,transcriber's notes3 7#a7 ,numbers following letters 7without space7 like ,c#b were originally printed in subscript4 ,letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore1 like ,cn4 7#b7 ,characters following a carat 77 were printed in superscript4 7#c7 ,side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs4 7#d7 ,macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted4 7#e7 root stands for the root symbol2 oo for infinity2 alpha1 beta1 etc4 for greek letters4 7#f7 ,the following typographical errors have been corrected3 ,,article ,,estebanez ,,calderon1 ,,serafin3 ,his most interesting work1 ,escenas andaluzas 7#ahdg71 is in a curiously affected style 444 'curiously' amended from 'curiouly'4 ,,article ,,esterhazy ,,of ,,galantha3 ,he was minister for foreign affairs in the first responsible ,hungarian ministry 7#ahdh71 but resigned his post in ,september because he could see no way of reconciling the court with the nation4 'because' amended from 'bcause'4 ,,article ,,ether3 ,the principal symptoms symptons of chronic ether-drinking are a weakening of the activity of the special senses 444 'symptons' amended from 'symptons'4 ,,article ,,etheredge1 ,,sir ,,george3 ,it is partly in rhymed rhymned heroic verse1 like the stilted tragedies of the ,howards and ,killigrews 444 'rhymned' amended from 'rhymned'4 ,,article ,,ethics3 444 or the glory of merely secular gifts and acquirements1 it is one aspect of the unworldliness which we have already noticed 444 'unworldliness' amended from 'unwordliness'4 ,,article ,,ethics3 ,it will be seen that these changes1 however profoundly important1 were1 ethically considered1 either negative or quite general1 relating to the tone and attitude of mind in which all duty should be done4 'relating' amended from 'ralating'4 ,,encyclopaedia ,,britannica ,a ,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts1 ,,sciences1 ,,literature ,,and ,,general ,,information ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,volume ,,ix1 ,,slice ,,vii ,equation to ,ethics ,,articles ,,in ,,this ,,slice3 ,,equation ,,escheat ,,equation ,,of ,,the ,,centre ,,eschenburg1 ,,johann ,,joachim ,,equation ,,of ,,time ,,eschenmayer1 ,,adam ,,karl ,,august ,,von ,,equator ,,escher ,,von ,,der ,,linth1 ,,arnold ,,equerry ,,eschscholtz1 ,,johann ,,friedrich ,,equidae ,,eschwege ,,equilibrium ,,eschweiler ,,equinox ,,escobar ,y ,,mendoza1 ,,antonio ,,equites ,,escoiquiz1 ,,juan ,,equity ,,escombe1 ,,harry ,,equivalent ,,escorial ,,erard1 ,,sebastien ,,escovedo1 ,,juan ,,de ,,erasmus1 ,,desiderius ,,escuintla ,,erastus1 ,,thomas ,,escutcheon ,,eratosthenes ,,of ,,alexandria ,,esher1 ,,william ,,baliol ,,brett ,,erbach ,,esher ,,erbium ,,esker ,,ercilla ,y ,,zuniga1 ,,alonso ,,de ,,eskilstuna ,,erckmann-,,chatrian ,,eskimo ,,erdelyi1 ,,janos ,,eski-,,shehr ,,erdmann1 ,,johann ,,eduard ,,esmarch1 ,,johannes ,,friedrich ,,august ,,von ,,erdmann1 ,,otto ,,linne ,,esna ,,erebus ,,esoteric ,,erech ,,espagnols ,,sur ,,mer1 ,,les ,,erechtheum ,,espalier ,,erechtheus ,,espartero1 ,,baldomero ,,ereshkigal ,,esparto ,,eretria ,,esperance ,,eretrian ,,school ,,of ,,philosophy ,,esperanto ,,erfurt ,,espinay1 ,,timoleon ,d' ,,ergot ,,espinel1 ,,vicente ,,martinez ,,eric ,,xiv ,,espirito ,,santo ,,ericaceae ,,espronceda1 ,,jose ,,ignacio ,,encarnacion ,,de ,,erichsen1 ,,sir ,,john ,,eric ,,esquire ,,ericht1 ,,loch ,,esquirol1 ,,jean ,,etienne ,,dominique ,,ericsson1 ,,john ,,esquiros1 ,,henri ,,francois ,,alphonse ,,eridanus ,,ess1 ,,johann ,,heinrich ,,van ,,eridu ,,essay1 ,,essayist ,,erie 7lake7 ,,esseg ,,erie 7city7 ,,essen ,,erigena1 ,,johannes ,,scotus ,,essenes ,,erigone ,,essentuki ,,erin ,,essequibo ,,erinna ,,essex1 ,,earls ,,of ,,erinyes ,,essex1 ,,arthur ,,capel ,,eriphyle ,,essex1 ,,robert ,,devereux ,,eris ,,essex1 ,,robert ,,devereux ,,erith ,,essex1 ,,walter ,,devereux ,,eritrea ,,essex ,,erivan 7government of ,russia7 ,,essex1 ,,kingdom ,,of ,,erivan 7town of ,russia7 ,,esslingen ,,erlangen ,,establishment ,,erle1 ,,sir ,,william ,,establishment ,,of ,a ,,port ,,erlkonig ,,estaing1 ,,charles ,,hector ,,erman1 ,,paul ,,estate ,,ermanaric ,,estate ,,and ,,house ,,agents ,,ermeland ,,estate ,,duty ,,ermelo ,,estcourt1 ,,richard ,,ermine ,,este 7family7 ,,ermine ,,street ,,este 7town7 ,,ermoldus ,,nigellus ,,estebanez ,,calderon1 ,,serafin ,,erne ,,estella ,,ernest ,i ,,esterhazy ,,of ,,galantha ,,ernest ,,ii ,,esters ,,ernest ,,augustus ,,esther ,,ernesti1 ,,johann ,,august ,,esthonia ,,ernesti1 ,,johann ,,gottlieb ,,estienne ,,ernst1 ,,heinrich ,,wilhelm ,,eston ,,erode ,,estoppel ,,eros 7planet7 ,,estouteville1 ,,guillaume ,d' ,,eros 7god of love7 ,,estovers ,,erpenius1 ,,thomas ,,estrada1 ,,la ,,erroll1 ,,francis ,,hay ,,estrade ,,error ,,estrades1 ,,godefroi ,,ersch1 ,,johann ,,samuel ,,estreat ,,erskine1 ,,ebenezer ,,estrees1 ,,gabrielle ,d' ,,erskine1 ,,henry ,,estremadura ,,erskine1 ,,john 7,scottish divine7 ,,estremoz ,,erskine1 ,,john 7of ,carnock7 ,,estuary ,,erskine1 ,,john 7of ,dun7 ,,esztergom ,,erskine1 ,,ralph ,,etagere ,,erskine1 ,,thomas 7of ,linlathen7 ,,etah ,,erskine1 ,,thomas ,,erskine ,,etampes1 ,,anne ,,de ,,pisseleu ,d',,heilly ,,erubescite ,,etampes ,,erysipelas ,,etaples ,,erythrae ,,etawah ,,erythrite ,,etching ,,erzerum ,,eteocles ,,erzgebirge ,,etesian ,,wind ,,erzingan ,,etex1 ,,antoine ,,esar-,,haddon ,,ether ,,esau ,,etheredge1 ,,sir ,,george ,,esbjerg ,,etheridge1 ,,john ,,wesley ,,escanaba ,,etheridge1 ,,robert ,,escape ,,ethers ,,eschatology ,,ethics ,,equation 7from ,lat4 aequatio1 aequare1 to equalize71 an expression or statement of the equality of two quantities4 ,mathematical equivalence is denoted by the sign 1 a symbol invented by ,robert ,recorde 7#aeaj-aeeh71 who considered that nothing could be more equal than two equal and parallel straight lines4 ,an equation states an equality existing between two classes of quantities1 distinguished as known and unknown2 these correspond to the data of a problem and the thing sought4 ,it is the purpose of the mathematician to state the unknowns separately in terms of the knowns2 this is called solving the equation1 and the values of the unknowns so obtained are called the roots or solutions4 ,the unknowns are usually denoted by the terminal letters1 444 x1 y1 z1 of the alphabet1 and the knowns are either actual numbers or are represented by the literals a1 b1 c1 c4441 i4e4 the introductory letters of the alphabet4 ,any number or literal which expresses what multiple of term occurs in an equation is called the coefficient of that term2 and the term which does not contain an unknown is called the absolute term4 ,the degree of an equation is equal to the greatest index of an unknown in the equation1 or to the greatest sum of the indices of products of unknowns4 ,if each term has the sum of its indices the same1 the equation is said to be homogeneous4 ,these definitions are exemplified in the equations3-- 7#a7 ax#b #b;bx c #j1 7#b7 xy#b #d;a#bx #h;a#c1 7#c7 ax#b #b;hxy by#b #j4 ,in 7#a7 the unknown is x1 and the knowns a1 b1 c2 the coefficients of x#b and x are a and #b;b2 the absolute term is c1 and the degree is #b4 ,in 7#b7 the unknowns are x and y1 and the known a2 the degree is #c1 i4e4 the sum of the indices in the term xy#b4 7#c7 is a homogeneous equation of the second degree in x and y4 ,equations of the first degree are called simple or linear2 of the second1 quadratic2 of the third1 cubic2 of the fourth1 biquadratic2 of the fifth1 quintic1 and so on4 ,of equations containing only one unknown the number of roots equals the degree of the equation2 thus a simple equation has one root1 a quadratic two1 a cubic three1 and so on4 ,if one equation be given containing two unknowns1 as for example ax by c or ax#b by#b c1 it is seen that there are an infinite number of roots1 for we can give x1 say1 any value and then determine the corresponding value of y2 such an equation is called indeterminate2 of the examples chosen the first is a linear and the second a quadratic indeterminate equation4 ,in general1 an indeterminate equation results when the number of unknowns exceeds by unity the number of equations4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we have two equations connecting two unknowns1 it is possible to solve the equations separately for one unknown1 and then if we equate these values we obtain an equation in one unknown1 which is soluble if its degree does not exceed the fourth4 ,by substituting these values the corresponding values of the other unknown are determined4 ,such equations are called simultaneous2 and a simultaneous system is a series of equations equal in number to the number of unknowns4 ,such a system is not always soluble1 for it may happen that one equation is implied by the others2 when this occurs the system is called porismatic or poristic4 ,an identity differs from an equation inasmuch as it cannot be solved1 the terms mutually cancelling2 for example1 the expression x#b - a#b 7x - a77x a7 is an identity1 for on reduction it gives #j #j4 ,it is usual to employ the sign ,identical to to express this relation4 ,an equation admits of description in two ways3--7#a7 ,it may be regarded purely as an algebraic expression1 or 7#b7 as a geometrical locus4 ,in the first case there is obviously no limit to the number of unknowns and to the degree of the equation2 and1 consequently1 this aspect is the most general4 ,in the second case the number of unknowns is limited to three1 corresponding to the three dimensions of space2 the degree is unlimited as before4 ,it must be noticed1 however1 that by the introduction of appropriate hyperspaces1 i4e4 of degree equal to the number of unknowns1 any equation theoretically admits of geometrical visualization1 in other words1 every equation may be represented by a geometrical figure and every geometrical figure by an equation4 ,corresponding to these two aspects1 there are two typical methods by which equations can be solved1 viz4 the algebraic and geometric4 ,the former leads to exact results1 or1 by methods of approximation1 to results correct to any required degree of accuracy4 ,the latter can only yield approximate values3 when theoretically exact constructions are available there is a source of error in the draughtsmanship1 and when the constructions are only approximate1 the accuracy of the results is more problematical4 ,the geometric aspect1 however1 is of considerable value in discussing the theory of equations4 ,history4--,there is little doubt that the earliest solutions of equations are given1 in the ,rhind papyrus1 a hieratic document written some #bjjj years before our era4 ,the problems solved were of an arithmetical nature1 assuming such forms as a mass and its #a_/gth makes #ai4 ,calling the unknown mass x1 we have given x 7#a_/g7x #ai1 which is a simple equation4 ,arithmetical problems also gave origin to equations involving two unknowns2 the early ,greeks were familiar with and solved simultaneous linear equations1 but indeterminate equations1 such1 for instance1 as the system given in the cattle problem of ,archimedes1 were not seriously studied until ,diophantus solved many particular problems4 ,quadratic equations arose in the ,greek investigations in the doctrine of proportion1 and although they were presented and solved in a geometrical form1 the methods employed have no relation to the generalized conception of algebraic geometry which represents a curve by an equation and vice versa4 ,the simplest quadratic arose in the construction of a mean proportional 7x7 between two lines 7a1 b71 or in the construction of a square equal to a given rectangle2 for we have the proportion a3x x3b2 i4e4 x#b ab4 ,a more general equation1 viz4 x#b -ax a#b #j1 is the algebraic equivalent of the problem to divide a line in medial section2 this is solved in ,euclid1 ii4 #aa4 ,it is possible that ,diophantus was in possession of an algebraic solution of quadratics2 he recognized1 however1 only one root1 the interpretation of both being first effected by the ,hindu ,bhaskara4 ,a simple cubic equation was presented in the problem of finding two mean proportionals1 x1 y1 between two lines1 one double the other4 ,we have a3x x3y y3#b;a1 which gives x#b ay and xy #b;a#b2 eliminating y we obtain x#c #b;a#c1 a simple cubic4 ,the ,greeks could not solve this equation1 which also arose in the problems of duplicating a cube and trisecting an angle1 by the ruler and compasses1 but only by mechanical curves such as the cissoid1 conchoid and quadratrix4 ,such solutions were much improved by the ,arabs1 who also solved both cubics and biquadratics by means of intersecting conics2 at the same time1 they developed methods1 originated by ,diophantus and improved by the ,hindus1 for finding approximate roots of numerical equations by algebraic processes4 ,the algebraic solution of the general cubic and biquadratic was effected in the #afth century by ,s4 ,ferro1 ,n4 ,tartaglia1 ,h4 ,cardan and ,l4 ,ferrari 7see ,,algebra3 ,history74 ,many fruitless attempts were made to solve algebraically the quintic equation until ,p4 ,ruffini and ,n4,h4 ,abel proved the problem to be impossible2 a solution involving elliptic functions has been given by ,c4 ,hermite and ,l4 ,kronecker1 while ,f4 ,klein has given another solution4 ,in the geometric treatment of equations the ,greeks and ,arabs based their constructions upon certain empirically deduced properties of the curves and figures employed4 ,knowing various metrical relations1 generally expressed as proportions1 it was found possible to solve particular equations1 but a general method was wanting4 ,this lacuna was not filled until the #agth century1 when ,descartes discovered the general theory which explained the nature of such solutions1 in particular those wherein conics were employed1 and1 in addition1 established the most important facts that every equation represents a geometrical locus1 and conversely4 ,to represent equations containing two unknowns1 x1 y1 he chose two axes of reference mutually perpendicular1 and measured x along the horizontal axis and y along the vertical4 ,then by the methods described in the article ,,geometry3 ,analytical1 he showed that--7#a7 a linear equation represents a straight line1 and 7#b7 a quadratic represents a conic4 ,if the equation be homogeneous or break up into factors1 it represents a number of straight lines in the first case1 and the loci corresponding to the factors in the second4 ,the solution of simultaneous equations is easily seen to be the values of x1 y corresponding to the intersections of the loci4 ,it follows that there is only one value of x1 y which satisfies two linear equations1 since two lines intersect in one point only2 two values which satisfy a linear and quadratic1 since a line intersects a conic in two points2 and four values which satisfy two quadratics1 since two conics intersect in four points4 ,it may happen that the curves do not actually intersect in the theoretical maximum number of points2 the principle of continuity 7see ,,geometrical ,,continuity7 shows us that in such cases some of the roots are imaginary4 ,to represent equations involving three unknowns x1 y1 z1 a third axis is introduced1 the z-axis1 perpendicular to the plane xy and passing through the intersection of the lines x1 y4 ,in this notation a linear equation represents a plane1 and two linear simultaneous equations represent a line1 i4e4 the intersection of two planes2 a quadratic equation represents a surface of the second degree4 ,in order to graphically consider equations containing only one unknown1 it is convenient to equate the terms to y2 i4e4 if the equation be f7x7 #j1 we take y f7x7 and construct this curve on rectangular ,cartesian co-ordinates by determining the values of y which correspond to chosen values of x1 and describing a curve through the points so obtained4 ,the intersections of the curve with the axis of x gives the real roots of the equation2 imaginary roots are obviously not represented4 ,in this article we shall treat of3 7#a7 ,simultaneous equations1 7#b7 indeterminate equations1 7#c7 cubic equations1 7#d7 biquadratic equations1 7#e7 theory of equations4 ,simple1 linear simultaneous and quadratic equations are treated in the article ,,algebra2 for differential equations see ,,differential ,,equations4 ,i4 ,simultaneous ,equations4 ,simultaneous equations which involve the second and higher powers of the unknown may be impossible of solution4 ,no general rules can be given1 and the solution of any particular problem will largely depend upon the student's ingenuity4 ,here we shall only give a few typical examples4 #a4 ,equations which may be reduced to linear equations4--,ex4 ,to solve x7x - a7 yz1 y7y - b7 zx1 z7z - c7xy4 ,multiply the equations by y1 z and x respectively1 and divide the sum by xyz2 then a b c -- -- -- #j 444 7#a74 z x y ,multiply by z1 x and y1 and divide the sum by xyz2 then a b c -- -- -- #j 444 7#b74 y z x ,from 7#a7 and 7#b7 by cross multiplication we obtain #a #a #a #a ----------- ----------- ----------- -------- 7suppose77#c74 y7b#b - ac7 z7c#b - ab7 x7a#b - bc7 lambda ,substituting for x1 y and z in x7x - a7 yz we obtain #a #c;abc - 7a#c b#c c#c7 -------- ------------------------------2 lambda 7a#b - bc77b#b - ac77c#b - ab7 and therefore x1 y and z are known from 7#c74 ,the same artifice solves the equations x#b - yz a1 y#b - xz b1 z#b - xy c4 #b4 ,equations which are homogeneous and of the same degree4--,these equations can be solved by substituting y mx4 ,we proceed to explain the method by an example4 ,ex4 ,to solve #cx#b xy y#b #ae1 #caxy - #cx#b - #ey#b #de4 ,substituting y mx in both these equations1 and then dividing1 we obtain #cam - #c - #em#b #c7c m m#b7 or #hm#b - #bhm #ab #j4 ,the roots of this quadratic are m #a_/b or #c1 and therefore #by x1 or y #cx4 ,taking #by x and substituting in #cx#b xy y#b #j1 we obtain y#b7ab #b #a7 #ae2 34 y#b #a1 which gives y -#a1 x -#b4 ,taking the second value1 y #cx1 and substituting for y1 we obtain x#b7c #c #i7 #ae2 34 x#b #a1 which gives x -#a1 y -#c4 ,therefore the solutions are x -#b1 y -#a and x -#a1 y -#c4 ,other artifices have to be adopted to solve other forms of simultaneous equations1 for which the reader is referred to ,j4,j4 ,milne1 ,companion to ,weekly ,problem ,papers4 ,,ii4 ,indeterminate ,equations4 #a4 ,when the number of unknown quantities exceeds the number of equations1 the equations will admit of innumerable solutions1 and are therefore said to be indeterminate4 ,thus if it be required to find two numbers such that their sum be #aj1 we have two unknown quantities x and y1 and only one equation1 viz4 x y #aj1 which may evidently be satisfied by innumerable different values of x and y1 if fractional solutions be admitted4 ,it is1 however1 usual1 in such questions as this1 to restrict values of the numbers sought to positive integers1 and therefore1 in this case1 we can have only these nine solutions1 x #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i2 y #i1 #h1 #g1 #f1 #e1 #d1 #c1 #b1 #a2 which indeed may be reduced to five2 for the first four become the same as the last four1 by simply changing x into y1 and the contrary4 ,this branch of analysis was extensively studied by ,diophantus1 and is sometimes termed the ,diophantine ,analysis4 #b4 ,indeterminate problems are of different orders1 according to the dimensions of the equation which is obtained after all the unknown quantities but two have been eliminated by means of the given equations4 ,those of the first order lead always to equations of the form ax - by -c1 where a1 b1 c denote given whole numbers1 and x1 y two numbers to be found1 so that both may be integers4 ,that this condition may be fulfilled1 it is necessary that the coefficients a1 b have no common divisor which is not also a divisor of c2 for if a md and b me1 then ax by mdx mey c1 and dx ey c_/m2 but d1 e1 x1 y are supposed to be whole numbers1 therefore c_/m is a whole number2 hence m must be a divisor of c4 ,of the four forms expressed by the equation ax - by -c1 it is obvious that ax by -c can have no positive integral solutions4 ,also ax - by -c is equivalent to by - ax c1 and so we have only to consider the forms ax - by c4 ,before proceeding to the general solution of these equations we will give a numerical example4 ,to solve #bx #cy #be in positive integers4 ,from the given equation we have x 7#be - #cy7_/#b #ab - y - 7y - #a7_/b4 ,now1 since x must be a whole number1 it follows that 7y - #a7_/b must be a whole number4 ,let us assume 7y - #a7_/b z1 then y #a #bz2 and x #aa - #cz1 where z might be any whole number whatever1 if there were no limitation as to the signs of x and y4 ,but since these quantities are required to be positive1 it is evident1 from the value of y1 that z must be either #j or positive1 and from the value of x1 that it must be less than #d2 hence z may have these four values1 #j1 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,if z #j1 z #a1 z #b1 z #c2 ,then x #aa1 x #h1 x #e1 x #b1 y #a1 y #c1 y #e1 y #g4 #c4 ,we shall now give the solution of the equation ax - by c in positive integers4 ,convert a_/b into a continued fraction1 and let p_/q be the convergent immediately preceding a_/b1 then aq - bp -#a 7see ,,continued ,,fraction74 7alpha7 ,if aq - bp #a1 the given equation may be written ax - by c7aq - bp72 34 a7x - cq7 b7y - cp74 ,since a and b are prime to one another1 then x - cq must be divisible by b and y - cp by a2 hence 7x - cq7 _/ b 7y - cq7_/a t4 ,that is1 x bt cq and y at cp4 ,positive integral solutions1 unlimited in number1 are obtained by giving t any positive integral value1 and any negative integral value1 so long as it is numerically less than the smaller of the quantities cq_/b1 cp_/a2 t may also be zero4 7beta7 ,if aq - bp -#a1 we obtain x bt - cq1 y at - cp1 from which positive integral solutions1 again unlimited in number1 are obtained by giving t any positive integral value which exceeds the greater of the two quantities cq_/b1 cp_/a4 ,if a or b is unity1 a_/b cannot be converted into a continued fraction with unit numerators1 and the above method fails4 ,in this case the solutions can be derived directly1 for if b is unity1 the equation may be written y ax - c1 and solutions are obtained by giving x positive integral values greater than c_/a4 #d4 ,to solve ax by c in positive integers4 ,converting a_/b into a continued fraction and proceeding as before1 we obtain1 in the case of aq - bp #a1 x cq - bt1 y at - cp4 ,positive integral solutions are obtained by giving t positive integral values not less than cp_/a and not greater than cq_/b4 ,in this case the number of solutions is limited4 ,if aq - bp -#a we obtain the general solution x bt - cq1 y cp - at1 which is of the same form as in the preceding case4 ,for the determination of the number of solutions the reader is referred to ,h4,s4 ,hall and ,s4,r4 ,knight's ,higher ,algebra1 ,g4 ,chrystal's ,algebra1 and other text-books4 #e4 ,if an equation were proposed involving three unknown quantities1 as ax by cz d1 by transposition we have ax by d - cz1 and1 putting d - cz c'1 ax by c'4 ,from this last equation we may find values of x and y of this form1 x mr nc'1 y mr n'c'1 or x mr n7d - cz71 y m'r n'7d - cz72 where z and r may be taken at pleasure1 except in so far as the values of x1 y1 z may be required to be all positive2 for from such restriction the values of z and r may be confined within certain limits to be determined from the given equation4 ,for more advanced treatment of linear indeterminate equations see ,,combinatorial ,,analysis4 #f4 ,we proceed to indeterminate problems of the second degree3 limiting ourselves to the consideration of the formula y#b a bx cx#b1 where x is to be found1 so that y may be a rational quantity4 ,the possibility of rendering the proposed formula a square depends altogether upon the coefficients a1 b1 c2 and there are four cases of the problem1 the solution of each of which is connected with some peculiarity in its nature4 ,case #a4 ,let a be a square number2 then1 putting g#b for a1 we have y#b g#b bx cx#b4 ,suppose root7g#b bx cx#b7 g mx2 then g#b bx cx#b g#b #b;gmx m#b x#b1 or bx cx#b #b;gmx m#b x#b1 that is1 b cx #b;gm m#bx2 hence #b;gm - b cg - bm gm#b x --------1 y root7g#b bx cx#b7 --------------1 c - m#b c - m#b ,case #b4 ,let c be a square number g#b2 then1 putting root7a bx g#b x#b7 m gx1 we find a bx g#bx#b m#b #bmgx g#b x#b1 or a bx m#b #bmgx2 hence we find m#b - a bm - gm#b - ag x -------1 y root7a bx g#b x#b7 --------------4 b - #bmg b - #bmg ,case #c4 ,when neither a nor c is a square number1 yet if the expression a bx cx#b can be resolved into two simple factors1 as f gx and h kx1 the irrationality may be taken away as follows3-- ,assume root7a bx cx#b7root7f gx77h kx7 m7f gx71 then 7f gx77h kx7 m#b7;f gx7#b1 or h kx m#b7;f gx72 hence we find fm#b - h 7fk - gh7m x --------1 y root7f gx77h kx7 ----------2 k - gm#b k - gm#b and in all these formulae m may be taken at pleasure4 ,case #d4 ,the expression a bx cx#b may be transformed into a square as often as it can be resolved into two parts1 one of which is a complete square1 and the other a product of two simple factors2 for then it has this form1 p#b qr1 where p1 q and r are quantities which contain no power of x higher than the first4 ,let us assume root7p#b qr7 p mq2 thus we have p#b qr p#b #bmpq m#bq#b and r #bmp m#bq1 and as this equation involves only the first power of x1 we may by proper reduction obtain from it rational values of x and y1 as in the three foregoing cases4 ,the application of the preceding general methods of resolution to any particular case is very easy2 we shall therefore conclude with a single example4 ,ex4 ,it is required to find two square numbers whose sum is a given square number4 ,let a#b be the given square number1 and x#b1 y#b the numbers required2 then1 by the question1 x#b y#b a#b1 and y root7a#b - x#b74 ,this equation is evidently of such a form as to be resolvable by the method employed in case #a4 ,accordingly1 by comparing root7a#b - x#b7 with the general expression root7g#b bx cx#b71 we have g a1 b #j1 c -#a1 and substituting these values in the formulae1 and also -n for m1 we find #b;an a7n#b - #a7 x -------1 y ----------4 n#b #a n#b #a ,if a n#b #a1 there results x #bn1 y n#b - #a1 a n#b #a4 ,hence if r be an even number1 the three sides of a rational right-angled triangle are r1 7#a_/br7#b - #a1 7#a_/br7#b #a4 ,if r be an odd number1 they become 7dividing by #b7 r1 #a_/b7r#b - #a71 #a_/b7r#b #a74 ,for example1 if r #d1 #d1 #d - #a1 #d #a1 or #d1 #c1 #e1 are the sides of a right-angled triangle2 if r #g1 #g1 #bd1 #be are the sides of a right-angled triangle4 ,,iii4 ,cubic ,equations4 #a4 ,cubic equations1 like all equations above the first degree1 are divided into two classes3 they are said to be pure when they contain only one power of the unknown quantity2 and adfected when they contain two or more powers of that quantity4 ,pure cubic equations are therefore of the form x#c r2 and hence it appears that a value of the simple power of the unknown quantity may always be found without difficulty1 by extracting the cube root of each side of the equation4 ,let us consider the equation x#c - c#c #j more fully4 ,this is decomposable into the factors x - c #j and x#b cx c#b #j4 ,the roots of this quadratic equation are #a_/b7-a - root-#c7;c1 and we see that the equation x#c c#c has three roots1 namely1 one real root c1 and two imaginary roots #a_/b7-a - root-#c7;c4 ,by making c equal to unity1 we observe that #a_/b7-a - root-#c7 are the imaginary cube roots of unity1 which are generally denoted by omega and omega#b1 for it is easy to show that 7#a_/b7-a - root-#c77b #a_/b7-a root-#c74 #b4 ,let us now consider such cubic equations as have all their terms1 and which are therefore of this form1 x#c ,ax#b ,bx ,c #j1 where ,a1 ,b and ,c denote known quantities1 either positive or negative4 ,this equation may be transformed into another in which the second term is wanting by the substitution x y - ,a_/#c4 ,this transformation is a particular case of a general theorem4 ,let xn ,ax7n - #a7 ,bx7n - #b7 444 #j4 ,substitute x y h2 then 7y h7n ,a7y h77n - #a7 444 #j4 ,expand each term by the binomial theorem1 and let us fix our attention on the coefficient of y7n - #a74 ,by this process we obtain #j yn y7n - #a77;,a nh7 terms involving lower powers of y4 ,now h can have any value1 and if we choose it so that ,a nh #j1 then the second term of our derived equation vanishes4 ,resuming1 therefore1 the equation y#c qy r #j1 let us suppose y v z2 we then have y#c v#c z#c #cvz7v z7 v#c z#c #cvzy1 and the original equation becomes v#c z#c 7#cvz q7y r #j4 ,now v and z are any two quantities subject to the relation y v z1 and if we suppose #cvz q #j1 they are completely determined4 ,this leads to v#c z#c r #j and #cvz q #j4 ,therefore v#c and z#c are the roots of the quadratic t#b rt - q#b_/bg #j4 ,therefore v#c -#a_/b r root7#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b2 z#c -#a_/b r - root7#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b2 v root #c-a_/b r root7#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b2 z root #c-a_/b r - root7#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b2 and y v z root #c-a_/b r root7#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b root #c-a_/b r - root7#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b4 ,thus we have obtained a value of the unknown quantity y1 in terms of the known quantities q and r2 therefore the equation is resolved4 #c4 ,but this is only one of three values which y may have4 ,let us1 for the sake of brevity1 put ,a -#a_/b r root77#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b71 ,b -#a_/b r - root77#a_/bg7q#c #a_/d r#b71 and put alpha #a_/b7-a root-#c71 beta #a_/b7-a - root-#c74 ,then1 from what has been shown 7,s #a71 it is evident that v and z have each these three values1 v root #c;,a1 v alpharoot #c;,a1 v betaroot #c;,a2 z root #c;,b1 z alpharoot #c;,b1 z betaroot #c;,b4 ,to determine the corresponding values of v and z1 we must consider that vz -7#a_/c7q root #c7;,,ab74 ,now if we observe that alphabeta #a1 it will immediately appear that v z has these three values1 v z root #c;,a root #c;,b1 v z alpharoot #c;,a betaroot #c;,b1 v z betaroot #c;,a alpharoot #c;,b1 which are therefore the three values of y4 ,the first of these formulae is commonly known by the name of ,cardan's rule 7see ,,algebra3 ,history74 ,the formulae given above for the roots of a cubic equation may be put under a different form1 better adapted to the purposes of arithmetical calculation1 as follows3--,because vz -7#a_/c7q1 therefore z -7#a_/c7q ,x #a_/v -7#a_/c7q _/ root #c;,a2 hence v z root #c;,a - 7#a_/c7q _/ root #c;,a2 thus it appears that the three values of y may also be expressed thus3 y root #c;,a - 7#a_/c7q _/ root #c;,a y alpharoot #c;,a - 7#a_/c7qbeta _/ root #c;,a y betaroot #c;,a - 7#a_/c7qalpha _/ root #c;,a4 ,see below1 ,theory of ,equations1 ,,ss #af et seq4 ,,iv4 ,biquadratic ,equations4 #a4 ,when a biquadratic equation contains all its terms1 it has this form1 x#d ,ax#c ,bx#b ,cx ,d #j1 where ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d denote known quantities4 ,we shall first consider pure biquadratics1 or such as contain only the first and last terms1 and therefore are of this form1 x#d b#d4 ,in this case it is evident that x may be readily had by two extractions of the square root2 by the first we find x#b b#b1 and by the second x b4 ,this1 however1 is only one of the values which x may have2 for since x#d b#d1 therefore x#d - b#d #j2 but x#d - b#d may be resolved into two factors x#b - b#b and x#b b#b1 each of which admits of a similar resolution2 for x#b - b#b 7x - b77x b7 and x#b b#b 7x - broot-#a77x broot-#a74 ,hence it appears that the equation x#d - b#d #j may also be expressed thus1 7x - b77x b77x - broot-#a77x broot-#a7 #j2 so that x may have these four values1 b1 -b1 broot-#a1 -broot-#a1 two of which are real1 and the others imaginary4 #b4 ,next to pure biquadratic equations1 in respect of easiness of resolution1 are such as want the second and fourth terms1 and therefore have this form1 x#d qx#b s #j4 ,these may be resolved in the manner of quadratic equations2 for if we put y x#b1 we have y#b qy s #j1 from which we find y #a_/b-q - root7q#b - #ds71 and therefore x -root#a_/b-q - root7q#b - #ds74 #c4 ,when a biquadratic equation has all its terms1 its resolution may be always reduced to that of a cubic equation4 ,there are various methods by which such a reduction may be effected4 ,the following was first given by ,leonhard ,euler in the ,petersburg ,commentaries1 and afterwards explained more fully in his ,elements of ,algebra4 ,we have already explained how an equation which is complete in its terms may be transformed into another of the same degree1 but which wants the second term2 therefore any biquadratic equation may be reduced to this form1 y#d py#b qy r #j1 where the second term is wanting1 and where p1 q1 r denote any known quantities whatever4 ,that we may form an equation similar to the above1 let us assume y roota rootb rootc1 and also suppose that the letters a1 b1 c denote the roots of the cubic equation z#c ,pz#b ,qz - ,r #j2 then1 from the theory of equations we have a b c -,p1 ab ac bc ,q1 abc ,r4 ,we square the assumed formula y roota rootb rootc1 and obtain y#b a b c #b7rootab rootac rootbc72 or1 substituting -,p for a b c1 and transposing1 y#b ,p #b7rootab rootac rootbc74 ,let this equation be also squared1 and we have y#d #b,py#b ,p#b #d7;ab ac bc7 #h7roota#b bc rootab#b c rootabc#b72 and since ab ac bc ,q1 and roota#b bc rootab#b c rootabc #b rootabc7roota rootb rootc7 root,r4y1 the same equation may be expressed thus3 y#d #b,py#b ,p#b #d,q #hroot,r4y4 ,thus we have the biquadratic equation y#d #b,py#b - #hroot,r4y ,p#b - #d,q #j1 one of the roots of which is y roota rootb rootc1 while a1 b1 c are the roots of the cubic equation z#c ,pz#b ,qz - ,r #j4 #d4 ,in order to apply this resolution to the proposed equation y#d py#b qy r #j1 we must express the assumed coefficients ,p1 ,q1 ,r by means of p1 q1 r1 the coefficients of that equation4 ,for this purpose let us compare the equations y#d py#b qy r #j1 y#d #b,py#b - #hroot,ry ,p#b - #d,q #j1 and it immediately appears that #b,p p1 -#hroot,r q1 ,p#b - #d,q r2 and from these equations we find ,p #a_/b p1 ,q 7#a_/af77p#b - #dr71 ,r 7#a_/fd7q#b4 ,hence it follows that the roots of the proposed equation are generally expressed by the formula y roota rootb rootc2 where a1 b1 c denote the roots of this cubic equation1 p p#b - #dr q#b z#c -- z#b -------- z - --- #j4 #b #af #fd ,but to find each particular root1 we must consider1 that as the square root of a number may be either positive or negative1 so each of the quantities roota1 rootb1 rootc may have either the sign or - prefixed to it2 and hence our formula will give eight different expressions for the root4 ,it is1 however1 to be observed1 that as the product of the three quantities roota1 rootb1 rootc must be equal to root,r or to -7#a_/h7q2 when q is positive1 their product must be a negative quantity1 and this can only be effected by making either one or three of them negative2 again1 when q is negative1 their product must be a positive quantity2 so that in this case they must either be all positive1 or two of them must be negative4 ,these considerations enable us to determine that four of the eight expressions for the root belong to the case in which q is positive1 and the other four to that in which it is negative4 #e4 ,we shall now give the result of the preceding investigation in the form of a practical rule2 and as the coefficients of the cubic equation which has been found involve fractions1 we shall transform it into another1 in which the coefficients are integers1 by supposing z #a_/d v4 ,thus the equation p p#b - #dr q#b z#c -- z#b -------- z - --- #j #b #af #fd becomes1 after reduction1 v#c #bpv#b 7p#b - #dr7v - q#b #j2 it also follows1 that if the roots of the latter equation are a1 b1 c1 the roots of the former are #a_/d a1 #a_/d b1 #a_/d c1 so that our rule may now be expressed thus3 ,let y#d py#b qy r #j be any biquadratic equation wanting its second term4 ,form this cubic equation v#c #bpv#b 7p#b - #dr7v - q#b #j1 and find its roots1 which let us denote by a1 b1 c4 ,then the roots of the proposed biquadratic equation are1 when q is negative1 when q is positive1 y #a_/b7roota rootb rootc71 y #a_/b7-roota - rootb - rootc71 y #a_/b7roota - rootb - rootc71 y #a_/b7-roota rootb rootc71 y #a_/b7-roota rootb - rootc71 y #a_/b7roota - rootb rootc71 y #a_/b7-roota - rootb rootc71 y #a_/b7roota rootb - rootc74 ,see also below1 ,theory of ,equations1 ,s #ag et seq4 7,x47 ,v4 ,theory of ,equations4 #a4 ,in the subject ,theory of ,equations the term equation is used to denote an equation of the form xn - p#ax7n - #a7 444 - pn #j1 where p#a1 p#b 444 pn are regarded as known1 and x as a quantity to be determined2 for shortness the equation is written f7x7 #j4 ,the equation may be numerical2 that is1 the coefficients p#a1 p#bn1 444 pn are then numbers--understanding by number a quantity of the form alpha betai 7alpha and beta having any positive or negative real values whatever1 or say each of these is regarded as susceptible of continuous variation from an indefinitely large negative to an indefinitely large positive value71 and i denoting root-#a4 ,or the equation may be algebraical2 that is1 the coefficients are not then restricted to denote1 or are not explicitly considered as denoting1 numbers4 #a4 ,we consider first numerical equations4 7,real theory1 #b-f2 ,imaginary theory1 #g-aj47 ,real ,theory4 #b4 ,postponing all consideration of imaginaries1 we take in the first instance the coefficients to be real1 and attend only to the real roots 7if any72 that is1 p#a1 p#b1 444 pn are real positive or negative quantities1 and a root a1 if it exists1 is a positive or negative quantity such that an - p#a;a7n - #a7 444 - pn #j1 or say1 f7a7 #j4 ,it is very useful to consider the curve y f7x71--or1 what would come to the same1 the curve ,ay f7x71--but it is better to retain the first-mentioned form of equation1 drawing1 if need be1 the ordinate y on a reduced scale4 ,for instance1 if the given equation be x#c - #fx#b #aax -#f4jf #j1a then the curve y x#c - #fx#b #aax - #f4jf is as shown in fig4 #a1 without any reduction of scale for the ordinate4 ,it is clear that1 in general1 y is a continuous one-valued function of x1 finite for every finite value of x1 but becoming infinite when x is infinite2 i4e41 assuming throughout that the coefficient of xn is #a1 then when x oo1 y oo2 but when x -oo1 then y oo or -oo1 according as n is even or odd2 the curve cuts any line whatever1 and in particular it cuts the axis 7of x7 in at most n points2 and the value of x1 at any point of intersection with the axis1 is a root of the equation f7x7 #j4 ,if beta1 alpha are any two values of x 7alpha beta1 that is1 alpha nearer oo71 then if f7beta71 f7alpha7 have opposite signs1 the curve cuts the axis an odd number of times1 and therefore at least once1 between the points x beta1 x alpha2 but if f7beta71 f7alpha7 have the same sign1 then between these points the curve cuts the axis an even number of times1 or it may be not at all4 ,that is1 f7beta71 f7alpha7 having opposite signs1 there are between the limits beta1 alpha an odd number of real roots1 and therefore at least one real root2 but f7beta71 f7alpha7 having the same sign1 there are between these limits an even number of real roots1 or it may be there is no real root4 ,in particular1 by giving to beta1 alpha the values -oo1 oo 7or1 what is the same thing1 any two values sufficiently near to these values respectively7 it appears that an equation of an odd order has always an odd number of real roots1 and therefore at least one real root2 but that an equation of an even order has an even number of real roots1 or it may be no real root4 ,if alpha be such that for x or a 7that is1 x nearer to oo7 f7x7 is always 1 and beta be such that for x or beta 7that is1 x nearer to -oo7 f7x7 is always -1 then the real roots 7if any7 lie between these limits x beta1 x alpha2 and it is easy to find by trial such two limits including between them all the real roots 7if any74 #c4 ,suppose that the positive value delta is an inferior limit to the difference between two real roots of the equation2 or rather 7since the foregoing expression would imply the existence of real roots7 suppose that there are not two real roots such that their difference taken positively is or delta2 then1 gamma being any value whatever1 there is clearly at most one real root between the limits gamma and gamma delta2 and by what precedes there is such real root or there is not such real root1 according as f7gamma71 f7gamma delta7 have opposite signs or have the same sign4 ,and by dividing in this manner the interval beta to alpha into intervals each of which is or delta1 we should not only ascertain the number of the real roots 7if any71 but we should also separate the real roots1 that is1 find for each of them limits gamma1 gamma delta between which there lies this one1 and only this one1 real root4 ,in particular cases it is frequently possible to ascertain the number of the real roots1 and to effect their separation by trial or otherwise1 without much difficulty2 but the foregoing was the general process as employed by ,joseph ,louis ,lagrange even in the second edition 7#ahjh7 of the ,traite de la resolution des equations numeriques2#b the determination of the limit delta had to be effected by means of the equation of differences or equation of the order #a_/b n7n - #a71 the roots of which are the squares of the differences of the roots of the given equation1 and the process is a cumbrous and unsatisfactory one4 #d4 ,the great step was effected by the theorem of ,j4,c4,f4 ,sturm 7#ahce7--viz4 here starting from the function f7x71 and its first derived function f'7x71 we have 7by a process which is a slight modification of that for obtaining the greatest common measure of these two functions7 to form a series of functions f7x71 f'7x71 f#b7x71 444 fn7x7 of the degrees n1 n - #a1 n - #b 444 #j respectively1--the last term fn7x7 being thus an absolute constant4 ,these lead to the immediate determination of the number of real roots 7if any7 between any two given limits beta1 alpha2 viz4 supposing alpha beta 7that is1 alpha nearer to oo71 then substituting successively these two values in the series of functions1 and attending only to the signs of the resulting values1 the number of the changes of sign lost in passing from beta to alpha is the required number of real roots between the two limits4 ,in particular1 taking beta1 alpha -oo1 oo respectively1 the signs of the several functions depend merely on the signs of the terms which contain the highest powers of x1 and are seen by inspection1 and the theorem thus gives at once the whole number of real roots4 ,and although theoretically1 in order to complete by a finite number of operations the separation of the real roots1 we still need to know the value of the before-mentioned limit delta2 yet in any given case the separation may be effected by a limited number of repetitions of the process4 ,the practical difficulty is when two or more roots are very near to each other4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that the theorem shows that there are two roots between #j and #aj2 by giving to x the values #a1 #b1 #c1 444 successively1 it might appear that the two roots were between #e and #f2 then again that they were between #e4c and #e4d1 then between #e4cd and #e4ce1 and so on until we arrive at a separation2 say it appears that between #e4cdf and #e4cdg there is one root1 and between #e4cdh and #e4cdi the other root4 ,but in the case in question delta would have a very small value1 such as 4#jjb1 and even supposing this value known1 the direct application of the first-mentioned process would be still more laborious4 #e4 ,supposing the separation once effected1 the determination of the single real root which lies between the two given limits may be effected to any required degree of approximation either by the processes of ,w4,g4 ,horner and ,lagrange 7which are in principle a carrying out of the method of ,sturm's theorem71 or by the process of ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 as perfected by ,joseph ,fourier 7which requires to be separately considered74 ,first as to ,horner and ,lagrange4 ,we know that between the limits beta1 alpha there lies one1 and only one1 real root of the equation2 f7beta7 and f7alpha7 have therefore opposite signs4 ,suppose any intermediate value is theta2 in order to determine by ,sturm's theorem whether the root lies between beta1 theta1 or between theta1 alpha1 it would be quite unnecessary to calculate the signs of f7theta71f'7theta71 f#b7theta7 4442 only the sign of f7theta7 is required2 for1 if this has the same sign as f7beta71 then the root is between beta1 theta2 if the same sign as f7alpha71 then the root is between theta1 alpha4 ,we want to make theta increase from the inferior limit beta1 at which f7theta7 has the sign of f7beta71 so long as f7theta7 retains this sign1 and then to a value for which it assumes the opposite sign2 we have thus two nearer limits of the required root1 and the process may be repeated indefinitely4 ,horner's method 7#ahai7 gives the root as a decimal1 figure by figure2 thus if the equation be known to have one real root between #j and #aj1 it is in effect shown say that #e is too small 7that is1 the root is between #e and #f72 next that #e4d is too small 7that is1 the root is between #e4d and #e4e72 and so on to any number of decimals4 ,each figure is obtained1 not by the successive trial of all the figures which precede it1 but 7as in the ordinary process of the extraction of a square root1 which is in fact ,horner's process applied to this particular case7 it is given presumptively as the first figure of a quotient2 such value may be too large1 and then the next inferior integer must be tried instead of it1 or it may require to be further diminished4 ,and it is to be remarked that the process not only gives the approximate value alpha of the root1 but 7as in the extraction of a square root7 it includes the calculation of the function f7alpha71 which should be1 and approximately is1 #j4 ,the arrangement of the calculations is very elegant1 and forms an integral part of the actual method4 ,it is to be observed that after a certain number of decimal places have been obtained1 a good many more can be found by a mere division4 ,it is in the progress tacitly assumed that the roots have been first separated4 ,lagrange's method 7#agfg7 gives the root as a continued fraction a #a_/;b #a_/;c 4441 where a is a positive or negative integer 7which may be #j71 but b1 c1 444 are positive integers4 ,suppose the roots have been separated2 then 7by trial if need be of consecutive integer values7 the limits may be made to be consecutive integer numbers3 say they are a1 a #a2 the value of x is therefore a #a_/y1 where y is positive and greater than #a2 from the given equation for x1 writing therein x a #a_/y1 we form an equation of the same order for y1 and this equation will have one1 and only one1 positive root greater than #a2 hence finding for it the limits b1 b #a 7where b is or #a71 we have y b #a_/z1 where z is positive and greater than #a2 and so on--that is1 we thus obtain the successive denominators b1 c1 d 444 of the continued fraction4 ,the method is theoretically very elegant1 but the disadvantage is that it gives the result in the form of a continued fraction1 which for the most part must ultimately be converted into a decimal4 ,there is one advantage in the method1 that a commensurable root 7that is1 a root equal to a rational fraction7 is found accurately1 since1 when such root exists1 the continued fraction terminates4 #f4 ,newton's method 7#agaa71 as perfected by ,fourier7#ahca71 may be roughly stated as follows4 ,if x gamma be an approximate value of any root1 and gamma h the correct value1 then f7gamma h7 #j1 that is1 h h#b f7gamma7 -- f'7gamma7 --- f7gamma7 444 #j2 #a #a4b and then1 if h be so small that the terms after the second may be neglected1 f7gamma7 hf'7gamma7 #j1 that is1 h -f7gamma7_/f'7gamma71 or the new approximate value is x gamma - f7gamma7_/f'7gamma72 and so on1 as often as we please4 ,it will be observed that so far nothing has been assumed as to the separation of the roots1 or even as to the existence of a real root2 gamma has been taken as the approximate value of a root1 but no precise meaning has been attached to this expression4 ,the question arises1 ,what are the conditions to be satisfied by gamma in order that the process may by successive repetitions actually lead to a certain real root of the equation2 or that1 gamma being an approximate value of a certain real root1 the new value gamma - f7gamma7_/f'7gamma7 may be a more approximate value4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,referring to fig4 #a1 it is easy to see that if ,,oc represent the assumed value gamma1 then1 drawing the ordinate ,,cp to meet the curve in ,p1 and the tangent ,,pc' to meet the axis in ,c'1 we shall have ,,oc' as the new approximate value of the root4 ,but observe that there is here a real root ,,ox1 and that the curve beyond ,x is convex to the axis2 under these conditions the point ,c' is nearer to ,x than was ,c2 and1 starting with ,c' instead of ,c1 and proceeding in like manner to draw a new ordinate and tangent1 and so on as often as we please1 we approximate continually1 and that with great rapidity1 to the true value ,,ox4 ,but if ,c had been taken on the other side of ,x1 where the curve is concave to the axis1 the new point ,c' might or might not be nearer to ,x than was the point ,c2 and in this case the method1 if it succeeds at all1 does so by accident only1 i4e4 it may happen that ,c' or some subsequent point comes to be a point ,c1 such that ,,co is a proper approximate value of the root1 and then the subsequent approximations proceed in the same manner as if this value had been assumed in the first instance1 all the preceding work being wasted4 ,it thus appears that for the proper application of the method we require more than the mere separation of the roots4 ,in order to be able to approximate to a certain root alpha1 ,,ox1 we require to know that1 between ,,ox and some value ,,on1 the curve is always convex to the axis 7analytically1 between the two values1 f7x7 and f7x7 must have always the same sign74 ,when this is so1 the point ,c may be taken anywhere on the proper side of ,x1 and within the portion ,,xn of the axis2 and the process is then the one already explained4 ,the approximation is in general a very rapid one4 ,if we know for the required root ,,ox the two limits ,,om1 ,,on such that from ,m to ,x the curve is always concave to the axis1 while from ,x to ,n it is always convex to the axis1--then1 taking ,d anywhere in the portion ,,mx and 7as before7 ,c in the portion ,,xn1 drawing the ordinates ,,dq1 ,,cp1 and joining the points ,p1 ,q by a line which meets the axis in ,d'1 also constructing the point ,c' by means of the tangent at ,p as before1 we have for the required root the new limits ,,od'1 ,,oc'2 and proceeding in like manner with the points ,d'1 ,c'1 and so on as often as we please1 we obtain at each step two limits approximating more and more nearly to the required root ,,ox4 ,the process as to the point ,d'1 translated into analysis1 is the ordinate process of interpolation4 ,suppose ,,od beta1 ,,oc alpha1 we have approximately f7beta h7 f7beta7 hf7alpha7 - f7beta7 _/ 7alpha - beta71 whence if the root is beta h then h - 7alpha - beta7f7beta7 _/ f7alpha7 - f7beta74 ,returning for a moment to ,horner's method1 it may be remarked that the correction h1 to an approximate value alpha1 is therein found as a quotient the same or such as the quotient f7alpha7 _/ f'7alpha7 which presents itself in ,newton's method4 ,the difference is that with ,horner the integer part of this quotient is taken as the presumptive value of h1 and the figure is verified at each step4 ,with ,newton the quotient itself1 developed to the proper number of decimal places1 is taken as the value of h2 if too many decimals are taken1 there would be a waste of work2 but the error would correct itself at the next step4 ,of course the calculation should be conducted without any such waste of work4 ,imaginary ,theory4 #g4 ,it will be recollected that the expression number and the correlative epithet numerical were at the outset used in a wide sense1 as extending to imaginaries4 ,this extension arises out of the theory of equations by a process analogous to that by which number1 in its original most restricted sense of positive integer number1 was extended to have the meaning of a real positive or negative magnitude susceptible of continuous variation4 ,if for a moment number is understood in its most restricted sense as meaning positive integer number1 the solution of a simple equation leads to an extension2 ax - b #j gives x 7b_/a71 a positive fraction1 and we can in this manner represent1 not accurately1 but as nearly as we please1 any positive magnitude whatever2 so an equation ax b #j gives x -7b_/a71 which 7approximately as before7 represents any negative magnitude4 ,we thus arrive at the extended signification of number as a continuously varying positive or negative magnitude4 ,such numbers may be added or subtracted1 multiplied or divided one by another1 and the result is always a number4 ,now from a quadric equation we derive1 in like manner1 the notion of a complex or imaginary number such as is spoken of above4 ,the equation x#b #a #j is not 7in the foregoing sense1 number real number7 satisfied by any numerical value whatever of x2 but we assume that there is a number which we call i1 satisfying the equation i#b #a #j1 and then taking a and b any real numbers1 we form an expression such as a bi1 and use the expression number in this extended sense3 any two such numbers may be added or subtracted1 multiplied or divided one by the other1 and the result is always a number4 ,and if we consider first a quadric equation x#b px q #j where p and q are real numbers1 and next the like equation1 where p and q are any numbers whatever1 it can be shown that there exists for x a numerical value which satisfies the equation2 or1 in other words1 it can be shown that the equation has a numerical root4 ,the like theorem1 in fact1 holds good for an equation of any order whatever2 but suppose for a moment that this was not the case2 say that there was a cubic equation x#c px#b qx r #j1 with numerical coefficients1 not satisfied by any numerical value of x1 we should have to establish a new imaginary j satisfying some such equation1 and should then have to consider numbers of the form a bj1 or perhaps a bj cj#b 7a1 b1 c numbers alpha betai of the kind heretofore considered71--first we should be thrown back on the quadric equation x#b px q #j1 p and q being now numbers of the last-mentioned extended form--non constat that every such equation has a numerical root--and if not1 we might be led to other imaginaries k1 l1 c41 and so on ad infinitum in inextricable confusion4 ,but in fact a numerical equation of any order whatever has always a numerical root1 and thus numbers 7in the foregoing sense1 number quantity of the form alpha betai7 form 7what real numbers do not7 a universe complete in itself1 such that starting in it we are never led out of it4 ,there may very well be1 and perhaps are1 numbers in a more general sense of the term 7quaternions are not a case in point1 as the ordinary laws of combination are not adhered to71 but in order to have to do with such numbers 7if any7 we must start with them4 #h4 ,the capital theorem as regards numerical equations thus is1 every numerical equation has a numerical root2 or for shortness 7the meaning being as before71 every equation has a root4 ,of course the theorem is the reverse of self-evident1 and it requires proof2 but provisionally assuming it as true1 we derive from it the general theory of numerical equations4 ,as the term root was introduced in the course of an explanation1 it will be convenient to give here the formal definition4 ,a number a such that substituted for x it makes the function x#an - p#ax7n - #a7 444 -pn to be #j1 or say such that it satisfies the equation f7x7 #j1 is said to be a root of the equation2 that is1 a being a root1 we have an - p#a;a7n - #a7 444 -pn #j1 or say f7a7 #j2 and it is then easily shown that x - a is a factor of the function f7x71 viz4 that we have f7x7 7x - a7f#a7x71 where f#a7x7 is a function x7n - #a7 - q#ax7n - #b7 444 -q7n - #a7 of the order n - #a1 with numerical coefficients q#a1 q#b 444 q7n - #a74 ,in general a is not a root of the equation f#a7x7 #j1 but it may be so--i4e4 f#a7x7 may contain the factor x - a2 when this is so1 f7x7 will contain the factor 7x - a7#b2 writing then f7x7 7x - a7#b;f#b7x71 and assuming that a is not a root of the equation f#b7x7 #j1 x a is then said to be a double root of the equation f7x7 #j2 and similarly f7x7 may contain the factor 7x - a7#c and no higher power1 and x a is then a triple root2 and so on4 ,supposing in general that f7x7 7x - a7alpha ,f7x7 7alpha being a positive integer which may be #a1 7x - a7alpha the highest power of x - a which divides f7x71 and ,f7x7 being of course of the order n - alpha71 then the equation ,f7x7 #j will have a root b which will be different from a2 x - b will be a factor1 in general a simple one1 but it may be a multiple one1 of ,f7x71 and f7x7 will in this case be 7x - a7alpha 7x - b7beta ,phi7x7 7beta a positive integer which may be #a1 7x-b7beta the highest power of x - b in ,f7x7 or f7x71 and ,phi7x7 being of course of the order n - alpha - beta74 ,the original equation f7x7 #j is in this case said to have alpha roots each a1 beta roots each b2 and so on for any other factors 7x - c7gamma1 c4 ,we have thus the theorem--,a numerical equation of the order n has in every case n roots1 viz4 there exist n numbers1 a1 b1 444 7in general all distinct1 but which may arrange themselves in any sets of equal values71 such that f7x7 7x - a77x - b77x - c7 444 identically4 ,if the equation has equal roots1 these can in general be determined1 and the case is at any rate a special one which may be in the first instance excluded from consideration4 ,it is1 therefore1 in general assumed that the equation f7x7 #j has all its roots unequal4 ,if the coefficients p#a1 p#b1 444 are all or any one or more of them imaginary1 then the equation f7x7 #j1 separating the real and imaginary parts thereof1 may be written ,f7x7 i,phi7x7 #j1 where ,f7x71 ,phi7x7 are each of them a function with real coefficients2 and it thus appears that the equation f7x7 #j1 with imaginary coefficients1 has not in general any real root2 supposing it to have a real root a1 this must be at once a root of each of the equations ,f7x7 #j and ,phi7x7 #j4 ,but an equation with real coefficients may have as well imaginary as real roots1 and we have further the theorem that for any such equation the imaginary roots enter in pairs1 viz4 alpha betai being a root1 then alpha - betai will be also a root4 ,it follows that if the order be odd1 there is always an odd number of real roots1 and therefore at least one real root4 #i4 ,in the case of an equation with real coefficients1 the question of the existence of real roots1 and of their separation1 has been already considered4 ,in the general case of an equation with imaginary 7it may be real7 coefficients1 the like question arises as to the situation of the 7real or imaginary7 roots2 thus1 if for facility of conception we regard the constituents alpha1 beta of a root alpha betai as the co-ordinates of a point in plano1 and accordingly represent the root by such point1 then drawing in the plane any closed curve or contour1 the question is how many roots lie within such contour4 ,this is solved theoretically by means of a theorem of ,a4,l4 ,cauchy 7#ahcg71 viz4 writing in the original equation x iy in place of x1 the function f7x iy7 becomes ,p i,q1 where ,p and ,q are each of them a rational and integral function 7with real coefficients7 of 7x1 y74 ,imagining the point 7x1 y7 to travel along the contour1 and considering the number of changes of sign from - to and from to - of the fraction corresponding to passages of the fraction through zero 7that is1 to values for which ,p becomes #j1 disregarding those for which ,q becomes #j71 the difference of these numbers gives the number of roots within the contour4 ,it is important to remark that the demonstration does not presuppose the existence of any root2 the contour may be the infinity of the plane 7such infinity regarded as a contour1 or closed curve71 and in this case it can be shown 7and that very easily7 that the difference of the numbers of changes of sign is n2 that is1 there are within the infinite contour1 or 7what is the same thing7 there are in all n roots2 thus ,cauchy's theorem contains really the proof of the fundamental theorem that a numerical equation of the nth order 7not only has a numerical root1 but7 has precisely n roots4 ,it would appear that this proof of the fundamental theorem in its most complete form is in principle identical with the last proof of ,k4,f4 ,gauss 7#ahdi7 of the theorem1 in the form--,a numerical equation of the nth order has always a root4#c ,but in the case of a finite contour1 the actual determination of the difference which gives the number of real roots can be effected only in the case of a rectangular contour1 by applying to each of its sides separately a method such as that of ,sturm's theorem2 and thus the actual determination ultimately depends on a method such as that of ,sturm's theorem4 ,very little has been done in regard to the calculation of the imaginary roots of an equation by approximation2 and the question is not here considered4 #aj4 ,a class of numerical equations which needs to be considered is that of the binomial equations xn - a #j 7a alpha betai1 a complex number74 ,the foregoing conclusions apply1 viz4 there are always n roots1 which1 it may be shown1 are all unequal4 ,and these can be found numerically by the extraction of the square root1 and of an nth root1 of real numbers1 and by the aid of a table of natural sines and cosines4#d ,for writing _/ alpha beta alpha betai root7alpha#b beta#b7 7 ---------------------------- ----------------------------i 71 root7alpha#b beta#b7 root7alpha#b beta#b7 _/ there is always a real angle lambda 7positive and less than #bpi71 such that its cosine and sine are alpha _/ root7alpha#b beta#b7 and beta _/ root7alpha#b beta#b7 respectively2 that is1 writing for shortness root7alpha#b beta#b7 rho1 we have alpha betai rho7coslambda i sinlambda71 or the equation is xn rho7coslambda i sin lambda72 hence observing that 7cos lambda_/n i sin lambda_/n 7n coslambda i sinlambda1 a value of x is root nrho 7cos lambda_/n i sin lambda_/n74 ,the formula really gives all the roots1 for instead of lambda we may write lambda #bspi1 s a positive or negative integer1 and then we have _/ lambda #bspi lambda #bspi x root nrho 7 cos ----------------- i sin ----------------- 71 n n _/ which has the n values obtained by giving to s the values #j1 #a1 #b 444 n - #a in succession2 the roots are1 it is clear1 represented by points lying at equal intervals on a circle4 ,but it is more convenient to proceed somewhat differently2 taking one of the roots to be theta1 so that thetan a1 then assuming x thetay1 the equation becomes yn - #a #j1 which equation1 like the original equation1 has precisely n roots 7one of them being of course #a74 ,and the original equation xn - a #j is thus reduced to the more simple equation xn - #a #j2 and although the theory of this equation is included in the preceding one1 yet it is proper to state it separately4 ,the equation xn - #a #j has its several roots expressed in the form #a1 omega1 omega#b1 444 omega7n - #a71 where omega may be taken cos #bpi_/n i sin #bpi_/n2 in fact1 omega having this value1 any integer power omegak is cos #bpik_/n i sin #bpik_/n1 and we thence have 7omegak7n cos #bpik i sin #bpik1 #a1 that is1 omegak is a root of the equation4 ,the theory will be resumed further on4 ,by what precedes1 we are led to the notion 7a numerical7 of the radical a7#a_/n7 regarded as an n-valued function2 any one of these being denoted by root na1 then the series of values is root na1 omegaroot na1 444 omega7n - #a7root na2 or we may1 if we please1 use root na instead of a7#a_/n7 as a symbol to denote the n-valued function4 ,as the coefficients of an algebraical equation may be numerical1 all which follows in regard to algebraical equations is 7with1 it may be1 some few modifications7 applicable to numerical equations2 and hence1 concluding for the present this subject1 it will be convenient to pass on to algebraical equations4 ,algebraical ,equations4 #aa4 ,the equation is xn - p#ax7n-#a7 444 -pn #j1 and we here assume the existence of roots1 viz4 we assume that there are n quantities a1 b1 c 444 7in general all of them different1 but which in particular cases may become equal in sets in any manner71 such that xn - p#ax7n - #a7 444 - pn #j2 or looking at the question in a different point of view1 and starting with the roots a1 b1 c 444 as given1 we express the product of the n factors x - a1 x - b1 444 in the foregoing form1 and thus arrive at an equation of the order n having the n roots a1 b1 c4444 ,in either case we have p#a ,sigmaa1 p#b ,sigmaab1 444 pn abc 4442 i4e4 regarding the coefficients p#a1 p#b 444 pn as given1 then we assume the existence of roots a1 b1 c1 444 such that p#a ,sigmaa1 c42 or1 regarding the roots as given1 then we write p#a1 p#b1 c41 to denote the functions ,sigmaa1 ,sigmaab1 c4 ,as already explained1 the epithet algebraical is not used in opposition to numerical2 an algebraical equation is merely an equation wherein the coefficients are not restricted to denote1 or are not explicitly considered as denoting1 numbers4 ,that the abstraction is legitimate1 appears by the simplest example2 in saying that the equation x#b - px q #j has a root x #a_/bp root7p#b - #dq71 we mean that writing this value for x the equation becomes an identity1 #a_/bp root7p#b - #dq7#b - p#a_/bp root7p#b - #dq7 q #j2 and the verification of this identity in nowise depends upon p and q meaning numbers4 ,but if it be asked what there is beyond numerical equations included in the term algebraical equation1 or1 again1 what is the full extent of the meaning attributed to the term--the latter question at any rate it would be very difficult to answer2 as to the former one1 it may be said that the coefficients may1 for instance1 be symbols of operation4 ,as regards such equations1 there is certainly no proof that every equation has a root1 or that an equation of the nth order has n roots2 nor is it in any wise clear what the precise signification of the statement is4 ,but it is found that the assumption of the existence of the n roots can be made without contradictory results2 conclusions derived from it1 if they involve the roots1 rest on the same ground as the original assumption2 but the conclusion may be independent of the roots altogether1 and in this case it is undoubtedly valid2 the reasoning1 although actually conducted by aid of the assumption 7and1 it may be1 most easily and elegantly in this manner71 is really independent of the assumption4 ,in illustration1 we observe that it is allowable to express a function of p and q as follows1--that is1 by means of a rational symmetrical function of a and b1 this can1 as a fact1 be expressed as a rational function of a b and ab2 and if we prescribe that a b and ab shall then be changed into p and q respectively1 we have the required function of p1 q4 ,that is1 we have ,f7alpha1 beta7 as a representation of f7p1 q71 obtained as if we had p a b1 q ab1 but without in any wise assuming the existence of the a1 b of these equations4 #ab4 ,starting from the equation xn - p#ax7n - #a7 444 x - a4x - b4 c4 or the equivalent equations p#a ,sigmaa1 c41 we find an - p#a;a7n - #a7 444 #j1 bn - p#a;b7n - #a7 444 #j2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 7it is as satisfying these equations that a1 b 444 are said to be the roots of xn - p#ax7n - #a7 444 #j72 and conversely from the last-mentioned equations1 assuming that a1 b 444 are all different1 we deduce p#a ,sigmaa1 p#b ,sigmaab1 c4 and xn - p#ax7n - #a7 444 x - a4x - b4 c4 ,observe that if1 for instance1 a b1 then the equations an - p#a;a7n - #a7 444 #j1 bn - p#a;b7n - #a7 444 #j would reduce themselves to a single relation1 which would not of itself express that a was a double root1--that is1 that 7x - a7#b was a factor of xn - p#ax7n - #a7 1 c2 but by considering b as the limit of a h1 h indefinitely small1 we obtain a second equation na7n - #a7 - 7n - #a7p#a;a7n - #b7 444 #j1 which1 with the first1 expresses that a is a double root2 and then the whole system of equations leads as before to the equations p#a ,sigmaa1 c4 ,but the existence of a double root implies a certain relation between the coefficients2 the general case is when the roots are all unequal4 ,we have then the theorem that every rational symmetrical function of the roots is a rational function of the coefficients4 ,this is an easy consequence from the less general theorem1 every rational and integral symmetrical function of the roots is a rational and integral function of the coefficients4 ,in particular1 the sums of the powers ,sigmaa#b1 ,sigmaa#c1 c41 are rational and integral functions of the coefficients4 ,the process originally employed for the expression of other functions ,sigmaaalpha bbeta1 c41 in terms of the coefficients is to make them depend upon the sums of powers3 for instance1 ,sigmaaalpha bbeta ,sigmaaalpha ,sigmaabeta - ,sigmaa7alpha beta72 but this is very objectionable2 the true theory consists in showing that we have systems of equations p#a ,sigmaa1 p#b ,sigmaab1 p#ab ,sigmaa#b #b,sigmaab1 p#c ,sigmaabc1 p#ap#b ,sigmaa#b b #c,sigmaabc1 p#ac ,sigmaa#c #c,sigmaa#b b #f,sigmaabc1 where in each system there are precisely as many equations as there are root-functions on the right-hand side--e4g4 #c equations and #c functions ,sigmaabc1 ,sigmaa#b b1 ,sigmaa#c4 ,hence in each system the root-functions can be determined linearly in terms of the powers and products of the coefficients3 ,sigmaab p#b1 ,sigmaa#b p#ab - #bp#b1 ,sigmaabc p#c1 ,sigmaa#b b p#ap#b - #cp#c1 ,sigmaa#c p#ac - #cp#ap#b #cp#c1 and so on4 ,the other process1 if applied consistently1 would derive the originally assumed value ,sigmaab p#b1 from the two equations ,sigmaa p1 ,sigmaa#b p#ab - #bp#b2 i4e4 we have #b,sigmaab ,sigmaa4,sigmaa - ,sigmaa#b1 p#ab - 7p#ab - #bp#b71 #bp#b4 #ac4 ,it is convenient to mention here the theorem that1 x being determined as above by an equation of the order n1 any rational and integral function whatever of x1 or more generally any rational function which does not become infinite in virtue of the equation itself1 can be expressed as a rational and integral function of x1 of the order n - #a1 the coefficients being rational functions of the coefficients of the equation4 ,thus the equation gives xn a function of the form in question2 multiplying each side by x1 and on the right-hand side writing for xn its foregoing value1 we have x7n #a71 a function of the form in question2 and the like for any higher power of x1 and therefore also for any rational and integral function of x4 ,the proof in the case of a rational non-integral function is somewhat more complicated4 ,the final result is of the form phi7x7_/psi7x7 ,i7x71 or say phi7x7 -psi7x7,i7x7 #j1 where phi1 psi1 ,i are rational and integral functions2 in other words1 this equation1 being true if only f7x7 #j1 can only be so by reason that the left-hand side contains f7x7 as a factor1 or we must have identically phi7x7 - psi7x7,i7x7 ,m7x7f7x74 ,and it is1 moreover1 clear that the equation phi7x7_/psi7x7 ,i7x71 being satisfied if only f7x7 #j1 must be satisfied by each root of the equation4 ,from the theorem that a rational symmetrical function of the roots is expressible in terms of the coefficients1 it at once follows that it is possible to determine an equation 7of an assignable order7 having for its roots the several values of any given 7unsymmetrical7 function of the roots of the given equation4 ,for example1 in the case of a quartic equation1 roots 7a1 b1 c1 d71 it is possible to find an equation having the roots ab1 ac1 ad1 bc1 bd1 cd 7being therefore a sextic equation73 viz4 in the product 7y - ab77y - ac77y - ad77y - bc77y - bd77y - cd7 the coefficients of the several powers of y will be symmetrical functions of a1 b1 c1 d and therefore rational and integral functions of the coefficients of the quartic equation2 hence1 supposing the product so expressed1 and equating it to zero1 we have the required sextic equation4 ,in the same manner can be found the sextic equation having the roots 7a - b7#b1 7a - c7#b1 7a - d7#b1 7b - c7#b1 7b - d7#b1 7c - d7#b1 which is the equation of differences previously referred to2 and similarly we obtain the equation of differences for a given equation of any order4 ,again1 the equation sought for may be that having for its n roots the given rational functions phi7a71 phi7b71 444 of the several roots of the given equation4 ,any such rational function can 7as was shown7 be expressed as a rational and integral function of the order n - #a2 and1 retaining x in place of any one of the roots1 the problem is to find y from the equations xn - p#a x7n - #a7 444 #j1 and y ,m#jx7n - #a7 ,m#ax7n - #b7 4441 or1 what is the same thing1 from these two equations to eliminate x4 ,this is in fact ,e4,w4 ,tschirnhausen's transformation 7#afhc74 #ad4 ,in connexion with what precedes1 the question arises as to the number of values 7obtained by permutations of the roots7 of given unsymmetrical functions of the roots1 or say of a given set of letters3 for instance1 with roots or letters 7a1 b1 c1 d7 as before1 how many values are there of the function ab cd1 or better1 how many functions are there of this form8 ,the answer is #c1 viz4 ab cd1 ac bd1 ad bc2 or again we may ask whether1 in the case of a given number of letters1 there exist functions with a given number of values1 #c-valued1 #d-valued functions1 c4 ,it is at once seen that for any given number of letters there exist #b-valued functions2 the product of the differences of the letters is such a function2 however the letters are interchanged1 it alters only its sign2 or say the two values are ,delta and -,delta4 ,and if ,p1 ,q are symmetrical functions of the letters1 then the general form of such a function is ,p ,q,delta2 this has only the two values ,p ,q,delta1 ,p - ,q,delta4 ,in the case of #d letters there exist 7as appears above7 #c-valued functions3 but in the case of #e letters there does not exist any #c-valued or #d-valued function2 and the only #e-valued functions are those which are symmetrical in regard to four of the letters1 and can thus be expressed in terms of one letter and of symmetrical functions of all the letters4 ,these last theorems present themselves in the demonstration of the non-existence of a solution of a quintic equation by radicals4 ,the theory is an extensive and important one1 depending on the notions of substitutions and of groups 7q4v474 #ae4 ,returning to equations1 we have the very important theorem that1 given the value of any unsymmetrical function of the roots1 e4g4 in the case of a quartic equation1 the function ab cd1 it is in general possible to determine rationally the value of any similar function1 such as 7a b7#c 7c d7#c4 ,the a priori ground of this theorem may be illustrated by means of a numerical equation4 ,suppose that the roots of a quartic equation are #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 then if it is given that ab cd #ad1 this in effect determines a1 b to be #a1 #b and c1 d to be #c1 #d 7viz4 a #a1 b #b or a #b1 b #a1 and c #c1 d #d or c #c1 d #d7 or else a1 b to be #c1 #d and c1 d to be #a1 #b2 and it therefore in effect determines 7a b7#c 7c d7#c to be #cgj1 and not any other value2 that is1 7a b7#c 7c d7#c1 as having a single value1 must be determinable rationally4 ,and we can in the same way account for cases of failure as regards particular equations2 thus1 the roots being #a1 #b1 #c1 #d as before1 a#b b #b determines a to be #a and b to be #b1 but if the roots had been #a1 #b1 #d1 #af then a#b b #af does not uniquely determine a1 b but only makes them to be #a1 #af or #b1 #d respectively4 ,as to the a posteriori proof1 assume1 for instance1 t#a ab cd1 y#a 7a b7#c 7c d7#c1 t#b ac bd1 y#b 7a c7#c 7b d7#c1 t#c ad bc1 y#c 7a d7#c 7b c7#c3 then y#a y#b y#c1 t#ay#a t#by#b t#cy#c1 t#ab y#a t#bby#b t#cby#c will be respectively symmetrical functions of the roots of the quartic1 and therefore rational and integral functions of the coefficients2 that is1 they will be known4 ,suppose for a moment that t#a1 t#b1 t#c are all known2 then the equations being linear in y#a1 y#b1 y#c these can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients and of t#a1 t#b1 t#c2 that is1 y#a1 y#b1 y#c will be known4 ,but observe further that y#a is obtained as a function of t#a1 t#b1 t#c symmetrical as regards t#b1 t#c2 it can therefore be expressed as a rational function of t#a and of t#b t#c1 t#bt#c1 and thence as a rational function of t#a and of t#a t#b t#c1 t#at#b t#at#c t#bt#c1 t#at#bt#c2 but these last are symmetrical functions of the roots1 and as such they are expressible rationally in terms of the coefficients2 that is1 y#a will be expressed as a rational function of t#a and of the coefficients2 or t#a 7alone1 not t#b or t#c7 being known1 y#a will be rationally determined4 #af4 ,we now consider the question of the algebraical solution of equations1 or1 more accurately1 that of the solution of equations by radicals4 ,in the case of a quadric equation x#b - px q #j1 we can by the assistance of the sign root7 7 or 7 7#a_/b find an expression for x as a #b-valued function of the coefficients p1 q such that substituting this value in the equation1 the equation is thereby identically satisfied2 it has been found that this expression is x #a_/bp - root7p#b - #dq71 and the equation is on this account said to be algebraically solvable1 or more accurately solvable by radicals4 ,or we may by writing x -#a_/b p z reduce the equation to z#b #a_/d7p#b - #dq71 viz4 to an equation of the form x#b a2 and in virtue of its being thus reducible we say that the original equation is solvable by radicals4 ,and the question for an equation of any higher order1 say of the order n1 is1 can we by means of radicals 7that is1 by aid of the sign root m7 7 or 7 77#a_/m71 using as many as we please of such signs and with any values of m7 find an n-valued function 7or any function7 of the coefficients which substituted for x in the equation shall satisfy it identically8 ,it will be observed that the coefficients p1 q 444 are not explicitly considered as numbers1 but even if they do denote numbers1 the question whether a numerical equation admits of solution by radicals is wholly unconnected with the before-mentioned theorem of the existence of the n roots of such an equation4 ,it does not even follow that in the case of a numerical equation solvable by radicals the algebraical solution gives the numerical solution1 but this requires explanation4 ,consider first a numerical quadric equation with imaginary coefficients4 ,in the formula x #a_/bp - root7p#b - #dq71 substituting for p1 q their given numerical values1 we obtain for x an expression of the form x alpha betai - root7gamma deltai71 where alpha1 beta1 gamma1 delta are real numbers4 ,this expression substituted for x in the quadric equation would satisfy it identically1 and it is thus an algebraical solution2 but there is no obvious a priori reason why root7gammadeltai7 should have a value c di1 where c and d are real numbers calculable by the extraction of a root or roots of real numbers2 however the case is 7what there was no a priori right to expect7 that root7gamma deltai7 has such a value calculable by means of the radical expressions rootroot7gamma#b delta#b7 - gamma 3 and hence the algebraical solution of a numerical quadric equation does in every case give the numerical solution4 ,the case of a numerical cubic equation will be considered presently4 #ag4 ,a cubic equation can be solved by radicals4 ,taking for greater simplicity the cubic in the reduced form x#c qx - r #j1 and assuming x a b1 this will be a solution if only #c;ab q and a#c b#c r1 equations which give 7a#c - b#c7b r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c1 a quadric equation solvable by radicals1 and giving a#c - b#c root7r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c71 a #b-valued function of the coefficients3 combining this with a#c b#c r1 we have a#c #a_/br root7r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c71 a #b-valued function3 we then have a by means of a cube root1 viz4 a root #ca_/br root7r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c71 a #f-valued function of the coefficients2 but then1 writing q b_/#c;a1 we have1 as may be shown1 a b a #c-valued function of the coefficients2 and x a b is the required solution by radicals4 ,it would have been wrong to complete the solution by writing b root #ca_/br - root7r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c71 for then a b would have been given as a #i-valued function having only #c of its values roots1 and the other #f values being irrelevant4 ,observe that in this last process we make no use of the equation #c;ab q1 in its original form1 but use only the derived equation #bg;a#c b#c q#c1 implied in1 but not implying1 the original form4 ,an interesting variation of the solution is to write x ab7a b71 giving a#c b#c7;a#c b#c7 r and #c;a#c b#c q1 or say a#c b#c #cr_/q1 a#c b#c 7#a_/c7q2 and consequently #c_/b #d #c_/b #d a#c --- r root7r#b - --q#c71 b#c --- r - root7r#b - --q#c71 q #bg q #bg i4e4 here a#c1 b#c are each of them a #b-valued function1 but as the only effect of altering the sign of the quadric radical is to interchange a#c1 b#c1 they may be regarded as each of them #a-valued2 a and b are each of them #c-valued 7for observe that here only a#c b#c1 not ab1 is given72 and ab7a b7 thus is in appearance a #i-valued function2 but it can easily be shown that it is 7as it ought to be7 only #c-valued4 ,in the case of a numerical cubic1 even when the coefficients are real1 substituting their values in the expression x root #ca_/br root7r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c7 7#a_/c7q _/ root #ca_/br root7r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c71 this may depend on an expression of the form root #c7;gamma deltai7 where gamma and delta are real numbers 7it will do so if r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c is a negative number71 and then we cannot by the extraction of any root or roots of real positive numbers reduce root #c7;gamma deltai7 to the form c di1 c and d real numbers2 hence here the algebraical solution does not give the numerical solution1 and we have here the so-called irreducible case of a cubic equation4 ,by what precedes there is nothing in this that might not have been expected2 the algebraical solution makes the solution depend on the extraction of the cube root of a number1 and there was no reason for expecting this to be a real number4 ,it is well known that the case in question is that wherein the three roots of the numerical cubic equation are all real2 if the roots are two imaginary1 one real1 then contrariwise the quantity under the cube root is real2 and the algebraical solution gives the numerical one4 ,the irreducible case is solvable by a trigonometrical formula1 but this is not a solution by radicals3 it consists in effect in reducing the given numerical cubic 7not to a cubic of the form z#c a1 solvable by the extraction of a cube root1 but7 to a cubic of the form #dx#c - #cx a1 corresponding to the equation #d cos#c theta - #c costheta cos #ctheta which serves to determine costheta when cos #ctheta is known4 ,the theory is applicable to an algebraical cubic equation2 say that such an equation1 if it can be reduced to the form #dx#c - #cx a1 is solvable by trisection--then the general cubic equation is solvable by trisection4 #ah4 ,a quartic equation is solvable by radicals1 and it is to be remarked that the existence of such a solution depends on the existence of #c-valued functions such as ab cd of the four roots 7a1 b1 c1 d73 by what precedes ab cd is the root of a cubic equation1 which equation is solvable by radicals3 hence ab cd can be found by radicals2 and since abcd is a given function1 ab and cd can then be found by radicals4 ,but by what precedes1 if ab be known then any similar function1 say a b1 is obtainable rationally2 and then from the values of a b and ab we may by radicals obtain the value of a or b1 that is1 an expression for the root of the given quartic equation3 the expression ultimately obtained is #d-valued1 corresponding to the different values of the several radicals which enter therein1 and we have thus the expression by radicals of each of the four roots of the quartic equation4 ,but when the quartic is numerical the same thing happens as in the cubic1 and the algebraical solution does not in every case give the numerical one4 ,it will be understood from the foregoing explanation as to the quartic how in the next following case1 that of the quintic1 the question of the solvability by radicals depends on the existence or non-existence of k-valued functions of the five roots 7a1 b1 c1 d1 e72 the fundamental theorem is the one already stated1 a rational function of five letters1 if it has less than #e1 cannot have more than #b values1 that is1 there are no #c-valued or #d-valued functions of #e letters3 and by reasoning depending in part upon this theorem1 ,n4,h4 ,abel 7#ahbd7 showed that a general quintic equation is not solvable by radicals2 and a fortiori the general equation of any order higher than #e is not solvable by radicals4 #ai4 ,the general theory of the solvability of an equation by radicals depends fundamentally on ,a4,t4 ,vandermonde's remark 7#aggj7 that1 supposing an equation is solvable by radicals1 and that we have therefore an algebraical expression of x in terms of the coefficients1 then substituting for the coefficients their values in terms of the roots1 the resulting expression must reduce itself to any one at pleasure of the roots a1 b1 c 4442 thus in the case of the quadric equation1 in the expression x #a_/bp root7p#b - #dq71 substituting for p and q their values1 and observing that 7a b7#b - #d;ab 7a - b7#b1 this becomes x #a_/b;a b root7a - b7#b1 the value being a or b according as the radical is taken to be 7a - b7 or -7a - b74 ,so in the cubic equation x#c - px#b qx - r #j1 if the roots are a1 b1 c1 and if omega is used to denote an imaginary cube root of unity1 omega#b omega #a #j1 then writing for shortness p a b c1 ,l a omegab omega#b c1 ,m a omega#b b omegac1 it is at once seen that ,,lm1 ,l#c ,m#c1 and therefore also 7,l#c - ,m#c7b are symmetrical functions of the roots1 and consequently rational functions of the coefficients3 hence #a_/b,l#c ,m#c root7,l#c - ,m#c7b is a rational function of the coefficients1 which when these are replaced by their values as functions of the roots becomes1 according to the sign given to the quadric radical1 ,l#c or ,m#c2 taking it ,l#c1 the cube root of the expression has the three values ,l1 omega,l1 omega#b ,l2 and ,,lm divided by the same cube root has therefore the values ,m1 omega#b,m1 omega,m2 whence finally the expression 7#a_/c7p root #ca_/b7,l#c ,m#c root7,l#c - ,m#c7b7 ,,lm _/ root #ca_/b,l#c ,m#c root7,l#c - ,m#c7b has the three values 7#a_/c77p ,l ,m71 7#a_/c77p omega,l omega#b ,m71 7#a_/c77p omega#b ,l omega,m72 that is1 these are a1 b1 c respectively4 ,if the value ,m#c had been taken instead of ,l#c1 then the expression would have had the same three values a1 b1 c4 ,comparing the solution given for the cubic x#c qx - r #j1 it will readily be seen that the two solutions are identical1 and that the function r#b - 7#d_/bg7q#c under the radical sign must 7by aid of the relation p #j which subsists in this case7 reduce itself to 7,l#c - ,m#c7b2 it is only by each radical being equal to a rational function of the roots that the final expression can become equal to the roots a1 b1 c respectively4 #bj4 ,the formulae for the cubic were obtained by ,j4,l4 ,lagrange 7#aggj-agga7 from a different point of view4 ,upon examining and comparing the principal known methods for the solution of algebraical equations1 he found that they all ultimately depended upon finding a resolvent equation of which the root is a omegab omega#b c omega#c d 4441 omega being an imaginary root of unity1 of the same order as the equation2 e4g4 for the cubic the root is a omegab omega#b c1 omega an imaginary cube root of unity4 ,evidently the method gives for ,l#c a quadric equation1 which is the resolvent equation in this particular case4 ,for a quartic the formulae present themselves in a somewhat different form1 by reason that #d is not a prime number4 ,attempting to apply it to a quintic1 we seek for the equation of which the root is 7a omegab omega#b c omega#c d omega#d e71 omega an imaginary fifth root of unity1 or rather the fifth power thereof 7a omegab omega#b c omega#c;d omega#d e7#e2 this is a #bd-valued function1 but if we consider the four values corresponding to the roots of unity omega1 omega#b1 omega#c1 omega#d1 viz4 the values 7a omegab omega#b c omega#c d omega#d e7#e1 7a omega#b b omega#d c omegad omega#c;e7#e1 7a omega#c b omegac omega#d d omega#b;e7#e1 7a omega#d b omega#c c omega#b d omegae7#e1 any symmetrical function of these1 for instance their sum1 is a #f-valued function of the roots1 and may therefore be determined by means of a sextic equation1 the coefficients whereof are rational functions of the coefficients of the original quintic equation2 the conclusion being that the solution of an equation of the fifth order is made to depend upon that of an equation of the sixth order4 ,this is1 of course1 useless for the solution of the quintic equation1 which1 as already mentioned1 does not admit of solution by radicals2 but the equation of the sixth order1 ,lagrange's resolvent sextic1 is very important1 and is intimately connected with all the later investigations in the theory4 #ba4 ,it is to be remarked1 in regard to the question of solvability by radicals1 that not only the coefficients are taken to be arbitrary1 but it is assumed that they are represented each by a single letter1 or say rather that they are not so expressed in terms of other arbitrary quantities as to make a solution possible4 ,if the coefficients are not all arbitrary1 for instance1 if some of them are zero1 a sextic equation might be of the form x#f bx#d cx#b d #j1 and so be solvable as a cubic2 or if the coefficients of the sextic are given functions of the six arbitrary quantities a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 such that the sextic is really of the form 7x#b ax b77x#d cx#c dx#b ex f7 #j1 then it breaks up into the equations x#b ax b #j1 x#d cx#c dx#b ex f #j1 and is consequently solvable by radicals2 so also if the form is 7x -a77x - b77x - c77x - d77x - e77x - f7 #j1 then the equation is solvable by radicals1--in this extreme case rationally4 ,such cases of solvability are self-evident2 but they are enough to show that the general theorem of the non-solvability by radicals of an equation of the fifth or any higher order does not in any wise exclude for such orders the existence of particular equations solvable by radicals1 and there are1 in fact1 extensive classes of equations which are thus solvable2 the binomial equations xn - #a #j present an instance4 #bb4 ,it has already been shown how the several roots of the equation xn - #a #j can be expressed in the form cos #bspi_/n i sin #bspi_/n1 but the question is now that of the algebraical solution 7or solution by radicals7 of this equation4 ,there is always a root #a2 if omega be any other root1 then obviously omega1 omega#b1 444 omega7n - #a7 are all of them roots2 xn - #a contains the factor x - #a1 and it thus appears that omega1 omega#b1 444 omega7n - #a7 are the n - #a roots of the equation x7n - #a7 x7n - #b7 444 x #a #j2 we have1 of course1 omega7n - #a7 omega7n - #b7 444 omega #a #j4 ,it is proper to distinguish the cases n prime and n composite2 and in the latter case there is a distinction according as the prime factors of n are simple or multiple4 ,by way of illustration1 suppose successively n #ae and n #i2 in the former case1 if alpha be an imaginary root of x#c - #a #j 7or root of x#b x #a #j71 and beta an imaginary root of x#e - #a #j 7or root of x#d x#c x#b x #a #j71 then omega may be taken alphabeta2 the successive powers thereof1 alphabeta1 alpha#b beta#b1 beta#c1 alphabeta#d1 alpha#b1 beta1 alphabeta#b1 alpha#b;beta#c1 beta#d1 alpha1 alpha#b beta1 beta#b1 alphabeta#c1 alpha#b beta#d1 are the roots of x#ad x#ac 444 x #a #j2 the solution thus depends on the solution of the equations x#c - #a #j and x#e - #a #j4 ,in the latter case1 if alpha be an imaginary root of x#c - #a #j 7or root of x#b x #a #j71 then the equation x#i - #a #j gives x#c #a1 alpha1 or alpha#b2 x#c #a gives x #a1 alpha1 or alpha#b2 and the solution thus depends on the solution of the equations x#c - #a #j1 x#c - alpha #j1 x#c - alpha#b #j4 ,the first equation has the roots #a1 alpha1 alpha#b2 if beta be a root of either of the others1 say if beta#c alpha1 then assuming omega beta1 the successive powers are beta1 beta#b1 alpha1 alphabeta1 alphabeta#b1 alpha#b1 alpha#b;beta1 alpha#b beta#b1 which are the roots of the equation x#h x#g 444 x #a #j4 ,it thus appears that the only case which need be considered is that of n a prime number1 and writing 7as is more usual7 r in place of omega1 we have r1 r#b1 r#c1 444 r7n - #a7 as the 7n - #a7 roots of the reduced equation x7n - #a7 x7n - #b7 444 x #a #j2 then not only rn - #a #j1 but also r7n - #a7 r7n - #b7 444 r #a #j4 #bc4 ,the process of solution due to ,karl ,friedrich ,gauss 7#ahja7 depends essentially on the arrangement of the roots in a certain order1 viz4 not as above1 with the indices of r in arithmetical progression1 but with their indices in geometrical progression2 the prime number n has a certain number of prime roots g1 which are such that g7n - #a7 is the lowest power of g1 which is equivalent to #a to the modulus n2 or1 what is the same thing1 that the series of powers #a1 g1 g#b1 444 g7n - #b71 each divided by n1 leave 7in a different order7 the remainders #a1 #b1 #c1 444 n - #a2 hence giving to r in succession the indices #a1 g1 g#b1 444 g7n - #b71 we have1 in a different order1 the whole series of roots r1 r#b1 r#c1 444 r7n - #a74 ,in the most simple case1 n #e1 the equation to be solved is x#d x#c x#b x #a #j2 here #b is a prime root of #e1 and the order of the roots is r1 r#b1 r#d1 r#c4 ,the ,gaussian process consists in forming an equation for determining the periods ,p#a1 ,p#b1 r r#d and r#b r#c respectively2--these being such that the symmetrical functions ,p#a ,p#b1 ,p#a,p#b are rationally determinable3 in fact ,p#a ,p#b -#a1 ,p#a,p#b 7r r#d77r#b r#c71 r#c r#d r#f r#g1 r#c r#d r r#b1 -#a4 ,p#a1 ,p#b are thus the roots of u#b u - #a #j2 and taking them to be known1 they are themselves broken up into subperiods1 in the present case single terms1 r and r#d for ,p#a1 r#b and r#c for ,p#b2 the symmetrical functions of these are then rationally determined in terms of ,p#a and ,p#b2 thus r r#d ,p#a1 r4r#d #a1 or r1 r#d are the roots of u#b - ,p#au #a #j4 ,the mode of division is more clearly seen for a larger value of n2 thus1 for n #g a prime root is #c1 and the arrangement of the roots is r1 r#c1 r#b1 r#f1 r#d1 r#e4 ,we may form either #c periods each of #b terms1 ,p#a1 ,p#b1 ,p#c r r#f1 r#c r#d1 r#b r#e respectively2 or else #b periods each of #c terms1 ,p#a1 ,p#b r r#b r#d1 r#c r#f r#e respectively2 in each ease the symmetrical functions of the periods are rationally determinable3 thus in the case of the two periods ,p#a ,p#b -#a1 ,p#a,p#b #c r r#b r#c r#d r#e r#f1 #b2 and the periods being known the symmetrical functions of the several terms of each period are rationally determined in terms of the periods1 thus r r#b r#d ,p#a1 r4r#b r4r#d r#b4r#d ,p#b1 r4r#b4r#d #a4 ,the theory was further developed by ,lagrange 7#ahjh71 who1 applying his general process to the equation in question1 x7n - #a7 x7n - #b7 444 x #a #j 7the roots a1 b1 c 444 being the several powers of r1 the indices in geometrical progression as above71 showed that the function 7a omegab omega#b c 44477n - #a7 was in this case a given function of omega with integer coefficients4 ,reverting to the before-mentioned particular equation x#d x#c x#b x #a #j1 it is very interesting to compare the process of solution with that for the solution of the general quartic the roots whereof are a1 b1 c1 d4 ,take omega1 a root of the equation omega#d - #a #j 7whence omega is #a1 -#a1 i1 or -i1 at pleasure71 and consider the expression 7a omegab omega#b c omega#c d7#d1 the developed value of this is a#d b#d c#d d#d #f7;a#b c#b b#b d#b7 #ab7;a#b bd b#b ca c#b db d#b;ac7 omega #d7;a#c b b#c c c#c d#c a7 #ab7;a#b cd b#b da c#b ab d#b bc7 omega#bf7;a#b b#b b#b c#b c#b d#b d#b a#b7 #d7;a#c c b#c d c#c a d#c b7 #bd;abcd omega#cd7;a#c d b#c a c#c b d#c c7 #ab7;a#b bc b#b cd c#b da d#b ab7 that is1 this is a #f-valued function of a1 b1 c1 d1 the root of a sextic 7which is1 in fact1 solvable by radicals2 but this is not here material74 ,if1 however1 a1 b1 c1 d denote the roots r1 r#b1 r#d1 r#c of the special equation1 then the expression becomes r#d r#c r r#b #f7a #a7ab7r#b r#d r#c r7 omega #d7a #a #a #a7 #ab7r#d r#c r r#b7 omega#bf7r r#b r#d r#c7 #d7r#b r#d r#c r7 omega#cd7r r#b r#d r#c7 #ab7r#c r r#b r#d7 viz4 this is -#a #domega #adomega#b - #afomega#c1 a completely determined value4 ,that is1 we have 7r omegar#b omega#b r#d omega#c r#c7 -#a #domega #adomega#b - #afomega#c1 which result contains the solution of the equation4 ,if omega #a1 we have 7r r#b r#d r#c7d #a1 which is right2 if omega -#a1 then 7r r#d - r#b - r#c7d #be2 if omega i1 then we have r - r#d i7r#b - r#c7d -#ae #bj;i2 and if omega -i1 then r - r#d - i7r#b - r#c7d -#ae - #bj;i2 the solution may be completed without difficulty4 ,the result is perfectly general1 thus3--n being a prime number1 r a root of the equation x7n - #a7 x7n - #b7 444 x #a #j1 omega a root of omega7n - #a7 - #a #j1 and g a prime root of g7n - #a7 equivalent #a 7mod4 n71 then r omegarg 444 omega7n - #b7 rg7n - #b77n - #a7 is a given function ,m#j ,m#aomega 444 ,m7n - #b7omega7n - #b7 with integer coefficients1 and by the extraction of 7n - #a7th roots of this and similar expressions we ultimately obtain r in terms of omega1 which is taken to be known2 the equation xn - #a #j1 n a prime number1 is thus solvable by radicals4 ,in particular1 if n - #a be a power of #b1 the solution 7by either process7 requires the extraction of square roots only2 and it was thus that ,gauss discovered that it was possible to construct geometrically the regular polygons of #ag sides and #beg sides respectively4 ,some interesting developments in regard to the theory were obtained by ,c4,g4,j4 ,jacobi 7#ahcg72 see the memoir ,ueber die ,kreistheilung1 u4s4w41 ,crelle1 t4 xxx4 7#ahdf74 ,the equation x7n - #a7 444 x #a #j has been considered for its own sake1 but it also serves as a specimen of a class of equations solvable by radicals1 considered by ,n4,h4 ,abel 7#ahbh71 and since called ,abelian equations1 viz4 for the ,abelian equation of the order n1 if x be any root1 the roots are x1 thetax1 theta#b x1 444 theta7n - #a7x 7thetax being a rational function of x1 and thetanx x72 the theory is1 in fact1 very analogous to that of the above particular case4 ,a more general theorem obtained by ,abel is as follows3--,if the roots of an equation of any order are connected together in such wise that all the roots can be expressed rationally in terms of any one of them1 say x2 if1 moreover1 thetax1 theta#ax being any two of the roots1 we have thetatheta#ax theta#athetax1 the equation will be solvable algebraically4 ,it is proper to refer also to ,abel's definition of an irreducible equation3--an equation phix #j1 the coefficients of which are rational functions of a certain number of known quantities a1 b1 c 4441 is called irreducible when it is impossible to express its roots by an equation of an inferior degree1 the coefficients of which are also rational functions of a1 b1 c 444 7or1 what is the same thing1 when phix does not break up into factors which are rational functions of a1 b1 c 44474 ,abel applied his theory to the equations which present themselves in the division of the elliptic functions1 but not to the modular equations4 #bd4 ,but the theory of the algebraical solution of equations in its most complete form was established by ,evariste ,galois 7born ,october #ahaa1 killed in a duel ,may #ahcb2 see his collected works1 ,liouville1 t4 xl41 #ahdf74 ,the definition of an irreducible equation resembles ,abel's1--an equation is reducible when it admits of a rational divisor1 irreducible in the contrary case2 only the word rational is used in this extended sense that1 in connexion with the coefficients of the given equation1 or with the irrational quantities 7if any7 whereof these are composed1 he considers any number of other irrational quantities called adjoint radicals1 and he terms rational any rational function of the coefficients 7or the irrationals whereof they are composed7 and of these adjoint radicals2 the epithet irreducible is thus taken either absolutely or in a relative sense1 according to the system of adjoint radicals which are taken into account4 ,for instance1 the equation x#d x#c x#b x #a #j2 the left hand side has here no rational divisor1 and the equation is irreducible2 but this function is 7x#b #a_/b x #a7b -7#e_/d7x#b1 and it has thus the irrational divisors x#b #a_/b7a root#e7x #a1 x#b #a_/b7a - root#e7x #a2 and these1 if we adjoin the radical root#e1 are rational1 and the equation is no longer irreducible4 ,in the case of a given equation1 assumed to be irreducible1 the problem to solve the equation is1 in fact1 that of finding radicals by the adjunction of which the equation becomes reducible2 for instance1 the general quadric equation x#b px q #j is irreducible1 but it becomes reducible1 breaking up into rational linear factors1 when we adjoin the radical root7#a_/d p#b - q74 ,the fundamental theorem is the ,proposition ,i4 of the ,memoire sur les conditions de resolubilite des equations par radicaux2 viz4 given an equation of which a1 b1 c 444 are the m roots1 there is always a group of permutations of the letters a1 b1 c 444 possessed of the following properties3-- #a4 ,every function of the roots invariable by the substitutions of the group is rationally known4 #b4 ,reciprocally every rationally determinable function of the roots is invariable by the substitutions of the group4 ,here by an invariable function is meant not only a function of which the form is invariable by the substitutions of the group1 but further1 one of which the value is invariable by these substitutions3 for instance1 if the equation be phi7x7 #j1 then phi7x7 is a function of the roots invariable by any substitution whatever4 ,and in saying that a function is rationally known1 it is meant that its value is expressible rationally in terms of the coefficients and of the adjoint quantities4 ,for instance in the case of a general equation1 the group is simply the system of the #a4b4c 444 n permutations of all the roots1 since1 in this case1 the only rationally determinable functions are the symmetric functions of the roots4 ,in the case of the equation x7n - #a7 444 x #a #j1 n a prime number1 a1 b1 c 444 k r1 rg1 rg#b 444 rg7n - #b71 where g is a prime root of n1 then the group is the cyclical group abc 444 k1 bc 444 ka1 444 kab 444 j1 that is1 in this particular case the number of the permutations of the group is equal to the order of the equation4 ,this notion of the group of the original equation1 or of the group of the equation as varied by the adjunction of a series of radicals1 seems to be the fundamental one in ,galois's theory4 ,but the problem of solution by radicals1 instead of being the sole object of the theory1 appears as the first link of a long chain of questions relating to the transformation and classification of irrationals4 ,returning to the question of solution by radicals1 it will be readily understood that by the adjunction of a radical the group may be diminished2 for instance1 in the case of the general cubic1 where the group is that of the six permutations1 by the adjunction of the square root which enters into the solution1 the group is reduced to abc1 bca1 cab2 that is1 it becomes possible to express rationally1 in terms of the coefficients and of the adjoint square root1 any function such as a#b b b#b c c#b a which is not altered by the cyclical substitution a into b1 b into c1 c into a4 ,and hence1 to determine whether an equation of a given form is solvable by radicals1 the course of investigation is to inquire whether1 by the successive adjunction of radicals1 it is possible to reduce the original group of the equation so as to make it ultimately consist of a single permutation4 ,the condition in order that an equation of a given prime order n may be solvable by radicals was in this way obtained--in the first instance in the form 7scarcely intelligible without further explanation7 that every function of the roots x#a1 x#b 444 xn1 invariable by the substitutions x7ak b7 for xk1 must be rationally known2 and then in the equivalent form that the resolvent equation of the order #a4b 444 7n - #b7 must have a rational root4 ,in particular1 the condition in order that a quintic equation may be solvable is that ,lagrange's resolvent of the order #f may have a rational factor1 a result obtained from a direct investigation in a valuable memoir by ,e4 ,luther1 ,crelle1 t4 xxxiv4 7#ahdg74 ,among other results demonstrated or announced by ,galois may be mentioned those relating to the modular equations in the theory of elliptic functions2 for the transformations of the orders #e1 #g1 #aa1 the modular equations of the orders #f1 #h1 #ab are depressible to the orders #e1 #g1 #aa respectively2 but for the transformation1 n a prime number greater than #aa1 the depression is impossible4 ,the general theory of ,galois in regard to the solution of equations was completed1 and some of the demonstrations supplied by ,e4 ,betti 7#aheb74 ,see also ,j4,a4 ,serret's ,cours d'algebre superieure1 #bnd ed4 7#ahed72 #dth ed4 7#ahgg-ahgh74 #be4 ,returning to quintic equations1 ,george ,birch ,jerrard 7#ahce7 established the theorem that the general quintic equation is by the extraction of only square and cubic roots reducible to the form x#e ax b #j1 or what is the same thing1 to x#e x b #j4 ,the actual reduction by means of ,tschirnhausen's theorem was effected by ,charles ,hermite in connexion with his elliptic-function solution of the quintic equation 7#aheh7 in a very elegant manner4 ,it was shown by ,sir ,james ,cockle and ,robert ,harley 7#aheh-ahei7 in connexion with the ,jerrardian form1 and by ,arthur ,cayley 7#ahfa71 that ,lagrange's resolvent equation of the sixth order can be replaced by a more simple sextic equation occupying a like place in the theory4 ,the theory of the modular equations1 more particularly for the case n #e1 has been studied by ,c4 ,hermite1 ,l4 ,kronecker and ,f4 ,brioschi4 ,in the case n #e1 the modular equation of the order #f depends1 as already mentioned1 on an equation of the order #e2 and conversely the general quintic equation may be made to depend upon this modular equation of the order #f2 that is1 assuming the solution of this modular equation1 we can solve 7not by radicals7 the general quintic equation2 this is ,hermite's solution of the general quintic equation by elliptic functions 7#aheh72 it is analogous to the before-mentioned trigonometrical solution of the cubic equation4 ,the theory is reproduced and developed in ,brioschi's memoir1 ,uber die ,auflosung der ,gleichungen vom funften ,grade1 ,math4 ,annalen1 t4 xiii4 7#ahgg-ahgh74 #bf4 ,the modern work1 reproducing the theories of ,galois1 and exhibiting the theory of algebraic equations as a whole1 is ,c4 ,jordan's ,traite des substitutions et des equations algebriques 7,paris1 #ahgj74 ,the work is divided into four books--book i41 preliminary1 relating to the theory of congruences2 book ii4 is in two chapters1 the first relating to substitutions in general1 the second to substitutions defined analytically1 and chiefly to linear substitutions2 book iii4 has four chapters1 the first discussing the principles of the general theory1 the other three containing applications to algebra1 geometry1 and the theory of transcendents2 lastly1 book iv41 divided into seven chapters1 contains a determination of the general types of equations solvable by radicals1 and a complete system of classification of these types4 ,a glance through the index will show the vast extent which the theory has assumed1 and the form of general conclusions arrived at2 thus1 in book iii41 the algebraical applications comprise ,abelian equations1 equations of ,galois2 the geometrical ones comprise ,q4 ,hesse's equation1 ,r4,f4,a4 ,clebsch's equations1 lines on a quartic surface having a nodal line1 singular points of ,e4,e4 ,kummer's surface1 lines on a cubic surface1 problems of contact2 the applications to the theory of transcendents comprise circular functions1 elliptic functions 7including division and the modular equation71 hyperelliptic functions1 solution of equations by transcendents4 ,and on this last subject1 solution of equations by transcendents1 we may quote the result--the solution of the general equation of an order superior to five cannot be made to depend upon that of the equations for the division of the circular or elliptic functions2 and again 7but with a reference to a possible case of exception71 the general equation cannot be solved by aid of the equations which give the division of the hyperelliptic functions into an odd number of parts4 7,see also ,,groups1 ,,theory ,,of47 7,a4 ,ca47 ,,bibliography4--,for the general theory see ,w4,s4 ,burnside and ,a4,w4 ,panton1 ,the ,theory of ,equations 7#dth ed41 #ahii-aija72 the ,galoisian theory is treated in ,g4,b4 ,matthews1 ,algebraic ,equations 7#aijg74 ,see also the ,ency4 d4 math4 ,wiss4 vol4 ii4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the coefficients were selected so that the roots might be nearly #a1 #b1 #c4 #b ,the third edition 7#ahbf7 is a reproduction of that of #ahjh2 the first edition has the date #agih1 but a large part of the contents is taken from memoirs of #agfg-agfh and #aggj-agga4 #c ,the earlier demonstrations by ,euler1 ,lagrange1 c1 relate to the case of a numerical equation with real coefficients2 and they consist in showing that such equation has always a real quadratic divisor1 furnishing two roots1 which are either real or else conjugate imaginaries alpha betai 7see ,lagrange's ,equations numeriques74 #d ,the square root of alpha betai can be determined by the extraction of square roots of positive real numbers1 without the trigonometrical tables4 ,,equation ,,of ,,the ,,centre1 in astronomy1 the angular distance1 measured around the centre of motion1 by which a planet moving in an ellipse deviates from the mean position which it would occupy if it moved uniformly4 ,its amount is the correction which must be applied positively or negatively to the mean anomaly in order to obtain the true anomaly4 ,it arises from the ellipticity of the orbit1 is zero at pericentre and apocentre1 and reaches its greatest amount nearly midway between these points4 7,see ,,anomaly and ,,orbit47 ,,equation ,,of ,,time1 the difference between apparent time1 determined by the meridian passage of the real sun1 and mean time1 determined by the passage of the mean sun4 ,it goes through a double period in the course of a year4 ,its amount varies a fraction of a minute for the same date1 from year to year and from one longitude to another1 on the same day4 ,the following table shows an average value for any date and for the ,greenwich meridian for a number of years1 from which the actual value will seldom deviate more than #bj seconds until after #aiej4 ,the sign indicates that the real sun reaches the meridian after mean noon2 the - sign before mean noon4 ,table of the ,equation of ,time4 m4 s4 m4 s4 m4 s4 ,jan4 #a #c #bf ,mar4 #a #ab #ci ,may #a -#b #ee #f #e #de #f #aa #ce #f -#c #bg #aa #g #ea #aa #aj #bj #aa -#c #df #af #i #dc #af #h #eh #af -#c #ea #ba #aa #ai #ba #g #cj #ba -#c #dj #bf #ab #cf #bf #e #ei #bf -#c #af ,feb4 #a #ac #db ,apr4 #a #d #i ,june #a -#b #cb #f #ad #ad #f #b #dj #f -#a #dd #aa #ad #be #aa #a #ae #aa -#j #dh #af #ad #ag #af -#j #c #af #j #ad #ba #ac #eb #ba -#a #ab #ba #a #ai #bf #ac #aa #bf -#b #aj #bf #b #bd ,july #a #c #bf ,sept4 #a #j #i ,nov4 #a -#af #ah #f #d #ba #f -#a #bh #f -#af #ai #aa #e #h #aa -#c #aj #aa -#ae #eh #af #e #dd #af -#d #ee #af -#ae #ae #ba #f #h #ba -#f #da #ba -#ad #ab #bf #f #ah #bf -#h #be #bf -#ab #di ,aug4 #a #f #aj ,oct4 #a -#aj #e ,dec4 #a -#aa #g #f #e #dg #f -#aa #ch #f - #i #i #aa #e #i #aa -#ac #b #aa - #f #eg #af #d #ag #af -#ad #ad #af - #d #ce #ba #c #ab #ba -#ae #aa #ba - #b #g #bf #a #ee #bf -#ae #eb #bf #j #bc ,,equator 7,late ,lat4 aequator1 from aequare1 to make equal71 in geography1 that great circle of the earth1 equidistant from the two poles1 which divides the northern from the southern hemisphere and lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the earth2 this is termed the geographical or terrestrial equator4 ,in astronomy1 the celestial equator is the name given to the great circle in which the plane of the terrestrial equator intersects the celestial sphere2 it is consequently equidistant from the celestial poles4 ,the magnetic equator is an imaginary line encircling the earth1 along which the vertical component of the earth's magnetic force is zero2 it nearly coincides with the terrestrial equator4 ,,equerry 7from the ,fr4 ecurie1 a stable1 through its older form escurie1 from the ,med4 ,lat4 scuria1 a word of ,teutonic origin for a stable or shed1 cf4 ,ger4 ,scheuer2 the modern spelling has confused the word with the ,lat4 equus1 a horse71 a contracted form of gentleman of the equerry1 an officer in charge of the stables of a royal household4 ,at the ,british court1 equerries are officers attached to the department of the master of the horse1 the first of whom is called chief equerry 7see ,,household1 ,,royal74 ,,equidae1 the family of perissodactyle ungulate mammals typified by the horse 7,equus caballus72 see ,,horse4 ,according to the older classification this family was taken to include only the forms with tall-crowned teeth1 more or less closely allied to the typical genus ,equus4 ,there is1 however1 such an almost complete graduation from the former to earlier and more primitive mammals with short-crowned cheek-teeth1 at one time included in the family ,lophiodontidae 7see ,,perissodactyla71 that it has now become a very general practice to include the whole phylum in the family ,equidae4 ,the ,equidae1 in this extended sense1 together with the extinct ,palaeotheriidae1 are indeed now regarded as forming one of four main groups into which the ,perissodactyla are divided1 the other groups being the ,tapiroidea1 ,rhinocerotoidea and ,titanotheriide4 ,for the horse-group the name ,hippoidea is employed4 ,all four groups were closely connected in the ,lower ,eocene1 so that exact definition is almost impossible4 ,in the ,hippoidea there is generally the full series of #dd teeth1 but the first premolar is often deciduous or wanting in the lower or in both jaws4 ,the incisors are chisel-shaped1 and the canines tend to become isolated so as in the now specialized forms to occupy nearly the middle of a longer or shorter gap between the incisors and premolars4 ,in the upper molars the two outer columns of the primitive tubercular molar coalesce to form an outer wall1 from which proceed two crescentic transverse crests2 the connexion between the crests and the wall being imperfect or slight1 and the crests themselves sometimes tubercular4 ,each of the lower molars carries two crescentic ridges4 ,the number of toes ranges from four to one in the fore-foot1 and from three to one in the hind-foot4 ,the paroccipital1 postglenoid and post-tympanic processes of the skull are large1 and the latter always distinct4 ,normally there are no traces of horn-cores4 ,the calcaneum lacks the facet for the fibula found in the ,titanotheroidea4 ,in the earlier ,equidae the teeth were short-crowned1 with the premolars simpler than the molars2 but there is a gradual tendency to an increase in the height of the crowns of the teeth1 accompanied by increasing complexity of structure and the filling up of the hollows with cement4 ,similarly the gap on each side of the canine tooth in each jaw continues to increase in length2 while in all the later forms the orbit is surrounded by a ring of bone4 ,a third modification is the increasing length of limb 7as well as in general bodily size71 accompanied by a gradual reduction in the number of toes from three or four to one4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;a1 ,side view of second upper molar tooth of ,anchitherium 7brachyodont form72 b1 corresponding tooth of horse 7hypsidont form74 ,all the existing members of the family1 such as the domesticated horse 7,equus caballus7 and its wild or half-wild relatives1 the asses and the zebras1 are included in the typical genus4 ,in all these the crowns of the cheek-teeth are very tall 7fig4 #a1 b7 and only develop roots late in life2 while their grinding-surfaces 7fig4 #b1 b and c7 are very complicated and have all the hollows filled with cement4 ,the summits of the incisors are infolded1 producing1 when partially worn1 the mark4 ,in the skull the orbit is surrounded by bone1 and there is no distinct depression in front of the same4 ,each limb terminates in one large toe2 the lateral digits being represented by the splint-bones1 corresponding to the lateral metacarpals and metatarsals of ,hipparion4 ,not unfrequently1 however1 the lower ends of the splint-bones carry a small expansion1 representing the phalanges4 ,remains of horses indistinguishable from ,e4 caballus occur in the ,pleistocene deposits of ,europe and ,asia2 and it is from them that the dun-coloured small horses of northern ,europe and ,asia are probably derived4 ,the ancestor of these ,pleistocene horses is probably ,e4 stenonis1 of the ,upper ,pliocene of ,europe1 which has a small depression in front of the orbit1 while the skull is relatively larger1 the feet are rather shorter1 and the splint-bones somewhat more developed4 ,in ,india a nearly allied species 7,e4 sivalensis71 occurs in the ,lower ,pliocene1 and may have been the ancestor of the ,arab stock1 which shows traces of the depression in front of the orbit characteristic of the earlier forms4 ,in ,north ,america species of ,equus occur in the ,pleistocene and from that continent others reached ,south ,america during the same epoch4 ,in the latter country occurs ,hippidium1 in which the cheek-teeth are shorter and simpler1 and the nasal bones very long and slender1 with elongated slits at the side4 ,the limbs1 especially the cannon-bones1 are relatively short1 and the splint-bones large4 ,the allied ,argentine ,onohippidium1 which is also ,pleistocene1 has still longer nasal bones and slits1 and a deep double cavity in front of the orbit1 part of which probably contained a gland4 ,onohippidium is certainly off the direct line of descent of the modern horses1 and1 on account of the length of the nasals and their slits1 the same probably holds good for ,hippidium4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;a1 ,grinding surface of unworn right upper molar tooth of ,anchitherium2 b1 corresponding surface of unworn molar of young horse2 c1 the same tooth after it has been some time in use4 ,the uncoloured portions are the dentine or ivory1 the shaded parts the cement filling the cavities and surrounding the exterior4 ,the black line separating these two structures is the enamel or hardest constituent of the tooth4 ,species from the ,pliocene of ,texas and the ,upper ,miocene 7,loup ,fork7 of ,oregon were at one time assigned to ,hippidium1 but this is incorrect1 that genus being exclusively ,south ,american4 ,the name ,pliohippus has been applied to species from the same two formations on the supposition that the foot-structure was similar to that of ,hippidium1 but ,mr ,j4,w4 ,gidley is of opinion that the lateral digits may have been fully developed4 ,apparently there is here some gap in the line of descent of the horse1 and it may be suggested that the evolution took place1 not as commonly supposed1 in ,north ,america1 but in eastern central ,asia1 of which the palaeontology is practically unknown2 some support is given to this theory by the fact that the earliest species with which we are acquainted occur in northern ,india4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,successive stages of modification of the left fore-feet of extinct forms of horse-like animals1 showing gradual reduction of the outer and enlargement of the middle toe 7,,iii74 a1 ,hyracotherium 7,eocene74 b1 ,mesohippus 7,oligocene74 c1 ,anchitherium 7,miocene74 d1 ,hipparion 7,pliocene74 e1 ,equus 7,pleistocene74 ,be this as it may1 the next ,north ,american representatives of the family constitute the genera ,protohippus and ,merychippus of the ,miocene1 in both of which the lateral digits are fully developed and terminate in small though perfect hoofs4 ,in both the cheek-teeth have moderately tall crowns1 and in the first named of the two those of the milk-series are nearly similar to their permanent successors4 ,in ,merychippus1 on the other hand1 the milk-molars have short crowns1 without any cement in the hollows1 thus resembling the permanent molars of the under-mentioned genus ,anchitherium4 ,from the well-known ,hipparion1 or ,hippotherium1 typically from the ,lower ,pliocene of ,europe1 but also occurring in the corresponding formation in ,north ,africa1 ,persia1 ,india and ,china1 and represented in the ,upper ,miocene ,loup ,fork beds of the ,united ,states by species which it has been proposed to separate generically as ,neohipparion1 we reach small horses which are now generally regarded as a lateral offshoot from the ,merychippus type4 ,the cheek-teeth1 which have crowns of moderate height1 differ from those of all the foregoing in that the postero-internal pillar 7the projection on the right-hand top corner of c in fig4 #b7 is isolated in place of being attached by a narrow neck to the adjacent crescent4 ,the skull1 which is relatively short1 has a large depression in front of the orbit1 commonly supposed to have contained a gland1 but this may be doubtful4 ,in the typical1 and also in the ,north ,american forms these were complete1 although small1 lateral toes in both feet 7fig4 #c1 d71 but it is possible that in ,h4 antilopinum of ,india the lateral toes had disappeared4 ,if this be so1 we have the development of a monodactyle foot in this genus independently of ,equus4 ,the foregoing genera constitute the subfamily ,equinae1 or the ,equidae as restricted by the older writers4 ,in all the dentition is of the hypsodont type1 with the hollows of the cheek-teeth filled by cement1 the premolars molariform1 and the first small and generally deciduous4 ,the orbit is surrounded by a bony ring2 the ulna and radius in the fore1 and the tibia and fibula in the hind-limb are united1 and the feet are of the types described above4 ,between this subfamily and the second subfamily1 ,hyracotheriinae1 a partial connexion is formed by the ,north ,american ,upper ,miocene genera ,desmatippus and ,anchippus or ,parahippus4 ,the characteristics of the group will be gathered from the remarks on the leading genera2 but it may be mentioned that the orbit is open behind1 the cheek-teeth are short-crowned and without cement 7fig4 #a1 a71 the gap between the canine and the outermost incisor is short1 the bones of the middle part of the leg are separate1 and there are at least three toes to each foot4 ,the longest-known genus and the one containing the largest species is ,anchitherium1 typically from the ,middle ,miocene of ,europe1 but also represented by one species from the ,upper ,miocene of ,north ,america4 ,the ,european ,a4 aurelianense was of the size of an ordinary donkey4 ,the cheek-teeth are of the type shown in a of figs4 #a and #b2 the premolars1 with the exception of the small first one1 being molar-like2 and the lateral toes 7fig4 #c1 c7 were to some extent functional4 ,the summits of the incisors were infolded to a small extent4 ,nearly allied is the ,american ,mesohippus1 ranging from the ,lower ,miocene to the ,lower ,oligocene of the ,united ,states1 of which the earliest species stood only about #ah in4 at the shoulder4 ,the incisors were scarcely1 if at all1 infolded1 and there is a rudiment of the fifth metacarpal 7fig4 #c1 b74 ,by some writers all the species of ,mesohippus are included in the genus ,miohippus1 but others consider that the two genera are distinct4 ,mesohippus and ,miohippus are connected with the earliest and most primitive mammal which it is possible to include in the family ,equidae by means of ,epihippus of the ,uinta or ,upper ,eocene of ,north ,america1 and ,pachynolophus1 or ,orohippus1 of the ,middle and ,lower ,eocene of both halves of the northern hemisphere4 ,the final stage1 or rather the initial stage1 in the series is presented by ,hyracotherium 7,protorohippus71 a mammal no larger than a fox1 common to the ,lower ,eocene of ,europe and ,north ,america4 ,the general characteristics of this progenitor of the horses are those given above as distinctive of the group4 ,the cheek-teeth are1 however1 much simpler than those of ,anchitherium2 the transverse crests of the upper molars not being fully connected with the outer wall1 while the premolars in the upper jaw are triangular1 and thus unlike the molars4 ,the incisors are small and the canines scarcely enlarged2 the latter having a gap on each side in the lower1 but only one on their hinder aspect in the upper jaw4 ,the fore-feet have four complete toes 7fig4 #c1 a71 but there are only three hind-toes1 with a rudiment of the fifth metatarsal4 ,the vertebrae are simpler in structure than in ,equus4 ,from ,hyracotherium1 which is closely related to the ,eocene representatives of the ancestral stocks of the other three branches of the ,perissodactyla1 the transition is easy to ,phenacodus1 the representative of the common ancestor of all the ,ungulata4 ,see also ,h4,f4 ,osborn1 ,new ,oligocene ,horses1 ,bull4 ,amer4 ,mus4 vol4 xx4 p4 #afg 7#aijd72 ,j4,w4 ,gidley1 ,proper ,generic ,names of ,miocene ,horses1 p4 #aia2 and the article ,,palaeontology4 7,r4 ,l4997 ,,equilibrium 7from the ,lat4 aequus1 equal1 and libra1 a balance71 a condition of equal balance between opposite or counteracting forces4 ,by the sense of equilibrium is meant the sense1 or sensations1 by which we have a feeling of security in standing1 walking1 and indeed in all the movements by which the body is carried through space4 ,such a feeling of security is necessary both for maintaining any posture1 such as standing1 or for performing any movement4 ,if this feeling is absent or uncertain1 or if there are contradictory sensations1 then definite muscular movements are inefficiently or irregularly performed1 and the body may stagger or fall4 ,when we stand erect on a firm surface1 like a floor1 there is a feeling of resistance1 due to nervous impulses reaching the brain from the soles of the feet and from the muscles of the limbs and trunk4 ,in walking or running1 these feelings of resistance seem to precede and guide the muscular movements necessary for the next step4 ,if these are absent or perverted or deficient1 as is the case in the disease known as locomotor ataxia1 then1 although there is no loss of the power of voluntary movement1 the patient staggers in walking1 especially if he is not allowed to look at his feet1 or if he is blind-folded4 ,he misses the guiding sensations that come from the limbs2 and with a feeling that he is walking on a soft substance1 offering little or no resistance1 he staggers1 and his muscular movements become irregular4 ,such a condition maybe artificially brought about by washing the soles of the feet with chloroform or ether4 ,and it has been observed to exist partially after extensive destruction of the skin of the soles of the feet by burns or scalds4 ,this shows that tactile impulses from the skin take a share in generating the guiding sensation4 ,in the disease above mentioned1 however1 tactile impressions may be nearly normal1 but the guiding sensation is weak and inefficient1 owing to the absence of impulses from the muscles4 ,the disease is known to depend on morbid changes in the posterior columns of the spinal cord1 by which impulses are not freely transmitted upwards to the brain4 ,these facts point to the existence of impulses coming from the muscles and tendons4 ,it is now known that there exist peculiar spindles1 in muscle1 and rosettes or coils or loops of nerve fibres in close proximity to tendons4 ,these are the end organs of the sense4 ,the transmission of impulses gives rise to the muscular sense1 and the guiding sensation which precedes co-ordinated muscular movements depends on these impulses4 ,thus from the limbs streams of nervous impulses pass to the sensorium from the skin and from muscles and tendons2 these may or may not arouse consciousness1 but they guide or evoke muscular movements of a co-ordinated character1 more especially of the limbs4 ,in animals whose limbs are not adapted for delicate touch nor for the performance of complicated movements1 such as some mammals and birds and fishes1 the guiding sensations depend largely on the sense of vision4 ,this sense in man1 instead of assisting1 sometimes disturbs the guiding sensation4 ,it is true that in locomotor ataxia visual sensations may take the place of the tactile and muscular sensations that are inefficient1 and the man can walk without staggering if he is allowed to look at the floor1 and especially if he is guided by transverse straight lines4 ,on the other hand1 the acrobat on the wire-rope dare not trust his visual sensations in the maintenance of his equilibrium4 ,he keeps his eyes fixed on one point instead of allowing them to wander to objects below him1 and his muscular movements are regulated by the impulses that come from the skin and muscles of his limbs4 ,the feeling of insecurity probably arises from a conception of height1 and also from the knowledge that by no muscular movements can a man avoid a catastrophe if he should fall4 ,a bird1 on the other hand1 depends largely on visual impressions1 and it knows by experience that if launched into the air from a height it can fly4 ,here1 probably1 is an explanation of the large size of the eyes of birds4 ,cover the head1 as in hooding a falcon1 and the bird seems to be deprived of the power of voluntary movement4 ,little effect will be produced if we attempt to restrain the movements of a cat by covering its eyes4 ,a fish also is deprived of the power of motion if its eyes are covered4 ,but both in the bird and in the fish tactile and muscular impressions1 especially the latter1 come into play in the mechanism of equilibrium4 ,in flight the large-winged birds1 especially in soaring1 can feel the most delicate wind-pressures1 both as regards direction and force1 and they adapt the position of their body so as to catch the pressure at the most efficient angle4 ,the same is true of the fish1 especially of the flat-fishes4 ,in mammals the sense of equilibrium depends1 then1 on streams of tactile1 muscular and visual impressions pouring in on the sensorium1 and calling forth appropriate muscular movements4 ,it has also been suggested that impulses coming from the abdominal viscera may take part in the mechanism4 ,the presence in the mesentery of felines 7cats1 c47 of large numbers of ,pacinian corpuscles1 which are believed to be modified tactile bodies1 favours this supposition4 ,such animals are remarkable for the delicacy of such muscular movements1 as balancing and leaping4 ,there is another channel by which nervous impulses reach the sensorium and play their part in the sense of equilibrium1 namely1 from the semicircular canals1 a portion of the internal ear4 ,it is pointed out in the article ,,hearing that the appreciation of sound is in reality an appreciation of variations of pressure4 ,the labyrinth consists of the vestibule1 the cochlea and the semicircular canals4 ,the cochlea receives the sound-waves 7variations of pressure7 that constitute musical tones4 ,this it accomplishes by the structures in the ductus cochlearis4 ,in the vestibule we find two sacs1 the saccule next to and communicating with the ductus cochlearis1 and the utricle communicating with the semicircular canals4 ,the base of the stapes communicates pressures to the utricle4 ,the membranous portion of the semicircular canals consists of a tube1 dilated at one end into a swelling or pouch1 termed the ampulla1 and each end communicates freely with the utricle4 ,on the posterior wall of both the saccule and of the utricle there is a ridge1 termed in each case the macula acustica1 bearing a highly specialized epithelium4 ,a similar structure exists in each ampulla4 ,this would suggest that all three structures have to do with hearing2 but1 on the other hand1 there is experimental evidence that the utricle and the canals may transmit impressions that have to do with equilibrium4 ,pressure of the base of the stapes is exerted on the utricle4 ,this will compress the fluid in that cavity1 and tend to drive the fluid into the semicircular canals that communicate with that cavity by five openings4 ,each canal is surrounded by a thin layer of perilymph1 so that it may yield a little to this pressure1 and exert a pull or pressure on the nerve-endings in each ampulla4 ,thus impulses may be generated in the nerves of the ampullae4 ,the three semicircular canals lie in the three directions in space1 and it has been suggested that they have to do with our appreciation of the direction of sound4 ,but our appreciation of sound is very inaccurate3 we look with the eyes for the source of a sound1 and instinctively direct the ears or the head1 or both1 in the direction from which the sound appears to proceed4 ,but the relationship of the canals on the two sides must have a physiological significance4 ,thus 7#a7 the six canals are parallel1 two and two2 or 7#b7 the two horizontal canals are in the same plane1 while the superior canal on one side is nearly parallel with the posterior canal of the other4 ,these facts point to the two sets of canals and ampullae acting as one organ1 in a manner analogous to the action of two retinae for single vision4 ,we have next to consider how the canals may possibly act in connexion with the sense of equilibrium4 ,in #ahbj ,j4 ,purkinje studied the vertigo that follows rapid rotation of the body in the erect position on a vertical axis4 ,on stopping the rotation there is a sense of rotation in the opposite direction1 and this may occur even when the eyes are closed4 ,purkinje noticed that the position of the imaginary axis of rotation depends on the axis around which the head revolves4 ,in #ahbh ,m4,j4,p4 ,flourens discovered that injury to the canals causes disturbance to the equilibrium and loss of co-ordination1 and that sections of the canals produce a rotatory movement of a kind corresponding to the canal that had been divided4 ,thus division of a membranous canal causes rotatory movements round an axis at right angles to the plane of the divided canal4 ,the body of the animal always moves in the direction of the cut canal4 ,many other observers have corroborated these experiments4 ,f4 ,goltz was the first who formulated the conditions necessary for equilibration4 ,he put the matter thus3--7#a7 ,a central co-ordinating organ--in the brain2 7#b7 centripetal fibres1 with their peripheral terminations--in the ampullae2 and 7#c7 centrifugal fibres1 with their terminal organs--in the muscular mechanisms4 ,a lesion of any one of these portions of the mechanism causes loss or impairment of balancing4 ,cyon also investigated the subject1 and concluded3--7#a7 ,to maintain equilibrium1 we must have an accurate notion of the position of the head in space2 7#b7 the function of the semicircular canals is to communicate impressions that give a representation of this position--each canal having a relation to one of the dimensions of space2 7#c7 disturbance of equilibrium follows section2 7#d7 involuntary movements following section are due to abnormal excitations2 7#e7 abnormal movements occurring a few days after the operation are caused by irritation of the cerebellum4 ,on theoretical considerations of a physical character1 ,e4 ,mach1 ,crum-,brown and ,breuer have advanced theories based on the idea of the canals being organs for sensations of acceleration of movement1 or for the sense of rotation4 ,mach first pointed out that ,purkinje's phenomena1 already alluded to1 were in all probability related to the semicircular canals4 ,he showed that when the body is moved in space1 in a straight line1 we are not conscious of the velocity of motion1 but of variations in this velocity4 ,similarly1 if a body is rotated round a vertical axis1 we perceive only angular acceleration and not angular velocity4 ,the sensations produced by angular acceleration last longer than the acceleration itself1 and the position of the head during the movements enables us to determine direction4 ,both ,mach and ,goltz state that varying pressures of the fluid in the canals produced by angular rotation produce sensations of movement 7always in a direction opposite to the rotation of the body71 and that these1 in turn1 cause the vertigo of ,purkinje and the phenomena of ,flourens4 ,mach1 ,crum-,brown and ,breuer advance hydrodynamical theories in which they assume that the fluids move in the canals4 ,goltz1 on the other hand1 supports a hydrostatical theory in which he assumes that the phenomena can be accounted for by varying pressures4 ,crum-,brown differs from ,mach and ,breuer as follows3--7#a7 ,in attributing movement or variation of pressure not merely to the endolymph1 but also to the walls of the membranous canals and to the surrounding perilymph2 and 7#b7 in regarding the two labyrinths as one organ1 all the six canals being required to form a true conception of the rotating motion of the head4 ,he sums up the matter thus3 ,we have two ways in which a relative motion can occur between the endolymph and the walls of the cavity containing it--7#a7 ,when the head begins to move1 here the walls leave the fluid behind2 7#b7 when the head stops1 here the fluid flows on4 ,in both cases the sensation of rotation is felt4 ,in the first this sensation corresponds to a real rotation1 in the second it does not1 but in both it corresponds to a real acceleration 7positive or negative7 of rotation1 using the word acceleration in its technical kinematical sense4 ,cyon states that the semicircular canals only indirectly assist in giving a notion of spatial relations4 ,he holds that knowledge of the position of bodies in space depends on nervous impulses coming from the contracting ocular muscles2 that the oculomotor centres are in intimate physiological relationship with the centres receiving impulses from the nerves of the semicircular canals2 and that the oculomotor centres1 thus excited1 produce the movements of the eyeballs1 which then determine our notions of spatial relations4 ,these views are supported by experiments of ,lee on dog-fish4 ,when the fish is rotated round different axes there are compensating movements of the eyes and fins4 ,it was observed that if the fish were rotated in the plane of one of the canals1 exactly the same movements of the eyes and fins occurred as were produced by experimental operation and stimulation of the ampulla of that canal4 ,sewall1 in #ahhc1 carried out experiments on young sharks and skates with negative results4 ,lee returned to the subject in #ahid1 and1 after numerous experiments on dog-fish1 in which the canals or the auditory nerves were divided1 obtained evidence that the ampullae contain sense-organs connected with the sense of equilibrium4 ,it has been found by physicians and aurists that disease or injury of the canals1 occurring rapidly1 produces giddiness1 staggering1 nystagmus 7a peculiar twitching movement of the muscles of the eyeballs71 vomiting1 noises in the ear and more or less deafness4 ,it is said1 however1 that if pathological changes come on slowly1 so that the canals and vestibule are converted into a solid mass1 none of these symptoms may occur4 ,on the whole1 the evidence is in favour of the view that from the semicircular canals nervous impulses are transmitted1 which1 co-ordinated with impulses coming from the visual organs1 from the muscles and from the skin1 form the bases of these guiding sensations on which the sense of equilibrium depends4 ,these impulses may not reach the level of consciousness1 but they call into action co-ordinated mechanisms by which complicated muscular movements are effected4 ,full bibliographical references are given in the article on ,the ,ear by ,j4,g4 ,mc,kendrick1 in ,schafer's ,textbook of ,physiology1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aaid4 7,j4 ,g4 ,m47 ,,equinox 7from the ,lat4 aequus1 equal1 and nox1 night71 a term used to express either the moment at which1 or the point at which1 the sun apparently crosses the celestial equator4 ,since the sun moves in the ecliptic1 it is in the last-named sense the point of intersection of the ecliptic and the celestial equator4 ,this is the usual meaning of the term in astronomy4 ,there are two such points1 opposite each other1 at one of which the sun crosses the equator toward the north and at the other toward the south4 ,they are called vernal and autumnal respectively1 from the relation of the corresponding times to the seasons of the northern hemisphere4 ,the line of the equinoxes is the imaginary diameter of the celestial sphere which joins them4 ,the vernal equinox is the initial point from which the right ascensions and the longitudes of the heavenly bodies are measured 7see ,,astronomy3 ,spherical74 ,it is affected by the motions of ,precession and ,nutation1 of which the former has been known since the time of ,hipparchus4 ,the actual equinox is defined by first taking the conception of a fictitious point called the ,mean ,equinox1 which moves at a nearly uniform rate1 slow varying1 however1 from century to century4 ,the true equinox then moves around the mean equinox in a period equal to that of the moon's nodes4 ,these two motions are defined with greater detail in the articles ,,precession ,,of ,,the ,,equinoxes and ,,nutation4 ,equinoctial ,gales4--,at the time of the equinox it is commonly believed that strong gales may be expected4 ,this popular idea has no foundation in fact1 for continued observations have failed to show any unusual prevalence of gales at this season4 ,in one case observations taken for fifty years show that during the five days from the #bast to the #beth of ,march and ,september1 there were fewer gales and storms than during the preceding and succeeding five days4 ,,equites 7horsemen or knights1 from equus1 horse71 in ,roman history1 originally a division of the army1 but subsequently a distinct political order1 which under the empire resumed its military character4 ,according to the traditional account1 ,romulus instituted a cavalry corps1 consisting of three centuriae 7hundreds71 called after the three tribes from which they were taken 7,ramnes1 ,tities1 ,luceres71 divided into ten turmae 7squadrons7 of thirty men each4 ,the collective name for the corps was celeres 7the swift1 or possibly from ,greek3 keles1 a riding horse72 ,livy1 however1 restricts the term to a special body-guard of ,romulus4 ,the statements in ancient authorities as to the changes in the number of the equites during the regal period are very confusing2 but it is regarded as certain that ,servius ,tuillus found six centuries in existence1 to which he added twelve1 making eighteen in all1 a number which remained unchanged throughout the republican period4 ,a proposal by ,m4 ,porcius ,cato the elder to supplement the deficiency in the cavalry by the creation of four additional centuries was not adopted4 ,the earlier centuries were called sex suffragia 7the six votes71 and at first consisted exclusively of patricians1 while those of ,servius ,tullius were entirely or for the most part plebeian4 ,until the reform of the comitia centuriata 7probably during the censorship of ,gaius ,flaminius in #bbj ,b4,c42 see ,,comitia71 the equites had voted first1 but after that time this privilege was transferred to one century selected by lot from the centuries of the equites and the first class4 ,the equites then voted with the first class1 the distinction between the sex suffragia and the other centuries being abolished4 ,although the equites were selected from the wealthiest citizens1 service in the cavalry was so expensive that the state gave financial assistance4 ,a sum of money 7aes equestre7 was given to each eques for the purchase of two horses 7one for himself and one for his groom71 and a further sum for their keep 7aes hordearium72 hence the name equites equo publico4 ,in later times1 pay was substituted for the aes hordearium1 three times as much as that of the infantry4 ,if competent1 an eques could retain his horse and vote after the expiration of his ten years' service1 and 7till #abi ,b4,c47 even after entry into the senate4 ,as the demands upon the services of the cavalry increased1 it was decided to supplement the regulars by the enrolment of wealthy citizens who kept horses of their own4 ,the origin of these equites equo privato dates back1 according to ,livy 7v4 #g71 to the siege of ,veii1 when a number of young men came forward and offered their services4 ,according to ,mommsen1 although the institution was not intended to be permanent1 in later times vacancies in the ranks were filled in this manner1 with the result that service in the cavalry1 with either a public or a private horse1 became obligatory upon all ,roman citizens possessed of a certain income4 ,these equites equo privato had no vote in the centuries1 received pay in place of the aes equestre1 and did not form a distinct corps4 ,thus1 at a comparatively early period1 three classes of equites may be distinguished3 7a7 ,the patrician equites equo publico of the sex suffragia2 7b7 the plebeian equites in the twelve remaining centuries2 7c7 the equites equo privato1 both patrician and plebeian4 ,the equites were originally chosen by the curiae1 then in succession by the kings1 the consuls1 and 7after #ddc ,b4,c47 by the censors1 by whom they were reviewed every five years in the ,forum4 ,each eques1 as his name was called out1 passed before the censors1 leading his horse4 ,those whose physique and character were satisfactory1 and who had taken care of their horses and equipments1 were bidden to lead their horse on 7traducere equum71 those who failed to pass the scrutiny were ordered to sell it1 in token of their expulsion from the corps4 ,this inspection 7recognitio7 must not be confounded with the full-dress procession 7transvectio7 on the #aeth of ,july from the temple of ,mars or ,honos to the ,capitol1 instituted in #cjd ,b4,c4 by the censor ,q4 ,fabius ,maximus ,rullianus to commemorate the miraculous intervention of ,castor and ,pollux at the battle of ,lake ,regillus4 ,both inspection and procession were discontinued before the end of the republic1 but revived and in a manner combined by ,augustus4 ,in theory1 the twelve plebeian centuries were open to all freeborn youths of the age of seventeen1 although in practice preference was given to the members of the older families4 ,other requirements were sound health1 high moral character and an honourable calling4 ,at the beginning of the republican period1 senators were included in the equestrian centuries4 ,the only definite information as to the amount of fortune necessary refers to later republican and early imperial times1 when it is known to have been #djj1jjj sesterces 7about ,l#cejj to ,l#djjj74 ,the insignia of the equites were1 at first1 distinctly military--such as the purple-edged1 short military cloak 7trabea7 and decorations for service in the field4 ,with the extension of the ,roman dominions1 the equites lost their military character4 ,prolonged service abroad possessed little attraction for the pick of the ,roman youth1 and recruiting for the cavalry from the equestrian centuries was discontinued4 ,the equites remained at home1 or only went out as members of the general's staff1 their places being taken by the equites equo privato1 the cavalry of the allies and the most skilled horsemen of the subject populations4 ,the first gradually disappeared1 and ,roman citizens were rarely found in the ranks of the effective cavalry4 ,in these circumstances there grew up in ,rome a class of wealthy men1 whose sole occupation it was to amass large fortunes by speculation1 and who found a most lucrative field of enterprise in state contracts and the farming of the public revenues4 ,these tax-farmers 7see ,,publicani7 were already in existence at the time of the ,second ,punic ,war2 and their numbers and influence increased as the various provinces were added to the ,roman dominions4 ,the change of the equites into a body of financiers was further materially promoted 7a7 by the lex ,claudia 7#bah ,b4,c471 which prohibited senators from engaging in commercial pursuits1 especially if 7as seems probable7 it included public contracts 7cf4 ,,flaminius1 ,,gaius72 7b7 by the enactment in the time of ,gaius ,gracchus excluding members of the senate from the equestrian centuries4 ,these two measures definitely marked off the aristocracy of birth from the aristocracy of wealth--the landed proprietor from the capitalist4 ,the term equites1 originally confined to the purely military equestrian centuries of ,servius ,tullius1 now came to be applied to all who possessed the property qualification of #djj1jjj sesterces4 ,as the equites practically monopolized the farming of the taxes1 they came to be regarded as identical with the publicani1 not1 as ,pliny remarks1 because any particular rank was necessary to obtain the farming of the taxes1 but because such occupation was beyond the reach of all except those who were possessed of considerable means4 ,thus1 at the time of the ,gracchi1 these equites-publicani formed a close financial corporation of about #cj1jjj members1 holding an intermediate position between the nobility and the lower classes1 keenly alive to their own interests1 and ready to stand by one another when attacked4 ,although to some extent looked down upon by the senate as following a dishonourable occupation1 they had as a rule sided with the latter1 as being at least less hostile to them than the democratic party4 ,to obtain the support of the capitalists1 ,gaius ,gracchus conceived the plan of creating friction between them and the senate1 which he carried out by handing over to them the control 7a7 of the jury-courts1 and 7b7 of the revenues of ,asia4 7a7 ,hitherto1 the list of jurymen for service in the majority of processes1 both civil and criminal1 had been composed exclusively of senators4 ,the result was that charges of corruption and extortion failed1 when brought against members of that order1 even in cases where there was little doubt of their guilt4 ,the popular indignation at such scandalous miscarriages of justice rendered a change in the composition of the courts imperative4 ,apparently ,gracchus at first proposed to create new senators from the equites and to select the jurymen from this mixed body1 but this moderate proposal was rejected in favour of one more radical 7see ,w4,w4 ,fowler in ,classical ,review1 ,july #ahif74 ,by the lex ,sempronia 7#abc ,b4,c47 the list was to be drawn from persons of free birth over thirty years of age1 who must possess the equestrian census1 and must not be senators4 ,although this measure was bound to set senators and equites at variance1 it in no way improved the lot of those chiefly concerned4 ,in fact1 it increased the burden of the luckless provincials1 whose only appeal lay to a body of men whose interests were identical with those of the publicani4 ,provided he left the tax-gatherer alone1 the governor might squeeze what he could out of the people1 while on the other hand1 if he were humanely disposed1 it was dangerous for him to remonstrate4 7b7 ,the taxes of ,asia had formerly been paid by the inhabitants themselves in the shape of a fixed sum4 ,gracchus ordered that the taxes1 direct and indirect1 should be increased1 and that the farming of them should be put up to auction at ,rome4 ,by this arrangement the provincials were ignored1 and everything was left in the hands of the capitalists4 ,from this time dates the existence of the equestrian order as an officially recognized political instrument4 ,when the control of the courts passed into the hands of the property equites1 all who were summoned to undertake the duties of judices were called equites2 the ordo judicum 7the official title7 and the ordo equester were regarded as identical4 ,it is probable that certain privileges of the equites were due to ,gracchus2 that of wearing the gold ring1 hitherto reserved for senators2 that of special seats in the theatre1 subsequently withdrawn 7probably by ,sulla7 and restored by the lex ,othonis 7#fg ,b4,c472 the narrow band of purple on the tunic as distinguished from the broad band worn by the senators4 ,various attempts were made by the senate to regain control of the courts1 but without success4 ,the lex ,livia of ,m4 ,livius ,drusus 7q4v471 passed with that object1 but irregularly and by the aid of violence1 was annulled by the senate itself4 ,in #hb ,sulla restored the right of serving as judices to the senate1 to which he elevated #cjj of the most influential equites1 whose support he thus hoped to secure2 at the same time he indirectly dealt a blow at the order generally1 by abolishing the office of the censor 7immediately revived71 in whom was vested the right of bestowing the public horse4 ,to this period ,mommsen assigns the regulation1 generally attributed to ,augustus1 that the sons of senators should be knights by right of birth4 ,by the lex ,aurelia 7#gj ,b4,c47 the judices were to be chosen in equal numbers from senators1 equites and tribuni aerarii 7see ,,aerarium71 7the last-named being closely connected with the equites71 who thus practically commanded a