded muscular pleasure4 ,although ,i thus recognise the influence of association1 the facts of this very case afford an interesting confirmation of the physiological theory2 for a large circle or ellipse is more beautiful than one of diminutive size4 ,the beauty of the one is original1 its influence is direct2 the beauty of the other is in part borrowed1 and this part is weakened by reflection4 ,or1 to express it more literally1 the one excites a pleasurable sensation1 the other suggests a similar idea2 the one affords a perception1 the other a conception1 of beauty4 ,such1 even with similar color and brilliancy1 would be the difference between the full moon and a circular dot 77 or period2 such the difference between a rainbow and a diminutive arc 7,illustration71 a short accent inverted4 ,here the critic might be inclined to charge us with confounding the beautiful with the sublime4 ,but the fact is1 that criticism has constructed the sublime--as it has the beautiful--from heterogeneous materials1 one of which is identical with one of the elements of beauty1 and should1 in a physiological arrangement1 be referred to the same class4 ,in many instances a magnifying instrument will disclose minute irregularities and blemishes2 but in every other case1 physiology would show1 that1 within certain limits1 to magnify a beautiful object is to magnify beauty4 ,the foregoing statements of general principles preclude the necessity of minute details in relation to particular curves4 ,i shall at present consider those which do not return into themselves1 so as to constitute the outlines of figures in the geometrical sense4 ,let us first select a semi-circumference1 for example1 that of a rainbow of maximum dimensions4 ,in tracing it once1 we employ three out of the four muscles4 ,they are brought into action successively and rapidly1 but not abruptly4 ,all these circumstances are favorable to pleasure4 ,yet they are not conducive to it in the highest possible degree2 for each muscle acts only once unless the examination be repeated2 and in case of its repetition1 the momentum of the eyeball is destroyed in stopping and reversing its motion4 ,the waving line1 as ,hogarth's line of beauty1 obviates the first difficulty4 ,this ensures not only the successive action of different muscles1 but a repetition of action in the same4 ,if the line forms a number of equal waves1 these repetitions will be proportional to the number of waves1 and will alternately and totally relieve1 at least two muscles1 and allow1 in the action of a third1 regular remissions of intensity at equal intervals4 ,we have proved then1 that on this physiological theory1 a semi-circumference possesses more of the elements of beauty than any straight line1 and a regular-waved line more than either4 ,these results are conformable to experience4 ,if there is any difficulty in admitting this1 it will vanish on comparing the ocular with other muscles4 ,let us select a joint1 which1 in its spherical form1 and the circular arrangement of its muscles1 is analogous to the eye2 for example1 the shoulder joint4 ,i think it will be uniformly found1 that in the use of this joint1 the curves most readily traced1 are those of gentle and nearly equal curvature1 and being such as are most easily traced by the eye1 they would appear more beautiful than those drawn by the fingers with the same education4 ,for example1 let a man1 without bending his wrist or elbow1 draw various lines with a light stick or cane on the surface of snow3 the lines most easily drawn 7or most easily traced if already drawn71 will be curves of considerable beauty1 and nearly equal curvature2 such as waved lines and spirals and looped curves4 ,circles and ellipses would also be among the figures with most facility and precision traced1 and especially in cases of repeated tracing2 but we are not at present considering figures in the proper geometrical sense of the term4 ,in writing letters by the above method1 a succession of 'e's1 would be more readily drawn than a succession of 'i's1 or a zigzag line with acute angles4 ,to institute a fair comparison between terminated lines and figures1 the component lines of the figures should be as beautiful as the terminated lines with which they are compared4 ,with this precaution1 physiology will conduct to the conclusion1 that figures are more beautiful than terminated lines4 ,for the survey of any figure requires the successive action of all these ocular muscles1 and a repeated survey requires no reversal of the motion4 ,we may apply the same principles to figures as compared with each other4 ,here we shall find the advantage on the side of those which are geometrically regular4 ,we perceive that the circle and ellipse must possess in great perfection the essentials of beauty4 ,from figures1 the transition is natural and easy to solids or bodies of three dimensions4 ,the form of a body depends on those of all its faces and sections2 and these last are plane figures4 ,the elliptical sections of a regular spheroid are all highly beautiful1 but its sections are not all elliptical4 ,unless the spheroid be in certain positions1 the sphere possesses still higher beauty1 as presenting the same circular and highly beautiful outline in every position2 although a variety of positions is not essential to the perception of its peculiar beauty1 whenever the observer has learned by different methods1 and especially by different degrees of convergence of the two optic axes1 to estimate the relative distances of the different points of the visible hemisphere1 and thus to recognise the spherical form4 ,i will only add1 from the analysis of the beauty of the circle it is evident1 that within certain limits1 to magnify a sphere is to magnify its beauty4 ,the relative beauty of the sphere and spheroid1 and of the spheroid as compared with itself in different positions1 is modified by symmetry4 ,the principle of symmetry1 is in some measure distinct from any other heretofore considered4 ,it may be treated under the heads of #ast1 geometrical symmetry1 or symmetry of form2 #b;d1 of symmetry of position4 ,symmetry of form1 though implied in geometrical regularity1 is not identical with it1 and requires a separate consideration4 ,the beauty of forms geometrically symmetrical1 in contradistinction from those deficient in the correspondence of opposite halves1 depends upon two similar series of actions in different pairs or muscles4 ,for example1 the survey of an ovate leaf1 or indeed that of almost any vegetable leaf--so numerous are the provisions for our gratification--requires for its opposite halves two series of muscular actions1 the different parts of the one corresponding with those of the other in duration1 intensity1 and order of succession4 ,the gratification in this case results from the harmony of muscular sensations individually pleasurable4 ,the agreeableness of this harmony may depend upon a principle more psychological than that of the agreeableness of its elementary sensations4 ,yet the former is to a certain extent susceptible of a physiological generalization4 ,this harmony would probably have been impaired by any considerable inequality in the distances between the points of insertion of the recti muscles1 or in the strength of the antagonists4 ,it is a curious coincidence1 that in both these respects1 these muscles are more nearly symmetrical than any others in the human body4 ,physiology1 then1 explains1 not only the agreeableness of the elementary sensations1 which give rise to the perception of beauty in regular curves1 but unfolds the provisions for two similar series of such sensations1 not only in figures simply regular1 but in those which are simply symmetrical1 and in those which are both symmetrical and regular4 ,the principles of muscular action explain the agreeableness of a rapid succession of varied actions equally distributed among the muscles1 and the structure of the optical apparatus explains why the curvature and regularity of an object require such actions in vision4 ,again1 we discover in the symmetrical structure and arrangement of the ocular muscles1 a provision for two similar series of pleasurable sensations in the survey of a symmetrical figure1 in whatever position it may be placed1 provided it retains its symmetry with respect to some visual plane4 ,the coincidence between the location of the ocular muscles diametrically opposite1 on the one hand1 and our propensity to compare the opposite halves of bodies1 and the pleasure afforded by their similarity on the other hand1 is curious1 and to a certain extent affords a physiological explanation of the beauty of symmetrical forms4 ,the same principles which apply to the beauty of form of inanimate objects are applicable to the paths described by them in motion4 ,the intrinsic beauty of their motions is exclusively referrible to sensations in the ocular muscles of the observer1 while the gracefulness of human motions is referrible in part to these1 and in part to sensations in other muscles4 ,it would be foreign to the subject of the present memoir1 to consider the beauty of expression of the human countenance2 although this species of beauty is in a great degree referrible to muscular action4 ,that muscular action which belongs to the present topic is not that of the object1 but that of the observer4 ,it may be scarcely necessary again to disclaim any design of giving a complete analysis of beauty