,,moral ,,theology ,a ,complete ,course ,based on ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas and the ,best ,modern ,authorities ,,by ,,john ,a4 ,,mchugh1 ,o4,p4 ,,and ,,charles ,j4 ,,callan1 ,o4,p4 ,,revised ,,and ,,enlarged ,,by ,,edward ,p4 ,,farrell1 ,o4,p4 ,,new ,,york ,,city ,,joseph ,f4 ,,wagner1 ,,inc4 ,,london3 ,b4 ,,herder ,nihil ,obstat ,,elwood ,,ferrer ,,smith1 ,o4,p41 ,s4,t4,m4 ,,benjamin ,,urban ,,fay1 ,o4,p41 ,s4,t4,,lr4 ,imprimi ,potest ,,very ,,rev4 ,,william ,d4 ,,marrin1 ,o4,p41 ,p4,g41 ,s4,t4,m4 ,provincial ,nihil ,obstat ,,john ,a4 ,,goodwine1 ,j4,c4,d4 ,censor ,librorum ,imprimatur ,,francis ,,cardinal ,,spellman ,archbishop of ,new ,york ,new ,york1 ,may #bd1 #aieh ,the nihil obstat and imprimatur are official declarations that a book or pamphlet is free of doctrinal or moral error4 ,no implication is contained therein that those who have granted the nihil obstat and imprimatur agree with the contents1 opinions or statements expressed4 ,transcriber's note3 ,references to the ,code of ,canon ,law in this work are to the #aiag version of the ,code1 later superseded by the #aihc version4 ,all ,rights ,reserved by ,joseph ,f4 ,wagner1 ,inc41 ,new ,york ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ,,preface ,the purpose of the present work is to give a complete and comprehensive treatise on ,catholic ,moral ,theology1 that is1 on that branch of sacred learning which treats of the regulation of human conduct in the light of reason and revealed truth4 ,this new work strives to deal with the subject as a systematic and orderly whole1 and is based throughout on the principles1 teaching and method of ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 while supplementing that great ,doctor of the ,church from the best modern authorities4 ,needless to say1 there are many questions and problems connected with modern life that did not exist when the great classic works on ,moral ,theology were written1 and to these naturally special attention has been given in the treatment that follows4 ,nowadays1 since the appearance of the ,new ,code and of many special works on ,canon ,law1 it would be a mistake to encumber the pages of a work like the present one with canonical questions of interest only to the specialist1 and which are ably and abundantly treated in fine commentaries on the ,code that are already available4 ,likewise1 it would be an error to treat here matter pertinent only to ,dogmatic ,theology or ,history4 ,all digressions1 therefore1 into alien fields have been avoided in this work1 with the result that a greater number of useful moral questions have been herein considered4 ,but not only is it necessary to avoid irrelevant subjects1 but it is also needful not to sacrifice essentials for accidentals in any work of this kind4 ,it is the fault of too many textbooks on ,moral ,theology to stress controversies1 cite authors1 and quote opinions1 at the expense of the principles and reasons that govern and explain the teaching given4 ,this work eschews that method1 and is at pains everywhere1 first of all1 to lay the foundations on which the superstructure is to be built1 namely1 the definitions and rules that are presupposed to moral judgments and conclusions4 ,obviously1 this is a more logical way of proceeding1 and it consequently enables the student much more easily to understand and retain the matter studied1 since he can thus reason questions out for himself4 ,moreover1 such a method makes for brevity and renders it possible1 as said above1 to treat more subjects than could otherwise be treated2 it makes it possible to condense the matter of many pages of larger and less accessible works into brief and terse paragraphs4 ,but from this it should not be gathered that the work which follows aims to present ,moral ,theology in a dryly scientific fashion4 ,on the contrary1 it has been our endeavor to treat the matter in a way that is at once clear1 solid1 comprehensive and interesting4 ,since the general and the abstract do not make the same strong impression as the particular and the concrete1 laws and axioms are copiously illustrated throughout with pertinent and practical examples that often amount to brief casus conscientiae1 thus combining the theory and the practice of ,moral ,theology4 ,it would be a mistake to think that1 while ,moral ,theology is a technical and scientific treatise on human conduct1 it deals exclusively or primarily with vice and sin1 and that it is intended only to enable the priest rightly to administer the ,sacrament of ,penance1 distinguishing between the various classes of sins and their consequences4 ,of course1 it does all this1 but it should do much more2 for it has also a much higher purpose1 which is to enable man1 not only to know what is forbidden and how he may escape from moral disease and death1 but also to understand what are his duties and how he may live the life of grace and virtue4 ,the subject is indeed more positive than negative1 and it should be discussed accordingly4 ,thus1 far from being useful merely to confessors as a guide by which they may detect and distinguish mortal and venial sins and the higher and lower degrees of culpability1 ,moral ,theology in its broader aspect should be of the greatest service likewise to the individual in forming his own habits and character1 and in particular to those who have the guidance of others1 whether in or out of the confessional1 such as pastors1 preachers1 teachers1 and the like4 ,consequently1 the present work has been written with a view to the homiletic and pastoral functions of the priest1 as well as those that pertain strictly to the administration of the ,sacraments4 ,heretofore works on ,moral ,theology in ,english have been altogether too few or too fragmentary1 whereas they have been abundant in the vernaculars of ,continental ,europe--,german1 ,french1 ,spanish1 ,italian1 etc4 ,this does not mean that the present work is intended to replace the ,latin text-books used in our seminaries1 but rather that it should enable students and priests to get a more thorough and ready knowledge of an all-important subject1 and to adapt it more easily to the varying needs of the ministry4 ,the section of this work on ,law has been carefully read by two eminent civil lawyers4 ,,the ,,authors4 ,may #aj1 #aibi4 ,,revisor',s ,,note ,this is a revision1 not a rewriting4 ,various deletions and additions have been made with the intent of bringing the work up to date within the scope of the original plan and methods of the authors4 ,in this way it has been possible to preserve the features that have made this manual a standard guide for the past thirty years4 ,,edward ,p4 ,,farrell1 ,o4,p41 ,s4,t4,,lr41 ,s4,t4,d4 ,washington1 ,d4,c41 ,june #h1 #aieh ,,contents ,volume ,i of print edition1 through section #afbe ,,preface ,,introduction ,definition of ,moral ,theology 7#a-c74--,the ,objects of ,moral ,theology 7#d-e74--,the ,sources of ,moral ,theology 7#f-ab74--,the ,methods of ,moral ,theology 7#ac-ad74--,the ,history of ,moral ,theology 7#ae-af74--,the ,division of ,moral ,theology 7#ag-ah74 ,,part ,i4 ,,general ,,moral ,,theology ,question ,i ,,the ,,last ,,end ,,of ,,man ,,and ,,the ,,means ,,to ,,that ,,end ,art4 #a4 ,,the ,,last ,,end ,,of ,,man ,the ,existence of the ,last ,end 7#ai74--,the ,nature of the ,last ,end 7#bj74--,the ,attainment of the ,last ,end 7#ba74 ,art4 #b4 ,,acts ,,as ,,human ,introduction 7#bb74--;,definition 7#bc74--,knowledge ,requisite for a ,human ,act 7#bd-cc74--;,consent ,requisite for a ,human ,act 7#cd-ci74--,obstacles to ,consent 7#dj-ee74--,two ,kinds of ,voluntary ,acts 7#ef-fb74 ,art4 #c4 ,,acts ,,as ,,moral ,introduction 7#fc74---;,definition 7#fd-fi74--,the ,sources of ,morality 7#gj-ge74--;,good ,acts 7#gf-gh74--;,bad ,acts 7#gi-ha74--;,indifferent ,acts 7#hb-hf74--,perfect and ,essential ,goodness 7#hg-hh74--,morality of the ,external ,act 7#hi-ic74--,morality of the ,act ,indirectly ,willed 7#id-ie74--,morality of the ,consequences of an ,act 7#if74--;,imputability 7#ig-aje74 ,art4 #d4 ,,acts ,,as ,,meritorious ,introduction 7#ajf74--;,definition 7#ajg74--;,divisions of ,merit 7#ajh-aae74 ,art4 #e4 ,,the ,,passions ,introduction 7#aaf74--;,definition 7#aag74--;,division 7#aah-abj74--,moral ,value of the ,passions 7#aba-aca74 ,question ,,ii ,,good ,,and ,,bad ,,habits ,,introduction 7#acb7 ,art4 #a4 ,,habits ,,in ,,general ,definition 7#acc74--;,division 7#acd-acf74--,strengthening and ,weakening of ,habits 7#acg-aci74--;,habits and ,morality 7#adj-ada74 ,art4 #b4 ,,good ,,habits1 ,,or ,,virtues ,definition 7#adb74--;,division 7#adc-aeb74--,properties of the ,virtues 7#aec-aeh74--;,complements of the ,virtues 7#aei-aff74 ,art4 #c4 ,,bad ,,habits1 ,,or ,,vices ,definition 7#afg74--;,divisions 7#afh74--,mortal ,sin 7#afi-agi74--,venial ,sin 7#ahj-ahd74--;,imperfections 7#ahe74--;,change in the ,gravity of ,moral ,defects 7#ahf-aif74--,the ,distinctions of ,sins 7#aig-bai74--;,comparison of ,sins 7#bbj-bbi74--,the ,subjects of ,sins 7#bcj-bde74--,the ,causes of ,sin 7#bdf-bfg74--,the ,motives of ,sin 7#bfh-bga74--,the ,results of ,sin 7#bgb-bhc74 ,question ,,iii ,,law ,,introduction ,art4 #a4 ,,law ,,in ,,general ,definition 7#bhe74--;,division 7#bhf-bhg74--;,collision of ,laws 7#bhh-bib74--,the ,basis of ,all ,laws 7#bic-bid74 ,art4 #b4 ,,the ,,natural ,,law ,meaning 7#bie-bif74--;,division 7#big-cjd74--,properties 7#cje-cbg74 ,art4 #c4 ,,the ,,positive ,,divine ,,law ,meaning 7#cbh-ccj74--;,division 7#cca74--,the ,mosaic ,law 7#ccb-cde74--,the ,law of the ,new ,testament 7#cdf-cfi74 ,art4 #d4 ,,human ,,law ,definition 7#cgj74--;,division 7#cga74--,qualities 7#cgb-cgd74--,obligation of ,human ,laws 7#cge-chd74--;,interpretation of ,law 7#che-chf74--,those ,subject to ,law 7#chg-chh74--;,change of ,law 7#chi-cij74--,the ,law of ,custom 7#cia-djj74--;,dispensation 7#dja-daj74--;,epieikeia 7#daa-dag74 ,art4 #e4 ,,ecclesiastical ,,law ,introduction 7#dah-dai74--;,general ,law of the ,church 7#dbj-dbb74-- ,lawgivers in the ,church 7#dbc-dbd74--,subject-,matter of ,church ,law 7#dbe-dbf74--,those ,bound by ,general ,laws 7#dbg-dcd74--,those ,bound by ,particular ,laws 7#dce-ddf74--,promulgation 7#ddg-ddi74--;,irritant ,laws 7#dej-deh74--,laws ,based on ,presumption 7#dei-dfa74--;,fulfillment of ,law 7#dfb-dhb74--;,interpretation 7#dcc-dhf74--;,cessation of ,obligation 7#dhg-dii74--;,cessation of ,law 7#ejj-eje74--;,custom 7#ejf-eac74--,laws in a ,wide ,sense 7#ead-eda74 ,art4 #f4 ,,civil ,,law ,meaning 7#edb74--,origin 7#edc-ede74--,subject-,matter 7#edf-edi74--,those ,subject to ,civil ,law 7#eej74--,the ,obligation of ,civil ,law 7#eea-eef74-- ,special ,kinds of ,laws 7#eeg-egb74--,other ,questions 7#egc74 ,question ,,iv ,,conscience ,,introduction 7#egd7 ,art4 #a4 ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,conscience ,definition 7#ege74--;,division 7#egf-egi74--,obligation of ,conscience 7#ehj-ehg74--,results of ,conscience 7#ehh-eib74 ,art4 #b4 ,a ,,good ,,conscience ,introduction 7#eic74--;,definitions 7#eid74--;,divisions 7#eie-eif74--,the ,lax ,conscience 7#eig-fjf74--,the ,scrupulous ,conscience 7#fjg-fac74-- ,scrupulosity 7#fad-fce74--,practical ,conclusions 7#fcf-fci74 ,art4 #c4 ,a ,,certain ,,conscience ,introduction 7#fdj74--,necessity of ,certitude 7#fda-fdb74--,kinds of ,certitude 7#fdc-fec74--;,an ,uncertain ,conscience 7#fed-fee74--;,doubt and ,suspicion 7#fef-ffa74--,opinion 7#ffb-fga74--,the ,moral ,systems 7#fgb-fge74--,tutiorism 7#fgf-fgi74--,laxism 7#fhj-fha74--,the ,other ,systems 7#fhb74-,probabiliorism 7#fhc-fhg74--;,equiprobabilism 7#fhh-gjj74-- ,probabilism 7#gja-gcj74--;,compensationism 7#gca-gch74--,practical ,conclusions 7#gci-gdb74 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,special ,,moral ,,theology ,,introduction 7#gdc7 ,question ,i4 ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,all ,,classes ,,of ,,men ,,the ,,infused ,,virtues 7#gdd-gde7 ,art4 #a4 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,faith ,introduction 7#gdf-gdi74--,the ,meaning of ,faith 7#gej-gec74--,the ,object of ,faith 7#ged-gha74--,the ,acts of ,faith 7#ghb-gif74--,the ,habit of ,faith 7#gig-hjg74--,the ,gifts of ,understanding and ,knowledge 7#hjh-haa74 ,art4 #b4 ,,the ,,sins ,,against ,,faith ,introduction 7#hab74--,the ,sin of ,unbelief 7#hac-hbe74--;,heresy 7#hbf-hcd74--;,apostasy 7#hce-hci74--,the ,sin of ,doubt 7#hdj-hdf74--;,credulity and ,rationalism 7#hdg74--;,dangers to ,faith 7#hdh74--;,dangerous ,reading 7#hdi-hff74--;,dangerous ,schools 7#hfg-hgd74--;,dangerous ,marriages 7#hge-hha74--;,dangerous ,communication 7#hhb-hhh74--,the ,sin of ,blasphemy 7#hhg-ijc74--,sins of ,ignorance1 ,blindness1 ,dullness 7#ijd-iab74 ,art4 #c4 ,,the ,,commandments ,,of ,,faith ,introduction 7#iac74--,the ,commandment of ,knowledge of ,faith 7#iad-ibd74-- ,the ,commandment of ,internal ,acts of ,faith 7#ibe-icg74--,the ,negative ,commandment of ,external ,profession of ,faith 7#ich-idc74--;,dangers of ,profession of ,unbelief 7#idd74--;,forbidden ,societies 7#ide-iee74-- ,communication in ,worship 7#ief-ige74-;,cooperation in ,religious ,activities 7#igf-ihf74--,the ,affirmative ,commandment of ,external ,profession of ,faith 7#ihg-ajjh74 ,art4 #d4 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,hope ,definition 7#ajji-ajag74--,the ,object of ,hope 7#ajah-ajbf74--,the ,excellence of ,hope 7#ajbg-ajce74--,the ,subject of ,hope 7#ajcj-ajdj74--,the ,gift of ,fear of the ,lord 7#ajda-ajeh74--,the ,sins against ,hope 7#ajei-ajia74--,the ,commandments of ,hope and of ,fear 7#ajib-aajd74 ,art4 #e4 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,charity ,definition 7#aaje-aaad74--,the ,excellence of ,charity 7#aaae-aabj74-- ,production of ,charity 7#aaba-aacb74--,the ,object of ,charity 7#aacc-aaeg74--,the ,order of ,charity 7#aaeh-aahb74--,the ,acts of ,charity 7#aahc-aaib74 ,art4 #f4 ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,charity ,internal ,effects of ,charity 7#aaic74--;,joy 7#aaid74--,peace 7#aaie-aaig74-- ,reconciliation 7#aaih-abjd74--,mercy 7#abje-abji74--;,external ,effects of ,charity 7#abaj74--;,beneficence 7#abaa-abae74--;,almsgiving 7#abaf-abeg74-- ,fraternal ,correction 7#abeh-abid74 ,art4 #g4 ,,the ,,sins ,,against ,,love ,,and ,,joy ,introduction 7#abie74--;,hate 7#abif74--;,hatred of ,god 7#abig-acjc74--;,hatred of ,creatures 7#acjd-acaa74--;,gravity of the ,sin of ,hatred 7#acab-acaf74 --,species of the ,sin of ,hatred 7#acag-acai74--,the ,sin of ,sloth 7#acbj-acbe74--,laziness 7#acbf74--,lukewarmness 7#acbg74--,the ,sin of ,envy 7#acbh-acca74--;,emulation 7#accb74--;,jealousy 7#accc74--;,fear 7#accd74-- ,indignation 7#acce-accf74--;,gravity of the ,sin of ,envy 7#accg-acdd74-- ,means of ,overcoming ,envy 7#acde-acdf74 ,art4 #h4 ,,the ,,sins ,,against ,,peace ,introduction 7#acdg74--;,discord 7#acdh-aced74--;,contention 7#acee-acfb74-- ,acts of ,sin against ,peace 7#acfc74--,schism 7#acfd-acge74--,war 7#acgf-adbg74--;,fighting 7#adbh-adcd74--;,duelling 7#adce-adci74--,sedition 7#addj-addc74 ,art4 #i4 ,,the ,,sins ,,against ,,beneficence ,introduction 7#addd74--,scandal 7#adde-addf74--;,definition of ,scandal 7#addg74--;,causes of ,scandal 7#addh-adeh74--,results of ,scandal 7#adei-adfd74--,sinfulness of ,scandal 7#adfe-adgd74--,persons ,scandalized 7#adge-adgf74--;,duty of ,avoiding ,scandal 7#adgg-adhg74--;,duty of ,repairing ,scandal 7#adhh-adib74--;,denial of ,sacraments in ,case of ,scandal 7#adic-adid74--,seduction 7#adie-aeje74--;,cooperation in ,sin 7#aejf-aejh74-- ,kinds of ,cooperation 7#aejh-aeab74--,sinfulness of ,cooperation 7#aeac-aead74--,lawfulness of ,material ,cooperation 7#aeae-aebe74-- ,lawfulness of ,immediate ,cooperation 7#aebf-aebg74--,special ,cases of ,cooperation 7#aebh74-;,cooperation in ,reading ,matter 7#aebi-aecj74--;,in ,dances and ,plays 7#aeca-aecb74--;,in ,selling 7#aecc-aecf74--;,in ,providing ,food and ,drink 7#aecg-aeci74--;,in ,renting 7#aedj-aeda74--;,in ,service 7#aedb-aedd74--;,duties of the ,confessor as ,regards ,cooperation 7#aede-aedf74 ,art #aj4 ,,the ,,commandments ,,of ,,charity ,introduction 7#aedg-aeeb74--,the ,commandment of ,love of ,god 7#aeec-aefj74--,the ,commandment of ,love of ,self 7#aefa-aegh74--,the ,commandment of ,love of ,neighbor 7#aegi-aehd74--;,fulfillment of the ,commandments of ,charity 7#aehe-afjh74 ,art #aa4 ,,the ,,gift ,,of ,,wisdom ,introduction 7#afji74--,the ,nature of the ,gift of ,wisdom 7#afaj-afad74-- ,the ,persons who ,possess ,wisdom 7#afae-afah74--,the ,beatitude and the ,fruits that ,correspond to ,wisdom 7#afai-afbj74--,the ,sins ,opposed to ,wisdom 7#afba-afbe74 ,volume ,,ii of print edition1 section #afbf to end ,question ,,ii4 ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,all ,,classes ,,of ,,men 7,the ,moral ,virtues7 ,art4 #a4 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,prudence ,definition 7#afbg74--,objects 7#afbh1 #afbi74--;,certainty of ,prudence 7#afcj74--;,excellence 7#afca1 #afcb74--;,acts 7#afcc74--,qualities 7#afcd74-- ,parts 7#afce1 #afcf74--;,integral ,parts 7#afcg1 #afch74--,subjective ,parts 7#afci-afde74--,potential ,parts 7#afdf1 #afdg74--,persons ,who ,possess ,prudence 7#afdh-afef74--;,growth and ,decay of ,prudence 7#afeg74--,the ,beatitude and the ,fruits that ,correspond to ,counsel 7#affb74--,the ,sins ,against ,prudence 7#affc74--;,imprudence 7#affd-afff74--;,haste 7#affg74-- ,thoughtlessness4--,inconstancy 7#affi74--;,causes of ,these ,sins 7#afgj74-- ,negligence 7#afga-afgc74--;,false ,prudence 7#afgd74--,the ,prudence of the ,flesh 7#afge1 #afgf74--;,astuteness1 ,trickery1 ,fraud 7#afgg-afhj74-- ,solicitude 7#afha-afhe74--;,avarice1 a ,cause of ,sins ,against ,prudence 7#afhf74--,the ,commandments of ,prudence 7#afhg74 ,art4 #b4 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,justice ,introduction 7#afhh74--,the ,nature of ,justice 7#afhi-agjj74--;,division 7#agja-agjh74--,the ,object of ,justice 7#agji-agac74--;,comparison of ,justice and ,other ,virtues 7#agad-agah74--;,injustice 7#agai-agbf74--;,judgment 7#agbg-agdd74 ,art4 #c4 ,,the ,,subjective ,,parts ,,of ,,justice3 ,,distributive ,,and ,,commutative ,,justice ,subjective ,parts of a ,virtue 7#agde74--;,distributive and ,commutative ,justice ,compared 7#agdf1 #agdg74--,the ,objects of ,commutative ,justice 7#agdh-agej74--,restitution 7#agea-agfa74-,the ,roots of ,restitution 7#agfb-aggg74--,restitution for ,cooperation in ,injustice 7#aggh-aghe74-- ,the ,circumstances of ,restitution 7#aghf-agif74--;,causes ,excusing from ,restitution 7#agig-ahja74--,some ,special ,cases of ,restitution 7#ahjb1 #ahjc74 ,art4 #d4 ,,the ,,vices ,,opposed ,,to ,,commutative ,,and ,,distributive ,,justice ,the ,vice against ,distributive ,justice 7#ahjd-ahad74-,the ,vices against ,commutative ,justice 7#ahae74--;,homicide 7#ahaf-ahea74-,suicide 7#aheb-ahfa74--;,accidental ,homicide 7#ahfb-ahfe74--;,bodily ,injury 7#ahff-ahga74--,titles to ,property 7#ahgb-ahgf74--;,contracts 7#ahgg-ahhi74--,theft and ,robbery 7#ahij-aiai74--,lawful ,occupation 7#aibj-aibf74--,occult ,compensation 7#aibg-aich74-;,judicial ,injustice 7#aici74--;,in ,judges 7#aidj-aifc74--;,in ,accusers 7#aifd-aigd74--;,in ,defendants 7#aige-aihc74--;,in ,witnesses 7#aihd-aiid74--;,in ,lawyers 7#aiie-bjjh74--,unjust ,words 7#bjji74--;,contumely 7#bjaj-bjbg74--;,defamation 7#bjbh-bjge74-;,cooperation in ,defamation 7#bjgf-bjhd74--,restitution for ,defamation 7#bjhe-bajb74--,whispering 7#bajc-baje74--;,derision 7#bajf-baaj74--;,cursing 7#baaa-baai74--,murmuring 7#babj74--;,fraud in ,contracts 7#baba1 #babb74--;,in ,sales 7#babc-bacc74--,trading 7#bacd1 #bace74--,usury 7#bacf74--,other ,frauds 7#bacg1 #bach74 ,art4 #e4 ,,the ,,quasi-,,integral ,,and ,,potential ,,parts ,,of ,,justice2 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,religion ,,and ,,the ,,opposite ,,vices ,the ,quasi-,integral ,parts of ,justice 7#baci1 #badj74--,the ,potential ,parts of ,justice 7#bada-badd74--,the ,virtue of ,religion 7#bade-badh74--,the ,internal ,acts of ,religion 7#badi74--;,devotion 7#baej-baeb74--,prayer 7#baec-bafi74--;,distractions 7#bagj-bagd74--,the ,external ,acts of ,religion 7#bage74--;,adoration 7#bagf1 #bagg74--,sacrifice 7#bagh-bahb74--,offerings 7#bahc1 #bahd74--;,contributions 7#bahe-baij74--,vows 7#baia-bbbe74--;,cessation of ,vows 7#bbbf-bbdc74--,other ,external ,acts of ,religion 7#bbdd74--,oaths 7#bbde-bbfb74--;,adjuration 7#bbfc-bbfh74--;,divine ,praises 7#bbfi-bbgb74--,the ,sins against ,religion 7#bbgc74--,superstition 7#bbgd-bbgf74--;,idolatry 7#bbgg-bbha74--;,divination 7#bbhb-bbhi74--,vain ,observance 7#bbij-bbih74-- ,irreligiousness 7#bbii74--,temptation of ,god 7#bcjj-bcjg74--,sacrilege 7#bcjh-bcaf74--,simony 7#bcag-bccd74--,sinfulness of ,simony 7#bcce-bcdc74 ,art4 #f4 ,,the ,,remaining ,,potential ,,parts ,,of ,,justice2 ,,the ,,gift ,,of ,,piety2 ,,the ,,commandments ,piety 7#bcdd-bcej74--,reverence 7#bcea-bced74--,obedience 7#bcee-bcgb74-- ,gratitude 7#bcgc-bchj74--,vengeance 7#bcha-bchd74--,truthfulness 7#bche-bchh74--,lying 7#bchi-bcig74--,mental ,reservation 7#bcih-bdjb74-- ,simulation 7#bdjc1 #bdjd74--;,hypocrisy 7#bdje74--;,braggadocio and ,irony 7#bdjf74--;,breach of ,promise 7#bdjg74--,violation of ,secret 7#bdjh-bdbj74-- ,affability 7#bdba-bdbc74--,liberality 7#bdbd-bdbi74--;,equity 7#bdcj-bdcb74-- ,the ,gift of ,piety 7#bdcc74--,the ,commandments of ,justice 7#bdcd-bdcf74 ,art4 #g4 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,fortitude ,nature 7#bdcg-bdda74--,martyrdom 7#bddb-bdde74--,the ,opposite ,vices 7#bddf74--,the ,parts of ,fortitude 7#bddg74--;,greatness of ,soul 7#bddh1 #bddi74--,presumption1 ,ambition and ,vanity 7#bdej74--,pusillanimity 7#bdea74--;,greatness of ,deed1 ,meanness and ,vulgarity 7#bdeb74--,patience 7#bdec1 #bded74--,stolidity and ,impatience 7#bdee74--,steadfastness1 ,effeminacy and ,pertinacity 7#bdef74--,the ,complements of ,fortitude 7#bdeg74--,the ,commandments of ,fortitude 7#bdeh-bdfj74 ,art4 #h4 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,temperance ,nature 7#bdfa-bdfc74--,the ,opposite ,vices 7#bdfd74--,the ,parts of ,temperance 7#bdfe74--;,abstemiousness 7#bdff1 #bdfg74--;,fasting and ,abstinence 7#bdfh1 #bdfi74--,the ,sins ,opposed to ,abstemiousness 7#bdgj74--;,gluttony 7#bdga-bdgc74--,sobriety 7#bdgd1 #bdge74--,the ,sins against ,sobriety 7#bdgf74--;,drunkenness 7#bdgg-bdhe74--,purity 7#bdhf1 #bdhg74--,virginity 7#bdhh-bdia74--;,impurity 7#bdib-bdif74--,temptations to ,impurity 7#bdig-bejc74--,non-,consummated ,sins of ,impurity 7#bejd74--;,impure ,thoughts 7#beje1 #bejf74--;,impure ,rejoicing 7#bejg74--;,impure ,desire 7#bejh1 #beji74--,lewdness 7#beaj-bead74--,sinfulness of ,lewdness 7#beae-beah74-- ,moral ,species of ,lewdness 7#beai74--,the ,consummated ,sins of ,impurity 7#bebj-bebb74--;,fornication 7#bebc-bebh74--;,defloration and ,rape 7#bebi74--;,adultery 7#becj74--;,incest 7#beca1 #becb74--;,carnal ,sacrilege 7#becc74--,sins against ,nature 7#becd74--,pollution 7#bece-bech74--,the ,sinfulness of ,pollution 7#beci-beda74--,penalties 7#bedb74--,the ,potential ,parts of ,temperance 7#bedc74--;,continence 7#bedd74--,meekness 7#bede74-- ,anger 7#bedf-bedi74--,sinful ,indulgence 7#beej74--;,clemency 7#beea1 #beeb74--;,humility 7#beec-beef74--,pride 7#beeg-befj74--;,abjectness 7#befa74--,studiousness 7#befb74--;,curiosity and ,negligence 7#befc1 #befd74--,modesty 7#befe74--;,decorum 7#beff74--,modest ,relaxation 7#befg1 #befh74--,modesty in ,style and ,dress 7#befi1 #begj74--;,complements of ,temperance 7#bega74--;,commandments of ,temperance 7#begb74 ,question ,,iii ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,particular ,,classes ,,of ,,men ,,introduction 7#begc7 ,art4 #a4 ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,members ,,of ,,the ,,church ,general ,duties of the ,faithful 7#begd74--;,first ,precept of the ,church3 ,sanctification of the ,lord's ,day 7#bege74--;,hearing ,mass 7#begf-begh74-- ,servile ,works 7#begi-behb74--;,gravity of the ,first ,precept 7#behc74-- ,excuses 7#behd1 #behe74--,second ,precept3 ,abstinence 7#behf1 #behg74-- ,fasting 7#behh1 #behi74--,third ,precept3 ,yearly ,confession 7#beij1 #beia74--;,fourth ,precept3 ,easter ,duty 7#beib1 #beic74--;,fifth and ,sixth ,precepts 7#beid74--,laws on the ,index and ,cremation 7#beie74--,the ,special ,duties of ,clerics 7#beif74--,vocation 7#beig1 #beih74--,positive ,duties of ,clerics 7#beii74--,the ,divine ,office 7#bfjj1 #bfja74--;,celibacy 7#bfjb74-- ,negative ,duties of ,clerics 7#bfjc74--,trading 7#bfjd74--,stocks and ,bonds 7#bfje74--;,duties of ,clerical ,superiors 7#bfjf74--;,duties of ,pastors 7#bfjg74--;,charity to the ,poor 7#bfjh-bfaj74--,special ,duties of ,religious 7#bfaa74--,the ,vows 7#bfab74 ,art4 #b4 ,,duties ,,of ,,members ,,of ,,domestic ,,and ,,civil ,,society ,husband and ,wife 7#bfac74--,the conjugal ,debt 7#bfad-bfag74--,morality in ,marriage 7#bfah1 #bfai74--;,contraception and ,onanism 7#bfbj74-- ,birth-,control 7#bfba1 #bfbb74--;,cooperation with ,contraception 7#bfbc74-- ,recapitulation 7#bfbd74--,regulae pro ,confessariis 7#bfbe74--,the ,duty of ,conjugal ,companionship and ,assistance 7#bfbf74--,the ,obligation of ,marrying 7#bfbg74--,the ,duties of ,engaged ,persons 7#bfbh1 #bfbi74--,the ,duties of ,parents 7#bfcj1 #bfca74--,sex ,education 7#bfcb74--,the ,duties of ,children 7#bfcc74--,the ,duties of ,other ,relatives 7#bfcd74--,the ,duties of ,superiors 7#bfce74--,the ,duties of ,subjects 7#bfcf74--,taxes 7#bfcg-bfdb74-- ,voting 7#bfdc-bfde74--,the ,duties of ,employers 7#bfdf1 #bfdg74--,the ,duties of ,employees 7#bfdh74--,labor ,disputes 7#bfdi74--;,employment 7#bfej74--,the ,duties of ,certain ,professions 7#bfea74 ,question ,,iv ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,men ,,in ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,sacraments ,,introduction 7#bfeb1 #bfec7 ,art4 #a4 ,,the ,,sacraments ,,in ,,general3 ,,the ,,sacramentals ,nature of a ,sacrament 7#bfed74--,matter and ,form 7#bfee-bffj74--,necessity of the ,sacraments 7#bffa-bffc74--,the ,minister of the ,sacraments 7#bffd74--,requisites for ,valid ,ministration 7#bffe-bffh74--;,for ,lawful ,ministration 7#bffi1 #bfgj74--,the ,recipient of the ,sacraments2 ,requisites for ,valid ,reception 7#bfga-bfgd74--,requirements for ,lawful ,reception 7#bfge74--,obligations of the ,minister in ,reference to the ,recipient 7#bfgf-bfhb74--,obligations of the ,recipient in ,reference to the ,minister 7#bfhc74--,the ,sacramentals 7#bfhd74 ,art4 #b4 ,,baptism2 ,,confirmation2 ,,the ,,eucharist2 ,,the ,,sacrifice ,,of ,,the ,,mass ,introduction 7#bfhe74--,the ,sacrament of ,baptism 7#bfhf74--,solemn and ,private ,baptism 7#bfhg74--;,duties of ,pastors 7#bfhe74--;,duties of ,parents and ,guardians 7#bfhi74--;,duties of ,sponsors 7#bfij1 #bfia74--;,duties of ,adult ,recipients 7#bfib74--;,duties of the ,minister 7#bfic74--,the ,sacrament of ,confirmation 7#bfid74--,the ,minister 7#bfie74--,the ,recipient 7#bfif74-- ,the ,sponsors 7#bfig74--,the ,pastor 7#bfih74--,the ,sacrament of the ,eucharist 7#bfii74--,matter and ,form of the ,eucharist 7#bgjj74--,the ,minister of ,consecration 7#bgja1 #bgjb74--,the ,minister of ,communion 7#bgjc74--,the ,communicant 7#bgjd74--,worthy ,communion 7#bgje74--;,frequent ,communion 7#bgjf74--;,duties of ,parents1 ,pastors1 ,confessors 7#bgjg74--,the ,custody and ,worship of the ,eucharist 7#bgjh74--,the ,sacrifice of the ,mass2 the ,celebrant 7#bgji74--,the ,obligation of ,saying ,mass 7#bgaj74-- ,dispositions for ,celebration of ,mass 7#bgaa74--,the ,circumstances of ,mass 7#bgab74--;,interruption of ,mass 7#bgac74--;,application of ,mass 7#bgad1 #bgae74--,stipends 7#bgaf74 ,art4 #c4 ,,repentance2 ,,penance2 ,,extreme ,,unction ,introduction 7#bgag74--,the ,virtue of ,repentance 7#bgah-bgbf74--,the ,sacrament of ,penance 7#bgbg1 #bgbh74--;,contrition 7#bgbi-bgce74--,resolution of ,amendment 7#bgcf74--;,confession 7#bgcg-bgdd74--,satisfaction 7#bgde-bgdi74--,the ,minister 7#bgej74--;,jurisdiction 7#bgea1 #bgeb74-- ,reserved ,cases 7#bgec1 #bged74--;,absolution without ,jurisdiction 7#bgee74-- ,duties of the ,confessor before ,confession 7#bgef74--;,duties of the ,confessor as ,judge 7#bgeg-bgfa74--;,duties of the ,confessor as ,physician 7#bgfb74--;,duties of the ,confessor as ,teacher and ,guide 7#bgfc74--;,duties of the ,confessor after ,confession 7#bgfd74--,reparation of ,defects 7#bgfe1 #bgff74--,the ,seal of ,confession 7#bgfg1 #bgfh74--;,abuses of ,confession 7#bgfi-bggc74--,the ,sacrament of ,extreme ,unction 7#bggd74--;,duties of the ,recipient and the ,minister of ,extreme ,unction 7#bgge74 ,art4 #d4 ,,holy ,,orders2 ,,matrimony ,introduction 7#bggf74--,the ,sacrament of ,orders 7#bggg74--;,distinctions of ,orders 7#bggh74--,the ,hierarchy 7#bggi74--,the ,matter and ,form of ,orders 7#bghj74--,the ,minister of ,ordination 7#bgha1 #bghb74--,the ,recipient of ,orders 7#bghc-bghe74--,registration of ,ordinations 7#bghf74--,the ,sacrament of ,matrimony 7#bghg1 #bghh74--,the ,elements of ,matrimony as a ,contract 7#bghi-bgic74--,the ,elements of the ,sacrament 7#bgid74--;,duties in ,reference to ,marriage 7#bgie74--;,engagement 7#bgif-bgih74--;,duties to ,parents and to ,children 7#bgii1 #bhjj74--,pre-,nuptial ,investigations 7#bhja74--;,examination of the ,parties by the ,pastor 7#bhjb1 #bhjc74-- ,matrimonial ,impediments 7#bhjd1 #bhje74--;,impedient ,impediments 7#bhjf-bhji74--;,diriment ,impediments 7#bhaj-bhai74--;,dispensations and ,banns 7#bhbj74--;,after the ,examination 7#bhba74--;,instruction of the ,couple 7#bhbb-bhbd74--,religious ,preparation for ,marriage 7#bhbe74--,the ,celebration of ,marriage 7#bhbf-bhbi74--,validation 7#bhcj74--;,divorce and ,separation 7#bhca74 ,,appendices placed at end of ,volume ,i in print edition ,i4 ,,summary ,,of ,,common ,,law ,,on ,,prohibition ,,of ,,books ,,ii4 ,,the 8,,ecumenical ,,movement0 ,,index ,,to ,,volumes ,i ,,and ,,ii ,,moral ,,theology ,a ,complete ,course ,,introduction #a4 ,definition4--,moral ,theology is defined3 7a7 etymologically1 as the study of ,god1 considered as the beginning and the end of man's moral life1 i4e41 of those acts that proceed from reason and will2 7b7 scientifically1 as that part of ,sacred ,theology which treats of ,god as our ,last ,end1 and of the means by which we may tend to ,him4 #b4 ,hence1 ,moral ,theology differs from various related sciences or habits4 ,thus3 7a7 it differs from ,ethics1 which is the science of human conduct as directed by reason to man's natural end1 for ,moral ,theology uses faith as well as reason1 and is concerned with man's supernatural end2 7b7 it differs from faith1 since it includes not only principles revealed by ,god1 but also conclusions derived from them2 7c7 it differs from synderesis1 or the habit that perceives the natural principles of morality that are self-evident to the mind1 for ,moral ,theology deals also with supernatural truths and with truths that are not self-evident2 7d7 it differs from conscience1 which draws conclusions for individual cases1 since ,moral ,theology is concerned with general conclusions4 #c4 ,relation of ,moral ,theology to ,dogmatic ,theology4--7a7 ,they do not differ as two distinct sciences1 for the main object1 in the light of which all else is studied1 is the same in both--viz41 ,god4 7b7 ,they do differ as two quasi-integral parts or branches of the same science1 ,dogma being concerned more with the speculative1 and ,moral with the practical aspects of theology4 ,dogmatic ,theology is the more important of the two1 as treating more directly on divine things and as being the basis of ,moral ,theology4 ,in ,dogma1 ,god ,himself is considered in ,his own nature and creatures as they proceed from ,him as from an exemplary and efficient cause1 or ,creator4 ,moral ,theology continues the pursuit of knowledge of ,god1 concentrating upon ,him as ,he is the ,final ,cause of things4 ,creatures emanate from ,god by way of creation1 and this is part of the subject-matter of ,dogma2 but creatures return to ,him1 each in its own proper way by virtue of its nature created by ,god and directed by ,his ,providence and ,government1 and this return of creatures to ,god constitutes the general subject-matter of ,moral ,theology4 ,as ,divine ,providence and ,government are continuations of ,his ,creation1 ,moral ,theology continues to study and to unfold the implications of ,dogma's consideration of ,god as ,creator4 ,god is known to have created as an ,intelligent ,being ordering ,his handiwork to ,himself as end4 ,his special masterpiece1 man1 special because he is made to the ,image of ,god1 returns to ,god in a special way proper to him as an ,image1 i4e41 by way of acts of his intellect and will guided and moved by ,divine ,providence and ,predestination4 ,it is of this special way of returning to ,god by man1 ,his image1 that ,moral ,theology treats4 ,thus it adds to and perfects ,dogmatic ,theology1 enriching our knowledge of ,god by way of making explicit the implications of ,divine ,creation and ,providence to ,his image1 man4 #d4 ,the ,objects of ,moral ,theology4--7a7 ,the central theme or object of ,moral ,theology1 which is considered for its own sake and to which all else is secondary 7objectum formale quod71 is ,god as the supernatural ,end or ,destiny of man4 7b7 ,the secondary object 7objectum materiale7 is the means by which one is advanced towards one's ,last ,end 7such as human acts1 virtue1 grace1 the ,sacraments71 or the obstacles which hinder one from attaining that ,end 7such as vice1 temptation1 etc474 7c7 ,the medium through which the above objects are known 7objectum formale quo7 is the light of natural reason illuminated by faith studying the sources of divine revelation and deducing conclusions from doctrines revealed by ,god4 #e4 ,hence ,moral ,theology includes3 7a7 the revealed doctrines concerning man's destiny and duty that are contained in the written and oral ,word of ,god and as interpreted by their custodian1 the ,catholic ,church2 7b7 the conclusions that are contained in revelation2 7c7 the duties of man to human laws that are based on the divine natural or positive law2 7d7 the opinions of theologians on matters that are disputed1 as in the controversy about the systems of conscience4 #f4 ,the ,sources of ,moral ,theology1 therefore1 are3 7a7 ,holy scripture2 7b7 tradition2 7c7 the decisions of ,popes1 ,councils1 and ,congregations1 ,laws1 etc42 7d7 the authority of ,doctors and theologians2 7e7 natural reason4 #g4 ,holy scripture4--8,all scripture1 inspired by ,god1 is profitable to teach1 to reprove1 to correct1 to instruct in justice0 7,,ii ,tim41 iii4 #af74 7a7 ,thus1 the deeds narrated in scripture contain lessons for our instruction2 but not all of them1 even though they be concerned with holy men1 are offered for our imitation4 7b7 ,the laws of the ,old ,testament known as ceremonial 7such as the rite of circumcision71 and those called judicial 7such as the prohibition against the taking of interest71 are no longer obligatory2 but the moral precepts1 such as those found in the ,decalogue1 always remain in force4 7c7 ,the ordinances of the ,new ,testament are of three kinds3 the ,gospel counsels1 which are not laws1 but invitations to a higher practice of virtue than is necessary for salvation 7e4g41 the advice of our ,lord that one sell all and give to the poor72 the laws of the ,new ,testament1 which are the commands that it imposes for all times 7such as the precepts that one believe the ,gospel message1 receive ,baptism1 hear the ,church1 etc472 temporary regulations1 which are those dispositions that were made only for passing circumstances 7such as the prohibition issued by the ,apostles against the eating of animals that had been suffocated74 #h4 ,tradition4--,tradition contains those doctrines concerning faith and morals1 not found in scripture1 that were given orally by ,christ or inspired by the ,holy ,spirit1 and that have been handed down from one generation to another in the ,catholic ,church4 ,tradition becomes known to us3 7a7 through the teaching of the ,church expressed by her solemn or ordinary magisterium2 7b7 through the writings of the ,fathers of the ,church2 7c7 through the practice of the ,church expressed in her universal customs and laws2 7d7 through the worship of the ,church expressed in her universal forms of prayer and liturgical observance4 #i4 ,decisions4--,in addition to divine tradition just spoken of1 ,moral ,theology uses3 7a7 ,apostolic tradition1 which comes down from the ,apostles1 but whose subject-matter is not a teaching revealed to them1 but an ordinance which they themselves made as rulers of the ,church 7e4g41 the law that ,sunday be sanctified as the ,lord's day72 7b7 ecclesiastical tradition1 which contains regulations made by the authorities in the ,church and handed down to succeeding times 7e4g41 the introduction of certain days of feast or fast74 #aj4 ,authority of ,doctors and ,theologians4--7a7 ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas has been recognized by the ,church as her highest theological authority1 and the ,code of ,canon ,law 7,canons #ehi1 ,sec4 #a1 and #acff1 ,sec4 #b7 orders that in all seminaries and religious houses of study the courses of theology shall be made according to his method1 teaching and principles4 7b7 ,when the theologians agree with unanimity that a certain doctrine pertaining to faith or morals is divinely revealed1 it would be next to heresy to hold the opposite2 if they agree only that it is certain1 it would be rash to contradict them1 unless new and serious objections unknown to them can be offered2 if they are divided between schools and systems 7even though great claims for opinions are made by their partisans71 it is lawful for competent theologians to use their own judgment and decide for the side that seems to have the better arguments in its favor4 #aa4 ,reason4--,the uses of natural reason in ,moral ,theology are3 7a7 it demonstrates certain preambles to the teachings of ,moral ,theology1 such as the existence of ,god1 ,his omniscience and veracity2 7b7 it corroborates from philosophy many of the revealed teachings1 viz41 that man's end is not in things finite1 that he has duties to ,god1 to society1 to himself1 etc42 7e7 it affords analogies in the natural order by which we may illustrate the end and duties of man in the supernatural order2 7d7 it supplies the means by which the teachings on morals may be developed into the conclusions that are contained in them1 by which those teachings may be defended against the fallacious objections of adversaries1 and by which the whole may be arranged scientifically into a body of doctrine4 #ab4 ,moral ,theology is served not only by the various branches of philosophy 7such as ,ethics1 ,theodicy1 ,psychology1 ,logic71 but also by many of the natural sciences4 ,thus3 7a7 ,medicine and ,physiology are useful for understanding the morality and imputability of acts2 7b7 ,sociology and ,economics may throw light on problems concerning justice2 7c7 ,jurisprudence is1 of course1 closely related to questions concerning duties that arise from human laws2 7d7 ,history confirms the teachings of ,christian morality by the lessons of experience4 #ac4 ,the ,method to ,be ,followed in ,moral ,theology4-7a7 ,the positive method is a simple statement of moral principles and doctrines1 with little attention to argument1 except such as is found in the positive sources 7e4g41 scripture1 tradition1 the decisions of the ,church74 7b7 ,the ,scholastic method is a scientific statement of moral teaching through accurate definition of terms1 systematic coordination of parts1 strict argumentation and defense1 attention to controversies1 and recourse to philosophy and other natural knowledge4 7c7 ,the casuistic method1 or case-system1 is the application of moral principles to the solution of concrete problems of lawfulness or unlawfulness4 #ad4 ,the ,scholastic method is the one best suited for the study of ,moral ,theology1 because it is more scientific1 and fits one better to understand1 retain1 and apply what one learns4 ,but it is not exclusive of the other methods1 since it perfects the positive method1 and is the groundwork for the case method4 ,each method has a special suitability for certain ends4 ,thus3 7a7 the positive method is well adapted to preaching1 and hence was much in favor with the ,fathers of the ,church1 as can be seen from their moral homilies and treatises2 7b7 the ,scholastic method is the best for study1 teaching1 apologetic1 and was followed by the great classical works of theology in the ,middle ,ages and later2 7c7 the case method is very helpful to the seminarian and the priest in the exercise of the ministry of the confessional4 #ae4 ,the ,history of ,moral ,theology4--,there are three periods in the history of ,moral ,theology3 the ,patristic1 the ,medieval1 and the ,modern4 7a7 ,the ,patristic ,period 7#ast to #abth century74--,the moral writings of the-,fathers are popular1 exhortatory1 and occasional2 and it is not till the ,middle ,ages that we meet with works of systematic ,moral ,theology4 ,the following are among the most notable moral works of the ,fathers3 the ,paedagoga of ,clement of ,alexandria 7d4 about #bag71 which explains what the everyday life of the ,christian should be2 the ,catecheses of ,st4 ,cyril of ,jerusalem 7d4 #chf72 the ,de ,officiis ,ministrorum of ,st4 ,ambrose 7d4 #cig71 a ,christian counterpart of ,cicero's work ,de ,officiis2 the ,de ,civitate ,dei of ,st4 ,augustine 7d4 #dcj71 which contrasts love of ,god and love of self2 the ,expositio in ,job seu ,moralium libri ,,xxv of ,st4 ,gregory the ,great 7d4 #fjd71 which consists of moral instructions based on the ,book of ,job4 ,celebrated among the ascetical and mystical writings are3 the ,ladder of ,paradise of ,st4 ,john ,climacus 7#fth century71 the ,conferences of ,cassian 7about #daf71 the ,libri ,v de ,consideratione of ,st4 ,bernard 7d4 #aaec74 ,st4 ,gregory the ,great's ,de ,cura ,pastorali is a systematic work of pastoral theology1 and is regarded as a classic4 7b7 ,the ,medieval ,period 7#abth to #afth century74--,the method of the moralists of this period differs from that of the ,fathers in that the former is systematic and philosophical1 and more proximately adapted to the use of confessors4 ,the masterpiece of scientific ,moral ,theology is of course found in the ,summa ,theologica of ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas 7d4 #abgd74 ,works of casuistry were composed by ,st4 ,raymond of ,pennafort 7about #abce71 by ,john of ,freiburg 7d4 #acad71 by ,john of ,asti 7about #acag71 by ,angelus of ,chiavasso 7about #adgf71 by ,sylvester ,prierias 7d4 #aebc74 ,the ,summa ,theologica of ,st4 ,antoninus of ,florence 7d4 #adei7 has been called an inexhaustible storehouse for manuals of casuistry4 ,among the ascetical writers are3 ,st4 ,bonaventure1 the ,seraphic ,doctor 7d4 #abgd71 ,john ,gerson 7d4 #adbi71 ,john ,tauler 7d4 #acfa71 ,bl4 ,henry ,suso 7d4 #acff71 and ,denis the ,carthusian 7d4 #adga74 7c7 ,the ,modern ,period 7#afth century to the present74--,characteristic of this period are the commentaries written on ,st4 ,thomas1 the controversies over the systems of conscience1 the appearance of numerous manuals and special treatises1 and the attention given to changed conditions of society and ecclesiastical discipline4 ,noteworthy among modern works are3 the ,commentary on ,st4 ,thomas by ,cajetan 7d4 #aecd72 the writings of ,bartholomew de ,medina 7d4 #aeha71 called the father of moderate ,probabilism2 the ,de ,paenitentia of ,lugo 7d4 #affj71 a handbook that combines speculative and casuistical theology2 the ,roman ,catechism1 which was issued by the authority of the ,council of ,trent in #aeff2 the ,theologia ,moralis of ,st4 ,alphonsus ,liguori 7d4 #aghg71 a work whose authority is universally recognized2 the celebrated treatise on the virtues by ,lessius 7d4 #afbc72 the classic work of ,suarez 7d4 #afag71 ,de ,religione2 the ,summa ,casuum ,conscientiae of ,toletus 7d4 #aeif72 the commentaries of ,francis de ,victoria 7d4 #aedf71 which are writings of extraordinary merit4 ,more recent works are so numerous that it is impossible to mention them here4 #ah4 ,among the many modern works on ,moral ,theology which have been published abroad1 not a few are in the vernacular--in ,german1 ,french1 ,italian1 ,spanish1 etc4 ,while they are not intended to replace the ,latin text-books used in seminaries1 these are nevertheless a very great help to a fuller knowledge of the matter treated and to a more ready use of it in the work of the ministry4 ,so far there has been a dearth of works on ,moral ,theology in ,english2 and it is this want that has occasioned the present work1 which aims at presenting ,moral ,theology1 not only in its essentials1 but even more in detail and with greater fullness than is done by most of the text-books commonly in use4 ,and yet1 while pursuing this larger and more comprehensive plan1 the authors of this new work have tried to be as brief and compact as possible4 ,it has been their endeavor especially to avoid digressions into other fields and to sum up pertinent matter in as clear and simple a manner as the subjects treated will permit4 #ag4 ,the ,division and ,order of ,parts in ,moral ,theology4--,the arrangement of his matter made by ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas in the ,summa ,theologica is admittedly unsurpassed and unsurpassable in the qualities that good distribution should have1 viz41 clearness1 connection between parts1 completeness4 ,hence1 we cannot do better than follow the order he has used in his treatment of moral subjects4 ,his general division is as follows3 7#a7 ,the ,last ,end of ,man4--,from the ,last ,end acts derive their morality1 those being good that advance man towards its attainment1 and those evil that turn him away from its possession4 ,the ,last ,end is considered2 7a7 as to its existence2 7b7 as to its nature 7i4e41 the constituents of supreme beatitude74 7#b7 ,the ,general ,means ,tending to the ,last ,end4--,god is approached1 not by the steps of the body1 but by the operations of the soul1 and thus it is human acts that lead one to one's ,last ,end4 ,these acts are considered3 7a7 as they are in themselves or absolutely1 and according to the twofold division of acts proper to man 7human acts7 and acts common to man and beast 7passions72 7b7 as to the internal principles from which they proceed1 i4e41 habits1 whether good 7virtues7 or bad 7vices72 7c7 as to the external principles by which they are influenced4 ,the external principle of evil is the demon1 who tempts man to sin4 ,the external principle of good is ,god1 who instructs us by ,his law and the voice of conscience1 and assists us by ,his grace4 7#c7 ,the ,special ,means ,tending to the ,last ,end4--,these are our own good works2 hence1 here are considered the virtues incumbent on all classes of men1 i4e41 the theological and moral virtues4 #ah4 ,some of the topics just mentioned 7e4g41 divine grace7 are discussed fully in works on ,dogmatic ,theology1 and hence may be omitted here4 ,again1 since the ,last ,end of man is considered at great length in dogmatic works on ,eschatology1 little need be said about it here4 ,hence1 it will be convenient to divide this work into two parts as follows3 ,general ,moral ,theology1 in which are treated the more remote principles on duty1 such as the ,last ,end1 human acts1 good and bad habits1 laws and conscience1 grace2 7b7 ,special ,moral ,theology1 in which are treated the more immediate rules concerning duty1 i4e41 man's obligations as regards the virtues and the ,commandments4 ,,part ,i ,,general ,,moral ,,theology ,question ,i ,,the ,,last ,,end ,,of ,,man ,,and ,,the ,,means ,,to ,,that ,,end ,art4 #a3 ,,the ,,last ,,end ,,of ,,man 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 qq4 #a-e2 ,contra ,gentes1 ,,iv1 cc4 #a-fc47 #ai4 ,existence of the ,last ,end4--,every deliberate act proceeds from the will1 and1 since the will pursues good as its goal1 it follows that every deliberate act is done for some good or end4 ,but1 if this end is an imperfect good1 it is desired not for itself but as leading up to a perfect good1 that is1 to one which will leave nothing beyond it to be desired2 in other words1 the intermediate end is willed on account of a last end4 ,hence1 all that a man wills1 he wills directly or indirectly on account of a last end4 ,all men desire their own happiness and perfection2 but not all understand in what beatitude consists1 since some aim ultimately at finite goods4 #bj4 ,nature of the ,last ,end4--,as man's ,last ,end is that object which will make him perfectly happy1 it cannot consist3 7a7 in external goods1 such as wealth1 honors1 fame1 glory and power1 since one might have all these and yet be very unhappy2 7b7 in goods of the body1 such as health1 beauty1 pleasure and strength1 since all these things are passing1 and moreover satisfy only a part1 and that the lower part1 of man2 7c7 in goods of the soul1 such as wisdom or virtue1 since man's intellect is never content with particular truth1 nor his will with particular good1 the former always reaching out for the highest truth1 the latter for the highest good4 ,hence1 the ,last ,end of man is the ,infinite ,good1 or ,god 8who satisfieth thy desire0 7,psalm cii4 #e74 #ba4 ,attainment of the ,last ,end4--,god being supersensible1 the act by which ,he is attained cannot be any operation of the senses1 but must be an act of the higher powers4 ,man possesses his ,last ,end through the vision of ,god1 from which result beatific love and every good that is compatible with the glorified state4 ,for 8we see now through a glass in a dark manner1 but then face to face0 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #ab72 and there shall be 8glory and honor and peace to everyone that worketh good0 7,rom1 ii4 #aj74 ,art4 #b3 ,,acts ,,as ,,human 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 qq4 #f-ag47 #bb4 ,human acts are a means to man's ,last ,end1 inasmuch as they are meritorious--i4e41 labors that deserve a recompense 7,i ,cor41 iii4 #h71 struggles that deserve a crown 7,,ii ,tim41 ii4 #e74 ,but works are not meritorious unless they are one's own 7human7 and good 7moral72 and1 since the reward is supernatural1 they must also be the fruit of grace4 ,hence1 we shall speak of acts in the following order3 7a7 acts as human and free 7,art4 #b72 7b7 acts as morally good 7,art4 #c72 7c7 acts as supernaturally meritorious 7,art4 #d74 #bc4 ,definition4--,those acts are called human of which a man is the master1 and he is master of his actions in virtue of his reason and his will1 which faculties make him superior to non-human agents that act without reason and freedom4 ,hence1 the following kinds of acts done by a human being are not called human3 7a7 those that are not under the control of the mind1 because one is permanently or temporarily without the use of reason or without knowledge 7e4g41 the acts done by the insane2 by those who are unconscious or delirious1 under the influence of hypnotism or drugs1 distracted or carried away by vehement fear1 anger1 etc42 by infants and uninstructed persons72 7b7 those that are not under the control of the will1 even though they are known 7e4g41 automatic acts1 such as the acts of the vegetative powers1 growth1 circulation of the blood2 pathological acts1 such as convulsions2 acts done under external violence74 #bd4 ,knowledge ,requisite for a ,human ,act4--,an act is human1 or voluntary1 when it is deliberately desired2 and1 since nothing can be deliberately desired unless it is known1 an act done without knowledge is not human or voluntary4 ,thus1 a delirious patient does not will the language he uses1 for his mind is confused and he does not understand what he is saying4 #be4 ,the condition of a person without knowledge is ignorance1 which is defined as the absence of knowledge in one who is capable of knowing4 ,ignorance is of various kinds4 ,from the viewpoint of that which is not known 7i4e41 of the object of the ignorance71 there is ignorance of the substance of an act and ignorance of the quality of an act4 ,for example1 ,titus driving rapidly in the dark runs over and kills a pet animal of his neighbor1 but knows nothing of this happening 7ignorance of the substance of the act72 ,balbus1 a child1 fires a pistol at his playmate1 not knowing that this causes death 7ignorance of the physical quality of an act71 and that it is the sin of murder 7ignorance of the moral quality of an act74 #bf4 ,with reference to the will of the person who is ignorant1 three kinds of ignorance may be distinguished4 7a7 ,ignorance is concomitant 7simultaneous with the act of the will71 when it is not voluntary1 and yet is not therefore the reason of the act that follows it1 since that act would have been done1 even had there been knowledge4 ,this may be illustrated by the example of a hunter who intended to kill an enemy1 and killed him only accidentally while shooting at an animal4 7b7 ,ignorance is consequent 7after the act of the will71 when it is voluntary1 which may happen in different ways3 first1 when ignorance is affected1 as when a person expressly desires to remain ignorant about his duties1 so that he may have an excuse for his sins1 or that he may not be disturbed in his evil life2 secondly1 when he neglects to acquire the knowledge he ought to possess1 as when a hunter kills a man1 thinking him an animal1 because he took no pains to be sure before firing4 7c7 ,ignorance is antecedent 7before the act of the will71 when it is not voluntary1 and is the cause of the act that follows since the act would not have been done1 if there had been knowledge4 ,for example1 a hunter who has used reasonable diligence to avoid accidents1 kills a man whom he mistook for a deer4 #bg4 ,with reference to the responsibility of the person who is ignorant1 there are two kinds of ignorance4 7a7 ,ignorance is invincible when it cannot be removed1 even by the use of all the care that ordinarily prudent and conscientious persons would use in the circumstances4 ,thus1 a person who has no suspicions of his ignorance1 or who has tried in vain to acquire instruction about his duties1 is invincibly ignorant4 7b7 ,ignorance is vincible when it can be removed by the exercise of ordinary care4 ,there are various degrees of this species of ignorance3 first1 it is merely vincible1 when some diligence has been exercised1 but not enough2 secondly1 it is crass or supine1 when hardly any diligence has been used2 thirdly1 it is affected1 when a person deliberately aims to continue in ignorance4 #bh4 ,influence of the ,various ,kinds of ,ignorance on the ,voluntariness of ,acts4--7a7 ,ignorance of an act1 whether as to its substance or quality1 makes an act involuntary1 when the ignorance itself is involuntary1 as will be explained in paragraph #bi4 ,hence1 if we refer to ignorance that is not blameworthy and to the guilt of violating the law of ,god1 we may say3 8,ignorance excuses40 7b7 ,ignorance does not make an act involuntary before human law1 unless the law itself presumes the ignorance or the ignorance is proved1 as will be explained in the ,question on ,law 7see #dhi sqq474 ,for1 when law is sufficiently promulgated or a fact pertains to one's own self1 the presumption is that ignorance does not exist1 or that it is culpable4 ,hence1 the general rule of law common to all forms of jurisprudence3 8,ignorance does not excuse0 7cfr4 ,canon #af of the ,code of ,canon ,law74 #bi4 ,effects of ,concomitant1 ,consequent1 and ,antecedent ,ignorance4--7a7 ,concomitant ignorance does not make an act involuntary1 because it does not cause anything that is contrary to the will2 but it does make the act that is performed non-voluntary1 since what is unknown cannot be actually desired4 7b7 ,consequent ignorance cannot make an act entirely involuntary1 since such ignorance is itself voluntary2 but it does in a certain respect make an act involuntary1 i4e41 inasmuch as the act would not have been done save for the ignorance4 7c7 ,antecedent ignorance makes an act entirely involuntary4 #cj4 ,effects of ,invincible and ,vincible ,ignorance4--7a7 ,invincible ignorance1 even of what pertains to the natural law1 makes an act involuntary1 since nothing is willed except what is understood4 ,hence1 no matter how wrong an act is in itself1 the agent is not guilty of formal sin 7see #bdi71 if he is invincibly ignorant of the malice involved4 7b7 ,vincible ignorance does not make an act involuntary1 since the ignorance itself is voluntary2 hence1 it does not excuse from sin4 ,it does not even make an act less voluntary and less sinful1 if the ignorance is affected in order that one may have an excuse2 for such a state of mind shows that the person would act the same way1 even though he had knowledge4 #ca4 ,vincible ignorance makes an act less voluntary and less sinful3 7a7 when the ignorance is not affected1 for the voluntariness is measured by the knowledge1 and knowledge here is lacking2 7b7 when the ignorance1 though affected1 was fostered only through fear that knowledge might compel a stricter way of life2 for such a state of mind seems to show that one would not act the same way if one had knowledge4 #cb4 ,like to ignorance are the following3 7a7 error1 which is a judgment not in agreement with the facts 7e4g41 ,balbus1 a young child1 thinks stealing is lawful1 because older persons are represented as stealing in the moving pictures72 7b7 forgetfulness1 which is ignorance of what was once known 7e4g41 ,titus made a study of his duties as a ,catholic when he was young1 but at present what he does not know about those duties is not inconsiderable72 7c7 inadvertence1 which is a lack of attention to what is being done 7e4g41 ,caius1 who is absent-minded1 sometimes gets his hair cut and goes away without paying1 or takes money that does not belong to him74 #cc4 ,the principles and conclusions given above with regard to ignorance will apply also to error1 forgetfulness and inadvertence2 for in all these cases the lack of actual knowledge at the moment an act is done1 is either willed or not willed1 and accordingly the act itself is either voluntary or not voluntary4 ,in the examples mentioned above1 ,balbus does not will the guilt of theft1 since he does not know it2 but his elders do will that guilt1 because they should know it4 ,titus is responsible for neglecting his duties1 if he has forgotten them through his own neglect of them or other fault2 otherwise1 he is not responsible4 ,caius' inattention is involuntary1 if due to mental concentration or distraction1 and if it is not desired by him2 it is voluntary1 if he is aware of it and cultivates it1 or if he does not try to be more attentive to his duties4 #cd4 ,consent ,requisite for a ,human ,act4--,to be human1 an act must proceed not only from knowledge1 but also from inclination2 that is1 it must be voluntary4 ,three things are necessary in order that an act be voluntary3 7a7 it must be agreeable to an internal principle1 i4e41 in most moral matters to the will4 ,hence1 an act that is done against one's will on account of external violence is not voluntary2 7b7 it must be caused by the will4 ,hence1 a shower of rain is said to be agreeable to the gardener1 but not voluntary since his will is not its cause2 7c7 it must be performed with a conscious purpose4 ,hence1 natural acts 7such as sleeping7 and spontaneous acts 7such as stroking one's beard absent-mindedly7 are not voluntary acts4 #ce4 ,kinds of ,voluntary ,acts4-7a7 ,a voluntary act is free or necessary1 according as one can or cannot abstain from it4 ,the vision of ,god in heaven is voluntary to the blessed1 since they look at ,him knowingly and gladly2 but it is not free1 since they cannot avert their gaze from that which makes them blessed4 ,the love of ,god on earth is voluntary1 since chosen2 but it is also free1 since man is able to turn away from ,god4 7b7 ,an act is perfectly or imperfectly voluntary1 according as the deliberation and consent that precede it are full or only partial4 7c7 ,an act is said to be simply--that is1 absolutely--voluntary1 when it is wished under circumstances that exist here and now1 although in itself1 apart from those circumstances1 it is not wished4 ,it is said to be voluntary under a certain aspect1 when it is desired for itself1 but not under existing conditions4 ,thus1 if an arm needs to be amputated to save life1 the amputation is absolutely voluntary1 while the preservation of the arm is voluntary only in a certain respect4 ,hence1 an act is voluntary simply or absolutely when one chooses it1 all things considered2 it remains involuntary under a certain respect1 inasmuch as the choice is made with reluctance4 7d7 ,an act is voluntary in itself or directly1 when it is desired in itself for its own sake 7i4e41 as an end71 or for the sake of something else 7i4e41 as a means74 ,it is voluntary in its cause or indirectly1 when it is not desired in itself1 either as a means or an end1 but is foreseen as the result of something else that is intended4 ,examples3 ,titus quarrels with his neighbors1 at times because he likes to quarrel1 and at other times because he wishes to make them fear him2 hence1 his quarrels are directly voluntary4 ,caius is a peaceful man who dislikes quarreling2 but he likes to drink too much occasionally1 although he knows that he always quarrels when he is under the influence of liquor4 ,thus1 his quarrels are indirectly voluntary4 #cf4 ,an act is voluntary in its cause in two ways3 7a7 approvingly 7physically and morally voluntary in cause71 when one is able and obliged not to perform the act that is its cause 7e4g41 the quarrels of ,caius mentioned above are approved implicitly by him1 since he could and should prevent the intoxication which is their cause72 7b7 permissively 7physically voluntary in cause71 when one is not able or not obliged to omit the act that is its cause 7see #id sqq474 ,examples3 ,balbus1 in order to make a living1 has to associate with persons of quarrelsome character1 and as a result often hears shocking disputes4 ,titus1 a military commander1 orders an enemy fortification to be bombarded1 although he knows that this will involve the destruction of other property and the unavoidable killing of some non-combatants or neutrals4 ,caius writes a book whose purpose and natural result is edification1 but he foresees that evil-minded persons will misunderstand it and take scandal4 #cg4 ,omissions1 as well as acts1 may be voluntary4 7a7 ,thus1 they are directly voluntary1 when they are willed as an end or as a means to an end4 ,example3 ,titus fails to reprove the disorders of those in his charge because he likes disorder1 or because it illustrates his theory that everyone should go through an evolution from roughness to refinement4 7b7 ,they are indirectly voluntary1 when their cause is willed with approval or permitted with disapproval4 ,example3 ,balbus does not like to miss ,mass1 but he fails to rise from bed when he hears the church bell ringing1 and as a result does not get to church4 ,if his failure to get up was due to laziness1 the omission of ,mass was approved by ,balbus2 if it was due to illness1 the omission was only permitted4 #ch4 ,the effect that follows upon an omission may also be voluntary4 7a7 ,thus1 it is directly voluntary1 if the omission is chosen as a means to the effect4 ,example3 ,caius hears ,titus say that he is going to make a certain business deal1 and he knows that ,titus will suffer a great loss thereby2 but he wishes ,titus to lose his money1 and therefore says nothing about the danger4 7b7 ,it is indirectly voluntary1 if one foresees the effect1 and approves or permits it4 ,examples3 ,balbus sees ,titus attacked by a hoodlum and realizes that1 unless assisted1 ,titus will be badly beaten up2 but he is such an admirer of pugilism that1 in spite of his sorrow for ,titus1 he decides not to stop the fight4 ,caius sees his friend ,sempronius drowning1 and fails to go to his assistance1 because to his regret he is not an expert swimmer4 #ci4 ,the effect of an omission is indirectly voluntary and approved by the will when one is able and bound to do what one omits4 ,example3 ,balbus receives some confidential documents with the understanding that he will guard them sacredly2 but fearing to lose the good graces of ,titus1 who is curious and loquacious1 he omits to put the papers away as promised1 with the result that ,titus finds them and reads them4 #dj4 ,obstacles to ,consent4--,the obstacles to consent are all those factors that take away or lessen the voluntariness of an act4 7a7 ,thus1 the actual obstacles that affect the intellect are reduced to ignorance1 spoken of above2 those that affect the will are passion and fear1 and that which affects the external powers is coercion4 7b7 ,the habitual obstacles are habits and abnormal mental states4 #da4 ,fear is a disturbance of mind caused by the thought that a future danger is impending4 ,it is an obstacle to consent in various ways3 7a7 it lessens or takes away freedom of judgment1 inasmuch as it hinders or suspends the reasoning processes2 7b7 it lessens the voluntariness of choice1 inasmuch as it makes one decide for what is not of itself agreeable4 #db4 ,an act done under fear that impeded the use of judgment is3 7a7 involuntary1 if the fear was so great that one was temporarily out of one's mind4 ,example3 ,titus is so panic-stricken at the thought that a wild animal is pursuing him that he fires a revolver in every direction2 7b7 less voluntary1 if the fear prevents one from thinking with calmness and deliberation4 ,example3 ,caius is being questioned by a stern examiner who demands an immediate reply4 ,fearing to hesitate1 ,caius gives what he knows is a 8bluffing0 answer4 #dc4 ,the acts of one who is under fear are of various kinds4 7a7 ,acts are done with fear1 when the fear is concomitant--i4e41 when it is not willed and does not cause the act1 but is merely its occasion or would rather prevent it4 ,examples3 ,julius is ordered under pain of death to drink a glass of wine1 a thing he was intending to do and which he would have done even without any threats4 ,balbus walks along a lonely road1 because he must get home1 but he trembles at the thought of robbers4 ,caius1 a highwayman1 at the point of the revolver1 forces ,balbus to hand over his purse1 but he fears that the police may arrive before he has secured the money4 ,titus1 a business man1 makes a trip by air1 because he must reach another city without delay1 but he has some apprehensions about his safety4 ,all these men act1 not because of1 but apart from or in spite of their fears4 7b7 ,acts are done through fear1 when fear causes an act that would not otherwise be performed4 ,the fear may be antecedent 7i4e41 unwilled7 or consequent 7i4e41 willed74 ,examples3 ,balbus1 in the case mentioned above1 surrendered his purse because of involuntary fear which was caused by the revolver of the robber4 ,claudius makes an act of sorrow for sin because of voluntary fear which he produces by thinking of the punishment of hell4 #dd4 ,the effects of fear1 which do not take away the use of reason1 on the voluntariness of acts are as follows4 7a7 ,acts done with fear are not made really involuntary on account of the fear that accompanies them1 for they are done for their own sake1 not out of fear or as a consequence of fear4 ,they may be called relatively involuntary in the sense that1 by reason of fear1 they are comparatively unpleasant1 unless one enjoys the thrill of danger4 ,examples3 ,balbus1 ,caius and ,titus1 in the cases mentioned above1 acted with perfect willingness4 ,whether they enjoyed their experiences or not1 depends on their attitudes towards adventure and excitement4 7b7 ,acts done through fear are voluntary simply and absolutely1 for the act done under the impulse of fear is what the agent considers here and now as most desirable4 ,examples3 ,balbus' surrender of his purse and ,claudius' act of contrition are just what these two men wish to do as best suited to the circumstances4 7c7 ,acts done through fear are involuntary in a certain respect1 if the agent can retain his inclination towards the opposite of the act and still avoid what he fears2 otherwise1 they are in no way involuntary4 ,examples3 ,balbus retains his liking for the money taken from him by force1 and hence the surrender of it to the highwayman1 although voluntary1 if all things are considered1 is not voluntary1 if only the money itself is considered4 ,claudius1 on the contrary1 retains no liking for his sins1 for he knows that1 if he does1 he will defeat the purpose of his act of sorrow1 which is to escape the pains of hell2 hence1 his contrition1 although the result of fear1 is in no respect involuntary4 #de4 ,passion is a movement of the sensitive appetite towards its object through love1 desire1 hope1 or its repose therein through delight4 ,it tends towards good1 as fear tends away from evil 7see #aag sqq474 ,passion is an obstacle to consent in the following ways3 7a7 it takes away voluntariness 7i4e41 the quality of proceeding from an internal principle with knowledge of the end of the act71 whenever it is so intense as to prevent knowledge2 7b7 it diminishes liberty 7i4e41 the quality of being perfectly voluntary1 or indifferent as between many acts71 even when it does not prevent knowledge4 #df4 ,spiritual appetites fortify the reason1 but the opposite is true of sensible appetites2 for these latter draw all the attention to things that are lower and away from those that are higher1 and impede the exercise of imagination and other senses that serve the reason4 ,in extreme and rare cases passion may be so intense as to distract from or prevent altogether the exercise of reason1 or to produce insanity4 ,thus1 we sometimes hear of persons losing their minds through affection for money1 or of performing irrational deeds under the excitement of joy4 #dg4 ,with reference to the will1 passion is twofold4 7a7 ,it is antecedent1 when it precedes the act of the will and causes it4 ,in this case the passion arises not from the will1 but from some other cause 7e4g41 the bodily state1 as when a sick man longs for food that is forbidden74 7b7 ,passion is consequent when it follows the act of the will and results from it4 ,this may happen either without the will choosing the passion 7as when the very vehemence with which the will desires some object causes a corresponding sensitive emotion to awaken71 or because the will has deliberately aroused the emotion in order to be able the better to act through its cooperation4 #dh4 ,antecedent passion makes an act more voluntary1 since it makes the will tend with greater inclination to its object2 but it likewise makes an act less free1 since it impedes deliberation and disturbs the power of choice4 ,example3 ,a man who takes extreme delight in sports1 plays voluntarily1 but is less free than if he were not so immoderately inclined that way4 #di4 ,consequent passion which results naturally from an intense act of the will does not increase the voluntariness of the act1 since it is not its cause2 but it does show that the act of the will is intense1 for it is only that which is willed vehemently that overflows from the will and affects the emotions4 #ej4 ,consequent passion which results from the deliberate choice of the will increases the voluntariness of the act that follows1 since the act is performed with greater intensity on account of the passion that has been deliberately excited4 #ea4 ,what has been said about the passions that tend to sensible good can be applied also to the passions that are concerned with sensible evils1 such as hatred1 sadness1 aversion1 boldness1 anger4 ,if they are antecedent1 they increase the voluntariness of an act1 but diminish its freedom2 and1 if they cause a passing frenzy or insanity1 they take away all responsibility4 ,if they are consequent1 they either increase the willingness of the act1 or indicate that it is willed with great intensity4 #eb4 ,violence1 or coercion1 is the use of force by an external agent to compel one to do what one does not want to do4 ,its effects on voluntariness are3 7a7 it cannot affect the internal act of the will1 else we should have the contradiction that the act of the will was both voluntary1 as proceeding from the will1 and involuntary1 as proceeding from external coercion2 7b7 it can affect external acts1 such as walking1 and so make them involuntary4 ,if a boy is driven to school1 the violence makes his going involuntary1 but it does not make his will not to go to school involuntary4 #ec4 ,habits4--,characteristic of habits is a constant inclination1 resulting from repeated acts1 to perform similar acts 7see #acc for definition of habit74 ,its effects on the voluntariness of acts are3 7a7 if the habit is in a sense involuntary1 i4e41 caused by free acts but retracted by a sincere act of contrition1 it diminishes or even takes away voluntariness4 ,if the actual advertence to the act is imperfect1 the voluntariety is diminished2 if advertence is totally absent1 all voluntariety is taken away4 ,thus a drunkard who retracts his habit and makes an act of true contrition may again fall into sin because of the acquired dispositions to drink4 ,then the sins are less voluntary or at times1 owing to total lack of advertence1 may be regarded solely as material sins4 7b7 if the habit is voluntary1 i4e41 acquired by free acts and not retracted1 it increases the voluntariness in respect to the inclination to act4 ,should all advertence and deliberation be taken away1 a rare occurrence1 it diminishes the liberty of the act and consequently its morality as good or bad4 ,voluntariety1 however1 is not taken away entirely1 since the habit itself was freely willed and hence acts flowing from it are voluntary in cause 7see #ce474 ,if sufficient advertence remains1 the habit diminishes the freedom of the act owing to the impeding of reason2 but this diminution of liberty is in accord with the will of the individual who freely contracted and conserves the habit to have facility in acting4 ,accordingly1 absolutely speaking1 a voluntary habit increases the voluntariety of acts caused by that habit and consequently increases their goodness or evil4 ,thus ,st4 ,thomas asserts that one who sins from habit sins from certain malice1 i4e41 not from ignorance or passion1 but from the will's own choice4 #ed4 ,natural propensities are inclinations that arise from bodily constitution or physical condition 7e4g41 a strong native attraction to temperance or to intemperance not acquired by frequent acts74 ,natural propensities have the same kind of influence on the willingness of an act as involuntary habits 7see #ec474 #ee4 ,pathological states are diseases of the brain or nerves that react upon the intellect and the will1 such as various kinds of neuroses and psychoses1 hysteria and epilepsy4 ,the influence of pathological states on the voluntariness of acts seems similar in kind to that ascribed to antecedent passion 7see #dh474 ,caution must be observed in applying these principles to particular kinds of mental diseases4#a #a ,in doubt whether an act associated with a pathological state is free or not1 the rule of moralists is lenient4 ,when the act is sinful1 it is not imputed as gravely sinful1 for man is innocent until proven guilty4 ,if the act is good1 it is presumed voluntary and free and1 consequently1 meritorious4 ,see ,prummer1 ,d4,m41 ,o4,p41 ,manuale ,theologiae ,moralis 7,barcelona3 ,herder1 #aidf71 ,i4 n4#ic4 #ef4 ,two ,kinds of ,voluntary ,acts4--,having discussed human or voluntary acts in general1 we shall now indicate in particular the acts that are of this kind4 ,there are two classes of voluntary acts3 7a7 those elicited by the will2 7b7 those commanded by the will4 #eg4 ,acts ,elicited by the ,will4--,the first class of acts under the control of the will are those that are performed by the will itself--i4e41 that are begun and completed in that power of the soul4 #eh4 ,there are three acts of the will that are directed to the end the will has in view1 viz41 wish1 intention and fruition4 ,wish is the love or inclination of the will towards the end without any reference to the means by which it is to be obtained3 this is the first act of the will4 ,intention is the direction of the will to the gaining of the end through certain means4 ,fruition is the enjoyment of the end after it has been gained3 this is the last act of the will4 #ei4 ,there are three acts of the will that are directed to the means and that follow after intention1 viz41 consent1 election1 and use4 ,consent follows upon the counsel of the intellect1 and is an act of the will agreeing to several means as suitable for the intended end4 ,election follows after a practical judgment of the intellect about the means consented to1 and is an act of the will which chooses one of the means in preference to the others1 as being most suitable for gaining the intended end4 ,use is the act by which the will directs and moves the other powers to employ the particular means that has been chosen4 #fj4 ,acts ,commanded by the ,will4--,the second class of acts that are under the control of the will are those that proceed1 not from the will itself1 but from the other powers under the direction of the will4 #fa4 ,acts commanded by the will are of various kinds3 7a7 intellectual acts1 such as judgment1 reasoning1 etc41 performed under the direction of the will1 7b7 sensible acts such as sight1 hearing1 imagination1 the passions of love1 hate1 etc42 7c7 external corporal acts1 such as walking1 writing1 etc4 ,none of the foregoing acts need be commanded by the will1 as they may be indeliberate 7see #bc74 #fb4 ,the following kinds of acts are not subject to the control of the will3 7a7 intellectual acts1 such as the assent of the reason to self-evident truths1 as regards the specification of the act2 7b7 sensible acts1 such as the passions considered as arising from bodily dispositions before they are adverted to2 7c7 acts of the vegetative life1 such as digestion and growth2 7d7 bodily movements1 such as the circulation of the blood and the beating of the heart4 ,art4 #c3 ,,acts ,,as ,,moral 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 qq4 #ah-bj47 #fc4 ,in order that an act be a means by which man may tend to his ,last ,end1 it is not sufficient that it be human 7proceeding from knowledge and will72 it must also be morally good4 #fd4 ,definition4--,morality is the agreement or disagreement1 of a human act with the norms that regulate human conduct with reference to man's ,last ,end4 ,the act which is in agreement with those norms is morally good2 the act which is in disagreement with them is morally bad4 ,an act that neither agrees nor disagrees with the norms of morality1 is called morally indifferent4 #fe4 ,the constitutive norm of morality is that which gives an act its moral quality4 7a7 ,proximately1 this is the relation of agreement or disagreement of the act to the rational nature of man considered in its entirety and with reference to its true happiness2 7b7 remotely1 this norm is the relation of the act to ,god1 the ,last ,end of man4 #ff4 ,hence1 that which makes an act morally good is its agreement with the nature of man as a rational being destined for heaven1 and its promotion of the glory of ,god1 which is the purpose of all creation4 #fg4 ,the manifestative norm of morality is that through which the moral quality of acts is known4 7a7 ,proximately1 this is right reason1 which is the superior faculty and guide of the will2 7b7 remotely1 it is the divine intellect1 from which reason receives its light4 #fh4 ,the preceptive norm of morality is that which points out duty with respect to good and evil4 7a7 ,proximately1 it is conscience2 7b7 remotely1 it is the law of ,god4 #fi4 ,the species of morality are three3 7a7 an act is morally good when it is in harmony with the norms of morality mentioned above 7e4g41 prayer1 works of charity72 7b7 an act is morally bad when it is out of harmony with those norms 7e4g41 blasphemy1 injustice72 7c7 an act is morally indifferent when1 if considered in the abstract1 it neither agrees nor disagrees with moral norms 7e4g41 walking1 riding1 etc474 #gj4 ,the ,sources of ,morality4--,the sources from which the morality of an act is derived are its own tendencies and modes1 in so far as they have a relation of agreement or disagreement to the standards of morals4 ,these sources are3 7a7 the object of the act1 from which it derives its essence 7e4g41 ,god is the object of charity72 7b7 the circumstances of the act1 by