majority4 ,about this time the influence of the equestrian order reached its height1 and ,cicero's great object was to reconcile it with the senate4 ,in this he was successful at the time of the ,catilinarian conspiracy1 in the suppression of which he was materially aided by the equites4 ,but the union did not last long2 shortly afterwards the majority ranged themselves on the side of ,julius ,caesar1 who did away with the tribuni aerarii as judices1 and replaced them by equites4 ,augustus undertook the thorough reorganization of the equestrian order on a military basis4 ,the equites equo privato were abolished 7according to ,herzog1 not till the reign of ,tiberius7 and the term equites was officially limited to the equites equo publico1 although all who possessed the property qualification were still considered to belong to the equestrian order4 ,for the equites equo publico high moral character1 good health and the equestrian fortune were necessary4 ,although free birth was considered indispensable1 the right of wearing the gold ring 7jus anuli aurei7 was frequently bestowed by the emperor upon freedmen1 who thereby became ingenui and eligible as equites4 ,tiberius1 however1 insisted upon free birth on the father's side to the third generation4 ,extreme youth was no bar2 the emperor ,marcus ,aurelius had been an eques at the age of six4 ,the sons of senators were eligible by right of birth1 and appear to have been known as equites illustres4 ,the right of bestowing the equus publicus was vested in the emperor2 once given1 it was for life1 and was only forfeitable through degradation for some offence or the loss of the equestrian fortune4 ,augustus divided the equites into six turmae 7regarded by ,hirschfeld as a continuation of the sex suffragia74 ,each was under the command of a sevir 7,greek3 hilarchos71 who was appointed by the emperor and changed every year4 ,during their term of command the seviri had to exhibit games 7ludi sevirales74 ,under these officers the equites formed a kind of corporation1 which1 although not officially recognized1 had the right of passing resolutions1 chiefly such as embodied acts of homage to the imperial house4 ,it is not known whether the turmae contained a fixed number of equites2 there is no doubt that1 in assigning the public horse1 ,augustus went far beyond the earlier figure of #ahjj4 ,thus1 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus mentions #ejjj equites as taking part in a review at which he himself was present4 ,as before1 the equites wore the narrow1 purple-striped tunic1 and the gold ring1 the latter now being considered the distinctive badge of knighthood4 ,the fourteen rows in the theatre were extended by ,augustus to seats in the circus4 ,the old recognitio was replaced by the probatio1 conducted by the emperor in his censorial capacity1 assisted by an advisory board of specially selected senators4 ,the ceremony was combined with a procession1 which1 like the earlier transvectio1 took place on the #aeth of ,july1 and at such other times as the emperor pleased4 ,as in earlier times1 offenders were punished by expulsion4 ,in order to provide a supply of competent officers1 each eques was required to fill certain subordinate posts1 called militiae equestres4 ,these were 7#a7 the command of an auxiliary cohort2 7#b7 the tribunate of a legion2 7#c7 the command of an auxiliary cavalry squadron1 this order being as a rule strictly adhered to4 ,to these ,septimius ,severus added the centurionship4 ,nomination to the militiae equestres was in the hands of the emperor4 ,after the completion of their preliminary military service1 the equites were eligible for a number of civil posts1 chiefly those with which the emperor himself was closely concerned4 ,such were various procuratorships2 the prefectures of the corn supply1 of the fleet1 of the watch1 of the praetorian guards2 the governorships of recently acquired provinces 7,egypt1 ,noricum71 the others being reserved for senators4 ,at the same time1 the abolition of the indirect method of collecting the taxes in the provinces greatly reduced the political influence of the equites4 ,certain religious functions of minor importance were also reserved for them4 ,in the jury courts1 the equites1 thanks to ,julius ,caesar1 already formed two-thirds of the judices2 ,augustus1 by excluding the senators altogether1 virtually gave them the sole control of the tribunals4 ,one of the chief objects of the emperors being to weaken the influence of the senate by the opposition of the equestrian order1 the practice was adopted of elevating those equites who had reached a certain stage in their career to the rank of senator by adlectio4 ,certain official posts1 of which it would have been inadvisable to deprive senators1 could thus be bestowed upon the promoted equites4 ,the control of the imperial correspondence and purse was at first in the hands of freedmen and slaves4 ,the emperor ,claudius tentatively entrusted certain posts connected with these to the equites2 in the time of ,hadrian this became the regular custom4 ,thus a civil career was open to the equites without the obligation of preliminary military service1 and the emperor was freed from the pernicious influence of freedmen4 ,after the reign of ,marcus ,aurelius 7according to ,mommsen7 the equites were divided into3 7a7 viri eminentissimi1 the prefects of the praetorian guard2 7b7 viri perfectissimi1 the other prefects and the heads of the financial and secretarial departments2 7c7 viri egregii1 first mentioned in the reign of ,antoninus ,pius1 a title by right of the procurators generally4 ,under the empire the power of the equites was at its highest in the time of ,diocletian2 in consequence of the transference of the capital to ,constantinople1 they sank to the position of a mere city guard1 under the control of the prefect of the watch4 ,their history may be said to end with the reign of ,constantine the ,great4 ,mention may also be made of the equites singulares ,augusti4 ,the body-guard of ,augustus1 consisting of foreign soldiers 7chiefly ,germans and ,batavians71 abolished by ,galba1 was revived from the time of ,trajan or ,hadrian under the above title4 ,it was chiefly recruited from the pick of the provincial cavalry1 but contained some ,roman citizens4 ,it formed the imperial ,swiss guard1 and never left the city except to accompany the emperor4 ,in the time of ,severus1 these equites were divided into two corps1 each of which had its separate quarters1 and was commanded by a tribune under the orders of the prefect of the praetorian guard4 ,they were subsequently replaced by the protectores ,augusti4 ,see further article ,,rome3 ,history2 also ,t4 ,mommsen1 ,romisches ,staatsrecht1 iii42 ,j4,n4 ,madvig1 ,die ,verfassung des romischen ,staates1 i42 ,r4 ,cagnat in ,daremberg and ,saglio's ,dictionnaire des antiquites1 where full references to ancient authorities are given in the footnotes2 ,a4,s4 ,wilkins in ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities 7#crd ed41 #ahia72 ,e4 ,belot1 ,histoire des chevaliers romains 7#ahff-ahgc72 ,h4,o4 ,hirschfeld1 ,untersuchungen auf dem ,gebiete der romischen ,verwaltungsgeschichte 7,berlin1 #ahgg72 ,e4 ,herzog1 ,geschichte und ,system der romischen ,staatsverfassung 7,leipzig1 #ahhd-ahia72 ,a4,h4 ,friedlander1 ,sittengeschichte ,roms1 i4 7#aija72 ,a4,h4,j4 ,greenidge1 ,history of ,rome1 i4 7#aijd72 ,j4,b4 ,bury1 ,the ,student's ,roman ,empire 7#ahic72 ,t4,m4 ,taylor1 ,political and ,constitutional ,history of ,rome 7#ahii74 ,for a concise summary of different views of the sex suffragia see ,a4 ,bouche-,leclercq's ,manuel des antiquites romaines1 quoted in ,daremberg and ,saglio2 and on the equites singulares1 ,t4 ,mommsen in ,hermes1 xvi4 7#ahha71 p4 #deh4 7,j4 ,h4 ,f47 ,,equity 7,lat4 aequitas71 a term which in its most general sense means equality or justice2 in its most technical sense it means a system of law or a body of connected legal principles1 which have superseded or supplemented the common law on the ground of their intrinsic superiority4 ,aristotle 7,ethics1 bk4 v4 c4 #aj7 defines equity as a better sort of justice1 which corrects legal justice where the latter errs through being expressed in a universal form and not taking account of particular cases4 ,when the law speaks universally1 and something happens which is not according to the common course of events1 it is right that the law should be modified in its application to that particular case1 as the lawgiver himself would have done1 if the case had been present to his mind4 ,accordingly the equitable man 7,greek3 epieikes7 is he who does not push the law to its extreme1 but1 having legal justice on his side1 is disposed to make allowances4 ,equity as thus described would correspond rather to the judicial discretion which modifies the administration of the law than to the antagonistic system which claims to supersede the law4 ,the part played by equity in the development of law is admirably illustrated in the well-known work of ,sir ,henry ,maine on ,ancient ,law4 ,positive law1 at least in progressive societies1 is constantly tending to fall behind public opinion1 and the expedients adopted for bringing it into harmony therewith are three1 viz4 legal fictions1 equity and statutory legislation4 ,equity here is defined to mean any body of rules existing by the side of the original civil law1 founded on distinct principles1 and claiming incidentally to supersede the civil law in virtue of a superior sanctity inherent in those principles4 ,it is thus different from legal fiction1 by which a new rule is introduced surreptitiously1 and under the pretence that no change has been made in the law1 and from statutory legislation1 in which the obligatory force of the rule is not supposed to depend upon its intrinsic fitness4 ,the source of ,roman equity was the fertile theory of natural law1 or the law common to all nations4 ,even in the ,institutes of ,justinian the distinction is carefully drawn in the laws of a country between those which are peculiar to itself and those which natural reason appoints for all mankind4 ,the connexion in ,roman law between the ideas of equity1 nature1 natural law and the law common to all nations1 and the influence of the ,stoical philosophy on their development1 are fully discussed in the third chapter of the work we have referred to4 ,the agency by which these principles were introduced was the edicts of the praetor1 an annual proclamation setting forth the manner in which the magistrate intended to administer the law during his year of office4 ,each successive praetor adopted the edict of his predecessor1 and added new equitable rules of his own1 until the further growth of the irregular code was stopped by the praetor ,salvius ,julianus in the reign of ,hadrian4 ,the place of the praetor was occupied in ,english jurisprudence by the lord high chancellor4 ,the real beginning of ,english equity is to be found in the custom of handing over to that officer1 for adjudication1 the complaints which were addressed to the king1 praying for remedies beyond the reach of the common law4 ,over and above the authority delegated to the ordinary councils or courts1 a reserve of judicial power was believed to reside in the king1 which was invoked as of grace by the suitors who could not obtain relief from any inferior tribunal4 ,to the chancellor1 as already the head of the judicial system1 these petitions were referred1 although he was not at first the only officer through whom the prerogative of grace was administered4 ,in the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 the equitable jurisdiction of the court appears to have been established4 ,its constitutional origin was analogous to that of the star chamber and the court of requests4 ,the latter1 in fact1 was a minor court of equity attached to the lord privy seal as the court of chancery was to the chancellor4 ,the successful assumption of extraordinary or equitable jurisdiction by the chancellor caused similar pretensions to be made by other officers and courts4 ,not only the court of exchequer1 whose functions were in a peculiar manner connected with royal authority1 but the counties palatine of ,chester1 ,lancaster and ,durham1 the court of great session in ,wales1 the universities1 the city of ,london1 the ,cinque ,ports and other places silently assumed extraordinary jurisdiction similar to that exercised in the court of chancery4 ,even private persons1 lords and ladies1 affected to establish in their honours courts of equity4 ,english equity has one marked historical peculiarity1 viz4 that it established itself in a set of independent tribunals which remained in standing contrast to the ordinary courts for many hundred years4 ,in ,roman law the judge gave the preference to the equitable rule2 in ,english law the equitable rule was enforced by a distinct set of judges4 ,one cause of this separation was the rigid adherence to precedent on the part of the common law courts4 ,another was the jealousy prevailing in ,england against the principles of the ,roman law on which ,english equity to a large extent was founded4 ,when a case of prerogative was referred to the chancellor in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 he was required to grant such remedy as should be consonant to honesty 7honestas74 ,and honesty1 conscience and equity were said to be the fundamental principles of the court4 ,the early chancellors were ecclesiastics1 and under their influence not only moral principles1 where these were not regarded by the common law1 but also the equitable principles of the ,roman law were introduced into ,english jurisprudence4 ,between this point and the time when equity became settled as a portion of the legal system1 having fixed principles of its own1 various views of its nature seem to have prevailed4 ,for a long time it was thought that precedents could have no place in equity1 inasmuch as it professed in each case to do that which was just2 and we find this view maintained by common lawyers after it had been abandoned by the professors of equity themselves4 ,g4 ,spence1 in his book on the ,equitable ,jurisdiction of the ,court of ,chancery1 quotes a case in the reign of ,charles ,,ii41 in which chief justice ,vaughan said3 ,i wonder to hear of citing of precedents in matter of equity1 for if there be equity in a case1 that equity is an universal truth1 and there can be no precedent in it2 so that in any precedent that can be produced1 if it be the same with this case1 the reason and equity is the same in itself2 and if the precedent be not the same case with this it is not to be cited4 ,but the lord keeper ,bridgeman answered3 ,certainly precedents are very necessary and useful to us1 for in them we may find the reasons of the equity to guide us1 and besides the authority of those who made them is much to be regarded4 ,we shall suppose they did it upon great consideration and weighing of the matter1 and it would be very strange and very ill if we should disturb and set aside what has been the course for a long series of times and ages4 ,selden's description is well known3 ,equity is a roguish thing4 ',tis all one as if they should make the standard for measure the chancellor's foot4 ,lord ,nottingham in #afgf reconciled the ancient theory and the established practice by saying that the conscience which guided the court was not the natural conscience of the man1 but the civil and political conscience of the judge4 ,the same tendency of equity to settle into a system of law is seen in the recognition of its limits--in the fact that it did not attempt in all cases to give a remedy when the rule of the common law was contrary to justice4 ,cases of hardship1 which the early chancellors would certainly have relieved1 were passed over by later judges1 simply because no precedent could be found for their interference4 ,the point at which the introduction of new principles of equity finally stopped is fixed by ,sir ,henry ,maine in the chancellorship of ,lord ,eldon1 who held that the doctrines of the court ought to be as well settled and made as uniform almost as those of the common law4 ,from that time certainly equity1 like common law1 has professed to take its principles wholly from recorded decisions and statute law4 ,the view 7traceable no doubt to the ,aristotelian definition7 that equity mitigates the hardships of the law where the law errs through being framed in universals1 is to be found in some of the earlier writings4 ,thus in the ,doctor and ,student it is said3 ,law makers take heed to such things as may often come1 and not to every particular case1 for they could not though they would2 therefore1 in some cases it is necessary to leave the words of the law and follow that reason and justice requireth1 and to that intent equity is ordained1 that is to say1 to temper and mitigate the rigour of the law4 ,and ,lord ,ellesmere said3 ,the cause why there is a chancery is for that men's actions are so divers and infinite that it is impossible to make any general law which shall aptly meet with every particular act and not fail in some circumstances4 ,modern equity1 it need hardly be said1 does not profess to soften the rigour of the law1 or to correct the errors into which it falls by reason of its generality4 ,to give any account1 even in outline1 of the subject matter of equity within the necessary limits of this article would be impossible4 ,it will be sufficient to say here that the classification generally adopted by text-writers is based upon the relations of equity to the common law1 of which some explanation is given above4 ,thus equitable jurisdiction is said to be exclusive1 concurrent or auxiliary4 ,equity has exclusive jurisdiction where it recognizes rights which are unknown to the common law4 ,the most important example is trusts4 ,equity has concurrent jurisdiction in cases where the law recognized the right but did not give adequate relief1 or did not give relief without circuity of action or some similar inconvenience4 ,and equity has auxiliary jurisdiction when the machinery of the courts of law was unable to procure the necessary evidence4 ,the evils of this double system of judicature1 says the report of the judicature commission 7#ahfc-ahfg71 and the confusion and conflict of jurisdiction to which it has led1 have been long known and acknowledged4 ,a partial attempt to meet the difficulty was made by several acts of parliament 7passed after the reports of commissions appointed in #ahej and #ahea71 which enabled courts of law and equity both to exercise certain powers formerly peculiar to one or other of them4 ,a more complete remedy was introduced by the ,judicature ,act #ahgc1 which consolidated the courts of law and equity1 and ordered that law and equity should be administered concurrently according to the rules contained in the #bfth section of the act4 ,at the same time many matters of equitable jurisdiction are still left to the chancery division of the ,high ,court in the first instance4 7,see ,,chancery47 ,,authorities4--,the principles of equity as set out by the following writers may be consulted3 ,j4 ,story1 ,j4,w4 ,smith1 ,h4,a4 ,smith and ,w4 ,ashburner2 and for the history see ,g4 ,spence1 ,the ,equitable ,jurisdiction of the ,court of ,chancery 7#b vols41 #ahdf-ahdi72 ,d4,m4 ,kerly1 ,historical ,sketch of the ,equitable ,jurisdiction of the ,court of ,chancery 7#ahij74 ,,equivalent1 in chemistry1 the proportion of an element which will combine with or replace unit weight of hydrogen4 ,when multiplied by the valency it gives the atomic weight4 ,the determination of equivalent weights is treated in the article ,,stoichiometry4 7,see also ,,chemistry47 ,in a more general sense the term equivalent is used to denote quantities of substances which neutralize one another1 as for example ,na,o,h1 ,h,cl1 #a_/b ,h#b,,so#d1 #a_/b ,ba7,,oh7#b4 ,,erard1 ,,sebastien 7#ageb-ahca71 ,french manufacturer of musical instruments1 distinguished especially for the improvements he made upon the harp and the pianoforte1 was born at ,strassburg on the #eth of ,april #ageb4 ,while a boy he showed great aptitude for practical geometry and architectural drawing1 and in the workshop of his father1 who was an upholsterer1 he found opportunity for the early exercise of his mechanical ingenuity4 ,when he was sixteen his father died1 and he removed to ,paris where he obtained employment with a harpsichord maker4 ,here his remarkable constructive skill1 though it speedily excited the jealousy of his master and procured his dismissal1 almost equally soon attracted the notice of musicians and musical instrument makers of eminence4 ,before he was twenty-five he set up in business for himself1 his first workshop being a room in the hotel of the duchesse de ,villeroi1 who gave him warm encouragement4 ,here he constructed in #aghj his first pianoforte1 which was also one of the first manufactured in ,france4 ,it quickly secured for its maker such a reputation that he was soon overwhelmed with commissions1 and finding assistance necessary1 he sent for his brother1 ,jean ,baptiste1 in conjunction with whom he established in the rue de ,bourbon1 in the ,faubourg ,st ,germain1 a piano manufactory1 which in a few years became one of the most celebrated in ,europe4 ,on the outbreak of the ,revolution he went to ,london where he established a factory4 ,returning to ,paris in #agif1 he soon afterwards introduced grand pianofortes1 made in the ,english fashion1 with improvements of his own4 ,in #ahjh he again visited ,london1 where1 two years later1 he produced his first double-movement harp4 ,he had previously made various improvements in the manufacture of harps1 but the new instrument was an immense advance upon anything he had before produced1 and obtained such a reputation that for some time he devoted himself exclusively to its manufacture4 ,it has been said that in the year following his invention he made harps to the value of ,l#be1jjj4 ,in #ahab he returned to ,paris1 and continued to devote himself to the further perfecting of the two instruments with which his name is associated4 ,in #ahbc he crowned his work by producing his model grand pianoforte with the double escapement4 ,erard died at ,passy1 on the #eth of ,august #ahca4 7,see also ,,harp and ,,pianoforte47 ,,erasmus1 ,,desiderius 7#adff-aecf71 ,dutch scholar and theologian1 was born on the night of the #bg_/bhth of ,october1 probably in #adff2 but his statements about his age are conflicting1 and in view of his own uncertainty 7,ep4 x4 #bi3 #dff7 and the weakness of his memory for dates1 the year of his birth cannot be definitely fixed4 ,his father's name seems to have been ,rogerius ,gerardus4 ,he himself was christened ,herasmus2 but in #aejc1 when becoming familiar with ,greek1 he assimilated the name to a fancied ,greek original1 which he had a few years before ,latinized into ,desyderius4 ,a contemporary authority states that he was born at ,gouda1 his father's native town2 but he adopted the style ,rotterdammensis or ,roterodamus1 in accordance with a story to which he himself gave credence4 ,his first schooling was at ,gouda under ,peter ,winckel1 who was afterwards vice-pastor of the church4 ,in the dull round of instruction in grammar he did not distinguish himself1 and was surpassed by his early friend and companion1 ,william ,herman1 who was ,winckel's favourite pupil4 ,from ,gouda the two boys went to the school attached to ,st ,lebuin's church at ,deventer1 which was one of the first in northern ,europe to feel the influence of the ,renaissance4 ,erasmus was at ,deventer from #adge to #adhd1 and when he left1 had learnt from ,johannes ,sinthius 7,syntheim7 and ,alexander ,hegius1 who had come as headmaster in #adhc1 the love of letters which was the ruling passion of his life4 ,at some period1 perhaps in an interval of his time at ,deventer1 he was a chorister at ,utrecht under the famous organist of the cathedral1 ,jacob ,obrecht4 ,about #adhd ,erasmus' father died1 leaving him and an elder brother ,peter1 both born out of wedlock1 to the care of guardians1 their mother having died shortly before4 ,erasmus was eager to go to a university1 but the guardians1 acting under a perhaps genuine enthusiasm for the religious life1 sent the boys to another school at ,hertogenbosch2 and when they returned after two or three years1 prevailed on them to enter monasteries4 ,peter went to ,sion1 near ,delft2 ,erasmus after prolonged reluctance became an ,augustinian canon in ,st ,gregory's at ,steyn1 a house of the same ,chapter near ,gouda4 ,there he found little religion and less refinement2 but no serious difficulty seems to have been made about his reading the classics and the ,fathers with his friends to his heart's content4 ,the monastery once entered1 there was no drawing back2 and ,erasmus passed through the various stages which culminated in his ordination as priest on the #beth of ,april #adib4 ,but his ardent spirit could not long be content with monastic life4 ,he brought his attainments somehow to the notice of ,henry of ,bergen1 bishop of ,cambrai1 the leading prelate at the court of ,brussels2 and about #adid permission was obtained for him to leave ,steyn and become ,latin secretary to the bishop1 who was then preparing for a visit to ,rome4 ,but the journey was abandoned1 and after some months ,erasmus found that even with occasional chances to read at ,groenendael1 the life of a court was hardly more favourable to study than that of ,steyn4 ,at the suggestion of a friend1 ,james ,batt1 he applied to his patron for leave to go to ,paris ,university4 ,the bishop consented and promised a small pension2 and in ,august #adie ,erasmus entered the domus pauperum of the college of ,montaigu1 which was then under the somewhat rigid rule of the reformer ,jan ,standonck4 ,he at once introduced himself to the distinguished ,french historian and diplomatist ,robert ,gaguin 7#adbe-aejb7 and published a small volume of poems2 and he became intimate with ,johann ,mauburnus 7,mombaer71 the leader of a mission summoned from ,windesheim in #adif to reform the abbey of ,chateau-,landon4 ,but the life at ,montaigu was too hard for him4 ,every ,lent he fell ill and had to return to ,holland to recover4 ,he continued to read nevertheless for a degree in theology1 and at some time completed the requirements for the ,b4,d4 ,after a year or two he left ,montaigu and eked out his money from the bishop by taking pupils4 ,one of these1 a young ,englishman1 ,william ,blount1 #dth ,baron ,mountjoy 7d4 #aecd71 persuaded him to visit ,england in the spring of #adii4 ,being without a benefice1 he had no settled income to look to1 and apart from the precarious profits of teaching and writing books1 could only wait on the generosity of patrons to supply him with the leisure he craved4 ,the faithful ,batt had sought a pension for him from his own patroness1 ,anne of ,borsselen1 the ,lady of ,veere1 who resided at the castle of ,tournehem near ,calais1 and whose son ,batt was now teaching4 ,but as nothing promised at once1 ,erasmus accepted ,mountjoy's offer1 and thus a tie was formed which led ,mountjoy then or a few years later to grant him a pension of ,l#bj for life4 ,otherwise the visit to ,england gave no hope of preferment2 and in the summer ,erasmus prepared to leave4 ,he was delayed1 and used the interval to spend two or three months at ,oxford1 where he found ,john ,colet lecturing on the ,epistle to the ,romans4 ,discussions between them on theological questions soon convinced ,colet of ,erasmus' worth1 and he sought to persuade him to stay and teach at ,oxford4 ,but ,erasmus could not be content with the ,bible in ,latin4 ,oxford could teach him no ,greek1 so away he must go4 ,in ,january #aejj he returned to ,paris1 which though it could offer no ,greek teacher better than ,george ,hermonymus1 was at least a better centre for buying and for printing books4 ,the next few years were spent still in preparation1 supported by pupils' fees and the dedications of books2 the ,collectanea adagiorum in ,june #aejj to ,mountjoy1 and some devotional and moral compositions to ,batt's patroness and her son4 ,when the plague drove him from ,paris1 he went to ,orleans or ,tournehem or ,st ,omer1 as the way opened4 ,from #aejb to #aejd he was at ,louvain1 still declining to teach publicly2 among his friends being the future ,pope ,adrian ,,vi4 ,in ,january #aejd the archduke ,philip gave him fifty livres for the ,panegyric which ung religieux de l'ordre de ,st ,augustin had composed on his ,spanish journey2 and in ,october1 ten more1 for the maintenance of his studies4 ,he had been working hard at ,greek1 of which he now felt himself master1 at the ,fathers 7above all at ,jerome71 and at the ,epistles of ,st ,paul1 fulfilling the promise made to ,colet in ,oxford1 to give himself to sacred learning4 ,but the bent of his reading is shown by the manuscript with which he returned to ,paris at the close of #aejd--,valla's ,annotations on the ,new ,testament1 which ,badius printed for him in #aeje4 ,shortly afterwards ,lord ,mountjoy invited him again to ,england1 and this visit was more successful4 ,he found in ,london a circle of learned friends through whom he was introduced to ,william ,warham1 archbishop of ,canterbury1 ,richard ,foxe1 bishop of ,winchester and other dignitaries4 ,john ,fisher 7bishop of ,rochester71 who was then superintending the foundation of ,christ's ,college for the ,lady ,margaret1 took him down to ,cambridge for the king's visit2 and at length the opportunity came to fulfil his dream of seeing ,italy4 ,baptista ,boerio1 the king's physician1 engaged him to accompany his two sons thither as supervisor of their studies4 ,in ,september #aejf he set foot on that sacred soil1 and took his ,d4,d4 at ,turin4 ,for a year he remained with his pupils at ,bologna1 and then1 his engagement completed1 negotiated with ,aldus ,manutius for a new edition of his ,adagia upon a very different scale4 ,the volume of #aejj had been jejune1 written when he knew nothing of ,greek2 #hjj adages put together with scanty elucidations4 ,in #aejh he had conceived a work on lines more to the taste of the learned world1 full of apt and recondite learning1 and now and again relieved by telling comments or lively anecdotes4 ,three thousand and more collected justified a new title--,chiliades adagiorum2 and the author's reputation was now established4 ,so secure in public favour did the book in time become1 that the council of ,trent1 unable to suppress it and not daring to overlook it1 ordered the preparation of a castrated edition4 ,to print the ,adagia he had gone to ,venice1 where he lived with ,andrea ,torresano of ,asola 7,asulanus7 and did the work of two men1 writing and correcting proof at the same time4 ,when it was finished1 with an ample re-dedication to ,mountjoy1 a new pupil presented himself1 ,alexander ,stewart1 natural son of ,james ,,iv4 of ,scotland--perhaps through a connexion formed in early days at ,paris4 ,they went together to ,siena and ,rome and then on to ,campania1 thirsty under the summer sun4 ,when they returned to ,rome1 his pupil departed to ,scotland1 to fall a few years later by his father's side at ,flodden2 ,erasmus also found a summons to call him northwards4 ,on the death of ,henry ,,vii4 ,lord ,mountjoy1 who had been companion to ,prince ,henry in his studies1 had become a person of influence4 ,he wrote to ,erasmus of a land flowing with milk and honey under the divine young king1 and with ,warham sent him ,l#aj for journey money4 ,at first ,erasmus hesitated4 ,he had been disappointed in ,italy1 to find that he had not much to learn from its famed scholarship2 but he had made many friends in ,aldus's circle--,marcus ,musurus1 ,john ,lascaris1 ,baptista ,egnatius1 ,paul ,bombasius1 ,scipio ,carteromachus2 and his reception had been flattering1 especially in ,rome1 where cardinals had delighted to honour him4 ,but to remain in ,rome was to sell himself4 ,he might have the leisure which was so indispensable1 but at price of the freedom to read1 think1 write what he liked4 ,he decided1 therefore1 to go1 though with regrets2 which returned upon him sometimes in after years1 when the ,english hopes had not borne fruit4 ,in the autumn he reached ,london1 and in ,thomas ,more's house in ,bucklersbury wrote the witty satire which ,milton found in every one's hands at ,cambridge in #afbh1 and which is read to this day4 ,the ,moriae encomium was a sign of his decision4 ,in it kings and princes1 bishops and popes alike are shown to be in bondage to ,folly2 and no class of men is spared4 ,its author was willing to be beholden to any one for leisure2 but he would be no man's slave4 ,for the next eighteen months he is entirely lost to view2 when he reappears in ,april #aeaa1 he is leaving ,more's house and taking the ,moria to be printed privily in ,paris4 ,wherever they were spent1 these must have been months of hard work1 as were the years that followed4 ,his time was now come4 ,the long preparation and training1 bought by privation and uncongenial toil1 was over1 and he was ready to apply himself to the scientific study of sacred letters4 ,his ,english patrons were liberal4 ,fisher sent him in ,august #aeaa to teach in ,cambridge2 ,warham gave him a benefice1 ,aldington in ,kent1 worth ,l#cc1 #fs4 #h;d4 a year1 and in violation of his own rule commuted it for a pension of ,l#bj charged on the living2 and the dedications of his books were fruitful4 ,in ,cambridge he completed his work on the ,new ,testament1 the ,letters of ,jerome1 and ,seneca2 and then in #aead1 when there seemed no prospect of ampler preferment1 he determined to transfer himself to ,basel and give the results of his labours to the world4 ,the origin of ,erasmus's connexion with ,johann ,froben is not clear4 ,in #aeaa he was preparing to reprint his ,adagia with ,jodocus ,badius1 who in the following year was to have also ,seneca and ,jerome4 ,but in #aeac ,froben1 who had just reprinted the ,aldine ,adagia1 acquired through a bookseller-agent ,erasmus' amended copy which had been destined for ,badius4 ,that the agent was acting entirely on his own responsibility may be doubted2 for within a few months ,erasmus had decided to betake himself to ,basel1 bearing with him ,seneca and ,jerome1 the latter to be incorporated in the great edition which ,johannes ,amerbach and ,froben had had in hand since #aeaj4 ,in ,germany he was widely welcomed4 ,the ,strassburg ,literary ,society feted him1 and ,johannes ,sapidus1 headmaster of the ,latin school at ,schlettstadt1 rode with him into ,basel4 ,froben received him with open arms1 and the presses were soon busy with his books4 ,through the winter of #aead-aeae ,erasmus worked with the strength of ten2 and after a brief visit to ,england in the spring1 the ,new ,testament was set up4 ,around him was a circle of students1 some young1 some already distinguished--the three sons of ,froben's partner1 ,johannes ,amerbach1 who was now dead1 ,beatus ,rhenanus1 ,wilhelm ,nesen1 ,ludwig ,ber1 ,heinrich ,glareanus1 ,nikolaus ,gerbell1 ,johannes ,oecolampadius--who looked to him as their head and were proud to do him service4 ,though from this time forward ,basel became the centre of occupation and interest for ,erasmus1 yet for the next few years he was mainly in the ,netherlands4 ,on the completion of the ,new ,testament in #aeaf he returned to his friends in ,england2 but his appointment1 then recent1 as councillor to the young king ,charles1 brought him back to ,brussels in the autumn4 ,in the spring of #aeag he went for the last time to ,england1 about a dispensation from wearing his canonical dress1 obtained originally from ,julius ,,ii4 and recently confirmed by ,leo ,x41 and in ,may #aeah he journeyed to ,basel for three months to set the second edition of the ,new ,testament in progress4 ,but with these exceptions he remained in proximity to the court1 living much at ,louvain1 where he took great interest in the foundation of ,hieronymus ,busleiden's ,collegium ,trilingue4 ,his circumstances had improved so much1 by pensions1 the presents which were showered upon him1 and the sale of his books1 that he was now in a position to refuse all proposals which would have interfered with his cherished independence4 ,the general ardour for the restoration of the arts and of learning created an aristocratic public1 of which ,erasmus was supreme pontiff4 ,luther spoke to the people and the ignorant2 ,erasmus had the ear of the educated class4 ,his friends and admirers were distributed over all the countries of ,europe1 and presents were continually arriving from small as well as great1 from a donation of #bjj florins1 made by ,pope ,clement ,,vii41 down to sweetmeats and comfits contributed by the nuns of ,cologne 7,ep4 #fff74 ,from ,england1 in particular1 he continued to receive supplies of money4 ,in the last year of his life ,thomas ,cromwell sent him #bj angels1 and ,archbishop ,cranmer #ah4 ,though ,erasmus led a very hard-working and far from luxurious life1 and had no extravagant habits1 yet he could not live upon little4 ,the excessive delicacy of his constitution1 not pampered appetite1 exacted some unusual indulgences4 ,he could not bear the stoves of ,germany1 and required an open fireplace in the room in which he worked4 ,he was afflicted with the stone1 and obliged to be particular as to what he drank4 ,beer he could not touch4 ,the white wines of ,baden or the ,rhine did not suit him2 he could only drink those of ,burgundy or ,franche-,comte4 ,he could neither eat1 nor bear the smell of1 fish4 ,his heart1 he said1 was ,catholic1 but his stomach was ,lutheran4 ,for his constant journeys he required two horses1 one for himself and one for his attendant4 ,and though he was almost always found in horse-flesh by his friends1 the keep had to be paid for4 ,for his literary labours and his extensive correspondence he required one or more amanuenses4 ,he often had occasion1 on his own business1 or on that of ,froben's press1 to send special couriers to a distance1 employing them by the way in collecting the free gifts of his tributaries4 ,precarious as these means of subsistence seem1 he preferred the independence thus obtained to an assured position which would have involved obligations to a patron or professional duties which his weak health would have made onerous4 ,the duke of ,bavaria offered to dispense with teaching1 if he would only reside1 and would have named him on these terms to a chair in his new university of ,ingolstadt1 with a salary of #bjj ducats1 and the reversion of one or more prebendal stalls4 ,the archduke ,ferdinand offered a pension of #djj florins1 if he would only come to reside at ,vienna4 ,adrian ,,vi4 offered him a deanery1 but the offer seems to have been of a possible and not an actual deanery4 ,offers1 flattering but equally vague1 were made from ,france1 on the part of the bishop of ,bayeux1 and even of ,francis ,i4 ,invitor amplissimis conditionibus2 offeruntur dignitates et episcopatus2 plane rex essem1 si juvenis essem 7,ep4 xix4 #ajf2 #gce74 ,erasmus declined all1 and in ,november #aeba settled permanently at ,basel1 in the capacity of general editor and literary adviser of ,froben's press4 ,as a subject of the emperor1 and attached to his court by a pension1 it would have been convenient to him to have fixed his residence in ,louvain4 ,but the bigotry of the ,flemish clergy1 and the monkish atmosphere of the university of ,louvain1 overrun with ,dominicans and ,franciscans1 united for once in their enmity to the new classical learning1 inclined ,erasmus to seek a more congenial home in ,basel4 ,to ,froben his arrival was the advent of the very man whom he had long wanted4 ,froben's enterprise1 united with ,erasmus's editorial skill1 raised the press of ,basel1 for a time1 to be the most important in ,europe4 ,the death of ,froben in #aebg1 the final separation of ,basel from the ,empire1 the wreck of learning in the religious disputes1 and the cheap paper and scamped work of the ,frankfort presses1 gradually withdrew the trade from ,basel4 ,but during the years of ,erasmus's co-operation the ,froben press took the lead of all the presses in ,europe1 both in the standard value of the works published and in style of typographical execution4 ,like some other publishers who preferred reputation to returns in money1 ,froben died poor1 and his impressions never reached the splendour afterwards attained by those of the ,estiennes1 or of ,plantin4 ,the series of the ,fathers alone contains ,jerome 7#aeaf71 ,cyprian 7#aebj71 ,pseudo-,arnobius 7#aebb71 ,hilarius 7#aebc71 ,irenaeus 7,latin1 #aebf71 ,ambrose 7#aebg71 ,augustine 7#aebh71 ,chrysostom 7,latin1 #aecj71 ,basil 7,greek1 #aecb1 the first ,greek author printed in ,germany71 and ,origen 7,latin1 #aecf74 ,in these editions1 partly texts1 partly translations1 it is impossible to determine the respective shares of ,erasmus and his many helpers4 ,the prefaces and dedications are all written by him1 and some of them1 as that to the ,hilarius1 are of importance for the history as well of the times as of ,erasmus himself4 ,of his most important edition1 that of the ,greek text of the ,new ,testament1 something will be said farther on4 ,in this mill1 as he calls it1 ,erasmus continued to grind incessantly for eight years4 ,besides his work as editor1 he was always writing himself some book or pamphlet called for by the event of the day1 some general fray in which he was compelled to mingle1 or some personal assault which it was necessary to repel4 ,but though painfully conscious how much his reputation as a writer was damaged by this extempore production1 he was unable to resist the fatal facility of print4 ,he was the object of those solicitations which always beset the author whose name upon the title page assures the sale of a book4 ,he was besieged for dedications1 and as every dedication meant a present proportioned to the circumstances of the dedicatee1 there was a natural temptation to be lavish of them4 ,add to this a correspondence so extensive as to require him at times to write forty letters in one day4 ,i receive daily1 he writes1 letters from remote parts1 from kings1 princes1 prelates and men of learning1 and even from persons of whose existence ,i was ignorant4 ,his day was thus one of incessant mental activity2 but hard work was so far from breeding a distaste for his occupation1 that reading and writing grew ever more delightful to him 7literarum assiduitas non modo mihi fastidium non parit1 sed voluptatem2 crescit scribendo scribendi studium74 ,shortly after ,froben's death the disturbances at ,basel1 occasioned by the zealots for the religious revolution which was in progress throughout ,switzerland1 began to make ,erasmus desirous of changing his residence4 ,he selected ,freiburg in the ,breisgau1 as a city which was still in the dominion of the emperor1 and was free from religious dissension4 ,thither he removed in ,april #aebi4 ,he was received with public marks of respect by the authorities1 who granted him the use of an unfinished residence which had been begun to be built for the late emperor ,maximilian4 ,erasmus proposed only to remain at ,freiburg for a few months1 but found the place so suited to his habits that he bought a house of his own1 and remained there six years4 ,a desire for change of air--he fancied ,freiburg was damp--rumours of a new war with ,france1 and the necessity of seeing his ,ecclesiastes through the press1 took him back to ,basel in #aece4 ,he lived now a very retired life1 and saw only a small circle of intimate friends4 ,a last attempt was made by the papal court to enlist him in some public way against the ,reformation4 ,on the election of ,paul ,,iii4 in #aecd1 he had1 as usual1 sent the new pope a congratulatory letter4 ,after his arrival in ,basel1 he received a complimentary answer1 together with the nomination to the deanery of ,deventer1 the income of which was reckoned at #fjj ducats4 ,this nomination was accompanied with an intimation that more was in store for him1 and that steps would be taken to provide for him the income1 viz41 #cjjj ducats1 which was necessary to qualify for the cardinal's hat4 ,but ,erasmus was even less disposed now than he had been before to barter his reputation for honours4 ,his health had been for some years gradually declining1 and disease in the shape of gout gaining upon him4 ,in the winter of #aece-aecf he was confined entirely to his chamber1 many days to his bed4 ,though thus afflicted he never ceased his literary activity1 dictating his tract ,on the ,purity of the ,church1 and revising the sheets of a translation of ,origen which was passing through the ,froben press4 ,his last letter is dated the #bhth of ,june #aecf1 and subscribed ,eras4 ,rot4 aegra manu4 ,i have never been so ill in my life before as ,i am now1--for many days unable even to read4 ,dysentery setting in carried him off on the #abth of ,july #aecf1 in his #gjth year4 ,by his will1 made on the #abth of ,february #aecf1 he left what he had to leave1 with the exception of some legacies1 to ,bonifazius ,amerbach1 partly for himself1 partly in trust for the benefit of the aged and the infirm1 or to be spent in portioning young girls1 and in educating young men of promise4 ,he left none of the usual legacies for masses or other clerical purposes1 and was not attended by any priest or confessor in his last moments4 ,erasmus's features are familiar to all1 from ,holbein's many portraits or their copies4 ,beatus ,rhenanus1 summus ,erasmi observator1 as he is called by de ,thou1 describes his person thus3 ,in stature not tall1 but not noticeably short2 in figure well built and graceful2 of an extremely delicate constitution1 sensitive to the slightest changes of climate1 food or drink4 ,after middle life he suffered from the stone1 not to mention the common plague of studious men1 an irritable mucous membrane4 ,his complexion was fair2 light blue eyes1 and yellowish hair4 ,though his voice was weak1 his enunciation was distinct2 the expression of his face cheerful2 his manner and conversation polished1 affable1 even charming4 ,his highly nervous organization made his feelings acute1 and his brain incessantly active4 ,through his ready sympathy with all forms of life and character1 his attention was always alive4 ,the active movement of his spirit spent itself1 not in following out its own trains of thought1 but in outward observation4 ,no man was ever less introspective1 and though he talks much of himself1 his egotism is the genial egotism which takes the world into its confidence1 not the selfish egotism which feels no interest but in its own woes4 ,he says of himself1 and justly1 that he was incapable of dissimulation 7,ep4 xxvi4 #ai2 #aaeb74 ,there is nothing behind1 no pose1 no scenic effect4 ,it may be said of his letters that in them tota patet vita senis4 ,his nature was flexible without being faultily weak4 ,he has many moods and each mood imprints itself in turn on his words4 ,hence1 on a superficial view1 ,erasmus is set down as the most inconsistent of men4 ,further acquaintance makes us feel a unity of character underlying this susceptibility to the impressions of the moment4 ,his seeming inconsistencies are reconciled to apprehension1 not by a formula of the intellect1 but by the many-sidedness of a highly impressible nature4 ,in the words of ,j4 ,nisard1 ,erasmus was one of those dont la gloire a ete de beaucoup comprendre et d'affirmer peu4 ,this equal openness to every vibration of his environment is the key to all ,erasmus's acts and words1 and among them to the middle attitude which he took up towards the great religious conflict of his time4 ,the reproaches of party assailed him in his lifetime1 and have continued to be heaped upon his memory4 ,he was loudly accused by the ,catholics of collusion with the enemies of the faith4 ,his powerful friends1 the pope1 ,wolsey1 ,henry ,,viii41 the emperor1 called upon him to declare against ,luther4 ,theological historians from that time forward have perpetuated the indictment that ,erasmus sided with neither party in the struggle for religious truth4 ,the most moderate form of the censure presents him in the odious light of a trimmer2 the vulgar and venomous assailant is sure that ,erasmus was a ,protestant at heart1 but withheld the avowal that he might not forfeit the worldly advantages he enjoyed as a ,catholic4 ,when by study of his writings we come to know ,erasmus intimately1 there is revealed to us one of those natures to which partisanship is an impossibility4 ,it was not timidity or weakness which kept ,erasmus neutral1 but the reasonableness of his nature4 ,it was not only that his intellect revolted against the narrowness of party1 his whole being repudiated its clamorous and vulgar excesses4 ,as he loathed fish1 so he loathed clerical fanaticism4 ,himself a ,catholic priest--the glory of the priesthood and the shame--the tone of the orthodox clergy was distasteful to him2 the ignorant hostility to classical learning which reigned in their colleges and convents disgusted him4 ,in common with all the learned men of his age1 he wished to see the power of the clergy broken1 as that of an obscurantist army arrayed against light4 ,he had employed all his resources of wit and satire against the priests and monks1 and the superstitions in which they traded1 long before ,luther's name was heard of4 ,the motto which was already current in his lifetime1 that ,erasmus laid the egg and ,luther hatched it1 is so far true1 and no more4 ,erasmus would have suppressed the monasteries1 put an end to the domination of the clergy1 and swept away scandalous and profitable abuses1 but to attack the church or re-mould received theology was far from his thoughts4 ,and when out of ,luther's revolt there arose a new fanaticism--that of evangelism1 ,erasmus recoiled from the violence of the new preachers4 ,is it for this1 he writes to ,melanchthon 7,ep4 xix4 #aac2 #gjc71 that we have shaken off bishops and popes1 that we may come under the yoke of such madmen as ,otto and ,farel8 ,passages have been collected1 and it is an easy task1 from the writings of ,erasmus to prove that he shared the doctrines of the ,reformers4 ,passages equally strong might be culled to show that he repudiated them4 ,the truth is that theological questions in themselves had no attraction for him4 ,and when a theological position was emphasized by party passion it became odious to him4 ,in the words of ,drummond3 ,erasmus was in his own age the apostle of common sense and of rational religion4 ,he did not care for dogma1 and accordingly the dogmas of ,rome1 which had the consent of the ,christian world1 were in his eyes preferable to the dogmas of ,protestantism4444 ,from the beginning to the end of his career he remained true to the purpose of his life1 which was to fight the battle of sound learning and plain common sense against the powers of ignorance and superstition1 and amid all the convulsions of that period he never once lost his mental balance4 ,erasmus is accused of indifference4 ,but he was far from indifferent to the progress of the revolution4 ,he was keenly alive to its pernicious influence on the cherished interest of his life1 the cause of learning4 ,i abhor the evangelics1 because it is through them that literature is everywhere declining1 and upon the point of perishing4 ,he had been born with the hopes of the ,renaissance1 with its anticipation of a new ,augustan age1 and had seen this fair promise blighted by the irruption of a new horde of theological polemics1 worse than the old scholastics1 inasmuch as they were revolutionary instead of conservative4 ,erasmus never flouted at religion nor even at theology as such1 but only at blind and intemperate theologians4 ,in the mind of ,erasmus there was no metaphysical inclination2 he was a man of letters1 with a general tendency to rational views on every subject which came under his pen4 ,his was not the mind to originate1 like ,calvin1 a new scheme of ,christian thought4 ,he is at his weakest in defending free will against ,luther1 and indeed he can hardly be said to enter on the metaphysical question4 ,he treats the dispute entirely from the outside4 ,it is impossible in reading ,erasmus not to be reminded of the rationalist of the #ahth century4 ,erasmus has been called the ,voltaire of the ,renaissance4 ,but there is a vast difference in the relations in which they respectively stood to the church and to ,christianity4 ,voltaire1 though he did not originate1 yet adopted a moral and religious scheme which he sought to substitute for the church tradition4 ,he waged war1 not only against the clergy1 but against the church and its sovereigns4 ,erasmus drew the line at the first of these4 ,he was not an anticipation of the #ahth century2 he was the man of his age1 as ,voltaire of his2 though ,erasmus did not intend it1 he undoubtedly shook the ecclesiastical edifice in all its parts2 and1 as ,melchior ,adam says of him1 pontifici ,romano plus nocuit jocando quam ,lutherus stomachando4 ,but if ,erasmus was unlike the #ahth century rationalist in that he did not declare war against the church1 but remained a ,catholic and mourned the disruption1 he was yet a true rationalist in principle4 ,the principle that reason is the one only guide of life1 the supreme arbiter of all questions1 politics and religion included1 has its earliest and most complete exemplar in ,erasmus4 ,he does not dogmatically denounce the rights of reason1 but he practically exercises them4 ,along with the charm of style1 the great attraction of the writings of ,erasmus is this unconscious freedom by which they are pervaded4 ,it must excite our surprise that one who used his pen so freely should have escaped the pains and penalties which invariably overtook minor offenders in the same kind4 ,for it was not only against the clergy and the monks that he kept up a ceaseless stream of satiric raillery2 he treated nobles1 princes and kings with equal freedom4 ,no #ahth century republican has used stronger language than has this pensioner of ,charles ,v4 ,the people build cities1 princes pull them down2 the industry of the citizens creates wealth for rapacious lords to plunder2 plebeian magistrates pass good laws for kings to violate2 the people love peace1 and their rulers stir up war4 ,such outbursts are frequent in the ,adagia4 ,these freedoms are part cause of ,erasmus's popularity4 ,he was here in sympathy with the secret sore of his age1 and gave utterance to what all felt but none dared to whisper but he4 ,it marks the difference between #aeac and #affi that1 in a reprint of the ,julius ,exclusus published in #affi at ,oxford1 it was thought necessary to leave out a sentence in which the writer of that dialogue1 supposed by the editor to be ,erasmus1 asserts the right of states to deprive and punish bad kings4 ,it is difficult to say to what we are to ascribe his immunity from painful consequences4 ,we have to remember that he was removed from the scene early in the reaction1 before force was fully organized for the suppression of the revolution4 ,and his popular works1 the ,adagia1 and the ,colloquia 7#aebd71 had established themselves as standard books in the more easy going age1 when power1 secure in its unchallenged strength1 could afford to laugh with the laughers at itself4 ,at the date of his death the ,catholic revival1 with its fell antipathy to art and letters1 was only in its infancy2 and when times became dangerous1 ,erasmus cautiously declined to venture out of the protection of the ,empire1 refusing repeated invitations to ,italy and to ,france4 ,i had thought of going to ,besancon1 he said1 ne non essem in ditione ,caesaris 7,ep4 xxx4 #gd2 #abii74 ,in ,italy a ,bembo and a ,sadoleto wrote a purer ,latin than ,erasmus1 but contented themselves with pretty phrases1 and were careful to touch no living chord of feeling4 ,in ,france it was necessary for a ,rabelais to hide his free-thinking under a disguise of revolting and unintelligible jargon4 ,it was only in the ,empire that such liberty of speech as ,erasmus used was practicable1 and in the ,empire ,erasmus passed for a moderate man4 ,upon the strength of an established character for moderation he enjoyed an exceptional licence for the utterance of unwelcome truths2 and in spite of his flings at the rich and powerful1 he remained through life a privileged person with them4 ,but though the men of the keys and the sword let him go his way unmolested1 it was otherwise with his brethren of the pen4 ,a man who is always launching opinions must expect to be retorted on4 ,and when these judgments were winged by epigram1 and weighted by the name of ,erasmus1 who stood at the head of letters1 a widespread exasperation was the consequence4 ,disraeli has not noticed ,erasmus in his ,quarrels of ,authors1 perhaps because ,erasmus's quarrels would require a volume to themselves4 ,so thin-skinned that a fly would draw blood1 as the prince of ,carpi expressed it1 he could not himself restrain his pen from sarcasm4 ,he forgot that though it is safe to lash the dunces1 he could not with equal impunity sneer at those who1 though they might not have the ear of the public as he had1 could yet contradict and call names4 ,and when literary jealousy was complicated with theological differences1 as in the case of the free-thinkers1 or with ,french vanity1 as in that of ,budaeus1 the cause of the enemy was espoused by a party and a nation4 ,the quarrel with ,budaeus was strictly a national one4 ,cosmopolitan as ,erasmus was1 to the ,french literati he was still the ,teuton4 ,etienne ,dolet calls him enemy of ,cicero1 and jealous detractor of the ,french name4 ,the only contemporary name which could approach to a rivalry with his was that of ,budaeus 7,bude71 who was exactly contemporary1 having been born in the same year as ,erasmus4 ,rivals in fame1 they were unlike in accomplishment1 each having the quality which the other wanted4 ,budaeus1 though a ,frenchman1 knew ,greek well2 ,erasmus1 though a ,dutchman1 very imperfectly4 ,but the ,frenchman ,budaeus wrote an execrable ,latin style1 unreadable then as now1 while the ,teuton ,erasmus charmed the reading world with a style which1 though far from good ,latin1 is the most delightful which the ,renaissance has left us4 ,the style of ,erasmus is1 considered as ,latin1 incorrect1 sometimes even barbarous1 and far removed from any classical model4 ,but it has qualities far above purity4 ,the best ,italian ,latin is but an echo and an imitation2 like the painted glass which we put in our churches1 it is an anachronism4 ,bembo1 ,sadoleto and the rest write purely in a dead language4 ,erasmus's ,latin was a living and spoken tongue4 ,though ,erasmus had passed nearly all his life in ,england1 ,france and ,germany1 his conversation was ,latin2 and the language in which he talked about common things he wrote4 ,hence the spontaneity and naturalness of his page1 its flavour of life and not of books4 ,he writes from himself1 and not out of ,cicero4 ,hence1 too1 he spoiled nothing by anxious revision in terror lest some phrase not of the golden age should escape from his pen4 ,he confesses apologetically to ,christopher ,longolius 7,ep4 iii4 #fc2 #djb7 that it was his habit to extemporize all he wrote1 and that this habit was incorrigible2 effundo verius quam scribo omnia4 ,he complains that much reading of the works of ,st ,jerome had spoiled his ,latin2 but1 as ,scaliger says 7,scaliga #b;a71 ,erasmus's language is better than ,st ,jerome's4 ,the same critic1 however1 thought ,erasmus would have done better if he had kept more closely to the classical models4 ,in the annals of classical learning ,erasmus may be regarded as constituting an intermediate stage between the humanists of the ,latin ,renaissance and the learned men of the age of ,greek scholarship1 between ,angelo ,poliziano and ,joseph ,scaliger4 ,erasmus1 though justly styled by ,muretus 7,varr4 ,lectt4 #g1 #ae7 eruditus sane vir1 ac multae lectionis1 was not a learned man in the special sense of the word--not an erudit4 ,he was more than this2 he was the man of letters--the first who had appeared in ,europe since the fall of the ,roman empire4 ,his acquirements were vast1 and they were all brought to bear upon the life of his day4 ,he did not make a study apart of antiquity for its own sake1 but used it as an instrument of culture4 ,he did not worship1 imitate and reproduce the classics1 like the ,latin humanists who preceded him2 he did not master them and reduce them to a special science1 as did the ,french ,hellenists who succeeded him4 ,he edited many authors1 it is true1 but he had neither the means of forming a text1 nor did he attempt to do so4 ,in editing a father1 or a classic1 he had in view the practical utility of the general reader1 not the accuracy required by the gild of scholars4 ,his ,jerome1 says ,j4 ,scaliger1 is full of sad blunders 7,scaliga #b;a74 ,even ,julien ,garnier could discover that ,erasmus falls in his haste into grievous error in his ,latin version of ,st ,basil1 though his ,latinity is superior to that of the other translators 7,pref4 in ,opp4 ,st4 ,bas41 #agba74 ,it must be remembered that the commercial interests of ,froben's press led to the introduction of ,erasmus's name on many a title page when he had little to do with the book1 e4g4 the ,latin ,josephus of #aebd to which ,erasmus only contributed one translation of #ad pages2 or the ,aristotle of #aeca1 of which ,simon ,grynaeus was the real editor4 ,where ,erasmus excelled was in prefaces--not philological introductions to each author1 but spirited appeals to the interest of the general reader1 showing how an ancient book might be made to minister to modern spiritual demands4 ,of ,erasmus's works the ,greek ,testament is the most memorable4 ,it has no title to be considered as a work of learning or scholarship1 yet its influence upon opinion was profound and durable4 ,it contributed more to the liberation of the human mind from the thraldom of the clergy than all the uproar and rage of ,luther's many pamphlets4 ,as an edition of the ,greek ,testament it has no critical value4 ,but it was the first1 and it revealed the fact that the ,vulgate1 the ,bible of the church1 was not only a second-hand document1 but in places an erroneous document4 ,a shock was thus given to the credit of the clergy in the province of literature1 equal to that which was given in the province of science by the astronomical discoveries of the #agth century4 ,even if ,erasmus had had at his disposal the ,,mss4 subsidia for forming a text1 he had not the critical skill required to use them4 ,he had at hand a few late ,basel ,,mss41 one of which he sent straight to press1 correcting them in places by collations of others which had been sent to him by ,colet in ,england4 ,in four reprints1 #aeai1 #aebb1 #aebg1 #aece1 ,erasmus gradually weeded out many of the typographical errors of his first edition1 but the text remained essentially such as he had first printed it4 ,the ,greek text indeed was only a part of his scheme4 ,an important feature of the volume was the new ,latin version1 the original being placed alongside as a guarantee of the translator's good faith4 ,this translation1 with the justificatory notes which accompanied it1 though not itself a work of critical scholarship1 became the starting-point of modern exegetical science4 ,erasmus did nothing to solve the problem1 but to him belongs the honour of having first propounded it4 ,besides translating and editing the ,new ,testament1 ,erasmus paraphrased the whole1 except the ,apocalypse1 between #aeag and #aebd4 ,the paraphrases were received with great applause1 even by those who had little appreciation for ,erasmus4 ,in ,england a translation of them made in #aedh was ordered to be placed in all parish churches beside the ,bible4 ,his correspondence is perhaps the part of his works which has the most permanent value2 it comprises about #cjjj letters1 which form an important source for the history of that period4 ,for the same purpose his ,colloquia may be consulted4 ,they are a series of dialogues1 written first for pupils in the early ,paris days as formulae of polite address1 but afterwards expanded into lively conversations1 in which many of the topics of the day are discussed4 ,later in the century they were read in schools1 and some of ,shakespeare's lines are direct reminiscences of ,erasmus4 ,his complete works have been printed twice2 by the ,froben firm under the direction of his literary executors 7#i vols41 ,basel1 #aedj72 and by ,leclerc at ,leiden 7#aa vols41 #agjc-agjf74 ,for his life the chief contemporary sources are a ,compendium vitae written by himself in #aebd1 and a sketch prefixed by ,beatus ,rhenanus to the ,basel edition of #aedj4 ,of his writings he gives an account in his ,catalogus lucubrationum1 composed first in ,january #aebc and enlarged in ,september #aebd2 and also in a letter to ,hector ,boece of ,aberdeen1 written in #aecj4 ,an elaborate bibliography1 entitled ,bibliotheca ,erasmiana1 was undertaken by the officials of the ,ghent ,university ,library2 it is divided into three sections1 for ,erasmus's writings1 the books he edited1 and the literature about him4 ,listes sommaires were issued in #ahic2 and since #ahig the completed volumes have been appearing at intervals4 ,there is an excellent sketch of ,erasmus's life down to #aeai in ,f4 ,seebohm's ,oxford ,reformers 7#crd ed41 #ahhg72 and of the many biographies those by ,s4 ,knight 7#agbf71 ,j4 ,jortin 7#b vols41 #ageh-agfj7 and ,r4,b4 ,drummond 7#b vols41 #ahgc7 may be mentioned4 ,there are also two volumes 7#aija-aijd7 of translations by ,f4,m4 ,nichols from ,erasmus's letters down to #aeag1 with an ample commentary which amounts almost to a biography2 and an edition of the letters1 in ,latin1 was begun by the ,oxford ,university ,press in #aijf 7vol4 ii41 #aiaj74 7,m4 ,p42 ,p4 ,s4 ,a47 ,,erastus1 ,,thomas 7#aebd-aehc71 ,german-,swiss theologian1 whose surname was ,luber1 ,lieber1 or ,liebler1 was born of poor parents on the #gth of ,september #aebd1 probably at ,baden1 canton of ,aargau1 ,switzerland4 ,in #aedj he was studying theology at ,basel4 ,the plague of #aedd drove him to ,bologna and thence to ,padua as student of philosophy and medicine4 ,in #aeec he became physician to the count of ,henneberg1 ,saxe-,meiningen1 and in #aeeh held the same post with the elector-palatine1 ,otto ,heinrich1 being at the same time professor of medicine at ,heidelberg4 ,his patron's successor1 ,frederick ,,iii41 made him 7#aeei7 a privy councillor and member of the church consistory4 ,in theology he followed ,zwingli1 and at the sacramentarian conferences of ,heidelberg 7#aefj7 and ,maulbronn 7#aefd7 he advocated by voice and pen the ,zwinglian doctrine of the ,lord's ,supper1 replying 7#aefe7 to the counter arguments of the ,lutheran ,johann ,marbach1 of ,strassburg4 ,he ineffectually resisted the efforts of the ,calvinists1 led by ,caspar ,olevianus1 to introduce the ,presbyterian polity and discipline1 which were established at ,heidelberg in #aegj1 on the ,genevan model4 ,one of the first acts of the new church system was to excommunicate ,erastus on a charge of ,socinianism1 founded on his correspondence with ,transylvania4 ,the ban was not removed till #aege1 ,erastus declaring his firm adhesion to the doctrine of the ,trinity4 ,his position1 however1 was uncomfortable1 and in #aehj he returned to ,basel1 where in #aehc he was made professor of ethics4 ,he died on the #cast of ,december #aehc4 ,he published several pieces bearing on medicine1 astrology and alchemy1 and attacking the system of ,paracelsus4 ,his name is permanently associated with a posthumous publication1 written in #aefh4 ,its immediate occasion was the disputation at ,heidelberg 7#aefh7 for the doctorate of theology by ,george ,wither or ,withers1 an ,english ,puritan 7subsequently archdeacon of ,colchester71 silenced 7#aefe7 at ,bury ,st ,edmunds by ,archbishop ,parker4 ,withers had proposed a disputation against vestments1 which the university would not allow2 his thesis affirming the excommunicating power of the presbytery was sustained4 ,hence the treatise of ,erastus4 ,it was published 7#aehi7 by ,giacomo ,castelvetri1 who had married his widow1 with the title ,explicatio gravissimae quaestionis utrum excommunicatio1 quatenus religionem intelligentes et amplexantes1 a sacramentorum usu1 propter admissum facinus arcet1 mandato nitatur divino1 an excogitata sit ab hominibus4 ,the work bears the imprint ,pesclavii 7i4e4 ,poschiavo in the ,grisons7 but was printed by ,john ,wolfe in ,london1 where ,castelvetri was staying2 the name of the alleged printer is an anagram of ,jacobum ,castelvetrum4 ,in the ,stationers' ,register 7,june #bj1 #aehi7 the printing is said to have been alowed by ,archbishop ,whitgift4 ,it consists of seventy-five ,theses1 followed by a ,confirmatio in six books1 and an appendix of letters to ,erastus by ,bullinger and ,gualther1 showing that his ,theses1 written in #aefh1 had been circulated in manuscript4 ,an ,english translation of the ,theses1 with brief life of ,erastus 7based on ,melchior ,adam's account71 was issued in #afei1 entitled ,the ,nullity of ,church ,censures2 it was reprinted as ,a ,treatise of ,excommunication 7#afhb71 and1 as revised by ,robert ,lee1 ,d4,d41 in #ahdd4 ,the aim of the work is to show1 on ,scriptural grounds1 that sins of professing ,christians are to be punished by civil authority1 and not by withholding of sacraments on the part of the clergy4 ,in the ,westminster ,assembly a party holding this view included ,selden1 ,lightfoot1 ,coleman and ,whitelocke1 whose speech 7#afde7 is appended to ,lee's version of the ,theses2 but the opposite view1 after much controversy1 was carried1 ,lightfoot alone dissenting4 ,the consequent chapter of the ,westminster ,confession 7,of ,church ,censures7 was1 however1 not ratified by the ,english parliament4 ,erastianism1 as a by-word1 is used to denote the doctrine of the supremacy of the state in ecclesiastical causes2 but the problem of the relations between church and state is one on which ,erastus nowhere enters4 ,what is known as ,erastianism would be better connected with the name of ,grotius4 ,the only direct reply made to the ,explicatio was the ,tractatus de vera excommunicatione 7#aeij7 by ,theodore ,beza1 who found himself rather savagely attacked in the ,confirmatio thesium2 e4g4 ,apostolum et ,mosen adeoque ,deum ipsum audes corrigere4 ,see ,a4 ,bonnard1 ,thomas ,eraste et la discipline ecclesiastique 7#ahid72 ,gass1 in ,allgemeine deutsche ,biog4 7#ahgg72 ,g4,v4 ,lechler and ,r4 ,stahelin1 in ,a4 ,hauck's ,realencyklop4 fur prot4 ,theol4 u4 ,kirche 7#ahih74 7,a4 ,go4997 ,,eratosthenes ,,of ,,alexandria 7c4 #bgf-;c4 #aid ,b4,c471 ,greek scientific writer1 was born at ,cyrene4 ,he studied grammar under ,callimachus at ,alexandria1 and philosophy under the ,stoic ,ariston and the ,academic ,arcesilaus at ,athens4 ,he returned to ,alexandria at the summons of ,ptolemy ,,iii4 ,euergetes1 by whom he was appointed chief librarian in place of ,callimachus4 ,he is said to have died of voluntary starvation1 being threatened with total blindness4 ,eratosthenes was one of the most learned men of antiquity1 and wrote on a great number of subjects4 ,he was the first to call himself ,philologos 7in the sense of the friend of learning71 and the name ,pentathlos was bestowed upon him in honour of his varied accomplishments4 ,he was also called ,beta as being second in all branches of learning1 though not actually first in any4 ,in mathematics he wrote two books ,on means 7,greek3 ,peri mesoteton7 which are lost1 but appear1 from a remark of ,pappus1 to have dealt with loci with reference to means4 ,he devised a mechanical construction for two mean proportionals1 reproduced by ,pappus and ,eutocius 7,comm4 on ,archimedes74 ,his ,greek3 koskinon or sieve 7cribrum ,eratosthenis7 was a device for discovering all prime numbers4 ,he laid the foundation of mathematical geography in his ,geographica1 in three books4 ,his greatest achievement was his measurement of the earth4 ,being informed that at ,syene 7,assuan71 on the day of the summer solstice at noon1 a well was lit up through all its depth1 so that ,syene lay on the tropic1 he measured1 at the same hour1 the zenith distance of the sun at ,alexandria4 ,he thus found the distance between ,syene and ,alexandria 7known to be #ejjj stadia7 to correspond to #a_/ejth of a great circle1 and so arrived at #bej1jjj stadia 7which he seems subsequently to have corrected to #beb1jjj7 as the circumference of the earth4 ,he is credited by ,ptolemy and his commentator ,theon with having found the distance between the tropics to be #aa_/hc rds4 of the meridian circle1 which gives #bc deg4 #ea' #bj for the obliquity of the ecliptic4 ,his astronomical poem ,hermes began apparently with the birth and exploits of ,hermes1 then passed to the legend of his having ordered the heavens1 the zones and the stars1 and gave a history of the latter4 ,his ,erigone1 of which a few fragments are also preserved1 is sometimes spoken of as a separate poem1 but it may have belonged to the ,hermes1 which appears also to have been known by other names such as ,catalogi4 ,the still extant ,catasterismi1 containing the story of certain stars in prose1 is probably not by ,eratosthenes4 ,eratosthenes was the founder of scientific chronology in his ,greek3 chronographia in which he endeavoured to fix the dates of the chief literary and political events from the conquest of ,troy4 ,an important work was his treatise on the old comedy1 dealing with theatres and theatrical apparatus generally1 and discussing the works of the principal comic poets themselves4 ,works on moral philosophy1 history1 and a number of letters were also attributed to him4 ,there is a complete edition of the fragments of ,eratosthenes by ,bernhardy 7#ahbb72 poetical fragments1 ,hillier 7#ahgb72 geographical1 ,seidel 7#agii7 and ,berger 7#ahhj72 ,greek3 katasterismoi1 ,schaubach 7#agie7 and ,robert 7#ahgh74 ,see ,sandys1 ,hist4 ,class4 ,schol4 i4 7#aijf74 7,t4 ,l4 ,h47 ,,erbach1 a town of ,germany1 in the grand-duchy of ,hesse-,darmstadt1 on the ,mumling1 #bb m4 ,s4,e4 of ,darmstadt4 ,it has cloth mills and ivory-turning1 for which last branch it possesses a technical school4 ,wool and cattle fairs are held twice a year4 ,pop4 #bhjj4 ,the castle contains an interesting collection of weapons and pictures1 and in the chapel are the coffins of ,einhard1 the friend and biographer of ,charlemagne1 and his wife1 ,emma4 ,erbach has long been the residence of the counts of ,erbach1 who trace their descent back to the #abth century1 and who held the office of cupbearer to the electors palatine of the ,rhine until #ahjf4 ,in #aecb the emperor ,charles ,v4 made the county a direct fief of the ,empire1 on account of the services rendered by ,count ,eberhard during the ,peasants' ,war4 ,since #agag the family has been divided into the three lines of ,erbach-,furstenau1 ,erbach-,erbach and ,erbach-,schonberg1 who rank for precedence1 not according to the age of their descent1 but according to the age of the chief of their line4 ,in #ahah the counts of ,erbach-,erbach inherited the county of ,wartenberg-,roth1 and in #aijc the count of ,erbach-,schonberg was granted the title of prince4 ,the county was mediatized in #ahjf1 and is now incorporated with the duchy of ,hesse-,darmstadt4 ,see ,simon1 ,die ,geschichte der ,dynasten und ,grafen zu ,erbach 7,frankfort1 #aheh74 ,,erbium 7symbol1 ,er2 atomic weight1 #afe-aff71 one of the metals of the rare earths4 ,the first of the rare earth minerals was discovered in #agid by ,j4 ,gadolin and was named gadolinite from its discoverer4 ,in #agig ,ekeberg showed that gadolinite contained another rare earth1 which was given the name yttria4 ,yttria is an exceedingly complex mixture1 which has been decomposed1 yielding as an intermediate product terbia4 ,this latter substance in its turn has been split by ,j4,l4 ,soret1 ,p4,t4 ,cleve1 ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran and others into erbia1 holmia1 thulia and dysprosia1 but it is still doubtful whether any one of these four splitting products is a single substance4 ,the rare earth metals are found in the minerals gadolinite1 samarskite1 fergusonite1 euxenite and cerite4 ,they are separated from the minerals by converting them into oxalates1 which by ignition give the corresponding oxides4 ,the oxides are then converted into double sulphates which are separated from each other by repeated fractional crystallization or by fractional precipitation with ammonia or some other base4 ,erbium forms rose-coloured salts and a rose-coloured oxide4 ,the oxide dissolves slowly in acids2 it is not reduced by hydrogen and is infusible4 ,the salts show a characteristic absorption spectrum4 ,see ,j4,f4 ,bahr and ,r4 ,bunsen 7,ann41 #ahff1 #acg1 p4 #a72 ,a4 v4 ,welsbach 7,monats41 #ahhc1 #d1 p4 #fda2 #ahhd1 #e1 p4 #ejh2 #ahhe1 #f1 p4 #dgg72 ,p4,t4 ,cleve 7,comptes rendus1 #ahgi1 #hi1 p4 #dgh2 #ahhj1 #ia1 pp4 #cbh1 #cha2 #ahhb1 #ie1 p4 #abbe2 ,bull4 de la soc4 chim41 #ahgd1 #ba1 p4 #aif2 #ahhc1 #ci1 p4 #bhg72 ,c4 ,marignac 7,ann4 ,chim4 phys41 #ahdi #c #bg1 p4 #bbf72 ,b4 ,brauner 7,monats41 #ahhb1 #c1 p4 #ac72 ,w4 ,crookes 7,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #ahhf1 #dj1 p4 #ejb72 ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran 7,comptes rendus1 #ahhf1 #ajb1 p4 #ajje72 ,a4 ,bettendorf 7,ann41 #ahib1 #bgj1 p4 #cgf72 ,m4 ,muthmann 7,ber41 #ahih1 #ca1 p4 #agah2 #aijj1 #cc1 p4 #db72 ,g4 ,kruss 7,zeit4 f4 anorg4 ,chem41 #ahic1 #c1 p4 #ajh74 ,,ercilla ,y ,,zuniga1 ,,alonso ,,de 7#aecc-aeie71 ,spanish soldier and poet1 was born in ,madrid on the #gth of ,august #aecc4 ,in #aedh he was appointed page to the heir-apparent1 afterwards ,philip ,,ii4 ,in this capacity ,ercilla visited ,italy1 ,germany and the ,netherlands1 and was present in #aeed at the marriage of his master to ,mary of ,england4 ,hearing that an expedition was preparing to subdue the ,araucanians of ,chile1 he joined the adventurers4 ,he distinguished himself in the ensuing campaign2 but1 having quarrelled with a comrade1 he was condemned to death in #aeeh by his general1 ,garcia ,hurtado de ,mendoza4 ,the sentence was commuted to imprisonment1 but ,ercilla was speedily released and fought at the battle of ,quipeo 7#adth of ,december #aeeh74 ,he returned to ,spain in #aefb1 visited ,italy1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,bohemia1 and in #aegj married ,maria de ,bazan1 a lady distantly connected with the ,santa ,cruz family2 in #aega he was made knight of the order of ,santiago1 and in #aegh he was employed by ,philip ,,ii4 on a mission to ,saragossa4 ,he complained of living in poverty but left a modest fortune1 and was obviously disappointed at not being offered the post of secretary of state4 ,his principal work is ,la ,araucana1 a poem based on the events of the wars in which he had been engaged4 ,it consists of three parts1 of which the first1 composed in ,chile and published in #aefi1 is a versified narrative adhering strictly to historic fact2 the second1 published in #aegh1 is encumbered with visions and other romantic machinery2 and the third1 which appeared in #aehi-aeij1 contains1 in addition to the subject proper1 a variety of episodes mostly irrelevant4 ,this so-called epic lacks symmetry1 and has been over-praised by ,cervantes and ,voltaire2 but it is written in excellent ,spanish1 and is full of vivid rhetorical passages4 ,an analysis of the poem was given by ,hayley in his ,essay on ,epic ,poetry 7#aghb74 ,a good biography precedes the ,morceaux choisis 7,paris1 #aijj7 by ,jean ,ducamin4 ,,erckmann-,,chatrian1 the joint names of two ,french writers whose collaboration made their work that of1 so to speak1 one personality4 ,,emile ,,erckmann 7#ahbb-ahii7 was born on the #bjth of ,may #ahbb at ,phalsbourg1 and ,,louis ,,gratien ,,charles ,,alexandre ,,chatrian 7#ahbf-ahij7 on the #ahth of ,december #ahbf at ,soldatenthal1 ,lorraine4 ,in #ahdg they began to write together1 and continued doing so till #ahhi4 ,chatrian died in #ahij at ,villemomble near ,paris1 and ,erckmann at ,luneville in #ahii4 ,the list of their publications is a long one1 ranging from the ,histoires et contes fantastiques 7#ahdi2 reprinted from the ,democrate du ,rhin71 ,l',illustre ,docteur ,matheus 7#ahei71 ,madame ,therese 7#ahfc71 ,l',ami ,fritz 7#ahfd71 ,histoire d'un conscrit de #ahac 7#ahfd71 ,waterloo 7#ahfe71 ,le ,blocus 7#ahfg71 ,histoire d'un paysan 7#d vols41 #ahfh-ahgj71 ,l',histoire du plebiscite 7#ahgb71 to ,le ,grand-pere ,lebigue 7#ahhj72 besides dramas like ,le ,juif polonais 7#ahfi7 and ,les ,rantzau 7#ahhb74 ,without any special literary claim1 their stories are distinguished by simplicity and genuine descriptive power1 particularly in the battle scenes and in connexion with ,alsatian peasant life4 ,they are marked by a genuine democratic spirit1 and by real patriotism1 which developed after #ahgj into hatred of the ,germans4 ,the authors attacked militarism by depicting the horrors of war in the plainest terms4 ,see also ,j4 ,claretie1 ,erckmann-,chatrian 7#ahhc71 in the series of ,celebrites contemporaines4 ,,erdelyi1 ,,janos 7#ahad-ahfh71 ,hungarian poet and author1 was born in #ahad at ,kapos1 in the county of ,ungvar1 and educated at the ,protestant college of ,sarospatak4 ,in #ahcc he removed to ,pest1 where he was1 in #ahci1 elected member of the ,hungarian ,academy of ,sciences4 ,his literary fame was made by his collection of ,hungarian national poems and folk-tales1 ,magyar ,nepkoltesi ,gyujtemeny1 ,nepdalok es ,mondak 7,pest1 #ahdf-ahdg74 ,this work1 published by the ,kisfaludy ,society1 was supplemented by a dissertation upon ,hungarian national poetry1 afterwards partially translated into ,german by ,stier 7,berlin1 #ahea74 ,erdelyi also compiled for the ,kisfaludy ,society an extensive collection of ,hungarian proverbs--,magyar ,kozmondasok konyve 7,pest1 #ahea71--;and was for some time editor of the ,szepirodalmi ,szemle 7,review of ,polite ,literature74 ,in #ahdh he was appointed director of the national theatre at ,pest2 but after #ahdi he resided at his native town4 ,he died on the #bcrd of ,january #ahfh4 ,a collection of folklore was published the year after his death1 entitled ,a ,nep ,kolteszete nepdalok1 nepmesek es kozmondasok 7,pest1 #ahfi74 ,this work contains #cjj national songs1 #ai folk-tales and #gcfb ,hungarian proverbs4 ,,erdmann1 ,,johann ,,eduard 7#ahje-ahib71 ,german philosophical writer1 was born at ,wolmar in ,livonia on the #acth of ,june #ahje4 ,he studied theology at ,dorpat and afterwards at ,berlin1 where he fell under the influence of ,hegel4 ,from #ahbi to #ahcb he was a minister of religion in his native town4 ,afterwards he devoted himself to philosophy1 and qualified in that subject at ,berlin in #ahcd4 ,in #ahcf he was professor-extraordinary at ,halle1 became full professor in #ahci1 and died there on the #abth of ,june #ahib4 ,he published many philosophical text-books and treatises1 and a number of sermons2 but his chief claim to remembrance rests on his elaborate ,grundriss der ,geschichte der ,philosophie 7#b vols41 #ahff71 the #crd edition of which has been translated into ,english4 ,erdmann's special merit is that he does not rest content with being a mere summarizer of opinions1 but tries to exhibit the history of human thought as a continuous and ever-developing effort to solve the great speculative problems with which man has been confronted in all ages4 ,his chief other works were3 ,leib und ,seele 7#ahcg71 ,grundriss der ,psychologie 7#ahdj71 ,grundriss der ,logik und ,metaphysik 7#ahda71 and ,psychologische ,briefe 7#ahea74 ,,erdmann1 ,,otto ,,linne 7#ahjd-ahfi71 ,german chemist1 son of ,karl ,gottfried ,erdmann 7#aggd-ahce71 the physician who introduced vaccination into ,saxony1 was born at ,dresden on the #aath of ,april #ahjd4 ,in #ahbj he began to attend the medico-chirurgical academy of his native place1 and in #ahbb he entered the university of ,leipzig where in #ahbg he became extraordinary professor1 and in #ahcj ordinary professor of chemistry4 ,this office he held until his death1 which happened at ,leipzig on the #ith of ,october #ahfi4 ,he was particularly successful as a teacher1 and the laboratory established at ,leipzig under his direction in #ahdc was long regarded as a model institution4 ,as an investigator he is best known for his work on nickel and indigo and other dye-stuffs4 ,with ,r4,f4 ,marchand 7#ahac-ahej7 he also carried out a number of determinations of atomic weights4 ,in #ahbh1 in conjunction with ,a4,f4,g4 ,werther 7#ahae-ahfi71 he founded the ,journal fur technische und okonomische ,chemie1 which became in #ahcd the ,journal fur praktische ,chemie4 ,he was also the author of ,uber das ,nickel 7#ahbg71 ,lehrbuch der ,chemie 7#ahbh71 ,grundriss der ,waarenkunde 7#ahcc71 and ,uber das ,studium der ,chemie 7#ahfa74 ,,erebus1 in ,greek mythology1 son 7according to ,hesiod1 ,theog4 #abc7 of ,chaos1 and father of ,aether 7upper air7 and ,hemera 7day7 by his sister ,nyx 7night74 ,the word1 which signifies darkness1 is in ,homer the gloomy subterranean region through which the departed shades pass into ,hades4 ,the entrance to it was in the extreme west1 on the borders of ,ocean1 in the mythical land of the ,cimmerians4 ,it is to be distinguished from ,tartarus1 the place of punishment for the wicked4 ,,erech 7,uruk in the ,babylonian inscriptions2 ,gr4 ,orchoe71 the ,biblical name of an ancient city of ,babylonia1 situated ,e4 of the present bed of the ,euphrates1 on the line of the ancient ,nil canal1 in a region of marshes1 about #adj m4 ,s4,s4,e4 from ,bagdad4 ,it was one of the oldest and most important cities of ,babylonia1 and the site of a famous temple1 called ,e-,anna1 dedicated to the worship of ,nana1 or ,ishtar4 ,erech played a very important part in the political history of the country from an early time1 exercising hegemony in ,babylonia at a period before the time of ,sargon4 ,later it was prominent in the national struggles of the ,babylonians against ,elam 7#bjjj ,b4,c4 and earlier71 in which it suffered severely2 recollections of these conflicts are embodied in the ,gilgamesh epic1 as it has come down to us through the library of ,assur-bani-pal4 ,erech enjoyed much distinction in the later times1 as a seat of learning and of the worship of ,ishtar1 and ,assur-bani-pal drew largely on its literary stores for his library at ,nineveh1 from which we derive our principal information concerning ancient ,babylonian literature4 ,the inscriptions found here show that it continued in existence through the ,persian and ,seleucid periods4 ,the ruins of the ancient site1 known as ,warka1 which are among the largest in all ,babylonia1 forming an irregular circle nearly #f m4 in circumference1 bounded by a wall1 still standing in some places to the height of #dj ft41 were explored and partially excavated by ,w4,k4 ,loftus in #ahej and #ahed4 ,the most conspicuous ruin1 now called ,abu-,berdi1 ,father of ,marsh ,grass1 or ,buwariye1 reed matting1 because of the layers of reeds between each twelve courses of unbaked brick1 is the ziggurat 7tower7 of the ancient temple of ,e-,anna4 ,it is about #ajj ft4 in height1 and strikingly resembles in general appearance the ruins of the ziggurat of the temple of ,enlil at ,nippur4 ,second to this in size was the ruin called ,wuswas1 a walled quadrangle1 including an area of more than seven and a half acres1 within which was an edifice #bdf ft4 long and #agd ft4 wide1 elevated on an artificial platform #ej ft4 in height4 ,the south-west facade1 still standing in some places to the height of #bc ft41 exhibited an interesting use of half columns1 and stepped recesses for purposes of decoration4 ,in another ruin ,loftus found a wall1 #cj ft4 long1 composed entirely of small yellow terra-cotta nail-headed cones1 such as have been discovered in great numbers1 inscribed and uninscribed1 used for votive purposes in connexion with walls at ,tello and elsewhere in ,babylonia4 ,his excavations being superficial1 the ,babylonian inscriptions found by him1 about one hundred in all1 exclusive of the ancient ,ur-,gur bricks from the temple1 belong in general to the neo-,babylonian1 ,persian and ,seleucid periods4 ,the older remains are buried deep beneath the huge mass of later debris4 ,loftus also discovered at ,erech1 almost everywhere within and without the walls1 great numbers of clay coffins1 piled one above another1 to the height of over #cj ft41 forming a vast and1 on the whole1 well-ordered cemetery belonging to the ,persian1 ,parthian and later occupations of ,babylonia1 during which period ,erech1 like other cities of the south1 evidently became a necropolis for a large extent of country4 ,after ,loftus's time the mounds were visited by various travellers1 but no further excavations have been conducted4 ,work on this important part of the site is attended with very great difficulties1 owing to the inaccessible position of the ruins1 the unsettled character of the country1 the frequent sand-storms1 and above all1 the immense mass of material of later periods which must be removed before a systematic excavation of the more ancient and interesting ruins could be undertaken4 ,a curious feature of the ,warka neighbourhood is the existence of conical sand-hills1 rising to a considerable height1 so compact as to be almost like stone4 ,these hills extend from ,warka northward as far as ,tel ,ede4 ,see ,w4,k4 ,loftus1 ,chaldaea and ,susiana 7#aheg72 ,j4,p4 ,peters1 ,nippur 7#ahig72 ,e4 ,sachau1 ,am ,euphrat und ,tigris 7#aijj74 ,cf4 also ,,nippur and authorities there quoted4 7,j4 ,p4 ,pe47 ,,erechtheum1 a temple 7commonly called after ,erechtheus1 to whom a portion of it was dedicated7 on the acropolis at ,athens1 unique in plan1 and in its execution the most refined example of the ,ionic order4 ,there is no clear evidence as to when the building was begun1 some placing it among the temples projected by ,pericles1 others assigning it to the time after the peace of ,nicias in #dba ,b4,c4 ,the work was interrupted by the stress of the ,peloponnesian ,war1 but in #dji ,b4,c4 a commission was appointed to make a report on the state of the building and to undertake its completion1 which was carried out in the following year4 ,the peculiar plan of the ,erechtheum has given rise to much speculation4 ,it may be due partly to the natural conformation of the rock and the differences of level1 partly to the necessity of enclosing within a single building several objects of ancient sanctity1 such as the mark of ,poseidon's trident and the spring that arose from it1 the sacred olive tree of ,athena1 and the tomb of ,cecrops4 ,but there are some features which cannot be so explained1 and which have led ,professor ,w4 ,dorpfeld and others to believe that the plan1 as we now have it1 is a modification or abridgment of the original design1 due to the same conservative influences as led to the curtailment of the plan of the ,propylaea 7q4v474 ,illustration3 ,plan pf the ,erechtheum4 ,the building as completed consisted of a temple of the ordinary type1 opening by a door and two windows to the east front1 before which stood a portico of six ,ionic columns4 ,this part was the temple of ,athena ,polias4 ,adjoining it on the west was the central chamber1 on a lower level2 this chamber was separated by a partition1 originally of wood and later of marble1 from the western compartment of the temple1 which was of peculiar construction4 ,the west end was formed by a wall1 on which stood four columns between antae2 but the main entrance to this western compartment was through a large and very ornate doorway on the north2 and a large ,ionic portico1 consisting of four columns in the front1 and one in the return on each side1 was placed in front of this door4 ,at the south end of the western compartment was a smaller door1 with steps leading up to the higher level1 within a projecting space enclosed by a low wall and covered with a projecting porch carried by six maidens or caryatides4 ,the construction of the building at this south-western corner shows that there was some sacred object that had to be bridged over by a huge block of marble2 this we know from inscriptions to have been the ,cecropeum or tomb of ,cecrops4 ,in the north portico a square hole in the floor1 with a corresponding hole in the roof above it1 must have given access to another sacred object1 the mark of ,poseidon's trident in the rock4 ,the sacred olive tree probably stood just outside the temple to the west in the ,pandroseion4 ,the ,ionic order1 as used in this temple1 is of the most ornate ,attic type4 ,the bases of the columns are either reeded or decorated with a plait-pattern2 the capital has the broad channel between the volutes subdivided by a carefully-profiled incision2 and the top of the shafts is ornamented by a broad band of palmette or honeysuckle pattern4 ,a similar band of ornament runs round the top of the walls outside1 and at their base is a reeded torus4 ,the frieze consisted of white marble figures in relief1 affixed to a background of black ,eleusinian stone4 ,the contents of the ,erechtheum are described by ,pausanias4 ,it contained the ancient image of ,athena ,polias1 and three altars1 one to ,poseidon and ,erechtheus1 one to ,butes and one to ,hephaestus2 there were portraits of the family of the ,butadae on the walls4 ,within it was also the gold lamp of ,callimachus1 which burnt for a year without refilling1 and had a chimney in the form of a palm-tree4 ,the ,erechtheum was damaged by a fire1 soon after its completion1 in #djf ,b4,c41 but was repaired early in the following century4 ,the west end appears to have been damaged in ,roman times and to have been replaced by the attached columns with windows between them which appear in old drawings and are still partially extant4 ,it was used as a church in ,christian times1 and under ,turkish rule as the harem of the governor of ,athens4 ,lord ,elgin carried off to ,london1 about #ahja-ahjc1 one of the columns of the east portico and one of the caryatides2 these were replaced later by terra-cotta casts4 ,during the siege of the ,acropolis in #ahbg1 the roof of the north portico was thrown down and the building was otherwise much damaged4 ,it was partially rebuilt between #ahch and #ahdf2 the west front was blown down in a storm in #aheb4 ,since #aijj the project of rebuilding the ,erechtheum as far as possible with the original blocks has again been undertaken4 ,see ,stuart1 ,antiquities of ,athens2 ,inwood1 ,the ,erechtheum2 ,h4 ,forster in ,papers of ,american ,school at ,athens1 i4 7#ahhb-ahhc72 ,j4,h4 ,middleton1 ,plans and ,drawings of ,athenian ,buildings 7#aijj71 pls4 xiv4-xxii42 ,e4,a4 ,gardner1 ,ancient ,athens1 chap4 viii42 ,w4 ,dorpfeld1 ,der ursprungliche ,plan des ,erechtheion in ,mitteil4 ,athen41 #aijd1 p4 #aja1 taf4 #f2 ,g4,p4 ,stevens1 ,the ,east ,wall of the ,erechtheum1 in ,american ,journ4 ,arch41 #aijf1 pls4 vi4-ix4 7,e4 ,gr47 ,,erechtheus1 in ,greek legend1 a mythical king of ,athens1 originally identified with ,erichthonius1 but in later times distinguished from him4 ,according to ,homer1 who knows nothing of ,erichthonius1 he was the son of ,aroura 7,earth71 brought up by ,athena1 with whom his story is closely connected4 ,in the later story1 ,erichthonius 7son of ,hephaestus and ,atthis or ,athena herself7 was handed over by ,athena to the three daughters of ,cecrops--,aglauros 7or ,agraulos71 ,herse and ,pandrosos--in a chest1 which they were forbidden to open4 ,aglauros and ,herse disobeyed the injunction1 and when they saw the child 7which had the form of a snake1 or round which a snake was coiled7 they went mad with fright1 and threw themselves from the rock of the ,acropolis 7or were killed by the snake74 ,athena herself then undertook the care of ,erichthonius1 who1 when he grew up1 drove out ,amphictyon and took possession of the kingdom of ,athens4 ,here he established the worship of ,athena1 instituted the ,panathenaea1 and built an ,erechtheum4 ,the ,erechtheus of later times was supposed to be the grandson of ,erechtheus-,erichthonius1 and was also king of ,athens4 ,when ,athens was attacked by the ,thracian ,eumolpus 7or by the ,eleusinians assisted by ,eumolpus7 victory was promised ,erechtheus if he sacrificed one of his daughters4 ,eumolpus was slain and ,erechtheus was victorious1 but was himself killed by ,poseidon1 the father of ,eumolpus1 or by a thunderbolt from ,zeus4 ,the contest between ,erechtheus and ,eumolpus formed the subject of a lost tragedy by ,euripides2 ,swinburne has utilized the legend in his ,erechtheus4 ,the scene of the opening of the chest is represented on a ,greek vase in the ,british ,museum4 ,the name ,erichthonius is connected with ,greek3 chthon 7earth7 and the representation of him as half-snake1 like ,cecrops1 indicates that he was regarded as one of the autochthones1 the ancestors of the ,athenians who sprung from the soil4 ,see ,apollodorus iii4 #ad4 #ae2 ,euripides1 ,ion2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 ii4 #eec2 ,hyginus1 ,poet4 astron4 ii4 #ac2 ,pausanias i4 #b4 #e4 #h2 ,e4 ,ermatinger1 ,die attische ,autochthonensage 7#ahig72 article by ,j4,a4 ,hild in ,daremberg and ,saglio's ,dictionnaire des antiquites2 ,b4 ,powell in ,cornell ,studies1 xvii4 7#aijf71 who identifies ,erechtheus1 ,erichthonius1 ,poseidon and ,cecrops1 all denoting the sacred serpent of ,athena1 whose cult she first contested1 but then amalgamated with her own4 ,the birth of ,erichthonius 7as a corn-spirit7 is interpreted by ,mannhardt as a mythical way of describing the growth of the corn1 and by ,j4,e4 ,harrison 7,myths and ,monuments of ,ancient ,athens1 xxvii4-xxxvi47 as a fiction to explain the ceremony performed by the two maidens called ,arrephori4 ,see also ,farnell1 ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 i4 #bgj2 and ,frazer's ,pausanias1 ii4 #afi4 ,,ereshkigal1 also known as ,,allatu1 the name of the chief ,babylonian goddess of the nether-world where the dead are gathered4 ,her name signifies lady of the nether-world4 ,she is known to us chiefly through two myths1 both symbolizing the change of seasons1 but intended also to illustrate certain doctrines developed in the temple-schools of ,babylonia4 ,one of these myths is the famous story of ,ishtar's descent to ,irkalla or ,aralu1 as the lower world was called1 and her reception by her sister who presides over it2 the other is the story of ,nergal's offence against ,ereshkigal1 his banishment to the kingdom controlled by the goddess and the reconciliation between ,nergal and ,ereshkigal through the latter's offer to have ,nergal share the honours of the rule over ,irkalla4 ,the story of ,ishtar's descent is told to illustrate the possibility of an escape from ,irkalla1 while the other myth is intended to reconcile the existence of two rulers of ,irkalla--a goddess and a god4 ,it is evident that it was originally a goddess who was supposed to be in control of ,irkalla1 corresponding to ,ishtar in control of fertility and vegetation on earth4 ,ereshkigal is therefore the sister of ,ishtar and from one point of view her counterpart1 the symbol of nature during the non-productive season of the year4 ,as the doctrine of two kingdoms1 one of this world and one of the world of the dead1 becomes crystallized1 the dominions of the two sisters are sharply differentiated from one another4 ,the addition of ,nergal represents the harmonizing tendency to unite with ,ereshkigal as the queen of the nether-world the god who1 in his character as god of war and of pestilence1 conveys the living to ,irkalla and thus becomes the one who presides over the dead4 7,m4 ,ja47 ,,eretria 7mod4 ,aletria71 an ancient coast town of ,euboea about #ae m4 ,s4,e4 of ,chalcis1 opposite to ,oropus4 ,eretria1 like its neighbour ,chalcis 7q4v471 early entered upon a commercial and colonizing career4 ,besides founding townships in the west and north of ,greece1 it acquired dependencies among the ,cyclades and joined the great mercantile alliance of ,miletus and ,aegina4 ,since the so-called ,lelantine ,war 7#gth century ,b4,c47 against the coming league of ,chalcis1 it began to be overshadowed by its rivals4 ,the interference of ,eretria in the ,ionian revolt 7#dih7 brought upon it the vengeance of the ,persians1 who captured and destroyed it shortly before the battle of ,marathon 7#dij74 ,the city was soon rebuilt1 and as a member of both the ,delian ,leagues attached itself by numerous treaties to the ,athenians4 ,the latter1 through their general ,phocion1 rescued it from the tyrants suborned by ,philip of ,macedon 7#ced and #cda74 ,under ,macedonian and ,roman rule ,eretria fell into insignificance2 for a short period under ,mark ,antony1 the triumvir1 it became a possession of ,athens4 ,eretria was the birthplace of the tragedian ,achaeus and of the ,megarian philosopher ,menedemus4 ,the modern village1 which is sometimes called ,nea ,psara because the inhabitants of ,psara were transferred there in #ahba1 is on unhealthy low-lying ground near the sea4 ,the excavation of the site was carried out by the ,american ,school of ,athens 7#ahij-ahie74 ,at the foot of the ,acropolis ,hill1 where the ground begins to rise1 the theatre lies2 and though the material of which this was built is rough1 and only seven imperfect rows of seats remain1 a good part of the scena and of the chambers behind it is preserved1 and beneath these there runs a tunnel1 which1 together with other peculiar features1 has raised interesting questions in connexion with the arrangement of the ,greek theatre1 the orchestra being at present on a level about #ab ft4 below that of the rooms in the scena4 ,near by are the substructions of a temple of ,dionysus and a large altar1 and also a gymnasium with arrangements for bathing4 ,besides these1 in #aijj the substructions of a temple of ,apollo ,daphnephoros were unearthed4 ,both the northern and the southern side of the hill are flanked by walls1 which seem to have reached the sea1 where there was a mole and a harbour2 and the wall of the acropolis itself remains in one part to the height of eight courses4 ,,authorities4--,strabo x4 #ddg f42 ,herodotus v4 #ii1 vi4 #aja2 ,corpus ,inscr4 ,atticarum1 i4 #cci1 iv4 7#b71 pp4 #e1 #aj1 #bb2 ,h4 ,heinze1 ,de rebus ,eretriensium 7,gottingen1 #ahfi72 ,w4,m4 ,leake1 ,travels in ,northern ,greece 7,london1 #ahce71 ii4 #bff1 #ddc2 ,b4,v4 ,head1 ,historia numorum 7,oxford1 #ahhg71 pp4 #cje-cjh2 ,papers of the ,american ,school at ,athens1 vol4 vi4 7,e4 ,gr47 ,,eretrian ,,school ,,of ,,philosophy4 ,this ,greek school was the continuation of the ,elian school1 which was transferred to ,eretria by ,menedemus4 ,it was of small importance1 and in the absence of certain knowledge must be supposed to have adhered to the doctrines of ,socrates4 7,see ,,menedemus47 ,,erfurt1 a city of ,germany1 in ,prussian ,saxony1 on the ,gera1 and the railway ,halle-,bebra1 about midway between ,gotha and ,weimar1 which are #ad m4 distant4 ,pop4 7#ahge7 #dh1jbe2 7#aije7 #ajj1jfe4 ,the city1 which is dominated on the west by the two citadels of ,petersberg and ,cyriaxburg1 is irregularly built1 the only feature in its plan1 or want of plan1 being the ,friedrich ,wilhelmsplatz1 a broad open space of irregular shape abutting on the ,petersberg4 ,on the south-western side of this square1 which contains a monument to the elector ,frederick ,charles ,joseph of ,mainz 7#agai-ahjb71 is the ,domberg1 an eminence on which stand1 side by side1 the cathedral and the great church of ,st ,severus with its three spires 7#adth century74 ,the churches are approached by a flight of forty-eight stone steps1 the grouping of the whole mass of buildings being exceedingly impressive4 ,the cathedral 7,beatae ,mariae ,virginis7 is one of the finest churches in ,germany4 ,it was begun in the #abth century1 but the nave was rebuilt in the #acth in the ,gothic style4 ,the magnificent chancel 7#acdi-acgb71 with the #adth-century crypt below1 rests on massive substructures1 known as the ,cavate4 ,the twin towers are set between the chancel and nave4 ,the cathedral contains1 besides fine #aeth-century glass1 some very rich portal sculptures and bronze castings1 among others the coronation of the ,virgin by ,peter ,vischer4 ,in one of its towers is the famous bell1 called ,maria ,gloriosa1 which bears the date #adig1 and weighs #bgj cwt4 ,besides the cathedral and ,st ,severus1 which are ,roman ,catholic1 ,erfurt possesses several very interesting medieval churches1 now ,evangelical4 ,among these may be mentioned the ,predigerkirche1 dating from the latter half of the #abth century2 the ,reglerkirche1 a ,romanesque building 7restored in #ahei7 with a #abth-century tower2 and the ,barfusserkirche1 a ,gothic building containing fine #adth-century monuments4 ,all these were originally monastic churches4 ,of the former religious houses there survive a ,franciscan convent1 with a girls' school attached1 and an ,ursuline convent4 ,the ,augustinian monastery1 in which ,luther lived as a friar1 is now used as an orphanage1 under the name of the ,martinsstift4 ,the cell of ,luther was destroyed by fire in #ahgb4 ,a bronze statue of the reformer was erected in the ,anger1 the chief street of the town1 in #ahij4 ,at one time ,erfurt had a university1 of which the charter dated from #acib2 but it was suppressed in #ahaf1 and its funds devoted to other purposes1 among these being the endowment of an institution founded in #ageh and now called the royal academy of sciences1 and the support of the royal library1 which now contains #fj1jjj volumes and over #ajjj manuscripts4 ,on the ,w4 and ,s4,w4 extensive new quarters have grown up within recent years1 e4g4 ,hirschbruhl4 ,the interior of the town hall 7#ahfi-ahge7 is adorned with legendary and historical frescoes by ,kampfer and ,peter ,janssen4 ,erfurt possesses also a picture gallery and an antiquarian collection4 ,the educational establishments of the town include a gymnasium1 a realgymnasium1 a realschule1 technical schools for building and handicrafts1 a high-class commercial school1 a school of agriculture1 and an academy of music4 ,the most notable industry of ,erfurt is the culture of flowers and of vegetables1 which is very extensively carried on4 ,this industry had its origin in the large gardens attached to the monasteries4 ,it has also important and growing manufactures of ladies' mantles1 boots and shoes1 machines1 furniture1 woollen goods1 musical instruments1 agricultural machinery and implements1 leather1 tobacco1 chemicals1 c4 ,brewing1 bleaching and dyeing are also carried on on a large scale1 and there are extensive railway works and a government rifle factory4 ,erfurt 7,med4 ,erpesfurt1 ,erphorde1 ,lat4 ,erfordia7 is a town of great antiquity4 ,its origin is obscure1 but in #gda it was sufficiently important for ,st ,boniface to found a bishopric here1 which was1 however1 after the martyrdom of the first bishop1 ,adolar1 in #gee1 reabsorbed in that of ,mainz4 ,in #hje the place received certain market rights from the emperor ,charlemagne4 ,later the overlordship was claimed by the archbishops of ,mainz1 on the strength of charters granted by the emperor ,otto ,i41 and their authority in ,erfurt was maintained by a burgrave and an advocatus1 the office of the latter becoming in the #abth century hereditary in the family of the counts of ,gleichen4 ,in spite of many vicissitudes 7from #aaji to #aacg1 for instance1 the town was subject to the landgraves of ,thuringia71 and of a charter granted in #abdb by the emperor ,frederick ,,ii41 the archbishops succeeded in upholding their claims4 ,in #abee1 however1 ,archbishop ,gerhard ,i4 had to grant the city municipal rights1 the burgraviate disappeared1 and ,erfurt became practically a free town4 ,its power was at its height early in the #aeth century1 when it joined the ,hanseatic ,league4 ,it had acquired by force or purchase various countships and other fiefs in the neighbourhood1 and ruled a considerable territory2 and its wealth was so great that in #acgh it established a university1 the first in ,europe that embraced the four faculties4 ,by the end of the century1 however1 its prosperity had sunk owing to the perpetual feud with ,mainz1 the internecine war in ,saxony1 and the consequent dwindling of trade4 ,by the convention of ,amorbach in #adhc the overlordship of ,erfurt was ultimately transferred by the electors of ,mainz to ,saxony4 ,the political and religious quarrels of the #afth century still further depressed the city1 in which the reformed religion was established in #aeba4 ,then came the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 during which ,erfurt was for a while occupied by the ,swedes4 ,after the peace of ,westphalia 7#afdh7 the city was assigned by the emperor to the elector of ,mainz1 and1 on its refusal to submit1 it was placed under the ban of the ,empire 7#affj74 ,in #affd it was captured by the troops of the archbishop of ,mainz1 and remained in the possession of the electorate till #ahjb1 when it came into the possession of ,prussia4 ,in #ahjh it was the scene of the memorable interview between ,napoleon and the emperor ,alexander ,i4 of ,russia1 at which the kings of ,bavaria1 ,saxony1 ,westphalia and ,wurttemberg also assisted1 which is known as the congress of ,erfurt4 ,here in #ahej the parliament of the short-lived ,prussian ,northern ,union 7known as the ,erfurt parliament7 held its sittings4 ,in #aijb the #ajjth anniversary of the city's incorporation with ,prussia was celebrated4 ,see ,w4,j4,a4 von ,tettau1 ,erfurt in seiner ,vergangenheit und ,gegenwart 7,erfurt1 #ahhj72 ,c4 ,beyer1 ,geschichte der ,stadt ,erfurt 7,erfurt1 #aijj72 and ,f4,w4 ,kampschulte1 ,die ,universitat ,erfurt in ihrem ,verhaltnisse zu dem ,humanismus und der ,reformation 7#ahef-aheh74 ,for a detailed bibliography see ,u4 ,chevalier1 ,repertoire des sources4 ,topo-bibliographie 7,montebeliard1 #ahid-ahii71 s4v4 ,,ergot1 or ,,spurred ,,rye1 the drug ergota or ,secale cornutum 7,ger4 ,mutterkorn2 ,fr4 seigle ergote71 consisting of the sclerotium 7or hard resting condition7 of a fungus1 ,claviceps purpurea1 parasitic on the pistils of many members of the ,grass family1 but obtained almost exclusively from rye1 ,secale cereale4 ,in the ear of rye that is infected with ergot a species of fermentation takes place1 and there exudes from it a sweet yellowish mucus1 which after a time disappears4 ,the ear loses its starch1 and ceases to grow1 and its ovaries become penetrated with the white spongy tissue of the mycelium of the fungus which towards the end of the season forms the sclerotium1 in which state the fungus lies dormant through the winter4 ,the drug consists of grains1 usually curved 7hence the name1 from the ,o4 ,fr4 argot1 a cock's spur71 which are violet-black or dark-purple externally1 and whitish with a tinge of pink within1 are between #a_/c and #a-a_/b in4 long1 and from #a to #d lines broad1 and have two lateral furrows1 a close fracture1 a disagreeable rancid taste1 and a faint1 fishy odour1 which last becomes more perceptible when the powder of the drug is mixed with potash solution4 ,ergot should be kept in stoppered bottles in order to preserve it from the attacks of a species of mite1 and to prevent the oxidation of its fatty oil4 ,the extremely complex composition of this drug has been studied in great detail1 and with such important results that instead of giving ergot itself by the mouth in doses of #bj to #fj grains1 it is now possible to obtain much more rapid and certain results by giving one three-hundredth of a grain of one of its constituents hypodermically4 ,this constituent is the alkaloid cornutine1 which is the valuable ingredient of the drug4 ,other ingredients are a fixed oil1 present to the extent of #cj1 ergotinic acid1 a glucoside1 trimethylamine1 which gives the drug its unpleasant odour1 and sphacelinic acid1 a non-nitrogenous resinoid body4 ,of the numerous preparations only two need be mentioned--the liquid extract 7dose #aj minims to #b drachms or more71 and the hypodermic injection4 ,the latter does not keep well1 and the best way of using ergot is to dissolve tablets obtained from a reputable maker1 and containing some of the active principles1 in pure water1 the solution being injected subcutaneously4 ,ergot has no external action4 ,given internally it stimulates the intestinal muscles and may cause diarrhoea4 ,after absorption it slows the pulse by stimulation of the vagus nerves4 ,it has indeed been asserted that the slow pulse characteristic of the puerperal period is really due to the common administration of ergot at that time4 ,this is probably an exaggeration4 ,the important actions of ergot are on the blood-vessels and the uterus4 ,the drug greatly raises the blood-pressure by causing extreme contraction of the arteries4 ,this is mainly due to a direct action on the muscular coats of the vessels1 but is also partly of central origin1 since the drug also stimulates the vaso-motor centre in the medulla oblongata4 ,this action on the vessels is so marked as to constitute the drug a haemostatic1 not only locally but also remotely4 ,it may arrest bleeding from the nose1 for instance1 when injected hypodermically4 ,nearly all the constituents share in causing this action1 but the sphacelinic acid is probably the most potent4 ,ergot is the most powerful known stimulant of the pregnant uterus4 ,the action is a double one4 ,at least four of its constituents act directly on the muscular fibre of the uterus1 whilst the cornutine acts through the nerves4 ,of great practical importance is the fact that the cornutine causes rhythmic contractions such as naturally occur1 whilst the sphacelinic acid produces a tonic contraction of the uterus1 which is unnatural and highly inimical to the life of the foetus4 ,ergot is used in therapeutics as a haemostatic1 and is very valuable in haemoptysis and sometimes in haematemesis4 ,but its great use is in obstetrics4 ,the drug should regularly be given hypodermically1 and it is important to note that if the injection be made immediately under the skin1 an abscess1 or considerable discomfort1 may ensue4 ,the injection should be intra-muscular1 the needle being boldly plunged into a muscular mass1 such as that of the deltoid or the gluteal region4 ,the indications for the use of ergot in obstetrics are highly complex and demand detailed treatment4 ,it can only be said here that the drug should only in the rarest possible cases be given whilst the child is still in utero4 ,this rule is necessitated by the sphacelinic acid1 which causes an unnatural state of the organ4 ,when it is possible to obtain pure cornutine1 which is unfortunately very expensive1 the precautions necessary in other cases may be abrogated4 ,chronic poisoning1 or ergotism1 used frequently to occur amongst the poor fed on rye infected with the ,claviceps4 ,as it is practically impossible to reproduce the symptoms of ergotism nowadays1 whether experimentally in the lower animals1 or when the drug is being administered to a human being for some therapeutic purpose1 it is believed that the symptoms of ergotism were rendered possible only by the semi-starvation which must have ensued from the use of such rye-bread2 for the grain disappears as the fungus develops4 ,there were two types of ergotism4 ,in the gangrenous form various parts of the body underwent gangrene as a consequence of the arrest of blood-supply produced by the action of sphacelinic acid on the arteries4 ,in the spasmodic form the symptoms were of a nervous character4 ,the initial indications of the disease were cutaneous itching1 tingling and formication1 which gave place to actual loss of cutaneous sensation1 first observed in the extremities4 ,amblyopia and some loss of hearing also occurred1 as well as mental failure4 ,with weakness of the voluntary muscles went intermittent spasms which weakened the patient and ultimately led to death by implication of the respiratory muscles4 ,the last-known epidemic of ergotism occurred in ,lorraine and ,burgundy in the year #ahaf4 ,,eric ,,xiv4 7#aecc-aegg71 king of ,sweden1 was the only son of ,gustavus ,vasa and ,catherine of ,saxe-,lauenburg4 ,the news of his father's death reached ,eric as he was on the point of embarking for ,england to press in person his suit for the hand of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,he hastened back to ,stockholm1 after burying his father1 summoned a ,riksdag1 which met at ,arboga on the #aeth of ,april #aefa1 and adopted the royal propositions known as the ,arboga articles1 considerably curtailing the authority of the royal dukes1 ,john and ,charles1 in their respective provinces4 ,two months later ,eric was crowned at ,upsala1 on which occasion he first introduced the titles of baron and count into ,sweden1 by way of attaching to the crown the higher nobility1 these new counts and barons receiving lucrative fiefs adequate to the maintenance of their new dignities4 ,from the very beginning of his reign ,eric's morbid fear of the upper classes drove him to give his absolute confidence to a man of base origin and bad character1 though1 it must be admitted1 of superior ability4 ,this was ,goran ,persson1 born about #aecj1 who had been educated abroad in ,lutheran principles1 and after narrowly escaping hanging at the hands of ,gustavus ,vasa for some vile action entered the service of his son4 ,this powerful upstart was the natural enemy of the nobility1 who suffered much at his hands1 though it is very difficult to determine whether the initiative in these prosecutions proceeded from him or his master4 ,goran was also a determined opponent of ,duke ,john1 with whom ,eric in #aefc openly quarrelled1 because ,john1 contrary to the royal orders1 had married 7,oct4 #d1 #aefb7 ,catherine1 daughter of ,sigismund ,i4 of ,poland1 engaging at the same time to assist the ,polish king to conquer ,livonia4 ,this act was a flagrant breach of that paragraph of the ,arboga articles which forbade the royal dukes to contract any political treaty without the royal assent4 ,an army of #aj1jjj men was immediately sent by ,eric to ,john's duchy of ,finland1 and ,john and his consort were seized1 brought over to ,sweden and detained as prisoners of state in ,gripsholm ,castle4 ,but ,eric did not stop here4 ,his suspicion suggested to him that1 if his own brother failed him1 the loyalty of the great nobles1 especially the members of the ancient ,sture family1 who had been notable in ,sweden when the ,vasas were unknown1 could not be depended upon4 ,the head of the ,sture family at this time was ,count ,svante1 who had married a sister of ,gustavus ,vasa's second wife1 and had by her a numerous family1 of whom two sons1 ,nils and ,eric1 still survived4 ,the dark tragedy1 known as the ,sture murders1 began with ,eric ,,xiv4's strange treatment of young ,count ,nils4 ,in #aeff he was summoned before a newly erected tribunal and condemned to death for gross neglect of duty1 though not one of the frivolous charges brought against him could be substantiated4 ,the death penalty was commuted into a punishment worse because more shameful than death4 ,on the #aeth of ,june #aeff the unfortunate youth1 bruised and bleeding from shocking ill-treatment1 was placed upon a wretched hack1 with a crown of straw on his head1 and led in derision through the streets of ,stockholm4 ,the following night he was sent a prisoner to the fortress of ,orbyhus4 ,a few days later he was appointed ambassador extraordinary1 and despatched to ,lorraine to resume the negotiations for ,eric's marriage with the princess ,renata4 ,before he returned1 however1 ,eric had resolved to marry ,karin1 or ,kitty ,mansdatter1 the daughter of a common soldier1 who had been his mistress since #aefe4 ,in ,january #aefg ,eric extorted a declaration from two of his senators that they would assist him to punish all who should try to prevent his projected marriage2 and1 in the middle of ,may1 a ,riksdag was summoned to ,upsala to judge between the king and those of the aristocracy whom he regarded as his personal enemies4 ,eric himself arrived at ,upsala on the #afth in a condition of incipient insanity4 ,on the #aith he opened parliament in a speech which1 as he explained1 he had to deliver extempore owing to the treachery of his secretary4 ,two days later ,nils ,sture arrived at ,upsala fresh from his embassy to ,lorraine1 and was at once thrown into prison1 where other members of the nobility were already detained4 ,on the following day ,eric murdered ,nils in his cell with his own hand1 and by his order the other prisoners were despatched by the royal provost marshal forthwith4 ,these murders were committed so promptly and secretly that it is doubtful whether the estates1 actually in session at the same place1 knew what had been done when1 on the #bfth of ,may1 under violent pressure from ,goran ,persson1 they signed a document declaring that all the accused gentlemen under detention had acted like traitors1 and confirming all sentences already passed or that might be passed upon them4 ,during the greater part of #aefg ,eric was so deranged that a committee of senators was appointed to govern the kingdom4 ,one of his illusions was that not he was king but his brother ,john1 whom he now set at liberty4 ,when1 at the beginning of #aefh1 ,eric recovered his reason1 a reconciliation was effected between the king and the duke1 on condition that ,john recognized the legality of his brother's marriage with ,karin ,mansdatter1 and her children as the successors to the throne4 ,a month later1 on the #dth of ,july1 he was solemnly married to ,karin at ,stockholm by the primate4 ,the next day ,karin was crowned queen of ,sweden and her infant son ,gustavus proclaimed prince-royal4 ,shortly after his marriage ,eric issued a circular ordering a general thanksgiving for his delivery from the assaults of the devil4 ,this document1 in every line of which madness is legible1 convinced most thinking people that ,eric was unfit to reign4 ,the royal dukes1 ,john and ,charles1 had already taken measures to depose him2 and in ,july the rebellion broke out in ,ostergotland4 ,eric at first offered a stout resistance and won two victories2 but on the #agth of ,september the dukes stood before ,stockholm1 and ,eric1 after surrendering ,goran ,persson to the horrible vengeance of his enemies1 himself submitted1 and resigned the crown4 ,on the #cjth of ,september #aefh ,john ,,iii4 was proclaimed king by the army and the nobility2 and a ,riksdag1 summoned to ,stockholm1 confirmed the choice and formally deposed ,eric on the #beth of ,january #aefi4 ,for the next seven years the ex-king was a source of the utmost anxiety to the new government4 ,no fewer than three rebellions1 with the object of releasing and reinstating him1 had to be suppressed1 and his prison was changed half a dozen times4 ,on the #ajth of ,march #aege1 an assembly of notables1 lay and clerical1 at ,john's request1 pronounced a formal sentence of death upon him4 ,two years later1 on the #bdth of ,february #aegg1 he died suddenly in his new prison at ,orbyhus1 poisoned1 it is said1 by his governor1 ,johan ,henriksen4 ,see ,sveriges ,historia1 vol4 iii4 7,stockholm1 #ahhj72 ,robert ,nisbet ,bain1 ,scandinavia1 cap4 #d-f 7,cambridge1 #aije72 ,eric ,tegel1 ,konung ,eriks den ,,xiv4 historia 7,stockholm1 #agea74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,ericaceae1 in botany1 a natural order of plants belonging to the higher or gamopetalous division of ,dicotyledons4 ,they are woody plants1 sometimes with a slender creeping stem as in bilberry1 ,vaccinium 7fig4 #a71 or ,andromeda 7fig4 #b71 or forming low bushes as in the heaths1 or larger1 sometimes becoming tree-like1 as in species of ,rhododendron4 ,the leaves are alternate1 opposite or whorled in arrangement1 and in their form and structure show well-marked adaptation for life in dry or exposed situations4 ,thus in the true heaths they are needle-like1 with the margins often rolled back to form a groove or an almost closed chamber on the under side4 ,in others such as ,rhododendron or ,arbutus they are often leathery and evergreen1 the strongly cuticularized upper surface protecting a water-storing tissue situated above the green layers of the leaf4 ,the flowers are sometimes solitary and axillary or terminal as in ,andromeda1 but are generally arranged in racemose inflorescences at the end of the branches as in ,arbutus and ,rhododendron1 or on small lateral shoots as in ,erica4 ,they are hermaphrodite and generally regular with parts in #d or #e1 thus3 sepals #d or #e1 petals #d or #e1 stamens #h or #aj in two series1 the outer of which is opposite the petals1 and carpels #d or #e4 ,the corolla is usually more or less bell-shaped1 and in the heaths persists in a dry state in the fruit4 ,the petals with the stamens are situated on the outer edge of a honey-secreting disk4 ,the anthers show a very great variety in shape1 the halves are often more or less free and often appendaged2 they open to allow the escape of the pollen by a terminal pore or slit4 ,the carpels are united to form a #d- to #e-;chambered ovary1 which bears a simple elongated style ending in a capitate stigma2 each ovary-chamber contains one to many ovules attached to a central placenta4 ,the brightly coloured corolla1 the presence of nectar and the scent render the flowers attractive to insects1 and the projection of the stigma beyond the anthers favours crossing4 ,the fruit is generally a capsule containing many seeds1 as in ,erica 7fig4 #c7 or ,rhododendron2 sometimes a berry as in ,arbutus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,vaccinium vitis-idaea1 with leaf and flower1 nat4 size4 #a1 ,flower of ,v4 myrtillus1 cut lengthwise4 #b1 ,fruit of same4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,andromeda ,hypnoides1 nat4 size4 #a1 ,flower2 #b1 ,unripe fruit cut across2 #c1 ,stamen--all enlarged4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 #a1 ,flowering shoot of ,erica cinerea1 about #a-a_/b nat4 size4 #b1 ,flower cut lengthwise4 #c1 ,stamen showing appendages and porous dehiscence of anther4 #d1 ,capsule showing the loculicidal dehiscence2 a few seeds remain attached to the central axis4 #e1 ,diagram of the flower having four sepals1 four divisions of the corolla1 eight stamens in two rows1 and four divisions of the pistil4 ,the order falls into four distinct tribes1 which are characterized by the relative position of the ovary and by the fruit and seed4 ,they are as follows3-- #a4 ,rhododendron tribe1 characterized by capsular fruit1 seed with a loose coat1 deciduous petals and anthers without appendages4 ,it consists mainly of the great genus ,rhododendron 7in which ,azalea is included by recent botanists71 which is chiefly developed in the mountains of eastern ,asia1 many species occurring on the ,himalayas4 ,dabeocia1 ,st ,dabeoc's heath1 occurs in ,ireland4 #b4 ,arbutus ,tribe4--,fruit a berry or capsule1 petals deciduous and anthers with bristle-like appendages1 chiefly north temperate to arctic in distribution4 ,arbutus ,unedo1 the strawberry-tree1 so called from its large scarlet berry1 is a southern ,european species which extends into south ,ireland4 ,arctostaphylos 7bearberry7 and ,andromeda are arctic and alpine genera occurring in ,britain4 ,epigaea repens is the trailing arbutus or mayflower of ,atlantic ,america4 #c4 ,vaccinium ,tribe4--,ovary inferior1 fruit a berry4 ,extends from the north temperate zone to the mountains of the tropics4 ,vaccinium1 the largest genus1 has four ,british species3 ,v4 ,myrtillus is the bilberry 7q4v471 blaeberry or whortleberry1 ,v4 ,vitis-,idaea the cowberry1 and ,v4 ,oxycoccos the cranberry 7q4v474 ,this tribe is sometimes regarded as a separate order ,vacciniaceae1 distinguished by its inferior ovary4 #d4 ,erica ,tribe4--,fruit usually a capsule1 seeds round1 not winged2 corolla persisting round the ripe fruit2 anthers often appendaged4 ,the largest genus is ,erica1 the true heath 7q4v471 with over #djj species1 the great majority of which are confined to the ,cape2 others occur on the mountains of tropical ,africa and in ,europe and ,north ,africa1 especially the ,mediterranean region4 ,e4 cinerea 7purple heather7 and ,e4 ,tetralix 7cross-leaved heath7 are common ,british heaths4 ,calluna is the ling or ,scotch heather4 ,,erichsen1 ,,sir ,,john ,,eric1 ,bart4 7#ahah-ahif71 ,british surgeon1 born on the #aith of ,july #ahah at ,copenhagen1 was the son of ,eric ,erichsen1 a member of a well-known ,danish family4 ,he studied medicine at ,university ,college1 ,london1 and at ,paris1 devoting himself in the early years of his career to physiology1 and lecturing on general anatomy and physiology at ,university ,college hospital4 ,in #ahdd he was secretary to the physiological section of the ,british ,association1 and in #ahde he was awarded the ,fothergillian gold medal of the ,royal ,humane ,society for his essay on asphyxia4 ,in #ahdh he was appointed assistant surgeon at ,university ,college hospital1 and in #ahej became full surgeon and professor of surgery1 his lectures and clinical teaching being much admired2 and in #ahge he joined the consulting staff4 ,his ,science and ,art of ,surgery 7#ahec7 went through many editions4 ,he rose to be president of the ,college of ,surgeons in #ahhj4 ,from #ahgi to #ahha he was president of the ,royal ,medical and ,chirurgical ,society4 ,he was created a baronet in #ahie1 having been for some years surgeon-extraordinary to ,queen ,victoria4 ,as a surgeon his reputation was world-wide1 and he counts 7says ,sir ,w4 ,mac,cormac in his volume on the ,centenary of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons7 among the makers of modern surgery4 ,he was a recognized authority on concussion of the spine1 and was often called to give evidence in court on obscure cases caused by railway accidents1 c4 ,he died at ,folkestone on the #bcrd of ,september #ahif4 ,,ericht1 ,,loch1 a lake partly in ,inverness-shire and partly in ,perthshire1 ,scotland1 lying between the districts of ,badenoch on the ,n4 and ,rannoch on the ,s4 ,the boundary line is drawn from a point opposite to the mouth of the ,alder1 and follows the centre of the longitudinal axis north-eastwards to #ef deg4 #ej' ,n41 where it strikes eastwards to the shore4 ,all of the lake to the ,s4 and ,e4 of this line belongs to ,perthshire1 the rest1 forming the major portion1 to ,inverness-shire4 ,it is a lonely lake1 situated in extremely wild surroundings at a height of #aaec ft4 above the sea1 being thus the loftiest lake of large size in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,it is over #ad-a_/b m4 long1 with a mean breadth of half a mile and over #a m4 at its maximum4 ,its area amounts to some #g-a_/d sq4 m41 and it receives the drainage of an area of nearly #ej-a_/b sq4 m4 ,the mean depth is #ahi ft41 and the maximum #eab ft4 ,it has a general trend from ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w41 the head lying #a m4 from ,dalwhinnie station on the ,highland railway4 ,it receives many streams1 and discharges at the south-western extremity by the ,ericht4 ,salmon and trout afford good fishing4 ,the surrounding mountains are lofty and rugged4 ,ben ,alder 7#cgeg ft47 on the west shore is the chief feature of the great ,corrour deer forest4 ,the only point of interest on the banks is the cavern1 near the mouth of the ,alder1 in which ,prince ,charles ,edward concealed himself for a time after the battle of ,culloden4 ,,ericsson1 ,,john 7#ahjc-ahhi71 ,swedish-,american naval engineer1 was born at ,langbanshyttan1 ,wermland1 ,sweden1 on the #cast of ,july #ahjc4 ,he was the second son of ,olaf ,ericsson1 an inspector of mines1 who died in #ahah4 ,showing from his earliest years a strong mechanical bent1 young ,ericsson1 at the age of twelve1 was employed as a draughtsman by the ,swedish ,canal ,company4 ,from #ahbj to #ahbg he served in the army1 where his drawing and military maps attracted the attention of the king1 and he soon attained the rank of captain4 ,in #ahbf he went to ,london1 at first on leave of absence from his regiment1 and in partnership with ,john ,braithwaite constructed the ,novelty1 a locomotive engine for the ,liverpool ,manchester railway competition at ,rainhill in #ahbi1 when the prize1 however1 was won by ,stephenson's ,rocket4 ,the number of ,ericsson's inventions at this period was very great4 ,among other things he worked out a plan for marine engines placed entirely below the water-line4 ,such engines were made for the ,victory1 for ,captain 7afterwards ,sir7 ,john ,ross's voyage to the ,arctic regions in #ahbi1 but they did not prove satisfactory4 ,in #ahcc his caloric engine was made public4 ,in #ahcf he took out a patent for a screw-propeller1 and though the priority of his invention could not be maintained1 he was afterwards awarded a one-fifth share of the ,l#bj1jjj given by the ,admiralty for it4 ,at this time ,captain ,stockton1 of the ,united ,states navy1 gave an order for a small iron vessel to be built by ,laird of ,birkenhead1 and to be fitted by ,ericsson with engines and screw4 ,this vessel reached ,new ,york in ,may #ahci4 ,a few months later ,ericsson followed his steamer to ,new ,york1 and there he resided for the rest of his life1 establishing himself as an engineer and a builder of iron ships4 ,in #ahdh he was naturalized as a citizen of the ,united ,states4 ,he had many difficulties to contend with1 and it was only by slow degrees that he established his fame and won his way to competence4 ,at his death he seems to have been worth about ,l#ej1jjj4 ,the provision of defensive armour for ships of war had long occupied his attention1 and he had constructed plans and a model of a vessel lying low in the water1 carrying one heavy gun in a circular turret mounted on a turntable4 ,in #ahed he sent his plans to the emperor of the ,french4 ,louis ,napoleon1 however1 acting probably on the advice of ,dupuy de ,lome1 declined to use them4 ,the ,american ,civil ,war1 and the report that the ,confederates were converting the ,merrimac into an ironclad1 caused the navy department to invite proposals for the construction of armoured ships4 ,among others1 ,ericsson replied1 and as it was thought that his design might be serviceable in inland waters1 the first armoured turret ship1 the ,monitor1 was ordered2 she was launched on the #cjth of ,january #ahfb1 and on the #ith of ,march she fought the celebrated action with the ,confederate ram ,merrimac4 ,the peculiar circumstances in which she was built1 the great importance of the battle1 and the decisive nature of the result gave the ,monitor an exaggerated reputation1 which further experience did not confirm4 ,in later years ,ericsson devoted himself to the study of torpedoes and sun motors4 ,he published ,solar ,investigations 7,new ,york1 #ahge7 and ,contributions to the ,centennial ,exhibition 7,new ,york1 #ahgg74 ,he died in ,new ,york on the #hth of ,march #ahhi1 and in the following year1 on the request of the ,swedish government1 his body was sent to ,stockholm and thence into ,wermland1 where1 at ,filipstad1 it was buried on the #aeth of ,september4 ,a ,life of ,ericsson by ,william ,conant ,church was published in ,new ,york in #ahij and in ,london in #ahic4 ,,eridanus1 or ,,fluvius 7the river71 in astronomy1 a constellation of the southern hemisphere1 mentioned by ,eudoxus 7#dth century ,b4,c47 and ,aratus 7#crd century ,b4,c472 ,ptolemy catalogued #cd stars in it4 theta ,eridani1 a fine double star of magnitudes #c4e and #e4e1 is now of the third magnitude4 ,it is supposed to be identical with the ,achernar of ,al-,sufi1 who described it as of the first magnitude2 this star has therefore decreased in brilliancy in historic times4 ,the star omicron#b ,eridani 7numbered #dj by ,flamsteed7 was discovered to be a ternary star group by ,herschel in #aghc2 it consists of a close pair1 of magnitudes #i4b and #aj4i1 revolving in a period of #ahj years1 associated with a star of magnitude #d4e1 which is distant from the pair by #hb2 these stars have an exceptionally swift proper motion1 about #d per annum4 ,eridanus was the ancient name of the river ,po4 ,,eridu1 one of the oldest religious centres of the ,sumerians1 described in the ancient ,babylonian records as the city of the deep4 ,the special god of this city was ,ea 7q4v471 god of the sea and of wisdom1 and the prominence given to this god in the incantation literature of ,babylonia and ,assyria suggests not only that many of our magical texts are to be traced ultimately to the temple of ,ea at ,eridu1 but that this side of the ,babylonian religion had its origin in that place4 ,certain of the most ancient ,babylonian myths1 especially that of ,adapa1 may also be traced back to the shrine of ,ea at ,eridu4 ,but while of the first importance in matters of religion1 there is no evidence in ,babylonian literature of any special political importance attaching to ,eridu1 and certainly at no time within our knowledge did it exercise hegemony in ,babylonia4 ,the site of ,eridu was discovered by ,j4,e4 ,taylor in #ahed1 in a ruin then called by the natives ,abu-,shahrein1 a few miles south-south-west of ,moghair1 ancient ,ur1 nearly in the centre of the dry bed of an inland sea1 a deep valley1 #ae m4 at its broadest1 covered for the most part with a nitrous incrustation1 separated from the alluvial plain about ,moghair by a low1 pebbly1 sandstone range1 called the ,hazem1 but open toward the north to the ,euphrates and stretching southward to the ,khanega wadi below ,suk-esh-,sheiukh4 ,in the rainy season this valley becomes a sea1 flooded by the discharge of the ,khanega2 in summer the ,arabs dig holes here which supply them with brackish water4 ,the ruins1 in which ,taylor conducted brief excavations1 consist of a platform of fine sand enclosed by a sandstone wall1 #bj ft4 high1 the corners toward the cardinal points1 on the ,n4,w4 part of which was a pyramidal tower of two stages1 constructed of sun-dried brick1 cased with a wall of kiln-burned brick1 the whole still standing to a height of about #gj ft4 above the platform4 ,the summit of the first stage was reached by a staircase on the ,s4,e4 side1 #ae ft4 wide and #gj ft4 long1 constructed of polished marble slabs1 fastened with copper bolts1 flanked at the foot by two curious columns4 ,an inclined road led up to the second stage on the ,n4,w4 side4 ,pieces of polished alabaster and marble1 with small pieces of pure gold and gold-headed copper nails1 found on and about the top of the second stage1 indicated that a small but richly adorned sacred chamber1 apparently plated within or without in gold1 formerly crowned the top of this structure4 ,around the whole tower was a pavement of inscribed baked bricks1 resting on a layer of clay #b ft4 thick4 ,on the ,s4,e4 part of the terrace were the remains of several edifices1 containing suites of rooms4 ,inscriptions on the bricks identified the site as that of ,eridu4 ,since ,taylor's time the place has not been visited by any explorer1 owing to the unsafe condition of the neighbourhood2 but ,t4,k4 ,loftus 7#ahed7 and ,j4,p4 ,peters 7#ahij7 both report having seen it from the summit of ,moghair4 ,the latter states that the ,arabs at that time called the ruin ,nowawis1 and apparently no longer knew the name ,abu-,shahrein4 ,through an error1 in many recent maps and ,assyriological publications ,eridu is described as located in the alluvial plain1 between the ,tigris and the ,euphrates4 ,it was1 in fact1 an island city in an estuary of the ,persian ,gulf1 stretching up into the ,arabian plateau4 ,originally on the shore of the sea1 as the old records aver1 it is now about #abj m4 from the head of the ,persian ,gulf4 ,calculating from the present rate of deposit of alluvium at the head of that gulf1 ,eridu should have been founded as early as the seventh millennium ,b4,c4 ,it is mentioned in historical inscriptions from the earliest times onward1 as late as the #fth century ,b4,c4 ,from the evidence of ,taylor's excavations1 it would seem that the site was abandoned about the close of the ,babylonian period4 ,see ,j4,e4 ,taylor1 ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 vol4 xv4 7#ahee72 ,f4 ,delitzsch1 ,wo lag das ,paradies8 7#ahha72 ,j4,p4 ,peters1 ,nippur 7#ahig72 ,m4 ,jastrow1 ,the ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria 7#ahih72 ,h4,v4 ,hilprecht1 ,excavations in ,assyria and ,babylonia 7#aijd72 ,l4,w4 ,king1 ,a ,history of ,sumer and ,akkad 7#aiaj74 7,j4 ,p4 ,pe47 ,,erie1 the most southerly of the ,great ,lakes of ,north ,america1 between #da deg4 #bc' and #db deg4 #ec' ,n41 and #gh deg4 #ea' and #hc deg4 #bh' ,w41 bounded ,w4 by the state of ,michigan1 ,s4 and ,s4,e4 by ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania and ,new ,york1 and ,n4 by the province of ,ontario4 ,it is nearly elliptical1 the major axis1 #bej m4 long1 lying east and west2 its greatest breadth is #fj m42 its area about #aj1jjj sq4 m42 and the total area of its basin #cd1dab sq4 m4 ,its elevation above mean sea-level is #egc ft42 and its surface is nearly #i ft4 below that of ,lake ,huron1 which discharges into it through ,st ,clair river1 ,lake ,st ,clair and ,detroit river1 and is #cbg ft4 above that of ,lake ,ontario1 this great difference being absorbed by the rapids and falls in the ,niagara river1 which joins the two lakes4 ,lake ,erie is very shallow1 and may be divided into three basins1 the western extending to ,point ,pelee and including all the islands1 containing about #abjj sq4 m41 with a comparatively flat bottom at #e to #f fathoms2 the main basin1 between ,point ,pelee and the narrows at ,long ,point1 containing about #fgjj sq4 m41 and having a marked shelving bottom deepening gradually to #ad fathoms2 and the portion east of the narrows1 containing about #bajj sq4 m41 having a depression #cj fathoms deep just east from ,long ,point1 with an extensive flat of #aa fathoms depth between it and the main basin4 ,the ,canadian shore is low and flat throughout1 the ,united ,states shore is low but bordered by an elevated plateau through which the rivers have cut deep channels4 ,the lake basin is relatively so small that the rivers are without importance2 ,grand river1 on the north shore1 is the largest tributary4 ,the flat alluvial soil bordering on the lake is very fertile1 and the climate is well adapted for fruit cultivation4 ,large quantities of peaches1 grapes and small fruits are grown2 the islands in the west end have a climate much warmer and more equable than the adjoining mainland1 and are practically covered with vineyards4 ,the low clayey or sandy shores are subject to erosion by waves4 ,in severe storms the water near shore is filled with sand1 which is deposited where the currents are checked around the ends of jetties in such a way as to form bars out into the lake across improved channels4 ,this shoaling has rendered continuous dredging necessary at every harbour on the lake west of ,erie1 ,pa4 ,in consequence of the shallowness of the lake its waters are easily disturbed1 making navigation very rough and dangerous1 and causing large fluctuations of surface4 ,strong winds are frequent1 as nearly every cyclonic depression traversing ,north ,america1 either from the westward or the ,gulf of ,mexico1 passes near enough to ,lake ,erie to be felt4 ,westerly gales are more frequent1 and have more effect on the water surface than easterly ones1 lowering the water as much as #g to #h ft4 at the west end and raising it #e to #h ft4 at the east end4 ,the worst storms occur in autumn1 when the immense quantity of shipping on the lake makes them specially destructive4 ,there are no tides1 and usually only a slight current towards the outlet1 though powerful currents are temporarily produced by the rapid return of waters after a storm1 and during the height of a westerly gale there is invariably a reflex current into the west end of the lake4 ,there is an annual fluctuation in the level of the lake1 varying from a minimum of #i in4 to a maximum of #b ft41 the normal low level occurring in ,february and the high level in midsummer4 ,standard high water 7of #ahch7 is #ege4aa ft4 above mean sea-level1 and the lowest record was #egj4h in ,november #ahie4 ,the harbours and exits of the lake freeze over1 but the body of the lake never freezes completely4 ,ice-breaking car ferries run across the lake all winter4 ,general navigation opens as a rule in the middle of ,april and closes in the middle of ,december4 ,the volume of traffic is immense1 because practically all freight from the more westerly lakes finds terminal harbours in ,lake ,erie4 ,official statistics of commerce passing through the ,detroit river into the lake during the season of #aijf show that #ce1abh vessels1 having a net register of #ej1fgc1hig tons1 carried #fc1hje1ega 7short7 tons of freight1 valued at #ffb1iga1jec4 ,the #aage vessels engaged in this business were valued at #ajf1bbc1jjj4 ,over #ij of the whole traffic is in ,united ,states ships to ,united ,states ports4 ,fine passenger steamers run nightly between ,buffalo and ,cleveland and ,detroit1 and there are many shorter passenger routes4 ,the large traffic on ,lake ,erie has brought into existence a number of important harbours on the south shore1 nearly all artificially made and deepened1 with entrances between two breakwaters running into the lake at right angles to the coast line4 ,the principal of these are ,toledo1 ,sandusky1 ,huron1 ,vermilion1 ,lorain1 ,cleveland1 ,fairport1 ,ashtabula1 ,conneaut1 ,erie 7a natural harbour71 ,dunkirk and ,buffalo1 ,rondeau1 ,port ,stanley1 ,port ,burwell1 ,port ,dover1 ,port ,maitland and ,port ,colborne4 ,the ,miami and ,erie canal1 leading from ,maumee river to ,cincinnati1 #bdd-a_/b m41 with a branch to ,port ,jefferson1 #ad m41 with locks #ij by #ae by #d ft41 connects with ,lake ,erie through ,toledo4 ,the ,erie canal leading from ,buffalo to the ,hudson river at ,troy1 and connecting with ,lake ,ontario at ,oswego1 had a capacity for boats #ih ft4 long1 #ag ft4 #aj in4 beam1 with #f ft4 draught1 until in #aijg the ,state of ,new ,york undertook its deepening to accommodate boats of #ajjj tons capacity4 ,buffalo from its position at the eastern limit of deep draught lake navigation is a city of first rate commercial importance4 ,its harbour is formed by an artificial breakwater1 built parallel with the shore about half a mile distant from it4 ,it receives practically all the ,lake ,erie grain shipments besides large quantities of iron ore1 lumber and copper1 and is a large shipping port for coal1 principally anthracite4 ,it has over #fjj m4 of railway tracks to accommodate lake freights4 ,the ,welland canal1 #bf-c_/d m4 long1 connecting ,lake ,ontario and ,lake ,erie1 with locks #bgj by #de by #ad ft41 leaves ,lake ,erie at ,port ,colborne1 where the ,canadian government have constructed an artificial harbour and elevators for transhipment of grain from upper lake freighters to lighters of canal capacity4 ,fishing operations are carried on extensively in ,lake ,erie1 the fish being taken with gill nets1 seines and pound nets4 ,each state touching the lake has its own fishery regulations1 which differ amongst themselves as well as from those of the ,dominion4 ,both nations maintain a ,fishery ,protection ,service1 and the fisheries are replenished from artificial hatcheries4 ,the most numerous and valuable fish are the lesser white fish 7,coregonus artedi1 ,le ,sueur71 pickerel 7,stizostedion vitreum1 ,walb471 pike 7,lucius lucius1 ,l471 and white fish 7,coregonus clupeiformis1 ,mitchill71 in the order named4 ,the fish caught are estimated to be worth annually #a1jjj1jjj4 ,they are collected in fishing tugs and distributed by rail throughout the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,bibliography4--,bulletin ,no4 #ag1 ,survey of ,northern and ,north-western ,lakes1 ,u4,s4 ,lake ,survey ,office1 ,war ,dept4 7,detroit1 #aijg72 ,u4,s4 ,hydrographic ,office1 ,publication ,no4 #ajh;,d1 ,sailing ,directions for ,lake ,erie1 c4 7,washington1 #aijb72 ,sailing ,directions for the ,canadian ,shore of ,lake ,erie1 ,department of ,marine and ,fisheries 7,ottawa1 #ahig72 ,j4,o4 ,curwood1 ,the ,great ,lakes 7,new ,york1 #aiji72 ,e4 ,channing and ,m4,f4 ,lansing1 ,the ,great ,lakes 7,new ,york1 #aiji74 7,w4 ,p4 ,a47 ,,erie1 a city1 a port of entry1 and the county-seat of ,erie county1 ,pennsylvania1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,lake ,erie1 #adh m4 by rail ,n4 of ,pittsburg and near the ,n4,w4 corner of the state4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #dj1fcd2 7#aijj7 #eb1gcc1 of whom #aa1ieg were foreign-born1 including #ebbf from ,germany and #adfh from ,ireland1 and #bf1gig were of foreign parentage 7both parents foreign-born71 including #ac1caf of ,german parentage and #dbjc of ,irish parentage2 7#aiaj census7 #ff1ebe4 ,erie is served by the ,new ,york1 ,chicago ,st ,louis1 the ,lake ,shore ,michigan ,southern1 the ,erie ,pittsburg 7,pennsylvania ,company71 the ,philadelphia ,erie 7,pennsylvania railway71 and the ,bessemer ,lake ,erie railways1 and by steamboat lines to many important lake ports4 ,the city extends over an area of about #g sq4 m41 which for the most part is quite level and is from #ej to #age ft4 above the lake4 ,erie has a fine harbour about #d m4 in length1 more than #a m4 in width1 and with an average depth of about #bj ft42 it is nearly enclosed by ,presque ,isle1 a long narrow strip of land of about #cjjj acres from #cjj ft4 to #a m4 in width1 and the national government has protected its entrance and deepened its channel by constructing two long breakwaters4 ,most of the streets of the city are #fj ft4 wide--a few are #ajj ft4--and nearly all intersect at right angles2 they are paved with brick and asphalt1 and many in the residential quarters are shaded with fine elms and maples4 ,the city has four parks1 in one of which is a soldiers' and sailors' monument of granite and bronze1 and not far away1 along the shore of lake and bay1 are several attractive summer resorts4 ,among ,erie's more prominent buildings are the ,united ,states government building1 the city hall1 the public library1 and the county court house4 ,the city's charitable institutions consist of two general hospitals1 each of which has a training school for nurses2 a municipal hospital1 an orphan asylum1 a home for the friendless1 two old folks' homes1 and a bureau of charities2 here1 also1 on a bluff1 within a large enclosure and overlooking both lake and city1 is the state soldiers' and sailors' home1 and near by is a monument erected to the memory of ,general ,anthony ,wayne1 who died here on the #aeth of ,december #agif4 ,erie is the commercial centre of a large and rich grape-growing and agricultural district1 has an extensive trade with the lake ports and by rail 7chiefly in coal1 iron ore1 lumber and grain71 and is an important manufacturing centre1 among its products being iron1 engines1 boilers1 brass castings1 stoves1 car heaters1 flour1 malt liquors1 lumber1 planing mill products1 cooperage products1 paper and wood pulp1 cigars and other tobacco goods1 gas meters1 rubber goods1 pipe organs1 pianos and chemicals4 ,in #aije the city's factory products were valued at #ai1iaa1efg1 the value of foundry and machine-shop products being #f1gbc1hai1 of flour and grist-mill products #a1ddd1dej1 and of malt liquors #hhb1dic4 ,the municipality owns and operates its water-works4 ,on the site of ,erie the ,french erected ,fort ,presque ,isle in #agec1 and about it founded a village of a few hundred inhabitants4 ,george ,washington1 on behalf of the governor of ,virginia1 came in the same year to ,fort ,le ,boeuf 7on the site of the present ,waterford71 #bj m4 distant1 to protest against the ,french fortifying this section of country4 ,the protest1 however1 was unheeded4 ,the village was abandoned in or before #ageh1 owing probably to an epidemic of smallpox1 and the fort was abandoned in #agei4 ,it was occupied by the ,british in #agfj1 but on the #bbnd of ,june #agfc this was one of the several forts captured by the ,indians during the ,conspiracy of ,pontiac4 ,in #agfd the ,british regained nominal control and retained it until #aghe1 when it passed into the possession of the ,united ,states4 ,the place was laid out as a town in #agie2 in #ahjj it became the county-seat of the newly-erected county of ,erie2 it was incorporated as a borough in #ahje1 the charter of that year being revised in #ahcc2 and in #ahea it was incorporated as a city4 ,at ,erie were built within less than six months most of the vessels with which ,commodore ,oliver ,h4 ,perry won his naval victory over the ,british off ,put-in-,bay on the #ajth of ,september #ahac4 ,,erigena1 ,,johannes ,,scotus 7c4 #hjj-;c4 #hgg71 medieval philosopher and theologian4 ,his real name was ,johannes ,scotus 7,scottus7 or ,john the ,scot4 ,the combination ,johannes ,scotus ,erigena has not been traced earlier than ,ussher and ,gale2 even ,gale uses it only in the heading of the version of ,st ,maximus4 ,the date of ,erigena's birth is very uncertain1 and there is no evidence to show definitely where he was born4 ,the name ,scotus1 which has often been taken to imply ,scottish origin1 really favours the theory that he was an ,irishman according to the then usage of ,scotus or ,scotigena4 ,prudentius1 bishop of ,troyes1 definitely states that he was of ,irish extraction4 ,the pseudonym commonly read ,erigena1 used by himself in the titles of his versions of ,dionysius the ,areopagite1 is ,ierugena 7in later ,,mss4 ,erugena and ,eriugena71 formed apparently on the analogy of ,graiugena 7,greek-born71 which he applies to ,st ,maximus4 ,there seems no reason to doubt that ,eriugena is connected with ,erin1 the name for ,ireland1 and ,ierugena suggests the ,greek ,greek3 hieros1 hieros nesos being a common name for ,ireland4 ,on the other hand1 ,william of ,malmesbury prefers to read ,heruligena1 which would make ,scotus a ,pannonian1 while ,bale says he was born at ,st ,david's1 ,dempster connects him with ,ayr1 and ,gale with ,eriuven in ,hereford4 ,some early writers thought there were two persons1 ,john ,scotus and ,john ,erigena4 ,of ,erigena's early life nothing is known4 ,bale quotes the story that he travelled in ,greece1 ,italy and ,gaul1 and studied not only ,greek1 but also ,arabic and ,chaldaean4 ,since1 however1 ,bale describes him as ex patricio genitore natus1 it is a reasonable inference 7so ,r4,l4 ,poole7 that ,bale confused him with one ,john1 the son of ,patricius1 a ,spaniard1 who tells much the same story of his own travels4 ,the knowledge of ,greek displayed in ,erigena's works is not such as to compel us to conclude that he had actually visited ,greece4 ,that he had a competent acquaintance with ,greek is manifest from his translations of ,dionysius the ,areopagite and of ,maximus1 from the manner in which he refers to ,aristotle1 and from his evident familiarity with ,neoplatonist writers and the fathers of the early church4 ,roger ,bacon1 in his severe criticism on the