in general1 or to repeat the concession that man's notions of beauty are modified by various associations4 ,final ,cause4--,the benevolence of the ,author of nature is strikingly manifested in connecting present pleasure with obedience to the natural laws4 ,it has been shown that vision is attended with muscular action which is generally pleasurable4 ,if seeing had required no muscular action1 we should have wanted one of our present stimuli to the acquisition of knowledge4 ,this stimulus is especially necessary in infancy1 and then powerfully prompts to observation1 even anterior to the dawnings of intellectual curiosity1 with which it subsequently co-operates4 ,we see1 in this arrangement1 the exemplification of a principle which extensively pervades the laws under which we are placed by the ,creator--which is1 that mental attainments1 as well as other acquisitions1 shall require action2 and that action shall be attended with pleasure4 ,whether the acquisition is to be made by the manual labor of the artisan1 by the manipulations of the artist1 the chymist1 or the experimental philosopher1 by the sedentary student of books1 or by the observer of natural phenomena in his original survey of the universe--in every case it is muscular action4 ,this application to natural theology1 has thus far had reference to that degree of intrinsic agreeableness which is common to forms in general4 ,but the laws of nature specially tend to the production of curved1 regular1 and symmetrical objects and motions1 in inorganic vegetable and animal bodies2 and impose the necessity of similar forms in artificial structures4 ,with a different structure and arrangement of the ocular muscles1 those forms peculiarly conducive to our welfare and that of the universe1 had possessed no peculiar attractions2 and we had felt no special impulse of this kind to conform our own artificial structures to those laws of nature1 or to investigate many of the most important works of the ,creator4 ,yet neither gravity or any other law of the external world could have determined the peculiar formation of the muscles of the human eye4 ,we must1 therefore1 refer their actual structure and location to that ,being who gives to the objects of his creative power1 and to the principles by which he governs them1 such a mutual adaptation as conduces to the greatest achievable good4 ,thus1 while muscular pleasure originally prompts to the observation of the ,creator's works1 this observation is rewarded and subsequently prompted by a pleasure of an incomparably higher order1 of a character purely mental1 by the discovery of moral beauty1 which in rank and refinement surpasses all others4 ,still1 the muscular pleasure of the eye strongly incites to the examination of the numberless forms of beauty in the organic and inorganic kingdoms1 such as the symmetrical leaf1 the bending bough1 the symmetry of the tree itself that of inferior animals1 and of the human form4 ,or we may extend our view to the circular or undulating horizon1 the apparent limits of the apparently round world2 or we may elevate the eyes to the arched dome of the firmament1 on which the arches of the iris and aurora occasionally confer additional beauty4 ,or with the telescope we may pierce this apparent limit of upward vision1 and discover beyond it a universe of spherical and spheroidal worlds1 revolving in circular and elliptical orbits1 worlds and orbits which present1 even in our diminutive diagrams1 a high order of beauty1 designed to incite us to the contemplation of these most magnificent works of the ,creator4 ,all this beauty had been lost to man1 but for the property of the eye1 which1 on a superficial reflection1 might seem a defect4 ,it is no less true than paradoxical1 that the perception of these beauties depends on indistinctness of vision4 ,to a being so constituted as to see with equal distinctness by oblique and direct vision1 the same forms might be presented1 but not as forms of beauty4 ,has the ,creator1 then1 sacrificed a portion of our perceptive powers to our sensual gratification8 ,i answer no4 ,has he1 then1 sacrificed a portion of our direct means of acquiring knowledge1 to afford an incitement which should ultimately and indirectly enhance our attainments8 ,again ,i am compelled to answer in the negative4 ,there is1 in this arrangement1 no intellectual sacrifice whatever1 direct or indirect4 ,this indistinctness of oblique vision1 which might seem a defect1 ,i consider an excellence4 ,a simultaneous and distinct impression received from the whole field of vision1 would distract the attention and preclude a minute and accurate examination of any particular part4 ,but as our eyes are so constituted as to receive a strong and distinct impression only from the images of those objects toward which their axes are directed1 and as our minds are so constituted that we can in a great measure neglect the weaker or less distinct impressions1 we are able to acquire a more exact knowledge of any part of the field to which we choose to attend4 ,to see every thing at once1 would be to examine nothing4 ,such a constitution of the eye would be to vision what an indiscriminating memory is to the understanding4 ,e4 ,,standard ,,of ,,beauty4 ,to show that the sentiments of mankind with regard to female beauty1 have been very various in different ages and nations1 and that it is not possible to establish a standard which shall comprehend all1 without discriminations1 a few facts may be mentioned4 ,among the ancients1 a small forehead and joined eyebrows were much admired in a female countenance2 and in ,persia1 large joined eyebrows are still highly esteemed4 ,in some parts of ,asia1 black teeth and white hair1 are essential ingredients in the character of a beauty2 and in the ,marian ,islands1 it is customary among the ladies to blacken their teeth with herbs1 and to black their hair with certain liquors4 ,beauty1 in ,china and ,japan1 is composed of a large countenance1 small1 and half-concealed eyes1 a broad nose1 little and useless feet1 and a prominent belly4 ,the ,flat-head ,indians compress the heads of their children between two boards1 with a view to enlarge and beautify the face2 some tribes compress the head laterally2 others depress the crown1 and others make the head as round as possible4 ,the ,moors of ,africa1 says ,park1 have singular ideas of female perfection2 the gracefulness of figure and motion1 and a countenance enlivened by expression1 are by no means operative points in their standard2 with them corpulency and beauty are terms nearly synonymous4 ,or women of even moderate pretensions1 must be one who cannot walk without a slave under each arm to support her1 and a perfect beauty is a load for a camel4 ,in consequence of this prevalent taste for unwieldiness of bulk1 the ,moorish ladies take great pains to acquire it early in life1 and for this purpose many of the young girls are compelled by their mothers to swallow a great quantity of kouskous1 and drink a large bowl of camel's milk every morning4 ,it is of no importance whether the girl has an appetite or not1 the kouskous and milk must be swallowed1 and obedience is frequently enforced by blows4 ,i have seen a poor girl sit crying with the bowl at her lips for more than an hour1 and her mother with a stick in her hand watching her all the while1 and using the stick without mercy whenever she observed that her daughter was not swallowing4 ,this singular practice1 instead of producing indigestion and disease1 soon covers the young lady with that degree of plumpness1 which in the eye of a ,moor1 is perfection itself4 ,these facts show that every nation almost has ideas of beauty peculiar to itself2 and it is no less evident that nearly every individual has his own notions and taste concerning it4 ,the empire of beauty1 however1 says a writer already quoted1 amid these discordant ideas1 with respect to the qualities in which it consists1 has been very generally acknowledged1 and particularly in all civilized countries2 and when it is united with other accomplishments that tend to render females amiable1 it contributes in no small degree1 to give them importance and influence1 to polish the manners of society1 and to contribute to its order and happiness4 ,f4 ,,temperament4 ,the views of ,mr4 ,walker in relation to ,temperaments1 correspond with those usually entertained by physiological writers4 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that they rarely occur simple in any individual1 two or more being generally combined4 ,the bilious and nervous1 for example1 is a common combination1 which gives strength and activity2 the lymphatic and nervous1 is also common1 and produces sensitive delicacy of mental constitution1 conjoined with indolence4 ,the nervous and sanguine combined1 give extreme vivacity1 but without corresponding vigor4 ,dr4 ,thomas of ,paris1 has advanced the following theory of the temperaments3 ,when the digestive organs1 filling the abdominal cavity1 are large1 and the lungs and brain small1 the individual is lymphatic2 he is fond of feeding1 and averse to mental and muscular exertion4 ,when the heart and lungs are large1 and the brain and abdomen small1 the individual is sanguine2 blood abounds1 and is propelled with vigor2 he is therefore fond of muscular exercise1 but averse to thought4 ,when the brain is large1 and the abdominal and thoracic viscera small1 great mental energy is the