,transcrib]'s notes3 7#a7 ,numb]s foll[+ lett]s 7)\t space7 l ,c#b 7 orig9ally pr9t$ 9 subscript4 ,lett] subscripts are prec$$ by an und]score1 l ,cn4 7#b7 ,*>act]s foll[+ a c>at 77 7 pr9t$ 9 sup]script4 7#c7 ,side-notes 7 relocat$ to function z titles ( _! respective p>agraphs4 7#d7 ,macrons & breves above lett]s & dots bel[ lett]s 7 n ins]t$4 7#e7 root /&s = ! root symbol2 oo = inf9ity2 alpha1 beta1 etc4 = greek lett]s4 7#f7 ,! foll[+ typographical errors h be5 correct$3 ,,article ,,e/ebanez ,,cald]on1 ,,s]af93 ,8 mo/ int]e/+ "w1 ,esc5as &aluzas 7#ahdg71 is 9 a curi\sly affect$ /yle 444 'curi\sly' am5d$ f 'curi\ly'4 ,,article ,,e/]hazy ,,( ,,galan?a3 ,he 0 m9i/] = =eign affairs 9 ! fir/ responsible ,hung>ian m9i/ry 7#ahdh71 b resign$ 8 po/ 9 ,septemb] because he c\ld see no way ( reconcil+ ! c\rt ) ! nation4 'because' am5d$ f 'bcause'4 ,,article ,,e!r3 ,! pr9cipal symptoms symptons ( *ronic e!r-dr9k+ are a weak5+ ( ! activity ( ! special s5ses 444 'symptons' am5d$ f 'symptons'4 ,,article ,,e!r$ge1 ,,sir ,,george3 ,x is p>tly 9 rhym$ rhymn$ h]oic v]se1 l ! /ilt$ trag$ies ( ! ,h[>ds & ,killigrews 444 'rhymn$' am5d$ f 'rhymn$'4 ,,article ,,e?ics3 444 or ! glory ( m]ely secul> gifts & acquirem5ts1 x is "o aspect ( ! unworldl9ess :i* we h already notic$ 444 'unworldl9ess' am5d$ f 'unwordl9ess'4 ,,article ,,e?ics3 ,x w be se5 t ^! *anges1 h[ev] pr(\ndly important1 71 e?ically consid]$1 ei!r negative or q g5]al1 relat+ to ! tone & attitude ( m9d 9 :i* all duty %\ld be done4 'relat+' am5d$ f 'ralat+'4 ,,encyclopa$ia ,,britannica ,a ,,diction>y ,,( ,,arts1 ,,sci5ces1 ,,lit]ature ,,& ,,g5]al ,,in=mation ,,elev5? ,,edition ,,volume ,,ix1 ,,slice ,,vii ,equation to ,e?ics ,,articles ,,9 ,,?is ,,slice3 ,,equation ,,es*eat ,,equation ,,( ,,! ,,c5tre ,,es*5burg1 ,,johann ,,joa*im ,,equation ,,( ,,"t ,,es*5may]1 ,,adam ,,k>l ,,augu/ ,,von ,,equator ,,es*] ,,von ,,d] ,,l9?1 ,,arnold ,,equ]ry ,,es*s*oltz1 ,,johann ,,fri$ri* ,,equidae ,,es*wege ,,equilibrium ,,es*weil] ,,equ9ox ,,escob> ,y ,,m5doza1 ,,antonio ,,equites ,,escoiquiz1 ,,juan ,,equity ,,escombe1 ,,h>ry ,,equival5t ,,escorial ,,er>d1 ,,seba/i5 ,,escov$o1 ,,juan ,,de ,,erasmus1 ,,desid]ius ,,escu9tla ,,era/us1 ,,?omas ,,escut*eon ,,erato/h5es ,,( ,,alex&ria ,,e%]1 ,,william ,,baliol ,,brett ,,erba* ,,e%] ,,erbium ,,esk] ,,ercilla ,y ,,zuniga1 ,,alonso ,,de ,,eskil/una ,,erckmann-,,*atrian ,,eskimo ,,erdelyi1 ,,janos ,,eski-,,%ehr ,,erdmann1 ,,johann ,,edu>d ,,esm>*1 ,,johannes ,,fri$ri* ,,augu/ ,,von ,,erdmann1 ,,otto ,,l9ne ,,esna ,,erebus ,,esot]ic ,,ere* ,,espagnols ,,sur ,,m]1 ,,les ,,ere*!um ,,espali] ,,ere*!us ,,esp>t]o1 ,,baldom]o ,,ere%kigal ,,esp>to ,,eretria ,,esp]ance ,,eretrian ,,s*ool ,,( ,,philosophy ,,esp]anto ,,erfurt ,,esp9ay1 ,,timoleon ,d' ,,ergot ,,esp9el1 ,,vic5te ,,m>t9ez ,,eric ,,xiv ,,espirito ,,santo ,,ericaceae ,,espronc$a1 ,,jose ,,ignacio ,,enc>nacion ,,de ,,eri*s51 ,,sir ,,john ,,eric ,,esquire ,,eri*t1 ,,lo* ,,esquirol1 ,,jean ,,eti5ne ,,dom9ique ,,ericsson1 ,,john ,,esquiros1 ,,h5ri ,,francois ,,alphonse ,,eridanus ,,ess1 ,,johann ,,he9ri* ,,van ,,eridu ,,essay1 ,,essayi/ ,,erie 7lake7 ,,esseg ,,erie 7city7 ,,ess5 ,,erig5a1 ,,johannes ,,scotus ,,ess5es ,,erigone ,,ess5tuki ,,er9 ,,essequibo ,,er9na ,,essex1 ,,e>ls ,,( ,,er9yes ,,essex1 ,,ar?ur ,,capel ,,eriphyle ,,essex1 ,,rob]t ,,dev]eux ,,eris ,,essex1 ,,rob]t ,,dev]eux ,,eri? ,,essex1 ,,walt] ,,dev]eux ,,eritrea ,,essex ,,erivan 7gov]nm5t ( ,russia7 ,,essex1 ,,k+dom ,,( ,,erivan 7t[n ( ,russia7 ,,essl+5 ,,erlang5 ,,e/abli%m5t ,,erle1 ,,sir ,,william ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,a ,,port ,,erlkonig ,,e/a+1 ,,*>les ,,hector ,,erman1 ,,paul ,,e/ate ,,erman>ic ,,e/ate ,,& ,,h\se ,,ag5ts ,,ermel& ,,e/ate ,,duty ,,ermelo ,,e/c\rt1 ,,ri*>d ,,erm9e ,,e/e 7family7 ,,erm9e ,,/reet ,,e/e 7t[n7 ,,ermoldus ,,nigellus ,,e/ebanez ,,cald]on1 ,,s]af9 ,,erne ,,e/ella ,,erne/ ,i ,,e/]hazy ,,( ,,galan?a ,,erne/ ,,ii ,,e/]s ,,erne/ ,,augu/us ,,e/h] ,,erne/i1 ,,johann ,,augu/ ,,e/honia ,,erne/i1 ,,johann ,,gottlieb ,,e/i5ne ,,ern/1 ,,he9ri* ,,wilhelm ,,e/on ,,erode ,,e/oppel ,,eros 7planet7 ,,e/\teville1 ,,guillaume ,d' ,,eros 7god ( love7 ,,e/ov]s ,,erp5ius1 ,,?omas ,,e/rada1 ,,la ,,erroll1 ,,francis ,,hay ,,e/rade ,,error ,,e/rades1 ,,godefroi ,,ers*1 ,,johann ,,samuel ,,e/reat ,,ersk9e1 ,,eb5ez] ,,e/rees1 ,,gabrielle ,d' ,,ersk9e1 ,,h5ry ,,e/remadura ,,ersk9e1 ,,john 7,scotti% div9e7 ,,e/remoz ,,ersk9e1 ,,john 7( ,c>nock7 ,,e/u>y ,,ersk9e1 ,,john 7( ,dun7 ,,eszt]gom ,,ersk9e1 ,,ralph ,,etag]e ,,ersk9e1 ,,?omas 7( ,l9la!n7 ,,etah ,,ersk9e1 ,,?omas ,,ersk9e ,,etampes1 ,,anne ,,de ,,pisseleu ,d',,heilly ,,erubescite ,,etampes ,,erysipelas ,,etaples ,,ery?rae ,,etawah ,,ery?rite ,,et*+ ,,erz]um ,,eteocles ,,erzgebirge ,,etesian ,,w9d ,,erz+an ,,etex1 ,,anto9e ,,es>-,,haddon ,,e!r ,,esau ,,e!r$ge1 ,,sir ,,george ,,esbj]g ,,e!ridge1 ,,john ,,wesley ,,escanaba ,,e!ridge1 ,,rob]t ,,escape ,,e!rs ,,es*atology ,,e?ics ,,equation 7f ,lat4 aequatio1 aequ>e1 to equalize71 an expression or /atem5t ( ! equality ( two quantities4 ,ma!matical equival5ce is d5ot$ by ! sign 1 a symbol inv5t$ by ,rob]t ,recorde 7#aeaj-aeeh71 :o consid]$ t no?+ c\ld be m equal ?an two equal & p>allel /raight l9es4 ,an equation /ates an equality exi/+ betwe5 two classes ( quantities1 di/+ui%$ z kn[n & unkn[n2 ^! correspond to ! data ( a problem & ! ?+ s\ght4 ,x is ! purpose ( ! ma!matician to /ate ! unkn[ns sep>ately 9 t]ms ( ! kn[ns2 ?is is call$ solv+ ! equation1 & ! values ( ! unkn[ns s obta9$ are call$ ! roots or solutions4 ,! unkn[ns are usually d5ot$ by ! t]m9al lett]s1 444 x1 y1 z1 ( ! alphabet1 & ! kn[ns are ei!r actual numb]s or are repres5t$ by ! lit]als a1 b1 c1 c4441 i4e4 ! introductory lett]s ( ! alphabet4 ,any numb] or lit]al :i* expresses :at multiple ( t]m occurs 9 an equation is call$ ! coeffici5t ( t t]m2 & ! t]m :i* does n conta9 an unkn[n is call$ ! absolute t]m4 ,! degree ( an equation is equal to ! greate/ index ( an unkn[n 9 ! equation1 or to ! greate/ sum ( ! indices ( products ( unkn[ns4 ,if ea* t]m has ! sum ( its indices ! same1 ! equation is said to be homog5e\s4 ,^! def9itions are exemplifi$ 9 ! equations3-- 7#a7 ax#b #b;bx c #j1 7#b7 xy#b #d;a#bx #h;a#c1 7#c7 ax#b #b;hxy by#b #j4 ,9 7#a7 ! unkn[n is x1 & ! kn[ns a1 b1 c2 ! coeffici5ts ( x#b & x are a & #b;b2 ! absolute t]m is c1 & ! degree is #b4 ,9 7#b7 ! unkn[ns are x & y1 & ! kn[n a2 ! degree is #c1 i4e4 ! sum ( ! indices 9 ! t]m xy#b4 7#c7 is a homog5e\s equation ( ! second degree 9 x & y4 ,equations ( ! fir/ degree are call$ simple or l9e>2 ( ! second1 quadratic2 ( ! ?ird1 cubic2 ( ! f\r?1 biquadratic2 ( ! fif?1 qu9tic1 & s on4 ,( equations conta9+ only "o unkn[n ! numb] ( roots equals ! degree ( ! equation2 ?us a simple equation has "o root1 a quadratic two1 a cubic ?ree1 & s on4 ,if "o equation be giv5 conta9+ two unkn[ns1 z = example ax by c or ax#b by#b c1 x is se5 t !re are an inf9ite numb] ( roots1 = we c give x1 say1 any value & !n det]m9e ! correspond+ value ( y2 su* an equation is call$ indet]m9ate2 ( ! examples *os5 ! fir/ is a l9e> & ! second a quadratic indet]m9ate equation4 ,9 g5]al1 an indet]m9ate equation results :5 ! numb] ( unkn[ns exce$s by unity ! numb] ( equations4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we h two equations connect+ two unkn[ns1 x is possible to solve ! equations sep>ately = "o unkn[n1 & !n if we equate ^! values we obta9 an equation 9 "o unkn[n1 :i* is soluble if its degree does n exce$ ! f\r?4 ,by sub/itut+ ^! values ! correspond+ values ( ! o!r unkn[n are det]m9$4 ,su* equations are call$ simultane\s2 & a simultane\s sy/em is a s]ies ( equations equal 9 numb] to ! numb] ( unkn[ns4 ,su* a sy/em is n always soluble1 = x may happ5 t "o equation is impli$ by ! o!rs2 :5 ?is occurs ! sy/em is call$ porismatic or pori/ic4 ,an id5tity diff]s f an equation inasmu* z x _c be solv$1 ! t]ms mutually cancell+2 = example1 ! expression x#b - a#b 7x - a77x a7 is an id5tity1 = on r$uction x gives #j #j4 ,x is usual to employ ! sign ,id5tical to to express ?is relation4 ,an equation admits ( description 9 two ways3--7#a7 ,x may be reg>d$ purely z an algebraic expression1 or 7#b7 z a geometrical locus4 ,9 ! fir/ case !re is obvi\sly no limit to ! numb] ( unkn[ns & to ! degree ( ! equation2 &1 consequ5tly1 ?is aspect is ! mo/ g5]al4 ,9 ! second case ! numb] ( unkn[ns is limit$ to ?ree1 correspond+ to ! ?ree dim5sions ( space2 ! degree is unlimit$ z be=e4 ,x mu/ be notic$1 h[ev]1 t by ! introduction ( appropriate hyp]spaces1 i4e4 ( degree equal to ! numb] ( unkn[ns1 any equation !oretically admits ( geometrical visualization1 9 o!r words1 e equation may be repres5t$ by a geometrical figure & e geometrical figure by an equation4 ,correspond+ to ^! two aspects1 !re are two typical me?ods by :i* equations c be solv$1 viz4 ! algebraic & geometric4 ,! =m] leads to exact results1 or1 by me?ods ( approximation1 to results correct to any requir$ degree ( accuracy4 ,! latt] c only yield approximate values3 :5 !oretically exact con/ructions are available !re is a s\rce ( error 9 ! draughtsman%ip1 & :5 ! con/ructions are only approximate1 ! accuracy ( ! results is m problematical4 ,! geometric aspect1 h[ev]1 is ( consid]able value 9 discuss+ ! !ory ( equations4 ,hi/ory4--,!re is little d\bt t ! e>lie/ solutions ( equations are giv51 9 ! ,rh9d papyrus1 a hi]atic docum5t writt5 "s #bjjj ye>s be=e our era4 ,! problems solv$ 7 ( an ari?metical nature1 assum+ su* =ms z a mass & its #a_/g? makes #ai4 ,call+ ! unkn[n mass x1 we h giv5 x 7#a_/g7x #ai1 :i* is a simple equation4 ,ari?metical problems also gave orig9 to equations involv+ two unkn[ns2 ! e>ly ,greeks 7 famili> ) & solv$ simultane\s l9e> equations1 b indet]m9ate equations1 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! sy/em giv5 9 ! cattle problem ( ,ar*im$es1 7 n s]i\sly /udi$ until ,diophantus solv$ _m p>ticul> problems4 ,quadratic equations arose 9 ! ,greek inve/igations 9 ! doctr9e ( proportion1 & al?\gh !y 7 pres5t$ & solv$ 9 a geometrical =m1 ! me?ods employ$ h no relation to ! g5]aliz$ conception ( algebraic geometry :i* repres5ts a curve by an equation & vice v]sa4 ,! simple/ quadratic arose 9 ! con/ruction ( a mean proportional 7x7 betwe5 two l9es 7a1 b71 or 9 ! con/ruction ( a squ>e equal to a giv5 rectangle2 = we h ! proportion a3x x3b2 i4e4 x#b ab4 ,a m g5]al equation1 viz4 x#b -ax a#b #j1 is ! algebraic equival5t ( ! problem to divide a l9e 9 m$ial section2 ?is is solv$ 9 ,euclid1 ii4 #aa4 ,x is possible t ,diophantus 0 9 possession ( an algebraic solution ( quadratics2 he recogniz$1 h[ev]1 only "o root1 ! int]pretation ( bo? be+ fir/ effect$ by ! ,h9du ,bhask>a4 ,a simple cubic equation 0 pres5t$ 9 ! problem ( f9d+ two mean proportionals1 x1 y1 betwe5 two l9es1 "o d\ble ! o!r4 ,we h a3x x3y y3#b;a1 :i* gives x#b ay & xy #b;a#b2 elim9at+ y we obta9 x#c #b;a#c1 a simple cubic4 ,! ,greeks c\ld n solve ?is equation1 :i* also arose 9 ! problems ( duplicat+ a cube & trisect+ an angle1 by ! rul] & compasses1 b only by me*anical curves su* z ! cissoid1 con*oid & quadratrix4 ,su* solutions 7 mu* improv$ by ! ,arabs1 :o also solv$ bo? cubics & biquadratics by means ( int]sect+ conics2 at ! same "t1 !y develop$ me?ods1 orig9at$ by ,diophantus & improv$ by ! ,h9dus1 = f9d+ approximate roots ( num]ical equations by algebraic processes4 ,! algebraic solution ( ! g5]al cubic & biquadratic 0 effect$ 9 ! #af? c5tury by ,s4 ,f]ro1 ,n4 ,t>taglia1 ,h4 ,c>dan & ,l4 ,f]r>i 7see ,,algebra3 ,hi/ory74 ,_m fruitless attempts 7 made to solve algebraically ! qu9tic equation until ,p4 ,ruff9i & ,n4,h4 ,abel prov$ ! problem to be impossible2 a solution involv+ elliptic functions has be5 giv5 by ,c4 ,h]mite & ,l4 ,kroneck]1 :ile ,f4 ,kle9 has giv5 ano!r solution4 ,9 ! geometric treatm5t ( equations ! ,greeks & ,arabs bas$ _! con/ructions ^u c]ta9 empirically d$uc$ prop]ties ( ! curves & figures employ$4 ,kn[+ v>i\s metrical relations1 g5]ally express$ z proportions1 x 0 f\nd possible to solve p>ticul> equations1 b a g5]al me?od 0 want+4 ,?is lacuna 0 n fill$ until ! #ag? c5tury1 :5 ,desc>tes discov]$ ! g5]al !ory :i* expla9$ ! nature ( su* solutions1 9 p>ticul> ^? :]e9 conics 7 employ$1 &1 9 addition1 e/abli%$ ! mo/ important facts t e equation repres5ts a geometrical locus1 & conv]sely4 ,to repres5t equations conta9+ two unkn[ns1 x1 y1 he *ose two axes ( ref]5ce mutually p]p5dicul>1 & measur$ x along ! horizontal axis & y along ! v]tical4 ,!n by ! me?ods describ$ 9 ! article ,,geometry3 ,analytical1 he %[$ t--7#a7 a l9e> equation repres5ts a /raight l9e1 & 7#b7 a quadratic repres5ts a conic4 ,if ! equation be homog5e\s or break up into factors1 x repres5ts a numb] ( /raight l9es 9 ! fir/ case1 & ! loci correspond+ to ! factors 9 ! second4 ,! solution ( simultane\s equations is easily se5 to be ! values ( x1 y correspond+ to ! int]sections ( ! loci4 ,x foll[s t !re is only "o value ( x1 y :i* satisfies two l9e> equations1 s9ce two l9es int]sect 9 "o po9t only2 two values :i* satisfy a l9e> & quadratic1 s9ce a l9e int]sects a conic 9 two po9ts2 & f\r values :i* satisfy two quadratics1 s9ce two conics int]sect 9 f\r po9ts4 ,x may happ5 t ! curves d n actually int]sect 9 ! !oretical maximum numb] ( po9ts2 ! pr9ciple ( cont9uity 7see ,,geometrical ,,cont9uity7 %[s u t 9 su* cases "s ( ! roots are imag9>y4 ,to repres5t equations involv+ ?ree unkn[ns x1 y1 z1 a ?ird axis is introduc$1 ! z-axis1 p]p5dicul> to ! plane xy & pass+ ?r\gh ! int]section ( ! l9es x1 y4 ,9 ?is notation a l9e> equation repres5ts a plane1 & two l9e> simultane\s equations repres5t a l9e1 i4e4 ! int]section ( two planes2 a quadratic equation repres5ts a surface ( ! second degree4 ,9 ord] to graphically consid] equations conta9+ only "o unkn[n1 x is conv5i5t to equate ! t]ms to y2 i4e4 if ! equation be f7x7 #j1 we take y f7x7 & con/ruct ?is curve on rectangul> ,c>tesian co-ord9ates by det]m9+ ! values ( y :i* correspond to *os5 values ( x1 & describ+ a curve ?r\gh ! po9ts s obta9$4 ,! int]sections ( ! curve ) ! axis ( x gives ! real roots ( ! equation2 imag9>y roots are obvi\sly n repres5t$4 ,9 ?is article we %all treat (3 7#a7 ,simultane\s equations1 7#b7 indet]m9ate equations1 7#c7 cubic equations1 7#d7 biquadratic equations1 7#e7 !ory ( equations4 ,simple1 l9e> simultane\s & quadratic equations are treat$ 9 ! article ,,algebra2 = diff]5tial equations see ,,diff]5tial ,,equations4 ,i4 ,simultane\s ,equations4 ,simultane\s equations :i* involve ! second & high] p[]s ( ! unkn[n may be impossible ( solution4 ,no g5]al rules c be giv51 & ! solution ( any p>ticul> problem w l>gely dep5d ^u ! /ud5t's +5uity4 ,"h we %all only give a few typical examples4 #a4 ,equations :i* may be r$uc$ to l9e> equations4--,ex4 ,to solve x7x - a7 yz1 y7y - b7 zx1 z7z - c7xy4 ,multiply ! equations by y1 z & x respectively1 & divide ! sum by xyz2 !n a b c -- -- -- #j 444 7#a74 z x y ,multiply by z1 x & y1 & divide ! sum by xyz2 !n a b c -- -- -- #j 444 7#b74 y z x ,f 7#a7 & 7#b7 by cross multiplication we obta9 #a #a #a #a ----------- ----------- ----------- -------- 7suppose77#c74 y7b#b - ac7 z7c#b - ab7 x7a#b - bc7 lambda ,sub/itut+ = x1 y & z 9 x7x - a7 yz we obta9 #a #c;abc - 7a#c b#c c#c7 -------- ------------------------------2 lambda 7a#b - bc77b#b - ac77c#b - ab7 & !re=e x1 y & z are kn[n f 7#c74 ,! same artifice solves ! equations x#b - yz a1 y#b - xz b1 z#b - xy c4 #b4 ,equations :i* are homog5e\s & ( ! same degree4--,^! equations c be solv$ by sub/itut+ y mx4 ,we proce$ to expla9 ! me?od by an example4 ,ex4 ,to solve #cx#b xy y#b #ae1 #caxy - #cx#b - #ey#b #de4 ,sub/itut+ y mx 9 bo? ^! equations1 & !n divid+1 we obta9 #cam - #c - #em#b #c7c m m#b7 or #hm#b - #bhm #ab #j4 ,! roots ( ?is quadratic are m #a_/b or #c1 & !re=e #by x1 or y #cx4 ,tak+ #by x & sub/itut+ 9 #cx#b xy y#b #j1 we obta9 y#b7ab #b #a7 #ae2 34 y#b #a1 :i* gives y -#a1 x -#b4 ,tak+ ! second value1 y #cx1 & sub/itut+ = y1 we obta9 x#b7c #c #i7 #ae2 34 x#b #a1 :i* gives x -#a1 y -#c4 ,!re=e ! solutions are x -#b1 y -#a & x -#a1 y -#c4 ,o!r artifices h to be adopt$ to solve o!r =ms ( simultane\s equations1 = :i* ! read] is ref]r$ to ,j4,j4 ,milne1 ,companion to ,weekly ,problem ,pap]s4 ,,ii4 ,indet]m9ate ,equations4 #a4 ,:5 ! numb] ( unkn[n quantities exce$s ! numb] ( equations1 ! equations w admit ( innum]able solutions1 & are !re=e said to be indet]m9ate4 ,?us if x be requir$ to f9d two numb]s su* t _! sum be #aj1 we h two unkn[n quantities x & y1 & only "o equation1 viz4 x y #aj1 :i* may evid5tly be satisfi$ by innum]able diff]5t values ( x & y1 if fractional solutions be admitt$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 usual1 9 su* que/ions z ?is1 to re/rict values ( ! numb]s s\ght to positive integ]s1 & !re=e1 9 ?is case1 we c h only ^! n9e solutions1 x #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i2 y #i1 #h1 #g1 #f1 #e1 #d1 #c1 #b1 #a2 :i* inde$ may be r$uc$ to five2 = ! fir/ f\r become ! same z ! la/ f\r1 by simply *ang+ x into y1 & ! contr>y4 ,?is bran* ( analysis 0 ext5sively /udi$ by ,diophantus1 & is sometimes t]m$ ! ,diophant9e ,analysis4 #b4 ,indet]m9ate problems are ( diff]5t ord]s1 accord+ to ! dim5sions ( ! equation :i* is obta9$ aft] all ! unkn[n quantities b two h be5 elim9at$ by means ( ! giv5 equations4 ,^? ( ! fir/ ord] lead always to equations ( ! =m ax - by -c1 :]e a1 b1 c d5ote giv5 :ole numb]s1 & x1 y two numb]s to be f\nd1 s t bo? may be integ]s4 ,t ?is condition may be fulfill$1 x is necess>y t ! coeffici5ts a1 b h no common divisor :i* is n also a divisor ( c2 = if a md & b me1 !n ax by mdx mey c1 & dx ey c_/m2 b d1 e1 x1 y are suppos$ to be :ole numb]s1 !re=e c_/m is a :ole numb]2 h5ce m mu/ be a divisor ( c4 ,( ! f\r =ms express$ by ! equation ax - by -c1 x is obvi\s t ax by -c c h no positive integral solutions4 ,also ax - by -c is equival5t to by - ax c1 & s we h only to consid] ! =ms ax - by c4 ,be=e proce$+ to ! g5]al solution ( ^! equations we w give a num]ical example4 ,to solve #bx #cy #be 9 positive integ]s4 ,f ! giv5 equation we h x 7#be - #cy7_/#b #ab - y - 7y - #a7_/b4 ,n[1 s9ce x mu/ be a :ole numb]1 x foll[s t 7y - #a7_/b mu/ be a :ole numb]4 ,let u assume 7y - #a7_/b z1 !n y #a #bz2 & x #aa - #cz1 :]e z might be any :ole numb] :atev]1 if !re 7 no limitation z to ! signs ( x & y4 ,b s9ce ^! quantities are requir$ to be positive1 x is evid5t1 f ! value ( y1 t z mu/ be ei!r #j or positive1 & f ! value ( x1 t x mu/ be less ?an #d2 h5ce z may h ^! f\r values1 #j1 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,if z #j1 z #a1 z #b1 z #c2 ,!n x #aa1 x #h1 x #e1 x #b1 y #a1 y #c1 y #e1 y #g4 #c4 ,we %all n[ give ! solution ( ! equation ax - by c 9 positive integ]s4 ,conv]t a_/b into a cont9u$ fraction1 & let p_/q be ! conv]g5t imm$iately prec$+ a_/b1 !n aq - bp -#a 7see ,,cont9u$ ,,fraction74 7alpha7 ,if aq - bp #a1 ! giv5 equation may be writt5 ax - by c7aq - bp72 34 a7x - cq7 b7y - cp74 ,s9ce a & b are prime to "o ano!r1 !n x - cq mu/ be divisible by b & y - cp by a2 h5ce 7x - cq7 _/ b 7y - cq7_/a t4 ,t is1 x bt cq & y at cp4 ,positive integral solutions1 unlimit$ 9 numb]1 are obta9$ by giv+ t any positive integral value1 & any negative integral value1 s long z x is num]ically less ?an ! small] ( ! quantities cq_/b1 cp_/a2 t may also be z]o4 7beta7 ,if aq - bp -#a1 we obta9 x bt - cq1 y at - cp1 f :i* positive integral solutions1 aga9 unlimit$ 9 numb]1 are obta9$ by giv+ t any positive integral value :i* exce$s ! great] ( ! two quantities cq_/b1 cp_/a4 ,if a or b is unity1 a_/b _c be conv]t$ into a cont9u$ fraction ) unit num]ators1 & ! above me?od fails4 ,9 ?is case ! solutions c be d]iv$ directly1 = if b is unity1 ! equation may be writt5 y ax - c1 & solutions are obta9$ by giv+ x positive integral values great] ?an c_/a4 #d4 ,to solve ax by c 9 positive integ]s4 ,conv]t+ a_/b into a cont9u$ fraction & proce$+ z be=e1 we obta91 9 ! case ( aq - bp #a1 x cq - bt1 y at - cp4 ,positive integral solutions are obta9$ by giv+ t positive integral values n less ?an cp_/a & n great] ?an cq_/b4 ,9 ?is case ! numb] ( solutions is limit$4 ,if aq - bp -#a we obta9 ! g5]al solution x bt - cq1 y cp - at1 :i* is ( ! same =m z 9 ! prec$+ case4 ,= ! det]m9ation ( ! numb] ( solutions ! read] is ref]r$ to ,h4,s4 ,hall & ,s4,r4 ,knight's ,high] ,algebra1 ,g4 ,*ry/al's ,algebra1 & o!r text-books4 #e4 ,if an equation 7 propos$ involv+ ?ree unkn[n quantities1 z ax by cz d1 by transposition we h ax by d - cz1 &1 putt+ d - cz c'1 ax by c'4 ,f ?is la/ equation we may f9d values ( x & y ( ?is =m1 x mr nc'1 y mr n'c'1 or x mr n7d - cz71 y m'r n'7d - cz72 :]e z & r may be tak5 at pleasure1 except 9 s f> z ! values ( x1 y1 z may be requir$ to be all positive2 = f su* re/riction ! values ( z & r may be conf9$ )9 c]ta9 limits to be det]m9$ f ! giv5 equation4 ,= m advanc$ treatm5t ( l9e> indet]m9ate equations see ,,comb9atorial ,,analysis4 #f4 ,we proce$ to indet]m9ate problems ( ! second degree3 limit+ ourselves to ! consid]ation ( ! =mula y#b a bx cx#b1 :]e x is to be f\nd1 s t y may be a rational quantity4 ,! possibility ( r5d]+ ! propos$ =mula a squ>e dep5ds altoge!r ^u ! coeffici5ts a1 b1 c2 & !re are f\r cases ( ! problem1 ! solution ( ea* ( :i* is connect$ ) "s peculi>ity 9 its nature4 ,case #a4 ,let a be a squ>e numb]2 !n1 putt+ g#b = a1 we h y#b g#b bx cx#b4 ,suppose root7g#b bx cx#b7 g mx2 !n g#b bx cx#b g#b #b;gmx m#b x#b1 or bx cx#b #b;gmx m#b x#b1 t is1 b cx #b;gm m#bx2 h5ce #b;gm - b cg - bm gm#b x --------1 y root7g#b bx cx#b7 --------------1 c - m#b c - m#b ,case #b4 ,let c be a squ>e numb] g#b2 !n1 putt+ root7a bx g#b x#b7 m gx1 we f9d a bx g#bx#b m#b #bmgx g#b x#b1 or a bx m#b #bmgx2 h5ce we f9d m#b - a bm - gm#b - ag x -------1 y root7a bx g#b x#b7 --------------4 b - #bmg b - #bmg ,case #c4 ,:5 nei!r a nor c is a squ>e numb]1 yet if ! expression a bx cx#b c be resolv$ into two simple factors1 z f gx & h kx1 ! irrationality may be tak5 away z foll[s3-- ,assume root7a bx cx#b7root7f gx77h kx7 m7f gx71 !n 7f gx77h kx7 m#b7;f gx7#b1 or h kx m#b7;f gx72 h5ce we f9d fm#b - h 7fk - gh7m x --------1 y root7f gx77h kx7 ----------2 k - gm#b k - gm#b & 9 all ^! =mulae m may be tak5 at pleasure4 ,case #d4 ,! expression a bx cx#b may be trans=m$ into a squ>e z (t5 z x c be resolv$ into two p>ts1 "o ( :i* is a complete squ>e1 & ! o!r a product ( two simple factors2 = !n x has ?is =m1 p#b qr1 :]e p1 q & r are quantities :i* conta9 no p[] ( x high] ?an ! fir/4 ,let u assume root7p#b qr7 p mq2 ?us we h p#b qr p#b #bmpq m#bq#b & r #bmp m#bq1 & z ?is equation involves only ! fir/ p[] ( x1 we may by prop] r$uction obta9 f x rational values ( x & y1 z 9 ! ?ree =ego+ cases4 ,! application ( ! prec$+ g5]al me?ods ( resolution to any p>ticul> case is v easy2 we %all !re=e conclude ) a s+le example4 ,ex4 ,x is requir$ to f9d two squ>e numb]s ^: sum is a giv5 squ>e numb]4 ,let a#b be ! giv5 squ>e numb]1 & x#b1 y#b ! numb]s requir$2 !n1 by ! "q1 x#b y#b a#b1 & y root7a#b - x#b74 ,?is equation is evid5tly ( su* a =m z to be resolvable by ! me?od employ$ 9 case #a4 ,accord+ly1 by comp>+ root7a#b - x#b7 ) ! g5]al expression root7g#b bx cx#b71 we h g a1 b #j1 c -#a1 & sub/itut+ ^! values 9 ! =mulae1 & also -n = m1 we f9d #b;an a7n#b - #a7 x -------1 y ----------4 n#b #a n#b #a ,if a n#b #a1 !re results x #bn1 y n#b - #a1 a n#b #a4 ,h5ce if r be an ev5 numb]1 ! ?ree sides ( a rational "r-angl$ triangle are r1 7#a_/br7#b - #a1 7#a_/br7#b #a4 ,if r be an odd numb]1 !y become 7divid+ by #b7 r1 #a_/b7r#b - #a71 #a_/b7r#b #a74 ,= example1 if r #d1 #d1 #d - #a1 #d #a1 or #d1 #c1 #e1 are ! sides ( a "r-angl$ triangle2 if r #g1 #g1 #bd1 #be are ! sides ( a "r-angl$ triangle4 ,,iii4 ,cubic ,equations4 #a4 ,cubic equations1 l all equations above ! fir/ degree1 are divid$ into two classes3 !y are said to be pure :5 !y conta9 only "o p[] ( ! unkn[n quantity2 & adfect$ :5 !y conta9 two or m p[]s ( t quantity4 ,pure cubic equations are !re=e ( ! =m x#c r2 & h5ce x appe>s t a value ( ! simple p[] ( ! unkn[n quantity may always be f\nd )\t difficulty1 by extract+ ! cube root ( ea* side ( ! equation4 ,let u consid] ! equation x#c - c#c #j m fully4 ,?is is decomposable into ! factors x - c #j & x#b cx c#b #j4 ,! roots ( ?is quadratic equation are #a_/b7-a - root-#c7;c1 & we see t ! equation x#c c#c has ?ree roots1 namely1 "o real root c1 & two imag9>y roots #a_/b7-a - root-#c7;c4 ,by mak+ c equal to unity1 we obs]ve t #a_/b7-a - root-#c7 are ! imag9>y cube roots ( unity1 :i* are g5]ally d5ot$ by omega & omega#b1 = x is easy to %[ t 7#a_/b7-a - root-#c77b #a_/b7-a root-#c74 #b4 ,let u n[ consid] su* cubic equations z h all _! t]ms1 & :i* are !re=e ( ?is =m1 x#c ,ax#b ,bx ,c #j1 :]e ,a1 ,b & ,c d5ote kn[n quantities1 ei!r positive or negative4 ,?is equation may be trans=m$ into ano!r 9 :i* ! second t]m is want+ by ! sub/itution x y - ,a_/#c4 ,?is trans=mation is a p>ticul> case ( a g5]al !orem4 ,let xn ,ax7n - #a7 ,bx7n - #b7 444 #j4 ,sub/itute x y h2 !n 7y h7n ,a7y h77n - #a7 444 #j4 ,exp& ea* t]m by ! b9omial !orem1 & let u fix our att5tion on ! coeffici5t ( y7n - #a74 ,by ?is process we obta9 #j yn y7n - #a77;,a nh7 t]ms involv+ l[] p[]s ( y4 ,n[ h c h any value1 & if we *oose x s t ,a nh #j1 !n ! second t]m ( our d]iv$ equation vani%es4 ,resum+1 !re=e1 ! equation y#c qy r #j1 let u suppose y v z2 we !n h y#c v#c z#c #cvz7v z7 v#c z#c #cvzy1 & ! orig9al equation becomes v#c z#c 7#cvz q7y r #j4 ,n[ v & z are any two quantities subject to ! relation y v z1 & if we suppose #cvz q #j1 !y are completely det]m9$4 ,?is leads to v#c z#c r #j & #cvz q #j4 ,!re=e v#c & z#c are ! roots ( ! quadratic t#b rt - q#b_/bg #j4 ,!re=e v#c -#a_/b r root7#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b2 z#c -#a_/b r - root7#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b2 v root #c-a_/b r root7#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b2 z root #c-a_/b r - root7#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b2 & y v z root #c-a_/b r root7#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b root #c-a_/b r - root7#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b4 ,?us we h obta9$ a value ( ! unkn[n quantity y1 9 t]ms ( ! kn[n quantities q & r2 !re=e ! equation is resolv$4 #c4 ,b ?is is only "o ( ?ree values :i* y may h4 ,let u1 = ! sake ( brevity1 put ,a -#a_/b r root77#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b71 ,b -#a_/b r - root77#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b71 & put alpha #a_/b7-a root-#c71 beta #a_/b7-a - root-#c74 ,!n1 f :at has be5 %[n 7,s #a71 x is evid5t t v & z h ea* ^! ?ree values1 v root #c;,a1 v alpharoot #c;,a1 v betaroot #c;,a2 z root #c;,b1 z alpharoot #c;,b1 z betaroot #c;,b4 ,to det]m9e ! correspond+ values ( v & z1 we mu/ consid] t vz -7#a_/c7q root #c7;,,ab74 ,n[ if we obs]ve t alphabeta #a1 x w imm$iately appe> t v z has ^! ?ree values1 v z root #c;,a root #c;,b1 v z alpharoot #c;,a betaroot #c;,b1 v z betaroot #c;,a alpharoot #c;,b1 :i* are !re=e ! ?ree values ( y4 ,! fir/ ( ^! =mulae is commonly kn[n by ! "n ( ,c>dan's rule 7see ,,algebra3 ,hi/ory74 ,! =mulae giv5 above = ! roots ( a cubic equation may be put "u a diff]5t =m1 bett] adapt$ to ! purposes ( ari?metical calculation1 z foll[s3--,because vz -7#a_/c7q1 !re=e z -7#a_/c7q ,x #a_/v -7#a_/c7q _/ root #c;,a2 h5ce v z root #c;,a - 7#a_/c7q _/ root #c;,a2 ?us x appe>s t ! ?ree values ( y may also be express$ ?us3 y root #c;,a - 7#a_/c7q _/ root #c;,a y alpharoot #c;,a - 7#a_/c7qbeta _/ root #c;,a y betaroot #c;,a - 7#a_/c7qalpha _/ root #c;,a4 ,see bel[1 ,!ory ( ,equations1 ,,ss #af et seq4 ,,iv4 ,biquadratic ,equations4 #a4 ,:5 a biquadratic equation conta9s all its t]ms1 x has ?is =m1 x#d ,ax#c ,bx#b ,cx ,d #j1 :]e ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d d5ote kn[n quantities4 ,we %all fir/ consid] pure biquadratics1 or su* z conta9 only ! fir/ & la/ t]ms1 & !re=e are ( ?is =m1 x#d b#d4 ,9 ?is case x is evid5t t x may be readily _h by two extractions ( ! squ>e root2 by ! fir/ we f9d x#b b#b1 & by ! second x b4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is only "o ( ! values :i* x may h2 = s9ce x#d b#d1 !re=e x#d - b#d #j2 b x#d - b#d may be resolv$ into two factors x#b - b#b & x#b b#b1 ea* ( :i* admits ( a simil> resolution2 = x#b - b#b 7x - b77x b7 & x#b b#b 7x - broot-#a77x broot-#a74 ,h5ce x appe>s t ! equation x#d - b#d #j may also be express$ ?us1 7x - b77x b77x - broot-#a77x broot-#a7 #j2 s t x may h ^! f\r values1 b1 -b1 broot-#a1 -broot-#a1 two ( :i* are real1 & ! o!rs imag9>y4 #b4 ,next to pure biquadratic equations1 9 respect ( eas9ess ( resolution1 are su* z want ! second & f\r? t]ms1 & !re=e h ?is =m1 x#d qx#b s #j4 ,^! may be resolv$ 9 ! mann] ( quadratic equations2 = if we put y x#b1 we h y#b qy s #j1 f :i* we f9d y #a_/b-q - root7q#b - #ds71 & !re=e x -root#a_/b-q - root7q#b - #ds74 #c4 ,:5 a biquadratic equation has all its t]ms1 its resolution may be always r$uc$ to t ( a cubic equation4 ,!re are v>i\s me?ods by :i* su* a r$uction may be effect$4 ,! foll[+ 0 fir/ giv5 by ,leonh>d ,eul] 9 ! ,pet]sburg ,comm5t>ies1 & aft]w>ds expla9$ m fully 9 8 ,elem5ts ( ,algebra4 ,we h already expla9$ h[ an equation :i* is complete 9 its t]ms may be trans=m$ into ano!r ( ! same degree1 b :i* wants ! second t]m2 !re=e any biquadratic equation may be r$uc$ to ?is =m1 y#d py#b qy r #j1 :]e ! second t]m is want+1 & :]e p1 q1 r d5ote any kn[n quantities :atev]4 ,t we may =m an equation simil> to ! above1 let u assume y roota rootb rootc1 & also suppose t ! lett]s a1 b1 c d5ote ! roots ( ! cubic equation z#c ,pz#b ,qz - ,r #j2 !n1 f ! !ory ( equations we h a b c -,p1 ab ac bc ,q1 abc ,r4 ,we squ>e ! assum$ =mula y roota rootb rootc1 & obta9 y#b a b c #b7rootab rootac rootbc72 or1 sub/itut+ -,p = a b c1 & transpos+1 y#b ,p #b7rootab rootac rootbc74 ,let ?is equation be also squ>$1 & we h y#d #b,py#b ,p#b #d7;ab ac bc7 #h7roota#b bc rootab#b c rootabc#b72 & s9ce ab ac bc ,q1 & roota#b bc rootab#b c rootabc #b rootabc7roota rootb rootc7 root,r4y1 ! same equation may be express$ ?us3 y#d #b,py#b ,p#b #d,q #hroot,r4y4 ,?us we h ! biquadratic equation y#d #b,py#b - #hroot,r4y ,p#b - #d,q #j1 "o ( ! roots ( :i* is y roota rootb rootc1 :ile a1 b1 c are ! roots ( ! cubic equation z#c ,pz#b ,qz - ,r #j4 #d4 ,9 ord] to apply ?is resolution to ! propos$ equation y#d py#b qy r #j1 we mu/ express ! assum$ coeffici5ts ,p1 ,q1 ,r by means ( p1 q1 r1 ! coeffici5ts ( t equation4 ,= ?is purpose let u comp>e ! equations y#d py#b qy r #j1 y#d #b,py#b - #hroot,ry ,p#b - #d,q #j1 & x imm$iately appe>s t #b,p p1 -#hroot,r q1 ,p#b - #d,q r2 & f ^! equations we f9d ,p #a_/b p1 ,q 7#a_/af77p#b - #dr71 ,r 7#a_/fd7q#b4 ,h5ce x foll[s t ! roots ( ! propos$ equation are g5]ally express$ by ! =mula y roota rootb rootc2 :]e a1 b1 c d5ote ! roots ( ?is cubic equation1 p p#b - #dr q#b z#c -- z#b -------- z - --- #j4 #b #af #fd ,b to f9d ea* p>ticul> root1 we mu/ consid]1 t z ! squ>e root ( a numb] may be ei!r positive or negative1 s ea* ( ! quantities roota1 rootb1 rootc may h ei!r ! sign or - prefix$ to x2 & h5ce our =mula w give eight diff]5t expressions = ! root4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 to be obs]v$1 t z ! product ( ! ?ree quantities roota1 rootb1 rootc mu/ be equal to root,r or to -7#a_/h7q2 :5 q is positive1 _! product mu/ be a negative quantity1 & ?is c only be effect$ by mak+ ei!r "o or ?ree ( !m negative2 aga91 :5 q is negative1 _! product mu/ be a positive quantity2 s t 9 ?is case !y mu/ ei!r be all positive1 or two ( !m mu/ be negative4 ,^! consid]ations enable u to det]m9e t f\r ( ! eight expressions = ! root belong to ! case 9 :i* q is positive1 & ! o!r f\r to t 9 :i* x is negative4 #e4 ,we %all n[ give ! result ( ! prec$+ inve/igation 9 ! =m ( a practical rule2 & z ! coeffici5ts ( ! cubic equation :i* has be5 f\nd involve fractions1 we %all trans=m x into ano!r1 9 :i* ! coeffici5ts are integ]s1 by suppos+ z #a_/d v4 ,?us ! equation p p#b - #dr q#b z#c -- z#b -------- z - --- #j #b #af #fd becomes1 aft] r$uction1 v#c #bpv#b 7p#b - #dr7v - q#b #j2 x also foll[s1 t if ! roots ( ! latt] equation are a1 b1 c1 ! roots ( ! =m] are #a_/d a1 #a_/d b1 #a_/d c1 s t our rule may n[ be express$ ?us3 ,let y#d py#b qy r #j be any biquadratic equation want+ its second t]m4 ,=m ?is cubic equation v#c #bpv#b 7p#b - #dr7v - q#b #j1 & f9d its roots1 :i* let u d5ote by a1 b1 c4 ,!n ! roots ( ! propos$ biquadratic equation are1 :5 q is negative1 :5 q is positive1 y #a_/b7roota rootb rootc71 y #a_/b7-roota - rootb - rootc71 y #a_/b7roota - rootb - rootc71 y #a_/b7-roota rootb rootc71 y #a_/b7-roota rootb - rootc71 y #a_/b7roota - rootb rootc71 y #a_/b7-roota - rootb rootc71 y #a_/b7roota rootb - rootc74 ,see also bel[1 ,!ory ( ,equations1 ,s #ag et seq4 7,x47 ,v4 ,!ory ( ,equations4 #a4 ,9 ! subject ,!ory ( ,equations ! t]m equation is us$ to d5ote an equation ( ! =m xn - p#ax7n - #a7 444 - pn #j1 :]e p#a1 p#b 444 pn are reg>d$ z kn[n1 & x z a quantity to be det]m9$2 = %ortness ! equation is writt5 f7x7 #j4 ,! equation may be num]ical2 t is1 ! coeffici5ts p#a1 p#bn1 444 pn are !n numb]s--und]/&+ by numb] a quantity ( ! =m alpha betai 7alpha & beta hav+ any positive or negative real values :atev]1 or say ea* ( ^! is reg>d$ z susceptible ( cont9u\s v>iation f an indef9itely l>ge negative to an indef9itely l>ge positive value71 & i d5ot+ root-#a4 ,or ! equation may be algebraical2 t is1 ! coeffici5ts are n !n re/rict$ to d5ote1 or are n explicitly consid]$ z d5ot+1 numb]s4 #a4 ,we consid] fir/ num]ical equations4 7,real !ory1 #b-f2 ,imag9>y !ory1 #g-aj47 ,real ,!ory4 #b4 ,po/pon+ all consid]ation ( imag9>ies1 we take 9 ! fir/ in/ance ! coeffici5ts to be real1 & att5d only to ! real roots 7if any72 t is1 p#a1 p#b1 444 pn are real positive or negative quantities1 & a root a1 if x exi/s1 is a positive or negative quantity su* t an - p#a;a7n - #a7 444 - pn #j1 or say1 f7a7 #j4 ,x is v useful to consid] ! curve y f7x71--or1 :at w\ld come to ! same1 ! curve ,ay f7x71--b x is bett] to reta9 ! fir/-m5tion$ =m ( equation1 draw+1 if ne$ be1 ! ord9ate y on a r$uc$ scale4 ,= in/ance1 if ! giv5 equation be x#c - #fx#b #aax -#f4jf #j1a !n ! curve y x#c - #fx#b #aax - #f4jf is z %[n 9 fig4 #a1 )\t any r$uction ( scale = ! ord9ate4 ,x is cle> t1 9 g5]al1 y is a cont9u\s "o-valu$ function ( x1 f9ite = e f9ite value ( x1 b becom+ inf9ite :5 x is inf9ite2 i4e41 assum+ ?r\gh\t t ! coeffici5t ( xn is #a1 !n :5 x oo1 y oo2 b :5 x -oo1 !n y oo or -oo1 accord+ z n is ev5 or odd2 ! curve cuts any l9e :atev]1 & 9 p>ticul> x cuts ! axis 7( x7 9 at mo/ n po9ts2 & ! value ( x1 at any po9t ( int]section ) ! axis1 is a root ( ! equation f7x7 #j4 ,if beta1 alpha are any two values ( x 7alpha beta1 t is1 alpha ne>] oo71 !n if f7beta71 f7alpha7 h opposite signs1 ! curve cuts ! axis an odd numb] ( times1 & !re=e at lea/ once1 betwe5 ! po9ts x beta1 x alpha2 b if f7beta71 f7alpha7 h ! same sign1 !n betwe5 ^! po9ts ! curve cuts ! axis an ev5 numb] ( times1 or x may be n at all4 ,t is1 f7beta71 f7alpha7 hav+ opposite signs1 !re are betwe5 ! limits beta1 alpha an odd numb] ( real roots1 & !re=e at lea/ "o real root2 b f7beta71 f7alpha7 hav+ ! same sign1 !re are betwe5 ^! limits an ev5 numb] ( real roots1 or x may be !re is no real root4 ,9 p>ticul>1 by giv+ to beta1 alpha ! values -oo1 oo 7or1 :at is ! same ?+1 any two values suffici5tly ne> to ^! values respectively7 x appe>s t an equation ( an odd ord] has always an odd numb] ( real roots1 & !re=e at lea/ "o real root2 b t an equation ( an ev5 ord] has an ev5 numb] ( real roots1 or x may be no real root4 ,if alpha be su* t = x or a 7t is1 x ne>] to oo7 f7x7 is always 1 & beta be su* t = x or beta 7t is1 x ne>] to -oo7 f7x7 is always -1 !n ! real roots 7if any7 lie betwe5 ^! limits x beta1 x alpha2 & x is easy to f9d by trial su* two limits includ+ betwe5 !m all ! real roots 7if any74 #c4 ,suppose t ! positive value delta is an inf]ior limit to ! diff]5ce betwe5 two real roots ( ! equation2 or r 7s9ce ! =ego+ expression w\ld imply ! exi/5ce ( real roots7 suppose t !re are n two real roots su* t _! diff]5ce tak5 positively is or delta2 !n1 gamma be+ any value :atev]1 !re is cle>ly at mo/ "o real root betwe5 ! limits gamma & gamma delta2 & by :at prec$es !re is su* real root or !re is n su* real root1 accord+ z f7gamma71 f7gamma delta7 h opposite signs or h ! same sign4 ,& by divid+ 9 ?is mann] ! int]val beta to alpha into int]vals ea* ( :i* is or delta1 we %\ld n only asc]ta9 ! numb] ( ! real roots 7if any71 b we %\ld also sep>ate ! real roots1 t is1 f9d = ea* ( !m limits gamma1 gamma delta betwe5 :i* !re lies ?is "o1 & only ?is "o1 real root4 ,9 p>ticul> cases x is frequ5tly possible to asc]ta9 ! numb] ( ! real roots1 & to effect _! sep>ation by trial or o!rwise1 )\t mu* difficulty2 b ! =ego+ 0 ! g5]al process z employ$ by ,joseph ,l\is ,lagrange ev5 9 ! second edition 7#ahjh7 ( ! ,traite de la resolution des equations num]iques2#b ! det]m9ation ( ! limit delta _h to be effect$ by means ( ! equation ( diff]5ces or equation ( ! ord] #a_/b n7n - #a71 ! roots ( :i* are ! squ>es ( ! diff]5ces ( ! roots ( ! giv5 equation1 & ! process is a cumbr\s & unsatisfactory "o4 #d4 ,! great /ep 0 effect$ by ! !orem ( ,j4,c4,f4 ,/urm 7#ahce7--viz4 "h />t+ f ! function f7x71 & its fir/ d]iv$ function f'7x71 we h 7by a process :i* is a slight modification ( t = obta9+ ! greate/ common measure ( ^! two functions7 to =m a s]ies ( functions f7x71 f'7x71 f#b7x71 444 fn7x7 ( ! degrees n1 n - #a1 n - #b 444 #j respectively1--! la/ t]m fn7x7 be+ ?us an absolute con/ant4 ,^! lead to ! imm$iate det]m9ation ( ! numb] ( real roots 7if any7 betwe5 any two giv5 limits beta1 alpha2 viz4 suppos+ alpha beta 7t is1 alpha ne>] to oo71 !n sub/itut+ successively ^! two values 9 ! s]ies ( functions1 & att5d+ only to ! signs ( ! result+ values1 ! numb] ( ! *anges ( sign lo/ 9 pass+ f beta to alpha is ! requir$ numb] ( real roots betwe5 ! two limits4 ,9 p>ticul>1 tak+ beta1 alpha -oo1 oo respectively1 ! signs ( ! sev]al functions dep5d m]ely on ! signs ( ! t]ms :i* conta9 ! highe/ p[]s ( x1 & are se5 by inspection1 & ! !orem ?us gives at once ! :ole numb] ( real roots4 ,& al?\gh !oretically1 9 ord] to complete by a f9ite numb] ( op]ations ! sep>ation ( ! real roots1 we /ill ne$ to "k ! value ( ! be=e-m5tion$ limit delta2 yet 9 any giv5 case ! sep>ation may be effect$ by a limit$ numb] ( repetitions ( ! process4 ,! practical difficulty is :5 two or m roots are v ne> to ea* o!r4 ,suppose1 = in/ance1 t ! !orem %[s t !re are two roots betwe5 #j & #aj2 by giv+ to x ! values #a1 #b1 #c1 444 successively1 x might appe> t ! two roots 7 betwe5 #e & #f2 !n aga9 t !y 7 betwe5 #e4c & #e4d1 !n betwe5 #e4cd & #e4ce1 & s on until we arrive at a sep>ation2 say x appe>s t betwe5 #e4cdf & #e4cdg !re is "o root1 & betwe5 #e4cdh & #e4cdi ! o!r root4 ,b 9 ! case 9 "q delta w\ld h a v small value1 su* z 4#jjb1 & ev5 suppos+ ?is value kn[n1 ! direct application ( ! fir/-m5tion$ process w\ld be /ill m labori\s4 #e4 ,suppos+ ! sep>ation once effect$1 ! det]m9ation ( ! s+le real root :i* lies betwe5 ! two giv5 limits may be effect$ to any requir$ degree ( approximation ei!r by ! processes ( ,w4,g4 ,horn] & ,lagrange 7:i* are 9 pr9ciple a c>ry+ out ( ! me?od ( ,/urm's !orem71 or by ! process ( ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 z p]fect$ by ,joseph ,f\ri] 7:i* requires to be sep>ately consid]$74 ,fir/ z to ,horn] & ,lagrange4 ,we "k t betwe5 ! limits beta1 alpha !re lies "o1 & only "o1 real root ( ! equation2 f7beta7 & f7alpha7 h !re=e opposite signs4 ,suppose any int]m$iate value is !ta2 9 ord] to det]m9e by ,/urm's !orem :e!r ! root lies betwe5 beta1 !ta1 or betwe5 !ta1 alpha1 x w\ld be q unnecess>y to calculate ! signs ( f7!ta71f'7!ta71 f#b7!ta7 4442 only ! sign ( f7!ta7 is requir$2 =1 if ?is has ! same sign z f7beta71 !n ! root is betwe5 beta1 !ta2 if ! same sign z f7alpha71 !n ! root is betwe5 !ta1 alpha4 ,we want to make !ta increase f ! inf]ior limit beta1 at :i* f7!ta7 has ! sign ( f7beta71 s long z f7!ta7 reta9s ?is sign1 & !n to a value = :i* x assumes ! opposite sign2 we h ?us two ne>] limits ( ! requir$ root1 & ! process may be repeat$ indef9itely4 ,horn]'s me?od 7#ahai7 gives ! root z a decimal1 figure by figure2 ?us if ! equation be kn[n to h "o real root betwe5 #j & #aj1 x is 9 effect %[n say t #e is too small 7t is1 ! root is betwe5 #e & #f72 next t #e4d is too small 7t is1 ! root is betwe5 #e4d & #e4e72 & s on to any numb] ( decimals4 ,ea* figure is obta9$1 n by ! successive trial ( all ! figures :i* prec$e x1 b 7z 9 ! ord9>y process ( ! extraction ( a squ>e root1 :i* is 9 fact ,horn]'s process appli$ to ?is p>ticul> case7 x is giv5 presumptively z ! fir/ figure ( a quoti5t2 su* value may be too l>ge1 & !n ! next inf]ior integ] mu/ be tri$ in/ead ( x1 or x may require to be fur!r dim9i%$4 ,& x is to be rem>k$ t ! process n only gives ! approximate value alpha ( ! root1 b 7z 9 ! extraction ( a squ>e root7 x includes ! calculation ( ! function f7alpha71 :i* %\ld be1 & approximately is1 #j4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! calculations is v elegant1 & =ms an integral "p ( ! actual me?od4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t aft] a c]ta9 numb] ( decimal places h be5 obta9$1 a good _m m c be f\nd by a m]e division4 ,x is 9 ! progress tacitly assum$ t ! roots h be5 fir/ sep>at$4 ,lagrange's me?od 7#agfg7 gives ! root z a cont9u$ fraction a #a_/;b #a_/;c 4441 :]e a is a positive or negative integ] 7:i* may be #j71 b b1 c1 444 are positive integ]s4 ,suppose ! roots h be5 sep>at$2 !n 7by trial if ne$ be ( consecutive integ] values7 ! limits may be made to be consecutive integ] numb]s3 say !y are a1 a #a2 ! value ( x is !re=e a #a_/y1 :]e y is positive & great] ?an #a2 f ! giv5 equation = x1 writ+ !re9 x a #a_/y1 we =m an equation ( ! same ord] = y1 & ?is equation w h "o1 & only "o1 positive root great] ?an #a2 h5ce f9d+ = x ! limits b1 b #a 7:]e b is or #a71 we h y b #a_/z1 :]e z is positive & great] ?an #a2 & s on--t is1 we ?us obta9 ! successive d5om9ators b1 c1 d 444 ( ! cont9u$ fraction4 ,! me?od is !oretically v elegant1 b ! disadvantage is t x gives ! result 9 ! =m ( a cont9u$ fraction1 :i* = ! mo/ "p mu/ ultimately be conv]t$ into a decimal4 ,!re is "o advantage 9 ! me?od1 t a comm5surable root 7t is1 a root equal to a rational fraction7 is f\nd accurately1 s9ce1 :5 su* root exi/s1 ! cont9u$ fraction t]m9ates4 #f4 ,newton's me?od 7#agaa71 z p]fect$ by ,f\ri]7#ahca71 may be r\ghly /at$ z foll[s4 ,if x gamma be an approximate value ( any root1 & gamma h ! correct value1 !n f7gamma h7 #j1 t is1 h h#b f7gamma7 -- f'7gamma7 --- f7gamma7 444 #j2 #a #a4b & !n1 if h be s small t ! t]ms aft] ! second may be neglect$1 f7gamma7 hf'7gamma7 #j1 t is1 h -f7gamma7_/f'7gamma71 or ! new approximate value is x gamma - f7gamma7_/f'7gamma72 & s on1 z (t5 z we please4 ,x w be obs]v$ t s f> no?+ has be5 assum$ z to ! sep>ation ( ! roots1 or ev5 z to ! exi/5ce ( a real root2 gamma has be5 tak5 z ! approximate value ( a root1 b no precise mean+ has be5 atta*$ to ?is expression4 ,! "q arises1 ,:at are ! conditions to be satisfi$ by gamma 9 ord] t ! process may by successive repetitions actually lead to a c]ta9 real root ( ! equation2 or t1 gamma be+ an approximate value ( a c]ta9 real root1 ! new value gamma - f7gamma7_/f'7gamma7 may be a m approximate value4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,ref]r+ to fig4 #a1 x is easy to see t if ,,oc repres5t ! assum$ value gamma1 !n1 draw+ ! ord9ate ,,cp to meet ! curve 9 ,p1 & ! tang5t ,,pc' to meet ! axis 9 ,c'1 we %all h ,,oc' z ! new approximate value ( ! root4 ,b obs]ve t !re is "h a real root ,,ox1 & t ! curve beyond ,x is convex to ! axis2 "u ^! conditions ! po9t ,c' is ne>] to ,x ?an 0 ,c2 &1 />t+ ) ,c' in/ead ( ,c1 & proce$+ 9 l mann] to draw a new ord9ate & tang5t1 & s on z (t5 z we please1 we approximate cont9ually1 & t ) great rapidity1 to ! true value ,,ox4 ,b if ,c _h be5 tak5 on ! o!r side ( ,x1 :]e ! curve is concave to ! axis1 ! new po9t ,c' might or might n be ne>] to ,x ?an 0 ! po9t ,c2 & 9 ?is case ! me?od1 if x succe$s at all1 does s by accid5t only1 i4e4 x may happ5 t ,c' or "s subsequ5t po9t comes to be a po9t ,c1 su* t ,,co is a prop] approximate value ( ! root1 & !n ! subsequ5t approximations proce$ 9 ! same mann] z if ?is value _h be5 assum$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 all ! prec$+ "w be+ wa/$4 ,x ?us appe>s t = ! prop] application ( ! me?od we require m ?an ! m]e sep>ation ( ! roots4 ,9 ord] to be able to approximate to a c]ta9 root alpha1 ,,ox1 we require to "k t1 betwe5 ,,ox & "s value ,,on1 ! curve is always convex to ! axis 7analytically1 betwe5 ! two values1 f7x7 & f7x7 mu/ h always ! same sign74 ,:5 ?is is s1 ! po9t ,c may be tak5 any:]e on ! prop] side ( ,x1 & )9 ! portion ,,xn ( ! axis2 & ! process is !n ! "o already expla9$4 ,! approximation is 9 g5]al a v rapid "o4 ,if we "k = ! requir$ root ,,ox ! two limits ,,om1 ,,on su* t f ,m to ,x ! curve is always concave to ! axis1 :ile f ,x to ,n x is always convex to ! axis1--!n1 tak+ ,d any:]e 9 ! portion ,,mx & 7z be=e7 ,c 9 ! portion ,,xn1 draw+ ! ord9ates ,,dq1 ,,cp1 & jo9+ ! po9ts ,p1 ,q by a l9e :i* meets ! axis 9 ,d'1 also con/ruct+ ! po9t ,c' by means ( ! tang5t at ,p z be=e1 we h = ! requir$ root ! new limits ,,od'1 ,,oc'2 & proce$+ 9 l mann] ) ! po9ts ,d'1 ,c'1 & s on z (t5 z we please1 we obta9 at ea* /ep two limits approximat+ m & m ne>ly to ! requir$ root ,,ox4 ,! process z to ! po9t ,d'1 translat$ into analysis1 is ! ord9ate process ( int]polation4 ,suppose ,,od beta1 ,,oc alpha1 we h approximately f7beta h7 f7beta7 hf7alpha7 - f7beta7 _/ 7alpha - beta71 :5ce if ! root is beta h !n h - 7alpha - beta7f7beta7 _/ f7alpha7 - f7beta74 ,return+ = a mom5t to ,horn]'s me?od1 x may be rem>k$ t ! correction h1 to an approximate value alpha1 is !re9 f\nd z a quoti5t ! same or su* z ! quoti5t f7alpha7 _/ f'7alpha7 :i* pres5ts itself 9 ,newton's me?od4 ,! diff]5ce is t ) ,horn] ! integ] "p ( ?is quoti5t is tak5 z ! presumptive value ( h1 & ! figure is v]ifi$ at ea* /ep4 ,) ,newton ! quoti5t itself1 develop$ to ! prop] numb] ( decimal places1 is tak5 z ! value ( h2 if too _m decimals are tak51 !re w\ld be a wa/e ( "w2 b ! error w\ld correct itself at ! next /ep4 ,( c\rse ! calculation %\ld be conduct$ )\t any su* wa/e ( "w4 ,imag9>y ,!ory4 #g4 ,x w be recollect$ t ! expression numb] & ! correlative epi!t num]ical 7 at ! outset us$ 9 a wide s5se1 z ext5d+ to imag9>ies4 ,?is ext5sion arises out ( ! !ory ( equations by a process analog\s to t by :i* numb]1 9 its orig9al mo/ re/rict$ s5se ( positive integ] numb]1 0 ext5d$ to h ! mean+ ( a real positive or negative magnitude susceptible ( cont9u\s v>iation4 ,if = a mom5t numb] is und]/ood 9 its mo/ re/rict$ s5se z mean+ positive integ] numb]1 ! solution ( a simple equation leads to an ext5sion2 ax - b #j gives x 7b_/a71 a positive fraction1 & we c 9 ?is mann] repres5t1 n accurately1 b z ne>ly z we please1 any positive magnitude :atev]2 s an equation ax b #j gives x -7b_/a71 :i* 7approximately z be=e7 repres5ts any negative magnitude4 ,we ?us arrive at ! ext5d$ signification ( numb] z a cont9u\sly v>y+ positive or negative magnitude4 ,su* numb]s may be add$ or subtract$1 multipli$ or divid$ "o by ano!r1 & ! result is always a numb]4 ,n[ f a quadric equation we d]ive1 9 l mann]1 ! notion ( a complex or imag9>y numb] su* z is spok5 ( above4 ,! equation x#b #a #j is n 79 ! =ego+ s5se1 numb] real numb]7 satisfi$ by any num]ical value :atev] ( x2 b we assume t !re is a numb] :i* we call i1 satisfy+ ! equation i#b #a #j1 & !n tak+ a & b any real numb]s1 we =m an expression su* z a bi1 & use ! expression numb] 9 ?is ext5d$ s5se3 any two su* numb]s may be add$ or subtract$1 multipli$ or divid$ "o by ! o!r1 & ! result is always a numb]4 ,& if we consid] fir/ a quadric equation x#b px q #j :]e p & q are real numb]s1 & next ! l equation1 :]e p & q are any numb]s :atev]1 x c be %[n t !re exi/s = x a num]ical value :i* satisfies ! equation2 or1 9 o!r words1 x c be %[n t ! equation has a num]ical root4 ,! l !orem1 9 fact1 holds good = an equation ( any ord] :atev]2 b suppose = a mom5t t ?is 0 n ! case2 say t !re 0 a cubic equation x#c px#b qx r #j1 ) num]ical coeffici5ts1 n satisfi$ by any num]ical value ( x1 we %\ld h to e/abli% a new imag9>y j satisfy+ "s su* equation1 & %\ld !n h to consid] numb]s ( ! =m a bj1 or p]haps a bj cj#b 7a1 b1 c numb]s alpha betai ( ! k9d h]et(ore consid]$71--fir/ we %\ld be ?r[n back on ! quadric equation x#b px q #j1 p & q be+ n[ numb]s ( ! la/-m5tion$ ext5d$ =m--non con/at t e su* equation has a num]ical root--& if n1 we might be l$ to o!r imag9>ies k1 l1 c41 & s on ad inf9itum 9 inextricable confusion4 ,b 9 fact a num]ical equation ( any ord] :atev] has always a num]ical root1 & ?us numb]s 79 ! =ego+ s5se1 numb] quantity ( ! =m alpha betai7 =m 7:at real numb]s d n7 a univ]se complete 9 itself1 su* t />t+ 9 x we are nev] l$ out ( x4 ,!re may v well be1 & p]haps are1 numb]s 9 a m g5]al s5se ( ! t]m 7quat]nions are n a case 9 po9t1 z ! ord9>y laws ( comb9ation are n adh]$ to71 b 9 ord] to h to d ) su* numb]s 7if any7 we mu/ />t ) !m4 #h4 ,! capital !orem z reg>ds num]ical equations ?us is1 e num]ical equation has a num]ical root2 or = %ortness 7! mean+ be+ z be=e71 e equation has a root4 ,( c\rse ! !orem is ! rev]se ( self-evid5t1 & x requires pro(2 b provisionally assum+ x z true1 we d]ive f x ! g5]al !ory ( num]ical equations4 ,z ! t]m root 0 introduc$ 9 ! c\rse ( an explanation1 x w be conv5i5t to give "h ! =mal def9ition4 ,a numb] a su* t sub/itut$ = x x makes ! function x#an - p#ax7n - #a7 444 -pn to be #j1 or say su* t x satisfies ! equation f7x7 #j1 is said to be a root ( ! equation2 t is1 a be+ a root1 we h an - p#a;a7n - #a7 444 -pn #j1 or say f7a7 #j2 & x is !n easily %[n t x - a is a factor ( ! function f7x71 viz4 t we h f7x7 7x - a7f#a7x71 :]e f#a7x7 is a function x7n - #a7 - q#ax7n - #b7 444 -q7n - #a7 ( ! ord] n - #a1 ) num]ical coeffici5ts q#a1 q#b 444 q7n - #a74 ,9 g5]al a is n a root ( ! equation f#a7x7 #j1 b x may be s--i4e4 f#a7x7 may conta9 ! factor x - a2 :5 ?is is s1 f7x7 w conta9 ! factor 7x - a7#b2 writ+ !n f7x7 7x - a7#b;f#b7x71 & assum+ t a is n a root ( ! equation f#b7x7 #j1 x a is !n said to be a d\ble root ( ! equation f7x7 #j2 & simil>ly f7x7 may conta9 ! factor 7x - a7#c & no high] p[]1 & x a is !n a triple root2 & s on4 ,suppos+ 9 g5]al t f7x7 7x - a7alpha ,f7x7 7alpha be+ a positive integ] :i* may be #a1 7x - a7alpha ! highe/ p[] ( x - a :i* divides f7x71 & ,f7x7 be+ ( c\rse ( ! ord] n - alpha71 !n ! equation ,f7x7 #j w h a root b :i* w be diff]5t f a2 x - b w be a factor1 9 g5]al a simple "o1 b x may be a multiple "o1 ( ,f7x71 & f7x7 w 9 ?is case be 7x - a7alpha 7x - b7beta ,phi7x7 7beta a positive integ] :i* may be #a1 7x-b7beta ! highe/ p[] ( x - b 9 ,f7x7 or f7x71 & ,phi7x7 be+ ( c\rse ( ! ord] n - alpha - beta74 ,! orig9al equation f7x7 #j is 9 ?is case said to h alpha roots ea* a1 beta roots ea* b2 & s on = any o!r factors 7x - c7gamma1 c4 ,we h ?us ! !orem--,a num]ical equation ( ! ord] n has 9 e case n roots1 viz4 !re exi/ n numb]s1 a1 b1 444 79 g5]al all di/9ct1 b :i* may arrange !mselves 9 any sets ( equal values71 su* t f7x7 7x - a77x - b77x - c7 444 id5tically4 ,if ! equation has equal roots1 ^! c 9 g5]al be det]m9$1 & ! case is at any rate a special "o :i* may be 9 ! fir/ in/ance exclud$ f consid]ation4 ,x is1 !re=e1 9 g5]al assum$ t ! equation f7x7 #j has all its roots unequal4 ,if ! coeffici5ts p#a1 p#b1 444 are all or any "o or m ( !m imag9>y1 !n ! equation f7x7 #j1 sep>at+ ! real & imag9>y p>ts !re(1 may be writt5 ,f7x7 i,phi7x7 #j1 :]e ,f7x71 ,phi7x7 are ea* ( !m a function ) real coeffici5ts2 & x ?us appe>s t ! equation f7x7 #j1 ) imag9>y coeffici5ts1 has n 9 g5]al any real root2 suppos+ x to h a real root a1 ?is mu/ be at once a root ( ea* ( ! equations ,f7x7 #j & ,phi7x7 #j4 ,b an equation ) real coeffici5ts may h z well imag9>y z real roots1 & we h fur!r ! !orem t = any su* equation ! imag9>y roots ent] 9 pairs1 viz4 alpha betai be+ a root1 !n alpha - betai w be also a root4 ,x foll[s t if ! ord] be odd1 !re is always an odd numb] ( real roots1 & !re=e at lea/ "o real root4 #i4 ,9 ! case ( an equation ) real coeffici5ts1 ! "q ( ! exi/5ce ( real roots1 & ( _! sep>ation1 has be5 already consid]$4 ,9 ! g5]al case ( an equation ) imag9>y 7x may be real7 coeffici5ts1 ! l "q arises z to ! situation ( ! 7real or imag9>y7 roots2 ?us1 if = facility ( conception we reg>d ! con/itu5ts alpha1 beta ( a root alpha betai z ! co-ord9ates ( a po9t 9 plano1 & accord+ly repres5t ! root by su* po9t1 !n draw+ 9 ! plane any clos$ curve or cont\r1 ! "q is h[ _m roots lie )9 su* cont\r4 ,?is is solv$ !oretically by means ( a !orem ( ,a4,l4 ,cau*y 7#ahcg71 viz4 writ+ 9 ! orig9al equation x iy 9 place ( x1 ! function f7x iy7 becomes ,p i,q1 :]e ,p & ,q are ea* ( !m a rational & integral function 7) real coeffici5ts7 ( 7x1 y74 ,imag9+ ! po9t 7x1 y7 to travel along ! cont\r1 & consid]+ ! numb] ( *anges ( sign f - to & f to - ( ! fraction correspond+ to passages ( ! fraction ?r\gh z]o 7t is1 to values = :i* ,p becomes #j1 disreg>d+ ^? = :i* ,q becomes #j71 ! diff]5ce ( ^! numb]s gives ! numb] ( roots )9 ! cont\r4 ,x is important to rem>k t ! demon/ration does n presuppose ! exi/5ce ( any root2 ! cont\r may be ! inf9ity ( ! plane 7su* inf9ity reg>d$ z a cont\r1 or clos$ curve71 & 9 ?is case x c be %[n 7& t v easily7 t ! diff]5ce ( ! numb]s ( *anges ( sign is n2 t is1 !re are )9 ! inf9ite cont\r1 or 7:at is ! same ?+7 !re are 9 all n roots2 ?us ,cau*y's !orem conta9s really ! pro( ( ! fundam5tal !orem t a num]ical equation ( ! n? ord] 7n only has a num]ical root1 b7 has precisely n roots4 ,x w\ld appe> t ?is pro( ( ! fundam5tal !orem 9 its mo/ complete =m is 9 pr9ciple id5tical ) ! la/ pro( ( ,k4,f4 ,gauss 7#ahdi7 ( ! !orem1 9 ! =m--,a num]ical equation ( ! n? ord] has always a root4#c ,b 9 ! case ( a f9ite cont\r1 ! actual det]m9ation ( ! diff]5ce :i* gives ! numb] ( real roots c be effect$ only 9 ! case ( a rectangul> cont\r1 by apply+ to ea* ( its sides sep>ately a me?od su* z t ( ,/urm's !orem2 & ?us ! actual det]m9ation ultimately dep5ds on a me?od su* z t ( ,/urm's !orem4 ,v little has be5 done 9 reg>d to ! calculation ( ! imag9>y roots ( an equation by approximation2 & ! "q is n "h consid]$4 #aj4 ,a class ( num]ical equations :i* ne$s to be consid]$ is t ( ! b9omial equations xn - a #j 7a alpha betai1 a complex numb]74 ,! =ego+ conclusions apply1 viz4 !re are always n roots1 :i*1 x may be %[n1 are all unequal4 ,& ^! c be f\nd num]ically by ! extraction ( ! squ>e root1 & ( an n? root1 ( real numb]s1 & by ! aid ( a table ( natural s9es & cos9es4#d ,= writ+ _/ alpha beta alpha betai root7alpha#b beta#b7 7 ---------------------------- ----------------------------i 71 root7alpha#b beta#b7 root7alpha#b beta#b7 _/ !re is always a real angle lambda 7positive & less ?an #bpi71 su* t its cos9e & s9e are alpha _/ root7alpha#b beta#b7 & beta _/ root7alpha#b beta#b7 respectively2 t is1 writ+ = %ortness root7alpha#b beta#b7 rho1 we h alpha betai rho7coslambda i s9lambda71 or ! equation is xn rho7coslambda i s9 lambda72 h5ce obs]v+ t 7cos lambda_/n i s9 lambda_/n 7n coslambda i s9lambda1 a value ( x is root nrho 7cos lambda_/n i s9 lambda_/n74 ,! =mula really gives all ! roots1 = in/ead ( lambda we may write lambda #bspi1 s a positive or negative integ]1 & !n we h _/ lambda #bspi lambda #bspi x root nrho 7 cos ----------------- i s9 ----------------- 71 n n _/ :i* has ! n values obta9$ by giv+ to s ! values #j1 #a1 #b 444 n - #a 9 succession2 ! roots are1 x is cle>1 repres5t$ by po9ts ly+ at equal int]vals on a circle4 ,b x is m conv5i5t to proce$ some:at diff]5tly2 tak+ "o ( ! roots to be !ta1 s t !tan a1 !n assum+ x !tay1 ! equation becomes yn - #a #j1 :i* equation1 l ! orig9al equation1 has precisely n roots 7"o ( !m be+ ( c\rse #a74 ,& ! orig9al equation xn - a #j is ?us r$uc$ to ! m simple equation xn - #a #j2 & al?\gh ! !ory ( ?is equation is includ$ 9 ! prec$+ "o1 yet x is prop] to /ate x sep>ately4 ,! equation xn - #a #j has its sev]al roots express$ 9 ! =m #a1 omega1 omega#b1 444 omega7n - #a71 :]e omega may be tak5 cos #bpi_/n i s9 #bpi_/n2 9 fact1 omega hav+ ?is value1 any integ] p[] omegak is cos #bpik_/n i s9 #bpik_/n1 & we !nce h 7omegak7n cos #bpik i s9 #bpik1 #a1 t is1 omegak is a root ( ! equation4 ,! !ory w be resum$ fur!r on4 ,by :at prec$es1 we are l$ to ! notion 7a num]ical7 ( ! radical a7#a_/n7 reg>d$ z an n-valu$ function2 any "o ( ^! be+ d5ot$ by root na1 !n ! s]ies ( values is root na1 omegaroot na1 444 omega7n - #a7root na2 or we may1 if we please1 use root na in/ead ( a7#a_/n7 z a symbol to d5ote ! n-valu$ function4 ,z ! coeffici5ts ( an algebraical equation may be num]ical1 all :i* foll[s 9 reg>d to algebraical equations is 7)1 x may be1 "s few modifications7 applicable to num]ical equations2 & h5ce1 conclud+ = ! pres5t ?is subject1 x w be conv5i5t to pass on to algebraical equations4 ,algebraical ,equations4 #aa4 ,! equation is xn - p#ax7n-#a7 444 -pn #j1 & we "h assume ! exi/5ce ( roots1 viz4 we assume t !re are n quantities a1 b1 c 444 79 g5]al all ( !m diff]5t1 b :i* 9 p>ticul> cases may become equal 9 sets 9 any mann]71 su* t xn - p#ax7n - #a7 444 - pn #j2 or look+ at ! "q 9 a diff]5t po9t ( view1 & />t+ ) ! roots a1 b1 c 444 z giv51 we express ! product ( ! n factors x - a1 x - b1 444 9 ! =ego+ =m1 & ?us arrive at an equation ( ! ord] n hav+ ! n roots a1 b1 c4444 ,9 ei!r case we h p#a ,sigmaa1 p#b ,sigmaab1 444 pn abc 4442 i4e4 reg>d+ ! coeffici5ts p#a1 p#b 444 pn z giv51 !n we assume ! exi/5ce ( roots a1 b1 c1 444 su* t p#a ,sigmaa1 c42 or1 reg>d+ ! roots z giv51 !n we write p#a1 p#b1 c41 to d5ote ! functions ,sigmaa1 ,sigmaab1 c4 ,z already expla9$1 ! epi!t algebraical is n us$ 9 opposition to num]ical2 an algebraical equation is m]ely an equation :]e9 ! coeffici5ts are n re/rict$ to d5ote1 or are n explicitly consid]$ z d5ot+1 numb]s4 ,t ! ab/raction is legitimate1 appe>s by ! simple/ example2 9 say+ t ! equation x#b - px q #j has a root x #a_/bp root7p#b - #dq71 we mean t writ+ ?is value = x ! equation becomes an id5tity1 #a_/bp root7p#b - #dq7#b - p#a_/bp root7p#b - #dq7 q #j2 & ! v]ification ( ?is id5tity 9 n[ise dep5ds ^u p & q mean+ numb]s4 ,b if x be ask$ :at !re is beyond num]ical equations includ$ 9 ! t]m algebraical equation1 or1 aga91 :at is ! full ext5t ( ! mean+ attribut$ to ! t]m--! latt] "q at any rate x w\ld be v difficult to answ]2 z to ! =m] "o1 x may be said t ! coeffici5ts may1 = in/ance1 be symbols ( op]ation4 ,z reg>ds su* equations1 !re is c]ta9ly no pro( t e equation has a root1 or t an equation ( ! n? ord] has n roots2 nor is x 9 any wise cle> :at ! precise signification ( ! /atem5t is4 ,b x is f\nd t ! assumption ( ! exi/5ce ( ! n roots c be made )\t contradictory results2 conclusions d]iv$ f x1 if !y involve ! roots1 re/ on ! same gr\nd z ! orig9al assumption2 b ! conclusion may be indep5d5t ( ! roots altoge!r1 & 9 ?is case x is und\bt$ly valid2 ! reason+1 al?\gh actually conduct$ by aid ( ! assumption 7&1 x may be1 mo/ easily & elegantly 9 ?is mann]71 is really indep5d5t ( ! assumption4 ,9 illu/ration1 we obs]ve t x is all[able to express a function ( p & q z foll[s1--t is1 by means ( a rational symmetrical function ( a & b1 ?is c1 z a fact1 be express$ z a rational function ( a b & ab2 & if we prescribe t a b & ab %all !n be *ang$ into p & q respectively1 we h ! requir$ function ( p1 q4 ,t is1 we h ,f7alpha1 beta7 z a repres5tation ( f7p1 q71 obta9$ z if we _h p a b1 q ab1 b )\t 9 any wise assum+ ! exi/5ce ( ! a1 b ( ^! equations4 #ab4 ,/>t+ f ! equation xn - p#ax7n - #a7 444 x - a4x - b4 c4 or ! equival5t equations p#a ,sigmaa1 c41 we f9d an - p#a;a7n - #a7 444 #j1 bn - p#a;b7n - #a7 444 #j2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 7x is z satisfy+ ^! equations t a1 b 444 are said to be ! roots ( xn - p#ax7n - #a7 444 #j72 & conv]sely f ! la/-m5tion$ equations1 assum+ t a1 b 444 are all diff]5t1 we d$uce p#a ,sigmaa1 p#b ,sigmaab1 c4 & xn - p#ax7n - #a7 444 x - a4x - b4 c4 ,obs]ve t if1 = in/ance1 a b1 !n ! equations an - p#a;a7n - #a7 444 #j1 bn - p#a;b7n - #a7 444 #j w\ld r$uce !mselves to a s+le relation1 :i* w\ld n ( itself express t a 0 a d\ble root1--t is1 t 7x - a7#b 0 a factor ( xn - p#ax7n - #a7 1 c2 b by consid]+ b z ! limit ( a h1 h indef9itely small1 we obta9 a second equation na7n - #a7 - 7n - #a7p#a;a7n - #b7 444 #j1 :i*1 ) ! fir/1 expresses t a is a d\ble root2 & !n ! :ole sy/em ( equations leads z be=e to ! equations p#a ,sigmaa1 c4 ,b ! exi/5ce ( a d\ble root implies a c]ta9 relation betwe5 ! coeffici5ts2 ! g5]al case is :5 ! roots are all unequal4 ,we h !n ! !orem t e rational symmetrical function ( ! roots is a rational function ( ! coeffici5ts4 ,?is is an easy consequ5ce f ! less g5]al !orem1 e rational & integral symmetrical function ( ! roots is a rational & integral function ( ! coeffici5ts4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ! sums ( ! p[]s ,sigmaa#b1 ,sigmaa#c1 c41 are rational & integral functions ( ! coeffici5ts4 ,! process orig9ally employ$ = ! expression ( o!r functions ,sigmaaalpha bbeta1 c41 9 t]ms ( ! coeffici5ts is to make !m dep5d ^u ! sums ( p[]s3 = in/ance1 ,sigmaaalpha bbeta ,sigmaaalpha ,sigmaabeta - ,sigmaa7alpha beta72 b ?is is v objectionable2 ! true !ory consi/s 9 %[+ t we h sy/ems ( equations p#a ,sigmaa1 p#b ,sigmaab1 p#ab ,sigmaa#b #b,sigmaab1 p#c ,sigmaabc1 p#ap#b ,sigmaa#b b #c,sigmaabc1 p#ac ,sigmaa#c #c,sigmaa#b b #f,sigmaabc1 :]e 9 ea* sy/em !re are precisely z _m equations z !re are root-functions on ! "r-h& side--e4g4 #c equations & #c functions ,sigmaabc1 ,sigmaa#b b1 ,sigmaa#c4 ,h5ce 9 ea* sy/em ! root-functions c be det]m9$ l9e>ly 9 t]ms ( ! p[]s & products ( ! coeffici5ts3 ,sigmaab p#b1 ,sigmaa#b p#ab - #bp#b1 ,sigmaabc p#c1 ,sigmaa#b b p#ap#b - #cp#c1 ,sigmaa#c p#ac - #cp#ap#b #cp#c1 & s on4 ,! o!r process1 if appli$ consi/5tly1 w\ld d]ive ! orig9ally assum$ value ,sigmaab p#b1 f ! two equations ,sigmaa p1 ,sigmaa#b p#ab - #bp#b2 i4e4 we h #b,sigmaab ,sigmaa4,sigmaa - ,sigmaa#b1 p#ab - 7p#ab - #bp#b71 #bp#b4 #ac4 ,x is conv5i5t to m5tion "h ! !orem t1 x be+ det]m9$ z above by an equation ( ! ord] n1 any rational & integral function :atev] ( x1 or m g5]ally any rational function :i* does n become inf9ite 9 virtue ( ! equation itself1 c be express$ z a rational & integral function ( x1 ( ! ord] n - #a1 ! coeffici5ts be+ rational functions ( ! coeffici5ts ( ! equation4 ,?us ! equation gives xn a function ( ! =m 9 "q2 multiply+ ea* side by x1 & on ! "r-h& side writ+ = xn its =ego+ value1 we h x7n #a71 a function ( ! =m 9 "q2 & ! l = any high] p[] ( x1 & !re=e also = any rational & integral function ( x4 ,! pro( 9 ! case ( a rational non-integral function is some:at m complicat$4 ,! f9al result is ( ! =m phi7x7_/psi7x7 ,i7x71 or say phi7x7 -psi7x7,i7x7 #j1 :]e phi1 psi1 ,i are rational & integral functions2 9 o!r words1 ?is equation1 be+ true if only f7x7 #j1 c only be s by reason t ! left-h& side conta9s f7x7 z a factor1 or we mu/ h id5tically phi7x7 - psi7x7,i7x7 ,m7x7f7x74 ,& x is1 moreov]1 cle> t ! equation phi7x7_/psi7x7 ,i7x71 be+ satisfi$ if only f7x7 #j1 mu/ be satisfi$ by ea* root ( ! equation4 ,f ! !orem t a rational symmetrical function ( ! roots is expressible 9 t]ms ( ! coeffici5ts1 x at once foll[s t x is possible to det]m9e an equation 7( an assignable ord]7 hav+ = its roots ! sev]al values ( any giv5 7unsymmetrical7 function ( ! roots ( ! giv5 equation4 ,= example1 9 ! case ( a qu>tic equation1 roots 7a1 b1 c1 d71 x is possible to f9d an equation hav+ ! roots ab1 ac1 ad1 bc1 bd1 cd 7be+ !re=e a sextic equation73 viz4 9 ! product 7y - ab77y - ac77y - ad77y - bc77y - bd77y - cd7 ! coeffici5ts ( ! sev]al p[]s ( y w be symmetrical functions ( a1 b1 c1 d & !re=e rational & integral functions ( ! coeffici5ts ( ! qu>tic equation2 h5ce1 suppos+ ! product s express$1 & equat+ x to z]o1 we h ! requir$ sextic equation4 ,9 ! same mann] c be f\nd ! sextic equation hav+ ! roots 7a - b7#b1 7a - c7#b1 7a - d7#b1 7b - c7#b1 7b - d7#b1 7c - d7#b1 :i* is ! equation ( diff]5ces previ\sly ref]r$ to2 & simil>ly we obta9 ! equation ( diff]5ces = a giv5 equation ( any ord]4 ,aga91 ! equation s\ght = may be t hav+ = its n roots ! giv5 rational functions phi7a71 phi7b71 444 ( ! sev]al roots ( ! giv5 equation4 ,any su* rational function c 7z 0 %[n7 be express$ z a rational & integral function ( ! ord] n - #a2 &1 reta9+ x 9 place ( any "o ( ! roots1 ! problem is to f9d y f ! equations xn - p#a x7n - #a7 444 #j1 & y ,m#jx7n - #a7 ,m#ax7n - #b7 4441 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 f ^! two equations to elim9ate x4 ,?is is 9 fact ,e4,w4 ,ts*irnhaus5's trans=mation 7#afhc74 #ad4 ,9 connexion ) :at prec$es1 ! "q arises z to ! numb] ( values 7obta9$ by p]mutations ( ! roots7 ( giv5 unsymmetrical functions ( ! roots1 or say ( a giv5 set ( lett]s3 = in/ance1 ) roots or lett]s 7a1 b1 c1 d7 z be=e1 h[ _m values are !re ( ! function ab cd1 or bett]1 h[ _m functions are !re ( ?is =m8 ,! answ] is #c1 viz4 ab cd1 ac bd1 ad bc2 or aga9 we may ask :e!r1 9 ! case ( a giv5 numb] ( lett]s1 !re exi/ functions ) a giv5 numb] ( values1 #c-valu$1 #d-valu$ functions1 c4 ,x is at once se5 t = any giv5 numb] ( lett]s !re exi/ #b-valu$ functions2 ! product ( ! diff]5ces ( ! lett]s is su* a function2 h[ev] ! lett]s are int]*ang$1 x alt]s only its sign2 or say ! two values are ,delta & -,delta4 ,& if ,p1 ,q are symmetrical functions ( ! lett]s1 !n ! g5]al =m ( su* a function is ,p ,q,delta2 ?is has only ! two values ,p ,q,delta1 ,p - ,q,delta4 ,9 ! case ( #d lett]s !re exi/ 7z appe>s above7 #c-valu$ functions3 b 9 ! case ( #e lett]s !re does n exi/ any #c-valu$ or #d-valu$ function2 & ! only #e-valu$ functions are ^? :i* are symmetrical 9 reg>d to f\r ( ! lett]s1 & c ?us be express$ 9 t]ms ( "o lett] & ( symmetrical functions ( all ! lett]s4 ,^! la/ !orems pres5t !mselves 9 ! demon/ration ( ! non-exi/5ce ( a solution ( a qu9tic equation by radicals4 ,! !ory is an ext5sive & important "o1 dep5d+ on ! notions ( sub/itutions & ( gr\ps 7q4v474 #ae4 ,return+ to equations1 we h ! v important !orem t1 giv5 ! value ( any unsymmetrical function ( ! roots1 e4g4 9 ! case ( a qu>tic equation1 ! function ab cd1 x is 9 g5]al possible to det]m9e rationally ! value ( any simil> function1 su* z 7a b7#c 7c d7#c4 ,! a priori gr\nd ( ?is !orem may be illu/rat$ by means ( a num]ical equation4 ,suppose t ! roots ( a qu>tic equation are #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 !n if x is giv5 t ab cd #ad1 ?is 9 effect det]m9es a1 b to be #a1 #b & c1 d to be #c1 #d 7viz4 a #a1 b #b or a #b1 b #a1 & c #c1 d #d or c #c1 d #d7 or else a1 b to be #c1 #d & c1 d to be #a1 #b2 & x !re=e 9 effect det]m9es 7a b7#c 7c d7#c to be #cgj1 & n any o!r value2 t is1 7a b7#c 7c d7#c1 z hav+ a s+le value1 mu/ be det]m9able rationally4 ,& we c 9 ! same way acc\nt = cases ( failure z reg>ds p>ticul> equations2 ?us1 ! roots be+ #a1 #b1 #c1 #d z be=e1 a#b b #b det]m9es a to be #a & b to be #b1 b if ! roots _h be5 #a1 #b1 #d1 #af !n a#b b #af does n uniquely det]m9e a1 b b only makes !m to be #a1 #af or #b1 #d respectively4 ,z to ! a po/]iori pro(1 assume1 = in/ance1 t#a ab cd1 y#a 7a b7#c 7c d7#c1 t#b ac bd1 y#b 7a c7#c 7b d7#c1 t#c ad bc1 y#c 7a d7#c 7b c7#c3 !n y#a y#b y#c1 t#ay#a t#by#b t#cy#c1 t#ab y#a t#bby#b t#cby#c w be respectively symmetrical functions ( ! roots ( ! qu>tic1 & !re=e rational & integral functions ( ! coeffici5ts2 t is1 !y w be kn[n4 ,suppose = a mom5t t t#a1 t#b1 t#c are all kn[n2 !n ! equations be+ l9e> 9 y#a1 y#b1 y#c ^! c be express$ rationally 9 t]ms ( ! coeffici5ts & ( t#a1 t#b1 t#c2 t is1 y#a1 y#b1 y#c w be kn[n4 ,b obs]ve fur!r t y#a is obta9$ z a function ( t#a1 t#b1 t#c symmetrical z reg>ds t#b1 t#c2 x c !re=e be express$ z a rational function ( t#a & ( t#b t#c1 t#bt#c1 & !nce z a rational function ( t#a & ( t#a t#b t#c1 t#at#b t#at#c t#bt#c1 t#at#bt#c2 b ^! la/ are symmetrical functions ( ! roots1 & z su* !y are expressible rationally 9 t]ms ( ! coeffici5ts2 t is1 y#a w be express$ z a rational function ( t#a & ( ! coeffici5ts2 or t#a 7alone1 n t#b or t#c7 be+ kn[n1 y#a w be rationally det]m9$4 #af4 ,we n[ consid] ! "q ( ! algebraical solution ( equations1 or1 m accurately1 t ( ! solution ( equations by radicals4 ,9 ! case ( a quadric equation x#b - px q #j1 we c by ! assi/ance ( ! sign root7 7 or 7 7#a_/b f9d an expression = x z a #b-valu$ function ( ! coeffici5ts p1 q su* t sub/itut+ ?is value 9 ! equation1 ! equation is !reby id5tically satisfi$2 x has be5 f\nd t ?is expression is x #a_/bp - root7p#b - #dq71 & ! equation is on ?is acc\nt said to be algebraically solvable1 or m accurately solvable by radicals4 ,or we may by writ+ x -#a_/b p z r$uce ! equation to z#b #a_/d7p#b - #dq71 viz4 to an equation ( ! =m x#b a2 & 9 virtue ( its be+ ?us r$ucible we say t ! orig9al equation is solvable by radicals4 ,& ! "q = an equation ( any high] ord]1 say ( ! ord] n1 is1 c we by means ( radicals 7t is1 by aid ( ! sign root m7 7 or 7 77#a_/m71 us+ z _m z we please ( su* signs & ) any values ( m7 f9d an n-valu$ function 7or any function7 ( ! coeffici5ts :i* sub/itut$ = x 9 ! equation %all satisfy x id5tically8 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! coeffici5ts p1 q 444 are n explicitly consid]$ z numb]s1 b ev5 if !y d d5ote numb]s1 ! "q :e!r a num]ical equation admits ( solution by radicals is :olly unconnect$ ) ! be=e-m5tion$ !orem ( ! exi/5ce ( ! n roots ( su* an equation4 ,x does n ev5 foll[ t 9 ! case ( a num]ical equation solvable by radicals ! algebraical solution gives ! num]ical solution1 b ?is requires explanation4 ,consid] fir/ a num]ical quadric equation ) imag9>y coeffici5ts4 ,9 ! =mula x #a_/bp - root7p#b - #dq71 sub/itut+ = p1 q _! giv5 num]ical values1 we obta9 = x an expression ( ! =m x alpha betai - root7gamma deltai71 :]e alpha1 beta1 gamma1 delta are real numb]s4 ,?is expression sub/itut$ = x 9 ! quadric equation w\ld satisfy x id5tically1 & x is ?us an algebraical solution2 b !re is no obvi\s a priori reason :y root7gammadeltai7 %\ld h a value c di1 :]e c & d are real numb]s calculable by ! extraction ( a root or roots ( real numb]s2 h[ev] ! case is 7:at !re 0 no a priori "r to expect7 t root7gamma deltai7 has su* a value calculable by means ( ! radical expressions rootroot7gamma#b delta#b7 - gamma 3 & h5ce ! algebraical solution ( a num]ical quadric equation does 9 e case give ! num]ical solution4 ,! case ( a num]ical cubic equation w be consid]$ pres5tly4 #ag4 ,a cubic equation c be solv$ by radicals4 ,tak+ = great] simplicity ! cubic 9 ! r$uc$ =m x#c qx - r #j1 & assum+ x a b1 ?is w be a solution if only #c;ab q & a#c b#c r1 equations :i* give 7a#c - b#c7b r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c1 a quadric equation solvable by radicals1 & giv+ a#c - b#c root7r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c71 a #b-valu$ function ( ! coeffici5ts3 comb9+ ?is ) a#c b#c r1 we h a#c #a_/br root7r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c71 a #b-valu$ function3 we !n h a by means ( a cube root1 viz4 a root #ca_/br root7r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c71 a #f-valu$ function ( ! coeffici5ts2 b !n1 writ+ q b_/#c;a1 we h1 z may be %[n1 a b a #c-valu$ function ( ! coeffici5ts2 & x a b is ! requir$ solution by radicals4 ,x w\ld h be5 wrong to complete ! solution by writ+ b root #ca_/br - root7r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c71 = !n a b w\ld h be5 giv5 z a #i-valu$ function hav+ only #c ( its values roots1 & ! o!r #f values be+ irrelevant4 ,obs]ve t 9 ?is la/ process we make no use ( ! equation #c;ab q1 9 its orig9al =m1 b use only ! d]iv$ equation #bg;a#c b#c q#c1 impli$ 91 b n imply+1 ! orig9al =m4 ,an int]e/+ v>iation ( ! solution is to write x ab7a b71 giv+ a#c b#c7;a#c b#c7 r & #c;a#c b#c q1 or say a#c b#c #cr_/q1 a#c b#c 7#a_/c7q2 & consequ5tly #c_/b #d #c_/b #d a#c --- r root7r#b - --q#c71 b#c --- r - root7r#b - --q#c71 q #bg q #bg i4e4 "h a#c1 b#c are ea* ( !m a #b-valu$ function1 b z ! only effect ( alt]+ ! sign ( ! quadric radical is to int]*ange a#c1 b#c1 !y may be reg>d$ z ea* ( !m #a-valu$2 a & b are ea* ( !m #c-valu$ 7= obs]ve t "h only a#c b#c1 n ab1 is giv572 & ab7a b7 ?us is 9 appe>ance a #i-valu$ function2 b x c easily be %[n t x is 7z x ought to be7 only #c-valu$4 ,9 ! case ( a num]ical cubic1 ev5 :5 ! coeffici5ts are real1 sub/itut+ _! values 9 ! expression x root #ca_/br root7r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c7 7#a_/c7q _/ root #ca_/br root7r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c71 ?is may dep5d on an expression ( ! =m root #c7;gamma deltai7 :]e gamma & delta are real numb]s 7x w d s if r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c is a negative numb]71 & !n we _c by ! extraction ( any root or roots ( real positive numb]s r$uce root #c7;gamma deltai7 to ! =m c di1 c & d real numb]s2 h5ce "h ! algebraical solution does n give ! num]ical solution1 & we h "h ! s-call$ irr$ucible case ( a cubic equation4 ,by :at prec$es !re is no?+ 9 ?is t might n h be5 expect$2 ! algebraical solution makes ! solution dep5d on ! extraction ( ! cube root ( a numb]1 & !re 0 no reason = expect+ ?is to be a real numb]4 ,x is well kn[n t ! case 9 "q is t :]e9 ! ?ree roots ( ! num]ical cubic equation are all real2 if ! roots are two imag9>y1 "o real1 !n contr>iwise ! quantity "u ! cube root is real2 & ! algebraical solution gives ! num]ical "o4 ,! irr$ucible case is solvable by a trigonometrical =mula1 b ?is is n a solution by radicals3 x consi/s 9 effect 9 r$uc+ ! giv5 num]ical cubic 7n to a cubic ( ! =m z#c a1 solvable by ! extraction ( a cube root1 b7 to a cubic ( ! =m #dx#c - #cx a1 correspond+ to ! equation #d cos#c !ta - #c cos!ta cos #c!ta :i* s]ves to det]m9e cos!ta :5 cos #c!ta is kn[n4 ,! !ory is applicable to an algebraical cubic equation2 say t su* an equation1 if x c be r$uc$ to ! =m #dx#c - #cx a1 is solvable by trisection--!n ! g5]al cubic equation is solvable by trisection4 #ah4 ,a qu>tic equation is solvable by radicals1 & x is to be rem>k$ t ! exi/5ce ( su* a solution dep5ds on ! exi/5ce ( #c-valu$ functions su* z ab cd ( ! f\r roots 7a1 b1 c1 d73 by :at prec$es ab cd is ! root ( a cubic equation1 :i* equation is solvable by radicals3 h5ce ab cd c be f\nd by radicals2 & s9ce abcd is a giv5 function1 ab & cd c !n be f\nd by radicals4 ,b by :at prec$es1 if ab be kn[n !n any simil> function1 say a b1 is obta9able rationally2 & !n f ! values ( a b & ab we may by radicals obta9 ! value ( a or b1 t is1 an expression = ! root ( ! giv5 qu>tic equation3 ! expression ultimately obta9$ is #d-valu$1 correspond+ to ! diff]5t values ( ! sev]al radicals :i* ent] !re91 & we h ?us ! expression by radicals ( ea* ( ! f\r roots ( ! qu>tic equation4 ,b :5 ! qu>tic is num]ical ! same ?+ happ5s z 9 ! cubic1 & ! algebraical solution does n 9 e case give ! num]ical "o4 ,x w be und]/ood f ! =ego+ explanation z to ! qu>tic h[ 9 ! next foll[+ case1 t ( ! qu9tic1 ! "q ( ! solvability by radicals dep5ds on ! exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce ( k-valu$ functions ( ! five roots 7a1 b1 c1 d1 e72 ! fundam5tal !orem is ! "o already /at$1 a rational function ( five lett]s1 if x has less ?an #e1 _c h m ?an #b values1 t is1 !re are no #c-valu$ or #d-valu$ functions ( #e lett]s3 & by reason+ dep5d+ 9 "p ^u ?is !orem1 ,n4,h4 ,abel 7#ahbd7 %[$ t a g5]al qu9tic equation is n solvable by radicals2 & a =tiori ! g5]al equation ( any ord] high] ?an #e is n solvable by radicals4 #ai4 ,! g5]al !ory ( ! solvability ( an equation by radicals dep5ds fundam5tally on ,a4,t4 ,v&]monde's rem>k 7#aggj7 t1 suppos+ an equation is solvable by radicals1 & t we h !re=e an algebraical expression ( x 9 t]ms ( ! coeffici5ts1 !n sub/itut+ = ! coeffici5ts _! values 9 t]ms ( ! roots1 ! result+ expression mu/ r$uce itself to any "o at pleasure ( ! roots a1 b1 c 4442 ?us 9 ! case ( ! quadric equation1 9 ! expression x #a_/bp root7p#b - #dq71 sub/itut+ = p & q _! values1 & obs]v+ t 7a b7#b - #d;ab 7a - b7#b1 ?is becomes x #a_/b;a b root7a - b7#b1 ! value be+ a or b accord+ z ! radical is tak5 to be 7a - b7 or -7a - b74 ,s 9 ! cubic equation x#c - px#b qx - r #j1 if ! roots are a1 b1 c1 & if omega is us$ to d5ote an imag9>y cube root ( unity1 omega#b omega #a #j1 !n writ+ = %ortness p a b c1 ,l a omegab omega#b c1 ,m a omega#b b omegac1 x is at once se5 t ,,lm1 ,l#c ,m#c1 & !re=e also 7,l#c - ,m#c7b are symmetrical functions ( ! roots1 & consequ5tly rational functions ( ! coeffici5ts3 h5ce #a_/b,l#c ,m#c root7,l#c - ,m#c7b is a rational function ( ! coeffici5ts1 :i* :5 ^! are replac$ by _! values z functions ( ! roots becomes1 accord+ to ! sign giv5 to ! quadric radical1 ,l#c or ,m#c2 tak+ x ,l#c1 ! cube root ( ! expression has ! ?ree values ,l1 omega,l1 omega#b ,l2 & ,,lm divid$ by ! same cube root has !re=e ! values ,m1 omega#b,m1 omega,m2 :5ce f9ally ! expression 7#a_/c7p root #ca_/b7,l#c ,m#c root7,l#c - ,m#c7b7 ,,lm _/ root #ca_/b,l#c ,m#c root7,l#c - ,m#c7b has ! ?ree values 7#a_/c77p ,l ,m71 7#a_/c77p omega,l omega#b ,m71 7#a_/c77p omega#b ,l omega,m72 t is1 ^! are a1 b1 c respectively4 ,if ! value ,m#c _h be5 tak5 in/ead ( ,l#c1 !n ! expression w\ld h _h ! same ?ree values a1 b1 c4 ,comp>+ ! solution giv5 = ! cubic x#c qx - r #j1 x w readily be se5 t ! two solutions are id5tical1 & t ! function r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c "u ! radical sign mu/ 7by aid ( ! relation p #j :i* subsi/s 9 ?is case7 r$uce itself to 7,l#c - ,m#c7b2 x is only by ea* radical be+ equal to a rational function ( ! roots t ! f9al expression c become equal to ! roots a1 b1 c respectively4 #bj4 ,! =mulae = ! cubic 7 obta9$ by ,j4,l4 ,lagrange 7#aggj-agga7 f a diff]5t po9t ( view4 ,^u exam9+ & comp>+ ! pr9cipal kn[n me?ods = ! solution ( algebraical equations1 he f\nd t !y all ultimately dep5d$ ^u f9d+ a resolv5t equation ( :i* ! root is a omegab omega#b c omega#c d 4441 omega be+ an imag9>y root ( unity1 ( ! same ord] z ! equation2 e4g4 = ! cubic ! root is a omegab omega#b c1 omega an imag9>y cube root ( unity4 ,evid5tly ! me?od gives = ,l#c a quadric equation1 :i* is ! resolv5t equation 9 ?is p>ticul> case4 ,= a qu>tic ! =mulae pres5t !mselves 9 a some:at diff]5t =m1 by reason t #d is n a prime numb]4 ,attempt+ to apply x to a qu9tic1 we seek = ! equation ( :i* ! root is 7a omegab omega#b c omega#c d omega#d e71 omega an imag9>y fif? root ( unity1 or r ! fif? p[] !re( 7a omegab omega#b c omega#c;d omega#d e7#e2 ?is is a #bd-valu$ function1 b if we consid] ! f\r values correspond+ to ! roots ( unity omega1 omega#b1 omega#c1 omega#d1 viz4 ! values 7a omegab omega#b c omega#c d omega#d e7#e1 7a omega#b b omega#d c omegad omega#c;e7#e1 7a omega#c b omegac omega#d d omega#b;e7#e1 7a omega#d b omega#c c omega#b d omegae7#e1 any symmetrical function ( ^!1 = in/ance _! sum1 is a #f-valu$ function ( ! roots1 & may !re=e be det]m9$ by means ( a sextic equation1 ! coeffici5ts :]e( are rational functions ( ! coeffici5ts ( ! orig9al qu9tic equation2 ! conclusion be+ t ! solution ( an equation ( ! fif? ord] is made to dep5d ^u t ( an equation ( ! six? ord]4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 useless = ! solution ( ! qu9tic equation1 :i*1 z already m5tion$1 does n admit ( solution by radicals2 b ! equation ( ! six? ord]1 ,lagrange's resolv5t sextic1 is v important1 & is intimately connect$ ) all ! lat] inve/igations 9 ! !ory4 #ba4 ,x is to be rem>k$1 9 reg>d to ! "q ( solvability by radicals1 t n only ! coeffici5ts are tak5 to be arbitr>y1 b x is assum$ t !y are repres5t$ ea* by a s+le lett]1 or say r t !y are n s express$ 9 t]ms ( o!r arbitr>y quantities z to make a solution possible4 ,if ! coeffici5ts are n all arbitr>y1 = in/ance1 if "s ( !m are z]o1 a sextic equation might be ( ! =m x#f bx#d cx#b d #j1 & s be solvable z a cubic2 or if ! coeffici5ts ( ! sextic are giv5 functions ( ! six arbitr>y quantities a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 su* t ! sextic is really ( ! =m 7x#b ax b77x#d cx#c dx#b ex f7 #j1 !n x breaks up into ! equations x#b ax b #j1 x#d cx#c dx#b ex f #j1 & is consequ5tly solvable by radicals2 s also if ! =m is 7x -a77x - b77x - c77x - d77x - e77x - f7 #j1 !n ! equation is solvable by radicals1--9 ?is extreme case rationally4 ,su* cases ( solvability are self-evid5t2 b !y are en\gh to %[ t ! g5]al !orem ( ! non-solvability by radicals ( an equation ( ! fif? or any high] ord] does n 9 any wise exclude = su* ord]s ! exi/5ce ( p>ticul> equations solvable by radicals1 & !re are1 9 fact1 ext5sive classes ( equations :i* are ?us solvable2 ! b9omial equations xn - #a #j pres5t an in/ance4 #bb4 ,x has already be5 %[n h[ ! sev]al roots ( ! equation xn - #a #j c be express$ 9 ! =m cos #bspi_/n i s9 #bspi_/n1 b ! "q is n[ t ( ! algebraical solution 7or solution by radicals7 ( ?is equation4 ,!re is always a root #a2 if omega be any o!r root1 !n obvi\sly omega1 omega#b1 444 omega7n - #a7 are all ( !m roots2 xn - #a conta9s ! factor x - #a1 & x ?us appe>s t omega1 omega#b1 444 omega7n - #a7 are ! n - #a roots ( ! equation x7n - #a7 x7n - #b7 444 x #a #j2 we h1 ( c\rse1 omega7n - #a7 omega7n - #b7 444 omega #a #j4 ,x is prop] to di/+ui% ! cases n prime & n composite2 & 9 ! latt] case !re is a di/9ction accord+ z ! prime factors ( n are simple or multiple4 ,by way ( illu/ration1 suppose successively n #ae & n #i2 9 ! =m] case1 if alpha be an imag9>y root ( x#c - #a #j 7or root ( x#b x #a #j71 & beta an imag9>y root ( x#e - #a #j 7or root ( x#d x#c x#b x #a #j71 !n omega may be tak5 alphabeta2 ! successive p[]s !re(1 alphabeta1 alpha#b beta#b1 beta#c1 alphabeta#d1 alpha#b1 beta1 alphabeta#b1 alpha#b;beta#c1 beta#d1 alpha1 alpha#b beta1 beta#b1 alphabeta#c1 alpha#b beta#d1 are ! roots ( x#ad x#ac 444 x #a #j2 ! solution ?us dep5ds on ! solution ( ! equations x#c - #a #j & x#e - #a #j4 ,9 ! latt] case1 if alpha be an imag9>y root ( x#c - #a #j 7or root ( x#b x #a #j71 !n ! equation x#i - #a #j gives x#c #a1 alpha1 or alpha#b2 x#c #a gives x #a1 alpha1 or alpha#b2 & ! solution ?us dep5ds on ! solution ( ! equations x#c - #a #j1 x#c - alpha #j1 x#c - alpha#b #j4 ,! fir/ equation has ! roots #a1 alpha1 alpha#b2 if beta be a root ( ei!r ( ! o!rs1 say if beta#c alpha1 !n assum+ omega beta1 ! successive p[]s are beta1 beta#b1 alpha1 alphabeta1 alphabeta#b1 alpha#b1 alpha#b;beta1 alpha#b beta#b1 :i* are ! roots ( ! equation x#h x#g 444 x #a #j4 ,x ?us appe>s t ! only case :i* ne$ be consid]$ is t ( n a prime numb]1 & writ+ 7z is m usual7 r 9 place ( omega1 we h r1 r#b1 r#c1 444 r7n - #a7 z ! 7n - #a7 roots ( ! r$uc$ equation x7n - #a7 x7n - #b7 444 x #a #j2 !n n only rn - #a #j1 b also r7n - #a7 r7n - #b7 444 r #a #j4 #bc4 ,! process ( solution due to ,k>l ,fri$ri* ,gauss 7#ahja7 dep5ds ess5tially on ! arrangem5t ( ! roots 9 a c]ta9 ord]1 viz4 n z above1 ) ! indices ( r 9 ari?metical progression1 b ) _! indices 9 geometrical progression2 ! prime numb] n has a c]ta9 numb] ( prime roots g1 :i* are su* t g7n - #a7 is ! l[e/ p[] ( g1 :i* is equival5t to #a to ! modulus n2 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 t ! s]ies ( p[]s #a1 g1 g#b1 444 g7n - #b71 ea* divid$ by n1 leave 79 a diff]5t ord]7 ! rema9d]s #a1 #b1 #c1 444 n - #a2 h5ce giv+ to r 9 succession ! indices #a1 g1 g#b1 444 g7n - #b71 we h1 9 a diff]5t ord]1 ! :ole s]ies ( roots r1 r#b1 r#c1 444 r7n - #a74 ,9 ! mo/ simple case1 n #e1 ! equation to be solv$ is x#d x#c x#b x #a #j2 "h #b is a prime root ( #e1 & ! ord] ( ! roots is r1 r#b1 r#d1 r#c4 ,! ,gaussian process consi/s 9 =m+ an equation = det]m9+ ! p]iods ,p#a1 ,p#b1 r r#d & r#b r#c respectively2--^! be+ su* t ! symmetrical functions ,p#a ,p#b1 ,p#a,p#b are rationally det]m9able3 9 fact ,p#a ,p#b -#a1 ,p#a,p#b 7r r#d77r#b r#c71 r#c r#d r#f r#g1 r#c r#d r r#b1 -#a4 ,p#a1 ,p#b are ?us ! roots ( u#b u - #a #j2 & tak+ !m to be kn[n1 !y are !mselves brok5 up into subp]iods1 9 ! pres5t case s+le t]ms1 r & r#d = ,p#a1 r#b & r#c = ,p#b2 ! symmetrical functions ( ^! are !n rationally det]m9$ 9 t]ms ( ,p#a & ,p#b2 ?us r r#d ,p#a1 r4r#d #a1 or r1 r#d are ! roots ( u#b - ,p#au #a #j4 ,! mode ( division is m cle>ly se5 = a l>g] value ( n2 ?us1 = n #g a prime root is #c1 & ! arrangem5t ( ! roots is r1 r#c1 r#b1 r#f1 r#d1 r#e4 ,we may =m ei!r #c p]iods ea* ( #b t]ms1 ,p#a1 ,p#b1 ,p#c r r#f1 r#c r#d1 r#b r#e respectively2 or else #b p]iods ea* ( #c t]ms1 ,p#a1 ,p#b r r#b r#d1 r#c r#f r#e respectively2 9 ea* ease ! symmetrical functions ( ! p]iods are rationally det]m9able3 ?us 9 ! case ( ! two p]iods ,p#a ,p#b -#a1 ,p#a,p#b #c r r#b r#c r#d r#e r#f1 #b2 & ! p]iods be+ kn[n ! symmetrical functions ( ! sev]al t]ms ( ea* p]iod are rationally det]m9$ 9 t]ms ( ! p]iods1 ?us r r#b r#d ,p#a1 r4r#b r4r#d r#b4r#d ,p#b1 r4r#b4r#d #a4 ,! !ory 0 fur!r develop$ by ,lagrange 7#ahjh71 :o1 apply+ 8 g5]al process to ! equation 9 "q1 x7n - #a7 x7n - #b7 444 x #a #j 7! roots a1 b1 c 444 be+ ! sev]al p[]s ( r1 ! indices 9 geometrical progression z above71 %[$ t ! function 7a omegab omega#b c 44477n - #a7 0 9 ?is case a giv5 function ( omega ) integ] coeffici5ts4 ,rev]t+ to ! be=e-m5tion$ p>ticul> equation x#d x#c x#b x #a #j1 x is v int]e/+ to comp>e ! process ( solution ) t = ! solution ( ! g5]al qu>tic ! roots :]e( are a1 b1 c1 d4 ,take omega1 a root ( ! equation omega#d - #a #j 7:5ce omega is #a1 -#a1 i1 or -i1 at pleasure71 & consid] ! expression 7a omegab omega#b c omega#c d7#d1 ! develop$ value ( ?is is a#d b#d c#d d#d #f7;a#b c#b b#b d#b7 #ab7;a#b bd b#b ca c#b db d#b;ac7 omega #d7;a#c b b#c c c#c d#c a7 #ab7;a#b cd b#b da c#b ab d#b bc7 omega#bf7;a#b b#b b#b c#b c#b d#b d#b a#b7 #d7;a#c c b#c d c#c a d#c b7 #bd;abcd omega#cd7;a#c d b#c a c#c b d#c c7 #ab7;a#b bc b#b cd c#b da d#b ab7 t is1 ?is is a #f-valu$ function ( a1 b1 c1 d1 ! root ( a sextic 7:i* is1 9 fact1 solvable by radicals2 b ?is is n "h mat]ial74 ,if1 h[ev]1 a1 b1 c1 d d5ote ! roots r1 r#b1 r#d1 r#c ( ! special equation1 !n ! expression becomes r#d r#c r r#b #f7a #a7ab7r#b r#d r#c r7 omega #d7a #a #a #a7 #ab7r#d r#c r r#b7 omega#bf7r r#b r#d r#c7 #d7r#b r#d r#c r7 omega#cd7r r#b r#d r#c7 #ab7r#c r r#b r#d7 viz4 ?is is -#a #domega #adomega#b - #afomega#c1 a completely det]m9$ value4 ,t is1 we h 7r omegar#b omega#b r#d omega#c r#c7 -#a #domega #adomega#b - #afomega#c1 :i* result conta9s ! solution ( ! equation4 ,if omega #a1 we h 7r r#b r#d r#c7d #a1 :i* is "r2 if omega -#a1 !n 7r r#d - r#b - r#c7d #be2 if omega i1 !n we h r - r#d i7r#b - r#c7d -#ae #bj;i2 & if omega -i1 !n r - r#d - i7r#b - r#c7d -#ae - #bj;i2 ! solution may be complet$ )\t difficulty4 ,! result is p]fectly g5]al1 ?us3--n be+ a prime numb]1 r a root ( ! equation x7n - #a7 x7n - #b7 444 x #a #j1 omega a root ( omega7n - #a7 - #a #j1 & g a prime root ( g7n - #a7 equival5t #a 7mod4 n71 !n r omegarg 444 omega7n - #b7 rg7n - #b77n - #a7 is a giv5 function ,m#j ,m#aomega 444 ,m7n - #b7omega7n - #b7 ) integ] coeffici5ts1 & by ! extraction ( 7n - #a7? roots ( ?is & simil> expressions we ultimately obta9 r 9 t]ms ( omega1 :i* is tak5 to be kn[n2 ! equation xn - #a #j1 n a prime numb]1 is ?us solvable by radicals4 ,9 p>ticul>1 if n - #a be a p[] ( #b1 ! solution 7by ei!r process7 requires ! extraction ( squ>e roots only2 & x 0 ?us t ,gauss discov]$ t x 0 possible to con/ruct geometrically ! regul> polygons ( #ag sides & #beg sides respectively4 ,"s int]e/+ developm5ts 9 reg>d to ! !ory 7 obta9$ by ,c4,g4,j4 ,jacobi 7#ahcg72 see ! memoir ,ueb] die ,krei/heilung1 u4s4w41 ,crelle1 t4 xxx4 7#ahdf74 ,! equation x7n - #a7 444 x #a #j has be5 consid]$ = its own sake1 b x also s]ves z a specim5 ( a class ( equations solvable by radicals1 consid]$ by ,n4,h4 ,abel 7#ahbh71 & s9ce call$ ,abelian equations1 viz4 = ! ,abelian equation ( ! ord] n1 if x be any root1 ! roots are x1 !tax1 !ta#b x1 444 !ta7n - #a7x 7!tax be+ a rational function ( x1 & !tanx x72 ! !ory is1 9 fact1 v analog\s to t ( ! above p>ticul> case4 ,a m g5]al !orem obta9$ by ,abel is z foll[s3--,if ! roots ( an equation ( any ord] are connect$ toge!r 9 su* wise t all ! roots c be express$ rationally 9 t]ms ( any "o ( !m1 say x2 if1 moreov]1 !tax1 !ta#ax be+ any two ( ! roots1 we h !ta!ta#ax !ta#a!tax1 ! equation w be solvable algebraically4 ,x is prop] to ref] also to ,abel's def9ition ( an irr$ucible equation3--an equation phix #j1 ! coeffici5ts ( :i* are rational functions ( a c]ta9 numb] ( kn[n quantities a1 b1 c 4441 is call$ irr$ucible :5 x is impossible to express its roots by an equation ( an inf]ior degree1 ! coeffici5ts ( :i* are also rational functions ( a1 b1 c 444 7or1 :at is ! same ?+1 :5 phix does n break up into factors :i* are rational functions ( a1 b1 c 44474 ,abel appli$ 8 !ory to ! equations :i* pres5t !mselves 9 ! division ( ! elliptic functions1 b n to ! modul> equations4 #bd4 ,b ! !ory ( ! algebraical solution ( equations 9 its mo/ complete =m 0 e/abli%$ by ,ev>i/e ,galois 7born ,octob] #ahaa1 kill$ 9 a duel ,may #ahcb2 see 8 collect$ works1 ,li\ville1 t4 xl41 #ahdf74 ,! def9ition ( an irr$ucible equation resembles ,abel's1--an equation is r$ucible :5 x admits ( a rational divisor1 irr$ucible 9 ! contr>y case2 only ! ^w rational is us$ 9 ?is ext5d$ s5se t1 9 connexion ) ! coeffici5ts ( ! giv5 equation1 or ) ! irrational quantities 7if any7 :]e( ^! are compos$1 he consid]s any numb] ( o!r irrational quantities call$ adjo9t radicals1 & he t]ms rational any rational function ( ! coeffici5ts 7or ! irrationals :]e( !y are compos$7 & ( ^! adjo9t radicals2 ! epi!t irr$ucible is ?us tak5 ei!r absolutely or 9 a relative s5se1 accord+ to ! sy/em ( adjo9t radicals :i* are tak5 into acc\nt4 ,= in/ance1 ! equation x#d x#c x#b x #a #j2 ! left h& side has "h no rational divisor1 & ! equation is irr$ucible2 b ?is function is 7x#b #a_/b x #a7b -7#e_/d7x#b1 & x has ?us ! irrational divisors x#b #a_/b7a root#e7x #a1 x#b #a_/b7a - root#e7x #a2 & ^!1 if we adjo9 ! radical root#e1 are rational1 & ! equation is no long] irr$ucible4 ,9 ! case ( a giv5 equation1 assum$ to be irr$ucible1 ! problem to solve ! equation is1 9 fact1 t ( f9d+ radicals by ! adjunction ( :i* ! equation becomes r$ucible2 = in/ance1 ! g5]al quadric equation x#b px q #j is irr$ucible1 b x becomes r$ucible1 break+ up into rational l9e> factors1 :5 we adjo9 ! radical root7#a_/d p#b - q74 ,! fundam5tal !orem is ! ,proposition ,i4 ( ! ,memoire sur les conditions de resolubilite des equations p> radicaux2 viz4 giv5 an equation ( :i* a1 b1 c 444 are ! m roots1 !re is always a gr\p ( p]mutations ( ! lett]s a1 b1 c 444 possess$ ( ! foll[+ prop]ties3-- #a4 ,e function ( ! roots inv>iable by ! sub/itutions ( ! gr\p is rationally kn[n4 #b4 ,reciprocally e rationally det]m9able function ( ! roots is inv>iable by ! sub/itutions ( ! gr\p4 ,"h by an inv>iable function is meant n only a function ( :i* ! =m is inv>iable by ! sub/itutions ( ! gr\p1 b fur!r1 "o ( :i* ! value is inv>iable by ^! sub/itutions3 = in/ance1 if ! equation be phi7x7 #j1 !n phi7x7 is a function ( ! roots inv>iable by any sub/itution :atev]4 ,& 9 say+ t a function is rationally kn[n1 x is meant t its value is expressible rationally 9 t]ms ( ! coeffici5ts & ( ! adjo9t quantities4 ,= in/ance 9 ! case ( a g5]al equation1 ! gr\p is simply ! sy/em ( ! #a4b4c 444 n p]mutations ( all ! roots1 s9ce1 9 ?is case1 ! only rationally det]m9able functions are ! symmetric functions ( ! roots4 ,9 ! case ( ! equation x7n - #a7 444 x #a #j1 n a prime numb]1 a1 b1 c 444 k r1 rg1 rg#b 444 rg7n - #b71 :]e g is a prime root ( n1 !n ! gr\p is ! cyclical gr\p abc 444 k1 bc 444 ka1 444 kab 444 j1 t is1 9 ?is p>ticul> case ! numb] ( ! p]mutations ( ! gr\p is equal to ! ord] ( ! equation4 ,?is notion ( ! gr\p ( ! orig9al equation1 or ( ! gr\p ( ! equation z v>i$ by ! adjunction ( a s]ies ( radicals1 seems to be ! fundam5tal "o 9 ,galois's !ory4 ,b ! problem ( solution by radicals1 in/ead ( be+ ! sole object ( ! !ory1 appe>s z ! fir/ l9k ( a long *a9 ( que/ions relat+ to ! trans=mation & classification ( irrationals4 ,return+ to ! "q ( solution by radicals1 x w be readily und]/ood t by ! adjunction ( a radical ! gr\p may be dim9i%$2 = in/ance1 9 ! case ( ! g5]al cubic1 :]e ! gr\p is t ( ! six p]mutations1 by ! adjunction ( ! squ>e root :i* ent]s into ! solution1 ! gr\p is r$uc$ to abc1 bca1 cab2 t is1 x becomes possible to express rationally1 9 t]ms ( ! coeffici5ts & ( ! adjo9t squ>e root1 any function su* z a#b b b#b c c#b a :i* is n alt]$ by ! cyclical sub/itution a into b1 b into c1 c into a4 ,& h5ce1 to det]m9e :e!r an equation ( a giv5 =m is solvable by radicals1 ! c\rse ( inve/igation is to inquire :e!r1 by ! successive adjunction ( radicals1 x is possible to r$uce ! orig9al gr\p ( ! equation s z to make x ultimately consi/ ( a s+le p]mutation4 ,! condition 9 ord] t an equation ( a giv5 prime ord] n may be solvable by radicals 0 9 ?is way obta9$--9 ! fir/ in/ance 9 ! =m 7sc>cely intelligible )\t fur!r explanation7 t e function ( ! roots x#a1 x#b 444 xn1 inv>iable by ! sub/itutions x7ak b7 = xk1 mu/ be rationally kn[n2 & !n 9 ! equival5t =m t ! resolv5t equation ( ! ord] #a4b 444 7n - #b7 mu/ h a rational root4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ! condition 9 ord] t a qu9tic equation may be solvable is t ,lagrange's resolv5t ( ! ord] #f may h a rational factor1 a result obta9$ f a direct inve/igation 9 a valuable memoir by ,e4 ,lu!r1 ,crelle1 t4 xxxiv4 7#ahdg74 ,among o!r results demon/rat$ or ann\nc$ by ,galois may be m5tion$ ^? relat+ to ! modul> equations 9 ! !ory ( elliptic functions2 = ! trans=mations ( ! ord]s #e1 #g1 #aa1 ! modul> equations ( ! ord]s #f1 #h1 #ab are depressible to ! ord]s #e1 #g1 #aa respectively2 b = ! trans=mation1 n a prime numb] great] ?an #aa1 ! depression is impossible4 ,! g5]al !ory ( ,galois 9 reg>d to ! solution ( equations 0 complet$1 & "s ( ! demon/rations suppli$ by ,e4 ,betti 7#aheb74 ,see also ,j4,a4 ,s]ret's ,c\rs d'algebre sup]ieure1 #bnd ed4 7#ahed72 #d? ed4 7#ahgg-ahgh74 #be4 ,return+ to qu9tic equations1 ,george ,bir* ,j]r>d 7#ahce7 e/abli%$ ! !orem t ! g5]al qu9tic equation is by ! extraction ( only squ>e & cubic roots r$ucible to ! =m x#e ax b #j1 or :at is ! same ?+1 to x#e x b #j4 ,! actual r$uction by means ( ,ts*irnhaus5's !orem 0 effect$ by ,*>les ,h]mite 9 connexion ) 8 elliptic-function solution ( ! qu9tic equation 7#aheh7 9 a v elegant mann]4 ,x 0 %[n by ,sir ,james ,cockle & ,rob]t ,h>ley 7#aheh-ahei7 9 connexion ) ! ,j]r>dian =m1 & by ,ar?ur ,cayley 7#ahfa71 t ,lagrange's resolv5t equation ( ! six? ord] c be replac$ by a m simple sextic equation occupy+ a l place 9 ! !ory4 ,! !ory ( ! modul> equations1 m p>ticul>ly = ! case n #e1 has be5 /udi$ by ,c4 ,h]mite1 ,l4 ,kroneck] & ,f4 ,brios*i4 ,9 ! case n #e1 ! modul> equation ( ! ord] #f dep5ds1 z already m5tion$1 on an equation ( ! ord] #e2 & conv]sely ! g5]al qu9tic equation may be made to dep5d ^u ?is modul> equation ( ! ord] #f2 t is1 assum+ ! solution ( ?is modul> equation1 we c solve 7n by radicals7 ! g5]al qu9tic equation2 ?is is ,h]mite's solution ( ! g5]al qu9tic equation by elliptic functions 7#aheh72 x is analog\s to ! be=e-m5tion$ trigonometrical solution ( ! cubic equation4 ,! !ory is reproduc$ & develop$ 9 ,brios*i's memoir1 ,ub] die ,auflosung d] ,glei*ung5 vom funft5 ,grade1 ,ma?4 ,annal51 t4 xiii4 7#ahgg-ahgh74 #bf4 ,! mod]n "w1 reproduc+ ! !ories ( ,galois1 & exhibit+ ! !ory ( algebraic equations z a :ole1 is ,c4 ,jordan's ,traite des sub/itutions et des equations algebriques 7,p>is1 #ahgj74 ,! "w is divid$ into f\r books--book i41 prelim9>y1 relat+ to ! !ory ( congru5ces2 book ii4 is 9 two *apt]s1 ! fir/ relat+ to sub/itutions 9 g5]al1 ! second to sub/itutions def9$ analytically1 & *iefly to l9e> sub/itutions2 book iii4 has f\r *apt]s1 ! fir/ discuss+ ! pr9ciples ( ! g5]al !ory1 ! o!r ?ree conta9+ applications to algebra1 geometry1 & ! !ory ( transc5d5ts2 la/ly1 book iv41 divid$ into sev5 *apt]s1 conta9s a det]m9ation ( ! g5]al types ( equations solvable by radicals1 & a complete sy/em ( classification ( ^! types4 ,a glance ?r\gh ! index w %[ ! va/ ext5t :i* ! !ory has assum$1 & ! =m ( g5]al conclusions arriv$ at2 ?us1 9 book iii41 ! algebraical applications comprise ,abelian equations1 equations ( ,galois2 ! geometrical ones comprise ,q4 ,hesse's equation1 ,r4,f4,a4 ,clebs*'s equations1 l9es on a qu>tic surface hav+ a nodal l9e1 s+ul> po9ts ( ,e4,e4 ,kumm]'s surface1 l9es on a cubic surface1 problems ( contact2 ! applications to ! !ory ( transc5d5ts comprise circul> functions1 elliptic functions 7includ+ division & ! modul> equation71 hyp]elliptic functions1 solution ( equations by transc5d5ts4 ,& on ?is la/ subject1 solution ( equations by transc5d5ts1 we may quote ! result--! solution ( ! g5]al equation ( an ord] sup]ior to five _c be made to dep5d ^u t ( ! equations = ! division ( ! circul> or elliptic functions2 & aga9 7b ) a ref]5ce to a possible case ( exception71 ! g5]al equation _c be solv$ by aid ( ! equations :i* give ! division ( ! hyp]elliptic functions into an odd numb] ( p>ts4 7,see also ,,gr\ps1 ,,!ory ,,(47 7,a4 ,ca47 ,,bibliography4--,= ! g5]al !ory see ,w4,s4 ,burnside & ,a4,w4 ,panton1 ,! ,!ory ( ,equations 7#d? ed41 #ahii-aija72 ! ,galoisian !ory is treat$ 9 ,g4,b4 ,mat!ws1 ,algebraic ,equations 7#aijg74 ,see also ! ,ency4 d4 ma?4 ,wiss4 vol4 ii4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,! coeffici5ts 7 select$ s t ! roots might be ne>ly #a1 #b1 #c4 #b ,! ?ird edition 7#ahbf7 is a reproduction ( t ( #ahjh2 ! fir/ edition has ! date #agih1 b a l>ge "p ( ! cont5ts is tak5 f memoirs ( #agfg-agfh & #aggj-agga4 #c ,! e>li] demon/rations by ,eul]1 ,lagrange1 c1 relate to ! case ( a num]ical equation ) real coeffici5ts2 & !y consi/ 9 %[+ t su* equation has always a real quadratic divisor1 furni%+ two roots1 :i* are ei!r real or else conjugate imag9>ies alpha betai 7see ,lagrange's ,equations num]iques74 #d ,! squ>e root ( alpha betai c be det]m9$ by ! extraction ( squ>e roots ( positive real numb]s1 )\t ! trigonometrical tables4 ,,equation ,,( ,,! ,,c5tre1 9 a/ronomy1 ! angul> di/ance1 measur$ ar\nd ! c5tre ( motion1 by :i* a planet mov+ 9 an ellipse deviates f ! mean position :i* x w\ld occupy if x mov$ uni=mly4 ,its am\nt is ! correction :i* mu/ be appli$ positively or negatively to ! mean anomaly 9 ord] to obta9 ! true anomaly4 ,x arises f ! ellipticity ( ! orbit1 is z]o at p]ic5tre & apoc5tre1 & rea*es its greate/ am\nt ne>ly midway betwe5 ^! po9ts4 7,see ,,anomaly & ,,orbit47 ,,equation ,,( ,,"t1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 app>5t "t1 det]m9$ by ! m]idian passage ( ! real sun1 & mean "t1 det]m9$ by ! passage ( ! mean sun4 ,x goes ?r\gh a d\ble p]iod 9 ! c\rse ( a ye>4 ,its am\nt v>ies a fraction ( a m9ute = ! same date1 f ye> to ye> & f "o longitude to ano!r1 on ! same day4 ,! foll[+ table %[s an av]age value = any date & = ! ,gre5wi* m]idian = a numb] ( ye>s1 f :i* ! actual value w seldom deviate m ?an #bj seconds until aft] #aiej4 ,! sign indicates t ! real sun rea*es ! m]idian aft] mean noon2 ! - sign be=e mean noon4 ,table ( ! ,equation ( ,"t4 m4 s4 m4 s4 m4 s4 ,jan4 #a #c #bf ,m>4 #a #ab #ci ,may #a -#b #ee #f #e #de #f #aa #ce #f -#c #bg #aa #g #ea #aa #aj #bj #aa -#c #df #af #i #dc #af #h #eh #af -#c #ea #ba #aa #ai #ba #g #cj #ba -#c #dj #bf #ab #cf #bf #e #ei #bf -#c #af ,feb4 #a #ac #db ,apr4 #a #d #i ,june #a -#b #cb #f #ad #ad #f #b #dj #f -#a #dd #aa #ad #be #aa #a #ae #aa -#j #dh #af #ad #ag #af -#j #c #af #j #ad #ba #ac #eb #ba -#a #ab #ba #a #ai #bf #ac #aa #bf -#b #aj #bf #b #bd ,july #a #c #bf ,sept4 #a #j #i ,nov4 #a -#af #ah #f #d #ba #f -#a #bh #f -#af #ai #aa #e #h #aa -#c #aj #aa -#ae #eh #af #e #dd #af -#d #ee #af -#ae #ae #ba #f #h #ba -#f #da #ba -#ad #ab #bf #f #ah #bf -#h #be #bf -#ab #di ,aug4 #a #f #aj ,oct4 #a -#aj #e ,dec4 #a -#aa #g #f #e #dg #f -#aa #ch #f - #i #i #aa #e #i #aa -#ac #b #aa - #f #eg #af #d #ag #af -#ad #ad #af - #d #ce #ba #c #ab #ba -#ae #aa #ba - #b #g #bf #a #ee #bf -#ae #eb #bf #j #bc ,,equator 7,late ,lat4 aequator1 f aequ>e1 to make equal71 9 geography1 t great circle ( ! e>?1 equidi/ant f ! two poles1 :i* divides ! nor!rn f ! s\!rn hemisph]e & lies 9 a plane p]p5dicul> to ! axis ( ! e>?2 ?is is t]m$ ! geographical or t]re/rial equator4 ,9 a/ronomy1 ! cele/ial equator is ! "n giv5 to ! great circle 9 :i* ! plane ( ! t]re/rial equator int]sects ! cele/ial sph]e2 x is consequ5tly equidi/ant f ! cele/ial poles4 ,! magnetic equator is an imag9>y l9e encircl+ ! e>?1 along :i* ! v]tical compon5t ( ! e>?'s magnetic =ce is z]o2 x ne>ly co9cides ) ! t]re/rial equator4 ,,equ]ry 7f ! ,fr4 ecurie1 a /able1 ?r\gh its old] =m escurie1 f ! ,m$4 ,lat4 scuria1 a ^w ( ,teutonic orig9 = a /able or %$1 cf4 ,g]4 ,s*eu]2 ! mod]n spell+ has confus$ ! ^w ) ! ,lat4 equus1 a horse71 a contract$ =m ( g5tleman ( ! equ]ry1 an (fic] 9 *>ge ( ! /ables ( a royal h\sehold4 ,at ! ,briti% c\rt1 equ]ries are (fic]s atta*$ to ! dep>tm5t ( ! ma/] ( ! horse1 ! fir/ ( :om is call$ *ief equ]ry 7see ,,h\sehold1 ,,royal74 ,,equidae1 ! family ( p]issodactyle ungulate mammals typifi$ by ! horse 7,equus caballus72 see ,,horse4 ,accord+ to ! old] classification ?is family 0 tak5 to include only ! =ms ) tall-cr[n$ tee?1 m or less closely alli$ to ! typical g5us ,equus4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 su* an almo/ complete graduation f ! =m] to e>li] & m primitive mammals ) %ort-cr[n$ *eek-tee?1 at "o "t includ$ 9 ! family ,lophiodontidae 7see ,,p]issodactyla71 t x has n[ become a v g5]al practice to include ! :ole phylum 9 ! family ,equidae4 ,! ,equidae1 9 ?is ext5d$ s5se1 toge!r ) ! ext9ct ,palaeo!riidae1 are inde$ n[ reg>d$ z =m+ "o ( f\r ma9 gr\ps into :i* ! ,p]issodactyla are divid$1 ! o!r gr\ps be+ ! ,tapiroidea1 ,rh9oc]otoidea & ,titano!riide4 ,= ! horse-gr\p ! "n ,hippoidea is employ$4 ,all f\r gr\ps 7 closely connect$ 9 ! ,l[] ,eoc5e1 s t exact def9ition is almo/ impossible4 ,9 ! ,hippoidea !re is g5]ally ! full s]ies ( #dd tee?1 b ! fir/ premol> is (t5 decidu\s or want+ 9 ! l[] or 9 bo? jaws4 ,! incisors are *isel-%ap$1 & ! can9es t5d to become isolat$ s z 9 ! n[ specializ$ =ms to occupy ne>ly ! middle ( a long] or %ort] gap betwe5 ! incisors & premol>s4 ,9 ! upp] mol>s ! two out] columns ( ! primitive tub]cul> mol> coalesce to =m an out] wall1 f :i* proce$ two cresc5tic transv]se cre/s2 ! connexion betwe5 ! cre/s & ! wall be+ imp]fect or slight1 & ! cre/s !mselves sometimes tub]cul>4 ,ea* ( ! l[] mol>s c>ries two cresc5tic ridges4 ,! numb] ( toes ranges f f\r to "o 9 ! =e-foot1 & f ?ree to "o 9 ! h9d-foot4 ,! p>occipital1 po/gl5oid & po/-tympanic processes ( ! skull are l>ge1 & ! latt] always di/9ct4 ,normally !re are no traces ( horn-cores4 ,! calcaneum lacks ! facet = ! fibula f\nd 9 ! ,titano!roidea4 ,9 ! e>li] ,equidae ! tee? 7 %ort-cr[n$1 ) ! premol>s simpl] ?an ! mol>s2 b !re is a gradual t5d5cy to an increase 9 ! height ( ! cr[ns ( ! tee?1 accompani$ by increas+ complexity ( /ructure & ! fill+ up ( ! holl[s ) cem5t4 ,simil>ly ! gap on ea* side ( ! can9e too? 9 ea* jaw cont9ues to increase 9 l5g?2 :ile 9 all ! lat] =ms ! orbit is surr\nd$ by a r+ ( bone4 ,a ?ird modification is ! increas+ l5g? ( limb 7z well z 9 g5]al bodily size71 accompani$ by a gradual r$uction 9 ! numb] ( toes f ?ree or f\r to "o4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;a1 ,side view ( second upp] mol> too? ( ,an*i!rium 7bra*yodont =m72 b1 correspond+ too? ( horse 7hypsidont =m74 ,all ! exi/+ memb]s ( ! family1 su* z ! dome/icat$ horse 7,equus caballus7 & its wild or half-wild relatives1 ! asses & ! zebras1 are includ$ 9 ! typical g5us4 ,9 all ^! ! cr[ns ( ! *eek-tee? are v tall 7fig4 #a1 b7 & only develop roots late 9 life2 :ile _! gr9d+-surfaces 7fig4 #b1 b & c7 are v complicat$ & h all ! holl[s fill$ ) cem5t4 ,! summits ( ! incisors are infold$1 produc+1 :5 p>tially worn1 ! m>k4 ,9 ! skull ! orbit is surr\nd$ by bone1 & !re is no di/9ct depression 9 front ( ! same4 ,ea* limb t]m9ates 9 "o l>ge toe2 ! lat]al digits be+ repres5t$ by ! spl9t-bones1 correspond+ to ! lat]al metac>pals & metat>sals ( ,hipp>ion4 ,n unfrequ5tly1 h[ev]1 ! l[] ends ( ! spl9t-bones c>ry a small expansion1 repres5t+ ! phalanges4 ,rema9s ( horses indi/+ui%able f ,e4 caballus occur 9 ! ,plei/oc5e deposits ( ,europe & ,asia2 & x is f !m t ! dun-col\r$ small horses ( nor!rn ,europe & ,asia are probably d]iv$4 ,! ance/or ( ^! ,plei/oc5e horses is probably ,e4 /5onis1 ( ! ,upp] ,plioc5e ( ,europe1 :i* has a small depression 9 front ( ! orbit1 :ile ! skull is relatively l>g]1 ! feet are r %ort]1 & ! spl9t-bones some:at m develop$4 ,9 ,india a ne>ly alli$ species 7,e4 sival5sis71 occurs 9 ! ,l[] ,plioc5e1 & may h be5 ! ance/or ( ! ,arab /ock1 :i* %[s traces ( ! depression 9 front ( ! orbit *>act]i/ic ( ! e>li] =ms4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica species ( ,equus occur 9 ! ,plei/oc5e & f t cont95t o!rs rea*$ ,s\? ,am]ica dur+ ! same epo*4 ,9 ! latt] c\ntry occurs ,hippidium1 9 :i* ! *eek-tee? are %ort] & simpl]1 & ! nasal bones v long & sl5d]1 ) elongat$ slits at ! side4 ,! limbs1 especially ! cannon-bones1 are relatively %ort1 & ! spl9t-bones l>ge4 ,! alli$ ,arg5t9e ,onohippidium1 :i* is also ,plei/oc5e1 has /ill long] nasal bones & slits1 & a deep d\ble cavity 9 front ( ! orbit1 "p ( :i* probably conta9$ a gl&4 ,onohippidium is c]ta9ly (f ! direct l9e ( desc5t ( ! mod]n horses1 &1 on acc\nt ( ! l5g? ( ! nasals & _! slits1 ! same probably holds good = ,hippidium4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;a1 ,gr9d+ surface ( unworn "r upp] mol> too? ( ,an*i!rium2 b1 correspond+ surface ( unworn mol> ( "y horse2 c1 ! same too? aft] x has be5 "s "t 9 use4 ,! uncol\r$ portions are ! d5t9e or ivory1 ! %ad$ p>ts ! cem5t fill+ ! cavities & surr\nd+ ! ext]ior4 ,! black l9e sep>at+ ^! two /ructures is ! enamel or h>de/ con/itu5t ( ! too?4 ,species f ! ,plioc5e ( ,texas & ! ,upp] ,mioc5e 7,l\p ,=k7 ( ,oregon 7 at "o "t assign$ to ,hippidium1 b ?is is incorrect1 t g5us be+ exclusively ,s\? ,am]ican4 ,! "n ,pliohippus has be5 appli$ to species f ! same two =mations on ! supposition t ! foot-/ructure 0 simil> to t ( ,hippidium1 b ,mr ,j4,w4 ,gidley is ( op9ion t ! lat]al digits may h be5 fully develop$4 ,app>5tly !re is "h "s gap 9 ! l9e ( desc5t ( ! horse1 & x may be sugge/$ t ! evolution took place1 n z commonly suppos$1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 b 9 ea/]n c5tral ,asia1 ( :i* ! palaeontology is practically unkn[n2 "s support is giv5 to ?is !ory by ! fact t ! e>lie/ species ) :i* we are acqua9t$ occur 9 nor!rn ,india4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,successive /ages ( modification ( ! left =e-feet ( ext9ct =ms ( horse-l animals1 %[+ gradual r$uction ( ! out] & enl>gem5t ( ! middle toe 7,,iii74 a1 ,hyraco!rium 7,eoc5e74 b1 ,mesohippus 7,oligoc5e74 c1 ,an*i!rium 7,mioc5e74 d1 ,hipp>ion 7,plioc5e74 e1 ,equus 7,plei/oc5e74 ,be ?is z x may1 ! next ,nor? ,am]ican repres5tatives ( ! family con/itute ! g5]a ,protohippus & ,m]y*ippus ( ! ,mioc5e1 9 bo? ( :i* ! lat]al digits are fully develop$ & t]m9ate 9 small ?\gh p]fect ho(s4 ,9 bo? ! *eek-tee? h mod]ately tall cr[ns1 & 9 ! fir/ nam$ ( ! two ^? ( ! milk-s]ies are ne>ly simil> to _! p]man5t successors4 ,9 ,m]y*ippus1 on ! o!r h&1 ! milk-mol>s h %ort cr[ns1 )\t any cem5t 9 ! holl[s1 ?us resembl+ ! p]man5t mol>s ( ! "u-m5tion$ g5us ,an*i!rium4 ,f ! well-kn[n ,hipp>ion1 or ,hippo!rium1 typically f ! ,l[] ,plioc5e ( ,europe1 b also occurr+ 9 ! correspond+ =mation 9 ,nor? ,africa1 ,p]sia1 ,india & ,*9a1 & repres5t$ 9 ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ,l\p ,=k b$s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates by species :i* x has be5 propos$ to sep>ate g5]ically z ,neohipp>ion1 we rea* small horses :i* are n[ g5]ally reg>d$ z a lat]al (f%oot f ! ,m]y*ippus type4 ,! *eek-tee?1 :i* h cr[ns ( mod]ate height1 diff] f ^? ( all ! =ego+ 9 t ! po/]o-int]nal pill> 7! projection on ! "r-h& top corn] ( c 9 fig4 #b7 is isolat$ 9 place ( be+ atta*$ by a n>r[ neck to ! adjac5t cresc5t4 ,! skull1 :i* is relatively %ort1 has a l>ge depression 9 front ( ! orbit1 commonly suppos$ to h conta9$ a gl&1 b ?is may be d\btful4 ,9 ! typical1 & also 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican =ms ^! 7 complete1 al?\gh small1 lat]al toes 9 bo? feet 7fig4 #c1 d71 b x is possible t 9 ,h4 antilop9um ( ,india ! lat]al toes _h disappe>$4 ,if ?is be s1 we h ! developm5t ( a monodactyle foot 9 ?is g5us indep5d5tly ( ,equus4 ,! =ego+ g5]a con/itute ! subfamily ,equ9ae1 or ! ,equidae z re/rict$ by ! old] writ]s4 ,9 all ! d5tition is ( ! hypsodont type1 ) ! holl[s ( ! *eek-tee? fill$ by cem5t1 ! premol>s mol>i=m1 & ! fir/ small & g5]ally decidu\s4 ,! orbit is surr\nd$ by a bony r+2 ! ulna & radius 9 ! =e1 & ! tibia & fibula 9 ! h9d-limb are unit$1 & ! feet are ( ! types describ$ above4 ,betwe5 ?is subfamily & ! second subfamily1 ,hyraco!ri9ae1 a p>tial connexion is =m$ by ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,upp] ,mioc5e g5]a ,desmatippus & ,an*ippus or ,p>ahippus4 ,! *>act]i/ics ( ! gr\p w be ga!r$ f ! rem>ks on ! lead+ g5]a2 b x may be m5tion$ t ! orbit is op5 beh9d1 ! *eek-tee? are %ort-cr[n$ & )\t cem5t 7fig4 #a1 a71 ! gap betwe5 ! can9e & ! out]mo/ incisor is %ort1 ! bones ( ! middle "p ( ! leg are sep>ate1 & !re are at lea/ ?ree toes to ea* foot4 ,! longe/-kn[n g5us & ! "o conta9+ ! l>ge/ species is ,an*i!rium1 typically f ! ,middle ,mioc5e ( ,europe1 b also repres5t$ by "o species f ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ,european ,a4 aurelian5se 0 ( ! size ( an ord9>y donkey4 ,! *eek-tee? are ( ! type %[n 9 a ( figs4 #a & #b2 ! premol>s1 ) ! exception ( ! small fir/ "o1 be+ mol>-l2 & ! lat]al toes 7fig4 #c1 c7 7 to "s ext5t functional4 ,! summits ( ! incisors 7 infold$ to a small ext5t4 ,ne>ly alli$ is ! ,am]ican ,mesohippus1 rang+ f ! ,l[] ,mioc5e to ! ,l[] ,oligoc5e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ( :i* ! e>lie/ species /ood only ab\t #ah 94 at ! %\ld]4 ,! incisors 7 sc>cely1 if at all1 infold$1 & !re is a rudim5t ( ! fif? metac>pal 7fig4 #c1 b74 ,by "s writ]s all ! species ( ,mesohippus are includ$ 9 ! g5us ,miohippus1 b o!rs consid] t ! two g5]a are di/9ct4 ,mesohippus & ,miohippus are connect$ ) ! e>lie/ & mo/ primitive mammal :i* x is possible to include 9 ! family ,equidae by means ( ,epihippus ( ! ,u9ta or ,upp] ,eoc5e ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ,pa*ynolophus1 or ,orohippus1 ( ! ,middle & ,l[] ,eoc5e ( bo? halves ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,! f9al /age1 or r ! initial /age1 9 ! s]ies is pres5t$ by ,hyraco!rium 7,protorohippus71 a mammal no l>g] ?an a fox1 common to ! ,l[] ,eoc5e ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ?is prog5itor ( ! horses are ^? giv5 above z di/9ctive ( ! gr\p4 ,! *eek-tee? are1 h[ev]1 mu* simpl] ?an ^? ( ,an*i!rium2 ! transv]se cre/s ( ! upp] mol>s n be+ fully connect$ ) ! out] wall1 :ile ! premol>s 9 ! upp] jaw are triangul>1 & ?us unlike ! mol>s4 ,! incisors are small & ! can9es sc>cely enl>g$2 ! latt] hav+ a gap on ea* side 9 ! l[]1 b only "o on _! h9d] aspect 9 ! upp] jaw4 ,! =e-feet h f\r complete toes 7fig4 #c1 a71 b !re are only ?ree h9d-toes1 ) a rudim5t ( ! fif? metat>sal4 ,! v]tebrae are simpl] 9 /ructure ?an 9 ,equus4 ,f ,hyraco!rium1 :i* is closely relat$ to ! ,eoc5e repres5tatives ( ! ance/ral /ocks ( ! o!r ?ree bran*es ( ! ,p]issodactyla1 ! transition is easy to ,ph5acodus1 ! repres5tative ( ! common ance/or ( all ! ,ungulata4 ,see also ,h4,f4 ,osborn1 ,new ,oligoc5e ,horses1 ,bull4 ,am]4 ,mus4 vol4 xx4 p4 #afg 7#aijd72 ,j4,w4 ,gidley1 ,prop] ,g5]ic ,names ( ,mioc5e ,horses1 p4 #aia2 & ! article ,,palaeontology4 7,r4 ,l4997 ,,equilibrium 7f ! ,lat4 aequus1 equal1 & libra1 a balance71 a condition ( equal balance betwe5 opposite or c\nt]act+ =ces4 ,by ! s5se ( equilibrium is meant ! s5se1 or s5sations1 by :i* we h a feel+ ( security 9 /&+1 walk+1 & inde$ 9 all ! movem5ts by :i* ! body is c>ri$ ?r\gh space4 ,su* a feel+ ( security is necess>y bo? = ma9ta9+ any po/ure1 su* z /&+1 or = p]=m+ any movem5t4 ,if ?is feel+ is abs5t or unc]ta91 or if !re are contradictory s5sations1 !n def9ite muscul> movem5ts are ineffici5tly or irregul>ly p]=m$1 & ! body may /agg] or fall4 ,:5 we /& erect on a firm surface1 l a floor1 !re is a feel+ ( resi/ance1 due to n]v\s impulses rea*+ ! bra9 f ! soles ( ! feet & f ! muscles ( ! limbs & trunk4 ,9 walk+ or runn+1 ^! feel+s ( resi/ance seem to prec$e & guide ! muscul> movem5ts necess>y = ! next /ep4 ,if ^! are abs5t or p]v]t$ or defici5t1 z is ! case 9 ! disease kn[n z locomotor ataxia1 !n1 al?\gh !re is no loss ( ! p[] ( volunt>y movem5t1 ! pati5t /agg]s 9 walk+1 especially if he is n all[$ to look at 8 feet1 or if he is bl9d-fold$4 ,he misses ! guid+ s5sations t come f ! limbs2 & ) a feel+ t he is walk+ on a s(t sub/ance1 (f]+ little or no resi/ance1 he /agg]s1 & 8 muscul> movem5ts become irregul>4 ,su* a condition maybe artificially br\ght ab\t by wa%+ ! soles ( ! feet ) *lor(orm or e!r4 ,& x has be5 obs]v$ to exi/ p>tially aft] ext5sive de/ruction ( ! sk9 ( ! soles ( ! feet by burns or scalds4 ,?is %[s t tactile impulses f ! sk9 take a %>e 9 g5]at+ ! guid+ s5sation4 ,9 ! disease above m5tion$1 h[ev]1 tactile impressions may be ne>ly normal1 b ! guid+ s5sation is weak & ineffici5t1 ow+ to ! abs5ce ( impulses f ! muscles4 ,! disease is kn[n to dep5d on morbid *anges 9 ! po/]ior columns ( ! sp9al cord1 by :i* impulses are n freely transmitt$ upw>ds to ! bra94 ,^! facts po9t to ! exi/5ce ( impulses com+ f ! muscles & t5dons4 ,x is n[ kn[n t !re exi/ peculi> sp9dles1 9 muscle1 & rosettes or coils or loops ( n]ve fibres 9 close proximity to t5dons4 ,^! are ! end organs ( ! s5se4 ,! transmission ( impulses gives rise to ! muscul> s5se1 & ! guid+ s5sation :i* prec$es co-ord9at$ muscul> movem5ts dep5ds on ^! impulses4 ,?us f ! limbs /reams ( n]v\s impulses pass to ! s5sorium f ! sk9 & f muscles & t5dons2 ^! may or may n ar\se consci\sness1 b !y guide or evoke muscul> movem5ts ( a co-ord9at$ "*1 m especially ( ! limbs4 ,9 animals ^: limbs are n adapt$ = delicate t\* nor = ! p]=mance ( complicat$ movem5ts1 su* z "s mammals & birds & fi%es1 ! guid+ s5sations dep5d l>gely on ! s5se ( vision4 ,?is s5se 9 man1 in/ead ( assi/+1 sometimes di/urbs ! guid+ s5sation4 ,x is true t 9 locomotor ataxia visual s5sations may take ! place ( ! tactile & muscul> s5sations t are ineffici5t1 & ! man c walk )\t /agg]+ if he is all[$ to look at ! floor1 & especially if he is guid$ by transv]se /raight l9es4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! acrobat on ! wire-rope d>e n tru/ 8 visual s5sations 9 ! ma9t5ance ( 8 equilibrium4 ,he keeps 8 eyes fix$ on "o po9t in/ead ( all[+ !m to w&] to objects bel[ him1 & 8 muscul> movem5ts are regulat$ by ! impulses t come f ! sk9 & muscles ( 8 limbs4 ,! feel+ ( insecurity probably arises f a conception ( height1 & also f ! k t by no muscul> movem5ts c a man avoid a cata/rophe if he %\ld fall4 ,a bird1 on ! o!r h&1 dep5ds l>gely on visual impressions1 & x kn[s by exp]i5ce t if laun*$ into ! air f a height x c fly4 ,"h1 probably1 is an explanation ( ! l>ge size ( ! eyes ( birds4 ,cov] ! head1 z 9 hood+ a falcon1 & ! bird seems to be depriv$ ( ! p[] ( volunt>y movem5t4 ,little effect w be produc$ if we attempt to re/ra9 ! movem5ts ( a cat by cov]+ its eyes4 ,a fi% also is depriv$ ( ! p[] ( motion if its eyes are cov]$4 ,b bo? 9 ! bird & 9 ! fi% tactile & muscul> impressions1 especially ! latt]1 come into play 9 ! me*anism ( equilibrium4 ,9 flight ! l>ge-w+$ birds1 especially 9 so>+1 c feel ! mo/ delicate w9d-pressures1 bo? z reg>ds direction & =ce1 & !y adapt ! position ( _! body s z to cat* ! pressure at ! mo/ effici5t angle4 ,! same is true ( ! fi%1 especially ( ! flat-fi%es4 ,9 mammals ! s5se ( equilibrium dep5ds1 !n1 on /reams ( tactile1 muscul> & visual impressions p\r+ 9 on ! s5sorium1 & call+ =? appropriate muscul> movem5ts4 ,x has also be5 sugge/$ t impulses com+ f ! abdom9al visc]a may take "p 9 ! me*anism4 ,! pres5ce 9 ! mes5t]y ( fel9es 7cats1 c47 ( l>ge numb]s ( ,pac9ian corpuscles1 :i* are believ$ to be modifi$ tactile bodies1 fav\rs ?is supposition4 ,su* animals are rem>kable = ! delicacy ( su* muscul> movem5ts1 z balanc+ & leap+4 ,!re is ano!r *annel by :i* n]v\s impulses rea* ! s5sorium & play _! "p 9 ! s5se ( equilibrium1 namely1 f ! semicircul> canals1 a portion ( ! int]nal e>4 ,x is po9t$ out 9 ! article ,,he>+ t ! appreciation ( s\nd is 9 reality an appreciation ( v>iations ( pressure4 ,! labyr9? consi/s ( ! ve/ibule1 ! co*lea & ! semicircul> canals4 ,! co*lea receives ! s\nd-waves 7v>iations ( pressure7 t con/itute musical tones4 ,?is x accompli%es by ! /ructures 9 ! ductus co*le>is4 ,9 ! ve/ibule we f9d two sacs1 ! saccule next to & communicat+ ) ! ductus co*le>is1 & ! utricle communicat+ ) ! semicircul> canals4 ,! base ( ! /apes communicates pressures to ! utricle4 ,! membran\s portion ( ! semicircul> canals consi/s ( a tube1 dilat$ at "o end into a swell+ or p\*1 t]m$ ! ampulla1 & ea* end communicates freely ) ! utricle4 ,on ! po/]ior wall ( bo? ! saccule & ( ! utricle !re is a ridge1 t]m$ 9 ea* case ! macula acu/ica1 be>+ a highly specializ$ epi!lium4 ,a simil> /ructure exi/s 9 ea* ampulla4 ,?is w\ld sugge/ t all ?ree /ructures h to d ) he>+2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 !re is exp]im5tal evid5ce t ! utricle & ! canals may transmit impressions t h to d ) equilibrium4 ,pressure ( ! base ( ! /apes is ex]t$ on ! utricle4 ,?is w compress ! fluid 9 t cavity1 & t5d to drive ! fluid into ! semicircul> canals t communicate ) t cavity by five op5+s4 ,ea* canal is surr\nd$ by a ?9 lay] ( p]ilymph1 s t x may yield a little to ?is pressure1 & ex]t a pull or pressure on ! n]ve-end+s 9 ea* ampulla4 ,?us impulses may be g5]at$ 9 ! n]ves ( ! ampullae4 ,! ?ree semicircul> canals lie 9 ! ?ree directions 9 space1 & x has be5 sugge/$ t !y h to d ) our appreciation ( ! direction ( s\nd4 ,b our appreciation ( s\nd is v inaccurate3 we look ) ! eyes = ! s\rce ( a s\nd1 & in/9ctively direct ! e>s or ! head1 or bo?1 9 ! direction f :i* ! s\nd appe>s to proce$4 ,b ! relation%ip ( ! canals on ! two sides mu/ h a physiological significance4 ,?us 7#a7 ! six canals are p>allel1 two & two2 or 7#b7 ! two horizontal canals are 9 ! same plane1 :ile ! sup]ior canal on "o side is ne>ly p>allel ) ! po/]ior canal ( ! o!r4 ,^! facts po9t to ! two sets ( canals & ampullae act+ z "o organ1 9 a mann] analog\s to ! action ( two ret9ae = s+le vision4 ,we h next to consid] h[ ! canals may possibly act 9 connexion ) ! s5se ( equilibrium4 ,9 #ahbj ,j4 ,purk9je /udi$ ! v]tigo t foll[s rapid rotation ( ! body 9 ! erect position on a v]tical axis4 ,on /opp+ ! rotation !re is a s5se ( rotation 9 ! opposite direction1 & ?is may occur ev5 :5 ! eyes are clos$4 ,purk9je notic$ t ! position ( ! imag9>y axis ( rotation dep5ds on ! axis ar\nd :i* ! head revolves4 ,9 #ahbh ,m4,j4,p4 ,fl\r5s discov]$ t injury to ! canals causes di/urbance to ! equilibrium & loss ( co-ord9ation1 & t sections ( ! canals produce a rotatory movem5t ( a k9d correspond+ to ! canal t _h be5 divid$4 ,?us division ( a membran\s canal causes rotatory movem5ts r\nd an axis at "r angles to ! plane ( ! divid$ canal4 ,! body ( ! animal always moves 9 ! direction ( ! cut canal4 ,_m o!r obs]v]s h corroborat$ ^! exp]im5ts4 ,f4 ,goltz 0 ! fir/ :o =mulat$ ! conditions necess>y = equilibration4 ,he put ! matt] ?us3--7#a7 ,a c5tral co-ord9at+ organ--9 ! bra92 7#b7 c5tripetal fibres1 ) _! p]iph]al t]m9ations--9 ! ampullae2 & 7#c7 c5trifugal fibres1 ) _! t]m9al organs--9 ! muscul> me*anisms4 ,a lesion ( any "o ( ^! portions ( ! me*anism causes loss or impairm5t ( balanc+4 ,cyon also inve/igat$ ! subject1 & conclud$3--7#a7 ,to ma9ta9 equilibrium1 we mu/ h an accurate notion ( ! position ( ! head 9 space2 7#b7 ! function ( ! semicircul> canals is to communicate impressions t give a repres5tation ( ?is position--ea* canal hav+ a relation to "o ( ! dim5sions ( space2 7#c7 di/urbance ( equilibrium foll[s section2 7#d7 involunt>y movem5ts foll[+ section are due to abnormal excitations2 7#e7 abnormal movem5ts occurr+ a few days aft] ! op]ation are caus$ by irritation ( ! c]ebellum4 ,on !oretical consid]ations ( a physical "*1 ,e4 ,ma*1 ,crum-,br[n & ,breu] h advanc$ !ories bas$ on ! idea ( ! canals be+ organs = s5sations ( accel]ation ( movem5t1 or = ! s5se ( rotation4 ,ma* fir/ po9t$ out t ,purk9je's ph5om5a1 already allud$ to1 7 9 all probability relat$ to ! semicircul> canals4 ,he %[$ t :5 ! body is mov$ 9 space1 9 a /raight l9e1 we are n consci\s ( ! velocity ( motion1 b ( v>iations 9 ?is velocity4 ,simil>ly1 if a body is rotat$ r\nd a v]tical axis1 we p]ceive only angul> accel]ation & n angul> velocity4 ,! s5sations produc$ by angul> accel]ation la/ long] ?an ! accel]ation itself1 & ! position ( ! head dur+ ! movem5ts enables u to det]m9e direction4 ,bo? ,ma* & ,goltz /ate t v>y+ pressures ( ! fluid 9 ! canals produc$ by angul> rotation produce s5sations ( movem5t 7always 9 a direction opposite to ! rotation ( ! body71 & t ^!1 9 turn1 cause ! v]tigo ( ,purk9je & ! ph5om5a ( ,fl\r5s4 ,ma*1 ,crum-,br[n & ,breu] advance hydrodynamical !ories 9 :i* !y assume t ! fluids move 9 ! canals4 ,goltz1 on ! o!r h&1 supports a hydro/atical !ory 9 :i* he assumes t ! ph5om5a c be acc\nt$ = by v>y+ pressures4 ,crum-,br[n diff]s f ,ma* & ,breu] z foll[s3--7#a7 ,9 attribut+ movem5t or v>iation ( pressure n m]ely to ! endolymph1 b also to ! walls ( ! membran\s canals & to ! surr\nd+ p]ilymph2 & 7#b7 9 reg>d+ ! two labyr9?s z "o organ1 all ! six canals be+ requir$ to =m a true conception ( ! rotat+ motion ( ! head4 ,he sums up ! matt] ?us3 ,we h two ways 9 :i* a relative motion c occur betwe5 ! endolymph & ! walls ( ! cavity conta9+ x--7#a7 ,:5 ! head beg9s to move1 "h ! walls leave ! fluid beh9d2 7#b7 :5 ! head /ops1 "h ! fluid fl[s on4 ,9 bo? cases ! s5sation ( rotation is felt4 ,9 ! fir/ ?is s5sation corresponds to a real rotation1 9 ! second x does n1 b 9 bo? x corresponds to a real accel]ation 7positive or negative7 ( rotation1 us+ ! ^w accel]ation 9 its te*nical k9ematical s5se4 ,cyon /ates t ! semicircul> canals only indirectly assi/ 9 giv+ a notion ( spatial relations4 ,he holds t k ( ! position ( bodies 9 space dep5ds on n]v\s impulses com+ f ! contract+ ocul> muscles2 t ! oculomotor c5tres are 9 intimate physiological relation%ip ) ! c5tres receiv+ impulses f ! n]ves ( ! semicircul> canals2 & t ! oculomotor c5tres1 ?us excit$1 produce ! movem5ts ( ! eyeballs1 :i* !n det]m9e our notions ( spatial relations4 ,^! views are support$ by exp]im5ts ( ,lee on dog-fi%4 ,:5 ! fi% is rotat$ r\nd diff]5t axes !re are comp5sat+ movem5ts ( ! eyes & f9s4 ,x 0 obs]v$ t if ! fi% 7 rotat$ 9 ! plane ( "o ( ! canals1 exactly ! same movem5ts ( ! eyes & f9s occurr$ z 7 produc$ by exp]im5tal op]ation & /imulation ( ! ampulla ( t canal4 ,sewall1 9 #ahhc1 c>ri$ out exp]im5ts on "y %>ks & skates ) negative results4 ,lee return$ to ! subject 9 #ahid1 &1 aft] num]\s exp]im5ts on dog-fi%1 9 :i* ! canals or ! auditory n]ves 7 divid$1 obta9$ evid5ce t ! ampullae conta9 s5se-organs connect$ ) ! s5se ( equilibrium4 ,x has be5 f\nd by physicians & auri/s t disease or injury ( ! canals1 occurr+ rapidly1 produces gidd9ess1 /agg]+1 ny/agmus 7a peculi> twit*+ movem5t ( ! muscles ( ! eyeballs71 vomit+1 noises 9 ! e> & m or less deafness4 ,x is said1 h[ev]1 t if pa?ological *anges come on sl[ly1 s t ! canals & ve/ibule are conv]t$ into a solid mass1 none ( ^! symptoms may occur4 ,on ! :ole1 ! evid5ce is 9 fav\r ( ! view t f ! semicircul> canals n]v\s impulses are transmitt$1 :i*1 co-ord9at$ ) impulses com+ f ! visual organs1 f ! muscles & f ! sk91 =m ! bases ( ^! guid+ s5sations on :i* ! s5se ( equilibrium dep5ds4 ,^! impulses may n rea* ! level ( consci\sness1 b !y call into action co-ord9at$ me*anisms by :i* complicat$ muscul> movem5ts are effect$4 ,full bibliographical ref]5ces are giv5 9 ! article on ,! ,e> by ,j4,g4 ,mc,kendrick1 9 ,s*af]'s ,textbook ( ,physiology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aaid4 7,j4 ,g4 ,m47 ,,equ9ox 7f ! ,lat4 aequus1 equal1 & nox1 night71 a t]m us$ to express ei!r ! mom5t at :i*1 or ! po9t at :i*1 ! sun app>5tly crosses ! cele/ial equator4 ,s9ce ! sun moves 9 ! ecliptic1 x is 9 ! la/-nam$ s5se ! po9t ( int]section ( ! ecliptic & ! cele/ial equator4 ,?is is ! usual mean+ ( ! t]m 9 a/ronomy4 ,!re are two su* po9ts1 opposite ea* o!r1 at "o ( :i* ! sun crosses ! equator t[>d ! nor? & at ! o!r t[>d ! s\?4 ,!y are call$ v]nal & autumnal respectively1 f ! relation ( ! correspond+ times to ! seasons ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,! l9e ( ! equ9oxes is ! imag9>y diamet] ( ! cele/ial sph]e :i* jo9s !m4 ,! v]nal equ9ox is ! initial po9t f :i* ! "r asc5sions & ! longitudes ( ! heav5ly bodies are measur$ 7see ,,a/ronomy3 ,sph]ical74 ,x is affect$ by ! motions ( ,precession & ,nutation1 ( :i* ! =m] has be5 kn[n s9ce ! "t ( ,hipp>*us4 ,! actual equ9ox is def9$ by fir/ tak+ ! conception ( a fictiti\s po9t call$ ! ,mean ,equ9ox1 :i* moves at a ne>ly uni=m rate1 sl[ v>y+1 h[ev]1 f c5tury to c5tury4 ,! true equ9ox !n moves ar\nd ! mean equ9ox 9 a p]iod equal to t ( ! moon's nodes4 ,^! two motions are def9$ ) great] detail 9 ! articles ,,precession ,,( ,,! ,,equ9oxes & ,,nutation4 ,equ9octial ,gales4--,at ! "t ( ! equ9ox x is commonly believ$ t /rong gales may be expect$4 ,?is popul> idea has no f\ndation 9 fact1 = cont9u$ obs]vations h fail$ to %[ any unusual preval5ce ( gales at ?is season4 ,9 "o case obs]vations tak5 = fifty ye>s %[ t dur+ ! five days f ! #ba/ to ! #be? ( ,m>* & ,septemb]1 !re 7 few] gales & /orms ?an dur+ ! prec$+ & succe$+ five days4 ,,equites 7horsem5 or knights1 f equus1 horse71 9 ,roman hi/ory1 orig9ally a division ( ! army1 b subsequ5tly a di/9ct political ord]1 :i* "u ! empire resum$ its milit>y "*4 ,accord+ to ! traditional acc\nt1 ,romulus in/itut$ a cavalry corps1 consi/+ ( ?ree c5turiae 7hundr$s71 call$ aft] ! ?ree tribes f :i* !y 7 tak5 7,ramnes1 ,tities1 ,luc]es71 divid$ into t5 turmae 7squadrons7 ( ?irty m5 ea*4 ,! collective "n = ! corps 0 cel]es 7! swift1 or possibly f ,greek3 keles1 a rid+ horse72 ,livy1 h[ev]1 re/ricts ! t]m to a special body-gu>d ( ,romulus4 ,! /atem5ts 9 anci5t au?orities z to ! *anges 9 ! numb] ( ! equites dur+ ! regal p]iod are v confus+2 b x is reg>d$ z c]ta9 t ,s]vius ,tuillus f\nd six c5turies 9 exi/5ce1 to :i* he add$ twelve1 mak+ eighte5 9 all1 a numb] :i* rema9$ un*ang$ ?r\gh\t ! republican p]iod4 ,a proposal by ,m4 ,porcius ,cato ! eld] to supplem5t ! defici5cy 9 ! cavalry by ! creation ( f\r additional c5turies 0 n adopt$4 ,! e>li] c5turies 7 call$ sex suffragia 7! six votes71 & at fir/ consi/$ exclusively ( patricians1 :ile ^? ( ,s]vius ,tullius 7 entirely or = ! mo/ "p plebeian4 ,until ! re=m ( ! comitia c5turiata 7probably dur+ ! c5sor%ip ( ,gaius ,flam9ius 9 #bbj ,b4,c42 see ,,comitia71 ! equites _h vot$ fir/1 b aft] t "t ?is privilege 0 transf]r$ to "o c5tury select$ by lot f ! c5turies ( ! equites & ! fir/ class4 ,! equites !n vot$ ) ! fir/ class1 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! sex suffragia & ! o!r c5turies be+ aboli%$4 ,al?\gh ! equites 7 select$ f ! weal?ie/ citiz5s1 s]vice 9 ! cavalry 0 s exp5sive t ! /ate gave f9ancial assi/ance4 ,a sum ( money 7aes eque/re7 0 giv5 to ea* eques = ! pur*ase ( two horses 7"o = himself & "o = 8 groom71 & a fur!r sum = _! keep 7aes horde>ium72 h5ce ! "n equites equo publico4 ,9 lat] times1 pay 0 sub/itut$ = ! aes horde>ium1 ?ree times z mu* z t ( ! infantry4 ,if compet5t1 an eques c\ld reta9 8 horse & vote aft] ! expiration ( 8 t5 ye>s' s]vice1 & 7till #abi ,b4,c47 ev5 aft] entry into ! s5ate4 ,z ! dem&s ^u ! s]vices ( ! cavalry increas$1 x 0 decid$ to supplem5t ! regul>s by ! enrolm5t ( weal?y citiz5s :o kept horses ( _! own4 ,! orig9 ( ^! equites equo privato dates back1 accord+ to ,livy 7v4 #g71 to ! siege ( ,veii1 :5 a numb] ( "y m5 came =w>d & (f]$ _! s]vices4 ,accord+ to ,momms51 al?\gh ! in/itution 0 n int5d$ to be p]man5t1 9 lat] times vacancies 9 ! ranks 7 fill$ 9 ?is mann]1 ) ! result t s]vice 9 ! cavalry1 ) ei!r a public or a private horse1 became obligatory ^u all ,roman citiz5s possess$ ( a c]ta9 income4 ,^! equites equo privato _h no vote 9 ! c5turies1 receiv$ pay 9 place ( ! aes eque/re1 & did n =m a di/9ct corps4 ,?us1 at a comp>atively e>ly p]iod1 ?ree classes ( equites may be di/+ui%$3 7a7 ,! patrician equites equo publico ( ! sex suffragia2 7b7 ! plebeian equites 9 ! twelve rema9+ c5turies2 7c7 ! equites equo privato1 bo? patrician & plebeian4 ,! equites 7 orig9ally *os5 by ! curiae1 !n 9 succession by ! k+s1 ! consuls1 & 7aft] #ddc ,b4,c47 by ! c5sors1 by :om !y 7 review$ e five ye>s 9 ! ,=um4 ,ea* eques1 z 8 "n 0 call$ out1 pass$ be=e ! c5sors1 lead+ 8 horse4 ,^? ^: physique & "* 7 satisfactory1 & :o _h tak5 c>e ( _! horses & equipm5ts1 7 bidd5 to lead _! horse on 7traduc]e equum71 ^? :o fail$ to pass ! scrut9y 7 ord]$ to sell x1 9 tok5 ( _! expulsion f ! corps4 ,?is inspection 7recognitio7 mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! full-dress procession 7transvectio7 on ! #ae? ( ,july f ! temple ( ,m>s or ,honos to ! ,capitol1 in/itut$ 9 #cjd ,b4,c4 by ! c5sor ,q4 ,fabius ,maximus ,rullianus to commemorate ! miracul\s int]v5tion ( ,ca/or & ,pollux at ! battle ( ,lake ,regillus4 ,bo? inspection & procession 7 discont9u$ be=e ! end ( ! republic1 b reviv$ & 9 a mann] comb9$ by ,augu/us4 ,9 !ory1 ! twelve plebeian c5turies 7 op5 to all freeborn y\?s ( ! age ( sev5te51 al?\gh 9 practice pref]5ce 0 giv5 to ! memb]s ( ! old] families4 ,o!r requirem5ts 7 s\nd heal?1 high moral "* & an hon\rable call+4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! republican p]iod1 s5ators 7 includ$ 9 ! eque/rian c5turies4 ,! only def9ite in=mation z to ! am\nt ( =tune necess>y ref]s to lat] republican & e>ly imp]ial times1 :5 x is kn[n to h be5 #djj1jjj se/]ces 7ab\t ,l#cejj to ,l#djjj74 ,! insignia ( ! equites 71 at fir/1 di/9ctly milit>y--su* z ! purple-edg$1 %ort milit>y cloak 7trabea7 & decorations = s]vice 9 ! field4 ,) ! ext5sion ( ! ,roman dom9ions1 ! equites lo/ _! milit>y "*4 ,prolong$ s]vice abroad possess$ little attraction = ! pick ( ! ,roman y\?1 & recruit+ = ! cavalry f ! eque/rian c5turies 0 discont9u$4 ,! equites rema9$ at home1 or only w5t out z memb]s ( ! g5]al's /aff1 _! places be+ tak5 by ! equites equo privato1 ! cavalry ( ! allies & ! mo/ skill$ horsem5 ( ! subject populations4 ,! fir/ gradually disappe>$1 & ,roman citiz5s 7 r>ely f\nd 9 ! ranks ( ! effective cavalry4 ,9 ^! circum/ances !re grew up 9 ,rome a class ( weal?y m51 ^: sole occupation x 0 to amass l>ge =tunes by speculation1 & :o f\nd a mo/ lucrative field ( ent]prise 9 /ate contracts & ! f>m+ ( ! public rev5ues4 ,^! tax-f>m]s 7see ,,publicani7 7 already 9 exi/5ce at ! "t ( ! ,second ,punic ,w>2 & _! numb]s & influ5ce increas$ z ! v>i\s prov9ces 7 add$ to ! ,roman dom9ions4 ,! *ange ( ! equites into a body ( f9anci]s 0 fur!r mat]ially promot$ 7a7 by ! lex ,claudia 7#bah ,b4,c471 :i* prohibit$ s5ators f engag+ 9 comm]cial pursuits1 especially if 7z seems probable7 x includ$ public contracts 7cf4 ,,flam9ius1 ,,gaius72 7b7 by ! enactm5t 9 ! "t ( ,gaius ,grac*us exclud+ memb]s ( ! s5ate f ! eque/rian c5turies4 ,^! two measures def9itely m>k$ (f ! ari/ocracy ( bir? f ! ari/ocracy ( weal?--! l&$ proprietor f ! capitali/4 ,! t]m equites1 orig9ally conf9$ to ! purely milit>y eque/rian c5turies ( ,s]vius ,tullius1 n[ came to be appli$ to all :o possess$ ! prop]ty qualification ( #djj1jjj se/]ces4 ,z ! equites practically monopoliz$ ! f>m+ ( ! taxes1 !y came to be reg>d$ z id5tical ) ! publicani1 n1 z ,pl9y rem>ks1 because any p>ticul> rank 0 necess>y to obta9 ! f>m+ ( ! taxes1 b because su* occupation 0 beyond ! rea* ( all except ^? :o 7 possess$ ( consid]able means4 ,?us1 at ! "t ( ! ,grac*i1 ^! equites-publicani =m$ a close f9ancial corporation ( ab\t #cj1jjj memb]s1 hold+ an int]m$iate position betwe5 ! nobility & ! l[] classes1 ke5ly alive to _! own int]e/s1 & ready to /& by "o ano!r :5 attack$4 ,al?