ignorance of ,greek displayed by the most eminent scholastic writers1 expressly exempts ,erigena1 and ascribes to him a knowledge of ,aristotle in the original4 ,among other legends which have at various times been attached to ,erigena are that he was invited to ,france by ,charlemagne1 and that he was one of the founders of the university of ,paris4 ,the only portion of ,erigena's life as to which we possess accurate information was that spent at the court of ,charles the ,bald4 ,charles invited him to ,france soon after his accession to the throne1 probably in the year #hdc1 and placed him at the head of the court school 7schola palatina74 ,the reputation of this school seems to have increased greatly under ,erigena's leadership1 and the philosopher himself was treated with indulgence by the king4 ,william of ,malmesbury's amusing story illustrates both the character of ,scotus and the position he occupied at the ,french court4 ,the king having asked1 ,quid distat inter sottum et ,scottum8 ,erigena replied1 ,mensa tantum4 ,the first of the works known to have been written by ,erigena during this period was a treatise on the eucharist1 which has not come down to us 7by some it has been identified with a treatise by ,ratramnus1 ,de corpore et sanguine ,domini74 ,in it he seems to have advanced the doctrine that the eucharist was merely symbolical or commemorative1 an opinion for which ,berengarius was at a later date censured and condemned4 ,as a part of his penance ,berengarius is said to have been compelled to burn publicly ,erigena's treatise4 ,so far as we can learn1 however1 ,erigena's orthodoxy was not at the time suspected1 and a few years later he was selected by ,hincmar1 archbishop of ,reims1 to defend the doctrine of liberty of will against the extreme predestinarianism of the monk ,gottschalk 7,gotteschalchus74 ,the treatise ,de divina praedestinatione1 composed on this occasion1 has been preserved1 and from its general tenor one cannot be surprised that the author's orthodoxy was at once and vehemently suspected4 ,erigena argues the question entirely on speculative grounds1 and starts with the bold affirmation that philosophy and religion are fundamentally one and the same--,conficitur inde veram esse philosophiam veram religionem1 conversimque veram religionem esse veram philosophiam4 ,even more significant is his handling of authority and reason1 to which we shall presently refer4 ,the work was warmly assailed by ,drepanius ,florus1 canon of ,lyons1 and ,prudentius1 and was condemned by two councils--that of ,valence in #hee1 and that of ,langres in #hei4 ,by the former council his arguments were described as ,pultes ,scotorum 7,scots porridge7 and commentum diaboli 7an invention of the devil74 ,erigena's next work was a ,latin translation of ,dionysius the ,areopagite 7see ,,dionysius ,,areopagiticus7 undertaken at the request of ,charles the ,bald4 ,this also has been preserved1 and fragments of a commentary by ,erigena on ,dionysius have been discovered in ,,ms4 ,a translation of the ,areopagite's pantheistical writings was not likely to alter the opinion already formed as to ,erigena's orthodoxy4 ,pope ,nicholas ,i4 was offended that the work had not been submitted for approval before being given to the world1 and ordered ,charles to send ,erigena to ,rome1 or at least to dismiss him from his court4 ,there is no evidence1 however1 that this order was attended to4 ,the latter part of his life is involved in total obscurity4 ,the story that in #hhb he was invited to ,oxford by ,alfred the ,great1 that he laboured there for many years1 became abbot at ,malmesbury1 and was stabbed to death by his pupils with their styles1 is apparently without any satisfactory foundation1 and doubtless refers to some other ,johannes4 ,erigena in all probability never left ,france1 and ,haureau has advanced some reasons for fixing the date of his death about #hgg4 ,erigena is the most interesting figure among the middle-age writers4 ,the freedom of his speculation1 and the boldness with which he works out his logical or dialectical system of the universe1 altogether prevent us from classing him along with the scholastics properly so called4 ,he marks1 indeed1 a stage of transition from the older ,platonizing philosophy to the later and more rigid scholasticism4 ,in no sense whatever can it be affirmed that with ,erigena philosophy is in the service of theology4 ,the above-quoted assertion as to the substantial identity between philosophy and religion is indeed repeated almost totidem verbis by many of the later scholastic writers1 but its significance altogether depends upon the selection of one or other term of the identity as fundamental or primary4 ,now there is no possibility of mistaking ,erigena's position3 to him philosophy or reason is first1 is primitive2 authority or religion is secondary1 derived4 ,auctoritas siquidem ex vera ratione processit1 ratio vero nequaquam ex auctoritate4 ,omnis enim auctoritas1 quae vera ratione non approbatur1 infirma videtur esse4 ,vera autem ratio1 quum virtutibus suis rata atque immutabilis munitur1 nullius auctoritatis adstipulatione roborari indiget 7,de divisione naturae1 i4 #ga74 ,f4,d4 ,maurice1 the only historian of note who declines to ascribe a rationalizing tendency to ,erigena1 obscures the question by the manner in which he states it4 ,he asks his readers1 after weighing the evidence advanced1 to determine whether he 7,erigena7 used his philosophy to explain away his theology1 or to bring out what he conceived to be the fullest meaning of it4 ,these alternatives seem to be wrongly put4 ,explaining away theology is something wholly foreign to the philosophy of that age2 and even if we accept the alternative that ,erigena endeavours speculatively to bring out the full meaning of theology1 we are by no means driven to the conclusion that he was primarily or principally a theologian4 ,he does not start with the datum of theology as the completed body of truth1 requiring only elucidation and interpretation2 his fundamental thought is that of the universe1 nature1 ,greek3 to pan1 or ,god1 as the ultimate unity which works itself out into the rational system of the world4 ,man and all that concerns man are but parts of this system1 and are to be explained by reference to it2 for explanation or understanding of a thing is determination of its place in the universal or all4 ,religion or revelation is one element or factor in the divine process1 a stage or phase of the ultimate rational life4 ,the highest faculty of man1 reason1 intellectus1 intellectualis visio1 is that which is not content with the individual or partial1 but grasps the whole and thereby comprehends the parts4 ,in this highest effort of reason1 which is indeed ,god thinking in man1 thought and being are at one1 the opposition of being and thought is overcome4 ,when ,erigena starts with such propositions1 it is clearly impossible to understand his position and work if we insist on regarding him as a scholastic1 accepting the dogmas of the church as ultimate data1 and endeavouring only to present them in due order and defend them by argument4 ,erigena's great work1 ,de divisione naturae1 which was condemned by a council at ,sens1 by ,honorius ,,iii4 7#abbe71 who described it as swarming with worms of heretical perversity1 and by ,gregory ,,xiii4 in #aehe1 is arranged in five books4 ,the form of exposition is that of dialogue2 the method of reasoning is the syllogistic4 ,the leading thoughts are the following4 ,natura is the name for the universal1 the totality of all things1 containing in itself being and non-being4 ,it is the unity of which all special phenomena are manifestations4 ,but of this nature there are four distinct classes3--7#a7 that which creates and is not created2 7#b7 that which is created and creates2 7#c7 that which is created and does not create2 7#d7 that which neither is created nor creates4 ,the first is ,god as the ground or origin of all things1 the last is ,god as the final end or goal of all things1 that into which the world of created things ultimately returns4 ,the second and third together compose the created universe1 which is the manifestation of ,god1 ,god in processu1 ,theophania4 ,thus we distinguish in the divine system beginning1 middle and end2 but these three are in essence one--the difference is only the consequence of our finite comprehension4 ,we are compelled to envisage this eternal process under the form of time1 to apply temporal distinctions to that which is extra- or supra-temporal4 ,the universe of created things1 as we have seen1 is twofold3--first1 that which is created and creates--the primordial ideas1 archetypes1 immutable relations1 divine acts of will1 according to which individual things are formed2 second1 that which is created and does not create1 the world of individuals1 the effects of the primordial causes1 without which the causes have no true being4 ,created things have no individual or self-independent existence2 they are only in ,god2 and each thing is a manifestation of the divine1 theophania1 divina apparitio4 ,god alone1 the uncreated creator of all1 has true being4 ,he is the true universal1 all-containing and incomprehensible4 ,the lower cannot comprehend the higher1 and therefore we must say that the existence of ,god is above being1 above essence2 ,god is above goodness1 above wisdom1 above truth4 ,no finite predicates can be applied to him2 his mode of being cannot be determined by any category4 ,true theology is negative4 ,nevertheless the world1 as the theophania1 the revelation of ,god1 enables us so far to understand the divine essence4 ,we recognize his being in the being of all things1 his wisdom in their orderly arrangement1 his life in their constant motion4 ,thus ,god is for us a ,trinity--the ,father as substance or being 7,greek3 ousia71 the ,son as wisdom 7,greek3 dynamis71 the ,spirit as life 7,greek3 energeia74 ,these three are realized in the universe--the ,father as the system of things1 the ,son as the word1 i4e4 the realm of ideas1 the ,spirit as the life or moving force which introduces individuality and which ultimately draws back all things into the divine unity4 ,in man1 as the noblest of created things1 the ,trinity is seen most perfectly reflected2 intellectus 7,greek3 nous71 ratio 7,greek3 logos7 and sensus 7,greek3 dianoia7 make up the threefold thread of his being4 ,not in man alone1 however1 but in all things1 ,god is to be regarded as realizing himself1 as becoming incarnate4 ,the infinite essence of ,god1 which may indeed be described as nihilum 7nothing7 is that from which all is created1 from which all proceeds or emanates4 ,the first procession or emanation1 as above indicated1 is the realm of ideas in the ,platonic sense1 the word or wisdom of ,god4 ,these ideas compose a whole or inseparable unity1 but we are able in a dim way to think of them as a system logically arranged4 ,thus the highest idea is that of goodness2 things are1 only if they are good2 being without well-being is naught4 ,essence participates in goodness--that which is good has being1 and is therefore to be regarded as a species of good4 ,life1 again1 is a species of essence1 wisdom a species of life1 and so on1 always descending from genus to species in a rigorous logical fashion4 ,the ideas are the eternal causes1 which1 under the moving influence of the spirit1 manifest themselves in their effects1 the individual created things4 ,manifestation1 however1 is part of the being or essence of the causes1 that is to say1 if we interpret the expression1 ,god of necessity manifests himself in the world and is not without the world4 ,further1 as the causes are eternal1 timeless1 so creation is eternal1 timeless4 ,the ,mosaic account1 then1 is to be looked upon merely as a mode in which is faintly shadowed forth what is above finite comprehension4 ,it is altogether allegorical1 and requires to be interpreted4 ,paradise and the ,fall have no local or temporal being4 ,man was originally sinless and without distinction of sex4 ,only after the introduction of sin did man lose his spiritual body1 and acquire the animal nature with its distinction of sex4 ,woman is the impersonation of man's sensuous and fallen nature2 on the final return to the divine unity1 distinction of sex will vanish1 and the spiritual body will be regained4 ,the most remarkable and at the same time the most obscure portion of the work is that in which the final return to ,god is handled4 ,naturally sin is a necessary preliminary to this redemption1 and ,erigena has the greatest difficulty in accounting for the fact of sin4 ,if ,god is true being1 then sin can have no substantive existence2 it cannot be said that ,god knows of sin1 for to ,god knowing and being are one4 ,in the universe of things1 as a universe1 there can be no sin2 there must be perfect harmony4 ,sin1 in fact1 results from the will of the individual who falsely represents something as good which is not so4 ,this misdirected will is punished by finding that the objects after which it thirsts are in truth vanity and emptiness4 ,hell is not to be regarded as having local existence2 it is the inner state of the sinful will4 ,as the object of punishment is not the will or the individual himself1 but the misdirection of the will1 so the result of punishment is the final purification and redemption of all4 ,even the devils shall be saved4 ,all1 however1 are not saved at once2 the stages of the return to the final unity1 corresponding to the stages in the creative process1 are numerous1 and are passed through slowly4 ,the ultimate goal is deificatio1 theosis or resumption into the divine being1 when the individual soul is raised to a full knowledge of ,god1 and where knowing and being are one4 ,after all have been restored to the divine unity1 there is no further creation4 ,the ultimate unity is that which neither is created nor creates4 ,,editions4--,there is a complete edition of ,erigena's works in ,j4,p4 ,migne's ,patrologiae cursus completus 7vol4 cxxii471 edited by ,h4,j4 ,floss 7,paris1 #ahec74 ,the ,de divina praedestinatione was published in ,gilbert ,mauguin's ,veterum auctorum qui nono saeculo de praedestinatione et gratia scripserunt opera et fragmenta 7,paris1 #afej74 ,the commentary 7,expositiones7 on ,dionysius' ,hierarchiae caelestes appeared in the ,appendix ad opera edita ab ,a4 ,maio 7ed4 ,j4 ,cozza1 ,rome1 #ahga74 ,of the ,de divisione naturae1 editions have been published by ,thomas ,gale 7,oxford1 #afha72 ,c4,b4 ,schluter 7,munster1 #ahch72 and in ,floss's ,opera omnia2 there is a ,german translation by ,ludwig ,noack1 ,johannes ,scotus ,erigena uber die ,eintheilung der ,natur 7#c vols41 #ahgd-ahgf74 ,erigena was also the author of some poems edited by ,l4 ,traube in ,monumenta ,germaniae historica4 ,poetae ,latini aevi ,carolini1 iii4 7#ahif74 ,a commentary on the ,opuscula sacra of ,boetius is attributed to him and edited by ,e4,k4 ,rand 7#aijf74 ,monographs on ,erigena's life and works are numerous2 see ,st ,rene ,taillandier1 ,scot ,erigene et la philosophie scholastique 7#ahdc72 ,t4 ,christlieb1 ,leben u4 ,lehre des ,johannes ,scotus ,erigena 7,gotha1 #ahfj72 ,j4,n4 ,huber1 ,johannes ,scotus ,erigena 7,munich1 #ahfa72 ,w4 ,kaulich1 ,das speculative ,system des ,johannes ,scotus ,erigena 7,prague1 #ahfj72 ,a4 ,stockl1 ,de ,joh4 ,scoto ,erigena 7#ahfg72 ,l4 ,noack1 ,uber ,leben und ,schriften des ,joh4 ,scotus ,erigena3 die ,wissenschaft und ,bildung seiner ,zeit 7,leipzig1 #ahgf72 ,r4,l4 ,poole1 ,medieval ,thought 7#ahhd71 and article in ,dictionary of ,national ,biography2 ,t4 ,wotschke1 ,fichte und ,erigena 7,halle1 #ahif72 ,m4 ,baumgartner in ,wetzer and ,welte's ,kirchenlexikon1 x4 7#ahig72 ,alice ,gardner's ,studies in ,john the ,scot 7#aijj72 ,j4 ,draseke1 ,joh4 ,scotus ,erigena und seine ,gewahrsmanner 7,leipzig1 #aijb72 ,s4,m4 ,deutsch in ,herzog-,hauck's ,realencyklopadie fur protestantische ,theologie1 xviii4 7#aijf72 ,j4,e4 ,sandys1 ,hist4 of ,classical ,scholarship 7#aijf71 pp4 #dia-die4 ,see also the general works on scholastic philosophy1 especially ,haureau1 ,stockl and ,kaulich4 ,an admirable resume is given by ,f4,d4 ,maurice1 ,medieval ,phil4 pp4 #de-gi4 7,r4 ,ad42 ,j4 ,m4 ,m47 ,,erigone1 in ,greek mythology1 daughter of ,icarius1 the hero of the ,attic deme ,icaria4 ,her father1 who had been taught by ,dionysus to make wine1 gave some to some shepherds1 who became intoxicated4 ,their companions1 thinking they had been poisoned1 killed ,icarius and buried him under a tree on ,mount ,hymettus 7or threw his body into a well74 ,erigone1 guided by her faithful dog ,maera1 found his grave1 and hanged herself on the tree4 ,dionysus sent a plague on the land1 and all the maidens of ,athens1 in a fit of madness1 hanged themselves like ,erigone4 ,icarius1 ,erigone and ,maera were set among the stars as ,bootes 7or ,arcturus71 ,virgo and ,procyon4 ,the festival called ,aeora 7the swing7 was subsequently instituted to propitiate ,icarius and ,erigone4 ,various small images 7in ,lat4 oscilla7 were suspended on trees and swung backwards and forwards1 and offerings of fruit were made 7,hyginus1 ,fab4 #acj1 ,poet4 astron4 ii4 #d2 ,apollodorus iii4 #ad74 ,the story was probably intended to explain the origin of these oscilla1 by which ,dionysus1 as god of trees 7,dendrites71 was propitiated1 and the baneful influence of the dog-star averted 7see also ,,oscilla74 ,,erin1 an ancient name for ,ireland4 ,the oldest form of the word is ,eriu1 of which ,erinn is the dative case4 ,eriu was itself almost certainly a contraction from a still more primitive form ,iberiu or ,iveriu2 for when the name of the island was written in ancient ,greek it appeared as ,greek3 ,iouernia 7,ivernia71 and in ,latin as ,iberio1 ,hiberio or ,hibernia1 the first syllable of the word ,eriu being thus represented in the classical languages by two distinct vowel sounds separated by b or v4 ,of the ,latin variants1 ,iberio is the form found in the most ancient ,irish ,,mss41 such as the ,confession of ,st ,patrick1 and the same saint's ,epistle to ,coroticus4 ,further evidence to the same effect is found in the fact that the ancient ,breton and ,welsh names for ,ireland were ,ywerddon or ,iverdon4 ,in later ,gaelic literature the primitive form ,eriu became the dissyllable ,eire2 hence the ,norsemen called the island the land of ,eire1 i4e4 ,ireland1 the latter word being originally pronounced in three syllables4 7,see ,,ireland3 ,notices of ,ireland in ,greek and ,roman writers47 ,nothing is known as to the meaning of the word in any of its forms1 and ,whitley ,stokes's suggestion that it may have been connected with the ,sanskrit avara1 meaning western1 is admittedly no more than conjecture4 ,there was1 indeed1 a native ,irish legend1 worthless from the standpoint of etymology1 to account for the origin of the name4 ,according to this myth there were three kings of the ,dedannans reigning in ,ireland at the coming of the ,milesians1 named ,mac,coll1 ,mac,kecht and ,mac,grena4 ,the wife of the first was ,eire1 and from her the name of the country was derived4 ,curiously1 ,ireland in ancient ,erse poetry was often called ,fodla or ,bauba1 and these were the wives of the other two kings in the legend4 ,,erinna1 ,greek poet1 contemporary and friend of ,sappho1 a native of ,rhodes or the adjacent island of ,telos1 flourished about #fjj 7according to ,eusebius1 #cej ,b4,c474 ,although she died at the early age of nineteen1 her poems were among the most famous of her time and considered to rank with those of ,homer4 ,of her best-known poem1 ,greek3 ,elakate 7the ,distaff71 written in a mixture of ,aeolic and ,doric1 which contained #cjj hexameter lines1 only #d lines are now extant4 ,three epigrams in the ,palatine anthology1 also ascribed to her1 probably belong to a later date4 ,the fragments have been edited 7with those of ,alcaeus7 by ,j4 ,pellegrino 7#ahid74 ,,erinyes 7,lat4 ,furiae71 in ,greek mythology1 the avenging deities1 properly the angry goddesses or goddesses of the curse pronounced upon evil-doers4 ,according to ,hesiod 7,theog4 #ahe7 they were the daughters of ,earth1 and sprang from the blood of the mutilated ,uranus2 in ,aeschylus 7,eum4 #cba7 they are the daughters of ,night1 in ,sophocles 7,o4,c4 #dj7 of ,darkness and ,earth4 ,sometimes one ,erinys is mentioned1 sometimes several2 ,euripides first spoke of them as three in number1 to whom later ,alexandrian writers gave the names ,alecto 7unceasing in anger71 ,tisiphone 7avenger of murder71 ,megaera 7jealous74 ,their home is the world below1 whence they ascend to earth to pursue the wicked4 ,they punish all offences against the laws of human society1 such as perjury1 violation of the rites of hospitality1 and1 above all1 the murder of relations4 ,but they are not without benevolent and beneficent attributes4 ,when the sinner has expiated his crime they are ready to forgive4 ,thus1 their persecution of ,orestes ceases after his acquittal by the ,areopagus4 ,it is said that on this occasion they were first called ,eumenides 7the kindly71 a euphemistic variant of their real name4 ,at ,athens1 however1 where they had a sanctuary at the foot of the ,areopagus hill and a sacred grove at ,colonus1 their regular name was ,semnae 7venerable74 ,black sheep were sacrificed to them during the night by the light of torches4 ,a festival was held in their honour every year1 superintended by a special priesthood1 at which the offerings consisted of milk and honey mixed with water1 but no wine4 ,in ,aeschylus1 the ,erinyes are represented as awful1 ,gorgon-like women1 wearing long black robes1 with snaky locks1 bloodshot eyes and claw-like nails4 ,later1 they are winged maidens of serious aspect1 in the garb of huntresses1 with snakes or torches in their hair1 carrying scourges1 torches or sickles4 ,the identification of ,erinyes with ,sanskrit ,saranyu1 the swift-speeding storm cloud1 is rejected by modern etymologists2 according to ,m4 ,breal1 the ,erinyes are the personification of the formula of imprecation 7,greek3 ara71 while ,e4 ,rohde sees in them the spirits of the dead1 the angry souls of murdered men4 ,see ,c4,o4 ,muller1 ,dissertations on the ,eumenides of ,aeschylus1 7,eng4 tr41 #ahce72 ,a4 ,rosenberg1 ,die ,erinyen 7#ahgd72 ,j4,e4 ,harrison1 ,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek ,religion 7#aijc72 and ,journal of ,hellenic ,studies1 xix4 p4 #bje1 according to whom the ,erinyes were primarily local ancestral ghosts1 potent for good or evil after death1 earth genii1 originally conceived as embodied in the form of snakes1 whose primitive haunt and sanctuary was the omphalos at ,delphi2 ,e4 ,rohde1 ,psyche 7#aijc72 ,a4 ,rapp in ,roscher's ,lexikon der ,mythologie1 and ,j4,a4 ,hild in ,daremberg and ,saglio's ,dictionnaire des antiquites1 s4v4 ,,furiae4 ,,eriphyle1 in ,greek mythology1 sister of ,adrastus and wife of ,amphiaraus4 ,having been bribed by ,polyneices with the necklace of ,harmonia1 she persuaded her husband to take part in the expedition of the ,seven against ,thebes1 although he knew it would prove fatal to him4 ,before setting out1 the seer charged his sons to slay their mother as soon as they heard of his death4 ,the attack on ,thebes was repulsed1 and during the flight the earth opened and swallowed up ,amphiaraus together with his chariot4 ,his son ,alcmaeon1 as he had been bidden1 slew his mother1 and was driven from place to place by the ,erinyes1 seeking purification and a new home 7,apollodorus iii4 #f4 #g74 ,,eris1 in ,greek mythology1 a sister of the war-god ,ares 7,homer1 ,iliad1 iv4 #ddj71 and in the ,hesiodic theogony 7#bbe7 a daughter of ,night4 ,in the later legends of the ,trojan ,war1 ,eris1 not having been invited to the marriage festival of ,peleus and ,thetis1 flings a golden apple 7the apple of discord7 among the guests1 to be given to the most beautiful4 ,the claims of the three deities ,hera1 ,aphrodite and ,athena are decided by ,paris in favour of ,aphrodite1 who as a reward assists him to gain possession of ,helen 7,hyginus1 ,fab4 #ib2 ,lucian1 ,charidemus1 #ag74 ,hesiod also mentions 7,w4 and ,d4 #bd7 a beneficent ,eris1 the personification of honourable rivalry4 ,in ,virgil 7,aeneid1 viii4 #gjb7 and other ,roman poets ,eris is represented by ,discordia4 ,,erith1 an urban district in the north-western parliamentary division of ,kent1 ,england1 #ad m4 ,e4 by ,s4 of ,london1 on the ,south ,eastern ,chatham railway4 ,pop4 7#ahia7 #ac1dad2 7#aija7 #be1bif4 ,it lies on the south bank of the ,thames and extends up the hills above the shore1 many villas having been erected on the higher ground4 ,the park of a former seat1 ,belvedere1 was thus built over 7c4 #ahfj71 and the mansion became a home for disabled seamen4 ,the church of ,st ,john the ,baptist1 though largely altered by modern restoration1 retains ,early ,english to ,perpendicular portions1 and some early monuments and brasses4 ,erith has large engineering and gun factories1 and in the neighbourhood are gunpowder1 oil1 glue and manure works4 ,the southern outfall works of the ,london main drainage system are at ,crossness in the neighbouring lowland called ,plumstead ,marshes4 ,erith is the headquarters of several yacht clubs4 ,erith1 the name of which is commonly derived from ,a4,s4 ,aerra-hythe 7old haven71 was anciently a borough1 and was granted a market and fairs in #acac4 ,down to the close of the #agth century it was of some importance as a naval station4 ,,eritrea1 an ,italian colony on the ,african coast of the ,red ,sea4 ,it extends from ,ras ,kasar1 a cape #aaj m4 ,s4 of ,suakin1 in #ah deg4 #b' ,n41 as far as ,ras ,dumeira 7#ab deg4 #db' ,n471 in the ,strait of ,bab-el-,mandeb1 a coast-line of about #fej m4 ,the colony is bounded inland by the ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan1 ,abyssinia and ,french ,somaliland4 ,it consists of the coast lands lying between the capes named and of part of the northern portion of the ,abyssinian plateau4 ,the total area is about #fj1jjj sq4 m4 ,the population is approximately #dej1jjj1 of which1 exclusive of soldiers1 not more than #cjjj are whites4 ,the land frontier starting from ,ras ,kasar runs in a south-westerly direction until in about #ad deg4 #ae' ,n41 #cf deg4 #ce' ,e4 it reaches the river ,setit1 some distance above the junction of that stream with the ,atbara4 ,this1 the farthest point inland1 is #aih m4 ,s4,w4 of ,massawa4 ,the frontier now turns east1 following for a short distance the course of the river ,setit2 thence it strikes north-easterly to the ,mareb1 and from #ch deg4 ,e4 follows that river and its tributaries the ,belesa and ,muna1 until within #db m4 of the sea directly south of ,annesley ,bay4 ,at this point the frontier turns south and east1 crossing the ,afar or ,danakil country at a distance of #fj kilometres 7#cg4bh m47 from the coast-line4 ,about #ab deg4 #bj' ,n4 the ,french possessions in ,somaliland are reached4 ,here the frontier turns ,n4,e4 and so continues until the coast of the ,red ,sea is again reached at a point south of the town of ,raheita4 ,in the southern part of the colony are small sultanates1 such as those of ,aussa and ,raheita1 which are under ,italian protection4 ,the ,dahlak archipelago and other groups of islands along the coast belong to ,eritrea4 ,physical ,features4--,the coast-line is of coral formation and is1 in the neighbourhood of ,massawa1 thickly studded with small islands4 ,the chief indentations are ,annesley ,bay1 immediately south of ,massawa1 and ,assab ,bay in the south4 ,the colony consists of two widely differing regions4 ,the northern division is part of the ,abyssinian highlands4 ,the southern division1 part of the ,afar or ,danakil country1 includes all the territory of the colony south of ,annesley ,bay4 ,these two regions are connected by a narrow strip of land behind ,annesley ,bay1 where the ,abyssinian hills approach close to the sea4 ,from this bay the coast-line trends ,s4,e4 so that at ,tajura ,bay the distance between the ,abyssinian hills and the sea is over #bjj m4 ,the ,afar country is part of the ,east ,african rift-valley1 and in the southern parts of the valley its surface is diversified by ranges of hills1 frequently volcanic1 and by lakes4 ,the plains1 however1 extend over large areas1 they are generally arid and are often covered with mimosa trees which form a kind of jungle called by the natives khala4 ,the torrents which descend from the ,abyssinian plateau usually fail to reach the sea4 ,they are mostly bordered by dense vegetation2 in the dry season water is found in pools in the river beds or can be obtained by digging4 ,the principal rivers enter and are lost in one or other of two salt plains or basins1 that of ,asali in the north and that of ,aussa in the south4 ,the ,hawash flows through the ,aussa country in a ,n4,e4 direction1 but is lost in lakes ,abbebad and ,aussa 7see ,,abyssinia74 ,the ,raguali and other rivers drain into the ,asali basin4 ,this basin1 like that of ,aussa1 is in places #bjj ft4 below sea-level4 ,on the west the ,asali basin reaches to the ,abyssinian foot-hills2 in its southern part is the small lake ,alelbad4 ,the eastern edge of the basin is formed by a ridge of gypsum and on its margin grow palms4 ,in parts the salt lies thick on the plain1 which then has the appearance of a lake frozen over4 ,south of ,lake ,alelbad is a volcano called ,artali or ,erta-ale 7the smoky71 and farther to the ,s4,e41 in about #ac deg4 #ae' ,n41 is the peak of ,afdera1 which was in eruption in ,june #aijg4 ,the hills1 #ajjj to #djjj ft4 in height1 which run more or less parallel to and a few miles from the coast1 include the volcano of ,dubbi 7reported active in #ahfa71 some #cj m4 ,s4 of the port of ,edd 7,eddi74 ,in #ad deg4 #eb' ,n41 #ci deg4 #ec' ,e4 and near the northern end of the zone of depression the volcano of ,alid 7#bihe ft47 rises from the trough4 ,its chief crest forms an elongated ring and encloses a crater over half a mile in diameter and with walls #cej ft4 high4 ,north and south of ,alid extends a vast lava field4 ,dubbi and ,alid are in ,italian territory2 the greater part of ,afar belongs to ,abyssinia4 ,at ,annesley ,bay the narrow coast plain is succeeded by foothills separated by small valleys through which flow innumerable streams4 ,from these hills the ascent to the plateau which constitutes northern ,eritrea is very steep4 ,this tableland1 which has a general elevation of about #fejj ft41 is fairly fertile despite a desert region--,sheb--to the ,s4,e4 of ,keren4 ,it is characterized by rich1 well-watered valleys1 verdant plains and flat-topped hills with steep sides1 running in ranges or isolated4 ,the highest hills in ,eritrean territory rise to about #aj1jjj ft4 ,the plateau is known by various names1 the region directly west of ,massawa being called ,hamasen4 ,to the west and north the plateau sinks in terraces to the plains of the ,sudan1 and eastward falls more abruptly to the ,red ,sea1 the coast plain1 known as the ,samhar1 consisting of sandy country covered with mimosa and1 along the khors1 with a somewhat richer vegetation4 ,the colony contains no navigable streams4 ,for a short distance the ,setit 7known in its upper course as the ,takazze71 a tributary of the ,atbara1 forms the frontier1 as does also in its upper course the ,gash or ,mareb 7see ,,abyssinia74 ,the ,mareb1 often dry in summer1 in the floods is a large and impassable river4 ,both the ,setit and ,mareb have a general westerly course across the ,abyssinian plateau4 ,the ,baraka 7otherwise ,barka7 and ,anseba rise in the ,hamasen plateau near ,asmara within a short distance of each other4 ,the ,baraka flows west and then north2 the ,anseba1 which has a more easterly course1 also flows northward and joins the ,baraka a little ,n4 of #ag deg4 ,n4 ,a few miles below the confluence the ,baraka leaves ,italian territory4 ,it is 7as is the ,anseba7 an intermittent stream4 ,after heavy rain it discharges some of its water into the ,red ,sea north of ,tokar4 ,the whole of the hill country north of ,asmara belongs to the drainage area of the ,baraka or ,anseba4 ,of the numerous streams which1 north of the ,danakil country1 run direct from the hills to the ,red ,sea1 the ,hadas may be mentioned1 as along the valley of that stream is one of the most frequented routes to the tableland4 ,the ,hadas1 in time of flood1 reaches the ocean near ,adulis in ,annesley ,bay4 ,climate4--,the climate in different parts of the colony varies greatly4 ,three distinct climatic zones are found3--7#a7 that of the coastlands1 including altitudes up to #afej ft41 7#b7 that of the escarpments and valleys1 and 7#c7 that of the high plateau and alpine summits4 ,in the coast zone the heat and humidity are excessive during most of the year1 ,june1 ,september and ,october being the hottest months4 ,rains occur between ,november and ,april1 during which time the temperature is lower4 ,in this zone malarial fevers prevail in winter4 ,the heat is greatest at ,massawa1 where the mean temperature averages #hh deg4 ,f41 but where1 in summer1 the thermometer often rises to #abj deg4 ,f4 in the shade4 ,in the second zone the climate is more temperate and there is considerable variation in temperature owing to nocturnal radiation4 ,this zone falls within the regime of the summer monsoon rains1 while those districts adjoining the coast zone enjoy also winter rains4 ,august is the most rainy and ,may the hottest month4 ,on the high plateau1 i4e4 the third zone1 the climate is generally moderately cool4 ,slight rain falls in the spring and abundant monsoon rains from ,june to ,september4 ,the heat is greatest in the dry season1 ,november to ,april4 ,above #hejj ft4 the climate becomes sub-alpine in character4 ,flora and ,fauna4--,in the low country the flora differs little from that of tropical ,africa generally1 whilst on the plateau the vegetation is characteristic of the temperate zone4 ,the olive tree grows on the high plateau and covers the flanks of the hills to within #cjjj ft4 of sea-level4 ,the sycamore-fig tree grows to enormous proportions in parts of the plateau4 ,lower down durra1 maize and bultuc grow in profusion4 ,in the northern part of the colony1 especially along the ,khor ,baraka1 the dom palm flourishes4 ,the fauna includes1 in the low country1 the lion1 panther1 elephant1 camel1 and antelope of numerous species4 ,on the plateau the fauna is that of ,abyssinia 7q4v474 ,inhabitants4--,the inhabitants of the plains and foothills are for the most part semi-nomad shepherds1 living on durra and milk4 ,in the north these people are largely of ,arab or ,hamitic stock1 such as the ,beni-,amer1 but include various negro tribes4 ,afar and ,somali form the population of the southern regions4 ,the inhabitants of the plateau are ,abyssinians4 ,the nomads are ,mussulmans and are1 as a rule1 docile and pacific1 though the ,danakils are given to occasional raiding4 ,the ,abyssinians are more warlike1 but they have settled down under ,italian rule4 ,among the native industries are mat-weaving1 cotton-weaving1 silver-working and rudimentary iron and leather working4 7,see ,,afars2 ,,somaliland and ,,abyssinia47 ,towns4--,the principal places on the coast are ,massawa 7q4v471 pop4 about #aj1jjj1 the chief seaport of the colony1 ,assab1 chief town of the ,danakil region1 to which converges the trade from ,abyssinia across the ,aussa country1 and ,zula 7q4v471 identified with the ancient ,adulis4 ,the chief town in the interior is ,asmara 7q4v471 the capital of the colony and under the ,abyssinians capital of the province of ,hamasen1 and favourite headquarters of ,ras ,alula 7see below and also ,,abyssinia74 ,it is situated #ghjj ft4 above the sea1 and has something of the aspect of a ,european town4 ,keren1 #ej m4 ,n4,w4 of ,asmara1 is the centre for a district 7,bogos7 fertilized by the upper course of the ,anseba2 ,agordat1 on the river ,baraka1 on the road from ,keren to ,kassala1 is the centre of the ,beni-,amer1 ,algheden and ,sabderat tribes2 ,mogolo1 on the lower ,mareb1 is the rendezvous of the ,baria and ,baza tribes4 ,towards ,abyssinia the chief towns are ,saganeiti 7capital of the ,okule-,kusai province71 ,godofelassi and ,adi-,ugri1 the two latter situated in the fertile plain of the ,serae2 ,adiquala1 on the edge of the ,mareb gorge2 and ,arrasa1 the centre of the districts constituting the province of ,deki-,tesfa4 ,agriculture and ,trade4--,the nomads of the plains possess large herds of cattle and camels4 ,the low country is almost entirely pastoral and unsuited for the cultivation of crops4 ,on the other hand almost all ,european cereals flourish in the intermediate zone and on the high plateau1 and the ,abyssinian is a good agriculturist and understands irrigation4 ,numbers of emigrants from ,italy possess farms on the plateau4 ,experiments in the cultivation of coffee1 tobacco and cotton have given good results in the intermediate zone4 ,besides camels and oxen1 sheep and goats are numerous1 and meat1 hides and butter are articles of local trade4 ,hides are the principal export 7about ,l#ej1jjj a year74 ,wax1 gum1 coffee and ivory are also exported4 ,pearl fishing is carried on at ,massawa and the ,dahlak islands4 ,the annual value of the fisheries is about ,l#dj1jjj 7pearls ,l#aj1jjj1 mother of pearl ,l#cj1jjj74 ,gold mines are worked near ,asmara4 ,salt1 obtained from the salt lakes in the ,aussa and ,danakil countries1 is a valuable article of commerce4 ,cotton goods are the chief imports4 ,there is a little trade with northern ,abyssinia1 but it is undeveloped4 ,for the five years #aija-aije the average value of the external trade was ,l#def1jjj per annum4 ,the imports more than doubled the exports4 ,communications4--,a railway1 #fe m4 long1 connects ,massawa with ,asmara4 ,an extension of the line is planned from ,asmara to ,sabderat and ,kassala4 ,the whole territory is crossed by camel and mule paths between the sea and the high plateau1 and between the various centres of population4 ,every valley that brings water to the ,red ,sea has a route leading to the high plateau4 ,the great arteries1 however1 number three1 which1 starting from ,massawa by way of ,asmara1 run1 two to ,abyssinia1 and one to ,kassala and ,khartum4 ,they are all more or less practicable for carts1 and are flanked by a good telegraph line as long as they lie in ,italian territory4 ,there are also two caravan routes from ,assab ,bay1 across the ,danakil country to southern ,abyssinia4 ,the northern leads by a comparatively easy ascent to ,yejju1 the more southern follows the valley of the ,hawash4 ,a telegraph line #ejj m4 long connects ,massawa with ,adis ,ababa via ,asmara4 ,massawa is also telegraphically connected with the outside world by a cable to ,perim via ,assab4 ,there is regular steamship communication with ,italy4 ,administration4--,eritrea is administered by a civil governor responsible to the ministry of foreign affairs at ,rome4 ,it is divided into six provinces1 each governed by a regional commissioner4 ,some tracts of frontier territory are detached from the various regions and entrusted to political residents1 as1 for instance1 on the ,sudan frontier and also on the ,abyssinian boundary1 where strict surveillance is necessary to repress raiding incursions from ,tigre1 and where the chief intelligence department is established4 ,the six regions or principal provinces are3--,asmara1 which includes ,hamasen and other small districts2 ,keren1 which comprises the high territories to the north of ,asmara1 i4e4 the ,bogos country2 ,massawa1 extending over all the tribes between the high plateau and the sea from the ,hababs to the ,danakil2 ,assab1 which extends from ,edd to ,raheita2 ,okule-,kusai1 the plateau country ,s4,e4 of ,asmara2 ,serae1 including ,deki-,tesfa1 the country ,s4,w4 of ,asmara4 ,the regional commissioners and the political residents act either by means of the village headmen 7,shum or ,chicca71 by the chiefs of districts in the few localities where villages are still organized in districts1 or by the headmen of tribes1 and by the councils of the elders wherever these remain4 ,revenue is derived from customs duties1 direct taxation and tribute paid by the nomad tribes4 ,the local revenue1 which for the period #ahig-aijg was about ,l#ajj1jjj a year1 is supplemented by grants from ,italy1 the total cost of the administration being about ,l#djj1jjj yearly4 ,nearly half the expenditure is on the military force maintained4 ,justice4--,civil justice for natives is administered1 in the first instance1 by the headmen of villages1 provinces1 tribes1 or by councils of notables 7,shumagalle72 in appeal1 by the residents and regional tribunals1 and1 in the last instance1 by the colonial court of appeal4 ,europeans are entirely under ,italian jurisdiction4 ,penal justice is administered by ,italian judges only4 ,an administrative tribunal settles1 without appeal1 questions of tribute1 disputes concerning family1 village or tribal landmarks1 as well as suits involving the colonial government4 ,the civil laws for the natives are those established by local usage4 ,europeans are answerable to the ,italian civil code4 ,penal laws are the same as in ,italy1 except where modified by local usages4 ,appeal to the ,rome court of cassation is admitted against all penal and civil sentences4 ,defence4--,defence is entrusted to a corps of colonial troops1 partly ,italian and partly native2 to a militia 7milizia mobile7 formed by natives who have already served in the colonial corps2 and to the chitet or general levy which1 in time of war1 places all male able-bodied inhabitants under arms4 ,the regional commissioners and political residents have at their disposal some hundreds of irregular paid soldiers under native chiefs4 ,in war time these irregulars form part of the colonial corps1 but in time of peace serve as frontier police4 ,the colonial corps1 about #ejjj strong1 garrisons the chief places of strategic importance1 such as ,asmara1 ,keren and ,saganeiti4 ,the irregular troops1 on foot1 or mounted on camels1 number about #ajjj men4 ,the militia consists of #cejj men of all arms1 and is intended in time of war to reinforce the various divisions of the colonial corps4 ,the chitet yields between #cjjj and #djjj men1 to be employed on the lines of communication or in caravan service4 ,all these troops are intended to ward off a first attack1 so as to allow time for the arrival of reinforcements from ,italy4 ,the customs and political surveillance along the coast is entrusted1 afloat1 to the ,massawa naval station1 and1 ashore1 to a coastguard company #djj strong stationed at ,meder1 with detachments at ,assab1 ,massawa1 ,raheita1 ,edd and ,taclai4 ,history4--,traces of the ancient ,eritrean civilization are scarce4 ,during the prosperous periods of ancient ,egypt1 ,egyptian squadrons asserted their rule over the west ,red ,sea coast1 and under the ,ptolemies the port of ,golden ,berenice 7,adulis87 was an ,egyptian fortress1 afterwards abandoned4 ,during the early years of the ,roman empire1 ,eritrea formed part of an important independent state--that of the ,axumites 7,assamites74 ,at the end of the reign of ,nero1 and perhaps even earlier1 the king of the ,axumites ruled over the ,red ,sea coast from ,suakin to the strait of ,bab-el-,mandeb1 and traded constantly with ,egypt4 ,this potentate called himself king of kings1 commanded an army and a fleet1 coined money1 adopted ,greek as the official language1 and lived on good terms with the ,roman empire4 ,the ,axumites belonged originally to the ,hamitic race1 but the immigration of the ,himyaritic tribes of southern ,arabia speedily imposed a new language and civilization4 ,therefore the ancient ,abyssinian language1 ,geez1 and its living dialects1 ,amharic and ,tigrina1 are ,semitic1 although modified by the influence of the old ,hamitic ,agau or ,agao4 ,adulis 7,adovlis71 slightly to the north of ,zula 7q4v471 was the chief ,axumite port4 ,from ,adulis started the main road1 which led across the high plateau to the capital ,axomis 7,axum74 ,along the road are still to be seen vestiges of cities and inscribed monuments1 such as the ,himyaritic inscriptions on the high plateau of ,kohait1 the six obelisks with a ,saban inscription at ,toconda1 and an obelisk with an inscription at ,amba ,sait4 ,other monuments exist elsewhere1 as well as coins of the ,axumite period with ,greek and ,ethiopian inscriptions4 ,after the rise of the ,ethiopian empire the history of ,eritrea is bound up with that of ,ethiopia1 but not so entirely as to be completely fused4 ,the documents of the ,portuguese expedition of the #afth century and other ,ethiopian records show that all the country north of the ,mareb enjoyed relative autonomy under a vassal of the ,ethiopian emperor4 ,michael1 counsellor of ,solomon1 who was king of the country north of the ,mareb1 usurped the throne of ,solomon during the reign of the ,emperor ,atzie ,jasu ,,ii4 7#agbi-agec71 and1 after proclaiming himself ras of ,tigre and protector of the empire1 ceded the ,north ,mareb country to an enemy of the rightful dynasty4 ,hence a long struggle between the dispossessed family and the occupants of the ,north ,mareb throne4 ,the coast regions had meantime passed from the control of the ,abyssinians4 ,in the #afth century the ,turks made themselves masters of ,zula1 ,massawa1 c41 and these places were never recovered by the ,abyssinians4 ,in #ahfe ,massawa and the neighbouring coast was acquired by ,egypt1 the khedive ,ismail entertaining projects for connecting the port by railway with the ,nile4 ,the ,egyptians took advantage of civil war in ,abyssinia to seize ,keren and the ,bogos country in #ahgba1 an action against which the negus ,johannes 7,king ,john71 newly come to the throne1 did not at the time protest4 ,in #ahge and #ahgf the ,egyptians1 who sought to increase their conquests1 were defeated by the ,abyssinians at ,gundet and ,gura4 ,walad ,michael1 the hereditary ruler of ,bogos1 fought as ally of ,king ,john at ,gundet and of the ,egyptians at ,gura4 ,for two years ,walad ,michael continued to harass the border1 but in ,december #ahgh he submitted to ,king ,john1 by whose orders he was 7,sept4 #ahgi7 imprisoned upon an amba1 or flat-topped mountain1 whence he only succeeded in escaping in #ahij4 ,in #ahgi his territory was given by ,king ,john to ,ras ,alula1 who retained it until1 in ,august #ahhi1 the ,italians occupied ,asmara 7see ,,abyssinia3 ,history74 ,an ,egyptian garrison remained at ,keren in the ,bogos country until #ahhd1 when in consequence of the revolt of the ,mahdi it was withdrawn1 ,bogos being occupied by ,abyssinia on the #abth of ,september of that year4 ,on the #eth of ,february #ahhe an ,italian force1 with the approval of ,great ,britain1 occupied ,massawa1 the ,egyptian garrison returning to ,egypt4 ,this occupation led to wars with ,abyssinia and finally to the establishment of the colony in its present limits4 ,the history of the ,italian-,abyssinian relations is fully told in the articles ,,italy and ,,abyssinia 7history sections74 ,it was not1 however1 at ,massawa that ,italy first obtained a foothold in eastern ,africa4 ,the completion of the ,suez ,canal led ,italy as well as ,great ,britain and ,france to seek territorial rights on the ,red ,sea coasts4 ,the purchase of ,assab and the neighbouring region for ,l#ahhj1 from the sultan ,berehan of ,raheita for use as a coaling station by the ,italian ,rubattino ,steamship ,company1 in ,march #ahgj1 formed the nucleus of ,italy's colonial possessions4 ,this purchase was protested against by ,egypt1 ,turkey and ,great ,britain2 the last named power being willing to recognize an ,italian commercial settlement1 but nothing more4 7,the ,indian government viewed the establishment of the ,italians on the new highway to the ,east with a good deal of ill-humour47 ,eventually1 the ,british opposition being overcome and that of ,egypt and ,turkey disregarded1 ,assab1 by a decree of the #eth of ,july #ahhb1 was declared an ,italian colony4 ,between #ahhc and #ahhh various treaties were concluded with the sultan of ,aussa ceding the ,danakil coast to ,italy and recognizing an ,italian protectorate over the whole of his country--through which passes the trade route from ,assab ,bay to ,shoa4 ,on the #ast of ,january #ahij the various ,italian possessions on the coast of the ,red ,sea were united by royal decree into one province under the title of the ,colony of ,eritrea--so named after the ,erythraeum ,mare of the ,romans4 ,at first the government of the colony was purely military1 but after the defeat of the ,italians by the ,abyssinians at ,adowa1 the administration was placed upon a civil basis 7#ahih-aijj74 ,the frontiers were further defined by a ,french-,italian convention 7#bdth of ,january #aijj7 fixing the frontier between ,french ,somaliland and the ,italian possessions at ,raheita1 and also by various agreements with ,great ,britain and ,abyssinia4 ,a tripartite agreement between ,italy1 ,abyssinia and ,great ,britain1 dated the #aeth of ,may #aijb1 placed the territory of the ,kanama tribe1 on the north bank of the ,setit1 within ,eritrea4 ,a convention of the #afth of ,may #aijh settled the ,abyssinian-,eritrean frontier in the ,afar country1 the boundary being fixed at #fj kilometres from the coast4 ,the task of reconstructing the administration on a civil basis and of developing the commerce of the colony was entrusted to ,signor ,f4 ,martini1 who was governor for nine years 7#ahih-aijf74 ,under civil rule the colony made steady though somewhat slow progress4 ,,authorities4--,see ,b4 ,melli1 ,la ,colonia ,eritrea dalle sue origini al anno #aija 7,parma1 #aija72 ,g4,b4 ,penne1 ,per l',italia ,africana4 ,studio critico 7,rome1 #aijf72 ,r4 ,perini1 ,di qua dal ,mareb 7,florence1 #aije71 a monograph on the ,asmara zone2 ,f4 ,martini1 ,nell' ,africa ,italiana 7#crd ed41 ,milan1 #ahia72 ,a4,b4 ,wylde1 ,modern ,abyssinia1 chaps4 v4-ix4 7,london1 #aija72 ,e4,d4 ,schoenfeld1 ,erythraa und der agyptische ,sudan1 chaps4 i4-xii4 7,berlin1 #aijd72 ,luigi ,chiala1 ,la ,spedizione di ,massana 7,turin1 #ahhh72 ,abyssinian ,green ,books published at intervals in #ahie and #ahif1 covering the period from #ahgj to the end of the ,italo-,abyssinian ,war2 ,vico ,mantegazza1 ,la ,guerra in ,africa 7,florence1 #ahif72 ,general ,baratieri1 ,memorie d',africa 7,rome1 #ahih72 ,c4 de la ,jonquiere1 ,les ,italiens en ,erythree 7,paris1 #ahig72 ,g4,f4,h4 ,berkeley1 ,the ,campaign of ,adowa 7,london1 #aijb74 ,for orography and geology see an article by ,p4 ,verri in ,boll4 ,soc4 geog4 italiana1 #aiji1 and for climate an article in ,rivista coloniale 7#aijf71 by ,a4 ,tancredi4 ,a4 ,allori compiled a ,piccolo ,dizionario eritreo1 italiano-arabo-amarico 7,milan1 #ahie74 ,for ,afar consult ,w4 ,munzinger1 ,a ,journey through the ,afar ,country in ,journ4 ,royal ,geog4 ,soc4 for #ahfi2 ,v4 ,bottego1 ,nella ,terra dei ,danakil1 in ,boll4 ,soc4 ,geog4 ,italiana1 #ahib2 ,count ,c4 ,rossini1 ,al ,ragali in ,l',espl4 ,comm4 of ,milan1 #aijc-aijd2 and articles by ,g4 ,dainelli and ,o4 ,marinelli in the ,riv4 ,geog4 ,italiana of ,florence for #aijf-aijh1 dealing with the volcanic regions4 ,bibliographies will be found in ,g4 ,fumagalli's ,bibliografia ,etiopica 7,milan1 #ahic7 and in the ,riv4 ,geog4 ,italiana for #aijg4 ,,footnote3 #a ,during the ,second ,empire unsuccessful efforts were made by ,france to obtain a ,red ,sea port and a foothold in northern ,abyssinia4 7,see ,,somaliland3 ,french47 ,,erivan1 a government of ,russia1 ,transcaucasia1 having the province of ,kars on the ,w41 the government of ,tiflis on the ,n41 that of ,elisavetpol on the ,n4 and ,e41 and ,persia and ,turkish ,armenia on the ,s4 ,it occupies the top of an immense plateau 7#fjjj-hjjj ft474 ,continuous chains of mountains are met with only on its borders1 and in the ,e41 but the whole surface is thickly set with short ridges and isolated mountains of volcanic origin1 of which ,alagoz 7#ad1ddj ft47 and ,ararat 7#af1ibe ft47 are the most conspicuous and the most important4 ,both must have been active in ,tertiary times4 ,lake ,gok-cha 7#edj sq4 m47 is encircled by such volcanoes1 and the neighbourhood of ,alexandropol is a volcanic amphitheatre1 being entirely buried under volcanic deposits4 ,the same is true of the slopes leading down to the river ,aras2 and the valley of the upper ,aras is a stony desert1 watered only by irrigation1 which is carried on with great difficulty owing to the character of the soil4 ,the government is drained by the ,aras1 which forms the boundary with ,persia and flows with great velocity down its stony bed1 the fall being #ag-bb ft4 per mile in its upper course1 and #i ft4 at ,ordubad1 where it quits the government1 while lower down it again increases to #bc ft4 ,many of the small lakes1 filling volcanic craters1 are of great depth4 ,timber is very scarce4 ,a variety of useful minerals exists1 but only rock-salt is obtained1 at ,nakhichevan and ,kulp4 ,the climate is extremely varied1 the following being the average temperatures and mean annual rainfall at ,alexandropol 7alt4 #ejgh ft47 and ,aralykh 7#bgee ft47 respectively3 year #db deg41 ,january #ab deg41 ,july #fe deg41 mean rainfall #af4b in42 and year #ec deg41 ,january #bj4e deg41 ,july #gi deg41 rainfall #f4c in4 ,the population numbered #hbi1egh in #ahig 7only #cge1jhf women71 of whom #hb1bgh lived in the towns4 ,an estimate in #aijf gave a total of #iji1ajj4 ,they consist chiefly of ,armenians 7#dda1jjj71 ,tatars 7#dj71 ,kurds 7#di1chi71 with ,russians1 ,greeks and ,tates4 ,most of the ,armenians belong to the ,gregorian 7,christian7 ,church1 and only #djbj to the ,armenian ,catholic ,church4 ,the ,tatars are mostly ,shiite ,mussulmans1 only #bg1eif being ,sunnites2 #gggb belong to the peculiar faith of the ,yezids4 ,while barley only can be grown on the high parts of the plateau1 cotton1 mulberry1 vines and all sorts of fruit are cultivated in the valley of the ,aras4 ,cattle-breeding is extensively carried on2 camels also are bred1 and leeches are collected out of the swamps and exported to ,persia4 ,industry is in its infancy1 but cottons1 carpets1 and felt goods are made in the villages4 ,a considerable trade is carried on with ,persia1 but trade with ,asia ,minor is declining4 ,the government is divided into seven districts--,erivan1 ,alexandropol1 ,echmiadzin 7chief town1 ,vagarshapat71 ,nakhichevan1 ,novobayazet1 ,surmali 7chief town1 ,igdyr71 and ,sharur-daralagoz 7chief town1 ,norashen74 ,the principal towns are ,erivan 7see below71 ,alexandropol 7#cb1jah inhabitants in #ahig71 ,novobayazet 7#hejg71 ,nakhichevan 7#hhde71 and ,vagarshapat 7#cdjj74 ,,erivan1 or ,,irwan1 in ,persian1 ,rewan1 a town of ,russia1 capital of the government of the same name1 situated in #dj deg4 #ad' ,n41 #dd deg4 #ch' ,e41 #bcd m4 by rail ,s4,s4,w4 of ,tiflis1 on the ,zanga river1 from which a great number of irrigation canals are drawn4 ,altitude1 #cagj ft4 ,pop4 7#ahgc7 #aa1ich2 7#ahig7 #bi1jcc4 ,the old ,persian portion of the town consists mainly of narrow crooked lanes enclosed by mud walls1 which effectually conceal the houses1 and the modern ,russian portion is laid out in long ill-paved streets4 ,on a steep rock1 rising about #fjj ft4 above the river1 stand the ruins of the #afth-century ,turkish fortress1 containing part of the palace of the former ,persian governors1 a handsome but greatly dilapidated mosque1 a modern ,greek church and a cannon foundry4 ,one chamber1 called the ,hall of the ,sardar1 bears witness to former splendour in its decorations4 ,the finest building in the city is the mosque of ,hussein ,ali ,khan1 familiarly known as the ,blue ,mosque from the colour of the enamelled tiles with which it is richly encased4 ,at the mosque of ,zal ,khan a passion play is performed yearly illustrative of the assassination of ,hussein1 the son of ,ali4 ,erivan is an ,armenian episcopal see1 and has a theological seminary4 ,the only manufactures are a little cotton cloth1 leather1 earthenware and blacksmiths' work4 ,the fruits of the district are noted for their excellence--especially the grapes1 apples1 apricots and melons4 ,armenians1 ,persians and ,tatars are the principal elements in the population1 besides some ,russians and ,greeks4 ,the town fell into the power of the ,turks in #aehb1 was taken by the ,persians under ,shah ,abbas in #afjd1 besieged by the ,turks for four months in #afae1 and reconquered by the ,persians under ,nadir ,shah in the #ahth century4 ,in #aghj it was successfully defended against ,heraclius1 prince of ,georgia2 and in #ahjd it resisted the ,russians4 ,at length in #ahbg ,paskevich took the fortress by storm1 and in the following year the town and government were ceded to ,russia by the peace of ,turkman-chai4 ,a ,tatar poem in celebration of the event has been preserved by the ,austrian poet1 ,bodenstedt1 in his ,tausend und ein ,tage im ,orient 7#ahej74 ,,erlangen1 a town of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,bavaria1 on a fertile plain1 at the confluence of the ,schwabach and the ,regnitz1 #aa m4 ,n4,w4 of ,nuremberg1 on the railway from ,munich to ,bamberg4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #bc1gbj4 ,it is divided into an old and a new town1 the latter consisting of wide1 straight and well-built streets4 ,the market place is a fine square4 ,upon it stand the town-hall and the former palace of the margraves of ,bayreuth1 now the main building of the university4 ,the latter was founded by the margrave ,frederick 7d4 #agfc71 who1 in #agdb1 established a university at ,bayreuth1 but in #agdc removed it to ,erlangen4 ,a statue of the founder1 erected in #ahdc by ,king ,louis ,i4 of ,bavaria1 stands in the centre of the square and faces the university buildings4 ,the university has faculties of philosophy1 law1 medicine and ,protestant theology4 ,connected with it are a library of over #bjj1jjj volumes1 geological1 anatomical and mineralogical institutions1 a hospital1 several clinical establishments1 laboratories and a botanical garden4 ,among the churches of the town 7six ,protestant and one ,roman ,catholic71 only the new town church1 with a spire #bbj ft4 high1 is remarkable4 ,the chief industries of ,erlangen are spinning and weaving1 and the manufacture of glass1 paper1 brushes and gloves4 ,the brewing industry is also important1 the beer of ,erlangen being famous throughout ,germany and large quantities being exported4 ,erlangen owes the foundation of its prosperity chiefly to the ,french ,protestant refugees who settled here on the revocation of the edict of ,nantes and introduced various manufactures4 ,in #ajag the place was transferred from the bishopric of ,wurzburg to that of ,bamberg2 in #acfa it was sold to the king of ,bohemia4 ,it became a town in #acih and passed into the hands of the ,hohenzollerns1 burgraves of ,nuremberg1 in #adaf4 ,there for nearly three centuries it was the property of the margraves of ,bayreuth1 being ceded with the rest of ,bayreuth to ,prussia in #agia4 ,in #ahaj it came into the possession of ,bavaria4 ,erlangen was for many years the residence of the poet ,friedrich ,ruckert1 and of the philosophers ,johann ,gottlieb ,fichte and ,friedrich ,wilhelm von ,schnelling4 ,see ,stein and ,muller1 ,die ,geschichte von ,erlangen 7#ahih74 ,,erle1 ,,sir ,,william 7#agic-ahhj71 ,english lawyer and judge1 was born at ,fifehead-,magdalen1 ,dorset1 on the #ast of ,october #agic1 and was educated at ,winchester and at ,new ,college1 ,oxford4 ,having been called to the bar at the ,middle ,temple in #ahai he went the western circuit1 became counsel to the ,bank of ,england1 sat in parliament from #ahcg to #ahda for the city of ,oxford1 and1 although of opposite politics to ,lord ,lyndhurst1 was made by him a judge of the common pleas in #ahde4 ,he was transferred to the queen's bench in the following year1 and in #ahei came back to the common pleas as chief justice upon the promotion of ,sir ,alexander ,cockburn4 ,he retired in #ahff1 receiving the highest eulogiums for the ability and impartiality with which he had discharged the judicial office4 ,he died at his estate at ,bramshott1 ,hampshire1 on the #bhth of ,january #ahhj1 and a monument without his name but in his memory 7sometimes erroneously supposed to mark the place where an old gibbet was7 stands on the top of ,hindhead4 ,see ,e4 ,manson1 ,builders of our ,law 7#aijd74 ,,erlkonig1 or ,,erl-,,king1 a mythical character in modern ,german literature1 represented as a gigantic bearded man with a golden crown and trailing garments1 who carries children away to that undiscovered country where he himself abides4 ,there is no such personage in ancient ,german mythology1 and the name is linguistically nothing more than the perpetuation of a blunder4 ,it first appeared in ,herder's ,stimmen der ,volker 7#aggh71 where it is used in the translation of the ,danish song of the ,elf-,king's ,daughter as equivalent to the ,danish ellerkonge1 or ellekonge1 that is1 elverkonge1 the king of the elves2 and the true ,german word would have been ,elbkonig or ,elbenkonig1 afterwards used under the modified form of ,elfenkonig by ,wieland in his ,oberon 7#aghj74 ,herder was probably misled by the fact that the ,danish word elle signifies not only elf1 but also alder tree 7,ger4 ,erle74 ,his mistake at any rate has been perpetuated by both ,english and ,french translators1 who speak of a king of the alders1 un roi des aunes1 and find an explanation of the myth in the tree-worship of early times1 or in the vapoury emanations that hang like weird phantoms round the alder trees at night4 ,the legend was adopted by ,goethe as the subject of one of his finest ballads1 rendered familiar to ,english readers by the translations of ,lewis and ,sir ,walter ,scott2 and since then it has been treated as a musical theme by ,reichardt and ,schubert4 ,,erman1 ,,paul 7#agfd-ahea71 ,german physicist1 was born in ,berlin on the #bith of ,february #agfd4 ,he was the son of the historian ,jean ,pierre ,erman 7#agce-ahad71 author of ,histoire des refugies4 ,he became teacher of science successively at the ,french gymnasium in ,berlin1 and at the military academy1 and on the foundation of the university of ,berlin in #ahaj he was chosen professor of physics4 ,he died at ,berlin on the #aath of ,october #ahea4 ,his work was mainly concerned with electricity and magnetism1 though he also made some contributions to optics and physiology4 ,his son1 ,,georg ,,adolf ,,erman 7#ahjf-ahgg71 was born in ,berlin on the #abth of ,may #ahjf1 and after studying natural science at ,berlin and ,konigsberg1 spent from #ahbh to #ahcj in a journey round the world1 an account of which he published in ,reise um die ,erde durch ,nordasien und die beiden ,ozeane 7#ahcc-ahdh74 ,the magnetic observations he made during his travels were utilized by ,c4,f4 ,gauss in his theory of terrestrial magnetism4 ,he was appointed professor of physics at ,berlin in #ahci1 and died there on the #abth of ,july #ahgg4 ,from #ahda to #ahfe he edited the ,archiv fur wissenschaftliche ,kunde von ,russland1 and in #ahgd he published1 with ,h4,j4,r4 ,petersen1 ,die ,grundlagen der ,gauss'schen ,theorie und die ,erscheinungen des ,erdmagnetismus im ,jahre #ahbi4 ,his son ,,johann ,,peter ,,adolf ,,erman 7#ahed- 71 a famous ,egyptologist1 was born in ,berlin on the #cast of ,october #ahed4 ,educated at ,leipzig and ,berlin1 he became extraordinary professor in #ahhc and ordinary professor in #ahib of ,egyptology in the university of ,berlin1 and in #ahhe he was appointed director of the ,egyptian department of the royal museum4 ,for an account of the ,egyptological work of ,erman and his school1 see ,,egypt3 ,language4 ,,ermanaric 7fl4 #cej-cgf71 king of the ,east ,goths1 belonged to the ,amali family1 and was the son of ,achiulf4 ,his name occurs as ,ermanaricus 7,jordanes71 ,airmanareiks 7,gothic71 ,eormenric 7,a4 ,sax471 ,jormunrek 7,norse71 ,ermenrich 7,m4,h4 ,german74 ,ermanaric built up for himself a vast kingdom1 which eventually extended from the ,danube to the ,baltic and from the ,don to the ,theiss4 ,he drove the ,vandals out of ,dacia1 compelled the allegiance of the neighbouring tribes of ,west ,goths1 procured the submission of the ,herules1 of many ,slav and ,finnish tribes1 and even of the ,esthonians on the shores of the ,gulf of ,bothnia4 ,in his later days the west ,goths threw off his yoke1 and1 on the invasion of the ,huns1 rather than witness the downfall of his kingdom he is said by ,ammianus ,marcellinus to have committed suicide4 ,his fate early became the centre of popular tradition1 which found its way into the narrative of ,jordanes or ,jornandes 7,de rebus geticis1 chap4 #bd71 who compared him to ,alexander the ,great and certainly exaggerated the extent of his kingdom4 ,he is there said to have caused a certain ,sunilda or ,sanielh to be torn asunder by wild horses on account of her husband's traitorous conduct4 ,her brothers ,sarus and ,ammius sought to avenge her4 ,they succeeded in wounding1 not in killing the ,gothic king1 whose death supervened in his one hundred and tenth year from the joint effects of his wound and fear of the ,hunnish invasion4 ,this is evidently a paraphrase of popular story which sought to supply plausible reasons for ,ermanaric's end4 ,in ,german legend ,ermanaric became the typical cruel tyrant1 and references to his crimes abound in ,german epic and in ,anglo-,saxon poetry4 ,he is made to replace ,odoacer as the enemy of ,dietrich of ,bern1 his nephew1 and his history is related in the ,norse ,vilkina or ,thidrekssaga1 which chiefly embodies ,german tradition4 ,his evil genius1 ,sifka1 ,sibicho or ,bicci1 brings about the death of his three sons4 ,the ,harlungs1 ,imbrecke and ,fritile1#a are his nephews1 whom he has strangled for the sake of their treasure1 the ,brisingo meni4 ,sonhild or ,svanhild becomes the wife of ,ermanaric1 and the motive for her murder is replaced by an accusation of adultery between ,svanhild and her stepson4 ,the story was already connected with the ,nibelungen when it found its way to the ,scandinavian north by way of ,germany4 ,in the ,volsunga ,saga ,svanhild is the daughter of ,sigurd and ,gudrun4 ,she is given in marriage to the ,gothic king ,jormunrek 7,ermanaric71 who sends his son ,randver as proxy wooer in company of ,bicci1 the evil counsellor4 ,randver is persuaded by ,bicci to take his father's bride for himself4 ,randver is hanged and ,svanhild trampled to death by horses in the gate of the castle4 ,gudrun eggs on ,sorli and ,hamdir or ,hamtheow1 her two sons by her third husband1 ,jonakr the ,hun1 to avenge their sister4 ,on the way they slay their half-brother ,erp1 whom they suspect of lukewarmness in the cause2 arrived in the hall of ,ermanaric they make a great slaughter of the ,goths1 and hew off the hands and feet of ,ermanaric1 but they themselves are slain with stones4 ,the tale is told with variations by ,saxo ,grammaticus 7,historia ,danica1 ed4 ,muller1 p4 #djh1 c471 and in the ,icelandic poems1 the ,lay of ,hamtheow1 ,gudrun's ,chain of ,woe1 and in the prose ,edda4 ,,bibliography4--,w4 ,grimm1 in ,die deutsche ,heldensage 7#bnd ed41 ,berlin1 #ahfg71 quotes the account given by ,jordanes1 references in ,beowulf1 in the ,wanderer's ,song1 ,exeter ,book1 in ,parcival1 in ,dietrichs ,flucht1 the account given in the ,quedlinburg ,chronicle1 by ,ekkehard in the ,chronicon ,urspergense1 by ,saxo ,grammaticus1 c4 ,see also ,vigfusson and ,powell1 ,corpus poeticum boreale1 vol4 i4 7,oxford1 #ahhc71 and ,h4 ,symons1 ,die deutsche ,heldensage in ,paul's ,grundriss d4 german4 ,phil4 vol4 iii4 7,strassburg1 #aijj74 ,,footnote3 #a ,emerka and ,fridla 7,beowulf1 ,quedlingburg ,chron471 ,aki and ,etgard 7,vilkina ,saga74 ,in the original myth the ,harlungs1 who are not to be confused with the ,hartung brothers1 were sent to bring home ,surya1 the bride of the sky-god1 ,irmintiu4 ,,ermeland1 or ,,ermland 7,varmia71 a district of ,germany1 in ,east ,prussia1 extending from the ,frisches ,haff1 a bay in the ,baltic1 inland towards the ,polish frontier4 ,it is a well-wooded sandy tract of country1 has an area of about #afej sq4 m41 a population of #bdj1jjj1 and is divided into the districts of ,braunsberg1 ,heilsberg1 ,rossel and ,allenstein4 ,ermeland was originally one of the eleven districts of old ,prussia and was occupied by the ,teutonic ,knights 7,deutscher ,orden71 being made in #abej one of the four bishoprics of the country under their sway4 ,the bishop of ,ermeland shortly afterwards declared himself independent of the order1 and became a prince of the ,empire4 ,in #adff ,ermeland1 together with ,west ,prussia1 was by the peace of ,thorn attached to the crown of ,poland1 and the bishop had a seat in the ,polish senate4 ,in #aggb it was again incorporated with ,prussia4 ,among the bishops of the see1 which still exists1 with its seat in ,frauenberg1 may be mentioned ,aeneas ,sylvius ,piccolomini1 afterwards ,pope ,pius ,,ii41 and ,cardinal ,stanislaus ,hosius 7#aejd-aegi71 the founder of the ,jesuit college in ,braunsberg4 ,see ,hipler1 ,literaturgeschichte des ,bisthums ,ermeland 7,braunsberg1 #ahgc72 the ,monumenta historiae ,warmiensis 7,mainz1 #ahfj-ahfd1 and ,braunsberg1 #ahff-ahgb1 #d vols472 and ,buchholz1 ,abriss einer ,geschichte des ,ermlands 7,braunsberg1 #aijc47 ,,ermelo1 a district and town of the ,transvaal4 ,the district lies in the south-east of the province and is traversed by the ,drakensberg4 ,in it are ,lake ,chrissie1 the only true lake in the country1 and the sources of the ,vaal1 ,olifants1 ,komati1 and ,usuto rivers1 which rise within #cj m4 of one another4 ,the region has a general elevation of about #eejj ft4 and is fine agricultural and pastoral country1 besides containing valuable minerals1 including coal and gold4 ,ermelo town1 pop4 7#aijd7 #adea1 is by rail #age m4 ,s4,e4 of ,johannesburg1 and #gd m4 ,s4,s4,w4 of ,machadodorp on the ,pretoria-,delagoa ,bay railway4 ,a government experimental farm1 with some #ajjj acres of plantations1 is maintained here4 ,,ermine1 an alternative name for the stoat 7,putorius ermineus71 apparently applicable in its proper sense only when the animal is in its white winter coat4 ,this animal measures #aj in4 in length exclusive of the tail1 which is about #d in4 long1 and becomes bushy towards the point4 ,the fur in summer is reddish brown above and white beneath1 changing in the winter of northern latitudes to snowy whiteness1 except at the tip of the tail1 which at all seasons is black4 ,in ,scottish specimens this change in winter is complete1 but in those found in the southern districts of ,england it is usually only partial1 the ermine presenting during winter a piebald appearance4 ,the white colour is evidently protective1 enabling the animals to elude the observations of their enemies1 and to steal unobserved on their prey4 ,it also retains heat better than a dark covering1 and may thus serve to maintain an equable temperature at all seasons within the body4 ,the colour change seems to be due to phagocytes devouring the pigment-bodies of the hair1 and not to a moult4 ,illustration3 ,ermine or ,stoat 7,putorius ermineus74 ,the species is a native of the temperate and subarctic zones of the ,old ,world1 and is represented in ,america by a form which can scarcely be regarded as specifically distinct4 ,it inhabits thickets and stony places1 and frequently makes use of the deserted burrows of moles and other underground mammals4 ,exceedingly sanguinary in disposition1 and agile in its movements1 it feeds principally on rats1 water-rats and rabbits1 which it pursues with pertinacity and boldness1 hence the name stoat1 signifying bold1 by which it is commonly known4 ,it takes readily to water1 and will even climb trees in pursuit of prey4 ,it is particularly destructive to poultry and game1 and has often been known to attack hares1 fixing itself to the throat of its victim1 and defying all the efforts of the latter to disengage it4 ,the female brings forth five young ones about the beginning of summer4 ,the winter coat of the ermine forms one of the most valuable of commercial furs1 and is imported in enormous quantities from ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,russia and ,siberia4 ,it is largely used for muffs and tippets1 and as a trimming for state robes1 the jet black points of the tails being inserted at regular intervals as an ornament4 ,in the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 the wearing of ermine was restricted to members of the royal family2 but it now enters into almost all state robes1 the rank and position of the wearer being in many cases indicated by the presence or absence1 and the disposition1 of the black spots4 7,see also ,,fur47 ,,ermine ,,street4 ,documents and writers of the #aath and succeeding centuries occasionally mention four royal roads in ,britain--,icknield ,street1 ,erning or ,ermine ,street1 ,watling ,street and ,foss ,way--as standing apart from all other existing roads and enjoying the special protection of the king4 ,unfortunately these authorities are not at all agreed as to their precise course2 the roads themselves do not occur as specially privileged in actual legal or other practice1 and it is likely that the category of ,four ,roads is the invention of a lawyer or an antiquary4 ,the names are1 however1 attested to some extent by early charters which name them among other roads1 as boundaries4 ,from these charters we know that ,icknield ,street ran along the ,berkshire downs and the ,chilterns1 that ,ermine ,street ran more or less due north through ,huntingdonshire1 that ,watling ,street ran north-west across the midlands from ,london to ,shrewsbury1 and ,foss diagonally to it from ,lincoln or ,leicester to ,bath and mid-,somerset4 ,this evidence only proves the existence of these roads in ,saxon and ,norman days4 ,but they all seem to be much older4 ,icknield ,street is probably a prehistoric ridgeway along the downs1 utilized perhaps by the ,romans near its eastern end1 but in general not ,roman4 ,ermine ,street coincides with part of a line of ,roman roads leading north from ,london through ,huntingdon to ,lincoln4 ,this line is followed by the ,old ,north ,road through ,cheshunt1 ,buntingford1 ,royston1 and ,huntingdon to ,castor near ,peterborough2 and thence it can be traced through lanes and byways past ,ancaster to ,lincoln4 ,watling ,street is the ,roman highway from ,london by ,st ,alban's 7,verulamium7 to ,wroxeter near ,shrewsbury 7,viroconium74 ,foss is the ,roman highway from ,lincoln to ,bath and ,exeter4 ,hence it has been supposed1 and is still frequently alleged1 that the ,four ,roads were the principal highways of ,roman ,britain4 ,this1 however1 is not the case4 ,icknield ,street is not ,roman and the three roads which follow ,roman lines1 ,ermine ,street1 ,watling ,street1 and ,foss1 held no peculiar position in the ,romano-,british road system 7see ,,britain3 ,roman74 ,in later times1 the names ,ermine ,street1 ,icknield ,street and ,watling ,street have been applied to other roads of ,roman or supposed ,roman origin4 ,this1 however1 is wholly the work of ,elizabethan or subsequent antiquaries and deserves no credence4 ,the derivations of the four names are unknown4 ,icknield1 ,ermine and ,watling may be from ,english personal names2 ,foss1 originally ,fos1 seems to be the ,lat4 fossa in its occasional medieval sense of a bank of upcast earth or stones1 such as the agger of a road4 7,f4 ,j4 ,h47 ,,ermoldus ,,nigellus1 or ,,ermold ,,the ,,black1 was a monk of ,aquitaine1 who accompanied ,king ,pippin1 son of the emperor ,louis ,i41 on a campaign into ,brittany in #hbd4 ,subsequently he was banished from ,pippin's court on a charge of inciting the king against his father1 and retired to ,strassburg1 where he sought to regain the emperor's favour by writing a poem on his life and deeds4 ,about #hcj he obtained his recall1 and has been identified with ,hermoldus1 who appears as ,pippin's chancellor in #hch4 ,ermoldus was a cultured man with a knowledge of the ,latin poets1 and this poem1 ,in honorem ,hludovici imperatoris1 has some historical value4 ,it consists of four books and deals with the life and exploits of ,louis from #gha to #hbf4 ,he also wrote two poems in imitation of ,ovid1 which were addressed to ,pippin4 ,his writings are published in the ,monumenta ,germaniae historica1 ,scriptores1 ,band #b 7,hanover1 #ahbf fol472 by ,j4,p4 ,migne in the ,patrologia ,latina1 tome #aje 7,paris1 #ahdd72 and by ,e4 ,dummler in the ,poetae ,latini aevi ,carolini1 ,band #b 7,berlin1 #ahha-ahhd74 ,see ,w4,o4 ,henkel1 ,uber den historischen ,werth der ,gedichte des ,ermoldus ,nigellus 7,eilenburg1 #ahgf72 ,w4 ,wattenbach1 ,deutschlands ,geschichtsquellen1 ,band #a 7,berlin1 #aijd72 and ,a4 ,potthast1 ,bibliotheca historica1 pp4 #dcj-dca 7,berlin1 #ahif74 ,,erne1 the name of a river and two lakes in the north-west of ,ireland4 ,the river rises in ,lough ,gowna1 county ,longford1 #bad ft4 above sea-level1 flows north through ,lough ,oughter with a serpentine course and a direction generally northward1 and then broadens into the ,upper ,lough ,erne1 a shallow irregular sheet of water #ac m4 long1 so beset with islands as to present the appearance of a number of water-channels ramifying through the land4 ,the river then winds past the town of ,enniskillen on its island1 and enters ,lough ,erne1 a beautiful lake nearly #ah m4 long and #e m4 in extreme width1 containing many islands1 but less closely covered with them than the upper lough4 ,one of them1 ,devenish1 is celebrated for its antiquarian remains 7see ,,enniskillen74 ,the river then runs westward to ,donegal ,bay1 forming a fine fall at ,ballyshannon 7q4v474 ,lough ,erne contains trout and pike4 ,these waters admit of navigation by small steamers1 but little trade is carried on4 ,the area of the ,erne basin1 which includes a vast number of small loughs1 is about #afjj sq4 m41 and it covers part of the counties ,cavan1 ,longford1 ,leitrim1 ,fermanagh and ,donegal4 ,the length of the ,erne valley is about #gj m4 ,,ernest ,i4 ,,ernst ,,anton ,,karl ,,ludwig1 duke of ,saxe-,coburg-,gotha 7#aghd-ahdd71 was the son of ,francis1 duke of ,saxe-,coburg-,saalfeld1 and was born on the #bnd of ,january #aghd4 ,at the time of his father's death 7#ith of ,december #ahjf7 the duchy of ,coburg was occupied by ,napoleon as conquered territory1 and ,ernest did not come into his inheritance till after the peace of ,tilsit 7,july #ahjg74 ,owing to the part he had played in assisting the ,prussians at the battle of ,auerstadt he continued out of favour with ,napoleon1 and he threw himself with vigour into the war of liberation against the ,french4 ,after the battle of ,leipzig he was given the command of the ,v4 army corps and reduced ,mainz by blockade2 he also commanded the ,saxon troops during the campaign of #ahae4 ,by the congress of ,vienna he was rewarded with the principality of ,lichtenberg on the left bank of the ,rhine1 which received a slight augmentation after the second peace of ,paris4 ,these territories he sold to ,prussia in #ahcd4 ,in #ahbf1 in the division of the territories of the duchy of ,saxe-,gotha which followed the death of its last duke 7,february #ahbe71 he received the duchy of ,gotha1 ceding that of ,saalfeld to the duke of ,meiningen2 and he now exchanged his style of ,ernest ,,iii4 of ,saxe-,coburg-,saalfeld for that of ,ernest ,i4 of ,saxe-,coburg-,gotha4 ,in #ahba he had given a constitution to ,coburg1 but he did not interfere with the traditional system of estates at ,gotha4 ,he died on the #bith of ,january #ahdd4 ,duke ,ernest1 who was not only a good soldier and keen sportsman1 but an enlightened patron of the arts and sciences1 did much for the economic1 educational and constitutional development of his territories2 and his advice always carried great weight in the councils of the other ,german sovereigns4 ,it was1 however1 for the splendid international position attained by the house of ,coburg under him that his reign is chiefly distinguished4 ,his younger brother ,leopold 7q4v47 became king of the ,belgians2 his brother ,ferdinand 7b4 #aghe7 married the wealthy princess ,antoinette von ,kohary 7#ahaf7 and was the father of the duchess of ,nemours and of the future ,king ,ferdinand of ,portugal4 ,of his sisters1 ,antoinette 7#aggi-ahbd7 married ,duke ,alexander of ,wurttemberg2 ,juliane ,alexandra ,feodorovna 7#agha-ahfj7 married the ,russian cesarevich ,constantine1 from whom she was1 however1 divorced in #ahbj2 and ,victoria 7#aghf-ahfa71 wife of ,edward ,augustus1 duke of ,kent1 became the mother of ,queen ,victoria4 ,duke ,ernest was twice married3 7#a7 in #ahag to ,louise1 daughter of ,duke ,augustus of ,saxe-,gotha1 whom he finally divorced in #ahbf2 7#b7 in #ahca to ,maria1 daughter of ,duke ,alexander of ,wurttemberg4 ,of his sons1 by his first wife1 ,ernest succeeded him in the duchy1 and ,albert married ,queen ,victoria4 ,,ernest ,,ii41 duke of ,saxe-,coburg-,gotha 7#ahah-ahic71 was born at ,coburg on the #bast of ,june #ahah1 being the eldest son of ,duke ,ernest ,i4 ,he enjoyed a varied education2 he studied at the university of ,bonn with his brother ,albert2 his military training he received in the ,saxon army4 ,the widespread connexions of his family opened to him many courts of ,europe1 and after he became of age he travelled much4 ,the position of his uncle ,leopold1 who was king of the ,belgians1 and especially the marriage of his brother ,albert to the queen of ,england1 his cousin1 gave him peculiar opportunities for becoming acquainted with the political problems of ,europe4 ,in #ahdj-ahda he undertook a journey to ,spain and ,portugal2 in the latter country another cousin1 ,ferdinand1 was king-consort4 ,in #ahdd he succeeded his father4 ,his own character and the influence of the king of the ,belgians made him one of the most ,liberal princes in ,germany4 ,he was able to bring to a satisfactory conclusion disputes with the ,coburg estates4 ,he passed through the ordeal of the revolution of #ahdh with little trouble1 for he anticipated the demands of the people of ,gotha for a reform1 and in #aheb introduced a new constitution by which the administration of his two duchies was assimilated in many points4 ,the government of his small dominions did not afford sufficient scope for his restless and versatile ambition2 his desire to play a great part in ,german affairs was probably increased by the feeling that1 though he was the head of his house1 he was to some extent overshadowed by the younger branches of the family which ruled in ,belgium1 ,england and ,portugal4 ,he was one of the foremost supporters of every attempt made to reform the ,german constitution and bring about the unity of ,germany4 ,he took a warm interest in the proceedings of the ,frankfort parliament1 and it was often said1 probably without reason1 that he hoped to be chosen emperor himself4 ,however that may be1 he strongly urged the king of ,prussia to accept that position when it was offered him in #ahdi2 he took a very prominent part in the complicated negotiations of the following year1 and it was at his suggestion that a congress of princes met at ,berlin in #ahej4 ,he highly valued the opportunities which this and similar meetings gave him for exercising political influence1 and he would have felt most at home as a member of a permanent council of the ,german princes4 ,ambitious also of military distinction1 and sympathizing with the rising of the people of ,schleswig-,holstein against the ,danes in #ahdi1 ,ernest accepted a command in the federal army4 ,in the engagement of ,eckernforde in ,april #ahdi the troops under his orders succeeded in capturing two ,danish frigates1 a remarkable feat of which he was justly proud4 ,his greatest services to ,germany were performed during the years of reaction which followed2 almost alone among the ,german princes he remained faithful to the ,liberal and ,national ideals1 and he allowed his dominions to be used as an asylum by the writers and politicians who had to leave ,prussia and ,saxony4 ,the reactionary parties looked on him with great suspicion1 and it was at this time that he formed a friendship with ,gustav ,freytag1 the celebrated novelist1 whom he protected when the ,prussian government demanded his arrest4 ,his connexion with the ,english court gave him a position of much influence1 but no one was more purely ,german in his feelings and opinions4 ,the marriage of his niece ,victoria with ,frederick1 the heir to the ,prussian throne1 strengthened his connexion with ,prussia1 but caused the ,conservative party to look with increased suspicion on the ,coburg influence4 ,he was the first ,german prince to visit ,napoleon ,,iii41 and was present when ,orsini made his celebrated attempt on the emperor's life4 ,after #ahfj he became the chief patron and protector of the ,national ,verein2 he encouraged the newly-formed rifle clubs1 and notwithstanding the strong disapproval of his fellow-monarchs1 allowed his court to become the centre of the rising national agitation4 ,still a warm adherent of ,prussia1 in #ahfb he set an example to the other princes by voluntarily making an agreement by which his troops were placed in war under the command of the king of ,prussia4 ,like all the other ,nationalists1 he was much embarrassed by the policy of ,bismarck1 and the democratic opinions of the ,coburg court1 which were shared by the crown prince ,frederick1 were a serious embarrassment to that minister4 ,the opposition became more accentuated when the duke allowed his dominions to be used as the headquarters of the agitation in favour of ,frederick1 duke of ,augustenburg1 who claimed the duchies of ,schleswig and ,holstein1 and it was at this time that ,bismarck is reported to have said that if ,frederick the ,great had been alive the duke would have been in the fortress of ,spandau4 ,in #ahfc he was present at the ,furstentag in ,frankfort1 and from this time was in more frequent communication with the ,austrian court1 where his cousin ,alexander1 ,count ,mensdorff1 was minister4 ,however1 when war broke out in #ahff1 he at once placed his troops at the disposition of ,prussia2 ,bismarck had in an important letter explained to him his policy and tactics4 ,he was personally concerned in one of the most interesting events of the war2 for the ,hanoverian army1 in its attempt to march south and join the ,bavarians1 had to pass through ,thuringia1 and the battle of ,langensalza was fought in the immediate neighbourhood of ,gotha4 ,his troops took part in the battle1 which ended in the rout of the ,prussians1 the duke1 who was not present during the fight1 in vain attempting to stop it4 ,he bore an important share in the negotiations before and after the battle1 and his action at this time has been the subject of much controversy1 for it was suggested that while he offered to mediate he really acted as a partisan of ,prussia4 ,for his services to ,prussia he received as a present the forest of ,schmalkalden4 ,he was with the ,prussian headquarters in ,bohemia during the latter part of the war4 ,with the year #ahff the political role which ,ernest had played ended4 ,the result was perhaps not quite equal to his expectations1 but it must be remembered how difficult was the position of the minor ,german princes2 and he quoted with great satisfaction the words used in #ahga by the emperor ,william at ,versailles1 that to him in no small degree was due the establishment of the empire4 ,he was a man of varied tastes1 a good musician--he composed several operas and songs--and a keen sportsman1 a quality in which he differed from his brother4 ,notwithstanding his ,liberalism1 he had a great regard for the dignity of his rank and family1 and in his support of constitutional government would never have sacrificed the essential prerogatives of sovereignty4 ,he died at ,reinhardsbrunn on the #bbnd of ,august #ahic4 ,in #ahdb the duke married ,alexandrine1 daughter of the grandduke of ,baden2 there were no children by this marriage and the succession to ,saxe-,coburg-,gotha passed therefore to the children of his younger brother ,albert4 ,by ,albert's marriage contract the duchy could not be held together with the ,english crown2 thus his eldest son1 afterwards ,edward ,,vii41 was passed over and it came to his second son1 ,alfred1 duke of ,edinburgh 7#ahdd-aijj74 ,when ,alfred died without sons in ,july #aijj the succession to the duchy passed to a younger brother ,arthur1 duke of ,connaught2 but the duke and his son1 ,arthur1 passed on their claim to ,charles ,edward1 duke of ,albany 7b4 #ahhd71 who became duke of ,saxe-,coburg-,gotha in succession to his uncle ,alfred4 ,in #aije ,charles ,edward married ,victoria ,adelaide 7b4 #ahhe71 princess of ,schleswig-,holstein1 by whom he has a son ,john ,leopold 7b4 #aijf74 ,duke ,ernest was something of a writer4 ,he brought out an account of the travels in ,egypt and ,abyssinia which he undertook in #ahfb as ,reise des ,herzogs ,ernst von ,sachsen-,koburg-,gotha nach ,agypten 7,leipzig1 #ahfd72 and he published his memoirs1 ,aus meinem ,leben und aus meiner ,zeit 7,berlin1 #ahhg-ahhi74 ,this work is in three volumes and contains much valuable information on a most critical period of ,german history2 there is an ,english translation by ,p4 ,andreae 7#ahhh-ahij74 ,see also ,sir ,t4 ,martin1 ,life of ,h4,r4,h4 the ,prince ,consort 7#ahge-ahhj72 ,hon4 ,c4 ,grey1 ,early ,years of the ,prince ,consort 7#ahfg72 ,a4 ,ohorn1 ,herzog ,ernst ,,ii41 ein ,lebensbild 7,leipzig1 #ahid72 and ,e4 ,tempeltey1 ,herzog ,ernst von ,koburg und das ,jahr #ahff 7,berlin1 #ahih74 7,j4 ,w4 ,he47 ,,ernest ,,augustus 7#agga-ahea71 king of ,hanover and duke of ,cumberland1 fifth son of the ,english king ,george ,,iii41 was born at ,kew on the #eth of ,june #agga4 ,having studied at the university of ,gottingen1 he entered the ,hanoverian army1 serving as a leader of cavalry when war broke out between ,great ,britain and ,france in #agic1 and winning a reputation for bravery4 ,he lost the sight of one eye at the battle of ,tournai in ,may #agid1 and when ,hanover withdrew from the war in #agie he returned to ,england1 being made lieutenant-general in the ,british army in #agii4 ,in the same year he was created duke of ,cumberland and ,teviotdale and granted an allowance of ,l#ab1jjj a year1 after which he held several lucrative military positions in ,england1 and began to attend the sittings of the ,house of ,lords and to take part in political life4 ,a stanch ,tory1 the duke objected to all proposals of reform1 especially to the granting of any relief to the ,roman ,catholics1 and had great influence with his brother the prince regent1 afterwards ,king ,george ,,iv41 in addition to being often consulted by the ,tory leaders4 ,in #ahaj he was severely injured by an assassin1 probably his valet ,sellis1 who was found dead2 and subsequently two men were imprisoned for asserting that the duke had murdered his valet4 ,recovering from his wounds1 ,cumberland again proceeded to the seat of war2 and having been made a ,british field-marshal1 was in command of the ,hanoverian army during the campaigns of #ahac and #ahad1 being present1 although not in action1 at the battle of ,leipzig4 ,in ,may #ahae ,ernest married his cousin1 ,frederica 7#aggh-ahda71 daughter of ,charles ,,ii4 duke of ,mecklenburg-,strelitz and widow of ,frederick1 prince of ,solms-,braunfels1 a union which was very repugnant to his mother ,queen ,charlotte1 and was disliked in ,england1 where the duke's strong ,toryism had made him unpopular4 ,parliament refused to increase his allowance from ,l#ah1jjj1 to which it had been raised in #ahjd1 to ,l#bd1jjj a year1 and indignant at the treatment he received the duke spent some years in ,berlin4 ,returning to ,england after the accession of ,george ,,iv4 in #ahbj1 his political power was again considerable1 while deaths in the royal family made it likely that he would succeed to the throne4 ,although his personal influence with the sovereign ceased upon the death of ,george ,,iv4 in #ahcj1 the duke continued to oppose all measures for the extension of civil and religious liberty1 including the ,reform ,bill of #ahcb2 and his unpopularity was augmented by suspicions that he had favoured the formation of ,orange lodges in the army4 ,when ,william ,,iv4 died in ,june #ahcg1 the crowns of ,great ,britain and ,hanover were separated2 and ,ernest1 as the nearest male heir of the late king1 became king of ,hanover4 ,at once cancelling the constitution which ,william had given to his kingdom in #ahcc1 he acted as an absolute monarch1 and the constitution which he sanctioned in #ahdj was permeated with his own illiberal ideas4 ,in ,german politics he was vigilant and active1 and mindful of the material interests of his country4 ,his reign1 however1 was a stormy one1 and serious trouble between king and people had arisen when he died at ,herrenhausen on the #ahth of ,november #ahea 7see ,,hanover3 ,history74 ,in spite of his arbitrary rule and his reactionary ideas the king was popular among his subjects1 and his statue in ,hanover bears the words ,dem ,landes ,vater sein treues ,volk4 ,ernest1 who is generally regarded as the ablest of the sons of ,george ,,iii41 left an only child1 ,george1 who succeeded him as king of ,hanover4 ,see ,c4,a4 ,wilkinson1 ,reminiscences of the ,court and ,times of ,king ,ernest of ,hanover 7,london1 #ahhf72 von ,malortie1 ,konig ,ernst ,august 7,hanover1 #ahfa72 and the various histories of ,great ,britain and ,hanover for the period4 ,,ernesti1 ,,johann ,,august 7#agjg-agha71 ,german theologian and philologist1 was born on the #dth of ,august #agjg1 at ,tennstadt in ,thuringia1 of which place his father was pastor1 besides being superintendent of the electoral dioceses of ,thuringia1 ,salz and ,sangerhausen4 ,at the age of sixteen he was sent to the celebrated ,saxon cloister school of ,pforta 7,schulpforta74 ,at twenty he entered the university of ,wittenberg1 and studied afterwards at the university of ,leipzig4 ,in #agcj he was made master in the faculty of philosophy4 ,in the following year he accepted the office of conrector in the ,thomas school of ,leipzig1 of which ,j4,m4 ,gesner was then rector1 an office to which ,ernesti succeeded in #agcd4 ,he was1 in #agdb1 named professor extraordinarius of ancient literature in the university of ,leipzig1 and in #agef professor ordinarius of rhetoric4 ,in the same year he received the degree of doctor of theology1 and in #agei was appointed professor ordinarius in the faculty of theology4 ,through his learning and his manner of discussion1 he co-operated with ,s4,j4 ,baumgarten of ,halle 7#agjf-ageg7 in disengaging the current dogmatic theology from its many scholastic and mystical excrescences1 and thus paved a way for a revolution in theology4 ,he died1 after a short illness1 in his seventy-sixth year1 on the #aath of ,september #agha4 ,it is perhaps as much from the impulse which ,ernesti gave to sacred and profane criticism in ,germany1 as from the intrinsic excellence of his own works in either department1 that he must derive his reputation as a philologist or theologian4 ,with ,j4,s4 ,semler he co-operated in the revolution of ,lutheran theology1 and in conjunction with ,gesner he instituted a new school in ancient literature4 ,he detected grammatical niceties in ,latin1 in regard to the consecution of tenses which had escaped preceding critics4 ,his canons are1 however1 not without exceptions4 ,as an editor of the ,greek classics1 ,ernesti hardly deserves to be named beside his ,dutch contemporaries1 ,tiberius ,hemsterhuis 7#afhe-agff71 ,l4,c4 ,valckenaer 7#agae-aghe71 ,david ,ruhnken 7#agbc-agih71 or his colleague ,j4,j4 ,reiske 7#agaf-aggd74 ,the higher criticism was not even attempted by ,ernesti4 ,but to him and to ,gesner is due the credit of having formed1 by discipline and by example1 philologists greater than themselves1 and of having kindled the national enthusiasm for ancient learning4 ,it is chiefly in hermeneutics that ,ernesti has any claim to eminence as a theologian4 ,but here his merits are distinguished1 and1 at the period when his ,institutio ,interpretis ,n4 ,t4 was published 7#agfa71 almost peculiar to himself4 ,in it we find the principles of a general interpretation1 formed without the assistance of any particular philosophy1 but consisting of observations and rules which1 though already enunciated1 and applied in the criticism of the profane writers1 had never rigorously been employed in biblical exegesis4 ,he was1 in fact1 the founder of the grammatico-historical school4 ,he admits in the sacred writings as in the classics only one acceptation1 and that the grammatical1 convertible into and the same with the logical and historical4 ,consequently he censures the opinion of those who in the illustration of the ,scriptures refer everything to the illumination of the ,holy ,spirit1 as well as that of others who1 disregarding all knowledge of the languages1 would explain words by things4 ,the analogy of faith1 as a rule of interpretation1 he greatly limits1 and teaches that it can never afford of itself the explanation of words1 but only determine the choice among their possible meanings4 ,at the same time he seems unconscious of any inconsistency between the doctrine of the inspiration of the ,bible as usually received and his principles of hermeneutics4 ,among his works the more important are3--,i4 ,in classical literature3 ,initia doctrinae ,solidioris 7#agcf71 many subsequent editions2 ,initia rhetorica 7#agcj72 editions1 mostly annotated1 of ,xenophon's ,memorabilia 7#agcg71 ,cicero 7#agcg-agci71 ,suetonius 7#agdh71 ,tacitus 7#ageb71 the ,clouds of ,aristophanes 7#aged71 ,homer 7#agei-agfd71 ,callimachus 7#agfa71 ,polybius 7#agfd71 as well as of the ,quaestura of ,corradus1 the ,greek lexicon of ,hedericus1 and the ,bibliotheca ,latina of ,fabricius 7unfinished72 ,archaeologia litteraria 7#agfh71 new and improved edition by ,martini 7#agij72 ,horatius ,tursellinus ,de particulis 7#agfi74 ,,ii4 ,in sacred literature3 ,antimuratorius sive confutatio disputationis ,muratorianae de rebus liturgicis 7#agee-ageh72 ,neue theologische ,bibliothek1 vols4 i4 to x4 7#agfj-agfi72 ,institutio interpretis ,nov4 ,test4 7#crd ed41 #agge72 ,neueste theologische ,bibliothek1 vols4 i4 to x4 7#agga-agge74 ,besides these1 he published more than a hundred smaller works1 many of which have been collected in the three following publications3--,opuscula oratoria 7#agfb1 #bnd ed41 #agfg72 ,opuscula philologica et critica 7#agfd1 #bnd ed41 #aggf72 ,opuscula theologica 7#aggc74 ,see ,herzog-,hauck1 ,realencyklopadie2 ,j4,e4 ,sandys1 ,hist4 of ,class4 ,schol4 iii4 7#aijh74 ,,ernesti1 ,,johann ,,christian ,,gottlieb 7#agef-ahjb71 ,german classical scholar1 was born at ,arnstadt1 ,thuringia1 and studied under his uncle1 ,j4,a4 ,ernesti1 at the university of ,leipzig4 ,on the #eth of ,june1 #aghb1 he was made supplementary professor of philosophy at his own university2 and on the death of his cousin ,august ,wilhelm in #ahja he was for five months professor of rhetoric4 ,he died on the #eth of ,june of the following year4 ,his principal works are3--,editions of ,aesop's ,fabulae 7#agha72 of the ,glossae sacrae of ,hesychius 7#aghe7 and ,suidas and ,phavorinus 7#aghf72 and of ,silius ,italicus ,punica 7#agia-agib72 ,lexicon ,technologiae ,graecorum rhetoricae 7#agie72 ,lexicon technologiae ,latinorum rhetoricae 7#agig71 and ,cicero's ,geist und ,kunst 7#agii-ahjb74 ,,ernst1 ,,heinrich ,,wilhelm 7#ahad-ahfe71 ,german violinist and composer1 was born at ,brunn1 in ,moravia1 in #ahad4 ,he was educated at the ,conservatorium of ,vienna1 studying the violin under ,joseph ,bohm and ,joseph ,mayseder1 and composition under ,ignaz von ,seyfried4 ,at the age of sixteen he made a concert tour in south ,germany1 which established his reputation as a violinist of the highest promise4 ,in #ahcb he went to ,paris1 where he lived for several years4 ,during this period he formed an intimacy with ,stephen ,heller1 which resulted in their charming joint compositions--the ,pensees fugitives for piano and violin4 ,in #ahdc he paid his first visit to ,london4 ,the impression which he then made as a violinist was more than confirmed in the following year1 when his rare powers were recognized by the musical public4 ,thenceforward he visited ,england nearly every year1 until his health broke down owing to long-continued neuralgia of a most severe kind4 ,the last seven years of his life were spent in retirement1 chiefly at ,nice1 where he died on the #hth of ,october #ahfe4 ,as a violinist ,ernst was distinguished by his almost unrivalled executive power1 loftiness of conception1 and intensely passionate expression4 ,as a composer he wrote chiefly for his own instrument1 and his ,elegie and ,otello ,fantasia rank among the most treasured works for the violin4 ,,erode1 a town of ,british ,india1 in the ,coimbatore district of ,madras1 situated on the right bank of the river ,cauvery1 which is here crossed by an iron railway girder bridge of #bb spans4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ae1ebi4 ,here the ,south ,indian railway joins the ,south-,western line of the ,madras railway1 #bdc m4 from ,madras4 ,there are exports of cotton and saltpetre2 and the town has a steam cotton press4 ,,eros1 a minor planet discovered by ,witt at ,berlin on the #adth of ,august #ahih1 and1 so far as yet known1 unique in that its perihelion lies far within the orbit of ,mars4 ,,eros1 in ,greek mythology1 the god of love4 ,he is not mentioned in ,homer2 in ,hesiod 7,theog4 #abj7 he is one of the oldest and the most beautiful of the gods1 whose power neither gods nor men can resist4 ,he also evolves order and harmony out of ,chaos by uniting the separated elements4 ,this cosmic ,eros1 who in ,orphic cosmogony sprang from the world-egg which ,chronos1 or ,time1 laid in the bosom of ,chaos1 and which is the origin of all created beings1 degenerated in later mythology into the capricious god of sexual passion1 the son of ,aphrodite and ,zeus1 ,ares or ,hermes4 ,he is commonly represented as a mischievous boy1 the tormentor of gods and men1 even his own mother not being proof against his attacks4 ,his brother is ,anteros1 the god of mutual love1 who punishes those who do not return the love of others1 without which ,eros could not thrive2 he is sometimes described as the opponent of ,eros4 ,the chief associates of ,eros are ,pothos and ,himeros 7,longing and ,desire71 ,peitho 7,persuasion71 the ,muses and the ,graces2 he himself is in constant attendance on ,aphrodite4 ,later writers 7,euripides being the first7 assumed the existence of a number of ,erotes 7like the ,roman ,amores and ,cupidines7 with similar attributes4 ,according to the philosophers1 ,eros was not only the god of sexual love1 but also of the loyal and devoted friendship of men2 hence the ,theban ,sacred ,band was devoted to him1 and the ,cretans and ,spartans offered sacrifice to him before going into battle 7,athenaeus xiii4 p4 #efa74 ,in ,alexandrian poetry ,eros is at one time the powerful god who conquers all1 at another the elfish god of love4 ,for the ,roman adaptation of ,eros see ,cupid1 and for the later legend of ,cupid and ,psyche see ,,psyche4 ,in art ,eros is represented as a beautiful youth or a winged child4 ,his attributes are the bow and arrows and a burning torch4 ,the rose1 the hare1 the cock and the goat are frequently associated with him4 ,the most celebrated statue of him was at ,thespiae1 the work of ,praxiteles4 ,other famous representations are the ,vatican torso and ,eros trying his bow 7in the ,capitoline museum74 ,see ,j4,e4 ,harrison1 ,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek ,religion 7#aijc72 ,g4,f4 ,schomann1 ,de ,cupidine ,cosmogonico 7#aheb72 ,e4 ,gerhard1 ,uber den ,gott ,eros 7#ahej72 articles in ,roscher's ,lexikon der ,mythologie1 ,daremberg and ,saglio's ,dictionnaire des antiquites1 and ,pauly-,wissowa's ,realencyclopadie4 ,,erpenius 7original name ,,van ,,erpe71 ,,thomas 7#aehd-afbd71 ,dutch ,orientalist1 was born at ,gorcum1 in ,holland1 on the #aath of ,september #aehd4 ,after completing his early education at ,leiden1 he entered the university of that city1 and in #afjh took the degree of master of arts4 ,by the advice of ,scaliger he studied ,oriental languages whilst taking his course of theology4 ,he afterwards travelled in ,england1 ,france1 ,italy and ,germany1 forming connexions with learned men1 and availing himself of the information which they communicated4 ,during his stay at ,paris he contracted a friendship with ,casaubon1 which lasted during his life1 and also took lessons in ,arabic from an ,egyptian1 ,joseph ,barbatus1 otherwise called ,abu-dakni4 ,at ,venice he perfected himself in the ,turkish1 ,persic and ,ethiopic languages4 ,after a long absence1 ,erpenius returned to his own country in #afab1 and on the #ajth of ,february #afac he was appointed professor of ,arabic and other ,oriental languages1 ,hebrew excepted1 in the university of ,leiden4 ,soon after his settlement at ,leiden1 animated by the example of ,savary de ,breves1 who had established an ,arabic press at ,paris at his own charge1 he caused new ,arabic characters to be cut at a great expense1 and erected a press in his own house4 ,in #afai the curators of the university of ,leiden instituted a second chair of ,hebrew in his favour4 ,in #afbj he was sent by the ,states of ,holland to induce ,pierre ,dumoulin or ,andre ,rivet to settle in that country2 and after a second journey he was successful in inducing ,rivet to comply with their request4 ,some time after the return of ,erpenius1 the states appointed him their interpreter2 and in this capacity he had the duty imposed upon him of translating and replying to the different letters of the ,moslem princes of ,asia and ,africa4 ,his reputation had now spread throughout all ,europe1 and several princes1 the kings of ,england and ,spain1 and the archbishop of ,seville made him the most flattering offers2 but he constantly refused to leave his native country4 ,he was preparing an edition of the ,koran with a ,latin translation and notes1 and was projecting an ,oriental library1 when he died prematurely on the #acth of ,november #afbd4 ,among his works may be mentioned his ,grammatica ,arabica1 published originally in #afac and often reprinted2 ,rudimenta linguae ,arabicae 7#afbj72 ,grammatica ,ebraea generalis 7#afba72 ,grammatica ,chaldaica et ,syria 7#afbh72 and an edition of ,elmacin's ,history of the ,saracens4 ,,erroll 7or ,,errol71 ,,francis ,,hay1 #i,,th ,,earl ,,of 7d4 #afca71 ,scottish nobleman1 was the son of ,andrew1 #hth earl1 and of ,lady ,jean ,hay1 daughter of ,william1 #fth earl4 ,the date of his birth is unrecorded1 but he succeeded to the earldom 7cr4 #adec7 in #aehe1 was early converted to ,roman ,catholicism1 and as the associate of ,huntly joined in the ,spanish conspiracies against the throne of ,elizabeth4 ,a letter written by him1 declaring his allegiance to the king of ,spain1 having been intercepted and sent by ,elizabeth to ,james in ,february #aehi1 he was declared a rebel by the council4 ,he engaged with ,huntly and ,crawford in a rebellion in the north of ,scotland1 but their forces surrendered at ,aberdeen on the arrival of the king in ,april2 and in ,july ,erroll gave himself up to ,james1 who leniently refrained from exacting any penalty4 ,in ,september of the same year he entered into a personal bond with ,huntly for mutual assistance2 and in #aeij displeased the king by marrying1 in spite of his prohibition1 ,lady ,elizabeth ,douglas1 daughter of the earl of ,morton4 ,he was imprisoned on suspicion of complicity in the attempt made by ,gray and ,bothwell to surprise the king at ,falkland in ,june #aeib2 and though he obtained his release1 he was again proclaimed a rebel on account of the discovery of his signature to two of the ,spanish ,blanks1 unwritten sheets subscribed with the names of the chief conspirators in a plot for a ,spanish invasion of ,scotland1 to be filled up later with the terms of the projected treaty4 ,after a failure to apprehend him in ,march #aeic1 ,erroll and his companions were sentenced to abjure ,romanism or leave the kingdom2 and on their non-compliance were in #aeid declared traitors4 ,on the #crd of ,october they defeated at ,glenlivet a force sent against them under ,argyll2 though ,erroll himself was severely wounded1 and ,slains ,castle1 his seat1 razed to the ground4 ,the rebel lords left ,scotland in #aeie1 and ,erroll1 on report of his further conspiracies abroad1 was arrested by the states of ,zealand1 but was afterwards allowed to escape4 ,he returned to ,scotland secretly in #aeif1 and on the #bjth of ,june #aeig abjured ,romanism and made his peace with the ,kirk4 ,he enjoyed the favour of the king1 and in #afjb was appointed a commissioner to negotiate the union with ,england4 ,his relations with the ,kirk1 however1 were not so amicable4 ,the reality of his conversion was disputed1 and on the #bast of ,may #afjh he was confined to the city of ,perth for the better resolution of his doubts1 being subsequently declared an obstinate papist1 excommunicated1 deprived of his estate1 and imprisoned at ,dumbarton2 and after some further vacillation was finally released in ,may #afaa4 ,lord ,erroll died on the #afth of ,july #afca1 and was buried in the church of ,slains4 ,he married 7#a7 ,anne1 daughter of ,john1 #dth earl of ,atholl2 7#b7 ,margaret1 daughter of the regent ,murray2 and 7#c7 ,elizabeth1 daughter of ,william1 #fth earl of ,morton4 ,by his third wife he had several children1 of whom his eldest son1 ,william1 succeeded him4 ,the dispute which began in his lifetime concerning the hereditary office of lord high constable between the families of ,erroll and of the ,earl ,marischal was settled finally in favour of the former2 thus establishing the precedence enjoyed by the earls of ,erroll next after the royal family over all other subjects in ,scotland4 ,see ,the ,erroll ,papers 7,spalding ,club ,miscellany1 vol4 ii4 #baa72 ,andrew ,lang1 ,hist4 of ,scotland1 vol4 ii42 ,hist4 ,,mss4 ,comm4 ,,mss4 of ,earl of ,mar and ,kellie2 ,d4 ,calderwood's ,hist4 of the ,church of ,scotland2 ,john ,spalding's ,memorials 7,spalding ,club1 #ahej72 ,collected ,essays of ,t4,g4 ,law1 ed4 by ,p4,h4 ,brown 7#aijd72 ,treason and ,plot1 by ,m4,a4,s4 ,hume 7#aija74 ,,error 7,lat4 error1 from errare1 to wander1 to err71 a mistake1 a departure or deviation from what is true1 exact or right4 ,for the legal process by which a judgment could be reversed on the ground of error1 known as a writ of error1 see ,,writ and ,,appeal4 ,the words error excepted or errors and omissions excepted 7contracted to ,e4,e4 ,e4 ,o4,e471 are frequently placed at the end of a statement of account or an invoice1 so that the accounting party may reserve the right to correct any errors or omissions which may be subsequently discovered1 or make further claims in respect of them4 ,in mathematics1 error is the deviation of an observed or calculated quantity from its true value4 ,the calculus of errors leads to the formulation of the law of error1 which is an analytical expression of the most probably true value of a series of discordant values 7see ,,probability74 ,,ersch1 ,,johann ,,samuel 7#agff-ahbh71 the founder of ,german bibliography1 was born at ,grossglogau1 in ,silesia1 on the #bcrd of ,june #agff4 ,in #aghe he entered the university of ,halle with the view of studying theology2 but soon his whole attention became engrossed by history1 bibliography and geography4 ,at ,halle he made the acquaintance of ,j4,e4 ,fabri1 professor of geography2 and when the latter was made professor of history and statistics at ,jena1 ,ersch accompanied him thither1 and aided him in the preparation of several works4 ,in #aghh he published the ,verzeichnis aller anonymischen ,schriften1 as a supplement to the #dth edition of ,meusel's ,gelehrtes ,deutschland4 ,the researches required for this work suggested to him the preparation of a ,repertorium uber die allgemeinen deutschen ,journale und andere periodische ,sammlungen fur ,erdbeschreibung1 ,geschichte1 und die damit verwandten ,wissenschaften 7,lemgo1 #agij-agib74 ,the fame which this publication acquired him led to his being engaged by ,schutz and ,hufeland to prepare an ,allgemeines ,repertorium der ,literatur1 published in #h vols4 7,jena and ,weimar1 #agic-ahji71 which condensed the literary productions of #ae years 7#aghe-ahjj71 and included an account not merely of the books published during that period1 but also of articles in periodicals and magazines1 and even of the criticisms to which each book had been subjected4 ,while engaged in this great work he also projected ,la ,france litteraire1 which was published at ,hamburg in #e vols41 from #agig to #ahjf4 ,in #agie he went to ,hamburg to edit the ,neue ,hamburger ,zeitung1 founded by ,victor ,klopstock1 brother of the poet1 but returned in #ahjj to ,jena to take active part in the ,allgemeine ,literaturzeitung4 ,he also obtained in the same year the office of librarian in the university1 and in #ahjb was made professor of philosophy4 ,in #ahjc he accepted the chair of geography and statistics at ,halle1 and in #ahjh was made principal librarian4 ,he here projected a ,handbuch der deutschen ,literatur seit der ,mitte des #ah4 ,jahrh4 bis auf die neueste ,zeit 7,leipzig1 #ahab-ahad7 and1 along with ,johann ,gottfried ,gruber 7q4v471 the ,allgemeine ,encyklopadie der ,wissenschaften und ,kunste 7,leipzig1 #ahah ffg47 which he continued as far as the #bast volume4 ,the accuracy and thoroughness of this monumental encyclopaedia make it still an indispensable book of reference4 ,ersch died at ,halle on the #afth of ,january #ahbh4 ,,erskine1 ,,ebenezer 7#afhj-aged71 ,scottish divine1 the chief founder of the ,secession ,church 7formed of dissenters from the ,church of ,scotland71 was born on the #bbnd of ,june #afhj1 most probably at ,dryburgh1 ,berwickshire4 ,his father1 ,henry ,erskine1 who was at one time minister at ,cornhill1 ,durham1 was ejected in #affb by the ,act of ,uniformity1 and1 after suffering some years' imprisonment1 was after the ,revolution appointed to the parish of ,chirnside1 ,berwickshire4 ,after studying at the university of ,edinburgh1 ,ebenezer became minister of ,portmoak1 ,kinross-shire4 ,there he remained for twenty-eight years1 after which1 in the autumn of #agca1 he was translated to the ,west ,church1 ,stirling4 ,some time before this1 he1 along with some other ministers1 was rebuked and admonished1 by the general assembly1 for defending the doctrines contained in the ,marrow of ,modern ,divinity 7see ,,boston1 ,,thomas74 ,a sermon which he preached on lay patronage before the synod of ,perth in #agcc furnished new grounds of accusation1 and he was compelled to shield himself from rebuke by appealing to the general assembly4 ,here1 however1 the sentence of the synod was confirmed1 and after many fruitless attempts to obtain a hearing1 he1 along with ,william ,wilson of ,perth1 ,alexander ,moncrieff of ,abernethy and ,james ,fisher of ,kinclaven1 was suspended from the ministry by the commission in ,november of that year4 ,against this sentence they protested1 and constituted themselves into a separate church court1 under the name of the associate presbytery4 ,in #agci they were again summoned before the assembly1 and in their corporate capacity declined to acknowledge the authority of the church1 and were deposed in the following year4 ,they received numerous accessions to their communion1 and remained in harmony with each other till #agdg1 when a division took place in regard to the nature of the oath administered to burgesses4 ,erskine joined with the burgher section1 and became their professor of theology4 ,he continued also to preach to a numerous congregation in ,stirling till his death1 which took place on the #bnd of ,june #aged4 ,erskine was a very popular preacher1 and a man of considerable force of character2 he acted throughout on principle with honesty and courage4 ,the burgher and anti-burgher sections of the ,secession ,church were reunited in #ahbj1 and in #ahdg they united with the relief synod in forming the ,united ,presbyterian ,church4 ,erskine's published works consist chiefly of sermons4 ,his ,life and ,diary1 edited by the ,rev4 ,donald ,fraser1 was published in #ahdj4 ,his ,works were published in #aghe4 ,,erskine1 ,,henry 7#agdf-ahag71 lord advocate of ,scotland1 the second son of ,henry ,david1 #ajth earl of ,buchan and brother of the lord chancellor ,erskine1 was born in ,edinburgh on the #ast of ,november #agdf4 ,he was educated at the universities of ,st ,andrews1 ,glasgow and ,edinburgh1 and was admitted a member of the faculty of advocates in #agfh4 ,his reputation as a clever and fluent speaker was first made in the debates of the general assembly1 of which he had been early elected an elder4 ,in #aghc he was appointed to the office of lord advocate1 which he held during the brief coalition ministry of ,fox and ,north4 ,in #aghe he was elected dean of the faculty of advocates1 and was re-elected annually till #agif1 when his conduct in moving a series of resolutions at a public meeting1 condemning the government's sedition and treason bills1 brought on him the opposition of the ministerial party1 and he was deposed in favour of ,robert ,dundas4 ,on the formation of the ,grenville ministry in #ahjf he again became lord advocate and was returned to parliament for the ,haddington burghs1 which he exchanged at the general election of the same year for the ,dumfries burghs4 ,his tenure of the lord advocateship ended in ,march #ahjg on the downfall of the ministry4 ,in #ahaa he gave up his practice at the bar and retired to his country residence of ,almondel1 in ,linlithgowshire1 where he died on the #hth of ,october #ahag4 ,his eldest son1 ,henry ,david 7#aghc-aheg71 succeeded as #abth earl of ,buchan on his uncle's death in #ahbi4 ,erskine's reputation will survive as the finest and most eloquent orator of his day at the ,scottish bar2 added to a charming forensic style was a most captivating wit1 which1 as ,lord ,jeffrey said1 was all argument1 and each of his delightful illustrations a material step in his reasoning4 ,erskine was also the author of some poems1 of which the best known is ,the ,emigrant 7#aghc74 ,see ,lieut4-,col4 ,a4 ,fergusson's ,henry ,erskine 7#ahhb74 ,,erskine1 ,,john 7#agba-ahjc71 ,scottish divine1 son of ,john ,erskine of ,carnock1 was born on the #bnd of ,june #agba4 ,he studied law for a time after completing his course in arts at the university of ,edinburgh1 but was eventually licensed to preach in #agdc2 and was successively parish minister of ,kirkintilloch1 near ,glasgow1 ,culross1 in ,fifeshire 7#agec71 ,new ,greyfriars church in ,edinburgh 7#ageh71 and ,old ,greyfriars church in #agfh1 where he became the colleague of ,principal ,robertson1 the historian4 ,here he remained until his death1 which took place on the #aith of ,january #ahjc4 ,dr ,erskine's writings consist chiefly of controversial pamphlets on theological subjects4 ,his sermons are clear1 vigorous expositions of a moderate ,calvinism1 in which metaphysical argument and practical morality are happily blended4 ,in church politics he was the leader of the evangelical party2 and was much beloved for his high character and amiability4 ,for his life and works see ,sir ,h4 ,moncreiff ,wellwood1 ,life and ,writings of ,j4 ,erskine1 ,d4,d4 7,edinburgh1 #ahah74 ,,erskine1 ,,john1 of ,carnock 7#afie-agfh71 ,scottish jurist1 son of ,lieut4-,colonel ,john ,erskine1 was born in #afie4 ,he was admitted a member of the faculty of advocates in #agai4 ,although he never enjoyed much practice at the bar1 he acquired a high reputation as a sound and learned lawyer1 and in #agcg was appointed professor of ,scots law in the university of ,edinburgh4 ,in #aged he published his ,principles of the ,law of ,scotland4 ,he retired from his chair in #agfe2 and during the remainder of his uneventful life he occupied himself with the preparation of his great work1 the ,institutes of the ,law of ,scotland1 which he did not live to publish4 ,he died at ,cardross1 ,perthshire1 on the #ast of ,march #agfh4 ,erskine's ,institutes1 although not exhibiting the grasp of principle which distinguished his great predecessor ,lord ,stair1 is so conspicuous for learning1 accuracy and sound good sense1 that it has always been esteemed of the highest authority on the law of ,scotland4 ,the first edition appeared in #aggc and it has been many times reprinted4 ,the ,principles1 although published first1 is substantially an abridgment of the larger work1 and is in some respects superior to it1 being more concise and direct4 ,it retains its place as the text-book on ,scots law1 and is frequently being re-edited4 ,,erskine1 ,,john1 of ,dun 7#aeji-aeia71 ,scottish reformer1 the son of ,sir ,john ,erskine1 laird of ,dun1 was born in #aeji1 and was educated at ,king's ,college1 ,aberdeen4 ,at the age of twenty-one ,erskine was the cause--probably by accident--of a priest's death1 and was forced to go abroad1 where he came under the influence of the new learning4 ,it was through his agency that ,greek was first taught in ,scotland by ,petrus de ,marsiliers at ,montrose4 ,this fact counted for much in the progress of the ,reformation4 ,erskine was also drawn towards the new faith1 being a close friend of ,george ,wishart1 the reformer1 from whose fate he was saved by his wealth and influence1 and of ,john ,knox1 whose advice openly to discountenance the mass was given in the lodgings of the laird of ,dun4 ,in the stormy controversies of the time of ,mary ,stuart and ,james ,,vi4 ,erskine was a conspicuous figure and a moderating influence4 ,he was able to soothe the queen when her feelings had been outraged by ,knox's denunciations--being a man most gentill of nature--and frequently acted as mediator both between the catholic and reforming parties1 and among the reformers themselves4 ,in #aefj he was appointed--though a layman--superintendent of the reformed church of ,scotland for ,angus and ,mearns1 and in #aegb he gave his assent to the modified episcopacy proposed by ,morton at the ,leith convention4 ,though never himself ordained1 he was held in such high esteem by the leaders of the church as to be more than once elected moderator of the general assembly 7first in #aefd71 and he was amongst those who in #aegh drew up the ,second ,book of ,discipline4 ,from #aegi he was a member of the king's council4 ,he died in #aeia4 ,erskine owed his peculiar influence among the ,scottish reformers to the union--rare in those days--of steadfast convictions with a conciliatory manner2 ,queen ,mary described him as a mild and sweet-natured man1 with true honesty and uprightness4 ,see the ,dun ,papers in the ,spalding ,club ,miscellany1 vol4 iv4 7#ahdi71 and the article by ,t4,f4 ,henderson in the ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog4 ,,erskine1 ,,ralph 7#afhe-ageb71 ,scottish divine1 brother of ,ebenezer ,erskine 7q4v471 was born on the #ahth of ,march #afhe4 ,after studying at the university of ,edinburgh1 he was in #agaa ordained assistant minister at ,dunfermline4 ,he homologated the protests which his brother laid on the table of the assembly after being rebuked for his synod sermon1 but he did not formally withdraw from the establishment till #agcg4 ,he was also present1 though not as a member1 at the first meeting of the associate presbytery4 ,when the severance took place on account of the oath administered to burgesses1 he adhered1 along with his brother1 to the burgher section4 ,he died after a short illness on the #fth of ,november #ageb4 ,his works consist of sermons1 poetical paraphrases and gospel sonnets4 ,the ,gospel ,sonnets have frequently appeared separately4 ,his ,life and ,diary1 edited by the ,rev4 ,d4 ,fraser1 was published in #ahdb4 ,,erskine1 ,,thomas1 of ,linlathen 7#aghh-ahgj71 ,scottish theologian1 youngest son of ,david ,erskine1 writer to the signet in ,edinburgh1 and of ,anne ,graham1 of the ,grahams of ,airth1 was born on the #acth of ,october #aghh4 ,he was a descendant of ,john1 #ast or #fth earl of ,mar1 regent of ,scotland in the reign of ,james ,,vi41 a grandson of ,colonel ,john ,erskine of ,carnock4 ,after being educated at the high school of ,edinburgh and at ,durham1 he attended the literary and law classes at the university of ,edinburgh1 and becoming in #ahaj a member of the ,edinburgh faculty of advocates1 he for some time enjoyed the intimate acquaintance of ,cockburn1 ,jeffrey1 ,scott and other distinguished men whose talent then lent lustre to the ,scottish bar4 ,in #ahaf he succeeded to the family estate of ,linlathen1 near ,dundee1 and devoted himself to theology4 ,the writings of ,erskine1 especially his published letters1 are distinguished by a graceful style1 and possess originality and interest4 ,his theological views have a considerable similarity to those of ,frederick ,denison ,maurice1 who acknowledges having been indebted to him for his first true conception of the meaning of ,christ's sacrifice4 ,erskine had little interest in the historical criticism of ,christianity1 and regarded as the only proper criterion of its truth its conformity or nonconformity with man's spiritual nature1 and its adaptability or non-adaptability to man's spiritual needs4 ,he considered the incarnation of ,christ as the necessary manifestation to man of an eternal sonship in the divine nature1 apart from which those filial qualities which ,god demands from man could have no sanction2 by faith as used in ,scripture he understood to be meant a certain moral or spiritual activity or energy which virtually implied salvation1 because it implied the existence of a principle of spiritual life possessed of an immortal power4 ,this faith1 he believed1 could be properly awakened only by the manifestation1 through ,christ1 of love as the law of life1 and as identical with an eternal righteousness which it was ,god's purpose to bestow on every individual soul4 ,as an interpreter of the mystical side of ,calvinism and of the psychological conditions which correspond with the doctrines of grace ,erskine is unrivalled4 ,during the last thirty-three years of his life ,erskine ceased from literary work4 ,among his friends were ,madame ,vernet1 the duchess de ,broglie1 the younger ,mdme de ,stael1 ,m4 ,vinet of ,lausanne1 ,edward ,irving1 ,frederick ,d4 ,maurice1 ,dean ,stanley1 ,bishop ,ewing1 ,dr ,john ,brown and ,thomas ,carlyle4 ,his wide influence was due to his high character and unassuming earnestness4 ,he died at ,edinburgh on the #bjth of ,march #ahgj4 ,his principal works are ,remarks on the ,internal ,evidence for the ,truth of ,revealed ,religion 7#ahbj71 an ,essay on ,faith 7#ahbb71 and the ,unconditional ,freeness of the ,gospel 7#ahbh74 ,these have all passed through several editions1 and have also been translated into ,french4 ,he is also the author of the ,brazen ,serpent 7#ahca71 the ,doctrine of ,election 7#ahci71 several ,introductory ,essays to editions of ,christian ,authors1 and a posthumous work entitled ,spiritual ,order and ,other ,papers 7#ahga74 ,two vols4 of his letters1 edited by ,william ,hanna1 ,d4,d41 with reminiscences by ,dean ,stanley and ,principal ,shairp1 appeared in #ahgg4 ,,erskine1 ,,thomas ,,erskine1 #a,,st ,,baron 7#agej-ahbc71 lord chancellor of ,england1 was the third and youngest son of ,henry ,david1 #ajth earl of ,buchan1 and was born in ,edinburgh on the #ajth of ,january #agej4 ,from an early age he showed a strong desire to enter one of the learned professions2 but his father1 owing to his straitened circumstances1 was unable to do more than give him a good school education at the high school of ,edinburgh and the grammar school of ,st ,andrews4 ,in #agfd he was sent as a midshipman on board the ,tartar1 but on finding1 when he returned to this country after four years' absence in ,north ,america and the ,west ,indies1 that there was little immediate chance of his rank of acting lieutenant being confirmed1 he quitted the service and entered the army1 purchasing a commission in the #ast ,royals with the meagre patrimony which had been left to him4 ,but promotion here was as slow as in the navy2 while in #aggj he had added greatly to his difficulties by marrying the daughter of ,daniel ,moore1 ,m4,p4 for ,marlow1 an excellent wife1 but as poor as himself4 ,however1 an accidental visit to an assize court in the town in which he was quartered1 and an interview with ,lord ,mansfield1 the presiding judge1 confirmed his resolve to quit the army for the law4 ,accordingly on the #bfth of ,april #agge he was admitted a student of ,lincoln's ,inn4 ,he also on the #acth of ,january following entered himself as a gentleman commoner on the books of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 but merely that by graduating he might be called two years earlier4 ,he read in the chambers of ,francis ,buller 7afterwards ,mr ,justice ,buller7 and ,george 7afterwards ,baron7 ,wood1 and was called to the bar on the #crd of ,july #aggh4 ,his success was immediate and brilliant4 ,an accident was the means of giving him his first case1 ,rex v4 ,baillie1 in which he appeared for ,captain ,thomas ,baillie1 the lieutenant-governor of ,greenwich hospital1 who had published a pamphlet animadverting in severe terms upon the abuses which ,lord ,sandwich1 the first lord of the admiralty1 had introduced into the management of the hospital1 and against whom a rule had been obtained from the court of king's bench to show cause why a criminal information for libel should not be filed4 ,erskine was the junior of five counsel2 and it was his good fortune that the prolixity of his leaders consumed the whole of the first day1 thereby giving the advantage of starting afresh next morning4 ,he made use of this opportunity to deliver a speech of wonderful eloquence1 skill and courage1 which captivated both the audience and the court4 ,the rule was discharged1 and ,erskine's fortune was made4 ,he received1 it is said1 thirty retainers before he left the court4 ,in #agha he delivered another remarkable speech1 in defence of ,lord ,george ,gordon--a speech which gave the death-blow to the doctrine of constructive treason4 ,in #aghc1 when the ,coalition ministry came into power1 he was returned to parliament as member for ,portsmouth4 ,his first speech in the ,house of ,commons was a failure2 and he never in parliamentary debate possessed anything like the influence he had at the bar4 ,he lost his seat at the dissolution in the following year1 and remained out of parliament until #agij1 when he was again returned for ,portsmouth4 ,but his success at the bar continued unimpaired4 ,in #aghc he received a patent of precedence4 ,his first special retainer was in defence of ,dr ,w4,d4 ,shipley1 dean of ,st ,asaph1 who was tried in #aghd at ,shrewsbury for seditious libel--a defence to which was due the passing of the ,libel ,act #agib1 laying down the principle that it is for the jury1 and not for the judge to decide the question whether or no a publication is a libel4 ,in #aghi he was counsel for ,john ,stockdale1 a bookseller1 who was charged with seditious libel in publishing a pamphlet in favour of ,warren ,hastings1 whose trial was then proceeding2 and his speech on this occasion1 probably his greatest effort1 is a consummate specimen of the art of addressing a jury4 ,three years afterwards he brought down the opposition alike of friends and foes by defending ,thomas ,paine1 author of ,the ,rights of ,man--holding that an advocate has no right1 by refusing a brief1 to convert himself into a judge4 ,as a consequence he lost the office of attorney-general to the prince of ,wales1 to which he had been appointed in #aghf2 the prince1 however1 subsequently made amends by making him his chancellor4 ,among ,erskine's later speeches may be mentioned those for ,horne ,tooke and the other advocates of parliamentary reform1 and that for ,james ,hadfield1 who was accused of shooting at the king4 ,on the accession of the ,grenville ministry in #ahjf he was made lord chancellor1 an office for which his training had in no way prepared him1 but which he fortunately held only during the short period his party was in power4 ,of the remainder of his life it would be well if nothing could be said4 ,occasionally speaking in parliament1 and hoping that he might return to office should the prince become regent1 he gradually degenerated into a state of useless idleness4 ,never conspicuous for prudence1 he aggravated his increasing poverty by an unfortunate second marriage4 ,his first wife had died in #ahje1 and he married at ,gretna ,green a ,miss ,mary ,buck4 ,the date of this marriage is not definitely known4 ,once only--in his conduct in the case of ,queen ,caroline--does he recall his former self4 ,he died at ,almondell1 ,linlithgowshire1 on the #agth of ,november #ahbc1 of pneumonia1 caught on the voyage to ,scotland4 ,erskine's great forensic reputation was1 to a certain extent1 a concomitant of the numerous political trials of the day1 but it was also due to his impassioned eloquence and undaunted courage1 which so often carried audience and jury and even the court along with him4 ,as a judge he did not succeed2 and it has been questioned whether under any circumstances he could have succeeded4 ,for the office of chancellor he was plainly unfit4 ,as a lawyer he was well read1 but by no means profound4 ,his strength lay in the keenness of his reasoning faculty1 in his dexterity and the ability with which he disentangled complicated masses of evidence1 and above all in his unrivalled power of fixing and commanding the attention of juries4 ,to no department of knowledge but law had he applied himself systematically1 with the single exception of ,english literature1 of which he acquired a thorough mastery in early life1 at intervals of leisure in college1 on board ship1 or in the army4 ,vanity is said to have been his ruling personal characteristic2 but those who knew him1 while they admit the fault1 say that in him it never took an offensive form1 even in old age1 while the singular grace and attractiveness of his manner endeared him to all with whom he came in contact4 ,by his first wife he had four sons and four daughters4 ,his eldest son1 ,david ,montagu 7#aggf-ahee71 was a well-known diplomatist2 his second son1 ,henry ,david 7#aghf-ahei71 was dean of ,ripon2 and his third son1 ,thomas 7#aghh-ahfd71 became a judge of the court of common pleas4 ,by his second wife he had one son1 born in #ahba4 ,in #aggb ,erskine published ,observations on the ,prevailing ,abuses in the ,british ,army1 a pamphlet which had a large circulation1 and in later life1 ,armata1 an imitation of ,gulliver's ,travels4 ,his most noted speeches have repeatedly appeared in a collected form4 ,see ,campbell's ,lives of the ,chancellors2 ,moore's ,diaries2 ,fergusson's ,henry ,erskine 7#ahhb72 ,dumerit's ,henry ,erskine1 a ,study 7,paris1 #ahhc72 ,lord ,brougham's ,memoir1 prefixed to ,erskine's ,speeches 7#ahdg72 ,romilly's ,memoirs2 the ,croker ,papers2 ,lord ,holland's ,memoirs4 ,,erubescite1 a native copper-iron sulphide1 ,cu#e;,fe,s#d1 of importance as an ore of copper4 ,it crystallizes in the cubic system1 the usual form being that of interpenetrating cubes twinned on an octahedral plane4 ,the faces are usually curved and rough1 and the crystals confusedly aggregated together4 ,compact and granular masses are of more frequent occurrence4 ,the colour on a freshly fractured surface is bronzy or coppery1 but in moist air this rapidly tarnishes with iridescent blue and red colours2 hence the names purple copper ore1 variegated copper ore 7,ger4 ,buntkupfererz71 horse-flesh ore1 and erubescite 7from the ,lat4 erubescere1 to grow red74 ,the lustre is metallic1 and the streak greyish-black2 hardness #c2 sp4 gr4 #e4j4 ,bornite 7after ,baron ,ignaz von ,born1 b4 #agdb1 d4 #agia7 is a name in common use for this mineral1 and it predates erubescite1 the name given by ,j4,d4 ,dana in #ahej1 but afterwards rejected by him2 ,french authors use the name phillipsite1 after the ,english mineralogist1 ,r4 ,phillips1 who analysed the mineral2 both these earlier names had1 however1 been previously used for other minerals4 ,owing to the frequent presence of mechanically admixed chalcopyrite and chalcocite1 the published analyses of erubescite show wide variations1 the copper1 for example1 varying from #ej to #gj4 ,even the best ,cornish crystals enclose a nucleus of chalcopyrite 7,cu,fe,s#b71 and an analysis of these made in #ahci led to the long-accepted formula ,cu#c;,fe,s#c4 ,recently1 ,b4,j4 ,harrington has analysed carefully selected material and obtained the formula ,cu#e;,fe,s#d4 ,erubescite occurs in copper-bearing veins1 and has been mined as an ore of copper at ,redruth in ,cornwall1 ,montecatini in the province of ,pisa1 ,tuscany1 ,bristol in ,connecticut1 ,acton in ,canada1 and other localities in ,north ,america4 ,the best crystallized specimens are from the ,carn ,brea mine and other copper mines in the neighbourhood of ,redruth1 and from ,bristol in ,connecticut4 ,recently a few large isolated crystals with the form of icositetrahedra have been found with calcite and albite in a gold-vein on ,frossnitz-,alpe in the ,gross-,venediger1 ,tirol4 7,l4 ,j4 ,s47 ,,erysipelas 7a ,greek word1 probably derived from ,greek3 erythros1 red1 and ,greek3 pella1 skin7--synonyms1 the ,rose1 ,st ,anthony's ,fire--an acute contagious disease1 characterized by a special inflammation of the skin1 caused by a streptococcus4 ,erysipelas is endemic in most countries1 and epidemic at certain seasons1 particularly the spring of the year4 ,the poison is not very virulent1 but it certainly can be conveyed by bedding and the clothes of a third person4 ,two varieties are occasionally described1 a traumatic and an idiopathic1 but the disease seems to depend in all cases upon the existence of a wound or abrasion4 ,in the so-called idiopathic variety1 of which facial erysipelas is the best known1 the point of entry is probably an abrasion by the lachrymal duct4 ,when the erysipelas is of moderate character there is simply a redness of the integument1 which feels somewhat hard and thickened1 and upon which there often appear small vesications4 ,this redness1 though at first circumscribed1 tends to spread and affect the neighbouring sound skin1 until an entire limb or a large area of the body may become involved in the inflammatory process4 ,there is usually considerable pain1 with heat and tingling in the affected part4 ,as the disease advances the portions of skin first attacked become less inflamed1 and exhibit a yellowish appearance1 which is followed by slight desquamation of the cuticle4 ,the inflammation in general gradually disappears4 ,sometimes1 however1 it breaks out again1 and passes over the area originally affected the second time4 ,but besides the skin1 the subjacent tissues may become involved in the inflammation1 and give rise to the formation of pus4 ,this is termed phlegmonous erysipelas1 and is much more apt to occur in connexion with the traumatic variety of the disease4 ,occasionally the affected parts become gangrenous4 ,certain complications are apt to arise in erysipelas affecting the surface of the body1 particularly inflammation of serous membranes1 such as the pericardium or pleura4 ,erysipelas of the face usually begins with symptoms of general illness1 the patient feeling languid1 drowsy and sick1 while frequently there is a distinct rigor followed with fever4 ,sore throat is sometimes felt1 but in general the first indication of the local affection is a red and painful spot at the side of the nose or on one of the cheeks or ears4 ,occasionally it would appear that the inflammation begins in the throat1 and reaches the face through the nasal fossae4 ,the redness gradually spreads over the whole surface of the face1 and is accompanied with swelling1 which in the lax tissues of the cheeks and eyelids is so great that the features soon become obliterated and the countenance wears a hideous expression4 ,advancing over the scalp1 the disease may invade the neck and pass on to the trunk1 but in general the inflammation remains confined to the face and head4 ,while the disease progresses1 besides the pain1 tenderness and heat of the affected parts1 the constitutional symptoms are very severe4 ,the temperature rises often to #aje deg4 or higher1 remains high for four or five days1 and then falls by crisis4 ,delirium is a frequent accompaniment4 ,the attack in general lasts for a week or ten days1 during which the inflammation subsides in the parts of the skin first attacked1 while it spreads onwards in other directions1 and after it has passed away there is1 as already observed1 some slight desquamation of the cuticle4 ,although in general the termination is favourable1 serious and occasionally fatal results follow from inflammation of the membranes of the brain1 and in some rare instances sudden death has occurred from suffocation arising from oedema glottidis1 the inflammatory action having spread into and extensively involved the throat4 ,one attack of this disease1 so far from protecting from1 appears rather to predispose to others4 ,it is sometimes a complication in certain forms of exhausting disease1 such as phthisis or typhoid fever1 and is then to be regarded as of serious import4 ,a very fatal form occasionally attacks new-born infants1 particularly in the first four weeks of their lives4 ,in epidemics of puerperal fever this form of erysipelas has been specially found to prevail4 ,the treatment of erysipelas is best conducted on the expectant system4 ,the disease in most instances tends to a favourable termination2 and beyond attention to the condition of the stomach and bowels1 which may require the use of some gentle laxative1 little is necessary in the way of medicine4 ,the employment of preparations of iron in large doses is strongly recommended by many physicians4 ,but the chief point is the administration of abundant nourishment in a light and digestible form4 ,of the many local applications which may be employed1 hot fomentations will be found among the most soothing4 ,dusting the affected part with powdered starch1 and wrapping it in cotton wadding1 is also of use4 ,in the case of phlegmonous erysipelas complicating wounds1 free incisions into the part are necessary4 ,,erythrae mod4 ,litri1 one of the ,ionian cities of ,asia ,minor1 situated on a small peninsula stretching into the ,bay of ,erythrae1 at an equal distance from the mountains ,mimas and ,corycus1 and directly opposite the island of ,chios4 ,in the peninsula excellent wine was produced4 ,the town was said to have been founded by ,ionians under ,knopos1 son of ,codrus4 ,never a large city1 it sent only eight ships to the battle of ,lade4 ,the ,erythraeans owned for a considerable time the supremacy of ,athens1 but towards the close of the ,peloponnesian war they threw off their allegiance to that city4 ,after the battle of ,cnidus1 however1 they received ,conon1 and paid him honours in an inscription1 still extant4 ,erythrae was the birthplace of two prophetesses--one of whom1 ,sibylla1 is mentioned by ,strabo as living in the early period of the city2 the other1 ,athenais1 lived in the time of ,alexander the ,great4 ,the ruins include well-preserved ,hellenistic walls with towers1 of which five are still visible4 ,the acropolis 7#bhj ft47 has the theatre on its ,n4 slope1 and eastwards lie many remains of ,byzantine buildings4 ,modern ,litri is a considerable place and port1 extending from the ancient harbour to the acropolis4 ,the smaller coasting steamers call1 and there is an active trade with ,chios and ,smyrna4 ,,erythrite1 the name given to 7#a7 a mineral composed of a hydrated cobalt arsenate1 and 7#b7 in chemistry1 a tetrahydric alcohol4 7#a7 ,the mineral erythrite has the formula ,co#c7;,as,o#d7b4h;,h#b,o1 and crystallizes in the monoclinic system and is isomorphous with vivianite4 ,it sometimes occurs as beautiful radially-arranged groups of blade-shaped crystals with a bright crimson colour and brilliant lustre4 ,on exposure to light the colour and lustre deteriorate4 ,there is a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of symmetry1 on which the lustre is pearly4 ,cleavage flakes are soft 7,h #b71 sectile and flexible2 specific gravity #b4ie4 ,the mineral is1 however1 more often found as an earthy encrustation with a peach-blossom colour1 and in this form was early 7#agbg7 known as cobalt-bloom 7,ger4 ,kobaltbluthe74 ,the name erythrite1 from ,greek3 erythros1 red1 was given by ,f4,s4 ,beudant in #achb4 ,erythrite occurs as a product of alteration of smaltite 7,co,as#b7 and other cobaltiferous arsenides4 ,the finest crystallized specimens are from ,schneeberg in ,saxony4 ,the earthy variety has been found in ,thuringia and ,cornwall and some other places4 7#b7 ,the alcohol erythrite has the constitutional formula ,,ho4,h#b;,c4,,ch7,,oh74,,ch7,,oh74,,ch# b,,oh2 it is also known as erythrol1 erythroglucin and phycite4 ,it corresponds to tartaric acid1 and1 like this substance1 it occurs in four stereo-isomeric forms4 ,the internally compensated modification1 i-erythrite1 corresponding to mesotartaric acid1 occurs free in the algae ,protococcus vulgaris1 and as the orsellinate1 erythrin1 ,c#d;,h#f7,,oh7#b7,o4,c#h;,h#g,o#c7b1 in many lichens and algae1 especially ,roccella montagnei4 ,it has a sweet taste1 melts at #abf deg41 and boils at #ccj deg4 ,careful oxidation with dilute nitric acid gives erythrose or tetrose1 which is probably a mixture of a trioxyaldehyde and trioxyketone4 ,energetic oxidation gives erythritic acid and mesotartaric acid4 i-,erythrite and the racemic mixture of the dextro and laevo varieties were synthesized by ,griner in #ahic from divinyl4 ,,erzerum1 or ,,arzrum 7,arm4 ,garin71 the chief town of an important vilayet of the same name in ,asiatic ,turkey4 ,it is a military station and a fortress of considerable strategical value1 closing the roads from ,kars1 ,olti and other parts of the frontier4 ,several important routes from ,trebizond and various parts of ,anatolia converge towards it from the west4 ,it is situated at the eastern end of an open bare plain1 #cj m4 long and about #ab wide1 bordered by steep1 rounded mountains and traversed by the ,kara ,su1 or western ,euphrates1 which has its source in the ,dumlu ,dagh a few miles north of that town1 which lies at an elevation of #fbej ft4 above sea-level1 while the near hills rise to #aj1jjj ft4 ,the scenery in the neighbourhood is striking1 lofty bare mountains being varied by open plains and long valleys dotted with villages4 ,just east of the town is the broad ridge of the ,deveboyun 7,camel's ,neck71 across which the road passes to ,kars4 ,to the south is the ,palanduken range1 from which emerge numerous streams1 supplying the town with excellent water4 ,in the plain to the north the ,kara ,su traverses extensive marshes which afford good wildfowl-shooting in the spring4 ,the town is surrounded by an earthen enceinte or rampart with some forts on the hills just above it1 and others on the ,deveboyun ridge facing east1 the whole forming a position of considerable strength4 ,the old walls and the citadel have disappeared4 ,inside the ramparts the town lies rather cramped1 with narrow1 crooked streets1 badly drained and dirty2 the houses are generally built of dark grey volcanic stone with flat roofs1 the general aspect1 owing to the absence of trees1 being somewhat gloomy4 ,the water-supply from ,palanduken is distributed by wooden pipes to numerous public fountains4 ,the town has a population of about #dc1jjj1 including about #aj1jjj ,armenians1 #bjjj ,persians and a few ,jews4 ,it has a garrison in peace of about #ejjj men4 ,it is the seat of the ,british consulate for ,kurdistan1 and there are other ,european consulates besides an ,american mission with schools4 ,the great altitude accounts for very severe winter cold1 occasionally #aj deg4 to #be deg4 below zero ,f41 accompanied by blizzards 7tipi7 sometimes fatal to travellers overtaken by them4 ,the summer heat is moderate 7#ei deg4 to #gg deg474 ,there are several well-built mosques 7none older than the #afth century71 public baths1 and several good khans4 ,there are ,armenian and ,catholic churches1 but the most beautiful building is a medresse erected in the #abth century by the ,seljuks1 with ornamental doorway and two graceful minarets known as the ,chifte ,minare4 ,situated on the main road from ,trebizond into north-west ,persia1 the town has always a large caravan traffic1 principally of camels1 but since the improvement of communications in ,russia this has declined4 ,a good carriage-road leads to the coast at ,trebizond1 the journey being made in five or six days4 ,there are also roads to ,kars1 ,bayazid1 ,erzingan and ,kharput4 ,blacksmiths' and coppersmiths' work is better here than in most ,turkish towns2 horse-shoes and brasswork are also famous4 ,there are several tanneries1 and ,turkish boots and saddles are largely made4 ,jerked beef 7pasdirma7 is also prepared in large quantities for winter use4 ,the plain produces wheat1 barley1 millet and vegetables4 ,wood fuel is scarce1 the present supply being from the ,tortum district1 whence surface coal and lignite are also brought2 but the usual fuel is tezek or dried cow-dung4 ,the bazaars are of no great interest4 ,good ,persian carpets and similar goods can be obtained4 ,erzerum is a town of great antiquity1 and has been identified with the ,armenian ,garin ,kalakh1 the ,arabic ,kalikale1 and the ,byzantine ,theodosiopolis of the #eth century1 when it was a frontier fortress of the empire--hence its name ,erzen-er-,rum4 ,it was captured by the ,seljuks in #abja1 when it was an important city1 and it fell into ,turkish possession in #aeag4 ,in ,july #ahbi it was captured by the ,russian general ,paskevich1 and the occupation continued until the peace of ,adrianople 7,september #ahbi74 ,the town was unsuccessfully attacked by the ,russians on the #ith of ,november #ahgg after a victory gained by them a short time previously on the ,deveboyun heights2 it was occupied by them during the armistice 7#gth of ,february #ahgh7 and restored to ,turkey after the treaty of ,berlin4 ,in #ahei a severe earthquake destroyed much of the town1 and another in ,november #aija caused much damage4 ,the ,erzerum vilayet extends from the ,persian frontier at ,bayazid1 all along the ,russian frontier and westward into ,anatolia at ,baiburt and ,erzingan4 ,it is divided into the three sanjaks of ,bayazid1 ,erzerum1 and ,erzingan4 ,it includes the highest portion of the ,armenian plateau1 and consists of bare undulating uplands varied by lofty ranges4 ,the deep gorges of the ,chorokh and ,tortum streams north of the town alone have a different appearance1 being well wooded in places4 ,both arms of the ,euphrates have their rise in this country as well as the ,aras 7,araxes7 and the ,chorokh 7,acampsis74 ,it is an agricultural country with few industries4 ,besides forests1 iron1 salt1 sulphur and other mineral springs are found4 ,some of the coal and lignite mines in ,tortum have been recently worked to supply fuel for ,erzerum4 ,the population is largely ,armenian and ,kurd with some ,turks 7,moslems #ejj1jjj1 ,christians #adj1jjj74 7,c4 ,w4 ,w42 ,f4 ,r4 ,m47 ,,erzgebirge1 a mountain chain of ,germany1 extending in a ,w4,s4,w4 direction from the ,elbe to the ,elstergebirge along the frontier between ,saxony and ,bohemia4 ,its length from ,e4,n4,e4 to ,w4,s4,w4 is about #hj m41 and its average breadth about #be m4 ,the southern declivity is generally steep and rugged1 forming in some places an almost perpendicular wall of the height of from #bjjj to #bejj ft42 while the northern1 divided at intervals into valleys1 sometimes of great fertility and sometimes wildly romantic1 slopes gradually towards the great plain of northern ,germany4 ,the central part of the chain forms a plateau of an average height of more than #cjjj ft4 ,at the extremities of this plateau are situated the highest summits of the range3--in the south-east the ,keilberg 7#djhj ft472 in the north-east the ,fichtelberg 7#cihj ft472 and in the south-west the ,spitzberg 7#cfej ft474 ,between the ,keilberg and the ,fichtelberg1 at the height of about #ccjj ft41 is situated ,gottesgab1 the highest town in ,bohemia4 ,geologically1 the ,erzgebirge range consists mainly of gneiss1 mica and phyllite4 ,as its name 7,ore ,mountains7 indicates1 it is famous for its mineral ores4 ,these are chiefly silver and lead1 the layers of both of which are very extensive1 tin1 nickel1 copper and iron4 ,gold is found in several places1 and some arsenic1 antimony1 bismuth1 manganese1 mercury and sulphur4 ,the ,erzgebirge is celebrated for its lace manufactures1 introduced by ,barbara ,uttmann in #aeda1 embroideries1 silk-weaving and toys4 ,the climate is in winter inclement in the higher elevations1 and1 as the snow lies deep until the spring1 the range is largely frequented by devotees of winter sport1 ski1 toboganning1 c4 ,in summer the air is bracing1 and many climatic health resorts have sprung into existence1 among which may be mentioned ,kipsdorf1 ,barenfels and ,oberwiesenthal4 ,communication with the ,erzgebirge is provided by numerous lines of railway1 some1 such as that from ,freiberg to ,brux1 that from ,chemnitz to ,komotau1 and that from ,zwickau to ,carlsbad1 crossing the range1 while various local lines serve the higher valleys4 ,the ,elstergebirge1 a range some #af m4 in length1 in which the ,weisse ,elster has its source1 runs ,s4,w4 from the ,erzgebirge to the ,fichtelgebirge and attains a height of #bfcj ft4 ,see ,grohmann1 ,das ,obererzgebirge und seine ,stadte 7#aijc71 and ,schurtz1 ,die ,passe des ,erzgebirges 7#ahia72 also ,daniel1 ,deutschland1 vol4 ii41 and ,gebauer1 ,lander und ,volkerkunde1 vol4 i4 ,,erzingan1 or ,,erzinjan 7,arsinga of the middle ages71 the chief town of a sanjak in the ,erzerum vilayet of ,asiatic ,turkey4 ,it is the headquarters of the ,,iv4 army corps1 being a place of some military importance1 with large barracks and military factories4 ,it is situated at an altitude of #cijj ft41 near the western end of a rich well-watered plain through which runs the ,kara ,su or western ,euphrates4 ,it is surrounded by orchards and gardens1 and is about a mile from the right bank of the river1 which here runs in two wide channels crossed by bridges4 ,one wide street traverses the town from east to west1 but the others are narrow1 unpaved and dirty1 except near the new government buildings and the large modern mosque of ,hajji ,izzet ,pasha to the north1 which are the only buildings of note4 ,the principal barracks1 military hospital and clothing factory are at ,karateluk on the plain and along the foot-hills to the north #c m4 off1 one recent addition to the business buildings having electric power and modern ,british machinery2 some older barracks and a military tannery and boot factory being in the town4 ,the population numbers about #ae1jjj1 of whom about half are ,armenians living in a separate quarter4 ,the principal industries are