consequence4 ,these proportions may be combined in great varieties1 and modified results will ensue4#ei ,mr4 ,combe1 in his late lectures in this city1 laid great stress on the relative size of the three great visceral cavities1 in determining the temperament4 ,thus1 if the abdominal and thoracic cavities be small1 and the cranial cavity large1 the nervous temperament is indicated4 ,if the abdomen and scull be comparatively small1 and the chest large1 the sanguine temperament is indicated4 ,the predominance of the abdominal cavity indicates the lymphatic temperament4 ,mr4 ,c4 also pointed out the important changes produced in the temperament by a long continued course of training4 ,it is common for the bilious1 to be changed into the nervous temperament1 by habits of mental activity1 and close study2 and1 on the other hand1 we often see the nervous or bilious changed into the lymphatic about the age of #dj1 when the nutritive system seems to acquire the preponderance4 ,spurzheim used to say1 that he had originally a large portion of the lymphatic temperament1 as had all his family2 but that in himself the lymphatic had gradually diminished1 and the nervous gradually increased2 whereas1 in his sisters1 owing to mental inactivity1 the reverse had happened1 and when he visited them1 after being absent many years1 he found them1 to use his own expression1 as large as tuns4 ,the subject of temperament has been treated with consummate ability by ,dr4 ,charles ,caldwell of ,kentucky2 and as his essay is but little known1 we shall present some extracts from it4 ,it will be seen that his views bear a close resemblance to those of ,dr4 ,thomas1 already mentioned2 but ,dr4 ,c4 has shown that they were publicly maintained by him1 at least two years before the appearance of ,dr4 ,thomas's work4#fj ,after explaining the doctrine of the temperaments1 as taught by the ancients1 and showing that it is founded on the exploded hypothesis of humoralism1 ,dr4 ,c4 goes on to show1 that it is the solids of the body which make man what he is2 that they form the fluids1 and give them their character2 that they are1 in short1 the cause1 and the fluids the effect4 ,the difference1 says ,dr4 ,c41 between individuals1 or rather classes1 of the human family1 which temperament is made to designate1 appears to depend on two causes2 diversity of organization in parts or the whole of the bodies of different persons1 giving rise to a corresponding diversity in the vital properties2 and difference of size and vigor in certain ruling organs of the system4 ,the existence and influence of the former of these causes are in the highest degree probable2 those of the latter certain4 ,the one is susceptible of strong support1 the other of proof that may be termed positive4 ,by 'organization' is here meant1 the minute interior or radical structure of the tissues which compose the human body4 ,that diversity in this creates a diversity in the vital properties1 and that again a diversity in character1 cannot ,i think be doubted4 ,whether the difference of organization here referred to1 consists in different proportions of the element of living matter that form the tissues1 united in the same way1 or in their different modes of arrangement and union1 or both1 or whether it may not arise in part from different proportions of the simpler tissues entering into the formation of the more compound organs1 is not known4 ,minute anatomy has not yet attained a degree of perfection competent to settle a point of such subtility4 ,dr4 ,c4 afterward goes on to prove that no single nerve1 or organ1 can perform two distinct functions1 but that each is capable of one mode of action1 and no more2 that between a nerve1 a muscle1 and a gland1 the only difference known to exist1 is that of organization2 and that if they are organized alike1 and endowed with life1 their properties will be similar1 and they will act in the same way4 ,so also between animals of the same race1 we discover innumerable differences1 which can be referred to nothing but differences in organization1 and the same may be affirmed of vegetables4 ,the conclusion to which ,dr4 ,c4 arrives1 and which he maintains with great ingenuity is1 that independently of all other causes1 differences in human temperament are to be attributed1 in part1 to corresponding differences in the organization of certain portions1 or the whole of the body2 and that1 other things being equal1 in consequence of this source of influence alone1 one person differs from another in many of the qualities of both person and intellect4 ,in other words1 he is more highly gifted1 sprightly1 and vigorous1 or the reverse2 or he is more courageous or timid1 generous or selfish1 according to his organization4 ,but the second cause that was represented to be instrumental in diversifying the human temperaments is by far the most powerful4 ,it will be remembered to have been1 'difference of size and vigor in certain ruling organs of the system4' ,the organs alluded to are those contained in the three great cavities of the body2 the chylopoetic1 situated in the abdomen1 and including the stomach and intestines1 with the liver1 pancreas1 mesentery1 and lacteals2 those of sanguification and circulation1 situated in the thorax1 and consisting of the lungs1 heart1 and bloodvessels2 and the brain1 with its appendages1 the spinal cord and nerves4 ,these three groups 7for the brain is multiplex as well as the other two7 are not only the ruling organs in the person of man2 connected with the hard and soft parts that enclose them1 they constitute the person4 ,the upper and lower extremities are but appendages2 important and necessary1 it must be acknowledged2 but still appendages4 ,the individual can exist and be a human being without them4 ,nor have they any influence in imparting constitutional character to their possessors4 ,standing only in the capacity of subordinates to the controlling organs1 they are not only nourished and put in motion by them2 they labor mechanically for their uses1 and serve as instruments to execute their purposes4 ,they are composed of the extreme ends of the organized matter of the system1 constitute only its outworks1 and possess but little influence over its central parts4 ,this representation rests on evidence that may be termed demonstrative4 ,many persons destitute of the upper or lower extremities1 or both1 have strong characters and well-marked temperaments4 ,but the extremities1 if deprived of the influence of any one group of the ruling organs1 are converted not only into useless but lifeless masses4 ,of the skin1 muscles1 and bones1 which compose the head1 neck1 and trunk of the body1 the same is true4 ,of themselves they possess no character1 and can therefore bestow none4 ,they also are but appendages to the organs they cover1 affording them a secure lodgment and protection from external injuries1 and aiding them in the performance of some of their functions4 ,and from this alone is their importance derived4 ,were it possible for them to exist apart from the viscera they contain1 their grade of being would be below that of many vegetables4 ,most fatal diseases1 moreover1 have their original seat in the viscera of one of the three great cavities of the body1 and no disease originating elsewhere can become fatal1 until1 by sympathy or metastasis1 some of those parts are deeply affected4 ,to enlightened physiologists this statement presents but a series of familiar truths4 ,to the groups of organs exclusively1 then1 ,i repeat1 contained in the abdomen1 the thorax1 and the cranium1 must we look as the main source of human character4 ,and that character is different according to the predominance1 in different individuals1 of one group or another1 or of any two of them4 ,an equilibrium between the three groups constitutes another variety1 by bestowing on character a corresponding equilibrium4 ,let the word temperament be substituted for 'character1' and what is true of the latter will be so of the former4 ,as already mentioned1 the organs referred to will be its source2 and the differences in their predominance will give diversity to it4 ,dr4 ,c4 then shows that the strength and perfection of each of the senses are proportioned to the size of the nerve on which that sense depends4 ,this is illustrated by a powerful array of facts1 drawn from different orders of the animal kingdom1 as well as from the different varieties of mankind4 ,it is also stated1 that where any nerve or set of nerves1 is peculiarly large1 the portion of the brain to which they belong1 and by which they are influenced and commanded1 is correspondingly large4 ,inasmuch1 then1 as1 other things being equal1 size gives power to everything else1 we are not only justified in believing1 on grounds of analogy we are compelled to believe1 that the same is true of the organs contained in the cranium1 the thorax1 and the abdomen4 ,when they are in a sound and natural condition1 their size is also the measure of their power4 ,were not this the case1 they would be either altogether abnormal1 or subject to laws that govern no other kind of matter1 whether organic or inorganic1 of which we have any knowledge4 ,but the position ,i am contending for is not to be regarded as a mere inference in a process of reasoning4 ,it will appear hereafter that it is a positive fact1 which observation has discovered1 and continues to confirm4 ,i have alleged that the size of the three