which it is modified accidentally 7e4g41 fervor is a circumstance of the act of charity72 7c7 the purpose or end of the agent1 which is the chief circumstance 7e4g41 to please ,god1 as the purpose of a work of charity74 #ga4 ,the object of an action is that to which it primarily and naturally tends as to its term and end1 and from which it is named4 ,thus1 an alms is directed immediately and of its own nature to the relief of the poor 7end of the act72 it is only secondarily and from the direction given it by the agent that it tends to generosity and edification1 since the agent may give stingily1 or from a bad motive 7end of the agent74 #gb4 ,the circumstances are all those conditions1 different from the object1 that affect the morality of the act4 ,the chief moral circumstances are3 7a7 the time 7i4e41 the duration1 the character of the day1 as a holyday1 fast-day1 etc472 7b7 the place 7i4e41 in public or in private1 in church or elsewhere1 etc472 7c7 the manner 7i4e41 the advertence or inadvertence1 the cruelty1 etc472 7d7 the quantity or quality of the thing done 7e4g41 that an alms is large or small1 that the person who is helped is more or less deserving1 etc472 7e7 the purpose of the agent 7e4g41 that an alms is given to honor ,god72 7f7 the quality or condition of the agent 7e4g41 that the giver of an alms is poor himself72 7g7 the means used 7e4g41 that a benefactor's own money is used against himself74 #gc4 ,with reference to their influence on the moral character of acts1 circumstances are divided as follows3 7a7 circumstances that change the kind of morality1 by making what was good to be bad1 what was indifferent to be good or bad1 what was venial to be mortal1 what belonged to one class of mortal sins to take on another character1 etc42 7b7 circumstances that change the degree of morality1 by making a good act more or less good1 or by making a bad act more or less bad4 #gd4 ,the purpose or end of an action is the reason which induces the agent to act4 ,it is the chief circumstance of an act1 and hence is treated as a separate source of morality4 #ge4 ,the end or purpose is twofold4 7a7 ,it is the total end when it alone is intended1 so that the action is done with no other aim in mind4 ,thus1 if one helps the poor only to practise charity1 the total motive is charity4 7b7 ,the end is partial when it is intended along with another motive of equal or unequal force4 ,thus1 if a person helps the poor in order to relieve them and also to benefit temporarily by his charity1 the assistance of others is only a partial motive of his act2 and if he would not give alms except in view of the personal advantage he expects1 charity becomes the secondary motive4 #gf4 ,good ,acts4-,an act is said to be entirely good when all its elements--its object1 circumstances and purpose--are in conformity with the standards of morality4 ,thus1 an alms given to one in need1 in a considerate manner1 and purely out of love for ,god1 is good in every respect4 ,furthermore1 the fact that the circumstances and purpose of the act are good increases the goodness derived from the object of the act4 #gg4 ,an act is likewise entirely good when at least one of its elements is good1 the others being indifferent1 and none evil2 for it is the good alone that is intended 7see #he71 and this gives the moral color to the whole act4 ,this happens as follows3 7a7 when the object is indifferent and the purpose good1 as when one takes a walk for the purpose of performing a work of mercy2 7b7 when the object is indifferent and a circumstance good1 as when one eats a meal with intentional moderation2 7c7 when the object is good and a circumstance indifferent1 as when one prays with unintentional stammering4 #gh4 ,an act is partly good when1 while its object is good1 there is some evil in the circumstances that does not neutralize or transform the object4 ,this happens in the following cases3 7a7 when the object is good and some minor circumstance1 not intended as affecting the substance of the act1 is evil1 as when a person prays with distractions2 7b7 when the object is good and a partial1 but not predominant motive is slightly evil1 as when a person prays in public in order to give edification and also incidentally to help his reputation4 ,in both these cases the good--i4e41 the worship of ,god--is desired for itself as good1 and the evil that is simultaneously desired does not change this good object4 #gi4 ,bad ,acts4-,an act is called entirely evil when all its elements--its object1 circumstances and purpose-are contrary to the moral norms4 ,thus1 to steal1 on a large scale1 in order to drive the victim to desperation is an act that is entirely wrong4 ,the wickedness of the circumstance and of the motive increases the wickedness of the object of the act4 #hj4 ,an act is likewise called entirely bad1 when one or more of its elements are of themselves good or indifferent1 but when there is an element which is evil and which neutralizes or transforms the good4 ,this happens in various ways3 7a7 when the object is evil1 and the purpose is good1 as when one steals in order to pay one's debts4 ,the good end is wished only as obtainable through a wicked means1 and thus ceases to be good2 7b7 when the object is good or indifferent1 and the total purpose is evil1 as when one talks or prays with no other motive than to annoy another person4 ,the good is willed1 not as good1 but only as a means to evil2 7c7 when the object is good or indifferent1 and a partial but ulterior purpose is evil4 ,for example1 if a person extinguishes a fire in order to save a neighbor's house and thus be enabled to rob him2 if a person takes physical exercises to develop his strength so as to be enabled to bully a neighbor4 ,the good act and the immediate end in these cases are intended not for the sake of their goodness1 but as instruments to the accomplishment of the evil ulterior end2 7d7 when the object is good or indifferent1 and an evil circumstance is intended1 not as a circumstance1 but as forming a unit with the object and as affecting the substance of the act--for example1 when a person intends prayer precisely as distracted1 thus converting prayer into a sin4 ,the good object is willed in such cases1 not as good1 but as vitiated by an evil circumstance4 #ha4 ,although an act is totally evil when the good in it is absorbed by the evil1 the presence of what is good in itself can diminish1 though it cannot take away1 the evil4 ,thus1 to lie in order to help a neighbor is totally evil2 yet1 it is not as great an evil as to lie to hurt that neighbor4 #hb4 ,indifferent ,acts4--,an act is entirely indifferent if all the elements in it--its object1 circumstances and purpose--are neither harmonious nor discordant with the standards of morality4 ,such an act would be walking home rapidly in order to eat a meal1 if besides these factors1 which bear no relation to good morals1 there was nothing else in the act that did bear such a relation4 #hc4 ,as to the actual existence of a human or voluntary act that is morally indifferent1 we conclude3 7a7 ,considered in the abstract and universally1 some human acts are morally indifferent2 for if acts be considered with reference to their objects alone and apart from the circumstances that accompany them1 and as they are classified in the mind1 it is clear that many of them have no determinate relations to moral norms--e4g41 reading1 writing1 walking1 etc4 7one can read either good or bad literature72 7b7 considered in the concrete1 and as they happen in individual cases1 no human acts are morally indifferent1 since the purpose of the agent is either according to right reason or against it1 so that1 in spite of the indifferent object1 the act becomes either good or bad by reason of the presence or absence of the good purpose4 #hd4 ,considered even in the concrete and in individual cases1 all acts that are not human1 but indeliberate or involuntary 7see #bc sqq471 are morally indifferent--or1 more correctly1 unmoral1 as being outside the genus of moral acts on account of the absence in them of will1 which is the prerequisite of morality4 ,thus1 absent-minded acts are neither good nor bad morally4 #he4 ,as to the kind of intention required to make an indifferent act morally good1 or which should be had when the act is objectively good1 we conclude3 7a7 ,the good intended must not be solely a sensible good 7i4e41 the pleasure that the act gives71 but also and chiefly a rational good 7i4e41 its conformity to moral standards71 since man1 unlike the animals1 was made1 not for sensible1 but for rational good4 ,hence1 to eat deliberately with no other end than that of gratifying the palate1 is to eat without a moral purpose worthy of a human being1 and is a bad act4 7b7 ,the moral good of virtue which is intended in acts must not be regarded as the supreme good1 but should be referred to ,god1 since ,he alone is the ,last ,end 7see #bj74 ,hence1 to eat and drink with moderation solely because that is reasonable and suitable to human nature1 if one excludes the ,last ,end1 is to slight the necessary purpose and is morally bad4 7c7 ,the intention of moral good or virtue in human acts need not be actual or reflex4 ,thus1 a person who has a previously formed intention of living reasonably1 or who at the time of eating intends to eat moderately for the sake of health1 sufficiently intends a moral end4 ,likewise1 it is not necessary that the reference of an act to the ,last ,end be made actually or explicitly4 ,hence1 every person in the friendship of ,god1 in all his deliberate acts that are not evil1 has a sufficient reference of them to ,god contained in the fact that he has chosen ,god for his ,last ,end1 or in that here and now he intends some motive that becomes a rational being4 #hf4 ,an actual and explicit intention of the moral goodness of an act1 and an actual and explicit reference of the act to the ,last ,end1 though not necessary1 increase the moral value of what is done4 #hg4 ,axiom of ,pseudo-,dionysius3 8,that act is good whose causes are complete2 that act is evil in which a single cause is lacking40 7a7 ,this axiom can be understood as referring to perfect good1 and the meaning then is that an act is not perfectly good in the moral sense unless all its elements--its object1 purpose and circumstances--are good2 just as an oration is not called perfect1 unless all its elements--the speaker1 the matter1 the style and the delivery--are what they should be4 ,hence1 a single defect is enough to make an act fall short of perfection4 7b7 ,the axiom can be understood of essential goodness1 and the meaning then is that an act is not essentially good unless all the causes that contribute to essential goodness--the object of the act and any circumstances that may through the intention of the agent take on the character of object--are good2 just as a man is not said to be healthy1 unless his heart1 lungs1 and all the other chief parts of the body are sound4 ,hence1 an act is substantially bad1 if either its own end 7the object of the act7 or the special purpose had in mind by the agent 7the end of the agent7 is bad1 as explained above in #gi-ha4 #hh4 ,the axiom of ,dionysius does not mean3 7a7 that an act cannot be essentially or substantially good and at the same time accidentally bad 7see #gh71 for1 if even one circumstance not properly attended to could change an act from good into bad1 how few good acts would be done even by the most saintly persons6 ,example3 ,caius who sacrifices himself for the service of ,god and his neighbor1 now and then feels some slight vanity over his work4 ,his acts remain substantially good4 7b7 ,the axiom does not mean that an act cannot be substantially bad and yet have good circumstances that diminish its badness 7see #ha74 #hi4 ,morality of the ,external ,act4--,having considered the morality of the internal act1 we shall now turn to the external act 7such as giving an alms1 stealing1 and the like71 and inquire whether it has a morality of its own distinct from that of the internal act 7see #ef ,sqq474 #ij4 ,if the external act be considered precisely as it is the object1 or effect1 of the internal act of the will1 it does not add any essential morality to the internal act1 since1 having no freedom of its own1 it is moral only in so far as it proceeds from the will4 ,in this sense1 then1 he who gives an alms to the poor1 and he who would give it if he could1 are equal in goodness of will2 and he who wishes to defraud1 and he who actually defrauds1 are equal in malice of will4 #ia4 ,if the external act be considered precisely as it is the term towards which the internal act tends1 it completes the essential morality of the internal act by extending and communicating it without4 ,for1 though this external act cannot add a distinct morality of its own1 it does carry the internal morality to its natural conclusion and diffuses its good or evil4 ,in this sense1 he who actually gives an alms is more deserving than he who really desires to give but is unable2 and he who really defrauds is more reprehensible than he who wishes to defraud but cannot4 #ib4 ,if the external act be considered precisely as something added to the internal act1 it can increase the accidental morality of the internal act by the reaction of the external circumstances on the will4 ,this can happen in such ways as the following3 7a7 the performance of the external act1 being pleasurable or difficult1 increases or decreases the intensity of the will to act2 7b7 the performance of the external act1 since it requires more time than the internal act1 prolongs the latter2 7c7 the external act by reason of repetition may also increase the strength of the internal act4 #ic4 ,furthermore1 it is through the external act that edification or scandal is given1 that penalties or rewards for overt action are deserved1 etc4 ,examples3 ,titus bears murderous hatred towards ,balbus1 but keeps it concealed4 ,caius also hates ,balbus1 and first calumniates him1 thus giving scandal1 and then kills him1 thus making himself liable before the law4 #id4 ,the ,morality of the ,act ,that ,is ,indirectly ,willed4--,an act is said to be willed indirectly1 or in its cause1 when it is foreseen as the result of another act which alone is directly intended 7see #ce sqq474 ,according to the different moral character of the acts1 there are four cases in which the act is willed indirectly3 7a7 when both the act directly willed and the resultant act are bad4 ,examples3 ,titus is heartily opposed to quarreling and blasphemy2 but he makes himself drunk to forget his troubles1 foreseeing that he will quarrel and blaspheme while in that state4 ,balbus has a real dislike for uncharitable thoughts2 but he chooses the company of a notorious scandalmonger in order to be amused1 knowing that thoughts against charity will be caused by listening to him2 7b7 when the act directly willed is bad and the resultant act is good4 ,example3 ,caius is very miserly when sober1 but liberal when intoxicated2 to vary the monotony of his life1 he decides to become intoxicated1 but grieves at the thought of the money he may give away to some deserving charity before he returns to his senses4 ,sempronius decides on an act of injustice with sorrow over the unbidden thoughts of remorse or repentance that will follow his act2 7c7 when both acts are good4 ,example3 ,out of charity ,titus makes up his mind to visit a pious relative who is ill2 and he foresees that thoughts of improving his own conduct--a thing not pleasing to him--will be occasioned by this visit2 7d7 when the act directly willed is good and the resultant act is bad4 ,examples3 ,balbus takes a drug prescribed for his health1 although he foresees it will make him unable to go to church4 ,caius gives alms to the poor1 intending only an act of charity1 but he knows that thoughts of vainglory will arise4 #ie4 ,the act indirectly willed sometimes gives1 sometimes does not give1 a new morality4 7a7 ,thus1 if it is good1 it adds no internal goodness1 since the will only permits1 without intending the good act4 ,example3 ,caius1 who does not intend1 but regretfully permits his act of charity which he foresees1 does not desire the act of charity4 7b7 ,if it is bad1 the act indirectly willed adds a bad act of the will1 if the will desires evil by permitting what it has no right to permit4 ,example3 ,titus who does not prevent1 when he should1 what will lead to blasphemy on his part1 implicitly desires the act of blasphemy4 #if4 ,the ,morality of the ,consequences of an ,act4--,man's life receives its moral character1 not only from his internal and external acts which are done in the present and from those which he knows will result from them in the future1 but also from the influence his acts exercise now and afterwards upon his fellowman4 ,it is this influence upon others that we now speak of as the consequences of an act4 ,according to the case1 the consequences sometimes add1 sometimes do not add1 to the morality of an act4 ,the good men do lives after them1 and also the evil4 ,there are various kinds of consequences3 7a7 foreseen consequences1 which1 if intended1 add to the morality of an act1 since it is clear that one who wishes the many good or evil results of his act is better or worse in intention than another who has no such wish4 ,thus1 one who knows that many will be edified or scandalized by his conduct1 and wills the result1 is better or worse than if he had no such will about those consequences2 7b7 unforeseen consequences1 which1 if they follow naturally and usually from an act1 make the act in itself better or ,worse according to their character4 ,thus1 the teaching of ,christian doctrine is good as conveying a knowledge of truth1 but it is made better on account of the spiritual benefit of others that naturally results from it4 ,similarly1 the teaching of evil is made worse on account of the evil consequences it usually produces2 7c7 unforeseen consequences1 which1 if they follow only accidentally and rarely from an act1 do not affect its morality1 since an act must be judged by what belongs to its nature1 not by what is merely occasioned by it4 ,thus1 the fact that an alms is used by the recipient as a means to intemperance does not detract from the goodness of the almsgiving done for the sake of charity4 ,likewise1 the fact that an injury is used by the sufferer as an occasion for spiritual profit does not lessen the wickedness of the injurious act4 #ig4 ,imputability4--,just as an act may be an act done by man 7i4e41 higher than the operations of brutes7 and yet not be human 7i4e41 not performed in the manner that is proper to man as man2 e4g41 an act of reasoning or of decision during a dream1 see #bc sqq471 so an act may be moral 7i4e41 in conformity or disagreement with the standards of right7 and yet not imputable as good or bad to the agent 7e4g41 a prayer or imprecation said by an infant1 or the drunkenness of one who did not realize the power of a liquor74 #ih4 ,imputability is that property of an act by which it belongs to its agent1 not only in its physical nature as something of himself or as an effect produced by him or in its human quality of subjection to his will1 but in its moral character of goodness or badness4 ,from contact with the moral object1 the agent takes as his own something of the brightness or defilement of that object1 and so becomes chargeable himself with goodness or badness4 #ii4 ,the conditions for the imputability of an act are3 7a7 the act must be human--i4e41 it must be performed knowingly and willingly 7see #bc sqq474 ,one is not chargeable with the quality of the act1 if not responsible for its very substance4 ,example3 ,titus suffers such intense pain that he does not know what he is saying1 and he blasphemes4 ,the morality of blasphemy is not unknown to him1 but his present act is not voluntary1 and hence is not imputable2 7b7 the morality of the act must be known1 or be something that should be known1 at least in a general way1 to the agent2 for no one is responsible for what he is wholly ignorant of through no fault of his own4 ,example3 ,titus1 ,caius1 ,balbus and ,sempronius rob the orchard of their neighbor4 ,titus in good faith thinks he is doing an act of virtue1 because the owner owes money to his companions4 ,caius thinks that some kind of sin is being committed1 but he does not know whether it is theft1 or gluttony1 or what4 ,balbus thinks that only a venial sin of stealing is being perpetrated4 ,sempronius1 the youngest of the crowd1 looks on the whole affair as a part of the day's sport4 ,all committed theft1 and the act is wrong2 but ,titus and ,sempronius were not guilty of sin1 since they were in good faith4 ,caius and ,balbus committed sin1 the species and degree depending on the knowledge they had or should have had 7see #ehh sqq472 7c7 the morality of the act must be willed4 ,if the act is good1 the goodness must be intended1 since a person should not get credit for what he does not wish4 ,example3 ,titus does not believe in virtue1 and ,caius is opposed to helping the poor2 but both give an alms to a beggar1 the former in order to get rid of the beggar1 the latter in order to get rid of some old clothes4 ,hence1 neither wishes or receives credit for the charity done4 ,if the act is bad1 the badness is sufficiently intended by the performance of what one knows is forbidden and wrong4 ,the will chooses contact with the evil object1 and thus implicitly with the evil of the object4 ,example3 ,balbus protests that he does not wish to harm anyone1 and then proceeds to calumniate his neighbors4 ,his disavowal of sinful intent does not make him any the less responsible for his calumny4 #ajj4 ,imputability may be conceived as making one responsible for the moral quality of an act in three ways3 7a7 generically1 if one should get the credit or diseredit of goodness or badness only2 7b7 specifically as to kind1 if one gets the credit or discredit of a particular category of goodness or badness2 7c7 specifically as to degree1 if one gets the credit or discredit of higher or lower grades of the same virtue or vice1 or if one is made guilty of mortal or venial sin4 ,these points will be discussed in the articles on the virtues and vices 7see #ahf sqq474 #aja4 ,goodness is imputable as follows3 7a7 ,as regards internal acts1 a person is credited with all the goodness of the object1 end1 and circumstances1 in so far as it is known and willed by him4 ,example3 ,titus purposes to pray in a penitential posture1 in order to obtain the virtue of humility4 ,hence1 he has the credit of worship1 mortification and humility through his holy desire4 ,if he thought of the penitential posture1 not as a moral circumstance1 or if he regretted it1 he would have the act1 but not the credit of mortification2 7b7 ,as regards external acts1 a person is credited with the greater readiness or intensity or duration which1 through it1 his will gives to what is good4 ,example3 ,if ,titus prays in the manner above described1 his good will is intensified1 and he has the credit of this increase in the accidental goodness of his act2 7c7 ,as regards acts indirectly willed1 one is not credited with their goodness1 if this is merely permitted4 ,example3 ,sempronius1 who is sorry that thoughts of a better life will go through his mind as a consequence of going to church1 has not the credit of those good thoughts2 7d7 ,as regards consequences that were foreseen1 or that naturally result from an act1 one is not credited with their goodness1 unless it was wished4 ,example3 ,balbus teaches religion to children because he is paid to do so2 ,caius does so because it is a good act4 ,the consequence that these children afterwards live virtuously is not morally creditable to ,balbus1 since he thought nothing about it2 but it is a circumstance that increases the goodness of ,caius' act1 since he intended his teaching precisely as it is a good work2 7e7 ,as regards consequences that are not natural results of an act1 if they were not foreseen or intended1 they are not credited to the agent4 ,example3 ,titus speaks a simple and ordinary word of good advice to ,sempronius1 but the impression is so great that ,sempronius undertakes and accomplishes extraordinary things1 which ,titus would not have deemed possible or advisable4 #ajb4 ,evil is imputable as follows3 7a7 ,as regards the internal act1 a person is guilty of all the evil of the object1 end and circumstances1 as far as it is known and willed by him4 ,example3 ,balbus wishes he could steal all the possessions of ,caius1 and thereby drive the latter to suicide4 ,balbus has committed theft and murder in his heart2 7b7 ,as regards the external act1 one is guilty of all the circumstances of greater willingness1 etc41 which it adds to the internal act4 ,example3 ,if ,balbus actually steals from ,caius and causes his death1 his malice is shown to be very strong and to extend to the evil consequences of his external acts2 7c7 ,as regards acts indirectly willed1 one is guilty of the evil they entail1 if one could and should have prevented it4 ,example3 ,balbus is guilty of the blasphemies he foresees will take place when he has taken too much drink1 for he could and should have kept sober4 7d7 ,as regards the evil consequences of acts1 foreseen or natural1 one is responsible for the evil1 if one could and should have prevented it4 ,examples3 ,titus knows that a beggar will use profane language if denied an alms1 but ,titus cannot spare the money and is not responsible for what happens4 ,sempronius blasphemes in the company of many1 and is therefore guilty of the sin of scandal1 since he has no right to blaspheme2 7e7 ,as regards the evil consequences of acts that could not have been foreseen1 they are not imputable4 ,example3 ,balbus steals fifty cents from ,caius1 and the latter is so heartbroken that he commits suicide4 ,balbus is not responsible for the suicide1 since such a thing was far from his thoughts when he stole4 #ajc4 ,it was just said 7#ajb1 d7 that when two results1 one good and one evil1 follow an act1 the evil is imputable if it could and should have been prevented4 ,it is not always easy1 however1 to determine at once when the evil result should be prevented1 and1 as cases of double effect are many1 it will be useful to give rules that are more particularized1 and that enable one to decide when it is lawful to do that from which will follow an act indirectly willed1 or a consequence that is evil4 #ajd4 ,it is lawful to perform an action from which an evil effect is foreseen when the following conditions are present3 7a7 the action willed itself must be good or at least indifferent2 for clearly1 if the action is bad1 it is also unlawful2 7b7 a good effect must also follow from the act1 and it must not be caused by the evil effect2 for the end does not justify the means4 ,thus1 it is not lawful to take what belongs to others in order to give alms1 for the evil effect 7stealing7 results from the act 7taking7 immediately2 whereas the good effect 7almsgiving7 results only mediately through the theft2 7c7 the agent must intend only the good effect1 since it is unlawful to wish evil4 ,thus1 if one foresees that one's virtuous life will cause the sin of envy in a neighbor1 this evil result of one's virtue must not be entertained by one as something pleasing2 7d7 the agent must have a reason sufficiently weighty for permitting the evil result that follows his act4 ,evil should not even be permitted1 unless there is adequate compensation in the good that is intended4 #aje4 ,to judge whether a reason for permitting an evil effect is proportionately grave1 the following rules should be kept in mind3 7a7 the greater the evil that results1 the greater must be the good that is intended4 ,thus1 it is not lawful to kill a robber in order to save a small amount of money3 but it is lawful to kill an aggressor1 if this is necessary in order to save one's life2 7b7 the greater the dependence of the evil effect on one's act1 the greater must be the reason for performing the act4 ,example3 ,titus gives permission to his class to play a game against another class1 foreseeing quarrels and disputes between the teams4 ,less reason is required for granting the permission1 if ,titus knows that higher authority will grant it1 should he refuse it2 7c7 the more nearly the evil effect follows upon the act1 the greater must be the reason for the act1 ,thus1 less reason is required to direct a person who looks like a heavy drinker to the city than to direct him to a bottle of strong drink2 7d7 the more certain it is that the evil effect will follow1 the greater is the reason required for placing its cause4 ,for example1 one who speeds in an automobile on an unfrequented road1 does not require the same excusing cause as one who speeds on a thoroughfare where many other cars are passing2 7e7 the more obligation one has to prevent the evil effect1 the graver is the reason required for placing its cause4 ,thus1 since parish-priests1 lawgivers1 superiors and policemen are bound by their office to prevent moral disorders1 a far greater cause is required in them1 than in persons who have no such charge1 for doing what will have an evil consequence4 ,art4 #d3 ,,acts ,,as ,,meritorious 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 q4 #ba47 #ajf4 ,when the morality of an act is attributable to one as one's own1 one becomes worthy of praise and reward1 if the act is good1 but deserving of censure and punishment1 if the act is evil4 #ajg4 ,definitions4--,merit is the right to a reward arising from works done for ,god4 ,demerit is the debt of punishment incurred on account of works done against ,god4 #ajh4 ,divisions4--,according to the difference of the person who confers the reward1 there are two kinds of merit3 7a7 human merit1 or the claim which a person has to a reward from his neighbor1 or from society1 for the benefits he has conferred upon his neighbor or society2 7b7 divine merit1 or the right a person has to receive a reward from ,god for the fidelity wherewith he has exercised stewardship over his acts1 of which ,god is the ,last ,end1 or wherewith he has served society1 of which ,god is the ,supreme ,ruler4 ,only divine merit is here considered4 #aji4 ,according to the difference of the object of the reward1 there are two kinds of merit3 7a7 natural merit1 which makes one worthy of a reward that does not exceed the native powers or exigencies of a created being1 such as success1 prosperity1 or other goods that do not constitute the ,last ,end of man 7see #bj74 ,thus1 we read in scripture of pagans or sinners who were blest with temporal happiness on account of their natural virtues2 7b7 supernatural merit1 which makes one worthy of the beatitude surpassing mere created power that ,god has prepared for those who serve ,him 7see #bj74 ,it is only this kind of merit that is being considered here2 for1 since the ,last ,end of man is a supernatural reward 7viz1 the ,beatific ,vision of ,god71 it follows that the acts by which he tends to that ,end must be not only human and moral1 but supernaturally meritorious4 #aaj4 ,there are four kinds of supernatural merit3 7a7 condign merit in the stricter sense1 that is merit which arises from justice1 and which presupposes no favor on the part of the rewarder4 ,in this sense ,christ merited1 since even the grace which made ,his merits supernatural was due to ,him as the ,god-,man2 7b7 condign merit in the less strict sense1 that is merit which arises indeed from justice1 but presupposes a favor on the part of the rewarder4 ,in this way the righteous merit before ,god1 since their works confer a right to their own reward1 while the grace which enables them to perform their works is a divine favor2 7c7 congruous merit in the stricter sense1 that is merit which arises not from justice 7since there is no equality between the work and the reward71 but from the fitness of things1 because the person who merits is a friend of ,god4 ,in this way all who are in the state of grace can merit spiritual goods for others2 7d7 congruous merit in the wide sense1 that is merit which arises from the liberality of ,god1 who answers a good work as if it were a prayer4 ,in this way the good works done by sinners can be said to merit conversion for them4 #aaa4 ,the second kind of merit mentioned above--i4e41 condign merit in the less strict sense--is that with which we are chiefly concerned here1 since it is the kind of merit that must be found in human acts in order that they may lead man to a supernatural reward4 ,a fuller treatment of merit is found in ,dogmatic ,theology in the ,question on ,grace4 #aab4 ,the conditions requisite for the kind of merit now in question are3 7a7 that the work done be human1 that is1 free1 morally good1 and supernatural 7i4e41 proceeding from sanctifying grace and divine charity72 7b7 that the one who merits be in the wayfaring state 7i4e41 that he have not already passed to final reward or punishment71 and that he be in the state of grace2 7c7 that ,god has promised a reward for the work done4 ,from the statements made above1 it follows that all the human and morally good works of those who are in the state of grace possess condign merit4 #aac4 ,the objects of condign merit--i4e41 the rewards promised by ,god for the good works done for ,him in this life--are3 7a7 an increase of sanctifying grace2 7b7 the right to eternal life2 7c7 the attainment of eternal life1 if the one who merits dies in grace2 7d7 an increase of glory4 #aad4 ,the conditions for the merit of strict congruity are the same as those given above 7#aab71 except the promise made by ,god1 which is not required4 ,examples of this kind of merit are the sanctity of the ,blessed ,virgin1 which made her deserve more than others to be the ,mother of ,god1 and the conversion of ,st4 ,paul through the merits of ,st4 ,stephen4 #aae4 ,for the merit of wide congruity it is necessary that the work done be morally good4 ,examples of this kind of merit are the sighs of the ancient ,patriarchs1 as obtaining the coming of the ,messiah4 ,the just man can merit with the merit of wide congruity the following3 7a7 his own conversion after a future fall2 7b7 his final perseverance2 7c7 temporal goods4 ,art4 #e3 ,,the ,,passions 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 qq4 #bb-dh47 #aaf4 ,having discussed the acts proper to man1 we shall now speak of the passions1 which are common to both man and beast4 #aag4 ,definition4--,the passions--also called the emotions1 affections1 or sentiments--are acts of desire2 but1 unlike the acts of the will1 they are directed1 not to good apprehended by the higher knowing power of the intellect1 but to good apprehended by the lower knowing power of sense and imagination4 ,they are defined as3 acts or movements of the sensitive appetite which arise from the representation of some good in the sense faculties1 and which produce some transformation in the body1 such as palpitation of the heart1 increased circulation of the blood1 paleness1 blushing1 etc4 #aah4 ,division4--,there are two classes of passions2 7a7 the concupiscible1 which have as their object sensible good considered as delightful1 or sensible evil considered as unpleasant1 and which are love and hatred1 desire and flight1 delight and sadness2 7b7 the irascible1 which have as their object sensible good or sensible evil considered as difficult to attain or to avoid1 and which are hope and despair1 boldness and fear1 anger4 #aai4 ,the concupiscible passions are defined as follows3 7a7 love1 the first of the passions and the cause of all the others1 tends to sensible good considered as desirable1 abstracting from its presence or absence2 while hatred is the aversion from sensible evil considered precisely as unsuitable and abstracting from its presence or absence2 7b7 desire tends to sensible good that is absent1 and flight turns away from sensible evil apprehended as future2 7c7 delight is the affection produced in the sensitive appetite by the presence and possession of the object desired2 7d7 sadness is the passion which dejects the soul on account of the presence of an evil4 #abj4 ,the irascible passions are explained as follows3 7a7 hope reaches out towards a future good whose attainment is difficult1 but not impossible2 despair turns away from a good that seems impossible of attainment2 7b7 bravery goes out to attack an evil that seems difficult and imminent1 but not unconquerable2 fear falls back before a future difficulty that seems irresistible2 7e7 anger is the desire of vengeance for an injury received4 #aba4 ,moral ,value of the ,passions4--,the ,stoics held that all the passions are diseases of the soul1 and that one is perfect when one arrives at the condition of being passionless or apathetic4 ,lucretius1 on the contrary1 taught that all the impulses of passion are good4 ,the truth is that the passions are good or evil according to the way they are considered4 7a7 ,physically1 the passions are good1 since they are the acts of natural powers1 or the perfection and complement of something good in itself4 7b7 ,morally1 they are indifferent1 if they are viewed in themselves1 as the product of the sensitive appetite4 ,for this appetite is an irrational power of the soul1 similar to that of the beasts1 and acts are not moral unless rational--i4e41 an act is good or evil only from its relation to reason4 7c7 ,morally1 the passions are good or bad1 if commanded by reason and will1 for thus they partake of the good or evil that is in the acts from which they proceed1 just as the acts of the external members of the body are moral in so far as they execute the commands of the will4 ,the passions are voluntary if commanded by the will1 or not forbidden by it4 ,examples3 ,our ,lord looked about ,him with anger1 being grieved at the blindness of ,his enemies who watched ,him in the synagogue 7,mark1 iii4 #e72 ,he wept over the destruction of ,jerusalem 7,luke1 xix4 #da72 ,he was sad at the approach of ,his passion 7,mark1 xiv4 #cd74 #abb4 ,the passions are morally good3 7a7 if they are directed by the will to a morally good object2 for example1 shame is a praiseworthy passion1 because it is fear of what is dishonorable1 and pity is also good1 because it is according to right reason1 being sorrow for the misfortune of another2 7b7 if they are chosen by the reason for a good purpose2 for example1 it is good to excite the emotion of joy that one may pray with greater fervor1 or to arouse the feelings of pity1 fear1 or hope1 in order that one may be more earnestly moved to acts of mercy1 repentance1 courage2 7c7 if the circumstances are moderated according to right reason2 for example1 to grieve over the death of a friend excessively1 so that one is unfitted for duty and suffers in health1 is unreasonable2 but to grieve even unto tears1 as ,christ did at the tomb of ,lazarus1 is an act of piety4 ,similarly1 the slight anger of ,heli was blamable and the great anger of ,moses was laudable1 because the evils in both instances called for severity 7,i ,kings1 ii1 iii2 ,exod41 iii74 #abc4 ,the passions can either diminish or increase the goodness of an act4 7a7 ,they diminish its goodness1 if they are antecedent--i4e41 prior to the judgment of the reason--for they thus obscure the mind and make the act that follows less voluntary4 ,for example1 there is less goodness in an alms given under an impulse of sentimentality than in one given after serious consideration of the matter and from a motive of charity4 7b7 ,they increase its goodness if they are consequent--i4e41 subsequent to the judgment and the result of the vehemence of the will1 or of deliberate encouragement by the will 7see #dg sqq47--for1 just as the external act increases the goodness of the internal act1 so is it better that man should tend towards good1 not only with the will1 but also with the emotions4 ,examples3 ,the spiritual gladness of the ,psalmist is seen to have been more than ordinarily great from the fact that it acted upon his feelings1 and both heart and flesh rejoiced 7,ps1 lxxxii4 #c72 to sing a hymn in order to encourage oneself to greater fervor or devotion adds to the goodness of what is done1 through the greater promptness or ease it causes in the act that follows4 #abd4 ,the passions are morally evil3 7a7 when they are commanded by the will and directed to an object1 a purpose1 or circumstances that are evil1 ,thus1 envy is an ignoble passion1 since it is unreasonable1 being sorrow at another's success4 ,examples2 ,titus drinks to excess for the delight of intoxication 7bad object72 ,balbus purposely excites his imagination1 that he may hate more bitterly and act more cruelly 7bad end72 ,sempronius loves his children so immoderately that he grows morose and jealous 7bad circumstance74 7b7 ,the passions are also morally evil when they should be forbidden and are not forbidden by the will4 ,example2 ,caius is surprised by a sudden burst of anger1 which1 though he judges to be unreasonable1 he does nothing to check4 #abe4 ,the passions can remove1 diminish or increase the evil of an act4 7a7 ,thus1 antecedent passions take away all evil1 if 7a thing that is rare7 they prevent entirely the use of reason2 they diminish malice if they obscure the judgment4 ,examples3 ,balbus1 fearing that he is about to drown1 becomes panic-stricken1 seizes ,titus and almost drowns him4 ,caius1 threatened with a black eye if he refuses1 calumniates3 his calumny would be worse if he acted coldbloodedly4 7b7 ,consequent passions increase the evil1 for then they manifest a strong intention1 or are the result of direct purpose4 ,examples3 ,sempronius attacks the conduct of an opponent1 not with dispassionate argument and from a love of truth1 but with bitter personal feeling and from a desire of revenge4 ,titia works herself into a rage that she may be the more ready for an encounter with a person of whom she is unjustly jealous4 #abf4 ,though the passions are physically good and in their nature morally indifferent1 they may have physical reactions or moral consequences that are harmful or evil4 ,these dangers may be physical1 mental or moral4 7a7 ,physical ,dangers of the ,passions4--,it is a well-known fact that there is a close connection between the passions and the nerves1 heart1 and bodily organism in general1 and that strong or persistent emotion can work great detriment to the health1 producing disease1 unconsciousness1 or even death4 7b7 ,mental ,dangers of the ,passions4--,it is admitted by all that the passions disturb the judgment1 and can even take away the use of reason4 ,for they act upon the body or the senses1 and these in turn affect the mind in a way similar to what happens in sleep or intoxication4 ,thus1 love makes one blind to the defects of the object of one's love2 fear makes one magnify the evil of what is dreaded2 melancholy unbalances the mind1 etc4 7c7 ,moral ,dangers of the ,passions4--,it is likewise a matter of common experience that the passions are a source of many temptations and sins4 ,often they are antecedent 7i4e41 not premeditated or willed71 as when they arise from bodily states over which one has no control or from imaginations strongly fixed in the mind1 and at the same time tend to that which is not according to right reason1 rebelling against the law of the mind4 ,thus1 a person whose health is bad is easily dispirited1 and this feeling occasions temptations to despair2 one whose memory is haunted with the image of a lost parent becomes a prey to sadness1 which makes it difficult to perform duties with zest and diligence4 #abg4 ,a passion may become morally bad on account of the physical or mental evils connected with it4 7a7 ,thus1 a person has duties to his own well-being1 and he indirectly wills 7see #ce sqq41 #id sqq47 to neglect these duties1 if he indulges harmful passions4 ,example3 ,sempronia grieves immoderately over the death of her mother1 with the result that her health and mental vigor are impaired4 7b7 ,a person also has duties with respect to the life1 health1 and happiness of his neighbor1 and he chooses to neglect these duties if he unjustly provokes emotions in others1 foreseeing injurious consequences 7see #if sqq474 ,examples3 ,titus so vexes ,balbus by petty annoyances that the latter loses appetite and sleep1 and becomes an invalid4 ,sempronia so exasperates her father by long-continued unfilial conduct that the latter becomes insane4 ,caius appeals to prejudices in order to have injustice done to a rival4 #abh4 ,as to passions that incite to evil or deter from good1 we must observe the following3 7a7 if the passion is consequent1 one is placing oneself or others in danger of sin1 and one's conduct must be judged according to the principles given in #beh sqq4 7,examples3 ,titus likes to brood over his troubles1 although this causes temptations to neglect duty2 ,sempronia makes remarks to a hot-headed acquaintance which are a provocation to great uncharitableness72 7b7 if the passion is antecedent1 it constitutes a temptation which one is bound to resist 7see #beb sqq474 ,example3 ,balbus has a natural dislike for ,caius1 and often feels impelled to judge him rashly or treat him unjustly4 #abi4 ,antecedent or involuntary passions1 as well as other involuntary acts of imagination1 thought and will1 tending to evil1 are sometimes called 8first motions of the soul10 as distinguished from consequent or voluntary passions and acts1 which are known as 8second motions of the soul40 ,the first motions are of two kinds3 7a7 those that precede all deliberation and consent1 actual or virtual 7motus primo-primi71 and these are free from all sin2 7b7 those that precede full deliberation and consent1 but follow on partial deliberation 7motus secundo-primi74 ,these latter are venial sins4 ,most theologians since the ,council of ,trent maintain that the inordinate movements of passion which precede the advertence of reason1 such as lust1 envy1 sloth1 etc41 are not sins4 ,the ,council of ,trent defined that the fomes peccati has never been understood by the ,church to be truly a sin in the baptized1 but has been called sin by ,st4 ,paul in the sense that it is from sin and inclines to sin 7,council of ,trent1 fifth session74 ,on the basis of this text some authors argue that it is of faith that the inordinate motions called primo-primi are not sins for the baptized4 ,the condemnation of both the fiftieth proposition of ,baius3 ,the evil desires to which reason does not consent1 and which man endures unwillingly 7invitus71 are prohibited by precept2 and his fifty-first3 ,lust1 or the law of the members1 and evil desires of it1 which men suffer unwillingly1 are true disobedience of the law2 is interpreted as establishing as certain the non-sinfulness of such movements in infidels4 7,see ,merklebach1 ,o4,p41 ,summa ,theol4 ,mor41 ,vol4 ,i1 n4 #ddh74 ,st4 ,thomas taught otherwise that such inordinate movements of passion are venial sins 7,summa4 ,theol4 ,i-,,ii1 q4 #gd1 a4 #c1 ad #bum2 de ,malo q4 #g1 a4 #f4 ad #dm2 de ,veritate1 q4 #be1 a4 #e74 ,although they precede the deliberation of reason1 they attain to the order of moral acts1 however imperfectly1 insofar as sensuality in man by its nature is made to be subject to reason4 ,reason can and ought to control these motions1 but fails to do so owing to the great number of them possible to occur4 ,hence they are not involuntary1 but indirectly voluntary as sins of omission 7,,ii ,dist4 #bd1 q4 #c1 a4 #b2 de ,veritate1 q4 #be1 a4 #e2 ,quodlib4 ,,iv1 q4 #aa1 a4 #a74 ,since these movements are indirectly voluntary1 ,st4 ,thomas' teaching does not conflict with the ,council of ,trent which speaks of the fomes as habitual dispositions and not of its acts which ,st4 ,thomas considers4 ,clearly1 too1 his teaching does not fall under the condemnation of the propositions of ,baius2 with ,baius the motions are involuntary1 but for ,st4 ,thomas indirectly voluntary4 ,st4 ,thomas distinguishes the motions of sensuality differently from modern manualists4 ,for him the motions-primo-primi arise from corporal dispositions which are not under the control of reason and hence can not be sins4 ,motions-secundo-primi arise from some apprehension of the internal senses proper to the passions and can1 at least if taken singly1 and ought to be ruled by reason4 ,thus1 they are moral acts 7de ,malo1 q4 ,,vii1 a4 #f1 ad #hum2 ,,ii ,dist4 #bd1 q4 #c1 a4 #b74 #acj4 ,bodily suffering or sickness is sometimes called a passion of the body1 but1 unlike the passions of the soul1 it is a physical evil4 ,morally considered1 it is indifferent in itself1 but it has contacts with morality in various ways4 7a7 ,thus1 it may receive morality from the will4 ,examples3 ,sufferings endured with resignation are acts of virtue2 sickness or pain inflicted upon others is imputable to the unjust cause4 7b7 ,it may affect the morality of the act of the will4 ,examples3 ,severe toothache or other exquisite pain is an extenuating circumstance in sins of grumbling1 for the suffering draws so much attention to itself that deliberation on other things is much diminished2 weakness of stomach may be a moral advantage in freeing one from temptations to over-eating4 #aca4 ,though the passions are good in themselves1 they are often morally dangerous4 ,the regulation of the passions through the virtues of fortitude and temperance will be treated later on1 but we shall indicate here some natural means by which1 ,god helping1 their first motions may be controlled4 7a7 ,thus1 if a passion is not strong1 it may be repressed directly by command of the will4 ,example3 ,the impulse to anger may sometimes be checked by the command of silence4 7b7 ,if a passion is strong1 it may be combated through other activities which are its opposites or which1 through the amount of energy they call for1 will diminish proportionately the force of the passion4 ,examples3 ,in time of fear one can fall back on thoughts of confidence2 in time of mourning one can seek joy or alleviation in the society of friends or in the repose of sleep4 ,study or other strenuous occupation is an excellent means to overcome impetuous passion4 7c7 ,if a passion is persistent1 it may be diverted to some lawful object vividly represented and held in the imagination and thoughts4 ,examples4 ,those who are inclined to love immoderately the world or the things that are in the world should direct their love to divine goodness4 ,those who are inclined to be too fearful of men should think how much more ,god is to be feared4 ,question ,,ii ,,good ,,and ,,bad ,,habits #acb4 ,having considered human acts and the passions1 we now pass to a consideration of the principles from which acts proceed proximately4 ,these principles are1 first1 the faculties1 powers or forces of the soul 7such as the intellect1 will1 sense1 appetite1 and vegetative powers72 and1 secondly1 the habits which permanently modify the faculties4 ,for some faculties may be turned in various directions1 either favorably or unfavorably1 as regards their ends1 and it is the stable bent given to a faculty that is called a habit4 ,thus1 the intellect may be directed towards its end1 which is truth1 by the habit of knowledge2 or away from that end by the habit of ignorance4 ,likewise1 the will may be directed towards or away from its end1 which is good1 by virtue or vice4 ,the faculties are treated in ,psychology1 but the habits1 since they turn the faculties towards good or evil1 must be considered in ,moral ,theology1 as well as in philosophy4 ,art4 #a3 ,,habits ,,in ,,general 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 qq4 #di-ed47 #acc4 ,definition4--,a habit is a perfect and stable quality by which a being is well- or ill-affected in itself1 or with regard to its motions4 ,it differs from mere disposition or tendency1 which is an imperfect and transitory quality4 ,thus1 a sallow complexion is a habit2 a blush1 a disposition4 #acd4 ,division4--,habits are variously divided1 as follows3 7a7 ,from the viewpoint of their subject1 they are either entitative or operative1 according as they affect directly the nature or the powers of a being4 ,thus1 in the soul there are the entitative habit of sanctifying grace and operative habits like science and virtue2 while in the body are entitative habits of health1 beauty1 etc4 7b7 ,from the viewpoint of their object1 habits are good 7i4e41 virtues7 or evil 7i4e41 vices72 7c7 ,from the viewpoint of their cause1 habits are infused or acquired1 according as they are supernaturally produced by ,god1 or are naturally obtained by man through repeated acts1 or result from nature without repeated acts4 ,faith in a baptized infant is an infused habit2 knowledge obtained through study is an acquired habit2 the perception that the first principles of truth are to be granted is natural4 #ace4 ,operative acquired habits are defined as qualities not easily changed1 by which a faculty that is able to act in various ways is disposed to act in one way with ease1 readiness and pleasure4 ,thus1 by training a man acquires a correct carriage1 and is able to walk straight without difficulty4 #acf4 ,operative infused habits are enduring qualities that give to a faculty the power to perform acts that are supernatural4 ,thus1 the infused virtues of faith1 hope and charity give to the intellect and the will the ability to elicit acts with reference to supernatural truth and good4 ,facility and promptitude with respect to these acts come through the use of the infused power4 #acg4 ,strengthening and ,weakening of ,habits4--,habits are increased3 7a7 extensively when they are applied to more objects--thus the habit of science grows as it is applied to more truths2 7b7 intensively1 when they are rooted more firmly in their subject and become easier to exercise4 ,this last comes about when intense acts of a habit are frequently repeated4 ,thus1 a habit of virtue or vice becomes a second nature1 and it is exercised with ever greater delight and resisted with ever-increasing difficulty4 #ach4 ,the infused habits cannot be diminished1 but they can be destroyed 7see #gde74 ,as to the acquired habits1 they are weakened and destroyed chiefly in two ways3 7a7 by acts opposed to them1 especially if these acts are earnest and frequent--thus1 evil custom is overcome by good custom1 and vice-versa2 7b7 by long discontinuance or disuse4 ,thus1 a person who has learned a foreign language will forget it1 if he fails to speak1 read or hear it4 ,the knowledge of first principles1 speculative or moral1 is not lost1 however1 through forgetfulness1 as experience shows4 #aci4 ,accidentally1 a habit may be corrupted through injury of an organ that is necessary for the exercise of the habit4 ,thus1 right moral judgment may be lost if certain areas of the brain are affected4 #adj4 ,habits and ,morality4--,the importance of habits in man's moral life is very great4 7a7 ,habits are an index to a man's past career1 for the ease and facility he now possesses through them is the result of many struggles and efforts and difficulties overcome1 or of defeats and surrenders and neglected opportunities4 7b7 ,habits constitute a man's moral character4 ,morally1 a person is the sum of his moral habits and dispositions grouped around the central interest or idea of his life4 ,he who would know himself1 therefore1 cannot do better than to examine what are his habits1 and which is the predominant one among them4 7e7 ,habits are a prophecy of the future4 ,habits are not irresistible and do not destroy freedom1 but they produce such ease and readiness for acting in one particular way that the probabilities are1 when habits are strong1 that a person will continue to follow them in the future as he has done in the past1 thus progressing or deteriorating1 as the case may be4 #ada4 ,duties as regards ,habits4--7a7 ,bad habits should be avoided and those that have been formed should be destroyed 7see #ach74 ,the means to accomplish these victories are divine help obtained through prayer and the other instrumentalities of grace1 watchfulness through self-examination1 and the cultivation of a spirit of self-denial1 as well as attack made on the habit that is forming or already formed 7see #bee sqq47 7b7 ,good habits should be acquired1 and those already possessed should be exercised and put to the best advantage4 ,the means to this end1 in addition to those that are supernatural1 are especially a realization of the importance of good habits1 a great desire to have them1 and constant and regular effort to practise them 7see #acg74 ,art4 #b3 ,,good ,,habits ,,or ,,virtues 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 qq4 #ee-gj47 #adb4 ,definition4--,a virtue is a good habit of the free powers of the soul1 that is a principle of good conduct1 and never of conduct that is evil4 ,hence1 the following are not virtues3 7a7 an occasional inclination to good1 for this is not a fixed habit2 7b7 good habits of the body or of the vegetative powers1 etc4 7such as beauty and health71 for these are not free2 7c7 knowledge of the right or affection for it without any reference to practice1 for virtue is a principle of right living2 7d7 habits that can be applied indifferently to good or bad conduct1 such as human opinion4 #adc4 ,division4--,the virtues are divided3 7a7 according to their different causes1 into infused and acquired virtues 7cfr4 #acd sqq4727b7 according to their different objects1 into intellectual1 moral and theological virtues4 #add4 ,the intellectual virtues are those habits that perfect the intellect with reference to its good--i4e41 truth1 speculative or practical4 #ade4 ,the speculative virtues are three3 understanding1 knowledge and wisdom4 7a7 ,understanding or intelligence is the habit of perceiving truths that are not in need of proof1 as being self-evident4 ,axiomatic truths or first principles are the object of this virtue4 7b7 ,knowledge or science is the habit of perceiving truths that are learned from other truths by argumentation1 and that are ultimate in some category of being4 ,the object of this virtue embraces the various sciences 7like astronomy7 which are conclusions from principles4 7c7 ,wisdom is the habit of learning through reasoning the truth that is absolutely ultimate2 it is the knowledge of things in their supreme cause1 ,god4 ,examples are theology and philosophy in their highest sense4 #adf4 ,the practical intellectual virtues are two3 prudence and art4 7a7 ,prudence is an intellectual virtue which indicates in individual cases what is to be done or what is to be omitted1 in order that one may act according to the requirements of good morals4 7b7 ,art is an intellectual virtue which indicates in individual cases how one must act in order to produce things that are useful or beautiful 7e4g41 music1 painting1 building1 etc474 #adg4 ,the intellectual virtues1 except prudence1 are not perfect virtues1 since1 ,while they make an act good1 they do not necessarily make the agent good4 ,a man may have great knowledge about morality1 or be able to produce excellent works of art1 and at the same time be not virtuous1 or have no love for his work4 #adh4 ,prudence is an intellectual virtue1 since it resides in the intellect2 but it is also classed among the moral virtues1 since its object is the direction of human acts to their right end4 #adi4 ,the moral virtues are those habits that perfect the will and the sensitive appetite with reference to their immediate and respective objects2 that is1 they are habits concerned with acts as means to the ,last ,end4 ,they make the act good1 and make good also him who performs it2 and they are thus superior as virtues to the intellectual habits4 #aej4 ,there are four principal moral virtues3 7a7 in the intellect there is prudence1 which guides all the actions and passions by directing the other moral virtues to what is good according to reason2 7b7 in the will there is justice1 which inclines a person to make his actions accord with what he owes to others2 7c7 in the irascible appetite is fortitude1 which subjects to reason the passions that might withdraw from good1 such as fear of dangers and labors2 7d7 in the concupiscible appetite is temperance1 which represses the motions of passions that would impel one to some sensible good opposed to reason4 ,these four virtues are also called cardinal virtues1 because all the other moral virtues hinge on them4 #aea4 ,the theological virtues are those that perfect the intellect and the will with reference to ,god1 their ultimate1 supernatural object4 ,they are three3 7a7 faith1 which is a virtue infused into the intellect1 giving man supernatural truths that are perceived by a divine light2 7b7 hope1 which is a virtue infused into the will1 enabling man to tend towards the supernatural destiny disclosed by faith as towards an end possible of attainment2 7c7 charity1 which is a virtue infused into the will1 uniting man's affections to the object of his hope and transforming him into its likeness4 #aeb4 ,causes of ,virtues4--,the causes of virtue are three3 7a7 nature1 which is the cause of the inchoative intellectual and moral virtues1 that is1 of the theoretical and practical principles that are naturally known1 and of the inclinations to virtue that arise from an individual's bodily constitution2 7b7 practice1 which is the cause of perfected intellectual and moral virtues1 that is1 of the good habits that are formed by repeated acts 7e4g41 knowledge obtained through study1 temperance fixed in the character through continued effort72 7c7 infusion from on high1 which is the cause of the virtues that surpass nature 7i4e41 of the theological virtues and of the moral virtues that are concerned with our acts as ordered to the supernatural74 #aec4 ,properties of the ,virtues4--,from the definition of virtue given above certain properties result4 7a7 ,since a virtue makes conduct agree with a certain fixed standard1 it does not allow of excess or defect4 ,hence1 virtue follows the golden mean4 7b7 ,since the other moral virtues would go to extremes without the guidance of prudence1 and since prudence would not judge aright without the right dispositions of the other virtues1 it follows that the four moral virtues1 at least in their perfect state1 must always be together4 ,and because charity is the fulfillment of the whole law1 he who has charity has also all the other infused virtues4 7c7 ,since the virtues are directed towards objects of varying degrees of excellence1 and since they are habits1 and are capable of increase and decrease 7#acg sqq471 it follows that both virtues of different species1 and those of the same species1 are or may be unequal4 7d7 ,since some of the virtues imply conditions that will not exist in the life to come1 it follows that these virtues will be somewhat changed in the blessed4 ,thus1 temperance1 which subdues the rebellion of the passions1 will not be exercised in heaven1 where the passions do not rebel4 #aed4 ,the golden mean is found differently in different virtues4 7a7 ,in the case of justice1 the mean is determined by an external object that is invariable1 since justice gives what is due to others1 neither more nor less2 in the case of fortitude and temperance the mean is determined by prudent judgment and is not invariable1 since these two virtues are concerned with the regulation of the internal passions according to conditions of individuals and circumstances4 ,thus1 a debt of ten dollars remains the same whether the debtor is rich or poor1 whether the creditor needs it or not4 ,but a glass of liquor1 which would be just enough for one who was well1 might be far too much for him when he was sick2 and a danger which a man might be expected to encounter1 might be too much for a woman or a boy4 7b7 ,the mean of the intellectual and speculative virtues is the agreement with objective truth1 as lying between the extremes of false affirmation and false negation4 ,the mean of the practical virtue of prudence1 as regulating the moral virtues1 is right reason1 considered as directive of the desires and conduct so as to avoid excess and defect4 7c7 ,the theological virtues have no mean1 as far as their object is concerned1 since ,god1 being infinite in truth1 power and goodness1 cannot be believed in1 hoped in1 or loved too much4 ,by reason of their subject1 however1 these virtues have a mean1 since it is possible for one to exceed1 for example1 in hope by presumptuously expecting what is not due to one's condition4 #aee4 ,without charity one may possess certain other virtues4 7a7 ,thus1 one may have the natural or acquired moral virtues1 as is the case with many pagans1 but such virtues are imperfect1 since they do not direct their subject to the ,supernatural ,end of man2 7b7 one may have the supernatural or infused virtues of faith and hope1 as is the case with ,christians who are not in the state of grace4 ,even such faith and hope are imperfect virtues1 and are not meritorious4 #aef4 ,considered precisely as virtues 7cfr4 ,article on ,hope71 the three groups rank as follows3 7a7 the theological virtues are the most excellent1 since they deal directly with man's supernatural end2 7b7 ,by reason of their object1 universal truth1 the intellectual virtues are superior to the moral virtues1 which are concerned with particular goods2 7c7 the moral virtues1 nevertheless1 are more perfect as virtues1 for1 so considered in the order of action1 in perfecting the appetites1 they are more properly principles of action4 #aeg4 ,the highest of the virtues within each group are the following3 7a7 ,charity is greater than faith and hope1 since it implies union with its objects1 while the other two imply a certain distance from their object2 7b7 ,justice is superior to fortitude and temperance1 since it deals with actions by which man is rightly ordered1 both as to himself and as to others1 while the others deal with the passions and the right disposition of man as to himself4 ,the order of the moral virtues is3 prudence1 which is the guide of the others2 justice1 which deals with man's actions and orders him rightly1 both as to himself and as to others2 fortitude1 which governs the passions1 even when life and death are the issues2 temperance1 which governs the passions in affairs of less importance2 7c7 ,the chief of the intellectual virtues is wisdom1 which considers the supreme cause of things1 and therefore judges the other virtues of the intellect4 #aeh4 ,in the blessed the virtues will remain1 but changed in some respects4 7a7 ,thus1 the rectitude of soul contained in the moral virtues will endure1 but there will be no rebellious passions to overcome1 no dangers to oppose1 no debts of justice to be discharged1 as in this life2 7b7 the intellectual virtues acquired in this life will remain1 but the soul separated from the body will not employ sense images as in its earthly existence2 7c7 faith and hope will give place to vision and realization1 but charity will never fall away4 #aei4 ,the ,complements of the ,virtues4--,the virtues are habits that supply the soul with an internal guide 7prudence71 and with inclinations to follow its direction 7moral virtues74 ,but there is also a higher ,guide who speaks to the soul1 and it is necessary that the inclinations of virtue be carried out in a suprahuman mode4 ,hence1 the virtues are completed by certain adjuncts4 ,these are3 7a7 the ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost1 which are habits infused into the soul1 making it sensitive to the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit and docile under ,his direction2 7b7 the ,fruits of the ,holy ,ghost1 which are acts that grow out of the virtues and have a special spiritual sweetness attached to them2 7c7 the ,beatitudes1 which are activities of special excellence having a corresponding special reward attached to them1 ,the acts are produced by the infused virtues and the ,gifts1 especially by the ,gifts4 #afj4 ,there are seven ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost1 which are divided as follows3 7a7 ,there are the ,intellectual ,gifts1 which make the soul more responsive to the light which the ,holy ,spirit sheds upon truths held by faith4 ,these ,gifts assist the intellect1 first1 in its apprehension of the mysteries of faith1 that it may be made to grasp more clearly what it believes 7,gift of ,understanding72 secondly1 in its judgments1 that it may be illuminated so as to adhere to the principles of faith and depart from their opposites1 whether there be question of judgments about divine things 7,gift of ,wisdom71 or created things 7,gift of ,knowledge71 or human actions 7,gift of ,counsel72 7b7 ,there are the ,appetitive ,gifts1 which make the soul more ready to follow divine motions and inspirations4 ,these ,gifts aid the irascible affections by giving them a confidence of victory over every peril and by assuring safe arrival at the term of life 7,gift of ,fortitude72 they aid the will in its social relations by leading to a filial love and devotion toward ,god 7,gift of ,piety72 they assist the concupiscible affections by filling them with a reverence of ,god's majesty and a horror of offending ,him 7,gift of ,fear of the ,lord74 #afa4 ,the ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost are superior to the moral and intellectual virtues1 for these virtues perfect the powers of the soul that they may be always ready to follow the guidance of reason1 while the ,gifts make the powers of the soul docile to the guidance of the ,holy ,ghost4 #afb4 ,the ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost are inferior to the theological virtues1 for these virtues unite the soul to the ,holy ,ghost1 while the ,gifts only make the soul ready to receive ,his illuminations and inspirations4 #afc4 ,there are twelve ,fruits of the ,holy ,ghost enumerated by ,st4 ,paul 7,gal4 v1 #bb-bc74 7a7 ,some of these acts grow out of the indwelling ,spirit1 and are delightful to the spiritual taste because they perfect the agent in himself4 ,charity1 joy1 and peace indicate that the soul is rightly disposed as to what is good2 patience and longsuffering1 that it is not disturbed by evils4 7b7 ,others of these ,fruits give spiritual delight because they perfect the agent in his relations to his fellows4 ,good will and kindness show that one is well-disposed towards others2 meekness and fidelity1 that injury does not overcome him1 or make him deceitful4 7c7 ,still other ,fruits are delightful because they order a man's life rightly as to external actions or internal passions1 such as modesty1 continency1 chastity4 #afd4 ,there are eight ,beatitudes enumerated by our ,lord4 7a7 ,some of these are acts that surpass the virtues as regards the use of external goods and the government of the passions4 ,thus1 it is lawful to have possessions1 but the poor in spirit despise them2 it is lawful to exercise the irascible passions according to reason1 but the meek under divine guidance keep themselves in tranquillity2 it is lawful to rejoice according to moderation1 but the mourners1 when this is better1 refrain from all rejoicing4 7b7 ,other ,beatitudes are acts that surpass the virtues of justice or liberality to one's neighbor4 ,thus1 those who hunger and thirst after justice not only discharge their obligations1 but they do so with the greatest willingness2 the merciful bestow their bounty1 not only on their friends and relatives1 but on those who are most in need4 7c7 ,still other ,beatitudes are concerned with the acts that most fit one for the contemplation of divine things1 namely1 that in oneself one be pure or heart or free from the defilements of passion1 and that one be peaceful with reference to others4 7d7 ,the final ,beatitude is the crown of the others2 for one is perfectly attached to poverty of spirit1 meekness1 etc41 when he is prepared for their sake to suffer persecution4 #afe4 ,the rewards promised to the ,beatitudes are conferred1 not only in the life to come1 but also in the present life4 ,but they are not necessarily temporal or corporal rewards 7such as riches1 pleasure1 ete471 but spiritual beatitude1 which is a foretaste and figure of the eternal joy to come4 #aff4 ,all the ,beatitudes may be called ,fruits of the ,holy ,ghost1 since they are the outgrowth of the indwelling ,spirit and are filled with spiritual sweetness4 ,but the ,beatitudes are really more excellent than the ,fruits1 since they are works of more than ordinary excellence2 whereas every work of virtue that gives delight may be called a ,fruit of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,art4 #c3 ,,bad ,,habits ,,or ,,vices 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 qq4 #ga-hi47 #afg4 ,definition4--,a vice is a habit inclining to moral evil4 ,a sin is an act resulting from a vice1 or tending to the formation of a vice2 or it is any thought1 word1 deed or omission against the law of ,god4 #afh4 ,divisions4--,there are various divisions of sins4 ,thus3 7a7 according to the kind of delight that is taken in evil1 sins are either spiritual 7e4g41 vainglory7 or carnal 7e4g41 intemperance72 7b7 according to the person who is more directly offended by evil1 sins are either against ,god 7e4g41 heresy1 despair1 blasphemy71 or against one's neighbor 7e4g41 theft1 calumny71 or against oneself 7e4g41 intemperance1 suicide72 7c7 according to the greater or less gravity of the evil1 sins are either mortal 7e4g41 blasphemy7 or venial 7e4g41 idle thoughts72 7d7 according as the evil is done by acting or not acting1 sins are either of commission 7e4g41 theft7 or of omission 7e4g41 failure to pay debts72 7e7 according to the progress of a sin1 there are three stages3 first1 it is a sin of the heart when it exists only in the mind1 as when one entertains a wish for revenge2 secondly1 it is a sin of the mouth1 when it is manifested in words1 as when one uses contumelious language2 thirdly1 it is a sin of work when it is carried out in act1 as when one strikes another in the face2 7f7 according to the manner in which they deviate from the golden mean1 sins are either of excess 7e4g41 extravagance7 or of defect 7e4g41 miserliness72 7g7 according to the manner in which its guilt is contracted1 sin is either original 7i4e41 the loss of grace inherited from ,adam7 or actual 7i4e41 the stain derived from one's own wrongdoing2 sec #bgb sqq474 #afi4 ,mortal ,sin4--,a sin is mortal or deadly1 when by it a person turns away from ,god1 his ,last ,end1 and prefers to ,him some created good1 thereby incurring the debt of eternal punishment4 #agj4 ,the first condition necessary in order that a sin may be judged mortal is that the matter of the sin be grave1 either in itself or in the opinion of him who commits it2 it must include turning away from ,god and the substitution of some created good as the ,last ,end4 #aga4 ,the matter of a sin is known to be grave3 7a7 when the law of ,god or of the ,church declares that it is seriously displeasing to ,god1 or that it will separate one from ,his favor or rewards2 7b7 when right reason shows that it does great injury to the rights of ,god1 of society1 of one's neighbor1 or of oneself4 #agb4 ,the matter of a sin is grave in two ways4 7a7 ,it is grave from the character of the act and without exception1 when the good which is injured is infinite1 or is a finite good of greatest importance and indivisible1 ,thus1 heresy1 despair1 and simony against divine law are always serious1 because they offend against an infinite good2 while murder1 though it injures only a finite good1 is nevertheless always grave matter because earthly life is of highest importance among finite goods1 and if taken away is taken entirely4 7b7 ,the matter of a sin is grave from the character of the act but with exceptions1 when the good that is injured is of grave importance1 but finite and divisible4 ,thus1 the worship we give to ,god is finite and admits of more and less2 and hence a sin against worship1 though serious from the nature of the offence1 may be slight on account of the smallness of the irreverence4 ,similarly1 though theft injures a grave right1 it is not grave matter when the amount stolen is small4 #agc4 ,the second condition required that a sin be mortal is that there be full advertence to the grave malice of the act1 for one cannot be said to separate oneself from ,god unless one has made the same amount of deliberation that is required for any temporal affair of great moment4 #agd4 ,advertence is the act by which the mind gives attention to something4 ,it is of two kinds3 7a7 full advertence1 when there is nothing to impede perfect attention1 as when a person is wide awake1 in full possession of his faculties1 and not distracted2 7b7 partial advertence1 when there is something that1 prevents entire attention1 as when a person is only partly awake2 or not entirely conscious1 or distracted with many things4 #age4 ,hence in the following cases1 even though there be serious matter1 a sin is not mortal1 on account of lack of full advertence4 7a7 ,when without one's will there is no full advertence to the act itself1 as happens with those who are half-asleep1 or who are under the influence of drugs1 or who are mentally confined by anxiety or physical pain1 etc4 7see on ,human ,acts1 #bd sqq474 7b7 ,a sin is not mortal when there is no full advertence to the sinfulness or to the gravity of the act4 ,those who through no fault of their own are unaware that an act is sinful1 or that it is a mortal sin 7e4g41 children1 the half-witted1 or the uninstructed71 have no full advertence to the malice of the act2 likewise1 those who1 without being responsible for their inadvertence1 do not think at the moment of the sinfulness or seriousness of what they do 7e4g41 those who think out plans for revenge before they have taken second thought on its immorality74 #agf4 ,signs that indicate that there was no full advertence are3 7a7 if afterwards one can scarcely recall what happened2 7b7 if shortly afterwards one cannot be sure what was one's state of mind at the time4 #agg4 ,though full advertence is required for a mortal sin1 it is not required that this advertence be the most perfect4 7a7 ,it is not necessary that the advertence be preceded by long deliberation1 for advertence can be full even when the consideration is only momentary1 7b7 ,it is not necessary that advertence be continued during the commission of a sin1 for what follows is foreseen if adverted to at the beginning4 7c7 ,it is not necessary that advertence to the malice of the sin be clear or exact4 ,one who perceives that there is some special malice in robbing a church1 even though he does not understand just what the malice is1 has sufficient advertence to become guilty of sacrilege4 ,likewise1 one who has doubts as to whether a certain sin is mortal1 or who suspects that it is mortal1 has sufficient advertence for grave guilt if he commits that sin4 7d7 ,it is not necessary that advertence to the malice of the sin be reflex 7i4e41 that one advert to the fact that one is conscious of the gravity of the sin72 for to will the malice1 it suffices that one be conscious of the malice4 7e7 ,it is not necessary that advertence to the malice of the sin be explicit 7i4e41 that one have in mind the precise nature of sin as an offense against ,god1 which produces a stain on the soul and incurs the debt of punishment72 for to will evil and its gravity1 it suffices that one perceive the evil and its gravity1 even though one does not analyze the meaning or seek out the ultimate reasons4 #agh4 ,the third condition required that a sin be mortal is that full consent of the will be given it1 for no one separates him self from ,god except through his own free choice4 7a7 ,consent is not full1 when there has not been full advertence1 or when an act has been done under violent compulsion2 7b7 consent is full when there has been full advertence and no forceful compulsion 7see above on ,violence1 #eb74 #agi4 ,indications that consent was not full are3 7a7 if before the sin the person was of tender conscience and had habitually a horror of grave sin2 7b7 if at the time of the sin the person recoiled from the sinful suggestion--e4g41 if he had a hatred for it as soon as it was fully perceived1 or if he was saddened at the temptation1 or if he kept from an external act that could have been easily performed2 7c7 if after the sin the person was conscientious1 and yet had doubts as to whether consent was given4 #ahj4 ,venial ,sin4--,a sin is venial1 or more easily pardonable1 when by it one turns inordinately towards some created good1 not so1 however1 as to forsake ,god as one's ,last ,end or to prefer self-will to the divine friendship4 #aha4 ,the first condition required that a sin be called venial is that its matter be light1 either in reality1 or in the invincible belief of him who commits it4 ,the criteria by which we may know what matter is light are authority and right reason 7see above1 #aga74 #ahb4 ,the matter of a sin is light in two ways4 7a7 ,from the character of the act1 the matter is light when the good which is injured is finite and of minor importance4 ,thus1 truth about trivial things is of less importance among finite goods1 and consequently a small lie about some unimportant matter1 which helps and does not harm the neighbor1 is light matter4 7b7 ,from the quantity of the matter1 the matter is light when the good injured is of major importance but divisible4 ,an example here is a theft that works only small harm 7see above1 #agb74 #ahc4 ,the second condition for a venial sin is that there be some advertence to the malice of the act4 7a7 ,the advertence is not full when the matter is grave1 and the act done without compulsion1 for else the sin would not be venial but mortal4 7b7 ,the advertence may be full or partial when the matter is light4 #ahd4 ,the third condition for a venial sin is that there be some consent of the will to the malice of the act4 7a7 ,the consent is not full when the matter is grave1 for else the sin would be mortal4 7b7 ,the consent may be either full or partial when the matter is light4 #ahe4 ,imperfections4--,the description of venial sin just given indicates that it is a voluntary transgression of the law of ,god in matters of lighter importance1 and is thus distinguished from the various classes of moral imperfections4 ,these latter imperfections are3 7a7 natural imperfections1 which are the falling short on the part of good acts of the higher degree of goodness they might have possessed4 ,since man is finite by nature1 it is inevitable that he be limited in the good he does2 and hence this kind of imperfection is not a transgression or a sin2 7b7 personal imperfections which are voluntary but not transgressions1 are acts or omissions whose motive is reasonable1 but which are contrary to that which is of counsel4 ,example3 to omit hearing a ,mass that is not obligatory1 when one is able to assist at it1 but has a good reason for staying away2 7c7 personal imperfections which are transgressions but not voluntary1 are acts or omissions done without deliberation1 but which are opposed to some law of less importance4 ,example3 ,to pray with involuntary distractions4 #ahf4 ,change in the ,gravity of ,moral ,defects4-,an imperfection becomes a sin3 7a7 if the motive for omitting what is of counsel only is sinful 7e4g41 to neglect a ,mass that is not of obligation out of contempt72 7b7 if a slight indeliberate transgression has a cause that was voluntary 7e4g41 involuntary distractions caused by previous neglect74 #ahg4 ,venial sins become mortal when that which in itself is a slight offense1 becomes in the individual agent a grave offense by reason of some change in the object or of some grave malice in the purpose1 circumstances1 or the foreseen results 7see above #ig sqq474 #ahh4 ,a change in the object makes venial sin mortal3 7a7 when that which is light matter objectively is apprehended subjectively as grave matter 7e4g41 a person tells a small lie or commits a trifling theft1 thinking these to be mortal sins72 7b7 when that which is light matter by itself becomes knowingly grave matter through the additions that are made to it 7e4g41 a thief steals small amounts frequently with the intention of having a great amount of ill-gotten money after a time74 #ahi4 ,it should be noted that1 while the matter of venial sins may coalesce so as to form grave matter and constitute a mortal sin1 as just explained1 venial sins themselves do not1 from mere multiplication1 ever become mortal1 since the difference between mortal and venial sin is not one of quantity1 but of kind4 ,hence1 when acts are slightly sinful but do not coalesce1 they multiply venial sins1 but do not form mortal sin4 ,example3 ,coming a few minutes late for ,mass every ,sunday4 #aij4 ,the multiplication of venial sins1 especially when they are held as of no importance1 disposes for the commission of mortal sin3 7a7 directly1 by forming a habit that calls for ever greater indulgence 7e4g41 petty thefts lead to dishonesty on a large scale72 7b7 indirectly1 by familiarizing one with wrongdoing and chilling the love for virtue4 #aia4 ,the wrong purpose of the agent makes an act that is only venially sinful 7as far as the object is concerned7 to become mortally sinful1 when the purpose contains a grave malice in itself1 for the act is then intended only as a means to what is seriously wrong 7see above #hj74 ,example3 ,to tell a small lie in order to break up friendships and sow hatreds4 #aib4 ,the circumstances of an act that is only venially sinful in itself also make the act mortally sinful1 when there is grave malice in such circumstances4 ,cases of this kind are the following3 7a7 ,the circumstance of the person committing the sin sometimes changes the malice from light to grave4 ,example3 ,unbecoming levity in one in authority may cause serious disrespect for his office and thus be gravely sinful2 7b7 ,the circumstance of the manner in which an act is performed may change it from a venial to a mortal sin1 as when the sin is committed out of contempt1 or is so coveted that it would be preferred to a grave obligation4 ,examples3 ,one who violates a law of lesser moment1 not because he regards it as bad1 but because he wishes to show his disregard of all law and authority2 or one who is so attached to games of chance that he is prepared to steal a large sum rather than give them up4 #aic4 ,the serious harm that is foreseen as a result of venial sin also changes the malice from slight to serious4 ,examples3 ,one who jokingly annoys another1 knowing that this will provoke grave dissensions2 or one who tells small lies to persons who are known for their uncharitable distortions and exaggerations2 or one who agrees to take too much strong drink knowing from experience that this invariably leads to serious excess4 #aid4 ,mortal sins become venial when that which in itself is a grave offense1 becomes light by reason of some change in he object or lack of full consent in the subject4 #aie4 ,a change in the object makes a mortal sin venial3 7a7 when that which is grave matter objectively1 is apprehended through inculpable1 or only venially culpable ignorance as light matter 7e4g41 when an uninstructed child thinks that a serious calumny is only a venial sin72 7b7 when a sin whose character is serious but whose matter is divisible is small as to matter 7e4g11 to be absent from a small part of the ,mass on ,sunday72 7e7 when a law whose obligation is grave will cause more than slight inconvenience in a particular case1 and thus becomes of light obligation for that case 7e4g41 to miss ,mass on ,sunday because of a difficulty that was not unsurmountable1 but yet considerable74 #aif4 ,lack of sufficient advertence or of full consent makes a mortal sin venial2 7a7 when without serious fault one does not advert to a gravely sinful act 7e4g41 a desire of revenge72 7b7 when without serious fault one does not know or does not think about the grave malice of what one is doing 7e4g41 to repeat a story1 not knowing or not remembering at the time that it is a serious calumny72 7c7 when on account of considerable excitement1 fear or other disturbance1 one gives only partial consent to an act that is mortally sinful 7e4g41 when one1 on being suddenly insulted1 replies with a serious imprecation74 #aig4 ,the ,distinction of ,sins4--,there are three kinds of distinction of sins3 7a7 sins that differ according to theological species1 that is1 according as they turn or do not turn the sinner away from ,god as his ,last ,end4 ,there are only two theological species of sin1 viz41 mortal and venial2 7b7 sins that differ according to moral species1 that is1 according to their essences1 or the various kinds of finite good to which they turn the sinner4 ,there are many moral species of sins1 for example1 infidelity1 uncharitableness1 etc42 7c7 sins that differ according to number1 but agree according to moral species 7e4g41 two distinct acts of uncharitable hatred74 #aih4 ,the criteria for the specific distinction of sins are two3 7a7 that which makes sins to differ specifically is the difference of the objects to which they tend1 inasmuch as these created goods are out of harmony in specifically different ways with the standards of morality 7e4g41 pride and gluttony72 7b7 that by which we recognize the specific difference of sins is the opposition they have to virtues or laws that are specifically different4 ,thus1 pride is opposed to humility1 gluttony to temperance--two different virtues4 #aii4 ,the following rules assist us in recognizing specific distinctions of sins4 7a7 ,those sins are specifically different which are opposed to virtues that are specifically distinct4 ,thus1 infidelity and despair are different in species1 because opposed to faith and hope1 which are two distinct species of virtue4 7b7 ,those sins are specifically different that are opposed to specifically different objects of one and the same virtue--that is1 to functions of the virtue1 or to laws concerning it that have intrinsically different motives4 ,thus1 sins of murder1 theft1 and false testimony1 though opposed to the same virtue of justice1 are specifically distinct1 since they contravene obligations of that virtue whose purposes are morally distinct4 7c7 ,those sins are specifically different that are opposed in specifically different ways to the same object of the same virtue1 one opposing that object by way of excess and the other by way of defect4 ,thus1 miserliness and extravagance are specifically distinct sins1 because one falls short of1 while the other goes beyond1 the golden mean that is found in liberality4 #bjj4 ,sins are not specifically distinct3 7a7 when they are opposed to the same virtue in ways that are physically1 but not morally1 contrary4 ,thus1 sins of omission and sins of commission are physically opposites1 but they are not morally so1 unless they offend against different moral objects in the ways explained in the preceding paragraph4 ,hence1 to steal and to refuse to pay debts1 to take and to keep what belongs to another1 are not specifically different sins2 whereas to violate two distinct precepts about the same virtue1 one a command and the other a prohibition1 is to commit two species of sin1 one by omission1 and the other by commission2 7b7 when they are opposed to the same virtue with reference to commands that differ in their lawgivers1 but not in their motives4 ,thus1 ,god1 the ,church1 and the ,state all forbid theft2 but he who steals is not therefore guilty of three sins1 for each lawgiver forbids theft from the same intrinsic motive1 viz41 because it is an injury4 #bja4 ,one and the same act contains in itself many sins1 when it has many malices specifically different4 ,thus1 he who kills his parents violates two commandments relative to the virtue of justice2 he who steals from a church is guilty of theft and of sacrilege4 #bjb4 ,sins that are multiplied numerically within the same species are committed in three ways3 7a7 by purely internal acts1 that is1 acts that are completed within the powers of the soul and do not tend to execution in some external act 7e4g41 unbelief1 envy1 pride1 delight in the thought of sin1 etc472 7b7 by internal acts that are not completed in the will1 but tend to execution in some external act 7e4g41 the purpose or desire to injure another1 to lie1 etc472 7c7 by external acts that are performed or neglected by the bodily faculties under command of the will 7e4g41 theft1 quarrels1 lies1 omissions of duty1 etc474 #bjc4 ,acts may be numerically one or many in two ways4 7a7 ,physically1 there is one act when the agent moves or puts into action a power of the soul or body only once 7e4g41 to steal from a church74 ,physically1 there are many acts when the agent exercises different operative faculties1 or the same one different times 7e4g41 to put one's hand many times into a money box in order to steal the entire contents74 7b7 ,morally1 there is one act when a single physical act does not contain more than one species of morality1 or when several physical acts are united as parts of one whole by reason of the intention of the agent1 or the nature of the acts themselves4 ,for example1 the wish to steal is morally one act4 ,the intention to steal1 the decision to use certain means to accomplish this intention1 the various attempts made1 and finally the carrying out of the plan--all these form morally but one act1 since the acts that follow are only the development of the original intention4 ,similarly1 several curses hurled at another form morally one act1 if all are uttered under the influence of the same passion of anger4 ,finally1 acts of spying on another1 of entering his house without permission1 and of taking his property unlawfully1 are morally one act1 because the first acts are naturally the preparation for what follows4 #bjd4 ,morally1 there are several acts when a single physical act contains several species of malice 7as when one steals from a church71 or when there are several physical acts not united by any bond of common purpose or natural subordination 7as when one steals on different occasions because an opportunity suddenly presented itself1 or as when one misses ,mass on different ,sundays74 #bje4 ,objects of acts may also be numerically one or many in two ways4 7a7 ,physically1 an object is one when it has its own proper individuality different from that of others4 ,thus1 each coin in a pocket-book is physically one thing1 each member of a family is physically one person4 ,objects are physically many1 when they include more than one distinct thing or person4 ,thus1 physically a pocket-book contains many objects1 as does also a family4 7b7 ,morally1 objects that are physically many become one1 if they are not such as to require morally distinct acts in their regard1 and if they form according to prudent judgment parts of an integral or collective whole4 ,otherwise1 these objects are morally many4 ,example3 ,missing ,mass for a whole year constitutes1 morally speaking1 many objects1 since it implies many independent external omissions1 or morally distinct acts4 ,a box of ordinary coins1 though it contains many individual pieces of money1 is commonly regarded as one integral object2 and likewise religious1 civil1 domestic1 and financial bodies1 though each is made up of many members1 are each1 morally speaking1 but one person4 ,the possessions of different proprietors1 however1 are not one moral object2 neither do the individual1 personal rights of the members of one group constitute a single object4 #bjf4 ,it is clear that two sins specifically different in malice are also numerically different 7e4g41 a sin of theft and a sin of calumny74 ,the rules that follow will pertain only to sins that are of the same species1 but that differ numerically within the species 7e4g41 two distinct sins of theft1 two distinct sins of calumny74 #bjg4 ,the rules for the numerical distinction of sins within the same species suppose3 7a7 that the distinction be not taken from the object1 which gives the specific difference1 but from the repetition of acts with regard to one object1 made either actually 7by different acts7 or equivalently 7by what is equal to different acts72 7b7 that the distinction be not taken from a physical but from a moral consideration of the acts4 #bjh4 ,three rules of numerical distinction will be given1 one for each of the three following hypotheses3 7a7 many distinct acts are concerned with morally distinct objects of the same species2 7b7 many distinct acts are concerned with what is morally one object2 7c7 one act is concerned with what are physically many1 but morally one object4 #bji4 ,first ,rule of ,numerical ,distinction4--,many sinful acts1 each of which is concerned with an object that is distinct in number 7morally speaking7 from the objects of the other acts1 make as many numerically distinct sins as there are acts and objects numerically distinct4 ,example3 ,he who fires distinct shots and unjustly kills three persons is guilty of three murders4 #baj4 ,second ,rule of ,numerical ,distinction4--,many sinful acts1 all of which are concerned with an object that is 7morally speaking7 one and the same in number1 make as many numerically distinct sins as there are acts numerically distinct according to moral estimation4 #baa4 ,when the acts concerned with the same object are purely internal1 they are multiplied numerically1 according to moral estimation1 in the following cases3 7a7 when they are repeated after having been renounced by an act of the will4 ,example3 ,he who hates in the morning1 repents at noon1 and returns to his hate in the afternoon1 commits two sins of hatred2 7b7 when they are repeated after having been voluntarily discontinued1 if the interval between the two acts is so considerable that the second act is not a mere continuation of the first4 ,example3 ,he who in his mind reviles an enemy passing by1 then turns his attention to his work and thinks no more about his anger1 and later1 seeing his enemy again1 reviles him mentally a second time1 commits two sins2 7c7 when they are repeated after having been involuntarily discontinued1 if a notable period 7say1 three hours7 intervenes between the two acts4 ,example3 ,he who thinks thoughts of hatred until he falls asleep1 or until he is distracted from them by something unusual going on about him1 or by the entrance of a visitor1 commits a second sin of hatred1 when he returns to the same thoughts1 if the interruption was so long that there is no moral connection between the two acts4 #bab4 ,when acts tending to the same object are internal1 but directed towards completion in some external act1 they are multiplied numerically1 in moral estimation1 in the following cases3 7a7 when they are repeated after having been renounced4 ,example3 ,he who decides to steal1 but repents for his sin1 and then again decides to steal1 commits two sins2 7b7 when they are repeated after voluntary discontinuance1 if the interval is not merely momentary4 ,example3 ,he who thinks over a plan to acquire money unjustly1 and then deliberately turns his thought away and gives all his attention to lawful affairs1 but later resumes the dishonest planning1 commits a new sin2 7c7 when they are repeated after involuntary discontinuance1 if the interval is notable in view of the external act desired1 and nothing external was done that could serve as a link to unify the two acts4 ,example3 ,a burglar plans a robbery that could easily be carried out at once1 but he takes no steps to execute his plan1 and soon forgets about it4 ,a month later1 passing the house he had intended to rob1 he remembers his plan and carries it out4 ,two distinct sins were here committed4 #bac4 ,involuntary discontinuance does not1 however1 separate the acts into two distinct sins3 7a7 if the interval was brief in view of the external act that was desired 7e4g41 if the burglar above mentioned had forgotten his plan for a few days only before he renewed it and carried it out72 7b7 if something had already been done by reason of the first act 7e4g41 if the burglar1 after resolving to rob the house1 had procured keys or tools for the purpose1 and had kept them with this in mind1 although he allowed months and years to pass without making any attempt to fulfill his design74 #bad4 ,when the acts tending to the same object are external1 they are multiplied numerically in moral estimation1 and make distinct sins as follows3 7a7 if the internal acts from which they proceed are numerically distinct sins 7e4g41 if a burglar attempts to rob a house1 but leaves his work unfinished because he becomes conscience-stricken or is interrupted1 and later makes another plan and another attempt1 there are two sins72 7b7 if the external acts are of such a kind that no internal intention can make them morally one act1 even when one follows directly upon the other 7e4g41 missing ,mass on ,sunday and again on the following day1 a holyday1 makes one guilty of two distinct violations of the law74 #bae4 ,in the following cases1 however1 distinct external acts with reference to the same object do not multiply the number of sins3 7a7 when these acts form a part of one moral whole1 and are intended as such by the agent 7e4g41 one who reads a forbidden book1 but divides it into parts1 reading only so many pages a day72 7b7 when these acts have to one another the relation of means to a common end1 and they are intended as such by the agent 7e4g41 various preparations made for robbery74 #baf4 ,third ,rule of ,numerical ,distinction4--,one sinful act1 internal or external1 that is concerned with objects that are physically many1 but morally one1 makes but one sin in number4 ,example3 ,he who steals a purse that contains ten bills commits one sin2 he who calumniates a family of ten persons commits one sin2 he who steals what is the common property of three proprietors commits one sin4 #bag4 ,when the objects are not morally one of themselves1 they may become so through the belief of the one who acts1 since distinct malices are not incurred except as apprehended 7see #ehh-eib74 ,example3 ,he who tells three different lies against a neighbor 7e4g41 that he is a thief1 a drunkard and a liar71 commits one sin of calumny1 if he has in mind general injury to reputation1 but does not think at the time of the special injuries contained in his calumny4 ,likewise1 he who calumniates before ten persons commits but one sin of calumny1 if1 being in a passion1 he thinks only of the harm he wishes to cause and not of the number of persons who are present4 #bah4 ,when the objects are morally one1 they may become many through the intention of the one who acts4 ,example3 ,he who calumniates a family of three persons by saying they are all dishonest1 commits three sins1 if he intends three distinct injuries 7e4g41 against the business of one1 the religious reputation of another1 and the friendship of the third74 ,so also he who steals part of the money in a purse1 and later on1 having another opportunity1 decides to steal the rest1 commits two sins4 #bai4 ,when the objects are not morally one in themselves and cannot be apprehended as such1 distinct sins are committed4 ,example3 ,he who intends to miss ,mass all year1 foresees at least in a confused way many distinct violations of the law2 he who purposes to rob various proprietors foresees at least in a vague way many separate and complete external acts of robbery4 #bbj4 ,comparison of ,sins4--,sins that differ in species differ also in gravity1 those being more serious that depart further from the norms of reason and the law of ,god4 #bba4 ,other things being equal1 those sins are worse that offend against a more noble object or a more noble virtue4 ,hence1 sins that are directly against ,god 7such as infidelity1 despair1 and hatred of ,god7 are the most serious of all2 while sins against human personality 7such as murder7 are more serious than those against human rights 7such as theft74 #bbb4 ,of those sins that are opposed to the same virtue1 that one is worse which is opposed to the principal inclination of the virtue4 ,thus1 avarice is more foreign to the virtue of liberality than the opposite vice of prodigality2 timidity is more contrary to bravery than its opposite rashness4 #bbc4 ,the gravity of a sin is increased in the following ways3 7a7 by the circumstances1 in so far as they give it a new species of malice 7e4g41 theft from a church7 or increase its malice within the species 7e4g41 money given prodigally and to those who do not deserve it1 or money stolen in a large quantity72 7b7 by the greater willingness with which the sin is committed4 ,hence1 those who sin through ignorance or under the excitement of passion are less guilty than those who sin in cold blood2 7c7 by the condition of the person offended4 ,thus1 a sin is made worse according as the person offended is nearer to ,god by reason of his personal holiness or the sacredness of his state or the dignity of his office1 or is nearer to the offender himself4 ,hence1 an injury is greater if done to a priest1 a public official or one's own family1 than if done to another who has not the same claim to honor or justice2 7d7 by the condition of the person who sins4 ,those who are better instructed or otherwise better advantaged1 or who are supposed to give good example to others1 sin more grievously by reason of their greater ingratitude and of the greater scandal they give1 whenever they sin deliberately2 7e7 by the evil results that follow from the sin1 when these are willed1 even indirectly or implicitly1 as when one spreads stories that are bound to cause enmities1 strifes1 and a lowering of ideals 7see #if74 #bbd4 ,spiritual and carnal sins1 considered precisely as such1 and other things being equal1 may be compared from two viewpoints1 viz41 of malice and of reputation4 7a7 ,from the viewpoint of malice1 spiritual sins are worse1 since1 while a carnal sinner is carried away by strong passion and offends directly only his own body1 he who commits spiritual sins acts with greater freedom and offends directly against ,god and his neighbor4 ,hence1 the ,pharisees1 though they despised the fallen woman1 were worse than she1 since in the eyes of ,god their pride1 envy1 detraction1 hypocrisy1 etc41 were more hateful crimes4 7b7 ,from the viewpoint of reputation1 carnal sins are worse1 since they liken man more to the beast1 and are thus more infamous4 #bbe4 ,in actual experience1 carnal sins are frequently more grave than non-carnal sins4 7a7 ,many carnal sins are not purely carnal1 but also contain other malice1 and cause directly more injury to ,god or the neighbor than a non-carnal sin of the same category4 ,example3 ,adultery combines both lust and injustice1 and is a greater injustice than the non-carnal sin of theft4 ,rape combines lust and injury1 and is more injurious than the non-carnal sin of anger resulting in bodily blows4 ,lascivious conversation combines impurity and spiritual damage to another1 and is more harmful than the non-carnal sin of detracting that other and causing him some temporal injury4 7b7 ,many carnal sins are accompanied by greater malice or greater scandal1 or are followed by greater evils than purely spiritual sins4 ,example3 ,sins of impurity or drunkenness1 committed habitually and deliberately or by adults1 are more malicious than sins of pride or anger committed rarely or without full deliberation1 or by children4 ,drunkenness or licentious language and suspicious intimacies1 committed by those from whom good example is expected1 do more to undermine religion than sins of impatience or uncharitableness in the same persons4 ,the results of a man's pride 7such as ambition1 arrogance1 luxurious living and deceitfulness7 are often less disastrous than the results of his intemperance 7such as detraction1 immodesty1 fights1 extravagance1 disgrace of family1 etc474 #bbf4 ,sins different in species rank in the order of gravity1 as said above1 according to their objects4 ,for1 just as diseases are considered more serious when they affect more important vital organs or functions1 so sins are more grave when they affect more radical principles of human conduct4 ,the greater the object or end of action that is injured1 therefore1 the greater is the harm done and the greater the sin committed4 ,hence3 7a7 sins committed directly against ,god are worse than sins committed against creatures1 for ,god is the end of all creatures2 7b7 sins committed against persons are greater than sins committed against things1 for persons are the end of things4 #bbg4 ,of the sins committed against ,god1 the rank according to gravity is3 7a7 sins against the personality of ,god--that is1 against the divine nature--such as hatred of ,god 7the greatest of all sins71 infidelity1 despair2 7b7 sins against the peculiar possessions of ,god--that is1 ,his external honor and glory1 and those things that belong to ,him in a special way1 such as the humanity of ,christ hypostatically united to the ,word1 the ,sacraments1 and things consecrated to ,god4 ,such sins are idolatry1 superstition1 perjury1 the sins of those who had ,christ crucified1 simony1 sacrilege1 unworthy reception of the ,eucharist or other ,sacrament1 violation of vows1 etc4 #bbh4 ,sins committed against creatures1 other things being equal1 rank in gravity as follows3 7a7 ,sins against personality are greater than sins against possessions4 ,example3 ,the sin of murder1 which is against personality1 is worse than the sin of theft1 which is against possessions4 7b7 ,sins against being are greater than sins against wellbeing4 ,examples3 ,murder is worse than mutilation1 and scandal that causes another to lose his soul is worse than scandal that only diminishes another's goodness2 murder and the irreparable scandal take away life1 mutilation and the lesser scandal only diminish the perfection of the life that is had4 7c7 ,sins against those who have a greater claim are greater than sins against those who have a less claim4 ,examples3 ,it is a greater sin to neglect one's own salvation than that of a neighbor2 to murder a member of one's own family1 a benefactor1 or a person distinguished on account of his position or virtue1 is a greater crime than to murder a stranger1 an enemy1 a private individual1 or one of bad life4 7d7 ,sins against possessions that are dearer are graver offenses4 ,examples3 ,it is worse to steal away the peace of a household than to carry off its material treasures2 it is worse to rob a man of his good name than to defraud him of his wages4 #bbi4 ,the above rating of sins is based on their natures considered in the abstract1 that is1 according to the essential relations they have to their own proper objects4 ,it is impossible to consider any other factor when drawing up general rules of comparison2 for the circumstances that enter into concrete cases of sin are innumerable1 and hence have to be left out of consideration4 ,by reason of these factors other than the object1 however1 the ranking of sins according to gravity given above may be changed or reversed4 7a7 ,in the act of a greater sin there may be extenuating circumstances1 or in the act of a lesser sin aggravating circumstances that change their respective order4 ,example3 ,detraction is from its nature worse than theft2 but1 if the detraction does only small harm and the theft great harm1 the theft is worse on account of the circumstances4 7b7 ,in the persons who commit the sins there may be circumstances that change the order of guilt1 so that he who commits the greater sin is less guilty4 ,examples3 ,by his careless handling of a revolver1 ,balbus unintentionally causes lasting injury to a bystander4 ,caius without malice aforethought1 but enraged by an unexpected insult1 strikes a blow that destroys the sight in one eye of his adversary4 ,titus1 angry because he has been dismissed from his employment1 revenges himself by defacing a precious work of art4 ,the bodily injuries caused by the first two men are more harmful than the injury to property done by ,titus2 but they sinned1 the one from ignorance and the other from passion1 whereas ,titus sinned from malice4 ,hence1 while the sins of ,balbus and ,caius are objectively or materially greater1 that of ,titus is greater subjectively or formally 7i4e41 as to guilt74 #bcj4 ,the ,subjects of ,sin4--,by the subjects of sin we understand the powers of the soul in which sin is found4 ,these powers are sometimes called the material causes of sin1 just as the objects to which the sins tend are called their formal causes4 #bca4 ,just as virtuous habits have their seats in the will 7e4g41 justice71 in the reason 7e4g41 prudence71 and in the sensitive appetites 7e4g41 fortitude and temperance71 so also contrary habits of vice may be found in these same faculties4 7a7 ,from the sensitive appetites proceed impulses caused by sense apprehension or bodily states1 which1 when they are inordinate and voluntary1 are sinful 7e4g41 lust1 envy2 see #abi1 on ,second ,motions74 7b7 ,from the reason proceed false judgments caused by vincible ignorance1 wrong direction deliberately given to the passions1 pleasurable dwelling on inordinate thoughts1 etc4 7c7 ,from the will proceed consent given to sins of the other powers1 desires to commit sin1 joy over sin already committed1 etc4 #bcb4 ,as was said above 7#hi-ic71 the external acts of the members of the body have no morality of their own1 since they are completely subject to the will4 ,consequently1 there are only three classes of sins1 if classification is made according to the faculties from which the sins proceed3 7a7 sins of sensuality1 which were spoken of above when we treated of the passions 7#agg sqq472 7b7 sins of thought2 7c7 sins of desire and reminiscent approval4 #bcc4 ,pleasurable dwelling on inordinate thoughts occurs when one deliberately1 even though it be only for a moment1 turns over in his mind some sinful object1 delighting in it as if it were actually present1 but not desiring that it be actually done4 ,example2 ,one who imagines his neighbor's house burned down1 and rejoices at the mental picture1 though for interested reasons he does not wish any conflagration in the vicinity4 #bcd4 ,the sinful thoughts just described are not to be confused with thoughts in which the object of the delight is something else than a sinful picture represented in the mind4 ,thoughts of this latter kind are3 7a7 those in which one takes delight in an external act of sin being committed1 as when one destroys one's neighbor's property with great internal satisfaction2 here the thought forms one sin with the outer act2 7b7 those in which one delights in the mental image1 not as it represents something morally wrong1 but as it contains some object of lawful delight4 ,there is a distinction between bad thoughts and thoughts on things that are bad4 ,examples3 ,a moralist may think with pleasure about theft1 not because he approves of it1 but because it is a subject he has to know4 ,a person may read detective stories with great interest1 not because crime appeals to him1 but because the style of the author is good1 the details of the plot exciting1 the manner of the crime mysterious1 etc4 ,there is danger in thoughts of this kind1 however1 if one indulges in them from mere curiosity1 or immoderately1 or if sin itself may take an attraction through them4 #bce4 ,the gravity and species of pleasurable dwelling on inordinate thoughts vary according to the thing thought on 7see on ,objects1 etc41 #gj sqq474 7a7 ,if pleasure is taken only in the object represented1 the sin has the moral character of that object4 ,example3 ,he who delights at the thought of theft1 is guilty of theft2 and if he thinks of a great theft1 he is guilty of mortal sin4 7b7 ,if pleasure is also taken in the circumstances imaged in the mind1 the sin takes on the added malice contained in the circumstances4 ,example3 ,he who delights over the thought of the robbery of a church1 is guilty of mental theft and sacrilege4 #bcf4 ,the following are signs that delight taken in a thought about sinful things is about their sinfulness1 and not about some other of their properties3 7a7 if one thinks about them without any lawful necessity 7such as that of study71 but through mere curiosity1 or without any good reason2 7b7 if at the same time one loves to think on them frequently and lingeringly1 or shown great satisfaction whenever they are mentioned4 ,example3 ,one who thinks about injustices for pastime and admires them as great exploits1 who idolizes criminals as heroes or martyrs4 #bcg4 ,sinful joy is an act of the will by which one takes delight in sins already committed by oneself or by others4 ,we must distinguish between sinful joy and joy about things that are sinful4 7a7 ,sinful joy rejoices over the iniquity contained in past acts1 either because it loves that iniquity in itself1 or because it loves it as the cause of some gain4 ,examples3 ,an unjust and revengeful man rejoices when he thinks of the oppression he exercised against some helpless person who had incurred his wrath4 ,a criminal recalls with joy the perjuries by which his helpers secured his escape from justice4 7b7 ,joy about things that are sinful or consequent on sin rejoices1 not that what was done was wicked1 but over other circumstances that were good or indifferent4 ,examples3 ,an employer admires in the conduct of a dishonest employee1 not the injustice committed1 but the shrewd manner in which the fraud was perpetrated4 ,a bystander is very much amused to witness a fight1 not because he likes discord1 but because the acts and remarks of the fighters are comical4 ,a man rejoices when he hears that a friend has committed suicide and made him his heir1 if the joy is confined to the second part of the news4 #bch4 ,the moral gravity and species of evil rejoicing has the same character as the past sins that are its object 7see #gj sqq474 ,for to rejoice over sin is to approve of it1 and therefore to be guilty of it in will4 ,example3 ,a prisoner who1 to overcome melancholy1 thinks over the times he became intoxicated in the past1 is guilty again of those sins1 with their number and circumstances adverted to4 #bci4 ,what has been said about evil rejoicing applies likewise3 7a7 to boasting over sin committed1 because this implies complacency in the sin2 7b7 to sorrow over sin omitted1 because this means that one approves of sin rather than virtue4 #bdj4 ,to be sorry because one performed good that was not obligatory is not sinful of itself1 but it may become so by reason of the evil motive of the sorrow1 or of the danger of sin4 ,examples3 ,if a person is sorry that he performed many unnecessary devotional exercises1 because he injured his health thereby1 his sorrow is not sinful4 ,if he grieves over this because he now dislikes religion1 his sorrow is made bad by his evil motive4 ,if he regrets that he married1 this is sinful if it leads him to neglect the duties of his state and commit injustice4 #bda4 ,evil desires are acts of the will by which one deliberately intends to commit sin in the future4 ,they are of two kinds1 viz41 absolute and conditional3 7a7 absolute or efficacious desires are those in which the mind is fully made up to carry out the evil design1 come what may2 7b7 conditional or inefficacious desires are those in which the purpose to commit sin hinges upon the fulfillment of some event or circumstance that is explicitly or implicitly willed4 #bdb4 ,absolute evil desires have the same moral gravity and species as that to which they tend 7i4e41 they take their character from the object1 end and circumstances74 ,example3 ,he who plans to steal a large sum from a benefactor in order to be able to live in idleness and dissipation1 sins gravely against justice1 and is also guilty of ingratitude and intemperance1 for he has committed all these sins in his heart4 #bdc4 ,conditional evil desires1 if they are indeliberate and express rather the propensity of nature than the considered will of him who makes them1 are not formally sinful4 ,examples3 ,a poor man who unthinkingly wishes that stealing were lawful2 a sufferer who under the influence of pain wishes that the ,almighty had not forbidden suicide4 #bdd4 ,conditional desires1 if made deliberately1 are of two kinds4 7a7 ,there are some desires in which the condition willed 7e4g41 if this were not a sin1 if this were lawful1 if this were allowed by ,god1 etc47 takes away the malice of the act desired1 since some laws may be dispensed or changed4 ,examples3 8,would that ,god had not pronounced against taking the property of others60 8,i would stay away from church1 if this were not ,sunday40 ,desires of this kind are not sinful on account of their object1 which is not really wished1 but on account of their end1 or their lack of useful purpose1 and of the danger that the conditional may become absolute4 7b7 ,there are other desires in which the condition does not take away the malice of what is desired1 either because the condition is not at all concerned with the malice1 or because it wishes something to become lawful which even ,god cannot make lawful4 ,examples3 8,i would steal1 if this could be done safely40 8,i would blaspheme1 if ,god permitted40 ,these desires partake of the malice of the things that are wished4 #bde4 ,just as we distinguished above between bad thoughts and thoughts on things that are bad1 so may we distinguish between bad desires and desires of what is bad4 ,for bad desires that are not mere velleities are sinful1 as we have just seen2 whereas the desire of what is physically evil is good1 if the evil is wished1 not for its own sake1 but for the sake of some greater good4 ,example3 ,to desire out of hatred that a neighbor lose his arm is a bad desire and sinful2 but if one wished this as a means to save the neighbor's life1 while he still desires something evil1 it is not the evil but the benefit that is intended1 and hence the desire itself is not bad4 #bdf4 ,the ,causes of ,sin4--,the causes of sin are partly internal 7i4e41 those which are in man himself7 and partly external 7i4e41 those which are without74 #bdg4 ,the internal causes of sin are3 7a7 ignorance in the intellect2 7b7 passion in the sensitive appetites2 7c7 malice in the will4 #bdh4 ,since ignorance and passion may render an act involuntary 7see #dj sqq471 the sins that result from them are of two kinds1 viz41 material and formal4 7a7 ,material or objective sins are transgressions of the law that are involuntary1 and consequently not imputable as faults4 ,examples3 ,blasphemies uttered by one who is delirious or hypnotized2 breaking of the fast by one who is inculpably ignorant of the law2 imprecations pronounced by a person out of his mind through fear4 7b7 ,formal or subjective sins are transgressions of the law that are voluntary1 and hence imputable as faults4 ,they are not only against the law1 as is the case with material sins1 but they are also against conscience4 #bdi4 ,ignorance1 passion and malice cause sin as follows3 7a7 ,every sin results from practical error 7i4e41 from a wrong decision as to what one should do here and now71 for the will chooses wrong only after the intellect has decided on wrong4 ,in this sense1 then1 it is said that all who sin are in error 7,prov11 xiv4 #bb71 and that every sinner is in ignorance 7,aristotle1 ,nich4 ,ethics1 ,bk4 ,,iii1 c4#a1 #aaaj;b #bg74 ,but not every sin results from speculative error 7i4e41 from a false notion or judgment about the lawfulness of an act in general74 else we should have to hold that everyone who sins is in error against the faith2 7b7 ,speculative ignorance causes formal sin1 when the ignorance is culpable and leads to wrongdoing1 as when a person has never taken the pains to learn what the law of fast requires and in consequence violates the law1 or when an automobilist through carelessness does not see a person crossing the street and runs him down4 ,speculative ignorance causes material sin1 when the lack of knowledge is inculpable and leads one to do what one would not otherwise do1 as when a child shoots a playmate1 not knowing that this is a sin1 or a soldier shoots a comrade whom1 on account of darkness1 he mistook for an enemy spy2 7c7 ,passion1 by clouding the judgment and vehemently inciting the will1 leads one to act against one's better knowledge and to choose inordinately the concupiscences of pleasure1 or possessions1 or glory 7,i ,john1 ii4 #af74 ,if the passion is voluntary1 the resulting sin is formal2 but1 if the passion is involuntary and takes away the use of reason1 the sin caused is material2 7d7 ,malice is found in a sense in every formal sin1 inasmuch as every sin is committed out of choice4 ,but malice in the strict sense1 as here understood1 is a choice of sin made1 not on account of preceding ignorance or passion1 but on account of some corrupt disposition of the sinner which makes sin pleasing or acceptable to him1 such as a vicious habit or inclination which he cultivates1 or willful despair or presumption which he entertains4 #bej4 ,ignorance and passion do not always make an act involuntary 7see #dj sqq471 and hence three kinds of formal sins may be distinguished according to the three kinds of causes from which they proceed3 7a7 sins of weakness1 which are those that result from antecedent concupiscence or other passion that lessens without taking away the voluntariness of an act4 ,since the ,first ,person of the ,trinity is especially described by the attribute of almighty power1 sins of this kind are sometimes called sins against the ,father2 7b7 sins of ignorance1 which are those that result from antecedent and vincible ignorance4 ,since wisdom is especially attributed to the ,second ,person of the ,trinity1 sins of this kind are called sins against the ,son2 7c7 sins of malice1 which are those that proceed entirely from a free will that is undisturbed by ignorance or passion4 ,since love is especially ascribed to the ,third ,person of the ,trinity1 sins of this class are sometimes called sins against the ,holy ,ghost4 ,example3 ,one whose heart is so set on wealth that he decides to sacrifice the friendship of ,god for new acquisitions2 one who sees clearly the offense to ,god a sin entails1 and deliberately chooses it2 one who is so jealous of a neighbor that he schemes to ruin him2 one who sins habitually without fear or remorse4 #bea4 ,other things being equal1 sins of malice are graver than sins of weakness and sins of ignorance1 since the former are more voluntary1 more enduring1 and more dangerous4 ,but just as sins of ignorance and sins of weakness may be mortal1 as when their object is seriously wrong1 so sins of malice may be venial1 as when their object is not seriously wrong4 ,a fully deliberate lie that works no great harm is venially sinful1 whereas a murder committed by one who was intoxicated or moved by rage is a mortal sin1 if there was sufficient reflection4 #beb4 ,the external causes of sin are3 7a7 the devil or other evil spirits1 who by acting on the imagination or other sensitive powers of the soul attempt to draw mankind to destruction2 7b7 the world1 that is1 the persons and things about us1 which by their seductiveness1 or by their principles and examples1 tend to draw away from the practice of virtue4 #bec4 ,since free consent is implied in the concept of formal sin1 none of the internal or external causes of sin just mentioned1 the choice of the will alone excepted1 can actually effect sin4 ,hence the distinction between temptation and sin4 ,the rebellion of the passions1 the suggestions of evil spirits1 the seductions of the world1 are temptations2 if the will does not yield to them1 there is no sin1 but rather virtue and merit4 #bed4 ,in the presence of temptation fully adverted to1 it is not lawful to remain indifferent 7neither consenting nor dissenting71 since this without just cause exposes one to the danger 7see #beh sqq47 of being overcome by sin4 #bee4 ,resistance to temptation is made by the act of the will which commands the other powers not to yield and withholds its own consent to the sin suggested4 ,this resistance may be3 7a7 implicit or explicit1 according as the dissent is expressed in what contains it1 or is expressed in itself4 ,examples3 ,contempt of a temptation or displeasure over its presence is implicit resistance1 while the resolve never to yield to it is explicit resistance2 7b7 internal or external1 according as it remains in the will1 or is also exercised by the other powers4 ,examples3 ,displeasure over an uncharitable thought is internal resistance1 while the reading of a book to divert the mind from the thought is external resistance2 7c7 indirect or direct1 according as the means employed to drive away a temptation are flight or attack4 ,examples3 ,one who is disturbed by thoughts of hatred1 resists them indirectly if he goes to the opera in order to be calmed by music1 while he resists them directly1 if he reads prayerfully ,i ,cor4 xiii1 in order to become more charitable2 7d7 virtual or actual1 according as the act of dissent made1 and not retracted1 is adverted to or not4 ,examples3 ,if a man rejects a temptation of envy as soon as he notices it1 and repeats this act of rejection until the temptation has disappeared1 his resistance is actual2 if he rejects the temptation once for all as soon as it appears1 but is not able to think of this purpose at each instant1 his resistance was actual at the beginning1 but virtual afterwards4 #bef4 ,general rules regarding resistance to temptation3 7a7 it is a grave sin not to resist temptation1 when the sin suggested is grave1 the danger of consent serious1 and the negligence considerable2 otherwise the sin is venial2 7b7 negligence is considerable when the resistance used is not at all in proportion to the temptation4 ,example3 ,if a man were suddenly to advert to the fact that a shrewd plan he had decided on was gravely unjust1 he would be seriously negligent if he put off recalling the decision till he had dwelt more fully on its appealing features4 #beg4 ,the kind of resistance to be opposed to temptation depends on the character and urgency of the temptation and the disposition of the person tempted4 7a7 ,generally speaking1 the more serious the temptation1 the stronger should be the resistance4 ,example3 ,one who knows from experience that temptations to hatred overcome him1 if he uses only internal resistance1 should make use of external resistance also4 7b7 ,in those cases in which the violence of the temptation increases in proportion to the strength of the resistance1 it is better that the resistance be internal1 indirect1 etc4 ,examples3 ,temptations against faith are often overcome more readily by turning the mind away from the doubts suggested to other matters4 ,temptations that last a long time may be conquered more easily by despising them than by worrying about them and renewing protest after protest4 ,the same is true as regards temptations against purity4 #beh4 ,danger of sin is the likelihood that it will be committed in certain circumstances4 ,it is of two kinds1 proximate and remote4 7a7 ,danger of sin is proximate1 when there is moral certainty that in given circumstances sin will be committed1 either because the generality of mankind falls in such cases 7absolute danger71 or because in them a particular individual has always fallen 7relative danger74 ,examples3 ,associating with depraved persons is a proximate danger of sin for anyone1 since it is a matter of universal experience that evil associations corrupt good morals4 ,taking strong drink is a proximate danger for one who has never imbibed moderately in the past4 7b7 ,danger of sin is remote1 when the likelihood that sin will be committed is not morally certain1 and does not exclude a serious and well-founded probability or expectation to the contrary4 ,example3 ,there is remote danger in an occasional drink1 if a person who had several times relapsed into intemperance1 has practised abstemiousness for years4 #bei4 ,possibility of sin is the conceivability but unlikelihood that it will result from a certain set of circumstances4 ,example3 ,attention to business sometimes makes a man avaricious1 practices of piety may degenerate into hypocrisy1 etc41 but there is no natural connection between industry and devotion1 on the one hand1 and greed and insincerity1 on the other hand4 ,sin follows naturally from its danger1 but only accidentally from its possibility4 #bfj4 ,it is not lawful imprudently to expose oneself to the danger of sin1 since it is manifestly against reason to risk spiritual loss without cause4 ,the character of the sin of him who does this differs according to circumstances4 7a7 ,he who rashly exposes himself to the proximate danger of grave sin1 or to what he foresees will become proximate danger1 is guilty of grave sin and of the species of sin to which he exposes himself--and this even though the sin does not actually follow4 ,for to love what is so closely related to the sin is to love the sin itself4 7b7 ,he who rashly exposes himself to the remote danger of grave sin or to the proximate danger of venial sin is venially guilty4 ,for1 while such action is unreasonable1 it does not imply affection for grave sin4 #bfa4 ,it is lawful to expose oneself to the danger of sin1 if this can be done according to the laws of prudence1 for otherwise absurdities would follow 7e4g41 that urgent duties should not be performed1 if one feared they contained the danger of sin74 ,the requirements of prudence referred to are3 7a7 that the one who exposes himself to the danger of sin be sure that his motive is good 7viz41 that he firmly intends to avoid the sin to which he may be tempted and to accomplish only the good he desires72 7b7 that the action he performs and which involves the danger is necessary1 and bears a correspondence in importance to the gravity of the sin and the proximity of the risk2 7c7 that means be employed 7e4g41 prayer1 pious thoughts1 spiritual reading1 and the use of the ,sacraments71 which will so reduce the danger that one has confident assurance that the danger will be encountered safely4 #bfb4 ,it is lawful to expose oneself to the possibility of sin1 for1 since almost every action may be perverted1 one who wished to avoid the possibility of sin would have to leave this world and become confirmed in grace4 #bfc4 ,the ,occasions of ,sin are external circumstances--persons1 places or things--which tempt one to sin4 ,examples3 ,persons who invite others to defraud and show how it can be accomplished1 theatres where irreligious plays are staged1 books that aim to depreciate virtue1 etc4 #bfd4 ,the occasions of sin are of various kinds4 7a7 ,they are proximate or remote1 according as it is morally certain1 or only likely that they will lead to sin4 7b7 ,occasions are necessary or free1 according as one is able or not able to abandon them without difficulty4 ,for example1 one who chooses dishonest persons as his associates is in a free occasion of sin2 one who is imprisoned with criminals is in a necessary occasion of sin4 ,an occasion of sin is also necessary when the impossibility of leaving it is not physical1 but moral4 ,examples3 ,a wife who is bound to a provoking husband2 a person who cannot give up an employment that offers many temptations1 without suffering great temporal or spiritual injury1 or without incurring a worse condition4 7c7 ,occasions are present or absent1 according as one has the occasion with him or must go to seek it4 ,examples2 ,intoxicants kept in his home are a present occasion of sin for a drunkard2 atheistic lectures are an absent occasion of sin for one who has to go out to hear them4 #bfe4 ,it is not lawful to remain in a free occasion of sin11 whether it be present or absent2 for to do so is to expose oneself rashly to the danger of sin 7see #beh sqq474 #bff4 ,it is not lawful for one who is in a necessary occasion of sin to neglect means that are adapted to preserve him from the moral contagion by which he is surrounded2 for to neglect spiritual safeguards and protections in such a case is to refuse to resist temptation 7see #beb sqq474 ,the means that should be used depend on circumstances1 but prayer and firm resolves to avoid sin should be employed in every case4 #bfg4 ,the gravity of the sin committed by one who freely remains in an occasion of sin1 or who does not use the requisite spiritual helps in a necessary occasion1 depends on various factors3 7a7 if the sin to which he is tempted is light1 he does not sin gravely2 7b7 if the sin to which he is tempted is serious1 and the occasion is proximate1 he sins gravely2 7c7 if the occasion is remote1 he sins venially4 #bfh4 ,the ,motives of ,sin4--,the purposes that lead men to sin can be considered as follows3 7a7 according to the predominant vices of individual men1 which are for them motives for committing their other sins 7particular motives7--e4g41 a man whose chief sin is unbelief and who is led by it to intolerance1 blasphemy1 despair1 etc42 7b7 according to the natural relationship and sequence between sins themselves1 by which some are usually the motives for others in all men 7general motives74 #bfi4 ,the predominant individual motives for sin are as numerous as the different characters of those addicted to sin1 and hence it is impossible to classify them4 ,the predominant general motives for sin1 on the contrary1 can be assigned according to the principal goods that most often move or repel with wills of all who commit sin1 as follows3 7a7 goods of the soul1 such as praise and honor1 inordinately pursued 7the vice of pride72 7b7 goods of the body1 inordinately desired 7the views of lust and gluttony72 7c7 goods that are external1 unduly loved 7the vice of avarice72 7d7 one's own good1 not sufficiently wished 7the vice of sloth72 7e7 the neighbor's good1 not suffiviently desired 7the vices of envy and anger74 #bgj4 ,the seven vices mentioned above are usually calle the capital1 or head vices1 since the other sins are directed by them just as the other parts of the body are directed by the head4 #bga4 ,among the seven capital vices there are two that have principality over the others3 7a7 in the intention of the sinner the motive force that impels to sin is always some inordinate desire of his own personal excellence1 and hence pride is the beginning of all sin2 7b7 in the execution of the sin the opportunity for satisfying every base desire is afforded by money1 and thus avarice is the root of nourishment of all evils4 #bgb4 ,the ,results of ,sin4--,there are two kinds of sins from the viewpoint of origin3 7a7 original sin1 which is inherited from ,adam by all his descendants 7except ,christ and the ,blessed ,virgin72 7b7 actual sin1 which is committed by the personal will of each sinner4 #bgc4 ,the immediate consequences of original sin were that ,adam lost for himself and his posterity the gifts of the state of original innocence4 ,thus3 7a7 the soul in subjection to ,god was endowed with the beauty of holiness1 to which succeeded the deformity of enmity against ,him2 7b7 the powers of the soul were in harmony1 the lower subject to the higher1 but to this succeeded a state of disunion and rebellion and what are called the four wounds of nature1 the intellect and will becoming prone to error and sin1 and the sensitive appetites tending inordinately towards delights or away from difficulties2 7c7 the body which had been in subjection to the soul and endowed with freedom from suffering and mortality1 became burdensome to the soul and subject to pain and death4 #bgd4 ,the consequences that are common to all sin1 both original and actual1 are3 7a7 the sinner loses the spiritual beauty to which sin is opposed1 and this loss is called the stain of sin1 since the soul defiles itself by inordinate contact with what it loves2 7b7 the sinner incurs the debt of punishment1 since sin is an injustice against the internal law of reason and against the external law of ,god and man4 #bge4 ,the stain of sin is not3 7a7 a mere privation or absence of grace1 for otherwise all sins would be the same2 nor 7b7 a mere passing shadow over the soul1 since the bad state of the will can remain after the act of sin4 #bgf4 ,the stain of sin differs according to the sin4 7a7 ,the stain of original sin is the privation of original justice 7i4e41 of the subjection of reason and will to ,god71 as being a voluntary privation through the will of the first parent ,adam2 7b7 the stain of mortal sin is the privation of sanctifying grace1 as connoting the act of the individual will through which it was incurred2 7c7 the stain of venial sin is the privation of the fervor of charity resulting from the sin1 inasmuch as it1 to some extent1 hinders the beauty of interior grace from appearing in external acts4 #bgg4 ,the stain of grave sin is the disfigurement of death1 for 7a7 it removes the principle of supernatural existence 7i4e41 grace72 7b7 it takes away the principles of supernatural activity 7i4e41 the infused habits71 though faith and hope may remain2 7c7 it deprives the soul of the rights that belong to the spiritually living 7i4e41 of merits already acquired74 #bgh4 ,the stain of venial sin is the disfigurement of disease1 for 7a7 it disposes one for spiritual death 7i4e41 for mortal sin72 7b7 it lessens spiritual vitality1 by setting up habits that make the practice of the virtues more difficult4 #bgi4 ,the penalty of sin is threefold according to the threefold offense of sin4 7a7 ,inasmuch as sin is against reason1 it is punished by remorse of conscience2 7b7 inasmuch as it is against ecclesiastical1 civil or other human law1 it is punished by man2 7c7 inasmuch as it is against divine law1 it is punished by ,god4 #bhj4 ,the punishment of sin is twofold according to its duration4 7a7 ,grave sin1 since it deprives of spiritual life and turns man away from his ,last ,end1 introduces a radical and1 of itself1 irreparable disorder1 and thus incurs an eternal punishment2 those who die in grave sin will be sentenced to eternal punishment4 7b7 ,venial sin does not inflict spiritual death1 but is a defect or excess1 not as regards the ,last ,end1 but as regards the means to the ,last ,end4 ,thus1 it incurs1 not an eternal1 but a temporal punishment4 #bha4 ,the punishment of sin is twofold according to its quality4 7a7 ,sin by which man turns away from his ,last ,end is punished by the pain of loss1 the deprivation of eternal happiness which was despised4 ,this pain may be called infinite1 inasmuch as it is the loss of ,infinite ,good4 7b7 ,sin1 in so far as it is an inordinate turning towards created things1 is punished by the pain of sense1 which comes through creatures4 ,this pain is finite4 #bhb4 ,sin may be a punishment of sin3 7a7 if a later sin results from a former sin 7e4g41 ,god may permit those who refuse to serve ,him1 to become the servants of their passions72 7b7 if the commission of sin is accompanied by internal or external sufferings 7e4g41 the jealous indulge their vice at the expense of great mental torment74 #bhc4 ,not all the afflictions that befall mankind are chastisements4 ,in the strict sense1 only those evils are punishments which are inflicted by the lawgiver against the will of the offender as a vindication of justice violated by the personal offense of the latter4 ,hence we must distinguish punishment from the following3 7a7 from satisfaction1 which is compensation willingly endured for one's own sin1 or freely offered for another's 7e4g41 ,david after his repentance performed penance for his sins2 ,christ on the cross offered ,his satisfaction for the human race72 7b7 from medicinal afflictions1 which are intended1 not as reparations to injured justice1 but as remedies to preserve men against sin or relapse1 or to afford them opportunities for progress 7e4g41 the calamities of ,job1 the condition of the man born blind1 the dolors of the ,blessed ,virgin1 the physical evils ,which in this world sometimes happen to subjects as a punishment on their rulers1 etc472 7c7 from the natural defects of fallen human nature1 such as hunger1 thirst1 disease1 etc4 ,these are only indirectly the consequences of original sin1 the direct punishment1 from which they follow1 being the infirmity and corruption of nature produced by original sin4 ,question ,,iii ,,law #bhd4 ,in the previous ,question we considered the internal principles of human acts--that is1 habits1 good and bad1 from which they proceed4 ,now we shall turn to the external principles1 good and bad1 that move one to one's acts4 ,the external principle that moves to evil is the demon1 who tempts us to sin2 the external principle that moves to good is ,god1 who instructs us by ,his law and helps us by ,his grace to fulfill it4 ,temptation has been discussed already1 and grace belongs to ,dogmatic ,theology2 the next ,question to be considered1 therefore1 is ,law4 ,art4 #a3 ,,law ,,in ,,general 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 qq4 #ij-ib47 #bhe4 ,definition4--,law is an ordinance of the reason for the common good promulgated by him who has authority in the community4 7a7 ,it is an ordinance1 that is1 a command or prohibition which has obligatory and lasting force4 ,hence1 advice is not a law1 because not obligatory2 a rule that binds only during the lifetime of the lawgiver or of those who received it is not strictly a law1 because not enduring4 7b7 ,it is an ordinance of the reason1 since the rule and standard of human acts is reason 7see #fd sqq474 ,hence1 the arbitrary will of a ruler commanding what is against reason would not be law1 but rather iniquity4 7c7 ,it is made for the common good1 that is1 it must tend to promote1 directly or indirectly1 general happiness1 which is the end of society4 ,hence1 the commands of a tyrant which benefit a few at the expense of public peace and prosperity are not truly laws4 7d7 ,it is made by him who has authority1 that is1 by the person or persons who have the lawmaking power according to the form of government4 ,hence1 the decisions of an advisory body or the decrees of a usurper are not laws4 7e7 ,it is made by the proper authority in a community1 that is1 as here understood1 in a self-sufficing community1 which has its own means for attaining its end and is independent in its own order of other societies4 ,hence1 the regulations made by parents for their family are not called laws1 since the family is not a self-sufficing society4 7f7 ,it is an ordinance that has been promulgated1 that is1 brought to the notice of those whom it binds4 ,hence1 a law that has been drawn up but not published as such1 is not obligatory even for those who know of its existence4 ,a law becomes obligatory1 however1 as soon as it has been promulgated1 and the presumption then is that the law is known2 but he who is inculpably ignorant is not guilty of formal sin if he breaks the law4 #bhf4 ,division4--,according as the immediate lawgiver is ,god or man1 laws are divine or human4 ,divine laws are threefold3 7a7 the eternal law is the ordinance of the divine mind which from eternity has directed the motions and actions of all creatures for the common good of the universe2 7b7 the natural law is the light of man's reason as an impression and reflection of the eternal law2 7c7 the positive divine law is that which ,god of ,his free will has added to the natural law1 viz41 the ,mosaic law under the ,old ,testament and the law of the ,gospel under the ,new ,testament4 #bhg4 ,human laws are ecclesiastical or civil according to the authority from which they originate4 #bhh4 ,collision of ,laws4--,not infrequently it happens that opposite laws seem to call for fulfillment at the same time1 as1 when in case of unjust attack it seems that one is bound to defend oneself and bound not to injure the other party4 ,hence arises a conflict of obligations and rights4 ,but the difficulty is only apparent2 for1 since ,god is a just and wise lawgiver1 ,he does not intend either that one should be held to impossibilities1 or that a superior obligation should yield to one that is inferior4 ,hence1 the rule in such cases of apparent collision of laws is3 7a7 if a person can recognize which of the two obligations is superior1 he is bound to follow that one2 7b7 if he is unable to discover after careful examination which obligation has the greater claim1 and must decide at once1 he may decide for the law whose observance seems to him safer2 or1 if he sees no difference as regards safety1 he may decide for either as he wishes4 ,if the decision is wrong1 the error is involuntary1 and hence not imputable as sin4 #bhi4 ,when the contending precepts belong to different categories of law1 the higher law must be followed4 7a7 ,the natural law has precedence over the positive law1 divine or human4 ,for example1 the natural law of self-preservation allowed ,david to eat the loaves of proposition1 a thing forbidden by the positive divine law4 ,the same law of self-preservation allows a starving man to take what does not belong to him according to human laws1 if it is necessary for his life4 ,the same law of self-preservation excuses one from assisting at ,mass1 if one is very ill4 7b7 ,the positive divine law has precedence over human law4 ,example3 ,the command of ,christ to his ,apostles to preach ,his ,name was to be obeyed rather than the command of the ,sanhedrin to the contrary 7,acts1 v4 #ai74 7c7 ,the ecclesiastical law has precedence over civil law1 for the end of the ,church is higher than that of the ,state1 and the ,church's judgment about the means to her end should prevail4 #bij4 ,the precedence of ecclesiastical over civil law does not mean that the ,church has the right to interfere in matters that belong to the jurisdiction of the ,state1 or that the ,church should insist on settling every dispute by its own action alone4 7a7 ,a law on matters purely civil and political made by the ,church in opposition to a law of the ,state would not prevail over the latter1 for1 as the ,church admits1 8whatever is to be ranged under the civil and political order is rightly subject to the civil authority0 7,leo ,,xiii74 7b7 ,a law on matters directly or indirectly spiritual1 made by the ,church but not necessary to her end1 can be made the subject of negotiation or even of compromise by the ,church in order to avoid a conflict of laws2 in fact1 the ,church has shown her willingness to make concessions1 where possible1 for the common peace and happiness4 #bia4 ,when contending laws belong to the same category of laws1 the more important1 or more urgent1 or more necessary law prevails4 7a7 ,the law that defends greater goods 7those that are spiritual1 internal1 or common7 has precedence over the law that defends lesser goods 7the temporal1 external1 or private74 ,examples3 ,the natural law that one must save oneself from persecution and death yields to the natural law that one must not blaspheme or deny ,god1 and hence one must prefer to die rather than blaspheme4 ,the law that one may not expose one's life to danger yields to the law that the common welfare must be defended2 hence1 citizens are obliged to go to war when the nation calls1 pastors and physicians to remain at their posts in time of pestilence1 disaster1 etc4 7b7 ,obligations of justice have precedence over obligations of charity1 for in the former case a stricter right is in question4 ,example3 ,titus is keeping #e4jj in order to pay a debt to ,caius1 who needs the money today2 ,balbus1 who is very poor1 asks ,titus to give the money to him4 ,titus should pay ,caius4 7c7 ,negative or prohibitory laws have precedence over affirmative or preceptive laws 7see #cga74 ,example3 ,titus is asked to write out a testimonial stating that he knows that ,balbus is honest1 competent1 etc4 ,balbus has claims on the help of ,titus on account of a promise made in the past2 but ,titus knows very well that ,balbus is not competent1 honest1 etc4 ,the law forbidding lies prevails here over the law that one keep a promise made4 #bib4 ,since rights and duties are correlative--there being a duty that corresponds to every right1 and vice versa--and since both are regulated by law1 the principles given for the apparent collision of laws can be applied to the apparent collision of rights4 7a7 ,rights of a higher kind have preference over rights of a lower kind4 ,therefore1 the rights that arise from birth itself1 or from the fact that one is a human being 7e4g41 the right to life71 are superior to the rights that are acquired through some condition1 such as inheritance or contract 7e4g41 the right to property1 etc474 ,example3 ,titus must get his child1 who is in danger of death1 to a hospital without delay4 ,balbus is getting ready for a pleasure ride1 but ,titus takes his car since there is no other ready means of getting to the hospital4 ,titus acts within his natural rights1 if the car is returned safely and as soon as possible to the owner4 ,according to civil law his act would be technical larceny1 but in view of the necessity courts and juries would certainly not insist on the letter of the law4 7b7 ,inalienable rights 7i4e41 those which one may not renounce1 because they are also duties71 such as the right to serve ,god1 the right to live1 etc41 are superior to alienable rights 7i4e41 those which one may renounce71 such as the right to marry1 the right to own property1 etc4 ,example3 ,one may surrender the right to drink intoxicants in order to serve ,god or preserve one's life4 #bic4 ,the ,basis of ,all ,laws4--,prior to every other law and the ground and principle of all laws is the ,eternal ,law2 for1 since this is the plan of ,divine ,wisdom directing from eternity all acts and movements to their particular ends and to the end of the universe1 it follows that all other laws are reflections of the eternal plan and realizations of the divine decree4 ,the ,eternal ,law differs from other laws in various ways3 7a7 as to duration4 ,the ,eternal ,law existed before anything was made1 whereas all other laws begin to exist when they are promulgated2 7b7 as to breadth of application4 ,the ,eternal ,law regulates1 not only contingent things 7such as actions7 but also necessary things 7such as that man should have a soul1 hands and feet72 for all things created1 whether they be contingent or necessary1 are subject to divine government4 ,human laws1 as is evident1 cannot regulate what is necessary 7e4g41 it would be foolish for them to decree that men must or must not have souls72 7c7 as to subjects4 ,the ,eternal ,law rules1 not only rational creatures 7i4e41 angels and men71 but also irrational creatures1 such as matter1 plants1 and animals4 ,the former are ruled through commands1 which require that they direct themselves to their ,end2 the latter are ruled through the inclinations given them by ,god1 which move them to the ends ,he desires them to attain4 ,human laws cannot regulate the acts of irrational creatures1 for these creatures cannot understand a command as such1 and man cannot give them natural inclinations 7e4g41 it would be foolish to make a law for cats against the catching of birds74 #bid4 ,the laws to be considered in the pages that follow are temporal and moral4 ,thus3 7a7 they are laws promulgated at some particular time1 either from the beginning of humanity 7as is the case with the ,natural ,law7 or later 7e4g41 the ,mosaic ,law1 the ,christian ,law1 etc172 7b7 they are laws regulating1 not the necessary 7as is the case with metaphysical or mathematical laws71 but the contingent2 7c7 they are laws given1 not to the irrational creature 7as is the case with physical and biological laws71 but to the rational1 that it may attain its end through self-government in accordance with law4 ,art4 #b3 ,,the ,,natural ,,law 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 qq4 #ic1 #id47 #bie4 ,meaning4--,the ,natural ,law is so called for the following reasons3 7a7 it is received by man1 not through special promulgation1 but along with his rational nature4 ,hence1 ,st4 ,paul says that the ,gentiles1 who had not received the laws specially promulgated1 were a law unto themselves1 that is1 through their rational nature 7,rom41 ii4 #ad72 7b7 it includes only such precepts as can be known or deduced from the very nature of man1 and thus some pagans fulfilled the ,law of ,moses naturally1 i4e41 as regards its natural precepts 7,rom41 ii4 #ad72 7c7 it can be known from the natural light of reason without instruction1 being a law written on the heart of man 7,rom1 ii4 #ae74 ,the ,natural ,law is defined theologically as a participation of the ,eternal ,law in man4 ,three elements constitute its essence in its integrity3 7a7 a passive participation of the ,eternal ,law consisting in man's nature and faculties with their inclinations to their proper acts and ends4 ,this man shares with all creatures4 7b7 an active participation in the ,eternal ,law proper to man4 ,this consists in the activity of man's intellect through which he shares in ,god's providence and government in a special way as one who can rule himself and others4 ,reason1 reflecting upon the natural inclinations and ordering them to their proper acts and ends1 formulates 7c7 a dictate or command of the practical reason4 ,this command constitutes the essence of ,natural ,law4 8,hence the ,psalmist after saying 7,psalm1 ,,iv4 #f73 ,offer up the sacrifice of justice1 as though some one asked what the works of justice are1 adds3 ,many say1 ,who showeth us good things1 in answer to which he says3 ,the light of thy countenance1 ,o ,lord1 is signed upon us4 ,thus the ,psalmist implies that the light of natural reason1 whereby we discern what is good and bad1 which is the function of the ,natural ,law1 is nothing else than an imprint on us of the divine light4 ,it is therefore evident that the ,natural ,law is nothing else than the rational creature's participation in the eternal law0 7,summa ,theol4 ,i-,,ii1 q4 #ia1 a4#b74 #bif4 ,relation of the ,natural ,law to ,other ,laws4-7a7 ,the ,natural ,law is inferior to the ,eternal ,law2 for1 while the ,eternal ,law exists in the mind of ,god1 underived from any other law and is regulative of all created things1 the ,natural ,law exists in the mind of man1 as a derivation and image of the ,eternal ,law and a rule for man's acts only4 7b7 ,it is superior to ,positive ,law1 for all ,positive ,law is a deduction from or a determination of ,natural ,law4 #big4 ,division4--,since ,natural ,law is the reflection of the eternal plan of ,divine ,wisdom in the reason of man1 we cannot distinguish different species of it according to difference of lawgivers or subjects4 ,the objects regulated are1 however1 different2 and hence we may distinguish various precepts of ,natural ,law4 7a7 ,according to the difference of persons to whom natural duties are owed1 there are natural laws concerning ,god 7e4g41 that ,god must be honored71 natural laws concerning self 7e4g41 that one must not commit suicide71 and natural laws concerning the neighbor 7e4g41 that injustice must not be done74 7b7 ,according to the difference of natural inclinations in man1 there are1 first1 natural laws common to him with all beings 7e4g41 the law of self-preservation1 and hence it is a natural duty of man to take sleep1 food1 drink1 remedies1 etc41 as necessary for life72 secondly1 natural laws common to him with all sentient beings or animals 7e4g41 the law of preservation of the species1 and hence it is a natural duty of man to rear and provide for his children72 thirdly1 natural laws proper to man as a rational being 7e4g41 the laws that he should cultivate his powers of mind and will1 and hence it is a natural duty of man to further religion and education1 and to organize into societies and to respect the rights of others74 #bih4 ,according to their necessity for the primary or the secondary end of a natural inclination1 the laws of nature are divided into primary and secondary4 7a7 ,the primary end of a natural inclination is the conservation of a natural good2 and so it is a primary law of nature that man should take the food1 drink1 sleep and exercise necessary for life1 and that he should avoid poison or other things that cause death4 7b7 ,the secondary end of a natural inclination is the betterment of a natural good1 or its easier conservation2 thus1 it is a secondary law of nature that man should use those kinds of food or drink that promote his health1 that he should be careful about his diet1 practise moderation1 etc4 #bii4 ,primary and secondary laws of nature are also explained as follows3 7a7 a primary law is one that expresses the principal purpose of a natural inclination 7e4g41 social good1 that is1 the begetting and rearing of children1 is the primary law of the married state72 7b7 the secondary law is one that expresses a less important purpose of a natural inclination4 ,for example1 individual good 7i4e41 companionship1 mutual assistance1 the practice of virtue and freedom from temptation7 is the secondary purpose to be promoted in the married state4 #cjj4 ,precepts of the ,natural ,law may be divided also on account of the different relations they have to one another or to our knowledge4 7a7 ,according to the priority they have among themselves1 the