\gh to "s ext5t look$ d[n ^u by ! s5ate z foll[+ a di%on\rable occupation1 !y _h z a rule sid$ ) ! latt]1 z be+ at lea/ less ho/ile to !m ?an ! democratic p>ty4 ,to obta9 ! support ( ! capitali/s1 ,gaius ,grac*us conceiv$ ! plan ( creat+ friction betwe5 !m & ! s5ate1 :i* he c>ri$ out by h&+ ov] to !m ! control 7a7 ( ! jury-c\rts1 & 7b7 ( ! rev5ues ( ,asia4 7a7 ,hi!rto1 ! li/ ( jurym5 = s]vice 9 ! majority ( processes1 bo? civil & crim9al1 _h be5 compos$ exclusively ( s5ators4 ,! result 0 t *>ges ( corruption & extortion fail$1 :5 br\ght aga9/ memb]s ( t ord]1 ev5 9 cases :]e !re 0 little d\bt ( _! guilt4 ,! popul> indignation at su* sc&al\s misc>riages ( ju/ice r5d]$ a *ange 9 ! composition ( ! c\rts imp]ative4 ,app>5tly ,grac*us at fir/ propos$ to create new s5ators f ! equites & to select ! jurym5 f ?is mix$ body1 b ?is mod]ate proposal 0 reject$ 9 fav\r ( "o m radical 7see ,w4,w4 ,f[l] 9 ,classical ,review1 ,july #ahif74 ,by ! lex ,sempronia 7#abc ,b4,c47 ! li/ 0 to be drawn f p]sons ( free bir? ov] ?irty ye>s ( age1 :o mu/ possess ! eque/rian c5sus1 & mu/ n be s5ators4 ,al?\gh ?is measure 0 b\nd to set s5ators & equites at v>iance1 x 9 no way improv$ ! lot ( ^? *iefly conc]n$4 ,9 fact1 x increas$ ! burd5 ( ! luckless prov9cials1 ^: only appeal lay to a body ( m5 ^: int]e/s 7 id5tical ) ^? ( ! publicani4 ,provid$ he left ! tax-ga!r] alone1 ! gov]nor might squeeze :at he c\ld out ( ! p1 :ile on ! o!r h&1 if he 7 humanely dispos$1 x 0 dang]\s = him to remon/rate4 7b7 ,! taxes ( ,asia _h =m]ly be5 paid by ! inhabitants !mselves 9 ! %ape ( a fix$ sum4 ,grac*us ord]$ t ! taxes1 direct & indirect1 %\ld be increas$1 & t ! f>m+ ( !m %\ld be put up to auction at ,rome4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! prov9cials 7 ignor$1 & ev]y?+ 0 left 9 ! h&s ( ! capitali/s4 ,f ?is "t dates ! exi/5ce ( ! eque/rian ord] z an (ficially recogniz$ political in/rum5t4 ,:5 ! control ( ! c\rts pass$ into ! h&s ( ! prop]ty equites1 all :o 7 summon$ to und]take ! duties ( judices 7 call$ equites2 ! ordo judicum 7! (ficial title7 & ! ordo eque/] 7 reg>d$ z id5tical4 ,x is probable t c]ta9 privileges ( ! equites 7 due to ,grac*us2 t ( we>+ ! gold r+1 hi!rto res]v$ = s5ators2 t ( special seats 9 ! !atre1 subsequ5tly )drawn 7probably by ,sulla7 & re/or$ by ! lex ,o?onis 7#fg ,b4,c472 ! n>r[ b& ( purple on ! tunic z di/+ui%$ f ! broad b& worn by ! s5ators4 ,v>i\s attempts 7 made by ! s5ate to rega9 control ( ! c\rts1 b )\t success4 ,! lex ,livia ( ,m4 ,livius ,drusus 7q4v471 pass$ ) t object1 b irregul>ly & by ! aid ( viol5ce1 0 annull$ by ! s5ate itself4 ,9 #hb ,sulla re/or$ ! "r ( s]v+ z judices to ! s5ate1 to :i* he elevat$ #cjj ( ! mo/ influ5tial equites1 ^: support he ?us hop$ to secure2 at ! same "t he indirectly dealt a bl[ at ! ord] g5]ally1 by aboli%+ ! (fice ( ! c5sor 7imm$iately reviv$71 9 :om 0 ve/$ ! "r ( be/[+ ! public horse4 ,to ?is p]iod ,momms5 assigns ! regulation1 g5]ally attribut$ to ,augu/us1 t ! sons ( s5ators %\ld be knights by "r ( bir?4 ,by ! lex ,aurelia 7#gj ,b4,c47 ! judices 7 to be *os5 9 equal numb]s f s5ators1 equites & tribuni a]>ii 7see ,,a]>ium71 7! la/-nam$ be+ closely connect$ ) ! equites71 :o ?us practically comm&$ a majority4 ,ab\t ?is "t ! influ5ce ( ! eque/rian ord] rea*$ its height1 & ,cic]o's great object 0 to reconcile x ) ! s5ate4 ,9 ?is he 0 successful at ! "t ( ! ,catil9>ian conspiracy1 9 ! suppression ( :i* he 0 mat]ially aid$ by ! equites4 ,b ! union did n la/ long2 %ortly aft]w>ds ! majority rang$ !mselves on ! side ( ,julius ,caes>1 :o did away ) ! tribuni a]>ii z judices1 & replac$ !m by equites4 ,augu/us und]took ! ?or\gh reorganization ( ! eque/rian ord] on a milit>y basis4 ,! equites equo privato 7 aboli%$ 7accord+ to ,h]zog1 n till ! reign ( ,tib]ius7 & ! t]m equites 0 (ficially limit$ to ! equites equo publico1 al?\gh all :o possess$ ! prop]ty qualification 7 /ill consid]$ to belong to ! eque/rian ord]4 ,= ! equites equo publico high moral "*1 good heal? & ! eque/rian =tune 7 necess>y4 ,al?\gh free bir? 0 consid]$ indisp5sable1 ! "r ( we>+ ! gold r+ 7jus anuli aurei7 0 frequ5tly be/[$ by ! emp]or ^u fre$m51 :o !reby became +5ui & eligible z equites4 ,tib]ius1 h[ev]1 insi/$ ^u free bir? on ! fa!r's side to ! ?ird g5]ation4 ,extreme y\? 0 no b>2 ! emp]or ,m>cus ,aurelius _h be5 an eques at ! age ( six4 ,! sons ( s5ators 7 eligible by "r ( bir?1 & appe> to h be5 kn[n z equites illu/res4 ,! "r ( be/[+ ! equus publicus 0 ve/$ 9 ! emp]or2 once giv51 x 0 = life1 & 0 only =feitable ?r\gh degradation = "s (f5ce or ! loss ( ! eque/rian =tune4 ,augu/us divid$ ! equites into six turmae 7reg>d$ by ,hirs*feld z a cont9uation ( ! sex suffragia74 ,ea* 0 "u ! comm& ( a sevir 7,greek3 hil>*os71 :o 0 appo9t$ by ! emp]or & *ang$ e ye>4 ,dur+ _! t]m ( comm& ! seviri _h to exhibit games 7ludi sevirales74 ,"u ^! (fic]s ! equites =m$ a k9d ( corporation1 :i*1 al?\gh n (ficially recogniz$1 _h ! "r ( pass+ resolutions1 *iefly su* z embodi$ acts ( homage to ! imp]ial h\se4 ,x is n kn[n :e!r ! turmae conta9$ a fix$ numb] ( equites2 !re is no d\bt t1 9 assign+ ! public horse1 ,augu/us w5t f> beyond ! e>li] figure ( #ahjj4 ,?us1 ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus m5tions #ejjj equites z tak+ "p 9 a review at :i* he himself 0 pres5t4 ,z be=e1 ! equites wore ! n>r[1 purple-/rip$ tunic1 & ! gold r+1 ! latt] n[ be+ consid]$ ! di/9ctive badge ( knigh?ood4 ,! f\rte5 r[s 9 ! !atre 7 ext5d$ by ,augu/us to seats 9 ! circus4 ,! old recognitio 0 replac$ by ! probatio1 conduct$ by ! emp]or 9 8 c5sorial capacity1 assi/$ by an advisory bo>d ( specially select$ s5ators4 ,! c]emony 0 comb9$ ) a procession1 :i*1 l ! e>li] transvectio1 took place on ! #ae? ( ,july1 & at su* o!r times z ! emp]or pleas$4 ,z 9 e>li] times1 (f5d]s 7 puni%$ by expulsion4 ,9 ord] to provide a supply ( compet5t (fic]s1 ea* eques 0 requir$ to fill c]ta9 subord9ate po/s1 call$ militiae eque/res4 ,^! 7 7#a7 ! comm& ( an auxili>y cohort2 7#b7 ! tribunate ( a legion2 7#c7 ! comm& ( an auxili>y cavalry squadron1 ?is ord] be+ z a rule /rictly adh]$ to4 ,to ^! ,septimius ,sev]us add$ ! c5turion%ip4 ,nom9ation to ! militiae eque/res 0 9 ! h&s ( ! emp]or4 ,aft] ! completion ( _! prelim9>y milit>y s]vice1 ! equites 7 eligible = a numb] ( civil po/s1 *iefly ^? ) :i* ! emp]or himself 0 closely conc]n$4 ,su* 7 v>i\s procurator%ips2 ! prefectures ( ! corn supply1 ( ! fleet1 ( ! wat*1 ( ! praetorian gu>ds2 ! gov]nor%ips ( rec5tly acquir$ prov9ces 7,egypt1 ,noricum71 ! o!rs be+ res]v$ = s5ators4 ,at ! same "t1 ! abolition ( ! indirect me?od ( collect+ ! taxes 9 ! prov9ces greatly r$uc$ ! political influ5ce ( ! equites4 ,c]ta9 religi\s functions ( m9or importance 7 also res]v$ = !m4 ,9 ! jury c\rts1 ! equites1 ?anks to ,julius ,caes>1 already =m$ two-?irds ( ! judices2 ,augu/us1 by exclud+ ! s5ators altoge!r1 virtually gave !m ! sole control ( ! tribunals4 ,"o ( ! *ief objects ( ! emp]ors be+ to weak5 ! influ5ce ( ! s5ate by ! opposition ( ! eque/rian ord]1 ! practice 0 adopt$ ( elevat+ ^? equites :o _h rea*$ a c]ta9 /age 9 _! c>e] to ! rank ( s5ator by adlectio4 ,c]ta9 (ficial po/s1 ( :i* x w\ld h be5 inadvisable to deprive s5ators1 c\ld ?us be be/[$ ^u ! promot$ equites4 ,! control ( ! imp]ial correspond5ce & purse 0 at fir/ 9 ! h&s ( fre$m5 & slaves4 ,! emp]or ,claudius t5tatively entru/$ c]ta9 po/s connect$ ) ^! to ! equites2 9 ! "t ( ,hadrian ?is became ! regul> cu/om4 ,?us a civil c>e] 0 op5 to ! equites )\t ! obligation ( prelim9>y milit>y s]vice1 & ! emp]or 0 fre$ f ! p]nici\s influ5ce ( fre$m54 ,aft] ! reign ( ,m>cus ,aurelius 7accord+ to ,momms57 ! equites 7 divid$ into3 7a7 viri em95tissimi1 ! prefects ( ! praetorian gu>d2 7b7 viri p]fectissimi1 ! o!r prefects & ! heads ( ! f9ancial & secret>ial dep>tm5ts2 7c7 viri egregii1 fir/ m5tion$ 9 ! reign ( ,anton9us ,pius1 a title by "r ( ! procurators g5]ally4 ,"u ! empire ! p[] ( ! equites 0 at its highe/ 9 ! "t ( ,diocletian2 9 consequ5ce ( ! transf]5ce ( ! capital to ,con/ant9ople1 !y sank to ! position ( a m]e city gu>d1 "u ! control ( ! prefect ( ! wat*4 ,_! hi/ory may be said to end ) ! reign ( ,con/ant9e ! ,great4 ,m5tion may also be made ( ! equites s+ul>es ,augu/i4 ,! body-gu>d ( ,augu/us1 consi/+ ( =eign soldi]s 7*iefly ,g]mans & ,batavians71 aboli%$ by ,galba1 0 reviv$ f ! "t ( ,trajan or ,hadrian "u ! above title4 ,x 0 *iefly recruit$ f ! pick ( ! prov9cial cavalry1 b conta9$ "s ,roman citiz5s4 ,x =m$ ! imp]ial ,swiss gu>d1 & nev] left ! city except to accompany ! emp]or4 ,9 ! "t ( ,sev]us1 ^! equites 7 divid$ into two corps1 ea* ( :i* _h its sep>ate qu>t]s1 & 0 comm&$ by a tribune "u ! ord]s ( ! prefect ( ! praetorian gu>d4 ,!y 7 subsequ5tly replac$ by ! protectores ,augu/i4 ,see fur!r article ,,rome3 ,hi/ory2 also ,t4 ,momms51 ,romis*es ,/aatsre*t1 iii42 ,j4,n4 ,madvig1 ,die ,v]fassung des romis*5 ,/aates1 i42 ,r4 ,cagnat 9 ,d>emb]g & ,saglio's ,dictionnaire des antiquites1 :]e full ref]5ces to anci5t au?orities are giv5 9 ! footnotes2 ,a4,s4 ,wilk9s 9 ,smi?'s ,diction>y ( ,greek & ,roman ,antiquities 7#crd ed41 #ahia72 ,e4 ,belot1 ,hi/oire des *evali]s roma9s 7#ahff-ahgc72 ,h4,o4 ,hirs*feld1 ,unt]su*ung5 auf dem ,gebiete d] romis*5 ,v]waltungsges*i*te 7,b]l91 #ahgg72 ,e4 ,h]zog1 ,ges*i*te und ,sy/em d] romis*5 ,/aatsv]fassung 7,leipzig1 #ahhd-ahia72 ,a4,h4 ,fri$l&]1 ,sitt5ges*i*te ,roms1 i4 7#aija72 ,a4,h4,j4 ,gre5idge1 ,hi/ory ( ,rome1 i4 7#aijd72 ,j4,b4 ,bury1 ,! ,/ud5t's ,roman ,empire 7#ahic72 ,t4,m4 ,taylor1 ,political & ,con/itutional ,hi/ory ( ,rome 7#ahii74 ,= a concise summ>y ( diff]5t views ( ! sex suffragia see ,a4 ,b\*e-,lecl]cq's ,manuel des antiquites roma9es1 quot$ 9 ,d>emb]g & ,saglio2 & on ! equites s+ul>es1 ,t4 ,momms5 9 ,h]mes1 xvi4 7#ahha71 p4 #deh4 7,j4 ,h4 ,f47 ,,equity 7,lat4 aequitas71 a t]m :i* 9 its mo/ g5]al s5se means equality or ju/ice2 9 its mo/ te*nical s5se x means a sy/em ( law or a body ( connect$ legal pr9ciples1 :i* h sup]s$$ or supplem5t$ ! common law on ! gr\nd ( _! intr9sic sup]iority4 ,ari/otle 7,e?ics1 bk4 v4 c4 #aj7 def9es equity z a bett] sort ( ju/ice1 :i* corrects legal ju/ice :]e ! latt] errs ?r\gh be+ express$ 9 a univ]sal =m & n tak+ acc\nt ( p>ticul> cases4 ,:5 ! law speaks univ]sally1 & some?+ happ5s :i* is n accord+ to ! common c\rse ( ev5ts1 x is "r t ! law %\ld be modifi$ 9 its application to t p>ticul> case1 z ! lawgiv] himself w\ld h done1 if ! case _h be5 pres5t to 8 m9d4 ,accord+ly ! equitable man 7,greek3 epieikes7 is he :o does n pu% ! law to its extreme1 b1 hav+ legal ju/ice on 8 side1 is dispos$ to make all[ances4 ,equity z ?us describ$ w\ld correspond r to ! judicial discretion :i* modifies ! adm9i/ration ( ! law ?an to ! antagoni/ic sy/em :i* claims to sup]s$e ! law4 ,! "p play$ by equity 9 ! developm5t ( law is admirably illu/rat$ 9 ! well-kn[n "w ( ,sir ,h5ry ,ma9e on ,anci5t ,law4 ,positive law1 at lea/ 9 progressive societies1 is con/antly t5d+ to fall beh9d public op9ion1 & ! exp$i5ts adopt$ = br++ x into h>mony !re) are ?ree1 viz4 legal fictions1 equity & /atutory legislation4 ,equity "h is def9$ to mean any body ( rules exi/+ by ! side ( ! orig9al civil law1 f\nd$ on di/9ct pr9ciples1 & claim+ incid5tally to sup]s$e ! civil law 9 virtue ( a sup]ior sanctity inh]5t 9 ^? pr9ciples4 ,x is ?us diff]5t f legal fiction1 by :i* a new rule is introduc$ surreptiti\sly1 & "u ! pret5ce t no *ange has be5 made 9 ! law1 & f /atutory legislation1 9 :i* ! obligatory =ce ( ! rule is n suppos$ to dep5d ^u its intr9sic fitness4 ,! s\rce ( ,roman equity 0 ! f]tile !ory ( natural law1 or ! law common to all nations4 ,ev5 9 ! ,in/itutes ( ,ju/9ian ! di/9ction is c>efully drawn 9 ! laws ( a c\ntry betwe5 ^? :i* are peculi> to itself & ^? :i* natural reason appo9ts = all mank9d4 ,! connexion 9 ,roman law betwe5 ! ideas ( equity1 nature1 natural law & ! law common to all nations1 & ! influ5ce ( ! ,/oical philosophy on _! developm5t1 are fully discuss$ 9 ! ?ird *apt] ( ! "w we h ref]r$ to4 ,! ag5cy by :i* ^! pr9ciples 7 introduc$ 0 ! edicts ( ! praetor1 an annual proclamation sett+ =? ! mann] 9 :i* ! magi/rate int5d$ to adm9i/] ! law dur+ 8 ye> ( (fice4 ,ea* successive praetor adopt$ ! edict ( 8 pr$ecessor1 & add$ new equitable rules ( 8 own1 until ! fur!r gr[? ( ! irregul> code 0 /opp$ by ! praetor ,salvius ,julianus 9 ! reign ( ,hadrian4 ,! place ( ! praetor 0 occupi$ 9 ,engli% jurisprud5ce by ! "l high *ancellor4 ,! real beg9n+ ( ,engli% equity is to be f\nd 9 ! cu/om ( h&+ ov] to t (fic]1 = adjudication1 ! compla9ts :i* 7 address$ to ! k+1 pray+ = rem$ies beyond ! rea* ( ! common law4 ,ov] & above ! au?ority delegat$ to ! ord9>y c\ncils or c\rts1 a res]ve ( judicial p[] 0 believ$ to reside 9 ! k+1 :i* 0 invok$ z ( grace by ! suitors :o c\ld n obta9 relief f any inf]ior tribunal4 ,to ! *ancellor1 z already ! head ( ! judicial sy/em1 ^! petitions 7 ref]r$1 al?\gh he 0 n at fir/ ! only (fic] ?r\gh :om ! pr]ogative ( grace 0 adm9i/]$4 ,9 ! reign ( ,edw>d ,,iii4 ! equitable jurisdiction ( ! c\rt appe>s to h be5 e/abli%$4 ,its con/itutional orig9 0 analog\s to t ( ! /> *amb] & ! c\rt ( reque/s4 ,! latt]1 9 fact1 0 a m9or c\rt ( equity atta*$ to ! "l privy seal z ! c\rt ( *anc]y 0 to ! *ancellor4 ,! successful assumption ( extraord9>y or equitable jurisdiction by ! *ancellor caus$ simil> pret5sions to be made by o!r (fic]s & c\rts4 ,n only ! c\rt ( ex*equ]1 ^: functions 7 9 a peculi> mann] connect$ ) royal au?ority1 b ! c\nties palat9e ( ,*e/]1 ,lanca/] & ,durham1 ! c\rt ( great session 9 ,wales1 ! univ]sities1 ! city ( ,london1 ! ,c9que ,ports & o!r places sil5tly assum$ extraord9>y jurisdiction simil> to t ex]cis$ 9 ! c\rt ( *anc]y4 ,ev5 private p]sons1 lords & ladies1 affect$ to e/abli% 9 _! hon\rs c\rts ( equity4 ,engli% equity has "o m>k$ hi/orical peculi>ity1 viz4 t x e/abli%$ itself 9 a set ( indep5d5t tribunals :i* rema9$ 9 /&+ contra/ to ! ord9>y c\rts = _m hundr$ ye>s4 ,9 ,roman law ! judge gave ! pref]5ce to ! equitable rule2 9 ,engli% law ! equitable rule 0 en=c$ by a di/9ct set ( judges4 ,"o cause ( ?is sep>ation 0 ! rigid adh]5ce to prec$5t on ! "p ( ! common law c\rts4 ,ano!r 0 ! jeal\sy prevail+ 9 ,engl& aga9/ ! pr9ciples ( ! ,roman law on :i* ,engli% equity to a l>ge ext5t 0 f\nd$4 ,:5 a case ( pr]ogative 0 ref]r$ to ! *ancellor 9 ! reign ( ,edw>d ,,iii41 he 0 requir$ to grant su* rem$y z %\ld be consonant to hone/y 7hone/as74 ,& hone/y1 consci5ce & equity 7 said to be ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! c\rt4 ,! e>ly *ancellors 7 ecclesia/ics1 & "u _! influ5ce n only moral pr9ciples1 :]e ^! 7 n reg>d$ by ! common law1 b also ! equitable pr9ciples ( ! ,roman law 7 introduc$ into ,engli% jurisprud5ce4 ,betwe5 ?is po9t & ! "t :5 equity became settl$ z a portion ( ! legal sy/em1 hav+ fix$ pr9ciples ( its own1 v>i\s views ( its nature seem to h prevail$4 ,= a long "t x 0 ?\ght t prec$5ts c\ld h no place 9 equity1 inasmu* z x pr(ess$ 9 ea* case to d t :i* 0 j2 & we f9d ?is view ma9ta9$ by common lawy]s aft] x _h be5 ab&on$ by ! pr(essors ( equity !mselves4 ,g4 ,sp5ce1 9 8 book on ! ,equitable ,jurisdiction ( ! ,c\rt ( ,*anc]y1 quotes a case 9 ! reign ( ,*>les ,,ii41 9 :i* *ief ju/ice ,vaughan said3 ,i wond] to he> ( cit+ ( prec$5ts 9 matt] ( equity1 = if !re be equity 9 a case1 t equity is an univ]sal tru?1 & !re c be no prec$5t 9 x2 s t 9 any prec$5t t c be produc$1 if x be ! same ) ?is case1 ! reason & equity is ! same 9 itself2 & if ! prec$5t be n ! same case ) ?is x is n to be cit$4 ,b ! "l keep] ,bridgeman answ]$3 ,c]ta9ly prec$5ts are v necess>y & useful to u1 = 9 !m we may f9d ! reasons ( ! equity to guide u1 & besides ! au?ority ( ^? :o made !m is mu* to be reg>d$4 ,we %all suppose !y did x ^u great consid]ation & weigh+ ( ! matt]1 & x w\ld be v /range & v ill if we %\ld di/urb & set aside :at has be5 ! c\rse = a long s]ies ( times & ages4 ,seld5's description is well kn[n3 ,equity is a rogui% ?+4 ',tis all "o z if !y %\ld make ! /&>d = measure ! *ancellor's foot4 ,"l ,nott+ham 9 #afgf reconcil$ ! anci5t !ory & ! e/abli%$ practice by say+ t ! consci5ce :i* guid$ ! c\rt 0 n ! natural consci5ce ( ! man1 b ! civil & political consci5ce ( ! judge4 ,! same t5d5cy ( equity to settle into a sy/em ( law is se5 9 ! recognition ( its limits--9 ! fact t x did n attempt 9 all cases to give a rem$y :5 ! rule ( ! common law 0 contr>y to ju/ice4 ,cases ( h>d%ip1 :i* ! e>ly *ancellors w\ld c]ta9ly h reliev$1 7 pass$ ov] by lat] judges1 simply because no prec$5t c\ld be f\nd = _! int]f]5ce4 ,! po9t at :i* ! introduction ( new pr9ciples ( equity f9ally /opp$ is fix$ by ,sir ,h5ry ,ma9e 9 ! *ancellor%ip ( ,"l ,eldon1 :o held t ! doctr9es ( ! c\rt ought to be z well settl$ & made z uni=m almo/ z ^? ( ! common law4 ,f t "t c]ta9ly equity1 l common law1 has pr(ess$ to take its pr9ciples :olly f record$ decisions & /atute law4 ,! view 7traceable no d\bt to ! ,ari/otelian def9ition7 t equity mitigates ! h>d%ips ( ! law :]e ! law errs ?r\gh be+ fram$ 9 univ]sals1 is to be f\nd 9 "s ( ! e>li] writ+s4 ,?us 9 ! ,doctor & ,/ud5t x is said3 ,law mak]s take he$ to su* ?+s z may (t5 come1 & n to e p>ticul> case1 = !y c\ld n ?\gh !y w\ld2 !re=e1 9 "s cases x is necess>y to leave ! words ( ! law & foll[ t reason & ju/ice require?1 & to t int5t equity is orda9$1 t is to say1 to temp] & mitigate ! rig\r ( ! law4 ,& ,"l ,ellesm]e said3 ,! cause :y !re is a *anc]y is = t m5's actions are s div]s & inf9ite t x is impossible to make any g5]al law :i* %all aptly meet ) e p>ticul> act & n fail 9 "s circum/ances4 ,mod]n equity1 x ne$ h>dly be said1 does n pr(ess to s(t5 ! rig\r ( ! law1 or to correct ! errors into :i* x falls by reason ( its g5]ality4 ,to give any acc\nt1 ev5 9 outl9e1 ( ! subject matt] ( equity )9 ! necess>y limits ( ?is article w\ld be impossible4 ,x w be suffici5t to say "h t ! classification g5]ally adopt$ by text-writ]s is bas$ ^u ! relations ( equity to ! common law1 ( :i* "s explanation is giv5 above4 ,?us equitable jurisdiction is said to be exclusive1 concurr5t or auxili>y4 ,equity has exclusive jurisdiction :]e x recognizes rights :i* are unkn[n to ! common law4 ,! mo/ important example is tru/s4 ,equity has concurr5t jurisdiction 9 cases :]e ! law recogniz$ ! "r b did n give adequate relief1 or did n give relief )\t circuity ( action or "s simil> inconv5i5ce4 ,& equity has auxili>y jurisdiction :5 ! ma*9]y ( ! c\rts ( law 0 unable to procure ! necess>y evid5ce4 ,! evils ( ?is d\ble sy/em ( judicature1 says ! report ( ! judicature commission 7#ahfc-ahfg71 & ! confusion & conflict ( jurisdiction to :i* x has l$1 h be5 long kn[n & ackn[l$g$4 ,a p>tial attempt to meet ! difficulty 0 made by sev]al acts ( p>liam5t 7pass$ aft] ! reports ( commissions appo9t$ 9 #ahej & #ahea71 :i* enabl$ c\rts ( law & equity bo? to ex]cise c]ta9 p[]s =m]ly peculi> to "o or o!r ( !m4 ,a m complete rem$y 0 introduc$ by ! ,judicature ,act #ahgc1 :i* consolidat$ ! c\rts ( law & equity1 & ord]$ t law & equity %\ld be adm9i/]$ concurr5tly accord+ to ! rules conta9$ 9 ! #bf? section ( ! act4 ,at ! same "t _m matt]s ( equitable jurisdiction are /ill left to ! *anc]y division ( ! ,high ,c\rt 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 7,see ,,*anc]y47 ,,au?orities4--,! pr9ciples ( equity z set out by ! foll[+ writ]s may be consult$3 ,j4 ,/ory1 ,j4,w4 ,smi?1 ,h4,a4 ,smi? & ,w4 ,a%burn]2 & = ! hi/ory see ,g4 ,sp5ce1 ,! ,equitable ,jurisdiction ( ! ,c\rt ( ,*anc]y 7#b vols41 #ahdf-ahdi72 ,d4,m4 ,k]ly1 ,hi/orical ,sket* ( ! ,equitable ,jurisdiction ( ! ,c\rt ( ,*anc]y 7#ahij74 ,,equival5t1 9 *emi/ry1 ! proportion ( an elem5t :i* w comb9e ) or replace unit weight ( hydrog54 ,:5 multipli$ by ! val5cy x gives ! atomic weight4 ,! det]m9ation ( equival5t weights is treat$ 9 ! article ,,/oi*iometry4 7,see also ,,*emi/ry47 ,9 a m g5]al s5se ! t]m equival5t is us$ to d5ote quantities ( sub/ances :i* neutralize "o ano!r1 z = example ,na,o,h1 ,h,cl1 #a_/b ,h#b,,s#d1 #a_/b ,ba7,,oh7#b4 ,,er>d1 ,,seba/i5 7#ageb-ahca71 ,fr5* manufactur] ( musical in/rum5ts1 di/+ui%$ especially = ! improvem5ts he made ^u ! h>p & ! pian(orte1 0 born at ,/rassburg on ! #e? ( ,april #ageb4 ,:ile a boy he %[$ great aptitude = practical geometry & ar*itectural draw+1 & 9 ! work%op ( 8 fa!r1 :o 0 an uphol/]]1 he f\nd opportunity = ! e>ly ex]cise ( 8 me*anical +5uity4 ,:5 he 0 sixte5 8 fa!r di$1 & he remov$ to ,p>is :]e he obta9$ employm5t ) a h>psi*ord mak]4 ,"h 8 rem>kable con/ructive skill1 ?\gh x spe$ily excit$ ! jeal\sy ( 8 ma/] & procur$ 8 dismissal1 almo/ equally soon attract$ ! notice ( musicians & musical in/rum5t mak]s ( em95ce4 ,be=e he 0 tw5ty-five he set up 9 bus9ess = himself1 8 fir/ work%op be+ a room 9 ! hotel ( ! du*esse de ,vill]oi1 :o gave him w>m enc\ragem5t4 ,"h he con/ruct$ 9 #aghj 8 fir/ pian(orte1 :i* 0 also "o ( ! fir/ manufactur$ 9 ,france4 ,x quickly secur$ = its mak] su* a reputation t he 0 soon ov]:elm$ ) commissions1 & f9d+ assi/ance necess>y1 he s5t = 8 bro!r1 ,jean ,bapti/e1 9 conjunction ) :om he e/abli%$ 9 ! rue de ,b\rbon1 9 ! ,faub\rg ,/ ,g]ma91 a piano manufactory1 :i* 9 a few ye>s became "o ( ! mo/ celebrat$ 9 ,europe4 ,on ! outbreak ( ! ,revolution he w5t to ,london :]e he e/abli%$ a factory4 ,return+ to ,p>is 9 #agif1 he soon aft]w>ds introduc$ gr& pian(ortes1 made 9 ! ,engli% fa%ion1 ) improvem5ts ( 8 own4 ,9 #ahjh he aga9 visit$ ,london1 :]e1 two ye>s lat]1 he produc$ 8 fir/ d\ble-movem5t h>p4 ,he _h previ\sly made v>i\s improvem5ts 9 ! manufacture ( h>ps1 b ! new in/rum5t 0 an imm5se advance ^u any?+ he _h be=e produc$1 & obta9$ su* a reputation t = "s "t he devot$ himself exclusively to its manufacture4 ,x has be5 said t 9 ! ye> foll[+ 8 inv5tion he made h>ps to ! value ( ,l#be1jjj4 ,9 #ahab he return$ to ,p>is1 & cont9u$ to devote himself to ! fur!r p]fect+ ( ! two in/rum5ts ) :i* 8 "n is associat$4 ,9 #ahbc he cr[n$ 8 "w by produc+ 8 model gr& pian(orte ) ! d\ble escapem5t4 ,er>d di$ at ,passy1 on ! #e? ( ,augu/ #ahca4 7,see also ,,h>p & ,,pian(orte47 ,,erasmus1 ,,desid]ius 7#adff-aecf71 ,dut* s*ol> & !ologian1 0 born on ! night ( ! #bg_/bh? ( ,octob]1 probably 9 #adff2 b 8 /atem5ts ab\t 8 age are conflict+1 & 9 view ( 8 own unc]ta9ty 7,ep4 x4 #bi3 #dff7 & ! weakness ( 8 memory = dates1 ! ye> ( 8 bir? _c be def9itely fix$4 ,8 fa!r's "n seems to h be5 ,rog]ius ,g]>dus4 ,he himself 0 *ri/5$ ,h]asmus2 b 9 #aejc1 :5 becom+ famili> ) ,greek1 he assimilat$ ! "n to a fanci$ ,greek orig9al1 :i* he _h a few ye>s be=e ,lat9iz$ into ,desyd]ius4 ,a contempor>y au?ority /ates t he 0 born at ,g\da1 8 fa!r's native t[n2 b he adopt$ ! /yle ,rott]damm5sis or ,rot]odamus1 9 accordance ) a /ory to :i* he himself gave cr$5ce4 ,8 fir/ s*ool+ 0 at ,g\da "u ,pet] ,w9ckel1 :o 0 aft]w>ds vice-pa/or ( ! *ur*4 ,9 ! dull r\nd ( in/ruction 9 gramm> he did n di/+ui% himself1 & 0 surpass$ by 8 e>ly fri5d & companion1 ,william ,h]man1 :o 0 ,w9ckel's fav\rite pupil4 ,f ,g\da ! two boys w5t to ! s*ool atta*$ to ,/ ,lebu9's *ur* at ,dev5t]1 :i* 0 "o ( ! fir/ 9 nor!rn ,europe to feel ! influ5ce ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,erasmus 0 at ,dev5t] f #adge to #adhd1 & :5 he left1 _h le>nt f ,johannes ,s9?ius 7,syn!im7 & ,alex&] ,hegius1 :o _h come z headma/] 9 #adhc1 ! love ( lett]s :i* 0 ! rul+ passion ( 8 life4 ,at "s p]iod1 p]haps 9 an int]val ( 8 "t at ,dev5t]1 he 0 a *ori/] at ,utre*t "u ! fam\s organi/ ( ! ca!dral1 ,jacob ,obre*t4 ,ab\t #adhd ,erasmus' fa!r di$1 leav+ him & an eld] bro!r ,pet]1 bo? born out ( w$lock1 to ! c>e ( gu>dians1 _! "m hav+ di$ %ortly be=e4 ,erasmus 0 eag] to g to a univ]sity1 b ! gu>dians1 act+ "u a p]haps g5u9e en?usiasm = ! religi\s life1 s5t ! boys to ano!r s*ool at ,h]tog5bos*2 & :5 !y return$ aft] two or ?ree ye>s1 prevail$ on !m to ent] mona/]ies4 ,pet] w5t to ,sion1 ne> ,delft2 ,erasmus aft] prolong$ reluctance became an ,augu/9ian canon 9 ,/ ,gregory's at ,/eyn1 a h\se ( ! same ,*apt] ne> ,g\da4 ,!re he f\nd little religion & less ref9em5t2 b no s]i\s difficulty seems to h be5 made ab\t 8 read+ ! classics & ! ,fa!rs ) 8 fri5ds to 8 he>t's cont5t4 ,! mona/]y once ent]$1 !re 0 no draw+ back2 & ,erasmus pass$ ?r\gh ! v>i\s /ages :i* culm9at$ 9 8 ord9ation z prie/ on ! #be? ( ,april #adib4 ,b 8 ard5t _s c\ld n long be cont5t ) mona/ic life4 ,he br\ght 8 atta9m5ts someh[ to ! notice ( ,h5ry ( ,b]g51 bi%op ( ,cambrai1 ! lead+ prelate at ! c\rt ( ,brussels2 & ab\t #adid p]mission 0 obta9$ = him to leave ,/eyn & become ,lat9 secret>y to ! bi%op1 :o 0 !n prep>+ = a visit to ,rome4 ,b ! j\rney 0 ab&on$1 & aft] "s mon?s ,erasmus f\nd t ev5 ) occasional *ances to read at ,gro55dael1 ! life ( a c\rt 0 h>dly m fav\rable to /udy ?an t ( ,/eyn4 ,at ! sugge/ion ( a fri5d1 ,james ,batt1 he appli$ to 8 patron = leave to g to ,p>is ,univ]sity4 ,! bi%op cons5t$ & promis$ a small p5sion2 & 9 ,augu/ #adie ,erasmus ent]$ ! domus paup]um ( ! college ( ,montaigu1 :i* 0 !n "u ! some:at rigid rule ( ! re=m] ,jan ,/&onck4 ,he at once introduc$ himself to ! di/+ui%$ ,fr5* hi/orian & diplomati/ ,rob]t ,gagu9 7#adbe-aejb7 & publi%$ a small volume ( poems2 & he became intimate ) ,johann ,mauburnus 7,momba]71 ! lead] ( a mission summon$ f ,w9de%eim 9 #adif to re=m ! abbey ( ,*ateau-,l&on4 ,b ! life at ,montaigu 0 too h>d = him4 ,e ,l5t he fell ill & _h to return to ,holl& to recov]4 ,he cont9u$ to read nev]!less = a degree 9 !ology1 & at "s "t complet$ ! requirem5ts = ! ,b4,d4 ,aft] a ye> or two he left ,montaigu & ek$ out 8 money f ! bi%op by tak+ pupils4 ,"o ( ^!1 a "y ,engli%man1 ,william ,bl\nt1 #d? ,b>on ,m\ntjoy 7d4 #aecd71 p]suad$ him to visit ,engl& 9 ! spr+ ( #adii4 ,be+ )\t a b5efice1 he _h no settl$ income to look to1 & ap>t f ! prec>i\s pr(its ( tea*+ & writ+ books1 c\ld only wait on ! g5]osity ( patrons to supply him ) ! leisure he crav$4 ,! fai?ful ,batt _h s\ght a p5sion = him f 8 own patroness1 ,anne ( ,borssel51 ! ,lady ( ,ve]e1 :o resid$ at ! ca/le ( ,t\rnehem ne> ,calais1 & ^: son ,batt 0 n[ tea*+4 ,b z no?+ promis$ at once1 ,erasmus accept$ ,m\ntjoy's (f]1 & ?us a tie 0 =m$ :i* l$ ,m\ntjoy !n or a few ye>s lat] to grant him a p5sion ( ,l#bj = life4 ,o!rwise ! visit to ,engl& gave no hope ( pref]m5t2 & 9 ! summ] ,erasmus prep>$ to leave4 ,he 0 delay$1 & us$ ! int]val to sp5d two or ?ree mon?s at ,ox=d1 :]e he f\nd ,john ,colet lectur+ on ! ,epi/le to ! ,romans4 ,discussions betwe5 !m on !ological que/ions soon conv9c$ ,colet ( ,erasmus' wor?1 & he s\ght to p]suade him to /ay & tea* at ,ox=d4 ,b ,erasmus c\ld n be cont5t ) ! ,bible 9 ,lat94 ,ox=d c\ld tea* him no ,greek1 s away he mu/ g4 ,9 ,janu>y #aejj he return$ to ,p>is1 :i* ?\gh x c\ld (f] no ,greek tea*] bett] ?an ,george ,h]monymus1 0 at lea/ a bett] c5tre = buy+ & = pr9t+ books4 ,! next few ye>s 7 sp5t /ill 9 prep>ation1 support$ by pupils' fees & ! d$ications ( books2 ! ,collectanea adagiorum 9 ,june #aejj to ,m\ntjoy1 & "s devotional & moral compositions to ,batt's patroness & h] son4 ,:5 ! plague drove him f ,p>is1 he w5t to ,orleans or ,t\rnehem or ,/ ,om]1 z ! way op5$4 ,f #aejb to #aejd he 0 at ,l\va91 /ill decl9+ to tea* publicly2 among 8 fri5ds be+ ! future ,pope ,adrian ,,vi4 ,9 ,janu>y #aejd ! ar*duke ,philip gave him fifty livres = ! ,panegyric :i* ung religieux de l'ordre de ,/ ,augu/9 _h compos$ on 8 ,spani% j\rney2 & 9 ,octob]1 t5 m1 = ! ma9t5ance ( 8 /udies4 ,he _h be5 work+ h>d at ,greek1 ( :i* he n[ felt himself ma/]1 at ! ,fa!rs 7above all at ,j]ome71 & at ! ,epi/les ( ,/ ,paul1 fulfill+ ! promise made to ,colet 9 ,ox=d1 to give himself to sacr$ le>n+4 ,b ! b5t ( 8 read+ is %[n by ! manuscript ) :i* he return$ to ,p>is at ! close ( #aejd--,valla's ,annotations on ! ,new ,te/am5t1 :i* ,badius pr9t$ = him 9 #aeje4 ,%ortly aft]w>ds ,"l ,m\ntjoy invit$ him aga9 to ,engl&1 & ?is visit 0 m successful4 ,he f\nd 9 ,london a circle ( le>n$ fri5ds ?r\gh :om he 0 introduc$ to ,william ,w>ham1 ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury1 ,ri*>d ,foxe1 bi%op ( ,w9*e/] & o!r dignit>ies4 ,john ,fi%] 7bi%op ( ,ro*e/]71 :o 0 !n sup]9t5d+ ! f\ndation ( ,*ri/'s ,college = ! ,lady ,m>g>et1 took him d[n to ,cambridge = ! k+'s visit2 & at l5g? ! opportunity came to fulfil 8 dream ( see+ ,italy4 ,bapti/a ,bo]io1 ! k+'s physician1 engag$ him to accompany 8 two sons ?i!r z sup]visor ( _! /udies4 ,9 ,septemb] #aejf he set foot on t sacr$ soil1 & took 8 ,d4,d4 at ,tur94 ,= a ye> he rema9$ ) 8 pupils at ,bologna1 & !n1 8 engagem5t complet$1 negotiat$ ) ,aldus ,manutius = a new edition ( 8 ,adagia ^u a v diff]5t scale4 ,! volume ( #aejj _h be5 jejune1 writt5 :5 he knew no?+ ( ,greek2 #hjj adages put toge!r ) scanty elucidations4 ,9 #aejh he _h conceiv$ a "w on l9es m to ! ta/e ( ! le>n$ _w1 full ( apt & recondite le>n+1 & n[ & aga9 reliev$ by tell+ comm5ts or lively anecdotes4 ,?ree ?\s& & m collect$ ju/ifi$ a new title--,*iliades adagiorum2 & ! au?or's reputation 0 n[ e/abli%$4 ,s secure 9 public fav\r did ! book 9 "t become1 t ! c\ncil ( ,tr5t1 unable to suppress x & n d>+ to ov]look x1 ord]$ ! prep>ation ( a ca/rat$ edition4 ,to pr9t ! ,adagia he _h gone to ,v5ice1 :]e he liv$ ) ,&rea ,torresano ( ,asola 7,asulanus7 & did ! "w ( two m51 writ+ & correct+ pro( at ! same "t4 ,:5 x 0 f9i%$1 ) an ample re-d$ication to ,m\ntjoy1 a new pupil pres5t$ himself1 ,alex&] ,/ew>t1 natural son ( ,james ,,iv4 ( ,scotl&--p]haps ?r\gh a connexion =m$ 9 e>ly days at ,p>is4 ,!y w5t toge!r to ,si5a & ,rome & !n on to ,campania1 ?ir/y "u ! summ] sun4 ,:5 !y return$ to ,rome1 8 pupil dep>t$ to ,scotl&1 to fall a few ye>s lat] by 8 fa!r's side at ,flodd52 ,erasmus also f\nd a summons to call him nor?w>ds4 ,on ! dea? ( ,h5ry ,,vii4 ,"l ,m\ntjoy1 :o _h be5 companion to ,pr9ce ,h5ry 9 8 /udies1 _h become a p]son ( influ5ce4 ,he wrote to ,erasmus ( a l& fl[+ ) milk & honey "u ! div9e "y k+1 & ) ,w>ham s5t him ,l#aj = j\rney money4 ,at fir/ ,erasmus hesitat$4 ,he _h be5 disappo9t$ 9 ,italy1 to f9d t he _h n mu* to le>n f its fam$ s*ol>%ip2 b he _h made _m fri5ds 9 ,aldus's circle--,m>cus ,musurus1 ,john ,lasc>is1 ,bapti/a ,egnatius1 ,paul ,bombasius1 ,scipio ,c>t]oma*us2 & 8 reception _h be5 flatt]+1 especially 9 ,rome1 :]e c>d9als _h delight$ to hon\r him4 ,b to rema9 9 ,rome 0 to sell himself4 ,he might h ! leisure :i* 0 s indisp5sable1 b at price ( ! fre$om to read1 ?9k1 write :at he lik$4 ,he decid$1 !re=e1 to g1 ?\gh ) regrets2 :i* return$ ^u him sometimes 9 aft] ye>s1 :5 ! ,engli% hopes _h n borne fruit4 ,9 ! autumn he rea*$ ,london1 & 9 ,?omas ,m's h\se 9 ,buckl]sbury wrote ! witty satire :i* ,milton f\nd 9 e "o's h&s at ,cambridge 9 #afbh1 & :i* is read to ?is day4 ,! ,moriae encomium 0 a sign ( 8 decision4 ,9 x k+s & pr9ces1 bi%ops & popes alike are %[n to be 9 bondage to ,folly2 & no class ( m5 is sp>$4 ,its au?or 0 will+ to be behold5 to any "o = leisure2 b he w\ld be no man's slave4 ,= ! next eighte5 mon?s he is entirely lo/ to view2 :5 he reappe>s 9 ,april #aeaa1 he is leav+ ,m's h\se & tak+ ! ,moria to be pr9t$ privily 9 ,p>is4 ,:]ev] !y 7 sp5t1 ^! mu/ h be5 mon?s ( h>d "w1 z 7 ! ye>s t foll[$4 ,8 "t 0 n[ come4 ,! long prep>ation & tra9+1 b\ght by privation & uncong5ial toil1 0 ov]1 & he 0 ready to apply himself to ! sci5tific /udy ( sacr$ lett]s4 ,8 ,engli% patrons 7 lib]al4 ,fi%] s5t him 9 ,augu/ #aeaa to tea* 9 ,cambridge2 ,w>ham gave him a b5efice1 ,ald+ton 9 ,k5t1 wor? ,l#cc1 #fs4 #h;d4 a ye>1 & 9 violation ( 8 own rule commut$ x = a p5sion ( ,l#bj *>g$ on ! liv+2 & ! d$ications ( 8 books 7 fruitful4 ,9 ,cambridge he complet$ 8 "w on ! ,new ,te/am5t1 ! ,lett]s ( ,j]ome1 & ,s5eca2 & !n 9 #aead1 :5 !re seem$ no prospect ( ampl] pref]m5t1 he det]m9$ to transf] himself to ,basel & give ! results ( 8 lab\rs to ! _w4 ,! orig9 ( ,erasmus's connexion ) ,johann ,frob5 is n cle>4 ,9 #aeaa he 0 prep>+ to repr9t 8 ,adagia ) ,jodocus ,badius1 :o 9 ! foll[+ ye> 0 to h also ,s5eca & ,j]ome4 ,b 9 #aeac ,frob51 :o _h j repr9t$ ! ,ald9e ,adagia1 acquir$ ?r\gh a booksell]-ag5t ,erasmus' am5d$ copy :i* _h be5 de/9$ = ,badius4 ,t ! ag5t 0 act+ entirely on 8 own responsibility may be d\bt$2 = )9 a few mon?s ,erasmus _h decid$ to betake himself to ,basel1 be>+ ) him ,s5eca & ,j]ome1 ! latt] to be incorporat$ 9 ! great edition :i* ,johannes ,am]ba* & ,frob5 _h _h 9 h& s9ce #aeaj4 ,9 ,g]many he 0 widely welcom$4 ,! ,/rassburg ,lit]>y ,society fet$ him1 & ,johannes ,sapidus1 headma/] ( ! ,lat9 s*ool at ,s*lett/adt1 rode ) him into ,basel4 ,frob5 receiv$ him ) op5 arms1 & ! presses 7 soon busy ) 8 books4 ,?r\gh ! w9t] ( #aead-aeae ,erasmus work$ ) ! /r5g? ( t52 & aft] a brief visit to ,engl& 9 ! spr+1 ! ,new ,te/am5t 0 set up4 ,ar\nd him 0 a circle ( /ud5ts1 "s "y1 "s already di/+ui%$--! ?ree sons ( ,frob5's p>tn]1 ,johannes ,am]ba*1 :o 0 n[ dead1 ,beatus ,rh5anus1 ,wilhelm ,nes51 ,ludwig ,b]1 ,he9ri* ,gl>eanus1 ,nikolaus ,g]bell1 ,johannes ,oecolampadius--:o look$ to him z _! head & 7 pr\d to d him s]vice4 ,?\gh f ?is "t =w>d ,basel became ! c5tre ( occupation & int]e/ = ,erasmus1 yet = ! next few ye>s he 0 ma9ly 9 ! ,ne!rl&s4 ,on ! completion ( ! ,new ,te/am5t 9 #aeaf he return$ to 8 fri5ds 9 ,engl&2 b 8 appo9tm5t1 !n rec5t1 z c\ncillor to ! "y k+ ,*>les1 br\ght him back to ,brussels 9 ! autumn4 ,9 ! spr+ ( #aeag he w5t = ! la/ "t to ,engl&1 ab\t a disp5sation f we>+ 8 canonical dress1 obta9$ orig9ally f ,julius ,,ii4 & rec5tly confirm$ by ,leo ,x41 & 9 ,may #aeah he j\rney$ to ,basel = ?ree mon?s to set ! second edition ( ! ,new ,te/am5t 9 progress4 ,b ) ^! exceptions he rema9$ 9 proximity to ! c\rt1 liv+ mu* at ,l\va91 :]e he took great int]e/ 9 ! f\ndation ( ,hi]onymus ,busleid5's ,collegium ,tril+ue4 ,8 circum/ances _h improv$ s mu*1 by p5sions1 ! pres5ts :i* 7 %[]$ ^u him1 & ! sale ( 8 books1 t he 0 n[ 9 a position to refuse all proposals :i* w\ld h int]f]$ ) 8 *]i%$ indep5d5ce4 ,! g5]al ard\r = ! re/oration ( ! arts & ( le>n+ creat$ an ari/ocratic public1 ( :i* ,erasmus 0 supreme pontiff4 ,lu!r spoke to ! p & ! ignorant2 ,erasmus _h ! e> ( ! educat$ class4 ,8 fri5ds & admir]s 7 di/ribut$ ov] all ! c\ntries ( ,europe1 & pres5ts 7 cont9ually arriv+ f small z well z great1 f a donation ( #bjj flor9s1 made by ,pope ,clem5t ,,vii41 d[n to sweetmeats & comfits contribut$ by ! nuns ( ,cologne 7,ep4 #fff74 ,f ,engl&1 9 p>ticul>1 he cont9u$ to receive supplies ( money4 ,9 ! la/ ye> ( 8 life ,?omas ,cromwell s5t him #bj angels1 & ,ar*bi%op ,cranm] #ah4 ,?\gh ,erasmus l$ a v h>d-work+ & f> f luxuri\s life1 & _h no extravagant habits1 yet he c\ld n live ^u little4 ,! excessive delicacy ( 8 con/itution1 n pamp]$ appetite1 exact$ "s unusual indulg5ces4 ,he c\ld n be> ! /oves ( ,g]many1 & requir$ an op5 fireplace 9 ! room 9 :i* he work$4 ,he 0 afflict$ ) ! /one1 & oblig$ to be p>ticul> z to :at he drank4 ,be] he c\ld n t\*4 ,! :ite w9es ( ,bad5 or ! ,rh9e did n suit him2 he c\ld only dr9k ^? ( ,burgundy or ,fran*e-,comte4 ,he c\ld nei!r eat1 nor be> ! smell (1 fi%4 ,8 he>t1 he said1 0 ,ca?olic1 b 8 /oma* 0 ,lu!ran4 ,= 8 con/ant j\rneys he requir$ two horses1 "o = himself & "o = 8 att5dant4 ,& ?\gh he 0 almo/ always f\nd 9 horse-fle% by 8 fri5ds1 ! keep _h to be paid =4 ,= 8 lit]>y lab\rs & 8 ext5sive correspond5ce he requir$ "o or m amanu5ses4 ,he (t5 _h occasion1 on 8 own bus9ess1 or on t ( ,frob5's press1 to s5d special c\ri]s to a di/ance1 employ+ !m by ! way 9 collect+ ! free gifts ( 8 tribut>ies4 ,prec>i\s z ^! means ( subsi/5ce seem1 he pref]r$ ! indep5d5ce ?us obta9$ to an assur$ position :i* w\ld h involv$ obligations to a patron or pr(essional duties :i* 8 weak heal? w\ld h made on]\s4 ,! duke ( ,bav>ia (f]$ to disp5se ) tea*+1 if he w\ld only reside1 & w\ld h nam$ him on ^! t]ms to a *air 9 8 new univ]sity ( ,+ol/adt1 ) a sal>y ( #bjj ducats1 & ! rev]sion ( "o or m preb5dal /alls4 ,! ar*duke ,f]d9& (f]$ a p5sion ( #djj flor9s1 if he w\ld only come to reside at ,vi5na4 ,adrian ,,vi4 (f]$ him a dean]y1 b ! (f] seems to h be5 ( a possible & n an actual dean]y4 ,(f]s1 flatt]+ b equally vague1 7 made f ,france1 on ! "p ( ! bi%op ( ,bayeux1 & ev5 ( ,francis ,i4 ,invitor amplissimis conditionibus2 (f]untur dignitates et episcopatus2 plane rex essem1 si juv5is essem 7,ep4 xix4 #ajf2 #gce74 ,erasmus decl9$ all1 & 9 ,novemb] #aeba settl$ p]man5tly at ,basel1 9 ! capacity ( g5]al editor & lit]>y advis] ( ,frob5's press4 ,z a subject ( ! emp]or1 & atta*$ to 8 c\rt by a p5sion1 x w\ld h be5 conv5i5t to him to h fix$ 8 resid5ce 9 ,l\va94 ,b ! bigotry ( ! ,flemi% cl]gy1 & ! monki% atmosph]e ( ! univ]sity ( ,l\va91 ov]run ) ,dom9icans & ,franciscans1 unit$ = once 9 _! enmity to ! new classical le>n+1 incl9$ ,erasmus to seek a m cong5ial home 9 ,basel4 ,to ,frob5 8 arrival 0 ! adv5t ( ! v man :om he _h long want$4 ,frob5's ent]prise1 unit$ ) ,erasmus's editorial skill1 rais$ ! press ( ,basel1 = a "t1 to be ! mo/ important 9 ,europe4 ,! dea? ( ,frob5 9 #aebg1 ! f9al sep>ation ( ,basel f ! ,empire1 ! wreck ( le>n+ 9 ! religi\s disputes1 & ! *eap pap] & scamp$ "w ( ! ,frank=t presses1 gradually )drew ! trade f ,basel4 ,b dur+ ! ye>s ( ,erasmus's co-op]ation ! ,frob5 press took ! lead ( all ! presses 9 ,europe1 bo? 9 ! /&>d value ( ! works publi%$ & 9 /yle ( typographical execution4 ,l "s o!r publi%]s :o pref]r$ reputation to returns 9 money1 ,frob5 di$ poor1 & 8 impressions nev] rea*$ ! spl5d\r aft]w>ds atta9$ by ^? ( ! ,e/i5nes1 or ( ,plant94 ,! s]ies ( ! ,fa!rs alone conta9s ,j]ome 7#aeaf71 ,cyprian 7#aebj71 ,pseudo-,arnobius 7#aebb71 ,hil>ius 7#aebc71 ,ir5aeus 7,lat91 #aebf71 ,ambrose 7#aebg71 ,augu/9e 7#aebh71 ,*ryso/om 7,lat91 #aecj71 ,basil 7,greek1 #aecb1 ! fir/ ,greek au?or pr9t$ 9 ,g]many71 & ,orig5 7,lat91 #aecf74 ,9 ^! editions1 p>tly texts1 p>tly translations1 x is impossible to det]m9e ! respective %>es ( ,erasmus & 8 _m help]s4 ,! prefaces & d$ications are all writt5 by him1 & "s ( !m1 z t to ! ,hil>ius1 are ( importance = ! hi/ory z well ( ! times z ( ,erasmus himself4 ,( 8 mo/ important edition1 t ( ! ,greek text ( ! ,new ,te/am5t1 some?+ w be said f>!r on4 ,9 ?is mill1 z he calls x1 ,erasmus cont9u$ to gr9d incessantly = eight ye>s4 ,besides 8 "w z editor1 he 0 always writ+ himself "s book or pamphlet call$ = by ! ev5t ( ! day1 "s g5]al fray 9 :i* he 0 compell$ to m+le1 or "s p]sonal assault :i* x 0 necess>y to repel4 ,b ?\gh pa9fully consci\s h[ mu* 8 reputation z a writ] 0 damag$ by ?is extempore production1 he 0 unable to resi/ ! fatal facility ( pr9t4 ,he 0 ! object ( ^? solicitations :i* always beset ! au?or ^: "n ^u ! title page assures ! sale ( a book4 ,he 0 besieg$ = d$ications1 & z e d$ication meant a pres5t proportion$ to ! circum/ances ( ! d$icatee1 !re 0 a natural temptation to be lavi% ( !m4 ,add to ?is a correspond5ce s ext5sive z to require him at times to write =ty lett]s 9 "o day4 ,i receive daily1 he writes1 lett]s f remote p>ts1 f k+s1 pr9ces1 prelates & m5 ( le>n+1 & ev5 f p]sons ( ^: exi/5ce ,i 0 ignorant4 ,8 day 0 ?us "o ( incessant m5tal activity2 b h>d "w 0 s f> f bre$+ a di/a/e = 8 occupation1 t read+ & writ+ grew ev] m delightful to him 7lit]>um assiduitas non modo mihi fa/idium non p>it1 s$ voluptatem2 crescit scrib5do scrib5di /udium74 ,%ortly aft] ,frob5's dea? ! di/urbances at ,basel1 occasion$ by ! zealots = ! religi\s revolution :i* 0 9 progress ?r\gh\t ,switz]l&1 began to make ,erasmus desir\s ( *ang+ 8 resid5ce4 ,he select$ ,freiburg 9 ! ,breisgau1 z a city :i* 0 /ill 9 ! dom9ion ( ! emp]or1 & 0 free f religi\s diss5sion4 ,?i!r he remov$ 9 ,april #aebi4 ,he 0 receiv$ ) public m>ks ( respect by ! au?orities1 :o grant$ him ! use ( an unf9i%$ resid5ce :i* _h be5 begun to be built = ! late emp]or ,maximilian4 ,erasmus propos$ only to rema9 at ,freiburg = a few mon?s1 b f\nd ! place s suit$ to 8 habits t he b\ght a h\se ( 8 own1 & rema9$ !re six ye>s4 ,a desire = *ange ( air--he fanci$ ,freiburg 0 damp--rum\rs ( a new w> ) ,france1 & ! necessity ( see+ 8 ,ecclesia/es ?r\gh ! press1 took him back to ,basel 9 #aece4 ,he liv$ n[ a v retir$ life1 & saw only a small circle ( intimate fri5ds4 ,a la/ attempt 0 made by ! papal c\rt to enli/ him 9 "s public way aga9/ ! ,re=mation4 ,on ! election ( ,paul ,,iii4 9 #aecd1 he _h1 z usual1 s5t ! new pope a congratulatory lett]4 ,aft] 8 arrival 9 ,basel1 he receiv$ a complim5t>y answ]1 toge!r ) ! nom9ation to ! dean]y ( ,dev5t]1 ! income ( :i* 0 reckon$ at #fjj ducats4 ,?is nom9ation 0 accompani$ ) an intimation t m 0 9 /ore = him1 & t /eps w\ld be tak5 to provide = him ! income1 viz41 #cjjj ducats1 :i* 0 necess>y to qualify = ! c>d9al's hat4 ,b ,erasmus 0 ev5 less dispos$ n[ ?an he _h be5 be=e to b>t] 8 reputation = hon\rs4 ,8 heal? _h be5 = "s ye>s gradually decl9+1 & disease 9 ! %ape ( g\t ga9+ ^u him4 ,9 ! w9t] ( #aece-aecf he 0 conf9$ entirely to 8 *amb]1 _m days to 8 b$4 ,?\gh ?us afflict$ he nev] ceas$ 8 lit]>y activity1 dictat+ 8 tract ,on ! ,purity ( ! ,*ur*1 & revis+ ! %eets ( a translation ( ,orig5 :i* 0 pass+ ?r\gh ! ,frob5 press4 ,8 la/ lett] is dat$ ! #bh? ( ,june #aecf1 & subscrib$ ,eras4 ,rot4 aegra manu4 ,i h nev] be5 s ill 9 my life be=e z ,i am n[1--= _m days unable ev5 to read4 ,dys5t]y sett+ 9 c>ri$ him (f on ! #ab? ( ,july #aecf1 9 8 #gj? ye>4 ,by 8 w1 made on ! #ab? ( ,febru>y #aecf1 he left :at he _h to leave1 ) ! exception ( "s legacies1 to ,bonifazius ,am]ba*1 p>tly = himself1 p>tly 9 tru/ = ! b5efit ( ! ag$ & ! infirm1 or to be sp5t 9 portion+ "y girls1 & 9 educat+ "y m5 ( promise4 ,he left none ( ! usual legacies = masses or o!r cl]ical purposes1 & 0 n att5d$ by any prie/ or confessor 9 8 la/ mom5ts4 ,erasmus's features are famili> to all1 f ,holbe9's _m portraits or _! copies4 ,beatus ,rh5anus1 summus ,erasmi obs]vator1 z he is call$ by de ,?\1 describes 8 p]son ?us3 ,9 /ature n tall1 b n noticeably %ort2 9 figure well built & graceful2 ( an extremely delicate con/itution1 s5sitive to ! slighte/ *anges ( climate1 food or dr9k4 ,aft] middle life he suff]$ f ! /one1 n to m5tion ! common plague ( /udi\s m51 an irritable muc\s membrane4 ,8 complexion 0 fair2 light blue eyes1 & yell[i% hair4 ,?\gh 8 voice 0 weak1 8 enunciation 0 di/9ct2 ! expression ( 8 face *e]ful2 8 mann] & conv]sation poli%$1 affable1 ev5 *>m+4 ,8 highly n]v\s organization made 8 feel+s acute1 & 8 bra9 incessantly active4 ,?r\gh 8 ready sympa?y ) all =ms ( life & "*1 8 att5tion 0 always alive4 ,! active movem5t ( 8 _s sp5t itself1 n 9 foll[+ out its own tra9s ( ?\ght1 b 9 outw>d obs]vation4 ,no man 0 ev] less introspective1 & ?\gh he talks mu* ( himself1 8 egotism is ! g5ial egotism :i* takes ! _w into its confid5ce1 n ! selfi% egotism :i* feels no int]e/ b 9 its own woes4 ,he says ( himself1 & ju/ly1 t he 0 incapable ( dissimulation 7,ep4 xxvi4 #ai2 #aaeb74 ,!re is no?+ beh9d1 no pose1 no sc5ic effect4 ,x may be said ( 8 lett]s t 9 !m tota patet vita s5is4 ,8 nature 0 flexible )\t be+ faultily weak4 ,he has _m moods & ea* mood impr9ts itself 9 turn on 8 words4 ,h5ce1 on a sup]ficial view1 ,erasmus is set d[n z ! mo/ inconsi/5t ( m54 ,fur!r acqua9tance makes u feel a unity ( "* und]ly+ ?is susceptibility to ! impressions ( ! mom5t4 ,8 seem+ inconsi/5cies are reconcil$ to appreh5sion1 n by a =mula ( ! intellect1 b by ! _m-sid$ness ( a highly impressible nature4 ,9 ! words ( ,j4 ,nis>d1 ,erasmus 0 "o ( ^? dont la gloire a ete de beauc\p compr5dre et d'affirm] peu4 ,?is equal op5ness to e vibration ( 8 environm5t is ! key to all ,erasmus's acts & words1 & among !m to ! middle attitude :i* he took up t[>ds ! great religi\s conflict ( 8 "t4 ,! reproa*es ( p>ty assail$ him 9 8 lifetime1 & h cont9u$ to be heap$ ^u 8 memory4 ,he 0 l\dly accus$ by ! ,ca?olics ( collusion ) ! enemies ( ! fai?4 ,8 p[]ful fri5ds1 ! pope1 ,wolsey1 ,h5ry ,,viii41 ! emp]or1 call$ ^u him to decl>e aga9/ ,lu!r4 ,!ological hi/orians f t "t =w>d h p]petuat$ ! indictm5t t ,erasmus sid$ ) nei!r p>ty 9 ! /ruggle = religi\s tru?4 ,! mo/ mod]ate =m ( ! c5sure pres5ts him 9 ! odi\s light ( a trimm]2 ! vulg> & v5om\s assailant is sure t ,erasmus 0 a ,prote/ant at he>t1 b )held ! av[al t he might n =feit ! worldly advantages he enjoy$ z a ,ca?olic4 ,:5 by /udy ( 8 writ+s we come to "k ,erasmus intimately1 !re is reveal$ to u "o ( ^? natures to :i* p>tisan%ip is an impossibility4 ,x 0 n timidity or weakness :i* kept ,erasmus neutral1 b ! reasonabl5ess ( 8 nature4 ,x 0 n only t 8 intellect revolt$ aga9/ ! n>r[ness ( p>ty1 8 :ole be+ repudiat$ its clamor\s & vulg> excesses4 ,z he loa!d fi%1 s he loa!d cl]ical fanaticism4 ,himself a ,ca?olic prie/--! glory ( ! prie/hood & ! %ame--! tone ( ! or?odox cl]gy 0 di/a/eful to him2 ! ignorant ho/ility to classical le>n+ :i* reign$ 9 _! colleges & conv5ts disgu/$ him4 ,9 common ) all ! le>n$ m5 ( 8 age1 he wi%$ to see ! p[] ( ! cl]gy brok51 z t ( an obscuranti/ army array$ aga9/ light4 ,he _h employ$ all 8 res\rces ( wit & satire aga9/ ! prie/s & monks1 & ! sup]/itions 9 :i* !y trad$1 long be=e ,lu!r's "n 0 he>d (4 ,! motto :i* 0 already curr5t 9 8 lifetime1 t ,erasmus laid ! egg & ,lu!r hat*$ x1 is s f> true1 & no m4 ,erasmus w\ld h suppress$ ! mona/]ies1 put an end to ! dom9ation ( ! cl]gy1 & swept away sc&al\s & pr(itable abuses1 b to attack ! *ur* or re-m\ld receiv$ !ology 0 f> f 8 ?\ghts4 ,& :5 out ( ,lu!r's revolt !re arose a new fanaticism--t ( evangelism1 ,erasmus recoil$ f ! viol5ce ( ! new prea*]s4 ,is x = ?is1 he writes to ,melan*?on 7,ep4 xix4 #aac2 #gjc71 t we h %ak5 (f bi%ops & popes1 t we may come "u ! yoke ( su* madm5 z ,otto & ,f>el8 ,passages h be5 collect$1 & x is an easy task1 f ! writ+s ( ,erasmus to prove t he %>$ ! doctr9es ( ! ,re=m]s4 ,passages equally /rong might be cull$ to %[ t he repudiat$ !m4 ,! tru? is t !ological que/ions 9 !mselves _h no attraction = him4 ,& :5 a !ological position 0 emphasiz$ by p>ty passion x became odi\s to him4 ,9 ! words ( ,drummond3 ,erasmus 0 9 8 own age ! apo/le ( common s5se & ( rational religion4 ,he did n c>e = dogma1 & accord+ly ! dogmas ( ,rome1 :i* _h ! cons5t ( ! ,*ri/ian _w1 7 9 8 eyes pref]able to ! dogmas ( ,prote/antism4444 ,f ! beg9n+ to ! end ( 8 c>e] he rema9$ true to ! purpose ( 8 life1 :i* 0 to fight ! battle ( s\nd le>n+ & pla9 common s5se aga9/ ! p[]s ( ignorance & sup]/ition1 & amid all ! convulsions ( t p]iod he nev] once lo/ 8 m5tal balance4 ,erasmus is accus$ ( indiff]5ce4 ,b he 0 f> f indiff]5t to ! progress ( ! revolution4 ,he 0 ke5ly alive to its p]nici\s influ5ce on ! *]i%$ int]e/ ( 8 life1 ! cause ( le>n+4 ,i abhor ! evangelics1 because x is ?r\gh !m t lit]ature is ev]y:]e decl9+1 & ^u ! po9t ( p]i%+4 ,he _h be5 born ) ! hopes ( ! ,r5aissance1 ) its anticipation ( a new ,augu/an age1 & _h se5 ?is fair promise blight$ by ! irruption ( a new horde ( !ological polemics1 worse ?an ! old s*ola/ics1 inasmu* z !y 7 revolution>y in/ead ( cons]vative4 ,erasmus nev] fl\t$ at religion nor ev5 at !ology z su*1 b only at bl9d & intemp]ate !ologians4 ,9 ! m9d ( ,erasmus !re 0 no metaphysical incl9ation2 he 0 a man ( lett]s1 ) a g5]al t5d5cy to rational views on e subject :i* came "u 8 p54 ,8 0 n ! m9d to orig9ate1 l ,calv91 a new s*eme ( ,*ri/ian ?\ght4 ,he is at 8 weake/ 9 def5d+ free w aga9/ ,lu!r1 & inde$ he c h>dly be said to ent] on ! metaphysical "q4 ,he treats ! dispute entirely f ! outside4 ,x is impossible 9 read+ ,erasmus n to be rem9d$ ( ! rationali/ ( ! #ah? c5tury4 ,erasmus has be5 call$ ! ,voltaire ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,b !re is a va/ diff]5ce 9 ! relations 9 :i* !y respectively /ood to ! *ur* & to ,*ri/ianity4 ,voltaire1 ?\gh he did n orig9ate1 yet adopt$ a moral & religi\s s*eme :i* he s\ght to sub/itute = ! *ur* tradition4 ,he wag$ w>1 n only aga9/ ! cl]gy1 b aga9/ ! *ur* & its sov]eigns4 ,erasmus drew ! l9e at ! fir/ ( ^!4 ,he 0 n an anticipation ( ! #ah? c5tury2 he 0 ! man ( 8 age1 z ,voltaire ( 82 ?\gh ,erasmus did n int5d x1 he und\bt$ly %ook ! ecclesia/ical edifice 9 all its p>ts2 &1 z ,mel*ior ,adam says ( him1 pontifici ,romano plus nocuit joc&o quam ,lu!rus /oma*&o4 ,b if ,erasmus 0 unlike ! #ah? c5tury rationali/ 9 t he did n decl>e w> aga9/ ! *ur*1 b rema9$ a ,ca?olic & m\rn$ ! disruption1 he 0 yet a true rationali/ 9 pr9ciple4 ,! pr9ciple t reason is ! "o only guide ( life1 ! supreme arbit] ( all que/ions1 politics & religion includ$1 has its e>lie/ & mo/ complete exempl> 9 ,erasmus4 ,he does n dogmatically d5\nce ! rights ( reason1 b he practically ex]cises !m4 ,along ) ! *>m ( /yle1 ! great attraction ( ! writ+s ( ,erasmus is ?is unconsci\s fre$om by :i* !y are p]vad$4 ,x mu/ excite our surprise t "o :o us$ 8 p5 s freely %\ld h escap$ ! pa9s & p5alties :i* inv>iably ov]took m9or (f5d]s 9 ! same k9d4 ,= x 0 n only aga9/ ! cl]gy & ! monks t he kept up a ceaseless /ream ( satiric raill]y2 he treat$ nobles1 pr9ces & k+s ) equal fre$om4 ,no #ah? c5tury republican has us$ /rong] language ?an has ?is p5sion] ( ,*>les ,v4 ,! p build cities1 pr9ces pull !m d[n2 ! indu/ry ( ! citiz5s creates weal? = rapaci\s lords to plund]2 plebeian magi/rates pass good laws = k+s to violate2 ! p love peace1 & _! rul]s /ir up w>4 ,su* outbur/s are frequ5t 9 ! ,adagia4 ,^! fre$oms are "p cause ( ,erasmus's popul>ity4 ,he 0 "h 9 sympa?y ) ! secret sore ( 8 age1 & gave utt]ance to :at all felt b none d>$ to :isp] b he4 ,x m>ks ! diff]5ce betwe5 #aeac & #affi t1 9 a repr9t ( ! ,julius ,exclusus publi%$ 9 #affi at ,ox=d1 x 0 ?\ght necess>y to leave out a s5t5ce 9 :i* ! writ] ( t dialogue1 suppos$ by ! editor to be ,erasmus1 ass]ts ! "r ( /ates to deprive & puni% bad k+s4 ,x is difficult to say to :at we are to ascribe 8 immunity f pa9ful consequ5ces4 ,we h to rememb] t he 0 remov$ f ! sc5e e>ly 9 ! reaction1 be=e =ce 0 fully organiz$ = ! suppression ( ! revolution4 ,& 8 popul> works1 ! ,adagia1 & ! ,colloquia 7#aebd71 _h e/abli%$ !mselves z /&>d books 9 ! m easy go+ age1 :5 p[]1 secure 9 its un*all5g$ /r5g?1 c\ld af=d to laugh ) ! laugh]s at itself4 ,at ! date ( 8 dea? ! ,ca?olic revival1 ) its fell antipa?y to art & lett]s1 0 only 9 its infancy2 & :5 times became dang]\s1 ,erasmus cauti\sly decl9$ to v5ture out ( ! protection ( ! ,empire1 refus+ repeat$ invitations to ,italy & to ,france4 ,i _h ?\ght ( go+ to ,besancon1 he said1 ne non essem 9 ditione ,caes>is 7,ep4 xxx4 #gd2 #abii74 ,9 ,italy a ,bembo & a ,sadoleto wrote a pur] ,lat9 ?an ,erasmus1 b cont5t$ !mselves ) pretty phrases1 & 7 c>eful to t\* no liv+ *ord ( feel+4 ,9 ,france x 0 necess>y = a ,rabelais to hide 8 free-?9k+ "u a disguise ( revolt+ & un9telligible j>gon4 ,x 0 only 9 ! ,empire t su* lib]ty ( spee* z ,erasmus us$ 0 practicable1 & 9 ! ,empire ,erasmus pass$ = a mod]ate man4 ,^u ! /r5g? ( an e/abli%$ "* = mod]ation he enjoy$ an exceptional lic5ce = ! utt]ance ( unwelcome tru?s2 & 9 spite ( 8 fl+s at ! ri* & p[]ful1 he rema9$ ?r\gh life a privileg$ p]son ) !m4 ,b ?\gh ! m5 ( ! keys & ! sword let him g 8 way unmole/$1 x 0 o!rwise ) 8 bre?r5 ( ! p54 ,a man :o is always laun*+ op9ions mu/ expect to be retort$ on4 ,& :5 ^! judgm5ts 7 w+$ by epigram1 & weight$ by ! "n ( ,erasmus1 :o /ood at ! head ( lett]s1 a widespread exasp]ation 0 ! consequ5ce4 ,disraeli has n notic$ ,erasmus 9 8 ,qu>rels ( ,au?ors1 p]haps because ,erasmus's qu>rels w\ld require a volume to !mselves4 ,s ?9-sk9n$ t a fly w\ld draw blood1 z ! pr9ce ( ,c>pi express$ x1 he c\ld n himself re/ra9 8 p5 f s>casm4 ,he =got t ?\gh x is safe to la% ! dunces1 he c\ld n ) equal impunity sne] at ^? :o1 ?\gh !y might n h ! e> ( ! public z he _h1 c\ld yet contradict & call names4 ,& :5 lit]>y jeal\sy 0 complicat$ ) !ological diff]5ces1 z 9 ! case ( ! free-?9k]s1 or ) ,fr5* vanity1 z 9 t ( ,budaeus1 ! cause ( ! enemy 0 esp\s$ by a p>ty & a nation4 ,! qu>rel ) ,budaeus 0 /rictly a national "o4 ,cosmopolitan z ,erasmus 01 to ! ,fr5* lit]ati he 0 /ill ! ,teuton4 ,eti5ne ,dolet calls him enemy ( ,cic]o1 & jeal\s detractor ( ! ,fr5* "n4 ,! only contempor>y "n :i* c\ld approa* to a rivalry ) 8 0 t ( ,budaeus 7,bude71 :o 0 exactly contempor>y1 hav+ be5 born 9 ! same ye> z ,erasmus4 ,rivals 9 fame1 !y 7 unlike 9 accompli%m5t1 ea* hav+ ! quality :i* ! o!r want$4 ,budaeus1 ?\gh a ,fr5*man1 knew ,greek well2 ,erasmus1 ?\gh a ,dut*man1 v imp]fectly4 ,b ! ,fr5*man ,budaeus wrote an execrable ,lat9 /yle1 unreadable !n z n[1 :ile ! ,teuton ,erasmus *>m$ ! read+ _w ) a /yle :i*1 ?\gh f> f good ,lat91 is ! mo/ delightful :i* ! ,r5aissance has left u4 ,! /yle ( ,erasmus is1 consid]$ z ,lat91 incorrect1 sometimes ev5 b>b>\s1 & f> remov$ f any classical model4 ,b x has qualities f> above purity4 ,! be/ ,italian ,lat9 is b an e*o & an imitation2 l ! pa9t$ glass :i* we put 9 our *ur*es1 x is an ana*ronism4 ,bembo1 ,sadoleto & ! re/ write purely 9 a dead language4 ,erasmus's ,lat9 0 a liv+ & spok5 tongue4 ,?\gh ,erasmus _h pass$ ne>ly all 8 life 9 ,engl&1 ,france & ,g]many1 8 conv]sation 0 ,lat92 & ! language 9 :i* he talk$ ab\t common ?+s he wrote4 ,h5ce ! spontaneity & naturalness ( 8 page1 its flav\r ( life & n ( books4 ,he writes f himself1 & n out ( ,cic]o4 ,h5ce1 too1 he spoil$ no?+ by anxi\s revision 9 t]ror le/ "s phrase n ( ! gold5 age %\ld escape f 8 p54 ,he confesses apologetically to ,*ri/oph] ,longolius 7,ep4 iii4 #fc2 #djb7 t x 0 8 habit to extemporize all he wrote1 & t ?is habit 0 incorrigible2 effundo v]ius quam scribo omnia4 ,he compla9s t mu* read+ ( ! works ( ,/ ,j]ome _h spoil$ 8 ,lat92 b1 z ,scalig] says 7,scaliga #b;a71 ,erasmus's language is bett] ?an ,/ ,j]ome's4 ,! same critic1 h[ev]1 ?\ght ,erasmus w\ld h done bett] if he _h kept m closely to ! classical models4 ,9 ! annals ( classical le>n+ ,erasmus may be reg>d$ z con/itut+ an int]m$iate /age betwe5 ! humani/s ( ! ,lat9 ,r5aissance & ! le>n$ m5 ( ! age ( ,greek s*ol>%ip1 betwe5 ,angelo ,poliziano & ,joseph ,scalig]4 ,erasmus1 ?\gh ju/ly /yl$ by ,muretus 7,v>r4 ,lectt4 #g1 #ae7 eruditus sane vir1 ac multae lectionis1 0 n a le>n$ man 9 ! special s5se ( ! ^w--n an erudit4 ,he 0 m ?an ?is2 he 0 ! man ( lett]s--! fir/ :o _h appe>$ 9 ,europe s9ce ! fall ( ! ,roman empire4 ,8 acquirem5ts 7 va/1 & !y 7 all br\ght to be> ^u ! life ( 8 day4 ,he did n make a /udy ap>t ( antiquity = its own sake1 b us$ x z an in/rum5t ( culture4 ,he did n wor%ip1 imitate & reproduce ! classics1 l ! ,lat9 humani/s :o prec$$ him2 he did n ma/] !m & r$uce !m to a special sci5ce1 z did ! ,fr5* ,hell5i/s :o succe$$ him4 ,he edit$ _m au?ors1 x is true1 b he _h nei!r ! means ( =m+ a text1 nor did he attempt to d s4 ,9 edit+ a fa!r1 or a classic1 he _h 9 view ! practical utility ( ! g5]al read]1 n ! accuracy requir$ by ! gild ( s*ol>s4 ,8 ,j]ome1 says ,j4 ,scalig]1 is full ( sad blund]s 7,scaliga #b;a74 ,ev5 ,juli5 ,g>ni] c\ld discov] t ,erasmus falls 9 8 ha/e into griev\s error 9 8 ,lat9 v]sion ( ,/ ,basil1 ?\gh 8 ,lat9ity is sup]ior to t ( ! o!r translators 7,pref4 9 ,opp4 ,/4 ,bas41 #agba74 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! comm]cial int]e/s ( ,frob5's press l$ to ! introduction ( ,erasmus's "n on _m a title page :5 he _h little to d ) ! book1 e4g4 ! ,lat9 ,josephus ( #aebd to :i* ,erasmus only contribut$ "o translation ( #ad pages2 or ! ,ari/otle ( #aeca1 ( :i* ,simon ,grynaeus 0 ! real editor4 ,:]e ,erasmus excell$ 0 9 prefaces--n philological introductions to ea* au?or1 b spirit$ appeals to ! int]e/ ( ! g5]al read]1 %[+ h[ an anci5t book might be made to m9i/] to mod]n spiritual dem&s4 ,( ,erasmus's works ! ,greek ,te/am5t is ! mo/ memorable4 ,x has no title to be consid]$ z a "w ( le>n+ or s*ol>%ip1 yet its influ5ce ^u op9ion 0 pr(\nd & durable4 ,x contribut$ m to ! lib]ation ( ! human m9d f ! ?raldom ( ! cl]gy ?an all ! upro> & rage ( ,lu!r's _m pamphlets4 ,z an edition ( ! ,greek ,te/am5t x has no critical value4 ,b x 0 ! fir/1 & x reveal$ ! fact t ! ,vulgate1 ! ,bible ( ! *ur*1 0 n only a second-h& docum5t1 b 9 places an errone\s docum5t4 ,a %ock 0 ?us giv5 to ! cr$it ( ! cl]gy 9 ! prov9ce ( lit]ature1 equal to t :i* 0 giv5 9 ! prov9ce ( sci5ce by ! a/ronomical discov]ies ( ! #ag? c5tury4 ,ev5 if ,erasmus _h _h at 8 disposal ! ,,mss4 subsidia = =m+ a text1 he _h n ! critical skill requir$ to use !m4 ,he _h at h& a few late ,basel ,,mss41 "o ( :i* he s5t /raight to press1 correct+ !m 9 places by collations ( o!rs :i* _h be5 s5t to him by ,colet 9 ,engl&4 ,9 f\r repr9ts1 #aeai1 #aebb1 #aebg1 #aece1 ,erasmus gradually we$$ out _m ( ! typographical errors ( 8 fir/ edition1 b ! text rema9$ ess5tially su* z he _h fir/ pr9t$ x4 ,! ,greek text inde$ 0 only a "p ( 8 s*eme4 ,an important feature ( ! volume 0 ! new ,lat9 v]sion1 ! orig9al be+ plac$ alongside z a gu>antee ( ! translator's good fai?4 ,?is translation1 ) ! ju/ificatory notes :i* accompani$ x1 ?\gh n itself a "w ( critical s*ol>%ip1 became ! />t+-po9t ( mod]n exegetical sci5ce4 ,erasmus did no?+ to solve ! problem1 b to him belongs ! hon\r ( hav+ fir/ prop\nd$ x4 ,besides translat+ & edit+ ! ,new ,te/am5t1 ,erasmus p>aphras$ ! :ole1 except ! ,apocalypse1 betwe5 #aeag & #aebd4 ,! p>aphrases 7 receiv$ ) great applause1 ev5 by ^? :o _h little appreciation = ,erasmus4 ,9 ,engl& a translation ( !m made 9 #aedh 0 ord]$ to be plac$ 9 all p>i% *ur*es beside ! ,bible4 ,8 correspond5ce is p]haps ! "p ( 8 works :i* has ! mo/ p]man5t value2 x comprises ab\t #cjjj lett]s1 :i* =m an important s\rce = ! hi/ory ( t p]iod4 ,= ! same purpose 8 ,colloquia may be consult$4 ,!y are a s]ies ( dialogues1 writt5 fir/ = pupils 9 ! e>ly ,p>is days z =mulae ( polite address1 b aft]w>ds exp&$ into lively conv]sations1 9 :i* _m ( ! topics ( ! day are discuss$4 ,lat] 9 ! c5tury !y 7 read 9 s*ools1 & "s ( ,%akespe>e's l9es are direct rem9isc5ces ( ,erasmus4 ,8 complete works h be5 pr9t$ twice2 by ! ,frob5 firm "u ! direction ( 8 lit]>y executors 7#i vols41 ,basel1 #aedj72 & by ,lecl]c at ,leid5 7#aa vols41 #agjc-agjf74 ,= 8 life ! *ief contempor>y s\rces are a ,comp5dium vitae writt5 by himself 9 #aebd1 & a sket* prefix$ by ,beatus ,rh5anus to ! ,basel edition ( #aedj4 ,( 8 writ+s he gives an acc\nt 9 8 ,catalogus lucubrationum1 compos$ fir/ 9 ,janu>y #aebc & enl>g$ 9 ,septemb] #aebd2 & also 9 a lett] to ,hector ,boece ( ,ab]de51 writt5 9 #aecj4 ,an elaborate bibliography1 entitl$ ,biblio!ca ,erasmiana1 0 und]tak5 by ! (ficials ( ! ,gh5t ,univ]sity ,libr>y2 x is divid$ into ?ree sections1 = ,erasmus's writ+s1 ! books he edit$1 & ! lit]ature ab\t him4 ,li/es sommaires 7 issu$ 9 #ahic2 & s9ce #ahig ! complet$ volumes h be5 appe>+ at int]vals4 ,!re is an excell5t sket* ( ,erasmus's life d[n to #aeai 9 ,f4 ,seebohm's ,ox=d ,re=m]s 7#crd ed41 #ahhg72 & ( ! _m biographies ^? by ,s4 ,knight 7#agbf71 ,j4 ,jort9 7#b vols41 #ageh-agfj7 & ,r4,b4 ,drummond 7#b vols41 #ahgc7 may be m5tion$4 ,!re are also two volumes 7#aija-aijd7 ( translations by ,f4,m4 ,ni*ols f ,erasmus's lett]s d[n to #aeag1 ) an ample comm5t>y :i* am\nts almo/ to a biography2 & an edition ( ! lett]s1 9 ,lat91 0 begun by ! ,ox=d ,univ]sity ,press 9 #aijf 7vol4 ii41 #aiaj74 7,m4 ,p42 ,p4 ,s4 ,a47 ,,era/us1 ,,?omas 7#aebd-aehc71 ,g]man-,swiss !ologian1 ^: surname 0 ,lub]1 ,lieb]1 or ,liebl]1 0 born ( poor p>5ts on ! #g? ( ,septemb] #aebd1 probably at ,bad51 canton ( ,a>gau1 ,switz]l&4 ,9 #aedj he 0 /udy+ !ology at ,basel4 ,! plague ( #aedd drove him to ,bologna & !nce to ,padua z /ud5t ( philosophy & m$ic9e4 ,9 #aeec he became physician to ! c\nt ( ,h5neb]g1 ,saxe-,me9+51 & 9 #aeeh held ! same po/ ) ! elector-palat9e1 ,otto ,he9ri*1 be+ at ! same "t pr(essor ( m$ic9e at ,heidelb]g4 ,8 patron's successor1 ,fr$]ick ,,iii41 made him 7#aeei7 a privy c\ncillor & memb] ( ! *ur* consi/ory4 ,9 !ology he foll[$ ,zw+li1 & at ! sacram5t>ian conf]5ces ( ,heidelb]g 7#aefj7 & ,maulbronn 7#aefd7 he advocat$ by voice & p5 ! ,zw+lian doctr9e ( ! ,"l's ,supp]1 reply+ 7#aefe7 to ! c\nt] argum5ts ( ! ,lu!ran ,johann ,m>ba*1 ( ,/rassburg4 ,he ineffectually resi/$ ! ef=ts ( ! ,calv9i/s1 l$ by ,casp> ,olevianus1 to introduce ! ,presbyt]ian polity & discipl9e1 :i* 7 e/abli%$ at ,heidelb]g 9 #aegj1 on ! ,g5evan model4 ,"o ( ! fir/ acts ( ! new *ur* sy/em 0 to excommunicate ,era/us on a *>ge ( ,soc9ianism1 f\nd$ on 8 correspond5ce ) ,transylvania4 ,! ban 0 n remov$ till #aege1 ,era/us decl>+ 8 firm adhesion to ! doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity4 ,8 position1 h[ev]1 0 uncom=table1 & 9 #aehj he return$ to ,basel1 :]e 9 #aehc he 0 made pr(essor ( e?ics4 ,he di$ on ! #ca/ ( ,decemb] #aehc4 ,he publi%$ sev]al pieces be>+ on m$ic9e1 a/rology & al*emy1 & attack+ ! sy/em ( ,p>acelsus4 ,8 "n is p]man5tly associat$ ) a po/hum\s publication1 writt5 9 #aefh4 ,its imm$iate occasion 0 ! disputation at ,heidelb]g 7#aefh7 = ! doctorate ( !ology by ,george ,)] or ,)]s1 an ,engli% ,puritan 7subsequ5tly ar*deacon ( ,col*e/]71 sil5c$ 7#aefe7 at ,bury ,/ ,edmunds by ,ar*bi%op ,p>k]4 ,)]s _h propos$ a disputation aga9/ ve/m5ts1 :i* ! univ]sity w\ld n all[2 8 !sis affirm+ ! excommunicat+ p[] ( ! presbyt]y 0 su/a9$4 ,h5ce ! treatise ( ,era/us4 ,x 0 publi%$ 7#aehi7 by ,giacomo ,ca/elvetri1 :o _h m>ri$ 8 wid[1 ) ! title ,explicatio gravissimae quae/ionis utrum excommunicatio1 quat5us religionem intellig5tes et amplexantes1 a sacram5torum usu1 propt] admissum fac9us arcet1 m&ato nitatur div9o1 an excogitata sit ab hom9ibus4 ,! "w be>s ! impr9t ,pesclavii 7i4e4 ,pos*iavo 9 ! ,grisons7 b 0 pr9t$ by ,john ,wolfe 9 ,london1 :]e ,ca/elvetri 0 /ay+2 ! "n ( ! alleg$ pr9t] is an anagram ( ,jacobum ,ca/elvetrum4 ,9 ! ,/ation]s' ,regi/] 7,june #bj1 #aehi7 ! pr9t+ is said to h be5 al[$ by ,ar*bi%op ,:itgift4 ,x consi/s ( sev5ty-five ,!ses1 foll[$ by a ,confirmatio 9 six books1 & an app5dix ( lett]s to ,era/us by ,bull+] & ,gual!r1 %[+ t 8 ,!ses1 writt5 9 #aefh1 _h be5 circulat$ 9 manuscript4 ,an ,engli% translation ( ! ,!ses1 ) brief life ( ,era/us 7bas$ on ,mel*ior ,adam's acc\nt71 0 issu$ 9 #afei1 entitl$ ,! ,nullity ( ,*ur* ,c5sures2 x 0 repr9t$ z ,a ,treatise ( ,excommunication 7#afhb71 &1 z revis$ by ,rob]t ,lee1 ,d4,d41 9 #ahdd4 ,! aim ( ! "w is to %[1 on ,scriptural gr\nds1 t s9s ( pr(ess+ ,*ri/ians are to be puni%$ by civil au?ority1 & n by )hold+ ( sacram5ts on ! "p ( ! cl]gy4 ,9 ! ,we/m9/] ,assembly a p>ty hold+ ?is view includ$ ,seld51 ,lightfoot1 ,coleman & ,:itelocke1 ^: spee* 7#afde7 is app5d$ to ,lee's v]sion ( ! ,!ses2 b ! opposite view1 aft] mu* controv]sy1 0 c>ri$1 ,lightfoot alone diss5t+4 ,! consequ5t *apt] ( ! ,we/m9/] ,confession 7,( ,*ur* ,c5sures7 01 h[ev]1 n ratifi$ by ! ,engli% p>liam5t4 ,era/ianism1 z a by-^w1 is us$ to d5ote ! doctr9e ( ! supremacy ( ! /ate 9 ecclesia/ical causes2 b ! problem ( ! relations betwe5 *ur* & /ate is "o on :i* ,era/us n[h]e ent]s4 ,:at is kn[n z ,era/ianism w\ld be bett] connect$ ) ! "n ( ,grotius4 ,! only direct reply made to ! ,explicatio 0 ! ,tractatus de v]a excommunicatione 7#aeij7 by ,!odore ,beza1 :o f\nd himself r savagely attack$ 9 ! ,confirmatio !sium2 e4g4 ,apo/olum et ,mos5 adeoque ,deum ipsum audes corrig]e4 ,see ,a4 ,bonn>d1 ,?omas ,era/e et la discipl9e ecclesia/ique 7#ahid72 ,gass1 9 ,allgeme9e deuts*e ,biog4 7#ahgg72 ,g4,v4 ,le*l] & ,r4 ,/ahel91 9 ,a4 ,hauck's ,real5cyklop4 fur prot4 ,!ol4 u4 ,kir*e 7#ahih74 7,a4 ,g4997 ,,erato/h5es ,,( ,,alex&ria 7c4 #bgf-;c4 #aid ,b4,c471 ,greek sci5tific writ]1 0 born at ,cyr5e4 ,he /udi$ gramm> "u ,callima*us at ,alex&ria1 & philosophy "u ! ,/oic ,ari/on & ! ,academic ,arcesilaus at ,a!ns4 ,he return$ to ,alex&ria at ! summons ( ,ptolemy ,,iii4 ,eu]getes1 by :om he 0 appo9t$ *ief libr>ian 9 place ( ,callima*us4 ,he is said to h di$ ( volunt>y />vation1 be+ ?reat5$ ) total bl9dness4 ,erato/h5es 0 "o ( ! mo/ le>n$ m5 ( antiquity1 & wrote on a great numb] ( subjects4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to call himself ,philologos 79 ! s5se ( ! fri5d ( le>n+71 & ! "n ,p5ta?los 0 be/[$ ^u him 9 hon\r ( 8 v>i$ accompli%m5ts4 ,he 0 also call$ ,beta z be+ second 9 all bran*es ( le>n+1 ?\gh n actually fir/ 9 any4 ,9 ma!matics he wrote two books ,on means 7,greek3 ,p]i mesoteton7 :i* are lo/1 b appe>1 f a rem>k ( ,pappus1 to h dealt ) loci ) ref]5ce to means4 ,he devis$ a me*anical con/ruction = two mean proportionals1 reproduc$ by ,pappus & ,eutocius 7,comm4 on ,ar*im$es74 ,8 ,greek3 kosk9on or sieve 7cribrum ,erato/h5is7 0 a device = discov]+ all prime numb]s4 ,he laid ! f\ndation ( ma!matical geography 9 8 ,geographica1 9 ?ree books4 ,8 greate/ a*ievem5t 0 8 measurem5t ( ! e>?4 ,be+ in=m$ t at ,sy5e 7,assuan71 on ! day ( ! summ] sol/ice at noon1 a well 0 lit up ?r\gh all its dep?1 s t ,sy5e lay on ! tropic1 he measur$1 at ! same h\r1 ! z5i? di/ance ( ! sun at ,alex&ria4 ,he ?us f\nd ! di/ance betwe5 ,sy5e & ,alex&ria 7kn[n to be #ejjj /adia7 to correspond to #a_/ej? ( a great circle1 & s arriv$ at #bej1jjj /adia 7:i* he seems subsequ5tly to h correct$ to #beb1jjj7 z ! circumf]5ce ( ! e>?4 ,he is cr$it$ by ,ptolemy & 8 comm5tator ,!on ) hav+ f\nd ! di/ance betwe5 ! tropics to be #aa_/hc rds4 ( ! m]idian circle1 :i* gives #bc deg4 #ea' #bj = ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic4 ,8 a/ronomical poem ,h]mes began app>5tly ) ! bir? & exploits ( ,h]mes1 !n pass$ to ! leg5d ( 8 hav+ ord]$ ! heav5s1 ! zones & ! />s1 & gave a hi/ory ( ! latt]4 ,8 ,erigone1 ( :i* a few fragm5ts are also pres]v$1 is sometimes spok5 ( z a sep>ate poem1 b x may h belong$ to ! ,h]mes1 :i* appe>s also to h be5 kn[n by o!r names su* z ,catalogi4 ,! /ill extant ,cata/]ismi1 conta9+ ! /ory ( c]ta9 />s 9 prose1 is probably n by ,erato/h5es4 ,erato/h5es 0 ! f\nd] ( sci5tific *ronology 9 8 ,greek3 *ronographia 9 :i* he endeav\r$ to fix ! dates ( ! *ief lit]>y & political ev5ts f ! conque/ ( ,troy4 ,an important "w 0 8 treatise on ! old com$y1 deal+ ) !atres & !atrical app>atus g5]ally1 & discuss+ ! works ( ! pr9cipal comic poets !mselves4 ,works on moral philosophy1 hi/ory1 & a numb] ( lett]s 7 also attribut$ to him4 ,!re is a complete edition ( ! fragm5ts ( ,erato/h5es by ,b]nh>dy 7#ahbb72 poetical fragm5ts1 ,hilli] 7#ahgb72 geographical1 ,seidel 7#agii7 & ,b]g] 7#ahhj72 ,greek3 kata/]ismoi1 ,s*auba* 7#agie7 & ,rob]t 7#ahgh74 ,see ,s&ys1 ,hi/4 ,class4 ,s*ol4 i4 7#aijf74 7,t4 ,l4 ,h47 ,,erba*1 a t[n ( ,g]many1 9 ! gr&-du*y ( ,hesse-,d>m/adt1 on ! ,muml+1 #bb m4 ,s4,e4 ( ,d>m/adt4 ,x has clo? mills & ivory-turn+1 = :i* la/ bran* x possesses a te*nical s*ool4 ,wool & cattle fairs are held twice a ye>4 ,pop4 #bhjj4 ,! ca/le conta9s an int]e/+ collection ( weapons & pictures1 & 9 ! *apel are ! c(f9s ( ,e9h>d1 ! fri5d & biograph] ( ,*>lemagne1 & 8 wife1 ,emma4 ,erba* has long be5 ! resid5ce ( ! c\nts ( ,erba*1 :o trace _! desc5t back to ! #ab? c5tury1 & :o held ! (fice ( cupbe>] to ! electors palat9e ( ! ,rh9e until #ahjf4 ,9 #aecb ! emp]or ,*>les ,v4 made ! c\nty a direct fief ( ! ,empire1 on acc\nt ( ! s]vices r5d]$ by ,c\nt ,eb]h>d dur+ ! ,peasants' ,w>4 ,s9ce #agag ! family has be5 divid$ into ! ?ree l9es ( ,erba*-,fur/5au1 ,erba*-,erba* & ,erba*-,s*onb]g1 :o rank = prec$5ce1 n accord+ to ! age ( _! desc5t1 b accord+ to ! age ( ! *ief ( _! l9e4 ,9 #ahah ! c\nts ( ,erba*-,erba* inh]it$ ! c\nty ( ,w>t5b]g-,ro?1 & 9 #aijc ! c\nt ( ,erba*-,s*onb]g 0 grant$ ! title ( pr9ce4 ,! c\nty 0 m$iatiz$ 9 #ahjf1 & is n[ incorporat$ ) ! du*y ( ,hesse-,d>m/adt4 ,see ,simon1 ,die ,ges*i*te d] ,dyna/5 und ,graf5 zu ,erba* 7,frank=t1 #aheh74 ,,erbium 7symbol1 ,er2 atomic weight1 #afe-aff71 "o ( ! metals ( ! r>e e>?s4 ,! fir/ ( ! r>e e>? m9]als 0 discov]$ 9 #agid by ,j4 ,gadol9 & 0 nam$ gadol9ite f its discov]]4 ,9 #agig ,ekeb]g %[$ t gadol9ite conta9$ ano!r r>e e>?1 :i* 0 giv5 ! "n yttria4 ,yttria is an exce$+ly complex mixture1 :i* has be5 decompos$1 yield+ z an int]m$iate product t]bia4 ,?is latt] sub/ance 9 its turn has be5 split by ,j4,l4 ,soret1 ,p4,t4 ,cleve1 ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran & o!rs into erbia1 holmia1 ?ulia & dysprosia1 b x is /ill d\btful :e!r any "o ( ^! f\r splitt+ products is a s+le sub/ance4 ,! r>e e>? metals are f\nd 9 ! m9]als gadol9ite1 sam>skite1 f]gusonite1 eux5ite & c]ite4 ,!y are sep>at$ f ! m9]als by conv]t+ !m into oxalates1 :i* by ignition give ! correspond+ oxides4 ,! oxides are !n conv]t$ into d\ble sulphates :i* are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by repeat$ fractional cry/allization or by fractional precipitation ) ammonia or "s o!r base4 ,erbium =ms rose-col\r$ salts & a rose-col\r$ oxide4 ,! oxide dissolves sl[ly 9 acids2 x is n r$uc$ by hydrog5 & is infusible4 ,! salts %[ a *>act]i/ic absorption spectrum4 ,see ,j4,f4 ,bahr & ,r4 ,buns5 7,ann41 #ahff1 #acg1 p4 #a72 ,a4 v4 ,welsba* 7,monats41 #ahhc1 #d1 p4 #fda2 #ahhd1 #e1 p4 #ejh2 #ahhe1 #f1 p4 #dgg72 ,p4,t4 ,cleve 7,comptes r5dus1 #ahgi1 #hi1 p4 #dgh2 #ahhj1 #ia1 pp4 #cbh1 #cha2 #ahhb1 #ie1 p4 #abbe2 ,bull4 de la soc4 *im41 #ahgd1 #ba1 p4 #aif2 #ahhc1 #ci1 p4 #bhg72 ,c4 ,m>ignac 7,ann4 ,*im4 phys41 #ahdi #c #bg1 p4 #bbf72 ,b4 ,braun] 7,monats41 #ahhb1 #c1 p4 #ac72 ,w4 ,crookes 7,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #ahhf1 #dj1 p4 #ejb72 ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran 7,comptes r5dus1 #ahhf1 #ajb1 p4 #ajje72 ,a4 ,bett5dorf 7,ann41 #ahib1 #bgj1 p4 #cgf72 ,m4 ,mu?mann 7,b]41 #ahih1 #ca1 p4 #agah2 #aijj1 #cc1 p4 #db72 ,g4 ,kruss 7,zeit4 f4 anorg4 ,*em41 #ahic1 #c1 p4 #ajh74 ,,ercilla ,y ,,zuniga1 ,,alonso ,,de 7#aecc-aeie71 ,spani% soldi] & poet1 0 born 9 ,madrid on ! #g? ( ,augu/ #aecc4 ,9 #aedh he 0 appo9t$ page to ! heir-app>5t1 aft]w>ds ,philip ,,ii4 ,9 ?is capacity ,ercilla visit$ ,italy1 ,g]many & ! ,ne!rl&s1 & 0 pres5t 9 #aeed at ! m>riage ( 8 ma/] to ,m>y ( ,engl&4 ,he>+ t an exp$ition 0 prep>+ to subdue ! ,araucanians ( ,*ile1 he jo9$ ! adv5tur]s4 ,he di/+ui%$ himself 9 ! ensu+ campaign2 b1 hav+ qu>rell$ ) a comrade1 he 0 condemn$ to dea? 9 #aeeh by 8 g5]al1 ,g>cia ,hurtado de ,m5doza4 ,! s5t5ce 0 commut$ to imprisonm5t1 b ,ercilla 0 spe$ily releas$ & f\ght at ! battle ( ,quipeo 7#ad? ( ,decemb] #aeeh74 ,he return$ to ,spa9 9 #aefb1 visit$ ,italy1 ,france1 ,g]many1 ,bohemia1 & 9 #aegj m>ri$ ,m>ia de ,bazan1 a lady di/antly connect$ ) ! ,santa ,cruz family2 9 #aega he 0 made knight ( ! ord] ( ,santiago1 & 9 #aegh he 0 employ$ by ,philip ,,ii4 on a mission to ,s>agossa4 ,he compla9$ ( liv+ 9 pov]ty b left a mode/ =tune1 & 0 obvi\sly disappo9t$ at n be+ (f]$ ! po/ ( secret>y ( /ate4 ,8 pr9cipal "w is ,la ,araucana1 a poem bas$ on ! ev5ts ( ! w>s 9 :i* he _h be5 engag$4 ,x consi/s ( ?ree p>ts1 ( :i* ! fir/1 compos$ 9 ,*ile & publi%$ 9 #aefi1 is a v]sifi$ n>rative adh]+ /rictly to hi/oric fact2 ! second1 publi%$ 9 #aegh1 is encumb]$ ) visions & o!r romantic ma*9]y2 & ! ?ird1 :i* appe>$ 9 #aehi-aeij1 conta9s1 9 addition to ! subject prop]1 a v>iety ( episodes mo/ly irrelevant4 ,?is s-call$ epic lacks symmetry1 & has be5 ov]-prais$ by ,c]vantes & ,voltaire2 b x is writt5 9 excell5t ,spani%1 & is full ( vivid rhetorical passages4 ,an analysis ( ! poem 0 giv5 by ,hayley 9 8 ,essay on ,epic ,poetry 7#aghb74 ,a good biography prec$es ! ,morceaux *oisis 7,p>is1 #aijj7 by ,jean ,ducam94 ,,erckmann-,,*atrian1 ! jo9t names ( two ,fr5* writ]s ^: collaboration made _! "w t (1 s to speak1 "o p]sonality4 ,,emile ,,erckmann 7#ahbb-ahii7 0 born on ! #bj? ( ,may #ahbb at ,phalsb\rg1 & ,,l\is ,,grati5 ,,*>les ,,alex&re ,,*atrian 7#ahbf-ahij7 on ! #ah? ( ,decemb] #ahbf at ,soldat5?al1 ,lorra9e4 ,9 #ahdg !y began to write toge!r1 & cont9u$ do+ s till #ahhi4 ,*atrian di$ 9 #ahij at ,villemomble ne> ,p>is1 & ,erckmann at ,luneville 9 #ahii4 ,! li/ ( _! publications is a long "o1 rang+ f ! ,hi/oires et contes fanta/iques 7#ahdi2 repr9t$ f ! ,democrate du ,rh971 ,l',illu/re ,docteur ,ma!us 7#ahei71 ,madame ,!rese 7#ahfc71 ,l',ami ,fritz 7#ahfd71 ,hi/oire d'un conscrit de #ahac 7#ahfd71 ,wat]loo 7#ahfe71 ,le ,blocus 7#ahfg71 ,hi/oire d'un paysan 7#d vols41 #ahfh-ahgj71 ,l',hi/oire du plebiscite 7#ahgb71 to ,le ,gr&-p]e ,lebigue 7#ahhj72 besides dramas l ,le ,juif polonais 7#ahfi7 & ,les ,rantzau 7#ahhb74 ,)\t any special lit]>y claim1 _! /ories are di/+ui%$ by simplicity & g5u9e descriptive p[]1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! battle sc5es & 9 connexion ) ,alsatian peasant life4 ,!y are m>k$ by a g5u9e democratic _s1 & by real patriotism1 :i* develop$ aft] #ahgj into hatr$ ( ! ,g]mans4 ,! au?ors attack$ milit>ism by depict+ ! horrors ( w> 9 ! pla9e/ t]ms4 ,see also ,j4 ,cl>etie1 ,erckmann-,*atrian 7#ahhc71 9 ! s]ies ( ,celebrites contempora9es4 ,,erdelyi1 ,,janos 7#ahad-ahfh71 ,hung>ian poet & au?or1 0 born 9 #ahad at ,kapos1 9 ! c\nty ( ,ungv>1 & educat$ at ! ,prote/ant college ( ,s>ospatak4 ,9 #ahcc he remov$ to ,pe/1 :]e he 01 9 #ahci1 elect$ memb] ( ! ,hung>ian ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,8 lit]>y fame 0 made by 8 collection ( ,hung>ian national poems & folk-tales1 ,magy> ,nepkoltesi ,gyujtem5y1 ,nepdalok es ,mondak 7,pe/1 #ahdf-ahdg74 ,?is "w1 publi%$ by ! ,kisfaludy ,society1 0 supplem5t$ by a diss]tation ^u ,hung>ian national poetry1 aft]w>ds p>tially translat$ into ,g]man by ,/i] 7,b]l91 #ahea74 ,erdelyi also compil$ = ! ,kisfaludy ,society an ext5sive collection ( ,hung>ian prov]bs--,magy> ,kozmondasok konyve 7,pe/1 #ahea71--;& 0 = "s "t editor ( ! ,szepirodalmi ,szemle 7,review ( ,polite ,lit]ature74 ,9 #ahdh he 0 appo9t$ director ( ! national !atre at ,pe/2 b aft] #ahdi he resid$ at 8 native t[n4 ,he di$ on ! #bcrd ( ,janu>y #ahfh4 ,a collection ( folklore 0 publi%$ ! ye> aft] 8 dea?1 entitl$ ,a ,nep ,kolteszete nepdalok1 nepmesek es kozmondasok 7,pe/1 #ahfi74 ,?is "w conta9s #cjj national songs1 #ai folk-tales & #gcfb ,hung>ian prov]bs4 ,,erdmann1 ,,johann ,,edu>d 7#ahje-ahib71 ,g]man philosophical writ]1 0 born at ,wolm> 9 ,livonia on ! #ac? ( ,june #ahje4 ,he /udi$ !ology at ,dorpat & aft]w>ds at ,b]l91 :]e he fell "u ! influ5ce ( ,hegel4 ,f #ahbi to #ahcb he 0 a m9i/] ( religion 9 8 native t[n4 ,aft]w>ds he devot$ himself to philosophy1 & qualifi$ 9 t subject at ,b]l9 9 #ahcd4 ,9 #ahcf he 0 pr(essor-extraord9>y at ,halle1 became full pr(essor 9 #ahci1 & di$ !re on ! #ab? ( ,june #ahib4 ,he publi%$ _m philosophical text-books & treatises1 & a numb] ( s]mons2 b 8 *ief claim to remembrance re/s on 8 elaborate ,grundriss d] ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie 7#b vols41 #ahff71 ! #crd edition ( :i* has be5 translat$ into ,engli%4 ,erdmann's special m]it is t he does n re/ cont5t ) be+ a m]e summ>iz] ( op9ions1 b tries to exhibit ! hi/ory ( human ?\ght z a cont9u\s & ev]-develop+ ef=t to solve ! great speculative problems ) :i* man has be5 confront$ 9 all ages4 ,8 *ief o!r works 73 ,leib und ,seele 7#ahcg71 ,grundriss d] ,psy*ologie 7#ahdj71 ,grundriss d] ,logik und ,metaphysik 7#ahda71 & ,psy*ologis*e ,briefe 7#ahea74 ,,erdmann1 ,,otto ,,l9ne 7#ahjd-ahfi71 ,g]man *emi/1 son ( ,k>l ,gottfri$ ,erdmann 7#aggd-ahce71 ! physician :o introduc$ vacc9ation into ,saxony1 0 born at ,dresd5 on ! #aa? ( ,april #ahjd4 ,9 #ahbj he began to att5d ! m$ico-*irurgical academy ( 8 native place1 & 9 #ahbb he ent]$ ! univ]sity ( ,leipzig :]e 9 #ahbg he became extraord9>y pr(essor1 & 9 #ahcj ord9>y pr(essor ( *emi/ry4 ,?is (fice he held until 8 dea?1 :i* happ5$ at ,leipzig on ! #i? ( ,octob] #ahfi4 ,he 0 p>ticul>ly successful z a tea*]1 & ! laboratory e/abli%$ at ,leipzig "u 8 direction 9 #ahdc 0 long reg>d$ z a model in/itution4 ,z an inve/igator he is be/ kn[n = 8 "w on nickel & indigo & o!r dye-/uffs4 ,) ,r4,f4 ,m>*& 7#ahac-ahej7 he also c>ri$ out a numb] ( det]m9ations ( atomic weights4 ,9 #ahbh1 9 conjunction ) ,a4,f4,g4 ,w]!r 7#ahae-ahfi71 he f\nd$ ! ,j\rnal fur te*nis*e und okonomis*e ,*emie1 :i* became 9 #ahcd ! ,j\rnal fur praktis*e ,*emie4 ,he 0 also ! au?or ( ,ub] das ,nickel 7#ahbg71 ,lehrbu* d] ,*emie 7#ahbh71 ,grundriss d] ,wa>5kunde 7#ahcc71 & ,ub] das ,/udium d] ,*emie 7#ahfa74 ,,erebus1 9 ,greek my?ology1 son 7accord+ to ,hesiod1 ,!og4 #abc7 ( ,*aos1 & fa!r ( ,ae!r 7upp] air7 & ,hem]a 7day7 by 8 si/] ,nyx 7night74 ,! ^w1 :i* signifies d>kness1 is 9 ,hom] ! gloomy subt]ranean region ?r\gh :i* ! dep>t$ %ades pass into ,hades4 ,! entrance to x 0 9 ! extreme we/1 on ! bord]s ( ,ocean1 9 ! my?ical l& ( ! ,cimm]ians4 ,x is to be di/+ui%$ f ,t>t>us1 ! place ( puni%m5t = ! wick$4 ,,ere* 7,uruk 9 ! ,babylonian inscriptions2 ,gr4 ,or*oe71 ! ,biblical "n ( an anci5t city ( ,babylonia1 situat$ ,e4 ( ! pres5t b$ ( ! ,euphrates1 on ! l9e ( ! anci5t ,nil canal1 9 a region ( m>%es1 ab\t #adj m4 ,s4,s4,e4 f ,bagdad4 ,x 0 "o ( ! olde/ & mo/ important cities ( ,babylonia1 & ! site ( a fam\s temple1 call$ ,e-,anna1 d$icat$ to ! wor%ip ( ,nana1 or ,i%t>4 ,ere* play$ a v important "p 9 ! political hi/ory ( ! c\ntry f an e>ly "t1 ex]cis+ hegemony 9 ,babylonia at a p]iod be=e ! "t ( ,s>gon4 ,lat] x 0 prom95t 9 ! national /ruggles ( ! ,babylonians aga9/ ,elam 7#bjjj ,b4,c4 & e>li]71 9 :i* x suff]$ sev]ely2 recollections ( ^! conflicts are embodi$ 9 ! ,gilgame% epic1 z x has come d[n to u ?r\gh ! libr>y ( ,assur-bani-pal4 ,ere* enjoy$ mu* di/9ction 9 ! lat] times1 z a seat ( le>n+ & ( ! wor%ip ( ,i%t>1 & ,assur-bani-pal drew l>gely on its lit]>y /ores = 8 libr>y at ,n9eveh1 f :i* we d]ive our pr9cipal in=mation conc]n+ anci5t ,babylonian lit]ature4 ,! inscriptions f\nd "h %[ t x cont9u$ 9 exi/5ce ?r\gh ! ,p]sian & ,seleucid p]iods4 ,! ru9s ( ! anci5t site1 kn[n z ,w>ka1 :i* are among ! l>ge/ 9 all ,babylonia1 =m+ an irregul> circle ne>ly #f m4 9 circumf]5ce1 b\nd$ by a wall1 /ill /&+ 9 "s places to ! height ( #dj ft41 7 explor$ & p>tially excavat$ by ,w4,k4 ,l(tus 9 #ahej & #ahed4 ,! mo/ conspicu\s ru91 n[ call$ ,abu-,b]di1 ,fa!r ( ,m>% ,grass1 or ,buw>iye1 re$ matt+1 because ( ! lay]s ( re$s betwe5 ea* twelve c\rses ( unbak$ brick1 is ! ziggurat 7t[]7 ( ! anci5t temple ( ,e-,anna4 ,x is ab\t #ajj ft4 9 height1 & /rik+ly resembles 9 g5]al appe>ance ! ru9s ( ! ziggurat ( ! temple ( ,enlil at ,nippur4 ,second to ?is 9 size 0 ! ru9 call$ ,wuswas1 a wall$ quadrangle1 includ+ an area ( m ?an sev5 & a half acres1 )9 :i* 0 an edifice #bdf ft4 long & #agd ft4 wide1 elevat$ on an artificial plat=m #ej ft4 9 height4 ,! s\?-we/ facade1 /ill /&+ 9 "s places to ! height ( #bc ft41 exhibit$ an int]e/+ use ( half columns1 & /epp$ recesses = purposes ( decoration4 ,9 ano!r ru9 ,l(tus f\nd a wall1 #cj ft4 long1 compos$ entirely ( small yell[ t]ra-cotta nail-head$ cones1 su* z h be5 discov]$ 9 great numb]s1 inscrib$ & un9scrib$1 us$ = votive purposes 9 connexion ) walls at ,tello & else:]e 9 ,babylonia4 ,8 excavations be+ sup]ficial1 ! ,babylonian inscriptions f\nd by him1 ab\t "o hundr$ 9 all1 exclusive ( ! anci5t ,ur-,gur bricks f ! temple1 belong 9 g5]al to ! neo-,babylonian1 ,p]sian & ,seleucid p]iods4 ,! old] rema9s are buri$ deep b5ea? ! huge mass ( lat] debris4 ,l(tus also discov]$ at ,ere*1 almo/ ev]y:]e )9 & )\t ! walls1 great numb]s ( clay c(f9s1 pil$ "o above ano!r1 to ! height ( ov] #cj ft41 =m+ a va/ &1 on ! :ole1 well-ord]$ cemet]y belong+ to ! ,p]sian1 ,p>?ian & lat] occupations ( ,babylonia1 dur+ :i* p]iod ,ere*1 l o!r cities ( ! s\?1 evid5tly became a necropolis = a l>ge ext5t ( c\ntry4 ,aft] ,l(tus's "t ! m\nds 7 visit$ by v>i\s travell]s1 b no fur!r excavations h be5 conduct$4 ,"w on ?is important "p ( ! site is att5d$ ) v great difficulties1 ow+ to ! inaccessible position ( ! ru9s1 ! unsettl$ "* ( ! c\ntry1 ! frequ5t s&-/orms1 & above all1 ! imm5se mass ( mat]ial ( lat] p]iods :i* mu/ be remov$ be=e a sy/ematic excavation ( ! m anci5t & int]e/+ ru9s c\ld be und]tak54 ,a curi\s feature ( ! ,w>ka neighb\rhood is ! exi/5ce ( conical s&-hills1 ris+ to a consid]able height1 s compact z to be almo/ l /one4 ,^! hills ext5d f ,w>ka nor?w>d z f> z ,tel ,ede4 ,see ,w4,k4 ,l(tus1 ,*aldaea & ,susiana 7#aheg72 ,j4,p4 ,pet]s1 ,nippur 7#ahig72 ,e4 ,sa*au1 ,am ,euphrat und ,tigris 7#aijj74 ,cf4 also ,,nippur & au?orities !re quot$4 7,j4 ,p4 ,pe47 ,,ere*!um1 a temple 7commonly call$ aft] ,ere*!us1 to :om a portion ( x 0 d$icat$7 on ! acropolis at ,a!ns1 unique 9 plan1 & 9 its execution ! mo/ ref9$ example ( ! ,ionic ord]4 ,!re is no cle> evid5ce z to :5 ! build+ 0 begun1 "s plac+ x among ! temples project$ by ,p]icles1 o!rs assign+ x to ! "t aft] ! peace ( ,nicias 9 #dba ,b4,c4 ,! "w 0 int]rupt$ by ! /ress ( ! ,peloponnesian ,w>1 b 9 #dji ,b4,c4 a commission 0 appo9t$ to make a report on ! /ate ( ! build+ & to und]take its completion1 :i* 0 c>ri$ out 9 ! foll[+ ye>4 ,! peculi> plan ( ! ,ere*!um has giv5 rise to mu* speculation4 ,x may be due p>tly to ! natural con=mation ( ! rock & ! diff]5ces ( level1 p>tly to ! necessity ( enclos+ )9 a s+le build+ sev]al objects ( anci5t sanctity1 su* z ! m>k ( ,poseidon's trid5t & ! spr+ t arose f x1 ! sacr$ olive tree ( ,a!na1 & ! tomb ( ,cecrops4 ,b !re are "s features :i* _c be s expla9$1 & :i* h l$ ,pr(essor ,w4 ,dorpfeld & o!rs to believe t ! plan1 z we n[ h x1 is a modification or abridgm5t ( ! orig9al design1 due to ! same cons]vative influ5ces z l$ to ! curtailm5t ( ! plan ( ! ,propylaea 7q4v474 ,illu/ration3 ,plan pf ! ,ere*!um4 ,! build+ z complet$ consi/$ ( a temple ( ! ord9>y type1 op5+ by a door & two w9d[s to ! ea/ front1 be=e :i* /ood a portico ( six ,ionic columns4 ,?is "p 0 ! temple ( ,a!na ,polias4 ,adjo9+ x on ! we/ 0 ! c5tral *amb]1 on a l[] level2 ?is *amb] 0 sep>at$ by a p>tition1 orig9ally ( wood & lat] ( m>ble1 f ! we/]n comp>tm5t ( ! temple1 :i* 0 ( peculi> con/ruction4 ,! we/ end 0 =m$ by a wall1 on :i* /ood f\r columns betwe5 antae2 b ! ma9 entrance to ?is we/]n comp>tm5t 0 ?r\gh a l>ge & v ornate doorway on ! nor?2 & a l>ge ,ionic portico1 consi/+ ( f\r columns 9 ! front1 & "o 9 ! return on ea* side1 0 plac$ 9 front ( ?is door4 ,at ! s\? end ( ! we/]n comp>tm5t 0 a small] door1 ) /eps lead+ up to ! high] level1 )9 a project+ space enclos$ by a l[ wall & cov]$ ) a project+ por* c>ri$ by six maid5s or c>yatides4 ,! con/ruction ( ! build+ at ?is s\?-we/]n corn] %[s t !re 0 "s sacr$ object t _h to be bridg$ ov] by a huge block ( m>ble2 ?is we "k f inscriptions to h be5 ! ,cecropeum or tomb ( ,cecrops4 ,9 ! nor? portico a squ>e hole 9 ! floor1 ) a correspond+ hole 9 ! ro( above x1 mu/ h giv5 access to ano!r sacr$ object1 ! m>k ( ,poseidon's trid5t 9 ! rock4 ,! sacr$ olive tree probably /ood j outside ! temple to ! we/ 9 ! ,p&roseion4 ,! ,ionic ord]1 z us$ 9 ?is temple1 is ( ! mo/ ornate ,attic type4 ,! bases ( ! columns are ei!r re$$ or decorat$ ) a plait-patt]n2 ! capital has ! broad *annel betwe5 ! volutes subdivid$ by a c>efully-pr(il$ incision2 & ! top ( ! %afts is ornam5t$ by a broad b& ( palmette or honeysuckle patt]n4 ,a simil> b& ( ornam5t runs r\nd ! top ( ! walls outside1 & at _! base is a re$$ torus4 ,! frieze consi/$ ( :ite m>ble figures 9 relief1 affix$ to a backgr\nd ( black ,eleus9ian /one4 ,! cont5ts ( ! ,ere*!um are describ$ by ,pausanias4 ,x conta9$ ! anci5t image ( ,a!na ,polias1 & ?ree alt>s1 "o to ,poseidon & ,ere*!us1 "o to ,butes & "o to ,hephae/us2 !re 7 portraits ( ! family ( ! ,butadae on ! walls4 ,)9 x 0 also ! gold lamp ( ,callima*us1 :i* burnt = a ye> )\t refill+1 & _h a *imney 9 ! =m ( a palm-tree4 ,! ,ere*!um 0 damag$ by a fire1 soon aft] its completion1 9 #djf ,b4,c41 b 0 repair$ e>ly 9 ! foll[+ c5tury4 ,! we/ end appe>s to h be5 damag$ 9 ,roman times & to h be5 replac$ by ! atta*$ columns ) w9d[s betwe5 !m :i* appe> 9 old draw+s & are /ill p>tially extant4 ,x 0 us$ z a *ur* 9 ,*ri/ian times1 & "u ,turki% rule z ! h>em ( ! gov]nor ( ,a!ns4 ,"l ,elg9 c>ri$ (f to ,london1 ab\t #ahja-ahjc1 "o ( ! columns ( ! ea/ portico & "o ( ! c>yatides2 ^! 7 replac$ lat] by t]ra-cotta ca/s4 ,dur+ ! siege ( ! ,acropolis 9 #ahbg1 ! ro( ( ! nor? portico 0 ?r[n d[n & ! build+ 0 o!rwise mu* damag$4 ,x 0 p>tially rebuilt betwe5 #ahch & #ahdf2 ! we/ front 0 bl[n d[n 9 a /orm 9 #aheb4 ,s9ce #aijj ! project ( rebuild+ ! ,ere*!um z f> z possible ) ! orig9al blocks has aga9 be5 und]tak54 ,see ,/u>t1 ,antiquities ( ,a!ns2 ,inwood1 ,! ,ere*!um2 ,h4 ,=/] 9 ,pap]s ( ,am]ican ,s*ool at ,a!ns1 i4 7#ahhb-ahhc72 ,j4,h4 ,middleton1 ,plans & ,draw+s ( ,a!nian ,build+s 7#aijj71 pls4 xiv4-xxii42 ,e4,a4 ,g>dn]1 ,anci5t ,a!ns1 *ap4 viii42 ,w4 ,dorpfeld1 ,d] ursprungli*e ,plan des ,ere*!ion 9 ,mitteil4 ,a!n41 #aijd1 p4 #aja1 taf4 #f2 ,g4,p4 ,/ev5s1 ,! ,ea/ ,wall ( ! ,ere*!um1 9 ,am]ican ,j\rn4 ,ar*41 #aijf1 pls4 vi4-ix4 7,e4 ,gr47 ,,ere*!us1 9 ,greek leg5d1 a my?ical k+ ( ,a!ns1 orig9ally id5tifi$ ) ,eri*?onius1 b 9 lat] times di/+ui%$ f him4 ,accord+ to ,hom]1 :o kn[s no?+ ( ,eri*?onius1 he 0 ! son ( ,ar\ra 7,e>?71 br\ght up by ,a!na1 ) :om 8 /ory is closely connect$4 ,9 ! lat] /ory1 ,eri*?onius 7son ( ,hephae/us & ,at?is or ,a!na h]self7 0 h&$ ov] by ,a!na to ! ?ree daught]s ( ,cecrops--,aglauros 7or ,agraulos71 ,h]se & ,p&rosos--9 a *e/1 :i* !y 7 =bidd5 to op54 ,aglauros & ,h]se disobey$ ! injunction1 & :5 !y saw ! *ild 7:i* _h ! =m ( a snake1 or r\nd :i* a snake 0 coil$7 !y w5t mad ) fright1 & ?rew !mselves f ! rock ( ! ,acropolis 7or 7 kill$ by ! snake74 ,a!na h]self !n und]took ! c>e ( ,eri*?onius1 :o1 :5 he grew up1 drove out ,amphictyon & took possession ( ! k+dom ( ,a!ns4 ,"h he e/abli%$ ! wor%ip ( ,a!na1 in/itut$ ! ,pana!naea1 & built an ,ere*!um4 ,! ,ere*!us ( lat] times 0 suppos$ to be ! gr&son ( ,ere*!us-,eri*?onius1 & 0 also k+ ( ,a!ns4 ,:5 ,a!ns 0 attack$ by ! ,?racian ,eumolpus 7or by ! ,eleus9ians assi/$ by ,eumolpus7 victory 0 promis$ ,ere*!us if he sacrific$ "o ( 8 daught]s4 ,eumolpus 0 sla9 & ,ere*!us 0 victori\s1 b 0 himself kill$ by ,poseidon1 ! fa!r ( ,eumolpus1 or by a ?und]bolt f ,zeus4 ,! conte/ betwe5 ,ere*!us & ,eumolpus =m$ ! subject ( a lo/ trag$y by ,euripides2 ,sw9burne has utiliz$ ! leg5d 9 8 ,ere*!us4 ,! sc5e ( ! op5+ ( ! *e/ is repres5t$ on a ,greek vase 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,! "n ,eri*?onius is connect$ ) ,greek3 *?on 7e>?7 & ! repres5tation ( him z half-snake1 l ,cecrops1 indicates t he 0 reg>d$ z "o ( ! auto*?ones1 ! ance/ors ( ! ,a!nians :o sprung f ! soil4 ,see ,apollodorus iii4 #ad4 #ae2 ,euripides1 ,ion2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 ii4 #eec2 ,hyg9us1 ,poet4 a/ron4 ii4 #ac2 ,pausanias i4 #b4 #e4 #h2 ,e4 ,ermat+]1 ,die attis*e ,auto*?on5sage 7#ahig72 article by ,j4,a4 ,hild 9 ,d>emb]g & ,saglio's ,dictionnaire des antiquites2 ,b4 ,p[ell 9 ,cornell ,/udies1 xvii4 7#aijf71 :o id5tifies ,ere*!us1 ,eri*?onius1 ,poseidon & ,cecrops1 all d5ot+ ! sacr$ s]p5t ( ,a!na1 ^: cult %e fir/ conte/$1 b !n amalgamat$ ) h] own4 ,! bir? ( ,eri*?onius 7z a corn-_s7 is int]pret$ by ,mannh>dt z a my?ical way ( describ+ ! gr[? ( ! corn1 & by ,j4,e4 ,h>rison 7,my?s & ,monum5ts ( ,anci5t ,a!ns1 xxvii4-xxxvi47 z a fiction to expla9 ! c]emony p]=m$ by ! two maid5s call$ ,arrephori4 ,see also ,f>nell1 ,cults ( ! ,greek ,/ates1 i4 #bgj2 & ,fraz]'s ,pausanias1 ii4 #afi4 ,,ere%kigal1 also kn[n z ,,allatu1 ! "n ( ! *ief ,babylonian goddess ( ! ne!r-_w :]e ! dead are ga!r$4 ,h] "n signifies lady ( ! ne!r-_w4 ,%e is kn[n to u *iefly ?r\gh two my?s1 bo? symboliz+ ! *ange ( seasons1 b int5d$ also to illu/rate c]ta9 doctr9es develop$ 9 ! temple-s*ools ( ,babylonia4 ,"o ( ^! my?s is ! fam\s /ory ( ,i%t>'s desc5t to ,irkalla or ,aralu1 z ! l[] _w 0 call$1 & h] reception by h] si/] :o presides ov] x2 ! o!r is ! /ory ( ,n]gal's (f5ce aga9/ ,ere%kigal1 8 bani%m5t to ! k+dom controll$ by ! goddess & ! reconciliation betwe5 ,n]gal & ,ere%kigal ?r\gh ! latt]'s (f] to h ,n]gal %>e ! hon\rs ( ! rule ov] ,irkalla4 ,! /ory ( ,i%t>'s desc5t is told to illu/rate ! possibility ( an escape f ,irkalla1 :ile ! o!r my? is int5d$ to reconcile ! exi/5ce ( two rul]s ( ,irkalla--a goddess & a god4 ,x is evid5t t x 0 orig9ally a goddess :o 0 suppos$ to be 9 control ( ,irkalla1 correspond+ to ,i%t> 9 control ( f]tility & vegetation on e>?4 ,ere%kigal is !re=e ! si/] ( ,i%t> & f "o po9t ( view h] c\nt]p>t1 ! symbol ( nature dur+ ! non-productive season ( ! ye>4 ,z ! doctr9e ( two k+doms1 "o ( ?is _w & "o ( ! _w ( ! dead1 becomes cry/alliz$1 ! dom9ions ( ! two si/]s are %>ply diff]5tiat$ f "o ano!r4 ,! addition ( ,n]gal repres5ts ! h>moniz+ t5d5cy to unite ) ,ere%kigal z ! que5 ( ! ne!r-_w ! god :o1 9 8 "* z god ( w> & ( pe/il5ce1 conveys ! liv+ to ,irkalla & ?us becomes ! "o :o presides ov] ! dead4 7,m4 ,ja47 ,,eretria 7mod4 ,aletria71 an anci5t coa/ t[n ( ,euboea ab\t #ae m4 ,s4,e4 ( ,*alcis1 opposite to ,oropus4 ,eretria1 l its neighb\r ,*alcis 7q4v471 e>ly ent]$ ^u a comm]cial & coloniz+ c>e]4 ,besides f\nd+ t[n%ips 9 ! we/ & nor? ( ,greece1 x acquir$ dep5d5cies among ! ,cyclades & jo9$ ! great m]cantile alliance ( ,miletus & ,aeg9a4 ,s9ce ! s-call$ ,lelant9e ,w> 7#g? c5tury ,b4,c47 aga9/ ! com+ league ( ,*alcis1 x began to be ov]%ad[$ by its rivals4 ,! int]f]5ce ( ,eretria 9 ! ,ionian revolt 7#dih7 br\ght ^u x ! v5geance ( ! ,p]sians1 :o captur$ & de/roy$ x %ortly be=e ! battle ( ,m>a?on 7#dij74 ,! city 0 soon rebuilt1 & z a memb] ( bo? ! ,delian ,leagues atta*$ itself by num]\s treaties to ! ,a!nians4 ,! latt]1 ?r\gh _! g5]al ,phocion1 rescu$ x f ! tyrants suborn$ by ,philip ( ,mac$on 7#ced & #cda74 ,"u ,mac$onian & ,roman rule ,eretria fell into insignificance2 = a %ort p]iod "u ,m>k ,antony1 ! triumvir1 x became a possession ( ,a!ns4 ,eretria 0 ! bir?place ( ! trag$ian ,a*aeus & ( ! ,meg>ian philosoph] ,m5$emus4 ,! mod]n village1 :i* is sometimes call$ ,nea ,ps>a because ! inhabitants ( ,ps>a 7 transf]r$ !re 9 #ahba1 is on unheal?y l[-ly+ gr\nd ne> ! sea4 ,! excavation ( ! site 0 c>ri$ out by ! ,am]ican ,s*ool ( ,a!ns 7#ahij-ahie74 ,at ! foot ( ! ,acropolis ,hill1 :]e ! gr\nd beg9s to rise1 ! !atre lies2 & ?\gh ! mat]ial ( :i* ?is 0 built is r\gh1 & only sev5 imp]fect r[s ( seats rema91 a good "p ( ! sc5a & ( ! *amb]s beh9d x is pres]v$1 & b5ea? ^! !re runs a tunnel1 :i*1 toge!r ) o!r peculi> features1 has rais$ int]e/+ que/ions 9 connexion ) ! arrangem5t ( ! ,greek !atre1 ! or*e/ra be+ at pres5t on a level ab\t #ab ft4 bel[ t ( ! rooms 9 ! sc5a4 ,ne> by are ! sub/ructions ( a temple ( ,dionysus & a l>ge alt>1 & also a gymnasium ) arrangem5ts = ba?+4 ,besides ^!1 9 #aijj ! sub/ructions ( a temple ( ,apollo ,daphnephoros 7 une>!d4 ,bo? ! nor!rn & ! s\!rn side ( ! hill are flank$ by walls1 :i* seem to h rea*$ ! sea1 :]e !re 0 a mole & a h>b\r2 & ! wall ( ! acropolis itself rema9s 9 "o "p to ! height ( eight c\rses4 ,,au?orities4--,/rabo x4 #ddg f42 ,h]odotus v4 #ii1 vi4 #aja2 ,corpus ,inscr4 ,attic>um1 i4 #cci1 iv4 7#b71 pp4 #e1 #aj1 #bb2 ,h4 ,he9ze1 ,de rebus ,eretri5sium 7,gott+51 #ahfi72 ,w4,m4 ,leake1 ,travels 9 ,nor!rn ,greece 7,london1 #ahce71 ii4 #bff1 #ddc2 ,b4,v4 ,head1 ,hi/oria numorum 7,ox=d1 #ahhg71 pp4 #cje-cjh2 ,pap]s ( ! ,am]ican ,s*ool at ,a!ns1 vol4 vi4 7,e4 ,gr47 ,,eretrian ,,s*ool ,,( ,,philosophy4 ,?is ,greek s*ool 0 ! cont9uation ( ! ,elian s*ool1 :i* 0 transf]r$ to ,eretria by ,m5$emus4 ,x 0 ( small importance1 & 9 ! abs5ce ( c]ta9 k mu/ be suppos$ to h adh]$ to ! doctr9es ( ,socrates4 7,see ,,m5$emus47 ,,erfurt1 a city ( ,g]many1 9 ,prussian ,saxony1 on ! ,g]a1 & ! railway ,halle-,bebra1 ab\t midway betwe5 ,go?a & ,weim>1 :i* are #ad m4 di/ant4 ,pop4 7#ahge7 #dh1jbe2 7#aije7 #ajj1jfe4 ,! city1 :i* is dom9at$ on ! we/ by ! two citadels ( ,pet]sb]g & ,cyriaxburg1 is irregul>ly built1 ! only feature 9 its plan1 or want ( plan1 be+ ! ,fri$ri* ,wilhelmsplatz1 a broad op5 space ( irregul> %ape abutt+ on ! ,pet]sb]g4 ,on ! s\?-we/]n side ( ?is squ>e1 :i* conta9s a monum5t to ! elector ,fr$]ick ,*>les ,joseph ( ,ma9z 7#agai-ahjb71 is ! ,domb]g1 an em95ce on :i* /&1 side by side1 ! ca!dral & ! great *ur* ( ,/ ,sev]us ) its ?ree spires 7#ad? c5tury74 ,! *ur*es are approa*$ by a flight ( =ty-eight /one /eps1 ! gr\p+ ( ! :ole mass ( build+s be+ exce$+ly impressive4 ,! ca!dral 7,beatae ,m>iae ,virg9is7 is "o ( ! f9e/ *ur*es 9 ,g]many4 ,x 0 begun 9 ! #ab? c5tury1 b ! nave 0 rebuilt 9 ! #ac? 9 ! ,go?ic /yle4 ,! magnific5t *ancel 7#acdi-acgb71 ) ! #ad?-c5tury crypt bel[1 re/s on massive sub/ructures1 kn[n z ! ,cavate4 ,! tw9 t[]s are set betwe5 ! *ancel & nave4 ,! ca!dral conta9s1 besides f9e #ae?-c5tury glass1 "s v ri* portal sculptures & bronze ca/+s1 among o!rs ! coronation ( ! ,virg9 by ,pet] ,vis*]4 ,9 "o ( its t[]s is ! fam\s bell1 call$ ,m>ia ,gloriosa1 :i* be>s ! date #adig1 & weighs #bgj cwt4 ,besides ! ca!dral & ,/ ,sev]us1 :i* are ,roman ,ca?olic1 ,erfurt possesses sev]al v int]e/+ m$ieval *ur*es1 n[ ,evangelical4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ ! ,pr$ig]kir*e1 dat+ f ! latt] half ( ! #ab? c5tury2 ! ,regl]kir*e1 a ,romanesque build+ 7re/or$ 9 #ahei7 ) a #ab?-c5tury t[]2 & ! ,b>fuss]kir*e1 a ,go?ic build+ conta9+ f9e #ad?-c5tury monum5ts4 ,all ^! 7 orig9ally mona/ic *ur*es4 ,( ! =m] religi\s h\ses !re survive a ,franciscan conv5t1 ) a girls' s*ool atta*$1 & an ,ursul9e conv5t4 ,! ,augu/9ian mona/]y1 9 :i* ,lu!r liv$ z a fri>1 is n[ us$ z an orphanage1 "u ! "n ( ! ,m>t9s/ift4 ,! cell ( ,lu!r 0 de/roy$ by fire 9 #ahgb4 ,a bronze /atue ( ! re=m] 0 erect$ 9 ! ,ang]1 ! *ief /reet ( ! t[n1 9 #ahij4 ,at "o "t ,erfurt _h a univ]sity1 ( :i* ! *>t] dat$ f #acib2 b x 0 suppress$ 9 #ahaf1 & its funds devot$ to o!r purposes1 among ^! be+ ! end[m5t ( an in/itution f\nd$ 9 #ageh & n[ call$ ! royal academy ( sci5ces1 & ! support ( ! royal libr>y1 :i* n[ conta9s #fj1jjj volumes & ov] #ajjj manuscripts4 ,on ! ,w4 & ,s4,w4 ext5sive new qu>t]s h gr[n up )9 rec5t ye>s1 e4g4 ,hirs*bruhl4 ,! int]ior ( ! t[n hall 7#ahfi-ahge7 is adorn$ ) leg5d>y & hi/orical frescoes by ,kampf] & ,pet] ,janss54 ,erfurt possesses also a picture gall]y & an antiqu>ian collection4 ,! educational e/abli%m5ts ( ! t[n include a gymnasium1 a realgymnasium1 a reals*ule1 te*nical s*ools = build+ & h&icrafts1 a high-class comm]cial s*ool1 a s*ool ( agriculture1 & an academy ( music4 ,! mo/ notable indu/ry ( ,erfurt is ! culture ( fl[]s & ( vegetables1 :i* is v ext5sively c>ri$ on4 ,?is indu/ry _h its orig9 9 ! l>ge g>d5s atta*$ to ! mona/]ies4 ,x has also important & gr[+ manufactures ( ladies' mantles1 boots & %oes1 ma*9es1 furniture1 wooll5 goods1 musical in/rum5ts1 agricultural ma*9]y & implem5ts1 lea!r1 tobacco1 *emicals1 c4 ,brew+1 blea*+ & dye+ are also c>ri$ on on a l>ge scale1 & !re are ext5sive railway works & a gov]nm5t rifle factory4 ,erfurt 7,m$4 ,erpesfurt1 ,erphorde1 ,lat4 ,er=dia7 is a t[n ( great antiquity4 ,its orig9 is obscure1 b 9 #gda x 0 suffici5tly important = ,/ ,boniface to f\nd a bi%opric "h1 :i* 01 h[ev]1 aft] ! m>tyrdom ( ! fir/ bi%op1 ,adol>1 9 #gee1 reabsorb$ 9 t ( ,ma9z4 ,9 #hje ! place receiv$ c]ta9 m>ket rights f ! emp]or ,*>lemagne4 ,lat] ! ov]lord%ip 0 claim$ by ! ar*bi%ops ( ,ma9z1 on ! /r5g? ( *>t]s grant$ by ! emp]or ,otto ,i41 & _! au?ority 9 ,erfurt 0 ma9ta9$ by a burgrave & an advocatus1 ! (fice ( ! latt] becom+ 9 ! #ab? c5tury h]$it>y 9 ! family ( ! c\nts ( ,glei*54 ,9 spite ( _m vicissitudes 7f #aaji to #aacg1 = in/ance1 ! t[n 0 subject to ! l&graves ( ,?ur+ia71 & ( a *>t] grant$ 9 #abdb by ! emp]or ,fr$]ick ,,ii41 ! ar*bi%ops succe$$ 9 uphold+ _! claims4 ,9 #abee1 h[ev]1 ,ar*bi%op ,g]h>d ,i4 _h to grant ! city municipal rights1 ! burgraviate disappe>$1 & ,erfurt became practically a free t[n4 ,its p[] 0 at its height e>ly 9 ! #ae? c5tury1 :5 x jo9$ ! ,hanseatic ,league4 ,x _h acquir$ by =ce or pur*ase v>i\s c\nt%ips & o!r fiefs 9 ! neighb\rhood1 & rul$ a consid]able t]ritory2 & its weal? 0 s great t 9 #acgh x e/abli%$ a univ]sity1 ! fir/ 9 ,europe t embrac$ ! f\r faculties4 ,by ! end ( ! c5tury1 h[ev]1 its prosp]ity _h sunk ow+ to ! p]petual feud ) ,ma9z1 ! int]nec9e w> 9 ,saxony1 & ! consequ5t dw9dl+ ( trade4 ,by ! conv5tion ( ,amorba* 9 #adhc ! ov]lord%ip ( ,erfurt 0 ultimately transf]r$ by ! electors ( ,ma9z to ,saxony4 ,! political & religi\s qu>rels ( ! #af? c5tury /ill fur!r depress$ ! city1 9 :i* ! re=m$ religion 0 e/abli%$ 9 #aeba4 ,!n came ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>1 dur+ :i* ,erfurt 0 = a :ile occupi$ by ! ,sw$es4 ,aft] ! peace ( ,we/phalia 7#afdh7 ! city 0 assign$ by ! emp]or to ! elector ( ,ma9z1 &1 on its refusal to submit1 x 0 plac$ "u ! ban ( ! ,empire 7#affj74 ,9 #affd x 0 captur$ by ! troops ( ! ar*bi%op ( ,ma9z1 & rema9$ 9 ! possession ( ! electorate till #ahjb1 :5 x came into ! possession ( ,prussia4 ,9 #ahjh x 0 ! sc5e ( ! memorable int]view betwe5 ,napoleon & ! emp]or ,alex&] ,i4 ( ,russia1 at :i* ! k+s ( ,bav>ia1 ,saxony1 ,we/phalia & ,wurttemb]g also assi/$1 :i* is kn[n z ! congress ( ,erfurt4 ,"h 9 #ahej ! p>liam5t ( ! %ort-liv$ ,prussian ,nor!rn ,union 7kn[n z ! ,erfurt p>liam5t7 held its sitt+s4 ,9 #aijb ! #ajj? anniv]s>y ( ! city's incorporation ) ,prussia 0 celebrat$4 ,see ,w4,j4,a4 von ,tettau1 ,erfurt 9 se9] ,v]gang5heit und ,geg5w>t 7,erfurt1 #ahhj72 ,c4 ,bey]1 ,ges*i*te d] ,/adt ,erfurt 7,erfurt1 #aijj72 & ,f4,w4 ,kamps*ulte1 ,die ,univ]sitat ,erfurt 9 ihrem ,v]haltnisse zu dem ,humanismus und d] ,re=mation 7#ahef-aheh74 ,= a detail$ bibliography see ,u4 ,*evali]1 ,rep]toire des s\rces4 ,topo-bibliographie 7,montebeli>d1 #ahid-ahii71 s4v4 ,,ergot1 or ,,spurr$ ,,rye1 ! drug ergota or ,secale cornutum 7,g]4 ,mutt]korn2 ,fr4 seigle ergote71 consi/+ ( ! scl]otium 7or h>d re/+ condition7 ( a fungus1 ,claviceps purpurea1 p>asitic on ! pi/ils ( _m memb]s ( ! ,grass family1 b obta9$ almo/ exclusively f rye1 ,secale c]eale4 ,9 ! e> ( rye t is infect$ ) ergot a species ( f]m5tation takes place1 & !re exudes f x a sweet yell[i% mucus1 :i* aft] a "t disappe>s4 ,! e> loses its />*1 & ceases to gr[1 & its ov>ies become p5etrat$ ) ! :ite spongy tissue ( ! mycelium ( ! fungus :i* t[>ds ! end ( ! season =ms ! scl]otium1 9 :i* /ate ! fungus lies dormant ?r\gh ! w9t]4 ,! drug consi/s ( gra9s1 usually curv$ 7h5ce ! "n1 f ! ,o4 ,fr4 argot1 a cock's spur71 :i* are violet-black or d>k-purple ext]nally1 & :iti% ) a t+e ( p9k )91 are betwe5 #a_/c & #a-a_/b 94 long1 & f #a to #d l9es broad1 & h two lat]al furr[s1 a close fracture1 a disagreeable rancid ta/e1 & a fa9t1 fi%y od\r1 :i* la/ becomes m p]ceptible :5 ! p[d] ( ! drug is mix$ ) pota% solution4 ,ergot %\ld be kept 9 /opp]$ bottles 9 ord] to pres]ve x f ! attacks ( a species ( mite1 & to prev5t ! oxidation ( its fatty oil4 ,! extremely complex composition ( ?is drug has be5 /udi$ 9 great detail1 & ) su* important results t in/ead ( giv+ ergot itself by ! m\? 9 doses ( #bj to #fj gra9s1 x is n[ possible to obta9 mu* m rapid & c]ta9 results by giv+ "o ?ree-hundr$? ( a gra9 ( "o ( its con/itu5ts hypod]mically4 ,?is con/itu5t is ! alkaloid cornut9e1 :i* is ! valuable +r$i5t ( ! drug4 ,o!r +r$i5ts are a fix$ oil1 pres5t to ! ext5t ( #cj1 ergot9ic acid1 a glucoside1 trime?ylam9e1 :i* gives ! drug its unpleasant od\r1 & sphacel9ic acid1 a non-nitrog5\s res9oid body4 ,( ! num]\s prep>ations only two ne$ be m5tion$--! liquid extract 7dose #aj m9ims to #b dra*ms or m71 & ! hypod]mic injection4 ,! latt] does n keep well1 & ! be/ way ( us+ ergot is to dissolve tablets obta9$ f a reputable mak]1 & conta9+ "s ( ! active pr9ciples1 9 pure wat]1 ! solution be+ inject$ subcutane\sly4 ,ergot has no ext]nal action4 ,giv5 int]nally x /imulates ! inte/9al muscles & may cause di>rhoea4 ,aft] absorption x sl[s ! pulse by /imulation ( ! vagus n]ves4 ,x has inde$ be5 ass]t$ t ! sl[ pulse *>act]i/ic ( ! pu]p]al p]iod is really due to ! common adm9i/ration ( ergot at t "t4 ,?is is probably an exagg]ation4 ,! important actions ( ergot are on ! blood-vessels & ! ut]us4 ,! drug greatly raises ! blood-pressure by caus+ extreme contraction ( ! art]ies4 ,?is is ma9ly due to a direct action on ! muscul> coats ( ! vessels1 b is also p>tly ( c5tral orig91 s9ce ! drug also /imulates ! vaso-motor c5tre 9 ! m$ulla oblongata4 ,?is action on ! vessels is s m>k$ z to con/itute ! drug a haemo/atic1 n only locally b also remotely4 ,x may arre/ ble$+ f ! nose1 = in/ance1 :5 inject$ hypod]mically4 ,ne>ly all ! con/itu5ts %>e 9 caus+ ?is action1 b ! sphacel9ic acid is probably ! mo/ pot5t4 ,ergot is ! mo/ p[]ful kn[n /imulant ( ! pregnant ut]us4 ,! action is a d\ble "o4 ,at lea/ f\r ( its con/itu5ts act directly on ! muscul> fibre ( ! ut]us1 :il/ ! cornut9e acts ?r\gh ! n]ves4 ,( great practical importance is ! fact t ! cornut9e causes rhy?mic contractions su* z naturally occur1 :il/ ! sphacel9ic acid produces a tonic contraction ( ! ut]us1 :i* is unnatural & highly inimical to ! life ( ! foetus4 ,ergot is us$ 9 !rapeutics z a haemo/atic1 & is v valuable 9 haemoptysis & sometimes 9 haematemesis4 ,b its great use is 9 ob/etrics4 ,! drug %\ld regul>ly be giv5 hypod]mically1 & x is important to note t if ! injection be made imm$iately "u ! sk91 an abscess1 or consid]able discom=t1 may ensue4 ,! injection %\ld be intra-muscul>1 ! ne$le be+ boldly plung$ into a muscul> mass1 su* z t ( ! deltoid or ! gluteal region4 ,! indications = ! use ( ergot 9 ob/etrics are highly complex & dem& detail$ treatm5t4 ,x c only be said "h t ! drug %\ld only 9 ! r>e/ possible cases be giv5 :il/ ! *ild is /ill 9 ut]o4 ,?is rule is necessitat$ by ! sphacel9ic acid1 :i* causes an unnatural /ate ( ! organ4 ,:5 x is possible to obta9 pure cornut9e1 :i* is un=tunately v exp5sive1 ! precautions necess>y 9 o!r cases may be abrogat$4 ,*ronic poison+1 or ergotism1 us$ frequ5tly to occur among/ ! poor f$ on rye infect$ ) ! ,claviceps4 ,z x is practically impossible to reproduce ! symptoms ( ergotism n[adays1 :e!r exp]im5tally 9 ! l[] animals1 or :5 ! drug is be+ adm9i/]$ to a human be+ = "s !rapeutic purpose1 x is believ$ t ! symptoms ( ergotism 7 r5d]$ possible only by ! semi-/>vation :i* mu/ h ensu$ f ! use ( su* rye-bread2 = ! gra9 disappe>s z ! fungus develops4 ,!re 7 two types ( ergotism4 ,9 ! gangr5\s =m v>i\s p>ts ( ! body und]w5t gangr5e z a consequ5ce ( ! arre/ ( blood-supply produc$ by ! action ( sphacel9ic acid on ! art]ies4 ,9 ! spasmodic =m ! symptoms 7 ( a n]v\s "*4 ,! initial indications ( ! disease 7 cutane\s it*+1 t+l+ & =mication1 :i* gave place to actual loss ( cutane\s s5sation1 fir/ obs]v$ 9 ! extremities4 ,amblyopia & "s loss ( he>+ also occurr$1 z well z m5tal failure4 ,) weakness ( ! volunt>y muscles w5t int]mitt5t spasms :i* weak5$ ! pati5t & ultimately l$ to dea? by implication ( ! respiratory muscles4 ,! la/-kn[n epidemic ( ergotism occurr$ 9 ,lorra9e & ,burgundy 9 ! ye> #ahaf4 ,,eric ,,xiv4 7#aecc-aegg71 k+ ( ,sw$51 0 ! only son ( ,gu/avus ,vasa & ,ca!r9e ( ,saxe-,lau5burg4 ,! news ( 8 fa!r's dea? rea*$ ,eric z he 0 on ! po9t ( emb>k+ = ,engl& to press 9 p]son 8 suit = ! h& ( ,que5 ,elizabe?4 ,he ha/5$ back to ,/ockholm1 aft] bury+ 8 fa!r1 summon$ a ,riksdag1 :i* met at ,arboga on ! #ae? ( ,april #aefa1 & adopt$ ! royal propositions kn[n z ! ,arboga articles1 consid]ably curtail+ ! au?ority ( ! royal dukes1 ,john & ,*>les1 9 _! respective prov9ces4 ,two mon?s lat] ,eric 0 cr[n$ at ,upsala1 on :i* occasion he fir/ introduc$ ! titles ( b>on & c\nt into ,sw$51 by way ( atta*+ to ! cr[n ! high] nobility1 ^! new c\nts & b>ons receiv+ lucrative fiefs adequate to ! ma9t5ance ( _! new dignities4 ,f ! v beg9n+ ( 8 reign ,eric's morbid fe> ( ! upp] classes drove him to give 8 absolute confid5ce to a man ( base orig9 & bad "*1 ?\gh1 x mu/ be admitt$1 ( sup]ior ability4 ,?is 0 ,goran ,p]sson1 born ab\t #aecj1 :o _h be5 educat$ abroad 9 ,lu!ran pr9ciples1 & aft] n>r[ly escap+ hang+ at ! h&s ( ,gu/avus ,vasa = "s vile action ent]$ ! s]vice ( 8 son4 ,?is p[]ful up/>t 0 ! natural enemy ( ! nobility1 :o suff]$ mu* at 8 h&s1 ?\gh x is v difficult to det]m9e :e!r ! initiative 9 ^! prosecutions proce$$ f him or 8 ma/]4 ,goran 0 also a det]m9$ oppon5t ( ,duke ,john1 ) :om ,eric 9 #aefc op5ly qu>rell$1 because ,john1 contr>y to ! royal ord]s1 _h m>ri$ 7,oct4 #d1 #aefb7 ,ca!r9e1 daught] ( ,sigismund ,i4 ( ,pol&1 engag+ at ! same "t to assi/ ! ,poli% k+ to conqu] ,livonia4 ,?is act 0 a flagrant brea* ( t p>agraph ( ! ,arboga articles :i* =bade ! royal dukes to contract any political treaty )\t ! royal ass5t4 ,an army ( #aj1jjj m5 0 imm$iately s5t by ,eric to ,john's du*y ( ,f9l&1 & ,john & 8 consort 7 seiz$1 br\ght ov] to ,sw$5 & deta9$ z prison]s ( /ate 9 ,grip%olm ,ca/le4 ,b ,eric did n /op "h4 ,8 suspicion sugge/$ to him t1 if 8 own bro!r fail$ him1 ! loyalty ( ! great nobles1 especially ! memb]s ( ! anci5t ,/ure family1 :o _h be5 notable 9 ,sw$5 :5 ! ,vasas 7 unkn[n1 c\ld n be dep5d$ ^u4 ,! head ( ! ,/ure family at ?is "t 0 ,c\nt ,svante1 :o _h m>ri$ a si/] ( ,gu/avus ,vasa's second wife1 & _h by h] a num]\s family1 ( :om two sons1 ,nils & ,eric1 /ill surviv$4 ,! d>k trag$y1 kn[n z ! ,/ure murd]s1 began ) ,eric ,,xiv4's /range treatm5t ( "y ,c\nt ,nils4 ,9 #aeff he 0 summon$ be=e a newly erect$ tribunal & condemn$ to dea? = gross neglect ( duty1 ?\gh n "o ( ! frivol\s *>ges br\ght aga9/ him c\ld be sub/antiat$4 ,! dea? p5alty 0 commut$ into a puni%m5t worse because m %ameful ?an dea?4 ,on ! #ae? ( ,june #aeff ! un=tunate y\?1 bruis$ & ble$+ f %ock+ ill-treatm5t1 0 plac$ ^u a wret*$ hack1 ) a cr[n ( /raw on 8 head1 & l$ 9 d]ision ?r\gh ! /reets ( ,/ockholm4 ,! foll[+ night he 0 s5t a prison] to ! =tress ( ,orbyhus4 ,a few days lat] he 0 appo9t$ ambassador extraord9>y1 & despat*$ to ,lorra9e to resume ! negotiations = ,eric's m>riage ) ! pr9cess ,r5ata4 ,be=e he return$1 h[ev]1 ,eric _h resolv$ to m>ry ,k>91 or ,kitty ,mansdatt]1 ! daught] ( a common soldi]1 :o _h be5 8 mi/ress s9ce #aefe4 ,9 ,janu>y #aefg ,eric extort$ a decl>ation f two ( 8 s5ators t !y w\ld assi/ him to puni% all :o %\ld try to prev5t 8 project$ m>riage2 &1 9 ! middle ( ,may1 a ,riksdag 0 summon$ to ,upsala to judge betwe5 ! k+ & ^? ( ! ari/ocracy :om he reg>d$ z 8 p]sonal enemies4 ,eric himself arriv$ at ,upsala on ! #af? 9 a condition ( incipi5t insanity4 ,on ! #ai? he op5$ p>liam5t 9 a spee* :i*1 z he expla9$1 he _h to deliv] extempore ow+ to ! trea*]y ( 8 secret>y4 ,two days lat] ,nils ,/ure arriv$ at ,upsala fre% f 8 embassy to ,lorra9e1 & 0 at once ?r[n into prison1 :]e o!r memb]s ( ! nobility 7 already deta9$4 ,on ! foll[+ day ,eric murd]$ ,nils 9 8 cell ) 8 own h&1 & by 8 ord] ! o!r prison]s 7 despat*$ by ! royal provo/ m>%al =?)4 ,^! murd]s 7 committ$ s promptly & secretly t x is d\btful :e!r ! e/ates1 actually 9 session at ! same place1 knew :at _h be5 done :51 on ! #bf? ( ,may1 "u viol5t pressure f ,goran ,p]sson1 !y sign$ a docum5t decl>+ t all ! accus$ g5tlem5 "u det5tion _h act$ l traitors1 & confirm+ all s5t5ces already pass$ or t might be pass$ ^u !m4 ,dur+ ! great] "p ( #aefg ,eric 0 s d]ang$ t a committee ( s5ators 0 appo9t$ to gov]n ! k+dom4 ,"o ( 8 illusions 0 t n he 0 k+ b 8 bro!r ,john1 :om he n[ set at lib]ty4 ,:51 at ! beg9n+ ( #aefh1 ,eric recov]$ 8 reason1 a reconciliation 0 effect$ betwe5 ! k+ & ! duke1 on condition t ,john recogniz$ ! legality ( 8 bro!r's m>riage ) ,k>9 ,mansdatt]1 & h] *ildr5 z ! successors to ! ?rone4 ,a mon? lat]1 on ! #d? ( ,july1 he 0 solemnly m>ri$ to ,k>9 at ,/ockholm by ! primate4 ,! next day ,k>9 0 cr[n$ que5 ( ,sw$5 & h] infant son ,gu/avus proclaim$ pr9ce-royal4 ,%ortly aft] 8 m>riage ,eric issu$ a circul> ord]+ a g5]al ?anksgiv+ = 8 deliv]y f ! assaults ( ! devil4 ,?is docum5t1 9 e l9e ( :i* madness is legible1 conv9c$ mo/ ?9k+ p t ,eric 0 unfit to reign4 ,! royal dukes1 ,john & ,*>les1 _h already tak5 measures to depose him2 & 9 ,july ! rebellion broke out 9 ,o/]gotl&4 ,eric at fir/ (f]$ a /\t resi/ance & won two victories2 b on ! #ag? ( ,septemb] ! dukes /ood be=e ,/ockholm1 & ,eric1 aft] surr5d]+ ,goran ,p]sson to ! horrible v5geance ( 8 enemies1 himself submitt$1 & resign$ ! cr[n4 ,on ! #cj? ( ,septemb] #aefh ,john ,,iii4 0 proclaim$ k+ by ! army & ! nobility2 & a ,riksdag1 summon$ to ,/ockholm1 confirm$ ! *oice & =mally depos$ ,eric on ! #be? ( ,janu>y #aefi4 ,= ! next sev5 ye>s ! ex-k+ 0 a s\rce ( ! utmo/ anxiety to ! new gov]nm5t4 ,no few] ?an ?ree rebellions1 ) ! object ( releas+ & re9/at+ him1 _h to be suppress$1 & 8 prison 0 *ang$ half a doz5 times4 ,on ! #aj? ( ,m>* #aege1 an assembly ( notables1 lay & cl]ical1 at ,john's reque/1 pron\nc$ a =mal s5t5ce ( dea? ^u him4 ,two ye>s lat]1 on ! #bd? ( ,febru>y #aegg1 he di$ sudd5ly 9 8 new prison at ,orbyhus1 poison$1 x is said1 by 8 gov]nor1 ,johan ,h5riks54 ,see ,sv]iges ,hi/oria1 vol4 iii4 7,/ockholm1 #ahhj72 ,rob]t ,nisbet ,ba91 ,sc&9avia1 cap4 #d-f 7,cambridge1 #aije72 ,eric ,tegel1 ,konung ,eriks d5 ,,xiv4 hi/oria 7,/ockholm1 #agea74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,ericaceae1 9 botany1 a natural ord] ( plants belong+ to ! high] or gamopetal\s division ( ,dicotyl$ons4 ,!y are woody plants1 sometimes ) a sl5d] creep+ /em z 9 bilb]ry1 ,vacc9ium 7fig4 #a71 or ,&rom$a 7fig4 #b71 or =m+ l[ bu%es z 9 ! hea?s1 or l>g]1 sometimes becom+ tree-l1 z 9 species ( ,rhodod5dron4 ,! leaves are alt]nate1 opposite or :orl$ 9 arrangem5t1 & 9 _! =m & /ructure %[ well-m>k$ adaptation = life 9 dry or expos$ situations4 ,?us 9 ! true hea?s !y are ne$le-l1 ) ! m>g9s (t5 roll$ back to =m a groove or an almo/ clos$ *amb] on ! "u side4 ,9 o!rs su* z ,rhodod5dron or ,arbutus !y are (t5 lea!ry & ev]gre51 ! /rongly cuticul>iz$ upp] surface protect+ a wat]-/or+ tissue situat$ above ! gre5 lay]s ( ! leaf4 ,! fl[]s are sometimes solit>y & axill>y or t]m9al z 9 ,&rom$a1 b are g5]ally arrang$ 9 racemose infloresc5ces at ! end ( ! bran*es z 9 ,arbutus & ,rhodod5dron1 or on small lat]al %oots z 9 ,erica4 ,!y are h]maphrodite & g5]ally regul> ) p>ts 9 #d or #e1 ?us3 sepals #d or #e1 petals #d or #e1 /am5s #h or #aj 9 two s]ies1 ! out] ( :i* is opposite ! petals1 & c>pels #d or #e4 ,! corolla is usually m or less bell-%ap$1 & 9 ! hea?s p]si/s 9 a dry /ate 9 ! fruit4 ,! petals ) ! /am5s are situat$ on ! out] edge ( a honey-secret+ disk4 ,! an!rs %[ a v great v>iety 9 %ape1 ! halves are (t5 m or less free & (t5 app5dag$2 !y op5 to all[ ! escape ( ! poll5 by a t]m9al pore or slit4 ,! c>pels are unit$ to =m a #d- to #e-;*amb]$ ov>y1 :i* be>s a simple elongat$ /yle end+ 9 a capitate /igma2 ea* ov>y-*amb] conta9s "o to _m ovules atta*$ to a c5tral plac5ta4 ,! brightly col\r$ corolla1 ! pres5ce ( nect> & ! sc5t r5d] ! fl[]s attractive to insects1 & ! projection ( ! /igma beyond ! an!rs fav\rs cross+4 ,! fruit is g5]ally a capsule conta9+ _m se$s1 z 9 ,erica 7fig4 #c7 or ,rhodod5dron2 sometimes a b]ry z 9 ,arbutus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,vacc9ium vitis-idaea1 ) leaf & fl[]1 nat4 size4 #a1 ,fl[] ( ,v4 myrtillus1 cut l5g?wise4 #b1 ,fruit ( same4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,&rom$a ,hypnoides1 nat4 size4 #a1 ,fl[]2 #b1 ,unripe fruit cut across2 #c1 ,/am5--all enl>g$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 #a1 ,fl[]+ %oot ( ,erica c9]ea1 ab\t #a-a_/b nat4 size4 #b1 ,fl[] cut l5g?wise4 #c1 ,/am5 %[+ app5dages & por\s dehisc5ce ( an!r4 #d1 ,capsule %[+ ! loculicidal dehisc5ce2 a few se$s rema9 atta*$ to ! c5tral axis4 #e1 ,diagram ( ! fl[] hav+ f\r sepals1 f\r divisions ( ! corolla1 eight /am5s 9 two r[s1 & f\r divisions ( ! pi/il4 ,! ord] falls into f\r di/9ct tribes1 :i* are *>act]iz$ by ! relative position ( ! ov>y & by ! fruit & se$4 ,!y are z foll[s3-- #a4 ,rhodod5dron tribe1 *>act]iz$ by capsul> fruit1 se$ ) a loose coat1 decidu\s petals & an!rs )\t app5dages4 ,x consi/s ma9ly ( ! great g5us ,rhodod5dron 79 :i* ,azalea is includ$ by rec5t botani/s71 :i* is *iefly develop$ 9 ! m\nta9s ( ea/]n ,asia1 _m species occurr+ on ! ,himalayas4 ,dabeocia1 ,/ ,dabeoc's hea?1 occurs 9 ,irel&4 #b4 ,arbutus ,tribe4--,fruit a b]ry or capsule1 petals decidu\s & an!rs ) bri/le-l app5dages1 *iefly nor? temp]ate to arctic 9 di/ribution4 ,arbutus ,un$o1 ! /rawb]ry-tree1 s call$ f its l>ge sc>let b]ry1 is a s\!rn ,european species :i* ext5ds into s\? ,irel&4 ,arcto/aphylos 7be>b]ry7 & ,&rom$a are arctic & alp9e g5]a occurr+ 9 ,brita94 ,epigaea rep5s is ! trail+ arbutus or mayfl[] ( ,atlantic ,am]ica4 #c4 ,vacc9ium ,tribe4--,ov>y inf]ior1 fruit a b]ry4 ,ext5ds f ! nor? temp]ate zone to ! m\nta9s ( ! tropics4 ,vacc9ium1 ! l>ge/ g5us1 has f\r ,briti% species3 ,v4 ,myrtillus is ! bilb]ry 7q4v471 blaeb]ry or :ortleb]ry1 ,v4 ,vitis-,idaea ! c[b]ry1 & ,v4 ,oxycoccos ! cranb]ry 7q4v474 ,?is tribe is sometimes reg>d$ z a sep>ate ord] ,vacc9iaceae1 di/+ui%$ by its inf]ior ov>y4 #d4 ,erica ,tribe4--,fruit usually a capsule1 se$s r\nd1 n w+$2 corolla p]si/+ r\nd ! ripe fruit2 an!rs (t5 app5dag$4 ,! l>ge/ g5us is ,erica1 ! true hea? 7q4v471 ) ov] #djj species1 ! great majority ( :i* are conf9$ to ! ,cape2 o!rs occur on ! m\nta9s ( tropical ,africa & 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,africa1 especially ! ,m$it]ranean region4 ,e4 c9]ea 7purple hea!r7 & ,e4 ,tetralix 7cross-leav$ hea?7 are common ,briti% hea?s4 ,calluna is ! l+ or ,scot* hea!r4 ,,eri*s51 ,,sir ,,john ,,eric1 ,b>t4 7#ahah-ahif71 ,briti% surgeon1 born on ! #ai? ( ,july #ahah at ,cop5hag51 0 ! son ( ,eric ,eri*s51 a memb] ( a well-kn[n ,dani% family4 ,he /udi$ m$ic9e at ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london1 & at ,p>is1 devot+ himself 9 ! e>ly ye>s ( 8 c>e] to physiology1 & lectur+ on g5]al anatomy & physiology at ,univ]sity ,college hospital4 ,9 #ahdd he 0 secret>y to ! physiological section ( ! ,briti% ,association1 & 9 #ahde he 0 aw>d$ ! ,fo!rgillian gold m$al ( ! ,royal ,humane ,society = 8 essay on asphyxia4 ,9 #ahdh he 0 appo9t$ assi/ant surgeon at ,univ]sity ,college hospital1 & 9 #ahej became full surgeon & pr(essor ( surg]y1 8 lectures & cl9ical tea*+ be+ mu* admir$2 & 9 #ahge he jo9$ ! consult+ /aff4 ,8 ,sci5ce & ,art ( ,surg]y 7#ahec7 w5t ?r\gh _m editions4 ,he rose to be presid5t ( ! ,college ( ,surgeons 9 #ahhj4 ,f #ahgi to #ahha he 0 presid5t ( ! ,royal ,m$ical & ,*irurgical ,society4 ,he 0 creat$ a b>onet 9 #ahie1 hav+ be5 = "s ye>s surgeon-extraord9>y to ,que5 ,victoria4 ,z a surgeon 8 reputation 0 _w-wide1 & he c\nts 7says ,sir ,w4 ,mac,cormac 9 8 volume on ! ,c5t5>y ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons7 among ! mak]s ( mod]n surg]y4 ,he 0 a recogniz$ au?ority on concussion ( ! sp9e1 & 0 (t5 call$ to give evid5ce 9 c\rt on obscure cases caus$ by railway accid5ts1 c4 ,he di$ at ,folke/one on ! #bcrd ( ,septemb] #ahif4 ,,eri*t1 ,,lo*1 a lake p>tly 9 ,inv]ness-%ire & p>tly 9 ,p]?%ire1 ,scotl&1 ly+ betwe5 ! di/ricts ( ,bad5o* on ! ,n4 & ,ranno* on ! ,s4 ,! b\nd>y l9e is drawn f a po9t opposite to ! m\? ( ! ,ald]1 & foll[s ! c5tre ( ! longitud9al axis nor?-ea/w>ds to #ef deg4 #ej' ,n41 :]e x /rikes ea/w>ds to ! %ore4 ,all ( ! lake to ! ,s4 & ,e4 ( ?is l9e belongs to ,p]?%ire1 ! re/1 =m+ ! major portion1 to ,inv]ness-%ire4 ,x is a lonely lake1 situat$ 9 extremely wild surr\nd+s at a height ( #aaec ft4 above ! sea1 be+ ?us ! l(tie/ lake ( l>ge size 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom4 ,x is ov] #ad-a_/b m4 long1 ) a mean bread? ( half a mile & ov] #a m4 at its maximum4 ,its area am\nts to "s #g-a_/d sq4 m41 & x receives ! dra9age ( an area ( ne>ly #ej-a_/b sq4 m4 ,! mean dep? is #ahi ft41 & ! maximum #eab ft4 ,x has a g5]al tr5d f ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w41 ! head ly+ #a m4 f ,dal:9nie /ation on ! ,highl& railway4 ,x receives _m /reams1 & dis*>ges at ! s\?-we/]n extremity by ! ,eri*t4 ,salmon & tr\t af=d good fi%+4 ,! surr\nd+ m\nta9s are l(ty & rugg$4 ,b5 ,ald] 7#cgeg ft47 on ! we/ %ore is ! *ief feature ( ! great ,corr\r de] =e/4 ,! only po9t ( int]e/ on ! banks is ! cav]n1 ne> ! m\? ( ! ,ald]1 9 :i* ,pr9ce ,*>les ,edw>d conceal$ himself = a "t aft] ! battle ( ,cullod54 ,,ericsson1 ,,john 7#ahjc-ahhi71 ,sw$i%-,am]ican naval eng9e]1 0 born at ,langban%yttan1 ,w]ml&1 ,sw$51 on ! #ca/ ( ,july #ahjc4 ,he 0 ! second son ( ,olaf ,ericsson1 an inspector ( m9es1 :o di$ 9 #ahah4 ,%[+ f 8 e>lie/ ye>s a /rong me*anical b5t1 "y ,ericsson1 at ! age ( twelve1 0 employ$ z a draughtsman by ! ,sw$i% ,canal ,company4 ,f #ahbj to #ahbg he s]v$ 9 ! army1 :]e 8 draw+ & milit>y maps attract$ ! att5tion ( ! k+1 & he soon atta9$ ! rank ( capta94 ,9 #ahbf he w5t to ,london1 at fir/ on leave ( abs5ce f 8 regim5t1 & 9 p>tn]%ip ) ,john ,brai?waite con/ruct$ ! ,novelty1 a locomotive eng9e = ! ,liv]pool ,man*e/] railway competition at ,ra9hill 9 #ahbi1 :5 ! prize1 h[ev]1 0 won by ,/eph5son's ,rocket4 ,! numb] ( ,ericsson's inv5tions at ?is p]iod 0 v great4 ,among o!r ?+s he work$ out a plan = m>9e eng9es plac$ entirely bel[ ! wat]-l9e4 ,su* eng9es 7 made = ! ,victory1 = ,capta9 7aft]w>ds ,sir7 ,john ,ross's voyage to ! ,arctic regions 9 #ahbi1 b !y did n prove satisfactory4 ,9 #ahcc 8 caloric eng9e 0 made public4 ,9 #ahcf he took out a pat5t = a screw-propell]1 & ?\gh ! priority ( 8 inv5tion c\ld n be ma9ta9$1 he 0 aft]w>ds aw>d$ a "o-fif? %>e ( ! ,l#bj1jjj giv5 by ! ,admiralty = x4 ,at ?is "t ,capta9 ,/ockton1 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates navy1 gave an ord] = a small iron vessel to be built by ,laird ( ,birk5head1 & to be fitt$ by ,ericsson ) eng9es & screw4 ,?is vessel rea*$ ,new ,york 9 ,may #ahci4 ,a few mon?s lat] ,ericsson foll[$ 8 /eam] to ,new ,york1 & !re he resid$ = ! re/ ( 8 life1 e/abli%+ himself z an eng9e] & a build] ( iron %ips4 ,9 #ahdh he 0 naturaliz$ z a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,he _h _m difficulties to cont5d )1 & x 0 only by sl[ degrees t he e/abli%$ 8 fame & won 8 way to compet5ce4 ,at 8 dea? he seems to h be5 wor? ab\t ,l#ej1jjj4 ,! provision ( def5sive arm\r = %ips ( w> _h long occupi$ 8 att5tion1 & he _h con/ruct$ plans & a model ( a vessel ly+ l[ 9 ! wat]1 c>ry+ "o heavy gun 9 a circul> turret m\nt$ on a turntable4 ,9 #ahed he s5t 8 plans to ! emp]or ( ! ,fr5*4 ,l\is ,napoleon1 h[ev]1 act+ probably on ! advice ( ,dupuy de ,lome1 decl9$ to use !m4 ,! ,am]ican ,civil ,w>1 & ! report t ! ,conf$]ates 7 conv]t+ ! ,m]rimac into an ironclad1 caus$ ! navy dep>tm5t to invite proposals = ! con/ruction ( arm\r$ %ips4 ,among o!rs1 ,ericsson repli$1 & z x 0 ?\ght t 8 design might be s]viceable 9 inl& wat]s1 ! fir/ arm\r$ turret %ip1 ! ,monitor1 0 ord]$2 %e 0 laun*$ on ! #cj? ( ,janu>y #ahfb1 & on ! #i? ( ,m>* %e f\ght ! celebrat$ action ) ! ,conf$]ate ram ,m]rimac4 ,! peculi> circum/ances 9 :i* %e 0 built1 ! great importance ( ! battle1 & ! decisive nature ( ! result gave ! ,monitor an exagg]at$ reputation1 :i* fur!r exp]i5ce did n confirm4 ,9 lat] ye>s ,ericsson devot$ himself to ! /udy ( torp$oes & sun motors4 ,he publi%$ ,sol> ,inve/igations 7,new ,york1 #ahge7 & ,contributions to ! ,c5t5nial ,exhibition 7,new ,york1 #ahgg74 ,he di$ 9 ,new ,york on ! #h? ( ,m>* #ahhi1 & 9 ! foll[+ ye>1 on ! reque/ ( ! ,sw$i% gov]nm5t1 8 body 0 s5t to ,/ockholm & !nce into ,w]ml&1 :]e1 at ,filip/ad1 x 0 buri$ on ! #ae? ( ,septemb]4 ,a ,life ( ,ericsson by ,william ,conant ,*ur* 0 publi%$ 9 ,new ,york 9 #ahij & 9 ,london 9 #ahic4 ,,eridanus1 or ,,fluvius 7! riv]71 9 a/ronomy1 a con/ellation ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 m5tion$ by ,eudoxus 7#d? c5tury ,b4,c47 & ,aratus 7#crd c5tury ,b4,c472 ,ptolemy catalogu$ #cd />s 9 x4 !ta ,eridani1 a f9e d\ble /> ( magnitudes #c4e & #e4e1 is n[ ( ! ?ird magnitude4 ,x is suppos$ to be id5tical ) ! ,a*]n> ( ,al-,sufi1 :o describ$ x z ( ! fir/ magnitude2 ?is /> has !re=e decreas$ 9 brilliancy 9 hi/oric times4 ,! /> omicron#b ,eridani 7numb]$ #dj by ,flam/e$7 0 discov]$ to be a t]n>y /> gr\p by ,h]s*el 9 #aghc2 x consi/s ( a close pair1 ( magnitudes #i4b & #aj4i1 revolv+ 9 a p]iod ( #ahj ye>s1 associat$ ) a /> ( magnitude #d4e1 :i* is di/ant f ! pair by #hb2 ^! />s h an exceptionally swift prop] motion1 ab\t #d p] annum4 ,eridanus 0 ! anci5t "n ( ! riv] ,po4 ,,eridu1 "o ( ! olde/ religi\s c5tres ( ! ,sum]ians1 describ$ 9 ! anci5t ,babylonian records z ! city ( ! deep4 ,! special god ( ?is city 0 ,ea 7q4v471 god ( ! sea & ( wisdom1 & ! prom95ce giv5 to ?is god 9 ! incantation lit]ature ( ,babylonia & ,assyria sugge/s n only t _m ( our magical texts are to be trac$ ultimately to ! temple ( ,ea at ,eridu1 b t ?is side ( ! ,babylonian religion _h its orig9 9 t place4 ,c]ta9 ( ! mo/ anci5t ,babylonian my?s1 especially t ( ,adapa1 may also be trac$ back to ! %r9e ( ,ea at ,eridu4 ,b :ile ( ! fir/ importance 9 matt]s ( religion1 !re is no evid5ce 9 ,babylonian lit]ature ( any special political importance atta*+ to ,eridu1 & c]ta9ly at no "t )9 our k did x ex]cise hegemony 9 ,babylonia4 ,! site ( ,eridu 0 discov]$ by ,j4,e4 ,taylor 9 #ahed1 9 a ru9 !n call$ by ! natives ,abu-,%ahre91 a few miles s\?-s\?-we/ ( ,moghair1 anci5t ,ur1 ne>ly 9 ! c5tre ( ! dry b$ ( an inl& sea1 a deep valley1 #ae m4 at its broade/1 cov]$ = ! mo/ "p ) a nitr\s incru/ation1 sep>at$ f ! alluvial pla9 ab\t ,moghair by a l[1 pebbly1 s&/one range1 call$ ! ,hazem1 b op5 t[>d ! nor? to ! ,euphrates & /ret*+ s\?w>d to ! ,khanega wadi bel[ ,suk-e%-,%eiukh4 ,9 ! ra9y season ?is valley becomes a sea1 flood$ by ! dis*>ge ( ! ,khanega2 9 summ] ! ,arabs dig holes "h :i* supply !m ) bracki% wat]4 ,! ru9s1 9 :i* ,taylor conduct$ brief excavations1 consi/ ( a plat=m ( f9e s& enclos$ by a s&/one wall1 #bj ft4 high1 ! corn]s t[>d ! c>d9al po9ts1 on ! ,n4,w4 "p ( :i* 0 a pyramidal t[] ( two /ages1 con/ruct$ ( sun-dri$ brick1 cas$ ) a wall ( kiln-burn$ brick1 ! :ole /ill /&+ to a height ( ab\t #gj ft4 above ! plat=m4 ,! summit ( ! fir/ /age 0 rea*$ by a /aircase on ! ,s4,e4 side1 #ae ft4 wide & #gj ft4 long1 con/ruct$ ( poli%$ m>ble slabs1 fa/5$ ) copp] bolts1 flank$ at ! foot by two curi\s columns4 ,an incl9$ road l$ up to ! second /age on ! ,n4,w4 side4 ,pieces ( poli%$ alaba/] & m>ble1 ) small pieces ( pure gold & gold-head$ copp] nails1 f\nd on & ab\t ! top ( ! second /age1 indicat$ t a small b ri*ly adorn$ sacr$ *amb]1 app>5tly plat$ )9 or )\t 9 gold1 =m]ly cr[n$ ! top ( ?is /ructure4 ,ar\nd ! :ole t[] 0 a pavem5t ( inscrib$ bak$ bricks1 re/+ on a lay] ( clay #b ft4 ?ick4 ,on ! ,s4,e4 "p ( ! t]race 7 ! rema9s ( sev]al edifices1 conta9+ suites ( rooms4 ,inscriptions on ! bricks id5tifi$ ! site z t ( ,eridu4 ,s9ce ,taylor's "t ! place has n be5 visit$ by any explor]1 ow+ to ! unsafe condition ( ! neighb\rhood2 b ,t4,k4 ,l(tus 7#ahed7 & ,j4,p4 ,pet]s 7#ahij7 bo? report hav+ se5 x f ! summit ( ,moghair4 ,! latt] /ates t ! ,arabs at t "t call$ ! ru9 ,n[awis1 & app>5tly no long] knew ! "n ,abu-,%ahre94 ,?r\gh an error1 9 _m rec5t maps & ,assyriological publications ,eridu is describ$ z locat$ 9 ! alluvial pla91 betwe5 ! ,tigris & ! ,euphrates4 ,x 01 9 fact1 an isl& city 9 an e/u>y ( ! ,p]sian ,gulf1 /ret*+ up into ! ,arabian plateau4 ,orig9ally on ! %ore ( ! sea1 z ! old records av]1 x is n[ ab\t #abj m4 f ! head ( ! ,p]sian ,gulf4 ,calculat+ f ! pres5t rate ( deposit ( alluvium at ! head ( t gulf1 ,eridu %\ld h be5 f\nd$ z e>ly z ! sev5? mill5nium ,b4,c4 ,x is m5tion$ 9 hi/orical inscriptions f ! e>lie/ times onw>d1 z late z ! #f? c5tury ,b4,c4 ,f ! evid5ce ( ,taylor's excavations1 x w\ld seem t ! site 0 ab&on$ ab\t ! close ( ! ,babylonian p]iod4 ,see ,j4,e4 ,taylor1 ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 vol4 xv4 7#ahee72 ,f4 ,delitzs*1 ,wo lag das ,p>adies8 7#ahha72 ,j4,p4 ,pet]s1 ,nippur 7#ahig72 ,m4 ,ja/r[1 ,! ,religion ( ,babylonia & ,assyria 7#ahih72 ,h4,v4 ,hilpre*t1 ,excavations 9 ,assyria & ,babylonia 7#aijd72 ,l4,w4 ,k+1 ,a ,hi/ory ( ,sum] & ,akkad 7#aiaj74 7,j4 ,p4 ,pe47 ,,erie1 ! mo/ s\!rly ( ! ,great ,lakes ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 betwe5 #da deg4 #bc' & #db deg4 #ec' ,n41 & #gh deg4 #ea' & #hc deg4 #bh' ,w41 b\nd$ ,w4 by ! /ate ( ,mi*igan1 ,s4 & ,s4,e4 by ,ohio1 ,p5nsylvania & ,new ,york1 & ,n4 by ! prov9ce ( ,ont>io4 ,x is ne>ly elliptical1 ! major axis1 #bej m4 long1 ly+ ea/ & we/2 its greate/ bread? is #fj m42 its area ab\t #aj1jjj sq4 m42 & ! total area ( its bas9 #cd1dab sq4 m4 ,its elevation above mean sea-level is #egc ft42 & its surface is ne>ly #i ft4 bel[ t ( ,lake ,huron1 :i* dis*>ges into x ?r\gh ,/ ,clair riv]1 ,lake ,/ ,clair & ,detroit riv]1 & is #cbg ft4 above t ( ,lake ,ont>io1 ?is great diff]5ce be+ absorb$ by ! rapids & falls 9 ! ,niag>a riv]1 :i* jo9s ! two lakes4 ,lake ,erie is v %all[1 & may be divid$ into ?ree bas9s1 ! we/]n ext5d+ to ,po9t ,pelee & includ+ all ! isl&s1 conta9+ ab\t #abjj sq4 m41 ) a comp>atively flat bottom at #e to #f fa?oms2 ! ma9 bas91 betwe5 ,po9t ,pelee & ! n>r[s at ,long ,po9t1 conta9+ ab\t #fgjj sq4 m41 & hav+ a m>k$ %elv+ bottom deep5+ gradually to #ad fa?oms2 & ! portion ea/ ( ! n>r[s1 conta9+ ab\t #bajj sq4 m41 hav+ a depression #cj fa?oms deep j ea/ f ,long ,po9t1 ) an ext5sive flat ( #aa fa?oms dep? betwe5 x & ! ma9 bas94 ,! ,canadian %ore is l[ & flat ?r\gh\t1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates %ore is l[ b bord]$ by an elevat$ plateau ?r\gh :i* ! riv]s h cut deep *annels4 ,! lake bas9 is relatively s small t ! riv]s are )\t importance2 ,gr& riv]1 on ! nor? %ore1 is ! l>ge/ tribut>y4 ,! flat alluvial soil bord]+ on ! lake is v f]tile1 & ! climate is well adapt$ = fruit cultivation4 ,l>ge quantities ( pea*es1 grapes & small fruits are gr[n2 ! isl&s 9 ! we/ end h a climate mu* w>m] & m equable ?an ! adjo9+ ma9l&1 & are practically cov]$ ) v9ey>ds4 ,! l[ clayey or s&y %ores are subject to erosion by waves4 ,9 sev]e /orms ! wat] ne> %ore is fill$ ) s&1 :i* is deposit$ :]e ! curr5ts are *eck$ ar\nd ! ends ( jetties 9 su* a way z to =m b>s out into ! lake across improv$ *annels4 ,?is %oal+ has r5d]$ cont9u\s dr$g+ necess>y at e h>b\r on ! lake we/ ( ,erie1 ,pa4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! %all[ness ( ! lake its wat]s are easily di/urb$1 mak+ navigation v r\gh & dang]\s1 & caus+ l>ge fluctuations ( surface4 ,/rong w9ds are frequ5t1 z ne>ly e cyclonic depression trav]s+ ,nor? ,am]ica1 ei!r f ! we/w>d or ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 passes ne> en\gh to ,lake ,erie to be felt4 ,we/]ly gales are m frequ5t1 & h m effect on ! wat] surface ?an ea/]ly ones1 l[]+ ! wat] z mu* z #g to #h ft4 at ! we/ end & rais+ x #e to #h ft4 at ! ea/ end4 ,! wor/ /orms occur 9 autumn1 :5 ! imm5se quantity ( %ipp+ on ! lake makes !m specially de/ructive4 ,!re are no tides1 & usually only a slight curr5t t[>ds ! outlet1 ?\gh p[]ful curr5ts are tempor>ily produc$ by ! rapid return ( wat]s aft] a /orm1 & dur+ ! height ( a we/]ly gale !re is inv>iably a reflex curr5t into ! we/ end ( ! lake4 ,!re is an annual fluctuation 9 ! level ( ! lake1 v>y+ f a m9imum ( #i 94 to a maximum ( #b ft41 ! normal l[ level occurr+ 9 ,febru>y & ! high level 9 midsumm]4 ,/&>d high wat] 7( #ahch7 is #ege4aa ft4 above mean sea-level1 & ! l[e/ record 0 #egj4h 9 ,novemb] #ahie4 ,! h>b\rs & exits ( ! lake freeze ov]1 b ! body ( ! lake nev] freezes completely4 ,ice-break+ c> f]ries run across ! lake all w9t]4 ,g5]al navigation op5s z a rule 9 ! middle ( ,april & closes 9 ! middle ( ,decemb]4 ,! volume ( traffic is imm5se1 because practically all freight f ! m we/]ly lakes f9ds t]m9al h>b\rs 9 ,lake ,erie4 ,(ficial /ati/ics ( comm]ce pass+ ?r\gh ! ,detroit riv] into ! lake dur+ ! season ( #aijf %[ t #ce1abh vessels1 hav+ a net regi/] ( #ej1fgc1hig tons1 c>ri$ #fc1hje1ega 7%ort7 tons ( freight1 valu$ at #ffb1iga1jec4 ,! #aage vessels engag$ 9 ?is bus9ess 7 valu$ at #ajf1bbc1jjj4 ,ov] #ij ( ! :ole traffic is 9 ,unit$ ,/ates %ips to ,unit$ ,/ates ports4 ,f9e pass5g] /eam]s run nightly betwe5 ,buffalo & ,clevel& & ,detroit1 & !re are _m %ort] pass5g] r\tes4 ,! l>ge traffic on ,lake ,erie has br\ght into exi/5ce a numb] ( important h>b\rs on ! s\? %ore1 ne>ly all artificially made & deep5$1 ) entrances betwe5 two breakwat]s runn+ into ! lake at "r angles to ! coa/ l9e4 ,! pr9cipal ( ^! are ,tol$o1 ,s&usky1 ,huron1 ,v]milion1 ,lora91 ,clevel&1 ,fairport1 ,a%tabula1 ,conneaut1 ,erie 7a natural h>b\r71 ,dunkirk & ,buffalo1 ,rondeau1 ,port ,/anley1 ,port ,burwell1 ,port ,dov]1 ,port ,maitl& & ,port ,colborne4 ,! ,miami & ,erie canal1 lead+ f ,maumee riv] to ,c9c9nati1 #bdd-a_/b m41 ) a bran* to ,port ,jeff]son1 #ad m41 ) locks #ij by #ae by #d ft41 connects ) ,lake ,erie ?r\gh ,tol$o4 ,! ,erie canal lead+ f ,buffalo to ! ,hudson riv] at ,troy1 & connect+ ) ,lake ,ont>io at ,oswego1 _h a capacity = boats #ih ft4 long1 #ag ft4 #aj 94 beam1 ) #f ft4 draught1 until 9 #aijg ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york und]took its deep5+ to accommodate boats ( #ajjj tons capacity4 ,buffalo f its position at ! ea/]n limit ( deep draught lake navigation is a city ( fir/ rate comm]cial importance4 ,its h>b\r is =m$ by an artificial breakwat]1 built p>allel ) ! %ore ab\t half a mile di/ant f x4 ,x receives practically all ! ,lake ,erie gra9 %ipm5ts besides l>ge quantities ( iron ore1 lumb] & copp]1 & is a l>ge %ipp+ port = coal1 pr9cipally an?racite4 ,x has ov] #fjj m4 ( railway tracks to accommodate lake freights4 ,! ,well& canal1 #bf-c_/d m4 long1 connect+ ,lake ,ont>io & ,lake ,erie1 ) locks #bgj by #de by #ad ft41 leaves ,lake ,erie at ,port ,colborne1 :]e ! ,canadian gov]nm5t h con/ruct$ an artificial h>b\r & elevators = tran%ipm5t ( gra9 f upp] lake freight]s to light]s ( canal capacity4 ,fi%+ op]ations are c>ri$ on ext5sively 9 ,lake ,erie1 ! fi% be+ tak5 ) gill nets1 se9es & p\nd nets4 ,ea* /ate t\*+ ! lake has its own fi%]y regulations1 :i* diff] among/ !mselves z well z f ^? ( ! ,dom9ion4 ,bo? nations ma9ta9 a ,fi%]y ,protection ,s]vice1 & ! fi%]ies are repl5i%$ f artificial hat*]ies4 ,! mo/ num]\s & valuable fi% are ! less] :ite fi% 7,coregonus art$i1 ,le ,sueur71 pick]el 7,/izo/$ion vitreum1 ,walb471 pike 7,lucius lucius1 ,l471 & :ite fi% 7,coregonus clupei=mis1 ,mit*ill71 9 ! ord] nam$4 ,! fi% caught are e/imat$ to be wor? annually #a1jjj1jjj4 ,!y are collect$ 9 fi%+ tugs & di/ribut$ by rail ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,canada4 ,bibliography4--,bullet9 ,no4 #ag1 ,survey ( ,nor!rn & ,nor?-we/]n ,lakes1 ,u4,s4 ,lake ,survey ,(fice1 ,w> ,dept4 7,detroit1 #aijg72 ,u4,s4 ,hydrographic ,(fice1 ,publication ,no4 #ajh;,d1 ,sail+ ,directions = ,lake ,erie1 c4 7,wa%+ton1 #aijb72 ,sail+ ,directions = ! ,canadian ,%ore ( ,lake ,erie1 ,dep>tm5t ( ,m>9e & ,fi%]ies 7,ottawa1 #ahig72 ,j4,o4 ,curwood1 ,! ,great ,lakes 7,new ,york1 #aiji72 ,e4 ,*ann+ & ,m4,f4 ,lans+1 ,! ,great ,lakes 7,new ,york1 #aiji74 7,w4 ,p4 ,a47 ,,erie1 a city1 a port ( entry1 & ! c\nty-seat ( ,erie c\nty1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,lake ,erie1 #adh m4 by rail ,n4 ( ,pittsburg & ne> ! ,n4,w4 corn] ( ! /ate4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #dj1fcd2 7#aijj7 #eb1gcc1 ( :om #aa1ieg 7 =eign-born1 includ+ #ebbf f ,g]many & #adfh f ,irel&1 & #bf1gig 7 ( =eign p>5tage 7bo? p>5ts =eign-born71 includ+ #ac1caf ( ,g]man p>5tage & #dbjc ( ,iri% p>5tage2 7#aiaj c5sus7 #ff1ebe4 ,erie is s]v$ by ! ,new ,york1 ,*icago ,/ ,l\is1 ! ,lake ,%ore ,mi*igan ,s\!rn1 ! ,erie ,pittsburg 7,p5nsylvania ,company71 ! ,philadelphia ,erie 7,p5nsylvania railway71 & ! ,bessem] ,lake ,erie railways1 & by /eamboat l9es to _m important lake ports4 ,! city ext5ds ov] an area ( ab\t #g sq4 m41 :i* = ! mo/ "p is q level & is f #ej to #age ft4 above ! lake4 ,erie has a f9e h>b\r ab\t #d m4 9 l5g?1 m ?an #a m4 9 wid?1 & ) an av]age dep? ( ab\t #bj ft42 x is ne>ly enclos$ by ,presque ,isle1 a long n>r[ /rip ( l& ( ab\t #cjjj acres f #cjj ft4 to #a m4 9 wid?1 & ! national gov]nm5t has protect$ its entrance & deep5$ its *annel by con/ruct+ two long breakwat]s4 ,mo/ ( ! /reets ( ! city are #fj ft4 wide--a few are #ajj ft4--& ne>ly all int]sect at "r angles2 !y are pav$ ) brick & asphalt1 & _m 9 ! resid5tial qu>t]s are %ad$ ) f9e elms & maples4 ,! city has f\r p>ks1 9 "o ( :i* is a soldi]s' & sailors' monum5t ( granite & bronze1 & n f> away1 along ! %ore ( lake & bay1 are sev]al attractive summ] resorts4 ,among ,erie's m prom95t build+s are ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t build+1 ! city hall1 ! public libr>y1 & ! c\nty c\rt h\se4 ,! city's *>itable in/itutions consi/ ( two g5]al hospitals1 ea* ( :i* has a tra9+ s*ool = nurses2 a municipal hospital1 an orphan asylum1 a home = ! fri5dless1 two old folks' homes1 & a bureau ( *>ities2 "h1 also1 on a bluff1 )9 a l>ge enclosure & ov]look+ bo? lake & city1 is ! /ate soldi]s' & sailors' home1 & ne> by is a monum5t erect$ to ! memory ( ,g5]al ,an?ony ,wayne1 :o di$ "h on ! #ae? ( ,decemb] #agif4 ,erie is ! comm]cial c5tre ( a l>ge & ri* grape-gr[+ & agricultural di/rict1 has an ext5sive trade ) ! lake ports & by rail 7*iefly 9 coal1 iron ore1 lumb] & gra971 & is an important manufactur+ c5tre1 among its products be+ iron1 eng9es1 boil]s1 brass ca/+s1 /oves1 c> heat]s1 fl\r1 malt liquors1 lumb]1 plan+ mill products1 coop]age products1 pap] & wood pulp1 cig>s & o!r tobacco goods1 gas met]s1 rubb] goods1 pipe organs1 pianos & *emicals4 ,9 #aije ! city's factory products 7 valu$ at #ai1iaa1efg1 ! value ( f\ndry & ma*9e-%op products be+ #f1gbc1hai1 ( fl\r & gri/-mill products #a1ddd1dej1 & ( malt liquors #hhb1dic4 ,! municipality owns & op]ates its wat]-works4 ,on ! site ( ,erie ! ,fr5* erect$ ,=t ,presque ,isle 9 #agec1 & ab\t x f\nd$ a village ( a few hundr$ inhabitants4 ,george ,wa%+ton1 on behalf ( ! gov]nor ( ,virg9ia1 came 9 ! same ye> to ,=t ,le ,boeuf 7on ! site ( ! pres5t ,wat]=d71 #bj m4 di/ant1 to prote/ aga9/ ! ,fr5* =tify+ ?is section ( c\ntry4 ,! prote/1 h[ev]1 0 unhe$$4 ,! village 0 ab&on$ 9 or be=e #ageh1 ow+ probably to an epidemic ( smallpox1 & ! =t 0 ab&on$ 9 #agei4 ,x 0 occupi$ by ! ,briti% 9 #agfj1 b on ! #bbnd ( ,june #agfc ?is 0 "o ( ! sev]al =ts captur$ by ! ,indians dur+ ! ,conspiracy ( ,pontiac4 ,9 #agfd ! ,briti% rega9$ nom9al control & reta9$ x until #aghe1 :5 x pass$ into ! possession ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! place 0 laid out z a t[n 9 #agie2 9 #ahjj x became ! c\nty-seat ( ! newly-erect$ c\nty ( ,erie2 x 0 incorporat$ z a bor\gh 9 #ahje1 ! *>t] ( t ye> be+ revis$ 9 #ahcc2 & 9 #ahea x 0 incorporat$ z a city4 ,at ,erie 7 built )9 less ?an six mon?s mo/ ( ! vessels ) :i* ,commodore ,oliv] ,h4 ,p]ry won 8 naval victory ov] ! ,briti% (f ,put-9-,bay on ! #aj? ( ,septemb] #ahac4 ,,erig5a1 ,,johannes ,,scotus 7c4 #hjj-;c4 #hgg71 m$ieval philosoph] & !ologian4 ,8 real "n 0 ,johannes ,scotus 7,scottus7 or ,john ! ,scot4 ,! comb9ation ,johannes ,scotus ,erig5a has n be5 trac$ e>li] ?an ,us%] & ,gale2 ev5 ,gale uses x only 9 ! head+ ( ! v]sion ( ,/ ,maximus4 ,! date ( ,erig5a's bir? is v unc]ta91 & !re is no evid5ce to %[ def9itely :]e he 0 born4 ,! "n ,scotus1 :i* has (t5 be5 tak5 to imply ,scotti% orig91 really fav\rs ! !ory t he 0 an ,iri%man accord+ to ! !n usage ( ,scotus or ,scotig5a4 ,prud5tius1 bi%op ( ,troyes1 def9itely /ates t he 0 ( ,iri% extraction4 ,! pseudonym commonly read ,erig5a1 us$ by himself 9 ! titles ( 8 v]sions ( ,dionysius ! ,areopagite1 is ,i]ug5a 79 lat] ,,mss4 ,erug5a & ,eriug5a71 =m$ app>5tly on ! analogy ( ,graiug5a 7,greek-born71 :i* he applies to ,/ ,maximus4 ,!re seems no reason to d\bt t ,eriug5a is connect$ ) ,er91 ! "n = ,irel&1 & ,i]ug5a sugge/s ! ,greek ,greek3 hi]os1 hi]os nesos be+ a common "n = ,irel&4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,william ( ,malmesbury pref]s to read ,h]ulig5a1 :i* w\ld make ,scotus a ,pannonian1 :ile ,bale says he 0 born at ,/ ,david's1 ,demp/] connects him ) ,ayr1 & ,gale ) ,eriuv5 9 ,h]e=d4 ,"s e>ly writ]s ?