groups of ruling organs may be ascertained by that of the cases in which they are contained4 ,nor do ,i perceive on what ground any one1 who is even moderately acquainted with the structure of the human body1 can controvert the belief1 or cherish the slightest doubt on the subject of it4 ,in healthy persons 7and my remarks relate only to such7 the size of the brain is necessarily known by that of the head4 ,as the viscus completely fills the cranium1 the case cannot be otherwise4 ,although the bones of the head and the soft parts that cover them are thicker in some individuals than in others1 the difference is so small as not materially to affect the result4 ,the chest is filled by the lungs1 heart1 and large bloodvessels4 ,its measure1 therefore1 cannot fail to be the measure of them4 ,any deviation from exactness in this1 that may be produced by varieties in the thickness of the skin1 muscles1 and other parts1 is of no moment4 ,of the chylopoetic viscera the same is true4 ,they also fill exactly the cavity prepared for them4 ,the size of the abdomen1 therefore1 affords a knowledge of their size sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes4 ,by a mere inspection of the person of man1 then1 the absolute measure of the groups of organs ,i am considering1 as well as their magnitude in relation to each other1 can be fairly ascertained4 ,and it will appear on examination1 as already stated1 that the predominance in size and energy of any one or two of them1 always imparts a corresponding diversity to the human character4 ,does the brain predominate8 ,the individual to whom it belongs is more remarkable for the vigor of his intellect or feeling1 or both1 than for any other constitutional quality4 ,these modes of mental manifestation constitute the natural functions of the brain2 and when of an order unusually high1 they give a peculiarity of character to the whole system4 ,the person thus endowed feels more keenly1 thinks more strongly1 is more eager in pursuit of knowledge1 and attains it with more facility4 ,his relish for pleasure is also inordinately keen1 and he pursues it at times with burning ardor4 ,such was the constitutional character of ,mr4 ,fox1 and also of our distinguished countryman the late ,mr4 ,bayard4 ,i need scarcely add1 that this predominance of sensibility and mental action must necessarily modify the diseases the individual may sustain4 ,but of this ,i shall speak hereafter4 ,do the lungs1 heart1 and bloodvessels predominate8 ,a larger volume of highly arterialized blood is formed1 and thrown more forcibly and in greater quantities throughout the system4 ,from the abundance of that fluid1 and the superior size of the vessels conveying it1 those parts of the body nourished by the red blood will be comparatively most copiously supplied4 ,but it is more especially the muscles that are thus nourished4 ,they will be therefore large and powerful4 ,hence persons with broad and full chests have well-developed and vigorous muscles4 ,in proportion to their size their animal strength is necessarily great4 ,nor can such constitutional peculiarities fail to be productive of peculiarities in disease8 ,do the chylopoetic viscera predominate8 ,the amount of chyle formed is very large in proportion to the quantity of food eaten4 ,but the lungs1 heart1 and bloodvessels being comparatively small1 neither is sanguification abundant and perfect nor circulation vigorous4 ,the blood is not either highly arterialized or animalized4 ,its amount of red globules is small1 and it circulates feebly through vessels of a limited size4 ,the consequence is1 that the muscles receive less red blood1 and are less fully nourished2 the system at large is not so highly endued with life1 and the soft parts generally have a lower tone4 ,the individual thus marked is less robust and vigorous than one whose system is supplied abundantly with highly arterialized blood1 and less intellectual and sprightly than those whose brain predominates4 ,it is almost needless to say1 that1 under such circumstances1 disease must be modified in conformity to the constitution4 ,from the preceding views it clearly appears1 that the comparative standing of individual man1 as relates to his race1 is graduated by the predominance of his leading organs4 ,do his abdominal viscera preponderate8 ,he has much of the animal in him1 and his grade is low4 ,are his thoracic viscera most highly developed8 ,his qualities are of a superior order2 but he still partakes too much of the animal4 ,does his cerebral system predominate2 and is it well developed in all its parts8 ,he rises above the sphere of animal nature1 and stands high in that of humanity4 ,he is formed for an intellectual and moral being1 with no more of animality in his constitution1 than is necessary to give him practical energy of character4 ,this subject may be farther illustrated by a reference to some of the animals below us4 ,the worm commonly denominated a grub is but little else than a mass of abdominal matter4 ,it is therefore one of the humblest and grossest of worms4 ,the insect has also a large abdomen1 with a very small chest1 and a smaller head4 ,hence1 though superior to the grub1 it is low in the scale of animal nature4 ,reptiles and fish are more elevated1 because their abdominal viscera preponderate less4 ,but still they do preponderate2 and therefore the rank of the animals is humble4 ,in the hog the abdominal viscera are most strongly developed1 and hence his standing among quadrupeds is low4 ,the same is true of the bear and the ox1 and also of the sheep and the goat1 but in an inferior degree4 ,the horse1 especially the barb and the racehorse1 furnish no bad specimens of the mixed or balanced temperament4 ,when the latter is undergoing preparation for the course1 the object of his keeper is to make the thoracic temperament preponderate as much as possible1 for the time1 in order to increase his vigor and endurance2 in the language of the turf1 to give him more strength and 'better bottom4' ,the warhorse approaches the thoracic temperament4 ,in the canine race1 more especially in the greyhound1 the thoracic viscera hold the ascendency4 ,hence the muscular power of the dog is greater1 and his grade among quadrupeds higher than those of most of the preceding animals4 ,the same is true of the wolf1 the panther1 and the tiger4 ,in some dogs there is a considerable cerebral development1 but it is never large enough to counterbalance the thoracic4 ,of all animals1 the lion affords the most finished specimen of thoracic preponderance4 ,in proportion to his size1 his lungs and heart1 especially the latter1 are immensely large4 ,and his muscular power corresponds to them4 ,the magnitude of his heart is generally considered the cause of his boldness4 ,hence a very courageous man is said to have a great heart1 or to be lion-hearted4 ,all this is popular error4 ,the heart is but a muscle2 and1 in man1 has no more connexion with courage than the gastrocnemii muscles2 nor1 in the lion1 than the muscles that move his tail4 ,courage is exclusively a cerebral attribute1 and has its seat in an organ specifically appropriated to it4 ,in none of the inferior animals does the brain preponderate4 ,that preponderance belongs to humanity1 and1 as already mentioned1 indicates its highest grade4 ,of all the beings below us1 some of the ape tribe have the highest cerebral development4 ,and they approach nearest to man in their degree of intellect4 ,this is farther proof that1 other things being alike1 the brain gives the measure of mental power4 ,i have lately seen a publication1 in which it is gravely asserted1 that the large orang-outang catches crabs with a stick1 and makes a rude basket of osiers to contain them4 ,notwithstanding the well-known sagacity of that animal1 this statement savors strongly of the 'tale of a traveller4' ,considered in relation to these principles1 temperament may be divided into seven varieties4 #a1 the mixed or balanced1 in which the ruling organs are in fair proportion to each other2 #b1 the encephalic2 #c1 the thoracic2 #d1 the abdominal2 #e1 the encephalo-thoracic2 #f1 the encephalo-abdominal2 and #g1 the thoracico-abdominal4 #a4 ,the mixed or balanced variety4 ,in this the name explains the temperament4 ,the external marks of it are plain4 ,they consist in a well-adjusted proportion between the sizes of the head1 thorax1 and abdomen4 ,if the limbs are in harmony1 the symmetry of the entire person is complete4 ,although individuals1 in whom this temperament prevails1 are usually above the middle height1 and well-formed1 they are not necessarily so4 ,they may be of any stature1 and any shape1 straight or crooked1 provided the three great cavities and their contents be accurately balanced4 ,this is not the temperament of either early life or old age4 ,it commences with manhood1 and continues until the fortieth or forty-fifth year1 and then passes into somewhat of the abdominal4 ,the ,apollo ,belvidere1 by ,phidias1 is an exquisite specimen of it4 ,but some modern artists have violated it1 in painting that statue1 by making the chest and the head loo large4 ,although the manifestation of strength1 majesty1 and intellect1 is heightened by this1 the beauty of the youthful god is marred4 ,the figure1 though more imposing1 has lost its charm4 #b4 ,the encephalic4 ,in this variety the head is relatively large1 but is not always equally developed in every part1 a circumstance