the manufacture of silk and cotton and of copper dishes and utensils4 ,the climate is hot in summer but moderate in winter4 ,a carriage-road leads to ,trebizond1 and other roads to ,sivas1 ,karahissar1 ,erzerum and ,kharput4 ,the plain1 almost surrounded by lofty mountains1 is highly productive with many villages on it and the border hills4 ,wheat1 fruit1 vines and cotton are largely grown1 and cattle and sheep are bred4 ,water is everywhere abundant1 and there are iron and hot sulphur springs4 ,the battle in which the sultan of ,rum 7#abdc7 was defeated by the ,mongols took place on the plain1 and the celebrated ,armenian monastery of ,st ,gregory1 the ,illuminator1 lies on the hills #aa m4 ,s4,w4 of the town4 ,erzingan occupies the site of an early town in which was a temple of ,anaitis4 ,it was an important place in the #dth century when ,st ,gregory lived in it4 ,the district passed from the ,byzantines to the ,seljuks after the defeat of ,romanus1 #ajga1 and from the latter to the ,mongols in #abdc4 ,after having been held by ,mongols1 ,tatars and ,turkomans1 it was added to the ,osmanli empire by ,mahommed ,,ii4 in #adgc4 ,in #aghd the town was almost destroyed by an earthquake4 7,c4 ,w4 ,w42 ,f4 ,r4 ,m47 ,,esar-,,haddon ,assur-akhi-iddina1 ,assur has given a brother1 ,assyrian king1 son of ,sennacherib2 before his accession to the throne he had also borne another name1 ,assur-etil-ilani-yukin-abla4 ,at the time of his father's murder 7the #bjth of ,tebet1 #fha ,b4,c47 he was commanding the ,assyrian army in a war against ,ararat4 ,the conspirators1 after holding ,nineveh for #db days1 had been compelled to fly northward and invoke the aid of the king of ,ararat4 ,on the #abth of ,iyyar 7#fhj ,b4,c47 a decisive battle was fought near ,malatia1 in which the veterans of ,assyria won the day1 and at the close of it saluted ,esar-haddon as king4 ,he returned to ,nineveh1 and on the #hth of ,sivan was crowned king4 ,a good general1 ,esar-haddon was also an able and conciliatory administrator4 ,his first act was to crush a rebellion among the ,chaldaeans in the south of ,babylonia and then to restore ,babylon1 the sacred city of the ,west1 which had been destroyed by his father4 ,the walls and temple of ,bel were rebuilt1 its gods brought back1 and after his right to rule had been solemnly acknowledged by the ,babylonian priesthood ,esar-haddon made ,babylon his second capital4 ,a year or two later ,media was invaded and ,median chiefs came to ,nineveh to offer homage to their conqueror4 ,he now turned to ,palestine1 where the rebellion of ,abdi-milkutti of ,zidon was suppressed1 its leader beheaded1 and a new ,zidon built out of the ruins of the older city 7#fgf-fge ,b4,c474 ,all ,palestine now submitted to ,assyria1 and #ab ,syrian and #aj ,cyprian princes 7including ,manasseh of ,judah7 came to pay him homage and supply him with materials for his palace at ,nineveh4 ,but a more formidable enemy had appeared on the ,assyrian frontier 7#fgf ,b4,c474 ,the ,cimmerii 7see ,,scythia7 under ,teuspa poured into ,asia ,minor2 they were1 however1 overthrown in ,cilicia1 and the ,cilician mountaineers who had joined them were severely punished4 ,it was next necessary to secure the southern frontier of the empire4 ,esar-haddon accordingly marched into the heart of ,arabia1 to a distance of about #ijj m41 across a burning and waterless desert1 and struck terror into the ,arabian tribes4 ,at last he was free to complete the policy of his predecessors by conquering ,egypt1 which alone remained to threaten ,assyrian dominion in the ,west4 ,baal of ,tyre had transferred his allegiance from ,esar-haddon to the ,egyptian king ,tirhaka and opened to the latter the coast road of ,palestine2 leaving a force1 therefore1 to invest ,tyre1 ,esar-haddon led the main body of the ,assyrian troops into ,egypt on the #eth of ,adar1 #fgc ,b4,c4 ,the desert was crossed with the help of the ,arabian sheikh4 ,egypt seems to have submitted to the invader and was divided into twenty satrapies4 ,another campaign1 however1 was needed before it could be finally subdued4 ,in #fgj ,b4,c4 ,esar-haddon drove the ,egyptian forces before him in #ae days 7from the #crd to the #ahth of ,tammuz7 all the way from the frontier to ,memphis1 thrice defeating them with heavy loss and wounding ,tirhaka himself4 ,three days after ,memphis fell1 and this was soon afterwards followed by the surrender of ,tyre and its king4 ,in #ffh ,b4,c4 ,egypt again revolted1 and while on the march to reduce it ,esar-haddon fell ill and died on the #ajth of ,marchesvan4 ,his empire was divided between his two sons ,assur-bani-pal and ,samas-sum-yukin1 ,assur-bani-pal receiving ,assyria and his brother ,babylonia1 an arrangement1 however1 which did not prove to be a success4 ,esar-haddon was the builder of a palace at ,nineveh as well as of one which he erected at ,calah for ,assur-bani-pal4 ,,authorities4--,e4,a4,w4 ,budge1 ,history of ,esarhaddon 7#ahhj72 ,e4 ,schrader1 ,keilinschriftliche ,bibliothek1 ii4 7#ahhi7 7,abel and ,winckler in ii4 pp4 #abj-aec72 ,g4 ,maspero1 ,passing of the ,empires1 pp4 #cde sqq42 ,f4 von ,luschan1 ,ausgrabungen in ,sendschirli1 i4 7,mitteilungen aus den orientalischen ,sammlungen1 #ahic74 7,a4 ,h4 ,s47 ,,esau1 the son of ,isaac and ,rebecca1 in the ,bible1 and the elder twin brother of ,jacob4 ,he was so called because he was red 7admoni7 and hairy when he was born1 and the name ,edom 7red7 was given to him when he sold his birthright to ,jacob for a meal of red lentil pottage 7,gen4 xxv4 #ba-cd74 ,another story of the manner in which ,jacob obtained the superiority is related in ,gen4 xxvii4 ,here the younger brother impersonated the elder1 and succeeded in deceiving his blind father by imitating the hairiness of his brother4 ,he thus gained the blessing intended for the first-born1 and ,esau1 on hearing how he had been forestalled1 vowed to kill him4 ,jacob accordingly fled to his mother's relatives1 and on his return1 many years later1 peace was restored between them 7xxxii4 sq474 ,these primitive stories of the relations between the eponymous heads of the ,edomites and ,israelites are due to the older 7,judaean7 sources2 the late notices of the ,priestly school 7see ,,genesis7 preserve a different account of the parting of the two 7,gen4 xxxvi4 #f-h71 and lay great stress upon ,esau's marriages with the ,canaanites of the land1 unions which were viewed 7from the writer's standpoint7 with great aversion 7,gen4 xxvi4 #cd sq41 xxvii4 #df74 ,for ,esau as a designation of the ,edomites1 cf4 ,jer4 xlix4 #h1 ,obad4 vv4 #f1 #h1 and on their history1 see ,,edom4 ,esau's characteristic hairiness 7,gen4 xxv4 #be1 xxvii4 #aa7 has given rise to the suggestion that his name is properly 'eshav1 from a root corresponding to the ,arab4 'athiya1 to have thick or matted hair4 ,mt ,seir1 too1 where he resided1 etymologically suggests a shaggy mountain-land4 ,according to ,hommel 7,sud-arab4 ,chrestom4 p4 #ci sq47 the name ,esau has ,s4 ,arabian analogies4 ,on the possible identity of the name with ,usoos1 the ,phoenician demi-god 7,philo of ,byblus1 ap4 ,eusebius1 ,praep4 ,evang4 i4 #aj71 see ,cheyne1 ,encyc4 ,bib4 col4 #accc2 ,lagrange1 ,etudes sur les religions semitiques1 p4 #daf 7,paris1 #aije72 ,ed4 ,meyer1 ,israeliten1 #bgh sq4 7and1 on general questions1 ib4 #abh sq41 #cbi sqq474 7,s4 ,a4 ,c47 ,,esbjerg1 a seaport of ,denmark in the amt 7county7 of ,ribe1 #ah m4 from the ,german frontier on the west coast of ,jutland4 ,it has railway communication with the east and north of ,jutland1 and with ,germany4 ,it was granted municipal rights in #aijj1 having grown with astonishing rapidity from #ac inhabitants in #ahfh to #ac1cee in #aija4 ,this growth it owes to the construction of a large harbour in #ahfh-ahhh4 ,it is the principal outlet westward for ,s4 ,jutland2 exports pork and meat1 butter1 eggs1 fish1 cattle and sheep1 skins1 lard and agricultural seeds1 and has regular communication with ,harwich and ,grimsby in ,england4 ,three miles ,s4,e4 is ,nordby on the island of ,fano1 the northernmost of the ,north ,frisian chain4 ,it is an arid bank of heathland and dunes1 but both ,nordby and ,sonderho in the south are frequented as seaside resorts4 ,the former has a school of navigation4 ,the fisheries are valuable4 ,,escanaba1 a city and the county-seat of ,delta county1 ,michigan1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,little ,bay de ,noquette1 an inlet of ,green ,bay1 about #fj m4 ,s4 of ,marquette4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #fhjh2 7#aijj7 #iedi1 of whom #cbad were foreign-born2 7#aiaj census7 #ac1aid4 ,it is served by the ,chicago ,north-,western and the ,escanaba ,lake ,superior railways4 ,it is built on a picturesque promontory which separates the waters of ,green ,bay from ,little ,bay de ,noquette1 and its delightful summer climate1 wild landscape scenery and facilities for boating and trout fishing make it a popular summer resort4 ,escanaba has a water front of #h m41 and is an important centre for the shipment of iron-ore1 for which eight large and well-equipped docks are provided--there is an ore-crushing plant here2 considerable quantities of lumber and fish are also shipped1 and furniture1 flooring 7especially of maple7 and wooden ware 7butter-dishes and clothes-pins7 are manufactured4 ,there is a large tie-preserving plant here4 ,good water power is supplied by the ,escanaba river4 ,escanaba was settled in #ahfc1 was incorporated as a village in #ahhc1 and was first chartered as a city in the same year4 ,,escape 7in mid4 ,eng4 eschape or escape1 from the ,o4 ,fr4 eschapper1 modern echapper1 and escaper1 low ,lat4 escapium1 from ex1 out of1 and cappa1 cape1 cloak2 cf4 for the sense development the ,gr4 ,greek3 ekduesthai1 literally to put off one's clothes1 hence to slip out of1 get away71 a verb meaning to get away from1 especially from impending danger or harm1 to avoid capture1 to regain one's liberty after capture4 ,as a substantive1 escape1 in law1 is the regaining of liberty by one in custody contrary to due process of law4 ,such escape may be by force1 if out of prison it is generally known as prison-breach or prison-breaking1 or by the voluntary or negligent act of the custodian4 ,where the escape is caused by the force or fraud of others it is termed rescue 7q4v474 ,escape is used in botany of a cultivated plant found growing wild4 ,the word is also used of a means of escape1 e4g4 fire-escape1 and of a loss or leakage of gas1 current of electricity or water4 ,,eschatology 7,gr4 ,greek3 eschatos1 last1 and ,greek3 logos1 science2 the doctrine of last things71 a theological term derived from the ,new ,testament phrases the last day 7,greek3 en te eschate hemera1 ,john vi4 #ci71 the last times 7,greek3 ep eschaton ton chronon1 #a ,peter i4 #bj71 the last-state 7,greek3 ta eschata1 ,matt4 xii4 #de71 a conception taken over from ancient prophecy 7,is4 ii4 #b2 ,mal4 iv4 #a74 ,it was the common belief in the apostolic age that the second advent of ,christ was near1 and would give the divine completion to the world's history4 ,the use of the term1 however1 has been extended so as to include all that is taught in the ,scriptures about the future life of the individual as well as the final destiny of the world4 ,the reasons for the belief in a life after death are discussed in the article ,,immortality4 ,the present article1 after a brief glance at the conceptions of the future of the individual or the world found in other religions1 will deal with the teaching of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 the ,jewish and the ,christian ,church regarding the hereafter4 ,there is a bewildering variety in the views of the future life and world held by different peoples4 ,the future life may be conceived as simply a continuation of the present life in its essential features1 although under conditions more or less favourable4 ,it may also be thought of as retributive1 as a reversal of present conditions so that the miserable are comforted1 and the prosperous laid low1 or as a reward or punishment for good or evil desert here4 ,personal identity may be absorbed1 as in the transmigration of souls1 or it may even be denied1 while the good or bad result of one life is held to determine the weal or woe of another4 ,the scene of the future life may be thought of on earth1 in some distant part of it1 or above the earth1 in the sky1 sun1 moon or stars1 or beneath the earth4 ,the abodes of bliss and the places of torment may be distinguished1 or one last dwelling-place may be affirmed for all the dead4 ,sometimes the good find their abiding home with the gods2 sometimes a number of heavens of varying degrees of blessedness is recognized 7see ,f4,b4 ,jevons1 ,an ,introduction to the ,history of ,religion1 chs4 xxi4 and xxii41 #aijb2 and ,j4,a4 ,mac,culloch's ,comparative ,theology1 xiv41 #aijb74 ,eastern ,religions4 7#a7 ,confucius1 though unwilling to discuss any questions concerning the dead1 by approving ancestor-worship recognized a future life4 7#b7 ,taoism promises immortality as the reward of merit4 7#c7 ,the ,book of the ,dead--a guide-book for the departed on his long journey in the unseen world to the abode of the blessed--shows the attention the ,egyptian religion gave to the state of the dead4 7#d7 ,although the ,babylonian religion presents a very gloomy view of the world of the dead1 it is not without a few faint glimpses of a hope that a few mortals at least may gain deliverance from the dread doom4 7#e7 ,a characteristic feature of ,indian thought is the transmigration of the soul from one mode of life to another1 the physical condition of each being determined by the moral and religious character of the preceding4 ,but deliverance from this cycle of existences1 which is conceived as misery1 is promised by means of speculation and asceticism4 ,denying the continuance of the soul1 ,buddhism affirmed a continuity of moral consequences 7,karma71 each successive life being determined by the total moral result of the preceding life4 ,its doctrine of salvation was a guide to1 if not absolute non-existence1 yet cessation of all consciousness of existence 7,nirvana74 ,later ,buddhism has1 however1 a doctrine of many heavens and hells4 7#f7 ,in ,zoroastrianism not only was continuance of life recognized1 but a strict retribution was taught4 ,heaven and hell were very clearly distinguished1 and each soul according to its works passed to the one or to the other4 ,but this faith did not concern itself only with the future lot of the individual soul4 ,it was also interested in the close of the world's history1 and taught a decisive1 final victory of ,ormuzd over ,ahriman1 of the forces of good over the forces of evil4 ,it is not at all improbable that ,jewish eschatology in its later developments was powerfully influenced by the ,persian faith4 7#g7 ,mahommedanism reproduces and exaggerates the lower features of popular ,jewish and ,christian eschatology 7see the separate articles on these religions74 ,old ,testament4 ,in the ,old ,testament we can trace the gradual development of an ever more definite doctrine of the final condition of man and the world4 ,this is regarded as the last stage in a moral process1 a redemptive purpose of ,god4 ,the eschatology of the ,old ,testament is thus closely connected with1 but not limited by1 ,messianic hope1 as there are eschatological teachings that are not ,messianic4 ,as the ,old ,testament revelation is concerned primarily with the elect nation1 and only secondarily 7in the later writings7 with the individual persons composing it1 we follow the order of importance as well as of time in dealing first with the people4 ,the universalism which marks the promise to the seed of the woman 7,gen4 iii4 #ae7 appears also in the blessing of ,noah 7ix4 #be74 ,in the promise to ,abraham 7xii4 #c7 this universal good is directly related to ,god's particular purpose for ,his chosen people2 so also in the blessing of ,jacob 7xlix47 and of ,moses 7,deut4 xxxiii474 ,david's last words 7#b ,sam4 xxiii47 blend together his desire that his family should retain the kingship1 and his aspiration for a kingdom of righteousness on earth4 ,the conception of the ,day of the ,lord is frequent and prominent in the prophets1 and the sense given to the phrase by the people and by the prophets throws into bold relief the contrast between popular beliefs and the prophetic faith4 ,the people simply expected deliverance from their miseries and burdens by the intervention of ,yahweh1 because ,he had chosen ,israel for ,his people4 ,the prophets had an ethical conception of ,yahweh2 the sin of ,his own people and of other nations called for ,his intervention in judgment as the moral ruler of the world4 ,but judgment they conceived as preparing for redemption4 ,the day of the ,lord is always an eschatological conception1 as the term is applied to the final and universal judgment1 and not to any less decisive intervention of ,god in the course of human history4 ,in the pre-exilic prophets the judgment of ,god is primarily on ,israel1 although it also embraces the nations2 during the ,exile and at the ,restoration the judgment is represented as falling on the nations while redemption is being wrought for ,god's people2 after the ,restoration the people of ,god is again threatened1 but still the warning of judgment is mainly directed towards the nations and deliverance is promised to ,israel4 ,as the manifestation of ,god in grace as well as judgment1 the day of the ,lord will bring joy to ,israel and even to the world4 ,as a day of judgment it is accompanied by terrible convulsions of nature 7not to be taken figuratively1 but probably intended literally by the prophets in accordance with their view of the absolute subordination of nature to the divine purpose for man74 ,it ushers in the ,messianic age4 ,while the moral issues are finally determined by this day1 yet the world of the ,messianic age is painted with the colours of the prophet's own surroundings4 ,israel is restored to its own land1 and to it the other nations are brought into subjugation1 by force or persuasion4 ,the contributions of the ,old ,testament to ,christian eschatology embrace these features3 7#a7 ,the manifestation or advent of ,god2 7#b7 the universal judgment2 7#c7 behind the judgment the coming of the perfect kingdom of the ,lord1 when all ,israel shall be saved and when the nations shall be partakers of their salvation2 and 7#d7 the finality and eternity of this condition1 that which constitutes the blessedness of the saved people being the ,presence of ,god in the midst of them--this last point corresponding to the ,christian idea of heaven 7,a4,b4 ,davidson1 in ,hastings's ,bible ,dictionary1 i4 p4 #gch74 ,this hope is for the people on this earth though transfigured4 ,to the individual it would seem at first only old age is promised 7,is4 lxv4 #bj2 ,zech4 viii4 #d71 but the abolition of death itself is also declared 7,is4 xxv4 #h74 ,the resurrection1 which appears at first as a revival of the dead nation 7,hos4 vi4 #b2 ,ez4 xxxvii4 #ab-ad71 is afterwards promised for the pious individuals 7,is4 xxvi4 #ai71 so that they too may share in the national restoration4 ,only in ,daniel xii4 #b is taught a resurrection of the wicked to shame and everlasting contempt as well as of the righteous to everlasting life4 ,it was only at the ,exile1 when the nation ceased to be1 that the worth of the individual came to be recognized1 and the hopes given to the nation were claimed for the individual4 ,in dealing with the individual eschatology we must carefully distinguish the popular ideas regarding death and the hereafter which ,israel shared with the other ,semitic peoples1 from the intuitions1 inferences1 aspirations evoked in the pious by the divine revelation itself4 ,the former have not the moral significance or the religious value of the latter4 ,the starting-point of the development was the common belief that the dead continued to exist in an unsubstantial mode of life1 but cut off from fellowship with ,god and man2 but faith left this far behind4 ,sheol is the common abode of the righteous and the ungodly3 life there is shadowy and feeble1 but seems to continue in a wavering and dim reflection features of this life4 ,as the present life is1 however1 determined by moral issues1 and as death does not change man's relation to ,god1 moral considerations could not be absolutely excluded from the future life4 ,a forward step had to be taken4 ,pious men1 in fellowship with ,god1 when they faced the fact of death1 were led either to challenge its right1 or to give a new meaning to it4 ,either there was a protest against death itself1 and a demand for immortality 7,ps4 xvi4 #i-aa71 or death was conceived as something different for the saint and for the sinner2 fellowship with ,god would not and could not be interrupted 7,ps4 xlix4 #ad1 #ae1 lxxiii4 #ag-bh74 ,the vision of ,god is anticipated after death's sleep 7,ps4 xvii4 #ae2 ,job xix4 #be-bg74 ,this belief in individual immortality is expressed poetically and obscurely3 it is later than the eschatology of the people4 ,it assumes the moral distinction of the righteous and the ungodly1 and seeks a solution for the problem of the lack of harmony of present character and condition4 ,its deepest motive1 however1 is religious4 ,the soul once in fellowship with ,god cannot even by death be separated from ,god4 ,the individual hoped that he would live to share the nation's good1 and thus the two streams of ,old ,testament eschatology at last flow together4 ,apocryphal and ,apocalyptic books4 ,it is in the apocryphal and apocalyptic literature of ,judaism that the fullest development of eschatology can be traced4 ,four words may serve to express the difference of the doctrine of these writings and the teaching of the ,old ,testament4 ,eschatology was universalized 7,god was recognized as the creator and moral governor of all the world71 individualized 7,god's judgment was directed1 not to nations in a future age1 but to individuals in a future life71 transcendentalized 7the future age was more and more contrasted with the present1 and the transition from the one to the other was not expected as the result of historical movements1 but of miraculous divine acts71 and dogmatized 7the attempt was made to systematize in some measure the vague and varied prophetic anticipations74 ,only a very brief summary of the conceptions current in these writings can be given4 ,the coming of the ,messiah will be preceded by the ,last ,woes4 ,the ,messiah is very variously conceived3 7#a7 a passive1 though supreme member of the ,messianic ,kingdom2 7#b7 an active warrior who slays his enemies with his own hand2 7#c7 one who slays his enemies by the word of his mouth1 and rules by virtue of his justice1 faith and holiness2 7#d7 a supernatural person1 eternal ,ruler and ,judge of ,mankind 7,r4,h4 ,charles in ,hastings's ,bible ,dictionary1 i4 p4 #gdh74 ,in some of the writings no ,messianic kingdom is looked for2 in others only a temporal duration on earth is assigned to it2 in others still it abides for ever either on earth as it is1 or on earth transformed4 ,the dispersion among the nations is to return home4 ,sometimes the ,resurrection is narrowed down to the resurrection of the righteous1 at others widened out to the resurrection of all mankind for the last judgment4 ,a blessed immortality after judgment1 or even after death itself1 is sometimes taught without reference to any resurrection4 ,retribution in human history is recognized1 but attention is specially concentrated on the final judgment1 which is usually conceived as taking place in two stages4 7#a7 ,the ,messianic is executed by the ,messiah or the saints by victory in war1 or by judicial sentence4 7#b7 ,the final remains in ,god's hands2 but in one writing 7the ,ethiopic ,enoch7 is represented as ,messiah's function4 ,this judgment either closes the ,messianic age1 if thought of as temporal1 or ushers it in1 if conceived as eternal1 or closes the world's history1 if no ,messianic age is expected4 ,the place of torment for the wicked was called ,gehenna 7the valley of ,hinnom or the ,sons of ,hinnom1 where the bodies of criminals were cast out1 is described in ,is4 lxvi4 #bd74 ,here corporal as well as spiritual punishment was endured2 it was inflicted on apostate ,jews or the wicked generally2 the righteous witnessed its initial stages but not its final form4 ,in later ,judaism it was the purgatory of faithless ,jews1 who at last reached ,paradise1 but it remained the place of eternal torment for the ,gentiles4 ,paradise was sometimes regarded as the division of ,sheol to which the righteous passed after death1 but at others it was conceived as the heavenly abode of ,moses1 ,enoch and ,elijah1 to which other saints would pass after the last judgment4 ,new ,testament4 ,pharisees and ,sadducees4 ,the eschatology of the ,new ,testament attaches itself not only to that of the ,old ,testament but also to that of contemporary ,judaism1 but it avoids the extravagances of the latter4 ,not at all systematic1 it is occasional1 practical1 poetical and dominantly evangelical1 laying stress on the hope of the righteous rather than the doom of the wicked4 ,the teaching of ,jesus centres1 according to the ,synoptists1 in the great idea of the ,kingdom of ,god1 which is already present in the teacher ,himself1 but also future as regards its completion4 ,in some parables a gradual realization of the kingdom is indicated 7,matt4 xiii472 in other utterances its consummation is connected with ,christ's own return1 ,his ,parousia 7,matt4 xxiv4 #c1 #cg1 #ci71 the time of which1 however1 is unknown even to ,himself 7,mark xiii4 #cb74 ,in this eschatological discourse 7,matt4 xxiv41 xxv47 ,he speaks of the destruction of ,jerusalem and of the end of the world as near1 and seemingly as one4 ,this is in accordance with the characteristic of prophecy1 which sees in timeless sequence events which are historically separated from one another4 ,while the ,return is represented in the ,synoptists as an external event1 it is conceived in the fourth gospel as an internal experience in the operation of the ,spirit on the believer 7,john xiv4 #af-ba72 nevertheless here also the ,parousia in the synoptic sense is looked for 7,john xxi4 #bb2 cf4 #a ,john ii4 #bh74 ,the object of the ,second ,coming is the execution of judgment by ,christ 7,matt4 xxv4 #ca71 both individual 7xxii4 #a-ad7 and universal 7xiii4 #cf-db74 ,the present subjective judgment1 in which men determine their destiny by their attitude to ,christ1 on which the fourth gospel lays stress 7,john iii4 #ag-ba1 ix4 #ci71 is not inconsistent with the anticipation of a final judgment 7,john xii4 #dh1 v4 #bg74 ,this judgment presupposes the resurrection1 belief in which was rejected by the ,sadducees1 but accepted by the ,pharisees and the majority of the ,jewish people1 and confirmed by ,christ1 not only as an individual spiritual renovation 7,john v4 #be1 #bf71 but as a universal physical resuscitation 7#bh and #bi2 ,matt4 xxii4 #cj74 ,this resurrection is of the unjust as well as the just 7,matt4 v4 #bi1 #cj1 x4 #bh2 ,luke xiv4 #ad74 ,on the ,intermediate ,state ,jesus does not speak clearly4 ,he uses the term ,hades twice metaphorically 7,matt4 xi4 #bc1 xvi4 #ah71 and once in a parable1 the ,rich ,man and ,lazarus 7,luke xvi4 #bc71 in which he employs the current phrases such as ,abraham's bosom 7verse #bb71 without any definite doctrinal intention1 to unveil the secrets of the hereafter by confirming with ,his authority the common beliefs of ,his time4 ,the term ,paradise 7,luke xxiii4 #dc7 seems to be used in a large and general sense as a word of hope and comfort1 and we need not attach to it any of the more definite associations which it had in ,jewish eschatology4 ,when he speaks of death as sleep 7,luke viii4 #eb2 ,john xi4 #aa7 it is to give men gentler and sweeter thoughts of it1 not to inculcate the doctrine of an intermediate state as an unconscious condition4 ,there are words which suggest rather the hope of an immediate entrance of the just into the ,father's house and glory 7,john xiv4 #b1 #c1 xvii4 #bd74 ,he spoke frequently and distinctly both of final reward for the righteous and final penalty for the wicked4 ,the recompense of the righteous is described as an inheritance1 entrance into the kingdom1 treasure in heaven1 an existence like the angelic1 a place prepared1 the ,father's house1 the joy of the ,lord1 life1 eternal life and the like2 and there is no intimation that the reward is capable of change1 that the condition is a terminable one4 ,the retribution of the wicked is described as death1 outer darkness1 weeping and wailing and gnashing of teeth1 the undying worm1 the quenchless fire1 exclusion from the kingdom1 eternal punishment and the like 7,s4,d4,j4 ,salmond in ,hastings's ,bible ,dictionary1 p4 #geb74 ,degrees of award are recognized 7,luke xii4 #dg1 #dh74 ,gehenna is applied to the condition of the lost 7,matt4 xviii4 #i74 ,two sayings are held to point to a terminable penalty 7,matt4 v4 #be1 #bf1 xii4 #ca1 #cb71 but the one is so figurative and the other so obscure1 that we are not warranted in drawing any such definite conclusion from either of them4 ,the finality of destiny seems to be unmistakably expressed 7,matt4 vii4 #bc1 x4 #cc1 xiii4 #cj1 xxv4 #df1 xxvi4 #bd2 ,mark ix4 #dc-dh1 viii4 #cf2 ,luke ix4 #bf2 ,john iii4 #af1 viii4 #ba1 #bd74 ,no second opportunity for deciding the issue of life or death is recognized by ,jesus4 ,the apostolic eschatology presents resemblance amid difference4 ,jude 7v4 #f71 as well as #b ,peter 7ii4 #d71 refers to the judgment of the fallen angels4 #b ,peter describes the place of their detention as ,tartarus1 and teaches that ,christ's ,parousia is to bring the whole present system of things to its conclusion1 and the world itself to an end 7iii4 #aj1 #ac74 ,after the destruction of the existing order by fire1 a new heaven and a new earth will appear as the abode of righteousness4 ,the question of greatest interest in #a ,peter is the relation of two passages in it1 the preaching to the spirits in prison 7iii4 #ah-bb7 and the preaching of the ,gospel to the dead 7iv4 #f7 to the larger hope4 ,peter's discourse also contains a phrase which suggests the belief of a descent of ,christ into ,hades in the interval between ,his death and ,his resurrection 7,acts ii4 #ca74 ,no certainty has been reached in the interpretation of these passages1 but they may suggest to the ,christian mind the expectation that the final destiny of no soul can be fixed until in some way or other1 in this life or the next1 the opportunity of decision for or against ,christ has been given4 ,the phrase the times of restoration of all things 7iii4 #ba7 is too vague in itself1 and is too isolated in its context to warrant the dogmatic teaching of universalism1 although there are other passages which seem to point towards the same goal4 ,while ,john's ,apocalypse is distinctly eschatological1 the ,epistles and the ,gospels often give these conceptions an ethical and spiritual import1 without1 however1 excluding the eschatological4 ,life is present while eternal 7#a ,john v4 #ab1 #ac71 but it is also future 7ii4 #be74 ,there is expected a future manifestation of ,christ as ,he is1 and what the believer himself will be does not yet appear 7iii4 #b74 ,the writer speaks of the last hour 7ii4 #ah71 the ,antichrist that cometh 7ii4 #bb1 iv4 #c71 and the ,christian's full reward 7#b ,john v4 #h7 as well as the ,parousia 7#a ,john ii4 #bh74 ,the ,apocalypse reproduces much of the current ,jewish eschatology4 ,a millennial reign of ,christ on earth is interposed between the first resurrection1 confined to the saints and especially the martyrs1 and the second resurrection for the rest of the dead4 ,a final outburst of ,satan's power is followed by his overthrow and the ,last ,judgment4 ,although ,paul sometimes describes the ,kingdom of ,god as present 7,rom4 xiv4 #ag2 #a ,cor4 iv4 #bj2 ,col4 i4 #ac71 it is usually represented as future4 ,the ,parousia fills a large place in his thought1 and1 if more prominent in his earlier writings1 is not altogether absent from his later1 although the expectation of personal survival does seem to grow less confident 7cf4 #a ,cor4 xv4 #ea and ,phil4 i4 #bj-bd74 ,the doctrines of the ,resurrection1 the ,last ,judgment1 the ,reward of the ,righteous and the ,punishment of the ,wicked are not less distinctly expressed than in the other apostolic writings4 ,peculiar elements in ,paul's eschatology are the doctrines of the ,rapture of the ,saints 7#a ,thess4 iv4 #ag7 and the ,man of ,sin 7#b ,thess4 ii4 #c-f71 but these have affinities elsewhere4 ,a reference to the millennial reign of ,christ in the period between the two resurrections is sometimes sought in #a ,cor4 xv4 #bb-bd2 but it is not a chronology of the last things ,paul is here giving4 ,so also a justification for the doctrine of purgatory is sought in iii4 #ab-ae2 but the day and the fire are of the last judgment4 ,a descent of ,christ into ,hades1 implying an extension of the opportunity of grace such as is supposed to be taught in #a ,peter1 is also discovered in the obscure statements in ,rom4 x4 #g 7where ,paul is freely quoting ,deut4 xxx4 #aa-ad71 and ,eph4 iv4 #aj 7where he is commenting on ,ps4 lxviii4 #ah74 ,universal restoration is inferred from #a ,cor4 xv4 #bd-bh1 ,god all in all1 ,phil4 ii4 #aj-aa1 every knee bowing to1 and every tongue confessing ,jesus ,christ1 ,eph4 i4 #i1 #aj1 the summing up of all things in ,christ1 ,col4 i4 #bj1 ,god reconciling all things unto ,himself in ,christ4 ,these passages inspire a hope1 but do not sustain a certainty4 ,paul's shrinking from the disembodied state and longing to be clothed upon at death in #b ,cor4 v4 #a-h1 cannot be regarded as a proof of an interim body prior to and preparatory for the resurrection body4 ,paul links the human resurrection with a universal renovation 7,rom4 viii4 #ai-bc74 ,paul's eschatology is not free of obscurities and ambiguities2 and in the ,new ,testament eschatology generally we are forced to recognize a mixture of inherited ,jewish and original ,christian elements 7see ,,antichrist74 ,during the first century of the existence of the ,gentile ,christian ,church1 the hope of the approaching end of the world and the glorious kingdom of ,christ was dominant1 although warnings had to be given against doubt and indifference4 ,redemption was thought of as still future1 as the power of the devil had not been broken but rather increased by the ,first ,advent1 and the ,second ,advent was necessary to his complete overthrow4 ,the expectations were often grossly materialistic1 as is evidenced by ,papias's quotation as the words of the ,lord of a group of sayings from the ,apocalypse of ,baruch1 setting forth the amazing fruitfulness of the earth in the ,messianic time4 ,gnostics4 ,montanism4 ,the ,gnostics rejected this eschatology as in their view the enlightened spirit already possessed immortality4 ,marcion expected that the ,church would be assailed by ,antichrist2 a visible return of ,christ he did not teach1 but he recognized that human history would issue in a separation of the good from the bad4 ,montanism sought to form a new ,christian commonwealth which1 separated from the world1 should prepare itself for the descent of the ,jerusalem from above1 and its establishment in the spot which by the direction of the ,spirit had been chosen in ,phrygia4 ,while ,irenaeus held fast the traditional eschatological beliefs1 yet his conception of the ,christian salvation as a deification of man tended to weaken their hold on ,christian thought4 ,the ,alogi in the #bnd century rejected the ,apocalypse on account of its chiliasm1 its teaching of a visible reign of ,christ on earth for a thousand years4 ,montanism also brought these apocalyptic expectations into discredit in orthodox ecclesiastical circles4 ,the ,alexandrian theology strengthened this movement against chiliasm4 ,clement of ,alexandria taught that justice is not merely retributive1 that punishment is remedial1 that probation continues after death till the final judgment1 that ,christ and the apostles preached the ,gospel in ,hades to those who lacked knowledge1 but whose heart was right1 that a spiritual body will be raised4 ,origen taught that a germ of the spiritual body is in the present body1 and its development depends on the character1 that perfect bliss is reached only by stages1 that the evil are purified by pain1 conscience being symbolized by fire1 and that all1 even the devil himself1 will at last be saved4 ,both regarded chiliasm with aversion4 ,but in the #eth century there were rejected as heretical 7#a7 the doctrine of universalism1 and the possibility of the redemption of the devil2 7#b7 the doctrine of the complete annihilation of evil2 7#c7 the conception of the penalties of hell as tortures of conscience2 7#d7 the spiritualizing version of the resurrection of the body2 7#e7 the idea of the continued creation of new worlds 7,a4 ,harnack1 ,history of ,dogma1 iii4 p4 #ahf74 ,epiphanius1 following ,methodius1 insisted on the most perfect identity between the resurrection body and the material body2 and this belief1 enforced in the ,west by ,jerome1 soon established itself as alone orthodox4 ,augustine made experiments on the flesh of a peacock in order to find physical evidence for the doctrine4 ,he held fast to eternal punishment1 but allowed the possibility of mitigations4 ,some believers1 he taught1 may pass through purgatorial fires2 and this middle class may be helped by the sacraments and the alms of the living4 ,there are many souls not good enough to dispense with this provision1 and not bad enough to be benefited by it 7op4 cit4 v4 #bcc74 ,this doctrine was sanctioned and developed by ,gregory the ,great4 ,after ,god has changed eternal punishments into temporary1 the justified must expiate these temporary penalties for sin in purgatory 7p4 #bfh74 ,this view was inferred indirectly from ,matt4 xii4 #ca1 and directly from #a ,cor4 iii4 #ab-ae4 ,afterwards purgatory took more and more the place of hell1 and was subject to the control of the church4 ,as regards the saints1 different degrees of blessedness were recognized2 they were supposed to wait in ,hades for the return of ,christ1 but gradually the belief gained ground1 especially in regard to the martyrs1 that their souls at once entered ,paradise4 ,the primitive ,christian eschatology was preserved in the ,west as it was not in the ,east1 and in times of exceptional distress the expectation of ,antichrist emerged again and again4 ,in the middle ages there was an extravagance of speculation on this subject1 which may be seen in the last division of ,aquinas' ,summa ,theologiae4 ,he proposes thirty questions on these matters1 among which are the following3 whether souls are conducted to heaven or hell immediately after death2 whether the limbus of hell is the same as ,abraham's bosom2 whether the sun and moon will be really obscured at the day of judgment2 whether all the members of the human body will rise with it2 whether the hair and nails will reappear2 could thought become more lawless and uncertain8 ,in ,protestant ,theology4 ,while rejecting purgatory1 ,protestantism took over this eschatology4 ,souls passed at once to heaven or to hell2 a doctrine even less adequate to the complex quality of human life4 ,luther himself looked for the passing away of the present evil world4 ,socinianism taught a new spiritual body1 an intermediate state in which the soul is near non-existence1 an annihilation of the wicked1 as immortality is the gift of ,god4 ,swedenborg discards a physical resurrection1 as at death the eyes of men are opened to the spiritual world in which we exist now1 and they continue to live essentially as they lived here1 until by their affinities they are drawn to heaven or hell4 ,the doctrine of eternal punishment has been opposed on many grounds1 such as the disproportion between the offence and the penalty1 the moral and religious immaturity of the majority of men at death1 the diminution of the happiness of heaven involved in the knowledge of the endless suffering of others 7,schleiermacher71 the defeat of the divine purpose of righteousness and grace that the continued antagonism of any of ,god's creatures would imply1 the dissatisfaction ,god as ,father must feel until ,his whole family is restored4 ,it has been argued that the term eternal has reference not to duration of time but quality of being 7,maurice72 but it does seem certain that the writers in the ,holy ,scriptures who used it did not foresee an end either to the life or to the death to which they applied the term4 ,the contention should not be based on the meaning of a single word1 but on such broader considerations as have been indicated above4 ,the doctrine of conditional immortality taught by ,socinianism was accepted by ,archbishop ,whately1 and has been most persistently advocated by ,edward ,white1 who maintains that immortality is a truth1 not of reason1 but of revelation1 a gift of ,god bestowed only on believers in ,christ2 but he admits a continued probation after death for such as have not hardened their hearts by a rejection of ,christ4 ,according to ,albrecht ,ritschl the wrath of ,god means the resolve of ,god to annihilate those men who finally oppose themselves to redemption1 and the final purpose of the kingdom of ,god4 ,he thus makes immortality conditional on inclusion in the kingdom of ,god4 ,the doctrine of universal restoration was maintained by ,thomas ,erskine of ,linlathen on the ground of the ,fatherhood of ,god1 and ,archdeacon ,wilson anticipates such discipline after death as will restore all souls to ,god4 ,c4,i4 ,nitzsch argues against the doctrine of the annihilation of the wicked1 regards the teaching of ,scripture about eternal damnation as hypothetical1 and thinks it possible that ,paul reached the hope of universal restoration4 ,i4,a4 ,dorner maintains that hopeless perdition can be the penalty only of the deliberate rejection of the ,gospel1 that those who have not had the opportunity of choice fairly and fully in this life will get it hereafter1 but that the right choice will in all cases be made we cannot be confident4 ,the attitude of theologians generally regarding individual destiny is well expressed by ,dr ,james ,orr1 ,the conclusion ,i arrive at is that we have not the elements of a complete solution1 and we ought not to attempt it4 ,what visions beyond there may be1 what larger hopes1 what ultimate harmonies1 if such there are in store1 will come in ,god's good time2 it is not for us to anticipate them1 or lift the veil where ,god has left it down 7,the ,christian ,view of ,god and the ,world1 #ahic1 p4 #cig74 ,although in recent theological thought attention has been mainly directed to individual destiny1 yet the other elements of ,christian eschatology must not be altogether passed over4 ,history has offered the authoritative commentary on the prophecy of the ,parousia of ,christ4 ,the presence and power of ,his ,spirit1 the spread of ,his ,gospel1 the progress of ,his kingdom have been as much a fulfilment of the eschatological teaching of the ,new ,testament as ,his life and work on earth were a fulfilment of ,messianic prophecy1 for fulfilment always transcends prophecy4 ,even if the common beliefs of the apostolic age have not modified the evangelist's reports of ,jesus' teaching1 it must be remembered that ,he used the common prophetic phraseology1 the literal fulfilment of which is not to be looked for4 ,some parables 7the leaven1 the mustard seed7 suggest a gradual progressive realization of ,his kingdom4 ,the ,fourth ,gospel interprets both judgment and resurrection spiritually4 ,accordingly the general resurrection and the last judgment may be regarded as the temporal and local forms of thought to express the universal permanent truths that life survives death in the completeness of its necessary organs and essential functions1 and that the character of that continued life is determined by personal choice of submission or antagonism to ,god's purpose of grace in ,christ1 the perfect realization of which is the ,christian's hope for himself1 mankind and the world4 ,,bibliography4--,in addition to the works referred to above the following will be found useful3 ,s4,d4,f4 ,salmond1 ,the ,christian ,doctrine of ,immortality 7#dth ed41 #aija72 ,r4,h4 ,charles1 ,a ,critical ,history of the ,doctrine of a ,future ,life in ,israel1 in ,judaism1 and in ,christianity 7#ahii72 ,l4,n4 ,dahle1 ,life after ,death and the ,future of the ,kingdom of ,god 7,eng4 tr4 by ,j4 ,beveridge1 #ahie72 ,j4,a4 ,beet1 ,the ,last ,things 7new ed41 #aije72 ,w4,g4,t4 ,shedd1 ,doctrine of ,endless ,punishment 7,new ,york1 #ahhf72 ,f4,w4 ,farrar1 ,the ,eternal ,hope 7#ahib72 ,e4 ,petavel1 ,the ,problem of ,immortality 7,eng4 tr4 by ,f4,a4 ,freer1 #ahib72 ,e4 ,white1 ,life in ,christ 7#crd ed41 #ahgh72 also the relevant sections in books on biblical and systematic theology4 7,a4 ,e4 ,g4997 ,,escheat 7,o4 ,fr4 eschete1 from escheoir1 to fall to one's share2 ,lat4 excidere1 to fall out71 in ,english law1 the reversion of lands to the next lord on the failure of heirs of the tenant4 ,when the tenant of an estate in fee simple dies without having alienated his estate in his lifetime or by his will1 and without leaving any heirs either lineal or collateral1 the lands in which he held his estate escheat1 as it is called1 to the lord of whom he held them 7,williams on the ,law of ,real ,property74 ,this rule is explained by the conception of a freehold estate as an interest in lands held by the freeholder from some lord1 the king being lord paramount4 7,see ,,estate47 ,the granter retains an interest in the land similar to that of the donor of an estate for life1 to whom the land reverts after the life estate is ended4 ,as there are now few freehold estates traceable to any mesne or intermediate lord1 escheats1 when they do occur1 fall to the king as lord paramount4 ,besides escheat for defect of heirs1 there was formerly also escheat propter delictum tenentis1 or by the corruption of the blood of the tenant through attainder consequent on conviction and sentence for treason or felony4 ,the blood of the tenant becoming corrupt by attainder was decreed no longer inheritable1 and the effect was the same as if the tenant had died without heirs4 ,the land1 therefore1 escheated to the next heir1 subject to the superior right of the crown to the forfeiture of the lands1--in the case of treason for ever1 in the case of felony for a year and a day4 ,all this was abolished by the ,felony ,act #ahgj1 which provided for the appointment of an administrator to the property of the convict4 ,escheat is also an incident of copyhold tenure4 ,trust estates were not subject to escheat until the ,intestates' ,estates ,act #ahhd1 but now by that act the law of escheat applies in the same manner as if the estate or interest were a legal estate in corporeal hereditaments4 ,,eschenburg1 ,,johann ,,joachim 7#agdc-ahbj71 ,german critic and literary historian1 was born at ,hamburg on the #gth of ,december #agdc4 ,after receiving his early education in his native town1 he studied at ,leipzig and ,gottingen4 ,in #agfg he was appointed tutor1 and subsequently professor1 at the ,collegium ,carolinum in ,brunswick4 ,the title of ,hofrat was conferred on him in #aghf1 and in #ahad he was made one of the directors of the ,carolinum4 ,he is best known by his efforts to familiarize his countrymen with ,english literature4 ,he published a series of ,german translations of the principal ,english writers on aesthetics1 such as ,j4 ,brown1 ,d4 ,webb1 ,charles ,burney1 ,joseph ,priestley and ,r4 ,hurd2 and ,germany owes also to him the first complete translation 7in prose7 of ,shakespeare's plays 7,william ,shakespear's ,schauspiele1 #ac vols41 ,zurich1 #agge-aghb74 ,this is virtually a revised edition of the incomplete translation published by ,wieland between #agfb and #agff4 ,eschenburg died at ,brunswick on the #bith of ,february #ahbj4 ,besides editing1 with memoirs1 the works of ,hagedorn1 ,zacharia and other ,german poets1 he was the author of a ,handbuch der klassischen ,literatur 7#aghc72 ,entwurf einer ,theorie und ,literatur der schonen ,wissenschaften 7#aghc72 ,beispielsammlung zur ,theorie und ,literatur der schonen ,wissenschaften 7#h vols41 #aghh-agie72 ,lehrbuch der ,wissenschaftskunde 7#agib72 and ,denkmaler altdeutscher ,dichtkunst 7#agii74 ,most of these works have passed through several editions4 ,eschenburg was also a poet of some pretensions1 and some of his religious hymns1 e4g4 ,ich will dich noch im ,tod erheben and ,dir trau' ich1 ,gott1 und wanke nicht1 are contained in many hymnals to this day4 ,,eschenmayer1 ,,adam ,,karl ,,august ,,von 7#agfh-aheb71 ,german philosopher and physicist1 was born at ,neuenburg in ,wurttemberg in ,july #agfh4 ,after receiving his early education at the ,caroline academy of ,stuttgart1 he entered the university of ,tubingen1 where he received the degree of doctor of medicine4 ,he practised for some time as a physician at ,sulz1 and then at ,kirchheim1 and in #ahaa he was chosen extraordinary professor of philosophy and medicine at ,tubingen4 ,in #ahah he became ordinary professor of practical philosophy1 but in #ahcf he resigned and took up his residence at ,kirchheim1 where he devoted his whole attention to philosophical studies4 ,eschenmayer's views are largely identical with those of ,schelling1 but he differed from him in regard to the knowledge of the absolute4 ,he believed that in order to complete the arc of truth philosophy must be supplemented by what he called non-philosophy1 a kind of mystical illumination by which was obtained a belief in ,god that could not be reached by mere intellectual effort 7see ,hoffding1 ,hist4 of ,mod4 ,phil41 ,eng4 trans4 vol4 #b1 p4 #agj74 ,he carried this tendency to mysticism into his physical researches1 and was led by it to take a deep interest in the phenomena of animal magnetism4 ,he ultimately became a devout believer in demoniacal and spiritual possession2 and his later writings are all strongly impregnated with the lower supernaturalism4 ,his principal works are--,die ,philosophie in ihrem ,ubergange zur ,nichtphilosophie 7#ahjc72 ,versuch die scheinbare ,magie des thierischen ,magnetismus aus physiol4 und psychischen ,gesetzen zu erklaren 7#ahaf72 ,system der ,moralphilosophie 7#ahah72 ,psychologie in drei ,theilen1 als empirische1 reine1 angewandte 7#ahag1 #bnd ed4 #ahbb72 ,religionsphilosophie 7#c vols41 #ahah-ahbd72 ,die ,hegel'sche ,religionsphilosophie verglichen mit dem christl4 ,princip 7#ahcd72 ,der ,ischariotismus unserer ,tage 7#ahce7 7directed against ,strauss's ,life of ,jesus72 ,konflikt zwischen ,himmel und ,holle1 an dem ,damon eines besessenen ,madchens beobachtet 7#ahcg72 ,grundriss der ,naturphilosophie 7#ahcb72 ,grundzuge der christl4 ,philosophie 7#ahdj72 and ,betrachtungen uber den physischen ,weltbau 7#aheb74 ,,escher ,,von ,,der ,,linth1 ,,arnold 7#ahjg-ahgb71 ,swiss geologist1 the son of ,hans ,conrad ,escher 7#agfg-ahbc71 was born at ,zurich on the #hth of ,june #ahjg4 ,in #ahef he became professor of geology at the ,ecole ,polytechnique at ,zurich4 ,his researches led him to be regarded as one of the founders of ,swiss geology4 ,with ,b4 ,studer he produced 7#aheb-ahec7 the first elaborate geological map of ,switzerland4 ,he was the author also of ,geologische ,bemerkungen uber das nordliche ,vorarlberg und einige angrenzenden ,gegenden1 published at ,zurich in #ahec4 ,he died on the #abth of ,july #ahgb4 ,,eschscholtz1 ,,johann ,,friedrich 7#agic-ahca71 ,russian traveller and naturalist1 was born in ,november #agic1 at ,dorpat1 where he died in ,may #ahca4 ,he was naturalist and physician to ,otto von ,kotzebue's exploring expedition during #ahae-ahah4 ,on his return he was appointed extraordinary professor of anatomy 7#ahai7 and director of the zoological museum of the university at ,dorpat 7#ahbb71 and in #ahbc-ahbf he accompanied ,kotzebue on his second voyage of discovery4 ,he became ordinary professor of anatomy at ,dorpat in #ahbh4 ,among his publications were the ,system der ,akalephen 7#ahbi71 and the ,zoologischer ,atlas 7#ahbi-ahcc74 ,the botanical genus ,eschscholtzia was named by ,adelbert von ,chamisso in his honour4 ,,eschwege1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,hesse-,nassau1 on the ,werra1 and the railway ,treysa-,leinefelde1 #bh m4 ,s4,e4 of ,cassel4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #aa1aac4 ,it consists of the old town on the left1 the new town on the right1 bank of the ,werra1 and ,bruckenhausen on a small island connected with the old and new town by bridges4 ,it is a thriving manufacturing town1 its chief industries being leather-making1 yarn-spinning1 cotton- and linen-weaving1 the manufactures of cigars1 brushes1 liquors and oil1 and glue- and soap-boiling4 ,it has two ancient buildings1 the ,nikolai-turm1 built in #adee1 and the old castle4 ,after being part of ,thuringia1 ,eschwege passed to ,hesse in #abfc4 ,it was recovered by the landgrave of ,thuringia in #achh1 but soon reverted to ,hesse1 and it became the residence of one of the branches of the ,hessian royal house1 a branch which died out in #afee4 ,,eschweiler1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian ,rhine province1 on the ,inde1 and the railways ,cologne-,herbesthal and ,munich-,gladbach-,stolberg1 about #h m4 ,e4,n4,e4 from ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #bj1fdc4 ,the town has an ,evangelical and four ,roman ,catholic churches1 a gymnasium and an orphanage4 ,the manufacture of iron and steel goods is carried on2 other industries include the manufacture of zinc wares1 tanning1 distilling and brewing4 ,in the neighbourhood there are valuable coal mines4 ,see ,koch1 ,geschichte der ,stadt ,eschweiler 7,frankfort1 #ahij74 ,,escobar ,y ,,mendoza1 ,,antonio 7#aehi-affi71 ,spanish churchman of illustrious descent1 was born at ,valladolid in #aehi4 ,he was educated by the ,jesuits1 and at the age of fifteen took the habit of that order4 ,he soon became a famous preacher1 and his facility was so great that for fifty years he preached daily1 and sometimes twice a day4 ,in addition he was a voluminous writer1 and his works fill eighty-three volumes4 ,his first literary efforts were ,latin verses in praise of ,ignatius ,loyola 7#afac7 and the ,virgin ,mary 7#afah72 but he is best known as a writer on casuistry4 ,his principal works belong to the fields of exegesis and moral theology4 ,of the latter the best known are ,summula casuum conscientiae 7#afbg72 ,liber theologiae moralis 7#afdd71 and ,universae theologiae moralis problemata 7#afeb-afff74 ,the first mentioned of these was severely criticised by ,pascal in the fifth and sixth of his ,provincial ,letters1 as tending to inculcate a loose system of morality4 ,it contains the famous maxim that purity of intention may be a justification of actions which are contrary to the moral code and to human laws2 and its general tendency is to find excuses for the majority of human frailties4 ,his doctrines were disapproved of by many ,catholics1 and were mildly condemned by ,rome4 ,they were also ridiculed in witty verses by ,moliere1 ,boileau and ,la ,fontaine1 and gradually the name ,escobar came to be used in ,france as a synonym for a person who is adroit in making the rules of morality harmonize with his own interests4 ,escobar himself is said to have been simple in his habits1 a strict observer of the rules of his order1 and unweariedly zealous in his efforts to reform the lives of those with whom he had to deal4 ,it has been said of him that he purchased heaven dearly for himself1 but gave it away cheap to others4 ,he died on the #dth of ,july #affi4 ,,escoiquiz1 ,,juan 7#agfb-ahbj71 ,spanish ecclesiastic1 politician and writer1 was born in ,navarre in #agfb4 ,his father was a general officer and he began life as a page in the court of ,king ,charles ,,iii4 ,he entered the church and was provided for by a prebend at ,saragossa4 ,godoy in his memoirs asserts that ,escoiquiz sought to gain his favour by flattery4 ,there is every reason to believe that this is an accurate statement of the case4 ,the mere fact that he was selected to be the tutor of the heir-apparent1 ,ferdinand1 afterwards ,king ,ferdinand ,,vii41 is of itself a proof that he exerted himself to gain the goodwill of the reigning favourite4 ,in #agig he published a translation of ,young's ,night ,thoughts1 which does not of itself show that he was well acquainted with ,english1 for the version may have been made with the help of the ,french4 ,in #agih he published a long and worthless so-called epic on the conquest of ,mexico4 ,escoiquiz was in fact a busy and pushing member of the literary clique which looked up to ,godoy as its patron4 ,but his position as tutor to the heir to the throne excited his ambition4 ,he began to hope that he might play the part of those court ecclesiastics who had often had an active share in the government of ,spain4 ,as ,ferdinand grew up1 and after his marriage with a ,neapolitan princess1 he became the centre of a court opposition to ,godoy and to his policy of alliance with ,france4 ,escoiquiz was the brains1 as far as there were any brains1 of the intrigue4 ,his activity was so notorious that he was exiled from court1 but was consoled by a canonry at ,toledo4 ,this half measure was as ineffective as was to have been expected4 ,escoiquiz continued to be in constant communication with the prince4 ,toledo is close to ,madrid1 and the correspondence was easily maintained4 ,he had a large share in the conspiracy of the ,escorial which was detected on the #bhth of ,october #ahjg4 ,he was imprisoned and sent for trial with other conspirators4 ,but as they had appealed to ,napoleon1 who would not suffer his name to be mentioned1 the government had to allow the matter to be hushed up1 and the prisoners were acquitted4 ,after the outbreak at ,aranjuez on the #agth of ,march #ahjh1 in which he had a share1 he became one of the most trusted advisers of ,ferdinand4 ,the new king's decision to go to meet ,napoleon at ,bayonne was largely inspired by him4 ,in #ahad ,escoiquiz published at ,madrid his ,idea ,sencilla de las razones que motivaron el viage del ,rey ,fernando ,,vii4 a ,bayona 7,honest representation of the causes which inspired the journey of ,king ,ferdinand ,,vii4 to ,bayonne74 ,it is a valuable historical document1 and contains a singularly vivid account of an interview with ,napoleon4 ,escoiquiz was far too firmly convinced of his ingenuity and merits to conceal the delusions and follies of himself and his associates4 ,he displays his own vanity1 frivolity and futile cleverness with much unconscious humour1 but1 it is only fair to allow1 with some literary dexterity4 ,when the ,spanish royal family was imprisoned by ,napoleon1 ,escoiquiz remained with ,ferdinand at ,valencay4 ,in #ahac he published at ,bourges a translation of ,milton's ,paradise ,lost4 ,when ,ferdinand was released in #ahad he came back to ,madrid in the hope that his ambition would now be satisfied1 but the king was tired of him1 and was moreover resolved never to be subjected by any favourite4 ,after a very brief period of office in #ahae he was sent as a prisoner to ,murcia4 ,though he was afterwards recalled1 he was again exiled to ,ronda1 where he died on the #bgth of ,november #ahbj4 ,,escombe1 ,,harry 7#ahch-ahii71 ,south ,african statesman1 a member of a ,somersetshire family1 was born at ,notting ,hill1 ,london1 on the #beth of ,july #ahch1 and was educated at ,st ,paul's school4 ,after four years in a stockbroker's office1 he emigrated1 in #ahei1 to the ,cape4 ,the following year he moved to ,natal1 and1 after trying other occupations1 qualified as an attorney4 ,he became recognized as the ablest pleader in the colony1 and1 in #ahgb1 was elected for ,durban as a member of the legislative council1 and subsequently was also placed on the executive council4 ,in #ahhj he secured the appointment of a harbour board for ,natal1 and was himself made chairman4 ,the transformation of the port of ,durban into a harbour available for ocean liners was due entirely to his energy4 ,in #ahhh-ahhi he defended ,dinizulu and other ,zulu chiefs against a charge of high treason4 ,for several years he opposed the grant of responsible government to ,natal1 but by #ahij had become convinced of its desirability1 and on its conferment in #ahic he joined the first ministry formed1 serving under ,sir ,john ,robinson as attorney-general4 ,in ,february #ahig1 on ,sir ,john's retirement1 ,escombe became premier1 remaining attorney-general and also holding the office of minister of education and minister of defence4 ,in the summer of that year he was in ,london with the other colonial premiers at the celebration of the ,diamond ,jubilee of ,queen ,victoria1 and was made a member of the privy council4 ,cambridge ,university conferred upon him the honorary degree of ,,ll4,d4 ,the election that followed his return to ,natal proved unfavourable to his policy1 and he resigned office 7,october #ahig74 ,throughout his life he took an active interest in national defence4 ,he had served in the ,zulu ,war of #ahgi1 was commander of the ,natal ,naval ,volunteers and received the volunteer long service decoration4 ,in ,october #ahii he went to the northern confines of the colony to take part in preparing measures of defence against the invasion by the ,boers4 ,he died on the #bgth of ,december #ahii4 ,the ,speeches of the late ,right ,hon4 ,harry ,escombe 7,maritzburg1 #aijc71 edited by ,j4,t4 ,henderson1 contains brief biographical notes by ,sir ,john ,robinson and the editor4 ,,escorial1 or ,,escurial1 in ,spain1 one of the most remarkable buildings in ,europe1 comprising at once a convent1 a church1 a palace and a mausoleum4 ,the ,escorial is situated #cdcb ft4 above the sea1 on the south-western slopes of the ,sierra de ,guadarrama1 and thus within the borders of the province of ,madrid and the kingdom of ,new ,castile4 ,by the ,madrid-,avila railway it is #ca m4 ,n4,w4 of ,madrid4 ,the surrounding country is a sterile and gloomy wilderness exposed to the cold and blighting blasts of the ,sierra4 ,according to the usual tradition1 which there seems no sufficient reason to reject1 the ,escorial owes its existence to a vow made by ,philip ,,ii4 of ,spain 7#aeef-aeih71 shortly after the battle of ,st ,quentin1 in which his forces succeeded in routing the army of ,france4 ,the day of the victory1 the #ajth of ,august #aeeg1 was sacred to ,st ,laurence2 and accordingly the building was dedicated to that saint1 and received the title of ,el real monasterio de ,san ,lorenzo del ,escorial4 ,the last distinctive epithet was derived from the little hamlet in the vicinity which furnished shelter1 not only to the workmen1 but to the monks of ,st ,jerome who were afterwards to be in possession of the monastery2 and the hamlet itself is generally but perhaps erroneously supposed to be indebted for its name to the scoriae or dross of certain old iron mines4 ,the preparation of the plans and the superintendence of the work were entrusted by the king to ,juan ,bautista de ,toledo1 a ,spanish architect who had received most of his professional education in ,italy4 ,the first stone was laid in ,april #aefc2 and under the king's personal inspection the work rapidly advanced4 ,abundant supplies of berroquena1 a granite-like stone1 were obtained in the neighbourhood1 and for rarer materials the resources of both the ,old and the ,new ,world were put under contribution4 ,the death of ,toledo in #aefg threatened a fatal blow at the satisfactory completion of the enterprise1 but a worthy successor was found in ,juan ,herrera1 ,toledo's favourite pupil1 who adhered in the main to his master's designs4 ,on the #acth of ,september #aehd the last stone of the masonry was laid1 and the works were brought to a termination in #aeic4 ,each successive occupant of the ,spanish throne has done something1 however slight1 to the restoration or adornment of ,philip's convent-palace1 and ,ferdinand ,,vii4 7#ahjh-ahcc7 did so much in this way that he has been called a second founder4 ,in all its principal features1 however1 the ,escorial remains what it was made by the genius of ,toledo and ,herrera working out the grand1 if abnormal1 desires of their master4 ,the ground plan of the building is estimated to occupy an area of #cif1ghb sq4 ft41 and the total area of all the storeys would form a causeway #a metre in breadth and #ie m4 in length4 ,there are seven towers1 fifteen gateways and1 according to ,los ,santos1 no fewer than #ab1jjj windows and doors4 ,the general arrangement is shown by the accompanying plan4 ,entering by the main entrance the visitor finds himself in an atrium1 called the ,court of the ,kings 7,patio de los reyes71 from the #afth-century statues of the kings of ,judah1 by ,juan ,bautista ,monegro1 which adorn the facade of the church4 ,the sides of the atrium are unfortunately occupied by plain ungainly buildings five storeys in height1 awkwardly accommodating themselves to the upward slope of the ground4 ,of the grandeur of the church itself1 however1 there can be no question3 it is the finest portion of the whole ,escorial1 and1 according to ,fergusson1 deserves to rank as one of the great ,renaissance churches of ,europe4 ,it is about #cdj ft4 from east to west by #bjj from north to south1 and thus occupies an area of about #gj1jjj sq4 ft4 ,the dome is #fj ft4 in diameter1 and its height at the centre is about #cbj ft4 ,in glaring contrast to the bold and simple forms of the architecture1 which belongs to the ,doric style1 were the bronze and marbles and pictures of the high altar1 the masterpiece of the ,milanese ,giacomo ,trezzo1 almost ruined by the ,french in #ahjh4 ,directly under the altar is situated the pantheon or royal mausoleum1 a richly decorated octagonal chamber with upwards of twenty niches1 occupied by black marble urnas or sarcophagi1 kept sacred for the dust of kings or mothers of kings4 ,there are the remains of ,charles ,v4 7#aeaf-aeef71 of ,philip ,,ii41 and of all their successors on the ,spanish throne down to ,ferdinand ,,vii41 with the exception of ,philip ,v4 7#agjj-agdf7 and ,ferdinand ,,vi4 7#agdf-agei74 ,several of the sarcophagi are still empty4 ,for the other members of the royal family there is a separate vault1 known as the ,panteon de los ,infantes1 or more familiarly by the dreadfully suggestive name of ,el ,pudridero4 ,the most interesting room in the palace is ,philip ,,ii4's cell1 from which through an opening in the wall he could see the celebration of mass while too ill to leave his bed4 ,illustration3 ,views and ,plan of the ,escorial4#a ,,church #a4 ,principal entrance and portico4 #b4 ,court of the kings 7,patio de los reyes74 #c4 ,vestibule of the church4 #d4 ,choir of the seminarists4 #e4 ,centre of the church and projection of the dome4 #f4 ,greater chapel4 #g4 ,high altar4 #h4 ,chapel of ,st ,john4 #i4 ,chapel of ,st ,michael4 #aj4 ,chapel of ,st ,maurice4 #aa4 ,chapel of the ,rosary4 #ab4 ,tomb of ,louisa ,carlota4 #ac4 ,chapel of the ,patrocinio4 #ad4 ,chapel of the ,cristo de la buena muerte4 #ae4 ,chapel of the ,eleven ,thousand ,virgins4 #af4 ,former ,chapel of the ,patrocinio4 #ag4 ,sacristy4 ,,palace #ah4 ,principal court of the palace4 #ai4 ,ladies' tower4 #bj4 ,court of the masks4 #ba4 ,apartments of the royal children4 #bb4 ,royal oratory4 #bc4 ,oratory where ,philip ,,ii4 died4 ,,seminary #bd4 ,entrance to seminary4 #be4 ,classrooms4 #bf4 ,old philosophical hall4 #bg4 ,old theological hall4 #bh4 ,chamber of secrets4 #bi4 ,old refectory4 #cj4 ,entrance to the college4 #ca4 ,college yard4 ,,convent #cb4 ,clock tower4 #cc4 ,principal cloister4 #cd4 ,court of the evangelists4 #ce4 ,prior's cell4 #cf4 ,archives4 #cg4 ,old church4 #ch4 ,visitors' hall4 #ci4 ,manuscript library4 #dj4 ,convent refectory4 ,the library1 situated above the principal portico1 was at one time one of the richest in ,europe1 comprising the king's own collection1 the extensive bequest of ,diego de ,mendoza1 ,philip's ambassador to ,rome1 the spoils of the emperor of ,morocco1 ,muley ,zidan 7#afjc-afbh7 and various contributions from convents1 churches and cities4 ,it suffered greatly in the fire of #afga1 and has since been impoverished by plunder and neglect4 ,among its curiosities still extant are two ,new ,testament ,codices of the #ajth century and two of the #aath2 various works by ,alphonso the ,wise 7#abeb-abhd71 a ,virgil of the #adth century1 a ,koran of the #aeth1 c4 ,of the ,arabic manuscripts which it contained in the #agth century a catalogue was given in ,j4,h4 ,hottinger's ,promptuarium sive bibliotheca orientalis1 published at ,heidelberg in #afeh1 and another in the #ahth1 in ,m4 ,casiri's ,bibliotheca ,arabico-,hispanica 7#b vols41 ,madrid1 #agfj-aggj74 ,of the artistic treasures with which the ,escorial was gradually enriched1 it is sufficient to mention the frescoes of ,peregrin or ,pellagrino ,tibaldi1 ,luis de ,carbajal1 ,bartolommeo ,carducci or ,carducho1 and ,luca ,giordano1 and the pictures of ,titian1 ,tintoretto and ,velasquez4 ,these paintings all date from the #aeth or the #agth century4 ,many of those that are movable have been transferred to ,madrid1 and many others have perished by fire or sack4 ,the conflagration of #afga1 already mentioned1 raged for fifteen days1 and only the church1 a part of the palace1 and two towers escaped uninjured4 ,in #ahjh the whole building was exposed to the ravages of the ,french soldiers under ,general ,la ,houssaye4 ,on the night of the #ast of ,october #ahgb1 the college and seminary1 a part of the palace and the upper library were devastated by fire2 but the damage was subsequently repaired4 ,in #ahhe the conventual buildings were occupied by ,augustinian monks4 ,the reader will find a remarkable description of the emotional influence of the ,escorial in ,e4 ,quinet's ,vacances en ,espagne 7,paris1 #ahdf71 and for historical and architectural details he may consult the following works3--,fray ,juan de ,san ,geronimo1 ,memorias sobre la fundacion del ,escorial y su fabrica1 in the ,coleccion de documentos ineditos para la historia de ,espana1 vol4 vii42 ,y4 de ,herrera1 ,sumario y breve declaracion de los disenos y estampas de la fab4 de ,s4 ,lorencio el ,real del ,escurial 7,madrid1 #aehi72 ,jose de ,siguenza1 ,historia de la orden de ,san ,geronyno1 c4 7,madrid1 #aeij74 ,l4 de ,cabrera de ,cordova1 ,felipe ,segundo 7,madrid1 #afai72 ,james ,wadsworth1 ,further ,observations of the ,english ,spanish ,pilgrime 7,london1 #afbi1 #afcj72 ,ilario ,mazzorali de ,cremona1 ,le ,reali ,grandezze del ,escuriale 7,bologna1 #afdh72 ,de los ,santos1 ,descripcion del real monasterio1 c4 7,madrid1 #afeg72 ,andres ,ximenes1 ,descripcion1 c4 7,madrid1 #agfd72 ,y4 ,quevedo1 ,historia del ,real ,monasterio1 c4 7,madrid1 #ahdi72 ,a4 ,rotondo1 ,hist4 artistica1 444 del monasterio de ,san ,lorenzo 7,madrid1 #ahef-ahfa72 ,w4,h4 ,prescott1 ,life of ,philip ,,ii4 7,london1 #ahhg72 ,j4 ,fergusson1 ,history of the ,modern ,styles of ,architecture 7,london1 #ahia-ahic72 ,sir ,w4 ,stirling-,maxwell1 ,annals of the ,artists of ,spain 7,london1 #ahia74 ,,footnote3 #a ,reduced from a large plan of the ,escorial in the ,british ,museum1 ,monasterio del ,escorial1 published at ,madrid in #ahgf4 ,,escovedo1 ,,juan ,,de 7d4 #aegh71 ,spanish politician1 secretary of ,don ,john of ,austria1 and chiefly notable as having been the victim of one of the mysteries of the #afth century1 began life in the household of ,ruy ,gomez de ,silva1 prince of ,eboli1 the most trusted minister of the early years of the reign of ,philip ,,ii4 ,by the will of the prince he was endowed for life with the post of ,regidor1 or legal representative of the king in the municipality of ,madrid4 ,he was also associated with ,antonio ,perez as one of the secretaries who acted as the agents of the king in all dealings with the various governing boards which formed the ,spanish administration4 ,when ,don ,john of ,austria1 after the battle of ,lepanto in #aega1 began to launch on a policy of self-seeking adventure1 ,escovedo was appointed as his secretary with the intention that he should act as a check on these follies4 ,unhappily for himself and for ,don ,john he went heart and soul into all the prince's schemes4 ,he began to disobey orders from ,madrid and became entangled in intrigues to manage or even to coerce the king4 ,in ,july #aegg1 and contrary to the king's orders1 he came to ,spain from ,flanders1 where ,don ,john was then governor4 ,it is said that he discovered the love intrigue between ,antonio ,perez and the widowed princess of ,eboli1 ,ana ,mendoza de la ,cerda4 ,this is1 however1 mere gossip and supposition4 ,there can be no doubt that he was a busy intriguer1 or that the king1 acting on the then very generally accepted doctrine that the sovereign has a right to act for the public interest without regard to forms of law1 gave orders to ,antonio ,perez that he was to be put out of the way4 ,after two clumsy attempts had been made to poison him at ,perez's table1 he was killed by bravos on the night of ,easter ,monday1 the #cast of ,march #aegh4 ,according to an old tradition the murder took place outside the church of ,st ,maria in ,madrid1 which was pulled down in #ahfh4 ,see ,gaspar ,muro1 ,la ,princesse d',eboli 7,paris1 #ahgh72 and ,w4,h4 ,prescott1 ,reign of ,philip ,,ii4 7#ahee-ei74 ,,escuintla1 the capital of the department of ,escuintla1 ,guatemala2 on the southern slope of the ,sierra ,madre1 #de m4 ,s4,w4 of ,guatemala city4 ,pop4 7#aije7 about #ab1jjj4 ,escuintla is locally celebrated for its hot mineral springs4 ,it is the commercial centre of a fertile district1 which produces coffee1 cane-sugar and cocoa2 it has also a brisk transit trade in most of the products of ,guatemala1 owing to its position on the interoceanic railway between ,puerto ,barrios on the ,atlantic and ,san ,jose 7#cj m4 ,s47 on the ,pacific4 ,a branch railway which goes westward to ,san ,augustin meets this line at ,escuintla4 ,,escutcheon 7,o4 ,fr4 escucheon1 escusson1 modern ecusson1 through a ,late ,lat4 form from ,lat4 scutum1 shield71 an heraldic term for a shield with armorial bearings displayed 7see ,,heraldry74 ,the word is also applied to the shields used on tombs1 in the spandrils of doors or in string-courses1 and to the ornamented plates from the centre of which door-rings1 knockers1 c41 are suspended1 or which protect the wood of the key-hole from the wear of the key4 ,in medieval times these were often worked in a very beautiful manner4 ,,esher1 ,,william ,,baliol ,,brett1 #a,,st ,,viscount 7#ahag-ahii71 ,english lawyer and master of the rolls1 was a son of the ,rev4 ,joseph ,g4 ,brett1 of ,chelsea1 and was born on the #acth of ,august #ahag4 ,he was educated at ,westminster and at ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,called to the bar in #ahdj1 he went the northern circuit1 and became a ,q4,c4 in #ahfa4 ,on the death of ,richard ,cobden he unsuccessfully contested ,rochdale as a ,conservative1 but in #ahff was returned for ,helston in unique circumstances4 ,he and his opponent polled exactly the same number of votes1 whereupon the mayor1 as returning officer1 gave his casting vote for the ,liberal candidate4 ,as this vote was given after four o'clock1 however1 an appeal was lodged1 and the ,house of ,commons allowed both members to take their seats4 ,brett rapidly made his mark in the ,house1 and in #ahfh he was appointed solicitor-general4 ,on behalf of the crown he prosecuted the ,fenians charged with having caused the ,clerkenwell explosion4 ,in parliament he took a leading part in the promotion of bills connected with the administration of law and justice4 ,he was 7,august #ahfh7 appointed a justice in the court of common pleas4 ,some of his sentences in this capacity excited much criticism1 notably so in the case of the gas stokers' strike1 when he sentenced the defendants to imprisonment for twelve months1 with hard labour1 which was afterwards reduced by the home secretary to four months4 ,on the reconstitution of the court of appeal in #ahgf1 ,brett was elevated to the rank of a lord justice4 ,after holding this position for seven years1 he succeeded ,sir ,george ,jessel as master of the rolls in #ahhc4 ,in #ahhe he was raised to the ,house of ,lords as ,baron ,esher4 ,he opposed the bill proposing that an accused person or his wife might give evidence in their own case1 and supported the bill which empowered lords of appeal to sit and vote after their retirement4 ,the ,solicitors ,act of #ahhh1 which increased the powers of the ,incorporated ,law ,society1 owed much to his influence4 ,in #ahhj he delivered a remarkable speech in the ,house of ,lords1 deprecating the delay and expense of trials1 which he regarded as having been increased by the ,judicature ,acts4 ,lord ,esher suffered1 perhaps1 as master of the rolls from succeeding a lawyer of such eminence as ,jessel4 ,he had a caustic tongue1 but also a fund of shrewd common sense1 and one of his favourite considerations was whether a certain course was business or not4 ,he retired from the bench at the close of #ahig1 and a viscounty was conferred upon him on his retirement1 a dignity never given to any judge1 lord chancellors excepted1 for mere legal conduct since the time of ,lord ,coke4 ,he died in ,london on the #bdth of ,may #ahii4 ,lord ,esher was succeeded in the title by his only surviving son1 ,reginald ,baliol ,brett 7b4 #aheb71 who was secretary to the office of works from #ahie to #aijb1 but subsequently came into far greater public prominence in #aijd as ,chairman of the war office reconstitution committee after the ,south ,african ,war4 ,,esher1 a township in the ,epsom parliamentary division of ,surrey1 ,england1 #ad-a_/b m4 ,s4,w4 of ,london by the ,london ,south ,western railway 7,esher and ,claremont station74 ,it is pleasantly situated on rising ground above the river ,mole1 #c m4 from its junction with the ,thames4 ,to the north-west lie the grounds of ,esher ,place4 ,of the mansion-house founded by ,william of ,waynflete1 bishop of ,winchester 7c4 #adej71 in which ,cardinal ,wolsey resided for three or four weeks after his sudden fall from power in #aebi1 only the gatehouse remains4 ,it is known as ,wolsey's ,tower1 but is apparently part of ,waynflete's foundation4 ,a new mansion was erected in #ahjc4 ,to the south is ,claremont ,palace1 built by the great ,lord ,clive 7#agfi7 on the site of a mansion of ,sir ,john ,vanbrugh4 ,in #ahaf it was the residence of ,princess ,charlotte1 wife of ,prince 7afterwards ,king7 ,leopold4 ,she died here in #ahag1 and on the death of her husband in #ahfe the property passed to the crown4 ,louis ,philippe1 ex-king of the ,french1 resided here from #ahdh until his death in #ahej4 ,in #ahhb ,claremont became the private property of ,queen ,victoria4 ,christ ,church1 ,esher1 contains fine memorials of ,king ,leopold and others1 and one of its three bells is said to have been brought from ,san ,domingo by ,sir ,francis ,drake4 ,to the north near the railway station is ,sandown ,park1 where important race meetings are held4 ,esher is included in the urban district of ,esher and ,the ,dittons1 of which ,thames ,ditton is a favourite riverside resort4 ,the whole district is largely residential4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #idhi4 ,,esker 7,o4 ,irish eiscir71 a local name for long mounds of glacial gravel frequently met with in ,ireland4 ,eskers 7the ,swedish asar7 are among the occasionally puzzling relics of the ,british glacial period4 ,they wind from side to side across glaciated country and have evidently been formed by channels upon or under the ice4 ,where streams of considerable size form tunnels under or in the ice these may become more or less filled with wash1 and when the ice melts the aggraded channels appear as long ridges of gravel and sand known as eskers4 ,it has been thought that similar ridges are sometimes formed in valleys cut in the ice from top to bottom1 and even that they rise from gravel and sand lodged in super-glacial channels4 ,the latter at least is probably rare1 as the surface streams have usually high gradients1 swift currents and smooth bottoms1 and hence give little opportunity for lodgment4 ,in the case of ice-sheets1 too1 in which eskers are chiefly developed1 there is usually no surface material except at the immediate edge1 where the ice is thin and its layers upturned 7,t4,c4 ,chamberlin and ,r4,d4 ,salisbury1 ,geology1 ,processes and their ,results74 ,eskers are to be distinguished from kames 7q4v474 ,,eskilstuna1 a town of ,sweden in the district 7lan7 of ,sodermanland1 on the ,hjelmar river1 which unites lakes ,hjelmar and ,malar1 #fe m4 ,w4 of ,stockholm by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #ac1ffc4 ,the place is mentioned in the #acth century1 and is said to derive its name from ,eskil1 an ,english missionary who suffered martyrdom on the spot4 ,it rose into importance in the reign of ,charles ,x41 who bestowed on it considerable privileges1 and gave the first impulse to its manufacturing activity4 ,it is the chief seat in ,sweden of the iron and steel industries1 its cutlery being especially noted1 while damascened work is a specialty4 ,there is a technical school for the metal industries4 ,there are1 in the town or its neighbourhood1 great engineering1 gun-making1 and rolling and polishing works and breweries4 ,the largest mechanical works are those of ,munktell and ,tunafors4 ,the ,karl ,gustaf ,stads rifle factory was established in #ahad4 ,,eskimo1 ,,eskimos or ,,esquimaux 7a corruption of the ,abnaki ,indian ,eskimantsic or the ,ojibway ,ashkimeq1 both terms meaning those who eat raw flesh3 they call themselves ,innuit1 the people71 a ,north ,american ,indian people1 inhabiting the arctic coast of ,america from ,greenland to ,alaska1 and a small portion of the ,asiatic shore of ,bering ,strait4 ,on the ,american shores they are found1 in broken tribes1 from ,east ,greenland to the western shores of ,alaska--never far inland1 or south of the region where the winter ice allows seals to congregate4 ,even on hunting expeditions they never travel more than #cj m4 from the coast4 ,save a slight admixture of ,european settlers1 they are the only inhabitants of both sides of ,davis ,strait and ,baffin ,bay4 ,they extend as far south as about #ej deg4 ,n4 lat4 on the eastern side of ,america1 and in the west to #fj deg4 on the eastern shore of ,bering ,strait1 while #ee deg4 to #fj deg4 are their southern limits on the shore of ,hudson ,bay4 ,throughout all this range there are no other tribes save where the ,kennayan and ,ugalenze ,indians 7of western ,america7 come down to the shore to fish4 ,the ,aleutians are closely allied to the ,eskimo in habits and language4 ,h4,j4 ,rink divides the ,eskimo into the following groups1 the most eastern of which would have to travel nearly #ejjj m4 to reach the most western3 7#a7 ,the ,east ,greenland ,eskimo1 few in number1 every year advancing farther south1 and coming into contact with the next section4 7#b7 ,the ,west ,greenlanders1 civilized1 living under the ,danish crown1 and extending from ,cape ,farewell to #gd deg4 ,n4 lat4 7#c7 ,the ,northern-most ,greenlanders--the ,arctic ,highlanders of ,sir ,john ,ross--confined to ,smith1 ,whale1 ,murchison and ,wolstenholme ,sounds1 north of the ,melville ,bay glaciers4 ,these--the most isolated and uncivilized of all the ,eskimo--had no boats or bows and arrows until about #ahfh4 7#d7 ,the ,labrador ,eskimo1 mostly civilized4 7#e7 ,the ,eskimo of the middle regions1 occupying the coasts from ,hudson ,bay to ,barter ,island1 beyond ,mackenzie river1 inhabiting a stretch of country #bjjj m4 in length and #hjj in breadth4 7#f7 ,the ,western ,eskimo1 from ,barter ,island to the western limits in ,america4 7#g7 ,the ,asiatic ,eskimo4 ,the ,eskimo are not a tall race1 their height varying from #e ft4 #d in4 to #e ft4 #aj in41 but men of #f ft4 are met4 ,both men and women are muscular and active1 the former often inclining to fat4 ,the faces of both have a pleasing1 good-humoured expression1 and not infrequently are even handsome4 ,the typical face is broadly oval1 flat1 with fat cheeks2 forehead not high1 and rather retreating2 teeth good1 though1 owing to the character of the food1 worn down to the gums in old age2 nose very flat2 eyes rather obliquely set1 small1 black and bright2 head largish1 and covered with coarse black hair1 which the women fasten up into a knot on the top1 and the men clip in front and allow to hang loose and unkempt behind4 ,their skulls are of the mesocephalic type1 the height being greater than the breadth2 according to ,davis1 #ge is the index of the latter and #gg of the former4 ,some of the tribes slightly compress the skulls of their new-born children laterally 7,hall71 but this practice is a very local one4 ,the men have usually a slight moustache1 but no whiskers1 and rarely any beard4 ,the skin has generally a bacony feel1 and when cleaned of the smoke1 grease and other dirt--the accumulation of which varies according to the age of the individual--is only so slightly brown that red shows in the cheeks of the children and young women4 ,the hands and feet are small and well formed4 ,the ,eskimo dress entirely in skins of the seal1 reindeer1 bear1 dog1 or even fox1 the first two being1 however1 the most common4 ,the men's and women's dress is much the same1 a jacket suit1 the trousers tucked into seal-skin boots4 ,the jacket has a hood1 which in cold weather is used to cover the head1 leaving only the face exposed4 ,the women's jacket has a large hood for carrying a child and an absurd-looking tail behind1 which is1 however1 usually tucked up4 ,the women's trousers are usually ornamented with eider-duck neck feathers or embroidery of native dyed leather2 their boots1 which are of white leather1 or 7in ,greenland7 dyed of various colours1 reach over the knees1 and in some tribes are very wide at the top1 thus giving them an awkward appearance and a clumsy waddling walk4 ,in winter two suits are worn1 one with the hair inside1 the other with it outside4 ,they also sometimes wear shirts of bird-skins1 and stockings of dog or young reindeer skins4 ,their clothes are very neatly made1 fit beautifully1 and are sewn with sinew-thread1 with a bone needle if a steel one cannot be had4 ,in person the ,eskimo are usually filthy1 and never wash4 ,infants are1 however1 sometimes cleaned by being licked by their mother before being put into the bag of feathers which serves as their bed1 cradle and blankets4 ,in summer the ,eskimo live in conical skin tents1 and in winter usually in half-underground huts of stone1 turf1 earth and bones1 entered by a long tunnel-like passage1 which can only be traversed on all fours4 ,sometimes1 if residing temporarily at a place1 they will erect neat round huts of blocks of snow with a sheet of ice for a window4 ,in the roof are deposited their spare harpoons1 c2 and from it is suspended the steatite basin-like lamp1 the flame of which1 the wick being of moss1 serves as fire and light4 ,on one side of the hut is the bench which is used as sofa1 seats and common sleeping place4 ,the floor is usually very filthy1 a pool of blood or a dead seal being often to be seen there4 ,ventilation is almost non-existent2 and after the lamp has blazed for some time1 the heat is all but unbearable4 ,in the summer the wolfish-looking dogs lie outside on the roof of the huts1 in the winter in the tunnel-like passage just outside the family apartment4 ,the ,western ,eskimo build their houses chiefly of planks1 merely covered on the outside with green turf4 ,the same ,eskimo have1 in the more populous places1 a public room for meetings4 ,council chambers are also said to exist in ,labrador1 but are only known in ,greenland by tradition4 ,sometimes in south ,greenland and in the ,western ,eskimo country the houses are made to accommodate several families1 but as a rule each family has a house to itself4 ,the ,eskimo are solely hunters and fishers1 and derive most of their food from the sea4 ,their country allows of no cultivation2 and beyond a few berries1 roots1 c41 they use no vegetable food4 ,the seal1 the reindeer and the whale supply the bulk of their food1 as well as their clothing1 light1 fuel1 and frequently also1 when driftwood is scarce or unavailable1 the material for various articles of domestic economy4 ,thus the ,eskimo canoe is made of seal-skin stretched on a wooden or whalebone frame1 with a hole in the centre for the paddler4 ,it is driven by a bone-tipped double-bladed paddle4 ,a waterproof skin or entrail dress is tightly fastened round the mouth of the hole so that1 should the canoe overturn1 no water can enter4 ,a skilful paddler can turn a complete somersault1 boat and all1 through the water4 ,the ,eskimo women use a flat-bottomed skin luggage-boat4 ,the ,eskimo sledge is made of two runners of wood or bone--even1 in one case on record1 of frozen salmon 7,maclure7--united by cross bars tied to the runners by hide thongs1 and drawn by from #d to #h dogs harnessed abreast4 ,some of their weapons are ingenious--in particular1 the harpoon1 with its detachable point to which an inflated sealskin is fastened4 ,when the quarry is struck1 the floating skin serves to tire it out1 marks its course1 and buoys it up when dead4 ,the bird-spears1 too1 have a bladder attached1 and points at the sides which strike the creature should the spear-head fail to wound4 ,an effective bow is made out of whale's rib4 ,altogether1 with meagre material the ,eskimo show great skill in the manufacture of their weapons4 ,meat is sometimes boiled1 but1 when it is frozen1 it is often eaten raw4 ,blood1 and the half-digested contents of the reindeer's paunch1 are also eaten2 and sometimes1 but not habitually1 blubber4 ,as a rule this latter is too precious3 it must be kept for winter fuel and light4 ,the ,eskimo are enormous eaters2 two will easily dispose of a seal at a sitting2 and in ,greenland1 for instance1 each individual has for his daily consumption1 on an average1 #b-a_/b lb4 of flesh with blubber1 and #a lb4 of fish1 besides mussels1 berries1 sea-weed1 c41 to which in the ,danish settlements may be added #b oz4 of imported food4 ,ten pounds of flesh1 in addition to other food1 is not uncommonly consumed in a day in time of plenty4 ,a man will lie on his back and allow his wife to feed him with tit-bits of blubber and flesh until he is unable to move4 ,the ,eskimo cannot be strictly called a wandering race4 ,they are nomadic only in so far that they have to move about from place to place during the fishing and shooting season1 following the game in its migrations4 ,they have1 however1 no regular property4 ,they possess only the most necessary utensils and furniture1 with a stock of provisions for less than one year2 and these possessions never exceed certain limits fixed upon by tradition or custom4 ,long habit and the necessities of their life have also compelled those having food to share with those having none--a custom which1 with others1 has conduced to the stagnant conditions of ,eskimo society and to their utter improvidence4 ,their intelligence is considerable1 as their implements and folk-tales abundantly prove4 ,they display a taste for music1 cartography and drawing1 display no small amount of humour1 are quick at picking up peculiar traits in strangers1 and are painfully acute in detecting the weak points or ludicrous sides of their character4 ,they are excellent mimics and easily learn the dances and songs of the ,europeans1 as well as their games1 such as chess and draughts4 ,they gamble a little--but in moderation1 for the ,eskimo1 though keen traders1 have a deep-rooted antipathy to speculation4 ,when they offer anything for sale--say at a ,danish settlement in ,greenland--they always leave it to the buyer to settle the price4 ,they have also a dislike to bind themselves by contract4 ,hence it was long before the ,eskimo in ,greenland could be induced to enter into ,european service1 though when they do they pass to almost the opposite extreme--they have no will of their own4 ,public licentiousness or indecency is rare among them4 ,in their private life their morality is1 however1 not high4 ,the women are especially erring2 and in ,greenland1 at places where strangers visit1 their extreme laxity of morals1 and their utter want of shame1 are not more remarkable than the entire absence of jealousy or self-respect on the part of their countrymen and relatives4 ,theft in ,greenland is almost unknown2 but the wild ,eskimo make very free with strangers' goods--though it must be allowed that the value they attach to the articles stolen is some excuse for the thieves4 ,among themselves1 on the other hand1 they are very honest--a result of their being so much under the control of public opinion4 ,lying is said to be as common a trait of the ,eskimo as of other savages in their dealings with ,europeans4 ,they have naturally not made any figure in literature4 ,their folk-lore is1 however1 extensive1 and that collected by ,dr ,rink shows considerable imagination and no mean talent on the part of the story-tellers4 ,in ,greenland and ,labrador most of the natives have been taught by the missionaries to read and write in their own language4 ,altogether1 the literature published in the ,eskimo tongue is considerable4 ,most of it has been printed in ,denmark1 but some has been set up in a small printing-office in ,greenland1 from which about #bhj sheets have issued1 beside many lithographic prints4 ,a journal 7,atuagagldliutit nalinginarmik tusaruminasassumik univkat1 i4e4 something for reading1 accounts of all entertaining subjects7 has been published since #ahfa4 ,the ,eskimo in ,greenland and ,labrador are1 with few exceptions1 nominally at least1 ,christians4 ,the native religion is a vague animism1 and consists of a belief in good and evil spirits1 limited each to its own sphere2 in a ,heaven and ,hell2 and a childish faith is placed in the native wizards1 who are regarded as intermediaries between mankind and the spirit-powers4 ,the worship of the whale-spirit1 so important a factor in their daily economy1 is prevalent4 ,as regards language1 the idiom spoken from ,greenland to north-eastern ,siberia is1 with a few exceptions1 the same2 any difference is only that of dialect4 ,it differs from the whole group of ,european languages1 not merely in the sound of the words1 but more especially1 according to ,rink1 in the construction4 ,its most remarkable feature is that a sentence of a ,european language is expressed in ,eskimo by a single word constructed out of certain elements1 each of which corresponds in some degree to one of our words4 ,one specimen commonly given to visitors to ,greenland may suffice3 ,savigiksiniariartokasuaromaryotittogog1 which is equivalent to ,he says that you also will go away quickly in like manner and buy a pretty knife4 ,here is one word serving in the place of #ag4 ,it is made up as follows3 ,savig a knife1 ik pretty1 sini buy1 ariartok go away1 asuar hasten1 omar wilt1 y in like manner1 otit thou1 tog also1 og he says4 ,the ,eskimo have no chiefs or political and military rulers4 ,fabricius concisely described them in his day3 ,sine ,deo1 domino1 reguntur consuetudine4 ,the government is mainly a family one1 though a man distinguished for skill in the chase1 and for strength and shrewdness1 often has considerable power in the village4 ,no political or social tie is recognized between the villages1 though general good-fellowship seems to mark their relations4 ,they never go to war with each other2 and though revengeful and apt to injure an enemy secretly1 they rarely come to blows1 and are morbidly anxious not to give offence4 ,indeed1 in their intercourse with each other1 all ,eskimo indulge in much hyperbolical compliment4 ,but they are not without courage4 ,on the ,coppermine and ,mackenzie rivers1 where they sometimes come into collision with their ,american-,indian kinsmen1 they fight fiercely4 ,polygamy is rare1 but the rights of divorce and re-marriage are unrestricted4 ,the ,eskimo have intricate rules governing the ownership of property and the rights of the hunter4 ,as a race they are singularly undemonstrative4 ,when they met each other they used to rub noses together1 but this1 though a common custom still among the wild ,eskimo1 is entirely abandoned in ,greenland except for the petting of children4 ,there is1 in ,greenland at least1 no national mode of salutation1 either on meeting or parting4 ,when a guest enters a house1 commonly not the least sign is made either by him or his host4 ,on leaving a place they sometimes say inuvdluaritse1 i4e4 live well1 and to a ,european aporniakinatit1 i4e4 do not hurt thy head1 viz4 against the upper part of the doorway4 ,the ,eskimo1 excluding the few on the ,asiatic coast1 are estimated at about #bi1jjj4 ,,bibliography4--,dr ,h4,j4 ,rink1 ,tales and ,traditions of the ,eskimo 7#ahge72 ,danish ,greenland2 its ,people and its ,products 7#ahgg72 ,eskimo ,tribes 7#ahhg72 ,j4 ,richardson1 ,polar ,regions 7#ahfa71 pp4 #bih-cca2 ,sir ,clements ,markham1 ,arctic ,papers of the ,r4 ,g4 ,s4 7#ahge71 pp4 #afc-bcb2 ,simpson1 ibid4 pp4 #bcc-bge2 ,hans ,hendriks the ,eskimo's ,memoirs1 ,geographical ,magazine 7,feb4 #ahgh1 et seq472 ,fridtjof ,nansen1 ,eskimo ,life 7#ahid72 ,r4,e4 ,peary1 ,northward over the ,great ,ice1 vol4 i4 appendix ii42 ,f4 ,boas1 ,the ,central ,eskimo1 ,sixth ,annual ,report of ,bureau of ,ethnology 7#ahhd-ahhe72 ,j4 ,murdoch1 ,the ,point ,barrow ,eskimo1 ,ninth ,annual ,report 7#ahhg-ahhh72 ,e4,w4 ,nelson1 ,the ,eskimo about ,bering ,strait1 ,eighteenth ,annual ,report1 part #a 7#ahif-ahig74 ,,eski-,,shehr1 a town of ,asia ,minor1 in the ,kutaiah sanjak of the ,brusa 7,khudavendikiar7 vilayet4 ,it is a station on the ,haidar ,pasha-,angora railway1 #aid-a_/b m4 from the former and #afd m4 from ,angora1 and the junction for ,konia2 and is situated on the right bank of the ,pursak ,su 7,tembris71 a tributary of the ,sakaria1 at the foot of the hills that border the broad treeless valley4 ,pop4 #bj1jjj 7,moslems #ae1jjj1 ,christians #ejjj74 ,eski-,shehr1 i4e4 the old town1 lies about a mile from the ruins of the ancient ,phrygian ,dorylaeum4 ,the latter is mentioned in connexion with the wars of ,lysimachus and ,antigonus 7about #cjb ,b4,c471 and frequently figures in ,byzantine history as an imperial residence and military rendezvous4 ,it was the scene of the defeat of the ,turks under ,kilij-,arslan by the crusaders in #ajig1 and fell finally to the ,turks of ,konia in #aagf4 ,the town is divided by a small stream into a commercial quarter on low ground1 in which are the bazaars1 khans and the hot sulphur springs 7#abb deg4 ,f47 which are mentioned as early as the #crd century by ,athenaeus2 and a residential quarter on the higher ground4 ,the town is noted for its good climate1 the ,pursak ,su for the abundance of its fish1 and the plain for its fertility4 ,about #ah m4 to the ,e4 are extensive deposits of meerschaum4 ,the clay is partly manufactured into pipes in the town1 but the greater proportion finds its way to ,europe and especially to ,germany4 ,the annual output is valued at ,l#bgb1jjj4 ,see ,murray's ,hdbk4 to ,asia ,minor 7#ahic72 ,v4 ,cuinet1 ,turquie d',asie 7,paris1 #ahid74 ,,esmarch1 ,,johannes ,,friedrich ,,august ,,von 7#ahbc-aijh71 ,german surgeon1 was born at ,tonning1 in ,schleswig-,holstein1 on the #ith of ,january #ahbc4 ,he studied at ,kiel and ,gottingen1 and in #ahdf became ,b4,r4,k4 von ,langenbeck's assistant at the ,kiel surgical hospital4 ,he served in the ,schleswig-,holstein ,war of #ahdh as junior surgeon1 and this directed his attention to the subject of military surgery4 ,he was taken prisoner1 but afterwards exchanged1 and was then appointed as surgeon to a field hospital4 ,during the truce of #ahdi he qualified as ,privatdocent at ,kiel1 but on the fresh outbreak of war he returned to the troops and was promoted to the rank of senior surgeon4 ,in #ahed he became director of the surgical clinic at ,kiel1 and in #aheg head of the general hospital and professor at the university4 ,during the ,schleswig-,holstein ,war of #ahfd ,esmarch rendered good service to the field hospitals of ,flensburg1 ,sundewitt and ,kiel4 ,in #ahff he was called to ,berlin as member of the hospital commission1 and also to take the superintendence of the surgical work in the hospitals there4 ,when the ,franco-,german ,war broke out in #ahgj he was appointed surgeon-general to the army1 and afterwards consulting surgeon at the great military hospital near ,berlin4 ,in #ahgb he married ,princess ,henrietta of ,schleswig-,holstein-,sonderburg-,august enburg1 aunt of the ,empress ,auguste ,victoria4 ,in #ahhg a patent of nobility was conferred on him4 ,he died at ,kiel on the #bcrd of ,february #aijh4 ,esmarch was one of the greatest authorities on hospital management and military surgery4 ,his ,handbuch der kriegschirurgischen ,technik was written for a prize offered by the empress ,augusta1 on the occasion of the ,vienna ,exhibition of #ahgg1 for the best handbook for the battlefield of surgical appliances and operations4 ,this book is illustrated by admirable diagrams1 showing the different methods of bandaging and dressing1 as well as the surgical operations as they occur on the battlefield4 ,esmarch himself invented an apparatus1 which bears his name1 for keeping a limb nearly bloodless during amputation4 ,no part of ,esmarch's work is more widely known than that which deals with ,first ,aid1 his ,first ,aid on the ,battlefield and ,first ,aid to the ,injured being popular manuals on the subject4 ,the latter is the substance of a course of lectures delivered by him in #ahha to a ,samaritan ,school1 the first of the kind in ,germany1 founded by ,esmarch in #ahha1 in imitation of the ,st ,john's ,ambulance classes which had been organized in ,england in #ahgh4 ,these lectures were very generally adopted as a manual for first aid students1 edition after edition having been called for1 and they have been translated into numerous languages1 the ,english version being the work of ,h4,r4,h4 ,princess ,christian4 ,no ambulance course would be complete without a demonstration of the ,esmarch bandage4 ,it is a three-sided piece of linen or cotton1 of which the base measures #d ft4 and the sides #b ft4 #aj in4 ,it can be used folded or open1 and applied in thirty-two different ways4 ,it answers every purpose for temporary dressing and field-work1 while its great recommendation is that the means for making it are always at hand4 ,,esna1 or ,,esneh1 a town of ,upper ,egypt on the ,w4 bank of the ,nile1 #ded m4 ,s4,s4,e4 of ,cairo by rail1 the railway station being on the opposite side of the river4 ,pop4 7#ahig7 #af1jjj1 mostly ,copts4 ,esna1 one of the healthiest towns in ,egypt1 is noted for its manufactures of pottery and its large grain and live stock markets4 ,it formerly had a large trade with the ,sudan4 ,a caravan road to the south goes through the oasis of ,kurkur4 ,the trade1 almost stopped by the ,mahdist ,wars1 is now largely diverted by railway and steamboat routes4 ,there is1 however1 considerable traffic with the oasis of ,kharga1 which lies almost due west of the town4 ,nearly in the centre of the town is the ,ptolemaic and ,roman temple of the ram-headed ,khnum1 almost buried in rubbish and houses4 ,the interior of the pronaos is accessible to tourists1 and contains the latest known hieroglyphic inscription1 dating from the reign of ,decius 7,a4,d4 #bdi-bea74 ,with ,khnum are associated the goddesses ,sati and ,neith4 ,in the neighbourhood are remains of ,coptic buildings1 including a subterranean church 7discovered #ahie7 in the desert half a mile beyond the limits of cultivation4 ,the name ,esna is from the ,coptic ,sne4 ,by the ,greeks the place was called ,latopolis1 from the worship here of the latus fish4 ,in the persecutions under ,diocletian ,a4,d4 #cjc1 the ,christians of ,esna1 a numerous body1 suffered severely4 ,in later times the town frequently served as a place of refuge for political exiles4 ,the so-called ,esna barrage across the ,nile 7built #aijf-aijh7 is #cj m4 higher up stream at ,edfu4 ,,esoteric1 having an inner or secret meaning4 ,this term1 and its correlative exoteric1 were first applied in the ancient ,greek mysteries to those who were initiated 7,greek3 eso1 within7 and to those who were not 7,greek3 exo1 outside71 respectively4 ,it was then transferred to a supposed distinction drawn by certain philosophers between the teaching given to the whole circle of their pupils and that containing a higher and secret philosophy which was reserved for a select number of specially advanced or privileged disciples4 ,this distinction was ascribed by ,lucian 7,vit4 ,auct4 #bf7 to ,aristotle 7q4v471 who1 however1 uses ,greek3 exoterikoi logoi 7,nic4 ,ethics7 merely of popular treatises4 ,it was probably adopted by the ,pythagoreans and was also attributed to ,plato4 ,in the sense of mystic it is used of a secret doctrine of theosophy1 supposed to have been traditional among certain disciples of ,buddhism4 ,,espagnols ,,sur ,,mer1 ,,les1 the name given to the naval victory gained by ,king ,edward ,,iii4 of ,england over a ,spanish fleet off ,winchelsea1 on the #bith of ,august #acej4 ,spanish ships had fought against ,england as the allies or mercenaries of ,france1 and there had been instances of piratical violence between the trading ships of both nations4 ,a ,spanish merchant fleet was loading cargoes in the ,flemish ports to be carried to the ,basque coast4 ,the ships were armed and had warships with them4 ,they were all under the command of ,don ,carlos de la ,cerda1 a soldier of fortune who belonged to a branch of the ,castilian royal family4 ,on its way to ,flanders the ,spanish fleet had captured a number of ,english trading ships1 and had thrown the crews overboard4 ,piratical violence and massacre of this kind was then universal on the sea4 ,on the #ajth of ,august1 when the king was at ,rotherhithe1 he announced his intention of attacking the ,spaniards on their way home4 ,the rendezvous of his fleet was at ,winchelsea1 and thither the king went by land1 accompanied by his wife and her ladies1 by his sons1 the ,black ,prince and ,john of ,gaunt1 as well as by many nobles4 ,the ladies were placed in a convent and the king embarked on his flagship1 the ,cog ,thomas1 on the #bhth of ,august4 ,the ,english fleet did not put to sea but remained at anchor1 waiting for the appearance of the ,spaniards4 ,its strength is not known with certainty1 but ,stow puts it at #ej ships and pinnaces4 ,carlos de la ,cerda was obviously well disposed to give the king a meeting4 ,he might easily have avoided the ,english if he had kept well out in the ,channel4 ,but he relied on the size and strength of his #dj large ships1 and in expectation of an encounter had recruited a body of mercenaries--mostly crossbowmen--in the ,flemish ports4 ,in the afternoon of the #bith of ,august he bore down boldly on ,king ,edward's ships at anchor at ,winchelsea4 ,when the ,spaniards hove in sight1 the king was sitting on the deck of his ship1 with his knights and nobles1 listening to his minstrels who played ,german airs1 and to the singing of ,sir ,john ,chandos4 ,when the look-out in the tops reported the enemy in sight1 the king and his company drank to one another's health1 the trumpet was sounded1 and the whole line stood out4 ,all battles at that time1 whether on land or sea1 were finally settled by stroke of sword4 ,the ,english steered to board the ,spaniards4 ,the king's own ship was run into by one of the enemy with such violence that both were damaged1 and she began to sink4 ,the ,spaniard stood on1 and the ,cog ,thomas was laid alongside another1 which was carried by boarding4 ,it was high time1 for the king and his following had barely reached the deck of the ,spaniard before the ,cog ,thomas went to the bottom4 ,other ,spaniards were taken1 but the fight was hot4 ,la ,cerda's crossbowmen did much execution1 and the higher-built ,spaniards were able to drop bars of iron or other weights on the lighter ,english vessels1 by which they were damaged4 ,the conflict was continued till twilight4 ,at the close the large ,english vessel called ,la ,salle du ,roi1 which carried the king's household1 and was commanded by the ,fleming1 ,robert of ,namur1 afterwards a knight of the ,garter1 was grappled by a big ,spaniard1 and was being dragged off by him4 ,the crew called loudly for a rescue1 but were either not heard or1 if heard1 could not be helped4 ,the ,salle du ,roi would have been taken if a ,flemish squire of ,robert of ,namur1 named ,hannequin1 had not performed a great feat of arms4 ,he boarded the ,spaniard and cut the halyards of her mainsail with his sword4 ,the ,spanish ship was taken4 ,king ,edward is said to have captured #ad of the enemy4 ,what his own loss was is not stated1 but as his own vessel1 and also the vessel carrying the ,black ,prince1 were sunk1 and from the peril of ,la ,salle du ,roi1 we may conclude that the ,english fleet suffered heavily4 ,there was no pursuit1 and a truce was made with the ,basque towns the next year4 ,the battle with the ,spaniards on the sea is a very typical example of a medieval sea-fight1 when the ships were of the size of a small coaster or a fishing smack1 were crowded with men1 and when the personal prowess of a single knight or squire was an important element of strength4 ,the only real authority for the battle is ,froissart1 who was at different times in the service of ,king ,edward or of his wife1 ,philippa of ,hainaut1 and of the counts of ,namur4 ,he repeated what was told him by men who had been present1 and dwells as usual on the chivalry of his patrons4 ,see his ,chroniques1 iv4 #ia4 7,d4 ,h47 ,,espalier 7a ,french word1 derived from the ,ital4 spalliera1 something to rest the spalla or shoulder against2 the word is ultimately the same as epauliere1 a shoulder-piece71 a lattice-work or row of stakes1 originally shoulder high1 on which fruit trees1 shrubs and flowers1 particularly roses and creepers1 are trained4 ,espaliers are usually made of larch or other wood1 iron and metal rails being too great conductors of heat and cold4 ,the advantage of this method of training is that the fruit1 c1 is more easily got at1 and while protected from wind1 is freely exposed to sun and air1 and not so open to extreme changes of temperature as when trained on a wall4 7,see ,,horticulture47 ,,espartero1 ,,baldomero 7#agib-ahgi71 duke of ,vitoria1 duke of ,morella1 prince of ,vergara1 ,count ,luchana1 knight of the ,toison d',or1 c4 c41 ,spanish soldier and statesman1 was born at ,granatulu1 a town of the province of ,ciudad ,real1 on the #bgth of ,february #agib4 ,he was the ninth child of a carter1 who wanted to make him a priest1 but the lad at fifteen enlisted in a battalion of students to fight against the armies of ,napoleon ,i4 ,in #ahaa ,espartero was appointed a lieutenant of ,engineers in ,cadiz1 but having failed to pass his examination he entered a line regiment4 ,in #ahae he went to ,america as a captain under ,general ,morillo1 who had been made commander-in-chief to quell the risings of the colonies on the ,spanish ,main4 ,for eight years ,espartero distinguished himself in the struggle against the colonists4 ,he was several times wounded1 and was made major and colonel on the battlefields of ,cochabamba and ,sapachni4 ,he had to surrender to ,sucre at the final battle of ,ayacucho1 which put an end to ,castilian rule4 ,he returned to ,spain1 and1 like most of his companions in arms1 remained under a cloud for some time4 ,he was sent to the garrison town of ,logrono1 where he married the daughter of a rich landowner1 ,dona ,jacinta ,santa ,cruz1 who eventually survived him4 ,henceforth ,logrono became the home of the most prominent of the ,spanish political generals of the #aith century4 ,espartero became in #ahcb1 on the death of ,king ,ferdinand ,,vii41 one of the most ardent defenders of the rights of his daughter1 ,isabella ,,ii4 ,the government sent him to the front1 directly the ,carlist ,war broke out1 as commandant of the province of ,biscay1 where he severely defeated the ,carlists in many encounters4 ,he was quickly promoted to a divisional command1 and then made a lieutenant-general4 ,at times he showed qualities as a guerillero quite equal to those of the ,carlists1 like ,zumalacarregui and ,cabrera1 by his daring marches and surprises4 ,when he had to move large forces he was greatly superior to them as an organizer and strategist1 and he never disgraced his successes by cruelty or needless severity4 ,twice he obliged the ,carlists to raise the siege of ,bilbao before he was appointed commander-in-chief of the northern army on the #agth of ,september #ahcf1 when the tide of war seemed to be setting in favour of the pretender in the ,basque provinces and ,navarre1 though ,don ,carlos had lost his ablest lieutenant1 the ,basque ,zumalacarregui4 ,his military duties at the head of the principal national army did not prevent ,espartero from showing for the first time his political ambition4 ,he displayed such radical and reforming inclinations that he laid the foundations of his popularity among the lower and middle classes1 which lasted more than a quarter of a century1 during which time the ,progressists1 ,democrats and advanced ,liberals ever looked to him as a leader and adviser4 ,in ,november #ahcf he again forced the ,carlists to raise the siege of ,bilbao4 ,his troops included the ,british legion under ,sir de ,lacy ,evans4 ,this success turned the tide of war against ,don ,carlos1 who vainly attempted a raid towards ,madrid4 ,espartero was soon at his heels1 and obliged him to hurry northwards1 after several defeats4 ,in #ahci ,espartero carefully opened up negotiations with ,maroto and the principal ,carlist chiefs of the ,basque provinces4 ,these ended in their accepting his terms under the famous convention of ,vergara1 which secured the recognition of their ranks and titles for nearly #ajjj ,carlist officers4 ,twenty thousand ,carlist volunteers laid down their arms at ,vergara2 only the irreconcilables led by ,cabrera held out for a while in the central provinces of ,spain4 ,espartero soon1 however1 in #ahdj1 stamped out the last embers of the rising1 which had lasted seven years4 ,he was styled ,el pacificador de ,espana1 was made a grandee of the first class1 and received two dukedoms4 ,during the last three years of the war ,espartero1 who had been elected a deputy1 exercised from his distant headquarters such influence over ,madrid politics that he twice hastened the fall of the cabinet1 and obtained office for his own friends4 ,at the close of the war the queen regent and her ministers attempted to elbow out ,espartero and his followers1 but a pronunciamiento ensued in ,madrid and other large towns which culminated in the marshal's accepting the post of prime minister4 ,he soon became virtually a dictator1 as ,queen ,christina took offence at his popularity and resigned1 leaving the kingdom very soon afterwards4 ,directly the ,cortes met they elected ,espartero regent by #agi votes to #ajc in favour of ,arguelles1 who was appointed guardian of the young queen4 ,for two years ,espartero ruled ,spain in accordance with his ,radical and conciliatory dispositions1 giving special attention to the reorganization of the administration1 taxation and finances1 declaring all the estates of the church1 congregations and religious orders to be national property1 and suppressing the diezma1 or tenths4 ,he suppressed the ,republican risings with as much severity as he did the military pronunciamientos of ,generals ,concha and ,diego de ,leon4 ,the latter was shot in ,madrid4 ,espartero crushed with much energy a revolutionary rising in ,barcelona1 but on his return to ,madrid was so coldly welcomed that he perceived that his prestige was on the wane4 ,the advanced ,progressists coalesced with the partisans of the ex-regent ,christina to promote pronunciamientos in ,barcelona and many cities4 ,the rebels declared ,queen ,isabel of age1 and1 led by ,general ,narvaez1 marched upon ,madrid4 ,espartero1 deeming resistance useless1 embarked at ,cadiz on the #cjth of ,july #ahdc for ,england1 and lived quietly apart from politics until #ahdh1 when a royal decree restored to him all his honours and his seat in the senate4 ,he retired to his house in ,logrono1 which he left six years later1 in #ahed1 when called upon by the queen to take the lead of the powerful ,liberal and ,progressist movement which prevailed for two years4 ,the old marshal vainly endeavoured to keep his own ,progressists within bounds in the ,cortes of #ahed-ahef1 and in the great towns1 but their excessive demands for reforms and liberties played into the hands of a clerical and reactionary court and of the equally retrograde governing classes4 ,the growing ambition of ,general ,o',donnell constantly clashed with the views of ,espartero1 until the latter1 in sheer disgust1 resigned his premiership and left for ,logrono1 after warning the queen that a conflict was imminent between ,o',donnell and the ,cortes1 backed by the ,progressist militia4 ,o',donnell's pronunciamiento in #ahef put an end to the ,cortes1 and the militia was disarmed1 after a sharp struggle in the streets of the capital4 ,after #ahef ,espartero resolutely declined to identify himself with active politics1 though at every stage in the onward march of ,spain towards more liberal and democratic institutions he was asked to take a leading part4 ,he refused to allow his name to be brought forward as a candidate when the ,cortes of #ahfh1 after the ,revolution1 sought for a ruler4 ,espartero1 strangely enough1 adopted a laconic phrase when successive governments on their advent to power invariably addressed themselves to the venerable champion of liberal ideas4 ,to all--to the ,revolution of #ahfh1 the ,constituent ,cortes of #ahfi1 ,king ,amadeus1 the ,federal ,republic of #ahgc1 the nameless government of ,marshal ,serrano in #ahgd1 the ,bourbon restoration in #ahge--;he simply said3 ,cumplase la voluntad nacional 7,let the national will be accomplished74 ,king ,amadeus made him prince of ,vergara4 ,the ,restoration raised a statue to him near the gate of the ,retiro ,park in ,madrid4 ,spaniards of all shades1 except ,carlists and ,ultramontanes1 paid homage to his memory when he passed away at his ,logrono residence on the #hth of ,january #ahgi4 ,his tastes were singularly modest1 his manners rather reserved1 but always kind and considerate for humble folk4 ,he was a typical ,spanish soldier-politician1 though he had more of the better traits of the soldier born and bred than of the arts of the statesman4 ,his military instincts did not always make it easy for him to accommodate himself to courtiers and professional politicians4 7,a4 ,e4 ,h47 ,,esparto1 or ,,spanish ,,grass1 ,stipa tenacissima1 a grass resembling the ornamental feather-grass of gardens4 ,it is indigenous to the south of ,spain and the north of ,africa 7where it is known as ,halfa or ,alfa71 and is especially abundant in the sterile and rugged parts of ,murcia and ,valencia1 and in ,algeria1 flourishing best in sandy1 ferruginous soils1 in dry1 sunny situations on the sea coast4 ,pliny 7,n4,h4 xix4 #b7 described what appears to have been the same plant under the name of spartum1 whence the designation campus spartarius for the region surrounding ,new ,carthage4 ,it attains a height of #c or #d ft4 ,the stems are cylindrical1 and clothed with short hair1 and grow in clusters of from #b to #aj ft4 in circumference2 when young they serve as food for cattle1 but after a few years' growth acquire great toughness of texture4 ,the leaves vary from #f in4 to #c ft4 in length1 and are grey-green in colour2 on account of their tenacity of fibre and flexibility they have for centuries been employed for the making of ropes1 sandals1 baskets1 mats and other articles4 ,ships' cables of esparto1 being light1 have the quality of floating on water1 and have long been in use in the ,spanish navy4 ,esparto leaves contain #ef by weight of fibre1 or about #aj more than straw1 and hence have come into requisition as a substitute for linen rags in the manufacture of paper4 ,for this purpose they were first utilized by the ,french1 and in #aheg were introduced into ,great ,britain4 ,when required for paper-making the leaves should be gathered before they are quite matured2 if1 however1 they are obtained too young1 they furnish a paper having an objectionable semi-transparent appearance4 ,the leaves are gathered by hand1 and from #b to #c cwt4 may be collected in a day by a single labourer4 ,they are generally obtained during the dry summer months1 as at other times their adherence to the stems is so firm as often to cause the uprooting of the plants in the attempt to remove them4 ,esparto may be raised from seed1 but cannot be harvested for twelve or fifteen years after sowing4 ,another grass1 ,lygeum ,spartum1 with stiff rush-like leaves1 growing in rocky soil on the high plains of countries bordering on the ,mediterranean1 especially of ,spain and ,algeria1 is also a source of esparto4 ,for the processes of the paper manufacturer esparto is used in the dry state1 and without cutting2 roots and flowers and stray weeds are first removed1 and the material is then boiled with caustic soda1 washed1 and bleached with chlorine solution4 ,sundry experiments have been made to adapt esparto for use in the coarser textile fabrics4 ,messrs ,a4 ,edger and ,b4 ,proctor in #ahgg directed attention to the composition of the slag resulting from the burning of esparto1 which they found to be strikingly similar to that of average medical bottle glass1 the latter yielding on analysis #ff4c of silica and #be4a of alkalies and alkaline earths1 and the slag #fd4f and #bg4de of the same respectively4 ,,esperance1 a small seaport on a fine natural harbour on the south coast of ,west ,australia1 #bge m4 north-east from ,albany4 ,it is a summer resort1 and in the neighbourhood are interesting caves4 ,its importance as a seaport is due to its being on the high road between the eastern states and the gold-fields1 and the nearest place for the shipment of gold from the ,coolgardie fields4 ,,esperanto1 an artificial international auxiliary language 7see ,,universal ,,languages71 first published in #ahhg1 seven years after the appearance of its predecessor ,volapuk 7q4v471 which it has now completely supplanted4 ,its author was a ,russian physician1 ,dr ,l4 ,zamenhof1 born in #ahei at ,bielostok1 where the spectacle of the feuds of the four races--each speaking different languages--which inhabit it 7,russians1 ,poles1 ,germans and ,jews7 at an early date suggested to him the idea of remedying the evil by the introduction of a neutral language1 standing apart from the existing national languages4 ,his first idea was to resuscitate some dead language4 ,then he tried to construct a new language on an a priori basis4 ,at the same time he made what he appears to have considered the great discovery that the bulk of the vocabulary of a language consists not of independent roots1 but of compounds and derivatives formed from a comparatively small number of roots4 ,at first he tried to construct his roots a priori by arbitrary combinations of letters4 ,then he fell back on the plan of taking his roots ready-made from existing languages1 as the inventor of ,volapuk had done before him4 ,but instead of taking them mainly from one language1 he has selected them from the chief ,european languages1 but not impartially4 ,like all inventors of artificial languages1 he is more ready to experiment with foreign languages than with his own2 and hence the ,slavonic roots in ,esperanto are much less numerous than those taken from the other ,european languages4 ,here his choice has been to some extent guided by considerations of internationality1 although he has not fully grasped the importance of the principle of maximum internationality1 so well worked out in the latest rival of ,esperanto--,idiom ,neutral 7see ,,universal ,,languages74 ,thus he adopts a large number of international words--generally unaltered except in spelling--such as teatr1 tabak1 even when it would be easy to form equivalent terms from the roots already existing in the language4 ,where there is no one international word1 he selects practically at random1 keeping1 however1 a certain balance between the ,romance words1 taken chiefly from ,latin 7tamen7 and ,french 7trotuar71 on the one hand1 and the ,germanic on the other hand1 the latter being taken sometimes from ,german 7nur1 only71 sometimes from ,english1 the words being generally written more or less phonetically 7rajt right74 ,most of the ,germanic words are badly chosen from the international point of view4 ,thus the ,german word quoted above would not be intelligible to any one ignorant of ,german4 ,indeed1 from the international point of view all specially ,german words ought to be excluded1 or else reduced to the common ,germanic form2 thus trink ought to be made into drink1 the t being a specially ,german modification of the d1 preserved not only in ,english but in all the remaining ,germanic languages4 ,this incongruous mixture of languages is not only jarring and repulsive1 but adds greatly to the difficulty of mastering the vocabulary for the polyglot as well as the monolingual learner4 ,the inventor has taken great pains to reduce the number of his roots to a minimum2 there are #bfdb of them in his dictionary1 the ,universala ,vortaro 7from ,ger4 ,wort1 word71 which does not include such international words as poezio1 telefono2 these the learner is supposed to recognize and form without help4 ,the most eccentric feature of the vocabulary1 and the one to which it owes much of its brevity1 is the extensive use of the prefix mal- to reverse the meaning of a word1 as in malamiko1 enemy1 and even malbona1 bad4 ,the phonology of the language is very simple4 ,the vowels are only five in number1 a1 e1 i1 o1 u1 used without any distinction of quantity1 as in ,russian4 ,there are six diphthongs1 expressed by an unnecessarily complicated notation4 ,the consonant-system is simple enough in itself1 but is greatly complicated in writing by the excessive and mostly unnecessary use made of diacritical letters not only for simple sounds but also for consonant-groups4 c is used for ts1 as in ,polish4 ,the grammar is1 like that of ,volapuk1 partly borrowed from existing languages1 partly a priori and arbitrary4 ,the use of the final vowels belongs to the latter category4 ,the use of -a to indicate adjectives and of -o to indicate nouns as in kara amiko1 dear 7male7 friend1 is a source of confusion to those familiar with the ,romance languages1 and has proved a bar to the diffusion of ,esperanto among the speakers of these languages4 ,on the other hand1 the following paradigm will show how faithfully ,esperanto can reproduce the defects of conventional ,european grammar3-- ,singular4 ,plural4 ,nominative la bona patro la bonaj patroj ,accusative la bonan patron la bonajn patrojn4 ,it is difficult to see why the accusative should be kept when all the other cases are replaced by prepositions4 ,the verb is better than the noun4 ,its inflections are -as present1 -is preterite1 -os future1 -us conditional1 -u imperative and subjunctive1 -i infinitive1 together with the following participles3-- ,active4 ,passive4 ,present -anta -ata ,preterite -inta -ita ,future -onta -ota ,the inventor has followed the good example of his native language in using esti1 to be1 as the auxiliary verb both in the passive1 where it is combined with passive participles1 and in the secondary tenses of the active 7perfect1 pluperfect1 c471 where it is of course combined with the active participles4 ,the participles can be made into nouns and adverbs by changing the final -a into -o and -e respectively3 thus tenonto1 the future holder1 perdinte1 through having lost4 ,the table of the forty-five correlative pronouns1 adjectives and adverbs is also elaborate and ingenious4 ,much ingenuity is displayed in the syntax1 as well as some happy simplifications4 ,but1 on the other hand1 there is much in it that is fanciful1 arbitrary and vague1 as in the use of the definite article--where the author has unfortunately followed ,french rather than ,english usage--and in the moods of the verb4 ,the following specimens will show the general character of this easy-flowing but somewhat heavy and monotonous language--bad ,italian1 as it is called by its detractors3-- ,patro nia1 kiu estas en la cielo1 sankta estu via nomo2 venu regeco via2 estu volo via1 kiel en la cielo1 tiel ankau sur la tero4 ,panon nian ciutagan donu al ni hodiau2 kaj pardonu al ni suldojn niajn1 kiel ni ankau pardonas al niaj suldantoj2 kaj ne konduku nin en tenton1 sed liberigu nin de la malbono4 ,estimata ,sinjoro4 ,per tiu ci libreto mi havas la honoron prezenti al vi la lingvon internacian ,esperanto4 ,esperanto tute ne havas la intencon malfortigi la lingvon naturan de ia popolo4 ,gi devas nur servi por la rilatoj internaciaj kaj por tiuj verkoj au produktoj1 kiuj interesas egale la tutan mondon4 ,in summing up the merits and defects of ,esperanto we must begin by admitting that it is the most reasonable and practical artificial language that has yet appeared4 ,its inventor has had the double advantage of being able to profit by the mistakes of his predecessors1 and of being himself1 by force of circumstances1 a better linguist4 ,it must further be admitted that he has made as good a use of these advantages as was perhaps possible without systematic training in scientific philology in its widest sense4 ,this last defect explains why the enthusiasm which his work has excited in the great world of linguistic dilettantes has not been shared by the philologists3 in spite of its superiority to ,volapuk1 they see in it the same radical defects4 ,whether they are rash or not in predicting for it a similar fate1 remains to be seen4 ,the ,esperantists1 warned by the fate of ,volapuk1 have adopted the wise policy of suppressing all internal disunion by submitting to the dictatorship of the inventor1 and so presenting a united front to the enemy4 ,one thing is clear3 either ,esperanto must be taken as it is without change1 or else it must crumble to pieces2 its failure to work out consistently the principle of the maximum of internationality for its root-words is alone enough to condemn it as hopelessly antiquated even from the narrow point of view which regards international as synonymous with ,european--a view which political development in the ,far ,east has made equally obsolete4 7,h4 ,sw47 ,,espinay1 ,,timoleon ,d' 7#aehj-afdd71 ,french soldier1 was the eldest of the four sons of ,francois d',espinay1 seigneur de ,saint ,luc 7#aeed-aeig71 and was himself marquis de ,saint ,luc4 ,in #afjc he accompanied ,sully in his embassy to ,london4 ,in #afbb1 in his capacity as vice-admiral of ,france1 he gained some advantages over the defenders of ,la ,rochelle1 obliging the ,huguenot commander1 ,benjamin de ,rohan1 seigneur de ,soubise1 to evacuate the islands of ,re and ,oleron4 ,in #afbg he was named lieutenant-general of ,guienne and marshal of ,france4 ,,espinel1 ,,vicente ,,martinez 7#aeea-afbd71 ,spanish poet and novelist1 was baptized on the #bhth of ,december #aeea1 and educated at ,salamanca4 ,he was expelled from the university in #aegb1 and served as a soldier in ,flanders1 returning to ,spain in #aehd or thereabouts4 ,he took orders in #aehg1 and four years later became chaplain at ,ronda1 absented himself from his living1 and was deprived of his cure2 but his musical skill obtained for him the post of choirmaster at ,plasencia4 ,his ,diversas ,rimas 7#aeia7 are undeniably good examples of technical accomplishment and caustic wit4 ,espinel1 however1 survives as the author of a clever picaresque novel entitled ,relaciones de la vida del ,escudero ,marcos de ,obregon 7#afah74 ,it is1 in many passages1 an autobiography of ,espinel with picturesque embellishments4 ,marcos is not a chivalresque esquire1 but an adventurer who seeks his fortune by attaching himself to great men2 and the object of the author is to warn young men against such a life4 ,apart from the unedifying confessions of the hero1 the book contains curious anecdotes concerning prominent contemporaries1 and the episodical stories are told with great spirit2 the style is extremely correct1 though somewhat diffuse4 ,le ,sage has not scrupled to borrow from ,marcos de ,obregon many of the incidents and characters in ,gil ,blas--a circumstance which induced ,isla to give to his ,spanish translation of ,le ,sage's work the jesting title1 ,gil ,blas restored to his ,country and his ,native ,tongue4 ,in the #agge edition of the ,siecle de ,louis ,,xiv4 ,voltaire grossly exaggerates in saying that ,gil ,blas is taken entirely from ,marcos de ,obregon4 ,espinel was a clever musician and added a fifth string to the guitar4 ,he revived the measure known as decimas or espinelas1 consisting of a stanza of ten octosyllabic lines4 ,most of the poems which he left in manuscript remain unpublished owing to their licentious character4 ,,bibliography4--,j4 ,perez de ,guzman's edition of ,marcos de ,obregon 7,barcelona1 #ahha7 includes a valuable introduction2 ,leo ,claretie1 ,le ,sage romancier 7,paris1 #ahij71 discusses exhaustively the question of ,le ,sage's indebtedness to ,espinel4 ,for some previously unpublished poems see ,pedro ,salva y ,mallen1 ,catalogo de la biblioteca de ,salva 7,valencia1 #ahgb74 ,,espirito ,,santo1 a maritime state of ,brazil1 bounded ,n4 by ,bahia1 ,e4 by the ,atlantic ,ocean1 ,s4 by ,rio de ,janeiro1 and ,w4 by ,minas ,geraes4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #ace1iig2 7#aijj7 #bji1ghc2 area1 #ag1caf sq4 m4 ,with the exception of ,sergipe it is the smallest of the ,brazilian states4 ,the western border of the state is traversed by low ranges of mountains forming a northward continuation of the ,serra do ,mar4 ,the longest and most prominent of these ranges1 which are for the most part the eastern escarpments of the great ,brazilian plateau1 is the ,serra dos ,aymores1 which extends along fully two-thirds of the western frontier4 ,farther ,s4 the ranges are much broken and extend partly across the state toward the seaboard2 the more prominent are known as the ,serra do ,espigao1 ,serra da ,chibata1 ,serra dos ,piloes and ,serra dos ,purys4 ,the eastern and larger part of the state belongs to the coastal plain1 in great part low and swampy1 with large areas of sand barrens1 and broken by isolated groups and ranges of hills4 ,with the exception of these sandy plains the country is heavily forested1 even the mountain sides being covered with vegetation to their summits4 ,the northern and southern parts are fertile1 but the central districts are comparatively poor4 ,the coastal plain comprises a sandy1 unproductive belt immediately on the coast1 back of which is a more fertile tertiary plain1 well suited1 near the higher country1 to the production of sugar and cotton4 ,the inland valleys and slopes are very fertile and heavily forested1 and much of the ,brazilian export of rosewood and other cabinet woods is drawn from this state4 ,there is only one good bay on the coast1 that of ,espirito ,santo1 on which the port of ,victoria is situated4 ,the river-mouths are obstructed by sand bars and admit small vessels only4 ,the principal rivers of the state are the ,mucury1 which rises in ,minas ,geraes and forms the boundary line with ,bahia1 the ,itaunas1 ,sao ,domingos1 ,sao ,matheus1 ,doce1 ,timbuhy1 ,santa ,maria1 ,jucu1 ,benevente1 ,itapemirim1 and ,itabapoana1 the last forming the boundary line with ,rio de ,janeiro4 ,the ,doce1 ,sao ,matheus1 and ,itapemirim rise in ,minas ,geraes and flow entirely across the state4 ,the lower courses of these rivers are generally navigable1 that of the ,rio ,doce for a distance of #ij m4 ,the climate of the coastal zone and deeper valleys is hot1 humid and unhealthy1 malarial fevers being prevalent4 ,in the higher country the temperature is lower and the climate is healthy4 ,espirito ,santo is almost exclusively agricultural1 sugar-cane1 coffee1 rice1 cotton1 tobacco1 mandioca and tropical fruits being the principal products4 ,agriculture is in a very backward condition1 however1 and the state is classed as one of the poorest and most unprogressive in the republic4 ,the rivers and shallow coast waters are well stocked with fish1 but there are no fishing industries worthy of mention4 ,there are three railway lines in operation in the state--one running from ,victoria to ,cachoeira do ,itapemirim 7#ej m471 and thence1 by another line1 to ,santo ,eduardo in ,rio de ,janeiro 7#eh m471 where connexion is made with the ,leopoldina system running into the national capital1 and a third running north-westerly from ,victoria to ,diamantina1 ,minas ,geraes1 about #dej m4 ,the chief cities and towns of the state1 with their populations in #ahij1 are ,victoria1 ,sao ,matheus 7municipality1 #ggfa7 on a river of the same name #af m4 from the sea1 ,serra 7municipality1 #fbgd71 ,guarapary 7municipality1 #ecaj71 a small port ,s4 by ,w4 of the capital1 ,conceicao da ,barra 7municipality1 #efbh71 the port of ,sao ,matheus and ,cachoeira do ,itapemirim 7#djdi71 an important commercial centre in the south4 ,espirito ,santo formed part of one of the original captaincies which were given to ,vasco ,fernandes ,coutinho by the ,portuguese crown4 ,the first settlement 7#aece7 was at the entrance to the bay of ,espirito ,santo1 and its name was afterwards given to the bay and captaincy4 ,it once included the municipality of ,campos1 now belonging to the state of ,rio de ,janeiro4 ,the islands of ,trinidade and ,martim ,vaz1 which lie about #gae m4 ,e4 of ,victoria1 belong politically to this state4 ,they are uninhabited1 but considerable importance is attached to the former because ,great ,britain has twice attempted to take possession of it4 ,it rises #abjj ft4 above sea-level and is about #f m4 in circumference1 but it has no value other than that of an ocean cable station4 ,an excellent description of this singular island is to be found in ,e4,f4 ,knight's ,cruise of the ,alerte 7,london1 #ahie74 ,,espronceda1 ,,jose ,,ignacio ,,javier ,,oriol ,,encarnacion ,,de 7#ahjh-ahdb71 ,spanish poet1 son of an officer in the ,bourbon regiment1 was born at or near ,almendralejo de los ,barros on the #beth of ,march #ahjh4 ,on the close of the war he was sent to the preparatory school of artillery at ,segovia1 and later became a pupil of the poet ,lista1 then professor of literature at ,st ,matthew's ,college in ,madrid4 ,in his fourteenth year he had attracted his master's attention by his verses1 and had joined a secret society4 ,sentenced to five years' seclusion in the ,franciscan convent at ,guadalajara1 he began an epic poem entitled ,pelayo1 of which fragments survive4 ,he escaped to ,portugal and thence to ,england1 where he found the famous ,teresa whom he had met at ,lisbon2 here1 too1 he became a student of ,shakespeare1 ,milton and ,byron4 ,in #ahcj he eloped with ,teresa to ,paris1 took part in the ,july revolution1 and soon after joined the raid of ,chapalangarra on ,navarre4 ,in #ahcc he returned to ,spain and obtained a commission in the queen's guards4 ,this1 however1 he soon forfeited by a political song1 and he was banished to ,cuellar1 where he wrote a poor novel entitled ,sancho ,saldana o el ,castellano de ,cuellar 7#ahcd74 ,he took an active part in the revolutionary risings of #ahce and #ahcf1 and1 on the accession to power of the ,liberal party in #ahdj1 was appointed secretary of legation at the ,hague2 in #ahdb he was elected deputy for ,almeria1 and seemed likely to play a great part in parliamentary life4 ,but his constitution was undermined1 and1 after a short illness1 he died at ,madrid on the #bcrd of ,may #ahdb4 ,his poems1 first published in #ahdj1 at once gained for him a reputation which still continues undiminished4 ,the influence of ,byron pervades ,espronceda's life and work4 ,it is present in an ambitious variant on the ,don ,juan legend1 ,el ,estudiante de ,salamanca1 ,elvira's letter being obviously modelled on ,julia's letter in ,don ,juan2 the ,cancion del ,pirata is suggested by ,the ,corsair2 and the ,byronic inspiration is not wanting even in the noble fragment entitled ,el ,diablo ,mundo1 based on the story of ,faust4 ,but in ,el ,mendigo1 in ,el ,reo de ,muerte1 in ,el ,verdugo1 and in the sombre vehement lines1 ,a ,jarifa en una orgia1 ,espronceda approves himself the most potent and original lyrical poet produced by ,spain during the #aith century4 ,,bibliography4--,obras poeticas y escritos en prosa 7,madrid1 #ahhd71 edited by ,blanca ,espronceda de ,escosura1 the poet's daughter 7the second volume has not been published72 ,e4 ,rodriguez ,solis1 ,espronceda2 su tiempo1 su vida1 y sus obras 7,madrid1 #ahhc72 ,e4 ,pineyro1 ,el ,romanticismo en ,espana 7,paris1 #aijd74 ,,esquire 7,o4 ,fr4 escuyer1 ,mod4 ,fr4 ecuyer1 derived through the form escudier from ,med4 ,lat4 scutarius1 shield-bearer71 originally the attendant on a knight1 whose helm1 shield and lance he carried at the tournament or in the field of battle4 ,the esquire ranked immediately below the knight bachelor1 and his office was regarded as the apprentice stage of knighthood4 ,the title was regarded as one of function1 not of birth1 and was not hereditary4 ,in time1 however1 its original significance was lost sight of1 and it came to be a title of honour1 implying a rank between that of knight and valet or gentleman1 as it technically still remains4 ,thus in the later middle ages esquire 7armiger7 was the customary description of holders of knight's fees who had not taken up their knighthood1 whence the surviving custom of entitling the principal landowner in a parish the squire 7see ,,squire74 ,camden1 at the close of the #afth century1 distinguished four classes entitled to bear the style3 7#a7 ,the eldest sons of knights1 and their eldest sons1 in perpetual succession2 7#b7 the eldest sons of the younger sons of peers1 and their eldest sons1 in like perpetual succession2 7#c7 esquires created by royal letters patent or other investiture1 and their eldest sons2 7#d7 esquires by office1 e4g4 justices of the peace and others who bear any office of trust under the crown4 ,to these the writer in the #crd edition of the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica 7#agig7 added ,irish peers and the eldest sons of ,british peers1 who1 though they bear courtesy titles1 have in law only the right to be styled esquires4 ,officers of the king's courts1 and of the royal household1 counsellors at law and justices of the peace he described as esquires only by reputation2 and justices of the peace have the title only as long as they are in commission2 while certain heads of great landed families are styled esquires by prescription4 ,but the meaner ranks of people1 he adds indignantly1 who know no better1 do often basely prostitute this title2 and1 to the great confusion of all rank and precedence1 every man who makes a decent appearance1 far from thinking himself in any way ridiculed by finding the superscription of his letters thus decorated1 is fully gratified by such an address4 ,it is clear1 however1 that the title of esquire was very loosely used at a much earlier date4 ,on this point ,selden is somewhat scornfully explicit4 ,to whomsoever1 either by blood1 place in the ,state or other eminency1 we conceive some higher attribute should be given1 than that sole ,title of ,gentleman1 knowing yet that he hath no other honorary title legally fixed upon him1 we usually style him an ,esquire1 in such passages as require legally that his degree or state be mentioned2 as especially in ,indictments and ,actions whereupon he may be outlawed4 ,those of other nations who are ,barons or great ,lords in their own ,countries1 and no knights1 are in legal proceedings stiled with us1 ,esquires only4 ,some of our greatest ,heralds have their divisions of ,esquires applied to this day4 ,i leave them as ,i see them1 where they may easily be found4 ,coke1 too1 says that every one is entitled to be termed esquire who has the legal right to call himself a gentleman 7#b4 ,institutes1 #fhh74 ,at the present time the following classes are recognized as esquires on occasions of ceremony or for legal purposes3--7#a7 ,all sons of peers and lords of parliament during their fathers' lives1 and the younger sons of such peers1 c41 after their fathers' deaths2 the eldest sons of peers' younger sons1 and their eldest sons for ever4 7#b7 ,noblemen of all other nations4 7#c7 ,the eldest sons of baronets and knights4 7#d7 ,persons bearing arms and the title of esquire by letters patent4 7#e7 ,esquires of the ,bath and their eldest sons4 7#f7 ,barristers-at-law4 7#g7 ,justices of the peace and mayors while in commission or office4 7#h7 ,the holders of any superior office under the crown4 7#i7 ,persons styled esquires by the sovereign in their patents1 commissions or appointments4#a 7#aj7 ,attorneys in colonies where the functions of counsel and attorney are united 7in ,england solicitors are gentlemen1 not esquires74 ,in practice1 however1 the title of esquire1 now to all intents and purposes meaningless1 is given to any one who can bear the port1 charge and countenance of a gentleman4 ,the word has followed the same course as that of gentleman 7q4v471 and for very similar reasons4 ,it is still not customary in ,great ,britain to address e4g4 a well-to-do person engaged in trade as esquire at his shop2 it would be offensive not to do so at his private residence4 ,in ,america1 on the other hand1 the use of the word esquire is practically obsolete1 ,mr 7,mister or ,master1 at one time the title special to a gentleman7 being the general form of address4 ,see ,selden1 ,titles of ,honor 7#afgb72 ,camden1 ,britannia 7ed4 ,london1 #aeid72 ,coke1 ,institutes2 ,enc4 of the ,laws of ,england1 s4 ,esquire2 ,du ,cange1 ,glossarium 7ed4 #ahhf71 s4 ,scutarius1 ,scutifer and ,armiger2 ,new ,english ,dictionary1 s4 ,esquire4 7,w4 ,a4 ,p47 ,,footnote3 #a ,in practice this means every one receiving such a patent1 commission or appointment4 ,,esquirol1 ,,jean ,,etienne ,,dominique 7#aggb-ahdj71 ,french alienist1 was born at ,toulouse on the #crd of ,february #aggb4 ,in #agid he became a pupil of the military hospital of ,narbonne1 and subsequently studied in ,paris at the ,salpetriere under ,p4 ,pinel1 whose assistant he became4 ,in #ahaa he was chosen physician to the ,salpetriere1 and in #ahag he began a course of lectures on the treatment of the insane1 in which he made such revelations of the abuses existing in the lunatic asylums of ,france that the government appointed a commission to inquire into the subject4 ,esquirol in this and other ways greatly assisted ,pinel's efforts for the introduction of humaner methods4 ,the asylums of ,rouen1 ,nantes and ,montpellier were built in accordance with his plans4 ,in #ahbc he became inspector-general of the university of ,paris for the faculties of medicine1 and in #ahbf chief physician of the asylum at ,charenton4 ,he died at ,paris on the #acth of ,december #ahdj4 ,besides contributing to the ,dictionnaire des sciences medicales and the ,encyclopedie des gens du monde1 ,esquirol wrote ,des maladies mentales1 considerees sous les rapports medical1 hygienique1 et medico-legal 7#b vols41 ,paris1 #ahch74 ,,esquiros1 ,,henri ,,francois ,,alphonse 7#ahab-ahgf71 ,french writer1 was born in ,paris on the #bcrd of ,may #ahab4 ,after some minor publications he produced ,l',evangile du peuple 7#ahdj71 an exposition of the life and character of ,jesus as a social reformer4 ,this work was considered an offence against religion and decency1 and ,esquiros was fined and imprisoned4 ,he was elected in #ahej as a social democrat to the ,legislative ,assembly1 but was exiled in #ahea for his opposition to the ,empire4 ,returning to ,france in #ahfi he was again a member of the ,legislative ,assembly1 and in #ahgf was elected to the senate4 ,he died at ,versailles on the #abth of ,may #ahgf4 ,he turned to account his residence in ,england in ,l',angleterre et la vie anglaise 7#e vols41 #ahei-ahfi74 ,among his numerous works on social subjects may be noted3--,histoire des ,montagnards 7#b vols41 #ahdg72 ,paris1 ou les sciences1 les institutions et les moeurs au ,,xixe siecle 7#b vols41 #ahdg72 and ,histoire des martyrs de la liberte 7#ahea74 ,,ess1 ,,johann ,,heinrich ,,van 7#aggb-ahdg71 ,german ,catholic theologian1 was born at ,warburg1 ,westphalia1 on the #aeth of ,february #aggb4 ,he was educated at the ,dominican gymnasium of his native town1 and in #agij entered1 as a novice1 the ,benedictine abbey of ,marienmunster1 in the bishopric of ,paderborn4 ,his ,benedictine name was ,leander4 ,he was priest at ,schwalenberg from #agii to #ahab1 after which he became extraordinary professor of theology and joint-director of the teachers' seminary at ,marburg4 ,in #ahah he received the doctorate of theology and of canonical law4 ,in #ahjg1 in conjunction with his cousin ,karl van ,ess1 he had published a ,german translation of the ,new ,testament1 and1 as its circulation was discountenanced by his superiors1 he published in #ahjh a defence of his views1 entitled ,auszuge aus den heiligen ,vatern und anderen ,lehrern der katholischen ,kirche uber das nothwendige und nutzliche ,bibellesen4 ,an improved edition of this tractate was published in #ahaf1 under the title ,gedanken uber ,bibel und ,bibellehre1 and in the same year appeared ,was war die ,bibel den ersten ,christen8 ,in #ahbb he published the first part of a ,german translation of the ,old ,testament1 which was completed in #ahcf4 ,in #ahbb he resigned his offices at ,marburg in order to devote his whole time to the defence of his views regarding ,bible reading by the people1 and to endeavour to promote the circulation of the scriptures4 ,he was associated first with the ,catholic ,bible ,society of ,regensburg1 and then with the ,british and ,foreign ,bible ,society4 ,he died at ,affolderbach in the ,odenwald on the #acth of ,october #ahdg4 ,,essay1 ,,essayist 7,fr4 essai1 ,late ,lat4 exagium1 a weighing or balance2 exigere1 to examine2 the term in general meaning any trial or effort74 ,as a form of literature1 the essay is a composition of moderate length1 usually in prose1 which deals in an easy1 cursory way with the external conditions of a subject1 and1 in strictness1 with that subject1 only as it affects the writer4 ,dr ,johnson1 himself an eminent essayist1 defines an essay as an irregular1 undigested piece2 the irregularity may perhaps be admitted1 but want of thought1 that is to say lack of proper mental digestion1 is certainly not characteristic of a fine example4 ,it should1 on the contrary1 always be the brief and light result of experience and profound meditation1 while undigested is the last epithet to be applied to the essays of ,montaigne1 ,addison or ,lamb4 ,bacon said that the ,epistles of ,seneca were essays1 but this can hardly be allowed4 ,bacon himself goes on to admit that the word is late1 though the thing is ancient4 ,the word1 in fact1 was invented for this species of writing by ,montaigne1 who merely meant that these were experiments in a new kind of literature4 ,this original meaning1 namely that these pieces were attempts or endeavours1 feeling their way towards the expression of what would need a far wider space to exhaust1 was lost in ,england in the course of the eighteenth century4 ,this is seen by the various attempts made in the nineteenth century to coin a word which should express a still smaller work1 as distinctive in comparison with the essay as the essay is by the side of the monograph2 none of these linguistic experiments1 such as essayette1 essaykin 7,thackeray7 and essaylet 7,helps7 have taken hold of the language4 ,as a matter of fact1 the journalistic word article covers the lesser form of essay1 although not exhaustively1 since the essays in the monthly and quarterly reviews1 which are fully as extended as an essay should ever be1 are frequently termed articles1 while many articles in newspapers1 dictionaries and encyclopaedias are in no sense essays4 ,it may be said that the idea of a detached work is combined with the word essay1 which should be neither a section of a disquisition nor a chapter in a book which aims at the systematic development of a story4 ,locke's ,essay on the ,human ,understanding is not an essay at all1 or cluster of essays1 in this technical sense1 but refers to the experimental and tentative nature of the inquiry which the philosopher was undertaking4 ,of the curious use of the word so repeatedly made by ,pope mention will be made below4 ,the essay1 as a species of literature1 was invented by ,montaigne1 who had probably little suspicion of the far-reaching importance of what he had created4 ,in his dejected moments1 he turned to rail at what he had written1 and to call his essays inepties and sottises4 ,but in his own heart he must have been well satisfied with the new and beautiful form which he had added to literary tradition4 ,he was perfectly aware that he had devised a new thing2 that he had invented a way of communicating himself to the world as a type of human nature4 ,he designed it to carry out his peculiar object1 which was to produce an accurate portrait of his own soul1 not as it was yesterday or will be to-morrow1 but as it is to-day4 ,it is not often that we can date with any approach to accuracy the arrival of a new class of literature into the world1 but it was in the month of ,march #aega that the essay was invented4 ,it was started in the second story of the old tower of the castle of ,montaigne1 in a study to which the philosopher withdrew for that purpose1 surrounded by his books1 close to his chapel1 sheltered from the excesses of a fatiguing world4 ,he wrote slowly1 not systematically2 it took nine years to finish the two first books of the essays4 ,in #aegd the manuscript of the work1 so far as it was then completed1 was nearly lost1 for it was confiscated by the pontifical police in ,rome1 where ,montaigne was residing1 and was not returned to the author for four months4 ,the earliest imprint saw the light in #aehj1 at ,bordeaux1 and the ,paris edition of #aehh1 which is the fifth1 contains the final text of the great author4 ,these dates are not negligible in the briefest history of the essay1 for they are those of its revelation to the world of readers4 ,it was in the delightful chapters of his new1 strange book that ,montaigne introduced the fashion of writing briefly1 irregularly1 with constant digressions and interruptions1 about the world as it appears to the individual who writes4 ,the ,essais were instantly welcomed1 and few writers of the ,renaissance had so instant and so vast a popularity as ,montaigne4 ,but while the philosophy1 and above all the