\ght !re 7 two p]sons1 ,john ,scotus & ,john ,erig5a4 ,( ,erig5a's e>ly life no?+ is kn[n4 ,bale quotes ! /ory t he travell$ 9 ,greece1 ,italy & ,gaul1 & /udi$ n only ,greek1 b also ,arabic & ,*aldaean4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ,bale describes him z ex patricio g5itore natus1 x is a reasonable inf]5ce 7s ,r4,l4 ,poole7 t ,bale confus$ him ) "o ,john1 ! son ( ,patricius1 a ,spani>d1 :o tells mu* ! same /ory ( 8 own travels4 ,! k ( ,greek display$ 9 ,erig5a's works is n su* z to compel u to conclude t he _h actually visit$ ,greece4 ,t he _h a compet5t acqua9tance ) ,greek is manife/ f 8 translations ( ,dionysius ! ,areopagite & ( ,maximus1 f ! mann] 9 :i* he ref]s to ,ari/otle1 & f 8 evid5t famili>ity ) ,neoplatoni/ writ]s & ! fa!rs ( ! e>ly *ur*4 ,rog] ,bacon1 9 8 sev]e criticism on ! ignorance ( ,greek display$ by ! mo/ em95t s*ola/ic writ]s1 expressly exempts ,erig5a1 & ascribes to him a k ( ,ari/otle 9 ! orig9al4 ,among o!r leg5ds :i* h at v>i\s times be5 atta*$ to ,erig5a are t he 0 invit$ to ,france by ,*>lemagne1 & t he 0 "o ( ! f\nd]s ( ! univ]sity ( ,p>is4 ,! only portion ( ,erig5a's life z to :i* we possess accurate in=mation 0 t sp5t at ! c\rt ( ,*>les ! ,bald4 ,*>les invit$ him to ,france soon aft] 8 accession to ! ?rone1 probably 9 ! ye> #hdc1 & plac$ him at ! head ( ! c\rt s*ool 7s*ola palat9a74 ,! reputation ( ?is s*ool seems to h increas$ greatly "u ,erig5a's lead]%ip1 & ! philosoph] himself 0 treat$ ) indulg5ce by ! k+4 ,william ( ,malmesbury's amus+ /ory illu/rates bo? ! "* ( ,scotus & ! position he occupi$ at ! ,fr5* c\rt4 ,! k+ hav+ ask$1 ,quid di/at int] sottum et ,scottum8 ,erig5a repli$1 ,m5sa tantum4 ,! fir/ ( ! works kn[n to h be5 writt5 by ,erig5a dur+ ?is p]iod 0 a treatise on ! eu*>i/1 :i* has n come d[n to u 7by "s x has be5 id5tifi$ ) a treatise by ,ratramnus1 ,de corpore et sangu9e ,dom9i74 ,9 x he seems to h advanc$ ! doctr9e t ! eu*>i/ 0 m]ely symbolical or commemorative1 an op9ion = :i* ,b]5g>ius 0 at a lat] date c5sur$ & condemn$4 ,z a "p ( 8 p5ance ,b]5g>ius is said to h be5 compell$ to burn publicly ,erig5a's treatise4 ,s f> z we c le>n1 h[ev]1 ,erig5a's or?odoxy 0 n at ! "t suspect$1 & a few ye>s lat] he 0 select$ by ,h9cm>1 ar*bi%op ( ,reims1 to def5d ! doctr9e ( lib]ty ( w aga9/ ! extreme pr$e/9>ianism ( ! monk ,gotts*alk 7,gottes*al*us74 ,! treatise ,de div9a pra$e/9atione1 compos$ on ?is occasion1 has be5 pres]v$1 & f its g5]al t5or "o _c be surpris$ t ! au?or's or?odoxy 0 at once & vehem5tly suspect$4 ,erig5a argues ! "q entirely on speculative gr\nds1 & />ts ) ! bold affirmation t philosophy & religion are fundam5tally "o & ! same--,conficitur inde v]am esse philosophiam v]am religionem1 conv]simque v]am religionem esse v]am philosophiam4 ,ev5 m significant is 8 h&l+ ( au?ority & reason1 to :i* we %all pres5tly ref]4 ,! "w 0 w>mly assail$ by ,drepanius ,florus1 canon ( ,lyons1 & ,prud5tius1 & 0 condemn$ by two c\ncils--t ( ,val5ce 9 #hee1 & t ( ,langres 9 #hei4 ,by ! =m] c\ncil 8 argum5ts 7 describ$ z ,pultes ,scotorum 7,scots porridge7 & comm5tum diaboli 7an inv5tion ( ! devil74 ,erig5a's next "w 0 a ,lat9 translation ( ,dionysius ! ,areopagite 7see ,,dionysius ,,areopagiticus7 und]tak5 at ! reque/ ( ,*>les ! ,bald4 ,?is also has be5 pres]v$1 & fragm5ts ( a comm5t>y by ,erig5a on ,dionysius h be5 discov]$ 9 ,,ms4 ,a translation ( ! ,areopagite's pan!i/ical writ+s 0 n likely to alt] ! op9ion already =m$ z to ,erig5a's or?odoxy4 ,pope ,ni*olas ,i4 0 (f5d$ t ! "w _h n be5 submitt$ = approval be=e be+ giv5 to ! _w1 & ord]$ ,*>les to s5d ,erig5a to ,rome1 or at lea/ to dismiss him f 8 c\rt4 ,!re is no evid5ce1 h[ev]1 t ?is ord] 0 att5d$ to4 ,! latt] "p ( 8 life is involv$ 9 total obscurity4 ,! /ory t 9 #hhb he 0 invit$ to ,ox=d by ,alfr$ ! ,great1 t he lab\r$ !re = _m ye>s1 became abbot at ,malmesbury1 & 0 /abb$ to dea? by 8 pupils ) _! /yles1 is app>5tly )\t any satisfactory f\ndation1 & d\btless ref]s to "s o!r ,johannes4 ,erig5a 9 all probability nev] left ,france1 & ,haureau has advanc$ "s reasons = fix+ ! date ( 8 dea? ab\t #hgg4 ,erig5a is ! mo/ int]e/+ figure among ! middle-age writ]s4 ,! fre$om ( 8 speculation1 & ! boldness ) :i* he works out 8 logical or dialectical sy/em ( ! univ]se1 altoge!r prev5t u f class+ him along ) ! s*ola/ics prop]ly s call$4 ,he m>ks1 inde$1 a /age ( transition f ! old] ,platoniz+ philosophy to ! lat] & m rigid s*ola/icism4 ,9 no s5se :atev] c x be affirm$ t ) ,erig5a philosophy is 9 ! s]vice ( !ology4 ,! above-quot$ ass]tion z to ! sub/antial id5tity betwe5 philosophy & religion is inde$ repeat$ almo/ totidem v]bis by _m ( ! lat] s*ola/ic writ]s1 b its significance altoge!r dep5ds ^u ! selection ( "o or o!r t]m ( ! id5tity z fundam5tal or prim>y4 ,n[ !re is no possibility ( mi/ak+ ,erig5a's position3 to him philosophy or reason is fir/1 is primitive2 au?ority or religion is second>y1 d]iv$4 ,auctoritas siquidem ex v]a ratione processit1 ratio v]o nequaquam ex auctoritate4 ,omnis enim auctoritas1 quae v]a ratione non approbatur1 infirma videtur esse4 ,v]a autem ratio1 quum virtutibus suis rata atque immutabilis munitur1 nullius auctoritatis ad/ipulatione robor>i indiget 7,de divisione naturae1 i4 #ga74 ,f4,d4 ,maurice1 ! only hi/orian ( note :o decl9es to ascribe a rationaliz+ t5d5cy to ,erig5a1 obscures ! "q by ! mann] 9 :i* he /ates x4 ,he asks 8 read]s1 aft] weigh+ ! evid5ce advanc$1 to det]m9e :e!r he 7,erig5a7 us$ 8 philosophy to expla9 away 8 !ology1 or to br+ out :at he conceiv$ to be ! fulle/ mean+ ( x4 ,^! alt]natives seem to be wrongly put4 ,expla9+ away !ology is some?+ :olly =eign to ! philosophy ( t age2 & ev5 if we accept ! alt]native t ,erig5a endeav\rs speculatively to br+ out ! full mean+ ( !ology1 we are by no means driv5 to ! conclusion t he 0 prim>ily or pr9cipally a !ologian4 ,he does n />t ) ! datum ( !ology z ! complet$ body ( tru?1 requir+ only elucidation & int]pretation2 8 fundam5tal ?\ght is t ( ! univ]se1 nature1 ,greek3 to pan1 or ,god1 z ! ultimate unity :i* works itself out into ! rational sy/em ( ! _w4 ,man & all t conc]ns man are b p>ts ( ?is sy/em1 & are to be expla9$ by ref]5ce to x2 = explanation or und]/&+ ( a ?+ is det]m9ation ( its place 9 ! univ]sal or all4 ,religion or revelation is "o elem5t or factor 9 ! div9e process1 a /age or phase ( ! ultimate rational life4 ,! highe/ faculty ( man1 reason1 intellectus1 intellectualis visio1 is t :i* is n cont5t ) ! individual or p>tial1 b grasps ! :ole & !reby compreh5ds ! p>ts4 ,9 ?is highe/ ef=t ( reason1 :i* is inde$ ,god ?9k+ 9 man1 ?\ght & be+ are at "o1 ! opposition ( be+ & ?\ght is ov]come4 ,:5 ,erig5a />ts ) su* propositions1 x is cle>ly impossible to und]/& 8 position & "w if we insi/ on reg>d+ him z a s*ola/ic1 accept+ ! dogmas ( ! *ur* z ultimate data1 & endeav\r+ only to pres5t !m 9 due ord] & def5d !m by argum5t4 ,erig5a's great "w1 ,de divisione naturae1 :i* 0 condemn$ by a c\ncil at ,s5s1 by ,honorius ,,iii4 7#abbe71 :o describ$ x z sw>m+ ) worms ( h]etical p]v]sity1 & by ,gregory ,,xiii4 9 #aehe1 is arrang$ 9 five books4 ,! =m ( exposition is t ( dialogue2 ! me?od ( reason+ is ! syllogi/ic4 ,! lead+ ?\ghts are ! foll[+4 ,natura is ! "n = ! univ]sal1 ! totality ( all ?+s1 conta9+ 9 itself be+ & non-be+4 ,x is ! unity ( :i* all special ph5om5a are manife/ations4 ,b ( ?is nature !re are f\r di/9ct classes3--7#a7 t :i* creates & is n creat$2 7#b7 t :i* is creat$ & creates2 7#c7 t :i* is creat$ & does n create2 7#d7 t :i* nei!r is creat$ nor creates4 ,! fir/ is ,god z ! gr\nd or orig9 ( all ?+s1 ! la/ is ,god z ! f9al end or goal ( all ?+s1 t into :i* ! _w ( creat$ ?+s ultimately returns4 ,! second & ?ird toge!r compose ! creat$ univ]se1 :i* is ! manife/ation ( ,god1 ,god 9 processu1 ,!ophania4 ,?us we di/+ui% 9 ! div9e sy/em beg9n+1 middle & end2 b ^! ?ree are 9 ess5ce "o--! diff]5ce is only ! consequ5ce ( our f9ite compreh5sion4 ,we are compell$ to envisage ?is et]nal process "u ! =m ( "t1 to apply temporal di/9ctions to t :i* is extra- or supra-temporal4 ,! univ]se ( creat$ ?+s1 z we h se51 is tw(old3--fir/1 t :i* is creat$ & creates--! primordial ideas1 ar*etypes1 immutable relations1 div9e acts ( w1 accord+ to :i* individual ?+s are =m$2 second1 t :i* is creat$ & does n create1 ! _w ( individuals1 ! effects ( ! primordial causes1 )\t :i* ! causes h no true be+4 ,creat$ ?+s h no individual or self-indep5d5t exi/5ce2 !y are only 9 ,god2 & ea* ?+ is a manife/ation ( ! div9e1 !ophania1 div9a app>itio4 ,god alone1 ! uncreat$ creator ( all1 has true be+4 ,he is ! true univ]sal1 all-conta9+ & incompreh5sible4 ,! l[] _c compreh5d ! high]1 & !re=e we mu/ say t ! exi/5ce ( ,god is above be+1 above ess5ce2 ,god is above goodness1 above wisdom1 above tru?4 ,no f9ite pr$icates c be appli$ to him2 8 mode ( be+ _c be det]m9$ by any category4 ,true !ology is negative4 ,nev]!less ! _w1 z ! !ophania1 ! revelation ( ,god1 enables u s f> to und]/& ! div9e ess5ce4 ,we recognize 8 be+ 9 ! be+ ( all ?+s1 8 wisdom 9 _! ord]ly arrangem5t1 8 life 9 _! con/ant motion4 ,?us ,god is = u a ,tr9ity--! ,fa!r z sub/ance or be+ 7,greek3 ousia71 ! ,son z wisdom 7,greek3 dynamis71 ! ,_s z life 7,greek3 en]geia74 ,^! ?ree are realiz$ 9 ! univ]se--! ,fa!r z ! sy/em ( ?+s1 ! ,son z ! ^w1 i4e4 ! realm ( ideas1 ! ,_s z ! life or mov+ =ce :i* introduces individuality & :i* ultimately draws back all ?+s into ! div9e unity4 ,9 man1 z ! noble/ ( creat$ ?+s1 ! ,tr9ity is se5 mo/ p]fectly reflect$2 intellectus 7,greek3 n\s71 ratio 7,greek3 logos7 & s5sus 7,greek3 dianoia7 make up ! ?reefold ?read ( 8 be+4 ,n 9 man alone1 h[ev]1 b 9 all ?+s1 ,god is to be reg>d$ z realiz+ himself1 z becom+ inc>nate4 ,! inf9ite ess5ce ( ,god1 :i* may inde$ be describ$ z nihilum 7no?+7 is t f :i* all is creat$1 f :i* all proce$s or emanates4 ,! fir/ procession or emanation1 z above indicat$1 is ! realm ( ideas 9 ! ,platonic s5se1 ! ^w or wisdom ( ,god4 ,^! ideas compose a :ole or insep>able unity1 b we are able 9 a dim way to ?9k ( !m z a sy/em logically arrang$4 ,?us ! highe/ idea is t ( goodness2 ?+s are1 only if !y are good2 be+ )\t well-be+ is naught4 ,ess5ce p>ticipates 9 goodness--t :i* is good has be+1 & is !re=e to be reg>d$ z a species ( good4 ,life1 aga91 is a species ( ess5ce1 wisdom a species ( life1 & s on1 always desc5d+ f g5us to species 9 a rigor\s logical fa%ion4 ,! ideas are ! et]nal causes1 :i*1 "u ! mov+ influ5ce ( ! _s1 manife/ !mselves 9 _! effects1 ! individual creat$ ?+s4 ,manife/ation1 h[ev]1 is "p ( ! be+ or ess5ce ( ! causes1 t is to say1 if we int]pret ! expression1 ,god ( necessity manife/s himself 9 ! _w & is n )\t ! _w4 ,fur!r1 z ! causes are et]nal1 timeless1 s creation is et]nal1 timeless4 ,! ,mosaic acc\nt1 !n1 is to be look$ ^u m]ely z a mode 9 :i* is fa9tly %ad[$ =? :at is above f9ite compreh5sion4 ,x is altoge!r allegorical1 & requires to be int]pret$4 ,p>adise & ! ,fall h no local or temporal be+4 ,man 0 orig9ally s9less & )\t di/9ction ( sex4 ,only aft] ! introduction ( s9 did man lose 8 spiritual body1 & acquire ! animal nature ) its di/9ction ( sex4 ,woman is ! imp]sonation ( man's s5su\s & fall5 nature2 on ! f9al return to ! div9e unity1 di/9ction ( sex w vani%1 & ! spiritual body w be rega9$4 ,! mo/ rem>kable & at ! same "t ! mo/ obscure portion ( ! "w is t 9 :i* ! f9al return to ,god is h&l$4 ,naturally s9 is a necess>y prelim9>y to ?is r$emption1 & ,erig5a has ! greate/ difficulty 9 acc\nt+ = ! fact ( s94 ,if ,god is true be+1 !n s9 c h no sub/antive exi/5ce2 x _c be said t ,god kn[s ( s91 = to ,god kn[+ & be+ are "o4 ,9 ! univ]se ( ?+s1 z a univ]se1 !re c be no s92 !re mu/ be p]fect h>mony4 ,s91 9 fact1 results f ! w ( ! individual :o falsely repres5ts some?+ z good :i* is n s4 ,?is misdirect$ w is puni%$ by f9d+ t ! objects aft] :i* x ?ir/s are 9 tru? vanity & empt9ess4 ,hell is n to be reg>d$ z hav+ local exi/5ce2 x is ! inn] /ate ( ! s9ful w4 ,z ! object ( puni%m5t is n ! w or ! individual himself1 b ! misdirection ( ! w1 s ! result ( puni%m5t is ! f9al purification & r$emption ( all4 ,ev5 ! devils %all be sav$4 ,all1 h[ev]1 are n sav$ at once2 ! /ages ( ! return to ! f9al unity1 correspond+ to ! /ages 9 ! creative process1 are num]\s1 & are pass$ ?r\gh sl[ly4 ,! ultimate goal is deificatio1 !osis or resumption into ! div9e be+1 :5 ! individual s\l is rais$ to a full k ( ,god1 & :]e kn[+ & be+ are "o4 ,aft] all h be5 re/or$ to ! div9e unity1 !re is no fur!r creation4 ,! ultimate unity is t :i* nei!r is creat$ nor creates4 ,,editions4--,!re is a complete edition ( ,erig5a's works 9 ,j4,p4 ,migne's ,patrologiae cursus completus 7vol4 cxxii471 edit$ by ,h4,j4 ,floss 7,p>is1 #ahec74 ,! ,de div9a pra$e/9atione 0 publi%$ 9 ,gilb]t ,maugu9's ,vet]um auctorum qui nono saeculo de pra$e/9atione et gratia scrips]unt op]a et fragm5ta 7,p>is1 #afej74 ,! comm5t>y 7,expositiones7 on ,dionysius' ,hi]>*iae caele/es appe>$ 9 ! ,app5dix ad op]a edita ab ,a4 ,maio 7ed4 ,j4 ,cozza1 ,rome1 #ahga74 ,( ! ,de divisione naturae1 editions h be5 publi%$ by ,?omas ,gale 7,ox=d1 #afha72 ,c4,b4 ,s*lut] 7,mun/]1 #ahch72 & 9 ,floss's ,op]a omnia2 !re is a ,g]man translation by ,ludwig ,noack1 ,johannes ,scotus ,erig5a ub] die ,e9!ilung d] ,natur 7#c vols41 #ahgd-ahgf74 ,erig5a 0 also ! au?or ( "s poems edit$ by ,l4 ,traube 9 ,monum5ta ,g]maniae hi/orica4 ,poetae ,lat9i aevi ,c>ol9i1 iii4 7#ahif74 ,a comm5t>y on ! ,opuscula sacra ( ,boetius is attribut$ to him & edit$ by ,e4,k4 ,r& 7#aijf74 ,monographs on ,erig5a's life & works are num]\s2 see ,/ ,r5e ,taill&i]1 ,scot ,erig5e et la philosophie s*ola/ique 7#ahdc72 ,t4 ,*ri/lieb1 ,leb5 u4 ,lehre des ,johannes ,scotus ,erig5a 7,go?a1 #ahfj72 ,j4,n4 ,hub]1 ,johannes ,scotus ,erig5a 7,muni*1 #ahfa72 ,w4 ,kauli*1 ,das speculative ,sy/em des ,johannes ,scotus ,erig5a 7,prague1 #ahfj72 ,a4 ,/ockl1 ,de ,joh4 ,scoto ,erig5a 7#ahfg72 ,l4 ,noack1 ,ub] ,leb5 und ,s*rift5 des ,joh4 ,scotus ,erig5a3 die ,wiss5s*aft und ,bildung se9] ,zeit 7,leipzig1 #ahgf72 ,r4,l4 ,poole1 ,m$ieval ,?\ght 7#ahhd71 & article 9 ,diction>y ( ,national ,biography2 ,t4 ,wots*ke1 ,fi*te und ,erig5a 7,halle1 #ahif72 ,m4 ,baumg>tn] 9 ,wetz] & ,welte's ,kir*5lexikon1 x4 7#ahig72 ,alice ,g>dn]'s ,/udies 9 ,john ! ,scot 7#aijj72 ,j4 ,draseke1 ,joh4 ,scotus ,erig5a und se9e ,gewahrsmann] 7,leipzig1 #aijb72 ,s4,m4 ,deuts* 9 ,h]zog-,hauck's ,real5cyklopadie fur prote/antis*e ,!ologie1 xviii4 7#aijf72 ,j4,e4 ,s&ys1 ,hi/4 ( ,classical ,s*ol>%ip 7#aijf71 pp4 #dia-die4 ,see also ! g5]al works on s*ola/ic philosophy1 especially ,haureau1 ,/ockl & ,kauli*4 ,an admirable resume is giv5 by ,f4,d4 ,maurice1 ,m$ieval ,phil4 pp4 #de-gi4 7,r4 ,ad42 ,j4 ,m4 ,m47 ,,erigone1 9 ,greek my?ology1 daught] ( ,ic>ius1 ! h]o ( ! ,attic deme ,ic>ia4 ,h] fa!r1 :o _h be5 taught by ,dionysus to make w9e1 gave "s to "s %eph]ds1 :o became intoxicat$4 ,_! companions1 ?9k+ !y _h be5 poison$1 kill$ ,ic>ius & buri$ him "u a tree on ,m\nt ,hymettus 7or ?rew 8 body into a well74 ,erigone1 guid$ by h] fai?ful dog ,ma]a1 f\nd 8 grave1 & hang$ h]self on ! tree4 ,dionysus s5t a plague on ! l&1 & all ! maid5s ( ,a!ns1 9 a fit ( madness1 hang$ !mselves l ,erigone4 ,ic>ius1 ,erigone & ,ma]a 7 set among ! />s z ,bootes 7or ,arcturus71 ,virgo & ,procyon4 ,! fe/ival call$ ,aeora 7! sw+7 0 subsequ5tly in/itut$ to propitiate ,ic>ius & ,erigone4 ,v>i\s small images 79 ,lat4 oscilla7 7 susp5d$ on trees & swung backw>ds & =w>ds1 & (f]+s ( fruit 7 made 7,hyg9us1 ,fab4 #acj1 ,poet4 a/ron4 ii4 #d2 ,apollodorus iii4 #ad74 ,! /ory 0 probably int5d$ to expla9 ! orig9 ( ^! oscilla1 by :i* ,dionysus1 z god ( trees 7,d5drites71 0 propitiat$1 & ! baneful influ5ce ( ! dog-/> av]t$ 7see also ,,oscilla74 ,,er91 an anci5t "n = ,irel&4 ,! olde/ =m ( ! ^w is ,eriu1 ( :i* ,er9n is ! dative case4 ,eriu 0 itself almo/ c]ta9ly a contraction f a /ill m primitive =m ,ib]iu or ,iv]iu2 = :5 ! "n ( ! isl& 0 writt5 9 anci5t ,greek x appe>$ z ,greek3 ,i\]nia 7,iv]nia71 & 9 ,lat9 z ,ib]io1 ,hib]io or ,hib]nia1 ! fir/ syllable ( ! ^w ,eriu be+ ?us repres5t$ 9 ! classical languages by two di/9ct v[el s\nds sep>at$ by b or v4 ,( ! ,lat9 v>iants1 ,ib]io is ! =m f\nd 9 ! mo/ anci5t ,iri% ,,mss41 su* z ! ,confession ( ,/ ,patrick1 & ! same sa9t's ,epi/le to ,coroticus4 ,fur!r evid5ce to ! same effect is f\nd 9 ! fact t ! anci5t ,breton & ,wel% names = ,irel& 7 ,yw]ddon or ,iv]don4 ,9 lat] ,gaelic lit]ature ! primitive =m ,eriu became ! dissyllable ,eire2 h5ce ! ,norsem5 call$ ! isl& ! l& ( ,eire1 i4e4 ,irel&1 ! latt] ^w be+ orig9ally pron\nc$ 9 ?ree syllables4 7,see ,,irel&3 ,notices ( ,irel& 9 ,greek & ,roman writ]s47 ,no?+ is kn[n z to ! mean+ ( ! ^w 9 any ( its =ms1 & ,:itley ,/okes's sugge/ion t x may h be5 connect$ ) ! ,sanskrit av>a1 mean+ we/]n1 is admitt$ly no m ?an conjecture4 ,!re 01 inde$1 a native ,iri% leg5d1 wor?less f ! /&po9t ( etymology1 to acc\nt = ! orig9 ( ! "n4 ,accord+ to ?is my? !re 7 ?ree k+s ( ! ,d$annans reign+ 9 ,irel& at ! com+ ( ! ,milesians1 nam$ ,mac,coll1 ,mac,kecht & ,mac,grena4 ,! wife ( ! fir/ 0 ,eire1 & f h] ! "n ( ! c\ntry 0 d]iv$4 ,curi\sly1 ,irel& 9 anci5t ,erse poetry 0 (t5 call$ ,fodla or ,bauba1 & ^! 7 ! wives ( ! o!r two k+s 9 ! leg5d4 ,,er9na1 ,greek poet1 contempor>y & fri5d ( ,sappho1 a native ( ,rhodes or ! adjac5t isl& ( ,telos1 fl\ri%$ ab\t #fjj 7accord+ to ,eusebius1 #cej ,b4,c474 ,al?\gh %e di$ at ! e>ly age ( n9ete51 h] poems 7 among ! mo/ fam\s ( h] "t & consid]$ to rank ) ^? ( ,hom]4 ,( h] be/-kn[n poem1 ,greek3 ,elakate 7! ,di/aff71 writt5 9 a mixture ( ,aeolic & ,doric1 :i* conta9$ #cjj hexamet] l9es1 only #d l9es are n[ extant4 ,?ree epigrams 9 ! ,palat9e an?ology1 also ascrib$ to h]1 probably belong to a lat] date4 ,! fragm5ts h be5 edit$ 7) ^? ( ,alcaeus7 by ,j4 ,pellegr9o 7#ahid74 ,,er9yes 7,lat4 ,furiae71 9 ,greek my?ology1 ! av5g+ deities1 prop]ly ! angry goddesses or goddesses ( ! curse pron\nc$ ^u evil-do]s4 ,accord+ to ,hesiod 7,!og4 #ahe7 !y 7 ! daught]s ( ,e>?1 & sprang f ! blood ( ! mutilat$ ,uranus2 9 ,aes*ylus 7,eum4 #cba7 !y are ! daught]s ( ,night1 9 ,sophocles 7,o4,c4 #dj7 ( ,d>kness & ,e>?4 ,sometimes "o ,er9ys is m5tion$1 sometimes sev]al2 ,euripides fir/ spoke ( !m z ?ree 9 numb]1 to :om lat] ,alex&rian writ]s gave ! names ,alecto 7unceas+ 9 ang]71 ,tisiphone 7av5g] ( murd]71 ,mega]a 7jeal\s74 ,_! home is ! _w bel[1 :5ce !y asc5d to e>? to pursue ! wick$4 ,!y puni% all (f5ces aga9/ ! laws ( human society1 su* z p]jury1 violation ( ! rites ( hospitality1 &1 above all1 ! murd] ( relations4 ,b !y are n )\t b5evol5t & b5efic5t attributes4 ,:5 ! s9n] has expiat$ 8 crime !y are ready to =give4 ,?us1 _! p]secution ( ,ore/es ceases aft] 8 acquittal by ! ,areopagus4 ,x is said t on ?is occasion !y 7 fir/ call$ ,eum5ides 7! k9dly71 a euphemi/ic v>iant ( _! real "n4 ,at ,a!ns1 h[ev]1 :]e !y _h a sanctu>y at ! foot ( ! ,areopagus hill & a sacr$ grove at ,colonus1 _! regul> "n 0 ,semnae 7v5]able74 ,black %eep 7 sacrific$ to !m dur+ ! night by ! light ( tor*es4 ,a fe/ival 0 held 9 _! hon\r e ye>1 sup]9t5d$ by a special prie/hood1 at :i* ! (f]+s consi/$ ( milk & honey mix$ ) wat]1 b no w9e4 ,9 ,aes*ylus1 ! ,er9yes are repres5t$ z awful1 ,gorgon-l wom51 we>+ long black robes1 ) snaky locks1 blood%ot eyes & claw-l nails4 ,lat]1 !y are w+$ maid5s ( s]i\s aspect1 9 ! g>b ( huntresses1 ) snakes or tor*es 9 _! hair1 c>ry+ sc\rges1 tor*es or sickles4 ,! id5tification ( ,er9yes ) ,sanskrit ,s>anyu1 ! swift-spe$+ /orm cl\d1 is reject$ by mod]n etymologi/s2 accord+ to ,m4 ,breal1 ! ,er9yes are ! p]sonification ( ! =mula ( imprecation 7,greek3 ara71 :ile ,e4 ,rohde sees 9 !m ! spirits ( ! dead1 ! angry s\ls ( murd]$ m54 ,see ,c4,o4 ,mull]1 ,diss]tations on ! ,eum5ides ( ,aes*ylus1 7,eng4 tr41 #ahce72 ,a4 ,ros5b]g1 ,die ,er9y5 7#ahgd72 ,j4,e4 ,h>rison1 ,prolegom5a to ! ,/udy ( ,greek ,religion 7#aijc72 & ,j\rnal ( ,hell5ic ,/udies1 xix4 p4 #bje1 accord+ to :om ! ,er9yes 7 prim>ily local ance/ral gho/s1 pot5t = good or evil aft] dea?1 e>? g5ii1 orig9ally conceiv$ z embodi$ 9 ! =m ( snakes1 ^: primitive haunt & sanctu>y 0 ! omphalos at ,delphi2 ,e4 ,rohde1 ,psy*e 7#aijc72 ,a4 ,rapp 9 ,ros*]'s ,lexikon d] ,my?ologie1 & ,j4,a4 ,hild 9 ,d>emb]g & ,saglio's ,dictionnaire des antiquites1 s4v4 ,,furiae4 ,,eriphyle1 9 ,greek my?ology1 si/] ( ,adra/us & wife ( ,amphi>aus4 ,hav+ be5 brib$ by ,polyneices ) ! necklace ( ,h>monia1 %e p]suad$ h] husb& to take "p 9 ! exp$ition ( ! ,sev5 aga9/ ,!bes1 al?\gh he knew x w\ld prove fatal to him4 ,be=e sett+ out1 ! se] *>g$ 8 sons to slay _! "m z soon z !y he>d ( 8 dea?4 ,! attack on ,!bes 0 repuls$1 & dur+ ! flight ! e>? op5$ & swall[$ up ,amphi>aus toge!r ) 8 *>iot4 ,8 son ,alcmaeon1 z he _h be5 bidd51 slew 8 "m1 & 0 driv5 f place to place by ! ,er9yes1 seek+ purification & a new home 7,apollodorus iii4 #f4 #g74 ,,eris1 9 ,greek my?ology1 a si/] ( ! w>-god ,ares 7,hom]1 ,iliad1 iv4 #ddj71 & 9 ! ,hesiodic !ogony 7#bbe7 a daught] ( ,night4 ,9 ! lat] leg5ds ( ! ,trojan ,w>1 ,eris1 n hav+ be5 invit$ to ! m>riage fe/ival ( ,peleus & ,!tis1 fl+s a gold5 apple 7! apple ( discord7 among ! gue/s1 to be giv5 to ! mo/ beautiful4 ,! claims ( ! ?ree deities ,h]a1 ,aphrodite & ,a!na are decid$ by ,p>is 9 fav\r ( ,aphrodite1 :o z a rew>d assi/s him to ga9 possession ( ,hel5 7,hyg9us1 ,fab4 #ib2 ,lucian1 ,*>idemus1 #ag74 ,hesiod also m5tions 7,w4 & ,d4 #bd7 a b5efic5t ,eris1 ! p]sonification ( hon\rable rivalry4 ,9 ,virgil 7,a5eid1 viii4 #gjb7 & o!r ,roman poets ,eris is repres5t$ by ,discordia4 ,,eri?1 an urban di/rict 9 ! nor?-we/]n p>liam5t>y division ( ,k5t1 ,engl&1 #ad m4 ,e4 by ,s4 ( ,london1 on ! ,s\? ,ea/]n ,*a?am railway4 ,pop4 7#ahia7 #ac1dad2 7#aija7 #be1bif4 ,x lies on ! s\? bank ( ! ,?ames & ext5ds up ! hills above ! %ore1 _m villas hav+ be5 erect$ on ! high] gr\nd4 ,! p>k ( a =m] seat1 ,belv$]e1 0 ?us built ov] 7c4 #ahfj71 & ! mansion became a home = disabl$ seam54 ,! *ur* ( ,/ ,john ! ,bapti/1 ?\gh l>gely alt]$ by mod]n re/oration1 reta9s ,e>ly ,engli% to ,p]p5dicul> portions1 & "s e>ly monum5ts & brasses4 ,eri? has l>ge eng9e]+ & gun factories1 & 9 ! neighb\rhood are gunp[d]1 oil1 glue & manure works4 ,! s\!rn outfall works ( ! ,london ma9 dra9age sy/em are at ,crossness 9 ! neighb\r+ l[l& call$ ,plum/ead ,m>%es4 ,eri? is ! headqu>t]s ( sev]al ya*t clubs4 ,eri?1 ! "n ( :i* is commonly d]iv$ f ,a4,s4 ,a]ra-hy! 7old hav571 0 anci5tly a bor\gh1 & 0 grant$ a m>ket & fairs 9 #acac4 ,d[n to ! close ( ! #ag? c5tury x 0 ( "s importance z a naval /ation4 ,,eritrea1 an ,italian colony on ! ,african coa/ ( ! ,r$ ,sea4 ,x ext5ds f ,ras ,kas>1 a cape #aaj m4 ,s4 ( ,suak91 9 #ah deg4 #b' ,n41 z f> z ,ras ,dumeira 7#ab deg4 #db' ,n471 9 ! ,/rait ( ,bab-el-,m&eb1 a coa/-l9e ( ab\t #fej m4 ,! colony is b\nd$ inl& by ! ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan1 ,abyss9ia & ,fr5* ,somalil&4 ,x consi/s ( ! coa/ l&s ly+ betwe5 ! capes nam$ & ( "p ( ! nor!rn portion ( ! ,abyss9ian plateau4 ,! total area is ab\t #fj1jjj sq4 m4 ,! population is approximately #dej1jjj1 ( :i*1 exclusive ( soldi]s1 n m ?an #cjjj are :ites4 ,! l& fronti] />t+ f ,ras ,kas> runs 9 a s\?-we/]ly direction until 9 ab\t #ad deg4 #ae' ,n41 #cf deg4 #ce' ,e4 x rea*es ! riv] ,setit1 "s di/ance above ! junction ( t /ream ) ! ,atb>a4 ,?is1 ! f>!/ po9t inl&1 is #aih m4 ,s4,w4 ( ,massawa4 ,! fronti] n[ turns ea/1 foll[+ = a %ort di/ance ! c\rse ( ! riv] ,setit2 !nce x /rikes nor?-ea/]ly to ! ,m>eb1 & f #ch deg4 ,e4 foll[s t riv] & its tribut>ies ! ,belesa & ,muna1 until )9 #db m4 ( ! sea directly s\? ( ,annesley ,bay4 ,at ?is po9t ! fronti] turns s\? & ea/1 cross+ ! ,af> or ,danakil c\ntry at a di/ance ( #fj kilometres 7#cg4bh m47 f ! coa/-l9e4 ,ab\t #ab deg4 #bj' ,n4 ! ,fr5* possessions 9 ,somalil& are rea*$4 ,"h ! fronti] turns ,n4,e4 & s cont9ues until ! coa/ ( ! ,r$ ,sea is aga9 rea*$ at a po9t s\? ( ! t[n ( ,raheita4 ,9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! colony are small sultanates1 su* z ^? ( ,aussa & ,raheita1 :i* are "u ,italian protection4 ,! ,dahlak ar*ipelago & o!r gr\ps ( isl&s along ! coa/ belong to ,eritrea4 ,physical ,features4--,! coa/-l9e is ( coral =mation & is1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,massawa1 ?ickly /udd$ ) small isl&s4 ,! *ief ind5tations are ,annesley ,bay1 imm$iately s\? ( ,massawa1 & ,assab ,bay 9 ! s\?4 ,! colony consi/s ( two widely diff]+ regions4 ,! nor!rn division is "p ( ! ,abyss9ian highl&s4 ,! s\!rn division1 "p ( ! ,af> or ,danakil c\ntry1 includes all ! t]ritory ( ! colony s\? ( ,annesley ,bay4 ,^! two regions are connect$ by a n>r[ /rip ( l& beh9d ,annesley ,bay1 :]e ! ,abyss9ian hills approa* close to ! sea4 ,f ?is bay ! coa/-l9e tr5ds ,s4,e4 s t at ,tajura ,bay ! di/ance betwe5 ! ,abyss9ian hills & ! sea is ov] #bjj m4 ,! ,af> c\ntry is "p ( ! ,ea/ ,african rift-valley1 & 9 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ! valley its surface is div]sifi$ by ranges ( hills1 frequ5tly volcanic1 & by lakes4 ,! pla9s1 h[ev]1 ext5d ov] l>ge areas1 !y are g5]ally arid & are (t5 cov]$ ) mimosa trees :i* =m a k9d ( jungle call$ by ! natives khala4 ,! torr5ts :i* desc5d f ! ,abyss9ian plateau usually fail to rea* ! sea4 ,!y are mo/ly bord]$ by d5se vegetation2 9 ! dry season wat] is f\nd 9 pools 9 ! riv] b$s or c be obta9$ by digg+4 ,! pr9cipal riv]s ent] & are lo/ 9 "o or o!r ( two salt pla9s or bas9s1 t ( ,asali 9 ! nor? & t ( ,aussa 9 ! s\?4 ,! ,hawa% fl[s ?r\gh ! ,aussa c\ntry 9 a ,n4,e4 direction1 b is lo/ 9 lakes ,abbebad & ,aussa 7see ,,abyss9ia74 ,! ,raguali & o!r riv]s dra9 into ! ,asali bas94 ,?is bas91 l t ( ,aussa1 is 9 places #bjj ft4 bel[ sea-level4 ,on ! we/ ! ,asali bas9 rea*es to ! ,abyss9ian foot-hills2 9 its s\!rn "p is ! small lake ,alelbad4 ,! ea/]n edge ( ! bas9 is =m$ by a ridge ( gypsum & on its m>g9 gr[ palms4 ,9 p>ts ! salt lies ?ick on ! pla91 :i* !n has ! appe>ance ( a lake froz5 ov]4 ,s\? ( ,lake ,alelbad is a volcano call$ ,artali or ,erta-ale 7! smoky71 & f>!r to ! ,s4,e41 9 ab\t #ac deg4 #ae' ,n41 is ! peak ( ,afd]a1 :i* 0 9 eruption 9 ,june #aijg4 ,! hills1 #ajjj to #djjj ft4 9 height1 :i* run m or less p>allel to & a few miles f ! coa/1 include ! volcano ( ,dubbi 7report$ active 9 #ahfa71 "s #cj m4 ,s4 ( ! port ( ,edd 7,eddi74 ,9 #ad deg4 #eb' ,n41 #ci deg4 #ec' ,e4 & ne> ! nor!rn end ( ! zone ( depression ! volcano ( ,alid 7#bihe ft47 rises f ! tr\gh4 ,its *ief cre/ =ms an elongat$ r+ & encloses a crat] ov] half a mile 9 diamet] & ) walls #cej ft4 high4 ,nor? & s\? ( ,alid ext5ds a va/ lava field4 ,dubbi & ,alid are 9 ,italian t]ritory2 ! great] "p ( ,af> belongs to ,abyss9ia4 ,at ,annesley ,bay ! n>r[ coa/ pla9 is succe$$ by foo?ills sep>at$ by small valleys ?r\gh :i* fl[ innum]able /reams4 ,f ^! hills ! asc5t to ! plateau :i* con/itutes nor!rn ,eritrea is v /eep4 ,?is tablel&1 :i* has a g5]al elevation ( ab\t #fejj ft41 is fairly f]tile despite a des]t region--,%eb--to ! ,s4,e4 ( ,k]54 ,x is *>act]iz$ by ri*1 well-wat]$ valleys1 v]dant pla9s & flat-topp$ hills ) /eep sides1 runn+ 9 ranges or isolat$4 ,! highe/ hills 9 ,eritrean t]ritory rise to ab\t #aj1jjj ft4 ,! plateau is kn[n by v>i\s names1 ! region directly we/ ( ,massawa be+ call$ ,hamas54 ,to ! we/ & nor? ! plateau s9ks 9 t]races to ! pla9s ( ! ,sudan1 & ea/w>d falls m abruptly to ! ,r$ ,sea1 ! coa/ pla91 kn[n z ! ,samh>1 consi/+ ( s&y c\ntry cov]$ ) mimosa &1 along ! khors1 ) a some:at ri*] vegetation4 ,! colony conta9s no navigable /reams4 ,= a %ort di/ance ! ,setit 7kn[n 9 its upp] c\rse z ! ,takazze71 a tribut>y ( ! ,atb>a1 =ms ! fronti]1 z does also 9 its upp] c\rse ! ,ga% or ,m>eb 7see ,,abyss9ia74 ,! ,m>eb1 (t5 dry 9 summ]1 9 ! floods is a l>ge & impassable riv]4 ,bo? ! ,setit & ,m>eb h a g5]al we/]ly c\rse across ! ,abyss9ian plateau4 ,! ,b>aka 7o!rwise ,b>ka7 & ,anseba rise 9 ! ,hamas5 plateau ne> ,asm>a )9 a %ort di/ance ( ea* o!r4 ,! ,b>aka fl[s we/ & !n nor?2 ! ,anseba1 :i* has a m ea/]ly c\rse1 also fl[s nor?w>d & jo9s ! ,b>aka a little ,n4 ( #ag deg4 ,n4 ,a few miles bel[ ! conflu5ce ! ,b>aka leaves ,italian t]ritory4 ,x is 7z is ! ,anseba7 an int]mitt5t /ream4 ,aft] heavy ra9 x dis*>ges "s ( its wat] into ! ,r$ ,sea nor? ( ,tok>4 ,! :ole ( ! hill c\ntry nor? ( ,asm>a belongs to ! dra9age area ( ! ,b>aka or ,anseba4 ,( ! num]\s /reams :i*1 nor? ( ! ,danakil c\ntry1 run direct f ! hills to ! ,r$ ,sea1 ! ,hadas may be m5tion$1 z along ! valley ( t /ream is "o ( ! mo/ frequ5t$ r\tes to ! tablel&4 ,! ,hadas1 9 "t ( flood1 rea*es ! ocean ne> ,adulis 9 ,annesley ,bay4 ,climate4--,! climate 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! colony v>ies greatly4 ,?ree di/9ct climatic zones are f\nd3--7#a7 t ( ! coa/l&s1 includ+ altitudes up to #afej ft41 7#b7 t ( ! esc>pm5ts & valleys1 & 7#c7 t ( ! high plateau & alp9e summits4 ,9 ! coa/ zone ! heat & humidity are excessive dur+ mo/ ( ! ye>1 ,june1 ,septemb] & ,octob] be+ ! hotte/ mon?s4 ,ra9s occur betwe5 ,novemb] & ,april1 dur+ :i* "t ! temp]ature is l[]4 ,9 ?is zone mal>ial fev]s prevail 9 w9t]4 ,! heat is greate/ at ,massawa1 :]e ! mean temp]ature av]ages #hh deg4 ,f41 b :]e1 9 summ]1 ! !rmomet] (t5 rises to #abj deg4 ,f4 9 ! %ade4 ,9 ! second zone ! climate is m temp]ate & !re is consid]able v>iation 9 temp]ature ow+ to nocturnal radiation4 ,?is zone falls )9 ! regime ( ! summ] monsoon ra9s1 :ile ^? di/ricts adjo9+ ! coa/ zone enjoy also w9t] ra9s4 ,augu/ is ! mo/ ra9y & ,may ! hotte/ mon?4 ,on ! high plateau1 i4e4 ! ?ird zone1 ! climate is g5]ally mod]ately cool4 ,slight ra9 falls 9 ! spr+ & abundant monsoon ra9s f ,june to ,septemb]4 ,! heat is greate/ 9 ! dry season1 ,novemb] to ,april4 ,above #hejj ft4 ! climate becomes sub-alp9e 9 "*4 ,flora & ,fauna4--,9 ! l[ c\ntry ! flora diff]s little f t ( tropical ,africa g5]ally1 :il/ on ! plateau ! vegetation is *>act]i/ic ( ! temp]ate zone4 ,! olive tree gr[s on ! high plateau & cov]s ! flanks ( ! hills to )9 #cjjj ft4 ( sea-level4 ,! sycamore-fig tree gr[s to enorm\s proportions 9 p>ts ( ! plateau4 ,l[] d[n durra1 maize & bultuc gr[ 9 pr(usion4 ,9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! colony1 especially along ! ,khor ,b>aka1 ! dom palm fl\ri%es4 ,! fauna includes1 9 ! l[ c\ntry1 ! lion1 pan!r1 elephant1 camel1 & antelope ( num]\s species4 ,on ! plateau ! fauna is t ( ,abyss9ia 7q4v474 ,inhabitants4--,! inhabitants ( ! pla9s & foo?ills are = ! mo/ "p semi-nomad %eph]ds1 liv+ on durra & milk4 ,9 ! nor? ^! p are l>gely ( ,arab or ,hamitic /ock1 su* z ! ,b5i-,am]1 b include v>i\s negro tribes4 ,af> & ,somali =m ! population ( ! s\!rn regions4 ,! inhabitants ( ! plateau are ,abyss9ians4 ,! nomads are ,mussulmans & are1 z a rule1 docile & pacific1 ?\gh ! ,danakils are giv5 to occasional raid+4 ,! ,abyss9ians are m w>like1 b !y h settl$ d[n "u ,italian rule4 ,among ! native indu/ries are mat-weav+1 cotton-weav+1 silv]-work+ & rudim5t>y iron & lea!r work+4 7,see ,,af>s2 ,,somalil& & ,,abyss9ia47 ,t[ns4--,! pr9cipal places on ! coa/ are ,massawa 7q4v471 pop4 ab\t #aj1jjj1 ! *ief seaport ( ! colony1 ,assab1 *ief t[n ( ! ,danakil region1 to :i* conv]ges ! trade f ,abyss9ia across ! ,aussa c\ntry1 & ,zula 7q4v471 id5tifi$ ) ! anci5t ,adulis4 ,! *ief t[n 9 ! int]ior is ,asm>a 7q4v471 ! capital ( ! colony & "u ! ,abyss9ians capital ( ! prov9ce ( ,hamas51 & fav\rite headqu>t]s ( ,ras ,alula 7see bel[ & also ,,abyss9ia74 ,x is situat$ #ghjj ft4 above ! sea1 & has some?+ ( ! aspect ( a ,european t[n4 ,k]51 #ej m4 ,n4,w4 ( ,asm>a1 is ! c5tre = a di/rict 7,bogos7 f]tiliz$ by ! upp] c\rse ( ! ,anseba2 ,agordat1 on ! riv] ,b>aka1 on ! road f ,k]5 to ,kassala1 is ! c5tre ( ! ,b5i-,am]1 ,algh$5 & ,sabd]at tribes2 ,mogolo1 on ! l[] ,m>eb1 is ! r5dezv\s ( ! ,b>ia & ,baza tribes4 ,t[>ds ,abyss9ia ! *ief t[ns are ,saganeiti 7capital ( ! ,okule-,kusai prov9ce71 ,god(elassi & ,adi-,ugri1 ! two latt] situat$ 9 ! f]tile pla9 ( ! ,s]ae2 ,adiquala1 on ! edge ( ! ,m>eb gorge2 & ,arrasa1 ! c5tre ( ! di/ricts con/itut+ ! prov9ce ( ,deki-,tesfa4 ,agriculture & ,trade4--,! nomads ( ! pla9s possess l>ge h]ds ( cattle & camels4 ,! l[ c\ntry is almo/ entirely pa/oral & unsuit$ = ! cultivation ( crops4 ,on ! o!r h& almo/ all ,european c]eals fl\ri% 9 ! int]m$iate zone & on ! high plateau1 & ! ,abyss9ian is a good agriculturi/ & und]/&s irrigation4 ,numb]s ( emigrants f ,italy possess f>ms on ! plateau4 ,exp]im5ts 9 ! cultivation ( c(fee1 tobacco & cotton h giv5 good results 9 ! int]m$iate zone4 ,besides camels & ox51 %eep & goats are num]\s1 & meat1 hides & butt] are articles ( local trade4 ,hides are ! pr9cipal export 7ab\t ,l#ej1jjj a ye>74 ,wax1 gum1 c(fee & ivory are also export$4 ,pe>l fi%+ is c>ri$ on at ,massawa & ! ,dahlak isl&s4 ,! annual value ( ! fi%]ies is ab\t ,l#dj1jjj 7pe>ls ,l#aj1jjj1 "m ( pe>l ,l#cj1jjj74 ,gold m9es are work$ ne> ,asm>a4 ,salt1 obta9$ f ! salt lakes 9 ! ,aussa & ,danakil c\ntries1 is a valuable article ( comm]ce4 ,cotton goods are ! *ief imports4 ,!re is a little trade ) nor!rn ,abyss9ia1 b x is undevelop$4 ,= ! five ye>s #aija-aije ! av]age value ( ! ext]nal trade 0 ,l#def1jjj p] annum4 ,! imports m ?an d\bl$ ! exports4 ,communications4--,a railway1 #fe m4 long1 connects ,massawa ) ,asm>a4 ,an ext5sion ( ! l9e is plann$ f ,asm>a to ,sabd]at & ,kassala4 ,! :ole t]ritory is cross$ by camel & mule pa?s betwe5 ! sea & ! high plateau1 & betwe5 ! v>i\s c5tres ( population4 ,e valley t br+s wat] to ! ,r$ ,sea has a r\te lead+ to ! high plateau4 ,! great art]ies1 h[ev]1 numb] ?ree1 :i*1 />t+ f ,massawa by way ( ,asm>a1 run1 two to ,abyss9ia1 & "o to ,kassala & ,kh>tum4 ,!y are all m or less practicable = c>ts1 & are flank$ by a good telegraph l9e z long z !y lie 9 ,italian t]ritory4 ,!re are also two c>avan r\tes f ,assab ,bay1 across ! ,danakil c\ntry to s\!rn ,abyss9ia4 ,! nor!rn leads by a comp>atively easy asc5t to ,yejju1 ! m s\!rn foll[s ! valley ( ! ,hawa%4 ,a telegraph l9e #ejj m4 long connects ,massawa ) ,adis ,ababa via ,asm>a4 ,massawa is also telegraphically connect$ ) ! outside _w by a cable to ,p]im via ,assab4 ,!re is regul> /eam%ip communication ) ,italy4 ,adm9i/ration4--,eritrea is adm9i/]$ by a civil gov]nor responsible to ! m9i/ry ( =eign affairs at ,rome4 ,x is divid$ into six prov9ces1 ea* gov]n$ by a regional commission]4 ,"s tracts ( fronti] t]ritory are deta*$ f ! v>i\s regions & entru/$ to political resid5ts1 z1 = in/ance1 on ! ,sudan fronti] & also on ! ,abyss9ian b\nd>y1 :]e /rict surveillance is necess>y to repress raid+ incursions f ,tigre1 & :]e ! *ief intellig5ce dep>tm5t is e/abli%$4 ,! six regions or pr9cipal prov9ces are3--,asm>a1 :i* includes ,hamas5 & o!r small di/ricts2 ,k]51 :i* comprises ! high t]ritories to ! nor? ( ,asm>a1 i4e4 ! ,bogos c\ntry2 ,massawa1 ext5d+ ov] all ! tribes betwe5 ! high plateau & ! sea f ! ,hababs to ! ,danakil2 ,assab1 :i* ext5ds f ,edd to ,raheita2 ,okule-,kusai1 ! plateau c\ntry ,s4,e4 ( ,asm>a2 ,s]ae1 includ+ ,deki-,tesfa1 ! c\ntry ,s4,w4 ( ,asm>a4 ,! regional commission]s & ! political resid5ts act ei!r by means ( ! village headm5 7,%um or ,*icca71 by ! *iefs ( di/ricts 9 ! few localities :]e villages are /ill organiz$ 9 di/ricts1 or by ! headm5 ( tribes1 & by ! c\ncils ( ! eld]s :]ev] ^! rema94 ,rev5ue is d]iv$ f cu/oms duties1 direct taxation & tribute paid by ! nomad tribes4 ,! local rev5ue1 :i* = ! p]iod #ahig-aijg 0 ab\t ,l#ajj1jjj a ye>1 is supplem5t$ by grants f ,italy1 ! total co/ ( ! adm9i/ration be+ ab\t ,l#djj1jjj ye>ly4 ,ne>ly half ! exp5diture is on ! milit>y =ce ma9ta9$4 ,ju/ice4--,civil ju/ice = natives is adm9i/]$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 by ! headm5 ( villages1 prov9ces1 tribes1 or by c\ncils ( notables 7,%umagalle72 9 appeal1 by ! resid5ts & regional tribunals1 &1 9 ! la/ in/ance1 by ! colonial c\rt ( appeal4 ,europeans are entirely "u ,italian jurisdiction4 ,p5al ju/ice is adm9i/]$ by ,italian judges only4 ,an adm9i/rative tribunal settles1 )\t appeal1 que/ions ( tribute1 disputes conc]n+ family1 village or tribal l&m>ks1 z well z suits involv+ ! colonial gov]nm5t4 ,! civil laws = ! natives are ^? e/abli%$ by local usage4 ,europeans are answ]able to ! ,italian civil code4 ,p5al laws are ! same z 9 ,italy1 except :]e modifi$ by local usages4 ,appeal to ! ,rome c\rt ( cassation is admitt$ aga9/ all p5al & civil s5t5ces4 ,def5ce4--,def5ce is entru/$ to a corps ( colonial troops1 p>tly ,italian & p>tly native2 to a militia 7milizia mobile7 =m$ by natives :o h already s]v$ 9 ! colonial corps2 & to ! *itet or g5]al levy :i*1 9 "t ( w>1 places all male able-bodi$ inhabitants "u arms4 ,! regional commission]s & political resid5ts h at _! disposal "s hundr$s ( irregul> paid soldi]s "u native *iefs4 ,9 w> "t ^! irregul>s =m "p ( ! colonial corps1 b 9 "t ( peace s]ve z fronti] police4 ,! colonial corps1 ab\t #ejjj /rong1 g>risons ! *ief places ( /rategic importance1 su* z ,asm>a1 ,k]5 & ,saganeiti4 ,! irregul> troops1 on foot1 or m\nt$ on camels1 numb] ab\t #ajjj m54 ,! militia consi/s ( #cejj m5 ( all arms1 & is int5d$ 9 "t ( w> to re9=ce ! v>i\s divisions ( ! colonial corps4 ,! *itet yields betwe5 #cjjj & #djjj m51 to be employ$ on ! l9es ( communication or 9 c>avan s]vice4 ,all ^! troops are int5d$ to w>d (f a fir/ attack1 s z to all[ "t = ! arrival ( re9=cem5ts f ,italy4 ,! cu/oms & political surveillance along ! coa/ is entru/$1 afloat1 to ! ,massawa naval /ation1 &1 a%ore1 to a coa/gu>d company #djj /rong /ation$ at ,m$]1 ) deta*m5ts at ,assab1 ,massawa1 ,raheita1 ,edd & ,taclai4 ,hi/ory4--,traces ( ! anci5t ,eritrean civilization are sc>ce4 ,dur+ ! prosp]\s p]iods ( anci5t ,egypt1 ,egyptian squadrons ass]t$ _! rule ov] ! we/ ,r$ ,sea coa/1 & "u ! ,ptolemies ! port ( ,gold5 ,b]5ice 7,adulis87 0 an ,egyptian =tress1 aft]w>ds ab&on$4 ,dur+ ! e>ly ye>s ( ! ,roman empire1 ,eritrea =m$ "p ( an important indep5d5t /ate--t ( ! ,axumites 7,assamites74 ,at ! end ( ! reign ( ,n]o1 & p]haps ev5 e>li]1 ! k+ ( ! ,axumites rul$ ov] ! ,r$ ,sea coa/ f ,suak9 to ! /rait ( ,bab-el-,m&eb1 & trad$ con/antly ) ,egypt4 ,?is pot5tate call$ himself k+ ( k+s1 comm&$ an army & a fleet1 co9$ money1 adopt$ ,greek z ! (ficial language1 & liv$ on good t]ms ) ! ,roman empire4 ,! ,axumites belong$ orig9ally to ! ,hamitic race1 b ! immigration ( ! ,himy>itic tribes ( s\!rn ,arabia spe$ily impos$ a new language & civilization4 ,!re=e ! anci5t ,abyss9ian language1 ,geez1 & its liv+ dialects1 ,amh>ic & ,tigr9a1 are ,semitic1 al?\gh modifi$ by ! influ5ce ( ! old ,hamitic ,agau or ,agao4 ,adulis 7,adovlis71 slightly to ! nor? ( ,zula 7q4v471 0 ! *ief ,axumite port4 ,f ,adulis />t$ ! ma9 road1 :i* l$ across ! high plateau to ! capital ,axomis 7,axum74 ,along ! road are /ill to be se5 ve/iges ( cities & inscrib$ monum5ts1 su* z ! ,himy>itic inscriptions on ! high plateau ( ,kohait1 ! six obelisks ) a ,saban inscription at ,toconda1 & an obelisk ) an inscription at ,amba ,sait4 ,o!r monum5ts exi/ else:]e1 z well z co9s ( ! ,axumite p]iod ) ,greek & ,e?iopian inscriptions4 ,aft] ! rise ( ! ,e?iopian empire ! hi/ory ( ,eritrea is b\nd up ) t ( ,e?iopia1 b n s entirely z to be completely fus$4 ,! docum5ts ( ! ,portuguese exp$ition ( ! #af? c5tury & o!r ,e?iopian records %[ t all ! c\ntry nor? ( ! ,m>eb enjoy$ relative autonomy "u a vassal ( ! ,e?iopian emp]or4 ,mi*ael1 c\nsellor ( ,solomon1 :o 0 k+ ( ! c\ntry nor? ( ! ,m>eb1 usurp$ ! ?rone ( ,solomon dur+ ! reign ( ! ,emp]or ,atzie ,jasu ,,ii4 7#agbi-agec71 &1 aft] proclaim+ himself ras ( ,tigre & protector ( ! empire1 c$$ ! ,nor? ,m>eb c\ntry to an enemy ( ! rightful dyna/y4 ,h5ce a long /ruggle betwe5 ! dispossess$ family & ! occupants ( ! ,nor? ,m>eb ?rone4 ,! coa/ regions _h meantime pass$ f ! control ( ! ,abyss9ians4 ,9 ! #af? c5tury ! ,turks made !mselves ma/]s ( ,zula1 ,massawa1 c41 & ^! places 7 nev] recov]$ by ! ,abyss9ians4 ,9 #ahfe ,massawa & ! neighb\r+ coa/ 0 acquir$ by ,egypt1 ! kh$ive ,ismail ent]ta9+ projects = connect+ ! port by railway ) ! ,nile4 ,! ,egyptians took advantage ( civil w> 9 ,abyss9ia to seize ,k]5 & ! ,bogos c\ntry 9 #ahgba1 an action aga9/ :i* ! negus ,johannes 7,k+ ,john71 newly come to ! ?rone1 did n at ! "t prote/4 ,9 #ahge & #ahgf ! ,egyptians1 :o s\ght to increase _! conque/s1 7 defeat$ by ! ,abyss9ians at ,gundet & ,gura4 ,walad ,mi*ael1 ! h]$it>y rul] ( ,bogos1 f\ght z ally ( ,k+ ,john at ,gundet & ( ! ,egyptians at ,gura4 ,= two ye>s ,walad ,mi*ael cont9u$ to h>ass ! bord]1 b 9 ,decemb] #ahgh he submitt$ to ,k+ ,john1 by ^: ord]s he 0 7,sept4 #ahgi7 imprison$ ^u an amba1 or flat-topp$ m\nta91 :5ce he only succe$$ 9 escap+ 9 #ahij4 ,9 #ahgi 8 t]ritory 0 giv5 by ,k+ ,john to ,ras ,alula1 :o reta9$ x until1 9 ,augu/ #ahhi1 ! ,italians occupi$ ,asm>a 7see ,,abyss9ia3 ,hi/ory74 ,an ,egyptian g>rison rema9$ at ,k]5 9 ! ,bogos c\ntry until #ahhd1 :5 9 consequ5ce ( ! revolt ( ! ,mahdi x 0 )drawn1 ,bogos be+ occupi$ by ,abyss9ia on ! #ab? ( ,septemb] ( t ye>4 ,on ! #e? ( ,febru>y #ahhe an ,italian =ce1 ) ! approval ( ,great ,brita91 occupi$ ,massawa1 ! ,egyptian g>rison return+ to ,egypt4 ,?is occupation l$ to w>s ) ,abyss9ia & f9ally to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! colony 9 its pres5t limits4 ,! hi/ory ( ! ,italian-,abyss9ian relations is fully told 9 ! articles ,,italy & ,,abyss9ia 7hi/ory sections74 ,x 0 n1 h[ev]1 at ,massawa t ,italy fir/ obta9$ a foo?old 9 ea/]n ,africa4 ,! completion ( ! ,suez ,canal l$ ,italy z well z ,great ,brita9 & ,france to seek t]ritorial rights on ! ,r$ ,sea coa/s4 ,! pur*ase ( ,assab & ! neighb\r+ region = ,l#ahhj1 f ! sultan ,b]ehan ( ,raheita = use z a coal+ /ation by ! ,italian ,rubatt9o ,/eam%ip ,company1 9 ,m>* #ahgj1 =m$ ! nucleus ( ,italy's colonial possessions4 ,?is pur*ase 0 prote/$ aga9/ by ,egypt1 ,turkey & ,great ,brita92 ! la/ nam$ p[] be+ will+ to recognize an ,italian comm]cial settlem5t1 b no?+ m4 7,! ,indian gov]nm5t view$ ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,italians on ! new highway to ! ,ea/ ) a good deal ( ill-hum\r47 ,ev5tually1 ! ,briti% opposition be+ ov]come & t ( ,egypt & ,turkey disreg>d$1 ,assab1 by a decree ( ! #e? ( ,july #ahhb1 0 decl>$ an ,italian colony4 ,betwe5 #ahhc & #ahhh v>i\s treaties 7 conclud$ ) ! sultan ( ,aussa c$+ ! ,danakil coa/ to ,italy & recogniz+ an ,italian protectorate ov] ! :ole ( 8 c\ntry--?r\gh :i* passes ! trade r\te f ,assab ,bay to ,%oa4 ,on ! #a/ ( ,janu>y #ahij ! v>i\s ,italian possessions on ! coa/ ( ! ,r$ ,sea 7 unit$ by royal decree into "o prov9ce "u ! title ( ! ,colony ( ,eritrea--s nam$ aft] ! ,ery?raeum ,m>e ( ! ,romans4 ,at fir/ ! gov]nm5t ( ! colony 0 purely milit>y1 b aft] ! defeat ( ! ,italians by ! ,abyss9ians at ,ad[a1 ! adm9i/ration 0 plac$ ^u a civil basis 7#ahih-aijj74 ,! fronti]s 7 fur!r def9$ by a ,fr5*-,italian conv5tion 7#bd? ( ,janu>y #aijj7 fix+ ! fronti] betwe5 ,fr5* ,somalil& & ! ,italian possessions at ,raheita1 & also by v>i\s agreem5ts ) ,great ,brita9 & ,abyss9ia4 ,a trip>tite agreem5t betwe5 ,italy1 ,abyss9ia & ,great ,brita91 dat$ ! #ae? ( ,may #aijb1 plac$ ! t]ritory ( ! ,kanama tribe1 on ! nor? bank ( ! ,setit1 )9 ,eritrea4 ,a conv5tion ( ! #af? ( ,may #aijh settl$ ! ,abyss9ian-,eritrean fronti] 9 ! ,af> c\ntry1 ! b\nd>y be+ fix$ at #fj kilometres f ! coa/4 ,! task ( recon/ruct+ ! adm9i/ration on a civil basis & ( develop+ ! comm]ce ( ! colony 0 entru/$ to ,signor ,f4 ,m>t9i1 :o 0 gov]nor = n9e ye>s 7#ahih-aijf74 ,"u civil rule ! colony made /eady ?\gh some:at sl[ progress4 ,,au?orities4--,see ,b4 ,melli1 ,la ,colonia ,eritrea dalle sue orig9i al anno #aija 7,p>ma1 #aija72 ,g4,b4 ,p5ne1 ,p] l',italia ,africana4 ,/udio critico 7,rome1 #aijf72 ,r4 ,p]9i1 ,di qua dal ,m>eb 7,flor5ce1 #aije71 a monograph on ! ,asm>a zone2 ,f4 ,m>t9i1 ,nell' ,africa ,italiana 7#crd ed41 ,milan1 #ahia72 ,a4,b4 ,wylde1 ,mod]n ,abyss9ia1 *aps4 v4-ix4 7,london1 #aija72 ,e4,d4 ,s*o5feld1 ,ery?raa und d] agyptis*e ,sudan1 *aps4 i4-xii4 7,b]l91 #aijd72 ,luigi ,*iala1 ,la ,sp$izione di ,massana 7,tur91 #ahhh72 ,abyss9ian ,gre5 ,books publi%$ at int]vals 9 #ahie & #ahif1 cov]+ ! p]iod f #ahgj to ! end ( ! ,italo-,abyss9ian ,w>2 ,vico ,mantegazza1 ,la ,gu]ra 9 ,africa 7,flor5ce1 #ahif72 ,g5]al ,b>ati]i1 ,memorie d',africa 7,rome1 #ahih72 ,c4 de la ,jonqui]e1 ,les ,itali5s en ,ery?ree 7,p>is1 #ahig72 ,g4,f4,h4 ,b]keley1 ,! ,campaign ( ,ad[a 7,london1 #aijb74 ,= orography & geology see an article by ,p4 ,v]ri 9 ,boll4 ,soc4 geog4 italiana1 #aiji1 & = climate an article 9 ,rivi/a coloniale 7#aijf71 by ,a4 ,tancr$i4 ,a4 ,allori compil$ a ,piccolo ,dizion>io eritreo1 italiano-arabo-am>ico 7,milan1 #ahie74 ,= ,af> consult ,w4 ,munz+]1 ,a ,j\rney ?r\gh ! ,af> ,c\ntry 9 ,j\rn4 ,royal ,geog4 ,soc4 = #ahfi2 ,v4 ,bottego1 ,nella ,t]ra dei ,danakil1 9 ,boll4 ,soc4 ,geog4 ,italiana1 #ahib2 ,c\nt ,c4 ,ross9i1 ,al ,ragali 9 ,l',espl4 ,comm4 ( ,milan1 #aijc-aijd2 & articles by ,g4 ,da9elli & ,o4 ,m>9elli 9 ! ,riv4 ,geog4 ,italiana ( ,flor5ce = #aijf-aijh1 deal+ ) ! volcanic regions4 ,bibliographies w be f\nd 9 ,g4 ,fumagalli's ,bibliografia ,etiopica 7,milan1 #ahic7 & 9 ! ,riv4 ,geog4 ,italiana = #aijg4 ,,footnote3 #a ,dur+ ! ,second ,empire unsuccessful ef=ts 7 made by ,france to obta9 a ,r$ ,sea port & a foo?old 9 nor!rn ,abyss9ia4 7,see ,,somalil&3 ,fr5*47 ,,erivan1 a gov]nm5t ( ,russia1 ,transcaucasia1 hav+ ! prov9ce ( ,k>s on ! ,w41 ! gov]nm5t ( ,tiflis on ! ,n41 t ( ,elisavetpol on ! ,n4 & ,e41 & ,p]sia & ,turki% ,arm5ia on ! ,s4 ,x occupies ! top ( an imm5se plateau 7#fjjj-hjjj ft474 ,cont9u\s *a9s ( m\nta9s are met ) only on its bord]s1 & 9 ! ,e41 b ! :ole surface is ?ickly set ) %ort ridges & isolat$ m\nta9s ( volcanic orig91 ( :i* ,alagoz 7#ad1ddj ft47 & ,ar>at 7#af1ibe ft47 are ! mo/ conspicu\s & ! mo/ important4 ,bo? mu/ h be5 active 9 ,t]ti>y times4 ,lake ,gok-*a 7#edj sq4 m47 is encircl$ by su* volcanoes1 & ! neighb\rhood ( ,alex&ropol is a volcanic amphi!atre1 be+ entirely buri$ "u volcanic deposits4 ,! same is true ( ! slopes lead+ d[n to ! riv] ,aras2 & ! valley ( ! upp] ,aras is a /ony des]t1 wat]$ only by irrigation1 :i* is c>ri$ on ) great difficulty ow+ to ! "* ( ! soil4 ,! gov]nm5t is dra9$ by ! ,aras1 :i* =ms ! b\nd>y ) ,p]sia & fl[s ) great velocity d[n its /ony b$1 ! fall be+ #ag-bb ft4 p] mile 9 its upp] c\rse1 & #i ft4 at ,ordubad1 :]e x quits ! gov]nm5t1 :ile l[] d[n x aga9 increases to #bc ft4 ,_m ( ! small lakes1 fill+ volcanic crat]s1 are ( great dep?4 ,timb] is v sc>ce4 ,a v>iety ( useful m9]als exi/s1 b only rock-salt is obta9$1 at ,nakhi*evan & ,kulp4 ,! climate is extremely v>i$1 ! foll[+ be+ ! av]age temp]atures & mean annual ra9fall at ,alex&ropol 7alt4 #ejgh ft47 & ,aralykh 7#bgee ft47 respectively3 ye> #db deg41 ,janu>y #ab deg41 ,july #fe deg41 mean ra9fall #af4b 942 & ye> #ec deg41 ,janu>y #bj4e deg41 ,july #gi deg41 ra9fall #f4c 94 ,! population numb]$ #hbi1egh 9 #ahig 7only #cge1jhf wom571 ( :om #hb1bgh liv$ 9 ! t[ns4 ,an e/imate 9 #aijf gave a total ( #iji1ajj4 ,!y consi/ *iefly ( ,arm5ians 7#dda1jjj71 ,tat>s 7#dj71 ,kurds 7#di1chi71 ) ,russians1 ,greeks & ,tates4 ,mo/ ( ! ,arm5ians belong to ! ,gregorian 7,*ri/ian7 ,*ur*1 & only #djbj to ! ,arm5ian ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,! ,tat>s are mo/ly ,%iite ,mussulmans1 only #bg1eif be+ ,sunnites2 #gggb belong to ! peculi> fai? ( ! ,yezids4 ,:ile b>ley only c be gr[n on ! high p>ts ( ! plateau1 cotton1 mulb]ry1 v9es & all sorts ( fruit are cultivat$ 9 ! valley ( ! ,aras4 ,cattle-bre$+ is ext5sively c>ri$ on2 camels also are br$1 & lee*es are collect$ out ( ! swamps & export$ to ,p]sia4 ,indu/ry is 9 its infancy1 b cottons1 c>pets1 & felt goods are made 9 ! villages4 ,a consid]able trade is c>ri$ on ) ,p]sia1 b trade ) ,asia ,m9or is decl9+4 ,! gov]nm5t is divid$ into sev5 di/ricts--,erivan1 ,alex&ropol1 ,e*miadz9 7*ief t[n1 ,vag>%apat71 ,nakhi*evan1 ,novobayazet1 ,surmali 7*ief t[n1 ,igdyr71 & ,%>ur-d>alagoz 7*ief t[n1 ,nora%574 ,! pr9cipal t[ns are ,erivan 7see bel[71 ,alex&ropol 7#cb1jah inhabitants 9 #ahig71 ,novobayazet 7#hejg71 ,nakhi*evan 7#hhde71 & ,vag>%apat 7#cdjj74 ,,erivan1 or ,,irwan1 9 ,p]sian1 ,rewan1 a t[n ( ,russia1 capital ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! same "n1 situat$ 9 #dj deg4 #ad' ,n41 #dd deg4 #ch' ,e41 #bcd m4 by rail ,s4,s4,w4 ( ,tiflis1 on ! ,zanga riv]1 f :i* a great numb] ( irrigation canals are drawn4 ,altitude1 #cagj ft4 ,pop4 7#ahgc7 #aa1ich2 7#ahig7 #bi1jcc4 ,! old ,p]sian portion ( ! t[n consi/s ma9ly ( n>r[ crook$ lanes enclos$ by mud walls1 :i* effectually conceal ! h\ses1 & ! mod]n ,russian portion is laid out 9 long ill-pav$ /reets4 ,on a /eep rock1 ris+ ab\t #fjj ft4 above ! riv]1 /& ! ru9s ( ! #af?-c5tury ,turki% =tress1 conta9+ "p ( ! palace ( ! =m] ,p]sian gov]nors1 a h&some b greatly dilapidat$ mosque1 a mod]n ,greek *ur* & a cannon f\ndry4 ,"o *amb]1 call$ ! ,hall ( ! ,s>d>1 be>s witness to =m] spl5d\r 9 its decorations4 ,! f9e/ build+ 9 ! city is ! mosque ( ,husse9 ,ali ,khan1 famili>ly kn[n z ! ,blue ,mosque f ! col\r ( ! enamell$ tiles ) :i* x is ri*ly encas$4 ,at ! mosque ( ,zal ,khan a passion play is p]=m$ ye>ly illu/rative ( ! assass9ation ( ,husse91 ! son ( ,ali4 ,erivan is an ,arm5ian episcopal see1 & has a !ological sem9>y4 ,! only manufactures are a little cotton clo?1 lea!r1 e>!nw>e & blacksmi?s' "w4 ,! fruits ( ! di/rict are not$ = _! excell5ce--especially ! grapes1 apples1 apricots & melons4 ,arm5ians1 ,p]sians & ,tat>s are ! pr9cipal elem5ts 9 ! population1 besides "s ,russians & ,greeks4 ,! t[n fell into ! p[] ( ! ,turks 9 #aehb1 0 tak5 by ! ,p]sians "u ,%ah ,abbas 9 #afjd1 besieg$ by ! ,turks = f\r mon?s 9 #afae1 & reconqu]$ by ! ,p]sians "u ,nadir ,%ah 9 ! #ah? c5tury4 ,9 #aghj x 0 successfully def5d$ aga9/ ,h]aclius1 pr9ce ( ,georgia2 & 9 #ahjd x resi/$ ! ,russians4 ,at l5g? 9 #ahbg ,paskevi* took ! =tress by /orm1 & 9 ! foll[+ ye> ! t[n & gov]nm5t 7 c$$ to ,russia by ! peace ( ,turkman-*ai4 ,a ,tat> poem 9 celebration ( ! ev5t has be5 pres]v$ by ! ,au/rian poet1 ,bod5/$t1 9 8 ,taus5d und e9 ,tage im ,ori5t 7#ahej74 ,,erlang51 a t[n ( ,g]many1 9 ! k+dom ( ,bav>ia1 on a f]tile pla91 at ! conflu5ce ( ! ,s*waba* & ! ,regnitz1 #aa m4 ,n4,w4 ( ,nuremb]g1 on ! railway f ,muni* to ,bamb]g4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #bc1gbj4 ,x is divid$ into an old & a new t[n1 ! latt] consi/+ ( wide1 /raight & well-built /reets4 ,! m>ket place is a f9e squ>e4 ,^u x /& ! t[n-hall & ! =m] palace ( ! m>graves ( ,bayreu?1 n[ ! ma9 build+ ( ! univ]sity4 ,! latt] 0 f\nd$ by ! m>grave ,fr$]ick 7d4 #agfc71 :o1 9 #agdb1 e/abli%$ a univ]sity at ,bayreu?1 b 9 #agdc remov$ x to ,erlang54 ,a /atue ( ! f\nd]1 erect$ 9 #ahdc by ,k+ ,l\is ,i4 ( ,bav>ia1 /&s 9 ! c5tre ( ! squ>e & faces ! univ]sity build+s4 ,! univ]sity has faculties ( philosophy1 law1 m$ic9e & ,prote/ant !ology4 ,connect$ ) x are a libr>y ( ov] #bjj1jjj volumes1 geological1 anatomical & m9]alogical in/itutions1 a hospital1 sev]al cl9ical e/abli%m5ts1 laboratories & a botanical g>d54 ,among ! *ur*es ( ! t[n 7six ,prote/ant & "o ,roman ,ca?olic71 only ! new t[n *ur*1 ) a spire #bbj ft4 high1 is rem>kable4 ,! *ief indu/ries ( ,erlang5 are sp9n+ & weav+1 & ! manufacture ( glass1 pap]1 bru%es & gloves4 ,! brew+ indu/ry is also important1 ! be] ( ,erlang5 be+ fam\s ?r\gh\t ,g]many & l>ge quantities be+ export$4 ,erlang5 owes ! f\ndation ( its prosp]ity *iefly to ! ,fr5* ,prote/ant refugees :o settl$ "h on ! revocation ( ! edict ( ,nantes & introduc$ v>i\s manufactures4 ,9 #ajag ! place 0 transf]r$ f ! bi%opric ( ,wurzburg to t ( ,bamb]g2 9 #acfa x 0 sold to ! k+ ( ,bohemia4 ,x became a t[n 9 #acih & pass$ into ! h&s ( ! ,hoh5zoll]ns1 burgraves ( ,nuremb]g1 9 #adaf4 ,!re = ne>ly ?ree c5turies x 0 ! prop]ty ( ! m>graves ( ,bayreu?1 be+ c$$ ) ! re/ ( ,bayreu? to ,prussia 9 #agia4 ,9 #ahaj x came into ! possession ( ,bav>ia4 ,erlang5 0 = _m ye>s ! resid5ce ( ! poet ,fri$ri* ,ruck]t1 & ( ! philosoph]s ,johann ,gottlieb ,fi*te & ,fri$ri* ,wilhelm von ,s*nell+4 ,see ,/e9 & ,mull]1 ,die ,ges*i*te von ,erlang5 7#ahih74 ,,erle1 ,,sir ,,william 7#agic-ahhj71 ,engli% lawy] & judge1 0 born at ,fifehead-,magdal51 ,dorset1 on ! #a/ ( ,octob] #agic1 & 0 educat$ at ,w9*e/] & at ,new ,college1 ,ox=d4 ,hav+ be5 call$ to ! b> at ! ,middle ,temple 9 #ahai he w5t ! we/]n circuit1 became c\nsel to ! ,bank ( ,engl&1 sat 9 p>liam5t f #ahcg to #ahda = ! city ( ,ox=d1 &1 al?\gh ( opposite politics to ,"l ,lyndhur/1 0 made by him a judge ( ! common pleas 9 #ahde4 ,he 0 transf]r$ to ! que5's b5* 9 ! foll[+ ye>1 & 9 #ahei came back to ! common pleas z *ief ju/ice ^u ! promotion ( ,sir ,alex&] ,cockburn4 ,he retir$ 9 #ahff1 receiv+ ! highe/ eulogiums = ! ability & imp>tiality ) :i* he _h dis*>g$ ! judicial (fice4 ,he di$ at 8 e/ate at ,bram%ott1 ,hamp%ire1 on ! #bh? ( ,janu>y #ahhj1 & a monum5t )\t 8 "n b 9 8 memory 7sometimes errone\sly suppos$ to m>k ! place :]e an old gibbet 07 /&s on ! top ( ,h9dhead4 ,see ,e4 ,manson1 ,build]s ( our ,law 7#aijd74 ,,erlkonig1 or ,,erl-,,k+1 a my?ical "* 9 mod]n ,g]man lit]ature1 repres5t$ z a gigantic be>d$ man ) a gold5 cr[n & trail+ g>m5ts1 :o c>ries *ildr5 away to t undiscov]$ c\ntry :]e he himself abides4 ,!re is no su* p]sonage 9 anci5t ,g]man my?ology1 & ! "n is l+ui/ically no?+ m ?an ! p]petuation ( a blund]4 ,x fir/ appe>$ 9 ,h]d]'s ,/imm5 d] ,volk] 7#aggh71 :]e x is us$ 9 ! translation ( ! ,dani% song ( ! ,elf-,k+'s ,daught] z equival5t to ! ,dani% ell]konge1 or ellekonge1 t is1 elv]konge1 ! k+ ( ! elves2 & ! true ,g]man ^w w\ld h be5 ,elbkonig or ,elb5konig1 aft]w>ds us$ "u ! modifi$ =m ( ,elf5konig by ,wiel& 9 8 ,ob]on 7#aghj74 ,h]d] 0 probably misl$ by ! fact t ! ,dani% ^w elle signifies n only elf1 b also ald] tree 7,g]4 ,erle74 ,8 mi/ake at any rate has be5 p]petuat$ by bo? ,engli% & ,fr5* translators1 :o speak ( a k+ ( ! ald]s1 un roi des aunes1 & f9d an explanation ( ! my? 9 ! tree-wor%ip ( e>ly times1 or 9 ! vap\ry emanations t hang l weird phantoms r\nd ! ald] trees at night4 ,! leg5d 0 adopt$ by ,goe! z ! subject ( "o ( 8 f9e/ ballads1 r5d]$ famili> to ,engli% read]s by ! translations ( ,lewis & ,sir ,walt] ,scott2 & s9ce !n x has be5 treat$ z a musical !me by ,rei*>dt & ,s*ub]t4 ,,erman1 ,,paul 7#agfd-ahea71 ,g]man physici/1 0 born 9 ,b]l9 on ! #bi? ( ,febru>y #agfd4 ,he 0 ! son ( ! hi/orian ,jean ,pi]re ,erman 7#agce-ahad71 au?or ( ,hi/oire des refugies4 ,he became tea*] ( sci5ce successively at ! ,fr5* gymnasium 9 ,b]l91 & at ! milit>y academy1 & on ! f\ndation ( ! univ]sity ( ,b]l9 9 #ahaj he 0 *os5 pr(essor ( physics4 ,he di$ at ,b]l9 on ! #aa? ( ,octob] #ahea4 ,8 "w 0 ma9ly conc]n$ ) electricity & magnetism1 ?\gh he also made "s contributions to optics & physiology4 ,8 son1 ,,georg ,,adolf ,,erman 7#ahjf-ahgg71 0 born 9 ,b]l9 on ! #ab? ( ,may #ahjf1 & aft] /udy+ natural sci5ce at ,b]l9 & ,konigsb]g1 sp5t f #ahbh to #ahcj 9 a j\rney r\nd ! _w1 an acc\nt ( :i* he publi%$ 9 ,reise um die ,erde dur* ,nordasi5 und die beid5 ,ozeane 7#ahcc-ahdh74 ,! magnetic obs]vations he made dur+ 8 travels 7 utiliz$ by ,c4,f4 ,gauss 9 8 !ory ( t]re/rial magnetism4 ,he 0 appo9t$ pr(essor ( physics at ,b]l9 9 #ahci1 & di$ !re on ! #ab? ( ,july #ahgg4 ,f #ahda to #ahfe he edit$ ! ,ar*iv fur wiss5s*aftli*e ,kunde von ,russl&1 & 9 #ahgd he publi%$1 ) ,h4,j4,r4 ,pet]s51 ,die ,grundlag5 d] ,gauss's*5 ,!orie und die ,ers*e9ung5 des ,erdmagnetismus im ,jahre #ahbi4 ,8 son ,,johann ,,pet] ,,adolf ,,erman 7#ahed- 71 a fam\s ,egyptologi/1 0 born 9 ,b]l9 on ! #ca/ ( ,octob] #ahed4 ,educat$ at ,leipzig & ,b]l91 he became extraord9>y pr(essor 9 #ahhc & ord9>y pr(essor 9 #ahib ( ,egyptology 9 ! univ]sity ( ,b]l91 & 9 #ahhe he 0 appo9t$ director ( ! ,egyptian dep>tm5t ( ! royal museum4 ,= an acc\nt ( ! ,egyptological "w ( ,erman & 8 s*ool1 see ,,egypt3 ,language4 ,,erman>ic 7fl4 #cej-cgf71 k+ ( ! ,ea/ ,go?s1 belong$ to ! ,amali family1 & 0 ! son ( ,a*iulf4 ,8 "n occurs z ,erman>icus 7,jordanes71 ,airman>eiks 7,go?ic71 ,eorm5ric 7,a4 ,sax471 ,jormunrek 7,norse71 ,erm5ri* 7,m4,h4 ,g]man74 ,erman>ic built up = himself a va/ k+dom1 :i* ev5tually ext5d$ f ! ,danube to ! ,baltic & f ! ,don to ! ,!iss4 ,he drove ! ,v&als out ( ,dacia1 compell$ ! allegiance ( ! neighb\r+ tribes ( ,we/ ,go?s1 procur$ ! submission ( ! ,h]ules1 ( _m ,slav & ,f9ni% tribes1 & ev5 ( ! ,e/honians on ! %ores ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia4 ,9 8 lat] days ! we/ ,go?s ?rew (f 8 yoke1 &1 on ! invasion ( ! ,huns1 r ?an witness ! d[nfall ( 8 k+dom he is said by ,ammianus ,m>cell9us to h committ$ suicide4 ,8 fate e>ly became ! c5tre ( popul> tradition1 :i* f\nd its way into ! n>rative ( ,jordanes or ,jorn&es 7,de rebus geticis1 *ap4 #bd71 :o comp>$ him to ,alex&] ! ,great & c]ta9ly exagg]at$ ! ext5t ( 8 k+dom4 ,he is !re said to h caus$ a c]ta9 ,sunilda or ,sanielh to be torn asund] by wild horses on acc\nt ( h] husb&'s traitor\s conduct4 ,h] bro!rs ,s>us & ,ammius s\ght to av5ge h]4 ,!y succe$$ 9 w\nd+1 n 9 kill+ ! ,go?ic k+1 ^: dea? sup]v5$ 9 8 "o hundr$ & t5? ye> f ! jo9t effects ( 8 w\nd & fe> ( ! ,hunni% invasion4 ,?is is evid5tly a p>aphrase ( popul> /ory :i* s\ght to supply plausible reasons = ,erman>ic's end4 ,9 ,g]man leg5d ,erman>ic became ! typical cruel tyrant1 & ref]5ces to 8 crimes ab\nd 9 ,g]man epic & 9 ,anglo-,saxon poetry4 ,he is made to replace ,odoac] z ! enemy ( ,dietri* ( ,b]n1 8 nephew1 & 8 hi/ory is relat$ 9 ! ,norse ,vilk9a or ,?idrekssaga1 :i* *iefly embodies ,g]man tradition4 ,8 evil g5ius1 ,sifka1 ,sibi*o or ,bicci1 br+s ab\t ! dea? ( 8 ?ree sons4 ,! ,h>lungs1 ,imbrecke & ,fritile1#a are 8 nephews1 :om he has /rangl$ = ! sake ( _! treasure1 ! ,bris+o m5i4 ,sonhild or ,svanhild becomes ! wife ( ,erman>ic1 & ! motive = h] murd] is replac$ by an accusation ( adult]y betwe5 ,svanhild & h] /epson4 ,! /ory 0 already connect$ ) ! ,nibelung5 :5 x f\nd its way to ! ,sc&9avian nor? by way ( ,g]many4 ,9 ! ,volsunga ,saga ,svanhild is ! daught] ( ,sigurd & ,gudrun4 ,%e is giv5 9 m>riage to ! ,go?ic k+ ,jormunrek 7,erman>ic71 :o s5ds 8 son ,r&v] z proxy woo] 9 company ( ,bicci1 ! evil c\nsellor4 ,r&v] is p]suad$ by ,bicci to take 8 fa!r's bride = himself4 ,r&v] is hang$ & ,svanhild trampl$ to dea? by horses 9 ! gate ( ! ca/le4 ,gudrun eggs on ,sorli & ,hamdir or ,ham![1 h] two sons by h] ?ird husb&1 ,jonakr ! ,hun1 to av5ge _! si/]4 ,on ! way !y slay _! half-bro!r ,erp1 :om !y suspect ( lukew>mness 9 ! cause2 arriv$ 9 ! hall ( ,erman>ic !y make a great slaught] ( ! ,go?s1 & hew (f ! h&s & feet ( ,erman>ic1 b !y !mselves are sla9 ) /ones4 ,! tale is told ) v>iations by ,saxo ,grammaticus 7,hi/oria ,danica1 ed4 ,mull]1 p4 #djh1 c471 & 9 ! ,icel&ic poems1 ! ,lay ( ,ham![1 ,gudrun's ,*a9 ( ,woe1 & 9 ! prose ,edda4 ,,bibliography4--,w4 ,grimm1 9 ,die deuts*e ,held5sage 7#bnd ed41 ,b]l91 #ahfg71 quotes ! acc\nt giv5 by ,jordanes1 ref]5ces 9 ,be[ulf1 9 ! ,w&]]'s ,song1 ,exet] ,book1 9 ,p>cival1 9 ,dietri*s ,flu*t1 ! acc\nt giv5 9 ! ,qu$l9burg ,*ronicle1 by ,ekkeh>d 9 ! ,*ronicon ,ursp]g5se1 by ,saxo ,grammaticus1 c4 ,see also ,vigfusson & ,p[ell1 ,corpus poeticum boreale1 vol4 i4 7,ox=d1 #ahhc71 & ,h4 ,symons1 ,die deuts*e ,held5sage 9 ,paul's ,grundriss d4 g]man4 ,phil4 vol4 iii4 7,/rassburg1 #aijj74 ,,footnote3 #a ,em]ka & ,fridla 7,be[ulf1 ,qu$l+burg ,*ron471 ,aki & ,etg>d 7,vilk9a ,saga74 ,9 ! orig9al my? ! ,h>lungs1 :o are n to be confus$ ) ! ,h>tung bro!rs1 7 s5t to br+ home ,surya1 ! bride ( ! sky-god1 ,irm9tiu4 ,,ermel&1 or ,,erml& 7,v>mia71 a di/rict ( ,g]many1 9 ,ea/ ,prussia1 ext5d+ f ! ,fris*es ,haff1 a bay 9 ! ,baltic1 inl& t[>ds ! ,poli% fronti]4 ,x is a well-wood$ s&y tract ( c\ntry1 has an area ( ab\t #afej sq4 m41 a population ( #bdj1jjj1 & is divid$ into ! di/ricts ( ,braunsb]g1 ,heilsb]g1 ,rossel & ,all5/e94 ,ermel& 0 orig9ally "o ( ! elev5 di/ricts ( old ,prussia & 0 occupi$ by ! ,teutonic ,knights 7,deuts*] ,ord571 be+ made 9 #abej "o ( ! f\r bi%oprics ( ! c\ntry "u _! sway4 ,! bi%op ( ,ermel& %ortly aft]w>ds decl>$ himself indep5d5t ( ! ord]1 & became a pr9ce ( ! ,empire4 ,9 #adff ,ermel&1 toge!r ) ,we/ ,prussia1 0 by ! peace ( ,?orn atta*$ to ! cr[n ( ,pol&1 & ! bi%op _h a seat 9 ! ,poli% s5ate4 ,9 #aggb x 0 aga9 incorporat$ ) ,prussia4 ,among ! bi%ops ( ! see1 :i* /ill exi/s1 ) its seat 9 ,frau5b]g1 may be m5tion$ ,a5eas ,sylvius ,piccolom9i1 aft]w>ds ,pope ,pius ,,ii41 & ,c>d9al ,/anislaus ,hosius 7#aejd-aegi71 ! f\nd] ( ! ,jesuit college 9 ,braunsb]g4 ,see ,hipl]1 ,lit]aturges*i*te des ,bi/hums ,ermel& 7,braunsb]g1 #ahgc72 ! ,monum5ta hi/oriae ,w>mi5sis 7,ma9z1 #ahfj-ahfd1 & ,braunsb]g1 #ahff-ahgb1 #d vols472 & ,bu*holz1 ,abriss e9] ,ges*i*te des ,erml&s 7,braunsb]g1 #aijc47 ,,ermelo1 a di/rict & t[n ( ! ,transvaal4 ,! di/rict lies 9 ! s\?-ea/ ( ! prov9ce & is trav]s$ by ! ,drak5sb]g4 ,9 x are ,lake ,*rissie1 ! only true lake 9 ! c\ntry1 & ! s\rces ( ! ,vaal1 ,olifants1 ,komati1 & ,usuto riv]s1 :i* rise )9 #cj m4 ( "o ano!r4 ,! region has a g5]al elevation ( ab\t #eejj ft4 & is f9e agricultural & pa/oral c\ntry1 besides conta9+ valuable m9]als1 includ+ coal & gold4 ,ermelo t[n1 pop4 7#aijd7 #adea1 is by rail #age m4 ,s4,e4 ( ,johannesburg1 & #gd m4 ,s4,s4,w4 ( ,ma*adodorp on ! ,pretoria-,delagoa ,bay railway4 ,a gov]nm5t exp]im5tal f>m1 ) "s #ajjj acres ( plantations1 is ma9ta9$ "h4 ,,erm9e1 an alt]native "n = ! /oat 7,putorius erm9eus71 app>5tly applicable 9 its prop] s5se only :5 ! animal is 9 its :ite w9t] coat4 ,?is animal measures #aj 94 9 l5g? exclusive ( ! tail1 :i* is ab\t #d 94 long1 & becomes bu%y t[>ds ! po9t4 ,! fur 9 summ] is r$di% br[n above & :ite b5ea?1 *ang+ 9 ! w9t] ( nor!rn latitudes to sn[y :it5ess1 except at ! tip ( ! tail1 :i* at all seasons is black4 ,9 ,scotti% specim5s ?is *ange 9 w9t] is complete1 b 9 ^? f\nd 9 ! s\!rn di/ricts ( ,engl& x is usually only p>tial1 ! erm9e pres5t+ dur+ w9t] a piebald appe>ance4 ,! :ite col\r is evid5tly protective1 enabl+ ! animals to elude ! obs]vations ( _! enemies1 & to /eal unobs]v$ on _! prey4 ,x also reta9s heat bett] ?an a d>k cov]+1 & may ?us s]ve to ma9ta9 an equable temp]ature at all seasons )9 ! body4 ,! col\r *ange seems to be due to phagocytes dev\r+ ! pigm5t-bodies ( ! hair1 & n to a m\lt4 ,illu/ration3 ,erm9e or ,/oat 7,putorius erm9eus74 ,! species is a native ( ! temp]ate & sub>ctic zones ( ! ,old ,_w1 & is repres5t$ 9 ,am]ica by a =m :i* c sc>cely be reg>d$ z specifically di/9ct4 ,x inhabits ?ickets & /ony places1 & frequ5tly makes use ( ! des]t$ burr[s ( moles & o!r und]gr\nd mammals4 ,exce$+ly sangu9>y 9 disposition1 & agile 9 its movem5ts1 x fe$s pr9cipally on rats1 wat]-rats & rabbits1 :i* x pursues ) p]t9acity & boldness1 h5ce ! "n /oat1 signify+ bold1 by :i* x is commonly kn[n4 ,x takes readily to wat]1 & w ev5 climb trees 9 pursuit ( prey4 ,x is p>ticul>ly de/ructive to p\ltry & game1 & has (t5 be5 kn[n to attack h>es1 fix+ itself to ! ?roat ( its victim1 & defy+ all ! ef=ts ( ! latt] to dis5gage x4 ,! female br+s =? five "y ones ab\t ! beg9n+ ( summ]4 ,! w9t] coat ( ! erm9e =ms "o ( ! mo/ valuable ( comm]cial furs1 & is import$ 9 enorm\s quantities f ,norway1 ,sw$51 ,russia & ,sib]ia4 ,x is l>gely us$ = muffs & tippets1 & z a trimm+ = /ate robes1 ! jet black po9ts ( ! tails be+ ins]t$ at regul> int]vals z an ornam5t4 ,9 ! reign ( ,edw>d ,,iii4 ! we>+ ( erm9e 0 re/rict$ to memb]s ( ! royal family2 b x n[ ent]s into almo/ all /ate robes1 ! rank & position ( ! we>] be+ 9 _m cases indicat$ by ! pres5ce or abs5ce1 & ! disposition1 ( ! black spots4 7,see also ,,fur47 ,,erm9e ,,/reet4 ,docum5ts & writ]s ( ! #aa? & succe$+ c5turies occasionally m5tion f\r royal roads 9 ,brita9--,icknield ,/reet1 ,ern+ or ,erm9e ,/reet1 ,watl+ ,/reet & ,foss ,way--z /&+ ap>t f all o!r exi/+ roads & enjoy+ ! special protection ( ! k+4 ,un=tunately ^! au?orities are n at all agre$ z to _! precise c\rse2 ! roads !mselves d n occur z specially privileg$ 9 actual legal or o!r practice1 & x is likely t ! category ( ,f\r ,roads is ! inv5tion ( a lawy] or an antiqu>y4 ,! names are1 h[ev]1 atte/$ to "s ext5t by e>ly *>t]s :i* "n !m among o!r roads1 z b\nd>ies4 ,f ^! *>t]s we "k t ,icknield ,/reet ran along ! ,b]k%ire d[ns & ! ,*ilt]ns1 t ,erm9e ,/reet ran m or less due nor? ?r\gh ,hunt+don%ire1 t ,watl+ ,/reet ran nor?-we/ across ! midl&s f ,london to ,%rewsbury1 & ,foss diagonally to x f ,l9coln or ,leice/] to ,ba? & mid-,som]set4 ,?is evid5ce only proves ! exi/5ce ( ^! roads 9 ,saxon & ,norman days4 ,b !y all seem to be mu* old]4 ,icknield ,/reet is probably a prehi/oric ridgeway along ! d[ns1 utiliz$ p]haps by ! ,romans ne> its ea/]n end1 b 9 g5]al n ,roman4 ,erm9e ,/reet co9cides ) "p ( a l9e ( ,roman roads lead+ nor? f ,london ?r\gh ,hunt+don to ,l9coln4 ,?is l9e is foll[$ by ! ,old ,nor? ,road ?r\gh ,*e%unt1 ,bunt+=d1 ,roy/on1 & ,hunt+don to ,ca/or ne> ,pet]bor\gh2 & !nce x c be trac$ ?r\gh lanes & byways pa/ ,anca/] to ,l9coln4 ,watl+ ,/reet is ! ,roman highway f ,london by ,/ ,alban's 7,v]ulamium7 to ,wroxet] ne> ,%rewsbury 7,viroconium74 ,foss is ! ,roman highway f ,l9coln to ,ba? & ,exet]4 ,h5ce x has be5 suppos$1 & is /ill frequ5tly alleg$1 t ! ,f\r ,roads 7 ! pr9cipal highways ( ,roman ,brita94 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! case4 ,icknield ,/reet is n ,roman & ! ?ree roads :i* foll[ ,roman l9es1 ,erm9e ,/reet1 ,watl+ ,/reet1 & ,foss1 held no peculi> position 9 ! ,romano-,briti% road sy/em 7see ,,brita93 ,roman74 ,9 lat] times1 ! names ,erm9e ,/reet1 ,icknield ,/reet & ,watl+ ,/reet h be5 appli$ to o!r roads ( ,roman or suppos$ ,roman orig94 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is :olly ! "w ( ,elizabe?an or subsequ5t antiqu>ies & des]ves no cr$5ce4 ,! d]ivations ( ! f\r names are unkn[n4 ,icknield1 ,erm9e & ,watl+ may be f ,engli% p]sonal names2 ,foss1 orig9ally ,fos1 seems to be ! ,lat4 fossa 9 its occasional m$ieval s5se ( a bank ( upca/ e>? or /ones1 su* z ! agg] ( a road4 7,f4 ,j4 ,h47 ,,ermoldus ,,nigellus1 or ,,ermold ,,! ,,black1 0 a monk ( ,aquita9e1 :o accompani$ ,k+ ,pipp91 son ( ! emp]or ,l\is ,i41 on a campaign into ,brittany 9 #hbd4 ,subsequ5tly he 0 bani%$ f ,pipp9's c\rt on a *>ge ( incit+ ! k+ aga9/ 8 fa!r1 & retir$ to ,/rassburg1 :]e he s\ght to rega9 ! emp]or's fav\r by writ+ a poem on 8 life & de$s4 ,ab\t #hcj he obta9$ 8 recall1 & has be5 id5tifi$ ) ,h]moldus1 :o appe>s z ,pipp9's *ancellor 9 #hch4 ,ermoldus 0 a cultur$ man ) a k ( ! ,lat9 poets1 & ?is poem1 ,9 honorem ,hludovici imp]atoris1 has "s hi/orical value4 ,x consi/s ( f\r books & deals ) ! life & exploits ( ,l\is f #gha to #hbf4 ,he also wrote two poems 9 imitation ( ,ovid1 :i* 7 address$ to ,pipp94 ,8 writ+s are publi%$ 9 ! ,monum5ta ,g]maniae hi/orica1 ,scriptores1 ,b& #b 7,hanov]1 #ahbf fol472 by ,j4,p4 ,migne 9 ! ,patrologia ,lat9a1 tome #aje 7,p>is1 #ahdd72 & by ,e4 ,dumml] 9 ! ,poetae ,lat9i aevi ,c>ol9i1 ,b& #b 7,b]l91 #ahha-ahhd74 ,see ,w4,o4 ,h5kel1 ,ub] d5 hi/oris*5 ,w]? d] ,g$i*te des ,ermoldus ,nigellus 7,eil5burg1 #ahgf72 ,w4 ,watt5ba*1 ,deuts*l&s ,ges*i*tsquell51 ,b& #a 7,b]l91 #aijd72 & ,a4 ,pot?a/1 ,biblio!ca hi/orica1 pp4 #dcj-dca 7,b]l91 #ahif74 ,,erne1 ! "n ( a riv] & two lakes 9 ! nor?-we/ ( ,irel&4 ,! riv] rises 9 ,l\gh ,g[na1 c\nty ,long=d1 #bad ft4 above sea-level1 fl[s nor? ?r\gh ,l\gh ,ought] ) a s]p5t9e c\rse & a direction g5]ally nor?w>d1 & !n broad5s into ! ,upp] ,l\gh ,erne1 a %all[ irregul> %eet ( wat] #ac m4 long1 s beset ) isl&s z to pres5t ! appe>ance ( a numb] ( wat]-*annels ramify+ ?r\gh ! l&4 ,! riv] !n w9ds pa/ ! t[n ( ,enniskill5 on its isl&1 & ent]s ,l\gh ,erne1 a beautiful lake ne>ly #ah m4 long & #e m4 9 extreme wid?1 conta9+ _m isl&s1 b less closely cov]$ ) !m ?an ! upp] l\gh4 ,"o ( !m1 ,dev5i%1 is celebrat$ = its antiqu>ian rema9s 7see ,,enniskill574 ,! riv] !n runs we/w>d to ,donegal ,bay1 =m+ a f9e fall at ,bally%annon 7q4v474 ,l\gh ,erne conta9s tr\t & pike4 ,^! wat]s admit ( navigation by small /eam]s1 b little trade is c>ri$ on4 ,! area ( ! ,erne bas91 :i* includes a va/ numb] ( small l\ghs1 is ab\t #afjj sq4 m41 & x cov]s "p ( ! c\nties ,cavan1 ,long=d1 ,leitrim1 ,f]managh & ,donegal4 ,! l5g? ( ! ,erne valley is ab\t #gj m4 ,,erne/ ,i4 ,,ern/ ,,anton ,,k>l ,,ludwig1 duke ( ,saxe-,coburg-,go?a 7#aghd-ahdd71 0 ! son ( ,francis1 duke ( ,saxe-,coburg-,saalfeld1 & 0 born on ! #bnd ( ,janu>y #aghd4 ,at ! "t ( 8 fa!r's dea? 7#i? ( ,decemb] #ahjf7 ! du*y ( ,coburg 0 occupi$ by ,napoleon z conqu]$ t]ritory1 & ,erne/ did n come into 8 inh]itance till aft] ! peace ( ,tilsit 7,july #ahjg74 ,ow+ to ! "p he _h play$ 9 assi/+ ! ,prussians at ! battle ( ,au]/adt he cont9u$ out ( fav\r ) ,napoleon1 & he ?rew himself ) vig\r into ! w> ( lib]ation aga9/ ! ,fr5*4 ,aft] ! battle ( ,leipzig he 0 giv5 ! comm& ( ! ,v4 army corps & r$uc$ ,ma9z by blockade2 he also comm&$ ! ,saxon troops dur+ ! campaign ( #ahae4 ,by ! congress ( ,vi5na he 0 rew>d$ ) ! pr9cipality ( ,li*t5b]g on ! left bank ( ! ,rh9e1 :i* receiv$ a slight augm5tation aft] ! second peace ( ,p>is4 ,^! t]ritories he sold to ,prussia 9 #ahcd4 ,9 #ahbf1 9 ! division ( ! t]ritories ( ! du*y ( ,saxe-,go?a :i* foll[$ ! dea? ( its la/ duke 7,febru>y #ahbe71 he receiv$ ! du*y ( ,go?a1 c$+ t ( ,saalfeld to ! duke ( ,me9+52 & he n[ ex*ang$ 8 /yle ( ,erne/ ,,iii4 ( ,saxe-,coburg-,saalfeld = t ( ,erne/ ,i4 ( ,saxe-,coburg-,go?a4 ,9 #ahba he _h giv5 a con/itution to ,coburg1 b he did n int]f]e ) ! traditional sy/em ( e/ates at ,go?a4 ,he di$ on ! #bi? ( ,janu>y #ahdd4 ,duke ,erne/1 :o 0 n only a good soldi] & ke5 sportsman1 b an enlight5$ patron ( ! arts & sci5ces1 did mu* = ! economic1 educational & con/itutional developm5t ( 8 t]ritories2 & 8 advice always c>ri$ great weight 9 ! c\ncils ( ! o!r ,g]man sov]eigns4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 = ! spl5did int]national position atta9$ by ! h\se ( ,coburg "u him t 8 reign is *iefly di/+ui%$4 ,8 y\ng] bro!r ,leopold 7q4v47 became k+ ( ! ,belgians2 8 bro!r ,f]d9& 7b4 #aghe7 m>ri$ ! weal?y pr9cess ,anto9ette von ,koh>y 7#ahaf7 & 0 ! fa!r ( ! du*ess ( ,nem\rs & ( ! future ,k+ ,f]d9& ( ,portugal4 ,( 8 si/]s1 ,anto9ette 7#aggi-ahbd7 m>ri$ ,duke ,alex&] ( ,wurttemb]g2 ,juliane ,alex&ra ,feodorovna 7#agha-ahfj7 m>ri$ ! ,russian ces>evi* ,con/ant9e1 f :om %e 01 h[ev]1 divorc$ 9 #ahbj2 & ,victoria 7#aghf-ahfa71 wife ( ,edw>d ,augu/us1 duke ( ,k5t1 became ! "m ( ,que5 ,victoria4 ,duke ,erne/ 0 twice m>ri$3 7#a7 9 #ahag to ,l\ise1 daught] ( ,duke ,augu/us ( ,saxe-,go?a1 :om he f9ally divorc$ 9 #ahbf2 7#b7 9 #ahca to ,m>ia1 daught] ( ,duke ,alex&] ( ,wurttemb]g4 ,( 8 sons1 by 8 fir/ wife1 ,erne/ succe$$ him 9 ! du*y1 & ,alb]t m>ri$ ,que5 ,victoria4 ,,erne/ ,,ii41 duke ( ,saxe-,coburg-,go?a 7#ahah-ahic71 0 born at ,coburg on ! #ba/ ( ,june #ahah1 be+ ! elde/ son ( ,duke ,erne/ ,i4 ,he enjoy$ a v>i$ education2 he /udi$ at ! univ]sity ( ,bonn ) 8 bro!r ,alb]t2 8 milit>y tra9+ he receiv$ 9 ! ,saxon army4 ,! widespread connexions ( 8 family op5$ to him _m c\rts ( ,europe1 & aft] he became ( age he travell$ mu*4 ,! position ( 8 uncle ,leopold1 :o 0 k+ ( ! ,belgians1 & especially ! m>riage ( 8 bro!r ,alb]t to ! que5 ( ,engl&1 8 c\s91 gave him peculi> opportunities = becom+ acqua9t$ ) ! political problems ( ,europe4 ,9 #ahdj-ahda he und]took a j\rney to ,spa9 & ,portugal2 9 ! latt] c\ntry ano!r c\s91 ,f]d9&1 0 k+-consort4 ,9 #ahdd he succe$$ 8 fa!r4 ,8 own "* & ! influ5ce ( ! k+ ( ! ,belgians made him "o ( ! mo/ ,lib]al pr9ces 9 ,g]many4 ,he 0 able to br+ to a satisfactory conclusion disputes ) ! ,coburg e/ates4 ,he pass$ ?r\gh ! ordeal ( ! revolution ( #ahdh ) little tr\ble1 = he anticipat$ ! dem&s ( ! p ( ,go?a = a re=m1 & 9 #aheb introduc$ a new con/itution by :i* ! adm9i/ration ( 8 two du*ies 0 assimilat$ 9 _m po9ts4 ,! gov]nm5t ( 8 small dom9ions did n af=d suffici5t scope = 8 re/less & v]satile ambition2 8 desire to play a great "p 9 ,g]man affairs 0 probably increas$ by ! feel+ t1 ?\gh he 0 ! head ( 8 h\se1 he 0 to "s ext5t ov]%ad[$ by ! y\ng] bran*es ( ! family :i* rul$ 9 ,belgium1 ,engl& & ,portugal4 ,he 0 "o ( ! =emo/ support]s ( e attempt made to re=m ! ,g]man con/itution & br+ ab\t ! unity ( ,g]many4 ,he took a w>m int]e/ 9 ! proce$+s ( ! ,frank=t p>liam5t1 & x 0 (t5 said1 probably )\t reason1 t he hop$ to be *os5 emp]or himself4 ,h[ev] t may be1 he /rongly urg$ ! k+ ( ,prussia to accept t position :5 x 0 (f]$ him 9 #ahdi2 he took a v prom95t "p 9 ! complicat$ negotiations ( ! foll[+ ye>1 & x 0 at 8 sugge/ion t a congress ( pr9ces met at ,b]l9 9 #ahej4 ,he highly valu$ ! opportunities :i* ?is & simil> meet+s gave him = ex]cis+ political influ5ce1 & he w\ld h felt mo/ at home z a memb] ( a p]man5t c\ncil ( ! ,g]man pr9ces4 ,ambiti\s also ( milit>y di/9ction1 & sympa?iz+ ) ! ris+ ( ! p ( ,s*leswig-,hol/e9 aga9/ ! ,danes 9 #ahdi1 ,erne/ accept$ a comm& 9 ! f$]al army4 ,9 ! engagem5t ( ,eck]n=de 9 ,april #ahdi ! troops "u 8 ord]s succe$$ 9 captur+ two ,dani% frigates1 a rem>kable feat ( :i* he 0 ju/ly pr\d4 ,8 greate/ s]vices to ,g]many 7 p]=m$ dur+ ! ye>s ( reaction :i* foll[$2 almo/ alone among ! ,g]man pr9ces he rema9$ fai?ful to ! ,lib]al & ,national ideals1 & he all[$ 8 dom9ions to be us$ z an asylum by ! writ]s & politicians :o _h to leave ,prussia & ,saxony4 ,! reaction>y p>ties look$ on him ) great suspicion1 & x 0 at ?is "t t he =m$ a fri5d%ip ) ,gu/av ,freytag1 ! celebrat$ noveli/1 :om he protect$ :5 ! ,prussian gov]nm5t dem&$ 8 arre/4 ,8 connexion ) ! ,engli% c\rt gave him a position ( mu* influ5ce1 b no "o 0 m purely ,g]man 9 8 feel+s & op9ions4 ,! m>riage ( 8 niece ,victoria ) ,fr$]ick1 ! heir to ! ,prussian ?rone1 /r5g!n$ 8 connexion ) ,prussia1 b caus$ ! ,cons]vative p>ty to look ) increas$ suspicion on ! ,coburg influ5ce4 ,he 0 ! fir/ ,g]man pr9ce to visit ,napoleon ,,iii41 & 0 pres5t :5 ,ors9i made 8 celebrat$ attempt on ! emp]or's life4 ,aft] #ahfj he became ! *ief patron & protector ( ! ,national ,v]e92 he enc\rag$ ! newly-=m$ rifle clubs1 & not)/&+ ! /rong disapproval ( 8 fell[-mon>*s1 all[$ 8 c\rt to become ! c5tre ( ! ris+ national agitation4 ,/ill a w>m adh]5t ( ,prussia1 9 #ahfb he set an example to ! o!r pr9ces by volunt>ily mak+ an agreem5t by :i* 8 troops 7 plac$ 9 w> "u ! comm& ( ! k+ ( ,prussia4 ,l all ! o!r ,nationali/s1 he 0 mu* emb>rass$ by ! policy ( ,bism>ck1 & ! democratic op9ions ( ! ,coburg c\rt1 :i* 7 %>$ by ! cr[n pr9ce ,fr$]ick1 7 a s]i\s emb>rassm5t to t m9i/]4 ,! opposition became m acc5tuat$ :5 ! duke all[$ 8 dom9ions to be us$ z ! headqu>t]s ( ! agitation 9 fav\r ( ,fr$]ick1 duke ( ,augu/5burg1 :o claim$ ! du*ies ( ,s*leswig & ,hol/e91 & x 0 at ?is "t t ,bism>ck is report$ to h said t if ,fr$]ick ! ,great _h be5 alive ! duke w\ld h be5 9 ! =tress ( ,sp&au4 ,9 #ahfc he 0 pres5t at ! ,fur/5tag 9 ,frank=t1 & f ?is "t 0 9 m frequ5t communication ) ! ,au/rian c\rt1 :]e 8 c\s9 ,alex&]1 ,c\nt ,m5sdorff1 0 m9i/]4 ,h[ev]1 :5 w> broke out 9 #ahff1 he at once plac$ 8 troops at ! disposition ( ,prussia2 ,bism>ck _h 9 an important lett] expla9$ to him 8 policy & tactics4 ,he 0 p]sonally conc]n$ 9 "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ev5ts ( ! w>2 = ! ,hanov]ian army1 9 its attempt to m>* s\? & jo9 ! ,bav>ians1 _h to pass ?r\gh ,?ur+ia1 & ! battle ( ,lang5salza 0 f\ght 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ,go?a4 ,8 troops took "p 9 ! battle1 :i* end$ 9 ! r\t ( ! ,prussians1 ! duke1 :o 0 n pres5t dur+ ! fight1 9 va9 attempt+ to /op x4 ,he bore an important %>e 9 ! negotiations be=e & aft] ! battle1 & 8 action at ?is "t has be5 ! subject ( mu* controv]sy1 = x 0 sugge/$ t :ile he (f]$ to m$iate he really act$ z a p>tisan ( ,prussia4 ,= 8 s]vices to ,prussia he receiv$ z a pres5t ! =e/ ( ,s*malkald54 ,he 0 ) ! ,prussian headqu>t]s 9 ,bohemia dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! w>4 ,) ! ye> #ahff ! political role :i* ,erne/ _h play$ end$4 ,! result 0 p]haps n q equal to 8 expectations1 b x mu/ be rememb]$ h[ difficult 0 ! position ( ! m9or ,g]man pr9ces2 & he quot$ ) great satisfaction ! words us$ 9 #ahga by ! emp]or ,william at ,v]sailles1 t to him 9 no small degree 0 due ! e/abli%m5t ( ! empire4 ,he 0 a man ( v>i$ ta/es1 a good musician--he compos$ sev]al op]as & songs--& a ke5 sportsman1 a quality 9 :i* he diff]$ f 8 bro!r4 ,not)/&+ 8 ,lib]alism1 he _h a great reg>d = ! dignity ( 8 rank & family1 & 9 8 support ( con/itutional gov]nm5t w\ld nev] h sacrific$ ! ess5tial pr]ogatives ( sov]eignty4 ,he di$ at ,re9h>dsbrunn on ! #bbnd ( ,augu/ #ahic4 ,9 #ahdb ! duke m>ri$ ,alex&r9e1 daught] ( ! gr&duke ( ,bad52 !re 7 no *ildr5 by ?is m>riage & ! succession to ,saxe-,coburg-,go?a pass$ !re=e to ! *ildr5 ( 8 y\ng] bro!r ,alb]t4 ,by ,alb]t's m>riage contract ! du*y c\ld n be held toge!r ) ! ,engli% cr[n2 ?us 8 elde/ son1 aft]w>ds ,edw>d ,,vii41 0 pass$ ov] & x came to 8 second son1 ,alfr$1 duke ( ,ed9burgh 7#ahdd-aijj74 ,:5 ,alfr$ di$ )\t sons 9 ,july #aijj ! succession to ! du*y pass$ to a y\ng] bro!r ,ar?ur1 duke ( ,connaught2 b ! duke & 8 son1 ,ar?ur1 pass$ on _! claim to ,*>les ,edw>d1 duke ( ,albany 7b4 #ahhd71 :o became duke ( ,saxe-,coburg-,go?a 9 succession to 8 uncle ,alfr$4 ,9 #aije ,*>les ,edw>d m>ri$ ,victoria ,adelaide 7b4 #ahhe71 pr9cess ( ,s*leswig-,hol/e91 by :om he has a son ,john ,leopold 7b4 #aijf74 ,duke ,erne/ 0 some?+ ( a writ]4 ,he br\ght out an acc\nt ( ! travels 9 ,egypt & ,abyss9ia :i* he und]took 9 #ahfb z ,reise des ,h]zogs ,ern/ von ,sa*s5-,koburg-,go?a na* ,agypt5 7,leipzig1 #ahfd72 & he publi%$ 8 memoirs1 ,aus me9em ,leb5 und aus me9] ,zeit 7,b]l91 #ahhg-ahhi74 ,?is "w is 9 ?ree volumes & conta9s mu* valuable in=mation on a mo/ critical p]iod ( ,g]man hi/ory2 !re is an ,engli% translation by ,p4 ,&reae 7#ahhh-ahij74 ,see also ,sir ,t4 ,m>t91 ,life ( ,h4,r4,h4 ! ,pr9ce ,consort 7#ahge-ahhj72 ,hon4 ,c4 ,grey1 ,e>ly ,ye>s ( ! ,pr9ce ,consort 7#ahfg72 ,a4 ,ohorn1 ,h]zog ,ern/ ,,ii41 e9 ,leb5sbild 7,leipzig1 #ahid72 & ,e4 ,tempeltey1 ,h]zog ,ern/ von ,koburg und das ,jahr #ahff 7,b]l91 #ahih74 7,j4 ,w4 ,he47 ,,erne/ ,,augu/us 7#agga-ahea71 k+ ( ,hanov] & duke ( ,cumb]l&1 fif? son ( ! ,engli% k+ ,george ,,iii41 0 born at ,kew on ! #e? ( ,june #agga4 ,hav+ /udi$ at ! univ]sity ( ,gott+51 he ent]$ ! ,hanov]ian army1 s]v+ z a lead] ( cavalry :5 w> broke out betwe5 ,great ,brita9 & ,france 9 #agic1 & w9n+ a reputation = brav]y4 ,he lo/ ! sight ( "o eye at ! battle ( ,t\rnai 9 ,may #agid1 & :5 ,hanov] )drew f ! w> 9 #agie he return$ to ,engl&1 be+ made lieut5ant-g5]al 9 ! ,briti% army 9 #agii4 ,9 ! same ye> he 0 creat$ duke ( ,cumb]l& & ,teviotdale & grant$ an all[ance ( ,l#ab1jjj a ye>1 aft] :i* he held sev]al lucrative milit>y positions 9 ,engl&1 & began to att5d ! sitt+s ( ! ,h\se ( ,lords & to take "p 9 political life4 ,a /an* ,tory1 ! duke object$ to all proposals ( re=m1 especially to ! grant+ ( any relief to ! ,roman ,ca?olics1 & _h great influ5ce ) 8 bro!r ! pr9ce reg5t1 aft]w>ds ,k+ ,george ,,iv41 9 addition to be+ (t5 consult$ by ! ,tory lead]s4 ,9 #ahaj he 0 sev]ely injur$ by an assass91 probably 8 valet ,sellis1 :o 0 f\nd dead2 & subsequ5tly two m5 7 imprison$ = ass]t+ t ! duke _h murd]$ 8 valet4 ,recov]+ f 8 w\nds1 ,cumb]l& aga9 proce$$ to ! seat ( w>2 & hav+ be5 made a ,briti% field-m>%al1 0 9 comm& ( ! ,hanov]ian army dur+ ! campaigns ( #ahac & #ahad1 be+ pres5t1 al?\gh n 9 action1 at ! battle ( ,leipzig4 ,9 ,may #ahae ,erne/ m>ri$ 8 c\s91 ,fr$]ica 7#aggh-ahda71 daught] ( ,*>les ,,ii4 duke ( ,meckl5burg-,/relitz & wid[ ( ,fr$]ick1 pr9ce ( ,solms-,braunfels1 a union :i* 0 v repugnant to 8 "m ,que5 ,*>lotte1 & 0 dislik$ 9 ,engl&1 :]e ! duke's /rong ,toryism _h made him unpopul>4 ,p>liam5t refus$ to increase 8 all[ance f ,l#ah1jjj1 to :i* x _h be5 rais$ 9 #ahjd1 to ,l#bd1jjj a ye>1 & indignant at ! treatm5t he receiv$ ! duke sp5t "s ye>s 9 ,b]l94 ,return+ to ,engl& aft] ! accession ( ,george ,,iv4 9 #ahbj1 8 political p[] 0 aga9 consid]able1 :ile dea?s 9 ! royal family made x likely t he w\ld succe$ to ! ?rone4 ,al?\gh 8 p]sonal influ5ce ) ! sov]eign ceas$ ^u ! dea? ( ,george ,,iv4 9 #ahcj1 ! duke cont9u$ to oppose all measures = ! ext5sion ( civil & religi\s lib]ty1 includ+ ! ,re=m ,bill ( #ahcb2 & 8 unpopul>ity 0 augm5t$ by suspicions t he _h fav\r$ ! =mation ( ,orange lodges 9 ! army4 ,:5 ,william ,,iv4 di$ 9 ,june #ahcg1 ! cr[ns ( ,great ,brita9 & ,hanov] 7 sep>at$2 & ,erne/1 z ! ne>e/ male heir ( ! late k+1 became k+ ( ,hanov]4 ,at once cancell+ ! con/itution :i* ,william _h giv5 to 8 k+dom 9 #ahcc1 he act$ z an absolute mon>*1 & ! con/itution :i* he sanction$ 9 #ahdj 0 p]meat$ ) 8 own illib]al ideas4 ,9 ,g]man politics he 0 vigilant & active1 & m9dful ( ! mat]ial int]e/s ( 8 c\ntry4 ,8 reign1 h[ev]1 0 a /ormy "o1 & s]i\s tr\ble betwe5 k+ & p _h aris5 :5 he di$ at ,h]r5haus5 on ! #ah? ( ,novemb] #ahea 7see ,,hanov]3 ,hi/ory74 ,9 spite ( 8 arbitr>y rule & 8 reaction>y ideas ! k+ 0 popul> among 8 subjects1 & 8 /atue 9 ,hanov] be>s ! words ,dem ,l&es ,vat] se9 treues ,volk4 ,erne/1 :o is g5]ally reg>d$ z ! able/ ( ! sons ( ,george ,,iii41 left an only *ild1 ,george1 :o succe$$ him z k+ ( ,hanov]4 ,see ,c4,a4 ,wilk9son1 ,rem9isc5ces ( ! ,c\rt & ,times ( ,k+ ,erne/ ( ,hanov] 7,london1 #ahhf72 von ,malortie1 ,konig ,ern/ ,augu/ 7,hanov]1 #ahfa72 & ! v>i\s hi/ories ( ,great ,brita9 & ,hanov] = ! p]iod4 ,,erne/i1 ,,johann ,,augu/ 7#agjg-agha71 ,g]man !ologian & philologi/1 0 born on ! #d? ( ,augu/ #agjg1 at ,t5n/adt 9 ,?ur+ia1 ( :i* place 8 fa!r 0 pa/or1 besides be+ sup]9t5d5t ( ! electoral dioceses ( ,?ur+ia1 ,salz & ,sang]haus54 ,at ! age ( sixte5 he 0 s5t to ! celebrat$ ,saxon cloi/] s*ool ( ,p=ta 7,s*ulp=ta74 ,at tw5ty he ent]$ ! univ]sity ( ,witt5b]g1 & /udi$ aft]w>ds at ! univ]sity ( ,leipzig4 ,9 #agcj he 0 made ma/] 9 ! faculty ( philosophy4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> he accept$ ! (fice ( conrector 9 ! ,?omas s*ool ( ,leipzig1 ( :i* ,j4,m4 ,gesn] 0 !n rector1 an (fice to :i* ,erne/i succe$$ 9 #agcd4 ,he 01 9 #agdb1 nam$ pr(essor extraord9>ius ( anci5t lit]ature 9 ! univ]sity ( ,leipzig1 & 9 #agef pr(essor ord9>ius ( rhetoric4 ,9 ! same ye> he receiv$ ! degree ( doctor ( !ology1 & 9 #agei 0 appo9t$ pr(essor ord9>ius 9 ! faculty ( !ology4 ,?r\gh 8 le>n+ & 8 mann] ( discussion1 he co-op]at$ ) ,s4,j4 ,baumg>t5 ( ,halle 7#agjf-ageg7 9 dis5gag+ ! curr5t dogmatic !ology f its _m s*ola/ic & my/ical excresc5ces1 & ?us pav$ a way = a revolution 9 !ology4 ,he di$1 aft] a %ort illness1 9 8 sev5ty-six? ye>1 on ! #aa? ( ,septemb] #agha4 ,x is p]haps z mu* f ! impulse :i* ,erne/i gave to sacr$ & pr(ane criticism 9 ,g]many1 z f ! intr9sic excell5ce ( 8 own works 9 ei!r dep>tm5t1 t he mu/ d]ive 8 reputation z a philologi/ or !ologian4 ,) ,j4,s4 ,seml] he co-op]at$ 9 ! revolution ( ,lu!ran !ology1 & 9 conjunction ) ,gesn] he in/itut$ a new s*ool 9 anci5t lit]ature4 ,he detect$ grammatical niceties 9 ,lat91 9 reg>d to ! consecution ( t5ses :i* _h escap$ prec$+ critics4 ,8 canons are1 h[ev]1 n )\t exceptions4 ,z an editor ( ! ,greek classics1 ,erne/i h>dly des]ves to be nam$ beside 8 ,dut* contempor>ies1 ,tib]ius ,hem/]huis 7#afhe-agff71 ,l4,c4 ,valck5a] 7#agae-aghe71 ,david ,ruhnk5 7#agbc-agih71 or 8 colleague ,j4,j4 ,reiske 7#agaf-aggd74 ,! high] criticism 0 n ev5 attempt$ by ,erne/i4 ,b to him & to ,gesn] is due ! cr$it ( hav+ =m$1 by discipl9e & by example1 philologi/s great] ?an !mselves1 & ( hav+ k9dl$ ! national en?usiasm = anci5t le>n+4 ,x is *iefly 9 h]m5eutics t ,erne/i has any claim to em95ce z a !ologian4 ,b "h 8 m]its are di/+ui%$1 &1 at ! p]iod :5 8 ,in/itutio ,int]pretis ,n4 ,t4 0 publi%$ 7#agfa71 almo/ peculi> to himself4 ,9 x we f9d ! pr9ciples ( a g5]al int]pretation1 =m$ )\t ! assi/ance ( any p>ticul> philosophy1 b consi/+ ( obs]vations & rules :i*1 ?\gh already enunciat$1 & appli$ 9 ! criticism ( ! pr(ane writ]s1 _h nev] rigor\sly be5 employ$ 9 biblical exegesis4 ,he 01 9 fact1 ! f\nd] ( ! grammatico-hi/orical s*ool4 ,he admits 9 ! sacr$ writ+s z 9 ! classics only "o acceptation1 & t ! grammatical1 conv]tible into & ! same ) ! logical & hi/orical4 ,consequ5tly he c5sures ! op9ion ( ^? :o 9 ! illu/ration ( ! ,scriptures ref] ev]y?+ to ! illum9ation ( ! ,holy ,_s1 z well z t ( o!rs :o1 disreg>d+ all k ( ! languages1 w\ld expla9 words by ?+s4 ,! analogy ( fai?1 z a rule ( int]pretation1 he greatly limits1 & tea*es t x c nev] af=d ( itself ! explanation ( words1 b only det]m9e ! *oice among _! possible mean+s4 ,at ! same "t he seems unconsci\s ( any inconsi/5cy betwe5 ! doctr9e ( ! inspiration ( ! ,bible z usually receiv$ & 8 pr9ciples ( h]m5eutics4 ,among 8 works ! m important are3--,i4 ,9 classical lit]ature3 ,initia doctr9ae ,solidioris 7#agcf71 _m subsequ5t editions2 ,initia rhetorica 7#agcj72 editions1 mo/ly annotat$1 ( ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia 7#agcg71 ,cic]o 7#agcg-agci71 ,suetonius 7#agdh71 ,tacitus 7#ageb71 ! ,cl\ds ( ,ari/ophanes 7#aged71 ,hom] 7#agei-agfd71 ,callima*us 7#agfa71 ,polybius 7#agfd71 z well z ( ! ,quae/ura ( ,corradus1 ! ,greek lexicon ( ,h$]icus1 & ! ,biblio!ca ,lat9a ( ,fabricius 7unf9i%$72 ,ar*aeologia litt]>ia 7#agfh71 new & improv$ edition by ,m>t9i 7#agij72 ,horatius ,tursell9us ,de p>ticulis 7#agfi74 ,,ii4 ,9 sacr$ lit]ature3 ,antimuratorius sive confutatio disputationis ,muratorianae de rebus liturgicis 7#agee-ageh72 ,neue !ologis*e ,biblio!k1 vols4 i4 to x4 7#agfj-agfi72 ,in/itutio int]pretis ,nov4 ,te/4 7#crd ed41 #agge72 ,neue/e !ologis*e ,biblio!k1 vols4 i4 to x4 7#agga-agge74 ,besides ^!1 he publi%$ m ?an a hundr$ small] works1 _m ( :i* h be5 collect$ 9 ! ?ree foll[+ publications3--,opuscula oratoria 7#agfb1 #bnd ed41 #agfg72 ,opuscula philologica et critica 7#agfd1 #bnd ed41 #aggf72 ,opuscula !ologica 7#aggc74 ,see ,h]zog-,hauck1 ,real5cyklopadie2 ,j4,e4 ,s&ys1 ,hi/4 ( ,class4 ,s*ol4 iii4 7#aijh74 ,,erne/i1 ,,johann ,,*ri/ian ,,gottlieb 7#agef-ahjb71 ,g]man classical s*ol>1 0 born at ,arn/adt1 ,?ur+ia1 & /udi$ "u 8 uncle1 ,j4,a4 ,erne/i1 at ! univ]sity ( ,leipzig4 ,on ! #e? ( ,june1 #aghb1 he 0 made supplem5t>y pr(essor ( philosophy at 8 own univ]sity2 & on ! dea? ( 8 c\s9 ,augu/ ,wilhelm 9 #ahja he 0 = five mon?s pr(essor ( rhetoric4 ,he di$ on ! #e? ( ,june ( ! foll[+ ye>4 ,8 pr9cipal works are3--,editions ( ,aesop's ,fabulae 7#agha72 ( ! ,glossae sacrae ( ,hesy*ius 7#aghe7 & ,suidas & ,phavor9us 7#aghf72 & ( ,silius ,italicus ,punica 7#agia-agib72 ,lexicon ,te*nologiae ,graecorum rhetoricae 7#agie72 ,lexicon te*nologiae ,lat9orum rhetoricae 7#agig71 & ,cic]o's ,gei/ und ,kun/ 7#agii-ahjb74 ,,ern/1 ,,he9ri* ,,wilhelm 7#ahad-ahfe71 ,g]man viol9i/ & compos]1 0 born at ,brunn1 9 ,moravia1 9 #ahad4 ,he 0 educat$ at ! ,cons]vatorium ( ,vi5na1 /udy+ ! viol9 "u ,joseph ,bohm & ,joseph ,mays$]1 & composition "u ,ignaz von ,seyfri$4 ,at ! age ( sixte5 he made a conc]t t\r 9 s\? ,g]many1 :i* e/abli%$ 8 reputation z a viol9i/ ( ! highe/ promise4 ,9 #ahcb he w5t to ,p>is1 :]e he liv$ = sev]al ye>s4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod he =m$ an intimacy ) ,/eph5 ,hell]1 :i* result$ 9 _! *>m+ jo9t compositions--! ,p5sees fugitives = piano & viol94 ,9 #ahdc he paid 8 fir/ visit to ,london4 ,! impression :i* he !n made z a viol9i/ 0 m ?an confirm$ 9 ! foll[+ ye>1 :5 8 r>e p[]s 7 recogniz$ by ! musical public4 ,!nce=w>d he visit$ ,engl& ne>ly e ye>1 until 8 heal? broke d[n ow+ to long-cont9u$ neuralgia ( a mo/ sev]e k9d4 ,! la/ sev5 ye>s ( 8 life 7 sp5t 9 retirem5t1 *iefly at ,nice1 :]e he di$ on ! #h? ( ,octob] #ahfe4 ,z a viol9i/ ,ern/ 0 di/+ui%$ by 8 almo/ unrivall$ executive p[]1 l(t9ess ( conception1 & int5sely passionate expression4 ,z a compos] he wrote *iefly = 8 own in/rum5t1 & 8 ,elegie & ,otello ,fantasia rank among ! mo/ treasur$ works = ! viol94 ,,erode1 a t[n ( ,briti% ,india1 9 ! ,coimbatore di/rict ( ,madras1 situat$ on ! "r bank ( ! riv] ,cauv]y1 :i* is "h cross$ by an iron railway gird] bridge ( #bb spans4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ae1ebi4 ,"h ! ,s\? ,indian railway jo9s ! ,s\?-,we/]n l9e ( ! ,madras railway1 #bdc m4 f ,madras4 ,!re are exports ( cotton & saltpetre2 & ! t[n has a /eam cotton press4 ,,eros1 a m9or planet discov]$ by ,witt at ,b]l9 on ! #ad? ( ,augu/ #ahih1 &1 s f> z yet kn[n1 unique 9 t its p]ihelion lies f> )9 ! orbit ( ,m>s4 ,,eros1 9 ,greek my?ology1 ! god ( love4 ,he is n m5tion$ 9 ,hom]2 9 ,hesiod 7,!og4 #abj7 he is "o ( ! olde/ & ! mo/ beautiful ( ! gods1 ^: p[] nei!r gods nor m5 c resi/4 ,he also evolves ord] & h>mony out ( ,*aos by unit+ ! sep>at$ elem5ts4 ,?is cosmic ,eros1 :o 9 ,orphic cosmogony sprang f ! _w-egg :i* ,*ronos1 or ,"t1 laid 9 ! bosom ( ,*aos1 & :i* is ! orig9 ( all creat$ be+s1 deg5]at$ 9 lat] my?ology into ! caprici\s god ( sexual passion1 ! son ( ,aphrodite & ,zeus1 ,ares or ,h]mes4 ,he is commonly repres5t$ z a mis*iev\s boy1 ! torm5tor ( gods & m51 ev5 8 own "m n be+ pro( aga9/ 8 attacks4 ,8 bro!r is ,ant]os1 ! god ( mutual love1 :o puni%es ^? :o d n return ! love ( o!rs1 )\t :i* ,eros c\ld n ?rive2 he is sometimes describ$ z ! oppon5t ( ,eros4 ,! *ief associates ( ,eros are ,po?os & ,him]os 7,long+ & ,desire71 ,pei?o 7,p]suasion71 ! ,muses & ! ,graces2 he himself is 9 con/ant att5dance on ,aphrodite4 ,lat] writ]s 7,euripides be+ ! fir/7 assum$ ! exi/5ce ( a numb] ( ,erotes 7l ! ,roman ,amores & ,cupid9es7 ) simil> attributes4 ,accord+ to ! philosoph]s1 ,eros 0 n only ! god ( sexual love1 b also ( ! loyal & devot$ fri5d%ip ( m52 h5ce ! ,!ban ,sacr$ ,b& 0 devot$ to him1 & ! ,cretans & ,sp>tans (f]$ sacrifice to him be=e go+ into battle 7,a!naeus xiii4 p4 #efa74 ,9 ,alex&rian poetry ,eros is at "o "t ! p[]ful god :o conqu]s all1 at ano!r ! elfi% god ( love4 ,= ! ,roman adaptation ( ,eros see ,cupid1 & = ! lat] leg5d ( ,cupid & ,psy*e see ,,psy*e4 ,9 art ,eros is repres5t$ z a beautiful y\? or a w+$ *ild4 ,8 attributes are ! b[ & arr[s & a burn+ tor*4 ,! rose1 ! h>e1 ! cock & ! goat are frequ5tly associat$ ) him4 ,! mo/ celebrat$ /atue ( him 0 at ,!spiae1 ! "w ( ,praxiteles4 ,o!r fam\s repres5tations are ! ,vatican torso & ,eros try+ 8 b[ 79 ! ,capitol9e museum74 ,see ,j4,e4 ,h>rison1 ,prolegom5a to ! ,/udy ( ,greek ,religion 7#aijc72 ,g4,f4 ,s*omann1 ,de ,cupid9e ,cosmogonico 7#aheb72 ,e4 ,g]h>d1 ,ub] d5 ,gott ,eros 7#ahej72 articles 9 ,ros*]'s ,lexikon d] ,my?ologie1 ,d>emb]g & ,saglio's ,dictionnaire des antiquites1 & ,pauly-,wiss[a's ,real5cyclopadie4 ,,erp5ius 7orig9al "n ,,van ,,erpe71 ,,?omas 7#aehd-afbd71 ,dut* ,ori5tali/1 0 born at ,gorcum1 9 ,holl&1 on ! #aa? ( ,septemb] #aehd4 ,aft] complet+ 8 e>ly education at ,leid51 he ent]$ ! univ]sity ( t city1 & 9 #afjh took ! degree ( ma/] ( arts4 ,by ! advice ( ,scalig] he /udi$ ,ori5tal languages :il/ tak+ 8 c\rse ( !ology4 ,he aft]w>ds travell$ 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 ,italy & ,g]many1 =m+ connexions ) le>n$ m51 & avail+ himself ( ! in=mation :i* !y communicat$4 ,dur+ 8 /ay at ,p>is he contract$ a fri5d%ip ) ,casaubon1 :i* la/$ dur+ 8 life1 & also took lessons 9 ,arabic f an ,egyptian1 ,joseph ,b>batus1 o!rwise call$ ,abu-dakni4 ,at ,v5ice he p]fect$ himself 9 ! ,turki%1 ,p]sic & ,e?iopic languages4 ,aft] a long abs5ce1 ,erp5ius return$ to 8 own c\ntry 9 #afab1 & on ! #aj? ( ,febru>y #afac he 0 appo9t$ pr(essor ( ,arabic & o!r ,ori5tal languages1 ,hebrew except$1 9 ! univ]sity ( ,leid54 ,soon aft] 8 settlem5t at ,leid51 animat$ by ! example ( ,sav>y de ,breves1 :o _h e/abli%$ an ,arabic press at ,p>is at 8 own *>ge1 he caus$ new ,arabic *>act]s to be cut at a great exp5se1 & erect$ a press 9 8 own h\se4 ,9 #afai ! curators ( ! univ]sity ( ,leid5 in/itut$ a second *air ( ,hebrew 9 8 fav\r4 ,9 #afbj he 0 s5t by ! ,/ates ( ,holl& to induce ,pi]re ,dum\l9 or ,&re ,rivet to settle 9 t c\ntry2 & aft] a second j\rney he 0 successful 9 induc+ ,rivet to comply ) _! reque/4 ,"s "t aft] ! return ( ,erp5ius1 ! /ates appo9t$ him _! int]pret]2 & 9 ?is capacity he _h ! duty impos$ ^u him ( translat+ & reply+ to ! diff]5t lett]s ( ! ,moslem pr9ces ( ,asia & ,africa4 ,8 reputation _h n[ spread ?r\gh\t all ,europe1 & sev]al pr9ces1 ! k+s ( ,engl& & ,spa91 & ! ar*bi%op ( ,seville made him ! mo/ flatt]+ (f]s2 b he con/antly refus$ to leave 8 native c\ntry4 ,he 0 prep>+ an edition ( ! ,koran ) a ,lat9 translation & notes1 & 0 project+ an ,ori5tal libr>y1 :5 he di$ prematurely on ! #ac? ( ,novemb] #afbd4 ,among 8 works may be m5tion$ 8 ,grammatica ,arabica1 publi%$ orig9ally 9 #afac & (t5 repr9t$2 ,rudim5ta l+uae ,arabicae 7#afbj72 ,grammatica ,ebraea g5]alis 7#afba72 ,grammatica ,*aldaica et ,syria 7#afbh72 & an edition ( ,elmac9's ,hi/ory ( ! ,s>ac5s4 ,,erroll 7or ,,errol71 ,,francis ,,hay1 #i,,? ,,e>l ,,( 7d4 #afca71 ,scotti% nobleman1 0 ! son ( ,&rew1 #h? e>l1 & ( ,lady ,jean ,hay1 daught] ( ,william1 #f? e>l4 ,! date ( 8 bir? is unrecord$1 b he succe$$ to ! e>ldom 7cr4 #adec7 9 #aehe1 0 e>ly conv]t$ to ,roman ,ca?olicism1 & z ! associate ( ,huntly jo9$ 9 ! ,spani% conspiracies aga9/ ! ?rone ( ,elizabe?4 ,a lett] writt5 by him1 decl>+ 8 allegiance to ! k+ ( ,spa91 hav+ be5 int]cept$ & s5t by ,elizabe? to ,james 9 ,febru>y #aehi1 he 0 decl>$ a rebel by ! c\ncil4 ,he engag$ ) ,huntly & ,craw=d 9 a rebellion 9 ! nor? ( ,scotl&1 b _! =ces surr5d]$ at ,ab]de5 on ! arrival ( ! k+ 9 ,april2 & 9 ,july ,erroll gave himself up to ,james1 :o l5i5tly refra9$ f exact+ any p5alty4 ,9 ,septemb] ( ! same ye> he ent]$ into a p]sonal bond ) ,huntly = mutual assi/ance2 & 9 #aeij displeas$ ! k+ by m>ry+1 9 spite ( 8 prohibition1 ,lady ,elizabe? ,d\glas1 daught] ( ! e>l ( ,morton4 ,he 0 imprison$ on suspicion ( complicity 9 ! attempt made by ,gray & ,bo?well to surprise ! k+ at ,falkl& 9 ,june #aeib2 & ?\gh he obta9$ 8 release1 he 0 aga9 proclaim$ a rebel on acc\nt ( ! discov]y ( 8 signature to two ( ! ,spani% ,blanks1 unwritt5 %eets subscrib$ ) ! names ( ! *ief conspirators 9 a plot = a ,spani% invasion ( ,scotl&1 to be fill$ up lat] ) ! t]ms ( ! project$ treaty4 ,aft] a failure to appreh5d him 9 ,m>* #aeic1 ,erroll & 8 companions 7 s5t5c$ to abjure ,romanism or leave ! k+dom2 & on _! non-compliance 7 9 #aeid decl>$ traitors4 ,on ! #crd ( ,octob] !y defeat$ at ,gl5livet a =ce s5t aga9/ !m "u ,argyll2 ?\gh ,erroll himself 0 sev]ely w\nd$1 & ,sla9s ,ca/le1 8 seat1 raz$ to ! gr\nd4 ,! rebel lords left ,scotl& 9 #aeie1 & ,erroll1 on report ( 8 fur!r conspiracies abroad1 0 arre/$ by ! /ates ( ,zeal&1 b 0 aft]w>ds all[$ to escape4 ,he return$ to ,scotl& secretly 9 #aeif1 & on ! #bj? ( ,june #aeig abjur$ ,romanism & made 8 peace ) ! ,kirk4 ,he enjoy$ ! fav\r ( ! k+1 & 9 #afjb 0 appo9t$ a commission] to negotiate ! union ) ,engl&4 ,8 relations ) ! ,kirk1 h[ev]1 7 n s amicable4 ,! reality ( 8 conv]sion 0 disput$1 & on ! #ba/ ( ,may #afjh he 0 conf9$ to ! city ( ,p]? = ! bett] resolution ( 8 d\bts1 be+ subsequ5tly decl>$ an ob/9ate papi/1 excommunicat$1 depriv$ ( 8 e/ate1 & imprison$ at ,dumb>ton2 & aft] "s fur!r vacillation 0 f9ally releas$ 9 ,may #afaa4 ,"l ,erroll di$ on ! #af? ( ,july #afca1 & 0 buri$ 9 ! *ur* ( ,sla9s4 ,he m>ri$ 7#a7 ,anne1 daught] ( ,john1 #d? e>l ( ,a?oll2 7#b7 ,m>g>et1 daught] ( ! reg5t ,murray2 & 7#c7 ,elizabe?1 daught] ( ,william1 #f? e>l ( ,morton4 ,by 8 ?ird wife he _h sev]al *ildr51 ( :om 8 elde/ son1 ,william1 succe$$ him4 ,! dispute :i* began 9 8 lifetime conc]n+ ! h]$it>y (fice ( "l high con/able betwe5 ! families ( ,erroll & ( ! ,e>l ,m>is*al 0 settl$ f9ally 9 fav\r ( ! =m]2 ?us e/abli%+ ! prec$5ce enjoy$ by ! e>ls ( ,erroll next aft] ! royal family ov] all o!r subjects 9 ,scotl&4 ,see ,! ,erroll ,pap]s 7,spald+ ,club ,miscellany1 vol4 ii4 #baa72 ,&rew ,lang1 ,hi/4 ( ,scotl&1 vol4 ii42 ,hi/4 ,,mss4 ,comm4 ,,mss4 ( ,e>l ( ,m> & ,kellie2 ,d4 ,cald]wood's ,hi/4 ( ! ,*ur* ( ,scotl&2 ,john ,spald+'s ,memorials 7,spald+ ,club1 #ahej72 ,collect$ ,essays ( ,t4,g4 ,law1 ed4 by ,p4,h4 ,br[n 7#aijd72 ,treason & ,plot1 by ,m4,a4,s4 ,hume 7#aija74 ,,error 7,lat4 error1 f err>e1 to w&]1 to err71 a mi/ake1 a dep>ture or deviation f :at is true1 exact or "r4 ,= ! legal process by :i* a judgm5t c\ld be rev]s$ on ! gr\nd ( error1 kn[n z a writ ( error1 see ,,writ & ,,appeal4 ,! words error except$ or errors & omissions except$ 7contract$ to ,e4,e4 ,e4 ,o4,e471 are frequ5tly plac$ at ! end ( a /atem5t ( acc\nt or an invoice1 s t ! acc\nt+ p>ty may res]ve ! "r to correct any errors or omissions :i* may be subsequ5tly discov]$1 or make fur!r claims 9 respect ( !m4 ,9 ma!matics1 error is ! deviation ( an obs]v$ or calculat$ quantity f its true value4 ,! calculus ( errors leads to ! =mulation ( ! law ( error1 :i* is an analytical expression ( ! mo/ probably true value ( a s]ies ( discordant values 7see ,,probability74 ,,ers*1 ,,johann ,,samuel 7#agff-ahbh71 ! f\nd] ( ,g]man bibliography1 0 born at ,grossglogau1 9 ,silesia1 on ! #bcrd ( ,june #agff4 ,9 #aghe he ent]$ ! univ]sity ( ,halle ) ! view ( /udy+ !ology2 b soon 8 :ole att5tion became engross$ by hi/ory1 bibliography & geography4 ,at ,halle he made ! acqua9tance ( ,j4,e4 ,fabri1 pr(essor ( geography2 & :5 ! latt] 0 made pr(essor ( hi/ory & /ati/ics at ,j5a1 ,ers* accompani$ him ?i!r1 & aid$ him 9 ! prep>ation ( sev]al works4 ,9 #aghh he publi%$ ! ,v]zei*nis all] anonymis*5 ,s*rift51 z a supplem5t to ! #d? edition ( ,meusel's ,gelehrtes ,deuts*l&4 ,! rese>*es requir$ = ?is "w sugge/$ to him ! prep>ation ( a ,rep]torium ub] die allgeme95 deuts*5 ,j\rnale und &]e p]iodis*e ,sammlung5 fur ,erdbes*reibung1 ,ges*i*te1 und die damit v]w&t5 ,wiss5s*aft5 7,lemgo1 #agij-agib74 ,! fame :i* ?is publication acquir$ him l$ to 8 be+ engag$ by ,s*utz & ,hufel& to prep>e an ,allgeme9es ,rep]torium d] ,lit]atur1 publi%$ 9 #h vols4 7,j5a & ,weim>1 #agic-ahji71 :i* cond5s$ ! lit]>y productions ( #ae ye>s 7#aghe-ahjj71 & includ$ an acc\nt n m]ely ( ! books publi%$ dur+ t p]iod1 b also ( articles 9 p]iodicals & magaz9es1 & ev5 ( ! criticisms to :i* ea* book _h be5 subject$4 ,:ile engag$ 9 ?is great "w he also project$ ,la ,france litt]aire1 :i* 0 publi%$ at ,hamburg 9 #e vols41 f #agig to #ahjf4 ,9 #agie he w5t to ,hamburg to edit ! ,neue ,hamburg] ,zeitung1 f\nd$ by ,victor ,klop/ock1 bro!r ( ! poet1 b return$ 9 #ahjj to ,j5a to take active "p 9 ! ,allgeme9e ,lit]aturzeitung4 ,he also obta9$ 9 ! same ye> ! (fice ( libr>ian 9 ! univ]sity1 & 9 #ahjb 0 made pr(essor ( philosophy4 ,9 #ahjc he accept$ ! *air ( geography & /ati/ics at ,halle1 & 9 #ahjh 0 made pr9cipal libr>ian4 ,he "h project$ a ,h&bu* d] deuts*5 ,lit]atur seit d] ,mitte des #ah4 ,jahrh4 bis auf die neue/e ,zeit 7,leipzig1 #ahab-ahad7 &1 along ) ,johann ,gottfri$ ,grub] 7q4v471 ! ,allgeme9e ,encyklopadie d] ,wiss5s*aft5 und ,kun/e 7,leipzig1 #ahah ffg47 :i* he cont9u$ z f> z ! #ba/ volume4 ,! accuracy & ?or\ghness ( ?is monum5tal encyclopa$ia make x /ill an indisp5sable book ( ref]5ce4 ,ers* di$ at ,halle on ! #af? ( ,janu>y #ahbh4 ,,ersk9e1 ,,eb5ez] 7#afhj-aged71 ,scotti% div9e1 ! *ief f\nd] ( ! ,secession ,*ur* 7=m$ ( diss5t]s f ! ,*ur* ( ,scotl&71 0 born on ! #bbnd ( ,june #afhj1 mo/ probably at ,dryburgh1 ,b]wick%ire4 ,8 fa!r1 ,h5ry ,ersk9e1 :o 0 at "o "t m9i/] at ,cornhill1 ,durham1 0 eject$ 9 #affb by ! ,act ( ,uni=mity1 &1 aft] suff]+ "s ye>s' imprisonm5t1 0 aft] ! ,revolution appo9t$ to ! p>i% ( ,*irnside1 ,b]wick%ire4 ,aft] /udy+ at ! univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 ,eb5ez] became m9i/] ( ,portmoak1 ,k9ross-%ire4 ,!re he rema9$ = tw5ty-eight ye>s1 aft] :i*1 9 ! autumn ( #agca1 he 0 translat$ to ! ,we/ ,*ur*1 ,/irl+4 ,"s "t be=e ?is1 he1 along ) "s o!r m9i/]s1 0 rebuk$ & admoni%$1 by ! g5]al assembly1 = def5d+ ! doctr9es conta9$ 9 ! ,m>r[ ( ,mod]n ,div9ity 7see ,,bo/on1 ,,?omas74 ,a s]mon :i* he prea*$ on lay patronage be=e ! synod ( ,p]? 9 #agcc furni%$ new gr\nds ( accusation1 & he 0 compell$ to %ield himself f rebuke by appeal+ to ! g5]al assembly4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! s5t5ce ( ! synod 0 confirm$1 & aft] _m fruitless attempts to obta9 a he>+1 he1 along ) ,william ,wilson ( ,p]?1 ,alex&] ,moncrieff ( ,ab]ne?y & ,james ,fi%] ( ,k9clav51 0 susp5d$ f ! m9i/ry by ! commission 9 ,novemb] ( t ye>4 ,aga9/ ?is s5t5ce !y prote/$1 & con/itut$ !mselves into a sep>ate *ur* c\rt1 "u ! "n ( ! associate presbyt]y4 ,9 #agci !y 7 aga9 summon$ be=e ! assembly1 & 9 _! corporate capacity decl9$ to ackn[l$ge ! au?ority ( ! *ur*1 & 7 depos$ 9 ! foll[+ ye>4 ,!y receiv$ num]\s accessions to _! communion1 & rema9$ 9 h>mony ) ea* o!r till #agdg1 :5 a division took place 9 reg>d to ! nature ( ! oa? adm9i/]$ to burgesses4 ,ersk9e jo9$ ) ! burgh] section1 & became _! pr(essor ( !ology4 ,he cont9u$ also to prea* to a num]\s congregation 9 ,/irl+ till 8 dea?1 :i* took place on ! #bnd ( ,june #aged4 ,ersk9e 0 a v popul> prea*]1 & a man ( consid]able =ce ( "*2 he act$ ?r\gh\t on pr9ciple ) hone/y & c\rage4 ,! burgh] & anti-burgh] sections ( ! ,secession ,*ur* 7 reunit$ 9 #ahbj1 & 9 #ahdg !y unit$ ) ! relief synod 9 =m+ ! ,unit$ ,presbyt]ian ,*ur*4 ,ersk9e's publi%$ works consi/ *iefly ( s]mons4 ,8 ,life & ,di>y1 edit$ by ! ,rev4 ,donald ,fras]1 0 publi%$ 9 #ahdj4 ,8 ,works 7 publi%$ 9 #aghe4 ,,ersk9e1 ,,h5ry 7#agdf-ahag71 "l advocate ( ,scotl&1 ! second son ( ,h5ry ,david1 #aj? e>l ( ,bu*an & bro!r ( ! "l *ancellor ,ersk9e1 0 born 9 ,ed9burgh on ! #a/ ( ,novemb] #agdf4 ,he 0 educat$ at ! univ]sities ( ,/ ,&rews1 ,glasg[ & ,ed9burgh1 & 0 admitt$ a memb] ( ! faculty ( advocates 9 #agfh4 ,8 reputation z a clev] & flu5t speak] 0 fir/ made 9 ! debates ( ! g5]al assembly1 ( :i* he _h be5 e>ly elect$ an eld]4 ,9 #aghc he 0 appo9t$ to ! (fice ( "l advocate1 :i* he held dur+ ! brief coalition m9i/ry ( ,fox & ,nor?4 ,9 #aghe he 0 elect$ dean ( ! faculty ( advocates1 & 0 re-elect$ annually till #agif1 :5 8 conduct 9 mov+ a s]ies ( resolutions at a public meet+1 condemn+ ! gov]nm5t's s$ition & treason bills1 br\ght on him ! opposition ( ! m9i/]ial p>ty1 & he 0 depos$ 9 fav\r ( ,rob]t ,dundas4 ,on ! =mation ( ! ,gr5ville m9i/ry 9 #ahjf he aga9 became "l advocate & 0 return$ to p>liam5t = ! ,hadd+ton burghs1 :i* he ex*ang$ at ! g5]al election ( ! same ye> = ! ,dumfries burghs4 ,8 t5ure ( ! "l advocate%ip end$ 9 ,m>* #ahjg on ! d[nfall ( ! m9i/ry4 ,9 #ahaa he gave up 8 practice at ! b> & retir$ to 8 c\ntry resid5ce ( ,almondel1 9 ,l9li?g[%ire1 :]e he di$ on ! #h? ( ,octob] #ahag4 ,8 elde/ son1 ,h5ry ,david 7#aghc-aheg71 succe$$ z #ab? e>l ( ,bu*an on 8 uncle's dea? 9 #ahbi4 ,ersk9e's reputation w survive z ! f9e/ & mo/ eloqu5t orator ( 8 day at ! ,scotti% b>2 add$ to a *>m+ =5sic /yle 0 a mo/ captivat+ wit1 :i*1 z ,"l ,jeffrey said1 0 all argum5t1 & ea* ( 8 delightful illu/rations a mat]ial /ep 9 8 reason+4 ,ersk9e 0 also ! au?or ( "s poems1 ( :i* ! be/ kn[n is ,! ,emigrant 7#aghc74 ,see ,lieut4-,col4 ,a4 ,f]gusson's ,h5ry ,ersk9e 7#ahhb74 ,,ersk9e1 ,,john 7#agba-ahjc71 ,scotti% div9e1 son ( ,john ,ersk9e ( ,c>nock1 0 born on ! #bnd ( ,june #agba4 ,he /udi$ law = a "t aft] complet+ 8 c\rse 9 arts at ! univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 b 0 ev5tually lic5s$ to prea* 9 #agdc2 & 0 successively p>i% m9i/] ( ,kirk9tillo*1 ne> ,glasg[1 ,culross1 9 ,fife%ire 7#agec71 ,new ,greyfri>s *ur* 9 ,ed9burgh 7#ageh71 & ,old ,greyfri>s *ur* 9 #agfh1 :]e he became ! colleague ( ,pr9cipal ,rob]tson1 ! hi/orian4 ,"h he rema9$ until 8 dea?1 :i* took place on ! #ai? ( ,janu>y #ahjc4 ,dr ,ersk9e's writ+s consi/ *iefly ( controv]sial pamphlets on !ological subjects4 ,8 s]mons are cle>1 vigor\s expositions ( a mod]ate ,calv9ism1 9 :i* metaphysical argum5t & practical morality are happily bl5d$4 ,9 *ur* politics he 0 ! lead] ( ! evangelical p>ty2 & 0 mu* belov$ = 8 high "* & amiability4 ,= 8 life & works see ,sir ,h4 ,moncreiff ,wellwood1 ,life & ,writ+s ( ,j4 ,ersk9e1 ,d4,d4 7,ed9burgh1 #ahah74 ,,ersk9e1 ,,john1 ( ,c>nock 7#afie-agfh71 ,scotti% juri/1 son ( ,lieut4-,colonel ,john ,ersk9e1 0 born 9 #afie4 ,he 0 admitt$ a memb] ( ! faculty ( advocates 9 #agai4 ,al?\gh he nev] enjoy$ mu* practice at ! b>1 he acquir$ a high reputation z a s\nd & le>n$ lawy]1 & 9 #agcg 0 appo9t$ pr(essor ( ,scots law 9 ! univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh4 ,9 #aged he publi%$ 8 ,pr9ciples ( ! ,law ( ,scotl&4 ,he retir$ f 8 *air 9 #agfe2 & dur+ ! rema9d] ( 8 unev5tful life he occupi$ himself ) ! prep>ation ( 8 great "w1 ! ,in/itutes ( ! ,law ( ,scotl&1 :i* he did n live to publi%4 ,he di$ at ,c>dross1 ,p]?%ire1 on ! #a/ ( ,m>* #agfh4 ,ersk9e's ,in/itutes1 al?\gh n exhibit+ ! grasp ( pr9ciple :i* di/+ui%$ 8 great pr$ecessor ,"l ,/air1 is s conspicu\s = le>n+1 accuracy & s\nd good s5se1 t x has always be5 e/eem$ ( ! highe/ au?ority on ! law ( ,scotl&4 ,! fir/ edition appe>$ 9 #aggc & x has be5 _m times repr9t$4 ,! ,pr9ciples1 al?\gh publi%$ fir/1 is sub/antially an abridgm5t ( ! l>g] "w1 & is 9 "s respects sup]ior to x1 be+ m concise & direct4 ,x reta9s its place z ! text-book on ,scots law1 & is frequ5tly be+ re-edit$4 ,,ersk9e1 ,,john1 ( ,dun 7#aeji-aeia71 ,scotti% re=m]1 ! son ( ,sir ,john ,ersk9e1 laird ( ,dun1 0 born 9 #aeji1 & 0 educat$ at ,k+'s ,college1 ,ab]de54 ,at ! age ( tw5ty-"o ,ersk9e 0 ! cause--probably by accid5t--( a prie/'s dea?1 & 0 =c$ to g abroad1 :]e he came "u ! influ5ce ( ! new le>n+4 ,x 0 ?r\gh 8 ag5cy t ,greek 0 fir/ taught 9 ,scotl& by ,petrus de ,m>sili]s at ,montrose4 ,?is fact c\nt$ = mu* 9 ! progress ( ! ,re=mation4 ,ersk9e 0 also drawn t[>ds ! new fai?1 be+ a close fri5d ( ,george ,wi%>t1 ! re=m]1 f ^: fate he 0 sav$ by 8 weal? & influ5ce1 & ( ,john ,knox1 ^: advice op5ly to disc\nt5ance ! mass 0 giv5 9 ! lodg+s ( ! laird ( ,dun4 ,9 ! /ormy controv]sies ( ! "t ( ,m>y ,/u>t & ,james ,,vi4 ,ersk9e 0 a conspicu\s figure & a mod]at+ influ5ce4 ,he 0 able to soo! ! que5 :5 h] feel+s _h be5 outrag$ by ,knox's d5unciations--be+ a man mo/ g5till ( nature--& frequ5tly act$ z m$iator bo? betwe5 ! ca?olic & re=m+ p>ties1 & among ! re=m]s !mselves4 ,9 #aefj he 0 appo9t$--?\gh a layman--sup]9t5d5t ( ! re=m$ *ur* ( ,scotl& = ,angus & ,me>ns1 & 9 #aegb he gave 8 ass5t to ! modifi$ episcopacy propos$ by ,morton at ! ,lei? conv5tion4 ,?\gh nev] himself orda9$1 he 0 held 9 su* high e/eem by ! lead]s ( ! *ur* z to be m ?an once elect$ mod]ator ( ! g5]al assembly 7fir/ 9 #aefd71 & he 0 among/ ^? :o 9 #aegh drew up ! ,second ,book ( ,discipl9e4 ,f #aegi he 0 a memb] ( ! k+'s c\ncil4 ,he di$ 9 #aeia4 ,ersk9e ow$ 8 peculi> influ5ce among ! ,scotti% re=m]s to ! union--r>e 9 ^? days--( /eadfa/ convictions ) a conciliatory mann]2 ,que5 ,m>y describ$ him z a mild & sweet-natur$ man1 ) true hone/y & uprightness4 ,see ! ,dun ,pap]s 9 ! ,spald+ ,club ,miscellany1 vol4 iv4 7#ahdi71 & ! article by ,t4,f4 ,h5d]son 9 ! ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog4 ,,ersk9e1 ,,ralph 7#afhe-ageb71 ,scotti% div9e1 bro!r ( ,eb5ez] ,ersk9e 7q4v471 0 born on ! #ah? ( ,m>* #afhe4 ,aft] /udy+ at ! univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 he 0 9 #agaa orda9$ assi/ant m9i/] at ,dunf]ml9e4 ,he homologat$ ! prote/s :i* 8 bro!r laid on ! table ( ! assembly aft] be+ rebuk$ = 8 synod s]mon1 b he did n =mally )draw f ! e/abli%m5t till #agcg4 ,he 0 also pres5t1 ?\gh n z a memb]1 at ! fir/ meet+ ( ! associate presbyt]y4 ,:5 ! sev]ance took place on acc\nt ( ! oa? adm9i/]$ to burgesses1 he adh]$1 along ) 8 bro!r1 to ! burgh] section4 ,he di$ aft] a %ort illness on ! #f? ( ,novemb] #ageb4 ,8 works consi/ ( s]mons1 poetical p>aphrases & gospel sonnets4 ,! ,gospel ,sonnets h frequ5tly appe>$ sep>ately4 ,8 ,life & ,di>y1 edit$ by ! ,rev4 ,d4 ,fras]1 0 publi%$ 9 #ahdb4 ,,ersk9e1 ,,?omas1 ( ,l9la!n 7#aghh-ahgj71 ,scotti% !ologian1 y\nge/ son ( ,david ,ersk9e1 writ] to ! signet 9 ,ed9burgh1 & ( ,anne ,graham1 ( ! ,grahams ( ,air?1 0 born on ! #ac? ( ,octob] #aghh4 ,he 0 a desc5dant ( ,john1 #a/ or #f? e>l ( ,m>1 reg5t ( ,scotl& 9 ! reign ( ,james ,,vi41 a gr&son ( ,colonel ,john ,ersk9e ( ,c>nock4 ,aft] be+ educat$ at ! high s*ool ( ,ed9burgh & at ,durham1 he att5d$ ! lit]>y & law classes at ! univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 & becom+ 9 #ahaj a memb] ( ! ,ed9burgh faculty ( advocates1 he = "s "t enjoy$ ! intimate acqua9tance ( ,cockburn1 ,jeffrey1 ,scott & o!r di/+ui%$ m5 ^: tal5t !n l5t lu/re to ! ,scotti% b>4 ,9 #ahaf he succe$$ to ! family e/ate ( ,l9la!n1 ne> ,dundee1 & devot$ himself to !ology4 ,! writ+s ( ,ersk9e1 especially 8 publi%$ lett]s1 are di/+ui%$ by a graceful /yle1 & possess orig9ality & int]e/4 ,8 !ological views h a consid]able simil>ity to ^? ( ,fr$]ick ,d5ison ,maurice1 :o ackn[l$ges hav+ be5 indebt$ to him = 8 fir/ true conception ( ! mean+ ( ,*ri/'s sacrifice4 ,ersk9e _h little int]e/ 9 ! hi/orical criticism ( ,*ri/ianity1 & reg>d$ z ! only prop] crit]ion ( its tru? its con=mity or noncon=mity ) man's spiritual nature1 & its adaptability or non-adaptability to man's spiritual ne$s4 ,he consid]$ ! inc>nation ( ,*ri/ z ! necess>y manife/ation to man ( an et]nal son%ip 9 ! div9e nature1 ap>t f :i* ^? filial qualities :i* ,god dem&s f man c\ld h no sanction2 by fai? z us$ 9 ,scripture he und]/ood to be meant a c]ta9 moral or spiritual activity or en]gy :i* virtually impli$ salvation1 because x impli$ ! exi/5ce ( a pr9ciple ( spiritual life possess$ ( an immortal p[]4 ,?is fai?1 he believ$1 c\ld be prop]ly awak5$ only by ! manife/ation1 ?r\gh ,*ri/1 ( love z ! law ( life1 & z id5tical ) an et]nal righte\sness :i* x 0 ,god's purpose to be/[ on e individual s\l4 ,z an int]pret] ( ! my/ical side ( ,calv9ism & ( ! psy*ological conditions :i* correspond ) ! doctr9es ( grace ,ersk9e is unrivall$4 ,dur+ ! la/ ?irty-?ree ye>s ( 8 life ,ersk9e ceas$ f lit]>y "w4 ,among 8 fri5ds 7 ,madame ,v]net1 ! du*ess de ,broglie1 ! y\ng] ,mdme de ,/ael1 ,m4 ,v9et ( ,lausanne1 ,edw>d ,irv+1 ,fr$]ick ,d4 ,maurice1 ,dean ,/anley1 ,bi%op ,ew+1 ,dr ,john ,br[n & ,?omas ,c>lyle4 ,8 wide influ5ce 0 due to 8 high "* & unassum+ e>ne/ness4 ,he di$ at ,ed9burgh on ! #bj? ( ,m>* #ahgj4 ,8 pr9cipal works are ,rem>ks on ! ,int]nal ,evid5ce = ! ,tru? ( ,reveal$ ,religion 7#ahbj71 an ,essay on ,fai? 7#ahbb71 & ! ,unconditional ,fre5ess ( ! ,gospel 7#ahbh74 ,^! h all pass$ ?r\gh sev]al editions1 & h also be5 translat$ into ,fr5*4 ,he is also ! au?or ( ! ,braz5 ,s]p5t 7#ahca71 ! ,doctr9e ( ,election 7#ahci71 sev]al ,introductory ,essays to editions ( ,*ri/ian ,au?ors1 & a po/hum\s "w entitl$ ,spiritual ,ord] & ,o!r ,pap]s 7#ahga74 ,two vols4 ( 8 lett]s1 edit$ by ,william ,hanna1 ,d4,d41 ) rem9isc5ces by ,dean ,/anley & ,pr9cipal ,%airp1 appe>$ 9 #ahgg4 ,,ersk9e1 ,,?omas ,,ersk9e1 #a,,/ ,,b>on 7#agej-ahbc71 "l *ancellor ( ,engl&1 0 ! ?ird & y\nge/ son ( ,h5ry ,david1 #aj? e>l ( ,bu*an1 & 0 born 9 ,ed9burgh on ! #aj? ( ,janu>y #agej4 ,f an e>ly age he %[$ a /rong desire to ent] "o ( ! le>n$ pr(essions2 b 8 fa!r1 ow+ to 8 /rait5$ circum/ances1 0 unable to d m ?an give him a good s*ool education at ! high s*ool ( ,ed9burgh & ! gramm> s*ool ( ,/ ,&rews4 ,9 #agfd he 0 s5t z a mid%ipman on bo>d ! ,t>t>1 b on f9d+1 :5 he return$ to ?is c\ntry aft] f\r ye>s' abs5ce 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & ! ,we/ ,indies1 t !re 0 little imm$iate *ance ( 8 rank ( act+ lieut5ant be+ confirm$1 he quitt$ ! s]vice & ent]$ ! army1 pur*as+ a commission 9 ! #a/ ,royals ) ! meagre patrimony :i* _h be5 left to him4 ,b promotion "h 0 z sl[ z 9 ! navy2 :ile 9 #aggj he _h add$ greatly to 8 difficulties by m>ry+ ! daught] ( ,daniel ,moore1 ,m4,p4 = ,m>l[1 an excell5t wife1 b z poor z himself4 ,h[ev]1 an accid5tal visit to an assize c\rt 9 ! t[n 9 :i* he 0 qu>t]$1 & an int]view ) ,"l ,mansfield1 ! presid+ judge1 confirm$ 8 resolve to quit ! army = ! law4 ,accord+ly on ! #bf? ( ,april #agge he 0 admitt$ a /ud5t ( ,l9coln's ,inn4 ,he also on ! #ac? ( ,janu>y foll[+ ent]$ himself z a g5tleman common] on ! books ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,cambridge1 b m]ely t by graduat+ he might be call$ two ye>s e>li]4 ,he read 9 ! *amb]s ( ,francis ,bull] 7aft]w>ds ,mr ,ju/ice ,bull]7 & ,george 7aft]w>ds ,b>on7 ,wood1 & 0 call$ to ! b> on ! #crd ( ,july #aggh4 ,8 success 0 imm$iate & brilliant4 ,an accid5t 0 ! means ( giv+ him 8 fir/ case1 ,rex v4 ,baillie1 9 :i* he appe>$ = ,capta9 ,?omas ,baillie1 ! lieut5ant-gov]nor ( ,gre5wi* hospital1 :o _h publi%$ a pamphlet animadv]t+ 9 sev]e t]ms ^u ! abuses :i* ,"l ,s&wi*1 ! fir/ "l ( ! admiralty1 _h introduc$ into ! managem5t ( ! hospital1 & aga9/ :om a rule _h be5 obta9$ f ! c\rt ( k+'s b5* to %[ cause :y a crim9al in=mation = libel %\ld n be fil$4 ,ersk9e 0 ! junior ( five c\nsel2 & x 0 8 good =tune t ! prolixity ( 8 lead]s consum$ ! :ole ( ! fir/ day1 !reby giv+ ! advantage ( />t+ afre% next morn+4 ,he made use ( ?is opportunity to deliv] a spee* ( wond]ful eloqu5ce1 skill & c\rage1 :i* captivat$ bo? ! audi5ce & ! c\rt4 ,! rule 0 dis*>g$1 & ,ersk9e's =tune 0 made4 ,he receiv$1 x is said1 ?irty reta9]s be=e he left ! c\rt4 ,9 #agha he deliv]$ ano!r rem>kable spee*1 9 def5ce ( ,"l ,george ,gordon--a spee* :i* gave ! dea?-bl[ to ! doctr9e ( con/ructive treason4 ,9 #aghc1 :5 ! ,coalition m9i/ry came into p[]1 he 0 return$ to p>liam5t z memb] = ,portsm\?4 ,8 fir/ spee* 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons 0 a failure2 & he nev] 9 p>liam5t>y debate possess$ any?+ l ! influ5ce he _h at ! b>4 ,he lo/ 8 seat at ! dissolution 9 ! foll[+ ye>1 & rema9$ out ( p>liam5t until #agij1 :5 he 0 aga9 return$ = ,portsm\?4 ,b 8 success at ! b> cont9u$ unimpair$4 ,9 #aghc he receiv$ a pat5t ( prec$5ce4 ,8 fir/ special reta9] 0 9 def5ce ( ,dr ,w4,d4 ,%ipley1 dean ( ,/ ,asaph1 :o 0 tri$ 9 #aghd at ,%rewsbury = s$iti\s libel--a def5ce to :i* 0 due ! pass+ ( ! ,libel ,act #agib1 lay+ d[n ! pr9ciple t x is = ! jury1 & n = ! judge to decide ! "q :e!r or no a publication is a libel4 ,9 #aghi he 0 c\nsel = ,john ,/ockdale1 a booksell]1 :o 0 *>g$ ) s$iti\s libel 9 publi%+ a pamphlet 9 fav\r ( ,w>r5 ,ha/+s1 ^: trial 0 !n proce$+2 & 8 spee* on ?is occasion1 probably 8 greate/ ef=t1 is a consummate specim5 ( ! art ( address+ a jury4 ,?ree ye>s aft]w>ds he br\ght d[n ! opposition alike ( fri5ds & foes by def5d+ ,?omas ,pa9e1 au?or ( ,! ,rights ( ,man--hold+ t an advocate has no "r1 by refus+ a brief1 to conv]t himself into a judge4 ,z a consequ5ce he lo/ ! (fice ( attorney-g5]al to ! pr9ce ( ,wales1 to :i* he _h be5 appo9t$ 9 #aghf2 ! pr9ce1 h[ev]1 subsequ5tly made am5ds by mak+ him 8 *ancellor4 ,among ,ersk9e's lat] spee*es may be m5tion$ ^? = ,horne ,tooke & ! o!r advocates ( p>liam5t>y re=m1 & t = ,james ,hadfield1 :o 0 accus$ ( %oot+ at ! k+4 ,on ! accession ( ! ,gr5ville m9i/ry 9 #ahjf he 0 made "l *ancellor1 an (fice = :i* 8 tra9+ _h 9 no way prep>$ him1 b :i* he =tunately held only dur+ ! %ort p]iod 8 p>ty 0 9 p[]4 ,( ! rema9d] ( 8 life x w\ld be well if no?+ c\ld be said4 ,occasionally speak+ 9 p>liam5t1 & hop+ t he might return to (fice %\ld ! pr9ce become reg5t1 he gradually deg5]at$ into a /ate ( useless idl5ess4 ,nev] conspicu\s = prud5ce1 he aggravat$ 8 increas+ pov]ty by an un=tunate second m>riage4 ,8 fir/ wife _h di$ 9 #ahje1 & he m>ri$ at ,gretna ,gre5 a ,miss ,m>y ,buck4 ,! date ( ?is m>riage is n def9itely kn[n4 ,once only--9 8 conduct 9 ! case ( ,que5 ,c>ol9e--does he recall 8 =m] self4 ,he di$ at ,almondell1 ,l9li?g[%ire1 on ! #ag? ( ,novemb] #ahbc1 ( pneumonia1 caught on ! voyage to ,scotl&4 ,ersk9e's great =5sic reputation 01 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 a concomitant ( ! num]\s political trials ( ! day1 b x 0 also due to 8 impassion$ eloqu5ce & undaunt$ c\rage1 :i* s (t5 c>ri$ audi5ce & jury & ev5 ! c\rt along ) him4 ,z a judge he did n succe$2 & x has be5 que/ion$ :e!r "u any circum/ances he c\ld h succe$$4 ,= ! (fice ( *ancellor he 0 pla9ly unfit4 ,z a lawy] he 0 well read1 b by no means pr(\nd4 ,8 /r5g? lay 9 ! ke5ness ( 8 reason+ faculty1 9 8 dext]ity & ! ability ) :i* he dis5tangl$ complicat$ masses ( evid5ce1 & above all 9 8 unrivall$ p[] ( fix+ & comm&+ ! att5tion ( juries4 ,to no dep>tm5t ( k b law _h he appli$ himself sy/ematically1 ) ! s+le exception ( ,engli% lit]ature1 ( :i* he acquir$ a ?or\gh ma/]y 9 e>ly life1 at int]vals ( leisure 9 college1 on bo>d %ip1 or 9 ! army4 ,vanity is said to h be5 8 rul+ p]sonal *>act]i/ic2 b ^? :o knew him1 :ile !y admit ! fault1 say t 9 him x nev] took an (f5sive =m1 ev5 9 old age1 :ile ! s+ul> grace & attractiv5ess ( 8 mann] ende>$ him to all ) :om he came 9 contact4 ,by 8 fir/ wife he _h f\r sons & f\r daught]s4 ,8 elde/ son1 ,david ,montagu 7#aggf-ahee71 0 a well-kn[n diplomati/2 8 second son1 ,h5ry ,david 7#aghf-ahei71 0 dean ( ,ripon2 & 8 ?ird son1 ,?omas 7#aghh-ahfd71 became a judge ( ! c\rt ( common pleas4 ,by 8 second wife he _h "o son1 born 9 #ahba4 ,9 #aggb ,ersk9e publi%$ ,obs]vations on ! ,prevail+ ,abuses 9 ! ,briti% ,army1 a pamphlet :i* _h a l>ge circulation1 & 9 lat] life1 ,armata1 an imitation ( ,gulliv]'s ,travels4 ,8 mo/ not$ spee*es h repeat$ly appe>$ 9 a collect$ =m4 ,see ,campbell's ,lives ( ! ,*ancellors2 ,moore's ,di>ies2 ,f]gusson's ,h5ry ,ersk9e 7#ahhb72 ,dum]it's ,h5ry ,ersk9e1 a ,/udy 7,p>is1 #ahhc72 ,"l ,br\gham's ,memoir1 prefix$ to ,ersk9e's ,spee*es 7#ahdg72 ,romilly's ,memoirs2 ! ,crok] ,pap]s2 ,"l ,holl&'s ,memoirs4 ,,erubescite1 a native copp]-iron sulphide1 ,cu#e;,fe,s#d1 ( importance z an ore ( copp]4 ,x cry/allizes 9 ! cubic sy/em1 ! usual =m be+ t ( int]p5etrat+ cubes tw9n$ on an octah$ral plane4 ,! faces are usually curv$ & r\gh1 & ! cry/als confus$ly aggregat$ toge!r4 ,compact & granul> masses are ( m frequ5t occurr5ce4 ,! col\r on a fre%ly fractur$ surface is bronzy or copp]y1 b 9 moi/ air ?is rapidly t>ni%es ) iridesc5t blue & r$ col\rs2 h5ce ! names purple copp] ore1 v>iegat$ copp] ore 7,g]4 ,buntkupf]]z71 horse-fle% ore1 & erubescite 7f ! ,lat4 erubesc]e1 to gr[ r$74 ,! lu/re is metallic1 & ! /reak greyi%-black2 h>dness #c2 sp4 gr4 #e4j4 ,bornite 7aft] ,b>on ,ignaz von ,born1 b4 #agdb1 d4 #agia7 is a "n 9 common use = ?is m9]al1 & x pr$ates erubescite1 ! "n giv5 by ,j4,d4 ,dana 9 #ahej1 b aft]w>ds reject$ by him2 ,fr5* au?ors use ! "n phillipsite1 aft] ! ,engli% m9]alogi/1 ,r4 ,phillips1 :o analys$ ! m9]al2 bo? ^! e>li] names _h1 h[ev]1 be5 previ\sly us$ = o!r m9]als4 ,ow+ to ! frequ5t pres5ce ( me*anically admix$ *alcopyrite & *alcocite1 ! publi%$ analyses ( erubescite %[ wide v>iations1 ! copp]1 = example1 v>y+ f #ej to #gj4 ,ev5 ! be/ ,corni% cry/als enclose a nucleus ( *alcopyrite 7,cu,fe,s#b71 & an analysis ( ^! made 9 #ahci l$ to ! long-accept$ =mula ,cu#c;,fe,s#c4 ,rec5tly1 ,b4,j4 ,h>r+ton has analys$ c>efully select$ mat]ial & obta9$ ! =mula ,cu#e;,fe,s#d4 ,erubescite occurs 9 copp]-be>+ ve9s1 & has be5 m9$ z an ore ( copp] at ,r$ru? 9 ,cornwall1 ,montecat9i 9 ! prov9ce ( ,pisa1 ,tuscany1 ,bri/ol 9 ,connecticut1 ,acton 9 ,canada1 & o!r localities 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! be/ cry/alliz$ specim5s are f ! ,c>n ,brea m9e & o!r copp] m9es 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,r$ru?1 & f ,bri/ol 9 ,connecticut4 ,rec5tly a few l>ge isolat$ cry/als ) ! =m ( icositetrah$ra h be5 f\nd ) calcite & albite 9 a gold-ve9 on ,frossnitz-,alpe 9 ! ,gross-,v5$ig]1 ,tirol4 7,l4 ,j4 ,s47 ,,erysipelas 7a ,greek ^w1 probably d]iv$ f ,greek3 ery?ros1 r$1 & ,greek3 pella1 sk97--synonyms1 ! ,rose1 ,/ ,an?ony's ,fire--an acute contagi\s disease1 *>act]iz$ by a special inflammation ( ! sk91 caus$ by a /reptococcus4 ,erysipelas is endemic 9 mo/ c\ntries1 & epidemic at c]ta9 seasons1 p>ticul>ly ! spr+ ( ! ye>4 ,! poison is n v virul5t1 b x c]ta9ly c be convey$ by b$d+ & ! clo!s ( a ?ird p]son4 ,two v>ieties are occasionally describ$1 a traumatic & an idiopa?ic1 b ! disease seems to dep5d 9 all cases ^u ! exi/5ce ( a w\nd or abrasion4 ,9 ! s-call$ idiopa?ic v>iety1 ( :i* facial erysipelas is ! be/ kn[n1 ! po9t ( entry is probably an abrasion by ! la*rymal duct4 ,:5 ! erysipelas is ( mod]ate "* !re is simply a r$ness ( ! integum5t1 :i* feels some:at h>d & ?ick5$1 & ^u :i* !re (t5 appe> small vesications4 ,?is r$ness1 ?\gh at fir/ circumscrib$1 t5ds to spread & affect ! neighb\r+ s\nd sk91 until an entire limb or a l>ge area ( ! body may become involv$ 9 ! inflammatory process4 ,!re is usually consid]able pa91 ) heat & t+l+ 9 ! affect$ "p4 ,z ! disease advances ! portions ( sk9 fir/ attack$ become less inflam$1 & exhibit a yell[i% appe>ance1 :i* is foll[$ by slight desquamation ( ! cuticle4 ,! inflammation 9 g5]al gradually disappe>s4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 x breaks out aga91 & passes ov] ! area orig9ally affect$ ! second "t4 ,b besides ! sk91 ! subjac5t tissues may become involv$ 9 ! inflammation1 & give rise to ! =mation ( pus4 ,?is is t]m$ phlegmon\s erysipelas1 & is mu* m apt to occur 9 connexion ) ! traumatic v>iety ( ! disease4 ,occasionally ! affect$ p>ts become gangr5\s4 ,c]ta9 complications are apt to arise 9 erysipelas affect+ ! surface ( ! body1 p>ticul>ly inflammation ( s]\s membranes1 su* z ! p]ic>dium or pleura4 ,erysipelas ( ! face usually beg9s ) symptoms ( g5]al illness1 ! pati5t feel+ languid1 dr[sy & sick1 :ile frequ5tly !re is a di/9ct rigor foll[$ ) fev]4 ,sore ?roat is sometimes felt1 b 9 g5]al ! fir/ indication ( ! local affection is a r$ & pa9ful spot at ! side ( ! nose or on "o ( ! *eeks or e>s4 ,occasionally x w\ld appe> t ! inflammation beg9s 9 ! ?roat1 & rea*es ! face ?r\gh ! nasal fossae4 ,! r$ness gradually spreads ov] ! :ole surface ( ! face1 & is accompani$ ) swell+1 :i* 9 ! lax tissues ( ! *eeks & eyelids is s great t ! features soon become oblit]at$ & ! c\nt5ance we>s a hide\s expression4 ,advanc+ ov] ! scalp1 ! disease may invade ! neck & pass on to ! trunk1 b 9 g5]al ! inflammation rema9s conf9$ to ! face & head4 ,:ile ! disease progresses1 besides ! pa91 t5d]ness & heat ( ! affect$ p>ts1 ! con/itutional symptoms are v sev]e4 ,! temp]ature rises (t5 to #aje deg4 or high]1 rema9s high = f\r or five days1 & !n falls by crisis4 ,delirium is a frequ5t accompanim5t4 ,! attack 9 g5]al la/s = a week or t5 days1 dur+ :i* ! inflammation subsides 9 ! p>ts ( ! sk9 fir/ attack$1 :ile x spreads onw>ds 9 o!r directions1 & aft] x has pass$ away !re is1 z already obs]v$1 "s slight desquamation ( ! cuticle4 ,al?\gh 9 g5]al ! t]m9ation is fav\rable1 s]i\s & occasionally fatal results foll[ f inflammation ( ! membranes ( ! bra91 & 9 "s r>e in/ances sudd5 dea? has occurr$ f suffocation aris+ f o$ema glottidis1 ! inflammatory action hav+ spread into & ext5sively involv$ ! ?roat4 ,"o attack ( ?is disease1 s f> f protect+ f1 appe>s r to pr$ispose to o!rs4 ,x is sometimes a complication 9 c]ta9 =ms ( exhau/+ disease1 su* z ph?isis or typhoid fev]1 & is !n to be reg>d$ z ( s]i\s import4 ,a v fatal =m occasionally attacks new-born infants1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! fir/ f\r weeks ( _! lives4 ,9 epidemics ( pu]p]al fev] ?is =m ( erysipelas has be5 specially f\nd to prevail4 ,! treatm5t ( erysipelas is be/ conduct$ on ! expectant sy/em4 ,! disease 9 mo/ in/ances t5ds to a fav\rable t]m9ation2 & beyond att5tion to ! condition ( ! /oma* & b[els1 :i* may require ! use ( "s g5tle laxative1 little is necess>y 9 ! way ( m$ic9e4 ,! employm5t ( prep>ations ( iron 9 l>ge doses is /rongly recomm5d$ by _m physicians4 ,b ! *ief po9t is ! adm9i/ration ( abundant n\ri%m5t 9 a light & dige/ible =m4 ,( ! _m local applications :i* may be employ$1 hot fom5tations w be f\nd among ! mo/ soo?+4 ,du/+ ! affect$ "p ) p[d]$ />*1 & wrapp+ x 9 cotton wadd+1 is also ( use4 ,9 ! case ( phlegmon\s erysipelas complicat+ w\nds1 free incisions into ! "p are necess>y4 ,,ery?rae mod4 ,litri1 "o ( ! ,ionian cities ( ,asia ,m9or1 situat$ on a small p59sula /ret*+ into ! ,bay ( ,ery?rae1 at an equal di/ance f ! m\nta9s ,mimas & ,corycus1 & directly opposite ! isl& ( ,*ios4 ,9 ! p59sula excell5t w9e 0 produc$4 ,! t[n 0 said to h be5 f\nd$ by ,ionians "u ,knopos1 son ( ,codrus4 ,nev] a l>ge city1 x s5t only eight %ips to ! battle ( ,lade4 ,! ,ery?raeans own$ = a consid]able "t ! supremacy ( ,a!ns1 b t[>ds ! close ( ! ,peloponnesian w> !y ?rew (f _! allegiance to t city4 ,aft] ! battle ( ,cnidus1 h[ev]1 !y receiv$ ,conon1 & paid him hon\rs 9 an inscription1 /ill extant4 ,ery?rae 0 ! bir?place ( two prophetesses--"o ( :om1 ,sibylla1 is m5tion$ by ,/rabo z liv+ 9 ! e>ly p]iod ( ! city2 ! o!r1 ,a!nais1 liv$ 9 ! "t ( ,alex&] ! ,great4 ,! ru9s include well-pres]v$ ,hell5i/ic walls ) t[]s1 ( :i* five are /ill visible4 ,! acropolis 7#bhj ft47 has ! !atre on its ,n4 slope1 & ea/w>ds lie _m rema9s ( ,byzant9e build+s4 ,mod]n ,litri is a consid]able place & port1 ext5d+ f ! anci5t h>b\r to ! acropolis4 ,! small] coa/+ /eam]s call1 & !re is an active trade ) ,*ios & ,smyrna4 ,,ery?rite1 ! "n giv5 to 7#a7 a m9]al compos$ ( a hydrat$ cobalt ars5ate1 & 7#b7 9 *emi/ry1 a tetrahydric alcohol4 7#a7 ,! m9]al ery?rite has ! =mula ,co#c7;,as,o#d7b4h;,h#b,o1 & cry/allizes 9 ! monocl9ic sy/em & is isomorph\s ) vivianite4 ,x sometimes occurs z beautiful radially-arrang$ gr\ps ( blade-%ap$ cry/als ) a bright crimson col\r & brilliant lu/re4 ,on exposure to light ! col\r & lu/re det]iorate4 ,!re is a p]fect cleavage p>allel to ! plane ( symmetry1 on :i* ! lu/re is pe>ly4 ,cleavage flakes are s(t 7,h #b71 sectile & flexible2 specific gravity #b4ie4 ,! m9]al is1 h[ev]1 m (t5 f\nd z an e>?y encru/ation ) a pea*-blossom col\r1 & 9 ?is =m 0 e>ly 7#agbg7 kn[n z cobalt-bloom 7,g]4 ,kobaltblu!74 ,! "n ery?rite1 f ,greek3 ery?ros1 r$1 0 giv5 by ,f4,s4 ,beudant 9 #achb4 ,ery?rite occurs z a product ( alt]ation ( smaltite 7,co,as#b7 & o!r cobaltif]\s ars5ides4 ,! f9e/ cry/alliz$ specim5s are f ,s*neeb]g 9 ,saxony4 ,! e>?y v>iety has be5 f\nd 9 ,?ur+ia & ,cornwall & "s o!r places4 7#b7 ,! alcohol ery?rite has ! con/itutional =mula ,,ho4,h#b;,c4,,*7,,oh74,,*7,,oh74,,*#b,, oh2 x is also kn[n z ery?rol1 ery?rogluc9 & phycite4 ,x corresponds to t>t>ic acid1 &1 l ?is sub/ance1 x occurs 9 f\r /]eo-isom]ic =ms4 ,! int]nally comp5sat$ modification1 i-ery?rite1 correspond+ to mesot>t>ic acid1 occurs free 9 ! algae ,protococcus vulg>is1 & z ! orsell9ate1 ery?r91 ,c#d;,h#f7,,oh7#b7,o4,c#h;,h#g,o#c7b1 9 _m li*5s & algae1 especially ,roccella montagnei4 ,x has a sweet ta/e1 melts at #abf deg41 & boils at #ccj deg4 ,c>eful oxidation ) dilute nitric acid gives ery?rose or tetrose1 :i* is probably a mixture ( a trioxyaldehyde & trioxyketone4 ,en]getic oxidation gives ery?ritic acid & mesot>t>ic acid4 i-,ery?rite & ! racemic mixture ( ! dextro & laevo v>ieties 7 syn!siz$ by ,gr9] 9 #ahic f div9yl4 ,,erz]um1 or ,,arzrum 7,arm4 ,g>971 ! *ief t[n ( an important vilayet ( ! same "n 9 ,asiatic ,turkey4 ,x is a milit>y /ation & a =tress ( consid]able /rategical value1 clos+ ! roads f ,k>s1 ,olti & o!r p>ts ( ! fronti]4 ,sev]al important r\tes f ,trebizond & v>i\s p>ts ( ,anatolia conv]ge t[>ds x f ! we/4 ,x is situat$ at ! ea/]n end ( an op5 b>e pla91 #cj m4 long & ab\t #ab wide1 bord]$ by /eep1 r\nd$ m\nta9s & trav]s$ by ! ,k>a ,su1 or we/]n ,euphrates1 :i* has its s\rce 9 ! ,dumlu ,dagh a few miles nor? ( t t[n1 :i* lies at an elevation ( #fbej ft4 above sea-level1 :ile ! ne> hills rise to #aj1jjj ft4 ,! sc5]y 9 ! neighb\rhood is /rik+1 l(ty b>e m\nta9s be+ v>i$ by op5 pla9s & long valleys dott$ ) villages4 ,j ea/ ( ! t[n is ! broad ridge ( ! ,deveboyun 7,camel's ,neck71 across :i* ! road passes to ,k>s4 ,to ! s\? is ! ,pal&uk5 range1 f :i* em]ge num]\s /reams1 supply+ ! t[n ) excell5t wat]4 ,9 ! pla9 to ! nor? ! ,k>a ,su trav]ses ext5sive m>%es :i* af=d good wildf[l-%oot+ 9 ! spr+4 ,! t[n is surr\nd$ by an e>!n ence9te or ramp>t ) "s =ts on ! hills j above x1 & o!rs on ! ,deveboyun ridge fac+ ea/1 ! :ole =m+ a position ( consid]able /r5g?4 ,! old walls & ! citadel h disappe>$4 ,inside ! ramp>ts ! t[n lies r cramp$1 ) n>r[1 crook$ /reets1 badly dra9$ & dirty2 ! h\ses are g5]ally built ( d>k grey volcanic /one ) flat ro(s1 ! g5]al aspect1 ow+ to ! abs5ce ( trees1 be+ some:at gloomy4 ,! wat]-supply f ,pal&uk5 is di/ribut$ by wood5 pipes to num]\s public f\nta9s4 ,! t[n has a population ( ab\t #dc1jjj1 includ+ ab\t #aj1jjj ,arm5ians1 #bjjj ,p]sians & a few ,jews4 ,x has a g>rison 9 peace ( ab\t #ejjj m54 ,x is ! seat ( ! ,briti% consulate = ,kurdi/an1 & !re are o!r ,european consulates besides an ,am]ican mission ) s*ools4 ,! great altitude acc\nts = v sev]e w9t] cold1 occasionally #aj deg4 to #be deg4 bel[ z]o ,f41 accompani$ by blizz>ds 7tipi7 sometimes fatal to travell]s ov]tak5 by !m4 ,! summ] heat is mod]ate 7#ei deg4 to #gg deg474 ,!re are sev]al well-built mosques 7none old] ?an ! #af? c5tury71 public ba?s1 & sev]al good khans4 ,!re are ,arm5ian & ,ca?olic *ur*es1 b ! mo/ beautiful build+ is a m$resse erect$ 9 ! #ab? c5tury by ! ,seljuks1 ) ornam5tal doorway & two graceful m9>ets kn[n z ! ,*ifte ,m9>e4 ,situat$ on ! ma9 road f ,trebizond into nor?-we/ ,p]sia1 ! t[n has always a l>ge c>avan traffic1 pr9cipally ( camels1 b s9ce ! improvem5t ( communications 9 ,russia ?is has decl9$4 ,a good c>riage-road leads to ! coa/ at ,trebizond1 ! j\rney be+ made 9 five or six days4 ,!re are also roads to ,k>s1 ,bayazid1 ,erz+an & ,kh>put4 ,blacksmi?s' & copp]smi?s' "w is bett] "h ?an 9 mo/ ,turki% t[ns2 horse-%oes & brasswork are also fam\s4 ,!re are sev]al tann]ies1 & ,turki% boots & saddles are l>gely made4 ,j]k$ beef 7pasdirma7 is also prep>$ 9 l>ge quantities = w9t] use4 ,! pla9 produces :eat1 b>ley1 millet & vegetables4 ,wood fuel is sc>ce1 ! pres5t supply be+ f ! ,tortum di/rict1 :5ce surface coal & lignite are also br\ght2 b ! usual fuel is tezek or dri$ c[-dung4 ,! baza>s are ( no great int]e/4 ,good ,p]sian c>pets & simil> goods c be obta9$4 ,erz]um is a t[n ( great antiquity1 & has be5 id5tifi$ ) ! ,arm5ian ,g>9 ,kalakh1 ! ,arabic ,kalikale1 & ! ,byzant9e ,!odosiopolis ( ! #e? c5tury1 :5 x 0 a fronti] =tress ( ! empire--h5ce its "n ,erz5-er-,rum4 ,x 0 captur$ by ! ,seljuks 9 #abja1 :5 x 0 an important city1 & x fell into ,turki% possession 9 #aeag4 ,9 ,july #ahbi x 0 captur$ by ! ,russian g5]al ,paskevi*1 & ! occupation cont9u$ until ! peace ( ,adrianople 7,septemb] #ahbi74 ,! t[n 0 unsuccessfully attack$ by ! ,russians on ! #i? ( ,novemb] #ahgg aft] a victory ga9$ by !m a %ort "t previ\sly on ! ,deveboyun heights2 x 0 occupi$ by !m dur+ ! armi/ice 7#g? ( ,febru>y #ahgh7 & re/or$ to ,turkey aft] ! treaty ( ,b]l94 ,9 #ahei a sev]e e>?quake de/roy$ mu* ( ! t[n1 & ano!r 9 ,novemb] #aija caus$ mu* damage4 ,! ,erz]um vilayet ext5ds f ! ,p]sian fronti] at ,bayazid1 all along ! ,russian fronti] & we/w>d into ,anatolia at ,baiburt & ,erz+an4 ,x is divid$ into ! ?ree sanjaks ( ,bayazid1 ,erz]um1 & ,erz+an4 ,x includes ! highe/ portion ( ! ,arm5ian plateau1 & consi/s ( b>e undulat+ upl&s v>i$ by l(ty ranges4 ,! deep gorges ( ! ,*orokh & ,tortum /reams nor? ( ! t[n alone h a diff]5t appe>ance1 be+ well wood$ 9 places4 ,bo? arms ( ! ,euphrates h _! rise 9 ?is c\ntry z well z ! ,aras 7,araxes7 & ! ,*orokh 7,acampsis74 ,x is an agricultural c\ntry ) few indu/ries4 ,besides =e/s1 iron1 salt1 sulphur & o!r m9]al spr+s are f\nd4 ,"s ( ! coal & lignite m9es 9 ,tortum h be5 rec5tly work$ to supply fuel = ,erz]um4 ,! population is l>gely ,arm5ian & ,kurd ) "s ,turks 7,moslems #ejj1jjj1 ,*ri/ians #adj1jjj74 7,c4 ,w4 ,w42 ,f4 ,r4 ,m47 ,,erzgebirge1 a m\nta9 *a9 ( ,g]many1 ext5d+ 9 a ,w4,s4,w4 direction f ! ,elbe to ! ,el/]gebirge along ! fronti] betwe5 ,saxony & ,bohemia4 ,its l5g? f ,e4,n4,e4 to ,w4,s4,w4 is ab\t #hj m41 & its av]age bread? ab\t #be m4 ,! s\!rn declivity is g5]ally /eep & rugg$1 =m+ 9 "s places an almo/ p]p5dicul> wall ( ! height ( f #bjjj to #bejj ft42 :ile ! nor!rn1 divid$ at int]vals into valleys1 sometimes ( great f]tility & sometimes wildly romantic1 slopes gradually t[>ds ! great pla9 ( nor!rn ,g]many4 ,! c5tral "p ( ! *a9 =ms a plateau ( an av]age height ( m ?an #cjjj ft4 ,at ! extremities ( ?is plateau are situat$ ! highe/ summits ( ! range3--9 ! s\?-ea/ ! ,keilb]g 7#djhj ft472 9 ! nor?-ea/ ! ,fi*telb]g 7#cihj ft472 & 9 ! s\?