which varies greatly1 as will presently appear1 the characters of those who possess the temperament4 ,the development of the thorax and abdomen is moderate1 the person lean1 and the countenance expressive of intense feeling and deep passion4 ,in some individuals1 however1 the countenance beams with intelligence1 without much passion1 while1 in others1 manifestations of powerful intellect and passion are united4 ,the thoracic and abdominal activity is never high2 yet in many instances the personal hardihood and endurance are invincible4 ,it is men of this temperament alone that can immortalize themselves by great achievements1 good or bad4 ,all history and observation testify to this4 ,is the development very large in the moral and intellectual regions of the brain1 and so moderate in the animal as to be held fully in check8 ,the individual will distinguish himself by a dignified purity of deportment1 and by the performance of great and good deeds4 ,are the animal and mere knowing compartments largely developed1 and the moral and reflecting very slightly8 ,as relates to vice and profligacy in their foulest shapes1 this is the worst of all temperaments4 ,nothing more prone to depravity can be imagined4 ,the person possessed of it delights in some sort of animality alone2 and if he ever engages in anything higher or purer1 it is for a sinister purpose1 that he may return to his chosen indulgences in more security1 or on a broader scale4 ,is the development very large1 and equally so in all the departments of the brain1 animal1 moral1 and intellectual1 giving to the head unusual size8 ,the individual possessing it has a lofty and powerful character1 is capable of attaining the highest renown1 and making an impression1 not to be erased1 on the age and country in which he lives4 ,his career may be occasionally stained by irregularities and checkered with clouds1 but will be brilliant in the main4 ,his designs are vast1 because he feels his power1 the instruments with which he works are men1 and he wields them in masses4 ,the term little has no place in his vocabulary1 nor its prototype in his thoughts4 ,his aim is greatness of some kind--high achievement or deep catastrophe4 #c4 ,the thoracic4 ,under this variety the head is small1 usually round1 and covered with thick curling hair1 the abdomen of limited dimensions1 the chest spacious and powerful1 and the muscles swelling and firm4 ,whether fair and ruddy or otherwise1 the complexion is strong4 ,respiration is full and deep1 and the action of the heart regular and vigorous2 and the pulse has great volume4 ,like the result1 in every other kind of inordinate vital action1 the animal temperature is high4 ,this temperament1 in which neither feeling nor intellect prevails1 begins to show itself about puberty1 and continues until the decline of life1 when it undergoes a change4 ,the ,farnesian ,hercules is the beau ideal of it4 ,this shows that it was known to the ancient ,greeks1 who were probably indebted for their acquaintance with it to observations made on the persons of their wrestlers4 ,in modern times it is strongly developed in boxers and porters1 and sufficiently so in bakers1 wood-choppers1 operative agriculturists1 and others who have been habituated to labor from their boyhood4 ,i have observed no little of it among the ,london boatmen1 the occupation of whose life is to ply the oar1 a mode of exercise well calculated to develop the chest1 together with the muscles of the upper extremities4 ,i have seen good specimens of it also in the ,african race4 #d4 ,the abdominal4 ,this temperament is easily recognised by the character it imparts to the person and intellect4 ,the pelvis is broad in proportion to the shoulders and thorax1 the abdomen large and prominent1 and the adipose matter abundant1 filling up the interstices of the muscles1 and often forming a layer between them and the skin1 in consequence of which the limbs are round and smooth and soft to the touch4 ,in such constitutions1 ecchymosis succeeds with unusual readiness1 to slight contusions4 ,circulation in the skin being feeble1 the complexion may be fair and delicate1 but never very ruddy or strong4 ,the size of the head is limited1 the intellectual moderate1 the eye deficient in lustre and the countenance in expression1 and the movements heavy and seldom graceful4 ,the abdominal viscera seem to draw everything into the vortex of their action4 ,the amount of vitality is evidently below its common measure in the human system1 and1 in some instances1 the flesh seems to hang as a load on the spirit4 #e4 ,the encephalo-thoracic4 ,this temperament is a type of power both bodily and mental4 ,its compound name expresses fully the external appearances that mark it1 as well as the attributes that always accompany them4 ,with an abdomen of moderate dimensions1 the head of the individual who possesses it is large and vigorous to conceive and direct1 and his chest and muscles powerful to execute1 and hardy to endure4 ,it is the temperament of masculine and comprehensive thought and strong propensity1 united to energetic action1 rather than of seclusion and profound meditation4 ,as in all other cases1 the character is varied in it according to the portion of the brain that is most largely developed4 ,he to whom it belongs feels himself in his proper sphere when he is among men1 and is well fitted to act his part in times of tumult and scenes of difficulty4 ,is his brain large in each of its compartments8 ,if an occasion present itself1 he not only mingles in the moral storm1 but aspires to direct it4 ,in case of his becoming a warrior1 his genius and sword are alike formidable4 ,in battle1 previously to the invention of fire-arms1 such a man was the terror of his enemies and the hope of his friends4 ,ulysses1 as sketched by ,homer1 is as fairly the beau ideal of this temperament1 as ,hercules is of the thoracic4 ,that chieftain was alike wise to counsel1 intrepid to dare1 and powerful to perform4 ,plato1 so called from the uncommon breadth of his chest1 who had also a very large head1 is another excellent model of the same4 ,even in times of peace the corporeal attributes of a man of this description add to his influence4 ,jupiter1 the emblem of wisdom and power1 as represented by the ancient statuaries1 with an immense head and trunk1 and arms of matchless strength1 is as finished a specimen of the encephalo-thoracic temperament1 as ,apollo is of the mixed4 #f4 ,the encephalo-abdominal4 ,here again the name bespeaks sufficiently the development1 form1 and character of those who possess the temperament4 ,the head and abdomen are comparatively large1 the thorax small1 and the shoulders narrow4 ,hence the sensibility is keen1 and the intellect1 if not powerful1 active and respectable4 ,for the reasons given1 when the abdominal temperament was considered1 the limbs and person1 under the present one1 are round and smooth1 and the flesh is soft2 but1 owing to the influence of a well-developed brain1 and nerves that correspond to it1 the movements are sprightly and the air graceful4 ,though rarely powerful1 the character is attractive4 ,this is the temperament of childhood and woman1 much more than of adult life and man4 ,fine genius1 but elegant and playful1 rather than strong and brilliant1 is often connected with it4 ,it is females1 in whom the encephalic development is larger than usual1 that possess minds truly masculine4 #g4 ,the thoracico-abdominal4 ,in this temperament the head is comparatively small1 and the thorax and abdomen large1 with a corresponding size of the muscles and bones1 and much adipose substance4 ,it is the temperament of mere animal strength and patient endurance1 without any of the elevated1 sprightly1 or attractive qualities of human nature4 ,it forms good laborers and fatigue-men1 but is entirely unfit for those whose province is to meditate1 plan1 and direct4 ,it comports well enough with the character of soldiers of a certain description1 but is altogether out of harmony with that of an officer4 ,it is1 ,i think1 more favorable to health than any of the other temperaments1 except perhaps the mixed4 ,if those who possess it have weak intellects1 their passions are usually moderate1 and rarely hurry them into pernicious excesses4 ,the tenor of their lives is but little interrupted by either irregularity or disease4 ,hence they retain their vigor uncommonly well1 and are often day-laborers and industrious husbandmen at an advanced age4 ,true1 their appetite for food is strong2 but they are not prone to an excessive indulgence of it2 ,i mean at a single meal4 ,like those possessed of the abdominal temperament1 they eat often rather than superabundantly at once4 ,besides1 such is the strength of their chylopoetic viscera1 that they subdue and digest without sustaining any injury1 as much food as would produce disease in those of different constitutions4 ,nor are they so much endangered by vascular fulness as persons of the simple abdominal temperament4 ,the reason of this is plain4 ,their bloodvessels are larger1 and their excretions more copious1 especially those by the skin and the organ of respiration4 ,from the warmth of their constitutions1 owing to an abundance of well-arterialized blood1 and a concomitant vigorous circulation1 they perspire freely1 and secrete and exhale copiously from the lungs4 ,this temperament is rarely found among women1 and is not very common among men4 ,dr4 ,c4 maintains that at certain periods of life1 one temperament passes into another1 as the result of the natural changes which take place1 in the progress of the growth and decay of the human body2 and that every one1 who attains longevity1 partakes1 in the progress of growth and decline1 of five temperaments2 the purely abdominal1 which prevails before birth2 the encephalo-abdominal1 which exists at birth1 and for some years afterward2 the encephalo-thoracic2 the mixed2 and the abdominal of real senility4 ,thus passes the circle of life1 beginning with the abdominal temperament of the foetal state1 and terminating in that of extreme old age4 ,that there is an intimate connexion between temperament and personal beauty1 will be manifest from the above view of the subject4 ,our limits1 however1 forbid an application of ,dr4 ,caldwell's views in illustration of ,mr4 ,walker's theory2 these1 however1 have been given so much in detail1 that the reader will be able to make the application for himself4 ,g4 ,there is hardly any habit relating to female dress more destructive of grace and beauty1 at least of deportment1 than that of compressing the foot in a shoe of one half the proper size4 ,it would seem that our ladies were trying to ape the fashion of the ,chinese1 in this respect1 and though they do not at present carry it to the same extent1 yet they carry it sufficiently far to destroy their comfort4 ,we look in vain for the sprightly1 light1 and elastic step1 where the feet are bound tight1 and cramped up in disproportionately tight shoes2 and it would be strange in such a case1 if we did not find an unhappy and distressed expression of countenance--the muscles of the face sympathizing with the distorted and painful feet4 ,such a custom1 also1 interferes materially with taking that measure of exercise which is necessary to health4 ,mrs4 ,walker1 in her work on ,female ,beauty1 remarks as follows3 ,ladies are very apt to torture their feet to make them appear small4 ,this is exceedingly ridiculous3 a very small foot is a deformity4 ,true beauty of each part consists in the proportion it bears to the rest of the body4 ,a tight or ill-made shoe1 not only destroys the shape of the foot1 it produces corns and bunions2 and it tends to impede the circulation of the blood4 ,besides1 the foot then swells1 and appears larger than it is1 and the ankles become thick and clumsy4 ,the pernicious effect of tight or ill-made shoes1 is evident also in the stiff and tottering gait of these victims of a foolish prejudice2 they can neither stand upright1 walk straight1 nor enter a room properly4 ,to be too short1 is one of the greatest defects a shoe can have2 because it takes away all chance of yielding in that direction1 and without offering any compensation for tightness in others1 and in itself1 it not only causes pain1 and spoils the shape of the foot1 by turning down the toes1 and swelling of the instep1 but is the cause of bad gait and carriage4 ,many diseases arise solely from the use of shoes of very thin materials in wet weather2 but no female who has the slightest regard for her health1 or indeed for the preservation of her beauty1 will object to wear shoes thicker than are usually worn1 if the pavement is at any time wet or damp4 ,h4 ,the effect of alcoholic drinks upon beauty1 has not been over-estimated by ,mr4 ,walker1 though he is doubtless mistaken in supposing that none but those who reside amid the artificial customs of city life1 experience the deleterious influence of such beverages4 ,not only alcoholic stimulants1 but tea and coffee1 and especially opium1 which has of late come into very extensive use as a substitute for the former1 tend to produce an unhealthy action of the skin1 from their influence upon the secerent system1 causing blotches1 pimples1 and discolorations1 in a greater or less degree4 ,where used moderately1 they produce either an unnatural paleness1 deadness1 or duskiness of complexion1 or a bloated appearance1 far removed from the fresh roseate hue of health4 ,such is the effect of wine1 cordials1 and malt liquors1 which are extensively employed by ladies1 particularly in cities1 during the period of nursing1 under a mistaken impression that they cause a greater flow of milk1 and tend to invigorate the system4 ,whoever desires to attain health1 strength1 and beauty1 should not seek them through the agency of bitters1 tonics1 and cordials1 or distilled1 or fermented liquors1 which only inflame the blood1 but from free exercise in the open air1 regular occupations1 tranquillity of mind1 a mild diet1 and a proper allotment of time for sleep4 ,it has been remarked that the lower classes of females in cities1 consume as much1 and probably more intoxicating drinks1 than men of the same class1 and this is no doubt true4 ,but to the honor of our countrywomen1 a great change has been brought about within last few years1 with respect to the use of alcoholic liquors1 not only in this1 but in other countries1 with a corresponding improvement in health1 happiness1 and beauty4 ,in advancing this blessed reform1 the ladies have borne a conspicuous part--as they have in every other philanthropic work--and their combined influence is only needed1 to banish such drinks entirely from civilized society4 ,,the ,,facial ,,line ,,of ,,camper4 ,in order to determine the cerebral mass1 and1 consequently1 the intellectual faculties1 ,camper draws a base line from the roots of the upper incisors1 to the external auditory passage2 then another straight line1 from the upper incisors to the most elevated point of the forehead3 according to him1 the intellectual faculties of the man or animal1 are in direct proportion to the magnitude of the angle1 made by those two lines4 ,lavater1 with this idea for a basis1 constructed a scale of perfection from the frog to the ,apollo ,belvidere4 ,as nature really furnishes many proofs in support of this opinion1 it has been generally received1 even by anatomists and physiologists2 and1 notwithstanding the arguments by which it is victoriously opposed1 the learned cannot resolve to abandon it4 ,cuvier himself furnishes a list of men and animals1 in support of this doctrine2 few naturalists oppose it1 but almost all give it their support4#fa ,camper's attempt necessarily failed2 for his manner of drawing the lines and measuring the facial angle1 enabled him to take into consideration the anterior parts only of the brain situated near the forehead3 he entirely neglects the posterior1 lateral1 and inferior cerebral parts4 ,this method1 then1 at most1 could decide upon those faculties only1 whose organs are placed near the forehead4 ,cuvier estimates the facial angle of the new-born infant at ninety degrees2 that of the adult1 at eighty-five2 that of decrepit old age1 at fifty4 ,from this statement it appears1 that1 at different ages1 changes take place in the form1 either of the brain or the cranium2 hereafter ,i shall prove that such changes really occur4 ,the forehead of the newborn infant is flattened2 on the contrary1 that of a child some months old1 and until the age of eight or ten years1 especially in the case of boys possessed of superior talents1 it is projecting1 and forms1 notwithstanding the approximation to the age of puberty1 a larger facial angle than in the adult2 this angle1 therefore1 does not diminish in the inverse ratio of the age4 ,in like manner we find decrepit old men1 whose facial angle is as great as it was in the vigor of manhood2 for1 although in decrepitude the brain is subject to atrophy1 there are old men1 the exterior contour of whose crania undergoes no change4 ,the angle1 as stated by ,cuvier1 for different ages1 were measured upon different individuals2 if it were estimated upon the same persons at different epochs of his life1 the result would be entirely different4 ,in general1 the proportion between the forehead and the face1 is different in different individuals4 ,no conclusion can be drawn from the proportions1 which exist in one person1 relative to those of another2 among a hundred individuals of the same sex and age1 no two can be found1 in whom the same proportion exists between the forehead and the face2 it necessarily follows1 then1 that no two will have the same facial angle4 ,physiologists seem to admit1 that the proportion between the brain and the bones of the face1 is different in different species of animals3 but they appear to think that1 in all the individuals of the same species1 all the young1 all the adults1 all the old1 there exists a constant proportion between the cerebral mass and the face4 ,the researches of ,blumenbach show that threefourths of the animals known1 have nearly the same facial angle2 and yet what a disparity between their instincts and faculties6 ,what information1 then1 do we derive from ,camper's facial angle8 ,moreover1 as ,cuvier himself observes1 the cerebral mass is by no means placed in all animals1 immediately behind or beneath what is called the forehead4 ,in a great many species of animals1 on the contrary1 the external table of the frontal is at a considerable distance from the internal1 and this distance increases with the age of the animal4 ,the brain of the swine is placed an inch lower than the frontal bones seem to indicate2 that of the ox1 in some parts three inches2 that of the elephant1 from six to thirteen4 ,in other animals1 the measurement is generally commenced at the frontal sinus instead of