graceful stoicism1 of the great master were admired and copied in ,france1 the exact shape in which he had put down his thoughts1 in the exquisite negligence of a series of essays1 was too delicate to tempt an imitator4 ,it is to be noted that neither ,charron1 nor ,mlle de ,gournay1 his most immediate disciples1 tried to write essays4 ,but ,montaigne1 who liked to fancy that the ,eyquem family was of ,english extraction1 had spoken affably of the ,english people as his cousins1 and it has always been admitted that his genius has an affinity with the ,english4 ,he was early read in ,england1 and certainly by ,bacon1 whose is the second great name connected with this form of literature4 ,it was in #aeig1 only five years after the death of ,montaigne1 that ,bacon published in a small octavo the first ten of his essays4 ,these he increased to #ch in #afab and to #eh in #afbe4 ,in their first form1 the essays of ,bacon had nothing of the fulness or grace of ,montaigne's2 they are meagre notes1 scarcely more than the headings for discourses4 ,it is possible that when he wrote them he was not yet familiar with the style of his predecessor1 which was first made popular in ,england1 in #afjc1 when ,florio published that translation of the ,essais which ,shakespeare unquestionably read4 ,in the later editions ,bacon greatly expanded his theme1 but he never reached1 or but seldom1 the freedom and ease1 the seeming formlessness held in by an invisible chain1 which are the glory of ,montaigne1 and distinguish the typical essayist4 ,it would seem that at first1 in ,england1 as in ,france1 no lesser writer was willing to adopt a title which belonged to so great a presence as that of ,bacon or ,montaigne4 ,the one exception was ,sir ,william ,cornwallis 7d4 #afca71 who published essays in #afjj and #afag1 of slight merit1 but popular in their day4 ,no other ,english essayist of any importance appeared until the ,restoration1 when ,abraham ,cowley wrote eleven ,several ,discourses by way of ,essays1 which did not see the light until #affh4 ,he interspersed with his prose1 translations and original pieces in verse1 but in other respects ,cowley keeps much nearer than ,bacon to the form of ,montaigne4 ,cowley's essay ,of ,myself is a model of what these little compositions should be4 ,the name of ,bacon inspires awe1 but it is really not he1 but ,cowley1 who is the father of the ,english essay2 and it is remarkable that he has had no warmer panegyrists than his great successors1 ,charles ,lamb and ,macaulay4 ,towards the end of the century1 ,sir ,george ,mackenzie 7#afcf-afia7 wrote witty moral discourses1 which were1 however1 essays rather in name than form4 ,whenever1 however1 we reach the eighteenth century1 we find the essay suddenly became a dominant force in ,english literature4 ,it made its appearance almost as a new thing1 and in combination with the earliest developments of journalism4 ,on the #abth of ,april #agji appeared the first number of a penny newspaper1 entitled the ,tatler1 a main feature of which was to amuse and instruct fashionable readers by a series of short papers dealing with the manifold occurrences of life1 quicquid agunt homines4 ,but it was not until ,steele1 the founder of the ,tatler1 was joined by ,addison that the eighteenth-century essay really started upon its course4 ,it displayed at first1 and indeed it long retained1 a mixture of the manner of ,montaigne with that of ,la ,bruyere1 combining the form of the pure essay with that of the character-study1 as modelled on ,theophrastus1 which had been so popular in ,england throughout the seventeenth century4 ,addison's early ,tatler portraits1 in particular such as those of ,tom ,folio and ,ned ,softly1 are hardly essays4 ,but ,steele's ,recollections of ,childhood is1 and here we may observe the type on which ,goldsmith1 ,lamb and ,r4,l4 ,stevenson afterwards worked4 ,in ,january #agaa the ,tatler came to an end1 and was almost immediately followed by the ,spectator1 and in #agac by the ,guardian4 ,these three newspapers are storehouses of admirable and typical essays1 the majority of them written by ,steele and ,addison1 who are the most celebrated eighteenth-century essayists in ,england4 ,later in the century1 after the publication of other less successful experiments1 appeared ,fielding's essays in the ,covent ,garden ,journal 7#ageb7 and ,johnson's in the ,rambler 7#agej71 the ,adventurer 7#ageb7 and the ,idler 7#agei74 ,there followed a great number of polite journals1 in which the essay was treated as the bow of ,ulysses in which it was the fashion for men of rank and genius to try their strength4 ,goldsmith reached a higher level than the ,chesterfields and ,bonnel ,thorntons had dreamed of1 in the delicious sections of his ,citizen of the ,world 7#agfj74 ,after ,goldsmith1 the eighteenth-century essay declined into tamer hands1 and passed into final feebleness with the pedantic ,richard ,cumberland and the sentimental ,henry ,mackenzie4 ,the corpus of eighteenth-century essayists is extremely voluminous1 and their reprinted works fill some fifty volumes4 ,there is1 however1 a great sameness about all but the very best of them1 and in no case do they surpass ,addison in freshness1 or have they ventured to modify the form he adopted for his lucubrations4 ,what has survived of them all is the lightest portion1 but it should not be forgotten that a very large section of the essays of that age were deliberately didactic and moral4 ,a great revival of the essay took place during the first quarter of the nineteenth century1 and foremost in the history of this movement must always be placed the name of ,charles ,lamb4 ,he perceived that the real business of the essay1 as ,montaigne had conceived it1 was to be largely personal4 ,the famous ,essays of ,elia began to appear in the ,london ,magazine for ,august #ahbj1 and proceeded at fairly regular intervals until ,december #ahbb2 early in #ahbc the first series of them were collected in a volume4 ,the peculiarity of ,lamb's style as an essayist was that he threw off the ,addisonian and still more the ,johnsonian tradition1 which had become a burden that crushed the life out of each conventional essay1 and that he boldly went back to the rich verbiage and brilliant imagery of the seventeenth century for his inspiration4 ,it is true that ,lamb had great ductility of style1 and that1 when he pleases1 he can write so like ,steele that ,steele himself might scarcely know the difference1 yet in his freer flights we are conscious of more exalted masters1 of ,milton1 ,thomas ,browne and ,jeremy ,taylor4 ,he succeeded1 moreover1 in reaching a poignant note of personal feeling1 such as none of his predecessors had ever aimed at2 the essays called ,dream ,children and ,blakesmoor are examples of this1 and they display a degree of harmony and perfection in the writing of the pure essay such as had never been attempted before1 and has never since been reached4 ,leigh ,hunt1 clearing away all the didactic and pompous elements which had overgrown the essay1 restored it to its old ,spectator grace1 and was the most easy nondescript writer of his generation in periodicals such as the ,indicator 7#ahai7 and the ,companion 7#ahbh74 ,the sermons1 letters and pamphlets of ,sydney ,smith were really essays of an extended order4 ,in ,hazlitt and ,francis ,jeffrey we see the form and method of the essay beginning to be applied to literary criticism4 ,the writings of ,de ,quincey are almost exclusively essays1 although many of the most notable of them1 under his vehement pen1 have far outgrown the limits of the length laid down by the most indulgent formalist4 ,his biographical and critical essays are interesting1 but they are far from being trustworthy models in form or substance4 ,in a sketch1 however rapid1 of the essay in the nineteenth century1 prominence must be given to the name of ,macaulay4 ,his earliest essay1 that on ,milton1 appeared in the ,edinburgh ,review in #ahbe1 very shortly after the revelation of ,lamb's genius in ,elia4 ,no two products cast in the same mould could1 however1 be more unlike in substance4 ,in the hands of ,macaulay the essay ceases to be a confession or an autobiography2 it is strictly impersonal1 it is literary1 historical or controversial1 vigorous1 trenchant and full of party prejudice4 ,the periodical publication of ,macaulay's ,essays in the ,edinburgh ,review went on until #ahdd2 when we cast our eyes over this mass of brilliant writing we observe with surprise that it is almost wholly contentious4 ,nothing can be more remarkable than the difference in this respect between ,lamb and ,macaulay1 the former for ever demanding1 even cajoling1 the sympathy of the reader1 the latter scanning the horizon for an enemy to controvert4 ,in later times the essay in ,england has been cultivated in each of these ways1 by a thousand journalists and authors4 ,the leaders of a daily newspaper are examples of the popularization of the essay1 and they point to the danger which now attacks it1 that of producing a purely ephemeral or even momentary species of effect4 ,the essay1 in its best days1 was intended to be as lasting as a poem or a historical monograph2 it aimed at being one of the most durable and precious departments of literature4 ,we still occasionally see the production of essays which have this more ambitious aim2 within the last quarter of the nineteenth century the essays of ,r4,l4 ,stevenson achieved it4 ,his ,familiar ,studies are of the same class as those of ,montaigne and ,lamb1 and he approached far more closely than any other contemporary to their high level of excellence4 ,we have seen that the tone of the essay should be personal and confidential2 in ,stevenson's case it was characteristically so4 ,but the voices which please the public in a strain of pure self-study are few at all times1 and with the cultivation of the analytic habit they tend to become less original and attractive4 ,it is possible that the essay may die of exhaustion of interest1 or may survive only in the modified form of accidental journalism4 ,the essay1 although invented by a great ,french writer1 was very late in making itself at home in ,france4 ,the so-called ,essais of ,leibnitz1 ,nicole1 ,yves ,marie ,andre and so many others were really treatises4 ,voltaire's famous ,essai sur les moeurs des nations is an elaborate historical disquisition in nearly two hundred chapters4 ,later1 the voluminous essays of ,joseph de ,maistre and of ,lamennais were not essays at all in the literary sense4 ,on the other hand1 the admirable ,causeries du lundi of ,sainte-,beuve 7#ahjd-ahfi7 are literary essays in the fulness of the term1 and have been the forerunners of a great army of brilliant essay-writing in ,france4 ,among those who have specially distinguished themselves as ,french essayists may be mentioned ,theophile ,gautier1 ,paul de ,saint-,victor1 ,anatole ,france1 ,jules ,lemaitre1 ,ferdinand ,brunetiere and ,emile ,faguet4 ,all these are literary critics1 and it is in the form of the analysis of manifestations of intellectual energy that the essay has been most successfully illustrated in ,france4 ,all the countries of ,europe1 since the middle of the #aith century1 have adopted this form of writing2 such monographs or reviews1 however1 are not perfectly identical with the essay as it was conceived by ,addison and ,lamb4 ,this last1 it may be supposed1 is a definitely ,english thing1 and this view is confirmed by the fact that in several ,european languages the word essayist has been adopted without modification4 ,in the above remarks it has been taken for granted that the essay is always in prose4 ,pope1 however1 conceived an essay in heroic verse4 ,of this his ,essay on ,criticism 7#agaa7 and his ,essay on ,man 7#agcb-agcd7 are not good examples1 for they are really treatises4 ,the so-called ,moral ,essays 7#agbj-agce71 on the contrary1 might have been contributed1 if in prose1 either to the ,spectator or the ,guardian4 ,the idea of pure essays1 in verse1 however1 did not take any root in ,english literature4 7,e4 ,g47 ,,esseg1 ,,essegg or ,,essek 7,hung4 ,esszek2 ,croatian ,osjek71 a royal free town1 municipality1 and capital of the county of ,virovitica 7,verocze71 in ,croatia-,slavonia1 on the right bank of the ,drave1 #i m4 ,w4 of its confluence with the ,danube1 and #ahe m4 ,s4 of ,buda-,pest by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #bd1icj2 chiefly ,magyars and ,croats1 with a few ,germans and ,jews4 ,at ,esseg the ,drave is crossed by two bridges1 and below these it is navigable by small steamers4 ,the upper town1 with the fortress1 is under military authority2 the new town and the lower town1 which is the headquarters of commerce1 are under civil authority4 ,the only buildings of note are the ,roman ,catholic and ,orthodox churches1 ,franciscan and ,capuchin monasteries1 synagogue1 gymnasium1 modern school1 hospital1 chamber of commerce1 and law-courts4 ,esseg has a thriving trade in grain1 fruit1 live-stock1 plum-brandy and timber4 ,tanning1 silk-weaving and glass-blowing are also carried on4 ,esseg owes its origin to its fortress1 which existed as early as the time of the ,romans under the name of ,mursia2 though the present structure dates only from #agbj4 ,at the beginning of the ,hungarian revolution of #ahdh the town was held by the ,hungarians1 but on the #dth of ,february #ahdi it was taken by the ,austrians under ,general ,baron ,trebersberg4 ,,essen1 a manufacturing town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian ,rhine province1 #bb m4 ,n4,e4 from ,dusseldorf1 on the main line of railway to ,berlin1 in an undulating and densely populated district4 ,pop4 7#ahdi7 #hhac2 7#ahge7 #ed1gij2 7#aije7 #bbi1bgj4 ,it lies at the centre of a network of railways giving it access to all the principal towns of the ,westphalian iron and coal fields4 ,its general aspect is gloomy2 it possesses few streets of any pretensions1 though those in the old part1 which are mostly narrow1 present1 with their grey slate roofs and green shutters1 a picturesque appearance4 ,of its religious edifices 7twelve ,roman ,catholic1 one ,old ,catholic1 six ,protestant churches1 and a synagogue7 the minster1 dating from the #ajth century1 with fine pictures1 relics and wall frescoes1 is alone especially remarkable4 ,this building is very similar to the ,pfalz-,kapelle 7capella in palatio7 at ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,among the town's principal secular buildings are the new ,gothic town-hall1 the post office and the railway station4 ,there are several high-grade 7classical and modern7 schools1 technical1 mining and commercial schools1 a theatre1 a permanent art exhibition1 and hospitals4 ,essen also has a beautiful public park in the immediate vicinity4 ,the town originally owed its prosperity to the large iron and coal fields underlying the basin in which it is situated4 ,chief among its industrial establishments are the famous iron and steel works of ,krupp 7q4v471 and the whole of ,essen may be said to depend for its livelihood upon this firm1 which annually expends vast sums in building and supporting churches1 schools1 clubs1 hospitals and philanthropic institutions1 and in other ways providing for the welfare of its employees4 ,there are also manufactories of woollen goods and cigars1 dyeworks and breweries4 ,essen was originally the seat of a ,benedictine nunnery1 and was formed into a town about the middle of the #ajth century by the abbess ,hedwig4 ,the abbess of the nunnery1 who held from #abge the rank of a princess of the ,empire1 was assisted by a chapter of ten princesses and countesses2 she governed the town until #ahjc1 when it was secularized and incorporated with ,prussia4 ,in #ahjg it came into the possession of the grand dukes of ,berg1 but was transferred to ,prussia in #ahad4 ,see ,funcke1 ,geschichte des ,furstenthums und der ,stadt ,essen 7,elberfeld1 #ahea72 ,kellen1 ,die ,industriestadt ,essen in ,wort und ,bild 7,essen1 #aijb72 and ,a4 ,shadwell1 ,industrial ,efficiency 7,london1 #aijf74 ,,essenes1 a monastic order among the ,jews prior to ,christianity4 ,their first appearance in history is in the time of ,jonathan the ,maccabee 7#afa-add ,b4,c474 ,how much older they may have been we have no means of determining1 but our authorities agree in assigning to them a dateless antiquity4 ,the name occurs in ,greek1 in the two forms ,greek3 ,essenoi and ,greek3 ,essaioi4 ,greek3 ,essenoi is used by ,josephus fourteen times1 ,greek3 ,essaioi six1 but the latter is the only form used by ,philo 7ii4 #deg1 #dga1 #fcb74 ,greek3 ,essenoi is also used by ,synesius and ,hippolytus1 and its ,latin equivalent by ,pliny and ,solinus2 ,greek3 ,essaioi by ,hegesippus and ,porphyry4 ,in ,epiphanius we find the forms ,greek3 ,ossaioi1 ,ossenoi1 and ,greek3 ,iessaioi4 ,there is a place named ,essa mentioned by ,josephus 7,ant4 xiii4 #ae1 ,s #c71 from which the name may have been formed1 just as the ,christians were originally called ,greek3 ,nazarenoi or ,greek3 ,nazoraioi1 from ,nazara4 ,this etymology1 however1 is not much in favour now4 ,lightfoot explains the name as meaning the silent ones1 others as meaning physicians4 ,perhaps there is most authority in favour of deriving it from the ,syriac ,hebrew3 chseich1 which in the emphatic state becomes ,hebrew3 chaseia1 so that we have a ,semitic correspondence to both the ,greek forms ,greek3 ,essenoi and ,greek3 ,essaioi4 ,this etymology makes the word mean pious4 ,it has also been urged in excuse for ,philo's absurd derivation from ,greek3 hosios4 ,the original accounts we have of them are confined to three authors--,philo1 ,pliny the ,elder1 and ,josephus4 ,philo describes them in his treatise known as ,quod omnis probus liber 7,,ss #ab1 #ac2 ii4 #deg-dfj71 and also in his ,apology for the ,jews1 a fragment of which has been preserved by ,eusebius 7,praep4 ,ev4 viii4 #aa1 #ab74 ,pliny 7,n4,h4 v4 #ag7 has a short but striking sketch of them1 derived in all probability from ,alexander ,polyhistor1 who is mentioned among the authorities for the fifth book of his ,natural ,history4 ,this historian1 of whom ,eusebius had a very high opinion 7,praep4 ,ev4 ix4 #ag1 ,s #a71 lived in the time of ,sulla4 ,josephus treats of them at length in his ,jewish ,war 7ii4 #h71 and more briefly in two passages of his ,antiquities 7xiii4 #e1 ,s #i2 xviii4 #a1 ,s #e74 ,he has also interesting accounts of the prophetic powers possessed by three individual members of the sect--,judas 7,b4,j4 i4 #c1 ,s #e2 ,ant4 xiii4 #aa1 ,s #b71 ,menahem 7,ant4 xv4 #aj1 ,s #e71 and ,simon 7,b4,j4 ii4 #g1 ,s #c2 ,ant4 xvii4 #ac1 ,s #c74 ,besides this he mentions an ,essene ,gate in ,jerusalem 7,b4,j4 v4 #d1 ,s #b7 and a person called ,john the ,essene1 one of the bravest and most capable leaders in the war against the ,romans 7,b4,j4 ii4 #bj1 ,s #d2 iii4 #b1 ,s #a74 ,josephus himself made trial of the sect of ,essenes in his youth2 but from his own statement it appears that he must have been a very short time with them1 and therefore could not have been initiated into the inner mysteries of the society 7,de vita sua1 #b74 ,after this the notices that we have of the ,essenes from antiquity are mere reproductions1 except in the case of ,epiphanius 7died ,a4,d4 #djb71 who1 however1 is so confused a writer as to be of little value4 ,solinus1 who was known as ,pliny's ,ape1 echoed the words of his master about a century after that writer's death1 which took place in ,a4,d4 #gi4 ,similarly ,hippolytus1 who lived in the reign of ,commodus 7,a4,d4 #ahj-aib71 reproduced the account of ,josephus1 adding a few touches of his own4 ,porphyry 7,a4,d4 #bcc-cjf7 afterwards did the same1 but had the grace to mention ,josephus in the context4 ,eusebius quoted the account as from ,porphyry1 though he must have known that he had derived it from ,josephus 7,praep4 ,ev4 ix4 #c1 ,,ss #a1 #ac74 ,but ,porphyry's name would impress pagan readers4 ,there is also a mention of the ,essenes by ,hegesippus 7,eus4 ,h4,e4 iv4 #bb7 and by ,synesius in his life of ,dio ,chrysostom4 ,it has been conjectured that the ,clementine literature emanated from ,essenes who had turned ,christian4 7,see ,,ebionites47 ,the ,essenes were an exclusive society1 distinguished from the rest of the ,jewish nation in ,palestine by an organization peculiar to themselves1 and by a theory of life in which a severe asceticism and a rare benevolence to one another and to mankind in general were the most striking characteristics4 ,they had fixed rules for initiation1 a succession of strictly separate grades within the limits of the society1 and regulations for the conduct of their daily life even in its minutest details4 ,their membership could be recruited only from the outside world1 as marriage and all intercourse with women were absolutely renounced4 ,they were the first society in the world to condemn slavery both in theory and practice2 they enforced and practised the most complete community of goods4 ,they chose their own priests and public office-bearers1 and even their own judges4 ,though their prevailing tendency was practical1 and the tenets of the society were kept a profound secret1 it is perfectly clear from the concurrent testimony of ,philo and ,josephus that they cultivated a kind of speculation1 which not only accounts for their spiritual asceticism1 but indicates a great deviation from the normal development of ,judaism1 and a profound sympathy with ,greek philosophy1 and probably also with ,oriental ideas4 ,at the same time we do our ,jewish authorities no injustice in imputing to them the patriotic tendency to idealize the society1 and thus offer to their readers something in ,jewish life that would bear comparison at least with similar manifestations of ,gentile life4 ,there is some difficulty in determining how far the ,essenes separated themselves locally from their fellow-countrymen4 ,josephus informs us that they had no single city of their own1 but that many of them dwelt in every city4 ,while in his treatise ,quod omnis1 c41 ,philo speaks of their avoiding towns and preferring to live in villages1 in his ,apology for the ,jews we find them living in many cities1 villages1 and in great and prosperous towns4 ,in ,pliny they are a perennial colony settled on the western shore of the ,dead ,sea4 ,on the whole1 as ,philo and ,josephus agree in estimating their number at #djjj 7,philo1 ,q4,o4,p4,l4 ,s #ab2 ,jos4 ,ant4 xviii4 #a1 ,s #e71 we are justified in suspecting some exaggeration as to the many cities1 towns and villages where they were said to be found4 ,as agriculture was their favourite occupation1 and as their tendency was to withdraw from the haunts and ordinary interests of mankind1 we may assume that with the growing confusion and corruption of ,jewish society they felt themselves attracted from the mass of the population to the sparsely peopled districts1 till they found a congenial settlement and free scope for their peculiar view of life by the shore of the ,dead ,sea4 ,while their principles were consistent with the neighbourhood of men1 they were better adapted to a state of seclusion4 ,the ,essenes did not renounce marriage because they denied the validity of the institution or the necessity of it as providing for the continuance of the human race1 but because they had a low opinion of the character of women 7,jos4 ,b4,j4 ii4 #h1 ,s #b2 ,philo1 ,apol4 for the ,jews in ,eus4 ,praep4 ,ev4 viii4 #aa1 ,s #h74 ,they adopted children when very young1 and brought them up on their own principles4 ,pleasure generally they rejected as evil4 ,they despised riches not less than pleasure2 neither poverty nor wealth was observable among them2 at initiation every one gave his property into the common stock2 every member in receipt of wages handed them over to the funds of the society4 ,in matters of dress the asceticism of the society was very pronounced4 ,they regarded oil as a defilement1 even washing it off if anointed with it against their will4 ,they did not change their clothes or their shoes till they were torn in pieces or worn completely away4 ,the colour of their garments was always white4 ,their daily routine was prescribed for them in the strictest manner4 ,before the rising of the sun they were to speak of nothing profane1 but offered to it certain traditional forms of prayer as if beseeching it to rise4 ,thereafter they went about their daily tasks1 working continuously at whatever trade they knew till the fifth hour1 when they assembled1 and1 girding on a garment of linen1 bathed in cold water4 ,they next seated themselves quietly in the dining hall1 where the baker set bread in order1 and the cook brought each a single dish of one kind of food4 ,before meat and after it grace was said by a priest4 ,after dinner they resumed work till sunset4 ,in the evening they had supper1 at which guests of the order joined them1 if there happened to be any such present4 ,withal there was no noise or confusion to mar the tranquillity of their intercourse2 no one usurped more than his share of the conversation2 the stillness of the place oppressed a stranger with a feeling of mysterious awe4 ,this composure of spirit was owing to their perfect temperance in eating and drinking4 ,not only in the daily routine of the society1 but generally1 the activity of the members was controlled by their presidents4 ,in only two things could they take the initiative1 helpfulness and mercy2 the deserving poor and the destitute were to receive instant relief2 but no member could give anything to his relatives without consulting the heads of the society4 ,their office-bearers were elected4 ,they had also their special courts of justice1 which were composed of not less than a hundred members1 and their decisions1 which were arrived at with extreme care1 were irreversible4 ,oaths were strictly forbidden2 their word was stronger than an oath4 ,they were just and temperate in anger1 the guardians of good faith1 and the ministers of peace1 obedient to their elders and to the majority4 ,but the moral characteristics which they most earnestly cultivated and enjoined will best appear in their rules of initiation4 ,there was a novitiate of three years1 during which the intending member was tested as to his fitness for entering the society4 ,if the result was satisfactory1 he was admitted1 but before partaking of the common meal he was required to swear awful oaths1 that he would reverence the deity1 do justice to men1 hurt no man voluntarily or at the command of another1 hate the unjust and assist the just1 and that he would render fidelity to all men1 but especially to the rulers1 seeing that no one rules but of ,god4 ,he also vowed1 if he should bear rule himself1 to make no violent use of his power1 nor outshine those set under him by superior display1 to make it his aim to cherish the truth and unmask liars1 to be pure from theft and unjust gain1 to conceal nothing from his fellow-members1 nor to divulge any of their affairs to other men1 even at the risk of death1 to transmit their doctrines unchanged1 and to keep secret the books of the society and the names of the angels4 ,within the limits of the society there were four grades so distinct that if any one touched a member of an inferior grade he required to cleanse himself by bathing in water2 members who had been found guilty of serious crimes were expelled from the society1 and could not be received again till reduced to the very last extremity of want or sickness4 ,as the result of the ascetic training of the ,essenes1 and of their temperate diet1 it is said that they lived to a great age1 and were superior to pain and fear4 ,during the ,roman war they cheerfully underwent the most grievous tortures rather than break any of the principles of their faith4 ,in fact1 they had in many respects reached the very highest moral elevation attained by the ancient world2 they were just1 humane1 benevolent1 and spiritually-minded2 the sick and aged were the objects of a special affectionate regard2 and they condemned slavery1 not only as an injustice1 but as an impious violation of the natural brotherhood of men 7,philo ii4 #deg74 ,there were some of the ,essenes who permitted marriage1 but strictly with a view to the preservation of the race2 in other respects they agreed with the main body of the society4 ,it will be apparent that the predominant tendency of the society was practical4 ,philo tells us expressly that they rejected logic as unnecessary to the acquisition of virtue1 and speculation on nature as too lofty for the human intellect4 ,yet they had views of their own as to ,god1 ,providence1 the soul1 and a future state1 which1 while they had a practical use1 were yet essentially speculative4 ,on the one hand1 indeed1 they held tenaciously by the traditional ,judaism3 blasphemy against their lawgiver was punished with death1 the sacred books were preserved and read with great reverence1 though not without an allegorical interpretation1 and the ,sabbath was most scrupulously observed4 ,but in many important points their deviation from the strait path of ,judaic development was complete4 ,they rejected animal sacrifice as well as marriage2 the oil with which priests and kings were anointed they accounted unclean2 and the condemnation of oaths and the community of goods were unmistakable innovations for which they found no hint or warrant in the old ,hebrew writings4 ,their most singular feature1 perhaps1 was their reverence for the sun4 ,in their speculative hints respecting the soul and a future state1 we find another important deviation from ,judaism1 and the explanation of their asceticism4 ,they held that the body is mortal1 and its substance transitory2 that the soul is immortal1 but1 coming from the subtlest ether1 is lured as by a sorcery of nature into the prison-house of the body4 ,at death it is released from its bonds1 as from long slavery1 and joyously soars aloft4 ,to the souls of the good there is reserved a life beyond the ocean1 and a country oppressed by neither rain1 nor snow1 nor heat1 but refreshed by a gentle west wind blowing continually from the sea 7cf4 ,hom4 ,od4 iv4 #eff-efh71 but to the wicked a region of wintry darkness and of unceasing torment4 ,josephus tells us too that the ,essenes believed in fate2 but in what sense1 and what relation it bore to ,divine ,providence1 does not appear4 ,the above evidence has left students in doubt as to whether ,essenism is to be regarded as a pure product of the ,jewish mind or as due in part to some foreign influence4 ,on the one hand it might be maintained that the ,essenes out-,pharisee'd the ,pharisees4 ,they had in common with that sect their veneration for ,moses and the ,law1 their ,sabbatarianism1 their striving after ceremonial purity1 and their tendency towards fatalism4 ,but if the ,pharisees abstained from good works on the ,sabbath1 the ,essenes abstained even from natural necessities 7,jos4 ,b4,j4 ii4 #h1 ,s #i72 if the ,pharisees washed1 the ,essenes bathed before dinner2 if the ,pharisees ascribed some things to ,fate1 the ,essenes ascribed all 7,jos4 ,ant4 xiii4 #e1 ,s #i74 ,but on the other hand the ,essenes avoided marriage1 which the ,pharisees held in honour2 they offered no animal-sacrifices in the ,temple2 they refrained from the use of oil1 which was customary among the ,pharisees 7,luke vii4 #df72 above all1 they offered prayers to the sun1 after the manner denounced in ,ezekiel 7viii4 #af74 ,these and other points of divergences are not explained by ,ritschl's interesting theory that ,essenism was an organized attempt to carry out the idea of a kingdom of priests and an holy nation 7,ex4 xix4 #f74 ,granting then that some foreign influence was at work in ,essenism1 we have four theories offered to us--that this influence was ,persian1 ,buddhist1 ,pythagorean1 or lastly1 as maintained by ,lipsius1 that of the surrounding ,syrian heathenism4 ,each of these views has had able advocates1 but it must not be supposed that they are mutually exclusive4 ,if we consider how ,philo1 while remaining a devout ,jew in religion1 yet managed to assimilate the whole ,stoic philosophy1 we can well believe that the ,essenes might have been influenced1 as ,zeller maintained that they were1 by ,neo-,pythagoreanism4 ,but as ,pythagoras himself came from ,samos1 and his doctrines have a decidedly ,oriental tinge1 it may very well be that both he and the ,essenes drew from a common source2 for there is no need to reject1 as is so commonly done1 the statements of our authorities as to the antiquity of the ,essenes4 ,this common source we may believe with ,lightfoot to have been the ,persian religion1 which we know to have profoundly influenced that of ,israel1 independently of the ,essenes4 ,the fact that the ,pharisees and ,sadducees so often figure in the pages of the ,new ,testament1 while the ,essenes are never mentioned1 might plausibly be interpreted to show that the ,new ,testament emanated from the side of the ,essenes4 ,so far as concerns the ,epistle of ,st ,james this interpretation would probably be correct4 ,that work contains the doctrine common to the ,essenes with ,plato1 and suggestive of ,persian ,dualism1 that ,god is the author of good only4 ,there are also certain obvious points of resemblance between the ,essenes and the early ,christians4 ,both held property in common2 both had scattered communities which received guests one from the other2 both avoided a light use of oaths2 both taught passive obedience to political authority4 ,the list might be enlarged1 but it would not necessarily prove more than that the early ,christians shared in the ideas of their age4 ,christianity was to some extent a popularization of ,essenism1 but there is little reason for believing that ,jesus himself was an ,essene4 ,de ,quincey's contention that there were no ,essenes but the early ,christians is now a literary curiosity4 ,the original sources of our knowledge of the ,essenes have been mentioned at the beginning of this paper2 the best modern discussions of them are to be found in such works as ,zeller's ,philosophie der ,griechen1 vol4 iii42 ,ewald1 ,geschichte d4 ,v4 ,israel1 iii4 #dai-dbh2 ,reuss1 ,la ,theologie chretienne au siecle apostolique1 i4 #abb-aca2 ,keim1 ,life of ,jesus of ,nazara1 vol4 i42 ,lightfoot on the ,colossians2 ,lucius1 ,der ,essenismus in seinem ,verhaltniss zum ,judenthum2 ,wellhausen1 ,israelitische und judische ,geschichte2 ,ed4 ,schurer1 ,the ,jewish ,people in the ,time of ,jesus ,christ1 div4 ii4 vol4 ii4 ,s #cj4 ,the copious bibliography in ,conybeare's edition of ,philo's ,de vita contemplativa bears upon the ,essenes as well as upon the ,therapeutes4 ,for a specially ,jewish view of the ,essenes see ,kohler's article in the ,jewish ,encyclopaedia4 ,they are there regarded as being simply the rigorists among the ,pharisees4 ,but we are also told that the ,pharisees characterized the ,essene as 'a fool who destroyed the world4' 7,t4 ,k42 ,st ,g4 ,s47 ,,essentuki1 a watering-place of south ,russia1 in the government of ,terek1 #aa m4 by rail ,w4 from ,pyatigorsk2 altitude1 #bjif ft4 ,its alkaline and sulphur-alkaline mineral waters1 similar to those of ,ems1 ,selters and ,vichy1 are much visited in summer4 ,the climate shows great variations in temperature4 ,pop4 7#ahig7 #iigd4 ,,essequibo1 or ,,essequebo1 one of the three settlements of ,british ,guiana1 taking its name from the river ,essequibo4 7,see ,,guiana47 ,,essex1 ,,earls ,,of4 ,the first earl of ,essex was probably ,geoffrey de ,mandeville 7q4v471 who became earl about #aaci1 the earldom being subsequently held by his two sons1 ,geoffrey and ,william1 until the death of the latter in #aahi4 ,in #aaii ,geoffrey ,fitzpeter or ,fitzpiers 7d4 #abac71 who was related to the ,mandevilles through his wife ,beatrice1 became earl of ,essex1 and on the death of ,geoffrey's son ,william in #abbg the earldom reverted for the second time to the crown4 ,then the title to the earldom passed by marriage to the ,bohuns1 earls of ,hereford1 and before #abci ,humphrey de ,bohun 7d4 #abge7 had been recognized as earl of ,essex4 ,with the earldom of ,hereford the earldom of ,essex became extinct in #acgc2 afterwards it was held by ,thomas of ,woodstock1 duke of ,gloucester1 a son of ,edward ,,iii4 and the husband of ,eleanor de ,bohun2 and from ,gloucester it passed to the ,bourchiers1 ,henry ,bourchier 7d4 #adhc71 who secured the earldom in #adfa1 being one of ,gloucester's grandsons4 ,the second and last ,bourchier earl was ,henry's grandson ,henry1 who died early in #aedj4 ,a few weeks before his execution in #aedj ,thomas ,cromwell 7q4v47 was created earl of ,essex2 then in #aedc ,william ,parr1 afterwards marquess of ,northampton1 obtained the earldom by right of his wife ,anne1 a daughter of the last ,bourchier earl4 ,northampton lost the earldom when he was attainted in #aeec2 and afterwards it passed to the famous family of ,devereux1 ,walter ,devereux1 who was created earl of ,essex in #aegb1 being related to the ,bourchiers4 ,robert1 the #crd and last ,devereux earl1 died in #afdf4 ,in #affa ,arthur ,capel was created earl of ,essex1 and the earldom is still held by his descendants4 ,,essex1 ,,arthur ,,capel1 #a,,st#a ,,earl ,,of 7#afcb-afhc71 ,english statesman1 son of ,arthur1 #ast ,baron ,capel of ,hadham 7c4 #afda71 executed in #afdi1 and of ,elizabeth1 daughter and heir of ,sir ,charles ,morrison of ,cashiobury in ,hertfordshire1 was baptized on the #bhth of ,january #afcb4 ,in ,june #afdh1 then a sickly boy of sixteen1 he was taken by ,fairfax's soldiers from ,hadham to ,colchester1 which his father was defending1 and carried every day round the works with the hope of inducing ,lord ,capel to surrender the place4 ,at the restoration he was created ,viscount ,malden and earl of ,essex 7#bjth of ,april #affa71 with special remainder to the male issue of his father1 and was made lord-lieutenant of ,hertfordshire and a few years later of ,wiltshire4#b ,he early showed himself antagonistic to the court1 to ,roman ,catholicism1 and to the extension of the royal prerogative1 and was coupled by ,charles ,,ii4 with ,holles as stiff and sullen men1 who would not yield against their convictions to his solicitations4 ,in #affi he was sent as ambassador to ,king ,christian ,v4 of ,denmark1 in which capacity he gained credit by refusing to strike his flag to the governor of ,kronborg4 ,in #afgb he was made a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of ,ireland4 ,he remained in office till #afgg1 and his administration was greatly commended by ,burnet and ,ormonde1#c the former describing it as a pattern to all that come after him4 ,he identified himself with ,irish interests1 and took immense pains to understand the constitution and the political necessities of the country1 appointing men of real merit to office1 and maintaining an exceptional independence from solicitation and influence4 ,he held a just balance between the ,roman ,catholics1 the ,english ,church and the ,presbyterians1 protecting the former as far as public opinion in ,england would permit1 and governing the native ,irish with firmness and moderation4 ,the purity and patriotism of his administration were in strong contrast to the hopeless corruption prevalent in that at home and naturally aroused bitter opposition1 as an obstacle to the unscrupulous employment of ,irish revenues for the satisfaction of the court and the king's expenses4 ,in particular he came into conflict with ,lord ,ranelagh1 to whom had been assigned the ,irish revenues on condition of his supplying the requirements of the crown1 and whose accounts ,essex refused to pass4 ,he opposed strongly the lavish gifts of forfeited estates to court favourites and mistresses1 prevented the grant of ,phoenix ,park to the duchess of ,cleveland1 and refused to encumber the administration by granting reversions4 ,finally the intrigues of his enemies at home1 and ,charles's continual demands for money1 which ,ranelagh undertook to satisfy1 brought about his recall in ,april #afgg4 ,he immediately joined the country party and the opposition to ,danby's government1 and on the latter's fall in #afgi was appointed a commissioner of the treasury1 and the same year a member of ,sir ,william ,temple's new-modelled council4 ,he followed the lead of ,halifax1 who advocated not the exclusion of ,james1 but the limitation of his sovereign powers1 and looked to the prince of ,orange rather than to ,monmouth as the leader of ,protestantism1 incurring thereby the hostility of ,shaftesbury1 but at the same time gaining the confidence of ,charles4 ,he was appointed by ,charles together with ,halifax to hear the charges against ,lauderdale4 ,in ,july he wrote a wise and statesmanlike letter to the king1 advising him to renounce his project of raising a new company of guards4 ,together with ,halifax he urged ,charles to summon the parliament1 and after his refusal resigned the treasury in ,november1 the real cause being1 according to one account1#d a demand upon the treasury by the duchess of ,cleveland for ,l#be1jjj1 according to another the niceness of touching ,french money1 that makes my ,lord ,essex's squeasy stomach that it can no longer digest his employment4#e ,subsequently his political attitude underwent a change1 the exact cause of which is not clear--probably a growing conviction of the dangers threatened by a ,roman ,catholic sovereign of the character of ,james4 ,he now1 in #afhj1 joined ,shaftesbury's party and supported the ,exclusion ,bill1 and on its rejection by the ,lords carried a motion for an association to execute the scheme of expedients promoted by ,halifax4 ,on the #beth of ,january #afha at the head of fifteen peers he presented a petition to the king1 couched in exaggerated language1 requesting the abandonment of the session of parliament at ,oxford4 ,he was a jealous prosecutor of the ,roman ,catholics in the popish plot1 and voted for ,stafford's attainder1 on the other hand interceding for ,archbishop ,plunket1 implicated in the pretended ,irish plot4 ,he1 however1 refused to follow ,shaftesbury in his extreme courses1 declined participation in the latter's design to seize the ,tower in #afhb1 and on ,shaftesbury's consequent departure from ,england became the leader of ,monmouth's faction1 in which were now included ,lord ,russell1 ,algernon ,sidney1 and ,lord ,howard of ,escrick4 ,essex took no part in the wilder schemes of the party1 but after the discovery of the ,rye ,house ,plot in ,june #afhc1 and the capture of the leaders1 he was arrested at ,cashiobury and imprisoned in the ,tower4 ,his spirits and fortitude appear immediately to have abandoned him1 and on the #acth of ,july he was discovered in his chamber with his throat cut4 ,his death was attributed1 quite groundlessly1 to ,charles and ,james1 and the evidence points clearly if not conclusively to suicide1 his motive being possibly to prevent an attainder and preserve his estate for his family4 ,he was1 however1 undoubtedly a victim of the ,stuart administration1 and the antagonism and tragic end of men like ,essex1 deserving men1 naturally devoted to the throne1 constitutes a severe indictment of the ,stuart rule4 ,he was a statesman of strong and sincere patriotism1 just and unselfish1 conscientious and laborious in the fulfilment of public duties1 blameless in his official and private life4 ,evelyn describes him as a sober1 wise1 judicious and pondering person1 not illiterate beyond the rule of most noblemen in this age1 very well versed in ,english history and affairs1 industrious1 frugal1 methodical and every way accomplished2 and declares he was much deplored1 few believing he had ever harboured any seditious designs4#f ,he married ,lady ,elizabeth ,percy1 daughter of ,algernon1 #ajth earl of ,northumberland1 by whom1 besides a daughter1 he had an only son ,algernon 7#afgj-agaj71 who succeeded him as #bnd earl of ,essex4 ,,bibliography4--,see the ,lives in the ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biography and in ,biographia ,britannica 7,kippis71 with authorities there collected2 ,essex's ,irish correspondence is in the ,stow ,collection in the ,british ,museum1 ,nos4 #bjj-bag1 and selections have been published in ,letters written by ,arthur ,capel1 ,earl of ,essex 7#aggj7 and in the ,essex ,papers 7,camden ,society1 #ahij71 to which can now be added the ,calendars of ,state ,papers1 ,domestic1 which contain a large number of his letters and which strongly support the opinion of his contemporaries concerning his unselfish patriotism and industry2 see also ,somers ,tracts 7#ahac71 x41 and for other pamphlets relating to his death the catalogue of the ,british ,museum4 ,,footnotes3 #a i4e4 in the ,capel line4 #b ,hist4 ,,mss4 ,comm4 ser42 ,duke of ,beaufort's ,,mss4 #de4 #c ,life of ,ormonde1 by ,t4 ,carte1 viii4 #dfh 7#ahea71 vol4 iv4 p4 #ebi4 #d ,hist4 ,,mss4 ,comm4 #gth ,rep4 app4 #dgg;b4 #e ,ib4 #fth ,rep4 app4 #gda;b4 #f ,diary and ,corresp4 7#ahej71 ii4 #ada1 #agh4 ,,essex1 ,,robert ,,devereux1 #b,,nd#a ,,earl ,,of 7#aeff-afja71 son of the #ast ,devereux earl1 was born at ,netherwood1 ,herefordshire1 on the #aith of ,november #aeff4 ,he entered the university of ,cambridge and graduated in #aeha4 ,in #aehe he accompanied his stepfather1 the earl of ,leicester1 on an expedition to ,holland1 and greatly distinguished himself at the battle of ,zutphen4 ,he now took his place at court1 where so handsome a youth soon found favour with ,queen ,elizabeth1 and in consequence was on bad terms with ,raleigh4 ,in #aehg he was appointed master of the horse1 and in the following year was made general of the horse and installed knight of the ,garter4 ,on the death of ,leicester he succeeded him as chief favourite of the queen1 a position which injuriously affected his whole subsequent life1 and ultimately resulted in his ruin4 ,while ,elizabeth was approaching the mature age of sixty1 ,essex was scarcely twenty-one4 ,though well aware of the advantages of his position1 and somewhat vain of the queen's favour1 his constant attendance on her at court was irksome to him beyond all endurance2 and when he could not make his escape to the scenes of foreign adventure after which he longed1 he varied the monotony of his life at court by intrigues with the maids of honour4 ,he fought a duel with ,sir ,charles ,blount1 a rival favourite of the queen1 in which the earl was disarmed and slightly wounded in the thigh4 ,in #aehi1 without the queen's consent1 he joined the expedition of ,drake and ,sir ,john ,norris against ,spain1 but in ,june he was compelled to obey a letter enjoining him at his uttermost peril to return immediately4 ,in #aeij ,essex married the widow of ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 but in dread of the queen's anger he kept the marriage secret as long as possible4 ,when it was necessary to avow it1 her rage at first knew no bounds1 but as the earl did use it with good temper1 and for her majesty's better satisfaction was pleased that my lady should live retired in her mother's house1 he soon came to be in very good favour4 ,in #aeia he was appointed to the command of a force auxiliary to one formerly sent to assist ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france against the ,spaniards2 but after a fruitless campaign he was finally recalled from the command in ,january #aeib4 ,for some years after this most of his time was spent at court1 where he held a position of unexampled influence1 both on account of the favour of the queen and from his own personal popularity4 ,in #aeif he was1 after a great many changes of humour on the queen's part1 appointed along with ,lord ,howard of ,effingham1 ,raleigh and ,lord ,thomas ,howard1 to the command of an expedition1 which was successful in defeating the ,spanish fleet1 capturing and pillaging ,cadiz1 and destroying #ec merchant vessels4 ,it would seem to have been shortly after this exploit that the beginnings of a change in the feelings of the queen towards him came into existence4 ,on his return she chided him that he had not followed up his successes1 and though she professed great pleasure at again seeing him in safety1 and was ultimately satisfied that the abrupt termination of the expedition was contrary to his advice and remonstrances1 she forbade him to publish anything in justification of his conduct4 ,she doubtless was offended at his growing tendency to assert his independence1 and jealous of his increasing popularity with the people2 but it is also probable that her strange infatuation regarding her own charms1 great as it was1 scarcely prevented her from suspecting either that his professed attachment had all along been somewhat alloyed with considerations of personal interest1 or that at least it was now beginning to cool4 ,francis ,bacon1 at that time his most intimate friend1 endeavoured to prevent the threatened rupture by writing him a long letter of advice2 and although perseverance in a long course of feigned action was for ,essex impossible1 he for some time attended pretty closely to the hints of his mentor1 so that the queen used him most graciously4 ,in #aeig he was appointed master of the ordnance1 and in the following year he obtained command of an expedition against ,spain1 known as the ,islands or ,azores ,voyage4 ,he gained some trifling successes1 but as the ,plate fleet escaped him he failed of his main purpose2 and when on his return the queen met him with the usual reproaches1 he retired to his home at ,wanstead4 ,this was not what ,elizabeth desired1 and although she conferred on ,lord ,howard of ,effingham the earldom of ,nottingham for services at ,cadiz1 the main merit of which was justly claimed by ,essex1 she ultimately held out to the latter the olive branch of peace1 and condescended to soothe his wounded honour by creating him earl marshal of ,england4 ,that1 nevertheless1 the irritated feelings neither of ,essex nor of the queen were completely healed was manifested shortly afterwards in a manner which set propriety completely at defiance4 ,in a discussion on the appointment of a lord deputy to ,ireland1 ,essex1 on account of some taunting words of ,elizabeth1 turned his back upon her with a gesture indicative not only of anger but of contempt1 and when she1 unable to control her indignation1 slapped him on the face1 he left her presence swearing that such an insult he would not have endured even from ,henry ,,viii4 ,in #aeii1 while ,ulster was in rebellion under the earl of ,tyrone1 the office of lieutenant and governor-general of ,ireland was conferred on ,essex1 and a large force put at his command4 ,his campaign was an unsuccessful one1 and by acting in various ways in opposition to the commands of the queen and the council1 agreeing with ,tyrone on a truce in ,september1 and suddenly leaving the post of duty with the object of privately vindicating himself before the queen1 he laid himself open to charges more serious than that of mere incompetency4 ,for these misdemeanours he was brought in ,june #afjj before a specially constituted court1 deprived of all his high offices1 and ordered to live a prisoner in his own house during the queen's pleasure4 ,chiefly through the intercession of ,bacon his liberty was shortly afterwards restored to him1 but he was ordered not to return to court4 ,for some time he hoped for an improvement in his prospects1 but when he was refused the renewal of his patent for sweet wines1 hope was succeeded by despair1 and half maddened by wounded vanity1 he made an attempt 7,feb4 #g1 #afja7 to incite a revolution in his behalf1 by parading the streets of ,london with #cjj retainers1 and shouting1 ,for the queen6 a plot is laid for my life6 ,these proceedings awakened1 however1 scarcely any other feelings than mild perplexity and wonder2 and finding that hope of assistance from the citizens was vain1 he returned to ,essex ,house1 where after defending himself for a short time he surrendered4 ,after a trial--in which ,bacon1 who prosecuted1 delivered a speech against his quondam friend and benefactor1 the bitterness of which was quite unnecessary to secure a conviction entailing at least very severe punishment--he was condemned to death1 and notwithstanding many alterations in ,elizabeth's mood1 the sentence was carried out on the #beth of ,february #afja4 ,essex was in person tall and well proportioned1 with a countenance which1 though not strictly handsome1 possessed1 on account of its bold1 cheerful and amiable expression1 a wonderful power of fascination4 ,he was a patron of literature1 and himself a poet4 ,his carriage was not very graceful1 but his manners are said to have been courtly1 grave and exceedingly comely4 ,he was brave1 chivalrous1 impulsive1 imperious sometimes with his equals1 but generous to all his dependants and incapable of secret malice2 and these virtues1 which were innate and which remained with him to the last1 must be regarded as somewhat counterbalancing1 in our estimation of him1 the follies and vices created by temptations which were exceptionally strong4 ,see ,hon4 ,w4,b4 ,devereux1 ,lives of the ,earls of ,essex 7#ahec72 and ,bacon and ,essex1 by ,e4,a4 ,abbott 7#ahgg74 ,also the article ,,bacon1 ,,francis1 and authorities there4 ,,footnote3 #a i4e4 in the ,devereux line4 ,,essex1 ,,robert ,,devereux1 #c,,rd#a ,,earl ,,of 7#aeia-afdf71 son of the preceding1 was born in #aeia4 ,he was educated at ,eton and at ,merton ,college1 ,oxford4 ,shortly after the arrival of ,james ,i4 in ,london1 ,essex 7whose title was restored1 and the attainder on his father removed1 in #afjd7 was placed about the prince of ,wales1 as a sharer both in his studies and amusements4 ,at the early age of fifteen he was married to ,frances ,howard1 daughter of the earl of ,suffolk1 but she was his wife only in name2 during his absence abroad 7#afjg-afji7 she fell in love with ,sir ,robert ,carr 7afterwards earl of ,somerset71 and on her charging her husband with physical incapacity1 the marriage was annulled in #afac4 ,a second marriage which he contracted in #afca with ,elizabeth1 daughter of ,sir ,william ,paulet1 also ended unhappily4 ,from #afbj to #afbc he served in the wars of the ,palatinate1 and in #afbe he was vice-admiral of a fleet which made an unsuccessful attempt to capture ,cadiz4 ,in #afci he was lieutenant-general of the army sent by ,charles against the ,scottish ,covenanters2 but on account of the irresolution of the king no battle occurred1 and the army was disbanded at the end of the year4 ,essex was discharged without ordinary ceremony1 and refused an office which at that time fell vacant1 all which1 says ,clarendon1 wrought very much upon his rough1 proud nature1 and made him susceptible of some impressions afterwards which otherwise would not have found such easy admission4 ,having taken the side of the parliament against ,charles1 he was1 on the outbreak of the civil war in #afdb1 appointed to the command of the parliamentary army4 ,at the battle of ,edgehill he remained master of the field1 and in #afdc he captured ,reading1 and relieved ,gloucester2 but in the campaign of the following year1 on account of his hesitation to fight against the king in person1 nearly his whole army fell into the hands of ,charles4 ,in #afde1 on the passing of the self-denying ordinance1 providing that no member of parliament should hold a public office1 he resigned his commission2 but on account of his past services his annuity of ,l#aj1jjj was continued to him for life4 ,he died on the #adth of ,september #afdf1 of a fever brought on by over-exertion in a stag-hunt in ,windsor ,forest2 his line becoming extinct4 ,see the ,life of ,robert ,earl of ,essex1 by ,robert ,codrington1 ,m4,a41 printed in ,hart4 ,misc42 ,clarendon's ,history of the ,rebellion1 and ,hon4 ,w4,b4 ,devereux1 ,lives of the ,earls of ,essex 7#ahec74 ,,footnote3 #a i4e4 in the ,devereux line4 ,,essex1 ,,walter ,,devereux1 #a,,st#a ,,earl ,,of 7#aeda-aegf71 the eldest son of ,sir ,richard ,devereux1 was born in #aeda4 ,his grandfather was the #bnd ,baron ,ferrers1 who was created ,viscount ,hereford in #aeej and by his mother was a nephew of ,henry ,bourchier1 a former earl of ,essex4 ,walter ,devereux succeeded as #bnd ,viscount ,hereford in #aeeh1 and in #aefa or #aefb married ,lettice1 daughter of ,sir ,francis ,knollys4 ,in #aefi he served as high marshal of the field under the earl of ,warwick and ,lord ,clinton1 and materially assisted them in suppressing the northern insurrection4 ,for his zeal in the service of ,queen ,elizabeth on this and other occasions1 he in #aegb received the ,garter and was created earl of ,essex1 the title which formerly belonged to the ,bourchier family4 ,eager to give proof of his good devotion to employ himself in the service of her majesty1 he offered on certain conditions to subdue and colonize1 at his own expense1 a portion of the ,irish province of ,ulster1 at that time completely under the dominion of the rebel ,o',neills1 under ,sir ,brian ,mac,phelim and ,tirlogh ,luineach1 with the ,scots under their leader ,sorley ,boy ,mac,donnell4 ,his offer1 with certain modifications1 was accepted1 and he set sail for ,ireland in ,july #aegc1 accompanied by a number of earls1 knights and gentlemen1 and with a force of about #abjj men4 ,the beginning of his enterprise was inauspicious1 for on account of a storm which dispersed his fleet and drove some of his vessels as far as ,cork and the ,isle of ,man1 his forces did not all reach the place of rendezvous till late in the autumn1 and he was compelled to entrench himself at ,belfast for the winter4 ,here1 by sickness1 famine and desertions1 his troops were diminished to little more than #bjj men4 ,intrigues of various sorts1 and fighting of a guerilla type1 followed with disappointing results1 and ,essex had difficulties both with the deputy ,fitzwilliam and with the queen4 ,essex was in straits himself1 and his offensive movements in ,ulster took the form of raids and brutal massacres among the ,o',neills2 in ,october #aegd he treacherously captured ,mac,phelim at a conference in ,belfast1 and after slaughtering his attendants had him and his wife and brother executed at ,dublin4 ,elizabeth1 instigated apparently by ,leicester1 after encouraging ,essex to prepare to attack the ,irish chief ,tirlogh ,luineach1 suddenly commanded him to break off his enterprise2 but1 as she left him a certain discretionary power1 he took advantage of it to defeat ,tirlogh ,luineach1 chastise ,antrim1 and massacre several hundreds of ,sorley ,boy's following1 chiefly women and children1 discovered hiding in the caves of ,rathlin4 ,he returned to ,england in the end of #aege1 resolved to live henceforth an untroubled life2 but he was ultimately persuaded to accept the offer of the queen to make him earl marshal of ,ireland4 ,he arrived in ,dublin in ,september #aegf1 and three weeks afterwards died of dysentery4 ,there were suspicions that he had been poisoned by ,leicester1 who shortly after his death married his widow1 but these were not confirmed by the post-mortem examination4 ,the endeavours of ,essex to better the condition of ,ireland were a dismal failure2 and the massacres of the ,o',neills and of the ,scots of ,rathlin leave a dark stain on his reputation4 ,see ,sidney ,lee's article in the ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog42 ,lives of the ,devereux ,earls of ,essex1 by ,hon4 ,walter ,b4 ,devereux 7#ahec72 ,froude's ,history of ,england1 vol4 x42 ,j4,s4 ,brewer1 ,athenaeum 7#ahgj71 part i4 pp4 #bfa1 #cbf4 ,,footnote3 #a i4e4 in the ,devereux line4 ,,essex1 an eastern county of ,england1 bounded ,n4 by ,cambridgeshire and ,suffolk1 ,e4 by the ,north ,sea1 ,s4 by the ,thames1 dividing it from ,kent1 ,w4 by the administrative county of ,london and by ,hertfordshire4 ,its area is #aedb sq4 m4 ,its configuration is sufficiently indicated by the direction of its rivers4 ,except that in the ,n4,w4 the county includes the heads of a few valleys draining northward to the ,cam and so to the ,great ,ouse1 all the streams1 which are never of great size1 run southward and eastward1 either into the ,thames1 or into the ,north ,sea by way of the broad1 shallow estuaries which ramify through the flat coast lands4 ,the highest ground lies consequently in the north-west1 between the ,cam basin and the rivers of the county4 ,its principal southward extension is that between the ,lea 7which with its tributary the ,stort forms a great part of the western boundary7 and the ,roding1 and east of the ,roding valley4 ,the other chief rivers may be specified according to their estuaries1 following the coast northward from ,shoeburyness at the ,thames mouth4 ,that of the ,roach ramifies among several islands of which ,foulness is the largest1 but its main branch joins the ,crouch estuary4 ,next follows the ,blackwater1 which receives the ,chelmer1 the ,brain and other streams4 ,following a coast of numerous creeks and islets1 with the large island of ,mersea1 the ,colne estuary is reached4 ,the ,colne and ,blackwater may be said to form one large estuary1 as they enter the sea by a well-marked common mouth1 #e m4 in width1 between ,sales ,point and ,colne ,point4 ,there is a great irregular inlet 7,hamford ,water7 receiving no large stream1 ,w4 of the ,naze promontory1 and then the ,stour1 bounding the county on the north1 joins its estuary to that of the ,orwell near the sea4 ,there are several seaside watering-places in favour owing to their proximity to ,london1 of which ,southend-on-,sea above the mouth of the ,thames1 ,clacton-on-,sea1 ,walton-on-the-,naze1 and ,dovercourt adjoining ,harwich are the chief4 ,these and other stations on the estuaries are also in favour with yachtsmen4 ,the sea has at some points seriously encroached upon the land within historic times4 ,the low soft cliffs at various points are liable to give way against the waves2 in other parts dykes and embankments are necessary to prevent inundation4 ,inland1 that is apart from the flat coast-district1 the country is pleasantly undulating and for the most part well wooded4 ,it was formerly1 indeed1 almost wholly forested1 the great ,waltham ,forest stretching from ,colchester to the confines of ,london4 ,of this a fragment is preserved in ,epping ,forest 7see ,,epping7 between the ,lea and the ,roding4 ,on the other side of the ,roding ,hainault ,forest is traceable1 but was disafforested in #ahea4 ,the oak is the principal tree2 a noteworthy example was that of ,fairlop in ,hainault1 which measured #de ft4 in girth1 but was blown down in #ahbj4 ,geology4--,the geological structure of the county is very simple3 the greater part is occupied by the ,london clay with underlying ,reading beds and ,thanet sands1 with here and there small patches of ,bagshot gravels on elevated tracts1 as at ,high ,beech1 ,langdon ,hill1 ,brentwood and ,rayleigh2 and occasionally the same beds are represented by the large boulder-like ,sarsen stones on the lower ground4 ,in the north1 the chalk1 which underlies the ,tertiary strata over the whole county1 appears at the surface and forms the downs about ,saffron ,walden1 ,birdbrook and ,great ,yeldham2 it is brought up again by a small disturbance at ,grays ,thurrock where it is quarried on a large scale for lime1 cement and whiting4 ,small patches of ,pleistocene ,red ,crag rest upon the ,eocene strata at ,beaumont and ,oakley1 and are very well exposed at ,walton-on-the-,naze where they are very fossiliferous4 ,most of the county is covered by a superficial deposit of glacial drifts1 sands1 gravel and in places boulder clay1 as at ,epping1 ,dunmow and ,hornchurch where the drift lies beneath the ,thames gravel4 ,an interesting feature in relation to the glacial drift is a deep trough in the ,cam valley revealed by borings to be no less than #cdj ft4 deep at ,newport2 this ancient valley is filled with drift4 ,in the southern part of the county are broad spreads of gravel and brick earth1 formed by the ,thames2 these have been excavated for brick-making and building purposes about ,ilford1 ,romford and ,grays1 and have yielded the remains of hippopotamus1 rhinoceros and mammoth4 ,more recent alluvial deposits are found in the valley at ,walthamstow and ,tilbury1 in which the remains of the beaver have been discovered4 ,the roads of this county with a clay soil foundation were for generations repaired with flints picked by women and children from the surface of the fields4 ,gravel is difficult of access4 ,with the exception of chalk for lime 7mainly obtained at ,ballingdon in the north and ,grays in the south71 septaria for making cement1 and clay for bricks1 the underground riches of the county are meagre4 ,agriculture4--,as an agricultural county ,essex ranks high4 ,some four-fifths of the total area is under cultivation1 and about one-third of that area is in permanent pasture4 ,wheat1 barley and oats1 in that relative order1 are the principal grain crops1 ,essex being one of the chief grain-producing counties4 ,the wheat and barley are in particularly high favour1 the wheat of various standard species being exported for seed purposes1 while the barley is especially useful in malting4 ,beans and peas are largely grown1 as are vegetables for the ,london market4 ,hop-growing was once important4 ,from the comparative dryness of the climate ,essex does not excel in pasturage1 and winter grazing receives the more attention4 ,the numbers of cattle increase steadily1 and store bullocks are introduced in large numbers from ,norfolk1 ,lincolnshire1 ,ireland and ,wales4 ,of sheep there are but few distinct flocks1 and the numbers decrease4 ,pigs are generally of a high-class ,berkshire type4 ,other ,industries4--,the south-west of the county1 being contiguous to ,london1 is very densely populated1 and is the seat of large and varied industries4 ,for example1 there are numbers of chemical works1 the extensive engine shops and works of the ,great ,eastern railway at ,stratford1 government powder works in the vicinity of ,waltham ,abbey1 and powder stores at ,purfleet on the ,thames4 ,the extensive water-works for east ,london1 by the ,lea near ,walthamstow1 may also be mentioned4 ,the docks at ,plaistow and ,tilbury on the ,thames employ many hands4 ,apart from this industrial district1 there are considerable engineering works1 especially for agricultural implements1 at ,chelmsford1 ,colchester and elsewhere2 several silk works1 as at ,braintree and ,halstead2 large breweries1 as at ,brentwood1 ,chelmsford and ,romford2 and lime and cement works at ,grays ,thurrock4 ,the oyster-beds of the ,colne produce the famous ,colchester natives1 and there are similar beds in the ,crouch and ,roach1 for which ,burnham-on-,crouch is the centre2 and in the ,blackwater 7,maldon74 ,communications4--,railway communications are supplied principally by the ,great ,eastern railway1 of which the main line runs by ,stratford1 ,ilford1 ,romford1 ,brentwood1 ,chelmsford1 ,witham1 ,colchester1 and ,manningtree4 ,the ,cambridge and northern line of this company1 following the ,lea valley1 does not touch the county until it diverges along the valley of the ,stort4 ,the chief branches are those to ,southend and ,burnham1 ,witham to ,maldon1 ,colchester to ,brightlingsea1 to ,clacton and to ,walton1 and ,manningtree to ,harwich1 on the coast2 and ,witham to ,braintree and ,bishop's ,stortford1 and ,mark's ,tey to ,sudbury and beyond1 inland2 while there are several branch lines among the manufacturing and residential suburbs in the south-west1 to ,walthamstow and ,buckhurst ,hill1 ,chigwell1 ,loughton1 ,epping1 ,ongar1 c4 ,the ,london1 ,tilbury ,southend railway1 following the ,thames1 serves the places named1 and the ,colne ,valley railway runs from ,chappel junction near ,mark's ,tey by ,halstead to ,haverhill4 ,on the ,thames1 besides the great docks at ,plaistow 7,victoria and ,albert7 and the deep-water docks at ,tilbury1 the principal calling places for vessels are ,grays1 ,purfleet and ,southend1 while ,barking on the ,roding has also shipping trade1 and the ,lea affords important water-connexions4 ,elsewhere1 the principal port is ,harwich1 at the mouth of the ,stour1 one of the chief ports of ,england for ,european passenger traffic4 ,other towns ranking as lesser estuarine ports are3 ,brightlingsea and ,wivenhoe on the ,colne1 forming a member of the ,cinque ,port of ,sandwich2 ,colchester1 ,maldon on the ,blackwater1 and ,burnham-on-,crouch4 ,the ,stour1 ,chelmer1 and ,lea and ,stort are the principal navigable inland waterways4 ,population and ,administration4--,the area of the ancient county is #ihf1ige acres1 with a population in #ahia of #ghe1dde and in #aija of #a1jhe1gga4 ,the area of the administrative county is #igi1ecb acres4 ,the county contains nineteen hundreds4 ,it is divided into eight parliamentary divisions1 and it also includes the parliamentary boroughs of ,colchester and ,west ,ham1 the latter consisting of two divisions4 ,each of these returns one member4 ,the county divisions are--,northern or ,saffron ,walden1 ,north-eastern or ,harwich1 ,eastern or ,maldon1 ,western or ,epping1 ,mid or ,chelmsford1 ,south-eastern1 ,southern or ,romford1 ,south-western or ,walthamstow1 returning one member each4 ,the municipal boroughs are--,chelmsford 7#ab1ehj71 ,colchester 7#ch1cgc71 ,east ,ham 7#if1jah71 ,harwich 7#aj1jgj71 ,maldon7#eefe71 ,saffron ,walden 7#ehif71 ,southend-on-,sea 7#bh1heg71 and one county borough1 ,west ,ham 7#bfg1ceh74 ,the following are the other urban districts--,barking ,town 7#ba1edg71 ,braintree 7#eccj71 ,brentwood 7#dicb71 ,brightlingsea 7#deja71 ,buckhurst ,hill 7#dghf71 ,burnham-on-,crouch 7#biai71 ,chingford 7#dcgc71 ,clacton 7#gdef71 ,epping 7#cghi71 ,frinton-on-,sea 7#fdd71 ,grays ,thurrock 7#ac1hcd71 ,halstead 7#fjgc71 ,ilford 7#da1bcd71 ,leigh-on-,sea 7#cffg71 ,leyton 7#ih1iab71 ,loughton 7#dgcj71 ,romford 7#ac1fef71 ,shoeburyness 7#djha71 ,waltham ,holy ,cross 7#fedi71 ,walthamstow 7#ie1aca71 ,walton-on-the-,naze 7#bjad71 ,wanstead 7#iagi71 ,witham 7#cded71 ,wivenhoe 7#befj71 ,woodford 7#ac1gih74 ,essex is in the ,south-eastern circuit1 and assizes are held at ,chelmsford4 ,the boroughs of ,harwich and ,southend-on-,sea have separate commissions of the peace1 and the boroughs of ,colchester1 ,maldon1 ,saffron ,walden and ,west ,ham have1 in addition1 separate courts of quarter sessions4 ,the county is ecclesiastically within the diocese of ,st ,albans 7with a small portion within that of ,ely7 and is divided into two archdeaconries2 containing #deb parishes or districts wholly or in part4 ,there are #cii civil parishes4 ,there is a military station and depot for recruits at ,warley1 and a garrison at ,tilbury4 ,at ,shoeburyness there are a school of gunnery and an extensive ground for testing government artillery of the largest calibre4 ,history 7see also below under ,,essex1 ,,kingdom ,,of74--,,essex probably originated as a shire in the time of ,aethelstan4 ,according to the ,domesday ,survey it comprised nineteen hundreds1 corresponding very closely in extent and in name with those of the present day4 ,the additional half-hundred of ,thunreslan on the ,suffolk border has disappeared2 ,witbrictesherna is now ,dengie2 and the liberty of ,havering-atte-,bower appears to have been taken out of ,becontree4 ,essex and ,hertfordshire were under one sheriff until the time of ,elizabeth4 ,at the time of the ,survey ,count ,eustace held a vast fief in ,essex1 and the court of the ,honour of ,boulogne was held at ,witham4 ,bentry ,heath in ,dagenham1 ,hundred ,heath in ,tendring and ,castle ,hedingham in ,hinckford were the meeting-places of their respective hundreds4 ,the stewardship of the forest of ,essex was held by the earls of ,oxford until deprived of it for adherence to the ,lancastrian cause4 ,in #adba certain parts of ,essex inherited by ,henry ,v4 from his mother were brought under the jurisdiction of the duchy of ,lancaster4 ,essex was part of the see of ,london from the time of the foundation of the bishopric in the #gth century4 ,the archdeaconries are first mentioned in #aajh2 that of ,essex extended over the south of the county and in #abia included eight deaneries2 the north of the county was divided between the archdeaconries of ,middlesex and ,colchester1 comprising three and six deaneries respectively4 ,colchester was constituted a suffragan bishopric by ,henry ,,viii4 ,in #ahcf ,essex was transferred to the diocese of ,rochester1 with the exception of nine parishes which remained in ,london4 ,in #ahde the archdeacon of ,middlesex ceased to exercise control in ,essex1 and the deaneries were readjusted4 ,in #ahge ,essex was transferred to the newly created diocese of ,st ,albans1 and in #ahgg the archdeaconry of ,essex was subdivided into eighteen deaneries and that of ,colchester into sixteen4 ,owing to its proximity to the capital ,essex was intimately associated with all the great historical struggles4 ,the nobility of ,essex took a leading part in the struggle for the charter1 and of the twenty-four guardians of the charter1 four were ,essex barons4 ,the castles of ,pleshey1 ,colchester1 and ,hedingham were held against the king in the ,barons' ,war of the reign of ,henry ,,iii41 and #ejjj ,essex men joined the peasant rising of #acha4 ,during the ,wars of the ,roses the ,lancastrian cause was supported by the de ,veres1 while the ,bourchiers and ,lord ,fitz-,walter were among the ,yorkist leaders4 ,several ,essex men were concerned in the ,gunpowder ,plot1 and in the ,civil ,war of the #agth century the county rendered valuable aid to the parliament4 ,after the ,conquest no ,englishman retained estates in ,essex of any importance1 and the chief lay barons at the time of the ,survey were ,geoffrey de ,mandeville and ,aubrey de ,vere4 ,the de ,veres1 earls of ,oxford1 were continuously connected with the county until the extinction of the title two centuries ago4 ,pleshey was the stronghold of the ,mandevilles1 and1 although the house became extinct in #aahi1 its descendants in the female line retained the title of earls of ,essex4 ,the ,honour of ,hatfield ,peverel held by ,ranulf ,peverel after the ,conquest escheated to the crown in the reign of ,henry ,i41 and in the same reign the fief of ,robert ,gernon passed to the house of ,mountfichet4 ,essex has always been mainly an agricultural county1 and the ordinary agricultural pursuits were carried on at the time of the ,domesday ,survey1 which also mentions salt-making1 wine-making1 bee-culture and cheese-making1 while the oyster fisheries have been famous from the earliest historic times4 ,the woollen industry dates back to ,saxon times1 and for many centuries ranked as the most important industry4 ,cloth-weaving was introduced in the #adth century1 and in the #afth century ,colchester was noted for its bays and says4 ,colchester also possessed a valuable leather industry in the #afth century1 at which period ,essex was considered an exceptionally wealthy and prosperous county2 ,norden1 writing in #aeid1 describes it as moste fatt1 frutefull1 and full of all profitable things4 ,the decline of the cloth industry in the #agth century caused great distress1 but a number of smaller industries began to take its place4 ,saffron-culture and silk-weaving were extensively carried on in the #agth century1 and the #ahth century saw the introduction of the straw-plait industry1 potash-making1 calico-printing1 malting and brewing1 and the manufacture of ,roman cement4 ,the county returned four members to parliament in #abij4 ,from #abie it returned two members for the county and two for ,colchester4 ,maldon acquired representation in #acca and ,harwich in #afjd4 ,under the ,reform ,act of #ahcb the county returned four members in four divisions4 ,under the ,representation of the ,people ,act of #ahfh ,maldon and ,harwich each lost one member1 and the county returned six members in three divisions4 ,antiquities4--,it is supposed by many antiquaries that ,saxon masonry can be detected in the foundations of several of the ,essex churches1 but1 with the exception of ,ashingdon church tower1 believed to have been erected by ,canute after his victory over ,edmund ,ironside1 there is no obviously recognizable building belonging to that period4 ,this is probably to be in part ascribed to the fact that the comparative scarcity of stone and the unusual abundance of timber led to the extensive employment of the latter material4 ,several of the ,essex churches1 as ,blackmore1 ,mountnessing1 ,margaretting1 and ,south ,benfleet1 have massive porches and towers of timber2 and ,st ,andrew's church1 ,greenstead1 with its walls of solid oak1 continues an almost unique example of its kind4 ,of the four round churches in ,england one is in ,essex at ,little ,maplestead2 it is both the smallest and the latest4 ,the churches of ,south ,weald1 ,hadleigh1 ,blackmore1 ,heybridge and ,hadstock may be mentioned as containing ,norman work2 with the church of ,castle ,hedingham for its fine ,transitional work2 ,southchurch1 ,danbury and ,boreham as being partly ,early ,english2 ,ingatestone1 ,stebbing and ,tilty for specimens of ,decorated architecture2 and ,messing1 ,thaxted1 ,saffron ,walden1 and the church of ,st ,peter ad ,vincula at the small town of ,coggeshall1 near ,colchester1 as specimens of ,perpendicular4 ,stained glass windows have left their traces in several of the churches1 the finest remains being those of ,margaretting1 which represent a tree of ,jesse and the daisy or herb ,margaret4 ,paintings have evidently been largely used for internal decoration3 a remarkable series1 probably of the #abth century1 but much restored in the #adth1 exists in the chancel of ,copford church2 and in the church at ,ingatestone there was discovered in #ahfh an almost unique fresco representation of the seven deadly sins4 ,the oldest brasses preserved in the county are those of ,sir ,william ,fitz-,ralph at ,pebmarsh1 about #acbc2 ,richard of ,beltown1 at ,corringham1 #acdj2 ,sir ,john ,gifford1 at ,bowers ,gifford1 #acdh2 ,ralph de ,kneyton1 at ,aveley1 #acgj2 ,robert de ,swynbourne1 at ,little ,horkesley1 #acia2 and ,sir ,ingelram de ,bruyn1 at ,south ,ockendon1 #adjj4 ,the brass of ,thomas ,heron1 aged #ad1 at ,little ,ilford1 though dating only from #aeag1 is of interest as a picture of a schoolboy of the period4 ,ancient wooden effigies are preserved at ,danbury1 ,little ,leighs and ,little ,horkesley4 ,essex was rich in monastic foundations1 though the greater number have left but meagre ruins behind4 ,the ,benedictines had an abbey at ,saffron ,walden1 nunneries at ,barking and ,wickes1 and priories at ,earl's or ,monk's ,colne and ,castle ,hedingham2 the ,augustinian canons had an abbey at ,waltham 7see ,,waltham ,,abbey2 the portion remaining shows ,norman work of the finest character71 priories at ,thoby1 ,blackmore1 ,bicknacre1 ,little ,leighs1 ,little ,dunmow and ,st ,osyth 7see ,,brightlingsea72 there were ,cistercian abbeys at ,coggeshall1 ,stratford and ,tilty2 the ,cluniac monks were settled at ,prittlewell1 the ,premonstratensians at ,beleigh ,abbey1 and the ,knights ,hospitallers at ,little ,maplestead4 ,barking ,abbey is said to date its first origin from the #gth century2 most of the others arose in the #abth and #acth centuries4 ,besides the keep at ,colchester there is a fine ,norman castle at ,castle ,hedingham1 and two dilapidated round towers still stand at ,hadleigh near ,southend4 ,ongar1 the house of the de ,lacys1 and ,pleshey1 the seat of the earls of ,essex1 have left only mounds4 ,havering-atte-,bower1 the palace that was occupied by many queens1 is replaced by a modern house2 ,wickham1 the mansion of the bishops of ,london1 no longer stands4 ,new ,hall1 which was successively occupied by ,henry ,,viii41 ,elizabeth1 the earl of ,essex1 ,george ,villiers1 duke of ,buckingham1 and ,cromwell1 is now a nunnery of the order of the ,holy ,sepulchre4 ,audley ,end1 the mansion of ,lord ,braybrooke1 is a noble example of the domestic architecture of the ,jacobean period2 ,layer ,marney is an interesting proof of the ,italian influences that were at work in the time of ,wolsey4 ,horeham ,hall was built by ,sir ,john ,cutt in the reign of ,henry ,,vii41 and ,gosfield ,hall is of about the same date4 ,see ,norden1 ,speculi ,britanniae ,pars3 an ,hist4 and ,geogr4 ,descrip4 of the ,county of ,essex 7#aeid7 7edited for the ,camden ,society by ,sir ,henry ,ellis1 #ahdj1 from the original ,,ms4 in the ,marquis of ,salisbury's library at ,hatfield72 ,nicholas ,tindal1 ,hist4 of ,essex 7#agbj72 ,n4 ,salmon1 ,the ,hist4 and ,antiq4 of ,essex 7,london1 #agdj7--;based on the collections of ,james ,strangman of ,hadleigh 7v4 ,trans4 of ,essex ,arch4 ,soc4 vol4 ii472 ,p4 ,morant1 ,hist4 and ,antiq4 of the ,county of ,essex 7,london1 #agfh72 ,p4 ,muilman1 ,new and ,complete ,hist4 of ,essex from a late ,survey1 by a ,gentleman 7,chelmsford1 #f vols41 #aggj-aggb1 ,london1 #aggi72 ,elizabeth ,ogbourne1 ,hist4 of ,essex 7,london1 part i41 #ahad72 ,excursions through ,essex1 illustrated with one hundred engravings 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahah72 ,t4 ,wright1 ,hist4 and ,topography of ,essex 7#ahca72 ,w4 ,berry1 ,pedigrees of ,families in ,essex 7#ahda72 ,a4 ,suckling1 ,memorials of the ,antiquities1 c41 of the ,county of ,essex 7,london1 #ahde72 ,w4 ,andrews 7ed471 ,bygone ,essex 7,london1 #ahib72 ,j4,t4 ,page 7ed471 ,essex in the ,days of ,old 7,london1 #ahih72 ,victoria ,county ,history1 ,essex2 ,transactions of the ,essex ,arch4 ,soc4 from #aheh4 ,an account of various ,,ms4 collections connected with the county is given by ,h4,w4 ,king in vol4 ii4 of the ,transactions 7#ahfc74 ,,essex1 ,,kingdom ,,of1 one of the kingdoms into which ,anglo-,saxon ,britain was divided1 properly the land of the ,east ,saxons4 ,of its origin and early history we have no record except the bare statement of ,bede that its settlers were of the ,old ,saxon race4 ,in connexion with this it is interesting to notice that the ,east ,saxon dynasty claimed descent from ,seaxneat1 not ,woden4 ,the form ,seaxneat is identical with ,saxnot1 one of three gods mentioned in a short continental document probably of ,old ,saxon origin4 ,bede does not mention this kingdom in his narrative until #fjd1 the year of the consecration of ,mellitus to the see of ,london4 ,the boundaries of ,essex were in later times the rivers ,stour and ,thames1 but the original limits of the kingdom are quite uncertain2 towards the west it probably included most if not the whole of ,hertfordshire1 and in the #gth century the whole of ,middlesex4 ,in #fjd we find ,essex in close dependence upon ,kent1 being ruled by ,saberht1 sister's son of ,aethelberht1 under whom the ,east ,saxons received ,christianity4 ,the three sons of ,saberht1 however1 expelled ,mellitus from his see1 and even after their death in battle against the ,west ,saxons1 ,eadbald of ,kent was unable to restore him4 ,in the year #fec we find ,north-umbrian influence paramount in ,essex1 for ,king ,sigeberht at the instance of ,oswio became a ,christian and received ,cedd1 the brother of ,st ,chad1 in his kingdom as bishop1 ,tilbury and ,ythanceastere 7on the ,blackwater7 being the chief scenes of his work4 ,swithhelm1 the successor of ,sigeberht1 was on terms of friendship with the ,east ,anglian royal house1 ,king ,aethelwald being his sponsor at his baptism by ,cedd4 ,it was probably about this time that ,erconwald1 afterwards bishop of ,london1 founded the monastery of ,barking4 ,swithhelm's successors ,sigehere and ,sebbe were dependent on ,wulfhere1 the powerful king of ,mercia1 who on the apostasy of ,sigehere sent ,bishop ,jaruman to restore the faith4 ,there are grounds for believing that an ,east ,saxon conquest of ,kent took place in this reign4 ,a forged grant of ,ceadwalla speaks of the fall of ,kent before ,sigehere as a well-known event2 and in a ,kentish charter dated #fgf a king of ,kent called ,swebhard grants land with the consent of his father ,king ,sebbe4 ,in #fib or #fid ,sebbe abdicated and received the monastic vows from ,waldhere1 the successor of ,erconwald at ,london4 ,his sons ,sigeheard and ,swefred succeeded him as kings of ,essex1 ,sigehere being apparently dead4 ,as the laws of ,ine of ,wessex speak of ,erconwald as my bishop1 it is possible that the influence of ,wessex for a short time prevailed in ,essex2 but a subsequent charter of ,swefred is approved by ,coenred of ,mercia1 and ,offa1 the son of ,sigehere1 accompanied the same king to ,rome in #gji4 ,from this time onwards the history of ,essex is almost a blank4 ,in #gdc or #gde ,aethelbald of ,mercia is found granting privileges at the port of ,london1 and perhaps the western portion of the kingdom had already been annexed1 for henceforward ,london is frequently the meeting-place of the ,mercian council4 ,the violent death of ,selred1 king of ,essex1 is mentioned in the ,saxon ,chronicle under the year #gdf2 but we have no more information of historical importance until the defeat of the ,mercian king ,beornwulf in #hbe1 when ,essex1 together with ,kent1 ,sussex and ,surrey1 passed into the hands of ,ecgbert1 king of ,wessex4 ,after #hbe we hear of no more kings of ,essex1 but occasionally of earls4 ,about the year #hgj ,essex passed into the hands of the ,danes and was left to them by the treaty between ,alfred and ,guthrum4 ,it was reconquered by ,edward the ,elder4 ,the earldom in the #ajth century apparently included several other counties1 and its most famous holder was the ealdorman ,brihtnoth1 who fell at the battle of ,maldon in #iia4 ,the following is a list of kings of ,essex of whom there is record3 ,saberht 7d4 c4 #fag72 three sons of ,saberht1 including probably ,saweard and ,seaxred2 ,sigeberht 7,parvus72 ,sigeberht ,,ii42 ,swithhelm 7d4 c4 #ffd72 ,sigehere 7reigned perhaps #ffd-fhi72 ,sebbe1 son of ,seaxred 7#ffd-fid72 ,sigeheard 7reigning in #fic-fid72 ,swefred 7reigning in #fic-fid and in #gjd72 the two last being sons of ,sebbe2 ,swebriht 7d4 #gch72 ,selred 7d4 #gdf72 ,swithred1 grandson of ,sigeheard 7succ4 #gdf72 ,sigeric1 son of ,selered 7abd4 #gih72 ,sigered1 son of ,sigeric 7reigning in #hbc74 ,see ,bede1 ,hist4 ,eccl41 edited by ,c4 ,plummer 7,oxford1 #ahif71 ii4 #c1 #e2 ,saxon ,chronicle 7,earle and ,plummer1 ,oxford1 #ahii71 s4a4 #hbc1 #hid1 #ijd1 #iac1 #iba1 #iid2 ,william of ,malmesbury1 ,gesta ,regum1 ,rolls ,series 7ed4 ,stubbs1 #ahhg-ahhi72 ,simeon of ,durham1 s4a4 #gdf 7ed4 ,t4 ,arnold1 #ahhb7 and appendix1 s4a4 #gch2 ,florence of ,worcester 7ed4 ,b4 ,thorpe1 ,london1 #ahdh-ahdi72 ,h4 ,sweet1 ,oldest ,english ,texts1 p4 #agi 7,london1 #ahhe74 7,f4 ,g4 ,m4 ,b47 ,,esslingen1 a town of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,wurttemberg1 in a fertile district on the ,neckar1 #i m4 ,s4,e4 from ,stuttgart1 on the railway to ,ulm4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #bi1gej4 ,it is surrounded by medieval walls with towers and bastions1 and has thirteen suburbs1 one lying on an island in the river4 ,on a commanding height above the town lies the old citadel4 ,the inner town has an old 7#adcj7 and a new ,rathaus1 the latter1 formerly a palace1 an exceedingly handsome edifice4 ,the church of ,our ,lady 7,frauenkirche7 is a fine ,gothic building of the #aeth century1 and has a beautifully sculptured doorway and a lattice spire #bdj ft4 high4 ,the church of ,st ,dionysius dated from the #acth century1 and possesses a fine screen and a ciborium of #adhf4 ,esslingen possesses several schools1 a theatre and a richly endowed hospital1 while its municipal archives contain much valuable literature bearing especially on the period of the ,reformation4 ,the town has railway1 machine and electrical works2 cloth1 gloves and buttons are also manufactured here1 and there are spinning-mills4 ,there is a large lithographic establishment1 and a considerable trade is done in wine and fruit1 the wines of ,esslingen being very famous4 ,esslingen1 which dates from the #hth century1 became a town in #hhf4 ,it was soon a place of importance2 it became a free imperial city in #abji and was surrounded with walls by order of the emperor ,frederick ,,ii4 ,its liberty was frequently threatened by the rulers of ,wurttemberg1 but it did not become part of that country until #ahjb4 ,see ,k4,h4,s4 ,pfaff1 ,geschichte der ,reichsstadt ,esslingen 7,esslingen1 #aheb72 and ,strohmfeld1 ,esslingen in ,wort und ,bild 7,esslingen1 #aijb74 ,,establishment 7,o4 ,fr4 establissement1 ,fr4 etablissement1 late ,norm4 ,fr4 establishement1 from ,o4 ,fr4 establir1 ,fr4 etablir1 ,lat4 stabilire1 to make stable71 generally the act of establishing or fact of being established1 and so by transference a thing established4 ,thus we may speak of the establishment 7i4e4 setting up7 of a business1 the long establishment of a business1 and of the manager of the establishment4 ,in a special sense the word is applied1 with something of all the three above-mentioned connotations1 to certain religious bodies in their relation to the state4 ,it is with this latter that the present article is concerned4 ,perhaps the best definition which can be given1 and which will cover all cases1 is that establishment implies the existence of some definite and distinctive relation between the state and a religious society 7or conceivably more than one7 other than that which is shared in by other societies of the same general character4 ,of course1 a certain relationship must needs exist between the state and every society1 religious or secular1 by virtue of the sovereignty of the state over each and all of its members4 ,every society must possess certain principles or perform certain acts1 and the state may make the profession of such principles unlawful1 or impose a penalty upon the performance of such acts2 and1 moreover1 every society is liable before the law as to the fulfilment of its obligations towards its members and the due administration of its property should it possess any4 ,with all this establishment has nothing to do4 ,it is not concerned with what pertains to the religious society qua society1 or with what is common to all religious societies1 but with what is exceptional4 ,it denotes any special connexion with the state1 or privileges and responsibilities before the law1 possessed by one religious society to the exclusion of others2 in a word1 establishment is of the nature of a monopoly4 ,but it does not imply merely privilege4 ,the state and the ,church have mutual obligations towards one another3 each is1 to some extent1 tied by the existence of this relationship1 and each accepts the limitations for the sake of the advantages which accrue to itself4 ,the state does so in view of what it believes to be the good of all its members2 for the true end for which religion is established is not to provide for the true faith1 but for civil utility 7,warburton71 even if the latter be held to be implied in the former4 ,on the other hand1 the ,church accepts these relations for the facilities which they involve1 i4e4 for its own benefit4 ,it will be seen that this definition excludes1 and rightly1 many current presuppositions4 ,establishment affirms the fact1 but does not determine the precise nature1 of the connexion between the state and the religious society4 ,it does not tell us1 for example1 when or how it began1 whether it is the result of an unconscious growth 7as with the ,gallican ,church previous to the ,french ,revolution71 or of a determinate legislative act 7as with the same ,church re-established by the ,concordat of #ahja74 ,it does not tell us whether an endowment of the religious society by the state is included2 what particular privileges are enjoyed by the religious society2 and what limitations are placed upon the free exercise of its life4 ,these things can only be ascertained by actual inquiry2 for the conditions are precisely similar in no two cases4 ,to proceed to details4 ,at the present day there is no established religion in the ,united ,states1 the ,german empire as a whole1 ,holland1 ,belgium1 ,france and ,austria-,hungary 7saving1 indeed1 the rights of the sovereign arising from ecclesiastical dignity#a72 whereas there are religious establishments in ,russia1 ,greece1 ,sweden1 ,norway1 ,denmark1 ,prussia1#b ,spain1 ,portugal and even in ,italy1 as well as in ,england and ,scotland4 ,these1 however1 differ greatly amongst themselves4 ,in ,russia the ,orthodox ,catholic ,eastern is the state religion4 ,the emperor is1 by the fundamental laws of the empire1 the sovereign defender and protector of the dogmas of the dominant faith1 who maintains orthodoxy and holy discipline within the ,church1 although1 of course1 he cannot modify either its dogmas or its outward order4 ,further1 the autocratic 7i4e4 imperial7 power acts in the ecclesiastical administration by means of the ,most ,holy ,ruling ,synod1 created by it2 and all the officers of the ,church are appointed by it4 ,the enactments of the ,synod do not become law till they have received the emperor's sanction1 and are then published1 not in its name but in his2 and a large part of the revenues of the ,church is derived from state subsidies4 ,in ,greece the dominant religion 7,greek3 ,eh epikratousa threskeia7 is that of the ,eastern ,orthodox ,church of ,christ2 and although toleration is otherwise complete1 no proselytism from the ,church of ,greece is allowed4 ,the king swears to protect it1 but no powers pertain to him with regard to it such as those which the tsar enjoys2 the present king is not a member of it1 but his successors must be4 ,in ,sweden1 ,lutheranism was adopted as the state religion by the synod of ,upsala 7,upsala mote7 in #aeic1 and the king must profess it4 ,the ,lutheran ,protestant ,church retains an episcopal order1 and is supported out of its own revenues4 ,archbishops and bishops are chosen by the king out of those names submitted to him1 and he also nominates to royal peculiars4 ,the ecclesiastical law 7,kyrkolag71 first constituted in #afhf1 is part of the law of the state1 but may not be modified or abrogated without consent of a ,general ,synod2 and although ad interim interpretations of that law may be given by the king on the advice of the ,supreme ,court1 since #ahff these have been subject to review and rejection by the next ,general ,synod4 ,in ,norway the ,evangelical-,lutheran is the official religion1 but the ,church is supported by the state1 its property having been secularized4 ,it is also more subject to the king1 who by the constitution is to regulate all that concerns divine service and the clergy1 and to see that the prescribed order is carried out4 ,it is much the same in ,denmark1 where1 however1 the ,evangelical-,lutheran ,church has since the fundamental constitutional law of the #eth of ,june #ahdi been officially described as the ,national ,church 7,folkekirche7 instead of the ,state ,church 7,statskirche7 as formerly1 and the constitution provides for its regulation by further legislation1 which has not yet been passed4 ,for ,prussia1 see under that heading2 it need only be added that self-government still tends to increase1 but that the emperor ,william ,,ii4 has exercised his office as summus episcopus more freely than most of his predecessors4 ,in ,spain the ,catholic1 ,apostolic and ,roman religion is that of the state1 the nation binds itself to maintain its worship and its ministers1 and the rites of any other religion are only permitted in private4 ,the patriarch of the ,indies and the archbishops are senators by right1 and the king may nominate others from amongst the bishops2 only laymen may sit in the chamber of deputies4 ,convents were suppressed1 and their property confiscated1 in #ahce and #ahcf2 in #ahei the remaining ecclesiastical property was exchanged for untransferable government securities and the support of the clergy of the ,state ,church is assured by an unrepealed law previous to the present constitution4 ,in ,portugal it is much the same1 but all the home bishops sit in the upper chamber as peers 7,pares do ,reino7 by right1 and there is no restriction on membership of the chamber of deputies4 ,a more important point is that the king confers all ecclesiastical benefices and nominates the bishops1 instead of their being chosen1 as in ,spain1 by agreement between the civil power and the papacy4 ,in ,italy1 in spite of the feud between the papacy and the civil power1 the fact remains that1 by the ,statuto fondamentale1 the ,catholic1 ,apostolic and ,roman religion is the sole religion of the state1 and the king may nominate archbishops and bishops of the state to be senators4 ,the ,legge sulle prerogative del ,summo ,pontifice1 c41 or ,law of ,guarantees1 by which the papal prerogatives are secured1 has been declared by the ,council of ,state to be a fundamental law2 and while many civil restrictions upon the activities of the ,church are removed by it1 outside ,rome and the suburbicarian dioceses the royal exequatur is still required before a bishop is installed4 ,moreover1 the bulk of ,church property having been secularized1 the ,italian clergy receive a stipend from the state4 ,church and ,state in ,britain4 ,establishment is1 of course1 a distinctively ,english term1 but it implies precisely the same thing as ,staatsreligion or eglise dominante does elsewhere1 neither more nor less4 ,it denotes the existence of a special relationship between ,church and state without defining its precise nature4 ,the statement that the ,church of ,england or the ,scottish ,kirk is established by law denotes that it has a peculiar status before the law2 but that is all4 7a7 ,there is no basis whatever for the once popular assumption that the word established as applied to the ,church means created1 or the like2 on the contrary1 the modern use of the word in this sense is a misleading perversion4 ,to establish is to make firm or stable2 and a thing cannot be established unless it is already in existence4 ,a few examples will make it clear that this is the true sense of the word1 and that in which it is used here4 ,stablish the thing1 ,o ,god1 that thou hast wrought in us 7,ps4 lxviii4 #bh1 ,p4,b42 ,a4,v4 and ,r4,v4 strengthen7 implies that the thing is already wrought2 it could not be stablished else4 ,stablish your hearts 7,jas v4 #h7 implies that the hearts are already in existence4 ,until he had her settled in her raine ,with safe assuraunce and establishment 7,faerie ,queene1 v4 xi4 #ce7 would have been impossible unless the reign had already begun4 ,this is the meaning of the words in many ,tudor acts of parliament1 be it enacted1 ordained and established1 or the like 7#ba ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #a2 #bg ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #bh1 s4 #i2 #bh ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #ac ,ireland2 #bh ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #ah ,ireland2 #cc ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #bg2 #a ,eliz4 c4 #a1 ss4 #ae1 #ag2 #a ,eliz4 c4 #d1 s4 #d72 that which is then and there enacted is to be valid for the future4 7b7 ,nor is it necessarily implied that establishment is a process completed once for all4 ,every law touching the ,church slightly alters its conditions2 everything that affects the relations of ,church and state may be regarded as a measure of establishment or the reverse4 ,when the two ,houses of ,parliament1 in an address to ,william ,,iii4 after his coronation1 spoke of their proposed measures of toleration1 the king said in his reply1 ,i do hope that the ease which you design to ,dissenters will contribute very much to the establishment of the ,church 7,cobbett1 ,parl4 ,hist4 v4 #bah74 ,and ,defoe 7in #agjb7 published an ironical tract with the title1 ,the ,shortest ,way with the ,dissenters1 or ,proposals for the ,establishment of the ,church4 7c7 ,nor is it necessarily implied that there was any specific time at which establishment took place4 ,such may indeed be the case1 as with the ,kirk in ,scotland2 but it certainly cannot be said that the ,english ,church was established at any particular time1 or by any particular legislative act4 ,there were1 no doubt1 periods when the existing relations between ,church and state were modified or re-defined1 notably in the #afth and #agth centuries2 but the relations themselves are far older4 ,in fact1 they existed from the very first3 the ,english ,church and state grew up side by side1 and from the beginning they were in close relations with one another4 ,but although the state of things which it represented was there from the first1 the term established or established by law only came into use at a later date4 ,until there was some other religious society to be compared with it such a distinctive epithet would have had no point4 ,as1 however1 there arose religious societies which had no status before the law1 it became more natural2 and yet more so when the formularies of the ,church came to be established by civil sanctions 7the ,books of ,common ,prayer by #e and #f ,edw4 ,,vi4 c4 #a1 s4 #d1 c2 the ,articles by #ac ,eliz4 c4 #ab2 the new ,ordinal by #ac and #ad ,car4 ,,ii4 c4 #d1 title74 ,accordingly the ,church itself came to be spoken of as established by law2 first1 it would seem1 in the ,canons of #afjd1 and subsequently in many statutes 7,act of ,settlement1 #f ,anne1 c4 #h and c4 #aa1 c74 ,in all such cases the ,church is described as already established1 not as being established by the particular canon or statute4 ,in other words1 the constitutional status of the ,church is affirmed1 but nothing is said as to how it arose4 ,the legislative changes of the #afth and #agth centuries brought establishment into greater prominence and greatly modified its conditions1 but a moment's thought will show that it did not begin then4 ,if1 e4g41 all post-,reformation ecclesiastical statutes were non-existent1 the relations between ,church and state would be very different1 but there would still be an establishment4 ,the bishops would sit in the ,house of ,lords1 the clergy would tax themselves in convocation1 the ,church courts would possess coercive jurisdiction1 and so on4 ,the present relations of ,church and state in ,england may be briefly summed up as follows3--7#a7 ,the personal relation of the crown to the ,church1 including 7a7 restraints upon the action of convocation 7formulated by #be ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #ai72 7b7 nomination of bishops1 c4 7#be ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #bj72 7c7 power of supervision as visitor1 long disused 7#bf ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #a2 #a ,eliz4 c4 #a1 s4 #ag72 7d7 power of receiving appeals as the fount of civil justice 7#be ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #ai1 c74 ,in connexion with these1 it must be borne in mind that 7a7 the holder of the crown receives coronation from the church and takes an oath having reference to it 7#a ,will4 ,,iii4 c4 #f71 and 7b7 the crown is held on the condition of communion with the ,church of ,england 7,act of ,settlement2 the conditions of communion are laid down in the ,prayer ,book1 which itself is sanctioned by law74 7#b7 ,the relation of the ,church to the crown in parliament4 ,no change has been permitted in its doctrine or formularies without the sanction of an act of parliament4 7#c7 ,privileges of the ,church and clergy4 ,of these may be mentioned 7a7 the coercive jurisdiction of the ,church courts2 7b7 the right of bishops to sit in the ,house of ,lords4 ,it need hardly be said that establishment in ,england does not include an endowment of the ,church by the state4 ,nothing of the kind ever took place on any large scale1 and the grants for ,church purposes in the #ahth century are comparable with the regium donum to ,nonconformists4 ,the position of the ,church of ,ireland until its disestablishment 7see below7 was not dissimilar4 ,with ,scotland the case is different4 ,the establishment of the ,kirk was an entirely new process1 carried out by a more or less definite series of legislative and administrative acts4 ,the ,convention of ,estates which met at ,edinburgh in #aefj ordered the drawing up of a new ,confession of ,faith1 which was done in four days by a committee of preachers1 and on the #bdth of ,august it passed three acts1 one abolishing the pope's authority and all jurisdiction of ,catholic prelates1 another repealing the old statutes in favour of the ,old ,church1 the third forbidding the celebrating and hearing of mass under penalty of imprisonment1 exile and death4 ,the intention was to make a clean sweep of the ,old ,church1 which was denounced as the ,kirk ,malignant4#c ,the new model thus set up was confirmed by the ,scottish act of #aefg1 c4 #f1 which declared it to be the onely true and halie kirk of ,jesus ,christ within this realme4 ,again1 after the revolution of #afhh had put an end to the attempts of the ,stuart kings to impose the episcopal model on ,scotland1 by the act of #afij1 c4 #e1 the crown and estates ratifie and establish the ,confession of ,faith1 444 as also they do establish1 ratifie and confirm the ,presbyterian government and discipline4 ,the ,act of ,security of #agje1 as incorporated in the ,act of ,union #agjf1 speaking of it as now by law established1 says that ,her ,majesty 444 doth hereby establish and confirm it1 and finally declares this act1 with the ,establishment therein contained1 to be a fundamental and essential condition of the ,union4 ,nevertheless1 the conditions of establishment in the ,scottish ,kirk are much easier than those of the ,church of ,england4 ,it is bound by the statutes sanctioning its doctrine and order1 but within these limits its legislative and judicial freedom is unimpaired4 ,a royal commissioner is present at the meetings of the general assembly1 but he need not be a member of the ,kirk2 and there is no constitutional tie between the crown and the ,kirk such as there is in ,england4 ,there is what may accurately be described as a state endowment1 the bulk of the property of the ,old ,church having been conferred upon the ,scottish ,kirk4 ,the ,colonies4 ,not unnaturally the organization of ,anglican ,churches in the colonies was followed in some cases by their establishment1 which included endowment4 ,it was so1 for example1 in the ,east and ,west ,indies2 and the disestablishment of the ,west ,indian ,church in #ahfh was followed1 in #ahgc1 by a re-establishment of the ,church in ,barbados by the colonial legislature4 ,india is the only other part of the empire 7outside ,great ,britain7 in which there is to-day a religious establishment4 ,disestablishment4 ,disestablishment is in theory the annulling of establishment2 but since an established ,church is usually rich1 disestablishment generally includes disendowment1 even where there is no state endowment of religion4 ,it is1 in short1 the abrogation of establishment1 coupled with such a confiscation of ,church property as the state thinks good in the interests of the community4 ,the disestablishment of the ,west ,indian ,church in #ahfh has already been referred to2 in #ahfi the ,irish ,church ,disestablishment ,bill was passed4 ,private bills relating to ,scotland have more than once been brought forward4 ,in #ahie the ,liberal government introduced a suspensory bill1 intended as the preliminary step towards disestablishing and disendowing the ,church in ,wales2 it was withdrawn1 however1 in the same session1 and the question of ,welsh disestablishment slumbered until in #aijf a royal commission was appointed by the ,liberal government to inquire into the subject1 and in #aiji a bill was introduced on much the same lines as in #ahie4 ,the case of the ,irish ,church will illustrate the process of disestablishment1 although1 of course1 the precise details would vary in other cases4 ,the ,irish ,church ,act was passed in #ahfi by ,gladstone's first government1 after considerable opposition1 and provided that from ,january #a1 #ahga1 the union created by statute between the ,churches of ,england and ,ireland should be dissolved1 and the ,church of ,ireland should cease to be established by law4 ,existing ecclesiastical corporations were dissolved1 and their rights ceased1 compensation being given to all individuals and their personal precedence being secured for life4 ,all rights of patronage1 including those of the crown1 were abolished1 with compensation in the case of private patrons2 and the archbishops and bishops ceased to have the right of summons to the ,house of ,lords4 ,all laws restraining the freedom of action of the ,church were repealed2 the ecclesiastical law1 however1 to subsist by way of contract amongst the members of the ,church 7until altered by a representative body74 ,provision was made for the incorporation by charter of the representative body of the ,church1 should such a body be found1 with power to hold landed property4 ,all existing ecclesiastical property was vested in a commission1 which was to give compensation for life interests1 to transfer to the new representative body the churches1 glebe houses1 and ,l#ejj1jjj in compensation for endowments by private persons since #affj1 and to hold the rest for such purposes as parliament might thereafter determine4 ,,authorities4--,f4,r4 ,dareste1 ,les ,constitutions modernes 7,paris1 #ahia72 ,h4 ,geffcken1 ,church and ,state1 trans4 by ,e4,f4 ,taylor 7,london1 #ahgg72 ,p4 ,schaff1 ,church and ,state in the ,united ,states 7,papers of the ,american ,hist4 ,association1 vol4 ii4 ,no4 #d71 7,new ,york1 #ahhh72 ,l4 ,minghetti1 ,stato e ,chiesa 7,milan1 #ahgh71 ,french translation1 with ,introd4 by ,e4 de ,laveleye 7,paris1 #ahhb72 ,c4 ,cadorna1 ,religione1 diritto1 liberta 7,milan1 #ahic72 ,f4 ,nippold1 ,die ,theorie der ,trennung von ,kirche und ,staat 7,bern1 #ahha72 ,w4 ,warburton1 ,alliance between ,church and ,state 7,london1 #agda7 7,works1 vol4 iv41 ed4 ,hurd1 ,london1 #aghh72 ,church ,problems 7ed4 by ,h4,h4 ,henson7 7,london1 #aijj72 ,essays on ,establishment and ,disendowment2 ,w4,r4 ,anson1 ,law and ,custom of the ,constitution1 vol4 ii4 chap4 ix4 7,oxford1 #ahib72 ,phillimore1 ,ecclesiastical ,law 7,london1 #ahie72 ,j4,s4 ,brewer1 ,endowments and ,establishment of the ,church of ,england 7ed4 by ,l4,t4 ,dibdin1 ,london1 #ahhe72 ,a4,t4 ,innes1 ,law of ,creeds in ,scotland 7,edinburgh1 #ahfg72 ,e4,a4 ,freeman1 ,disestablishment and ,disendowment 7,london1 #ahhc72 ,g4 ,harwood1 ,disestablishment 7,london1 #ahgf72 ,annales de l'ecole libre des ,sciences politiques1 tom4 i4 7,paris1 #ahhe71 art4 ,la ,separation de l',eglise et de l',etat en ,angleterre1 by ,l4 ,ayral4 7,w4 ,e4 ,co47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,in effect this involves the establishment of all religious denominations1 for none can exist without the express authorization of the state1 and all are subject to more or less interference on its part4 ,thus the emperor-king is1 in his capacity of head of the state1 technically bishop of the ,evangelical ,church1 the constitution of which was fixed by an imperial patent in #ahff and modified by4 another in #ahia 7see ,herzog-,hauck1 ,realencykl4 ed4 #aijd1 s4 ,osterreich74--,,ed4 #b ,also in the other ,german ,protestant states4 ,the relations of the ,roman ,catholic ,church with the various governments are settled by separate concordats with the papacy 7see ,,concordat74 #c ,andrew ,lang1 ,hist4 of ,scotland1 ii4 p4 #ge ff4 ,compare with this the position of the reformers generally in ,england1 where even so stout a ,puritan as ,william ,harrison 7,description of ,england1 #aegj7 does not dream of separating the organic life of the ,church of ,england from that of the pre-,reformation ,church4 7,ed74 ,,establishment ,,of ,a ,,port1 the technical expression for the time that elapses between the moon's transit across the meridian at new or full moon at a given place and the time of high water at that place4 ,the interval 7constant at any one place7 may vary from #f mins4 7,harwich7 to #aa hrs4 #de mins4 7,north ,foreland74 ,at ,london ,bridge it is #a hr4 #eh mins4 7,see also ,,tide47 ,,estaing1 ,,charles ,,hector1 ,,comte ,d' 7#agbi-agid71 ,french admiral1 was born at the chateau of ,ruvel1 ,auvergne1 in #agbi4 ,he entered the army as a colonel of infantry1 and in #ageg he accompanied count de ,lally to the ,east ,indies1 with the rank of brigadier-general4 ,in #agei he was made prisoner at the siege of ,madras1 but was released on parole4 ,before the ratification of his exchange he obtained command of some vessels1 and conducted various naval attacks against the ,english2 and having1 on his return to ,france in #agfj1 fallen accidentally into their hands1 he was1 on the ground of having broken his parole1 thrown into prison at ,portsmouth1 but as the charge could not be properly substantiated he was soon afterwards released4 ,in #agfc he was named lieutenant-general in the navy1 and in #aggg vice-admiral2 and in #aggh he obtained the command of a fleet intended to assist the ,united ,states against ,great ,britain4 ,he sailed on the #acth of ,april1 and between the #aath and the #bbnd of ,july1 blockaded ,howe at ,sandy ,hook1 but did not venture to attack him1 though greatly superior in force4 ,in concert with the ,american generals1 he planned an attack on ,newport1 preparatory to which he compelled the ,british to destroy some war vessels that were in the harbour2 but before the concerted attack could take place1 he put to sea against the ,english fleet1 under ,lord ,howe1 when owing to a violent storm1 which arose suddenly and compelled the two fleets to separate before engaging in battle1 many of his vessels were so shattered that he found it necessary to put into ,boston for repairs4 ,he then sailed for the ,west ,indies on the #dth of ,november4 ,after a feeble attempt to retake ,santa ,lucia from ,admiral ,barrington1 he captured ,st ,vincent and ,grenada4 ,on the #fth of ,july #aggi he fought a drawn battle with ,admiral ,john ,byron1 who retired to ,st ,christopher4 ,though superior in force1 ,d',estaing would not attack the ,english in the roadstead1 but set sail to attack ,savannah4 ,all his attempts1 as well as those of the ,americans1 against the town were repulsed with heavy loss1 and he was finally compelled to retire4 ,he returned to ,france in #aghj4 ,he was in command of the combined fleet before ,cadiz when the peace was signed in #aghc2 but from that time his chief attention was devoted to politics4 ,in #aghg he was elected to the assembly of the notables2 in #aghi he was appointed commandant of the national guard2 and in #agib he was chosen admiral by the ,national ,assembly4 ,though in favour of national reform he continued to cherish a strong feeling of loyalty to the royal family1 and on the trial of ,marie ,antoinette in #agic bore testimony in her favour4 ,on this account1 and because of certain friendly letters which had passed between him and the queen1 he was himself brought to trial1 and was executed on the #bhth of ,april #agid4 ,see ,marins et soldats francais en ,amerique1 by the ,viscomte de ,noailles 7#aijc72 ,beatson1 ,naval and ,military ,memoirs of ,great ,britain1 vol4 v4 ,,estate 7through ,o4 ,fr4 estat1 mod4 etat1 from ,lat4 status1 state1 condition1 position1 stare1 to stand71 the state or condition in which a man lives1 now chiefly used poetically and in such phrases as man's estate1 or of high estate2 state has superseded most of the uses of the word except 7#a7 in property and 7#b7 in constitutional law4 #a4 ,in the law of property the word is employed in several senses4 ,in the widest sense a man's estate comprises his entire belongings2 so much of it as consists of land and certain other interests associated therewith is his real estate2 the rest is his personal estate4 ,the word is more particularly applied to interests in land1 and in popular and general use an estate means the land itself4 ,the strict technical meaning of an estate is an interest in lands1 and this conception lies at the root of the ,english theory of property in land4 ,the first thing that the student has to do1 says ,joshua ,williams 7,law of ,real ,property71 is to get rid of the idea of absolute ownership4 ,such an idea is quite unknown to the ,english law4 ,no man is in law the absolute owner of lands4 ,he can only hold an estate in them4 ,that is1 the notion of tenure1 of holding by a tenant from a lord1 prevails4 ,the last lord of all from whom all land was ultimately held was the king4 ,persons holding directly from the king and granting to others were the king's tenants in capite1 and were the mesne lords of their tenants4 ,estates in land may be classified according to 7#a7 the quantity of their interest or duration1 7#b7 the time of enjoyment1 and 7#c7 the number and connexion of the tenants4 ,according to 7#a71 an estate may be either a freehold of inheritance or a freehold not of inheritance4 ,a freehold of inheritance may be 7a7 an estate in fee simple1 which is the largest estate a man can hold in ,english law1 and comes close to the idea of absolute ownership1 repudiated by ,williams2 an estate in fee simple is inheritable by a man's heirs generally1 he has full powers of disposition over it1 and may alienate the whole or part4 7b7 ,it may also be in limited fees1 which are again subdivided into 7i47 qualified or base fee1 7ii47 fee conditional1 so called at the common law1 afterwards1 on the passing of the statute ,de ,donis ,conditionalibus1 fee tail1 which may be general as to the heirs of a man's body1 or special1 as to the heirs male 7or female7 of his body4 ,a freehold not of inheritance may be either 7#a7 conventional1 as an estate for life1 which may be either an estate for one's own life or for the life of another 7pur autre vie72 7#b7 legal1 or created by operation of law1 as tenancy in tail after possibility of issue extinct 7i4e4 where an estate is given to a man and the heirs of his body by his present wife1 and the wife dies without issue1 the husband becomes tenant in tail after possibility of issue extinct72 tenancy by curtesy 7see ,,curtesy72 tenancy in dower 7see ,,dower74 ,estates not of freehold or less than freehold are subdivided into 7i47 estates for years 7often called estates for a term of years1 the instrument creating it being termed a lease or demise1 and the estate itself a leasehold interest72 7ii47 estates at will1 that is1 where lands or tenements are let by one man to another to have and to hold at the will of the lessor2 7iii47 estates at sufferance1 where one comes into possession of land under a lawful title1 and continues in possession after his title has determined4 ,according to 7#b71 estates are either in possession or in expectancy4 ,estates in expectancy are either 7a7 in remainder1 which may be vested or contingent1 or 7b7 in reversion 7see ,,remainder1 ,,reversion74 ,according to 7#c71 estates may be either 7i47 in severalty1 that is1 the holding of an estate by a person in his own right only1 without any other person being joined or connected with him in point of interest therein2 7ii47 estates in joint tenancy 7see ,,joint72 7iii47 coparcenary 7q4v472 and 7iv47 tenancy in common1 where two or more hold the same land1 by several and distinct titles1 but with unity of possession4 7,see also ,,real ,,property47 #b4 ,in constitutional law an estate is an order or class having a definite share as such in the body politic1 and participating either directly or by its representatives in the government4 ,the system of representation by estates took its rise in western ,europe during the #acth century1 at a time when the feudal system was being broken up through various causes1 notably the growing wealth and power of the towns4 ,in the feudal council the clergy and the territorial nobles had alone had a voice2 but the #acth century1 to quote ,stubbs 7,const4 ,hist4 ii4 #afh1 ed4 #ahge71 turns the feudal council into an assembly of estates1 and draws the constitution of the third estate from the ancient local machinery which it concentrates4 ,this is1 allowing for differences of detail1 true of other countries as well as ,england4 ,to the two estates already existing1 clergy and nobles1 is added a third1 that of the commons 7burgesses and knights of the shire7 in ,england1 that of the roturiers in ,france 7known as the tiers etat74 ,this division into three estates became the norm1 but it was not universal1 nor inevitable4#a ,even in ,england there was a tendency to create other estates1 the king for instance treating with the merchants separately for grants of money to be raised by taxing the general body of merchants in the country2 and there was a similar tendency on the part of the lawyers4 ,but for the accident of their sitting and voting together1 the burgesses and knights of the shire would also have formed separate estates4 ,in ,aragon the cortes contained four estates 7brazos or arms71 the clergy1 the great barons 7ricos hombres71 the minor barons 7knights or infanzones71 and the towns4 ,the ,swedish diet had also four--clergy1 barons1 burghers and peasants4 ,the system of estates1 based on the medieval conception of society as divided into definite orders1 formed the basis of whatever constitutional forms survived in ,europe till the ,french ,revolution4 ,in ,england1 of course1 it had early become obscured1 the ,house of ,commons representing the whole nation outside the narrow order of the peers4 ,the creation of an estate of lesser nobles or landowners had been prevented by the fusion of the knights of the shire with the burgesses2 the spiritual estate was ruled out by the determination of the clergy to deliberate and tax themselves in their own convocation1 leaving the bishops1 as spiritual peers1 to represent their interests in parliament4 ,the phrase the three estates of the realm still survives1 but to most men it conveys no clear meaning4 ,the erroneous conception early arose--,hallam says it was current among the popular lawyers of the #agth century--that the three estates were king1 lords and commons1 as representing the three great divisions of legislative authority4 ,such a conception might be possible in ,hungary1 where the crown of ,st4 ,stephen symbolizes not so much the royal power as the co-ordination of the powers of all the organs of the state1 including the king2 but in ,england the king represents the whole nation and in no sense a separate interest within it1 which is the essence of an estate4 ,the phrase three estates as applied to the ,english constitution at present is1 in fact1 misleading4 ,it is now usually understood of the lords spiritual1 the lords temporal1 and the commons4 ,the conception of the three estates of the realm as the great divisions of legislative authority led in ,england to the coining of the phrase fourth estate1 to indicate some power of corresponding magnitude in the state distinct from them4 ,fielding thus spoke of the mob1 and ,hazlitt of ,cobbett2 but the phrase is now usually applied to the press1 a usage originating in a speech by ,burke 7,carlyle1 ,hero-worship1 ,lect4 v474 ,in the constitutional struggles of the ,european continent1 from the ,revolution onward1 the rival theories of representation by estates and of popular representation have played a great part4 ,the crucial moment of the ,french ,revolution was when the vote according to order was rejected and the estates of the clergy and nobles were merged with the tiers etat1 the states-general thus becoming the ,national ,assembly4 ,this was the precedent followed1 generally speaking1 during the #aith century in the other countries in which constitutional government was established4 ,in most of them the medieval estates lingered on in provincial diets 7,landtage71#b and the famous ,article ,,xiii4 of the ,federal ,act 7,bundesakte7 of ,vienna decreed that assemblies of estates should be set up1 wherever not already existing1 in the ,german states4 ,the efforts of ,metternich and the statesmen of his school were directed1 not so much to abolishing the constitutional model1 as to establishing it1 if need were1 on traditional and conservative lines4 ,this is what was meant by the famous reply of the emperor ,francis ,i4 to the ,magyar deputation2 ,all the world is playing the fool and demanding fanciful constitutions4 ,when the need for making constitutional concessions became urgent1 the attempt was accordingly made to base them on the system of estates4 ,but the central diet convoked in #ahdg by ,frederick ,william ,,iv4 to ,berlin1 technically a concentration of provincial estates1 quickly converted itself as ,metternich had prophesied--into a national assembly2 and precisely the same thing happened in the case of the first ,austrian parliament in #ahdh4 ,in ,hungary the revolution was in some respects more conservative in character4 ,the ,march ,laws of #ahdh preserved the general character of the ,house of ,magnates1 comparable to the ,british ,house of ,lords1 but converted the ,lower ,house from what was practically representative of the estate of the lesser nobles into a national representative assembly4 ,of all the sovereign states of ,europe only the grand-duchies of ,mecklenburg still 7#aiji7 retain the ancient system of estates untouched4 ,the diet1 which is common to the two duchies1 consists of the ,ritterschaft1 in which all tenants in chivalry 7,rittergutsbesitzer71 whether noble or non-noble1 have a voice1 and the ,landschaft1 which consists of the chief magistrates of the towns4 ,the former is taken as representative of the peasant proprietors and copy-holders 7,hintersassen71 the latter of the burghers4 ,the plural form ,,estates or ,,states 7,fr4 etats1 ,ger4 ,stande7 is the name commonly given to an assembly of estates 7assemblee des etats1 ,standeversammlung74 ,when such an assembly is not merely local or provincial it is called the estates-general or states-general 7etats generaux71 e4g4 in ,france the assembly of the deputies of the three estates of the realm as distinct from the provincial estates which met periodically in the so-called pays d'etats4 ,for further details about the estates in ,england and elsewhere see ,w4 ,stubbs1 ,constitutional ,history1 vol4 ii4 7#ahif72 ,h4 ,hallam1 ,the ,middle ,ages 7#ahee72 ,f4,w4 ,maitland1 ,constitutional ,history of ,england 7#aijh72 ,a4 ,luchaire1 ,histoire des institutions monarchiques de la ,france 7#ahhc-ahhe72 ,g4 ,waitz1 ,deutsche ,verfassungsgeschichte 7,kiel1 #ahfe-ahgh72 and ,a4,s4 ,rait1 ,the ,scottish ,parliament 7#aija74 ,see also ,,representation4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,in ,scotland the three estates were the prelates1 the tenants-in-chief and the burgesses1 the third estate joining the others for the first time about the beginning of the #adth century4 ,in #adbh commissioners of shires1 men elected by the minor tenants-in-chief1 were ordered to appear in parliament2 the greater tenants-in-chief then coalesced with the prelates and the three estates were the lords1 clerical and lay1 the commissioners of shires and the burgesses4 ,from #afdj to #affj parliament was reorganized1 the prelates being excluded1 but at the ,restoration the old order was re-established4 ,the ,scottish parliament was accustomed to depute much of its work to a committee1 composed of members from each of the three orders1 and the committee of the estates was very prominent during the struggle between ,charles ,i4 and his people4 #b ,these diets are1 wherever they still exist1 survivals of the parliaments of separate territorial units4 ,,estate ,,and ,,house ,,agents4 ,a person exercising the calling of a house agent in ,england is required1 under a penalty of ,l#bj1 to take out yearly a licence upon which ,l#b is charged as a duty of excise1 unless he is licensed as an auctioneer or appraiser1 or is an agent employed in the management of landed estates1 or a solicitor or conveyancer who has taken out his annual certificate as such4 ,in this connexion a person is deemed to be a house agent if he advertises for sale or for letting1 or in any way negotiates for the selling or letting of any furnished house or part of any furnished house 7any storey or flat rated and let as a separate tenement being for this purpose a house72 subject1 however1 to the qualification that no one is to be deemed to be a house agent by reason of his letting1 or offering to let1 or in any way negotiating for the letting of1 any house the annual rent or value of which does not exceed ,l#be4 ,a house agent who is merely instructed to act in the usual way of his calling has no authority to bind his employer by a contract4 ,his business is to endeavour to find a person willing to become a purchaser or tenant and then to communicate his offer to the owner4 ,unless express authority is given to the agent to sell or let1 and for that purpose to enter into a binding contract1 the principal reserves his right to accept or refuse the offer4 ,as a rule1 a house or estate agent has no authority to receive payment on behalf of the principal4 ,where he is employed to procure a tenant1 he must use reasonable diligence to ascertain that the person to whom the property is let through his agency is fit to be a tenant4 ,he does not1 however1 in any way guarantee the payment of the rent4 ,a house agent may not1 for or in expectation of payment1 prepare any deed relating to the sale or letting of real or personal estate4 ,there is1 however1 no similar prohibition as to agreements not under seal1 and it is a common practice for house agents to charge for the preparation of them4 ,house agents are usually remunerated by way of commission4 ,the scale adopted by the ,institute of ,estate and ,house ,agents embodies the rates usually charged4 ,in the absence of express provision upon the subject between the principal and the agent1 commission is payable only when the latter has found a purchaser or tenant4 ,if1 however1 he had found a person willing to buy or take property upon the terms upon which the principal intimated to him his willingness to sell or let it1 the principal will be liable to pay the amount of the commission1 even though in fact he refuses or is unable to sell or let it4 ,where the agent can show that he has brought about a sale or tenancy he will be entitled to the commission notwithstanding the fact that another agent has been paid1 or has recovered in an action1 commission in respect of the same sale or tenancy4 ,the agent's authority may be revoked at any time2 but1 where he has already performed the service for which he was employed1 the principal cannot defeat his right to be paid the amount of the commission by subsequently revoking his authority4 ,if the agent is unsuccessful in finding a purchaser or tenant1 as the case may be1 he will not1 as a rule1 have any right to remuneration for his efforts in the matter4 ,most auctioneers1 in addition to holding auctions1 carry on the business of house and estate agency4 ,the number of licences issued to house agents and appraisers in ,england for the year ended #cast ,march #ahii was #ddbi1 and for the year ended #cast ,march #aiji1 #dfah4 ,the number of licences issued to auctioneers in ,england for the corresponding periods was #fchi and #fedc respectively4 7,h4 ,ha47 ,,estate ,,duty4 ,for purposes of the national revenue in the ,united ,kingdom1 the ,finance ,act #ahid imposed on all property passing by death after the #ast of ,august #ahid a duty called estate duty1 in lieu of certain other duties previously payable4 ,the objects of the act were--7#a7 simplification of the death duties and equalization as between real and personal property1 and 7#b7 aggregation of all the property passing on a death1 and taxation at rates graduated according to the value of the whole4 ,before the act a duty 7probate duty7 was taken on the free personal property of deceased persons in the hands of the executor or administrator1 without regard to the subsequent distribution4 ,the legacy and succession duties were levied on distribution of the property passing on the death1 from the persons taking any property under the will or intestacy of the deceased1 or under settlement1 or by devolution of title on his death4 ,these two latter duties were mutually exclusive1 and together covered practically all property passing by death4 ,they were levied at rates graduated according to consanguinity4 ,in #ahhh an attempt was made to equalize the rates of the death duties as between property which paid the probate and legacy duties1 and property which paid succession duty only4 ,but the ,finance ,act #ahid replaced the probate duty by a duty extending to all property real or personal passing on or by reference to death1 whether by disposition of the deceased or not1 without regard to its tenure or destination4 ,the ,finance ,acts of #aijg and #aiji-aiaj increased the scale of duties laid down in #ahid4 ,for this purpose all property passing on a death is aggregated to form one estate1 on the capital value of which the duty is charged1 at rates graduated from #a to #ae according to the aggregate value4 ,besides the property of which the deceased was competent to dispose at his death1 the aggregated estate includes property in which he had an interest ceasing on his death1 from the cesser of which a benefit accrues1 or which was disposed of by him within twelve months of death1 or at any time1 with reservation of an interest to himself4 ,the extent to which property is deemed to pass on the cesser of a limited interest is measured by the proportion of the income to which the interest extended1 without regard to the tenure of the deceased or his successor4 ,property may therefore be included in the aggregate estate at its capital value owing to the passing of a life-interest only1 the property being settled so that the absolute ownership does not pass at all4 ,but when the duty has once been paid on property passing under a settlement1 the property does not again become chargeable until it passes on the death of a person who is or has been competent to dispose of it4 ,to compensate for this advantage1 when property passing under a settlement made after the act pays the estate duty1 a further duty of #b 7settlement estate duty7 is taken1 except where the only subsequent life-interest is that of the wife or husband of the deceased4 ,the rate of duty being fixed according to the aggregate capital value of the whole estate1 the charge is distributed according to the different modes of disposition of the property comprised in the estate4 ,the duty on the personalty which passes to the executor as such is paid by him1 as the probate duty was1 and comes out of the general estate4 ,for the other property passing1 trustees1 or any person to whom it passes for a beneficial interest in possession1 are made accountable1 and are required to bring in an account of the property and pay the duty4 ,the duty is a first charge on such property1 and1 when it is paid by a person having a life-interest only1 he may charge the corpus of the property with it4 ,the duty on real property included in an account is payable by eight yearly or sixteen half-yearly instalments1 becoming due twelve months after the death1 and bearing interest at #c from that date4 ,on other property1 except in a few special cases1 the duty bears interest at #c from the date of the death4 ,when the estate duty has been paid no further duty is chargeable on property comprised in the estate which passes to lineal relations of the deceased4 ,but on property passing to collaterals or strangers legacy or succession duty1 as the case may be1 is payable by the devisees or successors1 at a rate 7which is the same whichever duty be payable7 fixed according to consanguinity4 ,for a detailed account of the provisions of the act of #ahid and subsequent amending acts1 and of the practical working of the duty1 reference is made to ,austen-,cartmell1 ,finance ,acts 7#ahid-aijg72 ,hanson1 ,death ,duties 7,london1 #aijd72 ,soward1 ,handbook to the ,estate ,duty 7#dth ed41 ,london1 #aijj72 and to the reports of the commissioners of ,inland ,revenue for #ahid-ahie and subsequent years4 ,,estcourt1 ,,richard 7#affh-agab71 ,english actor1 began by playing comedy parts in ,dublin4 ,his first ,london appearance was in #agjd as ,dominick1 in ,dryden's ,spanish ,friar1 and he continued to take important parts at ,drury ,lane1 being the original ,pounce in ,steele's ,tender ,husband 7#agje71 ,sergeant ,kite in ,farquhar's ,recruiting ,officer1 and ,sir ,francis ,gripe in ,mrs ,centlivre's ,busybody4 ,he was an excellent mimic and a great favourite socially4 ,estcourt wrote a comedy1 ,the ,fair ,example1 or the ,modish ,citizen 7#agjc71 and ,prunella 7#agjd71 an interlude4 ,,este1 one of the oldest of the former reigning houses of ,italy4 ,it is in all probability of ,lombard origin1 and descended1 according to ,muratori1 from the princes who governed in ,tuscany in ,carolingian times4 ,the lordship of the town of ,este was first acquired by ,alberto ,azzo ,,ii41 who also bore the title of marquis of ,italy#a 7d4 c4 #ajig72 he married ,kunitza or ,kunegonda1 sister of ,welf or ,guelph ,,iii41 duke of ,carinthia4 ,welf died without issue1 and was succeeded by ,welf ,,iv41 son of ,kunitza1 who married a daughter of ,otto ,,ii41 duke of ,bavaria1 and who obtained the duchy of ,bavaria in #ajgj4 ,through him the house of ,este became connected with the princely houses of ,brunswick and ,hanover1 from which the sovereigns of ,england are descended4 ,the ,italian titles and estates were inherited by ,folco ,i4 7#ajfj-aace71 son of ,alberto ,azzo by his second wife ,gersende1 daughter of ,herbert ,i41 count of ,maine4#b ,the house of ,este played a great part in the history of medieval and ,renaissance ,italy1 and it first comes to the front in the wars between the ,guelphs and ,ghibellines2 as leaders of the former party its princes received at different times ,ferrara1 ,modena1 ,reggio and other fiefs and territories4 ,obizzo ,i41 son of ,folco1 was the first to bear the title of marquis of ,este4 ,he entered into the ,guelphic league against the emperor ,frederick ,i41 and was comprehended in the treaty of ,venice of #aagg by which municipal podestas 7foreigners chosen as heads of cities to administer justice impartially7 were instituted4 ,he was elected podesta of ,padua in #aagh1 and in #aahd he was reconciled with ,frederick1 who created him marquis of ,genoa and ,milan1 a dignity somewhat similar to that of imperial vicar4 ,by the marriage of his son ,azzo to the heiress of the ,marchesella family 7the story that she was carried off to prevent her marrying an enemy of the ,este is a pure legend71 he came to acquire great influence in ,ferrara1 although he was opposed by the hardly less powerful house of ,torelli4 ,obizzo died in #aaid and ,azzo ,v4 having predeceased him1 the marquisate devolved on his grandson ,azzo ,,vi4 7#aagj-abab71 who became head of the ,guelph party1 and to him the people of ,ferrara sacrificed their liberty by making him their first lord 7#abjh74 ,but during his lifetime civil war raged in the city1 between the ,este and the ,torelli1 each party being driven out again and again4 ,azzo 7also called ,azzolino7 died in #abab and was succeeded by ,aldobrandino ,i41 who in #abac concluded a treaty with ,salinguerra ,torelli1 the head of that house1 to divide the government of the city between them4 ,on his death in #abae he was succeeded by his brother ,azzo ,,vii4 7#abje-abfd71 surnamed ,novello1 but ,salinguerra ,torelli usurped all power in ,ferrara and expelled ,azzo 7#abbb74 ,in #abdj ,pope ,gregory ,,ix4 determined on another war against the emperor ,frederick ,,ii41 but deemed it wise to begin by crushing the chief ,ghibelline houses4 ,thus ,azzo found himself in league with the pope and various ,guelph cities in his attempt to regain ,ferrara4 ,that town underwent a four months' siege1 and was at last compelled to surrender2 ,salinguerra was sent to ,venice as a prisoner1 and ,azzo ruled in ,ferrara once more4 ,the ,ghibelline party was annihilated1 but the city enjoyed peace and happiness within1 although her citizens took part in the wars raging outside4 ,the ,guelph cause triumphed1 ,frederick being defeated several times1 and after his death ,azzo helped in crushing the terrible ,eccelino da ,romano 7q4v47 who upheld the imperial cause1 at the battle of ,cassano 7#abei74 ,he died in #abfd and was succeeded by ,obizzo ,,ii4 7#abdj-abic7 his grandson1 who in #abhh received the lordship of ,modena1 and that of ,reggio in #abhi4 ,he was a capable but cruel ruler1 and while professing devotion to the ,guelph cause1 did homage to the ,german king ,rudolph ,i4 when he descended into ,italy4 ,obizzo ,,ii4 died in #abic and was succeeded by his son ,azzo ,,viii41 but the latter's brothers1 ,aldobrandino and ,francesco1 who were to have shared in the government1 were expelled and became his bitter enemies4 ,the misgovernment of ,azzo led to the revolt of ,reggio and ,modena1 which shook off his yoke4 ,enemies arose on all sides1 and he spent his last years in perpetual fighting4 ,he died in #acjh1 and having no legitimate children1 his brothers1 his natural son ,fresco1 and others disputed the succession4 ,a papal legate was appointed1 and though the ,este returned they were placed under pontifical tutelage4 ,the history of the house now becomes involved and of little interest until we come to ,nicholas ,,iii4 7#achd-adda71 who exercised sway over ,ferrara1 ,modena1 ,parma and ,reggio1 waged many wars1 was made general of the army of the ,church1 and in his later years governor of ,milan1 where he died1 not without suspicion of poison4 ,to him succeeded ,lionello 7#adjg-adej71 a wise and virtuous ruler and a patron of literature and art2 then ,borso 7#adac-adga71 his brother1 who was created duke of ,modena and ,reggio by the emperor ,frederick ,,iii41 and duke of ,ferrara by the pope4 ,in spite of the wars by which all ,italy was torn1 ,ferrara enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity under ,borso2 he patronized literature1 established a printing-press at ,ferrara1 surrounded himself with learned men1 and his court was of unparalleled splendour4 ,he also protected industry and commerce1 and ruled with great wisdom4 ,his brother ,ercole ,i4 7#adca-aeje71 who succeeded him in #adga1 was less fortunate1 and had to engage in a war with ,venice1 owing to a dispute about the salt monopoly1 with the result that by the peace of #adhd he was forced to cede the district of ,polesine to the republic4 ,but the last years of his life were peaceful and prosperous1 so that afterwards men looked back to the days of ,ercole ,i4 as to a golden age2 his capital was noted both for its luxury and as the resort of men eminent in literature and art4 ,boiardo the poet was his minister1 and ,ariosto obtained his patronage4 ,ercole's daughter ,beatrice d',este 7#adge-adig71 duchess of ,milan1 one of the most beautiful and accomplished princesses of the ,italian ,renaissance1 was bethrothed at the age of five to ,lodovico ,sforza 7known as il ,moro71 duke of ,bari1 regent and afterwards duke of ,milan1 and was married to him in ,january #adia4 ,she had been carefully educated1 and availed herself of her position as mistress of one of the most splendid courts of ,italy to surround herself with learned men1 poets and artists1 such as ,niccolo da ,correggio1 ,bernardo ,castiglione1 ,bramante1 ,leonardo da ,vinci and many others4 ,in #adib she visited ,venice as ambassador for her husband in his political schemes1 which consisted chiefly in a desire to be recognized as duke of ,milan4 ,on the death of ,gian ,galeazzo ,sforza1 ,lodovico's usurpation was legalized1 and after the battle of ,fornovo 7#adie7 both he and his wife took part in the peace congress of ,vercelli between ,charles ,,viii4 of ,france and the ,italian princes1 at which ,beatrice showed great political ability4 ,but her brilliant career was cut short by death through childbirth1 on the #crd of ,january #adig4 ,she belongs to the best class of ,renaissance women1 and was one of the culture influences of the age2 to her patronage and good taste are due to a great extent the splendour of the ,castello of ,milan1 of the ,certosa of ,pavia and of many other famous buildings in ,lombardy4 ,her sister ,isabella d',este 7#adgd-aeci71 marchioness of ,mantua1 was carefully educated both in letters and in the arts like ,beatrice1 and was married when barely sixteen to ,francesco ,gonzaga1 marquis of ,mantua 7#adij74 ,she showed great diplomatic and political skill1 especially in her negotiations with ,cesare ,borgia 7q4v471 who had dispossessed ,guidobaldo da ,montefeltro1 duke of ,urbino1 the husband of her sister-in-law and intimate friend ,elisabetta ,gonzaga 7#aejb74 ,she received the deposed duke and duchess1 as well as other princes in the same condition1 at her court of ,mantua1 which was one of the most brilliant in ,italy1 and like her sister she gathered together many eminent men of letters and artists1 ,raphael1 ,andrea ,mantegna and ,giulio ,romano being among those whom she employed4 ,both she and her husband were greatly influenced by ,baldassare ,castiglione 7#adgh-aebi71 author of ,il ,cortigiano1 and it was at his suggestion that ,giulio ,romano was summoned to ,mantua to enlarge the ,castello and other buildings4 ,isabella was undoubtedly1 among all the princesses of the #aeth and #afth centuries1 the one who most strikingly and perfectly personified the aspirations of the ,renaissance 7,eugene ,muntz72 but her character was less attractive than that of her sister1 and in her love of collecting works of art she showed a somewhat grasping nature1 being ever anxious to cut down the prices of the artists who worked for her4 ,to ,ercole ,i4 succeeded his son ,alphonso ,i4 7#adhf-aecd71 the husband of ,lucrezia ,borgia 7q4v471 daughter of ,pope ,alexander ,,vi4 ,during nearly the whole of his reign he was engaged in the ,italian wars1 but by his diplomatic skill and his military ability he was for many years almost always successful4 ,he was gifted with great mechanical skill1 and his artillery was of world-wide reputation4 ,on the formation of the league of ,cambrai against ,venice in #aejh1 he was appointed to the supreme command of the papal troops by ,julius ,,ii42 but after the ,venetians had sustained a number of reverses they made peace with the pope and joined him against the ,french4 ,alphonso was invited to co-operate in the new combination1 and on his refusal war was declared against him2 but although he began by losing ,modena and ,reggio1 he subsequently inflicted several defeats on the papal troops4 ,he fought on the side of the ,french at the battle of ,ravenna 7#aeab71 from which1 although victorious1 they derived no advantage4 ,soon afterwards they retired from ,italy1 and ,alphonso1 finding himself abandoned1 tried to make his peace with the pope1 through the mediation of ,fabrizio ,colonna4 ,he went to ,rome for the purpose and received absolution1 but on discovering that ,julius meant to detain him a prisoner1 he escaped in disguise1 and the pope's death in #aeac gave him a brief respite4 ,but ,leo ,x4 proved equally bent on the destruction of the house of ,este1 when he too was cut off by death4 ,alphonso availed himself of the troubles of the papacy during the reign of the equally hostile ,clement ,,vii4 to recapture ,reggio 7#aebc7 and ,modena 7#aebg71 and was confirmed in his possession of them by the emperor ,charles ,v41 in spite of ,clement's opposition4 ,he died in #aecd1 and was succeeded by his son ,ercole ,,ii4 7#aejh-aeei71 who married ,renee1 daughter of ,louis ,,xii4 of ,france1 a princess of ,protestant proclivities and a friend of ,calvin4 ,on joining the league of ,france and the papacy against ,spain1 ,ercole was appointed lieutenant-general of the ,french army in ,italy4 ,the war was prosecuted1 however1 with little vigour1 and peace was made with ,spain in #aeeh4 ,the duke and his brother1 ,cardinal ,ippolito the ,younger1 were patrons of literature and art1 and the latter built the magnificent ,villa d' ,este at ,tivoli4 ,he was succeeded by ,alphonso ,,ii4 7#aecc-aeig71 remembered for his patronage of ,tasso1 whom he afterwards imprisoned4 ,he reorganized the army1 enriched the public library1 encouraged agriculture1 but was extravagant and dissipated4 ,with him the main branch of the family came to an end1 and although at his death he bequeathed the duchy to his cousin ,cesare 7#aecc-afbh71 ,pope ,clement ,,viii41 renewing the ,church's hostility to the house of ,este1 declared that prince to be of illegitimate birth 7a doubtful contention71 and by a treaty with ,lucrezia1 ,alphonso's sister1 ,ferrara was made over to the ,holy ,see4 ,cesare held ,modena and ,reggio1 but with him the ,estensi cease to play an important part in ,italian politics4 ,for two centuries this dynasty had been one of the greatest powers in ,italy1 and its court was perhaps the most splendid in ,europe1 both as regards pomp and luxury and on account of the eminent artists1 poets and scholars which it attracted4 ,the subsequent heads of the family were3 ,alphonso ,,iii41 who retired to a monastery in #afbi and died in #afdd2 ,francis ,i4 7#afaj-afeh71 who commanded the ,french army in ,italy in #afdg2 ,alphonso ,,iv4 7#afcd-affb71 the father of ,mary ,beatrice1 the queen of ,james ,,ii4 of ,england1 who fought in the ,french army during the ,spanish ,war1 and founded the picture gallery of ,modena2 ,francis ,,ii4 7#affj-afid71 who originated the ,este library1 also at ,modena1 and founded the university2 ,rinaldo 7#afee-agcg71 through whose marriage with ,charlotte ,felicitas of ,brunswick-,luneburg the long-separated branches of the house of ,este were reunited2 ,francis ,,iii4 7#afih-aghj71 who married the daughter of the regent ,philip of ,orleans4 ,francis ,,iii4 wished to remain neutral during the war between ,spain and ,austria 7#agdj71 but the imperialists having occupied and devastated his duchy1 he took the ,spanish side and was appointed generalissimo of the ,spanish army in ,italy4 ,he was re-established in his possessions by the treaty of ,aix-la-,chapelle 7#agdh71 and on being reconciled with the empress ,maria ,theresa1 he received from her the title of governor of ,lombardy in #aged4 ,with his son ,ercole ,,iii4 ,rinaldo 7#agbg-ahjc71 who at the peace of ,campoformio lost his duchy1 the male line of the ,estensi came to an end4 ,his only daughter1 ,marie ,beatrice 7d4 #ahbi71 was married to the archduke ,ferdinand1 third son of the emperor ,francis ,i4 ,ferdinand was created duke of ,breisgau in #ahjc1 and at his death in #ahjf he was succeeded by his son ,francis ,,iv4 7q4v471 to whom the duchy of ,modena was given at the treaty of ,vienna in #ahad4 ,he died in #ahdf and was succeeded by ,francis ,v4 7q4v471 who lost his possessions by the events of #ahei4 ,with his death in #ahge the title and estates passed to the archduke ,francis ,ferdinand1 heir to the ,austro-,hungarian throne4 ,the children of ,lady ,augusta ,murray1 daughter of the earl of ,dunmore1 by her marriage with ,augustus ,frederick1 duke of ,sussex1 sixth son of ,george ,,iii4 of ,great ,britain1 assumed the old name of d' ,este1 and claimed recognition as members of the royal family2 but as the marriage was in violation of the royal marriages act of #aggc1 it was declared invalid1 and their claims were set aside4 ,,bibliography4--,g4 ,antonelli1 ,saggio di una bibliografia storica ferrarese 7,ferrara1 #ahea72 ,l4,a4 ,muratori1 ,delle antichita estensi ed italiane 7#c vols41 #agag1 c471 the chief and most reliable authority on the subject1 containing a quantity of documents2 ,a4 ,frizzi1 ,memorie per la storia di ,ferrara 7#bnd ed41 ,ferrara1 #ahdg72 ,a4 ,solerti1 ,ferrara e la corte estense nella seconda meta del sec4 ,,xvi4 7,citta di ,castello1 #aijj72 ,c4 ,antolini1 ,il dominio estense in ,ferrara 7,ferrara1 #ahif71 which deals with the siege of #abdj and other special points2 ,e4,g4 ,gardner1 ,princes and ,poets of ,ferrara 7,london1 #aijd71 a bulky volume dealing only with the ,renaissance period1 full of interesting and unpublished matter1 especially about the literary and artistic associations of the house1 but not well put together 7contains good bibliography72 ,g4 ,bertoni1 ,la ,biblioteca estense e la coltura ferrarese ai tempi del duca ,ercole ,i4 7,turin1 #aijc71 useful for the literary aspect of the subject2 ,p4 ,litta1 ,le ,celebri ,famiglie italiane1 vol4 iii4 7,milan1 #ahca71 still a valuable work2 ,e4 ,noyes1 ,the ,story of ,ferrara 7,london1 #aijd72 ,julia ,cartwright's ,isabella d',este 7,london1 #aijc71 and ,beatrice d',este 7#ahii71 pleasantly written but amateurish volumes based on ,a4 ,luzio's ,mantova e ,urbino 7,turin1 #ahic72 ,a4 ,luzio and ,r4 ,renier1 ,delle relazioni di ,isabella d',este ,gonzaga con ,lodovico e ,beatrice ,sforza 7,milan1 #ahij1 ,archivio ,storico ,lombardo1 xvii474 7,l4 ,v4997 ,,footnotes3 #a i4e4 ,margrave of the ,empire 7marchio ,sancti ,imperii7 in ,italy4 7,see ,,marquess47 #b ,another son of ,azzo and ,gersende became count of ,maine as ,hugh ,,iii4 7d4 #aaca74 ,,este 7anc4 ,ateste1 q4v471 a town and episcopal see of ,venetia1 ,italy1 in the province of ,padua1 #bj m4 ,s4,s4,w4 of it by rail4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #hfga 7town72 #aj1ggi 7commune74 ,it lies #di ft4 above sea-level below the southern slopes of the ,euganean ,hills4 ,the external walls of the castle still rise above the town on the ,n41 but the interior is now occupied by the cattle-market4 ,a fragment of the once enormous ,palazzo ,mocenigo1 of the #afth century1 is now occupied by the important archaeological museum 7see ,,ateste74 ,the cathedral was erected in #afij-agbj1 on the site of an older building destroyed by an earthquake in #afhh4 ,s4 ,martino is a church in the ,lombard ,romanesque style4 ,the archives in the ,palazzo ,comunale are important4 ,after the ,roman period the history of ,este is a blank until the ,lombard period1 in which it was dependent on ,monselice4 ,in the #ajth century the family of ,este 7see above7 established itself in the castle above the town4 ,at the end of the #acth century ,padua1 which had already captured ,este more than once1 became definitely mistress of it4 ,when the ,carrara family succumbed in #adje1 ,este voluntarily surrendered to ,venice and was allowed its independence1 under a podesta2 and thenceforth it followed the fortunes of ,venetia4 ,,estebanez ,,calderon1 ,,serafin 7#agii-ahfg71 a ,spanish author1 best known by the pseudonym of ,el ,solitario1 was born at ,malaga on the #bgth of ,december #agii4 ,his first literary effort was ,el ,liston verde1 a poem signed ,safinio and written to celebrate the revolution of #ahbj4 ,he was called to the bar1 and settled for some time at ,madrid1 where he published a volume of verses in #ahca under the assumed name of ,el ,solitario4 ,he obtained an exaggerated reputation as an ,arabic scholar1 and played a minor part in the political movements of his time4 ,he died at ,madrid on the #eth of ,february #ahfg4 ,his most interesting work1 ,escenas andaluzas 7#ahdg71 is in a curiously affected style1 the vocabulary being partly archaic and partly provincial2 but1 despite its eccentric mannerisms1 it is a vivid record of picturesque scenes and local customs4 ,estebanez ,calderon is also the author of an unfinished