laws of nature are divided into the first principle and the secondary principles4 ,the first principle1 which is general1 which depends on no other1 and which is the root of all the others1 is3 8,good must be done1 evil omitted40 ,the secondary principles are particular1 and they apply this general principle to the natural inclinations of man mentioned above1 which reason indicates as ends of action--i4e41 as goods to be sought4 7b7 ,according to the priority they have with respect to our knowledge of them1 the laws of nature are divided1 first1 into axiomatic precepts1 which are evident and are granted by all 7e4g41 that good is to be done1 that one should follow reason1 that one should not do to others what one does not wish done to oneself etc471 and1 secondly1 into inferred precepts 7e4g41 that one should not steal from others1 as one does not wish others to steal from oneself74 #cja4 ,the inferred precepts are also of two kinds1 namely1 general and particular4 7a7 ,the general precepts are those that are deduced immediately from the axioms as universal conclusions 7e4g41 the commandments of the ,decalogue1 the principle that one should return what one borrowed74 7b7 ,the particular precepts are those that are deduced only remotely from the axioms as conclusions about cases in which many particular conditions and circumstances are involved 7e4g41 many conclusions about contracts1 the conclusion that a loan is to be paid in some particular way1 at this particular time1 etc474 #cjb4 ,according to the invariability or permanence of their subject-matter1 the laws of nature are of two kinds1 namely1 necessary and contingent4 7a7 ,the necessary laws are those whose matter always bears the same relation of essential conformity to or difformity from reason4 ,for example1 the command1 8,thou shalt not take the name of the ,lord in vain10 is necessary1 because ,god remains always worthy of honor1 and there is no conceivable or possible case in which it could become useful to speak of ,him with dishonor4 7b7 ,the contingent laws of nature are those whose matter generally1 but not always1 bears the same essential relation to right reason4 ,for example1 the command1 8,thou shalt not kill10 is contingent1 because1 though man generally remains worthy of having his life respected by others1 there are cases when it might be injurious to the common welfare1 and hence to natural law1 that an individual be permitted to live1 as when he has committed and been convicted of a capital crime4 #cjc4 ,according to the manner in which they oblige1 the laws of nature are twofold1 namely1 absolute and relative4 7a7 ,absolute laws are those that oblige for every case and condition1 because the matter with which they are concerned is intrinsically good or bad in every instance 7e4g41 the laws forbidding marriage between parent and child1 the law against polyandry74 7b7 ,relative laws of nature are those that oblige except in case of a most grave public necessity1 because the matter with which they are concerned is generally and of its very nature becoming or unbecoming 7e4g41 the laws forbidding marriage between brother and sister1 the law forbidding polygamy74 #cjd4 ,according to the manner in which the obligation is contracted1 laws of nature are of two kinds1 viz41 those whose obligatory force depends entirely on the nature of things 7e4g41 the law that ,god must be honored71 and those whose obligatory force depends upon1 an act of the will of man freely undertaking an obligation1 which the nature of things then demands that he fulfill 7e4g41 the laws that those who have made vows1 oaths1 contracts1 etc41 should live up to that which they have freely promised74 #cje4 ,properties4--,since the ,natural ,law is the reflection of ,god's ,eternal ,law impressed on the rational nature of man1 it has the following properties3 7a7 it is both declarative and imperative2 being immanent in man1 it declares to him his duty2 being transcendent in its origin1 it speaks with the voice of authority2 7b7 it is universal1 or for all1 for it declares the necessities of nature1 which are the same in all men2 7c7 it is unchangeable1 that is1 it admits of neither abrogation1 nor dispensation1 nor emendatory interpretation1 for the essences of things1 on which it is based1 do not change2 7d7 it is recognizable and indelible1 that is1 it cannot fail to be known and cannot be forgotten by mankind1 for it is promulgated through the light of reason given to man4 #cjf4 ,the ,natural ,law is of universal obligation4 ,it is in force in all places1 at all times1 and for all persons4 7a7 ,thus1 those who have not the use of reason1 such as infants and the insane1 are subject to the ,natural ,law on account of their human nature which is injured by any transgression of its inclinations4 ,their ignorance1 of course1 excuses them from formal sin 7see #bd sqq41 #ig sqq474 ,example3 ,it is sinful to induce or permit children to blaspheme or become intoxicated1 not only because of scandal or of harm done to them1 but also because such things are necessarily repugnant to their dignity as human beings4 7b7 those who have the use of reason are subject to the ,natural ,law1 and their transgressions are imputable as formal sins and incur the debt of punishment4 #cjg4 ,the ,natural ,law is unchangeable1 not as regards additions1 but as regards subtractions4 7a7 ,additions may be made to the ,natural ,law1 for1 in many points not determined by it1 it is well that supplementary regulations be made to provide for particular situations4 ,these additions1 made by ,positive ,law1 divine and human1 are amplifications rather than changes1 for they must not be out of harmony with ,natural ,law4 7b7 ,subtractions may not be made from the ,natural ,law--that is1 there can be no exception when it declares that a certain thing must always be observed1 and there can be no abrogation when it declares that a certain thing must be observed usually4 #cjh4 ,from the foregoing it follows that no precept of the ,natural ,law can be abrogated--that is1 repealed and deprived of all force1 so that what was today a precept of nature should no longer be such tomorrow2 for the necessities of nature on which the ,natural ,law is based do not change4 #cji4 ,as to the question whether any precepts of the ,natural ,law may be dispensed or not1 distinction must be made between two kinds of dispensation4 7a7 ,a dispensation in the strict sense is granted when a legislator relaxes for a particular case the obligation of a law1 although the subject-matter of the law still remains4 ,example3 ,titus is in the class of those who are bound by the law of fast1 but he is exempted by competent authority from the obligation of the law4 7b7 ,a dispensation in the wide sense is granted when the subject-matter of the law is taken away by the legislator himself or by another1 so that it ceases to be comprehended under the law1 although the obligation of the law still remains4 ,example3 ,balbus owed money to ,caius1 but1 as ,caius forgave him the debt1 he is no longer in the class of those who are bound by law as debtors to ,caius2 he is not exempted1 however1 from the obligation of the general law that one must pay one's debts4 #caj4 ,there are various opinions as to the possibility of a dispensation from the ,natural ,law granted by ,god1 but the following doctrine seems the most probable4 7a7 ,god ,himself cannot dispense in any way from those precepts whose matter is necessary 7see #cjb71 such as axiomatic precepts 7viz41 those that prohibit malice and those that command duties to be fulfilled at a proper time and place74 ,for all the subject-matter of these precepts is intrinsically either consonant with or dissonant from right reason4 ,example3 ,god could not by decree abolish the ,ten ,commandments1 for1 as long as ,god is ,god1 ,he must remain worthy of worship1 praise and love2 and1 as long as man is man1 it must be against his rational nature to murder1 steal1 lie4 etc4 7b7 ,god cannot grant a dispensation in the strict sense from those precepts of the ,natural ,law whose matter is contingent1 such as the precepts against the taking of human life1 against taking possessions from others against their will1 etc4 ,for1 as long as the subject-matter of these precepts remains what it is supposed to be by the law1 transgression of them is necessarily opposed to reason4 ,example3 ,god cannot command the killing of a person who has the right to life1 nor the taking of property that rightly belongs to another4 7c7 ,god can grant a dispensation in the wide sense from contingent precepts of the ,natural ,law--that is1 ,he can make a change as regards the subject-matter1 so that it no longer falls under the law4 ,thus1 since ,god is the supreme ,lord of life and property1 ,he can without injury to human rights command that a person be put to death or deprived of his property by another4 ,these acts would not constitute murder 7i4e41 unjust homicide7 or stealing 7i4e41 unlawful taking72 for ,god has a higher claim on life and possessions than the immediate owners have4 ,examples3 ,the command to ,abraham to kill his son was not a dispensation from the law against murder any more than the sending of death to the first-born of ,egypt was the commission of murder by ,god4 ,the command given the ,israelites to carry away with them the goods of the ,egyptians was not a dispensation from the law against theft1 any more than the destruction of the fruits of the ,egyptians by plagues was the commission of theft by ,god4 #caa4 ,is ,god able to make a decree which sets up a most grave public necessity opposed to the observance of a law of nature8 7a7 ,if there is question of absolute laws 7see #cjc71 this cannot be done1 for ,god cannot deny ,himself by making a disposition contrary to ,his ,eternal ,law4 ,example3 ,we do not read that ,god ever sanctioned polyandry or marriage between parent and child1 and it seems that ,he could never permit such things as lawful4 7b7 ,if there is question of relative laws 7see #cjc71 the decree in question can be made by ,god2 for the unbecomingness of that which is forbidden by a relative law passes away in the face of a great need4 ,example3 ,since ,god desired the propagation of the human race from one man and one woman1 marriage between brothers and sisters was not against the ,natural ,law at the beginning4 ,since ,god desired the speedy multiplication of the chosen people after the patriarchal era1 polygamy was not repugnant to nature among the ,jews of that period4 #cab4 ,is ,god able to remove a natural obligation in a case of private necessity1 that is1 when the fulfillment would be harmful to an individual8 7a7 ,natural obligations that do not depend upon any free consent of the will given to them 7see #cjd7 cannot be removed except by a dispensation widely so-called and when their matter is contingent 7as explained in #cji-caj74 ,examples3 ,god could not dispense an individual from the duty of confessing ,him in order to escape death1 for the subject-matter of the law here is necessary4 ,god1 could dispense an individual from the obligation of not taking the property of another1 for ,god is the principal owner of all things1 including those possessed by others4 7b7 ,natural obligations that depend upon the act or deed of human beings consenting to obligation 7see #cjd7 can be removed4 ,for since human beings cannot know all the circumstances existent1 or all the conditions that will arise1 it can happen that a thing agreed to or promised is only seemingly good1 or will change from good to bad1 so that while the promise or agreement made is in itself good and naturally obligatory1 its fulfillment would work harm and evil1 or be useless1 or would prevent the accomplishment of a greater good4 ,it is reasonable1 therefore1 that ,god should release from obligation here1 thus changing the subject-matter of the law1 so that it is no longer comprehended under the law 7see #cji-caj74 ,example3 ,titus vows or swears that he will give a certain alms or make a certain pilgrimage2 but1 when the time for fulfillment arrives1 his circumstances have so changed that it would not be advisable for him to keep the promise made4 ,the ,church1 acting in the name of ,god1 can declare that the subject-matter of this promise has become harmful and is not longer suitable1 and hence that the obligation has ceased4 #cac4 ,human ,authority and ,modification of the ,natural ,law4 7a7 ,additions to the ,natural ,law may be made1 not only by positive laws of ,god1 but also by human laws of ,church or ,state1 through the introduction of that which ,natural ,law permits1 or the determination or confirmation of that which ,natural ,law contains implicitly or explicitly4 ,examples3 ,division of property rights introduced by the law of nations2 conditions for valid contracts determined by particular codes2 the laws against theft and murder confirmed by definite penalties prescribed for those crimes4 7b7 ,subtractions from ,natural ,law cannot be made by any human authority1 for ,god has not delegated ,his power of dispensing which ,he has as supreme owner of all things4 ,examples3 ,no human authority could authorize a father to sacrifice his innocent son1 nor permit a servant to carry away the effects that belong to his employer4 #cad4 ,apparent ,cases of ,dispensation from ,natural ,law made by ,human ,authority4 7a7 ,the ,church frees from the obligation of vows1 contracts and promissory oaths1 from impediments to marriage1 from espousals1 etc4 ,in so doing1 however1 she does not dispense from the ,natural ,law that vows1 contracts1 etc41 should be fulfilled1 but only declares in the name of ,god that the subject-matter of an obligation contracted by act of man's will has become unsuitable for vow1 contract1 etc41 and hence is no longer comprehended under the law4 7b7 ,societies or private individuals can free from the obligation of paying or returning to them what they have a right to1 as when a creditor forgives a debt1 or an owner permits a thief to keep what he stole4 ,in so doing1 however1 they do not dispense from the law of nature that one should pay one's debts and not keep ill-gotten goods2 they only change the quality of the things in question so that they cease to be due another or ill-gotten1 and hence no longer fall under the law4 ,this differs1 too1 from the dispensation that ,god can grant2 for ,he can transfer rights without the consent of the immediate owner 7see #caj74 #cae4 ,interpretation--that is1 explanation of the law which indicates whether or not it obliges in a particular case--may be applied to the ,natural ,law as follows3 7a7 ,interpretation which explains the intention the lawgiver had in making the law and the sense he gave to the words of the law 7verbal interpretation71 may be made when either a law itself is not entirely clear1 or some person is not clever enough to see its meaning4 ,example3 ,the commandment1 8,thou shalt not kill10 needs to be interpreted1 for it does not forbid every kind of killing4 7b7 ,interpretation which explains the intention a lawgiver would have had1 had he foreseen a particular case in which his law would be harmful1 and which therefore sets the will of the lawgiver against the words of the law 7emendatory interpretation1 epieikeia71 may not be applied to the ,natural ,law2 for ,god1 unlike human legislators1 foresees things not only in general1 but also in particular1 and hence there is no room for correction or benign interpretation of natural laws4 ,example3 ,titus1 who was a chronic invalid1 committed suicide in order that his family might be freed from distress4 ,he argued that the ,fifth ,commandment did not foresee the difficulties of earning a living under modern conditions1 and that his sacrifice would be pleasing to ,god4 ,titus did not reason well1 for suicide is forbidden for motives that apply universally 7e4g41 that society1 and especially one's family1 are injured by the act of suicide74 #caf4 ,verbal interpretation of the ,natural ,law is made as follows3 7a7 by private authority--that is1 by those who are competent1 on account of learning and prudence1 to understand the meaning of the law1 such as moral theologians2 7b7 by public authority--that is1 by those who are appointed to rule1 with the prerogative of declaring the meaning of the ,natural ,law4 ,the ,pope1 since he must feed the flock of ,christ1 is divinely constituted to interpret ,natural ,law1 and does so authentically and infallibly4 ,thus1 the ,church declares that certain matrimonial impediments are natural1 and therefore incapable of being dispensed4 ,on the competence of the ,church to give authoritative interpretations of the natural law in the field of morals1 ,pius ,,xii has spoken clearly and forcefully3 8444 it must openly and firmly be held that the power of the ,church has never been limited to the boundaries of strictly religious matters' as they are called2 but the whole content of the natural law1 its institution1 interpretation and application are within its power insofar as its moral element is concerned4 ,for the observation of the natural law1 by the ordination of ,god1 is the way by which man must strive to attain his supernatural end4 ,on the road to this supernatural end4 it is the ,church that is his leader and guide4 ,this is the way the ,apostles acted1 and from the earliest times the ,church held to this way of acting as it does today--and not in the manner of a private leader and counselor1 but from the command and authority of ,god0 7,,aas #df #aied #fga-fgb74 #cag4 ,from the foregoing it follows that the ,natural ,law is so unchangeable that it cannot be abrogated or properly dispensed1 or given an emendatory interpretation4 ,but1 though the law itself remains1 there are cases in which non-observance of it is excused from guilt4 ,these cases can be reduced to physical and moral impossibility4 7a7 ,in cases of physical impossibility 7i4e41 when the powers requisite for observance are wanting71 one is manifestly excused2 for law is reasonable1 and it is not reasonable to require impossibilities4 ,examples3 ,infants are not guilty of sin against the ,natural ,law1 when they do not pray2 for they lack the use of reason1 which is presupposed by the notion of prayer4 ,he who is unable to work is not obliged to earn support for relatives4 7b7 ,in cases of moral impossibility 7i4e41 when a law cannot be kept without the infringement of a higher law or the loss of a higher good71 one is also excused2 for it is unreasonable to prefer the less to the more important4 ,example3 ,titus lends a revolver to ,balbus4 ,later he asks that it be returned to him1 as he wishes to kill himself4 ,now1 property is less valuable than life1 and hence ,balbus is unable in this case to observe the law which requires that things borrowed must be returned4 #cah4 ,moral impossibility is also defined as the inability to observe the law without serious injury or loss to oneself or a third party4 ,serious injuries are such as deprive some one of great goods1 such as the use of reason1 life1 knowledge1 friendship1 health1 reputation1 property4 ,serious losses are such as prevent one from obtaining notable goods1 ,the following rules indicate when grave inconvenience excuses1 and when it does not excuse1 from the guilt arising from the non-observance of ,natural ,law3 7a7 when the law is negative 7i4e41 prohibitory71 no inconvenience excuses from sin2 for that which is forbidden by the ,natural ,law is always morally evil1 and hence more to be shunned than even the greatest physical evil1 or death4 ,example3 ,one is obliged1 under grave or light sin1 as the case may be1 to forfeit all temporal goods rather than blaspheme1 murder1 lie1 etc42 7b7 when the law is affirmative 7or mandatory71 an inconvenience which1 all things considered1 is really and relatively grave1 excuses from sin2 for that which is commanded by the ,natural ,law is not always morally obligatory1 but only at the right time and in the right circumstances 7see #cga71 and hence its omission is not always morally evil4 ,examples3 ,sempronius vowed that he would go on foot to a place of pilgrimage1 but when the day came he had a sprained ankle that would be badly injured if he walked4 ,caius received a jewel stolen from ,balbus and promised that he would return it at once to the owner1 but he finds that he cannot do so now without danger1 either of the arrest of himself or of the one who took the jewel4 ,titus sees a person who has been seriously injured lying by the roadside1 but he is tired1 and neither gives help himself nor summons aid4 ,in the first two cases the inconvenience is grave1 and hence ,sempronius may ride to the place of pilgrimage1 and ,caius may return the jewel to ,balbus later2 but the inconvenience of ,titus is slight1 and does not excuse him from sin4 #cai4 ,just as the ,natural ,law is unchangeable1 because based on the unchangeable ,eternal ,law instituting the nature of man1 so is it easily knowable1 because it is promulgated by the light of reason4 ,hence3 7a7 invincible ignorance of the entire ,natural ,law is impossible in any person who has the use of reason2 7b7 complete forgetfulness of the ,natural ,law by mankind is impossible4 #cbj4 ,those who have not the use of reason1 either habitually 7as children and the insane7 or actually 7as the intoxicated71 may be invincibly ignorant of the ,natural ,law--for example1 they may be unable to perceive even the difference between right and wrong4 ,as to those who have the use of reason1 they can be ignorant of the ,natural ,law only as follows3 7a7 they cannot ever be invincibly ignorant of the most general precepts 7such as 8good is to be done10 8evil is to be avoided071 for since they know the difference between right and wrong1 they must also perceive that which is contained in the concepts of right and wrong1 viz41 that the former is something desirable and which ought to be done1 the latter something undesirable which must not be done2 7b7 one cannot1 as a rule1 be invincibly ignorant of those precepts that are immediately inferred as necessary conclusions from the most general precepts 7such as 8that which was borrowed must be returned071 for the conclusion follows so easily from the manifest principle that only in exceptional cases could one be excused for not knowing its truth2 7c7 one can1 even as a rule1 be ignorant of precepts that are inferred as necessary but very remote conclusions from the most general precepts1 7such as 8that which was borrowed must be returned at such a time or place1 or in such a manner or condition071 for this conclusion is so far removed from its premise1 and there are so many factors to be considered1 that considerable knowledge and skill in reasoning are required for a correct judgment--things in which many people are lacking4 #cba4 ,the ,commandments of the ,decalogue follow directly from the most general precepts of the ,natural ,law1 and so to them may be applied what was said in the previous paragraph4 ,hence3 7a7 generally speaking1 no person who has the use of reason can be invincibly ignorant of the ,commandments4 ,st4 ,paul blames the pagans as inexcusable in various sins committed against the ,decalogue2 7b7 in special cases1 a person who has the use of reason can be invincibly ignorant of one or more ,commandments2 for while the ,commandments may be easily inferred by most persons from the common principles of right and wrong1 there are sometimes involuntary impediments that hinder the right employment of reason4 ,thus1 children and older persons whose mentality is undeveloped1 although they know the difference between right and wrong1 are frequently unable to draw the conclusion that follows from it 7e4g41 that one should not tell lies74 #cbb4 ,the ,commandments regarding which invincible ignorance may most easily exist are3 7a7 those that deal with merely internal acts1 for the malice of violating them is less apparent4 ,hence1 many theologians admit that even among ,christians the wickedness of sinful thoughts and desires may be inculpably unknown1 at least when the wickedness of the corresponding external acts is also not known2 7b7 those that deal with the control of sensuality1 for the impulse to inordinate acts is at times most vehement4 ,unde theologi sunt qui affirmant malitiam peccatorum externorum contra sextum invincibiliter ignorari posse1 non solum apud infideles1 sed etiam apud ,christianos1 ita quod ab adolescentibus facile ad tempus ignorari possit malitia mollitiei4 #cbc4 ,if a ,commandment be applied to some particular case in which there are many circumstances to be considered1 or some reason that appears to change the subject-matter of the law1 even adults who have the perfect use of reason may be invincibly ignorant2 for in such instances we are considering1 not an immediate1 but a remote conclusion from the general principles of ,natural ,law4 7a7 ,if the case is difficult relatively 7i4e41 in view of the training or lack of education of the person studying it71 there can be invincible ignorance1 at least for a time4 ,examples3 ,jepthe1 according to ,st4 ,jerome1 appears to have been invincibly ignorant that it was not lawful for him to slay his daughter4 ,being a soldier and living in a rude age1 he perhaps did not appreciate the sacredness of human life4 ,unlettered persons might conceivably think in good faith that it is not wrong to commit perjury in order to help one in danger1 to steal in order to pay debts1 to think evil if there is no intention to fulfill it1 to do what the majority do or what is tolerated1 etc4 7b7 ,if the case is difficult absolutely 7i4e41 in view of the matter itself1 which is complicated and obscure71 there can be invincible ignorance1 even for a long time4 ,thus1 it is so difficult to settle many problems pertaining to justice 7i4e41 to the application of the ,seventh ,commandment7 that we find professional theologians who take opposite sides1 or admit that1 speculatively speaking1 they do not know where the truth lies4 #cbd4 ,the ,natural ,law can never be erased from the hearts of men4 7a7 ,in abnormal circumstances only1 as when the general power of reasoning has been weakened or lost1 can the ,natural ,law be forgotten4 ,thus1 to a degenerate who becomes violently insane murder and other crimes may appear as good acts4 ,but no community could govern itself by the standards of madmen and long survive4 7b7 ,in normal circumstances 7i4e41 as long as the general power of reasoning remains unimpaired71 the ,natural ,law cannot be forgotten1 as far as its general principles or immediate conclusions are concerned1 although it may be overlooked or lost sight of when it is applied to particular cases1 or when remote conclusions are deduced from it4 #cbe4 ,as long1 therefore1 as a body of men remain sane1 even though they be uncivilized or addicted to crime1 they cannot become oblivious of the ,natural ,law4 7a7 ,the general principles 78good is to be done10 8evil is to be avoided07 cannot vanish from the mind1 although1 in particular affairs1 anger1 pleasure1 or some other passion may prevent men from thinking about them4 ,thus1 when the mob spirit takes hold of a crowd1 it becomes intent only on violence or revenge1 and gives no thought to conscience4 7b7 ,the secondary precepts1 such as those contained in the ,decalogue1 cannot be obliterated from the mind1 although in applying them to concrete situations a people may go astray4 ,there are many examples of laws1 both ancient and modern1 which permitted or commanded1 for particular cases1 things contrary to the current application of natural precepts4 ,thus1 the ,spartans and the ,romans ordered the murder of infants who were weakly and of slaves whose master had been killed4 ,some ancient races encouraged robberies committed beyond the boundaries of the states1 and savage tribes have been found who had the practice of putting to death parents who were aged or infirm4 #cbf4 ,the causes of wrong applications of the ,natural ,law are the following3 7a7 ,some causes are involuntary4 ,thus1 the correct application may be difficult1 as when more than one moral principle has to be considered and applied2 or1 if the case is not difficult1 the person who makes the application may be mentally undeveloped1 or his mind may be blinded on account of his bad education or environment4 ,examples3 ,the races who saw no infamy in robbery committed against their neighbors1 lived in a wild age when such acts of violence seemed necessary as measures of self-protection4 ,the savage killed his aged parents1 because to his untutored mind this seemed an act of mercy4 7b7 ,some causes are voluntary1 such as neglect of the truth1 vicious habits1 etc4 ,examples3 ,st4 ,paul blames the pagans for their idolatry1 because they had darkened their own minds about ,god4 ,pirates and bandits who came to regard violence as necessary for their own defense were responsible for their state of mind1 inasmuch as they had chosen a life of crime4 #cbg4 ,transgression of ,natural ,law1 therefore1 is not imputable as formal sin if it is not voluntary4 ,hence3 7a7 lack of knowledge excuses1 when ignorance is involuntary 7e4g41 those who have not the use of reason1 as infants and the unconscious2 children and others mentally undeveloped who cannot grasp the meaning of some precept2 educated persons who are unable to get a right solution of some knotty problem of morals1 etc472 7b7 lack of consent excuses in whole or in part 7as when one acts through fear74 ,art4 #c3 ,,the ,,positive ,,divine ,,law 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 qq4 #ih-ajh47 #cbh4 ,meaning4--,the ,positive ,divine ,law is the law added by ,god to the ,natural ,law1 in order to direct the actions of man to his supernatural ,end1 to assist him to a better observance of the ,natural ,law1 and to perfect that which is wanting in human law4 7a7 ,the ,last ,end of man is not natural1 but supernatural 7see #bj71 and hence it was necessary that1 in addition to the precepts which guide man towards his natural beatitude1 there should be added precepts that will guide him towards his supernatural beatitude3 8,the ,law of the ,lord gives wisdom to little ones0 7,ps4 xviii4 #h74 7b7 ,the light of natural reason was sufficient to instruct man in the ,natural ,law1 but through sin that light had become obscured1 with the result that evil customs set in1 and very many were at a loss how to apply the ,natural ,law1 or applied it wrongly4 ,hence1 it was most suitable that the ,natural ,law should be summed up in brief commandments and given externally by the authority of ,god4 ,this was done through the ,decalogue1 which is a part of the ,positive ,divine ,law of both the ,mosaic and the ,christian dispensations3 8,the testimony of the ,lord is faithful0 7,ps4 xviii4 #h74 7c7 ,human laws are the product of fallible human judgment2 they can direct only such acts as are external1 and they are unable to forbid or punish many evil deeds4 ,hence1 it was necessary that there should be positive divine laws to supply for what is wanting in human law3 8,the law of the ,lord is unspotted1 converting souls0 7,ps4 xviii4 #h74 #cbi4 ,the ,positive ,divine ,law differs from the ,natural ,law as to subject-matter1 permanence1 and manner of promulgation4 7a7 ,the precepts of the ,natural ,law are necessary1 since they follow as necessary consequences from the nature of man1 the precepts of the ,positive ,law of ,god1 excluding those that are external promulgations of the ,natural ,law1 are not necessary1 since they follow from the free decree of ,god raising man to that which is above his nature4 7b7 ,the precepts of the ,natural ,law are unchangeable1 since the nature of man always remains the same4 ,of the precepts of the ,positive ,law of ,god some were changed1 because given only for a time 7such as the ceremonial laws of ,judaism72 others1 absolutely speaking1 could be changed1 because not necessarily connected with the end ,god has in view 7e4g41 the laws concerning ,sacraments74 7c7 ,the precepts of both kinds of law are immediately from ,god2 but the ,natural ,law is promulgated only in a general way1 through the light of reason given to man along with his nature1 while the ,positive ,law of ,god is proclaimed by special commands 7e4g41 8thou shalt not steal074 #ccj4 ,the ,positive ,divine ,law contains two kinds of precepts1 viz41 natural and supernatural commandments4 7a7 ,the natural precepts were given in order to recall to the minds of men the laws knowable through reason which had become obscured through passion1 custom or example4 ,the ,commandments given to ,moses on the tablets of stone renewed the natural precepts which ,god had written through reason on the hearts of men4 7b7 ,the supernatural precepts were given in order to point out to men the duties their supernatural destiny imposed4 ,example3 ,the precepts of faith1 hope1 charity4 #cca4 ,division4--,there are four historical states of man with reference to his ,last ,end1 and to each of these correspond positive divine laws4 7a7 ,the state of ,original ,innocence is that which existed in ,paradise before the ,fall4 ,man had been raised to the supernatural state1 and hence he was obliged to the supernatural acts of faith1 hope1 charity1 etc42 he was subject to ,god1 both as to body and soul1 and hence he was obliged to offer some kind of external sacrifice2 he was sanctified immediately by ,god1 and hence was not bound to the use of any sacraments2 but he was still in a state of probation1 and was subject to various special regulations1 such as the commands to avoid the fruit of a certain tree1 to labor in ,eden1 etc4 7b7 ,the state of the ,law of ,nature is that which existed from the ,fall to the giving of the written law through ,moses4 ,it is called the state of the ,law of ,nature1 not in the sense that there were no supernatural precepts then in force1 but in the sense that there were as yet no written precepts4 ,in that period man knew the ,natural ,law1 not from commandments written on tablets of stone1 but from the law of reason inscribed in his heart2 he knew the supernatural precepts1 not from scriptures given him by ,god1 but from tradition or special divine inspiration4 ,in addition to the inner acts of supernatural worship and faith in the ,messiah to come and the outer sacrifices1 there were during this state certain rites of purification1 or sacraments1 by which fallen man was purified from sin4 ,a special precept of the patriarchial times was the prohibition made to ,noe against the eating of flesh with blood in it4 7c7 ,the state of the ,mosaic ,law is that which existed from the giving of the law on ,sinai until the giving of the ,new ,testament law by ,christ4 7d7 ,the state of the ,christian ,law1 or of the ,new ,law1 is that which began with ,christ and the ,apostles and will continue till the end of the world4 #ccb4 ,the ,mosaic ,law4--,this was the special law of ,god to the ,jews1 the people chosen by ,god as the race from which the ,saviour of the world was to come4 ,it has two periods3 the period of preparation and the period of the ,law4 7a7,the period of preparation for the ,law began with the ,promise or ,covenant given to ,abraham4 ,a law is not given except to a people 7see #bhe71 and1 as the peoples of the world at that time had returned to the general corruption that reigned before the ,deluge1 ,god chose ,abraham to be the father of a new nation in which true religion should be preserved until the ,redeemer of the world had come4 ,the rite of circumcision was ordered as a mark of the covenant and a sacrament of remission4 7b7 ,the period of the ,law began with the promulgation of the ,decalogue on ,sinai4 ,the descendants of ,abraham had grown into a nation and had been freed from slavery1 and they were thus ready to receive a special law4 ,their history thereafter shows how ,god trained them according to the pattern of the ,mosaic ,law and prepared them for the providential mission1 which1 through the ,messiah1 should be theirs1 of giving to the world the perfect and universal ,law of the ,gospel4 #ccc4 ,the ,excellence of the ,mosaic ,law4--7a7 ,the ,law was good 7,rom1 vii4 #ab73 it commanded what was according to reason and forbade what was opposed to reason2 it had ,god for its ,author and prepared man for the ,law of ,christ4 7b7 ,the ,law was imperfect 7,heb41 vii4 #ai72 it was given for a time when men were spiritually but children and not ready as yet for the teaching and morality of the ,gospel2 it forbade sin and provided punishments1 but the necessary helps for observing it came only from faith in ,christ1 the ,author of the ,new ,law4 #ccd4 ,the ,subjects of the ,mosaic ,law4--7a7 ,the ,jewish people were bound by the ,mosaic ,law4 ,god had chosen ,abraham by gratuitous election to be the forefather of the ,messiah1 and it was by gratuitous election that ,he gave the ,jews a ,law which would lend them a special holiness befitting the promises made their race4 ,the ,jews1 therefore1 were bound to more things than other nations1 as being the ,chosen ,people2 just as clerics are bound to more things than the laity1 as being the ministers of ,god4 7b7 ,the ,gentiles were not bound by the laws peculiar to the ,mosaic ,code1 but only by the common precepts1 natural and supernatural1 that were in force in the state of the ,law of ,nature4 ,but it was permitted to ,gentiles to become proselytes1 that by observing ,mosaic rites they might more easily and more perfectly work out their salvation4 #cce4 ,the ,duration of the ,mosaic ,law4--7a7 ,the ,law began when experience had proved that knowledge is not sufficient to make man virtuous1 that is1 at a time when1 in spite of the ,natural ,law1 the peoples were turning to polytheism and vice3 8,the ,law was given on account of transgression0 7,gal1 iii4 #ai74 7b7 ,the ,law ended when experience had shown that external observance is not sufficient for holiness1 that is1 at the time when ,judaism was degenerating into formalism1 putting the letter before the spirit of the ,law3 8,what the ,law could not do1 ,god sending ,his own ,son1 hath condemned sin in the flesh1 that the justification of the ,law might be fulfilled in us0 7,rom41 viii4 #c1 #d74 #ccf4 ,deuteronomy1 vi4 #a1 describes the ,mosaic ,law as precepts1 ceremonies and judgments2 and the commandments of the ,old ,testament can be classified according to this threefold division4 7a7 ,the moral precepts defined the duties to ,god and man that arise from the dictates of reason and the ,natural ,law2 7b7 the ceremonial prescriptions were determinations of the religious duties to ,god contained in the moral law1 and rules concerning the performance of worship based on the positive ordinance of ,god2 7c7 the judgments were determinations of social duties contained in the moral law2 they were the civil or political code of the theocratic nation which had its force from the positive ordinance of ,god4 #ccg4 ,the moral precepts are contained in the ,decalogue1 which is a sum of the whole ,natural ,law1 inasmuch as the general principles of the ,natural ,law are implicit therein in their immediate conclusions1 while the remote conclusions are virtually found in the ,commandments as in their principles 7see #cja74 #cch4 ,the ,decalogue expresses man's duties3 7a7 towards ,god1 viz41 loyalty 7,first ,commandment71 reverence 7,second71 service 7,third7--all of which are ,laws of the ,first ,table2 7b7 towards parents 7,fourth71 and all fellow-men1 viz41 that no injustice be done them by sins of deed 7,fifth1 ,sixth1 ,seventh71 of mouth 7,eighth71 or of heart 7,ninth1 ,tenth7--all of which are ,laws of the ,second ,table4 #cci4 ,the further moral precepts which were added after the giving of the ,decalogue can all be reduced to one or the other of the ,ten ,commandments4 ,examples3 ,the prohibition against fortune-telling belongs to the ,first2 the prohibition against perjury and false teaching1 to the ,second2 the commandment to honor the aged1 to the ,fourth2 the prohibition against detraction1 to the ,eighth4 #cdj4 ,the ceremonial laws1 which prescribed the manner of performing the divine worship or of acting as befitted the ,chosen ,people1 and which prefigured the worship and people of the ,new ,testament1 were numerous1 in order that the ,jews might be more easily preserved from pagan rites and customs4 ,the ceremonies they regulated were of four kinds3 7a7 the sacrifices through which ,god was worshipped and through which the sacrifice of ,christ was prefigured 7e4g41 the holocausts1 peace-offerings1 sin-offerings72 7b7 the sacred times and places1 things and persons set apart in order to give more dignity to divine worship and to foreshadow more distinctly the good things to come2 7c7 the sacraments by which the people or sacred ministers were consecrated to the worship of ,god and were made to prefigure ,christ 7e4g41 circumcision and the consecration of ,levites72 7d7 the customs which regulated the details of life so that both priests and people might act as became their special calling1 and might be types and figures of the ,christian people 7e4g41 the laws about food1 dress1 etc474 #cda4 ,unlike the moral laws1 which had existed before ,moses as the ,natural ,law and which continue under the ,christian dispensation1 the ceremonial laws were temporary4 ,thus3 7a7 before ,moses other ceremonies were observed by the patriarchs 7e4g41 the sacrifice of ,abel1 the altars of ,abraham and ,jacob1 the priesthood of ,melchisedech1 etc472 7b7 after the coming of ,christ1 distinctions of food1 new moons1 sabbaths1 and other ,mosaic ceremonies were abrogated1 since the figures of future things had been superseded by rites that commemorated benefits that were present4 #cdb4 ,we may distinguish four periods in the history of the ,mosaic ceremonial law3 7a7 from ,moses until ,christ1 it was the divinely ordained manner of worshipping ,god1 and was obligatory for the ,chosen ,people2 7b7 at the death of ,christ1 when the ,new ,testament began1 the ,mosaic ceremonial ceased to be obligatory2 7c7 until the ,gospel had been sufficiently promulgated 7i4e41 until the destruction of the ,city and the ,temple of ,jerusalem71 the ceremonial law was permitted to ,jewish converts1 not as prefiguring ,christ1 but as a form of divine worship2 7d7 after the ,gospel had been sufficiently proclaimed1 it was no longer lawful to conform to the ,mosaic observances4 #cdc4 ,the judgments or judicial laws of the ,old ,testament were intended2 7a7 to regulate the relations of the people of ,god to one another and to strangers according to justice and equity1 and thus to prepare them for the coming of the ,messiah2 7b7 to be1 consequently1 in some sort a figure of the social constitution of the ,christian people4 #cdd4 ,the judicial laws1 like the ceremonial1 expired with the ,new ,testament4 ,but since1 unlike the ceremonial laws1 they were not appointed directly as prefigurative of ,christianity1 their provisions1 if not opposed to ,christian law1 could be used as part of the civil code of a ,christian ,state4 #cde4 ,there were four kinds of judicial precepts3 7a7 those concerning rulers4 ,the government was monarchical and aristocratic1 as being administered by ,moses and his successors with the assistance of a body of elders2 but it was also democratic1 inasmuch as the princes were chosen from the people and by the people2 7b7 those concerning citizens4 ,excellent laws concerning sales1 contracts1 property1 and the administration of justice1 are laid down in the ,pentateuch2 7c7 those concerning foreigners4 ,the relationship of the ,jews to other nations1 whether in peace or in war1 was regulated by wise and humane laws2 7d7 those concerning families4 ,the rights and duties of husband and wife1 parent and child1 master and servant1 were carefully and considerately provided for4 #cdf4 ,the ,law of the ,new ,testament4--,this is the special law given by ,god through ,christ to the whole world1 and which endures till the end of time4 ,its character will be understood most readily from a comparison of it with the ,law of the ,old ,testament4 7a7 ,in both ,testaments grace and the ,holy ,spirit are given through faith in ,christ 7the internal law71 and doctrines1 commandments and ceremonies are prescribed 7the external law74 ,but1 whereas the ,old ,testament is principally a law of works1 the ,new ,testament is principally a law of faith 7,rom41 iii1 #bg72 the former is concerned mostly with the external conduct1 the latter regulates1 not only actions1 but also the internal movements of the soul1 of which faith is the first4 7b7 ,in both ,testaments men are justified and saved through faith and works 7,heb1 xi41 #ci2 ,rom41 i4 #af71 and not through the external written law or the letter4 ,but it is only through ,christ1 the author of the ,new ,law1 that men are enabled to perform what the law requires3 8,the law was given by ,moses2 grace and truth came by ,jesus ,christ0 7,john1 i4 #ag74 #cdg4 ,comparison of the ,two ,testaments from ,other ,viewpoints4--7a7 ,the aim of both ,laws is to secure obedience to ,god and holiness for man4 ,but the ,new ,testament1 since given to those who were better prepared and more perfect1 unveils more clearly the mysteries of faith1 enjoins more perfect works1 and supplements the ,commandments with counsels of perfection 7cfr4 the ,sermon on the ,mount74 7b7 ,both ,laws make use of threats1 promises and persuasion in order to move men to obedience4 ,but1 as the ,old ,law was for those who were spiritually but children1 it dwells especially on the punishments to be meted out to transgressors and the external rewards that will be given to the obedient 7the law of fear72 whereas the ,new ,law1 being for those who are spiritually mature1 holds out as inducements chiefly the love of virtue and rewards that are internal and spiritual 7the law of love74 7c7 ,the author of both laws is ,god4 ,but1 while the ,old ,law was announced through ,god's servants as the preparatory dispensation1 the ,new ,law was proclaimed by the ,son of ,god ,himself as the final economy of human salvation3 8,god1 who at sundry times spoke in times past to the fathers by the prophets1 last of all in these days hath spoken to us by ,his ,son1 whom ,he hath appointed heir of all things0 7,heb1 ii4 #a74 #cdh4 ,differences in the ,precepts of the ,two ,laws4--7a7 ,there is no opposition between the commandments of the two ,laws2 for the ceremonial and judicial precepts of the ,old ,law1 which contained figure and prophecy1 are fulfilled in the precepts of ,christ1 while the moral laws of the ,old ,testament are confirmed and perfected by the moral laws of ,christ3 8,i am not come to destroy1 but to fulfill0 7,matt41 v4 #ag74 7b7 ,there is no substantial difference between the faith and works of the two ,testaments4 ,for1 that which is now believed explicitly and clearly1 was believed implicitly and in figure in the ,old ,testament1 and the greater things that now are commanded were contained germinally in the precepts of the ,old ,law4 #cdi4 ,the ,old and the ,new ,law ,compared as to ,difficulty4--7a7 ,if we consider the difficulty that arises from the fulfillment of external works1 the ,old ,law was much more difficult4 ,for while the ,law of ,moses imposed numerous and complicated ceremonies and observances1 the ,law of ,christ commands but few and simple rites4 ,of the ,old ,law ,st4 ,peter says that it was a yoke1 8which neither our fathers nor we have been able to bear0 7,acts1 xv4 #aj7--that is1 it was extremely burdensome2 but of ,his own ,law ,christ says3 8,my yoke is sweet1 and ,my burden light0 7,matt1 xi4 #cj74 ,even the additions made by ,christ to the ,old ,law 7e4g41 the prohibition against divorce7 really facilitate that which the ,old ,law itself intended--viz41 the perfection of man4 ,hence1 the ,old ,law is the law of servitude2 the ,new ,law1 the law of liberty4 7b7 ,if we consider the difficulty that arises from internal works1 or the dispositions and motives with which precepts are to be fulfilled1 the ,new ,law is more difficult2 for it inculcates a loftier piety and gives more attention to the spirit with which ,god is to be worshipped4 ,but1 since love is the all-inclusive commandment of ,christ1 and since gladness and fervor are easy to the lover1 the commandments of ,christ 8are not heavy0 7,i ,john1 v4 #c74 #cej4 ,the ,external ,works ,commended by ,christ4--7a7 ,since the ,new ,law is the law of grace1 it commands only those things by which we are brought to grace1 or by means of which we make use of grace already received4 ,we receive grace only through ,christ1 and hence there are commandments regarding the ,sacraments2 we make right use of grace by faith that worketh through charity1 and hence there are the precepts of the ,decalogue to be kept4 7b7 ,since the ,new ,law is the law of liberty1 it does not determine the details of the moral law1 nor prescribe minutely how we must worship ,god and observe justice to others1 as was done in the ceremonial and judicial laws of the ,old ,testament4 ,minor dispositions of this kind have no necessary relation to internal grace1 being morally indifferent4 ,hence1 ,christ left many things free1 to be determined later according to conditions1 either by the individual 7in personal matters7 or by the spiritual or temporal authority 7in matters of public concern74 ,it is contrary to the spirit of the ,gospel1 however1 that mankind should be oppressed with numerous and burdensome observances4 #cea4 ,the ,internal ,works ,commanded by ,christ4--,in the ,sermon on the ,mount were given the commandments of the ,new ,law that summarize the entire duty of the ,christian as to his internal acts3 8,everyone that heareth these ,my words1 and doeth them1 shall be likened to a wise man that built his house upon a rock0 7,matt41 vii4 #bd74 ,thus1 there are3 7a7 internal acts commanded as regards our own wills and purposes 7we must avoid not only external1 but also internal sins and the occasions of sin2 we must not only do good1 but we must have a good motive1 not placing our end in human applause or riches72 7b7 internal acts commanded as regards our neighbor 7we must not judge him rashly1 unjustly1 presumptuously2 nor must we trust him imprudently72 7c7 interior dispositions with which we must perform our duties 7we must avoid inordinate cares1 imploring and expecting the divine assistance2 but we must also avoid carelessness1 having our minds set on the narrow way1 and eschewing seductions74 #ceb4 ,the ,teaching of ,christ on the ,three ,classes of ,precepts3 ,moral1 ,ceremonial and ,judicial4--7a7 ,as regards the moral precepts 7i4e41 the ,decalogue or ,natural ,law71 not one jot or tittle was to pass away4 ,but so little was the soul of these precepts then recognized that ,christ gave a new commandment of love1 by which ,his followers were to be known2 and ,he reduced the whole law to the two commandments of love of ,god and love of our neighbor4 7b7 ,as regards the ceremonial precepts 7i4e41 the forms of ,jewish worship71 these were to be superseded4 ,christ declared the manner in which ,god was to be worshipped1 namely1 in spirit and in truth4 ,he instituted the ,sacrifice of the ,new ,testament1 appointed the ritual of the ,sacraments 7e4g41 of ,baptism and the ,eucharist71 and taught a form of prayer which was to be used by ,his disciples4 ,other things ,he left to be determined by the ,church4 7c7 ,as regards the judicial precepts 7i4e41 the civil laws of the theocratic nation71 these ceased to be necessary with the coming of ,christ1 whose ,kingdom is spiritual and with whom there is no distinction of ,jew or ,gentile1 since ,his law is for all4 ,in fact1 with the destruction of ,jerusalem in ,a4,d4 #gj1 foretold by ,christ1 both the ,temple worship and the separate national life of ,israel came to an end4 ,in correcting the false interpretations which the ,pharisees put upon various judicial precepts of their law 7e4g41 in showing them that the law of retaliation and the law that public enemies should be put to death did not authorize revenge and hatred71 ,christ indicated the spirit that should animate all civil laws1 namely1 love of justice4 ,he left it to the wisdom of future lawgivers to apply the rule of justice to the relations between man and man1 nation and nation1 as circumstances would require4 #cec4 ,the precepts by which ,christ established the primacy of the ,pope and the hierarchy may be called judicial4 ,but the details of this constitution ,he left the ,church to determine4 #ced4 ,the ,duration of the ,law of ,christ4--7a7 ,the ,beginning4--,the ,new ,law was given through the revelation made by ,christ and the ,holy ,ghost to the ,apostles2 it was ratified at the ,last ,supper and in the death of ,christ1 when the ,new ,testament was proclaimed and the ,old ,testament came to an end2 it was promulgated1 first at ,jerusalem on the day of ,pentecost1 and later throughout the world by the preaching of the ,apostles4 7b7 ,the ,end4--,the ,law of ,christ continues till the end of time2 for this generation--that is1 this last period of world history under the ,christian dispensation--shall not end until ,christ returns to judge mankind2 8,behold1 ,i am with you all days1 even unto the consummation of the world0 7,matt41 xxviii4 #bj74 #cee4 ,the ,subjects of the ,law of ,christ4--7a7 ,the ,law of ,christ is for all3 8,going1 therefore1 teach ye all nations4 teaching them to observe all things whatsoever ,i have commanded you0 7,matt41 xxviii4 #ai74 7b7 ,the ,law of ,christ does not oblige all in the same way4 ,those outside ,christianity are obliged directly by the commands to believe and to be baptized4 ,christians are obliged directly by the laws of faith and works accepted in ,baptism4 #cef4 ,ignorance of the ,law of ,christ4-7a7 ,outsiders may be in invincible ignorance of the ,law of ,christ4 ,for many persons through no fault of their own1 in times past or even today1 have not heard the ,gospel message3 8,how shall they believe ,him of whom they have not heard80 7,rom1 x4 #ad74 7b7 ,christians may be in invincible ignorance of the ,law of ,christ4 ,for1 just as want of a preacher causes a pagan to be invincibly ignorant of the necessity of ,baptism1 so a lack of instruction in ,christian doctrine might leave a baptized person inculpably ignorant 7e4g41 of the duty of receiving the ,eucharist74 #ceg4 ,dispensation from the ,law of ,christ4--7a7 ,its ,possibility4--,it cannot be denied that ,christ could have dispensed from the positive precepts of ,his law1 either directly or through ,his ,church2 for those precepts depend on ,his will1 and1 like every other legislator1 ,he can relax ,his law or delegate others to do so4 7b7 ,its ,reality4--,some believe that ,christ granted dispensations from ,his ,law 7e4g41 that ,he freed the ,blessed ,virgin and the ,apostles from the duty of receiving ,baptism1 that he authorized the ,apostles to give ,baptism without mentioning the ,trinity71 but these opinions seem unlikely and are not well supported4 ,some also believe that the power of loosing granted the ,church 7,matt41 xvi4 #ai7 includes the power of dispensing from the ,law of ,christ4 ,the contrary1 however1 seems more probable4 ,for the power of loosing is certainly limited to such matters as the good of the ,church and of souls requires1 and it is more advantageous for the ,church and its members that the laws given by ,christ ,himself should be absolutely unchangeable1 in order that the unity of the ,church and its dependence on its ,founder may be more manifest4 ,on the other hand1 the alternate opinion has solid grounds and arguments1 and merits due consideration4 ,some authors distinguish a twofold law of ,christ2 7a7 absolute1 that which obliges immediately and of itself independently of any action of man2 e4g41 the law concerning the necessity of ,baptism or determining bread and wine as the matter of the ,eucharist2 7b7 hypothetic1 which presupposes some human action2 e4g41 the law of the indissolubility of matrimony which urges after man has freely willed to be bound by the laws of matrimony4 ,similarly1 the binding force of vows presupposes the taking of the vow4 ,as to the absolute law1 no human authority may dispense from it4 ,as already indicated1 the good of the ,church1 its unity and stability1 seem to demand an unchangeable law4 ,in regard to the hypothetical law1 many of the more modern authors assert that the ,holy ,pontiff can at times dispense4 ,the power of loosing implies a power of dispensing in the ,church which has been used in particular cases2 e4g41 ratum et non consummatum matrimony4 ,moreover1 the power to dispense seems extremely useful and almost necessary for the prudent and wise governing of the ,church4 ,for1 with a change of circumstances an individual might be impeded from doing a greater good because of a preceding act of will2 e4g41 one might be impeded from embracing the religious life because of a prior vow to remain in the world to assist in ,catholic ,action 7see ,fanfani1 ,o4,p41 ,theol4 ,moral4 ,manuale1 ,vol4 ,i1 n4 #acd74 #ceh4 ,interpretation of the ,law of ,christ4-7a7 ,private interpretation 7epieikeia or equity7 is used in extraordinary cases1 not foreseen by the lawgiver1 and it declares that a particular case does not fall under the ,law4 ,this kind of interpretation applies only to human laws1 since ,god foresees things not only universally1 but also in particular 7cfr4 on ,natural ,law1 #cae74 7b7 ,public interpretation of the ,law of ,christ is made by the ,church1 in virtue of the commission3 8,teach all things whatsoever ,i have commanded0 7,matt1 xxviii4 #bj74 #cei4 ,public ,interpretation of the ,law of ,christ--7a7 ,the ,church is able to give a declarative interpretation of the ,positive ,divine ,law--that is1 to explain its meaning1 to show what cases are comprehended in the law1 what cases are not1 when one is obliged1 when one is excused1 etc4 ,example3 ,the ,church interprets the doctrine of ,christ on the indissolubility of marriage1 explaining when the bond is absolutely indissoluble1 the conditions under which it may sometimes be dissolved1 etc4 7b7 ,the ,church is able to give determinative interpretation of the ,positive ,divine ,law--that is1 to settle in what manner a law must be fulfilled4 ,examples3 ,christ gave the command that the ,eucharist should be received1 but it was the ,church that determined when and how often one must receive ,communion to comply with the wishes of ,christ4 ,christ instituted only generically the essential rite of some ,sacraments1 leaving it to the ,church to determine the rite more specifically4 #cfj4 ,the ,law of ,christ and ,impossibility4--7a7 ,impossibility does not excuse from a law1 in which an act is necessary not because it is prescribed1 but is prescribed because it is a necessary means without which1 even if one be not guilty of negligence1 salvation cannot be had 7necessity of means74 ,example3 ,infants who die without ,baptism are not held guilty of neglecting the ,sacraments1 but lack of it deprives them of the supernatural bliss promised by ,christ4 ,only ,baptism confers regeneration1 and only the regenerated are capable of the vision of ,god4 7b7 ,impossibility can excuse from a law in which an act is necessary because it is prescribed1 and which therefore makes one guilty of sin1 if one willfully neglects it 7necessity of precept74 ,example3 ,an adult who dies without the ,eucharist cannot be saved if he was guilty of grave negligence2 but he can be saved1 if it was not his own fault that he did not receive ,holy ,communion4 ,the ,eucharist increases supernatural life1 but inculpable lack of it does not exclude from that life4 #cfa4 ,impossibility--or what is called impossibility--does not always excuse even from those divine laws which have only the necessity of precept4 7a7 ,physical impossibility is the lack of power to perform an act2 for example1 it is physically impossible for a blind man to read4 ,this kind of impossibility1 of course1 excuses from guilt and punishment4 ,example3 ,titus is dying and thinks of the command that he should receive ,viaticum4 ,but he is unable to receive ,communion without vomiting4 ,hence1 in his case the impossibility excuses from the divine command4 7b7 ,moral impossibility is the inability to perform an act without serious inconvenience2 for example1 it is morally impossible for one who has weak eyes to read small print4 ,this kind of impossibility does not excuse1 if a greater evil will result from the non-observance of the law than the evil of inconvenience that will result from its observance4 ,examples3 ,eleazer would not eat the meats forbidden by the law of ,moses1 preferring to die rather than give public scandal 7,,ii ,mach41 vii4 #ah74 ,the command of ,christ that pastors minister to their flocks obliges1 even if it involves danger of death1 when there is a great public necessity 7as in time of pestilence7 or an urgent private necessity 7as when an infant is about to die without ,baptism74 #cfb4 ,moral impossibility excuses from divine laws that have only necessity of precept1 if the inconvenience is serious1 even when compared to the evil of violating the law2 for ,god does not wish commands freely instituted by ,his will to oblige more rigorously than the commands of the ,natural ,law 7see #bhi1 #cag74 ,examples3 ,christ excused ,david for eating the loaves of proposition 7which was forbidden by the law of ,moses7 on account of urgent necessity4 ,a most grave external inconvenience excuses from the law of integrity of confession 7see ,vol4 ,,ii74 #cfc4 ,what is the nature of the ,church's action in dissolving the bond of marriages that are not ratified1 or not consummated after ratification 7see ,vol4 ,,ii71 with reference to ,christ's law of indissolubility8 7a7 ,some see in this an application of other divine laws that limit the law of indissolubility1 and that were enunciated by ,christ ,himself in ,his teaching on the supremacy of faith over other bonds1 the superiority of virginity to marriage1 the power of the ,church in loosing1 etc4 7b7 ,others see in this an interpretation1 declarative or expansive1 of the law of indissolubility4 7c7 ,still others regard these dissolutions as a removal of the proper matter of the obligation contracted through the act of the human will 7cfr4 the ,natural ,law1 #cab74 ,the power of loosing would apply here as in the case of vows4 ,some authors call this removal of matter 8annulment of act10 8remission of debt10 8permission02 while others call it 8dispensation0 7see #cad74 ,those who consider the dissolution of ratum non consummatum matrimony as 8dispensation0 list the law of indissolubility as hypothetical positive law 7see #ceg74 #cfd4 ,counsels4--,in addition to its precepts 7which are obligatory71 the ,new ,law contains counsels1 which are optional1 but which are expressly recommended4 #cfe4 ,a counsel is a moral direction by which one who is willing is advised to prefer a higher to a lower good1 in order thereby to tend more efficaciously towards perfection and to merit a greater reward4 7a7 ,a counsel is not something commanded4 ,example3 ,our ,lord's direction to the disciples on their first mission that they should not carry their sustenance with them was required as a duty that they might learn to trust in ,providence4 ,hence1 it was not a counsel4 7b7 ,a counsel is not everything good that is not commanded4 ,example3 ,marriage is not commanded to all1 but it is not a counsel1 since the opposite good1 viz41 celibacy1 is better 7,i ,cor41 vii4 #ch74 #cff4 ,that which is only counselled as to its actual performance1 is commanded as to its acceptance by the will for a case of necessity4 ,example3 ,our ,lord's direction that good be done to personal enemies does not command that one actually confer favors on them outside of the case of necessity 7this is only counselled71 but only that one be so charitably inclined that one is ready to help even a personal enemy who is in serious need4 #cfg4 ,the superiority of the counsels may be seen from the attitudes men take to the goods of this world4 7a7 ,some are taken up entirely with the things of earth1 making temporal goods the end of life and the standard of action4 ,these do not keep the ,commandments and cannot be saved4 7b7 ,some use the goods of this world not as ends1 but as subordinate to things that are higher4 ,these keep the ,commandments and will be saved2 but their solicitude about temporal concerns lessens the attention they could give to things of the spirit4 7c7 ,some renounce entirely the goods of this life1 in order to give themselves as completely as possible to the things of ,god4 ,these observe the counsels1 and can more readily attain to holiness and salvation2 for1 being freed from numerous cares about earthly things1 they can devote themselves more easily and earnestly to things that are heavenly4 #cfh4 ,the ,three ,counsels4--,there are many counsels given in the ,gospels1 but all can be reduced to three1 according to the three chief earthly goods that may be surrendered1 and the three kinds of temptation that come from those goods4 7a7 ,the counsel of poverty requires that one give up entirely external goods or wealth1 from which comes the concupiscence of the eyes3 8,if thou wilt be perfect1 go sell what thou hast1 and give to the poor1 and thou shalt have treasure in heaven0 7,matt1 ,xix4 #ba74 7b7 ,the counsel of chastity requires that one renounce entirely carnal goods of pleasure1 from which arise the concupiscence of the flesh3 8,he that giveth his virgin in marriage1 doth well2 and he that giveth her not1 doth better0 7,i ,cor41 vii4 #ch74 7c7 ,the counsel of obedience requires that one deny oneself the good of the soul which is one's own will1 from which comes the pride of life3 8,come follow ,me0 7,matt1 xix4 #ba74 #cfi4 ,the counsels can be followed in two ways4 7a7 ,they are followed completely1 when one accepts them as a rule for one's whole life1 as is done by those who embrace the state of perfection in the religious life1 taking by vow the three evangelical counsels of poverty1 chastity and obedience4 7b7 ,they are followed partially when one practises them in particular instances4 ,examples3 ,a wealthy man who gives to the poor when there is no obligation to do so1 practises the counsel of poverty in that case4 ,a person who renounces his own legitimate wishes in some matter1 practises the counsel of obedience in that case1 as when he confers some favor on one who has offended him1 or pardons a debt4 ,married persons who practise conjugal abstinence for the sake of religion1 follow a counsel of chastity 7,i ,cor41 vii4 #e74 ,art4 #d3 ,,human ,,law 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 qq4 #ie-ig47 #cgj4 ,definition4--,since human perversity often needs a check in regulations that are not expressly contained in the ,natural or in the ,divine ,law1 other laws must be made by society1 drawn from those higher laws as conclusions or added to them as determinations1 in order to meet special circumstances and necessities4 #cga4 ,division of ,human ,laws4-,human laws are variously divided4 7a7 ,according to the difference of legislators1 laws are either ecclesiastical or civil4 b7 ,according to their mode of derivation from the ,natural ,law1 laws belong either to the law of nations 7jus gentium7 or to civil law4 ,to the jus gentium belong those laws which are derived from the ,natural ,law as conclusions from premises1 e4g41 the right to private property without which men cannot live peacefully in society4 ,to civil law belongs whatever is derived from ,natural ,law by way of positive determination by a legislator2 e4g41 ,natural ,law dictates that the evil-doer be punished2 but that the punishment take a particular form1 imprisonment1 exile1 death1 is a determination depending upon the will of the legislator4 ,the jus gentium is not international law which derives its force and sanction from the free will of the legislator4 ,the law of nations is common to all men and derives its force from the conviction of men that such a law is demanded for the good of mankind4 ,it is not a secondary precept of the ,natural ,law which is derived from the primary precepts necessarily4 ,rather it is based upon a contingent set of circumstances2 it does not spring from man's nature absolutely considered1 but from the way in which man acts and reacts in his society4 7c7 ,according to the difference of their objects1 laws are either affirmative 7i4e41 preceptive7 or negative 7i4e41 prohibitive74 ,an affirmative law obliges always1 but not for every occasion2 a negative law obliges always1 and for every occasion4 ,example3 ,the ,third and ,fourth ,commandments are always in force1 but it is not necessary to elicit a positive act of compliance at every instant4 ,the other ,commandments1 which are negative1 are not only in force always1 but it is necessary at every instant to omit what they forbid4 7d7 ,according to the obligation which they impose1 laws are either moral1 penal1 or moral-penal4 ,moral laws oblige under pain of sin1 penal laws under pain of punishment1 moral-penal laws under pain of both4 7e7 ,according to their inclusiveness1 laws are either personal or territorial4 ,the former affect the person for whom the law is made1 and oblige him even when he is outside the territory of the lawgiver4 ,the latter affect the territory1 and hence do not oblige a subject when he is outside the territory affected by the law4 7f7 ,according to their effect1 prohibitive laws are either merely prohibitive or irritant4 ,the former make what is forbidden illegal1 the latter make it also void4 #cgb4 ,qualities4--,the objects or content of human law must be of such a character3 7a7 that they do not conflict with the ,natural or the ,divine ,law2 7b7 that they be beneficial to the community for which they are made4 #cgc4 ,laws fail to be of public benefit in such cases as the following3 7a7 if they are made without a broad view of the public good1 which has regard for different classes of people and various interests1 and which provides for the future as well as for the present2 7b7 if1 losing sight of the fact that the majority are not perfect in virtue1 the lawgivers require so much that the law falls into contempt1 and graver evils result than would have happened otherwise4 ,hence1 it is advisable that human laws confine their prohibitions to graver misdeeds1 especially those that are harmful to others and to society1 and restrict their commands to such good acts as promote the common weal4 ,multiplicity of laws1 excessive penalties for minor offenses1 cruel and unusual sanctions1 lead to lawlessness4 #cgd4 ,human laws should not prescribe what is too difficult4 7a7 ,they should not prescribe heroic virtue1 unless the common safety demands it1 or a subject has voluntarily obliged himself to it4 ,example3 ,soldiers in war and pastors in time of pestilence must expose themselves to danger of death2 but for ordinary occasions the law should not oblige one to risk one's life or other great good4 7b7 ,they should not prescribe agreement with the mind of the legislator or a virtuous performance of what is prescribed1 unless the thing ordered itself demands this4 ,examples3 ,the law of annual ,confession and of the ,easter ,communion requires1 not only that these ,sacraments be received1 but that they be received worthily1 for an unworthy ,confession is no ,sacrament1 and an unworthy ,communion does not satisfy the command of ,christ1 of which the ,church command is but a determination4 ,on the other hand1 the ,lenten fast observed by one who is not in the state of grace is an act good in itself and satisfies the law4 ,he who hears ,mass on a holyday1 not knowing that it is a holyday1 satisfies the obligation1 though he had no intention of fulfilling it4 #cge4 ,obligation of ,human ,laws4--,all human laws that are just1 whether they be ecclesiastical or civil1 made by believers in ,god or unbelievers1 are obligatory in conscience1 7a7 ,from the beginning the ,church has made laws and imposed them as obligatory 7,acts1 xv4 #bi2 ,i ,cor41 vi4 #d2 ,i ,cor41 xi4 #e2 ,i ,tim41 v4 #i-ab71 and has recognized as obligatory the laws of the ,state1 without regard to the moral or religious qualifications of the rulers 7,i ,peter1 ii4 #ac-af2 ,rom41 xiii4 #a-g74 7b7 ,human laws are necessary4 ,the ,natural ,law does not prescribe definite penalties1 while the ,positive ,divine ,law prescribes only such as are remote and invisible2 and hence1 if there were no human laws holding out the threat of determined and present punishments1 the ,divine laws would be contemned4 ,moreover1 since the higher laws are sometimes unknown1 or prescribe no time1 place or manner of accomplishment1 or do not command things that would be useful for their observance1 it is necessary that there be laws made by man to secure the better knowledge and fulfillment of the laws given by ,god ,himself4 #cgf4 ,a human law is unjust in two ways3 7a7 if opposed to the rights of ,god4 ,examples3 ,the command of ,pharaoh that the ,hebrew male children be murdered 7,exod41 i4 #ag71 the command of ,antiochus that his subjects sacrifice to idols 7,i ,mach41 ii4 #af-bj71 the command of the ,sanhedrin that the ,apostles should cease to preach 7,acts1 v4 #bi72 7b7 if opposed to the rights of man4 ,this happens in three ways3 ,first1 when the purpose of the law is not the common good1 as when the lawgiver seeks only his own profit or glory2 secondly1 when the maker of the law has not the requisite authority2 thirdly1 when the law itself1 although for the common good and made by competent authority1 does not distribute burdens equally or reasonably among the people4 ,examples3 ,achab and ,jezabel1 in the affair of the vineyard of ,naboth1 had in view not the public1 but their own private benefit 7,,iii ,kings1 xvi74 ,the sentence of death pronounced on our ,lord by the ,sanhedrin was illegal1 because1 among other reasons1 the body was not assembled according to law1 and hence had no authority to give sentence4 ,the commands given the ,israelites by ,pharaoh 7,exod41 v4 #ah71 and to their subjects by ,oriental despots 7,i ,kings1 viii71 were unjust1 because the former discriminated against the ,israelites1 and the latter bore down too heavily on all the people4 ,the former civil laws that prescribed the same penalty of hanging for a slight misdemeanor 7such as the theft of a loaf of bread by a boy7 as for the capital crimes of piracy or murder1 the ,stamp ,act of ,george ,,iii1 and some modern laws that sentence to life imprisonment those who have been four times convicted of slight offenses1 are more recent examples of unjust laws4 #cgg4 ,obedience to unjust laws is not obligatory in the following cases4 7a7 ,if a law is opposed to the rights of ,god1 it is not lawful to do what that law commands or permits1 nor to omit what it forbids4 ,examples3 ,if a law permits one to practise polygamy1 or commands one to blaspheme religion1 one may not use the permission or obey4 ,if a law forbids one to give or receive ,baptism1 it has no force4 7b7 ,if a law is certainly opposed to the rights of man in any of the three ways mentioned in the previous paragraph 7#cgf1 b71 it does not of itself oblige in conscience1 since it lacks some essential condition of a true law1 and even the consent of the majority or of all does not make it just4 ,however1 it may oblige accidentally1 on account of the greater evils that would follow on disobedience1 such as scandal1 civil disturbances1 etc4 ,the duty of subjects is to remonstrate against such a law and to work for its repeal4 #cgh4 ,the obligation of all laws is not the same in kind1 or degree4 7a7 ,moral laws oblige one to do what is commanded or to omit what is forbidden1 as a duty owed in conscience2 hence1 he who violates a law of this kind is guilty of moral fault4 ,penal laws oblige one to follow what they prescribe1 if one would be free from guilt before the law and not liable in conscience to the penalty prescribed2 hence1 he who violates a penal law is guilty of juridical fault1 and1 if he further illegally resists the penalty1 he becomes guilty also of moral fault4 7b7 ,moral laws are not all of the same obligatory force1 some of them obliging under grave sin1 others under venial sin4 #cgi4 ,the following human laws are recognized as moral laws3 7a7 ecclesiastical laws1 with few exceptions2 7b7 civil laws that confirm the ,eternal or ,divine ,law1 or that pertain directly to the common welfare1 such as the laws that determine the duties of public officials1 the rights of inheritance1 etc4 #chj4 ,the following human laws are generally regarded as merely penal3 7a7 ecclesiastical laws which expressly state that their observance is not required under pain of sin 7e4g41 the statutes of many ,religious ,orders72 7b7 civil laws of minor importance1 or which the legislator imposes as a purely civil duty 7e4g41 some traffic regulations74 #cha4 ,moral laws oblige under grave sin if the two following conditions are present3 7a7 if the thing prescribed by the law is of great importance1 because of its nature or circumstances2 7b7 if the lawgiver intended to impose a grave obligation4 #chb4 ,a matter of light moment cannot be made the object of a law that binds under grave sin1 for this would impose an intolerable burden1 and would thus be contrary to the common good4 ,what is unimportant in itself1 however1 may become important on account of its purpose or other circumstance4 #chc4 ,the intention of the legislator to impose a grave moral obligation is recognized either3 7a7 from his own declaration1 as when a church law is commanded under threat of the divine judgment2 or 7b7 from circumstances that indicate such an intention1 such as the gravity of the subject-matter of the law or the kind of penalty it prescribes1 the general opinion of authorities1 or the common practice of the community4 #chd4 ,by obliging to the observance of what they command and the avoidance of what they forbid1 laws indirectly oblige to what is necessary for such obedience4 7a7 ,hence1 the law obliges one to make use of the ordinary means for its fulfillment4 ,examples3 ,he who has not used ordinary diligence to know the law1 sins against the law if he violates its prescriptions4 ,he who eats meat on a day of abstinence1 because he neglected to provide himself with other food1 is guilty of sin4 7b7 ,the law obliges one to use sufficient diligence in removing impediments to its fulfillment or dangers of its violation4 ,examples3 ,the law of hearing ,mass on ,sunday obliges one not to stay up so late on ,saturday that fulfillment will be impossible4 ,the law of fasting obliges one to avoid dangerous occasions of its violation4 #che4 ,interpretation4--,though laws are carefully framed as to language1 doubts about their meaning will often arise--in ordinary cases1 because of lack of understanding or changes of conditions1 and in extraordinary cases1 because from the circumstances the law seems inapplicable4 ,hence the need of explaining the law1 which is done in ordinary cases by interpretation1 in extraordinary cases by epieikeia 7see #daa sqq474 #chf4 ,interpretation is a genuine explanation of the law1 that is1 one that states the meaning of the words of the law according to the intention the lawgiver had in mind when he chose them4 ,it is of various kinds4 7a7 ,according to the author from whom it proceeds1 interpretation is authentic1 if it comes from the lawgiver himself or from another authorized by him2 it is usual1 if it comes from common usage 7i4e41 from the manner in which the law is customarily observed72 it is doctrinal1 if it is made by learned men according to the rules of correct exegesis4 7b7 ,according to the effect1 interpretation is declarative1 if it clears up what was obscure in the law2 it is supplementary1 if it extends or limits the law1 by adding to or subtracting from the cases included under it4 7c7 ,according to the manner in which it is made1 interpretation is strict or wide1 ,strict interpretation gives to a word of law that least inclusive and most proper signification it bears 7e4g41 it understands 8son0 to stand for son by birth74 ,wide interpretation gives to a word a more inclusive and less proper signification 7e4g41 it understands 8son0 to stand for son by birth or by adoption74 #chg4 ,those ,subject to ,law4--,only those are morally obliged to observe human law who are subjects of the lawgiver and who have the use of reason4 7a7 ,those who are not subjects in any sense are not bound1 for to obligate by law is an