the cerebrum4 ,from these considerations1 ,cuvier was induced to draw a tangent to the internal instead of the external surface of the cranium4 ,the cerebrum of the wolf and many species of dogs1 especially when the individuals are very old1 is placed directly behind the frontal sinuses4 ,in the wolf1 especially the large and most ferocious variety1 it is depressed as in the hyena2 in the dog it is situated higher or lower1 according to the species2 but1 notwithstanding this difference in the situation of the brain1 the facial angle1 as it is commonly measured1 must be the same2 from this the inference would be1 that the dog1 the wolf1 and the hyena1 have the same qualities1 and each in the same degree4 ,in the greater part of the rodentia1 the morse1 c41 the brain is so depressed and so placed behind the frontal sinuses1 that the facial line cannot be drawn4 ,the facial line of the cetacea1 on account of the singular conformation of the head1 would lead to results absolutely false4 ,i know many negroes1 who1 with very prominent jaws1 are quite distinguished for their intellectual faculties2 yet the projection of the jaws renders the facial angle much more acute1 than it would be with the usual conformation of ,europeans4 ,in order that the same angle should exist in a ,european1 the forehead must be flattened and retreating4 ,but the foreheads of the negroes in question1 on the contrary1 are very projecting4 ,who1 under these circumstances1 would expect to find the same amount of intellect corresponding to the same facial angle8 ,the facial line cannot be applied to birds1 as many naturalists have already observed4 ,from what has been said1 we should expect that naturalists would at length renounce the facial angle of ,camper2 but the most ignorant are generally the most conceited4 ,in spite of this complete refutation of ,camper's facial line1 ,delpit extols it in the following terms3-- ,if ever a relation of this kind presented characters of generality and fixedness1 adequate to excite a reasonable confidence in matters belonging to the domain of empiricism1 rather than that of science1 it is the relation or proportion of magnitude1 which ,camper first perceived and revealed1 by comparing the brain of man with that of the different species of animals4 ,we here see a successive decrease of intelligence1 proportionate to the acuteness of the facial angle and the consequent diminution of the cerebral cavity4 ,this affords a constant and fixed relation4 ,it can be appreciated with a sufficient degree of exactness by the direct light of comparative anatomy1 and by observation of the habits and intelligence of the different classes of animals2 it can also be verified by the comparison of men very unequally endowed with intellectual faculties1 in whom the contraction of the cerebral cavity and the magnitude of the facial angle exhibit the most remarkable diversities4 ,here the physiognomical sign has1 if ,i may be allowed the expression1 a wide extent of acceptation2 it rests upon a broad basis1 upon a definite division1 and one of easy comprehension and verification2 for1 if there is some discrepancy of opinion1 in regard to the number and nomenclature of the faculties of the mind1 the sentiments of the soul1 the modifications or shades of character which give birth to particular passions1 moral dispositions1 habits1 whether virtuous or vicious2 if these classifications are1 in a great measure1 arbitrary1 and the language used somewhat vague2 if1 in short1 the greater part of these nominal faculties are mere abstractions of the mind1 purely imaginary existences1 and therefore cannot be actually located in any part of the brain2 the case is quite different1 when we merely seek to establish a general relation between a constant sign manifested in the organization1 and the degree of reason1 mind1 or intellect1 attributed to different men1 or the degrees of sagacity attributed to different species of animals4 ,here1 no one is at a loss1 because there is ample latitude for comparing and judging2 in the system of ,gall1 on the contrary1 the comparisons rest upon minute points1 which are subject to discussion1 exceptions1 a thousand uncertainties in the signs and various applications4#fb ,if the reader will review what ,i have said against ,camper's facial line1 he will find a refutation of all this reasoning of ,delpit2 a proof that he defends it merely because it is in vogue4 ,it is this very generality and fixedness1 which render it1 in almost all cases1 inapplicable2 this is the inherent defect in the supposed importance of ,camper's facial angle4 ,it is implicitly supposed1 that no difference but that of degree1 exists between the capacities of the different species and individuals of the human race1 and the different species and individuals of the animal kingdom4 ,thus the intelligence of men and other animals would always be proportioned to the magnitude of the facial angle4 ,this being premised1 ,i ask1 which1 out of two1 three1 four1 c41 has the most intelligence1 the dog1 ape1 beaver1 the ant1 or the bee8 ,ants and bees live in an admirable republic1 and form astonishing constructions1 which they know how to modify according to circumstances4 ,the beaver and penduline build with equally marvellous skill1 and with a foresight which seldom errs2 the dog and the ape have very little foresight1 and are incapable of the most insignificant construction4 ,which has the greater intelligence1 ,voltaire or ,descartes8 ,could the former have been a mathematician and the latter a poet8 ,which has the higher degree of intellect1 ,mozart or ,lessing1 who1 with all his genius1 detested music8 ,in short1 which has the most intelligence1 my dog who retraces his steps through the most complicated routes1 or myself1 who am always going astray8 ,measure now the facial angle of the ant1 bee1 beaver1 penduline1 ape1 my dog1 and of myself1 and estimate the result4 ,acknowledge1 then1 that your division1 so definite1 so easy to be apprehended1 is absolutely useless1 and that you are obliged to advert to divers instincts1 propensities1 faculties1 and their different degrees of energy1 to which your facial angle is wholly inapplicable4 ,your intelligence1 instinct1 address1 are in reality mere abstractions1 imaginary existences4 ,do you consider the propensity to procreation1 the love of offspring1 the carnivorous instinct1 the talent for music1 poetry1 c41 as imaginary existences8 ,you see1 then1 that it is more convenient to tread the beaten path1 than to verify observations4--,gall on the ,functions of the ,brain1 page #aie4 ,footnotes3 #a ,utopia1 ,book ,,ii41 chap4 viii4 #b ,i do not wish to be forced into any discussion of this last point4 ,but1 if necessary1 ,i shall not decline it4 #c ,we fear that ,mr4 ,walker's analogical reasoning here is not very conclusive4 ,to reason from a living to a dead subject may be very logical but it is not altogether satisfactory4 #d ,the ,magazine of ,the ,fine ,arts1 ,no4 ,,vi1 for ,october #ahcc4 #e ,i am not here called upon to vindicate the errors and absurdities which poets and others introduced into mythology4 #f ,appendix ,a4 #g ,george ,,iv41 though the first gentleman in ,england1 was guilty of cheating at a horserace4--,,ed4 #h ,the above remark is true of the same class of females in this country4--,,ed4 #i ,appendix ,b4 #aj ,appendix ,c4 #aa ,to the reader unaccustomed to inquiries of this kind1 it may save trouble to peruse first the brief ,summary of the contents of this important chapter1 beginning in page #abj4 #ab ,regularity expresses the similarity of parts considered as constituting a whole2 and uniformity1 the similarity of parts considered separately4 #ac ,appendix ,d #ad ,the common character of these arts has been overlooked4 #ae ,proportion is here employed1 not as expressing an intrinsic relation1 as in the beauty of inanimate beings1 but as expressing an extrinsic relation to fitness for ends4 #af ,the ,nervous ,system1 ,anatomical and ,physiological3 in which the ,functions of the various ,parts of the ,brain are1 for the first time1 assigned4 #ag ,communicated by the writer to the ,magazine of the ,fine ,arts1 ,no4 #aa1 for ,june1 #ahcc4 #ah ,human ,nature1 chap1 ix41 sec4 #ac4 #ai ,reflexions ,critiques sur la ,poesie et sur la ,peinture4 #bj ,reflexions sur la ,poetique4 #ba ,adventurer1 ,no4 #aaj4 #bb ,essay on ,tragedy4 #bc ,to some it may appear1 that the organs and functions of digestion1 respiration1 and generation1 are not involved by this arrangement2 but such a notion can originate only in superficial observation4 ,digestion is a compound function easily reducible to some of the simple ones which have been enumerated4 ,it consists of the motion of the stomach and contiguous parts1 of the secretion of a liquid from its internal surface1 and of that heat1 which is the common result of all action1 whether mechanical1 vital1 or mental1 and which is better explained by such motion1 than by chymical theories4 ,similarly compound are respiration and generation4 ,thus1 there is no organ nor function which is not involved by the simple and natural arrangement here sketched4 ,compound1 however1 as the organs of digestion1 respiration1 and generation1 are1 yet1 as they form so important a part of the system1 it may be asked1 with which of these classes they are most allied4 ,the answer is obvious4 ,all of them consist of tubular vessels of various diameter2 and all of