history1 ,de la conquista y perdida de ,portugal 7#ahhc71 issued posthumously under the editorship of his nephew1 ,antonio ,canovas del ,castillo4 ,,estella1 a town of northern ,spain1 in the province of ,navarre1 on the left bank of the river ,ega1 #ae m4 ,w4,s4,w4 of ,pamplona4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #egcf4 ,estella1 which occupies the site of a ,roman town of uncertain name1 contains several monasteries and churches1 a medieval citadel1 and a college which was formerly a university4 ,its principal industries are the manufacture of woollen and linen fabrics and brandy-making2 and it has a considerable trade in fruit1 wine and cattle4 ,estella commands several defiles on the roads from ,castile and ,aragon1 and on that account occupies a position of considerable strategic importance4 ,it was long the headquarters of ,don ,carlos1 who was proclaimed king here in #ahcc4 ,in #ahgc it was the chief stronghold of the ,carlists1 and in #ahgd1 when driven from other places1 they succeeded in retiring to ,estella4 ,on the #afth of ,february #ahgf the ,carlists in the town surrendered unconditionally4 ,for an account of the ,carlist rising see ,,spain3 ,history4 ,,esterhazy ,,of ,,galantha1 a noble ,magyar family4 ,its origin has been traced1 not without some uncertainty1 to ,salamon of ,estoras1 whose sons ,peter and ,illyes divided their patrimony in #abch4 ,peter founded the family of ,zerhazy1 and ,illyes that of ,illyeshazy1 which became extinct in the male line in #ahch4 ,the first member of the family to emerge definitely into history was ,ferencz ,zerhazy 7#aefc-aeid71 vice lord-lieutenant of the county of ,pressburg1 who took the name of ,esterhazy when he was created ,freiherr of ,galantha1 an estate acquired by the family in #adba4 ,his eldest son1 ,daniel 7d4 #afed71 founded the house of ,czesznek1 the third1 ,pal 7d4 #afda71 the line of ,zolyom 7,altsohl71 and the fourth1 ,miklos1 that branch of the family which occupies the most considerable place in ,hungarian history1 that of ,frakno or ,forchtenstein4 ,this ,,miklos ,nicholas ,,esterhazy of ,galantha 7#aehb-afde7 was born at ,galantha on the #hth of ,april #aehb4 ,his parents were ,protestants1 and he himself1 at first1 followed the ,protestant persuasion2 but he subsequently went over to ,catholicism and1 along with ,cardinal ,pazmany1 his most serious rival at court1 became a pillar of ,catholicism1 both religiously and politically1 and a worthy opponent of the two great ,protestant champions of the period1 ,gabriel ,bethlen and ,george ,i4 ,rakoczy4 ,in #afaa he married ,orsolya1 the widow of the wealthy ,ferencz ,magocsy1 thus coming into possession of her gigantic estates1 and in #afbb he acquired ,frakno4 ,matthias ,,ii4 made him a baron 7#afac71 count of ,beregh 7#afag71 and lord-lieutenant of the county of ,zolyom and magister curiae regiae 7#afah74 ,at the coronation of ,ferdinand ,,ii41 when he officiated as grand-standard-bearer1 he received the order of the ,golden ,fleece and fresh donations4 ,at the diet of ,sopron1 #afbe1 he was elected palatine of ,hungary4 ,as a diplomatist he powerfully contributed to bring about the peace of ,nikolsburg 7#afbb7 and the peace of ,linz 7#afde7 7see ,,hungary3 ,history74 ,his political ideal was the consolidation of the ,habsburg dynasty as a means towards freeing ,hungary from the ,turkish yoke4 ,he himself1 on one occasion 7#afbc71 defeated the ,turks on the banks of the ,nyitra2 but anything like sustained operations against them was then impossible4 ,he was also one of the most eminent writers of his day4 ,he died at ,nagy-,heflan on the #aath of ,september #afde1 leaving five sons4 ,see ,works of ,nicholas ,esterhazy1 with a biography by ,ferencz ,toldi 7,hung47 7,pest1 #aheb72 ,nicholas ,count ,esterhazy1 ,palatine of ,hungary 7a biography1 ,hung47 7,pest1 #ahfc-ahgj74 ,his third son ,,pal ,paul 7#afce-agac71 prince palatine1 founded the princely branch of the family of ,esterhazy4 ,he was born at ,kis ,marton 7,eisenstadt7 on the #gth of ,september #afce4 ,in #affc he fought1 along with ,miklos ,zrinyi1 against the ,turks1 and distinguished himself under ,montecuculi4 ,in #affg he was appointed commander-in-chief in south ,hungary1 where he defeated the malcontents at ,leutschau and ,gyork4 ,in #afha he was elected palatine4 ,in #afhc he participated in the deliverance of ,vienna from the ,turks1 and entered ,buda in #afhf at the head of #bj1jjj men4 ,thoroughly reactionary1 and absolutely devoted to the ,habsburgs1 he contributed more than any one else to the curtailing of the privileges of the ,magyar gentry in #afhg1 when he was created a prince of the ,empire1 with 7in #agab7 succession to the first-born of his house4 ,his aulic tendencies made him so unpopular that his offer of mediation between the ,rakoczy insurgents and the government was rejected by the ,hungarian diet1 and the negotiations1 which led to the peace of ,szatmar 7see ,,hungary3 ,history71 were entrusted to ,janos ,pallfy4 ,he died on the #bfth of ,march #agac4 ,he loved the arts and sciences1 wrote several religious works1 and was one of the chief compilers of the ,trophaeum ,domus ,inclytae ,estoratianae4 ,see ,lajos ,merenyi1 ,prince ,paul ,esterhazy 7,hung47 7,budapest1 #ahie74 ,prince ,,pal ,,antal1 grandson of the prince palatine ,pal1 was a distinguished soldier1 who rose to the rank of field-marshal in #ageh4 ,on his death in #agfb he was succeeded by his brother4 ,prince ,,miklos ,,jozsef ,nicholas ,joseph 7#agad-agij71 also a brilliant soldier1 is perhaps best remembered as a patron of the fine arts4 ,for his services in command of an infantry brigade at ,kolin 7#ageg7 he was specially mentioned by ,count ,daun1 and became one of the original members of the order of ,maria ,theresa4 ,in #agfb he was appointed captain of ,maria ,theresa's ,hungarian body-guard1 in #agfd ,feldzeugmeister1 and in #agfh field marshal4 ,his other honours included the ,golden ,fleece and the grade of commander in the order of ,maria ,theresa4 ,joseph ,,ii4 conferred the princely title1 which had previously been limited to the eldest-born of the house1 on all his descendants1 male and female4 ,esterhazy died in ,vienna on the #bhth of ,september #agij4 ,he rebuilt in the ,renaissance style ,schloss ,esterhazy1 the splendour of which won for it the name of the ,hungarian ,versailles4 ,haydn was for thirty years conductor of his private orchestra and general musical director1 and many of his compositions were written for the private theatre and the concerts of this prince4 ,his grandson1 ,prince ,,miklos ,nicholas 7#agfe-ahcc7 was born on the #abth of ,december #agfe4 ,he began life as an officer in the guards1 subsequently making the grand tour1 which first awakened his deep interest in art4 ,he quitted the army for diplomacy after reaching the rank of ,feldzeugmeister1 and was employed as extraordinary ambassador1 on special occasions1 when he displayed a magnificence extraordinary even for the ,esterhazys4 ,he made at ,vienna an important collection of paintings and engravings1 which came into the possession of the ,hungarian ,academy at ,budapest in #ahfe4 ,at his summer palace of ,kis ,marton 7,eisenstadt7 he erected a monument to ,haydn4 ,his immense expenditure on building and the arts involved the family in financial difficulties for two generations4 ,when the ,french invaded ,austria in #agig1 he raised a regiment of #ajjj men at his own expense4 ,in #ahji1 when ,napoleon invited the ,magyars to elect a new king to replace the ,habsburgs1 overtures were made to ,prince ,nicholas1 who refused the honour and1 further1 raised a regiment of volunteers in defence of ,austrian interests4 ,he died at ,como on the #bdth of ,november #ahcc4 ,his son1 ,prince ,,pal ,,antal ,paul ,anthony 7#aghf-ahff71 entered the diplomatic service4 ,in #ahjf he was secretary of the embassy in ,london1 and in #ahjg worked with ,prince ,metternich in the same capacity in ,paris4 ,in #ahaj he was accredited to the court of ,dresden1 where he tried in vain to detach ,saxony from ,napoleon1 and in #ahad he accompanied his father on a secret mission to ,rome4 ,he took a leading part in all the diplomatic negotiations consequent upon the wars of #ahac-ahae1 especially at the congress of ,chatillon1 and on the conclusion of peace was1 at the express desire of the prince regent1 sent as ambassador to ,london4 ,in #ahbd he represented ,austria as ambassador extraordinary at the coronation of ,charles ,x41 and was the premier ,austrian commissioner at the ,london conferences of #ahcj-ahcf4 ,in #ahdb he quitted diplomacy for politics and attached himself to the free-principles party4 ,he was minister for foreign affairs in the first responsible ,hungarian ministry 7#ahdh71 but resigned his post in ,september because he could see no way of reconciling the court with the nation4 ,the last years of his life were spent in comparative poverty and isolation1 as even the ,esterhazy-,forchtenstein estates were unequal to the burden of supporting his fabulous extravagance and had to be placed in the hands of curators4 ,the cadet branch of the house of ,frakno1 the members of which bear the title of count1 was divided into three lines by the sons of ,ferencz ,esterhazy 7#afda-afhc74 ,the eldest of these1 ,count ,,antal 7#afgf-agbb71 distinguished himself in the war against ,rakoczy in #agjc1 but changed sides in #agjd and commanded the left wing of the ,kuruczis at the engagements of ,nagyszombat 7#agjd7 and ,veresko 7#agje74 ,in #agjf he defeated the imperialist general ,guido ,stahremberg and penetrated to the walls of ,vienna4 ,still more successful were his operations in the campaign of #agjh1 when he ravaged ,styria1 twice invaded ,austria1 and again threatened ,vienna1 on which occasion the emperor ,joseph narrowly escaped falling into his hands4 ,in #agji he was routed by the superior forces of ,general ,sigbert ,heister at ,palota1 but brought off the remainder of his arms very skilfully4 ,in #agaj he joined ,rakoczy in ,poland and accompanied him to ,france and ,turkey4 ,he died in exile at ,rodosto on the shores of the ,black ,sea4 ,his son ,balint ,jozsef ,valentine ,joseph1 by ,anna ,maria ,nigrelli1 entered the ,french army1 and was the founder of the ,hallewyll1 or ,french1 branch of the family1 which became extinct in the male line in #ahgf with ,count ,ladislas4 ,see ,count ,esterhazy's ,campaign ,diary 7,hung471 ed4 by ,k4 ,thaly 7,pest1 #aija74 ,count ,,balint ,,miklos 7#agdj-ahje71 son of ,balint ,jozsef1 was an enthusiastic partisan of the duc de ,choiseul1 on whose dismissal1 in #agfd1 he resigned the command of the ,french regiment of which he was the colonel4 ,it was ,esterhazy who conveyed to ,marie ,antoinette the portrait of ,louis ,,xvi4 on the occasion of their betrothal1 and the close relations he maintained with her after her marriage were more than once the occasion of remonstrance on the part of ,maria ,theresa1 who never seems to have forgotten that he was the grandson of a rebel4 ,at the ,french court he stood in high favour with the comte d',artois4 ,he was raised to the rank of marechal de camp1 and made inspector of troops in the ,french service in #aghj4 ,at the outbreak of the ,french ,revolution1 he was stationed at ,valenciennes1 where he contrived for a time to keep order1 and facilitated the escape of the ,french emigres by way of ,namur2 but1 in #agij1 he hastened back to ,paris to assist the king4 ,at the urgent entreaty of the comte d',artois in #agia he quitted ,paris for ,coblenz1 accompanied ,artois to ,vienna1 and was sent to the court of ,st ,petersburg the same year to enlist the sympathies of ,catherine ,,ii4 for the ,bourbons4 ,he received an estate from ,catherine ,,ii41 and although the gift was rescinded by ,paul ,i41 another was eventually granted him4 ,he died at ,grodek in ,volhynia on the #bcrd of ,july #ahje4 ,see ,memoires1 ed4 by ,e4 ,daudet 7,fr47 7,paris1 #aije71 and ,lettres 7,paris1 #aijf74 ,two other sons of ,count ,ferencz 7d4 #afhe71 ,ferencz and ,jozsef1 founded the houses of ,dotis and ,cseklesz 7,landschutz7 respectively4 ,of their descendants1 ,count ,,moricz 7#ahjg-ahij7 of ,dotis1 ,austrian ambassador in ,rome until #ahef1 became in #ahfa a member of the ministry formed by ,anton ,schmerling and in #ahfe joined the clerical cabinet of ,richard ,belcredi4 ,his bitter hostility to ,prussia helped to force the government of ,vienna into the war of #ahff4 ,his official career closed in #ahff1 but he remained one of the leaders of the clerical party4 ,see also ,count ,janos ,esterhazy1 ,description of the ,esterhazy ,family 7,hung41 ,budapest1 #aija74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,esters1 in organic chemistry1 compounds formed by the condensation of an alcohol and an acid1 with elimination of water2 they may also be considered as derivatives of alcohols1 in which the hydroxylic hydrogen has been replaced by an acid radical1 or as acids in which the hydrogen of the carboxyl group has been replaced by an alkyl or aryl group4 ,in the case of the polybasic acids1 all the hydrogen atoms can be replaced in this way1 and the compounds formed are known as neutral esters4 ,if1 however1 some of the hydrogen of the acid remain undisplaced1 then acid esters result4 ,these acid esters retain some of the characteristic properties of the acids1 forming1 for example1 salts1 with basic oxides4 ,esters may be prepared by heating the silver salt of an acid with an alkyl iodide2 by heating the alcohols or alcoholates with an acid chloride2 by distilling the anhydrous sodium salt of an acid with a mixture of the alcohol and concentrated sulphuric acid2 or by heating for some hours on the water bath1 a mixture of an acid and an alcohol1 with a small quantity of hydrochloric or sulphuric acids 7,e4 ,fischer and ,a4 ,speier1 ,ber41 #ahif1 #bh1 p4 #cbeb74 ,the esters of the aliphatic and aromatic acids are colourless neutral liquids1 which are generally insoluble in water1 but readily dissolve in alcohol and ether4 ,many possess a fragrant odour and are prepared in large quantities for use as artificial fruit essences4 ,they hydrolyse readily when boiled with solutions of caustic alkalies or mineral acids1 yielding the constituent acid and alcohol4 ,when heated with ammonia1 they yield acid amides 7q4v474 ,they form unstable addition products with sodium ethylate or methylate4 ,with the ,grignard reagent1 they form addition compounds which on the addition of water yield tertiary alcohols1 except in the case of ethyl formate1 where a secondary alcohol is obtained4 ,o,mg,br ,o,mg,br ,r' _/ _/ ,r4,,co#b;,c#b;,h#e -- ,r4,c--,,oc#b;,h#e -- ,r4,c--,r' -- ,r'--,c4,,oh4 _/ ,r' ,r' ,r' ,o,mg,br ,o,mg,br ,r' _/ _/ ,h4,,co#b;,c#b;,h#e -- ,h4,c--,,oc#b;,h#e -- ,h4,c--,r' -- ,,ch4,,oh4 _/ ,r' ,r' ,r' ,n4 ,menschutkin 7,ber41 #ahhb1 #ae1 p4 #adde2 ,ann41 #ahgi1 #aie1 p4 #ccd7 examined the rate of esterification of many acids with alcohols4 ,it was found that the normal primary alcohols were all esterified at about the same rate1 the secondary alcohols more slowly than the primary1 and the tertiary alcohols still more slowly4 ,the investigation also showed that the nature of the acid used affected the result1 for in an homologous series of acids it was found that as the molecule of the acid became more complex1 the rate of esterification became less4 ,the formation of an ester by the interaction of an acid with an alcohol is a reversible or balanced action1 for as ,m4 ,berthelot and ,l4 ,pean de ,st ,gilles 7,ann4 ,chim4 ,phys41 #ahfb 7#c71 #fe1 p4 #che et seq47 have shown in the case of the formation of ethyl acetate from ethyl alcohol and acetic acid1 a point of equilibrium is reached1 beyond which the reacting system cannot pass1 unless the system be disturbed in some way by the removal of one of the products of the reaction4 ,v4 ,meyer 7,ber41 #ahid1 #bg1 p4 #eaj et seq47 showed that in benzenoid compounds ortho-substituents exert a great hindering effect on the esterification of alcohols by acids in the presence of hydrochloric acid1 this hindering being particularly marked when two substituents are present in the ortho positions to the carboxyl group4 ,in such a case the ester is best prepared by the action of an alkyl halide on the silver salt of the acid1 and when once prepared1 can only be hydrolysed with great difficulty4 ,ethyl formate1 ,h4,,co#b;,c#b;,h#e1 boils at #ee deg4 ,c4 and has been used in the artificial preparation of rum4 ,ethyl acetate 7acetic ether71 ,,ch#c4;,,co#b;,c#b;,h#e1 boils at #ge deg4 ,c4 ,isoamylisovalerate1 ,c#d;,h#i4;,,co#b;,c#e;,h#aa1 boils at #aif deg4 ,c4 and has an odour of apples4 ,ethyl butyrate1 ,c#c;,h#g4;,,co#b;,c#b;,h#e1 boils at #aba deg4 ,c4 and has an odour of pineapple4 ,the fats 7q4v47 and waxes 7q4v47 are the esters of the higher fatty acids and alcohols4 ,the esters of the higher fatty acids1 when distilled under atmospheric pressure1 are decomposed1 and yield an olefine and a fatty acid4 ,esters of the mineral acids are also known and may be prepared by the ordinary methods as given above4 ,the neutral esters are as a rule insoluble in water and distil unchanged2 on the other hand1 the acid esters are generally soluble in water1 are non-volatile1 and form salts with bases4 ,ethyl hydrogen sulphate 7sulphovinic acid71 ,c#b;,h#e4;,,hso#d1 is obtained by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on alcohol4 ,the ester is separated from the solution by means of its barium salt1 and the salt decomposed by the addition of the calculated amount of sulphuric acid4 ,it is a colourless oily liquid of strongly acid reaction2 its aqueous solution decomposes on standing and on heating it forms diethyl sulphate and sulphuric acid4 ,dimethyl sulphate1 7,,ch#c7b,,so#d1 is a colourless liquid which boils at #ahg deg4-#ahh deg4 ,c41 with partial decomposition4 ,it is used as a methylating agent 7,f4 ,ullmann74 ,great care should be taken in using dimethyl and diethyl sulphates1 as the respiratory organs are affected by the vapours1 leading to severe attacks of pneumonia4 ,ethyl nitrate1 ,c#b;,h#e4,,ono#b1 is a colourless liquid which boils at #hf4c deg4 ,c4 ,it is prepared by the action of nitric acid on ethyl alcohol 7some urea being added to the nitric acid1 in order to destroy any nitrous acid that might be produced in secondary reactions and which1 if not removed1 would cause explosive decomposition of the ethyl nitrate74 ,it burns with a white flame and is soluble in water4 ,when heated with ammonia it yields ethylamine nitrate1 and when reduced with tin and hydrochloric acid it forms hydroxylamine 7q4v47 7,w4,c4 ,lossen74 ,ethyl nitrite1 ,c#b;,h#e4,,ono1 is a liquid which boils at #ah deg4 ,c42 the crude product obtained by distilling a mixture of alcohol1 sulphuric and nitric acids and copper turnings is used in medicine under the name of sweet spirits of nitre4 ,amyl nitrite1 ,c#e;,h#aa4,,ono1 boils at #if deg4 ,c4 and is used in the preparation of the anhydrous diazonium salts 7,e4 ,knoevenagel1 ,ber41 #ahij1 #bc1 p4 #bjid74 ,it is also used in medicine4 ,,esther4 ,the ,book of ,esther1 in the ,bible1 relates how a ,jewish maiden1 ,esther1 cousin and foster-daughter of ,mordecai1 was made his queen by the ,persian king ,ahasuerus 7,xerxes7 after he had divorced ,vashti2 next1 how ,esther and ,mordecai frustrated ,haman's endeavour to extirpate the ,jews2 how ,haman1 the grand-vizier1 fell1 and ,mordecai succeeded him2 how ,esther obtained the king's permission for the ,jews to destroy all who might attack them on the day which ,haman had appointed by lot for their destruction2 and lastly1 how the feast of ,purim 7,lots87 was instituted to commemorate their deliverance4 ,frequent incidental references are made to ,persian court-usages 7explanations are given in i4 #ac1 viii4 #h71 while on the other hand the religious rites of the ,jews 7except fasting71 and even ,jerusalem and the temple1 and the name of ,israel1 are studiously ignored4 ,even the name of ,god is not once mentioned1 perhaps from a dread of its profanation during the ,saturnalia of ,purim4 ,the early popularity of the book is shown by the interpolated passages in the ,septuagint and the ,old ,latin versions4 ,the criticism of ,esther began in the #ahth century4 ,as soon as the questioning spirit arose1 the strangeness of many statements in the book leaped into view4 ,a moderate scholar of our day can find no historical nucleus1 and calls it a sort of historical romance4#a ,the very first verses in the book startle the reader by their exaggerations1 e4g4 a banquet lasting #ahj days1 #abg provinces4 ,farther on1 the improbabilities of the plot are noticeable4 ,esther1 on her elevation1 keeps her ,jewish origin secret 7ii4 #aj2 cf4 vii4 #c ff471 although she has been taken from the house of her uncle1 who is known to be a ,jew 7iii4 #d2 cf4 vi4 #ac71 and has remained in constant intercourse with him 7ii4 #aa1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb2 cf4 iv4 #d-ag74 ,we are further told that the grand-vizier was an ,agagite or ,amalekite 7iii4 #a1 c472 would the nobility of ,persia have tolerated this8 ,or did ,haman too keep his non-,persian origin secret8 ,also that ,mordecai offered a gross affront to ,haman1 for which no slighter punishment would satisfy ,haman than the destruction of the whole ,jewish race 7iii4 #b-f74 ,of this savage design eleven months' notice is given 7iii4 #ab-ad72 and when the danger has been averted by the cleverness of ,esther1 the provincial ,jews are allowed to butcher #ge1jjj1 and those in the capital #hjj of their ,persian fellow-subjects 7ix4 #f-af74 ,it is urged1 on the other hand1 that the assembly mentioned in i4 #c may be that referred to by ,herodotus 7vii4 #h7 as having preceded the expedition against ,greece4 ,this hypothesis1 however1 requires us to suppose that ,xerxes had returned from ,sardis to ,susa by the tenth month of the seventh year of his reign1 which is barely credible4 ,in the reckoning of #abg provinces 7cf4 ,dan4 vi4 #a2 #a ,esd4 iii4 #b7 satrapies and sub-satrapies may be confounded4 ,it is at any rate correct to include ,india among the provinces2 this is justified1 not only by ,herodotus 7iii4 #id71 but by the inscriptions of ,darius at ,persepolis and ,naksh-i-,rustam4 ,herodotus again 7vii4 #h7 confirms the custom referred to in ,esth4 ii4 #ab4 ,but what authority can make the conduct of ,mordecai credible8 ,to-day the harem is impenetrable1 while any one declining to stand as the grand-vizier passes is almost beaten to death4#b ,this1 surely1 is what a real ,mordecai would have suffered from a real ,haman4 ,even the capricious ,xerxes would never have permitted the entire destruction of one of the races of the empire1 nor would a vizier have proposed it4 ,serious difficulties of another kind remain4 ,mordecai is represented as a fellow-captive of ,jeconiah 7#eig ,b4,c471 and grand-vizier in ,xerxes's twelfth year 7#dgd ,b4,c476 ,this is parallel to the strange statement in ,tobit xiv4 #ae4 ,and how can we find room for ,esther as queen by the side of ,amestris 7,herod4 vii4 #ad1 ix4 #aab78 ,how1 too1 can a ,jewess have been a legal queen 7see ,herod4 iii4 #hd78 ,then take the supposed ,persian proper names4 ,ahasuerus may no doubt stand1 but very few of the rest 7see ,noldeke1 ,ency4 ,bib4 col4 #adjb74 ,as to the style1 the general verdict is that it points to a late date 7see ,driver1 ,introd4#f1 p4 #dhd74 ,altogether1 critics decline to date the book earlier than the #crd or even #bnd century ,b4,c4 ,so far we have only been carrying on #ahth-century criticism4 ,in more recent years1 however1 new lines of inquiry have been opened up4 ,first of all by the great ,semitic scholar ,lagarde4 ,his thesis 7seldom defended now7 was that ,purim corresponds to ,furdigan1 the name of the old ,persian ,new ,year's and ,all ,souls' festival held in spring1 on which the ,persians were wont to exchange presents 7cf4 ,esth4 ix4 #ai74 ,in #ahia came a new explanation of ,esther from ,zimmern4 ,it is true that in its earlier form his theory was very incomplete4 ,but in justice to this scholar we may notice that from the first he looked for light to ,babylonia1 and that many other critics now take up the same position4 ,there is also another new point which has to be mentioned1 viz4 that1 judging from our experience elsewhere1 the ,book of ,esther has probably passed through various stages of development4 ,here1 then1 are two points which call for investigation1 viz4 7#a7 a possible mythological element in ,esther1 and 7#b7 possible stages of development prior to that represented by the ,hebrew text4 ,as to the first point4 ,the ,second ,targum 7on ,esth4 ii4 #g7 long ago declared that ,esther was so called because she was like the planet ,venus4 ,recent scholars have expressed the same idea more critically4 ,esther is a modification of ,ishtar1 the name of the ,babylonian goddess of fertility and of the planet ,venus1 whose myth must have been partially known to the ,israelites even in pre-exilic times1#c and after the fall of the state must have acquired a still stronger hold on ,jewish exiles4 ,a general knowledge of the myth of ,marduk among the ,israelites cannot indeed be proved4 ,singularly enough1 the ,babylonian colonists in the cities of ,samaria are said to have made idols1 not of ,marduk1 but of a deity called ,succoth-benoth#d 7#b ,kings xvii4 #cj74 ,nor does the ,second ,targum help us here2 it gives a wild explanation of ,mordecai as pure myrrh4 ,still it is plain that the name of the god ,marduk 7,merodach7 was known to the ,jews1 and the ,cosmogony in ,gen4 i4 is considered by critics to have ultimately arisen out of the myth of ,marduk's conflict with the dragon 7see ,,cosmogony74 ,at any rate the name ,mordecai 7the vocalization is uncertain7 looks very much like ,marduk1 which1 with terminations added1 often occurs in cuneiform documents as a personal name4#e ,add to this1 that1 according to ,jensen1 ,ishtar in mythology was the cousin of ,marduk1 just as the legend represents ,esther as the cousin of ,mordecai4#f ,the same scholar also accounts for ,esther's other name ,hadassah 7,esth4 ii4 #g72 hadasshatu in ,babylonian means bride1 which may have been a title of ,ishtar4 ,but we cannot stop short here4 ,unless the mythological key can also explain ,haman and ,vashti1 it is of no use4 ,jensen1 now followed by ,zimmern1 is equal to the occasion4 ,haman1 he says1 is a corruption of ,hamman or ,humman or ,uman1 the name of the chief deity of the ,elamites1 in whose capital 7,susa7 the scene of the narrative is laid1 while ,vashti is ,mashti 7or ,vashti71 probably the name of an ,elamite goddess4 ,following the real or fancied light of these names1 ,prof4 ,jensen holds that the ,esther-legend is based on a mythological account of the victory of the ,babylonian deities over those of ,elam1 which in plain prose means the deliverance of ancient ,babylonia from its ,elamite oppressors1 and that such an account was closely connected with the ,babylonian ,new ,year's festival1 called ,zagmuk1 just as the ,esther-legend is connected with the festival of ,purim4 ,we are bound1 however1 to mention some critical objections4 7#a7 ,the ,babylonian festival corresponding to ,purim was not the spring festival of ,zagmuk1 but the summer festival of ,ishtar1 which is probably the ,sacaea of ,berossus1 an orgiastic festival analogous to ,purim4 7#b7 ,according to ,jensen's theory1 ,mordecai1 and not ,esther1 ought to be the direct cause of ,haman's ruin4 7#c7 ,no such ,babylonian account as ,jensen postulates can be indicated4 7#d7 ,the identifications of names are hazardous4 ,fancy a descendant of ,kish called ,marduk1 and an ,agagite called ,hamman6 ,elsewhere ,mordecai 7,ezra ii4 #b2 ,neh4 vii4 #g7 occurs among names which are certainly not ,persian 7,bigvai is no exception71 and ,haman 7,tobit xiv4 #aj7 appears as a nephew of ,achiachar1 which is not a ,persian name4 ,esther1 moreover1 ought to be parallel to ,judith2 fancy likening the representative of ,israel to the goddess ,ishtar6 ,next1 as to the preliminary literary phases of ,esther4 ,such phases are probable1 considering the later phases represented in the ,septuagint4 ,there may have once existed in ,hebrew a story of the deadly feud between ,mordecai 7if that be the original name7 and ,haman1 with elements suggested by the story of the battle between the ,supreme ,god and the dragon 7see ,,cosmogony74 ,as the legend stands1 ,mordecai and ,esther seem to be in each other's way4 ,in a passage 7i4 #e in ,,lxx47 only found in the ,septuagint1 but which may have belonged to the original ,esther1 reference is made to a dream of ,mordecai respecting two great dragons1 i4e4 ,mordecai and ,haman 7x4 #g74 ,this seems to confirm the view here mentioned4 ,if so1 however1 there must also have been an ,esther-legend1 which was afterwards worked up with that of ,mordecai4 ,this is1 in fact1 the view of ,erbt4 ,winckler takes a different line4 ,linguistic facts and certain points in the contents seem to him to show that our ,esther is a work of the age of the ,seleucidae2 more precisely he thinks of the time of the revolt of ,molon under ,antiochus ,,iii4 ,of course there was a ,book of ,esther before this1 and even in its redacted form our ,esther reflects the period of three ,persian kings1 viz4 ,cyrus1 ,cambyses and ,darius4 ,lastly1 ,cheyne 7,ency4 ,bib4 ,purim1 ,s #g71 while agreeing with ,winckler that the book is based on an earlier narrative1 holds that that earlier text differed more widely from the present in its geographical and historical setting than ,winckler seems to suppose4 ,the problem of the origin of the name ,purim1 however1 can hardly be said to have received a final solution4 ,,bibliography4--,kuenen1 ,history of ,israel1 iii4 7#ahge71 #adh-aec2 ,lagarde1 ,purim 7#ahhg72 ,zimmern in ,stade's ,zeitschrift1 xi4 7#ahia71 pp4 #aeg-afi1 and ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament7#c71 #dhe1 #eae-ebj1 ,jensen in ,wildeboer's ,esther 7in ,marti's series1 #ahih71 pp4 #agc-age2 ,winckler1 ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,testament7#c71 p4 #bhh1 ,altorientalische ,forschungen1 #crd ser4 i4 #a-fd2 ,erbt1 ,die ,purimsage 7#aijj72 ,ency4 ,biblica1 articles ,esther and ,purim 7a composite article74 7,t4 ,k4 ,c47 ,,additions ,,to ,,book ,,of ,,esther4 ,these additions were written originally in ,greek and subsequently interpolated in the ,greek translation of the ,book of ,esther4 ,here the principle of interpolation has reached its maximum4 ,of #bgj verses1 #ajg are not to be found in the ,hebrew text4 ,these additions are distributed throughout the book in the ,greek1 but in the ,latin ,bible they were relegated to the end of the canonical book by ,jerome--an action that has rendered them meaningless4 ,in the ,greek the additions form with the canonical text a consecutive history4 ,they were made probably in the time of the ,maccabees1 and their aim was to supply the religious element which is so completely lacking in the canonical work4 ,the first1 which gives the dream of ,mordecai and the events which led to his advancement at the court of ,artaxerxes1 precedes chap4 i4 of the canonical text3 the second and fifth1 which follow iii4 #ac and viii4 #ab1 furnish copies of the letters of ,artaxerxes referred to in these verses2 the third and fourth1 which are inserted after chap4 iv41 consist of the prayers of ,mordecai and ,esther1 with an account of ,esther's approach to the king4 ,the last1 which closes the book1 tells of the institution of the feast of ,purim4 ,the ,greek text appears in two widely-differing recensions4 ,the one is supported by ,,ab,hebrew3 alef1 and the other--a revision of the first--by codices #ai1 #ic;a1 #ajh;b4 ,the latter is believed to have been the work of ,lucian4 ,swete1 ,old ,test4 in ,greek1 ii4 #gee1 has given the former1 while ,lagarde has published both texts with critical annotations in his ,librorum ,veteris ,testamenti ,canonicorum1 i4 #ejd-eda 7#ahhc71 and ,scholz in his ,kommentar uber das ,buch ,esther 7#ahib74 ,for an account of the ,latin and ,syriac versions1 the ,targums1 and the later ,rabbinic literature connected with this subject1 and other questions relating to these additions1 see ,fritzsche1 ,exeget4 ,handbuch zu den ,apok4 7#ahea71 i4 #fg-ajh2 ,schurer7#c71 iii4 #ccj-ccb2 ,fuller in ,speaker's ,apocr4 i4 #cfj-djb2 ,ryssel in ,kautzsch's ,apok4 u4 ,pseud4 i4 #aic-bab2 ,siegfried in ,jewish ,encyc4 v4 #bcg sqq42 ,swete1 ,introd4 to the ,old ,test4 in ,greek1 #beg seq42 ,l4,b4 ,paton1 ,a ,text-,critical ,apparatus to the ,book of ,esther in ,o4,t4 and ,semitic ,studies in ,memory of ,w4,r4 ,harper 7,chicago1 #aijh74 7,r4 ,h4 ,c47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,kautzsch1 ,old ,testament ,literature 7#ahih71 p4 #acj4 #b ,so ,morier1 the ,english minister to the ,persian court1 quoted by ,dean ,stanley4 #c ,see ,zimmern1 ,die ,keilinschriften und das ,alte ,test47#c71 p4 #dch4 #d ,ibid4 p4 #cif4 #e ,johns1 ,assyrian ,deeds1 iii4 #aih-aii2 ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,sem4 ,languages 7,april #aijb71 p4 #aeh4 #f ,so too ,zimmern1 in ,gunkel's ,schopfung und ,chaos1 p4 #cac1 note #b4 ,,esthonia 7,ger4 ,ehstland and ,esthland1 ,esthonian ,eestimaa and ,meie-maa1 also ,viroma and ,rahvama2 ,lettish ,iggaun ,senna71 a ,baltic province of ,russia1 stretching along the south coast of the ,gulf of ,finland1 and having ,lake ,peipus and ,livonia on the ,s4 and the government of ,st ,petersburg on the ,e4 ,an archipelago of islands1 of which ,dago is the largest1 belongs to this government 7,oesel belongs to ,livonia74 ,the area is #ghah sq4 m41 #ejc sq4 m4 of this being insular4 ,the surface is low1 not exceeding #ajj ft4 in altitude along the coast and alongside ,lake ,peipus1 while in the interior the average elevation ranges from #bjj to #cjj ft41 and nowhere exceeds #dej ft4 ,it was entirely covered with the bottom moraine of the great ice-sheet of the ,glacial ,epoch1 resting upon ,silurian sandstones and limestones4 ,in places sands and clays overlie the glacial deposits4 ,the principal stream is the ,narova1 which issues from ,lake ,peipus1 flows along the eastern border1 and empties into the ,gulf of ,finland4 ,the other drainage arteries are all small1 but many in number2 while lakes and marshes aggregate fully #bb-a_/b of the total surface4 ,the climate is severe1 great cold being experienced in winter1 though moist west winds exercise a moderating influence4 ,nevertheless the annual mean temperature ranges between #ci deg4 and #dc deg4 ,fahr4 ,in #ahgh the nobility1 mostly of ,german descent1 owned and farmed #eb of the land2 #db was farmed1 but not owned1 by the peasants1 mostly ,esths or ,ehsts1 and only #c was owned by persons outside the ranks of the nobility4 ,since then one-fourth of the peasantry have been enabled to purchase their holdings1 more than half a million acres having passed into their possession4 ,agriculture is the chief occupation1 and it is1 on all the larger holdings1 carried on with greater scientific knowledge than in any other part of ,russia4 ,of the total area about #af4f is under cultivation2 meadows and grass-lands amount to #da4g2 and forests cover #ai4 ,the principal crops are rye1 oats1 barley and potatoes1 with large quantities of vegetables4 ,cattle-breeding flourishes1 and meat and butter are constantly increasing items of export4 ,the manufactories consist chiefly of distilleries 7over #ac1ejj1jjj gallons annually71 cotton 7at ,kranholm falls on the ,narova71 woollen1 flour1 paper and saw mills1 iron and machinery works1 and match factories4 ,fishing is active along the coast1 especially for anchovies4 ,the province is intersected by a railway running from ,st ,petersburg to ,reval1 with branches from the latter city westwards to ,baltic ,port and southwards into ,livonia1 and from ,taps south to ,yuryev 7,dorpat74 ,the chief seaports are ,reval1 ,baltic ,port1 ,hapsal1 ,kunda and ,dago4 ,esthonia is divided into four districts1 the chief towns of which are ,reval 7pop4 in #ahig1 #ff1bib71 the capital of the province2 ,hapsal1 a lively watering-place 7#cbch72 ,weissenstein 7#beji72 and ,wesenberg 7#eefj74 ,the population1 which consists chiefly of ,ehstes 7#cfe1iei in #ahig71 ,russians 7#ah1jjj71 ,germans 7#af1jjj71 ,swedes 7#ehjj71 and some ,jews1 is growing fairly fast3 in #ahgj it numbered #cbc1ifj1 and in #ahig #dac1gdg1 of whom #baj1aii were women and #gf1cae lived in towns2 in #aijf it was estimated at #dea1gjj4 ,ninety-six per cent4 of the whole belong to the ,lutheran ,church4 ,education is1 for ,russia1 relatively high4 ,the ,esths1 ,ehsts or ,esthonians1 who call themselves ,tallopoeg and ,maamees1 are known to the ,russians as ,chukhni or ,chukhontsi1 to the ,letts as ,iggauni1 and to the ,finns as ,virolaiset4 ,they belong to the ,finnish family1 and consequently to the ,ural-,altaic division of the human race4 ,altogether they number close upon one million1 and are thus distributed3 #cfe1iei in ,esthonia 7in #ahig71 #eah1eid in ,livonia1 #fd1aaf in the government of ,st ,petersburg1 #be1deh in that of ,pskov1 and #ab1hee in other parts of ,russia4 ,as a race they exhibit manifest evidences of their ,ural-,altaic or ,mongolic descent in their short stature1 absence of beard1 oblique eyes1 broad face1 low forehead and small mouth4 ,in addition to that they are an under-sized1 ill-thriven people1 with long arms and thin1 short legs4 ,they cling tenaciously to their native language1 which is closely allied to the ,finnish1 and divisible into two1 or according to some authorities into three1 principal dialects--,dorpat ,esthonian and ,reval ,esthonian1 with ,pernau ,esthonian4 ,reval ,esthonian1 which preserves more carefully the full inflectional forms and pays greater attention to the laws of euphony1 is recognized as the literary language4 ,since #ahgc the cultivation of their mother-tongue has been sedulously promoted by an ,esthonian ,literary ,society 7,eesti ,korjameeste ,selts71 which publishes ,toimetused1 or ,instructions in all sorts of subjects4 ,they have a decided love of poetry1 and exhibit great facility in improvising verses and poems on all occasions1 and they sing1 everywhere1 from morning to night4 ,like the ,finns they possess rich stores of national songs4 ,these1 which bear an unmistakable family likeness to those of the great ,finnish epic of the ,kalevala1 were collected as the ,kalevi ,poeg1 and edited by ,kreutswald 7#aheg71 and translated into ,german by ,reinthal 7#aheg-ahei7 and ,bertram 7#ahfa7 and by ,lowe 7#aijj74 ,other collections of ,esthnische ,volkslieder have been published by ,neuss 7#ahej-aheb7 and ,kreutzwald and ,neuss 7#ahed72 while ,kreutzwald 7#ahff7 and ,jannsen 7#ahhh7 have published collections of legends and national tales4 ,the earliest publication in ,esthonian was a ,lutheran catechism in the #afth century4 ,an ,esthonian translation of the ,new ,testament was printed at ,reval in #agae4 ,between #ahac and #ahcb there appeared at ,pernau twenty volumes of ,beitrage zur genauern ,kenntniss der esthnischen ,sprache1 by ,rosenplanter1 and from #ahdj onwards many valuable papers on ,esthonian subjects were contributed to the ,verhandlungen der gelehrten esthnischen ,gesellschaft zu ,dorpat4 ,f4,j4 ,wiedemann1 who laboured indefatigably in the registration and preservation of matters connected with ,esthonian language and lore1 published an ,esthnisch-deutsches ,worterbuch 7#ahfe2 #bnd ed4 by ,hurt1 #ahia1 c471 and in #aijc there appeared at ,reval a ,deutsch-esthnisches ,worterbuch1 by ,ploompun and ,kann4 ,the ,esthonians first appear in history as a warlike and predatory race1 the terror of the ,baltic seamen in consequence of their piracies4 ,more than one of the ,danish kings made serious attempts to subdue them4 ,canute ,,vi4 invaded their country 7#aaid-aaif7 and forced baptism upon many of them1 but no sooner did his war-ships disappear than they reverted to their former heathenism4 ,in #abai ,waldemar ,,ii4 undertook a more formidable crusade against them1 in the course of which he founded the town and episcopal see of ,reval4 ,by his efforts the northern portion of the race were made submissive to the ,danish crown2 but1 though conquered1 they were by no means subdued1 and were incessantly in revolt1 until1 after a great rebellion in #acdc1 ,waldemar ,,iv4 ,atterdag sold for #ai1jjj marks his portion of ,esthonia in #acdf1 to the order of the ,knights of the ,sword4 ,these ,german crusaders had already1 after a quarter of a century's fighting1 in #abbd gained possession of the regions inhabited by the southern portion of the race1 that is those now included in ,livonia4 ,from that time for nearly six hundred years or more the ,esthonians were practically reduced to a state of serfdom to the ,german landowners4 ,in #aeba the nobles and cities of ,esthonia voluntarily placed themselves under the protection of the crown of ,sweden2 but after the wars of ,charles ,,xii41 ,esthonia was formally ceded to his victorious rival1 ,peter the ,great1 by the peace of ,nystad 7#agba74 ,serfdom was abolished in #ahag by ,tsar ,alexander ,i42 but the condition of the peasants was so little improved that they rose in open revolt in #ahei4 ,since #ahgh1 however1 a vast change for the better has been effected in their economic position 7see above74 ,the determining feature of their recent history has been the attempt made by the ,russian government 7since #ahha7 and the ,orthodox ,greek ,church 7since #ahhc7 to russify and convert the inhabitants of the province1 ,germans and ,esths alike1 by enforcing the use of ,russian in the schools and by harsh and repressive measures aimed at their native language4 ,see ,merkel1 ,die freien ,letten und ,esthen 7#ahbj72 ,parrot1 ,versuch einer ,entwickelung der ,sprache1 ,abstammung1 c41 der ,liwen1 ,latten1 ,eesten 7#ahci72 ,f4 ,kruse1 ,urgeschichte des esthnischen ,volksstammes 7#ahdf72 ,wiedemann1 ,grammatik der esthnischen ,sprache 7#ahge71 and ,aus dem innern und aussern ,leben der ,esthen 7#ahgf72 ,koppen1 ,die ,bewohner ,esthlands 7#ahdg72 ,f4 ,muller1 ,beitrage zur ,orographie und ,hydrographie von ,esthland 7#ahfi-ahga72 ,bunge1 ,das ,herzogthum ,esthland unter den ,konigen von ,danemark 7#ahgg72 and ,seraphim1 ,geschichte ,liv-1 ,est-1 und ,kurlands 7#bnd ed41 #ahig7 and various papers in the ,finnisch-,ugrische ,forschungen4 7,p4 ,a4 ,k42 ,j4 ,t4 ,be42 ,c4 ,el47 ,,estienne 7or ,,etienne2 the ,french form of the name2 anglicized to ,stephens1 and latinized to ,stephanus71 a ,french family of scholars and printers4 ,the founder of the race was ,,henri ,,estienne 7d4 #aebj71 the scion of a noble family of ,provence1 who came to ,paris in #aejb1 and soon afterwards set up a printing establishment at the top of the rue ,saint-,jean de ,beauvais1 on the hill of ,saint-,genevieve opposite the law school4 ,he died in #aebj1 and1 his three sons being minors1 the business was carried on by his foreman ,simon de ,colines1 who in #aeba married his widow4 ,,robert ,,estienne 7#aejc-aeei7 was ,henri's second son4 ,after his father's death he acted as assistant to his stepfather1 and in this capacity superintended the printing of a ,latin edition of the ,new ,testament in #afmo 7#aebc74 ,some slight alterations which he had introduced into the text brought upon him the censures of the faculty of theology4 ,it was the first of a long series of disputes between him and that body4 ,it appears that he had intimate relations with the new ,evangelical preachers almost from the beginning of the movement1 and that soon after this time he definitely joined the ,reformed ,church4 ,in #aebf he entered into possession of his father's printing establishment1 and adopted as his device the celebrated olive-tree 7a reminiscence doubtless of his grandmother's family of ,montolivet71 with the motto from the epistle to the ,romans 7xi4 #bj71 ,noli altum sapere1 sometimes with the addition sed time4 ,in #aebh he married ,perrette1 a daughter of the scholar and printer ,josse ,bade 7,jodocus ,badius71 and in the same year he published his first ,latin ,bible1 an edition in folio1 upon which he had been at work for the last four years4 ,in #aecb appeared his ,thesaurus linguae ,latinae1 a dictionary of ,latin words and phrases1 upon which for two years he had toiled incessantly1 with no other assistance than that of ,thierry of ,beauvais4 ,a second edition1 greatly enlarged and improved1 appeared in #aecf1 and a third1 still further improved1 in #c vols4 folio1 in #aedc4 ,though the ,thesaurus is now superseded1 its merits must not be forgotten4 ,it was vastly superior to anything of the kind that had appeared before2 it formed the basis of future labours1 and even as late as #agcd was considered worthy of being re-edited4 ,in #aeci ,robert was appointed king's printer for ,hebrew and ,latin1 an office to which1 after the death of ,conrad ,neobar in #aedj1 he united that of king's printer for ,greek4 ,in #aeda he was entrusted by ,francis ,i4 with the task of procuring from ,claude ,garamond1 the engraver and type-founder1 three sets of ,greek type for the royal press4 ,the middle size were the first ready1 and with these ,robert printed the editio princeps of the ,ecclesiasticae ,historiae of ,eusebius and others 7#aedd74 ,the smallest size were first used for the #afmo edition of the ,new ,testament known as the ,o mirificam 7#aedf71 while with the largest size was printed the magnificent folio of #aeej4 ,this edition involved the printer in fresh disputes with the faculty of theology1 and towards the end of the following year he left his native town for ever1 and took refuge at ,geneva1 where he published in #aeeb a caustic and effective answer to his persecutors under the title ,ad censuras theologorum ,parisiensium1 quibus ,biblia a ,r4 ,stephano1 ,typographo ,regio1 ex usa calumniose notarunt1 eiusdem ,r4 ,s4 responsio4 ,a ,french translation1 which is remarkable for the excellence of its style1 was published by him in the same year 7printed in ,renouard's ,annales de l'imprimerie des ,estienne74 ,at ,geneva ,robert proved himself an ardent partisan of ,calvin1 several of whose works he published4 ,he died there on the #gth of ,september #aeei4 ,it is by his work in connexion with the ,bible1 and especially as an editor of the ,new ,testament1 that he is on the whole best known4 ,the text of his ,new ,testament of #aeej1 either in its original form or in such slightly modified form as it assumed in the ,elzevir text of #afcd1 remains to this day the traditional text4 ,but this is due rather to its typographical beauty than to any critical merit4 ,the readings of the fifteen ,,mss4 which ,robert's son ,henri had collated for the purpose were merely introduced into the margin4 ,the text was still almost exactly that of ,erasmus4 ,it was1 however1 the first edition ever published with a critical apparatus of any sort4 ,of the whole ,bible ,robert printed eleven editions--eight in ,latin1 two in ,hebrew and one in ,french2 while of the ,new ,testament alone he printed twelve--five in ,greek1 five in ,latin and two in ,french4 ,in the ,greek ,new ,testament of #aeea 7printed at ,geneva7 the present division into verses was introduced for the first time4 ,the editiones principes which issued from ,robert's press were eight in number1 viz4 ,eusebius1 including the ,praeparatio evangelica and the ,demonstratio evangelica as well as the ,historia ecclesiastica already mentioned 7#aedd-aedf71 ,moschopulus 7#aede71 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus 7,february #aedg71 ,alexander ,trallianus 7,january #aedh71 ,dio ,cassius 7,january #aedh71 ,justin ,martyr 7#aeea71 ,xiphilinus 7#aeea71 ,appian 7#aeea71 the last being completed1 after ,robert's departure from ,paris1 by his brother ,charles1 and appearing under his name4 ,these editions1 all in folio1 except the ,moschopulus1 which is in #dto1 are unrivalled for beauty4 ,robert also printed numerous editions of ,latin classics1 of which perhaps the folio ,virgil of #aecb is the most noteworthy1 and a large quantity of ,latin grammars and other educational works1 many of which were written by ,maturin ,cordier1 his friend and co-worker in the cause of humanism4 ,,charles ,,estienne 7#aejd or #aeje-aefd71 the third son of ,henri1 was1 like his brother ,robert1 a man of considerable learning4 ,after the usual humanistic training he studied medicine1 and took his doctor's degree at ,paris4 ,he was for a time tutor to ,jean ,antoine de ,baif1 the future poet4 ,in #aeea1 when ,robert ,estienne left ,paris for ,geneva1 ,charles1 who had remained a ,catholic1 took charge of his printing establishment1 and in the same year was appointed king's printer4 ,in #aefa he became bankrupt1 and he is said to have died in a debtors' prison4 ,his principal works are ,praedium ,rusticum 7#aeed71 a collection of tracts which he had compiled from ancient writers on various branches of agriculture1 and which continued to be a favourite book down to the end of the #agth century2 ,dictionarium historicum ac poeticum 7#aeec71 the first ,french encyclopaedia2 ,thesaurus ,ciceronianus 7#aeeg71 and ,de dissectione partium corporis humani libri tres1 with well-drawn woodcuts 7#aedh74 ,he also published a translation of an ,italian comedy1 ,gli ,ingannati1 under the title of ,le ,sacrifice 7#aedc2 republished as ,les ,abusez1 #aedi71 which had some influence on the development of ,french comedy2 and ,paradoxes 7#aeec71 an imitation of the ,paradossi of ,ortensio ,landi4 ,,henri ,,estienne 7#aeca-aeih71 sometimes called ,henri ,,ii41 was the eldest son of ,robert4 ,in the preface to his edition of ,aulus ,gellius 7#aehe71 addressed to his son ,paul1 he gives an interesting account of his father's household1 in which1 owing to the various nationalities of those who were employed on the press1 ,latin was used as a common language4 ,henri thus picked up ,latin as a child1 but by his own request he was allowed to learn ,greek as a serious study before ,latin4 ,at the age of fifteen he become a pupil of ,pierre ,danes1 at that time the first ,greek scholar in ,france4 ,two years later he began to attend the lectures of ,jacques ,toussain1 one of the royal professors of ,greek1 and in the same year 7#aede7 was employed by his father to collate a ,,ms4 of ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus4 ,in #aedg he went to ,italy1 where he spent three years in hunting for and collating ,,mss4 and in intercourse with learned men4 ,in #aeej he visited ,england1 where he was favourably received by ,edward ,,vi41 and then ,flanders1 where he learnt ,spanish4 ,in #aeea he joined his father at ,geneva1 which henceforth became his home4 ,in #aeed he gave to the world1 as the first fruits of his researches1 two first editions1 viz4 a tract of ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus and the so-called ,anacreon4 ,in #aeef he discovered at ,rome ten new books 7xi4-xx47 of ,diodorus ,siculus4 ,in #aeeg he issued from the press which in the previous year he had set up at ,geneva three first editions1 viz4 ,athenagoras1 ,maximus ,tyrius1 and some fragments of ,greek historians1 including ,appian's ,greek3 ,annibalike1 and ,greek3 ,iberike and an edition of ,aeschylus1 in which for the first time the ,agamemnon was printed in entirety and as a separate play4 ,in #aeei he printed a ,latin translation from his own pen of ,sextus ,empiricus1 and an edition of ,diodorus ,siculus with the new books4 ,his father dying in the same year1 he became under his will owner of his press1 subject1 however1 to the condition of keeping it at ,geneva4 ,in #aeff he published his best-known ,french work1 the ,apologie pour ,herodote1 or1 as he himself called it1 ,l',introduction au traite de la conformite des merveilles anciennes avec les modernes ou ,traite preparatif a l',apologie pour ,herodote4 ,some passages being considered objectionable by the ,geneva consistory1 he was compelled to cancel the pages containing them4 ,the book became highly popular1 and within sixteen years twelve editions were printed4 ,in #aegb he published the great work upon which he had been labouring for many years1 the ,thesaurus ,graecae linguae1 in #e vols4 fol4 ,the publication in #aegh of his ,deux ,dialogues du nouveau francois ilalianize brought him into a fresh dispute with the consistory4 ,to avoid their censure he went to ,paris1 and resided at the ,french court for a year4 ,on his return to ,geneva he was summoned before the consistory1 and1 proving contumacious1 was imprisoned for a week4 ,from this time his life became more and more of a nomad one4 ,he is to be found at ,basel1 ,heidelberg1 ,vienna1 ,pest1 everywhere but at ,geneva1 these journeys being undertaken partly in the hope of procuring patrons and purchasers1 for the large sums which he had spent on such publications as the ,thesaurus and the ,plato of #aegh had almost ruined him4 ,his press stood nearly at a standstill4 ,a few editions of classical authors were brought out1 but each successive one showed a falling off4 ,such value as the later ones had was chiefly due to the notes furnished by ,casaubon1 who in #aehf had married his daughter ,florence4 ,his last years were marked by ever-increasing infirmity of mind and temper4 ,in #aeig he left ,geneva for the last time4 ,after visiting ,montpellier1 where ,casaubon was now professor1 he started for ,paris1 but was seized with sudden illness at ,lyons1 and died there at the end of ,january #aeih4 ,few men have ever served the cause of learning more devotedly4 ,for over thirty years the amount which he produced1 whether as printer1 editor or original writer1 was enormous4 ,the productions of his press1 though printed with the same beautiful type as his father's books1 are1 owing to the poorness of the paper and ink1 inferior to them in general beauty4 ,the best1 perhaps1 from a typographical point of view1 are the ,poetae ,graeci principes 7folio1 #aeff71 the ,plutarch 7#ac vols4 #hvo1 #aegb71 and the ,plato 7#c vols4 folio1 #aegh74 ,it was rather his scholarship which gave value to his editions4 ,he was not only his own press-corrector but his own editor4 ,though by the latter half of the #afth century nearly all the important ,greek and ,latin authors that we now possess had been published1 his untiring activity still found some gleanings4 ,eighteen first editions of ,greek authors and one of a ,latin author are due to his press4 ,the most important have been already mentioned4 ,henri's reputation as a scholar and editor has increased of late years4 ,his familiarity with the ,greek language has always been admitted to have been quite exceptional2 but he has been accused of want of taste and judgment1 of carelessness and rashness4 ,special censure has been passed on his ,plutarch1 in which he is said to have introduced conjectures of his own into the text1 while pretending to have derived them from ,,ms4 authority4 ,but a late editor1 ,sintenis1 has shown that1 though like all the other editors of his day he did not give references to his authorities1 every one of his supposed conjectures can be traced to some ,,ms4 ,whatever may be said as to his taste or his judgment1 it seems that he was both careful and scrupulous1 and that he only resorted to conjecture when authority failed him4 ,and1 whatever the merit of his conjectures1 he was at any rate the first to show what conjecture could do towards restoring a hopelessly corrupt passage4 ,the work1 however1 on which his fame as a scholar is most surely based is the ,thesaurus ,graecae linguae4 ,after making due allowance for the fact that considerable materials for the work had been already collected by his father1 and that he received considerable assistance from the ,german scholar ,sylburg1 he is still entitled to the very highest praise as the producer of a work which was of the greatest service to scholarship and which in those early days of ,greek learning could have been produced by no one but a giant4 ,two editions of the ,thesaurus were published in the #aith century--at ,london by ,valpy 7#ahae-ahbe7 and at ,paris by ,didot 7#ahca-ahfc74 ,it was one of ,henri ,estienne's great merits that1 unlike nearly all the ,french scholars who preceded him1 he did not neglect his own language4 ,in the ,traite de la conformite du langage francois avec le ,grec 7published in #aefe1 but without date2 ed4 ,l4 ,feugere1 #ahej71 ,french is asserted to have1 among modern languages1 the most affinity with ,greek1 the first of all languages4 ,deux ,dialogues du nouveau francois italianize 7,geneva1 #aegh2 ed4 ,p4 ,ristelhuber1 #b vols41 #ahhe7 was directed against the fashion prevailing in the court of ,catherine de' ,medici of using ,italian words and forms4 ,the ,project du livre intitule de la ,precellence du langage francois 7,paris1 #aegi2 ed4 ,e4 ,huguet1 #ahif7 treats of the superiority of ,french to ,italian4 ,an interesting feature of the ,precellence is the account of ,french proverbs1 and1 ,henry ,,iii4 having expressed some doubts as to the genuineness of some of them1 ,henri ,estienne published1 in #aeid1 ,les ,premices ou le ,i4 livre des ,proverbes epigrammatizez 7never reprinted and very rare74 ,finally1 there remains the ,apologie pour ,herodote1 his most famous work4 ,the ostensible object of the book is to show that the strange stories in ,herodotus may be paralleled by equally strange ones of modern times4 ,virtually it is a bitter satire on the writer's age1 especially on the ,roman ,church4 ,put together without any method1 its extreme desultoriness makes it difficult to read continuously1 but the numerous stories1 collected partly from various literary sources1 notably from the preachers ,menot and ,maillard1 partly from the writer's own multifarious experience1 with which it is packed1 make it an interesting commentary on the manners and fashions of the time4 ,but satire1 to be effective1 should be either humorous or righteously indignant1 and1 while such humour as there is in the ,apologie is decidedly heavy1 the writer's indignation is generally forgotten in his evident relish for scandal4 ,the style is1 after all1 its chief merit4 ,though it bears evident traces of hurry1 it is1 like that of all ,henri ,estienne's ,french writings1 clear1 easy and vigorous1 uniting the directness and sensuousness of the older writers with a suppleness and logical precision which at this time were almost new elements in ,french prose4 ,an edition of the ,apologie has recently been published by ,liseux 7ed4 ,ristelhuber1 #b vols41 #ahgi71 after one of the only two copies of the original uncancelled edition that are known to exist4 ,the very remarkable political pamphlet entitled ,discours merveilleux de la vie et actions et deportemens de ,catherine de ,medicis1 which appeared in #aegd1 has been ascribed to ,henri ,estienne1 but the evidence both internal and external is conclusive against his being the author of it4 ,of his ,latin writings the most worthy of notice are the ,de ,latinitate falso suspecta 7#aegf71 the ,pseudo-,cicero 7#aegg7 and the ,nizoliodidascalus 7#aegh71 all three written against the ,ciceronians1 and the ,francofordiense ,emporium 7#aegd71 a panegyric on the ,frankfort fair 7reprinted with a ,french translation by ,liseux1 #ahge74 ,he also wrote a large quantity of indifferent ,latin verses1 including a long poem entitled ,musa monitrix ,principum 7,basel1 #aeij74 ,the primary authorities for an account of the ,estiennes are their own works4 ,in the garrulous and egotistical prefaces which ,henri was in the habit of prefixing to his editions will be found many scattered biographical details4 ,twenty-seven letters from ,henri to ,john ,crato of ,crafftheim 7ed4 ,f4 ,passow1 #ahcj7 have been printed1 and there is one of ,robert's in ,herminjard's ,correspondence des ,reformateurs dans de pays de langue francaise 7#i vols4 published #ahff-ahig71 while a few other contemporary references to him will be found in the same work4 ,the secondary authorities are ,janssen van ,almeloveen1 ,de vitis ,stephanorum 7,amsterdam1 #afhc72 ,maittaire1 ,stephanorum historia 7,london1 #agji72 ,a4,a4 ,renouard1 ,annales de l'imprimerie des ,estienne 7#bnd ed41 ,paris1 #ahdc72 the article on ,estienne by ,a4,f4 ,didot in the ,nouv4 ,biog4 gen42 ,mark ,pattison1 ,essays1 i4 #fg ff4 7#ahhi72 ,l4 ,clement1 ,henri ,estienne et son oeuvre francaise 7,paris1 #ahii74 ,there is a good account of ,henri's ,thesaurus in the ,quart4 ,rev4 for ,january #ahbj1 written by ,bishop ,bromfield4 7,a4 ,a4 ,t47 ,,eston1 an urban district in the ,cleveland parliamentary division of the ,north ,riding of ,yorkshire1 ,england1 #d m4 ,s4,e4 of ,middlesbrough1 on a branch of the ,north ,eastern railway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #aa1aii4 ,this is one of the principal centres from which the great ironstone deposits of the ,cleveland ,hills are worked1 and there are extensive blast-furnaces1 iron-foundries and steam sawing-mills in the district4 ,immediately ,w4 of ,eston lies the urban district of ,ormesby 7pop4 #idhb71 and the whole district is densely populated 7see ,,middlesbrough74 ,marton1 west of ,ormesby1 was the birthplace of ,captain ,cook 7#agbh74 ,numerous early earthworks fringe the hills to the south4 ,,estoppel 7from ,o4 ,fr4 estopper1 to stop1 bar2 estoupe1 mod4 etoupe1 a plug of tow2 ,lat4 stuppa71 a rule in the law of evidence by which a party in litigation is prohibited from asserting or denying something1 when such assertion or denial would be inconsistent with his own previous statements or conduct4 ,estoppel is said to arise in three ways--7#a7 by record or judgment1 7#b7 by deed1 and 7#c7 by matter in pais or conduct4 7#a7 ,where a cause of action has been tried and final judgment has been pronounced1 the judgment is conclusive--either party attempting to renew the litigation by a new action would be estopped by the judgment4 ,every judgment is conclusive proof as against parties and privies1 of facts directly in issue in the case1 actually decided by the court1 and appearing from the judgment itself to be the ground on which it was based4--,stephen's ,digest of the ,law of ,evidence1 ,art4 #da4 7#b7 ,it is one of the privileges of deeds as distinguished from simple contracts that they operate by way of estoppel4 ,a man shall always be estopped by his own deed1 or not permitted to aver or prove anything in contradiction to what he has once so solemnly and deliberately avowed 7,blackstone1 #b ,com4 #bie72 e4g4 where a bond recited that the defendants were authorized by acts of parliament to borrow money1 and that under such authority they had borrowed money from a certain person1 they were estopped from setting up as a defence that they did not in fact so borrow money1 as stated by their deed4 7#c7 ,estoppel by conduct1 or1 as it is still sometimes called1 estoppel by matter in pais1 is the most important head4 ,the rule practically comes to this that1 when a person in his dealings with others has acted so as to induce them to believe a thing to be true and to act on such belief1 he may not in any proceeding between himself and them deny the thing to be true3 e4g4 a partner retiring from a firm without giving notice to the customers1 cannot1 as against a customer having no knowledge of his retirement1 deny that he is a partner4 ,as between landlord and tenant the principle operates to prevent the denial by the tenant of the landlord's title4 ,so if a person comes upon land by the licence of the person in possession1 he cannot deny that the licenser had a title to the possession at the time the licence was given4 ,again1 if a man accepts a bill of exchange he may not deny the signature or the capacity of the drawer4 ,so a person receiving goods as baillee from another cannot deny the title of that other to the goods at the time they were entrusted to him4 ,estoppel of whatever kind is subject to one general rule1 that it cannot override the law of the land2 for example1 a corporation would not be estopped as to acts which are ultra vires4 ,see ,l4,f4 ,everest and ,e4 ,strode1 ,the ,law of ,estoppel2 ,m4 ,cababe1 ,principles of ,estoppel4 ,,estouteville1 ,,guillaume ,d' 7#adjc-adhc71 ,french ecclesiastic1 was bishop of ,angers1 of ,digne1 of ,porto and ,santa ,rufina1 of ,ostia and ,velletri1 archbishop of ,rouen1 prior of ,saint ,martin des ,champs1 abbot of ,mont ,st ,michel1 of ,st ,ouen at ,rouen1 and of ,montebourg4 ,he was sent to ,france as legate by ,pope ,nicholas ,v4 to make peace between ,charles ,,vii4 and ,england 7#adea71 and undertook1 ex officio1 the revision of the trial of ,joan of ,arc2 he afterwards reformed the statutes of the university of ,paris4 ,he then went to preside over the assembly of clergy which met at ,bourges to discuss the observation of the ,pragmatic ,sanction 7see ,,basel1 ,,council ,,of71 finally returning to ,rome1 where he passed almost all the rest of his life4 ,he was a great builder1 ,rouen1 ,mont ,st ,michel1 ,pontoise and ,gaillon owing many noble buildings to his initiative4 ,,estovers 7from the ,o4 ,fr4 estover1 estovoir1 a verb used as a substantive in the sense of that which is necessary2 the word is of disputed origin2 it has been referred to the ,lat4 stare1 to stand1 or studere1 to desire71 a term1 in ,english law1 for the wood which a tenant for life or years may take from the land he holds for repair of his house1 the implements of husbandry1 and the hedges and fences1 and for firewood4 ,the ,o4 ,eng4 word for estover was bote or boot 7literally meaning good1 profit1 the same word as seen in better74 ,the various kinds of estovers were thus known as house-bote1 cart or plough-bote1 hedge or hay-bote1 and fire-bote respectively4 ,these rights may1 of course1 be restricted by express covenants4 ,copyholders have similar rights over the land they occupy and over the waste of the manor1 in which case the rights are known as ,commons of estovers4 7,see ,,commons47 ,,estrada1 ,,la1 a town of north-western ,spain1 in the province of ,pontevedra1 #ae m4 ,s4 by ,e4 of ,santiago de ,compostela4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #bc1iaf4 ,la ,estrada is the chief town of a densely-populated mountainous district2 its industries are agriculture1 stock-breeding1 and the manufacture of linen and woollen cloth4 ,timber from the mountain forests is conveyed from ,la ,estrada to the river ,ulla1 #d m4 ,n41 and thence floated down to the seaports on ,arosa ,bay4 ,the nearest railway-station is ,requeijo1 #g m4 ,w41 on the ,pontevedra-,santiago railway4 ,there are mineral springs at ,la ,estrada and at ,caldas de ,reyes1 #aa m4 ,w4,s4,w4 ,,estrade1 a ,french architectural term for a raised platform 7see ,,dais74 ,in the ,levant the estrade of a divan is called ,sopha 7,blondel71 from which comes our sofa4 ,,estrades1 ,,godefroi1 ,,comte ,d' 7#afjg-afhf71 ,french diplomatist and marshal1 was born at ,agen4 ,he was the son of ,francois d',estrades 7d4 #afec71 a partisan of ,henry ,,iv41 and brother of ,jean d',estrades1 bishop of ,condom4 ,he became a page to ,louis ,,xiii41 and at the age of nineteen was sent on a mission to ,maurice of ,holland4 ,in #afdf he was named ambassador extraordinary to ,holland1 and took part in the conferences at ,munster4 ,sent in #affa to ,england1 he obtained in #affb the restitution of ,dunkirk4 ,in #affg he negotiated the treaty of ,breda with the king of ,denmark1 and in #afgh the treaty of ,nijmwegen1 which ended the war with ,holland4 ,independently of these diplomatic missions1 he took part in the principal campaigns of ,louis ,,xiv41 in ,italy 7#afdh71 in ,catalonia 7#afee71 in ,holland 7#afgb72 and was created marshal of ,france in #afge4 ,he left ,lettres1 memoires et negociations en qualite d'ambassadeur en ,hollande depuis #affc jusqu' en #affh1 of which the first edition in #agjj was followed by a nine-volume edition 7,london 7the ,hague71 #agdc74 ,of the sons of ,godefroi d',estrades1 ,jean ,francois d',estrades was ambassador to ,venice and ,piedmont2 ,louis1 marquis d',estrades 7d4 #agaa71 succeeded his father as governor of ,dunkirk1 and was the father of ,godefroi ,louis1 comte d',estrades1 lieutenant-general1 who was killed at the siege of ,belgrade1 #agag4 ,see ,felix ,salomon1 ,frankreichs ,beziehungen zu dem ,scottischen ,aufstand 7#afcg-afdj71 containing an excursus on the falsification of the letters of the comte d',estrades2 ,philippe ,lauzun1 ,le ,marechal d',estrades 7,agen1 #ahif74 ,,estreat 7,o4 ,fr4 estrait1 ,lat4 extracta71 originally1 a true copy or duplicate of some original writing or record2 now used only with reference to the enforcement of a forfeited recognizance4 ,at one time it was the practice to extract and certify into the exchequer copies of entries in court roils which contained provisions or orders in favour of the treasury1 hence the estreating of a recognizance was the taking out from among the other records of the court in which it was filed and sending it to the exchequer to be enforced1 or sending it to the sheriff to be levied by him1 and then returned by the clerk of the peace to the lords of the treasury4 7,see ,,recognizance47 ,,estrees1 ,,gabrielle ,d' 7#aegc-aeii71 mistress of ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france1 was the daughter of ,antoine d',estrees1 marquis of ,coeuvres1 and ,francoise ,babou de la ,bourdaisiere4 ,henry ,,iv41 who in ,november #aeij stayed at the castle of ,coeuvres1 became violently enamoured of her4 ,her father1 anxious to save his daughter from so perilous an entanglement1 married her to ,nicholas d',amerval1 seigneur de ,liancourt1 but the union proved unhappy1 and in ,december #aeib1 ,gabrielle1 whose affection for the king was sincere1 became his mistress4 ,she lived with him from ,december #aeib onwards1 and bore him several children1 who were recognized and legitimized by him4 ,she possessed the king's entire confidence2 he willingly listened to her advice1 and created her marchioness of ,monceaux1 duchess of ,beaufort 7#aeig7 and ,etampes 7#aeih71 a peeress of ,france4 ,the king even proposed to marry her in the event of the success of his suit for the nullification by the ,holy ,see of his marriage with ,margaret of ,valois2 but before the question was settled ,gabrielle died1 on the #ajth of ,april #aeii4 ,poison was of course suspected2 but her death was really caused by puerperal convulsions 7eclampsia74 ,see ,adrien ,desclozeaux1 ,gabrielle d',estrees1 ,marquise de ,monceaux1 c4 7,paris1 #ahhi74 ,,estremadura1 or ,,extremadura1 an ancient territorial division of central and western ,portugal1 and of western ,spain2 comprising the modern districts of ,leiria1 ,santarem and ,lisbon1 in ,portugal1 and the modern provinces of ,badajoz and ,caceres in ,spain4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #b1jie1hah2 area1 #bc1jee sq4 m4 ,the name of ,estremadura appears to be of early ,romance or ,late ,latin origin1 and probably was applied to all the far western lands 7extrema ora7 bordering upon the lower ,tagus1 as far as the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,it is thus equivalent to ,land's ,end1 or ,finistere4 ,in popular speech it is more commonly used than the names of the modern divisions mentioned above1 which were created in the #aith century4 ,as1 however1 there are many racial1 economic and historic differences between ,portuguese and ,spanish ,estremadura1 the two provinces are separately described below4 #a4 ,portuguese ,estremadura is bounded on the ,n4 by ,beira1 ,e4 and ,s4 by ,alemtejo1 and ,w4 by the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #a1bba1dah2 area1 #ficg sq4 m4 ,the greatest length of the province1 from ,n4 to ,s41 is #afe m42 its greatest breadth1 from ,e4 to ,w41 is #gb m4 ,the general uniformity of the coast-line is broken by the broad and deep estuaries of the ,tagus and the ,sado1 and by the four conspicuous promontories of ,cape ,carvoeiro1 ,cape da ,roca1 ,cape ,espichel and ,cape de ,sines4 ,the ,tagus is the great navigable waterway of ,portuguese ,estremadura1 flowing from north-east to south-west1 and fed by many minor tributaries1 notably the ,zezere on the right and the ,zatas on the left4 ,it divides the country into two nearly equal portions1 wholly dissimilar in surface and character4 ,south of the ,tagus the land is almost everywhere low1 flat and monotonous1 while in several places it is rendered unhealthy by undrained marshes4 ,the ,sado1 which issues into ,setubal ,bay1 is the only important river of this region4 ,north of the ,tagus1 and parallel with its right bank1 extends the mountain chain which is known at its northern extremity as the ,serra do ,aire and1 where it terminates above ,cape da ,roca1 as the ,serra da ,cintra4 ,this ridge1 which is buttressed on all sides by lesser groups of hills1 and includes part of the famous lines of ,torres ,vedras 7q4v471 exceeds #bbjj ft4 in height1 and constitutes the watershed between the right-hand tributaries of the ,tagus and the ,liz1 ,sizandro and other small rivers which flow into the ,atlantic4 ,on its seaward side1 except for the line of sheer and lofty cliffs between ,cape ,carvoeiro and ,cape da ,roca1 the country is mostly flat and sandy1 with extensive heaths and pine forests2 but along the fertile and well-cultivated right bank of the ,tagus the river scenery1 with its terraced hills of vines1 olives and fruit trees1 often resembles that of the ,rhine in ,germany4 ,the natural resources of ,portuguese ,estremadura1 with its inhabitants1 industries1 commerce1 communications1 c41 are described under ,,portugal2 for on such matters there is little to be said of this central and most characteristic province which does not apply to the whole kingdom4 ,separate articles are also devoted to ,lisbon1 the capital1 and ,abrantes1 ,cintra1 ,leiria1 ,mafra1 ,santarem1 ,setubal1 ,thomar1 ,torres ,novas and ,torres ,vedras1 the other chief towns4 ,the women of ,peniche1 a small fishing village on the promontory of ,cape ,carvoeiro1 have long been celebrated throughout ,portugal for their skill in the manufacture of fine laces4 #b4 ,spanish ,estremadura is bounded on the ,n4 by ,leon and ,old ,castile1 ,e4 by ,new ,castile1 ,s4 by ,andalusia1 and ,w4 by the ,portuguese province of ,beira and ,alemtejo1 which separate it from ,portuguese ,estremadura4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #hhb1daj2 area1 #af1aah sq4 m4 ,spanish ,estremadura consists of a tableland separated from ,leon and ,old ,castile by the lofty ,sierra de ,gredos1 the plateau of ,bejar and the ,sierra de ,gata1 which form an almost continuous barrier along the northern frontier1 with its summits ranging from #fjjj to more than #hejj ft4 in altitude4 ,on the south the comparatively low range of the ,sierra ,morena constitutes the frontier of ,andalusia2 on the east and west there is a still more gradual transition to the plateau of ,new ,castile and the central plains of ,portugal4 ,the tableland of ,spanish ,estremadura is itself bisected from east to west by a line of mountains1 the ,sierras of ,san ,pedro1 ,montanchez and ,guadalupe 7#djjj-fjjj ft471 which separate its northern half1 drained by the river ,tagus1 from its southern half1 drained by the ,guadiana4 ,these two halves are respectively known as ,alta or ,upper ,estremadura 7the modern ,caceres71 and ,baja or ,lower ,estremadura 7the modern ,badajoz74 ,the ,tagus and ,guadiana flow from east to west through a monotonous country1 level or slightly undulating1 often almost uninhabited1 and covered with a thin growth of shrubs and grass4 ,perhaps the most characteristic feature of this tableland is the vast heaths of gum-cistus1 which in spring colour the whole landscape with leagues of yellow blossom1 and in summer change to a brown and arid wilderness4 ,the climate in summer is hot but not unhealthy1 except in the swamps which occur along the ,guadiana4 ,the rainfall is scanty2 dew1 however1 is abundant and the nights are cool4 ,although the high mountains are covered with snow in ,november1 the winters are not usually severe4 ,the soil is naturally fertile1 but drought1 floods and locusts render agriculture difficult1 and sheep-farming is the most important of ,estremaduran industries4 7,see ,,spain3 ,agriculture47 ,in the #aith century1 however1 this industry lost much of its former importance owing to foreign competition4 ,immense herds of swine are bred and constitute a great source of support to the inhabitants1 not only supplying them with food1 but also forming a great article of export to other provinces--the pork1 bacon and hams being in high esteem4 ,the beech1 oak and chestnut woods afford an abundance of food for swine1 and there are numerous plantations of olive1 cork and fruit trees1 but a far greater area of forest has been destroyed4 ,for an account of commerce1 mining1 communications1 c41 in ,spanish ,estremadura1 with a list of the chief towns1 see ,,caceres and ,,badajoz4 ,in character and physical type1 the people of this region are less easily classified than those of other ,spanish provinces4 ,they lack the endurance and energy of the ,galicians1 the independent and enterprising spirit of the ,asturians1 ,basques and ,catalans1 the culture of the ,castilians and ,andalusians4 ,their failure to develop a distinctive local type of character and civilization is perhaps due to the adverse economic history of their country4 ,the two great waterways which form the natural outlet for ,estremaduran commerce flow to the ,atlantic through a foreign and1 for centuries1 a hostile territory4 ,like other parts of ,spain1 ,estremadura suffered severely from the expulsion of the ,jews and ,moors 7#adib-afaj71 while the compensating treasure1 derived during the same period from ,spanish ,america1 never reached a province so remote at once from the sea and from the chief centres of national life4 ,although ,cortes 7#adhe-aedg71 the conqueror of ,mexico and ,pizarro 7c4 #adga-aeda71 the conqueror of ,peru1 were both born in ,estremadura1 their exploits1 far from bringing prosperity to their native province1 only encouraged the emigration of its best inhabitants4 ,heavy taxation and harsh land-laws prevented any recovery1 while the felling of the forests reduced many fertile areas to waste land1 and rendered worse a climate already unfavourable to agriculture4 ,few countries leave upon the mind of the traveller a deeper impression of hopeless poverty4 ,,estremoz1 a town of ,portugal1 in the district of ,evora1 formerly included in the province of ,alemtejo2 #ajd m4 by rail ,e4 of ,lisbon1 on the ,casa ,branca-,evora-,elvas railway4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #gibj4 ,estremoz is built at the base of a hill crowned by a large dismantled citadel2 its fortifications1 which in the #agth century accommodated #bj1jjj troops and rendered the town one of the principal defences of the frontier1 are now obsolete4 ,there are marble quarries in the neighbourhood1 and the ,estremoz bilhas1 red earthenware jars1 are used throughout ,portugal as water-holders and exported to ,spain4 ,at ,ameixial 7#aahh7 and ,monies ,claros1 near ,estremoz1 the ,spanish were severely defeated by the ,portuguese in #affc and #affe4 ,villa ,vicosa 7#chda71 #aj m4 ,s4,e41 is a town of pre-,roman origin1 containing a royal palace4 ,the altars with ,latin inscriptions to the ,iberian god ,endovellicus1 found at ,villa ,vicosa1 are preserved in the museum of the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences1 ,lisbon4 ,,estuary 7from the ,lat4 aestuarium1 a place reached by aestus1 the tide71 an arm of the sea narrowing inwards at the mouth of a river where sea and fresh water meet and are mixed1 i4e4 the tidal portion of a river's mouth4 ,structurally the estuary may represent the long-continued action of river erosion and tidal erosion confined to a narrow channel1 most effective where most concentrated1 or an estuary may be the drowned portion of the lower part of a river-valley4 ,in a map of ,britain showing sea-depths it will be observed that under the ,severn estuary the sea deepens in a number of steps descending by concentric ,v's that become blunter towards deep water until the last is a mere indentation pointing towards the long narrow termination of the present estuary4 ,in this and in similar cases the progress of the estuary is indicated upon what is now the continental shelf4 ,the chief interest in estuarine conditions is the mingling of sea and fresh water4 ,where1 as in the ,severn and the ,thames1 the fresh water meets the sea gradually the water is mixed1 and there is very little change in salinity at high tide4 ,the fresh water flows over the salt water and there is a continuous rapid change1 in salinity towards the sea1 for the currents sweeping in and out mix the water constantly4 ,where the river brings down a great quantity of fresh water in a narrow channel1 the change of salinity at high and low water is very marked4 ,when1 however1 the inlet is very large compared with the river1 and there is no bar at the opening1 the estuarine character is only shown at the upper end4 ,in the ,firth of ,forth1 for example1 the landward half is an estuary1 but in the seaward half the water has become more thoroughly mixed1 the salinity is almost uniform from surface to bottom1 and increases very gradually towards the sea4 ,the river-water meets the sea diffused uniformly through a deep mass of water scarcely fresher than the sea itself1 so that the two mix uniformly1 and the sea becomes slightly freshened throughout its whole depth for many miles from land 7,h4,r4 ,mill1 ,realm of ,nature1 #ahig74 ,,esztergom 7,ger4 ,gran2 ,lat4 ,strigonium71 a town of ,hungary1 capital of the county of the same name1 #cf m4 ,n4,w4 of ,budapest by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #af1idh1 mostly ,magyars and ,roman ,catholics4 ,it is situated on the right bank of the ,danube1 nearly opposite the confluence of the ,gran1 and is divided into the town proper and three suburbs4 ,the town is the residence of the primate of ,hungary1 and its cathedral1 built in #ahba-ahgj1 after the model of ,st ,peter's at ,rome1 is one of the finest and largest in the country4 ,it is picturesquely built on an elevated and commanding position1 #bae ft4 above the ,danube1 and its dome1 visible from a long distance1 is #bfj ft4 high1 and has a diameter of #eb ft4 ,the interior is very richly decorated1 notably with fine frescoes1 and its treasury and fine library of over #fj1jjj volumes are famous4 ,besides several other churches and two monastic houses1 the principal buildings include the handsome palace of the primate1 erected in #ahhc2 the archiepiscopal library1 with valuable incunabula and old ,,mss42 the seminary for the education of ,roman ,catholic priests2 the residences of the chapter2 and the town-hall4 ,the population is chiefly employed in cloth-weaving1 wine-making and agricultural pursuits4 ,an iron bridge1 #affd ft4 long1 connects ,esztergom with the market town of ,parkany 7pop4 #bhcf7 on the opposite bank of the ,danube4 ,esztergom is one of the oldest towns of ,hungary1 and is famous as the birthplace of ,st ,stephen1 the first prince crowned apostolic king of ,hungary4 ,during the early times of the ,hungarian monarchy it was the most important mercantile centre in the country1 and it was the meeting-place of the diets of #ajaf1 #aaaa1 #aaad and #abef4 ,it was almost completely destroyed by ,tatar hordes in #abda1 but was rebuilt and fortified by ,king ,bela ,,iv4 ,in #aedc it fell into the hands of the ,turks1 from whom it was recovered1 in #aeie1 by ,carl von ,mansfeld4 ,in #afjd it reverted to the ,turks1 who held it till #afhc1 when it was regained by the united forces of ,john ,sobieski1 king of ,poland1 and ,prince ,charles of ,lorraine4 ,it was created an archbishopric in #ajja4 ,during the ,turkish occupation of the town the archbishopric was removed to ,tyrnau1 while the archbishop himself had his residence in ,pressburg4 ,both returned to ,esztergom in #ahbj4 ,in #agjh it was declared a free city by ,joseph ,i4 ,on the #acth of ,april #ahah it was partly destroyed by fire4 ,for numerous authorities on the see and cathedral of ,esztergom see ,v4 ,chevalier1 ,repertoire des sources4 ,topo-bibliogr4 s4v4 ,gran4 ,of these may be mentioned especially ,f4 ,knauz1 ,monumenta ,ecclesiae ,strigoniensis 7#c vols41 ,eszterg1 #ahgd72 ,joseph ,danko1 ,geschichtliches 444 aus dem ,graner ,domschatz 7,gran1 #ahhj74 ,,etagere1 a piece of light furniture very similar to the ,english what-not1 which was extensively made in ,france during the latter part of the #ahth century4 ,as the name implies1 it consists of a series of stages or shelves for the reception of ornaments or other small articles4 ,like the what-not it was very often cornerwise in shape1 and the best ,louis ,,xvi4 examples in exotic woods are exceedingly graceful and elegant4 ,,etah1 a town and district of ,british ,india1 in the ,agra division of the ,united ,provinces4 ,the town is situated on the ,grand ,trunk road4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #hgif4 ,the district has an area of #agcg sq4 m4 ,the district consists for the most part of an elevated alluvial plateau1 dipping down on its eastern slope into the valley of the ,ganges4 ,the uplands are irrigated by the ,ganges canal4 ,between the modern bed of the ,ganges and its ancient channel lies a belt of fertile land1 covered with a rich deposit of silt1 and abundantly supplied with natural moisture4 ,a long line of swamps and hollows still marks the former course of the river2 and above it rises abruptly the original cliff which now forms the terrace of the upland plain4 ,the ,kali ,nadi1 a small stream flowing in a deep and narrow gorge1 passes through the centre of the district1 and affords an outlet for the surface drainage4 ,etah was at an early date the seat of a primitive ,aryan civilization1 and the surrounding country is mentioned by ,hsuan ,tsang1 the ,chinese ,buddhist pilgrim of the #gth century ,a4,d41 as rich in temples and monasteries4 ,but after the bloody repression of ,buddhism before the #hth century1 the district seems to have fallen once more into the hands of aboriginal tribes1 from whom it was wrested a second time by ,rajputs during the course of their great migration eastward4 ,with the rest of upper ,india it passed under the sway of ,mahmud of ,ghazni in #ajag1 and thenceforth followed the fortunes of the ,mahommedan empire4 ,at the end of the #ahth century it formed part of the territory over which the wazir of ,oudh had made himself ruler1 and it came into the possession of the ,british government in #ahja1 under the treaty of ,lucknow4 ,during the mutiny of #aheg it was the scene of serious disturbances1 coupled with the usual anarchic quarrels among the native princes4 ,in #aija the population was #hfc1idh1 showing an increase of #bc in the decade due to the extension of canal irrigation4 ,it is traversed by a branch of the ,rajputana railway from ,agra to ,cawnpore1 with stations at ,kasganj and ,soron1 which are the two largest towns4 ,it has several printing presses1 indigo factories1 and factories for pressing cotton1 and there is a considerable agricultural export trade4 ,,etampes1 ,,anne ,,de ,,pisseleu ,d',,heilly1 ,,duchesse ,d' 7#aejh-;c4 #aehj71 mistress of ,francis ,i4 of ,france1 daughter of ,guillaume de ,pisseleu1 sieur d',heilly1 a nobleman of ,picardy4 ,she came to court before #aebb1 and was one of the maids of honour of ,louise of ,savoy4 ,francis ,i4 made her his mistress1 probably on his return from his captivity at ,madrid 7#aebf71 and soon gave up ,madame de ,chateaubriant for her4 ,anne was sprightly1 pretty1 witty and cultured1 and succeeded in keeping the favour of the king till the end of the reign 7#aedg74 ,the liaison received some official recognition2 when ,queen ,eleanor entered ,paris 7#aecj71 the king and ,anne occupied the same window4 ,in #aecc ,francis gave her in marriage to ,jean de ,brosse1 whom he created duc d',etampes4 ,the influence of the duchesse d',etampes1 especially in the last years of the reign1 was considerable4 ,she upheld ,admiral ,chabot against the constable de ,montmorency1 who was supported by her rival1 ,diane de ,poitiers1 the dauphin's mistress4 ,she was a friend to new ideas1 and co-operated with the king's sister1 ,marguerite d',angouleme4 ,she used her influence to elevate and enrich her family1 her uncle1 ,antoine ,sanguin 7d4 #aeei71 being made bishop of ,orleans in #aece and a cardinal in #aeci4a ,the accusations made against her of having allowed herself to be won over by the emperor ,charles ,v4 and of playing the traitor in #aedd rest on no serious proof4 ,after the death of ,francis ,i4 7#aedg7 she was dismissed from the court by ,diane de ,poitiers1 humiliated in every way1 and died in obscurity much later1 probably in the reign of ,henry ,,iii4 ,see ,paulin ,paris1 ,etudes sur ,francois ,ier 7,paris1 #ahhe74 ,,footnote3 #a ,the chateau of ,meudon1 belonging to the ,sanguin family1 was handed over to the duchesse d',etampes in #aeci4 ,sanguin was translated to ,limoges in #aedf1 and became archbishop of ,toulouse in #aeej4 ,,etampes1 a town of northern ,france1 capital of an arrondissement in the department of ,seine-et-,oise1 on the ,orleans railway1 #ce m4 ,s4 by ,w4 of ,paris4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #hgbj4 ,etampes is a long straggling town hemmed in between the railway on the north and the ,chalouette on the south2 the latter is a tributary of the ,juine which waters the eastern outskirts of the town4 ,a fine view of ,etampes is obtained from the ,tour ,guinette1 a ruined keep built by ,louis ,,vi4 in the #abth century on an eminence on the other side of the railway4 ,notre-,dame du ,fort1 the chief church1 dates from the #aath and #abth centuries2 irregular in plan1 it is remarkable for a fine ,romanesque tower and spire1 and for the crenellated wall which partly surrounds it4 ,the interior contains ancient paintings and other artistic works4 ,st ,basile 7#abth and #afth centuries71 which preserves a ,romanesque doorway1 and ,st ,martin 7#abth and #acth centuries71 with a leaning tower of the #afth century1 are of less importance4 ,the civil buildings offer little interest1 but two houses named after ,anne de ,pisseleu 7see above71 mistress of ,francis ,i41 and ,diane de ,poitiers1 mistress of ,henry ,,ii41 are graceful examples of ,renaissance architecture4 ,in the square there is a statue of the naturalist1 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 who was born in ,etampes4 ,the subprefecture1 a tribunal of first instance1 and a communal college are among the public institutions of ,etampes4 ,flour-milling1 metal-founding1 leather-dressing1 printing and the manufacture of boots and shoes and hosiery are carried on2 there are quarries of paving-stone1 nurseries and market gardens in the vicinity1 and the town has important markets for cereals and sheep4 ,etampes 7,lat4 ,stampae7 existed at the beginning of the #gth century and in the early middle ages belonged to the crown domain4 ,during the middle ages it was the scene of several councils1 the most notable of which took place in #aacj and resulted in the recognition of ,innocent ,,ii4 as the legitimate pope4 ,in #afeb1 during the war of the ,fronde it suffered severely at the hands of the royal troops under ,turenne4 ,lords1 ,counts and ,dukes of ,etampes4--,the lordship of ,etampes1 in what is now the department of ,seine et ,oise in ,france1 belonged to the royal domain1 but was detached from it on several occasions in favour of princes1 or kings' favourites4 ,st ,louis gave it to his mother ,blanche of ,castile1 and then to his wife ,marguerite of ,provence4 ,louis1 the brother of ,philip the ,fair1 became lord of ,etampes in #acag and count in #acbg2 he was succeeded by his son and his grandson4 ,francis ,i4 raised the countship of ,etampes to the rank of a duchy for his mistress ,anne de ,pisseleu ,d',heilly4 ,the new duchy passed to ,diane de ,poitiers 7#aeec71 to ,catherine of ,lorraine1 duchess of ,montpensier 7#aegh71 to ,marguerite of ,valois 7#aehb7 and to ,gabrielle d',estrees 7#aeih74 ,the latter transmitted it to her son1 ,cesar of ,vendome1 and his descendants held it till #agab4 ,it then passed by inheritance to the families of ,bourbon-,conti and of ,orleans4 ,,etaples1 a town of northern ,france1 in the department of ,pas-de-,calais1 on the right bank of the estuary of the ,canche1 #c m4 from the ,straits of ,dover1 #ag m4 ,s4 of ,boulogne by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #eacf4 ,etaples has a small fishing and commercial port which enjoyed a certain importance during the middle ages4 ,boat-building is carried on4 ,there is an old church with a statue of the ,virgin much revered by the sailors4 ,the ,canche is crossed by a bridge over #afjj ft4 in length4 ,le ,touquet1 in the midst of pine woods1 and the neighbouring watering-place of ,paris-,plage1 #c-a_/b m4 ,w4 of ,etaples at the mouth of the estuary1 are much frequented by ,english and ,french visitors for golf1 tennis and bathing1 and ,etaples itself is a centre for artists4 ,antiquarian discoveries in the vicinity of ,etaples have led to the conjecture that it occupies the site of the ,gallo-,roman port of ,quentovicus4 ,in #adib a treaty was signed here between ,henry ,,vii41 king of ,england1 and ,charles ,,viii41 king of ,france4 ,,etawah1 a town and district of ,british ,india1 in the ,agra division of the ,united ,provinces4 ,the town is situated on the left bank of the ,jumna1 and has a station on the ,east ,indian railway1 #bjf m4 from ,allahabad4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #db1egj4 ,deep fissures intersect the various quarters of the town1 over which broad roads connect the higher portions by bridges and embankments4 ,the ,jama ,masjid 7,great ,mosque7 is the chief architectural ornament of ,etawah4 ,it was originally a ,hindu temple1 and was adapted to its present use by the ,mahommedan conquerors4 ,several fine ,hindu temples also stand about the mound on which are the ruins of the ancient fort4 ,etawah is now only the civil headquarters of the district1 the military cantonment having been abandoned in #ahfa4 ,considerable trade is carried on by rail and river4 ,the manufactures include cotton cloth1 skin-bottles1 combs and horn-ware and sweetmeats4 ,the ,,district ,,of ,,etawah has an area of #afia sq4 m4 ,it forms a purely artificial administrative division1 stretching across the level plain of the ,doab1 and beyond the valley of the ,jumna1 to the gorges of the ,chambal1 and the last rocky outliers of the ,vindhyan range4 ,the district exhibits a striking variety of surface and scenery4 ,the greater portion lies within the ,doab or level alluvial plain between the ,ganges and the ,jumna4 ,this part falls naturally into two sections1 divided by the deep and fissured valley of the river ,sengar4 ,the tract to the north-east of that stream is rich and fertile1 being watered by the ,cawnpore and ,etawah branches of the ,ganges canal1 and other important works4 ,the south-western region has the same natural advantages1 but possesses no great irrigation system1 and is consequently less fruitful than the opposite slopes4 ,near the banks of the ,jumna1 the plain descends into the river valley by a series of wild ravines and terraces1 inhabited only by a scattered race of hereditary herdsmen4 ,beyond the ,jumna again a strip of ,british territory extends along the tangled gorges of the ,chambal and the ,kuari ,nadi1 far into the borders of the ,gwalior state4 ,this outlying tract embraces a series of rocky glens and mountain torrents1 crowned by the ruins of native strongholds1 and interspersed with narrow ledges of cultivable alluvium4 ,the climate1 once hot and sultry1 has now become comparatively moist and equable under the influence of irrigation and the planting of trees4 ,etawah was marked out by its physical features as a secure retreat for the turbulent tribes of the ,upper ,doab1 and it was not till the #abth century that any of the existing castes settled on the soil4 ,after the ,mussulman conquests of ,delhi and the surrounding country1 the ,hindus of ,etawah appear to have held their own for many generations against the ,mahommedan power2 but in the #afth century ,baber conquered the district1 with the rest of the ,doab1 and it remained in the hands of the ,moguls until the decay of their empire4 ,after passing through the usual vicissitudes of ,mahratta and ,jat conquests during the long anarchy which preceded the ,british rule1 ,etawah was annexed by the wazir of ,oudh in #aggc4 ,the wazir ceded it to the ,east ,india ,company in #ahja1 but it still remained so largely in the hands of lawless native chiefs that some difficulty was experienced in reducing it to orderly government4 ,during the mutiny of #aheg serious disturbances occurred in ,etawah1 and the district was occupied by the rebels from ,june to ,december2 order was not completely restored till the end of #aheh4 ,in #aija the population was #hjf1gih1 showing an increase of #aa in the decade4 ,the district is partly watered by branches of the ,ganges canal1 and is traversed throughout by the main line of the ,east ,indian railway from ,cawnpore to ,agra4 ,cotton1 oilseeds and other agricultural produce are exported1 and some indigo is made1 but manufacturing industry is slight4 ,,etching 7,dutch1 etsen1 to eat71 a form of engraving 7q4v47 in which1 in contradistinction to line engraving 7q4v471 where the furrow is produced by the ploughing of the burin1 the copper is eaten away or corroded by acid4 ,to prepare a plate for etching it is first covered with etching-ground1 a composition which resists acid4 ,the qualities of a ground are to be so adhesive that it will not quit the copper when a small quantity is left isolated between lines1 yet not so adhesive that the etching point cannot easily and entirely remove it2 at the same time a good ground will be hard enough to bear the hand upon it1 or a sheet of paper1 yet not so hard as to be brittle4 ,the ground used by ,abraham ,bosse1 the ,french painter and engraver 7#afjb-afgf7 was composed as follows3--,melt #b oz4 of white wax2 then add to it #a oz4 of gum-mastic in powder1 a little at a time1 stirring till the wax and the mastic are well mingled2 then add1 in the same manner1 #a oz4 of bitumen in powder4 ,there are three different ways of applying an etching-ground to a plate4 ,the old-fashioned way was to wrap a ball of the ground in silk1 heat the plate1 and then rub the ball upon the surface1 enough of the ground to cover the plate melting through the silk4 ,to equalize the ground a dabber was used1 which was made of cotton-wool under horsehair1 the whole inclosed in silk4 ,this method is still used by many artists1 from tradition and habit1 but it is far inferior in perfection and convenience to that which we will now describe4 ,when the etching-ground is melted1 add to it half its volume of essential oil of lavender1 mix well1 and allow the mixture to cool4 ,you have now a paste which can be spread upon a cold plate with a roller2 these rollers are covered with leather and made 7very carefully7 for the purpose4 ,you first spread a little paste on a sheet of glass 7if too thick1 add more oil of lavender and mix with a palette knife71 and roll it till the roller is quite equally charged all over1 when the paste is easily transferred to the copper1 which is afterwards gently heated to expel the oil of lavender4 ,in both these methods of grounding a plate1 the work is not completed until the ground has been smoked1 which is effected as follows4 ,the plate is held by a hand-vice if a small one1 or if large1 is fixed at some height1 with the covered side downwards4 ,a smoking torch1 composed of many thin bees-wax dips twisted together1 is then lighted and passed repeatedly under the plate in every direction1 till the ground has incorporated enough lampblack to blacken it4 ,the third way of covering a plate for etching is to apply the ground in solution as collodion is applied by photographers4 ,the ground may be dissolved in chloroform1 or in oil of lavender4 ,the plate being grounded1 its back and edges are protected from the acid by ,japan varnish1 which soon dries1 and then the drawing is traced upon it4 ,the best way of tracing a drawing is to use sheet gelatine1 which is employed as follows4 ,the gelatine is laid upon the drawing1 which its transparence allows you to see perfectly1 and you trace the lines by scratching the smooth surface with a sharp point4 ,you then fill these scratches with fine black-lead1 in powder1 rubbing it in with the finger1 turn the tracing with its face to the plate1 and rub the back of it with a burnisher4 ,the black-lead from the scratches adheres to the etching ground and shows upon it as pale grey1 much more visible than anything else you can use for tracing4 ,then comes the work of the etching-needle1 which is merely a piece of steel sharpened more or less4 ,j4,m4,w4 ,turner used a prong of an old steel fork which did as well as anything1 but neater etching-needles are sold by artists' colour-makers4 ,the needle removes the ground or cover and lays the copper bare4 ,some artists sharpen their needles so as to present a cutting edge which1 when used sideways1 scrapes away a broad line2 and many etchers use needles of various degrees of sharpness to get thicker or thinner lines4 ,it may be well to observe1 in connexion with this part of the subject1 that whilst thick lines agree perfectly well with the nature of woodcut1 they are very apt to give an unpleasant heaviness to plate engraving of all kinds1 whilst thin lines have generally a clear and agreeable appearance in plate engraving4 ,nevertheless1 lines of moderate thickness are used effectively in etching when covered with finer shading1 and very thick lines indeed were employed with good results by ,turner when he intended to cover them with mezzotint 7q4v471 and to print in brown ink1 because their thickness was essential to prevent them from being overwhelmed by the mezzotint1 and the brown ink made them print less heavily than black4 ,etchers differ in opinion as to whether the needle ought to scratch the copper or simply to glide upon its surface4 ,a gliding needle is much more free1 and therefore communicates a greater appearance of freedom to the etching1 but it has the inconvenience that the etching-ground may not always be entirely removed1 and then the lines may be defective from insufficient biting4 ,a scratching needle1 on the other hand1 is free from this serious inconvenience1 but it must not scratch irregularly so as to engrave lines of various depth4 ,the biting in former times was generally done with a mixture of nitric acid and water1 in equal proportions2 but in the present day a ,dutch mordant is a good deal used1 which is composed as follows3 ,hydrochloric acid1 #ajj grammes2 chlorate of potash1 #bj grammes2 water1 #hhj grammes4 ,to make it1 heat the water1 add the chlorate of potash1 wait till it is entirely dissolved1 and then add the acid4 ,the nitrous mordant acts rapidly and causes ebullition2 the ,dutch mordant acts slowly and causes no ebullition4 ,the nitrous mordant widens the lines2 the ,dutch mordant bites in depth1 and does not widen the lines to any perceptible degree4 ,the time required for both depends upon temperature4 ,a mordant bites slowly when cold1 and more and more rapidly when heated4 ,to obviate irregularity caused by difference of temperature1 it is a good plan to heat the ,dutch mordant artificially to #ie deg4 ,fahr4 by lamps under the bath 7for which a photographer's porcelain tray is most convenient71 and keep it steadily to that temperature2 the results may then be counted upon2 but whatever the temperature fixed upon1 the results will be regular if it is regular4 ,to get different degrees of biting on the same plate the lines which are to be pale are stopped out by being painted over with ,japan varnish or with etching ground dissolved in oil of lavender1 the darkest lines being reserved to the last1 as they have to bite longest4 ,when the acid has done its work properly the lines are bitten in such various degrees of depth that they will print with the degree of blackness required2 but if some parts of the subject require to be made paler1 they can be lowered by rubbing them with charcoal and olive oil1 and if they have to be made deeper they can be rebitten1 or covered with added shading4 ,rebiting is done with the roller above mentioned1 which is now charged very lightly with paste and rolled over the copper with no pressure but its own weight1 so as to cover the smooth surface but not fill up any of the lines4 ,the oil of lavender is then expelled as before by gently heating the plate1 but it is not smoked4 ,the lines which require rebiting may now be rebitten1 and the others preserved against the action of the acid by stopping out4 ,these are a few of the most essential technical points in etching1 but there are many matters of detail for which the reader is referred to the special works on the subject4 ,there are many varieties in the processes of etching1 and it is only necessary here to indicate the essential facts4 ,a brief analysis of different styles may be given4 7#a7 ,pure ,line4 ,as there is line engraving1 so there is line etching2 but as the etching-needle is a freer instrument than the burin1 the line has qualities which differ widely from those of the burin line4 ,each of the two has its own charm and beauty2 the liberty of the one is charming1 and the restraint of the other is admirable also in its right place4 ,in line etching1 as in line engraving1 the great masters purposely exhibit the line and do not hide it under too much shading4 7#b7 ,line and ,shade4 ,this answers exactly in etching to ,mantegna's work in engraving4 ,the most important lines are drawn first throughout1 and the shade thrown over them like a wash with the brush over a pen sketch in indelible ink4 7#c7 ,shade and ,texture4 ,this is used chiefly to imitate oil-painting4 ,here the line 7properly so called7 is entirely abandoned1 and the attention of the etcher is given to texture and chiaroscuro4 ,he uses lines1 of course1 to express these1 but does not exhibit them for their own beauty2 on the contrary1 he conceals them4 ,of these three styles of etching the first is technically the easiest1 and being also the most rapid1 is adopted for sketching on the copper from nature2 the second is the next in difficulty2 and the third the most difficult1 on account of the biting1 which is never easy to manage when it becomes elaborate4 ,the etcher has1 however1 many resources2 he can make passages paler by burnishing them1 or by using charcoal1 or he can efface them entirely with the scraper and charcoal2 he can darken them by rebiting or by regrounding the plate and adding fresh work2 and he need not run the risk of biting the very palest passages of all1 because these can be easily done with the dry point1 which is simply a well-sharpened stylus used directly on the copper without the help of acid4 ,it is often asserted that any one can etch who can draw1 but this is a mistaken assertion likely to mislead4 ,without requiring so long an apprenticeship as the burin1 etching is a very difficult art indeed1 the two main causes of its difficulty being that the artist does not see his work properly as he proceeds1 and that mistakes or misfortunes in the biting1 which are of frequent occurrence to the inexperienced1 may destroy all the relations of tone4 ,etching1 like line engraving1 owed much to the old masters1 but whereas1 with the exception of ,albert ,durer1 the painters were seldom practical line engravers1 they advanced etching not only by advice given to others but by the work of their own hands4 ,rembrandt did as much for etching as either ,raphael or ,rubens for line engraving2 and in landscape the etchings of ,claude had an influence which still continues1 both ,rembrandt and ,claude being practical workmen in etching1 and very skilful workmen4 ,ostade1 ,ruysdael1 ,berghem1 ,paul ,potter1 ,karl ,dujardin1 etched as they painted1 and so did a greater than any of them1 ,vandyck4 ,in the earlier part of the #aith century etching was almost a defunct art1 except as it was employed by engravers as a help to get faster through their work1 of which engraving got all the credit1 the public being unable to distinguish between etched lines and lines cut with the burin4 ,but from the middle of the century dates a great revival of etching as an independent art1 a revival which has extended all over ,europe4 ,apart from the copying of pictures by etching--which was found commercially preferable to the use of line engraving--a number of artists and amateurs gradually practised original etching with increasing success1 notably ,sir ,seymour ,haden1 ,j4,m4 ,whistler1 ,samuel ,palmer and others in ,england1 ,felix ,bracquemond1 ,c4,f4 ,daubigny1 ,charles ,jacque1 ,adolphe ,appian1 ,maxime ,lalanne1 ,jules ,jacquemart and others on the continent1 besides that singular and remarkable genius1 ,charles ,meryon4 ,etching clubs1 or associations of artists for the publication of original etchings1 were gradually founded in ,england1 ,france1 ,germany and ,belgium4 ,meryon and ,whistler are two of the greatest modern etchers4 ,among earlier names mention may be made of ,andrew ,geddes 7#aghc-ahdd7 and of ,sir ,david ,wilkie 7#aghe-ahda74 ,geddes was the finer artist with the needle2 he it was whom ,rembrandt best inspired2 his work was in the grand manner4 ,of the rich and rare dry-points ,at ,peckham ,rye and ,at ,halliford-on-,thames1 the deepest and most brilliant master of landscape would have no need to be ashamed4 ,david ,wilkie's prints were1 naturally1 not less dramatic than his pictures1 but the etcher's particular gift was possessed by him more intermittently3 it is shown best in ,the ,receipt1 a strong and vivid1 dexterous sketch1 quite full of character4 ,j4,s4 ,cotman's 7#aghb-ahdb7 etchings are also historically interesting though they were soft ground for the most part4 ,they show all his qualities of elegance and freedom as a draughtsman1 and much of his large dignity in the distribution of light and shade4 ,t4 ,girtin 7#agge-ahjb71 in the preparations for his views of ,paris1 was notably happy4 ,the work of ,sir ,francis ,seymour ,haden 7b4 #ahah7 had a powerful influence on the art in ,england4 ,between #aheh and #ahgi ,seymour ,haden--the first president of the ,royal ,society of ,painter ,etchers--produced the vast majority of his plates1 which have always good draughtsmanship1 unity of effect and a personal impression4 ,they show a strong feeling for nature4 ,if1 amongst some two hundred subjects1 it were necessary to select one or two for peculiar praise1 they might be the ,breaking up of the ,agamemnon1 the almost perfect ,water ,meadow1 the masterly presentment of ,erith ,marshes1 and the later dry-point of ,windmill ,hill4 ,another great etcher--,frenchman by birth1 but ,english by long residence--is ,alphonse ,legros 7q4v474 ,great in expression and suggestive draughtsmanship1 austere and economical in line1 ,legros's work is the grave record of the observation and the fancy of an imaginative mind4 ,in poetic portraiture nothing can well exceed his etched vision of ,g4,f4 ,watts2 ,la ,mort du ,vagabond is noticeable for terror and homely pathos2 ,communion dans l',eglise ,st ,medard is perhaps the best instance of the dignity1 vigour and grave sympathy with which he addresses himself to ecclesiastical themes4 ,something of these latter qualities1 in dealing with similar themes1 ,legros passed on to his pupil1 ,sir ,charles ,holroyd 7b4 #ahfa7--;an etcher in the true vein2 whilst an earlier pupil1 prolific as himself1 as imaginative1 and sometimes more deliberately uncouth--,william ,strang1 ,a4,r4,a4 7b4 #ahei7--;carried on in his own way the tradition of that part of ,legros's practice1 the preoccupation with the humble1 for which ,legros himself found certain warrant in a portion of the great oeuvre of ,rembrandt4 ,frank ,short1 ,a4,r4,a4 7b4 #aheg71 as with the very touch of ,turner1 carried to completion great designs that ,turner left unfinished for the ,liber studiorum4 ,the delicacy of ,sleeping till the ,flood1 the curiously suggestive realism of ,wrought ,nails--a scene in the ,black ,country--entitle him to a lasting place in the list of the fine wielders of the etching-needle4 ,d4,y4 ,cameron 7b4 #ahfe7 betrays the influence of ,rembrandt in a noble etching1 ,border ,towers1 and the influence of ,meryon in such a print as that of ,the ,palace1 ,stirling4 ,his ,london ,set is particularly fine4 ,the individuality of ,c4,j4 ,watson is less marked1 but his skill1 chiefly in architectural work1 is noticeable4 ,admirers of the studiously accurate portraiture of a great monument may be able to set ,watson's print of ,st ,etienne du ,mont by the side of ,meryon's august and mysterious and ever-memorable vision4 ,paul ,helleu 7b4 #ahei7 in his brilliant sketches1 particularly of women1 has used the art of etching in a peculiarly individual and delightful way4 ,among the numerous other modern etchers only a bare mention can be made of ,oliver ,hall1 ,minna ,bolingbroke and ,elizabeth ,armstrong 7,mrs ,watson and ,mrs ,stanhope ,forbes71 ,alfred ,east1 ,robert ,macbeth1 ,walter ,sickert1 ,robert ,goff1 ,mortimer ,menpes1 ,percy ,thomas1 ,raven ,hill1 and ,prof4 ,h4 von ,herkomer1 in ,england2 in ,france1 ,roussel1 ,j4,f4 ,raffaelli 7b4 #ahej71 ,besnard and ,j4,j4,j4 ,tissot 7#ahcf-aijb74 ,the oldest treatise on etching is that of ,abraham ,bosse 7#afde74 ,see also ,p4,g4 ,hamerton1 ,etching and ,etchers 7#ahfh71 and ,etchers' ,handbook 7#ahha72 ,f4 ,wedmore1 ,etching in ,england 7#ahie72 ,singer and ,strang1 ,etching1 ,engraving1 c4 7#ahig74 ,,eteocles1 in ,greek legend1 king of ,thebes1 son of ,oedipus and ,jocasta 7,iocaste74 ,after their father had been driven out of the country1 he and his brother ,polyneices agreed to reign alternately for a year4 ,eteocles1 however1 refused to keep the agreement1 and ,polyneices fled to ,adrastus1 king of ,argos1 whom he persuaded to undertake the famous expedition against ,thebes on his behalf4 ,the two brothers met in single combat1 and both were slain4 ,the ,theban rulers decreed that only ,eteocles should receive the honour of burial1 but the decree was set at naught by ,antigone 7q4v471 the sister of ,polyneices4 ,the fate of ,eteocles and ,polyneices forms the subject of the ,seven against ,thebes of ,aeschylus and the ,phoenissae of ,euripides4 ,,etesian ,,wind 7,lat4 etesius1 annual2 ,gr4 ,greek3 etos1 year71 a ,mediterranean wind blowing from the north and west in summer for about six weeks annually4 ,,etex1 ,,antoine 7#ahjh-ahhh71 ,french sculptor1 painter and architect1 was born in ,paris on the #bjth of ,march #ahjh4 ,he first exhibited in the salon of #ahcc1 his work including a reproduction in marble of his ,death of ,hyacinthus1 and the plaster cast of his ,cain and his race cursed by ,god4 ,thiers1 who was at this time minister of public works1 now commissioned him to execute the two groups of ,peace and ,war1 placed at each side of the ,arc de ,triomphe4 ,this last1 which established his reputation1 he reproduced in marble in the salon of #ahci4 ,the ,french capital contains numerous examples of the sculptural works of ,etex1 which included mythological and religious subjects besides a great number of portraits4 ,his paintings include the subjects of ,eurydice and the martyrdom of ,saint ,sebastian1 and among the best known of his architectural productions are the tomb of ,napoleon ,i4 in the ,invalides and a monument of the revolution of #ahdh4 ,etex wrote a number of essays on subjects connected with the arts4 ,the last year of his life was spent at ,nice1 and he died at ,chaville 7,seine-et-,oise7 on the #adth of ,july #ahhh4 ,see ,p4,e4 ,mangeant1 ,antoine ,etex1 peintre1 sculpteur et architecte1 #ahjh-ahhh 7,paris1 #ahid74 ,,ether1 7,c#b;,h#e7b,o1 the ,aether of pharmacy1 a colourless1 volatile1 highly inflammable liquid1 of specific gravity #j4gcf at #j deg41 boiling-point #ce deg4 ,c41 and freezing-point -#aag deg4 4#d ,c4 7,k4 ,olszewski74 ,it has a strong and characteristic odour1 and a hot sweetish taste1 is soluble in ten parts of water1 and in all proportions in alcohol1 and dissolves bromine1 iodine1 and1 in small quantities1 sulphur and phosphorus1 also the volatile oils1 most fatty and resinous substances1 guncotton1 caoutchouc and certain of the vegetable alkaloids4 ,the vapour mixed with oxygen or air is violently explosive4 ,the making of ether by the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol was known in about the #acth century2 and later ,basil ,valentine and ,valerius ,cordus described its preparation and properties4 ,the name ether appears to have been applied to the drug only since the times of ,frobenius1 who in #agcj termed it spiritus aethereus or vini vitriolatus4 ,it was considered to be a sulphur compound1 hence its name sulphur ether2 this idea was proved to be erroneous by ,valentine ,rose in about #ahjj4 ,ether is manufactured by the distillation of #e parts of #ij alcohol with #i parts of concentrated sulphuric acid at a temperature of #adj deg4-#ade deg4 ,c41 a constant stream of alcohol being caused to flow into the mixture during the operation4 ,the distillate is purified by treatment with lime and calcium chloride1 and subsequent distillation4 ,the mechanism of this reaction was explained by ,a4 ,williamson in #ahej4 ,for other methods of preparation see ,,ethers4#a ,the presence of so small a quantity as #a of alcohol may be detected in ether by the colour imparted to it by aniline violet2 if water or acetic acid be present1 the ether must be shaken with anhydrous potassium carbonate before the application of the test4 ,when heated with zinc dust1 it yields ethylene and water4 ,chromic acid oxidizes it to acetic acid and ozone oxidizes it to ethyl peroxide4 ,in contact with hydriodic acid gas at #j deg4 ,c41 it forms ethyl iodide 7,r4,d4 ,silva1 ,ber41 #ahge1 #h1 p4 #ijc71 and with water and a little sulphuric acid at #ahj deg4 ,c41 it yields alcohol 7,e4 ,erlenmeyer1 ,zeit4 f4 chemie1 #ahfh1 p4 #cdc74 ,it forms crystalline compounds with bromine and with many metallic salts4 ,medicine4--,for the anaesthetic properties of ether see ,,anaesthesia4 ,applied externally1 ether evaporates very rapidly1 producing such intense cold as to cause marked local anaesthesia4 ,for this purpose it is best applied as a fine spray1 but ethyl chloride is generally found more efficient and produces less subsequent discomfort4 ,it aids the absorption of fats and may be used with cod liver oil when the latter is administered by the skin4 ,if it be rubbed in or evaporation be prevented1 it acts1 like alcohol and chloroform1 as an irritant4 ,ten to twenty minims of ether1 subcutaneously injected1 constitute perhaps the most rapid and powerful cardiac stimulant known1 and are often employed for this purpose in cases of syncope under anaesthesia4 ,taken internally1 ether acts in many respects similarly to alcohol and chloroform1 but its stimulant action on the heart is much more marked1 being exerted both reflexly from the stomach and directly after its rapid absorption4 ,ether is thus the type of a rapidly diffusible stimulant4 ,it is also useful in relieving the paroxysms of asthma4 ,the dose for repeated administration is from #aj to #cj minims and for a single administration up to a drachm4 ,chronic ,poisoning4--,a dose of a little more than a drachm 7a teaspoonful7 will produce a condition of inebriation lasting for one-half to one hour1 but the dose must soon be greatly increased4 ,the after-effects are1 if anything1 rather pleasant1 and the habit of ether drinking is certainly not so injurious as alcoholism4 ,the principal symptoms symptons of chronic ether-drinking are a weakening of the activity of the special senses1 and notably sight and hearing1 a lowering of the intelligence and a degree of general paresis 7partial paralysis7 of motion4 ,,footnote3 #a ,see also ,j4 v4 ,liebig1 ,ann4 ,chem4 ,pharm41 #ahcg1 #bc1 p4 #ci2 #ahci1 #cj1 p4 #abi2 ,e4 ,mitscherlich1 ,pogg4 ,ann41 #ahcf1 #ca1 p4 #bgc2 #ahda1 #ec1 p4 #ie2 ,a4,w4 ,williamson1 ,phil4 ,mag41 #ahej 7#c71 #cg1 p4 #cej4 ,,etheredge or ,,etherege1 ,,sir ,,george 7c4 #afce-afia71 ,english dramatist1 was born about the year #afce1 and belonged to an ,oxfordshire family4 ,he is said to have been educated at ,cambridge1 but ,dennis assures us that to his certain knowledge he understood neither ,greek nor ,latin4 ,he travelled abroad early1 and seems to have resided in ,france4 ,it is possible that he witnessed in ,paris the performances of some of ,moliere's earliest comedies2 and he seems1 from an allusion in one of his plays1 to have been personally acquainted with ,bussy ,rabutin4 ,on his return to ,london he studied the law at one of the ,inns of ,court4 ,his tastes were those of a fine gentleman1 and he indulged freely in pleasure4 ,sometime soon after the ,restoration he composed his comedy of ,the ,comical ,revenge or ,love in a ,tub1 which introduced him to ,lord ,buckhurst1 afterwards the earl of ,dorset4 ,this was brought out at the ,duke's theatre in #affd1 and a few copies were printed in the same year4 ,it is partly in rhymed rhymned heroic verse1 like the stilted tragedies of the ,howards and ,killigrews1 but it contains comic scenes that are exceedingly bright and fresh4 ,the sparring between ,sir ,frederick and the ,widow introduced a style of wit hitherto unknown upon the ,english stage4 ,the success of this play was very great1 but ,etheredge waited four years before he repeated his experiment4 ,meanwhile he gained the highest reputation as a poetical beau1 and moved in the circle of ,sir ,charles ,sedley1 ,lord ,rochester and the other noble wits of the day4 ,in #affh he brought out ,she would if she could1 a comedy in many respects admirable1 full of action1 wit and spirit1 although to the last degree frivolous and immoral4 ,but in this play ,etheredge first shows himself a new power in literature2 he has nothing of the rudeness of his predecessors or the grossness of his contemporaries4 ,we move in an airy and fantastic world1 where flirtation is the only serious business of life4 ,at this time ,etheredge was living a life no less frivolous and unprincipled than those of his ,courtals and ,freemans4 ,he formed an alliance with the famous actress ,mrs ,elizabeth ,barry2 she bore him a daughter1 on whom he settled ,l#fjjj1 but who1 unhappily1 died in her youth4 ,his wealth and wit1 the distinction and charm of his manners1 won ,etheredge the general worship of society1 and his temperament is best known by the names his contemporaries gave him1 of gentle ,george and easy ,etheredge4 ,rochester upbraided him for inattention to literature2 and at last1 after a silence of eight years1 he came forward with one more play1 unfortunately his last4 ,the ,man of ,mode or ,sir ,fopling ,flutter1 indisputably the best comedy of intrigue written in ,england before the days of ,congreve1 was acted and printed in #afgf1 and enjoyed an unbounded success4 ,besides the merit of its plot and wit1 it had the personal charm of being supposed to satirize1 or at least to paint1 persons well known in ,london4 ,sir ,fopling ,flutter was a portrait of ,beau ,hewit1 the reigning exquisite of the hour2 in ,dorimant the poet drew the earl of ,rochester1 and in ,medley a portrait of himself2 while even the drunken shoemaker was a real character1 who made his fortune from being thus brought into public notice4 ,after this brilliant success ,etheredge retired from literature2 his gallantries and his gambling in a few years deprived him of his fortune1 and he looked about for a rich match4 ,he was knighted before #afhj1 and gained the hand and the money of a rich widow4 ,he was sent by ,charles ,,ii4 on a mission to the ,hague1 and in ,march #afhe was appointed resident minister in the imperial ,german court at ,regensburg4 ,he was very uncomfortable in ,germany1 and after three and a half years' residence left for ,paris4 ,he had collected a library at ,regensburg1 some volumes of which are in the theological college there4 ,his ,,ms4 despatches are preserved in the ,british ,museum1 where they were discovered and described by ,mr ,gosse in #ahha2 they add very largely to our knowledge of ,etheredge's career4 ,he died in ,paris1 probably in #afia1 for ,narcissus ,luttrell notes in ,february #afib that ,sir ,george ,etherege1 the late ,king ,james' ambassador to ,vienna1 died lately in ,paris4 ,etheredge deserves to hold a more distinguished place in ,english literature than has generally been allotted to him4 ,in a dull and heavy age1 he inaugurated a period of genuine wit and sprightliness4 ,he invented the comedy of intrigue1 and led the way for the masterpieces of ,congreve and ,sheridan4 ,before his time the manner of ,ben ,jonson had prevailed in comedy1 and traditional humours and typical eccentricities1 instead of real characters1 had crowded the comic stage4 ,etheredge paints with a light1 faint hand1 but it is from nature1 and his portraits of fops and beaux are simply unexcelled4 ,no one knows better than he how to present a gay young gentleman1 a ,dorimant1 an unconfinable rover after amorous adventures4 ,his genius is as light as thistle-down2 he is frivolous1 without force of conviction1 without principle2 but his wit is very sparkling1 and his style pure and singularly picturesque4 ,no one approaches ,etheredge in delicate touches of dress1 furniture and scene2 he makes the fine airs of ,london gentlemen and ladies live before our eyes even more vividly than ,congreve does2 but he has less insight and less energy than ,congreve4 ,had he been poor or ambitious1 he might have been to ,england almost what ,moliere was to ,france1 but he was a rich man living at his ease1 and he disdained to excel in literature4 ,etheredge was a fair1 slender1 genteel man1 but spoiled his countenance with drinking4 ,his contemporaries all agree in acknowledging that he was the soul of affability and sprightly good-nature4 ,the life of ,etheredge was first given in detail by ,edmund ,gosse in ,seventeenth ,century ,studies 7#ahhc74 ,his works were edited by ,a4,w4 ,verity1 in #ahhh4 7,e4 ,g47 ,,etheridge1 ,,john ,,wesley 7#ahjd-ahff71 ,english nonconformist divine1 was born near ,newport1 ,isle of ,wight1 on the #bdth of ,february #ahjd4 ,he received most of his early education from his father4 ,though he never attended any university he acquired ultimately a thorough knowledge of ,greek1 ,latin1 ,hebrew1 ,syriac1 ,french and ,german4 ,in #ahbd he was placed on the ,wesleyan ,methodist plan as a local preacher4 ,in #ahbf his offer to enter the ministry was accepted1 and after the usual probationary trial he was received into full connexion at the conference of #ahca4 ,for two years after this he remained at ,brighton1 and in #ahcc he removed to ,cornwall1 being stationed successively at the ,truro and ,falmouth circuits4 ,from ,falmouth he removed to ,darlaston1 where in #ahch his health gave way4 ,for a good many years he was a supernumerary1 and lived for a while at ,caen and ,paris1 where in the public libraries he found great facilities for prosecuting his favourite ,oriental studies4 ,his health having considerably improved1 he became1 in #ahdc1 pastor of the ,methodist church at ,boulogne4 ,he returned to ,england in #ahdg1 and was appointed successively to the circuits of ,islington1 ,bristol1 ,leeds1 ,penzance1 ,penryn1 ,truro and ,st ,austell in east ,cornwall4 ,shortly after his return to ,england he received the degree of ,ph4,d4 from the university of ,heidelberg4 ,he was a patient1 modest1 hard-working and accurate scholar4 ,he died at ,camborne on the #bdth of ,may #ahff4 ,his principal works are ,horae ,aramaicae 7#ahdc72 ,history1 ,liturgies and ,literature of the ,syrian ,churches 7#ahdg72 ,the ,apostolic ,acts and ,epistles1 from the ,peshito or ,ancient ,syriac 7#ahdi72 ,jerusalem and ,tiberias1 a ,survey of the ,religious and ,scholastic ,learning of the ,jews 7#ahef72 ,the ,targums of ,onkelos and ,jonathan ben ,uzziel 7#ast vol4 in #ahfb1 #bnd in #ahfe74 ,see ,memoir1 by ,rev4 ,thornley ,smith 7#ahga74 ,,etheridge1 ,,robert 7#ahai-aijc71 ,english geologist and palaeontologist1 was born at ,ross1 in ,herefordshire1 on the #crd of ,december #ahai4 ,after an ordinary school education in his native town1 he obtained employment in a business house in ,bristol4 ,there he devoted his spare time to natural history pursuits1 and in #ahej was appointed curator of the museum attached to the ,bristol ,philosophical ,institution4 ,he also became lecturer on botany in the ,bristol medical school4 ,in #aheg1 through the influence of ,sir ,roderick ,i4 ,murchison1 he was appointed to a post in the ,museum of ,practical ,geology in ,london1 and eventually became palaeontologist to the ,geological ,survey4 ,in #ahfe he assisted ,prof4 ,huxley in the preparation of a ,catalogue of ,fossils in the ,museum of ,practical ,geology4 ,his chief work for many years was in naming the fossils collected during the progress of the ,geological ,survey1 and in supplying the lists that were appended to numerous official memoirs4 ,in this way he acquired an exceptional knowledge of ,british fossils1 and he ultimately prepared an elaborate work entitled ,fossils of the ,british ,islands1 ,stratigraphically and ,zoologically arranged4 ,only the first volume dealing with the ,palaeozoic species was published 7#ahhh74 ,etheridge also was author of several papers on the ,rhaetic ,beds1 and of an important essay on the ,physical ,structure of ,north ,devon1 and on the ,palaeontological ,value of the ,devonian ,fossils 7#ahfg74 ,he edited1 and in the main rewrote1 the second part of a new edition of ,john ,phillips' ,manual of ,geology--entitled ,stratigraphical ,geology and ,palaeontology 7#ahhe74 ,he was elected ,f4,r4,s4 in #ahga1 and was president of the ,geological ,society in #ahha-ahhb4 ,in #ahha ,etheridge was transferred from the ,geological ,survey to the geological department of the ,british ,museum1 where he served as assistant keeper until #ahia4 ,he died at ,chelsea1 ,london1 on the #ahth of ,december #aijc4 ,memoir by ,dr ,henry ,woodward 7with list of works and portrait7 in ,geological ,magazine1 ,january #aijd2 also ,memoir by ,h4,b4 ,woodward 7with portrait7 in ,proc4 ,bristol ,nat4 ,soc4 x4 #age4 ,,ethers1 in organic chemistry1 compounds of the general formula ,r4,o4,r'1 where ,r1 ,r' alkyl or aryl groups4 ,they may be regarded as the anhydrides of the alcohols1 being formed by elimination of one molecule of water from two molecules of the alcohols2 those in which the two hydrocarbon radicals are similar are known as simple ethers1 and those in which they are dissimilar as mixed ethers4 ,they may be prepared by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on the alcohols1 alkyl sulphuric acids being first formed1 which yield ethers on heating with alcohols4 ,the process may be made a continuous one by running a thin stream of alcohol continually into the heated reaction mixture of alcohol and sulphuric acid4 ,benzene sulphonic acid has been used in place of sulphuric acid 7,f4 ,krafft1 ,ber41 #ahic1 #bf1 p4 #bhbi74 ,a4,w4 ,williamson 7,ann41 #ahea1 #gg1 p4 #ch2 #aheb1 #ha1 p4 #gg7 prepared ether by the action of sodium ethylate on ethyl iodide1 and showed that all ethers must possess the structural formula given above 7see also ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,reports1 #ahej1 p4 #fe74 ,they may also be prepared by heating the alkyl halides with silver oxide4 ,the ethers are neutral volatile liquids 7the first member1 methyl ether1 is a gas at ordinary temperature74 ,phosphorus pentachloride converts them into alkyl chlorides1 a similar decomposition taking place when they are heated with the haloid acids4 ,nitric acid and chromic acid oxidize them in such a mariner that they yield the same products as the alcohols from which they are derived4 ,with chlorine they yield substitution products4 ,methyl ether1 7,,ch#c7b,o1 was first prepared by ,j4 ,b4 ,dumas and ,e4 ,peligot 7,ann4 chim4 phys41 #ahce1 #b #eh1 p4 #ai7 by heating methyl alcohol with sulphuric acid4 ,it is best prepared by heating methyl alcohol and sulphuric acid to #adj deg4 ,c4 and leading the evolved gas into sulphuric acid4 ,the sulphuric acid solution is then allowed to drop slowly into an equal volume of water1 when the methyl ether is liberated 7,e4 ,erlenmeyer and ,a4 ,kriechbaumer1 ,ber41 #ahgd1 #g1 p4 #fii74 ,it is a pleasant-smelling gas1 which burns when ignited1 and may be condensed to a liquid which boils at #bc4f deg4 ,c4 ,it is somewhat soluble in water and readily soluble in alcohol1 and concentrated sulphuric acid4 ,it combines with hydrochloric acid gas to form a compound 7,,ch#c7b,o4,h,cl 7,c4 ,friedel1 ,comptes rendus1 #ahge1 #ha1 p4 #aeb74 ,methyl ethyl ether1 ,,ch#c4,o4,c#b;,h#e1 is prepared from methyl iodide and sodium ethylate1 or from ethyl iodide and sodium methylate 7,a4 ,w4 ,williamson1 ,ann41 #aheb1 #ha1 p4 #gg74 ,it is a liquid which boils at #aj4h deg4 ,c4 ,for diethyl ether see ,,ether1 and for methyl phenyl ether 7anisole7 and ethyl phenyl ether 7phenetole7 see ,,carbolic ,,acid4 ,,ethics1 the name generally given to the science of moral philosophy4 ,the word ethics is derived from the ,gr4 ,greek3 ethikos1 that which pertains to ,greek3 ethos1 character4 ,for convenience in reference1 the arrangement followed in this article may be explained at the outset3-- ,,page ,i4 ,,definition ,,and ,,scope #hji ,,ii4 ,,historical ,,sketch #haj ,a4 ,greek and ,graeco-,roman ,ethics #haj ,the ,age of the ,sophists #haa ,socrates and his ,disciples #haa ,plato #hab ,plato and ,aristotle #had ,aristotle #hae ,stoicism #haf ,hedonism 7,epicurus7 #hah ,later ,greek and ,roman ,ethics #hah ,neoplatonism #hai ,b4 ,christianity and ,medieval ,ethics #hbj ,christian and ,jewish ,law of ,god #hbj ,christian and ,pagan ,inwardness #hbj 7,knowledge1 ,faith1 ,love1 ,purity7 ,distinctive ,particulars of ,christian ,morality #hba ,development of ,opinion in ,early ,christianity1 ,augustine1 ,ambrose #hbc ,medieval ,morality and ,moral ,philosophy #hbd ,thomas ,aquinas #hbd ,casuistry and ,jesuitry #hbf ,the ,reformation2 and birth of ,modern ,thought #hbf ,c4 ,modern ,ethics #hbg ,grotius #hbg ,hobbes #hbg ,the ,cambridge ,moralists #hbh 7,cudworth1 ,more7 ,cumberland #hbi ,locke #hbi ,clarke #hbi ,shaftesbury #hcj ,mandeville #hcj ,butler #hca ,wollaston #hca ,hutcheson #hca ,hume #hcb ,adam ,smith #hcc ,the ,intuitional ,school #hcc 7,price1 ,reid1 ,stewart1 ,whewell7 ,the ,utilitarian ,school #hce 7,paley1 ,bentham1 ,mill7 ,association and ,evolution #hcg ,free-will #hcg ,french ,influence on ,english ,ethics #hch 7,helvetius1 ,comte7 ,german ,influence on ,english ,ethics #hci 7,kant1 ,hegel7 ,d4 ,ethics since #ahgi #hdj ,,iii4 ,,bibliography #hde ,section ,i4 contains a general survey of the subject2 it shows in what sense ethics is to be regarded as a special field of philosophical investigation--its relations to other departments of thought1 especially to psychology1 religion and modern physical science4 ,the article makes no attempt to give a detailed1 casuistical examination of the matter of ethical theory4 ,for this1 reference must be made to special articles on philosophic schools1 writers and terms4 ,section ,,ii4 is a historical sketch in four parts tracing the main lines of development in ethical speculation from its birth to the present day4 ,here again it has been possible to notice only the salient points or landmarks1 leaving all detail to special articles as above4 ,all important writers whose names occur in this sketch are treated in special biographical articles1 and references are given as often as possible to supplementary articles which illustrate and explain points which cannot be fully treated here4 ,this is especially the case in connexion with technical terms 7whose history and meaning are inevitably taken for granted7 and biographical information about minor ethical writers4 ,i4 ,,definition ,,and ,,subject-,,matter ,,of ,,ethics ,in its widest sense1 the term ethics would imply an examination into the general character or habits of mankind1 and would even involve a description or history of the habits of men in particular societies living at different periods of time4 ,such a field of study would obviously be too wide for any particular science or philosophy to investigate1 and moreover portions of the field are already occupied by history1 by anthropology and by the particular sciences 7e4g4 physiology1 anatomy1 biology71 in so far as the habits and character of men depend upon the material processes which these sciences examine4 ,even philosophies such as logic and aesthetic would be necessary for such an investigation1 if thought and artistic production are normal human habits and elements in character4 ,ethics then is usually confined to the particular field of human character and conduct so far as they depend upon or exhibit certain general principles commonly known as moral principles4 ,men in general characterize their own conduct and character and that of other men by such general adjectives as good1 bad1 right and wrong1 and it is the meaning and scope of these adjectives1 primarily in relation to human conduct1 and ultimately in their final and absolute sense1 that ethics investigates4 ,a not uncommon definition of ethics as the science of conduct is inexact for various reasons4 7#a7 ,the sciences are descriptive or experimental4 ,but a description of what acts or what ends of action men in the present or the past call1 or have called1 good or bad is clearly beyond human powers4 ,and experiments in morality 7apart from the inconvenient practical consequences likely to ensue7 are useless for purposes of ethics1 because the moral consciousness would itself at one and the same time be required to make the experiment and to provide the subject upon which the experiment is performed4 7#b7 ,ethics is a philosophy and not a science4 ,philosophy is a process of reflection upon the presuppositions involved in unreflective thought4 ,in logic and metaphysics it investigates either the process of apprehension itself1 or conceptions such as cause1 substance1 space1 time1 which the ordinary scientific consciousness never criticizes4 ,in moral philosophy the place of the body of sciences1 which philosophy as the theory of knowledge investigates1 is taken by the developed moral consciousness1 which already pronounces moral judgment without hesitation1 and claims authority to subject to continual criticism the institutions and forms of social life which it has itself helped to create4 ,when ethical speculation first begins1 conceptions such as those of duty1 responsibility1 the will as the ultimate subject of moral approbation and disapprobation1 are already in existence and already operative4 ,moral philosophy in a certain sense adds nothing to these conceptions1 though it sets them in a clearer light4 ,the problems of the moral consciousness at the time at which it first becomes reflective are not strictly speaking philosophical problems at all4 ,it is occupied with just such questions as each individual man who wishes to act rightly is constantly called upon to answer1 e4g4 questions such as ,what particular action will meet the claims of justice under such and such circumstances8 or ,what degree of ignorance will excuse this particular person in this particular case from his responsibility8 ,it tries to attain a knowledge as complete as possible of the circumstances under which the act contemplated must be performed1 the personalities of the persons whom it may affect1 and the consequences 7so far as they can be foreseen7 which it will produce1 and then by virtue of its own power of moral discrimination pronounces judgment4 ,and the ever-recurring problem of the moral consciousness1 ,what ought to be done8 is one which receives a clearer and more definite answer as men become more able in the course of moral experience to apply those principles of the moral consciousness which are yet employed in that experience from the outset4 ,nevertheless there is a sense in which moral philosophy may be said to originate out of difficulties inherent in the nature of morality itself1 although it remains true that the questions which ethics attempts to answer are never questions with which the moral consciousness as such is confronted4 ,the fact that men give different answers to moral problems which seem similar in character1 or even the mere fact that men disregard1 when they act immorally1 the dictates and implicit principles of the moral consciousness is certain sooner or later to produce the desire either1 on the one hand1 to justify immoral action by casting doubt upon the authority of the moral consciousness and the validity of its principles1 or1 on the other hand1 to justify particular moral judgments either by 7the only valid method7 an analysis of the moral principle involved in the judgment and a demonstration of its universal acceptation1 or by some attempted proof that the particular moral judgment is arrived at by a process of inference from some universal conception of the ,supreme ,good or the ,final ,end from which all particular duties or virtues may be deduced4 ,it may be that criticism of morality first originates with a criticism of existing moral institutions or codes of ethics2 such a criticism may be due to the spontaneous activity of the moral consciousness itself4 ,but when such criticism passes into the attempt to find a universal criterion of morality--such an attempt being in effect an effort to make morality scientific--and especially when the attempt is seen1 as it must in the end be seen1 to fail 7the moral consciousness being superior to all standards of morality and realizing itself wholly in particular judgments71 then ethics as a process of reflection upon the nature of the moral consciousness may be said to begin4 ,if this be true it follows that one of the chief function of ethics must be criticism of mistaken attempts to find a criterion of morality superior to the pronouncements of the moral consciousness itself4 ,the ultimate superiority of the moral consciousness over all other standards is recognized1 even by those who impugn its authority1 whenever they claim that all men ought to recognize the superior value of the standards which they themselves wish to substitute4 ,similarly1 their opponents refute their arguments by showing that they are based ultimately upon a recognition of certain distinctions which are moral distinctions 7i4e4 imply a moral consciousness capable of discriminating between right and wrong in particular cases71 and that these moral distinctions conflict with the conclusions which they reach4 ,this may briefly be illustrated by reference to some of the great fundamental controversies of ethics4 ,none of these originates out of conflicting statements of the moral consciousness1 i4e4 there is no fundamental contradiction in morality itself4 ,no one 7if unsophisticated7 ever confused the conception of pleasure with the conception of the ,good1 or thought that the claims of selfish interest were identical with those of duty4 ,but the controversy between hedonists and anti-hedonists originates as soon as men reflect that a good which is not in some sense my good is not good at all1 or that no act can be said to be moral which does not satisfy me4 ,or1 again1 the reflection that the mark or sign of the perfect performance of a particular virtuous act or function is the presence of a characteristic pleasure which always accompanies it1 is opposed to the reflection that it is a mark of the highest morality never to rest satisfied1 and out of these seemingly contradictory statements of the reflective consciousness might arise a multitude of controversies either concerning pleasure and duty1 or the even more difficult and complex conceptions of merit1 progress1 and the nature of the ,supreme ,good or ,final ,end4 ,the ,sciences4 ,theology4 ,when and how fresh controversies in ethics will begin it would be impossible for any one to foretell4 ,sometimes the dominance of a particular science or branch of study is the occasion of an attempt to apply to ethics ideas borrowed from or analogous to the conceptions of that science4 ,false analogies drawn between ethics and mathematics or between morality and the perception of beauty have wrought much mischief in modern and to some degree even in ancient ethics4 ,the influence of ideas borrowed from biology is everywhere manifest in the ethical speculations of modern times4 ,sometimes1 again1 whole theories of ethics have been formulated which can be seen in the end to be efforts to subordinate moral conceptions to conceptions belonging properly to institutions or departments of human thought and activity which the moral consciousness has itself originated4 ,law1 for instance1 depends1 or at least ought to depend1 upon men's need for and consciousness of justice4 ,and such institutions as the family and the state are created by the social consciousness1 which is the moral consciousness from another aspect4 ,yet morality has been subordinated to legal and social sanctions1 and moral advance has been held to be conditioned by political and social necessities which are not moral needs4 ,similarly no one since civilization emerged from barbarism has ever really been willing to yield allegiance to a deity who is not moral in the fullest and highest sense of the word4 ,god is not superior to moral law4 ,yet there have been whole systems of theological ethics which have attempted to base human morality upon the arbitrary will of ,god or upon the supreme authority of a divinely inspired book or code of laws4 ,one of the greatest of all ethical controversies1 that concerning the freedom of the will1 arose directly out of what was in reality a theological problem--the necessity1 namely1 of reconciling ,god's foreknowledge with human freedom4 ,the unreflective moral consciousness never finds it difficult to distinguish between a man's power of willing and all the forces of circumstance1 heredity and the like1 which combine to form the temptations to which he may yield or bid defiance2 and such facts as remorse and penitence are a continual testimony to man's sense of freedom4 ,but so soon as men perceive upon reflection an apparent discrepancy between the utterances of their moral consciousness and certain conclusions to which theological speculation 7or at a later period metaphysical and scientific inquiries7 seems inevitably to lead them1 they will not rest satisfied until the belief in the will's freedom 7hitherto unquestioned7 is upon further reflection justified or condemned4 ,it is clear then that the complexity of the subject-matter of ethics is such that no sharply defined boundary lines can be drawn between it and other branches of inquiry4 ,just in so far as it presupposes the apprehension of moral facts1 it must presuppose a knowledge of the system of social relationships upon which some at least of those facts depend4 ,no one1 for instance1 could inquire into the nature of justice without being further compelled to undertake an examination of the nature of the state4 ,psychology4 ,it would be difficult to decide how much of the dispute between the advocates of pleasure theories and their opponents turns upon vexed questions of psychology1 and how much is strictly relevant to ethics4 ,if1 as has already been said1 one of the chief tasks of ethics is to prevent the intrusion into its own sphere of inquiry of ideas borrowed from other and alien sources1 then obviously these sources must be investigated4 ,one example of this necessity may be given4 ,it is sometimes maintained that the proper method of ethics is the psychological method2 ethics1 we are told1 should examine as its subject-matter moral sentiments wherever found1 without raising ultimate questions as to the nature of obligation or moral authority in general4 ,now if in opposition to such arguments the ultimate character of moral obligation be defended1 it will be necessary to point out that no one feels moral sentiments except in connexion with particular objects of moral approbation or disapprobation 7e4g4 gratitude is inexplicable apart from a particular relationship existing between two or more persons71 and that these objects are objects of the moral consciousness alone4 ,but such a line of argument is certain to make necessary an inquiry into the nature of the objects of psychological study which may produce quite unforeseen results for psychology4 ,nothing therefore is to be gained by confining ethics within limits which must from the nature of the case be arbitrary4 ,the defender at all events of the supremacy of moral intuitions must be prepared to follow whither the argument leads1 into whatever strange quarters it may direct him4 ,but this much may be said by way of delimitation of the scope of ethics3 however complicated and involved its arguments and processes of inference may become1 the facts from which they start and the conclusions to which they point are such as the moral consciousness alone can understand or warrant4 7,h4 ,h4 ,w47 ,,ii4 ,,historical ,,sketch ,a4 ,greek and ,graeco-,roman ,ethics4--,the ethical speculation of ,greece1 and therefore of ,europe1 had no abrupt and absolute beginning4 ,the naive and fragmentary precepts of conduct1 which are everywhere the earliest manifestation of nascent moral reflection1 are a noteworthy element in the gnomic poetry of the #gth and #fth centuries ,b4,c4 ,their importance is shown by the traditional enumeration of the ,seven ,sages of the #fth century1 and their influence on ethical thought is attested by the references of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,but from these unscientific utterances to a philosophy of morals was a long process4 ,in the practical wisdom of ,thales 7q4v471 one of the seven1 we cannot discern any systematic theory of morality4 ,in the case of ,pythagoras1 conspicuous among pre-,socratic philosophers as the founder not merely of a school1 but of a sect or order bound by a common rule of life1 there is a closer connexion between moral and metaphysical speculation4 ,the doctrine of the ,pythagoreans that the essence of justice 7conceived as equal retribution7 was a square number1 indicates a serious attempt to extend to the region of conduct their mathematical view of the universe2 and the same may be said of their classification of good with unity1 straightness and the like1 and of evil with the opposite qualities4 ,still1 the enunciation of the moral precepts of ,pythagoras appears to have been dogmatic1 or even prophetic1 rather than philosophic1 and to have been accepted by his disciples with an unphilosophic reverence as the ipse dixit#a of the master4 ,hence1 whatever influence the ,pythagorean blending of ethical and mathematical notions may have had on ,plato1 and1 through him1 on later thought1 we cannot regard the school as having really forestalled the ,socratic inquiry after a completely reasoned theory of conduct4 ,the ethical element in the dark philosophizing of ,heraclitus 7c4 #ecj-dgj ,b4,c471 though it anticipates ,stoicism in its conceptions of a law of the universe1 to which the wise man will carefully conform1 and a divine harmony1 in the recognition of which he will find his truest satisfaction1 is more profound1 but even less systematic4 ,it is only when we come to ,democritus1 a contemporary of ,socrates1 the last of the original thinkers whom we distinguish as pre-,socratic1 that we find anything which we can call an ethical system4 ,the fragments that remain of the moral treatises of ,democritus are sufficient1 perhaps1 to convince us that the turn of ,greek philosophy in the direction of conduct1 which was actually due to ,socrates1 would have taken place without him1 though in a less decided manner2 but when we compare the ,democritean ethics with the post-,socratic system to which it has most affinity1 ,epicureanism1 we find that it exhibits a very rudimentary apprehension of the formal conditions which moral teaching must fulfil before it can lay claim to be treated as scientific4 ,the truth is that no system of ethics could be constructed until attention had been directed to the vagueness and inconsistency of the common moral opinions of mankind4 ,for this purpose was needed the concentration of a philosophic intellect of the first order on the problems of practice4 ,in ,socrates first we find the required combination of a paramount interest in conduct and an ardent desire for knowledge4 ,the pre-,socratic thinkers were all primarily devoted to ontological research2 but by the middle of the #eth century ,b4,c4 the conflict of their dogmatic systems had led some of the keenest minds to doubt the possibility of penetrating the secret of the physical universe4 ,this doubt found expression in the reasoned scepticism of ,gorgias1 and produced the famous proposition of ,protagoras1 that human apprehension is the only standard of existence4 ,the same feeling led ,socrates to abandon the old physico-metaphysical inquiries4 ,in his ease1 moreover1 it was strengthened by a naive piety that forbade him to search into things of which the gods seemed to have reserved the knowledge to themselves4 ,the regulation of human action1 on the other hand 7except on occasions of special difficulty1 for which omens and oracles might be vouchsafed71 they had left to human reason4 ,on this accordingly ,socrates concentrated his efforts4 ,the ,sophists4 ,socrates4 ,though1 however1 ,socrates was the first to arrive at a proper conception of the problems of conduct1 the general idea did not originate with him4 ,the natural reaction against the metaphysical and ethical dogmatism of the early thinkers had reached its climax in the ,sophists 7q4v474 ,gorgias and ,protagoras are only representatives of what was really a universal tendency to abandon dogmatic theory and take refuge in practical matters1 and especially1 as was natural in the ,greek city-state1 in the civic relations of the citizen4 ,the education given by the ,sophists aimed at no general theory of life1 but professed to expound the art of getting on in the world and of managing public affairs4 ,in their eulogy of the virtues of the citizen1 they pointed out the prudential character of justice and the like as a means of obtaining pleasure and avoiding pain4 ,the ,greek conception of society was such that the life of the free-born citizen consisted mainly of his public function1 and1 therefore1 the pseudo-ethical disquisitions of the ,sophists satisfied the requirements of the age4 ,none thought of ,greek3 arete 7virtue or excellence7 as a unique quality possessed of an intrinsic value1 but as the virtue of the citizen1 just as good flute-playing was the virtue of the flute-player4 ,we see here1 as in other activities of the age1 a determination to acquire technical knowledge1 and to apply it directly to the practical issue2 just as music was being enriched by new technical knowledge1 architecture by modern