act of authority and jurisdiction2 7b7 those who have not reached the age of reason1 or who are habitually insane1 are not themselves morally bound1 since they are incapable of moral obligation4 ,of course1 they may be restrained as to acts1 and their rights may be determined4 #chh4 ,the lawgiver himself1 even though not subject1 is held to observe the laws he makes4 ,thus3 7a7 if the lawmaking power resides in a legislative assembly1 each legislator is subject to the body and hence to its laws2 7b7 if the lawmaking power is vested in an individual1 he is not subject to the coactive force of his own laws1 since he cannot punish himself2 but he is subject to their directive force1 inasmuch as the higher law of nature requires that the superior show good example by observing what he requires of others4 #chi4 ,change of ,law4--,the growth of knowledge and experience1 or the change of social circumstances1 requires now and then that human laws be improved or adapted to new conditions4 ,but1 since laws derive a great part of their influence from custom1 they should not be changed unless the break with custom is compensated for by the urgent necessity of the new law1 by its manifest advantage1 or by the evident iniquity or harmfulness of the old law1 ,in brief1 the common good should be the norm by which to decide whether a law should be retained or changed4 #cij4 ,constitutional law1 as being fundamental and organic1 is more immutable than ordinary law4 7a7 ,if given to a society established according to the positive ordinance of a superior1 it cannot be abrogated or modified by the legislative authority of that society1 since this would be contrary to the will of the founder4 ,hence1 the ,church has no power to change the fundamental constitution given her by ,christ1 who prescribed the religious society as established by ,him to be necessary4 7b7 ,if a constitutional law is given to a society which is perfect and necessary from the law of nature1 such constitution can be modified for extraordinary reasons and in the special ways provided 7e4g41 by amendments approved by the people74 #cia4 ,the ,law of ,custom4--,custom 7i4e41 a long-continued practice that has acquired binding force7 is able to establish a new law or to do away with an old law4 ,for the will of the lawgiver is manifested not only by words1 as happens in the written law1 but also and more clearly by repeated and continued acts1 as happens in the case of the unwritten law of custom4 ,in a democracy it is the consent of the people who follow the custom as law that imposes the obligation2 in a monarchy it is the consent of the ruler who permits the custom4 #cib4 ,with reference to their legal effects1 there are three kinds of customs3 7a7 customs according to the law1 which are those that confirm by use an existing law2 in this way custom interprets law 7see #chf72 7b7 customs beside the law1 which are those that introduce a new obligation that is not prescribed by any written law2 in this way custom establishes law2 7c7 customs contrary to law1 which are those that remove the obligation of a previous law2 in this way custom repeals1 at least in part1 the law to which it is opposed4 #cic4 ,custom has not the power to establish or repeal a law1 unless it possesses the requisites of law itself 7see #bhe74 ,hence arise the following conditions3 7a7 ,since the exercise of the legislative power requires freedom1 customs do not possess legal force unless they have been practised freely4 ,hence1 a custom that has been established by force does not suffice2 7b7 ,since laws can be made only for perfect societies1 customs have not the force of law1 unless they are practised by a perfect society1 or by a majority of its members who are representative4 ,hence1 a custom observed by a family or by a minority of the voters in a body that has its own jurisprudence has not the status of law2 7c7 ,since laws must proceed from competent authority1 customs do not make or unmake law1 unless they have the approval of the ruling power4 ,in a society where the legislative function rests with the people 7e4g41 in the ancient democracy of ,athens71 the fact that they follow a custom with the purpose of enacting it into law or of using it against an existing law is sufficient approval4 ,but if the supreme power is not with the multitude1 their customs do not obtain the force of legislative acts1 unless approved by the constituted authority2 7d7 ,since law needs to be promulgated1 a custom1 to have the effect of law1 must be practised by public acts through which it becomes known to the people as a whole4 #cid4 ,customs that have the other requisite conditions begin to be obligatory or derogatory as soon as the approval of competent authority is had4 7a7 ,if the approval is given expressly1 the custom has the force of law at once2 7b7 if it is given tacitly1 inasmuch as the lawgiver1 knowing the custom and being under no restraint1 does not disapprove1 the custom has the force of law as soon as tacit consent is recognized by the learned and prudent2 7c7 if it is given by the law itself1 which explicitly accepts reasonable customs1 the custom has the force of law when it has lasted for ten years1 or other length of time prescribed4 #cie4 ,if the superior disapproves of a custom or maintains diplomatic silence for fear of greater evils1 his consent is withheld1 and the custom cannot be deemed as of legal force4 #cif4 ,there are other conditions necessary that a custom may acquire the force of law4 7a7 ,since a law is an ordinance knowingly imposed by the will of the legislator1 a custom does not constitute a law if it is followed through the erroneous conviction that it is already a law1 or if there is nothing to indicate a will to make it obligatory4 ,signs of the intention to raise a custom to the dignity of a law are the punishment of transgressors of the custom1 the observance of the custom even at the cost of great inconvenience1 the opinion of the good that it should be followed1 etc4 7b7 ,since a law cannot prescribe except what is reasonable and for the common good1 a practice opposed to the ,natural or ,divine ,law1 or expressly reprobated by written law as an abuse1 or one that is injurious to the welfare of the community1 cannot become unwritten law through custom4 #cig4 ,there are special conditions in order that a custom may do away with an existing law4 7a7 ,a written law is not repealed unless the legislator wills to take away its obligation1 and hence desuetude or a custom contrary to law does not abrogate a law unless it manifests a purpose not to be obligated by what the law prescribes4 ,this it does if the whole people regard a certain law as a dead letter1 or feel that circumstances or the common welfare require the opposite of what the law requires1 and have no scruple in acting uniformly according to this conviction4 7b7 ,a written law is not repealed1 if it is immutable1 or if a change would be prejudicial to the common interest2 similarly1 therefore1 a custom cannot abolish a law1 unless this law is one that can be abrogated by human acts1 and that is not essential to the public good4 ,hence1 customs contrary to the ,commandments or to the ,law of ,christ1 customs that are expressly condemned in ,canon ,law as corruptions1 customs that encourage lawlessness or afford occasions of sin1 can never do away with a law1 no matter how long or by how many they are practised4 #cih4 ,those who start a custom contrary to law are sometimes in good faith1 and hence are not guilty of disobedience4 7a7 ,it may be that they are in ignorance of the law1 but have the interpretative will not to be bound by it2 7b7 it may be that they know the law1 but sincerely think that1 on account of conditions1 it has ceased of itself4 #cii4 ,even when a custom has been started in bad faith1 it may continue through good faith1 and so become not a violation1 but an abrogation of the law4 ,changed conditions may make the law useless or harmful2 or the very fact that it is no longer observed may make it too difficult to enforce4 #djj4 ,today customs do not so often attain the force of law4 ,moreover1 so difficult is it to know whether any custom has all the qualities necessary for establishing1 modifying1 or abrogating a law that only an expert is competent to judge in this matter4 #dja4 ,dispensation4--,human law has not the immutability of the ,divine ,law4 ,hence1 not only may it be changed1 but it may also be dispensed4 ,dispensation is a relaxation of the positive law made for a particular case by him who has the competent authority4 7a7 ,it is a relaxation of the law--that is1 it takes away the obligation of the law4 ,thus1 it differs from permission1 which is fulfillment of what is conditionally allowed by the law4 7b7 ,dispensation is made for a particular case--that is1 it is granted when the provisions of the law1 though beneficial to the community as a whole1 are not suitable for a particular person or case4 ,thus1 it differs1 first1 from abrogation and derogation1 which remove the obligation of the whole or a part of the law for the entire community2 and1 secondly1 from privilege1 which is granted permanently as a private law4 7c7 ,dispensation is given by competent authority--that is1 by the legislator or others who have the lawful power4 ,thus1 it differs from epieikeia and private interpretation1 which are made by those who have no power to dispense4 7d7 ,dispensation is a relaxation of the positive law1 for since the ,natural ,law is immutable 7see #cje71 no dispensation can be given from its requirements4 ,thus1 dispensation differs from the official declaration or interpretation of the ,natural or ,divine ,law 7see #cae74 #djb4 ,those who have the power to dispense from a law are the lawgiver and others duly authorized4 7a7 ,the lawgiver himself can dispense as follows3 in his own laws1 since he was able to make them2 in the laws of his predecessors1 since his authority is equal to theirs2 in the laws of his inferiors1 since they are his subordinates4 7b7 ,others can dispense who have received from the law1 from their superior1 or from custom the necessary authority to dispense4 #djc4 ,those ,who ,may ,be ,dispensed from a ,law4--7a7 ,since dispensation is an act of jurisdiction1 only those can be dispensed who are in some way subject to the dispenser4 ,since1 however1 the jurisdiction used in dispensing does not impose an obligation but grants a favor1 it is held that he who has the power to dispense others may also dispense himself1 if his power is not restricted4 7b7 ,since dispensation is an act of authority1 it may be exercised even in favor of one who is absent1 or ignorant of the dispensation or unwilling to accept it4 ,but1 since as a rule favors should not be forced1 the validity of a dispensation generally depends upon the consent of the one dispensed4 #djd4 ,the power of dispensing has for its end the common good1 and therefore it must be exercised3 7a7 faith fully1 that is1 not for reasons of private interest or friendship2 7b7 prudently1 that is with knowledge of the case and with judgment that there are sufficient reasons for dispensation4 #dje4 ,in order that the reason for a dispensation be sufficient1 it is not required that it be so grave as to constitute a physical or moral impossibility of keeping the law1 since the obligation of the law ceases in the face of impossibility 7see #cag1 #dhg71 without the need of dispensation4 ,hence1 lesser reasons suffice for dispensation4 #djf4 ,a dispensation must be granted whenever the law itself or justice requires it4 ,the following cases are usually given3 7a7 when there exists a reason that requires1 according to law1 that a dispensation be granted2 7b7 when the common good1 or the spiritual good of an individual1 or his protection from some considerable evil1 demands the concession of a dispensation4 #djg4 ,a dispensation may be either granted or denied1 when the case does not demand it and the superior after careful investigation is not certain whether the reason is sufficient or insufficient2 otherwise1 a greater responsibility would rest on the superior than the law can be thought to impose--viz41 that of attaining certainty where it cannot easily be had4 #djh4 ,he who dispenses without a sufficient reason is guilty of the sin of favoritism1 and is responsible for the discontent and quarrels that result4 ,he is guilty of grave sin thus3 7a7 if serious scandal or other inconvenience is caused1 even when the dispenser is the lawgiver himself2 7b7 if the law obliges under grave sin and the dispensation is not granted by the lawgiver1 but by an inferior who usurps the right to dispense4 #dji4 ,the subject of dispensation is guilty of sin3 7a7 if he asks a dispensation when he knows for certain that there is no sufficient reason for it2 7b7 if1 having been denied a dispensation1 even though unjustly1 he acts against the law2 or if he knowingly makes use of an invalid or expired dispensation4 #daj4 ,sufficient reasons for a dispensation can be reduced to two classes3 7a7 private welfare 7e4g41 the difficulty of the law for the petitioner1 a notable benefit he will receive through the dispensation1 etc472 7b7 public welfare 7e4g41 the benefits that are secured to the community1 or the evils that are avoided through the dispensation74 #daa4 ,epieikeia4--,since human laws regulate particular and contingent cases according to what usually happens1 and since they must therefore be expressed in general terms1 exceptional cases will occur that fall under the law1 if we consider only the general wording of its text1 but that do not fall under the law1 if we consider the purpose of the lawgiver1 who never foresaw the exceptional cases and would have made different provision for them1 had he foreseen them4 ,in such exceptional cases legalism insists on blind obedience to the law-books1 but the higher justice of epieikeia or equity calls for obedience to the lawgiver himself as intending the common welfare and fair treatment of the rights of each person4 #dab4 ,epieikeia may be defined1 therefore1 as a moderation of the words of the law where in an extraordinary case1 on account of their generality1 they do not represent the mind of the lawgiver2 which moderation must be made in the manner in which the lawgiver himself would have made it1 had he thought of the case1 or would make it now1 were he consulted4 ,hence1 epieikeia differs from the various causes that take away the obligation of a law1 for it supposes the non-existence of obligation from the beginning and non-comprehension in the law4 ,thus3 7a7 it is not revocation1 desuetude1 restrictive interpretation1 or dispensation2 7b7 it is not cessation on account of impossibility2 7c7 it is not presumed permission or self-dispensation4 #dac4 ,in its use epieikeia is at once lawful and dangerous4 7a7 ,it is lawful1 for it defends the common good1 the judgment of conscience1 the rights of individuals from subjection to a written document1 and from oppression by the abuse of power2 7b7 it is dangerous1 for it rests on the judgment of the individual1 which is prone to decide in his own favor to the detriment of the common good as well as of self4 #dad4 ,epieikeia by its very nature imposes certain limits on its use4 7a7 ,it is based on the fact that a certain case is not comprehended in a law1 because the legislator did not foresee it4 ,hence1 epieikeia is not applicable to the ,divine ,law2 for the ,divine ,lawgiver foresaw all cases that could arise1 and so excluded all exceptions 7see #cae74 ,this is clear as regards the ,ten ,commandments and other precepts of the ,natural ,law1 since they deal with what is intrinsically good or bad1 and are unchangeable 7see #cjg74 ,but it applies also to the prescriptions of the ,positive ,law of ,god1 and apparent cases of epieikeia1 such as the eating of the loaves of proposition by ,david 7,i ,kings1 xxi4 #f71 can be explained by the cessation of law or divine dispensation4 ,examples3 ,one may not excuse certain modern forms of cheating on the plea that they were not thought of when the ,decalogue was given4 ,one may not omit ,baptism on the ground that ,christ ,himself would have excused from it1 had ,he foreseen the circumstances4 7b7 ,epieikeia is based on the principle that the words of a law must be subordinated to the common good and justice4 ,hence1 it is not applicable to those laws whose universal observance is demanded by the common good--that is1 to irritant laws4 ,any hardship suffered by an individual through the effect of such laws is small in comparison with the injury that would be done to the common welfare if there were any cases not comprehended in such laws2 for irritant laws are the norms for judging the validity of contracts and other acts1 and public2 security demands that they be uniform and certain4 ,example3 ,one may not contract marriage with a diriment impediment1 on the plea that the ,church would not wish the impediments to oblige under the serious inconvenience that exists in one's case4 #dae4 ,the dangers of epieikeia also place limitations on its use4 7a7 ,there is the danger that one may be wrong in judging that the lawgiver did not wish to include a case under his law4 ,if this is not certain1 one should investigate to the best of one's ability1 and have recourse1 if possible1 to the legislator or his representative for a declaration or dispensation4 ,it is never lawful to use epieikeia without reasonable certainty that the legislator would not wish the law to apply here and now4 7b7 ,there is the danger that one may be in bad faith in deciding that the common good or justice requires the use of epieikeia2 the motive in reality may be self-interest or escape from obligation1 ,hence1 a person should not use epieikeia except in necessity1 when he is thrown on his own resources and must decide for himself2 and1 even then1 he must be sure that he acts from sincerity and disinterestedness4 #daf4 ,cases in which the use of epieikeia is lawful are the following3 7a7 ,epieikeia in a wide sense--that is1 a benign interpretation made by a private individual that a particular case is not comprehended in the intention of the lawgiver1 because the latter had not the power to include it--may be used for all cases in which the opposite interpretation would set the law up in opposition to the common welfare or would work injustice to individuals4 ,example3 ,the law that goods borrowed must be returned to their owners yields to epieikeia1 if there is question of putting weapons into the hands of one who would use them against the public security or for the commission of murder2 7b7 ,epieikeia in a strict sense--that is1 the judgment that a particular case is not included in the intention of the lawgiver1 because the latter had not the wish to include it--may be used for all those cases in which the opposite interpretation would suppose in the lawgiver a severity that is not likely4 8,the rigor of the law may be extreme injustice0 7,cicero1 ,de ,officiis1 ,i1 #aj74 ,example3 ,titus has the opportunity to make a notable sum of money on a ,sunday morning1 but cannot make use of the opportunity without missing ,mass that day4 ,caius on a fast day feels well1 but is tired and will be not a little inconvenienced if he fasts4 ,both ,titus and ,caius may use epieikeia1 for the ,church does not wish to be unkind1 nor1 generally speaking1 to have her laws oblige rigorously and for every case4 #dag4 ,though all human law is subject to epieikeia1 the practice of the civil law does not always allow it4 7a7 ,action on individual responsibility makes one guilty of technical violation4 ,example3 ,balbus1 fearing that his house may be robbed or he himself assaulted1 borrows a revolver and practises shooting4 ,he had not time to get the necessary permit1 but argued that necessity knows no law4 ,but1 if he is arrested1 the court may hold him guilty of violating the law4 7b7 ,action in a court of equity1 however1 will give relief for cases not provided for in law4 ,example3 ,one may obtain an order from the court restraining a neighbor from injury1 when the law itself gives only the right to recover damages for injury done4 ,art4 #e3 ,,ecclesiastical ,,law #dah4 ,the ,church1 being a perfect and independent society1 has the power to make laws for its members in order to promote the common spiritual welfare4 ,these laws are not an encroachment on the liberty of the ,gospel1 for ,christ ,himself bestowed on the ,church legislative and other governmental powers suitable to her mission4 ,the charter of the legislative authority of the ,church is contained in the words of ,christ to ,peter3 8,i say to thee that thou art ,peter1 and upon this rock ,i will build ,my ,church1 and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it4 ,and ,i will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven4 ,and whatsoever thou shalt bind upon earth1 shall be bound also in heaven2 and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth1 it shall be loosed also in heaven0 7,matt41 xvi4 #ah1 #ai2 see also ,matt41 xviii4 #ag2 ,luke1 x4 #af74 #dai4 ,the character of laws made by the ,church is as follows3 7a7 their purpose is to guide and assist the individual that he may more easily and perfectly fulfill the laws of ,christ1 and to protect and promote the welfare of the ,church as a whole2 7b7 their contents generally do not impose what is the height of perfection1 but what is the minimum necessary for salvation 7see #cgd72 7e7 their number1 unlike that of the laws of the ,synagogue1 is few4 ,there are only six precepts of the ,church that bind all the faithful2 the other laws of the ,church do not all oblige each individual1 some being for prelates1 some for priests1 some for religious1 some for judges1 etc42 7d7 their obligation is not so strict as that of the laws of the ,old ,testament1 for they are more easily changed or dispensed4 #dbj4 ,general ,law of the ,church4--,the general law of the ,church is found in the five books of the ,code of ,canon ,law1 promulgated by ,benedict ,,xv on ,may #bg1 #aiag4 ,it applies only to the ,latin ,church1 except in those matters that of their nature affect the ,oriental ,church as well1 and it has been in force from ,pentecost ,sunday1 ,may #ai1 #aiah4 #dba4 ,the effects of the ,code on the older legislation are as follows3 7a7 it retains in their entirety liturgical laws that are not expressly corrected2 agreements of the ,holy ,see with various nations1 even if they are opposed to the ,code2 favors1 privileges and indults that are not revoked 7,canons #b-d72 7b7 disciplinary laws of ecclesiastical origin opposed to the ,code are to be held as revoked1 even if they are particular1 unless the contrary is provided4 ,disciplinary laws of ecclesiastical origin omitted by the ,code are retained in force1 if they are particular2 they are abrogated1 if they are general and not contained at least implicitly in the ,code2 if a general law decreed a penalty1 it must be expressly mentioned in the ,code to retain force 7,canon #f72 7c7 customs1 universal or particular1 opposed to the ,code1 when expressly disapproved by it1 must be corrected1 even if immemorial2 when they are not expressly disapproved by the ,code1 they may or may not be continued1 as a rule1 according as they are immemorial--or one century old--or not 7,canon #e74 #dbb4 ,the rules laid down for the interpretation of the ,code are as follows3 7a7 in those parts where the ,code agrees with the older legislation1 it is to be interpreted by means of the latter2 7b7 in those parts where it certainly disagrees with the older legislation1 it is to be interpreted from its own phraseology 7,canon #f74 #dbc4 ,lawgivers in the ,church4--,the ,pope1 as ,vicar of ,christ and ,visible ,head of the ,church1 has supreme legislative power in the ,church 7,canon #bah73 8,thou art ,peter1 and upon this rock ,i will build ,my ,church 4444 ,and ,i will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven1 etc40 7,matt41 xvi4 #ah1 #ai74 ,thus1 the ,pope can legislate3 7a7 for the whole ,church1 either alone or with the body of the ,episcopate subject to him in an ,ecumenical ,council1 either directly or through ,congregations2 7b7 for any part of the ,church1 either directly or through representatives4 ,thus also1 by ,papal concession1 legates may legislate for a place to which they are sent1 ,praelati nullius for a territory over which they are placed1 ,general ,chapters for a ,religious ,order1 and the like4 #dbd4 ,the ,bishops1 8placed by the ,holy ,ghost to rule the ,church of ,god0 7,acts1 xx4 #bh71 have legislative power within their own territory1 dependently on the ,pope 7,canon #cce74 7a7 ,they can make laws1 each for his own diocese1 either in or out of a synod2 7b7 when gathered together in council1 provincial or plenary1 they can legislate for ecclesiastical provinces1 or for all the faithful of their country4 #dbe4 ,subject-,matter of ,church ,law4--,the end of the ,church being the glory of ,god and the salvation of souls1 she can legislate concerning all matters that are sacred or that refer1 directly or indirectly1 to the satisfaction of man or the worship of ,god 7see ,leo ,,xiii1 ,const4 ,immortale ,dei1 d4 #a ,nov4 #ahhe74 7a7 ,the ,church can call to mind those things that are already prescribed by the ,divine ,law1 ,natural or ,positive2 and1 although she cannot dispense in these laws 7see #cac-had and exception as to hypothetical positive law in #ceg71 she can interpret them authoritatively1 and can decide when obligations of the ,divine ,law1 that depend upon an act of the human will1 cease 7see #cae-caf74 7b7 ,the ,church can determine those things that were left undetermined in the ,divine ,law4 ,examples3 ,the manner in which the ,lord's ,day is to be sanctified1 the times and frequency with which the ,divine law of ,communion is to be fulfilled1 the way in which the obligation of fasting is to be complied with1 etc4 7c7 ,the ,church can make laws in matters that were left free by our ,lord whenever this will promote the better observance of ,his law 7e4g41 many church laws for the clergy and religious1 for the conduct of worship1 for administration1 etc474 #dbf4 ,the acts that may be commanded by the ,church are of various kinds4 7a7 ,the ,church may command acts that are purely external 7e4g41 fasting7 and acts that are partly external and partly internal1 that is1 those external acts to which1 from the nature of things or from law1 a special moral act of the intellect or will must be joined 7e4g41 a true oath1 a worthy confession or ,communion74 7b7 ,the ,church may command acts that are purely internal1 that is1 acts of the intellect or will that are not necessarily connected with any external act 7such as meditation1 the intention in applying ,mass1 ctc471 whenever she is explaining1 applying1 or determining the ,divine ,law1 or acting in virtue of the power of ,christ4 ,examples3 ,the ,pope may define a dogma to be accepted internally4 ,a confessor may impose as penance a pious meditation4 ,the ,church prescribes the days when pastors must intend to offer ,mass for their people4 ,a religious superior may command a spiritual retreat4 7c7 ,it is more probable that1 apart from instances such as those just given1 the ,church cannot legislate regarding acts that are purely internal4 ,for unlike the divine ,legislator1 who sees the internal acts of the soul and who can pass judgment on them1 the ,church cannot read the heart or judge the conscience4 ,hence1 it would appear useless for the ,church to give commandments about acts that elude her knowledge1 all the more so since the ,divine ,law has given commands and prohibitions regarding internal acts and no one can escape the judgment of ,god4 #dbg4 ,those ,bound by ,general ,laws4--,the general laws of the ,church oblige all and only such persons as are at once subjects of the ,church and capable of receiving a law 7,canon #ab74 7a7 ,by ,baptism one becomes a member of the ,church1 and hence it is the baptized who are subject to ecclesiastical laws2 7b7 by her laws1 the ,church commands only human and deliberate acts or omissions1 and hence it is only those who can reason that are subject to those laws4 7c7 ,moreover1 unless the law expressly rules otherwise1 those who1 although they have attained the use of reason1 have not yet completed their seventh year are not bound by purely ecclesiastical law4 ,specific exceptions are stated in the law4 ,thus3 7#a7 ,canons #hed1 ,sec4#b1 and #idj1 ,sec4#a1 regarding the reception of the sacraments in danger of death1 ,canon #hei1 ,sec4#a1 stating the precepts of ,easter ,communion1 and ,canon #ijf1 containing the precepts of annual confession1 declare that the law in these matters is binding on persons having the use of reason1 regardless of the actual completion of the seventh year1 ,the law of fasting in ,canon #abed1 ,sec4#b binds after the completion of the twenty-first year4 7#b7 ,canon #ajii explicitly exempts non-,catholics1 in their own marriages1 from the ecclesiastical form of marriage2 also ,canon #ajgj exempts them from the impediment of disparity of cult4 7#c7 ,the habitually insane are considered as infants under seven 7,canon #hh1 ,sec4#c74 ,accordingly1 although they are bound by the ,divine ,law during lucid moments1 they are not usually bound by purely ecclesiastical laws during this period4 #dbh4 ,by the unbaptized are here understood1 not only those who have never received ,baptism 7such as infidels1 pagans1 ,mohammedans1 ,jews1 catechumens71 but also those who were baptized invalidly4 ,the divine law of receiving ,baptism and entering the ,church applies to these persons1 but1 as long as they are unbaptized1 they are not subjects of the ,church4 ,thus3 7a7 directly they are not obliged by any ecclesiastical law1 and hence it is not sinful in itself to ask them to do what is forbidden by such laws 7e4g41 work on a holyday72 7b7 indirectly they become subject to ecclesiastical law when they enter into law-governed relations with the baptized who are subject to church law4 ,example3 ,an unbaptized person who marries a ,catholic is married invalidly1 unless the law on dispensation has been observed4 #dbi4 ,baptized non-,catholics include heretics and schismatics4 ,thus3 7a7 objectively1 these persons are obliged by ecclesiastical laws1 unless they are excepted by the law itself1 and hence it is not lawful directly to induce them to transgress a ,church law 7e4g41 to eat meat on ,friday72 7b7 subjectively1 they are generally excused from formal sin in the non-observance of ,church laws1 and it is not a sin to co-operate materially in such non-observance 7e4g41 by giving meat on ,friday to a ,protestant in good faith who requests it or wishes it74 #dcj4 ,it is held that the ,church is more lenient as regards those baptized as non-,catholics1 that is1 those who were born and brought up in some non-,catholic sect4 ,thus3 7a7 laws that have for their object the sanctification of the individual 7such as fasting and abstinence1 ,sunday ,mass1 etc471 are not insisted on for them1 since this would hurt rather than help their spiritual interests2 7b7 laws that have for their object the protection of the public welfare 7such as the laws regarding mixed marriage71 apply also to baptized non-,catholics4 ,other authors do not admit this distinction and hold that these non-,catholics are bound by the laws of the ,church1 since ,canon #hg expressly states3 ,by ,baptism man is constituted a person in the ,church of ,christ with all the rights and duties of ,christians4 ,apostates and excommunicated persons are certainly bound by all ecclesiastical laws4 #dca4 ,oriental ,catholics are not bound by pontifical laws 7,canon #a7 except in the following cases3 7a7 when the matter is dogmatic2 7b7 when the law implicitly extends to them1 since it contains a declaration of natural or divine law2 7c7 when the law is explicitly extended to them4 ,an example of 7a7 is ,canon #bah2 of 7b7 ,canon #bbh1b2 of 7c7 ,canons #fbb1 ,sec4#d and #ajii1 ,sec4#a1 #c4 #dcb4 ,it is a general rule that all persons baptized1 as just explained1 are subject to ecclesiastical laws1 if they are habitually able to reason2 but that they are not subject to those laws1 if they are not habitually able to reason4 ,first ,rule4--,persons habitually able to reason are all those who in their normal state are able to understand the difference between right and wrong1 that is1 the majority of those who have completed seven years of age4 ,such persons are subject to ecclesiastical laws1 even when actually they are unable to reason on account of temporary intoxication1 delirium1 derangement1 unconsciousness1 etc4 ,hence1 one who would offer meat on ,friday to a person momentarily unbalanced on the plea that his condition excused him from the law1 would do wrong2 for the state of passing irresponsibility excuses from formal sin 7see #bdi71 but not from the law4 ,second ,rule4--,persons habitually unable to reason are all those who have not yet learned the difference between right and wrong 7e4g41 infants and idiots71 or who have permanently lost all knowledge of right and wrong 7e4g41 the hopelessly insane74 ,these persons are not bound by ecclesiastical laws1 at least not by those that are directive4 ,hence1 in itself it is not wrong to give meat on days of abstinence to such persons1 even when they are ,catholics4 #dcc4 ,exceptions to the first rule just given are as follows3 7a7 ,according to ,canon ,law1 the age of reason comes legally when one has completed seven years 7,canon #ab74 ,if a boy or girl is able to reason before that age1 he or she is not obliged by laws that are purely ecclesiastical1 although it is advisable that parents accustom their children to the hearing of ,mass1 to abstinence1 etc41 as soon as this can be conveniently done4 ,if a child has passed the seventh year and does not appear able to reason1 he is not bound by ecclesiastical laws4 7b7 ,according to ,canon ,law1 the age of puberty is fixed for males at the completion of fourteen years of age1 for females at the completion of twelve years of age 7,canon #hh1 ,sec4#b74 ,these who have not attained this age are excused from all penal laws1 unless a law expressly states the contrary2 for on account of the want of mature judgment they deserve leniency 7,canon #bbcj74 7c7 ,the age of majority in ,canon 7as in ,civil7 ,law is reached when one has completed twenty-one years 7,canon #hh1 ,sec4#a74 ,minors in the exercise of rights are subject to the power of parents or guardians1 except where the contrary is declared by the law1 as is the case for the reception of the ,sacraments and the choice of a religious life 7,canon #hi74 ,they are not obliged by the law of fast 7,canon #abed1 ,sec4#b74 #dcd4 ,there are some exceptions to the second rule given in #dcb4 ,thus1 those laws of the ,church that grant favors or that invalidate acts can apply even to those who are habitually unable to reason 7such as infants and the perpetually demented72 for laws of this kind are not directive of the acts of subjects4 #dce4 ,those ,bound by ,particular ,laws4--,the particular laws of the ,church oblige all those who are subject to her general laws1 and who become subject to the laws of a locality by reason of domicile or personal presence 7,canon #ac1 ,sec4#b74 #dcf4 ,there are two kinds of domicile4 7a7 ,a true domicile or home is acquired in a place in two ways3 immediately1 when one takes up one's abode there1 with the intention of remaining permanently or indefinitely2 finally1 after ten years1 when one has lived there so long1 even though there was no intention of remaining permanently 7,canon #ib1 ,sec4#a74 7b7 ,a quasi-domicile or residence is acquired in a place in two ways3 immediately1 when one takes up one's abode there with the intention of remaining there for at least the greater part of the year2 finally1 after the greater part of the year1 when one has lived there so long 7,canon #ib1 ,sec4#b74 #dcg4 ,with regard to abode1 four classes of persons are distinguished in ,canon ,law 7,canon #ia73 7a7 an inhabitant1 who is one that has a domicile in a place and is present there2 7b7 a resident1 who is one that has a quasi-domicile in a place and is present there2 7c7 a stranger1 who is one that is outside the places of his domicile and quasi-domicile2 7d7 a vagus or homeless person1 who is one that has no domicile or quasi-domicile anywhere4 #dch4 ,the rules as regards those who are not strangers are3 7a7 inhabitants and residents are subject to the diocesan1 provincial1 and other particular laws of their territory 7,canon #ac1 ,sec4 #b72 7b7 the homeless are subject to the local laws of the territory where they are present 7,canon #ad1 ,sec4 #b74 #dci4 ,the rules for strangers with reference to general laws 7,canon #ad1 ,sec4 #a1 n4 #c7 are2 7a7 a stranger is obliged to follow these laws1 if they are observed in the place where he is1 even though they are not in force in the place of his domicile or quasi-domicile2 7b7 a stranger is not obliged to observe general laws1 if they are not in force where he is1 even though they are in force in the place of his domicile or quasi-domicile4 ,thus1 the general law of abstinence on ,friday does not oblige one who is travelling in a place where the law has been suspended1 even though he would be obliged by it at home4 ,the traveller would do better1 however1 to keep to the practice of his home4 #ddj4 ,the rules for strangers with regard to the particular laws of their own domicile or quasi-domicile 7,canon #ad1 ,sec4 #a1 n4 #a7 are2 7a7 they are obliged in two cases--first1 when those laws are not territorial but personal and obligatory on them everywhere 7as is the case with the statutes of religious superiors71 and secondly1 when the violation of a territorial law would be harmful in its own territory 7as when by fiction of law one must be considered as present on account of the law of residence72 7b7 they are not obliged in other cases4 ,thus1 if one is travelling on a feast-day that is a diocesan holyday in one's home diocese1 but not in the diocese where one is1 one is not obliged to hear ,mass4 #dda4 ,the following are the rules for strangers with regard to the particular laws of the place where they are3 7a7 they are obliged in two cases--first1 when natural law itself requires that a territorial law be observed by all1 and secondly1 when the ,church includes strangers among those who are subject to a territorial law2 7b7 they are not obliged in other cases4 ,thus1 if a person is travelling on a feast-day that is observed as a holyday of obligation both in his home diocese and in the diocese where he is1 but not as a general holyday of the ,church1 he is not obliged to hear ,mass2 for the law of his home diocese does not bind him1 since he is out of its territory1 and the law of the diocese where he is does not bind him1 since he is not a subject of that law4 #ddb4 ,the natural law requires that strangers should conform themselves to local laws in the following cases3 7a7 when non-observance would be a cause of scandal1 which the natural law commands one to avoid4 ,in this sense we understand the rule of ,st4 ,ambrose3 8,when you are at ,rome1 do as the ,romans do40 ,hence1 if a stranger would cause real scandal by eating meat on a local day of abstinence1 he would be obliged to abstain from it2 7b7 when a local law deals with the solemnities required for validity of contracts 7,canon #ad1 ,sec4 #a1 n4 #b74 ,if strangers were not obliged by laws of this kind1 they could take advantage of the inhabitants1 a thing that is contrary to natural justice4 ,thus1 8the place rules the act02 7c7 when the local law has for its object the maintenance of public order 7,canon #ad1 ,sec4 #a1 #aa4 #b72 for the natural law demands that public safety be guarded4 ,hence1 a stranger who commits a crime is subject to the penalties of the local law 7,canon #aeff74 #ddc4 ,examples of territorial laws that oblige even strangers according to the precept of the ,church are the laws that require all1 even strangers1 to follow the ,calendar of the ,church where they celebrate ,mass1 and to say the collectae imperatae prescribed by the bishop of the local diocese4 #ddd4 ,the rules given for strangers can be applied also to those who are in places exempt from local jurisdiction 7e4g41 in the monasteries of exempt regulars74 ,the exempt are those who by fiction of law are held to be outside the territory of every diocese1 and are subject1 not to the local bishop1 but directly to the ,pope 7,canon #eae74 #dde4 ,there are various cases1 however1 in which exempt religious are subject to the territorial laws of the diocese where they are4 ,thus3 7a7 when they accept parishes in a diocese1 they are subject to the ,ordinary in those matters that pertain to the parishes2 7b7 when the common good or the avoidance of scandal requires it1 they should conform to a diocesan law4 #ddf4 ,those who have a personal privilege can use it anywhere1 for a personal privilege1 like a personal precept1 follows the person1 not the territory4 #ddg4 ,promulgation4--,church laws are promulgated as follows3 7a7 the laws of the ,holy ,see are promulgated by publication in the official periodical1 ,acta ,apostolicae ,sedis4 ,they become effective three months from the date of publication1 unless from the nature of the case they oblige at once1 or it is otherwise provided in the law itself 7,canon #i72 7b7 the laws of a bishop are promulgated in the manner he decides1 generally by publication in the official periodical of the diocese4 ,they become effective as soon as published1 unless it is otherwise provided in the law itself 7,canon #cce1 ,sec4 #b74 #ddh4 ,when a law has been promulgated and become known1 if it begins to be observed1 it is said to be accepted2 if it is not observed1 it is said to be not accepted4 ,this acceptance is not essential to law4 ,hence3 7a7 the observance of a law by the people is not necessary for the obligatory force of the law1 for otherwise the lawgiver would be without real authority2 7b7 the approval of ecclesiastical laws by the ,state is not necessary for their validity1 since ,church and ,state are distinct and independent societies within the proper sphere of each4 #ddi4 ,a law that has been promulgated may fail to obtain force in the following ways3 7a7 through contrary custom1 already existing and not excluded by the law1 or then arising to abrogate the law 7see #cia ,sqq472 7b7 through appeal entered with the lawgiver4 ,thus1 if a bishop deems a law of the ,pope unsuited to his diocese1 he explains the reasons to the ,holy ,see1 and pending the answer it is considered that the lawgiver does not wish the law to oblige4 #dej4 ,irritant ,laws4 ,laws ,based on ,presumption4--,there are two classes of human laws that deserve particular mention on account of special difficulties regarding them3 7a7 irritant laws1 which would seem to be unjust1 since they declare null what according to natural law would be valid2 7b7 laws based on presumption1 which would seem to be of uncertain force1 since presumptions are often contrary to fact4 #dea4 ,an irritant or inhabilitating law is one that expressly or equivalently declares that certain defects make an act void or voidable1 or a person incapable4 ,such laws are just1 even when made by human authority1 since it is the common good that makes them necessary1 and the natural law itself requires that the common good be promoted4 #deb4 ,irritant laws are of various kinds4 7a7 ,they are morally or juridically irritant1 according as that which is taken from the irritated act is either the natural value it has in conscience1 or the positive value it derives from the law4 ,hence1 an act may be legally null 7i4e41 have no value that the law recognizes or protects7 and at the same time morally valid 7i4e41 of just as much force in conscience as though no irritant law existed74 7b7 ,irritant laws are merely irritant or irritant and prohibitive1 according as they make an act invalid but not illicit1 or both invalid and illicit4 ,thus1 a law that requires certain formalities for making a will invalidates the act of writing an informal will1 but does not make it an offense2 but the church law of diriment impediments makes a marriage contracted with one of these impediments both null and sinful4 7c7 ,irritant laws are merely irritant or irritant and penal1 according as the legislator does not or does intend them as punishments4 ,for example1 the law of clandestinity is merely irritant2 the law regarding the impediment of crime is probably both irritant and penal4 #dec4 ,laws that are merely irritant do not oblige one in conscience to omit the act1 but only to suffer the effect of irritation2 but laws that are both irritant and prohibitive oblige one in conscience to omit the act4 ,example3 ,in itself1 it is not unlawful to make an informal will1 but it is unlawful to marry with a diriment impediment4 #ded4 ,as to the time when irritant laws obtain their effect1 the following points are important4 7a7 ,ecclesiastical voiding laws oblige at once in conscience1 although like other laws of the ,church they are not retroactive1 unless the contrary is provided1 and they do not oblige in case of a doubt concerning the law4 ,example3 ,if espousals are made without the canonical formalities1 there is no duty to live up to them as such1 either in conscience or before the law4 7b7 ,civil voiding laws are generally only civilly irritant1 for as a rule external means are sufficient for the purpose of those laws2 thus1 they produce civil irritation at once1 but moral irritation only after pronouncement by the courts4 ,hence1 after a judicial sentence the voided act becomes such morally1 since the decision is founded on a presumption of common danger 7see below1 #dei74 ,examples3 ,one who has received money through a will which he knows to be informal 7i4e41 legally invalid71 may retain possession until the civil authority declares that he has no rights to the money4 ,but1 on the other hand1 one who has been disinherited through a will naturally good1 but not made in due form1 has the right to contest1 if we except the case of pious bequests 7see ,vol4 ,,ii74 #dee4 ,laws that make an act voidable or rescindable do not irritate before declaration of nullity by a judge4 ,hence1 an act that is rescindable according to law retains its natural force until the court has decided against it4 ,example3 ,acts that were done under the influence of grave and unjust fear1 or that were induced through deception1 are held as valid until declared null by a judge4 #def4 ,as to the effects of ignorance on acts irritated by law1 the ,code states that ignorance of irritating 7invalidating7 and inhabilitating 7disqualifying7 laws does not excuse from their observance1 unless the law expressly states otherwise 7,canon #af1 ,sec4 #a74 ,moralists discuss the influence of ignorance 7as well as force or fear7 on such acts as follows3 7a7 if the law is irritant and not penal1 it has its effect1 in spite of ignorance1 oversight1 etc42 for this the common good requires4 ,example3 ,one who marries his cousin in good faith1 being invincibly ignorant that it is against the law1 contracts invalidly2 7b7 if the law is irritant and penal1 the irritation being decreed solely as a punishment1 ignorance1 oversight1 etc41 sufficient to excuse from fault1 excuse also from the penalty of irritation2 for penalty presupposes fault4 ,before the law1 however1 ignorance and error as to law or penalties are not presumed but must be proved4 7,nevertheless1 it must be noted that according to some authors no penalty is necessarily or primarily intended in ecclesiastical irritating and inhabilitating laws4 ,though punishment actually results from the matrimonial impediment of crime1 for example1 the impediment as such primarily is a personal disqualification intended to protect the dignity of the sacrament and good morals4 ,ignorance1 then1 does not excuse from it4 ,some authors maintain that this is true of all ecclesiastical disqualifying laws47 #deg4 ,generally speaking1 epieikeia may not be used in the interpretation of irritating and inhabilitating laws4 ,since they transcend the individual welfare1 they demand uniform observance of all subject to them4 ,some authors permit the use of epieikeia1 however1 in particular cases in which the law itself aims to protect the individual1 whereas its observance would tend rather to harm the individual or at times even the interests of the community4 ,accordingly1 it seems probable that an irritant law may cease in case of impossibility or of a most grave inconvenience that is common4 ,example3 ,if in a pagan country ,christians were so few that they could marry only infidels1 and if distance or other circumstances made it impossible to seek a dispensation1 the diriment impediment of disparity of worship would seem to cease for those ,christians4 #deh4 ,some authors hold that an irritant law may also cease on account of impossibility1 or of a most grave inconvenience that is only private2 but this opinion cannot be deemed certain4 ,an example of private inconvenience is the case of an invalidly married person who is near to death and unable to seek the dispensation from the impediment that has made the marriage null4 #dei4 ,a law based on presumption is one in which the lawgiver rules for certain cases according to what experience shows in their regard--viz41 that such cases are generally dangerous1 or indicative of a particular fact4 ,these laws are not of uncertain force1 for the cases in which they cease to oblige are few and definite4 #dfj4 ,when a law is based on a presumption of common danger and that danger does not exist in a particular instance1 the law nevertheless obliges 7,canon #ba72 for the end of the law is the common good1 and if it ceased for an individual whenever its presumption of danger was not true in his case1 everyone could persuade himself that the law did not apply to him1 and thus the common good would be defeated4 ,examples3 ,the law against the reading of irreligious books is based on the presumption of common danger of sin1 the law against clandestine marriages on the presumption of common danger of fraud2 hence1 they oblige even in the particular instances where these dangers are absent4 ,examples of laws based on the presumption of common danger can be found in ,canons #aii2 #dji1 ,sec4 #a2 #dbj2 #dbb2 #ajbb2 #ajbh2 #aaad2 #aaaf2 #aach2 #acif2 #acih4 #dfa4 ,when a law is based on the presumption of a particular fact that usually happens in the cases with which the law is concerned1 and the fact in an individual instance did not happen1 does the law oblige8 7a7 ,in conscience the law does not oblige of itself1 because presumptions must yield to the truth2 but it may oblige accidentally1 if non-observance would cause great public or private harm4 ,example3 ,the law presumes that a person born and brought up among ,catholics has been baptized1 and is therefore subject to the church laws4 ,but if1 in fact1 the person was never baptized1 he is not subject to those laws1 as long as he remains unbaptized1 unless there be some accidental necessity of keeping them1 such as the danger of scandal4 7b7 ,before the public authority the law in question does oblige until the non-existence of the fact presumed by the law has been proved in the manner required by law4 ,example3 ,when parties contract marriage according to the form prescribed by the ,church1 the presumption is that the contract was valid1 and1 as long as that presumption is not overcome1 the ,church will not sanction a new marriage by either of the parties4 ,but if it can be proved in court that threats or violence produced lack of consent1 the obligation not to contract a new marriage will terminate before the law4 #dfb4 ,fulfillment of ,law4--,with reference to the manner of fulfilling a law there are a number of questions to be considered3 7a7 as to the external acts1 whether or not one can fulfill the law for another1 whether or not the omission of some slight detail renders compliance insufficient1 whether or not he who cannot fulfill the whole law is bound to fulfill a part of it1 whether or not several obligations can be satisfied at the same time or by the same act1 etc42 7b7 as to the internal acts1 whether or not one must have the intention of meeting the wishes of the lawgiver1 whether or not one must be in the state of grace1 etc4 #dfc4 ,personal fulfillment is not always necessary2 for an affirmative law requires either that some thing be given1 or that some personal act be performed4 7a7 ,when the law requires that some thing be given 7e4g41 that taxes be paid71 the obligation can be satisfied through another1 since a thing can be transferred from one person to another1 who agrees at least interpretatively2 7b7 when the law requires that a personal act be performed 7e4g41 that ,mass be heard on ,sunday71 the obligation cannot be satisfied through another1 for actions cannot be transferred from one to another4 #dfd4 ,minute fulfillment is not always necessary2 for sometimes the minor details of the fulfillment of a law are expressly prescribed1 sometimes they are not4 7a7 ,if these details are required by the law itself or by the nature of the case1 the law is not satisfied if they are neglected4 ,example3 ,friday abstinence ends exactly at midnight1 and hence to eat meat even one minute before midnight is to break that abstinence4 7b7 ,if the law does not prescribe minute details1 these are not required for the fulfillment of the obligation2 for laws should not be unduly burdensome4 ,example3 ,one who is a few minutes late for ,mass does not miss ,mass1 if he is present for the essential parts of the ,mass4 #dfe4 ,partial fulfillment is required of him who cannot make complete fulfillment1 only when the part is commanded for its own sake2 for that which is commanded by a law is considered by the lawgiver as either an indivisible unit1 or as a whole composed of parts that have singly an independent moral value and obligation4 7a7 ,if the thing commanded is morally an indivisible unit 7e4g41 a pilgrimage to a shrine71 he who is not able to fulfill the whole law is bound to nothing4 ,example3 ,one who has made a vow to go on pilgrimage to a distant sanctuary1 is not bound to go part of the way1 if he is unable to make the entire journey4 7b7 ,if the thing commanded has parts that contribute to the end of the law1 he who is able to fulfill only one or more such parts is obliged according to his ability2 if it is certain that he can perform even a part1 he is bound to that2 if it is not certain that he can perform even a part1 it would seem that generally he is excused from all4 ,examples3 ,a cleric who can say some but not all the ,hours of his ,office1 is obliged to say what he can4 ,a person who can certainly abstain1 but who cannot fast1 is bound during ,lent to abstain4 #dff4 ,simultaneous fulfillment by one act of several obligations is lawful1 if the obligations differ only materially4 ,they are said to differ only materially1 if the motive of the legislator in giving different commands about the same thing is the same in each instance2 they differ formally1 if the legislator has a different motive in each instance4 ,the motive is recognized either from the express declaration of the lawgiver1 or from interpretation given through authority or custom4 7a7 ,when two commands differ only materially1 it can be presumed that the legislator is not unwilling that they be fulfilled by one and the same act1 unless it is clear that he wishes them to be fulfilled by distinct acts4 ,example3 ,if one falls sick at ,easter time and receives the ,viaticum1 it is not necessary for him to receive ,communion again in order to make his ,easter duty2 for the divine law of ,viaticum and the church law of ,easter ,communion have the same motive1 and hence can be fulfilled by one and the same ,communion4 7b7 ,when two commands differ formally1 it can be presumed1 unless the opposite is manifest1 that the legislator wishes them to be complied with by distinct acts4 ,example3 ,if a confessor imposes a fast as a penance1 this penance cannot be performed on a fast day2 for the motive of the law of fast is general1 that of the sacramental penance is particular4 #dfg4 ,simultaneous fulfillment by several acts of several obligations is sometimes possible1 sometimes impossible4 ,for the acts prescribed by different laws are either capable or incapable of being done at the same time4 ,thus1 it is possible to hear a ,mass and to say a penance of some ,hail ,marys at the same time4 ,but it does not seem easy for an ordinary person to give attention to four or more ,masses at the same time4 7a7 ,if the acts do not impede one another and the legislator is not unwilling1 several laws can be fulfilled at the same time4 ,example3 ,if two ,masses are being said on adjoining altars1 one can hear both--the one to satisfy the ,sunday obligation1 the other to perform a penance received4 7b7 ,if the acts impede one another1 or if the legislator wishes his laws to be fulfilled at distinct times1 the different obligations cannot be satisfied simultaneously4 ,examples3 ,if a distracted person has received a penance to hear six ,masses1 he cannot hear them all at once1 on account of the division of attention necessary4 ,if the confessor told a person to hear ,mass 8three times10 the latter cannot satisfy by hearing three ,masses at one time4 #dfh4 ,when a law prescribes not only what is to be done1 but when it is to be done1 the time must be observed4 ,but the obligation does not always cease with the expiration of the time4 7a7 ,if the time set by the law is a limit beyond which the obligation ceases1 he who has not complied within that time has no further obligation4 ,examples3 ,he who did not fast on ,christmas ,eve1 would not be obliged to fast on ,christmas ,day4 ,he who did not hear ,mass on ,sunday1 would not be obliged to hear ,mass on ,monday4 7b7 ,if the time set by the law is not a limit to terminate the obligation1 but a date fixed in order to insist on the obligation1 he who has not complied within the prescribed period1 is nevertheless still obliged4 ,examples3 ,he who has not made the ,easter duty by ,trinity ,sunday1 is obliged to receive ,communion after ,trinity4 ,he who has not paid a debt on the day required by law1 is bound to pay it after that day4 #dfi4 ,it depends on the intention of the lawgiver whether the time he prescribes for fulfillment is a limitation of the obligation or not4 ,the intention of the lawgiver is known either from the words or purpose of the law1 or from custom4 #dgj4 ,if the law declares that some duty must be performed within a determined period1 allowing freedom for earlier or later performance within the period1 the following points must be considered4 7a7 ,a person is not obliged to comply early1 if he intends to comply before the period has ended4 7b7 ,he is obliged to comply early1 if he foresees that later he will not be able to do what is required4 ,examples3 ,if a person who has not made his ,easter duty has the opportunity to receive ,communion on ,easter ,sunday1 and will not have another such opportunity till ,christmas1 he is obliged to receive on ,easter ,sunday4 ,but1 if he can communicate any ,sunday during the ,paschal time1 he is not bound to do so on one of the early ,sundays4 ,if one can hear an early ,mass1 but not another ,mass1 on a holyday1 one must hear the early ,mass4 #dga4 ,just as one may not delay fulfillment until after the time set by law1 so neither may one anticipate fulfillment before the time determined1 unless the law may be considered to allow this4 ,examples3 ,if a person has heard ,mass on ,saturday1 he has no right to make this count for the following day4 ,a rosary said before confession cannot be considered as performance of the penance1 if in confession one is given the rosary to say4 #dgb4 ,it is held that a cleric who said the ,breviary in the morning1 just before he was ordained subdeacon and undertook the obligation of the ,office1 satisfied by that anticipated recitation2 likewise1 that a traveller who heard ,mass in a place where a holyday of obligation of the general law was not in force1 has satisfied by anticipation1 if later in the morning he reaches as his destination a place where the holyday is observed4 ,for in both these cases the law intends that the ,office be said1 or the ,mass be heard within the day4 #dgc4 ,if a person who is now able to do what the law requires1 foresees that he will not be able to do this when the time set by the law arrives1 he is not obliged to anticipate fulfillment1 even when he has the privilege of anticipation4 ,examples3 ,a cleric who at #b p4m4 is able to anticipate ,matins for tomorrow1 and who knows that later1 on account of an operation1 he will not be able to say his ,office1 is not bound to anticipate2 for no one is obliged to use a privilege4 ,a person who is able to hear ,mass on ,saturday1 and who knows that all of ,sunday must be spent on the train1 is not obliged to hear ,mass on ,saturday1 though of course this is the better thing to do4 #dgd4 ,the internal acts concerned in the fulfillment of a law are3 7a7 those in the intellect1 such as knowledge2 7b7 those in the will1 such as consent1 motive4 #dge4 ,knowledge of what one is doing is sometimes necessary1 sometimes unnecessary for the fulfillment of a law4 7a7 ,if the law is prohibitive1 knowledge is not necessary1 since nothing more is required by the law than the omission of what is forbidden4 ,example3 ,he who ate no meat on a day of abstinence has fulfilled the law1 even though he was unconscious all day4 7b7 ,if the law is preceptive of a payment to be made1 knowledge is not necessary1 since the law requires nothing more than the effect of an external act4 ,example3 ,he who pays his taxes while intoxicated fulfills his obligation1 even though he does not know what he is doing4 7c7 ,if the law is preceptive of an act to be performed1 knowledge is required1 for it is supposed that the act will be exercised in a human manner4 ,example3 ,he who sleeps all during ,mass on ,sunday does not fulfill his duty1 for the law intends that one assist at ,mass in a human way 7i4e41 with consciousness of what is being done74 #dgf4 ,fulfillment of a law is not morally good and meritorious1 unless it is voluntary 7see #ig sqq472 but the legal obligation is sometimes satisfied even by an unwilling fulfillment4 7a7 ,when the law commands a payment to be made1 one may will the contrary of what is commanded and yet fulfill one's obligation4 ,example3 ,he who pays his taxes unwillingly and under compulsion satisfies the law1 which requires not an act1 but its effect4 7b7 ,when the law forbids something1 it is possible that one does not will the omission commanded and yet fulfills one's obligation4 ,example3 ,he who intends to eat meat on a day of abstinence which he thinks is a meat day1 but1 being unable to find what he wants1 omits the meat1 satisfies the law1 which requires only that one omit what is forbidden and have no will to violate the law4 7c7 ,when the law commands that an act be performed1 one must perform the act willingly1 since the law being for humans intends that fulfillment be made in a human manner4 ,examples3 ,he who is dragged to church and forcibly detained there during ,mass1 does not satisfy the law of sanctifying the ,sunday1 since force makes his assistance at ,mass involuntary 7see #eb74 ,a child that goes to church only to escape punishment satisfies its duty1 if1 in spite of reluctance1 it really intends to hear ,mass1 for fear does not necessarily make an act involuntary 7see #da sqq474 #dgg4 ,as to the intention required in fulfilling a law1 it is to be noted that one must have1 at least implicitly1 the intention of doing what the law prescribes1 in the case given in the third section 7c7 of the preceding paragraph4 ,example3 ,he who goes to church on ,sunday while ,mass is being said with no other purpose than that of hearing the music or of waiting for a friend1 does not satisfy the ,sunday duty1 since he does not at all intend to hear ,mass4 #dgh4 ,the following kinds of intention1 though to be recommended1 are not necessary for the fulfillment of a law4 7a7 ,it is not necessary1 as a rule1 that one intend to satisfy one's obligation1 for human lawgivers have not generally the power or the intention to command acts that are purely internal 7see #cgd1 #dbf74 ,examples3 ,he who hears ,mass on a holyday not intending to perform his duty1 as he does not know that it is a holyday1 has satisfied the law4 ,he who says the rosary out of devotion and then remembers that he has an obligation of saying it because of a promise made or of a penance received1 can regard the rosary said as a fulfillment of his obligation4 7b7 ,it is not necessary that one intend that which the lawgiver had in mind as the purpose of the law2 for 8the end of the law is not a part of the law40 ,example3 ,a person who takes only one full meal during ,lent1 observes the letter of the law2 but he misses its spirit if he eats or drinks greedily1 daintily or copiously1 in order to avoid the mortification intended by the law4 #dgi4 ,if one intends to perform what a law prescribes1 but at the same time expressly intends not to satisfy1 by that performance1 the obligation imposed1 one's act is sufficient or insufficient for fulfillment according to the source from which the obligation arises4 7a7 ,if the obligation arises from the will of the lawgiver1 the act is a sufficient fulfillment1 since the human lawgiver1 as said in the previous paragraph1 does not concern himself with what is purely internal4 ,example3 ,if a person hears ,mass on ,sunday out of devotion1 intending to hear another ,mass in satisfaction of the ,sunday duty1 he is not bound to hear a second ,mass1 as he has already done all that the law requires4 7b7 ,if the obligation arises from one's own will1 as in the case of a promise or a vow1 the act above described is not sufficient fulfillment2 for1 as the obligation arose from the will1 so also the mode of fulfillment is to be determined by the will4 ,example3 ,one who has vowed to hear ,mass1 and who now while hearing ,mass expressly determines that not this but another ,mass will be in satisfaction of his vow1 is bound by his vow to hear another ,mass4 #dhj4 ,as to virtuous dispositions in fulfilling a law1 it is to be observed that1 while a good lawgiver always wishes them1 he does not always require them as a duty of obedience4 ,the virtuous dispositions referred to are of two kinds3 7a7 habitual1 that is1 the permanent spiritual condition of the soul1 such as the state of grace1 the habit of charity1 etc42 7b7 actual1 that is1 the good manner in which the commanded act is done1 such as devout attention in hearing ,mass1 heartfelt contrition in making confession1 freedom from vain-glory in fasting1 etc4 #dha4 ,virtuous dispositions are or are not commanded according as that which is prescribed is or is not a mixed1 or a purely external act 7see above1 #dbf74 7a7 ,when a mixed act is commanded by law1 the virtuous disposition that the nature of the case calls for1 but nothing further1 is strictly prescribed4 ,hence1 the law of ,easter ,communion requires that ,communion be received in the state of grace1 the law of yearly confession that the penitent be truly contrite1 the law of ,sunday ,mass that there be sufficient attention to the ,mass2 but more perfect dispositions 7such as freedom from venial sin in the communicant1 perfect contrition in the penitent1 the state of grace in him who hears ,mass7 are not required for the fulfillment of the laws we are considering4 7b7 ,when a purely external thing is commanded1 the law does not require internal dispositions1 and hence one who performs what is required is not obliged to repeat it on account of the imperfect way he obeyed4 ,example3 ,he who fasts while he is not in the state of grace is not obliged to fast again to make good what was lacking in his previous disposition4 #dhb4 ,of course1 what was said in the preceding paragraph has to do only with single laws1 and with what is strictly needed for the fulfillment of the law4 ,hence3 7a7 he who sins because of the way in which he fulfills one law1 violates another law 7e4g41 one who is willingly1 though not entirely1 distracted at ,mass1 obeys the church law of assistance at ,mass on ,sunday1 but he disobeys the divine law that he worship ,god devoutly72 7b7 he who has less devotion in obeying a law than he might have had1 does not deserve reprehension as a transgressor1 but his conduct is less praiseworthy4 #dhc4 ,interpretation4--,the meaning of interpretation and its various species were explained above in #cae sqq4 #dhd4 ,as to the force of interpretation of church laws1 the following points must be noted3 7a7 ,authentic interpretation given in the form of law has the force of law2 if it is merely declarative of words of the law certain in themselves1 it does not need promulgation and is retroactive2 if it is supplementary1 it needs promulgation and is not retroactive1 since it is a new law 7,canon #ag1 ,sec4 #b72 7b7 ,authentic interpretation given in the form of judicial sentence or of rescript in a particular matter has not the force of law2 and it obliges only the persons and affects only the things concerned 7,canon #ag1 ,sec4 #c72 7c7 ,usual interpretation has the force of law when it is given through a legitimate custom 7see above1 #cia sqq471 for 8custom is the best interpreter of law02 7d7 ,doctrinal interpretation has not the force of law1 since it does not proceed from the lawgiver4 ,its value depends on the reasons and the authority by which it is supported4 ,when all the doctors agree1 their interpretation is morally certain2 when they disagree1 the various interpretations have more or less probability4 #dhe4 ,rules for ,doctrinal ,interpretation4--7a7 ,the words must be understood in their proper sense according to text and context1 unless this be impossible2 if doubtful1 they must be judged according to parallel places in the ,code1 the circumstances1 reason of the law1 and the mind of the lawgiver 7,canon #ah74 7b7 ,things that are burdensome should be understood in their most restricted sense 7,canon #ai71 things that are favorable in their widest sense4 ,thus1 the censure pronounced against simony is understood in the narrow sense of simony against the divine law2 a privilege granted to the clergy is understood in the wide sense as given to all the clergy4 7c7 ,things that remain obscure should be understood in the sense that is least burdensome to subjects4 7d7 ,a particular law derogates from a general law2 but a general law does not derogate from a previous particular law1 unless derogation is expressly mentioned in the general law2 for the particular law is considered an exception to the general law 7,canon #bb74 #dhf4 ,authentic interpretations of ecclesiastical laws are given by the legislator1 his successor1 or one delegated by either 7,canon #ag1 ,sec4 #a74 7a7 ,the ,pope is the authentic interpreter of all ecclesiastical laws4 ,a special commission appointed by the ,pope interprets the general law of the ,code4 7b7 ,the bishop is the authentic interpreter of diocesan laws made by himself or by his predecessors4 #dhg4 ,cessation of ,obligation4--,the ordinary ways in which a law ceases to be obligatory for an individual are3 7a7 on the part of the subject1 that he ceases to be subject to the law 7exemption71 or is unable to observe it 7excuse72 7b7 on the part of the lawgiver1 that he removes the obligation for the individual 7dispensation74 #dhh4 ,as to exemption from ,church laws note3 7a7 he who ceases to be subject to the law 7e4g41 one who has received a privilege of exemption1 or who has departed from the place where the law is in force71 is of course not obliged by the law2 7b7 neither is he guilty of any fault if he brought about his freedom only just before the law became effective and with the sole purpose of being exempt2 for the law does not oblige that one remain subject to it4 #dhi4 ,excuses from the law are reduced to two1 namely1 ignorance and impossibility4 7a7 ,ignorance excuses from the guilt of non-observance1 if it is inculpable 7see #bd sqq474 ,the question now is whether or not and when it excuses from legal consequences1 such as invalidity1 penalty1 reservation of sin1 etc4 7b7 ,impossibility excuses from both obligation and guilt4 #dij4 ,ignorance of ecclesiastical law or of a penalty attached to the law has the following effects determined in the law3 7a7 ,no kind of ignorance excuses from irritating or inhabilitating laws1 unless the contrary is expressly provided for in the law itself 7,canon #af1 ,sec4 #a74 ,thus a person who contracts marriage1 while ignorant that he and the other person are first cousins1 is invalidly married4 7b7 ,affected ignorance of ecclesiastical law or of the penalty alone does not excuse from any penalties latae sententiae 7,canon #bbbi1 ,sec4#a74 7c7 ,if the law contains the following words3 praesumpserit1 ausus fuerit1 scienter1 studiose1 temerarie1 consulto egerit1 or others similar to them which require full knowledge and deliberation1 any diminution of imputability on the part of either the intellect or the will exempts the delinquent from penalties latae sententiae 7,canon #bbbi1 ,sec4#b74 7d7 ,if the law does not contain such words1 crass or supine ignorance of the law or even of only the penalty does not exempt from any penalty latae sententiae2 ignorance that is not crass or supine exempts from medicinal penalties1 but not from vindicative penalties latae sententiae 7,canon #bbbi1 ,sec4#c1 #a74 #dia4 ,other specific determinations of the law include3 7a7 ,inculpable ignorance of the law itself excludes moral imputability 7,canon #bbjb1 ,sec4#a72 actual inculpable inadvertence or error in regard to the law has the same effect 7,canon #bbjb1 ,sec4#c74 7b7 ,culpable ignorance1 or culpable inadvertence1 or error concerning the law or concerning the fact diminish imputability more or less in proportion to the culpability of the ignorance 7,canon #bbjb1 ,sec4#a74 7c7 ,if the ignorance1 even inculpable1 affects only the fact of the existence of the penalty1 it does not exclude imputability of the delict1 but it does diminish it 7,canon #bbjb1 ,sec4#b74 #dib4 ,absolute or physical impossibility 7i4e41 the want of the power or of the means of complying with a law71 of course1 excuses from its observance2 for no one is bound to what is impossible4 ,this applies to divine law1 and hence much more to human law4 ,example3 ,he who is unable to leave the house is not obliged to go to ,mass4 #dic4 ,moral impossibility--that is1 the inability to comply with the law without extraordinary labor1 or the imminent danger of losing a notable good or of incurring a great evil--does not excuse from the observance of ecclesiastical law when this law receives through circumstances the added force of the negative law of nature4 ,this happens when the evil that will result through the observance of the law bears no proportion to the evil that will result from its violation1 the former being private or temporal or human1 the latter public or spiritual or divine2 for the law of nature forbids that the common welfare1 or the salvation of a soul1 or the honor of ,god be sacrificed for the benefit of an individual1 or for the life of the body1 or for the welfare of a creature4 ,example3 ,the command to abstain from meat on ,friday obliges1 if one has been ordered to violate it as a sign of contempt of ,god or of religion1 even though death is threatened for refusal4 #did4 ,moral impossibility excuses from the observance of a human law in the following cases3 7a7 ,one is excused when a considerable loss in health1 reputation1 spiritual advantage1 property1 etc41 or a grave inconvenience will result from observing a law which is not a prohibition of nature in the sense of the previous paragraph2 for the legislator cannot impose obligations that are needlessly heavy1 and hence positive law does not oblige in case of such moral impossibility4 ,example3 ,our ,lord reproved the inhuman rigor of the ,pharisees1 who insisted that their regulations must be observed1 whatever the difficulty or cost4 7b7 ,one is excused when a lower or less urgent law is in conflict with a law that is higher or more urgent4 ,in such a case the greater obligation prevails1 and the lesser obligation disappears4 ,examples3 ,the divine laws that one must preserve one's life or administer ,baptism to a dying person prevail over the human law of attendance at church4 ,the less urgent law of fasting yields to the more urgent law of devoting oneself to duties required by one's state of life1 if there is a conflict between the two laws4 #die4 ,the loss1 evil or inconvenience that constitutes moral impossibility with respect to a law1 must bear a proportion to the law itself2 and hence the higher or the more imperative the law1 the greater must be the reason that suffices to excuse from it4 #dif4 ,only a learned and prudent man can determine whether moral impossibility exists with reference to a particular case1 and hence it would be dangerous for those who are not theologians to decide1 either for themselves or for others4 ,the points that have to be considered in judging are3 7a7 whether or not the difficulty is of a gravity proportionate to the importance of the law 7e4g41 a graver reason is required to excuse from a law that obliges under mortal sin than to excuse from a law that binds under light sin72 7b7 whether or not the difficulty is grave in relation to the person concerned 7e4g41 an obligation that is easy for a healthy person may be very difficult for one who is infirm74 #dig4 ,it is never lawful to bring about either physical or moral impossibility of observing a law1 if this be done with the sole or principal purpose of escaping one's duty4 ,example3 ,to go away on ,saturday in order to avoid ,mass on ,sunday4 #dih4 ,it is lawful to cause impossibility of observing a law1 if there be some sufficient reason for doing this2 for it is lawful to do something from which two effects1 one good and the other bad1 result1 if the good effect is the one intended1 and there is a sufficient reason for permitting the evil effect 7#ajb sqq474 ,example3 ,it is sometimes lawful to do some extra work that is very useful1 even if the labor makes one unable to observe a fast4 #dii4 ,the sufficient reason spoken of in the last paragraph is one that is proportionate to the urgency and importance of the command and to the frequency of the non-observance4 ,examples3 ,a greater reason is required to take up some work which will make it impossible to keep the fast1 if this be done on the fast day itself1 than if it be done the day before4 ,a far greater reason is required to take up some work that makes the observance of the fast impossible1 if this happens frequently or habitually1 than if it happens only once or twice4 #ejj4 ,cessation of ,law4--,a law ceases in two ways4 7a7 ,it ceases from without 7i4e41 from the act of the legislator71 when he abolishes it1 by total or partial revocation 7abrogation1 derogation71 or by the institution of a new law directly contrary to it 7obrogation74 ,in the new ,code of ,canon ,law there are many instances of revocation or obrogation of older legislation 7see ,canons #bb1 #bc71 as in the matter of censures and matrimonial impediments4 ,examples3 ,in the diocese of ,x a minor feast was made a holyday of obligation4 ,this law was abrogated1 if later on it was decreed that neither the prohibition against servile works nor the precept of hearing ,mass was obligatory for that feast2 it was derogated from1 if later it was decreed that servile works were permitted1 but ,mass was obligatory for that day2 it was obrogated1 if a later law included the minor feast in a list of special days of devotion for which the hearing of ,mass was recommended4 7b7 ,a law ceases from within 7i4e41 of itself71 when through change of conditions the purpose for which it was made no longer exists1 or is no longer served by the law4 #eja4 ,the purpose for which a law was made ceases to be served by the law in two cases4 7a7 ,a law no longer serves its purpose1 if1 from having been a benefit1 it has become a detriment1 inasmuch as its observance now would be wicked1 or impossible1 or too burdensome4 ,in this case the law ceases1 since it is now contrary to the supreme law that the common welfare be promoted4 ,example3 ,a particular law forbade the use of fat or grease in