-we/ ! ,spitzb]g 7#cfej ft474 ,betwe5 ! ,keilb]g & ! ,fi*telb]g1 at ! height ( ab\t #ccjj ft41 is situat$ ,gottesgab1 ! highe/ t[n 9 ,bohemia4 ,geologically1 ! ,erzgebirge range consi/s ma9ly ( gneiss1 mica & phyllite4 ,z its "n 7,ore ,m\nta9s7 indicates1 x is fam\s = its m9]al ores4 ,^! are *iefly silv] & lead1 ! lay]s ( bo? ( :i* are v ext5sive1 t91 nickel1 copp] & iron4 ,gold is f\nd 9 sev]al places1 & "s ars5ic1 antimony1 bismu?1 manganese1 m]cury & sulphur4 ,! ,erzgebirge is celebrat$ = its lace manufactures1 introduc$ by ,b>b>a ,uttmann 9 #aeda1 embroid]ies1 silk-weav+ & toys4 ,! climate is 9 w9t] inclem5t 9 ! high] elevations1 &1 z ! sn[ lies deep until ! spr+1 ! range is l>gely frequ5t$ by devotees ( w9t] sport1 ski1 tobogann+1 c4 ,9 summ] ! air is brac+1 & _m climatic heal? resorts h sprung into exi/5ce1 among :i* may be m5tion$ ,kipsdorf1 ,b>5fels & ,ob]wies5?al4 ,communication ) ! ,erzgebirge is provid$ by num]\s l9es ( railway1 "s1 su* z t f ,freib]g to ,brux1 t f ,*emnitz to ,komotau1 & t f ,zwickau to ,c>lsbad1 cross+ ! range1 :ile v>i\s local l9es s]ve ! high] valleys4 ,! ,el/]gebirge1 a range "s #af m4 9 l5g?1 9 :i* ! ,weisse ,el/] has its s\rce1 runs ,s4,w4 f ! ,erzgebirge to ! ,fi*telgebirge & atta9s a height ( #bfcj ft4 ,see ,grohmann1 ,das ,ob]]zgebirge und se9e ,/adte 7#aijc71 & ,s*urtz1 ,die ,passe des ,erzgebirges 7#ahia72 also ,daniel1 ,deuts*l&1 vol4 ii41 & ,gebau]1 ,l&] und ,volk]kunde1 vol4 i4 ,,erz+an1 or ,,erz9jan 7,ars+a ( ! middle ages71 ! *ief t[n ( a sanjak 9 ! ,erz]um vilayet ( ,asiatic ,turkey4 ,x is ! headqu>t]s ( ! ,,iv4 army corps1 be+ a place ( "s milit>y importance1 ) l>ge b>racks & milit>y factories4 ,x is situat$ at an altitude ( #cijj ft41 ne> ! we/]n end ( a ri* well-wat]$ pla9 ?r\gh :i* runs ! ,k>a ,su or we/]n ,euphrates4 ,x is surr\nd$ by or*>ds & g>d5s1 & is ab\t a mile f ! "r bank ( ! riv]1 :i* "h runs 9 two wide *annels cross$ by bridges4 ,"o wide /reet trav]ses ! t[n f ea/ to we/1 b ! o!rs are n>r[1 unpav$ & dirty1 except ne> ! new gov]nm5t build+s & ! l>ge mod]n mosque ( ,hajji ,izzet ,pa%a to ! nor?1 :i* are ! only build+s ( note4 ,! pr9cipal b>racks1 milit>y hospital & clo?+ factory are at ,k>ateluk on ! pla9 & along ! foot-hills to ! nor? #c m4 (f1 "o rec5t addition to ! bus9ess build+s hav+ electric p[] & mod]n ,briti% ma*9]y2 "s old] b>racks & a milit>y tann]y & boot factory be+ 9 ! t[n4 ,! population numb]s ab\t #ae1jjj1 ( :om ab\t half are ,arm5ians liv+ 9 a sep>ate qu>t]4 ,! pr9cipal indu/ries are ! manufacture ( silk & cotton & ( copp] di%es & ut5sils4 ,! climate is hot 9 summ] b mod]ate 9 w9t]4 ,a c>riage-road leads to ,trebizond1 & o!r roads to ,sivas1 ,k>ahiss>1 ,erz]um & ,kh>put4 ,! pla91 almo/ surr\nd$ by l(ty m\nta9s1 is highly productive ) _m villages on x & ! bord] hills4 ,:eat1 fruit1 v9es & cotton are l>gely gr[n1 & cattle & %eep are br$4 ,wat] is ev]y:]e abundant1 & !re are iron & hot sulphur spr+s4 ,! battle 9 :i* ! sultan ( ,rum 7#abdc7 0 defeat$ by ! ,mongols took place on ! pla91 & ! celebrat$ ,arm5ian mona/]y ( ,/ ,gregory1 ! ,illum9ator1 lies on ! hills #aa m4 ,s4,w4 ( ! t[n4 ,erz+an occupies ! site ( an e>ly t[n 9 :i* 0 a temple ( ,anaitis4 ,x 0 an important place 9 ! #d? c5tury :5 ,/ ,gregory liv$ 9 x4 ,! di/rict pass$ f ! ,byzant9es to ! ,seljuks aft] ! defeat ( ,romanus1 #ajga1 & f ! latt] to ! ,mongols 9 #abdc4 ,aft] hav+ be5 held by ,mongols1 ,tat>s & ,turkomans1 x 0 add$ to ! ,osmanli empire by ,mahomm$ ,,ii4 9 #adgc4 ,9 #aghd ! t[n 0 almo/ de/roy$ by an e>?quake4 7,c4 ,w4 ,w42 ,f4 ,r4 ,m47 ,,es>-,,haddon ,assur-akhi-idd9a1 ,assur has giv5 a bro!r1 ,assyrian k+1 son ( ,s5na*]ib2 be=e 8 accession to ! ?rone he _h also borne ano!r "n1 ,assur-etil-ilani-yuk9-abla4 ,at ! "t ( 8 fa!r's murd] 7! #bj? ( ,tebet1 #fha ,b4,c47 he 0 comm&+ ! ,assyrian army 9 a w> aga9/ ,ar>at4 ,! conspirators1 aft] hold+ ,n9eveh = #db days1 _h be5 compell$ to fly nor?w>d & invoke ! aid ( ! k+ ( ,ar>at4 ,on ! #ab? ( ,iyy> 7#fhj ,b4,c47 a decisive battle 0 f\ght ne> ,malatia1 9 :i* ! vet]ans ( ,assyria won ! day1 & at ! close ( x salut$ ,es>-haddon z k+4 ,he return$ to ,n9eveh1 & on ! #h? ( ,sivan 0 cr[n$ k+4 ,a good g5]al1 ,es>-haddon 0 also an able & conciliatory adm9i/rator4 ,8 fir/ act 0 to cru% a rebellion among ! ,*aldaeans 9 ! s\? ( ,babylonia & !n to re/ore ,babylon1 ! sacr$ city ( ! ,we/1 :i* _h be5 de/roy$ by 8 fa!r4 ,! walls & temple ( ,bel 7 rebuilt1 its gods br\ght back1 & aft] 8 "r to rule _h be5 solemnly ackn[l$g$ by ! ,babylonian prie/hood ,es>-haddon made ,babylon 8 second capital4 ,a ye> or two lat] ,m$ia 0 invad$ & ,m$ian *iefs came to ,n9eveh to (f] homage to _! conqu]or4 ,he n[ turn$ to ,pale/9e1 :]e ! rebellion ( ,abdi-milkutti ( ,zidon 0 suppress$1 its lead] behead$1 & a new ,zidon built out ( ! ru9s ( ! old] city 7#fgf-fge ,b4,c474 ,all ,pale/9e n[ submitt$ to ,assyria1 & #ab ,syrian & #aj ,cyprian pr9ces 7includ+ ,manasseh ( ,judah7 came to pay him homage & supply him ) mat]ials = 8 palace at ,n9eveh4 ,b a m =midable enemy _h appe>$ on ! ,assyrian fronti] 7#fgf ,b4,c474 ,! ,cimm]ii 7see ,,scy?ia7 "u ,teuspa p\r$ into ,asia ,m9or2 !y 71 h[ev]1 ov]?r[n 9 ,cilicia1 & ! ,cilician m\nta9e]s :o _h jo9$ !m 7 sev]ely puni%$4 ,x 0 next necess>y to secure ! s\!rn fronti] ( ! empire4 ,es>-haddon accord+ly m>*$ into ! he>t ( ,arabia1 to a di/ance ( ab\t #ijj m41 across a burn+ & wat]less des]t1 & /ruck t]ror into ! ,arabian tribes4 ,at la/ he 0 free to complete ! policy ( 8 pr$ecessors by conqu]+ ,egypt1 :i* alone rema9$ to ?reat5 ,assyrian dom9ion 9 ! ,we/4 ,baal ( ,tyre _h transf]r$ 8 allegiance f ,es>-haddon to ! ,egyptian k+ ,tirhaka & op5$ to ! latt] ! coa/ road ( ,pale/9e2 leav+ a =ce1 !re=e1 to inve/ ,tyre1 ,es>-haddon l$ ! ma9 body ( ! ,assyrian troops into ,egypt on ! #e? ( ,ad>1 #fgc ,b4,c4 ,! des]t 0 cross$ ) ! help ( ! ,arabian %eikh4 ,egypt seems to h submitt$ to ! invad] & 0 divid$ into tw5ty satrapies4 ,ano!r campaign1 h[ev]1 0 ne$$ be=e x c\ld be f9ally subdu$4 ,9 #fgj ,b4,c4 ,es>-haddon drove ! ,egyptian =ces be=e him 9 #ae days 7f ! #crd to ! #ah? ( ,tammuz7 all ! way f ! fronti] to ,memphis1 ?rice defeat+ !m ) heavy loss & w\nd+ ,tirhaka himself4 ,?ree days aft] ,memphis fell1 & ?is 0 soon aft]w>ds foll[$ by ! surr5d] ( ,tyre & its k+4 ,9 #ffh ,b4,c4 ,egypt aga9 revolt$1 & :ile on ! m>* to r$uce x ,es>-haddon fell ill & di$ on ! #aj? ( ,m>*esvan4 ,8 empire 0 divid$ betwe5 8 two sons ,assur-bani-pal & ,samas-sum-yuk91 ,assur-bani-pal receiv+ ,assyria & 8 bro!r ,babylonia1 an arrangem5t1 h[ev]1 :i* did n prove to be a success4 ,es>-haddon 0 ! build] ( a palace at ,n9eveh z well z ( "o :i* he erect$ at ,calah = ,assur-bani-pal4 ,,au?orities4--,e4,a4,w4 ,budge1 ,hi/ory ( ,es>haddon 7#ahhj72 ,e4 ,s*rad]1 ,keil9s*riftli*e ,biblio!k1 ii4 7#ahhi7 7,abel & ,w9ckl] 9 ii4 pp4 #abj-aec72 ,g4 ,masp]o1 ,pass+ ( ! ,empires1 pp4 #cde sqq42 ,f4 von ,lus*an1 ,ausgrabung5 9 ,s5ds*irli1 i4 7,mitteilung5 aus d5 ori5talis*5 ,sammlung51 #ahic74 7,a4 ,h4 ,s47 ,,esau1 ! son ( ,isaac & ,rebecca1 9 ! ,bible1 & ! eld] tw9 bro!r ( ,jacob4 ,he 0 s call$ because he 0 r$ 7admoni7 & hairy :5 he 0 born1 & ! "n ,edom 7r$7 0 giv5 to him :5 he sold 8 bir?right to ,jacob = a meal ( r$ l5til pottage 7,g54 xxv4 #ba-cd74 ,ano!r /ory ( ! mann] 9 :i* ,jacob obta9$ ! sup]iority is relat$ 9 ,g54 xxvii4 ,"h ! y\ng] bro!r imp]sonat$ ! eld]1 & succe$$ 9 deceiv+ 8 bl9d fa!r by imitat+ ! hair9ess ( 8 bro!r4 ,he ?us ga9$ ! bless+ int5d$ = ! fir/-born1 & ,esau1 on he>+ h[ he _h be5 =e/all$1 v[$ to kill him4 ,jacob accord+ly fl$ to 8 "m's relatives1 & on 8 return1 _m ye>s lat]1 peace 0 re/or$ betwe5 !m 7xxxii4 sq474 ,^! primitive /ories ( ! relations betwe5 ! eponym\s heads ( ! ,edomites & ,israelites are due to ! old] 7,judaean7 s\rces2 ! late notices ( ! ,prie/ly s*ool 7see ,,g5esis7 pres]ve a diff]5t acc\nt ( ! p>t+ ( ! two 7,g54 xxxvi4 #f-h71 & lay great /ress ^u ,esau's m>riages ) ! ,canaanites ( ! l&1 unions :i* 7 view$ 7f ! writ]'s /&po9t7 ) great av]sion 7,g54 xxvi4 #cd sq41 xxvii4 #df74 ,= ,esau z a designation ( ! ,edomites1 cf4 ,j]4 xlix4 #h1 ,obad4 vv4 #f1 #h1 & on _! hi/ory1 see ,,edom4 ,esau's *>act]i/ic hair9ess 7,g54 xxv4 #be1 xxvii4 #aa7 has giv5 rise to ! sugge/ion t 8 "n is prop]ly 'e%av1 f a root correspond+ to ! ,arab4 'a?iya1 to h ?ick or matt$ hair4 ,mt ,seir1 too1 :]e he resid$1 etymologically sugge/s a %aggy m\nta9-l&4 ,accord+ to ,hommel 7,sud-arab4 ,*re/om4 p4 #ci sq47 ! "n ,esau has ,s4 ,arabian analogies4 ,on ! possible id5tity ( ! "n ) ,usoos1 ! ,pho5ician demi-god 7,philo ( ,byblus1 ap4 ,eusebius1 ,praep4 ,evang4 i4 #aj71 see ,*eyne1 ,encyc4 ,bib4 col4 #accc2 ,lagrange1 ,etudes sur les religions semitiques1 p4 #daf 7,p>is1 #aije72 ,ed4 ,mey]1 ,israelit51 #bgh sq4 7&1 on g5]al que/ions1 ib4 #abh sq41 #cbi sqq474 7,s4 ,a4 ,c47 ,,esbj]g1 a seaport ( ,d5m>k 9 ! amt 7c\nty7 ( ,ribe1 #ah m4 f ! ,g]man fronti] on ! we/ coa/ ( ,jutl&4 ,x has railway communication ) ! ea/ & nor? ( ,jutl&1 & ) ,g]many4 ,x 0 grant$ municipal rights 9 #aijj1 hav+ gr[n ) a/oni%+ rapidity f #ac inhabitants 9 #ahfh to #ac1cee 9 #aija4 ,?is gr[? x owes to ! con/ruction ( a l>ge h>b\r 9 #ahfh-ahhh4 ,x is ! pr9cipal outlet we/w>d = ,s4 ,jutl&2 exports pork & meat1 butt]1 eggs1 fi%1 cattle & %eep1 sk9s1 l>d & agricultural se$s1 & has regul> communication ) ,h>wi* & ,grimsby 9 ,engl&4 ,?ree miles ,s4,e4 is ,nordby on ! isl& ( ,fano1 ! nor!rnmo/ ( ! ,nor? ,frisian *a94 ,x is an arid bank ( hea?l& & dunes1 b bo? ,nordby & ,sond]ho 9 ! s\? are frequ5t$ z seaside resorts4 ,! =m] has a s*ool ( navigation4 ,! fi%]ies are valuable4 ,,escanaba1 a city & ! c\nty-seat ( ,delta c\nty1 ,mi*igan1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,little ,bay de ,noquette1 an inlet ( ,gre5 ,bay1 ab\t #fj m4 ,s4 ( ,m>quette4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #fhjh2 7#aijj7 #iedi1 ( :om #cbad 7 =eign-born2 7#aiaj c5sus7 #ac1aid4 ,x is s]v$ by ! ,*icago ,nor?-,we/]n & ! ,escanaba ,lake ,sup]ior railways4 ,x is built on a picturesque promontory :i* sep>ates ! wat]s ( ,gre5 ,bay f ,little ,bay de ,noquette1 & its delightful summ] climate1 wild l&scape sc5]y & facilities = boat+ & tr\t fi%+ make x a popul> summ] resort4 ,escanaba has a wat] front ( #h m41 & is an important c5tre = ! %ipm5t ( iron-ore1 = :i* eight l>ge & well-equipp$ docks are provid$--!re is an ore-cru%+ plant "h2 consid]able quantities ( lumb] & fi% are also %ipp$1 & furniture1 floor+ 7especially ( maple7 & wood5 w>e 7butt]-di%es & clo!s-p9s7 are manufactur$4 ,!re is a l>ge tie-pres]v+ plant "h4 ,good wat] p[] is suppli$ by ! ,escanaba riv]4 ,escanaba 0 settl$ 9 #ahfc1 0 incorporat$ z a village 9 #ahhc1 & 0 fir/ *>t]$ z a city 9 ! same ye>4 ,,escape 79 mid4 ,eng4 es*ape or escape1 f ! ,o4 ,fr4 es*app]1 mod]n e*app]1 & escap]1 l[ ,lat4 escapium1 f ex1 out (1 & cappa1 cape1 cloak2 cf4 = ! s5se developm5t ! ,gr4 ,greek3 ekdue/hai1 lit]ally to put (f "o's clo!s1 h5ce to slip out (1 get away71 a v]b mean+ to get away f1 especially f imp5d+ dang] or h>m1 to avoid capture1 to rega9 "o's lib]ty aft] capture4 ,z a sub/antive1 escape1 9 law1 is ! rega9+ ( lib]ty by "o 9 cu/ody contr>y to due process ( law4 ,su* escape may be by =ce1 if out ( prison x is g5]ally kn[n z prison-brea* or prison-break+1 or by ! volunt>y or neglig5t act ( ! cu/odian4 ,:]e ! escape is caus$ by ! =ce or fraud ( o!rs x is t]m$ rescue 7q4v474 ,escape is us$ 9 botany ( a cultivat$ plant f\nd gr[+ wild4 ,! ^w is also us$ ( a means ( escape1 e4g4 fire-escape1 & ( a loss or leakage ( gas1 curr5t ( electricity or wat]4 ,,es*atology 7,gr4 ,greek3 es*atos1 la/1 & ,greek3 logos1 sci5ce2 ! doctr9e ( la/ ?+s71 a !ological t]m d]iv$ f ! ,new ,te/am5t phrases ! la/ day 7,greek3 en te es*ate hem]a1 ,john vi4 #ci71 ! la/ times 7,greek3 ep es*aton ton *ronon1 #a ,pet] i4 #bj71 ! la/-/ate 7,greek3 ta es*ata1 ,matt4 xii4 #de71 a conception tak5 ov] f anci5t prophecy 7,is4 ii4 #b2 ,mal4 iv4 #a74 ,x 0 ! common belief 9 ! apo/olic age t ! second adv5t ( ,*ri/ 0 ne>1 & w\ld give ! div9e completion to ! _w's hi/ory4 ,! use ( ! t]m1 h[ev]1 has be5 ext5d$ s z to include all t is taught 9 ! ,scriptures ab\t ! future life ( ! individual z well z ! f9al de/9y ( ! _w4 ,! reasons = ! belief 9 a life aft] dea? are discuss$ 9 ! article ,,immortality4 ,! pres5t article1 aft] a brief glance at ! conceptions ( ! future ( ! individual or ! _w f\nd 9 o!r religions1 w deal ) ! tea*+ ( ! ,old & ,new ,te/am5ts1 ! ,jewi% & ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* reg>d+ ! h]eaft]4 ,!re is a bewild]+ v>iety 9 ! views ( ! future life & _w held by diff]5t peoples4 ,! future life may be conceiv$ z simply a cont9uation ( ! pres5t life 9 its ess5tial features1 al?\gh "u conditions m or less fav\rable4 ,x may also be ?\ght ( z retributive1 z a rev]sal ( pres5t conditions s t ! mis]able are com=t$1 & ! prosp]\s laid l[1 or z a rew>d or puni%m5t = good or evil des]t "h4 ,p]sonal id5tity may be absorb$1 z 9 ! transmigration ( s\ls1 or x may ev5 be d5i$1 :ile ! good or bad result ( "o life is held to det]m9e ! weal or woe ( ano!r4 ,! sc5e ( ! future life may be ?\ght ( on e>?1 9 "s di/ant "p ( x1 or above ! e>?1 9 ! sky1 sun1 moon or />s1 or b5ea? ! e>?4 ,! abodes ( bliss & ! places ( torm5t may be di/+ui%$1 or "o la/ dwell+-place may be affirm$ = all ! dead4 ,sometimes ! good f9d _! abid+ home ) ! gods2 sometimes a numb] ( heav5s ( v>y+ degrees ( bless$ness is recogniz$ 7see ,f4,b4 ,jevons1 ,an ,introduction to ! ,hi/ory ( ,religion1 *s4 xxi4 & xxii41 #aijb2 & ,j4,a4 ,mac,culloch's ,comp>ative ,!ology1 xiv41 #aijb74 ,ea/]n ,religions4 7#a7 ,confucius1 ?\gh unwill+ to discuss any que/ions conc]n+ ! dead1 by approv+ ance/or-wor%ip recogniz$ a future life4 7#b7 ,taoism promises immortality z ! rew>d ( m]it4 7#c7 ,! ,book ( ! ,dead--a guide-book = ! dep>t$ on 8 long j\rney 9 ! unse5 _w to ! abode ( ! bless$--%[s ! att5tion ! ,egyptian religion gave to ! /ate ( ! dead4 7#d7 ,al?\gh ! ,babylonian religion pres5ts a v gloomy view ( ! _w ( ! dead1 x is n )\t a few fa9t glimpses ( a hope t a few mortals at lea/ may ga9 deliv]ance f ! dread doom4 7#e7 ,a *>act]i/ic feature ( ,indian ?\ght is ! transmigration ( ! s\l f "o mode ( life to ano!r1 ! physical condition ( ea* be+ det]m9$ by ! moral & religi\s "* ( ! prec$+4 ,b deliv]ance f ?is cycle ( exi/5ces1 :i* is conceiv$ z mis]y1 is promis$ by means ( speculation & asceticism4 ,d5y+ ! cont9uance ( ! s\l1 ,buddhism affirm$ a cont9uity ( moral consequ5ces 7,k>ma71 ea* successive life be+ det]m9$ by ! total moral result ( ! prec$+ life4 ,its doctr9e ( salvation 0 a guide to1 if n absolute non-exi/5ce1 yet cessation ( all consci\sness ( exi/5ce 7,nirvana74 ,lat] ,buddhism has1 h[ev]1 a doctr9e ( _m heav5s & hells4 7#f7 ,9 ,zoroa/rianism n only 0 cont9uance ( life recogniz$1 b a /rict retribution 0 taught4 ,heav5 & hell 7 v cle>ly di/+ui%$1 & ea* s\l accord+ to its works pass$ to ! "o or to ! o!r4 ,b ?is fai? did n conc]n itself only ) ! future lot ( ! individual s\l4 ,x 0 also int]e/$ 9 ! close ( ! _w's hi/ory1 & taught a decisive1 f9al victory ( ,ormuzd ov] ,ahriman1 ( ! =ces ( good ov] ! =ces ( evil4 ,x is n at all improbable t ,jewi% es*atology 9 its lat] developm5ts 0 p[]fully influ5c$ by ! ,p]sian fai?4 7#g7 ,mahomm$anism reproduces & exagg]ates ! l[] features ( popul> ,jewi% & ,*ri/ian es*atology 7see ! sep>ate articles on ^! religions74 ,old ,te/am5t4 ,9 ! ,old ,te/am5t we c trace ! gradual developm5t ( an ev] m def9ite doctr9e ( ! f9al condition ( man & ! _w4 ,?is is reg>d$ z ! la/ /age 9 a moral process1 a r$emptive purpose ( ,god4 ,! es*atology ( ! ,old ,te/am5t is ?us closely connect$ )1 b n limit$ by1 ,messianic hope1 z !re are es*atological tea*+s t are n ,messianic4 ,z ! ,old ,te/am5t revelation is conc]n$ prim>ily ) ! elect nation1 & only second>ily 79 ! lat] writ+s7 ) ! individual p]sons compos+ x1 we foll[ ! ord] ( importance z well z ( "t 9 deal+ fir/ ) ! p4 ,! univ]salism :i* m>ks ! promise to ! se$ ( ! woman 7,g54 iii4 #ae7 appe>s also 9 ! bless+ ( ,noah 7ix4 #be74 ,9 ! promise to ,abraham 7xii4 #c7 ?is univ]sal good is directly relat$ to ,god's p>ticul> purpose = ,8 *os5 p2 s also 9 ! bless+ ( ,jacob 7xlix47 & ( ,moses 7,deut4 xxxiii474 ,david's la/ words 7#b ,sam4 xxiii47 bl5d toge!r 8 desire t 8 family %\ld reta9 ! k+%ip1 & 8 aspiration = a k+dom ( righte\sness on e>?4 ,! conception ( ! ,day ( ! ,"l is frequ5t & prom95t 9 ! prophets1 & ! s5se giv5 to ! phrase by ! p & by ! prophets ?r[s into bold relief ! contra/ betwe5 popul> beliefs & ! prophetic fai?4 ,! p simply expect$ deliv]ance f _! mis]ies & burd5s by ! int]v5tion ( ,yahweh1 because ,he _h *os5 ,israel = ,8 p4 ,! prophets _h an e?ical conception ( ,yahweh2 ! s9 ( ,8 own p & ( o!r nations call$ = ,8 int]v5tion 9 judgm5t z ! moral rul] ( ! _w4 ,b judgm5t !y conceiv$ z prep>+ = r$emption4 ,! day ( ! ,"l is always an es*atological conception1 z ! t]m is appli$ to ! f9al & univ]sal judgm5t1 & n to any less decisive int]v5tion ( ,god 9 ! c\rse ( human hi/ory4 ,9 ! pre-exilic prophets ! judgm5t ( ,god is prim>ily on ,israel1 al?\gh x also embraces ! nations2 dur+ ! ,exile & at ! ,re/oration ! judgm5t is repres5t$ z fall+ on ! nations :ile r$emption is be+ wr\ght = ,god's p2 aft] ! ,re/oration ! p ( ,god is aga9 ?reat5$1 b /ill ! w>n+ ( judgm5t is ma9ly direct$ t[>ds ! nations & deliv]ance is promis$ to ,israel4 ,z ! manife/ation ( ,god 9 grace z well z judgm5t1 ! day ( ! ,"l w br+ joy to ,israel & ev5 to ! _w4 ,z a day ( judgm5t x is accompani$ by t]rible convulsions ( nature 7n to be tak5 figuratively1 b probably int5d$ lit]ally by ! prophets 9 accordance ) _! view ( ! absolute subord9ation ( nature to ! div9e purpose = man74 ,x u%]s 9 ! ,messianic age4 ,:ile ! moral issues are f9ally det]m9$ by ?is day1 yet ! _w ( ! ,messianic age is pa9t$ ) ! col\rs ( ! prophet's own surr\nd+s4 ,israel is re/or$ to its own l&1 & to x ! o!r nations are br\ght into subjugation1 by =ce or p]suasion4 ,! contributions ( ! ,old ,te/am5t to ,*ri/ian es*atology embrace ^! features3 7#a7 ,! manife/ation or adv5t ( ,god2 7#b7 ! univ]sal judgm5t2 7#c7 beh9d ! judgm5t ! com+ ( ! p]fect k+dom ( ! ,"l1 :5 all ,israel %all be sav$ & :5 ! nations %all be p>tak]s ( _! salvation2 & 7#d7 ! f9ality & et]nity ( ?is condition1 t :i* con/itutes ! bless$ness ( ! sav$ p be+ ! ,pres5ce ( ,god 9 ! mid/ ( !m--?is la/ po9t correspond+ to ! ,*ri/ian idea ( heav5 7,a4,b4 ,davidson1 9 ,ha/+s's ,bible ,diction>y1 i4 p4 #gch74 ,?is hope is = ! p on ?is e>? ?\gh transfigur$4 ,to ! individual x w\ld seem at fir/ only old age is promis$ 7,is4 lxv4 #bj2 ,ze*4 viii4 #d71 b ! abolition ( dea? itself is also decl>$ 7,is4 xxv4 #h74 ,! resurrection1 :i* appe>s at fir/ z a revival ( ! dead nation 7,hos4 vi4 #b2 ,ez4 xxxvii4 #ab-ad71 is aft]w>ds promis$ = ! pi\s individuals 7,is4 xxvi4 #ai71 s t !y too may %>e 9 ! national re/oration4 ,only 9 ,daniel xii4 #b is taught a resurrection ( ! wick$ to %ame & ev]la/+ contempt z well z ( ! righte\s to ev]la/+ life4 ,x 0 only at ! ,exile1 :5 ! nation ceas$ to be1 t ! wor? ( ! individual came to be recogniz$1 & ! hopes giv5 to ! nation 7 claim$ = ! individual4 ,9 deal+ ) ! individual es*atology we mu/ c>efully di/+ui% ! popul> ideas reg>d+ dea? & ! h]eaft] :i* ,israel %>$ ) ! o!r ,semitic peoples1 f ! intuitions1 inf]5ces1 aspirations evok$ 9 ! pi\s by ! div9e revelation itself4 ,! =m] h n ! moral significance or ! religi\s value ( ! latt]4 ,! />t+-po9t ( ! developm5t 0 ! common belief t ! dead cont9u$ to exi/ 9 an unsub/antial mode ( life1 b cut (f f fell[%ip ) ,god & man2 b fai? left ?is f> beh9d4 ,%eol is ! common abode ( ! righte\s & ! ungodly3 life !re is %ad[y & feeble1 b seems to cont9ue 9 a wav]+ & dim reflection features ( ?is life4 ,z ! pres5t life is1 h[ev]1 det]m9$ by moral issues1 & z dea? does n *ange man's relation to ,god1 moral consid]ations c\ld n be absolutely exclud$ f ! future life4 ,a =w>d /ep _h to be tak54 ,pi\s m51 9 fell[%ip ) ,god1 :5 !y fac$ ! fact ( dea?1 7 l$ ei!r to *all5ge its "r1 or to give a new mean+ to x4 ,ei!r !re 0 a prote/ aga9/ dea? itself1 & a dem& = immortality 7,ps4 xvi4 #i-aa71 or dea? 0 conceiv$ z some?+ diff]5t = ! sa9t & = ! s9n]2 fell[%ip ) ,god w\ld n & c\ld n be int]rupt$ 7,ps4 xlix4 #ad1 #ae1 lxxiii4 #ag-bh74 ,! vision ( ,god is anticipat$ aft] dea?'s sleep 7,ps4 xvii4 #ae2 ,job xix4 #be-bg74 ,?is belief 9 individual immortality is express$ poetically & obscurely3 x is lat] ?an ! es*atology ( ! p4 ,x assumes ! moral di/9ction ( ! righte\s & ! ungodly1 & seeks a solution = ! problem ( ! lack ( h>mony ( pres5t "* & condition4 ,its deepe/ motive1 h[ev]1 is religi\s4 ,! s\l once 9 fell[%ip ) ,god _c ev5 by dea? be sep>at$ f ,god4 ,! individual hop$ t he w\ld live to %>e ! nation's good1 & ?us ! two /reams ( ,old ,te/am5t es*atology at la/ fl[ toge!r4 ,apocryphal & ,apocalyptic books4 ,x is 9 ! apocryphal & apocalyptic lit]ature ( ,judaism t ! fulle/ developm5t ( es*atology c be trac$4 ,f\r words may s]ve to express ! diff]5ce ( ! doctr9e ( ^! writ+s & ! tea*+ ( ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,es*atology 0 univ]saliz$ 7,god 0 recogniz$ z ! creator & moral gov]nor ( all ! _w71 individualiz$ 7,god's judgm5t 0 direct$1 n to nations 9 a future age1 b to individuals 9 a future life71 transc5d5taliz$ 7! future age 0 m & m contra/$ ) ! pres5t1 & ! transition f ! "o to ! o!r 0 n expect$ z ! result ( hi/orical movem5ts1 b ( miracul\s div9e acts71 & dogmatiz$ 7! attempt 0 made to sy/ematize 9 "s measure ! vague & v>i$ prophetic anticipations74 ,only a v brief summ>y ( ! conceptions curr5t 9 ^! writ+s c be giv54 ,! com+ ( ! ,messiah w be prec$$ by ! ,la/ ,woes4 ,! ,messiah is v v>i\sly conceiv$3 7#a7 a passive1 ?\gh supreme memb] ( ! ,messianic ,k+dom2 7#b7 an active w>rior :o slays 8 enemies ) 8 own h&2 7#c7 "o :o slays 8 enemies by ! ^w ( 8 m\?1 & rules by virtue ( 8 ju/ice1 fai? & hol9ess2 7#d7 a sup]natural p]son1 et]nal ,rul] & ,judge ( ,mank9d 7,r4,h4 ,*>les 9 ,ha/+s's ,bible ,diction>y1 i4 p4 #gdh74 ,9 "s ( ! writ+s no ,messianic k+dom is look$ =2 9 o!rs only a temporal duration on e>? is assign$ to x2 9 o!rs /ill x abides = ev] ei!r on e>? z x is1 or on e>? trans=m$4 ,! disp]sion among ! nations is to return home4 ,sometimes ! ,resurrection is n>r[$ d[n to ! resurrection ( ! righte\s1 at o!rs wid5$ out to ! resurrection ( all mank9d = ! la/ judgm5t4 ,a bless$ immortality aft] judgm5t1 or ev5 aft] dea? itself1 is sometimes taught )\t ref]5ce to any resurrection4 ,retribution 9 human hi/ory is recogniz$1 b att5tion is specially conc5trat$ on ! f9al judgm5t1 :i* is usually conceiv$ z tak+ place 9 two /ages4 7#a7 ,! ,messianic is execut$ by ! ,messiah or ! sa9ts by victory 9 w>1 or by judicial s5t5ce4 7#b7 ,! f9al rema9s 9 ,god's h&s2 b 9 "o writ+ 7! ,e?iopic ,eno*7 is repres5t$ z ,messiah's function4 ,?is judgm5t ei!r closes ! ,messianic age1 if ?\ght ( z temporal1 or u%]s x 91 if conceiv$ z et]nal1 or closes ! _w's hi/ory1 if no ,messianic age is expect$4 ,! place ( torm5t = ! wick$ 0 call$ ,geh5na 7! valley ( ,h9nom or ! ,sons ( ,h9nom1 :]e ! bodies ( crim9als 7 ca/ out1 is describ$ 9 ,is4 lxvi4 #bd74 ,"h corporal z well z spiritual puni%m5t 0 endur$2 x 0 inflict$ on apo/ate ,jews or ! wick$ g5]ally2 ! righte\s witness$ its initial /ages b n its f9al =m4 ,9 lat] ,judaism x 0 ! purgatory ( fai?less ,jews1 :o at la/ rea*$ ,p>adise1 b x rema9$ ! place ( et]nal torm5t = ! ,g5tiles4 ,p>adise 0 sometimes reg>d$ z ! division ( ,%eol to :i* ! righte\s pass$ aft] dea?1 b at o!rs x 0 conceiv$ z ! heav5ly abode ( ,moses1 ,eno* & ,elijah1 to :i* o!r sa9ts w\ld pass aft] ! la/ judgm5t4 ,new ,te/am5t4 ,ph>isees & ,sadducees4 ,! es*atology ( ! ,new ,te/am5t atta*es itself n only to t ( ! ,old ,te/am5t b also to t ( contempor>y ,judaism1 b x avoids ! extravagances ( ! latt]4 ,n at all sy/ematic1 x is occasional1 practical1 poetical & dom9antly evangelical1 lay+ /ress on ! hope ( ! righte\s r ?an ! doom ( ! wick$4 ,! tea*+ ( ,jesus c5tres1 accord+ to ! ,synopti/s1 9 ! great idea ( ! ,k+dom ( ,god1 :i* is already pres5t 9 ! tea*] ,himself1 b also future z reg>ds its completion4 ,9 "s p>ables a gradual realization ( ! k+dom is indicat$ 7,matt4 xiii472 9 o!r utt]ances its consummation is connect$ ) ,*ri/'s own return1 ,8 ,p>\sia 7,matt4 xxiv4 #c1 #cg1 #ci71 ! "t ( :i*1 h[ev]1 is unkn[n ev5 to ,himself 7,m>k xiii4 #cb74 ,9 ?is es*atological disc\rse 7,matt4 xxiv41 xxv47 ,he speaks ( ! de/ruction ( ,j]usalem & ( ! end ( ! _w z ne>1 & seem+ly z "o4 ,?is is 9 accordance ) ! *>act]i/ic ( prophecy1 :i* sees 9 timeless sequ5ce ev5ts :i* are hi/orically sep>at$ f "o ano!r4 ,:ile ! ,return is repres5t$ 9 ! ,synopti/s z an ext]nal ev5t1 x is conceiv$ 9 ! f\r? gospel z an int]nal exp]i5ce 9 ! op]ation ( ! ,_s on ! believ] 7,john xiv4 #af-ba72 nev]!less "h also ! ,p>\sia 9 ! synoptic s5se is look$ = 7,john xxi4 #bb2 cf4 #a ,john ii4 #bh74 ,! object ( ! ,second ,com+ is ! execution ( judgm5t by ,*ri/ 7,matt4 xxv4 #ca71 bo? individual 7xxii4 #a-ad7 & univ]sal 7xiii4 #cf-db74 ,! pres5t subjective judgm5t1 9 :i* m5 det]m9e _! de/9y by _! attitude to ,*ri/1 on :i* ! f\r? gospel lays /ress 7,john iii4 #ag-ba1 ix4 #ci71 is n inconsi/5t ) ! anticipation ( a f9al judgm5t 7,john xii4 #dh1 v4 #bg74 ,?is judgm5t presupposes ! resurrection1 belief 9 :i* 0 reject$ by ! ,sadducees1 b accept$ by ! ,ph>isees & ! majority ( ! ,jewi% p1 & confirm$ by ,*ri/1 n only z an individual spiritual r5ovation 7,john v4 #be1 #bf71 b z a univ]sal physical resuscitation 7#bh & #bi2 ,matt4 xxii4 #cj74 ,?is resurrection is ( ! unju/ z well z ! j 7,matt4 v4 #bi1 #cj1 x4 #bh2 ,luke xiv4 #ad74 ,on ! ,int]m$iate ,/ate ,jesus does n speak cle>ly4 ,he uses ! t]m ,hades twice metaphorically 7,matt4 xi4 #bc1 xvi4 #ah71 & once 9 a p>able1 ! ,ri* ,man & ,laz>us 7,luke xvi4 #bc71 9 :i* he employs ! curr5t phrases su* z ,abraham's bosom 7v]se #bb71 )\t any def9ite doctr9al int5tion1 to unveil ! secrets ( ! h]eaft] by confirm+ ) ,8 au?ority ! common beliefs ( ,8 "t4 ,! t]m ,p>adise 7,luke xxiii4 #dc7 seems to be us$ 9 a l>ge & g5]al s5se z a ^w ( hope & com=t1 & we ne$ n atta* to x any ( ! m def9ite associations :i* x _h 9 ,jewi% es*atology4 ,:5 he speaks ( dea? z sleep 7,luke viii4 #eb2 ,john xi4 #aa7 x is to give m5 g5tl] & sweet] ?\ghts ( x1 n to inculcate ! doctr9e ( an int]m$iate /ate z an unconsci\s condition4 ,!re are words :i* sugge/ r ! hope ( an imm$iate entrance ( ! j into ! ,fa!r's h\se & glory 7,john xiv4 #b1 #c1 xvii4 #bd74 ,he spoke frequ5tly & di/9ctly bo? ( f9al rew>d = ! righte\s & f9al p5alty = ! wick$4 ,! recomp5se ( ! righte\s is describ$ z an inh]itance1 entrance into ! k+dom1 treasure 9 heav51 an exi/5ce l ! angelic1 a place prep>$1 ! ,fa!r's h\se1 ! joy ( ! ,"l1 life1 et]nal life & ! l2 & !re is no intimation t ! rew>d is capable ( *ange1 t ! condition is a t]m9able "o4 ,! retribution ( ! wick$ is describ$ z dea?1 out] d>kness1 weep+ & wail+ & gna%+ ( tee?1 ! undy+ worm1 ! qu5*less fire1 exclusion f ! k+dom1 et]nal puni%m5t & ! l 7,s4,d4,j4 ,salmond 9 ,ha/+s's ,bible ,diction>y1 p4 #geb74 ,degrees ( aw>d are recogniz$ 7,luke xii4 #dg1 #dh74 ,geh5na is appli$ to ! condition ( ! lo/ 7,matt4 xviii4 #i74 ,two say+s are held to po9t to a t]m9able p5alty 7,matt4 v4 #be1 #bf1 xii4 #ca1 #cb71 b ! "o is s figurative & ! o!r s obscure1 t we are n w>rant$ 9 draw+ any su* def9ite conclusion f ei!r ( !m4 ,! f9ality ( de/9y seems to be unmi/akably express$ 7,matt4 vii4 #bc1 x4 #cc1 xiii4 #cj1 xxv4 #df1 xxvi4 #bd2 ,m>k ix4 #dc-dh1 viii4 #cf2 ,luke ix4 #bf2 ,john iii4 #af1 viii4 #ba1 #bd74 ,no second opportunity = decid+ ! issue ( life or dea? is recogniz$ by ,jesus4 ,! apo/olic es*atology pres5ts resemblance amid diff]5ce4 ,jude 7v4 #f71 z well z #b ,pet] 7ii4 #d71 ref]s to ! judgm5t ( ! fall5 angels4 #b ,pet] describes ! place ( _! det5tion z ,t>t>us1 & tea*es t ,*ri/'s ,p>\sia is to br+ ! :ole pres5t sy/em ( ?+s to its conclusion1 & ! _w itself to an end 7iii4 #aj1 #ac74 ,aft] ! de/ruction ( ! exi/+ ord] by fire1 a new heav5 & a new e>? w appe> z ! abode ( righte\sness4 ,! "q ( greate/ int]e/ 9 #a ,pet] is ! relation ( two passages 9 x1 ! prea*+ to ! spirits 9 prison 7iii4 #ah-bb7 & ! prea*+ ( ! ,gospel to ! dead 7iv4 #f7 to ! l>g] hope4 ,pet]'s disc\rse also conta9s a phrase :i* sugge/s ! belief ( a desc5t ( ,*ri/ into ,hades 9 ! int]val betwe5 ,8 dea? & ,8 resurrection 7,acts ii4 #ca74 ,no c]ta9ty has be5 rea*$ 9 ! int]pretation ( ^! passages1 b !y may sugge/ to ! ,*ri/ian m9d ! expectation t ! f9al de/9y ( no s\l c be fix$ until 9 "s way or o!r1 9 ?is life or ! next1 ! opportunity ( decision = or aga9/ ,*ri/ has be5 giv54 ,! phrase ! times ( re/oration ( all ?+s 7iii4 #ba7 is too vague 9 itself1 & is too isolat$ 9 its context to w>rant ! dogmatic tea*+ ( univ]salism1 al?\gh !re are o!r passages :i* seem to po9t t[>ds ! same goal4 ,:ile ,john's ,apocalypse is di/9ctly es*atological1 ! ,epi/les & ! ,gospels (t5 give ^! conceptions an e?ical & spiritual import1 )\t1 h[ev]1 exclud+ ! es*atological4 ,life is pres5t :ile et]nal 7#a ,john v4 #ab1 #ac71 b x is also future 7ii4 #be74 ,!re is expect$ a future manife/ation ( ,*ri/ z ,he is1 & :at ! believ] himself w be does n yet appe> 7iii4 #b74 ,! writ] speaks ( ! la/ h\r 7ii4 #ah71 ! ,anti*ri/ t come? 7ii4 #bb1 iv4 #c71 & ! ,*ri/ian's full rew>d 7#b ,john v4 #h7 z well z ! ,p>\sia 7#a ,john ii4 #bh74 ,! ,apocalypse reproduces mu* ( ! curr5t ,jewi% es*atology4 ,a mill5nial reign ( ,*ri/ on e>? is int]pos$ betwe5 ! fir/ resurrection1 conf9$ to ! sa9ts & especially ! m>tyrs1 & ! second resurrection = ! re/ ( ! dead4 ,a f9al outbur/ ( ,satan's p[] is foll[$ by 8 ov]?r[ & ! ,la/ ,judgm5t4 ,al?\gh ,paul sometimes describes ! ,k+dom ( ,god z pres5t 7,rom4 xiv4 #ag2 #a ,cor4 iv4 #bj2 ,col4 i4 #ac71 x is usually repres5t$ z future4 ,! ,p>\sia fills a l>ge place 9 8 ?\ght1 &1 if m prom95t 9 8 e>li] writ+s1 is n altoge!r abs5t f 8 lat]1 al?\gh ! expectation ( p]sonal survival does seem to gr[ less confid5t 7cf4 #a ,cor4 xv4 #ea & ,phil4 i4 #bj-bd74 ,! doctr9es ( ! ,resurrection1 ! ,la/ ,judgm5t1 ! ,rew>d ( ! ,righte\s & ! ,puni%m5t ( ! ,wick$ are n less di/9ctly express$ ?an 9 ! o!r apo/olic writ+s4 ,peculi> elem5ts 9 ,paul's es*atology are ! doctr9es ( ! ,rapture ( ! ,sa9ts 7#a ,!ss4 iv4 #ag7 & ! ,man ( ,s9 7#b ,!ss4 ii4 #c-f71 b ^! h aff9ities else:]e4 ,a ref]5ce to ! mill5nial reign ( ,*ri/ 9 ! p]iod betwe5 ! two resurrections is sometimes s\ght 9 #a ,cor4 xv4 #bb-bd2 b x is n a *ronology ( ! la/ ?+s ,paul is "h giv+4 ,s also a ju/ification = ! doctr9e ( purgatory is s\ght 9 iii4 #ab-ae2 b ! day & ! fire are ( ! la/ judgm5t4 ,a desc5t ( ,*ri/ into ,hades1 imply+ an ext5sion ( ! opportunity ( grace su* z is suppos$ to be taught 9 #a ,pet]1 is also discov]$ 9 ! obscure /atem5ts 9 ,rom4 x4 #g 7:]e ,paul is freely quot+ ,deut4 xxx4 #aa-ad71 & ,eph4 iv4 #aj 7:]e he is comm5t+ on ,ps4 lxviii4 #ah74 ,univ]sal re/oration is inf]r$ f #a ,cor4 xv4 #bd-bh1 ,god all 9 all1 ,phil4 ii4 #aj-aa1 e knee b[+ to1 & e tongue confess+ ,jesus ,*ri/1 ,eph4 i4 #i1 #aj1 ! summ+ up ( all ?+s 9 ,*ri/1 ,col4 i4 #bj1 ,god reconcil+ all ?+s unto ,himself 9 ,*ri/4 ,^! passages inspire a hope1 b d n su/a9 a c]ta9ty4 ,paul's %r9k+ f ! disembodi$ /ate & long+ to be clo!d ^u at dea? 9 #b ,cor4 v4 #a-h1 _c be reg>d$ z a pro( ( an int]im body prior to & prep>atory = ! resurrection body4 ,paul l9ks ! human resurrection ) a univ]sal r5ovation 7,rom4 viii4 #ai-bc74 ,paul's es*atology is n free ( obscurities & ambiguities2 & 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t es*atology g5]ally we are =c$ to recognize a mixture ( inh]it$ ,jewi% & orig9al ,*ri/ian elem5ts 7see ,,anti*ri/74 ,dur+ ! fir/ c5tury ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ,g5tile ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 ! hope ( ! approa*+ end ( ! _w & ! glori\s k+dom ( ,*ri/ 0 dom9ant1 al?\gh w>n+s _h to be giv5 aga9/ d\bt & indiff]5ce4 ,r$emption 0 ?\ght ( z /ill future1 z ! p[] ( ! devil _h n be5 brok5 b r increas$ by ! ,fir/ ,adv5t1 & ! ,second ,adv5t 0 necess>y to 8 complete ov]?r[4 ,! expectations 7 (t5 grossly mat]iali/ic1 z is evid5c$ by ,papias's quotation z ! words ( ! ,"l ( a gr\p ( say+s f ! ,apocalypse ( ,b>u*1 sett+ =? ! amaz+ fruitfulness ( ! e>? 9 ! ,messianic "t4 ,gno/ics4 ,montanism4 ,! ,gno/ics reject$ ?is es*atology z 9 _! view ! enlight5$ _s already possess$ immortality4 ,m>cion expect$ t ! ,*ur* w\ld be assail$ by ,anti*ri/2 a visible return ( ,*ri/ he did n tea*1 b he recogniz$ t human hi/ory w\ld issue 9 a sep>ation ( ! good f ! bad4 ,montanism s\ght to =m a new ,*ri/ian commonweal? :i*1 sep>at$ f ! _w1 %\ld prep>e itself = ! desc5t ( ! ,j]usalem f above1 & its e/abli%m5t 9 ! spot :i* by ! direction ( ! ,_s _h be5 *os5 9 ,phrygia4 ,:ile ,ir5aeus held fa/ ! traditional es*atological beliefs1 yet 8 conception ( ! ,*ri/ian salvation z a deification ( man t5d$ to weak5 _! hold on ,*ri/ian ?\ght4 ,! ,alogi 9 ! #bnd c5tury reject$ ! ,apocalypse on acc\nt ( its *iliasm1 its tea*+ ( a visible reign ( ,*ri/ on e>? = a ?\s& ye>s4 ,montanism also br\ght ^! apocalyptic expectations into discr$it 9 or?odox ecclesia/ical circles4 ,! ,alex&rian !ology /r5g!n$ ?is movem5t aga9/ *iliasm4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria taught t ju/ice is n m]ely retributive1 t puni%m5t is rem$ial1 t probation cont9ues aft] dea? till ! f9al judgm5t1 t ,*ri/ & ! apo/les prea*$ ! ,gospel 9 ,hades to ^? :o lack$ k1 b ^: he>t 0 "r1 t a spiritual body w be rais$4 ,orig5 taught t a g]m ( ! spiritual body is 9 ! pres5t body1 & its developm5t dep5ds on ! "*1 t p]fect bliss is rea*$ only by /ages1 t ! evil are purifi$ by pa91 consci5ce be+ symboliz$ by fire1 & t all1 ev5 ! devil himself1 w at la/ be sav$4 ,bo? reg>d$ *iliasm ) av]sion4 ,b 9 ! #e? c5tury !re 7 reject$ z h]etical 7#a7 ! doctr9e ( univ]salism1 & ! possibility ( ! r$emption ( ! devil2 7#b7 ! doctr9e ( ! complete annihilation ( evil2 7#c7 ! conception ( ! p5alties ( hell z tortures ( consci5ce2 7#d7 ! spiritualiz+ v]sion ( ! resurrection ( ! body2 7#e7 ! idea ( ! cont9u$ creation ( new worlds 7,a4 ,h>nack1 ,hi/ory ( ,dogma1 iii4 p4 #ahf74 ,epiphanius1 foll[+ ,me?odius1 insi/$ on ! mo/ p]fect id5tity betwe5 ! resurrection body & ! mat]ial body2 & ?is belief1 en=c$ 9 ! ,we/ by ,j]ome1 soon e/abli%$ itself z alone or?odox4 ,augu/9e made exp]im5ts on ! fle% ( a peacock 9 ord] to f9d physical evid5ce = ! doctr9e4 ,he held fa/ to et]nal puni%m5t1 b all[$ ! possibility ( mitigations4 ,"s believ]s1 he taught1 may pass ?r\gh purgatorial fires2 & ?is middle class may be help$ by ! sacram5ts & ! alms ( ! liv+4 ,!re are _m s\ls n good en\gh to disp5se ) ?is provision1 & n bad en\gh to be b5efit$ by x 7op4 cit4 v4 #bcc74 ,?is doctr9e 0 sanction$ & develop$ by ,gregory ! ,great4 ,aft] ,god has *ang$ et]nal puni%m5ts into tempor>y1 ! ju/ifi$ mu/ expiate ^! tempor>y p5alties = s9 9 purgatory 7p4 #bfh74 ,?is view 0 inf]r$ indirectly f ,matt4 xii4 #ca1 & directly f #a ,cor4 iii4 #ab-ae4 ,aft]w>ds purgatory took m & m ! place ( hell1 & 0 subject to ! control ( ! *ur*4 ,z reg>ds ! sa9ts1 diff]5t degrees ( bless$ness 7 recogniz$2 !y 7 suppos$ to wait 9 ,hades = ! return ( ,*ri/1 b gradually ! belief ga9$ gr\nd1 especially 9 reg>d to ! m>tyrs1 t _! s\ls at once ent]$ ,p>adise4 ,! primitive ,*ri/ian es*atology 0 pres]v$ 9 ! ,we/ z x 0 n 9 ! ,ea/1 & 9 times ( exceptional di/ress ! expectation ( ,anti*ri/ em]g$ aga9 & aga94 ,9 ! middle ages !re 0 an extravagance ( speculation on ?is subject1 :i* may be se5 9 ! la/ division ( ,aqu9as' ,summa ,!ologiae4 ,he proposes ?irty que/ions on ^! matt]s1 among :i* are ! foll[+3 :e!r s\ls are conduct$ to heav5 or hell imm$iately aft] dea?2 :e!r ! limbus ( hell is ! same z ,abraham's bosom2 :e!r ! sun & moon w be really obscur$ at ! day ( judgm5t2 :e!r all ! memb]s ( ! human body w rise ) x2 :e!r ! hair & nails w reappe>2 c\ld ?\ght become m lawless & unc]ta98 ,9 ,prote/ant ,!ology4 ,:ile reject+ purgatory1 ,prote/antism took ov] ?is es*atology4 ,s\ls pass$ at once to heav5 or to hell2 a doctr9e ev5 less adequate to ! complex quality ( human life4 ,lu!r himself look$ = ! pass+ away ( ! pres5t evil _w4 ,soc9ianism taught a new spiritual body1 an int]m$iate /ate 9 :i* ! s\l is ne> non-exi/5ce1 an annihilation ( ! wick$1 z immortality is ! gift ( ,god4 ,sw$5borg disc>ds a physical resurrection1 z at dea? ! eyes ( m5 are op5$ to ! spiritual _w 9 :i* we exi/ n[1 & !y cont9ue to live ess5tially z !y liv$ "h1 until by _! aff9ities !y are drawn to heav5 or hell4 ,! doctr9e ( et]nal puni%m5t has be5 oppos$ on _m gr\nds1 su* z ! disproportion betwe5 ! (f5ce & ! p5alty1 ! moral & religi\s immaturity ( ! majority ( m5 at dea?1 ! dim9ution ( ! happ9ess ( heav5 involv$ 9 ! k ( ! endless suff]+ ( o!rs 7,s*lei]ma*]71 ! defeat ( ! div9e purpose ( righte\sness & grace t ! cont9u$ antagonism ( any ( ,god's creatures w\ld imply1 ! dissatisfaction ,god z ,fa!r mu/ feel until ,8 :ole family is re/or$4 ,x has be5 argu$ t ! t]m et]nal has ref]5ce n to duration ( "t b quality ( be+ 7,maurice72 b x does seem c]ta9 t ! writ]s 9 ! ,holy ,scriptures :o us$ x did n =esee an end ei!r to ! life or to ! dea? to :i* !y appli$ ! t]m4 ,! cont5tion %\ld n be bas$ on ! mean+ ( a s+le ^w1 b on su* broad] consid]ations z h be5 indicat$ above4 ,! doctr9e ( conditional immortality taught by ,soc9ianism 0 accept$ by ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 & has be5 mo/ p]si/5tly advocat$ by ,edw>d ,:ite1 :o ma9ta9s t immortality is a tru?1 n ( reason1 b ( revelation1 a gift ( ,god be/[$ only on believ]s 9 ,*ri/2 b he admits a cont9u$ probation aft] dea? = su* z h n h>d5$ _! he>ts by a rejection ( ,*ri/4 ,accord+ to ,albre*t ,rits*l ! wra? ( ,god means ! resolve ( ,god to annihilate ^? m5 :o f9ally oppose !mselves to r$emption1 & ! f9al purpose ( ! k+dom ( ,god4 ,he ?us makes immortality conditional on inclusion 9 ! k+dom ( ,god4 ,! doctr9e ( univ]sal re/oration 0 ma9ta9$ by ,?omas ,ersk9e ( ,l9la!n on ! gr\nd ( ! ,fa!rhood ( ,god1 & ,ar*deacon ,wilson anticipates su* discipl9e aft] dea? z w re/ore all s\ls to ,god4 ,c4,i4 ,nitzs* argues aga9/ ! doctr9e ( ! annihilation ( ! wick$1 reg>ds ! tea*+ ( ,scripture ab\t et]nal damnation z hypo!tical1 & ?9ks x possible t ,paul rea*$ ! hope ( univ]sal re/oration4 ,i4,a4 ,dorn] ma9ta9s t hopeless p]dition c be ! p5alty only ( ! delib]ate rejection ( ! ,gospel1 t ^? :o h n _h ! opportunity ( *oice fairly & fully 9 ?is life w get x h]eaft]1 b t ! "r *oice w 9 all cases be made we _c be confid5t4 ,! attitude ( !ologians g5]ally reg>d+ individual de/9y is well express$ by ,dr ,james ,orr1 ,! conclusion ,i arrive at is t we h n ! elem5ts ( a complete solution1 & we ought n to attempt x4 ,:at visions beyond !re may be1 :at l>g] hopes1 :at ultimate h>monies1 if su* !re are 9 /ore1 w come 9 ,god's good "t2 x is n = u to anticipate !m1 or lift ! veil :]e ,god has left x d[n 7,! ,*ri/ian ,view ( ,god & ! ,_w1 #ahic1 p4 #cig74 ,al?\gh 9 rec5t !ological ?\ght att5tion has be5 ma9ly direct$ to individual de/9y1 yet ! o!r elem5ts ( ,*ri/ian es*atology mu/ n be altoge!r pass$ ov]4 ,hi/ory has (f]$ ! au?oritative comm5t>y on ! prophecy ( ! ,p>\sia ( ,*ri/4 ,! pres5ce & p[] ( ,8 ,_s1 ! spread ( ,8 ,gospel1 ! progress ( ,8 k+dom h be5 z mu* a fulfilm5t ( ! es*atological tea*+ ( ! ,new ,te/am5t z ,8 life & "w on e>? 7 a fulfilm5t ( ,messianic prophecy1 = fulfilm5t always transc5ds prophecy4 ,ev5 if ! common beliefs ( ! apo/olic age h n modifi$ ! evangeli/'s reports ( ,jesus' tea*+1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ,he us$ ! common prophetic phraseology1 ! lit]al fulfilm5t ( :i* is n to be look$ =4 ,"s p>ables 7! leav51 ! mu/>d se$7 sugge/ a gradual progressive realization ( ,8 k+dom4 ,! ,f\r? ,gospel int]prets bo? judgm5t & resurrection spiritually4 ,accord+ly ! g5]al resurrection & ! la/ judgm5t may be reg>d$ z ! temporal & local =ms ( ?\ght to express ! univ]sal p]man5t tru?s t life survives dea? 9 ! complet5ess ( its necess>y organs & ess5tial functions1 & t ! "* ( t cont9u$ life is det]m9$ by p]sonal *oice ( submission or antagonism to ,god's purpose ( grace 9 ,*ri/1 ! p]fect realization ( :i* is ! ,*ri/ian's hope = himself1 mank9d & ! _w4 ,,bibliography4--,9 addition to ! works ref]r$ to above ! foll[+ w be f\nd useful3 ,s4,d4,f4 ,salmond1 ,! ,*ri/ian ,doctr9e ( ,immortality 7#d? ed41 #aija72 ,r4,h4 ,*>les1 ,a ,critical ,hi/ory ( ! ,doctr9e ( a ,future ,life 9 ,israel1 9 ,judaism1 & 9 ,*ri/ianity 7#ahii72 ,l4,n4 ,dahle1 ,life aft] ,dea? & ! ,future ( ! ,k+dom ( ,god 7,eng4 tr4 by ,j4 ,bev]idge1 #ahie72 ,j4,a4 ,beet1 ,! ,la/ ,?+s 7new ed41 #aije72 ,w4,g4,t4 ,%$d1 ,doctr9e ( ,endless ,puni%m5t 7,new ,york1 #ahhf72 ,f4,w4 ,f>r>1 ,! ,et]nal ,hope 7#ahib72 ,e4 ,petavel1 ,! ,problem ( ,immortality 7,eng4 tr4 by ,f4,a4 ,fre]1 #ahib72 ,e4 ,:ite1 ,life 9 ,*ri/ 7#crd ed41 #ahgh72 also ! relevant sections 9 books on biblical & sy/ematic !ology4 7,a4 ,e4 ,g4997 ,,es*eat 7,o4 ,fr4 es*ete1 f es*eoir1 to fall to "o's %>e2 ,lat4 excid]e1 to fall out71 9 ,engli% law1 ! rev]sion ( l&s to ! next "l on ! failure ( heirs ( ! t5ant4 ,:5 ! t5ant ( an e/ate 9 fee simple dies )\t hav+ ali5at$ 8 e/ate 9 8 lifetime or by 8 w1 & )\t leav+ any heirs ei!r l9eal or collat]al1 ! l&s 9 :i* he held 8 e/ate es*eat1 z x is call$1 to ! "l ( :om he held !m 7,williams on ! ,law ( ,real ,prop]ty74 ,?is rule is expla9$ by ! conception ( a freehold e/ate z an int]e/ 9 l&s held by ! freehold] f "s "l1 ! k+ be+ "l p>am\nt4 7,see ,,e/ate47 ,! grant] reta9s an int]e/ 9 ! l& simil> to t ( ! donor ( an e/ate = life1 to :om ! l& rev]ts aft] ! life e/ate is end$4 ,z !re are n[ few freehold e/ates traceable to any mesne or int]m$iate "l1 es*eats1 :5 !y d occur1 fall to ! k+ z "l p>am\nt4 ,besides es*eat = defect ( heirs1 !re 0 =m]ly also es*eat propt] delictum t55tis1 or by ! corruption ( ! blood ( ! t5ant ?r\gh atta9d] consequ5t on conviction & s5t5ce = treason or felony4 ,! blood ( ! t5ant becom+ corrupt by atta9d] 0 decre$ no long] inh]itable1 & ! effect 0 ! same z if ! t5ant _h di$ )\t heirs4 ,! l&1 !re=e1 es*eat$ to ! next heir1 subject to ! sup]ior "r ( ! cr[n to ! =feiture ( ! l&s1--9 ! case ( treason = ev]1 9 ! case ( felony = a ye> & a day4 ,all ?is 0 aboli%$ by ! ,felony ,act #ahgj1 :i* provid$ = ! appo9tm5t ( an adm9i/rator to ! prop]ty ( ! convict4 ,es*eat is also an incid5t ( copyhold t5ure4 ,tru/ e/ates 7 n subject to es*eat until ! ,inte/ates' ,e/ates ,act #ahhd1 b n[ by t act ! law ( es*eat applies 9 ! same mann] z if ! e/ate or int]e/ 7 a legal e/ate 9 corporeal h]$itam5ts4 ,,es*5burg1 ,,johann ,,joa*im 7#agdc-ahbj71 ,g]man critic & lit]>y hi/orian1 0 born at ,hamburg on ! #g? ( ,decemb] #agdc4 ,aft] receiv+ 8 e>ly education 9 8 native t[n1 he /udi$ at ,leipzig & ,gott+54 ,9 #agfg he 0 appo9t$ tutor1 & subsequ5tly pr(essor1 at ! ,collegium ,c>ol9um 9 ,brunswick4 ,! title ( ,h(rat 0 conf]r$ on him 9 #aghf1 & 9 #ahad he 0 made "o ( ! directors ( ! ,c>ol9um4 ,he is be/ kn[n by 8 ef=ts to famili>ize 8 c\ntrym5 ) ,engli% lit]ature4 ,he publi%$ a s]ies ( ,g]man translations ( ! pr9cipal ,engli% writ]s on ae/hetics1 su* z ,j4 ,br[n1 ,d4 ,webb1 ,*>les ,burney1 ,joseph ,prie/ley & ,r4 ,hurd2 & ,g]many owes also to him ! fir/ complete translation 79 prose7 ( ,%akespe>e's plays 7,william ,%akespe>'s ,s*auspiele1 #ac vols41 ,zuri*1 #agge-aghb74 ,?is is virtually a revis$ edition ( ! incomplete translation publi%$ by ,wiel& betwe5 #agfb & #agff4 ,es*5burg di$ at ,brunswick on ! #bi? ( ,febru>y #ahbj4 ,besides edit+1 ) memoirs1 ! works ( ,hag$orn1 ,za*>ia & o!r ,g]man poets1 he 0 ! au?or ( a ,h&bu* d] klassis*5 ,lit]atur 7#aghc72 ,entwurf e9] ,!orie und ,lit]atur d] s*on5 ,wiss5s*aft5 7#aghc72 ,beispielsammlung zur ,!orie und ,lit]atur d] s*on5 ,wiss5s*aft5 7#h vols41 #aghh-agie72 ,lehrbu* d] ,wiss5s*aftskunde 7#agib72 & ,d5kmal] altdeuts*] ,di*tkun/ 7#agii74 ,mo/ ( ^! works h pass$ ?r\gh sev]al editions4 ,es*5burg 0 also a poet ( "s pret5sions1 & "s ( 8 religi\s hymns1 e4g4 ,i* w di* no* im ,tod erheb5 & ,dir trau' i*1 ,gott1 und wanke ni*t1 are conta9$ 9 _m hymnals to ?is day4 ,,es*5may]1 ,,adam ,,k>l ,,augu/ ,,von 7#agfh-aheb71 ,g]man philosoph] & physici/1 0 born at ,neu5burg 9 ,wurttemb]g 9 ,july #agfh4 ,aft] receiv+ 8 e>ly education at ! ,c>ol9e academy ( ,/uttg>t1 he ent]$ ! univ]sity ( ,tub+51 :]e he receiv$ ! degree ( doctor ( m$ic9e4 ,he practis$ = "s "t z a physician at ,sulz1 & !n at ,kir*heim1 & 9 #ahaa he 0 *os5 extraord9>y pr(essor ( philosophy & m$ic9e at ,tub+54 ,9 #ahah he became ord9>y pr(essor ( practical philosophy1 b 9 #ahcf he resign$ & took up 8 resid5ce at ,kir*heim1 :]e he devot$ 8 :ole att5tion to philosophical /udies4 ,es*5may]'s views are l>gely id5tical ) ^? ( ,s*ell+1 b he diff]$ f him 9 reg>d to ! k ( ! absolute4 ,he believ$ t 9 ord] to complete ! arc ( tru? philosophy mu/ be supplem5t$ by :at he call$ non-philosophy1 a k9d ( my/ical illum9ation by :i* 0 obta9$ a belief 9 ,god t c\ld n be rea*$ by m]e intellectual ef=t 7see ,h(fd+1 ,hi/4 ( ,mod4 ,phil41 ,eng4 trans4 vol4 #b1 p4 #agj74 ,he c>ri$ ?is t5d5cy to my/icism into 8 physical rese>*es1 & 0 l$ by x to take a deep int]e/ 9 ! ph5om5a ( animal magnetism4 ,he ultimately became a dev\t believ] 9 demoniacal & spiritual possession2 & 8 lat] writ+s are all /rongly impregnat$ ) ! l[] sup]naturalism4 ,8 pr9cipal works are--,die ,philosophie 9 ihrem ,ub]gange zur ,ni*tphilosophie 7#ahjc72 ,v]su* die s*e9b>e ,magie des ?i]is*5 ,magnetismus aus physiol4 und psy*is*5 ,gesetz5 zu erkl>5 7#ahaf72 ,sy/em d] ,moralphilosophie 7#ahah72 ,psy*ologie 9 drei ,!il51 als empiris*e1 re9e1 angew&te 7#ahag1 #bnd ed4 #ahbb72 ,religionsphilosophie 7#c vols41 #ahah-ahbd72 ,die ,hegel's*e ,religionsphilosophie v]gli*5 mit dem *ri/l4 ,pr9cip 7#ahcd72 ,d] ,is*>iotismus uns]] ,tage 7#ahce7 7direct$ aga9/ ,/rauss's ,life ( ,jesus72 ,konflikt zwis*5 ,himmel und ,holle1 an dem ,damon e9es besess55 ,mad*5s beoba*tet 7#ahcg72 ,grundriss d] ,naturphilosophie 7#ahcb72 ,grundzuge d] *ri/l4 ,philosophie 7#ahdj72 & ,betra*tung5 ub] d5 physis*5 ,weltbau 7#aheb74 ,,es*] ,,von ,,d] ,,l9?1 ,,arnold 7#ahjg-ahgb71 ,swiss geologi/1 ! son ( ,hans ,conrad ,es*] 7#agfg-ahbc71 0 born at ,zuri* on ! #h? ( ,june #ahjg4 ,9 #ahef he became pr(essor ( geology at ! ,ecole ,polyte*nique at ,zuri*4 ,8 rese>*es l$ him to be reg>d$ z "o ( ! f\nd]s ( ,swiss geology4 ,) ,b4 ,/ud] he produc$ 7#aheb-ahec7 ! fir/ elaborate geological map ( ,switz]l&4 ,he 0 ! au?or also ( ,geologis*e ,bem]kung5 ub] das nordli*e ,vor>lb]g und e9ige angr5z5d5 ,geg5d51 publi%$ at ,zuri* 9 #ahec4 ,he di$ on ! #ab? ( ,july #ahgb4 ,,es*s*oltz1 ,,johann ,,fri$ri* 7#agic-ahca71 ,russian travell] & naturali/1 0 born 9 ,novemb] #agic1 at ,dorpat1 :]e he di$ 9 ,may #ahca4 ,he 0 naturali/ & physician to ,otto von ,kotzebue's explor+ exp$ition dur+ #ahae-ahah4 ,on 8 return he 0 appo9t$ extraord9>y pr(essor ( anatomy 7#ahai7 & director ( ! zoological museum ( ! univ]sity at ,dorpat 7#ahbb71 & 9 #ahbc-ahbf he accompani$ ,kotzebue on 8 second voyage ( discov]y4 ,he became ord9>y pr(essor ( anatomy at ,dorpat 9 #ahbh4 ,among 8 publications 7 ! ,sy/em d] ,akaleph5 7#ahbi71 & ! ,zoologis*] ,atlas 7#ahbi-ahcc74 ,! botanical g5us ,es*s*oltzia 0 nam$ by ,adelb]t von ,*amisso 9 8 hon\r4 ,,es*wege1 a t[n ( ,g]many1 9 ! ,prussian prov9ce ( ,hesse-,nassau1 on ! ,w]ra1 & ! railway ,treysa-,le9efelde1 #bh m4 ,s4,e4 ( ,cassel4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #aa1aac4 ,x consi/s ( ! old t[n on ! left1 ! new t[n on ! "r1 bank ( ! ,w]ra1 & ,bruck5haus5 on a small isl& connect$ ) ! old & new t[n by bridges4 ,x is a ?riv+ manufactur+ t[n1 its *ief indu/ries be+ lea!r-mak+1 y>n-sp9n+1 cotton- & l95-weav+1 ! manufactures ( cig>s1 bru%es1 liquors & oil1 & glue- & soap-boil+4 ,x has two anci5t build+s1 ! ,nikolai-turm1 built 9 #adee1 & ! old ca/le4 ,aft] be+ "p ( ,?ur+ia1 ,es*wege pass$ to ,hesse 9 #abfc4 ,x 0 recov]$ by ! l&grave ( ,?ur+ia 9 #achh1 b soon rev]t$ to ,hesse1 & x became ! resid5ce ( "o ( ! bran*es ( ! ,hessian royal h\se1 a bran* :i* di$ out 9 #afee4 ,,es*weil]1 a t[n ( ,g]many1 9 ! ,prussian ,rh9e prov9ce1 on ! ,inde1 & ! railways ,cologne-,h]be/hal & ,muni*-,gladba*-,/olb]g1 ab\t #h m4 ,e4,n4,e4 f ,aix-la-,*apelle4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #bj1fdc4 ,! t[n has an ,evangelical & f\r ,roman ,ca?olic *ur*es1 a gymnasium & an orphanage4 ,! manufacture ( iron & /eel goods is c>ri$ on2 o!r indu/ries include ! manufacture ( z9c w>es1 tann+1 di/ill+ & brew+4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood !re are valuable coal m9es4 ,see ,ko*1 ,ges*i*te d] ,/adt ,es*weil] 7,frank=t1 #ahij74 ,,escob> ,y ,,m5doza1 ,,antonio 7#aehi-affi71 ,spani% *ur*man ( illu/ri\s desc5t1 0 born at ,valladolid 9 #aehi4 ,he 0 educat$ by ! ,jesuits1 & at ! age ( fifte5 took ! habit ( t ord]4 ,he soon became a fam\s prea*]1 & 8 facility 0 s great t = fifty ye>s he prea*$ daily1 & sometimes twice a day4 ,9 addition he 0 a volum9\s writ]1 & 8 works fill eighty-?ree volumes4 ,8 fir/ lit]>y ef=ts 7 ,lat9 v]ses 9 praise ( ,ignatius ,loyola 7#afac7 & ! ,virg9 ,m>y 7#afah72 b he is be/ kn[n z a writ] on casui/ry4 ,8 pr9cipal works belong to ! fields ( exegesis & moral !ology4 ,( ! latt] ! be/ kn[n are ,summula casuum consci5tiae 7#afbg72 ,lib] !ologiae moralis 7#afdd71 & ,univ]sae !ologiae moralis problemata 7#afeb-afff74 ,! fir/ m5tion$ ( ^! 0 sev]ely criticis$ by ,pascal 9 ! fif? & six? ( 8 ,prov9cial ,lett]s1 z t5d+ to inculcate a loose sy/em ( morality4 ,x conta9s ! fam\s maxim t purity ( int5tion may be a ju/ification ( actions :i* are contr>y to ! moral code & to human laws2 & its g5]al t5d5cy is to f9d excuses = ! majority ( human frailties4 ,8 doctr9es 7 disapprov$ ( by _m ,ca?olics1 & 7 mildly condemn$ by ,rome4 ,!y 7 also ridicul$ 9 witty v]ses by ,moli]e1 ,boileau & ,la ,fonta9e1 & gradually ! "n ,escob> came to be us$ 9 ,france z a synonym = a p]son :o is adroit 9 mak+ ! rules ( morality h>monize ) 8 own int]e/s4 ,escob> himself is said to h be5 simple 9 8 habits1 a /rict obs]v] ( ! rules ( 8 ord]1 & unwe>i$ly zeal\s 9 8 ef=ts to re=m ! lives ( ^? ) :om he _h to deal4 ,x has be5 said ( him t he pur*as$ heav5 de>ly = himself1 b gave x away *eap to o!rs4 ,he di$ on ! #d? ( ,july #affi4 ,,escoiquiz1 ,,juan 7#agfb-ahbj71 ,spani% ecclesia/ic1 politician & writ]1 0 born 9 ,nav>re 9 #agfb4 ,8 fa!r 0 a g5]al (fic] & he began life z a page 9 ! c\rt ( ,k+ ,*>les ,,iii4 ,he ent]$ ! *ur* & 0 provid$ = by a preb5d at ,s>agossa4 ,godoy 9 8 memoirs ass]ts t ,escoiquiz s\ght to ga9 8 fav\r by flatt]y4 ,!re is e reason to believe t ?is is an accurate /atem5t ( ! case4 ,! m]e fact t he 0 select$ to be ! tutor ( ! heir-app>5t1 ,f]d9&1 aft]w>ds ,k+ ,f]d9& ,,vii41 is ( itself a pro( t he ex]t$ himself to ga9 ! goodwill ( ! reign+ fav\rite4 ,9 #agig he publi%$ a translation ( ,"y's ,night ,?\ghts1 :i* does n ( itself %[ t he 0 well acqua9t$ ) ,engli%1 = ! v]sion may h be5 made ) ! help ( ! ,fr5*4 ,9 #agih he publi%$ a long & wor?less s-call$ epic on ! conque/ ( ,mexico4 ,escoiquiz 0 9 fact a busy & pu%+ memb] ( ! lit]>y clique :i* look$ up to ,godoy z its patron4 ,b 8 position z tutor to ! heir to ! ?rone excit$ 8 ambition4 ,he began to hope t he might play ! "p ( ^? c\rt ecclesia/ics :o _h (t5 _h an active %>e 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ,spa94 ,z ,f]d9& grew up1 & aft] 8 m>riage ) a ,neapolitan pr9cess1 he became ! c5tre ( a c\rt opposition to ,godoy & to 8 policy ( alliance ) ,france4 ,escoiquiz 0 ! bra9s1 z f> z !re 7 any bra9s1 ( ! intrigue4 ,8 activity 0 s notori\s t he 0 exil$ f c\rt1 b 0 consol$ by a canonry at ,tol$o4 ,?is half measure 0 z ineffective z 0 to h be5 expect$4 ,escoiquiz cont9u$ to be 9 con/ant communication ) ! pr9ce4 ,tol$o is close to ,madrid1 & ! correspond5ce 0 easily ma9ta9$4 ,he _h a l>ge %>e 9 ! conspiracy ( ! ,escorial :i* 0 detect$ on ! #bh? ( ,octob] #ahjg4 ,he 0 imprison$ & s5t = trial ) o!r conspirators4 ,b z !y _h appeal$ to ,napoleon1 :o w\ld n suff] 8 "n to be m5tion$1 ! gov]nm5t _h to all[ ! matt] to be hu%$ up1 & ! prison]s 7 acquitt$4 ,aft] ! outbreak at ,aranjuez on ! #ag? ( ,m>* #ahjh1 9 :i* he _h a %>e1 he became "o ( ! mo/ tru/$ advis]s ( ,f]d9&4 ,! new k+'s decision to g to meet ,napoleon at ,bayonne 0 l>gely inspir$ by him4 ,9 #ahad ,escoiquiz publi%$ at ,madrid 8 ,idea ,s5cilla de las razones que motiv>on el viage del ,rey ,f]n&o ,,vii4 a ,bayona 7,hone/ repres5tation ( ! causes :i* inspir$ ! j\rney ( ,k+ ,f]d9& ,,vii4 to ,bayonne74 ,x is a valuable hi/orical docum5t1 & conta9s a s+ul>ly vivid acc\nt ( an int]view ) ,napoleon4 ,escoiquiz 0 f> too firmly conv9c$ ( 8 +5uity & m]its to conceal ! delusions & follies ( himself & 8 associates4 ,he displays 8 own vanity1 frivolity & futile clev]ness ) mu* unconsci\s hum\r1 b1 x is only fair to all[1 ) "s lit]>y dext]ity4 ,:5 ! ,spani% royal family 0 imprison$ by ,napoleon1 ,escoiquiz rema9$ ) ,f]d9& at ,val5cay4 ,9 #ahac he publi%$ at ,b\rges a translation ( ,milton's ,p>adise ,lo/4 ,:5 ,f]d9& 0 releas$ 9 #ahad he came back to ,madrid 9 ! hope t 8 ambition w\ld n[ be satisfi$1 b ! k+ 0 tir$ ( him1 & 0 moreov] resolv$ nev] to be subject$ by any fav\rite4 ,aft] a v brief p]iod ( (fice 9 #ahae he 0 s5t z a prison] to ,murcia4 ,?\gh he 0 aft]w>ds recall$1 he 0 aga9 exil$ to ,ronda1 :]e he di$ on ! #bg? ( ,novemb] #ahbj4 ,,escombe1 ,,h>ry 7#ahch-ahii71 ,s\? ,african /atesman1 a memb] ( a ,som]set%ire family1 0 born at ,nott+ ,hill1 ,london1 on ! #be? ( ,july #ahch1 & 0 educat$ at ,/ ,paul's s*ool4 ,aft] f\r ye>s 9 a /ockbrok]'s (fice1 he emigrat$1 9 #ahei1 to ! ,cape4 ,! foll[+ ye> he mov$ to ,natal1 &1 aft] try+ o!r occupations1 qualifi$ z an attorney4 ,he became recogniz$ z ! able/ plead] 9 ! colony1 &1 9 #ahgb1 0 elect$ = ,durban z a memb] ( ! legislative c\ncil1 & subsequ5tly 0 also plac$ on ! executive c\ncil4 ,9 #ahhj he secur$ ! appo9tm5t ( a h>b\r bo>d = ,natal1 & 0 himself made *airman4 ,! trans=mation ( ! port ( ,durban into a h>b\r available = ocean l9]s 0 due entirely to 8 en]gy4 ,9 #ahhh-ahhi he def5d$ ,d9izulu & o!r ,zulu *iefs aga9/ a *>ge ( high treason4 ,= sev]al ye>s he oppos$ ! grant ( responsible gov]nm5t to ,natal1 b by #ahij _h become conv9c$ ( its desirability1 & on its conf]m5t 9 #ahic he jo9$ ! fir/ m9i/ry =m$1 s]v+ "u ,sir ,john ,rob9son z attorney-g5]al4 ,9 ,febru>y #ahig1 on ,sir ,john's retirem5t1 ,escombe became premi]1 rema9+ attorney-g5]al & also hold+ ! (fice ( m9i/] ( education & m9i/] ( def5ce4 ,9 ! summ] ( t ye> he 0 9 ,london ) ! o!r colonial premi]s at ! celebration ( ! ,diamond ,jubilee ( ,que5 ,victoria1 & 0 made a memb] ( ! privy c\ncil4 ,cambridge ,univ]sity conf]r$ ^u him ! honor>y degree ( ,,ll4,d4 ,! election t foll[$ 8 return to ,natal prov$ unfav\rable to 8 policy1 & he resign$ (fice 7,octob] #ahig74 ,?r\gh\t 8 life he took an active int]e/ 9 national def5ce4 ,he _h s]v$ 9 ! ,zulu ,w> ( #ahgi1 0 comm&] ( ! ,natal ,naval ,volunte]s & receiv$ ! volunte] long s]vice decoration4 ,9 ,octob] #ahii he w5t to ! nor!rn conf9es ( ! colony to take "p 9 prep>+ measures ( def5ce aga9/ ! invasion by ! ,bo]s4 ,he di$ on ! #bg? ( ,decemb] #ahii4 ,! ,spee*es ( ! late ,"r ,hon4 ,h>ry ,escombe 7,m>itzburg1 #aijc71 edit$ by ,j4,t4 ,h5d]son1 conta9s brief biographical notes by ,sir ,john ,rob9son & ! editor4 ,,escorial1 or ,,escurial1 9 ,spa91 "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable build+s 9 ,europe1 compris+ at once a conv5t1 a *ur*1 a palace & a mausoleum4 ,! ,escorial is situat$ #cdcb ft4 above ! sea1 on ! s\?-we/]n slopes ( ! ,si]ra de ,guad>rama1 & ?us )9 ! bord]s ( ! prov9ce ( ,madrid & ! k+dom ( ,new ,ca/ile4 ,by ! ,madrid-,avila railway x is #ca m4 ,n4,w4 ( ,madrid4 ,! surr\nd+ c\ntry is a /]ile & gloomy wild]ness expos$ to ! cold & blight+ bla/s ( ! ,si]ra4 ,accord+ to ! usual tradition1 :i* !re seems no suffici5t reason to reject1 ! ,escorial owes its exi/5ce to a v[ made by ,philip ,,ii4 ( ,spa9 7#aeef-aeih71 %ortly aft] ! battle ( ,/ ,qu5t91 9 :i* 8 =ces succe$$ 9 r\t+ ! army ( ,france4 ,! day ( ! victory1 ! #aj? ( ,augu/ #aeeg1 0 sacr$ to ,/ ,laur5ce2 & accord+ly ! build+ 0 d$icat$ to t sa9t1 & receiv$ ! title ( ,el real mona/]io de ,san ,lor5zo del ,escorial4 ,! la/ di/9ctive epi!t 0 d]iv$ f ! little hamlet 9 ! vic9ity :i* furni%$ %elt]1 n only to ! workm51 b to ! monks ( ,/ ,j]ome :o 7 aft]w>ds to be 9 possession ( ! mona/]y2 & ! hamlet itself is g5]ally b p]haps errone\sly suppos$ to be indebt$ = its "n to ! scoriae or dross ( c]ta9 old iron m9es4 ,! prep>ation ( ! plans & ! sup]9t5d5ce ( ! "w 7 entru/$ by ! k+ to ,juan ,bauti/a de ,tol$o1 a ,spani% ar*itect :o _h receiv$ mo/ ( 8 pr(essional education 9 ,italy4 ,! fir/ /one 0 laid 9 ,april #aefc2 & "u ! k+'s p]sonal inspection ! "w rapidly advanc$4 ,abundant supplies ( b]roqu5a1 a granite-l /one1 7 obta9$ 9 ! neighb\rhood1 & = r>] mat]ials ! res\rces ( bo? ! ,old & ! ,new ,_w 7 put "u contribution4 ,! dea? ( ,tol$o 9 #aefg ?reat5$ a fatal bl[ at ! satisfactory completion ( ! ent]prise1 b a wor?y successor 0 f\nd 9 ,juan ,h]r]a1 ,tol$o's fav\rite pupil1 :o adh]$ 9 ! ma9 to 8 ma/]'s designs4 ,on ! #ac? ( ,septemb] #aehd ! la/ /one ( ! masonry 0 laid1 & ! works 7 br\ght to a t]m9ation 9 #aeic4 ,ea* successive occupant ( ! ,spani% ?rone has done some?+1 h[ev] slight1 to ! re/oration or adornm5t ( ,philip's conv5t-palace1 & ,f]d9& ,,vii4 7#ahjh-ahcc7 did s mu* 9 ?is way t he has be5 call$ a second f\nd]4 ,9 all its pr9cipal features1 h[ev]1 ! ,escorial rema9s :at x 0 made by ! g5ius ( ,tol$o & ,h]r]a work+ out ! gr&1 if abnormal1 desires ( _! ma/]4 ,! gr\nd plan ( ! build+ is e/imat$ to occupy an area ( #cif1ghb sq4 ft41 & ! total area ( all ! /oreys w\ld =m a causeway #a metre 9 bread? & #ie m4 9 l5g?4 ,!re are sev5 t[]s1 fifte5 gateways &1 accord+ to ,los ,santos1 no few] ?an #ab1jjj w9d[s & doors4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t is %[n by ! accompany+ plan4 ,ent]+ by ! ma9 entrance ! visitor f9ds himself 9 an atrium1 call$ ! ,c\rt ( ! ,k+s 7,patio de los reyes71 f ! #af?-c5tury /atues ( ! k+s ( ,judah1 by ,juan ,bauti/a ,monegro1 :i* adorn ! facade ( ! *ur*4 ,! sides ( ! atrium are un=tunately occupi$ by pla9 unga9ly build+s five /oreys 9 height1 awkw>dly accommodat+ !mselves to ! upw>d slope ( ! gr\nd4 ,( ! gr&eur ( ! *ur* itself1 h[ev]1 !re c be no "q3 x is ! f9e/ portion ( ! :ole ,escorial1 &1 accord+ to ,f]gusson1 des]ves to rank z "o ( ! great ,r5aissance *ur*es ( ,europe4 ,x is ab\t #cdj ft4 f ea/ to we/ by #bjj f nor? to s\?1 & ?us occupies an area ( ab\t #gj1jjj sq4 ft4 ,! dome is #fj ft4 9 diamet]1 & its height at ! c5tre is ab\t #cbj ft4 ,9 gl>+ contra/ to ! bold & simple =ms ( ! ar*itecture1 :i* belongs to ! ,doric /yle1 7 ! bronze & m>bles & pictures ( ! high alt>1 ! ma/]piece ( ! ,milanese ,giacomo ,trezzo1 almo/ ru9$ by ! ,fr5* 9 #ahjh4 ,directly "u ! alt> is situat$ ! pan!on or royal mausoleum1 a ri*ly decorat$ octagonal *amb] ) upw>ds ( tw5ty ni*es1 occupi$ by black m>ble urnas or s>cophagi1 kept sacr$ = ! du/ ( k+s or mo!rs ( k+s4 ,!re are ! rema9s ( ,*>les ,v4 7#aeaf-aeef71 ( ,philip ,,ii41 & ( all _! successors on ! ,spani% ?rone d[n to ,f]d9& ,,vii41 ) ! exception ( ,philip ,v4 7#agjj-agdf7 & ,f]d9& ,,vi4 7#agdf-agei74 ,sev]al ( ! s>cophagi are /ill empty4 ,= ! o!r memb]s ( ! royal family !re is a sep>ate vault1 kn[n z ! ,panteon de los ,infantes1 or m famili>ly by ! dreadfully sugge/ive "n ( ,el ,pudrid]o4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ room 9 ! palace is ,philip ,,ii4's cell1 f :i* ?r\gh an op5+ 9 ! wall he c\ld see ! celebration ( mass :ile too ill to leave 8 b$4 ,illu/ration3 ,views & ,plan ( ! ,escorial4#a ,,*ur* #a4 ,pr9cipal entrance & portico4 #b4 ,c\rt ( ! k+s 7,patio de los reyes74 #c4 ,ve/ibule ( ! *ur*4 #d4 ,*oir ( ! sem9>i/s4 #e4 ,c5tre ( ! *ur* & projection ( ! dome4 #f4 ,great] *apel4 #g4 ,high alt>4 #h4 ,*apel ( ,/ ,john4 #i4 ,*apel ( ,/ ,mi*ael4 #aj4 ,*apel ( ,/ ,maurice4 #aa4 ,*apel ( ! ,ros>y4 #ab4 ,tomb ( ,l\isa ,c>lota4 #ac4 ,*apel ( ! ,patroc9io4 #ad4 ,*apel ( ! ,cri/o de la bu5a mu]te4 #ae4 ,*apel ( ! ,elev5 ,?\s& ,virg9s4 #af4 ,=m] ,*apel ( ! ,patroc9io4 #ag4 ,sacri/y4 ,,palace #ah4 ,pr9cipal c\rt ( ! palace4 #ai4 ,ladies' t[]4 #bj4 ,c\rt ( ! masks4 #ba4 ,ap>tm5ts ( ! royal *ildr54 #bb4 ,royal oratory4 #bc4 ,oratory :]e ,philip ,,ii4 di$4 ,,sem9>y #bd4 ,entrance to sem9>y4 #be4 ,classrooms4 #bf4 ,old philosophical hall4 #bg4 ,old !ological hall4 #bh4 ,*amb] ( secrets4 #bi4 ,old refectory4 #cj4 ,entrance to ! college4 #ca4 ,college y>d4 ,,conv5t #cb4 ,clock t[]4 #cc4 ,pr9cipal cloi/]4 #cd4 ,c\rt ( ! evangeli/s4 #ce4 ,prior's cell4 #cf4 ,ar*ives4 #cg4 ,old *ur*4 #ch4 ,visitors' hall4 #ci4 ,manuscript libr>y4 #dj4 ,conv5t refectory4 ,! libr>y1 situat$ above ! pr9cipal portico1 0 at "o "t "o ( ! ri*e/ 9 ,europe1 compris+ ! k+'s own collection1 ! ext5sive beque/ ( ,diego de ,m5doza1 ,philip's ambassador to ,rome1 ! spoils ( ! emp]or ( ,morocco1 ,muley ,zidan 7#afjc-afbh7 & v>i\s contributions f conv5ts1 *ur*es & cities4 ,x suff]$ greatly 9 ! fire ( #afga1 & has s9ce be5 impov]i%$ by plund] & neglect4 ,among its curiosities /ill extant are two ,new ,te/am5t ,codices ( ! #aj? c5tury & two ( ! #aa?2 v>i\s works by ,alphonso ! ,wise 7#abeb-abhd71 a ,virgil ( ! #ad? c5tury1 a ,koran ( ! #ae?1 c4 ,( ! ,arabic manuscripts :i* x conta9$ 9 ! #ag? c5tury a catalogue 0 giv5 9 ,j4,h4 ,hott+]'s ,promptu>ium sive biblio!ca ori5talis1 publi%$ at ,heidelb]g 9 #afeh1 & ano!r 9 ! #ah?1 9 ,m4 ,casiri's ,biblio!ca ,arabico-,hispanica 7#b vols41 ,madrid1 #agfj-aggj74 ,( ! arti/ic treasures ) :i* ! ,escorial 0 gradually enri*$1 x is suffici5t to m5tion ! frescoes ( ,p]egr9 or ,pellagr9o ,tibaldi1 ,luis de ,c>bajal1 ,b>tolommeo ,c>ducci or ,c>du*o1 & ,luca ,giordano1 & ! pictures ( ,titian1 ,t9toretto & ,velasquez4 ,^! pa9t+s all date f ! #ae? or ! #ag? c5tury4 ,_m ( ^? t are movable h be5 transf]r$ to ,madrid1 & _m o!rs h p]i%$ by fire or sack4 ,! conflagration ( #afga1 already m5tion$1 rag$ = fifte5 days1 & only ! *ur*1 a "p ( ! palace1 & two t[]s escap$ un9jur$4 ,9 #ahjh ! :ole build+ 0 expos$ to ! ravages ( ! ,fr5* soldi]s "u ,g5]al ,la ,h\ssaye4 ,on ! night ( ! #a/ ( ,octob] #ahgb1 ! college & sem9>y1 a "p ( ! palace & ! upp] libr>y 7 deva/at$ by fire2 b ! damage 0 subsequ5tly repair$4 ,9 #ahhe ! conv5tual build+s 7 occupi$ by ,augu/9ian monks4 ,! read] w f9d a rem>kable description ( ! emotional influ5ce ( ! ,escorial 9 ,e4 ,qu9et's ,vacances en ,espagne 7,p>is1 #ahdf71 & = hi/orical & ar*itectural details he may consult ! foll[+ works3--,fray ,juan de ,san ,g]onimo1 ,memorias sobre la fundacion del ,escorial y su fabrica1 9 ! ,coleccion de docum5tos in$itos p>a la hi/oria de ,espana1 vol4 vii42 ,y4 de ,h]r]a1 ,sum>io y breve decl>acion de los dis5os y e/ampas de la fab4 de ,s4 ,lor5cio el ,real del ,escurial 7,madrid1 #aehi72 ,jose de ,sigu5za1 ,hi/oria de la ord5 de ,san ,g]onyno1 c4 7,madrid1 #aeij74 ,l4 de ,cabr]a de ,cordova1 ,felipe ,segundo 7,madrid1 #afai72 ,james ,wadswor?1 ,fur!r ,obs]vations ( ! ,engli% ,spani% ,pilgrime 7,london1 #afbi1 #afcj72 ,il>io ,mazzorali de ,cremona1 ,le ,reali ,gr&ezze del ,escuriale 7,bologna1 #afdh72 ,de los ,santos1 ,descripcion del real mona/]io1 c4 7,madrid1 #afeg72 ,&res ,xim5es1 ,descripcion1 c4 7,madrid1 #agfd72 ,y4 ,quev$o1 ,hi/oria del ,real ,mona/]io1 c4 7,madrid1 #ahdi72 ,a4 ,rotondo1 ,hi/4 arti/ica1 444 del mona/]io de ,san ,lor5zo 7,madrid1 #ahef-ahfa72 ,w4,h4 ,prescott1 ,life ( ,philip ,,ii4 7,london1 #ahhg72 ,j4 ,f]gusson1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,mod]n ,/yles ( ,ar*itecture 7,london1 #ahia-ahic72 ,sir ,w4 ,/irl+-,maxwell1 ,annals ( ! ,arti/s ( ,spa9 7,london1 #ahia74 ,,footnote3 #a ,r$uc$ f a l>ge plan ( ! ,escorial 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 ,mona/]io del ,escorial1 publi%$ at ,madrid 9 #ahgf4 ,,escov$o1 ,,juan ,,de 7d4 #aegh71 ,spani% politician1 secret>y ( ,don ,john ( ,au/ria1 & *iefly notable z hav+ be5 ! victim ( "o ( ! my/]ies ( ! #af? c5tury1 began life 9 ! h\sehold ( ,ruy ,gomez de ,silva1 pr9ce ( ,eboli1 ! mo/ tru/$ m9i/] ( ! e>ly ye>s ( ! reign ( ,philip ,,ii4 ,by ! w ( ! pr9ce he 0 end[$ = life ) ! po/ ( ,regidor1 or legal repres5tative ( ! k+ 9 ! municipality ( ,madrid4 ,he 0 also associat$ ) ,antonio ,p]ez z "o ( ! secret>ies :o act$ z ! ag5ts ( ! k+ 9 all deal+s ) ! v>i\s gov]n+ bo>ds :i* =m$ ! ,spani% adm9i/ration4 ,:5 ,don ,john ( ,au/ria1 aft] ! battle ( ,lepanto 9 #aega1 began to laun* on a policy ( self-seek+ adv5ture1 ,escov$o 0 appo9t$ z 8 secret>y ) ! int5tion t he %\ld act z a *eck on ^! follies4 ,unhappily = himself & = ,don ,john he w5t he>t & s\l into all ! pr9ce's s*emes4 ,he began to disobey ord]s f ,madrid & became entangl$ 9 intrigues to manage or ev5 to co]ce ! k+4 ,9 ,july #aegg1 & contr>y to ! k+'s ord]s1 he came to ,spa9 f ,fl&]s1 :]e ,don ,john 0 !n gov]nor4 ,x is said t he discov]$ ! love intrigue betwe5 ,antonio ,p]ez & ! wid[$ pr9cess ( ,eboli1 ,ana ,m5doza de la ,c]da4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 m]e gossip & supposition4 ,!re c be no d\bt t he 0 a busy intrigu]1 or t ! k+1 act+ on ! !n v g5]ally accept$ doctr9e t ! sov]eign has a "r to act = ! public int]e/ )\t reg>d to =ms ( law1 gave ord]s to ,antonio ,p]ez t he 0 to be put out ( ! way4 ,aft] two clumsy attempts _h be5 made to poison him at ,p]ez's table1 he 0 kill$ by bravos on ! night ( ,ea/] ,monday1 ! #ca/ ( ,m>* #aegh4 ,accord+ to an old tradition ! murd] took place outside ! *ur* ( ,/ ,m>ia 9 ,madrid1 :i* 0 pull$ d[n 9 #ahfh4 ,see ,gasp> ,muro1 ,la ,pr9cesse d',eboli 7,p>is1 #ahgh72 & ,w4,h4 ,prescott1 ,reign ( ,philip ,,ii4 7#ahee-ei74 ,,escu9tla1 ! capital ( ! dep>tm5t ( ,escu9tla1 ,guatemala2 on ! s\!rn slope ( ! ,si]ra ,madre1 #de m4 ,s4,w4 ( ,guatemala city4 ,pop4 7#aije7 ab\t #ab1jjj4 ,escu9tla is locally celebrat$ = its hot m9]al spr+s4 ,x is ! comm]cial c5tre ( a f]tile di/rict1 :i* produces c(fee1 cane-sug> & cocoa2 x has also a brisk transit trade 9 mo/ ( ! products ( ,guatemala1 ow+ to its position on ! int]oceanic railway betwe5 ,pu]to ,b>rios on ! ,atlantic & ,san ,jose 7#cj m4 ,s47 on ! ,pacific4 ,a bran* railway :i* goes we/w>d to ,san ,augu/9 meets ?is l9e at ,escu9tla4 ,,escut*eon 7,o4 ,fr4 escu*eon1 escusson1 mod]n ecusson1 ?r\gh a ,late ,lat4 =m f ,lat4 scutum1 %ield71 an h]aldic t]m = a %ield ) armorial be>+s display$ 7see ,,h]aldry74 ,! ^w is also appli$ to ! %ields us$ on tombs1 9 ! sp&rils ( doors or 9 /r+-c\rses1 & to ! ornam5t$ plates f ! c5tre ( :i* door-r+s1 knock]s1 c41 are susp5d$1 or :i* protect ! wood ( ! key-hole f ! we> ( ! key4 ,9 m$ieval times ^! 7 (t5 work$ 9 a v beautiful mann]4 ,,e%]1 ,,william ,,baliol ,,brett1 #a,,/ ,,visc\nt 7#ahag-ahii71 ,engli% lawy] & ma/] ( ! rolls1 0 a son ( ! ,rev4 ,joseph ,g4 ,brett1 ( ,*elsea1 & 0 born on ! #ac? ( ,augu/ #ahag4 ,he 0 educat$ at ,we/m9/] & at ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,call$ to ! b> 9 #ahdj1 he w5t ! nor!rn circuit1 & became a ,q4,c4 9 #ahfa4 ,on ! dea? ( ,ri*>d ,cobd5 he unsuccessfully conte/$ ,ro*dale z a ,cons]vative1 b 9 #ahff 0 return$ = ,hel/on 9 unique circum/ances4 ,he & 8 oppon5t poll$ exactly ! same numb] ( votes1 :]eupon ! mayor1 z return+ (fic]1 gave 8 ca/+ vote = ! ,lib]al c&idate4 ,z ?is vote 0 giv5 aft] f\r o'clock1 h[ev]1 an appeal 0 lodg$1 & ! ,h\se ( ,commons all[$ bo? memb]s to take _! seats4 ,brett rapidly made 8 m>k 9 ! ,h\se1 & 9 #ahfh he 0 appo9t$ solicitor-g5]al4 ,on behalf ( ! cr[n he prosecut$ ! ,f5ians *>g$ ) hav+ caus$ ! ,cl]k5well explosion4 ,9 p>liam5t he took a lead+ "p 9 ! promotion ( bills connect$ ) ! adm9i/ration ( law & ju/ice4 ,he 0 7,augu/ #ahfh7 appo9t$ a ju/ice 9 ! c\rt ( common pleas4 ,"s ( 8 s5t5ces 9 ?is capacity excit$ mu* criticism1 notably s 9 ! case ( ! gas /ok]s' /rike1 :5 he s5t5c$ ! def5dants to imprisonm5t = twelve mon?s1 ) h>d lab\r1 :i* 0 aft]w>ds r$uc$ by ! home secret>y to f\r mon?s4 ,on ! recon/itution ( ! c\rt ( appeal 9 #ahgf1 ,brett 0 elevat$ to ! rank ( a "l ju/ice4 ,aft] hold+ ?is position = sev5 ye>s1 he succe$$ ,sir ,george ,jessel z ma/] ( ! rolls 9 #ahhc4 ,9 #ahhe he 0 rais$ to ! ,h\se ( ,lords z ,b>on ,e%]4 ,he oppos$ ! bill propos+ t an accus$ p]son or 8 wife might give evid5ce 9 _! own case1 & support$ ! bill :i* emp[]$ lords ( appeal to sit & vote aft] _! retirem5t4 ,! ,solicitors ,act ( #ahhh1 :i* increas$ ! p[]s ( ! ,incorporat$ ,law ,society1 ow$ mu* to 8 influ5ce4 ,9 #ahhj he deliv]$ a rem>kable spee* 9 ! ,h\se ( ,lords1 deprecat+ ! delay & exp5se ( trials1 :i* he reg>d$ z hav+ be5 increas$ by ! ,judicature ,acts4 ,"l ,e%] suff]$1 p]haps1 z ma/] ( ! rolls f succe$+ a lawy] ( su* em95ce z ,jessel4 ,he _h a cau/ic tongue1 b also a fund ( %rewd common s5se1 & "o ( 8 fav\rite consid]ations 0 :e!r a c]ta9 c\rse 0 bus9ess or n4 ,he retir$ f ! b5* at ! close ( #ahig1 & a visc\nty 0 conf]r$ ^u him on 8 retirem5t1 a dignity nev] giv5 to any judge1 "l *ancellors except$1 = m]e legal conduct s9ce ! "t ( ,"l ,coke4 ,he di$ 9 ,london on ! #bd? ( ,may #ahii4 ,"l ,e%] 0 succe$$ 9 ! title by 8 only surviv+ son1 ,reg9ald ,baliol ,brett 7b4 #aheb71 :o 0 secret>y to ! (fice ( works f #ahie to #aijb1 b subsequ5tly came into f> great] public prom95ce 9 #aijd z ,*airman ( ! w> (fice recon/itution committee aft] ! ,s\? ,african ,w>4 ,,e%]1 a t[n%ip 9 ! ,epsom p>liam5t>y division ( ,surrey1 ,engl&1 #ad-a_/b m4 ,s4,w4 ( ,london by ! ,london ,s\? ,we/]n railway 7,e%] & ,cl>emont /ation74 ,x is pleasantly situat$ on ris+ gr\nd above ! riv] ,mole1 #c m4 f its junction ) ! ,?ames4 ,to ! nor?-we/ lie ! gr\nds ( ,e%] ,place4 ,( ! mansion-h\se f\nd$ by ,william ( ,waynflete1 bi%op ( ,w9*e/] 7c4 #adej71 9 :i* ,c>d9al ,wolsey resid$ = ?ree or f\r weeks aft] 8 sudd5 fall f p[] 9 #aebi1 only ! gateh\se rema9s4 ,x is kn[n z ,wolsey's ,t[]1 b is app>5tly "p ( ,waynflete's f\ndation4 ,a new mansion 0 erect$ 9 #ahjc4 ,to ! s\? is ,cl>emont ,palace1 built by ! great ,"l ,clive 7#agfi7 on ! site ( a mansion ( ,sir ,john ,vanbrugh4 ,9 #ahaf x 0 ! resid5ce ( ,pr9cess ,*>lotte1 wife ( ,pr9ce 7aft]w>ds ,k+7 ,leopold4 ,%e di$ "h 9 #ahag1 & on ! dea? ( h] husb& 9 #ahfe ! prop]ty pass$ to ! cr[n4 ,l\is ,philippe1 ex-k+ ( ! ,fr5*1 resid$ "h f #ahdh until 8 dea? 9 #ahej4 ,9 #ahhb ,cl>emont became ! private prop]ty ( ,que5 ,victoria4 ,*ri/ ,*ur*1 ,e%]1 conta9s f9e memorials ( ,k+ ,leopold & o!rs1 & "o ( its ?ree bells is said to h be5 br\ght f ,san ,dom+o by ,sir ,francis ,drake4 ,to ! nor? ne> ! railway /ation is ,s&[n ,p>k1 :]e important race meet+s are held4 ,e%] is includ$ 9 ! urban di/rict ( ,e%] & ,! ,dittons1 ( :i* ,?ames ,ditton is a fav\rite riv]side resort4 ,! :ole di/rict is l>gely resid5tial4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #idhi4 ,,esk] 7,o4 ,iri% eiscir71 a local "n = long m\nds ( glacial gravel frequ5tly met ) 9 ,irel&4 ,esk]s 7! ,sw$i% as>7 are among ! occasionally puzzl+ relics ( ! ,briti% glacial p]iod4 ,!y w9d f side to side across glaciat$ c\ntry & h evid5tly be5 =m$ by *annels ^u or "u ! ice4 ,:]e /reams ( consid]able size =m tunnels "u or 9 ! ice ^! may become m or less fill$ ) wa%1 & :5 ! ice melts ! aggrad$ *annels appe> z long ridges ( gravel & s& kn[n z esk]s4 ,x has be5 ?\ght t simil> ridges are sometimes =m$ 9 valleys cut 9 ! ice f top to bottom1 & ev5 t !y rise f gravel & s& lodg$ 9 sup]-glacial *annels4 ,! latt] at lea/ is probably r>e1 z ! surface /reams h usually high gradi5ts1 swift curr5ts & smoo? bottoms1 & h5ce give little opportunity = lodgm5t4 ,9 ! case ( ice-%eets1 too1 9 :i* esk]s are *iefly develop$1 !re is usually no surface mat]ial except at ! imm$iate edge1 :]e ! ice is ?9 & its lay]s upturn$ 7,t4,c4 ,*amb]l9 & ,r4,d4 ,salisbury1 ,geology1 ,processes & _! ,results74 ,esk]s are to be di/+ui%$ f kames 7q4v474 ,,eskil/una1 a t[n ( ,sw$5 9 ! di/rict 7lan7 ( ,sod]manl&1 on ! ,hjelm> riv]1 :i* unites lakes ,hjelm> & ,mal>1 #fe m4 ,w4 ( ,/ockholm by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #ac1ffc4 ,! place is m5tion$ 9 ! #ac? c5tury1 & is said to d]ive its "n f ,eskil1 an ,engli% mission>y :o suff]$ m>tyrdom on ! spot4 ,x rose into importance 9 ! reign ( ,*>les ,x41 :o be/[$ on x consid]able privileges1 & gave ! fir/ impulse to its manufactur+ activity4 ,x is ! *ief seat 9 ,sw$5 ( ! iron & /eel indu/ries1 its cutl]y be+ especially not$1 :ile damasc5$ "w is a specialty4 ,!re is a te*nical s*ool = ! metal indu/ries4 ,!re are1 9 ! t[n or its neighb\rhood1 great eng9e]+1 gun-mak+1 & roll+ & poli%+ works & brew]ies4 ,! l>ge/ me*anical works are ^? ( ,munktell & ,tuna=s4 ,! ,k>l ,gu/af ,/ads rifle factory 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahad4 ,,eskimo1 ,,eskimos or ,,esquimaux 7a corruption ( ! ,abnaki ,indian ,eskimantsic or ! ,ojibway ,a%kimeq1 bo? t]ms mean+ ^? :o eat raw fle%3 !y call !mselves ,innuit1 ! p71 a ,nor? ,am]ican ,indian p1 inhabit+ ! arctic coa/ ( ,am]ica f ,gre5l& to ,alaska1 & a small portion ( ! ,asiatic %ore ( ,b]+ ,/rait4 ,on ! ,am]ican %ores !y are f\nd1 9 brok5 tribes1 f ,ea/ ,gre5l& to ! we/]n %ores ( ,alaska--nev] f> inl&1 or s\? ( ! region :]e ! w9t] ice all[s seals to congregate4 ,ev5 on hunt+ exp$itions !y nev] travel m ?an #cj m4 f ! coa/4 ,save a slight admixture ( ,european settl]s1 !y are ! only inhabitants ( bo? sides ( ,davis ,/rait & ,baff9 ,bay4 ,!y ext5d z f> s\? z ab\t #ej deg4 ,n4 lat4 on ! ea/]n side ( ,am]ica1 & 9 ! we/ to #fj deg4 on ! ea/]n %ore ( ,b]+ ,/rait1 :ile #ee deg4 to #fj deg4 are _! s\!rn limits on ! %ore ( ,hudson ,bay4 ,?r\gh\t all ?is range !re are no o!r tribes save :]e ! ,k5nayan & ,ugal5ze ,indians 7( we/]n ,am]ica7 come d[n to ! %ore to fi%4 ,! ,aleutians are closely alli$ to ! ,eskimo 9 habits & language4 ,h4,j4 ,r9k divides ! ,eskimo into ! foll[+ gr\ps1 ! mo/ ea/]n ( :i* w\ld h to travel ne>ly #ejjj m4 to rea* ! mo/ we/]n3 7#a7 ,! ,ea/ ,gre5l& ,eskimo1 few 9 numb]1 e ye> advanc+ f>!r s\?1 & com+ into contact ) ! next section4 7#b7 ,! ,we/ ,gre5l&]s1 civiliz$1 liv+ "u ! ,dani% cr[n1 & ext5d+ f ,cape ,f>ewell to #gd deg4 ,n4 lat4 7#c7 ,! ,nor!rn-mo/ ,gre5l&]s--! ,arctic ,highl&]s ( ,sir ,john ,ross--conf9$ to ,smi?1 ,:ale1 ,mur*ison & ,wol/5holme ,s\nds1 nor? ( ! ,melville ,bay glaci]s4 ,^!--! mo/ isolat$ & unciviliz$ ( all ! ,eskimo--_h no boats or b[s & arr[s until ab\t #ahfh4 7#d7 ,! ,labrador ,eskimo1 mo/ly civiliz$4 7#e7 ,! ,eskimo ( ! middle regions1 occupy+ ! coa/s f ,hudson ,bay to ,b>t] ,isl&1 beyond ,mack5zie riv]1 inhabit+ a /ret* ( c\ntry #bjjj m4 9 l5g? & #hjj 9 bread?4 7#f7 ,! ,we/]n ,eskimo1 f ,b>t] ,isl& to ! we/]n limits 9 ,am]ica4 7#g7 ,! ,asiatic ,eskimo4 ,! ,eskimo are n a tall race1 _! height v>y+ f #e ft4 #d 94 to #e ft4 #aj 941 b m5 ( #f ft4 are met4 ,bo? m5 & wom5 are muscul> & active1 ! =m] (t5 incl9+ to fat4 ,! faces ( bo? h a pleas+1 good-hum\r$ expression1 & n infrequ5tly are ev5 h&some4 ,! typical face is broadly oval1 flat1 ) fat *eeks2 =ehead n high1 & r retreat+2 tee? good1 ?\gh1 ow+ to ! "* ( ! food1 worn d[n to ! gums 9 old age2 nose v flat2 eyes r obliquely set1 small1 black & bright2 head l>gi%1 & cov]$ ) co>se black hair1 :i* ! wom5 fa/5 up into a knot on ! top1 & ! m5 clip 9 front & all[ to hang loose & unkempt beh9d4 ,_! skulls are ( ! mesocephalic type1 ! height be+ great] ?an ! bread?2 accord+ to ,davis1 #ge is ! index ( ! latt] & #gg ( ! =m]4 ,"s ( ! tribes slightly compress ! skulls ( _! new-born *ildr5 lat]ally 7,hall71 b ?is practice is a v local "o4 ,! m5 h usually a slight m\/a*e1 b no :isk]s1 & r>ely any be>d4 ,! sk9 has g5]ally a bacony feel1 & :5 clean$ ( ! smoke1 grease & o!r dirt--! accumulation ( :i* v>ies accord+ to ! age ( ! individual--is only s slightly br[n t r$ %[s 9 ! *eeks ( ! *ildr5 & "y wom54 ,! h&s & feet are small & well =m$4 ,! ,eskimo dress entirely 9 sk9s ( ! seal1 re9de]1 be>1 dog1 or ev5 fox1 ! fir/ two be+1 h[ev]1 ! mo/ common4 ,! m5's & wom5's dress is mu* ! same1 a jacket suit1 ! tr\s]s tuck$ into seal-sk9 boots4 ,! jacket has a hood1 :i* 9 cold wea!r is us$ to cov] ! head1 leav+ only ! face expos$4 ,! wom5's jacket has a l>ge hood = c>ry+ a *ild & an absurd-look+ tail beh9d1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 usually tuck$ up4 ,! wom5's tr\s]s are usually ornam5t$ ) eid]-duck neck fea!rs or embroid]y ( native dy$ lea!r2 _! boots1 :i* are ( :ite lea!r1 or 79 ,gre5l&7 dy$ ( v>i\s col\rs1 rea* ov] ! knees1 & 9 "s tribes are v wide at ! top1 ?us giv+ !m an awkw>d appe>ance & a clumsy waddl+ walk4 ,9 w9t] two suits are worn1 "o ) ! hair inside1 ! o!r ) x outside4 ,!y also sometimes we> %irts ( bird-sk9s1 & /ock+s ( dog or "y re9de] sk9s4 ,_! clo!s are v neatly made1 fit beautifully1 & are sewn ) s9ew-?read1 ) a bone ne$le if a /eel "o _c be _h4 ,9 p]son ! ,eskimo are usually fil?y1 & nev] wa%4 ,infants are1 h[ev]1 sometimes clean$ by be+ lick$ by _! "m be=e be+ put into ! bag ( fea!rs :i* s]ves z _! b$1 cradle & blankets4 ,9 summ] ! ,eskimo live 9 conical sk9 t5ts1 & 9 w9t] usually 9 half-und]gr\nd huts ( /one1 turf1 e>? & bones1 ent]$ by a long tunnel-l passage1 :i* c only be trav]s$ on all f\rs4 ,sometimes1 if resid+ tempor>ily at a place1 !y w erect neat r\nd huts ( blocks ( sn[ ) a %eet ( ice = a w9d[4 ,9 ! ro( are deposit$ _! sp>e h>poons1 c2 & f x is susp5d$ ! /eatite bas9-l lamp1 ! flame ( :i*1 ! wick be+ ( moss1 s]ves z fire & light4 ,on "o side ( ! hut is ! b5* :i* is us$ z s(a1 seats & common sleep+ place4 ,! floor is usually v fil?y1 a pool ( blood or a dead seal be+ (t5 to be se5 !re4 ,v5tilation is almo/ non-exi/5t2 & aft] ! lamp has blaz$ = "s "t1 ! heat is all b unbe>able4 ,9 ! summ] ! wolfi%-look+ dogs lie outside on ! ro( ( ! huts1 9 ! w9t] 9 ! tunnel-l passage j outside ! family ap>tm5t4 ,! ,we/]n ,eskimo build _! h\ses *iefly ( planks1 m]ely cov]$ on ! outside ) gre5 turf4 ,! same ,eskimo h1 9 ! m popul\s places1 a public room = meet+s4 ,c\ncil *amb]s are also said to exi/ 9 ,labrador1 b are only kn[n 9 ,gre5l& by tradition4 ,sometimes 9 s\? ,gre5l& & 9 ! ,we/]n ,eskimo c\ntry ! h\ses are made to accommodate sev]al families1 b z a rule ea* family has a h\se to itself4 ,! ,eskimo are solely hunt]s & fi%]s1 & d]ive mo/ ( _! food f ! sea4 ,_! c\ntry all[s ( no cultivation2 & beyond a few b]ries1 roots1 c41 !y use no vegetable food4 ,! seal1 ! re9de] & ! :ale supply ! bulk ( _! food1 z well z _! clo?+1 light1 fuel1 & frequ5tly also1 :5 driftwood is sc>ce or unavailable1 ! mat]ial = v>i\s articles ( dome/ic economy4 ,?us ! ,eskimo canoe is made ( seal-sk9 /ret*$ on a wood5 or :alebone frame1 ) a hole 9 ! c5tre = ! paddl]4 ,x is driv5 by a bone-tipp$ d\ble-blad$ paddle4 ,a wat]pro( sk9 or entrail dress is tightly fa/5$ r\nd ! m\? ( ! hole s t1 %\ld ! canoe ov]turn1 no wat] c ent]4 ,a skilful paddl] c turn a complete som]sault1 boat & all1 ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,! ,eskimo wom5 use a flat-bottom$ sk9 luggage-boat4 ,! ,eskimo sl$ge is made ( two runn]s ( wood or bone--ev51 9 "o case on record1 ( froz5 salmon 7,maclure7--unit$ by cross b>s ti$ to ! runn]s by hide ?ongs1 & drawn by f #d to #h dogs h>ness$ abrea/4 ,"s ( _! weapons are +5i\s--9 p>ticul>1 ! h>poon1 ) its deta*able po9t to :i* an inflat$ sealsk9 is fa/5$4 ,:5 ! qu>ry is /ruck1 ! float+ sk9 s]ves to tire x out1 m>ks its c\rse1 & buoys x up :5 dead4 ,! bird-spe>s1 too1 h a bladd] atta*$1 & po9ts at ! sides :i* /rike ! creature %\ld ! spe>-head fail to w\nd4 ,an effective b[ is made out ( :ale's rib4 ,altoge!r1 ) meagre mat]ial ! ,eskimo %[ great skill 9 ! manufacture ( _! weapons4 ,meat is sometimes boil$1 b1 :5 x is froz51 x is (t5 eat5 raw4 ,blood1 & ! half-dige/$ cont5ts ( ! re9de]'s paun*1 are also eat52 & sometimes1 b n habitually1 blubb]4 ,z a rule ?is latt] is too preci\s3 x mu/ be kept = w9t] fuel & light4 ,! ,eskimo are enorm\s eat]s2 two w easily dispose ( a seal at a sitt+2 & 9 ,gre5l&1 = in/ance1 ea* individual has = 8 daily consumption1 on an av]age1 #b-a_/b lb4 ( fle% ) blubb]1 & #a lb4 ( fi%1 besides mussels1 b]ries1 sea-we$1 c41 to :i* 9 ! ,dani% settlem5ts may be add$ #b oz4 ( import$ food4 ,t5 p\nds ( fle%1 9 addition to o!r food1 is n uncommonly consum$ 9 a day 9 "t ( pl5ty4 ,a man w lie on 8 back & all[ 8 wife to fe$ him ) tit-bits ( blubb] & fle% until he is unable to move4 ,! ,eskimo _c be /rictly call$ a w&]+ race4 ,!y are nomadic only 9 s f> t !y h to move ab\t f place to place dur+ ! fi%+ & %oot+ season1 foll[+ ! game 9 its migrations4 ,!y h1 h[ev]1 no regul> prop]ty4 ,!y possess only ! mo/ necess>y ut5sils & furniture1 ) a /ock ( provisions = less ?an "o ye>2 & ^! possessions nev] exce$ c]ta9 limits fix$ ^u by tradition or cu/om4 ,long habit & ! necessities ( _! life h also compell$ ^? hav+ food to %>e ) ^? hav+ none--a cu/om :i*1 ) o!rs1 has conduc$ to ! /agnant conditions ( ,eskimo society & to _! utt] improvid5ce4 ,_! intellig5ce is consid]able1 z _! implem5ts & folk-tales abundantly prove4 ,!y display a ta/e = music1 c>tography & draw+1 display no small am\nt ( hum\r1 are quick at pick+ up peculi> traits 9 /rang]s1 & are pa9fully acute 9 detect+ ! weak po9ts or ludicr\s sides ( _! "*4 ,!y are excell5t mimics & easily le>n ! dances & songs ( ! ,europeans1 z well z _! games1 su* z *ess & draughts4 ,!y gamble a little--b 9 mod]ation1 = ! ,eskimo1 ?\gh ke5 trad]s1 h a deep-root$ antipa?y to speculation4 ,:5 !y (f] any?+ = sale--say at a ,dani% settlem5t 9 ,gre5l&--!y always leave x to ! buy] to settle ! price4 ,!y h also a dislike to b9d !mselves by contract4 ,h5ce x 0 long be=e ! ,eskimo 9 ,gre5l& c\ld be induc$ to ent] into ,european s]vice1 ?\gh :5 !y d !y pass to almo/ ! opposite extreme--!y h no w ( _! own4 ,public lic5ti\sness or indec5cy is r>e among !m4 ,9 _! private life _! morality is1 h[ev]1 n high4 ,! wom5 are especially err+2 & 9 ,gre5l&1 at places :]e /rang]s visit1 _! extreme laxity ( morals1 & _! utt] want ( %ame1 are n m rem>kable ?an ! entire abs5ce ( jeal\sy or self-respect on ! "p ( _! c\ntrym5 & relatives4 ,!ft 9 ,gre5l& is almo/ unkn[n2 b ! wild ,eskimo make v free ) /rang]s' goods--?\gh x mu/ be all[$ t ! value !y atta* to ! articles /ol5 is "s excuse = ! ?ieves4 ,among !mselves1 on ! o!r h&1 !y are v hone/--a result ( _! be+ s mu* "u ! control ( public op9ion4 ,ly+ is said to be z common a trait ( ! ,eskimo z ( o!r savages 9 _! deal+s ) ,europeans4 ,!y h naturally n made any figure 9 lit]ature4 ,_! folk-lore is1 h[ev]1 ext5sive1 & t collect$ by ,dr ,r9k %[s consid]able imag9ation & no mean tal5t on ! "p ( ! /ory-tell]s4 ,9 ,gre5l& & ,labrador mo/ ( ! natives h be5 taught by ! mission>ies to read & write 9 _! own language4 ,altoge!r1 ! lit]ature publi%$ 9 ! ,eskimo tongue is consid]able4 ,mo/ ( x has be5 pr9t$ 9 ,d5m>k1 b "s has be5 set up 9 a small pr9t+-(fice 9 ,gre5l&1 f :i* ab\t #bhj %eets h issu$1 beside _m li?ographic pr9ts4 ,a j\rnal 7,atuagagldliutit nal+9>mik tus>um9asassumik univkat1 i4e4 some?+ = read+1 acc\nts ( all ent]ta9+ subjects7 has be5 publi%$ s9ce #ahfa4 ,! ,eskimo 9 ,gre5l& & ,labrador are1 ) few exceptions1 nom9ally at lea/1 ,*ri/ians4 ,! native religion is a vague animism1 & consi/s ( a belief 9 good & evil spirits1 limit$ ea* to its own sph]e2 9 a ,heav5 & ,hell2 & a *ildi% fai? is plac$ 9 ! native wiz>ds1 :o are reg>d$ z int]m$i>ies betwe5 mank9d & ! _s-p[]s4 ,! wor%ip ( ! :ale-_s1 s important a factor 9 _! daily economy1 is preval5t4 ,z reg>ds language1 ! idiom spok5 f ,gre5l& to nor?-ea/]n ,sib]ia is1 ) a few exceptions1 ! same2 any diff]5ce is only t ( dialect4 ,x diff]s f ! :ole gr\p ( ,european languages1 n m]ely 9 ! s\nd ( ! words1 b m especially1 accord+ to ,r9k1 9 ! con/ruction4 ,its mo/ rem>kable feature is t a s5t5ce ( a ,european language is express$ 9 ,eskimo by a s+le ^w con/ruct$ out ( c]ta9 elem5ts1 ea* ( :i* corresponds 9 "s degree to "o ( our words4 ,"o specim5 commonly giv5 to visitors to ,gre5l& may suffice3 ,savigiks9i>i>tokasu>om>yotittogog1 :i* is equival5t to ,he says t y also w g away quickly 9 l mann] & buy a pretty knife4 ,"h is "o ^w s]v+ 9 ! place ( #ag4 ,x is made up z foll[s3 ,savig a knife1 ik pretty1 s9i buy1 ari>tok g away1 asu> ha/51 om> wilt1 y 9 l mann]1 otit ?\1 tog also1 og he says4 ,! ,eskimo h no *iefs or political & milit>y rul]s4 ,fabricius concisely describ$ !m 9 8 day3 ,s9e ,deo1 dom9o1 reguntur consuetud9e4 ,! gov]nm5t is ma9ly a family "o1 ?\gh a man di/+ui%$ = skill 9 ! *ase1 & = /r5g? & %rewdness1 (t5 has consid]able p[] 9 ! village4 ,no political or social tie is recogniz$ betwe5 ! villages1 ?\gh g5]al good-fell[%ip seems to m>k _! relations4 ,!y nev] g to w> ) ea* o!r2 & ?\gh rev5geful & apt to injure an enemy secretly1 !y r>ely come to bl[s1 & are morbidly anxi\s n to give (f5ce4 ,inde$1 9 _! int]c\rse ) ea* o!r1 all ,eskimo indulge 9 mu* hyp]bolical complim5t4 ,b !y are n )\t c\rage4 ,on ! ,copp]m9e & ,mack5zie riv]s1 :]e !y sometimes come into collision ) _! ,am]ican-,indian k9sm51 !y fight fi]cely4 ,polygamy is r>e1 b ! rights ( divorce & re-m>riage are unre/rict$4 ,! ,eskimo h intricate rules gov]n+ ! own]%ip ( prop]ty & ! rights ( ! hunt]4 ,z a race !y are s+ul>ly undemon/rative4 ,:5 !y met ea* o!r !y us$ to rub noses toge!r1 b ?is1 ?\gh a common cu/om /ill among ! wild ,eskimo1 is entirely ab&on$ 9 ,gre5l& except = ! pett+ ( *ildr54 ,!re is1 9 ,gre5l& at lea/1 no national mode ( salutation1 ei!r on meet+ or p>t+4 ,:5 a gue/ ent]s a h\se1 commonly n ! lea/ sign is made ei!r by him or 8 ho/4 ,on leav+ a place !y sometimes say inuvdlu>itse1 i4e4 live well1 & to a ,european aporniak9atit1 i4e4 d n hurt ?y head1 viz4 aga9/ ! upp] "p ( ! doorway4 ,! ,eskimo1 exclud+ ! few on ! ,asiatic coa/1 are e/imat$ at ab\t #bi1jjj4 ,,bibliography4--,dr ,h4,j4 ,r9k1 ,tales & ,traditions ( ! ,eskimo 7#ahge72 ,dani% ,gre5l&2 its ,p & its ,products 7#ahgg72 ,eskimo ,tribes 7#ahhg72 ,j4 ,ri*>dson1 ,pol> ,regions 7#ahfa71 pp4 #bih-cca2 ,sir ,clem5ts ,m>kham1 ,arctic ,pap]s ( ! ,r4 ,g4 ,s4 7#ahge71 pp4 #afc-bcb2 ,simpson1 ibid4 pp4 #bcc-bge2 ,hans ,h5driks ! ,eskimo's ,memoirs1 ,geographical ,magaz9e 7,feb4 #ahgh1 et seq472 ,fridtj( ,nans51 ,eskimo ,life 7#ahid72 ,r4,e4 ,pe>y1 ,nor?w>d ov] ! ,great ,ice1 vol4 i4 app5dix ii42 ,f4 ,boas1 ,! ,c5tral ,eskimo1 ,six? ,annual ,report ( ,bureau ( ,e?nology 7#ahhd-ahhe72 ,j4 ,murdo*1 ,! ,po9t ,b>r[ ,eskimo1 ,n9? ,annual ,report 7#ahhg-ahhh72 ,e4,w4 ,nelson1 ,! ,eskimo ab\t ,b]+ ,/rait1 ,eighte5? ,annual ,report1 "p #a 7#ahif-ahig74 ,,eski-,,%ehr1 a t[n ( ,asia ,m9or1 9 ! ,kutaiah sanjak ( ! ,brusa 7,khudav5diki>7 vilayet4 ,x is a /ation on ! ,haid> ,pa%a-,angora railway1 #aid-a_/b m4 f ! =m] & #afd m4 f ,angora1 & ! junction = ,konia2 & is situat$ on ! "r bank ( ! ,pursak ,su 7,tembris71 a tribut>y ( ! ,sak>ia1 at ! foot ( ! hills t bord] ! broad treeless valley4 ,pop4 #bj1jjj 7,moslems #ae1jjj1 ,*ri/ians #ejjj74 ,eski-,%ehr1 i4e4 ! old t[n1 lies ab\t a mile f ! ru9s ( ! anci5t ,phrygian ,dorylaeum4 ,! latt] is m5tion$ 9 connexion ) ! w>s ( ,lysima*us & ,antigonus 7ab\t #cjb ,b4,c471 & frequ5tly figures 9 ,byzant9e hi/ory z an imp]ial resid5ce & milit>y r5dezv\s4 ,x 0 ! sc5e ( ! defeat ( ! ,turks "u ,kilij-,arslan by ! crusad]s 9 #ajig1 & fell f9ally to ! ,turks ( ,konia 9 #aagf4 ,! t[n is divid$ by a small /ream into a comm]cial qu>t] on l[ gr\nd1 9 :i* are ! baza>s1 khans & ! hot sulphur spr+s 7#abb deg4 ,f47 :i* are m5tion$ z e>ly z ! #crd c5tury by ,a!naeus2 & a resid5tial qu>t] on ! high] gr\nd4 ,! t[n is not$ = its good climate1 ! ,pursak ,su = ! abundance ( its fi%1 & ! pla9 = its f]tility4 ,ab\t #ah m4 to ! ,e4 are ext5sive deposits ( me]s*aum4 ,! clay is p>tly manufactur$ into pipes 9 ! t[n1 b ! great] proportion f9ds its way to ,europe & especially to ,g]many4 ,! annual output is valu$ at ,l#bgb1jjj4 ,see ,murray's ,hdbk4 to ,asia ,m9or 7#ahic72 ,v4 ,cu9et1 ,turquie d',asie 7,p>is1 #ahid74 ,,esm>*1 ,,johannes ,,fri$ri* ,,augu/ ,,von 7#ahbc-aijh71 ,g]man surgeon1 0 born at ,tonn+1 9 ,s*leswig-,hol/e91 on ! #i? ( ,janu>y #ahbc4 ,he /udi$ at ,kiel & ,gott+51 & 9 #ahdf became ,b4,r4,k4 von ,lang5beck's assi/ant at ! ,kiel surgical hospital4 ,he s]v$ 9 ! ,s*leswig-,hol/e9 ,w> ( #ahdh z junior surgeon1 & ?is direct$ 8 att5tion to ! subject ( milit>y surg]y4 ,he 0 tak5 prison]1 b aft]w>ds ex*ang$1 & 0 !n appo9t$ z surgeon to a field hospital4 ,dur+ ! truce ( #ahdi he qualifi$ z ,privatdoc5t at ,kiel1 b on ! fre% outbreak ( w> he return$ to ! troops & 0 promot$ to ! rank ( s5ior surgeon4 ,9 #ahed he became director ( ! surgical cl9ic at ,kiel1 & 9 #aheg head ( ! g5]al hospital & pr(essor at ! univ]sity4 ,dur+ ! ,s*leswig-,hol/e9 ,w> ( #ahfd ,esm>* r5d]$ good s]vice to ! field hospitals ( ,fl5sburg1 ,sundewitt & ,kiel4 ,9 #ahff he 0 call$ to ,b]l9 z memb] ( ! hospital commission1 & also to take ! sup]9t5d5ce ( ! surgical "w 9 ! hospitals !re4 ,:5 ! ,franco-,g]man ,w> broke out 9 #ahgj he 0 appo9t$ surgeon-g5]al to ! army1 & aft]w>ds consult+ surgeon at ! great milit>y hospital ne> ,b]l94 ,9 #ahgb he m>ri$ ,pr9cess ,h5rietta ( ,s*leswig-,hol/e9-,sond]burg-,augu/5burg 1 aunt ( ! ,empress ,augu/e ,victoria4 ,9 #ahhg a pat5t ( nobility 0 conf]r$ on him4 ,he di$ at ,kiel on ! #bcrd ( ,febru>y #aijh4 ,esm>* 0 "o ( ! greate/ au?orities on hospital managem5t & milit>y surg]y4 ,8 ,h&bu* d] kriegs*irurgis*5 ,te*nik 0 writt5 = a prize (f]$ by ! empress ,augu/a1 on ! occasion ( ! ,vi5na ,exhibition ( #ahgg1 = ! be/ h&book = ! battlefield ( surgical appliances & op]ations4 ,?is book is illu/rat$ by admirable diagrams1 %[+ ! diff]5t me?ods ( b&ag+ & dress+1 z well z ! surgical op]ations z !y occur on ! battlefield4 ,esm>* himself inv5t$ an app>atus1 :i* be>s 8 "n1 = keep+ a limb ne>ly bloodless dur+ amputation4 ,no "p ( ,esm>*'s "w is m widely kn[n ?an t :i* deals ) ,fir/ ,aid1 8 ,fir/ ,aid on ! ,battlefield & ,fir/ ,aid to ! ,injur$ be+ popul> manuals on ! subject4 ,! latt] is ! sub/ance ( a c\rse ( lectures deliv]$ by him 9 #ahha to a ,sam>itan ,s*ool1 ! fir/ ( ! k9d 9 ,g]many1 f\nd$ by ,esm>* 9 #ahha1 9 imitation ( ! ,/ ,john's ,ambulance classes :i* _h be5 organiz$ 9 ,engl& 9 #ahgh4 ,^! lectures 7 v g5]ally adopt$ z a manual = fir/ aid /ud5ts1 edition aft] edition hav+ be5 call$ =1 & !y h be5 translat$ into num]\s languages1 ! ,engli% v]sion be+ ! "w ( ,h4,r4,h4 ,pr9cess ,*ri/ian4 ,no ambulance c\rse w\ld be complete )\t a demon/ration ( ! ,esm>* b&age4 ,x is a ?ree-sid$ piece ( l95 or cotton1 ( :i* ! base measures #d ft4 & ! sides #b ft4 #aj 94 ,x c be us$ fold$ or op51 & appli$ 9 ?irty-two diff]5t ways4 ,x answ]s e purpose = tempor>y dress+ & field-"w1 :ile its great recomm5dation is t ! means = mak+ x are always at h&4 ,,esna1 or ,,esneh1 a t[n ( ,upp] ,egypt on ! ,w4 bank ( ! ,nile1 #ded m4 ,s4,s4,e4 ( ,cairo by rail1 ! railway /ation be+ on ! opposite side ( ! riv]4 ,pop4 7#ahig7 #af1jjj1 mo/ly ,copts4 ,esna1 "o ( ! heal?ie/ t[ns 9 ,egypt1 is not$ = its manufactures ( pott]y & its l>ge gra9 & live /ock m>kets4 ,x =m]ly _h a l>ge trade ) ! ,sudan4 ,a c>avan road to ! s\? goes ?r\gh ! oasis ( ,kurkur4 ,! trade1 almo/ /opp$ by ! ,mahdi/ ,w>s1 is n[ l>gely div]t$ by railway & /eamboat r\tes4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 consid]able traffic ) ! oasis ( ,kh>ga1 :i* lies almo/ due we/ ( ! t[n4 ,ne>ly 9 ! c5tre ( ! t[n is ! ,ptolemaic & ,roman temple ( ! ram-head$ ,khnum1 almo/ buri$ 9 rubbi% & h\ses4 ,! int]ior ( ! pronaos is accessible to t\ri/s1 & conta9s ! late/ kn[n hi]oglyphic inscription1 dat+ f ! reign ( ,decius 7,a4,d4 #bdi-bea74 ,) ,khnum are associat$ ! goddesses ,sati & ,nei?4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood are rema9s ( ,coptic build+s1 includ+ a subt]ranean *ur* 7discov]$ #ahie7 9 ! des]t half a mile beyond ! limits ( cultivation4 ,! "n ,esna is f ! ,coptic ,sne4 ,by ! ,greeks ! place 0 call$ ,latopolis1 f ! wor%ip "h ( ! latus fi%4 ,9 ! p]secutions "u ,diocletian ,a4,d4 #cjc1 ! ,*ri/ians ( ,esna1 a num]\s body1 suff]$ sev]ely4 ,9 lat] times ! t[n frequ5tly s]v$ z a place ( refuge = political exiles4 ,! s-call$ ,esna b>rage across ! ,nile 7built #aijf-aijh7 is #cj m4 high] up /ream at ,edfu4 ,,esot]ic1 hav+ an inn] or secret mean+4 ,?is t]m1 & its correlative exot]ic1 7 fir/ appli$ 9 ! anci5t ,greek my/]ies to ^? :o 7 initiat$ 7,greek3 eso1 )97 & to ^? :o 7 n 7,greek3 exo1 outside71 respectively4 ,x 0 !n transf]r$ to a suppos$ di/9ction drawn by c]ta9 philosoph]s betwe5 ! tea*+ giv5 to ! :ole circle ( _! pupils & t conta9+ a high] & secret philosophy :i* 0 res]v$ = a select numb] ( specially advanc$ or privileg$ disciples4 ,?is di/9ction 0 ascrib$ by ,lucian 7,vit4 ,auct4 #bf7 to ,ari/otle 7q4v471 :o1 h[ev]1 uses ,greek3 exot]ikoi logoi 7,nic4 ,e?ics7 m]ely ( popul> treatises4 ,x 0 probably adopt$ by ! ,py?agoreans & 0 also attribut$ to ,plato4 ,9 ! s5se ( my/ic x is us$ ( a secret doctr9e ( !osophy1 suppos$ to h be5 traditional among c]ta9 disciples ( ,buddhism4 ,,espagnols ,,sur ,,m]1 ,,les1 ! "n giv5 to ! naval victory ga9$ by ,k+ ,edw>d ,,iii4 ( ,engl& ov] a ,spani% fleet (f ,w9*elsea1 on ! #bi? ( ,augu/ #acej4 ,spani% %ips _h f\ght aga9/ ,engl& z ! allies or m]c5>ies ( ,france1 & !re _h be5 in/ances ( piratical viol5ce betwe5 ! trad+ %ips ( bo? nations4 ,a ,spani% m]*ant fleet 0 load+ c>goes 9 ! ,flemi% ports to be c>ri$ to ! ,basque coa/4 ,! %ips 7 arm$ & _h w>%ips ) !m4 ,!y 7 all "u ! comm& ( ,don ,c>los de la ,c]da1 a soldi] ( =tune :o belong$ to a bran* ( ! ,ca/ilian royal family4 ,on its way to ,fl&]s ! ,spani% fleet _h captur$ a numb] ( ,engli% trad+ %ips1 & _h ?r[n ! crews ov]bo>d4 ,piratical viol5ce & massacre ( ?is k9d 0 !n univ]sal on ! sea4 ,on ! #aj? ( ,augu/1 :5 ! k+ 0 at ,ro!rhi!1 he ann\nc$ 8 int5tion ( attack+ ! ,spani>ds on _! way home4 ,! r5dezv\s ( 8 fleet 0 at ,w9*elsea1 & ?i!r ! k+ w5t by l&1 accompani$ by 8 wife & h] ladies1 by 8 sons1 ! ,black ,pr9ce & ,john ( ,gaunt1 z well z by _m nobles4 ,! ladies 7 plac$ 9 a conv5t & ! k+ emb>k$ on 8 flag%ip1 ! ,cog ,?omas1 on ! #bh? ( ,augu/4 ,! ,engli% fleet did n put to sea b rema9$ at an*or1 wait+ = ! appe>ance ( ! ,spani>ds4 ,its /r5g? is n kn[n ) c]ta9ty1 b ,/[ puts x at #ej %ips & p9naces4 ,c>los de la ,c]da 0 obvi\sly well dispos$ to give ! k+ a meet+4 ,he might easily h avoid$ ! ,engli% if he _h kept well out 9 ! ,*annel4 ,b he reli$ on ! size & /r5g? ( 8 #dj l>ge %ips1 & 9 expectation ( an enc\nt] _h recruit$ a body ( m]c5>ies--mo/ly crossb[m5--9 ! ,flemi% ports4 ,9 ! aft]noon ( ! #bi? ( ,augu/ he bore d[n boldly on ,k+ ,edw>d's %ips at an*or at ,w9*elsea4 ,:5 ! ,spani>ds hove 9 sight1 ! k+ 0 sitt+ on ! deck ( 8 %ip1 ) 8 knights & nobles1 li/5+ to 8 m9/rels :o play$ ,g]man airs1 & to ! s++ ( ,sir ,john ,*&os4 ,:5 ! look-out 9 ! tops report$ ! enemy 9 sight1 ! k+ & 8 company drank to "o ano!r's heal?1 ! trumpet 0 s\nd$1 & ! :ole l9e /ood out4 ,all battles at t "t1 :e!r on l& or sea1 7 f9ally settl$ by /roke ( sword4 ,! ,engli% /e]$ to bo>d ! ,spani>ds4 ,! k+'s own %ip 0 run into by "o ( ! enemy ) su* viol5ce t bo? 7 damag$1 & %e began to s9k4 ,! ,spani>d /ood on1 & ! ,cog ,?omas 0 laid alongside ano!r1 :i* 0 c>ri$ by bo>d+4 ,x 0 high "t1 = ! k+ & 8 foll[+ _h b>ely rea*$ ! deck ( ! ,spani>d be=e ! ,cog ,?omas w5t to ! bottom4 ,o!r ,spani>ds 7 tak51 b ! fight 0 hot4 ,la ,c]da's crossb[m5 did mu* execution1 & ! high]-built ,spani>ds 7 able to drop b>s ( iron or o!r weights on ! light] ,engli% vessels1 by :i* !y 7 damag$4 ,! conflict 0 cont9u$ till twilight4 ,at ! close ! l>ge ,engli% vessel call$ ,la ,salle du ,roi1 :i* c>ri$ ! k+'s h\sehold1 & 0 comm&$ by ! ,flem+1 ,rob]t ( ,namur1 aft]w>ds a knight ( ! ,g>t]1 0 grappl$ by a big ,spani>d1 & 0 be+ dragg$ (f by him4 ,! crew call$ l\dly = a rescue1 b 7 ei!r n he>d or1 if he>d1 c\ld n be help$4 ,! ,salle du ,roi w\ld h be5 tak5 if a ,flemi% squire ( ,rob]t ( ,namur1 nam$ ,hannequ91 _h n p]=m$ a great feat ( arms4 ,he bo>d$ ! ,spani>d & cut ! haly>ds ( h] ma9sail ) 8 sword4 ,! ,spani% %ip 0 tak54 ,k+ ,edw>d is said to h captur$ #ad ( ! enemy4 ,:at 8 own loss 0 is n /at$1 b z 8 own vessel1 & also ! vessel c>ry+ ! ,black ,pr9ce1 7 sunk1 & f ! p]il ( ,la ,salle du ,roi1 we may conclude t ! ,engli% fleet suff]$ heavily4 ,!re 0 no pursuit1 & a truce 0 made ) ! ,basque t[ns ! next ye>4 ,! battle ) ! ,spani>ds on ! sea is a v typical example ( a m$ieval sea-fight1 :5 ! %ips 7 ( ! size ( a small coa/] or a fi%+ smack1 7 cr[d$ ) m51 & :5 ! p]sonal pr[ess ( a s+le knight or squire 0 an important elem5t ( /r5g?4 ,! only real au?ority = ! battle is ,froiss>t1 :o 0 at diff]5t times 9 ! s]vice ( ,k+ ,edw>d or ( 8 wife1 ,philippa ( ,ha9aut1 & ( ! c\nts ( ,namur4 ,he repeat$ :at 0 told him by m5 :o _h be5 pres5t1 & dwells z usual on ! *ivalry ( 8 patrons4 ,see 8 ,*roniques1 iv4 #ia4 7,d4 ,h47 ,,espali] 7a ,fr5* ^w1 d]iv$ f ! ,ital4 spalli]a1 some?+ to re/ ! spalla or %\ld] aga9/2 ! ^w is ultimately ! same z epauli]e1 a %\ld]-piece71 a lattice-"w or r[ ( /akes1 orig9ally %\ld] high1 on :i* fruit trees1 %rubs & fl[]s1 p>ticul>ly roses & creep]s1 are tra9$4 ,espali]s are usually made ( l>* or o!r wood1 iron & metal rails be+ too great conductors ( heat & cold4 ,! advantage ( ?is me?od ( tra9+ is t ! fruit1 c1 is m easily got at1 & :ile protect$ f w9d1 is freely expos$ to sun & air1 & n s op5 to extreme *anges ( temp]ature z :5 tra9$ on a wall4 7,see ,,horticulture47 ,,esp>t]o1 ,,baldom]o 7#agib-ahgi71 duke ( ,vitoria1 duke ( ,morella1 pr9ce ( ,v]g>a1 ,c\nt ,lu*ana1 knight ( ! ,toison d',or1 c4 c41 ,spani% soldi] & /atesman1 0 born at ,granatulu1 a t[n ( ! prov9ce ( ,ciudad ,real1 on ! #bg? ( ,febru>y #agib4 ,he 0 ! n9? *ild ( a c>t]1 :o want$ to make him a prie/1 b ! lad at fifte5 enli/$ 9 a battalion ( /ud5ts to fight aga9/ ! armies ( ,napoleon ,i4 ,9 #ahaa ,esp>t]o 0 appo9t$ a lieut5ant ( ,eng9e]s 9 ,cadiz1 b hav+ fail$ to pass 8 exam9ation he ent]$ a l9e regim5t4 ,9 #ahae he w5t to ,am]ica z a capta9 "u ,g5]al ,morillo1 :o _h be5 made comm&]-9-*ief to quell ! ris+s ( ! colonies on ! ,spani% ,ma94 ,= eight ye>s ,esp>t]o di/+ui%$ himself 9 ! /ruggle aga9/ ! coloni/s4 ,he 0 sev]al times w\nd$1 & 0 made major & colonel on ! battlefields ( ,co*abamba & ,sapa*ni4 ,he _h to surr5d] to ,sucre at ! f9al battle ( ,ayacu*o1 :i* put an end to ,ca/ilian rule4 ,he return$ to ,spa91 &1 l mo/ ( 8 companions 9 arms1 rema9$ "u a cl\d = "s "t4 ,he 0 s5t to ! g>rison t[n ( ,logrono1 :]e he m>ri$ ! daught] ( a ri* l&[n]1 ,dona ,jac9ta ,santa ,cruz1 :o ev5tually surviv$ him4 ,h5ce=? ,logrono became ! home ( ! mo/ prom95t ( ! ,spani% political g5]als ( ! #ai? c5tury4 ,esp>t]o became 9 #ahcb1 on ! dea? ( ,k+ ,f]d9& ,,vii41 "o ( ! mo/ ard5t def5d]s ( ! rights ( 8 daught]1 ,isabella ,,ii4 ,! gov]nm5t s5t him to ! front1 directly ! ,c>li/ ,w> broke out1 z comm&ant ( ! prov9ce ( ,biscay1 :]e he sev]ely defeat$ ! ,c>li/s 9 _m enc\nt]s4 ,he 0 quickly promot$ to a divisional comm&1 & !n made a lieut5ant-g5]al4 ,at times he %[$ qualities z a gu]ill]o q equal to ^? ( ! ,c>li/s1 l ,zumalac>regui & ,cabr]a1 by 8 d>+ m>*es & surprises4 ,:5 he _h to move l>ge =ces he 0 greatly sup]ior to !m z an organiz] & /rategi/1 & he nev] disgrac$ 8 successes by cruelty or ne$less sev]ity4 ,twice he oblig$ ! ,c>li/s to raise ! siege ( ,bilbao be=e he 0 appo9t$ comm&]-9-*ief ( ! nor!rn army on ! #ag? ( ,septemb] #ahcf1 :5 ! tide ( w> seem$ to be sett+ 9 fav\r ( ! pret5d] 9 ! ,basque prov9ces & ,nav>re1 ?\gh ,don ,c>los _h lo/ 8 able/ lieut5ant1 ! ,basque ,zumalac>regui4 ,8 milit>y duties at ! head ( ! pr9cipal national army did n prev5t ,esp>t]o f %[+ = ! fir/ "t 8 political ambition4 ,he display$ su* radical & re=m+ incl9ations t he laid ! f\ndations ( 8 popul>ity among ! l[] & middle classes1 :i* la/$ m ?an a qu>t] ( a c5tury1 dur+ :i* "t ! ,progressi/s1 ,democrats & advanc$ ,lib]als ev] look$ to him z a lead] & advis]4 ,9 ,novemb] #ahcf he aga9 =c$ ! ,c>li/s to raise ! siege ( ,bilbao4 ,8 troops includ$ ! ,briti% legion "u ,sir de ,lacy ,evans4 ,?is success turn$ ! tide ( w> aga9/ ,don ,c>los1 :o va9ly attempt$ a raid t[>ds ,madrid4 ,esp>t]o 0 soon at 8 heels1 & oblig$ him to hurry nor?w>ds1 aft] sev]al defeats4 ,9 #ahci ,esp>t]o c>efully op5$ up negotiations ) ,m>oto & ! pr9cipal ,c>li/ *iefs ( ! ,basque prov9ces4 ,^! end$ 9 _! accept+ 8 t]ms "u ! fam\s conv5tion ( ,v]g>a1 :i* secur$ ! recognition ( _! ranks & titles = ne>ly #ajjj ,c>li/ (fic]s4 ,tw5ty ?\s& ,c>li/ volunte]s laid d[n _! arms at ,v]g>a2 only ! irreconcilables l$ by ,cabr]a held out = a :ile 9 ! c5tral prov9ces ( ,spa94 ,esp>t]o soon1 h[ev]1 9 #ahdj1 /amp$ out ! la/ emb]s ( ! ris+1 :i* _h la/$ sev5 ye>s4 ,he 0 /yl$ ,el pacificador de ,espana1 0 made a gr&ee ( ! fir/ class1 & receiv$ two duk$oms4 ,dur+ ! la/ ?ree ye>s ( ! w> ,esp>t]o1 :o _h be5 elect$ a deputy1 ex]cis$ f 8 di/ant headqu>t]s su* influ5ce ov] ,madrid politics t he twice ha/5$ ! fall ( ! cab9et1 & obta9$ (fice = 8 own fri5ds4 ,at ! close ( ! w> ! que5 reg5t & h] m9i/]s attempt$ to elb[ out ,esp>t]o & 8 foll[]s1 b a pronunciami5to ensu$ 9 ,madrid & o!r l>ge t[ns :i* culm9at$ 9 ! m>%al's accept+ ! po/ ( prime m9i/]4 ,he soon became virtually a dictator1 z ,que5 ,*ri/9a took (f5ce at 8 popul>ity & resign$1 leav+ ! k+dom v soon aft]w>ds4 ,directly ! ,cortes met !y elect$ ,esp>t]o reg5t by #agi votes to #ajc 9 fav\r ( ,arguelles1 :o 0 appo9t$ gu>dian ( ! "y que54 ,= two ye>s ,esp>t]o rul$ ,spa9 9 accordance ) 8 ,radical & conciliatory dispositions1 giv+ special att5tion to ! reorganization ( ! adm9i/ration1 taxation & f9ances1 decl>+ all ! e/ates ( ! *ur*1 congregations & religi\s ord]s to be national prop]ty1 & suppress+ ! diezma1 or t5?s4 ,he suppress$ ! ,republican ris+s ) z mu* sev]ity z he did ! milit>y pronunciami5tos ( ,g5]als ,con*a & ,diego de ,leon4 ,! latt] 0 %ot 9 ,madrid4 ,esp>t]o cru%$ ) mu* en]gy a revolution>y ris+ 9 ,b>celona1 b on 8 return to ,madrid 0 s coldly welcom$ t he p]ceiv$ t 8 pre/ige 0 on ! wane4 ,! advanc$ ,progressi/s coalesc$ ) ! p>tisans ( ! ex-reg5t ,*ri/9a to promote pronunciami5tos 9 ,b>celona & _m cities4 ,! rebels decl>$ ,que5 ,isabel ( age1 &1 l$ by ,g5]al ,n>vaez1 m>*$ ^u ,madrid4 ,esp>t]o1 deem+ resi/ance useless1 emb>k$ at ,cadiz on ! #cj? ( ,july #ahdc = ,engl&1 & liv$ quietly ap>t f politics until #ahdh1 :5 a royal decree re/or$ to him all 8 hon\rs & 8 seat 9 ! s5ate4 ,he retir$ to 8 h\se 9 ,logrono1 :i* he left six ye>s lat]1 9 #ahed1 :5 call$ ^u by ! que5 to take ! lead ( ! p[]ful ,lib]al & ,progressi/ movem5t :i* prevail$ = two ye>s4 ,! old m>%al va9ly endeav\r$ to keep 8 own ,progressi/s )9 b\nds 9 ! ,cortes ( #ahed-ahef1 & 9 ! great t[ns1 b _! excessive dem&s = re=ms & lib]ties play$ into ! h&s ( a cl]ical & reaction>y c\rt & ( ! equally retrograde gov]n+ classes4 ,! gr[+ ambition ( ,g5]al ,o',donnell con/antly cla%$ ) ! views ( ,esp>t]o1 until ! latt]1 9 %e] disgu/1 resign$ 8 premi]%ip & left = ,logrono1 aft] w>n+ ! que5 t a conflict 0 imm95t betwe5 ,o',donnell & ! ,cortes1 back$ by ! ,progressi/ militia4 ,o',donnell's pronunciami5to 9 #ahef put an end to ! ,cortes1 & ! militia 0 dis>m$1 aft] a %>p /ruggle 9 ! /reets ( ! capital4 ,aft] #ahef ,esp>t]o resolutely decl9$ to id5tify himself ) active politics1 ?\gh at e /age 9 ! onw>d m>* ( ,spa9 t[>ds m lib]al & democratic in/itutions he 0 ask$ to take a lead+ "p4 ,he refus$ to all[ 8 "n to be br\ght =w>d z a c&idate :5 ! ,cortes ( #ahfh1 aft] ! ,revolution1 s\ght = a rul]4 ,esp>t]o1 /rangely en\gh1 adopt$ a laconic phrase :5 successive gov]nm5ts on _! adv5t to p[] inv>iably address$ !mselves to ! v5]able *ampion ( lib]al ideas4 ,to all--to ! ,revolution ( #ahfh1 ! ,con/itu5t ,cortes ( #ahfi1 ,k+ ,amadeus1 ! ,f$]al ,republic ( #ahgc1 ! nameless gov]nm5t ( ,m>%al ,s]rano 9 #ahgd1 ! ,b\rbon re/oration 9 #ahge--;he simply said3 ,cumplase la voluntad nacional 7,let ! national w be accompli%$74 ,k+ ,amadeus made him pr9ce ( ,v]g>a4 ,! ,re/oration rais$ a /atue to him ne> ! gate ( ! ,retiro ,p>k 9 ,madrid4 ,spani>ds ( all %ades1 except ,c>li/s & ,ultramontanes1 paid homage to 8 memory :5 he pass$ away at 8 ,logrono resid5ce on ! #h? ( ,janu>y #ahgi4 ,8 ta/es 7 s+ul>ly mode/1 8 mann]s r res]v$1 b always k9d & consid]ate = humble folk4 ,he 0 a typical ,spani% soldi]-politician1 ?\gh he _h m ( ! bett] traits ( ! soldi] born & br$ ?an ( ! arts ( ! /atesman4 ,8 milit>y in/9cts did n always make x easy = him to accommodate himself to c\rti]s & pr(essional politicians4 7,a4 ,e4 ,h47 ,,esp>to1 or ,,spani% ,,grass1 ,/ipa t5acissima1 a grass resembl+ ! ornam5tal fea!r-grass ( g>d5s4 ,x is indig5\s to ! s\? ( ,spa9 & ! nor? ( ,africa 7:]e x is kn[n z ,halfa or ,alfa71 & is especially abundant 9 ! /]ile & rugg$ p>ts ( ,murcia & ,val5cia1 & 9 ,alg]ia1 fl\ri%+ be/ 9 s&y1 f]rug9\s soils1 9 dry1 sunny situations on ! sea coa/4 ,pl9y 7,n4,h4 xix4 #b7 describ$ :at appe>s to h be5 ! same plant "u ! "n ( sp>tum1 :5ce ! designation campus sp>t>ius = ! region surr\nd+ ,new ,c>?age4 ,x atta9s a height ( #c or #d ft4 ,! /ems are cyl9drical1 & clo!d ) %ort hair1 & gr[ 9 clu/]s ( f #b to #aj ft4 9 circumf]5ce2 :5 "y !y s]ve z food = cattle1 b aft] a few ye>s' gr[? acquire great t\ghness ( texture4 ,! leaves v>y f #f 94 to #c ft4 9 l5g?1 & are grey-gre5 9 col\r2 on acc\nt ( _! t5acity ( fibre & flexibility !y h = c5turies be5 employ$ = ! mak+ ( ropes1 s&als1 baskets1 mats & o!r articles4 ,%ips' cables ( esp>to1 be+ light1 h ! quality ( float+ on wat]1 & h long be5 9 use 9 ! ,spani% navy4 ,esp>to leaves conta9 #ef by weight ( fibre1 or ab\t #aj m ?an /raw1 & h5ce h come into requisition z a sub/itute = l95 rags 9 ! manufacture ( pap]4 ,= ?is purpose !y 7 fir/ utiliz$ by ! ,fr5*1 & 9 #aheg 7 introduc$ into ,great ,brita94 ,:5 requir$ = pap]-mak+ ! leaves %\ld be ga!r$ be=e !y are q matur$2 if1 h[ev]1 !y are obta9$ too "y1 !y furni% a pap] hav+ an objectionable semi-transp>5t appe>ance4 ,! leaves are ga!r$ by h&1 & f #b to #c cwt4 may be collect$ 9 a day by a s+le lab\r]4 ,!y are g5]ally obta9$ dur+ ! dry summ] mon?s1 z at o!r times _! adh]5ce to ! /ems is s firm z (t5 to cause ! uproot+ ( ! plants 9 ! attempt to remove !m4 ,esp>to may be rais$ f se$1 b _c be h>ve/$ = twelve or fifte5 ye>s aft] s[+4 ,ano!r grass1 ,lygeum ,sp>tum1 ) /iff ru%-l leaves1 gr[+ 9 rocky soil on ! high pla9s ( c\ntries bord]+ on ! ,m$it]ranean1 especially ( ,spa9 & ,alg]ia1 is also a s\rce ( esp>to4 ,= ! processes ( ! pap] manufactur] esp>to is us$ 9 ! dry /ate1 & )\t cutt+2 roots & fl[]s & /ray we$s are fir/ remov$1 & ! mat]ial is !n boil$ ) cau/ic soda1 wa%$1 & blea*$ ) *lor9e solution4 ,sundry exp]im5ts h be5 made to adapt esp>to = use 9 ! co>s] textile fabrics4 ,messrs ,a4 ,edg] & ,b4 ,proctor 9 #ahgg direct$ att5tion to ! composition ( ! slag result+ f ! burn+ ( esp>to1 :i* !y f\nd to be /rik+ly simil> to t ( av]age m$ical bottle glass1 ! latt] yield+ on analysis #ff4c ( silica & #be4a ( alkalies & alkal9e e>?s1 & ! slag #fd4f & #bg4de ( ! same respectively4 ,,esp]ance1 a small seaport on a f9e natural h>b\r on ! s\? coa/ ( ,we/ ,au/ralia1 #bge m4 nor?-ea/ f ,albany4 ,x is a summ] resort1 & 9 ! neighb\rhood are int]e/+ caves4 ,its importance z a seaport is due to its be+ on ! high road betwe5 ! ea/]n /ates & ! gold-fields1 & ! ne>e/ place = ! %ipm5t ( gold f ! ,coolg>die fields4 ,,esp]anto1 an artificial int]national auxili>y language 7see ,,univ]sal ,,languages71 fir/ publi%$ 9 #ahhg1 sev5 ye>s aft] ! appe>ance ( its pr$ecessor ,volapuk 7q4v471 :i* x has n[ completely supplant$4 ,its au?or 0 a ,russian physician1 ,dr ,l4 ,zam5h(1 born 9 #ahei at ,bielo/ok1 :]e ! spectacle ( ! feuds ( ! f\r races--ea* speak+ diff]5t languages--:i* inhabit x 7,russians1 ,poles1 ,g]mans & ,jews7 at an e>ly date sugge/$ to him ! idea ( rem$y+ ! evil by ! introduction ( a neutral language1 /&+ ap>t f ! exi/+ national languages4 ,8 fir/ idea 0 to resuscitate "s dead language4 ,!n he tri$ to con/ruct a new language on an a priori basis4 ,at ! same "t he made :at he appe>s to h consid]$ ! great discov]y t ! bulk ( ! vocabul>y ( a language consi/s n ( indep5d5t roots1 b ( comp\nds & d]ivatives =m$ f a comp>atively small numb] ( roots4 ,at fir/ he tri$ to con/ruct 8 roots a priori by arbitr>y comb9ations ( lett]s4 ,!n he fell back on ! plan ( tak+ 8 roots ready-made f exi/+ languages1 z ! inv5tor ( ,volapuk _h done be=e him4 ,b in/ead ( tak+ !m ma9ly f "o language1 he has select$ !m f ! *ief ,european languages1 b n imp>tially4 ,l all inv5tors ( artificial languages1 he is m ready to exp]im5t ) =eign languages ?an ) 8 own2 & h5ce ! ,slavonic roots 9 ,esp]anto are mu* less num]\s ?an ^? tak5 f ! o!r ,european languages4 ,"h 8 *oice has be5 to "s ext5t guid$ by consid]ations ( int]nationality1 al?\gh he has n fully grasp$ ! importance ( ! pr9ciple ( maximum int]nationality1 s well work$ out 9 ! late/ rival ( ,esp]anto--,idiom ,neutral 7see ,,univ]sal ,,languages74 ,?us he adopts a l>ge numb] ( int]national words--g5]ally unalt]$ except 9 spell+--su* z teatr1 tabak1 ev5 :5 x w\ld be easy to =m equival5t t]ms f ! roots already exi/+ 9 ! language4 ,:]e !re is no "o int]national ^w1 he selects practically at r&om1 keep+1 h[ev]1 a c]ta9 balance betwe5 ! ,romance words1 tak5 *iefly f ,lat9 7tam57 & ,fr5* 7trotu>71 on ! "o h&1 & ! ,g]manic on ! o!r h&1 ! latt] be+ tak5 sometimes f ,g]man 7nur1 only71 sometimes f ,engli%1 ! words be+ g5]ally writt5 m or less phonetically 7rajt "r74 ,mo/ ( ! ,g]manic words are badly *os5 f ! int]national po9t ( view4 ,?us ! ,g]man ^w quot$ above w\ld n be intelligible to any "o ignorant ( ,g]man4 ,inde$1 f ! int]national po9t ( view all specially ,g]man words ought to be exclud$1 or else r$uc$ to ! common ,g]manic =m2 ?us tr9k ought to be made into dr9k1 ! t be+ a specially ,g]man modification ( ! d1 pres]v$ n only 9 ,engli% b 9 all ! rema9+ ,g]manic languages4 ,?is incongru\s mixture ( languages is n only j>r+ & repulsive1 b adds greatly to ! difficulty ( ma/]+ ! vocabul>y = ! polyglot z well z ! monol+ual le>n]4 ,! inv5tor has tak5 great pa9s to r$uce ! numb] ( 8 roots to a m9imum2 !re are #bfdb ( !m 9 8 diction>y1 ! ,univ]sala ,vort>o 7f ,g]4 ,wort1 ^w71 :i* does n include su* int]national words z poezio1 telefono2 ^! ! le>n] is suppos$ to recognize & =m )\t help4 ,! mo/ ecc5tric feature ( ! vocabul>y1 & ! "o to :i* x owes mu* ( its brevity1 is ! ext5sive use ( ! prefix mal- to rev]se ! mean+ ( a ^w1 z 9 malamiko1 enemy1 & ev5 malbona1 bad4 ,! phonology ( ! language is v simple4 ,! v[els are only five 9 numb]1 a1 e1 i1 o1 u1 us$ )\t any di/9ction ( quantity1 z 9 ,russian4 ,!re are six diph?ongs1 express$ by an unnecess>ily complicat$ notation4 ,! consonant-sy/em is simple en\gh 9 itself1 b is greatly complicat$ 9 writ+ by ! excessive & mo/ly unnecess>y use made ( diacritical lett]s n only = simple s\nds b also = consonant-gr\ps4 c is us$ = ts1 z 9 ,poli%4 ,! gramm> is1 l t ( ,volapuk1 p>tly borr[$ f exi/+ languages1 p>tly a priori & arbitr>y4 ,! use ( ! f9al v[els belongs to ! latt] category4 ,! use ( -a to indicate adjectives & ( -o to indicate n\ns z 9 k>a amiko1 de> 7male7 fri5d1 is a s\rce ( confusion to ^? famili> ) ! ,romance languages1 & has prov$ a b> to ! diffusion ( ,esp]anto among ! speak]s ( ^! languages4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! foll[+ p>adigm w %[ h[ fai?fully ,esp]anto c reproduce ! defects ( conv5tional ,european gramm>3-- ,s+ul>4 ,plural4 ,nom9ative la bona patro la bonaj patroj ,accusative la bonan patron la bonajn patrojn4 ,x is difficult to see :y ! accusative %\ld be kept :5 all ! o!r cases are replac$ by prepositions4 ,! v]b is bett] ?an ! n\n4 ,its inflections are -z pres5t1 -is pret]ite1 -os future1 -u conditional1 -u imp]ative & subjunctive1 -i inf9itive1 toge!r ) ! foll[+ p>ticiples3-- ,active4 ,passive4 ,pres5t -anta -ata ,pret]ite -inta -ita ,future -onta -ota ,! inv5tor has foll[$ ! good example ( 8 native language 9 us+ e/i1 to be1 z ! auxili>y v]b bo? 9 ! passive1 :]e x is comb9$ ) passive p>ticiples1 & 9 ! second>y t5ses ( ! active 7p]fect1 plup]fect1 c471 :]e x is ( c\rse comb9$ ) ! active p>ticiples4 ,! p>ticiples c be made into n\ns & adv]bs by *ang+ ! f9al -a into -o & -e respectively3 ?us t5onto1 ! future hold]1 p]d9te1 ?r\gh hav+ lo/4 ,! table ( ! =ty-five correlative pron\ns1 adjectives & adv]bs is also elaborate & +5i\s4 ,mu* +5uity is display$ 9 ! syntax1 z well z "s happy simplifications4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 !re is mu* 9 x t is fanciful1 arbitr>y & vague1 z 9 ! use ( ! def9ite article--:]e ! au?or has un=tunately foll[$ ,fr5* r ?an ,engli% usage--& 9 ! moods ( ! v]b4 ,! foll[+ specim5s w %[ ! g5]al "* ( ?is easy-fl[+ b some:at heavy & monoton\s language--bad ,italian1 z x is call$ by its detractors3-- ,patro nia1 kiu e/as en la cielo1 sankta e/u via nomo2 v5u regeco via2 e/u volo via1 kiel en la cielo1 tiel ankau sur la t]o4 ,panon nian ciutagan donu al ni hodiau2 kaj p>donu al ni suldojn niajn1 kiel ni ankau p>donas al niaj suldantoj2 kaj ne konduku n9 en t5ton1 s$ lib]igu n9 de la malbono4 ,e/imata ,s9joro4 ,p] tiu ci libreto mi havas la honoron prez5ti al vi la l+von int]nacian ,esp]anto4 ,esp]anto tute ne havas la int5con mal=tigi la l+von naturan de ia popolo4 ,gi devas nur s]vi por la rilatoj int]naciaj kaj por tiuj v]koj au produktoj1 kiuj int]esas egale la tutan mondon4 ,9 summ+ up ! m]its & defects ( ,esp]anto we mu/ beg9 by admitt+ t x is ! mo/ reasonable & practical artificial language t has yet appe>$4 ,its inv5tor has _h ! d\ble advantage ( be+ able to pr(it by ! mi/akes ( 8 pr$ecessors1 & ( be+ himself1 by =ce ( circum/ances1 a bett] l+ui/4 ,x mu/ fur!r be admitt$ t he has made z good a use ( ^! advantages z 0 p]haps possible )\t sy/ematic tra9+ 9 sci5tific philology 9 its wide/ s5se4 ,?is la/ defect expla9s :y ! en?usiasm :i* 8 "w has excit$ 9 ! great _w ( l+ui/ic dilettantes has n be5 %>$ by ! philologi/s3 9 spite ( its sup]iority to ,volapuk1 !y see 9 x ! same radical defects4 ,:e!r !y are ra% or n 9 pr$ict+ = x a simil> fate1 rema9s to be se54 ,! ,esp]anti/s1 w>n$ by ! fate ( ,volapuk1 h adopt$ ! wise policy ( suppress+ all int]nal disunion by submitt+ to ! dictator%ip ( ! inv5tor1 & s pres5t+ a unit$ front to ! enemy4 ,"o ?+ is cle>3 ei!r ,esp]anto mu/ be tak5 z x is )\t *ange1 or else x mu/ crumble to pieces2 its failure to "w out consi/5tly ! pr9ciple ( ! maximum ( int]nationality = its root-words is alone en\gh to condemn x z hopelessly antiquat$ ev5 f ! n>r[ po9t ( view :i* reg>ds int]national z synonym\s ) ,european--a view :i* political developm5t 9 ! ,f> ,ea/ has made equally obsolete4 7,h4 ,sw47 ,,esp9ay1 ,,timoleon ,d' 7#aehj-afdd71 ,fr5* soldi]1 0 ! elde/ ( ! f\r sons ( ,francois d',esp9ay1 seigneur de ,sa9t ,luc 7#aeed-aeig71 & 0 himself m>quis de ,sa9t ,luc4 ,9 #afjc he accompani$ ,sully 9 8 embassy to ,london4 ,9 #afbb1 9 8 capacity z vice-admiral ( ,france1 he ga9$ "s advantages ov] ! def5d]s ( ,la ,ro*elle1 oblig+ ! ,hugu5ot comm&]1 ,b5jam9 de ,rohan1 seigneur de ,s\bise1 to evacuate ! isl&s ( ,re & ,ol]on4 ,9 #afbg he 0 nam$ lieut5ant-g5]al ( ,gui5ne & m>%al ( ,france4 ,,esp9el1 ,,vic5te ,,m>t9ez 7#aeea-afbd71 ,spani% poet & noveli/1 0 baptiz$ on ! #bh? ( ,decemb] #aeea1 & educat$ at ,salamanca4 ,he 0 expell$ f ! univ]sity 9 #aegb1 & s]v$ z a soldi] 9 ,fl&]s1 return+ to ,spa9 9 #aehd or !reab\ts4 ,he took ord]s 9 #aehg1 & f\r ye>s lat] became *apla9 at ,ronda1 abs5t$ himself f 8 liv+1 & 0 depriv$ ( 8 cure2 b 8 musical skill obta9$ = him ! po/ ( *oirma/] at ,plas5cia4 ,8 ,div]sas ,rimas 7#aeia7 are und5iably good examples ( te*nical accompli%m5t & cau/ic wit4 ,esp9el1 h[ev]1 survives z ! au?or ( a clev] pic>esque novel entitl$ ,relaciones de la vida del ,escud]o ,m>cos de ,obregon 7#afah74 ,x is1 9 _m passages1 an autobiography ( ,esp9el ) picturesque embelli%m5ts4 ,m>cos is n a *ivalresque esquire1 b an adv5tur] :o seeks 8 =tune by atta*+ himself to great m52 & ! object ( ! au?or is to w>n "y m5 aga9/ su* a life4 ,ap>t f ! un$ify+ confessions ( ! h]o1 ! book conta9s curi\s anecdotes conc]n+ prom95t contempor>ies1 & ! episodical /ories are told ) great _s2 ! /yle is extremely correct1 ?\gh some:at diffuse4 ,le ,sage has n scrupl$ to borr[ f ,m>cos de ,obregon _m ( ! incid5ts & *>act]s 9 ,gil ,blas--a circum/ance :i* induc$ ,isla to give to 8 ,spani% translation ( ,le ,sage's "w ! je/+ title1 ,gil ,blas re/or$ to 8 ,c\ntry & 8 ,native ,tongue4 ,9 ! #agge edition ( ! ,siecle de ,l\is ,,xiv4 ,voltaire grossly exagg]ates 9 say+ t ,gil ,blas is tak5 entirely f ,m>cos de ,obregon4 ,esp9el 0 a clev] musician & add$ a fif? /r+ to ! guit>4 ,he reviv$ ! measure kn[n z decimas or esp9elas1 consi/+ ( a /anza ( t5 octosyllabic l9es4 ,mo/ ( ! poems :i* he left 9 manuscript rema9 unpubli%$ ow+ to _! lic5ti\s "*4 ,,bibliography4--,j4 ,p]ez de ,guzman's edition ( ,m>cos de ,obregon 7,b>celona1 #ahha7 includes a valuable introduction2 ,leo ,cl>etie1 ,le ,sage romanci] 7,p>is1 #ahij71 discusses exhau/ively ! "q ( ,le ,sage's indebt$ness to ,esp9el4 ,= "s previ\sly unpubli%$ poems see ,p$ro ,salva y ,mall51 ,catalogo de la biblioteca de ,salva 7,val5cia1 #ahgb74 ,,espirito ,,santo1 a m>itime /ate ( ,brazil1 b\nd$ ,n4 by ,bahia1 ,e4 by ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 ,s4 by ,rio de ,janeiro1 & ,w4 by ,m9as ,g]aes4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #ace1iig2 7#aijj7 #bji1ghc2 area1 #ag1caf sq4 m4 ,) ! exception ( ,s]gipe x is ! smalle/ ( ! ,brazilian /ates4 ,! we/]n bord] ( ! /ate is trav]s$ by l[ ranges ( m\nta9s =m+ a nor?w>d cont9uation ( ! ,s]ra d ,m>4 ,! longe/ & mo/ prom95t ( ^! ranges1 :i* are = ! mo/ "p ! ea/]n esc>pm5ts ( ! great ,brazilian plateau1 is ! ,s]ra dos ,aymores1 :i* ext5ds along fully two-?irds ( ! we/]n fronti]4 ,f>!r ,s4 ! ranges are mu* brok5 & ext5d p>tly across ! /ate t[>d ! seabo>d2 ! m prom95t are kn[n z ! ,s]ra d ,espigao1 ,s]ra da ,*ibata1 ,s]ra dos ,piloes & ,s]ra dos ,purys4 ,! ea/]n & l>g] "p ( ! /ate belongs to ! coa/al pla91 9 great "p l[ & swampy1 ) l>ge areas ( s& b>r5s1 & brok5 by isolat$ gr\ps & ranges ( hills4 ,) ! exception ( ^! s&y pla9s ! c\ntry is heavily =e/$1 ev5 ! m\nta9 sides be+ cov]$ ) vegetation to _! summits4 ,! nor!rn & s\!rn p>ts are f]tile1 b ! c5tral di/ricts are comp>atively poor4 ,! coa/al pla9 comprises a s&y1 unproductive belt imm$iately on ! coa/1 back ( :i* is a m f]tile t]ti>y pla91 well suit$1 ne> ! high] c\ntry1 to ! production ( sug> & cotton4 ,! inl& valleys & slopes are v f]tile & heavily =e/$1 & mu* ( ! ,brazilian export ( rosewood & o!r cab9et woods is drawn f ?is /ate4 ,!re is only "o good bay on ! coa/1 t ( ,espirito ,santo1 on :i* ! port ( ,victoria is situat$4 ,! riv]-m\?s are ob/ruct$ by s& b>s & admit small vessels only4 ,! pr9cipal riv]s ( ! /ate are ! ,mucury1 :i* rises 9 ,m9as ,g]aes & =ms ! b\nd>y l9e ) ,bahia1 ! ,itaunas1 ,sao ,dom+os1 ,sao ,ma!us1 ,doce1 ,timbuhy1 ,santa ,m>ia1 ,jucu1 ,b5ev5te1 ,itapemirim1 & ,itabapoana1 ! la/ =m+ ! b\nd>y l9e ) ,rio de ,janeiro4 ,! ,doce1 ,sao ,ma!us1 & ,itapemirim rise 9 ,m9as ,g]aes & fl[ entirely across ! /ate4 ,! l[] c\rses ( ^! riv]s are g5]ally navigable1 t ( ! ,rio ,doce = a di/ance ( #ij m4 ,! climate ( ! coa/al zone & deep] valleys is hot1 humid & unheal?y1 mal>ial fev]s be+ preval5t4 ,9 ! high] c\ntry ! temp]ature is l[] & ! climate is heal?y4 ,espirito ,santo is almo/ exclusively agricultural1 sug>-cane1 c(fee1 rice1 cotton1 tobacco1 m&ioca & tropical fruits be+ ! pr9cipal products4 ,agriculture is 9 a v backw>d condition1 h[ev]1 & ! /ate is class$ z "o ( ! poore/ & mo/ unprogressive 9 ! republic4 ,! riv]s & %all[ coa/ wat]s are well /ock$ ) fi%1 b !re are no fi%+ indu/ries wor?y ( m5tion4 ,!re are ?ree railway l9es 9 op]ation 9 ! /ate--"o runn+ f ,victoria to ,ca*oeira d ,itapemirim 7#ej m471 & !nce1 by ano!r l9e1 to ,santo ,edu>do 9 ,rio de ,janeiro 7#eh m471 :]e connexion is made ) ! ,leopold9a sy/em runn+ into ! national capital1 & a ?ird runn+ nor?-we/]ly f ,victoria to ,diamant9a1 ,m9as ,g]aes1 ab\t #dej m4 ,! *ief cities & t[ns ( ! /ate1 ) _! populations 9 #ahij1 are ,victoria1 ,sao ,ma!us 7municipality1 #ggfa7 on a riv] ( ! same "n #af m4 f ! sea1 ,s]ra 7municipality1 #fbgd71 ,gu>ap>y 7municipality1 #ecaj71 a small port ,s4 by ,w4 ( ! capital1 ,conceicao da ,b>ra 7municipality1 #efbh71 ! port ( ,sao ,ma!us & ,ca*oeira d ,itapemirim 7#djdi71 an important comm]cial c5tre 9 ! s\?4 ,espirito ,santo =m$ "p ( "o ( ! orig9al capta9cies :i* 7 giv5 to ,vasco ,f]n&es ,c\t9ho by ! ,portuguese cr[n4 ,! fir/ settlem5t 7#aece7 0 at ! entrance to ! bay ( ,espirito ,santo1 & its "n 0 aft]w>ds giv5 to ! bay & capta9cy4 ,x once includ$ ! municipality ( ,campos1 n[ belong+ to ! /ate ( ,rio de ,janeiro4 ,! isl&s ( ,tr9idade & ,m>tim ,vaz1 :i* lie ab\t #gae m4 ,e4 ( ,victoria1 belong politically to ?is /ate4 ,!y are un9habit$1 b consid]able importance is atta*$ to ! =m] because ,great ,brita9 has twice attempt$ to take possession ( x4 ,x rises #abjj ft4 above sea-level & is ab\t #f m4 9 circumf]5ce1 b x has no value o!r ?an t ( an ocean cable /ation4 ,an excell5t description ( ?is s+ul> isl& is to be f\nd 9 ,e4,f4 ,knight's ,cruise ( ! ,al]te 7,london1 #ahie74 ,,espronc$a1 ,,jose ,,ignacio ,,javi] ,,oriol ,,enc>nacion ,,de 7#ahjh-ahdb71 ,spani% poet1 son ( an (fic] 9 ! ,b\rbon regim5t1 0 born at or ne> ,alm5dralejo de los ,b>ros on ! #be? ( ,m>* #ahjh4 ,on ! close ( ! w> he 0 s5t to ! prep>atory s*ool ( artill]y at ,segovia1 & lat] became a pupil ( ! poet ,li/a1 !n pr(essor ( lit]ature at ,/ ,mat!w's ,college 9 ,madrid4 ,9 8 f\rte5? ye> he _h attract$ 8 ma/]'s att5tion by 8 v]ses1 & _h jo9$ a secret society4 ,s5t5c$ to five ye>s' seclusion 9 ! ,franciscan conv5t at ,guadalaj>a1 he began an epic poem entitl$ ,pelayo1 ( :i* fragm5ts survive4 ,he escap$ to ,portugal & !nce to ,engl&1 :]e he f\nd ! fam\s ,t]esa :om he _h met at ,lisbon2 "h1 too1 he became a /ud5t ( ,%akespe>e1 ,milton & ,byron4 ,9 #ahcj he elop$ ) ,t]esa to ,p>is1 took "p 9 ! ,july revolution1 & soon aft] jo9$ ! raid ( ,*apalang>ra on ,nav>re4 ,9 #ahcc he return$ to ,spa9 & obta9$ a commission 9 ! que5's gu>ds4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 he soon =feit$ by a political song1 & he 0 bani%$ to ,cuell>1 :]e he wrote a poor novel entitl$ ,san*o ,saldana o el ,ca/ellano de ,cuell> 7#ahcd74 ,he took an active "p 9 ! revolution>y ris+s ( #ahce & #ahcf1 &1 on ! accession to p[] ( ! ,lib]al p>ty 9 #ahdj1 0 appo9t$ secret>y ( legation at ! ,hague2 9 #ahdb he 0 elect$ deputy = ,alm]ia1 & seem$ likely to play a great "p 9 p>liam5t>y life4 ,b 8 con/itution 0 und]m9$1 &1 aft] a %ort illness1 he di$ at ,madrid on ! #bcrd ( ,may #ahdb4 ,8 poems1 fir/ publi%$ 9 #ahdj1 at once ga9$ = him a reputation :i* /ill cont9ues undim9i%$4 ,! influ5ce ( ,byron p]vades ,espronc$a's life & "w4 ,x is pres5t 9 an ambiti\s v>iant on ! ,don ,juan leg5d1 ,el ,e/udiante de ,salamanca1 ,elvira's lett] be+ obvi\sly modell$ on ,julia's lett] 9 ,don ,juan2 ! ,cancion del ,pirata is sugge/$ by ,! ,corsair2 & ! ,byronic inspiration is n want+ ev5 9 ! noble fragm5t entitl$ ,el ,diablo ,mundo1 bas$ on ! /ory ( ,fau/4 ,b 9 ,el ,m5digo1 9 ,el ,reo de ,mu]te1 9 ,el ,v]dugo1 & 9 ! sombre vehem5t l9es1 ,a ,j>ifa en una orgia1 ,espronc$a approves himself ! mo/ pot5t & orig9al lyrical poet produc$ by ,spa9 dur+ ! #ai? c5tury4 ,,bibliography4--,obras poeticas y escritos en prosa 7,madrid1 #ahhd71 edit$ by ,blanca ,espronc$a de ,escosura1 ! poet's daught] 7! second volume has n be5 publi%$72 ,e4 ,rodriguez ,solis1 ,espronc$a2 su tiempo1 su vida1 y sus obras 7,madrid1 #ahhc72 ,e4 ,p9eyro1 ,el ,romanticismo en ,espana 7,p>is1 #aijd74 ,,esquire 7,o4 ,fr4 escuy]1 ,mod4 ,fr4 ecuy]1 d]iv$ ?r\gh ! =m escudi] f ,m$4 ,lat4 scut>ius1 %ield-be>]71 orig9ally ! att5dant on a knight1 ^: helm1 %ield & lance he c>ri$ at ! t\rnam5t or 9 ! field ( battle4 ,! esquire rank$ imm$iately bel[ ! knight ba*elor1 & 8 (fice 0 reg>d$ z ! appr5tice /age ( knigh?ood4 ,! title 0 reg>d$ z "o ( function1 n ( bir?1 & 0 n h]$it>y4 ,9 "t1 h[ev]1 its orig9al significance 0 lo/ sight (1 & x came to be a title ( hon\r1 imply+ a rank betwe5 t ( knight & valet or g5tleman1 z x te*nically /ill rema9s4 ,?us 9 ! lat] middle ages esquire 7armig]7 0 ! cu/om>y description ( hold]s ( knight's fees :o _h n tak5 up _! knigh?ood1 :5ce ! surviv+ cu/om ( entitl+ ! pr9cipal l&[n] 9 a p>i% ! squire 7see ,,squire74 ,camd51 at ! close ( ! #af? c5tury1 di/+ui%$ f\r classes entitl$ to be> ! /yle3 7#a7 ,! elde/ sons ( knights1 & _! elde/ sons1 9 p]petual succession2 7#b7 ! elde/ sons ( ! y\ng] sons ( pe]s1 & _! elde/ sons1 9 l p]petual succession2 7#c7 esquires creat$ by royal lett]s pat5t or o!r inve/iture1 & _! elde/ sons2 7#d7 esquires by (fice1 e4g4 ju/ices ( ! peace & o!rs :o be> any (fice ( tru/ "u ! cr[n4 ,to ^! ! writ] 9 ! #crd edition ( ! ,encyclopa$ia ,britannica 7#agig7 add$ ,iri% pe]s & ! elde/ sons ( ,briti% pe]s1 :o1 ?\gh !y be> c\rtesy titles1 h 9 law only ! "r to be /yl$ esquires4 ,(fic]s ( ! k+'s c\rts1 & ( ! royal h\sehold1 c\nsellors at law & ju/ices ( ! peace he describ$ z esquires only by reputation2 & ju/ices ( ! peace h ! title only z long z !y are 9 commission2 :ile c]ta9 heads ( great l&$ families are /yl$ esquires by prescription4 ,b ! mean] ranks ( p1 he adds indignantly1 :o "k no bett]1 d (t5 basely pro/itute ?is title2 &1 to ! great confusion ( all rank & prec$5ce1 e man :o makes a dec5t appe>ance1 f> f ?9k+ himself 9 any way ridicul$ by f9d+ ! sup]scription ( 8 lett]s ?us decorat$1 is fully gratifi$ by su* an address4 ,x is cle>1 h[ev]1 t ! title ( esquire 0 v loosely us$ at a mu* e>li] date4 ,on ?is po9t ,seld5 is some:at scornfully explicit4 ,to :omsoev]1 ei!r by blood1 place 9 ! ,/ate or o!r em95cy1 we conceive "s high] attribute %\ld be giv51 ?an t sole ,title ( ,g5tleman1 kn[+ yet t he ha? no o!r honor>y title legally fix$ ^u him1 we usually /yle him an ,esquire1 9 su* passages z require legally t 8 degree or /ate be m5tion$2 z especially 9 ,indictm5ts & ,actions :]eupon he may be outlaw$4 ,^? ( o!r nations :o are ,b>ons or great ,lords 9 _! own ,c\ntries1 & no knights1 are 9 legal proce$+s /il$ ) u1 ,esquires only4 ,"s ( our greate/ ,h]alds h _! divisions ( ,esquires appli$ to ?is day4 ,i leave !m z ,i see !m1 :]e !y may easily be f\nd4 ,coke1 too1 says t e "o is entitl$ to be t]m$ esquire :o has ! legal "r to call himself a g5tleman 7#b4 ,in/itutes1 #fhh74 ,at ! pres5t "t ! foll[+ classes are recogniz$ z esquires on occasions ( c]emony or = legal purposes3--7#a7 ,all sons ( pe]s & lords ( p>liam5t dur+ _! fa!rs' lives1 & ! y\ng] sons ( su* pe]s1 c41 aft] _! fa!rs' dea?s2 ! elde/ sons ( pe]s' y\ng] sons1 & _! elde/ sons = ev]4 7#b7 ,noblem5 ( all o!r nations4 7#c7 ,! elde/ sons ( b>onets & knights4 7#d7 ,p]sons be>+ arms & ! title ( esquire by lett]s pat5t4 7#e7 ,esquires ( ! ,ba? & _! elde/ sons4 7#f7 ,b>ri/]s-at-law4 7#g7 ,ju/ices ( ! peace & mayors :ile 9 commission or (fice4 7#h7 ,! hold]s ( any sup]ior (fice "u ! cr[n4 7#i7 ,p]sons /yl$ esquires by ! sov]eign 9 _! pat5ts1 commissions or appo9tm5ts4#a 7#aj7 ,attorneys 9 colonies :]e ! functions ( c\nsel & attorney are unit$ 79 ,engl& solicitors are g5tlem51 n esquires74 ,9 practice1 h[ev]1 ! title ( esquire1 n[ to all int5ts & purposes mean+less1 is giv5 to any "o :o c be> ! port1 *>ge & c\nt5ance ( a g5tleman4 ,! ^w has foll[$ ! same c\rse z t ( g5tleman 7q4v471 & = v simil> reasons4 ,x is /ill n cu/om>y 9 ,great ,brita9 to address e4g4 a well-to-d p]son engag$ 9 trade z esquire at 8 %op2 x w\ld be (f5sive n to d s at 8 private resid5ce4 ,9 ,am]ica1 on ! o!r h&1 ! use ( ! ^w esquire is practically obsolete1 ,mr 7,mi/] or ,ma/]1 at "o "t ! title special to a g5tleman7 be+ ! g5]al =m ( address4 ,see ,seld51 ,titles ( ,honor 7#afgb72 ,camd51 ,britannia 7ed4 ,london1 #aeid72 ,coke1 ,in/itutes2 ,enc4 ( ! ,laws ( ,engl&1 s4 ,esquire2 ,du ,cange1 ,gloss>ium 7ed4 #ahhf71 s4 ,scut>ius1 ,scutif] & ,armig]2 ,new ,engli% ,diction>y1 s4 ,esquire4 7,w4 ,a4 ,p47 ,,footnote3 #a ,9 practice ?is means e "o receiv+ su* a pat5t1 commission or appo9tm5t4 ,,esquirol1 ,,jean ,,eti5ne ,,dom9ique 7#aggb-ahdj71 ,fr5* ali5i/1 0 born at ,t\l\se on ! #crd ( ,febru>y #aggb4 ,9 #agid he became a pupil ( ! milit>y hospital ( ,n>bonne1 & subsequ5tly /udi$ 9 ,p>is at ! ,salpetri]e "u ,p4 ,p9el1 ^: assi/ant he became4 ,9 #ahaa he 0 *os5 physician to ! ,salpetri]e1 & 9 #ahag he began a c\rse ( lectures on ! treatm5t ( ! insane1 9 :i* he made su* revelations ( ! abuses exi/+ 9 ! lunatic asylums ( ,france t ! gov]nm5t appo9t$ a commission to inquire into ! subject4 ,esquirol 9 ?is & o!r ways greatly assi/$ ,p9el's ef=ts = ! introduction ( human] me?ods4 ,! asylums ( ,r\51 ,nantes & ,montpelli] 7 built 9 accordance ) 8 plans4 ,9 #ahbc he became inspector-g5]al ( ! univ]sity ( ,p>is = ! faculties ( m$ic9e1 & 9 #ahbf *ief physician ( ! asylum at ,*>5ton4 ,he di$ at ,p>is on ! #ac? ( ,decemb] #ahdj4 ,besides contribut+ to ! ,dictionnaire des sci5ces m$icales & ! ,encyclop$ie des g5s du monde1 ,esquirol wrote ,des maladies m5tales1 consid]ees s\s les rapports m$ical1 hygi5ique1 et m$ico-legal 7#b vols41 ,p>is1 #ahch74 ,,esquiros1 ,,h5ri ,,francois ,,alphonse 7#ahab-ahgf71 ,fr5* writ]1 0 born 9 ,p>is on ! #bcrd ( ,may #ahab4 ,aft] "s m9or publications he produc$ ,l',evangile du peuple 7#ahdj71 an exposition ( ! life & "* ( ,jesus z a social re=m]4 ,?is "w 0 consid]$ an (f5ce aga9/ religion & dec5cy1 & ,esquiros 0 f9$ & imprison$4 ,he 0 elect$ 9 #ahej z a social democrat to ! ,legislative ,assembly1 b 0 exil$ 9 #ahea = 8 opposition to ! ,empire4 ,return+ to ,france 9 #ahfi he 0 aga9 a memb] ( ! ,legislative ,assembly1 & 9 #ahgf 0 elect$ to ! s5ate4 ,he di$ at ,v]sailles on ! #ab? ( ,may #ahgf4 ,he turn$ to acc\nt 8 resid5ce 9 ,engl& 9 ,l',anglet]re et la vie anglaise 7#e vols41 #ahei-ahfi74 ,among 8 num]\s works on social subjects may be not$3--,hi/oire des ,montagn>ds 7#b vols41 #ahdg72 ,p>is1 ou les sci5ces1 les in/itutions et les moeurs au ,,xixe siecle 7#b vols41 #ahdg72 & ,hi/oire des m>tyrs de la lib]te 7#ahea74 ,,ess1 ,,johann ,,he9ri* ,,van 7#aggb-ahdg71 ,g]man ,ca?olic !ologian1 0 born at ,w>burg1 ,we/phalia1 on ! #ae? ( ,febru>y #aggb4 ,he 0 educat$ at ! ,dom9ican gymnasium ( 8 native t[n1 & 9 #agij ent]$1 z a novice1 ! ,b5$ict9e abbey ( ,m>i5mun/]1 9 ! bi%opric ( ,pad]born4 ,8 ,b5$ict9e "n 0 ,le&]4 ,he 0 prie/ at ,s*wal5b]g f #agii to #ahab1 aft] :i* he became extraord9>y pr(essor ( !ology & jo9t-director ( ! tea*]s' sem9>y at ,m>burg4 ,9 #ahah he receiv$ ! doctorate ( !ology & ( canonical law4 ,9 #ahjg1 9 conjunction ) 8 c\s9 ,k>l van ,ess1 he _h publi%$ a ,g]man translation ( ! ,new ,te/am5t1 &1 z its circulation 0 disc\nt5anc$ by 8 sup]iors1 he publi%$ 9 #ahjh a def5ce ( 8 views1 entitl$ ,auszuge aus d5 heilig5 ,vat]n und &]5 ,lehr]n d] ka?olis*5 ,kir*e ub] das no?w5dige und nutzli*e ,bibelles54 ,an improv$ edition ( ?is tractate 0 publi%$ 9 #ahaf1 "u ! title ,g$ank5 ub] ,bibel und ,bibellehre1 & 9 ! same ye> appe>$ ,0 w> die ,bibel d5 er/5 ,*ri/58 ,9 #ahbb he publi%$ ! fir/ "p ( a ,g]man translation ( ! ,old ,te/am5t1 :i* 0 complet$ 9 #ahcf4 ,9 #ahbb he resign$ 8 (fices at ,m>burg 9 ord] to devote 8 :ole "t to ! def5ce ( 8 views reg>d+ ,bible read+ by ! p1 & to endeav\r to promote ! circulation ( ! scriptures4 ,he 0 associat$ fir/ ) ! ,ca?olic ,bible ,society ( ,reg5sburg1 & !n ) ! ,briti% & ,=eign ,bible ,society4 ,he di$ at ,affold]ba* 9 ! ,od5wald on ! #ac? ( ,octob] #ahdg4 ,,essay1 ,,essayi/ 7,fr4 essai1 ,late ,lat4 exagium1 a weigh+ or balance2 exig]e1 to exam9e2 ! t]m 9 g5]al mean+ any trial or ef=t74 ,z a =m ( lit]ature1 ! essay is a composition ( mod]ate l5g?1 usually 9 prose1 :i* deals 9 an easy1 cursory way ) ! ext]nal conditions ( a subject1 &1 9 /rictness1 ) t subject1 only z x affects ! writ]4 ,dr ,johnson1 himself an em95t essayi/1 def9es an essay z an irregul>1 undige/$ piece2 ! irregul>ity may p]haps be admitt$1 b want ( ?\ght1 t is to say lack ( prop] m5tal dige/ion1 is c]ta9ly n *>act]i/ic ( a f9e example4 ,x %\ld1 on ! contr>y1 always be ! brief & light result ( exp]i5ce & pr(\nd m$itation1 :ile undige/$ is ! la/ epi!t to be appli$ to ! essays ( ,montaigne1 ,addison or ,lamb4 ,bacon said t ! ,epi/les ( ,s5eca 7 essays1 b ?is c h>dly be all[$4 ,bacon himself goes on to admit t ! ^w is late1 ?\gh ! ?+ is anci5t4 ,! ^w1 9 fact1 0 inv5t$ = ?is species ( writ+ by ,montaigne1 :o m]ely meant t ^! 7 exp]im5ts 9 a new k9d ( lit]ature4 ,?is orig9al mean+1 namely t ^! pieces 7 attempts or endeav\rs1 feel+ _! way t[>ds ! expression ( :at w\ld ne$ a f> wid] space to exhau/1 0 lo/ 9 ,engl& 9 ! c\rse ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,?is is se5 by ! v>i\s attempts made 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury to co9 a ^w :i* %\ld express a /ill small] "w1 z di/9ctive 9 comp>ison ) ! essay z ! essay is by ! side ( ! monograph2 none ( ^! l+ui/ic exp]im5ts1 su* z essayette1 essayk9 7,?ack]ay7 & essaylet 7,helps7 h tak5 hold ( ! language4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! j\rnali/ic ^w article cov]s ! less] =m ( essay1 al?