theories of plans and ,t-squares 7sc4 ,hippodamus71 the handling of soldiers by the new technique of tactics and hoplitics1 so citizenship must be analysed afresh1 systematized and adapted in relation to modern requirements4 ,the ,sophists had studied these matters superficially indeed but with thoroughness as far as they went1 and it is not remarkable that they should have taken the methods which were successful in rhetoric1 and applied them to the science and art of civic virtues4 ,plato's ,protagoras claims1 not unjustly1 that in teaching virtue they simply did systematically what every one else was doing at haphazard4 ,but in the true sense of the word1 they had no ethical system at all1 nor did they contribute save by contrast to ethical speculation4 ,they merely analysed conventional formulae1 much in the manner of certain modern so-called scientific moralists4 ,into this arena of hazy popular common sense ,socrates brought a new critical spirit1 showing that these popular lecturers1 in spite of their fertile eloquence1 could not defend their fundamental assumptions1 nor even give rational definitions of what they professed to explain4 ,not only were they thus ignorant1 but they were also perpetually inconsistent with themselves in dealing with particular instances4 ,thus1 by the aid of his famous dialectic1 ,socrates arrived first at the negative result that the professed teachers of the people were as ignorant as he himself claimed to be1 and in a measure justified the eulogy of ,aristotle that he rendered to philosophy the service of introducing induction and definitions4 ,this description of his work is1 however1 both too technical and too positive1 if we may judge from those earlier dialogues of ,plato in which the real ,socrates is found least modified4 ,the pre-eminent wisdom which the ,delphic oracle attributed to him was held by himself to consist in a unique consciousness of ignorance4 ,yet it is equally clear from ,plato that there was a most important positive element in the teaching of ,socrates in virtue of which it is just to say with ,alexander ,bain1 the first important name in ancient ethical philosophy is ,socrates4 ,the union of the negative and the positive elements in his work has caused historians no little perplexity1 and we cannot quite save the philosopher's consistency unless we regard some of the doctrines attributed to him by ,xenophon as merely tentative and provisional4 ,still the positions of ,socrates that are most important in the history of ethical thought not only are easy to harmonize with his conviction of ignorance1 but even render it easier to understand his unwearied cross-examination of common opinion4 ,while he showed clearly the difficulty of acquiring knowledge1 he was convinced that knowledge alone could be the source of a coherent system of virtue1 as error of evil4 ,socrates1 therefore1 first in the history of thought1 propounds a positive scientific law of conduct4 ,virtue is knowledge4 ,this principle involved the paradox that no man1 knowing good1 would do evil4 ,but it was a paradox derived from his unanswerable truisms1 ,every one wishes for his own good1 and would get it if he could1 and ,no one would deny that justice and virtue generally are goods1 and of all goods the best4 ,all virtues are1 therefore1 summed up in knowledge of the good4 ,but this good is not1 for ,socrates1 duty as distinct from interest4 ,the force of the paradox depends upon a blending of duty and interest in the single notion of good1 a blending which was dominant in the common thought of the age4 ,this it is which forms the kernel of the positive thought of ,socrates according to ,xenophon4 ,he could give no satisfactory account of ,good in the abstract1 and evaded all questions on this point by saying that he knew no good that was not good for something in particular1 but that good is consistent with itself4 ,for himself he prized above all things the wisdom that is virtue1 and in the task of producing it he endured the hardest penury1 maintaining that such life was richer in enjoyment than a life of luxury4 ,this many-sidedness of view is illustrated by the curious blending of noble and merely utilitarian sentiment in his account of friendship3 a friend who can be of no service is valueless2 yet the highest service that a friend can render is moral improvement4 ,the historically important characteristics of his moral philosophy1 if we take 7as we must7 his teaching and character together1 may be summarized as follows3--7#a7 an ardent inquiry for knowledge nowhere to be found1 but which1 if found1 would perfect human conduct2 7#b7 a demand meanwhile that men should act as far as possible on some consistent theory2 7#c7 a provisional adhesion to the commonly received view of good1 in all its incoherent complexity1 and a perpetual readiness to maintain the harmony of its different elements1 and demonstrate the superiority of virtue by an appeal to the standard of self-interest2 7#d7 personal firmness1 as apparently easy as it was actually invincible1 in carrying out consistently such practical convictions as he had attained4 ,it is only when we keep all these points in view that we can understand how from the spring of ,socratic conversation flowed the divergent streams of ,greek ethical thought4 ,the ,socratic ,schools4 ,four distinct philosophical schools trace their immediate origin to the circle that gathered round ,socrates--the ,megarian1 the ,platonic1 the ,cynic and the ,cyrenaic4 ,the impress of the master is manifest on all1 in spite of the wide differences that divide them2 they all agree in holding the most important possession of man to be wisdom or knowledge1 and the most important knowledge to be knowledge of ,good4 ,here1 however1 the agreement ends4 ,the more philosophic part of the circle1 forming a group in which ,euclid of ,megara 7see ,,megarian ,,school7 seems at first to have taken the lead1 regarded this ,good as the object of a still unfulfilled quest1 and were led to identify it with the hidden secret of the universe1 and thus to pass from ethics to metaphysics4 ,others again1 whose demand for knowledge was more easily satisfied1 and who were more impressed with the positive and practical side of the master's teaching1 made the quest a much simpler affair4 ,they took the ,good as already known1 and held philosophy to consist in the steady application of this knowledge to conduct4 ,among these were ,antisthenes the ,cynic and ,aristippus of ,cyrene4 ,it is by their recognition of the duty of living consistently by theory instead of mere impulse or custom1 their sense of the new value given to life through this rationalization1 and their effort to maintain the easy1 calm1 unwavering firmness of the ,socratic temper1 that we recognize both ,antisthenes and ,aristippus as ,socratic men1 in spite of the completeness with which they divided their master's positive doctrine into systems diametrically opposed4 ,of their contrasted principles we may perhaps say that1 while ,aristippus took the most obvious logical step for reducing the teaching of ,socrates to clear dogmatic unity1 ,antisthenes certainly drew the most natural inference from the ,socratic life4 ,aristippus4 ,aristippus 7see ,,cyrenaics7 argued that1 if all that is beautiful or admirable in conduct has this quality as being useful1 i4e4 productive of some further good2 if virtuous action is essentially action done with insight1 or rational apprehension of the act as a means to this good1 this good must be pleasure4 ,bodily pleasures and pains ,aristippus held to be the keenest1 though he does not seem to have maintained this on any materialistic theory1 as he admitted the existence of purely mental pleasures1 such as joy in the prosperity of one's native land4 ,he fully recognized that his good was capable of being realized only in successive parts1 and gave even exaggerated emphasis to the rule of seeking the pleasure of the moment1 and not troubling oneself about a dubious future4 ,it was in the calm1 resolute1 skilful culling of such pleasures as circumstances afforded from moment to moment1 undisturbed by passion1 prejudices or superstition1 that he conceived the quality of wisdom to be exhibited2 and tradition represents him as realizing this ideal to an impressive degree4 ,among the prejudices from which the wise man was free he included all regard to customary morality beyond what was due to the actual penalties attached to its violation2 though he held1 with ,socrates1 that these penalties actually render conformity reasonable4 ,thus early in the history of ethical theory appeared the most thorough-going exposition of hedonism4 ,the ,cynics4 ,far otherwise was the ,socratic spirit understood by ,antisthenes and the ,cynics 7q4v474 ,they equally held that no speculative research was needed for the discovery of good and virtue1 and maintained that the ,socratic wisdom was exhibited1 not in the skilful pursuit1 but in the rational disregard of pleasure1--in the clear apprehension of the intrinsic worthlessness of this and most other objects of men's ordinary desires and aims4 ,pleasure1 indeed1 ,antisthenes declared roundly to be an evil2 ,better madness than a surrender to pleasure4 ,he did not overlook the need of supplementing merely intellectual insight by ,socratic force of soul2 but it seemed to him that1 by insight and self-mastery combined1 an absolute spiritual independence might be attained which left nothing wanting for perfect well-being 7see also ,,diogenes74 ,for as for poverty1 painful toil1 disrepute1 and such evils as men dread most1 these1 he argued1 were positively useful as means of progress in spiritual freedom and virtue4 ,there is1 however1 in the ,cynic notion of wisdom1 no positive criterion beyond the mere negation of irrational desires and prejudices4 ,we saw that ,socrates1 while not claiming to have found the abstract theory of good or wise conduct1 practically understood by it the faithful performance of customary duties1 maintaining always that his own happiness was therewith bound up4 ,the ,cynics more boldly discarded both pleasure and mere custom as alike irrational2 but in so doing they left the freed reason with no definite aim but its own freedom4 ,it is absurd1 as ,plato urged1 to say that knowledge is the good1 and then when asked knowledge of what8 to have no positive reply but of the good2 but the ,cynics do not seem to have made any serious effort to escape from this absurdity4 ,the ultimate views of these two ,socratic schools we shall have to notice presently when we come to the post-,aristotelian schools4 ,we must now proceed to trace the fuller development of the ,socratic theory in the hands of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,plato4 ,the ethics of ,plato cannot properly be treated as a finished result1 but rather as a continual movement from the position of ,socrates towards the more complete1 articulate system of ,aristotle2 except that there are ascetic and mystical suggestions in some parts of ,plato's teaching which find no counterpart in ,aristotle1 and in fact disappear from ,greek philosophy soon after ,plato's death until they are revived and fantastically developed in ,neopythagoreanism and ,neoplatonism4 ,the first stage at which we can distinguish ,plato's ethical view from that of ,socrates is presented in the ,protagoras1 where he makes a serious1 though clearly tentative effort to define the object of that knowledge which he with his master regards as the essence of all virtue4 ,such knowledge1 he here maintains1 is really mensuration of pleasures and pains1 whereby the wise man avoids those mistaken under-estimates of future feelings in comparison with present which we commonly call yielding to fear or desire4 ,this hedonism has perplexed ,plato's readers needlessly 7as we have said in speaking of the ,cyrenaics71 inasmuch as hedonism is the most obvious corollary of the ,socratic doctrine that the different common notions of good--the beautiful1 the pleasant and the useful--were to be somehow interpreted by each other4 ,by ,plato1 however1 this conclusion could have been held only before he had accomplished the movement of thought by which he carried the ,socratic method beyond the range of human conduct and developed it into a metaphysical system4 ,this movement may be expressed thus4 ,if we know1 said ,socrates1 what justice is1 we can give an account or definition of it2 true knowledge must be knowledge of the general fact1 common to all the individual cases to which we apply our general notion4 ,but this must be no less true of other objects of thought and discourse2 the same relation of general notions to particular examples extends through the whole physical universe2 we can think and talk of it only by means of such notions4 ,true or scientific knowledge then must be general knowledge1 relating1 not to individuals primarily1 but to the general facts or qualities which individuals exemplify2 in fact1 our notion of an individual1 when examined1 is found to be an aggregate of such general qualities4 ,but1 again1 the object of true knowledge must be what really exists2 hence the reality of the universe must lie in general facts or relations1 and not in the individuals that exemplify them4 ,so far the steps are plain enough2 but we do not yet see how this logical ,realism 7as it was afterwards called7 comes to have the essentially ethical character that especially interests us in ,platonism4 ,plato's philosophy is now concerned with the whole universe of being2 yet the ultimate object of his philosophic contemplation is still the good1 now conceived as the ultimate ground of all being and knowledge4 ,that is1 the essence of the universe is identified with its end1--the formal with the final cause of things1 to use the later ,aristotelian phraseology4 ,how comes this about8 ,perhaps we may best explain this by recurring to the original application of the ,socratic method to human affairs4 ,since all rational activity is for some end1 the different arts or functions of human industry are naturally defined by a statement of their ends or uses2 and similarly1 in giving an account of the different artists and functionaries1 we necessarily state their end1 what they are good for4 ,in a society well ordered on ,socratic principles1 every human being would be put to some use2 the essence of his life would consist in doing what he was good for 7his proper ,greek3 ergon74 ,but again1 it is easy to extend this view throughout the whole region of organized life2 an eye that does not attain its end by seeing is without the essence of an eye4 ,in short1 we may say of all organs and instruments that they are what we think them in proportion as they fulfil their function and attain their end4 ,if1 then1 we conceive the whole universe organically1 as a complex arrangement of means to ends1 we shall understand how ,plato might hold that all things really were1 or 7as we say7 realized their idea1 in proportion as they accomplished the special end or good for which they were adapted4 ,even ,socrates1 in spite of his aversion to physics1 was led by pious reflection to expound a teleological view of the physical world1 as ordered in all its parts by divine wisdom for the realization of some divine end2 and1 in the metaphysical turn which ,plato gave to this view1 he was probably anticipated by ,euclid of ,megara1 who held that the one real being is that which we call by many names1 ,good1 ,wisdom1 ,reason or ,god1 to which ,plato1 raising to a loftier significance the ,socratic identification of the beautiful with the useful1 added the further name of ,absolute ,beauty1 explaining how man's love of the beautiful finally reveals itself as the yearning for the end and essence of being4 ,plato1 therefore1 took this vast stride of thought1 and identified the ultimate notions of ethics and ontology4 ,we have now to see what attitude he will adopt towards the practical inquiries from which he started4 ,what will now be his view of wisdom1 virtue1 pleasure and their relation to human well-being8 ,the answer to this question is inevitably somewhat complicated4 ,in the first place we have to observe that philosophy has now passed definitely from the market-place into the lecture-room4 ,the quest of ,socrates was for the true art of conduct for a man living a practical life among his fellows4 ,but if the objects of abstract thought constitute the real world1 of which this world of individual things is but a shadow1 it is plain that the highest1 most real life must lie in the former region and not in the latter4 ,it is in contemplating the abstract reality which concrete things obscurely exhibit1 the type or ideal which they imperfectly imitate1 that the true life of the mind in man must consist2 and as man is most truly man in proportion as he is mind1 the desire of one's own good1 which ,plato1 following ,socrates1 held to be permanent and essential in every living thing1 becomes in its highest form the philosophic yearning for knowledge4 ,this yearning1 he held1 springs--like more sensual impulses--from a sense of want of something formerly possessed1 of which there remains a latent memory in the soul1 strong in proportion to its philosophic capacity2 hence it is that in learning any abstract truth by scientific demonstration we merely make explicit what we already implicitly know2 we bring into clear consciousness hidden memories of a state in which the soul looked upon ,reality and ,good face to face1 before the lapse that imprisoned her in an alien body and mingled her true nature with fleshly feelings and impulses4 ,we thus reach the paradox that the true art of living is really an art of dying as far as possible to mere sense1 in order more fully to exist in intimate union with absolute goodness and beauty4 ,on the other hand1 since the philosopher must still live and act in the concrete sensible world1 the ,socratic identification of wisdom and virtue is fully maintained by ,plato4 ,only he who apprehends good in the abstract can imitate it in such transient and imperfect good as may be realized in human life1 and it is impossible that1 having this knowledge1 he should not act on it1 whether in private or public affairs4 ,thus1 in the true philosopher1 we shall necessarily find the practically good man1 who being likest of men to the gods is best loved by them2 and also the perfect statesman1 if only the conditions of his society allow him a sphere for exercising his statesmanship4 ,virtue a harmony4 ,the characteristics of this practical goodness in ,plato's matured thought correspond to the fundamental conceptions in his view of the universe4 ,the soul of man1 in its good or normal condition1 must be ordered and harmonized under the guidance of reason4 ,the question then arises1 ,wherein does this order or harmony precisely consist8 ,in explaining how ,plato was led to answer this question1 it will be well to notice that1 while faithfully maintaining the ,socratic doctrine that the highest virtue was inseparable from knowledge of the good1 he had come to recognize an inferior kind of virtue1 possessed by men who were not philosophers4 ,it is plain that if the good that is to be known is the ultimate ground of the whole of things1 it is attainable only by a select and carefully trained few4 ,yet we can hardly restrict all virtue to these alone4 ,what account1 then1 was to be given of ordinary civic bravery1 temperance and justice8 ,it seemed clear that men who did their duty1 resisting the seductions of fear and desire1 must have right opinions1 if not knowledge1 as to the good and evil in human life2 but whence comes this right opinion8 ,partly1 ,plato said1 it comes by nature and divine allotment1 but for its adequate development custom and practice are required4 ,hence the paramount importance of education and discipline for civic virtue2 and even for future philosophers such moral culture1 in which physical and aesthetic training must co-operate1 is indispensable2 no merely intellectual preparation will suffice4 ,his point is that perfect knowledge cannot be implanted in a soul that has not gone through a course of preparation including much more than physical training4 ,what1 then1 is this preparation8 ,a distinct step in psychological analysis was taken when ,plato recognized that its effect was to produce the harmony above mentioned among different parts of the soul1 by subordinating the impulsive elements to reason4 ,these non-rational elements he further distinguished as appetitive 7,greek3 to epithumetikon7 and spirited 7,greek3 to thumoeides or ,greek3 thumos7--the practical separateness of which from each other and from reason he held to be established by our inner experience4 ,on this triple division of the soul he founded a systematic view of the four kinds of goodness recognized by the common moral consciousness of ,greece1 and in later times known as the ,cardinal ,virtues 7q4v474 ,of these the two most fundamental were 7as has been already indicated7 wisdom--in its highest form philosophy--and that harmonious and regulated activity of all the elements of the soul which ,plato regards as the essence of uprightness in social relations 7,greek3 dikaiosyne74 ,the import of this term is essentially social2 and we can explain ,plato's use of it only by reference to the analogy which he drew between the individual man and the community4 ,in a rightly ordered polity social and individual well-being alike would depend on that harmonious action of diverse elements1 each performing its proper function1 which in its social application is more naturally termed ,greek3 dikaiosyne4 ,we see1 moreover1 how in ,plato's view the fundamental virtues1 ,wisdom and ,justice in their highest forms1 are mutually involved4 ,wisdom will necessarily maintain orderly activity1 and this latter consists in regulation by wisdom1 while the two more special virtues of ,courage 7,greek3 andreia7 and ,temperance 7,greek3 sophrosyne7 are only different sides or aspects of this wisely regulated action of the complex soul4 ,such1 then1 are the forms in which essential good seemed to manifest itself in human life4 ,it remains to ask whether the statement of these gives a complete account of human well-being1 or whether pleasure also is to be included4 ,on this point ,plato's view seems to have gone through several oscillations4 ,after apparently maintaining 7,protagoras7 that pleasure is the good1 he passes first to the opposite extreme1 and denies it 7,phaedo1 ,gorgias7 to be a good at all4 ,for 7#a71 as concrete and transient1 it is obviously not the real essential good that the philosopher seeks2 7#b7 the feelings most prominently recognized as pleasures are bound up with pain1 as good can never be with evil2 in so far1 then1 as common sense rightly recognizes some pleasures as good1 it can only be from their tendency to produce some further good4 ,this view1 however1 was too violent a divergence from ,socratism for ,plato to remain in it4 ,that pleasure is not the real absolute good1 was no ground for not including it in the good of concrete human life2 and after all only coarse and vulgar pleasures were indissolubly linked to the pains of want4 ,accordingly1 in the ,republic he has no objection to trying the question of the intrinsic superiority of philosophic or virtuous#b life by the standard of pleasure1 and argues that the philosophic 7or good7 man alone enjoys real pleasure1 while the sensualist spends his life in oscillating between painful want and the merely neutral state of painlessness1 which he mistakes for positive pleasure4 ,still more emphatically is it declared in the ,laws that when we are discoursing to men1 not to gods1 we must show that the life which we praise as best and noblest is also that in which there is the greatest excess of pleasure over pain4 ,but though ,plato holds this inseparable connexion of best and pleasantest to be true and important1 it is only for the sake of the vulgar that he lays this stress on pleasure4 ,for in the most philosophical comparison in the ,philebus between the claims of pleasure and wisdom the former is altogether worsted2 and though a place is allowed to the pure pleasures of colour1 form and sound1 and of intellectual exercise1 and even to the necessary satisfaction of appetite1 it is only a subordinate one4 ,at the same time1 in his later view1 ,plato avoids the exaggeration of denying all positive quality of pleasure even to the coarser sensual gratifications2 they are undoubtedly cases of that replenishment or restoration to its natural state of a bodily organ1 in which he defines pleasure to consist 7see ,timaeus1 pp4 #fd1 #fe72 he merely maintains that the common estimate of them is to a large extent illusory1 or a false appearance of pleasure is produced by contrast with the antecedent or concomitant painful condition of the organ4 ,it is not surprising that this somewhat complicated and delicately balanced view of the relations of good and pleasure was not long maintained within the ,platonic school1 and that under ,speusippus1 ,plato's successor1 the main body of ,platonists took up a simply anti-hedonistic position1 as we learn from the polemic of ,aristotle4 ,in the ,philebus1 however1 though a more careful psychological analysis leads him to soften down the exaggerations of this attack on sensual pleasure1 the antithesis of knowledge and pleasure is again sharpened1 and a desire to depreciate even good pleasures is more strongly shown2 still even here pleasure is recognized as a constituent of that philosophic life which is the highest human good1 while in the ,laws1 where the subject is more popularly treated1 it is admitted that we cannot convince man that the just life is the best unless we can also prove it to be the pleasantest4 ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,when a student passes from ,plato to ,aristotle1 he is so forcibly impressed by the contrast between the habits of mind of the two authors1 and the literary manners of the two philosophers1 that it is easy to understand how their systems have come to be popularly conceived as diametrically opposed to each other2 and the uncompromising polemic which ,aristotle1 both in his ethical and in his metaphysical treatises1 directs against ,plato and the platonists1 has tended strongly to confirm this view4 ,yet a closer inspection shows us that when a later president of the ,academy 7,antiochus of ,ascalon7 repudiated the scepticism which for two hundred years had been accepted as the traditional ,platonic doctrine1 he had good grounds for claiming ,plato and ,aristotle as consentient authorities for the ethical position which he took up4 ,for though ,aristotle's divergence from ,plato is very conspicuous when we consider either his general conception of the subject of ethics1 or the details of his system of virtues1 still his agreement with his master is almost complete as regards the main outline of his theory of human good2 the difference between the two practically vanishes when we view them in relation to the later controversy between ,stoics and ,epicureans4 ,even on the cardinal point on which ,aristotle entered into direct controversy with ,plato1 the definite disagreement between the two is less than at first appears2 the objections of the disciple hit that part of the master's system that was rather imagined than thought2 the main positive result of ,platonic speculation only gains in distinctness by the application of ,aristotelian analysis4 ,plato1 we saw1 held that there is one supreme science or wisdom1 of which the ultimate object is absolute good2 in the knowledge of this1 the knowledge of all particular goods--that is1 of all that we rationally desire to know--is implicitly contained2 and also all practical virtue1 as no one who truly knows what is good can fail to realize it4 ,but in spite of the intense conviction with which he thus identified metaphysical speculation and practical wisdom1 we find in his writings no serious attempt to deduce the particulars of human well-being from his knowledge of absolute good1 still less to unfold from it the particular cognitions of the special arts and sciences4 ,indeed1 we may say that the distinction which ,aristotle explicitly draws between speculative science or wisdom and practical wisdom 7on its political side statesmanship7 is really indicated in ,plato's actual treatment of the subjects1 although the express recognition of it is contrary to his principles4 ,the discussion of good 7e4g47 in his ,philebus relates entirely to human good1 and the respective claims of ,thought and ,pleasure to constitute this2 he only refers in passing to the ,divine ,thought that is the good of the ordered world1 as something clearly beyond the limits of the present discussion4 ,so again1 in his last great ethico-political treatise 7the ,laws7 there is hardly a trace of his peculiar metaphysics4 ,on the other hand1 the relation between human and divine good1 as presented by ,aristotle1 is so close that we can hardly conceive ,plato as having definitely thought it closer4 ,the substantial good of the universe1 in ,aristotle's view1 is the pure activity of universal abstract thought1 at once subject and object1 which1 itself changeless and eternal1 is the final cause and first source of the whole process of change in the concrete world4 ,and both he and ,plato hold that a similar activity of pure speculative intellect is that in which the philosopher will seek to exist1 though he must1 being a man1 concern himself with the affairs of ordinary human life1 a region in which his highest good will be attained by realizing perfect moral excellence4 ,no doubt ,aristotle's demonstration of the inappropriateness of attributing moral excellence to the ,deity seems to contradict ,plato's doctrine that the just man as such is likest the gods1 but here again the discrepancy is reduced when we remember that the essence of ,plato's justice 7,greek3 dikaiosune7 is harmonious activity4 ,no doubt1 too1 ,aristotle's attribution of pleasure to the ,divine ,existence shows a profound metaphysical divergence from ,plato2 but it is a divergence which has no practical importance4 ,nor1 again1 is ,aristotle's divergence from the ,socratic principle that all virtue is knowledge substantially greater than ,plato's1 though it is more plainly expressed4 ,both accept the paradox in the qualified sense that no one can deliberately act contrary to what appears to him good1 and that perfect virtue is inseparably bound up with perfect wisdom or moral insight4 ,both1 however1 recognize that this actuality of moral insight is not a function of the intellect only1 but depends rather on careful training in good habits applied to minds of good natural dispositions1 though the doctrine has no doubt a more definite and prominent place in ,aristotle's system4 ,the disciple certainly takes a step in advance by stating definitely1 as an essential characteristic of virtuous action1 that it is chosen for its own sake1 for the beauty of virtue alone2 but herein he merely formulates the conviction that his master inspires4 ,nor1 finally1 does ,aristotle's account of the relation of pleasure to human well-being 7although he has to combat the extreme anti-hedonism to which the ,platonic school under ,speusippus had been led7 differ materially from the outcome of ,plato's thought on this point1 as the later dialogues present it to us4 ,pleasure1 in ,aristotle's view1 is not the primary constituent of well-being1 but rather an inseparable accident of it2 human well-being is essentially well-doing1 excellent activity of some kind1 whether its aim and end be abstract truth or noble conduct2 knowledge and virtue are objects of rational choice apart from the pleasure attending them2 still all activities are attended and in a manner perfected by pleasure1 which is better and more desirable in proportion to the excellence of the activity4 ,he no doubt criticizes ,plato's account of the nature of pleasure1 arguing that we cannot properly conceive pleasure either as a process or as replenishment--the last term1 he truly says1 denotes a material rather than a psychical fact4 ,but this does not interfere with the general ethical agreement between the two thinkers2 and the doctrine that vicious pleasures are not true or real pleasures is so characteristically ,platonic that we are almost surprised to find it in ,aristotle4 ,aristotle's ethics4 ,in so far as there is any important difference between the ,platonic and the ,aristotelian views of human good1 we may observe that the latter has substantially a closer correspondence to the positive element in the ethical teaching of ,socrates1 though it is presented in a far more technical and scholastic form1 and involves a more distinct rejection of the fundamental ,socratic paradox4 ,the same result appears when we compare the methods of the three philosophers4 ,although the ,socratic induction forms a striking feature of ,plato's dialogues1 his ideal method of ethics is purely deductive2 he admits common sense only as supplying provisional steps and starting-points from which the mind is to ascend to knowledge of absolute good1 through which knowledge alone1 as he conceives1 the lower notions of particular goods are to be truly conceived4 ,aristotle1 discarding the transcendentalism of ,plato1 naturally retained from ,plato's teaching the original ,socratic method of induction from and verification by common opinion4 ,indeed1 the windings of his exposition are best understood if we consider his literary manner as a kind of ,socratic dialogue formalized and reduced to a monologue4 ,he first leads us by an induction to the fundamental notion of ultimate end or good for man4 ,all men1 in acting1 aim at some result1 either for its own sake or as a means to some further end2 but obviously not everything can be sought merely as a means2 there must be some ultimate end4 ,in fact men commonly recognize such an end1 and agree to call it well-being#c 7,greek3 eudaimonia74 ,but they take very different views of its nature2 how shall we find the true view8 ,we observe that men are classified according to their functions2 all kinds of man1 and indeed all organs of man1 have their special functions1 and are judged as functionaries and organs according as they perform their functions well or ill4 ,may we not then infer that man1 as man1 has his proper function1 and that the well-being or doing well that all seek really lies in fulfilling well the proper function of man1--that is1 in living well that life of the rational soul which we recognize as man's distinctive attribute8 ,again1 this ,socratic deference to common opinion is not shown merely in the way by which ,aristotle reaches his fundamental conception2 it equally appears in his treatment of the conception itself4 ,in the first place1 though in ,aristotle's view the most perfect well-being consists in the exercise of man's divinest part1 pure speculative reason1 he keeps far from the paradox of putting forward this and nothing else as human good2 so far1 indeed1 that the greater part of his treatise is occupied with an exposition of the inferior good which is realized in practical life when the appetitive or impulsive 7semi-rational7 element of the soul operates under the due regulation of reason4 ,even when the notion of good performance of function was thus widened1 and when it had further taken in the pleasure that is inseparably connected with such functioning1 it did not yet correspond to the whole of what a ,greek commonly understood as human well-being4 ,we may grant1 indeed1 that a moderate provision of material wealth is indirectly included1 as an indispensable pre-requisite of a due performance of many functions as ,aristotle conceives it--his system admits of no beatitudes for the poor2 still there remain other goods1 such as beauty1 good birth1 welfare of progeny1 the presence or absence of which influenced the common view of a man's well-being1 though they could hardly be shown to be even indirectly important to his well-acting4 ,these ,aristotle attempts neither to exclude from the philosophic conception of well-being nor to include in his formal definition of it4 ,the deliberate looseness which is thus given to his fundamental doctrine characterizes more or less his whole discussion of ethics4 ,he plainly says that the subject does not admit of completely scientific treatment2 his aim is to give not a definite theory of human good1 but a practically adequate account of its most important constituents4 ,the most important element1 then1 of well-being or good life for ordinary men ,aristotle holds to consist in well-doing as determined by the notions of the different moral excellences4 ,in expounding these1 he gives throughout the pure result of analytical observation of the common moral consciousness of his age4 ,ethical truth1 in his view1 is to be attained by careful comparison of particular moral opinions1 just as physical truth is to be obtained by induction from particular physical observations4 ,on account of the conflict of opinion in ethics we cannot hope to obtain certainty upon all questions2 still reflection will lead us to discard some of the conflicting views and find a reconciliation for others1 and will furnish1 on the whole1 a practically sufficient residuum of moral truth4 ,this adhesion to common sense1 though it involves a sacrifice of both depth and completeness in ,aristotle's system1 gives at the same time an historical interest which renders it deserving of special attention as an analysis of the current ,greek ideal of fair and good life 7,greek3 kalokagathia74 ,his virtues are not arranged on any clear philosophic plan2 the list shows no serious attempt to consider human life exhaustively1 and exhibit the standard of excellence appropriate to its different departments or aspects4 ,he seems to have taken as a starting-point ,plato's four cardinal virtues4 ,the two comprehensive notions of ,wisdom and ,justice 7,greek3 dikaiosune7 he treats separately4 ,as regards both his analysis leads him to diverge considerably from ,plato4 ,as we saw1 his distinction between practical and speculative ,wisdom belongs to the deepest of his disagreements with his master2 and in the case of ,greek3 dikaiosune again he distinguishes the wider use of the term to express ,law-observance1 which 7he says7 coincides with the social side of virtue generally1 and its narrower use for the virtue that aims at a kind of equality1 whether 7#a7 in the distribution of wealth1 honour1 c41 or 7#b7 in commercial exchange1 or 7#c7 in the reparation of wrong done4 ,then1 in arranging the other special virtues1 he begins with courage and temperance1 which 7after ,plato7 he considers as the excellences of the irrational element of the soul4 ,next follow two pairs of excellences1 concerned respectively with wealth and honour3 7#a7 liberality and magnificence1 of which the latter is exhibited in greater matters of expenditure1 and 7#b7 laudable ambition and highmindedness similarly related to honour4 ,then comes gentleness--the virtue regulative of anger2 and the list is concluded by the excellences of social intercourse1 friendliness 7as a mean between obsequiousness and surliness71 truthfulness and decorous wit4 ,the abundant store of just and close analytical observation contained in ,aristotle's account of these notions give it a permanent interest1 even beyond its historical value as a delineation of the ,greek ideal of fair and good life4#d ,but its looseness of arrangement and almost grotesque co-ordination of qualities widely differing in importance are obvious4 ,thus his famous general formula for virtue1 that it is a mean or middle state1 always to be found somewhere between the vices which stand to it in the relation of excess and defect1 scarcely avails to render his treatment more systematic4 ,it was important1 no doubt1 to express the need of observing due measure and proportion1 in order to attain good results in human life no less than in artistic products2 but the observation of this need was no new thing in ,greek literature2 indeed1 it had already led the ,pythagoreans and ,plato to find the ultimate essence of the ordered universe in number4 ,but ,aristotle's purely quantitative statement of the relation of virtue and vice is misleading1 even where it is not obviously inappropriate2 and sometimes leads him to such eccentricities as that of making simple veracity a mean between boastfulness and mock-modesty4#e ,it ought to be said that ,aristotle does not present the formula just discussed as supplying a criterion of good conduct in any particular case2 he expressly leaves this to be determined by correct reasoning1 and the judgment of the practically-wise man 7,greek3 ho phronimos74 ,we cannot1 however1 find that he has furnished any substantial principles for its determination2 indeed1 he hardly seems to have formed a distinct general idea of the practical syllogism by which he conceives it to be effected4#f ,the kind of reasoning which his view of virtuous conduct requires is one in which the ultimate major premise states a distinctive characteristic of some virtue1 and one or more minor premises show that such characteristic belongs to a certain mode of conduct under given circumstances2 since it is essential to good conduct that it should contain its end in itself1 and be chosen for its own sake4 ,but he has not failed to observe that practical reasonings are not commonly of this kind1 but are rather concerned with actions as means to ulterior ends2 indeed1 he lays stress on this as a characteristic of the political life1 when he wishes to prove its inferiority to the life of pure speculation4 ,though common sense will admit that virtues are the best of goods1 it still undoubtedly conceives practical wisdom as chiefly exercised in providing those inferior goods which ,aristotle1 after recognizing the need or use of them for the realization of human well-being1 has dropped out of sight2 and the result is that1 in trying to make clear his conception of practical wisdom1 we find ourselves fluctuating continually between the common notion1 which he does not distinctly reject1 and the notion required as the keystone of his ethical system4 ,transition to ,stoicism4 ,on the whole1 there is probably no treatise so masterly as ,aristotle's ,ethics1 and containing so much close and valid thought1 that yet leaves on the reader's mind so strong an impression of dispersive and incomplete work4 ,it is only by dwelling on these defects that we can understand the small amount of influence that his system exercised during the five centuries after his death1 as compared with the effect which it has had1 directly or indirectly1 in shaping the thought of modern ,europe4 ,partly1 no doubt1 the limited influence of his disciples1 the ,peripatetics 7q4v471 is to be attributed to that exaltation of the purely speculative life which distinguished the ,aristotelian ethics from other later systems1 and which was too alien from the common moral consciousness to find much acceptance in an age in which the ethical aims of philosophy had again become paramount4 ,partly1 again1 the analytical distinctness of ,aristotle's manner brings into special prominence the difficulties that attend the ,socratic effort to reconcile the ideal aspirations of men with the principles on which their practical reasonings are commonly conducted4 ,the conflict between these two elements of ,common ,sense was too profound to be compromised2 and the moral consciousness of mankind demanded a more trenchant partisanship than ,aristotle's4 ,its demands were met by the ,stoic school which separated the moral from the worldly view of life1 with an absoluteness and definiteness that caught the imagination2 which regarded practical goodness as the highest manifestation of its ideal of wisdom2 and which bound the common notions of duty into an apparently coherent system1 by a formula that comprehended the whole of human life1 and exhibited its relation to the ordered process of the universe4 ,the intellectual descent of its ethical doctrines is principally to be traced to ,socrates through the ,cynics1 though an important element in them seems attributable to the school that inherited the ,academy of ,plato4 ,both ,stoic and ,cynic maintained1 in its sharpest form1 the fundamental tenet that the practical knowledge which is virtue1 with the condition of soul that is inseparable from it1 is alone to be accounted good4 ,he who exercises this wisdom or knowledge has complete well-being2 all else is indifferent to him4 ,it is true that the ,cynics were more concerned to emphasize the negative side of the sage's well-being1 while the ,stoics brought into more prominence its positive side4 ,this difference1 however1 did not amount to disagreement4 ,the ,stoics1 in fact1 seem generally to have regarded the eccentricities of ,cynicism as an emphatic manner of expressing the essential antithesis between philosophy and the world2 a manner which1 though not necessary or even normal1 might yet be advantageously adopted by the sage under certain circumstances4#g ,stoicism4 ,wherein1 then1 consists this knowledge or wisdom that makes free and perfect8 ,both ,cynics and ,stoics 7q4v47 agreed that the most important part of it was the knowledge that the sole good of man lay in this knowledge or wisdom itself4 ,it must be understood that by wisdom they meant wisdom realized in act2 indeed1 they did not conceive the existence of wisdom as separable from such realization4 ,we may observe1 too1 that the ,stoics rejected the divergence which we have seen gradually taking place in ,platonic-,aristotelian thought from the position of ,socrates1 that no one aims at what he knows to be bad4 ,the stress that their psychology laid on the essential unity of the rational self that is the source of voluntary action prevented them from accepting ,plato's analysis of the soul into a regulative element and elements needing regulation4 ,they held that what we call passion is a morbid condition of the rational soul1 involving erroneous judgment as to what is to be sought or shunned4 ,from such passionate errors the truly wise man will of course be free4 ,he will be conscious indeed of physical appetite2 but he will not be misled into supposing that its object is really a good2 he cannot1 therefore1 hope for the attainment of this object or fear to miss it1 as these states involve the conception of it as a good4 ,similarly1 though like other men he will be subject to bodily pain1 this will not cause him mental grief or disquiet1 as his worst agonies will not disturb his clear conviction that it is really indifferent to his true reasonable self4 ,that this impassive sage was a being not to be found among living men the later ,stoics at least were fully aware4 ,they faintly suggested that one or two moral heroes of old time might have realized the ideal1 but they admitted that all other philosophers 7even7 were merely in a state of progress towards it4 ,this admission did not in the least diminish the rigour of their demand for absolute loyalty to the exclusive claims of wisdom4 ,the assurance of its own unique value that such wisdom involved they held to be an abiding possession for those who had attained it2#h and without this assurance no act could be truly wise or virtuous4 ,whatever was not of knowledge was of sin2 and the distinction between right and wrong being absolute and not admitting of degrees all sins were equally sinful2 whoever broke the least commandment was guilty of the whole law4 ,similarly1 all wisdom was somehow involved in any one of the manifestations of wisdom1 commonly distinguished as particular virtues2 though whether these virtues were specifically distinct1 or only the same knowledge in different relations1 was a subtle question on which the ,stoics do not seem to have been agreed4 ,aristotle had already been led to attempt a refutation of the ,socratic identification of virtue with knowledge2 but his attempt had only shown the profound difficulty of attacking the paradox1 so long as it was admitted that no one could of deliberate purpose act contrary to what seemed to him best4 ,now1 ,aristotle's divergence from ,socrates had not led him so far as to deny this2 while for the ,stoics who had receded to the original ,socratic position1 the difficulty was still more patent4 ,this theory of virtue led them into two dilemmas4 ,firstly1 if virtue is knowledge1 does it follow that vice is involuntary8 ,if not1 it must be that ignorance is voluntary4 ,this alternative is the less dangerous to morality1 and as such the ,stoics chose it4 ,but they were not yet at the end of their perplexities2 for while they were thus driven to an extreme extension of the range of human volition1 their view of the physical universe involved an equally thorough-going determinism4 ,how could the vicious man be responsible if his vice were strictly pre-determined8 ,the ,stoics answered that the error which was the essence of vice was so far voluntary that it could be avoided if men chose to exercise their reason4 ,no doubt it depended on the innate force and firmness#i of a man's soul whether his reason was effectually exercised2 but moral responsibility was saved if the vicious act proceeded from the man himself and not from any external cause4 ,with all this we have not ascertained the positive practical content of this wisdom4 ,how are we to emerge from the barren circle of affirming 7#a7 that wisdom is the sole good and unwisdom the sole evil1 and 7#b7 that wisdom is the knowledge of good and evil2 and attain some method for determining the particulars of good conduct8 ,the ,cynics made no attempt to solve this difficulty2 they were content to mean by virtue what any plain man meant by it1 except in so far as their sense of independence led them to reject certain received precepts and prejudices4 ,the ,stoics1 on the other hand1 not only worked out a detailed system of duties--or1 as they termed them1 things meet and fit 7,greek3 kathekonta7 for all occasions of life2 they were further especially concerned to comprehend them under a general formula4 ,they found this by bringing out the positive significance of the notion of ,nature1 which the ,cynic had used chiefly in a negative way1 as an antithesis to the consentions 7,greek3 nomos71 from which his knowledge had made him free4 ,even in this negative use of the notion it is necessarily implied that whatever active tendencies in man are found to be natural--that is1 independent of and uncorrupted by social customs and conventions--will properly take effect in outward acts1 but the adoption of conformity to nature as a general positive rule for outward conduct seems to have been due to the influence on ,zeno of ,academic teaching4 ,whence1 however1 can this authority belong to the natural1 unless nature be itself an expression or embodiment of divine law and wisdom8 ,the conception of the world1 as organized and filled by divine thought1 was common1 in some form1 to all the philosophies that looked back to ,socrates as their founder1--some even maintaining that this thought was the sole reality4 ,this pantheistic doctrine harmonized thoroughly with the ,stoic view of human good2 but being unable to conceive substance idealistically1 they 7with considerable aid from the system of ,heraclitus7 supplied a materialistic side to their pantheism1--conceiving divine thought as an attribute of the purest and most primary of material substances1 a subtle fiery aether4 ,this theological view of the physical universe had a double effect on the ethics of the ,stoic4 ,in the first place it gave to his cardinal conviction of the all-sufficiency of wisdom for human well-being a root of cosmical fact1 and an atmosphere of religious and social emotion4 ,the exercise of wisdom was now viewed as the pure life of that particle of divine substance which was in very truth the god within him2 the reason whose supremacy he maintained was the reason of ,zeus1 and of all gods and reasonable men1 no less than his own2 its realization in any one individual was thus the common good of all rational beings as such2 the sage could not stretch out a finger rightly without thereby benefiting all other sages1--nay1 it might even be said that he was as useful to ,zeus as ,zeus to him4#aj ,but again1 the same conception served to harmonize the higher and the lower elements of human life4 ,for even in the physical or non-rational man1 as originally constituted1 we may see clear indications of the divine design1 which it belongs to his rational will to carry into conscious execution2 indeed1 in the first stage of human life1 before reason is fully developed1 uncorrupted natural impulse effects what is afterwards the work of reason4 ,thus the formula of living according to nature1 in its application to man as the rational animal1 may be understood both as directing that reason is to govern1 and as indicating how that government is to be practically exercised4 ,in man1 as in every other animal1 from the moment of birth natural impulse prompts to the maintenance of his physical frame2 then1 when reason has been developed and has recognized itself as its own sole good1 these primary ends of nature and whatever promotes these still constitute the outward objects at which reason is to aim2 there is a certain value 7,greek3 axia7 in them1 in proportion to which they are preferred 7,greek3 proegmena7 and their opposites rejected 7,greek3 apoproegmena72 indeed it is only in the due and consistent exercise of such choice that wisdom can find its practical manifestation4 ,in this way all or most of the things commonly judged to be goods--health1 strength1 wealth1 fame1#aa c41--are brought within the sphere of the sage's choice1 though his real good is solely in the wisdom of the choice1 and not in the thing chosen4 ,the doctrine of conformity to ,nature as the rule of conduct was not peculiar to ,stoicism4 ,it is found in the theories of ,speusippus1 ,xenocrates1 and also to some extent in those of the ,peripatetics4 ,the peculiarity of the ,stoics lay in their refusing to use the terms good and evil in connexion with things indifferent1 and in pointing out that philosophers1 though independent of these things1 must yet deal with them in practical life4 ,so far we have considered the nature of the individual man as apart from his social relations2 but the sphere of virtue1 as commonly conceived1 lies chiefly in these1 and this was fully recognized in the ,stoic account of duties 7,greek3 kathekonta72 indeed1 in their exposition of the natural basis of justice1 the evidence that man was born not for himself but for mankind is the most important part of their work in the region of practical morality4 ,here1 however1 we especially notice the double significance of natural1 as applied to 7#a7 what actually exists everywhere or for the most part1 and 7#b7 what would exist if the original plan of man's life were fully carried out2 and we find that the ,stoics have not clearly harmonized the two elements of the notion4 ,that man was naturally a social animal ,aristotle had already taught2 that all rational beings1 in the unity of the reason that is common to all1 form naturally one community with a common law was 7as we saw7 an immediate inference from the ,stoic conception of the universe as a whole4 ,that the members of this city of ,zeus should observe their contracts1 abstain from mutual harm1 combine to protect each other from injury1 were obvious points of natural law2 while again1 it was clearly necessary to the preservation of human society that its members should form sexual unions1 produce children1 and bestow care on their rearing and training4 ,but beyond this nature did not seem to go in determining the relations of the sexes2 accordingly1 we find that community of wives was a feature of ,zeno's ideal commonwealth1 just as it was of ,plato's2 while1 again1 the strict theory of the school recognized no government or laws as true or binding except those of the sage2 he alone is the true ruler1 the true king4 ,so far1 the ,stoic nature seems in danger of being as revolutionary as ,rousseau's4 ,practically1 however1 this revolutionary aspect of the notion was kept for the most part in the background2 the rational law of an ideal community was not distinguished from the positive ordinances and customs of actual society2 and the natural ties that actually bound each man to family1 kinsmen1 fatherland1 and to unwise humanity generally1 supplied the outline on which the external manifestation of justice was delineated4 ,it was a fundamental maxim that the sage was to take part in public life2 and it does not appear that his political action was to be regulated by any other principles than those commonly accepted in his community4 ,similarly1 in the view taken by the ,stoics of the duties of social decorum1 and in their attitude to the popular religion1 we find a fluctuating compromise between the disposition to repudiate what is conventional1 and the disposition to revere what is established1 each tendency expressing in its own way the principle of conforming to nature4 ,stoics and hedonists4 ,among the primary ends of nature1 in which wisdom recognized a certain preferability1 the ,stoics included freedom from bodily pain2 but they refused1 even in this outer court of wisdom1 to find a place for pleasure4 ,they held that the latter was not an object of uncorrupted natural impulse1 but an aftergrowth 7,greek3 epigennema74 ,they thus endeavoured to resist ,epicureanism even on the ground where the latter seems prima facie strongest2 in its appeal1 namely1 to the natural pleasure-seeking of all living things4 ,nor did they merely mean by pleasure 7,greek3 hedone7 the gratification of bodily appetite2 we find 7e4g47 ,chrysippus urging1 as a decisive argument against ,aristotle1 that pure speculation was a kind of amusement2 that is1 pleasure4 ,even the joy and gladness 7,greek3 chara1 euphrosyne7 that accompany the exercise of virtue seem to have been regarded by them as merely an inseparable accident1 not the essential constituent of well-being4 ,it is only by a later modification of ,stoicism that cheerfulness or peace of mind is taken as the real ultimate end1 to which the exercise of virtue is merely a means4 ,at the same time it is probable that the serene joys of virtue and the grieflessness which the sage was conceived to maintain amid the worst tortures1 formed the main attractions of ,stoicism for ordinary minds4 ,in this sense it may be fairly said that ,stoics and ,epicureans made rival offers to mankind of the same kind of happiness2 and the philosophical peculiarities of either system may be traced to the desire of being undisturbed by the changes and chances of life4 ,the ,stoic claims on this head were the loftiest2 as the well-being of their sage was independent1 not only of external things and bodily conditions1 but of time itself2 it was fully realized in a single exercise of wisdom and could not be increased by duration4 ,this paradox is violent1 but it is quite in harmony with the spirit of ,stoicism2 and we are more startled to find that the ,epicurean sage1 no less than the ,stoic1 is to be happy even on the rack2 that his happiness1 too1 is unimpaired by being restricted in duration1 when his mind has apprehended the natural limits of life2 that1 in short1 ,epicurus makes no less strenuous efforts than ,zeno to eliminate imperfection from the conditions of human existence4 ,this characteristic1 however1 is the key to the chief differences between ,epicureanism and the more naive hedonism of ,aristippus4 ,the latter system gave the simplest and most obvious answer to the inquiry after ultimate good for man2 but besides being liable1 when developed consistently1 to offend the common moral consciousness1 it conspicuously failed to provide the completeness and security which1 as ,aristotle says1 one divines to belong to man's true ,good4 ,philosophy1 in the ,greek view1 should be the art as well as the science of good life2 and hedonistic philosophy would seem a bungling and uncertain art of pleasure1 as pleasure is ordinarily conceived4 ,nay1 it would even be found that the habit of philosophical reflection often operated adversely to the attainment of this end1 by developing the thinker's self-consciousness1 so as to disturb that normal relation to external objects on which the zest of ordinary enjoyment depends4 ,hence we find that later thinkers of the ,cyrenaic school felt themselves compelled to change their fundamental notion2 thus ,theodorus defined the good as gladness 7,greek3 chara7 depending on wisdom1 as distinct from mere pleasure1 while ,hegesias proclaimed that happiness was unattainable1 and that the chief function of wisdom was to render life painless by producing indifference to all things that give pleasure4 ,but by such changes their system lost the support that it had had in the pleasure-seeking tendencies of ordinary men4 ,it was clear that if philosophic hedonism was to be established on a broad and firm basis1 it must in its notion of good combine what the plain man naturally sought with what philosophy could plausibly offer4 ,such a combination was effected1 with some little violence1 by ,epicurus2 whose system with all its defects showed a remarkable power of standing the test of time1 as it attracted the unqualified adhesion of generation after generation of disciples for a period of some six centuries4 ,epicurus4 ,in the fundamental principle of his philosophy ,epicurus is not original4 ,aristippus 7cf4 also ,plato in the ,protagoras and ,eudoxus7 had already maintained that pleasure is the sole ultimate good1 and pain the sole evil2 that no pleasure is to be rejected except for its painful consequences1 and no pain to be chosen except as a means to greater pleasure2 that the stringency of all laws and customs depends solely on the legal and social penalties attached to their violation2 that1 in short1 all virtuous conduct and all speculative activity are empty and useless1 except as contributing to the pleasantness of the agent's life4 ,and ,epicurus assures us that he means by pleasure what plain men mean by it2 and that if the gratifications of appetite and sense are discarded1 the notion is emptied of its significance4 ,so far the system would seem to suit the inclinations of the most thorough-going voluptuary4 ,the originality of ,epicurus lay in his theory that the highest point of pleasure1 whether in body or mind1 is to be attained by the mere removal of pain or disturbance1 after which pleasure admits of variation only and not of augmentation2 that therefore the utmost gratification of which the body is capable may be provided by the simplest means1 and that natural wealth is no more than any man can earn4 ,when further he teaches that the attainment of happiness depends almost entirely upon insight and right calculation1 fortune having very little to do with it2 that the pleasures and pains of the mind are far more important than those of the body1 owing to the accumulation of feeling caused by memory and anticipation2 and that an indispensable condition of mental happiness lies in relieving the mind of all superstitions1 which can be effected only by a thorough knowledge of the physical universe--he introduces an ample area for the exercise of the philosophic intellect4 ,so again1 in the stress that he lays on the misery which the most secret wrong-doing must necessarily cause from the perpetual fear of discovery1 and in his exuberant exaltation of the value of disinterested friendship1 he shows a sincere1 though not completely successful1 effort to avoid the offence that consistent egoistic hedonism is apt to give to ordinary human feeling4 ,as regards friendship1 ,epicurus was a man of peculiarly unexclusive sympathies4#ab ,the genial fellowship of the philosophic community that he collected in his garden remained a striking feature in the traditions of his school2 and certainly the ideal which ,stoics and ,epicureans equally cherished of a brotherhood of sages was most easily realized on the ,epicurean plan of withdrawing from political and dialectical conflict to simple living and serene leisure1 in imitation of the gods apart from the fortuitous concourse of atoms that we call a world4 ,no doubt it was rather the practical than the theoretical side of ,epicureanism which gave it so strong a hold on succeeding generations4 ,later ,greek philosophy4 ,stoicism in ,rome4 ,the two systems that have just been described were those that most prominently attracted the attention of the ancient world1 so far as it was directed to ethics1 from their almost simultaneous origin to the end of the #bnd century ,a4,d41 when ,stoicism almost vanishes from our view4 ,but side by side with them the schools of ,plato and ,aristotle still maintained a continuity of tradition1 and a more or less vigorous life2 and philosophy1 as a recognized element of ,graeco-,roman culture1 was understood to be divided among these four branches4 ,the internal history1 however1 of the four schools was very different4 ,we find no development worthy of notice in ,aristotelian ethics 7see ,,peripatetics74 ,the ,epicureans1 again1 from their unquestioning acceptance of the dogmas#ac of their founder1 almost deserve to be called a sect rather than a school4 ,on the other hand1 the changes in ,stoicism are very noteworthy2 and it is the more easy to trace them1 as the only original writings of this school which we possess are those of the later ,roman ,stoics4 ,these changes may be attributed partly to the natural inner development of the system1 partly to the reaction of the ,roman mind on the essentially ,greek doctrine which it received1--a reaction all the more inevitable from the very affinity between the ,stoic sage and the ancient ,roman ideal of manliness4 ,it was natural that the earlier ,stoics should be chiefly occupied with delineating the inner and outer characteristics of ideal wisdom and virtue1 and that the gap between the ideal sage and the actual philosopher1 though never ignored1 should yet be somewhat overlooked4 ,but when the question ,what is man's good8 had been answered by an exposition of perfect wisdom1 the practical question ,how may a man emerge from the folly of the world1 and get on the way towards wisdom8 naturally attracted attention2 and the preponderance of moral over scientific interest1 which was characteristic of the ,roman mind1 gave this question especial prominence4 ,the sense of the gap between theory and fact gives to the religious element of ,stoicism a new force2 the soul1 conscious of its weakness1 leans on the thought of ,god1 and in the philosopher's attitude towards external events1 pious resignation preponderates over self-poised indifference2 the old self-reliance of the reason1 looking down on man's natural life as a mere field for its exercise1 makes room for a positive aversion to the flesh as an alien element imprisoning the spirit2 the body has come to be a corpse which the soul sustains1#ad and life a sojourn in a strange land2#ae in short1 the ethical idealism of ,zeno has begun to borrow from the metaphysical idealism of ,plato4 ,history of ,plato's school4 ,in no one of these schools was the outward coherence of tradition so much strained by inner changes as it was in ,plato's4 ,the alterations1 however1 in the metaphysical position of the ,academics had little effect on their ethical teaching1 as1 even during the period of ,scepticism1 they appear to have presented as probable the same general view of human good which ,antiochus afterwards dogmatically announced as a revival of the common doctrine of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,and during the period of a century and a half between ,antiochus and ,plutarch1 we may suppose the school to have maintained the old controversy with ,stoicism on much the same ground1 accepting the formula of life according to nature1 but demanding that the good of man should refer to his nature as a whole1 the good of his rational part being the chief element1 and always preferable in case of conflict1 but yet not absolutely his sole good4 ,in ,plutarch1 however1 we see the same tendencies of change that we have noticed in later ,stoicism4 ,the conception of a normal harmony between the higher and lower elements of human life has begun to be disturbed1 and the side of ,plato's teaching that deals with the inevitable imperfections of the world of concrete experience becomes again prominent4 ,for example1 we find ,plutarch amplifying the suggestion in ,plato's latest treatise 7the ,laws7 that this imperfection is due to a bad world-soul that strives against the good1--a suggestion which is alien to the general tenor of ,plato's doctrine1 and had consequently been unnoticed during the intervening centuries4 ,we observe1 again1 the value that ,plutarch attaches1 not merely to the sustainment and consolation of rational religion1 but to the supernatural communications vouchsafed by the divinity to certain human beings in dreams1 through oracles1 or by special warnings1 like those of the genius of ,socrates4 ,for these flashes of intuition1 he holds1 the soul should be prepared by tranquil repose and the subjugation of sensuality through abstinence4 ,the same ascetic effort to attain by aloofness from the body a pure receptivity for supernatural influences1 is exhibited in ,neo-,pythagoreanism4 ,but the general tendency that we are noting did not find its full expression in a reasoned system until we come to the ,egyptian ,plotinus4 ,neoplatonism4 ,the system of ,plotinus 7#bje-bgj ,a4,d47 is a striking development of that element of ,platonism which has had most fascination for the medieval and even for the modern mind1 but which had almost vanished out of sight in the controversies of the post-,aristotelian schools4 ,at the same time the differences are the more noteworthy from the reverent adhesion which the ,neoplatonists always maintain to ,plato4 ,plato identified good with the real essence of things2 with that in them which is definitely conceivable and knowable4 ,it belongs to this view to regard the imperfection of things as devoid of real being1 and so incapable of being definitely thought or known2 accordingly1 we find that ,plato has no technical term for that in the concrete sensible world which hinders it from perfectly expressing the abstract ideal world1 and which in ,aristotle's system is distinguished as absolutely formless matter 7,greek3 hule74 ,and so1 when we pass from the ontology to the ethics of ,platonism1 we find that1 though the highest life is only to be realized by turning away from concrete human affairs and their material environment1 still the sensible world is not yet an object of positive moral aversion2 it is rather something which the philosopher is seriously concerned to make as harmonious1 good and beautiful as possible4 ,but in ,neoplatonism the inferiority of the condition in which the embodied human soul finds itself is more intensely and painfully felt2 hence an express recognition of formless matter 7,greek3 hule7 as the first evil1 from which is derived the second evil1 body 7,greek3 soma71 to whose influence all the evil in the soul's existence is due4 ,accordingly the ethics of ,plotinus represent1 we may say1 the moral idealism of the ,stoics cut loose from nature4 ,the only good of man is the pure existence of the soul1 which in itself1 apart from the contagion of the body1 is perfectly free from error or defect2 if only it can be restored to the untrammelled activity of its original being1 nothing external1 nothing bodily1 can positively impair its perfect welfare4 ,it is only the lowest form of virtue--the civic virtue of ,plato's ,republic--that is employed in regulating those animal impulses whose presence in the soul is due to its mixture with the body2 higher or philosophic wisdom1 temperance1 courage and justice are essentially purifications from this contagion2 until finally the highest mode of goodness is reached1 in which the soul has no community with the body1 and is entirely turned towards reason4 ,it should be observed that ,plotinus himself is still too ,platonic to hold that the absolute mortification of natural bodily appetites is required for purifying the soul2 but this ascetic inference was drawn to the fullest extent by his disciple ,porphyry4 ,there is1 however1 a yet higher point to be reached in the upward ascent of the ,neoplatonist from matter2 and here the divergence of ,plotinus from ,platonic idealism is none the less striking1 because it is a bona fide result of reverent reflection on ,plato's teaching4 ,the cardinal assumption of ,plato's metaphysic is1 that the real is definitely thinkable and knowable in proportion as it is real2 so that the further the mind advances in abstraction from sensible particulars and apprehension of real being1 the more definite and clear its thought becomes4 ,plotinus1 however1 urges that1 as all thought involves difference or duality of some kind1 it cannot be the primary fact in the universe1 what we call ,god4 ,he must be an essential unity prior to this duality1 a ,being wholly without difference or determination2 and1 accordingly1 the highest mode of human existence1 in which the soul apprehends this absolute1 must be one in which all definite thought is transcended1 and all consciousness of self lost in the absorbing ecstasy4 ,porphyry tells us that his master ,plotinus attained the highest state four times during the six years which he spent with him4 ,neoplatonism1 originally ,alexandrine1 is often regarded as ,hellenistic rather than ,hellenic1 a product of the mingling of ,greek with ,oriental civilization4 ,but however ,oriental may have been the cast of mind that welcomed this theosophic asceticism1 the forms of thought by which these views were philosophically reached are essentially ,greek2 and it is by a thoroughly intelligible process of natural development1 in which the intensification of the moral consciousness represented by ,stoicism plays an important part1 that the ,hellenic pursuit of knowledge culminates in a preparation for ecstasy1 and the ,hellenic idealization of man's natural life ends in a settled antipathy to the body and its works4 ,at the same time we ought not to overlook the affinities between the doctrine of ,plotinus and that remarkable combination of ,greek and ,hebrew thought which ,philo ,judaeus had expounded two centuries before2 nor the fact that ,neoplatonism was developed in conscious antagonism to the new religion which had spread from ,judea1 and was already threatening the conquest of the ,graeco-,roman world1 and also to the ,gnostic systems 7see ,,gnosticism72 nor1 finally1 that it furnished the chief theoretical support in the last desperate struggle that was made under ,julian to retain the old polytheistic worship4 ,b4 ,christianity and ,medieval ,ethics4--,in the present article we are not concerned with the origin of the ,christian religion1 nor with its outward history4 ,nor have we to consider the special doctrines that have formed the bond of union of the ,christian communities except in their ethical aspect1 their bearing on the systematization of human aims and activities4 ,this aspect1 however1 must necessarily be prominent in discussing ,christianity1 which cannot be adequately treated merely as a system of theological beliefs divinely revealed1 and special observances divinely sanctioned2 for it claims to regulate the whole man1 in all departments of his existence4 ,it was not till the #dth century ,a4,d4 that the first attempt was made to offer a systematic exposition of ,christian morality2 and nine centuries more had passed away before a genuinely philosophic intellect1 trained by a full study of ,aristotle1 undertook to give complete scientific form to the ethical doctrine of the ,catholic church4 ,before1 however1 we take a brief survey of the progress of systematic ethics from ,ambrose to ,thomas ,aquinas1 it may be well to examine the chief features of the new moral consciousness that had spread through ,graeco-,roman civilization1 and was awaiting philosophic synthesis4 ,it will be convenient to consider first the new form or universal characteristics of ,christian morality1 and afterwards to note the chief points in the matter or particulars of duty and virtue which received development or emphasis from the new religion4 ,christian and ,jewish law of ,god4 ,the first point to be noticed is the new conception of morality as the positive law of a theocratic community possessing a written code imposed by divine revelation1 and sanctioned by divine promises and threatenings4 ,it is true that we find in ancient thought1 from ,socrates downwards1 the notion of a law of ,god1 eternal and immutable1 partly expressed and partly obscured by the shifting codes and customs of actual human societies4 ,but the sanctions of this law were vaguely and1 for the most part1 feebly imagined2 its principles were essentially unwritten1 and thus referred not to the external will of an ,almighty ,being who claimed unquestioning submission1 but rather to the reason that gods and men shared1 by the exercise of which alone they could be adequately known and defined4 ,hence1 even if the notion of law had been more prominent than it was in ancient ethical thought1 it could never have led to a juridical1 as distinct from a philosophical1 treatment of morality4 ,in ,christianity1 on the other hand1 we early find that the method of moralists determining right conduct is to a great extent analogous to that of juris-consults interpreting a code4 ,it is assumed that divine commands have been implicitly given for all occasions of life1 and that they are to be ascertained in particular cases by interpretation of the general rules obtained from texts of scripture1 and by inference from scriptural examples4 ,this juridical method descended naturally from the ,jewish theocracy1 of which ,christendom was a universalization4 ,moral insight1 in the view of the most thoughtful ,jews of the age immediately preceding ,christianity1 was conceived as knowledge of a divine code1 emanating from an authority external to human reason which had only the function of interpreting and applying its rules4 ,this law was derived partly from ,moses1 partly from the utterances of the later prophets1 partly from oral tradition and from the commentaries and supplementary maxims of generations of students4 ,christianity inherited the notion of a written divine code acknowledged as such by the true ,israel--now potentially including the whole of mankind1 or at least the chosen of all nations1--on the sincere acceptance of which the ,christian's share of the divine promises to ,israel depended4 ,and though the ceremonial part of the old ,hebrew code was altogether rejected1 and with it all the supplementary jurisprudence resting on tradition and erudite commentary1 still ,god's law was believed to be contained in the sacred books of the ,jews1 supplemented by the teaching of ,christ and his apostles4 ,by the recognition of this law the church was constituted as an ordered community1 essentially distinct from the ,state2 the distinction between the two was emphasized by the withdrawal of the early ,christians from civic life1 to avoid the performance of idolatrous ceremonies imposed as official expressions of loyalty1 and by the persecutions which they had to endure1 when the spread of an association apparently so hostile to the framework of ancient society had at length alarmed the imperial government4 ,nor was the distinction obliterated by the recognition of ,christianity as the state religion under ,constantine4 ,thus the jural form in which morality was conceived only emphasized the fundamental difference between it and the laws of the state4 ,the ultimate sanctions of the moral code were the infinite rewards and punishments awaiting the immortal soul hereafter2 but the church early felt the necessity of withdrawing the privileges of membership from apostates and allowing them to be gradually regained only by a solemn ceremonial expressive of repentance1 protracted through several years4 ,this formal and regulated penitence was extended from apostasy to other grave--or1 as they were subsequently called1 deadly--sins2 while for minor offences all ,christians were called upon to express contrition by fasting and abstinence from ordinarily permitted pleasures1 as well as verbally in public and private devotions4 ,excommunication and penance thus came to be temporal ecclesiastical sanctions of the moral law4 ,as the graduation of these sanctions naturally became more minute1 a correspondingly detailed classification of offences was rendered necessary1 and thus a system of ecclesiastical jurisprudence was gradually produced1 somewhat analogous to that of ,judaism4 ,at the same time this tendency to make prominent a scheme of external duties has always been counteracted in ,christianity by the remembrance of its original antithesis to ,jewish legalism4 ,we find that this antithesis1 as exaggerated by some of the ,gnostic sects of the #bnd and #crd centuries ,a4,d41 led1 not merely to theoretical antinomianism1 but even 7if the charges of their orthodox opponents are not entirely to be discredited7 to gross immorality of conduct4 ,a similar tendency has shown itself at other periods of church history4 ,and though such antinomianism has always been sternly repudiated by the moral consciousness of ,christendom1 it has never been forgotten that inwardness1 rightness of heart or spirit1 is the pre-eminent characteristic of ,christian goodness4 ,it must not1 of course1 be supposed that the need of something more than mere fulfilment of external duty was ignored even by the later ,judaism4 ,rabbinic erudition could not forget the repression of vicious desires in the tenth commandment1 the stress laid in ,deuteronomy on the necessity of service to ,god1 or the inculcation by later prophets of humility and faith4 ,the real and only ,pharisee1 says the ,talmud1 is he who does the will of his ,father because he loves ,him4 ,but it remains true that the contrast with the righteousness of the scribes and pharisees has always served to mark the requirement of inwardness as a distinctive feature of the ,christian code--an inwardness not merely negative1 tending to the repression of vicious desires as well as vicious acts1 but also involving a positive rectitude of the inner state of the soul4 ,christian and ,pagan inwardness4 ,faith4 ,in this aspect ,christianity invites comparison with ,stoicism1 and indeed with pagan ethical philosophy generally1 if we except the hedonistic schools4 ,rightness of purpose1 preference of virtue for its own sake1 suppression of vicious desires1 were made essential points by the ,aristotelians1 who attached the most importance to outward circumstances in their view of virtue1 no less than by the ,stoics1 to whom all outward things were indifferent4 ,the fundamental differences between pagan and ,christian ethics depend not on any difference in the value set on rightness of heart1 but on different views of the essential form or conditions of this inward rightness4 ,in neither case is it presented purely and simply as moral rectitude4 ,by the pagan philosophers it was always conceived under the form of ,knowledge or ,wisdom1 it being inconceivable to all the schools sprung from ,socrates that a man could truly know his own good and yet deliberately choose anything else4 ,this knowledge1 as ,aristotle held1 might be permanently precluded by vicious habits1 or temporarily obliterated by passion1 but if present in the mind it must produce rightness of purpose4 ,or even if it were held with some of the ,stoics that true wisdom was out of the reach of the best men actually living1 it none the less remained the ideal condition of perfect human life4 ,by ,christian teachers1 on the other hand1 the inner springs of good conduct were generally conceived as ,faith and ,love4 ,of these notions the former has a somewhat complex ethical import2 it seems to blend several elements differently prominent in different minds4 ,its simplest and commonest meaning is that emphasized in the contrast of faith with sight2 where it signifies belief in the invisible divine order represented by the church1 in the actuality of the law1 the threats1 the promises of ,god1 in spite of all the influences in man's natural life that tend to obscure this belief4 ,out of this contrast there ultimately grew an essentially different opposition between faith and knowledge or reason1 according to which the theological basis of ethics was contrasted with the philosophical2 the theologians maintaining sometimes that the divine law is essentially arbitrary1 the expression of will1 not reason2 more frequently that its reasonableness is inscrutable1 and that actual human reason should confine itself to examining the credentials of ,god's messengers1 and not the message itself4 ,but in early ,christianity this latter antithesis was as yet undeveloped2 faith means simply force in clinging to moral and religious conviction1 whatever their rational grounds may be2 this force1 in the ,christian consciousness1 being inseparably bound up with personal loyalty and trust towards ,christ1 the leader in the battle with evil1 the ruler of the kingdom to be realized4 ,so far1 however1 there is no ethical difference between ,christian faith and that of ,judaism1 or its later imitation1 ,mahommedanism2 except that the personal affection of loyal trust is peculiarly stirred by the blending of human and divine natures in ,christ1 and the rule of duty impressively taught by the manifestation of his perfect life4 ,a more distinctively ,christian1 and a more deeply moral1 significance is given to the notion in the antithesis of faith and works4 ,here faith means more than loyal acceptance of the divine law and reverent trust in the lawgiver2 it implies a consciousness1 at once continually present and continually transcended1 of the radical imperfection of all human obedience to the law1 and at the same time of the irremissible condemnation which this imperfection entails4 ,the ,stoic doctrine of the worthlessness of ordinary human virtue1 and the stern paradox that all offenders are equally1 in so far as all are absolutely1 guilty1 find their counterparts in ,christianity2 but the latter 7maintaining this ideal severity in the moral standard1 with an emotional consciousness of what is involved in it quite unlike that of the ,stoic7 overcomes its practical exclusiveness through faith4 ,this faith1 again1 may be conceived in two modes1 essentially distinct though usually combined4 ,in one view it gives the believer strength to attain1 by ,god's supernatural aid or grace1 a goodness of which he is naturally incapable2 in the other view it gives him an assurance that1 though he knows himself a sinner deserving of utter condemnation1 a perfectly just ,god still regards him with favour on account of the perfect services and suffering of ,christ4 ,of these views the former is the more catholic1 more universally present in the ,christian consciousness2 the latter more deeply penetrates the mystery of the ,atonement1 as expounded in the ,pauline epistles4 ,love4 ,purity4 ,but faith1 however understood1 is rather an indispensable pre-requisite than the essential motive principle of ,christian good conduct4 ,this motive is supplied by the other central notion1 love4 ,on love depends the fulfilling of the law1 and the sole moral value of ,christian duty--that is1 on love to ,god1 in the first place1 which in its fullest development must spring from ,christian faith2 and1 secondly1 love to all mankind1 as the objects of divine love and sharers in the humanity ennobled by the incarnation4 ,this derivative philanthropy characterizes the spirit in which all ,christian performance of social duty is to be done2 loving devotion to ,god being the fundamental attitude of mind that is to be maintained throughout the whole of the ,christian's life4 ,but further1 as regards abstinence from unlawful acts and desires prompting to them1 we have to notice another form in which the inwardness of ,christian morality manifests itself1 which1 though less distinctive1 should yet receive attention in any comparison of ,christian ethics with the view of ,graeco-,roman philosophy4 ,the profound horror with which the ,christian's conception of a suffering as well as an avenging divinity tended to make him regard all condemnable acts was tinged with a sentiment which we may perhaps describe as a ceremonial aversion moralized--the aversion1 that is1 to foulness or impurity4 ,in ,judaism1 as in other1 especially ,oriental1 religions1 the natural dislike of material defilement has been elevated into a religious sentiment1 and made to support a complicated system of quasi-sanitary abstinences and ceremonial purifications2 then1 as the ethical element predominated in the ,jewish religion1 a moral symbolism was felt to reside in the ceremonial code1 and thus aversion to impurity came to be a common form of the ethico-religious sentiment4 ,then1 when ,christianity threw off the ,mosaic ritual1 this religious sense of purity was left with no other sphere besides morality2 while1 from its highly idealized character1 it was peculiarly well adapted for that repression of vicious desires which ,christianity claimed as its special function4 ,distinctive particulars of ,christian morality4 ,the distinctive features of ,christian ethics are obedience1 unworldliness1 benevolence1 purity and humility4 ,they are naturally connected with the more general characteristics just stated2 though many of them may also be referred directly to the example and precepts of ,christ1 and in several cases they are clearly due to both causes1 inseparably combined4 #a4 ,we may notice1 in the first place1 that the conception of morality as a code which1 if not in itself arbitrary1 is yet to be accepted by men with unquestioning submission1 tends naturally to bring into prominence the virtue of obedience to authority2 just as the philosophic view of goodness as the realization of reason gives a special value to self-determination and independence 7as we see more clearly in the post-,aristotelian schools where ethics is distinctly separated from politics74 #b4 ,again1 the opposition between the natural world and the spiritual order into which the ,christian has been born anew led not merely to a contempt equal to that of the ,stoic for wealth1 fame1 power1 and other objects of worldly pursuit1 but also1 for some time at least1 to a comparative depreciation of the domestic and civic relations of the natural man4 ,this tendency was exhibited most simply and generally in the earliest period of the church's history4 ,in the view of primitive ,christians1 ordinary human society was a world temporarily surrendered to ,satanic rule1 over which a swift and sudden destruction was impending2 in such a world the little band who were gathered in the ark of the church could have no part or lot1--the only attitude they could maintain was that of passive alienation4 ,on the other hand1 it was difficult practically to realize this alienation1 and a keen sense of this difficulty induced the same hostility to the body as a clog and hindrance1 that we find to some extent in ,plato1 but more fully developed in ,neoplatonism1 ,neopythagoreanism1 and other products of the mingling of ,greek with ,oriental thought4 ,this feeling is exhibited in the value set on fasting in the ,christian church from the earliest times1 and in an extreme form in the self-torments of later monasticism2 while both tendencies1 anti-worldliness and anti-sensualism1 seem to have combined in causing the preference of celibacy over marriage which is common to most early ,christian writers4#af ,patriotism1 again1 and the sense of civic duty1 the most elevated of all social sentiments in the ,graeco-,roman civilization1 tended1 under the influence of ,christianity1 either to expand itself into universal philanthropy1 or to concentrate itself on the ecclesiastical community4 ,we recognize one commonwealth1 the world1 says ,tertullian2 we know1 says ,origen1 that we have a fatherland founded by the word of ,god4 ,we might further derive from the general spirit of ,christian unworldliness that repudiation of the secular modes of conflict1 even in a righteous cause1 which substituted a passive patience and endurance for the old pagan virtue of courage1 in which the active element was prominent4 ,here1 however1 we clearly trace the influence of ,christ's express prohibition of violent resistance to violence1 and his inculcation1 by example and precept1 of a love that was to conquer even natural resentment4 ,an extreme result of this influence is shown in ,tertullian's view1 that no ,christian could properly hold the office of a secular magistrate in which he would have to doom to death1 chains1 imprisonment2 but even more sober writers1 such as ,ambrose1 extend ,christian passivity so far as to preclude self-defence even against a murderous assault4 ,the common sense of ,christendom gradually shook off these extravagances2 but the reluctance to shed blood lingered long1 and was hardly extinguished even by the growing horror of heresy4 ,we have a curious relic of this in the later times of ecclesiastical persecution1 when the heretic was doomed to the stake that he might be punished in some manner short of bloodshed4#ag ,benevolence4 #c4 ,it is1 however1 in the impulse given to practical beneficence in all its forms1 by the exaltation of love as the root of all virtues1 that the most important influence of ,christianity on the particulars of civilized morality is to be found2 although the exact amount of this influence is here somewhat difficult to ascertain1 since it merely carries further a development traceable in the history of pagan morality4 ,this development appears when we compare the different post-,socratic systems of ethics4 ,in ,plato's exposition of the different virtues there is no mention whatever of benevolence1 although his writings show a keen sense of the importance of friendship as an element of philosophic life1 especially of the intense personal affection naturally arising between master and disciple4 ,aristotle goes somewhat further in recognizing the moral value of friendship ,greek3 7philia72 and though he considers that in its highest form it can be realized only by the fellowship of the wise and good1 he yet extends the notion so as to include the domestic affections1 and takes notice of the importance of mutual kindness in binding together all human societies4 ,still in his formal statement of the different virtues1 positive beneficence is discernible only under the notion of liberality1 in which form its excellence is hardly distinguished from that of graceful profusion in self-regarding expenditure 7,nic4 ,eth4 iv4 #a74 ,cicero1 on the other hand1 in his paraphrase of a ,stoic treatise on external duties 7,de officiis71 ranks the rendering of positive services to other men as a chief department of social duty2 and the ,stoics generally recognized the universal fellowship and natural mutual claims of human beings as such4 ,indeed1 this recognition in later ,stoicism is sometimes expressed with so much warmth of feeling as to be hardly distinguishable from ,christian philanthropy4 ,nor was this regard for humanity merely a doctrine of the school4 ,partly through the influence of ,stoic and other ,greek philosophy1 partly from the natural expansion of human sympathies1 the legislation of the ,empire1 during the first three centuries1 shows a steady development in the direction of natural justice and humanity2 and some similar progress may be traced in the general tone of moral opinion4 ,still the utmost point that this development reached fell considerably short of the standard of ,christian charity4 ,without dwelling on the immense impetus given to the practice of social duty generally by the religion that made beneficence a form of divine service1 and identified piety with pity1 we have to put down as definite changes introduced by ,christianity--7#a7 the severe condemnation and final suppression of the practice of exposing infants2 7#b7 effective abhorrence of the barbarism of gladiatorial combats2 7#c7 immediate moral mitigation of slavery1 and a strong encouragement of emancipation2 7#d7 great extension of the eleemosynary provision made for the sick and the poor4 ,as regards almsgiving1 however--the importance of which has caused it to usurp1 in modern languages1 the general name of charity--it ought to be observed that ,christianity merely universalized a duty which has always been inculcated by ,judaism1 within the limits of the chosen people4 #d4 ,the same may be said of the stricter regulation which ,christianity enforced on the relations of the sexes2 except so far as the prohibition of divorce is concerned1 and the stress laid on purity of heart as contrasted with merely outward chastity4 #e4 ,even the peculiarly ,christian virtue of humility1 which presents so striking a contrast to the ,greek highmindedness1 was to some extent anticipated in the ,rabbinic teaching4 ,its far greater prominence under the new dispensation may be partly referred to the express teaching and example of ,christ2 partly1 in so far as the virtue is manifested in the renunciation of external rank and dignity1 or the glory of merely secular gifts and acquirements1 it is one aspect of the unworldliness which we have already noticed2 while the deeper humility that represses the claim of personal merit even in the saint belongs to the strict self-examination1 the continual sense of imperfection1 the utter reliance on strength not his own1 which characterize the inner moral life of the ,christian4 ,humility in this latter sense1 before ,god1 is an essential condition of all truly ,christian goodness4 ,we have1 however1 yet to notice the enlargement of the sphere of ethics due to its close connexion with theology2 for while this added religious force and sanction to ordinary moral obligations1 it equally tended to impart a moral aspect to religious belief and worship4 ,duty to ,god--as distinct from duty to man--had not been altogether unrecognized by pagan moralists2 but the rather dubious relations of even the more orthodox philosophy to the established polytheism had generally prevented them from laying much stress upon it4 ,again1--just as the ,stoics held wisdom to be indispensable to real rectitude of conduct1 while at the same time they included under the notion of wisdom a grasp of physical as well as ethical truth1--so the similar emphasis laid on inwardness in ,christian ethics caused orthodoxy or correctness of religious belief to be regarded as essential to goodness1 and heresy as the most fatal of vices1 corrupting as it did the very springs of ,christian life4 ,to the philosophers 7with the single exception of ,plato71 however1 convinced as they were that the multitude must necessarily miss true well-being through their folly and ignorance1 it could never occur to guard against these evils by any other method than that of providing philosophic instruction for the few2 whereas the ,christian clergy1 whose function it was to offer truth and eternal life to all mankind1 naturally regarded theological misbelief as insidious preventible contagion4 ,indeed1 their sense of its deadliness was so keen that1 when they were at length able to control the secular administration1 they rapidly overcame their aversion to bloodshed1 and initiated that long series of religious persecutions to which we find no parallel in the pre-,christian civilization of ,europe4 ,it was not that ,christian writers did not feel the difficulty of attributing criminality to sincere ignorance or error4 ,but the difficulty is not really peculiar to theology2 and the theologians usually got over it 7as some philosophers had surmounted a similar perplexity in the region of ethics proper7 by supposing some latent or antecedent voluntary sin1 of which the apparently involuntary heresy was the fearful fruit4 ,lastly1 we must observe that1 in proportion as the legal conception of morality as a code of which the violation deserves supernatural punishment predominated over the philosophic view of ethics as the method for attaining natural felicity1 the question of man's freedom of will to obey the law necessarily became prominent4 ,at the same time it cannot be broadly said that ,christianity took a decisive side in the metaphysical controversy on free-will and necessity2 since1 just as in ,greek philosophy the need of maintaining freedom as the ground of responsibility clashes with the conviction that no one deliberately chooses his own harm1 so in ,christian ethics it clashes with the attribution of all true human virtue to supernatural grace1 as well as with the belief in divine foreknowledge4 ,all we can say is that in the development of ,christian thought the conflict of conceptions was far more profoundly felt1 and far more serious efforts were made to evade or transcend it4 ,development of opinion in early ,christianity4 ,augustine4 ,in the preceding account of ,christian morality1 it has been already indicated that the characteristics delineated did not all exhibit themselves simultaneously to the same extent1 or with perfect uniformity throughout the church4 ,changes in the external condition of ,christianity1 the different degrees of civilization in the societies of which it was the dominant religion1 and the natural process of internal development1 continually brought different features into prominence2 while again1 the important antagonisms of opinion within ,christendom frequently involved ethical issues--even in the ,eastern ,church--until in the #dth century it began to be absorbed in the labour of a dogmatic construction4 ,thus1 for example1 the anti-secular tendencies of the new creed1 to which ,tertullian 7#afj-bbj7 gave violent and rigid expression1 were exaggerated in the ,montanist heresy which he ultimately joined2 on the other hand1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 in opposition to the general tone of his age1 maintained the value of pagan philosophy for the development of ,christian faith into true knowledge 7,gnosis71 and the value of the natural development of man through marriage for the normal perfecting of the ,christian life4 ,so again1 there is a marked difference between the writers before ,augustine and those that succeeded him in all that concerns the internal conditions of ,christian morality4 ,by ,justin and other apologists the need of redemption1 faith1 grace is indeed recognized1 but the theological system depending on these notions is not sufficiently developed#ah to come into even apparent antagonism with the freedom of the will4 ,christianity is for the most part conceived as essentially a proclamation through the ,divine ,word1 to immortal beings gifted with free choice1 of the true code of conduct sanctioned by eternal rewards and punishments4 ,this legalism contrasts strikingly with the efforts of pagan philosophy to exhibit virtue as its own reward2 and the contrast is triumphantly pointed out by more than one early ,christian writer4 ,lactantius 7circa #cjj ,a4,d471 for example1 roundly declares that ,plato and ,aristotle1 referring everything to this earthly life1 made virtue mere folly2 though himself maintaining1 with pardonable inconsistency1 that man's highest good did not consist in mere pleasure1 but in the consciousness of the filial relation of the soul to ,god4 ,it is plain1 however1 that on this external legalistic view of duty it was impossible to maintain a difference in kind between ,christian and pagan morality2 the philosopher's conformity to the rules of chastity and beneficence1 so far as it went1 was indistinguishable from the saint's4 ,but when this inference was developed in the teaching of ,pelagius1 it was repudiated as heretical by the church1 under the powerful leadership of ,augustine 7#ced-dcj72 and the doctrine of man's incapacity to obey ,god's law by his unaided moral energy was pressed to a point at which it was difficult to reconcile it with the freedom of the will4 ,augustine is fully aware of the theoretical indispensability of maintaining ,free ,will1 from its logical connexion with human responsibility and divine justice2 but he considers that these latter points are sufficiently secured if actual freedom of choice between good and evil is allowed in the single case of our progenitor ,adam4#ai ,for since the natura seminalis from which all men were to arise already existed in ,adam1 in his voluntary preference of self to ,god1 humanity chose evil once for all2 for which ante-natal guilt all men are justly condemned to perpetual absolute sinfulness and consequent punishment1 unless they are elected by ,god's unmerited grace to share the benefits of ,christ's redemption4 ,without this grace it is impossible for man to obey the first greatest commandment of love to ,god2 and1 this unfulfilled1 he is guilty of the whole law1 and is only free to choose between degrees of sin2 his apparent external virtues have no moral value1 since inner rightness of intention is wanting4 ,all that is not of faith is of sin2 and faith and love are mutually involved and inseparable2 faith springs from the divinely imparted germ of love1 which in its turn is developed by faith to its full strength1 while from both united springs hope1 joyful yearning towards ultimate perfect fruition of the object of love4 ,these three ,augustine 7after ,st ,paul7 regards as the three essential elements of ,christian virtue2 along with these he recognizes the fourfold division of virtue into prudence1 temperance1 courage and justice according to their traditional interpretation2 but he explains these virtues to be in their true natures only the same love to ,god in different aspects or exercises4 ,the uncompromising mysticism of this view may be at once compared and contrasted with the philosophical severity of ,stoicism4 ,love of ,god in the former holds the same absolute and unique position as the sole element of moral worth in human action1 which1 as we have seen1 was occupied by knowledge of ,good in the latter2 and we may carry the parallel further by observing that in neither case is this severity in the abstract estimate of goodness necessarily connected with extreme rigidity in practical precepts4 ,indeed1 an important part of ,augustine's work as a moralist lies in the reconciliation which he laboured to effect between the anti-worldly spirit of ,christianity and the necessities of secular civilization4 ,for example1 we find him arguing for the legitimacy of judicial punishments and military service against an over-literal interpretation of the ,sermon on the ,mount2 and he took an important part in giving currency to the distinction between evangelical counsels and commands1 and so defending the life of marriage and temperate enjoyment of natural good against the attacks of the more extravagant advocate of celibacy and self-abnegation2 although he fully admitted the superiority of the latter method of avoiding the contamination of sin4 ,ambrose4 ,the attempt to ,christianize the old ,platonic list of virtues1 which we have noticed in ,augustine's system1 was probably due to the influence of his master ,ambrose1 in whose treatise ,de officiis ministrorum we find for the first time an exposition of ,christian duty systematized on a plan borrowed from a pre-,christian moralist4 ,it is interesting to compare ,ambrose's account of what subsequently came to be known as the four cardinal virtues with the corresponding delineations in ,cicero's#bj ,de officiis which served the bishop as a model4 ,christian ,wisdom1 so far as it is speculative1 is of course primarily theological2 it has ,god1 as the highest truth1 for its chief object1 and is therefore necessarily grounded on faith4 ,christian ,fortitude is essentially firmness in withstanding the seductions of good and evil fortune1 resoluteness in the conflict perpetually waged against wickedness without carnal weapons--though ,ambrose1 with the ,old ,testament in his hand1 will not quite relinquish the ordinary martial application of the term4 ,temperantia retains the meaning of observance of due measure in all conduct1 which it had in ,cicero's treatise2 though its notion is partly modified by being blended with the newer virtue of humility4 ,finally in the exposition of ,christian ,justice the ,stoic doctrine of the natural union of all human interests is elevated to the full height and intensity of evangelical philanthropy2 the brethren are reminded that the earth was made by ,god a common possession of all1 and are bidden to administer their means for the common benefit2 ,ambrose1 we should observe1 is thoroughly aware of the fundamental union of these different virtues in ,christianity1 though he does not1 like ,augustine1 resolve them all into the one central affection of love of ,god4 ,ecclesiastical morality in the ,dark ,ages4 ,under the influence of ,ambrose and ,augustine1 the four cardinal virtues furnished a basis on which the systematic ethical theories of subsequent theologians were built4 ,with them the triad of ,christian graces1 ,faith1 ,hope and ,love1 and the seven gifts of the ,spirit 7,isaiah xi4 #b7 were often combined4 ,in antithesis to this list1 an enumeration of the deadly sins obtained currency4 ,these were at first commonly reckoned as eight2 but a preference for mystical numbers characteristic of medieval theologians finally reduced them to seven4 ,the statement of them is variously given1--,pride1 ,avarice1 ,anger1 ,gluttony1 ,unchastity1 are found in all the lists2 the remaining two 7or three7 are variously selected from among ,envy1 ,vainglory1 and the rather singular sins ,gloominess 7tristitia7 and ,languid ,indifference 7acidia or acedia1 from ,gr4 ,greek3 akedia74 ,these latter notions show plainly1 what indeed might be inferred from a study of the list as a whole1 that it represents the moral experience of the monastic life1 which for some centuries was more and more unquestioningly regarded as in a peculiar sense religious4 ,it should be observed that the 7also ,augustinian7 distinction between deadly and venial sins had a technical reference to the quasi-jural administration of ecclesiastical discipline1 which grew gradually more organized as the spiritual power of the church established itself amid the ruins of the ,western empire1 and slowly developed into the theocracy that almost dominated ,europe during the latter part of the middle ages4 ,deadly sins were those for which formal ecclesiastical penance was held to be necessary1 in order to save the sinner from eternal damnation2 for venial sins he might obtain forgiveness1 through prayer1 almsgiving1 and the observance of the regular fasts4 ,we find that penitential books for the use of the confessional1 founded partly on traditional practice and partly on the express decrees of synods1 come into general use in the #gth century4 ,at first they are little more than mere inventories of sins1 with their appropriate ecclesiastical punishments2 gradually cases of conscience come to be discussed and decided1 and the basis is laid for that system of casuistry which reached its full development in the #adth and #aeth centuries4 ,this ecclesiastical jurisprudence1 and indeed the general relation of the church to the ruder races with which it had to deal during this period1 necessarily tended to encourage a somewhat external view of morality4 ,but a powerful counterpoise to this tendency was continually maintained by the fervid inwardness of ,augustine1 transmitted through ,gregory the ,great1 ,isidore of ,seville1 ,alcuin1 ,hrabanus ,maurus1 and other writers of the philosophically barren period between the destruction of the ,western empire and the rise of ,scholasticism4 ,medieval moral philosophy4 ,scholastic ethics1 like scholastic philosophy1 attained its completest result in the teaching of ,thomas ,aquinas4 ,but before giving a brief account of the ethical part of his system1 it will be well to notice the salient points in the long and active discussion that led up to it4 ,in the pantheistic system of ,erigena 7q4v47 7circa #haj-hgg7 the chief philosophic element is supplied by the influence of ,plato and ,plotinus1 transmitted through an unknown author of the #eth century1 who assumed the name of ,dionysius the ,areopagite4 ,accordingly the ethical side of this doctrine has the same negative and ascetic character that we have observed in ,neoplatonism4 ,god is the only real ,being2 evil is essentially unreal and incognizable2 the true aim of man's life is to return to perfect union with ,god out of the degraded material existence into which he has fallen4 ,this doctrine found little acceptance among ,erigena's contemporaries1 and was certainly unorthodox enough to justify the condemnation which it subsequently received from ,honorius ,,iii42 but its influence1 together with that of the ,pseudo-,dionysius1 had a considerable share in developing the more emotional orthodox mysticism of the #abth and #acth centuries2 and ,neoplatonism 7or ,platonism received through a ,neoplatonic tradition7 remained a distinct element in medieval thought1 though obscured in the period of mature scholasticism by the predominant influence of ,aristotle4 ,passing on to ,anselm 7#ajcc-aaji71 we observe that the ,augustinian doctrine of original sin and man's absolute need of unmerited grace is retained in his theory of salvation2 he also follows ,augustine in defining freedom as the power not to sin2 though in saying that ,adam fell spontaneously and by his free choice1 though not through its freedom1 he has implicitly made the distinction that ,peter the ,lombard afterwards expressly draws between the freedom that is opposed to necessity and freedom from the slavery to sin4 ,anselm further softens the statement of ,augustinian predestinationism by explaining that the freedom to will is not strictly lost even by fallen man2 it is inherent in a rational nature1 though since ,adam's sin it only exists potentially in humanity1 except where it is made actual by grace4 ,in a more real sense ,abelard 7#ajgi-aadb7 tries to establish the connexion between man's ill desert and his free consent4 ,he asserts that the inherited propensity to evil is not strictly a sin1 which is only committed when the conscious self yields to vicious inclination4 ,with a similar stress on the self-conscious side of moral action1 he argues that rightness of conduct depends solely on the intention1 at one time pushing this doctrine to the paradoxical assertion that all outward acts as such are indifferent4#ba ,in the same spirit1 under the reviving influence of ancient philosophy 7with which1 however1 he was imperfectly acquainted and the relation of which to ,christianity he extravagantly misunderstood71 he argues that the old ,greek moralists1 as inculcating a disinterested love of good--and so implicitly love of ,god as the highest good--were really nearer to ,christianity than ,judaic legalism was4 ,nay1 further1 he required that the ,christian love to ,god should be regarded as pure only if purged from the self-regarding desire of the happiness which ,god gives4 ,the general tendency of ,abelard's thought was suspiciously regarded by contemporary orthodoxy2#bb and the over-subtlety of the last-mentioned distinction provoked vehement replies from orthodox mystics of the age4 ,thus1 ,hugo of ,st ,victor 7#ajgg-aada7 argues that all love is necessarily so far interested that it involves a desire for union with the beloved2 and since eternal happiness consists in this union1 it cannot truly be desired apart from ,god2 while ,bernard of ,clairvaux 7#ajia-aaec7 more elaborately distinguishes four stages by which the soul is gradually led from 7#a7 merely self-regarding desire for ,god's aid in distress1 to 7#b7 love him for his loving-kindness to it1 then also 7#c7 for his absolute goodness1 until 7#d7 in rare moments this love for himself alone becomes the sole all-absorbing affection4 ,this controversy ,peter the ,lombard endeavoured to compose by the scholastic art of taking distinctions1 of which he was a master4 ,in his treatise1 ,libri sententiarum1 mainly based on ,augustinian doctrine1 we find a distinct softening of the antithesis between nature and grace and an anticipation of the union of ,aristotelian and ,christian thought1 which was initiated by ,albert the ,great and completed by ,thomas ,aquinas4 ,thomas ,aquinas4 ,the moral philosophy of ,aquinas is ,aristotelianism with a ,neoplatonic tinge1 interpreted and supplemented by a view of ,christian dogma derived chiefly from ,augustine4 ,all action or movement of all things irrational as well as rational is directed towards some end or good1--that is1 really and ultimately towards ,god himself1 the ground and first cause of all being1 and unmoved principle of all movement4 ,this universal though unconscious striving after ,god1 since he is essentially intelligible1 exhibits itself in its highest form in rational beings as a desire for knowledge of him2 such knowledge1 however1 is beyond all ordinary exercise of reason1 and may be only partially revealed to man here below4 ,thus the summum bonum for man is objectively ,god1 subjectively the happiness to be derived from loving vision of his perfections2 although there is a lower kind of happiness to be realized here below in a normal human existence of virtue and friendship1 with mind and body sound and whole and properly trained for the needs of life4 ,the higher happiness is given to man by free grace of ,god2 but it is given to those only whose heart is right1 and as a reward of virtuous actions4 ,passing to consider what actions are virtuous1 we first observe generally that the morality of an act is in part1 but only in part1 determined by its particular motive2 it partly depends on its external object and circumstances1 which render it either objectively in harmony with the order of reason or the reverse4 ,in the classification of particular virtues and vices we can distinguish very clearly the elements supplied by the different teachings which ,aquinas has imbibed4 ,he follows ,aristotle closely in dividing the natural virtues into intellectual and moral1 giving his preference to the former class1 and the intellectual again into speculative and practical2 in distinguishing within the speculative class the intellect that is conversant with principles1 the science that deduces conclusions1 and the wisdom to which belongs the whole process of knowing the sublimest objects of knowledge2 and in treating practical wisdom as inseparably connected with moral virtues1 and therefore in a sense moral4 ,his distinction among moral virtues of the justice that renders others their due from the virtues that control the appetites and passions of the agent himself1 represents his interpretation of the ,nicomachean ,ethics2 while his account of these latter virtues is a simple transcript of ,aristotle's1 just as his division of the non-rational element of the soul into concupiscible and irascible is the old ,platonic one4 ,in arranging his list1 however1 he defers to the established doctrine of the four cardinal virtues 7derived from ,plato and the ,stoics through ,cicero72 accordingly1 the ,aristotelian ten have to stand under the higher genera of 7#a7 the prudence which gives reasoned rules of conduct1 7#b7 the temperance which restrains misleading desire1 and 7#c7 the fortitude that resists misleading fear of dangers or toils4 ,but before these virtues are ranked the three theologic virtues1 faith1 love and hope1 supernaturally instilled by ,god1 and directly relating to him as their object4 ,by faith we obtain that part of our knowledge of ,god which is beyond the range of mere natural wisdom or philosophy2 naturally 7e4g471 we can know ,god's existence1 but not his trinity in unity1 though philosophy is useful to defend this and other revealed verities2 and it is essential for the soul's welfare that all articles of the ,christian creed1 however little they can be known by natural reason1 should be apprehended through faith2 the ,christian who rejects a single article loses hold altogether of faith and of ,god4 ,faith is the substantial basis of all ,christian morality1 but without love--the essential form of all the ,christian virtues--it is formless 7informis74 ,christian love is conceived 7after ,augustine7 as primarily love to ,god 7beyond the natural yearning of the creature after its ultimate good71 which expands into love towards all ,god's creatures as created by him1 and so ultimately includes even self-love4 ,but creatures are only to be loved in their purity as created by ,god2 all that is bad in them must be an object of hatred till it is destroyed4 ,in the classification of sins the ,christian element predominates2 still we find the ,aristotelian vices of excess and defect1 along with the modern divisions into sins against ,god1 neighbour and self1 mortal and venial sins1 and so forth4 ,from the notion of sin--treated in its jural aspect--,aquinas passes naturally to the discussion of ,law4 ,the exposition of this conception presents to a great extent the same matter that was dealt with by the exposition of moral virtues1 but in a different form2 the prominence of which may perhaps be attributed to the growing influence of ,roman jurisprudence1 which attained in the #abth century so rapid and brilliant a revival in ,italy4 ,this side of ,thomas's system is specially important1 since it is just this blending of theological conceptions with the abstract theory of the later ,roman law that gave the starting-point for independent ethical thought in the modern world4 ,under the general idea of law1 defined as an ordinance of reason for the common good1 promulgated by him who has charge of the community1 ,thomas distinguishes 7#a7 the eternal law or regulative reason of ,god which embraces all his creatures1 rational and irrational2 7#b7 natural law1 being that part of the eternal law that relates to rational creatures as such2 7#c7 human law1 which properly consists of more particular deductions from natural law particularized and adapted to the varying circumstances of actual communities2 7#d7 divine law specially revealed to man4 ,as regards natural law1 he teaches that ,god has implanted in the human mind a knowledge of its immutable general principles2 and not only knowledge1 but a disposition1 to which he applies the peculiar scholastic name synderesis1#bc that unerringly prompts to the realization of these principles in conduct1 and protests against their violation4 ,all acts of natural virtue are implicitly included within the scope of this law of nature2 but in the application of its principles to particular cases--to which the term conscience should be restricted--man's judgment is liable to err1 the light of nature being obscured and perverted by bad education and custom4 ,human law is required1 not merely to determine the details for which natural law gives no intuitive guidance1 but also to supply the force necessary for practically securing1 among imperfect men1 the observance of the most necessary rules of mutual behaviour4 ,the rules of this law must be either deductions from principles of natural law1 or determinations of particulars which it leaves indeterminate2 a rule contrary to nature could not be valid as law at all4 ,human law1 however1 can deal with outward conduct alone1 and natural law1 as we have seen1 is liable to be vague and obscure in particular applications4 ,neither natural nor human law1 moreover1 takes into account that supernatural happiness which is man's highest end4 ,hence they need to be supplemented by a special revelation of divine law4 ,this revelation is distinguished into the law of the old covenant and the law of the gospel2 the latter of these is productive as well as imperative since it carries with it the divine grace that makes its fulfilment possible4 ,we have1 however1 to distinguish in the case of the gospel between 7#a7 absolute commands and 7#b7 counsels1 which latter recommend1 without positively ordering the monastic life of poverty1 celibacy and obedience as the best method of effectively turning the will from earthly to heavenly things4 ,duns ,scotus4 ,william of ,occam4 ,but how far is man able to attain either natural or ,christian perfection8 ,this is the part of ,thomas's system in which the cohesion of the different elements seems weakest4 ,he is scarcely aware that his ,aristotelianized ,christianity inevitably combines two different difficulties in dealing with this question3 first1 the old pagan difficulty of reconciling the proposition that will is a rational desire always directed towards apparent good1 with the freedom of choice between good and evil that the jural view of morality seems to require2 and1 secondly1 the ,christian difficulty of harmonizing this latter notion with the absolute dependence on divine grace which the religious consciousness affirms4 ,the latter difficulty ,thomas1 like many of his predecessors1 avoids by supposing a co-operation of free-will and grace1 but the former he does not fully meet4 ,it is against this part of his doctrines that the most important criticism1 in ethics1 of his rival ,duns ,scotus 7c4 #abff-acjh7 was directed4 ,he urged that will could not be really free if it were bound to reason1 as ,thomas 7after ,aristotle7 conceives it2 a really free choice must be perfectly indeterminate between reason and unreason4 ,scotus consistently maintained that the divine will is similarly independent of reason1 and that the divine ordering of the world is to be conceived as absolutely arbitrary4 ,on this point he was followed by the acute intellect of ,william of ,occam 7d4 c4 #acdg74 ,this doctrine is obviously hostile to all reasoned morality2 and in fact1 notwithstanding the dialectical ability of ,scotus and ,occam1 the work of ,thomas remained indubitably the crowning result of the great constructive effort of medieval philosophy4 ,the effort was1 indeed1 foredoomed to failure1 since it attempted the impossible task of framing a coherent system out of the heterogeneous data furnished by ,scripture1 the fathers1 the church and ,aristotle--equally unquestioned1 if not equally venerated1 authorities4 ,whatever philosophic quality is to be found in the work of ,thomas belongs to it in spite of1 not in consequence of1 its method4 ,still1 its influence has been great and long-enduring1--in the ,catholic ,church primarily1 but indirectly among ,protestants1 especially in ,england1 since the famous first book of ,hooker's ,ecclesiastical ,polity is to a great extent taken from the ,summa theologiae4 ,medieval mysticism4 ,partly in conscious antagonism to the schoolmen1 yet with close affinity to the central ethico-theological doctrine which they read out of or into ,aristotle1 the mystical manner of thought continued to maintain itself in the church4 ,philosophically it rested upon ,neoplatonism1 but its development in strict connexion with ,christian orthodoxy begins in the #abth century with ,bernard of ,clairvaux and ,hugo of ,st ,victor4 ,it blended the ,christian element of love with the ecstatic vision of ,plotinus1 sometimes giving the former a decided predominance4 ,in its more moderate form1 keeping wholly within the limits of ecclesiastical orthodoxy1 this mysticism is represented by ,bonaventura and ,gerson2 while it appears more independent and daringly constructive in the ,german ,eckhart1 advancing in some of his followers to open breach with the church1 and even to practical immorality4 ,casuistry4 ,the ,jesuits4 ,in the brief account above given of the general ethical view of ,thomas ,aquinas no mention has been made of the detailed discussion of particular duties included in the ,summa theologiae2 in which1 for the most part1 an excellent combination of moral elevation with sobriety of judgment is shown1 though on certain points the scholastic pedantry of definition and distinction is unfavourable to due delicacy of treatment4 ,as the properly philosophic interest of scholasticism faded in the #adth and #aeth centuries1 the quasi-legal treatment of morality came again into prominence1 borrowing a good deal of matter from ,thomas and other schoolmen4 ,one result of this was a marked development and systematization of casuistry4 ,the best known ,summae casuum conscientiae1 compiled for the conduct of auricular confession1 belong to the #adth and #aeth centuries4 ,the oldest1 the ,astesana1 from ,asti in ,piedmont1 is arranged as a kind of text-book of morality on a scholastic basis2 later manuals are merely lists of questions and answers4 ,it was inevitable that1 in proportion as this casuistry assumed the character of a systematic penal jurisprudence1 its precise determination of the limits between the prohibited and the allowable1 with all doubtful points closely scrutinized and illustrated by fictitious cases1 would have a tendency to weaken the moral sensibilities of ordinary minds2 the greater the industry spent in deducing conclusions from the diverse authorities1 the greater necessarily became the number of points on which doctors disagreed2 and the central authority that might have repressed serious divergences was wanting in the period of moral weakness#bd that the church went through after the death of ,boniface ,,viii4 ,a plain man perplexed by such disagreements might naturally hold that any opinion maintained by a pious and orthodox writer must be a safe one to follow2 and thus weak consciences were subtly tempted to seek the support of authority for some desired relaxation of a moral rule4 ,it does not1 however1 appear that this danger assumed formidable proportions until after the ,reformation2 when1 in the struggle made by the ,catholic church to recover its hold on the world1 the principle of authority was1 as it were1 forced into keen1 balanced and prolonged conflict with that of reliance on private judgment4 ,to the ,jesuits1 the foremost champions in this struggle1 it seemed indispensable that the confessional should be made attractive2 for this purpose ecclesiastico-moral law must be somehow accommodated to worldly needs2 and the theory of ,probabilism supplied a plausible method for effecting this accommodation4 ,the theory proceeded thus3 ,a layman could not be expected to examine minutely into a point on which the learned differed2 therefore he could not fairly be blamed for following any opinion that rested on the authority of even a single doctor2 therefore his confessor must be authorized to hold him guiltless if any such probable opinion could be produced in his favour2 nay1 it was his duty to suggest such an opinion1 even though opposed to his own1 if it would relieve the conscience under his charge from a depressing burden4 ,the results to which this ,probabilism1 applied with an earnest desire to avoid dangerous rigour1 led in the #agth century were revealed to the world in the immortal ,lettres provinciales of ,pascal4 ,the ,reformation4 ,transition to modern ethical philosophy4 ,in tracing the development of casuistry we have been carried beyond the great crisis through which ,western ,christianity passed in the #afth century4 ,the ,reformation which ,luther initiated may be viewed on several sides1 even if we consider only its ethical principles and effects4 ,it maintained the simplicity of ,apostolic ,christianity against the elaborate system of a corrupt hierarchy1 the teaching of ,scripture alone against the commentaries of the fathers and the traditions of the church1 the right of private judgment against the dictation of ecclesiastical authority1 the individual responsibility of every human soul before ,god in opposition to the papal control over purgatorial punishments1 which had led to the revolting degradation of venal indulgences4 ,reviving the original antithesis between ,christianity and ,jewish legalism1 it maintained the inwardness of faith to be the sole way to eternal life1 in contrast to the outwardness of works2 returning to ,augustine1 and expressing his spirit in a new formula1 to resist the ,neo-,pelagianism that had gradually developed itself within the apparent ,augustinianism of the church1 it maintained the total corruption of human nature1 as contrasted with that congruity by which1 according to the schoolmen1 divine grace was to be earned2 renewing the fervent humility of ,st ,paul1 it enforced the universal and absolute imperativeness of all ,christian duties1 and the inevitable unworthiness of all ,christian obedience1 in opposition to the theory that condign merit might be gained by supererogatory conformity to evangelical counsels4 ,it will be seen that these changes1 however profoundly important1 were1 ethically considered1 either negative or quite general1 relating to the tone and attitude of mind in which all duty should be done4 ,as regards all positive matter of duty and virtue1 and most of the prohibitive code for ordinary men1 the tradition of ,christian teaching was carried on substantially unchanged by the ,reformed churches4 ,even the old method of casuistry was maintained#be during the #afth and #agth centuries2 though ,scriptural texts1 interpreted and supplemented by the light of natural reason1 now furnished the sole principles on which cases of conscience were decided4 ,humanism4 ,in the #agth century1 however1 the interest of this quasi-legal treatment of morality gradually faded2 and the ethical studies of educated minds were occupied with the attempt1 renewed after so many centuries1 to find an independent philosophical basis for the moral code4 ,the renewal of this attempt was only indirectly due to the ,reformation2 it is rather to be connected with the more extreme reaction from the medieval religion which was partly caused by1 partly expressed in1 that enthusiastic study of the remains of old pagan culture that spread from ,italy over ,europe in the #aeth and #afth centuries4 ,to this humanism the ,reformation seemed at first more hostile than the ,roman hierarchy2 indeed1 the extent to which this latter had allowed itself to become paganized by the ,renaissance was one of the points that especially roused the ,reformers' indignation4 ,not the less important is the indirect stimulus given by the ,reformation towards the development of a moral philosophy independent alike of ,catholic and ,protestant assumptions4 ,scholasticism1 while reviving philosophy as a handmaid to theology1 had metamorphosed its method into one resembling that of its mistress2 thus shackling the renascent intellectual activity which it stimulated by the double bondage to ,aristotle and to the church4 ,when the ,reformation shook the traditional authority in one department1 the blow was necessarily felt in the other4 ,not twenty years after ,luther's defiance of the pope1 the startling thesis that all that ,aristotle taught was false was prosperously maintained by the youthful ,ramus before the university of ,paris2 and almost contemporaneously the group of remarkable thinkers in ,italy who heralded the dawn of modern physical science--,cardanus1 ,telesio1 ,patrizzi1 ,campanella1 ,bruno--began to propound their ,aristotelian theories of the constitution of the physical universe4 ,it was to be foreseen that a similar assertion of independence would make itself heard in ethics also2 and1 indeed1 amid the clash of dogmatic convictions1 and the variations of private judgment1 it was natural to seek for an ethical method that might claim universal acceptance from all sects4 ,grotius4 ,c4 ,modern ,ethics4--,the need of such independent principles was most strongly felt in the region of man's civil and political relations1 especially the mutual relations of communities4 ,accordingly we find that modern ethical controversy began in a discussion of the law of nature4 ,albericus ,gentilis 7#aeeg-afaa7 and ,hugo ,grotius 7#aehc-afde7 were the first to give a systematic account4 ,natural law1 according to ,grotius and other writers of the age1 is that part of divine law which follows from the essential nature of man1 who is distinguished from animals by his appetite for tranquil association with his fellows1 and his tendency to act on general principles4 ,it is therefore as unalterable1 even by ,god himself1 as the truths of mathematics1 although its effect may be overruled in any particular case by an express command of ,god2 hence it is cognizable a priori1 from the abstract consideration of human nature1 though its existence may be known a posteriori also from its universal acceptance in human societies4 ,the conception1 as we have seen1 was taken from the later ,roman jurists2 by them1 however1 the law of nature was conceived as something that underlay existing law1 and was to be looked for through it1 though it might ultimately supersede it1 and in the meanwhile represented an ideal standard1 by which improvements in legislation were to be guided4 ,still the language of the jurists in some passages 7cf4 ,inst4 of ,justinian1 ii4 #a1 #b7 clearly implied a period of human history in which men were governed by natural law alone1 prior to the institution of civil society4 ,posidonius had identified this period with the mythical golden age2 and such ideas easily coalesced with the narrative in ,genesis4 ,thus there had become current the conception of a state of nature in which individuals or single families lived side by side--under none other than those natural laws which prohibited mutual injury and interference in the free use of the goods of the earth common to all1 and upheld parental authority1 fidelity of wives1 and the observance of compacts freely made4 ,this conception ,grotius took1 and gave it additional force and solidity by using the principles of this natural law for the determination of international rights and duties1 it being obvious that independent nations1 in their corporate capacities1 were still in that state of nature in their mutual relations4 ,it was not1 of course1 assumed that these laws were universally obeyed2 indeed1 one point with which ,grotius is especially concerned is the natural right of private war1 arising out of the violation of more primary rights4 ,still a general observance was involved in the idea of a natural law as a dictate of right reason indicating the agreement or disagreement of an act with man's rational and social nature2 and we may observe that it was especially necessary to assume such a general observance in the case of contracts1 since it was by an express or tacit pact that the right of property 7as distinct from the mere right to non-interference during use7 was held by him to have been instituted4 ,a similar fundamental pact had long been generally regarded as the normal origin of legitimate sovereignty4 ,the ideas above expressed were not peculiar to ,grotius2 in particular the doctrine of the fundamental pact as the jural basis of government had long been maintained1 especially in ,england1 where the constitution historically established readily suggested such a compact4 ,at the same time the rapid and remarkable success of ,grotius's treatise 7,de jure belli et pacis7 brought his view of ,natural ,right into prominence1 and suggested such questions as--,what is man's ultimate reason for obeying these laws8 ,wherein exactly does this their agreement with his rational and social nature consist8 ,how far1 and in what sense1 is his nature really social8 ,hobbes4 ,it was the answer which ,hobbes 7#aehh-afgi7 gave to these fundamental questions that supplied the starting-point for independent ethical philosophy in ,england4 ,the nature of this answer was determined by the psychological views to which ,hobbes had been led1 possibly to some extent under the influence of ,bacon1#bf partly perhaps through association with his younger contemporary ,gassendi1 who1 in two treatises1 published between the appearance of ,hobbes's ,de cive 7#afdb7 and that of the ,leviathan 7#afea71 endeavoured to revive interest in ,epicurus4 ,hobbes's psychology is in the first place materialistic2 he holds1 that is1 that in any of the psycho-physical phenomena of human nature the reality is a material process of which the mental feeling is a mere appearance4 ,accordingly he regards pleasure as essentially motion helping vital action1 and pain as motion hindering it4 ,there is no logical connexion between this theory and the doctrine that appetite of desire has always pleasure 7or the absence of pain7 for its object2 but a materialist1 framing a system of psychology1 will naturally direct his attention to the impulses arising out of bodily wants1 whose obvious end is the preservation of the agent's organism2 and this1 together with a philosophic wish to simplify1 may lead him to the conclusion that all human impulses are similarly self-regarding4 ,this1 at any rate1 is ,hobbes's cardinal doctrine in moral psychology1 that each man's appetites or desires are naturally directed either to the preservation of his life1 or to that heightening of it which he feels as pleasure4#bg ,hobbes does not distinguish instinctive from deliberate pleasure-seeking2 and he confidently resolves the most apparently unselfish emotions into phases of self-regard4 ,pity he finds to be grief for the calamity of others1 arising from imagination of the like calamity befalling oneself2 what we admire with seeming disinterestedness as beautiful 7pulchrum7 is really pleasure in promise2 when men are not immediately seeking present pleasure1 they desire power as a means to future pleasure1 and thus have a derivative delight in the exercise of power that prompts to what we call benevolent action4 ,since1 then1 all the voluntary actions of men tend to their own preservation or pleasure1 it cannot be reasonable to aim at anything else2 in fact1 nature rather than reason fixes this as the end of human action2 it is reason's function to show the means4 ,hence if we ask why it is reasonable for any individual to observe the rules of social behaviour that are commonly called moral1 the answer is obvious that this is only indirectly reasonable1 as a means to his own preservation or pleasure4 ,it is not1 however1 in this1 which is only the old ,cyrenaic or ,epicurean answer1 that the distinctive point of ,hobbism lies4 ,it is rather in the doctrine that even this indirect reasonableness of the most fundamental moral rules is entirely conditional on their general observance1 which cannot be secured apart from government4 ,for example1 it is not reasonable for me to perform my share of a contract1 unless ,i have reason for believing that the other party will perform his2 and this ,i cannot have1 except in a society in which he will be punished for non-performance4 ,thus the ordinary rules of social behaviour are only hypothetically obligatory2 they are actualized by the establishment of a common power that may use the strength and means of all to enforce on all the observance of rules tending to the common benefit4 ,on the other hand ,hobbes yields to no one in maintaining the paramount importance of moral regulations4 ,the precepts of good faith1 equity1 requital of benefits1 forgiveness of wrong so far as security allows1 the prohibition of contumely1 pride1 arrogance1--which may all be summed up in the formula1 ,do not that to another which thou wouldest not have done to thyself 7i4e4 the negative of the golden rule7--he still calls immutable and eternal laws of nature--meaning that1 though a man is not unconditionally bound to realize them1 he is1 as a reasonable being1 bound to desire that they should be realized4 ,the pre-social state of man1 in his view1 is also pre-moral2 but it is therefore utterly miserable4 ,it is a state in which every one has a right to everything that may conduce to his preservation2#bh but it is therefore also a state of war--a state so wretched that it is the first dictate of rational self-love to emerge from it into social peace and order4 ,hence ,hobbes's ideal constitution naturally comes to be an unquestioned and unlimited--though not necessarily monarchical--despotism4 ,whatever the government declares to be just or unjust must be accepted as such1 since to dispute its dictates would be the first step towards anarchy1 the one paramount peril outweighing all particular defects in legislation and administration4 ,it is perhaps easy to understand how1 in the crisis of #afdj1 when the ethico-political system of ,hobbes first took written shape1 a peace-loving philosopher should regard the claims of individual conscience as essentially anarchical1 and dangerous to social well-being2 but however strong might be men's yearning for order1 a view of social duty1 in which the only fixed positions were selfishness everywhere and unlimited power somewhere1 could not but appear offensively paradoxical4 ,there was1 however1 in his theory an originality1 a force1 an apparent coherence which rendered it undeniably impressive2 in fact1 we find that for two generations the efforts to construct morality on a philosophical basis take more or less the form of answers to ,hobbes4 ,from an ethical point of view ,hobbism divides itself naturally into two parts1 which by ,hobbes's peculiar political doctrines are combined into a coherent whole1 but are not otherwise necessarily connected4 ,its theoretical basis is the principle of egoism2 while1 for practically determining the particulars of duty it makes morality entirely dependent on positive law and institution4 ,it thus affirmed the relativity of good and evil in a double sense2 good and evil1 for any individual citizen1 may from one point of view be defined as the objects respectively of his desire and his aversion2 from another1 they may be said to be determined for him by his sovereign4 ,it is this latter aspect of the system which is primarily attacked by the first generation of writers that replied to ,hobbes4 ,this attack1 or rather the counter-exposition of orthodox doctrine1 is conducted on different methods by the ,cambridge moralists and by ,cumberland respectively4 ,cumberland is content with the legal view of morality1 but endeavours to establish the validity of the laws of nature by taxing them on the single supreme principle of rational regard for the common good of all1 and showing them1 as so based1 to be adequately supported by the divine sanction4 ,the ,cambridge school1 regarding morality primarily as a body of truth rather than a code of rules1 insist on its absolute character and intuitive certainty4 ,the ,cambridge moralists1 ,cudworth4 ,cudworth was the most distinguished of the little group of thinkers at ,cambridge in the #agth century1 commonly known as the ,cambridge ,platonists 7q4v474 ,in his treatise on ,eternal and ,immutable ,morality his main aim is to maintain the essential and eternal distinctions of good and evil as independent of mere will1 whether human or divine4 ,these distinctions1 he insists1 have an objective reality1 cognizable by reason no less than the relations of space or number2 and he endeavours to refute ,hobbism--which he treats as a novantique philosophy1 a mere revival of the relativism of ,protagoras--chiefly by the following argumentum ad hominem4 ,he argues that ,hobbes's atomic materialism involves the conception of an objective physical world1 the object not of passive sense that varies from man to man1 but of the active intellect that is the same in all2 there is therefore1 he urges1 an inconsistency in refusing to admit a similar exercise of intellect in morals1 and an objective world of right and wrong1 which the mind by its normal activity clearly apprehends as such4 ,more4 ,cudworth1 in the work above mentioned1 gives no systematic exposition of the ethical principles which he holds to be thus intuitively apprehended4 ,but we may supply this deficiency from the ,enchiridion ,ethicum of ,henry ,more1 another thinker of the same school4 ,more gives a list of #bc ,noemata ,moralia1 the truth of which will1 he says1 be immediately manifest4 ,some of these admit of a purely egoistic application1 and appear to be so understood by the author--as 7e4g47 that goods differ in quality as well as in duration1 and that the superior good or the lesser evil is always to be preferred2 that absence of a given amount of good is preferable to the presence of equivalent evil2 that future good or evil is to be regarded as much as present1 if equally certain1 and nearly as much if very probable4 ,objections1 both general and special1 might be urged by a ,hobbist against these modes of formulating man's natural pursuit of self-interest2 but the serious controversy between ,hobbism and modern ,platonism related not to such principles as these1 but to others which demand from the individual a 7real or apparent7 sacrifice for his fellows4 ,such are the evangelical principle of doing as you would be done by2 the principle of justice1 or giving every man his own1 and letting him enjoy it without interference2 and especially what ,more states as the abstract formula of benevolence1 that if it be good that one man should be supplied with the means of living well and happily1 it is mathematically certain that it is doubly good that two should be so supplied1 and so on4 ,the question1 however1 still remains1 what motive any individual has to conform to these social principles when they conflict with his natural desires4 ,to this ,cudworth gives no explicit reply1 and the answer of ,more is hardly clear4 ,on the one hand he maintains that these principles express an absolute good1 which is to be called intellectual because its essence and truth are apprehended by the intellect4 ,we might infer from this that the intellect1 so judging1 is itself the proper and complete determinant of the will1 and that man1 as a rational being1 ought to aim at the realization of absolute good for its own sake4 ,in spite1 however1 of possible inferences from his definition of virtue1 this does not seem to be really ,more's view4 ,he explains that though absolute good is discerned by the intellect1 the sweetness and flavour of it is apprehended1 not by the intellect proper1 but by what he calls a boniform faculty2 and it is in this sweetness and flavour that the motive to virtuous conduct lies2 ethics is the art of living well and happily1 and true happiness lies in the pleasure which the soul derives from the sense of virtue4 ,in short1 ,more's ,platonism appears to be really as hedonistic as ,hobbism2 only the feeling to which it appeals as ultimate motive is of a kind that only a mind of exceptional moral refinement can habitually feel with the decisive intensity required4 ,cumberland4 ,it is to be observed that though ,more lays down the abstract principle of regarding one's neighbour's good as much as one's own with the full breadth with which ,christianity inculcates it1 yet when he afterwards comes to classify virtues he is too much under the influence of ,platonic-,aristotelian thought to give a distinct place to benevolence1 except under the old form of liberality4 ,in this respect his system presents a striking contrast to ,cumberland's1 whose treatise ,de ,legibus ,naturae 7#afgb71 though written like ,more's in ,latin1 is yet in its ethical matter thoroughly modern4 ,cumberland is a thinker both original and comprehensive1 and1 in spite of defects in style and clearness1 he is noteworthy as having been the first to lay down that regard for the common good of all is the supreme rule of morality or law of nature4 ,so far he may be fairly called the precursor of later utilitarianism4 ,his fundamental principle and supreme ,law of ,nature is thus stated3 ,the greatest possible benevolence of every rational agent towards all the rest constitutes the happiest state of each and all1 so far as depends on their own power1 and is necessarily required for their happiness2 accordingly ,common ,good will be the ,supreme ,good4 ,it is1 however1 important to notice that in his good is included not merely happiness but perfection2 and he does not even define perfection so as to exclude from it the notion of absolute moral perfection and save his theory from an obvious logical circle4 ,a notion so vague could not possibly be used with any precision for determining the subordinate rules of morality2 but in fact ,cumberland does not attempt this2 his supreme principle is designed not to rectify1 but merely to support and systematize1 common morality4 ,this principle1 as was said1 is conceived as strictly a law1 and therefore referred to a lawgiver1 ,god1 and provided with a sanction in its effects on the agent's happiness4 ,that the divine will is expressed by it1 ,cumberland1 not being so fortunate as to possess innate ideas1 tries to prove by a long inductive examination of the evidences of man's essential sociality exhibited in his physical and mental constitution4 ,his account of the sanction1 again1 is sufficiently comprehensive1 including both the internal and the external rewards of virtue and punishments of vice2 and he1 like later utilitarians1 explains moral obligation to lie in the force exercised on the will by these sanctions2 but as to the precise manner in which individual is implicated with universal good1 and the operation of either or both in determining volition1 his view is indistinct if not actually inconsistent4 ,locke4 ,the clearness which we seek in vain from ,cumberland is found to the fullest extent in ,locke1 whose ,essay on the ,human ,understanding 7#afij7 was already planned when ,cumberland's treatise appeared4 ,yet ,locke's ethical opinions have been widely misunderstood2 since from a confusion between innate ideas and intuitions1 which has been common in recent ethical discussion1 it has been supposed that the founder of ,english empiricism must necessarily have been hostile to intuitional ethics4 ,the truth is that1 while ,locke agrees entirely with ,hobbes as to the egoistic basis of rational conduct1 and the interpretation of good and evil as pleasure and pain1 or that which is productive of pleasure and pain1 he yet agrees entirely with ,hobbes's opponents in holding ethical rules to be actually obligatory independently of political society1 and capable of being scientifically constructed on principles intuitively known1--though he does not regard these principles as implanted in the mind at birth4 ,the aggregate of such rules he conceives as the law of ,god1 carefully distinguishing it1 not only from civil law1 but from the law of opinion or reputation1 the varying moral standard by which men actually distribute praise and blame2 as being divine it is necessarily sanctioned by adequate rewards and punishments4 ,he does not1 indeed1 speak of the scientific construction of this code as having been actually effected1 but he affirms its possibility in language remarkably strong and decisive4 ,the idea1 he says1 of a ,supreme ,being1 infinite in power1 goodness1 and wisdom1 whose workmanship we are1 and upon whom we depend1 and the idea of ourselves1 as understanding rational beings1 being such as are clear in us1 would1 ,i suppose1 if duly