the preparation of food on days of abstinence4 ,later1 it became impossible to procure the substitutes previously used4 7b7 ,a law no longer serves its purpose1 if1 from having been useful1 it has become useless1 inasmuch as it is no longer necessary for the end intended by the lawgiver4 ,in this case the law ceases1 for regulations should not be imposed needlessly4 ,example3 ,the ,council of ,jerusalem made a law that the faithful should abstain from using as food animals that had been strangled 7,acts1 xv4 #bj74 ,the purpose of the law was to avoid offense to the ,jewish converts1 who at that time formed a large part of the ,christian community and who had a religious abhorrence for such food4 ,but shortly afterwards1 the ,gentile element having become stronger in the ,church1 no attention was paid to ceremonial rules of ,judaism4 #ejb4 ,a law ceases to serve its purpose also as follows3 7a7 ,the law becomes harmful or useless with reference to the purpose of the lawgiver generally and permanently1 if the changed conditions affect the whole community or the great majority1 and are lasting4 ,in this case the law ceases2 for1 since it is made for the community as a whole and as a lasting ordinance1 it cannot endure1 if it becomes permanently unserviceable to the community4 ,examples are given in the previous paragraph4 7b7 ,the law becomes harmful or useless with reference to the lawgiver's purpose privately or temporarily1 if the harm or uselessness affects only individuals1 or is not lasting4 ,in this case the law continues to be an instrument of public welfare1 or is only momentarily deprived of its beneficial character4 ,hence it endures2 but for temporary inconvenience to the public a remedy is had in suspension of the law1 for inconvenience to individuals in dispensation4 ,example3 ,if the use of fats or grease were forbidden on days of abstinence1 and if for a time only it were impossible to obtain the substitutes for the preparation of the food1 the law would not cease1 but would be suspended until such time as substitutes could be obtained4 #ejc4 ,the inconvenience caused to individuals from the fact that a law does not serve its purpose in a case before them1 does not always justify the use of epieikeia4 7a7 ,if the observance of the law would be detrimental to the purpose intended by the lawgiver1 epieikeia might be used2 for the lawgiver does not intend that his law should be an obstacle to what he has in view as its end4 ,example3 ,caius needs to read a book placed on the ,index in order to defend the ,faith against attacks1 but he is unable to request the general faculty to read forbidden works4 ,obedience to the law in this case would defeat the purpose of the law1 which is the protection of faith1 and hence ,caius may use epieikeia4 7b7 ,if the observance of the law would be unnecessary1 but not detrimental as regards the purpose of the lawgiver1 epieikeia may not be used2 else the law would lose its force through the judgments of individuals in their own favor1 and the common welfare would suffer4 ,examples3 ,titus has an opportunity to read a book placed on the ,index1 but has not the time to apply for permission4 ,the work was condemned as dangerous to faith2 but ,titus is strong in faith1 and wishes only to study the literary qualities of the writer4 ,sempronius1 a parish priest1 is requested to officiate at a marriage immediately1 without proclaiming the banns or seeking a dispensation from proclamation4 ,the purpose of the law of banns is that impediments may be detected and invalid marriages avoided1 and ,sempronius is absolutely certain that there is no impediment in the case before him4 ,titus and ,sempronius must observe the law1 and the same must be said as regards every actual case in which there is the possibility of self-deception and peril to the common good4 ,the theoretical case1 in which neither of these inconveniences would be present1 need not be considered4 #ejd4 ,the purpose of the law ceases to exist as follows3 7a7 adequately1 when all the reasons on account of which it was made are no longer in existence2 in such a case the law itself ceases1 for the lawgiver is not considered as intending to oblige when the reason for obligation has ceased4 ,example3 ,if the bishop orders prayers to be said for rain1 the prayers cease to be obligatory when rain has come2 7b7 inadequately1 when the reason for the law has ceased partially1 but not entirely4 ,in such a case the law does not cease1 for it still remains useful4 ,example3 ,if the bishop orders prayers for peace and rain1 the prayers are obligatory until both requests have been obtained4 #eje4 ,a law ceases1 therefore1 in greater or less degree1 according to circumstances4 7a7 ,it ceases entirely or partially1 according as it is revoked or as it becomes useless as to all its provisions1 or only as to one or more of them2 7b7 it ceases permanently or temporarily1 according as the revocation or cessation is only for a time1 or for good4 #ejf4 ,custom4--,in ,canon ,law custom can interpret1 abrogate or introduce law1 provided3 7a7 it has the qualities of legitimate custom1 and 7b7 its existence is proved juridically1 or is notorious4 #ejg4 ,according to their extension1 customs are of various kinds4 7a7 ,universal customs are those that prevail in the entire ,church2 7b7 particular customs are those that are confined to a territorial portion of the ,church 7e4g41 a province of the ,church or of an ,order72 7c7 special customs are those that are followed in societies that are smaller1 but capable of having their own laws 7e4g41 independent monasteries72 7d7 most special customs are those observed by individuals1 or by communities not capable of having their own legislation 7e4g41 parishes74 ,at the most1 customs of this last class have only the force of privilege 7,canon #bf74 #ejh4 ,custom is formed as follows4 7a7 ,as to origin1 it arises from the practice of the people1 when this practice is followed with the purpose of making or unmaking a law4 ,hence1 the habitual way of acting of an individual1 even if he be the superior1 does not give rise to a custom4 ,by 8people0 here is meant a community capable of having its own law 7,canon #bf74 7b7 ,as to legal force1 custom arises solely from the consent of the ,pope or other prelate1 when this consent is expressed by the law or lawgiver1 or tacitly admitted by him4 ,hence1 a custom not approved by the superior has no legal force 7,canon #be74 #eji4 ,a custom can introduce or abrogate any kind of ecclesiastical law or other custom--penal1 prohibitive1 irritant--if it is reasonable and has lasted the prescribed time 7,canons #bg1 #bh74 ,examples3 ,a law that forbids contrary customs can be abrogated1 according to the ,code1 by such customs when they are immemorial1 or a century old 7,canon #bg1 ,sec4 #a74 ,the impediment of disparity of worship became diriment through custom2 it was custom that introduced the obligation of the ,divine ,office1 and that mitigated the early law of fast4 #eaj4 ,a custom expressly disapproved of in law is not reasonable or legitimate1 and cannot derogate from an existing law1 nor establish a new law 7,canons #bg1 #bh74 #eaa4 ,the time prescribed by the ,code of ,canon ,law for the acquisition of legal force by customs that have not the personal consent of the lawgiver is as follows3 7a7 forty continuous and complete years are required to unmake an ordinary law2 one hundred years to unmake a law that forbids future contrary custom 7,canon #bg1 ,sec4 #a72 7b7 forty continuous and complete years are likewise required to make a new law 7,canon #bh74 #eab4 ,the effect of the ,code on customs previously existing was considered above under #dba4 #eac4 ,like the written law1 custom ceases3 7a7 from within1 when its purpose has ceased entirely2 7b7 from without1 when it is abrogated by desuetude1 or by a contrary law or custom 7,canon #cj74 #ead4 ,laws in a ,wide ,sense4--,in addition to laws strictly so-called1 there are laws in a wide sense1 commands or provisions made by ecclesiastical superiors that have not all the conditions given above 7see #bhe7 for law4 ,such are3 7a7 precepts1 which differ from law1 because they are given not to the community or permanently1 but to individuals or temporarily2 7b7 rescripts1 which are given with regard to particular cases and without the solemnity of law2 7c7 privileges1 which are not obligatory2 7d7 dispensations1 which are relaxations of law granted to individuals4 #eae4 ,a precept is a command given to individuals1 or for an individual case1 by a competent superior4 7a7 ,it is a command obliging in conscience1 and so differs from counsel1 desire1 exhortation4 7b7 ,it is given to individuals1 and thus differs from law1 which has the character of universality and stability4 ,a precept may be imposed on a community1 but even then it is particular1 as being given only for an individual case or for a certain length of time--for a month or a year1 or during the lifetime of the superior4 7c7 ,it is given by a competent superior4 ,even here precept differs from law1 since laws can be made only by one who has jurisdictional or public authority 7see above1 #bhe71 while precepts may be given also by those who have only dominative or private authority 7as parents1 heads of families1 husbands1 employers1 abbesses74 ,in canonical matters precepts may be given by religious superiors1 parish priests1 rectors of seminaries1 and for the court of conscience by the confessor4 #eaf4 ,precept is similar to law3 7a7 as to its object1 which must be just1 good1 and possible of observance2 7b7 as to its binding force1 since it can be imposed even on those who are unwilling4 #eag4 ,precepts are personal 7i4e41 they affect the person to whom they are given wherever he may be71 unless they are given as territorial 7,canon #bd74 ,hence3 7a7 a precept given by one who has no territorial authority 7e4g41 a religious superior7 is personal2 7b7 a precept given by the ,pope1 whose authority includes every territory1 is also personal2 7c7 a precept given by the bishop is personal1 if given to an individual2 it is personal or territorial if given to a community1 according to the nature of the case or the wording of the precept4 ,example3 ,the precept not to go to theatres during a journey1 imposed by a bishop under pain of suspension1 obliges everywhere1 both as to fault and as to penalty4 #eah4 ,as to the force of precepts3 7a7 morally or as to fault1 they oblige1 so that the violator is guilty of disobedience and of sin against any particular virtue the superior willed to impose under precept2 7b7 juridically or as to the penalty prescribed1 they do not oblige1 unless the precept was given legally--i4e41 by a written document1 or in the presence of two witnesses1 etc4 7,canon #bd74 ,example3 ,if a precept was given under the penalty of loss of office1 but without the legal formalities1 the canonical process and sentence of deprivation could not be resorted to4 #eai4 ,a precept expires of itself with the expiration of the authority that gave it 7e4g41 at the death or cessation of office of the superior71 unless the precept was given by document or before witnesses 7,canon #bd74 #ebj4 ,a rescript is a written reply made by the ,holy ,see or the ,ordinary to a request1 statement1 or consultation4 ,replies of this kind are employed in reference to the concession of benefices and to dispositions to be made concerning litigation and judicial procedure4 ,usually they grant favors1 either transitory--e4g41 a dispensation--or permanent--e4g41 a privilege 7,canons #cf-fb74 #eba4 ,a privilege is a special and permanent right granted by a ruler to an individual or community to act contrary to or beyond the law4 7a7 ,it is a permanent right1 and so resembles law1 which is also stable and forbids interference with what it grants4 7b7 ,it is a special right1 and so it differs from law1 which is general and imposes obligation4 ,it is sometimes styled 8private law40 ,moreover1 law requires promulgation1 privilege requires only acceptance4 7c7 ,it is granted by the ruler 7i4e41 by the ,pope1 bishop1 or other legislator71 and thus it differs from permission granted by a simple superior4 7d7 ,it is granted to a person1 that is1 to an individual 7,titus1 ,caius1 ,balbus1 etc47 or to a congregation or community2 for1 if granted to all1 it would not be special4 7e7 ,a privilege gives the right to act contrary to the general law 7e4g41 by exempting from a tax7 or beyond the general law 7e4g41 by granting the power to dispense74 ,thus1 a privilege differs also from prerogatives that are set down in the ,code itself 7e4g41 the special rights and faculties of ,cardinals1 bishops1 regulars1 etc471 all of which are laws and not privileges in the strict sense4 #ebb4 ,the rules for interpretation of privileges are similar to those for the interpretation of law 7see #dhc sqq474 ,they should be neither extended nor restricted1 but should be understood according to the meaning of the words themselves 7,canon #fg71 yet so that the party receiving the privilege will seem to have obtained a favor 7,canon #fh74 ,if the meaning intended is doubtful1 the following rules of the ,code 7,canons #ej1 #fh7 should be followed3 7a7 wide interpretation is to be given to the privileges that are beyond or outside of the law and that are not prejudicial to others1 as well as to privileges that were given as a reward of merit2 7b7 strict interpretation is to be given to privileges that are contrary to law 7saving the cases of privileges granted to pious causes or in favor of a community71 to privileges granted because of an agreement made1 and to privileges that are prejudicial to third parties4 #ebc4 ,a privilege is a favor1 and hence does not as such impose the duty of acceptance or use2 but obligations owed to others often make it necessary to avail oneself of a privilege 7,canon #fi74 7a7 ,prerogatives granted in the law cannot be renounced by individuals1 since their preservation is required by the common good4 ,example3 ,a cleric has no right to abandon an immunity which the law gives to his state4 7b7 ,privileges granted to a community can be renounced by the community1 but not by its individual members4 ,an individual member is not bound1 however1 to use the privilege1 unless there be accidental reasons1 such as the command of a superior1 that require him to do so4 7c7 ,privileges granted to individuals need not be used by them1 unless there be accidental reasons that call on one to use a privilege4 ,example3 ,a priest who has the privilege of a private oratory is not bound to establish such an oratory2 but a priest who has the privilege of absolving from reserved cases is bound in charity to use it1 if a penitent would otherwise suffer4 #ebd4 ,dispensation differs from privilege3 7a7 because the former from its nature is temporary1 the latter permanent2 7b7 because the former is always contrary to the law1 whereas the latter may be only beyond the law4 #ebe4 ,the ,pope can dispense as follows3 7a7 in all ecclesiastical laws he can grant a dispensation strictly so-called 7,canon #ha72 7b7 in divine laws in which the obligation depends on an act of the human will 7such as the laws of oaths1 vows1 contracts1 etc471 he can grant a dispensation improperly so-called 7see above1 #cac sqq41 #ceg71 ,in other divine laws1 he can interpret or declare1 but he cannot dispense4 #ebf4 ,the ,ordinary can dispense as follows3 7a7 in the general law of the ,church when he has an explicit or implicit faculty from the ,pope or from the law 7,canon #ha72 7b7 in diocesan laws and1 in particular cases1 also in laws of provincial and plenary councils1 when there is just reason 7,canon #hb72 7c7 in papal laws made for a particular territory1 when faculty has been given explicitly or implicitly1 or recourse to the ,holy ,see is difficult 7,canon #hb72 7d7 in all ecclesiastical laws that are dispensable1 when there is doubt of fact 7,canon #ae74 #ebg4 ,the pastor can dispense as follows3 7a7 from the general law concerning feasts of obligation and from the laws of fast and abstinence4 ,the dispensation can be granted either to his own subjects or to strangers1 but only for a just reason1 in individual instances and for particular individuals or families4 ,the bishop may dispense the whole diocese1 but the pastor cannot dispense the whole parish 7,canon #abde74 7b7 ,when there is danger of death1 the pastor can dispense from matrimonial impediments as provided in ,canon #ajdd4 #ebh4 ,religious superiors1 local superiors included1 can dispense in the laws and statutes of their own institutes1 except where this is forbidden4 ,in clerical and exempt institutes the superiors can also dispense the subjects and all who live day and night in the religious house 7such as students1 guests and servants7 from the general laws of the ,church1 as follows3 7a7 ,the higher superiors1 such as abbots1 generals1 provincials1 have the same authority in this respect as the bishop has with reference to his own diocese4 ,hence1 they can dispense in all ecclesiastical laws in which the ,pope dispenses1 when there is doubt of fact1 or recourse to the ,holy ,see is difficult 7,canons #ae1 #ha72 in case of necessity1 they can dispense from the laws of abstinence individuals1 or an entire convent1 or an entire province 7,canon #abde1 ,sec4 #b72 they can dispense in irregularities as provided in ,canon #iij1 ,sec4 #a4 7b7 ,the other superiors1 local superiors included1 can dispense their subjects from the laws of fast and abstinence in the same manner as pastors are able to dispense their parishioners 7,canon #abde1 ,sec4 #c71 ,religious superiors are also able to dispense the private non-reserved vows of their subjects 7,canons #acac1 ,sec4 #b1 #acad74 #ebi4 ,confessors1 when delegated1 can dispense as follows3 7a7 with ordinary faculties1 from impediments1 irregularities and penalties1 as provided in ,canons #ajdd1 #ajde1 #ihe1 #iij1 #bbij2 7b7 with privileged faculties1 from simple vows not reserved to the ,pope1 if no injury is done to the rights of a third party2 and from occult irregularity produced by delinquency1 that from homicide excepted4 7,in the internal sacramental forum the confessor can dispense from the impediments indicated in ,canons #ajdc-ajde47 #ecj4 ,priests that assist at marriages can dispense from impediments as provided in ,canons #ajdc-ajde4 #eca4 ,the manner of seeking dispensations is as follows3 7a7 for the usual dispensations 7e4g41 those from fast1 abstinence1 observance of feasts1 and the vows that may be dispensed by confessors7 no particular procedure is required2 7b7 for the dispensation that must be sought from the ,holy ,see1 if the matter belongs to the internal forum1 the petition is sent to the ,sacred ,penitentiary through the ,confessor or ,ordinary2 if it belongs to the external forum1 it is sent to the competent ,congregation through the parish priest or ,ordinary4 ,dispensation from public marriage impediments must be sent through the ,ordinary4 #ecb4 ,the manner of preparing a petition for dispensation is as follows3 7a7 the name of the penitent must not be given in petitions to the ,sacred ,penitentiary1 but the name and address of the party to whom the reply is to be sent should be clearly given2 7b7 the petition should be sent by letter4 ,it may be written in any language1 and should state the case with its circumstances1 the favor that is asked1 and the true reason for asking it4 #ecc4 ,a dispensation is invalidated as follows3 7a7 through defect of the petition1 if it contains a substantial error1 and the dispensation is given on condition of substantial truth 7,canon #dj72 7b7 through defect of the petitioner1 if he is incapable of receiving the favor asked 7,canon #df72 7c7 through defect of the dispensation1 as when the requisite signature or seal is omitted2 7d7 through defect of the dispenser1 as when he lacks jurisdiction1 or grants without a just and proportionate reason a dispensation for which he has only delegated power 7,canon #hd74 #ecd4 ,if a dispensation is unjustly refused1 note the following3 7a7 ordinarily1 the subject has not the right to hold himself free from the law2 7b7 in extraordinary circumstances1 when the law ceases1 or no longer obliges 7see #dhg sqq471 the subject is free4 #ece4 ,the faculty of dispensing should be interpreted as follows3 7a7 widely1 when it was granted for cases in general 7,canon #bjj1 ,sec4#a72 7b7 strictly1 when it is granted for a particular case 7,canon #he74 #ecf4 ,a dispensation itself should be interpreted strictly in the following cases3 7a7 when the dispensation has an odious side1 as when it is contrary to law and advantageous to private interest or is detrimental to a third party2 7b7 when wide interpretation is dangerous1 as favoring injustice1 promoting ambition1 etc4 7,canons #ej1 #he74 #ecg4 ,a dispensation ceases intrinsically in the following ways3 7a7 by the lapse of the period of time for which it was granted2 7b7 by the entire and certain cessation of the motive of the dispensation1 if the effect of the dispensation is divisible--that is1 if the motive for dispensation has to be existent each time that the law calls for an act or omission 7,canon #hf74 ,example3 ,if one is dispensed from the fast or ,office on account of ill-health1 and later recovers1 the dispensation ceases4 #ech4 ,a dispensation ceases extrinsically in the following ways3 7a7 by the act of the one who dispensed1 if he validly recalls the dispensation1 or by his cessation from office1 if he limited the dispensation to his own term of authority 7,canons #hf1 #gc72 7b7 by the act of the one who was dispensed1 if he renounces the dispensation without detriment to any third party1 and with the consent of the superior 7,canons #hf1 #gb74 #eci4 ,a dispensation does not cease in the following cases through the cessation of the motive for which it was given3 7a7 ,if the motive ceases only partially or doubtfully1 even though the effect of the dispensation be divisible--that is1 requiring the existence of the motive for the grant each time the dispensation is used4 ,for1 if the dispensation ceased in such cases1 its benefit would frequently be in great part lost on account of the worry and scruple to which the persons dispensed would be exposed4 ,example3 ,balbus has been dispensed from fast on account of poor health4 ,later on he improves1 but has not recovered his strength entirely1 or at least is not certain of his recovery4 ,he may continue still to use the dispensation4 7b7 ,a dispensation does not cease if the motive ceases entirely and certainly1 but the effect of the dispensation is indivisible--that is1 removing the entire obligation once for all4 ,example3 ,titus is a widower with several young children4 ,he wishes to marry in order to have a home for the children1 and this wish is the motive of a dispensation given him from an impediment of affinity to the marriage he contemplates4 ,but before the marriage takes place1 the children die1 ,the dispensation still holds good4 #edj4 ,a dispensation does not cease by reason of the grantor in the following cases3 7a7 ,it does not cease through the grantor's cessation from authority1 if it was given independently of his term of office4 ,example3 ,sempronius received a dispensation 8valid until recall10 but never made use of it4 ,although now the grantor has died1 the dispensation continues in force4 7b7 ,it does not cease1 if the grantor invalidly recalls the dispensation1 as when he dispenses from delegated power and his authority ceases with the act of dispensation4 ,example3 ,balbus1 a confessor1 dispensed ,caius from the law of abstinence1 but now wishes to recall the dispensation4 ,the dispensation remains4 #eda4 ,a dispensation does not cease on account of the person dispensed in the following cases3 7a7 ,it does not cease when he leaves the territory of the dispenser1 if the dispensation was personal4 ,example3 ,a person dispensed from the general law of fast by indult granted to his diocese cannot use that dispensation outside the diocese2 but if he has a personal dispensation1 he is dispensed everywhere4 7b7 ,it does not cease when the grantee fails to use it1 or acts contrary to it1 if there is no renunciation on his part4 ,examples3 ,sempronius has been dispensed from the fast of ,lent1 but he fasts on some days4 ,this non-use of the dispensation on some days does not renew the obligation4 ,balbus has received a dispensation to marry ,sempronia1 but he changes his mind and marries ,claudia4 ,this act contrary to the dispensation does not take away its force1 and1 if ,claudia dies1 he will be free to marry ,sempronia4 ,art4 #f3 ,,civil ,,law #edb4 ,meaning4--,just as the ,church has the right and duty to make laws which will promote the spiritual welfare of her members1 so has the ,state the power and obligation to legislate for the temporal happiness of its citizens3 8,there is no power but from ,god and those that are1 are ordained of ,god4 ,he 7the ruler7 is ,god's minister to thee for good0 7,rom41 xiii4 #a1 #d74 #edc4 ,origin4--,the authority to make civil laws resides in that person or body to whom according to the constitution of the ,state the legislative function belongs4 7a7 ,in an absolute monarchy1 the legislative authority is vested in the prince2 7b7 in a state that has an appointed or hereditary aristocracy1 the legislative power may be entrusted1 at least in part1 to a body of nobles2 7c7 in a limited monarchy or republic the lawmaking function belongs to the people1 who exercise it either directly or 7as is the case in most modern states7 indirectly through elected representatives4 #edd4 ,the acceptance of civil law by the people is not necessary for its obligation1 for obedience to higher powers is commanded 7,rom41 xiii1 #e71 and1 if law has no authority1 the common welfare is defeated4 ,several points must1 however1 be noted4 7a7 ,the foregoing principle is to be understood of law in itself1 for1 if there is question of the form of government or of him who exercises the powers of sovereignty1 acceptance by the people may be said to be necessary in the sense that the multitude may set up the particular system of rule which it prefers1 and may designate the individuals who are to wield authority under the constitution adopted4 7b7 ,the principle given above is to be accepted regularly speaking1 for there may be cases in which the acceptance of the people is required by law itself4 ,example3 ,under former civil constitutions1 if in a certain place a lawful custom was in force1 a contrary law which did not expressly abolish the custom did not oblige unless accepted4 ,but this example is theoretical1 for modern civil codes do not recognize the derogatory force of custom4 ,if the constitution of the state calls for a referendum or plebiscite 7i4e41 submission to the electors for ratification71 then the bill passed by the legislature or a measure proposed by the initiative body lacks force until accepted4 ,this illustrates acceptance of a proposed law1 but the acceptance is supplemented by some ministerial act4 7c7 ,the principle given above is to be understood of the taking effect of a law1 for the continuance of a law may depend on the acceptance of the people in the sense that a contrary custom of the people is able to abrogate law1 if the superior consents 7see #ejj sqq474 ,few codes of modern states give legal force to popular custom2 they suppose that1 if a law is not satisfactory to the people1 the way is open to its repeal through exercise of the suffrage4 ,but1 morally speaking1 there is no obligation to obey a law that has fallen into desuetude4 #ede4 ,as to laws made by one who has no lawful authority1 we should note3 7a7 of themselves1 they have no binding force1 since law is an act of authority2 7b7 from the necessities of the case1 they are obligatory1 if1 being otherwise just1 they are accepted by the great body of the people2 for to resist them then would be prejudicial to public order4 #edf4 ,subject-,matter4--,the objects or classes of temporal goods that fall under the regulation of civil law are many3 7a7 external goods1 or goods of fortune1 which should have the protection of the ,state2 and the laws regarding them should promote agriculture1 commerce1 industry1 the arts1 etc42 7b7 the goods of the body1 which are more important still1 and hence the law should favor the family and the increase of its members1 and should provide for the health and well-being of the citizens by sanitary regulations and measures of relief for the needy1 the unemployed1 the orphans1 and the aged2 7c7 the goods of the mind1 which are necessary for progress and happiness1 and hence the law should provide the means for instruction in the secular arts and sciences and for the general diffusion of useful knowledge2 7d7 the goods of the will 7i4e41 virtue and morality71 which are most important both to the individual and the community1 and hence the law must safeguard public decency and sobriety1 and restrain and punish the opposite crimes and vices2 7e7 the social goods of the people1 which are promoted by wise legislation concerning the form and administration of government1 the mutual duties and rights of citizens1 the protection of the ,state and of its members1 etc4 #edg4 ,the relation of civil law to natural law is as follows3 7a7 ,the ,state has no power to make laws that are opposed to nature1 for1 since law is an ordinance according to reason1 any human command that is contrary to nature and therefore to reason is not law1 but the corruption of law4 ,no sin1 not even a venial sin1 can be made obligatory by law4 ,example3 ,the rule of ,sparta that sickly infants were to be put to death was not law but legalized murder4 7b7 ,the ,state has the power to declare and enforce by suitable sanctions the conclusions that are derived from the general principles of the law of nature2 for many people might be ignorant of these conclusions or inclined to disregard them1 unless they were promulgated and confirmed by human law4 ,example3 ,the natural law requires that parents provide for their young children1 and that children assist their needy parents2 the civil law adopts these natural principles1 compels their observance1 and punishes transgressors4 7c7 ,the ,state has the power to make concrete and to determine the provisions of the natural law that are abstract or general4 ,example3 ,the natural law decrees that some form of government be set up1 that the people contribute to the support of the government1 that crimes be punished1 that the general welfare be served1 etc42 the civil law determines the special form of government1 the manner in which the revenues are to be obtained1 the specific penalties for each crime1 the public measures that are best suited to the circumstances1 etc4 #edh4 ,the relation of the civil law to divine and ecclesiastical law is as follows3 7a7 ,in matters purely spiritual the ,state has no power to legislate1 since its end and authority are confined to things temporal2 and hence the ,state has no right to interfere with the faith1 worship and government of the ,church4 ,but1 since morality promotes the prosperity of the ,state1 and since the end of the individual is spiritual1 the civil law should respect and favor religion4 7b7 ,in matters that are partly spiritual1 partly temporal1 the ,state has the power to legislate on those aspects that are temporal1 yet so as not to infringe on divine or ecclesiastical right4 ,example3 ,civil laws on education have the right to regulate non-religious subjects1 courses1 standards1 etc42 but they have no right to proscribe religious training1 or to prescribe the teaching of irreligion or immorality1 ,state laws on marriage may require registration1 settle the civil effects of marriage1 etc41 but they have no right to interfere with the unity of marriage or the sanctity of the marriage bond4 #edi4 ,the ,state is for the individual1 and not the individual for the ,state2 hence1 civil law should not interfere with human liberties1 except where this is necessary for the common peace and safety or the lawful opportunity of the people as a whole4 ,hence3 7a7 ,human liberties that are not inalienable may be limited by the law1 when the public good or the welfare of individuals requires this 7see #bib74 ,examples3 ,the ,state has the right to regulate the acts of those who are unable to take care of themselves in matters of importance2 to forbid what is detrimental to the common interest 7such as hunting and fishing at certain seasons71 to protect the public when it neglects to protect itself1 etc4 ,uncalled-for interference by government with the personal and private affairs of individuals--paternalism in government--is of course to be avoided1 for restriction of liberty is something disagreeable and should not be resorted to without necessity4 7b7 ,human rights that are fundamental 7such as the rights to live1 to marry1 to rear a family1 to be free1 to pursue happiness7 should not be trespassed on by civil law4 ,thus1 the ,state has no right to forbid marriage to the poor1 but on the contrary it has the duty to remove conditions that cause poverty4 ,but1 when the common welfare demands the sacrifice1 the ,state has the right to call on citizens to expose even life and fortune in its defense4 #eej4 ,those ,subject to ,civil ,law4--,civil laws oblige all those who are in any way subject to their authority4 7a7 ,citizens1 when in the country1 are bound by all the laws that pertain to them2 when outside the country1 they are bound by some laws1 such as those that regulate their personal status and office1 but not by others1 in particular such as are of a territorial character4 7b7 ,aliens are bound by the laws of the country that include them1 such as those that regulate public order and the making of contracts4 #eea4 ,the ,obligation of ,civil ,law4--,civil law1 when it has all the conditions of valid law1 even if the legislator is non-religious or anti-religious1 is obligatory not only before the ,state1 but also before ,god 7i4e41 in conscience74 ,this is2 7a7 by reason of the natural law1 of which it is a derivation 7see above1 #cac72 7b7 by reason of divine positive law1 for it is frequently declared in scripture and in the ,church's teaching and practice that lawful authority represents ,god and must be obeyed for conscience' sake3 8,render to ,caesar the things that are ,caesar's0 7,matt1 xxii #ba71 8,be subject of necessity1 not only for wrath1 but also for conscience' sake0 7,rom1 xiii4 #e74 #eeb4 ,are subjects obliged to offer themselves for punishment prescribed by law8 7a7 ,if the fault committed was merely juridical 7i4e41 before the law71 the penalty is certainly not obligatory before sentence4 ,example3 ,balbus through sheer accident1 and without design or negligence1 kills a man4 ,if involuntary homicide is punished by imprisonment1 ,balbus is not bound to give himself up4 ,english common law1 it should be noted1 presumes a man innocent until proved guilty1 and a man cannot be convicted of any degree of homicide on his own confession alone4 ,but he may plead guilty to minor offenses4 7b7 ,if the fault committed was theological 7i4e41 before ,god7 and the penalty is primitive 7i4e41 the loss of some right or privilege71 the penalty is obligatory in conscience4 ,in ,canon ,law such penalties are sometimes ipso facto1 that is1 before sentence 7e4g41 suspension of a cleric72 but the civil law1 it seems1 imposes penalties only after judicial declaration4 ,example3 ,titus on account of bribery has forfeited the right to vote2 but he has not been declared guilty by court1 and hence may continue to use the right of suffrage4 7c7 ,if the fault was theological and the penalty incurred is active 7e4g41 exile1 imprisonment1 fine71 the penalty is not obligatory before sentence2 for it would demand too much of human nature to require that one deliver oneself up to exile1 accept confiscation1 etc4 ,the apprehension and detention of the guilty is imposed by law as a duty on the police and other officers1 not on the guilty4 #eec4 ,the kind of obligation imposed depends on the will of the lawgiver3 7a7 he can oblige under pain of sin1 or under pain of nullity or punishment2 7b7 he can oblige under pain of grave sin1 or under pain of venial sin4 #eed4 ,generally speaking1 the legislator is held to oblige under pain of sin in the following cases3 7a7 when the law is a just determination of the natural law 7e4g41 the laws that determine ownership72 7b7 when the law is directly concerned with and necessary to the public good 7e4g41 laws on national defense in time of war1 laws that impose necessary taxation1 etc42 see above1 #cgi74 #eee4 ,the legislator is held not to oblige under sin in the following cases3 7a7 when the law is enacted as penal1 or is prudently regarded as such--as is the case with laws that are of minor importance or that can be enforced without a moral obligation--laws useful rather than necessary2 7b7 when the law is merely irritant or inhabilitating1 the subject is not obliged to omit the act invalidated1 but only to suffer the consequence of nullity before the law4 #eef4 ,in doubt as to the obligation of a law1 what is the duty of the subject8 7a7 ,if there is doubt concerning its justice1 the subject can always observe it with a safe conscience4 ,one may obey an unjust law1 until it is judicially declared unjust1 if it is not manifestly opposed to divine or human rights4 7b7 ,if there is doubt whether a law obliges under sin or not1 the subject does not sin directly by non-observance 7see #cge1 #cgf1 #cgg1 #efa74 #eeg4 ,special ,kinds of ,laws4--,laws that determine ownership are those that define in distinct and explicit terms the rights of citizens as to property1 in such matters as goods lost or found1 prescription1 inheritance1 copyright1 distribution of property of intestates1 rights of wives1 capacity of minors1 contracts1 etc4 ,it is commonly held that these laws are obligatory under sin1 even before judicial decision3 7a7 because they are determinations of the natural law made by the authority that represents ,god in matters temporal2 7b7 because they are necessary for the peaceful existence of society4 #eeh4 ,irritant or voiding laws are those that deprive certain acts of legal value4 ,the common welfare requires that certain acts1 even if valid naturally1 may be made invalid by the ,state 7e4g41 contracts entered into by minors1 donations made under fear1 wills devised irregularly71 and hence there is no doubt that the effect of invalidation can be imposed under pain of sin4 7a7 ,this holds even before judicial decision1 if it is clear that the lawgiver ought to intend and does intend to deprive an act of its moral validity from the beginning4 ,example3 ,if a lawsuit would put one party 7e4g41 a minor7 under great disadvantage1 the law can irritate a contract in conscience and before judgment is rendered4 7b7 ,an irritant law does not oblige under sin before declaration of nullity1 if it is not clear that the legislator intended this2 for it can be presumed that the ,state is content with external means as long as these are sufficient for its ends2 and1 since invalidation of acts is odious1 it calls for certain expression of his intention by the lawgiver4 ,but after sentence has been given1 that which is civilly null is also null morally4 ,hence1 if the courts declare a will to be of no effect1 because it was not drawn legally1 the decision is binding under sin4 #eei4 ,civil lawgivers in modern times do not1 as a rule1 concern themselves with moral or natural obligation as such1 but rather consider only what regulations will best promote the peaceful intercourse of society4 ,hence1 the question whether a civil irritation obliges in conscience ipso facto 7i4e41 before judicial declaration of a case7 has to be decided generally1 not from the words1 but from the purpose of the law4 7a7 ,an irritant law should be regarded as obligatory ipso facto1 when the general purpose of law 7viz41 the common good7 or the specific purpose of this law requires that there should be obligation in conscience even before a court decision4 ,examples are laws irritating agreements to do what is illegal1 laws whose purpose is to protect minors or others who would be at a disadvantage in case of litigation1 or to lessen the number of cases before the courts4 7b7 ,an irritant law should be regarded as not obligatory ipso facto1 when the end of the law does not clearly demand obligation before judicial declaration2 for1 as remarked above1 the invalidation of an act is something odious1 and hence not to be taken for granted4 ,thus1 laws that void an act1 contract or instrument on account of lack of some legal form1 do not affect the natural rights or obligations before sentence4 #efj4 ,though the civil lawgiver has the right to annul certain acts1 and thus to extinguish moral rights or obligations that would otherwise exist1 laws seemingly irritant frequently have a different intention4 7a7 ,laws that make a claim unenforceable in court do not destroy the natural right of the claimant4 ,example3 ,the ,statute of ,limitations in modern states generally bars the right to pursue a debtor in court after six years2 nevertheless1 the moral obligation of the debtor remains4 7b7 ,laws that make an act or contract voidable do not nullify1 but only grant to the person concerned the right to attack validity before the courts4 ,hence1 if the conditions for valid contract required by natural law are present 7knowledge1 consent1 etc471 moral rights and obligations are not voided4 ,example3 ,under the civil law some contracts made by minors may be retracted by them4 ,but1 as long as such a contract is not disavowed1 the other party has a moral right to insist on its execution2 if it has been ratified after majority1 the former minor has no moral right to seek the benefit of the law by asking for rescindment4 #efa4 ,with reference to penalty1 four kinds of laws can be distinguished4 7a7 ,purely preceptive laws are such as oblige under pain of sin1 but not under pain of punishment4 ,there are church laws of this kind 7such as the command to assist at ,mass on ,sunday71 and there are also some civil laws that do not oblige under penalty 7e4g41 statutes governing the age for legal marriage1 for1 if a couple misrepresented their age1 they might be prosecuted for the misrepresentation1 but not for the act of marriage74 7b7 ,purely penal laws are such as oblige under pain of juridical fault and punishment1 but not under pain of sin 7e4g41 a law that punishes negligence in driving as defined by itself1 even though there be no moral culpability involved74 7c7 ,mixed laws disjunctively are such as oblige under sin either to obey the law or to suffer the penalty 7e4g41 a law that commands one either to get a license before fishing or hunting1 or to pay a fine if caught doing these things without a license74 7d7 ,mixed laws conjunctively are such as oblige under pain of both sin and punishment 7e4g41 the laws that forbid injustice and command the punishment of transgressors74 #efb4 ,there is no question about the existence of laws of the first and fourth classes just described1 but some authorities argue against the existence of the other two classes1 maintaining that a law that does not oblige in conscience is an impossibility4 ,they argue3 7a7 the teaching of scripture and of the ,church supposes that all just laws oblige in conscience2 7b7 the lawgiver holds the place of ,god1 and hence one cannot offend against the law of man without offending ,god2 7c7 human law1 being only a reaffirmation or determination of the higher law1 obliges in conscience like the law on which it is based2 7d7 directions of a superior that do not oblige under sin are counsels rather than laws4 #efc4 ,to these and similar arguments the defenders of the existence of penal laws reply3 7a7 such laws do not oblige in conscience1 under pain of sin and of offense to ,god1 to do or to omit as the law prescribes1 just as a vow which gives one the option of not playing cards1 or else of giving each time an alms1 does not bind one in conscience not to play cards2 7b7 but those laws do oblige one in conscience to respect their juridical value1 not to resist their enforcement1 and to pay the penalty of violation1 just as the vow mentioned obliges one in conscience to give an alms each time one plays cards4 ,the ,church recognizes penal laws 7see #dej71 and there is no reason why civil law may not be penal4 #efd4 ,even when the transgression of a purely penal law is not sinful by reason of the civil law1 it will frequently1 if not usually1 be sinful by reason of repugnance to the law of ,god4 ,thus3 7a7 the transgression will be sinful1 if there is a wrong intention 7such as contempt for the law7 or wrong circumstances 7such as culpable neglect or some inordinate passion72 7b7 the transgression will be sinful1 if one foresees or should foresee evil consequences1 such as scandal 7see #if74 #efe4 ,it is generally admitted that some civil laws are purely penal1 since they impose penalties for fault1 negligence1 or responsibility that is only juridical at times4 ,examples3 ,a law that imposes a fine on all motorists caught driving over a certain speed limit1 even though they be free of moral guilt2 or that makes the owner of a car pay damages for injuries caused while it was used by his chauffeur4 #eff4 ,even these laws oblige under sin to some extent4 7a7 ,the transgressor is morally bound to the penalty prescribed by law1 after sentence has been passed2 and such penalties are just1 for the common good requires them4 ,example3 ,the speed violator is held to pay the lawful fine when it has been imposed4 ,he may have been guiltless of sin1 but the fine makes him more careful the next time4 7b7 ,the officers of the law are morally bound to apprehend and convict transgressors4 #efg4 ,many civil laws are commonly regarded nowadays as disjunctively preceptive or penal2 and1 since the custom of the prudent affords a good norm of interpretation 7see above1 #dhd sqq41 #ejf sqq471 this common view is a safe guide1 ,example3 ,even conscientious persons do not feel that they have committed a sin if now and then they run a car without a license1 or fish in a government reservation without the permit required by law1 when there is no danger or damage to anyone4 #efh4 ,whether most modern legislatures intend practically all or the great majority of their laws that are not declarations of natural law or provisions essential to public welfare to be purely penal or only disjunctively preceptive1 is a disputed question4 ,for the affirmative view it is argued3 7a7 ,moral obligation is not necessary1 since the enforcement of the law is well taken care of by the judiciary and the police2 7b7 ,moral obligation would be harmful1 for the laws that are put on the statute books every year1 along with those already there1 are so numerous that1 if all these obliged in conscience1 an intolerable burden would be placed on the people2 7c7 ,moral obligation is not intended1 for legislatures as bodies either despise or disregard religious motives when framing laws2 and so many jurists today believe that the danger of incurring the penalty prescribed by the law is the only obligation the lawgiver intends to impose1 or that moral obligation must come from conscience 7i4e41 be self-imposed72 7d7 ,moral obligation is not admitted by custom1 the best interpreter of law1 for most citizens today regard civil legislation as not binding under sin4 #efi4 ,opponents of the view just explained answer3 7a7 ,the prevalence of crime and the ineffectiveness of the courts in so many places prove the need of moral obligation of civil laws2 and1 even if the laws are well enforced1 this will scarcely continue1 if respect for them is lowered2 7b7 ,though there is an excess of legislation1 it is not generally true that the individual citizen is burdened in his daily life by a multitude of laws2 7c7 ,lawmakers today are not more irreligious than the pagan rulers to whom the scriptures commanded obedience2 and1 even though they do not themselves believe in religion or the obligation of conscience1 they do intend to give their laws every sanction that the common good requires1 and thus implicitly they impose a moral obligation wherever the contrary is not manifest2 7d7 ,the statement that the majority of the people in modern states regard the civil legislation as a whole as not obligatory in conscience may be passed over1 as there is no proof for it4 ,moreover1 the customary interpretation of the citizens does not make penal the laws which the elected representatives intended as preceptive1 without the consent of the latter 7see #cid74 #egj4 ,signs that a law is merely penal are the following3 7a7 ,the express declaration of the lawgiver that it obliges only under penalty4 ,examples3 ,in the ,dominican ,constitutions it is declared that they oblige1 not under fault1 but only under penalty 7,no4 #cb74 ,the same is true of the ,franciscan1 ,redemptorist and most recent religious ,constitutions4 ,some civil laws1 it is said1 are formulated thus3 8,either do this1 or pay the penalty on conviction40 ,other laws define punishable negligence in such a way that it does not ultimately suppose sin4 7b7 ,another sign of a penal law is the implicit declaration of the lawgiver4 ,if a heavy penalty is prescribed for a transgression regarded by all as very slight proportionately1 the government implicitly declares that it imposes no other obligation than that of penalty4 ,blackstone1 in his 8,commentary on the ,laws of ,england0 7#agfi71 considers as purely penal all those laws in which the penalty inflicted is an adequate compensation for the civil inconvenience supposed to arise from the offense1 such as the statutes for preserving game and those forbidding the exercise of trades without serving an apprenticeship thereto 7,vol4 ,i1 ,sect4 #eh74 7c7 ,a third sign is the interpretation of competent authorities4 ,example3 ,practically all ,catholic moralists1 and the opinion of the people generally1 consider as penal some laws that are merely useful1 but not necessary 7e4g41 prohibitions against smoking or spitting in certain public places1 laws on permits for fishing1 hunting1 etc474 #ega4 ,whatever may be said about legislatures in general1 it cannot be argued that in the ,united ,states they are indifferent or contemptuous as regards the moral obligation of law2 the public acts and speeches of ,congress and of the ,state ,assemblies show that the elected representatives of the people respect religion1 and do not wish to deprive themselves of its help in their deliberations and decisions4 ,nevertheless1 the opinion is very prevalent among lawyers that purely positive law in the ,united ,states is not intended to oblige under sin4 #egb4 ,in practice1 the attitude of the citizen to civil law should be one of respect and loyalty4 7a7 ,if a law is good1 even though the legislator did not impose a moral obligation1 it should be obeyed2 for reason and experience show that disregard for law is a source of scandal and of many public and private evils4 7b7 ,if a law is not good1 every lawful means should be used to have it repealed as soon as possible4 ,but the principle that a bad law is always best overcome by being rigidly enforced1 is not borne out by history1 and sometimes the public good demands disregard for unreasonable ordinances4 ,the so-called 8,blue ,laws0 are a case in point4 #egc4 ,other questions pertaining to civil law that will be found elsewhere are3 7a7 the obligation of customs1 taxation and military duty2 7b7 the power of the ,state to inflict capital punishment4 ,question ,,iv ,,conscience #egd4 ,in order that man many tend to his ,last ,end1 it is not sufficient that the way be pointed out in a general manner 7as is done by the natural and positive laws71 but these laws must be applied to each act in particular by the practical reason or conscience1 as it passes judgment on the right or wrong of an action in the light of all the circumstances4 ,art4 #a3 ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,conscience 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i1 q4 #gi1 aa4 #aa-ac47 #ege4 ,definition4--,conscience is an act of judgment on the part of the practical reason deciding by inference from general principles the moral goodness or malice of a particular act4 7a7 ,it is an act1 and as such it differs from moral knowledge and intellectual virtues1 which are not transitory but enduring4 ,moral understanding 7synderesis71 by which everyone naturally perceives the truth of general and self-evident principles of morality2 moral science1 by which the theologian or ethician knows the body of conclusions drawn from moral principles2 prudence1 by which the virtuous man is able to make right applications of moral rules to individual cases--all these are permanent states and are preparatory to the act of conscience1 in which one makes use of one's knowledge to judge of the lawfulness or unlawfulness of an action in the concrete1 as attended by all its circumstances4 7b7 ,conscience is an act of judgment1 and thus it differs from the other acts employed by prudence--from counsel about the right means or ways of action1 and from command as to their use4 ,counsel inquires what is the right thing to do1 conscience gives the dictate or decision1 the moral command moves to action4 7c7 ,conscience is in the reason--that is1 it is a subjective guide1 and thus it differs from law1 which is objective4 7d7 ,conscience is in the practical reason4 ,unlike other judgments1 which are speculative and deal not with action or only with theoretical aspects of action 7e4g41 the judgment that ,god is perfect1 that the active faculties are distinct from the soul1 etc471 conscience is concerned with action from the view-point of its moral exercise4 7e7 ,conscience is the inference from general principles1 and thus it differs from moral understanding 7synderesis74 ,this latter is a habit by which everyone who is mentally developed is able to perceive without argument that certain more general propositions of morality must be true1 such as the axioms of the natural law 7see above1 #cai sqq472 conscience draws conclusions from those axioms4 7f7 ,conscience judges concerning the morality of an act4 ,here lies the difference between consciousness and conscience2 consciousness is a psychological faculty whose function is to perceive one's own states and acts2 conscience is a moral judgment concerning the lawfulness or unlawfulness of those states or acts4 ,thus1 consciousness testifies that one is considering the performance of a certain act1 conscience judges the morality1 and permits or forbids2 or consciousness testifies that a certain thing was done or not done in the past1 conscience declares the morality--condemning1 excusing1 or approving what took place4 7g7 ,conscience judges concerning a particular act--that is1 it considers an act that is to be done here and now 7or was done71 with all the attendant circumstances4 ,conscience1 thus1 differs from moral science1 which1 though it systematizes the body of conclusions drawn from the natural and positive laws1 is not able to make the applications for the innumerable cases that arise4 ,even works containing moral cases1 which give solutions for concrete instances1 do not take the place of conscience in such instances1 for it is still the individual who judges about those solutions or about their applicability to his particular circumstances4 #egf4 ,division4-,conscience is variously divided4 7a7 ,according as the act judged is in the future or in the past1 conscience is antecedent or consequent4 ,the antecedent conscience is a monitor which decides that a future act will be lawful or unlawful2 the consequent conscience is a judge which causes peace or remorse for what has been done in the past4 7b7 ,according to the kind of direction or decision it gives1 antecedent conscience is commanding1 forbidding1 permitting or counselling2 while consequent conscience is excusing1 approving1 or condemning 7,rom41 ii4 #ae74 #egg4 ,according as it agrees or disagrees with the external divine or human law1 conscience is true or false4 7a7 ,a true conscience judges that to be good and commanded which is really good and commanded4 ,example3 ,according to law1 one may use money of which one has the disposal4 ,a sum of money before ,balbus is really at his disposal4 ,hence1 his conscience is true if it decides that he may use this money4 7b7 ,a false conscience judges the lawful to be unlawful1 or vice versa3 8,the hour cometh that whosoever killeth you will think that he doth a service to ,god0 7,john1 xvi4 #b74 ,example3 ,balbus would have a false conscience1 if he decided that he had no right to use the money before him4 ,this would happen if he was mistaken about the general principle1 or about the fact that the money was at his disposal1 or if he drew a wrong inference from the premises4 #egh4 ,according to its qualities and suitability as a guide of conduct1 conscience may be viewed either with reference to the will or to the intellect4 7a7 ,with reference to the will1 conscience is either good 7right7 or bad 7wrong71 according as it does or does not proceed from a well-meaning intention and a right disposition towards one's end and duties4 ,example3 ,if the ,balbus mentioned above decided that the money was at his disposal because he wished to know the truth and had investigated to the best of his ability1 his conscience would be good4 ,but1 if he decided this without sufficient investigation and only because he was prejudiced in his own favor1 his conscience would be bad4 7b7 ,with reference to the intellect1 conscience is either certain or uncertain1 according as the mind assents to its judgment without or with fear of error4 ,examples3 ,if ,balbus decides that he has the right to use the money1 and is so firmly convinced that his judgment is true that he has no fears or doubts1 his conscience is certain4 ,but1 if there remain solid difficulties or objections against his judgment which he cannot satisfactorily answer so that he assents to his view only with the fear that he may be wrong1 his conscience is uncertain4 #egi4 ,a conscience may have some and lack others of the qualities just mentioned4 7a7 ,the same conscience may be true and bad1 or false and good--that is1 the judgment of the intellect may be in agreement with objective facts1 but at the same time it may be directed by a wrong will and intention1 or vice versa4 ,examples3 ,caius1 through no fault of his own1 is convinced that he is bound to tell a lie to help ,sempronius1 because ,sempronius once helped him by lying4 ,his conscience is false1 but good4 ,titus is really not bound to pay a sum of money demanded of him4 ,but the arguments by which he persuades himself that he is not bound are not honest1 since he has recourse to what he knows are hair-splitting distinctions1 quibbles and sophistical reasonings4 ,his conscience is true1 but bad4 7b7 ,the same conscience may be good and uncertain1 or bad and certain4 ,examples3 ,if the ,caius above-mentioned believes he is bound to lie1 but has some qualms or suspicions that such conduct might not be right after all1 his conscience would be good1 seeing that he meant to do what is right2 but it would be uncertain1 seeing that he is not sure he is right4 ,if the ,titus above-mentioned had so habituated himself to insincerity and illogical reasoning that he no longer had any fears about his own judgments1 and gave firm and unhesitating assent to his decision that he was not bound to pay the money demanded1 his conscience1 though bad1 would be certain subjectively4 #ehj4 ,obligation of ,conscience4--,man is bound to be guided by conscience1 both negatively and positively--that is1 he must neither disobey when it forbids1 nor refuse to obey when it commands4 7a7 ,it obliges by reason of divine command1 since it acts as the voice or witness of ,god making known and promulgating4 to us the moral law4 ,hence 8all that is not from conscience is sin0 7,rom1 xiv4 #bc74 7b7 ,conscience obliges from the nature of things1 for1 since the will is a blind faculty1 it must be guided by the judgment1 of the intellect1 and must follow the inner light given it about the law4 ,apart from revelation1 there is no other way of learning what ,god wishes one to do here and now4 #eha4 ,the authority of conscience is not1 however1 unlimited4 7a7 ,conscience is not independent of external law and authority4 ,it is not autonomous morality of the reason or will1 nor private inspiration or interpretation2 for its function is not to establish law or pass judgment on it1 but to apply the law as expounded by the ,church to a present case4 ,hence1 conscience must aim to be true--that is1 to agree with and express the objective law4 7b7 ,conscience is not independent of the righteousness of the will4 ,it is not a speculative judgment1 whose value depends solely on agreement between the mind and the facts1 as is the case with a conclusion of pure science4 ,it is a practical judgment1 which has to guide all man's conduct1 and thus its value depends on the relation of the means it selects to the end towards which the means should be directed4 ,hence1 conscience must be good--that is1 a judgment dictated by a will well disposed towards the true end of life4 7c7 ,conscience is not independent of the certainty of the intellect4 ,it is a judgment formed1 not by sentiment1 emotion1 or one's own wishes1 but by evidence and firm conviction2 for its office is to guide man reliably in the most important of affairs4 ,hence1 conscience must be certain--that is1 a judgment to which the intellect yields its unhesitating assent4 #ehb4 ,in order1 therefore1 that conscience may be the proper rule and moderator of man's moral life1 it must have the following qualities3 7a7 ,it must be good1 and practically true--that is1 in agreement with the ,last ,end of man and1 as far as the efforts of the individual can attain to such agreement1 with the objective law--for the standard of moral good is not each one's wish or opinion1 but ,god as the ,last ,end and the external natural and positive law as means to that ,end4 7b7 ,it must be certain--that is1 without fear that one is wrong2 at least1 it must have that degree of certainty which is possible in moral matters4 ,for to act with the fear that one is committing sin1 is to be willing to do what may be sin1 and is thus consent to sin4 #ehc4 ,since conscience that has the requisite conditions is our immediate guide in moral matters1 it follows3 7a7 that a conscience which is true objectively1 good1 and certain must be followed1 whenever it commands or forbids2 7b7 that a conscience which is in invincible error 7see #cj71 but seems to him who has it to be not only true but certain1 must also be followed when it forbids or commands4 ,examples3 ,if a child were told and believed that he was obliged to tell a lie to prevent an evil1 he would be bound to do this4 ,if a person eats what he wrongly thinks to be forbidden food1 he is guilty of the violation he apprehends4 #ehd4 ,exception4--,if invincible error results from lack of sufficient intelligence to be capable of sin 7see above1 #bdi1 #chg71 then the failure to follow one's conscience in such error does not make one guilty4 ,example3 ,if a person unable to walk were persuaded that he was bound nevertheless to walk to church for ,mass1 his conscience would not make his omission sinful4 ,conscience supposes sane judgment1 but the judgment we are now considering is not sane4 #ehe4 ,a conscience that has not the requisite conditions is not a safe guide1 and hence it cannot be followed4 7a7 ,an erroneous conscience may not be followed1 if the error is vincible and there is danger of sin2 neither may one act against it if there be danger of sin4 ,to follow such a conscience would be to do what is wrong and to act in bad faith 7i4e41 to have a bad and erroneous conscience72 not to follow it1 would be to act against one's judgment1 wrongly formed though it was1 and to do insincerely what is right 7i4e41 to have a bad1 though true conscience74 ,example3 ,a person who has made up his mind that dishonesty is necessary in his business1 but who realizes that his reasons are not convincing1 sins against sincerity if he follows his opinion2 he sins against conviction1 if he does not follow his opinion4 ,but his predicament is due to his own sophistry or bad will1 and the escape from it requires only that he be honest enough with himself to inquire about the matter4 7b7 ,a doubtful conscience may not be followed1 if the doubt is such that one is not reasonably sure that a certain act is lawful4 ,example3 ,if a man does not know whether a certain remedy will be helpful or seriously harmful to another1 his conscience is doubtful as to the lawfulness of administering the remedy1 and it may not be followed4 ,if in spite of this he makes use of the remedy1 he is guilty of the harm he foresaw1 even though it does not happen4 #ehf4 ,exception4--,it is lawful to follow a vincibly erroneous conscience1 if there is no danger of sin in this4 ,example3 ,if a person has neglected inquiry about holydays of obligation1 and through his own neglect believes that ,good ,friday is a holyday1 he does not sin by attending the services that day4 #ehg4 ,the signs of a vincibly erroneous conscience are3 7a7 that in the past one did not use the same diligence to inform oneself about one's religious duties as is employed by conscientious persons2 7b7 that in the present one has fears1 doubts or suspicions as to one's own sincerity of judgment4 #ehh4 ,results of ,conscience4--,the results of following an erroneous conscience are as follows3 7a7 ,he who follows an erroneous conscience1 commanding or forbidding or permitting1 is not guilty of sin if his ignorance is invincible4 ,example3 ,a child who thinks he is obliged to lie because he has been told to do this1 is excused from sin on account of his ignorance4 7b7 ,he who follows an erroneous conscience1 commanding or permitting evil1 is guilty if his ignorance is vincible4 ,example3 ,a grown person who has persuaded himself that deception is lawful1 obligatory or advisable1 or that truthfulness is forbidden1 but who ought to know better1 is not excused by the conscience he has formed 7see above1 #ig sqq474 #ehi4 ,the results of disobeying an erroneous conscience are as follows3 7a7 ,he who disobeys an invincibly erroneous conscience1 is guilty4 ,example3 ,the child who refuses to tell a lie when he thinks he ought to do so because it has been commanded1 is guilty of disobedience4 7b7 ,he who disobeys a vincibly erroneous conscience1 is also guilty4 ,example3 ,caius promises to tell a lie to help another party4 ,the doubt occurs whether or not this is lawful1 and he takes no pains to settle it correctly1 but decides offhand that a promise must be kept4 ,when the time comes1 ,caius becomes alarmed and does not keep his promise1 lest he get into trouble4 ,he is guilty4 #eij4 ,if a conscience which was vincibly erroneous in its origin is here and now invincibly erroneous1 the acts that result from following such a conscience are to be judged as follows3 7a7 ,they are materially evil in themselves and formally evil in their cause4 ,example3 ,titus1 who intends to take a position in which he will have to advise others1 foresees that later on he may make mistakes costly to others1 as a result of his present lack of sufficient study4 ,he secures the position1 and tries to make up for former neglect of study1 but on one occasion injures a patron by wrong advice which he would not have given1 had he worked more faithfully as a younger student4 ,the wrong advice is objectively sinful in itself1 as being an injury2 it is subjectively sinful in its cause1 as being the result of negligence which foresaw what might happen4 7b7 ,the acts in question are not formally evil in themselves4 ,example3 ,titus was formally guilty of injury to others at the time he foresaw what would happen on account of his negligence2 he was not formally guilty at the time he did the injury1 because he had tried meanwhile to repair his negligence and was not conscious of his ignorance4 #eia4 ,the kinds of sin committed in consequence of an erroneous conscience are as follows3 7a7 ,sin committed by following a vincibly erroneous conscience is of the same gravity and species as the act for which the conscience is responsible1 but the ignorance is an extenuating circumstance4 ,example3 ,he who blinds his conscience so that it decides in favor of grave calumny1 is guilty of mortal sin against justice2 but he is less guilty than if he had sinned without any permission from conscience4 7b7 ,sin committed by disobeying an invincibly erroneous conscience is of the gravity and species apprehended by the conscience4 ,example3 ,a person who tells a small lie1 thinking it a mortal sin against charity1 is guilty of the malice he understands to be in his act4 7c7 ,sin committed by disobeying a vincibly erroneous conscience is of the species that was perceived4 ,example3 ,caius who did not live up to his promise of telling a lie1 after he had decided that to keep his word was the right thing to do1 was guilty of a breach of promise4 ,as to the gravity of sin against a vincibly erroneous conscience1 it is always the same as that apprehended by the conscience1 unless what is seriously wrong is culpably mistaken for what is only slightly wrong4 ,examples3 ,if ,caius1 just referred to1 thought that his desertion of his friend inflicted a grave injury1 he was guilty of grave sin4 ,a person who persuades himself by vain reasonings that complete intoxication does not differ in gravity from incipient intoxication1 is nevertheless guilty of the greater malice1 if he puts himself in the former state2 for his wrong opinion cannot change the fact1 and his culpable ignorance cannot excuse him4 #eib4 ,an erroneous conscience may apprehend something not wrong as wrong1 but in an indeterminate manner4 7a7 ,if the species of evil is not determinate before the conscience1 but an indifferent act is thought to be sinful without any definite species of sin being thought of1 he who acts against such a conscience seems to commit a sin of disobedience4 ,example3 ,a person who thinks that smoking is a sin1 of what kind he does not know1 must have at least vaguely the opinion that it is forbidden by the divine law2 and hence1 if he smokes1 he is guilty of disobedience4 7b7 ,if the gravity of the putative sin is not determinate before the conscience1 but an act is thought to be sinful without the degree of sinfulness being at all known or thought of1 he who acts against such a conscience commits a mortal or a venial sin according to his own disposition with respect to sin4 ,if he is so attached to the sin he apprehends that he intends to commit it1 whether it be great or small1 he is guilty of mortal sin1 at least in so far as he exposes himself to it4 ,but if he is habitually resolved not to commit grave sin1 it can be presumed that he would not do that which he apprehends as sinful1 if he thought it was a grave offense1 ,example3 ,if a person erroneously thinks that it is a sin to read a certain book1 and then reads it without adverting at all to the gravity of the sin he apprehends1 his greater or less guilt will have to be judged by his character4 ,if he is so conscientious that he would stop reading at once if he feared the book was seriously harmful1 he sins only venially2 but if he knows that he is lax and is yet resolved to read the book at all costs1 it seems that he is guilty of grave sin4 ,art4 #b3 ,a ,,good ,,conscience 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 q4 #ai1 aa4 #e1 #f47 #eic4 ,as was explained in the previous article1 conscience is not a proper guide unless it is good4 ,in this article we shall speak of the good conscience and of its opposite the various kinds of bad conscience4 #eid4 ,definition4--,the distinction of good and bad conscience is applied both to consequent and antecedent conscience 7see #egf74 7a7 ,the consequent conscience is good1 and one is said to have a good conscience1 if it testifies that past acts were rightly performed1 that past sins were forgiven1 that one is in the friendship of ,god1 etc42 8,the end of the commandment is charity from a good conscience0 7,i ,tim41 i4 #e72 8,war a good warfare1 having faith and a good conscience0 7ibid41 #ai74 ,the consequent conscience is bad if it testifies in a contrary way3 8,let us draw near with a true heart1 having our hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience0 7,heb41 x4 #bb74 7b7 ,the antecedent conscience1 with which we are now concerned1 judges about the morality of an act to be performed here and now1 or in the future4 ,it is called good1 if it is made by one who is in good faith--that is1 one who sincerely loves goodness and who decides according to the truth as far as he is able to see it4 ,it is called bad1 if it is the judgment of one who is in bad faith--that is1 one who is in error through his own fault1 or who arrives at the truth by reasonings that are not honest or not understood by him4 ,example3 ,speaking of those who1 though fearing that idol meats were forbidden1 yet ate of them because they saw others do this1 ,st4 ,paul says3 8,there is not knowledge in everyone4 ,for some until this present1 with conscience of the idol1 eat as a thing sacrificed to an idol1 and their conscience being weak is defiled0 7,i ,cor41 viii4 #g74 #eie4 ,divisions4--,by training and care a good conscience is developed and becomes better4 7a7 ,a vigilant conscience is one that asserts itself promptly and strongly under all circumstances4 7b7 ,a tender conscience is one that inclines to a careful observance of all the ,commandments and to a purification of the inner workings of the soul4 ,a possessor of this kind of conscience is called conscientious4 7c7 ,a timorous conscience moves one through filial fear to shun even the slightest sins and imperfections1 and to use all prudent efforts to avoid occasions and dangers of sin4 ,the possessor of this kind of conscience is called ,god-fearing4 #eif4 ,a bad conscience that is in vincible error is divided according to its effects into the scrupulous and the lax conscience4 7a7 ,the lax conscience errs on the side of liberty4 ,it is moved by trivial reasons to judge the unlawful to be lawful1 the gravely sinful to be only slightly evil1 that which is commanded to be only counselled1 and so on4 7b7 ,the scrupulous conscience errs on the side of obligation4 ,it is moved by trivial reasons to judge that there is sin in something lawful1 grave sin in something venially wrong1 and obligation in something that is only counselled2 it sees inhability or defect where these do not exist1 and so on4 #eig4 ,the ,lax ,conscience4--,according to the more or less control it has over one1 the lax conscience may be divided into the incipient and the habitual4 7a7 ,it is incipient when one is becoming familiar with careless decisions and less responsive to remorse about evil done4 ,in this state the conscience is said to be sleeping4 7b7 ,it is habitual when through long-continued habit one has become enamored of a worldly1 frivolous conception of life1 and is rarely visited by compunction4 ,in its worst state1 when there is little hope of cure1 a lax conscience is said to be seared or cauterized 7,i ,tim41 iv4 #b74 #eih4 ,according to the greater or less responsibility of the one in error1 a lax conscience is either malicious or not malicious4 7a7 ,it is malicious when it results from one's own disregard for religious truth1 as in the case of the pagans who did not care to know ,god1 and were thus led into perverse conceptions of morality4 ,st4 ,paul calls such a conscience a reprobate sense 7,rom41 i4 #bh74 7b7 ,it is not malicious when it results from some less blamable reason1 as in the case of the ,christians at ,corinth who thought that the eating of idol meats was sinful1 but that it was to be practised on account of the example of others4 ,st4 ,paul calls this a weak conscience 7,i ,cor41 viii4 #aj74 #eii4 ,laxity of conscience is either partial or entire4 7a7 ,a conscience entirely lax takes an easy and indulgent view in all things4 ,it is careless both in little and great matters1 both in directing self and in directing others4 7b7 ,a conscience partially lax is too liberal in some things1 but not in others4 ,examples3 ,titus is very exacting with his girls1 and wishes to have them models of virtue2 but he is too easy with himself and his boys4 ,balbus is very loyal to friends1 but has no sense of justice as regards those who do not agree with him4 ,sempronius tries to serve both ,god and mammon1 being very faithful to church duties1 but at the same time dishonest in business matters4 #fjj4 ,a conscience partially lax may even combine scrupulosity and laxism 7see #faj71 becoming like a mirror that reflects large objects as small and vice versa2 or like a color-blind eye3 8,woe to you that call evil good and good evil1 that put darkness for light and light for darkness0 7,is41 ,v4 #bj74 ,this kind of conscience is called pharisaical4 7a7 ,one may be lax and scrupulous about the same kind of things4 ,examples3 ,caius regards great disobedience in himself as a mote which he doesn't need to worry about1 but small disobedience in his children as a beam in the eye which he is seriously bound to extract 7,matt1 vii4 #c-e74 ,titus is lax about almsgiving to those from whom he can expect nothing1 but scrupulous about almsgiving to those from whom he expects a return later on4 7b7 ,one may be scrupulous and lax about different things1 straining at gnats and swallowing camels4 ,example3 ,the ,pharisees were scrupulous about external observances and minor things of the law1 such as tithes2 but they were lax about inward justice and the weightier things of the law1 judgment1 mercy and faith 7,matt1 xxiii4 #ac-ca74 #fja4 ,causes of a ,lax ,conscience4--7a7 ,if the laxity is inculpable but habitual1 it is caused generally by lack of ,christian training in childhood and the influence of evil principles and practices that are widespread4 ,in particular cases a lax decision of conscience may be due to want of sufficient consideration or to a sudden storm of passion that obscures the reason1 when one has no time for deliberation2 and thus it is inculpable4 7b7 ,if the laxity is culpable1 its usual causes are an easy-going view of ,god's law and its obligation 7,is1 xliii4 #bd72 or a self-love that sees in one's vices nothing but virtue or amiable weakness2 or a long-continued indulgence of sin that has destroyed all refinement of conscience4 #fjb4 ,special ,dangers of a ,lax ,conscience4--7a7 ,if the laxity is inculpable1 it is an occasion of demoralization to others and a preparation for formal sin in him who has the conscience2 7b7 if the laxity is culpable1 it is the cause of formal sin2 and if it is not corrected1 it naturally leads to moral blindness1 hardness of heart and impenitence3 8,there is a way that seemeth to man right1 and the ends thereof lead to death0 7,proverbs1 xvi4 #be74 #fjc4 ,since a lax conscience is a species of erroneous conscience1 the rules given above as to the kind of sins committed in consequence of an erroneous conscience1 apply also to the lax conscience 7see above1 #ehh ,sqq474 7a7 ,when the laxity is concerned with the existence of sin1 the conscience taking what is sinful for something lawful1 he who follows such a conscience is guilty or not guilty according as his ignorance is culpable or inculpable 7i4e41 as he acts from a bad or a good conscience74 ,examples3 ,the man who practises dishonesty1 because he has cheated his conscience by sophistry into deciding that dishonesty is lawful2 the child who uses profane language without realization of sin1 because he hears his elders use it4 ,but if the lax conscience takes what is sinful for a duty1 he who disobeys it is guilty of sin4 ,example3 ,the person who refuses to tell a lie when he thinks he ought to lie on account of a promise made4 7b7 ,when the laxity is concerned with the gravity of sin1 the conscience taking what is mortal for venial sin1 he who disobeys such a conscience is guilty of mortal or venial sin1 according as his ignorance is culpable or inculpable 7i4e41 as he acts from a bad or a good conscience74 ,examples3 ,a child who thinks that calumny or missing ,mass is only a venial sin1 because he sees grown up persons treat these things lightly2 a person that1 to solace