\gh n exhau/ively1 s9ce ! essays 9 ! mon?ly & qu>t]ly reviews1 :i* are fully z ext5d$ z an essay %\ld ev] be1 are frequ5tly t]m$ articles1 :ile _m articles 9 newspap]s1 diction>ies & encyclopa$ias are 9 no s5se essays4 ,x may be said t ! idea ( a deta*$ "w is comb9$ ) ! ^w essay1 :i* %\ld be nei!r a section ( a disquisition nor a *apt] 9 a book :i* aims at ! sy/ematic developm5t ( a /ory4 ,locke's ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+ is n an essay at all1 or clu/] ( essays1 9 ?is te*nical s5se1 b ref]s to ! exp]im5tal & t5tative nature ( ! inquiry :i* ! philosoph] 0 und]tak+4 ,( ! curi\s use ( ! ^w s repeat$ly made by ,pope m5tion w be made bel[4 ,! essay1 z a species ( lit]ature1 0 inv5t$ by ,montaigne1 :o _h probably little suspicion ( ! f>-rea*+ importance ( :at he _h creat$4 ,9 8 deject$ mom5ts1 he turn$ to rail at :at he _h writt51 & to call 8 essays inepties & sottises4 ,b 9 8 own he>t he mu/ h be5 well satisfi$ ) ! new & beautiful =m :i* he _h add$ to lit]>y tradition4 ,he 0 p]fectly aw>e t he _h devis$ a new ?+2 t he _h inv5t$ a way ( communicat+ himself to ! _w z a type ( human nature4 ,he design$ x to c>ry out 8 peculi> object1 :i* 0 to produce an accurate portrait ( 8 own s\l1 n z x 0 ye/]day or w be to-morr[1 b z x is to-day4 ,x is n (t5 t we c date ) any approa* to accuracy ! arrival ( a new class ( lit]ature into ! _w1 b x 0 9 ! mon? ( ,m>* #aega t ! essay 0 inv5t$4 ,x 0 />t$ 9 ! second /ory ( ! old t[] ( ! ca/le ( ,montaigne1 9 a /udy to :i* ! philosoph] )drew = t purpose1 surr\nd$ by 8 books1 close to 8 *apel1 %elt]$ f ! excesses ( a fatigu+ _w4 ,he wrote sl[ly1 n sy/ematically2 x took n9e ye>s to f9i% ! two fir/ books ( ! essays4 ,9 #aegd ! manuscript ( ! "w1 s f> z x 0 !n complet$1 0 ne>ly lo/1 = x 0 confiscat$ by ! pontifical police 9 ,rome1 :]e ,montaigne 0 resid+1 & 0 n return$ to ! au?or = f\r mon?s4 ,! e>lie/ impr9t saw ! light 9 #aehj1 at ,bordeaux1 & ! ,p>is edition ( #aehh1 :i* is ! fif?1 conta9s ! f9al text ( ! great au?or4 ,^! dates are n negligible 9 ! briefe/ hi/ory ( ! essay1 = !y are ^? ( its revelation to ! _w ( read]s4 ,x 0 9 ! delightful *apt]s ( 8 new1 /range book t ,montaigne introduc$ ! fa%ion ( writ+ briefly1 irregul>ly1 ) con/ant digressions & int]ruptions1 ab\t ! _w z x appe>s to ! individual :o writes4 ,! ,essais 7 in/antly welcom$1 & few writ]s ( ! ,r5aissance _h s in/ant & s va/ a popul>ity z ,montaigne4 ,b :ile ! philosophy1 & above all ! graceful /oicism1 ( ! great ma/] 7 admir$ & copi$ 9 ,france1 ! exact %ape 9 :i* he _h put d[n 8 ?\ghts1 9 ! exquisite neglig5ce ( a s]ies ( essays1 0 too delicate to tempt an imitator4 ,x is to be not$ t nei!r ,*>ron1 nor ,mlle de ,g\rnay1 8 mo/ imm$iate disciples1 tri$ to write essays4 ,b ,montaigne1 :o lik$ to fancy t ! ,eyquem family 0 ( ,engli% extraction1 _h spok5 affably ( ! ,engli% p z 8 c\s9s1 & x has always be5 admitt$ t 8 g5ius has an aff9ity ) ! ,engli%4 ,he 0 e>ly read 9 ,engl&1 & c]ta9ly by ,bacon1 ^: is ! second great "n connect$ ) ?is =m ( lit]ature4 ,x 0 9 #aeig1 only five ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,montaigne1 t ,bacon publi%$ 9 a small octavo ! fir/ t5 ( 8 essays4 ,^! he increas$ to #ch 9 #afab & to #eh 9 #afbe4 ,9 _! fir/ =m1 ! essays ( ,bacon _h no?+ ( ! fulness or grace ( ,montaigne's2 !y are meagre notes1 sc>cely m ?an ! head+s = disc\rses4 ,x is possible t :5 he wrote !m he 0 n yet famili> ) ! /yle ( 8 pr$ecessor1 :i* 0 fir/ made popul> 9 ,engl&1 9 #afjc1 :5 ,florio publi%$ t translation ( ! ,essais :i* ,%akespe>e unque/ionably read4 ,9 ! lat] editions ,bacon greatly exp&$ 8 !me1 b he nev] rea*$1 or b seldom1 ! fre$om & ease1 ! seem+ =mlessness held 9 by an invisible *a91 :i* are ! glory ( ,montaigne1 & di/+ui% ! typical essayi/4 ,x w\ld seem t at fir/1 9 ,engl&1 z 9 ,france1 no less] writ] 0 will+ to adopt a title :i* belong$ to s great a pres5ce z t ( ,bacon or ,montaigne4 ,! "o exception 0 ,sir ,william ,cornwallis 7d4 #afca71 :o publi%$ essays 9 #afjj & #afag1 ( slight m]it1 b popul> 9 _! day4 ,no o!r ,engli% essayi/ ( any importance appe>$ until ! ,re/oration1 :5 ,abraham ,c[ley wrote elev5 ,sev]al ,disc\rses by way ( ,essays1 :i* did n see ! light until #affh4 ,he int]sp]s$ ) 8 prose1 translations & orig9al pieces 9 v]se1 b 9 o!r respects ,c[ley keeps mu* ne>] ?an ,bacon to ! =m ( ,montaigne4 ,c[ley's essay ,( ,myself is a model ( :at ^! little compositions %\ld be4 ,! "n ( ,bacon inspires awe1 b x is really n he1 b ,c[ley1 :o is ! fa!r ( ! ,engli% essay2 & x is rem>kable t he has _h no w>m] panegyri/s ?an 8 great successors1 ,*>les ,lamb & ,macaulay4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! c5tury1 ,sir ,george ,mack5zie 7#afcf-afia7 wrote witty moral disc\rses1 :i* 71 h[ev]1 essays r 9 "n ?an =m4 ,:5ev]1 h[ev]1 we rea* ! eighte5? c5tury1 we f9d ! essay sudd5ly became a dom9ant =ce 9 ,engli% lit]ature4 ,x made its appe>ance almo/ z a new ?+1 & 9 comb9ation ) ! e>lie/ developm5ts ( j\rnalism4 ,on ! #ab? ( ,april #agji appe>$ ! fir/ numb] ( a p5ny newspap]1 entitl$ ! ,tatl]1 a ma9 feature ( :i* 0 to amuse & in/ruct fa%ionable read]s by a s]ies ( %ort pap]s deal+ ) ! manifold occurr5ces ( life1 quicquid agunt hom9es4 ,b x 0 n until ,/eele1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,tatl]1 0 jo9$ by ,addison t ! eighte5?-c5tury essay really />t$ ^u its c\rse4 ,x display$ at fir/1 & inde$ x long reta9$1 a mixture ( ! mann] ( ,montaigne ) t ( ,la ,bruy]e1 comb9+ ! =m ( ! pure essay ) t ( ! "*-/udy1 z modell$ on ,!ophra/us1 :i* _h be5 s popul> 9 ,engl& ?r\gh\t ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,addison's e>ly ,tatl] portraits1 9 p>ticul> su* z ^? ( ,tom ,folio & ,n$ ,s(tly1 are h>dly essays4 ,b ,/eele's ,recollections ( ,*ildhood is1 & "h we may obs]ve ! type on :i* ,goldsmi?1 ,lamb & ,r4,l4 ,/ev5son aft]w>ds work$4 ,9 ,janu>y #agaa ! ,tatl] came to an end1 & 0 almo/ imm$iately foll[$ by ! ,spectator1 & 9 #agac by ! ,gu>dian4 ,^! ?ree newspap]s are /oreh\ses ( admirable & typical essays1 ! majority ( !m writt5 by ,/eele & ,addison1 :o are ! mo/ celebrat$ eighte5?-c5tury essayi/s 9 ,engl&4 ,lat] 9 ! c5tury1 aft] ! publication ( o!r less successful exp]im5ts1 appe>$ ,field+'s essays 9 ! ,cov5t ,g>d5 ,j\rnal 7#ageb7 & ,johnson's 9 ! ,rambl] 7#agej71 ! ,adv5tur] 7#ageb7 & ! ,idl] 7#agei74 ,!re foll[$ a great numb] ( polite j\rnals1 9 :i* ! essay 0 treat$ z ! b[ ( ,ulysses 9 :i* x 0 ! fa%ion = m5 ( rank & g5ius to try _! /r5g?4 ,goldsmi? rea*$ a high] level ?an ! ,*e/]fields & ,bonnel ,?orntons _h dream$ (1 9 ! delici\s sections ( 8 ,citiz5 ( ! ,_w 7#agfj74 ,aft] ,goldsmi?1 ! eighte5?-c5tury essay decl9$ into tam] h&s1 & pass$ into f9al feebl5ess ) ! p$antic ,ri*>d ,cumb]l& & ! s5tim5tal ,h5ry ,mack5zie4 ,! corpus ( eighte5?-c5tury essayi/s is extremely volum9\s1 & _! repr9t$ works fill "s fifty volumes4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a great sam5ess ab\t all b ! v be/ ( !m1 & 9 no case d !y surpass ,addison 9 fre%ness1 or h !y v5tur$ to modify ! =m he adopt$ = 8 lucubrations4 ,:at has surviv$ ( !m all is ! lighte/ portion1 b x %\ld n be =gott5 t a v l>ge section ( ! essays ( t age 7 delib]ately didactic & moral4 ,a great revival ( ! essay took place dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & =emo/ 9 ! hi/ory ( ?is movem5t mu/ always be plac$ ! "n ( ,*>les ,lamb4 ,he p]ceiv$ t ! real bus9ess ( ! essay1 z ,montaigne _h conceiv$ x1 0 to be l>gely p]sonal4 ,! fam\s ,essays ( ,elia began to appe> 9 ! ,london ,magaz9e = ,augu/ #ahbj1 & proce$$ at fairly regul> int]vals until ,decemb] #ahbb2 e>ly 9 #ahbc ! fir/ s]ies ( !m 7 collect$ 9 a volume4 ,! peculi>ity ( ,lamb's /yle z an essayi/ 0 t he ?rew (f ! ,addisonian & /ill m ! ,johnsonian tradition1 :i* _h become a burd5 t cru%$ ! life out ( ea* conv5tional essay1 & t he boldly w5t back to ! ri* v]biage & brilliant imag]y ( ! sev5te5? c5tury = 8 inspiration4 ,x is true t ,lamb _h great ductility ( /yle1 & t1 :5 he pleases1 he c write s l ,/eele t ,/eele himself might sc>cely "k ! diff]5ce1 yet 9 8 fre] flights we are consci\s ( m exalt$ ma/]s1 ( ,milton1 ,?omas ,br[ne & ,j]emy ,taylor4 ,he succe$$1 moreov]1 9 rea*+ a poignant note ( p]sonal feel+1 su* z none ( 8 pr$ecessors _h ev] aim$ at2 ! essays call$ ,dream ,*ildr5 & ,blakesmoor are examples ( ?is1 & !y display a degree ( h>mony & p]fection 9 ! writ+ ( ! pure essay su* z _h nev] be5 attempt$ be=e1 & has nev] s9ce be5 rea*$4 ,leigh ,hunt1 cle>+ away all ! didactic & pomp\s elem5ts :i* _h ov]gr[n ! essay1 re/or$ x to its old ,spectator grace1 & 0 ! mo/ easy nondescript writ] ( 8 g5]ation 9 p]iodicals su* z ! ,indicator 7#ahai7 & ! ,companion 7#ahbh74 ,! s]mons1 lett]s & pamphlets ( ,sydney ,smi? 7 really essays ( an ext5d$ ord]4 ,9 ,hazlitt & ,francis ,jeffrey we see ! =m & me?od ( ! essay beg9n+ to be appli$ to lit]>y criticism4 ,! writ+s ( ,de ,qu9cey are almo/ exclusively essays1 al?\gh _m ( ! mo/ notable ( !m1 "u 8 vehem5t p51 h f> outgr[n ! limits ( ! l5g? laid d[n by ! mo/ indulg5t =mali/4 ,8 biographical & critical essays are int]e/+1 b !y are f> f be+ tru/wor?y models 9 =m or sub/ance4 ,9 a sket*1 h[ev] rapid1 ( ! essay 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 prom95ce mu/ be giv5 to ! "n ( ,macaulay4 ,8 e>lie/ essay1 t on ,milton1 appe>$ 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review 9 #ahbe1 v %ortly aft] ! revelation ( ,lamb's g5ius 9 ,elia4 ,no two products ca/ 9 ! same m\ld c\ld1 h[ev]1 be m unlike 9 sub/ance4 ,9 ! h&s ( ,macaulay ! essay ceases to be a confession or an autobiography2 x is /rictly imp]sonal1 x is lit]>y1 hi/orical or controv]sial1 vigor\s1 tr5*ant & full ( p>ty prejudice4 ,! p]iodical publication ( ,macaulay's ,essays 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review w5t on until #ahdd2 :5 we ca/ our eyes ov] ?is mass ( brilliant writ+ we obs]ve ) surprise t x is almo/ :olly cont5ti\s4 ,no?+ c be m rem>kable ?an ! diff]5ce 9 ?is respect betwe5 ,lamb & ,macaulay1 ! =m] = ev] dem&+1 ev5 cajol+1 ! sympa?y ( ! read]1 ! latt] scann+ ! horizon = an enemy to controv]t4 ,9 lat] times ! essay 9 ,engl& has be5 cultivat$ 9 ea* ( ^! ways1 by a ?\s& j\rnali/s & au?ors4 ,! lead]s ( a daily newspap] are examples ( ! popul>ization ( ! essay1 & !y po9t to ! dang] :i* n[ attacks x1 t ( produc+ a purely ephem]al or ev5 mom5t>y species ( effect4 ,! essay1 9 its be/ days1 0 int5d$ to be z la/+ z a poem or a hi/orical monograph2 x aim$ at be+ "o ( ! mo/ durable & preci\s dep>tm5ts ( lit]ature4 ,we /ill occasionally see ! production ( essays :i* h ?is m ambiti\s aim2 )9 ! la/ qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ! essays ( ,r4,l4 ,/ev5son a*iev$ x4 ,8 ,famili> ,/udies are ( ! same class z ^? ( ,montaigne & ,lamb1 & he approa*$ f> m closely ?an any o!r contempor>y to _! high level ( excell5ce4 ,we h se5 t ! tone ( ! essay %\ld be p]sonal & confid5tial2 9 ,/ev5son's case x 0 *>act]i/ically s4 ,b ! voices :i* please ! public 9 a /ra9 ( pure self-/udy are few at all times1 & ) ! cultivation ( ! analytic habit !y t5d to become less orig9al & attractive4 ,x is possible t ! essay may die ( exhau/ion ( int]e/1 or may survive only 9 ! modifi$ =m ( accid5tal j\rnalism4 ,! essay1 al?\gh inv5t$ by a great ,fr5* writ]1 0 v late 9 mak+ itself at home 9 ,france4 ,! s-call$ ,essais ( ,leibnitz1 ,nicole1 ,yves ,m>ie ,&re & s _m o!rs 7 really treatises4 ,voltaire's fam\s ,essai sur les moeurs des nations is an elaborate hi/orical disquisition 9 ne>ly two hundr$ *apt]s4 ,lat]1 ! volum9\s essays ( ,joseph de ,mai/re & ( ,lam5nais 7 n essays at all 9 ! lit]>y s5se4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! admirable ,caus]ies du lundi ( ,sa9te-,beuve 7#ahjd-ahfi7 are lit]>y essays 9 ! fulness ( ! t]m1 & h be5 ! =]unn]s ( a great army ( brilliant essay-writ+ 9 ,france4 ,among ^? :o h specially di/+ui%$ !mselves z ,fr5* essayi/s may be m5tion$ ,!ophile ,gauti]1 ,paul de ,sa9t-,victor1 ,anatole ,france1 ,jules ,lemaitre1 ,f]d9& ,bruneti]e & ,emile ,faguet4 ,all ^! are lit]>y critics1 & x is 9 ! =m ( ! analysis ( manife/ations ( intellectual en]gy t ! essay has be5 mo/ successfully illu/rat$ 9 ,france4 ,all ! c\ntries ( ,europe1 s9ce ! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury1 h adopt$ ?is =m ( writ+2 su* monographs or reviews1 h[ev]1 are n p]fectly id5tical ) ! essay z x 0 conceiv$ by ,addison & ,lamb4 ,?is la/1 x may be suppos$1 is a def9itely ,engli% ?+1 & ?is view is confirm$ by ! fact t 9 sev]al ,european languages ! ^w essayi/ has be5 adopt$ )\t modification4 ,9 ! above rem>ks x has be5 tak5 = grant$ t ! essay is always 9 prose4 ,pope1 h[ev]1 conceiv$ an essay 9 h]oic v]se4 ,( ?is 8 ,essay on ,criticism 7#agaa7 & 8 ,essay on ,man 7#agcb-agcd7 are n good examples1 = !y are really treatises4 ,! s-call$ ,moral ,essays 7#agbj-agce71 on ! contr>y1 might h be5 contribut$1 if 9 prose1 ei!r to ! ,spectator or ! ,gu>dian4 ,! idea ( pure essays1 9 v]se1 h[ev]1 did n take any root 9 ,engli% lit]ature4 7,e4 ,g47 ,,esseg1 ,,essegg or ,,essek 7,hung4 ,esszek2 ,croatian ,osjek71 a royal free t[n1 municipality1 & capital ( ! c\nty ( ,virovitica 7,v]ocze71 9 ,croatia-,slavonia1 on ! "r bank ( ! ,drave1 #i m4 ,w4 ( its conflu5ce ) ! ,danube1 & #ahe m4 ,s4 ( ,buda-,pe/ by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #bd1icj2 *iefly ,magy>s & ,croats1 ) a few ,g]mans & ,jews4 ,at ,esseg ! ,drave is cross$ by two bridges1 & bel[ ^! x is navigable by small /eam]s4 ,! upp] t[n1 ) ! =tress1 is "u milit>y au?ority2 ! new t[n & ! l[] t[n1 :i* is ! headqu>t]s ( comm]ce1 are "u civil au?ority4 ,! only build+s ( note are ! ,roman ,ca?olic & ,or?odox *ur*es1 ,franciscan & ,capu*9 mona/]ies1 synagogue1 gymnasium1 mod]n s*ool1 hospital1 *amb] ( comm]ce1 & law-c\rts4 ,esseg has a ?riv+ trade 9 gra91 fruit1 live-/ock1 plum-br&y & timb]4 ,tann+1 silk-weav+ & glass-bl[+ are also c>ri$ on4 ,esseg owes its orig9 to its =tress1 :i* exi/$ z e>ly z ! "t ( ! ,romans "u ! "n ( ,mursia2 ?\gh ! pres5t /ructure dates only f #agbj4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,hung>ian revolution ( #ahdh ! t[n 0 held by ! ,hung>ians1 b on ! #d? ( ,febru>y #ahdi x 0 tak5 by ! ,au/rians "u ,g5]al ,b>on ,treb]sb]g4 ,,ess51 a manufactur+ t[n ( ,g]many1 9 ! ,prussian ,rh9e prov9ce1 #bb m4 ,n4,e4 f ,dusseldorf1 on ! ma9 l9e ( railway to ,b]l91 9 an undulat+ & d5sely populat$ di/rict4 ,pop4 7#ahdi7 #hhac2 7#ahge7 #ed1gij2 7#aije7 #bbi1bgj4 ,x lies at ! c5tre ( a network ( railways giv+ x access to all ! pr9cipal t[ns ( ! ,we/phalian iron & coal fields4 ,its g5]al aspect is gloomy2 x possesses few /reets ( any pret5sions1 ?\gh ^? 9 ! old "p1 :i* are mo/ly n>r[1 pres5t1 ) _! grey slate ro(s & gre5 %utt]s1 a picturesque appe>ance4 ,( its religi\s edifices 7twelve ,roman ,ca?olic1 "o ,old ,ca?olic1 six ,prote/ant *ur*es1 & a synagogue7 ! m9/]1 dat+ f ! #aj? c5tury1 ) f9e pictures1 relics & wall frescoes1 is alone especially rem>kable4 ,?is build+ is v simil> to ! ,pfalz-,kapelle 7capella 9 palatio7 at ,aix-la-,*apelle4 ,among ! t[n's pr9cipal secul> build+s are ! new ,go?ic t[n-hall1 ! po/ (fice & ! railway /ation4 ,!re are sev]al high-grade 7classical & mod]n7 s*ools1 te*nical1 m9+ & comm]cial s*ools1 a !atre1 a p]man5t art exhibition1 & hospitals4 ,ess5 also has a beautiful public p>k 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity4 ,! t[n orig9ally ow$ its prosp]ity to ! l>ge iron & coal fields und]ly+ ! bas9 9 :i* x is situat$4 ,*ief among its indu/rial e/abli%m5ts are ! fam\s iron & /eel works ( ,krupp 7q4v471 & ! :ole ( ,ess5 may be said to dep5d = its livelihood ^u ?is firm1 :i* annually exp5ds va/ sums 9 build+ & support+ *ur*es1 s*ools1 clubs1 hospitals & philan?ropic in/itutions1 & 9 o!r ways provid+ = ! welf>e ( its employees4 ,!re are also manufactories ( wooll5 goods & cig>s1 dyeworks & brew]ies4 ,ess5 0 orig9ally ! seat ( a ,b5$ict9e nunn]y1 & 0 =m$ into a t[n ab\t ! middle ( ! #aj? c5tury by ! abbess ,h$wig4 ,! abbess ( ! nunn]y1 :o held f #abge ! rank ( a pr9cess ( ! ,empire1 0 assi/$ by a *apt] ( t5 pr9cesses & c\ntesses2 %e gov]n$ ! t[n until #ahjc1 :5 x 0 secul>iz$ & incorporat$ ) ,prussia4 ,9 #ahjg x came into ! possession ( ! gr& dukes ( ,b]g1 b 0 transf]r$ to ,prussia 9 #ahad4 ,see ,funcke1 ,ges*i*te des ,fur/5?ums und d] ,/adt ,ess5 7,elb]feld1 #ahea72 ,kell51 ,die ,indu/rie/adt ,ess5 9 ,wort und ,bild 7,ess51 #aijb72 & ,a4 ,%adwell1 ,indu/rial ,effici5cy 7,london1 #aijf74 ,,ess5es1 a mona/ic ord] among ! ,jews prior to ,*ri/ianity4 ,_! fir/ appe>ance 9 hi/ory is 9 ! "t ( ,jona?an ! ,maccabee 7#afa-add ,b4,c474 ,h[ mu* old] !y may h be5 we h no means ( det]m9+1 b our au?orities agree 9 assign+ to !m a dateless antiquity4 ,! "n occurs 9 ,greek1 9 ! two =ms ,greek3 ,ess5oi & ,greek3 ,essaioi4 ,greek3 ,ess5oi is us$ by ,josephus f\rte5 times1 ,greek3 ,essaioi six1 b ! latt] is ! only =m us$ by ,philo 7ii4 #deg1 #dga1 #fcb74 ,greek3 ,ess5oi is also us$ by ,synesius & ,hippolytus1 & its ,lat9 equival5t by ,pl9y & ,sol9us2 ,greek3 ,essaioi by ,hegesippus & ,porphyry4 ,9 ,epiphanius we f9d ! =ms ,greek3 ,ossaioi1 ,oss5oi1 & ,greek3 ,iessaioi4 ,!re is a place nam$ ,essa m5tion$ by ,josephus 7,ant4 xiii4 #ae1 ,s #c71 f :i* ! "n may h be5 =m$1 j z ! ,*ri/ians 7 orig9ally call$ ,greek3 ,naz>5oi or ,greek3 ,nazoraioi1 f ,naz>a4 ,?is etymology1 h[ev]1 is n mu* 9 fav\r n[4 ,lightfoot expla9s ! "n z mean+ ! sil5t ones1 o!rs z mean+ physicians4 ,p]haps !re is mo/ au?ority 9 fav\r ( d]iv+ x f ! ,syriac ,hebrew3 *sei*1 :i* 9 ! emphatic /ate becomes ,hebrew3 *aseia1 s t we h a ,semitic correspond5ce to bo? ! ,greek =ms ,greek3 ,ess5oi & ,greek3 ,essaioi4 ,?is etymology makes ! ^w mean pi\s4 ,x has also be5 urg$ 9 excuse = ,philo's absurd d]ivation f ,greek3 hosios4 ,! orig9al acc\nts we h ( !m are conf9$ to ?ree au?ors--,philo1 ,pl9y ! ,eld]1 & ,josephus4 ,philo describes !m 9 8 treatise kn[n z ,quod omnis probus lib] 7,,ss #ab1 #ac2 ii4 #deg-dfj71 & also 9 8 ,apology = ! ,jews1 a fragm5t ( :i* has be5 pres]v$ by ,eusebius 7,praep4 ,ev4 viii4 #aa1 #ab74 ,pl9y 7,n4,h4 v4 #ag7 has a %ort b /rik+ sket* ( !m1 d]iv$ 9 all probability f ,alex&] ,polyhi/or1 :o is m5tion$ among ! au?orities = ! fif? book ( 8 ,natural ,hi/ory4 ,?is hi/orian1 ( :om ,eusebius _h a v high op9ion 7,praep4 ,ev4 ix4 #ag1 ,s #a71 liv$ 9 ! "t ( ,sulla4 ,josephus treats ( !m at l5g? 9 8 ,jewi% ,w> 7ii4 #h71 & m briefly 9 two passages ( 8 ,antiquities 7xiii4 #e1 ,s #i2 xviii4 #a1 ,s #e74 ,he has also int]e/+ acc\nts ( ! prophetic p[]s possess$ by ?ree individual memb]s ( ! sect--,judas 7,b4,j4 i4 #c1 ,s #e2 ,ant4 xiii4 #aa1 ,s #b71 ,m5ahem 7,ant4 xv4 #aj1 ,s #e71 & ,simon 7,b4,j4 ii4 #g1 ,s #c2 ,ant4 xvii4 #ac1 ,s #c74 ,besides ?is he m5tions an ,ess5e ,gate 9 ,j]usalem 7,b4,j4 v4 #d1 ,s #b7 & a p]son call$ ,john ! ,ess5e1 "o ( ! brave/ & mo/ capable lead]s 9 ! w> aga9/ ! ,romans 7,b4,j4 ii4 #bj1 ,s #d2 iii4 #b1 ,s #a74 ,josephus himself made trial ( ! sect ( ,ess5es 9 8 y\?2 b f 8 own /atem5t x appe>s t he mu/ h be5 a v %ort "t ) !m1 & !re=e c\ld n h be5 initiat$ into ! inn] my/]ies ( ! society 7,de vita sua1 #b74 ,aft] ?is ! notices t we h ( ! ,ess5es f antiquity are m]e reproductions1 except 9 ! case ( ,epiphanius 7di$ ,a4,d4 #djb71 :o1 h[ev]1 is s confus$ a writ] z to be ( little value4 ,sol9us1 :o 0 kn[n z ,pl9y's ,ape1 e*o$ ! words ( 8 ma/] ab\t a c5tury aft] t writ]'s dea?1 :i* took place 9 ,a4,d4 #gi4 ,simil>ly ,hippolytus1 :o liv$ 9 ! reign ( ,commodus 7,a4,d4 #ahj-aib71 reproduc$ ! acc\nt ( ,josephus1 add+ a few t\*es ( 8 own4 ,porphyry 7,a4,d4 #bcc-cjf7 aft]w>ds did ! same1 b _h ! grace to m5tion ,josephus 9 ! context4 ,eusebius quot$ ! acc\nt z f ,porphyry1 ?\gh he mu/ h kn[n t he _h d]iv$ x f ,josephus 7,praep4 ,ev4 ix4 #c1 ,,ss #a1 #ac74 ,b ,porphyry's "n w\ld impress pagan read]s4 ,!re is also a m5tion ( ! ,ess5es by ,hegesippus 7,eus4 ,h4,e4 iv4 #bb7 & by ,synesius 9 8 life ( ,dio ,*ryso/om4 ,x has be5 conjectur$ t ! ,clem5t9e lit]ature emanat$ f ,ess5es :o _h turn$ ,*ri/ian4 7,see ,,ebionites47 ,! ,ess5es 7 an exclusive society1 di/+ui%$ f ! re/ ( ! ,jewi% nation 9 ,pale/9e by an organization peculi> to !mselves1 & by a !ory ( life 9 :i* a sev]e asceticism & a r>e b5evol5ce to "o ano!r & to mank9d 9 g5]al 7 ! mo/ /rik+ *>act]i/ics4 ,!y _h fix$ rules = initiation1 a succession ( /rictly sep>ate grades )9 ! limits ( ! society1 & regulations = ! conduct ( _! daily life ev5 9 its m9ute/ details4 ,_! memb]%ip c\ld be recruit$ only f ! outside _w1 z m>riage & all int]c\rse ) wom5 7 absolutely r5\nc$4 ,!y 7 ! fir/ society 9 ! _w to condemn slav]y bo? 9 !ory & practice2 !y en=c$ & practis$ ! mo/ complete community ( goods4 ,!y *ose _! own prie/s & public (fice-be>]s1 & ev5 _! own judges4 ,?\gh _! prevail+ t5d5cy 0 practical1 & ! t5ets ( ! society 7 kept a pr(\nd secret1 x is p]fectly cle> f ! concurr5t te/imony ( ,philo & ,josephus t !y cultivat$ a k9d ( speculation1 :i* n only acc\nts = _! spiritual asceticism1 b indicates a great deviation f ! normal developm5t ( ,judaism1 & a pr(\nd sympa?y ) ,greek philosophy1 & probably also ) ,ori5tal ideas4 ,at ! same "t we d our ,jewi% au?orities no inju/ice 9 imput+ to !m ! patriotic t5d5cy to idealize ! society1 & ?us (f] to _! read]s some?+ 9 ,jewi% life t w\ld be> comp>ison at lea/ ) simil> manife/ations ( ,g5tile life4 ,!re is "s difficulty 9 det]m9+ h[ f> ! ,ess5es sep>at$ !mselves locally f _! fell[-c\ntrym54 ,josephus in=ms u t !y _h no s+le city ( _! own1 b t _m ( !m dwelt 9 e city4 ,:ile 9 8 treatise ,quod omnis1 c41 ,philo speaks ( _! avoid+ t[ns & pref]r+ to live 9 villages1 9 8 ,apology = ! ,jews we f9d !m liv+ 9 _m cities1 villages1 & 9 great & prosp]\s t[ns4 ,9 ,pl9y !y are a p]5nial colony settl$ on ! we/]n %ore ( ! ,dead ,sea4 ,on ! :ole1 z ,philo & ,josephus agree 9 e/imat+ _! numb] at #djjj 7,philo1 ,q4,o4,p4,l4 ,s #ab2 ,jos4 ,ant4 xviii4 #a1 ,s #e71 we are ju/ifi$ 9 suspect+ "s exagg]ation z to ! _m cities1 t[ns & villages :]e !y 7 said to be f\nd4 ,z agriculture 0 _! fav\rite occupation1 & z _! t5d5cy 0 to )draw f ! haunts & ord9>y int]e/s ( mank9d1 we may assume t ) ! gr[+ confusion & corruption ( ,jewi% society !y felt !mselves attract$ f ! mass ( ! population to ! sp>sely peopl$ di/ricts1 till !y f\nd a cong5ial settlem5t & free scope = _! peculi> view ( life by ! %ore ( ! ,dead ,sea4 ,:ile _! pr9ciples 7 consi/5t ) ! neighb\rhood ( m51 !y 7 bett] adapt$ to a /ate ( seclusion4 ,! ,ess5es did n r5\nce m>riage because !y d5i$ ! validity ( ! in/itution or ! necessity ( x z provid+ = ! cont9uance ( ! human race1 b because !y _h a l[ op9ion ( ! "* ( wom5 7,jos4 ,b4,j4 ii4 #h1 ,s #b2 ,philo1 ,apol4 = ! ,jews 9 ,eus4 ,praep4 ,ev4 viii4 #aa1 ,s #h74 ,!y adopt$ *ildr5 :5 v "y1 & br\ght !m up on _! own pr9ciples4 ,pleasure g5]ally !y reject$ z evil4 ,!y despis$ ri*es n less ?an pleasure2 nei!r pov]ty nor weal? 0 obs]vable among !m2 at initiation e "o gave 8 prop]ty into ! common /ock2 e memb] 9 receipt ( wages h&$ !m ov] to ! funds ( ! society4 ,9 matt]s ( dress ! asceticism ( ! society 0 v pron\nc$4 ,!y reg>d$ oil z a defilem5t1 ev5 wa%+ x (f if ano9t$ ) x aga9/ _! w4 ,!y did n *ange _! clo!s or _! %oes till !y 7 torn 9 pieces or worn completely away4 ,! col\r ( _! g>m5ts 0 always :ite4 ,_! daily r\t9e 0 prescrib$ = !m 9 ! /ricte/ mann]4 ,be=e ! ris+ ( ! sun !y 7 to speak ( no?+ pr(ane1 b (f]$ to x c]ta9 traditional =ms ( pray] z if besee*+ x to rise4 ,!reaft] !y w5t ab\t _! daily tasks1 work+ cont9u\sly at :atev] trade !y knew till ! fif? h\r1 :5 !y assembl$1 &1 gird+ on a g>m5t ( l951 ba!d 9 cold wat]4 ,!y next seat$ !mselves quietly 9 ! d9+ hall1 :]e ! bak] set bread 9 ord]1 & ! cook br\ght ea* a s+le di% ( "o k9d ( food4 ,be=e meat & aft] x grace 0 said by a prie/4 ,aft] d9n] !y resum$ "w till sunset4 ,9 ! ev5+ !y _h supp]1 at :i* gue/s ( ! ord] jo9$ !m1 if !re happ5$ to be any su* pres5t4 ,)al !re 0 no noise or confusion to m> ! tranquillity ( _! int]c\rse2 no "o usurp$ m ?an 8 %>e ( ! conv]sation2 ! /illness ( ! place oppress$ a /rang] ) a feel+ ( my/]i\s awe4 ,?is composure ( _s 0 ow+ to _! p]fect temp]ance 9 eat+ & dr9k+4 ,n only 9 ! daily r\t9e ( ! society1 b g5]ally1 ! activity ( ! memb]s 0 controll$ by _! presid5ts4 ,9 only two ?+s c\ld !y take ! initiative1 helpfulness & m]cy2 ! des]v+ poor & ! de/itute 7 to receive in/ant relief2 b no memb] c\ld give any?+ to 8 relatives )\t consult+ ! heads ( ! society4 ,_! (fice-be>]s 7 elect$4 ,!y _h also _! special c\rts ( ju/ice1 :i* 7 compos$ ( n less ?an a hundr$ memb]s1 & _! decisions1 :i* 7 arriv$ at ) extreme c>e1 7 irrev]sible4 ,oa?s 7 /rictly =bidd52 _! ^w 0 /rong] ?an an oa?4 ,!y 7 j & temp]ate 9 ang]1 ! gu>dians ( good fai?1 & ! m9i/]s ( peace1 ob$i5t to _! eld]s & to ! majority4 ,b ! moral *>act]i/ics :i* !y mo/ e>ne/ly cultivat$ & enjo9$ w be/ appe> 9 _! rules ( initiation4 ,!re 0 a novitiate ( ?ree ye>s1 dur+ :i* ! int5d+ memb] 0 te/$ z to 8 fitness = ent]+ ! society4 ,if ! result 0 satisfactory1 he 0 admitt$1 b be=e p>tak+ ( ! common meal he 0 requir$ to swe> awful oa?s1 t he w\ld rev]5ce ! deity1 d ju/ice to m51 hurt no man volunt>ily or at ! comm& ( ano!r1 hate ! unju/ & assi/ ! j1 & t he w\ld r5d] fidelity to all m51 b especially to ! rul]s1 see+ t no "o rules b ( ,god4 ,he also v[$1 if he %\ld be> rule himself1 to make no viol5t use ( 8 p[]1 nor out%9e ^? set "u him by sup]ior display1 to make x 8 aim to *]i% ! tru? & unmask li>s1 to be pure f !ft & unju/ ga91 to conceal no?+ f 8 fell[-memb]s1 nor to divulge any ( _! affairs to o!r m51 ev5 at ! risk ( dea?1 to transmit _! doctr9es un*ang$1 & to keep secret ! books ( ! society & ! names ( ! angels4 ,)9 ! limits ( ! society !re 7 f\r grades s di/9ct t if any "o t\*$ a memb] ( an inf]ior grade he requir$ to cleanse himself by ba?+ 9 wat]2 memb]s :o _h be5 f\nd guilty ( s]i\s crimes 7 expell$ f ! society1 & c\ld n be receiv$ aga9 till r$uc$ to ! v la/ extremity ( want or sickness4 ,z ! result ( ! ascetic tra9+ ( ! ,ess5es1 & ( _! temp]ate diet1 x is said t !y liv$ to a great age1 & 7 sup]ior to pa9 & fe>4 ,dur+ ! ,roman w> !y *e]fully und]w5t ! mo/ griev\s tortures r ?an break any ( ! pr9ciples ( _! fai?4 ,9 fact1 !y _h 9 _m respects rea*$ ! v highe/ moral elevation atta9$ by ! anci5t _w2 !y 7 j1 humane1 b5evol5t1 & spiritually-m9d$2 ! sick & ag$ 7 ! objects ( a special affectionate reg>d2 & !y condemn$ slav]y1 n only z an inju/ice1 b z an impi\s violation ( ! natural bro!rhood ( m5 7,philo ii4 #deg74 ,!re 7 "s ( ! ,ess5es :o p]mitt$ m>riage1 b /rictly ) a view to ! pres]vation ( ! race2 9 o!r respects !y agre$ ) ! ma9 body ( ! society4 ,x w be app>5t t ! pr$om9ant t5d5cy ( ! society 0 practical4 ,philo tells u expressly t !y reject$ logic z unnecess>y to ! acquisition ( virtue1 & speculation on nature z too l(ty = ! human intellect4 ,yet !y _h views ( _! own z to ,god1 ,provid5ce1 ! s\l1 & a future /ate1 :i*1 :ile !y _h a practical use1 7 yet ess5tially speculative4 ,on ! "o h&1 inde$1 !y held t5aci\sly by ! traditional ,judaism3 blasphemy aga9/ _! lawgiv] 0 puni%$ ) dea?1 ! sacr$ books 7 pres]v$ & read ) great rev]5ce1 ?\gh n )\t an allegorical int]pretation1 & ! ,sabba? 0 mo/ scrupul\sly obs]v$4 ,b 9 _m important po9ts _! deviation f ! /rait pa? ( ,judaic developm5t 0 complete4 ,!y reject$ animal sacrifice z well z m>riage2 ! oil ) :i* prie/s & k+s 7 ano9t$ !y acc\nt$ unclean2 & ! condemnation ( oa?s & ! community ( goods 7 unmi/akable innovations = :i* !y f\nd no h9t or w>rant 9 ! old ,hebrew writ+s4 ,_! mo/ s+ul> feature1 p]haps1 0 _! rev]5ce = ! sun4 ,9 _! speculative h9ts respect+ ! s\l & a future /ate1 we f9d ano!r important deviation f ,judaism1 & ! explanation ( _! asceticism4 ,!y held t ! body is mortal1 & its sub/ance transitory2 t ! s\l is immortal1 b1 com+ f ! subtle/ e!r1 is lur$ z by a sorc]y ( nature into ! prison-h\se ( ! body4 ,at dea? x is releas$ f its bonds1 z f long slav]y1 & joy\sly so>s al(t4 ,to ! s\ls ( ! good !re is res]v$ a life beyond ! ocean1 & a c\ntry oppress$ by nei!r ra91 nor sn[1 nor heat1 b refre%$ by a g5tle we/ w9d bl[+ cont9ually f ! sea 7cf4 ,hom4 ,od4 iv4 #eff-efh71 b to ! wick$ a region ( w9try d>kness & ( unceas+ torm5t4 ,josephus tells u too t ! ,ess5es believ$ 9 fate2 b 9 :at s5se1 & :at relation x bore to ,div9e ,provid5ce1 does n appe>4 ,! above evid5ce has left /ud5ts 9 d\bt z to :e!r ,ess5ism is to be reg>d$ z a pure product ( ! ,jewi% m9d or z due 9 "p to "s =eign influ5ce4 ,on ! "o h& x might be ma9ta9$ t ! ,ess5es out-,ph>isee'd ! ,ph>isees4 ,!y _h 9 common ) t sect _! v5]ation = ,moses & ! ,law1 _! ,sabbat>ianism1 _! /riv+ aft] c]emonial purity1 & _! t5d5cy t[>ds fatalism4 ,b if ! ,ph>isees ab/a9$ f good works on ! ,sabba?1 ! ,ess5es ab/a9$ ev5 f natural necessities 7,jos4 ,b4,j4 ii4 #h1 ,s #i72 if ! ,ph>isees wa%$1 ! ,ess5es ba!d be=e d9n]2 if ! ,ph>isees ascrib$ "s ?+s to ,fate1 ! ,ess5es ascrib$ all 7,jos4 ,ant4 xiii4 #e1 ,s #i74 ,b on ! o!r h& ! ,ess5es avoid$ m>riage1 :i* ! ,ph>isees held 9 hon\r2 !y (f]$ no animal-sacrifices 9 ! ,temple2 !y refra9$ f ! use ( oil1 :i* 0 cu/om>y among ! ,ph>isees 7,luke vii4 #df72 above all1 !y (f]$ pray]s to ! sun1 aft] ! mann] d5\nc$ 9 ,ezekiel 7viii4 #af74 ,^! & o!r po9ts ( div]g5ces are n expla9$ by ,rits*l's int]e/+ !ory t ,ess5ism 0 an organiz$ attempt to c>ry out ! idea ( a k+dom ( prie/s & an holy nation 7,ex4 xix4 #f74 ,grant+ !n t "s =eign influ5ce 0 at "w 9 ,ess5ism1 we h f\r !ories (f]$ to u--t ?is influ5ce 0 ,p]sian1 ,buddhi/1 ,py?agorean1 or la/ly1 z ma9ta9$ by ,lipsius1 t ( ! surr\nd+ ,syrian hea!nism4 ,ea* ( ^! views has _h able advocates1 b x mu/ n be suppos$ t !y are mutually exclusive4 ,if we consid] h[ ,philo1 :ile rema9+ a dev\t ,jew 9 religion1 yet manag$ to assimilate ! :ole ,/oic philosophy1 we c well believe t ! ,ess5es might h be5 influ5c$1 z ,zell] ma9ta9$ t !y 71 by ,neo-,py?agoreanism4 ,b z ,py?agoras himself came f ,samos1 & 8 doctr9es h a decid$ly ,ori5tal t+e1 x may v well be t bo? he & ! ,ess5es drew f a common s\rce2 = !re is no ne$ to reject1 z is s commonly done1 ! /atem5ts ( our au?orities z to ! antiquity ( ! ,ess5es4 ,?is common s\rce we may believe ) ,lightfoot to h be5 ! ,p]sian religion1 :i* we "k to h pr(\ndly influ5c$ t ( ,israel1 indep5d5tly ( ! ,ess5es4 ,! fact t ! ,ph>isees & ,sadducees s (t5 figure 9 ! pages ( ! ,new ,te/am5t1 :ile ! ,ess5es are nev] m5tion$1 might plausibly be int]pret$ to %[ t ! ,new ,te/am5t emanat$ f ! side ( ! ,ess5es4 ,s f> z conc]ns ! ,epi/le ( ,/ ,james ?is int]pretation w\ld probably be correct4 ,t "w conta9s ! doctr9e common to ! ,ess5es ) ,plato1 & sugge/ive ( ,p]sian ,dualism1 t ,god is ! au?or ( good only4 ,!re are also c]ta9 obvi\s po9ts ( resemblance betwe5 ! ,ess5es & ! e>ly ,*ri/ians4 ,bo? held prop]ty 9 common2 bo? _h scatt]$ communities :i* receiv$ gue/s "o f ! o!r2 bo? avoid$ a light use ( oa?s2 bo? taught passive ob$i5ce to political au?ority4 ,! li/ might be enl>g$1 b x w\ld n necess>ily prove m ?an t ! e>ly ,*ri/ians %>$ 9 ! ideas ( _! age4 ,*ri/ianity 0 to "s ext5t a popul>ization ( ,ess5ism1 b !re is little reason = believ+ t ,jesus himself 0 an ,ess5e4 ,de ,qu9cey's cont5tion t !re 7 no ,ess5es b ! e>ly ,*ri/ians is n[ a lit]>y curiosity4 ,! orig9al s\rces ( our k ( ! ,ess5es h be5 m5tion$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is pap]2 ! be/ mod]n discussions ( !m are to be f\nd 9 su* works z ,zell]'s ,philosophie d] ,grie*51 vol4 iii42 ,ewald1 ,ges*i*te d4 ,v4 ,israel1 iii4 #dai-dbh2 ,reuss1 ,la ,!ologie *reti5ne au siecle apo/olique1 i4 #abb-aca2 ,keim1 ,life ( ,jesus ( ,naz>a1 vol4 i42 ,lightfoot on ! ,colossians2 ,lucius1 ,d] ,ess5ismus 9 se9em ,v]haltniss zum ,jud5?um2 ,wellhaus51 ,israelitis*e und judis*e ,ges*i*te2 ,ed4 ,s*ur]1 ,! ,jewi% ,p 9 ! ,"t ( ,jesus ,*ri/1 div4 ii4 vol4 ii4 ,s #cj4 ,! copi\s bibliography 9 ,conybe>e's edition ( ,philo's ,de vita contemplativa be>s ^u ! ,ess5es z well z ^u ! ,!rapeutes4 ,= a specially ,jewi% view ( ! ,ess5es see ,kohl]'s article 9 ! ,jewi% ,encyclopa$ia4 ,!y are !re reg>d$ z be+ simply ! rigori/s among ! ,ph>isees4 ,b we are also told t ! ,ph>isees *>act]iz$ ! ,ess5e z 'a fool :o de/roy$ ! _w4' 7,t4 ,k42 ,/ ,g4 ,s47 ,,ess5tuki1 a wat]+-place ( s\? ,russia1 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ,t]ek1 #aa m4 by rail ,w4 f ,pyatigorsk2 altitude1 #bjif ft4 ,its alkal9e & sulphur-alkal9e m9]al wat]s1 simil> to ^? ( ,ems1 ,selt]s & ,vi*y1 are mu* visit$ 9 summ]4 ,! climate %[s great v>iations 9 temp]ature4 ,pop4 7#ahig7 #iigd4 ,,essequibo1 or ,,essequebo1 "o ( ! ?ree settlem5ts ( ,briti% ,guiana1 tak+ its "n f ! riv] ,essequibo4 7,see ,,guiana47 ,,essex1 ,,e>ls ,,(4 ,! fir/ e>l ( ,essex 0 probably ,ge(frey de ,m&eville 7q4v471 :o became e>l ab\t #aaci1 ! e>ldom be+ subsequ5tly held by 8 two sons1 ,ge(frey & ,william1 until ! dea? ( ! latt] 9 #aahi4 ,9 #aaii ,ge(frey ,fitzpet] or ,fitzpi]s 7d4 #abac71 :o 0 relat$ to ! ,m&evilles ?r\gh 8 wife ,beatrice1 became e>l ( ,essex1 & on ! dea? ( ,ge(frey's son ,william 9 #abbg ! e>ldom rev]t$ = ! second "t to ! cr[n4 ,!n ! title to ! e>ldom pass$ by m>riage to ! ,bohuns1 e>ls ( ,h]e=d1 & be=e #abci ,humphrey de ,bohun 7d4 #abge7 _h be5 recogniz$ z e>l ( ,essex4 ,) ! e>ldom ( ,h]e=d ! e>ldom ( ,essex became ext9ct 9 #acgc2 aft]w>ds x 0 held by ,?omas ( ,wood/ock1 duke ( ,gl\ce/]1 a son ( ,edw>d ,,iii4 & ! husb& ( ,eleanor de ,bohun2 & f ,gl\ce/] x pass$ to ! ,b\r*i]s1 ,h5ry ,b\r*i] 7d4 #adhc71 :o secur$ ! e>ldom 9 #adfa1 be+ "o ( ,gl\ce/]'s gr&sons4 ,! second & la/ ,b\r*i] e>l 0 ,h5ry's gr&son ,h5ry1 :o di$ e>ly 9 #aedj4 ,a few weeks be=e 8 execution 9 #aedj ,?omas ,cromwell 7q4v47 0 creat$ e>l ( ,essex2 !n 9 #aedc ,william ,p>r1 aft]w>ds m>quess ( ,nor?ampton1 obta9$ ! e>ldom by "r ( 8 wife ,anne1 a daught] ( ! la/ ,b\r*i] e>l4 ,nor?ampton lo/ ! e>ldom :5 he 0 atta9t$ 9 #aeec2 & aft]w>ds x pass$ to ! fam\s family ( ,dev]eux1 ,walt] ,dev]eux1 :o 0 creat$ e>l ( ,essex 9 #aegb1 be+ relat$ to ! ,b\r*i]s4 ,rob]t1 ! #crd & la/ ,dev]eux e>l1 di$ 9 #afdf4 ,9 #affa ,ar?ur ,capel 0 creat$ e>l ( ,essex1 & ! e>ldom is /ill held by 8 desc5dants4 ,,essex1 ,,ar?ur ,,capel1 #a,,/#a ,,e>l ,,( 7#afcb-afhc71 ,engli% /atesman1 son ( ,ar?ur1 #a/ ,b>on ,capel ( ,hadham 7c4 #afda71 execut$ 9 #afdi1 & ( ,elizabe?1 daught] & heir ( ,sir ,*>les ,morrison ( ,ca%iobury 9 ,h]t=d%ire1 0 baptiz$ on ! #bh? ( ,janu>y #afcb4 ,9 ,june #afdh1 !n a sickly boy ( sixte51 he 0 tak5 by ,fairfax's soldi]s f ,hadham to ,col*e/]1 :i* 8 fa!r 0 def5d+1 & c>ri$ e day r\nd ! works ) ! hope ( induc+ ,"l ,capel to surr5d] ! place4 ,at ! re/oration he 0 creat$ ,visc\nt ,mald5 & e>l ( ,essex 7#bj? ( ,april #affa71 ) special rema9d] to ! male issue ( 8 fa!r1 & 0 made "l-lieut5ant ( ,h]t=d%ire & a few ye>s lat] ( ,wilt%ire4#b ,he e>ly %[$ himself antagoni/ic to ! c\rt1 to ,roman ,ca?olicism1 & to ! ext5sion ( ! royal pr]ogative1 & 0 c\pl$ by ,*>les ,,ii4 ) ,holles z /iff & sull5 m51 :o w\ld n yield aga9/ _! convictions to 8 solicitations4 ,9 #affi he 0 s5t z ambassador to ,k+ ,*ri/ian ,v4 ( ,d5m>k1 9 :i* capacity he ga9$ cr$it by refus+ to /rike 8 flag to ! gov]nor ( ,kronborg4 ,9 #afgb he 0 made a privy c\ncillor & "l-lieut5ant ( ,irel&4 ,he rema9$ 9 (fice till #afgg1 & 8 adm9i/ration 0 greatly comm5d$ by ,burnet & ,ormonde1#c ! =m] describ+ x z a patt]n to all t come aft] him4 ,he id5tifi$ himself ) ,iri% int]e/s1 & took imm5se pa9s to und]/& ! con/itution & ! political necessities ( ! c\ntry1 appo9t+ m5 ( real m]it to (fice1 & ma9ta9+ an exceptional indep5d5ce f solicitation & influ5ce4 ,he held a j balance betwe5 ! ,roman ,ca?olics1 ! ,engli% ,*ur* & ! ,presbyt]ians1 protect+ ! =m] z f> z public op9ion 9 ,engl& w\ld p]mit1 & gov]n+ ! native ,iri% ) firmness & mod]ation4 ,! purity & patriotism ( 8 adm9i/ration 7 9 /rong contra/ to ! hopeless corruption preval5t 9 t at home & naturally ar\s$ bitt] opposition1 z an ob/acle to ! unscrupul\s employm5t ( ,iri% rev5ues = ! satisfaction ( ! c\rt & ! k+'s exp5ses4 ,9 p>ticul> he came into conflict ) ,"l ,ranelagh1 to :om _h be5 assign$ ! ,iri% rev5ues on condition ( 8 supply+ ! requirem5ts ( ! cr[n1 & ^: acc\nts ,essex refus$ to pass4 ,he oppos$ /rongly ! lavi% gifts ( =feit$ e/ates to c\rt fav\rites & mi/resses1 prev5t$ ! grant ( ,pho5ix ,p>k to ! du*ess ( ,clevel&1 & refus$ to encumb] ! adm9i/ration by grant+ rev]sions4 ,f9ally ! intrigues ( 8 enemies at home1 & ,*>les's cont9ual dem&s = money1 :i* ,ranelagh und]took to satisfy1 br\ght ab\t 8 recall 9 ,april #afgg4 ,he imm$iately jo9$ ! c\ntry p>ty & ! opposition to ,danby's gov]nm5t1 & on ! latt]'s fall 9 #afgi 0 appo9t$ a commission] ( ! treasury1 & ! same ye> a memb] ( ,sir ,william ,temple's new-modell$ c\ncil4 ,he foll[$ ! lead ( ,halifax1 :o advocat$ n ! exclusion ( ,james1 b ! limitation ( 8 sov]eign p[]s1 & look$ to ! pr9ce ( ,orange r ?an to ,monm\? z ! lead] ( ,prote/antism1 incurr+ !reby ! ho/ility ( ,%aftesbury1 b at ! same "t ga9+ ! confid5ce ( ,*>les4 ,he 0 appo9t$ by ,*>les toge!r ) ,halifax to he> ! *>ges aga9/ ,laud]dale4 ,9 ,july he wrote a wise & /atesmanlike lett] to ! k+1 advis+ him to r5\nce 8 project ( rais+ a new company ( gu>ds4 ,toge!r ) ,halifax he urg$ ,*>les to summon ! p>liam5t1 & aft] 8 refusal resign$ ! treasury 9 ,novemb]1 ! real cause be+1 accord+ to "o acc\nt1#d a dem& ^u ! treasury by ! du*ess ( ,clevel& = ,l#be1jjj1 accord+ to ano!r ! nic5ess ( t\*+ ,fr5* money1 t makes my ,"l ,essex's squeasy /oma* t x c no long] dige/ 8 employm5t4#e ,subsequ5tly 8 political attitude und]w5t a *ange1 ! exact cause ( :i* is n cle>--probably a gr[+ conviction ( ! dang]s ?reat5$ by a ,roman ,ca?olic sov]eign ( ! "* ( ,james4 ,he n[1 9 #afhj1 jo9$ ,%aftesbury's p>ty & support$ ! ,exclusion ,bill1 & on its rejection by ! ,lords c>ri$ a motion = an association to execute ! s*eme ( exp$i5ts promot$ by ,halifax4 ,on ! #be? ( ,janu>y #afha at ! head ( fifte5 pe]s he pres5t$ a petition to ! k+1 c\*$ 9 exagg]at$ language1 reque/+ ! ab&onm5t ( ! session ( p>liam5t at ,ox=d4 ,he 0 a jeal\s prosecutor ( ! ,roman ,ca?olics 9 ! popi% plot1 & vot$ = ,/af=d's atta9d]1 on ! o!r h& int]c$+ = ,ar*bi%op ,plunket1 implicat$ 9 ! pret5d$ ,iri% plot4 ,he1 h[ev]1 refus$ to foll[ ,%aftesbury 9 8 extreme c\rses1 decl9$ p>ticipation 9 ! latt]'s design to seize ! ,t[] 9 #afhb1 & on ,%aftesbury's consequ5t dep>ture f ,engl& became ! lead] ( ,monm\?'s faction1 9 :i* 7 n[ includ$ ,"l ,russell1 ,alg]non ,sidney1 & ,"l ,h[>d ( ,escrick4 ,essex took no "p 9 ! wild] s*emes ( ! p>ty1 b aft] ! discov]y ( ! ,rye ,h\se ,plot 9 ,june #afhc1 & ! capture ( ! lead]s1 he 0 arre/$ at ,ca%iobury & imprison$ 9 ! ,t[]4 ,8 spirits & =titude appe> imm$iately to h ab&on$ him1 & on ! #ac? ( ,july he 0 discov]$ 9 8 *amb] ) 8 ?roat cut4 ,8 dea? 0 attribut$1 q gr\ndlessly1 to ,*>les & ,james1 & ! evid5ce po9ts cle>ly if n conclusively to suicide1 8 motive be+ possibly to prev5t an atta9d] & pres]ve 8 e/ate = 8 family4 ,he 01 h[ev]1 und\bt$ly a victim ( ! ,/u>t adm9i/ration1 & ! antagonism & tragic end ( m5 l ,essex1 des]v+ m51 naturally devot$ to ! ?rone1 con/itutes a sev]e indictm5t ( ! ,/u>t rule4 ,he 0 a /atesman ( /rong & s9c]e patriotism1 j & unselfi%1 consci5ti\s & labori\s 9 ! fulfilm5t ( public duties1 blameless 9 8 (ficial & private life4 ,evelyn describes him z a sob]1 wise1 judici\s & pond]+ p]son1 n illit]ate beyond ! rule ( mo/ noblem5 9 ?is age1 v well v]s$ 9 ,engli% hi/ory & affairs1 indu/ri\s1 frugal1 me?odical & e way accompli%$2 & decl>es he 0 mu* deplor$1 few believ+ he _h ev] h>b\r$ any s$iti\s designs4#f ,he m>ri$ ,lady ,elizabe? ,p]cy1 daught] ( ,alg]non1 #aj? e>l ( ,nor?umb]l&1 by :om1 besides a daught]1 he _h an only son ,alg]non 7#afgj-agaj71 :o succe$$ him z #bnd e>l ( ,essex4 ,,bibliography4--,see ! ,lives 9 ! ,dict4 ( ,nat4 ,biography & 9 ,biographia ,britannica 7,kippis71 ) au?orities !re collect$2 ,essex's ,iri% correspond5ce is 9 ! ,/[ ,collection 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 ,nos4 #bjj-bag1 & selections h be5 publi%$ 9 ,lett]s writt5 by ,ar?ur ,capel1 ,e>l ( ,essex 7#aggj7 & 9 ! ,essex ,pap]s 7,camd5 ,society1 #ahij71 to :i* c n[ be add$ ! ,cal5d>s ( ,/ate ,pap]s1 ,dome/ic1 :i* conta9 a l>ge numb] ( 8 lett]s & :i* /rongly support ! op9ion ( 8 contempor>ies conc]n+ 8 unselfi% patriotism & indu/ry2 see also ,som]s ,tracts 7#ahac71 x41 & = o!r pamphlets relat+ to 8 dea? ! catalogue ( ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,,footnotes3 #a i4e4 9 ! ,capel l9e4 #b ,hi/4 ,,mss4 ,comm4 s]42 ,duke ( ,beau=t's ,,mss4 #de4 #c ,life ( ,ormonde1 by ,t4 ,c>te1 viii4 #dfh 7#ahea71 vol4 iv4 p4 #ebi4 #d ,hi/4 ,,mss4 ,comm4 #g? ,rep4 app4 #dgg;b4 #e ,ib4 #f? ,rep4 app4 #gda;b4 #f ,di>y & ,corresp4 7#ahej71 ii4 #ada1 #agh4 ,,essex1 ,,rob]t ,,dev]eux1 #b,,nd#a ,,e>l ,,( 7#aeff-afja71 son ( ! #a/ ,dev]eux e>l1 0 born at ,ne!rwood1 ,h]e=d%ire1 on ! #ai? ( ,novemb] #aeff4 ,he ent]$ ! univ]sity ( ,cambridge & graduat$ 9 #aeha4 ,9 #aehe he accompani$ 8 /epfa!r1 ! e>l ( ,leice/]1 on an exp$ition to ,holl&1 & greatly di/+ui%$ himself at ! battle ( ,zutph54 ,he n[ took 8 place at c\rt1 :]e s h&some a y\? soon f\nd fav\r ) ,que5 ,elizabe?1 & 9 consequ5ce 0 on bad t]ms ) ,raleigh4 ,9 #aehg he 0 appo9t$ ma/] ( ! horse1 & 9 ! foll[+ ye> 0 made g5]al ( ! horse & in/all$ knight ( ! ,g>t]4 ,on ! dea? ( ,leice/] he succe$$ him z *ief fav\rite ( ! que51 a position :i* injuri\sly affect$ 8 :ole subsequ5t life1 & ultimately result$ 9 8 ru94 ,:ile ,elizabe? 0 approa*+ ! mature age ( sixty1 ,essex 0 sc>cely tw5ty-"o4 ,?\gh well aw>e ( ! advantages ( 8 position1 & some:at va9 ( ! que5's fav\r1 8 con/ant att5dance on h] at c\rt 0 irksome to him beyond all endurance2 & :5 he c\ld n make 8 escape to ! sc5es ( =eign adv5ture aft] :i* he long$1 he v>i$ ! monotony ( 8 life at c\rt by intrigues ) ! maids ( hon\r4 ,he f\ght a duel ) ,sir ,*>les ,bl\nt1 a rival fav\rite ( ! que51 9 :i* ! e>l 0 dis>m$ & slightly w\nd$ 9 ! ?igh4 ,9 #aehi1 )\t ! que5's cons5t1 he jo9$ ! exp$ition ( ,drake & ,sir ,john ,norris aga9/ ,spa91 b 9 ,june he 0 compell$ to obey a lett] enjo9+ him at 8 utt]mo/ p]il to return imm$iately4 ,9 #aeij ,essex m>ri$ ! wid[ ( ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 b 9 dread ( ! que5's ang] he kept ! m>riage secret z long z possible4 ,:5 x 0 necess>y to av[ x1 h] rage at fir/ knew no b\nds1 b z ! e>l did use x ) good temp]1 & = h] maje/y's bett] satisfaction 0 pleas$ t my lady %\ld live retir$ 9 h] "m's h\se1 he soon came to be 9 v good fav\r4 ,9 #aeia he 0 appo9t$ to ! comm& ( a =ce auxili>y to "o =m]ly s5t to assi/ ,h5ry ,,iv4 ( ,france aga9/ ! ,spani>ds2 b aft] a fruitless campaign he 0 f9ally recall$ f ! comm& 9 ,janu>y #aeib4 ,= "s ye>s aft] ?is mo/ ( 8 "t 0 sp5t at c\rt1 :]e he held a position ( unexampl$ influ5ce1 bo? on acc\nt ( ! fav\r ( ! que5 & f 8 own p]sonal popul>ity4 ,9 #aeif he 01 aft] a great _m *anges ( hum\r on ! que5's "p1 appo9t$ along ) ,"l ,h[>d ( ,eff+ham1 ,raleigh & ,"l ,?omas ,h[>d1 to ! comm& ( an exp$ition1 :i* 0 successful 9 defeat+ ! ,spani% fleet1 captur+ & pillag+ ,cadiz1 & de/roy+ #ec m]*ant vessels4 ,x w\ld seem to h be5 %ortly aft] ?is exploit t ! beg9n+s ( a *ange 9 ! feel+s ( ! que5 t[>ds him came into exi/5ce4 ,on 8 return %e *id$ him t he _h n foll[$ up 8 successes1 & ?\gh %e pr(ess$ great pleasure at aga9 see+ him 9 safety1 & 0 ultimately satisfi$ t ! abrupt t]m9ation ( ! exp$ition 0 contr>y to 8 advice & remon/rances1 %e =bade him to publi% any?+ 9 ju/ification ( 8 conduct4 ,%e d\btless 0 (f5d$ at 8 gr[+ t5d5cy to ass]t 8 indep5d5ce1 & jeal\s ( 8 increas+ popul>ity ) ! p2 b x is also probable t h] /range infatuation reg>d+ h] own *>ms1 great z x 01 sc>cely prev5t$ h] f suspect+ ei!r t 8 pr(ess$ atta*m5t _h all along be5 some:at alloy$ ) consid]ations ( p]sonal int]e/1 or t at lea/ x 0 n[ beg9n+ to cool4 ,francis ,bacon1 at t "t 8 mo/ intimate fri5d1 endeav\r$ to prev5t ! ?reat5$ rupture by writ+ him a long lett] ( advice2 & al?\gh p]sev]ance 9 a long c\rse ( feign$ action 0 = ,essex impossible1 he = "s "t att5d$ pretty closely to ! h9ts ( 8 m5tor1 s t ! que5 us$ him mo/ graci\sly4 ,9 #aeig he 0 appo9t$ ma/] ( ! ordnance1 & 9 ! foll[+ ye> he obta9$ comm& ( an exp$ition aga9/ ,spa91 kn[n z ! ,isl&s or ,azores ,voyage4 ,he ga9$ "s trifl+ successes1 b z ! ,plate fleet escap$ him he fail$ ( 8 ma9 purpose2 & :5 on 8 return ! que5 met him ) ! usual reproa*es1 he retir$ to 8 home at ,wan/ead4 ,?is 0 n :at ,elizabe? desir$1 & al?\gh %e conf]r$ on ,"l ,h[>d ( ,eff+ham ! e>ldom ( ,nott+ham = s]vices at ,cadiz1 ! ma9 m]it ( :i* 0 ju/ly claim$ by ,essex1 %e ultimately held out to ! latt] ! olive bran* ( peace1 & condesc5d$ to soo! 8 w\nd$ hon\r by creat+ him e>l m>%al ( ,engl&4 ,t1 nev]!less1 ! irritat$ feel+s nei!r ( ,essex nor ( ! que5 7 completely heal$ 0 manife/$ %ortly aft]w>ds 9 a mann] :i* set propriety completely at defiance4 ,9 a discussion on ! appo9tm5t ( a "l deputy to ,irel&1 ,essex1 on acc\nt ( "s taunt+ words ( ,elizabe?1 turn$ 8 back ^u h] ) a ge/ure indicative n only ( ang] b ( contempt1 & :5 %e1 unable to control h] indignation1 slapp$ him on ! face1 he left h] pres5ce swe>+ t su* an insult he w\ld n h endur$ ev5 f ,h5ry ,,viii4 ,9 #aeii1 :ile ,ul/] 0 9 rebellion "u ! e>l ( ,tyrone1 ! (fice ( lieut5ant & gov]nor-g5]al ( ,irel& 0 conf]r$ on ,essex1 & a l>ge =ce put at 8 comm&4 ,8 campaign 0 an unsuccessful "o1 & by act+ 9 v>i\s ways 9 opposition to ! comm&s ( ! que5 & ! c\ncil1 agree+ ) ,tyrone on a truce 9 ,septemb]1 & sudd5ly leav+ ! po/ ( duty ) ! object ( privately v9dicat+ himself be=e ! que51 he laid himself op5 to *>ges m s]i\s ?an t ( m]e incompet5cy4 ,= ^! misdemean\rs he 0 br\ght 9 ,june #afjj be=e a specially con/itut$ c\rt1 depriv$ ( all 8 high (fices1 & ord]$ to live a prison] 9 8 own h\se dur+ ! que5's pleasure4 ,*iefly ?r\gh ! int]cession ( ,bacon 8 lib]ty 0 %ortly aft]w>ds re/or$ to him1 b he 0 ord]$ n to return to c\rt4 ,= "s "t he hop$ = an improvem5t 9 8 prospects1 b :5 he 0 refus$ ! r5ewal ( 8 pat5t = sweet w9es1 hope 0 succe$$ by despair1 & half madd5$ by w\nd$ vanity1 he made an attempt 7,feb4 #g1 #afja7 to incite a revolution 9 8 behalf1 by p>ad+ ! /reets ( ,london ) #cjj reta9]s1 & %\t+1 ,= ! que56 a plot is laid = my life6 ,^! proce$+s awak5$1 h[ev]1 sc>cely any o!r feel+s ?an mild p]plexity & wond]2 & f9d+ t hope ( assi/ance f ! citiz5s 0 va91 he return$ to ,essex ,h\se1 :]e aft] def5d+ himself = a %ort "t he surr5d]$4 ,aft] a trial--9 :i* ,bacon1 :o prosecut$1 deliv]$ a spee* aga9/ 8 quondam fri5d & b5efactor1 ! bitt]ness ( :i* 0 q unnecess>y to secure a conviction entail+ at lea/ v sev]e puni%m5t--he 0 condemn$ to dea?1 & not)/&+ _m alt]ations 9 ,elizabe?'s mood1 ! s5t5ce 0 c>ri$ out on ! #be? ( ,febru>y #afja4 ,essex 0 9 p]son tall & well proportion$1 ) a c\nt5ance :i*1 ?\gh n /rictly h&some1 possess$1 on acc\nt ( its bold1 *e]ful & amiable expression1 a wond]ful p[] ( fasc9ation4 ,he 0 a patron ( lit]ature1 & himself a poet4 ,8 c>riage 0 n v graceful1 b 8 mann]s are said to h be5 c\rtly1 grave & exce$+ly comely4 ,he 0 brave1 *ivalr\s1 impulsive1 imp]i\s sometimes ) 8 equals1 b g5]\s to all 8 dep5dants & incapable ( secret malice2 & ^! virtues1 :i* 7 innate & :i* rema9$ ) him to ! la/1 mu/ be reg>d$ z some:at c\nt]balanc+1 9 our e/imation ( him1 ! follies & vices creat$ by temptations :i* 7 exceptionally /rong4 ,see ,hon4 ,w4,b4 ,dev]eux1 ,lives ( ! ,e>ls ( ,essex 7#ahec72 & ,bacon & ,essex1 by ,e4,a4 ,abbott 7#ahgg74 ,also ! article ,,bacon1 ,,francis1 & au?orities !re4 ,,footnote3 #a i4e4 9 ! ,dev]eux l9e4 ,,essex1 ,,rob]t ,,dev]eux1 #c,,rd#a ,,e>l ,,( 7#aeia-afdf71 son ( ! prec$+1 0 born 9 #aeia4 ,he 0 educat$ at ,eton & at ,m]ton ,college1 ,ox=d4 ,%ortly aft] ! arrival ( ,james ,i4 9 ,london1 ,essex 7^: title 0 re/or$1 & ! atta9d] on 8 fa!r remov$1 9 #afjd7 0 plac$ ab\t ! pr9ce ( ,wales1 z a %>] bo? 9 8 /udies & amusem5ts4 ,at ! e>ly age ( fifte5 he 0 m>ri$ to ,frances ,h[>d1 daught] ( ! e>l ( ,suffolk1 b %e 0 8 wife only 9 "n2 dur+ 8 abs5ce abroad 7#afjg-afji7 %e fell 9 love ) ,sir ,rob]t ,c>r 7aft]w>ds e>l ( ,som]set71 & on h] *>g+ h] husb& ) physical incapacity1 ! m>riage 0 annull$ 9 #afac4 ,a second m>riage :i* he contract$ 9 #afca ) ,elizabe?1 daught] ( ,sir ,william ,paulet1 also end$ unhappily4 ,f #afbj to #afbc he s]v$ 9 ! w>s ( ! ,palat9ate1 & 9 #afbe he 0 vice-admiral ( a fleet :i* made an unsuccessful attempt to capture ,cadiz4 ,9 #afci he 0 lieut5ant-g5]al ( ! army s5t by ,*>les aga9/ ! ,scotti% ,cov5ant]s2 b on acc\nt ( ! irresolution ( ! k+ no battle occurr$1 & ! army 0 disb&$ at ! end ( ! ye>4 ,essex 0 dis*>g$ )\t ord9>y c]emony1 & refus$ an (fice :i* at t "t fell vacant1 all :i*1 says ,cl>5don1 wr\ght v mu* ^u 8 r\gh1 pr\d nature1 & made him susceptible ( "s impressions aft]w>ds :i* o!rwise w\ld n h f\nd su* easy admission4 ,hav+ tak5 ! side ( ! p>liam5t aga9/ ,*>les1 he 01 on ! outbreak ( ! civil w> 9 #afdb1 appo9t$ to ! comm& ( ! p>liam5t>y army4 ,at ! battle ( ,edgehill he rema9$ ma/] ( ! field1 & 9 #afdc he captur$ ,read+1 & reliev$ ,gl\ce/]2 b 9 ! campaign ( ! foll[+ ye>1 on acc\nt ( 8 hesitation to fight aga9/ ! k+ 9 p]son1 ne>ly 8 :ole army fell into ! h&s ( ,*>les4 ,9 #afde1 on ! pass+ ( ! self-d5y+ ord9ance1 provid+ t no memb] ( p>liam5t %\ld hold a public (fice1 he resign$ 8 commission2 b on acc\nt ( 8 pa/ s]vices 8 annuity ( ,l#aj1jjj 0 cont9u$ to him = life4 ,he di$ on ! #ad? ( ,septemb] #afdf1 ( a fev] br\ght on by ov]-ex]tion 9 a /ag-hunt 9 ,w9dsor ,=e/2 8 l9e becom+ ext9ct4 ,see ! ,life ( ,rob]t ,e>l ( ,essex1 by ,rob]t ,codr+ton1 ,m4,a41 pr9t$ 9 ,h>t4 ,misc42 ,cl>5don's ,hi/ory ( ! ,rebellion1 & ,hon4 ,w4,b4 ,dev]eux1 ,lives ( ! ,e>ls ( ,essex 7#ahec74 ,,footnote3 #a i4e4 9 ! ,dev]eux l9e4 ,,essex1 ,,walt] ,,dev]eux1 #a,,/#a ,,e>l ,,( 7#aeda-aegf71 ! elde/ son ( ,sir ,ri*>d ,dev]eux1 0 born 9 #aeda4 ,8 gr&fa!r 0 ! #bnd ,b>on ,f]r]s1 :o 0 creat$ ,visc\nt ,h]e=d 9 #aeej & by 8 "m 0 a nephew ( ,h5ry ,b\r*i]1 a =m] e>l ( ,essex4 ,walt] ,dev]eux succe$$ z #bnd ,visc\nt ,h]e=d 9 #aeeh1 & 9 #aefa or #aefb m>ri$ ,lettice1 daught] ( ,sir ,francis ,knollys4 ,9 #aefi he s]v$ z high m>%al ( ! field "u ! e>l ( ,w>wick & ,"l ,cl9ton1 & mat]ially assi/$ !m 9 suppress+ ! nor!rn insurrection4 ,= 8 zeal 9 ! s]vice ( ,que5 ,elizabe? on ?is & o!r occasions1 he 9 #aegb receiv$ ! ,g>t] & 0 creat$ e>l ( ,essex1 ! title :i* =m]ly belong$ to ! ,b\r*i] family4 ,eag] to give pro( ( 8 good devotion to employ himself 9 ! s]vice ( h] maje/y1 he (f]$ on c]ta9 conditions to subdue & colonize1 at 8 own exp5se1 a portion ( ! ,iri% prov9ce ( ,ul/]1 at t "t completely "u ! dom9ion ( ! rebel ,o',neills1 "u ,sir ,brian ,mac,phelim & ,tirlogh ,lu9ea*1 ) ! ,scots "u _! lead] ,sorley ,boy ,mac,donnell4 ,8 (f]1 ) c]ta9 modifications1 0 accept$1 & he set sail = ,irel& 9 ,july #aegc1 accompani$ by a numb] ( e>ls1 knights & g5tlem51 & ) a =ce ( ab\t #abjj m54 ,! beg9n+ ( 8 ent]prise 0 inauspici\s1 = on acc\nt ( a /orm :i* disp]s$ 8 fleet & drove "s ( 8 vessels z f> z ,cork & ! ,isle ( ,man1 8 =ces did n all rea* ! place ( r5dezv\s till late 9 ! autumn1 & he 0 compell$ to entr5* himself at ,belfa/ = ! w9t]4 ,"h1 by sickness1 fam9e & des]tions1 8 troops 7 dim9i%$ to little m ?an #bjj m54 ,intrigues ( v>i\s sorts1 & fight+ ( a gu]illa type1 foll[$ ) disappo9t+ results1 & ,essex _h difficulties bo? ) ! deputy ,fitzwilliam & ) ! que54 ,essex 0 9 /raits himself1 & 8 (f5sive movem5ts 9 ,ul/] took ! =m ( raids & brutal massacres among ! ,o',neills2 9 ,octob] #aegd he trea*]\sly captur$ ,mac,phelim at a conf]5ce 9 ,belfa/1 & aft] slaught]+ 8 att5dants _h him & 8 wife & bro!r execut$ at ,dubl94 ,elizabe?1 in/igat$ app>5tly by ,leice/]1 aft] enc\rag+ ,essex to prep>e to attack ! ,iri% *ief ,tirlogh ,lu9ea*1 sudd5ly comm&$ him to break (f 8 ent]prise2 b1 z %e left him a c]ta9 discretion>y p[]1 he took advantage ( x to defeat ,tirlogh ,lu9ea*1 *a/ise ,antrim1 & massacre sev]al hundr$s ( ,sorley ,boy's foll[+1 *iefly wom5 & *ildr51 discov]$ hid+ 9 ! caves ( ,ra?l94 ,he return$ to ,engl& 9 ! end ( #aege1 resolv$ to live h5ce=? an untr\bl$ life2 b he 0 ultimately p]suad$ to accept ! (f] ( ! que5 to make him e>l m>%al ( ,irel&4 ,he arriv$ 9 ,dubl9 9 ,septemb] #aegf1 & ?ree weeks aft]w>ds di$ ( dys5t]y4 ,!re 7 suspicions t he _h be5 poison$ by ,leice/]1 :o %ortly aft] 8 dea? m>ri$ 8 wid[1 b ^! 7 n confirm$ by ! po/-mortem exam9ation4 ,! endeav\rs ( ,essex to bett] ! condition ( ,irel& 7 a dismal failure2 & ! massacres ( ! ,o',neills & ( ! ,scots ( ,ra?l9 leave a d>k /a9 on 8 reputation4 ,see ,sidney ,lee's article 9 ! ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog42 ,lives ( ! ,dev]eux ,e>ls ( ,essex1 by ,hon4 ,walt] ,b4 ,dev]eux 7#ahec72 ,fr\de's ,hi/ory ( ,engl&1 vol4 x42 ,j4,s4 ,brew]1 ,a!naeum 7#ahgj71 "p i4 pp4 #bfa1 #cbf4 ,,footnote3 #a i4e4 9 ! ,dev]eux l9e4 ,,essex1 an ea/]n c\nty ( ,engl&1 b\nd$ ,n4 by ,cambridge%ire & ,suffolk1 ,e4 by ! ,nor? ,sea1 ,s4 by ! ,?ames1 divid+ x f ,k5t1 ,w4 by ! adm9i/rative c\nty ( ,london & by ,h]t=d%ire4 ,its area is #aedb sq4 m4 ,its configuration is suffici5tly indicat$ by ! direction ( its riv]s4 ,except t 9 ! ,n4,w4 ! c\nty includes ! heads ( a few valleys dra9+ nor?w>d to ! ,cam & s to ! ,great ,ouse1 all ! /reams1 :i* are nev] ( great size1 run s\?w>d & ea/w>d1 ei!r into ! ,?ames1 or into ! ,nor? ,sea by way ( ! broad1 %all[ e/u>ies :i* ramify ?r\gh ! flat coa/ l&s4 ,! highe/ gr\nd lies consequ5tly 9 ! nor?-we/1 betwe5 ! ,cam bas9 & ! riv]s ( ! c\nty4 ,its pr9cipal s\?w>d ext5sion is t betwe5 ! ,lea 7:i* ) its tribut>y ! ,/ort =ms a great "p ( ! we/]n b\nd>y7 & ! ,rod+1 & ea/ ( ! ,rod+ valley4 ,! o!r *ief riv]s may be specifi$ accord+ to _! e/u>ies1 foll[+ ! coa/ nor?w>d f ,%oeburyness at ! ,?ames m\?4 ,t ( ! ,roa* ramifies among sev]al isl&s ( :i* ,f\lness is ! l>ge/1 b its ma9 bran* jo9s ! ,cr\* e/u>y4 ,next foll[s ! ,blackwat]1 :i* receives ! ,*elm]1 ! ,bra9 & o!r /reams4 ,foll[+ a coa/ ( num]\s creeks & islets1 ) ! l>ge isl& ( ,m]sea1 ! ,colne e/u>y is rea*$4 ,! ,colne & ,blackwat] may be said to =m "o l>ge e/u>y1 z !y ent] ! sea by a well-m>k$ common m\?1 #e m4 9 wid?1 betwe5 ,sales ,po9t & ,colne ,po9t4 ,!re is a great irregul> inlet 7,ham=d ,wat]7 receiv+ no l>ge /ream1 ,w4 ( ! ,naze promontory1 & !n ! ,/\r1 b\nd+ ! c\nty on ! nor?1 jo9s its e/u>y to t ( ! ,orwell ne> ! sea4 ,!re are sev]al seaside wat]+-places 9 fav\r ow+ to _! proximity to ,london1 ( :i* ,s\!nd-on-,sea above ! m\? ( ! ,?ames1 ,clacton-on-,sea1 ,walton-on-!-,naze1 & ,dov]c\rt adjo9+ ,h>wi* are ! *ief4 ,^! & o!r /ations on ! e/u>ies are also 9 fav\r ) ya*tsm54 ,! sea has at "s po9ts s]i\sly encroa*$ ^u ! l& )9 hi/oric times4 ,! l[ s(t cliffs at v>i\s po9ts are liable to give way aga9/ ! waves2 9 o!r p>ts dykes & embankm5ts are necess>y to prev5t inundation4 ,inl&1 t is ap>t f ! flat coa/-di/rict1 ! c\ntry is pleasantly undulat+ & = ! mo/ "p well wood$4 ,x 0 =m]ly1 inde$1 almo/ :olly =e/$1 ! great ,wal?am ,=e/ /ret*+ f ,col*e/] to ! conf9es ( ,london4 ,( ?is a fragm5t is pres]v$ 9 ,epp+ ,=e/ 7see ,,epp+7 betwe5 ! ,lea & ! ,rod+4 ,on ! o!r side ( ! ,rod+ ,ha9ault ,=e/ is traceable1 b 0 disaf=e/$ 9 #ahea4 ,! oak is ! pr9cipal tree2 a notewor?y example 0 t ( ,fairlop 9 ,ha9ault1 :i* measur$ #de ft4 9 gir?1 b 0 bl[n d[n 9 #ahbj4 ,geology4--,! geological /ructure ( ! c\nty is v simple3 ! great] "p is occupi$ by ! ,london clay ) und]ly+ ,read+ b$s & ,?anet s&s1 ) "h & !re small pat*es ( ,bag%ot gravels on elevat$ tracts1 z at ,high ,bee*1 ,langdon ,hill1 ,br5twood & ,rayleigh2 & occasionally ! same b$s are repres5t$ by ! l>ge b\ld]-l ,s>s5 /ones on ! l[] gr\nd4 ,9 ! nor?1 ! *alk1 :i* und]lies ! ,t]ti>y /rata ov] ! :ole c\nty1 appe>s at ! surface & =ms ! d[ns ab\t ,saffron ,wald51 ,birdbrook & ,great ,yeldham2 x is br\ght up aga9 by a small di/urbance at ,grays ,?urrock :]e x is qu>ri$ on a l>ge scale = lime1 cem5t & :it+4 ,small pat*es ( ,plei/oc5e ,r$ ,crag re/ ^u ! ,eoc5e /rata at ,beaumont & ,oakley1 & are v well expos$ at ,walton-on-!-,naze :]e !y are v fossilif]\s4 ,mo/ ( ! c\nty is cov]$ by a sup]ficial deposit ( glacial drifts1 s&s1 gravel & 9 places b\ld] clay1 z at ,epp+1 ,dunm[ & ,horn*ur* :]e ! drift lies b5ea? ! ,?ames gravel4 ,an int]e/+ feature 9 relation to ! glacial drift is a deep tr\gh 9 ! ,cam valley reveal$ by bor+s to be no less ?an #cdj ft4 deep at ,newport2 ?is anci5t valley is fill$ ) drift4 ,9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! c\nty are broad spreads ( gravel & brick e>?1 =m$ by ! ,?ames2 ^! h be5 excavat$ = brick-mak+ & build+ purposes ab\t ,il=d1 ,rom=d & ,grays1 & h yield$ ! rema9s ( hippopotamus1 rh9oc]os & mammo?4 ,m rec5t alluvial deposits are f\nd 9 ! valley at ,wal?am/[ & ,tilbury1 9 :i* ! rema9s ( ! beav] h be5 discov]$4 ,! roads ( ?is c\nty ) a clay soil f\ndation 7 = g5]ations repair$ ) fl9ts pick$ by wom5 & *ildr5 f ! surface ( ! fields4 ,gravel is difficult ( access4 ,) ! exception ( *alk = lime 7ma9ly obta9$ at ,ball+don 9 ! nor? & ,grays 9 ! s\?71 sept>ia = mak+ cem5t1 & clay = bricks1 ! und]gr\nd ri*es ( ! c\nty are meagre4 ,agriculture4--,z an agricultural c\nty ,essex ranks high4 ,"s f\r-fif?s ( ! total area is "u cultivation1 & ab\t "o-?ird ( t area is 9 p]man5t pa/ure4 ,:eat1 b>ley & oats1 9 t relative ord]1 are ! pr9cipal gra9 crops1 ,essex be+ "o ( ! *ief gra9-produc+ c\nties4 ,! :eat & b>ley are 9 p>ticul>ly high fav\r1 ! :eat ( v>i\s /&>d species be+ export$ = se$ purposes1 :ile ! b>ley is especially useful 9 malt+4 ,beans & peas are l>gely gr[n1 z are vegetables = ! ,london m>ket4 ,hop-gr[+ 0 once important4 ,f ! comp>ative dryness ( ! climate ,essex does n excel 9 pa/urage1 & w9t] graz+ receives ! m att5tion4 ,! numb]s ( cattle increase /eadily1 & /ore bullocks are introduc$ 9 l>ge numb]s f ,norfolk1 ,l9coln%ire1 ,irel& & ,wales4 ,( %eep !re are b few di/9ct flocks1 & ! numb]s decrease4 ,pigs are g5]ally ( a high-class ,b]k%ire type4 ,o!r ,indu/ries4--,! s\?-we/ ( ! c\nty1 be+ contigu\s to ,london1 is v d5sely populat$1 & is ! seat ( l>ge & v>i$ indu/ries4 ,= example1 !re are numb]s ( *emical works1 ! ext5sive eng9e %ops & works ( ! ,great ,ea/]n railway at ,/rat=d1 gov]nm5t p[d] works 9 ! vic9ity ( ,wal?am ,abbey1 & p[d] /ores at ,purfleet on ! ,?ames4 ,! ext5sive wat]-works = ea/ ,london1 by ! ,lea ne> ,wal?am/[1 may also be m5tion$4 ,! docks at ,plai/[ & ,tilbury on ! ,?ames employ _m h&s4 ,ap>t f ?is indu/rial di/rict1 !re are consid]able eng9e]+ works1 especially = agricultural implem5ts1 at ,*elms=d1 ,col*e/] & else:]e2 sev]al silk works1 z at ,bra9tree & ,hal/ead2 l>ge brew]ies1 z at ,br5twood1 ,*elms=d & ,rom=d2 & lime & cem5t works at ,grays ,?urrock4 ,! oy/]-b$s ( ! ,colne produce ! fam\s ,col*e/] natives1 & !re are simil> b$s 9 ! ,cr\* & ,roa*1 = :i* ,burnham-on-,cr\* is ! c5tre2 & 9 ! ,blackwat] 7,maldon74 ,communications4--,railway communications are suppli$ pr9cipally by ! ,great ,ea/]n railway1 ( :i* ! ma9 l9e runs by ,/rat=d1 ,il=d1 ,rom=d1 ,br5twood1 ,*elms=d1 ,)am1 ,col*e/]1 & ,mann+tree4 ,! ,cambridge & nor!rn l9e ( ?is company1 foll[+ ! ,lea valley1 does n t\* ! c\nty until x div]ges along ! valley ( ! ,/ort4 ,! *ief bran*es are ^? to ,s\!nd & ,burnham1 ,)am to ,maldon1 ,col*e/] to ,brightl+sea1 to ,clacton & to ,walton1 & ,mann+tree to ,h>wi*1 on ! coa/2 & ,)am to ,bra9tree & ,bi%op's ,/ort=d1 & ,m>k's ,tey to ,sudbury & beyond1 inl&2 :ile !re are sev]al bran* l9es among ! manufactur+ & resid5tial suburbs 9 ! s\?-we/1 to ,wal?am/[ & ,buckhur/ ,hill1 ,*igwell1 ,l\ghton1 ,epp+1 ,ong>1 c4 ,! ,london1 ,tilbury ,s\!nd railway1 foll[+ ! ,?ames1 s]ves ! places nam$1 & ! ,colne ,valley railway runs f ,*appel junction ne> ,m>k's ,tey by ,hal/ead to ,hav]hill4 ,on ! ,?ames1 besides ! great docks at ,plai/[ 7,victoria & ,alb]t7 & ! deep-wat] docks at ,tilbury1 ! pr9cipal call+ places = vessels are ,grays1 ,purfleet & ,s\!nd1 :ile ,b>k+ on ! ,rod+ has also %ipp+ trade1 & ! ,lea af=ds important wat]-connexions4 ,else:]e1 ! pr9cipal port is ,h>wi*1 at ! m\? ( ! ,/\r1 "o ( ! *ief ports ( ,engl& = ,european pass5g] traffic4 ,o!r t[ns rank+ z less] e/u>9e ports are3 ,brightl+sea & ,wiv5hoe on ! ,colne1 =m+ a memb] ( ! ,c9que ,port ( ,s&wi*2 ,col*e/]1 ,maldon on ! ,blackwat]1 & ,burnham-on-,cr\*4 ,! ,/\r1 ,*elm]1 & ,lea & ,/ort are ! pr9cipal navigable inl& wat]ways4 ,population & ,adm9i/ration4--,! area ( ! anci5t c\nty is #ihf1ige acres1 ) a population 9 #ahia ( #ghe1dde & 9 #aija ( #a1jhe1gga4 ,! area ( ! adm9i/rative c\nty is #igi1ecb acres4 ,! c\nty conta9s n9ete5 hundr$s4 ,x is divid$ into eight p>liam5t>y divisions1 & x also includes ! p>liam5t>y bor\ghs ( ,col*e/] & ,we/ ,ham1 ! latt] consi/+ ( two divisions4 ,ea* ( ^! returns "o memb]4 ,! c\nty divisions are--,nor!rn or ,saffron ,wald51 ,nor?-ea/]n or ,h>wi*1 ,ea/]n or ,maldon1 ,we/]n or ,epp+1 ,mid or ,*elms=d1 ,s\?-ea/]n1 ,s\!rn or ,rom=d1 ,s\?-we/]n or ,wal?am/[1 return+ "o memb] ea*4 ,! municipal bor\ghs are--,*elms=d 7#ab1ehj71 ,col*e/] 7#ch1cgc71 ,ea/ ,ham 7#if1jah71 ,h>wi* 7#aj1jgj71 ,maldon7#eefe71 ,saffron ,wald5 7#ehif71 ,s\!nd-on-,sea 7#bh1heg71 & "o c\nty bor\gh1 ,we/ ,ham 7#bfg1ceh74 ,! foll[+ are ! o!r urban di/ricts--,b>k+ ,t[n 7#ba1edg71 ,bra9tree 7#eccj71 ,br5twood 7#dicb71 ,brightl+sea 7#deja71 ,buckhur/ ,hill 7#dghf71 ,burnham-on-,cr\* 7#biai71 ,*+=d 7#dcgc71 ,clacton 7#gdef71 ,epp+ 7#cghi71 ,fr9ton-on-,sea 7#fdd71 ,grays ,?urrock 7#ac1hcd71 ,hal/ead 7#fjgc71 ,il=d 7#da1bcd71 ,leigh-on-,sea 7#cffg71 ,leyton 7#ih1iab71 ,l\ghton 7#dgcj71 ,rom=d 7#ac1fef71 ,%oeburyness 7#djha71 ,wal?am ,holy ,cross 7#fedi71 ,wal?am/[ 7#ie1aca71 ,walton-on-!-,naze 7#bjad71 ,wan/ead 7#iagi71 ,)am 7#cded71 ,wiv5hoe 7#befj71 ,wood=d 7#ac1gih74 ,essex is 9 ! ,s\?-ea/]n circuit1 & assizes are held at ,*elms=d4 ,! bor\ghs ( ,h>wi* & ,s\!nd-on-,sea h sep>ate commissions ( ! peace1 & ! bor\ghs ( ,col*e/]1 ,maldon1 ,saffron ,wald5 & ,we/ ,ham h1 9 addition1 sep>ate c\rts ( qu>t] sessions4 ,! c\nty is ecclesia/ically )9 ! diocese ( ,/ ,albans 7) a small portion )9 t ( ,ely7 & is divid$ into two ar*deaconries2 conta9+ #deb p>i%es or di/ricts :olly or 9 "p4 ,!re are #cii civil p>i%es4 ,!re is a milit>y /ation & depot = recruits at ,w>ley1 & a g>rison at ,tilbury4 ,at ,%oeburyness !re are a s*ool ( gunn]y & an ext5sive gr\nd = te/+ gov]nm5t artill]y ( ! l>ge/ calibre4 ,hi/ory 7see also bel[ "u ,,essex1 ,,k+dom ,,(74--,,essex probably orig9at$ z a %ire 9 ! "t ( ,ae!l/an4 ,accord+ to ! ,domesday ,survey x compris$ n9ete5 hundr$s1 correspond+ v closely 9 ext5t & 9 "n ) ^? ( ! pres5t day4 ,! additional half-hundr$ ( ,?unreslan on ! ,suffolk bord] has disappe>$2 ,witbricte%]na is n[ ,d5gie2 & ! lib]ty ( ,hav]+-atte-,b[] appe>s to h be5 tak5 out ( ,becontree4 ,essex & ,h]t=d%ire 7 "u "o %]iff until ! "t ( ,elizabe?4 ,at ! "t ( ! ,survey ,c\nt ,eu/ace held a va/ fief 9 ,essex1 & ! c\rt ( ! ,hon\r ( ,b\logne 0 held at ,)am4 ,b5try ,hea? 9 ,dag5ham1 ,hundr$ ,hea? 9 ,t5dr+ & ,ca/le ,h$+ham 9 ,h9ck=d 7 ! meet+-places ( _! respective hundr$s4 ,! /ew>d%ip ( ! =e/ ( ,essex 0 held by ! e>ls ( ,ox=d until depriv$ ( x = adh]5ce to ! ,lanca/rian cause4 ,9 #adba c]ta9 p>ts ( ,essex inh]it$ by ,h5ry ,v4 f 8 "m 7 br\ght "u ! jurisdiction ( ! du*y ( ,lanca/]4 ,essex 0 "p ( ! see ( ,london f ! "t ( ! f\ndation ( ! bi%opric 9 ! #g? c5tury4 ,! ar*deaconries are fir/ m5tion$ 9 #aajh2 t ( ,essex ext5d$ ov] ! s\? ( ! c\nty & 9 #abia includ$ eight dean]ies2 ! nor? ( ! c\nty 0 divid$ betwe5 ! ar*deaconries ( ,middlesex & ,col*e/]1 compris+ ?ree & six dean]ies respectively4 ,col*e/] 0 con/itut$ a suffragan bi%opric by ,h5ry ,,viii4 ,9 #ahcf ,essex 0 transf]r$ to ! diocese ( ,ro*e/]1 ) ! exception ( n9e p>i%es :i* rema9$ 9 ,london4 ,9 #ahde ! ar*deacon ( ,middlesex ceas$ to ex]cise control 9 ,essex1 & ! dean]ies 7 readju/$4 ,9 #ahge ,essex 0 transf]r$ to ! newly creat$ diocese ( ,/ ,albans1 & 9 #ahgg ! ar*deaconry ( ,essex 0 subdivid$ into eighte5 dean]ies & t ( ,col*e/] into sixte54 ,ow+ to its proximity to ! capital ,essex 0 intimately associat$ ) all ! great hi/orical /ruggles4 ,! nobility ( ,essex took a lead+ "p 9 ! /ruggle = ! *>t]1 & ( ! tw5ty-f\r gu>dians ( ! *>t]1 f\r 7 ,essex b>ons4 ,! ca/les ( ,ple%ey1 ,col*e/]1 & ,h$+ham 7 held aga9/ ! k+ 9 ! ,b>ons' ,w> ( ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,iii41 & #ejjj ,essex m5 jo9$ ! peasant ris+ ( #acha4 ,dur+ ! ,w>s ( ! ,roses ! ,lanca/rian cause 0 support$ by ! de ,v]es1 :ile ! ,b\r*i]s & ,"l ,fitz-,walt] 7 among ! ,yorki/ lead]s4 ,sev]al ,essex m5 7 conc]n$ 9 ! ,gunp[d] ,plot1 & 9 ! ,civil ,w> ( ! #ag? c5tury ! c\nty r5d]$ valuable aid to ! p>liam5t4 ,aft] ! ,conque/ no ,engli%man reta9$ e/ates 9 ,essex ( any importance1 & ! *ief lay b>ons at ! "t ( ! ,survey 7 ,ge(frey de ,m&eville & ,aubrey de ,v]e4 ,! de ,v]es1 e>ls ( ,ox=d1 7 cont9u\sly connect$ ) ! c\nty until ! ext9ction ( ! title two c5turies ago4 ,ple%ey 0 ! /ronghold ( ! ,m&evilles1 &1 al?\gh ! h\se became ext9ct 9 #aahi1 its desc5dants 9 ! female l9e reta9$ ! title ( e>ls ( ,essex4 ,! ,hon\r ( ,hatfield ,pev]el held by ,ranulf ,pev]el aft] ! ,conque/ es*eat$ to ! cr[n 9 ! reign ( ,h5ry ,i41 & 9 ! same reign ! fief ( ,rob]t ,g]non pass$ to ! h\se ( ,m\ntfi*et4 ,essex has always be5 ma9ly an agricultural c\nty1 & ! ord9>y agricultural pursuits 7 c>ri$ on at ! "t ( ! ,domesday ,survey1 :i* also m5tions salt-mak+1 w9e-mak+1 bee-culture & *eese-mak+1 :ile ! oy/] fi%]ies h be5 fam\s f ! e>lie/ hi/oric times4 ,! wooll5 indu/ry dates back to ,saxon times1 & = _m c5turies rank$ z ! mo/ important indu/ry4 ,clo?-weav+ 0 introduc$ 9 ! #ad? c5tury1 & 9 ! #af? c5tury ,col*e/] 0 not$ = its bays & says4 ,col*e/] also possess$ a valuable lea!r indu/ry 9 ! #af? c5tury1 at :i* p]iod ,essex 0 consid]$ an exceptionally weal?y & prosp]\s c\nty2 ,nord51 writ+ 9 #aeid1 describes x z mo/e fatt1 frutefull1 & full ( all pr(itable ?+s4 ,! decl9e ( ! clo? indu/ry 9 ! #ag? c5tury caus$ great di/ress1 b a numb] ( small] indu/ries began to take its place4 ,saffron-culture & silk-weav+ 7 ext5sively c>ri$ on 9 ! #ag? c5tury1 & ! #ah? c5tury saw ! introduction ( ! /raw-plait indu/ry1 pota%-mak+1 calico-pr9t+1 malt+ & brew+1 & ! manufacture ( ,roman cem5t4 ,! c\nty return$ f\r memb]s to p>liam5t 9 #abij4 ,f #abie x return$ two memb]s = ! c\nty & two = ,col*e/]4 ,maldon acquir$ repres5tation 9 #acca & ,h>wi* 9 #afjd4 ,"u ! ,re=m ,act ( #ahcb ! c\nty return$ f\r memb]s 9 f\r divisions4 ,"u ! ,repres5tation ( ! ,p ,act ( #ahfh ,maldon & ,h>wi* ea* lo/ "o memb]1 & ! c\nty return$ six memb]s 9 ?ree divisions4 ,antiquities4--,x is suppos$ by _m antiqu>ies t ,saxon masonry c be detect$ 9 ! f\ndations ( sev]al ( ! ,essex *ur*es1 b1 ) ! exception ( ,a%+don *ur* t[]1 believ$ to h be5 erect$ by ,canute aft] 8 victory ov] ,edmund ,ironside1 !re is no obvi\sly recognizable build+ belong+ to t p]iod4 ,?is is probably to be 9 "p ascrib$ to ! fact t ! comp>ative sc>city ( /one & ! unusual abundance ( timb] l$ to ! ext5sive employm5t ( ! latt] mat]ial4 ,sev]al ( ! ,essex *ur*es1 z ,blackmore1 ,m\ntness+1 ,m>g>ett+1 & ,s\? ,b5fleet1 h massive por*es & t[]s ( timb]2 & ,/ ,&rew's *ur*1 ,gre5/ead1 ) its walls ( solid oak1 cont9ues an almo/ unique example ( its k9d4 ,( ! f\r r\nd *ur*es 9 ,engl& "o is 9 ,essex at ,little ,maple/ead2 x is bo? ! smalle/ & ! late/4 ,! *ur*es ( ,s\? ,weald1 ,hadleigh1 ,blackmore1 ,heybridge & ,had/ock may be m5tion$ z conta9+ ,norman "w2 ) ! *ur* ( ,ca/le ,h$+ham = its f9e ,transitional "w2 ,s\?*ur*1 ,danbury & ,boreham z be+ p>tly ,e>ly ,engli%2 ,+ate/one1 ,/ebb+ & ,tilty = specim5s ( ,decorat$ ar*itecture2 & ,mess+1 ,?axt$1 ,saffron ,wald51 & ! *ur* ( ,/ ,pet] ad ,v9cula at ! small t[n ( ,cogge%all1 ne> ,col*e/]1 z specim5s ( ,p]p5dicul>4 ,/a9$ glass w9d[s h left _! traces 9 sev]al ( ! *ur*es1 ! f9e/ rema9s be+ ^? ( ,m>g>ett+1 :i* repres5t a tree ( ,jesse & ! daisy or h]b ,m>g>et4 ,pa9t+s h evid5tly be5 l>gely us$ = int]nal decoration3 a rem>kable s]ies1 probably ( ! #ab? c5tury1 b mu* re/or$ 9 ! #ad?1 exi/s 9 ! *ancel ( ,cop=d *ur*2 & 9 ! *ur* at ,+ate/one !re 0 discov]$ 9 #ahfh an almo/ unique fresco repres5tation ( ! sev5 deadly s9s4 ,! olde/ brasses pres]v$ 9 ! c\nty are ^? ( ,sir ,william ,fitz-,ralph at ,pebm>%1 ab\t #acbc2 ,ri*>d ( ,belt[n1 at ,corr+ham1 #acdj2 ,sir ,john ,gif=d1 at ,b[]s ,gif=d1 #acdh2 ,ralph de ,kneyton1 at ,aveley1 #acgj2 ,rob]t de ,swynb\rne1 at ,little ,horkesley1 #acia2 & ,sir ,+elram de ,bruyn1 at ,s\? ,ock5don1 #adjj4 ,! brass ( ,?omas ,h]on1 ag$ #ad1 at ,little ,il=d1 ?\gh dat+ only f #aeag1 is ( int]e/ z a picture ( a s*oolboy ( ! p]iod4 ,anci5t wood5 effigies are pres]v$ at ,danbury1 ,little ,leighs & ,little ,horkesley4 ,essex 0 ri* 9 mona/ic f\ndations1 ?\gh ! great] numb] h left b meagre ru9s beh9d4 ,! ,b5$ict9es _h an abbey at ,saffron ,wald51 nunn]ies at ,b>k+ & ,wickes1 & priories at ,e>l's or ,monk's ,colne & ,ca/le ,h$+ham2 ! ,augu/9ian canons _h an abbey at ,wal?am 7see ,,wal?am ,,abbey2 ! portion rema9+ %[s ,norman "w ( ! f9e/ "*71 priories at ,?oby1 ,blackmore1 ,bicknacre1 ,little ,leighs1 ,little ,dunm[ & ,/ ,osy? 7see ,,brightl+sea72 !re 7 ,ci/]cian abbeys at ,cogge%all1 ,/rat=d & ,tilty2 ! ,cluniac monks 7 settl$ at ,prittlewell1 ! ,premon/rat5sians at ,beleigh ,abbey1 & ! ,knights ,hospitall]s at ,little ,maple/ead4 ,b>k+ ,abbey is said to date its fir/ orig9 f ! #g? c5tury2 mo/ ( ! o!rs arose 9 ! #ab? & #ac? c5turies4 ,besides ! keep at ,col*e/] !re is a f9e ,norman ca/le at ,ca/le ,h$+ham1 & two dilapidat$ r\nd t[]s /ill /& at ,hadleigh ne> ,s\!nd4 ,ong>1 ! h\se ( ! de ,lacys1 & ,ple%ey1 ! seat ( ! e>ls ( ,essex1 h left only m\nds4 ,hav]+-atte-,b[]1 ! palace t 0 occupi$ by _m que5s1 is replac$ by a mod]n h\se2 ,wickham1 ! mansion ( ! bi%ops ( ,london1 no long] /&s4 ,new ,hall1 :i* 0 successively occupi$ by ,h5ry ,,viii41 ,elizabe?1 ! e>l ( ,essex1 ,george ,villi]s1 duke ( ,buck+ham1 & ,cromwell1 is n[ a nunn]y ( ! ord] ( ! ,holy ,sepul*re4 ,audley ,end1 ! mansion ( ,"l ,braybrooke1 is a noble example ( ! dome/ic ar*itecture ( ! ,jacobean p]iod2 ,lay] ,m>ney is an int]e/+ pro( ( ! ,italian influ5ces t 7 at "w 9 ! "t ( ,wolsey4 ,horeham ,hall 0 built by ,sir ,john ,cutt 9 ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,vii41 & ,gosfield ,hall is ( ab\t ! same date4 ,see ,nord51 ,speculi ,britanniae ,p>s3 an ,hi/4 & ,geogr4 ,descrip4 ( ! ,c\nty ( ,essex 7#aeid7 7edit$ = ! ,camd5 ,society by ,sir ,h5ry ,ellis1 #ahdj1 f ! orig9al ,,ms4 9 ! ,m>quis ( ,salisbury's libr>y at ,hatfield72 ,ni*olas ,t9dal1 ,hi/4 ( ,essex 7#agbj72 ,n4 ,salmon1 ,! ,hi/4 & ,antiq4 ( ,essex 7,london1 #agdj7--;bas$ on ! collections ( ,james ,/rangman ( ,hadleigh 7v4 ,trans4 ( ,essex ,ar*4 ,soc4 vol4 ii472 ,p4 ,morant1 ,hi/4 & ,antiq4 ( ! ,c\nty ( ,essex 7,london1 #agfh72 ,p4 ,muilman1 ,new & ,complete ,hi/4 ( ,essex f a late ,survey1 by a ,g5tleman 7,*elms=d1 #f vols41 #aggj-aggb1 ,london1 #aggi72 ,elizabe? ,ogb\rne1 ,hi/4 ( ,essex 7,london1 "p i41 #ahad72 ,excursions ?r\gh ,essex1 illu/rat$ ) "o hundr$ engrav+s 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahah72 ,t4 ,wright1 ,hi/4 & ,topography ( ,essex 7#ahca72 ,w4 ,b]ry1 ,p$igrees ( ,families 9 ,essex 7#ahda72 ,a4 ,suckl+1 ,memorials ( ! ,antiquities1 c41 ( ! ,c\nty ( ,essex 7,london1 #ahde72 ,w4 ,&rews 7ed471 ,bygone ,essex 7,london1 #ahib72 ,j4,t4 ,page 7ed471 ,essex 9 ! ,days ( ,old 7,london1 #ahih72 ,victoria ,c\nty ,hi/ory1 ,essex2 ,transactions ( ! ,essex ,ar*4 ,soc4 f #aheh4 ,an acc\nt ( v>i\s ,,ms4 collections connect$ ) ! c\nty is giv5 by ,h4,w4 ,k+ 9 vol4 ii4 ( ! ,transactions 7#ahfc74 ,,essex1 ,,k+dom ,,(1 "o ( ! k+doms into :i* ,anglo-,saxon ,brita9 0 divid$1 prop]ly ! l& ( ! ,ea/ ,saxons4 ,( its orig9 & e>ly hi/ory we h no record except ! b>e /atem5t ( ,b$e t its settl]s 7 ( ! ,old ,saxon race4 ,9 connexion ) ?is x is int]e/+ to notice t ! ,ea/ ,saxon dyna/y claim$ desc5t f ,seaxneat1 n ,wod54 ,! =m ,seaxneat is id5tical ) ,saxnot1 "o ( ?ree gods m5tion$ 9 a %ort cont95tal docum5t probably ( ,old ,saxon orig94 ,b$e does n m5tion ?is k+dom 9 8 n>rative until #fjd1 ! ye> ( ! consecration ( ,mellitus to ! see ( ,london4 ,! b\nd>ies ( ,essex 7 9 lat] times ! riv]s ,/\r & ,?ames1 b ! orig9al limits ( ! k+dom are q unc]ta92 t[>ds ! we/ x probably includ$ mo/ if n ! :ole ( ,h]t=d%ire1 & 9 ! #g? c5tury ! :ole ( ,middlesex4 ,9 #fjd we f9d ,essex 9 close dep5d5ce ^u ,k5t1 be+ rul$ by ,sab]ht1 si/]'s son ( ,ae!lb]ht1 "u :om ! ,ea/ ,saxons receiv$ ,*ri/ianity4 ,! ?ree sons ( ,sab]ht1 h[ev]1 expell$ ,mellitus f 8 see1 & ev5 aft] _! dea? 9 battle aga9/ ! ,we/ ,saxons1 ,eadbald ( ,k5t 0 unable to re/ore him4 ,9 ! ye> #fec we f9d ,nor?-umbrian influ5ce p>am\nt 9 ,essex1 = ,k+ ,sigeb]ht at ! in/ance ( ,oswio became a ,*ri/ian & receiv$ ,c$d1 ! bro!r ( ,/ ,*ad1 9 8 k+dom z bi%op1 ,tilbury & ,y?ancea/]e 7on ! ,blackwat]7 be+ ! *ief sc5es ( 8 "w4 ,s)helm1 ! successor ( ,sigeb]ht1 0 on t]ms ( fri5d%ip ) ! ,ea/ ,anglian royal h\se1 ,k+ ,ae!lwald be+ 8 sponsor at 8 baptism by ,c$d4 ,x 0 probably ab\t ?is "t t ,erconwald1 aft]w>ds bi%op ( ,london1 f\nd$ ! mona/]y ( ,b>k+4 ,s)helm's successors ,sigeh]e & ,sebbe 7 dep5d5t on ,wulfh]e1 ! p[]ful k+ ( ,m]cia1 :o on ! apo/asy ( ,sigeh]e s5t ,bi%op ,j>uman to re/ore ! fai?4 ,!re are gr\nds = believ+ t an ,ea/ ,saxon conque/ ( ,k5t took place 9 ?is reign4 ,a =g$ grant ( ,ceadwalla speaks ( ! fall ( ,k5t be=e ,sigeh]e z a well-kn[n ev5t2 & 9 a ,k5ti% *>t] dat$ #fgf a k+ ( ,k5t call$ ,swebh>d grants l& ) ! cons5t ( 8 fa!r ,k+ ,sebbe4 ,9 #fib or #fid ,sebbe abdicat$ & receiv$ ! mona/ic v[s f ,waldh]e1 ! successor ( ,erconwald at ,london4 ,8 sons ,sigehe>d & ,swefr$ succe$$ him z k+s ( ,essex1 ,sigeh]e be+ app>5tly dead4 ,z ! laws ( ,ine ( ,wessex speak ( ,erconwald z my bi%op1 x is possible t ! influ5ce ( ,wessex = a %ort "t prevail$ 9 ,essex2 b a subsequ5t *>t] ( ,swefr$ is approv$ by ,co5r$ ( ,m]cia1 & ,(fa1 ! son ( ,sigeh]e1 accompani$ ! same k+ to ,rome 9 #gji4 ,f ?is "t onw>ds ! hi/ory ( ,essex is almo/ a blank4 ,9 #gdc or #gde ,ae!lbald ( ,m]cia is f\nd grant+ privileges at ! port ( ,london1 & p]haps ! we/]n portion ( ! k+dom _h already be5 annex$1 = h5ce=w>d ,london is frequ5tly ! meet+-place ( ! ,m]cian c\ncil4 ,! viol5t dea? ( ,selr$1 k+ ( ,essex1 is m5tion$ 9 ! ,saxon ,*ronicle "u ! ye> #gdf2 b we h no m in=mation ( hi/orical importance until ! defeat ( ! ,m]cian k+ ,beornwulf 9 #hbe1 :5 ,essex1 toge!r ) ,k5t1 ,sussex & ,surrey1 pass$ into ! h&s ( ,ecgb]t1 k+ ( ,wessex4 ,aft] #hbe we he> ( no m k+s ( ,essex1 b occasionally ( e>ls4 ,ab\t ! ye> #hgj ,essex pass$ into ! h&s ( ! ,danes & 0 left to !m by ! treaty betwe5 ,alfr$ & ,gu?rum4 ,x 0 reconqu]$ by ,edw>d ! ,eld]4 ,! e>ldom 9 ! #aj? c5tury app>5tly includ$ sev]al o!r c\nties1 & its mo/ fam\s hold] 0 ! ealdorman ,brihtno?1 :o fell at ! battle ( ,maldon 9 #iia4 ,! foll[+ is a li/ ( k+s ( ,essex ( :om !re is record3 ,sab]ht 7d4 c4 #fag72 ?ree sons ( ,sab]ht1 includ+ probably ,sawe>d & ,seaxr$2 ,sigeb]ht 7,p>vus72 ,sigeb]ht ,,ii42 ,s)helm 7d4 c4 #ffd72 ,sigeh]e 7reign$ p]haps #ffd-fhi72 ,sebbe1 son ( ,seaxr$ 7#ffd-fid72 ,sigehe>d 7reign+ 9 #fic-fid72 ,swefr$ 7reign+ 9 #fic-fid & 9 #gjd72 ! two la/ be+ sons ( ,sebbe2 ,swebriht 7d4 #gch72 ,selr$ 7d4 #gdf72 ,s)r$1 gr&son ( ,sigehe>d 7succ4 #gdf72 ,sig]ic1 son ( ,sel]$ 7abd4 #gih72 ,sig]$1 son ( ,sig]ic 7reign+ 9 #hbc74 ,see ,b$e1 ,hi/4 ,eccl41 edit$ by ,c4 ,plumm] 7,ox=d1 #ahif71 ii4 #c1 #e2 ,saxon ,*ronicle 7,e>le & ,plumm]1 ,ox=d1 #ahii71 s4a4 #hbc1 #hid1 #ijd1 #iac1 #iba1 #iid2 ,william ( ,malmesbury1 ,ge/a ,regum1 ,rolls ,s]ies 7ed4 ,/ubbs1 #ahhg-ahhi72 ,simeon ( ,durham1 s4a4 #gdf 7ed4 ,t4 ,arnold1 #ahhb7 & app5dix1 s4a4 #gch2 ,flor5ce ( ,worce/] 7ed4 ,b4 ,?orpe1 ,london1 #ahdh-ahdi72 ,h4 ,sweet1 ,olde/ ,engli% ,texts1 p4 #agi 7,london1 #ahhe74 7,f4 ,g4 ,m4 ,b47 ,,essl+51 a t[n ( ,g]many1 9 ! k+dom ( ,wurttemb]g1 9 a f]tile di/rict on ! ,neck>1 #i m4 ,s4,e4 f ,/uttg>t1 on ! railway to ,ulm4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #bi1gej4 ,x is surr\nd$ by m$ieval walls ) t[]s & ba/ions1 & has ?irte5 suburbs1 "o ly+ on an isl& 9 ! riv]4 ,on a comm&+ height above ! t[n lies ! old citadel4 ,! inn] t[n has an old 7#adcj7 & a new ,ra?aus1 ! latt]1 =m]ly a palace1 an exce$+ly h&some edifice4 ,! *ur* ( ,our ,lady 7,frau5kir*e7 is a f9e ,go?ic build+ ( ! #ae? c5tury1 & has a beautifully sculptur$ doorway & a lattice spire #bdj ft4 high4 ,! *ur* ( ,/ ,dionysius dat$ f ! #ac? c5tury1 & possesses a f9e scre5 & a ciborium ( #adhf4 ,essl+5 possesses sev]al s*ools1 a !atre & a ri*ly end[$ hospital1 :ile its municipal ar*ives conta9 mu* valuable lit]ature be>+ especially on ! p]iod ( ! ,re=mation4 ,! t[n has railway1 ma*9e & electrical works2 clo?1 gloves & buttons are also manufactur$ "h1 & !re are sp9n+-mills4 ,!re is a l>ge li?ographic e/abli%m5t1 & a consid]able trade is done 9 w9e & fruit1 ! w9es ( ,essl+5 be+ v fam\s4 ,essl+51 :i* dates f ! #h? c5tury1 became a t[n 9 #hhf4 ,x 0 soon a place ( importance2 x became a free imp]ial city 9 #abji & 0 surr\nd$ ) walls by ord] ( ! emp]or ,fr$]ick ,,ii4 ,its lib]ty 0 frequ5tly ?reat5$ by ! rul]s ( ,wurttemb]g1 b x did n become "p ( t c\ntry until #ahjb4 ,see ,k4,h4,s4 ,pfaff1 ,ges*i*te d] ,rei*s/adt ,essl+5 7,essl+51 #aheb72 & ,/rohmfeld1 ,essl+5 9 ,wort und ,bild 7,essl+51 #aijb74 ,,e/abli%m5t 7,o4 ,fr4 e/ablissem5t1 ,fr4 etablissem5t1 late ,norm4 ,fr4 e/abli%em5t1 f ,o4 ,fr4 e/ablir1 ,fr4 etablir1 ,lat4 /abilire1 to make /able71 g5]ally ! act ( e/abli%+ or fact ( be+ e/abli%$1 & s by transf]5ce a ?+ e/abli%$4 ,?us we may speak ( ! e/abli%m5t 7i4e4 sett+ up7 ( a bus9ess1 ! long e/abli%m5t ( a bus9ess1 & ( ! manag] ( ! e/abli%m5t4 ,9 a special s5se ! ^w is appli$1 ) some?+ ( all ! ?ree above-m5tion$ connotations1 to c]ta9 religi\s bodies 9 _! relation to ! /ate4 ,x is ) ?is latt] t ! pres5t article is conc]n$4 ,p]haps ! be/ def9ition :i* c be giv51 & :i* w cov] all cases1 is t e/abli%m5t implies ! exi/5ce ( "s def9ite & di/9ctive relation betwe5 ! /ate & a religi\s society 7or conceivably m ?an "o7 o!r ?an t :i* is %>$ 9 by o!r societies ( ! same g5]al "*4 ,( c\rse1 a c]ta9 relation%ip mu/ ne$s exi/ betwe5 ! /ate & e society1 religi\s or secul>1 by virtue ( ! sov]eignty ( ! /ate ov] ea* & all ( its memb]s4 ,e society mu/ possess c]ta9 pr9ciples or p]=m c]ta9 acts1 & ! /ate may make ! pr(ession ( su* pr9ciples unlawful1 or impose a p5alty ^u ! p]=mance ( su* acts2 &1 moreov]1 e society is liable be=e ! law z to ! fulfilm5t ( its obligations t[>ds its memb]s & ! due adm9i/ration ( its prop]ty %\ld x possess any4 ,) all ?is e/abli%m5t has no?+ to d4 ,x is n conc]n$ ) :at p]ta9s to ! religi\s society qua society1 or ) :at is common to all religi\s societies1 b ) :at is exceptional4 ,x d5otes any special connexion ) ! /ate1 or privileges & responsibilities be=e ! law1 possess$ by "o religi\s society to ! exclusion ( o!rs2 9 a ^w1 e/abli%m5t is ( ! nature ( a monopoly4 ,b x does n imply m]ely privilege4 ,! /ate & ! ,*ur* h mutual obligations t[>ds "o ano!r3 ea* is1 to "s ext5t1 ti$ by ! exi/5ce ( ?is relation%ip1 & ea* accepts ! limitations = ! sake ( ! advantages :i* accrue to itself4 ,! /ate does s 9 view ( :at x believes to be ! good ( all its memb]s2 = ! true end = :i* religion is e/abli%$ is n to provide = ! true fai?1 b = civil utility 7,w>burton71 ev5 if ! latt] be held to be impli$ 9 ! =m]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,*ur* accepts ^! relations = ! facilities :i* !y involve1 i4e4 = its own b5efit4 ,x w be se5 t ?is def9ition excludes1 & rightly1 _m curr5t presuppositions4 ,e/abli%m5t affirms ! fact1 b does n det]m9e ! precise nature1 ( ! connexion betwe5 ! /ate & ! religi\s society4 ,x does n tell u1 = example1 :5 or h[ x began1 :e!r x is ! result ( an unconsci\s gr[? 7z ) ! ,gallican ,*ur* previ\s to ! ,fr5* ,revolution71 or ( a det]m9ate legislative act 7z ) ! same ,*ur* re-e/abli%$ by ! ,concordat ( #ahja74 ,x does n tell u :e!r an end[m5t ( ! religi\s society by ! /ate is includ$2 :at p>ticul> privileges are enjoy$ by ! religi\s society2 & :at limitations are plac$ ^u ! free ex]cise ( its life4 ,^! ?+s c only be asc]ta9$ by actual inquiry2 = ! conditions are precisely simil> 9 no two cases4 ,to proce$ to details4 ,at ! pres5t day !re is no e/abli%$ religion 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! ,g]man empire z a :ole1 ,holl&1 ,belgium1 ,france & ,au/ria-,hung>y 7sav+1 inde$1 ! rights ( ! sov]eign aris+ f ecclesia/ical dignity#a72 :]eas !re are religi\s e/abli%m5ts 9 ,russia1 ,greece1 ,sw$51 ,norway1 ,d5m>k1 ,prussia1#b ,spa91 ,portugal & ev5 9 ,italy1 z well z 9 ,engl& & ,scotl&4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 diff] greatly among/ !mselves4 ,9 ,russia ! ,or?odox ,ca?olic ,ea/]n is ! /ate religion4 ,! emp]or is1 by ! fundam5tal laws ( ! empire1 ! sov]eign def5d] & protector ( ! dogmas ( ! dom9ant fai?1 :o ma9ta9s or?odoxy & holy discipl9e )9 ! ,*ur*1 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 he _c modify ei!r its dogmas or its outw>d ord]4 ,fur!r1 ! autocratic 7i4e4 imp]ial7 p[] acts 9 ! ecclesia/ical adm9i/ration by means ( ! ,mo/ ,holy ,rul+ ,synod1 creat$ by x2 & all ! (fic]s ( ! ,*ur* are appo9t$ by x4 ,! enactm5ts ( ! ,synod d n become law till !y h receiv$ ! emp]or's sanction1 & are !n publi%$1 n 9 its "n b 9 82 & a l>ge "p ( ! rev5ues ( ! ,*ur* is d]iv$ f /ate subsidies4 ,9 ,greece ! dom9ant religion 7,greek3 ,eh epikrat\sa ?reskeia7 is t ( ! ,ea/]n ,or?odox ,*ur* ( ,*ri/2 & al?\gh tol]ation is o!rwise complete1 no proselytism f ! ,*ur* ( ,greece is all[$4 ,! k+ swe>s to protect x1 b no p[]s p]ta9 to him ) reg>d to x su* z ^? :i* ! ts> enjoys2 ! pres5t k+ is n a memb] ( x1 b 8 successors mu/ be4 ,9 ,sw$51 ,lu!ranism 0 adopt$ z ! /ate religion by ! synod ( ,upsala 7,upsala mote7 9 #aeic1 & ! k+ mu/ pr(ess x4 ,! ,lu!ran ,prote/ant ,*ur* reta9s an episcopal ord]1 & is support$ out ( its own rev5ues4 ,ar*bi%ops & bi%ops are *os5 by ! k+ out ( ^? names submitt$ to him1 & he also nom9ates to royal peculi>s4 ,! ecclesia/ical law 7,kyrkolag71 fir/ con/itut$ 9 #afhf1 is "p ( ! law ( ! /ate1 b may n be modifi$ or abrogat$ )\t cons5t ( a ,g5]al ,synod2 & al?\gh ad int]im int]pretations ( t law may be giv5 by ! k+ on ! advice ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 s9ce #ahff ^! h be5 subject to review & rejection by ! next ,g5]al ,synod4 ,9 ,norway ! ,evangelical-,lu!ran is ! (ficial religion1 b ! ,*ur* is support$ by ! /ate1 its prop]ty hav+ be5 secul>iz$4 ,x is also m subject to ! k+1 :o by ! con/itution is to regulate all t conc]ns div9e s]vice & ! cl]gy1 & to see t ! prescrib$ ord] is c>ri$ out4 ,x is mu* ! same 9 ,d5m>k1 :]e1 h[ev]1 ! ,evangelical-,lu!ran ,*ur* has s9ce ! fundam5tal con/itutional law ( ! #e? ( ,june #ahdi be5 (ficially describ$ z ! ,national ,*ur* 7,folkekir*e7 in/ead ( ! ,/ate ,*ur* 7,/atskir*e7 z =m]ly1 & ! con/itution provides = its regulation by fur!r legislation1 :i* has n yet be5 pass$4 ,= ,prussia1 see "u t head+2 x ne$ only be add$ t self-gov]nm5t /ill t5ds to increase1 b t ! emp]or ,william ,,ii4 has ex]cis$ 8 (fice z summus episcopus m freely ?an mo/ ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,9 ,spa9 ! ,ca?olic1 ,apo/olic & ,roman religion is t ( ! /ate1 ! nation b9ds itself to ma9ta9 its wor%ip & its m9i/]s1 & ! rites ( any o!r religion are only p]mitt$ 9 private4 ,! patri>* ( ! ,indies & ! ar*bi%ops are s5ators by "r1 & ! k+ may nom9ate o!rs f among/ ! bi%ops2 only laym5 may sit 9 ! *amb] ( deputies4 ,conv5ts 7 suppress$1 & _! prop]ty confiscat$1 9 #ahce & #ahcf2 9 #ahei ! rema9+ ecclesia/ical prop]ty 0 ex*ang$ = untransf]able gov]nm5t securities & ! support ( ! cl]gy ( ! ,/ate ,*ur* is assur$ by an unrepeal$ law previ\s to ! pres5t con/itution4 ,9 ,portugal x is mu* ! same1 b all ! home bi%ops sit 9 ! upp] *amb] z pe]s 7,p>es d ,re9o7 by "r1 & !re is no re/riction on memb]%ip ( ! *amb] ( deputies4 ,a m important po9t is t ! k+ conf]s all ecclesia/ical b5efices & nom9ates ! bi%ops1 in/ead ( _! be+ *os51 z 9 ,spa91 by agreem5t betwe5 ! civil p[] & ! papacy4 ,9 ,italy1 9 spite ( ! feud betwe5 ! papacy & ! civil p[]1 ! fact rema9s t1 by ! ,/atuto fondam5tale1 ! ,ca?olic1 ,apo/olic & ,roman religion is ! sole religion ( ! /ate1 & ! k+ may nom9ate ar*bi%ops & bi%ops ( ! /ate to be s5ators4 ,! ,legge sulle pr]ogative del ,summo ,pontifice1 c41 or ,law ( ,gu>antees1 by :i* ! papal pr]ogatives are secur$1 has be5 decl>$ by ! ,c\ncil ( ,/ate to be a fundam5tal law2 & :ile _m civil re/rictions ^u ! activities ( ! ,*ur* are remov$ by x1 outside ,rome & ! suburbic>ian dioceses ! royal exequatur is /ill requir$ be=e a bi%op is in/all$4 ,moreov]1 ! bulk ( ,*ur* prop]ty hav+ be5 secul>iz$1 ! ,italian cl]gy receive a /ip5d f ! /ate4 ,*ur* & ,/ate 9 ,brita94 ,e/abli%m5t is1 ( c\rse1 a di/9ctively ,engli% t]m1 b x implies precisely ! same ?+ z ,/aatsreligion or eglise dom9ante does else:]e1 nei!r m nor less4 ,x d5otes ! exi/5ce ( a special relation%ip betwe5 ,*ur* & /ate )\t def9+ its precise nature4 ,! /atem5t t ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& or ! ,scotti% ,kirk is e/abli%$ by law d5otes t x has a peculi> /atus be=e ! law2 b t is all4 7a7 ,!re is no basis :atev] = ! once popul> assumption t ! ^w e/abli%$ z appli$ to ! ,*ur* means creat$1 or ! l2 on ! contr>y1 ! mod]n use ( ! ^w 9 ?is s5se is a mislead+ p]v]sion4 ,to e/abli% is to make firm or /able2 & a ?+ _c be e/abli%$ unless x is already 9 exi/5ce4 ,a few examples w make x cle> t ?is is ! true s5se ( ! ^w1 & t 9 :i* x is us$ "h4 ,/abli% ! ?+1 ,o ,god1 t ?\ ha/ wr\ght 9 u 7,ps4 lxviii4 #bh1 ,p4,b42 ,a4,v4 & ,r4,v4 /r5g!n7 implies t ! ?+ is already wr\ght2 x c\ld n be /abli%$ else4 ,/abli% y\r he>ts 7,jas v4 #h7 implies t ! he>ts are already 9 exi/5ce4 ,until he _h h] settl$ 9 h] ra9e ,) safe assuraunce & e/abli%m5t 7,fa]ie ,que5e1 v4 xi4 #ce7 w\ld h be5 impossible unless ! reign _h already begun4 ,?is is ! mean+ ( ! words 9 _m ,tudor acts ( p>liam5t1 be x enact$1 orda9$ & e/abli%$1 or ! l 7#ba ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #a2 #bg ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #bh1 s4 #i2 #bh ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #ac ,irel&2 #bh ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #ah ,irel&2 #cc ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #bg2 #a ,eliz4 c4 #a1 ss4 #ae1 #ag2 #a ,eliz4 c4 #d1 s4 #d72 t :i* is !n & !re enact$ is to be valid = ! future4 7b7 ,nor is x necess>ily impli$ t e/abli%m5t is a process complet$ once = all4 ,e law t\*+ ! ,*ur* slightly alt]s its conditions2 ev]y?+ t affects ! relations ( ,*ur* & /ate may be reg>d$ z a measure ( e/abli%m5t or ! rev]se4 ,:5 ! two ,h\ses ( ,p>liam5t1 9 an address to ,william ,,iii4 aft] 8 coronation1 spoke ( _! propos$ measures ( tol]ation1 ! k+ said 9 8 reply1 ,i d hope t ! ease :i* y design to ,diss5t]s w contribute v mu* to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,*ur* 7,cobbett1 ,p>l4 ,hi/4 v4 #bah74 ,& ,defoe 79 #agjb7 publi%$ an ironical tract ) ! title1 ,! ,%orte/ ,way ) ! ,diss5t]s1 or ,proposals = ! ,e/abli%m5t ( ! ,*ur*4 7c7 ,nor is x necess>ily impli$ t !re 0 any specific "t at :i* e/abli%m5t took place4 ,su* may inde$ be ! case1 z ) ! ,kirk 9 ,scotl&2 b x c]ta9ly _c be said t ! ,engli% ,*ur* 0 e/abli%$ at any p>ticul> "t1 or by any p>ticul> legislative act4 ,!re 71 no d\bt1 p]iods :5 ! exi/+ relations betwe5 ,*ur* & /ate 7 modifi$ or re-def9$1 notably 9 ! #af? & #ag? c5turies2 b ! relations !mselves are f> old]4 ,9 fact1 !y exi/$ f ! v fir/3 ! ,engli% ,*ur* & /ate grew up side by side1 & f ! beg9n+ !y 7 9 close relations ) "o ano!r4 ,b al?\gh ! /ate ( ?+s :i* x repres5t$ 0 !re f ! fir/1 ! t]m e/abli%$ or e/abli%$ by law only came into use at a lat] date4 ,until !re 0 "s o!r religi\s society to be comp>$ ) x su* a di/9ctive epi!t w\ld h _h no po9t4 ,z1 h[ev]1 !re arose religi\s societies :i* _h no /atus be=e ! law1 x became m natural2 & yet m s :5 ! =mul>ies ( ! ,*ur* came to be e/abli%$ by civil sanctions 7! ,books ( ,common ,pray] by #e & #f ,edw4 ,,vi4 c4 #a1 s4 #d1 c2 ! ,articles by #ac ,eliz4 c4 #ab2 ! new ,ord9al by #ac & #ad ,c>4 ,,ii4 c4 #d1 title74 ,accord+ly ! ,*ur* itself came to be spok5 ( z e/abli%$ by law2 fir/1 x w\ld seem1 9 ! ,canons ( #afjd1 & subsequ5tly 9 _m /atutes 7,act ( ,settlem5t1 #f ,anne1 c4 #h & c4 #aa1 c74 ,9 all su* cases ! ,*ur* is describ$ z already e/abli%$1 n z be+ e/abli%$ by ! p>ticul> canon or /atute4 ,9 o!r words1 ! con/itutional /atus ( ! ,*ur* is affirm$1 b no?+ is said z to h[ x arose4 ,! legislative *anges ( ! #af? & #ag? c5turies br\ght e/abli%m5t into great] prom95ce & greatly modifi$ its conditions1 b a mom5t's ?\ght w %[ t x did n beg9 !n4 ,if1 e4g41 all po/-,re=mation ecclesia/ical /atutes 7 non-exi/5t1 ! relations betwe5 ,*ur* & /ate w\ld be v diff]5t1 b !re w\ld /ill be an e/abli%m5t4 ,! bi%ops w\ld sit 9 ! ,h\se ( ,lords1 ! cl]gy w\ld tax !mselves 9 convocation1 ! ,*ur* c\rts w\ld possess co]cive jurisdiction1 & s on4 ,! pres5t relations ( ,*ur* & /ate 9 ,engl& may be briefly summ$ up z foll[s3--7#a7 ,! p]sonal relation ( ! cr[n to ! ,*ur*1 includ+ 7a7 re/ra9ts ^u ! action ( convocation 7=mulat$ by #be ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #ai72 7b7 nom9ation ( bi%ops1 c4 7#be ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #bj72 7c7 p[] ( sup]vision z visitor1 long disus$ 7#bf ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #a2 #a ,eliz4 c4 #a1 s4 #ag72 7d7 p[] ( receiv+ appeals z ! f\nt ( civil ju/ice 7#be ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #ai1 c74 ,9 connexion ) ^!1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t 7a7 ! hold] ( ! cr[n receives coronation f ! *ur* & takes an oa? hav+ ref]5ce to x 7#a ,w4 ,,iii4 c4 #f71 & 7b7 ! cr[n is held on ! condition ( communion ) ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& 7,act ( ,settlem5t2 ! conditions ( communion are laid d[n 9 ! ,pray] ,book1 :i* itself is sanction$ by law74 7#b7 ,! relation ( ! ,*ur* to ! cr[n 9 p>liam5t4 ,no *ange has be5 p]mitt$ 9 its doctr9e or =mul>ies )\t ! sanction ( an act ( p>liam5t4 7#c7 ,privileges ( ! ,*ur* & cl]gy4 ,( ^! may be m5tion$ 7a7 ! co]cive jurisdiction ( ! ,*ur* c\rts2 7b7 ! "r ( bi%ops to sit 9 ! ,h\se ( ,lords4 ,x ne$ h>dly be said t e/abli%m5t 9 ,engl& does n include an end[m5t ( ! ,*ur* by ! /ate4 ,no?+ ( ! k9d ev] took place on any l>ge scale1 & ! grants = ,*ur* purposes 9 ! #ah? c5tury are comp>able ) ! regium donum to ,noncon=mi/s4 ,! position ( ! ,*ur* ( ,irel& until its dise/abli%m5t 7see bel[7 0 n dissimil>4 ,) ,scotl& ! case is diff]5t4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( ! ,kirk 0 an entirely new process1 c>ri$ out by a m or less def9ite s]ies ( legislative & adm9i/rative acts4 ,! ,conv5tion ( ,e/ates :i* met at ,ed9burgh 9 #aefj ord]$ ! draw+ up ( a new ,confession ( ,fai?1 :i* 0 done 9 f\r days by a committee ( prea*]s1 & on ! #bd? ( ,augu/ x pass$ ?ree acts1 "o aboli%+ ! pope's au?ority & all jurisdiction ( ,ca?olic prelates1 ano!r repeal+ ! old /atutes 9 fav\r ( ! ,old ,*ur*1 ! ?ird =bidd+ ! celebrat+ & he>+ ( mass "u p5alty ( imprisonm5t1 exile & dea?4 ,! int5tion 0 to make a clean sweep ( ! ,old ,*ur*1 :i* 0 d5\nc$ z ! ,kirk ,malignant4#c ,! new model ?us set up 0 confirm$ by ! ,scotti% act ( #aefg1 c4 #f1 :i* decl>$ x to be ! onely true & halie kirk ( ,jesus ,*ri/ )9 ?is realme4 ,aga91 aft] ! revolution ( #afhh _h put an end to ! attempts ( ! ,/u>t k+s to impose ! episcopal model on ,scotl&1 by ! act ( #afij1 c4 #e1 ! cr[n & e/ates ratifie & e/abli% ! ,confession ( ,fai?1 444 z also !y d e/abli%1 ratifie & confirm ! ,presbyt]ian gov]nm5t & discipl9e4 ,! ,act ( ,security ( #agje1 z incorporat$ 9 ! ,act ( ,union #agjf1 speak+ ( x z n[ by law e/abli%$1 says t ,h] ,maje/y 444 do? h]eby e/abli% & confirm x1 & f9ally decl>es ?is act1 ) ! ,e/abli%m5t !re9 conta9$1 to be a fundam5tal & ess5tial condition ( ! ,union4 ,nev]!less1 ! conditions ( e/abli%m5t 9 ! ,scotti% ,kirk are mu* easi] ?an ^? ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&4 ,x is b\nd by ! /atutes sanction+ its doctr9e & ord]1 b )9 ^! limits its legislative & judicial fre$om is unimpair$4 ,a royal commission] is pres5t at ! meet+s ( ! g5]al assembly1 b he ne$ n be a memb] ( ! ,kirk2 & !re is no con/itutional tie betwe5 ! cr[n & ! ,kirk su* z !re is 9 ,engl&4 ,!re is :at may accurately be describ$ z a /ate end[m5t1 ! bulk ( ! prop]ty ( ! ,old ,*ur* hav+ be5 conf]r$ ^u ! ,scotti% ,kirk4 ,! ,colonies4 ,n unnaturally ! organization ( ,anglican ,*ur*es 9 ! colonies 0 foll[$ 9 "s cases by _! e/abli%m5t1 :i* includ$ end[m5t4 ,x 0 s1 = example1 9 ! ,ea/ & ,we/ ,indies2 & ! dise/abli%m5t ( ! ,we/ ,indian ,*ur* 9 #ahfh 0 foll[$1 9 #ahgc1 by a re-e/abli%m5t ( ! ,*ur* 9 ,b>bados by ! colonial legislature4 ,india is ! only o!r "p ( ! empire 7outside ,great ,brita97 9 :i* !re is to-day a religi\s e/abli%m5t4 ,dise/abli%m5t4 ,dise/abli%m5t is 9 !ory ! annull+ ( e/abli%m5t2 b s9ce an e/abli%$ ,*ur* is usually ri*1 dise/abli%m5t g5]ally includes dis5d[m5t1 ev5 :]e !re is no /ate end[m5t ( religion4 ,x is1 9 %ort1 ! abrogation ( e/abli%m5t1 c\pl$ ) su* a confiscation ( ,*ur* prop]ty z ! /ate ?9ks good 9 ! int]e/s ( ! community4 ,! dise/abli%m5t ( ! ,we/ ,indian ,*ur* 9 #ahfh has already be5 ref]r$ to2 9 #ahfi ! ,iri% ,*ur* ,dise/abli%m5t ,bill 0 pass$4 ,private bills relat+ to ,scotl& h m ?an once be5 br\ght =w>d4 ,9 #ahie ! ,lib]al gov]nm5t introduc$ a susp5sory bill1 int5d$ z ! prelim9>y /ep t[>ds dise/abli%+ & dis5d[+ ! ,*ur* 9 ,wales2 x 0 )drawn1 h[ev]1 9 ! same session1 & ! "q ( ,wel% dise/abli%m5t slumb]$ until 9 #aijf a royal commission 0 appo9t$ by ! ,lib]al gov]nm5t to inquire into ! subject1 & 9 #aiji a bill 0 introduc$ on mu* ! same l9es z 9 #ahie4 ,! case ( ! ,iri% ,*ur* w illu/rate ! process ( dise/abli%m5t1 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ! precise details w\ld v>y 9 o!r cases4 ,! ,iri% ,*ur* ,act 0 pass$ 9 #ahfi by ,glad/one's fir/ gov]nm5t1 aft] consid]able opposition1 & provid$ t f ,janu>y #a1 #ahga1 ! union creat$ by /atute betwe5 ! ,*ur*es ( ,engl& & ,irel& %\ld be dissolv$1 & ! ,*ur* ( ,irel& %\ld cease to be e/abli%$ by law4 ,exi/+ ecclesia/ical corporations 7 dissolv$1 & _! rights ceas$1 comp5sation be+ giv5 to all individuals & _! p]sonal prec$5ce be+ secur$ = life4 ,all rights ( patronage1 includ+ ^? ( ! cr[n1 7 aboli%$1 ) comp5sation 9 ! case ( private patrons2 & ! ar*bi%ops & bi%ops ceas$ to h ! "r ( summons to ! ,h\se ( ,lords4 ,all laws re/ra9+ ! fre$om ( action ( ! ,*ur* 7 repeal$2 ! ecclesia/ical law1 h[ev]1 to subsi/ by way ( contract among/ ! memb]s ( ! ,*ur* 7until alt]$ by a repres5tative body74 ,provision 0 made = ! incorporation by *>t] ( ! repres5tative body ( ! ,*ur*1 %\ld su* a body be f\nd1 ) p[] to hold l&$ prop]ty4 ,all exi/+ ecclesia/ical prop]ty 0 ve/$ 9 a commission1 :i* 0 to give comp5sation = life int]e/s1 to transf] to ! new repres5tative body ! *ur*es1 glebe h\ses1 & ,l#ejj1jjj 9 comp5sation = end[m5ts by private p]sons s9ce #affj1 & to hold ! re/ = su* purposes z p>liam5t might !reaft] det]m9e4 ,,au?orities4--,f4,r4 ,d>e/e1 ,les ,con/itutions mod]nes 7,p>is1 #ahia72 ,h4 ,geffck51 ,*ur* & ,/ate1 trans4 by ,e4,f4 ,taylor 7,london1 #ahgg72 ,p4 ,s*aff1 ,*ur* & ,/ate 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7,pap]s ( ! ,am]ican ,hi/4 ,association1 vol4 ii4 ,no4 #d71 7,new ,york1 #ahhh72 ,l4 ,m+hetti1 ,/ato e ,*iesa 7,milan1 #ahgh71 ,fr5* translation1 ) ,introd4 by ,e4 de ,laveleye 7,p>is1 #ahhb72 ,c4 ,cadorna1 ,religione1 diritto1 lib]ta 7,milan1 #ahic72 ,f4 ,nippold1 ,die ,!orie d] ,tr5nung von ,kir*e und ,/aat 7,b]n1 #ahha72 ,w4 ,w>burton1 ,alliance betwe5 ,*ur* & ,/ate 7,london1 #agda7 7,works1 vol4 iv41 ed4 ,hurd1 ,london1 #aghh72 ,*ur* ,problems 7ed4 by ,h4,h4 ,h5son7 7,london1 #aijj72 ,essays on ,e/abli%m5t & ,dis5d[m5t2 ,w4,r4 ,anson1 ,law & ,cu/om ( ! ,con/itution1 vol4 ii4 *ap4 ix4 7,ox=d1 #ahib72 ,phillimore1 ,ecclesia/ical ,law 7,london1 #ahie72 ,j4,s4 ,brew]1 ,end[m5ts & ,e/abli%m5t ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& 7ed4 by ,l4,t4 ,dibd91 ,london1 #ahhe72 ,a4,t4 ,innes1 ,law ( ,cre$s 9 ,scotl& 7,ed9burgh1 #ahfg72 ,e4,a4 ,freeman1 ,dise/abli%m5t & ,dis5d[m5t 7,london1 #ahhc72 ,g4 ,h>wood1 ,dise/abli%m5t 7,london1 #ahgf72 ,annales de l'ecole libre des ,sci5ces politiques1 tom4 i4 7,p>is1 #ahhe71 art4 ,la ,sep>ation de l',eglise et de l',etat en ,anglet]re1 by ,l4 ,ayral4 7,w4 ,e4 ,co47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,9 effect ?is involves ! e/abli%m5t ( all religi\s d5om9ations1 = none c exi/ )\t ! express au?orization ( ! /ate1 & all are subject to m or less int]f]5ce on its "p4 ,?us ! emp]or-k+ is1 9 8 capacity ( head ( ! /ate1 te*nically bi%op ( ! ,evangelical ,*ur*1 ! con/itution ( :i* 0 fix$ by an imp]ial pat5t 9 #ahff & modifi$ by4 ano!r 9 #ahia 7see ,h]zog-,hauck1 ,real5cykl4 ed4 #aijd1 s4 ,o/]rei*74--,,ed4 #b ,also 9 ! o!r ,g]man ,prote/ant /ates4 ,! relations ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* ) ! v>i\s gov]nm5ts are settl$ by sep>ate concordats ) ! papacy 7see ,,concordat74 #c ,&rew ,lang1 ,hi/4 ( ,scotl&1 ii4 p4 #ge ff4 ,comp>e ) ?is ! position ( ! re=m]s g5]ally 9 ,engl&1 :]e ev5 s /\t a ,puritan z ,william ,h>rison 7,description ( ,engl&1 #aegj7 does n dream ( sep>at+ ! organic life ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& f t ( ! pre-,re=mation ,*ur*4 7,ed74 ,,e/abli%m5t ,,( ,a ,,port1 ! te*nical expression = ! "t t elapses betwe5 ! moon's transit across ! m]idian at new or full moon at a giv5 place & ! "t ( high wat] at t place4 ,! int]val 7con/ant at any "o place7 may v>y f #f m9s4 7,h>wi*7 to #aa hrs4 #de m9s4 7,nor? ,=el&74 ,at ,london ,bridge x is #a hr4 #eh m9s4 7,see also ,,tide47 ,,e/a+1 ,,*>les ,,hector1 ,,comte ,d' 7#agbi-agid71 ,fr5* admiral1 0 born at ! *ateau ( ,ruvel1 ,auv]gne1 9 #agbi4 ,he ent]$ ! army z a colonel ( infantry1 & 9 #ageg he accompani$ c\nt de ,lally to ! ,ea/ ,indies1 ) ! rank ( brigadi]-g5]al4 ,9 #agei he 0 made prison] at ! siege ( ,madras1 b 0 releas$ on p>ole4 ,be=e ! ratification ( 8 ex*ange he obta9$ comm& ( "s vessels1 & conduct$ v>i\s naval attacks aga9/ ! ,engli%2 & hav+1 on 8 return to ,france 9 #agfj1 fall5 accid5tally into _! h&s1 he 01 on ! gr\nd ( hav+ brok5 8 p>ole1 ?r[n into prison at ,portsm\?1 b z ! *>ge c\ld n be prop]ly sub/antiat$ he 0 soon aft]w>ds releas$4 ,9 #agfc he 0 nam$ lieut5ant-g5]al 9 ! navy1 & 9 #aggg vice-admiral2 & 9 #aggh he obta9$ ! comm& ( a fleet int5d$ to assi/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates aga9/ ,great ,brita94 ,he sail$ on ! #ac? ( ,april1 & betwe5 ! #aa? & ! #bbnd ( ,july1 blockad$ ,h[e at ,s&y ,hook1 b did n v5ture to attack him1 ?\gh greatly sup]ior 9 =ce4 ,9 conc]t ) ! ,am]ican g5]als1 he plann$ an attack on ,newport1 prep>atory to :i* he compell$ ! ,briti% to de/roy "s w> vessels t 7 9 ! h>b\r2 b be=e ! conc]t$ attack c\ld take place1 he put to sea aga9/ ! ,engli% fleet1 "u ,"l ,h[e1 :5 ow+ to a viol5t /orm1 :i* arose sudd5ly & compell$ ! two fleets to sep>ate be=e engag+ 9 battle1 _m ( 8 vessels 7 s %att]$ t he f\nd x necess>y to put into ,bo/on = repairs4 ,he !n sail$ = ! ,we/ ,indies on ! #d? ( ,novemb]4 ,aft] a feeble attempt to retake ,santa ,lucia f ,admiral ,b>r+ton1 he captur$ ,/ ,v9c5t & ,gr5ada4 ,on ! #f? ( ,july #aggi he f\ght a drawn battle ) ,admiral ,john ,byron1 :o retir$ to ,/ ,*ri/oph]4 ,?\gh sup]ior 9 =ce1 ,d',e/a+ w\ld n attack ! ,engli% 9 ! road/ead1 b set sail to attack ,savannah4 ,all 8 attempts1 z well z ^? ( ! ,am]icans1 aga9/ ! t[n 7 repuls$ ) heavy loss1 & he 0 f9ally compell$ to retire4 ,he return$ to ,france 9 #aghj4 ,he 0 9 comm& ( ! comb9$ fleet be=e ,cadiz :5 ! peace 0 sign$ 9 #aghc2 b f t "t 8 *ief att5tion 0 devot$ to politics4 ,9 #aghg he 0 elect$ to ! assembly ( ! notables2 9 #aghi he 0 appo9t$ comm&ant ( ! national gu>d2 & 9 #agib he 0 *os5 admiral by ! ,national ,assembly4 ,?\gh 9 fav\r ( national re=m he cont9u$ to *]i% a /rong feel+ ( loyalty to ! royal family1 & on ! trial ( ,m>ie ,anto9ette 9 #agic bore te/imony 9 h] fav\r4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 & because ( c]ta9 fri5dly lett]s :i* _h pass$ betwe5 him & ! que51 he 0 himself br\ght to trial1 & 0 execut$ on ! #bh? ( ,april #agid4 ,see ,m>9s et soldats francais en ,am]ique1 by ! ,viscomte de ,noailles 7#aijc72 ,beatson1 ,naval & ,milit>y ,memoirs ( ,great ,brita91 vol4 v4 ,,e/ate 7?r\gh ,o4 ,fr4 e/at1 mod4 etat1 f ,lat4 /atus1 /ate1 condition1 position1 />e1 to /&71 ! /ate or condition 9 :i* a man lives1 n[ *iefly us$ poetically & 9 su* phrases z man's e/ate1 or ( high e/ate2 /ate has sup]s$$ mo/ ( ! uses ( ! ^w except 7#a7 9 prop]ty & 7#b7 9 con/itutional law4 #a4 ,9 ! law ( prop]ty ! ^w is employ$ 9 sev]al s5ses4 ,9 ! wide/ s5se a man's e/ate comprises 8 entire belong+s2 s mu* ( x z consi/s ( l& & c]ta9 o!r int]e/s associat$ !re) is 8 real e/ate2 ! re/ is 8 p]sonal e/ate4 ,! ^w is m p>ticul>ly appli$ to int]e/s 9 l&1 & 9 popul> & g5]al use an e/ate means ! l& itself4 ,! /rict te*nical mean+ ( an e/ate is an int]e/ 9 l&s1 & ?is conception lies at ! root ( ! ,engli% !ory ( prop]ty 9 l&4 ,! fir/ ?+ t ! /ud5t has to d1 says ,jo%ua ,williams 7,law ( ,real ,prop]ty71 is to get rid ( ! idea ( absolute own]%ip4 ,su* an idea is q unkn[n to ! ,engli% law4 ,no man is 9 law ! absolute own] ( l&s4 ,he c only hold an e/ate 9 !m4 ,t is1 ! notion ( t5ure1 ( hold+ by a t5ant f a "l1 prevails4 ,! la/ "l ( all f :om all l& 0 ultimately held 0 ! k+4 ,p]sons hold+ directly f ! k+ & grant+ to o!rs 7 ! k+'s t5ants 9 capite1 & 7 ! mesne lords ( _! t5ants4 ,e/ates 9 l& may be classifi$ accord+ to 7#a7 ! quantity ( _! int]e/ or duration1 7#b7 ! "t ( enjoym5t1 & 7#c7 ! numb] & connexion ( ! t5ants4 ,accord+ to 7#a71 an e/ate may be ei!r a freehold ( inh]itance or a freehold n ( inh]itance4 ,a freehold ( inh]itance may be 7a7 an e/ate 9 fee simple1 :i* is ! l>ge/ e/ate a man c hold 9 ,engli% law1 & comes close to ! idea ( absolute own]%ip1 repudiat$ by ,williams2 an e/ate 9 fee simple is inh]itable by a man's heirs g5]ally1 he has full p[]s ( disposition ov] x1 & may ali5ate ! :ole or "p4 7b7 ,x may also be 9 limit$ fees1 :i* are aga9 subdivid$ into 7i47 qualifi$ or base fee1 7ii47 fee conditional1 s call$ at ! common law1 aft]w>ds1 on ! pass+ ( ! /atute ,de ,donis ,conditionalibus1 fee tail1 :i* may be g5]al z to ! heirs ( a man's body1 or special1 z to ! heirs male 7or female7 ( 8 body4 ,a freehold n ( inh]itance may be ei!r 7#a7 conv5tional1 z an e/ate = life1 :i* may be ei!r an e/ate = "o's own life or = ! life ( ano!r 7pur autre vie72 7#b7 legal1 or creat$ by op]ation ( law1 z t5ancy 9 tail aft] possibility ( issue ext9ct 7i4e4 :]e an e/ate is giv5 to a man & ! heirs ( 8 body by 8 pres5t wife1 & ! wife dies )\t issue1 ! husb& becomes t5ant 9 tail aft] possibility ( issue ext9ct72 t5ancy by curtesy 7see ,,curtesy72 t5ancy 9 d[] 7see ,,d[]74 ,e/ates n ( freehold or less ?an freehold are subdivid$ into 7i47 e/ates = ye>s 7(t5 call$ e/ates = a t]m ( ye>s1 ! in/rum5t creat+ x be+ t]m$ a lease or demise1 & ! e/ate itself a leasehold int]e/72 7ii47 e/ates at w1 t is1 :]e l&s or t5em5ts are let by "o man to ano!r to h & to hold at ! w ( ! lessor2 7iii47 e/ates at suff]ance1 :]e "o comes into possession ( l& "u a lawful title1 & cont9ues 9 possession aft] 8 title has det]m9$4 ,accord+ to 7#b71 e/ates are ei!r 9 possession or 9 expectancy4 ,e/ates 9 expectancy are ei!r 7a7 9 rema9d]1 :i* may be ve/$ or cont+5t1 or 7b7 9 rev]sion 7see ,,rema9d]1 ,,rev]sion74 ,accord+ to 7#c71 e/ates may be ei!r 7i47 9 sev]alty1 t is1 ! hold+ ( an e/ate by a p]son 9 8 own "r only1 )\t any o!r p]son be+ jo9$ or connect$ ) him 9 po9t ( int]e/ !re92 7ii47 e/ates 9 jo9t t5ancy 7see ,,jo9t72 7iii47 cop>c5>y 7q4v472 & 7iv47 t5ancy 9 common1 :]e two or m hold ! same l&1 by sev]al & di/9ct titles1 b ) unity ( possession4 7,see also ,,real ,,prop]ty47 #b4 ,9 con/itutional law an e/ate is an ord] or class hav+ a def9ite %>e z su* 9 ! body politic1 & p>ticipat+ ei!r directly or by its repres5tatives 9 ! gov]nm5t4 ,! sy/em ( repres5tation by e/ates took its rise 9 we/]n ,europe dur+ ! #ac? c5tury1 at a "t :5 ! feudal sy/em 0 be+ brok5 up ?r\gh v>i\s causes1 notably ! gr[+ weal? & p[] ( ! t[ns4 ,9 ! feudal c\ncil ! cl]gy & ! t]ritorial nobles _h alone _h a voice2 b ! #ac? c5tury1 to quote ,/ubbs 7,con/4 ,hi/4 ii4 #afh1 ed4 #ahge71 turns ! feudal c\ncil into an assembly ( e/ates1 & draws ! con/itution ( ! ?ird e/ate f ! anci5t local ma*9]y :i* x conc5trates4 ,?is is1 all[+ = diff]5ces ( detail1 true ( o!r c\ntries z well z ,engl&4 ,to ! two e/ates already exi/+1 cl]gy & nobles1 is add$ a ?ird1 t ( ! commons 7burgesses & knights ( ! %ire7 9 ,engl&1 t ( ! roturi]s 9 ,france 7kn[n z ! ti]s etat74 ,?is division into ?ree e/ates became ! norm1 b x 0 n univ]sal1 nor inevitable4#a ,ev5 9 ,engl& !re 0 a t5d5cy to create o!r e/ates1 ! k+ = in/ance treat+ ) ! m]*ants sep>ately = grants ( money to be rais$ by tax+ ! g5]al body ( m]*ants 9 ! c\ntry2 & !re 0 a simil> t5d5cy on ! "p ( ! lawy]s4 ,b = ! accid5t ( _! sitt+ & vot+ toge!r1 ! burgesses & knights ( ! %ire w\ld also h =m$ sep>ate e/ates4 ,9 ,aragon ! cortes conta9$ f\r e/ates 7brazos or arms71 ! cl]gy1 ! great b>ons 7ricos hombres71 ! m9or b>ons 7knights or infanzones71 & ! t[ns4 ,! ,sw$i% diet _h also f\r--cl]gy1 b>ons1 burgh]s & peasants4 ,! sy/em ( e/ates1 bas$ on ! m$ieval conception ( society z divid$ into def9ite ord]s1 =m$ ! basis ( :atev] con/itutional =ms surviv$ 9 ,europe till ! ,fr5* ,revolution4 ,9 ,engl&1 ( c\rse1 x _h e>ly become obscur$1 ! ,h\se ( ,commons repres5t+ ! :ole nation outside ! n>r[ ord] ( ! pe]s4 ,! creation ( an e/ate ( less] nobles or l&[n]s _h be5 prev5t$ by ! fusion ( ! knights ( ! %ire ) ! burgesses2 ! spiritual e/ate 0 rul$ out by ! det]m9ation ( ! cl]gy to delib]ate & tax !mselves 9 _! own convocation1 leav+ ! bi%ops1 z spiritual pe]s1 to repres5t _! int]e/s 9 p>liam5t4 ,! phrase ! ?ree e/ates ( ! realm /ill survives1 b to mo/ m5 x conveys no cle> mean+4 ,! errone\s conception e>ly arose--,hallam says x 0 curr5t among ! popul> lawy]s ( ! #ag? c5tury--t ! ?ree e/ates 7 k+1 lords & commons1 z repres5t+ ! ?ree great divisions ( legislative au?ority4 ,su* a conception might be possible 9 ,hung>y1 :]e ! cr[n ( ,/4 ,/eph5 symbolizes n s mu* ! royal p[] z ! co-ord9ation ( ! p[]s ( all ! organs ( ! /ate1 includ+ ! k+2 b 9 ,engl& ! k+ repres5ts ! :ole nation & 9 no s5se a sep>ate int]e/ )9 x1 :i* is ! ess5ce ( an e/ate4 ,! phrase ?ree e/ates z appli$ to ! ,engli% con/itution at pres5t is1 9 fact1 mislead+4 ,x is n[ usually und]/ood ( ! lords spiritual1 ! lords temporal1 & ! commons4 ,! conception ( ! ?ree e/ates ( ! realm z ! great divisions ( legislative au?ority l$ 9 ,engl& to ! co9+ ( ! phrase f\r? e/ate1 to indicate "s p[] ( correspond+ magnitude 9 ! /ate di/9ct f !m4 ,field+ ?us spoke ( ! mob1 & ,hazlitt ( ,cobbett2 b ! phrase is n[ usually appli$ to ! press1 a usage orig9at+ 9 a spee* by ,burke 7,c>lyle1 ,h]o-wor%ip1 ,lect4 v474 ,9 ! con/itutional /ruggles ( ! ,european cont95t1 f ! ,revolution onw>d1 ! rival !ories ( repres5tation by e/ates & ( popul> repres5tation h play$ a great "p4 ,! crucial mom5t ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution 0 :5 ! vote accord+ to ord] 0 reject$ & ! e/ates ( ! cl]gy & nobles 7 m]g$ ) ! ti]s etat1 ! /ates-g5]al ?us becom+ ! ,national ,assembly4 ,?is 0 ! prec$5t foll[$1 g5]ally speak+1 dur+ ! #ai? c5tury 9 ! o!r c\ntries 9 :i* con/itutional gov]nm5t 0 e/abli%$4 ,9 mo/ ( !m ! m$ieval e/ates l+]$ on 9 prov9cial diets 7,l&tage71#b & ! fam\s ,article ,,xiii4 ( ! ,f$]al ,act 7,bundesakte7 ( ,vi5na decre$ t assemblies ( e/ates %\ld be set up1 :]ev] n already exi/+1 9 ! ,g]man /ates4 ,! ef=ts ( ,mett]ni* & ! /atesm5 ( 8 s*ool 7 direct$1 n s mu* to aboli%+ ! con/itutional model1 z to e/abli%+ x1 if ne$ 71 on traditional & cons]vative l9es4 ,?is is :at 0 meant by ! fam\s reply ( ! emp]or ,francis ,i4 to ! ,magy> deputation2 ,all ! _w is play+ ! fool & dem&+ fanciful con/itutions4 ,:5 ! ne$ = mak+ con/itutional concessions became urg5t1 ! attempt 0 accord+ly made to base !m on ! sy/em ( e/ates4 ,b ! c5tral diet convok$ 9 #ahdg by ,fr$]ick ,william ,,iv4 to ,b]l91 te*nically a conc5tration ( prov9cial e/ates1 quickly conv]t$ itself z ,mett]ni* _h prophesi$--into a national assembly2 & precisely ! same ?+ happ5$ 9 ! case ( ! fir/ ,au/rian p>liam5t 9 #ahdh4 ,9 ,hung>y ! revolution 0 9 "s respects m cons]vative 9 "*4 ,! ,m>* ,laws ( #ahdh pres]v$ ! g5]al "* ( ! ,h\se ( ,magnates1 comp>able to ! ,briti% ,h\se ( ,lords1 b conv]t$ ! ,l[] ,h\se f :at 0 practically repres5tative ( ! e/ate ( ! less] nobles into a national repres5tative assembly4 ,( all ! sov]eign /ates ( ,europe only ! gr&-du*ies ( ,meckl5burg /ill 7#aiji7 reta9 ! anci5t sy/em ( e/ates unt\*$4 ,! diet1 :i* is common to ! two du*ies1 consi/s ( ! ,ritt]s*aft1 9 :i* all t5ants 9 *ivalry 7,ritt]gutsbesitz]71 :e!r noble or non-noble1 h a voice1 & ! ,l&s*aft1 :i* consi/s ( ! *ief magi/rates ( ! t[ns4 ,! =m] is tak5 z repres5tative ( ! peasant proprietors & copy-hold]s 7,h9t]sass571 ! latt] ( ! burgh]s4 ,! plural =m ,,e/ates or ,,/ates 7,fr4 etats1 ,g]4 ,/&e7 is ! "n commonly giv5 to an assembly ( e/ates 7assemblee des etats1 ,/&ev]sammlung74 ,:5 su* an assembly is n m]ely local or prov9cial x is call$ ! e/ates-g5]al or /ates-g5]al 7etats g5]aux71 e4g4 9 ,france ! assembly ( ! deputies ( ! ?ree e/ates ( ! realm z di/9ct f ! prov9cial e/ates :i* met p]iodically 9 ! s-call$ pays d'etats4 ,= fur!r details ab\t ! e/ates 9 ,engl& & else:]e see ,w4 ,/ubbs1 ,con/itutional ,hi/ory1 vol4 ii4 7#ahif72 ,h4 ,hallam1 ,! ,middle ,ages 7#ahee72 ,f4,w4 ,maitl&1 ,con/itutional ,hi/ory ( ,engl& 7#aijh72 ,a4 ,lu*aire1 ,hi/oire des in/itutions mon>*iques de la ,france 7#ahhc-ahhe72 ,g4 ,waitz1 ,deuts*e ,v]fassungsges*i*te 7,kiel1 #ahfe-ahgh72 & ,a4,s4 ,rait1 ,! ,scotti% ,p>liam5t 7#aija74 ,see also ,,repres5tation4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,9 ,scotl& ! ?ree e/ates 7 ! prelates1 ! t5ants-9-*ief & ! burgesses1 ! ?ird e/ate jo9+ ! o!rs = ! fir/ "t ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! #ad? c5tury4 ,9 #adbh commission]s ( %ires1 m5 elect$ by ! m9or t5ants-9-*ief1 7 ord]$ to appe> 9 p>liam5t2 ! great] t5ants-9-*ief !n coalesc$ ) ! prelates & ! ?ree e/ates 7 ! lords1 cl]ical & lay1 ! commission]s ( %ires & ! burgesses4 ,f #afdj to #affj p>liam5t 0 reorganiz$1 ! prelates be+ exclud$1 b at ! ,re/oration ! old ord] 0 re-e/abli%$4 ,! ,scotti% p>liam5t 0 accu/om$ to depute mu* ( its "w to a committee1 compos$ ( memb]s f ea* ( ! ?ree ord]s1 & ! committee ( ! e/ates 0 v prom95t dur+ ! /ruggle betwe5 ,*>les ,i4 & 8 p4 #b ,^! diets are1 :]ev] !y /ill exi/1 survivals ( ! p>liam5ts ( sep>ate t]ritorial units4 ,,e/ate ,,& ,,h\se ,,ag5ts4 ,a p]son ex]cis+ ! call+ ( a h\se ag5t 9 ,engl& is requir$1 "u a p5alty ( ,l#bj1 to take out ye>ly a lic5ce ^u :i* ,l#b is *>g$ z a duty ( excise1 unless he is lic5s$ z an auctione] or apprais]1 or is an ag5t employ$ 9 ! managem5t ( l&$ e/ates1 or a solicitor or conveyanc] :o has tak5 out 8 annual c]tificate z su*4 ,9 ?is connexion a p]son is deem$ to be a h\se ag5t if he adv]tises = sale or = lett+1 or 9 any way negotiates = ! sell+ or lett+ ( any furni%$ h\se or "p ( any furni%$ h\se 7any /orey or flat rat$ & let z a sep>ate t5em5t be+ = ?is purpose a h\se72 subject1 h[ev]1 to ! qualification t no "o is to be deem$ to be a h\se ag5t by reason ( 8 lett+1 or (f]+ to let1 or 9 any way negotiat+ = ! lett+ (1 any h\se ! annual r5t or value ( :i* does n exce$ ,l#be4 ,a h\se ag5t :o is m]ely in/ruct$ to act 9 ! usual way ( 8 call+ has no au?ority to b9d 8 employ] by a contract4 ,8 bus9ess is to endeav\r to f9d a p]son will+ to become a pur*as] or t5ant & !n to communicate 8 (f] to ! own]4 ,unless express au?ority is giv5 to ! ag5t to sell or let1 & = t purpose to ent] into a b9d+ contract1 ! pr9cipal res]ves 8 "r to accept or refuse ! (f]4 ,z a rule1 a h\se or e/ate ag5t has no au?ority to receive paym5t on behalf ( ! pr9cipal4 ,:]e he is employ$ to procure a t5ant1 he mu/ use reasonable dilig5ce to asc]ta9 t ! p]son to :om ! prop]ty is let ?r\gh 8 ag5cy is fit to be a t5ant4 ,he does n1 h[ev]1 9 any way gu>antee ! paym5t ( ! r5t4 ,a h\se ag5t may n1 = or 9 expectation ( paym5t1 prep>e any de$ relat+ to ! sale or lett+ ( real or p]sonal e/ate4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no simil> prohibition z to agreem5ts n "u seal1 & x is a common practice = h\se ag5ts to *>ge = ! prep>ation ( !m4 ,h\se ag5ts are usually remun]at$ by way ( commission4 ,! scale adopt$ by ! ,in/itute ( ,e/ate & ,h\se ,ag5ts embodies ! rates usually *>g$4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( express provision ^u ! subject betwe5 ! pr9cipal & ! ag5t1 commission is payable only :5 ! latt] has f\nd a pur*as] or t5ant4 ,if1 h[ev]1 he _h f\nd a p]son will+ to buy or take prop]ty ^u ! t]ms ^u :i* ! pr9cipal intimat$ to him 8 will+ness to sell or let x1 ! pr9cipal w be liable to pay ! am\nt ( ! commission1 ev5 ?\gh 9 fact he refuses or is unable to sell or let x4 ,:]e ! ag5t c %[ t he has br\ght ab\t a sale or t5ancy he w be entitl$ to ! commission not)/&+ ! fact t ano!r ag5t has be5 paid1 or has recov]$ 9 an action1 commission 9 respect ( ! same sale or t5ancy4 ,! ag5t's au?ority may be revok$ at any "t2 b1 :]e he has already p]=m$ ! s]vice = :i* he 0 employ$1 ! pr9cipal _c defeat 8 "r to be paid ! am\nt ( ! commission by subsequ5tly revok+ 8 au?ority4 ,if ! ag5t is unsuccessful 9 f9d+ a pur*as] or t5ant1 z ! case may be1 he w n1 z a rule1 h any "r to remun]ation = 8 ef=ts 9 ! matt]4 ,mo/ auctione]s1 9 addition to hold+ auctions1 c>ry on ! bus9ess ( h\se & e/ate ag5cy4 ,! numb] ( lic5ces issu$ to h\se ag5ts & apprais]s 9 ,engl& = ! ye> end$ #ca/ ,m>* #ahii 0 #ddbi1 & = ! ye> end$ #ca/ ,m>* #aiji1 #dfah4 ,! numb] ( lic5ces issu$ to auctione]s 9 ,engl& = ! correspond+ p]iods 0 #fchi & #fedc respectively4 7,h4 ,ha47 ,,e/ate ,,duty4 ,= purposes ( ! national rev5ue 9 ! ,unit$ ,k+dom1 ! ,f9ance ,act #ahid impos$ on all prop]ty pass+ by dea? aft] ! #a/ ( ,augu/ #ahid a duty call$ e/ate duty1 9 lieu ( c]ta9 o!r duties previ\sly payable4 ,! objects ( ! act 7--7#a7 simplification ( ! dea? duties & equalization z betwe5 real & p]sonal prop]ty1 & 7#b7 aggregation ( all ! prop]ty pass+ on a dea?1 & taxation at rates graduat$ accord+ to ! value ( ! :ole4 ,be=e ! act a duty 7probate duty7 0 tak5 on ! free p]sonal prop]ty ( deceas$ p]sons 9 ! h&s ( ! executor or adm9i/rator1 )\t reg>d to ! subsequ5t di/ribution4 ,! legacy & succession duties 7 levi$ on di/ribution ( ! prop]ty pass+ on ! dea?1 f ! p]sons tak+ any prop]ty "u ! w or inte/acy ( ! deceas$1 or "u settlem5t1 or by devolution ( title on 8 dea?4 ,^! two latt] duties 7 mutually exclusive1 & toge!r cov]$ practically all prop]ty pass+ by dea?4 ,!y 7 levi$ at rates graduat$ accord+ to consangu9ity4 ,9 #ahhh an attempt 0 made to equalize ! rates ( ! dea? duties z betwe5 prop]ty :i* paid ! probate & legacy duties1 & prop]ty :i* paid succession duty only4 ,b ! ,f9ance ,act #ahid replac$ ! probate duty by a duty ext5d+ to all prop]ty real or p]sonal pass+ on or by ref]5ce to dea?1 :e!r by disposition ( ! deceas$ or n1 )\t reg>d to its t5ure or de/9ation4 ,! ,f9ance ,acts ( #aijg & #aiji-aiaj increas$ ! scale ( duties laid d[n 9 #ahid4 ,= ?is purpose all prop]ty pass+ on a dea? is aggregat$ to =m "o e/ate1 on ! capital value ( :i* ! duty is *>g$1 at rates graduat$ f #a to #ae accord+ to ! aggregate value4 ,besides ! prop]ty ( :i* ! deceas$ 0 compet5t to dispose at 8 dea?1 ! aggregat$ e/ate includes prop]ty 9 :i* he _h an int]e/ ceas+ on 8 dea?1 f ! cess] ( :i* a b5efit accrues1 or :i* 0 dispos$ ( by him )9 twelve mon?s ( dea?1 or at any "t1 ) res]vation ( an int]e/ to himself4 ,! ext5t to :i* prop]ty is deem$ to pass on ! cess] ( a limit$ int]e/ is measur$ by ! proportion ( ! income to :i* ! int]e/ ext5d$1 )\t reg>d to ! t5ure ( ! deceas$ or 8 successor4 ,prop]ty may !re=e be includ$ 9 ! aggregate e/ate at its capital value ow+ to ! pass+ ( a life-int]e/ only1 ! prop]ty be+ settl$ s t ! absolute own]%ip does n pass at all4 ,b :5 ! duty has once be5 paid on prop]ty pass+ "u a settlem5t1 ! prop]ty does n aga9 become *>geable until x passes on ! dea? ( a p]son :o is or has be5 compet5t to dispose ( x4 ,to comp5sate = ?is advantage1 :5 prop]ty pass+ "u a settlem5t made aft] ! act pays ! e/ate duty1 a fur!r duty ( #b 7settlem5t e/ate duty7 is tak51 except :]e ! only subsequ5t life-int]e/ is t ( ! wife or husb& ( ! deceas$4 ,! rate ( duty be+ fix$ accord+ to ! aggregate capital value ( ! :ole e/ate1 ! *>ge is di/ribut$ accord+ to ! diff]5t modes ( disposition ( ! prop]ty compris$ 9 ! e/ate4 ,! duty on ! p]sonalty :i* passes to ! executor z su* is paid by him1 z ! probate duty 01 & comes out ( ! g5]al e/ate4 ,= ! o!r prop]ty pass+1 tru/ees1 or any p]son to :om x passes = a b5eficial int]e/ 9 possession1 are made acc\ntable1 & are requir$ to br+ 9 an acc\nt ( ! prop]ty & pay ! duty4 ,! duty is a fir/ *>ge on su* prop]ty1 &1 :5 x is paid by a p]son hav+ a life-int]e/ only1 he may *>ge ! corpus ( ! prop]ty ) x4 ,! duty on real prop]ty includ$ 9 an acc\nt is payable by eight ye>ly or sixte5 half-ye>ly in/alm5ts1 becom+ due twelve mon?s aft] ! dea?1 & be>+ int]e/ at #c f t date4 ,on o!r prop]ty1 except 9 a few special cases1 ! duty be>s int]e/ at #c f ! date ( ! dea?4 ,:5 ! e/ate duty has be5 paid no fur!r duty is *>geable on prop]ty compris$ 9 ! e/ate :i* passes to l9eal relations ( ! deceas$4 ,b on prop]ty pass+ to collat]als or /rang]s legacy or succession duty1 z ! case may be1 is payable by ! devisees or successors1 at a rate 7:i* is ! same :i*ev] duty be payable7 fix$ accord+ to consangu9ity4 ,= a detail$ acc\nt ( ! provisions ( ! act ( #ahid & subsequ5t am5d+ acts1 & ( ! practical work+ ( ! duty1 ref]5ce is made to ,au/5-,c>tmell1 ,f9ance ,acts 7#ahid-aijg72 ,hanson1 ,dea? ,duties 7,london1 #aijd72 ,s[>d1 ,h&book to ! ,e/ate ,duty 7#d? ed41 ,london1 #aijj72 & to ! reports ( ! commission]s ( ,inl& ,rev5ue = #ahid-ahie & subsequ5t ye>s4 ,,e/c\rt1 ,,ri*>d 7#affh-agab71 ,engli% actor1 began by play+ com$y p>ts 9 ,dubl94 ,8 fir/ ,london appe>ance 0 9 #agjd z ,dom9ick1 9 ,dryd5's ,spani% ,fri>1 & he cont9u$ to take important p>ts at ,drury ,lane1 be+ ! orig9al ,p\nce 9 ,/eele's ,t5d] ,husb& 7#agje71 ,s]geant ,kite 9 ,f>quh>'s ,recruit+ ,(fic]1 & ,sir ,francis ,gripe 9 ,mrs ,c5tlivre's ,busybody4 ,he 0 an excell5t mimic & a great fav\rite socially4 ,e/c\rt wrote a com$y1 ,! ,fair ,example1 or ! ,modi% ,citiz5 7#agjc71 & ,prunella 7#agjd71 an int]lude4 ,,e/e1 "o ( ! olde/ ( ! =m] reign+ h\ses ( ,italy4 ,x is 9 all probability ( ,lomb>d orig91 & desc5d$1 accord+ to ,muratori1 f ! pr9ces :o gov]n$ 9 ,tuscany 9 ,c>ol+ian times4 ,! lord%ip ( ! t[n ( ,e/e 0 fir/ acquir$ by ,alb]to ,azzo ,,ii41 :o also bore ! title ( m>quis ( ,italy#a 7d4 c4 #ajig72 he m>ri$ ,kunitza or ,kunegonda1 si/] ( ,welf or ,guelph ,,iii41 duke ( ,c>9?ia4 ,welf di$ )\t issue1 & 0 succe$$ by ,welf ,,iv41 son ( ,kunitza1 :o m>ri$ a daught] ( ,otto ,,ii41 duke ( ,bav>ia1 & :o obta9$ ! du*y ( ,bav>ia 9 #ajgj4 ,?r\gh him ! h\se ( ,e/e became connect$ ) ! pr9cely h\ses ( ,brunswick & ,hanov]1 f :i* ! sov]eigns ( ,engl& are desc5d$4 ,! ,italian titles & e/ates 7 inh]it$ by ,folco ,i4 7#ajfj-aace71 son ( ,alb]to ,azzo by 8 second wife ,g]s5de1 daught] ( ,h]b]t ,i41 c\nt ( ,ma9e4#b ,! h\se ( ,e/e play$ a great "p 9 ! hi/ory ( m$ieval & ,r5aissance ,italy1 & x fir/ comes to ! front 9 ! w>s betwe5 ! ,guelphs & ,ghibell9es2 z lead]s ( ! =m] p>ty its pr9ces receiv$ at diff]5t times ,f]r>a1 ,mod5a1 ,reggio & o!r fiefs & t]ritories4 ,obizzo ,i41 son ( ,folco1 0 ! fir/ to be> ! title ( m>quis ( ,e/e4 ,he ent]$ into ! ,guelphic league aga9/ ! emp]or ,fr$]ick ,i41 & 0 compreh5d$ 9 ! treaty ( ,v5ice ( #aagg by :i* municipal pode/as 7=eign]s *os5 z heads ( cities to adm9i/] ju/ice imp>tially7 7 in/itut$4 ,he 0 elect$ pode/a ( ,padua 9 #aagh1 & 9 #aahd he 0 reconcil$ ) ,fr$]ick1 :o creat$ him m>quis ( ,g5oa & ,milan1 a dignity some:at simil> to t ( imp]ial vic>4 ,by ! m>riage ( 8 son ,azzo to ! heiress ( ! ,m>*esella family 7! /ory t %e 0 c>ri$ (f to prev5t h] m>ry+ an enemy ( ! ,e/e is a pure leg5d71 he came to acquire great influ5ce 9 ,f]r>a1 al?\gh he 0 oppos$ by ! h>dly less p[]ful h\se ( ,torelli4 ,obizzo di$ 9 #aaid & ,azzo ,v4 hav+ pr$eceas$ him1 ! m>quisate devolv$ on 8 gr&son ,azzo ,,vi4 7#aagj-abab71 :o became head ( ! ,guelph p>ty1 & to him ! p ( ,f]r>a sacrific$ _! lib]ty by mak+ him _! fir/ "l 7#abjh74 ,b dur+ 8 lifetime civil w> rag$ 9 ! city1 betwe5 ! ,e/e & ! ,torelli1 ea* p>ty be+ driv5 out aga9 & aga94 ,azzo 7also call$ ,azzol9o7 di$ 9 #abab & 0 succe$$ by ,aldobr&9o ,i41 :o 9 #abac conclud$ a treaty ) ,sal+u]ra ,torelli1 ! head ( t h\se1 to divide ! gov]nm5t ( ! city betwe5 !m4 ,on 8 dea? 9 #abae he 0 succe$$ by 8 bro!r ,azzo ,,vii4 7#abje-abfd71 surnam$ ,novello1 b ,sal+u]ra ,torelli usurp$ all p[] 9 ,f]r>a & expell$ ,azzo 7#abbb74 ,9 #abdj ,pope ,gregory ,,ix4 det]m9$ on ano!r w> aga9/ ! emp]or ,fr$]ick ,,ii41 b deem$ x wise to beg9 by cru%+ ! *ief ,ghibell9e h\ses4 ,?us ,azzo f\nd himself 9 league ) ! pope & v>i\s ,guelph cities 9 8 attempt to rega9 ,f]r>a4 ,t t[n und]w5t a f\r mon?s' siege1 & 0 at la/ compell$ to surr5d]2 ,sal+u]ra 0 s5t to ,v5ice z a prison]1 & ,azzo rul$ 9 ,f]r>a once m4 ,! ,ghibell9e p>ty 0 annihilat$1 b ! city enjoy$ peace & happ9ess )91 al?\gh h] citiz5s took "p 9 ! w>s rag+ outside4 ,! ,guelph cause triumph$1 ,fr$]ick be+ defeat$ sev]al times1 & aft] 8 dea? ,azzo help$ 9 cru%+ ! t]rible ,eccel9o da ,romano 7q4v47 :o upheld ! imp]ial cause1 at ! battle ( ,cassano 7#abei74 ,he di$ 9 #abfd & 0 succe$$ by ,obizzo ,,ii4 7#abdj-abic7 8 gr&son1 :o 9 #abhh receiv$ ! lord%ip ( ,mod5a1 & t ( ,reggio 9 #abhi4 ,he 0 a capable b cruel rul]1 & :ile pr(ess+ devotion to ! ,guelph cause1 did homage to ! ,g]man k+ ,rudolph ,i4 :5 he desc5d$ into ,italy4 ,obizzo ,,ii4 di$ 9 #abic & 0 succe$$ by 8 son ,azzo ,,viii41 b ! latt]'s bro!rs1 ,aldobr&9o & ,francesco1 :o 7 to h %>$ 9 ! gov]nm5t1 7 expell$ & became 8 bitt] enemies4 ,! misgov]nm5t ( ,azzo l$ to ! revolt ( ,reggio & ,mod5a1 :i* %ook (f 8 yoke4 ,enemies arose on all sides1 & he sp5t 8 la/ ye>s 9 p]petual fight+4 ,he di$ 9 #acjh1 & hav+ no legitimate *ildr51 8 bro!rs1 8 natural son ,fresco1 & o!rs disput$ ! succession4 ,a papal legate 0 appo9t$1 & ?\gh ! ,e/e return$ !y 7 plac$ "u pontifical tutelage4 ,! hi/ory ( ! h\se n[ becomes involv$ & ( little int]e/ until we come to ,ni*olas ,,iii4 7#achd-adda71 :o ex]cis$ sway ov] ,f]r>a1 ,mod5a1 ,p>ma & ,reggio1 wag$ _m w>s1 0 made g5]al ( ! army ( ! ,*ur*1 & 9 8 lat] ye>s gov]nor ( ,milan1 :]e he di$1 n )\t suspicion ( poison4 ,to him succe$$ ,lionello 7#adjg-adej71 a wise & virtu\s rul] & a patron ( lit]ature & art2 !n ,borso 7#adac-adga71 8 bro!r1 :o 0 creat$ duke ( ,mod5a & ,reggio by ! emp]or ,fr$]ick ,,iii41 & duke ( ,f]r>a by ! pope4 ,9 spite ( ! w>s by :i* all ,italy 0 torn1 ,f]r>a enjoy$ a p]iod ( peace & prosp]ity "u ,borso2 he patroniz$ lit]ature1 e/abli%$ a pr9t+-press at ,f]r>a1 surr\nd$ himself ) le>n$ m51 & 8 c\rt 0 ( unp>allel$ spl5d\r4 ,he also protect$ indu/ry & comm]ce1 & rul$ ) great wisdom4 ,8 bro!r ,ercole ,i4 7#adca-aeje71 :o succe$$ him 9 #adga1 0 less =tunate1 & _h to engage 9 a w> ) ,v5ice1 ow+ to a dispute ab\t ! salt monopoly1 ) ! result t by ! peace ( #adhd he 0 =c$ to c$e ! di/rict ( ,poles9e to ! republic4 ,b ! la/ ye>s ( 8 life 7 peaceful & prosp]\s1 s t aft]w>ds m5 look$ back to ! days ( ,ercole ,i4 z to a gold5 age2 8 capital 0 not$ bo? = its luxury & z ! resort ( m5 em95t 9 lit]ature & art4 ,boi>do ! poet 0 8 m9i/]1 & ,ario/o obta9$ 8 patronage4 ,ercole's daught] ,beatrice d',e/e 7#adge-adig71 du*ess ( ,milan1 "o ( ! mo/ beautiful & accompli%$ pr9cesses ( ! ,italian ,r5aissance1 0 be?ro!d at ! age ( five to ,lodovico ,s=za 7kn[n z il ,moro71 duke ( ,b>i1 reg5t & aft]w>ds duke ( ,milan1 & 0 m>ri$ to him 9 ,janu>y #adia4 ,%e _h be5 c>efully educat$1 & avail$ h]self ( h] position z mi/ress ( "o ( ! mo/ spl5did c\rts ( ,italy to surr\nd h]self ) le>n$ m51 poets & arti/s1 su* z ,niccolo da ,correggio1 ,b]n>do ,ca/iglione1 ,bramante1 ,leon>do da ,v9ci & _m o!rs4 ,9 #adib %e visit$ ,v5ice z ambassador = h] husb& 9 8 political s*emes1 :i* consi/$ *iefly 9 a desire to be recogniz$ z duke ( ,milan4 ,on ! dea? ( ,gian ,galeazzo ,s=za1 ,lodovico's usurpation 0 legaliz$1 & aft] ! battle ( ,=novo 7#adie7 bo? he & 8 wife took "p 9 ! peace congress ( ,v]celli betwe5 ,*>les ,,viii4 ( ,france & ! ,italian pr9ces1 at :i* ,beatrice %[$ great political ability4 ,b h] brilliant c>e] 0 cut %ort by dea? ?r\gh *ildbir?1 on ! #crd ( ,janu>y #adig4 ,%e belongs to ! be/ class ( ,r5aissance wom51 & 0 "o ( ! culture influ5ces ( ! age2 to h] patronage & good ta/e are due to a great ext5t ! spl5d\r ( ! ,ca/ello ( ,milan1 ( ! ,c]tosa ( ,pavia & ( _m o!r fam\s build+s 9 ,lomb>dy4 ,h] si/] ,isabella d',e/e 7#adgd-aeci71 m>*ioness ( ,mantua1 0 c>efully educat$ bo? 9 lett]s & 9 ! arts l ,beatrice1 & 0 m>ri$ :5 b>ely sixte5 to ,francesco ,gonzaga1 m>quis ( ,mantua 7#adij74 ,%e %[$ great diplomatic & political skill1 especially 9 h] negotiations ) ,ces>e ,borgia 7q4v471 :o _h dispossess$ ,guidobaldo da ,montefeltro1 duke ( ,urb9o1 ! husb& ( h] si/]-9-law & intimate fri5d ,elisabetta ,gonzaga 7#aejb74 ,%e receiv$ ! depos$ duke & du*ess1 z well z o!r pr9ces 9 ! same condition1 at h] c\rt ( ,mantua1 :i* 0 "o ( ! mo/ brilliant 9 ,italy1 & l h] si/] %e ga!r$ toge!r _m em95t m5 ( lett]s & arti/s1 ,raphael1 ,&rea ,mantegna & ,giulio ,romano be+ among ^? :om %e employ$4 ,bo? %e & h] husb& 7 greatly influ5c$ by ,baldass>e ,ca/iglione 7#adgh-aebi71 au?or ( ,il ,cortigiano1 & x 0 at 8 sugge/ion t ,giulio ,romano 0 summon$ to ,mantua to enl>ge ! ,ca/ello & o!r build+s4 ,isabella 0 und\bt$ly1 among all ! pr9cesses ( ! #ae? & #af? c5turies1 ! "o :o mo/ /rik+ly & p]fectly p]sonifi$ ! aspirations ( ! ,r5aissance 7,eug5e ,muntz72 b h] "* 0 less attractive ?an t ( h] si/]1 & 9 h] love ( collect+ works ( art %e %[$ a some:at grasp+ nature1 be+ ev] anxi\s to cut d[n ! prices ( ! arti/s :o work$ = h]4 ,to ,ercole ,i4 succe$$ 8 son ,alphonso ,i4 7#adhf-aecd71 ! husb& ( ,lucrezia ,borgia 7q4v471 daught] ( ,pope ,alex&] ,,vi4 ,dur+ ne>ly ! :ole ( 8 reign he 0 engag$ 9 ! ,italian w>s1 b by 8 diplomatic skill & 8 milit>y ability he 0 = _m ye>s almo/ always successful4 ,he 0 gift$ ) great me*anical skill1 & 8 artill]y 0 ( _w-wide reputation4 ,on ! =mation ( ! league ( ,cambrai aga9/ ,v5ice 9 #aejh1 he 0 appo9t$ to ! supreme comm& ( ! papal troops by ,julius ,,ii42 b aft] ! ,v5etians _h su/a9$ a numb] ( rev]ses !y made peace ) ! pope & jo9$ him aga9/ ! ,fr5*4 ,alphonso 0 invit$ to co-op]ate 9 ! new comb9ation1 & on 8 refusal w> 0 decl>$ aga9/ him2 b al?\gh he began by los+ ,mod5a & ,reggio1 he subsequ5tly inflict$ sev]al defeats on ! papal troops4 ,he f\ght on ! side ( ! ,fr5* at ! battle ( ,rav5na 7#aeab71 f :i*1 al?\gh victori\s1 !y d]iv$ no advantage4 ,soon aft]w>ds !y retir$ f ,italy1 & ,alphonso1 f9d+ himself ab&on$1 tri$ to make 8 peace ) ! pope1 ?r\gh ! m$iation ( ,fabrizio ,colonna4 ,he w5t to ,rome = ! purpose & receiv$ absolution1 b on discov]+ t ,julius meant to deta9 him a prison]1 he escap$ 9 disguise1 & ! pope's dea? 9 #aeac gave him a brief respite4 ,b ,leo ,x4 prov$ equally b5t on ! de/ruction ( ! h\se ( ,e/e1 :5 he too 0 cut (f by dea?4 ,alphonso avail$ himself ( ! tr\bles ( ! papacy dur+ ! reign ( ! equally ho/ile ,clem5t ,,vii4 to recapture ,reggio 7#aebc7 & ,mod5a 7#aebg71 & 0 confirm$ 9 8 possession ( !m by ! emp]or ,*>les ,v41 9 spite ( ,clem5t's opposition4 ,he di$ 9 #aecd1 & 0 succe$$ by 8 son ,ercole ,,ii4 7#aejh-aeei71 :o m>ri$ ,r5ee1 daught] ( ,l\is ,,xii4 ( ,france1 a pr9cess ( ,prote/ant proclivities & a fri5d ( ,calv94 ,on jo9+ ! league ( ,france & ! papacy aga9/ ,spa91 ,ercole 0 appo9t$ lieut5ant-g5]al ( ! ,fr5* army 9 ,italy4 ,! w> 0 prosecut$1 h[ev]1 ) little vig\r1 & peace 0 made ) ,spa9 9 #aeeh4 ,! duke & 8 bro!r1 ,c>d9al ,ippolito ! ,y\ng]1 7 patrons ( lit]ature & art1 & ! latt] built ! magnific5t ,villa d' ,e/e at ,tivoli4 ,he 0 succe$$ by ,alphonso ,,ii4 7#aecc-aeig71 rememb]$ = 8 patronage ( ,tasso1 :om he aft]w>ds imprison$4 ,he reorganiz$ ! army1 enri*$ ! public libr>y1 enc\rag$ agriculture1 b 0 extravagant & dissipat$4 ,) him ! ma9 bran* ( ! family came to an end1 & al?\gh at 8 dea? he bequea!d ! du*y to 8 c\s9 ,ces>e 7#aecc-afbh71 ,pope ,clem5t ,,viii41 r5ew+ ! ,*ur*'s ho/ility to ! h\se ( ,e/e1 decl>$ t pr9ce to be ( illegitimate bir? 7a d\btful cont5tion71 & by a treaty ) ,lucrezia1 ,alphonso's si/]1 ,f]r>a 0 made ov] to ! ,holy ,see4 ,ces>e held ,mod5a & ,reggio1 b ) him ! ,e/5si cease to play an important "p 9 ,italian politics4 ,= two c5turies ?is dyna/y _h be5 "o ( ! greate/ p[]s 9 ,italy1 & its c\rt 0 p]haps ! mo/ spl5did 9 ,europe1 bo? z reg>ds pomp & luxury & on acc\nt ( ! em95t arti/s1 poets & s*ol>s :i* x attract$4 ,! subsequ5t heads ( ! family 73 ,alphonso ,,iii41 :o retir$ to a mona/]y 9 #afbi & di$ 9 #afdd2 ,francis ,i4 7#afaj-afeh71 :o comm&$ ! ,fr5* army 9 ,italy 9 #afdg2 ,alphonso ,,iv4 7#afcd-affb71 ! fa!r ( ,m>y ,beatrice1 ! que5 ( ,james ,,ii4 ( ,engl&1 :o f\ght 9 ! ,fr5* army dur+ ! ,spani% ,w>1 & f\nd$ ! picture gall]y ( ,mod5a2 ,francis ,,ii4 7#affj-afid71 :o orig9at$ ! ,e/e libr>y1 also at ,mod5a1 & f\nd$ ! univ]sity2 ,r9aldo 7#afee-agcg71 ?r\gh ^: m>riage ) ,*>lotte ,felicitas ( ,brunswick-,luneburg ! long-sep>at$ bran*es ( ! h\se ( ,e/e 7 reunit$2 ,francis ,,iii4 7#afih-aghj71 :o m>ri$ ! daught] ( ! reg5t ,philip ( ,orleans4 ,francis ,,iii4 wi%$ to rema9 neutral dur+ ! w> betwe5 ,spa9 & ,au/ria 7#agdj71 b ! imp]iali/s hav+ occupi$ & deva/at$ 8 du*y1 he took ! ,spani% side & 0 appo9t$ g5]alissimo ( ! ,spani% army 9 ,italy4 ,he 0 re-e/abli%$ 9 8 possessions by ! treaty ( ,aix-la-,*apelle 7#agdh71 & on be+ reconcil$ ) ! empress ,m>ia ,!resa1 he receiv$ f h] ! title ( gov]nor ( ,lomb>dy 9 #aged4 ,) 8 son ,ercole ,,iii4 ,r9aldo 7#agbg-ahjc71 :o at ! peace ( ,camp(ormio lo/ 8 du*y1 ! male l9e ( ! ,e/5si came to an end4 ,8 only daught]1 ,m>ie ,beatrice 7d4 #ahbi71 0 m>ri$ to ! ar*duke ,f]d9&1 ?ird son ( ! emp]or ,francis ,i4 ,f]d9& 0 creat$ duke ( ,breisgau 9 #ahjc1 & at 8 dea? 9 #ahjf he 0 succe$$ by 8 son ,francis ,,iv4 7q4v471 to :om ! du*y ( ,mod5a 0 giv5 at ! treaty ( ,vi5na 9 #ahad4 ,he di$ 9 #ahdf & 0 succe$$ by ,francis ,v4 7q4v471 :o lo/ 8 possessions by ! ev5ts ( #ahei4 ,) 8 dea? 9 #ahge ! title & e/ates pass$ to ! ar*duke ,francis ,f]d9&1 heir to ! ,au/ro-,hung>ian ?rone4 ,! *ildr5 ( ,lady ,augu/a ,murray1 daught] ( ! e>l ( ,dunmore1 by h] m>riage ) ,augu/us ,fr$]ick1 duke ( ,sussex1 six? son ( ,george ,,iii4 ( ,great ,brita91 assum$ ! old "n ( d' ,e/e1 & claim$ recognition z memb]s ( ! royal family2 b z ! m>riage 0 9 violation ( ! royal m>riages act ( #aggc1 x 0 decl>$ invalid1 & _! claims 7 set aside4 ,,bibliography4--,g4 ,antonelli1 ,saggio di una bibliografia /orica f]r>ese 7,f]r>a1 #ahea72 ,l4,a4 ,muratori1 ,delle anti*ita e/5si ed italiane 7#c vols41 #agag1 c471 ! *ief & mo/ reliable au?ority on ! subject1 conta9+ a quantity ( docum5ts2 ,a4 ,frizzi1 ,memorie p] la /oria di ,f]r>a 7#bnd ed41 ,f]r>a1 #ahdg72 ,a4 ,sol]ti1 ,f]r>a e la corte e/5se nella seconda meta del sec4 ,,xvi4 7,citta di ,ca/ello1 #aijj72 ,c4 ,antol9i1 ,il dom9io e/5se 9 ,f]r>a 7,f]r>a1 #ahif71 :i* deals ) ! siege ( #abdj & o!r special po9ts2 ,e4,g4 ,g>dn]1 ,pr9ces & ,poets ( ,f]r>a 7,london1 #aijd71 a bulky volume deal+ only ) ! ,r5aissance p]iod1 full ( int]e/+ & unpubli%$ matt]1 especially ab\t ! lit]>y & arti/ic associations ( ! h\se1 b n well put toge!r 7conta9s good bibliography72 ,g4 ,b]toni1 ,la ,biblioteca e/5se e la coltura f]r>ese ai tempi del duca ,ercole ,i4 7,tur91 #aijc71 useful = ! lit]>y aspect ( ! subject2 ,p4 ,litta1 ,le ,celebri ,famiglie italiane1 vol4 iii4 7,milan1 #ahca71 /ill a valuable "w2 ,e4 ,noyes1 ,! ,/ory ( ,f]r>a 7,london1 #aijd72 ,julia ,c>twright's ,isabella d',e/e 7,london1 #aijc71 & ,beatrice d',e/e 7#ahii71 pleasantly writt5 b amateuri% volumes bas$ on ,a4 ,luzio's ,mantova e ,urb9o 7,tur91 #ahic72 ,a4 ,luzio & ,r4 ,r5i]1 ,delle relazioni di ,isabella d',e/e ,gonzaga con ,lodovico e ,beatrice ,s=za 7,milan1 #ahij1 ,ar*ivio ,/orico ,lomb>do1 xvii474 7,l4 ,v4997 ,,footnotes3 #a i4e4 ,m>grave ( ! ,empire 7m>*io ,sancti ,imp]ii7 9 ,italy4 7,see ,,m>quess47 #b ,ano!r son ( ,azzo & ,g]s5de became c\nt ( ,ma9e z ,hugh ,,iii4 7d4 #aaca74 ,,e/e 7anc4 ,ate/e1 q4v471 a t[n & episcopal see ( ,v5etia1 ,italy1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,padua1 #bj m4 ,s4,s4,w4 ( x by rail4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #hfga 7t[n72 #aj1ggi 7commune74 ,x lies #di ft4 above sea-level bel[ ! s\!rn slopes ( ! ,euganean ,hills4 ,! ext]nal walls ( ! ca/le /ill rise above ! t[n on ! ,n41 b ! int]ior is n[ occupi$ by ! cattle-m>ket4 ,a fragm5t ( ! once enorm\s ,palazzo ,moc5igo1 ( ! #af? c5tury1 is n[ occupi$ by ! important ar*aeological museum 7see ,,ate/e74 ,! ca!dral 0 erect$ 9 #afij-agbj1 on ! site ( an old] build+ de/roy$ by an e>?quake 9 #afhh4 ,s4 ,m>t9o is a *ur* 9 ! ,lomb>d ,romanesque /yle4 ,! ar*ives 9 ! ,palazzo ,comunale are important4 ,aft] ! ,roman p]iod ! hi/ory ( ,e/e is a blank until ! ,lomb>d p]iod1 9 :i* x 0 dep5d5t on ,monselice4 ,9 ! #aj? c5tury ! family ( ,e/e 7see above7 e/abli%$ itself 9 ! ca/le above ! t[n4 ,at ! end ( ! #ac? c5tury ,padua1 :i* _h already captur$ ,e/e m ?an once1 became def9itely mi/ress ( x4 ,:5 ! ,c>r>a family succumb$ 9 #adje1 ,e/e volunt>ily surr5d]$ to ,v5ice & 0 all[$ its indep5d5ce1 "u a pode/a2 & !nce=? x foll[$ ! =tunes ( ,v5etia4 ,,e/ebanez ,,cald]on1 ,,s]af9 7#agii-ahfg71 a ,spani% au?or1 be/ kn[n by ! pseudonym ( ,el ,solit>io1 0 born at ,malaga on ! #bg? ( ,decemb] #agii4 ,8 fir/ lit]>y ef=t 0 ,el ,li/on v]de1 a poem sign$ ,saf9io & writt5 to celebrate ! revolution ( #ahbj4 ,he 0 call$ to ! b>1 & settl$ = "s "t at ,madrid1 :]e he publi%$ a volume ( v]ses 9 #ahca "u ! assum$ "n ( ,el ,solit>io4 ,he obta9$ an exagg]at$ reputation z an ,arabic s*ol>1 & play$ a m9or "p 9 ! political movem5ts ( 8 "t4 ,he di$ at ,madrid on ! #e? ( ,febru>y #ahfg4 ,8 mo/ int]e/+ "w1 ,esc5as &aluzas 7#ahdg71 is 9 a curi\sly affect$ /yle1 ! vocabul>y be+ p>tly ar*aic & p>tly prov9cial2 b1 despite its ecc5tric mann]isms1 x is a vivid record ( picturesque sc5es & local cu/oms4 ,e/ebanez ,cald]on is also ! au?or ( an unf9i%$ hi/ory1 ,de la conqui/a y p]dida de ,portugal 7#ahhc71 issu$ po/hum\sly "u ! editor%ip ( 8 nephew1 ,antonio ,canovas del ,ca/illo4 ,,e/ella1 a t[n ( nor!rn ,spa91 9 ! prov9ce ( ,nav>re1 on ! left bank ( ! riv] ,ega1 #ae m4 ,w4,s4,w4 ( ,pamplona4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #egcf4 ,e/ella1 :i* occupies ! site ( a ,roman t[n ( unc]ta9 "n1 conta9s sev]al mona/]ies & *ur*es1 a m$ieval citadel1 & a college :i* 0 =m]ly a univ]sity4 ,its pr9cipal indu/ries are ! manufacture ( wooll5 & l95 fabrics & br&y-mak+2 & x has a consid]able trade 9 fruit1 w9e & cattle4 ,e/ella comm&s sev]al defiles on ! roads f ,ca/ile & ,aragon1 & on t acc\nt occupies a position ( consid]able /rategic importance4 ,x 0 long ! headqu>t]s ( ,don ,c>los1 :o 0 proclaim$ k+ "h 9 #ahcc4 ,9 #ahgc x 0 ! *ief /ronghold ( ! ,c>li/s1 & 9 #ahgd1 :5 driv5 f o!r places1 !y succe$$ 9 retir+ to ,e/ella4 ,on ! #af? ( ,febru>y #ahgf ! ,c>li/s 9 ! t[n surr5d]$ unconditionally4 ,= an acc\nt ( ! ,c>li/ ris+ see ,,spa93 ,hi/ory4 ,,e/]hazy ,,( ,,galan?a1 a noble ,magy> family4 ,its orig9 has be5 trac$1 n )\t "s unc]ta9ty1 to ,salamon ( ,e/oras1 ^: sons ,pet] & ,illyes divid$ _! patrimony 9 #abch4 ,pet] f\nd$ ! family ( ,z]hazy1 & ,illyes t ( ,illye%azy1 :i* became ext9ct 9 ! male l9e 9 #ahch4 ,! fir/ memb] ( ! family to em]ge def9itely into hi/ory 0 ,f]5cz ,z]hazy 7#aefc-aeid71 vice "l-lieut5ant ( ! c\nty ( ,pressburg1 :o took ! "n ( ,e/]hazy :5 he 0 creat$ ,freih]r ( ,galan?a1 an e/ate acquir$ by ! family 9 #adba4 ,8 elde/ son1 ,daniel 7d4 #afed71 f\nd$ ! h\se ( ,czesznek1 ! ?ird1 ,pal 7d4 #afda71 ! l9e ( ,zolyom 7,altsohl71 & ! f\r?1 ,miklos1 t bran* ( ! family :i* occupies ! mo/ consid]able place 9 ,hung>ian hi/ory1 t ( ,frakno or ,=*t5/e94 ,?is ,,miklos ,ni*olas ,,e/]hazy ( ,galan?a 7#aehb-afde7 0 born at ,galan?a on ! #h? ( ,april #aehb4 ,8 p>5ts 7 ,prote/ants1 & he himself1 at fir/1 foll[$ ! ,prote/ant p]suasion2 b he subsequ5tly w5t ov] to ,ca?olicism &1 along ) ,c>d9al ,pazmany1 8 mo/ s]i\s rival at c\rt1 became a pill> ( ,ca?olicism1 bo? religi\sly & politically1 & a wor?y oppon5t ( ! two great ,prote/ant *ampions ( ! p]iod1 ,gabriel ,be?l5 & ,george ,i4 ,rakoczy4 ,9 #afaa he m>ri$ ,orsolya1 ! wid[ ( ! weal?y ,f]5cz ,magocsy1 ?us com+ into possession ( h] gigantic e/ates1 & 9 #afbb he acquir$ ,frakno4 ,mat?ias ,,ii4 made him a b>on 7#afac71 c\nt ( ,b]egh 7#afag71 & "l-lieut5ant ( ! c\nty ( ,zolyom & magi/] curiae regiae 7#afah74 ,at ! coronation ( ,f]d9& ,,ii41 :5 he (ficiat$ z gr&-/&>d-be>]1 he receiv$ ! ord] ( ! ,gold5 ,fleece & fre% donations4 ,at ! diet ( ,sopron1 #afbe1 he 0 elect$ palat9e ( ,hung>y4 ,z a diplomati/ he p[]fully contribut$ to br+ ab\t ! peace ( ,nikolsburg 7#afbb7 & ! peace ( ,l9z 7#afde7 7see ,,hung>y3 ,hi/ory74 ,8 political ideal 0 ! consolidation ( ! ,habsburg dyna/y z a means t[>ds free+ ,hung>y f ! ,turki% yoke4 ,he himself1 on "o occasion 7#afbc71 defeat$ ! ,turks on ! banks ( ! ,nyitra2 b any?