considered and pursued1 afford such foundations of our duty and rules of action1 as might place morality among the sciences capable of demonstration2 wherein1 ,i doubt not1 but from self-evident propositions1 by necessary consequences as incontestable as those in mathematics1 the measure of right and wrong might be made out4 ,as ,locke cannot consistently mean by ,god's goodness anything but the disposition to give pleasure1 it might be inferred that the ultimate standard of right rules of action ought to be the common happiness of the beings affected by the action2 but ,locke does not explicitly adopt this standard4 ,the only instances which he gives of intuitive moral truths are the purely formal propositions1 ,no government allows absolute liberty1 and ,where there is no property there is no injustice1--neither of which has any evident connexion with the general happiness4 ,as regards his conception of the ,law of ,nature1 he takes it in the main immediately from ,grotius and ,pufendorf1 more remotely from the ,stoics and the ,roman jurists4 ,clarke4 ,we might give1 as a fair illustration of ,locke's general conception of ethics1 a system which is frequently represented as diametrically opposed to ,lockism2 namely1 that expounded in ,clarke's ,boyle lectures on the ,being and ,attributes of ,god 7#agjd74 ,it is true that ,locke is not particularly concerned with the ethico-theological proposition which ,clarke is most anxious to maintain1--that the fundamental rules of morality are independent of arbitrary will1 whether divine or human4 ,but in his general view of ethical principles as being1 like mathematical principles1#bi essentially truths of relation1 ,clarke is quite in accordance with ,locke2 while of the four fundamental rules that he expounds1 ,piety towards ,god1 ,equity1 ,benevolence and ,sobriety 7which includes self-preservation71 the first is obtained1 just as ,locke suggests1 by comparing the idea of man with the idea of an infinitely good and wise being on whom he depends2 and the second and third are axioms self-evident on the consideration of the equality or similarity of human individuals as such4 ,the principle of equity--that whatever ,i judge reasonable or unreasonable for another to do for me1 that by the same ,i declare reasonable or unreasonable that ,i in the like case should do for him1 is merely a formal statement of the golden rule of the gospel4 ,we may observe that1 in stating the principle of benevolence1 since the greater good is always most fit and reasonable to be done1 every rational creature ought to do all the good it can to its fellow-creatures1 ,clarke avowedly follows ,cumberland1 from whom he quotes the further sentence that universal love and benevolence is as plainly the most direct1 certain and effectual means to this good as the flowing of a point is to produce a line4 ,the quotation may remind us that the analogy between ethics and mathematics ought to be traced further back than ,locke2 in fact1 it results from the influence exercised by ,cartesianism over ,english thought generally1 in the latter half of the #agth century4 ,it must be allowed that ,clarke is misled by the analogy to use general ethical terms 7fitness1 agreement of things1 c471 which overlook the essential distinction between what is and what ought to be2 and even in one or two expressions to overleap this distinction extravagantly1 as 7e4g47 in saying that the man who wilfully acts contrary to justice wills things to be what they are not and cannot be4 ,what he really means is less paradoxically stated in the general proposition that originally and in reality it is natural and 7morally speaking7 necessary that the will should be determined in every action by the reason of the thing and the right of the case1 as it is natural and 7absolutely speaking7 necessary that the understanding should submit to a demonstrated truth4 ,but though it is an essential point in ,clarke's view that what is right is to be done as such1 apart from any consideration of pleasure or pain1 it is to be inferred that he is not prepared to apply this doctrine in its unqualified form to such a creature as man1 who is partly under the influence of irrational impulses4 ,at least when he comes to argue the need of future rewards and punishments we find that his claim on behalf of morality is startlingly reduced4 ,he now only contends that virtue deserves to be chosen for its own sake1 and vice to be avoided1 though a man was sure for his own particular neither to gain nor lose anything by the practice of either4 ,he fully admits that the question is altered when vice is attended by pleasure and profit to the vicious man1 virtue by loss and calamity2 and even that it is not truly reasonable that men by adhering to virtue should part with their lives1 if thereby they deprived themselves of all possibility of receiving any advantage from their adherence4 ,thus1 on the whole1 the impressive earnestness with which ,clarke enforces the doctrine of rational morality only rendered more manifest the difficulty of establishing ethics on an independent philosophical basis2 so long at least as the psychological egoism of ,hobbes is not definitely assailed and overthrown4 ,until this is done1 the utmost demonstration of the abstract reasonableness of social duty only leaves us with an irreconcilable antagonism between the view of abstract reason and the self-love which is allowed to be the root of man's appetitive nature4 ,let us grant that there is as much intellectual absurdity in acting unjustly as in denying that two and two make four2 still1 if a man has to choose between absurdity and unhappiness1 he will naturally prefer the former2 and ,clarke1 as we have already seen1 is not really prepared to maintain that such preference is irrational4#cj ,shaftesbury4 ,it remains to try another psychological basis for ethical construction2 instead of presenting the principle of social duty as abstract reason1 liable to conflict to any extent with natural self-love1 we may try to exhibit the naturalness of man's social affections1 and demonstrate a normal harmony between these and his self-regarding impulses4 ,this is the line of thought which ,shaftesbury 7#afga-agac7 may be said to have initiated4 ,this theory had already been advanced by ,cumberland and others1 but ,shaftesbury was the first to make it the cardinal point in his system2 no one had yet definitely transferred the centre of ethical interest from the ,reason1 conceived as apprehending either abstract moral distinctions or laws of divine legislation1 for the emotional impulses that prompt to social duty2 no one had undertaken to distinguish clearly1 by analysis of experience1 the disinterested and self-regarding elements of our appetitive nature1 or to prove inductively their perfect harmony4 ,in his ,inquiry concerning ,virtue and ,merit he begins by attacking the egoism of ,hobbes1 which1 as we have seen1 was not necessarily excluded by the doctrine of rational intuitions of duty4 ,this interpretation1 he says1 would be true only if we considered man as a wholly unrelated individual4 ,such a being we might doubtless call good1 if his impulses were adapted to the attainment of his own felicity4 ,but man we must and do consider in relation to a larger system of which he forms a part1 and so we call him good only when his impulses and dispositions are so balanced as to tend towards the good of this whole4 ,and again we do not attribute goodness to him merely because his outward acts have beneficial results4 ,when we speak of a man as good1 we mean that his dispositions or affections are such as tend of themselves to promote the good or happiness of human society4 ,hobbes's moral man1 who1 if let loose from governmental constraint1 would straightway spread ruin among his fellows1 is not what we commonly agree to call good4 ,moral goodness1 then1 in a sensible creature implies primarily disinterested affections1 whose direct object is the good of others2 but ,shaftesbury does not mean 7as he has been misunderstood to mean7 that only such benevolent social impulses are good1 and that these are always good4 ,on the contrary1 he is careful to point out1 first1 that immoderate social affections defeat themselves1 miss their proper end1 and are therefore bad2 secondly1 that as an individual's good is part of the good of the whole1 self-affections existing in a duly limited degree are morally good4 ,goodness1 in short1 consists in due combination1 in just proportion1 of both sorts of affections1 tendency to promote general good being taken as the criterion of the right degrees and proportions4 ,this being established1 the main aim of ,shaftesbury's argument is to prove that the same balance of private and social affections1 which tends naturally to public good1 is also conducive to the happiness of the individual in whom it exists4 ,taking the different impulses in detail1 he first shows how the individual's happiness is promoted by developing his social affections1 mental pleasures being superior to bodily1 and the pleasures of benevolence the richest of all4 ,in discussing this he distinguishes1 with well-applied subtlety1 between the pleasurableness of the benevolent emotions themselves1 the sympathetic enjoyment of the happiness of others1 and the pleasure arising from a consciousness of their love and esteem4 ,he then exhibits the unhappiness that results from any excess of the self-regarding impulses1 bodily appetite1 desire of wealth1 emulation1 resentment1 even love of life itself2 and ends by dwelling on the intrinsic painfulness of all malevolence4#ca ,one more special impulse remains to be noticed4 ,we have seen that goodness of character consists in a certain harmony of self-regarding and social affections4 ,but virtue1 in ,shaftesbury's view1 is something more2 it implies a recognition of moral goodness and immediate preference of it for its own sake4 ,this immediate pleasure that we take in goodness 7and displeasure in its opposite7 is due to a susceptibility which he calls the reflex or moral sense1 and compares with our susceptibility to beauty and deformity in external things2 it furnishes both an additional direct impulse to good conduct1 and an additional gratification to be taken into account in the reckoning which proves the coincidence of virtue and happiness4 ,this doctrine of the moral sense is sometimes represented as ,shaftesbury's cardinal tenet2 but though characteristic and important1 it is not really necessary to his main argument2 it is the crown rather than the keystone of his ethical structure4 ,mandeville4 ,the appearance of ,shaftesbury's ,characteristics 7#agac7 marks a turning-point in the history of ,english ethical thought4 ,with the generation of moralists that followed1 the consideration of abstract rational principles falls into the background1 and its place is taken by introspective study of the human mind1 observation of the actual play of its various impulses and sentiments4 ,this empirical psychology had not indeed been neglected by previous writers4 ,more1 among others1 had imitated ,descartes in a discussion of the passions1 and ,locke's essay had given a still stronger impulse in the same direction2 still1 ,shaftesbury is the first moralist who distinctly takes psychological experience as the basis of ethics4 ,his suggestions were developed by ,hutcheson into one of the most elaborate systems of moral philosophy which we possess2 through ,hutcheson1 if not directly1 they influenced ,hume's speculations1 and are thus connected with later utilitarianism4 ,moreover1 the substance of ,shaftesbury's main argument was adopted by ,butler1 though it could not pass the scrutiny of that powerful and cautious intellect without receiving important modifications and additions4 ,on the other hand1 the ethical optimism of ,shaftesbury1 rather broadly impressive than exactly reasoned1 and connected as it was with a natural theology that implied the ,christian scheme to be superfluous1 challenged attack equally from orthodox divines and from cynical freethinkers4 ,of these latter ,mandeville1 the author of ,the ,fable of the ,bees1 or ,private ,vices ,public ,benefits 7#agbc71 was a conspicuous if not a typical specimen4 ,he can hardly be called a moralist2 and though it is impossible to deny him a considerable share of philosophic penetration1 his anti-moral paradoxes have not even apparent coherence4 ,he is convinced that virtue 7where it is more than a mere pretence7 is purely artificial2 but not quite certain whether it is a useless trammel of appetites and passions that are advantageous to society1 or a device creditable to the politicians who introduced it by playing upon the pride and vanity of the silly creature man4 ,the view1 however1 to which he gave audacious expression1 that moral regulation is something alien to the natural man1 and imposed on him from without1 seems to have been very current in the polite society of his time1 as we learn both from ,berkeley's ,alciphron and from ,butler's more famous sermons4 ,butler4 ,the view of human nature against which ,butler preached was not exactly ,mandeville's1 nor was it properly to be called ,hobbist1 although ,butler fairly treats it as having a philosophical basis in ,hobbes's psychology4 ,it was1 so to say1 ,hobbism turned inside out1--rendered licentious and anarchical instead of constructive4 ,hobbes had said the natural state of man is non-moral1 unregulated2 moral rules are means to the end of peace1 which is a means to the end of self-preservation4 ,on this view morality1 though dependent for its actuality on the social compact which establishes government1 is actually binding on man as a reasonable being4 ,but the quasi-theistic assumption that what is natural must be reasonable remained in the minds of ,hobbes's most docile readers1 and in combination with his thesis that egoism is natural1 tended to produce results which were dangerous to social well-being4 ,to meet this view ,butler does not content himself1 as is sometimes carelessly supposed1 with insisting on the natural claim to authority of the conscience which his opponent repudiated as artificial2 he adds a subtle and effective argument ad hominem4 ,he first follows ,shaftesbury in exhibiting the social affections as no less natural than the appetites and desires which tend directly to self-preservation2 then reviving the ,stoic view of the prima naturae1 the first objects of natural appetites1 he argues that pleasure is not the primary aim even of the impulses which ,shaftesbury allowed to be self-affections2 but rather a result which follows upon their attaining their natural ends4 ,we have1 in fact1 to distinguish self-love1 the general desire that every man hath of his own happiness or pleasure1 from the particular affections1 passions1 and appetites directed towards objects other than pleasure1 in the satisfaction of which pleasure consists4 ,the latter are necessarily presupposed as distinct impulses in the very idea of an interested pursuit2 since1 if there were no such pre-existing desires1 there would be no pleasure for self-love to aim at4 ,thus the object of hunger is not the pleasure of eating but food2 hunger is therefore1 strictly speaking1 no more interested than benevolence2 granting that the pleasures of the table are an important element in the happiness at which self-love aims1 the same at least may be said for the pleasures of love and sympathy4 ,further1 so far from bodily appetites 7or other particular desires7 being forms of self-love1 there is no one of them which under certain circumstances may not come into conflict with it4 ,indeed1 it is common for men to sacrifice to passion what they know to be their true interests2 at the same time we do not consider such conduct natural in man as a rational being2 we rather regard it as natural for him to govern his transient impulses4 ,thus the notion of natural unregulated egoism turns out to be a psychological chimera4 ,indeed1 we may say that an egoist must be doubly self-regulative1 since rational self-love ought to restrain not only other impulses1 but itself also2 for as happiness is made up of feelings that result from the satisfaction of impulses other than self-love1 any over-development of the latter1 enfeebling these other impulses1 must proportionally diminish the happiness at which self-love aims4 ,if1 then1 it be admitted that human impulses are naturally under government1 the natural claim of conscience or the moral faculty to be the supreme governor will hardly be denied4 ,but has not self-love also1 by ,butler's own account1 a similar authority1 which may come into conflict with that of conscience8 ,butler fully admits this1 and1 in fact1 grounds on it an important criticism of ,shaftesbury4 ,we have seen that in the latter's system the moral sense is not absolutely required1 or at least is necessary only as a substitute for enlightened self-regard2 since if the harmony between prudence and virtue1 self-regarding and social impulses1 is complete1 mere self-interest will prompt a duly enlightened mind to maintain precisely that balance of affections in which goodness consists4 ,but to ,butler's more cautious mind the completeness of this harmony did not seem sufficiently demonstrable to be taken as a basis of moral teaching2 he has at least to contemplate the possibility of a man being convinced of the opposite2 and he argues that unless we regard conscience as essentially authoritative--which is not implied in the term moral sense--such a man is really bound to be vicious2 since interest1 one's own happiness1 is a manifest obligation4 ,still on this view1 even if the authority of conscience be asserted1 we seem reduced to an ultimate dualism of our rational nature4 ,butler's ordered polity of impulses turns out to be a polity with two independent governments4 ,butler does not deny this1 so far as mere claim to authority is concerned2#cb but he maintains that1 the dictates of conscience being clear and certain1 while the calculations of self-interest lead to merely probable conclusions1 it can never be practically reasonable to disobey the former1 even apart from any proof which religion may furnish of the absolute coincidence of the two in a future life4 ,wollaston4 ,this dualism of governing principles1 conscience and self-love1 in ,butler's system1 and perhaps1 too1 his revival of the ,platonic conception of human nature as an ordered and governed community of impulses1 is perhaps most nearly anticipated in ,wollaston's ,religion of ,nature ,delineated 7#agbb74 ,here1 for the first time1 we find moral good and natural good or happiness treated separately as two essentially distinct objects of rational pursuit and investigation2 the harmony between them being regarded as matter of religious faith1 not moral knowledge4 ,wollaston's theory of moral evil as consisting in the practical contradiction of a true proposition1 closely resembles the most paradoxical part of ,clarke's doctrine1 and was not likely to approve itself to the strong common sense of ,butler2 but his statement of happiness or pleasure as a justly desirable end at which every rational being ought to aim corresponds exactly to ,butler's conception of self-love as a naturally governing impulse2 while the moral arithmetic with which he compares pleasures and pains1 and endeavours to make the notion of happiness quantitatively precise1 is an anticipation of ,benthamism4 ,hutcheson4 ,there is another side of ,shaftesbury's harmony which ,butler was ultimately led to oppose in a more decided manner1--the opposition1 namely1 between conscience or the moral sense and the social affections4 ,in the ,sermons1 indeed 7#agbi71 ,butler seems to treat conscience and calm benevolence as permanently allied though distinct principles1 but in the ,dissertation on ,virtue1 appended to the ,analogy 7#agci71 he maintains that the conduct dictated by conscience will often differ widely from that to which mere regard for the production of happiness would prompt4 ,we may take this latter treatise as representing the first in the development of ,english ethics1 at which what were afterwards called utilitarian and intuitional morality were first formally opposed2 in earlier systems the antithesis is quite latent1 as we have incidentally noticed in the case of ,cumberland and ,clarke4 ,the argument in ,butler's dissertation was probably directed chiefly against ,hutcheson1 who in his ,inquiry into the ,original of our ,ideas of ,beauty and ,virtue had definitely identified virtue with benevolence4 ,the identification is slightly qualified in ,hutcheson's posthumously published ,system of ,moral ,philosophy 7#agee71 in which the general view of ,shaftesbury is more fully developed1 with several new psychological distinctions1 including ,butler's separation of calm benevolence--as well as1 after ,butler1 calm self-love--from the turbulent passions1 selfish or social4 ,hutcheson follows ,butler again in laying stress on the regulating and controlling function of the moral sense2 but he still regards kind affections as the principal objects of moral approbation--the calm and extensive affections being preferred to the turbulent and narrow--together with the desire and love of moral excellence which is ranked with universal benevolence1 the two being equally worthy and necessarily harmonious4 ,only in a secondary sense is approval due to certain abilities and dispositions immediately connected with virtuous affections1 as candour1 veracity1 fortitude1 sense of honour2 while in a lower grade still are placed sciences and arts1 along with even bodily skills and gifts2 indeed1 the approbation we give to these is not strictly moral1 but is referred to the sense of decency or dignity1 which 7as well as the sense of honour7 is to be distinguished from the moral sense4 ,calm self-love ,hutcheson regards as morally indifferent2 though he enters into a careful analysis of the elements of happiness1#cc in order to show that a true regard for private interest always coincides with the moral sense and with benevolence4 ,while thus maintaining ,shaftesbury's harmony between public and private good1 ,hutcheson is still more careful to establish the strict disinterestedness of benevolent affections4 ,shaftesbury had conclusively shown that these were not in the vulgar sense selfish2 but the very stress which he lays on the pleasure inseparable from their exercise suggests a subtle egoistic theory which he does not expressly exclude1 since it may be said that this intrinsic reward constitutes the real motive of the benevolent man4 ,to this ,hutcheson replies that no doubt the exquisite delight of the emotion of love is a motive to sustain and develop it2 but this pleasure cannot be directly obtained1 any more than other pleasures1 by merely desiring it2 it can be sought only by the indirect method of cultivating and indulging the disinterested desire for others' good1 which is thus obviously distinct from the desire for the pleasure of benevolence4 ,he points to the fact that the imminence of death often intensifies instead of diminishing a man's desire for the welfare of those he loves1 as a crucial experiment proving the disinterestedness of love2 adding1 as confirmatory evidence1 that the sympathy and admiration commonly felt for self-sacrifice depends on the belief that it is something different from refined self-seeking4 ,it remains to consider how1 from the doctrine that affection is the proper object of approbation1 we are to deduce moral rules or natural laws prescribing or prohibiting outward acts4 ,it is obvious that all actions conducive to the general good will deserve our highest approbation if done from disinterested benevolence2 but how if they are not so done8 ,in answering this question1 ,hutcheson avails himself of the scholastic distinction between material and formal goodness4 ,an action1 he says1 is materially good when in fact it tends to the interest of the system1 so far as we can judge of its tendency1 or to the good of some part consistent with that of the system1 whatever were the affections of the agent4 ,an action is formally good when it flowed from good affection in a just proportion4 ,on the pivot of this distinction ,hutcheson turns round from the point of view of ,shaftesbury to that of later utilitarianism4 ,as regards material goodness of actions1 he adopts explicitly and unreservedly the formula afterwards taken as fundamental by ,bentham2 holding that that action is best which procures the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers1 and the worst which in a like manner occasions misery4 ,accordingly his treatment of external rights and duties1 though decidedly inferior in methodical clearness and precision1 does not differ in principle from that of ,paley or ,bentham1 except that he lays greater stress on the immediate conduciveness of actions to the happiness of individuals1 and more often refers in a merely supplementary or restrictive way to their tendencies in respect of general happiness4 ,it may be noticed1 too1 that he still accepts the social compact as the natural mode of constituting government1 and regards the obligations of subjects to civil obedience as normally dependent on a tacit contract2 though he is careful to state that consent is not absolutely necessary to the just establishment of beneficent government1 nor the source of irrevocable obligation to a pernicious one4 ,hume4 ,an important step further in political utilitarianism was taken by ,hume in his ,treatise on ,human ,nature 7#agci74 ,hume concedes that a compact is the natural means of peacefully instituting a new government1 and may therefore be properly regarded as the ground of allegiance to it at the outset2 but he urges that1 when once it is firmly established the duty of obeying it rests on precisely the same combination of private and general interests as the duty of keeping promises2 it is therefore absurd to base the former on the latter4 ,justice1 veracity1 fidelity to compacts and to governments1 are all co-ordinate2 they are all artificial virtues1 due to civilization1 and not belonging to man in his ruder and more natural condition2 our approbation of all alike is founded on our perception of their useful consequences4 ,it is this last position that constitutes the fundamental difference between ,hutcheson's ethical doctrine and ,hume's4#cd ,the former1 while accepting utility as the criterion of material goodness1 had adhered to ,shaftesbury's view that dispositions1 not results of action1 were the proper object of moral approval2 at the same time1 while giving to benevolence the first place in his account of personal merit1 he had shrunk from the paradox of treating it as the sole virtue1 and had added a rather undefined and unexplained train of qualities1--veracity1 fortitude1 activity1 industry1 sagacity1--immediately approved in various degrees by the moral sense or the sense of dignity4 ,this naturally suggested to a mind like ,hume's1 anxious to apply the experimental method to psychology1 the problem of reducing these different elements of personal merit--or rather our approval of them--to some common principle4 ,the old theory that referred this approval entirely to self-love1 is1 he holds1 easy to disprove by crucial experiments on the play of our moral sentiments2 rejecting this1 he finds the required explanation in the sympathetic pleasure that attends our perception of the conduciveness of virtue to the interests of human beings other than ourselves4 ,he endeavours to establish this inductively by a survey of the qualities1 commonly praised as virtues1 which he finds to be always either useful or immediately agreeable1 either 7#a7 to the virtuous agent himself or 7#b7 to others4 ,in class 7#b7 he includes1 besides the ,benevolence of ,shaftesbury and ,hutcheson1 the useful virtues1 ,justice1 ,veracity and ,fidelity to compacts2 as well as such immediately agreeable qualities as politeness1 wit1 modesty and even cleanliness4 ,the most original part of his discussion1 however1 is concerned with qualities immediately useful to their possessor4 ,the most cynical man of the world1 he says1 with whatever sullen incredulity he may repudiate virtue as a hollow pretence1 cannot really refuse his approbation to discretion1 caution1 enterprise1 industry1 frugality1 economy1 good sense1 prudence1 discernment2 nor again1 to temperance1 sobriety1 patience1 perseverance1 considerateness1 secrecy1 order1 insinuation1 address1 presence of mind1 quickness of conception1 facility of expression4 ,it is evident that the merit of these qualities in our eyes is chiefly due to our perception of their tendency to serve the person possessed of them2 so that the cynic in praising them is really exhibiting the unselfish sympathy of which he doubts the existence4 ,hume admits the difficulty that arises1 especially in the case of the artificial virtues1 such as justice1 c41 from the undeniable fact that we praise them and blame their opposites without consciously reflecting on useful or pernicious consequences2 but considers that this may be explained as an effect of education and acquired habits4#ce ,so far the moral faculty has been considered as contemplative rather than active2 and this1 indeed1 is the point of view from which ,hume mainly regards it4 ,if we ask what actual motive we have for virtuous conduct1 ,hume's answer is not quite clear4 ,on the one hand1 he speaks of moral approbation as derived from humanity and benevolence1 while expressly recognizing1 after ,butler1 that there is a strictly disinterested element in our benevolent impulses 7as also in hunger1 thirst1 love of fame and other passions74 ,on the other hand1 he does not seem to think that moral sentiment or taste can become a motive to action1 except as it gives pleasure or pain1 and thereby constitutes happiness or misery4 ,it is difficult to make these views quite consistent2 but at any rate ,hume emphatically maintains that reason is no motive to action1 except so far as it directs the impulse received from appetite or inclination2 and recognizes--in his later treatise at least--no obligation to virtue1 except that of the agent's interest or happiness4 ,he attempts1 however1 to show1 in a summary way1 that all the duties which his moral theory recommends are also the true interest of the individual1--taking into account the importance to his happiness of peaceful reflection on one's own conduct4 ,adam ,smith4 ,but even if we consider the moral consciousness merely as a particular kind of pleasurable emotion1 there is an obvious question suggested by ,hume's theory1 to which he gives no adequate answer4 ,if the essence of moral taste is sympathy with the pleasure of others1 why is not this specific feeling excited by other things beside virtue that tend to cause such pleasure8 ,on this point ,hume contents himself with the vague remark that there are a numerous set of passions and sentiments1 of which thinking rational beings are by the original constitution of nature the only proper objects4 ,the truth is1 that ,hume's notion of moral approbation was very loose1 as is sufficiently shown by the list of useful and agreeable qualities which he considers worthy of approbation4#cf ,it is therefore hardly surprising that his theory should leave the specific quality of the moral sentiments a fact still needing to be explained4 ,an original and ingenious solution of this problem was offered by his contemporary ,adam ,smith1 in his ,theory of ,moral ,sentiments 7#agei74 ,without denying the actuality or importance of that sympathetic pleasure in the perceived or inferred effects of virtues and vices he yet holds that the essential part of common moral sentiment is constituted rather by a more direct sympathy with the impulses that prompt to action or expression4 ,the spontaneous play of this sympathy he treats as an original and inexplicable fact of human nature1 but he considers that its action is powerfully sustained by the pleasure that each man finds in the accord of his feelings with another's4 ,by means of this primary element1 compounded in various ways1 ,adam ,smith explains all the phenomena of the moral consciousness4 ,he takes first the semi-moral notion of propriety or decorum1 and endeavours to show inductively that our application of this notion to the social behaviour of another is determined by our degree of sympathy with the feeling expressed in such behaviour4 ,thus the prescriptions of good taste in the expression of feeling may be summed up in the principle1 reduce or raise the expression to that with which spectators will sympathize4 ,when the effort to restrain feeling is exhibited in a degree which surprises as well as pleases1 it excites admiration as a virtue or excellence2 such excellences ,adam ,smith quaintly calls the awful and respectable1 contrasting them with the amiable virtues which consist in the opposite effort to sympathize1 when exhibited in a remarkable degree4 ,from the sentiments of propriety and admiration we proceed to the sense of merit and demerit4 ,here a more complex phenomenon presents itself for analysis2 we have to distinguish in the sense of merit--7#a7 a direct sympathy with the sentiments of the agent1 and 7#b7 an indirect sympathy with the gratitude of those who receive the benefit of his actions4 ,in the case of demerit there is a direct antipathy to the feelings of the misdoer1 but the chief sentiment excited is sympathy with those injured by the misdeed4 ,the object of this sympathetic resentment1 impelling us to punish1 is what we call injustice2 and thus the remarkable stringency of the obligation to act justly is explained since the recognition of any action as unjust involves the admission that it may be forcibly obstructed or punished4 ,moral judgments1 then1 are expressions of the complex normal sympathy of an impartial spectator with the active impulses that prompt to and result from actions4 ,in the case of our own conduct what we call conscience is really sympathy with the feelings of an imaginary impartial spectator4 ,adam ,smith gives authority to his moral system by saying that moral principles are justly to be regarded as the laws of the ,deity2 but this he never proves4 ,so ,hume insists emphatically on the reality of moral obligation2 but is found to mean no more by this than the real existence of the likes and dislikes that human beings feel for each other's qualities4 ,the fact is that amid the analysis of feelings aroused by the sentimentalism of ,shaftesbury's school1 the fundamental questions ,what is right8 and ,why8 had been allowed to drop into the background1 and the consequent danger to morality was manifest4 ,the binding force of moral rules becomes evanescent if we admit1 with ,hutcheson1 that the sense of them may properly vary from man to man as the palate does2 and it seems only another way of putting ,hume's doctrine1 that reason is not concerned with the ends of action1 to say that the mere existence of a moral sentiment is in itself no reason for obeying it4 ,a reaction1 in one form or another1 against the tendency to dissolve ethics into psychology was inevitable2 since mankind generally could not be so far absorbed by the interest of psychological hypothesis as to forget their need of establishing practical principles4 ,it was obvious1 too1 that this reaction might take place in either of the two lines of thought1 which1 having been peacefully allied in ,clarke and ,cumberland1 had become distinctly opposed to each other in ,butler and ,hutcheson4 ,it might either fall back on the moral principles commonly accepted1 and1 affirming their objective validity1 endeavour to exhibit them as a coherent and complete set of ultimate ethical truths2 or it might take the utility or conduciveness to pleasure1 to which ,hume had referred for the origin of most sentiments1 as an ultimate end and standard by which these sentiments might be judged and corrected4 ,the former is the line adopted with substantial agreement by ,price1 ,reid1 ,stewart and other members of the still existing ,intuitional school2 the latter method1 with considerably more divergence of view and treatment1 was employed independently and almost simultaneously by ,paley and ,bentham in both ethics and politics1 and is at the present time widely maintained under the name of ,utilitarianism4 ,price4 ,price's ,review of the ,chief ,questions and ,difficulties of ,morals was published in #ageg1 two years before ,adam ,smith's treatise4 ,in regarding moral ideas as derived from the intuition of truth or immediate discernment of the nature of things by the understanding1 ,price revives the general view of ,cudworth and ,clarke2 but with several specific differences4 ,firstly1 his conception of right and wrong as single ideas incapable of definition or analysis--the notions right1 fit1 ought1 duty1 obligation1 being coincident or identical--at least avoids the confusions into which ,clarke and ,wollaston had been led by pressing the analogy between ethical and physical truth4 ,secondly1 the emotional element of the moral consciousness1 on which attention had been concentrated by ,shaftesbury and his followers1 though distinctly recognized as accompanying the intellectual intuition1 is carefully subordinated to it4 ,while right and wrong1 in ,price's view1 are real objective qualities of actions1 moral beauty and deformity are subjective ideas2 representing feelings which are partly the necessary effects of the perceptions of right and wrong in rational beings as such1 partly due to an implanted sense or varying emotional susceptibility4 ,thus1 both reason and sense of instinct co-operate in the impulse to virtuous conduct1 though the rational element is primary and paramount4 ,price further follows ,butler in distinguishing the perception of merit and demerit in agents as another accompaniment of the perception of right and wrong in actions2 the former being1 however1 only a peculiar species of the latter1 since1 to perceive merit in any one is to perceive that it is right to reward him4 ,it is to be observed that both ,price and ,reid are careful to state that the merit of the agent depends entirely on the intention or formal rightness of his act2 a man is not blameworthy for unintended evil1 though he may of course be blamed for any wilful neglect 7cf4 ,arist41 ,eth4 ,nic41 iii4 #a71 which has caused him to be ignorant of his real duty4 ,when we turn to the subject matter of virtue1 we find that ,price1 in comparison with ,more or ,clarke is decidedly laxer in accepting and stating his ethical first principles2 chiefly owing to the new antithesis to the view of ,shaftesbury and ,hutcheson by which his controversial position is complicated4 ,what ,price is specially concerned to show is the existence of ultimate principles beside the principle of universal benevolence4 ,not that he repudiates the obligation either of rational benevolence or self-love2 on the contrary1 he takes more pains than ,butler to demonstrate the reasonableness of either principle4 ,there is not anything1 he says1 of which we have more undeniably an intuitive perception1 than that it is 'right to pursue and promote happiness1' whether for ourselves or for others4 ,finally1 ,price1 writing after the demonstration by ,shaftesbury and ,butler of the actuality of disinterested impulses in human nature1 is bolder and clearer than ,cudworth or ,clarke in insisting that right actions are to be chosen because they are right by virtuous agents as such1 even going so far as to lay down that an act loses its moral worth in proportion as it is done from natural inclination4 ,reid4 ,on this latter point ,reid1 in his ,essays on the ,active ,powers of the ,human ,mind 7#aghh71 states a conclusion more in harmony with common sense1 only maintaining that no act can be morally good in which regard for what is right has not some influence4 ,this is partly due to the fact that ,reid builds more distinctly than ,price on the foundation laid by ,butler2 especially in his acceptance of that duality of governing principles which we have noticed as a cardinal point in the latter's doctrine4 ,reid considers regard for one's good on the whole 7,butler's self-love7 and sense of duty 7,butler's conscience7 as two essentially distinct and co-ordinate rational principles1 though naturally often comprehended under the one term1 ,reason4 ,the rationality of the former principle he takes pains to explain and establish2 in opposition to ,hume's doctrine that it is no part of the function of reason to determine the ends which we ought to pursue1 or the preference due to one end over another4 ,he urges that the notion of good#cg on the whole is one which only a reasoning being can form1 involving as it does abstraction from the objects of all particular desires1 and comparison of past and future with present feelings2 and maintains that it is a contradiction to suppose a rational being to have the notion of its ,good on the ,whole without a desire for it1 and that such a desire must naturally regulate all particular appetites and passions4 ,it cannot reasonably be subordinated even to the moral faculty2 in fact1 a man who doubts the coincidence of the two--which on religious grounds we must believe to be complete in a morally governed world--is reduced to the miserable dilemma whether it is better to be a fool or a knave4 ,as regards the moral faculty itself1 ,reid's statement coincides in the main with ,price's2 it is both intellectual and active1 not merely perceiving the rightness or moral obligation of actions 7which ,reid conceives as a simple unanalysable relation between act and agent71 but also impelling the will to the performance of what is seen to be right4 ,both thinkers hold that this perception of right and wrong in actions is accompanied by a perception of merit and demerit in agents1 and also by a specific emotion2 but whereas ,price conceives this emotion chiefly as pleasure or pain1 analogous to that produced in the mind by physical beauty or deformity1 ,reid regards it chiefly as benevolent affection1 esteem and sympathy 7or their opposites71 for the virtuous 7or vicious7 agent4 ,this pleasurable good-will1 when the moral judgment relates to a man's own actions1 becomes the testimony of a good conscience--the purest and most valuable of all human enjoyments4 ,reid is careful to observe that this moral faculty is not innate except in germ2 it stands in need of education1 training1 exercise 7for which society is indispensable71 and habit1 in order to the attainment of moral truth4 ,he does not with ,price object to its being called the moral sense1 provided we understand by this a source not merely of feelings or notions1 but of ultimate truths4 ,here he omits to notice the important question whether the premises of moral reasoning are universal or individual judgments2 as to which the use of the term sense seems rather to suggest the second alternative4 ,indeed1 he seems himself quite undecided on this question2 since1 though he generally represents ethical method as deductive1 he also speaks of the original judgment that this action is right and that wrong4 ,the truth is that the construction of a scientific method of ethics is a matter of little practical moment to ,reid4 ,thus1 though he offers a list of first principles1 by deduction from which these common opinions may be confirmed1 he does not present it with any claim to completeness4 ,besides maxims relating to virtue in general1--such as 7#a7 that there is a right and wrong in conduct1 but 7#b7 only in voluntary conduct1 and that we ought 7#c7 to take pains to learn our duty1 and 7#d7 fortify ourselves against temptations to deviate from it--,reid states five fundamental axioms4 ,the first of these is merely the principle of rational self-love1 that we ought to prefer a greater to a lesser good1 though more distinct1 and a less evil to a greater1--the mention of which seems rather inconsistent with ,reid's distinct separation of the moral faculty from self-love4 ,the third is merely the general rule of benevolence stated in the somewhat vague ,stoical formula1 that no one is born for himself only4 ,the fourth1 again1 is the merely formal principle that right and wrong must be the same to all in all circumstances1 which belongs equally to all systems of objective morality2 while the fifth prescribes the religious duty of veneration or submission to ,god4 ,thus1 the only principle which ever appears to offer definite guidance as to social duty is the second1 that so far as the intention of nature appears in the constitution of man1 we ought to act according to that intention1 the vagueness#ch of which is obvious4 7,for ,reid's views on moral freedom see ,a4 ,bain1 ,mental ,science1 pp4 #dbb1 seq47 ,dugald ,stewart4 ,a similar incompleteness in the statement of moral principles is found if we turn to ,reid's disciple1 ,dugald ,stewart1 whose ,philosophy of the ,active and ,moral ,powers of ,man 7#ahbh7 contains the general view of ,butler and ,reid1 and to some extent that of ,price1--expounded with more fulness and precision1 but without important original additions or modifications4 ,stewart lays stress on the obligation of justice as distinct from benevolence2 but his definition of justice represents it as essentially impartiality1--a virtue which 7as was just now said of ,reid's fourth principle7 must equally find a place in the utilitarian or any other system that lays down universally applicable rules of morality4 ,afterwards1 however1 ,stewart distinguishes integrity or honesty as a branch of justice concerned with the rights of other men1 which form the subject of natural jurisprudence4 ,in this department he lays down the moral axiom that the labourer is entitled to the fruit of his own labour as the principle on which complete rights of property are founded2 maintaining that occupancy alone would only confer a transient right of possession during use4 ,the only other principles which he discusses are veracity and fidelity to promises1 gratitude being treated as a natural instinct prompting to a particular kind of just actions4 ,whewell4 ,it will be seen that neither ,reid nor ,stewart offers more than a very meagre and tentative contribution to that ethical science by which1 as they maintain1 the received rules of morality may be rationally deduced from self-evident first principles4 ,a more ambitious attempt in the same direction was made by ,whewell in his ,elements of ,morality 7#ahdf74 ,whewell's general moral view differs from that of his ,scottish predecessors chiefly in a point where we may trace the influence of ,kant--viz4 in his rejection of self-love as an independent rational and governing principle1 and his consequent refusal to admit happiness1 apart from duty1 as a reasonable end for the individual4 ,the moral reason1 thus left in sole supremacy1 is represented as enunciating five ultimate principles1--those of benevolence1 justice1 truth1 purity and order4 ,with a little straining these are made to correspond to five chief divisions of ,jus1--personal security 7benevolence being opposed to the ill-will that commonly causes personal injuries71 property1 contract1 marriage and government2 while the first1 second and fourth1 again1 regulate respectively the three chief classes of human motives1--affections1 mental desires and appetites4 ,thus the list1 with the addition of two general principles1 earnestness and moral purpose1 has a certain air of systematic completeness4 ,when1 however1 we look closer1 we find that the principle of order1 or obedience to government1 is not seriously intended to imply the political absolutism which it seems to express1 and which ,english common sense emphatically repudiates2 while the formula of justice is given in the tautological or perfectly indefinite proposition that every man ought to have his own4 ,whewell1 indeed1 explains that this latter formula must be practically interpreted by positive law1 though he inconsistently speaks as if it supplied a standard for judging laws to be right or wrong4 ,the principle of purity1 again1 that the lower parts of our nature ought to be subject to the higher1 merely particularizes that supremacy of reason over non-rational impulses which is involved in the very notion of reasoned morality4 ,thus1 in short1 if we ask for a clear and definite fundamental intuition1 distinct from regard for happiness1 we find really nothing in ,whewell's doctrine except the single rule of veracity 7including fidelity to promises72 and even of this the axiomatic character becomes evanescent on closer inspection1 since it is not maintained that the rule is practically unqualified1 but only that it is practically undesirable to formulate its qualifications4 ,intuitional and utilitarian schools4 ,on the whole1 it must be admitted that the doctrine of the intuitional school of the #ahth and #aith centuries has been developed with less care and consistency than might have been expected1 in its statement of the fundamental axioms or intuitively known premises of moral reasoning4 ,and if the controversy which this school has conducted with utilitarianism had turned principally on the determination of the matter of duty1 there can be little doubt that it would have been forced into more serious and systematic effort to define precisely and completely the principles and method on which we are to reason deductively to particular rules of conduct4#ci ,but in fact the difference between intuitionists and utilitarians as to the method of determining the particulars of the moral code was complicated with a more fundamental disagreement as to the very meaning of moral obligation4 ,this ,paley and ,bentham 7after ,locke7 interpreted as merely the effect on the will of the pleasures or pains attached to the observance or violation of moral rules1 combining with this the doctrine of ,hutcheson that general good or happiness is the final end and standard of these rules2 while they eliminated all vagueness from the notion of general happiness by defining it to consist in excess of pleasure over pain--pleasures and pains being regarded as differing in nothing but continuance or intensity4 ,the utilitarian system gained an attractive air of simplicity by thus using a single perfectly clear notion--pleasure and its negative quantity pain--to answer both the fundamental questions of mortals1 ,what is right8 and ,why should ,i do it8 ,but since there is no logical connexion between the answers that have thus come to be considered as one doctrine1 this apparent unity and simplicity has really hidden fundamental disagreements1 and caused no little confusion in ethical debate4 ,paley4 ,in ,paley's ,principles of ,moral and ,political ,philosophy#dj 7#aghe71 the link between general pleasure 7the standard7 and private pleasure or pain 7the motive7 is supplied by the conception of divine legislation4 ,to be obliged is to be urged by a violent motive resulting from the command of another2 in the case of moral obligation1 the command proceeds from ,god1 and the motive lies in the expectation of being rewarded and punished after this life4 ,the commands of ,god are to be ascertained from scripture and the light of nature combined4 ,paley1 however1 holds that scripture is given less to teach morality than to illustrate it by example and enforce it by new sanctions and greater certainty1 and that the light of nature makes it clear that ,god wills the happiness of his creatures4 ,hence1 his method in deciding moral questions is chiefly that of estimating the tendency of actions to promote or diminish the general happiness4 ,to meet the obvious objections to this method1 based on the immediate happiness caused by admitted crimes 7such as knocking a rich villain on the head71 he lays stress on the necessity of general rules in any kind of legislation2#da while1 by urging the importance of forming and maintaining good habits1 he partly evades the difficulty of calculating the consequences of particular actions4 ,in this way the utilitarian method is freed from the subversive tendencies which ,butler and others had discerned in it2 as used by ,paley1 it merely explains the current moral and jural distinctions1 exhibits the obvious basis of expediency which supports most of the received rules of law and morality and furnishes a simple solution1 in harmony with common sense1 of some perplexing casuistical questions4 ,thus 7e4g47 natural rights become rights of which the general observance would be useful apart from the institution of civil government2 as distinguished from the no less binding adventitious rights1 the utility of which depends upon this institution4 ,private property is in this sense natural from its obvious advantages in encouraging labour1 skill1 preservative care2 though actual rights of property depend on the general utility of conforming to the law of the land by which they are determined4 ,we observe1 however1 that ,paley's method is often mixed with reasonings that belong to an alien and older manner of thought2 as when he supports the claim of the poor to charity by referring to the intention of mankind when they agreed to a separation of the common fund1 or when he infers that monogamy is a part of the divine design from the equal numbers of males and females born4 ,in other cases his statement of utilitarian considerations is fragmentary and unmethodical1 and tends to degenerate into loose exhortation on rather trite topics4 ,bentham and his school4 ,in unity1 consistency and thoroughness of method1 ,bentham's utilitarianism has a decided superiority over ,paley's4 ,he considers actions solely in respect of their pleasurable and painful consequences1 expected or actual2 and he recognizes the need of making a systematic register of these consequences1 free from the influences of common moral opinion1 as expressed in the eulogistic and dyslogistic terms in ordinary use4 ,further1 the effects that he estimates are all of a definite1 palpable1 empirically ascertainable quality2 they are such pleasures and pains as most men feel and all can observe1 so that all his political or moral inferences lie open at every point to the test of practical experience4 ,every one1 it would seem1 can tell what value he sets on the pleasures of alimentation1 sex1 the senses generally1 wealth1 power1 curiosity1 sympathy1 antipathy 7malevolence71 the goodwill of individuals or of society at large1 and on the corresponding pains1 as well as the pains of labour and organic disorders2#db and can guess the rate at which they are valued by others2 therefore if it be once granted that all actions are determined by pleasures and pains1 and are to be tried by the same standard1 the art of legislation and private conduct is apparently placed on an empirical1 basis4 ,bentham1 no doubt1 seems to go beyond the limits of experience proper in recognizing religious pains and pleasures in his fourfold division of sanctions1 side by side with the physical1 political1 and moral or social2 but the truth is that he does not seriously take account of them1 except in so far as religious hopes and fears are motives actually operating1 which therefore admit of being observed and measured as much as any other motives4 ,he does not himself use the will of an omnipotent and benevolent being as a means of logically connecting individual and general happiness4 ,he thus undoubtedly simplifies his system1 and avoids the doubtful inferences from nature and ,scripture in which ,paley's position is involved2 but this gain is dearly purchased4 ,for in answer to the question that immediately arises1 ,how then are the sanctions of the moral rules which it will most conduce to the general happiness for men to observe1 shown to be always adequate in the case of all the individuals whose observance is required8 he is obliged to admit that the only interests which a man is at all times sure to find adequate motives for consulting are his own4 ,indeed1 in many parts of his work1 in the department of legislative and constitutional theory1 it is rather assumed that the interests of some men will continually conflict with those of their fellows1 unless we alter the balance of prudential calculation by a readjustment of penalties4 ,but on this assumption a system of private conduct on utilitarian principles cannot be constructed until legislative and constitutional reform has been perfected4 ,and1 in fact1 private ethics1 as conceived by ,bentham1 does not exactly expound such a system2 but rather exhibits the coincidence1 so far as it extends1 between private and general happiness1 in that part of each man's conduct that lies beyond the range of useful legislation4 ,it was not his place1 as a practical philanthropist1 to dwell on the defects in this coincidence2#dc and since what men generally expect from a moralist is a completely reasoned account of what they ought to do1 it is not surprising that some of ,bentham's disciples should have either ignored or endeavoured to supply the gap in his system4 ,one section of the school even maintained it to be a cardinal doctrine of utilitarianism that a man always gains his own greatest happiness by promoting that of others2 another section1 represented by ,john ,austin1 apparently returned to ,paley's position1 and treated utilitarian morality#dd as a code of divine legislation2 others1 with ,grote1 are content to abate the severity of the claims made by general happiness on the individual1 and to consider utilitarian duty as practically limited by reciprocity2 while on the opposite side an unqualified subordination of private to general happiness was advocated by ,j4,s4 ,mill1 who did more than any other member of the school to spread and popularize utilitarianism in ethics and politics4 ,varieties of utilitarian doctrine4 ,j4,s4 ,mill4 ,the fact is that there are several different ways in which a utilitarian system of morality may be used1 without deciding whether the sanctions attached to it are always adequate4 7#a7 ,it may be presented as practical guidance to all who choose general good as their ultimate end1 whether they do so on religious grounds1 or through the predominance in their minds of impartial sympathy1 or because their conscience acts in harmony with utilitarian principles1 or for any combination of these or any other reasons2 or 7#b7 it may be offered as a code to be obeyed not absolutely1 but only so far as the coincidence of private and general interest may in any case be judged to extend2 or again 7#c7 it may be proposed as a standard by which men may reasonably agree to praise and blame the conduct of others1 even though they may not always think fit to act on it4 ,we may regard morality as a kind of supplementary legislation1 supported by public opinion1 which we may expect the public1 when duly enlightened1 to frame in accordance with the public interest4 ,still1 even from this point of view1 which is that of the legislator or social reformer rather than the moral philosopher1 our code of duty must be greatly influenced by our estimate of the degrees in which men are normally influenced by self-regard 7in its ordinary sense of regard for interests not sympathetic7 and by sympathy or benevolence1 and of the range within which sympathy may be expected to be generally effective4 ,thus1 for example1 the moral standard for which a utilitarian will reasonably endeavour to gain the support of public opinion must be essentially different in quality1 according as he holds with ,bentham that nothing but self-regard will serve for diet1 though for a dessert benevolence is a very valuable addition2 or with ,j4,s4 ,mill that disinterested public spirit should be the prominent motive in the performance of all socially useful work1 and that even hygienic precepts should be inculcated1 not chiefly on grounds of prudence1 but because by squandering our health we disable ourselves from rendering services to our fellow-creatures4 ,not less important is the interval that separates ,bentham's polemical attitude towards the moral sense from ,mill's conciliatory position1 that the mind is not in a state conformable to utility unless it loves virtue as a thing desirable in itself4 ,such love of virtue ,mill holds to be in a sense natural1 though not an ultimate and inexplicable fact of human nature2 it is to be explained by the ,law of ,association of feelings and ideas1 through which objects originally desired as a means to some further end come to be directly pleasant or desirable4 ,thus1 the miser first sought money as a means to comfort1 but ends by sacrificing comfort to money2 and similarly though the first promptings to justice 7or any other virtue7 spring from the non-moral pleasures gained or pains avoided by it1 through the link formed by repeated virtuous acts the performance of them ultimately comes to have that immediate satisfaction attached to it which we distinguished as moral4 ,indeed1 the acquired tendency to virtuous conduct may become so strong that the habit of willing it may continue1 even when the reward which the virtuous man receives from the consciousness of well-doing is anything but an equivalent for the sufferings he undergoes or the wishes he may have to renounce4 ,it is thus that the before-mentioned self-sacrifice of the moral hero is conceived by ,mill to be possible and actual4 ,the moral sentiments1 on this view1 are not phases of self-love as ,hobbes held2 nor can they be directly identified with sympathy1 either in ,hume's way or in ,adam ,smith's2 in fact1 though apparently simple they are really derived in a complex manner from self-love and sympathy combined with more primitive impulses4 ,justice 7e4g47 is regarded by ,mill as essentially resentment moralized by enlarged sympathy and intelligent self-interest2 what we mean by injustice is harm done to an assignable individual by a breach of some rule for which we desire the violator to be punished1 for the sake both of the person injured and of society at large1 including ourselves4 ,as regards moral sentiments generally1 the view suggested by ,mill is more definitely given by the chief living representative of the associationist school1 ,alexander ,bain2 by whom the distinctive characteristics of conscience are traced to education under government or authority1 though prudence1 disinterested sympathy and other emotions combine to swell the mass of feeling vaguely denoted by the term moral4 ,the combination of antecedents is somewhat differently given by different writers2 but all agree in representing the conscience of any individual as naturally correlated to the interests of the community of which he is a member1 and thus a natural ally in enforcing utilitarian rules1 or even a valuable guide when utilitarian calculations are difficult and uncertain4 ,association and evolution4 ,this substitution of hypothetical history for direct analysis of the moral sense is really older than the utilitarianism of ,paley and ,bentham1 which it has so profoundly modified4 ,the effects of association in modifying mental phenomena were noticed by ,locke1 and made a cardinal point in the metaphysic of ,hume2 who also referred to the principle slightly in his account of justice and other artificial virtues4 ,some years earlier1 ,gay1#de admitting ,hutcheson's proof of the actual disinterestedness of moral and benevolent impulses1 had maintained that these 7like the desires of knowledge or fame1 the delight of reading1 hunting and planting1 c47 were derived from self-love by the power of association4 ,but a thorough and systematic application of the principle to ethical psychology is first found in ,hartley's ,observations on ,man 7#agdh74 ,hartley1 too1 was the first to conceive association as producing1 instead of mere cohesion of mental phenomena1 a quasi-chemical combination of these into a compound apparently different from its elements4 ,he shows elaborately how the pleasures and pains of imagination1 ambition1 self-interest1 sympathy1 theopathy1 and the moral sense are developed out of the elementary pleasures and pains of sensation2 by the coalescence into really complex but apparently single ideas of the miniatures or faint feelings which the repetition of sensations contemporaneously or in immediate succession tends to produce in cohering groups4 ,his theory assumes the correspondence of mind and body1 and is applied pari passu to the formation of ideas from sensations1 and of compound vibratiuncules in the medullary substance from the original vibrations that arise in the organ of sense4#df ,the same general view was afterwards developed with much vigour and clearness on the psychical side alone by ,james ,mill in his ,analysis of the ,human ,mind4 ,the whole theory has been persistently controverted by writers of the intuitional school1 who 7unlike ,hartley7 have usually thought that this derivation of moral sentiments from more primitive feelings would be detrimental to the authority of the former4 ,the chief argument against this theory has been based on the early period at which these sentiments are manifested by children1 which hardly allows time for association to produce the effects ascribed to it4 ,this argument has been met in recent times by the application to mind of the physiological theory of heredity1 according to which changes produced in the mind 7brain7 of a parent1 by association of ideas or otherwise1 tend to be inherited by his offspring2 so that the development of the moral sense or any other faculty or susceptibility of existing man may be hypothetically carried back into the prehistoric life of the human race1 without any change in the manner of derivation supposed4 ,at present1 however1 the theory of heredity is usually held in conjunction with ,darwin's theory of natural selection2 according to which different kinds of living things in the course of a series of generations come gradually to be endowed with organs1 faculties and habits tending to the preservation of the individual or species under the conditions of life in which it is placed4 ,thus we have a new zoological factor in the history of the moral sentiments2 which1 though in no way opposed to the older psychological theory of their formation through coalescence of more primitive feelings1 must yet be conceived as controlling and modifying the effects of the law of association by preventing the formation of sentiments other than those tending to the preservation of human life4 ,the influence of the ,darwinian theory1 moreover1 has extended from historical psychology to ethics1 tending to substitute preservation of the race under its conditions of existence for happiness as the ultimate end and standard of virtue4 ,free-will4 ,before concluding this sketch of the development of ,english ethical thought from ,hobbes to the thinkers of the #aith century1 it will be well to notice briefly the views held by different moralists on the question of free-will1--so far1 that is1 as they have been put forward as ethically important4 ,we must first distinguish three meanings in which freedom is attributed to the will or inner self of a human being1 viz4 7#a7 the general power of choosing among different alternatives of action without a motive1 or against the resultant force of conflicting motives2 7#b7 the power of choice between the promptings of reason and those of appetites 7or other non-rational impulses7 when the latter conflict with reason2 7#c7 merely the quality of acting rationally in spite of conflicting impulses1 however strong1 the non posse peccare of the medieval theologians4#dg ,it is obvious that freedom in this third sense is in no way incompatible with complete determination2 and1 indeed1 is rather an ideal state after which the moral agent ought to aspire than a property which the human will can be said to possess4 ,in the first sense1 again1 as distinct from the second1 the assertion of freedom has no ethical significance1 except in so far as it introduces a general uncertainty into all our inferences respecting human conduct4 ,even in the second sense it hardly seems that the freedom of a man's will can be an element to be considered in examining what it is right or best for him to do 7though of course the clearest convictions of duty will be fruitless if a man has not sufficient self-control to enable him to act on them72 it is rather when we ask whether it is just to punish him for wrong-doing that it seems important to know whether he could have done otherwise4 ,but in spite of the strong interest taken in the theological aspect of this question by the ,protestant divines of the #agth century1 it does not appear that ,english moralists from ,hobbes to ,hume laid any stress on the relation of free-will either to duty generally or to justice in particular4 ,neither the doctrine of ,hobbes1 that deliberation is a mere alternation of competing desires1 voluntary action immediately following the last appetite1 nor the hardly less decided ,determinism of ,locke1 who held that the will is always moved by the greatest present uneasiness1 appeared to either author to require any reconciliation with the belief in human responsibility4 ,even in ,clarke's system1 where ,indeterminism is no doubt a cardinal notion1 its importance is metaphysical rather than ethical2 ,clarke's view being that the apparently arbitrary particularity in the constitution of the cosmos is really only explicable by reference to creative free-will4 ,in the ethical discussion of ,shaftesbury and sentimental moralists generally this question drops naturally out of sight2 and the cautious ,butler tries to exclude its perplexities as far as possible from the philosophy of practice4 ,but since the reaction1 led by ,price and ,reid1 against the manner of philosophizing that had culminated in ,hume1 free-will has been generally maintained by the intuitional school to be an essential point of ethics2 and1 in fact1 it is naturally connected with the judgment of good and ill desert which these writers give as an essential element in their analysis of the moral consciousness4 ,an irresistible motive1 it is forcibly said1 palliates or takes away guilt2 no one can blame himself for yielding to necessity1 and no one can properly be punished for what he could not have prevented4 ,in answer to this argument some necessarians have admitted that punishment can be legitimate only if it be beneficial to the person punished2 others1 again1 have held that the lawful use of force is to restrain lawless force2 but most of those who reject free-will defend punishment on the ground of its utility in deterring others from crime1 as well as in correcting or restraining the criminal on whom it falls4 ,french influence on ,english ethics4 ,helvetius4 ,in the preceding sketch we have traced the course of ,english ethical speculation without bringing it into relation with contemporary ,european thought on the same subject4 ,and in fact almost all the systems described1 from ,hobbes downward1 have been of essentially native growth1 showing hardly any traces of foreign influence4 ,we may observe that ethics is the only department in which this result appears4 ,the physics and psychology of ,descartes were much studied in ,england1 and his metaphysical system was certainly the most important antecedent of ,locke's2 but ,descartes hardly touched ethics proper4 ,so again the controversy that ,clarke conducted with ,spinoza1 and afterwards with ,leibnitz1 was entirely confined to the metaphysical region4 ,catholic ,france was a school for ,englishmen in many subjects1 but not in morality2 the great struggle between ,jansenists and ,jesuits had a very remote interest for them4 ,it was not till near the close of the #ahth century that the impress of the ,french revolutionary philosophy began to manifest itself in ,england2 and even then its influence was mostly political rather than ethical4 ,it is striking to observe how even in the case of writers such as ,godwin1 who were most powerfully affected by the ,french political movement1 the moral basis1 on which the new social order of rational and equal freedom is constructed1 is almost entirely of native origin2 even when the tone and spirit are ,french1 the forms of thought and manner of reasoning are still purely ,english4 ,in the derivation of ,benthamism alone--which1 it may be observed1 first becomes widely known in the ,french paraphrase of ,dumont--an important element is supplied by the works of a ,french writer1 ,helvetius2 as ,bentham himself was fully conscious4 ,it was from ,helvetius that he learnt that1 men being universally and solely governed by self-love1 the so-called moral judgments are really the common judgments of any society as to its common interests2 that it is therefore futile on the one hand to propose any standard of virtue1 except that of conduciveness to general happiness1 and on the other hand useless merely to lecture men on duty and scold them for vice2 that the moralist's proper function is rather to exhibit the coincidence of virtue with private happiness2 that1 accordingly1 though nature has bound men's interests together in many ways1 and education by developing sympathy and the habit of mutual help may much extend the connexion1 still the most effective moralist is the legislator1 who by acting on self-love through legal sanctions may mould human conduct as he chooses4 ,these few simple doctrines give the ground plan of ,bentham's indefatigable and lifelong labours4 ,comte4 ,so again1 in the modified ,benthamism which the persuasive exposition of ,j4,s4 ,mill afterwards made popular in ,england1 the influence of ,auguste ,comte 7,philosophie positive1 #ahbi-ahdb1 and ,systeme de politique positive1 #ahea-ahed7 appears as the chief modifying element4 ,this influence1 so far as it has affected moral as distinct from political speculation1 has been exercised primarily through the general conception of human progress2 which1 in ,comte's view1 consists in the ever-growing preponderance of the distinctively human attributes over the purely animal1 social feelings being ranked highest among human attributes1 and highest of all the most universalized phase of human affection1 the devotion to humanity as a whole4 ,accordingly1 it is the development of benevolence in man1 and of the habit of living for others1 which ,comte takes as the ultimate aim and standard of practice1 rather than the mere increase of happiness4 ,he holds1 indeed1 that the two are inseparable1 and that the more altruistic any man's sentiments and habits of action can be made1 the greater will be the happiness enjoyed by himself as well as by others4 ,but he does not seriously trouble himself to argue with egoism1 or to weigh carefully the amount of happiness that might be generally attained by the satisfaction of egoistic propensities duly regulated2 a supreme unquestioning self-devotion1 in which all personal calculations are suppressed1 is an essential feature of his moral ideal4 ,such a view is almost diametrically opposed to ,bentham's conception of normal human existence2 the newer utilitarianism of ,mill represents an endeavour to find the right middle path between the two extremes4 ,it is to be observed that1 in ,comte's view1 devotion to humanity is the principle not merely of morality1 but of religion2 i4e4 it should not merely be practically predominant1 but should be manifested and sustained by regular and partly symbolical forms of expression1 private and public4 ,this side of ,comte's system1 however1 and the details of his ideal reconstruction of society1 in which this religion plays an important part1 have had but little influence either in ,england or elsewhere4 ,it is more important to notice the general effect of his philosophy on the method of determining the particulars of morality as well as of law 7as it ought to be74 ,in the utilitarianism of ,paley and ,bentham the proper rules of conduct1 moral and legal1 are determined by comparing the imaginary consequences of different modes of regulation on men and women1 conceived as specimens of a substantially uniform and unchanging type4 ,it is true that ,bentham expressly recognizes the varying influences of climate1 race1 religion1 government1 as considerations which it is important for the legislator to take into account2 but his own work of social construction was almost entirely independent of such considerations1 and his school generally appear to have been convinced of their competence to solve all important ethical and political questions for human beings of all ages and countries1 without regard to their specific differences4 ,but in the ,comtian conception of social science1 of which ethics and politics are the practical application1 the knowledge of the laws of the evolution of society is of fundamental and continually increasing importance2 humanity is regarded as having passed through a series of stages1 in each of which a somewhat different set of laws and institutions1 customs and habits1 is normal and appropriate4 ,thus present man is a being that can only be understood through a knowledge of his past history2 and any effort to construct for him a moral and political ideal1 by a purely abstract and unhistorical method1 must necessarily be futile2 whatever modifications may at any time be desirable in positive law and morality can only be determined by the aid of social dynamics4 ,this view extends far beyond the limits of ,comte's special school or sect1 and has been widely accepted4 ,german influence on ,english ethics4 ,when we turn from ,french philosophy to ,german1 we find the influence of the latter on ,english ethical thought almost insignificant until a very recent period4 ,in the #agth century1 indeed1 the treatise of ,pufendorf on the ,law of ,nature1 in which the general view of ,grotius was restated with modifications1 partly designed to effect a compromise with the doctrine of ,hobbes1 seems to have been a good deal read at ,oxford and elsewhere4 ,locke includes it among the books necessary to the complete education of a gentleman4 ,but the subsequent development of the theory of conduct in ,germany dropped almost entirely out of the cognizance of ,englishmen2 even the long dominant system of ,wolff 7d4 #aged7 was hardly known4 ,nor had ,kant any serious influence in ,england until the second quarter of the #aith century4 ,we find1 however1 distinct traces of ,kantian influence in ,whewell and other writers of the intuitional school1 and at a later date it became so strong that its importance on subsequent ethical thought can scarcely be over-estimated4 ,kant4 ,categorical ,imperative4 ,the ,english moralist with whom ,kant has most affinity is ,price2 in fact1 ,kantism1 in the ethical thought of modern ,europe1 holds a place somewhat analogous to that formerly occupied by the teaching of ,price and ,reid among ,english moralists4 ,kant1 like ,price and ,reid1 holds that man as a rational being is unconditionally bound to conform to a certain rule of right1 or categorical imperative of reason4 ,like ,price he holds that an action is not good unless done from a good motive1 and that this motive must be essentially different from natural inclination of any kind2 duty1 to be duty1 must be done for duty's sake2 and he argues1 with more subtlety than ,price or ,reid1 that though a virtuous act is no doubt pleasant to the virtuous agent1 and any violation of duty painful1 this moral pleasure 7or pain7 cannot strictly be the motive to the act1 because it follows instead of preceding the recognition of our obligation to do it4#dh ,with ,price1 again1 he holds that rightness of intention and motive is not only an indispensable condition or element of the rightness of an action1 but actually the sole determinant of its moral worth2 but with more philosophical consistency he draws the inference--of which the ,english moralist does not seem to have dreamt--that there can be no separate rational principles for determining the material rightness of conduct1 as distinct from its formal rightness2 and therefore that all rules of duty1 so far as universally binding1 must admit of being exhibited as applications of the one general principle that duty ought to be done for duty's sake4 ,this deduction is the most original part of ,kant's doctrine4 ,the dictates of reason1 he points out1 must necessarily be addressed to all rational beings as such2 hence1 my intention cannot be right unless ,i am prepared to will the principle on which ,i act to be a universal law4 ,he considers that this fundamental rule or imperative act on a maxim which thou canst will to be law universal supplies a sufficient criterion for determining particular duties in all cases4 ,the rule excludes wrong conduct with two degrees of stringency4 ,some offences1 such as making promises with the intention of breaking them1 we cannot even conceive universalized2 as soon as every one broke promises no one would care to have promises made to him4 ,other maxims1 such as that of leaving persons in distress to shift for themselves1 we can easily conceive to be universal laws1 but we cannot without contradiction will them to be such2 for when we are ourselves in distress we cannot help desiring that others should help us4 ,another important peculiarity of ,kant's doctrine is his development of the connexion between duty and free-will4 ,he holds that it is through our moral consciousness that we know that we are free2 in the cognition that ,i ought to do what is right because it is right and not because ,i like it1 it is implied that this purely rational volition is possible2 that my action can be determined1 not mechanically1 through the necessary operation of the natural stimuli of pleasurable and painful feelings1 but in accordance with the laws of my true1 reasonable self4 ,the realization of reason1 or of human wills so far as rational1 thus presents itself as the absolute end of duty2 and we get1 as a new form of the fundamental practical rule1 act so as to treat humanity1 in thyself or any other1 as an end always1 and never as a means only4 ,we may observe1 too1 that the notion of freedom connects ethics with jurisprudence in a simple and striking manner4 ,the fundamental aim of jurisprudence is to realize external freedom by removing the hindrances imposed on each one's free action through the interferences of other wills4 ,ethics shows how to realize internal freedom by resolutely pursuing rational ends in opposition to those of natural inclination4 ,if we ask what precisely are the ends of reason1 ,kant's proposition that all rational beings as such are ends in themselves for every rational being hardly gives a clear answer4 ,it might be interpreted to mean that the result to be practically sought is simply the development of the rationality of all rational beings--such as men--whom we find to be as yet imperfectly rational4 ,but this is not ,kant's view4 ,he holds1 indeed1 that each man should aim at making himself the most perfect possible instrument of reason2 but he expressly denies that the perfection of others can be similarly prescribed as an end to each4 ,it is1 he says1 a contradiction to regard myself as in duty bound to promote the perfection of another1 444 a contradiction to make it a duty for me to do something for another which no other but himself can do4 ,in what practical sense1 then1 am ,i to make other rational beings my ends8 ,kant's answer is that what each is to aim at in the case of others is not ,perfection1 but ,happiness1 i4e4 to help them to attain those purely subjective ends that are determined for each not by reason1 but by natural inclination4 ,he explains also that to seek one's own happiness cannot be prescribed as a duty1 because it is an end to which every man is inevitably impelled by natural inclination3 but that just because each inevitably desires his own happiness1 and therefore desires that others should assist him in time of need1 he is bound to make the happiness of others his ethical end1 since he cannot morally demand aid from others1 without accepting the obligation of aiding them in like case4 ,the exclusion of private happiness from the ends at which it is a duty to aim contrasts strikingly with the view of ,butler and ,reid1 that man1 as a rational being1 is under a manifest obligation to seek his own interest4 ,the difference1 however1 is not really so great as it seems2 since in another part of his system ,kant fully recognizes the reasonableness of the individual's regard for his own happiness4 ,though duty1 in his view1 excludes regard for private happiness1 the summum bonum is not duty alone1 but happiness combined with moral worth2 the demand for happiness as the reward of duty is so essentially reasonable that we must postulate a universal connexion between the two as the order of the universe2 indeed1 the practical necessity of this postulate is the only adequate rational ground that we have for believing in the existence of ,god4 ,hegel4 ,before the ethics of ,kant had begun to be seriously studied in ,england1 the rapid and remarkable development of metaphysical view and method of which the three chief stages are represented by ,fichte1 ,schelling and ,hegel respectively had already taken place2 and the system of the latter was occupying the most prominent position in the philosophical thought of ,germany4#di ,hegel's ethical doctrine 7expounded chiefly in his ,philosophie des ,rechts1 #ahba7 shows a close affinity1 and also a striking contrast1 to ,kant's4 ,he holds1 with ,kant1 that duty or good conduct consists in the conscious realization of the free reasonable will1 which is essentially the same in all rational beings4 ,but in ,kant's view the universal content of this will is only given in the formal condition of only acting as one can desire all to act1 to be subjectively applied by each rational agent to his own volition2 whereas ,hegel conceives the universal will as objectively presented to each man in the laws1 institutions and customary morality of the community of which he is a member4 ,thus1 in his view1 not merely natural inclinations towards pleasures1 or the desires for selfish happiness1 require to be morally resisted2 but even the prompting of the individual's conscience1 the impulse to do what seems to him right1 if it comes into conflict with the common sense of his community4 ,it is true that ,hegel regards the conscious effort to realize one's own conception of good as a higher stage of moral development than the mere conformity to the jural rules establishing property1 maintaining contract and allotting punishment to crime1 in which the universal will is first expressed2 since in such conformity this will is only accomplished accidentally by the outward concurrence of individual wills1 and is not essentially realized in any of them4 ,he holds1 however1 that this conscientious effort is self-deceived and futile1 is even the very root of moral evil1 except it attains its realization in harmony with the objective social relations in which the individual finds himself placed4 ,of these relations the first grade is constituted by the family1 the second by civil society1 and the third by the state1 the organization of which is the highest manifestation of universal reason in the sphere of practice4 ,hegelianism appears as a distinct element in modern ,english ethical thought2 but the direct influence of ,hegel's system is perhaps less important than that indirectly exercised through the powerful stimulus which it has given to the study of the historical development of human thought and human society4 ,according to ,hegel1 the essence of the universe is a process of thought from the abstract to the concrete2 and a right understanding of this process gives the key for interpreting the evolution in time of ,european philosophy4 ,so again1 in his view1 the history of mankind is a history of the necessary development of the free spirit through the different forms of political organization3 the first being that of the ,oriental monarchy1 in which freedom belongs to the monarch only2 the second1 that of the ,graeco-,roman republics1 in which a select body of free citizens is sustained on a basis of slavery2 while finally in the modern societies1 sprung from the ,teutonic invasion of the decaying ,roman empire1 freedom is recognized as the natural right of all members of the community4 ,the effect of the lectures 7posthumously edited7 in which ,hegel's ,philosophy of ,history and ,history of ,philosophy were expounded1 has extended far beyond the limits of his special school2 indeed1 the predominance of the historical method in all departments of the theory of practice is not a little due to their influence4 7,h4 ,s42 ,x47 ,d4 ,ethics since #ahgi4--;,ethical controversies1 like most other speculative disputes1 have1 during the latter part of the #aith and the beginning of the #bjth century1 centred round ,darwinian theories4 ,the chief characteristic of ,english moral philosophy in its previous history has been its comparative isolation from great movements1 sometimes contemporary movements1 of philosophical or scientific thought4 ,ethics in ,england no less than on the continent of ,europe suffered until the time of ,bacon from the excessive domination of theological dogma and the traditional scholastic and ,aristotelian philosophy4 ,but the moral philosophy of the #ahth century1 freed from scholastic trammels1 was a genuine native product1 arising out of the real problem of conduct and reaching its conclusions1 at least ostensibly1 by an analysis of1 and an appeal to1 the facts of conduct and the nature of morality4 ,even at the beginning of the #aith century1 when the main interest of writers who belonged to the ,utilitarian school was mainly political1 the influence of political theories upon contemporary moral philosophy was upon the whole an influence of which the moral philosophers themselves were unconscious2 and from the nature of things moral and political philosophy have a tendency to become one and the same inquiry4 ,mill1 it is true1 and ,comte both encouraged the idea that society and conduct alike were susceptible of strictly scientific investigation4 ,but the attempt not only to treat ethics scientifically1 but actually to subordinate the principles of conduct to the principles of existing biological science or group of sciences biological in character1 was reserved for post-,darwinian moral philosophers4 ,that attempt has not1 in the opinion of the majority of critics1 been successful1 and perhaps what is most permanent in the contribution of modern times to ethical theory will ultimately be attributed to philosophers antagonistic to evolutionary ethics4 ,nevertheless the application of the historical method to inquiries concerning the facts of morality and the moral life--itself part of the great movement of thought to which ,darwin gave the chief impetus--has caused moral problems to be presented in a novel aspect2 while the influence of ,darwinism upon studies which have considerable bearing upon ethics1 e4g4 anthropology or the study of comparative religion1 has been incalculable4 ,the other great movement in modern moral philosophy due to the influence of ,german1 and especially ,hegelian1 idealism followed naturally for the most part from the revival of interest in metaphysics noticeable in the latter half of the #aith century4 ,but metaphysical systems of ethics are no novelty even in ,england1 and1 while the increased interest in ultimate issues of philosophy has enormously deepened and widened men's appreciation of moral problems and the issues involved in conduct1 the actual advance in ethical theory produced by such speculations has been comparatively slight4 ,what is of lasting importance is the re-affirmation upon metaphysical grounds of the right of the moral consciousness to state and solve its own difficulties1 and the successful repulsion of the claims of particular sciences such as biology to include the sphere of conduct within their scope and methods4 ,and both evolutionary and idealistic ethics agree in repudiating the standpoint of narrow individualism1 alike insist upon the necessity of regarding the self as social in character1 and regard the end of moral progress as only realizable in a perfect society4 ,it is perhaps too much to hope that the long-continued controversy between hedonists and anti-hedonists has been finally settled4 ,but certainly few modern moral philosophers would be found in the present day ready to defend the crudities of hedonistic psychology as they appear in ,bentham and ,mill4 ,a certain common agreement has been reached concerning the impossibility of regarding pleasure as the sole motive criterion and end of moral action1 though different opinions still prevail as to the place occupied by pleasure in the summum bonum1 and the possibility of a hedonistic calculus4 ,the failure of laissez-faire individualism in politics to produce that common prosperity and happiness which its advocates hoped for caused men to question the egoistic basis upon which its ethical counterpart was constructed4 ,similarly the comparative failure of science to satisfy men's aspirations alike in knowledge and1 so far as the happiness of the masses is concerned1 in practice has been largely instrumental in producing that revolt against material prosperity as the end of conduct which is characteristic of idealist moral philosophy4 ,to this revolt1 and to the general tendency to find the principle of morality in an ideal good present to the consciousness of all persons capable of acting morally1 the widespread recognition of reason as the ultimate court of appeal alike in religion or politics1 and latterly in economics also1 has no doubt contributed largely4 ,in the main the appeal to reason has followed the traditional course of such movements in ethics1 and has reaffirmed in the light of fuller reflection the moral principles implicit in the ordinary moral consciousness4 ,it is only in the present day that there are noticeable signs of dissatisfaction with current morality itself1 and a tendency to substitute or advocate a new morality based ostensibly upon conclusions derived from the facts of scientific observation4 ,darwin4 ,darwin himself seems never to have questioned1 in the sceptical direction in which his followers have applied his principles1 the absolute character of moral obligation4 ,what interested him chiefly1 in so far as he made a study of morality1 was the development of moral conduct in its preliminary stages4 ,he was principally concerned to show that in morality1 as in other departments of human life1 it was not necessary to postulate a complete and abrupt gap between human and merely animal existence1 but that the instincts and habits which contribute to survival in the struggle for existence among animals develop into moral qualities which have a similar value for the preservation of human and social life4 ,regarding the social tendency as originally itself an instinct developed out of parental or filial affection1 he seems to suggest that natural selection1 which was the chief cause of its development in the earlier stages1 may very probably influence the transition from purely tribal and social morality into morality in its later and more complex forms4 ,but he admits that natural selection is not necessarily the only cause1 and he refrains from identifying the fully developed morality of civilized nations with the social instinct4 ,moreover1 he recognizes that qualities1 e4g4 loyalty and sympathy1 which may have been of great service to the tribe in its primitive struggle for existence1 may become a positive hindrance to physical efficiency 7leading as they do to the preservation of the unfit7 at a later stage4 ,nevertheless to check our sympathy would lead to the deterioration of the noblest part of our nature1 and the question1 which is obviously of vital importance1 whether we should obey the dictates of reason1 which would urge us only to such conduct as is conducive to natural selection1 or remain faithful to the noblest part of our nature at the expense of reason1 he leaves unsolved4 ,spencer4 ,it was in ,herbert ,spencer1 the triumphant buccinator novi temporis1 that the advocates of evolutionary ethics found their protagonist4 ,spencer looked to ideas derived from the biological sciences to provide a solution of all the enigmas of morality1 as of most other departments of life2 and he conceived it to be the business of moral science to deduce from the laws of life and the conditions of existence what kinds of action necessarily tend to produce happiness and what kinds to produce unhappiness4 ,it is clear1 therefore1 that any moral science which is to be of value must wait until the laws of life and conditions of existence have been satisfactorily determined1 presumably by biology and the allied sciences2 and there are few more melancholy instances of failure in philosophy than the paucity of the actual results attained by ,spencer in his lifetime in his application of the so-called laws of evolution to human conduct--a failure recognized by ,spencer himself4 ,his own contribution to ethics was vitiated at the outset by the fact that he never shook himself free from the trammels of the philosophy which his own system was intended to supersede4 ,he began by disclaiming any affinity to ,utilitarianism on the part of his own philosophy4 ,he pointed out that the principle of the greatest happiness of the greatest number is a principle without any definite meaning1 since men are nowhere unanimous in their standard of happiness1 but regard the conception of happiness rather as a problem to be solved than a test to be applied4 ,universal happiness would require omniscience to legislate for it and the normal or1 as some would say1 perfect man to desire it2 neither of these conditions of its realization is at present in existence4 ,further1 the principle that everybody is to count for one1 nobody for more than one1 is equally unsatisfactory4 ,it may be taken to imply that the useless and the criminal should be entitled to as much happiness as the useful and the virtuous4 ,while it gives no rule for private as distinct from public conduct1 it provides no real guidance for the legislator4 ,for neither happiness1 nor the concrete means to happiness1 nor finally the conditions of its realization can be distributed2 and in the end not general happiness becomes the ethical standard by which legislative action is to be guided1 but universal justice4 ,yet the implications of this latter conclusion ,spencer never fully thought out4 ,he accepted bodily without farther questioning the hedonistic psychology by which the ,utilitarians sought to justify their theory while he rejected the theory itself4 ,good1 e4g4 defined by him as conduct conducive to life1 is also further defined as that which is conducive to a surplus of pleasures over pains4 ,happiness1 again1 is always regarded as consisting in feeling1 ultimately in pleasant feeling1 and there is no attempt to apply the same principles of criticism which he had successfully applied to the ,utilitarians' happiness to the conception of pleasure4 ,and1 though he maintains as against the ,utilitarians the existence of certain fundamental moral intuitions which have come to be quite independent of any present conscious experience of their utility1 he yet holds that they are the results of accumulated racial experiences gradually organized and inherited4 ,finally1 side by side with a theory of the nature of moral obligation thus fundamentally empirical and a posteriori in its outlook1 he maintains in his account of justice the existence of the idea of justice as distinct from a mere sentiment1 carrying with it an a priori belief in its existence and identical in its a priori and intuitive character with the ultimate criterion of ,utilitarianism itself4 ,the fact is that any close philosophical analysis of ,spencer's system of ethics can only result in the discovery of a multitude of mutually conflicting and for the most part logically untenable theories4 ,it is frequently impossible to discover whether he wishes by an appeal to evolutionary principles to reinforce the sanctions and emphasize the absolute character of the traditional morality which in the main he accepts without question from the current opinions about conduct of his age1 or whether he wishes to discredit and disprove the validity of that morality in order to substitute by the aid of the biological sciences a new ethical code4 ,the argument1 for instance1 that intuitive and a priori beliefs gain their absolute character from the fact that they are the result of continued transmission and accumulation of past nervous modifications in the history of the race would1 if taken seriously1 lead us to the belief that ultimate ethical sanctions are to be sought1 not by an appeal to the moral consciousness1 but by the investigation of brain tissue and the relation of man's bodily organism to its environment4 ,yet such a view would be totally at variance with much that ,spencer says 7especially in his treatment of justice7 concerning the trustworthiness and inevitable character of men's constant appeal to the intuitions of their moral consciousness4 ,moreover1 the very fact itself of the possibility of inheriting acquired moral characteristics is still hotly debated by those biologists with whom should rest the ultimate verdict4 ,again1 the argument that conduct is good or bad according as its total effects are pleasurable or painful1 and that ultimately pleasure-giving acts are life-sustaining acts1 seems to involve ,spencer in a multitude of unverified assumptions and contradictory theories4 ,in the first place it is never clear whether ,spencer regards the fact that a particular course of conduct is accompanied by a feeling of pleasure as a test of its life-preserving and life-sustaining character1 or whether he wishes us to use as our criterion of what is pleasant in conduct the fact that the conduct in question seems conducive to the continued existence of man's organic life4 ,he apparently passes from one criterion to the other as best suits the purpose of the moment4 ,he does not prove the coincidence of life-sustaining and pleasant activities4 ,he assumes throughout that the pleasant is the opposite of what is painful1 and seems unaware of the difficulty of determining by means of terms so highly abstract the specific character of moral action4 ,we find in his theory no satisfactory attempt to discriminate between the pleasure aimed at by the altruist and the immediate pleasure of egoistic action4 ,similarly he disregards the distinction between pleasant feeling as an immediate motive of conduct and the idea of the attainment of future pleasure whether by the race or by the individual4 ,spencer is involved in effect in most of the confusions and contradictions of hedonistic psychology4 ,nor is his attempt to construct a scientific criterion out of data derived from the biological sciences productive of satisfactory results4 ,he is hampered by a distinction between absolute and relative ethics definitely formulated in the last two chapters of ,the ,data of ,ethics4 ,absolute ethics would deal with such laws as would regulate the conduct of ideal man in an ideal society1 i4e4 a society where conduct has reached the stage of complete adjustment to the needs of social life4 ,relative ethics1 on the other hand1 is concerned only with such conduct as is advantageous for that society which has not yet reached the end of complete adaptation to its environment1 i4e4 which is at present imperfect4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that ,spencer does not tell us how to bring the two ethical systems into correlation4 ,and the actual criteria of conduct derived from biological considerations are almost ludicrously inadequate4 ,conduct1 e4g41 is said to be more moral in proportion as it exhibits a tendency on the part of the individual or society to become more definite1 coherent and heterogeneous4 ,or1 again1 we should recognize as a test of the authoritative character of moral ideas or feelings the fact that they are complex and representative1 referring to a remote rather than to a proximate good1 remembering the while that the sense of duty is transitory1 and will diminish as fast as moralization increases4 ,in fact1 no acceptable scientific criterion emerges1 and the outcome of ,spencer's attempt to ascertain the laws of life and the conditions of existence is either a restatement of the dictates of the moral consciousness in vague and cumbrous quasi-scientific phraseology1 or the substitution of the meaningless test of survivability as a standard of perfection for the usual and intelligible standards of good and right4 ,leslie ,stephen4 ,a similar criticism might fairly be passed upon the majority of philosophers who approach ethics from the standpoint of evolution4 ,sir ,leslie ,stephen1 for instance1 wishes to substitute the conception of social health for that of universal happiness1 and considers that the conditions of social health are to be discovered by an examination of the social organism or of social tissue1 the laws of which can be studied apart from those laws by which the individuals composing society regulate their conduct4 ,the social evolution means the evolution of a strong social tissue2 the best type is the type implied by the strongest tissue4 ,but on the important question as to what constitutes the strongest social tissue1 or to what extent the analogy between society as at present constituted and organic life is really applicable1 we are left without certain guidance4 ,the fact is that with few exceptions evolutionary moral philosophers evade the choice between alternatives which is always presented to them4 ,they begin1 for the most part1 with a belief that in ethics as in other departments of human knowledge the more developed must be interpreted by the less developed--though frequently in the sequel complexity or posteriority of development is erected as a standard by means of which to judge the process of development itself4 ,they are not content to write a history of moral development1 applying to it the principles by which ,darwinians seek to explain the development of animal life4 ,but the search of origins frequently leads them into theories of the nature of that moral conduct whose origin they are anxious to find quite at variance with current and accepted beliefs concerning its nature4 ,the discovery of the so-called evolution of morality out of non-moral conditions is very frequently an unconscious subterfuge by which the evolutionist hides the fact that he is making a priori judgments upon the value of the moral concepts held to be evolved4 ,to accept such theories of the origin of morality would carry with it the conviction that what we took for moral conduct was in reality something very different1 and has been so throughout its history4 ,the legitimate inference which should follow would be the denial of the validity of those moral laws which have hitherto been regarded as absolute in character1 and the substitution for all customary moral terms of an entirely new set based upon biological considerations4 ,but it is precisely this1 the only logical inference1 which most evolutionary philosophers are unwilling to draw4 ,they cannot give up their belief in customary morality4 ,professor ,huxley maintained1 for example1 in a famous lecture that the ethical progress of society depends not on imitating the cosmic process1 still less in running away from it1 but in combating it 7,romanes ,lecture1 ad fin474 ,and very frequently arguments are adduced by evolutionists to prove that men's belief in the absolute character of moral precepts is one of the necessary means adopted by nature to carry out her designs for the social welfare of mankind4 ,yet the other alternative1 to which such reasoning points1 they are reluctant to accept4 ,for the belief that moral obligation is absolute in character1 that it is alike impossible to explain its origin and transcend its laws1 would make the search for a scientific criterion of conduct to be deduced from the laws of life and conditions of existence meaningless1 if not absurd4 ,nietzsche4 ,perhaps the one ,european thinker who has carried evolutionary principles in ethics to their logical conclusion is ,friedrich ,nietzsche4 ,almost any system of morality or immorality might find some justification in ,nietzsche's writings1 which are extraordinarily chaotic and full of the wildest exaggerations4 ,yet it has been a true instinct which has led popular opinion as testified to by current literature to find in ,nietzsche the most orthodox exponent of ,darwinian ideas in their application to ethics4 ,for he saw clearly that to be successful evolutionary ethics must involve the transvaluation of all values1 the demoralization of all ordinary current morality4 ,he accepted frankly the glorification of brute strength1 superior cunning and all the qualities necessary for success in the struggle for existence1 to which the ethics of evolution necessarily tend4 ,he proclaimed himself1 before everything else1 a physiologist1 and looked to physiology to provide the ultimate standard for everything that has value2 and though his own ethical code necessarily involves the disappearance of sympathy1 love1 toleration and all existing altruistic emotions1 he yet in a sense finds room for them in such altruistic self-sacrifice as prepares the way for the higher man of the future4 ,thus1 after a fashion1 he is able to reconcile the conflicting claims of egoism and altruism and succeed where most apostles of evolution fail4 ,the ,christian virtues1 sympathy for the weak1 the suffering1 c41 represent a necessary stage to be passed through in the evolution of the ,ubermensch1 i4e4 the stage when the weak and suffering combine in revolt against the strong4 ,they are to be superseded1 not so much because all social virtues are to be scorned and rejected1 as because in their effects1 i4e4 in their tendency to perpetuate and prolong the existence of the weak and those who are least well equipped and endowed by nature1 they are anti-social in character and inimical to the survival of the strongest and most vigorous type of humanity4 ,consequently ,nietzsche in effect maintains the following paradoxical position3 he explains the existence of altruism upon egoistical principles2 he advocates the total abolition of all altruism by carrying these same egoistical principles to their logical conclusion2 he nevertheless appeals to that moral instinct which makes men ready to sacrifice their own narrow personal interests to the higher good of society--an instinct profoundly altruistic in character--as the ultimate justification of the ethics he enunciates4 ,such a position is a reductio ad absurdum of the attempt to transcend the ultimate character of those intuitions and feelings which prompt men to benevolence4 ,thus1 though incidentally there is much to be learned from ,nietzsche1 especially from his criticism of the ethics of pessimism1 or from the strictures he passes upon the negative morality of extreme asceticism or quietism1 his system inevitably provides its own refutation4 ,for no philosophy which travesties the real course of history and distorts the moral facts is likely to commend itself to the sober judgment of mankind however brilliant be its exposition or ingenious its arguments4 ,finally1 the conceptions of strength1 power and masterfulness by which ,nietzsche attempts to determine his own moral ideal1 become1 when examined1 as relative and unsatisfactory as other criteria of moral action said to be deduced from evolutionary principles4 ,men desire strength or power not as ends but as means to ends beyond them2 ,nietzsche is most convincing when the ,ubermensch is left undefined4 ,imagined as ideal man1 i4e4 as morality depicts him1 he becomes intelligible2 imagined as ,nietzsche describes him he reels back into the beast1 and that distinction which chiefly separates man from the animal world out of which he has emerged1 viz4 his unique power of self-consciousness and self-criticism1 is obliterated4 ,t4,h4 ,green4 ,it was upon this crucial difficulty1 i4e4 the transition in the evolution of morality from the stage of purely animal and unconscious action to specifically human action1--i4e4 action directed by self-conscious and purposive intelligence to an end conceived as good1--that the polemic of ,t4,h4 ,green and his idealistic followers fastened4 ,and it is perhaps unfortunate that metaphysical doctrines enunciated chiefly for the purposes of criticism not in themselves vitally necessary to the theory of morality propounded should have been regarded as the main contribution to ethical theory of idealist writers1 and as such treated severely by hostile critics4 ,green's principal objection to evolutionary moral philosophy is contained in the argument that no merely natural explanation of the facts of morality is conceivable4 ,the knowing consciousness1--i4e4 so far as conduct is concerned the moral consciousness1--can never become an object of knowledge in the sense in which natural phenomena are objects of scientific knowledge4 ,for such knowledge implies the existence of a knowing consciousness as a relating and uniting intelligence capable of distinguishing itself from the objects to which it relates4 ,and more particularly the existence of the moral consciousness implies the transition from mere want to consciousness of wanted object1 from impulse to satisfy the want to effort for the realization of the wanted objects1 implies the presence of the want to a subject which distinguishes itself from it4 ,consequently the facts of moral development imply with the emergence of human consciousness the appearance of something qualitatively different from the facts with which physiology for instance deals1 imply a stratum as it were in development which no examination of animal tissues1 no calculation of consequences with regard to the preservation of the species can ever satisfactorily explain4 ,however far back we go in the history of humanity1 if the presence of consciousness be admitted at all1 it will be necessary to admit also the presence to consciousness of an ideal which can be accepted or rejected1 of a power of looking before and after1 and aiming at a future which is not yet fully realized4 ,but unfortunately the temporary exigencies of criticism made it necessary for ,green to emphasize the metaphysic of the self1 i4e4 to insist upon the necessity of a critical examination of the pre-requisites of any form of self-consciousness and especially of the knowing consciousness1 to such an extent that critics have lost sight of the real dependence of his metaphysic upon the direct evidence of the moral consciousness4 ,the philosophic value1 the sincerity1 the breadth and depth of his treatment of moral facts and institutions have been fully recognized4 ,what has not been adequately realized is that the metaphysical basis of his system of ethics--the argument1 for example1 contained in the introduction to the ,prolegomena--is unfairly treated if divorced from his treatment of morals as a whole1 and that it can be justly estimated only if interpreted as much as the conclusion as the starting-point of moral theory4 ,the doctrine of the eternity of the self1 for instance1 against which much criticism 7e4g4 ,taylor1 ,the ,problem of ,conduct1 chap4 ii47 has been directed1 though it is chiefly expressed in the language of epistemology1 has its roots nevertheless in the direct testimony of moral experience4 ,for morality implies a power in the individual of rising above the interests of his own narrower self and identifying himself in the pursuit of a universal good with the true interests of all other selves4 ,similarly the conception of the self as a moral unity arises naturally out of the impossibility of finding the summum bonum in a succession of transient states of consciousness such as hedonism for example postulates4 ,good as a true universal can only be realized by a true self1 and both imply a principle of unity not wholly expressible in terms of the particulars which it unifies4 ,but whether the idealistic interpretation of the nature of universal good be the true one1 i4e4 whether we are justified in identifying that self-consciousness which is capable of grasping the principle of unity with the principle of unity which it grasps is a metaphysical and theistic problem comparatively irrelevant to ,green's moral theory4 ,it would be quite possible to accept his criticisms of naturalism and hedonism while rejecting many of the metaphysical inferences which he draws4 ,a somewhat similar answer might be returned to those critics who find ,green's use of the term self-realization or self-development as characteristic of the moral ideal unsatisfactory4 ,it is quite easy to exhibit the futility of such a conception if understood formally for the practical purposes of moral philosophy4 ,if the phrase be understood to mean the realization of some capacities of the self it does not appear to discriminate sufficiently between the good and bad capacities2 while the realization under present conditions of all the capacities of a self is impossible4 ,and to aim so far as is possible at all-round development would again ignore the distinction between vice and virtue4 ,but used in the sense in which ,green habitually uses it self-realization implies1 as he puts it1 the fulfilment by the good man of his rational capacity or the idea of a best that is in time1 i4e4 the distinction between the good and the bad self is never ignored1 but is the fundamental assumption of his theory4 ,and if it be urged that the expression is in any case tautological1 i4e4 that the good is defined in terms of self-realization and self-realization in terms of the good1 it may be doubted whether any rational system of ethics can avoid a similar imputation4 ,green would admit that in a certain sense the conception of good is indefinable1 i4e4 that it can only be recognized in the particulars of conduct of which it is the universal form4 ,only1 therefore1 to those philosophers who believe in the existence of a criterion of morality1 i4e4 a universal test such as that of pleasure1 happiness and the like1 by which we can judge of the worth of actions1 will ,green's position seem absurd2 since1 on the contrary1 such conceptions as those of self-development or self-realization seem to have a definite and positive value if they call attention to the metaphysical implications of morality and accurately characterize the moral facts4 ,what ambiguity they possess arises from the ambiguity of morality itself4 ,for moral progress consists in the actualization of what is already potentially in existence4 ,the striking merit of ,green's moral philosophy is that the idealism which he advocates is rooted and grounded in moral habits and institutions3 and the metaphysic in which it culminates is based upon principles already implicitly recognized by the moral consciousness of the ordinary man4 ,nothing could be farther from ,green's teaching than the belief that constructive metaphysics could1 unaided by the intuitions of the moral consciousness1 discover laws for the regulation of conduct4 ,taylor4 ,but although ,green's loyalty to the primary facts of the moral consciousness prevented him from constructing a rationalistic system of morals based solely upon the conclusions of metaphysics1 it was perhaps inevitable that the revival of interest in metaphysics so prominent in his own speculations should lead to a more daring criticism of ethical first principles in other writers4 ,bradley's ,ethical ,studies had presented with great brilliancy an idealist theory of morality not very far removed from that of ,green's ,prolegomena4 ,but the publication of ,appearance and ,reality by the same author marked a great advance in philosophical criticism of ethical postulates1 and a growing dissatisfaction with current reconciliations between moral first principles and the conclusions of metaphysics4 ,appearance and ,reality was not primarily concerned with morals1 yet it inevitably led to certain conclusions affecting conduct1 and it was no very long time before these conclusions were elaborated in detail4 ,professor ,a4,e4 ,taylor's ,problem of ,conduct 7#aija7 is one of the most noteworthy and independent contributions to ,moral ,philosophy published in recent years4 ,but it nevertheless follows in the main ,bradley's line of criticism and may therefore be regarded as representative of his school4 ,there are two principal positions in ,professor ,taylor's work3--7#a7 a refusal to base ethics upon metaphysics1 and 7#b7 the discovery of an irreconcilable dualism in the nature of morality which takes many shapes1 but may be summarized roughly as consisting in an ultimate opposition between egoism and altruism4 ,with regard to the first of these ,taylor says 7op4 cit4 p4 #d7 that his object is to show that ethics is as independent of metaphysical speculation for its principles and methods as any of the so-called 'natural sciences'2 that its real basis must be sought not in philosophical theories about the nature of the ,absolute or the ultimate constitution of the ,universe1 but in the empirical facts of human life as they are revealed to us in our concrete everyday experience of the world and mankind1 and sifted and systematized by the sciences of psychology and sociology4444 ,ethics should be regarded as a purely 'positive' or 'experimental' and not as a 'speculative' science4 ,with regard to the second position one quotation will suffice 7op4 cit4 p4 #ahc74 ,altruism and egoism are divergent developments from the common psychological root of primitive ethical sentiment4 ,both developments are alike unavoidable1 and each is ultimately irreconcilable with the other4 ,neither egoism nor altruism can be made the sole basis of moral theory without mutilation of the facts1 nor can any higher category be discovered by the aid of which their rival claims may be finally adjusted4 ,professor ,taylor expounds these two theories with great brilliance of argument and much ingenuity1 yet neither of them will perhaps carry complete conviction to the minds of the majority of his critics4 ,it is curious1 in the first place1 to find the independence of moral philosophy upon metaphysics supported by metaphysical arguments4 ,for whatever may be the real character of the interrelation of moral and metaphysical first principles it is obvious that ,taylor's own dissatisfaction with current moral principles arises from an inability to believe in their ultimate rationality1 i4e4 a belief that they are untenable from the standpoint of ultimate metaphysics2 and perhaps the most interesting portion of his book is the chapter entitled ,beyond ,good and ,bad1 in which the highest and final form of the ethical consciousness of mankind is subjected to searching criticism4 ,but further1 it is becoming increasingly apparent that psychology 7upon which ,taylor would base morality7 itself involves metaphysical assumptions2 its position in fact cannot be stated except as a metaphysical position1 whether that of subjective idealism or any other4 ,and the need which most philosophers have felt for some philosophical foundation for morality arises1 not from any desire to subordinate moral insight to speculative theory1 but because the moral facts themselves are inexplicable except in the light of first principles which metaphysics alone can criticize4 ,taylor himself attempts to find the roots of ethics in the moral sentiments of mankind1 the moral sentiments being primarily feelings or emotions1 though they imply and result in judgments of approval and disapproval upon conduct4 ,but it may be doubted whether he succeeds in clearly distinguishing ethical feelings from ethical judgments1 and if they are to be treated as synonymous it seems difficult to avoid the conclusion that the implications of moral judgment must involve a reference to metaphysics4 ,moreover1 it is obvious that a great part of ,taylor's quarrel with current moral ideals arises from the fact that they do not commend themselves to the moral judgment1 i4e4 from the standpoint of real goodness they are unsatisfactory1 being tainted with evil4 ,hence it appears difficult to reconcile what is in effect a belief in the validity of the judgments of the moral consciousness with a belief that the real source and justification of that consciousness are to be found in the very sentiments and vague mass of floating feelings upon which it pronounces4 ,scepticism seems to be the only possible result of such a position4 ,taylor's polemic against metaphysical systems of ethics is based throughout upon an alleged discrepancy and separation between the facts of moral experience1 the judgments of the moral consciousness1 and theories as to the nature of these which the philosophers whom he attacks would by no means accept4 ,there is no doubt a distinction between morality as a form of consciousness and reflection upon that morality4 ,but such a distinction neither corresponds to1 nor testifies to1 the existence of a distinction between morality as experience and morality as theory or idea4 ,taylor is more persuasive when he is developing his second main thesis--that of the alleged existence of an ultimate dualism in the nature of morality4 ,his accounts of the genesis of the conceptions of obligation and responsibility as of most of the ultimate conceptions with which moral philosophy deals will be accepted or rejected to the extent to which the main contention concerning the psychological basis of ethics commends itself to the reader4 ,but in his exposition of the fundamental contradiction involved in morality elaborated with much care and illustrative argument he appeals for the most part to facts familiar to the unphilosophical moral consciousness4 ,he begins by finding an ultimate opposition between the instincts of self-assertion and instincts which secure the production and protection of the coming generation even in the infra-ethical world with which biology deals4 ,he traces this opposition into the forms in which it appears in the social life of mankind 7as1 e4g41 in the difficulty of reconciling the conflicting claims of individual self-development and self-culture and social service71 and finds a hidden root of insincerity and hypocrisy beneath all morality 7p4 #bdc71 inasmuch as it is not possible to pursue any one type of ideal without some departure from singleness of purpose4 ,and he finds all the conceptions by which men have hoped to reconcile admitted antagonisms and divergencies between moral ideals claiming to be ultimate and authoritative alike unsatisfactory 7p4 #bhe74 ,progress is illusory2 there is no satisfactory goal to which moral development inevitably tends2 religion in which some take refuge when distressed by the inexplicable contradictions of moral conduct itself contains and rests upon an element of make believe 7p4 #dhi74 ,with ,taylor's presentation of the difficulties with which morality is expected to grapple probably few would be found seriously to disagree1 though they might consider it unduly pessimistic4 ,but when he turns what is in effect a statement of certain forms of moral difficulty into an attack upon the logical and coherent character of morality itself1 he is not so likely to command assent4 ,for the difficulty all men meet with in realizing goodness1 or in being moral1 is not in itself evidence of an inherent contradiction in the nature of goodness as such4 ,and what perhaps would first strike an unprejudiced critic in ,taylor's examples of conflicting ideals or antagonistic yet ultimate moral judgments would be the perception that they are not necessarily moral ideas or judgments at all1 and hence necessarily not ultimate4 ,the claims of self-culture and of social service may when considered in the abstract or in some hypothetical case appear antagonistic and irreconcilable4 ,but when they present themselves to the individual moral consciousness it may be safely asserted 7#a7 that there can be only one moral choice possible1 i4e4 that their opposition 7where they are opposed7 involves no conflict of duties2 and 7#b7 that whichever ideal is in the end preferred1 opportunities will nevertheless be provided within its realization for the concurrent realization of activities and capacities ordinarily associated with the ideal alleged to be contradictory4 ,for just as there is no self-realization which does not involve self-sacrifice1 so there is no room for that species of egoism within the confines of morality which is incompatible with social service4 ,it will be clear from the foregoing account of ,taylor's work that the tendency of his thought1 as of that of ,bradley1 is by no means directed to the confirmation or re-establishment of those principles of conduct recognized by the ordinary moral consciousness4 ,psychology or metaphysics tend in their systems to usurp the place of authority formerly assigned to ethics proper4 ,martineau4 ,it would be true on the whole to assert that evolutionary systems of ethics such as those of ,herbert ,spencer1 ,sir ,leslie ,stephen or ,professor ,s4 ,alexander 7,moral ,order and ,progress1 #ahii71 together with the metaphysical theories of morals of which ,t4,h4 ,green and ,bradley and ,taylor are the chief representatives1 have dominated the field of ethical speculation since #ahgj4 ,nevertheless it is only necessary to mention such a work as ,martineau's ,types of ,ethical ,theory to dispel the notion that the type of moral philosophy most characteristically ,english1 i4e4 consisting in the patient analysis of the form and nature of the moral consciousness itself1 has given way or is likely to give way to more ambitious and constructive efforts4 ,martineau's chief endeavour was1 as he himself says1 to interpret1 to vindicate1 and to systematize the moral sentiments1 and if the actual exhibition of what is involved1 e4g41 in moral choice is the vindication of morality ,martineau may be said to have been successful4 ,it is with his interpretation and systematization of the moral sentiments that most of ,martineau's critics have found fault4 ,it is impossible1 e4g41 to accept his ordered hierarchy of springs of action without perceiving that the real principle upon which they can be arranged in order at all must depend upon considerations of circumstances and consequences1 of stations and duties1 with which a strict intuitionalism such as that of ,martineau would have no dealing4#ej ,similarly the notion of ,conscience as a special faculty giving its pronouncements immediately and without reflection cannot be maintained in the face of modern psychological analysis and is untrue to the nature of moral judgment itself4 ,and ,martineau is curiously unsympathetic to the universal and social aspect of morality with which evolutionary and idealist moral philosophers are so largely occupied4 ,nevertheless there have been few moral philosophers who have1 apart from the idiosyncrasies of their special prepossessions1 set forth with clearer insight or with greater nobility of language the essential nature of the moral consciousness4 ,sidgwick4 ,equal in importance to ,martineau's work is ,professor ,sidgwick's ,methods of ,ethics which appeared in #ahgd4 ,the two works are alike in loftiness of outlook and in the fact that they are devoted to the re-examination of the nature of the moral consciousness to the exclusion of alien branches of inquiry4 ,in most other respects they differ4 ,martineau is much more in sympathy with idealism than ,sidgwick1 whose work consists in a restatement from a novel and independent standpoint of the ,utilitarian position4 ,and ,sidgwick has been far more successful than any other moral philosopher with the exception of ,t4,h4 ,green and ,bradley in founding a school of thought4 ,many of his most acute critics would be the first to admit how much they owe to his teaching4 ,chief among the more recent of these is ,g4,e4 ,moore1 whose book ,principia ,ethica is an important original contribution to ethical thought4 ,and although ,dr ,hastings ,rashdall 7,the ,theory of ,good and ,evil ,oxford1 #aijg7 is not in agreement with ,sidgwick's own particular type of hedonistic theory in his own philosophical position1 he occupies a point of view somewhat similar to that of ,sidgwick's main attitude of ,rational ,utilitarianism4 ,rashdall's two volumes exhibit also a welcome return on the part of ,english thought to the proper business of the moral philosopher--the examination of the nature of moral conduct4 ,other works1 such as ,professor ,l4,t4 ,hobhouse's ,morals in ,evolution or ,professor ,e4,a4 ,westermarck's ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas1 testify to a continued interest in the history of morality and in the anthropological inquiries with which moral philosophy is closely connected4 ,much that is of importance for moral philosophy has recently been written upon problems that more properly belong to the philosophy of religion and the theory of knowledge4 ,j4,f4 ,m',taggart's ,studies in ,hegelian ,cosmology1 and his later work1 ,some ,dogmas of ,religion1 contain interesting contributions to the theory of pleasure and of the problem of free will and determinism4 ,a notable instance of this tendency is seen in the developments of the theory of pragmatism 7q4v471 for which ,f4,c4,s4 ,schiller has proposed the general term humanism4 ,such aspects as concern ethics include1 for example1 the limited indeterminism involved in the theory1 the attitude of the religious consciousness expressed by ,william ,james 7,will to ,believe and ,pragmatism71 and the pragmatic conception of the good4 ,and the widespread interest in social problems has produced a revival of speculation concerning questions partly political and party ethical in character1 e4g4 the nature of justice4 ,finally it has become apparent that many problems hitherto left for political economy to solve belong more properly to the moralist1 if not to the moral philosopher1 and it may be confidently expected that with the increased complexity of social life and the disappearance of many sanctions of morality hitherto regarded as inviolable1 the future will bring a renewed and practical interest in the theory of conduct likely to lead to fresh developments in ethical speculation4 ,,bibliography4--,the literature of the subject is so large in all languages that only a small selection can be given here4 ,for further works reference may be made to subsidiary articles4 ,see also ,baldwin's ,dict4 of ,philos4 and ,psychol4 vol4 iii4 7#aije71 pp4 #hab foll4 7bibliography74 ,i4 ,historical4--,sir ,l4 ,stephen1 ,history of ,english ,thought in the #ahth ,century 7#ahgf1 #crd ed4 #ahib72 ,w4,e4,h4 ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals from ,augustus to ,charlemagne 7#ahfi1 many editions72 works of ,ed4 ,zeller 7q4v472 ,g4,h4 ,lewes1 ,history of ,philosophy 7#ahhj72 ,w4 ,gass1 ,geschichte der christlichen ,ethik 7#ahha72 ,a4,w4 ,benn1 ,the ,greek ,philosophers 7#ahhb72 ,f4 ,jodl1 ,geschichte der ,ethik in der neueren ,philos4 7#b vols41 #ahhb-ahhi72 ,l4 ,schmidt1 ,ethik der alten ,griechen 7#ahhb72 ,e4 ,howley1 ,the ,old ,morality traced ,historically 7#ahhe72 ,j4 ,martineau1 ,types of ,ethical ,theory 7,oxford1 #ahhe1 #crd ed4 #ahia72 ,th4 ,ziegler1 ,gesch4 d4 christl4 ,ethik 7#ahhf72 ,ch4 ,letourneaux1 ,l',evolution de la morale 7#ahhg72 ,k4 ,kostlin1 ,gesch4 der ,ethik 7#ahhg72 ,c4,e4 ,luthardt1 ,die antike ,ethik in ihrer geschichtlichen ,entwicklung 7#ahhg71 and ,hist4 of ,christian ,ethics 7#ahhh72 ,c4,m4 ,williams1 ,a ,review of the ,systems of ,ethics founded on the ,theory of ,evolution 7#ahic72 ,j4 ,watson1 ,hedonistic ,theories from ,aristippus to ,spencer 7#ahie72 ,l4,a4 ,selby-,bigge1 ,british ,moralists 7#ahig72 ,r4 ,mackintosh1 ,from ,comte to ,benjamin ,kidd 7#ahii72 ,s4 ,patten1 ,the ,development of ,english ,thought 7#ahii72 ,a4,b4 ,bruce1 ,the ,moral ,order of the ,world in ,ancient and ,modern ,thought 7#ahii72 ,sir ,l4 ,stephen1 ,the ,english ,utilitarians 7#aija72 ,henry ,sidgwick1 ,outlines of the ,history of ,ethics 7#eth ed41 #aijb72 ,paul ,janet1 ,history of the ,problems of ,philosophy 7#aijb-aijc71 ,eng4 trans4 ,ada ,monahan1 vol4 ii4 ,ethics2 ,w4,r4 ,sorley1 ,recent ,tendencies in ,ethics 7#aijd74 ,,ii4 ,constructive and ,critical4--,besides the works mentioned above the following may be mentioned3--,j4,m4 ,guyau1 ,la ,morale anglaise 7#ahgi71 ,education et heredite 7#ahhi2 ,eng4 trans4 ,greenstreet1 with introd4 by ,g4,f4 ,stout1 #ahia71 ,esquisse d'une morale sans obligation ni sanction 7,eng4 trans41 #ahih72 ,g4,h4 ,lewes1 ,problems of ,life and ,mind 7#ahgi72 ,sir ,l4 ,stephen1 ,science of ,ethics 7#ahhb72 ,p4 ,janet1 ,the ,theory of ,morals 7,eng4 trans41 #ahhd72 ,w4,r4 ,sorley1 ,on the ,ethics of ,naturalism 7#ahhe72 ,w4,l4 ,courtney1 ,constructive ,ethics 7#ahhf72 ,wilson and ,fowler1 ,principles of ,morals 7#ahhf72 ,h4 ,hoffding1 ,ethik 7#ahhh71 ,psychologie 7#ahhb1 #ahib2 trans4 ,lowndes1 #ahib72 ,w4 ,wundt1 ,ethik 7#ahhf2 trans4 ,titchener and others1 #ahig72 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,ethik 7#ahhi1 #ahic2 trans4 ,thilly1 #ahii72 ,h4 ,sidgwick1 ,method of ,ethics 7#ahij72 ,j4,t4 ,bixby1 ,the ,crisis in ,morals3 ,an ,examination of ,rational ,ethics 7#ahia72 ,j4 ,seth1 ,freedom an ,ethical ,postulate 7#ahia72 ,j4,h4 ,muirhead1 ,elements of ,ethics 7#ahib72 ,g4 ,simnel1 ,einleitung in die ,moralwissenschaft 7#ahib1 #ahic72 ,t4 ,ziegler1 ,social ,ethics 7#ahib72 ,t4,h4 ,huxley1 ,evolution and ,ethics 7#ahic72 ,w4 ,knight1 ,the ,christian ,ethic 7#ahic72 ,j4,s4 ,mackenzie1 ,manual of ,ethics 7#ahic72 ,f4 ,ryland1 ,ethics 7#ahic72 ,j4 ,seth1 ,a ,study of ,ethical ,principles 7#ahid1 #fth ed4 #aijb72 ,c4,f4 ,d',arcy1 ,short ,study of ,ethics 7#ahie72 ,j4,h4 ,hyslop1 ,the ,elements of ,ethics 7#ahie72 ,j4 ,kidd1 ,morality and ,religion 7#ahie72 ,sir ,l4 ,stephen1 ,social ,rights and ,duties 7#ahif72 ,j4,m4 ,baldwin1 ,social and ,ethical ,interpretations in ,mental ,development 7#ahig72 ,th4 ,ribot1 ,psychology of ,emotions 7#ahig72 ,a4 ,seth ,pringle-,pattison1 ,man's ,place in the ,cosmos 7#ahig72 ,h4,r4 ,marshall1 ,instinct and ,reason 7#ahih72 ,w4 ,wallace1 ,natural ,theology and ,ethics 7#ahih72 ,f4 ,paulsen1 ,partei-politik und ,moral 7#aijj72 ,a4,e4 ,taylor1 ,problem of ,conduct 7#aija72 ,g4,t4 ,ladd1 ,philosophy of ,conduct 7#aijb72 ,h4 ,sidgwick1 ,ethics of ,green1 ,spencer1 ,martineau 7#aijb72 ,d4 ,irons1 ,study in ,psychology of ,ethics 7#aijc72 ,g4,e4 ,moore1 ,principia ,ethica 7#aijc72 ,r4 ,eucken1 ,geistige ,stromungen der ,gegenwart 7#aijd71 and other works 7see ,,eucken1 ,,rudolf72 works of ,a4 ,fouillee 7q4v472 ,g4 ,santayana1 ,life of ,reason 7#aije72 ,e4,a4 ,westermarck1 ,origin and ,development of ,moral ,ideas 7#aijf72 ,george ,gore1 ,scientific ,basis of ,morality 7#ahii71 and ,new ,scientific ,basis of ,morality 7#aijf71 containing an interesting if unconvincing attempt to explain ethics on purely physical principles4 7,h4 ,h4 ,w47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this well-known phrase was originally attributed to the ,pythagoreans4 #b ,it is highly characteristic of ,platonism that the issue in this dialogue1 as originally stated1 is between virtue and vice1 whereas1 without any avowed change of ground1 the issue ultimately discussed is between the philosophic life and the life of vulgar ambition or sensual enjoyment4 #c ,this cardinal term is commonly translated happiness2 and it must be allowed that it is the most natural term for what we 7in ,english7 agree to call our being's end and aim4 ,but happiness so definitely signifies a state of feeling that it will not admit the interpretation that ,aristotle 7as well as ,plato and the ,stoics7 expressly gives to ,greek3 eudaimonia2 the confusion is best avoided by rendering the word by the less familiar well-being4 #d ,aristotle follows ,plato and ,socrates in identifying the notions of ,greek3 kalos 7fair1 beautiful7 and ,greek3 agathos 7good7 in their application to conduct4 ,we may observe1 however1 that while the latter term is used to denote the virtuous man1 and 7in the neuter7 equivalent to ,end generally1 the former is rather chosen to express the quality of virtuous acts which in any particular case is the end of the virtuous agent4 ,aristotle no doubt faithfully represents the common sense of ,greece in considering that1 in so far as virtue is in itself good to the virtuous agent1 it belongs to that species of good which we distinguish as beautiful4 ,in later ,greek philosophy the term ,greek3 kalon 7honestum7 became still more technical in the signification of morally good4 #e ,the above account is considerably expanded in ,h4 ,sidgwick's ,hist4 of ,ethics 7#eth ed41 #aijb71 pp4 #ei-gj4 #f ,there is a certain difficulty in discussing ,aristotle's views on the subject of practical wisdom1 and the relation of the intellect to moral action1 since it is most probable that the only accounts that we have of these views are not part of the genuine writings of ,aristotle4 ,still books vi4 and vii4 of the ,nicomachean ,ethics contain no doubt as pure ,aristotelian doctrine as a disciple could give1 and appear to supply a sufficient foundation for the general criticism expressed in the text4 #g ,it has been suggestively said that ,cynicism was to ,stoicism what monasticism was to early ,christianity4 ,the analogy1 however1 must not be pressed too far1 since orthodox ,stoics do not ever seem to have regarded ,cynicism as the more perfect way4 #h ,the ,stoics were not quite agreed as to the immutability of virtue1 but they were agreed that1 when once possessed1 it could only be lost through the loss of reason itself4 #i ,hence some members of the school1 without rejecting the definition of virtue knowledge1 also defined it as strength and force4 #aj ,it is apparently in view of this union in reason of rational beings that friends are allowed to be external goods to the sage1 and that the possession of good children is also counted a good4 #aa ,the ,stoics seem to have varied in their view of good repute1 ,greek3 eudoxia2 at first1 when the school was more under the influence of ,cynicism1 they professed an outward as well as an inward indifference to it2 ultimately they conceded the point to common sense1 and included it among ,greek3 proegmena4 #ab ,it is noted of him that he did not disdain the co-operation either of women or of slaves in his philosophical labours4 #ac ,the last charge of ,epicurus to his disciples is said to have been1 ,greek3 ton dogmaton memnesthai4 #ad ,epictetus4 #ae ,marcus ,aurelius4 #af ,e4g4 ,justin ,martyr1 ,origen1 ,tertullian1 ,cyprian4 #ag ,citra sanguinis effusionem4 #ah ,to show the crudity of the notion of redemption in early ,christianity1 it is sufficient to mention that many fathers represent ,christ's ransom as having been paid to the devil2 sometimes adding that by the concealment of ,christ's divinity under the veil of humanity a certain deceit was 7fairly7 practised on the great deceiver4 #ai ,it is to be observed that ,augustine prefers to use freedom not for the power of willing either good or evil1 but the power of willing good4 ,the highest freedom1 in his view1 excludes the possibility of willing evil4 #bj ,cicero's works are unimportant in the history of ancient ethics1 as their philosophical matter was entirely borrowed from ,greek treatises now lost2 but the influence exercised by them 7especially by the ,de officiis7 over medieval and even modern readers was very considerable4 #ba ,abelard afterwards retracted this view1 at least in its extreme form2 and in fact does not seem to have been fully conscious of the difference between 7#a7 unfulfilled intention to do an act objectively right1 and 7#b7 intention to do what is merely believed by the agent to be right4 #bb ,he was condemned by two synods1 in #aaba and #aadj4 #bc ,synderesis 7,gr4 ,greek3 sunteresis1 from ,greek3 sunterein1 to watch closely1 observe7 is used in this sense in ,jerome 7,com4 in ,ezek4 i4 #d-aj74 #bd ,the refusal of the council of ,constance to condemn ,jean ,petit's advocacy of assassination is a striking example of this weakness4 ,cf4 ,milman1 ,lat4 ,christ4 book xiii4 c4 #i4 #be ,as the chief ,english casuists we may mention ,perkins1 ,hall1 ,sanderson1 as well as the more eminent ,jeremy ,taylor1 whose ,ductor dubitantium appeared in #affj4 #bf ,this influence was not exercised in the region of ethics4 ,bacon's brief outline of moral philosophy 7in the ,advancement of ,learning1 ii4 #bj-bb7 is highly pregnant and suggestive4 ,but ,bacon's great task of reforming scientific method was one which1 as he conceived it1 left morals on one side2 he never made any serious effort to reduce his ethical views to a coherent system1 methodically reasoned on an independent basis4 ,the outline given in the ,advancement was never filled in1 and does not seem to have had any effect on the subsequent course of ethical speculation4 #bg ,he even identifies the desire with the pleasure1 apparently regarding the stir of appetite and that of fruition as two parts of the same motion4 #bh ,in spite of ,hobbes's uncompromising egoism1 there is a noticeable discrepancy between his theory of the ends that men naturally seek and his standard for determining their natural rights4 ,this latter is never ,pleasure simply1 but always ,preservation--though on occasion he enlarges the notion of preservation into preservation of life so as not to be weary of it4 ,his view seems to be that in a state of nature most men will fight1 rob1 c41 for delectation merely or for glory1 and that hence all men must be allowed an indefinite right to fight1 rob1 c41 for preservation4 #bi ,it should be noticed1 however1 that it is only in his treatment of ,equity and ,benevolence that he really follows out the mathematical analogy 7cf4 ,sidgwick's ,history of ,ethics1 #eth ed41 pp4 #ahj-aha74 #cj ,it should be observed that1 while ,clarke is sincerely anxious to prove that most principles are binding independently of ,divine appointment1 he is no less concerned to show that morality requires the practical support of revealed religion4 #ca ,three classes of impulses are thus distinguished by ,shaftesbury3--7#a7 ,natural ,affections1 7#b7 ,self-affections1 and 7#c7 ,un-natural ,affections4 ,their characteristics are further considered in the ,history of ,ethics1 p4 #ahf seq4 #cb ,in a remarkable passage near the close of his eleventh sermon ,butler seems even to allow that conscience would have to give way to self-love1 if it were possible 7which it is not7 that the two should come into ultimate and irreconcilable conflict4 #cc ,it is worth noticing that ,hutcheson's express definition of the object of self-love includes perfection as well as happiness2 but in the working out of his system he considers private good exclusively as happiness or pleasure4 #cd ,hume's ethical view was finally stated in his ,inquiry into the ,principles of ,morals 7#agea71 which is at once more popular and more purely utilitarian than his earlier work4 #ce ,hume remarks that in some cases1 by association of ideas1 the rule by which we praise and blame is extended beyond the principle of utility from which it arises2 but he allows much less scope to this explanation in his second treatise than in his first4 #cf ,in earlier editions of the ,inquiry ,hume expressly included all approved qualities under the general notion of virtue4 ,in later editions he avoided this strain on usage by substituting or adding merit in several passages--allowing that some of the laudable qualities which he mentions would be more commonly called talents1 but still maintaining that there is little distinction made in our internal estimation of virtues and talents4 #cg ,it is to be observed that whereas ,price and ,stewart 7after ,butler7 identify the object of self-love with happiness or pleasure1 ,reid conceives this good more vaguely as including perfection and happiness2 though he sometimes uses good and happiness as convertible terms1 and seems practically to have the latter in view in all that he says of self-love4 #ch ,e4g4 ,reid proposes to apply this principle in favour of monogamy1 arguing from the proportion of males and females born2 without explaining why1 if the intention of nature hence inferred excludes occasional polygamy1 it does not also exclude occasional celibacy4 #ci ,we may observe that some recent writers1 who would generally be included in this school1 avoid in various ways the difficulty of constructing a code of external conduct4 ,sometimes they consider moral intuition as determining the comparative excellence of conflicting motives 7,james ,martineau71 or the comparative quality of pleasures chosen 7,laurie71 which seems to be the same view in a hedonistic garb2 others hold that what is intuitively perceived is the rightness or wrongness of individual acts--a view which obviously renders ethical reasoning practically superfluous4 #dj ,the originality--such as it is--of ,paley's system 7as of ,bentham's7 lies in its method of working out details rather than in its principles of construction4 ,paley expressly acknowledges his obligations to the original and suggestive1 though diffuse and whimsical1 work of ,abraham ,tucker 7,light of ,nature ,pursued1 #agfh-aggd74 ,in this treatise1 as in ,paley's1 we find every man's own satisfaction1 the spring that actuates all his motives1 connected with general good1 the root whereout all our rules of conduct and sentiments of honour are to branch1 by means of natural theology demonstrating the unniggardly goodness of the author of nature4 ,tucker is also careful to explain that satisfaction or pleasure is one and the same in kind1 however much it may vary in degree1 444 whether a man is pleased with hearing music1 seeing prospects1 tasting dainties1 performing laudable actions1 or making agreeable reflections1 and again that by general good he means quantity of happiness1 to which every pleasure that we do to our neighbour is an addition4 ,there is1 however1 in ,tucker's theological link between private and general happiness a peculiar ingenuity which ,paley's common sense has avoided4 ,he argues that men having no free will have really no desert2 therefore the divine equity must ultimately distribute happiness in equal shares to all2 therefore ,i must ultimately increase my own happiness most by conduct that adds most to the general fund which ,providence administers4 ,but in fact the outline of ,paley's utilitarianism is to be found a generation earlier--in ,gay's dissertation prefixed to ,law's edition of ,king's ,origin of ,evil--as the following extracts will show3--,the idea of virtue is the conformity to a rule of life1 directing the actions of all rational creatures with respect to each other's happiness2 to which every one is always obliged4444 ,obligation is the necessity of doing or omitting something in order to be happy4444 ,full and complete obligation which will extend to all cases can only be that arising from the authority of ,god4444 ,the will of ,god so far as it directs behaviour to others is the immediate rule or criterion of virtue 444 but it is evident from the nature of ,god that he could have no other design in creating mankind than their happiness2 and therefore he wills their happiness2 therefore that my behaviour so far as it may be a means to the happiness of mankind should be such2 so this happiness of mankind may be said to be the criterion of virtue once removed4 ,the same dissertation also contains the germ of ,hartley's system1 as we shall presently notice4 #da ,it must be allowed that ,paley's application of this argument is somewhat loosely reasoned1 and does not sufficiently distinguish the consequence of a single act of beneficent manslaughter from the consequences of a general permission to commit such acts4 #db ,this list gives twelve out of the fourteen classes in which ,bentham arranges the springs of action1 omitting the religious sanction 7mentioned afterwards71 and the pleasures and pains of self-interest1 which include all the other classes except sympathy and antipathy4 #dc ,in the ,deontology published by ,bowring from ,,mss4 left after ,bentham's death1 the coincidence is asserted to be complete4 #dd ,it should be observed that ,austin1 after ,bentham1 more frequently uses the term moral to connote what he more distinctly calls positive morality1 the code of rules supported by common opinion in any society4 #de ,in the before-mentioned dissertation4 ,cf4 note #b to p4 #hce4 ,hartley refers to this treatise as having supplied the starting-point for his own system4 #df ,it should be noticed that ,hartley's sensationalism is far from leading him to exalt the corporeal pleasures4 ,on the contrary1 he tries to prove elaborately that they 7as well as the pleasures of imagination1 ambition1 self-interest7 cannot be made an object of primary pursuit without a loss of happiness on the whole--one of his arguments being that these pleasures occur earlier in time1 and that which is prior in the order of nature is always less perfect than that which is posterior4 #dg ,it may be observed that in the view of ,kant and others 7#b7 and 7#c7 are somewhat confusingly blended4 #dh ,singularly enough1 the ,english writer who approaches most nearly to ,kant on this point is the utilitarian ,godwin1 in his ,political ,justice4 ,in ,godwin's view1 reason is the proper motive to acts conducive to general happiness3 reason shows me that the happiness of a number of other men is of more value than my own2 and the perception of this truth affords me at least some inducement to prefer the former to the latter4 ,and supposing it to be replied that the motive is really the moral uneasiness involved in choosing the selfish alternative1 ,godwin answers that this uneasiness1 though a constant step in the process of volition1 is a merely accidental step--,i feel pain in the neglect of an act of benevolence1 because benevolence is judged by me to be conduct which it becomes me to adopt4 #di ,in ,kantism1 as we have partly seen1 the most important ontological beliefs--in ,god1 freedom and immortality of the soul--are based on necessities of ethical thought4 ,in ,fichte's system the connexion of ethics and metaphysics is still more intimate2 indeed1 we may compare it in this respect to ,platonism2 as ,plato blends the most fundamental notions of each of these studies in the one idea of good1 so ,fichte blends them in the one idea free-will4 ,freedom1 in his view1 is at once the foundation of all being and the end of all moral action4 ,in the systems of ,schelling and ,hegel ethics falls again into a subordinate place2 indeed1 the ethical view of the former is rather suggested than completely developed4 ,neither ,fichte nor ,schelling has exercised more than the faintest and most indirect influence on ethical philosophy in ,england2 it therefore seems best to leave the ethical doctrines of each to be explained in connexion with the rest of his system4 #ej ,cf4 ,a4 ,seth ,pringle-,pattison1 ,the ,philosophical ,radicals4 ,martineau's ,philosophy1 p4 #ib4