his conscience1 advises with lax associates who always approve of what he wishes to do or has done4 #fjd4 ,he who knows1 or who has good reason to think1 that his conscience is lax1 should guide himself by the following rules3 7a7 with reference to the past1 if there is a doubt whether or not sin was consented to or was grave1 the presumption is against him1 for laxity willingly contracted makes one responsible for what ensues2 7b7 with reference to the future1 a person must make use of the means prescribed for one who is in danger of sin 7see above1 #beh sqq471 for a lax conscience places one in danger of sin4 #fje4 ,remedies ,recommended for a ,lax ,conscience4--7a7 ,the defect of will or character should be corrected4 ,example3 ,the presumptuous should reflect on the justice of ,god1 and recall that the broad way leads to perdition4 ,those in whom the wish is father to the lax judgment should make war on the passion that leads them astray4 ,those who have become lax through bad habits1 should set about acquiring good habits1 like that of going to the ,sacraments frequently4 7b7 ,the error of the intellect should be corrected4 ,example3 ,if a person's religious training has been neglected1 he should do what he can to get correct information and advice as to his duties4 ,if one has been influenced by lax ideas or conduct1 one should change one's reading or associations4 #fjf4 ,is a lax person held responsible1 if he does not know that he is lax8 7a7 ,if his conscience is invincibly erroneous1 he cannot know that it is lax1 and hence he is not responsible2 7b7 if his conscience is vincibly erroneous1 he ought to know that he is lax1 and hence he is responsible4 ,examples3 ,the boy ,caius keeps whatever he finds1 because he thinks he has a right to do this4 ,the man ,titus does not like cheating1 but he cheats habitually1 because he thinks he has as much right to do so as others4 ,both the boy and the man are lax1 but neither considers himself lax2 the difference is that ,titus can and ought to know that he is lax4 #fjg4 ,the scrupulous ,conscience4--,this is a species of erroneous judgment that sees sin where there is no sin1 or grave sin where there is only light sin1 and whose reasons are trivial or absurd4 7a7 ,it differs1 therefore1 from a strict or tender conscience1 which1 while it does not exaggerate sin1 judges that one should try to avoid even slight sin and imperfection4 ,this is the golden mean between a lax and a scrupulous conscience4 ,persons with this sort of conscience are sometimes called scrupulous or singular1 because they are more exact than the majority4 ,more accurately they are to be called conscientious or ,god-fearing4 7b7 ,the scrupulous conscience differs also from scrupulosity1 which is a state of mind in which one whose judgment is not erroneous1 is nevertheless tormented by fears or doubts about his moral condition4 #fjh4 ,the rules given above 7#ehh sqq47 for the erroneous conscience apply also to the scrupulous conscience4 7a7 ,he who follows a scrupulous conscience does not sin by this1 even though he is vincibly in error2 for there is no danger of sin in doing more than is required4 ,example3 ,caius is too lazy to make inquiries about his religious duties1 but he has the exaggerated notion that grace at meals obliges under pain of grave sin4 ,he does not sin by following his conscience1 for grace at meals is recommended to all4 7b7 ,he who disobeys a scrupulous conscience commits the sin his conscience apprehends4 ,example3 ,if ,caius omits grace1 he is guilty of grave sin4 #fji4 ,special ,dangers of a scrupulous ,conscience4--7a7 ,as to himself1 the scrupulous person suffers from his conscience2 it makes him guilty of sin where there should be no sin1 and by its exaggerated strictness it often drives him to the other extreme of laxity4 7b7 ,as to others1 the scrupulous person is an annoyance and a detriment2 he tries to impose his conscience on them1 or at least he makes virtue appear forbidding4 #faj4 ,it is possible for a conscience to be scrupulous and lax at the same time1 over-indulgent on some points1 over-severe on others 7see #fjj74 7a7 ,it may be scrupulous as regards others1 and lax as regards self1 or vice versa4 ,example2 ,parents sometimes are too lenient with themselves1 but rule their children with extreme severity2 in other cases they are meticulous as to their own conduct1 but think they must allow their children every indulgence4 7b7 ,a conscience may be scrupulous in minor matters and lax in major matters4 ,example3 ,the ,jewish leaders scrupled to take the money from ,judas or to enter the house of ,pilate1 but they did not hesitate to condemn our ,lord unjustly4 7c7 ,a conscience may be scrupulous as to externals1 lax as to internals4 ,example3 ,the ,pharisees made much of bodily purifications1 but gave little thought to purity of mind and heart4 #faa4 ,the ,perplexed ,conscience4--,like to the scrupulous conscience is the perplexed conscience1 which judges that in a particular instance one cannot escape sin1 whether one acts or does not act4 ,example3 ,titus fears that1 if he goes to church1 he will sin by endangering his health1 which is feeble2 that1 if he does not go to church1 he will sin by disobeying the law4 ,this seems to have been the conscience of ,herod1 who thought he was confronted with the alternative of perjury or murder when the head of ,john the ,baptist was asked of him 7,matt1 xiv4 #i74 #fab4 ,st4 ,alphonsus gives the following directions to assist one who is perplexed in conscience3 7a7 ,if without serious inconvenience decision can be delayed1 reliable advice should be obtained 7e4g41 from the confessor74 7b7 ,if decision cannot be delayed1 the alternative that seems the lesser evil should be chosen4 ,example3 ,the natural law requires that ,titus should not expose his life to danger unnecessarily4 ,the positive law of the ,church requires that he go to ,mass on ,sunday4 ,it is a less evil to omit what is required by the law of the ,church than to omit what is required by the law of ,god4 ,hence1 ,titus should decide that he is not obliged in his circumstances to go to church4 7c7 ,if decision cannot be delayed and the party cannot decide where the lesser evil lies1 he is free to choose either2 for he is not bound to the impossible4 #fac4 ,if1 in the supposition last mentioned1 the perplexed person acts with the feeling that he is committing sin through necessity1 is he really guilty or not8 7a7 ,if by the feeling of guilt is meant1 not a judgment of the mind1 but a scruple or doubt1 he is not guilty1 as we shall see below when we speak of scrupulosity4 7b7 ,if by the feeling of guilt is meant a judgment of the mind that he has to sin and an intention to welcome the opportunity1 he is guilty2 but his guilt is considerably diminished by the error and his difficult circumstances4 ,example3 ,titus thinks that he sins whether he obeys or disobeys an order to take a good dose of whiskey4 ,he decides to take the dose1 and feels rather pleased at the thought that he will become intoxicated4 7c7 ,if by the feeling of guilt is meant a judgment that one has to sin1 accompanied by sorrow at the necessity1 one is not guilty1 if one thinks the matter over to the best of one's ability before acting2 there is some guilt1 if the perplexity arises from previous culpable negligence and no effort whatever is made to remedy this before acting4 ,example3 ,gaia asks her mother if she may go for a ride4 ,the mother fears that1 if she refuses1 ,gaia will become desperate2 if she permits1 ,gaia will meet unsuitable companions4 ,if the mother's perplexity is due to the fact that she has never taken any interest in ,gaia1 she is responsible if she carelessly makes a wrong decision2 but if the perplexity arises only from the difficult character of ,gaia1 the mother is not responsible4 #fad4 ,scrupulosity4--,like to the scrupulous conscience is the state of scrupulosity1 which manifests itself in moral matters especially as a vain fear or anxiety concerning the presence or magnitude of sin in one's act4 ,a psychopathic state1 scrupulosity is usually listed as a form of psychasthenia which is characterized by weakness of soul1 inability to cope with problems1 and a lack of psychic energy4 ,clinically examined1 the psychasthenic presents the following characteristics3 7#a7 physically1 he is listless and always tired2 7#b7 intellectually1 his tiredness makes it impossible for him to concentrate for long periods of time2 7c7 psychologically1 he is an introvert concerned with himself as the center of his interests and activities4 ,the more common manifestations of the psychasthenic's difficulties include3 self-diffidence1 uncertainty1 hesitation1 obsessions and scruples4 ,a species of psychasthenia1 scrupulosity may be described as an inordinate preoccupation with the moral and religious order1 a special type of worry directed toward the morality of actions4 7a7 scrupulosity must be distinguished1 however1 from the scrupulous conscience1 inasmuch as scrupulosity is not a judgment1 but a fear that accompanies one's judgment4 ,example3 ,a scrupulous person knows very well that it is not a sin to omit grace1 nor a grave sin to pray with some voluntary distraction2 but he worries over these things as if they were sins1 or grave sins4 7b7 scrupulosity must be distinguished from the tender conscience1 inasmuch as scrupulosity is an exaggerated and harmful solicitude4 ,a person of tender conscience is careful even in smaller duties1 but in a quiet and recollected way1 whereas the scrupulous person is all excitement and distraction4 7c7 scrupulosity must be distinguished from the anxious or doubtful or guilty conscience1 inasmuch as scrupulosity is a baseless fear or phobia4 ,examples3 ,a person who has practised injustice for many years1 has good reason to be perturbed in conscience when he reflects that restitution or reparation is a prerequisite to pardon2 but a mother who did all she could to train her children well1 is scrupulous1 if she is constantly reproaching herself that she should have done better4 ,a person who makes a contract while fearing that it may be unlawful1 because good authorities hold its unlawfulness1 acts with a doubtful conscience2 but if he fears that the contract is unlawful1 in spite of the fact that others regard it as lawful and that his only reason for doubt is that they may be wrong1 he is scrupulous4 ,the ,egyptians at the time of the plagues could reasonably forecast grievous chastisements on account of their wickedness 7,wis41 xvii4 #aj72 but a good person who worries constantly over the possibility of being damned must be scrupulous4 #fae4 ,scruples may be divided in various ways1 but the simplest division seems to be by virtue of object1 extension and duration4 ,by reason of object1 scruples may center on only one or1 at most1 a few moral activities1 e4g41 duties of charity1 or sins against chastity1 or they may embrace the whole moral life of the individual4 ,by reason of extension1 some scruples are limited to interior actions1 others extend to external manifestations4 ,by reason of duration1 scruples may be classified as intermittent1 or temporary1 and quasi-permanent which is characteristic of the constitutionally scrupulous person whose physical and psychical disposition incline him to scrupulosity4 #faf4 ,the signs or external manifestations of scrupulosity have been variously divided1 but a simplified division into intellectual1 or cognitive1 affective1 or volitional1 and compulsive suffices for our present purpose4 7a7 ,intellectual3 habitual abulia1 i4e41 an inability to decide1 coupled with and interacting with constant doubt4 7b7 ,affective3 closely allied to the intellectual state is the feeling of insufficiency which extends to actions1 to the individual's own personality1 to his desire for higher goals1 to his abilities1 etc4 ,this fosters and strengthens the inability to decide4 ,inordinate fears1 anxieties and sadness contribute to the genesis and growth of the sense of inadequacy4 7c7 ,compulsive3 numerous compulsion factors are present in more serious cases of scrupulosity1 e4g41 obsessions1 phobias1 and compulsions properly so called1 which concern external actions or rituals4 ,obsessions include irresistible1 persistent and irrational ideas accompanied by feelings of tension and fear4 ,these ideas which plague the individual are 8discordant10 that is1 out of harmony with his habitual attitude1 and 8impulsive10 tending to reduce themselves spontaneously to action4 ,the scrupulous person is frightened and flustered by the thought of doing a thing for which he has a positive abhorrence and by his inability to get the thought out of his mind4 ,phobias refer to habitual1 irrational fears of a definite entity associated with a high degree of anxiety and unwarranted by objective reality4 ,they are very intense fears1 completely out of proportion to their causes or objects4 ,finally1 compulsions strictly so called may be defined as irresistible1 unreasonable urges to perform actions to free the individual from an obsessing idea4 ,tension and anxiety are associated if the act or external ritual is not performed4 ,for the confessor1 the recognition of a scrupulous person is not too difficult4 ,the penitent's own difficulties present the first and most obvious sign1 e4g41 irrational doubts about consent to temptation1 as to the gravity of a sin1 etc41 and undue concern about circumstances4 ,concomitant signs confirming the judgment that a person is scrupulous include3 7a7 ,obstinacy of judgment2 ,although the scrupulous person seeks advice1 frequently from many confessors1 he tends to follow his own judgment4 ,he is inclined to think that the confessor has not understood him1 that he has not given a complete picture of his state of soul1 etc4 7b7 ,inconstancy in acting owing to inability to judge rightly and the consequent frequent changes of judgment for light reasons4 7c7 ,irrelevant accusations of multiple circumstances that tend to lose the sin in the maze of circumstances4 7d7 ,external motions by which the individual tries to do away with the fear1 sin1 or other difficulty4 #fag4 ,causes of a scrupulous ,conscience4--,although the signs of scrupulosity are easily recognizable1 the causes are not clearly defined1 and authors are not entirely agreed in this matter4 ,a listing of probable causes would include internal causes3 7a7 physical--the physical causes are virtually unknown4 ,most authors admit a constitutional disposition to scrupulosity1 just as there is one to its quasi-genus1 psychasthenia4 ,reductively this might involve disorders in the vago-sympathetic nervous system and the neuro-endocrine system4 7b7 psychical--the cause is attributed to too low a psychic tension4 ,the inability to cope with obsessions and the attacks of phobias serve to exhaust the individual2 7c7 moral--perhaps a suspicious and melancholy character1 a disposition that is overly impressionable and changeable1 or a self-opinionated nature1 overconfident of its own ability4 #fah4 ,the external causes of scrupulosity are3 7a7 the devil1 who excites vain fears in order to diminish devotion1 to discourage the use of prayer and of the ,sacraments1 to drive to tepidity and despair2 7b7 the neighbor1 who teaches scrupulosity by his words or example2 association with persons who are scrupulous2 the reading of spiritual books of a rigoristic character2 assistance by persons of a timid character at terrifying sermons on the divine justice2 overly protective and overly rigorous education4 #fai4 ,though ,god cannot be the cause of scrupulosity in the same way as the evil spirits 7who use it for man's destruction71 nor in the same way as human agencies 7which are unable to bring good out of the evil they cause71 ,he does in exceptional cases directly permit even saintly persons to be vexed by scrupulosity that they may thereby satisfy for sin1 or exercise themselves in humility and patience1 or shake off spiritual torpor4 ,scrupulosity that is supernatural in origin is much rarer than that which has a natural source1 and it can be usually recognized by certain signs1 like the following2 7a7 when it cannot be accounted for by natural causes1 and is generally short in duration2 7b7 if it is from the evil spirits1 it leaves the soul shaken or dismayed1 if from ,god1 it is followed by light and peace4 #fbj4 ,dangers of scrupulosity4--,the evil results of indulged scrupulosity are as follows3 7a7 temporal evils--the constant fears and worries of the scrupulous affect the brain and nerves1 break down the bodily vigor1 and lead to neurasthenia1 hysteria1 insanity or monomania2 7b7 spiritual evils--time is wasted in useless regrets and anxieties1 prayer becomes a torture1 confidence in ,god decreases1 and1 seeing they do not find consolation in virtue1 the scrupulous often end in vice and despair4 #fba4 ,rules to be observed by the scrupulous4--7a7 ,they must not yield to their scruples4 ,as was said above1 scrupulosity is not a conscience1 but only the counterfeit appearance of a conscience2 not a help to the soul1 but a grave drawback and danger4 ,hence1 the scrupulous must learn to despise their foolish fears and imaginations4 7b7 ,they must follow blindly the commands of a prudent spiritual director4 ,to attempt to make decisions for themselves is a harrowing experience for scrupulous persons1 and one fraught with great peril4 ,they must protect themselves1 therefore1 by following the decisions made for them by one who will guide them aright4 ,gradually1 as their condition improves1 however1 they must learn to take the initiative and thus prepare themselves to act as responsible persons capable of forming a correct judgment4 #fbb4 ,not to follow their scruples means3 7a7 that scrupulous persons should recognize their scruples for what they really are 7i4e41 for a spiritual disorder71 and that they should firmly resolve to use the means to get rid of them2 7b7 that they will prevent scruples from arising by keeping themselves occupied with external things1 or by interesting themselves with matters that will exclude the worrisome thoughts2 7c7 that they will banish scruples at once1 as they would a temptation4 ,the two key aims of the scrupulous individual is to counteract his introversion by greater social activity and to re-train his faculty so that he will be in control at all times4 #fbc4 ,though the scrupulous are obliged not to heed their scruples1 they rarely sin by heeding them1 because their condition is such that they are not responsible4 ,for1 as was said above 7#dj sqq471 fear and other passions lessen or remove deliberation and the voluntariness of acts4 #fbd4 ,to give absolute obedience to the spiritual director means3 7a7 that scrupulous persons should recognize that it is wrong for them to depend on their own prudence1 whereas they are absolutely safe in following the advice and precepts of the spiritual father who holds the place of ,god2 7b7 that they should avoid changing directors1 and should adhere strictly to the rules prescribed for them4 #fbe4 ,qualities required for a successful direction of the scrupulous are3 7a7 ,knowledge4 ,the spiritual physician must be able to distinguish scrupulosity from spiritual diseases or conditions that are similar1 lest he prescribe what is not suitable for the case4 ,example3 ,a person of tender conscience should continue in that state1 a person of scrupulous conscience needs instruction that he may put aside his erroneous views2 a scrupulous person stands in need of special guidance4 ,he must also recognize that scrupulosity is a mental illness that at times requires the expert treatment of a psychiatrist4 ,knowing his own limitations and the need of expert therapy1 he should not hesitate to send the penitent to a competent doctor4 7b7 ,prudence4 ,some persons pretend scrupulosity in order to get a name for holiness1 or to make a good impression2 needless to say1 they must be dealt with cautiously1 as they often prove very unscrupulous4 ,with a person who is really scrupulous1 the spiritual director must carefully obtain all the knowledge necessary to ascertain the true state of soul1 prudently bring the individual to recognize that he is a sick person1 help to restore his confidence in himself1 in his confessor1 in ,god1 etc4 7c7 ,patience4 ,the scrupulous are almost as troublesome to their directors as they are to themselves2 but they are heavily burdened and are unable to help themselves4 ,the law of charity applies4 ,they have the same right to charitable treatment as others who are physically suffering and needy4 7d7 ,firmness4 ,disobedience will defeat every effort of a director to help a scrupulous person4 ,on this point1 therefore1 there must be no leniency3 the rules laid down must be insisted on1 the reasons should not be given1 and no argument or discussion should be allowed4 ,the director should speak with certainty and authority2 he should be brief1 and1 if he must repeat1 he will do well to use the same words4 7e7 ,good judgment4 ,after deciding that a person is scrupulous1 the director must discover what is the particular form of scrupulosity in the case1 and must apply remedies that are suitable4 #fbf4 ,rules ,concerning ,persons ,scrupulous about ,past ,confessions4--7a7 ,for the first time the confessor may permit a general confession of the past life1 if the scrupulous penitent has fears about previous confessions and has not already made such a general confession4 ,let the individual relate his whole story at once1 with all its details and complications4 ,this might perhaps take more than one confession to complete1 but the full recital is necessary if the scrupulous person is to have confidence in his director's knowledge of his exact state of soul4 7b7 ,after this general confession1 no mention of past confession must be permitted1 unless the scrupulous person is ready to swear without hesitation that he is sure that a sin certainly grave was committed by him and never rightly confessed4 #fbg4 ,rules ,concerning ,persons scrupulous about ,present ,confessions4--7a7 ,before confession1 the penitent must be content with a certain brief space of time appointed by the confessor for making his examination of conscience and act of contrition4 ,a longer time spent in these preparations is useful to other penitents1 but harmful to the scrupulous4 7b7 ,during confession only those sins need be mentioned which are seen from a brief examen to be both certain and grave1 and only those circumstances whose declaration is absolutely necessary4 ,if the scrupulous penitent begins to speak of doubtful sins or irrelevant details1 the confessor must forbid him to go on2 for though confessions must be complete1 whenever possible1 doubts and details must not be permitted in the case of such scrupulous persons 7see ,vol4 ,,ii74 7c7 ,after confession1 if the confessor judges that there is not sufficient matter for absolution1 he must not yield to the penitent's fears1 but must assure him that he does not need absolution and that he may go to the ,sacraments ,without it4 #fbh4 ,rules ,concerning ,persons scrupulous about the ,performance of ,duties4--7a7 ,the scrupulous person should be instructed that positive laws1 divine as well as human1 do not oblige in case of moral impossibility 7i4e41 when their observance is too burdensome72 that the matter about which he has scruples has become too difficult for him1 and hence that he is not obliged to it as others are4 7b7 ,the scrupulous person should be commanded to leave undone what his vain fear calls on him to do2 and1 if this does not suffice1 he should be told that he is not bound by the duty which causes him such anxiety4 ,example3 ,titus is scrupulous about the performance of obligatory prayers1 so much so that he is not satisfied until he has repeated them several times1 lest some syllable may have been omitted or hurried over1 or the intention or attention may have been lost sight of at some part of the prayer1 or the devotional posture may not have been observed throughout4 ,if ,titus cannot learn to say these prayers without making senseless repetitions1 he should be told that the obligation has ceased until such time as he is able to fulfill it without torture to himself or others4 #fbi4 ,of course1 if harm is done to another by the incomplete performance of a duty1 even a scrupulous person cannot be dispensed from repetition4 ,example3 ,if a priest has not pronounced a sacramental form correctly1 the fact that he is scrupulous does not excuse him from repeating the form correctly4 #fcj4 ,rules ,concerning ,persons ,scrupulous about the ,commission ,of ,sin4--7a7 ,the scrupulous person should be told that he is scrupulous1 that his scrupulosity is not a conscience that he is obliged to follow1 but a vain fear which he is obliged to struggle against by observing the directions given him4 7b7 ,he should be directed not to deliberate long before acting1 but to do what seems right to him at first2 not to conclude after acting that he has committed sin1 unless this appears certain and evident4 ,since the scrupulous are over-careful1 the presumption is in their favor1 and they can act and judge prudently by disregarding their fears and doubts4 ,if by deciding offhand they sometimes sin or fail to recognize sin in a past act1 this will come from invincible ignorance1 and they will be excused from responsibility4 #fca4 ,since a disease is best cured by removing its cause1 the confessor1 when he has diagnosed a case of scruples1 should prescribe remedies that are opposed to the source of the trouble4 7a7 ,if scrupulosity seems to come from ,god1 the penitent should be encouraged to regard it as a means of satisfaction for past negligences or as an occasion of virtue and progress1 to pray incessantly for light and assistance1 and to follow the guidance which ,god has provided4 7b7 ,if scrupulosity appears to be the result of diabolical obsession1 and exorcism seems to be called for1 the sufferer should not be told this4 7c7 ,if scrupulosity comes from associations or reading1 the sufferer should avoid these occasions1 and cultivate the companionship of persons or books that are cheerful and that give a hopeful outlook on one's duty and destiny4 #fcb4 ,remedies for ,scruples ,that ,are ,mental in ,origin4--7a7 ,those who suffer from fixed ideas1 phobias1 and delusions1 should not be reproved harshly and told that their fears are insane1 but should be treated with kindness and firmness4 ,in ministering to these troubled minds1 the best course seems to be kind assurance that they have nothing to fear1 along with insistence that they imitate the example of the generality of good people1 avoid singular practices of piety1 discuss their anxieties only with their director1 and give themselves to some occupation that will distract their attention from their manias4 7b7 ,those whose minds are over-active and given to doubts and objections must avoid introspection and the study of moral problems that are too difficult for them2 they must take a proper amount of suitable recreation1 think and plan how they may help others who are in need1 and avoid idleness4 #fcc4 ,remedies for ,scruples ,whose ,origin is ,moral4--7a7 ,if scruples arise from a stubbornness of character1 the penitent must be told that the confessor is better fitted to judge the case1 and that it is the height of rashness and presumption for a scrupulous person to prefer his ideas to those of the priest4 7b7 ,if a melancholy or timid nature accounts for the existence of scruples1 confidence and cheerfulness should be inculcated1 and the penitent should be encouraged to meditate frequently on the goodness of ,god1 and to remember always that ,god is not a harsh taskmaster1 but a kind ,father4 7c7 ,those who are scrupulous because their character is fickle and easily moved by every suggestion or imagination1 need to cultivate seriousness1 and to hold strongly to their judgments and resolves deliberately formed4 ,obedience to their director will be of more lasting benefit to these and other psychical scrupulants than psychiatric treatments through hypnotism1 mental suggestion1 and psychoanalysis2 observance of the rules prescribed is an excellent cultivation of will-power1 and it is sustained and perfected by the motives and helps which religion alone can supply4 #fcd4 ,remedies for scrupulosity ,whose ,cause ,is ,physical4--7a7 ,the physician is the proper person to care for bodily ills2 hence1 a scrupulous person who is troubled with headaches1 dizziness1 sleeplessness1 loss of appetite1 nervousness1 hallucinations1 etc41 should go to a competent and conscientious specialist in the healing art4 ,removal of the causes of hurry and worry1 moderate but sufficient diet1 fresh air and exercise1 and especially congenial occupation and surroundings are by general consent included among the best natural cures4 7b7 ,the confessor1 if he perceives that illness is the cause of scruples1 should forbid any spiritual practices that cause or aggravate the malady4 ,example3 scrupulous penitents should not be permitted to practise mortification by depriving themselves of necessary sleep1 food1 exercise or fresh air1 or to use devotions or austerities for which they are physically unfit4 #fce4 ,persons who are scrupulous and lax at the same time need to be directed so as to overcome both spiritual maladies4 7a7 ,if they are more scrupulous than lax1 the case is less difficult1 as they incline rather to the safer side1 and it will suffice to apply the remedies indicated above for laxity and scrupulosity1 as they are needed4 ,example3 ,titus1 on account of scrupulosity1 spends too much time at his prayers1 and thus neglects the exercise and recreation which are necessary for his health4 ,he should be instructed to limit his devotions1 to have a regular time for them each day1 and to realize that he has an obligation to take proper care of his health4 7b7 ,if persons are more lax than scrupulous1 the case is difficult1 as they incline more to evil2 indeed1 if the trouble is ,pharisaism1 it is well-nigh incurable1 on account of the pride and blindness that oppose resistance to every effort to cure4 ,these persons need to be treated with severity1 since nothing else will make any impression2 they should be told in plain language how they stand and what is in store for them1 unless they repent4 ,examples3 ,caius is extremely careful not to be guilty of sins of commission1 but he thinks nothing of sins of omission2 he would not take a postage stamp without express permission of the owner1 but he neglects from year to year to pay bills1 and sees nothing wrong in this4 ,titus thinks himself a saint because he worships the letter of the law1 when it is to be applied to others2 but he cares nothing about its spirit1 and1 though indulgent to self1 is a tyrant with others4 ,both these men need to be told that1 far from being good1 they are very bad2 that1 far from being secure1 they are in great danger4 ,if insensible to reproofs1 they should be reminded of the woes that await the wilfully blind 7,matt41 xxiii4 #ac sqq474 #fcf4 ,practical ,conclusions4--,an instrument is called good when it produces with sufficient exactness the effects for which it was intended2 it is bad1 if it fails to produce those effects4 ,thus1 a timepiece1 a compass1 or a thermometer is good if it indicates accurately1 and bad if it indicates inaccurately4 ,but1 as it would be harmful to guide oneself by an unreliable instrument 7e4g41 by a watch with a defective mainspring1 or which runs fast or slow71 one naturally corrects the defects and regulates the working of the mechanism4 ,now1 from what has been said above in this article1 we see that conscience can be a deceptive indicator1 and that its accuracy can be improved4 ,hence1 the need of correcting a bad conscience and of cultivating a good conscience4 #fcg4 ,remedies for a bad conscience and means for cultivating a good conscience are as follows3 7a7 ,the remote causes of a bad conscience are in the will itself4 ,a person judges wrongly often because he is wrong in himself1 wrong in his intentions and purposes with regard to life as a whole1 wrong in his attitude towards a particular line of duty1 wrong in his lack of sincerity with himself4 ,hence1 the correctives needed are a sincere love of ,god and of virtue1 courage to wish the truth1 and an honest examination of motives and actions3 8,the sensual man perceiveth not the things that are of the ,spirit of ,god1 but the spiritual man judgeth all things0 7,i ,cor41 ii4 #ad1 #ae74 7b7 ,the immediate causes of a bad conscience are in the intellect4 ,one judges wrongly because one clings in time of doubt to erroneous ideas or principles4 ,the remedy1 therefore1 is to seek diligently for light through prayer1 to study the lives and conduct of those who are models1 to consult with the prudent and the conscientious4 ,the bad conscience says to ,god3 8,depart from us1 we desire not the knowledge of ,thy ways0 7,job1 xxi4 #ad72 but the good one says3 8,teach me ,thy justifications4 ,thy testimonies are my delight1 and ,thy justifications my counsel0 7,ps4 cxviii4 #ab1 #bd74 #fch4 ,signs of a ,good ,conscience4--7a7 ,extraordinary holiness is not necessary before one may consider one's conscience good1 for there are degrees of goodness4 ,if1 therefore1 a person's external life is directed by the duties of his state1 and his internal life1 as far as he can judge1 is free from serious guilt and guided by love of ,god and hatred of sin1 he may safely regard his will as good4 ,if sometimes he sins venially1 this is not because he lacks a good conscience1 but because he does not always follow it4 7b7 ,extraordinary diligence in studying one's duties is not necessary before one may regard one's conscience as good1 for otherwise a heavier burden would be imposed than we can suppose ,god to intend4 ,a person who is using all the means for obtaining religious instruction that are used by others in his position and who are conscientious1 may safely regard himself as free from voluntary error4 ,if sometimes he judges wrongly1 the mistake will be involuntary and not due to a bad conscience4 ,of course1 one whose conscience is not in vincible error may sin even mortally1 not because his conscience is bad1 but because he does not follow it4 #fci4 ,the following are means for preserving and maintaining a good conscience3 7a7 we should judge our motives frequently with the severity with which we judge the motives of another 7,rom41 ii4 #a71 and as before ,god 7,i ,cor41 ii4 #aj72 7b7 we should measure our actions1 not by the standards of the world1 its maxims and examples1 but by those of ,christ 7,i ,john1 ii4 #ae-ag2 ,,iii ,john1 #aa74 ,art4 #c3 ,a ,,certain ,,conscience 7,summa ,theologica1 ,i-,,ii1 q4 #eg1 a4 #e2 ,,ii-,,ii1 q4 #dg1 a4 #i47 #fdj4 ,as was said above1 only that conscience is a safe guide which is not only good--that is1 in agreement1 as far as one's efforts can secure this1 with the external law--but also certain4 ,a certain conscience is one which1 without any prudent fear of erring1 judges that a particular act is obligatory or unlawful1 and hence here and now to be done or omitted4 #fda4 ,necessity of ,certitude4--,we must be sure we are right before we act2 otherwise1 we expose ourselves to the danger of sinning1 and therefore commit sin 7see #ehb74 ,hence1 it is necessary to act with a certain conscience1 and unlawful to act with an uncertain conscience4 8,if the trumpet give an uncertain sound1 who shall prepare himself to the battle80 7,i ,cor41 xiv4 #h7 may be accommodated to conscience4 ,in ,rom41 xiv4 #bb1 #bc1 the ,apostle declares that he who acts with conviction is blessed1 whereas he who acts in uncertainty is condemned4 ,examples3 ,sempronia doubts whether it is sinful to sew on ,sunday2 she is not sure1 but has grave suspicions that sewing is servile work2 if she goes ahead1 she will be guilty of violating the law1 as being willing to take the risk1 and therefore the responsibility4 ,titus offers another a drink1 being uncertain whether it has poison in it or not2 he is guilty of sin1 since he has no right to expose himself to sin and his neighbor to the danger of death4 #fdb4 ,those persons who act with a doubtful conscience1 and later discover that what they feared might be wrong was not wrong1 or not so bad as they suspected1 must bear in mind3 7a7 that their past conduct is not to be judged by their newly acquired knowledge1 for that conduct must be judged by the knowledge had at the time4 ,example3 ,sempronia does some work on ,sunday1 doubting whether she is committing a grave or a slight sin4 ,later she discovers that it was really only a venial sin1 and she congratulates herself that she did not sin seriously4 ,her judgment is wrong1 because she did not know at the time of the work that it was not a grave sin2 7b7 that they must guide themselves in future acts by their newly acquired knowledge4 #fdc4 ,kinds of ,certitude4--,judgments may be certain in a greater or less degree4 7a7 ,they are metaphysically certain1 when error is absolutely impossible1 the opposite of what is held by the mind being a contradiction in terms which omnipotence itself could not make true4 ,example3 ,the judgments that the same1 identical act cannot be both good and bad1 that good is to be done and evil to be avoided1 that ,god is to be honored1 are metaphysically certain1 since they result immediately from the very concepts of being1 of goodness1 and of ,god4 7b7 ,judgments are physically certain1 when error is impossible according to the laws of nature1 the opposite of what is held by the mind being unrealizable except through intervention of another cause4 ,example3 ,the judgments that he who takes poison will destroy life1 that he who applies fire to a house will destroy property1 are physically certain4 because natural agencies1 like poison and fire1 act infallibly when applied to suitable matters and under suitable conditions and left to their course1 unless they are overruled by superior power4 7c7 ,judgments are morally certain1 when error is impossible according to what is customary among mankind1 the opposite of what is held by the mind being so unlikely that it would be imprudent to be moved by it4 ,examples3 ,one is morally certain that what a reputedly truthful and competent person relates to one is true4 ,a person is morally certain that a conclusion he has drawn about his duty in a particular instance is correct1 if he believes that he has overlooked no means of reaching the truth4 ,testimony and inference1 since they come from free and fallible agencies1 may lead into error2 but1 when they appear to have the requisite qualities indicative of truth1 they are for the most part reliable and in practical life have to be considered as such4 #fdd4 ,as to the certainty that is required in the judgment of conscience1 the following points must be noted3 7a7 ,metaphysical certainty is not required1 since conscience does not deal with primary propositions1 but with deductions about particular acts4 ,the first moral principles1 which are the object of synderesis1 and at least some of the general conclusions1 which are the object of moral science1 are metaphysically certain 7see above #ade1 #cjj71 as they are based on necessary relations2 but the particular conclusions1 which are the object of conscience1 are concerned with the contingent and the individual4 7b7 ,physical certainty is not required for the judgment of conscience1 since conscience is not concerned with the activities of natural agents1 but with the activities of moral agents that act with freedom and responsibility4 7c7 ,moral certitude1 therefore1 is sufficient for the conclusions drawn by conscience4 ,that a higher kind of certitude is not necessary should not surprise us1 for it would be unreasonable to expect that the same degree of assent be given to judgments that are concerned with particular and contingent cases as to those that are concerned with universal and necessary principles4 #fde4 ,moral certitude is of two kinds3 7a7 certitude in the strict sense1 which excludes not only the fear of error1 but every doubt1 prudent and imprudent1 great and small1 ,example3 ,titus thinks of a way in which he could easily make money dishonestly2 but his conscience sees that the thing is manifestly wrong and decides without the slightest fear or doubt that it must not be done2 7b7 certitude in the wide sense1 which excludes all fear of error and every serious or prudent doubt1 but not one or other slight and imprudent doubt4 ,example3 ,caius was baptized by an excellent priest1 but the date was omitted in the register4 ,the doubt occurs to ,caius that perhaps something essential was also omitted1 and that it may be his duty to seek another ,baptism4 ,his doubt is unreasonable4 #fdf4 ,moral certitude in the wide sense is sufficient for a safe conscience1 even in matters of great importance1 since it is frequently the only kind of certitude one can have1 and he who would strive to be free from every slight and baseless suspicion would be soon involved in a maze of scruples and perplexities4 ,example3 ,if the ,caius above referred to were to yield to his doubt and be rebaptized1 a similar doubt about the second ,baptism might easily arise in his mind1 and he would be no more contented than before4 #fdg4 ,from the point of view of its object1 certitude is twofold4 7a7 ,speculative certitude refers to a judgment considered as a general law1 abstraction being made from particular circumstances4 ,example3 ,it is speculatively certain that farm work on a holyday is a forbidden kind of work1 and that clerics are obliged to say the ,divine ,office4 7b7 ,practical certitude refers to a judgment which is an application of a general law to a particular case1 consideration being given to all the pertinent circumstances4 ,example3 ,it is practically certain that ,titus may make hay on a holyday1 if otherwise he will suffer great loss2 and that a cleric is excused from the ,divine ,office1 if his physician has warned him that he is physically or mentally unable to perform it4 #fdh4 ,speculative certainty is not sufficient for conscience1 but practical certitude is required1 since conscience refers not to abstract laws but to concrete cases--not to what is right if only the object of the act is considered1 but to what is right when one considers the object1 the motive1 and all the circumstances here and now present4 #fdi4 ,from the point of view of the arguments on which it is based1 certitude is of two kinds4 7a7 ,demonstrative certitude is the assent that rests on a conclusion logically drawn from certainly true premises4 ,example3 ,caius argues that he is obliged to go to ,mass on ,sunday1 because the law is certain1 and it is also certain that the law applies to him4 7b7 ,probable certitude1 which is the assent that rests on a conclusion1 whose premises1 though not certain1 seem to be true1 and against which there is no counter conclusion1 or none that cannot be readily answered 7see #gjc74 ,example3 ,caius is pretty sure that he is seriously ill1 because he perceives a number of alarming symptoms2 the possibility that these may be due to imagination is excluded by the fact that they are new and sudden4 ,caius1 therefore1 concludes that he may hold himself excused from attendance at ,mass4 #fej4 ,probable certitude is sufficient for conscience1 for in moral matters it is impossible to have at all times reasons that amount to a demonstration1 and hence a person acts prudently in following a decision that is solidly probable and unopposed by any contrary serious probability4 ,what is called 8probable certitude0 here is very different from probable opinion1 about which there will be question below 7#ffb sqq47 #fea4 ,from the point of view of the manner in which it is obtained1 certitude is again twofold4 7a7 ,direct certitude is that which is obtained from principles that are intrinsic to the case by applying to the matter the law concerning it4 ,examples3 ,a judge who decides according to the evidence and proofs given in court that an accused is guilty1 and a son who concludes from the ,fourth ,commandment that he is bound to help his parents in necessity1 have direct certainty in their judgments1 because they argued from principles that deal with the question before them4 7b7 ,indirect certitude is that which is obtained from principles that are extrinsic to the case by applying to the matter in hand reflex principles 7i4e41 rules that direct how one should act in doubt7 or the principle of authority 7i4e41 the argument drawn from the opinion of those who are acknowledged as competent to decide74 ,examples2 ,if a judge is not able to form a certain judgment from intrinsic reasons concerning an accused1 because strong arguments have been given both for guilt and for innocence1 he has recourse to principles that have reference to his own state of doubt1 and which declare that he must acquit when he is not certain of guilt4 ,if a man is not able to decide whether the ,fourth ,commandment obliges him to keep his grandparents or mother-in-law in his home1 when they upset his family and are able to take care of themselves1 he can have recourse to the external principle of authority by consulting his confessor4 #feb4 ,direct certitude is not necessary for the judgment of conscience1 for often1 as in the cases just mentioned1 it is not possible4 ,moreover1 indirect certitude suffices to give one who is in doubt such practical assurance that one's fears become unimportant and one is able to act prudently in spite of them4 7a7 ,the principle of authority--that 8in doubt we can safely follow the advice of those who are experts and truthful0--is reliable1 as both the conditions required for authority 7viz41 knowledge and truthfulness7 and also daily experience show4 7b7 ,reflex principles likewise1 although they do not prove what is deduced from them1 are well founded1 and point so clearly the side to be taken when judgment is suspended between alternatives that they enable one to act with all the certitude that prudence demands4 ,example3 ,the principle that 8in doubt decision should be given in favor of the accused10 is based on the fact that a man's right to his life and liberty is so certain that he does not forfeit that right unless it is proved convincingly that he is guilty4 #fec4 ,examples of uncertain and certain consciences are the following3 7a7 ,uncertain conscience3 ,it is lawful to make a just contract 7major premise certain72 but this contract is just 7minor premise a matter of doubt or opinion72 therefore1 this contract is lawful 7conclusion a matter of doubt or opinion74 7b7 ,conscience directly certain3 ,it is lawful to make a just contract 7certain72 but this contract is just 7certain72 therefore1 ,i may make this contract 7certain74 7c7 ,conscience indirectly certain3 ,it is lawful to follow competent advice or a moral system approved by the ,church 7certain72 but a competent spiritual adviser or an approved system of ,moral ,theology holds that this kind of contract is lawful 7certain72 therefore1 it is lawful for me to make this contract 7certain74 #fed4 ,an ,uncertain ,conscience4--,uncertainty of conscience can be understood in two senses4 7a7 ,conscience is uncertain in a more strict sense1 if the verdict of the moral judgment on a question of lawfulness or unlawfulness is that no decision can be given either way1 either because there are no reasons of importance on either side 7negative doubt71 or because the opposing reasons balance so perfectly that it is impossible to choose between them 7positive doubt74 ,examples3 ,titus1 wishing to do some drawing on ,sundays1 asks himself whether drawing is servile work4 ,not knowing the definition of 8servile10 he can only reply to his doubt that he has no reasons either for affirmation or for negation4 ,caius reads moral authors on the same question1 and the pros and cons seem to him so equally strong that he cannot pronounce for either side4 7b7 ,conscience is uncertain in a less strict sense1 if the verdict of the moral judgment on a question of lawfulness or unlawfulness is that the mind inclines to one side more than the other1 but cannot decide in its favor 7suspicion71 or that it decides for one side1 while perceiving that the arguments for the contrary are not to be despised 7opinion74 ,example3 ,titus decides to spend a good part of ,sunday taking photographs4 ,caius argues that this is unlawful2 ,sempronius1 that it is lawful4 ,titus thinks the arguments of both are strong1 but is better pleased with those of ,sempronius4 ,if he feels he cannot act on either opinion1 his state of mind is what we called suspicion2 if he feels that the opinion of ,sempronius has prevailed1 his state of mind is one of opinion4 #fee4 ,from what was said above concerning the certitude requisite for conscience 7see #fda sqq471 it follows that3 7a7 when the state of mind is positive or negative doubt1 one is not allowed to act2 for a person who is ignorant of what he should do1 or who is fluctuating between opposites1 runs the risk of sin and its consequences1 if he acts blindly2 7b7 when the state of mind is suspicion1 one is not allowed to act1 for conscience must be more than conjecture or inclination2 7e7 when the state of mind is opinion1 one is or is not allowed to act1 according as the opinion has or has not the qualities required for certitude that is moral and practical 7as explained above in #fdc sqq474 #fef4 ,doubt and ,suspicion4--,the following are the duties of a person whose state of mind about his obligation is one of doubt or suspicion3 7a7 ,if he has no time to resolve his hesitation but must decide at once1 he should follow the rules given for a perplexed conscience 7see above1 #faa sqq474 ,example2 ,sempronius is ordered by his father to go on an errand2 by his mother1 to remain at home4 ,he does not know whom he should obey1 but argues that there can be no harm in performing the errand1 since he feels that he is forced anyway4 ,sempronius' impromptu decision proceeds from a sense of moral responsibility2 it is good1 and as certain as he is able to make it4 7b7 ,if a person has time to resolve his hesitation1 he should not trust to common sense1 but should consult moral theology1 if he is competent to understand and apply it1 or should have recourse to his confessor1 if he is not a theologian4 ,the attention given to his problem should be proportionate to the gravity of the duty in question1 its importance for third parties1 etc4 7see below1 #ffg ,sqq474 ,example3 ,if a layman is uncertain whether a practice he follows in his business is dishonest1 he should consult a priest2 if the priest is uncertain1 he should refer to his theology and study the matter until he is able to give a well-founded1 morally certain judgment4 #feg4 ,reflex principles by the aid of which a negative doubt may be solved1 when the question is about the existence or non-existence of some fact connected with obligation1 are the following3 7a7 ,if the fact at issue is one about which presumption may be had from general or personal experience1 the doubt may be settled by the principle3 8,in uncertainty decide according to what usually happens40 ,examples3 ,titus is uncertain whether his boy of seven years has the use of reason and is bound to go to ,mass4 ,as a rule1 children attain discretion at the age of seven2 and hence ,titus should take his boy to ,mass4 ,fr4 ,caius is uncertain whether he has said ,terce4 ,his experience is that such uncertainties on his part have always been baseless in the past2 hence1 he may consider that he has said ,terce as usual4 7b7 ,if the fact at issue is one about which no presumption is afforded1 either from general or personal experience1 recourse may be had to the principle3 8,a fact should not be taken for granted1 but must be proved40 ,examples3 ,sempronia doubts whether her practice of saying the ,rosary daily was the result of a vow2 but1 as there is no proof or circumstantial evidence of a vow1 it may be held that her practice originated in a resolution4 ,caius1 a stranger1 claims that ,titus owes him for an unpaid debt of his father4 ,titus knows nothing of the alleged debt1 and the only substantiation for its existence is the word of the stranger4 ,titus is not obliged to pay4 #feh4 ,presumption of a fact is of three kinds according to ,weight3 7a7 ,violent presumption is based on indications so significant or numerous that it leaves only slight room for evasion4 ,this kind of presumption suffices1 but is not essential in solving doubts4 ,example3 ,caius has no direct proof or disproof that he paid ,titus in a certain business transaction1 because all the papers have been lost4 ,but he remembers distinctly that he drew the money and went personally to the office of ,titus on the day payment was to be made1 and that the latter1 up to the time of his death several months later1 always acted as if full settlement had been made4 7b7 ,strong presumption is based on circumstances or signs so moving that they permit one to infer a fact as being their natural or usual accompaniment or result4 ,this kind of presumption suffices in solving the doubts we are considering4 ,example3 ,if ,caius1 spoken of above1 has no individual recollection of any circumstances bearing on the payment of his debt to ,titus1 but knows that it was his invariable custom to pay all his debts promptly1 the presumption that he paid this debt is strong4 7c7 ,light presumption occurs when the reasons are so slight1 that they hardly ever suffice to permit us to infer a given fact from them4 ,example3 ,if we suppose that ,caius was dilatory in paying debts1 and that he has no better indication of payment having been made than the fact that ,titus gave him a cigar about the time of their business transaction1 there is little presumption that the debt was paid4 #fei4 ,reflex principles that may be used to settle negative doubts about the quality of an act performed are the following3 7a7 ,if there is an individual presumption1 the quality of the act may be inferred from what usually happens4 ,example3 ,sempronius cannot remember whether a certain good work he undertook was prompted by zeal or ambition4 ,but1 as he usually tried to keep his motives pure1 it may be concluded that the work in question proceeded from a right intention4 7b7 ,if there is no individual presumption1 the quality of an act may be settled from general presumptions or principles4 ,when the act was according to law1 and the doubt concerns its validity or sufficiency1 one may take it that all was rightly done2 for it usually happens that he who complies with the substance1 also complies with what is accessory4 ,moreover1 the welfare of the public and of individuals require that an act done outwardly according to law should be deemed as rightly performed unless the contrary can be proved4 ,hence the rules3 8,in doubt decide for the validity of what was done02 8,what has been done is presumed to have been rightly done40 ,examples3 ,caia cannot remember whether she really consented when she married ,titus4 ,sempronius cannot remember whether he had sufficient attention in hearing ,mass on ,sunday4 ,the presumptions are that ,caia married validly and that ,sempronius heard ,mass properly1 if they acted in good faith4 #ffj4 ,reflex principles that may be used to settle negative and invincible doubts concerning law or obligation are the following3 7a7 ,if no serious reasons can be found to prove or disprove the existence of a law1 or its gravity or application to a present case1 use may be made of the principle3 8,invincible ignorance of the law excuses from sin40 ,example3 ,titus on an ember day consults all the sources of information he has to discover whether it is a fast day2 but all he can learn is that some vigils are fast days1 others are not4 7b7 ,if no serious reasons can be found to prove or disprove that a law bears a certain meaning1 recourse may be had to such principles as the following3 8,a law obliges only in so far as it is knowable02 8,the interpretation may be made against the legislator who could have spoken more clearly02 8,things burdensome to the subjects of the law should be construed narrowly2 things favorable1 broadly40 ,example3 ,caius1 who supervises workingmen1 has no notion regarding the meaning of the word 8workingman0 as used in an indult on fasting--viz41 whether it applies to supervisors of work or exclusively to laborers4 7c7 ,if no serious reasons can be found to prove or directly disprove that a certain law has ceased or been abrogated1 the principle to be followed is3 8,in doubt decide for that which has the presumption40 ,in this case the presumption is for the continuance of the law1 since it was certainly made1 and there is no probability for its non-continuance4 ,example3 ,sempronius learns that certain mitigations have been made in the law of fasting1 and wonders whether the same is true as regards the law of abstinence2 but he has no reason to think that any change has been made on this latter point4 #ffa4 ,in the above cases negative doubt was solved generally in favor of non-obligation as against obligation4 ,but there are two cases in which negative doubt must be settled in favor of obligation1 according to the rule3 8,in doubt follow that which is safer40 ,the two cases are3 7a7 ,negative doubt must be settled in favor of obligation1 when the doubt is about a matter of such importance that it does not permit the taking of risks in its performance1 as when there is question of laws that safeguard the supreme rights of man1 or of laws that prescribe the essentials to be used in the administration of the ,sacraments4 ,example3 ,sempronius adopts a newly-born infant abandoned at his door4 ,as there is nothing to indicate whether the baby has been baptized or not1 ,sempronius takes the safer course and has it baptized4 7b7 ,negative doubt must be settled in favor of obligation when it persists because no reflex principle is found1 or none that seems to be suitable for the case4 ,example3 ,titus wavers between uncertainties about the existence of a law2 he can discover no reasons pro or con1 and he knows no principle or presumption to guide himself by in his difficulty4 ,he does not know or even think that he may act as if the law were non-existent1 and hence he must inquire further1 or else act as if the law did exist4 #ffb4 ,opinion4--,the duty of one whose state of mind is opinion is as follows3 7a7 ,if he is able to remove every objection against his judgment or to make unimportant such objection or objections as remain1 his opinion has become moral certainty 7see above1 #fdd ,sqq471 and he may follow it as a safe guide4 ,example3 ,caius promises to marry ,sempronia1 but his parents forbid the marriage4 ,caius opines that he should keep his promise1 but to be sure he consults his pastor4 ,the latter shows him that the opposition to his marriage is unreasonable1 and thus sets at rest the difficulties of ,caius4 7b7 ,if a person is not able to remove one or more important objections against his judgment1 his opinion has not become moral certitude1 and he may not follow it as a safe guide4 ,example3 ,if ,caius' pastor holds that the parents are right and ,caius wrong in the question of marriage with ,scmpronia1 so that ,caius1 while still thinking he should keep his promise1 has serious fears that it would be a wrong step1 the young man should not follow his own view4 #ffc4 ,those who act when their state of mind is doubt1 suspicion1 or uncertain opinion are3 7a7 guilty of sin1 for they do not act in good faith 7,rom1 xiv4 #bb1 #bc71 and they are imprudent and lovers of danger 7,ecclus41 iii4 #bg72 7b7 guilty of the species and gravity of sin which they fear may be in their act2 for they interpretatively wish that to which they expose themselves4 ,example3 ,if ,titus takes an oath1 fearing that his act is perjury1 he is guilty of perjury before ,god1 even though what he says is true4 #ffd4 ,fears or objections against an opinion are unimportant as follows3 7a7 if they have only a slight probability 7e4g41 ,titus opines that he is not obliged to say the second lessons1 because he knows that he began them1 and therefore must have said them2 but he fears he may be obliged to say them1 because he cannot remember the details of the lessons1 and hence has probably not said them72 7b7 if they are improbable 7e4g41 ,caius fears that he may have omitted ,sext1 although he recalls going to choir to chant at the regular times47 #ffe4 ,fears against an opinion are important1 when they are not merely possible1 but have such an appearance of truth that even a prudent man would consider them as worthy of support4 7a7 ,intrinsic signs of this solid probability are the good arguments by which the fear1 or contrary of an opinion1 is supported4 ,example3 ,titus after careful examination of conscience decides that he is not obliged to mention a theft in confession1 because it happened just before his last confession2 yet1 he fears that he is obliged1 because he does not remember having thought of restitution4 7b7 ,extrinsic signs of solid probability are the good authorities by whom the contrary of the opinion is defended4 ,example3 ,caius opines that he is not obliged to confess a calumny1 because he is not certain that it is unconfessed2 he fears that he is obliged1 because ,st4 ,alphonsus1 whose authority is great in ,moral ,theology1 teaches that a grave sin must be confessed unless it is certain that it has been confessed already4 #fff4 ,he who is moved by unimportant fears or difficulties is scrupulous1 but not so he who hesitates in the face of an important difficulty4 ,examples3 ,balbus fears he may be guilty of murder1 because he left a sick person for a moment and the latter unexpectedly died in his absence 7scrupulous conscience74 ,sempronius fears he may be bound to restitution1 because by his ridicule he made ,titus lose his means of livelihood 7disturbed conscience74 #ffg4 ,what is to be done by one who holds an opinion as to what he may or may not do here and now1 but who has a serious fear that his opinion is wrong8 7a7 ,if the fear persists as serious1 when the means to remove it 7such as consideration and consultation7 have been duly resorted to1 he should delay1 if this is possible1 or follow the safer course1 if delay is not possible4 ,example3 ,titus must go to confession now1 but he cannot recall whether or not a past theft was ever confessed2 he thinks he is not obliged to mention it now1 but is far from feeling certain about this1 because of a serious doubt which he cannot resolve4 ,the thing for him to do is to resolve to confess the theft as one that was perhaps unconfessed before4 7b7 ,if the fear is removed or made unimportant1 by direct means 7such as theological argument from moral principles7 or by indirect means 7such as consultation or the use of reflex principles71 the opinion may be followed4 ,example3 ,if ,titus1 mentioned above1 learns from his confessor or deduces from reliable reflex principles that he is not obliged to confess the theft1 he may act with a safe conscience in following this decision4 #ffh4 ,the authority that may be safely followed by a lay person who holds an opinion1 but fears that the opposite may be true1 is that of anyone whom he knows to be pious1 instructed and prudent2 for1 as it is impossible for him either to settle the question for himself or to remain in perpetual uncertainty1 he must acquire certainty here as in other important affairs by consulting those who are expert and reliable4 ,hence1 if the conscience is merely opinionative1 a dependable adviser should be conferred with to make it certain4 7a7 ,in the case of an accusing or excusing conscience1 it is at least advisable that the doubtful sin be mentioned in confession1 and especially by those who are not strict in their lives and who are inclined to judge their own acts and motives with leniency4 7b7 ,in case of a forbidding or permitting conscience1 it is necessary that one seek reliable information where it can be had1 as from parents or teachers1 and if these cannot give it1 from a pastor or confessor or other priest4 ,example3 ,sempronius thinks he has a right to drink a glass of wine now and then to be sociable2 but he fears he has no right to do so1 as the drink occasions excitement or foolish remarks1 and sometimes makes it difficult for him to get to his home safely4 #ffi4 ,the authority that may be safely followed by confessors and other priests in resolving important doubts against a moral judgment is as follows3 7a7 ,if the opinion is supported as morally certain by all or nearly all of the approved text-books on moral teaching1 it may be followed2 for surely there would not be such unanimity1 if the objections were really formidable4 7b7 ,if the opinion is supported as morally certain by a goodly number 7say1 six or seven7 of those who are considered as preeminent in ,moral ,theology1 and who independently arrived at the same conclusion1 it may be followed2 for the judgment of many is better than that of one1 and the certainty of authorities should prevail over the doubt of one who has not the same authority4 7c7 ,if the opinion has the support as certain of only one theologian1 it may be followed without further investigation1 if he has received special mention from the ,church as an authority and a safe guide4 ,thus1 the ,holy ,see has expressly declared that the doctrine of ,st4 ,alphonsus may be safely followed by confessors1 and the approbation given to ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas as ,universal ,doctor makes his word more convincing than a contrary argument based on one's own reasoning4 ,of course1 this does not mean that these or any other private ,doctors are infallible in their judgments1 or that one should not depart from their teaching in a point where the ,church has decided against them1 or where there is a manifest reason for doing so2 it simply means that they are so conspicuous among moralists for the correctness of their teaching that one who is in doubt may safely follow them unless the contrary is known to him4 #fgj4 ,but one may be unable to settle one's difficulty by appeal to authority1 as such1 as in the following instances3 7a7 when the particular case to be decided is not considered at all in text-books1 or is not considered under the circumstances that exist2 7b7 when the authorities speak hesitatingly about the question1 and say that the opinion in question is at most probable1 etc42 7c7 when the authorities are about equally divided1 as when a few great names are opposed to many names of inferior rank1 or when those who are equal in knowledge so disagree that half are on one side1 half on the other4 ,in counting authorities1 however1 it is not always easy to decide who should be included1 as a writer may himself be arguing from the authority of an individual or of a school1 and thus he is not a distinct witness in favor of what he holds4 #fga4 ,when a priest or other person sufficiently instructed in theology is not able to change through recourse to authority an opinionative or doubtful conscience into a certain conscience1 he can still obtain certitude3 7a7 directly1 by reexamining the question diligently and with entire impartiality1 until he has discovered reasons strong enough to settle it convincingly one way or the other2 7b7 indirectly1 by submitting the question to the arbitrament of a reflex principle that really appears true to him1 and permitting it to decide between the opinion and the objection1 or between the contending doubts4 #fgb4 ,the ,moral ,systems4--,there are two general systems regarding reflex moral principles3 7a7 ,tutiorism1 which teaches that the only principle which can change uncertainty into certainty is3 8,when one is undecided between the safer and the less safe1 he must always choose the safer10 because only what is safer excludes the uncertainty of sinning2 7b7 ,anti-tutiorism1 which teaches that the principle given above is true in a few exceptional cases on account of special reasons1 but untrue as a rule4 ,the general principle which it substitutes for that of ,tutiorism is3 8,when one is undecided between the safer and the less safe1 one may choose the less safe if it is morally certain40 #fgc4 ,of two moral judgments that are compared1 it must be noted3 7a7 that one is safer which departs more from the danger of sin by deciding for the stricter side4 ,example3 ,in doubt whether a law exists1 whether it obliges in a present case1 whether its obligation is grave1 the safer opinion is that which holds for the affirmative2 7b7 that moral judgment is more likely which is supported by stronger arguments4 ,example3 ,that a law has ceased1 or does not apply in a certain case1 or does not oblige under sin1 is a more likely opinion if the arguments in its favor outweigh those against it4 #fgd4 ,thus1 it may happen that an opinion which is safer is less likely4 ,example3 ,the opinion that the precept of repentance obliges under pain of new sin from the moment a sin is committed is safer1 but less likely than the opposite opinion4 #fge4 ,danger of sin is twofold4 7a7 ,danger of formal sin 7see #bdi1 #beh7 is a risk taken which involves1 not only that an act may be unlawful1 but that the doing of it may be unlawful4 ,example3 ,caius eats meat1 doubting whether the day is one of abstinence and whether he is obliged to abstain or not4 7b7 ,danger of material sin 7see #bdi1 #beh7 is the danger that an act may be unlawful1 not in the concrete or as to its performance1 but in the abstract as to itself4 ,example3 ,titus is unable to discover whether this is a day of abstinence1 but he is of the opinion that it is not4 ,hence1 he takes meat1 arguing that1 while this may be a violation of the law1 he himself is not guilty of sin1 since he feels that he has a right to eat meat under the circumstances4 #fgf4 ,tutiorism4--,this system has been condemned by the ,church1 and with good reason1 for the following motives3 7a7 ,if by that which is safer1 ,tutiorism intends that which is better1 it contradicts the ,gospel1 which distinguishes between counsel and precept 7see #cfd sqq471 commanding what is good1 but only recommending what is better4 7b7 ,if by that which is safer ,tutiorism means that which favors law against liberty1 it imposes an intolerable yoke on the consciences of men2 for1 while law obliges only in so far as it is promulgated and known1 ,tutiorism would bind one to observe1 not only what was not known to be obligatory1 but what was held to be most probably not obligatory4 #fgg4 ,a modified form of ,tutiorism taught3 8,when one is undecided between the safer and the less safe1 one must choose the safer1 unless the less safe is most probable40 ,this system has not been censured by the ,church1 but ,catholic theologians with hardly an exception have rejected it1 for the following reasons3 7a7 ,most probable1 as understood by the defenders of this system1 is that which has such likelihood and such appearance of truth as to remove every probable danger of even material sin4 ,thus1 in reality this system requires absolute certitude and agrees with the rigorous tenet of ,tutiorism that even a most probable opinion against the law may not be followed4 7b7 ,most probable1 as commonly understood1 is that side of a question which so far excels the other side that no answer can be given to any of its arguments1 while all the arguments of the other side can be answered4 ,to require this in moral difficulties is to require the impossible1 for even the greatest theologians have to be content at times with less4 #fgh4 ,we are obliged always to follow a safe course1 that is1 not to expose ourselves to the danger of formal sin 7see #bdi1 #beh72 but ,tutiorism errs when it teaches that we are also obliged always to follow the safer or safest course1 that is1 never to expose ourselves even to the danger of material sin4 ,there are cases1 however1 when we are obliged 7because some law requires it7 to follow a safer course1 that is1 not to expose ourselves or others to some great harm4 ,thus1 we must follow the safer side in the following cases3 7a7 when there is question concerning something essential for the salvation of ourselves or of others1 for the law of charity forbids that any risk be taken in this supremely important matter4 ,example3 ,titus instructs the dying ,caius only concerning the existence of ,god and of the future life4 ,he should also instruct him about the ,trinity and the ,incarnation1 which is the safer course1 since it is more probable that an explicit faith in these two mysteries is a condition of salvation2 7b7 when there is question of some great spiritual loss or gain for ourselves or others1 for justice or charity forbids that we take chances in such affairs4 ,examples3 ,sempronia doubts whether she is excused from the law of abstinence1 and whether she will be guilty of sin if she eats meat4 ,caius doubts whether attendance at a certain school will do harm to the religion of his son4 ,balba doubts whether she is bound to inquire about the truth of her sect4 ,as long as their serious doubts remain1 these persons should follow the safer course2 7c7 when there is question of the validity or invalidity of a ,sacrament1 for the virtue of religion requires that the ,sacraments be administered with fidelity1 and be not exposed to the peril of nullity4 ,example3 ,it is not lawful to consecrate matter that has probably been substantially adulterated2 7d7 when there is question of some temporal good or evil to oneself or another1 and one is certainly obliged to promote the former or prevent the latter4 ,examples3 ,caius suspects that a drink before him is deadly poison2 ,titus suspects that an object at which he is preparing to shoot is a human being4 ,neither may disregard his suspicion1 even if its contrary is more probable1 because the safer side must here be taken4 ,the ,fifth ,commandment forbids one needlessly to imperil one's own or another's life4 #fgi4 ,in emergency one may expose a ,sacrament to nullity by taking a course that is less safe for the ,sacrament1 but safer for the subject1 relying on the axiom that the ,sacraments are for men1 and not men for the ,sacraments4 ,example3 ,titus is called to baptize the dying ,caius4 ,no water can be procured except rose water1 whose sufficiency is doubtful4 ,titus not only may1 but should1 use the doubtful matter1 since no other can be had4 #fhj4 ,laxism4--,the extreme opposite of ,tutiorism is ,laxism1 whose principle is3 8,when one is undecided between the safer and the less safe1 one may choose the less safe1 if it is only slightly or uncertainly probable10 because whatever seems at all probable may be prudently followed1 and so forms a certain conscience4 ,example3 ,according to ,laxism1 one would be justified in following an opinion1 because it was defended by one theologian1 even though he was of little authority4 #fha4 ,this system has been condemned by the ,church for the following reasons3 7a7 ,it is contrary to the teaching of the ,gospels and of the ,fathers1 which requires one to observe the laws of ,god with understanding and diligence2 7b7 ,it leads to corruption of morals4 ,the ,laxists of the seventeenth century were called in derision those 8who take away the sins of the world10 and it was against their loose teachings that ,pascal inveighed2 7c7 ,its argument is of no value1 for no prudent person would feel that he should follow what was only slightly above the improbable1 or that a law should be deemed uncertain because an opinion of uncertain probability could be quoted against it4 #fhb4 ,the true system of reflex principles will lie between the extremes of ,tutiorism and ,laxism4 ,as already said1 these two doctrines have been censured by the ,church2 but there are other systems that are moderate1 and that are permitted by the ,church and defended by theologians4 ,these systems are3 7a7 ,probabiliorism1 whose principle is3 8,when one is undecided between the safer and the less safe1 one may choose the less safc only when it is more probable02 7b7 ,equiprobabilism1 whose doctrine is3 8,when one is undecided between the safer and the less safe1 one may choose the less safe only when it affirms the non-existence of the law1 and is at least equally probable with the opposite02 7c7 ,probabilism1 whose doctrine is3 8,when one is undecided between the safer and the less safe1 one may choose the less safe whenever it is certainly and solidly probable02 7d7 ,compensationism1 whose doctrine is3 8,when one is undecided between the safer and the less safe1 one may choose the less safe whenever it is certainly and solidly probable1 and there is a proportionate reason to compensate for the risk taken40 #fhc4 ,probabiliorism4--,the arguments in favor of ,probabiliorism are as follows3 7a7 extrinsic or from authority4 ,this system is more ancient1 and1 when the controversy over systems began in the seventeenth century1 this was the one that was most favored by the ,church and theologians2 7b7 intrinsic and direct4 ,an essential note of certitude is that it should exclude all doubt1 for as long as doubt remains there is only opinion4 ,but one who is undecided cannot exclude all doubt1 unless the arguments against the doubts not only balance1 but outweigh the latter 7i4e41 unless one has greater probability on one's side74 ,hence1 he who acts against the safer1 which is always certain enough1 when his own opinion is not more probable1 acts with an uncertain conscience2 7c7 intrinsic and indirect4 ,in all other matters a man is not prudent if he assents to that which is less safe and less probable4 ,thus1 in things speculative no scholar would think of accepting a theory which to his knowledge was further removed from the truth2 in things practical no man of common sense would prefer a road that seemed less likely to lead to his destination4 ,but we should not be less prudent about the good than we are about the true and the useful4 ,hence1 in doubt we should always decide in favor of the law1 unless the arguments for liberty are more convincing4 #fhd4 ,the answers given to the above arguments are3 7a7 ,probabiliorism is not more ancient as a system1 since none of the moral systems were formulated before the sixteenth century2 if ,patristic and medieval authorities can be quoted who decided cases probabilioristically1 others who were contemporary can be named who decided according to milder principles4 ,moreover1 the passages cited are frequently obscure1 and do not necessarily bear a ,probabilioristic sense4 ,that ,probabiliorism enjoyed more favor at the beginning of the controversy is not wonderful1 since other systems were more or less identified with ,laxism1 and the question at issue had not been studied thoroughly4 ,today ,probabiliorism has few defenders4 7b7 ,that which is more probable by far1 or most probable1 does overcome all doubt1 and is even speculatively certain2 but he who would require the more probable in this sense does not differ from the ,tutiorists spoken of above4 ,that which is more probable1 but not to a notable extent1 does not exclude all doubt1 for the very definition of the more probable is 8that judgment which appears more likely to be true than another1 but which does not exclude all fear that the other may be true40 ,hence1 if ,probabiliorism calls for the notably more probable1 it does not differ from ,tutiorism2 if it calls for the moderately more probable1 it wrongly claims that there is no probability on the opposite side4 7c7 ,the true is that which is in harmony with facts1 the useful that which conduces to the obtaining of an end1 the good that which is in conformity with law4 ,certainly1 a man is not a prudent seeker of truth if he arbitrarily prefers the less to the more true-seeming1 nor a prudent seeker of the useful if he chooses the less safe way of obtaining what is a necessary end2 but a man can be a prudent seeker of the good1 even though he prefers the less safe and less probable1 when the law itself1 the norm of good1 does not demand more from him4 ,hence1 one who makes a judgment according to the anti-,probabiliorist systems does not feel that he is yielding assent to what is speculatively less probable2 but that he is making a decision that is practically certain2 not that he is choosing a perilous way1 but one that is absolutely safe4 #fhe4 ,arguments against ,probabiliorism4--7a7 ,theoretical ,objection4--,the principle of ,probabiliorism that it is lawful to act against the safer side when