+ l su/a9$ op]ations aga9/ !m 0 !n impossible4 ,he 0 also "o ( ! mo/ em95t writ]s ( 8 day4 ,he di$ at ,nagy-,heflan on ! #aa? ( ,septemb] #afde1 leav+ five sons4 ,see ,works ( ,ni*olas ,e/]hazy1 ) a biography by ,f]5cz ,toldi 7,hung47 7,pe/1 #aheb72 ,ni*olas ,c\nt ,e/]hazy1 ,palat9e ( ,hung>y 7a biography1 ,hung47 7,pe/1 #ahfc-ahgj74 ,8 ?ird son ,,pal ,paul 7#afce-agac71 pr9ce palat9e1 f\nd$ ! pr9cely bran* ( ! family ( ,e/]hazy4 ,he 0 born at ,kis ,m>ton 7,eis5/adt7 on ! #g? ( ,septemb] #afce4 ,9 #affc he f\ght1 along ) ,miklos ,zr9yi1 aga9/ ! ,turks1 & di/+ui%$ himself "u ,montecuculi4 ,9 #affg he 0 appo9t$ comm&]-9-*ief 9 s\? ,hung>y1 :]e he defeat$ ! malcont5ts at ,leuts*au & ,gyork4 ,9 #afha he 0 elect$ palat9e4 ,9 #afhc he p>ticipat$ 9 ! deliv]ance ( ,vi5na f ! ,turks1 & ent]$ ,buda 9 #afhf at ! head ( #bj1jjj m54 ,?or\ghly reaction>y1 & absolutely devot$ to ! ,habsburgs1 he contribut$ m ?an any "o else to ! curtail+ ( ! privileges ( ! ,magy> g5try 9 #afhg1 :5 he 0 creat$ a pr9ce ( ! ,empire1 ) 79 #agab7 succession to ! fir/-born ( 8 h\se4 ,8 aulic t5d5cies made him s unpopul> t 8 (f] ( m$iation betwe5 ! ,rakoczy insurg5ts & ! gov]nm5t 0 reject$ by ! ,hung>ian diet1 & ! negotiations1 :i* l$ to ! peace ( ,szatm> 7see ,,hung>y3 ,hi/ory71 7 entru/$ to ,janos ,pallfy4 ,he di$ on ! #bf? ( ,m>* #agac4 ,he lov$ ! arts & sci5ces1 wrote sev]al religi\s works1 & 0 "o ( ! *ief compil]s ( ! ,trophaeum ,domus ,inclytae ,e/oratianae4 ,see ,lajos ,m]5yi1 ,pr9ce ,paul ,e/]hazy 7,hung47 7,budape/1 #ahie74 ,pr9ce ,,pal ,,antal1 gr&son ( ! pr9ce palat9e ,pal1 0 a di/+ui%$ soldi]1 :o rose to ! rank ( field-m>%al 9 #ageh4 ,on 8 dea? 9 #agfb he 0 succe$$ by 8 bro!r4 ,pr9ce ,,miklos ,,jozsef ,ni*olas ,joseph 7#agad-agij71 also a brilliant soldi]1 is p]haps be/ rememb]$ z a patron ( ! f9e arts4 ,= 8 s]vices 9 comm& ( an infantry brigade at ,kol9 7#ageg7 he 0 specially m5tion$ by ,c\nt ,daun1 & became "o ( ! orig9al memb]s ( ! ord] ( ,m>ia ,!resa4 ,9 #agfb he 0 appo9t$ capta9 ( ,m>ia ,!resa's ,hung>ian body-gu>d1 9 #agfd ,feldzeugmei/]1 & 9 #agfh field m>%al4 ,8 o!r hon\rs includ$ ! ,gold5 ,fleece & ! grade ( comm&] 9 ! ord] ( ,m>ia ,!resa4 ,joseph ,,ii4 conf]r$ ! pr9cely title1 :i* _h previ\sly be5 limit$ to ! elde/-born ( ! h\se1 on all 8 desc5dants1 male & female4 ,e/]hazy di$ 9 ,vi5na on ! #bh? ( ,septemb] #agij4 ,he rebuilt 9 ! ,r5aissance /yle ,s*loss ,e/]hazy1 ! spl5d\r ( :i* won = x ! "n ( ! ,hung>ian ,v]sailles4 ,haydn 0 = ?irty ye>s conductor ( 8 private or*e/ra & g5]al musical director1 & _m ( 8 compositions 7 writt5 = ! private !atre & ! conc]ts ( ?is pr9ce4 ,8 gr&son1 ,pr9ce ,,miklos ,ni*olas 7#agfe-ahcc7 0 born on ! #ab? ( ,decemb] #agfe4 ,he began life z an (fic] 9 ! gu>ds1 subsequ5tly mak+ ! gr& t\r1 :i* fir/ awak5$ 8 deep int]e/ 9 art4 ,he quitt$ ! army = diplomacy aft] rea*+ ! rank ( ,feldzeugmei/]1 & 0 employ$ z extraord9>y ambassador1 on special occasions1 :5 he display$ a magnific5ce extraord9>y ev5 = ! ,e/]hazys4 ,he made at ,vi5na an important collection ( pa9t+s & engrav+s1 :i* came into ! possession ( ! ,hung>ian ,academy at ,budape/ 9 #ahfe4 ,at 8 summ] palace ( ,kis ,m>ton 7,eis5/adt7 he erect$ a monum5t to ,haydn4 ,8 imm5se exp5diture on build+ & ! arts involv$ ! family 9 f9ancial difficulties = two g5]ations4 ,:5 ! ,fr5* invad$ ,au/ria 9 #agig1 he rais$ a regim5t ( #ajjj m5 at 8 own exp5se4 ,9 #ahji1 :5 ,napoleon invit$ ! ,magy>s to elect a new k+ to replace ! ,habsburgs1 ov]tures 7 made to ,pr9ce ,ni*olas1 :o refus$ ! hon\r &1 fur!r1 rais$ a regim5t ( volunte]s 9 def5ce ( ,au/rian int]e/s4 ,he di$ at ,como on ! #bd? ( ,novemb] #ahcc4 ,8 son1 ,pr9ce ,,pal ,,antal ,paul ,an?ony 7#aghf-ahff71 ent]$ ! diplomatic s]vice4 ,9 #ahjf he 0 secret>y ( ! embassy 9 ,london1 & 9 #ahjg work$ ) ,pr9ce ,mett]ni* 9 ! same capacity 9 ,p>is4 ,9 #ahaj he 0 accr$it$ to ! c\rt ( ,dresd51 :]e he tri$ 9 va9 to deta* ,saxony f ,napoleon1 & 9 #ahad he accompani$ 8 fa!r on a secret mission to ,rome4 ,he took a lead+ "p 9 all ! diplomatic negotiations consequ5t ^u ! w>s ( #ahac-ahae1 especially at ! congress ( ,*atillon1 & on ! conclusion ( peace 01 at ! express desire ( ! pr9ce reg5t1 s5t z ambassador to ,london4 ,9 #ahbd he repres5t$ ,au/ria z ambassador extraord9>y at ! coronation ( ,*>les ,x41 & 0 ! premi] ,au/rian commission] at ! ,london conf]5ces ( #ahcj-ahcf4 ,9 #ahdb he quitt$ diplomacy = politics & atta*$ himself to ! free-pr9ciples p>ty4 ,he 0 m9i/] = =eign affairs 9 ! fir/ responsible ,hung>ian m9i/ry 7#ahdh71 b resign$ 8 po/ 9 ,septemb] because he c\ld see no way ( reconcil+ ! c\rt ) ! nation4 ,! la/ ye>s ( 8 life 7 sp5t 9 comp>ative pov]ty & isolation1 z ev5 ! ,e/]hazy-,=*t5/e9 e/ates 7 unequal to ! burd5 ( support+ 8 fabul\s extravagance & _h to be plac$ 9 ! h&s ( curators4 ,! cadet bran* ( ! h\se ( ,frakno1 ! memb]s ( :i* be> ! title ( c\nt1 0 divid$ into ?ree l9es by ! sons ( ,f]5cz ,e/]hazy 7#afda-afhc74 ,! elde/ ( ^!1 ,c\nt ,,antal 7#afgf-agbb71 di/+ui%$ himself 9 ! w> aga9/ ,rakoczy 9 #agjc1 b *ang$ sides 9 #agjd & comm&$ ! left w+ ( ! ,kuruczis at ! engagem5ts ( ,nagyszombat 7#agjd7 & ,v]esko 7#agje74 ,9 #agjf he defeat$ ! imp]iali/ g5]al ,guido ,/ahremb]g & p5etrat$ to ! walls ( ,vi5na4 ,/ill m successful 7 8 op]ations 9 ! campaign ( #agjh1 :5 he ravag$ ,/yria1 twice invad$ ,au/ria1 & aga9 ?reat5$ ,vi5na1 on :i* occasion ! emp]or ,joseph n>r[ly escap$ fall+ into 8 h&s4 ,9 #agji he 0 r\t$ by ! sup]ior =ces ( ,g5]al ,sigb]t ,hei/] at ,palota1 b br\ght (f ! rema9d] ( 8 arms v skilfully4 ,9 #agaj he jo9$ ,rakoczy 9 ,pol& & accompani$ him to ,france & ,turkey4 ,he di$ 9 exile at ,rodo/o on ! %ores ( ! ,black ,sea4 ,8 son ,bal9t ,jozsef ,val5t9e ,joseph1 by ,anna ,m>ia ,nigrelli1 ent]$ ! ,fr5* army1 & 0 ! f\nd] ( ! ,hallewyll1 or ,fr5*1 bran* ( ! family1 :i* became ext9ct 9 ! male l9e 9 #ahgf ) ,c\nt ,ladislas4 ,see ,c\nt ,e/]hazy's ,campaign ,di>y 7,hung471 ed4 by ,k4 ,?aly 7,pe/1 #aija74 ,c\nt ,,bal9t ,,miklos 7#agdj-ahje71 son ( ,bal9t ,jozsef1 0 an en?usia/ic p>tisan ( ! duc de ,*oiseul1 on ^: dismissal1 9 #agfd1 he resign$ ! comm& ( ! ,fr5* regim5t ( :i* he 0 ! colonel4 ,x 0 ,e/]hazy :o convey$ to ,m>ie ,anto9ette ! portrait ( ,l\is ,,xvi4 on ! occasion ( _! betro?al1 & ! close relations he ma9ta9$ ) h] aft] h] m>riage 7 m ?an once ! occasion ( remon/rance on ! "p ( ,m>ia ,!resa1 :o nev] seems to h =gott5 t he 0 ! gr&son ( a rebel4 ,at ! ,fr5* c\rt he /ood 9 high fav\r ) ! comte d',artois4 ,he 0 rais$ to ! rank ( m>e*al de camp1 & made inspector ( troops 9 ! ,fr5* s]vice 9 #aghj4 ,at ! outbreak ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 he 0 /ation$ at ,val5ci5nes1 :]e he contriv$ = a "t to keep ord]1 & facilitat$ ! escape ( ! ,fr5* emigres by way ( ,namur2 b1 9 #agij1 he ha/5$ back to ,p>is to assi/ ! k+4 ,at ! urg5t entreaty ( ! comte d',artois 9 #agia he quitt$ ,p>is = ,cobl5z1 accompani$ ,artois to ,vi5na1 & 0 s5t to ! c\rt ( ,/ ,pet]sburg ! same ye> to enli/ ! sympa?ies ( ,ca!r9e ,,ii4 = ! ,b\rbons4 ,he receiv$ an e/ate f ,ca!r9e ,,ii41 & al?\gh ! gift 0 resc9d$ by ,paul ,i41 ano!r 0 ev5tually grant$ him4 ,he di$ at ,grodek 9 ,volhynia on ! #bcrd ( ,july #ahje4 ,see ,memoires1 ed4 by ,e4 ,daudet 7,fr47 7,p>is1 #aije71 & ,lettres 7,p>is1 #aijf74 ,two o!r sons ( ,c\nt ,f]5cz 7d4 #afhe71 ,f]5cz & ,jozsef1 f\nd$ ! h\ses ( ,dotis & ,cseklesz 7,l&s*utz7 respectively4 ,( _! desc5dants1 ,c\nt ,,moricz 7#ahjg-ahij7 ( ,dotis1 ,au/rian ambassador 9 ,rome until #ahef1 became 9 #ahfa a memb] ( ! m9i/ry =m$ by ,anton ,s*m]l+ & 9 #ahfe jo9$ ! cl]ical cab9et ( ,ri*>d ,belcr$i4 ,8 bitt] ho/ility to ,prussia help$ to =ce ! gov]nm5t ( ,vi5na into ! w> ( #ahff4 ,8 (ficial c>e] clos$ 9 #ahff1 b he rema9$ "o ( ! lead]s ( ! cl]ical p>ty4 ,see also ,c\nt ,janos ,e/]hazy1 ,description ( ! ,e/]hazy ,family 7,hung41 ,budape/1 #aija74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,e/]s1 9 organic *emi/ry1 comp\nds =m$ by ! cond5sation ( an alcohol & an acid1 ) elim9ation ( wat]2 !y may also be consid]$ z d]ivatives ( alcohols1 9 :i* ! hydroxylic hydrog5 has be5 replac$ by an acid radical1 or z acids 9 :i* ! hydrog5 ( ! c>boxyl gr\p has be5 replac$ by an alkyl or aryl gr\p4 ,9 ! case ( ! polybasic acids1 all ! hydrog5 atoms c be replac$ 9 ?is way1 & ! comp\nds =m$ are kn[n z neutral e/]s4 ,if1 h[ev]1 "s ( ! hydrog5 ( ! acid rema9 undisplac$1 !n acid e/]s result4 ,^! acid e/]s reta9 "s ( ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( ! acids1 =m+1 = example1 salts1 ) basic oxides4 ,e/]s may be prep>$ by heat+ ! silv] salt ( an acid ) an alkyl iodide2 by heat+ ! alcohols or alcoholates ) an acid *loride2 by di/ill+ ! anhydr\s sodium salt ( an acid ) a mixture ( ! alcohol & conc5trat$ sulphuric acid2 or by heat+ = "s h\rs on ! wat] ba?1 a mixture ( an acid & an alcohol1 ) a small quantity ( hydro*loric or sulphuric acids 7,e4 ,fis*] & ,a4 ,spei]1 ,b]41 #ahif1 #bh1 p4 #cbeb74 ,! e/]s ( ! aliphatic & aromatic acids are col\rless neutral liquids1 :i* are g5]ally insoluble 9 wat]1 b readily dissolve 9 alcohol & e!r4 ,_m possess a fragrant od\r & are prep>$ 9 l>ge quantities = use z artificial fruit ess5ces4 ,!y hydrolyse readily :5 boil$ ) solutions ( cau/ic alkalies or m9]al acids1 yield+ ! con/itu5t acid & alcohol4 ,:5 heat$ ) ammonia1 !y yield acid amides 7q4v474 ,!y =m un/able addition products ) sodium e?ylate or me?ylate4 ,) ! ,grign>d reag5t1 !y =m addition comp\nds :i* on ! addition ( wat] yield t]ti>y alcohols1 except 9 ! case ( e?yl =mate1 :]e a second>y alcohol is obta9$4 ,o,mg,br ,o,mg,br ,r' _/ _/ ,r4,,co#b;,c#b;,h#e -- ,r4,c--,,oc#b;,h#e -- ,r4,c--,r' -- ,r'--,c4,,oh4 _/ ,r' ,r' ,r' ,o,mg,br ,o,mg,br ,r' _/ _/ ,h4,,co#b;,c#b;,h#e -- ,h4,c--,,oc#b;,h#e -- ,h4,c--,r' -- ,,*4,,oh4 _/ ,r' ,r' ,r' ,n4 ,m5s*utk9 7,b]41 #ahhb1 #ae1 p4 #adde2 ,ann41 #ahgi1 #aie1 p4 #ccd7 exam9$ ! rate ( e/]ification ( _m acids ) alcohols4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! normal prim>y alcohols 7 all e/]ifi$ at ab\t ! same rate1 ! second>y alcohols m sl[ly ?an ! prim>y1 & ! t]ti>y alcohols /ill m sl[ly4 ,! inve/igation also %[$ t ! nature ( ! acid us$ affect$ ! result1 = 9 an homolog\s s]ies ( acids x 0 f\nd t z ! molecule ( ! acid became m complex1 ! rate ( e/]ification became less4 ,! =mation ( an e/] by ! int]action ( an acid ) an alcohol is a rev]sible or balanc$ action1 = z ,m4 ,b]!lot & ,l4 ,pean de ,/ ,gilles 7,ann4 ,*im4 ,phys41 #ahfb 7#c71 #fe1 p4 #che et seq47 h %[n 9 ! case ( ! =mation ( e?yl acetate f e?yl alcohol & acetic acid1 a po9t ( equilibrium is rea*$1 beyond :i* ! react+ sy/em _c pass1 unless ! sy/em be di/urb$ 9 "s way by ! removal ( "o ( ! products ( ! reaction4 ,v4 ,mey] 7,b]41 #ahid1 #bg1 p4 #eaj et seq47 %[$ t 9 b5z5oid comp\nds or?o-sub/itu5ts ex]t a great h9d]+ effect on ! e/]ification ( alcohols by acids 9 ! pres5ce ( hydro*loric acid1 ?is h9d]+ be+ p>ticul>ly m>k$ :5 two sub/itu5ts are pres5t 9 ! or?o positions to ! c>boxyl gr\p4 ,9 su* a case ! e/] is be/ prep>$ by ! action ( an alkyl halide on ! silv] salt ( ! acid1 & :5 once prep>$1 c only be hydrolys$ ) great difficulty4 ,e?yl =mate1 ,h4,,co#b;,c#b;,h#e1 boils at #ee deg4 ,c4 & has be5 us$ 9 ! artificial prep>ation ( rum4 ,e?yl acetate 7acetic e!r71 ,,*#c4;,,co#b;,c#b;,h#e1 boils at #ge deg4 ,c4 ,isoamylisoval]ate1 ,c#d;,h#i4;,,co#b;,c#e;,h#aa1 boils at #aif deg4 ,c4 & has an od\r ( apples4 ,e?yl butyrate1 ,c#c;,h#g4;,,co#b;,c#b;,h#e1 boils at #aba deg4 ,c4 & has an od\r ( p9eapple4 ,! fats 7q4v47 & waxes 7q4v47 are ! e/]s ( ! high] fatty acids & alcohols4 ,! e/]s ( ! high] fatty acids1 :5 di/ill$ "u atmosph]ic pressure1 are decompos$1 & yield an olef9e & a fatty acid4 ,e/]s ( ! m9]al acids are also kn[n & may be prep>$ by ! ord9>y me?ods z giv5 above4 ,! neutral e/]s are z a rule insoluble 9 wat] & di/il un*ang$2 on ! o!r h&1 ! acid e/]s are g5]ally soluble 9 wat]1 are non-volatile1 & =m salts ) bases4 ,e?yl hydrog5 sulphate 7sulphov9ic acid71 ,c#b;,h#e4;,,hso#d1 is obta9$ by ! action ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid on alcohol4 ,! e/] is sep>at$ f ! solution by means ( its b>ium salt1 & ! salt decompos$ by ! addition ( ! calculat$ am\nt ( sulphuric acid4 ,x is a col\rless oily liquid ( /rongly acid reaction2 its aque\s solution decomposes on /&+ & on heat+ x =ms die?yl sulphate & sulphuric acid4 ,dime?yl sulphate1 7,,*#c7b,,s#d1 is a col\rless liquid :i* boils at #ahg deg4-#ahh deg4 ,c41 ) p>tial decomposition4 ,x is us$ z a me?ylat+ ag5t 7,f4 ,ullmann74 ,great c>e %\ld be tak5 9 us+ dime?yl & die?yl sulphates1 z ! respiratory organs are affect$ by ! vap\rs1 lead+ to sev]e attacks ( pneumonia4 ,e?yl nitrate1 ,c#b;,h#e4,,ono#b1 is a col\rless liquid :i* boils at #hf4c deg4 ,c4 ,x is prep>$ by ! action ( nitric acid on e?yl alcohol 7"s urea be+ add$ to ! nitric acid1 9 ord] to de/roy any nitr\s acid t might be produc$ 9 second>y reactions & :i*1 if n remov$1 w\ld cause explosive decomposition ( ! e?yl nitrate74 ,x burns ) a :ite flame & is soluble 9 wat]4 ,:5 heat$ ) ammonia x yields e?ylam9e nitrate1 & :5 r$uc$ ) t9 & hydro*loric acid x =ms hydroxylam9e 7q4v47 7,w4,c4 ,loss574 ,e?yl nitrite1 ,c#b;,h#e4,,ono1 is a liquid :i* boils at #ah deg4 ,c42 ! crude product obta9$ by di/ill+ a mixture ( alcohol1 sulphuric & nitric acids & copp] turn+s is us$ 9 m$ic9e "u ! "n ( sweet spirits ( nitre4 ,amyl nitrite1 ,c#e;,h#aa4,,ono1 boils at #if deg4 ,c4 & is us$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ! anhydr\s diazonium salts 7,e4 ,knoev5agel1 ,b]41 #ahij1 #bc1 p4 #bjid74 ,x is also us$ 9 m$ic9e4 ,,e/h]4 ,! ,book ( ,e/h]1 9 ! ,bible1 relates h[ a ,jewi% maid51 ,e/h]1 c\s9 & fo/]-daught] ( ,mordecai1 0 made 8 que5 by ! ,p]sian k+ ,ahasu]us 7,x]xes7 aft] he _h divorc$ ,va%ti2 next1 h[ ,e/h] & ,mordecai fru/rat$ ,haman's endeav\r to extirpate ! ,jews2 h[ ,haman1 ! gr&-vizi]1 fell1 & ,mordecai succe$$ him2 h[ ,e/h] obta9$ ! k+'s p]mission = ! ,jews to de/roy all :o might attack !m on ! day :i* ,haman _h appo9t$ by lot = _! de/ruction2 & la/ly1 h[ ! fea/ ( ,purim 7,lots87 0 in/itut$ to commemorate _! deliv]ance4 ,frequ5t incid5tal ref]5ces are made to ,p]sian c\rt-usages 7explanations are giv5 9 i4 #ac1 viii4 #h71 :ile on ! o!r h& ! religi\s rites ( ! ,jews 7except fa/+71 & ev5 ,j]usalem & ! temple1 & ! "n ( ,israel1 are /udi\sly ignor$4 ,ev5 ! "n ( ,god is n once m5tion$1 p]haps f a dread ( its pr(anation dur+ ! ,saturnalia ( ,purim4 ,! e>ly popul>ity ( ! book is %[n by ! int]polat$ passages 9 ! ,septuag9t & ! ,old ,lat9 v]sions4 ,! criticism ( ,e/h] began 9 ! #ah? c5tury4 ,z soon z ! que/ion+ _s arose1 ! /rang5ess ( _m /atem5ts 9 ! book leap$ into view4 ,a mod]ate s*ol> ( our day c f9d no hi/orical nucleus1 & calls x a sort ( hi/orical romance4#a ,! v fir/ v]ses 9 ! book />tle ! read] by _! exagg]ations1 e4g4 a banquet la/+ #ahj days1 #abg prov9ces4 ,f>!r on1 ! improbabilities ( ! plot are noticeable4 ,e/h]1 on h] elevation1 keeps h] ,jewi% orig9 secret 7ii4 #aj2 cf4 vii4 #c ff471 al?\gh %e has be5 tak5 f ! h\se ( h] uncle1 :o is kn[n to be a ,jew 7iii4 #d2 cf4 vi4 #ac71 & has rema9$ 9 con/ant int]c\rse ) him 7ii4 #aa1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb2 cf4 iv4 #d-ag74 ,we are fur!r told t ! gr&-vizi] 0 an ,agagite or ,amalekite 7iii4 #a1 c472 w\ld ! nobility ( ,p]sia h tol]at$ ?is8 ,or did ,haman too keep 8 non-,p]sian orig9 secret8 ,also t ,mordecai (f]$ a gross affront to ,haman1 = :i* no slight] puni%m5t w\ld satisfy ,haman ?an ! de/ruction ( ! :ole ,jewi% race 7iii4 #b-f74 ,( ?is savage design elev5 mon?s' notice is giv5 7iii4 #ab-ad72 & :5 ! dang] has be5 av]t$ by ! clev]ness ( ,e/h]1 ! prov9cial ,jews are all[$ to but*] #ge1jjj1 & ^? 9 ! capital #hjj ( _! ,p]sian fell[-subjects 7ix4 #f-af74 ,x is urg$1 on ! o!r h&1 t ! assembly m5tion$ 9 i4 #c may be t ref]r$ to by ,h]odotus 7vii4 #h7 z hav+ prec$$ ! exp$ition aga9/ ,greece4 ,?is hypo!sis1 h[ev]1 requires u to suppose t ,x]xes _h return$ f ,s>dis to ,susa by ! t5? mon? ( ! sev5? ye> ( 8 reign1 :i* is b>ely cr$ible4 ,9 ! reckon+ ( #abg prov9ces 7cf4 ,dan4 vi4 #a2 #a ,esd4 iii4 #b7 satrapies & sub-satrapies may be conf\nd$4 ,x is at any rate correct to include ,india among ! prov9ces2 ?is is ju/ifi$1 n only by ,h]odotus 7iii4 #id71 b by ! inscriptions ( ,d>ius at ,p]sepolis & ,nak%-i-,ru/am4 ,h]odotus aga9 7vii4 #h7 confirms ! cu/om ref]r$ to 9 ,e/h4 ii4 #ab4 ,b :at au?ority c make ! conduct ( ,mordecai cr$ible8 ,to-day ! h>em is imp5etrable1 :ile any "o decl9+ to /& z ! gr&-vizi] passes is almo/ beat5 to dea?4#b ,?is1 surely1 is :at a real ,mordecai w\ld h suff]$ f a real ,haman4 ,ev5 ! caprici\s ,x]xes w\ld nev] h p]mitt$ ! entire de/ruction ( "o ( ! races ( ! empire1 nor w\ld a vizi] h propos$ x4 ,s]i\s difficulties ( ano!r k9d rema94 ,mordecai is repres5t$ z a fell[-captive ( ,jeconiah 7#eig ,b4,c471 & gr&-vizi] 9 ,x]xes's twelf? ye> 7#dgd ,b4,c476 ,?is is p>allel to ! /range /atem5t 9 ,tobit xiv4 #ae4 ,& h[ c we f9d room = ,e/h] z que5 by ! side ( ,ame/ris 7,h]od4 vii4 #ad1 ix4 #aab78 ,h[1 too1 c a ,jewess h be5 a legal que5 7see ,h]od4 iii4 #hd78 ,!n take ! suppos$ ,p]sian prop] names4 ,ahasu]us may no d\bt /&1 b v few ( ! re/ 7see ,noldeke1 ,ency4 ,bib4 col4 #adjb74 ,z to ! /yle1 ! g5]al v]dict is t x po9ts to a late date 7see ,driv]1 ,introd4#f1 p4 #dhd74 ,altoge!r1 critics decl9e to date ! book e>li] ?an ! #crd or ev5 #bnd c5tury ,b4,c4 ,s f> we h only be5 c>ry+ on #ah?-c5tury criticism4 ,9 m rec5t ye>s1 h[ev]1 new l9es ( inquiry h be5 op5$ up4 ,fir/ ( all by ! great ,semitic s*ol> ,lag>de4 ,8 !sis 7seldom def5d$ n[7 0 t ,purim corresponds to ,furdigan1 ! "n ( ! old ,p]sian ,new ,ye>'s & ,all ,s\ls' fe/ival held 9 spr+1 on :i* ! ,p]sians 7 wont to ex*ange pres5ts 7cf4 ,e/h4 ix4 #ai74 ,9 #ahia came a new explanation ( ,e/h] f ,zimm]n4 ,x is true t 9 its e>li] =m 8 !ory 0 v incomplete4 ,b 9 ju/ice to ?is s*ol> we may notice t f ! fir/ he look$ = light to ,babylonia1 & t _m o!r critics n[ take up ! same position4 ,!re is also ano!r new po9t :i* has to be m5tion$1 viz4 t1 judg+ f our exp]i5ce else:]e1 ! ,book ( ,e/h] has probably pass$ ?r\gh v>i\s /ages ( developm5t4 ,"h1 !n1 are two po9ts :i* call = inve/igation1 viz4 7#a7 a possible my?ological elem5t 9 ,e/h]1 & 7#b7 possible /ages ( developm5t prior to t repres5t$ by ! ,hebrew text4 ,z to ! fir/ po9t4 ,! ,second ,t>gum 7on ,e/h4 ii4 #g7 long ago decl>$ t ,e/h] 0 s call$ because %e 0 l ! planet ,v5us4 ,rec5t s*ol>s h express$ ! same idea m critically4 ,e/h] is a modification ( ,i%t>1 ! "n ( ! ,babylonian goddess ( f]tility & ( ! planet ,v5us1 ^: my? mu/ h be5 p>tially kn[n to ! ,israelites ev5 9 pre-exilic times1#c & aft] ! fall ( ! /ate mu/ h acquir$ a /ill /rong] hold on ,jewi% exiles4 ,a g5]al k ( ! my? ( ,m>duk among ! ,israelites _c inde$ be prov$4 ,s+ul>ly en\gh1 ! ,babylonian coloni/s 9 ! cities ( ,sam>ia are said to h made idols1 n ( ,m>duk1 b ( a deity call$ ,succo?-b5o?#d 7#b ,k+s xvii4 #cj74 ,nor does ! ,second ,t>gum help u "h2 x gives a wild explanation ( ,mordecai z pure myrrh4 ,/ill x is pla9 t ! "n ( ! god ,m>duk 7,m]oda*7 0 kn[n to ! ,jews1 & ! ,cosmogony 9 ,g54 i4 is consid]$ by critics to h ultimately aris5 out ( ! my? ( ,m>duk's conflict ) ! dragon 7see ,,cosmogony74 ,at any rate ! "n ,mordecai 7! vocalization is unc]ta97 looks v mu* l ,m>duk1 :i*1 ) t]m9ations add$1 (t5 occurs 9 cunei=m docum5ts z a p]sonal "n4#e ,add to ?is1 t1 accord+ to ,j5s51 ,i%t> 9 my?ology 0 ! c\s9 ( ,m>duk1 j z ! leg5d repres5ts ,e/h] z ! c\s9 ( ,mordecai4#f ,! same s*ol> also acc\nts = ,e/h]'s o!r "n ,hadassah 7,e/h4 ii4 #g72 hadas%atu 9 ,babylonian means bride1 :i* may h be5 a title ( ,i%t>4 ,b we _c /op %ort "h4 ,unless ! my?ological key c also expla9 ,haman & ,va%ti1 x is ( no use4 ,j5s51 n[ foll[$ by ,zimm]n1 is equal to ! occasion4 ,haman1 he says1 is a corruption ( ,hamman or ,humman or ,uman1 ! "n ( ! *ief deity ( ! ,elamites1 9 ^: capital 7,susa7 ! sc5e ( ! n>rative is laid1 :ile ,va%ti is ,ma%ti 7or ,va%ti71 probably ! "n ( an ,elamite goddess4 ,foll[+ ! real or fanci$ light ( ^! names1 ,pr(4 ,j5s5 holds t ! ,e/h]-leg5d is bas$ on a my?ological acc\nt ( ! victory ( ! ,babylonian deities ov] ^? ( ,elam1 :i* 9 pla9 prose means ! deliv]ance ( anci5t ,babylonia f its ,elamite oppressors1 & t su* an acc\nt 0 closely connect$ ) ! ,babylonian ,new ,ye>'s fe/ival1 call$ ,zagmuk1 j z ! ,e/h]-leg5d is connect$ ) ! fe/ival ( ,purim4 ,we are b\nd1 h[ev]1 to m5tion "s critical objections4 7#a7 ,! ,babylonian fe/ival correspond+ to ,purim 0 n ! spr+ fe/ival ( ,zagmuk1 b ! summ] fe/ival ( ,i%t>1 :i* is probably ! ,sacaea ( ,b]ossus1 an orgia/ic fe/ival analog\s to ,purim4 7#b7 ,accord+ to ,j5s5's !ory1 ,mordecai1 & n ,e/h]1 ought to be ! direct cause ( ,haman's ru94 7#c7 ,no su* ,babylonian acc\nt z ,j5s5 po/ulates c be indicat$4 7#d7 ,! id5tifications ( names are haz>d\s4 ,fancy a desc5dant ( ,ki% call$ ,m>duk1 & an ,agagite call$ ,hamman6 ,else:]e ,mordecai 7,ezra ii4 #b2 ,neh4 vii4 #g7 occurs among names :i* are c]ta9ly n ,p]sian 7,bigvai is no exception71 & ,haman 7,tobit xiv4 #aj7 appe>s z a nephew ( ,a*ia*>1 :i* is n a ,p]sian "n4 ,e/h]1 moreov]1 ought to be p>allel to ,judi?2 fancy lik5+ ! repres5tative ( ,israel to ! goddess ,i%t>6 ,next1 z to ! prelim9>y lit]>y phases ( ,e/h]4 ,su* phases are probable1 consid]+ ! lat] phases repres5t$ 9 ! ,septuag9t4 ,!re may h once exi/$ 9 ,hebrew a /ory ( ! deadly feud betwe5 ,mordecai 7if t be ! orig9al "n7 & ,haman1 ) elem5ts sugge/$ by ! /ory ( ! battle betwe5 ! ,supreme ,god & ! dragon 7see ,,cosmogony74 ,z ! leg5d /&s1 ,mordecai & ,e/h] seem to be 9 ea* o!r's way4 ,9 a passage 7i4 #e 9 ,,lxx47 only f\nd 9 ! ,septuag9t1 b :i* may h belong$ to ! orig9al ,e/h]1 ref]5ce is made to a dream ( ,mordecai respect+ two great dragons1 i4e4 ,mordecai & ,haman 7x4 #g74 ,?is seems to confirm ! view "h m5tion$4 ,if s1 h[ev]1 !re mu/ also h be5 an ,e/h]-leg5d1 :i* 0 aft]w>ds work$ up ) t ( ,mordecai4 ,?is is1 9 fact1 ! view ( ,erbt4 ,w9ckl] takes a diff]5t l9e4 ,l+ui/ic facts & c]ta9 po9ts 9 ! cont5ts seem to him to %[ t our ,e/h] is a "w ( ! age ( ! ,seleucidae2 m precisely he ?9ks ( ! "t ( ! revolt ( ,molon "u ,antio*us ,,iii4 ,( c\rse !re 0 a ,book ( ,e/h] be=e ?is1 & ev5 9 its r$act$ =m our ,e/h] reflects ! p]iod ( ?ree ,p]sian k+s1 viz4 ,cyrus1 ,cambyses & ,d>ius4 ,la/ly1 ,*eyne 7,ency4 ,bib4 ,purim1 ,s #g71 :ile agree+ ) ,w9ckl] t ! book is bas$ on an e>li] n>rative1 holds t t e>li] text diff]$ m widely f ! pres5t 9 its geographical & hi/orical sett+ ?an ,w9ckl] seems to suppose4 ,! problem ( ! orig9 ( ! "n ,purim1 h[ev]1 c h>dly be said to h receiv$ a f9al solution4 ,,bibliography4--,ku551 ,hi/ory ( ,israel1 iii4 7#ahge71 #adh-aec2 ,lag>de1 ,purim 7#ahhg72 ,zimm]n 9 ,/ade's ,zeits*rift1 xi4 7#ahia71 pp4 #aeg-afi1 & ,keil9s*rift5 und das ,alte ,te/am5t7#c71 #dhe1 #eae-ebj1 ,j5s5 9 ,wildebo]'s ,e/h] 79 ,m>ti's s]ies1 #ahih71 pp4 #agc-age2 ,w9ckl]1 ,keil9s*rift5 und das ,alte ,te/am5t7#c71 p4 #bhh1 ,altori5talis*e ,=s*ung51 #crd s]4 i4 #a-fd2 ,erbt1 ,die ,purimsage 7#aijj72 ,ency4 ,biblica1 articles ,e/h] & ,purim 7a composite article74 7,t4 ,k4 ,c47 ,,additions ,,to ,,book ,,( ,,e/h]4 ,^! additions 7 writt5 orig9ally 9 ,greek & subsequ5tly int]polat$ 9 ! ,greek translation ( ! ,book ( ,e/h]4 ,"h ! pr9ciple ( int]polation has rea*$ its maximum4 ,( #bgj v]ses1 #ajg are n to be f\nd 9 ! ,hebrew text4 ,^! additions are di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! book 9 ! ,greek1 b 9 ! ,lat9 ,bible !y 7 relegat$ to ! end ( ! canonical book by ,j]ome--an action t has r5d]$ !m mean+less4 ,9 ! ,greek ! additions =m ) ! canonical text a consecutive hi/ory4 ,!y 7 made probably 9 ! "t ( ! ,maccabees1 & _! aim 0 to supply ! religi\s elem5t :i* is s completely lack+ 9 ! canonical "w4 ,! fir/1 :i* gives ! dream ( ,mordecai & ! ev5ts :i* l$ to 8 advancem5t at ! c\rt ( ,artax]xes1 prec$es *ap4 i4 ( ! canonical text3 ! second & fif?1 :i* foll[ iii4 #ac & viii4 #ab1 furni% copies ( ! lett]s ( ,artax]xes ref]r$ to 9 ^! v]ses2 ! ?ird & f\r?1 :i* are ins]t$ aft] *ap4 iv41 consi/ ( ! pray]s ( ,mordecai & ,e/h]1 ) an acc\nt ( ,e/h]'s approa* to ! k+4 ,! la/1 :i* closes ! book1 tells ( ! in/itution ( ! fea/ ( ,purim4 ,! ,greek text appe>s 9 two widely-diff]+ rec5sions4 ,! "o is support$ by ,,ab,hebrew3 alef1 & ! o!r--a revision ( ! fir/--by codices #ai1 #ic;a1 #ajh;b4 ,! latt] is believ$ to h be5 ! "w ( ,lucian4 ,swete1 ,old ,te/4 9 ,greek1 ii4 #gee1 has giv5 ! =m]1 :ile ,lag>de has publi%$ bo? texts ) critical annotations 9 8 ,librorum ,vet]is ,te/am5ti ,canonicorum1 i4 #ejd-eda 7#ahhc71 & ,s*olz 9 8 ,komm5t> ub] das ,bu* ,e/h] 7#ahib74 ,= an acc\nt ( ! ,lat9 & ,syriac v]sions1 ! ,t>gums1 & ! lat] ,rabb9ic lit]ature connect$ ) ?is subject1 & o!r que/ions relat+ to ^! additions1 see ,fritzs*e1 ,exeget4 ,h&bu* zu d5 ,apok4 7#ahea71 i4 #fg-ajh2 ,s*ur]7#c71 iii4 #ccj-ccb2 ,full] 9 ,speak]'s ,apocr4 i4 #cfj-djb2 ,ryssel 9 ,kautzs*'s ,apok4 u4 ,pseud4 i4 #aic-bab2 ,siegfri$ 9 ,jewi% ,encyc4 v4 #bcg sqq42 ,swete1 ,introd4 to ! ,old ,te/4 9 ,greek1 #beg seq42 ,l4,b4 ,paton1 ,a ,text-,critical ,app>atus to ! ,book ( ,e/h] 9 ,o4,t4 & ,semitic ,/udies 9 ,memory ( ,w4,r4 ,h>p] 7,*icago1 #aijh74 7,r4 ,h4 ,c47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,kautzs*1 ,old ,te/am5t ,lit]ature 7#ahih71 p4 #acj4 #b ,s ,mori]1 ! ,engli% m9i/] to ! ,p]sian c\rt1 quot$ by ,dean ,/anley4 #c ,see ,zimm]n1 ,die ,keil9s*rift5 und das ,alte ,te/47#c71 p4 #dch4 #d ,ibid4 p4 #cif4 #e ,johns1 ,assyrian ,de$s1 iii4 #aih-aii2 ,am]4 ,j\rn4 ( ,sem4 ,languages 7,april #aijb71 p4 #aeh4 #f ,s too ,zimm]n1 9 ,gunkel's ,s*opfung und ,*aos1 p4 #cac1 note #b4 ,,e/honia 7,g]4 ,eh/l& & ,e/hl&1 ,e/honian ,ee/imaa & ,meie-maa1 also ,viroma & ,rahvama2 ,letti% ,iggaun ,s5na71 a ,baltic prov9ce ( ,russia1 /ret*+ along ! s\? coa/ ( ! ,gulf ( ,f9l&1 & hav+ ,lake ,peipus & ,livonia on ! ,s4 & ! gov]nm5t ( ,/ ,pet]sburg on ! ,e4 ,an ar*ipelago ( isl&s1 ( :i* ,dago is ! l>ge/1 belongs to ?is gov]nm5t 7,oesel belongs to ,livonia74 ,! area is #ghah sq4 m41 #ejc sq4 m4 ( ?is be+ insul>4 ,! surface is l[1 n exce$+ #ajj ft4 9 altitude along ! coa/ & alongside ,lake ,peipus1 :ile 9 ! int]ior ! av]age elevation ranges f #bjj to #cjj ft41 & n[h]e exce$s #dej ft4 ,x 0 entirely cov]$ ) ! bottom mora9e ( ! great ice-%eet ( ! ,glacial ,epo*1 re/+ ^u ,silurian s&/ones & lime/ones4 ,9 places s&s & clays ov]lie ! glacial deposits4 ,! pr9cipal /ream is ! ,n>ova1 :i* issues f ,lake ,peipus1 fl[s along ! ea/]n bord]1 & empties into ! ,gulf ( ,f9l&4 ,! o!r dra9age art]ies are all small1 b _m 9 numb]2 :ile lakes & m>%es aggregate fully #bb-a_/b ( ! total surface4 ,! climate is sev]e1 great cold be+ exp]i5c$ 9 w9t]1 ?\gh moi/ we/ w9ds ex]cise a mod]at+ influ5ce4 ,nev]!less ! annual mean temp]ature ranges betwe5 #ci deg4 & #dc deg4 ,fahr4 ,9 #ahgh ! nobility1 mo/ly ( ,g]man desc5t1 own$ & f>m$ #eb ( ! l&2 #db 0 f>m$1 b n own$1 by ! peasants1 mo/ly ,e/hs or ,eh/s1 & only #c 0 own$ by p]sons outside ! ranks ( ! nobility4 ,s9ce !n "o-f\r? ( ! peasantry h be5 enabl$ to pur*ase _! hold+s1 m ?an half a million acres hav+ pass$ into _! possession4 ,agriculture is ! *ief occupation1 & x is1 on all ! l>g] hold+s1 c>ri$ on ) great] sci5tific k ?an 9 any o!r "p ( ,russia4 ,( ! total area ab\t #af4f is "u cultivation2 mead[s & grass-l&s am\nt to #da4g2 & =e/s cov] #ai4 ,! pr9cipal crops are rye1 oats1 b>ley & potatoes1 ) l>ge quantities ( vegetables4 ,cattle-bre$+ fl\ri%es1 & meat & butt] are con/antly increas+ items ( export4 ,! manufactories consi/ *iefly ( di/ill]ies 7ov] #ac1ejj1jjj gallons annually71 cotton 7at ,kranholm falls on ! ,n>ova71 wooll51 fl\r1 pap] & saw mills1 iron & ma*9]y works1 & mat* factories4 ,fi%+ is active along ! coa/1 especially = an*ovies4 ,! prov9ce is int]sect$ by a railway runn+ f ,/ ,pet]sburg to ,reval1 ) bran*es f ! latt] city we/w>ds to ,baltic ,port & s\?w>ds into ,livonia1 & f ,taps s\? to ,yuryev 7,dorpat74 ,! *ief seaports are ,reval1 ,baltic ,port1 ,hapsal1 ,kunda & ,dago4 ,e/honia is divid$ into f\r di/ricts1 ! *ief t[ns ( :i* are ,reval 7pop4 9 #ahig1 #ff1bib71 ! capital ( ! prov9ce2 ,hapsal1 a lively wat]+-place 7#cbch72 ,weiss5/e9 7#beji72 & ,wes5b]g 7#eefj74 ,! population1 :i* consi/s *iefly ( ,eh/es 7#cfe1iei 9 #ahig71 ,russians 7#ah1jjj71 ,g]mans 7#af1jjj71 ,sw$es 7#ehjj71 & "s ,jews1 is gr[+ fairly fa/3 9 #ahgj x numb]$ #cbc1ifj1 & 9 #ahig #dac1gdg1 ( :om #baj1aii 7 wom5 & #gf1cae liv$ 9 t[ns2 9 #aijf x 0 e/imat$ at #dea1gjj4 ,n9ety-six p] c5t4 ( ! :ole belong to ! ,lu!ran ,*ur*4 ,education is1 = ,russia1 relatively high4 ,! ,e/hs1 ,eh/s or ,e/honians1 :o call !mselves ,tallopoeg & ,maamees1 are kn[n to ! ,russians z ,*ukhni or ,*ukhontsi1 to ! ,letts z ,iggauni1 & to ! ,f9ns z ,virolaiset4 ,!y belong to ! ,f9ni% family1 & consequ5tly to ! ,ural-,altaic division ( ! human race4 ,altoge!r !y numb] close ^u "o million1 & are ?us di/ribut$3 #cfe1iei 9 ,e/honia 79 #ahig71 #eah1eid 9 ,livonia1 #fd1aaf 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ,/ ,pet]sburg1 #be1deh 9 t ( ,pskov1 & #ab1hee 9 o!r p>ts ( ,russia4 ,z a race !y exhibit manife/ evid5ces ( _! ,ural-,altaic or ,mongolic desc5t 9 _! %ort /ature1 abs5ce ( be>d1 oblique eyes1 broad face1 l[ =ehead & small m\?4 ,9 addition to t !y are an "u-siz$1 ill-?riv5 p1 ) long arms & ?91 %ort legs4 ,!y cl+ t5aci\sly to _! native language1 :i* is closely alli$ to ! ,f9ni%1 & divisible into two1 or accord+ to "s au?orities into ?ree1 pr9cipal dialects--,dorpat ,e/honian & ,reval ,e/honian1 ) ,p]nau ,e/honian4 ,reval ,e/honian1 :i* pres]ves m c>efully ! full inflectional =ms & pays great] att5tion to ! laws ( euphony1 is recogniz$ z ! lit]>y language4 ,s9ce #ahgc ! cultivation ( _! "m-tongue has be5 s$ul\sly promot$ by an ,e/honian ,lit]>y ,society 7,ee/i ,korjamee/e ,selts71 :i* publi%es ,toimetus$1 or ,in/ructions 9 all sorts ( subjects4 ,!y h a decid$ love ( poetry1 & exhibit great facility 9 improvis+ v]ses & poems on all occasions1 & !y s+1 ev]y:]e1 f morn+ to night4 ,l ! ,f9ns !y possess ri* /ores ( national songs4 ,^!1 :i* be> an unmi/akable family lik5ess to ^? ( ! great ,f9ni% epic ( ! ,kalevala1 7 collect$ z ! ,kalevi ,poeg1 & edit$ by ,kreutswald 7#aheg71 & translat$ into ,g]man by ,re9?al 7#aheg-ahei7 & ,b]tram 7#ahfa7 & by ,l[e 7#aijj74 ,o!r collections ( ,e/hnis*e ,volksli$] h be5 publi%$ by ,neuss 7#ahej-aheb7 & ,kreutzwald & ,neuss 7#ahed72 :ile ,kreutzwald 7#ahff7 & ,janns5 7#ahhh7 h publi%$ collections ( leg5ds & national tales4 ,! e>lie/ publication 9 ,e/honian 0 a ,lu!ran cate*ism 9 ! #af? c5tury4 ,an ,e/honian translation ( ! ,new ,te/am5t 0 pr9t$ at ,reval 9 #agae4 ,betwe5 #ahac & #ahcb !re appe>$ at ,p]nau tw5ty volumes ( ,beitrage zur g5au]n ,k5ntniss d] e/hnis*5 ,spra*e1 by ,ros5plant]1 & f #ahdj onw>ds _m valuable pap]s on ,e/honian subjects 7 contribut$ to ! ,v]h&lung5 d] gelehrt5 e/hnis*5 ,gesells*aft zu ,dorpat4 ,f4,j4 ,wi$emann1 :o lab\r$ indefatigably 9 ! regi/ration & pres]vation ( matt]s connect$ ) ,e/honian language & lore1 publi%$ an ,e/hnis*-deuts*es ,wort]bu* 7#ahfe2 #bnd ed4 by ,hurt1 #ahia1 c471 & 9 #aijc !re appe>$ at ,reval a ,deuts*-e/hnis*es ,wort]bu*1 by ,ploompun & ,kann4 ,! ,e/honians fir/ appe> 9 hi/ory z a w>like & pr$atory race1 ! t]ror ( ! ,baltic seam5 9 consequ5ce ( _! piracies4 ,m ?an "o ( ! ,dani% k+s made s]i\s attempts to subdue !m4 ,canute ,,vi4 invad$ _! c\ntry 7#aaid-aaif7 & =c$ baptism ^u _m ( !m1 b no soon] did 8 w>-%ips disappe> ?an !y rev]t$ to _! =m] hea!nism4 ,9 #abai ,waldem> ,,ii4 und]took a m =midable crusade aga9/ !m1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* he f\nd$ ! t[n & episcopal see ( ,reval4 ,by 8 ef=ts ! nor!rn portion ( ! race 7 made submissive to ! ,dani% cr[n2 b1 ?\gh conqu]$1 !y 7 by no means subdu$1 & 7 incessantly 9 revolt1 until1 aft] a great rebellion 9 #acdc1 ,waldem> ,,iv4 ,att]dag sold = #ai1jjj m>ks 8 portion ( ,e/honia 9 #acdf1 to ! ord] ( ! ,knights ( ! ,sword4 ,^! ,g]man crusad]s _h already1 aft] a qu>t] ( a c5tury's fight+1 9 #abbd ga9$ possession ( ! regions inhabit$ by ! s\!rn portion ( ! race1 t is ^? n[ includ$ 9 ,livonia4 ,f t "t = ne>ly six hundr$ ye>s or m ! ,e/honians 7 practically r$uc$ to a /ate ( s]fdom to ! ,g]man l&[n]s4 ,9 #aeba ! nobles & cities ( ,e/honia volunt>ily plac$ !mselves "u ! protection ( ! cr[n ( ,sw$52 b aft] ! w>s ( ,*>les ,,xii41 ,e/honia 0 =mally c$$ to 8 victori\s rival1 ,pet] ! ,great1 by ! peace ( ,ny/ad 7#agba74 ,s]fdom 0 aboli%$ 9 #ahag by ,ts> ,alex&] ,i42 b ! condition ( ! peasants 0 s little improv$ t !y rose 9 op5 revolt 9 #ahei4 ,s9ce #ahgh1 h[ev]1 a va/ *ange = ! bett] has be5 effect$ 9 _! economic position 7see above74 ,! det]m9+ feature ( _! rec5t hi/ory has be5 ! attempt made by ! ,russian gov]nm5t 7s9ce #ahha7 & ! ,or?odox ,greek ,*ur* 7s9ce #ahhc7 to russify & conv]t ! inhabitants ( ! prov9ce1 ,g]mans & ,e/hs alike1 by en=c+ ! use ( ,russian 9 ! s*ools & by h>% & repressive measures aim$ at _! native language4 ,see ,m]kel1 ,die frei5 ,lett5 und ,e/h5 7#ahbj72 ,p>rot1 ,v]su* e9] ,entwickelung d] ,spra*e1 ,ab/ammung1 c41 d] ,liw51 ,latt51 ,ee/5 7#ahci72 ,f4 ,kruse1 ,urges*i*te des e/hnis*5 ,volks/ammes 7#ahdf72 ,wi$emann1 ,grammatik d] e/hnis*5 ,spra*e 7#ahge71 & ,aus dem inn]n und auss]n ,leb5 d] ,e/h5 7#ahgf72 ,kopp51 ,die ,bewohn] ,e/hl&s 7#ahdg72 ,f4 ,mull]1 ,beitrage zur ,orographie und ,hydrographie von ,e/hl& 7#ahfi-ahga72 ,bunge1 ,das ,h]zog?um ,e/hl& unt] d5 ,konig5 von ,danem>k 7#ahgg72 & ,s]aphim1 ,ges*i*te ,liv-1 ,e/-1 und ,kurl&s 7#bnd ed41 #ahig7 & v>i\s pap]s 9 ! ,f9nis*-,ugris*e ,=s*ung54 7,p4 ,a4 ,k42 ,j4 ,t4 ,be42 ,c4 ,el47 ,,e/i5ne 7or ,,eti5ne2 ! ,fr5* =m ( ! "n2 angliciz$ to ,/eph5s1 & lat9iz$ to ,/ephanus71 a ,fr5* family ( s*ol>s & pr9t]s4 ,! f\nd] ( ! race 0 ,,h5ri ,,e/i5ne 7d4 #aebj71 ! scion ( a noble family ( ,prov5ce1 :o came to ,p>is 9 #aejb1 & soon aft]w>ds set up a pr9t+ e/abli%m5t at ! top ( ! rue ,sa9t-,jean de ,beauvais1 on ! hill ( ,sa9t-,g5evieve opposite ! law s*ool4 ,he di$ 9 #aebj1 &1 8 ?ree sons be+ m9ors1 ! bus9ess 0 c>ri$ on by 8 =eman ,simon de ,col9es1 :o 9 #aeba m>ri$ 8 wid[4 ,,rob]t ,,e/i5ne 7#aejc-aeei7 0 ,h5ri's second son4 ,aft] 8 fa!r's dea? he act$ z assi/ant to 8 /epfa!r1 & 9 ?is capacity sup]9t5d$ ! pr9t+ ( a ,lat9 edition ( ! ,new ,te/am5t 9 #afmo 7#aebc74 ,"s slight alt]ations :i* he _h introduc$ into ! text br\ght ^u him ! c5sures ( ! faculty ( !ology4 ,x 0 ! fir/ ( a long s]ies ( disputes betwe5 him & t body4 ,x appe>s t he _h intimate relations ) ! new ,evangelical prea*]s almo/ f ! beg9n+ ( ! movem5t1 & t soon aft] ?is "t he def9itely jo9$ ! ,re=m$ ,*ur*4 ,9 #aebf he ent]$ into possession ( 8 fa!r's pr9t+ e/abli%m5t1 & adopt$ z 8 device ! celebrat$ olive-tree 7a rem9isc5ce d\btless ( 8 gr&mo!r's family ( ,montolivet71 ) ! motto f ! epi/le to ! ,romans 7xi4 #bj71 ,noli altum sap]e1 sometimes ) ! addition s$ "t4 ,9 #aebh he m>ri$ ,p]rette1 a daught] ( ! s*ol> & pr9t] ,josse ,bade 7,jodocus ,badius71 & 9 ! same ye> he publi%$ 8 fir/ ,lat9 ,bible1 an edition 9 folio1 ^u :i* he _h be5 at "w = ! la/ f\r ye>s4 ,9 #aecb appe>$ 8 ,!saurus l+uae ,lat9ae1 a diction>y ( ,lat9 words & phrases1 ^u :i* = two ye>s he _h toil$ incessantly1 ) no o!r assi/ance ?an t ( ,?i]ry ( ,beauvais4 ,a second edition1 greatly enl>g$ & improv$1 appe>$ 9 #aecf1 & a ?ird1 /ill fur!r improv$1 9 #c vols4 folio1 9 #aedc4 ,?\gh ! ,!saurus is n[ sup]s$$1 its m]its mu/ n be =gott54 ,x 0 va/ly sup]ior to any?+ ( ! k9d t _h appe>$ be=e2 x =m$ ! basis ( future lab\rs1 & ev5 z late z #agcd 0 consid]$ wor?y ( be+ re-edit$4 ,9 #aeci ,rob]t 0 appo9t$ k+'s pr9t] = ,hebrew & ,lat91 an (fice to :i*1 aft] ! dea? ( ,conrad ,neob> 9 #aedj1 he unit$ t ( k+'s pr9t] = ,greek4 ,9 #aeda he 0 entru/$ by ,francis ,i4 ) ! task ( procur+ f ,claude ,g>amond1 ! engrav] & type-f\nd]1 ?ree sets ( ,greek type = ! royal press4 ,! middle size 7 ! fir/ ready1 & ) ^! ,rob]t pr9t$ ! editio pr9ceps ( ! ,ecclesia/icae ,hi/oriae ( ,eusebius & o!rs 7#aedd74 ,! smalle/ size 7 fir/ us$ = ! #afmo edition ( ! ,new ,te/am5t kn[n z ! ,o mirificam 7#aedf71 :ile ) ! l>ge/ size 0 pr9t$ ! magnific5t folio ( #aeej4 ,?is edition involv$ ! pr9t] 9 fre% disputes ) ! faculty ( !ology1 & t[>ds ! end ( ! foll[+ ye> he left 8 native t[n = ev]1 & took refuge at ,g5eva1 :]e he publi%$ 9 #aeeb a cau/ic & effective answ] to 8 p]secutors "u ! title ,ad c5suras !ologorum ,p>isi5sium1 quibus ,biblia a ,r4 ,/ephano1 ,typographo ,regio1 ex usa calumniose not>unt1 eiusdem ,r4 ,s4 responsio4 ,a ,fr5* translation1 :i* is rem>kable = ! excell5ce ( its /yle1 0 publi%$ by him 9 ! same ye> 7pr9t$ 9 ,r5\>d's ,annales de l'imprim]ie des ,e/i5ne74 ,at ,g5eva ,rob]t prov$ himself an ard5t p>tisan ( ,calv91 sev]al ( ^: works he publi%$4 ,he di$ !re on ! #g? ( ,septemb] #aeei4 ,x is by 8 "w 9 connexion ) ! ,bible1 & especially z an editor ( ! ,new ,te/am5t1 t he is on ! :ole be/ kn[n4 ,! text ( 8 ,new ,te/am5t ( #aeej1 ei!r 9 its orig9al =m or 9 su* slightly modifi$ =m z x assum$ 9 ! ,elzevir text ( #afcd1 rema9s to ?is day ! traditional text4 ,b ?is is due r to its typographical beauty ?an to any critical m]it4 ,! read+s ( ! fifte5 ,,mss4 :i* ,rob]t's son ,h5ri _h collat$ = ! purpose 7 m]ely introduc$ into ! m>g94 ,! text 0 /ill almo/ exactly t ( ,erasmus4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 ! fir/ edition ev] publi%$ ) a critical app>atus ( any sort4 ,( ! :ole ,bible ,rob]t pr9t$ elev5 editions--eight 9 ,lat91 two 9 ,hebrew & "o 9 ,fr5*2 :ile ( ! ,new ,te/am5t alone he pr9t$ twelve--five 9 ,greek1 five 9 ,lat9 & two 9 ,fr5*4 ,9 ! ,greek ,new ,te/am5t ( #aeea 7pr9t$ at ,g5eva7 ! pres5t division into v]ses 0 introduc$ = ! fir/ "t4 ,! editiones pr9cipes :i* issu$ f ,rob]t's press 7 eight 9 numb]1 viz4 ,eusebius1 includ+ ! ,praep>atio evangelica & ! ,demon/ratio evangelica z well z ! ,hi/oria ecclesia/ica already m5tion$ 7#aedd-aedf71 ,mos*opulus 7#aede71 ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus 7,febru>y #aedg71 ,alex&] ,trallianus 7,janu>y #aedh71 ,dio ,cassius 7,janu>y #aedh71 ,ju/9 ,m>tyr 7#aeea71 ,xiphil9us 7#aeea71 ,appian 7#aeea71 ! la/ be+ complet$1 aft] ,rob]t's dep>ture f ,p>is1 by 8 bro!r ,*>les1 & appe>+ "u 8 "n4 ,^! editions1 all 9 folio1 except ! ,mos*opulus1 :i* is 9 #dto1 are unrivall$ = beauty4 ,rob]t also pr9t$ num]\s editions ( ,lat9 classics1 ( :i* p]haps ! folio ,virgil ( #aecb is ! mo/ notewor?y1 & a l>ge quantity ( ,lat9 gramm>s & o!r educational works1 _m ( :i* 7 writt5 by ,matur9 ,cordi]1 8 fri5d & co-work] 9 ! cause ( humanism4 ,,*>les ,,e/i5ne 7#aejd or #aeje-aefd71 ! ?ird son ( ,h5ri1 01 l 8 bro!r ,rob]t1 a man ( consid]able le>n+4 ,aft] ! usual humani/ic tra9+ he /udi$ m$ic9e1 & took 8 doctor's degree at ,p>is4 ,he 0 = a "t tutor to ,jean ,anto9e de ,baif1 ! future poet4 ,9 #aeea1 :5 ,rob]t ,e/i5ne left ,p>is = ,g5eva1 ,*>les1 :o _h rema9$ a ,ca?olic1 took *>ge ( 8 pr9t+ e/abli%m5t1 & 9 ! same ye> 0 appo9t$ k+'s pr9t]4 ,9 #aefa he became bankrupt1 & he is said to h di$ 9 a debtors' prison4 ,8 pr9cipal works are ,pra$ium ,ru/icum 7#aeed71 a collection ( tracts :i* he _h compil$ f anci5t writ]s on v>i\s bran*es ( agriculture1 & :i* cont9u$ to be a fav\rite book d[n to ! end ( ! #ag? c5tury2 ,diction>ium hi/oricum ac poeticum 7#aeec71 ! fir/ ,fr5* encyclopa$ia2 ,!saurus ,cic]onianus 7#aeeg71 & ,de dissectione p>tium corporis humani libri tres1 ) well-drawn woodcuts 7#aedh74 ,he also publi%$ a translation ( an ,italian com$y1 ,gli ,+annati1 "u ! title ( ,le ,sacrifice 7#aedc2 republi%$ z ,les ,abusez1 #aedi71 :i* _h "s influ5ce on ! developm5t ( ,fr5* com$y2 & ,p>adoxes 7#aeec71 an imitation ( ! ,p>adossi ( ,ort5sio ,l&i4 ,,h5ri ,,e/i5ne 7#aeca-aeih71 sometimes call$ ,h5ri ,,ii41 0 ! elde/ son ( ,rob]t4 ,9 ! preface to 8 edition ( ,aulus ,gellius 7#aehe71 address$ to 8 son ,paul1 he gives an int]e/+ acc\nt ( 8 fa!r's h\sehold1 9 :i*1 ow+ to ! v>i\s nationalities ( ^? :o 7 employ$ on ! press1 ,lat9 0 us$ z a common language4 ,h5ri ?us pick$ up ,lat9 z a *ild1 b by 8 own reque/ he 0 all[$ to le>n ,greek z a s]i\s /udy be=e ,lat94 ,at ! age ( fifte5 he become a pupil ( ,pi]re ,danes1 at t "t ! fir/ ,greek s*ol> 9 ,france4 ,two ye>s lat] he began to att5d ! lectures ( ,jacques ,t\ssa91 "o ( ! royal pr(essors ( ,greek1 & 9 ! same ye> 7#aede7 0 employ$ by 8 fa!r to collate a ,,ms4 ( ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus4 ,9 #aedg he w5t to ,italy1 :]e he sp5t ?ree ye>s 9 hunt+ = & collat+ ,,mss4 & 9 int]c\rse ) le>n$ m54 ,9 #aeej he visit$ ,engl&1 :]e he 0 fav\rably receiv$ by ,edw>d ,,vi41 & !n ,fl&]s1 :]e he le>nt ,spani%4 ,9 #aeea he jo9$ 8 fa!r at ,g5eva1 :i* h5ce=? became 8 home4 ,9 #aeed he gave to ! _w1 z ! fir/ fruits ( 8 rese>*es1 two fir/ editions1 viz4 a tract ( ,dionysius ( ,halic>nassus & ! s-call$ ,anacreon4 ,9 #aeef he discov]$ at ,rome t5 new books 7xi4-xx47 ( ,diodorus ,siculus4 ,9 #aeeg he issu$ f ! press :i* 9 ! previ\s ye> he _h set up at ,g5eva ?ree fir/ editions1 viz4 ,a!nagoras1 ,maximus ,tyrius1 & "s fragm5ts ( ,greek hi/orians1 includ+ ,appian's ,greek3 ,annibalike1 & ,greek3 ,ib]ike & an edition ( ,aes*ylus1 9 :i* = ! fir/ "t ! ,agamemnon 0 pr9t$ 9 entirety & z a sep>ate play4 ,9 #aeei he pr9t$ a ,lat9 translation f 8 own p5 ( ,sextus ,empiricus1 & an edition ( ,diodorus ,siculus ) ! new books4 ,8 fa!r dy+ 9 ! same ye>1 he became "u 8 w own] ( 8 press1 subject1 h[ev]1 to ! condition ( keep+ x at ,g5eva4 ,9 #aeff he publi%$ 8 be/-kn[n ,fr5* "w1 ! ,apologie p\r ,h]odote1 or1 z he himself call$ x1 ,l',introduction au traite de la con=mite des m]veilles anci5nes avec les mod]nes ou ,traite prep>atif a l',apologie p\r ,h]odote4 ,"s passages be+ consid]$ objectionable by ! ,g5eva consi/ory1 he 0 compell$ to cancel ! pages conta9+ !m4 ,! book became highly popul>1 & )9 sixte5 ye>s twelve editions 7 pr9t$4 ,9 #aegb he publi%$ ! great "w ^u :i* he _h be5 lab\r+ = _m ye>s1 ! ,!saurus ,graecae l+uae1 9 #e vols4 fol4 ,! publication 9 #aegh ( 8 ,deux ,dialogues du n\veau francois ilalianize br\ght him into a fre% dispute ) ! consi/ory4 ,to avoid _! c5sure he w5t to ,p>is1 & resid$ at ! ,fr5* c\rt = a ye>4 ,on 8 return to ,g5eva he 0 summon$ be=e ! consi/ory1 &1 prov+ contumaci\s1 0 imprison$ = a week4 ,f ?is "t 8 life became m & m ( a nomad "o4 ,he is to be f\nd at ,basel1 ,heidelb]g1 ,vi5na1 ,pe/1 ev]y:]e b at ,g5eva1 ^! j\rneys be+ und]tak5 p>tly 9 ! hope ( procur+ patrons & pur*as]s1 = ! l>ge sums :i* he _h sp5t on su* publications z ! ,!saurus & ! ,plato ( #aegh _h almo/ ru9$ him4 ,8 press /ood ne>ly at a /&/ill4 ,a few editions ( classical au?ors 7 br\ght out1 b ea* successive "o %[$ a fall+ (f4 ,su* value z ! lat] ones _h 0 *iefly due to ! notes furni%$ by ,casaubon1 :o 9 #aehf _h m>ri$ 8 daught] ,flor5ce4 ,8 la/ ye>s 7 m>k$ by ev]-increas+ infirmity ( m9d & temp]4 ,9 #aeig he left ,g5eva = ! la/ "t4 ,aft] visit+ ,montpelli]1 :]e ,casaubon 0 n[ pr(essor1 he />t$ = ,p>is1 b 0 seiz$ ) sudd5 illness at ,lyons1 & di$ !re at ! end ( ,janu>y #aeih4 ,few m5 h ev] s]v$ ! cause ( le>n+ m devot$ly4 ,= ov] ?irty ye>s ! am\nt :i* he produc$1 :e!r z pr9t]1 editor or orig9al writ]1 0 enorm\s4 ,! productions ( 8 press1 ?\gh pr9t$ ) ! same beautiful type z 8 fa!r's books1 are1 ow+ to ! poorness ( ! pap] & ink1 inf]ior to !m 9 g5]al beauty4 ,! be/1 p]haps1 f a typographical po9t ( view1 are ! ,poetae ,graeci pr9cipes 7folio1 #aeff71 ! ,plut>* 7#ac vols4 #hvo1 #aegb71 & ! ,plato 7#c vols4 folio1 #aegh74 ,x 0 r 8 s*ol>%ip :i* gave value to 8 editions4 ,he 0 n only 8 own press-corrector b 8 own editor4 ,?\gh by ! latt] half ( ! #af? c5tury ne>ly all ! important ,greek & ,lat9 au?ors t we n[ possess _h be5 publi%$1 8 untir+ activity /ill f\nd "s glean+s4 ,eighte5 fir/ editions ( ,greek au?ors & "o ( a ,lat9 au?or are due to 8 press4 ,! mo/ important h be5 already m5tion$4 ,h5ri's reputation z a s*ol> & editor has increas$ ( late ye>s4 ,8 famili>ity ) ! ,greek language has always be5 admitt$ to h be5 q exceptional2 b he has be5 accus$ ( want ( ta/e & judgm5t1 ( c>elessness & ra%ness4 ,special c5sure has be5 pass$ on 8 ,plut>*1 9 :i* he is said to h introduc$ conjectures ( 8 own into ! text1 :ile pret5d+ to h d]iv$ !m f ,,ms4 au?ority4 ,b a late editor1 ,s9t5is1 has %[n t1 ?\gh l all ! o!r editors ( 8 day he did n give ref]5ces to 8 au?orities1 e "o ( 8 suppos$ conjectures c be trac$ to "s ,,ms4 ,:atev] may be said z to 8 ta/e or 8 judgm5t1 x seems t he 0 bo? c>eful & scrupul\s1 & t he only resort$ to conjecture :5 au?ority fail$ him4 ,&1 :atev] ! m]it ( 8 conjectures1 he 0 at any rate ! fir/ to %[ :at conjecture c\ld d t[>ds re/or+ a hopelessly corrupt passage4 ,! "w1 h[ev]1 on :i* 8 fame z a s*ol> is mo/ surely bas$ is ! ,!saurus ,graecae l+uae4 ,aft] mak+ due all[ance = ! fact t consid]able mat]ials = ! "w _h be5 already collect$ by 8 fa!r1 & t he receiv$ consid]able assi/ance f ! ,g]man s*ol> ,sylburg1 he is /ill entitl$ to ! v highe/ praise z ! produc] ( a "w :i* 0 ( ! greate/ s]vice to s*ol>%ip & :i* 9 ^? e>ly days ( ,greek le>n+ c\ld h be5 produc$ by no "o b a giant4 ,two editions ( ! ,!saurus 7 publi%$ 9 ! #ai? c5tury--at ,london by ,valpy 7#ahae-ahbe7 & at ,p>is by ,didot 7#ahca-ahfc74 ,x 0 "o ( ,h5ri ,e/i5ne's great m]its t1 unlike ne>ly all ! ,fr5* s*ol>s :o prec$$ him1 he did n neglect 8 own language4 ,9 ! ,traite de la con=mite du langage francois avec le ,grec 7publi%$ 9 #aefe1 b )\t date2 ed4 ,l4 ,feug]e1 #ahej71 ,fr5* is ass]t$ to h1 among mod]n languages1 ! mo/ aff9ity ) ,greek1 ! fir/ ( all languages4 ,deux ,dialogues du n\veau francois italianize 7,g5eva1 #aegh2 ed4 ,p4 ,ri/elhub]1 #b vols41 #ahhe7 0 direct$ aga9/ ! fa%ion prevail+ 9 ! c\rt ( ,ca!r9e de' ,m$ici ( us+ ,italian words & =ms4 ,! ,project du livre intitule de la ,precell5ce du langage francois 7,p>is1 #aegi2 ed4 ,e4 ,huguet1 #ahif7 treats ( ! sup]iority ( ,fr5* to ,italian4 ,an int]e/+ feature ( ! ,precell5ce is ! acc\nt ( ,fr5* prov]bs1 &1 ,h5ry ,,iii4 hav+ express$ "s d\bts z to ! g5u95ess ( "s ( !m1 ,h5ri ,e/i5ne publi%$1 9 #aeid1 ,les ,premices ou le ,i4 livre des ,prov]bes epigrammatizez 7nev] repr9t$ & v r>e74 ,f9ally1 !re rema9s ! ,apologie p\r ,h]odote1 8 mo/ fam\s "w4 ,! o/5sible object ( ! book is to %[ t ! /range /ories 9 ,h]odotus may be p>allel$ by equally /range ones ( mod]n times4 ,virtually x is a bitt] satire on ! writ]'s age1 especially on ! ,roman ,*ur*4 ,put toge!r )\t any me?od1 its extreme desultor9ess makes x difficult to read cont9u\sly1 b ! num]\s /ories1 collect$ p>tly f v>i\s lit]>y s\rces1 notably f ! prea*]s ,m5ot & ,maill>d1 p>tly f ! writ]'s own multif>i\s exp]i5ce1 ) :i* x is pack$1 make x an int]e/+ comm5t>y on ! mann]s & fa%ions ( ! "t4 ,b satire1 to be effective1 %\ld be ei!r humor\s or righte\sly indignant1 &1 :ile su* hum\r z !re is 9 ! ,apologie is decid$ly heavy1 ! writ]'s indignation is g5]ally =gott5 9 8 evid5t reli% = sc&al4 ,! /yle is1 aft] all1 its *ief m]it4 ,?\gh x be>s evid5t traces ( hurry1 x is1 l t ( all ,h5ri ,e/i5ne's ,fr5* writ+s1 cle>1 easy & vigor\s1 unit+ ! directness & s5su\sness ( ! old] writ]s ) a suppl5ess & logical precision :i* at ?is "t 7 almo/ new elem5ts 9 ,fr5* prose4 ,an edition ( ! ,apologie has rec5tly be5 publi%$ by ,liseux 7ed4 ,ri/elhub]1 #b vols41 #ahgi71 aft] "o ( ! only two copies ( ! orig9al uncancell$ edition t are kn[n to exi/4 ,! v rem>kable political pamphlet entitl$ ,disc\rs m]veilleux de la vie et actions et deportem5s de ,ca!r9e de ,m$icis1 :i* appe>$ 9 #aegd1 has be5 ascrib$ to ,h5ri ,e/i5ne1 b ! evid5ce bo? int]nal & ext]nal is conclusive aga9/ 8 be+ ! au?or ( x4 ,( 8 ,lat9 writ+s ! mo/ wor?y ( notice are ! ,de ,lat9itate falso suspecta 7#aegf71 ! ,pseudo-,cic]o 7#aegg7 & ! ,nizoliodidascalus 7#aegh71 all ?ree writt5 aga9/ ! ,cic]onians1 & ! ,franc(ordi5se ,emporium 7#aegd71 a panegyric on ! ,frank=t fair 7repr9t$ ) a ,fr5* translation by ,liseux1 #ahge74 ,he also wrote a l>ge quantity ( indiff]5t ,lat9 v]ses1 includ+ a long poem entitl$ ,musa monitrix ,pr9cipum 7,basel1 #aeij74 ,! prim>y au?orities = an acc\nt ( ! ,e/i5nes are _! own works4 ,9 ! g>rul\s & egoti/ical prefaces :i* ,h5ri 0 9 ! habit ( prefix+ to 8 editions w be f\nd _m scatt]$ biographical details4 ,tw5ty-sev5 lett]s f ,h5ri to ,john ,crato ( ,craff!im 7ed4 ,f4 ,pass[1 #ahcj7 h be5 pr9t$1 & !re is "o ( ,rob]t's 9 ,h]m9j>d's ,correspond5ce des ,re=mateurs dans de pays de langue francaise 7#i vols4 publi%$ #ahff-ahig71 :ile a few o!r contempor>y ref]5ces to him w be f\nd 9 ! same "w4 ,! second>y au?orities are ,janss5 van ,almelove51 ,de vitis ,/ephanorum 7,am/]dam1 #afhc72 ,maittaire1 ,/ephanorum hi/oria 7,london1 #agji72 ,a4,a4 ,r5\>d1 ,annales de l'imprim]ie des ,e/i5ne 7#bnd ed41 ,p>is1 #ahdc72 ! article on ,e/i5ne by ,a4,f4 ,didot 9 ! ,n\v4 ,biog4 g542 ,m>k ,pattison1 ,essays1 i4 #fg ff4 7#ahhi72 ,l4 ,clem5t1 ,h5ri ,e/i5ne et son oeuvre francaise 7,p>is1 #ahii74 ,!re is a good acc\nt ( ,h5ri's ,!saurus 9 ! ,qu>t4 ,rev4 = ,janu>y #ahbj1 writt5 by ,bi%op ,bromfield4 7,a4 ,a4 ,t47 ,,e/on1 an urban di/rict 9 ! ,clevel& p>liam5t>y division ( ! ,nor? ,rid+ ( ,york%ire1 ,engl&1 #d m4 ,s4,e4 ( ,middlesbr\gh1 on a bran* ( ! ,nor? ,ea/]n railway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #aa1aii4 ,?is is "o ( ! pr9cipal c5tres f :i* ! great iron/one deposits ( ! ,clevel& ,hills are work$1 & !re are ext5sive bla/-furnaces1 iron-f\ndries & /eam saw+-mills 9 ! di/rict4 ,imm$iately ,w4 ( ,e/on lies ! urban di/rict ( ,ormesby 7pop4 #idhb71 & ! :ole di/rict is d5sely populat$ 7see ,,middlesbr\gh74 ,m>ton1 we/ ( ,ormesby1 0 ! bir?place ( ,capta9 ,cook 7#agbh74 ,num]\s e>ly e>?works fr+e ! hills to ! s\?4 ,,e/oppel 7f ,o4 ,fr4 e/opp]1 to /op1 b>2 e/\pe1 mod4 et\pe1 a plug ( t[2 ,lat4 /uppa71 a rule 9 ! law ( evid5ce by :i* a p>ty 9 litigation is prohibit$ f ass]t+ or d5y+ some?+1 :5 su* ass]tion or d5ial w\ld be inconsi/5t ) 8 own previ\s /atem5ts or conduct4 ,e/oppel is said to arise 9 ?ree ways--7#a7 by record or judgm5t1 7#b7 by de$1 & 7#c7 by matt] 9 pais or conduct4 7#a7 ,:]e a cause ( action has be5 tri$ & f9al judgm5t has be5 pron\nc$1 ! judgm5t is conclusive--ei!r p>ty attempt+ to r5ew ! litigation by a new action w\ld be e/opp$ by ! judgm5t4 ,e judgm5t is conclusive pro( z aga9/ p>ties & privies1 ( facts directly 9 issue 9 ! case1 actually decid$ by ! c\rt1 & appe>+ f ! judgm5t itself to be ! gr\nd on :i* x 0 bas$4--,/eph5's ,dige/ ( ! ,law ( ,evid5ce1 ,art4 #da4 7#b7 ,x is "o ( ! privileges ( de$s z di/+ui%$ f simple contracts t !y op]ate by way ( e/oppel4 ,a man %all always be e/opp$ by 8 own de$1 or n p]mitt$ to av] or prove any?+ 9 contradiction to :at he has once s solemnly & delib]ately av[$ 7,black/one1 #b ,com4 #bie72 e4g4 :]e a bond recit$ t ! def5dants 7 au?oriz$ by acts ( p>liam5t to borr[ money1 & t "u su* au?ority !y _h borr[$ money f a c]ta9 p]son1 !y 7 e/opp$ f sett+ up z a def5ce t !y did n 9 fact s borr[ money1 z /at$ by _! de$4 7#c7 ,e/oppel by conduct1 or1 z x is /ill sometimes call$1 e/oppel by matt] 9 pais1 is ! mo/ important head4 ,! rule practically comes to ?is t1 :5 a p]son 9 8 deal+s ) o!rs has act$ s z to induce !m to believe a ?+ to be true & to act on su* belief1 he may n 9 any proce$+ betwe5 himself & !m d5y ! ?+ to be true3 e4g4 a p>tn] retir+ f a firm )\t giv+ notice to ! cu/om]s1 _c1 z aga9/ a cu/om] hav+ no k ( 8 retirem5t1 d5y t he is a p>tn]4 ,z betwe5 l&lord & t5ant ! pr9ciple op]ates to prev5t ! d5ial by ! t5ant ( ! l&lord's title4 ,s if a p]son comes ^u l& by ! lic5ce ( ! p]son 9 possession1 he _c d5y t ! lic5s] _h a title to ! possession at ! "t ! lic5ce 0 giv54 ,aga91 if a man accepts a bill ( ex*ange he may n d5y ! signature or ! capacity ( ! draw]4 ,s a p]son receiv+ goods z baillee f ano!r _c d5y ! title ( t o!r to ! goods at ! "t !y 7 entru/$ to him4 ,e/oppel ( :atev] k9d is subject to "o g5]al rule1 t x _c ov]ride ! law ( ! l&2 = example1 a corporation w\ld n be e/opp$ z to acts :i* are ultra vires4 ,see ,l4,f4 ,ev]e/ & ,e4 ,/rode1 ,! ,law ( ,e/oppel2 ,m4 ,cababe1 ,pr9ciples ( ,e/oppel4 ,,e/\teville1 ,,guillaume ,d' 7#adjc-adhc71 ,fr5* ecclesia/ic1 0 bi%op ( ,ang]s1 ( ,digne1 ( ,porto & ,santa ,ruf9a1 ( ,o/ia & ,velletri1 ar*bi%op ( ,r\51 prior ( ,sa9t ,m>t9 des ,*amps1 abbot ( ,mont ,/ ,mi*el1 ( ,/ ,ou5 at ,r\51 & ( ,monteb\rg4 ,he 0 s5t to ,france z legate by ,pope ,ni*olas ,v4 to make peace betwe5 ,*>les ,,vii4 & ,engl& 7#adea71 & und]took1 ex (ficio1 ! revision ( ! trial ( ,joan ( ,arc2 he aft]w>ds re=m$ ! /atutes ( ! univ]sity ( ,p>is4 ,he !n w5t to preside ov] ! assembly ( cl]gy :i* met at ,b\rges to discuss ! obs]vation ( ! ,pragmatic ,sanction 7see ,,basel1 ,,c\ncil ,,(71 f9ally return+ to ,rome1 :]e he pass$ almo/ all ! re/ ( 8 life4 ,he 0 a great build]1 ,r\51 ,mont ,/ ,mi*el1 ,pontoise & ,gaillon ow+ _m noble build+s to 8 initiative4 ,,e/ov]s 7f ! ,o4 ,fr4 e/ov]1 e/ovoir1 a v]b us$ z a sub/antive 9 ! s5se ( t :i* is necess>y2 ! ^w is ( disput$ orig92 x has be5 ref]r$ to ! ,lat4 />e1 to /&1 or /ud]e1 to desire71 a t]m1 9 ,engli% law1 = ! wood :i* a t5ant = life or ye>s may take f ! l& he holds = repair ( 8 h\se1 ! implem5ts ( husb&ry1 & ! h$ges & f5ces1 & = firewood4 ,! ,o4 ,eng4 ^w = e/ov] 0 bote or boot 7lit]ally mean+ good1 pr(it1 ! same ^w z se5 9 bett]74 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( e/ov]s 7 ?us kn[n z h\se-bote1 c>t or pl\gh-bote1 h$ge or hay-bote1 & fire-bote respectively4 ,^! rights may1 ( c\rse1 be re/rict$ by express cov5ants4 ,copyhold]s h simil> rights ov] ! l& !y occupy & ov] ! wa/e ( ! manor1 9 :i* case ! rights are kn[n z ,commons ( e/ov]s4 7,see ,,commons47 ,,e/rada1 ,,la1 a t[n ( nor?-we/]n ,spa91 9 ! prov9ce ( ,pontev$ra1 #ae m4 ,s4 by ,e4 ( ,santiago de ,compo/ela4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #bc1iaf4 ,la ,e/rada is ! *ief t[n ( a d5sely-populat$ m\nta9\s di/rict2 its indu/ries are agriculture1 /ock-bre$+1 & ! manufacture ( l95 & wooll5 clo?4 ,timb] f ! m\nta9 =e/s is convey$ f ,la ,e/rada to ! riv] ,ulla1 #d m4 ,n41 & !nce float$ d[n to ! seaports on ,arosa ,bay4 ,! ne>e/ railway-/ation is ,requeijo1 #g m4 ,w41 on ! ,pontev$ra-,santiago railway4 ,!re are m9]al spr+s at ,la ,e/rada & at ,caldas de ,reyes1 #aa m4 ,w4,s4,w4 ,,e/rade1 a ,fr5* ar*itectural t]m = a rais$ plat=m 7see ,,dais74 ,9 ! ,levant ! e/rade ( a divan is call$ ,sopha 7,blondel71 f :i* comes our s(a4 ,,e/rades1 ,,godefroi1 ,,comte ,d' 7#afjg-afhf71 ,fr5* diplomati/ & m>%al1 0 born at ,ag54 ,he 0 ! son ( ,francois d',e/rades 7d4 #afec71 a p>tisan ( ,h5ry ,,iv41 & bro!r ( ,jean d',e/rades1 bi%op ( ,condom4 ,he became a page to ,l\is ,,xiii41 & at ! age ( n9ete5 0 s5t on a mission to ,maurice ( ,holl&4 ,9 #afdf he 0 nam$ ambassador extraord9>y to ,holl&1 & took "p 9 ! conf]5ces at ,mun/]4 ,s5t 9 #affa to ,engl&1 he obta9$ 9 #affb ! re/itution ( ,dunkirk4 ,9 #affg he negotiat$ ! treaty ( ,br$a ) ! k+ ( ,d5m>k1 & 9 #afgh ! treaty ( ,nijmweg51 :i* end$ ! w> ) ,holl&4 ,indep5d5tly ( ^! diplomatic missions1 he took "p 9 ! pr9cipal campaigns ( ,l\is ,,xiv41 9 ,italy 7#afdh71 9 ,catalonia 7#afee71 9 ,holl& 7#afgb72 & 0 creat$ m>%al ( ,france 9 #afge4 ,he left ,lettres1 memoires et negociations en qualite d'ambassadeur en ,holl&e depuis #affc jusqu' en #affh1 ( :i* ! fir/ edition 9 #agjj 0 foll[$ by a n9e-volume edition 7,london 7! ,hague71 #agdc74 ,( ! sons ( ,godefroi d',e/rades1 ,jean ,francois d',e/rades 0 ambassador to ,v5ice & ,pi$mont2 ,l\is1 m>quis d',e/rades 7d4 #agaa71 succe$$ 8 fa!r z gov]nor ( ,dunkirk1 & 0 ! fa!r ( ,godefroi ,l\is1 comte d',e/rades1 lieut5ant-g5]al1 :o 0 kill$ at ! siege ( ,belgrade1 #agag4 ,see ,felix ,salomon1 ,frankrei*s ,beziehung5 zu dem ,scottis*5 ,auf/& 7#afcg-afdj71 conta9+ an excursus on ! falsification ( ! lett]s ( ! comte d',e/rades2 ,philippe ,lauzun1 ,le ,m>e*al d',e/rades 7,ag51 #ahif74 ,,e/reat 7,o4 ,fr4 e/rait1 ,lat4 extracta71 orig9ally1 a true copy or duplicate ( "s orig9al writ+ or record2 n[ us$ only ) ref]5ce to ! en=cem5t ( a =feit$ recognizance4 ,at "o "t x 0 ! practice to extract & c]tify into ! ex*equ] copies ( entries 9 c\rt roils :i* conta9$ provisions or ord]s 9 fav\r ( ! treasury1 h5ce ! e/reat+ ( a recognizance 0 ! tak+ out f among ! o!r records ( ! c\rt 9 :i* x 0 fil$ & s5d+ x to ! ex*equ] to be en=c$1 or s5d+ x to ! %]iff to be levi$ by him1 & !n return$ by ! cl]k ( ! peace to ! lords ( ! treasury4 7,see ,,recognizance47 ,,e/rees1 ,,gabrielle ,d' 7#aegc-aeii71 mi/ress ( ,h5ry ,,iv4 ( ,france1 0 ! daught] ( ,anto9e d',e/rees1 m>quis ( ,coeuvres1 & ,francoise ,bab\ de la ,b\rdaisi]e4 ,h5ry ,,iv41 :o 9 ,novemb] #aeij /ay$ at ! ca/le ( ,coeuvres1 became viol5tly enam\r$ ( h]4 ,h] fa!r1 anxi\s to save 8 daught] f s p]il\s an entanglem5t1 m>ri$ h] to ,ni*olas d',am]val1 seigneur de ,lianc\rt1 b ! union prov$ unhappy1 & 9 ,decemb] #aeib1 ,gabrielle1 ^: affection = ! k+ 0 s9c]e1 became 8 mi/ress4 ,%e liv$ ) him f ,decemb] #aeib onw>ds1 & bore him sev]al *ildr51 :o 7 recogniz$ & legitimiz$ by him4 ,%e possess$ ! k+'s entire confid5ce2 he will+ly li/5$ to h] advice1 & creat$ h] m>*ioness ( ,monceaux1 du*ess ( ,beau=t 7#aeig7 & ,etampes 7#aeih71 a pe]ess ( ,france4 ,! k+ ev5 propos$ to m>ry h] 9 ! ev5t ( ! success ( 8 suit = ! nullification by ! ,holy ,see ( 8 m>riage ) ,m>g>et ( ,valois2 b be=e ! "q 0 settl$ ,gabrielle di$1 on ! #aj? ( ,april #aeii4 ,poison 0 ( c\rse suspect$2 b h] dea? 0 really caus$ by pu]p]al convulsions 7eclampsia74 ,see ,adri5 ,desclozeaux1 ,gabrielle d',e/rees1 ,m>quise de ,monceaux1 c4 7,p>is1 #ahhi74 ,,e/remadura1 or ,,extremadura1 an anci5t t]ritorial division ( c5tral & we/]n ,portugal1 & ( we/]n ,spa92 compris+ ! mod]n di/ricts ( ,leiria1 ,sant>em & ,lisbon1 9 ,portugal1 & ! mod]n prov9ces ( ,badajoz & ,cac]es 9 ,spa94 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #b1jie1hah2 area1 #bc1jee sq4 m4 ,! "n ( ,e/remadura appe>s to be ( e>ly ,romance or ,late ,lat9 orig91 & probably 0 appli$ to all ! f> we/]n l&s 7extrema ora7 bord]+ ^u ! l[] ,tagus1 z f> z ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,x is ?us equival5t to ,l&'s ,end1 or ,f9i/]e4 ,9 popul> spee* x is m commonly us$ ?an ! names ( ! mod]n divisions m5tion$ above1 :i* 7 creat$ 9 ! #ai? c5tury4 ,z1 h[ev]1 !re are _m racial1 economic & hi/oric diff]5ces betwe5 ,portuguese & ,spani% ,e/remadura1 ! two prov9ces are sep>ately describ$ bel[4 #a4 ,portuguese ,e/remadura is b\nd$ on ! ,n4 by ,beira1 ,e4 & ,s4 by ,alemtejo1 & ,w4 by ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #a1bba1dah2 area1 #ficg sq4 m4 ,! greate/ l5g? ( ! prov9ce1 f ,n4 to ,s41 is #afe m42 its greate/ bread?1 f ,e4 to ,w41 is #gb m4 ,! g5]al uni=mity ( ! coa/-l9e is brok5 by ! broad & deep e/u>ies ( ! ,tagus & ! ,sado1 & by ! f\r conspicu\s promontories ( ,cape ,c>voeiro1 ,cape da ,roca1 ,cape ,espi*el & ,cape de ,s9es4 ,! ,tagus is ! great navigable wat]way ( ,portuguese ,e/remadura1 fl[+ f nor?-ea/ to s\?-we/1 & f$ by _m m9or tribut>ies1 notably ! ,zez]e on ! "r & ! ,zatas on ! left4 ,x divides ! c\ntry into two ne>ly equal portions1 :olly dissimil> 9 surface & "*4 ,s\? ( ! ,tagus ! l& is almo/ ev]y:]e l[1 flat & monoton\s1 :ile 9 sev]al places x is r5d]$ unheal?y by undra9$ m>%es4 ,! ,sado1 :i* issues into ,setubal ,bay1 is ! only important riv] ( ?is region4 ,nor? ( ! ,tagus1 & p>allel ) its "r bank1 ext5ds ! m\nta9 *a9 :i* is kn[n at its nor!rn extremity z ! ,s]ra d ,aire &1 :]e x t]m9ates above ,cape da ,roca1 z ! ,s]ra da ,c9tra4 ,?is ridge1 :i* is buttress$ on all sides by less] gr\ps ( hills1 & includes "p ( ! fam\s l9es ( ,torres ,v$ras 7q4v471 exce$s #bbjj ft4 9 height1 & con/itutes ! wat]%$ betwe5 ! "r-h& tribut>ies ( ! ,tagus & ! ,liz1 ,siz&ro & o!r small riv]s :i* fl[ into ! ,atlantic4 ,on its seaw>d side1 except = ! l9e ( %e] & l(ty cliffs betwe5 ,cape ,c>voeiro & ,cape da ,roca1 ! c\ntry is mo/ly flat & s&y1 ) ext5sive hea?s & p9e =e/s2 b along ! f]tile & well-cultivat$ "r bank ( ! ,tagus ! riv] sc5]y1 ) its t]rac$ hills ( v9es1 olives & fruit trees1 (t5 resembles t ( ! ,rh9e 9 ,g]many4 ,! natural res\rces ( ,portuguese ,e/remadura1 ) its inhabitants1 indu/ries1 comm]ce1 communications1 c41 are describ$ "u ,,portugal2 = on su* matt]s !re is little to be said ( ?is c5tral & mo/ *>act]i/ic prov9ce :i* does n apply to ! :ole k+dom4 ,sep>ate articles are also devot$ to ,lisbon1 ! capital1 & ,abrantes1 ,c9tra1 ,leiria1 ,mafra1 ,sant>em1 ,setubal1 ,?om>1 ,torres ,novas & ,torres ,v$ras1 ! o!r *ief t[ns4 ,! wom5 ( ,p5i*e1 a small fi%+ village on ! promontory ( ,cape ,c>voeiro1 h long be5 celebrat$ ?r\gh\t ,portugal = _! skill 9 ! manufacture ( f9e laces4 #b4 ,spani% ,e/remadura is b\nd$ on ! ,n4 by ,leon & ,old ,ca/ile1 ,e4 by ,new ,ca/ile1 ,s4 by ,&alusia1 & ,w4 by ! ,portuguese prov9ce ( ,beira & ,alemtejo1 :i* sep>ate x f ,portuguese ,e/remadura4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #hhb1daj2 area1 #af1aah sq4 m4 ,spani% ,e/remadura consi/s ( a tablel& sep>at$ f ,leon & ,old ,ca/ile by ! l(ty ,si]ra de ,gr$os1 ! plateau ( ,bej> & ! ,si]ra de ,gata1 :i* =m an almo/ cont9u\s b>ri] along ! nor!rn fronti]1 ) its summits rang+ f #fjjj to m ?an #hejj ft4 9 altitude4 ,on ! s\? ! comp>atively l[ range ( ! ,si]ra ,mor5a con/itutes ! fronti] ( ,&alusia2 on ! ea/ & we/ !re is a /ill m gradual transition to ! plateau ( ,new ,ca/ile & ! c5tral pla9s ( ,portugal4 ,! tablel& ( ,spani% ,e/remadura is itself bisect$ f ea/ to we/ by a l9e ( m\nta9s1 ! ,si]ras ( ,san ,p$ro1 ,montan*ez & ,guadalupe 7#djjj-fjjj ft471 :i* sep>ate its nor!rn half1 dra9$ by ! riv] ,tagus1 f its s\!rn half1 dra9$ by ! ,guadiana4 ,^! two halves are respectively kn[n z ,alta or ,upp] ,e/remadura 7! mod]n ,cac]es71 & ,baja or ,l[] ,e/remadura 7! mod]n ,badajoz74 ,! ,tagus & ,guadiana fl[ f ea/ to we/ ?r\gh a monoton\s c\ntry1 level or slightly undulat+1 (t5 almo/ un9habit$1 & cov]$ ) a ?9 gr[? ( %rubs & grass4 ,p]haps ! mo/ *>act]i/ic feature ( ?is tablel& is ! va/ hea?s ( gum-ci/us1 :i* 9 spr+ col\r ! :ole l&scape ) leagues ( yell[ blossom1 & 9 summ] *ange to a br[n & arid wild]ness4 ,! climate 9 summ] is hot b n unheal?y1 except 9 ! swamps :i* occur along ! ,guadiana4 ,! ra9fall is scanty2 dew1 h[ev]1 is abundant & ! nights are cool4 ,al?\gh ! high m\nta9s are cov]$ ) sn[ 9 ,novemb]1 ! w9t]s are n usually sev]e4 ,! soil is naturally f]tile1 b dr\ght1 floods & locu/s r5d] agriculture difficult1 & %eep-f>m+ is ! mo/ important ( ,e/remaduran indu/ries4 7,see ,,spa93 ,agriculture47 ,9 ! #ai? c5tury1 h[ev]1 ?is indu/ry lo/ mu* ( its =m] importance ow+ to =eign competition4 ,imm5se h]ds ( sw9e are br$ & con/itute a great s\rce ( support to ! inhabitants1 n only supply+ !m ) food1 b also =m+ a great article ( export to o!r prov9ces--! pork1 bacon & hams be+ 9 high e/eem4 ,! bee*1 oak & *e/nut woods af=d an abundance ( food = sw9e1 & !re are num]\s plantations ( olive1 cork & fruit trees1 b a f> great] area ( =e/ has be5 de/roy$4 ,= an acc\nt ( comm]ce1 m9+1 communications1 c41 9 ,spani% ,e/remadura1 ) a li/ ( ! *ief t[ns1 see ,,cac]es & ,,badajoz4 ,9 "* & physical type1 ! p ( ?is region are less easily classifi$ ?an ^? ( o!r ,spani% prov9ces4 ,!y lack ! endurance & en]gy ( ! ,galicians1 ! indep5d5t & ent]pris+ _s ( ! ,a/urians1 ,basques & ,catalans1 ! culture ( ! ,ca/ilians & ,&alusians4 ,_! failure to develop a di/9ctive local type ( "* & civilization is p]haps due to ! adv]se economic hi/ory ( _! c\ntry4 ,! two great wat]ways :i* =m ! natural outlet = ,e/remaduran comm]ce fl[ to ! ,atlantic ?r\gh a =eign &1 = c5turies1 a ho/ile t]ritory4 ,l o!r p>ts ( ,spa91 ,e/remadura suff]$ sev]ely f ! expulsion ( ! ,jews & ,moors 7#adib-afaj71 :ile ! comp5sat+ treasure1 d]iv$ dur+ ! same p]iod f ,spani% ,am]ica1 nev] rea*$ a prov9ce s remote at once f ! sea & f ! *ief c5tres ( national life4 ,al?\gh ,cortes 7#adhe-aedg71 ! conqu]or ( ,mexico & ,piz>ro 7c4 #adga-aeda71 ! conqu]or ( ,p]u1 7 bo? born 9 ,e/remadura1 _! exploits1 f> f br++ prosp]ity to _! native prov9ce1 only enc\rag$ ! emigration ( its be/ inhabitants4 ,heavy taxation & h>% l&-laws prev5t$ any recov]y1 :ile ! fell+ ( ! =e/s r$uc$ _m f]tile areas to wa/e l&1 & r5d]$ worse a climate already unfav\rable to agriculture4 ,few c\ntries leave ^u ! m9d ( ! travell] a deep] impression ( hopeless pov]ty4 ,,e/remoz1 a t[n ( ,portugal1 9 ! di/rict ( ,evora1 =m]ly includ$ 9 ! prov9ce ( ,alemtejo2 #ajd m4 by rail ,e4 ( ,lisbon1 on ! ,casa ,branca-,evora-,elvas railway4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #gibj4 ,e/remoz is built at ! base ( a hill cr[n$ by a l>ge dismantl$ citadel2 its =tifications1 :i* 9 ! #ag? c5tury accommodat$ #bj1jjj troops & r5d]$ ! t[n "o ( ! pr9cipal def5ces ( ! fronti]1 are n[ obsolete4 ,!re are m>ble qu>ries 9 ! neighb\rhood1 & ! ,e/remoz bilhas1 r$ e>!nw>e j>s1 are us$ ?r\gh\t ,portugal z wat]-hold]s & export$ to ,spa94 ,at ,ameixial 7#aahh7 & ,monies ,cl>os1 ne> ,e/remoz1 ! ,spani% 7 sev]ely defeat$ by ! ,portuguese 9 #affc & #affe4 ,villa ,vicosa 7#chda71 #aj m4 ,s4,e41 is a t[n ( pre-,roman orig91 conta9+ a royal palace4 ,! alt>s ) ,lat9 inscriptions to ! ,ib]ian god ,endovellicus1 f\nd at ,villa ,vicosa1 are pres]v$ 9 ! museum ( ! ,royal ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 ,lisbon4 ,,e/u>y 7f ! ,lat4 ae/u>ium1 a place rea*$ by ae/us1 ! tide71 an arm ( ! sea n>r[+ inw>ds at ! m\? ( a riv] :]e sea & fre% wat] meet & are mix$1 i4e4 ! tidal portion ( a riv]'s m\?4 ,/ructurally ! e/u>y may repres5t ! long-cont9u$ action ( riv] erosion & tidal erosion conf9$ to a n>r[ *annel1 mo/ effective :]e mo/ conc5trat$1 or an e/u>y may be ! dr[n$ portion ( ! l[] "p ( a riv]-valley4 ,9 a map ( ,brita9 %[+ sea-dep?s x w be obs]v$ t "u ! ,sev]n e/u>y ! sea deep5s 9 a numb] ( /eps desc5d+ by conc5tric ,v's t become blunt] t[>ds deep wat] until ! la/ is a m]e ind5tation po9t+ t[>ds ! long n>r[ t]m9ation ( ! pres5t e/u>y4 ,9 ?is & 9 simil> cases ! progress ( ! e/u>y is indicat$ ^u :at is n[ ! cont95tal %elf4 ,! *ief int]e/ 9 e/u>9e conditions is ! m+l+ ( sea & fre% wat]4 ,:]e1 z 9 ! ,sev]n & ! ,?ames1 ! fre% wat] meets ! sea gradually ! wat] is mix$1 & !re is v little *ange 9 sal9ity at high tide4 ,! fre% wat] fl[s ov] ! salt wat] & !re is a cont9u\s rapid *ange1 9 sal9ity t[>ds ! sea1 = ! curr5ts sweep+ 9 & out mix ! wat] con/antly4 ,:]e ! riv] br+s d[n a great quantity ( fre% wat] 9 a n>r[ *annel1 ! *ange ( sal9ity at high & l[ wat] is v m>k$4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! inlet is v l>ge comp>$ ) ! riv]1 & !re is no b> at ! op5+1 ! e/u>9e "* is only %[n at ! upp] end4 ,9 ! ,fir? ( ,=?1 = example1 ! l&w>d half is an e/u>y1 b 9 ! seaw>d half ! wat] has become m ?or\ghly mix$1 ! sal9ity is almo/ uni=m f surface to bottom1 & increases v gradually t[>ds ! sea4 ,! riv]-wat] meets ! sea diffus$ uni=mly ?r\gh a deep mass ( wat] sc>cely fre%] ?an ! sea itself1 s t ! two mix uni=mly1 & ! sea becomes slightly fre%5$ ?r\gh\t its :ole dep? = _m miles f l& 7,h4,r4 ,mill1 ,realm ( ,nature1 #ahig74 ,,eszt]gom 7,g]4 ,gran2 ,lat4 ,/rigonium71 a t[n ( ,hung>y1 capital ( ! c\nty ( ! same "n1 #cf m4 ,n4,w4 ( ,budape/ by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #af1idh1 mo/ly ,magy>s & ,roman ,ca?olics4 ,x is situat$ on ! "r bank ( ! ,danube1 ne>ly opposite ! conflu5ce ( ! ,gran1 & is divid$ into ! t[n prop] & ?ree suburbs4 ,! t[n is ! resid5ce ( ! primate ( ,hung>y1 & its ca!dral1 built 9 #ahba-ahgj1 aft] ! model ( ,/ ,pet]'s at ,rome1 is "o ( ! f9e/ & l>ge/ 9 ! c\ntry4 ,x is picturesquely built on an elevat$ & comm&+ position1 #bae ft4 above ! ,danube1 & its dome1 visible f a long di/ance1 is #bfj ft4 high1 & has a diamet] ( #eb ft4 ,! int]ior is v ri*ly decorat$1 notably ) f9e frescoes1 & its treasury & f9e libr>y ( ov] #fj1jjj volumes are fam\s4 ,besides sev]al o!r *ur*es & two mona/ic h\ses1 ! pr9cipal build+s include ! h&some palace ( ! primate1 erect$ 9 #ahhc2 ! ar*iepiscopal libr>y1 ) valuable incunabula & old ,,mss42 ! sem9>y = ! education ( ,roman ,ca?olic prie/s2 ! resid5ces ( ! *apt]2 & ! t[n-hall4 ,! population is *iefly employ$ 9 clo?-weav+1 w9e-mak+ & agricultural pursuits4 ,an iron bridge1 #affd ft4 long1 connects ,eszt]gom ) ! m>ket t[n ( ,p>kany 7pop4 #bhcf7 on ! opposite bank ( ! ,danube4 ,eszt]gom is "o ( ! olde/ t[ns ( ,hung>y1 & is fam\s z ! bir?place ( ,/ ,/eph51 ! fir/ pr9ce cr[n$ apo/olic k+ ( ,hung>y4 ,dur+ ! e>ly times ( ! ,hung>ian mon>*y x 0 ! mo/ important m]cantile c5tre 9 ! c\ntry1 & x 0 ! meet+-place ( ! diets ( #ajaf1 #aaaa1 #aaad & #abef4 ,x 0 almo/ completely de/roy$ by ,tat> hordes 9 #abda1 b 0 rebuilt & =tifi$ by ,k+ ,bela ,,iv4 ,9 #aedc x fell into ! h&s ( ! ,turks1 f :om x 0 recov]$1 9 #aeie1 by ,c>l von ,mansfeld4 ,9 #afjd x rev]t$ to ! ,turks1 :o held x till #afhc1 :5 x 0 rega9$ by ! unit$ =ces ( ,john ,sobieski1 k+ ( ,pol&1 & ,pr9ce ,*>les ( ,lorra9e4 ,x 0 creat$ an ar*bi%opric 9 #ajja4 ,dur+ ! ,turki% occupation ( ! t[n ! ar*bi%opric 0 remov$ to ,tyrnau1 :ile ! ar*bi%op himself _h 8 resid5ce 9 ,pressburg4 ,bo? return$ to ,eszt]gom 9 #ahbj4 ,9 #agjh x 0 decl>$ a free city by ,joseph ,i4 ,on ! #ac? ( ,april #ahah x 0 p>tly de/roy$ by fire4 ,= num]\s au?orities on ! see & ca!dral ( ,eszt]gom see ,v4 ,*evali]1 ,rep]toire des s\rces4 ,topo-bibliogr4 s4v4 ,gran4 ,( ^! may be m5tion$ especially ,f4 ,knauz1 ,monum5ta ,ecclesiae ,/rigoni5sis 7#c vols41 ,eszt]g1 #ahgd72 ,joseph ,danko1 ,ges*i*tli*es 444 aus dem ,gran] ,doms*atz 7,gran1 #ahhj74 ,,etag]e1 a piece ( light furniture v simil> to ! ,engli% :at-n1 :i* 0 ext5sively made 9 ,france dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! #ah? c5tury4 ,z ! "n implies1 x consi/s ( a s]ies ( /ages or %elves = ! reception ( ornam5ts or o!r small articles4 ,l ! :at-n x 0 v (t5 corn]wise 9 %ape1 & ! be/ ,l\is ,,xvi4 examples 9 exotic woods are exce$+ly graceful & elegant4 ,,etah1 a t[n & di/rict ( ,briti% ,india1 9 ! ,agra division ( ! ,unit$ ,prov9ces4 ,! t[n is situat$ on ! ,gr& ,trunk road4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #hgif4 ,! di/rict has an area ( #agcg sq4 m4 ,! di/rict consi/s = ! mo/ "p ( an elevat$ alluvial plateau1 dipp+ d[n on its ea/]n slope into ! valley ( ! ,ganges4 ,! upl&s are irrigat$ by ! ,ganges canal4 ,betwe5 ! mod]n b$ ( ! ,ganges & its anci5t *annel lies a belt ( f]tile l&1 cov]$ ) a ri* deposit ( silt1 & abundantly suppli$ ) natural moi/ure4 ,a long l9e ( swamps & holl[s /ill m>ks ! =m] c\rse ( ! riv]2 & above x rises abruptly ! orig9al cliff :i* n[ =ms ! t]race ( ! upl& pla94 ,! ,kali ,nadi1 a small /ream fl[+ 9 a deep & n>r[ gorge1 passes ?r\gh ! c5tre ( ! di/rict1 & af=ds an outlet = ! surface dra9age4 ,etah 0 at an e>ly date ! seat ( a primitive ,aryan civilization1 & ! surr\nd+ c\ntry is m5tion$ by ,hsuan ,tsang1 ! ,*9ese ,buddhi/ pilgrim ( ! #g? c5tury ,a4,d41 z ri* 9 temples & mona/]ies4 ,b aft] ! bloody repression ( ,buddhism be=e ! #h? c5tury1 ! di/rict seems to h fall5 once m into ! h&s ( aborig9al tribes1 f :om x 0 wre/$ a second "t by ,rajputs dur+ ! c\rse ( _! great migration ea/w>d4 ,) ! re/ ( upp] ,india x pass$ "u ! sway ( ,mahmud ( ,ghazni 9 #ajag1 & !nce=? foll[$ ! =tunes ( ! ,mahomm$an empire4 ,at ! end ( ! #ah? c5tury x =m$ "p ( ! t]ritory ov] :i* ! wazir ( ,oudh _h made himself rul]1 & x came into ! possession ( ! ,briti% gov]nm5t 9 #ahja1 "u ! treaty ( ,luckn[4 ,dur+ ! mut9y ( #aheg x 0 ! sc5e ( s]i\s di/urbances1 c\pl$ ) ! usual an>*ic qu>rels among ! native pr9ces4 ,9 #aija ! population 0 #hfc1idh1 %[+ an increase ( #bc 9 ! decade due to ! ext5sion ( canal irrigation4 ,x is trav]s$ by a bran* ( ! ,rajputana railway f ,agra to ,cawnpore1 ) /ations at ,kasganj & ,soron1 :i* are ! two l>ge/ t[ns4 ,x has sev]al pr9t+ presses1 indigo factories1 & factories = press+ cotton1 & !re is a consid]able agricultural export trade4 ,,etampes1 ,,anne ,,de ,,pisseleu ,d',,heilly1 ,,du*esse ,d' 7#aejh-;c4 #aehj71 mi/ress ( ,francis ,i4 ( ,france1 daught] ( ,guillaume de ,pisseleu1 sieur d',heilly1 a nobleman ( ,pic>dy4 ,%e came to c\rt be=e #aebb1 & 0 "o ( ! maids ( hon\r ( ,l\ise ( ,savoy4 ,francis ,i4 made h] 8 mi/ress1 probably on 8 return f 8 captivity at ,madrid 7#aebf71 & soon gave up ,madame de ,*ateaubriant = h]4 ,anne 0 sprightly1 pretty1 witty & cultur$1 & succe$$ 9 keep+ ! fav\r ( ! k+ till ! end ( ! reign 7#aedg74 ,! liaison receiv$ "s (ficial recognition2 :5 ,que5 ,eleanor ent]$ ,p>is 7#aecj71 ! k+ & ,anne occupi$ ! same w9d[4 ,9 #aecc ,francis gave h] 9 m>riage to ,jean de ,brosse1 :om he creat$ duc d',etampes4 ,! influ5ce ( ! du*esse d',etampes1 especially 9 ! la/ ye>s ( ! reign1 0 consid]able4 ,%e upheld ,admiral ,*abot aga9/ ! con/able de ,montmor5cy1 :o 0 support$ by h] rival1 ,diane de ,poiti]s1 ! dauph9's mi/ress4 ,%e 0 a fri5d to new ideas1 & co-op]at$ ) ! k+'s si/]1 ,m>gu]ite d',ang\leme4 ,%e us$ h] influ5ce to elevate & enri* h] family1 h] uncle1 ,anto9e ,sangu9 7d4 #aeei71 be+ made bi%op ( ,orleans 9 #aece & a c>d9al 9 #aeci4a ,! accusations made aga9/ h] ( hav+ all[$ h]self to be won ov] by ! emp]or ,*>les ,v4 & ( play+ ! traitor 9 #aedd re/ on no s]i\s pro(4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,francis ,i4 7#aedg7 %e 0 dismiss$ f ! c\rt by ,diane de ,poiti]s1 humiliat$ 9 e way1 & di$ 9 obscurity mu* lat]1 probably 9 ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,iii4 ,see ,paul9 ,p>is1 ,etudes sur ,francois ,ier 7,p>is1 #ahhe74 ,,footnote3 #a ,! *ateau ( ,meudon1 belong+ to ! ,sangu9 family1 0 h&$ ov] to ! du*esse d',etampes 9 #aeci4 ,sangu9 0 translat$ to ,limoges 9 #aedf1 & became ar*bi%op ( ,t\l\se 9 #aeej4 ,,etampes1 a t[n ( nor!rn ,france1 capital ( an arrondissem5t 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ,se9e-et-,oise1 on ! ,orleans railway1 #ce m4 ,s4 by ,w4 ( ,p>is4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #hgbj4 ,etampes is a long /raggl+ t[n hemm$ 9 betwe5 ! railway on ! nor? & ! ,*al\ette on ! s\?2 ! latt] is a tribut>y ( ! ,ju9e :i* wat]s ! ea/]n outskirts ( ! t[n4 ,a f9e view ( ,etampes is obta9$ f ! ,t\r ,gu9ette1 a ru9$ keep built by ,l\is ,,vi4 9 ! #ab? c5tury on an em95ce on ! o!r side ( ! railway4 ,notre-,dame du ,=t1 ! *ief *ur*1 dates f ! #aa? & #ab? c5turies2 irregul> 9 plan1 x is rem>kable = a f9e ,romanesque t[] & spire1 & = ! cr5ellat$ wall :i* p>tly surr\nds x4 ,! int]ior conta9s anci5t pa9t+s & o!r arti/ic works4 ,/ ,basile 7#ab? & #af? c5turies71 :i* pres]ves a ,romanesque doorway1 & ,/ ,m>t9 7#ab? & #ac? c5turies71 ) a lean+ t[] ( ! #af? c5tury1 are ( less importance4 ,! civil build+s (f] little int]e/1 b two h\ses nam$ aft] ,anne de ,pisseleu 7see above71 mi/ress ( ,francis ,i41 & ,diane de ,poiti]s1 mi/ress ( ,h5ry ,,ii41 are graceful examples ( ,r5aissance ar*itecture4 ,9 ! squ>e !re is a /atue ( ! naturali/1 ,ge(froy ,sa9t-,hilaire1 :o 0 born 9 ,etampes4 ,! subprefecture1 a tribunal ( fir/ in/ance1 & a communal college are among ! public in/itutions ( ,etampes4 ,fl\r-mill+1 metal-f\nd+1 lea!r-dress+1 pr9t+ & ! manufacture ( boots & %oes & hosi]y are c>ri$ on2 !re are qu>ries ( pav+-/one1 nurs]ies & m>ket g>d5s 9 ! vic9ity1 & ! t[n has important m>kets = c]eals & %eep4 ,etampes 7,lat4 ,/ampae7 exi/$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! #g? c5tury & 9 ! e>ly middle ages belong$ to ! cr[n doma94 ,dur+ ! middle ages x 0 ! sc5e ( sev]al c\ncils1 ! mo/ notable ( :i* took place 9 #aacj & result$ 9 ! recognition ( ,innoc5t ,,ii4 z ! legitimate pope4 ,9 #afeb1 dur+ ! w> ( ! ,fronde x suff]$ sev]ely at ! h&s ( ! royal troops "u ,tur5ne4 ,lords1 ,c\nts & ,dukes ( ,etampes4--,! lord%ip ( ,etampes1 9 :at is n[ ! dep>tm5t ( ,se9e et ,oise 9 ,france1 belong$ to ! royal doma91 b 0 deta*$ f x on sev]al occasions 9 fav\r ( pr9ces1 or k+s' fav\rites4 ,/ ,l\is gave x to 8 "m ,blan*e ( ,ca/ile1 & !n to 8 wife ,m>gu]ite ( ,prov5ce4 ,l\is1 ! bro!r ( ,philip ! ,fair1 became "l ( ,etampes 9 #acag & c\nt 9 #acbg2 he 0 succe$$ by 8 son & 8 gr&son4 ,francis ,i4 rais$ ! c\nt%ip ( ,etampes to ! rank ( a du*y = 8 mi/ress ,anne de ,pisseleu ,d',heilly4 ,! new du*y pass$ to ,diane de ,poiti]s 7#aeec71 to ,ca!r9e ( ,lorra9e1 du*ess ( ,montp5si] 7#aegh71 to ,m>gu]ite ( ,valois 7#aehb7 & to ,gabrielle d',e/rees 7#aeih74 ,! latt] transmitt$ x to h] son1 ,ces> ( ,v5dome1 & 8 desc5dants held x till #agab4 ,x !n pass$ by inh]itance to ! families ( ,b\rbon-,conti & ( ,orleans4 ,,etaples1 a t[n ( nor!rn ,france1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ,pas-de-,calais1 on ! "r bank ( ! e/u>y ( ! ,can*e1 #c m4 f ! ,/raits ( ,dov]1 #ag m4 ,s4 ( ,b\logne by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #eacf4 ,etaples has a small fi%+ & comm]cial port :i* enjoy$ a c]ta9 importance dur+ ! middle ages4 ,boat-build+ is c>ri$ on4 ,!re is an old *ur* ) a /atue ( ! ,virg9 mu* rev]$ by ! sailors4 ,! ,can*e is cross$ by a bridge ov] #afjj ft4 9 l5g?4 ,le ,t\quet1 9 ! mid/ ( p9e woods1 & ! neighb\r+ wat]+-place ( ,p>is-,plage1 #c-a_/b m4 ,w4 ( ,etaples at ! m\? ( ! e/u>y1 are mu* frequ5t$ by ,engli% & ,fr5* visitors = golf1 t5nis & ba?+1 & ,etaples itself is a c5tre = arti/s4 ,antiqu>ian discov]ies 9 ! vic9ity ( ,etaples h l$ to ! conjecture t x occupies ! site ( ! ,gallo-,roman port ( ,qu5tovicus4 ,9 #adib a treaty 0 sign$ "h betwe5 ,h5ry ,,vii41 k+ ( ,engl&1 & ,*>les ,,viii41 k+ ( ,france4 ,,etawah1 a t[n & di/rict ( ,briti% ,india1 9 ! ,agra division ( ! ,unit$ ,prov9ces4 ,! t[n is situat$ on ! left bank ( ! ,jumna1 & has a /ation on ! ,ea/ ,indian railway1 #bjf m4 f ,allahabad4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #db1egj4 ,deep fissures int]sect ! v>i\s qu>t]s ( ! t[n1 ov] :i* broad roads connect ! high] portions by bridges & embankm5ts4 ,! ,jama ,masjid 7,great ,mosque7 is ! *ief ar*itectural ornam5t ( ,etawah4 ,x 0 orig9ally a ,h9du temple1 & 0 adapt$ to its pres5t use by ! ,mahomm$an conqu]ors4 ,sev]al f9e ,h9du temples also /& ab\t ! m\nd on :i* are ! ru9s ( ! anci5t =t4 ,etawah is n[ only ! civil headqu>t]s ( ! di/rict1 ! milit>y cantonm5t hav+ be5 ab&on$ 9 #ahfa4 ,consid]able trade is c>ri$ on by rail & riv]4 ,! manufactures include cotton clo?1 sk9-bottles1 combs & horn-w>e & sweetmeats4 ,! ,,di/rict ,,( ,,etawah has an area ( #afia sq4 m4 ,x =ms a purely artificial adm9i/rative division1 /ret*+ across ! level pla9 ( ! ,doab1 & beyond ! valley ( ! ,jumna1 to ! gorges ( ! ,*ambal1 & ! la/ rocky outli]s ( ! ,v9dhyan range4 ,! di/rict exhibits a /rik+ v>iety ( surface & sc5]y4 ,! great] portion lies )9 ! ,doab or level alluvial pla9 betwe5 ! ,ganges & ! ,jumna4 ,?is "p falls naturally into two sections1 divid$ by ! deep & fissur$ valley ( ! riv] ,s5g>4 ,! tract to ! nor?-ea/ ( t /ream is ri* & f]tile1 be+ wat]$ by ! ,cawnpore & ,etawah bran*es ( ! ,ganges canal1 & o!r important works4 ,! s\?-we/]n region has ! same natural advantages1 b possesses no great irrigation sy/em1 & is consequ5tly less fruitful ?an ! opposite slopes4 ,ne> ! banks ( ! ,jumna1 ! pla9 desc5ds into ! riv] valley by a s]ies ( wild rav9es & t]races1 inhabit$ only by a scatt]$ race ( h]$it>y h]dsm54 ,beyond ! ,jumna aga9 a /rip ( ,briti% t]ritory ext5ds along ! tangl$ gorges ( ! ,*ambal & ! ,ku>i ,nadi1 f> into ! bord]s ( ! ,gwalior /ate4 ,?is outly+ tract embraces a s]ies ( rocky gl5s & m\nta9 torr5ts1 cr[n$ by ! ru9s ( native /rongholds1 & int]sp]s$ ) n>r[ l$ges ( cultivable alluvium4 ,! climate1 once hot & sultry1 has n[ become comp>atively moi/ & equable "u ! influ5ce ( irrigation & ! plant+ ( trees4 ,etawah 0 m>k$ out by its physical features z a secure retreat = ! turbul5t tribes ( ! ,upp] ,doab1 & x 0 n till ! #ab? c5tury t any ( ! exi/+ ca/es settl$ on ! soil4 ,aft] ! ,mussulman conque/s ( ,delhi & ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 ! ,h9dus ( ,etawah appe> to h held _! own = _m g5]ations aga9/ ! ,mahomm$an p[]2 b 9 ! #af? c5tury ,bab] conqu]$ ! di/rict1 ) ! re/ ( ! ,doab1 & x rema9$ 9 ! h&s ( ! ,moguls until ! decay ( _! empire4 ,aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! usual vicissitudes ( ,mahratta & ,jat conque/s dur+ ! long an>*y :i* prec$$ ! ,briti% rule1 ,etawah 0 annex$ by ! wazir ( ,oudh 9 #aggc4 ,! wazir c$$ x to ! ,ea/ ,india ,company 9 #ahja1 b x /ill rema9$ s l>gely 9 ! h&s ( lawless native *iefs t "s difficulty 0 exp]i5c$ 9 r$uc+ x to ord]ly gov]nm5t4 ,dur+ ! mut9y ( #aheg s]i\s di/urbances occurr$ 9 ,etawah1 & ! di/rict 0 occupi$ by ! rebels f ,june to ,decemb]2 ord] 0 n completely re/or$ till ! end ( #aheh4 ,9 #aija ! population 0 #hjf1gih1 %[+ an increase ( #aa 9 ! decade4 ,! di/rict is p>tly wat]$ by bran*es ( ! ,ganges canal1 & is trav]s$ ?r\gh\t by ! ma9 l9e ( ! ,ea/ ,indian railway f ,cawnpore to ,agra4 ,cotton1 oilse$s & o!r agricultural produce are export$1 & "s indigo is made1 b manufactur+ indu/ry is slight4 ,,et*+ 7,dut*1 ets51 to eat71 a =m ( engrav+ 7q4v47 9 :i*1 9 contradi/9ction to l9e engrav+ 7q4v471 :]e ! furr[ is produc$ by ! pl\gh+ ( ! bur91 ! copp] is eat5 away or corrod$ by acid4 ,to prep>e a plate = et*+ x is fir/ cov]$ ) et*+-gr\nd1 a composition :i* resi/s acid4 ,! qualities ( a gr\nd are to be s adhesive t x w n quit ! copp] :5 a small quantity is left isolat$ betwe5 l9es1 yet n s adhesive t ! et*+ po9t _c easily & entirely remove x2 at ! same "t a good gr\nd w be h>d en\gh to be> ! h& ^u x1 or a %eet ( pap]1 yet n s h>d z to be brittle4 ,! gr\nd us$ by ,abraham ,bosse1 ! ,fr5* pa9t] & engrav] 7#afjb-afgf7 0 compos$ z foll[s3--,melt #b oz4 ( :ite wax2 !n add to x #a oz4 ( gum-ma/ic 9 p[d]1 a little at a "t1 /irr+ till ! wax & ! ma/ic are well m+l$2 !n add1 9 ! same mann]1 #a oz4 ( bitum5 9 p[d]4 ,!re are ?ree diff]5t ways ( apply+ an et*+-gr\nd to a plate4 ,! old-fa%ion$ way 0 to wrap a ball ( ! gr\nd 9 silk1 heat ! plate1 & !n rub ! ball ^u ! surface1 en\gh ( ! gr\nd to cov] ! plate melt+ ?r\gh ! silk4 ,to equalize ! gr\nd a dabb] 0 us$1 :i* 0 made ( cotton-wool "u horsehair1 ! :ole inclos$ 9 silk4 ,?is me?od is /ill us$ by _m arti/s1 f tradition & habit1 b x is f> inf]ior 9 p]fection & conv5i5ce to t :i* we w n[ describe4 ,:5 ! et*+-gr\nd is melt$1 add to x half its volume ( ess5tial oil ( lav5d]1 mix well1 & all[ ! mixture to cool4 ,y h n[ a pa/e :i* c be spread ^u a cold plate ) a roll]2 ^! roll]s are cov]$ ) lea!r & made 7v c>efully7 = ! purpose4 ,y fir/ spread a little pa/e on a %eet ( glass 7if too ?ick1 add m oil ( lav5d] & mix ) a palette knife71 & roll x till ! roll] is q equally *>g$ all ov]1 :5 ! pa/e is easily transf]r$ to ! copp]1 :i* is aft]w>ds g5tly heat$ to expel ! oil ( lav5d]4 ,9 bo? ^! me?ods ( gr\nd+ a plate1 ! "w is n complet$ until ! gr\nd has be5 smok$1 :i* is effect$ z foll[s4 ,! plate is held by a h&-vice if a small "o1 or if l>ge1 is fix$ at "s height1 ) ! cov]$ side d[nw>ds4 ,a smok+ tor*1 compos$ ( _m ?9 bees-wax dips twi/$ toge!r1 is !n light$ & pass$ repeat$ly "u ! plate 9 e direction1 till ! gr\nd has incorporat$ en\gh lampblack to black5 x4 ,! ?ird way ( cov]+ a plate = et*+ is to apply ! gr\nd 9 solution z collodion is appli$ by photograph]s4 ,! gr\nd may be dissolv$ 9 *lor(orm1 or 9 oil ( lav5d]4 ,! plate be+ gr\nd$1 its back & edges are protect$ f ! acid by ,japan v>ni%1 :i* soon dries1 & !n ! draw+ is trac$ ^u x4 ,! be/ way ( trac+ a draw+ is to use %eet gelat9e1 :i* is employ$ z foll[s4 ,! gelat9e is laid ^u ! draw+1 :i* its transp>5ce all[s y to see p]fectly1 & y trace ! l9es by scrat*+ ! smoo? surface ) a %>p po9t4 ,y !n fill ^! scrat*es ) f9e black-lead1 9 p[d]1 rubb+ x 9 ) ! f+]1 turn ! trac+ ) its face to ! plate1 & rub ! back ( x ) a burni%]4 ,! black-lead f ! scrat*es adh]es to ! et*+ gr\nd & %[s ^u x z pale grey1 mu* m visible ?an any?+ else y c use = trac+4 ,!n comes ! "w ( ! et*+-ne$le1 :i* is m]ely a piece ( /eel %>p5$ m or less4 ,j4,m4,w4 ,turn] us$ a prong ( an old /eel =k :i* did z well z any?+1 b neat] et*+-ne$les are sold by arti/s' col\r-mak]s4 ,! ne$le removes ! gr\nd or cov] & lays ! copp] b>e4 ,"s arti/s %>p5 _! ne$les s z to pres5t a cutt+ edge :i*1 :5 us$ sideways1 scrapes away a broad l9e2 & _m et*]s use ne$les ( v>i\s degrees ( %>pness to get ?ick] or ?9n] l9es4 ,x may be well to obs]ve1 9 connexion ) ?is "p ( ! subject1 t :il/ ?ick l9es agree p]fectly well ) ! nature ( woodcut1 !y are v apt to give an unpleasant heav9ess to plate engrav+ ( all k9ds1 :il/ ?9 l9es h g5]ally a cle> & agreeable appe>ance 9 plate engrav+4 ,nev]!less1 l9es ( mod]ate ?ickness are us$ effectively 9 et*+ :5 cov]$ ) f9] %ad+1 & v ?ick l9es inde$ 7 employ$ ) good results by ,turn] :5 he int5d$ to cov] !m ) mezzot9t 7q4v471 & to pr9t 9 br[n ink1 because _! ?ickness 0 ess5tial to prev5t !m f be+ ov]:elm$ by ! mezzot9t1 & ! br[n ink made !m pr9t less heavily ?an black4 ,et*]s diff] 9 op9ion z to :e!r ! ne$le ought to scrat* ! copp] or simply to glide ^u its surface4 ,a glid+ ne$le is mu* m free1 & !re=e communicates a great] appe>ance ( fre$om to ! et*+1 b x has ! inconv5i5ce t ! et*+-gr\nd may n always be entirely remov$1 & !n ! l9es may be defective f insuffici5t bit+4 ,a scrat*+ ne$le1 on ! o!r h&1 is free f ?is s]i\s inconv5i5ce1 b x mu/ n scrat* irregul>ly s z to engrave l9es ( v>i\s dep?4 ,! bit+ 9 =m] times 0 g5]ally done ) a mixture ( nitric acid & wat]1 9 equal proportions2 b 9 ! pres5t day a ,dut* mordant is a good deal us$1 :i* is compos$ z foll[s3 ,hydro*loric acid1 #ajj grammes2 *lorate ( pota%1 #bj grammes2 wat]1 #hhj grammes4 ,to make x1 heat ! wat]1 add ! *lorate ( pota%1 wait till x is entirely dissolv$1 & !n add ! acid4 ,! nitr\s mordant acts rapidly & causes ebullition2 ! ,dut* mordant acts sl[ly & causes no ebullition4 ,! nitr\s mordant wid5s ! l9es2 ! ,dut* mordant bites 9 dep?1 & does n wid5 ! l9es to any p]ceptible degree4 ,! "t requir$ = bo? dep5ds ^u temp]ature4 ,a mordant bites sl[ly :5 cold1 & m & m rapidly :5 heat$4 ,to obviate irregul>ity caus$ by diff]5ce ( temp]ature1 x is a good plan to heat ! ,dut* mordant artificially to #ie deg4 ,fahr4 by lamps "u ! ba? 7= :i* a photograph]'s porcela9 tray is mo/ conv5i5t71 & keep x /eadily to t temp]ature2 ! results may !n be c\nt$ ^u2 b :atev] ! temp]ature fix$ ^u1 ! results w be regul> if x is regul>4 ,to get diff]5t degrees ( bit+ on ! same plate ! l9es :i* are to be pale are /opp$ out by be+ pa9t$ ov] ) ,japan v>ni% or ) et*+ gr\nd dissolv$ 9 oil ( lav5d]1 ! d>ke/ l9es be+ res]v$ to ! la/1 z !y h to bite longe/4 ,:5 ! acid has done its "w prop]ly ! l9es are bitt5 9 su* v>i\s degrees ( dep? t !y w pr9t ) ! degree ( blackness requir$2 b if "s p>ts ( ! subject require to be made pal]1 !y c be l[]$ by rubb+ !m ) *>coal & olive oil1 & if !y h to be made deep] !y c be rebitt51 or cov]$ ) add$ %ad+4 ,rebit+ is done ) ! roll] above m5tion$1 :i* is n[ *>g$ v lightly ) pa/e & roll$ ov] ! copp] ) no pressure b its own weight1 s z to cov] ! smoo? surface b n fill up any ( ! l9es4 ,! oil ( lav5d] is !n expell$ z be=e by g5tly heat+ ! plate1 b x is n smok$4 ,! l9es :i* require rebit+ may n[ be rebitt51 & ! o!rs pres]v$ aga9/ ! action ( ! acid by /opp+ out4 ,^! are a few ( ! mo/ ess5tial te*nical po9ts 9 et*+1 b !re are _m matt]s ( detail = :i* ! read] is ref]r$ to ! special works on ! subject4 ,!re are _m v>ieties 9 ! processes ( et*+1 & x is only necess>y "h to indicate ! ess5tial facts4 ,a brief analysis ( diff]5t /yles may be giv54 7#a7 ,pure ,l9e4 ,z !re is l9e engrav+1 s !re is l9e et*+2 b z ! et*+-ne$le is a fre] in/rum5t ?an ! bur91 ! l9e has qualities :i* diff] widely f ^? ( ! bur9 l9e4 ,ea* ( ! two has its own *>m & beauty2 ! lib]ty ( ! "o is *>m+1 & ! re/ra9t ( ! o!r is admirable also 9 its "r place4 ,9 l9e et*+1 z 9 l9e engrav+1 ! great ma/]s purposely exhibit ! l9e & d n hide x "u too mu* %ad+4 7#b7 ,l9e & ,%ade4 ,?is answ]s exactly 9 et*+ to ,mantegna's "w 9 engrav+4 ,! mo/ important l9es are drawn fir/ ?r\gh\t1 & ! %ade ?r[n ov] !m l a wa% ) ! bru% ov] a p5 sket* 9 indelible ink4 7#c7 ,%ade & ,texture4 ,?is is us$ *iefly to imitate oil-pa9t+4 ,"h ! l9e 7prop]ly s call$7 is entirely ab&on$1 & ! att5tion ( ! et*] is giv5 to texture & *i>oscuro4 ,he uses l9es1 ( c\rse1 to express ^!1 b does n exhibit !m = _! own beauty2 on ! contr>y1 he conceals !m4 ,( ^! ?ree /yles ( et*+ ! fir/ is te*nically ! easie/1 & be+ also ! mo/ rapid1 is adopt$ = sket*+ on ! copp] f nature2 ! second is ! next 9 difficulty2 & ! ?ird ! mo/ difficult1 on acc\nt ( ! bit+1 :i* is nev] easy to manage :5 x becomes elaborate4 ,! et*] has1 h[ev]1 _m res\rces2 he c make passages pal] by burni%+ !m1 or by us+ *>coal1 or he c efface !m entirely ) ! scrap] & *>coal2 he c d>k5 !m by rebit+ or by regr\nd+ ! plate & add+ fre% "w2 & he ne$ n run ! risk ( bit+ ! v pale/ passages ( all1 because ^! c be easily done ) ! dry po9t1 :i* is simply a well-%>p5$ /ylus us$ directly on ! copp] )\t ! help ( acid4 ,x is (t5 ass]t$ t any "o c et* :o c draw1 b ?is is a mi/ak5 ass]tion likely to mislead4 ,)\t requir+ s long an appr5tice%ip z ! bur91 et*+ is a v difficult art inde$1 ! two ma9 causes ( its difficulty be+ t ! arti/ does n see 8 "w prop]ly z he proce$s1 & t mi/akes or mis=tunes 9 ! bit+1 :i* are ( frequ5t occurr5ce to ! inexp]i5c$1 may de/roy all ! relations ( tone4 ,et*+1 l l9e engrav+1 ow$ mu* to ! old ma/]s1 b :]eas1 ) ! exception ( ,alb]t ,dur]1 ! pa9t]s 7 seldom practical l9e engrav]s1 !y advanc$ et*+ n only by advice giv5 to o!rs b by ! "w ( _! own h&s4 ,rembr&t did z mu* = et*+ z ei!r ,raphael or ,rub5s = l9e engrav+2 & 9 l&scape ! et*+s ( ,claude _h an influ5ce :i* /ill cont9ues1 bo? ,rembr&t & ,claude be+ practical workm5 9 et*+1 & v skilful workm54 ,o/ade1 ,ruysdael1 ,b]ghem1 ,paul ,pott]1 ,k>l ,duj>d91 et*$ z !y pa9t$1 & s did a great] ?an any ( !m1 ,v&yck4 ,9 ! e>li] "p ( ! #ai? c5tury et*+ 0 almo/ a defunct art1 except z x 0 employ$ by engrav]s z a help to get fa/] ?r\gh _! "w1 ( :i* engrav+ got all ! cr$it1 ! public be+ unable to di/+ui% betwe5 et*$ l9es & l9es cut ) ! bur94 ,b f ! middle ( ! c5tury dates a great revival ( et*+ z an indep5d5t art1 a revival :i* has ext5d$ all ov] ,europe4 ,ap>t f ! copy+ ( pictures by et*+--:i* 0 f\nd comm]cially pref]able to ! use ( l9e engrav+--a numb] ( arti/s & amateurs gradually practis$ orig9al et*+ ) increas+ success1 notably ,sir ,seym\r ,had51 ,j4,m4 ,:i/l]1 ,samuel ,palm] & o!rs 9 ,engl&1 ,felix ,bracquemond1 ,c4,f4 ,daubigny1 ,*>les ,jacque1 ,adolphe ,appian1 ,maxime ,lalanne1 ,jules ,jacquem>t & o!rs on ! cont95t1 besides t s+ul> & rem>kable g5ius1 ,*>les ,m]yon4 ,et*+ clubs1 or associations ( arti/s = ! publication ( orig9al et*+s1 7 gradually f\nd$ 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 ,g]many & ,belgium4 ,m]yon & ,:i/l] are two ( ! greate/ mod]n et*]s4 ,among e>li] names m5tion may be made ( ,&rew ,g$des 7#aghc-ahdd7 & ( ,sir ,david ,wilkie 7#aghe-ahda74 ,g$des 0 ! f9] arti/ ) ! ne$le2 he x 0 :om ,rembr&t be/ inspir$2 8 "w 0 9 ! gr& mann]4 ,( ! ri* & r>e dry-po9ts ,at ,peckham ,rye & ,at ,halli=d-on-,?ames1 ! deepe/ & mo/ brilliant ma/] ( l&scape w\ld h no ne$ to be a%am$4 ,david ,wilkie's pr9ts 71 naturally1 n less dramatic ?an 8 pictures1 b ! et*]'s p>ticul> gift 0 possess$ by him m int]mitt5tly3 x is %[n be/ 9 ,! ,receipt1 a /rong & vivid1 dext]\s sket*1 q full ( "*4 ,j4,s4 ,cotman's 7#aghb-ahdb7 et*+s are also hi/orically int]e/+ ?\gh !y 7 s(t gr\nd = ! mo/ "p4 ,!y %[ all 8 qualities ( elegance & fre$om z a draughtsman1 & mu* ( 8 l>ge dignity 9 ! di/ribution ( light & %ade4 ,t4 ,girt9 7#agge-ahjb71 9 ! prep>ations = 8 views ( ,p>is1 0 notably happy4 ,! "w ( ,sir ,francis ,seym\r ,had5 7b4 #ahah7 _h a p[]ful influ5ce on ! art 9 ,engl&4 ,betwe5 #aheh & #ahgi ,seym\r ,had5--! fir/ presid5t ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,pa9t] ,et*]s--produc$ ! va/ majority ( 8 plates1 :i* h always good draughtsman%ip1 unity ( effect & a p]sonal impression4 ,!y %[ a /rong feel+ = nature4 ,if1 among/ "s two hundr$ subjects1 x 7 necess>y to select "o or two = peculi> praise1 !y might be ! ,break+ up ( ! ,agamemnon1 ! almo/ p]fect ,wat] ,mead[1 ! ma/]ly pres5tm5t ( ,eri? ,m>%es1 & ! lat] dry-po9t ( ,w9dmill ,hill4 ,ano!r great et*]--,fr5*man by bir?1 b ,engli% by long resid5ce--is ,alphonse ,legros 7q4v474 ,great 9 expression & sugge/ive draughtsman%ip1 au/]e & economical 9 l9e1 ,legros's "w is ! grave record ( ! obs]vation & ! fancy ( an imag9ative m9d4 ,9 poetic portraiture no?+ c well exce$ 8 et*$ vision ( ,g4,f4 ,watts2 ,la ,mort du ,vagabond is noticeable = t]ror & homely pa?os2 ,communion dans l',eglise ,/ ,m$>d is p]haps ! be/ in/ance ( ! dignity1 vig\r & grave sympa?y ) :i* he addresses himself to ecclesia/ical !mes4 ,some?+ ( ^! latt] qualities1 9 deal+ ) simil> !mes1 ,legros pass$ on to 8 pupil1 ,sir ,*>les ,holroyd 7b4 #ahfa7--;an et*] 9 ! true ve92 :il/ an e>li] pupil1 prolific z himself1 z imag9ative1 & sometimes m delib]ately unc\?--,william ,/rang1 ,a4,r4,a4 7b4 #ahei7--;c>ri$ on 9 8 own way ! tradition ( t "p ( ,legros's practice1 ! preoccupation ) ! humble1 = :i* ,legros himself f\nd c]ta9 w>rant 9 a portion ( ! great oeuvre ( ,rembr&t4 ,frank ,%ort1 ,a4,r4,a4 7b4 #aheg71 z ) ! v t\* ( ,turn]1 c>ri$ to completion great designs t ,turn] left unf9i%$ = ! ,lib] /udiorum4 ,! delicacy ( ,sleep+ till ! ,flood1 ! curi\sly sugge/ive realism ( ,wr\ght ,nails--a sc5e 9 ! ,black ,c\ntry--entitle him to a la/+ place 9 ! li/ ( ! f9e wield]s ( ! et*+-ne$le4 ,d4,y4 ,cam]on 7b4 #ahfe7 betrays ! influ5ce ( ,rembr&t 9 a noble et*+1 ,bord] ,t[]s1 & ! influ5ce ( ,m]yon 9 su* a pr9t z t ( ,! ,palace1 ,/irl+4 ,8 ,london ,set is p>ticul>ly f9e4 ,! individuality ( ,c4,j4 ,watson is less m>k$1 b 8 skill1 *iefly 9 ar*itectural "w1 is noticeable4 ,admir]s ( ! /udi\sly accurate portraiture ( a great monum5t may be able to set ,watson's pr9t ( ,/ ,eti5ne du ,mont by ! side ( ,m]yon's augu/ & my/]i\s & ev]-memorable vision4 ,paul ,helleu 7b4 #ahei7 9 8 brilliant sket*es1 p>ticul>ly ( wom51 has us$ ! art ( et*+ 9 a peculi>ly individual & delightful way4 ,among ! num]\s o!r mod]n et*]s only a b>e m5tion c be made ( ,oliv] ,hall1 ,m9na ,bol+broke & ,elizabe? ,arm/rong 7,mrs ,watson & ,mrs ,/anhope ,=bes71 ,alfr$ ,ea/1 ,rob]t ,macbe?1 ,walt] ,sick]t1 ,rob]t ,g(f1 ,mortim] ,m5pes1 ,p]cy ,?omas1 ,rav5 ,hill1 & ,pr(4 ,h4 von ,h]kom]1 9 ,engl&2 9 ,france1 ,r\ssel1 ,j4,f4 ,raffaelli 7b4 #ahej71 ,besn>d & ,j4,j4,j4 ,tissot 7#ahcf-aijb74 ,! olde/ treatise on et*+ is t ( ,abraham ,bosse 7#afde74 ,see also ,p4,g4 ,ham]ton1 ,et*+ & ,et*]s 7#ahfh71 & ,et*]s' ,h&book 7#ahha72 ,f4 ,w$more1 ,et*+ 9 ,engl& 7#ahie72 ,s+] & ,/rang1 ,et*+1 ,engrav+1 c4 7#ahig74 ,,eteocles1 9 ,greek leg5d1 k+ ( ,!bes1 son ( ,o$ipus & ,joca/a 7,ioca/e74 ,aft] _! fa!r _h be5 driv5 out ( ! c\ntry1 he & 8 bro!r ,polyneices agre$ to reign alt]nately = a ye>4 ,eteocles1 h[ev]1 refus$ to keep ! agreem5t1 & ,polyneices fl$ to ,adra/us1 k+ ( ,argos1 :om he p]suad$ to und]take ! fam\s exp$ition aga9/ ,!bes on 8 behalf4 ,! two bro!rs met 9 s+le combat1 & bo? 7 sla94 ,! ,!ban rul]s decre$ t only ,eteocles %\ld receive ! hon\r ( burial1 b ! decree 0 set at naught by ,antigone 7q4v471 ! si/] ( ,polyneices4 ,! fate ( ,eteocles & ,polyneices =ms ! subject ( ! ,sev5 aga9/ ,!bes ( ,aes*ylus & ! ,pho5issae ( ,euripides4 ,,etesian ,,w9d 7,lat4 etesius1 annual2 ,gr4 ,greek3 etos1 ye>71 a ,m$it]ranean w9d bl[+ f ! nor? & we/ 9 summ] = ab\t six weeks annually4 ,,etex1 ,,anto9e 7#ahjh-ahhh71 ,fr5* sculptor1 pa9t] & ar*itect1 0 born 9 ,p>is on ! #bj? ( ,m>* #ahjh4 ,he fir/ exhibit$ 9 ! salon ( #ahcc1 8 "w includ+ a reproduction 9 m>ble ( 8 ,dea? ( ,hyac9?us1 & ! pla/] ca/ ( 8 ,ca9 & 8 race curs$ by ,god4 ,?i]s1 :o 0 at ?is "t m9i/] ( public works1 n[ commission$ him to execute ! two gr\ps ( ,peace & ,w>1 plac$ at ea* side ( ! ,arc de ,triomphe4 ,?is la/1 :i* e/abli%$ 8 reputation1 he reproduc$ 9 m>ble 9 ! salon ( #ahci4 ,! ,fr5* capital conta9s num]\s examples ( ! sculptural works ( ,etex1 :i* includ$ my?ological & religi\s subjects besides a great numb] ( portraits4 ,8 pa9t+s include ! subjects ( ,eurydice & ! m>tyrdom ( ,sa9t ,seba/ian1 & among ! be/ kn[n ( 8 ar*itectural productions are ! tomb ( ,napoleon ,i4 9 ! ,invalides & a monum5t ( ! revolution ( #ahdh4 ,etex wrote a numb] ( essays on subjects connect$ ) ! arts4 ,! la/ ye> ( 8 life 0 sp5t at ,nice1 & he di$ at ,*aville 7,se9e-et-,oise7 on ! #ad? ( ,july #ahhh4 ,see ,p4,e4 ,mangeant1 ,anto9e ,etex1 pe9tre1 sculpteur et ar*itecte1 #ahjh-ahhh 7,p>is1 #ahid74 ,,e!r1 7,c#b;,h#e7b,o1 ! ,ae!r ( ph>macy1 a col\rless1 volatile1 highly inflammable liquid1 ( specific gravity #j4gcf at #j deg41 boil+-po9t #ce deg4 ,c41 & freez+-po9t -#aag deg4 4#d ,c4 7,k4 ,olszewski74 ,x has a /rong & *>act]i/ic od\r1 & a hot sweeti% ta/e1 is soluble 9 t5 p>ts ( wat]1 & 9 all proportions 9 alcohol1 & dissolves brom9e1 iod9e1 &1 9 small quantities1 sulphur & phosphorus1 also ! volatile oils1 mo/ fatty & res9\s sub/ances1 guncotton1 ca\t*\c & c]ta9 ( ! vegetable alkaloids4 ,! vap\r mix$ ) oxyg5 or air is viol5tly explosive4 ,! mak+ ( e!r by ! action ( sulphuric acid on alcohol 0 kn[n 9 ab\t ! #ac? c5tury2 & lat] ,basil ,val5t9e & ,val]ius ,cordus describ$ its prep>ation & prop]ties4 ,! "n e!r appe>s to h be5 appli$ to ! drug only s9ce ! times ( ,frob5ius1 :o 9 #agcj t]m$ x spiritus ae!reus or v9i vitriolatus4 ,x 0 consid]$ to be a sulphur comp\nd1 h5ce its "n sulphur e!r2 ?is idea 0 prov$ to be errone\s by ,val5t9e ,rose 9 ab\t #ahjj4 ,e!r is manufactur$ by ! di/illation ( #e p>ts ( #ij alcohol ) #i p>ts ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid at a temp]ature ( #adj deg4-#ade deg4 ,c41 a con/ant /ream ( alcohol be+ caus$ to fl[ into ! mixture dur+ ! op]ation4 ,! di/illate is purifi$ by treatm5t ) lime & calcium *loride1 & subsequ5t di/illation4 ,! me*anism ( ?is reaction 0 expla9$ by ,a4 ,williamson 9 #ahej4 ,= o!r me?ods ( prep>ation see ,,e!rs4#a ,! pres5ce ( s small a quantity z #a ( alcohol may be detect$ 9 e!r by ! col\r imp>t$ to x by anil9e violet2 if wat] or acetic acid be pres5t1 ! e!r mu/ be %ak5 ) anhydr\s potassium c>bonate be=e ! application ( ! te/4 ,:5 heat$ ) z9c du/1 x yields e?yl5e & wat]4 ,*romic acid oxidizes x to acetic acid & ozone oxidizes x to e?yl p]oxide4 ,9 contact ) hydriodic acid gas at #j deg4 ,c41 x =ms e?yl iodide 7,r4,d4 ,silva1 ,b]41 #ahge1 #h1 p4 #ijc71 & ) wat] & a little sulphuric acid at #ahj deg4 ,c41 x yields alcohol 7,e4 ,erl5mey]1 ,zeit4 f4 *emie1 #ahfh1 p4 #cdc74 ,x =ms cry/all9e comp\nds ) brom9e & ) _m metallic salts4 ,m$ic9e4--,= ! anae/hetic prop]ties ( e!r see ,,anae/hesia4 ,appli$ ext]nally1 e!r evaporates v rapidly1 produc+ su* int5se cold z to cause m>k$ local anae/hesia4 ,= ?is purpose x is be/ appli$ z a f9e spray1 b e?yl *loride is g5]ally f\nd m effici5t & produces less subsequ5t discom=t4 ,x aids ! absorption ( fats & may be us$ ) cod liv] oil :5 ! latt] is adm9i/]$ by ! sk94 ,if x be rubb$ 9 or evaporation be prev5t$1 x acts1 l alcohol & *lor(orm1 z an irritant4 ,t5 to tw5ty m9ims ( e!r1 subcutane\sly inject$1 con/itute p]haps ! mo/ rapid & p[]ful c>diac /imulant kn[n1 & are (t5 employ$ = ?is purpose 9 cases ( syncope "u anae/hesia4 ,tak5 int]nally1 e!r acts 9 _m respects simil>ly to alcohol & *lor(orm1 b its /imulant action on ! he>t is mu* m m>k$1 be+ ex]t$ bo? reflexly f ! /oma* & directly aft] its rapid absorption4 ,e!r is ?us ! type ( a rapidly diffusible /imulant4 ,x is also useful 9 reliev+ ! p>oxysms ( a/hma4 ,! dose = repeat$ adm9i/ration is f #aj to #cj m9ims & = a s+le adm9i/ration up to a dra*m4 ,*ronic ,poison+4--,a dose ( a little m ?an a dra*m 7a teaspoonful7 w produce a condition ( inebriation la/+ = "o-half to "o h\r1 b ! dose mu/ soon be greatly increas$4 ,! aft]-effects are1 if any?+1 r pleasant1 & ! habit ( e!r dr9k+ is c]ta9ly n s injuri\s z alcoholism4 ,! pr9cipal symptoms symptons ( *ronic e!r-dr9k+ are a weak5+ ( ! activity ( ! special s5ses1 & notably sight & he>+1 a l[]+ ( ! intellig5ce & a degree ( g5]al p>esis 7p>tial p>alysis7 ( motion4 ,,footnote3 #a ,see also ,j4 v4 ,liebig1 ,ann4 ,*em4 ,ph>m41 #ahcg1 #bc1 p4 #ci2 #ahci1 #cj1 p4 #abi2 ,e4 ,mits*]li*1 ,pogg4 ,ann41 #ahcf1 #ca1 p4 #bgc2 #ahda1 #ec1 p4 #ie2 ,a4,w4 ,williamson1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #ahej 7#c71 #cg1 p4 #cej4 ,,e!r$ge or ,,e!rege1 ,,sir ,,george 7c4 #afce-afia71 ,engli% dramati/1 0 born ab\t ! ye> #afce1 & belong$ to an ,ox=d%ire family4 ,he is said to h be5 educat$ at ,cambridge1 b ,d5nis assures u t to 8 c]ta9 k he und]/ood nei!r ,greek nor ,lat94 ,he travell$ abroad e>ly1 & seems to h resid$ 9 ,france4 ,x is possible t he witness$ 9 ,p>is ! p]=mances ( "s ( ,moli]e's e>lie/ com$ies2 & he seems1 f an allusion 9 "o ( 8 plays1 to h be5 p]sonally acqua9t$ ) ,bussy ,rabut94 ,on 8 return to ,london he /udi$ ! law at "o ( ! ,inns ( ,c\rt4 ,8 ta/es 7 ^? ( a f9e g5tleman1 & he indulg$ freely 9 pleasure4 ,sometime soon aft] ! ,re/oration he compos$ 8 com$y ( ,! ,comical ,rev5ge or ,love 9 a ,tub1 :i* introduc$ him to ,"l ,buckhur/1 aft]w>ds ! e>l ( ,dorset4 ,?is 0 br\ght out at ! ,duke's !atre 9 #affd1 & a few copies 7 pr9t$ 9 ! same ye>4 ,x is p>tly 9 rhym$ rhymn$ h]oic v]se1 l ! /ilt$ trag$ies ( ! ,h[>ds & ,killigrews1 b x conta9s comic sc5es t are exce$+ly bright & fre%4 ,! sp>r+ betwe5 ,sir ,fr$]ick & ! ,wid[ introduc$ a /yle ( wit hi!rto unkn[n ^u ! ,engli% /age4 ,! success ( ?is play 0 v great1 b ,e!r$ge wait$ f\r ye>s be=e he repeat$ 8 exp]im5t4 ,mean:ile he ga9$ ! highe/ reputation z a poetical beau1 & mov$ 9 ! circle ( ,sir ,*>les ,s$ley1 ,"l ,ro*e/] & ! o!r noble wits ( ! day4 ,9 #affh he br\ght out ,%e w\ld if %e c\ld1 a com$y 9 _m respects admirable1 full ( action1 wit & _s1 al?\gh to ! la/ degree frivol\s & immoral4 ,b 9 ?is play ,e!r$ge fir/ %[s himself a new p[] 9 lit]ature2 he has no?+ ( ! rud5ess ( 8 pr$ecessors or ! grossness ( 8 contempor>ies4 ,we move 9 an airy & fanta/ic _w1 :]e flirtation is ! only s]i\s bus9ess ( life4 ,at ?is "t ,e!r$ge 0 liv+ a life no less frivol\s & unpr9cipl$ ?an ^? ( 8 ,c\rtals & ,freemans4 ,he =m$ an alliance ) ! fam\s actress ,mrs ,elizabe? ,b>ry2 %e bore him a daught]1 on :om he settl$ ,l#fjjj1 b :o1 unhappily1 di$ 9 h] y\?4 ,8 weal? & wit1 ! di/9ction & *>m ( 8 mann]s1 won ,e!r$ge ! g5]al wor%ip ( society1 & 8 temp]am5t is be/ kn[n by ! names 8 contempor>ies gave him1 ( g5tle ,george & easy ,e!r$ge4 ,ro*e/] upbraid$ him = inatt5tion to lit]ature2 & at la/1 aft] a sil5ce ( eight ye>s1 he came =w>d ) "o m play1 un=tunately 8 la/4 ,! ,man ( ,mode or ,sir ,fopl+ ,flutt]1 indisputably ! be/ com$y ( intrigue writt5 9 ,engl& be=e ! days ( ,congreve1 0 act$ & pr9t$ 9 #afgf1 & enjoy$ an unb\nd$ success4 ,besides ! m]it ( its plot & wit1 x _h ! p]sonal *>m ( be+ suppos$ to satirize1 or at lea/ to pa9t1 p]sons well kn[n 9 ,london4 ,sir ,fopl+ ,flutt] 0 a portrait ( ,beau ,hewit1 ! reign+ exquisite ( ! h\r2 9 ,dorimant ! poet drew ! e>l ( ,ro*e/]1 & 9 ,m$ley a portrait ( himself2 :ile ev5 ! drunk5 %oemak] 0 a real "*1 :o made 8 =tune f be+ ?us br\ght into public notice4 ,aft] ?is brilliant success ,e!r$ge retir$ f lit]ature2 8 gallantries & 8 gambl+ 9 a few ye>s depriv$ him ( 8 =tune1 & he look$ ab\t = a ri* mat*4 ,he 0 knight$ be=e #afhj1 & ga9$ ! h& & ! money ( a ri* wid[4 ,he 0 s5t by ,*>les ,,ii4 on a mission to ! ,hague1 & 9 ,m>* #afhe 0 appo9t$ resid5t m9i/] 9 ! imp]ial ,g]man c\rt at ,reg5sburg4 ,he 0 v uncom=table 9 ,g]many1 & aft] ?ree & a half ye>s' resid5ce left = ,p>is4 ,he _h collect$ a libr>y at ,reg5sburg1 "s volumes ( :i* are 9 ! !ological college !re4 ,8 ,,ms4 despat*es are pres]v$ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 :]e !y 7 discov]$ & describ$ by ,mr ,gosse 9 #ahha2 !y add v l>gely to our k ( ,e!r$ge's c>e]4 ,he di$ 9 ,p>is1 probably 9 #afia1 = ,n>cissus ,luttrell notes 9 ,febru>y #afib t ,sir ,george ,e!rege1 ! late ,k+ ,james' ambassador to ,vi5na1 di$ lately 9 ,p>is4 ,e!r$ge des]ves to hold a m di/+ui%$ place 9 ,engli% lit]ature ?an has g5]ally be5 allott$ to him4 ,9 a dull & heavy age1 he inaugurat$ a p]iod ( g5u9e wit & sprightl9ess4 ,he inv5t$ ! com$y ( intrigue1 & l$ ! way = ! ma/]pieces ( ,congreve & ,%]idan4 ,be=e 8 "t ! mann] ( ,b5 ,jonson _h prevail$ 9 com$y1 & traditional hum\rs & typical ecc5tricities1 in/ead ( real *>act]s1 _h cr[d$ ! comic /age4 ,e!r$ge pa9ts ) a light1 fa9t h&1 b x is f nature1 & 8 portraits ( fops & beaux are simply unexcell$4 ,no "o kn[s bett] ?an he h[ to pres5t a gay "y g5tleman1 a ,dorimant1 an unconf9able rov] aft] amor\s adv5tures4 ,8 g5ius is z light z ?i/le-d[n2 he is frivol\s1 )\t =ce ( conviction1 )\t pr9ciple2 b 8 wit is v sp>kl+1 & 8 /yle pure & s+ul>ly picturesque4 ,no "o approa*es ,e!r$ge 9 delicate t\*es ( dress1 furniture & sc5e2 he makes ! f9e airs ( ,london g5tlem5 & ladies live be=e our eyes ev5 m vividly ?an ,congreve does2 b he has less insight & less en]gy ?an ,congreve4 ,_h he be5 poor or ambiti\s1 he might h be5 to ,engl& almo/ :at ,moli]e 0 to ,france1 b he 0 a ri* man liv+ at 8 ease1 & he disda9$ to excel 9 lit]ature4 ,e!r$ge 0 a fair1 sl5d]1 g5teel man1 b spoil$ 8 c\nt5ance ) dr9k+4 ,8 contempor>ies all agree 9 ackn[l$g+ t he 0 ! s\l ( affability & sprightly good-nature4 ,! life ( ,e!r$ge 0 fir/ giv5 9 detail by ,edmund ,gosse 9 ,sev5te5? ,c5tury ,/udies 7#ahhc74 ,8 works 7 edit$ by ,a4,w4 ,v]ity1 9 #ahhh4 7,e4 ,g47 ,,e!ridge1 ,,john ,,wesley 7#ahjd-ahff71 ,engli% noncon=mi/ div9e1 0 born ne> ,newport1 ,isle ( ,wight1 on ! #bd? ( ,febru>y #ahjd4 ,he receiv$ mo/ ( 8 e>ly education f 8 fa!r4 ,?\gh he nev] att5d$ any univ]sity he acquir$ ultimately a ?or\gh k ( ,greek1 ,lat91 ,hebrew1 ,syriac1 ,fr5* & ,g]man4 ,9 #ahbd he 0 plac$ on ! ,wesleyan ,me?odi/ plan z a local prea*]4 ,9 #ahbf 8 (f] to ent] ! m9i/ry 0 accept$1 & aft] ! usual probation>y trial he 0 receiv$ into full connexion at ! conf]5ce ( #ahca4 ,= two ye>s aft] ?is he rema9$ at ,brighton1 & 9 #ahcc he remov$ to ,cornwall1 be+ /ation$ successively at ! ,truro & ,falm\? circuits4 ,f ,falm\? he remov$ to ,d>la/on1 :]e 9 #ahch 8 heal? gave way4 ,= a good _m ye>s he 0 a sup]num]>y1 & liv$ = a :ile at ,ca5 & ,p>is1 :]e 9 ! public libr>ies he f\nd great facilities = prosecut+ 8 fav\rite ,ori5tal /udies4 ,8 heal? hav+ consid]ably improv$1 he became1 9 #ahdc1 pa/or ( ! ,me?odi/ *ur* at ,b\logne4 ,he return$ to ,engl& 9 #ahdg1 & 0 appo9t$ successively to ! circuits ( ,isl+ton1 ,bri/ol1 ,le$s1 ,p5zance1 ,p5ryn1 ,truro & ,/ ,au/ell 9 ea/ ,cornwall4 ,%ortly aft] 8 return to ,engl& he receiv$ ! degree ( ,ph4,d4 f ! univ]sity ( ,heidelb]g4 ,he 0 a pati5t1 mode/1 h>d-work+ & accurate s*ol>4 ,he di$ at ,camborne on ! #bd? ( ,may #ahff4 ,8 pr9cipal works are ,horae ,aramaicae 7#ahdc72 ,hi/ory1 ,liturgies & ,lit]ature ( ! ,syrian ,*ur*es 7#ahdg72 ,! ,apo/olic ,acts & ,epi/les1 f ! ,pe%ito or ,anci5t ,syriac 7#ahdi72 ,j]usalem & ,tib]ias1 a ,survey ( ! ,religi\s & ,s*ola/ic ,le>n+ ( ! ,jews 7#ahef72 ,! ,t>gums ( ,onkelos & ,jona?an b5 ,uzziel 7#a/ vol4 9 #ahfb1 #bnd 9 #ahfe74 ,see ,memoir1 by ,rev4 ,?ornley ,smi? 7#ahga74 ,,e!ridge1 ,,rob]t 7#ahai-aijc71 ,engli% geologi/ & palaeontologi/1 0 born at ,ross1 9 ,h]e=d%ire1 on ! #crd ( ,decemb] #ahai4 ,aft] an ord9>y s*ool education 9 8 native t[n1 he obta9$ employm5t 9 a bus9ess h\se 9 ,bri/ol4 ,!re he devot$ 8 sp>e "t to natural hi/ory pursuits1 & 9 #ahej 0 appo9t$ curator ( ! museum atta*$ to ! ,bri/ol ,philosophical ,in/itution4 ,he also became lectur] on botany 9 ! ,bri/ol m$ical s*ool4 ,9 #aheg1 ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ,sir ,rod]ick ,i4 ,mur*ison1 he 0 appo9t$ to a po/ 9 ! ,museum ( ,practical ,geology 9 ,london1 & ev5tually became palaeontologi/ to ! ,geological ,survey4 ,9 #ahfe he assi/$ ,pr(4 ,huxley 9 ! prep>ation ( a ,catalogue ( ,fossils 9 ! ,museum ( ,practical ,geology4 ,8 *ief "w = _m ye>s 0 9 nam+ ! fossils collect$ dur+ ! progress ( ! ,geological ,survey1 & 9 supply+ ! li/s t 7 app5d$ to num]\s (ficial memoirs4 ,9 ?is way he acquir$ an exceptional k ( ,briti% fossils1 & he ultimately prep>$ an elaborate "w entitl$ ,fossils ( ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 ,/ratigraphically & ,zoologically arrang$4 ,only ! fir/ volume deal+ ) ! ,palaeozoic species 0 publi%$ 7#ahhh74 ,e!ridge also 0 au?or ( sev]al pap]s on ! ,rhaetic ,b$s1 & ( an important essay on ! ,physical ,/ructure ( ,nor? ,devon1 & on ! ,palaeontological ,value ( ! ,devonian ,fossils 7#ahfg74 ,he edit$1 & 9 ! ma9 rewrote1 ! second "p ( a new edition ( ,john ,phillips' ,manual ( ,geology--entitl$ ,/ratigraphical ,geology & ,palaeontology 7#ahhe74 ,he 0 elect$ ,f4,r4,s4 9 #ahga1 & 0 presid5t ( ! ,geological ,society 9 #ahha-ahhb4 ,9 #ahha ,e!ridge 0 transf]r$ f ! ,geological ,survey to ! geological dep>tm5t ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 :]e he s]v$ z assi/ant keep] until #ahia4 ,he di$ at ,*elsea1 ,london1 on ! #ah? ( ,decemb] #aijc4 ,memoir by ,dr ,h5ry ,woodw>d 7) li/ ( works & portrait7 9 ,geological ,magaz9e1 ,janu>y #aijd2 also ,memoir by ,h4,b4 ,woodw>d 7) portrait7 9 ,proc4 ,bri/ol ,nat4 ,soc4 x4 #age4 ,,e!rs1 9 organic *emi/ry1 comp\nds ( ! g5]al =mula ,r4,o4,r'1 :]e ,r1 ,r' alkyl or aryl gr\ps4 ,!y may be reg>d$ z ! anhydrides ( ! alcohols1 be+ =m$ by elim9ation ( "o molecule ( wat] f two molecules ( ! alcohols2 ^? 9 :i* ! two hydroc>bon radicals are simil> are kn[n z simple e!rs1 & ^? 9 :i* !y are dissimil> z mix$ e!rs4 ,!y may be prep>$ by ! action ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid on ! alcohols1 alkyl sulphuric acids be+ fir/ =m$1 :i* yield e!rs on heat+ ) alcohols4 ,! process may be made a cont9u\s "o by runn+ a ?9 /ream ( alcohol cont9ually into ! heat$ reaction mixture ( alcohol & sulphuric acid4 ,b5z5e sulphonic acid has be5 us$ 9 place ( sulphuric acid 7,f4 ,krafft1 ,b]41 #ahic1 #bf1 p4 #bhbi74 ,a4,w4 ,williamson 7,ann41 #ahea1 #gg1 p4 #ch2 #aheb1 #ha1 p4 #gg7 prep>$ e!r by ! action ( sodium e?ylate on e?yl iodide1 & %[$ t all e!rs mu/ possess ! /ructural =mula giv5 above 7see also ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,reports1 #ahej1 p4 #fe74 ,!y may also be prep>$ by heat+ ! alkyl halides ) silv] oxide4 ,! e!rs are neutral volatile liquids 7! fir/ memb]1 me?yl e!r1 is a gas at ord9>y temp]ature74 ,phosphorus p5ta*loride conv]ts !m into alkyl *lorides1 a simil> decomposition tak+ place :5 !y are heat$ ) ! haloid acids4 ,nitric acid & *romic acid oxidize !m 9 su* a m>9] t !y yield ! same products z ! alcohols f :i* !y are d]iv$4 ,) *lor9e !y yield sub/itution products4 ,me?yl e!r1 7,,*#c7b,o1 0 fir/ prep>$ by ,j4 ,b4 ,dumas & ,e4 ,peligot 7,ann4 *im4 phys41 #ahce1 #b #eh1 p4 #ai7 by heat+ me?yl alcohol ) sulphuric acid4 ,x is be/ prep>$ by heat+ me?yl alcohol & sulphuric acid to #adj deg4 ,c4 & lead+ ! evolv$ gas into sulphuric acid4 ,! sulphuric acid solution is !n all[$ to drop sl[ly into an equal volume ( wat]1 :5 ! me?yl e!r is lib]at$ 7,e4 ,erl5mey] & ,a4 ,krie*baum]1 ,b]41 #ahgd1 #g1 p4 #fii74 ,x is a pleasant-smell+ gas1 :i* burns :5 ignit$1 & may be cond5s$ to a liquid :i* boils at #bc4f deg4 ,c4 ,x is some:at soluble 9 wat] & readily soluble 9 alcohol1 & conc5trat$ sulphuric acid4 ,x comb9es ) hydro*loric acid gas to =m a comp\nd 7,,*#c7b,o4,h,cl 7,c4 ,fri$el1 ,comptes r5dus1 #ahge1 #ha1 p4 #aeb74 ,me?yl e?yl e!r1 ,,*#c4,o4,c#b;,h#e1 is prep>$ f me?yl iodide & sodium e?ylate1 or f e?yl iodide & sodium me?ylate 7,a4 ,w4 ,williamson1 ,ann41 #aheb1 #ha1 p4 #gg74 ,x is a liquid :i* boils at #aj4h deg4 ,c4 ,= die?yl e!r see ,,e!r1 & = me?yl ph5yl e!r 7anisole7 & e?yl ph5yl e!r 7ph5etole7 see ,,c>bolic ,,acid4 ,,e?ics1 ! "n g5]ally giv5 to ! sci5ce ( moral philosophy4 ,! ^w e?ics is d]iv$ f ! ,gr4 ,greek3 e?ikos1 t :i* p]ta9s to ,greek3 e?os1 "*4 ,= conv5i5ce 9 ref]5ce1 ! arrangem5t foll[$ 9 ?is article may be expla9$ at ! outset3-- ,,page ,i4 ,,def9ition ,,& ,,scope #hji ,,ii4 ,,hi/orical ,,sket* #haj ,a4 ,greek & ,graeco-,roman ,e?ics #haj ,! ,age ( ! ,sophi/s #haa ,socrates & 8 ,disciples #haa ,plato #hab ,plato & ,ari/otle #had ,ari/otle #hae ,/oicism #haf ,h$onism 7,epicurus7 #hah ,lat] ,greek & ,roman ,e?ics #hah ,neoplatonism #hai ,b4 ,*ri/ianity & ,m$ieval ,e?ics #hbj ,*ri/ian & ,jewi% ,law ( ,god #hbj ,*ri/ian & ,pagan ,inw>dness #hbj 7,k1 ,fai?1 ,love1 ,purity7 ,di/9ctive ,p>ticul>s ( ,*ri/ian ,morality #hba ,developm5t ( ,op9ion 9 ,e>ly ,*ri/ianity1 ,augu/9e1 ,ambrose #hbc ,m$ieval ,morality & ,moral ,philosophy #hbd ,?omas ,aqu9as #hbd ,casui/ry & ,jesuitry #hbf ,! ,re=mation2 & bir? ( ,mod]n ,?\ght #hbf ,c4 ,mod]n ,e?ics #hbg ,grotius #hbg ,hobbes #hbg ,! ,cambridge ,morali/s #hbh 7,cudwor?1 ,m7 ,cumb]l& #hbi ,locke #hbi ,cl>ke #hbi ,%aftesbury #hcj ,m&eville #hcj ,butl] #hca ,wolla/on #hca ,hut*eson #hca ,hume #hcb ,adam ,smi? #hcc ,! ,intuitional ,s*ool #hcc 7,price1 ,reid1 ,/ew>t1 ,:ewell7 ,! ,utilit>ian ,s*ool #hce 7,paley1 ,b5?am1 ,mill7 ,association & ,evolution #hcg ,free-w #hcg ,fr5* ,influ5ce on ,engli% ,e?ics #hch 7,helvetius1 ,comte7 ,g]man ,influ5ce on ,engli% ,e?ics #hci 7,kant1 ,hegel7 ,d4 ,e?ics s9ce #ahgi #hdj ,,iii4 ,,bibliography #hde ,section ,i4 conta9s a g5]al survey ( ! subject2 x %[s 9 :at s5se e?ics is to be reg>d$ z a special field ( philosophical inve/igation--its relations to o!r dep>tm5ts ( ?\ght1 especially to psy*ology1 religion & mod]n physical sci5ce4 ,! article makes no attempt to give a detail$1 casui/ical exam9ation ( ! matt] ( e?ical !ory4 ,= ?is1 ref]5ce mu/ be made to special articles on philosophic s*ools1 writ]s & t]ms4 ,section ,,ii4 is a hi/orical sket* 9 f\r p>ts trac+ ! ma9 l9es ( developm5t 9 e?ical speculation f its bir? to ! pres5t day4 ,"h aga9 x has be5 possible to notice only ! sali5t po9ts or l&m>ks1 leav+ all detail to special articles z above4 ,all important writ]s ^: names occur 9 ?is sket* are treat$ 9 special biographical articles1 & ref]5ces are giv5 z (t5 z possible to supplem5t>y articles :i* illu/rate & expla9 po9ts :i* _c be fully treat$ "h4 ,?is is especially ! case 9 connexion ) te*nical t]ms 7^: hi/ory & mean+ are inevitably tak5 = grant$7 & biographical in=mation ab\t m9or e?ical writ]s4 ,i4 ,,def9ition ,,& ,,subject-,,matt] ,,( ,,e?ics ,9 its wide/ s5se1 ! t]m e?ics w\ld imply an exam9ation into ! g5]al "* or habits ( mank9d1 & w\ld ev5 involve a description or hi/ory ( ! habits ( m5 9 p>ticul> societies liv+ at diff]5t p]iods ( "t4 ,su* a field ( /udy w\ld obvi\sly be too wide = any p>ticul> sci5ce or philosophy to inve/igate1 & moreov] portions ( ! field are already occupi$ by hi/ory1 by an?ropology & by ! p>ticul> sci5ces 7e4g4 physiology1 anatomy1 biology71 9 s f> z ! habits & "* ( m5 dep5d ^u ! mat]ial processes :i* ^! sci5ces exam9e4 ,ev5 philosophies su* z logic & ae/hetic w\ld be necess>y = su* an inve/igation1 if ?\ght & arti/ic production are normal human habits & elem5ts 9 "*4 ,e?ics !n is usually conf9$ to ! p>ticul> field ( human "* & conduct s f> z !y dep5d ^u or exhibit c]ta9 g5]al pr9ciples commonly kn[n z moral pr9ciples4 ,m5 9 g5]al *>act]ize _! own conduct & "* & t ( o!r m5 by su* g5]al adjectives z good1 bad1 "r & wrong1 & x is ! mean+ & scope ( ^! adjectives1 prim>ily 9 relation to human conduct1 & ultimately 9 _! f9al & absolute s5se1 t e?ics inve/igates4 ,a n uncommon def9ition ( e?ics z ! sci5ce ( conduct is inexact = v>i\s reasons4 7#a7 ,! sci5ces are descriptive or exp]im5tal4 ,b a description ( :at acts or :at ends ( action m5 9 ! pres5t or ! pa/ call1 or h call$1 good or bad is cle>ly beyond human p[]s4 ,& exp]im5ts 9 morality 7ap>t f ! inconv5i5t practical consequ5ces likely to ensue7 are useless = purposes ( e?ics1 because ! moral consci\sness w\ld itself at "o & ! same "t be requir$ to make ! exp]im5t & to provide ! subject ^u :i* ! exp]im5t is p]=m$4 7#b7 ,e?ics is a philosophy & n a sci5ce4 ,philosophy is a process ( reflection ^u ! presuppositions involv$ 9 unreflective ?\ght4 ,9 logic & metaphysics x inve/igates ei!r ! process ( appreh5sion itself1 or conceptions su* z cause1 sub/ance1 space1 "t1 :i* ! ord9>y sci5tific consci\sness nev] criticizes4 ,9 moral philosophy ! place ( ! body ( sci5ces1 :i* philosophy z ! !ory ( k inve/igates1 is tak5 by ! develop$ moral consci\sness1 :i* already pron\nces moral judgm5t )\t hesitation1 & claims au?ority to subject to cont9ual criticism ! in/itutions & =ms ( social life :i* x has itself help$ to create4 ,:5 e?ical speculation fir/ beg9s1 conceptions su* z ^? ( duty1 responsibility1 ! w z ! ultimate subject ( moral approbation & disapprobation1 are already 9 exi/5ce & already op]ative4 ,moral philosophy 9 a c]ta9 s5se adds no?+ to ^! conceptions1 ?\gh x sets !m 9 a cle>] light4 ,! problems ( ! moral consci\sness at ! "t at :i* x fir/ becomes reflective are n /rictly speak+ philosophical problems at all4 ,x is occupi$ ) j su* que/ions z ea* individual man :o wi%es to act rightly is con/antly call$ ^u to answ]1 e4g4 que/ions su* z ,:at p>ticul> action w meet ! claims ( ju/ice "u su* & su* circum/ances8 or ,:at degree ( ignorance w excuse ?is p>ticul> p]son 9 ?is p>ticul> case f 8 responsibility8 ,x tries to atta9 a k z complete z possible ( ! circum/ances "u :i* ! act contemplat$ mu/ be p]=m$1 ! p]sonalities ( ! p]sons :om x may affect1 & ! consequ5ces 7s f> z !y c be =ese57 :i* x w produce1 & !n by virtue ( its own p[] ( moral discrim9ation pron\nces judgm5t4 ,& ! ev]-recurr+ problem ( ! moral consci\sness1 ,:at ought to be done8 is "o :i* receives a cle>] & m def9ite answ] z m5 become m able 9 ! c\rse ( moral exp]i5ce to apply ^? pr9ciples ( ! moral consci\sness :i* are yet employ$ 9 t exp]i5ce f ! outset4 ,nev]!less !re is a s5se 9 :i* moral philosophy may be said to orig9ate out ( difficulties inh]5t 9 ! nature ( morality itself1 al?\gh x rema9s true t ! que/ions :i* e?ics attempts to answ] are nev] que/ions ) :i* ! moral consci\sness z su* is confront$4 ,! fact t m5 give diff]5t answ]s to moral problems :i* seem simil> 9 "*1 or ev5 ! m]e fact t m5 disreg>d1 :5 !y act immorally1 ! dictates & implicit pr9ciples ( ! moral consci\sness is c]ta9 soon] or lat] to produce ! desire ei!r1 on ! "o h&1 to ju/ify immoral action by ca/+ d\bt ^u ! au?ority ( ! moral consci\sness & ! validity ( its pr9ciples1 or1 on ! o!r h&1 to ju/ify p>ticul> moral judgm5ts ei!r by 7! only valid me?od7 an analysis ( ! moral pr9ciple involv$ 9 ! judgm5t & a demon/ration ( its univ]sal acceptation1 or by "s attempt$ pro( t ! p>ticul> moral judgm5t is arriv$ at by a process ( inf]5ce f "s univ]sal conception ( ! ,supreme ,good or ! ,f9al ,end f :i* all p>ticul> duties or virtues may be d$uc$4 ,x may be t criticism ( morality fir/ orig9ates ) a criticism ( exi/+ moral in/itutions or codes ( e?ics2 su* a criticism may be due to ! spontane\s activity ( ! moral consci\sness itself4 ,b :5 su* criticism passes into ! attempt to f9d a univ]sal crit]ion ( morality--su* an attempt be+ 9 effect an ef=t to make morality sci5tific--& especially :5 ! attempt is se51 z x mu/ 9 ! end be se51 to fail 7! moral consci\sness be+ sup]ior to all /&>ds ( morality & realiz+ itself :olly 9 p>ticul> judgm5ts71 !n e?ics z a process ( reflection ^u ! nature ( ! moral consci\sness may be said to beg94 ,if ?is be true x foll[s t "o ( ! *ief function ( e?ics mu/ be criticism ( mi/ak5 attempts to f9d a crit]ion ( morality sup]ior to ! pron\ncem5ts ( ! moral consci\sness itself4 ,! ultimate sup]iority ( ! moral consci\sness ov] all o!r /&>ds is recogniz$1 ev5 by ^? :o impugn its au?ority1 :5ev] !y claim t all m5 ought to recognize ! sup]ior value ( ! /&>ds :i* !y !mselves wi% to sub/itute4 ,simil>ly1 _! oppon5ts refute _! argum5ts by %[+ t !y are bas$ ultimately ^u a recognition ( c]ta9 di/9ctions :i* are moral di/9ctions 7i4e4 imply a moral consci\sness capable ( discrim9at+ betwe5 "r & wrong 9 p>ticul> cases71 & t ^! moral di/9ctions conflict ) ! conclusions :i* !y rea*4 ,?is may briefly be illu/rat$ by ref]5ce to "s ( ! great fundam5tal controv]sies ( e?ics4 ,none ( ^! orig9ates out ( conflict+ /atem5ts ( ! moral consci\sness1 i4e4 !re is no fundam5tal contradiction 9 morality itself4 ,no "o 7if unsophi/icat$7 ev] confus$ ! conception ( pleasure ) ! conception ( ! ,good1 or ?\ght t ! claims ( selfi% int]e/ 7 id5tical ) ^? ( duty4 ,b ! controv]sy betwe5 h$oni/s & anti-h$oni/s orig9ates z soon z m5 reflect t a good :i* is n 9 "s s5se my good is n good at all1 or t no act c be said to be moral :i* does n satisfy me4 ,or1 aga91 ! reflection t ! m>k or sign ( ! p]fect p]=mance ( a p>ticul> virtu\s act or function is ! pres5ce ( a *>act]i/ic pleasure :i* always accompanies x1 is oppos$ to ! reflection t x is a m>k ( ! highe/ morality nev] to re/ satisfi$1 & out ( ^! seem+ly contradictory /atem5ts ( ! reflective consci\sness might arise a multitude ( controv]sies ei!r conc]n+ pleasure & duty1 or ! ev5 m difficult & complex conceptions ( m]it1 progress1 & ! nature ( ! ,supreme ,good or ,f9al ,end4 ,! ,sci5ces4 ,!ology4 ,:5 & h[ fre% controv]sies 9 e?ics w beg9 x w\ld be impossible = any "o to =etell4 ,sometimes ! dom9ance ( a p>ticul> sci5ce or bran* ( /udy is ! occasion ( an attempt to apply to e?ics ideas borr[$ f or analog\s to ! conceptions ( t sci5ce4 ,false analogies drawn betwe5 e?ics & ma!matics or betwe5 morality & ! p]ception ( beauty h wr\ght mu* mis*ief 9 mod]n & to "s degree ev5 9 anci5t e?ics4 ,! influ5ce ( ideas borr[$ f biology is ev]y:]e manife/ 9 ! e?ical speculations ( mod]n times4 ,sometimes1 aga91 :ole !ories ( e?ics h be5 =mulat$ :i* c be se5 9 ! end to be ef=ts to subord9ate moral conceptions to conceptions belong+ prop]ly to in/itutions or dep>tm5ts ( human ?\ght & activity :i* ! moral consci\sness has itself orig9at$4 ,law1 = in/ance1 dep5ds1 or at lea/ ought to dep5d1 ^u m5's ne$ = & consci\sness ( ju/ice4 ,& su* in/itutions z ! family & ! /ate are creat$ by ! social consci\sness1 :i* is ! moral consci\sness f ano!r aspect4 ,yet morality has be5 subord9at$ to legal & social sanctions1 & moral advance has be5 held to be condition$ by political & social necessities :i* are n moral ne$s4 ,simil>ly no "o s9ce civilization em]g$ f b>b>ism has ev] really be5 will+ to yield allegiance to a deity :o is n moral 9 ! fulle/ & highe/ s5se ( ! ^w4 ,god is n sup]ior to moral law4 ,yet !re h be5 :ole sy/ems ( !ological e?ics :i* h attempt$ to base human morality ^u ! arbitr>y w ( ,god or ^u ! supreme au?ority ( a div9ely inspir$ book or code ( laws4 ,"o ( ! greate/ ( all e?ical controv]sies1 t conc]n+ ! fre$om ( ! w1 arose directly out ( :at 0 9 reality a !ological problem--! necessity1 namely1 ( reconcil+ ,god's =ekn[l$ge ) human fre$om4 ,! unreflective moral consci\sness nev] f9ds x difficult to di/+ui% betwe5 a man's p[] ( will+ & all ! =ces ( circum/ance1 h]$ity & ! l1 :i* comb9e to =m ! temptations to :i* he may yield or bid defiance2 & su* facts z remorse & p5it5ce are a cont9ual te/imony to man's s5se ( fre$om4 ,b s soon z m5 p]ceive ^u reflection an app>5t discrepancy betwe5 ! utt]ances ( _! moral consci\sness & c]ta9 conclusions to :i* !ological speculation 7or at a lat] p]iod metaphysical & sci5tific inquiries7 seems inevitably to lead !m1 !y w n re/ satisfi$ until ! belief 9 ! w's fre$om 7hi!rto unque/ion$7 is ^u fur!r reflection ju/ifi$ or condemn$4 ,x is cle> !n t ! complexity ( ! subject-matt] ( e?ics is su* t no %>ply def9$ b\nd>y l9es c be drawn betwe5 x & o!r bran*es ( inquiry4 ,j 9 s f> z x presupposes ! appreh5sion ( moral facts1 x mu/ presuppose a k ( ! sy/em ( social relation%ips ^u :i* "s at lea/ ( ^? facts dep5d4 ,no "o1 = in/ance1 c\ld inquire into ! nature ( ju/ice )\t be+ fur!r compell$ to und]take an exam9ation ( ! nature ( ! /ate4 ,psy*ology4 ,x w\ld be difficult to decide h[ mu* ( ! dispute betwe5 ! advocates ( pleasure !ories & _! oppon5ts turns ^u vex$ que/ions ( psy*ology1 & h[ mu* is /rictly relevant to e?ics4 ,if1 z has already be5 said1 "o ( ! *ief tasks ( e?ics is to prev5t ! intrusion into its own sph]e ( inquiry ( ideas borr[$ f o!r & ali5 s\rces1 !n obvi\sly ^! s\rces mu/ be inve/igat$4 ,"o example ( ?is necessity may be giv54 ,x is sometimes ma9ta9$ t ! prop] me?od ( e?ics is ! psy*ological me?od2 e?ics1 we are told1 %\ld exam9e z its subject-matt] moral s5tim5ts :]ev] f\nd1 )\t rais+ ultimate que/ions z to ! nature ( obligation or moral au?ority 9 g5]al4 ,n[ if 9 opposition to su* argum5ts ! ultimate "* ( moral obligation be def5d$1 x w be necess>y to po9t out t no "o feels moral s5tim5ts except 9 connexion ) p>ticul> objects ( moral approbation or disapprobation 7e4g4 gratitude is inexplicable ap>t f a p>ticul> relation%ip exi/+ betwe5 two or m p]sons71 & t ^! objects are objects ( ! moral consci\sness alone4 ,b su* a l9e ( argum5t is c]ta9 to make necess>y an inquiry into ! nature ( ! objects ( psy*ological /udy :i* may produce q un=ese5 results = psy*ology4 ,no?+ !re=e is to be ga9$ by conf9+ e?ics )9 limits :i* mu/ f ! nature ( ! case be arbitr>y4 ,! def5d] at all ev5ts ( ! supremacy ( moral intuitions mu/ be prep>$ to foll[ :i!r ! argum5t leads1 into :atev] /range qu>t]s x may direct him4 ,b ?is mu* may be said by way ( delimitation ( ! scope ( e?ics3 h[ev] complicat$ & involv$ its argum5ts & processes ( inf]5ce may become1 ! facts f :i* !y />t & ! conclusions to :i* !y po9t are su* z ! moral consci\sness alone c und]/& or w>rant4 7,h4 ,h4 ,w47 ,,ii4 ,,hi/orical ,,sket* ,a4 ,greek & ,graeco-,roman ,e?ics4--,! e?ical speculation ( ,greece1 & !re=e ( ,europe1 _h no abrupt & absolute beg9n+4 ,! naive & fragm5t>y precepts ( conduct1 :i* are ev]y:]e ! e>lie/ manife/ation ( nasc5t moral reflection1 are a notewor?y elem5t 9 ! gnomic poetry ( ! #g? & #f? c5turies ,b4,c4 ,_! importance is %[n by ! traditional enum]ation ( ! ,sev5 ,sages ( ! #f? c5tury1 & _! influ5ce on e?ical ?\ght is atte/$ by ! ref]5ces ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,b f ^! unsci5tific utt]ances to a philosophy ( morals 0 a long process4 ,9 ! practical wisdom ( ,?ales 7q4v471 "o ( ! sev51 we _c disc]n any sy/ematic !ory ( morality4 ,9 ! case ( ,py?agoras1 conspicu\s among pre-,socratic philosoph]s z ! f\nd] n m]ely ( a s*ool1 b ( a sect or ord] b\nd by a common rule ( life1 !re is a clos] connexion betwe5 moral & metaphysical speculation4 ,! doctr9e ( ! ,py?agoreans t ! ess5ce ( ju/ice 7conceiv$ z equal retribution7 0 a squ>e numb]1 indicates a s]i\s attempt to ext5d to ! region ( conduct _! ma!matical view ( ! univ]se2 & ! same may be said ( _! classification ( good ) unity1 /raightness & ! l1 & ( evil ) ! opposite qualities4 ,/ill1 ! enunciation ( ! moral precepts ( ,py?agoras appe>s to h be5 dogmatic1 or ev5 prophetic1 r ?an philosophic1 & to h be5 accept$ by 8 disciples ) an unphilosophic rev]5ce z ! ipse dixit#a ( ! ma/]4 ,h5ce1 :atev] influ5ce ! ,py?agorean bl5d+ ( e?ical & ma!matical notions may h _h on ,plato1 &1 ?r\gh him1 on lat] ?\ght1 we _c reg>d ! s*ool z hav+ really =e/all$ ! ,socratic inquiry aft] a completely reason$ !ory ( conduct4 ,! e?ical elem5t 9 ! d>k philosophiz+ ( ,h]aclitus 7c4 #ecj-dgj ,b4,c471 ?\gh x anticipates ,/oicism 9 its conceptions ( a law ( ! univ]se1 to :i* ! wise man w c>efully con=m1 & a div9e h>mony1 9 ! recognition ( :i* he w f9d 8 true/ satisfaction1 is m pr(\nd1 b ev5 less sy/ematic4 ,x is only :5 we come to ,democritus1 a contempor>y ( ,socrates1 ! la/ ( ! orig9al ?9k]s :om we di/+ui% z pre-,socratic1 t we f9d any?+ :i* we c call an e?ical sy/em4 ,! fragm5ts t rema9 ( ! moral treatises ( ,democritus are suffici5t1 p]haps1 to conv9ce u t ! turn ( ,greek philosophy 9 ! direction ( conduct1 :i* 0 actually due to ,socrates1 w\ld h tak5 place )\t him1 ?\gh 9 a less decid$ mann]2 b :5 we comp>e ! ,democritean e?ics ) ! po/-,socratic sy/em to :i* x has mo/ aff9ity1 ,epicureanism1 we f9d t x exhibits a v rudim5t>y appreh5sion ( ! =mal conditions :i* moral tea*+ mu/ fulfil be=e x c lay claim to be treat$ z sci5tific4 ,! tru? is t no sy/em ( e?ics c\ld be con/ruct$ until att5tion _h be5 direct$ to ! vagu5ess & inconsi/5cy ( ! common moral op9ions ( mank9d4 ,= ?is purpose 0 ne$$ ! conc5tration ( a philosophic intellect ( ! fir/ ord] on ! problems ( practice4 ,9 ,socrates fir/ we f9d ! requir$ comb9ation ( a p>am\nt int]e/ 9 conduct & an ard5t desire = k4 ,! pre-,socratic ?9k]s 7 all prim>ily devot$ to ontological rese>*2 b by ! middle ( ! #e? c5tury ,b4,c4 ! conflict ( _! dogmatic sy/ems _h l$ "s ( ! ke5e/ m9ds to d\bt ! possibility ( p5etrat+ ! secret ( ! physical univ]se4 ,?is d\bt f\nd expression 9 ! reason$ scepticism ( ,gorgias1 & produc$ ! fam\s proposition ( ,protagoras1 t human appreh5sion is ! only /&>d ( exi/5ce4 ,! same feel+ l$ ,socrates to ab&on ! old physico-metaphysical inquiries4 ,9 8 ease1 moreov]1 x 0 /r5g!n$ by a naive piety t =bade him to se>* into ?+s ( :i* ! gods seem$ to h res]v$ ! k to !mselves4 ,! regulation ( human action1 on ! o!r h& 7except on occasions ( special difficulty1 = :i* om5s & oracles might be v\*saf$71 !y _h left to human reason4 ,on ?is accord+ly ,socrates conc5trat$ 8 ef=ts4 ,! ,sophi/s4 ,socrates4 ,?\gh1 h[ev]1 ,socrates 0 ! fir/ to arrive at a prop] conception ( ! problems ( conduct1 ! g5]al idea did n orig9ate ) him4 ,! natural reaction aga9/ ! metaphysical & e?ical dogmatism ( ! e>ly ?9k]s _h rea*$ its climax 9 ! ,sophi/s 7q4v474 ,gorgias & ,protagoras are only repres5tatives ( :at 0 really a univ]sal t5d5cy to ab&on dogmatic !ory & take refuge 9 practical matt]s1 & especially1 z 0 natural 9 ! ,greek city-/ate1 9 ! civic relations ( ! citiz54 ,! education giv5 by ! ,sophi/s aim$ at no g5]al !ory ( life1 b pr(ess$ to exp\nd ! art ( gett+ on 9 ! _w & ( manag+ public affairs4 ,9 _! eulogy ( ! virtues ( ! citiz51 !y po9t$ out ! prud5tial "* ( ju/ice & ! l z a means ( obta9+ pleasure & avoid+ pa94 ,! ,greek conception ( society 0 su* t ! life ( ! free-born citiz5 consi/$ ma9ly ( 8 public function1 &1 !re=e1 ! pseudo-e?ical disquisitions ( ! ,sophi/s satisfi$ ! requirem5ts ( ! age4 ,none ?