them transmit and transmute liquids4 ,possessing such strong characteristics of the nutritive or vital system1 they are evidently most allied to it4 ,in short1 digestion prepares the nutritive or vital matter1 which is taken up by absorption--the first of the simple nutritive functions2 respiration renovates it in the very middle of its course--between the two portions of the simple function of circulation2 and generation1 dependant on secretion--the last of these functions1 communicates this nutritive matter1 or propagates vitality to a new series of beings4 ,in such arrangement1 the digestive organs1 therefore1 precede1 and the generative follow1 the simple nutritive organs2 while the respiratory occupy a middle place between the venous and the arterial circulation4 ,nothing can be more improper1 as the preceding observations show1 than considering any one of these as a distinct class4 ,more fully1 therefore1 to enumerate the nutritive or vital organs1 we may say1 that1 under them1 are classed1 first1 the organs of digestion1 the external and internal absorbent surfaces1 and the vessels which absorb from these surfaces1 or the organs of absorption2 second1 the heart1 lungs1 and bloodvessels1 which derive their contents 7the blood7 from the absorbed lymph1 or the organs of circulation2 and third1 the secreting cavities1 glands1 c41 which separate various matters from the blood1 or the organs of secretion1 and of which generation is the sequel4 #bd ,appendix ,e4 #be ,in perfect consistency with the assertion1 that1 though the organs of digestion1 respiration1 and generation1 were really compound1 still they were chiefly nutritive or vital1 and properly belonged to that class1 it is not less remarkable1 that1 in this division of the body1 they are found to occupy that part1 the trunk1 in which the chief simple nutritive organs are contained4 ,this also shows the impropriety of reckoning any of these a separate system from the vital4 #bf ,the bones resemble these1 in containing the greatest quantity of earthy mineral matter4 #bg ,it is the possession of vessels which constitutes the vitality of vegetables4 #bh ,in animals1 alone1 is nervous matter discoverable4 #bi ,plants have no real circulation1 nor passage of their nutritive liquids through the same point4 #cj ,this arrangement of anatomy and physiology was first published by me in #ahjf2 and1 notwithstanding its being the arrangement of nature1 it has not been adopted by any one that ,i know of1 until very lately1 when it was in some measure used by ,dr4 ,roget1 without acknowledgment4 ,the originality1 as well as the truth and value1 of this arrangement1 will be illustrated by referring to any other published previous to #ahjf1 or even to #ahjh1 when ,i republished it in ,preliminary ,lectures1 ,edinburgh4 #ca ,the cause of this has never been explained2 and it could not well be explained1 without a perception of the views in my preceding physiological arrangement4--,the brain1 at this period1 becomes more subservient to purposes connected with generation2 the communication between the trunk and the head is more frequent1 intense1 and sustained2 and the neck1 which contains the communicating organs1 necessarily increases in size4 ,this unexplained circumstance led to the mistake of the craniologists respecting the cerebel4 ,here1 therefore1 as in other cases pointed out in my work on ,physiognomy1 ,gall and ,spurzheim ascribe to deeper-seated organs what belongs to more superficial ones4 #cb ,appendix ,f4 #cc ,appendix ,g4 #cd ,memoire sur le ,beau ,physique4 #ce ,a curious but true remark is made by ,moreau1 namely1 that if these conditions are met with without being united to a certain expression1 and to the most complete combination of the elements of beauty of countenance1 they frequently give an air of insensibility and of mental weakness1 which greatly enfeebles the impression that a first view had caused4 #cf ,statistical results in relation to the supply of hospitals and prisons1 carry the expense of a man much beyond that of a woman4 #cg ,appendix ,h4 #ch ,appendix ,i4 #ci ,see the causes of this explained in my work on ,physiognomy4 #dj ,pallas--,voyages en ,siberie4 #da ,humboldt's ,political ,essay on the ,kingdom of ,new ,spain4 #db ,it is remarkable that1 in infants1 the nose is almost always flat1 and that1 in some members of the same family1 it always remains so1 while1 in others1 it rises4 ,this is attended by difference of function4 #dc ,physiognomy founded on ,physiology1 and applied to various ,countries1 ,professions1 and ,individuals3 with an ,appendix on the ,bones at ,hythe--the ,sculls of the ancient ,inhabitants of ,britain1 and its ,invaders3 illustrated by ,engravings4--,smith1 ,elder1 ,co41 ,cornhill4 #dd ,of the best works on this subject1 those of ,mengs alone1 ,i believe1 have been translated2 but the translation is so inaccurate as to be worthless4 #de ,thus it is not correct1 as stated by ,leonardo1 that when some parts are broad or thick1 all are broad2 though1 in peculiar combinations1 that may occur4 #df ,lib4 ,,ii4 in ,timum ,platonis4 #dg ,this member of the ,royal ,academy was suspected of having written that republics had done more for the advancement of the fine arts than monarchies4 ,the late ,george ,,iii41 who did not approve of truths of that kind1 was thereby so much enraged1 that he instantly sent for the list of the members of the academy1 and therefrom erased the name of ,barry4 ,the academicians humbly submitted to the indignity which hereditary wisdom thus inflicted4 ,it would appear1 however1 that bad principles are spreading among the ,royal academicians2 for the works of this expelled member are now daringly given by them as a prize to students at the academy6 #dh ,this rule is well explained1 and variously illustrated by ,donald ,walker1 in his work1 equally philosophical1 instructive1 and amusing1 entitled ,exercises for ,ladies1 a knowledge of which1 and the practice of its principles1 would render beauty1 and especially beauty of the shoulders and arms1 far more common in every family4 #di ,it was at the extremity of the modern ,cape ,crio1 anciently ,triopium1 a promontory of ,doris1 a province of ,caria1 that was built the celebrated city of ,cnidos4 ,here ,venus was worshipped3 here was seen this statue of that goddess1 the most beautiful of the works of ,praxiteles4 ,a temple1 far from spacious1 and open on all sides1 contained it1 without concealing it from view2 and1 in whatever point of view it was examined1 it excited equal admiration4 ,no drapery veiled its charms2 and so uncommon was its beauty1 that it inflamed with a violent passion another ,pygmalion4 #ej ,the phrenologists have told us that the head of this ,venus is too small4 ,they might as well have said1 that the head of the ,minerva1 or of the ,jupiter1 is too large1 or a hundred other ignorant inapplicabilities1 and ridiculous pedantries4 ,but to set aside ideal forms1 ,i may observe1 that sex makes a vast difference in the head1 and a woman with a small head often produces a son with a large one4 #ea ,this is beautiful1 but is evidently borrowed from the great philosophical poet's ,te1 ,dea1 te fugiunt ventei1 te nubila coeli1 ,adventumque tuum4 #eb ,that1 in plants1 these odors are even necessary to their reproduction1 is proved by their uniform existence at that period4 ,and if being affected by odors implies a sense of smell1 or some modification of it1 then must plants possess it4 #ec ,in all grossly sensual nations and individuals1 the lips are everted even at the angles4 #ed ,see this explained in ,physiognomy4 #ee ,venere suol tenere alquanto aperte le labbra1 come per indicare un languido desiderio ed amore4--,storia delle ,arti4 #ef ,in the ,cupid1 the form of the head is godlike4 ,the hair not only curls with all the vigor of early years1 but1 with perfect knowledge of nature's tendency1 is bent into a ridge along the middle of the upper head4 ,the brow1 full1 open1 and charmingly rounded1 is the evident throne of young observation1 and it flows with such beauty into the parts behind1 as if it actually said its purpose was to fling its observations back on thought and will4 ,its beginnings at the eyebrows display exquisite knowledge3 the bony ridge is admirably shown to be yet unformed2 and while its outer extremity forms but the orbital convexity1 or shell for the globe of the eye1 the inner extremity of the eyebrow is with infinite art drawn over soft and hollow space1 as if the few hairs that composed it made there its only convexity4 ,in short1 in every part of the face1 fine and faint as is every youthful feature1 no detail is lost2 and this1 added to the pointed chin and upper lip1 declare the purpose of the little god4 #eg ,appendix ,k4 #eh ,i speak not of paint here4 ,it is now used only by meretricious persons and by those harridans of higher rank who resemble them in every respect1 except that the former are ashamed of their profession1 and the latter advertise it4 #ei ,combe's ,phrenology4 #fj ,physiologie des ,temperamens on ,constitutions4 ,paris1 #ahbf4 #fa ,this doctrine is revived1 ,dict4 des ,sciences med4 ,delpit and ,reydellet4 #fb ,dictionnaire des ,sciences ,md4 t4 xxxviii4 p4 #bfc4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,passages in italics are indicated by italics4 ,the misprint and and has been corrected to and4 ,footnote #f appears on page #cd2 however1 it has no corresponding marker4