\ght ( ,greek3 arete 7virtue or excell5ce7 z a unique quality possess$ ( an intr9sic value1 b z ! virtue ( ! citiz51 j z good flute-play+ 0 ! virtue ( ! flute-play]4 ,we see "h1 z 9 o!r activities ( ! age1 a det]m9ation to acquire te*nical k1 & to apply x directly to ! practical issue2 j z music 0 be+ enri*$ by new te*nical k1 ar*itecture by mod]n !ories ( plans & ,t-squ>es 7sc4 ,hippodamus71 ! h&l+ ( soldi]s by ! new te*nique ( tactics & hoplitics1 s citiz5%ip mu/ be analys$ afre%1 sy/ematiz$ & adapt$ 9 relation to mod]n requirem5ts4 ,! ,sophi/s _h /udi$ ^! matt]s sup]ficially inde$ b ) ?or\ghness z f> z !y w5t1 & x is n rem>kable t !y %\ld h tak5 ! me?ods :i* 7 successful 9 rhetoric1 & appli$ !m to ! sci5ce & art ( civic virtues4 ,plato's ,protagoras claims1 n unju/ly1 t 9 tea*+ virtue !y simply did sy/ematically :at e "o else 0 do+ at haphaz>d4 ,b 9 ! true s5se ( ! ^w1 !y _h no e?ical sy/em at all1 nor did !y contribute save by contra/ to e?ical speculation4 ,!y m]ely analys$ conv5tional =mulae1 mu* 9 ! mann] ( c]ta9 mod]n s-call$ sci5tific morali/s4 ,into ?is ar5a ( hazy popul> common s5se ,socrates br\ght a new critical _s1 %[+ t ^! popul> lectur]s1 9 spite ( _! f]tile eloqu5ce1 c\ld n def5d _! fundam5tal assumptions1 nor ev5 give rational def9itions ( :at !y pr(ess$ to expla94 ,n only 7 !y ?us ignorant1 b !y 7 also p]petually inconsi/5t ) !mselves 9 deal+ ) p>ticul> in/ances4 ,?us1 by ! aid ( 8 fam\s dialectic1 ,socrates arriv$ fir/ at ! negative result t ! pr(ess$ tea*]s ( ! p 7 z ignorant z he himself claim$ to be1 & 9 a measure ju/ifi$ ! eulogy ( ,ari/otle t he r5d]$ to philosophy ! s]vice ( introduc+ induction & def9itions4 ,?is description ( 8 "w is1 h[ev]1 bo? too te*nical & too positive1 if we may judge f ^? e>li] dialogues ( ,plato 9 :i* ! real ,socrates is f\nd lea/ modifi$4 ,! pre-em95t wisdom :i* ! ,delphic oracle attribut$ to him 0 held by himself to consi/ 9 a unique consci\sness ( ignorance4 ,yet x is equally cle> f ,plato t !re 0 a mo/ important positive elem5t 9 ! tea*+ ( ,socrates 9 virtue ( :i* x is j to say ) ,alex&] ,ba91 ! fir/ important "n 9 anci5t e?ical philosophy is ,socrates4 ,! union ( ! negative & ! positive elem5ts 9 8 "w has caus$ hi/orians no little p]plexity1 & we _c q save ! philosoph]'s consi/5cy unless we reg>d "s ( ! doctr9es attribut$ to him by ,x5ophon z m]ely t5tative & provisional4 ,/ill ! positions ( ,socrates t are mo/ important 9 ! hi/ory ( e?ical ?\ght n only are easy to h>monize ) 8 conviction ( ignorance1 b ev5 r5d] x easi] to und]/& 8 unwe>i$ cross-exam9ation ( common op9ion4 ,:ile he %[$ cle>ly ! difficulty ( acquir+ k1 he 0 conv9c$ t k alone c\ld be ! s\rce ( a coh]5t sy/em ( virtue1 z error ( evil4 ,socrates1 !re=e1 fir/ 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght1 prop\nds a positive sci5tific law ( conduct4 ,virtue is k4 ,?is pr9ciple involv$ ! p>adox t no man1 kn[+ good1 w\ld d evil4 ,b x 0 a p>adox d]iv$ f 8 unansw]able truisms1 ,e "o wi%es = 8 own good1 & w\ld get x if he c\ld1 & ,no "o w\ld d5y t ju/ice & virtue g5]ally are goods1 & ( all goods ! be/4 ,all virtues are1 !re=e1 summ$ up 9 k ( ! good4 ,b ?is good is n1 = ,socrates1 duty z di/9ct f int]e/4 ,! =ce ( ! p>adox dep5ds ^u a bl5d+ ( duty & int]e/ 9 ! s+le notion ( good1 a bl5d+ :i* 0 dom9ant 9 ! common ?\ght ( ! age4 ,?is x is :i* =ms ! k]nel ( ! positive ?\ght ( ,socrates accord+ to ,x5ophon4 ,he c\ld give no satisfactory acc\nt ( ,good 9 ! ab/ract1 & evad$ all que/ions on ?is po9t by say+ t he knew no good t 0 n good = some?+ 9 p>ticul>1 b t good is consi/5t ) itself4 ,= himself he priz$ above all ?+s ! wisdom t is virtue1 & 9 ! task ( produc+ x he endur$ ! h>de/ p5ury1 ma9ta9+ t su* life 0 ri*] 9 enjoym5t ?an a life ( luxury4 ,?is _m-sid$ness ( view is illu/rat$ by ! curi\s bl5d+ ( noble & m]ely utilit>ian s5tim5t 9 8 acc\nt ( fri5d%ip3 a fri5d :o c be ( no s]vice is valueless2 yet ! highe/ s]vice t a fri5d c r5d] is moral improvem5t4 ,! hi/orically important *>act]i/ics ( 8 moral philosophy1 if we take 7z we mu/7 8 tea*+ & "* toge!r1 may be summ>iz$ z foll[s3--7#a7 an ard5t inquiry = k n[h]e to be f\nd1 b :i*1 if f\nd1 w\ld p]fect human conduct2 7#b7 a dem& mean:ile t m5 %\ld act z f> z possible on "s consi/5t !ory2 7#c7 a provisional adhesion to ! commonly receiv$ view ( good1 9 all its incoh]5t complexity1 & a p]petual read9ess to ma9ta9 ! h>mony ( its diff]5t elem5ts1 & demon/rate ! sup]iority ( virtue by an appeal to ! /&>d ( self-int]e/2 7#d7 p]sonal firmness1 z app>5tly easy z x 0 actually inv9cible1 9 c>ry+ out consi/5tly su* practical convictions z he _h atta9$4 ,x is only :5 we keep all ^! po9ts 9 view t we c und]/& h[ f ! spr+ ( ,socratic conv]sation fl[$ ! div]g5t /reams ( ,greek e?ical ?\ght4 ,! ,socratic ,s*ools4 ,f\r di/9ct philosophical s*ools trace _! imm$iate orig9 to ! circle t ga!r$ r\nd ,socrates--! ,meg>ian1 ! ,platonic1 ! ,cynic & ! ,cyr5aic4 ,! impress ( ! ma/] is manife/ on all1 9 spite ( ! wide diff]5ces t divide !m2 !y all agree 9 hold+ ! mo/ important possession ( man to be wisdom or k1 & ! mo/ important k to be k ( ,good4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! agreem5t ends4 ,! m philosophic "p ( ! circle1 =m+ a gr\p 9 :i* ,euclid ( ,meg>a 7see ,,meg>ian ,,s*ool7 seems at fir/ to h tak5 ! lead1 reg>d$ ?is ,good z ! object ( a /ill unfulfill$ que/1 & 7 l$ to id5tify x ) ! hidd5 secret ( ! univ]se1 & ?us to pass f e?ics to metaphysics4 ,o!rs aga91 ^: dem& = k 0 m easily satisfi$1 & :o 7 m impress$ ) ! positive & practical side ( ! ma/]'s tea*+1 made ! que/ a mu* simpl] affair4 ,!y took ! ,good z already kn[n1 & held philosophy to consi/ 9 ! /eady application ( ?is k to conduct4 ,among ^! 7 ,anti/h5es ! ,cynic & ,ari/ippus ( ,cyr5e4 ,x is by _! recognition ( ! duty ( liv+ consi/5tly by !ory in/ead ( m]e impulse or cu/om1 _! s5se ( ! new value giv5 to life ?r\gh ?is rationalization1 & _! ef=t to ma9ta9 ! easy1 calm1 unwav]+ firmness ( ! ,socratic temp]1 t we recognize bo? ,anti/h5es & ,ari/ippus z ,socratic m51 9 spite ( ! complet5ess ) :i* !y divid$ _! ma/]'s positive doctr9e into sy/ems diametrically oppos$4 ,( _! contra/$ pr9ciples we may p]haps say t1 :ile ,ari/ippus took ! mo/ obvi\s logical /ep = r$uc+ ! tea*+ ( ,socrates to cle> dogmatic unity1 ,anti/h5es c]ta9ly drew ! mo/ natural inf]5ce f ! ,socratic life4 ,ari/ippus4 ,ari/ippus 7see ,,cyr5aics7 argu$ t1 if all t is beautiful or admirable 9 conduct has ?is quality z be+ useful1 i4e4 productive ( "s fur!r good2 if virtu\s action is ess5tially action done ) insight1 or rational appreh5sion ( ! act z a means to ?is good1 ?is good mu/ be pleasure4 ,bodily pleasures & pa9s ,ari/ippus held to be ! ke5e/1 ?\gh he does n seem to h ma9ta9$ ?is on any mat]iali/ic !ory1 z he admitt$ ! exi/5ce ( purely m5tal pleasures1 su* z joy 9 ! prosp]ity ( "o's native l&4 ,he fully recogniz$ t 8 good 0 capable ( be+ realiz$ only 9 successive p>ts1 & gave ev5 exagg]at$ emphasis to ! rule ( seek+ ! pleasure ( ! mom5t1 & n tr\bl+ oneself ab\t a dubi\s future4 ,x 0 9 ! calm1 resolute1 skilful cull+ ( su* pleasures z circum/ances af=d$ f mom5t to mom5t1 undi/urb$ by passion1 prejudices or sup]/ition1 t he conceiv$ ! quality ( wisdom to be exhibit$2 & tradition repres5ts him z realiz+ ?is ideal to an impressive degree4 ,among ! prejudices f :i* ! wise man 0 free he includ$ all reg>d to cu/om>y morality beyond :at 0 due to ! actual p5alties atta*$ to its violation2 ?\gh he held1 ) ,socrates1 t ^! p5alties actually r5d] con=mity reasonable4 ,?us e>ly 9 ! hi/ory ( e?ical !ory appe>$ ! mo/ ?or\gh-go+ exposition ( h$onism4 ,! ,cynics4 ,f> o!rwise 0 ! ,socratic _s und]/ood by ,anti/h5es & ! ,cynics 7q4v474 ,!y equally held t no speculative rese>* 0 ne$$ = ! discov]y ( good & virtue1 & ma9ta9$ t ! ,socratic wisdom 0 exhibit$1 n 9 ! skilful pursuit1 b 9 ! rational disreg>d ( pleasure1--9 ! cle> appreh5sion ( ! intr9sic wor?lessness ( ?is & mo/ o!r objects ( m5's ord9>y desires & aims4 ,pleasure1 inde$1 ,anti/h5es decl>$ r\ndly to be an evil2 ,bett] madness ?an a surr5d] to pleasure4 ,he did n ov]look ! ne$ ( supplem5t+ m]ely intellectual insight by ,socratic =ce ( s\l2 b x seem$ to him t1 by insight & self-ma/]y comb9$1 an absolute spiritual indep5d5ce might be atta9$ :i* left no?+ want+ = p]fect well-be+ 7see also ,,diog5es74 ,= z = pov]ty1 pa9ful toil1 disrepute1 & su* evils z m5 dread mo/1 ^!1 he argu$1 7 positively useful z means ( progress 9 spiritual fre$om & virtue4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 9 ! ,cynic notion ( wisdom1 no positive crit]ion beyond ! m]e negation ( irrational desires & prejudices4 ,we saw t ,socrates1 :ile n claim+ to h f\nd ! ab/ract !ory ( good or wise conduct1 practically und]/ood by x ! fai?ful p]=mance ( cu/om>y duties1 ma9ta9+ always t 8 own happ9ess 0 !re) b\nd up4 ,! ,cynics m boldly disc>d$ bo? pleasure & m]e cu/om z alike irrational2 b 9 s do+ !y left ! fre$ reason ) no def9ite aim b its own fre$om4 ,x is absurd1 z ,plato urg$1 to say t k is ! good1 & !n :5 ask$ k ( :at8 to h no positive reply b ( ! good2 b ! ,cynics d n seem to h made any s]i\s ef=t to escape f ?is absurdity4 ,! ultimate views ( ^! two ,socratic s*ools we %all h to notice pres5tly :5 we come to ! po/-,ari/otelian s*ools4 ,we mu/ n[ proce$ to trace ! full] developm5t ( ! ,socratic !ory 9 ! h&s ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,plato4 ,! e?ics ( ,plato _c prop]ly be treat$ z a f9i%$ result1 b r z a cont9ual movem5t f ! position ( ,socrates t[>ds ! m complete1 articulate sy/em ( ,ari/otle2 except t !re are ascetic & my/ical sugge/ions 9 "s p>ts ( ,plato's tea*+ :i* f9d no c\nt]p>t 9 ,ari/otle1 & 9 fact disappe> f ,greek philosophy soon aft] ,plato's dea? until !y are reviv$ & fanta/ically develop$ 9 ,neopy?agoreanism & ,neoplatonism4 ,! fir/ /age at :i* we c di/+ui% ,plato's e?ical view f t ( ,socrates is pres5t$ 9 ! ,protagoras1 :]e he makes a s]i\s1 ?\gh cle>ly t5tative ef=t to def9e ! object ( t k :i* he ) 8 ma/] reg>ds z ! ess5ce ( all virtue4 ,su* k1 he "h ma9ta9s1 is really m5suration ( pleasures & pa9s1 :]eby ! wise man avoids ^? mi/ak5 "u-e/imates ( future feel+s 9 comp>ison ) pres5t :i* we commonly call yield+ to fe> or desire4 ,?is h$onism has p]plex$ ,plato's read]s ne$lessly 7z we h said 9 speak+ ( ! ,cyr5aics71 inasmu* z h$onism is ! mo/ obvi\s coroll>y ( ! ,socratic doctr9e t ! diff]5t common notions ( good--! beautiful1 ! pleasant & ! useful--7 to be someh[ int]pret$ by ea* o!r4 ,by ,plato1 h[ev]1 ?is conclusion c\ld h be5 held only be=e he _h accompli%$ ! movem5t ( ?\ght by :i* he c>ri$ ! ,socratic me?od beyond ! range ( human conduct & develop$ x into a metaphysical sy/em4 ,?is movem5t may be express$ ?us4 ,if we "k1 said ,socrates1 :at ju/ice is1 we c give an acc\nt or def9ition ( x2 true k mu/ be k ( ! g5]al fact1 common to all ! individual cases to :i* we apply our g5]al notion4 ,b ?is mu/ be no less true ( o!r objects ( ?\ght & disc\rse2 ! same relation ( g5]al notions to p>ticul> examples ext5ds ?r\gh ! :ole physical univ]se2 we c ?9k & talk ( x only by means ( su* notions4 ,true or sci5tific k !n mu/ be g5]al k1 relat+1 n to individuals prim>ily1 b to ! g5]al facts or qualities :i* individuals exemplify2 9 fact1 our notion ( an individual1 :5 exam9$1 is f\nd to be an aggregate ( su* g5]al qualities4 ,b1 aga91 ! object ( true k mu/ be :at really exi/s2 h5ce ! reality ( ! univ]se mu/ lie 9 g5]al facts or relations1 & n 9 ! individuals t exemplify !m4 ,s f> ! /eps are pla9 en\gh2 b we d n yet see h[ ?is logical ,realism 7z x 0 aft]w>ds call$7 comes to h ! ess5tially e?ical "* t especially int]e/s u 9 ,platonism4 ,plato's philosophy is n[ conc]n$ ) ! :ole univ]se ( be+2 yet ! ultimate object ( 8 philosophic contemplation is /ill ! good1 n[ conceiv$ z ! ultimate gr\nd ( all be+ & k4 ,t is1 ! ess5ce ( ! univ]se is id5tifi$ ) its end1--! =mal ) ! f9al cause ( ?+s1 to use ! lat] ,ari/otelian phraseology4 ,h[ comes ?is ab\t8 ,p]haps we may be/ expla9 ?is by recurr+ to ! orig9al application ( ! ,socratic me?od to human affairs4 ,s9ce all rational activity is = "s end1 ! diff]5t arts or functions ( human indu/ry are naturally def9$ by a /atem5t ( _! ends or uses2 & simil>ly1 9 giv+ an acc\nt ( ! diff]5t arti/s & function>ies1 we necess>ily /ate _! end1 :at !y are good =4 ,9 a society well ord]$ on ,socratic pr9ciples1 e human be+ w\ld be put to "s use2 ! ess5ce ( 8 life w\ld consi/ 9 do+ :at he 0 good = 78 prop] ,greek3 ergon74 ,b aga91 x is easy to ext5d ?is view ?r\gh\t ! :ole region ( organiz$ life2 an eye t does n atta9 its end by see+ is )\t ! ess5ce ( an eye4 ,9 %ort1 we may say ( all organs & in/rum5ts t !y are :at we ?9k !m 9 proportion z !y fulfil _! function & atta9 _! end4 ,if1 !n1 we conceive ! :ole univ]se organically1 z a complex arrangem5t ( means to ends1 we %all und]/& h[ ,plato might hold t all ?+s really 71 or 7z we say7 realiz$ _! idea1 9 proportion z !y accompli%$ ! special end or good = :i* !y 7 adapt$4 ,ev5 ,socrates1 9 spite ( 8 av]sion to physics1 0 l$ by pi\s reflection to exp\nd a teleological view ( ! physical _w1 z ord]$ 9 all its p>ts by div9e wisdom = ! realization ( "s div9e end2 &1 9 ! metaphysical turn :i* ,plato gave to ?is view1 he 0 probably anticipat$ by ,euclid ( ,meg>a1 :o held t ! "o real be+ is t :i* we call by _m names1 ,good1 ,wisdom1 ,reason or ,god1 to :i* ,plato1 rais+ to a l(ti] significance ! ,socratic id5tification ( ! beautiful ) ! useful1 add$ ! fur!r "n ( ,absolute ,beauty1 expla9+ h[ man's love ( ! beautiful f9ally reveals itself z ! ye>n+ = ! end & ess5ce ( be+4 ,plato1 !re=e1 took ?is va/ /ride ( ?\ght1 & id5tifi$ ! ultimate notions ( e?ics & ontology4 ,we h n[ to see :at attitude he w adopt t[>ds ! practical inquiries f :i* he />t$4 ,:at w n[ be 8 view ( wisdom1 virtue1 pleasure & _! relation to human well-be+8 ,! answ] to ?is "q is inevitably some:at complicat$4 ,9 ! fir/ place we h to obs]ve t philosophy has n[ pass$ def9itely f ! m>ket-place into ! lecture-room4 ,! que/ ( ,socrates 0 = ! true art ( conduct = a man liv+ a practical life among 8 fell[s4 ,b if ! objects ( ab/ract ?\ght con/itute ! real _w1 ( :i* ?is _w ( individual ?+s is b a %ad[1 x is pla9 t ! highe/1 mo/ real life mu/ lie 9 ! =m] region & n 9 ! latt]4 ,x is 9 contemplat+ ! ab/ract reality :i* concrete ?+s obscurely exhibit1 ! type or ideal :i* !y imp]fectly imitate1 t ! true life ( ! m9d 9 man mu/ consi/2 & z man is mo/ truly man 9 proportion z he is m9d1 ! desire ( "o's own good1 :i* ,plato1 foll[+ ,socrates1 held to be p]man5t & ess5tial 9 e liv+ ?+1 becomes 9 its highe/ =m ! philosophic ye>n+ = k4 ,?is ye>n+1 he held1 spr+s--l m s5sual impulses--f a s5se ( want ( some?+ =m]ly possess$1 ( :i* !re rema9s a lat5t memory 9 ! s\l1 /rong 9 proportion to its philosophic capacity2 h5ce x is t 9 le>n+ any ab/ract tru? by sci5tific demon/ration we m]ely make explicit :at we already implicitly "k2 we br+ into cle> consci\sness hidd5 memories ( a /ate 9 :i* ! s\l look$ ^u ,reality & ,good face to face1 be=e ! lapse t imprison$ h] 9 an ali5 body & m+l$ h] true nature ) fle%ly feel+s & impulses4 ,we ?us rea* ! p>adox t ! true art ( liv+ is really an art ( dy+ z f> z possible to m]e s5se1 9 ord] m fully to exi/ 9 intimate union ) absolute goodness & beauty4 ,on ! o!r h&1 s9ce ! philosoph] mu/ /ill live & act 9 ! concrete s5sible _w1 ! ,socratic id5tification ( wisdom & virtue is fully ma9ta9$ by ,plato4 ,only he :o appreh5ds good 9 ! ab/ract c imitate x 9 su* transi5t & imp]fect good z may be realiz$ 9 human life1 & x is impossible t1 hav+ ?is k1 he %\ld n act on x1 :e!r 9 private or public affairs4 ,?us1 9 ! true philosoph]1 we %all necess>ily f9d ! practically good man1 :o be+ like/ ( m5 to ! gods is be/ lov$ by !m2 & also ! p]fect /atesman1 if only ! conditions ( 8 society all[ him a sph]e = ex]cis+ 8 /atesman%ip4 ,virtue a h>mony4 ,! *>act]i/ics ( ?is practical goodness 9 ,plato's matur$ ?\ght correspond to ! fundam5tal conceptions 9 8 view ( ! univ]se4 ,! s\l ( man1 9 its good or normal condition1 mu/ be ord]$ & h>moniz$ "u ! guidance ( reason4 ,! "q !n arises1 ,:]e9 does ?is ord] or h>mony precisely consi/8 ,9 expla9+ h[ ,plato 0 l$ to answ] ?is "q1 x w be well to notice t1 :ile fai?fully ma9ta9+ ! ,socratic doctr9e t ! highe/ virtue 0 insep>able f k ( ! good1 he _h come to recognize an inf]ior k9d ( virtue1 possess$ by m5 :o 7 n philosoph]s4 ,x is pla9 t if ! good t is to be kn[n is ! ultimate gr\nd ( ! :ole ( ?+s1 x is atta9able only by a select & c>efully tra9$ few4 ,yet we c h>dly re/rict all virtue to ^! alone4 ,:at acc\nt1 !n1 0 to be giv5 ( ord9>y civic brav]y1 temp]ance & ju/ice8 ,x seem$ cle> t m5 :o did _! duty1 resi/+ ! s$uctions ( fe> & desire1 mu/ h "r op9ions1 if n k1 z to ! good & evil 9 human life2 b :5ce comes ?is "r op9ion8 ,p>tly1 ,plato said1 x comes by nature & div9e allotm5t1 b = its adequate developm5t cu/om & practice are requir$4 ,h5ce ! p>am\nt importance ( education & discipl9e = civic virtue2 & ev5 = future philosoph]s su* moral culture1 9 :i* physical & ae/hetic tra9+ mu/ co-op]ate1 is indisp5sable2 no m]ely intellectual prep>ation w suffice4 ,8 po9t is t p]fect k _c be implant$ 9 a s\l t has n gone ?r\gh a c\rse ( prep>ation includ+ mu* m ?an physical tra9+4 ,:at1 !n1 is ?is prep>ation8 ,a di/9ct /ep 9 psy*ological analysis 0 tak5 :5 ,plato recogniz$ t its effect 0 to produce ! h>mony above m5tion$ among diff]5t p>ts ( ! s\l1 by subord9at+ ! impulsive elem5ts to reason4 ,^! non-rational elem5ts he fur!r di/+ui%$ z appetitive 7,greek3 to epi?umetikon7 & spirit$ 7,greek3 to ?umoeides or ,greek3 ?umos7--! practical sep>at5ess ( :i* f ea* o!r & f reason he held to be e/abli%$ by our inn] exp]i5ce4 ,on ?is triple division ( ! s\l he f\nd$ a sy/ematic view ( ! f\r k9ds ( goodness recogniz$ by ! common moral consci\sness ( ,greece1 & 9 lat] times kn[n z ! ,c>d9al ,virtues 7q4v474 ,( ^! ! two mo/ fundam5tal 7 7z has be5 already indicat$7 wisdom--9 its highe/ =m philosophy--& t h>moni\s & regulat$ activity ( all ! elem5ts ( ! s\l :i* ,plato reg>ds z ! ess5ce ( uprightness 9 social relations 7,greek3 dikaiosyne74 ,! import ( ?is t]m is ess5tially social2 & we c expla9 ,plato's use ( x only by ref]5ce to ! analogy :i* he drew betwe5 ! individual man & ! community4 ,9 a rightly ord]$ polity social & individual well-be+ alike w\ld dep5d on t h>moni\s action ( div]se elem5ts1 ea* p]=m+ its prop] function1 :i* 9 its social application is m naturally t]m$ ,greek3 dikaiosyne4 ,we see1 moreov]1 h[ 9 ,plato's view ! fundam5tal virtues1 ,wisdom & ,ju/ice 9 _! highe/ =ms1 are mutually involv$4 ,wisdom w necess>ily ma9ta9 ord]ly activity1 & ?is latt] consi/s 9 regulation by wisdom1 :ile ! two m special virtues ( ,c\rage 7,greek3 &reia7 & ,temp]ance 7,greek3 sophrosyne7 are only diff]5t sides or aspects ( ?is wisely regulat$ action ( ! complex s\l4 ,su*1 !n1 are ! =ms 9 :i* ess5tial good seem$ to manife/ itself 9 human life4 ,x rema9s to ask :e!r ! /atem5t ( ^! gives a complete acc\nt ( human well-be+1 or :e!r pleasure also is to be includ$4 ,on ?is po9t ,plato's view seems to h gone ?r\gh sev]al oscillations4 ,aft] app>5tly ma9ta9+ 7,protagoras7 t pleasure is ! good1 he passes fir/ to ! opposite extreme1 & d5ies x 7,pha$o1 ,gorgias7 to be a good at all4 ,= 7#a71 z concrete & transi5t1 x is obvi\sly n ! real ess5tial good t ! philosoph] seeks2 7#b7 ! feel+s mo/ prom95tly recogniz$ z pleasures are b\nd up ) pa91 z good c nev] be ) evil2 9 s f>1 !n1 z common s5se rightly recognizes "s pleasures z good1 x c only be f _! t5d5cy to produce "s fur!r good4 ,?is view1 h[ev]1 0 too viol5t a div]g5ce f ,socratism = ,plato to rema9 9 x4 ,t pleasure is n ! real absolute good1 0 no gr\nd = n includ+ x 9 ! good ( concrete human life2 & aft] all only co>se & vulg> pleasures 7 indissolubly l9k$ to ! pa9s ( want4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! ,republic he has no objection to try+ ! "q ( ! intr9sic sup]iority ( philosophic or virtu\s#b life by ! /&>d ( pleasure1 & argues t ! philosophic 7or good7 man alone enjoys real pleasure1 :ile ! s5suali/ sp5ds 8 life 9 oscillat+ betwe5 pa9ful want & ! m]ely neutral /ate ( pa9lessness1 :i* he mi/akes = positive pleasure4 ,/ill m emphatically is x decl>$ 9 ! ,laws t :5 we are disc\rs+ to m51 n to gods1 we mu/ %[ t ! life :i* we praise z be/ & noble/ is also t 9 :i* !re is ! greate/ excess ( pleasure ov] pa94 ,b ?\gh ,plato holds ?is insep>able connexion ( be/ & pleasante/ to be true & important1 x is only = ! sake ( ! vulg> t he lays ?is /ress on pleasure4 ,= 9 ! mo/ philosophical comp>ison 9 ! ,philebus betwe5 ! claims ( pleasure & wisdom ! =m] is altoge!r wor/$2 & ?\gh a place is all[$ to ! pure pleasures ( col\r1 =m & s\nd1 & ( intellectual ex]cise1 & ev5 to ! necess>y satisfaction ( appetite1 x is only a subord9ate "o4 ,at ! same "t1 9 8 lat] view1 ,plato avoids ! exagg]ation ( d5y+ all positive quality ( pleasure ev5 to ! co>s] s5sual gratifications2 !y are und\bt$ly cases ( t repl5i%m5t or re/oration to its natural /ate ( a bodily organ1 9 :i* he def9es pleasure to consi/ 7see ,timaeus1 pp4 #fd1 #fe72 he m]ely ma9ta9s t ! common e/imate ( !m is to a l>ge ext5t illusory1 or a false appe>ance ( pleasure is produc$ by contra/ ) ! antec$5t or concomitant pa9ful condition ( ! organ4 ,x is n surpris+ t ?is some:at complicat$ & delicately balanc$ view ( ! relations ( good & pleasure 0 n long ma9ta9$ )9 ! ,platonic s*ool1 & t "u ,speusippus1 ,plato's successor1 ! ma9 body ( ,platoni/s took up a simply anti-h$oni/ic position1 z we le>n f ! polemic ( ,ari/otle4 ,9 ! ,philebus1 h[ev]1 ?\gh a m c>eful psy*ological analysis leads him to s(t5 d[n ! exagg]ations ( ?is attack on s5sual pleasure1 ! anti!sis ( k & pleasure is aga9 %>p5$1 & a desire to depreciate ev5 good pleasures is m /rongly %[n2 /ill ev5 "h pleasure is recogniz$ z a con/itu5t ( t philosophic life :i* is ! highe/ human good1 :ile 9 ! ,laws1 :]e ! subject is m popul>ly treat$1 x is admitt$ t we _c conv9ce man t ! j life is ! be/ unless we c also prove x to be ! pleasante/4 ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,:5 a /ud5t passes f ,plato to ,ari/otle1 he is s =cibly impress$ by ! contra/ betwe5 ! habits ( m9d ( ! two au?ors1 & ! lit]>y mann]s ( ! two philosoph]s1 t x is easy to und]/& h[ _! sy/ems h come to be popul>ly conceiv$ z diametrically oppos$ to ea* o!r2 & ! uncompromis+ polemic :i* ,ari/otle1 bo? 9 8 e?ical & 9 8 metaphysical treatises1 directs aga9/ ,plato & ! platoni/s1 has t5d$ /rongly to confirm ?is view4 ,yet a clos] inspection %[s u t :5 a lat] presid5t ( ! ,academy 7,antio*us ( ,ascalon7 repudiat$ ! scepticism :i* = two hundr$ ye>s _h be5 accept$ z ! traditional ,platonic doctr9e1 he _h good gr\nds = claim+ ,plato & ,ari/otle z cons5ti5t au?orities = ! e?ical position :i* he took up4 ,= ?\gh ,ari/otle's div]g5ce f ,plato is v conspicu\s :5 we consid] ei!r 8 g5]al conception ( ! subject ( e?ics1 or ! details ( 8 sy/em ( virtues1 /ill 8 agreem5t ) 8 ma/] is almo/ complete z reg>ds ! ma9 outl9e ( 8 !ory ( human good2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two practically vani%es :5 we view !m 9 relation to ! lat] controv]sy betwe5 ,/oics & ,epicureans4 ,ev5 on ! c>d9al po9t on :i* ,ari/otle ent]$ into direct controv]sy ) ,plato1 ! def9ite disagreem5t betwe5 ! two is less ?an at fir/ appe>s2 ! objections ( ! disciple hit t "p ( ! ma/]'s sy/em t 0 r imag9$ ?an ?\ght2 ! ma9 positive result ( ,platonic speculation only ga9s 9 di/9ctness by ! application ( ,ari/otelian analysis4 ,plato1 we saw1 held t !re is "o supreme sci5ce or wisdom1 ( :i* ! ultimate object is absolute good2 9 ! k ( ?is1 ! k ( all p>ticul> goods--t is1 ( all t we rationally desire to "k--is implicitly conta9$2 & also all practical virtue1 z no "o :o truly kn[s :at is good c fail to realize x4 ,b 9 spite ( ! int5se conviction ) :i* he ?us id5tifi$ metaphysical speculation & practical wisdom1 we f9d 9 8 writ+s no s]i\s attempt to d$uce ! p>ticul>s ( human well-be+ f 8 k ( absolute good1 /ill less to unfold f x ! p>ticul> cognitions ( ! special arts & sci5ces4 ,inde$1 we may say t ! di/9ction :i* ,ari/otle explicitly draws betwe5 speculative sci5ce or wisdom & practical wisdom 7on its political side /atesman%ip7 is really indicat$ 9 ,plato's actual treatm5t ( ! subjects1 al?\gh ! express recognition ( x is contr>y to 8 pr9ciples4 ,! discussion ( good 7e4g47 9 8 ,philebus relates entirely to human good1 & ! respective claims ( ,?\ght & ,pleasure to con/itute ?is2 he only ref]s 9 pass+ to ! ,div9e ,?\ght t is ! good ( ! ord]$ _w1 z some?+ cle>ly beyond ! limits ( ! pres5t discussion4 ,s aga91 9 8 la/ great e?ico-political treatise 7! ,laws7 !re is h>dly a trace ( 8 peculi> metaphysics4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! relation betwe5 human & div9e good1 z pres5t$ by ,ari/otle1 is s close t we c h>dly conceive ,plato z hav+ def9itely ?\ght x clos]4 ,! sub/antial good ( ! univ]se1 9 ,ari/otle's view1 is ! pure activity ( univ]sal ab/ract ?\ght1 at once subject & object1 :i*1 itself *angeless & et]nal1 is ! f9al cause & fir/ s\rce ( ! :ole process ( *ange 9 ! concrete _w4 ,& bo? he & ,plato hold t a simil> activity ( pure speculative intellect is t 9 :i* ! philosoph] w seek to exi/1 ?\gh he mu/1 be+ a man1 conc]n himself ) ! affairs ( ord9>y human life1 a region 9 :i* 8 highe/ good w be atta9$ by realiz+ p]fect moral excell5ce4 ,no d\bt ,ari/otle's demon/ration ( ! inappropriat5ess ( attribut+ moral excell5ce to ! ,deity seems to contradict ,plato's doctr9e t ! j man z su* is like/ ! gods1 b "h aga9 ! discrepancy is r$uc$ :5 we rememb] t ! ess5ce ( ,plato's ju/ice 7,greek3 dikaiosune7 is h>moni\s activity4 ,no d\bt1 too1 ,ari/otle's attribution ( pleasure to ! ,div9e ,exi/5ce %[s a pr(\nd metaphysical div]g5ce f ,plato2 b x is a div]g5ce :i* has no practical importance4 ,nor1 aga91 is ,ari/otle's div]g5ce f ! ,socratic pr9ciple t all virtue is k sub/antially great] ?an ,plato's1 ?\gh x is m pla9ly express$4 ,bo? accept ! p>adox 9 ! qualifi$ s5se t no "o c delib]ately act contr>y to :at appe>s to him good1 & t p]fect virtue is insep>ably b\nd up ) p]fect wisdom or moral insight4 ,bo?1 h[ev]1 recognize t ?is actuality ( moral insight is n a function ( ! intellect only1 b dep5ds r on c>eful tra9+ 9 good habits appli$ to m9ds ( good natural dispositions1 ?\gh ! doctr9e has no d\bt a m def9ite & prom95t place 9 ,ari/otle's sy/em4 ,! disciple c]ta9ly takes a /ep 9 advance by /at+ def9itely1 z an ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( virtu\s action1 t x is *os5 = its own sake1 = ! beauty ( virtue alone2 b h]e9 he m]ely =mulates ! conviction t 8 ma/] inspires4 ,nor1 f9ally1 does ,ari/otle's acc\nt ( ! relation ( pleasure to human well-be+ 7al?\gh he has to combat ! extreme anti-h$onism to :i* ! ,platonic s*ool "u ,speusippus _h be5 l$7 diff] mat]ially f ! outcome ( ,plato's ?\ght on ?is po9t1 z ! lat] dialogues pres5t x to u4 ,pleasure1 9 ,ari/otle's view1 is n ! prim>y con/itu5t ( well-be+1 b r an insep>able accid5t ( x2 human well-be+ is ess5tially well-do+1 excell5t activity ( "s k9d1 :e!r its aim & end be ab/ract tru? or noble conduct2 k & virtue are objects ( rational *oice ap>t f ! pleasure att5d+ !m2 /ill all activities are att5d$ & 9 a mann] p]fect$ by pleasure1 :i* is bett] & m desirable 9 proportion to ! excell5ce ( ! activity4 ,he no d\bt criticizes ,plato's acc\nt ( ! nature ( pleasure1 argu+ t we _c prop]ly conceive pleasure ei!r z a process or z repl5i%m5t--! la/ t]m1 he truly says1 d5otes a mat]ial r ?an a psy*ical fact4 ,b ?is does n int]f]e ) ! g5]al e?ical agreem5t betwe5 ! two ?9k]s2 & ! doctr9e t vici\s pleasures are n true or real pleasures is s *>act]i/ically ,platonic t we are almo/ surpris$ to f9d x 9 ,ari/otle4 ,ari/otle's e?ics4 ,9 s f> z !re is any important diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,platonic & ! ,ari/otelian views ( human good1 we may obs]ve t ! latt] has sub/antially a clos] correspond5ce to ! positive elem5t 9 ! e?ical tea*+ ( ,socrates1 ?\gh x is pres5t$ 9 a f> m te*nical & s*ola/ic =m1 & involves a m di/9ct rejection ( ! fundam5tal ,socratic p>adox4 ,! same result appe>s :5 we comp>e ! me?ods ( ! ?ree philosoph]s4 ,al?\gh ! ,socratic induction =ms a /rik+ feature ( ,plato's dialogues1 8 ideal me?od ( e?ics is purely d$uctive2 he admits common s5se only z supply+ provisional /eps & />t+-po9ts f :i* ! m9d is to asc5d to k ( absolute good1 ?r\gh :i* k alone1 z he conceives1 ! l[] notions ( p>ticul> goods are to be truly conceiv$4 ,ari/otle1 disc>d+ ! transc5d5talism ( ,plato1 naturally reta9$ f ,plato's tea*+ ! orig9al ,socratic me?od ( induction f & v]ification by common op9ion4 ,inde$1 ! w9d+s ( 8 exposition are be/ und]/ood if we consid] 8 lit]>y mann] z a k9d ( ,socratic dialogue =maliz$ & r$uc$ to a monologue4 ,he fir/ leads u by an induction to ! fundam5tal notion ( ultimate end or good = man4 ,all m51 9 act+1 aim at "s result1 ei!r = its own sake or z a means to "s fur!r end2 b obvi\sly n ev]y?+ c be s\ght m]ely z a means2 !re mu/ be "s ultimate end4 ,9 fact m5 commonly recognize su* an end1 & agree to call x well-be+#c 7,greek3 eudaimonia74 ,b !y take v diff]5t views ( its nature2 h[ %all we f9d ! true view8 ,we obs]ve t m5 are classifi$ accord+ to _! functions2 all k9ds ( man1 & inde$ all organs ( man1 h _! special functions1 & are judg$ z function>ies & organs accord+ z !y p]=m _! functions well or ill4 ,may we n !n inf] t man1 z man1 has 8 prop] function1 & t ! well-be+ or do+ well t all seek really lies 9 fulfill+ well ! prop] function ( man1--t is1 9 liv+ well t life ( ! rational s\l :i* we recognize z man's di/9ctive attribute8 ,aga91 ?is ,socratic def]5ce to common op9ion is n %[n m]ely 9 ! way by :i* ,ari/otle rea*es 8 fundam5tal conception2 x equally appe>s 9 8 treatm5t ( ! conception itself4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ?\gh 9 ,ari/otle's view ! mo/ p]fect well-be+ consi/s 9 ! ex]cise ( man's div9e/ "p1 pure speculative reason1 he keeps f> f ! p>adox ( putt+ =w>d ?is & no?+ else z human good2 s f>1 inde$1 t ! great] "p ( 8 treatise is occupi$ ) an exposition ( ! inf]ior good :i* is realiz$ 9 practical life :5 ! appetitive or impulsive 7semi-rational7 elem5t ( ! s\l op]ates "u ! due regulation ( reason4 ,ev5 :5 ! notion ( good p]=mance ( function 0 ?us wid5$1 & :5 x _h fur!r tak5 9 ! pleasure t is insep>ably connect$ ) su* function+1 x did n yet correspond to ! :ole ( :at a ,greek commonly und]/ood z human well-be+4 ,we may grant1 inde$1 t a mod]ate provision ( mat]ial weal? is indirectly includ$1 z an indisp5sable pre-requisite ( a due p]=mance ( _m functions z ,ari/otle conceives x--8 sy/em admits ( no beatitudes = ! poor2 /ill !re rema9 o!r goods1 su* z beauty1 good bir?1 welf>e ( prog5y1 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( :i* influ5c$ ! common view ( a man's well-be+1 ?\gh !y c\ld h>dly be %[n to be ev5 indirectly important to 8 well-act+4 ,^! ,ari/otle attempts nei!r to exclude f ! philosophic conception ( well-be+ nor to include 9 8 =mal def9ition ( x4 ,! delib]ate loos5ess :i* is ?us giv5 to 8 fundam5tal doctr9e *>act]izes m or less 8 :ole discussion ( e?ics4 ,he pla9ly says t ! subject does n admit ( completely sci5tific treatm5t2 8 aim is to give n a def9ite !ory ( human good1 b a practically adequate acc\nt ( its mo/ important con/itu5ts4 ,! mo/ important elem5t1 !n1 ( well-be+ or good life = ord9>y m5 ,ari/otle holds to consi/ 9 well-do+ z det]m9$ by ! notions ( ! diff]5t moral excell5ces4 ,9 exp\nd+ ^!1 he gives ?r\gh\t ! pure result ( analytical obs]vation ( ! common moral consci\sness ( 8 age4 ,e?ical tru?1 9 8 view1 is to be atta9$ by c>eful comp>ison ( p>ticul> moral op9ions1 j z physical tru? is to be obta9$ by induction f p>ticul> physical obs]vations4 ,on acc\nt ( ! conflict ( op9ion 9 e?ics we _c hope to obta9 c]ta9ty ^u all que/ions2 /ill reflection w lead u to disc>d "s ( ! conflict+ views & f9d a reconciliation = o!rs1 & w furni%1 on ! :ole1 a practically suffici5t residuum ( moral tru?4 ,?is adhesion to common s5se1 ?\gh x involves a sacrifice ( bo? dep? & complet5ess 9 ,ari/otle's sy/em1 gives at ! same "t an hi/orical int]e/ :i* r5d]s x des]v+ ( special att5tion z an analysis ( ! curr5t ,greek ideal ( fair & good life 7,greek3 kalokaga?ia74 ,8 virtues are n arrang$ on any cle> philosophic plan2 ! li/ %[s no s]i\s attempt to consid] human life exhau/ively1 & exhibit ! /&>d ( excell5ce appropriate to its diff]5t dep>tm5ts or aspects4 ,he seems to h tak5 z a />t+-po9t ,plato's f\r c>d9al virtues4 ,! two compreh5sive notions ( ,wisdom & ,ju/ice 7,greek3 dikaiosune7 he treats sep>ately4 ,z reg>ds bo? 8 analysis leads him to div]ge consid]ably f ,plato4 ,z we saw1 8 di/9ction betwe5 practical & speculative ,wisdom belongs to ! deepe/ ( 8 disagreem5ts ) 8 ma/]2 & 9 ! case ( ,greek3 dikaiosune aga9 he di/+ui%es ! wid] use ( ! t]m to express ,law-obs]vance1 :i* 7he says7 co9cides ) ! social side ( virtue g5]ally1 & its n>r[] use = ! virtue t aims at a k9d ( equality1 :e!r 7#a7 9 ! di/ribution ( weal?1 hon\r1 c41 or 7#b7 9 comm]cial ex*ange1 or 7#c7 9 ! rep>ation ( wrong done4 ,!n1 9 arrang+ ! o!r special virtues1 he beg9s ) c\rage & temp]ance1 :i* 7aft] ,plato7 he consid]s z ! excell5ces ( ! irrational elem5t ( ! s\l4 ,next foll[ two pairs ( excell5ces1 conc]n$ respectively ) weal? & hon\r3 7#a7 lib]ality & magnific5ce1 ( :i* ! latt] is exhibit$ 9 great] matt]s ( exp5diture1 & 7#b7 laudable ambition & highm9d$ness simil>ly relat$ to hon\r4 ,!n comes g5tl5ess--! virtue regulative ( ang]2 & ! li/ is conclud$ by ! excell5ces ( social int]c\rse1 fri5dl9ess 7z a mean betwe5 obsequi\sness & surl9ess71 tru?fulness & decor\s wit4 ,! abundant /ore ( j & close analytical obs]vation conta9$ 9 ,ari/otle's acc\nt ( ^! notions give x a p]man5t int]e/1 ev5 beyond its hi/orical value z a del9eation ( ! ,greek ideal ( fair & good life4#d ,b its loos5ess ( arrangem5t & almo/ grotesque co-ord9ation ( qualities widely diff]+ 9 importance are obvi\s4 ,?us 8 fam\s g5]al =mula = virtue1 t x is a mean or middle /ate1 always to be f\nd some:]e betwe5 ! vices :i* /& to x 9 ! relation ( excess & defect1 sc>cely avails to r5d] 8 treatm5t m sy/ematic4 ,x 0 important1 no d\bt1 to express ! ne$ ( obs]v+ due measure & proportion1 9 ord] to atta9 good results 9 human life no less ?an 9 arti/ic products2 b ! obs]vation ( ?is ne$ 0 no new ?+ 9 ,greek lit]ature2 inde$1 x _h already l$ ! ,py?agoreans & ,plato to f9d ! ultimate ess5ce ( ! ord]$ univ]se 9 numb]4 ,b ,ari/otle's purely quantitative /atem5t ( ! relation ( virtue & vice is mislead+1 ev5 :]e x is n obvi\sly inappropriate2 & sometimes leads him to su* ecc5tricities z t ( mak+ simple v]acity a mean betwe5 boa/fulness & mock-mode/y4#e ,x ought to be said t ,ari/otle does n pres5t ! =mula j discuss$ z supply+ a crit]ion ( good conduct 9 any p>ticul> case2 he expressly leaves ?is to be det]m9$ by correct reason+1 & ! judgm5t ( ! practically-wise man 7,greek3 ho phronimos74 ,we _c1 h[ev]1 f9d t he has furni%$ any sub/antial pr9ciples = its det]m9ation2 inde$1 he h>dly seems to h =m$ a di/9ct g5]al idea ( ! practical syllogism by :i* he conceives x to be effect$4#f ,! k9d ( reason+ :i* 8 view ( virtu\s conduct requires is "o 9 :i* ! ultimate major premise /ates a di/9ctive *>act]i/ic ( "s virtue1 & "o or m m9or premises %[ t su* *>act]i/ic belongs to a c]ta9 mode ( conduct "u giv5 circum/ances2 s9ce x is ess5tial to good conduct t x %\ld conta9 its end 9 itself1 & be *os5 = its own sake4 ,b he has n fail$ to obs]ve t practical reason+s are n commonly ( ?is k9d1 b are r conc]n$ ) actions z means to ult]ior ends2 inde$1 he lays /ress on ?is z a *>act]i/ic ( ! political life1 :5 he wi%es to prove its inf]iority to ! life ( pure speculation4 ,?\gh common s5se w admit t virtues are ! be/ ( goods1 x /ill und\bt$ly conceives practical wisdom z *iefly ex]cis$ 9 provid+ ^? inf]ior goods :i* ,ari/otle1 aft] recogniz+ ! ne$ or use ( !m = ! realization ( human well-be+1 has dropp$ out ( sight2 & ! result is t1 9 try+ to make cle> 8 conception ( practical wisdom1 we f9d ourselves fluctuat+ cont9ually betwe5 ! common notion1 :i* he does n di/9ctly reject1 & ! notion requir$ z ! key/one ( 8 e?ical sy/em4 ,transition to ,/oicism4 ,on ! :ole1 !re is probably no treatise s ma/]ly z ,ari/otle's ,e?ics1 & conta9+ s mu* close & valid ?\ght1 t yet leaves on ! read]'s m9d s /rong an impression ( disp]sive & incomplete "w4 ,x is only by dwell+ on ^! defects t we c und]/& ! small am\nt ( influ5ce t 8 sy/em ex]cis$ dur+ ! five c5turies aft] 8 dea?1 z comp>$ ) ! effect :i* x has _h1 directly or indirectly1 9 %ap+ ! ?\ght ( mod]n ,europe4 ,p>tly1 no d\bt1 ! limit$ influ5ce ( 8 disciples1 ! ,p]ipatetics 7q4v471 is to be attribut$ to t exaltation ( ! purely speculative life :i* di/+ui%$ ! ,ari/otelian e?ics f o!r lat] sy/ems1 & :i* 0 too ali5 f ! common moral consci\sness to f9d mu* acceptance 9 an age 9 :i* ! e?ical aims ( philosophy _h aga9 become p>am\nt4 ,p>tly1 aga91 ! analytical di/9ctness ( ,ari/otle's mann] br+s into special prom95ce ! difficulties t att5d ! ,socratic ef=t to reconcile ! ideal aspirations ( m5 ) ! pr9ciples on :i* _! practical reason+s are commonly conduct$4 ,! conflict betwe5 ^! two elem5ts ( ,common ,s5se 0 too pr(\nd to be compromis$2 & ! moral consci\sness ( mank9d dem&$ a m tr5*ant p>tisan%ip ?an ,ari/otle's4 ,its dem&s 7 met by ! ,/oic s*ool :i* sep>at$ ! moral f ! worldly view ( life1 ) an absolut5ess & def9it5ess t caught ! imag9ation2 :i* reg>d$ practical goodness z ! highe/ manife/ation ( its ideal ( wisdom2 & :i* b\nd ! common notions ( duty into an app>5tly coh]5t sy/em1 by a =mula t compreh5d$ ! :ole ( human life1 & exhibit$ its relation to ! ord]$ process ( ! univ]se4 ,! intellectual desc5t ( its e?ical doctr9es is pr9cipally to be trac$ to ,socrates ?r\gh ! ,cynics1 ?\gh an important elem5t 9 !m seems attributable to ! s*ool t inh]it$ ! ,academy ( ,plato4 ,bo? ,/oic & ,cynic ma9ta9$1 9 its %>pe/ =m1 ! fundam5tal t5et t ! practical k :i* is virtue1 ) ! condition ( s\l t is insep>able f x1 is alone to be acc\nt$ good4 ,he :o ex]cises ?is wisdom or k has complete well-be+2 all else is indiff]5t to him4 ,x is true t ! ,cynics 7 m conc]n$ to emphasize ! negative side ( ! sage's well-be+1 :ile ! ,/oics br\ght into m prom95ce its positive side4 ,?is diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 did n am\nt to disagreem5t4 ,! ,/oics1 9 fact1 seem g5]ally to h reg>d$ ! ecc5tricities ( ,cynicism z an emphatic mann] ( express+ ! ess5tial anti!sis betwe5 philosophy & ! _w2 a mann] :i*1 ?\gh n necess>y or ev5 normal1 might yet be advantage\sly adopt$ by ! sage "u c]ta9 circum/ances4#g ,/oicism4 ,:]e91 !n1 consi/s ?is k or wisdom t makes free & p]fect8 ,bo? ,cynics & ,/oics 7q4v47 agre$ t ! mo/ important "p ( x 0 ! k t ! sole good ( man lay 9 ?is k or wisdom itself4 ,x mu/ be und]/ood t by wisdom !y meant wisdom realiz$ 9 act2 inde$1 !y did n conceive ! exi/5ce ( wisdom z sep>able f su* realization4 ,we may obs]ve1 too1 t ! ,/oics reject$ ! div]g5ce :i* we h se5 gradually tak+ place 9 ,platonic-,ari/otelian ?\ght f ! position ( ,socrates1 t no "o aims at :at he kn[s to be bad4 ,! /ress t _! psy*ology laid on ! ess5tial unity ( ! rational self t is ! s\rce ( volunt>y action prev5t$ !m f accept+ ,plato's analysis ( ! s\l into a regulative elem5t & elem5ts ne$+ regulation4 ,!y held t :at we call passion is a morbid condition ( ! rational s\l1 involv+ errone\s judgm5t z to :at is to be s\ght or %unn$4 ,f su* passionate errors ! truly wise man w ( c\rse be free4 ,he w be consci\s inde$ ( physical appetite2 b he w n be misl$ into suppos+ t its object is really a good2 he _c1 !re=e1 hope = ! atta9m5t ( ?is object or fe> to miss x1 z ^! /ates involve ! conception ( x z a good4 ,simil>ly1 ?\gh l o!r m5 he w be subject to bodily pa91 ?is w n cause him m5tal grief or disquiet1 z 8 wor/ agonies w n di/urb 8 cle> conviction t x is really indiff]5t to 8 true reasonable self4 ,t ?is impassive sage 0 a be+ n to be f\nd among liv+ m5 ! lat] ,/oics at lea/ 7 fully aw>e4 ,!y fa9tly sugge/$ t "o or two moral h]oes ( old "t might h realiz$ ! ideal1 b !y admitt$ t all o!r philosoph]s 7ev57 7 m]ely 9 a /ate ( progress t[>ds x4 ,?is admission did n 9 ! lea/ dim9i% ! rig\r ( _! dem& = absolute loyalty to ! exclusive claims ( wisdom4 ,! assurance ( its own unique value t su* wisdom involv$ !y held to be an abid+ possession = ^? :o _h atta9$ x2#h & )\t ?is assurance no act c\ld be truly wise or virtu\s4 ,:atev] 0 n ( k 0 ( s92 & ! di/9ction betwe5 "r & wrong be+ absolute & n admitt+ ( degrees all s9s 7 equally s9ful2 :oev] broke ! lea/ comm&m5t 0 guilty ( ! :ole law4 ,simil>ly1 all wisdom 0 someh[ involv$ 9 any "o ( ! manife/ations ( wisdom1 commonly di/+ui%$ z p>ticul> virtues2 ?\gh :e!r ^! virtues 7 specifically di/9ct1 or only ! same k 9 diff]5t relations1 0 a subtle "q on :i* ! ,/oics d n seem to h be5 agre$4 ,ari/otle _h already be5 l$ to attempt a refutation ( ! ,socratic id5tification ( virtue ) k2 b 8 attempt _h only %[n ! pr(\nd difficulty ( attack+ ! p>adox1 s long z x 0 admitt$ t no "o c\ld ( delib]ate purpose act contr>y to :at seem$ to him be/4 ,n[1 ,ari/otle's div]g5ce f ,socrates _h n l$ him s f> z to d5y ?is2 :ile = ! ,/oics :o _h rec$$ to ! orig9al ,socratic position1 ! difficulty 0 /ill m pat5t4 ,?is !ory ( virtue l$ !m into two dilemmas4 ,fir/ly1 if virtue is k1 does x foll[ t vice is involunt>y8 ,if n1 x mu/ be t ignorance is volunt>y4 ,?is alt]native is ! less dang]\s to morality1 & z su* ! ,/oics *ose x4 ,b !y 7 n yet at ! end ( _! p]plexities2 = :ile !y 7 ?us driv5 to an extreme ext5sion ( ! range ( human volition1 _! view ( ! physical univ]se involv$ an equally ?or\gh-go+ det]m9ism4 ,h[ c\ld ! vici\s man be responsible if 8 vice 7 /rictly pre-det]m9$8 ,! ,/oics answ]$ t ! error :i* 0 ! ess5ce ( vice 0 s f> volunt>y t x c\ld be avoid$ if m5 *ose to ex]cise _! reason4 ,no d\bt x dep5d$ on ! innate =ce & firmness#i ( a man's s\l :e!r 8 reason 0 effectually ex]cis$2 b moral responsibility 0 sav$ if ! vici\s act proce$$ f ! man himself & n f any ext]nal cause4 ,) all ?is we h n asc]ta9$ ! positive practical cont5t ( ?is wisdom4 ,h[ are we to em]ge f ! b>r5 circle ( affirm+ 7#a7 t wisdom is ! sole good & unwisdom ! sole evil1 & 7#b7 t wisdom is ! k ( good & evil2 & atta9 "s me?od = det]m9+ ! p>ticul>s ( good conduct8 ,! ,cynics made no attempt to solve ?is difficulty2 !y 7 cont5t to mean by virtue :at any pla9 man meant by x1 except 9 s f> z _! s5se ( indep5d5ce l$ !m to reject c]ta9 receiv$ precepts & prejudices4 ,! ,/oics1 on ! o!r h&1 n only work$ out a detail$ sy/em ( duties--or1 z !y t]m$ !m1 ?+s meet & fit 7,greek3 ka!konta7 = all occasions ( life2 !y 7 fur!r especially conc]n$ to compreh5d !m "u a g5]al =mula4 ,!y f\nd ?is by br++ out ! positive significance ( ! notion ( ,nature1 :i* ! ,cynic _h us$ *iefly 9 a negative way1 z an anti!sis to ! cons5tions 7,greek3 nomos71 f :i* 8 k _h made him free4 ,ev5 9 ?is negative use ( ! notion x is necess>ily impli$ t :atev] active t5d5cies 9 man are f\nd to be natural--t is1 indep5d5t ( & uncorrupt$ by social cu/oms & conv5tions--w prop]ly take effect 9 outw>d acts1 b ! adoption ( con=mity to nature z a g5]al positive rule = outw>d conduct seems to h be5 due to ! influ5ce on ,z5o ( ,academic tea*+4 ,:5ce1 h[ev]1 c ?is au?ority belong to ! natural1 unless nature be itself an expression or embodim5t ( div9e law & wisdom8 ,! conception ( ! _w1 z organiz$ & fill$ by div9e ?\ght1 0 common1 9 "s =m1 to all ! philosophies t look$ back to ,socrates z _! f\nd]1--"s ev5 ma9ta9+ t ?is ?\ght 0 ! sole reality4 ,?is pan!i/ic doctr9e h>moniz$ ?or\ghly ) ! ,/oic view ( human good2 b be+ unable to conceive sub/ance ideali/ically1 !y 7) consid]able aid f ! sy/em ( ,h]aclitus7 suppli$ a mat]iali/ic side to _! pan!ism1--conceiv+ div9e ?\ght z an attribute ( ! pure/ & mo/ prim>y ( mat]ial sub/ances1 a subtle fi]y ae!r4 ,?is !ological view ( ! physical univ]se _h a d\ble effect on ! e?ics ( ! ,/oic4 ,9 ! fir/ place x gave to 8 c>d9al conviction ( ! all-suffici5cy ( wisdom = human well-be+ a root ( cosmical fact1 & an atmosph]e ( religi\s & social emotion4 ,! ex]cise ( wisdom 0 n[ view$ z ! pure life ( t p>ticle ( div9e sub/ance :i* 0 9 v tru? ! god )9 him2 ! reason ^: supremacy he ma9ta9$ 0 ! reason ( ,zeus1 & ( all gods & reasonable m51 no less ?an 8 own2 its realization 9 any "o individual 0 ?us ! common good ( all rational be+s z su*2 ! sage c\ld n /ret* out a f+] rightly )\t !reby b5efit+ all o!r sages1--nay1 x might ev5 be said t he 0 z useful to ,zeus z ,zeus to him4#aj ,b aga91 ! same conception s]v$ to h>monize ! high] & ! l[] elem5ts ( human life4 ,= ev5 9 ! physical or non-rational man1 z orig9ally con/itut$1 we may see cle> indications ( ! div9e design1 :i* x belongs to 8 rational w to c>ry into consci\s execution2 inde$1 9 ! fir/ /age ( human life1 be=e reason is fully develop$1 uncorrupt$ natural impulse effects :at is aft]w>ds ! "w ( reason4 ,?us ! =mula ( liv+ accord+ to nature1 9 its application to man z ! rational animal1 may be und]/ood bo? z direct+ t reason is to gov]n1 & z indicat+ h[ t gov]nm5t is to be practically ex]cis$4 ,9 man1 z 9 e o!r animal1 f ! mom5t ( bir? natural impulse prompts to ! ma9t5ance ( 8 physical frame2 !n1 :5 reason has be5 develop$ & has recogniz$ itself z its own sole good1 ^! prim>y ends ( nature & :atev] promotes ^! /ill con/itute ! outw>d objects at :i* reason is to aim2 !re is a c]ta9 value 7,greek3 axia7 9 !m1 9 proportion to :i* !y are pref]r$ 7,greek3 proegm5a7 & _! opposites reject$ 7,greek3 apoproegm5a72 inde$ x is only 9 ! due & consi/5t ex]cise ( su* *oice t wisdom c f9d its practical manife/ation4 ,9 ?is way all or mo/ ( ! ?+s commonly judg$ to be goods--heal?1 /r5g?1 weal?1 fame1#aa c41--are br\ght )9 ! sph]e ( ! sage's *oice1 ?\gh 8 real good is solely 9 ! wisdom ( ! *oice1 & n 9 ! ?+ *os54 ,! doctr9e ( con=mity to ,nature z ! rule ( conduct 0 n peculi> to ,/oicism4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! !ories ( ,speusippus1 ,x5ocrates1 & also to "s ext5t 9 ^? ( ! ,p]ipatetics4 ,! peculi>ity ( ! ,/oics lay 9 _! refus+ to use ! t]ms good & evil 9 connexion ) ?+s indiff]5t1 & 9 po9t+ out t philosoph]s1 ?\gh indep5d5t ( ^! ?+s1 mu/ yet deal ) !m 9 practical life4 ,s f> we h consid]$ ! nature ( ! individual man z ap>t f 8 social relations2 b ! sph]e ( virtue1 z commonly conceiv$1 lies *iefly 9 ^!1 & ?is 0 fully recogniz$ 9 ! ,/oic acc\nt ( duties 7,greek3 ka!konta72 inde$1 9 _! exposition ( ! natural basis ( ju/ice1 ! evid5ce t man 0 born n = himself b = mank9d is ! mo/ important "p ( _! "w 9 ! region ( practical morality4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 we especially notice ! d\ble significance ( natural1 z appli$ to 7#a7 :at actually exi/s ev]y:]e or = ! mo/ "p1 & 7#b7 :at w\ld exi/ if ! orig9al plan ( man's life 7 fully c>ri$ out2 & we f9d t ! ,/oics h n cle>ly h>moniz$ ! two elem5ts ( ! notion4 ,t man 0 naturally a social animal ,ari/otle _h already taught2 t all rational be+s1 9 ! unity ( ! reason t is common to all1 =m naturally "o community ) a common law 0 7z we saw7 an imm$iate inf]5ce f ! ,/oic conception ( ! univ]se z a :ole4 ,t ! memb]s ( ?is city ( ,zeus %\ld obs]ve _! contracts1 ab/a9 f mutual h>m1 comb9e to protect ea* o!r f injury1 7 obvi\s po9ts ( natural law2 :ile aga91 x 0 cle>ly necess>y to ! pres]vation ( human society t its memb]s %\ld =m sexual unions1 produce *ildr51 & be/[ c>e on _! re>+ & tra9+4 ,b beyond ?is nature did n seem to g 9 det]m9+ ! relations ( ! sexes2 accord+ly1 we f9d t community ( wives 0 a feature ( ,z5o's ideal commonweal?1 j z x 0 ( ,plato's2 :ile1 aga91 ! /rict !ory ( ! s*ool recogniz$ no gov]nm5t or laws z true or b9d+ except ^? ( ! sage2 he alone is ! true rul]1 ! true k+4 ,s f>1 ! ,/oic nature seems 9 dang] ( be+ z revolution>y z ,r\sseau's4 ,practically1 h[ev]1 ?is revolution>y aspect ( ! notion 0 kept = ! mo/ "p 9 ! backgr\nd2 ! rational law ( an ideal community 0 n di/+ui%$ f ! positive ord9ances & cu/oms ( actual society2 & ! natural ties t actually b\nd ea* man to family1 k9sm51 fa!rl&1 & to unwise humanity g5]ally1 suppli$ ! outl9e on :i* ! ext]nal manife/ation ( ju/ice 0 del9eat$4 ,x 0 a fundam5tal maxim t ! sage 0 to take "p 9 public life2 & x does n appe> t 8 political action 0 to be regulat$ by any o!r pr9ciples ?an ^? commonly accept$ 9 8 community4 ,simil>ly1 9 ! view tak5 by ! ,/oics ( ! duties ( social decorum1 & 9 _! attitude to ! popul> religion1 we f9d a fluctuat+ compromise betwe5 ! disposition to repudiate :at is conv5tional1 & ! disposition to rev]e :at is e/abli%$1 ea* t5d5cy express+ 9 its own way ! pr9ciple ( con=m+ to nature4 ,/oics & h$oni/s4 ,among ! prim>y ends ( nature1 9 :i* wisdom recogniz$ a c]ta9 pref]ability1 ! ,/oics includ$ fre$om f bodily pa92 b !y refus$1 ev5 9 ?is out] c\rt ( wisdom1 to f9d a place = pleasure4 ,!y held t ! latt] 0 n an object ( uncorrupt$ natural impulse1 b an aft]gr[? 7,greek3 epig5nema74 ,!y ?us endeav\r$ to resi/ ,epicureanism ev5 on ! gr\nd :]e ! latt] seems prima facie /ronge/2 9 its appeal1 namely1 to ! natural pleasure-seek+ ( all liv+ ?+s4 ,nor did !y m]ely mean by pleasure 7,greek3 h$one7 ! gratification ( bodily appetite2 we f9d 7e4g47 ,*rysippus urg+1 z a decisive argum5t aga9/ ,ari/otle1 t pure speculation 0 a k9d ( amusem5t2 t is1 pleasure4 ,ev5 ! joy & gladness 7,greek3 *>a1 euphrosyne7 t accompany ! ex]cise ( virtue seem to h be5 reg>d$ by !m z m]ely an insep>able accid5t1 n ! ess5tial con/itu5t ( well-be+4 ,x is only by a lat] modification ( ,/oicism t *e]fulness or peace ( m9d is tak5 z ! real ultimate end1 to :i* ! ex]cise ( virtue is m]ely a means4 ,at ! same "t x is probable t ! s]5e joys ( virtue & ! grieflessness :i* ! sage 0 conceiv$ to ma9ta9 amid ! wor/ tortures1 =m$ ! ma9 attractions ( ,/oicism = ord9>y m9ds4 ,9 ?is s5se x may be fairly said t ,/oics & ,epicureans made rival (f]s to mank9d ( ! same k9d ( happ9ess2 & ! philosophical peculi>ities ( ei!r sy/em may be trac$ to ! desire ( be+ undi/urb$ by ! *anges & *ances ( life4 ,! ,/oic claims on ?is head 7 ! l(tie/2 z ! well-be+ ( _! sage 0 indep5d5t1 n only ( ext]nal ?+s & bodily conditions1 b ( "t itself2 x 0 fully realiz$ 9 a s+le ex]cise ( wisdom & c\ld n be increas$ by duration4 ,?is p>adox is viol5t1 b x is q 9 h>mony ) ! _s ( ,/oicism2 & we are m />tl$ to f9d t ! ,epicurean sage1 no less ?an ! ,/oic1 is to be happy ev5 on ! rack2 t 8 happ9ess1 too1 is unimpair$ by be+ re/rict$ 9 duration1 :5 8 m9d has appreh5d$ ! natural limits ( life2 t1 9 %ort1 ,epicurus makes no less /r5u\s ef=ts ?an ,z5o to elim9ate imp]fection f ! conditions ( human exi/5ce4 ,?is *>act]i/ic1 h[ev]1 is ! key to ! *ief diff]5ces betwe5 ,epicureanism & ! m naive h$onism ( ,ari/ippus4 ,! latt] sy/em gave ! simple/ & mo/ obvi\s answ] to ! inquiry aft] ultimate good = man2 b besides be+ liable1 :5 develop$ consi/5tly1 to (f5d ! common moral consci\sness1 x conspicu\sly fail$ to provide ! complet5ess & security :i*1 z ,ari/otle says1 "o div9es to belong to man's true ,good4 ,philosophy1 9 ! ,greek view1 %\ld be ! art z well z ! sci5ce ( good life2 & h$oni/ic philosophy w\ld seem a bungl+ & unc]ta9 art ( pleasure1 z pleasure is ord9>ily conceiv$4 ,nay1 x w\ld ev5 be f\nd t ! habit ( philosophical reflection (t5 op]at$ adv]sely to ! atta9m5t ( ?is end1 by develop+ ! ?9k]'s self-consci\sness1 s z to di/urb t normal relation to ext]nal objects on :i* ! ze/ ( ord9>y enjoym5t dep5ds4 ,h5ce we f9d t lat] ?9k]s ( ! ,cyr5aic s*ool felt !mselves compell$ to *ange _! fundam5tal notion2 ?us ,!odorus def9$ ! good z gladness 7,greek3 *>a7 dep5d+ on wisdom1 z di/9ct f m]e pleasure1 :ile ,hegesias proclaim$ t happ9ess 0 unatta9able1 & t ! *ief function ( wisdom 0 to r5d] life pa9less by produc+ indiff]5ce to all ?+s t give pleasure4 ,b by su* *anges _! sy/em lo/ ! support t x _h _h 9 ! pleasure-seek+ t5d5cies ( ord9>y m54 ,x 0 cle> t if philosophic h$onism 0 to be e/abli%$ on a broad & firm basis1 x mu/ 9 its notion ( good comb9e :at ! pla9 man naturally s\ght ) :at philosophy c\ld plausibly (f]4 ,su* a comb9ation 0 effect$1 ) "s little viol5ce1 by ,epicurus2 ^: sy/em ) all its defects %[$ a rem>kable p[] ( /&+ ! te/ ( "t1 z x attract$ ! unqualifi$ adhesion ( g5]ation aft] g5]ation ( disciples = a p]iod ( "s six c5turies4 ,epicurus4 ,9 ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( 8 philosophy ,epicurus is n orig9al4 ,ari/ippus 7cf4 also ,plato 9 ! ,protagoras & ,eudoxus7 _h already ma9ta9$ t pleasure is ! sole ultimate good1 & pa9 ! sole evil2 t no pleasure is to be reject$ except = its pa9ful consequ5ces1 & no pa9 to be *os5 except z a means to great] pleasure2 t ! /r+5cy ( all laws & cu/oms dep5ds solely on ! legal & social p5alties atta*$ to _! violation2 t1 9 %ort1 all virtu\s conduct & all speculative activity are empty & useless1 except z contribut+ to ! pleasantness ( ! ag5t's life4 ,& ,epicurus assures u t he means by pleasure :at pla9 m5 mean by x2 & t if ! gratifications ( appetite & s5se are disc>d$1 ! notion is empti$ ( its significance4 ,s f> ! sy/em w\ld seem to suit ! incl9ations ( ! mo/ ?or\gh-go+ voluptu>y4 ,! orig9ality ( ,epicurus lay 9 8 !ory t ! highe/ po9t ( pleasure1 :e!r 9 body or m9d1 is to be atta9$ by ! m]e removal ( pa9 or di/urbance1 aft] :i* pleasure admits ( v>iation only & n ( augm5tation2 t !re=e ! utmo/ gratification ( :i* ! body is capable may be provid$ by ! simple/ means1 & t natural weal? is no m ?an any man c e>n4 ,:5 fur!r he tea*es t ! atta9m5t ( happ9ess dep5ds almo/ entirely ^u insight & "r calculation1 =tune hav+ v little to d ) x2 t ! pleasures & pa9s ( ! m9d are f> m important ?an ^? ( ! body1 ow+ to ! accumulation ( feel+ caus$ by memory & anticipation2 & t an indisp5sable condition ( m5tal happ9ess lies 9 reliev+ ! m9d ( all sup]/itions1 :i* c be effect$ only by a ?or\gh k ( ! physical univ]se--he introduces an ample area = ! ex]cise ( ! philosophic intellect4 ,s aga91 9 ! /ress t he lays on ! mis]y :i* ! mo/ secret wrong-do+ mu/ necess>ily cause f ! p]petual fe> ( discov]y1 & 9 8 exub]ant exaltation ( ! value ( dis9t]e/$ fri5d%ip1 he %[s a s9c]e1 ?\gh n completely successful1 ef=t to avoid ! (f5ce t consi/5t egoi/ic h$onism is apt to give to ord9>y human feel+4 ,z reg>ds fri5d%ip1 ,epicurus 0 a man ( peculi>ly unexclusive sympa?ies4#ab ,! g5ial fell[%ip ( ! philosophic community t he collect$ 9 8 g>d5 rema9$ a /rik+ feature 9 ! traditions ( 8 s*ool2 & c]ta9ly ! ideal :i* ,/oics & ,epicureans equally *]i%$ ( a bro!rhood ( sages 0 mo/ easily realiz$ on ! ,epicurean plan ( )draw+ f political & dialectical conflict to simple liv+ & s]5e leisure1 9 imitation ( ! gods ap>t f ! =tuit\s conc\rse ( atoms t we call a _w4 ,no d\bt x 0 r ! practical ?an ! !oretical side ( ,epicureanism :i* gave x s /rong a hold on succe$+ g5]ations4 ,lat] ,greek philosophy4 ,/oicism 9 ,rome4 ,! two sy/ems t h j be5 describ$ 7 ^? t mo/ prom95tly attract$ ! att5tion ( ! anci5t _w1 s f> z x 0 direct$ to e?ics1 f _! almo/ simultane\s orig9 to ! end ( ! #bnd c5tury ,a4,d41 :5 ,/oicism almo/ vani%es f our view4 ,b side by side ) !m ! s*ools ( ,plato & ,ari/otle /ill ma9ta9$ a cont9uity ( tradition1 & a m or less vigor\s life2 & philosophy1 z a recogniz$ elem5t ( ,graeco-,roman culture1 0 und]/ood to be divid$ among ^! f\r bran*es4 ,! int]nal hi/ory1 h[ev]1 ( ! f\r s*ools 0 v diff]5t4 ,we f9d no developm5t wor?y ( notice 9 ,ari/otelian e?ics 7see ,,p]ipatetics74 ,! ,epicureans1 aga91 f _! unque/ion+ acceptance ( ! dogmas#ac ( _! f\nd]1 almo/ des]ve to be call$ a sect r ?an a s*ool4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! *anges 9 ,/oicism are v notewor?y2 & x is ! m easy to trace !m1 z ! only orig9al writ+s ( ?is s*ool :i* we possess are ^? ( ! lat] ,roman ,/oics4 ,^! *anges may be attribut$ p>tly to ! natural inn] developm5t ( ! sy/em1 p>tly to ! reaction ( ! ,roman m9d on ! ess5tially ,greek doctr9e :i* x receiv$1--a reaction all ! m inevitable f ! v aff9ity betwe5 ! ,/oic sage & ! anci5t ,roman ideal ( manl9ess4 ,x 0 natural t ! e>li] ,/oics %\ld be *iefly occupi$ ) del9eat+ ! inn] & out] *>act]i/ics ( ideal wisdom & virtue1 & t ! gap betwe5 ! ideal sage & ! actual philosoph]1 ?\gh nev] ignor$1 %\ld yet be some:at ov]look$4 ,b :5 ! "q ,:at is man's good8 _h be5 answ]$ by an exposition ( p]fect wisdom1 ! practical "q ,h[ may a man em]ge f ! folly ( ! _w1 & get on ! way t[>ds wisdom8 naturally attract$ att5tion2 & ! prepond]ance ( moral ov] sci5tific int]e/1 :i* 0 *>act]i/ic ( ! ,roman m9d1 gave ?is "q especial prom95ce4 ,! s5se ( ! gap betwe5 !ory & fact gives to ! religi\s elem5t ( ,/oicism a new =ce2 ! s\l1 consci\s ( its weakness1 leans on ! ?\ght ( ,god1 & 9 ! philosoph]'s attitude t[>ds ext]nal ev5ts1 pi\s resignation prepond]ates ov] self-pois$ indiff]5ce2 ! old self-reliance ( ! reason1 look+ d[n on man's natural life z a m]e field = its ex]cise1 makes room = a positive av]sion to ! fle% z an ali5 elem5t imprison+ ! _s2 ! body has come to be a corpse :i* ! s\l su/a9s1#ad & life a soj\rn 9 a /range l&2#ae 9 %ort1 ! e?ical idealism ( ,z5o has begun to borr[ f ! metaphysical idealism ( ,plato4 ,hi/ory ( ,plato's s*ool4 ,9 no "o ( ^! s*ools 0 ! outw>d coh]5ce ( tradition s mu* /ra9$ by inn] *anges z x 0 9 ,plato's4 ,! alt]ations1 h[ev]1 9 ! metaphysical position ( ! ,academics _h little effect on _! e?ical tea*+1 z1 ev5 dur+ ! p]iod ( ,scepticism1 !y appe> to h pres5t$ z probable ! same g5]al view ( human good :i* ,antio*us aft]w>ds dogmatically ann\nc$ z a revival ( ! common doctr9e ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,& dur+ ! p]iod ( a c5tury & a half betwe5 ,antio*us & ,plut>*1 we may suppose ! s*ool to h ma9ta9$ ! old controv]sy ) ,/oicism on mu* ! same gr\nd1 accept+ ! =mula ( life accord+ to nature1 b dem&+ t ! good ( man %\ld ref] to 8 nature z a :ole1 ! good ( 8 rational "p be+ ! *ief elem5t1 & always pref]able 9 case ( conflict1 b yet n absolutely 8 sole good4 ,9 ,plut>*1 h[ev]1 we see ! same t5d5cies ( *ange t we h notic$ 9 lat] ,/oicism4 ,! conception ( a normal h>mony betwe5 ! high] & l[] elem5ts ( human life has begun to be di/urb$1 & ! side ( ,plato's tea*+ t deals ) ! inevitable imp]fections ( ! _w ( concrete exp]i5ce becomes aga9 prom95t4 ,= example1 we f9d ,plut>* amplify+ ! sugge/ion 9 ,plato's late/ treatise 7! ,laws7 t ?is imp]fection is due to a bad _w-s\l t /rives aga9/ ! good1--a sugge/ion :i* is ali5 to ! g5]al t5or ( ,plato's doctr9e1 & _h consequ5tly be5 unnotic$ dur+ ! int]v5+ c5turies4 ,we obs]ve1 aga91 ! value t ,plut>* atta*es1 n m]ely to ! su/a9m5t & consolation ( rational religion1 b to ! sup]natural communications v\*saf$ by ! div9ity to c]ta9 human be+s 9 dreams1 ?r\gh oracles1 or by special w>n+s1 l ^? ( ! g5ius ( ,socrates4 ,= ^! fla%es ( intuition1 he holds1 ! s\l %\ld be prep>$ by tranquil repose & ! subjugation ( s5suality ?r\gh ab/95ce4 ,! same ascetic ef=t to atta9 by alo(ness f ! body a pure receptivity = sup]natural influ5ces1 is exhibit$ 9 ,neo-,py?agoreanism4 ,b ! g5]al t5d5cy t we are not+ did n f9d its full expression 9 a reason$ sy/em until we come to ! ,egyptian ,plot9us4 ,neoplatonism4 ,! sy/em ( ,plot9us 7#bje-bgj ,a4,d47 is a /rik+ developm5t ( t elem5t ( ,platonism :i* has _h mo/ fasc9ation = ! m$ieval & ev5 = ! mod]n m9d1 b :i* _h almo/ vani%$ out ( sight 9 ! controv]sies ( ! po/-,ari/otelian s*ools4 ,at ! same "t ! diff]5ces are ! m notewor?y f ! rev]5t adhesion :i* ! ,neoplatoni/s always ma9ta9 to ,plato4 ,plato id5tifi$ good ) ! real ess5ce ( ?+s2 ) t 9 !m :i* is def9itely conceivable & kn[able4 ,x belongs to ?is view to reg>d ! imp]fection ( ?+s z devoid ( real be+1 & s incapable ( be+ def9itely ?\ght or kn[n2 accord+ly1 we f9d t ,plato has no te*nical t]m = t 9 ! concrete s5sible _w :i* h9d]s x f p]fectly express+ ! ab/ract ideal _w1 & :i* 9 ,ari/otle's sy/em is di/+ui%$ z absolutely =mless matt] 7,greek3 hule74 ,& s1 :5 we pass f ! ontology to ! e?ics ( ,platonism1 we f9d t1 ?\gh ! highe/ life is only to be realiz$ by turn+ away f concrete human affairs & _! mat]ial environm5t1 /ill ! s5sible _w is n yet an object ( positive moral av]sion2 x is r some?+ :i* ! philosoph] is s]i\sly conc]n$ to make z h>moni\s1 good & beautiful z possible4 ,b 9 ,neoplatonism ! inf]iority ( ! condition 9 :i* ! embodi$ human s\l f9ds itself is m int5sely & pa9fully felt2 h5ce an express recognition ( =mless matt] 7,greek3 hule7 z ! fir/ evil1 f :i* is d]iv$ ! second evil1 body 7,greek3 soma71 to ^: influ5ce all ! evil 9 ! s\l's exi/5ce is due4 ,accord+ly ! e?ics ( ,plot9us repres5t1 we may say1 ! moral idealism ( ! ,/oics cut loose f nature4 ,! only good ( man is ! pure exi/5ce ( ! s\l1 :i* 9 itself1 ap>t f ! contagion ( ! body1 is p]fectly free f error or defect2 if only x c be re/or$ to ! untrammell$ activity ( its orig9al be+1 no?+ ext]nal1 no?+ bodily1 c positively impair its p]fect welf>e4 ,x is only ! l[e/ =m ( virtue--! civic virtue ( ,plato's ,republic--t is employ$ 9 regulat+ ^? animal impulses ^: pres5ce 9 ! s\l is due to its mixture ) ! body2 high] or philosophic wisdom1 temp]ance1 c\rage & ju/ice are ess5tially purifications f ?is contagion2 until f9ally ! highe/ mode ( goodness is rea*$1 9 :i* ! s\l has no community ) ! body1 & is entirely turn$ t[>ds reason4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ,plot9us himself is /ill too ,platonic to hold t ! absolute mortification ( natural bodily appetites is requir$ = purify+ ! s\l2 b ?is ascetic inf]5ce 0 drawn to ! fulle/ ext5t by 8 disciple ,porphyry4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a yet high] po9t to be rea*$ 9 ! upw>d asc5t ( ! ,neoplatoni/ f matt]2 & "h ! div]g5ce ( ,plot9us f ,platonic idealism is none ! less /rik+1 because x is a bona fide result ( rev]5t reflection on ,plato's tea*+4 ,! c>d9al assumption ( ,plato's metaphysic is1 t ! real is def9itely ?9kable & kn[able 9 proportion z x is real2 s t ! fur!r ! m9d advances 9 ab/raction f s5sible p>ticul>s & appreh5sion ( real be+1 ! m def9ite & cle> its ?\ght becomes4 ,plot9us1 h[ev]1 urges t1 z all ?\ght involves diff]5ce or duality ( "s k9d1 x _c be ! prim>y fact 9 ! univ]se1 :at we call ,god4 ,he mu/ be an ess5tial unity prior to ?is duality1 a ,be+ :olly )\t diff]5ce or det]m9ation2 &1 accord+ly1 ! highe/ mode ( human exi/5ce1 9 :i* ! s\l appreh5ds ?is absolute1 mu/ be "o 9 :i* all def9ite ?\ght is transc5d$1 & all consci\sness ( self lo/ 9 ! absorb+ ec/asy4 ,porphyry tells u t 8 ma/] ,plot9us atta9$ ! highe/ /ate f\r times dur+ ! six ye>s :i* he sp5t ) him4 ,neoplatonism1 orig9ally ,alex&r9e1 is (t5 reg>d$ z ,hell5i/ic r ?an ,hell5ic1 a product ( ! m+l+ ( ,greek ) ,ori5tal civilization4 ,b h[ev] ,ori5tal may h be5 ! ca/ ( m9d t welcom$ ?is !osophic asceticism1 ! =ms ( ?\ght by :i* ^! views 7 philosophically rea*$ are ess5tially ,greek2 & x is by a ?or\ghly intelligible process ( natural developm5t1 9 :i* ! int5sification ( ! moral consci\sness repres5t$ by ,/oicism plays an important "p1 t ! ,hell5ic pursuit ( k culm9ates 9 a prep>ation = ec/asy1 & ! ,hell5ic idealization ( man's natural life ends 9 a settl$ antipa?y to ! body & its works4 ,at ! same "t we ought n to ov]look ! aff9ities betwe5 ! doctr9e ( ,plot9us & t rem>kable comb9ation ( ,greek & ,hebrew ?\ght :i* ,philo ,judaeus _h exp\nd$ two c5turies be=e2 nor ! fact t ,neoplatonism 0 develop$ 9 consci\s antagonism to ! new religion :i* _h spread f ,judea1 & 0 already ?reat5+ ! conque/ ( ! ,graeco-,roman _w1 & also to ! ,gno/ic sy/ems 7see ,,gno/icism72 nor1 f9ally1 t x furni%$ ! *ief !oretical support 9 ! la/ desp]ate /ruggle t 0 made "u ,julian to reta9 ! old poly!i/ic wor%ip4 ,b4 ,*ri/ianity & ,m$ieval ,e?ics4--,9 ! pres5t article we are n conc]n$ ) ! orig9 ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1 nor ) its outw>d hi/ory4 ,nor h we to consid] ! special doctr9es t h =m$ ! bond ( union ( ! ,*ri/ian communities except 9 _! e?ical aspect1 _! be>+ on ! sy/ematization ( human aims & activities4 ,?is aspect1 h[ev]1 mu/ necess>ily be prom95t 9 discuss+ ,*ri/ianity1 :i* _c be adequately treat$ m]ely z a sy/em ( !ological beliefs div9ely reveal$1 & special obs]vances div9ely sanction$2 = x claims to regulate ! :ole man1 9 all dep>tm5ts ( 8 exi/5ce4 ,x 0 n till ! #d? c5tury ,a4,d4 t ! fir/ attempt 0 made to (f] a sy/ematic exposition ( ,*ri/ian morality2 & n9e c5turies m _h pass$ away be=e a g5u9ely philosophic intellect1 tra9$ by a full /udy ( ,ari/otle1 und]took to give complete sci5tific =m to ! e?ical doctr9e ( ! ,ca?olic *ur*4 ,be=e1 h[ev]1 we take a brief survey ( ! progress ( sy/ematic e?ics f ,ambrose to ,?omas ,aqu9as1 x may be well to exam9e ! *ief features ( ! new moral consci\sness t _h spread ?r\gh ,graeco-,roman civilization1 & 0 await+ philosophic syn!sis4 ,x w be conv5i5t to consid] fir/ ! new =m or univ]sal *>act]i/ics ( ,*ri/ian morality1 & aft]w>ds to note ! *ief po9ts 9 ! matt] or p>ticul>s ( duty & virtue :i* receiv$ developm5t or emphasis f ! new religion4 ,*ri/ian & ,jewi% law ( ,god4 ,! fir/ po9t to be notic$ is ! new conception ( morality z ! positive law ( a !ocratic community possess+ a writt5 code impos$ by div9e revelation1 & sanction$ by div9e promises & ?reat5+s4 ,x is true t we f9d 9 anci5t ?\ght1 f ,socrates d[nw>ds1 ! notion ( a law ( ,god1 et]nal & immutable1 p>tly express$ & p>tly obscur$ by ! %ift+ codes & cu/oms ( actual human societies4 ,b ! sanctions ( ?is law 7 vaguely &1 = ! mo/ "p1 feebly imag9$2 its pr9ciples 7 ess5tially unwritt51 & ?us ref]r$ n to ! ext]nal w ( an ,almighty ,be+ :o claim$ unque/ion+ submission1 b r to ! reason t gods & m5 %>$1 by ! ex]cise ( :i* alone !y c\ld be adequately kn[n & def9$4 ,h5ce1 ev5 if ! notion ( law _h be5 m prom95t ?an x 0 9 anci5t e?ical ?\ght1 x c\ld nev] h l$ to a juridical1 z di/9ct f a philosophical1 treatm5t ( morality4 ,9 ,*ri/ianity1 on ! o!r h&1 we e>ly f9d t ! me?od ( morali/s det]m9+ "r conduct is to a great ext5t analog\s to t ( juris-consults int]pret+ a code4 ,x is assum$ t div9e comm&s h be5 implicitly giv5 = all occasions ( life1 & t !y are to be asc]ta9$ 9 p>ticul> cases by int]pretation ( ! g5]al rules obta9$ f texts ( scripture1 & by inf]5ce f scriptural examples4 ,?is juridical me?od desc5d$ naturally f ! ,jewi% !ocracy1 ( :i* ,*ri/5dom 0 a univ]salization4 ,moral insight1 9 ! view ( ! mo/ ?\ghtful ,jews ( ! age imm$iately prec$+ ,*ri/ianity1 0 conceiv$ z k ( a div9e code1 emanat+ f an au?ority ext]nal to human reason :i* _h only ! function ( int]pret+ & apply+ its rules4 ,?is law 0 d]iv$ p>tly f ,moses1 p>tly f ! utt]ances ( ! lat] prophets1 p>tly f oral tradition & f ! comm5t>ies & supplem5t>y maxims ( g5]ations ( /ud5ts4 ,*ri/ianity inh]it$ ! notion ( a writt5 div9e code ackn[l$g$ z su* by ! true ,israel--n[ pot5tially includ+ ! :ole ( mank9d1 or at lea/ ! *os5 ( all nations1--on ! s9c]e acceptance ( :i* ! ,*ri/ian's %>e ( ! div9e promises to ,israel dep5d$4 ,& ?\gh ! c]emonial "p ( ! old ,hebrew code 0 altoge!r reject$1 & ) x all ! supplem5t>y jurisprud5ce re/+ on tradition & erudite comm5t>y1 /ill ,god's law 0 believ$ to be conta9$ 9 ! sacr$ books ( ! ,jews1 supplem5t$ by ! tea*+ ( ,*ri/ & 8 apo/les4 ,by ! recognition ( ?is law ! *ur* 0 con/itut$ z an ord]$ community1 ess5tially di/9ct f ! ,/ate2 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two 0 emphasiz$ by ! )drawal ( ! e>ly ,*ri/ians f civic life1 to avoid ! p]=mance ( idolatr\s c]emonies impos$ z (ficial expressions ( loyalty1 & by ! p]secutions :i* !y _h to endure1 :5 ! spread ( an association app>5tly s ho/ile to ! framework ( anci5t society _h at l5g? al>m$ ! imp]ial gov]nm5t4 ,nor 0 ! di/9ction oblit]at$ by ! recognition ( ,*ri/ianity z ! /ate religion "u ,con/ant9e4 ,?us ! jural =m 9 :i* morality 0 conceiv$ only emphasiz$ ! fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 x & ! laws ( ! /ate4 ,! ultimate sanctions ( ! moral code 7 ! inf9ite rew>ds & puni%m5ts await+ ! immortal s\l h]eaft]2 b ! *ur* e>ly felt ! necessity ( )draw+ ! privileges ( memb]%ip f apo/ates & all[+ !m to be gradually rega9$ only by a solemn c]emonial expressive ( rep5tance1 protract$ ?r\gh sev]al ye>s4 ,?is =mal & regulat$ p5it5ce 0 ext5d$ f apo/asy to o!r grave--or1 z !y 7 subsequ5tly call$1 deadly--s9s2 :ile = m9or (f5ces all ,*ri/ians 7 call$ ^u to express contrition by fa/+ & ab/95ce f ord9>ily p]mitt$ pleasures1 z well z v]bally 9 public & private devotions4 ,excommunication & p5ance ?us came to be temporal ecclesia/ical sanctions ( ! moral law4 ,z ! graduation ( ^! sanctions naturally became m m9ute1 a correspond+ly detail$ classification ( (f5ces 0 r5d]$ necess>y1 & ?us a sy/em ( ecclesia/ical jurisprud5ce 0 gradually produc$1 some:at analog\s to t ( ,judaism4 ,at ! same "t ?is t5d5cy to make prom95t a s*eme ( ext]nal duties has always be5 c\nt]act$ 9 ,*ri/ianity by ! remembrance ( its orig9al anti!sis to ,jewi% legalism4 ,we f9d t ?is anti!sis1 z exagg]at$ by "s ( ! ,gno/ic sects ( ! #bnd & #crd c5turies ,a4,d41 l$1 n m]ely to !oretical ant9omianism1 b ev5 7if ! *>ges ( _! or?odox oppon5ts are n entirely to be discr$it$7 to gross immorality ( conduct4 ,a simil> t5d5cy has %[n itself at o!r p]iods ( *ur* hi/ory4 ,& ?\gh su* ant9omianism has always be5 /]nly repudiat$ by ! moral consci\sness ( ,*ri/5dom1 x has nev] be5 =gott5 t inw>dness1 rightness ( he>t or _s1 is ! pre-em95t *>act]i/ic ( ,*ri/ian goodness4 ,x mu/ n1 ( c\rse1 be suppos$ t ! ne$ ( some?+ m ?an m]e fulfilm5t ( ext]nal duty 0 ignor$ ev5 by ! lat] ,judaism4 ,rabb9ic erudition c\ld n =get ! repression ( vici\s desires 9 ! t5? comm&m5t1 ! /ress laid 9 ,deut]onomy on ! necessity ( s]vice to ,god1 or ! inculcation by lat] prophets ( humility & fai?4 ,! real & only ,ph>isee1 says ! ,talmud1 is he :o does ! w ( 8 ,fa!r because he loves ,him4 ,b x rema9s true t ! contra/ ) ! righte\sness ( ! scribes & ph>isees has always s]v$ to m>k ! requirem5t ( inw>dness z a di/9ctive feature ( ! ,*ri/ian code--an inw>dness n m]ely negative1 t5d+ to ! repression ( vici\s desires z well z vici\s acts1 b also involv+ a positive rectitude ( ! inn] /ate ( ! s\l4 ,*ri/ian & ,pagan inw>dness4 ,fai?4 ,9 ?is aspect ,*ri/ianity invites comp>ison ) ,/oicism1 & inde$ ) pagan e?ical philosophy g5]ally1 if we except ! h$oni/ic s*ools4 ,rightness ( purpose1 pref]5ce ( virtue = its own sake1 suppression ( vici\s desires1 7 made ess5tial po9ts by ! ,ari/otelians1 :o atta*$ ! mo/ importance to outw>d circum/ances 9 _! view ( virtue1 no less ?an by ! ,/oics1 to :om all outw>d ?+s 7 indiff]5t4 ,! fundam5tal diff]5ces betwe5 pagan & ,*ri/ian e?ics dep5d n on any diff]5ce 9 ! value set on rightness ( he>t1 b on diff]5t views ( ! ess5tial =m or conditions ( ?is inw>d rightness4 ,9 nei!r case is x pres5t$ purely & simply z moral rectitude4 ,by ! pagan philosoph]s x 0 always conceiv$ "u ! =m ( ,k or ,wisdom1 x be+ inconceivable to all ! s*ools sprung f ,socrates t a man c\ld truly "k 8 own good & yet delib]ately *oose any?+ else4 ,?is k1 z ,ari/otle held1 might be p]man5tly preclud$ by vici\s habits1 or tempor>ily oblit]at$ by passion1 b if pres5t 9 ! m9d x mu/ produce rightness ( purpose4 ,or ev5 if x 7 held ) "s ( ! ,/oics t true wisdom 0 out ( ! rea* ( ! be/ m5 actually liv+1 x none ! less rema9$ ! ideal condition ( p]fect human life4 ,by ,*ri/ian tea*]s1 on ! o!r h&1 ! inn] spr+s ( good conduct 7 g5]ally conceiv$ z ,fai? & ,love4 ,( ^! notions ! =m] has a some:at complex e?ical import2 x seems to bl5d sev]al elem5ts diff]5tly prom95t 9 diff]5t m9ds4 ,its simple/ & commone/ mean+ is t emphasiz$ 9 ! contra/ ( fai? ) sight2 :]e x signifies belief 9 ! invisible div9e ord] repres5t$ by ! *ur*1 9 ! actuality ( ! law1 ! ?reats1 ! promises ( ,god1 9 spite ( all ! influ5ces 9 man's natural life t t5d to obscure ?is belief4 ,out ( ?is contra/ !re ultimately grew an ess5tially diff]5t opposition betwe5 fai? & k or reason1 accord+ to :i* ! !ological basis ( e?ics 0 contra/$ ) ! philosophical2 ! !ologians ma9ta9+ sometimes t ! div9e law is ess5tially arbitr>y1 ! expression ( w1 n reason2 m frequ5tly t its reasonabl5ess is inscrutable1 & t actual human reason %\ld conf9e itself to exam9+ ! cr$5tials ( ,god's mess5g]s1 & n ! message itself4 ,b 9 e>ly ,*ri/ianity ?is latt] anti!sis 0 z yet undevelop$2 fai? means simply =ce 9 cl++ to moral & religi\s conviction1 :atev] _! rational gr\nds may be2 ?is =ce1 9 ! ,*ri/ian consci\sness1 be+ insep>ably b\nd up ) p]sonal loyalty & tru/ t[>ds ,*ri/1 ! lead] 9 ! battle ) evil1 ! rul] ( ! k+dom to be realiz$4 ,s f>1 h[ev]1 !re is no e?ical diff]5ce betwe5 ,*ri/ian fai? & t ( ,judaism1 or its lat] imitation1 ,mahomm$anism2 except t ! p]sonal affection ( loyal tru/ is peculi>ly /irr$ by ! bl5d+ ( human & div9e natures 9 ,*ri/1 & ! rule ( duty impressively taught by ! manife/ation ( 8 p]fect life4 ,a m di/9ctively ,*ri/ian1 & a m deeply moral1 significance is giv5 to ! notion 9 ! anti!sis ( fai? & works4 ,"h fai? means m ?an loyal acceptance ( ! div9e law & rev]5t tru/ 9 ! lawgiv]2 x implies a consci\sness1 at once cont9ually pres5t & cont9ually transc5d$1 ( ! radical imp]fection ( all human ob$i5ce to ! law1 & at ! same "t ( ! irremissible condemnation :i* ?is imp]fection entails4 ,! ,/oic doctr9e ( ! wor?lessness ( ord9>y human virtue1 & ! /]n p>adox t all (f5d]s are equally1 9 s f> z all are absolutely1 guilty1 f9d _! c\nt]p>ts 9 ,*ri/ianity2 b ! latt] 7ma9ta9+ ?is ideal sev]ity 9 ! moral /&>d1 ) an emotional consci\sness ( :at is involv$ 9 x q unlike t ( ! ,/oic7 ov]comes its practical exclusiv5ess ?r\gh fai?4 ,?is fai?1 aga91 may be conceiv$ 9 two modes1 ess5tially di/9ct ?\gh usually comb9$4 ,9 "o view x gives ! believ] /r5g? to atta91 by ,god's sup]natural aid or grace1 a goodness ( :i* he is naturally incapable2 9 ! o!r view x gives him an assurance t1 ?\gh he kn[s himself a s9n] des]v+ ( utt] condemnation1 a p]fectly j ,god /ill reg>ds him ) fav\r on acc\nt ( ! p]fect s]vices & suff]+ ( ,*ri/4 ,( ^! views ! =m] is ! m ca?olic1 m univ]sally pres5t 9 ! ,*ri/ian consci\sness2 ! latt] m deeply p5etrates ! my/]y ( ! ,atonem5t1 z exp\nd$ 9 ! ,paul9e epi/les4 ,love4 ,purity4 ,b fai?1 h[ev] und]/ood1 is r an indisp5sable pre-requisite ?an ! ess5tial motive pr9ciple ( ,*ri/ian good conduct4 ,?is motive is suppli$ by ! o!r c5tral notion1 love4 ,on love dep5ds ! fulfill+ ( ! law1 & ! sole moral value ( ,*ri/ian duty--t is1 on love to ,god1 9 ! fir/ place1 :i* 9 its fulle/ developm5t mu/ spr+ f ,*ri/ian fai?2 &1 secondly1 love to all mank9d1 z ! objects ( div9e love & %>]s 9 ! humanity ennobl$ by ! inc>nation4 ,?is d]ivative philan?ropy *>act]izes ! _s 9 :i* all ,*ri/ian p]=mance ( social duty is to be done2 lov+ devotion to ,god be+ ! fundam5tal attitude ( m9d t is to be ma9ta9$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! ,*ri/ian's life4 ,b fur!r1 z reg>ds ab/95ce f unlawful acts & desires prompt+ to !m1 we h to notice ano!r =m 9 :i* ! inw>dness ( ,*ri/ian morality manife/s itself1 :i*1 ?\gh less di/9ctive1 %\ld yet receive att5tion 9 any comp>ison ( ,*ri/ian e?ics ) ! view ( ,graeco-,roman philosophy4 ,! pr(\nd horror ) :i* ! ,*ri/ian's conception ( a suff]+ z well z an av5g+ div9ity t5d$ to make him reg>d all condemnable acts 0 t+$ ) a s5tim5t :i* we may p]haps describe z a c]emonial av]sion moraliz$--! av]sion1 t is1 to f\lness or impurity4 ,9 ,judaism1 z 9 o!r1 especially ,ori5tal1 religions1 ! natural dislike ( mat]ial defilem5t has be5 elevat$ into a religi\s s5tim5t1 & made to support a complicat$ sy/em ( quasi-sanit>y ab/95ces & c]emonial purifications2 !n1 z ! e?ical elem5t pr$om9at$ 9 ! ,jewi% religion1 a moral symbolism 0 felt to reside 9 ! c]emonial code1 & ?us av]sion to impurity came to be a common =m ( ! e?ico-religi\s s5tim5t4 ,!n1 :5 ,*ri/ianity ?rew (f ! ,mosaic ritual1 ?is religi\s s5se ( purity 0 left ) no o!r sph]e besides morality2 :ile1 f its highly idealiz$ "*1 x 0 peculi>ly well adapt$ = t repression ( vici\s desires :i* ,*ri/ianity claim$ z its special function4 ,di/9ctive p>ticul>s ( ,*ri/ian morality4 ,! di/9ctive features ( ,*ri/ian e?ics are ob$i5ce1 unworldl9ess1 b5evol5ce1 purity & humility4 ,!y are naturally connect$ ) ! m g5]al *>act]i/ics j /at$2 ?\gh _m ( !m may also be ref]r$ directly to ! example & precepts ( ,*ri/1 & 9 sev]al cases !y are cle>ly due to bo? causes1 insep>ably comb9$4 #a4 ,we may notice1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! conception ( morality z a code :i*1 if n 9 itself arbitr>y1 is yet to be accept$ by m5 ) unque/ion+ submission1 t5ds naturally to br+ into prom95ce ! virtue ( ob$i5ce to au?ority2 j z ! philosophic view ( goodness z ! realization ( reason gives a special value to self-det]m9ation & indep5d5ce 7z we see m cle>ly 9 ! po/-,ari/otelian s*ools :]e e?ics is di/9ctly sep>at$ f politics74 #b4 ,aga91 ! opposition betwe5 ! natural _w & ! spiritual ord] into :i* ! ,*ri/ian has be5 born anew l$ n m]ely to a contempt equal to t ( ! ,/oic = weal?1 fame1 p[]1 & o!r objects ( worldly pursuit1 b also1 = "s "t at lea/1 to a comp>ative depreciation ( ! dome/ic & civic relations ( ! natural man4 ,?is t5d5cy 0 exhibit$ mo/ simply & g5]ally 9 ! e>lie/ p]iod ( ! *ur*'s hi/ory4 ,9 ! view ( primitive ,*ri/ians1 ord9>y human society 0 a _w tempor>ily surr5d]$ to ,satanic rule1 ov] :i* a swift & sudd5 de/ruction 0 imp5d+2 9 su* a _w ! little b& :o 7 ga!r$ 9 ! ark ( ! *ur* c\ld h no "p or lot1--! only attitude !y c\ld ma9ta9 0 t ( passive ali5ation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x 0 difficult practically to realize ?is ali5ation1 & a ke5 s5se ( ?is difficulty induc$ ! same ho/ility to ! body z a clog & h9drance1 t we f9d to "s ext5t 9 ,plato1 b m fully develop$ 9 ,neoplatonism1 ,neopy?agoreanism1 & o!r products ( ! m+l+ ( ,greek ) ,ori5tal ?\ght4 ,?is feel+ is exhibit$ 9 ! value set on fa/+ 9 ! ,*ri/ian *ur* f ! e>lie/ times1 & 9 an extreme =m 9 ! self-torm5ts ( lat] mona/icism2 :ile bo? t5d5cies1 anti-worldl9ess & anti-s5sualism1 seem to h comb9$ 9 caus+ ! pref]5ce ( celibacy ov] m>riage :i* is common to mo/ e>ly ,*ri/ian writ]s4#af ,patriotism1 aga91 & ! s5se ( civic duty1 ! mo/ elevat$ ( all social s5tim5ts 9 ! ,graeco-,roman civilization1 t5d$1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,*ri/ianity1 ei!r to exp& itself into univ]sal philan?ropy1 or to conc5trate itself on ! ecclesia/ical community4 ,we recognize "o commonweal?1 ! _w1 says ,t]tullian2 we "k1 says ,orig51 t we h a fa!rl& f\nd$ by ! ^w ( ,god4 ,we might fur!r d]ive f ! g5]al _s ( ,*ri/ian unworldl9ess t repudiation ( ! secul> modes ( conflict1 ev5 9 a righte\s cause1 :i* sub/itut$ a passive pati5ce & endurance = ! old pagan virtue ( c\rage1 9 :i* ! active elem5t 0 prom95t4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 we cle>ly trace ! influ5ce ( ,*ri/'s express prohibition ( viol5t resi/ance to viol5ce1 & 8 inculcation1 by example & precept1 ( a love t 0 to conqu] ev5 natural res5tm5t4 ,an extreme result ( ?is influ5ce is %[n 9 ,t]tullian's view1 t no ,*ri/ian c\ld prop]ly hold ! (fice ( a secul> magi/rate 9 :i* he w\ld h to doom to dea?1 *a9s1 imprisonm5t2 b ev5 m sob] writ]s1 su* z ,ambrose1 ext5d ,*ri/ian passivity s f> z to preclude self-def5ce ev5 aga9/ a murd]\s assault4 ,! common s5se ( ,*ri/5dom gradually %ook (f ^! extravagances2 b ! reluctance to %$ blood l+]$ long1 & 0 h>dly ext+ui%$ ev5 by ! gr[+ horror ( h]esy4 ,we h a curi\s relic ( ?is 9 ! lat] times ( ecclesia/ical p]secution1 :5 ! h]etic 0 doom$ to ! /ake t he might be puni%$ 9 "s mann] %ort ( blood%$4#ag ,b5evol5ce4 #c4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 9 ! impulse giv5 to practical b5efic5ce 9 all its =ms1 by ! exaltation ( love z ! root ( all virtues1 t ! mo/ important influ5ce ( ,*ri/ianity on ! p>ticul>s ( civiliz$ morality is to be f\nd2 al?\gh ! exact am\nt ( ?is influ5ce is "h some:at difficult to asc]ta91 s9ce x m]ely c>ries fur!r a developm5t traceable 9 ! hi/ory ( pagan morality4 ,?is developm5t appe>s :5 we comp>e ! diff]5t po/-,socratic sy/ems ( e?ics4 ,9 ,plato's exposition ( ! diff]5t virtues !re is no m5tion :atev] ( b5evol5ce1 al?\gh 8 writ+s %[ a ke5 s5se ( ! importance ( fri5d%ip z an elem5t ( philosophic life1 especially ( ! int5se p]sonal affection naturally aris+ betwe5 ma/] & disciple4 ,ari/otle goes some:at fur!r 9 recogniz+ ! moral value ( fri5d%ip ,greek3 7philia72 & ?\gh he consid]s t 9 its highe/ =m x c be realiz$ only by ! fell[%ip ( ! wise & good1 he yet ext5ds ! notion s z to include ! dome/ic affections1 & takes notice ( ! importance ( mutual k9dness 9 b9d+ toge!r all human societies4 ,/ill 9 8 =mal /atem5t ( ! diff]5t virtues1 positive b5efic5ce is disc]nible only "u ! notion ( lib]ality1 9 :i* =m its excell5ce is h>dly di/+ui%$ f t ( graceful pr(usion 9 self-reg>d+ exp5diture 7,nic4 ,e?4 iv4 #a74 ,cic]o1 on ! o!r h&1 9 8 p>aphrase ( a ,/oic treatise on ext]nal duties 7,de (ficiis71 ranks ! r5d]+ ( positive s]vices to o!r m5 z a *ief dep>tm5t ( social duty2 & ! ,/oics g5]ally recogniz$ ! univ]sal fell[%ip & natural mutual claims ( human be+s z su*4 ,inde$1 ?is recognition 9 lat] ,/oicism is sometimes express$ ) s mu* w>m? ( feel+ z to be h>dly di/+ui%able f ,*ri/ian philan?ropy4 ,nor 0 ?is reg>d = humanity m]ely a doctr9e ( ! s*ool4 ,p>tly ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ,/oic & o!r ,greek philosophy1 p>tly f ! natural expansion ( human sympa?ies1 ! legislation ( ! ,empire1 dur+ ! fir/ ?ree c5turies1 %[s a /eady developm5t 9 ! direction ( natural ju/ice & humanity2 & "s simil> progress may be trac$ 9 ! g5]al tone ( moral op9ion4 ,/ill ! utmo/ po9t t ?is developm5t rea*$ fell consid]ably %ort ( ! /&>d ( ,*ri/ian *>ity4 ,)\t dwell+ on ! imm5se impetus giv5 to ! practice ( social duty g5]ally by ! religion t made b5efic5ce a =m ( div9e s]vice1 & id5tifi$ piety ) pity1 we h to put d[n z def9ite *anges introduc$ by ,*ri/ianity--7#a7 ! sev]e condemnation & f9al suppression ( ! practice ( expos+ infants2 7#b7 effective abhorr5ce ( ! b>b>ism ( gladiatorial combats2 7#c7 imm$iate moral mitigation ( slav]y1 & a /rong enc\ragem5t ( emancipation2 7#d7 great ext5sion ( ! eleemosyn>y provision made = ! sick & ! poor4 ,z reg>ds almsgiv+1 h[ev]--! importance ( :i* has caus$ x to usurp1 9 mod]n languages1 ! g5]al "n ( *>ity--x ought to be obs]v$ t ,*ri/ianity m]ely univ]saliz$ a duty :i* has always be5 inculcat$ by ,judaism1 )9 ! limits ( ! *os5 p4 #d4 ,! same may be said ( ! /rict] regulation :i* ,*ri/ianity en=c$ on ! relations ( ! sexes2 except s f> z ! prohibition ( divorce is conc]n$1 & ! /ress laid on purity ( he>t z contra/$ ) m]ely outw>d *a/ity4 #e4 ,ev5 ! peculi>ly ,*ri/ian virtue ( humility1 :i* pres5ts s /rik+ a contra/ to ! ,greek highm9d$ness1 0 to "s ext5t anticipat$ 9 ! ,rabb9ic tea*+4 ,its f> great] prom95ce "u ! new disp5sation may be p>tly ref]r$ to ! express tea*+ & example ( ,*ri/2 p>tly1 9 s f> z ! virtue is manife/$ 9 ! r5unciation ( ext]nal rank & dignity1 or ! glory ( m]ely secul> gifts & acquirem5ts1 x is "o aspect ( ! unworldl9ess :i* we h already notic$2 :ile ! deep] humility t represses ! claim ( p]sonal m]it ev5 9 ! sa9t belongs to ! /rict self-exam9ation1 ! cont9ual s5se ( imp]fection1 ! utt] reliance on /r5g? n 8 own1 :i* *>act]ize ! inn] moral life ( ! ,*ri/ian4 ,humility 9 ?is latt] s5se1 be=e ,god1 is an ess5tial condition ( all truly ,*ri/ian goodness4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 yet to notice ! enl>gem5t ( ! sph]e ( e?ics due to its close connexion ) !ology2 = :ile ?is add$ religi\s =ce & sanction to ord9>y moral obligations1 x equally t5d$ to imp>t a moral aspect to religi\s belief & wor%ip4 ,duty to ,god--z di/9ct f duty to man--_h n be5 altoge!r unrecogniz$ by pagan morali/s2 b ! r dubi\s relations ( ev5 ! m or?odox philosophy to ! e/abli%$ poly!ism _h g5]ally prev5t$ !m f lay+ mu* /ress ^u x4 ,aga91--j z ! ,/oics held wisdom to be indisp5sable to real rectitude ( conduct1 :ile at ! same "t !y includ$ "u ! notion ( wisdom a grasp ( physical z well z e?ical tru?1--s ! simil> emphasis laid on inw>dness 9 ,*ri/ian e?ics caus$ or?odoxy or correctness ( religi\s belief to be reg>d$ z ess5tial to goodness1 & h]esy z ! mo/ fatal ( vices1 corrupt+ z x did ! v spr+s ( ,*ri/ian life4 ,to ! philosoph]s 7) ! s+le exception ( ,plato71 h[ev]1 conv9c$ z !y 7 t ! multitude mu/ necess>ily miss true well-be+ ?r\gh _! folly & ignorance1 x c\ld nev] occur to gu>d aga9/ ^! evils by any o!r me?od ?an t ( provid+ philosophic in/ruction = ! few2 :]eas ! ,*ri/ian cl]gy1 ^: function x 0 to (f] tru? & et]nal life to all mank9d1 naturally reg>d$ !ological misbelief z insidi\s prev5tible contagion4 ,inde$1 _! s5se ( its deadl9ess 0 s ke5 t1 :5 !y 7 at l5g? able to control ! secul> adm9i/ration1 !y rapidly ov]came _! av]sion to blood%$1 & initiat$ t long s]ies ( religi\s p]secutions to :i* we f9d no p>allel 9 ! pre-,*ri/ian civilization ( ,europe4 ,x 0 n t ,*ri/ian writ]s did n feel ! difficulty ( attribut+ crim9ality to s9c]e ignorance or error4 ,b ! difficulty is n really peculi> to !ology2 & ! !ologians usually got ov] x 7z "s philosoph]s _h surm\nt$ a simil> p]plexity 9 ! region ( e?ics prop]7 by suppos+ "s lat5t or antec$5t volunt>y s91 ( :i* ! app>5tly involunt>y h]esy 0 ! fe>ful fruit4 ,la/ly1 we mu/ obs]ve t1 9 proportion z ! legal conception ( morality z a code ( :i* ! violation des]ves sup]natural puni%m5t pr$om9at$ ov] ! philosophic view ( e?ics z ! me?od = atta9+ natural felicity1 ! "q ( man's fre$om ( w to obey ! law necess>ily became prom95t4 ,at ! same "t x _c be broadly said t ,*ri/ianity took a decisive side 9 ! metaphysical controv]sy on free-w & necessity2 s9ce1 j z 9 ,greek philosophy ! ne$ ( ma9ta9+ fre$om z ! gr\nd ( responsibility cla%es ) ! conviction t no "o delib]ately *ooses 8 own h>m1 s 9 ,*ri/ian e?ics x cla%es ) ! attribution ( all true human virtue to sup]natural grace1 z well z ) ! belief 9 div9e =ekn[l$ge4 ,all we c say is t 9 ! developm5t ( ,*ri/ian ?\ght ! conflict ( conceptions 0 f> m pr(\ndly felt1 & f> m s]i\s ef=ts 7 made to evade or transc5d x4 ,developm5t ( op9ion 9 e>ly ,*ri/ianity4 ,augu/9e4 ,9 ! prec$+ acc\nt ( ,*ri/ian morality1 x has be5 already indicat$ t ! *>act]i/ics del9eat$ did n all exhibit !mselves simultane\sly to ! same ext5t1 or ) p]fect uni=mity ?r\gh\t ! *ur*4 ,*anges 9 ! ext]nal condition ( ,*ri/ianity1 ! diff]5t degrees ( civilization 9 ! societies ( :i* x 0 ! dom9ant religion1 & ! natural process ( int]nal developm5t1 cont9ually br\ght diff]5t features into prom95ce2 :ile aga91 ! important antagonisms ( op9ion )9 ,*ri/5dom frequ5tly involv$ e?ical issues--ev5 9 ! ,ea/]n ,*ur*--until 9 ! #d? c5tury x began to be absorb$ 9 ! lab\r ( a dogmatic con/ruction4 ,?us1 = example1 ! anti-secul> t5d5cies ( ! new cre$1 to :i* ,t]tullian 7#afj-bbj7 gave viol5t & rigid expression1 7 exagg]at$ 9 ! ,montani/ h]esy :i* he ultimately jo9$2 on ! o!r h&1 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria1 9 opposition to ! g5]al tone ( 8 age1 ma9ta9$ ! value ( pagan philosophy = ! developm5t ( ,*ri/ian fai? into true k 7,gnosis71 & ! value ( ! natural developm5t ( man ?r\gh m>riage = ! normal p]fect+ ( ! ,*ri/ian life4 ,s aga91 !re is a m>k$ diff]5ce betwe5 ! writ]s be=e ,augu/9e & ^? t succe$$ him 9 all t conc]ns ! int]nal conditions ( ,*ri/ian morality4 ,by ,ju/9 & o!r apologi/s ! ne$ ( r$emption1 fai?1 grace is inde$ recogniz$1 b ! !ological sy/em dep5d+ on ^! notions is n suffici5tly develop$#ah to come into ev5 app>5t antagonism ) ! fre$om ( ! w4 ,*ri/ianity is = ! mo/ "p conceiv$ z ess5tially a proclamation ?r\gh ! ,div9e ,^w1 to immortal be+s gift$ ) free *oice1 ( ! true code ( conduct sanction$ by et]nal rew>ds & puni%m5ts4 ,?is legalism contra/s /rik+ly ) ! ef=ts ( pagan philosophy to exhibit virtue z its own rew>d2 & ! contra/ is triumphantly po9t$ out by m ?an "o e>ly ,*ri/ian writ]4 ,lactantius 7circa #cjj ,a4,d471 = example1 r\ndly decl>es t ,plato & ,ari/otle1 ref]r+ ev]y?+ to ?is e>?ly life1 made virtue m]e folly2 ?\gh himself ma9ta9+1 ) p>donable inconsi/5cy1 t man's highe/ good did n consi/ 9 m]e pleasure1 b 9 ! consci\sness ( ! filial relation ( ! s\l to ,god4 ,x is pla91 h[ev]1 t on ?is ext]nal legali/ic view ( duty x 0 impossible to ma9ta9 a diff]5ce 9 k9d betwe5 ,*ri/ian & pagan morality2 ! philosoph]'s con=mity to ! rules ( *a/ity & b5efic5ce1 s f> z x w5t1 0 indi/+ui%able f ! sa9t's4 ,b :5 ?is inf]5ce 0 develop$ 9 ! tea*+ ( ,pelagius1 x 0 repudiat$ z h]etical by ! *ur*1 "u ! p[]ful lead]%ip ( ,augu/9e 7#ced-dcj72 & ! doctr9e ( man's incapacity to obey ,god's law by 8 unaid$ moral en]gy 0 press$ to a po9t at :i* x 0 difficult to reconcile x ) ! fre$om ( ! w4 ,augu/9e is fully aw>e ( ! !oretical indisp5sability ( ma9ta9+ ,free ,w1 f its logical connexion ) human responsibility & div9e ju/ice2 b he consid]s t ^! latt] po9ts are suffici5tly secur$ if actual fre$om ( *oice betwe5 good & evil is all[$ 9 ! s+le case ( our prog5itor ,adam4#ai ,= s9ce ! natura sem9alis f :i* all m5 7 to arise already exi/$ 9 ,adam1 9 8 volunt>y pref]5ce ( self to ,god1 humanity *ose evil once = all2 = :i* ante-natal guilt all m5 are ju/ly condemn$ to p]petual absolute s9fulness & consequ5t puni%m5t1 unless !y are elect$ by ,god's unm]it$ grace to %>e ! b5efits ( ,*ri/'s r$emption4 ,)\t ?is grace x is impossible = man to obey ! fir/ greate/ comm&m5t ( love to ,god2 &1 ?is unfulfill$1 he is guilty ( ! :ole law1 & is only free to *oose betwe5 degrees ( s92 8 app>5t ext]nal virtues h no moral value1 s9ce inn] rightness ( int5tion is want+4 ,all t is n ( fai? is ( s92 & fai? & love are mutually involv$ & insep>able2 fai? spr+s f ! div9ely imp>t$ g]m ( love1 :i* 9 its turn is develop$ by fai? to its full /r5g?1 :ile f bo? unit$ spr+s hope1 joyful ye>n+ t[>ds ultimate p]fect fruition ( ! object ( love4 ,^! ?ree ,augu/9e 7aft] ,/ ,paul7 reg>ds z ! ?ree ess5tial elem5ts ( ,*ri/ian virtue2 along ) ^! he recognizes ! f\rfold division ( virtue into prud5ce1 temp]ance1 c\rage & ju/ice accord+ to _! traditional int]pretation2 b he expla9s ^! virtues to be 9 _! true natures only ! same love to ,god 9 diff]5t aspects or ex]cises4 ,! uncompromis+ my/icism ( ?is view may be at once comp>$ & contra/$ ) ! philosophical sev]ity ( ,/oicism4 ,love ( ,god 9 ! =m] holds ! same absolute & unique position z ! sole elem5t ( moral wor? 9 human action1 :i*1 z we h se51 0 occupi$ by k ( ,good 9 ! latt]2 & we may c>ry ! p>allel fur!r by obs]v+ t 9 nei!r case is ?is sev]ity 9 ! ab/ract e/imate ( goodness necess>ily connect$ ) extreme rigidity 9 practical precepts4 ,inde$1 an important "p ( ,augu/9e's "w z a morali/ lies 9 ! reconciliation :i* he lab\r$ to effect betwe5 ! anti-worldly _s ( ,*ri/ianity & ! necessities ( secul> civilization4 ,= example1 we f9d him argu+ = ! legitimacy ( judicial puni%m5ts & milit>y s]vice aga9/ an ov]-lit]al int]pretation ( ! ,s]mon on ! ,m\nt2 & he took an important "p 9 giv+ curr5cy to ! di/9ction betwe5 evangelical c\nsels & comm&s1 & s def5d+ ! life ( m>riage & temp]ate enjoym5t ( natural good aga9/ ! attacks ( ! m extravagant advocate ( celibacy & self-abnegation2 al?\gh he fully admitt$ ! sup]iority ( ! latt] me?od ( avoid+ ! contam9ation ( s94 ,ambrose4 ,! attempt to ,*ri/ianize ! old ,platonic li/ ( virtues1 :i* we h notic$ 9 ,augu/9e's sy/em1 0 probably due to ! influ5ce ( 8 ma/] ,ambrose1 9 ^: treatise ,de (ficiis m9i/rorum we f9d = ! fir/ "t an exposition ( ,*ri/ian duty sy/ematiz$ on a plan borr[$ f a pre-,*ri/ian morali/4 ,x is int]e/+ to comp>e ,ambrose's acc\nt ( :at subsequ5tly came to be kn[n z ! f\r c>d9al virtues ) ! correspond+ del9eations 9 ,cic]o's#bj ,de (ficiis :i* s]v$ ! bi%op z a model4 ,*ri/ian ,wisdom1 s f> z x is speculative1 is ( c\rse prim>ily !ological2 x has ,god1 z ! highe/ tru?1 = its *ief object1 & is !re=e necess>ily gr\nd$ on fai?4 ,*ri/ian ,=titude is ess5tially firmness 9 )/&+ ! s$uctions ( good & evil =tune1 resolut5ess 9 ! conflict p]petually wag$ aga9/ wick$ness )\t c>nal weapons--?\gh ,ambrose1 ) ! ,old ,te/am5t 9 8 h&1 w n q rel9qui% ! ord9>y m>tial application ( ! t]m4 ,temp]antia reta9s ! mean+ ( obs]vance ( due measure 9 all conduct1 :i* x _h 9 ,cic]o's treatise2 ?\gh its notion is p>tly modifi$ by be+ bl5d$ ) ! new] virtue ( humility4 ,f9ally 9 ! exposition ( ,*ri/ian ,ju/ice ! ,/oic doctr9e ( ! natural union ( all human int]e/s is elevat$ to ! full height & int5sity ( evangelical philan?ropy2 ! bre?r5 are rem9d$ t ! e>? 0 made by ,god a common possession ( all1 & are bidd5 to adm9i/] _! means = ! common b5efit2 ,ambrose1 we %\ld obs]ve1 is ?or\ghly aw>e ( ! fundam5tal union ( ^! diff]5t virtues 9 ,*ri/ianity1 ?\gh he does n1 l ,augu/9e1 resolve !m all into ! "o c5tral affection ( love ( ,god4 ,ecclesia/ical morality 9 ! ,d>k ,ages4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ,ambrose & ,augu/9e1 ! f\r c>d9al virtues furni%$ a basis on :i* ! sy/ematic e?ical !ories ( subsequ5t !ologians 7 built4 ,) !m ! triad ( ,*ri/ian graces1 ,fai?1 ,hope & ,love1 & ! sev5 gifts ( ! ,_s 7,isaiah xi4 #b7 7 (t5 comb9$4 ,9 anti!sis to ?is li/1 an enum]ation ( ! deadly s9s obta9$ curr5cy4 ,^! 7 at fir/ commonly reckon$ z eight2 b a pref]5ce = my/ical numb]s *>act]i/ic ( m$ieval !ologians f9ally r$uc$ !m to sev54 ,! /atem5t ( !m is v>i\sly giv51--,pride1 ,av>ice1 ,ang]1 ,gluttony1 ,un*a/ity1 are f\nd 9 all ! li/s2 ! rema9+ two 7or ?ree7 are v>i\sly select$ f among ,envy1 ,va+lory1 & ! r s+ul> s9s ,gloom9ess 7tri/itia7 & ,languid ,indiff]5ce 7acidia or ac$ia1 f ,gr4 ,greek3 ak$ia74 ,^! latt] notions %[ pla9ly1 :at inde$ might be inf]r$ f a /udy ( ! li/ z a :ole1 t x repres5ts ! moral exp]i5ce ( ! mona/ic life1 :i* = "s c5turies 0 m & m unque/ion+ly reg>d$ z 9 a peculi> s5se religi\s4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! 7also ,augu/9ian7 di/9ction betwe5 deadly & v5ial s9s _h a te*nical ref]5ce to ! quasi-jural adm9i/ration ( ecclesia/ical discipl9e1 :i* grew gradually m organiz$ z ! spiritual p[] ( ! *ur* e/abli%$ itself amid ! ru9s ( ! ,we/]n empire1 & sl[ly develop$ into ! !ocracy t almo/ dom9at$ ,europe dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! middle ages4 ,deadly s9s 7 ^? = :i* =mal ecclesia/ical p5ance 0 held to be necess>y1 9 ord] to save ! s9n] f et]nal damnation2 = v5ial s9s he might obta9 =giv5ess1 ?r\gh pray]1 almsgiv+1 & ! obs]vance ( ! regul> fa/s4 ,we f9d t p5it5tial books = ! use ( ! confessional1 f\nd$ p>tly on traditional practice & p>tly on ! express decrees ( synods1 come into g5]al use 9 ! #g? c5tury4 ,at fir/ !y are little m ?an m]e inv5tories ( s9s1 ) _! appropriate ecclesia/ical puni%m5ts2 gradually cases ( consci5ce come to be discuss$ & decid$1 & ! basis is laid = t sy/em ( casui/ry :i* rea*$ its full developm5t 9 ! #ad? & #ae? c5turies4 ,?is ecclesia/ical jurisprud5ce1 & inde$ ! g5]al relation ( ! *ur* to ! rud] races ) :i* x _h to deal dur+ ?is p]iod1 necess>ily t5d$ to enc\rage a some:at ext]nal view ( morality4 ,b a p[]ful c\nt]poise to ?is t5d5cy 0 cont9ually ma9ta9$ by ! f]vid inw>dness ( ,augu/9e1 transmitt$ ?r\gh ,gregory ! ,great1 ,isidore ( ,seville1 ,alcu91 ,hrabanus ,maurus1 & o!r writ]s ( ! philosophically b>r5 p]iod betwe5 ! de/ruction ( ! ,we/]n empire & ! rise ( ,s*ola/icism4 ,m$ieval moral philosophy4 ,s*ola/ic e?ics1 l s*ola/ic philosophy1 atta9$ its complete/ result 9 ! tea*+ ( ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,b be=e giv+ a brief acc\nt ( ! e?ical "p ( 8 sy/em1 x w be well to notice ! sali5t po9ts 9 ! long & active discussion t l$ up to x4 ,9 ! pan!i/ic sy/em ( ,erig5a 7q4v47 7circa #haj-hgg7 ! *ief philosophic elem5t is suppli$ by ! influ5ce ( ,plato & ,plot9us1 transmitt$ ?r\gh an unkn[n au?or ( ! #e? c5tury1 :o assum$ ! "n ( ,dionysius ! ,areopagite4 ,accord+ly ! e?ical side ( ?is doctr9e has ! same negative & ascetic "* t we h obs]v$ 9 ,neoplatonism4 ,god is ! only real ,be+2 evil is ess5tially unreal & incognizable2 ! true aim ( man's life is to return to p]fect union ) ,god out ( ! degrad$ mat]ial exi/5ce into :i* he has fall54 ,?is doctr9e f\nd little acceptance among ,erig5a's contempor>ies1 & 0 c]ta9ly unor?odox en\gh to ju/ify ! condemnation :i* x subsequ5tly receiv$ f ,honorius ,,iii42 b its influ5ce1 toge!r ) t ( ! ,pseudo-,dionysius1 _h a consid]able %>e 9 develop+ ! m emotional or?odox my/icism ( ! #ab? & #ac? c5turies2 & ,neoplatonism 7or ,platonism receiv$ ?r\gh a ,neoplatonic tradition7 rema9$ a di/9ct elem5t 9 m$ieval ?\ght1 ?\gh obscur$ 9 ! p]iod ( mature s*ola/icism by ! pr$om9ant influ5ce ( ,ari/otle4 ,pass+ on to ,anselm 7#ajcc-aaji71 we obs]ve t ! ,augu/9ian doctr9e ( orig9al s9 & man's absolute ne$ ( unm]it$ grace is reta9$ 9 8 !ory ( salvation2 he also foll[s ,augu/9e 9 def9+ fre$om z ! p[] n to s92 ?\gh 9 say+ t ,adam fell spontane\sly & by 8 free *oice1 ?\gh n ?r\gh its fre$om1 he has implicitly made ! di/9ction t ,pet] ! ,lomb>d aft]w>ds expressly draws betwe5 ! fre$om t is oppos$ to necessity & fre$om f ! slav]y to s94 ,anselm fur!r s(t5s ! /atem5t ( ,augu/9ian pr$e/9ationism by expla9+ t ! fre$om to w is n /rictly lo/ ev5 by fall5 man2 x is inh]5t 9 a rational nature1 ?\gh s9ce ,adam's s9 x only exi/s pot5tially 9 humanity1 except :]e x is made actual by grace4 ,9 a m real s5se ,abel>d 7#ajgi-aadb7 tries to e/abli% ! connexion betwe5 man's ill des]t & 8 free cons5t4 ,he ass]ts t ! inh]it$ prop5sity to evil is n /rictly a s91 :i* is only committ$ :5 ! consci\s self yields to vici\s incl9ation4 ,) a simil> /ress on ! self-consci\s side ( moral action1 he argues t rightness ( conduct dep5ds solely on ! int5tion1 at "o "t pu%+ ?is doctr9e to ! p>adoxical ass]tion t all outw>d acts z su* are indiff]5t4#ba ,9 ! same _s1 "u ! reviv+ influ5ce ( anci5t philosophy 7) :i*1 h[ev]1 he 0 imp]fectly acqua9t$ & ! relation ( :i* to ,*ri/ianity he extravagantly misund]/ood71 he argues t ! old ,greek morali/s1 z inculcat+ a dis9t]e/$ love ( good--& s implicitly love ( ,god z ! highe/ good--7 really ne>] to ,*ri/ianity ?an ,judaic legalism 04 ,nay1 fur!r1 he requir$ t ! ,*ri/ian love to ,god %\ld be reg>d$ z pure only if purg$ f ! self-reg>d+ desire ( ! happ9ess :i* ,god gives4 ,! g5]al t5d5cy ( ,abel>d's ?\ght 0 suspici\sly reg>d$ by contempor>y or?odoxy2#bb & ! ov]-subtlety ( ! la/-m5tion$ di/9ction provok$ vehem5t replies f or?odox my/ics ( ! age4 ,?us1 ,hugo ( ,/ ,victor 7#ajgg-aada7 argues t all love is necess>ily s f> int]e/$ t x involves a desire = union ) ! belov$2 & s9ce et]nal happ9ess consi/s 9 ?is union1 x _c truly be desir$ ap>t f ,god2 :ile ,b]n>d ( ,clairvaux 7#ajia-aaec7 m elaborately di/+ui%es f\r /ages by :i* ! s\l is gradually l$ f 7#a7 m]ely self-reg>d+ desire = ,god's aid 9 di/ress1 to 7#b7 love him = 8 lov+-k9dness to x1 !n also 7#c7 = 8 absolute goodness1 until 7#d7 9 r>e mom5ts ?is love = himself alone becomes ! sole all-absorb+ affection4 ,?is controv]sy ,pet] ! ,lomb>d endeav\r$ to compose by ! s*ola/ic art ( tak+ di/9ctions1 ( :i* he 0 a ma/]4 ,9 8 treatise1 ,libri s5t5ti>um1 ma9ly bas$ on ,augu/9ian doctr9e1 we f9d a di/9ct s(t5+ ( ! anti!sis betwe5 nature & grace & an anticipation ( ! union ( ,ari/otelian & ,*ri/ian ?\ght1 :i* 0 initiat$ by ,alb]t ! ,great & complet$ by ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,! moral philosophy ( ,aqu9as is ,ari/otelianism ) a ,neoplatonic t+e1 int]pret$ & supplem5t$ by a view ( ,*ri/ian dogma d]iv$ *iefly f ,augu/9e4 ,all action or movem5t ( all ?+s irrational z well z rational is direct$ t[>ds "s end or good1--t is1 really & ultimately t[>ds ,god himself1 ! gr\nd & fir/ cause ( all be+1 & unmov$ pr9ciple ( all movem5t4 ,?is univ]sal ?\gh unconsci\s /riv+ aft] ,god1 s9ce he is ess5tially intelligible1 exhibits itself 9 its highe/ =m 9 rational be+s z a desire = k ( him2 su* k1 h[ev]1 is beyond all ord9>y ex]cise ( reason1 & may be only p>tially reveal$ to man "h bel[4 ,?us ! summum bonum = man is objectively ,god1 subjectively ! happ9ess to be d]iv$ f lov+ vision ( 8 p]fections2 al?\gh !re is a l[] k9d ( happ9ess to be realiz$ "h bel[ 9 a normal human exi/5ce ( virtue & fri5d%ip1 ) m9d & body s\nd & :ole & prop]ly tra9$ = ! ne$s ( life4 ,! high] happ9ess is giv5 to man by free grace ( ,god2 b x is giv5 to ^? only ^: he>t is "r1 & z a rew>d ( virtu\s actions4 ,pass+ to consid] :at actions are virtu\s1 we fir/ obs]ve g5]ally t ! morality ( an act is 9 "p1 b only 9 "p1 det]m9$ by its p>ticul> motive2 x p>tly dep5ds on its ext]nal object & circum/ances1 :i* r5d] x ei!r objectively 9 h>mony ) ! ord] ( reason or ! rev]se4 ,9 ! classification ( p>ticul> virtues & vices we c di/+ui% v cle>ly ! elem5ts suppli$ by ! diff]5t tea*+s :i* ,aqu9as has imbib$4 ,he foll[s ,ari/otle closely 9 divid+ ! natural virtues into intellectual & moral1 giv+ 8 pref]5ce to ! =m] class1 & ! intellectual aga9 into speculative & practical2 9 di/+ui%+ )9 ! speculative class ! intellect t is conv]sant ) pr9ciples1 ! sci5ce t d$uces conclusions1 & ! wisdom to :i* belongs ! :ole process ( kn[+ ! sublime/ objects ( k2 & 9 treat+ practical wisdom z insep>ably connect$ ) moral virtues1 & !re=e 9 a s5se moral4 ,8 di/9ction among moral virtues ( ! ju/ice t r5d]s o!rs _! due f ! virtues t control ! appetites & passions ( ! ag5t himself1 repres5ts 8 int]pretation ( ! ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics2 :ile 8 acc\nt ( ^! latt] virtues is a simple transcript ( ,ari/otle's1 j z 8 division ( ! non-rational elem5t ( ! s\l into concupiscible & irascible is ! old ,platonic "o4 ,9 arrang+ 8 li/1 h[ev]1 he def]s to ! e/abli%$ doctr9e ( ! f\r c>d9al virtues 7d]iv$ f ,plato & ! ,/oics ?r\gh ,cic]o72 accord+ly1 ! ,ari/otelian t5 h to /& "u ! high] g5]a ( 7#a7 ! prud5ce :i* gives reason$ rules ( conduct1 7#b7 ! temp]ance :i* re/ra9s mislead+ desire1 & 7#c7 ! =titude t resi/s mislead+ fe> ( dang]s or toils4 ,b be=e ^! virtues are rank$ ! ?ree !ologic virtues1 fai?1 love & hope1 sup]naturally in/ill$ by ,god1 & directly relat+ to him z _! object4 ,by fai? we obta9 t "p ( our k ( ,god :i* is beyond ! range ( m]e natural wisdom or philosophy2 naturally 7e4g471 we c "k ,god's exi/5ce1 b n 8 tr9ity 9 unity1 ?\gh philosophy is useful to def5d ?is & o!r reveal$ v]ities2 & x is ess5tial = ! s\l's welf>e t all articles ( ! ,*ri/ian cre$1 h[ev] little !y c be kn[n by natural reason1 %\ld be appreh5d$ ?r\gh fai?2 ! ,*ri/ian :o rejects a s+le article loses hold altoge!r ( fai? & ( ,god4 ,fai? is ! sub/antial basis ( all ,*ri/ian morality1 b )\t love--! ess5tial =m ( all ! ,*ri/ian virtues--x is =mless 7in=mis74 ,*ri/ian love is conceiv$ 7aft] ,augu/9e7 z prim>ily love to ,god 7beyond ! natural ye>n+ ( ! creature aft] its ultimate good71 :i* exp&s into love t[>ds all ,god's creatures z creat$ by him1 & s ultimately includes ev5 self-love4 ,b creatures are only to be lov$ 9 _! purity z creat$ by ,god2 all t is bad 9 !m mu/ be an object ( hatr$ till x is de/roy$4 ,9 ! classification ( s9s ! ,*ri/ian elem5t pr$om9ates2 /ill we f9d ! ,ari/otelian vices ( excess & defect1 along ) ! mod]n divisions into s9s aga9/ ,god1 neighb\r & self1 mortal & v5ial s9s1 & s =?4 ,f ! notion ( s9--treat$ 9 its jural aspect--,aqu9as passes naturally to ! discussion ( ,law4 ,! exposition ( ?is conception pres5ts to a great ext5t ! same matt] t 0 dealt ) by ! exposition ( moral virtues1 b 9 a diff]5t =m2 ! prom95ce ( :i* may p]haps be attribut$ to ! gr[+ influ5ce ( ,roman jurisprud5ce1 :i* atta9$ 9 ! #ab? c5tury s rapid & brilliant a revival 9 ,italy4 ,?is side ( ,?omas's sy/em is specially important1 s9ce x is j ?is bl5d+ ( !ological conceptions ) ! ab/ract !ory ( ! lat] ,roman law t gave ! />t+-po9t = indep5d5t e?ical ?\ght 9 ! mod]n _w4 ,"u ! g5]al idea ( law1 def9$ z an ord9ance ( reason = ! common good1 promulgat$ by him :o has *>ge ( ! community1 ,?omas di/+ui%es 7#a7 ! et]nal law or regulative reason ( ,god :i* embraces all 8 creatures1 rational & irrational2 7#b7 natural law1 be+ t "p ( ! et]nal law t relates to rational creatures z su*2 7#c7 human law1 :i* prop]ly consi/s ( m p>ticul> d$uctions f natural law p>ticul>iz$ & adapt$ to ! v>y+ circum/ances ( actual communities2 7#d7 div9e law specially reveal$ to man4 ,z reg>ds natural law1 he tea*es t ,god has implant$ 9 ! human m9d a k ( its immutable g5]al pr9ciples2 & n only k1 b a disposition1 to :i* he applies ! peculi> s*ola/ic "n synd]esis1#bc t un]r+ly prompts to ! realization ( ^! pr9ciples 9 conduct1 & prote/s aga9/ _! violation4 ,all acts ( natural virtue are implicitly includ$ )9 ! scope ( ?is law ( nature2 b 9 ! application ( its pr9ciples to p>ticul> cases--to :i* ! t]m consci5ce %\ld be re/rict$--man's judgm5t is liable to err1 ! light ( nature be+ obscur$ & p]v]t$ by bad education & cu/om4 ,human law is requir$1 n m]ely to det]m9e ! details = :i* natural law gives no intuitive guidance1 b also to supply ! =ce necess>y = practically secur+1 among imp]fect m51 ! obs]vance ( ! mo/ necess>y rules ( mutual behavi\r4 ,! rules ( ?is law mu/ be ei!r d$uctions f pr9ciples ( natural law1 or det]m9ations ( p>ticul>s :i* x leaves indet]m9ate2 a rule contr>y to nature c\ld n be valid z law at all4 ,human law1 h[ev]1 c deal ) outw>d conduct alone1 & natural law1 z we h se51 is liable to be vague & obscure 9 p>ticul> applications4 ,nei!r natural nor human law1 moreov]1 takes into acc\nt t sup]natural happ9ess :i* is man's highe/ end4 ,h5ce !y ne$ to be supplem5t$ by a special revelation ( div9e law4 ,?is revelation is di/+ui%$ into ! law ( ! old cov5ant & ! law ( ! gospel2 ! latt] ( ^! is productive z well z imp]ative s9ce x c>ries ) x ! div9e grace t makes its fulfilm5t possible4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 to di/+ui% 9 ! case ( ! gospel betwe5 7#a7 absolute comm&s & 7#b7 c\nsels1 :i* latt] recomm5d1 )\t positively ord]+ ! mona/ic life ( pov]ty1 celibacy & ob$i5ce z ! be/ me?od ( effectively turn+ ! w f e>?ly to heav5ly ?+s4 ,duns ,scotus4 ,william ( ,occam4 ,b h[ f> is man able to atta9 ei!r natural or ,*ri/ian p]fection8 ,?is is ! "p ( ,?omas's sy/em 9 :i* ! cohesion ( ! diff]5t elem5ts seems weake/4 ,he is sc>cely aw>e t 8 ,ari/otelianiz$ ,*ri/ianity inevitably comb9es two diff]5t difficulties 9 deal+ ) ?is "q3 fir/1 ! old pagan difficulty ( reconcil+ ! proposition t w is a rational desire always direct$ t[>ds app>5t good1 ) ! fre$om ( *oice betwe5 good & evil t ! jural view ( morality seems to require2 &1 secondly1 ! ,*ri/ian difficulty ( h>moniz+ ?is latt] notion ) ! absolute dep5d5ce on div9e grace :i* ! religi\s consci\sness affirms4 ,! latt] difficulty ,?omas1 l _m ( 8 pr$ecessors1 avoids by suppos+ a co-op]ation ( free-w & grace1 b ! =m] he does n fully meet4 ,x is aga9/ ?is "p ( 8 doctr9es t ! mo/ important criticism1 9 e?ics1 ( 8 rival ,duns ,scotus 7c4 #abff-acjh7 0 direct$4 ,he urg$ t w c\ld n be really free if x 7 b\nd to reason1 z ,?omas 7aft] ,ari/otle7 conceives x2 a really free *oice mu/ be p]fectly indet]m9ate betwe5 reason & unreason4 ,scotus consi/5tly ma9ta9$ t ! div9e w is simil>ly indep5d5t ( reason1 & t ! div9e ord]+ ( ! _w is to be conceiv$ z absolutely arbitr>y4 ,on ?is po9t he 0 foll[$ by ! acute intellect ( ,william ( ,occam 7d4 c4 #acdg74 ,?is doctr9e is obvi\sly ho/ile to all reason$ morality2 & 9 fact1 not)/&+ ! dialectical ability ( ,scotus & ,occam1 ! "w ( ,?omas rema9$ indubitably ! cr[n+ result ( ! great con/ructive ef=t ( m$ieval philosophy4 ,! ef=t 01 inde$1 =$oom$ to failure1 s9ce x attempt$ ! impossible task ( fram+ a coh]5t sy/em out ( ! het]og5e\s data furni%$ by ,scripture1 ! fa!rs1 ! *ur* & ,ari/otle--equally unque/ion$1 if n equally v5]at$1 au?orities4 ,:atev] philosophic quality is to be f\nd 9 ! "w ( ,?omas belongs to x 9 spite (1 n 9 consequ5ce (1 its me?od4 ,/ill1 its influ5ce has be5 great & long-endur+1--9 ! ,ca?olic ,*ur* prim>ily1 b indirectly among ,prote/ants1 especially 9 ,engl&1 s9ce ! fam\s fir/ book ( ,hook]'s ,ecclesia/ical ,polity is to a great ext5t tak5 f ! ,summa !ologiae4 ,m$ieval my/icism4 ,p>tly 9 consci\s antagonism to ! s*oolm51 yet ) close aff9ity to ! c5tral e?ico-!ological doctr9e :i* !y read out ( or into ,ari/otle1 ! my/ical mann] ( ?\ght cont9u$ to ma9ta9 itself 9 ! *ur*4 ,philosophically x re/$ ^u ,neoplatonism1 b its developm5t 9 /rict connexion ) ,*ri/ian or?odoxy beg9s 9 ! #ab? c5tury ) ,b]n>d ( ,clairvaux & ,hugo ( ,/ ,victor4 ,x bl5d$ ! ,*ri/ian elem5t ( love ) ! ec/atic vision ( ,plot9us1 sometimes giv+ ! =m] a decid$ pr$om9ance4 ,9 its m mod]ate =m1 keep+ :olly )9 ! limits ( ecclesia/ical or?odoxy1 ?is my/icism is repres5t$ by ,bonav5tura & ,g]son2 :ile x appe>s m indep5d5t & d>+ly con/ructive 9 ! ,g]man ,eckh>t1 advanc+ 9 "s ( 8 foll[]s to op5 brea* ) ! *ur*1 & ev5 to practical immorality4 ,casui/ry4 ,! ,jesuits4 ,9 ! brief acc\nt above giv5 ( ! g5]al e?ical view ( ,?omas ,aqu9as no m5tion has be5 made ( ! detail$ discussion ( p>ticul> duties includ$ 9 ! ,summa !ologiae2 9 :i*1 = ! mo/ "p1 an excell5t comb9ation ( moral elevation ) sobriety ( judgm5t is %[n1 ?\gh on c]ta9 po9ts ! s*ola/ic p$antry ( def9ition & di/9ction is unfav\rable to due delicacy ( treatm5t4 ,z ! prop]ly philosophic int]e/ ( s*ola/icism fad$ 9 ! #ad? & #ae? c5turies1 ! quasi-legal treatm5t ( morality came aga9 into prom95ce1 borr[+ a good deal ( matt] f ,?omas & o!r s*oolm54 ,"o result ( ?is 0 a m>k$ developm5t & sy/ematization ( casui/ry4 ,! be/ kn[n ,summae casuum consci5tiae1 compil$ = ! conduct ( auricul> confession1 belong to ! #ad? & #ae? c5turies4 ,! olde/1 ! ,a/esana1 f ,a/i 9 ,pi$mont1 is arrang$ z a k9d ( text-book ( morality on a s*ola/ic basis2 lat] manuals are m]ely li/s ( que/ions & answ]s4 ,x 0 inevitable t1 9 proportion z ?is casui/ry assum$ ! "* ( a sy/ematic p5al jurisprud5ce1 its precise det]m9ation ( ! limits betwe5 ! prohibit$ & ! all[able1 ) all d\btful po9ts closely scrut9iz$ & illu/rat$ by fictiti\s cases1 w\ld h a t5d5cy to weak5 ! moral s5sibilities ( ord9>y m9ds2 ! great] ! indu/ry sp5t 9 d$uc+ conclusions f ! div]se au?orities1 ! great] necess>ily became ! numb] ( po9ts on :i* doctors disagre$2 & ! c5tral au?ority t might h repress$ s]i\s div]g5ces 0 want+ 9 ! p]iod ( moral weakness#bd t ! *ur* w5t ?r\gh aft] ! dea? ( ,boniface ,,viii4 ,a pla9 man p]plex$ by su* disagreem5ts might naturally hold t any op9ion ma9ta9$ by a pi\s & or?odox writ] mu/ be a safe "o to foll[2 & ?us weak consci5ces 7 subtly tempt$ to seek ! support ( au?ority = "s desir$ relaxation ( a moral rule4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 appe> t ?is dang] assum$ =midable proportions until aft] ! ,re=mation2 :51 9 ! /ruggle made by ! ,ca?olic *ur* to recov] its hold on ! _w1 ! pr9ciple ( au?ority 01 z x 71 =c$ into ke51 balanc$ & prolong$ conflict ) t ( reliance on private judgm5t4 ,to ! ,jesuits1 ! =emo/ *ampions 9 ?is /ruggle1 x seem$ indisp5sable t ! confessional %\ld be made attractive2 = ?is purpose ecclesia/ico-moral law mu/ be someh[ accommodat$ to worldly ne$s2 & ! !ory ( ,probabilism suppli$ a plausible me?od = effect+ ?is accommodation4 ,! !ory proce$$ ?us3 ,a layman c\ld n be expect$ to exam9e m9utely into a po9t on :i* ! le>n$ diff]$2 !re=e he c\ld n fairly be blam$ = foll[+ any op9ion t re/$ on ! au?ority ( ev5 a s+le doctor2 !re=e 8 confessor mu/ be au?oriz$ to hold him guiltless if any su* probable op9ion c\ld be produc$ 9 8 fav\r2 nay1 x 0 8 duty to sugge/ su* an op9ion1 ev5 ?\gh oppos$ to 8 own1 if x w\ld relieve ! consci5ce "u 8 *>ge f a depress+ burd54 ,! results to :i* ?is ,probabilism1 appli$ ) an e>ne/ desire to avoid dang]\s rig\r1 l$ 9 ! #ag? c5tury 7 reveal$ to ! _w 9 ! immortal ,lettres prov9ciales ( ,pascal4 ,! ,re=mation4 ,transition to mod]n e?ical philosophy4 ,9 trac+ ! developm5t ( casui/ry we h be5 c>ri$ beyond ! great crisis ?r\gh :i* ,we/]n ,*ri/ianity pass$ 9 ! #af? c5tury4 ,! ,re=mation :i* ,lu!r initiat$ may be view$ on sev]al sides1 ev5 if we consid] only its e?ical pr9ciples & effects4 ,x ma9ta9$ ! simplicity ( ,apo/olic ,*ri/ianity aga9/ ! elaborate sy/em ( a corrupt hi]>*y1 ! tea*+ ( ,scripture alone aga9/ ! comm5t>ies ( ! fa!rs & ! traditions ( ! *ur*1 ! "r ( private judgm5t aga9/ ! dictation ( ecclesia/ical au?ority1 ! individual responsibility ( e human s\l be=e ,god 9 opposition to ! papal control ov] purgatorial puni%m5ts1 :i* _h l$ to ! revolt+ degradation ( v5al indulg5ces4 ,reviv+ ! orig9al anti!sis betwe5 ,*ri/ianity & ,jewi% legalism1 x ma9ta9$ ! inw>dness ( fai? to be ! sole way to et]nal life1 9 contra/ to ! outw>dness ( works2 return+ to ,augu/9e1 & express+ 8 _s 9 a new =mula1 to resi/ ! ,neo-,pelagianism t _h gradually develop$ itself )9 ! app>5t ,augu/9ianism ( ! *ur*1 x ma9ta9$ ! total corruption ( human nature1 z contra/$ ) t congruity by :i*1 accord+ to ! s*oolm51 div9e grace 0 to be e>n$2 r5ew+ ! f]v5t humility ( ,/ ,paul1 x en=c$ ! univ]sal & absolute imp]ativ5ess ( all ,*ri/ian duties1 & ! inevitable unwor?9ess ( all ,*ri/ian ob$i5ce1 9 opposition to ! !ory t condign m]it might be ga9$ by sup]]ogatory con=mity to evangelical c\nsels4 ,x w be se5 t ^! *anges1 h[ev] pr(\ndly important1 71 e?ically consid]$1 ei!r negative or q g5]al1 relat+ to ! tone & attitude ( m9d 9 :i* all duty %\ld be done4 ,z reg>ds all positive matt] ( duty & virtue1 & mo/ ( ! prohibitive code = ord9>y m51 ! tradition ( ,*ri/ian tea*+ 0 c>ri$ on sub/antially un*ang$ by ! ,re=m$ *ur*es4 ,ev5 ! old me?od ( casui/ry 0 ma9ta9$#be dur+ ! #af? & #ag? c5turies2 ?\gh ,scriptural texts1 int]pret$ & supplem5t$ by ! light ( natural reason1 n[ furni%$ ! sole pr9ciples on :i* cases ( consci5ce 7 decid$4 ,humanism4 ,9 ! #ag? c5tury1 h[ev]1 ! int]e/ ( ?is quasi-legal treatm5t ( morality gradually fad$2 & ! e?ical /udies ( educat$ m9ds 7 occupi$ ) ! attempt1 r5ew$ aft] s _m c5turies1 to f9d an indep5d5t philosophical basis = ! moral code4 ,! r5ewal ( ?is attempt 0 only indirectly due to ! ,re=mation2 x is r to be connect$ ) ! m extreme reaction f ! m$ieval religion :i* 0 p>tly caus$ by1 p>tly express$ 91 t en?usia/ic /udy ( ! rema9s ( old pagan culture t spread f ,italy ov] ,europe 9 ! #ae? & #af? c5turies4 ,to ?is humanism ! ,re=mation seem$ at fir/ m ho/ile ?an ! ,roman hi]>*y2 inde$1 ! ext5t to :i* ?is latt] _h all[$ itself to become paganiz$ by ! ,r5aissance 0 "o ( ! po9ts t especially r\s$ ! ,re=m]s' indignation4 ,n ! less important is ! indirect /imulus giv5 by ! ,re=mation t[>ds ! developm5t ( a moral philosophy indep5d5t alike ( ,ca?olic & ,prote/ant assumptions4 ,s*ola/icism1 :ile reviv+ philosophy z a h&maid to !ology1 _h metamorphos$ its me?od into "o resembl+ t ( its mi/ress2 ?us %ackl+ ! r5asc5t intellectual activity :i* x /imulat$ by ! d\ble bondage to ,ari/otle & to ! *ur*4 ,:5 ! ,re=mation %ook ! traditional au?ority 9 "o dep>tm5t1 ! bl[ 0 necess>ily felt 9 ! o!r4 ,n tw5ty ye>s aft] ,lu!r's defiance ( ! pope1 ! />tl+ !sis t all t ,ari/otle taught 0 false 0 prosp]\sly ma9ta9$ by ! y\?ful ,ramus be=e ! univ]sity ( ,p>is2 & almo/ contemporane\sly ! gr\p ( rem>kable ?9k]s 9 ,italy :o h]ald$ ! dawn ( mod]n physical sci5ce--,c>danus1 ,telesio1 ,patrizzi1 ,campanella1 ,bruno--began to prop\nd _! ,ari/otelian !ories ( ! con/itution ( ! physical univ]se4 ,x 0 to be =ese5 t a simil> ass]tion ( indep5d5ce w\ld make itself he>d 9 e?ics also2 &1 inde$1 amid ! cla% ( dogmatic convictions1 & ! v>iations ( private judgm5t1 x 0 natural to seek = an e?ical me?od t might claim univ]sal acceptance f all sects4 ,grotius4 ,c4 ,mod]n ,e?ics4--,! ne$ ( su* indep5d5t pr9ciples 0 mo/ /rongly felt 9 ! region ( man's civil & political relations1 especially ! mutual relations ( communities4 ,accord+ly we f9d t mod]n e?ical controv]sy began 9 a discussion ( ! law ( nature4 ,alb]icus ,g5tilis 7#aeeg-afaa7 & ,hugo ,grotius 7#aehc-afde7 7 ! fir/ to give a sy/ematic acc\nt4 ,natural law1 accord+ to ,grotius & o!r writ]s ( ! age1 is t "p ( div9e law :i* foll[s f ! ess5tial nature ( man1 :o is di/+ui%$ f animals by 8 appetite = tranquil association ) 8 fell[s1 & 8 t5d5cy to act on g5]al pr9ciples4 ,x is !re=e z unalt]able1 ev5 by ,god himself1 z ! tru?s ( ma!matics1 al?\gh its effect may be ov]rul$ 9 any p>ticul> case by an express comm& ( ,god2 h5ce x is cognizable a priori1 f ! ab/ract consid]ation ( human nature1 ?\gh its exi/5ce may be kn[n a po/]iori also f its univ]sal acceptance 9 human societies4 ,! conception1 z we h se51 0 tak5 f ! lat] ,roman juri/s2 by !m1 h[ev]1 ! law ( nature 0 conceiv$ z some?+ t und]lay exi/+ law1 & 0 to be look$ = ?r\gh x1 ?\gh x might ultimately sup]s$e x1 & 9 ! mean:ile repres5t$ an ideal /&>d1 by :i* improvem5ts 9 legislation 7 to be guid$4 ,/ill ! language ( ! juri/s 9 "s passages 7cf4 ,in/4 ( ,ju/9ian1 ii4 #a1 #b7 cle>ly impli$ a p]iod ( human hi/ory 9 :i* m5 7 gov]n$ by natural law alone1 prior to ! in/itution ( civil society4 ,posidonius _h id5tifi$ ?is p]iod ) ! my?ical gold5 age2 & su* ideas easily coalesc$ ) ! n>rative 9 ,g5esis4 ,?us !re _h become curr5t ! conception ( a /ate ( nature 9 :i* individuals or s+le families liv$ side by side--"u none o!r ?an ^? natural laws :i* prohibit$ mutual injury & int]f]5ce 9 ! free use ( ! goods ( ! e>? common to all1 & upheld p>5tal au?ority1 fidelity ( wives1 & ! obs]vance ( compacts freely made4 ,?is conception ,grotius took1 & gave x additional =ce & solidity by us+ ! pr9ciples ( ?is natural law = ! det]m9ation ( int]national rights & duties1 x be+ obvi\s t indep5d5t nations1 9 _! corporate capacities1 7 /ill 9 t /ate ( nature 9 _! mutual relations4 ,x 0 n1 ( c\rse1 assum$ t ^! laws 7 univ]sally obey$2 inde$1 "o po9t ) :i* ,grotius is especially conc]n$ is ! natural "r ( private w>1 aris+ out ( ! violation ( m prim>y rights4 ,/ill a g5]al obs]vance 0 involv$ 9 ! idea ( a natural law z a dictate ( "r reason indicat+ ! agreem5t or disagreem5t ( an act ) man's rational & social nature2 & we may obs]ve t x 0 especially necess>y to assume su* a g5]al obs]vance 9 ! case ( contracts1 s9ce x 0 by an express or tacit pact t ! "r ( prop]ty 7z di/9ct f ! m]e "r to non-int]f]5ce dur+ use7 0 held by him to h be5 in/itut$4 ,a simil> fundam5tal pact _h long be5 g5]ally reg>d$ z ! normal orig9 ( legitimate sov]eignty4 ,! ideas above express$ 7 n peculi> to ,grotius2 9 p>ticul> ! doctr9e ( ! fundam5tal pact z ! jural basis ( gov]nm5t _h long be5 ma9ta9$1 especially 9 ,engl&1 :]e ! con/itution hi/orically e/abli%$ readily sugge/$ su* a compact4 ,at ! same "t ! rapid & rem>kable success ( ,grotius's treatise 7,de jure belli et pacis7 br\ght 8 view ( ,natural ,"r into prom95ce1 & sugge/$ su* que/ions z--,:at is man's ultimate reason = obey+ ^! laws8 ,:]e9 exactly does ?is _! agreem5t ) 8 rational & social nature consi/8 ,h[ f>1 & 9 :at s5se1 is 8 nature really social8 ,hobbes4 ,x 0 ! answ] :i* ,hobbes 7#aehh-afgi7 gave to ^! fundam5tal que/ions t suppli$ ! />t+-po9t = indep5d5t e?ical philosophy 9 ,engl&4 ,! nature ( ?is answ] 0 det]m9$ by ! psy*ological views to :i* ,hobbes _h be5 l$1 possibly to "s ext5t "u ! influ5ce ( ,bacon1#bf p>tly p]haps ?r\gh association ) 8 y\ng] contempor>y ,gass5di1 :o1 9 two treatises1 publi%$ betwe5 ! appe>ance ( ,hobbes's ,de cive 7#afdb7 & t ( ! ,levia?an 7#afea71 endeav\r$ to revive int]e/ 9 ,epicurus4 ,hobbes's psy*ology is 9 ! fir/ place mat]iali/ic2 he holds1 t is1 t 9 any ( ! psy*o-physical ph5om5a ( human nature ! reality is a mat]ial process ( :i* ! m5tal feel+ is a m]e appe>ance4 ,accord+ly he reg>ds pleasure z ess5tially motion help+ vital action1 & pa9 z motion h9d]+ x4 ,!re is no logical connexion betwe5 ?is !ory & ! doctr9e t appetite ( desire has always pleasure 7or ! abs5ce ( pa97 = its object2 b a mat]iali/1 fram+ a sy/em ( psy*ology1 w naturally direct 8 att5tion to ! impulses aris+ out ( bodily wants1 ^: obvi\s end is ! pres]vation ( ! ag5t's organism2 & ?is1 toge!r ) a philosophic wi% to simplify1 may lead him to ! conclusion t all human impulses are simil>ly self-reg>d+4 ,?is1 at any rate1 is ,hobbes's c>d9al doctr9e 9 moral psy*ology1 t ea* man's appetites or desires are naturally direct$ ei!r to ! pres]vation ( 8 life1 or to t height5+ ( x :i* he feels z pleasure4#bg ,hobbes does n di/+ui% in/9ctive f delib]ate pleasure-seek+2 & he confid5tly resolves ! mo/ app>5tly unselfi% emotions into phases ( self-reg>d4 ,pity he f9ds to be grief = ! calamity ( o!rs1 aris+ f imag9ation ( ! l calamity befall+ oneself2 :at we admire ) seem+ dis9t]e/$ness z beautiful 7pul*rum7 is really pleasure 9 promise2 :5 m5 are n imm$iately seek+ pres5t pleasure1 !y desire p[] z a means to future pleasure1 & ?us h a d]ivative delight 9 ! ex]cise ( p[] t prompts to :at we call b5evol5t action4 ,s9ce1 !n1 all ! volunt>y actions ( m5 t5d to _! own pres]vation or pleasure1 x _c be reasonable to aim at any?+ else2 9 fact1 nature r ?an reason fixes ?is z ! end ( human action2 x is reason's function to %[ ! means4 ,h5ce if we ask :y x is reasonable = any individual to obs]ve ! rules ( social behavi\r t are commonly call$ moral1 ! answ] is obvi\s t ?is is only indirectly reasonable1 z a means to 8 own pres]vation or pleasure4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 9 ?is1 :i* is only ! old ,cyr5aic or ,epicurean answ]1 t ! di/9ctive po9t ( ,hobbism lies4 ,x is r 9 ! doctr9e t ev5 ?is indirect reasonabl5ess ( ! mo/ fundam5tal moral rules is entirely conditional on _! g5]al obs]vance1 :i* _c be secur$ ap>t f gov]nm5t4 ,= example1 x is n reasonable = me to p]=m my %>e ( a contract1 unless ,i h reason = believ+ t ! o!r p>ty w p]=m 82 & ?is ,i _c h1 except 9 a society 9 :i* he w be puni%$ = non-p]=mance4 ,?us ! ord9>y rules ( social behavi\r are only hypo!tically obligatory2 !y are actualiz$ by ! e/abli%m5t ( a common p[] t may use ! /r5g? & means ( all to en=ce on all ! obs]vance ( rules t5d+ to ! common b5efit4 ,on ! o!r h& ,hobbes yields to no "o 9 ma9ta9+ ! p>am\nt importance ( moral regulations4 ,! precepts ( good fai?1 equity1 requital ( b5efits1 =giv5ess ( wrong s f> z security all[s1 ! prohibition ( contumely1 pride1 arrogance1--:i* may all be summ$ up 9 ! =mula1 ,d n t to ano!r :i* ?\ w\lde/ n h done to ?yself 7i4e4 ! negative ( ! gold5 rule7--he /ill calls immutable & et]nal laws ( nature--mean+ t1 ?\gh a man is n unconditionally b\nd to realize !m1 he is1 z a reasonable be+1 b\nd to desire t !y %\ld be realiz$4 ,! pre-social /ate ( man1 9 8 view1 is also pre-moral2 b x is !re=e utt]ly mis]able4 ,x is a /ate 9 :i* e "o has a "r to ev]y?+ t may conduce to 8 pres]vation2#bh b x is !re=e also a /ate ( w>--a /ate s wret*$ t x is ! fir/ dictate ( rational self-love to em]ge f x into social peace & ord]4 ,h5ce ,hobbes's ideal con/itution naturally comes to be an unque/ion$ & unlimit$--?\gh n necess>ily mon>*ical--despotism4 ,:atev] ! gov]nm5t decl>es to be j or unju/ mu/ be accept$ z su*1 s9ce to dispute its dictates w\ld be ! fir/ /ep t[>ds an>*y1 ! "o p>am\nt p]il outweigh+ all p>ticul> defects 9 legislation & adm9i/ration4 ,x is p]haps easy to und]/& h[1 9 ! crisis ( #afdj1 :5 ! e?ico-political sy/em ( ,hobbes fir/ took writt5 %ape1 a peace-lov+ philosoph] %\ld reg>d ! claims ( individual consci5ce z ess5tially an>*ical1 & dang]\s to social well-be+2 b h[ev] /rong might be m5's ye>n+ = ord]1 a view ( social duty1 9 :i* ! only fix$ positions 7 selfi%ness ev]y:]e & unlimit$ p[] some:]e1 c\ld n b appe> (f5sively p>adoxical4 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 9 8 !ory an orig9ality1 a =ce1 an app>5t coh]5ce :i* r5d]$ x und5iably impressive2 9 fact1 we f9d t = two g5]ations ! ef=ts to con/ruct morality on a philosophical basis take m or less ! =m ( answ]s to ,hobbes4 ,f an e?ical po9t ( view ,hobbism divides itself naturally into two p>ts1 :i* by ,hobbes's peculi> political doctr9es are comb9$ into a coh]5t :ole1 b are n o!rwise necess>ily connect$4 ,its !oretical basis is ! pr9ciple ( egoism2 :ile1 = practically det]m9+ ! p>ticul>s ( duty x makes morality entirely dep5d5t on positive law & in/itution4 ,x ?us affirm$ ! relativity ( good & evil 9 a d\ble s5se2 good & evil1 = any individual citiz51 may f "o po9t ( view be def9$ z ! objects respectively ( 8 desire & 8 av]sion2 f ano!r1 !y may be said to be det]m9$ = him by 8 sov]eign4 ,x is ?is latt] aspect ( ! sy/em :i* is prim>ily attack$ by ! fir/ g5]ation ( writ]s t repli$ to ,hobbes4 ,?is attack1 or r ! c\nt]-exposition ( or?odox doctr9e1 is conduct$ on diff]5t me?ods by ! ,cambridge morali/s & by ,cumb]l& respectively4 ,cumb]l& is cont5t ) ! legal view ( morality1 b endeav\rs to e/abli% ! validity ( ! laws ( nature by tax+ !m on ! s+le supreme pr9ciple ( rational reg>d = ! common good ( all1 & %[+ !m1 z s bas$1 to be adequately support$ by ! div9e sanction4 ,! ,cambridge s*ool1 reg>d+ morality prim>ily z a body ( tru? r ?an a code ( rules1 insi/ on its absolute "* & intuitive c]ta9ty4 ,! ,cambridge morali/s1 ,cudwor?4 ,cudwor? 0 ! mo/ di/+ui%$ ( ! little gr\p ( ?9k]s at ,cambridge 9 ! #ag? c5tury1 commonly kn[n z ! ,cambridge ,platoni/s 7q4v474 ,9 8 treatise on ,et]nal & ,immutable ,morality 8 ma9 aim is to ma9ta9 ! ess5tial & et]nal di/9ctions ( good & evil z indep5d5t ( m]e w1 :e!r human or div9e4 ,^! di/9ctions1 he insi/s1 h an objective reality1 cognizable by reason no less ?an ! relations ( space or numb]2 & he endeav\rs to refute ,hobbism--:i* he treats z a novantique philosophy1 a m]e revival ( ! relativism ( ,protagoras--*iefly by ! foll[+ argum5tum ad hom9em4 ,he argues t ,hobbes's atomic mat]ialism involves ! conception ( an objective physical _w1 ! object n ( passive s5se t v>ies f man to man1 b ( ! active intellect t is ! same 9 all2 !re is !re=e1 he urges1 an inconsi/5cy 9 refus+ to admit a simil> ex]cise ( intellect 9 morals1 & an objective _w ( "r & wrong1 :i* ! m9d by its normal activity cle>ly appreh5ds z su*4 ,m4 ,cudwor?1 9 ! "w above m5tion$1 gives no sy/ematic exposition ( ! e?ical pr9ciples :i* he holds to be ?us intuitively appreh5d$4 ,b we may supply ?is defici5cy f ! ,en*iridion ,e?icum ( ,h5ry ,m1 ano!r ?9k] ( ! same s*ool4 ,m gives a li/ ( #bc ,noemata ,moralia1 ! tru? ( :i* w1 he says1 be imm$iately manife/4 ,"s ( ^! admit ( a purely egoi/ic application1 & appe> to be s und]/ood by ! au?or--z 7e4g47 t goods diff] 9 quality z well z 9 duration1 & t ! sup]ior good or ! less] evil is always to be pref]r$2 t abs5ce ( a giv5 am\nt ( good is pref]able to ! pres5ce ( equival5t evil2 t future good or evil is to be reg>d$ z mu* z pres5t1 if equally c]ta91 & ne>ly z mu* if v probable4 ,objections1 bo? g5]al & special1 might be urg$ by a ,hobbi/ aga9/ ^! modes ( =mulat+ man's natural pursuit ( self-int]e/2 b ! s]i\s controv]sy betwe5 ,hobbism & mod]n ,platonism relat$ n to su* pr9ciples z ^!1 b to o!rs :i* dem& f ! individual a 7real or app>5t7 sacrifice = 8 fell[s4 ,su* are ! evangelical pr9ciple ( do+ z y w\ld be done by2 ! pr9ciple ( ju/ice1 or giv+ e man 8 own1 & lett+ him enjoy x )\t int]f]5ce2 & especially :at ,m /ates z ! ab/ract =mula ( b5evol5ce1 t if x be good t "o man %\ld be suppli$ ) ! means ( liv+ well & happily1 x is ma!matically c]ta9 t x is d\bly good t two %\ld be s suppli$1 & s on4 ,! "q1 h[ev]1 /ill rema9s1 :at motive any individual has to con=m to ^! social pr9ciples :5 !y conflict ) 8 natural desires4 ,to ?is ,cudwor? gives no explicit reply1 & ! answ] ( ,m is h>dly cle>4 ,on ! "o h& he ma9ta9s t ^! pr9ciples express an absolute good1 :i* is to be call$ intellectual because its ess5ce & tru? are appreh5d$ by ! intellect4 ,we might inf] f ?is t ! intellect1 s judg+1 is itself ! prop] & complete det]m9ant ( ! w1 & t man1 z a rational be+1 ought to aim at ! realization ( absolute good = its own sake4 ,9 spite1 h[ev]1 ( possible inf]5ces f 8 def9ition ( virtue1 ?is does n seem to be really ,m's view4 ,he expla9s t ?\gh absolute good is disc]n$ by ! intellect1 ! sweetness & flav\r ( x is appreh5d$1 n by ! intellect prop]1 b by :at he calls a boni=m faculty2 & x is 9 ?is sweetness & flav\r t ! motive to virtu\s conduct lies2 e?ics is ! art ( liv+ well & happily1 & true happ9ess lies 9 ! pleasure :i* ! s\l d]ives f ! s5se ( virtue4 ,9 %ort1 ,m's ,platonism appe>s to be really z h$oni/ic z ,hobbism2 only ! feel+ to :i* x appeals z ultimate motive is ( a k9d t only a m9d ( exceptional moral ref9em5t c habitually feel ) ! decisive int5sity requir$4 ,cumb]l&4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t ?\gh ,m lays d[n ! ab/ract pr9ciple ( reg>d+ "o's neighb\r's good z mu* z "o's own ) ! full bread? ) :i* ,*ri/ianity inculcates x1 yet :5 he aft]w>ds comes to classify virtues he is too mu* "u ! influ5ce ( ,platonic-,ari/otelian ?\ght to give a di/9ct place to b5evol5ce1 except "u ! old =m ( lib]ality4 ,9 ?is respect 8 sy/em pres5ts a /rik+ contra/ to ,cumb]l&'s1 ^: treatise ,de ,legibus ,naturae 7#afgb71 ?\gh writt5 l ,m's 9 ,lat91 is yet 9 its e?ical matt] ?or\ghly mod]n4 ,cumb]l& is a ?9k] bo? orig9al & compreh5sive1 &1 9 spite ( defects 9 /yle & cle>ness1 he is notewor?y z hav+ be5 ! fir/ to lay d[n t reg>d = ! common good ( all is ! supreme rule ( morality or law ( nature4 ,s f> he may be fairly call$ ! precursor ( lat] utilit>ianism4 ,8 fundam5tal pr9ciple & supreme ,law ( ,nature is ?us /at$3 ,! greate/ possible b5evol5ce ( e rational ag5t t[>ds all ! re/ con/itutes ! happie/ /ate ( ea* & all1 s f> z dep5ds on _! own p[]1 & is necess>ily requir$ = _! happ9ess2 accord+ly ,common ,good w be ! ,supreme ,good4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 important to notice t 9 8 good is includ$ n m]ely happ9ess b p]fection2 & he does n ev5 def9e p]fection s z to exclude f x ! notion ( absolute moral p]fection & save 8 !ory f an obvi\s logical circle4 ,a notion s vague c\ld n possibly be us$ ) any precision = det]m9+ ! subord9ate rules ( morality2 b 9 fact ,cumb]l& does n attempt ?is2 8 supreme pr9ciple is design$ n to rectify1 b m]ely to support & sy/ematize1 common morality4 ,?is pr9ciple1 z 0 said1 is conceiv$ z /rictly a law1 & !re=e ref]r$ to a lawgiv]1 ,god1 & provid$ ) a sanction 9 its effects on ! ag5t's happ9ess4 ,t ! div9e w is express$ by x1 ,cumb]l&1 n be+ s =tunate z to possess innate ideas1 tries to prove by a long inductive exam9ation ( ! evid5ces ( man's ess5tial sociality exhibit$ 9 8 physical & m5tal con/itution4 ,8 acc\nt ( ! sanction1 aga91 is suffici5tly compreh5sive1 includ+ bo? ! int]nal & ! ext]nal rew>ds ( virtue & puni%m5ts ( vice2 & he1 l lat] utilit>ians1 expla9s moral obligation to lie 9 ! =ce ex]cis$ on ! w by ^! sanctions2 b z to ! precise mann] 9 :i* individual is implicat$ ) univ]sal good1 & ! op]ation ( ei!r or bo? 9 det]m9+ volition1 8 view is indi/9ct if n actually inconsi/5t4 ,locke4 ,! cle>ness :i* we seek 9 va9 f ,cumb]l& is f\nd to ! fulle/ ext5t 9 ,locke1 ^: ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+ 7#afij7 0 already plann$ :5 ,cumb]l&'s treatise appe>$4 ,yet ,locke's e?ical op9ions h be5 widely misund]/ood2 s9ce f a confusion betwe5 innate ideas & intuitions1 :i* has be5 common 9 rec5t e?ical discussion1 x has be5 suppos$ t ! f\nd] ( ,engli% empiricism mu/ necess>ily h be5 ho/ile to intuitional e?ics4 ,! tru? is t1 :ile ,locke agrees entirely ) ,hobbes z to ! egoi/ic basis ( rational conduct1 & ! int]pretation ( good & evil z pleasure & pa91 or t :i* is productive ( pleasure & pa91 he yet agrees entirely ) ,hobbes's oppon5ts 9 hold+ e?ical rules to be actually obligatory indep5d5tly ( political society1 & capable ( be+ sci5tifically con/ruct$ on pr9ciples intuitively kn[n1--?\gh he does n reg>d ^! pr9ciples z implant$ 9 ! m9d at bir?4 ,! aggregate ( su* rules he conceives z ! law ( ,god1 c>efully di/+ui%+ x1 n only f civil law1 b f ! law ( op9ion or reputation1 ! v>y+ moral /&>d by :i* m5 actually di/ribute praise & blame2 z be+ div9e x is necess>ily sanction$ by adequate rew>ds & puni%m5ts4 ,he does n1 inde$1 speak ( ! sci5tific con/ruction ( ?is code z hav+ be5 actually effect$1 b he affirms its possibility 9 language rem>kably /rong & decisive4 ,! idea1 he says1 ( a ,supreme ,be+1 inf9ite 9 p[]1 goodness1 & wisdom1 ^: workman%ip we are1 & ^u :om we dep5d1 & ! idea ( ourselves1 z und]/&+ rational be+s1 be+ su* z are cle> 9 u1 w\ld1 ,i suppose1 if duly consid]$ & pursu$1 af=d su* f\ndations ( our duty & rules ( action1 z might place morality among ! sci5ces capable ( demon/ration2 :]e91 ,i d\bt n1 b f self-evid5t propositions1 by necess>y consequ5ces z inconte/able z ^? 9 ma!matics1 ! measure ( "r & wrong might be made out4 ,z ,locke _c consi/5tly mean by ,god's goodness any?+ b ! disposition to give pleasure1 x might be inf]r$ t ! ultimate /&>d ( "r rules ( action ought to be ! common happ9ess ( ! be+s affect$ by ! action2 b ,locke does n explicitly adopt ?is /&>d4 ,! only in/ances :i* he gives ( intuitive moral tru?s are ! purely =mal propositions1 ,no gov]nm5t all[s absolute lib]ty1 & ,:]e !re is no prop]ty !re is no inju/ice1--nei!r ( :i* has any evid5t connexion ) ! g5]al happ9ess4 ,z reg>ds 8 conception ( ! ,law ( ,nature1 he takes x 9 ! ma9 imm$iately f ,grotius & ,puf5dorf1 m remotely f ! ,/oics & ! ,roman juri/s4 ,cl>ke4 ,we might give1 z a fair illu/ration ( ,locke's g5]al conception ( e?ics1 a sy/em :i* is frequ5tly repres5t$ z diametrically oppos$ to ,lockism2 namely1 t exp\nd$ 9 ,cl>ke's ,boyle lectures on ! ,be+ & ,attributes ( ,god 7#agjd74 ,x is true t ,locke is n p>ticul>ly conc]n$ ) ! e?ico-!ological proposition :i* ,cl>ke is mo/ anxi\s to ma9ta91--t ! fundam5tal rules ( morality are indep5d5t ( arbitr>y w1 :e!r div9e or human4 ,b 9 8 g5]al view ( e?ical pr9ciples z be+1 l ma!matical pr9ciples1#bi ess5tially tru?s ( relation1 ,cl>ke is q 9 accordance ) ,locke2 :ile ( ! f\r fundam5tal rules t he exp\nds1 ,piety t[>ds ,god1 ,equity1 ,b5evol5ce & ,sobriety 7:i* includes self-pres]vation71 ! fir/ is obta9$1 j z ,locke sugge/s1 by comp>+ ! idea ( man ) ! idea ( an inf9itely good & wise be+ on :om he dep5ds2 & ! second & ?ird are axioms self-evid5t on ! consid]ation ( ! equality or simil>ity ( human individuals z su*4 ,! pr9ciple ( equity--t :atev] ,i judge reasonable or unreasonable = ano!r to d = me1 t by ! same ,i decl>e reasonable or unreasonable t ,i 9 ! l case %\ld d = him1 is m]ely a =mal /atem5t ( ! gold5 rule ( ! gospel4 ,we may obs]ve t1 9 /at+ ! pr9ciple ( b5evol5ce1 s9ce ! great] good is always mo/ fit & reasonable to be done1 e rational creature ought to d all ! good x c to its fell[-creatures1 ,cl>ke av[$ly foll[s ,cumb]l&1 f :om he quotes ! fur!r s5t5ce t univ]sal love & b5evol5ce is z pla9ly ! mo/ direct1 c]ta9 & effectual means to ?is good z ! fl[+ ( a po9t is to produce a l9e4 ,! quotation may rem9d u t ! analogy betwe5 e?ics & ma!matics ought to be trac$ fur!r back ?an ,locke2 9 fact1 x results f ! influ5ce ex]cis$ by ,c>tesianism ov] ,engli% ?\ght g5]ally1 9 ! latt] half ( ! #ag? c5tury4 ,x mu/ be all[$ t ,cl>ke is misl$ by ! analogy to use g5]al e?ical t]ms 7fitness1 agreem5t ( ?+s1 c471 :i* ov]look ! ess5tial di/9ction betwe5 :at is & :at ought to be2 & ev5 9 "o or two expressions to ov]leap ?is di/9ction extravagantly1 z 7e4g47 9 say+ t ! man :o wilfully acts contr>y to ju/ice wills ?+s to be :at !y are n & _c be4 ,:at he really means is less p>adoxically /at$ 9 ! g5]al proposition t orig9ally & 9 reality x is natural & 7morally speak+7 necess>y t ! w %\ld be det]m9$ 9 e action by ! reason ( ! ?+ & ! "r ( ! case1 z x is natural & 7absolutely speak+7 necess>y t ! und]/&+ %\ld submit to a demon/rat$ tru?4 ,b ?\gh x is an ess5tial po9t 9 ,cl>ke's view t :at is "r is to be done z su*1 ap>t f any consid]ation ( pleasure or pa91 x is to be inf]r$ t he is n prep>$ to apply ?is doctr9e 9 its unqualifi$ =m to su* a creature z man1 :o is p>tly "u ! influ5ce ( irrational impulses4 ,at lea/ :5 he comes to argue ! ne$ ( future rew>ds & puni%m5ts we f9d t 8 claim on behalf ( morality is />tl+ly r$uc$4 ,he n[ only cont5ds t virtue des]ves to be *os5 = its own sake1 & vice to be avoid$1 ?\gh a man 0 sure = 8 own p>ticul> nei!r to ga9 nor lose any?+ by ! practice ( ei!r4 ,he fully admits t ! "q is alt]$ :5 vice is att5d$ by pleasure & pr(it to ! vici\s man1 virtue by loss & calamity2 & ev5 t x is n truly reasonable t m5 by adh]+ to virtue %\ld "p ) _! lives1 if !reby !y depriv$ !mselves ( all possibility ( receiv+ any advantage f _! adh]5ce4 ,?us1 on ! :ole1 ! impressive e>ne/ness ) :i* ,cl>ke en=ces ! doctr9e ( rational morality only r5d]$ m manife/ ! difficulty ( e/abli%+ e?ics on an indep5d5t philosophical basis2 s long at lea/ z ! psy*ological egoism ( ,hobbes is n def9itely assail$ & ov]?r[n4 ,until ?is is done1 ! utmo/ demon/ration ( ! ab/ract reasonabl5ess ( social duty only leaves u ) an irreconcilable antagonism betwe5 ! view ( ab/ract reason & ! self-love :i* is all[$ to be ! root ( man's appetitive nature4 ,let u grant t !re is z mu* intellectual absurdity 9 act+ unju/ly z 9 d5y+ t two & two make f\r2 /ill1 if a man has to *oose betwe5 absurdity & unhapp9ess1 he w naturally pref] ! =m]2 & ,cl>ke1 z we h already se51 is n really prep>$ to ma9ta9 t su* pref]5ce is irrational4#cj ,%aftesbury4 ,x rema9s to try ano!r psy*ological basis = e?ical con/ruction2 in/ead ( pres5t+ ! pr9ciple ( social duty z ab/ract reason1 liable to conflict to any ext5t ) natural self-love1 we may try to exhibit ! naturalness ( man's social affections1 & demon/rate a normal h>mony betwe5 ^! & 8 self-reg>d+ impulses4 ,?is is ! l9e ( ?\ght :i* ,%aftesbury 7#afga-agac7 may be said to h initiat$4 ,?is !ory _h already be5 advanc$ by ,cumb]l& & o!rs1 b ,%aftesbury 0 ! fir/ to make x ! c>d9al po9t 9 8 sy/em2 no "o _h yet def9itely transf]r$ ! c5tre ( e?ical int]e/ f ! ,reason1 conceiv$ z appreh5d+ ei!r ab/ract moral di/9ctions or laws ( div9e legislation1 = ! emotional impulses t prompt to social duty2 no "o _h und]tak5 to di/+ui% cle>ly1 by analysis ( exp]i5ce1 ! dis9t]e/$ & self-reg>d+ elem5ts ( our appetitive nature1 or to prove inductively _! p]fect h>mony4 ,9 8 ,inquiry conc]n+ ,virtue & ,m]it he beg9s by attack+ ! egoism ( ,hobbes1 :i*1 z we h se51 0 n necess>ily exclud$ by ! doctr9e ( rational intuitions ( duty4 ,?is int]pretation1 he says1 w\ld be true only if we consid]$ man z a :olly unrelat$ individual4 ,su* a be+ we might d\btless call good1 if 8 impulses 7 adapt$ to ! atta9m5t ( 8 own felicity4 ,b man we mu/ & d consid] 9 relation to a l>g] sy/em ( :i* he =ms a "p1 & s we call him good only :5 8 impulses & dispositions are s balanc$ z to t5d t[>ds ! good ( ?is :ole4 ,& aga9 we d n attribute goodness to him m]ely because 8 outw>d acts h b5eficial results4 ,:5 we speak ( a man z good1 we mean t 8 dispositions or affections are su* z t5d ( !mselves to promote ! good or happ9ess ( human society4 ,hobbes's moral man1 :o1 if let loose f gov]nm5tal con/ra9t1 w\ld /raightway spread ru9 among 8 fell[s1 is n :at we commonly agree to call good4 ,moral goodness1 !n1 9 a s5sible creature implies prim>ily dis9t]e/$ affections1 ^: direct object is ! good ( o!rs2 b ,%aftesbury does n mean 7z he has be5 misund]/ood to mean7 t only su* b5evol5t social impulses are good1 & t ^! are always good4 ,on ! contr>y1 he is c>eful to po9t out1 fir/1 t immod]ate social affections defeat !mselves1 miss _! prop] end1 & are !re=e bad2 secondly1 t z an individual's good is "p ( ! good ( ! :ole1 self-affections exi/+ 9 a duly limit$ degree are morally good4 ,goodness1 9 %ort1 consi/s 9 due comb9ation1 9 j proportion1 ( bo? sorts ( affections1 t5d5cy to promote g5]al good be+ tak5 z ! crit]ion ( ! "r degrees & proportions4 ,?is be+ e/abli%$1 ! ma9 aim ( ,%aftesbury's argum5t is to prove t ! same balance ( private & social affections1 :i* t5ds naturally to public good1 is also conducive to ! happ9ess ( ! individual 9 :om x exi/s4 ,tak+ ! diff]5t impulses 9 detail1 he fir/ %[s h[ ! individual's happ9ess is promot$ by develop+ 8 social affections1 m5tal pleasures be+ sup]ior to bodily1 & ! pleasures ( b5evol5ce ! ri*e/ ( all4 ,9 discuss+ ?is he di/+ui%es1 ) well-appli$ subtlety1 betwe5 ! pleasurabl5ess ( ! b5evol5t emotions !mselves1 ! sympa!tic enjoym5t ( ! happ9ess ( o!rs1 & ! pleasure aris+ f a consci\sness ( _! love & e/eem4 ,he !n exhibits ! unhapp9ess t results f any excess ( ! self-reg>d+ impulses1 bodily appetite1 desire ( weal?1 emulation1 res5tm5t1 ev5 love ( life itself2 & ends by dwell+ on ! intr9sic pa9fulness ( all malevol5ce4#ca ,"o m special impulse rema9s to be notic$4 ,we h se5 t goodness ( "* consi/s 9 a c]ta9 h>mony ( self-reg>d+ & social affections4 ,b virtue1 9 ,%aftesbury's view1 is some?+ m2 x implies a recognition ( moral goodness & imm$iate pref]5ce ( x = its own sake4 ,?is imm$iate pleasure t we take 9 goodness 7& displeasure 9 its opposite7 is due to a susceptibility :i* he calls ! reflex or moral s5se1 & comp>es ) our susceptibility to beauty & de=mity 9 ext]nal ?+s2 x furni%es bo? an additional direct impulse to good conduct1 & an additional gratification to be tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! reckon+ :i* proves ! co9cid5ce ( virtue & happ9ess4 ,?is doctr9e ( ! moral s5se is sometimes repres5t$ z ,%aftesbury's c>d9al t5et2 b ?\gh *>act]i/ic & important1 x is n really necess>y to 8 ma9 argum5t2 x is ! cr[n r ?an ! key/one ( 8 e?ical /ructure4 ,m&eville4 ,! appe>ance ( ,%aftesbury's ,*>act]i/ics 7#agac7 m>ks a turn+-po9t 9 ! hi/ory ( ,engli% e?ical ?\ght4 ,) ! g5]ation ( morali/s t foll[$1 ! consid]ation ( ab/ract rational pr9ciples falls into ! backgr\nd1 & its place is tak5 by introspective /udy ( ! human m9d1 obs]vation ( ! actual play ( its v>i\s impulses & s5tim5ts4 ,?is empirical psy*ology _h n inde$ be5 neglect$ by previ\s writ]s4 ,m1 among o!rs1 _h imitat$ ,desc>tes 9 a discussion ( ! passions1 & ,locke's essay _h giv5 a /ill /rong] impulse 9 ! same direction2 /ill1 ,%aftesbury is ! fir/ morali/ :o di/9ctly takes psy*ological exp]i5ce z ! basis ( e?ics4 ,8 sugge/ions 7 develop$ by ,hut*eson into "o ( ! mo/ elaborate sy/ems ( moral philosophy :i* we possess2 ?r\gh ,hut*eson1 if n directly1 !y influ5c$ ,hume's speculations1 & are ?us connect$ ) lat] utilit>ianism4 ,moreov]1 ! sub/ance ( ,%aftesbury's ma9 argum5t 0 adopt$ by ,butl]1 ?\gh x c\ld n pass ! scrut9y ( t p[]ful & cauti\s intellect )\t receiv+ important modifications & additions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! e?ical optimism ( ,%aftesbury1 r broadly impressive ?an exactly reason$1 & connect$ z x 0 ) a natural !ology t impli$ ! ,*ri/ian s*eme to be sup]flu\s1 *all5g$ attack equally f or?odox div9es & f cynical free?9k]s4 ,( ^! latt] ,m&eville1 ! au?or ( ,! ,fable ( ! ,bees1 or ,private ,vices ,public ,b5efits 7#agbc71 0 a conspicu\s if n a typical specim54 ,he c h>dly be call$ a morali/2 & ?\gh x is impossible to d5y him a consid]able %>e ( philosophic p5etration1 8 anti-moral p>adoxes h n ev5 app>5t coh]5ce4 ,he is conv9c$ t virtue 7:]e x is m ?an a m]e pret5ce7 is purely artificial2 b n q c]ta9 :e!r x is a useless trammel ( appetites & passions t are advantage\s to society1 or a device cr$itable to ! politicians :o introduc$ x by play+ ^u ! pride & vanity ( ! silly creature man4 ,! view1 h[ev]1 to :i* he gave audaci\s expression1 t moral regulation is some?+ ali5 to ! natural man1 & impos$ on him f )\t1 seems to h be5 v curr5t 9 ! polite society ( 8 "t1 z we le>n bo? f ,b]keley's ,alciphron & f ,butl]'s m fam\s s]mons4 ,butl]4 ,! view ( human nature aga9/ :i* ,butl] prea*$ 0 n exactly ,m&eville's1 nor 0 x prop]ly to be call$ ,hobbi/1 al?\gh ,butl] fairly treats x z hav+ a philosophical basis 9 ,hobbes's psy*ology4 ,x 01 s to say1 ,hobbism turn$ inside out1--r5d]$ lic5ti\s & an>*ical in/ead ( con/ructive4 ,hobbes _h said ! natural /ate ( man is non-moral1 unregulat$2 moral rules are means to ! end ( peace1 :i* is a means to ! end ( self-pres]vation4 ,on ?is view morality1 ?\gh dep5d5t = its actuality on ! social compact :i* e/abli%es gov]nm5t1 is actually b9d+ on man z a reasonable be+4 ,b ! quasi-!i/ic assumption t :at is natural mu/ be reasonable rema9$ 9 ! m9ds ( ,hobbes's mo/ docile read]s1 & 9 comb9ation ) 8 !sis t egoism is natural1 t5d$ to produce results :i* 7 dang]\s to social well-be+4 ,to meet ?is view ,butl] does n cont5t himself1 z is sometimes c>elessly suppos$1 ) insi/+ on ! natural claim to au?ority ( ! consci5ce :i* 8 oppon5t repudiat$ z artificial2 he adds a subtle & effective argum5t ad hom9em4 ,he fir/ foll[s ,%aftesbury 9 exhibit+ ! social affections z no less natural ?an ! appetites & desires :i* t5d directly to self-pres]vation2 !n reviv+ ! ,/oic view ( ! prima naturae1 ! fir/ objects ( natural appetites1 he argues t pleasure is n ! prim>y aim ev5 ( ! impulses :i* ,%aftesbury all[$ to be self-affections2 b r a result :i* foll[s ^u _! atta9+ _! natural ends4 ,we h1 9 fact1 to di/+ui% self-love1 ! g5]al desire t e man ha? ( 8 own happ9ess or pleasure1 f ! p>ticul> affections1 passions1 & appetites direct$ t[>ds objects o!r ?an pleasure1 9 ! satisfaction ( :i* pleasure consi/s4 ,! latt] are necess>ily presuppos$ z di/9ct impulses 9 ! v idea ( an int]e/$ pursuit2 s9ce1 if !re 7 no su* pre-exi/+ desires1 !re w\ld be no pleasure = self-love to aim at4 ,?us ! object ( hung] is n ! pleasure ( eat+ b food2 hung] is !re=e1 /rictly speak+1 no m int]e/$ ?an b5evol5ce2 grant+ t ! pleasures ( ! table are an important elem5t 9 ! happ9ess at :i* self-love aims1 ! same at lea/ may be said = ! pleasures ( love & sympa?y4 ,fur!r1 s f> f bodily appetites 7or o!r p>ticul> desires7 be+ =ms ( self-love1 !re is no "o ( !m :i* "u c]ta9 circum/ances may n come into conflict ) x4 ,inde$1 x is common = m5 to sacrifice to passion :at !y "k to be _! true int]e/s2 at ! same "t we d n consid] su* conduct natural 9 man z a rational be+2 we r reg>d x z natural = him to gov]n 8 transi5t impulses4 ,?us ! notion ( natural unregulat$ egoism turns out to be a psy*ological *im]a4 ,inde$1 we may say t an egoi/ mu/ be d\bly self-regulative1 s9ce rational self-love ought to re/ra9 n only o!r impulses1 b itself also2 = z happ9ess is made up ( feel+s t result f ! satisfaction ( impulses o!r ?an self-love1 any ov]-developm5t ( ! latt]1 enfeebl+ ^! o!r impulses1 mu/ proportionally dim9i% ! happ9ess at :i* self-love aims4 ,if1 !n1 x be admitt$ t human impulses are naturally "u gov]nm5t1 ! natural claim ( consci5ce or ! moral faculty to be ! supreme gov]nor w h>dly be d5i$4 ,b has n self-love also1 by ,butl]'s own acc\nt1 a simil> au?ority1 :i* may come into conflict ) t ( consci5ce8 ,butl] fully admits ?is1 &1 9 fact1 gr\nds on x an important criticism ( ,%aftesbury4 ,we h se5 t 9 ! latt]'s sy/em ! moral s5se is n absolutely requir$1 or at lea/ is necess>y only z a sub/itute = enlight5$ self-reg>d2 s9ce if ! h>mony betwe5 prud5ce & virtue1 self-reg>d+ & social impulses1 is complete1 m]e self-int]e/ w prompt a duly enlight5$ m9d to ma9ta9 precisely t balance ( affections 9 :i* goodness consi/s4 ,b to ,butl]'s m cauti\s m9d ! complet5ess ( ?is h>mony did n seem suffici5tly demon/rable to be tak5 z a basis ( moral tea*+2 he has at lea/ to contemplate ! possibility ( a man be+ conv9c$ ( ! opposite2 & he argues t unless we reg>d consci5ce z ess5tially au?oritative--:i* is n impli$ 9 ! t]m moral s5se--su* a man is really b\nd to be vici\s2 s9ce int]e/1 "o's own happ9ess1 is a manife/ obligation4 ,/ill on ?is view1 ev5 if ! au?ority ( consci5ce be ass]t$1 we seem r$uc$ to an ultimate dualism ( our rational nature4 ,butl]'s ord]$ polity ( impulses turns out to be a polity ) two indep5d5t gov]nm5ts4 ,butl] does n d5y ?is1 s f> z m]e claim to au?ority is conc]n$2#cb b he ma9ta9s t1 ! dictates ( consci5ce be+ cle> & c]ta91 :ile ! calculations ( self-int]e/ lead to m]ely probable conclusions1 x c nev] be practically reasonable to disobey ! =m]1 ev5 ap>t f any pro( :i* religion may furni% ( ! absolute co9cid5ce ( ! two 9 a future life4 ,wolla/on4 ,?is dualism ( gov]n+ pr9ciples1 consci5ce & self-love1 9 ,butl]'s sy/em1 & p]haps1 too1 8 revival ( ! ,platonic conception ( human nature z an ord]$ & gov]n$ community ( impulses1 is p]haps mo/ ne>ly anticipat$ 9 ,wolla/on's ,religion ( ,nature ,del9eat$ 7#agbb74 ,"h1 = ! fir/ "t1 we f9d moral good & natural good or happ9ess treat$ sep>ately z two ess5tially di/9ct objects ( rational pursuit & inve/igation2 ! h>mony betwe5 !m be+ reg>d$ z matt] ( religi\s fai?1 n moral k4 ,wolla/on's !ory ( moral evil z consi/+ 9 ! practical contradiction ( a true proposition1 closely resembles ! mo/ p>adoxical "p ( ,cl>ke's doctr9e1 & 0 n likely to approve itself to ! /rong common s5se ( ,butl]2 b 8 /atem5t ( happ9ess or pleasure z a ju/ly desirable end at :i* e rational be+ ought to aim corresponds exactly to ,butl]'s conception ( self-love z a naturally gov]n+ impulse2 :ile ! moral ari?metic ) :i* he comp>es pleasures & pa9s1 & endeav\rs to make ! notion ( happ9ess quantitatively precise1 is an anticipation ( ,b5?amism4 ,hut*eson4 ,!re is ano!r side ( ,%aftesbury's h>mony :i* ,butl] 0 ultimately l$ to oppose 9 a m decid$ mann]1--! opposition1 namely1 betwe5 consci5ce or ! moral s5se & ! social affections4 ,9 ! ,s]mons1 inde$ 7#agbi71 ,butl] seems to treat consci5ce & calm b5evol5ce z p]man5tly alli$ ?\gh di/9ct pr9ciples1 b 9 ! ,diss]tation on ,virtue1 app5d$ to ! ,analogy 7#agci71 he ma9ta9s t ! conduct dictat$ by consci5ce w (t5 diff] widely f t to :i* m]e reg>d = ! production ( happ9ess w\ld prompt4 ,we may take ?is latt] treatise z repres5t+ ! fir/ 9 ! developm5t ( ,engli% e?ics1 at :i* :at 7 aft]w>ds call$ utilit>ian & intuitional morality 7 fir/ =mally oppos$2 9 e>li] sy/ems ! anti!sis is q lat5t1 z we h incid5tally notic$ 9 ! case ( ,cumb]l& & ,cl>ke4 ,! argum5t 9 ,butl]'s diss]tation 0 probably direct$ *iefly aga9/ ,hut*eson1 :o 9 8 ,inquiry into ! ,orig9al ( our ,ideas ( ,beauty & ,virtue _h def9itely id5tifi$ virtue ) b5evol5ce4 ,! id5tification is slightly qualifi$ 9 ,hut*eson's po/hum\sly publi%$ ,sy/em ( ,moral ,philosophy 7#agee71 9 :i* ! g5]al view ( ,%aftesbury is m fully develop$1 ) sev]al new psy*ological di/9ctions1 includ+ ,butl]'s sep>ation ( calm b5evol5ce--z well z1 aft] ,butl]1 calm self-love--f ! turbul5t passions1 selfi% or social4 ,hut*eson foll[s ,butl] aga9 9 lay+ /ress on ! regulat+ & controll+ function ( ! moral s5se2 b he /ill reg>ds k9d affections z ! pr9cipal objects ( moral approbation--! calm & ext5sive affections be+ pref]r$ to ! turbul5t & n>r[--toge!r ) ! desire & love ( moral excell5ce :i* is rank$ ) univ]sal b5evol5ce1 ! two be+ equally wor?y & necess>ily h>moni\s4 ,only 9 a second>y s5se is approval due to c]ta9 abilities & dispositions imm$iately connect$ ) virtu\s affections1 z c&\r1 v]acity1 =titude1 s5se ( hon\r2 :ile 9 a l[] grade /ill are plac$ sci5ces & arts1 along ) ev5 bodily skills & gifts2 inde$1 ! approbation we give to ^! is n /rictly moral1 b is ref]r$ to ! s5se ( dec5cy or dignity1 :i* 7z well z ! s5se ( hon\r7 is to be di/+ui%$ f ! moral s5se4 ,calm self-love ,hut*eson reg>ds z morally indiff]5t2 ?\gh he ent]s into a c>eful analysis ( ! elem5ts ( happ9ess1#cc 9 ord] to %[ t a true reg>d = private int]e/ always co9cides ) ! moral s5se & ) b5evol5ce4 ,:ile ?us ma9ta9+ ,%aftesbury's h>mony betwe5 public & private good1 ,hut*eson is /ill m c>eful to e/abli% ! /rict dis9t]e/$ness ( b5evol5t affections4 ,%aftesbury _h conclusively %[n t ^! 7 n 9 ! vulg> s5se selfi%2 b ! v /ress :i* he lays on ! pleasure insep>able f _! ex]cise sugge/s a subtle egoi/ic !ory :i* he does n expressly exclude1 s9ce x may be said t ?is intr9sic rew>d con/itutes ! real motive ( ! b5evol5t man4 ,to ?is ,hut*eson replies t no d\bt ! exquisite delight ( ! emotion ( love is a motive to su/a9 & develop x2 b ?is pleasure _c be directly obta9$1 any m ?an o!r pleasures1 by m]ely desir+ x2 x c be s\ght only by ! indirect me?od ( cultivat+ & indulg+ ! dis9t]e/$ desire = o!rs' good1 :i* is ?us obvi\sly di/9ct f ! desire = ! pleasure ( b5evol5ce4 ,he po9ts to ! fact t ! imm95ce ( dea? (t5 int5sifies in/ead ( dim9i%+ a man's desire = ! welf>e ( ^? he loves1 z a crucial exp]im5t prov+ ! dis9t]e/$ness ( love2 add+1 z confirmatory evid5ce1 t ! sympa?y & admiration commonly felt = self-sacrifice dep5ds on ! belief t x is some?+ diff]5t f ref9$ self-seek+4 ,x rema9s to consid] h[1 f ! doctr9e t affection is ! prop] object ( approbation1 we are to d$uce moral rules or natural laws prescrib+ or prohibit+ outw>d acts4 ,x is obvi\s t all actions conducive to ! g5]al good w des]ve our highe/ approbation if done f dis9t]e/$ b5evol5ce2 b h[ if !y are n s done8 ,9 answ]+ ?is "q1 ,hut*eson avails himself ( ! s*ola/ic di/9ction betwe5 mat]ial & =mal goodness4 ,an action1 he says1 is mat]ially good :5 9 fact x t5ds to ! int]e/ ( ! sy/em1 s f> z we c judge ( its t5d5cy1 or to ! good ( "s "p consi/5t ) t ( ! sy/em1 :atev] 7 ! affections ( ! ag5t4 ,an action is =mally good :5 x fl[$ f good affection 9 a j proportion4 ,on ! pivot ( ?is di/9ction ,hut*eson turns r\nd f ! po9t ( view ( ,%aftesbury to t ( lat] utilit>ianism4 ,z reg>ds mat]ial goodness ( actions1 he adopts explicitly & unres]v$ly ! =mula aft]w>ds tak5 z fundam5tal by ,b5?am2 hold+ t t action is be/ :i* procures ! greate/ happ9ess = ! greate/ numb]s1 & ! wor/ :i* 9 a l mann] occasions mis]y4 ,accord+ly 8 treatm5t ( ext]nal rights & duties1 ?\gh decid$ly inf]ior 9 me?odical cle>ness & precision1 does n diff] 9 pr9ciple f t ( ,paley or ,b5?am1 except t he lays great] /ress on ! imm$iate conduciv5ess ( actions to ! happ9ess ( individuals1 & m (t5 ref]s 9 a m]ely supplem5t>y or re/rictive way to _! t5d5cies 9 respect ( g5]al happ9ess4 ,x may be notic$1 too1 t he /ill accepts ! social compact z ! natural mode ( con/itut+ gov]nm5t1 & reg>ds ! obligations ( subjects to civil ob$i5ce z normally dep5d5t on a tacit contract2 ?\gh he is c>eful to /ate t cons5t is n absolutely necess>y to ! j e/abli%m5t ( b5efic5t gov]nm5t1 nor ! s\rce ( irrevocable obligation to a p]nici\s "o4 ,hume4 ,an important /ep fur!r 9 political utilit>ianism 0 tak5 by ,hume 9 8 ,treatise on ,human ,nature 7#agci74 ,hume conc$es t a compact is ! natural means ( peacefully in/itut+ a new gov]nm5t1 & may !re=e be prop]ly reg>d$ z ! gr\nd ( allegiance to x at ! outset2 b he urges t1 :5 once x is firmly e/abli%$ ! duty ( obey+ x re/s on precisely ! same comb9ation ( private & g5]al int]e/s z ! duty ( keep+ promises2 x is !re=e absurd to base ! =m] on ! latt]4 ,ju/ice1 v]acity1 fidelity to compacts & to gov]nm5ts1 are all co-ord9ate2 !y are all artificial virtues1 due to civilization1 & n belong+ to man 9 8 rud] & m natural condition2 our approbation ( all alike is f\nd$ on our p]ception ( _! useful consequ5ces4 ,x is ?is la/ position t con/itutes ! fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 ,hut*eson's e?ical doctr9e & ,hume's4#cd ,! =m]1 :ile accept+ utility z ! crit]ion ( mat]ial goodness1 _h adh]$ to ,%aftesbury's view t dispositions1 n results ( action1 7 ! prop] object ( moral approval2 at ! same "t1 :ile giv+ to b5evol5ce ! fir/ place 9 8 acc\nt ( p]sonal m]it1 he _h %runk f ! p>adox ( treat+ x z ! sole virtue1 & _h add$ a r undef9$ & unexpla9$ tra9 ( qualities1--v]acity1 =titude1 activity1 indu/ry1 sagacity1--imm$iately approv$ 9 v>i\s degrees by ! moral s5se or ! s5se ( dignity4 ,?is naturally sugge/$ to a m9d l ,hume's1 anxi\s to apply ! exp]im5tal me?od to psy*ology1 ! problem ( r$uc+ ^! diff]5t elem5ts ( p]sonal m]it--or r our approval ( !m--to "s common pr9ciple4 ,! old !ory t ref]r$ ?is approval entirely to self-love1 is1 he holds1 easy to disprove by crucial exp]im5ts on ! play ( our moral s5tim5ts2 reject+ ?is1 he f9ds ! requir$ explanation 9 ! sympa!tic pleasure t att5ds our p]ception ( ! conduciv5ess ( virtue to ! int]e/s ( human be+s o!r ?an ourselves4 ,he endeav\rs to e/abli% ?is inductively by a survey ( ! qualities1 commonly prais$ z virtues1 :i* he f9ds to be always ei!r useful or imm$iately agreeable1 ei!r 7#a7 to ! virtu\s ag5t himself or 7#b7 to o!rs4 ,9 class 7#b7 he includes1 besides ! ,b5evol5ce ( ,%aftesbury & ,hut*eson1 ! useful virtues1 ,ju/ice1 ,v]acity & ,fidelity to compacts2 z well z su* imm$iately agreeable qualities z polit5ess1 wit1 mode/y & ev5 cleanl9ess4 ,! mo/ orig9al "p ( 8 discussion1 h[ev]1 is conc]n$ ) qualities imm$iately useful to _! possessor4 ,! mo/ cynical man ( ! _w1 he says1 ) :atev] sull5 incr$ulity he may repudiate virtue z a holl[ pret5ce1 _c really refuse 8 approbation to discretion1 caution1 ent]prise1 indu/ry1 frugality1 economy1 good s5se1 prud5ce1 disc]nm5t2 nor aga91 to temp]ance1 sobriety1 pati5ce1 p]sev]ance1 consid]at5ess1 secrecy1 ord]1 ins9uation1 address1 pres5ce ( m9d1 quickness ( conception1 facility ( expression4 ,x is evid5t t ! m]it ( ^! qualities 9 our eyes is *iefly due to our p]ception ( _! t5d5cy to s]ve ! p]son possess$ ( !m2 s t ! cynic 9 prais+ !m is really exhibit+ ! unselfi% sympa?y ( :i* he d\bts ! exi/5ce4 ,hume admits ! difficulty t arises1 especially 9 ! case ( ! artificial virtues1 su* z ju/ice1 c41 f ! und5iable fact t we praise !m & blame _! opposites )\t consci\sly reflect+ on useful or p]nici\s consequ5ces2 b consid]s t ?is may be expla9$ z an effect ( education & acquir$ habits4#ce ,s f> ! moral faculty has be5 consid]$ z contemplative r ?an active2 & ?is1 inde$1 is ! po9t ( view f :i* ,hume ma9ly reg>ds x4 ,if we ask :at actual motive we h = virtu\s conduct1 ,hume's answ] is n q cle>4 ,on ! "o h&1 he speaks ( moral approbation z d]iv$ f humanity & b5evol5ce1 :ile expressly recogniz+1 aft] ,butl]1 t !re is a /rictly dis9t]e/$ elem5t 9 our b5evol5t impulses 7z also 9 hung]1 ?ir/1 love ( fame & o!r passions74 ,on ! o!r h&1 he does n seem to ?9k t moral s5tim5t or ta/e c become a motive to action1 except z x gives pleasure or pa91 & !reby con/itutes happ9ess or mis]y4 ,x is difficult to make ^! views q consi/5t2 b at any rate ,hume emphatically ma9ta9s t reason is no motive to action1 except s f> z x directs ! impulse receiv$ f appetite or incl9ation2 & recognizes--9 8 lat] treatise at lea/--no obligation to virtue1 except t ( ! ag5t's int]e/ or happ9ess4 ,he attempts1 h[ev]1 to %[1 9 a summ>y way1 t all ! duties :i* 8 moral !ory recomm5ds are also ! true int]e/ ( ! individual1--tak+ into acc\nt ! importance to 8 happ9ess ( peaceful reflection on "o's own conduct4 ,adam ,smi?4 ,b ev5 if we consid] ! moral consci\sness m]ely z a p>ticul> k9d ( pleasurable emotion1 !re is an obvi\s "q sugge/$ by ,hume's !ory1 to :i* he gives no adequate answ]4 ,if ! ess5ce ( moral ta/e is sympa?y ) ! pleasure ( o!rs1 :y is n ?is specific feel+ excit$ by o!r ?+s beside virtue t t5d to cause su* pleasure8 ,on ?is po9t ,hume cont5ts himself ) ! vague rem>k t !re are a num]\s set ( passions & s5tim5ts1 ( :i* ?9k+ rational be+s are by ! orig9al con/itution ( nature ! only prop] objects4 ,! tru? is1 t ,hume's notion ( moral approbation 0 v loose1 z is suffici5tly %[n by ! li/ ( useful & agreeable qualities :i* he consid]s wor?y ( approbation4#cf ,x is !re=e h>dly surpris+ t 8 !ory %\ld leave ! specific quality ( ! moral s5tim5ts a fact /ill ne$+ to be expla9$4 ,an orig9al & +5i\s solution ( ?is problem 0 (f]$ by 8 contempor>y ,adam ,smi?1 9 8 ,!ory ( ,moral ,s5tim5ts 7#agei74 ,)\t d5y+ ! actuality or importance ( t sympa!tic pleasure 9 ! p]ceiv$ or inf]r$ effects ( virtues & vices he yet holds t ! ess5tial "p ( common moral s5tim5t is con/itut$ r by a m direct sympa?y ) ! impulses t prompt to action or expression4 ,! spontane\s play ( ?is sympa?y he treats z an orig9al & inexplicable fact ( human nature1 b he consid]s t its action is p[]fully su/a9$ by ! pleasure t ea* man f9ds 9 ! accord ( 8 feel+s ) ano!r's4 ,by means ( ?is prim>y elem5t1 comp\nd$ 9 v>i\s ways1 ,adam ,smi? expla9s all ! ph5om5a ( ! moral consci\sness4 ,he takes fir/ ! semi-moral notion ( propriety or decorum1 & endeav\rs to %[ inductively t our application ( ?is notion to ! social behavi\r ( ano!r is det]m9$ by our degree ( sympa?y ) ! feel+ express$ 9 su* behavi\r4 ,?us ! prescriptions ( good ta/e 9 ! expression ( feel+ may be summ$ up 9 ! pr9ciple1 r$uce or raise ! expression to t ) :i* spectators w sympa?ize4 ,:5 ! ef=t to re/ra9 feel+ is exhibit$ 9 a degree :i* surprises z well z pleases1 x excites admiration z a virtue or excell5ce2 su* excell5ces ,adam ,smi? qua9tly calls ! awful & respectable1 contra/+ !m ) ! amiable virtues :i* consi/ 9 ! opposite ef=t to sympa?ize1 :5 exhibit$ 9 a rem>kable degree4 ,f ! s5tim5ts ( propriety & admiration we proce$ to ! s5se ( m]it & dem]it4 ,"h a m complex ph5om5on pres5ts itself = analysis2 we h to di/+ui% 9 ! s5se ( m]it--7#a7 a direct sympa?y ) ! s5tim5ts ( ! ag5t1 & 7#b7 an indirect sympa?y ) ! gratitude ( ^? :o receive ! b5efit ( 8 actions4 ,9 ! case ( dem]it !re is a direct antipa?y to ! feel+s ( ! misdo]1 b ! *ief s5tim5t excit$ is sympa?y ) ^? injur$ by ! misde$4 ,! object ( ?is sympa!tic res5tm5t1 impell+ u to puni%1 is :at we call inju/ice2 & ?us ! rem>kable /r+5cy ( ! obligation to act ju/ly is expla9$ s9ce ! recognition ( any action z unju/ involves ! admission t x may be =cibly ob/ruct$ or puni%$4 ,moral judgm5ts1 !n1 are expressions ( ! complex normal sympa?y ( an imp>tial spectator ) ! active impulses t prompt to & result f actions4 ,9 ! case ( our own conduct :at we call consci5ce is really sympa?y ) ! feel+s ( an imag9>y imp>tial spectator4 ,adam ,smi? gives au?ority to 8 moral sy/em by say+ t moral pr9ciples are ju/ly to be reg>d$ z ! laws ( ! ,deity2 b ?is he nev] proves4 ,s ,hume insi/s emphatically on ! reality ( moral obligation2 b is f\nd to mean no m by ?is ?an ! real exi/5ce ( ! likes & dislikes t human be+s feel = ea* o!r's qualities4 ,! fact is t amid ! analysis ( feel+s ar\s$ by ! s5tim5talism ( ,%aftesbury's s*ool1 ! fundam5tal que/ions ,:at is "r8 & ,:y8 _h be5 all[$ to drop into ! backgr\nd1 & ! consequ5t dang] to morality 0 manife/4 ,! b9d+ =ce ( moral rules becomes evanesc5t if we admit1 ) ,hut*eson1 t ! s5se ( !m may prop]ly v>y f man to man z ! palate does2 & x seems only ano!r way ( putt+ ,hume's doctr9e1 t reason is n conc]n$ ) ! ends ( action1 to say t ! m]e exi/5ce ( a moral s5tim5t is 9 itself no reason = obey+ x4 ,a reaction1 9 "o =m or ano!r1 aga9/ ! t5d5cy to dissolve e?ics into psy*ology 0 inevitable2 s9ce mank9d g5]ally c\ld n be s f> absorb$ by ! int]e/ ( psy*ological hypo!sis z to =get _! ne$ ( e/abli%+ practical pr9ciples4 ,x 0 obvi\s1 too1 t ?is reaction might take place 9 ei!r ( ! two l9es ( ?\ght1 :i*1 hav+ be5 peacefully alli$ 9 ,cl>ke & ,cumb]l&1 _h become di/9ctly oppos$ to ea* o!r 9 ,butl] & ,hut*eson4 ,x might ei!r fall back on ! moral pr9ciples commonly accept$1 &1 affirm+ _! objective validity1 endeav\r to exhibit !m z a coh]5t & complete set ( ultimate e?ical tru?s2 or x might take ! utility or conduciv5ess to pleasure1 to :i* ,hume _h ref]r$ = ! orig9 ( mo/ s5tim5ts1 z an ultimate end & /&>d by :i* ^! s5tim5ts might be judg$ & correct$4 ,! =m] is ! l9e adopt$ ) sub/antial agreem5t by ,price1 ,reid1 ,/ew>t & o!r memb]s ( ! /ill exi/+ ,intuitional s*ool2 ! latt] me?od1 ) consid]ably m div]g5ce ( view & treatm5t1 0 employ$ indep5d5tly & almo/ simultane\sly by ,paley & ,b5?am 9 bo? e?ics & politics1 & is at ! pres5t "t widely ma9ta9$ "u ! "n ( ,utilit>ianism4 ,price4 ,price's ,review ( ! ,*ief ,que/ions & ,difficulties ( ,morals 0 publi%$ 9 #ageg1 two ye>s be=e ,adam ,smi?'s treatise4 ,9 reg>d+ moral ideas z d]iv$ f ! intuition ( tru? or imm$iate disc]nm5t ( ! nature ( ?+s by ! und]/&+1 ,price revives ! g5]al view ( ,cudwor? & ,cl>ke2 b ) sev]al specific diff]5ces4 ,fir/ly1 8 conception ( "r & wrong z s+le ideas incapable ( def9ition or analysis--! notions "r1 fit1 ought1 duty1 obligation1 be+ co9cid5t or id5tical--at lea/ avoids ! confusions into :i* ,cl>ke & ,wolla/on _h be5 l$ by press+ ! analogy betwe5 e?ical & physical tru?4 ,secondly1 ! emotional elem5t ( ! moral consci\sness1 on :i* att5tion _h be5 conc5trat$ by ,%aftesbury & 8 foll[]s1 ?\gh di/9ctly recogniz$ z accompany+ ! intellectual intuition1 is c>efully subord9at$ to x4 ,:ile "r & wrong1 9 ,price's view1 are real objective qualities ( actions1 moral beauty & de=mity are subjective ideas2 repres5t+ feel+s :i* are p>tly ! necess>y effects ( ! p]ceptions ( "r & wrong 9 rational be+s z su*1 p>tly due to an implant$ s5se or v>y+ emotional susceptibility4 ,?us1 bo? reason & s5se ( in/9ct co-op]ate 9 ! impulse to virtu\s conduct1 ?\gh ! rational elem5t is prim>y & p>am\nt4 ,price fur!r foll[s ,butl] 9 di/+ui%+ ! p]ception ( m]it & dem]it 9 ag5ts z ano!r accompanim5t ( ! p]ception ( "r & wrong 9 actions2 ! =m] be+1 h[ev]1 only a peculi> species ( ! latt]1 s9ce1 to p]ceive m]it 9 any "o is to p]ceive t x is "r to rew>d him4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t bo? ,price & ,reid are c>eful to /ate t ! m]it ( ! ag5t dep5ds entirely on ! int5tion or =mal rightness ( 8 act2 a man is n blamewor?y = un9t5d$ evil1 ?\gh he may ( c\rse be blam$ = any wilful neglect 7cf4 ,ari/41 ,e?4 ,nic41 iii4 #a71 :i* has caus$ him to be ignorant ( 8 real duty4 ,:5 we turn to ! subject matt] ( virtue1 we f9d t ,price1 9 comp>ison ) ,m or ,cl>ke is decid$ly lax] 9 accept+ & /at+ 8 e?ical fir/ pr9ciples2 *iefly ow+ to ! new anti!sis to ! view ( ,%aftesbury & ,hut*eson by :i* 8 controv]sial position is complicat$4 ,:at ,price is specially conc]n$ to %[ is ! exi/5ce ( ultimate pr9ciples beside ! pr9ciple ( univ]sal b5evol5ce4 ,n t he repudiates ! obligation ei!r ( rational b5evol5ce or self-love2 on ! contr>y1 he takes m pa9s ?an ,butl] to demon/rate ! reasonabl5ess ( ei!r pr9ciple4 ,!re is n any?+1 he says1 ( :i* we h m und5iably an intuitive p]ception1 ?an t x is '"r to pursue & promote happ9ess1' :e!r = ourselves or = o!rs4 ,f9ally1 ,price1 writ+ aft] ! demon/ration by ,%aftesbury & ,butl] ( ! actuality ( dis9t]e/$ impulses 9 human nature1 is bold] & cle>] ?an ,cudwor? or ,cl>ke 9 insi/+ t "r actions are to be *os5 because !y are "r by virtu\s ag5ts z su*1 ev5 go+ s f> z to lay d[n t an act loses its moral wor? 9 proportion z x is done f natural incl9ation4 ,reid4 ,on ?is latt] po9t ,reid1 9 8 ,essays on ! ,active ,p[]s ( ! ,human ,m9d 7#aghh71 /ates a conclusion m 9 h>mony ) common s5se1 only ma9ta9+ t no act c be morally good 9 :i* reg>d = :at is "r has n "s influ5ce4 ,?is is p>tly due to ! fact t ,reid builds m di/9ctly ?an ,price on ! f\ndation laid by ,butl]2 especially 9 8 acceptance ( t duality ( gov]n+ pr9ciples :i* we h notic$ z a c>d9al po9t 9 ! latt]'s doctr9e4 ,reid consid]s reg>d = "o's good on ! :ole 7,butl]'s self-love7 & s5se ( duty 7,butl]'s consci5ce7 z two ess5tially di/9ct & co-ord9ate rational pr9ciples1 ?\gh naturally (t5 compreh5d$ "u ! "o t]m1 ,reason4 ,! rationality ( ! =m] pr9ciple he takes pa9s to expla9 & e/abli%2 9 opposition to ,hume's doctr9e t x is no "p ( ! function ( reason to det]m9e ! ends :i* we ought to pursue1 or ! pref]5ce due to "o end ov] ano!r4 ,he urges t ! notion ( good#cg on ! :ole is "o :i* only a reason+ be+ c =m1 involv+ z x does ab/raction f ! objects ( all p>ticul> desires1 & comp>ison ( pa/ & future ) pres5t feel+s2 & ma9ta9s t x is a contradiction to suppose a rational be+ to h ! notion ( its ,good on ! ,:ole )\t a desire = x1 & t su* a desire mu/ naturally regulate all p>ticul> appetites & passions4 ,x _c reasonably be subord9at$ ev5 to ! moral faculty2 9 fact1 a man :o d\bts ! co9cid5ce ( ! two--:i* on religi\s gr\nds we mu/ believe to be complete 9 a morally gov]n$ _w--is r$uc$ to ! mis]able dilemma :e!r x is bett] to be a fool or a knave4 ,z reg>ds ! moral faculty itself1 ,reid's /atem5t co9cides 9 ! ma9 ) ,price's2 x is bo? intellectual & active1 n m]ely p]ceiv+ ! rightness or moral obligation ( actions 7:i* ,reid conceives z a simple unanalysable relation betwe5 act & ag5t71 b also impell+ ! w to ! p]=mance ( :at is se5 to be "r4 ,bo? ?9k]s hold t ?is p]ception ( "r & wrong 9 actions is accompani$ by a p]ception ( m]it & dem]it 9 ag5ts1 & also by a specific emotion2 b :]eas ,price conceives ?is emotion *iefly z pleasure or pa91 analog\s to t produc$ 9 ! m9d by physical beauty or de=mity1 ,reid reg>ds x *iefly z b5evol5t affection1 e/eem & sympa?y 7or _! opposites71 = ! virtu\s 7or vici\s7 ag5t4 ,?is pleasurable good-w1 :5 ! moral judgm5t relates to a man's own actions1 becomes ! te/imony ( a good consci5ce--! pure/ & mo/ valuable ( all human enjoym5ts4 ,reid is c>eful to obs]ve t ?is moral faculty is n innate except 9 g]m2 x /&s 9 ne$ ( education1 tra9+1 ex]cise 7= :i* society is indisp5sable71 & habit1 9 ord] to ! atta9m5t ( moral tru?4 ,he does n ) ,price object to its be+ call$ ! moral s5se1 provid$ we und]/& by ?is a s\rce n m]ely ( feel+s or notions1 b ( ultimate tru?s4 ,"h he omits to notice ! important "q :e!r ! premises ( moral reason+ are univ]sal or individual judgm5ts2 z to :i* ! use ( ! t]m s5se seems r to sugge/ ! second alt]native4 ,inde$1 he seems himself q undecid$ on ?is "q2 s9ce1 ?\gh he g5]ally repres5ts e?ical me?od z d$uctive1 he also speaks ( ! orig9al judgm5t t ?is action is "r & t wrong4 ,! tru? is t ! con/ruction ( a sci5tific me?od ( e?ics is a matt] ( little practical mom5t to ,reid4 ,?us1 ?\gh he (f]s a li/ ( fir/ pr9ciples1 by d$uction f :i* ^! common op9ions may be confirm$1 he does n pres5t x ) any claim to complet5ess4 ,besides maxims relat+ to virtue 9 g5]al1--su* z 7#a7 t !re is a "r & wrong 9 conduct1 b 7#b7 only 9 volunt>y conduct1 & t we ought 7#c7 to take pa9s to le>n our duty1 & 7#d7 =tify ourselves aga9/ temptations to deviate f x--,reid /ates five fundam5tal axioms4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is m]ely ! pr9ciple ( rational self-love1 t we ought to pref] a great] to a less] good1 ?\gh m di/9ct1 & a less evil to a great]1--! m5tion ( :i* seems r inconsi/5t ) ,reid's di/9ct sep>ation ( ! moral faculty f self-love4 ,! ?ird is m]ely ! g5]al rule ( b5evol5ce /at$ 9 ! some:at vague ,/oical =mula1 t no "o is born = himself only4 ,! f\r?1 aga91 is ! m]ely =mal pr9ciple t "r & wrong mu/ be ! same to all 9 all circum/ances1 :i* belongs equally to all sy/ems ( objective morality2 :ile ! fif? prescribes ! religi\s duty ( v5]ation or submission to ,god4 ,?us1 ! only pr9ciple :i* ev] appe>s to (f] def9ite guidance z to social duty is ! second1 t s f> z ! int5tion ( nature appe>s 9 ! con/itution ( man1 we ought to act accord+ to t int5tion1 ! vagu5ess#ch ( :i* is obvi\s4 7,= ,reid's views on moral fre$om see ,a4 ,ba91 ,m5tal ,sci5ce1 pp4 #dbb1 seq47 ,dugald ,/ew>t4 ,a simil> incomplet5ess 9 ! /atem5t ( moral pr9ciples is f\nd if we turn to ,reid's disciple1 ,dugald ,/ew>t1 ^: ,philosophy ( ! ,active & ,moral ,p[]s ( ,man 7#ahbh7 conta9s ! g5]al view ( ,butl] & ,reid1 & to "s ext5t t ( ,price1--exp\nd$ ) m fulness & precision1 b )\t important orig9al additions or modifications4 ,/ew>t lays /ress on ! obligation ( ju/ice z di/9ct f b5evol5ce2 b 8 def9ition ( ju/ice repres5ts x z ess5tially imp>tiality1--a virtue :i* 7z 0 j n[ said ( ,reid's f\r? pr9ciple7 mu/ equally f9d a place 9 ! utilit>ian or any o!r sy/em t lays d[n univ]sally applicable rules ( morality4 ,aft]w>ds1 h[ev]1 ,/ew>t di/+ui%es integrity or hone/y z a bran* ( ju/ice conc]n$ ) ! rights ( o!r m51 :i* =m ! subject ( natural jurisprud5ce4 ,9 ?is dep>tm5t he lays d[n ! moral axiom t ! lab\r] is entitl$ to ! fruit ( 8 own lab\r z ! pr9ciple on :i* complete rights ( prop]ty are f\nd$2 ma9ta9+ t occupancy alone w\ld only conf] a transi5t "r ( possession dur+ use4 ,! only o!r pr9ciples :i* he discusses are v]acity & fidelity to promises1 gratitude be+ treat$ z a natural in/9ct prompt+ to a p>ticul> k9d ( j actions4 ,:ewell4 ,x w be se5 t nei!r ,reid nor ,/ew>t (f]s m ?an a v meagre & t5tative contribution to t e?ical sci5ce by :i*1 z !y ma9ta91 ! receiv$ rules ( morality may be rationally d$uc$ f self-evid5t fir/ pr9ciples4 ,a m ambiti\s attempt 9 ! same direction 0 made by ,:ewell 9 8 ,elem5ts ( ,morality 7#ahdf74 ,:ewell's g5]al moral view diff]s f t ( 8 ,scotti% pr$ecessors *iefly 9 a po9t :]e we may trace ! influ5ce ( ,kant--viz4 9 8 rejection ( self-love z an indep5d5t rational & gov]n+ pr9ciple1 & 8 consequ5t refusal to admit happ9ess1 ap>t f duty1 z a reasonable end = ! individual4 ,! moral reason1 ?us left 9 sole supremacy1 is repres5t$ z enunciat+ five ultimate pr9ciples1--^? ( b5evol5ce1 ju/ice1 tru?1 purity & ord]4 ,) a little /ra9+ ^! are made to correspond to five *ief divisions ( ,jus1--p]sonal security 7b5evol5ce be+ oppos$ to ! ill-w t commonly causes p]sonal injuries71 prop]ty1 contract1 m>riage & gov]nm5t2 :ile ! fir/1 second & f\r?1 aga91 regulate respectively ! ?ree *ief classes ( human motives1--affections1 m5tal desires & appetites4 ,?us ! li/1 ) ! addition ( two g5]al pr9ciples1 e>ne/ness & moral purpose1 has a c]ta9 air ( sy/ematic complet5ess4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we look clos]1 we f9d t ! pr9ciple ( ord]1 or ob$i5ce to gov]nm5t1 is n s]i\sly int5d$ to imply ! political absolutism :i* x seems to express1 & :i* ,engli% common s5se emphatically repudiates2 :ile ! =mula ( ju/ice is giv5 9 ! tautological or p]fectly indef9ite proposition t e man ought to h 8 own4 ,:ewell1 inde$1 expla9s t ?is latt] =mula mu/ be practically int]pret$ by positive law1 ?\gh he inconsi/5tly speaks z if x suppli$ a /&>d = judg+ laws to be "r or wrong4 ,! pr9ciple ( purity1 aga91 t ! l[] p>ts ( our nature ought to be subject to ! high]1 m]ely p>ticul>izes t supremacy ( reason ov] non-rational impulses :i* is involv$ 9 ! v notion ( reason$ morality4 ,?us1 9 %ort1 if we ask = a cle> & def9ite fundam5tal intuition1 di/9ct f reg>d = happ9ess1 we f9d really no?+ 9 ,:ewell's doctr9e except ! s+le rule ( v]acity 7includ+ fidelity to promises72 & ev5 ( ?is ! axiomatic "* becomes evanesc5t on clos] inspection1 s9ce x is n ma9ta9$ t ! rule is practically unqualifi$1 b only t x is practically undesirable to =mulate its qualifications4 ,intuitional & utilit>ian s*ools4 ,on ! :ole1 x mu/ be admitt$ t ! doctr9e ( ! intuitional s*ool ( ! #ah? & #ai? c5turies has be5 develop$ ) less c>e & consi/5cy ?an might h be5 expect$1 9 its /atem5t ( ! fundam5tal axioms or intuitively kn[n premises ( moral reason+4 ,& if ! controv]sy :i* ?is s*ool has conduct$ ) utilit>ianism _h turn$ pr9cipally on ! det]m9ation ( ! matt] ( duty1 !re c be little d\bt t x w\ld h be5 =c$ into m s]i\s & sy/ematic ef=t to def9e precisely & completely ! pr9ciples & me?od on :i* we are to reason d$uctively to p>ticul> rules ( conduct4#ci ,b 9 fact ! diff]5ce betwe5 intuitioni/s & utilit>ians z to ! me?od ( det]m9+ ! p>ticul>s ( ! moral code 0 complicat$ ) a m fundam5tal disagreem5t z to ! v mean+ ( moral obligation4 ,?is ,paley & ,b5?am 7aft] ,locke7 int]pret$ z m]ely ! effect on ! w ( ! pleasures or pa9s atta*$ to ! obs]vance or violation ( moral rules1 comb9+ ) ?is ! doctr9e ( ,hut*eson t g5]al good or happ9ess is ! f9al end & /&>d ( ^! rules2 :ile !y elim9at$ all vagu5ess f ! notion ( g5]al happ9ess by def9+ x to consi/ 9 excess ( pleasure ov] pa9--pleasures & pa9s be+ reg>d$ z diff]+ 9 no?+ b cont9uance or int5sity4 ,! utilit>ian sy/em ga9$ an attractive air ( simplicity by ?us us+ a s+le p]fectly cle> notion--pleasure & its negative quantity pa9--to answ] bo? ! fundam5tal que/ions ( mortals1 ,:at is "r8 & ,:y %\ld ,i d x8 ,b s9ce !re is no logical connexion betwe5 ! answ]s t h ?us come to be consid]$ z "o doctr9e1 ?is app>5t unity & simplicity has really hidd5 fundam5tal disagreem5ts1 & caus$ no little confusion 9 e?ical debate4 ,paley4 ,9 ,paley's ,pr9ciples ( ,moral & ,political ,philosophy#dj 7#aghe71 ! l9k betwe5 g5]al pleasure 7! /&>d7 & private pleasure or pa9 7! motive7 is suppli$ by ! conception ( div9e legislation4 ,to be oblig$ is to be urg$ by a viol5t motive result+ f ! comm& ( ano!r2 9 ! case ( moral obligation1 ! comm& proce$s f ,god1 & ! motive lies 9 ! expectation ( be+ rew>d$ & puni%$ aft] ?is life4 ,! comm&s ( ,god are to be asc]ta9$ f scripture & ! light ( nature comb9$4 ,paley1 h[ev]1 holds t scripture is giv5 less to tea* morality ?an to illu/rate x by example & en=ce x by new sanctions & great] c]ta9ty1 & t ! light ( nature makes x cle> t ,god wills ! happ9ess ( 8 creatures4 ,h5ce1 8 me?od 9 decid+ moral que/ions is *iefly t ( e/imat+ ! t5d5cy ( actions to promote or dim9i% ! g5]al happ9ess4 ,to meet ! obvi\s objections to ?is me?od1 bas$ on ! imm$iate happ9ess caus$ by admitt$ crimes 7su* z knock+ a ri* villa9 on ! head71 he lays /ress on ! necessity ( g5]al rules 9 any k9d ( legislation2#da :ile1 by urg+ ! importance ( =m+ & ma9ta9+ good habits1 he p>tly evades ! difficulty ( calculat+ ! consequ5ces ( p>ticul> actions4 ,9 ?is way ! utilit>ian me?od is fre$ f ! subv]sive t5d5cies :i* ,butl] & o!rs _h disc]n$ 9 x2 z us$ by ,paley1 x m]ely expla9s ! curr5t moral & jural di/9ctions1 exhibits ! obvi\s basis ( exp$i5cy :i* supports mo/ ( ! receiv$ rules ( law & morality & furni%es a simple solution1 9 h>mony ) common s5se1 ( "s p]plex+ casui/ical que/ions4 ,?us 7e4g47 natural rights become rights ( :i* ! g5]al obs]vance w\ld be useful ap>t f ! in/itution ( civil gov]nm5t2 z di/+ui%$ f ! no less b9d+ adv5titi\s rights1 ! utility ( :i* dep5ds ^u ?is in/itution4 ,private prop]ty is 9 ?is s5se natural f its obvi\s advantages 9 enc\rag+ lab\r1 skill1 pres]vative c>e2 ?\gh actual rights ( prop]ty dep5d on ! g5]al utility ( con=m+ to ! law ( ! l& by :i* !y are det]m9$4 ,we obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t ,paley's me?od is (t5 mix$ ) reason+s t belong to an ali5 & old] mann] ( ?\ght2 z :5 he supports ! claim ( ! poor to *>ity by ref]r+ to ! int5tion ( mank9d :5 !y agre$ to a sep>ation ( ! common fund1 or :5 he inf]s t monogamy is a "p ( ! div9e design f ! equal numb]s ( males & females born4 ,9 o!r cases 8 /atem5t ( utilit>ian consid]ations is fragm5t>y & unme?odical1 & t5ds to deg5]ate into loose exhortation on r trite topics4 ,b5?am & 8 s*ool4 ,9 unity1 consi/5cy & ?or\ghness ( me?od1 ,b5?am's utilit>ianism has a decid$ sup]iority ov] ,paley's4 ,he consid]s actions solely 9 respect ( _! pleasurable & pa9ful consequ5ces1 expect$ or actual2 & he recognizes ! ne$ ( mak+ a sy/ematic regi/] ( ^! consequ5ces1 free f ! influ5ces ( common moral op9ion1 z express$ 9 ! eulogi/ic & dyslogi/ic t]ms 9 ord9>y use4 ,fur!r1 ! effects t he e/imates are all ( a def9ite1 palpable1 empirically asc]ta9able quality2 !y are su* pleasures & pa9s z mo/ m5 feel & all c obs]ve1 s t all 8 political or moral inf]5ces lie op5 at e po9t to ! te/ ( practical exp]i5ce4 ,e "o1 x w\ld seem1 c tell :at value he sets on ! pleasures ( alim5tation1 sex1 ! s5ses g5]ally1 weal?1 p[]1 curiosity1 sympa?y1 antipa?y 7malevol5ce71 ! goodwill ( individuals or ( society at l>ge1 & on ! correspond+ pa9s1 z well z ! pa9s ( lab\r & organic disord]s2#db & c guess ! rate at :i* !y are valu$ by o!rs2 !re=e if x be once grant$ t all actions are det]m9$ by pleasures & pa9s1 & are to be tri$ by ! same /&>d1 ! art ( legislation & private conduct is app>5tly plac$ on an empirical1 basis4 ,b5?am1 no d\bt1 seems to g beyond ! limits ( exp]i5ce prop] 9 recogniz+ religi\s pa9s & pleasures 9 8 f\rfold division ( sanctions1 side by side ) ! physical1 political1 & moral or social2 b ! tru? is t he does n s]i\sly take acc\nt ( !m1 except 9 s f> z religi\s hopes & fe>s are motives actually op]at+1 :i* !re=e admit ( be+ obs]v$ & measur$ z mu* z any o!r motives4 ,he does n himself use ! w ( an omnipot5t & b5evol5t be+ z a means ( logically connect+ individual & g5]al happ9ess4 ,he ?us und\bt$ly simplifies 8 sy/em1 & avoids ! d\btful inf]5ces f nature & ,scripture 9 :i* ,paley's position is involv$2 b ?is ga9 is de>ly pur*as$4 ,= 9 answ] to ! "q t imm$iately arises1 ,h[ !n are ! sanctions ( ! moral rules :i* x w mo/ conduce to ! g5]al happ9ess = m5 to obs]ve1 %[n to be always adequate 9 ! case ( all ! individuals ^: obs]vance is requir$8 he is oblig$ to admit t ! only int]e/s :i* a man is at all times sure to f9d adequate motives = consult+ are 8 own4 ,inde$1 9 _m p>ts ( 8 "w1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( legislative & con/itutional !ory1 x is r assum$ t ! int]e/s ( "s m5 w cont9ually conflict ) ^? ( _! fell[s1 unless we alt] ! balance ( prud5tial calculation by a readju/m5t ( p5alties4 ,b on ?is assumption a sy/em ( private conduct on utilit>ian pr9ciples _c be con/ruct$ until legislative & con/itutional re=m has be5 p]fect$4 ,&1 9 fact1 private e?ics1 z conceiv$ by ,b5?am1 does n exactly exp\nd su* a sy/em2 b r exhibits ! co9cid5ce1 s f> z x ext5ds1 betwe5 private & g5]al happ9ess1 9 t "p ( ea* man's conduct t lies beyond ! range ( useful legislation4 ,x 0 n 8 place1 z a practical philan?ropi/1 to dwell on ! defects 9 ?is co9cid5ce2#dc & s9ce :at m5 g5]ally expect f a morali/ is a completely reason$ acc\nt ( :at !y ought to d1 x is n surpris+ t "s ( ,b5?am's disciples %\ld h ei!r ignor$ or endeav\r$ to supply ! gap 9 8 sy/em4 ,"o section ( ! s*ool ev5 ma9ta9$ x to be a c>d9al doctr9e ( utilit>ianism t a man always ga9s 8 own greate/ happ9ess by promot+ t ( o!rs2 ano!r section1 repres5t$ by ,john ,au/91 app>5tly return$ to ,paley's position1 & treat$ utilit>ian morality#dd z a code ( div9e legislation2 o!rs1 ) ,grote1 are cont5t to abate ! sev]ity ( ! claims made by g5]al happ9ess on ! individual1 & to consid] utilit>ian duty z practically limit$ by reciprocity2 :ile on ! opposite side an unqualifi$ subord9ation ( private to g5]al happ9ess 0 advocat$ by ,j4,s4 ,mill1 :o did m ?an any o!r memb] ( ! s*ool to spread & popul>ize utilit>ianism 9 e?ics & politics4 ,v>ieties ( utilit>ian doctr9e4 ,j4,s4 ,mill4 ,! fact is t !re are sev]al diff]5t ways 9 :i* a utilit>ian sy/em ( morality may be us$1 )\t decid+ :e!r ! sanctions atta*$ to x are always adequate4 7#a7 ,x may be pres5t$ z practical guidance to all :o *oose g5]al good z _! ultimate end1 :e!r !y d s on religi\s gr\nds1 or ?r\gh ! pr$om9ance 9 _! m9ds ( imp>tial sympa?y1 or because _! consci5ce acts 9 h>mony ) utilit>ian pr9ciples1 or = any comb9ation ( ^! or any o!r reasons2 or 7#b7 x may be (f]$ z a code to be obey$ n absolutely1 b only s f> z ! co9cid5ce ( private & g5]al int]e/ may 9 any case be judg$ to ext5d2 or aga9 7#c7 x may be propos$ z a /&>d by :i* m5 may reasonably agree to praise & blame ! conduct ( o!rs1 ev5 ?\gh !y may n always ?9k fit to act on x4 ,we may reg>d morality z a k9d ( supplem5t>y legislation1 support$ by public op9ion1 :i* we may expect ! public1 :5 duly enlight5$1 to frame 9 accordance ) ! public int]e/4 ,/ill1 ev5 f ?is po9t ( view1 :i* is t ( ! legislator or social re=m] r ?an ! moral philosoph]1 our code ( duty mu/ be greatly influ5c$ by our e/imate ( ! degrees 9 :i* m5 are normally influ5c$ by self-reg>d 79 its ord9>y s5se ( reg>d = int]e/s n sympa!tic7 & by sympa?y or b5evol5ce1 & ( ! range )9 :i* sympa?y may be expect$ to be g5]ally effective4 ,?us1 = example1 ! moral /&>d = :i* a utilit>ian w reasonably endeav\r to ga9 ! support ( public op9ion mu/ be ess5tially diff]5t 9 quality1 accord+ z he holds ) ,b5?am t no?+ b self-reg>d w s]ve = diet1 ?\gh = a dess]t b5evol5ce is a v valuable addition2 or ) ,j4,s4 ,mill t dis9t]e/$ public _s %\ld be ! prom95t motive 9 ! p]=mance ( all socially useful "w1 & t ev5 hygi5ic precepts %\ld be inculcat$1 n *iefly on gr\nds ( prud5ce1 b because by squ&]+ our heal? we disable ourselves f r5d]+ s]vices to our fell[-creatures4 ,n less important is ! int]val t sep>ates ,b5?am's polemical attitude t[>ds ! moral s5se f ,mill's conciliatory position1 t ! m9d is n 9 a /ate con=mable to utility unless x loves virtue z a ?+ desirable 9 itself4 ,su* love ( virtue ,mill holds to be 9 a s5se natural1 ?\gh n an ultimate & inexplicable fact ( human nature2 x is to be expla9$ by ! ,law ( ,association ( feel+s & ideas1 ?r\gh :i* objects orig9ally desir$ z a means to "s fur!r end come to be directly pleasant or desirable4 ,?us1 ! mis] fir/ s\ght money z a means to com=t1 b ends by sacrific+ com=t to money2 & simil>ly ?\gh ! fir/ prompt+s to ju/ice 7or any o!r virtue7 spr+ f ! non-moral pleasures ga9$ or pa9s avoid$ by x1 ?r\gh ! l9k =m$ by repeat$ virtu\s acts ! p]=mance ( !m ultimately comes to h t imm$iate satisfaction atta*$ to x :i* we di/+ui%$ z moral4 ,inde$1 ! acquir$ t5d5cy to virtu\s conduct may become s /rong t ! habit ( will+ x may cont9ue1 ev5 :5 ! rew>d :i* ! virtu\s man receives f ! consci\sness ( well-do+ is any?+ b an equival5t = ! suff]+s he und]goes or ! wi%es he may h to r5\nce4 ,x is ?us t ! be=e-m5tion$ self-sacrifice ( ! moral h]o is conceiv$ by ,mill to be possible & actual4 ,! moral s5tim5ts1 on ?is view1 are n phases ( self-love z ,hobbes held2 nor c !y be directly id5tifi$ ) sympa?y1 ei!r 9 ,hume's way or 9 ,adam ,smi?'s2 9 fact1 ?\gh app>5tly simple !y are really d]iv$ 9 a complex mann] f self-love & sympa?y comb9$ ) m primitive impulses4 ,ju/ice 7e4g47 is reg>d$ by ,mill z ess5tially res5tm5t moraliz$ by enl>g$ sympa?y & intellig5t self-int]e/2 :at we mean by inju/ice is h>m done to an assignable individual by a brea* ( "s rule = :i* we desire ! violator to be puni%$1 = ! sake bo? ( ! p]son injur$ & ( society at l>ge1 includ+ ourselves4 ,z reg>ds moral s5tim5ts g5]ally1 ! view sugge/$ by ,mill is m def9itely giv5 by ! *ief liv+ repres5tative ( ! associationi/ s*ool1 ,alex&] ,ba92 by :om ! di/9ctive *>act]i/ics ( consci5ce are trac$ to education "u gov]nm5t or au?ority1 ?\gh prud5ce1 dis9t]e/$ sympa?y & o!r emotions comb9e to swell ! mass ( feel+ vaguely d5ot$ by ! t]m moral4 ,! comb9ation ( antec$5ts is some:at diff]5tly giv5 by diff]5t writ]s2 b all agree 9 repres5t+ ! consci5ce ( any individual z naturally correlat$ to ! int]e/s ( ! community ( :i* he is a memb]1 & ?us a natural ally 9 en=c+ utilit>ian rules1 or ev5 a valuable guide :5 utilit>ian calculations are difficult & unc]ta94 ,association & evolution4 ,?is sub/itution ( hypo!tical hi/ory = direct analysis ( ! moral s5se is really old] ?an ! utilit>ianism ( ,paley & ,b5?am1 :i* x has s pr(\ndly modifi$4 ,! effects ( association 9 modify+ m5tal ph5om5a 7 notic$ by ,locke1 & made a c>d9al po9t 9 ! metaphysic ( ,hume2 :o also ref]r$ to ! pr9ciple slightly 9 8 acc\nt ( ju/ice & o!r artificial virtues4 ,"s ye>s e>li]1 ,gay1#de admitt+ ,hut*eson's pro( ( ! actual dis9t]e/$ness ( moral & b5evol5t impulses1 _h ma9ta9$ t ^! 7l ! desires ( k or fame1 ! delight ( read+1 hunt+ & plant+1 c47 7 d]iv$ f self-love by ! p[] ( association4 ,b a ?or\gh & sy/ematic application ( ! pr9ciple to e?ical psy*ology is fir/ f\nd 9 ,h>tley's ,obs]vations on ,man 7#agdh74 ,h>tley1 too1 0 ! fir/ to conceive association z produc+1 in/ead ( m]e cohesion ( m5tal ph5om5a1 a quasi-*emical comb9ation ( ^! into a comp\nd app>5tly diff]5t f its elem5ts4 ,he %[s elaborately h[ ! pleasures & pa9s ( imag9ation1 ambition1 self-int]e/1 sympa?y1 !opa?y1 & ! moral s5se are develop$ out ( ! elem5t>y pleasures & pa9s ( s5sation2 by ! coalesc5ce into really complex b app>5tly s+le ideas ( ! m9iatures or fa9t feel+s :i* ! repetition ( s5sations contemporane\sly or 9 imm$iate succession t5ds to produce 9 coh]+ gr\ps4 ,8 !ory assumes ! correspond5ce ( m9d & body1 & is appli$ p>i passu to ! =mation ( ideas f s5sations1 & ( comp\nd vibratiuncules 9 ! m$ull>y sub/ance f ! orig9al vibrations t arise 9 ! organ ( s5se4#df ,! same g5]al view 0 aft]w>ds develop$ ) mu* vig\r & cle>ness on ! psy*ical side alone by ,james ,mill 9 8 ,analysis ( ! ,human ,m9d4 ,! :ole !ory has be5 p]si/5tly controv]t$ by writ]s ( ! intuitional s*ool1 :o 7unlike ,h>tley7 h usually ?\ght t ?is d]ivation ( moral s5tim5ts f m primitive feel+s w\ld be detrim5tal to ! au?ority ( ! =m]4 ,! *ief argum5t aga9/ ?is !ory has be5 bas$ on ! e>ly p]iod at :i* ^! s5tim5ts are manife/$ by *ildr51 :i* h>dly all[s "t = association to produce ! effects ascrib$ to x4 ,?is argum5t has be5 met 9 rec5t times by ! application to m9d ( ! physiological !ory ( h]$ity1 accord+ to :i* *anges produc$ 9 ! m9d 7bra97 ( a p>5t1 by association ( ideas or o!rwise1 t5d to be inh]it$ by 8 (fspr+2 s t ! developm5t ( ! moral s5se or any o!r faculty or susceptibility ( exi/+ man may be hypo!tically c>ri$ back into ! prehi/oric life ( ! human race1 )\t any *ange 9 ! mann] ( d]ivation suppos$4 ,at pres5t1 h[ev]1 ! !ory ( h]$ity is usually held 9 conjunction ) ,d>w9's !ory ( natural selection2 accord+ to :i* diff]5t k9ds ( liv+ ?+s 9 ! c\rse ( a s]ies ( g5]ations come gradually to be end[$ ) organs1 faculties & habits t5d+ to ! pres]vation ( ! individual or species "u ! conditions ( life 9 :i* x is plac$4 ,?us we h a new zoological factor 9 ! hi/ory ( ! moral s5tim5ts2 :i*1 ?\gh 9 no way oppos$ to ! old] psy*ological !ory ( _! =mation ?r\gh coalesc5ce ( m primitive feel+s1 mu/ yet be conceiv$ z controll+ & modify+ ! effects ( ! law ( association by prev5t+ ! =mation ( s5tim5ts o!r ?an ^? t5d+ to ! pres]vation ( human life4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,d>w9ian !ory1 moreov]1 has ext5d$ f hi/orical psy*ology to e?ics1 t5d+ to sub/itute pres]vation ( ! race "u its conditions ( exi/5ce = happ9ess z ! ultimate end & /&>d ( virtue4 ,free-w4 ,be=e conclud+ ?is sket* ( ! developm5t ( ,engli% e?ical ?\ght f ,hobbes to ! ?9k]s ( ! #ai? c5tury1 x w be well to notice briefly ! views held by diff]5t morali/s on ! "q ( free-w1--s f>1 t is1 z !y h be5 put =w>d z e?ically important4 ,we mu/ fir/ di/+ui% ?ree mean+s 9 :i* fre$om is attribut$ to ! w or inn] self ( a human be+1 viz4 7#a7 ! g5]al p[] ( *oos+ among diff]5t alt]natives ( action )\t a motive1 or aga9/ ! resultant =ce ( conflict+ motives2 7#b7 ! p[] ( *oice betwe5 ! prompt+s ( reason & ^? ( appetites 7or o!r non-rational impulses7 :5 ! latt] conflict ) reason2 7#c7 m]ely ! quality ( act+ rationally 9 spite ( conflict+ impulses1 h[ev] /rong1 ! non posse pecc>e ( ! m$ieval !ologians4#dg ,x is obvi\s t fre$om 9 ?is ?ird s5se is 9 no way incompatible ) complete det]m9ation2 &1 inde$1 is r an ideal /ate aft] :i* ! moral ag5t ought to aspire ?an a prop]ty :i* ! human w c be said to possess4 ,9 ! fir/ s5se1 aga91 z di/9ct f ! second1 ! ass]tion ( fre$om has no e?ical significance1 except 9 s f> z x introduces a g5]al unc]ta9ty into all our inf]5ces respect+ human conduct4 ,ev5 9 ! second s5se x h>dly seems t ! fre$om ( a man's w c be an elem5t to be consid]$ 9 exam9+ :at x is "r or be/ = him to d 7?\gh ( c\rse ! cle>e/ convictions ( duty w be fruitless if a man has n suffici5t self-control to enable him to act on !m72 x is r :5 we ask :e!r x is j to puni% him = wrong-do+ t x seems important to "k :e!r he c\ld h done o!rwise4 ,b 9 spite ( ! /rong int]e/ tak5 9 ! !ological aspect ( ?is "q by ! ,prote/ant div9es ( ! #ag? c5tury1 x does n appe> t ,engli% morali/s f ,hobbes to ,hume laid any /ress on ! relation ( free-w ei!r to duty g5]ally or to ju/ice 9 p>ticul>4 ,nei!r ! doctr9e ( ,hobbes1 t delib]ation is a m]e alt]nation ( compet+ desires1 volunt>y action imm$iately foll[+ ! la/ appetite1 nor ! h>dly less decid$ ,det]m9ism ( ,locke1 :o held t ! w is always mov$ by ! greate/ pres5t uneas9ess1 appe>$ to ei!r au?or to require any reconciliation ) ! belief 9 human responsibility4 ,ev5 9 ,cl>ke's sy/em1 :]e ,indet]m9ism is no d\bt a c>d9al notion1 its importance is metaphysical r ?an e?ical2 ,cl>ke's view be+ t ! app>5tly arbitr>y p>ticul>ity 9 ! con/itution ( ! cosmos is really only explicable by ref]5ce to creative free-w4 ,9 ! e?ical discussion ( ,%aftesbury & s5tim5tal morali/s g5]ally ?is "q drops naturally out ( sight2 & ! cauti\s ,butl] tries to exclude its p]plexities z f> z possible f ! philosophy ( practice4 ,b s9ce ! reaction1 l$ by ,price & ,reid1 aga9/ ! mann] ( philosophiz+ t _h culm9at$ 9 ,hume1 free-w has be5 g5]ally ma9ta9$ by ! intuitional s*ool to be an ess5tial po9t ( e?ics2 &1 9 fact1 x is naturally connect$ ) ! judgm5t ( good & ill des]t :i* ^! writ]s give z an ess5tial elem5t 9 _! analysis ( ! moral consci\sness4 ,an irresi/ible motive1 x is =cibly said1 palliates or takes away guilt2 no "o c blame himself = yield+ to necessity1 & no "o c prop]ly be puni%$ = :at he c\ld n h prev5t$4 ,9 answ] to ?is argum5t "s necess>ians h admitt$ t puni%m5t c be legitimate only if x be b5eficial to ! p]son puni%$2 o!rs1 aga91 h held t ! lawful use ( =ce is to re/ra9 lawless =ce2 b mo/ ( ^? :o reject free-w def5d puni%m5t on ! gr\nd ( its utility 9 det]r+ o!rs f crime1 z well z 9 correct+ or re/ra9+ ! crim9al on :om x falls4 ,fr5* influ5ce on ,engli% e?ics4 ,helvetius4 ,9 ! prec$+ sket* we h trac$ ! c\rse ( ,engli% e?ical speculation )\t br++ x into relation ) contempor>y ,european ?\ght on ! same subject4 ,& 9 fact almo/ all ! sy/ems describ$1 f ,hobbes d[nw>d1 h be5 ( ess5tially native gr[?1 %[+ h>dly any traces ( =eign influ5ce4 ,we may obs]ve t e?ics is ! only dep>tm5t 9 :i* ?is result appe>s4 ,! physics & psy*ology ( ,desc>tes 7 mu* /udi$ 9 ,engl&1 & 8 metaphysical sy/em 0 c]ta9ly ! mo/ important antec$5t ( ,locke's2 b ,desc>tes h>dly t\*$ e?ics prop]4 ,s aga9 ! controv]sy t ,cl>ke conduct$ ) ,sp9oza1 & aft]w>ds ) ,leibnitz1 0 entirely conf9$ to ! metaphysical region4 ,ca?olic ,france 0 a s*ool = ,engli%m5 9 _m subjects1 b n 9 morality2 ! great /ruggle betwe5 ,jans5i/s & ,jesuits _h a v remote int]e/ = !m4 ,x 0 n till ne> ! close ( ! #ah? c5tury t ! impress ( ! ,fr5* revolution>y philosophy began to manife/ itself 9 ,engl&2 & ev5 !n its influ5ce 0 mo/ly political r ?an e?ical4 ,x is /rik+ to obs]ve h[ ev5 9 ! case ( writ]s su* z ,godw91 :o 7 mo/ p[]fully affect$ by ! ,fr5* political movem5t1 ! moral basis1 on :i* ! new social ord] ( rational & equal fre$om is con/ruct$1 is almo/ entirely ( native orig92 ev5 :5 ! tone & _s are ,fr5*1 ! =ms ( ?\ght & mann] ( reason+ are /ill purely ,engli%4 ,9 ! d]ivation ( ,b5?amism alone--:i*1 x may be obs]v$1 fir/ becomes widely kn[n 9 ! ,fr5* p>aphrase ( ,dumont--an important elem5t is suppli$ by ! works ( a ,fr5* writ]1 ,helvetius2 z ,b5?am himself 0 fully consci\s4 ,x 0 f ,helvetius t he le>nt t1 m5 be+ univ]sally & solely gov]n$ by self-love1 ! s-call$ moral judgm5ts are really ! common judgm5ts ( any society z to its common int]e/s2 t x is !re=e futile on ! "o h& to propose any /&>d ( virtue1 except t ( conduciv5ess to g5]al happ9ess1 & on ! o!r h& useless m]ely to lecture m5 on duty & scold !m = vice2 t ! morali/'s prop] function is r to exhibit ! co9cid5ce ( virtue ) private happ9ess2 t1 accord+ly1 ?\gh nature has b\nd m5's int]e/s toge!r 9 _m ways1 & education by develop+ sympa?y & ! habit ( mutual help may mu* ext5d ! connexion1 /ill ! mo/ effective morali/ is ! legislator1 :o by act+ on self-love ?r\gh legal sanctions may m\ld human conduct z he *ooses4 ,^! few simple doctr9es give ! gr\nd plan ( ,b5?am's indefatigable & lifelong lab\rs4 ,comte4 ,s aga91 9 ! modifi$ ,b5?amism :i* ! p]suasive exposition ( ,j4,s4 ,mill aft]w>ds made popul> 9 ,engl&1 ! influ5ce ( ,augu/e ,comte 7,philosophie positive1 #ahbi-ahdb1 & ,sy/eme de politique positive1 #ahea-ahed7 appe>s z ! *ief modify+ elem5t4 ,?is influ5ce1 s f> z x has affect$ moral z di/9ct f political speculation1 has be5 ex]cis$ prim>ily ?r\gh ! g5]al conception ( human progress2 :i*1 9 ,comte's view1 consi/s 9 ! ev]-gr[+ prepond]ance ( ! di/9ctively human attributes ov] ! purely animal1 social feel+s be+ rank$ highe/ among human attributes1 & highe/ ( all ! mo/ univ]saliz$ phase ( human affection1 ! devotion to humanity z a :ole4 ,accord+ly1 x is ! developm5t ( b5evol5ce 9 man1 & ( ! habit ( liv+ = o!rs1 :i* ,comte takes z ! ultimate aim & /&>d ( practice1 r ?an ! m]e increase ( happ9ess4 ,he holds1 inde$1 t ! two are insep>able1 & t ! m altrui/ic any man's s5tim5ts & habits ( action c be made1 ! great] w be ! happ9ess enjoy$ by himself z well z by o!rs4 ,b he does n s]i\sly tr\ble himself to argue ) egoism1 or to weigh c>efully ! am\nt ( happ9ess t might be g5]ally atta9$ by ! satisfaction ( egoi/ic prop5sities duly regulat$2 a supreme unque/ion+ self-devotion1 9 :i* all p]sonal calculations are suppress$1 is an ess5tial feature ( 8 moral ideal4 ,su* a view is almo/ diametrically oppos$ to ,b5?am's conception ( normal human exi/5ce2 ! new] utilit>ianism ( ,mill repres5ts an endeav\r to f9d ! "r middle pa? betwe5 ! two extremes4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t1 9 ,comte's view1 devotion to humanity is ! pr9ciple n m]ely ( morality1 b ( religion2 i4e4 x %\ld n m]ely be practically pr$om9ant1 b %\ld be manife/$ & su/a9$ by regul> & p>tly symbolical =ms ( expression1 private & public4 ,?is side ( ,comte's sy/em1 h[ev]1 & ! details ( 8 ideal recon/ruction ( society1 9 :i* ?is religion plays an important "p1 h _h b little influ5ce ei!r 9 ,engl& or else:]e4 ,x is m important to notice ! g5]al effect ( 8 philosophy on ! me?od ( det]m9+ ! p>ticul>s ( morality z well z ( law 7z x ought to be74 ,9 ! utilit>ianism ( ,paley & ,b5?am ! prop] rules ( conduct1 moral & legal1 are det]m9$ by comp>+ ! imag9>y consequ5ces ( diff]5t modes ( regulation on m5 & wom51 conceiv$ z specim5s ( a sub/antially uni=m & un*ang+ type4 ,x is true t ,b5?am expressly recognizes ! v>y+ influ5ces ( climate1 race1 religion1 gov]nm5t1 z consid]ations :i* x is important = ! legislator to take into acc\nt2 b 8 own "w ( social con/ruction 0 almo/ entirely indep5d5t ( su* consid]ations1 & 8 s*ool g5]ally appe> to h be5 conv9c$ ( _! compet5ce to solve all important e?ical & political que/ions = human be+s ( all ages & c\ntries1 )\t reg>d to _! specific diff]5ces4 ,b 9 ! ,comtian conception ( social sci5ce1 ( :i* e?ics & politics are ! practical application1 ! k ( ! laws ( ! evolution ( society is ( fundam5tal & cont9ually increas+ importance2 humanity is reg>d$ z hav+ pass$ ?r\gh a s]ies ( /ages1 9 ea* ( :i* a some:at diff]5t set ( laws & in/itutions1 cu/oms & habits1 is normal & appropriate4 ,?us pres5t man is a be+ t c only be und]/ood ?r\gh a k ( 8 pa/ hi/ory2 & any ef=t to con/ruct = him a moral & political ideal1 by a purely ab/ract & unhi/orical me?od1 mu/ necess>ily be futile2 :atev] modifications may at any "t be desirable 9 positive law & morality c only be det]m9$ by ! aid ( social dynamics4 ,?is view ext5ds f> beyond ! limits ( ,comte's special s*ool or sect1 & has be5 widely accept$4 ,g]man influ5ce on ,engli% e?ics4 ,:5 we turn f ,fr5* philosophy to ,g]man1 we f9d ! influ5ce ( ! latt] on ,engli% e?ical ?\ght almo/ insignificant until a v rec5t p]iod4 ,9 ! #ag? c5tury1 inde$1 ! treatise ( ,puf5dorf on ! ,law ( ,nature1 9 :i* ! g5]al view ( ,grotius 0 re/at$ ) modifications1 p>tly design$ to effect a compromise ) ! doctr9e ( ,hobbes1 seems to h be5 a good deal read at ,ox=d & else:]e4 ,locke includes x among ! books necess>y to ! complete education ( a g5tleman4 ,b ! subsequ5t developm5t ( ! !ory ( conduct 9 ,g]many dropp$ almo/ entirely out ( ! cognizance ( ,engli%m52 ev5 ! long dom9ant sy/em ( ,wolff 7d4 #aged7 0 h>dly kn[n4 ,nor _h ,kant any s]i\s influ5ce 9 ,engl& until ! second qu>t] ( ! #ai? c5tury4 ,we f9d1 h[ev]1 di/9ct traces ( ,kantian influ5ce 9 ,:ewell & o!r writ]s ( ! intuitional s*ool1 & at a lat] date x became s /rong t its importance on subsequ5t e?ical ?\ght c sc>cely be ov]-e/imat$4 ,kant4 ,categorical ,imp]ative4 ,! ,engli% morali/ ) :om ,kant has mo/ aff9ity is ,price2 9 fact1 ,kantism1 9 ! e?ical ?\ght ( mod]n ,europe1 holds a place some:at analog\s to t =m]ly occupi$ by ! tea*+ ( ,price & ,reid among ,engli% morali/s4 ,kant1 l ,price & ,reid1 holds t man z a rational be+ is unconditionally b\nd to con=m to a c]ta9 rule ( "r1 or categorical imp]ative ( reason4 ,l ,price he holds t an action is n good unless done f a good motive1 & t ?is motive mu/ be ess5tially diff]5t f natural incl9ation ( any k9d2 duty1 to be duty1 mu/ be done = duty's sake2 & he argues1 ) m subtlety ?an ,price or ,reid1 t ?\gh a virtu\s act is no d\bt pleasant to ! virtu\s ag5t1 & any violation ( duty pa9ful1 ?is moral pleasure 7or pa97 _c /rictly be ! motive to ! act1 because x foll[s in/ead ( prec$+ ! recognition ( our obligation to d x4#dh ,) ,price1 aga91 he holds t rightness ( int5tion & motive is n only an indisp5sable condition or elem5t ( ! rightness ( an action1 b actually ! sole det]m9ant ( its moral wor?2 b ) m philosophical consi/5cy he draws ! inf]5ce--( :i* ! ,engli% morali/ does n seem to h dreamt--t !re c be no sep>ate rational pr9ciples = det]m9+ ! mat]ial rightness ( conduct1 z di/9ct f its =mal rightness2 & !re=e t all rules ( duty1 s f> z univ]sally b9d+1 mu/ admit ( be+ exhibit$ z applications ( ! "o g5]al pr9ciple t duty ought to be done = duty's sake4 ,?is d$uction is ! mo/ orig9al "p ( ,kant's doctr9e4 ,! dictates ( reason1 he po9ts out1 mu/ necess>ily be address$ to all rational be+s z su*2 h5ce1 my int5tion _c be "r unless ,i am prep>$ to w ! pr9ciple on :i* ,i act to be a univ]sal law4 ,he consid]s t ?is fundam5tal rule or imp]ative act on a maxim :i* ?\ can/ w to be law univ]sal supplies a suffici5t crit]ion = det]m9+ p>ticul> duties 9 all cases4 ,! rule excludes wrong conduct ) two degrees ( /r+5cy4 ,"s (f5ces1 su* z mak+ promises ) ! int5tion ( break+ !m1 we _c ev5 conceive univ]saliz$2 z soon z e "o broke promises no "o w\ld c>e to h promises made to him4 ,o!r maxims1 su* z t ( leav+ p]sons 9 di/ress to %ift = !mselves1 we c easily conceive to be univ]sal laws1 b we _c )\t contradiction w !m to be su*2 = :5 we are ourselves 9 di/ress we _c help desir+ t o!rs %\ld help u4 ,ano!r important peculi>ity ( ,kant's doctr9e is 8 developm5t ( ! connexion betwe5 duty & free-w4 ,he holds t x is ?r\gh our moral consci\sness t we "k t we are free2 9 ! cognition t ,i ought to d :at is "r because x is "r & n because ,i l x1 x is impli$ t ?is purely rational volition is possible2 t my action c be det]m9$1 n me*anically1 ?r\gh ! necess>y op]ation ( ! natural /imuli ( pleasurable & pa9ful feel+s1 b 9 accordance ) ! laws ( my true1 reasonable self4 ,! realization ( reason1 or ( human wills s f> z rational1 ?us pres5ts itself z ! absolute end ( duty2 & we get1 z a new =m ( ! fundam5tal practical rule1 act s z to treat humanity1 9 ?yself or any o!r1 z an end always1 & nev] z a means only4 ,we may obs]ve1 too1 t ! notion ( fre$om connects e?ics ) jurisprud5ce 9 a simple & /rik+ mann]4 ,! fundam5tal aim ( jurisprud5ce is to realize ext]nal fre$om by remov+ ! h9drances impos$ on ea* "o's free action ?r\gh ! int]f]5ces ( o!r wills4 ,e?ics %[s h[ to realize int]nal fre$om by resolutely pursu+ rational ends 9 opposition to ^? ( natural incl9ation4 ,if we ask :at precisely are ! ends ( reason1 ,kant's proposition t all rational be+s z su* are ends 9 !mselves = e rational be+ h>dly gives a cle> answ]4 ,x might be int]pret$ to mean t ! result to be practically s\ght is simply ! developm5t ( ! rationality ( all rational be+s--su* z m5--:om we f9d to be z yet imp]fectly rational4 ,b ?is is n ,kant's view4 ,he holds1 inde$1 t ea* man %\ld aim at mak+ himself ! mo/ p]fect possible in/rum5t ( reason2 b he expressly d5ies t ! p]fection ( o!rs c be simil>ly prescrib$ z an end to ea*4 ,x is1 he says1 a contradiction to reg>d myself z 9 duty b\nd to promote ! p]fection ( ano!r1 444 a contradiction to make x a duty = me to d some?+ = ano!r :i* no o!r b himself c d4 ,9 :at practical s5se1 !n1 am ,i to make o!r rational be+s my ends8 ,kant's answ] is t :at ea* is to aim at 9 ! case ( o!rs is n ,p]fection1 b ,happ9ess1 i4e4 to help !m to atta9 ^? purely subjective ends t are det]m9$ = ea* n by reason1 b by natural incl9ation4 ,he expla9s also t to seek "o's own happ9ess _c be prescrib$ z a duty1 because x is an end to :i* e man is inevitably impell$ by natural incl9ation3 b t j because ea* inevitably desires 8 own happ9ess1 & !re=e desires t o!rs %\ld assi/ him 9 "t ( ne$1 he is b\nd to make ! happ9ess ( o!rs 8 e?ical end1 s9ce he _c morally dem& aid f o!rs1 )\t accept+ ! obligation ( aid+ !m 9 l case4 ,! exclusion ( private happ9ess f ! ends at :i* x is a duty to aim contra/s /rik+ly ) ! view ( ,butl] & ,reid1 t man1 z a rational be+1 is "u a manife/ obligation to seek 8 own int]e/4 ,! diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 is n really s great z x seems2 s9ce 9 ano!r "p ( 8 sy/em ,kant fully recognizes ! reasonabl5ess ( ! individual's reg>d = 8 own happ9ess4 ,?\gh duty1 9 8 view1 excludes reg>d = private happ9ess1 ! summum bonum is n duty alone1 b happ9ess comb9$ ) moral wor?2 ! dem& = happ9ess z ! rew>d ( duty is s ess5tially reasonable t we mu/ po/ulate a univ]sal connexion betwe5 ! two z ! ord] ( ! univ]se2 inde$1 ! practical necessity ( ?is po/ulate is ! only adequate rational gr\nd t we h = believ+ 9 ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,hegel4 ,be=e ! e?ics ( ,kant _h begun to be s]i\sly /udi$ 9 ,engl&1 ! rapid & rem>kable developm5t ( metaphysical view & me?od ( :i* ! ?ree *ief /ages are repres5t$ by ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+ & ,hegel respectively _h already tak5 place2 & ! sy/em ( ! latt] 0 occupy+ ! mo/ prom95t position 9 ! philosophical ?\ght ( ,g]many4#di ,hegel's e?ical doctr9e 7exp\nd$ *iefly 9 8 ,philosophie des ,re*ts1 #ahba7 %[s a close aff9ity1 & also a /rik+ contra/1 to ,kant's4 ,he holds1 ) ,kant1 t duty or good conduct consi/s 9 ! consci\s realization ( ! free reasonable w1 :i* is ess5tially ! same 9 all rational be+s4 ,b 9 ,kant's view ! univ]sal cont5t ( ?is w is only giv5 9 ! =mal condition ( only act+ z "o c desire all to act1 to be subjectively appli$ by ea* rational ag5t to 8 own volition2 :]eas ,hegel conceives ! univ]sal w z objectively pres5t$ to ea* man 9 ! laws1 in/itutions & cu/om>y morality ( ! community ( :i* he is a memb]4 ,?us1 9 8 view1 n m]ely natural incl9ations t[>ds pleasures1 or ! desires = selfi% happ9ess1 require to be morally resi/$2 b ev5 ! prompt+ ( ! individual's consci5ce1 ! impulse to d :at seems to him "r1 if x comes into conflict ) ! common s5se ( 8 community4 ,x is true t ,hegel reg>ds ! consci\s ef=t to realize "o's own conception ( good z a high] /age ( moral developm5t ?an ! m]e con=mity to ! jural rules e/abli%+ prop]ty1 ma9ta9+ contract & allott+ puni%m5t to crime1 9 :i* ! univ]sal w is fir/ express$2 s9ce 9 su* con=mity ?is w is only accompli%$ accid5tally by ! outw>d concurr5ce ( individual wills1 & is n ess5tially realiz$ 9 any ( !m4 ,he holds1 h[ev]1 t ?is consci5ti\s ef=t is self-deceiv$ & futile1 is ev5 ! v root ( moral evil1 except x atta9s its realization 9 h>mony ) ! objective social relations 9 :i* ! individual f9ds himself plac$4 ,( ^! relations ! fir/ grade is con/itut$ by ! family1 ! second by civil society1 & ! ?ird by ! /ate1 ! organization ( :i* is ! highe/ manife/ation ( univ]sal reason 9 ! sph]e ( practice4 ,hegelianism appe>s z a di/9ct elem5t 9 mod]n ,engli% e?ical ?\ght2 b ! direct influ5ce ( ,hegel's sy/em is p]haps less important ?an t indirectly ex]cis$ ?r\gh ! p[]ful /imulus :i* x has giv5 to ! /udy ( ! hi/orical developm5t ( human ?\ght & human society4 ,accord+ to ,hegel1 ! ess5ce ( ! univ]se is a process ( ?\ght f ! ab/ract to ! concrete2 & a "r und]/&+ ( ?is process gives ! key = int]pret+ ! evolution 9 "t ( ,european philosophy4 ,s aga91 9 8 view1 ! hi/ory ( mank9d is a hi/ory ( ! necess>y developm5t ( ! free _s ?r\gh ! diff]5t =ms ( political organization3 ! fir/ be+ t ( ! ,ori5tal mon>*y1 9 :i* fre$om belongs to ! mon>* only2 ! second1 t ( ! ,graeco-,roman republics1 9 :i* a select body ( free citiz5s is su/a9$ on a basis ( slav]y2 :ile f9ally 9 ! mod]n societies1 sprung f ! ,teutonic invasion ( ! decay+ ,roman empire1 fre$om is recogniz$ z ! natural "r ( all memb]s ( ! community4 ,! effect ( ! lectures 7po/hum\sly edit$7 9 :i* ,hegel's ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory & ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy 7 exp\nd$1 has ext5d$ f> beyond ! limits ( 8 special s*ool2 inde$1 ! pr$om9ance ( ! hi/orical me?od 9 all dep>tm5ts ( ! !ory ( practice is n a little due to _! influ5ce4 7,h4 ,s42 ,x47 ,d4 ,e?ics s9ce #ahgi4--;,e?ical controv]sies1 l mo/ o!r speculative disputes1 h1 dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! #ai? & ! beg9n+ ( ! #bj? c5tury1 c5tr$ r\nd ,d>w9ian !ories4 ,! *ief *>act]i/ic ( ,engli% moral philosophy 9 its previ\s hi/ory has be5 its comp>ative isolation f great movem5ts1 sometimes contempor>y movem5ts1 ( philosophical or sci5tific ?\ght4 ,e?ics 9 ,engl& no less ?an on ! cont95t ( ,europe suff]$ until ! "t ( ,bacon f ! excessive dom9ation ( !ological dogma & ! traditional s*ola/ic & ,ari/otelian philosophy4 ,b ! moral philosophy ( ! #ah? c5tury1 fre$ f s*ola/ic trammels1 0 a g5u9e native product1 aris+ out ( ! real problem ( conduct & rea*+ its conclusions1 at lea/ o/5sibly1 by an analysis (1 & an appeal to1 ! facts ( conduct & ! nature ( morality4 ,ev5 at ! beg9n+ ( ! #ai? c5tury1 :5 ! ma9 int]e/ ( writ]s :o belong$ to ! ,utilit>ian s*ool 0 ma9ly political1 ! influ5ce ( political !ories ^u contempor>y moral philosophy 0 ^u ! :ole an influ5ce ( :i* ! moral philosoph]s !mselves 7 unconsci\s2 & f ! nature ( ?+s moral & political philosophy h a t5d5cy to become "o & ! same inquiry4 ,mill1 x is true1 & ,comte bo? enc\rag$ ! idea t society & conduct alike 7 susceptible ( /rictly sci5tific inve/igation4 ,b ! attempt n only to treat e?ics sci5tifically1 b actually to subord9ate ! pr9ciples ( conduct to ! pr9ciples ( exi/+ biological sci5ce or gr\p ( sci5ces biological 9 "*1 0 res]v$ = po/-,d>w9ian moral philosoph]s4 ,t attempt has n1 9 ! op9ion ( ! majority ( critics1 be5 successful1 & p]haps :at is mo/ p]man5t 9 ! contribution ( mod]n times to e?ical !ory w ultimately be attribut$ to philosoph]s antagoni/ic to evolution>y e?ics4 ,nev]!less ! application ( ! hi/orical me?od to inquiries conc]n+ ! facts ( morality & ! moral life--itself "p ( ! great movem5t ( ?\ght to :i* ,d>w9 gave ! *ief impetus--has caus$ moral problems to be pres5t$ 9 a novel aspect2 :ile ! influ5ce ( ,d>w9ism ^u /udies :i* h consid]able be>+ ^u e?ics1 e4g4 an?ropology or ! /udy ( comp>ative religion1 has be5 incalculable4 ,! o!r great movem5t 9 mod]n moral philosophy due to ! influ5ce ( ,g]man1 & especially ,hegelian1 idealism foll[$ naturally = ! mo/ "p f ! revival ( int]e/ 9 metaphysics noticeable 9 ! latt] half ( ! #ai? c5tury4 ,b metaphysical sy/ems ( e?ics are no novelty ev5 9 ,engl&1 &1 :ile ! increas$ int]e/ 9 ultimate issues ( philosophy has enorm\sly deep5$ & wid5$ m5's appreciation ( moral problems & ! issues involv$ 9 conduct1 ! actual advance 9 e?ical !ory produc$ by su* speculations has be5 comp>atively slight4 ,:at is ( la/+ importance is ! re-affirmation ^u metaphysical gr\nds ( ! "r ( ! moral consci\sness to /ate & solve its own difficulties1 & ! successful repulsion ( ! claims ( p>ticul> sci5ces su* z biology to include ! sph]e ( conduct )9 _! scope & me?ods4 ,& bo? evolution>y & ideali/ic e?ics agree 9 repudiat+ ! /&po9t ( n>r[ individualism1 alike insi/ ^u ! necessity ( reg>d+ ! self z social 9 "*1 & reg>d ! end ( moral progress z only realizable 9 a p]fect society4 ,x is p]haps too mu* to hope t ! long-cont9u$ controv]sy betwe5 h$oni/s & anti-h$oni/s has be5 f9ally settl$4 ,b c]ta9ly few mod]n moral philosoph]s w\ld be f\nd 9 ! pres5t day ready to def5d ! crudities ( h$oni/ic psy*ology z !y appe> 9 ,b5?am & ,mill4 ,a c]ta9 common agreem5t has be5 rea*$ conc]n+ ! impossibility ( reg>d+ pleasure z ! sole motive crit]ion & end ( moral action1 ?\gh diff]5t op9ions /ill prevail z to ! place occupi$ by pleasure 9 ! summum bonum1 & ! possibility ( a h$oni/ic calculus4 ,! failure ( laissez-faire individualism 9 politics to produce t common prosp]ity & happ9ess :i* its advocates hop$ = caus$ m5 to "q ! egoi/ic basis ^u :i* its e?ical c\nt]p>t 0 con/ruct$4 ,simil>ly ! comp>ative failure ( sci5ce to satisfy m5's aspirations alike 9 k &1 s f> z ! happ9ess ( ! masses is conc]n$1 9 practice has be5 l>gely in/rum5tal 9 produc+ t revolt aga9/ mat]ial prosp]ity z ! end ( conduct :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ideali/ moral philosophy4 ,to ?is revolt1 & to ! g5]al t5d5cy to f9d ! pr9ciple ( morality 9 an ideal good pres5t to ! consci\sness ( all p]sons capable ( act+ morally1 ! widespread recognition ( reason z ! ultimate c\rt ( appeal alike 9 religion or politics1 & latt]ly 9 economics also1 has no d\bt contribut$ l>gely4 ,9 ! ma9 ! appeal to reason has foll[$ ! traditional c\rse ( su* movem5ts 9 e?ics1 & has reaffirm$ 9 ! light ( full] reflection ! moral pr9ciples implicit 9 ! ord9>y moral consci\sness4 ,x is only 9 ! pres5t day t !re are noticeable signs ( dissatisfaction ) curr5t morality itself1 & a t5d5cy to sub/itute or advocate a new morality bas$ o/5sibly ^u conclusions d]iv$ f ! facts ( sci5tific obs]vation4 ,d>w94 ,d>w9 himself seems nev] to h que/ion$1 9 ! sceptical direction 9 :i* 8 foll[]s h appli$ 8 pr9ciples1 ! absolute "* ( moral obligation4 ,:at int]e/$ him *iefly1 9 s f> z he made a /udy ( morality1 0 ! developm5t ( moral conduct 9 its prelim9>y /ages4 ,he 0 pr9cipally conc]n$ to %[ t 9 morality1 z 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( human life1 x 0 n necess>y to po/ulate a complete & abrupt gap betwe5 human & m]ely animal exi/5ce1 b t ! in/9cts & habits :i* contribute to survival 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce among animals develop into moral qualities :i* h a simil> value = ! pres]vation ( human & social life4 ,reg>d+ ! social t5d5cy z orig9ally itself an in/9ct develop$ out ( p>5tal or filial affection1 he seems to sugge/ t natural selection1 :i* 0 ! *ief cause ( its developm5t 9 ! e>li] /ages1 may v probably influ5ce ! transition f purely tribal & social morality into morality 9 its lat] & m complex =ms4 ,b he admits t natural selection is n necess>ily ! only cause1 & he refra9s f id5tify+ ! fully develop$ morality ( civiliz$ nations ) ! social in/9ct4 ,moreov]1 he recognizes t qualities1 e4g4 loyalty & sympa?y1 :i* may h be5 ( great s]vice to ! tribe 9 its primitive /ruggle = exi/5ce1 may become a positive h9drance to physical effici5cy 7lead+ z !y d to ! pres]vation ( ! unfit7 at a lat] /age4 ,nev]!less to *eck our sympa?y w\ld lead to ! det]ioration ( ! noble/ "p ( our nature1 & ! "q1 :i* is obvi\sly ( vital importance1 :e!r we %\ld obey ! dictates ( reason1 :i* w\ld urge u only to su* conduct z is conducive to natural selection1 or rema9 fai?ful to ! noble/ "p ( our nature at ! exp5se ( reason1 he leaves unsolv$4 ,sp5c]4 ,x 0 9 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 ! triumphant bucc9ator novi temporis1 t ! advocates ( evolution>y e?ics f\nd _! protagoni/4 ,sp5c] look$ to ideas d]iv$ f ! biological sci5ces to provide a solution ( all ! enigmas ( morality1 z ( mo/ o!r dep>tm5ts ( life2 & he conceiv$ x to be ! bus9ess ( moral sci5ce to d$uce f ! laws ( life & ! conditions ( exi/5ce :at k9ds ( action necess>ily t5d to produce happ9ess & :at k9ds to produce unhapp9ess4 ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 t any moral sci5ce :i* is to be ( value mu/ wait until ! laws ( life & conditions ( exi/5ce h be5 satisfactorily det]m9$1 presumably by biology & ! alli$ sci5ces2 & !re are few m melan*oly in/ances ( failure 9 philosophy ?an ! paucity ( ! actual results atta9$ by ,sp5c] 9 8 lifetime 9 8 application ( ! s-call$ laws ( evolution to human conduct--a failure recogniz$ by ,sp5c] himself4 ,8 own contribution to e?ics 0 vitiat$ at ! outset by ! fact t he nev] %ook himself free f ! trammels ( ! philosophy :i* 8 own sy/em 0 int5d$ to sup]s$e4 ,he began by disclaim+ any aff9ity to ,utilit>ianism on ! "p ( 8 own philosophy4 ,he po9t$ out t ! pr9ciple ( ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] is a pr9ciple )\t any def9ite mean+1 s9ce m5 are n[h]e unanim\s 9 _! /&>d ( happ9ess1 b reg>d ! conception ( happ9ess r z a problem to be solv$ ?an a te/ to be appli$4 ,univ]sal happ9ess w\ld require omnisci5ce to legislate = x & ! normal or1 z "s w\ld say1 p]fect man to desire x2 nei!r ( ^! conditions ( its realization is at pres5t 9 exi/5ce4 ,fur!r1 ! pr9ciple t ev]ybody is to c\nt = "o1 nobody = m ?an "o1 is equally unsatisfactory4 ,x may be tak5 to imply t ! useless & ! crim9al %\ld be entitl$ to z mu* happ9ess z ! useful & ! virtu\s4 ,:ile x gives no rule = private z di/9ct f public conduct1 x provides no real guidance = ! legislator4 ,= nei!r happ9ess1 nor ! concrete means to happ9ess1 nor f9ally ! conditions ( its realization c be di/ribut$2 & 9 ! end n g5]al happ9ess becomes ! e?ical /&>d by :i* legislative action is to be guid$1 b univ]sal ju/ice4 ,yet ! implications ( ?is latt] conclusion ,sp5c] nev] fully ?\ght out4 ,he accept$ bodily )\t f>!r que/ion+ ! h$oni/ic psy*ology by :i* ! ,utilit>ians s\ght to ju/ify _! !ory :ile he reject$ ! !ory itself4 ,good1 e4g4 def9$ by him z conduct conducive to life1 is also fur!r def9$ z t :i* is conducive to a surplus ( pleasures ov] pa9s4 ,happ9ess1 aga91 is always reg>d$ z consi/+ 9 feel+1 ultimately 9 pleasant feel+1 & !re is no attempt to apply ! same pr9ciples ( criticism :i* he _h successfully appli$ to ! ,utilit>ians' happ9ess to ! conception ( pleasure4 ,&1 ?\gh he ma9ta9s z aga9/ ! ,utilit>ians ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 fundam5tal moral intuitions :i* h come to be q indep5d5t ( any pres5t consci\s exp]i5ce ( _! utility1 he yet holds t !y are ! results ( accumulat$ racial exp]i5ces gradually organiz$ & inh]it$4 ,f9ally1 side by side ) a !ory ( ! nature ( moral obligation ?us fundam5tally empirical & a po/]iori 9 its outlook1 he ma9ta9s 9 8 acc\nt ( ju/ice ! exi/5ce ( ! idea ( ju/ice z di/9ct f a m]e s5tim5t1 c>ry+ ) x an a priori belief 9 its exi/5ce & id5tical 9 its a priori & intuitive "* ) ! ultimate crit]ion ( ,utilit>ianism itself4 ,! fact is t any close philosophical analysis ( ,sp5c]'s sy/em ( e?ics c only result 9 ! discov]y ( a multitude ( mutually conflict+ & = ! mo/ "p logically unt5able !ories4 ,x is frequ5tly impossible to discov] :e!r he wi%es by an appeal to evolution>y pr9ciples to re9=ce ! sanctions & emphasize ! absolute "* ( ! traditional morality :i* 9 ! ma9 he accepts )\t "q f ! curr5t op9ions ab\t conduct ( 8 age1 or :e!r he wi%es to discr$it & disprove ! validity ( t morality 9 ord] to sub/itute by ! aid ( ! biological sci5ces a new e?ical code4 ,! argum5t1 = in/ance1 t intuitive & a priori beliefs ga9 _! absolute "* f ! fact t !y are ! result ( cont9u$ transmission & accumulation ( pa/ n]v\s modifications 9 ! hi/ory ( ! race w\ld1 if tak5 s]i\sly1 lead u to ! belief t ultimate e?ical sanctions are to be s\ght1 n by an appeal to ! moral consci\sness1 b by ! inve/igation ( bra9 tissue & ! relation ( man's bodily organism to its environm5t4 ,yet su* a view w\ld be totally at v>iance ) mu* t ,sp5c] says 7especially 9 8 treatm5t ( ju/ice7 conc]n+ ! tru/wor?9ess & inevitable "* ( m5's con/ant appeal to ! intuitions ( _! moral consci\sness4 ,moreov]1 ! v fact itself ( ! possibility ( inh]it+ acquir$ moral *>act]i/ics is /ill hotly debat$ by ^? biologi/s ) :om %\ld re/ ! ultimate v]dict4 ,aga91 ! argum5t t conduct is good or bad accord+ z its total effects are pleasurable or pa9ful1 & t ultimately pleasure-giv+ acts are life-su/a9+ acts1 seems to involve ,sp5c] 9 a multitude ( unv]ifi$ assumptions & contradictory !ories4 ,9 ! fir/ place x is nev] cle> :e!r ,sp5c] reg>ds ! fact t a p>ticul> c\rse ( conduct is accompani$ by a feel+ ( pleasure z a te/ ( its life-pres]v+ & life-su/a9+ "*1 or :e!r he wi%es u to use z our crit]ion ( :at is pleasant 9 conduct ! fact t ! conduct 9 "q seems conducive to ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( man's organic life4 ,he app>5tly passes f "o crit]ion to ! o!r z be/ suits ! purpose ( ! mom5t4 ,he does n prove ! co9cid5ce ( life-su/a9+ & pleasant activities4 ,he assumes ?r\gh\t t ! pleasant is ! opposite ( :at is pa9ful1 & seems unaw>e ( ! difficulty ( det]m9+ by means ( t]ms s highly ab/ract ! specific "* ( moral action4 ,we f9d 9 8 !ory no satisfactory attempt to discrim9ate betwe5 ! pleasure aim$ at by ! altrui/ & ! imm$iate pleasure ( egoi/ic action4 ,simil>ly he disreg>ds ! di/9ction betwe5 pleasant feel+ z an imm$iate motive ( conduct & ! idea ( ! atta9m5t ( future pleasure :e!r by ! race or by ! individual4 ,sp5c] is involv$ 9 effect 9 mo/ ( ! confusions & contradictions ( h$oni/ic psy*ology4 ,nor is 8 attempt to con/ruct a sci5tific crit]ion out ( data d]iv$ f ! biological sci5ces productive ( satisfactory results4 ,he is hamp]$ by a di/9ction betwe5 absolute & relative e?ics def9itely =mulat$ 9 ! la/ two *apt]s ( ,! ,data ( ,e?ics4 ,absolute e?ics w\ld deal ) su* laws z w\ld regulate ! conduct ( ideal man 9 an ideal society1 i4e4 a society :]e conduct has rea*$ ! /age ( complete adju/m5t to ! ne$s ( social life4 ,relative e?ics1 on ! o!r h&1 is conc]n$ only ) su* conduct z is advantage\s = t society :i* has n yet rea*$ ! end ( complete adaptation to its environm5t1 i4e4 :i* is at pres5t imp]fect4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to say t ,sp5c] does n tell u h[ to br+ ! two e?ical sy/ems into correlation4 ,& ! actual crit]ia ( conduct d]iv$ f biological consid]ations are almo/ ludicr\sly inadequate4 ,conduct1 e4g41 is said to be m moral 9 proportion z x exhibits a t5d5cy on ! "p ( ! individual or society to become m def9ite1 coh]5t & het]og5e\s4 ,or1 aga91 we %\ld recognize z a te/ ( ! au?oritative "* ( moral ideas or feel+s ! fact t !y are complex & repres5tative1 ref]r+ to a remote r ?an to a proximate good1 rememb]+ ! :ile t ! s5se ( duty is transitory1 & w dim9i% z fa/ z moralization increases4 ,9 fact1 no acceptable sci5tific crit]ion em]ges1 & ! outcome ( ,sp5c]'s attempt to asc]ta9 ! laws ( life & ! conditions ( exi/5ce is ei!r a re/atem5t ( ! dictates ( ! moral consci\sness 9 vague & cumbr\s quasi-sci5tific phraseology1 or ! sub/itution ( ! mean+less te/ ( survivability z a /&>d ( p]fection = ! usual & intelligible /&>ds ( good & "r4 ,leslie ,/eph54 ,a simil> criticism might fairly be pass$ ^u ! majority ( philosoph]s :o approa* e?ics f ! /&po9t ( evolution4 ,sir ,leslie ,/eph51 = in/ance1 wi%es to sub/itute ! conception ( social heal? = t ( univ]sal happ9ess1 & consid]s t ! conditions ( social heal? are to be discov]$ by an exam9ation ( ! social organism or ( social tissue1 ! laws ( :i* c be /udi$ ap>t f ^? laws by :i* ! individuals compos+ society regulate _! conduct4 ,! social evolution means ! evolution ( a /rong social tissue2 ! be/ type is ! type impli$ by ! /ronge/ tissue4 ,b on ! important "q z to :at con/itutes ! /ronge/ social tissue1 or to :at ext5t ! analogy betwe5 society z at pres5t con/itut$ & organic life is really applicable1 we are left )\t c]ta9 guidance4 ,! fact is t ) few exceptions evolution>y moral philosoph]s evade ! *oice betwe5 alt]natives :i* is always pres5t$ to !m4 ,!y beg91 = ! mo/ "p1 ) a belief t 9 e?ics z 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( human k ! m develop$ mu/ be int]pret$ by ! less develop$--?\gh frequ5tly 9 ! sequel complexity or po/]iority ( developm5t is erect$ z a /&>d by means ( :i* to judge ! process ( developm5t itself4 ,!y are n cont5t to write a hi/ory ( moral developm5t1 apply+ to x ! pr9ciples by :i* ,d>w9ians seek to expla9 ! developm5t ( animal life4 ,b ! se>* ( orig9s frequ5tly leads !m into !ories ( ! nature ( t moral conduct ^: orig9 !y are anxi\s to f9d q at v>iance ) curr5t & accept$ beliefs conc]n+ its nature4 ,! discov]y ( ! s-call$ evolution ( morality out ( non-moral conditions is v frequ5tly an unconsci\s subt]fuge by :i* ! evolutioni/ hides ! fact t he is mak+ a priori judgm5ts ^u ! value ( ! moral concepts held to be evolv$4 ,to accept su* !ories ( ! orig9 ( morality w\ld c>ry ) x ! conviction t :at we took = moral conduct 0 9 reality some?+ v diff]5t1 & has be5 s ?r\gh\t its hi/ory4 ,! legitimate inf]5ce :i* %\ld foll[ w\ld be ! d5ial ( ! validity ( ^? moral laws :i* h hi!rto be5 reg>d$ z absolute 9 "*1 & ! sub/itution = all cu/om>y moral t]ms ( an entirely new set bas$ ^u biological consid]ations4 ,b x is precisely ?is1 ! only logical inf]5ce1 :i* mo/ evolution>y philosoph]s are unwill+ to draw4 ,!y _c give up _! belief 9 cu/om>y morality4 ,pr(essor ,huxley ma9ta9$1 = example1 9 a fam\s lecture t ! e?ical progress ( society dep5ds n on imitat+ ! cosmic process1 /ill less 9 runn+ away f x1 b 9 combat+ x 7,romanes ,lecture1 ad f9474 ,& v frequ5tly argum5ts are adduc$ by evolutioni/s to prove t m5's belief 9 ! absolute "* ( moral precepts is "o ( ! necess>y means adopt$ by nature to c>ry out h] designs = ! social welf>e ( mank9d4 ,yet ! o!r alt]native1 to :i* su* reason+ po9ts1 !y are reluctant to accept4 ,= ! belief t moral obligation is absolute 9 "*1 t x is alike impossible to expla9 its orig9 & transc5d its laws1 w\ld make ! se>* = a sci5tific crit]ion ( conduct to be d$uc$ f ! laws ( life & conditions ( exi/5ce mean+less1 if n absurd4 ,nietzs*e4 ,p]haps ! "o ,european ?9k] :o has c>ri$ evolution>y pr9ciples 9 e?ics to _! logical conclusion is ,fri$ri* ,nietzs*e4 ,almo/ any sy/em ( morality or immorality might f9d "s ju/ification 9 ,nietzs*e's writ+s1 :i* are extraord9>ily *aotic & full ( ! wilde/ exagg]ations4 ,yet x has be5 a true in/9ct :i* has l$ popul> op9ion z te/ifi$ to by curr5t lit]ature to f9d 9 ,nietzs*e ! mo/ or?odox expon5t ( ,d>w9ian ideas 9 _! application to e?ics4 ,= he saw cle>ly t to be successful evolution>y e?ics mu/ involve ! transvaluation ( all values1 ! demoralization ( all ord9>y curr5t morality4 ,he accept$ frankly ! glorification ( brute /r5g?1 sup]ior cunn+ & all ! qualities necess>y = success 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 to :i* ! e?ics ( evolution necess>ily t5d4 ,he proclaim$ himself1 be=e ev]y?+ else1 a physiologi/1 & look$ to physiology to provide ! ultimate /&>d = ev]y?+ t has value2 & ?\gh 8 own e?ical code necess>ily involves ! disappe>ance ( sympa?y1 love1 tol]ation & all exi/+ altrui/ic emotions1 he yet 9 a s5se f9ds room = !m 9 su* altrui/ic self-sacrifice z prep>es ! way = ! high] man ( ! future4 ,?us1 aft] a fa%ion1 he is able to reconcile ! conflict+ claims ( egoism & altruism & succe$ :]e mo/ apo/les ( evolution fail4 ,! ,*ri/ian virtues1 sympa?y = ! weak1 ! suff]+1 c41 repres5t a necess>y /age to be pass$ ?r\gh 9 ! evolution ( ! ,ub]m5s*1 i4e4 ! /age :5 ! weak & suff]+ comb9e 9 revolt aga9/ ! /rong4 ,!y are to be sup]s$$1 n s mu* because all social virtues are to be scorn$ & reject$1 z because 9 _! effects1 i4e4 9 _! t5d5cy to p]petuate & prolong ! exi/5ce ( ! weak & ^? :o are lea/ well equipp$ & end[$ by nature1 !y are anti-social 9 "* & inimical to ! survival ( ! /ronge/ & mo/ vigor\s type ( humanity4 ,consequ5tly ,nietzs*e 9 effect ma9ta9s ! foll[+ p>adoxical position3 he expla9s ! exi/5ce ( altruism ^u egoi/ical pr9ciples2 he advocates ! total abolition ( all altruism by c>ry+ ^! same egoi/ical pr9ciples to _! logical conclusion2 he nev]!less appeals to t moral in/9ct :i* makes m5 ready to sacrifice _! own n>r[ p]sonal int]e/s to ! high] good ( society--an in/9ct pr(\ndly altrui/ic 9 "*--z ! ultimate ju/ification ( ! e?ics he enunciates4 ,su* a position is a r$uctio ad absurdum ( ! attempt to transc5d ! ultimate "* ( ^? intuitions & feel+s :i* prompt m5 to b5evol5ce4 ,?us1 ?\gh incid5tally !re is mu* to be le>n$ f ,nietzs*e1 especially f 8 criticism ( ! e?ics ( pessimism1 or f ! /rictures he passes ^u ! negative morality ( extreme asceticism or quietism1 8 sy/em inevitably provides its own refutation4 ,= no philosophy :i* trave/ies ! real c\rse ( hi/ory & di/orts ! moral facts is likely to comm5d itself to ! sob] judgm5t ( mank9d h[ev] brilliant be its exposition or +5i\s its argum5ts4 ,f9ally1 ! conceptions ( /r5g?1 p[] & ma/]fulness by :i* ,nietzs*e attempts to det]m9e 8 own moral ideal1 become1 :5 exam9$1 z relative & unsatisfactory z o!r crit]ia ( moral action said to be d$uc$ f evolution>y pr9ciples4 ,m5 desire /r5g? or p[] n z ends b z means to ends beyond !m2 ,nietzs*e is mo/ conv9c+ :5 ! ,ub]m5s* is left undef9$4 ,imag9$ z ideal man1 i4e4 z morality depicts him1 he becomes intelligible2 imag9$ z ,nietzs*e describes him he reels back into ! bea/1 & t di/9ction :i* *iefly sep>ates man f ! animal _w out ( :i* he has em]g$1 viz4 8 unique p[] ( self-consci\sness & self-criticism1 is oblit]at$4 ,t4,h4 ,gre54 ,x 0 ^u ?is crucial difficulty1 i4e4 ! transition 9 ! evolution ( morality f ! /age ( purely animal & unconsci\s action to specifically human action1--i4e4 action direct$ by self-consci\s & purposive intellig5ce to an end conceiv$ z good1--t ! polemic ( ,t4,h4 ,gre5 & 8 ideali/ic foll[]s fa/5$4 ,& x is p]haps un=tunate t metaphysical doctr9es enunciat$ *iefly = ! purposes ( criticism n 9 !mselves vitally necess>y to ! !ory ( morality prop\nd$ %\ld h be5 reg>d$ z ! ma9 contribution to e?ical !ory ( ideali/ writ]s1 & z su* treat$ sev]ely by ho/ile critics4 ,gre5's pr9cipal objection to evolution>y moral philosophy is conta9$ 9 ! argum5t t no m]ely natural explanation ( ! facts ( morality is conceivable4 ,! kn[+ consci\sness1--i4e4 s f> z conduct is conc]n$ ! moral consci\sness1--c nev] become an object ( k 9 ! s5se 9 :i* natural ph5om5a are objects ( sci5tific k4 ,= su* k implies ! exi/5ce ( a kn[+ consci\sness z a relat+ & unit+ intellig5ce capable ( di/+ui%+ itself f ! objects to :i* x relates4 ,& m p>ticul>ly ! exi/5ce ( ! moral consci\sness implies ! transition f m]e want to consci\sness ( want$ object1 f impulse to satisfy ! want to ef=t = ! realization ( ! want$ objects1 implies ! pres5ce ( ! want to a subject :i* di/+ui%es itself f x4 ,consequ5tly ! facts ( moral developm5t imply ) ! em]g5ce ( human consci\sness ! appe>ance ( some?+ qualitatively diff]5t f ! facts ) :i* physiology = in/ance deals1 imply a /ratum z x 7 9 developm5t :i* no exam9ation ( animal tissues1 no calculation ( consequ5ces ) reg>d to ! pres]vation ( ! species c ev] satisfactorily expla94 ,h[ev] f> back we g 9 ! hi/ory ( humanity1 if ! pres5ce ( consci\sness be admitt$ at all1 x w be necess>y to admit also ! pres5ce to consci\sness ( an ideal :i* c be accept$ or reject$1 ( a p[] ( look+ be=e & aft]1 & aim+ at a future :i* is n yet fully realiz$4 ,b un=tunately ! tempor>y exig5cies ( criticism made x necess>y = ,gre5 to emphasize ! metaphysic ( ! self1 i4e4 to insi/ ^u ! necessity ( a critical exam9ation ( ! pre-requisites ( any =m ( self-consci\sness & especially ( ! kn[+ consci\sness1 to su* an ext5t t critics h lo/ sight ( ! real dep5d5ce ( 8 metaphysic ^u ! direct evid5ce ( ! moral consci\sness4 ,! philosophic value1 ! s9c]ity1 ! bread? & dep? ( 8 treatm5t ( moral facts & in/itutions h be5 fully recogniz$4 ,:at has n be5 adequately realiz$ is t ! metaphysical basis ( 8 sy/em ( e?ics--! argum5t1 = example1 conta9$ 9 ! introduction to ! ,prolegom5a--is unfairly treat$ if divorc$ f 8 treatm5t ( morals z a :ole1 & t x c be ju/ly e/imat$ only if int]pret$ z mu* z ! conclusion z ! />t+-po9t ( moral !ory4 ,! doctr9e ( ! et]nity ( ! self1 = in/ance1 aga9/ :i* mu* criticism 7e4g4 ,taylor1 ,! ,problem ( ,conduct1 *ap4 ii47 has be5 direct$1 ?\gh x is *iefly express$ 9 ! language ( epi/emology1 has its roots nev]!less 9 ! direct te/imony ( moral exp]i5ce4 ,= morality implies a p[] 9 ! individual ( ris+ above ! int]e/s ( 8 own n>r[] self & id5tify+ himself 9 ! pursuit ( a univ]sal good ) ! true int]e/s ( all o!r selves4 ,simil>ly ! conception ( ! self z a moral unity arises naturally out ( ! impossibility ( f9d+ ! summum bonum 9 a succession ( transi5t /ates ( consci\sness su* z h$onism = example po/ulates4 ,good z a true univ]sal c only be realiz$ by a true self1 & bo? imply a pr9ciple ( unity n :olly expressible 9 t]ms ( ! p>ticul>s :i* x unifies4 ,b :e!r ! ideali/ic int]pretation ( ! nature ( univ]sal good be ! true "o1 i4e4 :e!r we are ju/ifi$ 9 id5tify+ t self-consci\sness :i* is capable ( grasp+ ! pr9ciple ( unity ) ! pr9ciple ( unity :i* x grasps is a metaphysical & !i/ic problem comp>atively irrelevant to ,gre5's moral !ory4 ,x w\ld be q possible to accept 8 criticisms ( naturalism & h$onism :ile reject+ _m ( ! metaphysical inf]5ces :i* he draws4 ,a some:at simil> answ] might be return$ to ^? critics :o f9d ,gre5's use ( ! t]m self-realization or self-developm5t z *>act]i/ic ( ! moral ideal unsatisfactory4 ,x is q easy to exhibit ! futility ( su* a conception if und]/ood =mally = ! practical purposes ( moral philosophy4 ,if ! phrase be und]/ood to mean ! realization ( "s capacities ( ! self x does n appe> to discrim9ate suffici5tly betwe5 ! good & bad capacities2 :ile ! realization "u pres5t conditions ( all ! capacities ( a self is impossible4 ,& to aim s f> z is possible at all-r\nd developm5t w\ld aga9 ignore ! di/9ction betwe5 vice & virtue4 ,b us$ 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,gre5 habitually uses x self-realization implies1 z he puts x1 ! fulfilm5t by ! good man ( 8 rational capacity or ! idea ( a be/ t is 9 "t1 i4e4 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! good & ! bad self is nev] ignor$1 b is ! fundam5tal assumption ( 8 !ory4 ,& if x be urg$ t ! expression is 9 any case tautological1 i4e4 t ! good is def9$ 9 t]ms ( self-realization & self-realization 9 t]ms ( ! good1 x may be d\bt$ :e!r any rational sy/em ( e?ics c avoid a simil> imputation4 ,gre5 w\ld admit t 9 a c]ta9 s5se ! conception ( good is indef9able1 i4e4 t x c only be recogniz$ 9 ! p>ticul>s ( conduct ( :i* x is ! univ]sal =m4 ,only1 !re=e1 to ^? philosoph]s :o believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( a crit]ion ( morality1 i4e4 a univ]sal te/ su* z t ( pleasure1 happ9ess & ! l1 by :i* we c judge ( ! wor? ( actions1 w ,gre5's position seem absurd2 s9ce1 on ! contr>y1 su* conceptions z ^? ( self-developm5t or self-realization seem to h a def9ite & positive value if !y call att5tion to ! metaphysical implications ( morality & accurately *>act]ize ! moral facts4 ,:at ambiguity !y possess arises f ! ambiguity ( morality itself4 ,= moral progress consi/s 9 ! actualization ( :at is already pot5tially 9 exi/5ce4 ,! /rik+ m]it ( ,gre5's moral philosophy is t ! idealism :i* he advocates is root$ & gr\nd$ 9 moral habits & in/itutions3 & ! metaphysic 9 :i* x culm9ates is bas$ ^u pr9ciples already implicitly recogniz$ by ! moral consci\sness ( ! ord9>y man4 ,no?+ c\ld be f>!r f ,gre5's tea*+ ?an ! belief t con/ructive metaphysics c\ld1 unaid$ by ! intuitions ( ! moral consci\sness1 discov] laws = ! regulation ( conduct4 ,taylor4 ,b al?\gh ,gre5's loyalty to ! prim>y facts ( ! moral consci\sness prev5t$ him f con/ruct+ a rationali/ic sy/em ( morals bas$ solely ^u ! conclusions ( metaphysics1 x 0 p]haps inevitable t ! revival ( int]e/ 9 metaphysics s prom95t 9 8 own speculations %\ld lead to a m d>+ criticism ( e?ical fir/ pr9ciples 9 o!r writ]s4 ,bradley's ,e?ical ,/udies _h pres5t$ ) great brilliancy an ideali/ !ory ( morality n v f> remov$ f t ( ,gre5's ,prolegom5a4 ,b ! publication ( ,appe>ance & ,reality by ! same au?or m>k$ a great advance 9 philosophical criticism ( e?ical po/ulates1 & a gr[+ dissatisfaction ) curr5t reconciliations betwe5 moral fir/ pr9ciples & ! conclusions ( metaphysics4 ,appe>ance & ,reality 0 n prim>ily conc]n$ ) morals1 yet x inevitably l$ to c]ta9 conclusions affect+ conduct1 & x 0 no v long "t be=e ^! conclusions 7 elaborat$ 9 detail4 ,pr(essor ,a4,e4 ,taylor's ,problem ( ,conduct 7#aija7 is "o ( ! mo/ notewor?y & indep5d5t contributions to ,moral ,philosophy publi%$ 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,b x nev]!less foll[s 9 ! ma9 ,bradley's l9e ( criticism & may !re=e be reg>d$ z repres5tative ( 8 s*ool4 ,!re are two pr9cipal positions 9 ,pr(essor ,taylor's "w3--7#a7 a refusal to base e?ics ^u metaphysics1 & 7#b7 ! discov]y ( an irreconcilable dualism 9 ! nature ( morality :i* takes _m %apes1 b may be summ>iz$ r\ghly z consi/+ 9 an ultimate opposition betwe5 egoism & altruism4 ,) reg>d to ! fir/ ( ^! ,taylor says 7op4 cit4 p4 #d7 t 8 object is to %[ t e?ics is z indep5d5t ( metaphysical speculation = its pr9ciples & me?ods z any ( ! s-call$ 'natural sci5ces'2 t its real basis mu/ be s\ght n 9 philosophical !ories ab\t ! nature ( ! ,absolute or ! ultimate con/itution ( ! ,univ]se1 b 9 ! empirical facts ( human life z !y are reveal$ to u 9 our concrete ev]yday exp]i5ce ( ! _w & mank9d1 & sift$ & sy/ematiz$ by ! sci5ces ( psy*ology & sociology4444 ,e?ics %\ld be reg>d$ z a purely 'positive' or 'exp]im5tal' & n z a 'speculative' sci5ce4 ,) reg>d to ! second position "o quotation w suffice 7op4 cit4 p4 #ahc74 ,altruism & egoism are div]g5t developm5ts f ! common psy*ological root ( primitive e?ical s5tim5t4 ,bo? developm5ts are alike unavoidable1 & ea* is ultimately irreconcilable ) ! o!r4 ,nei!r egoism nor altruism c be made ! sole basis ( moral !ory )\t mutilation ( ! facts1 nor c any high] category be discov]$ by ! aid ( :i* _! rival claims may be f9ally adju/$4 ,pr(essor ,taylor exp\nds ^! two !ories ) great brilliance ( argum5t & mu* +5uity1 yet nei!r ( !m w p]haps c>ry complete conviction to ! m9ds ( ! majority ( 8 critics4 ,x is curi\s1 9 ! fir/ place1 to f9d ! indep5d5ce ( moral philosophy ^u metaphysics support$ by metaphysical argum5ts4 ,= :atev] may be ! real "* ( ! int]relation ( moral & metaphysical fir/ pr9ciples x is obvi\s t ,taylor's own dissatisfaction ) curr5t moral pr9ciples arises f an inability to believe 9 _! ultimate rationality1 i4e4 a belief t !y are unt5able f ! /&po9t ( ultimate metaphysics2 & p]haps ! mo/ int]e/+ portion ( 8 book is ! *apt] entitl$ ,beyond ,good & ,bad1 9 :i* ! highe/ & f9al =m ( ! e?ical consci\sness ( mank9d is subject$ to se>*+ criticism4 ,b fur!r1 x is becom+ increas+ly app>5t t psy*ology 7^u :i* ,taylor w\ld base morality7 itself involves metaphysical assumptions2 its position 9 fact _c be /at$ except z a metaphysical position1 :e!r t ( subjective idealism or any o!r4 ,& ! ne$ :i* mo/ philosoph]s h felt = "s philosophical f\ndation = morality arises1 n f any desire to subord9ate moral insight to speculative !ory1 b because ! moral facts !mselves are inexplicable except 9 ! light ( fir/ pr9ciples :i* metaphysics alone c criticize4 ,taylor himself attempts to f9d ! roots ( e?ics 9 ! moral s5tim5ts ( mank9d1 ! moral s5tim5ts be+ prim>ily feel+s or emotions1 ?\gh !y imply & result 9 judgm5ts ( approval & disapproval ^u conduct4 ,b x may be d\bt$ :e!r he succe$s 9 cle>ly di/+ui%+ e?ical feel+s f e?ical judgm5ts1 & if !y are to be treat$ z synonym\s x seems difficult to avoid ! conclusion t ! implications ( moral judgm5t mu/ involve a ref]5ce to metaphysics4 ,moreov]1 x is obvi\s t a great "p ( ,taylor's qu>rel ) curr5t moral ideals arises f ! fact t !y d n comm5d !mselves to ! moral judgm5t1 i4e4 f ! /&po9t ( real goodness !y are unsatisfactory1 be+ ta9t$ ) evil4 ,h5ce x appe>s difficult to reconcile :at is 9 effect a belief 9 ! validity ( ! judgm5ts ( ! moral consci\sness ) a belief t ! real s\rce & ju/ification ( t consci\sness are to be f\nd 9 ! v s5tim5ts & vague mass ( float+ feel+s ^u :i* x pron\nces4 ,scepticism seems to be ! only possible result ( su* a position4 ,taylor's polemic aga9/ metaphysical sy/ems ( e?ics is bas$ ?r\gh\t ^u an alleg$ discrepancy & sep>ation betwe5 ! facts ( moral exp]i5ce1 ! judgm5ts ( ! moral consci\sness1 & !ories z to ! nature ( ^! :i* ! philosoph]s :om he attacks w\ld by no means accept4 ,!re is no d\bt a di/9ction betwe5 morality z a =m ( consci\sness & reflection ^u t morality4 ,b su* a di/9ction nei!r corresponds to1 nor te/ifies to1 ! exi/5ce ( a di/9ction betwe5 morality z exp]i5ce & morality z !ory or idea4 ,taylor is m p]suasive :5 he is develop+ 8 second ma9 !sis--t ( ! alleg$ exi/5ce ( an ultimate dualism 9 ! nature ( morality4 ,8 acc\nts ( ! g5esis ( ! conceptions ( obligation & responsibility z ( mo/ ( ! ultimate conceptions ) :i* moral philosophy deals w be accept$ or reject$ to ! ext5t to :i* ! ma9 cont5tion conc]n+ ! psy*ological basis ( e?ics comm5ds itself to ! read]4 ,b 9 8 exposition ( ! fundam5tal contradiction involv$ 9 morality elaborat$ ) mu* c>e & illu/rative argum5t he appeals = ! mo/ "p to facts famili> to ! unphilosophical moral consci\sness4 ,he beg9s by f9d+ an ultimate opposition betwe5 ! in/9cts ( self-ass]tion & in/9cts :i* secure ! production & protection ( ! com+ g5]ation ev5 9 ! infra-e?ical _w ) :i* biology deals4 ,he traces ?is opposition into ! =ms 9 :i* x appe>s 9 ! social life ( mank9d 7z1 e4g41 9 ! difficulty ( reconcil+ ! conflict+ claims ( individual self-developm5t & self-culture & social s]vice71 & f9ds a hidd5 root ( ins9c]ity & hypocrisy b5ea? all morality 7p4 #bdc71 inasmu* z x is n possible to pursue any "o type ( ideal )\t "s dep>ture f s+l5ess ( purpose4 ,& he f9ds all ! conceptions by :i* m5 h hop$ to reconcile admitt$ antagonisms & div]g5cies betwe5 moral ideals claim+ to be ultimate & au?oritative alike unsatisfactory 7p4 #bhe74 ,progress is illusory2 !re is no satisfactory goal to :i* moral developm5t inevitably t5ds2 religion 9 :i* "s take refuge :5 di/ress$ by ! inexplicable contradictions ( moral conduct itself conta9s & re/s ^u an elem5t ( make believe 7p4 #dhi74 ,) ,taylor's pres5tation ( ! difficulties ) :i* morality is expect$ to grapple probably few w\ld be f\nd s]i\sly to disagree1 ?\gh !y might consid] x unduly pessimi/ic4 ,b :5 he turns :at is 9 effect a /atem5t ( c]ta9 =ms ( moral difficulty into an attack ^u ! logical & coh]5t "* ( morality itself1 he is n s likely to comm& ass5t4 ,= ! difficulty all m5 meet ) 9 realiz+ goodness1 or 9 be+ moral1 is n 9 itself evid5ce ( an inh]5t contradiction 9 ! nature ( goodness z su*4 ,& :at p]haps w\ld fir/ /rike an unprejudic$ critic 9 ,taylor's examples ( conflict+ ideals or antagoni/ic yet ultimate moral judgm5ts w\ld be ! p]ception t !y are n necess>ily moral ideas or judgm5ts at all1 & h5ce necess>ily n ultimate4 ,! claims ( self-culture & ( social s]vice may :5 consid]$ 9 ! ab/ract or 9 "s hypo!tical case appe> antagoni/ic & irreconcilable4 ,b :5 !y pres5t !mselves to ! individual moral consci\sness x may be safely ass]t$ 7#a7 t !re c be only "o moral *oice possible1 i4e4 t _! opposition 7:]e !y are oppos$7 involves no conflict ( duties2 & 7#b7 t :i*ev] ideal is 9 ! end pref]r$1 opportunities w nev]!less be provid$ )9 its realization = ! concurr5t realization ( activities & capacities ord9>ily associat$ ) ! ideal alleg$ to be contradictory4 ,= j z !re is no self-realization :i* does n involve self-sacrifice1 s !re is no room = t species ( egoism )9 ! conf9es ( morality :i* is incompatible ) social s]vice4 ,x w be cle> f ! =ego+ acc\nt ( ,taylor's "w t ! t5d5cy ( 8 ?\ght1 z ( t ( ,bradley1 is by no means direct$ to ! confirmation or re-e/abli%m5t ( ^? pr9ciples ( conduct recogniz$ by ! ord9>y moral consci\sness4 ,psy*ology or metaphysics t5d 9 _! sy/ems to usurp ! place ( au?ority =m]ly assign$ to e?ics prop]4 ,m>t9eau4 ,x w\ld be true on ! :ole to ass]t t evolution>y sy/ems ( e?ics su* z ^? ( ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 ,sir ,leslie ,/eph5 or ,pr(essor ,s4 ,alex&] 7,moral ,ord] & ,progress1 #ahii71 toge!r ) ! metaphysical !ories ( morals ( :i* ,t4,h4 ,gre5 & ,bradley & ,taylor are ! *ief repres5tatives1 h dom9at$ ! field ( e?ical speculation s9ce #ahgj4 ,nev]!less x is only necess>y to m5tion su* a "w z ,m>t9eau's ,types ( ,e?ical ,!ory to dispel ! notion t ! type ( moral philosophy mo/ *>act]i/ically ,engli%1 i4e4 consi/+ 9 ! pati5t analysis ( ! =m & nature ( ! moral consci\sness itself1 has giv5 way or is likely to give way to m ambiti\s & con/ructive ef=ts4 ,m>t9eau's *ief endeav\r 01 z he himself says1 to int]pret1 to v9dicate1 & to sy/ematize ! moral s5tim5ts1 & if ! actual exhibition ( :at is involv$1 e4g41 9 moral *oice is ! v9dication ( morality ,m>t9eau may be said to h be5 successful4 ,x is ) 8 int]pretation & sy/ematization ( ! moral s5tim5ts t mo/ ( ,m>t9eau's critics h f\nd fault4 ,x is impossible1 e4g41 to accept 8 ord]$ hi]>*y ( spr+s ( action )\t p]ceiv+ t ! real pr9ciple ^u :i* !y c be arrang$ 9 ord] at all mu/ dep5d ^u consid]ations ( circum/ances & consequ5ces1 ( /ations & duties1 ) :i* a /rict intuitionalism su* z t ( ,m>t9eau w\ld h no deal+4#ej ,simil>ly ! notion ( ,consci5ce z a special faculty giv+ its pron\ncem5ts imm$iately & )\t reflection _c be ma9ta9$ 9 ! face ( mod]n psy*ological analysis & is untrue to ! nature ( moral judgm5t itself4 ,& ,m>t9eau is curi\sly unsympa!tic to ! univ]sal & social aspect ( morality ) :i* evolution>y & ideali/ moral philosoph]s are s l>gely occupi$4 ,nev]!less !re h be5 few moral philosoph]s :o h1 ap>t f ! idiosyncrasies ( _! special prepossessions1 set =? ) cle>] insight or ) great] nobility ( language ! ess5tial nature ( ! moral consci\sness4 ,sidgwick4 ,equal 9 importance to ,m>t9eau's "w is ,pr(essor ,sidgwick's ,me?ods ( ,e?ics :i* appe>$ 9 #ahgd4 ,! two works are alike 9 l(t9ess ( outlook & 9 ! fact t !y are devot$ to ! re-exam9ation ( ! nature ( ! moral consci\sness to ! exclusion ( ali5 bran*es ( inquiry4 ,9 mo/ o!r respects !y diff]4 ,m>t9eau is mu* m 9 sympa?y ) idealism ?an ,sidgwick1 ^: "w consi/s 9 a re/atem5t f a novel & indep5d5t /&po9t ( ! ,utilit>ian position4 ,& ,sidgwick has be5 f> m successful ?an any o!r moral philosoph] ) ! exception ( ,t4,h4 ,gre5 & ,bradley 9 f\nd+ a s*ool ( ?\ght4 ,_m ( 8 mo/ acute critics w\ld be ! fir/ to admit h[ mu* !y owe to 8 tea*+4 ,*ief among ! m rec5t ( ^! is ,g4,e4 ,moore1 ^: book ,pr9cipia ,e?ica is an important orig9al contribution to e?ical ?\ght4 ,& al?\gh ,dr ,ha/+s ,ra%dall 7,! ,!ory ( ,good & ,evil ,ox=d1 #aijg7 is n 9 agreem5t ) ,sidgwick's own p>ticul> type ( h$oni/ic !ory 9 8 own philosophical position1 he occupies a po9t ( view some:at simil> to t ( ,sidgwick's ma9 attitude ( ,rational ,utilit>ianism4 ,ra%dall's two volumes exhibit also a welcome return on ! "p ( ,engli% ?\ght to ! prop] bus9ess ( ! moral philosoph]--! exam9ation ( ! nature ( moral conduct4 ,o!r works1 su* z ,pr(essor ,l4,t4 ,hobh\se's ,morals 9 ,evolution or ,pr(essor ,e4,a4 ,we/]m>ck's ,orig9 & ,developm5t ( ! ,moral ,ideas1 te/ify to a cont9u$ int]e/ 9 ! hi/ory ( morality & 9 ! an?ropological inquiries ) :i* moral philosophy is closely connect$4 ,mu* t is ( importance = moral philosophy has rec5tly be5 writt5 ^u problems t m prop]ly belong to ! philosophy ( religion & ! !ory ( k4 ,j4,f4 ,m',tagg>t's ,/udies 9 ,hegelian ,cosmology1 & 8 lat] "w1 ,"s ,dogmas ( ,religion1 conta9 int]e/+ contributions to ! !ory ( pleasure & ( ! problem ( free w & det]m9ism4 ,a notable in/ance ( ?is t5d5cy is se5 9 ! developm5ts ( ! !ory ( pragmatism 7q4v471 = :i* ,f4,c4,s4 ,s*ill] has propos$ ! g5]al t]m humanism4 ,su* aspects z conc]n e?ics include1 = example1 ! limit$ indet]m9ism involv$ 9 ! !ory1 ! attitude ( ! religi\s consci\sness express$ by ,william ,james 7,w to ,believe & ,pragmatism71 & ! pragmatic conception ( ! good4 ,& ! widespread int]e/ 9 social problems has produc$ a revival ( speculation conc]n+ que/ions p>tly political & p>ty e?ical 9 "*1 e4g4 ! nature ( ju/ice4 ,f9ally x has become app>5t t _m problems hi!rto left = political economy to solve belong m prop]ly to ! morali/1 if n to ! moral philosoph]1 & x may be confid5tly expect$ t ) ! increas$ complexity ( social life & ! disappe>ance ( _m sanctions ( morality hi!rto reg>d$ z inviolable1 ! future w br+ a r5ew$ & practical int]e/ 9 ! !ory ( conduct likely to lead to fre% developm5ts 9 e?ical speculation4 ,,bibliography4--,! lit]ature ( ! subject is s l>ge 9 all languages t only a small selection c be giv5 "h4 ,= fur!r works ref]5ce may be made to subsidi>y articles4 ,see also ,baldw9's ,dict4 ( ,philos4 & ,psy*ol4 vol4 iii4 7#aije71 pp4 #hab foll4 7bibliography74 ,i4 ,hi/orical4--,sir ,l4 ,/eph51 ,hi/ory ( ,engli% ,?\ght 9 ! #ah? ,c5tury 7#ahgf1 #crd ed4 #ahib72 ,w4,e4,h4 ,lecky1 ,hi/ory ( ,european ,morals f ,augu/us to ,*>lemagne 7#ahfi1 _m editions72 works ( ,ed4 ,zell] 7q4v472 ,g4,h4 ,lewes1 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy 7#ahhj72 ,w4 ,gass1 ,ges*i*te d] *ri/li*5 ,e?ik 7#ahha72 ,a4,w4 ,b5n1 ,! ,greek ,philosoph]s 7#ahhb72 ,f4 ,jodl1 ,ges*i*te d] ,e?ik 9 d] neu]5 ,philos4 7#b vols41 #ahhb-ahhi72 ,l4 ,s*midt1 ,e?ik d] alt5 ,grie*5 7#ahhb72 ,e4 ,h[ley1 ,! ,old ,morality trac$ ,hi/orically 7#ahhe72 ,j4 ,m>t9eau1 ,types ( ,e?ical ,!ory 7,ox=d1 #ahhe1 #crd ed4 #ahia72 ,?4 ,ziegl]1 ,ges*4 d4 *ri/l4 ,e?ik 7#ahhf72 ,*4 ,let\rneaux1 ,l',evolution de la morale 7#ahhg72 ,k4 ,ko/l91 ,ges*4 d] ,e?ik 7#ahhg72 ,c4,e4 ,lu?>dt1 ,die antike ,e?ik 9 ihr] ges*i*tli*5 ,entwicklung 7#ahhg71 & ,hi/4 ( ,*ri/ian ,e?ics 7#ahhh72 ,c4,m4 ,williams1 ,a ,review ( ! ,sy/ems ( ,e?ics f\nd$ on ! ,!ory ( ,evolution 7#ahic72 ,j4 ,watson1 ,h$oni/ic ,!ories f ,ari/ippus to ,sp5c] 7#ahie72 ,l4,a4 ,selby-,bigge1 ,briti% ,morali/s 7#ahig72 ,r4 ,mack9to%1 ,f ,comte to ,b5jam9 ,kidd 7#ahii72 ,s4 ,patt51 ,! ,developm5t ( ,engli% ,?\ght 7#ahii72 ,a4,b4 ,bruce1 ,! ,moral ,ord] ( ! ,_w 9 ,anci5t & ,mod]n ,?\ght 7#ahii72 ,sir ,l4 ,/eph51 ,! ,engli% ,utilit>ians 7#aija72 ,h5ry ,sidgwick1 ,outl9es ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,e?ics 7#e? ed41 #aijb72 ,paul ,janet1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,problems ( ,philosophy 7#aijb-aijc71 ,eng4 trans4 ,ada ,monahan1 vol4 ii4 ,e?ics2 ,w4,r4 ,sorley1 ,rec5t ,t5d5cies 9 ,e?ics 7#aijd74 ,,ii4 ,con/ructive & ,critical4--,besides ! works m5tion$ above ! foll[+ may be m5tion$3--,j4,m4 ,guyau1 ,la ,morale anglaise 7#ahgi71 ,education et h]$ite 7#ahhi2 ,eng4 trans4 ,gre5/reet1 ) introd4 by ,g4,f4 ,/\t1 #ahia71 ,esquisse d'une morale sans obligation ni sanction 7,eng4 trans41 #ahih72 ,g4,h4 ,lewes1 ,problems ( ,life & ,m9d 7#ahgi72 ,sir ,l4 ,/eph51 ,sci5ce ( ,e?ics 7#ahhb72 ,p4 ,janet1 ,! ,!ory ( ,morals 7,eng4 trans41 #ahhd72 ,w4,r4 ,sorley1 ,on ! ,e?ics ( ,naturalism 7#ahhe72 ,w4,l4 ,c\rtney1 ,con/ructive ,e?ics 7#ahhf72 ,wilson & ,f[l]1 ,pr9ciples ( ,morals 7#ahhf72 ,h4 ,h(fd+1 ,e?ik 7#ahhh71 ,psy*ologie 7#ahhb1 #ahib2 trans4 ,l[ndes1 #ahib72 ,w4 ,wundt1 ,e?ik 7#ahhf2 trans4 ,tit*5] & o!rs1 #ahig72 ,f4 ,pauls51 ,e?ik 7#ahhi1 #ahic2 trans4 ,?illy1 #ahii72 ,h4 ,sidgwick1 ,me?od ( ,e?ics 7#ahij72 ,j4,t4 ,bixby1 ,! ,crisis 9 ,morals3 ,an ,exam9ation ( ,rational ,e?ics 7#ahia72 ,j4 ,se?1 ,fre$om an ,e?ical ,po/ulate 7#ahia72 ,j4,h4 ,muirhead1 ,elem5ts ( ,e?ics 7#ahib72 ,g4 ,simnel1 ,e9leitung 9 die ,moralwiss5s*aft 7#ahib1 #ahic72 ,t4 ,ziegl]1 ,social ,e?ics 7#ahib72 ,t4,h4 ,huxley1 ,evolution & ,e?ics 7#ahic72 ,w4 ,knight1 ,! ,*ri/ian ,e?ic 7#ahic72 ,j4,s4 ,mack5zie1 ,manual ( ,e?ics 7#ahic72 ,f4 ,ryl&1 ,e?ics 7#ahic72 ,j4 ,se?1 ,a ,/udy ( ,e?ical ,pr9ciples 7#ahid1 #f? ed4 #aijb72 ,c4,f4 ,d',arcy1 ,%ort ,/udy ( ,e?ics 7#ahie72 ,j4,h4 ,hyslop1 ,! ,elem5ts ( ,e?ics 7#ahie72 ,j4 ,kidd1 ,morality & ,religion 7#ahie72 ,sir ,l4 ,/eph51 ,social ,rights & ,duties 7#ahif72 ,j4,m4 ,baldw91 ,social & ,e?ical ,int]pretations 9 ,m5tal ,developm5t 7#ahig72 ,?4 ,ribot1 ,psy*ology ( ,emotions 7#ahig72 ,a4 ,se? ,pr+le-,pattison1 ,man's ,place 9 ! ,cosmos 7#ahig72 ,h4,r4 ,m>%all1 ,in/9ct & ,reason 7#ahih72 ,w4 ,wallace1 ,natural ,!ology & ,e?ics 7#ahih72 ,f4 ,pauls51 ,p>tei-politik und ,moral 7#aijj72 ,a4,e4 ,taylor1 ,problem ( ,conduct 7#aija72 ,g4,t4 ,ladd1 ,philosophy ( ,conduct 7#aijb72 ,h4 ,sidgwick1 ,e?ics ( ,gre51 ,sp5c]1 ,m>t9eau 7#aijb72 ,d4 ,irons1 ,/udy 9 ,psy*ology ( ,e?ics 7#aijc72 ,g4,e4 ,moore1 ,pr9cipia ,e?ica 7#aijc72 ,r4 ,euck51 ,gei/ige ,/romung5 d] ,geg5w>t 7#aijd71 & o!r works 7see ,,euck51 ,,rudolf72 works ( ,a4 ,f\illee 7q4v472 ,g4 ,santayana1 ,life ( ,reason 7#aije72 ,e4,a4 ,we/]m>ck1 ,orig9 & ,developm5t ( ,moral ,ideas 7#aijf72 ,george ,gore1 ,sci5tific ,basis ( ,morality 7#ahii71 & ,new ,sci5tific ,basis ( ,morality 7#aijf71 conta9+ an int]e/+ if unconv9c+ attempt to expla9 e?ics on purely physical pr9ciples4 7,h4 ,h4 ,w47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,?is well-kn[n phrase 0 orig9ally attribut$ to ! ,py?agoreans4 #b ,x is highly *>act]i/ic ( ,platonism t ! issue 9 ?is dialogue1 z orig9ally /at$1 is betwe5 virtue & vice1 :]eas1 )\t any av[$ *ange ( gr\nd1 ! issue ultimately discuss$ is betwe5 ! philosophic life & ! life ( vulg> ambition or s5sual enjoym5t4 #c ,?is c>d9al t]m is commonly translat$ happ9ess2 & x mu/ be all[$ t x is ! mo/ natural t]m = :at we 79 ,engli%7 agree to call our be+'s end & aim4 ,b happ9ess s def9itely signifies a /ate ( feel+ t x w n admit ! int]pretation t ,ari/otle 7z well z ,plato & ! ,/oics7 expressly gives to ,greek3 eudaimonia2 ! confusion is be/ avoid$ by r5d]+ ! ^w by ! less famili> well-be+4 #d ,ari/otle foll[s ,plato & ,socrates 9 id5tify+ ! notions ( ,greek3 kalos 7fair1 beautiful7 & ,greek3 aga?os 7good7 9 _! application to conduct4 ,we may obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t :ile ! latt] t]m is us$ to d5ote ! virtu\s man1 & 79 ! neut]7 equival5t to ,end g5]ally1 ! =m] is r *os5 to express ! quality ( virtu\s acts :i* 9 any p>ticul> case is ! end ( ! virtu\s ag5t4 ,ari/otle no d\bt fai?fully repres5ts ! common s5se ( ,greece 9 consid]+ t1 9 s f> z virtue is 9 itself good to ! virtu\s ag5t1 x belongs to t species ( good :i* we di/+ui% z beautiful4 ,9 lat] ,greek philosophy ! t]m ,greek3 kalon 7hone/um7 became /ill m te*nical 9 ! signification ( morally good4 #e ,! above acc\nt is consid]ably exp&$ 9 ,h4 ,sidgwick's ,hi/4 ( ,e?ics 7#e? ed41 #aijb71 pp4 #ei-gj4 #f ,!re is a c]ta9 difficulty 9 discuss+ ,ari/otle's views on ! subject ( practical wisdom1 & ! relation ( ! intellect to moral action1 s9ce x is mo/ probable t ! only acc\nts t we h ( ^! views are n "p ( ! g5u9e writ+s ( ,ari/otle4 ,/ill books vi4 & vii4 ( ! ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics conta9 no d\bt z pure ,ari/otelian doctr9e z a disciple c\ld give1 & appe> to supply a suffici5t f\ndation = ! g5]al criticism express$ 9 ! text4 #g ,x has be5 sugge/ively said t ,cynicism 0 to ,/oicism :at mona/icism 0 to e>ly ,*ri/ianity4 ,! analogy1 h[ev]1 mu/ n be press$ too f>1 s9ce or?odox ,/oics d n ev] seem to h reg>d$ ,cynicism z ! m p]fect way4 #h ,! ,/oics 7 n q agre$ z to ! immutability ( virtue1 b !y 7 agre$ t1 :5 once possess$1 x c\ld only be lo/ ?r\gh ! loss ( reason itself4 #i ,h5ce "s memb]s ( ! s*ool1 )\t reject+ ! def9ition ( virtue k1 also def9$ x z /r5g? & =ce4 #aj ,x is app>5tly 9 view ( ?is union 9 reason ( rational be+s t fri5ds are all[$ to be ext]nal goods to ! sage1 & t ! possession ( good *ildr5 is also c\nt$ a good4 #aa ,! ,/oics seem to h v>i$ 9 _! view ( good repute1 ,greek3 eudoxia2 at fir/1 :5 ! s*ool 0 m "u ! influ5ce ( ,cynicism1 !y pr(ess$ an outw>d z well z an inw>d indiff]5ce to x2 ultimately !y conc$$ ! po9t to common s5se1 & includ$ x among ,greek3 proegm5a4 #ab ,x is not$ ( him t he did n disda9 ! co-op]ation ei!r ( wom5 or ( slaves 9 8 philosophical lab\rs4 #ac ,! la/ *>ge ( ,epicurus to 8 disciples is said to h be51 ,greek3 ton dogmaton memne/hai4 #ad ,epictetus4 #ae ,m>cus ,aurelius4 #af ,e4g4 ,ju/9 ,m>tyr1 ,orig51 ,t]tullian1 ,cyprian4 #ag ,citra sangu9is effusionem4 #ah ,to %[ ! crudity ( ! notion ( r$emption 9 e>ly ,*ri/ianity1 x is suffici5t to m5tion t _m fa!rs repres5t ,*ri/'s ransom z hav+ be5 paid to ! devil2 sometimes add+ t by ! concealm5t ( ,*ri/'s div9ity "u ! veil ( humanity a c]ta9 deceit 0 7fairly7 practis$ on ! great deceiv]4 #ai ,x is to be obs]v$ t ,augu/9e pref]s to use fre$om n = ! p[] ( will+ ei!r good or evil1 b ! p[] ( will+ good4 ,! highe/ fre$om1 9 8 view1 excludes ! possibility ( will+ evil4 #bj ,cic]o's works are unimportant 9 ! hi/ory ( anci5t e?ics1 z _! philosophical matt] 0 entirely borr[$ f ,greek treatises n[ lo/2 b ! influ5ce ex]cis$ by !m 7especially by ! ,de (ficiis7 ov] m$ieval & ev5 mod]n read]s 0 v consid]able4 #ba ,abel>d aft]w>ds retract$ ?is view1 at lea/ 9 its extreme =m2 & 9 fact does n seem to h be5 fully consci\s ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 7#a7 unfulfill$ int5tion to d an act objectively "r1 & 7#b7 int5tion to d :at is m]ely believ$ by ! ag5t to be "r4 #bb ,he 0 condemn$ by two synods1 9 #aaba & #aadj4 #bc ,synd]esis 7,gr4 ,greek3 sunt]esis1 f ,greek3 sunt]e91 to wat* closely1 obs]ve7 is us$ 9 ?is s5se 9 ,j]ome 7,com4 9 ,ezek4 i4 #d-aj74 #bd ,! refusal ( ! c\ncil ( ,con/ance to condemn ,jean ,petit's advocacy ( assass9ation is a /rik+ example ( ?is weakness4 ,cf4 ,milman1 ,lat4 ,*ri/4 book xiii4 c4 #i4 #be ,z ! *ief ,engli% casui/s we may m5tion ,p]k9s1 ,hall1 ,s&]son1 z well z ! m em95t ,j]emy ,taylor1 ^: ,ductor dubitantium appe>$ 9 #affj4 #bf ,?is influ5ce 0 n ex]cis$ 9 ! region ( e?ics4 ,bacon's brief outl9e ( moral philosophy 79 ! ,advancem5t ( ,le>n+1 ii4 #bj-bb7 is highly pregnant & sugge/ive4 ,b ,bacon's great task ( re=m+ sci5tific me?od 0 "o :i*1 z he conceiv$ x1 left morals on "o side2 he nev] made any s]i\s ef=t to r$uce 8 e?ical views to a coh]5t sy/em1 me?odically reason$ on an indep5d5t basis4 ,! outl9e giv5 9 ! ,advancem5t 0 nev] fill$ 91 & does n seem to h _h any effect on ! subsequ5t c\rse ( e?ical speculation4 #bg ,he ev5 id5tifies ! desire ) ! pleasure1 app>5tly reg>d+ ! /ir ( appetite & t ( fruition z two p>ts ( ! same motion4 #bh ,9 spite ( ,hobbes's uncompromis+ egoism1 !re is a noticeable discrepancy betwe5 8 !ory ( ! ends t m5 naturally seek & 8 /&>d = det]m9+ _! natural rights4 ,?is latt] is nev] ,pleasure simply1 b always ,pres]vation--?\gh on occasion he enl>ges ! notion ( pres]vation into pres]vation ( life s z n to be we>y ( x4 ,8 view seems to be t 9 a /ate ( nature mo/ m5 w fight1 rob1 c41 = delectation m]ely or = glory1 & t h5ce all m5 mu/ be all[$ an indef9ite "r to fight1 rob1 c41 = pres]vation4 #bi ,x %\ld be notic$1 h[ev]1 t x is only 9 8 treatm5t ( ,equity & ,b5evol5ce t he really foll[s out ! ma!matical analogy 7cf4 ,sidgwick's ,hi/ory ( ,e?ics1 #e? ed41 pp4 #ahj-aha74 #cj ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t1 :ile ,cl>ke is s9c]ely anxi\s to prove t mo/ pr9ciples are b9d+ indep5d5tly ( ,div9e appo9tm5t1 he is no less conc]n$ to %[ t morality requires ! practical support ( reveal$ religion4 #ca ,?ree classes ( impulses are ?us di/+ui%$ by ,%aftesbury3--7#a7 ,natural ,affections1 7#b7 ,self-affections1 & 7#c7 ,un-natural ,affections4 ,_! *>act]i/ics are fur!r consid]$ 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,e?ics1 p4 #ahf seq4 #cb ,9 a rem>kable passage ne> ! close ( 8 elev5? s]mon ,butl] seems ev5 to all[ t consci5ce w\ld h to give way to self-love1 if x 7 possible 7:i* x is n7 t ! two %\ld come into ultimate & irreconcilable conflict4 #cc ,x is wor? notic+ t ,hut*eson's express def9ition ( ! object ( self-love includes p]fection z well z happ9ess2 b 9 ! work+ out ( 8 sy/em he consid]s private good exclusively z happ9ess or pleasure4 #cd ,hume's e?ical view 0 f9ally /at$ 9 8 ,inquiry into ! ,pr9ciples ( ,morals 7#agea71 :i* is at once m popul> & m purely utilit>ian ?an 8 e>li] "w4 #ce ,hume rem>ks t 9 "s cases1 by association ( ideas1 ! rule by :i* we praise & blame is ext5d$ beyond ! pr9ciple ( utility f :i* x arises2 b he all[s mu* less scope to ?is explanation 9 8 second treatise ?an 9 8 fir/4 #cf ,9 e>li] editions ( ! ,inquiry ,hume expressly includ$ all approv$ qualities "u ! g5]al notion ( virtue4 ,9 lat] editions he avoid$ ?is /ra9 on usage by sub/itut+ or add+ m]it 9 sev]al passages--all[+ t "s ( ! laudable qualities :i* he m5tions w\ld be m commonly call$ tal5ts1 b /ill ma9ta9+ t !re is little di/9ction made 9 our int]nal e/imation ( virtues & tal5ts4 #cg ,x is to be obs]v$ t :]eas ,price & ,/ew>t 7aft] ,butl]7 id5tify ! object ( self-love ) happ9ess or pleasure1 ,reid conceives ?is good m vaguely z includ+ p]fection & happ9ess2 ?\gh he sometimes uses good & happ9ess z conv]tible t]ms1 & seems practically to h ! latt] 9 view 9 all t he says ( self-love4 #ch ,e4g4 ,reid proposes to apply ?is pr9ciple 9 fav\r ( monogamy1 argu+ f ! proportion ( males & females born2 )\t expla9+ :y1 if ! int5tion ( nature h5ce inf]r$ excludes occasional polygamy1 x does n also exclude occasional celibacy4 #ci ,we may obs]ve t "s rec5t writ]s1 :o w\ld g5]ally be includ$ 9 ?is s*ool1 avoid 9 v>i\s ways ! difficulty ( con/ruct+ a code ( ext]nal conduct4 ,sometimes !y consid] moral intuition z det]m9+ ! comp>ative excell5ce ( conflict+ motives 7,james ,m>t9eau71 or ! comp>ative quality ( pleasures *os5 7,laurie71 :i* seems to be ! same view 9 a h$oni/ic g>b2 o!rs hold t :at is intuitively p]ceiv$ is ! rightness or wrongness ( individual acts--a view :i* obvi\sly r5d]s e?ical reason+ practically sup]flu\s4 #dj ,! orig9ality--su* z x is--( ,paley's sy/em 7z ( ,b5?am's7 lies 9 its me?od ( work+ out details r ?an 9 its pr9ciples ( con/ruction4 ,paley expressly ackn[l$ges 8 obligations to ! orig9al & sugge/ive1 ?\gh diffuse & :imsical1 "w ( ,abraham ,tuck] 7,light ( ,nature ,pursu$1 #agfh-aggd74 ,9 ?is treatise1 z 9 ,paley's1 we f9d e man's own satisfaction1 ! spr+ t actuates all 8 motives1 connect$ ) g5]al good1 ! root :]e\t all our rules ( conduct & s5tim5ts ( hon\r are to bran*1 by means ( natural !ology demon/rat+ ! unnigg>dly goodness ( ! au?or ( nature4 ,tuck] is also c>eful to expla9 t satisfaction or pleasure is "o & ! same 9 k9d1 h[ev] mu* x may v>y 9 degree1 444 :e!r a man is pleas$ ) he>+ music1 see+ prospects1 ta/+ da9ties1 p]=m+ laudable actions1 or mak+ agreeable reflections1 & aga9 t by g5]al good he means quantity ( happ9ess1 to :i* e pleasure t we d to our neighb\r is an addition4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 9 ,tuck]'s !ological l9k betwe5 private & g5]al happ9ess a peculi> +5uity :i* ,paley's common s5se has avoid$4 ,he argues t m5 hav+ no free w h really no des]t2 !re=e ! div9e equity mu/ ultimately di/ribute happ9ess 9 equal %>es to all2 !re=e ,i mu/ ultimately increase my own happ9ess mo/ by conduct t adds mo/ to ! g5]al fund :i* ,provid5ce adm9i/]s4 ,b 9 fact ! outl9e ( ,paley's utilit>ianism is to be f\nd a g5]ation e>li]--9 ,gay's diss]tation prefix$ to ,law's edition ( ,k+'s ,orig9 ( ,evil--z ! foll[+ extracts w %[3--,! idea ( virtue is ! con=mity to a rule ( life1 direct+ ! actions ( all rational creatures ) respect to ea* o!r's happ9ess2 to :i* e "o is always oblig$4444 ,obligation is ! necessity ( do+ or omitt+ some?+ 9 ord] to be happy4444 ,full & complete obligation :i* w ext5d to all cases c only be t aris+ f ! au?ority ( ,god4444 ,! w ( ,god s f> z x directs behavi\r to o!rs is ! imm$iate rule or crit]ion ( virtue 444 b x is evid5t f ! nature ( ,god t he c\ld h no o!r design 9 creat+ mank9d ?an _! happ9ess2 & !re=e he wills _! happ9ess2 !re=e t my behavi\r s f> z x may be a means to ! happ9ess ( mank9d %\ld be su*2 s ?is happ9ess ( mank9d may be said to be ! crit]ion ( virtue once remov$4 ,! same diss]tation also conta9s ! g]m ( ,h>tley's sy/em1 z we %all pres5tly notice4 #da ,x mu/ be all[$ t ,paley's application ( ?is argum5t is some:at loosely reason$1 & does n suffici5tly di/+ui% ! consequ5ce ( a s+le act ( b5efic5t manslaught] f ! consequ5ces ( a g5]al p]mission to commit su* acts4 #db ,?is li/ gives twelve out ( ! f\rte5 classes 9 :i* ,b5?am arranges ! spr+s ( action1 omitt+ ! religi\s sanction 7m5tion$ aft]w>ds71 & ! pleasures & pa9s ( self-int]e/1 :i* include all ! o!r classes except sympa?y & antipa?y4 #dc ,9 ! ,deontology publi%$ by ,b[r+ f ,,mss4 left aft] ,b5?am's dea?1 ! co9cid5ce is ass]t$ to be complete4 #dd ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ,au/91 aft] ,b5?am1 m frequ5tly uses ! t]m moral to connote :at he m di/9ctly calls positive morality1 ! code ( rules support$ by common op9ion 9 any society4 #de ,9 ! be=e-m5tion$ diss]tation4 ,cf4 note #b to p4 #hce4 ,h>tley ref]s to ?is treatise z hav+ suppli$ ! />t+-po9t = 8 own sy/em4 #df ,x %\ld be notic$ t ,h>tley's s5sationalism is f> f lead+ him to exalt ! corporeal pleasures4 ,on ! contr>y1 he tries to prove elaborately t !y 7z well z ! pleasures ( imag9ation1 ambition1 self-int]e/7 _c be made an object ( prim>y pursuit )\t a loss ( happ9ess on ! :ole--"o ( 8 argum5ts be+ t ^! pleasures occur e>li] 9 "t1 & t :i* is prior 9 ! ord] ( nature is always less p]fect ?an t :i* is po/]ior4 #dg ,x may be obs]v$ t 9 ! view ( ,kant & o!rs 7#b7 & 7#c7 are some:at confus+ly bl5d$4 #dh ,s+ul>ly en\gh1 ! ,engli% writ] :o approa*es mo/ ne>ly to ,kant on ?is po9t is ! utilit>ian ,godw91 9 8 ,political ,ju/ice4 ,9 ,godw9's view1 reason is ! prop] motive to acts conducive to g5]al happ9ess3 reason %[s me t ! happ9ess ( a numb] ( o!r m5 is ( m value ?an my own2 & ! p]ception ( ?is tru? af=ds me at lea/ "s inducem5t to pref] ! =m] to ! latt]4 ,& suppos+ x to be repli$ t ! motive is really ! moral uneas9ess involv$ 9 *oos+ ! selfi% alt]native1 ,godw9 answ]s t ?is uneas9ess1 ?\gh a con/ant /ep 9 ! process ( volition1 is a m]ely accid5tal /ep--,i feel pa9 9 ! neglect ( an act ( b5evol5ce1 because b5evol5ce is judg$ by me to be conduct :i* x becomes me to adopt4 #di ,9 ,kantism1 z we h p>tly se51 ! mo/ important ontological beliefs--9 ,god1 fre$om & immortality ( ! s\l--are bas$ on necessities ( e?ical ?\ght4 ,9 ,fi*te's sy/em ! connexion ( e?ics & metaphysics is /ill m intimate2 inde$1 we may comp>e x 9 ?is respect to ,platonism2 z ,plato bl5ds ! mo/ fundam5tal notions ( ea* ( ^! /udies 9 ! "o idea ( good1 s ,fi*te bl5ds !m 9 ! "o idea free-w4 ,fre$om1 9 8 view1 is at once ! f\ndation ( all be+ & ! end ( all moral action4 ,9 ! sy/ems ( ,s*ell+ & ,hegel e?ics falls aga9 into a subord9ate place2 inde$1 ! e?ical view ( ! =m] is r sugge/$ ?an completely develop$4 ,nei!r ,fi*te nor ,s*ell+ has ex]cis$ m ?an ! fa9te/ & mo/ indirect influ5ce on e?ical philosophy 9 ,engl&2 x !re=e seems be/ to leave ! e?ical doctr9es ( ea* to be expla9$ 9 connexion ) ! re/ ( 8 sy/em4 #ej ,cf4 ,a4 ,se? ,pr+le-,pattison1 ,! ,philosophical ,radicals4 ,m>t9eau's ,philosophy1 p4 #ib4