the less safe side is more probable1 cannot be justified except on the ground that invincible ignorance of obligation exists1 and hence that the law does not oblige4 ,but the same argument can be used in favor of milder systems2 for even if the less safe side is only probable1 it makes one invincibly ignorant that one is obliged4 ,hence1 the basis of ,probabiliorism is fatal to its own claims4 7b7 ,practical ,objection4--,a system for the direction of conscience should be so simple that it can be easily applied in the everyday affairs of life4 ,abstract questions may receive attention from moralists for days and months1 but concrete cases have to be decided as a rule without delay4 ,but ,probabiliorism is such a complicated system that it is unsuited to everyday life4 ,st4 ,alphonsus declares that he found by the experience of many years that this system cannot be profitably used in the guidance of souls1 for it imposes an intolerable burden on both confessors and penitents4 ,and how few are so skilled as to be able to decide quickly1 without scruples1 and correctly about the relative degrees of probability in opposite opinions6 #fhf4 ,answers of the ,probabiliorists4--7a7 ,a probable opinion against the existence of obligation does not create invincible ignorance1 but only doubt2 nor does a more probable opinion against obligation create invincible ignorance1 since it excludes the less probable opinion for obligation1 and makes one assent unwaveringly and in good faith1 even though erroneously1 to the judgment that one is not bound4 7b7 ,it is no more difficult to decide what is more probable than to decide what is equally probable1 or truly and solidly probable2 nor is the same skill and attention expected in all persons and cases1 but each person must judge according to the best light he has1 and each case must receive the measure of attention its importance calls for4 ,if ,probabiliorists may become scrupulous1 may not ,probabilists become lax8 #fhg4 ,the debate between ,probabiliorism and its adversaries is not often heard today1 as most modern moralists give their allegiance either to ,equiprobabilism 7a modified ,probabiliorism7 or to ,probabilism4 #fhh4 ,equiprobabilism4--,the doctrine of ,equiprobabilism is a middle way between ,probabiliorism and ,probabilism4 ,thus3 7a7 it agrees with ,probabiliorism in holding that it is not lawful to follow the less safe1 if the safer is more probable1 or if the safer is equally probable1 and the question is about the cessation of the law2 7b7 it agrees with ,probabilism in holding that it is lawful to follow the less safe1 if the safer is only equally probable1 and the question is about the existence of the law4 #fhi4 ,the principle that 8it is not lawful to follow the less safe1 if the safer is equally probable and the question is about the cessation of the law10 is defended as follows by ,equiprobabilists3 7a7 ,in real doubt we should decide in favor of that side which is possession4 ,but1 when doubt is about the cessation of a law1 the law is in possession2 for there is no question that it was made4 ,therefore1 in such a doubt we should decide for the safer side1 that is1 that the law has not ceased4 7b7 ,a certain obligation is not complied with by a doubtful fulfillment4 ,but doubts about the cessation of the obligation of law usually arise from a probability that one has already fulfilled the law4 ,therefore in such cases we should decide that the law has not been fulfilled--that is1 that its obligation has not ceased4 #fij4 ,the ,probabilists reply that3 7a7 it is not true that1 in equiprobability about the cessation of law1 the law is in possession2 for liberty is naturally prior to law1 and hence has possession in doubt2 7b7 nor is it true that an obligation that has probably been complied with or removed is certain4 #fia4 ,the ,equiprobabilists answer3 7a7 liberty was in possession1 until it was dispossessed by the making of the law2 7b7 an obligation that certainly existed must be held as certainly in existence1 until the contrary is proved2 whereas a fact1 such as dispensation1 abrogation1 or fulfillment1 is not proved if it is only probable4 #fib4 ,the principle that 8it is lawful to follow the less safe side1 if the safer is only equally probable and the question is about the existence of the law10 is defended as follows by ,equiprobabilists3 7a7 ,in real doubt we should favor the side that is in possession4 ,but when doubt is about the existence of a law1 liberty is in possession2 for liberty is prior to law4 ,therefore1 in such doubt we may decide that there is no obligation4 7b7 ,an uncertain law does not oblige1 if one is invincibly ignorant of its existence4 ,but1 when there are equiprobable reasons against the existence of a law1 one is invincibly ignorant of its existence4 ,therefore1 in such cases one is not obliged4 #fic4 ,the principle that 8it is not lawful to follow the less safe side if the safer side is more probable10 is defended as follows by ,equiprobabilists3 7a7 ,in doubt improperly so called--that is1 in that condition of mind in which there is no fluctuation between equal arguments1 but only some indecision between the more and the less probable--we should decide in favor of the more probable1 as being morally certain4 ,hence1 it is not lawful to follow what is less safe and less probable4 7b7 ,a law sufficiently promulgated obliges4 ,but1 when it is more probable that a law was made or is in force1 such law is sufficiently promulgated to the conscience4 ,hence1 the safer side must be followed1 if it is more probable4 #fid4 ,probabilist ,criticism of the ,foregoing ,arguments4 7a7 ,if the excess of the more probable over the less probable is so great that the latter is only slightly or doubtfully probable1 the more probable is equivalent to certitude2 for certitude is assent without fear of the opposite1 and the fear of the opposite in such a case would be so slight that it may be considered as non-existent4 ,if the excess is not so great1 the less probable remains solidly and certainly probable1 and the more probable is not certitude1 but opinion 7that is1 assent with fear of the opposite74 ,the ,equiprobabilists are speaking of greater probability in the second sense1 and hence they are wrong when they identify it with certitude 7see above1 #fed74 7b7 ,a law must be so promulgated to the conscience that one knows the law or could know it with sufficient diligence2 it does not suffice that one can get no further than opinion4 ,it would be unreasonable to oblige one to observe not only what is the law1 but also what seems to be the law4 ,now1 he who has only more probable opinion that he is bound by some law1 does not know that such obligation exists2 he only knows that it seems to exist4 #fie4 ,reply of the ,equiprobabilists4-7a7 ,the more probable always removes the appearance of truth from the less probable4 ,hence1 he who recognizes an opinion as more probable can assent to it without any fear of error4 7b7 ,one who holds it as more probable that he is obliged by a certain law1 does not know for certain that he is obliged by reason of that law2 but he does know for certain that he is obliged by reason of a higher law4 ,superior to every particular law is the general law that nothing may be done that will deprive law of its efficacy4 ,but law loses its efficacy if each one is free to decide that he is not bound even when the greater weight of probability is to the contrary4 #fif4 ,general ,arguments in ,favor of ,equiprobabilism4--7a7 ,from ,authority4--,st4 ,alphonsus ,liguori1 who holds a unique place in the ,church as a moralist1 preferred ,equiprobabilism to every other moral system2 and his views are followed not only by his own ,congregation1 the ,redemptorists1 but by many others4 7b7 ,from ,comparison with ,other ,systems4--,truth lies midway between extremes2 for truth is lost either by exaggeration or by defect4 ,but ,equiprobabilism is a happy medium between ,probabiliorism inclining to ,rigorism1 and ,probabilism inclining towards ,laxism4 ,hence1 the relation of ,equiprobabilism to other systems is in its favor4 7c7 ,from the ,character of ,its ,teaching4--,according to principles of justice universally admitted as true1 a judge should pronounce sentence in favor of the more probable when there is evidence of unequal weight and in favor of that which is in possession when there is evidence of equal weight4 ,but these principles ought to be of universal application4 ,therefore1 ,equiprobabilism does right in making these the guiding principles for the court of conscience4 #fig4 ,probabilist ,criticism of these ,arguments4--7a7 ,st4 ,alphonsus is one of the greatest moral theologians of the ,church4 ,whether in his later years 7#agfb-aghg7 he taught ,equiprobabilism1 is a matter of dispute among those who are familiar with his writings4 ,but there is no doubt that in his mature age 7#agdi-agfb71 when he wrote his ,moral ,theology1 he was a ,probabilist4 7b7 ,probabilism can likewise claim that it stands midway between the extremes of ,rigorism 7represented by ,probabiliorism and ,equiprobabilism71 on the one side1 and of ,laxism1 on the other side4 7c7 ,the principle of possession invoked by ,equiprobabilism applies to matters of justice1 because there is a presumption that he who holds property has a right to it1 and also because human laws must favor him who is in possession1 lest property rights be left uncertain and disputes be multiplied4 ,the principle of possession does not apply1 however1 to other matters2 if the law obliged one yesterday1 how can that create a presumption that it obliges one today1 if one has good reasons for thinking the obligation has ceased8 ,and as for human ordinances1 while they have jurisdiction over external goods and may award them in case of doubt to the possessor1 they have not1 and have never claimed1 the right to make the principle of possession a rule for solving all difficulties about duty4 ,the principle of ,probabiliorism for which the ,equiprobabilists claim the authority of judicial practice certainly does not apply to criminal cases1 for in these preponderance of evidence against an accused is not to be followed if there is a reasonable doubt4 ,in civil cases judges apply the principle of probabiliorism1 but it does not follow that conscience should do the same1 for the circumstances are different4 ,the judge is seeking to decide which of two litigants has the more likely claim1 and hence he is bound to declare for the side that has stronger evidence4 ,conscience is seeking to decide whether an obligation is certain or uncertain1 and hence it is not obliged to decide for obligation when this is more probable1 but still not certain4 #fih4 ,answer of ,equiprobabilists to this ,criticism4--7a7 ,granted that ,st4 ,alphonsus once held ,probabilism1 he rejected it later emphatically1 and when dying declared that his former defense of ,probabilism was the only thing that gave him anxiety4 7b7 ,equiprobabilism is further removed from ,rigorism than ,probabilism is from ,laxism4 ,it hears both sides of the question--that for liberty and that for law--before it decides4 ,probabilism is satisfied to hear one side1 that for liberty2 or at least it does not compare the two sides4 7c7 ,the principle of possession is applied more strictly in cases of justice2 for1 since justice implies a more exact equality and a more rigorous right than other virtues 7see #aed71 disputes in matters of justice demand stronger proofs4 ,but every virtue renders to someone his due1 and hence there is no reason why principles applicable to justice should not be applicable to other virtues also4 ,the principle of ,probabiliorism1 likewise1 is just as applicable to the court of conscience as to the civil court1 since in both courts the aim is to get the truth as nearly as possible4 #fii4 ,general ,arguments ,against ,equiprobabilism4--7a7 ,theoretical ,objection4--,if we judge ,equiprobabilism by its arguments1 we find it unconvincing1 for that which is old in it does not agree with that which is new1 and that which is new argues equally well for ,probabilism4 ,thus1 the old arguments for ,probabiliorism mean in the last analysis that the greater probability deprives the opposite side of all solid probability2 logically1 then1 one should conclude that equal probability deprives both sides of all solid probability1 since one neutralizes the other4 ,the new arguments are drawn from the principles that in doubt one should decide in favor of the side in possession1 that a doubtful law does not oblige1 etc4--all of which principles1 as we shall see1 favor ,probabilism4 7b7 ,practical ,objection4--,if we judge ,equiprobabilism by its adaptibility for use1 we find it wanting4 ,a moral system should be one that can be easily understood and applied1 otherwise it is unworkable and useless4 ,but ,equiprobabilism is so complicated and abstruse that even the professional theologians who hold it are often at a loss how to apply it1 and are found to give inconsistent decisions4 ,how can it be expected1 then1 that anyone else will be able to decide whether the law or liberty is possession1 whether the degree of probability on one side is greater than or equal to that on the other1 whether the question has to do with the existence of the law or its cessation1 etc48 #gjj4 ,replies of the ,equiprobabilists4--7a7 ,the old 7i4e41 probabilioristic7 principles of ,equiprobabilism are not contrary to the new4 ,a more probable opinion not only balances the opposition by its equal arguments1 and thus puts away doubt1 but it also wins assent by the surplus in its favor1 and thus certitude is had4 ,when the two opposites are equally probable1 there is a state of true doubt1 but certitude is had by recourse to the principles of possession and doubtful law4 ,these principles proper to ,equiprobabilism do not favor ,probabilism1 if one is impartial in one's use of them1 and willing to use them against as well as for liberty4 7b7 ,equiprobabilism is not more difficult in its application than ,probabilism4 ,it does not require that one determine minutely and exactly the greater or equal probability of the arguments for law and for liberty1 or that one devote extraordinary diligence to the solution of the problem4 ,all it requires is that one consider the matter seriously1 weigh the arguments on both sides impartially1 and decide to the best of one's ability which side appears to be more probable or to have the presumption in its favor4 #gja4 ,probabilism4--,the meaning of ,probabilism can be seen from a comparison with the opposite systems4 7a7 ,unlike ,probabiliorism and ,equiprobabilism1 ,probabilism does not require a greater or equal probability1 but permits one to follow what is less probable2 7b7 unlike ,laxism1 it does not allow one to follow what is only slightly or uncertainly probable1 or to apply the system to all cases of doubt4 #gjb4 ,a judgment is probable when it is supported by arguments that make it seem true1 although there may remain reasons for doubt4 ,examples are conclusions based on analogy1 on hypothesis1 on the opinions of others1 or on the calculus of probabilities4 #gjc4 ,probability is of various kinds4 7a7 ,it is absolute or relative1 according as the supporting reasons are grave1 either when considered alone1 or when compared with the objections4 ,even the ,probabiliorists admit that an opinion that is merely probable may be followed1 if it is solidly probable and there is no argument against it 7see #fdi74 7b7 ,we have solid or slight probability1 according as the supporting motives are or are not such as would move1 if not convince1 a prudent man--that is1 a man who shows good judgment in most things4 7c7 ,we have certain or uncertain probability1 according as a person is sure or not1 after reasonable consideration1 that the arguments seem valid and the opinion likely4 7d7 ,probability is internal or external1 according as the arguments are drawn from the matter at issue itself 7i4e41 from its nature1 properties1 causes1 effects1 etc47 or from the authority of the doctors who have defended an opinion4 #gjd4 ,relative probability according to logicians remains even when a lesser is compared with a greater probability4 7a7 ,if the opposing arguments are drawn from different sources1 the more probable does not attack the less probable1 and hence does not weaken its probability4 ,example3 ,an intrinsic argument has more weight than a mere appeal to authority1 but it does not attack the opposite argument1 and hence does not diminish its probability4 7b7 ,if the opposing arguments are drawn from the same source1 each one weakens the opposite1 since there is direct opposition4 ,but the more probable does not destroy the less probable1 since1 in spite of the greater appearance of truth on the one side1 there still remains room for the possibility that the other side may be true4 #gje4 ,a moral judgment is solidly probable when the following conditions are present3 7a7 ,for the judgment there must be an intrinsic or extrinsic argument that would be considered weighty by a prudent man4 ,example3 ,an opinion that has the support of a universally acknowledged authority is strongly probable1 whereas1 if it has only the support of one obscure writer1 it is only slightly probable4 7b7 ,against the judgment there must be no decisive argument from authority or reason4 ,example2 ,the judgment that a certain course of action is lawful because ,st4 ,alphonsus permits it1 is ordinarily solidly probable2 it is not probable1 however1 if the opinion of ,st4 ,alphonsus 7e4g41 that ,catholics may act as sponsors in non-,catholic baptisms7 has been disallowed by the ,church1 or if the argument he uses 7e4g41 that concerning the amount that constitutes grave matter in theft1 which reasons from conditions in his day7 is not strong4 7c7 ,the arguments for the judgment must retain their probability1 if they are set over against the arguments for the opposite4 ,manifestly1 if the arguments are all satisfactorily answered by the opposite side1 the judgment based on them ceases to retain the appearance of truth4 ,probabilism does not require1 however1 that one determine the relative degrees of probability in opposite opinions4 #gjf4 ,it is not sufficient according to the ,probabilists that another be certain of the probability of an opinion2 but the person who follows the opinion must himself be certain that it is solidly probable4 #gjg4 ,regarding the kind of authority necessary to make an opinion solidly probable from external evidence1 ,probabilism teaches3 7a7 that absolute probability 7that is1 such a weight of authority as would appear strong even to the most learned7 ought to be estimated by quality rather than quantity--by the learning1 prudence1 impartiality1 and independent study of the authors1 rather than by their numbers4 ,if five distinguished moralists arrive by separate study at the same conclusion 7i4e41 that an opinion is probable71 or if one of special reputation in a matter under question supports the probability of an opinion1 the argument from authority is strong2 7b7 that relative probability 7that is1 such a weight of authority as suffices for one who is unlearned1 such as a child1 a halfwit1 an uneducated person7 is had sufficiently through the word of only one person who is looked up to as a guide or instructor1 such as a parent1 confessor1 or teacher4 #gjh4 ,probabilism supposes that one regards the opinion one follows as truly probable1 and that one is convinced that it is lawful to follow such an opinion4 ,hence1 the system does not apply in certain cases4 7a7 ,it does not apply to cases in which there is no probability on either side--that is1 to cases of negative doubt 7see #fef sqq471 whether the doubt be of law or of fact4 7b7 ,probabilism does not apply to cases in which there is only slight or uncertain probability for the less safe side4 ,example3 ,caius has heard that a certain novel opinion is defended by a recent author1 but he is uncertain of the author's standing as a theologian1 and he realizes that the fact that a man has written a book does not make his ideas solidly probable4 7c7 ,probabilism does not apply to cases in which there is solid probability for the less safe side1 but one doubts whether one can lawfully follow it2 for it is always sinful to act with a doubtful conscience 7see #fda sqq474 ,example3 ,caius has read in a reliable work of theology that a person in certain circumstances1 which are his own1 is probably excused from ,mass4 ,but the word 8probably0 makes him uncertain whether he can follow this opinion4 #gji4 ,for the above-mentioned cases1 to which their principle does not apply1 ,probabilists refer to the rules for a doubtful conscience 7see #fef sqq474 ,the following special rules are given for cases of negative doubt3 7a7 ,if the doubt is one of law and insoluble1 one is free to act2 for it is a general principle that an act may be considered lawful1 as long as there is no serious reason to the contrary4 ,example3 ,sempronius goes out into the country on ,sunday afternoon4 ,an opportunity to fish presents itself1 but ,sempronius begins to doubt whether there is or is not a church law against fishing on ,sundays4 ,as no argument for either side is known to him1 he may act on the general principle that what is not forbidden is lawful4 7b7 ,if the doubt is one of fact and insoluble1 and a prohibitory law is involved1 one is free to act2 for it is commonly admitted that legislators do not intend their prohibitions1 which are restrictions of liberty1 to be interpreted with the utmost rigor4 ,example3 ,titus is eating a chicken dinner late on ,thursday night when his watch stops4 ,as he has no way of discovering the time1 he does not know whether ,friday or the end of the dinner will arrive first4 ,he may continue the meal1 making no undue delays4 7c7 ,if the doubt is one of fact1 and a preceptive law is in question1 one must take reasonable precautions to settle the doubt2 for the lawgiver wills that those who are subject to the law should make use of the ordinary means to learn the facts on which obligation depends 7see above1 #chd74 ,if the doubt remains insoluble1 one may decide in favor of liberty2 for it may reasonably be presumed that the legislator does not intend to obligate those whose obligation remains uncertain4 ,example3 ,caius doubts whether he has reached the age of sixty1 when the obligation of fasting ends4 ,he should try to discover his real age2 but1 if he can find no real proofs either for or against the age of sixty1 he may decide in favor of sixty1 if there are some indications that he is of that age4 #gaj4 ,the solutions given above for cases of negative doubt suppose that there is no other or higher law that forbids one to take the risk of deciding in favor of liberty4 ,hence1 in the following instances one must decide against liberty3 7a7 in negative doubts when the validity of acts is at stake4 ,example3 ,titus is uncertain whether the law requires the age of fourteen for a valid contract of marriage2 he is also uncertain whether he is fourteen years old4 ,the doubt of law and of fact does not excuse ,titus from the law1 if he wishes to marry4 ,he must clear up the doubts1 and if necessary he must secure a dispensation4 7b7 in negative doubts when reasons of charity or justice forbid one to take risks4 ,example3 ,caius is uncertain whether he paid ,sempronius for work done for him4 ,he is bound to make inquiries about the matter4 #gaa4 ,probabilism cannot be applied1 therefore1 when the mental state of the subject is doubt1 weakly founded opinion1 or practical uncertainty4 ,but1 even when one holds an opinion as solidly and certainly probable1 one may not follow it as a moral guide1 if there is something in the nature of the object or matter itself which forbids this4 7a7 ,a probability of law favoring liberty may not be followed in those matters in which some natural1 divine or human law requires one to follow the safer side 7see cases enumerated above1 #fgh1 #ffa74 ,example3 ,the following opinions are probable2 that instruction regarding the ,trinity and the ,incarnation is not indispensable for salvation2 that rye-bread is valid matter for the ,eucharist4 ,but in practice it would be unlawful to take the risk of following these opinions1 except in cases of extreme necessity1 when nothing else can be done4 7b7 ,a probability of fact favoring liberty may not be followed so long as there remains nothing more than probability of fact2 for1 while the will of the lawgiver may on account of probability of non-obligation change one's relation to the law from obligation to non-obligation1 it does not change facts4 ,examples3 ,on ,friday ,titus doubts whether a dish before him is meat or fish2 probably it is meat on account of its appearance1 probably it is fish on account of its odor4 ,at night ,fr4 ,caius is much fatigued1 and doubts whether he has said ,vespers4 ,probably he did not1 because he cannot recall what feast will be celebrated tomorrow2 probably he did1 because he remembers having said ,compline4 #gab4 ,for probabilities of fact1 to which as such their system does not apply1 ,probabilists offer the following solutions3 7a7 ,in certain cases one may take from the doubt of fact its bearing on obligation1 by recourse to the manifest will of the legislator as declared in the law itself or expressed through dispensation4 ,examples3 ,while hearing confessions1 ,sempronius doubts whether his jurisdiction has already expired4 ,he cannot recall the date of expiration1 but1 thinking the matter over1 he sees that probably the date has not arrived4 ,his difficulty is therefore solved1 for the ,code 7,canon #bji7 supplies jurisdiction in cases of probability of fact4 ,titus and ,caia wish to marry4 ,there is a doubt whether or not they are first cousins1 but it seems that probably they are not so related4 ,their difficulty is solved by obtaining a dispensation4 7b7 ,in other cases one may change the probability of fact into a probability of law by recourse to a probable opinion or argument that under the existing doubt of fact the legislator does not wish the law to oblige4 ,examples3 ,titus1 who has what is probably lawful food before him1 argues with himself that it is not likely that the ,church wills to put him to the expense1 trouble1 and loss of time required to order other food4 ,fr4 ,titus1 who has probably said ,vespers1 argues that theologians of authority teach that1 when there is a serious reason for thinking one has performed such an obligation1 it may be presumed that the ,church does not require more4 #gac4 ,if a case of probability of fact on which obligation hinges cannot be solved by recourse to the expressed or inferred will of the lawgiver1 one has no choice but to follow the safer side1 for then1 though it is probable that a certain thing is a fact1 it is not probable that one has a right to act4 ,example3 ,sempronius1 while hunting1 sees an object moving in the bushes4 ,the probabilities are that it is not a human being1 but it is not probable that ,sempronius has the right to risk homicide by firing at it4 #gad4 ,not all ,probabilists use the principle of the presumptive will of the lawgiver for all cases of negative doubt2 some employ different principles for different kinds of doubt1 and sometimes arrive at other decisions than those given in the preceding paragraphs4 ,thus1 they give such rules as the following3 7a7 ,in negative doubt of law regarding the lawfulness of an act1 use the principle that law or liberty should be followed according as one or the other is in possession 7see #ffj74 ,example3 ,he who has only slight reasons for thinking that a law exists1 or that it is of grave obligation1 or that it extends to his case1 etc41 may decide against the law4 ,but he who has only slight reasons for thinking that a law has been abrogated1 or that a dispensation has been granted1 etc41 must decide for obligation4 7b7 ,in negative doubt of law regarding the validity of a past act1 use the principle that what was done is to be held as rightly done4 ,example3 ,he who has no reasons1 or only trifling ones1 for thinking that a ,sacrament was not administered validly or received validly1 should decide for validity4 7c7 ,in negative doubts of fact1 use the principles that one should judge according to what usually happens1 or that facts must not be taken for granted but must be established1 or that presumption favors that which has possession4 ,examples3 ,if there is no good reason to think that a conscientious person gave consent to a temptation1 one may decide for the negative1 since that would usually be true4 ,if there is no good reason to think that one has made a vow1 one may decide for the negative1 since the burden of proof is with the other side4 ,if1 in a question about fast and abstinence1 it is uncertain whether or not a person has reached twenty-one years1 or whether ,friday has commenced1 the presumption is for the negative1 since liberty has been in possession2 but if it is uncertain whether a person has reached the age of sixty or whether ,friday has ended1 the presumption is for the negative1 since the law has been in possession4 #gae4 ,having discussed the cases to which ,probabilism is not extended1 we pass on to the cases to which it is applied4 ,probabilism is used in any and every case where speculative certainty as to what is lawful or unlawful is not had1 but where there is only speculative probability against an opposite probability4 7a7 ,probabilism is used not only in probability of law1 but also in probability of fact that can be reduced to probability of law1 as was explained above 7see #gab74 7b7 ,probabilism is used in probability of law1 whether or not the question be about the existence or the cessation of the law4 ,there is probability against existence of law1 when one has good reason to think that a law was not made or not promulgated1 or that the time when it goes into force has not arrived1 or that it does not apply to certain persons or circumstances1 etc42 there is probability for cessation of law1 when it is certain that a law did exist1 but one has good reason to think that it ceased or was abrogated1 that one is excused or dispensed from it4 7c7 ,probabilism is used in probability of law1 whether the law in question be natural1 divine or human--that is1 in every case of law where invincible ignorance is possible 7see #cai sqq41 #cef74 #gaf4 ,the claim of ,probabilism is that1 in all the cases given above1 he who follows an opinion excusing him from obligation1 may act with a practically certain conscience and be free of all moral guilt1 if the opinion is theoretically and seriously probable4 ,the arguments for this thesis are of two kinds3 7a7 extrinsic proofs1 from the approval given ,probabilism by the ,church and the favor it has enjoyed among moralists2 7b7 intrinsic proofs1 from the nature of law and obligation1 and the superiority of ,probabilism in practice4 #gag4 ,extrinsic ,arguments4--7a7 ,the ,church gave explicit approval to ,probabilism by praising the theological works of ,st4 ,alphonsus in which ,probabilism is defended2 she gave and continues to give implicit approval by the freedom she has granted to the teachers of this system from the days of ,bartholomew ,medina1 its first expounder 7#aebg-aeha71 down to the present4 ,the ,church even makes use of the principles of ,probabilism in interpreting her own laws1 as is evidenced by such rules of law as the following in the ,decretals3 8,things that are odious should be understood strictly1 things that are favorable widely0 7,rule #ae72 8,where the law is doubtful1 follow the minimum0 7,rule #cj72 8,where the lawgiver could have spoken more clearly1 the interpretation should be against him0 7,rule #eg72 8,the kinder interpretation should be given penal laws0 7,rule #hi74 7b7 ,in the ,patristic and medieval periods ,probabilism had not been scientifically formulated1 but many of the ,fathers and early ,doctors solved cases probabilistically1 and there are not a few passages in the great theologians before the sixteenth century which enunciate the same principles as those advocated by ,probabilists4 ,when the system was formulated by ,medina in #aegg1 it met with universal favor among ,catholic moralists1 and1 though it suffered an eclipse from the middle of the seventeenth to the middle of the eighteenth century1 it has been growing in influence since the days of ,st4 ,alphonsus1 and appears today to have recovered its former preeminence4 ,among its adherents are some of the greatest names in the history of theology1 and it is not confined to any particular school or body4 #gah4 ,objections of ,equiprobabilists4--7a7 ,the praise given to ,st4 ,alphonsus by the ,church reflects no glory on ,probabilism1 since the ,saint rejected ,probabilism and professed ,equiprobabilism4 ,further1 more than one ,pope1 and especially ,innocent ,,xi 7#afgf-afhi71 has expressed a dislike for ,probabilism1 while the silence of others does not mean more than toleration4 ,the legal axioms used by canonists apply to the external forum1 and cannot be used equally in the forum of conscience4 7b7 ,probabiliorism had the field before ,probabilism1 having been formulated and defended before ,medina appeared1 and it is that more ancient system that is represented today in a milder form as ,equiprobabilism4 #gai4 ,answer of the ,probabilists4--7a7 ,st4 ,alphonsus teaches ,probabilism in his ,moral ,theology1 which is his chief work2 if later1 in his old age1 he was an ,equiprobabilist1 it can be shown that the change was not free1 but under compulsion4 ,as to ,pope ,innocent ,,xi1 he is the only ,pope who expressed disapproval of ,probabilism1 and even he refrained from any official pronouncement4 ,the fact that hundreds of works written by ,probabilists since the sixteenth century have not been censured or forbidden by the ,church authorities1 indicates more than mere toleration4 7b7 ,probabiliorism1 as a systematized method1 preceded ,probabilism as a systematized method only by a brief interval1 if at all4 ,before the #afth century neither of these systems had been formulated1 and neither can make much of the argument of priority in time4 ,as for ,equiprobabilism1 it is first seen in the writings of ,christopher ,rassler 7about #agac7 and of ,eusebius ,amort 7#afib-agge74 #gbj4 ,intrinsic ,arguments for ,probabilism4--7a7 ,theoretical ,argument4--,an uncertain law does not oblige4 ,but a law is uncertain if there is a solidly probable opinion against its existence1 or for its cessation1 even though the other side be equally or more probable4 ,therefore1 he who follows such an opinion does not violate any obligation4 7b7 ,practical ,argument4--,probabiliorism and ,equiprobabilism impose on confessors and the faithful impossible burdens1 since1 as was explained above 7see #fhc sqq471 they require that one compare and weigh probabilities1 decide whether or not possession is had by the law or by liberty1 etc42 whereas ,probabilism is simple and easily applied1 requiring only that one be convinced that one's opinion is really probable1 and that one use it in good faith4 #gba4 ,the proposition that an uncertain law does not oblige 7saving cases of validity1 etc41 as above1 #fgh71 is defended as follows3 7a7 ,if the uncertainty arises from the law itself1 because it has not been clearly worded or sufficiently promulgated1 the truth of the proposition is manifest1 for the very nature of law requires that it be brought to the knowledge of those for whom it is made 7see #bhe74 7b7 ,if the uncertainty arises from the invincible ignorance of one who is subject to the law1 the proposition is true in the sense that no one is a transgressor in the internal forum who fails against a law unwittingly 7see #cbg1 #dhi sqq474 ,but an act that transgresses no law is lawful in conscience1 for all that is not forbidden is lawful4 #gbb4 ,the adversaries of ,probabilism offer the following criticism3 7a7 ,as to the proposition that 8an uncertain law does not oblige10 the use of this principle by ,probabilism may be considered as a begging of the whole question2 for what is in dispute is whether1 in case a law is uncertain1 there is or is not a higher law that requires one to decide for obligation4 ,it can be shown1 however1 that there is such a higher law2 for the legislator cannot be willing that his ordinances be at the mercy of every uncertainty or loophole which subtle minds can devise1 and ,god cannot be willing that those who are subject to laws should expose themselves to sin by deciding against a law because it appears to them to be of doubtful obligation4 7b7 ,as to the proofs given for that proposition1 they proceed from an incomplete enumeration1 for a law can be doubtful on account of vincible ignorance1 as well as for the reasons given4 ,and no one will maintain that vincible ignorance excuses4 #gbc4 ,the ,probabilists reply3 7a7 ,the principle that 8an uncertain law does not oblige10 cannot render law nugatory1 since there is question here only of honest doubt1 not of pretended or responsible ignorance4 ,neither can that principle expose one to the danger of formal sin 7see #bdi71 since it is supposed that he who follows it is convinced that it is true1 and that he has the right to regulate his conduct by it4 ,it does expose to the danger of material sin 7see #bdi71 since the law about which there is uncertainty may be existent2 but we are not obliged to avoid every danger of material sin1 else we should be under the intolerable necessity of fulfilling not only all certain1 but all uncertain duties4 ,moreover1 the danger of material sin is not avoided by any moral system except ,tutiorism1 since even equiprobable and more probable opinions may be false4 7b7 ,the enumeration of cases of doubtful law is sufficient2 for1 as just remarked1 only those cases are being considered in which one is judging about one's duty in good faith4 #gbd4 ,the second proposition used above as the ,minor of the argument for ,probabilism--that 8a law is uncertain whenever there is a solidly probable opinion against its existence or for its cessation0--is defended by the very definition of the term 8uncertain40 ,a thing is said to be accepted as certain when one yields it firm assent and has no serious misgivings that it may be false2 hence1 the uncertain is that which is not assented to firmly 7the doubtful71 or that which does not exclude serious doubts about its truth 7matter of opinion74 ,now1 a law whose existence or obligation seems likely1 but against which there militates a solidly probable argument1 is not so firmly established as to inhibit every prudent doubt4 ,in other words1 such a law is uncertain4 #gbe4 ,criticism of the ,argument in the ,preceding ,paragraph4--7a7 ,the supposition on which the argument rests is false4 ,it supposes that the interpretation of the legal axiom that 8a doubtful law does not oblige10 should be drawn from the philosophical definition of the terms1 whereas it should be drawn from the sense given it by other rules of law4 ,now1 there are canonical rules which declare that in doubt one should follow that which has possession1 or that which seems more probable4 ,hence1 the axiom quoted by the ,probabilists refers only to cases of negative doubt2 the other two rules refer to cases of doubt in the wide sense1 or to cases of opinion2 otherwise1 we should have to admit that these legal maxims are contradictory1 one to the other4 ,thus1 it appears that ,probabilism is based on a principle formulated to solve difficulties of an entirely different kind from those which the system deals with4 7b7 ,the argumentation itself is fallacious4 ,it takes for granted that an opinion is certainly and solidly probable1 not only when it has no opposite or when its opposite is less probable1 but also when its opposite is equally or more probable4 ,this cannot be4 ,solid probability on the other side of a question must create doubt about an opinion held1 and so make it at best uncertainly probable or probably probable2 while greater likelihood or presumption on the other side must make one's own opinion appear imprudent and unworthy of a rational being1 and therefore not solidly probable4 #gbf4 ,the ,probabilists answer3 7a7 ,the two principles with reference to doubtful law are understood and proved by ,probabilism by an analysis of the notions of obligation and incertitude 7see #bhe1 #fed71 and hence they apply to every case that is restricted to the question of probable lawfulness or unlawfulness4 ,the rules quoted against ,probabilism--there are some that might also be quoted against ,probabiliorism and ,equiprobabilism--are opposed to it only in appearance1 since they deal with matters that are outside its sphere 7see #fig74 ,thus1 in civil cases when both ownership and possession are doubtful1 the decision must be given for the more probable side1 since the issue is not what is lawful1 but what seems to be true4 ,as to the principle of possession1 it is not1 as supposed1 unfavorable1 but favorable to ,probabilism2 since liberty1 inasmuch as it is presupposed by obligation 7for only those who have freedom can receive obligation71 has priority and must be given the benefit of the doubt1 whenever a strictly probable reason in its favor cannot be refuted4 7b7 ,solid probability for the law creates doubt of the truth of the opinion for liberty1 but it does not create doubt of its probability2 for truth is the agreement of one's judgment with the facts1 probability the appearance of such agreement on account of the arguments by which the judgment is supported4 ,hence1 greater probability for law does not make uncertain the probability there is for liberty4 ,neither is it a sign of imprudence to accept the less probable1 if one has sincerely and diligently sought the truth2 for even the more probable may not be true1 and the great majority of moralists hold that one is not obliged to follow it4 #gbg4 ,criticism of the ,pragmatic ,test ,offered by ,probabilists4--,probabilism boasts of the ease with which it can be used 7see #gjj1 #gbj72 but the ease with which it can be misused is greater still4 7a7 ,persons not inclined to piety must quickly fall into ,laxism1 if they make use of this system1 for they will accustom themselves to find every sort of pretext to escape unwelcome duties by raising doubts and dignifying them with the name of probable opinions2 they will follow1 now one opinion1 now its contrary1 according as it suits their interests2 they will become stubborn in their own views1 and unwilling to change or accept instruction4 7b7 ,persons inclined to piety1 if guided by ,probabilist principles1 will soon lose all interest in what is higher and better1 and content themselves with the minimum2 for in every case of uncertainty ,probabilism permits one to choose what is less safe and less probable4 #gbh4 ,general ,answer of the ,probabilists to the ,objections of the ,preceding ,paragraph4--7a7 ,the history of ,probabilism contradicts these objections4 ,from its beginning to the present day it has been defended and followed by men noted for piety1 who used kindness towards others1 but were severe with themselves4 ,while the principles of stricter systems have proved a torture both to confessors and penitents1 no detriment to holiness is observed from the use of ,probabilism4 7b7 ,the nature of ,probabilism refutes the objections in question4 ,there is no system so good that it may not be perverted and turned to evil1 and stricter systems have been converted into ,tutiorism or ,rigorism4 ,but the logical and usual results of ,probabilism are not a lowering of moral standards4 ,if these evils follow it1 they do so only when it is not rightly understood or not rightly applied4 #gbi4 ,the charges of a tendency to ,laxism are thus answered3 7a7 ,probabilism holds that only learned theologians are judges of internal probability4 ,others must not decide for themselves1 but must seek instruction from their spiritual guides who have competent knowledge4 ,the moralists themselves must not be so wedded to their opinions that they are not always ready to change when they find they are wrong or learn that the ,church does not admit their view4 7b7 ,probabilism permits one to use contrary probable opinions in different instances 7e4g41 to use for one will or testament the opinion that informality makes it invalid1 and for another will the opinion that informality does not make it invalid72 but it does not permit contrary opinions to be used in the same case for one's advantage 7e4g41 to use the opinion that an informal will is valid1 in order to secure an inheritance1 and at the same time to use the opinion that it is invalid1 in order to escape the payment of legacies74 7c7 ,probabilism does not sanction the use of a probable opinion1 unless it has been examined without prejudice1 and has been honestly judged to be of certain and solid value 7see #gjh sqq474 ,neither does it approve of the conduct of those who put themselves voluntarily in a state of doubt4 ,on the contrary1 it considers such conduct as sinful1 and as gravely so1 if the matter be serious and if this occur frequently4 ,example2 ,titus is uncertain whether three hours remain before ,communion time1 and yet he takes some refreshment1 and thus makes it doubtful whether he has the right to receive ,communion4 ,the principle that a doubtful law does not oblige will enable ,titus to receive ,communion1 but it does not excuse him from venial sin in putting himself without cause in a state of doubt and in danger of material sin4 #gcj4 ,the charge of a tendency to minimism in spiritual matters is thus answered3 ,probabilism deals only with what is lawful1 not with what is better2 it aims to show only what one may do without sin1 not what one ought to do in order to become perfect4 ,hence1 it is used when there is question of imposing obligations1 or of deciding whether a certain course is lawful2 for in these matters one must be kind1 lest by exceeding one's authority one drive others to sin2 but it is not used when there is question of giving spiritual advice and direction1 for here all should be exhorted to seek after progress in holiness4 #gca4 ,compensationism4--,between #ahej and #ahhj a number of theologians1 feeling that there were serious difficulties against all the systems up to then considered1 developed a reformed or restricted ,probabilism1 which would not be open to the criticisms made against ordinary ,probabilism1 and yet would have those good qualities that make it preferable to the stricter systems4 ,this new doctrine is called ,compensationism1 because it permits one to follow a probable opinion against the law only when there is present a sufficient reason to compensate for this course of action4 #gcb4 ,the following rules are1 therefore1 given as restrictions on the use of ,probabilism3 7a7 the more serious or the more probable the doubtful law1 the greater the reason must be to justify one in acting against it2 7b7 the higher and greater the good to be obtained from the exercise of freedom against a doubtful law1 the less the reason that suffices for exercising freedom4 #gcc4 ,illustrations of the ,use of ,compensationism4--7a7 ,titus1 a poor man1 is in uncertainty1 through no fault of his own1 about two debts4 ,he thinks it more probable that he owes #aj to ,sempronius1 and #aj cents to ,caius2 but he believes it is really probable that he has paid both debts4 ,he foresees that1 if he offers the money to ,sempronius1 he will be subjected to serious quarrels and vexations1 or at least that very bad use will be made of the money2 while1 if he offers to pay ,caius1 the latter may take some slight offense4 ,he decides that there are proportionate reasons in each case to justify his following the less probable opinion4 7b7 ,fr4 ,titus thinks that a penitent is more probably bound to ask pardon of one whom he has offended4 ,but he knows that1 if he imposes the obligation1 the present good faith of the penitent will be changed to bad faith1 and he will refuse to do what is imposed4 ,fr4 ,titus decides1 therefore1 that it will be more profitable for the penitent if the less probable opinion--that there is no obligation--be followed4 #gcd4 ,the two chief arguments for ,compensationism1 which are also the two chief objections it makes against ordinary ,probabilism1 are3 7a7 ,the obligation of a law depends on the knowledge one has about it4 ,if one knows that the law exists1 there is certain obligation2 if one knows that the law does not exist1 there is no obligation2 if one holds it as probable that the law exists1 there is probable obligation4 ,now1 since one may not be excused from obligation unless there is a reason proportionate to the obligation itself 7see #die71 he who is under probable or more probable obligation must have a graver reason for using freedom than he who is under no obligation 7against ,probabilism71 but he need not have as grave a reason as one who is under a certain obligation 7against ,probabiliorism74 ,hence1 one may not act against a probable law1 unless by so doing there is some good secured that compensates for the danger to which the right of the law is exposed4 7b7 ,it is lawful to perform a good act from which an evil effect will result1 only if one has a proportionally grave cause for permitting the evil effect 7see #ajb sqq474 ,but he who follows the opinion for liberty against a more probable or equally probable opinion for law1 performs an act from which will probably result the evil of a material transgression of law4 ,therefore1 one may not use ,probabilism unless by so doing there is some good secured that compensates for the danger of material sin to which one exposes oneself4 #gce4 ,criticisms from the ,probabilists4--7a7 ,the dictum that a doubtful law obliges doubtfully cannot be applied1 for in actual life there is no middle way between decision for the law and decision for liberty1 unless it be indecision4 ,the principle of ,compensationism must mean1 then1 that we must always decide for a doubtful law 7which is ,tutiorism71 or remain in suspense 7which is no help to the one in doubt74 7b7 ,the supposition that there must always be some special reason of good to offset the evil of the danger of material sin is not correct4 ,for there always exists a compensation proportionate to the danger1 namely1 the exercise of liberty1 a great gift of ,god1 and the avoidance of the burden of fulfilling all uncertain obligations4 #gcf4 ,reply of the ,compensationists4--7a7 ,the principle that a doubtful law obliges doubtfully means only that the reasons in favor of the law deserve some consideration1 and should not be put aside unless one has some better reason than mere arbitrariness1 self-will1 or the intention to take always the easier way4 ,there is no question of either ,tutiorism or hesitation1 but only of a prudent and honest facing of the fact that there are two sides to one's doubt4 7b7 ,it is not true that the exercise of liberty and the escape from the burden of uncertain obligations are always a sufficient compensation for the danger of material sin4 ,for material sin is not only an evil in itself1 as being a violation of law2 it is also the source of many and great evils both to the individual and society1 such as wrong habits acquired1 scandal given1 etc4 ,liberty is a great gift1 but it should not become a cloak for malice4 ,neither is the foregoing of liberty so great an evil that one should not be willing to suffer it now and then in order to prevent the greater evils spoken of just above4 #gcg4 ,other ,objections ,against the ,system of ,compensation4 7a7 ,from ,authority4--,compensationism is of very recent origin1 and it cannot be admitted that the right solution of moral difficulties was unknown before this new system appeared4 7b7 ,from ,reason4--,it runs counter to the principle commonly accepted in the controversies of the systems1 namely1 that the decisive factor as to obligation in doubt is knowledge4 ,for it introduces a new factor1 that of sufficient reason or compensation4 7c7 ,from ,serviceability4--,it is easy to say in the abstract that one should always have a suitable reason for adopting a probable opinion in favor of liberty4 ,but1 when one attempts to apply this rule to actual cases1 difficulties innumerable arise 7searchings of motives1 comparison of probabilities1 measuring of consequences1 etc471 so that for use ,compensationism is impossible1 or impracticable4 #gch4 ,reply of ,compensationists4--7a7 ,compensationism is an example of doctrinal progression from the implicit to the explicit4 ,the principles on which it is based are found in the teaching and practice of the most ancient authorities4 7b7 ,sufficient reason is not a new principle1 since it is admitted by all moralists for the case of double effect 7see above1 #ajb ,sqq472 its application to the solution of doubts of conscience is not an innovation1 since the cases of doubt and of double effect are analogous4 7c7 ,compensationism is not intended as a system to be applied by those who have not sufficient theological training1 but as a guide for moralists1 directors and confessors4 ,that it is not difficult1 is clear from the fact that it is only an application of the commonly accepted principle of double effect1 and that ,probabilists themselves recommend it and make very general use of it1 as if they instinctively recognized its necessity4 #gci4 ,practical ,conclusions4--,from the foregoing discussions one may deduce three rules for the guidance of those who are not expert theologians3 7a7 ,if your state of conscience is certitude 7i4e41 if you are firmly convinced which way your duty lies71 entertain no fears or scrupulous doubts1 and1 having done your part to understand your obligations1 you need not hesitate to follow your conscience4 7b7 ,if your state of conscience is imprudent assent 7i4e41 the acceptance of what you recognize as unlikely71 or if it is suspended assent 7i4e41 a wavering between opposites71 do not act blindly1 but seek truth and decision4 7c7 ,if your state of conscience is opinion 7i4e41 the acceptance of what you regard as likely though uncertain71 consult your confessor or another competent theologian2 if there is no time for this1 decide for any course that seems true and prudent 7see on perplexed conscience1 #faa sqq474 #gdj4 ,regarding the respective merits and the use of the rival systems of conscience1 the following conclusions may be drawn3 7a7 ,if there is question of what is to be counselled1 one should be a 8,meliorist10 for the better and more perfect is more advisable than what is merely good or lawful4 ,all ,christians should be directed to aspire after holiness1 but1 if one is unwilling to follow a counsel1 it should not be imposed on him as a precept4 ,naturally1 of those in higher station higher things are required4 7b7 ,as between doubt and certitude regarding obligations1 one must be a 8,certitudinist10 that is1 one must resolve doubts or slight probabilities into direct or indirect certitude 7as was explained above in #fda sqq474 ,if a doubt remains1 one must for that case be a ,tutiorist1 that is1 one must follow the safer side 7as explained in #ffa74 7c7 ,as between the safer and the less safe1 one must be a ,tutiorist1 when some law requires this1 as is the case when validity or supreme rights are at stake 7as explained in #fgh1 #fgi74 7d7 ,as between the more likely and the less likely1 one must be a ,probabiliorist1 when this is according to law1 as is the case in civil suits where the preponderance of evidence must be followed 7see #fig74 7e7 ,one may not follow either ,tutiorism 7see above1 #fgf7 as a general moral system1 nor ,laxism 7see above1 #fha74 7f7 ,if a probable opinion for liberty is opposed by no contrary probable opinion or by none whose arguments cannot be overcome1 one is free to follow that opinion1 as explained in #fdi1 #gjc4 7g7 ,if a probable opinion for liberty is opposed by an opinion that is less1 equally or more probable1 one is free to act according to the principles of ,probabiliorism1 ,equiprobabilism1 ,probabilism or ,compensationism1 according to conviction4 #gda4 ,as for the use of moral systems by confessors1 the two following rules are generally admitted3 7a7 ,if a penitent has formed his conscience according to one moral system1 the confessor has no right to impose on him the opinion of a different moral system2 for the ,church allows liberty4 7b7 ,if a penitent has not formed his conscience according to any moral system and seeks the answer to a moral doubt1 the confessor should decide1 not necessarily for what his own system declares lawful1 but for what appears1 all the circumstances being considered1 to be most advantageous spiritually for the penitent4 ,example3 ,fr4 ,titus is a ,probabilist1 and he usually advises questioners to follow opinions that are less probable2 while ,fr4 ,caius1 who is a ,probabiliorist1 always requires that such persons follow the more probable opinions4 ,both act unwisely4 ,for persons who are better disposed1 it will often be more profitable to follow what is more probable or favorable to obligation2 for those ,whose dispositions are less good1 milder opinions may be recommended1 lest the smoking flax of goodness that is in them be entirely extinguished4 ,neither is it right to impose as certain an obligation which the penitent1 if he were acquainted with ,moral ,theology1 would see is controverted4 #gdb4 ,in case of disagreement between confessor and penitent as to whether absolution may be given1 whose opinion should prevail8 7a7 ,if the disagreement is concerned with matters about which the confessor himself has to judge 7e4g41 the disposition of the penitent1 the requisite matter for absolution1 etc471 the opinion of the confessor must prevail2 for the act of judging is his own1 and he must be guided therefore by his own conviction4 7b7 ,if the disagreement is concerned with matters about which the confessor is not the judge 7such as the controversies of schools and theologians71 the confessor may not refuse absolution to a well-disposed penitent1 just because the latter will not accept the opinion of his school or system4 ,if it be manifest that the penitent's opinion is false or improbable1 absolution may be denied him1 unless it seems more prudent to leave him in good faith4 ,,part ,,ii ,,special ,,moral ,,theology #gdc4 ,in the ,first ,part of this work1 the means to man's ,last ,end were spoken of in a general way2 the features that are common to all good acts--that they be human1 morally deserving1 directed according to law and conscience--were treated4 ,in the present ,part the means to the ,last ,end will be discussed in particular1 and we shall consider in turn the kinds of duties that are owed by all men and those owed by persons in special states of life4 ,question ,i ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,all ,,classes ,,of ,,men #gdd4 ,good habits1 specifically different1 are all reducible to seven most general virtues 7see #aej1 #aea71 and hence in studying these seven virtues1 we shall at the same time study all the common duties of man4 #gde4 ,the properties of the seven infused virtues are chiefly four3 7a7 ,in the first place1 these virtues may be increased3 8,this ,i pray1 that your charity may more and more abound0 7,phil1 i4 #i74 ,the increase takes place ex opere operato through the ,sacraments1 or ex opere operantis through meritorious works--that is1 whenever sanctifying grace1 their root1 is increased4 7b7 ,a second property of the infused virtues is that they may be lost3 8,i have somewhat against thee1 because thou hast left thy first charity0 7,apoc41 ii4 #d72 8,some have made shipwreck concerning the faith0 7,i ,tim41 i4 #ai74 ,the loss is caused by the contrary of the virtue3 faith is lost by disbelief1 hope by despair2 charity and the moral virtues are lost by any mortal sin1 for they are built on sanctifying grace1 which mortal sin destroys4 7c7 ,a third property of the infused virtues is that they cannot be diminished directly4 ,if we leave out of consideration their opposites 7which1 as just said1 remove these virtues entirely71 there is nothing else that can act directly upon them4 ,mere failure to exercise them cannot lessen them1 since they are caused by divine infusion1 not by human exercise2 venial sin cannot lessen them1 since it does not lessen grace on which they depend4 7d7 ,a fourth property of the infused virtues is that they are diminished indirectly4 ,failure to practise them or venial sin does diminish the ease and fervor with which the acts of these virtues are exercised2 and thus indirectly--that is1 by preparing the way for acts that are directly contrary--neglect or venial sin diminishes the habits themselves4 ,art4 #b3 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,faith 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #a-i47 #gdf4 ,the order of the theological virtues here followed is that given by ,st4 ,paul in ,i ,cor41 xiii4 #ac--viz41 faith1 hope1 charity4 ,the order of these virtues is twofold3 7a7 according to dignity the order is charity1 hope1 faith2 7b7 according to time1 the order is that of ,i ,cor41 xiii4 ,the habits of these three virtues are infused at the same time 7i4e41 at the moment when grace is conferred71 but their acts are not simultaneous1 and one must believe before one can hope or love4 #gdg4 ,excellence of the ,virtue of ,faith4--7a7 ,faith is the beginning of the supernatural life1 the foundation and the root of justification1 without which it is impossible to please ,god and arrive at fellowship with ,him4 7b7 ,it is an anticipation of the end of the supernatural life1 for by faith we believe that which we shall behold in the beatific vision3 8,all these died according to faith1 not having received the promises1 but beholding them afar off1 and saluting them and confessing that they are pilgrims and strangers on the earth0 7,heb41 xi4 #ac74 #gdh4 ,utility of ,faith for the ,individual4--7a7 ,through faith the intellect receives a new light1 which discloses to it a higher world--8the wisdom of ,god in a mystery0 7,i ,cor41 ii4 #g7--;and which illuminates even this lower world with a heavenly brightness1 that man may know more quickly1 more surely1 and more perfectly the natural truths that pertain to ,god and duty4 7b7 ,the will is strengthened to perform duties valiantly through the motives and examples which faith offers3 the patriarchs of old 8by faith conquered kingdoms1 wrought justice1 obtained promises1 recovered strength from weakness0 7,heb41 xi4 #cc74 ,in adversity faith is a stay and a consolation3 8,for what things soever were written1 were written for our learning1 that through patience and the comfort of the scriptures1 we might have hope0 7,rom41 xv4 #d74 #gdi4 ,utility of ,faith for ,society4--7a7 ,domestic society is defended in its security and happiness by faith1 which teaches the sacramental character of marriage1 which offers the model of the ,holy ,family to ,christian homes1 which never ceases to declare in the name of ,god the duties of husbands and wives1 parents and children4 7b7 ,without faith and religion civil society cannot be maintained in strength and prosperity4 ,it is faith in ,god more than laws or armies that gives security to life1 reputation1 and property1 with order and peace at home and abroad4 #gej4 ,the ,meaning of ,faith4--,in ,holy ,scripture and other religious writings the word faith has various meanings4 7a7 ,sometimes it stands for a promise1 or for the quality of being true to one's promises4 ,examples3 ,st4 ,paul condemns widows who remarry against their word1 8because they have made void their first faith 7promise70 7,i ,tim41 v4 #ab74 ,speaking of the unbelief of the ,jews1 he says3 8,shall their unbelief make the faith 7i4e41 fidelity to promise or faithfulness7 of ,god without effect8 ,god forbid4 ,but ,god is true0 7,rom1 iii4 #c1 #d74 7b7 ,sometimes the term faith stands for good reputation1 or for confidence in another4 ,examples3 8,he that discloseth the secret of a friend loseth his faith 7credit1 reputation71 and shall never find a friend to his mind0 7,ecclus41 xxvii4 #ag72 8,o thou of little faith 7trust1 confidence71 why didst thou doubt80 7,matt41 xiv4 #ca74 7c7 ,sometimes faith stands for truths or doctrines offered for one's belief1 or for the assent of the mind to the judgment of conscience or to the revelation of ,god4 ,examples3 8,thou has not denied ,my faith0 7that is1 8the truths revealed by ,me10 ,apoc4 ii4 #ac72 8,all that is not of faith 7i4e41 from the firm conviction of conscience7 is sin0 7,rom1 xiv4 #bc72 8,without faith 7i4e41 assent to the unseen on the word of ,god7 it is impossible to please ,god2 for he that cometh to ,god must believe0 7,heb41 xi4 #f74 #gea4 ,it is faith only in the last sense that is known as the theological virtue of faith1 and hence with it alone we are here concerned4 ,st4 ,paul describes this faith as follows3 8,faith is the substance of things to be hoped for1 the evidence of things that appear not0 7,heb41 xi4 #a74 ,this verse is variously interpreted4 7a7 ,according to ,st4 ,chrysostom1 the meaning is3 ,faith is the subsistence or anticipated existence in the soul of future blessings that are hoped for1 through the firm confidence it gives2 it is the conviction of the reality of the unseen4 7b7 ,according to ,st4 ,thomas1 the meaning is3 ,faith is the substance or basis on which is built the hope of blessedness1 or on which rests as on its foundation the whole work of justification2 it is an argument producing certainty of that which is not seen4 ,the elements of ,st4 ,thomas' interpretation have been incorporated into the ,vatican ,council's definition3 8,the ,catholic ,church professes that this faith which is the beginning of human salvation is a supernatural virtue by which we1 with the aid and inspiration of the grace of ,god1 believe that the things revealed by ,him are true1 not because the intrinsic truth of these things has been perceived by the natural light of reason1 but because of the authority of ,god ,himself revealing1 who can neither deceive nor be deceived0 7,sess4 #c1 chap4 #c1 ,denz4 #aghi74 #geb4 ,thus1 faith is an intellectual habit and act1 but it differs from all other intellectual habits and acts as follows3 7a7 it differs from science1 vision1 understanding1 for its object is 8the things that appear not02 7b7 it differs from opinion1 doubt1 suspicion1 for it is a firm 8substance10 a certain 8evidence02 7c7 it differs from human faith or belief resting on man's word and promises1 for it is the pledge1 beginning and cornerstone of the happiness promised by ,god ,himself4 #gec4 ,faith will now be considered according to two aspects3 7a7 objectively1 as regards the things that are believed by him who has faith2 7b7 subjectively1 as regards the habit and act of the believer which put him in contact with these truths of the unseen world4 #ged4 ,the ,object of ,faith4--,there is a twofold object of faith1 viz41 material and formal4 7a7 ,the material object1 or the truth that is believed1 includes all that is contained in the ,word of ,god1 whether written or handed down by tradition4 ,the principal material object is ,god ,himself as the ,deity1 or ,supreme ,truth in ,being 7prima veritas in essendo72 the secondary material object embraces all other revealed truths4 7b7 ,the formal object of faith1 or the motive that prompts one to give assent to the material object1 is the authority of ,god1 who is ,supreme ,truth in ,knowing and ,speaking 7prima veritas in cognoscendo et dicendo71 and hence ,he can neither be deceived nor deceive4 #gee4 ,the material object of faith includes all truths revealed by ,god2 but1 since it belongs to the ,church to teach those truths1 there is a distinction of truths that are revealed by ,god but not defined by the ,church1 and truths that are revealed by ,god and defined by the ,church as revealed4 ,thus3 7a7 divine faith is belief in revealed truth that has not been declared by the ,church as revealed2 7b7 divine and ,catholic faith is belief in a revealed truth that has been proposed as such by the ,church1 either solemnly or ordinarily4 ,example3 ,dogmas contained in creeds1 definitions of ,popes or general councils4 ,the ,vatican ,council has determined the object of this faith3 ,by divine and ,catholic faith all those things must be believed which are contained in the written word of ,god and in tradition1 and which are proposed by the ,church1 either by a solemn pronouncement or by her ordinary and universal magisterium1 to be believed as divinely revealed 7,ibid41 ,denz4 #agib74 #gef4 ,the formal object of faith extends to all truths that have been revealed and to no others4 ,theologians discuss the status of certain truths connected with revelation concerning which the ,church is guaranteed infallibility on account of her teaching office4 ,special difficulties arise in relation to3 a7 dogmatic facts1 that is1 definitions concerning particular facts closely related to dogma 7e4g41 that ,anglican orders are invalid2 that a particular book contains a sense contrary to revelation2 that this ,supreme ,pontiff1 legitimately elected1 is the successor of ,st4 ,peter in the primacy and consequently infallible72 b7 theological conclusions1 that is1 deductions drawn from revealed truth4 ,many theologians teach that both dogmatic facts and theological conclusions when defined by the ,church constitute a special object of faith distinct from divine and ,catholic faith1 namely1 ecclesiastical faith4 ,accordingly1 for them1 ecclesiastical faith is the internal assent given to truths connected with revelation and defined by the ,church as true1 the motive of assent being the infallibility of the ,church in her teaching office4 ,others deny the existence of such faith and insist a7 that dogmatic facts are contained in revealed doctrine implicitly as singulars in universals and hence are believed before definition by divine faith implicitly1 and after definition by divine and ,catholic faith1 b7 that theological conclusions before definition are held by theological assent1 afterwards by divine and ,catholic faith4 ,some also have maintained that before definition such conclusions belong to divine faith4 7,for a summary of the various teachings on this problem see ,reginaldo-,maria ,schultes1 ,o4,p41 ,introductio in ,historiam ,dogmatum1 pp4 #df ff42 ,marin-,sola1 ,o4,p41 ,l',evolution homogene du ,dogme ,catholique74 #geg4 ,private revelations1 even when approved by the ,church1 are not an object of divine and ,catholic faith1 for they form no part of the revelation given to the whole human race that was closed with the death of the ,apostles and committed to the ,church4 ,hence3 7a7 if they are negatively approved by the ,church1 the approval means only that such revelations contain nothing contrary to faith and morals1 and are useful and edifying2 7b7 if they are approved positively 7as is the case with the revelations of ,st4 ,hildegarde1 ,st4 ,brigit1 and ,st4 ,catherine of ,siena71 the approval means that they appear to be true divine revelations and may be prudently accepted as such4 #geh4 ,the assent to be given to private revelations1 therefore1 is as follows3 7a7 ,such revelations should receive the assent of divine faith1 if it is certain that they are genuine4 ,this applies to those to whom and for whom they were given1 and probably to others also4 ,it rarely happens1 however1 that the genuineness of a private revelation can be critically established1 and the ,church does not require that such revelations be accepted by all the faithful4 ,to refuse assent1 therefore1 to a private revelation is not generally an offense against divine faith4 7b7 ,private revelations cannot receive the assent of ,catholic faith1 since1 even when approved by the ,church1 they are not proposed as a part of the ,christian revelation committed to her care4 ,to dissent from them1 therefore1 is not a sin against ,catholic faith1 unless in rejecting them one would also reject defined dogma 7e4g41 by denying the possibility of revelation74 7c7 ,private revelations are not offered for the assent of ecclesiastical faith1 since in approving them the ,church does not propose them as necessarily connected with the exercise of her teaching office or under guarantee of infallibility4 ,to dissent from them1 therefore1 is not a sin against ecclesiastical faith1 unless other errors 7e4g41 against the authority of the ,church in matters connected with revelation7 are also involved4 7d7 ,private revelations are offered for the assent of human faith1 since the ,church proposes them to the faithful1 if approved1 as matters of pious opinion1 which are according to the rules of prudence truly probable on account of traditions in their favor1 supported by suitable testimony and documents 7,benedict ,,xiv1 ,de ,canonizatione ,sanctorum1 lib4 ,,ii1 cap4 #bc2 ,,iii1 cap4 ult42 ,sacred ,cong4 ,rites1 ,may #ab1 #ahgg1 n4 #cdai1 ad #b74 ,the ,church permits1 but does not exact belief in these revelations4 ,one would not be excused1 however1 who rejected them through pride or contempt1 or without sufficient reason4 #gei4 ,similarly1 although the ,church offers for human faith alone certain particular facts of history1 one who rejects them may easily be guilty of contempt or temerity4 ,such particular facts are3 7a7 apparitions of heavenly beings in post-,biblical times1 such as the appearance of the ,archangel ,michael in ,monte ,gargano about #ebe and the appearance of the ,blessed ,virgin at ,lourdes in #aheh1 for which the ,church has instituted feasts2 7b7 deeds related in the legends of the ,saints1 such as the victory of ,st4 ,catherine of ,alexandria over the pagan philosophers and the carrying of her body to ,mt4 ,sinai by ,angels1 which the ,church inserts in the ,breviary lessons2 7c7 the authenticity of relics4 ,in granting certificates of genuineness1 the ,church guarantees only that there is sufficient historical evidence or probability for the belief that particular bones or other objects belonged to a particular ,saint4 #gfj4 ,many tenets of the ,church1 indeed1 have not the prerogative of infallibility--for example1 decrees of the ,popes not given ex cathedra1 decisions of ,congregations made with ,papal approval1 teachings of ,bishops to particular members of the ,church1 doctrines commonly held by ,catholics as theological truths or certain conclusions4 ,these decrees1 decisions1 etc41 receive not the assent of ,catholic faith1 but what is called religious assent1 which includes two things1 viz41 external and internal assent4 7a7 ,external assent should be given such teachings--that is1 the homage of respectful silence due to public authority4 ,this does not forbid the submission of difficulties to the teaching authority1 or the scientific examination of objections that seem very strong4 7b7 ,internal assent should be given such teaching--that is1 the submission of the judgment of the individual to the judgment of the teacher who has the authority from ,christ and assistance from the ,holy ,spirit4 ,this internal assent differs1 however1 from the assent of faith1 inasmuch as it excludes fear of error1 but not of the possibility of error1 and it may later on be suspended1 called into doubt1 or even revoked4 ,pope ,pius ,x in his ,motu proprio1 8,praestantia scripturae ,sacrae0 7,nov4 #ah1 #aijg71 indicated the binding force of the decrees both of the ,pontifical ,biblical ,commission and of all doctrinal decrees3 ,all are bound in conscience to submit to the decisions of the ,biblical ,commission which have been given in the past and which shall be given in the future1 in the same way as to the decrees which appertain to doctrine1 issued by the ,sacred ,congregations and approved by the ,supreme ,pontiff2 nor can they escape the stigma both of disobedience and temerity1 nor be free from grave guilt as often as they impugn their decisions either in word or writing2 and this over and above the scandal which they give and the sins of which they may be the cause before ,god by making other statements on these matters which are very frequently both rash and false4 7,reaffirmed by the ,biblical ,commission on ,feb4 #bg1 #aicd47 #gfa4 ,the objects1 therefore1 which formally or reductively pertain to the virtue of faith1 are as follows3 7a7 ,divine faith has for its object all the truths revealed by ,god as contained in the ,canonical scriptures approved by the ,church1 and in the teachings received by the ,apostles from ,christ or the ,holy ,spirit and handed down to the ,church as ,tradition4 ,private revelations in exceptional cases may also be the object of divine faith4 7b7 ,catholic faith has for its object all the truths formally revealed in scripture and ,tradition that have been defined as such by the ,church4 ,the definitions of the ,church are either solemn 7e4g41 those given in the ,creeds1 ex cathedra definitions of the ,popes1 decisions of ,ecumenical ,councils7 or ordinary 7e4g41 those contained in the universal preaching1 practice or belief of the ,church1 encyclical letters see ,humani ,generis1 n4#bj74 ,equivalent to definitions are the condemnations of error opposed to revealed truths4 7c7 ,according to some theologians ecclesiastical faith has for its object all infallible decisions of the ,church about matters not revealed1 but connected with revelation1 or necessary for the exercise of the teaching office of the ,church4 ,such are3 7i7 definitions1 that is1 definitive declarations of theological conclusions or of dogmatic facts1 disciplinary laws made for the entire ,church1 canonization of the saints1 solemn approbation of religious ,orders1 express or special recognition of ,doctors of the ,church1 declaration of the relation of private revelations to the public revelation2 and 7ii7 censures1 that is1 condemnations of teachings1 on account of falsity1 as heretical1 near to heresy1 savoring of heresy1 erroneous1 rash1 etc42 on account of their expression1 as equivocal1 ambiguous1 presumptuous1 captious1 suspected1 ill-sounding1 offensive to pious ears1 etc42 on account of their tendency1 as scandalous1 schismatical1 seditious1 unsafe1 etc4 ,examples3 ,the definitions concerning the sense of the book ,augustinus1 the suitability of the terms 8consubstantial0 and 8transubstantiation10 the agreement of the ,vulgate with the original scriptures1 the lawfulness of the insertion of the ,filioque4 7d7 ,religious assent has for its object all doctrinal pronouncements of the ,church that are not infallible1 but are yet official and authoritative4 ,examples are ordinary instructions and condemnations given by ,pontifical ,congregations and ,commissions4 ,the ,syllabus of ,modern ,errors issued by ,pius ,,ix was most likely not an infallible or definitive document1 although many of the errors it rejects are contrary to dogma1 and hence1 even apart from the ,syllabus1 they are to be rejected as opposed to ,catholic faith4 ,likewise1 many of its tenets are drawn from encyclical letters4 ,papal allocutions1 radio addresses1 and the doctrinal parts of ,apostolic ,constitutions1 in themselves1 are in this class4 7e7 ,respect is due to the judgment of the ,church even in non-doctrinal matters and where no obligation is imposed by her1 on account of her position and the careful examination given before decision4 ,example3 ,it would be disrespectful to reject without good reason a pious belief which the ,church after mature deliberation has permitted to be held4 #gfb4 ,though the truths of faiths are many1 the duty of believing imposes no great burden on the believer4 ,thus3 7a7 it is not required that explicit belief be given to all the teachings of faith2 7b7 it is not required that one distinguish the particular kind of assent in case of uncertainty1 but it suffices to yield assent according to the mind and intention of the ,church4 ,example3 ,when a group of propositions is condemned under various censures1 no indication being made of the censure that applies to particular propositions1 it suffices to hold that all of them are false1 and that to each of them applies one or more of the censures listed4 #gfc4 ,faith is divided into explicit and implicit1 according as the object believed is unfolded or not to the mind4 7a7 ,faith is explicit regarding any truth1 when assent is given to that truth as known in itself and expressed in terms proper to itself4 ,example3 ,he has explicit faith in the ,eucharist who has been instructed concerning the meaning of the mystery1 and who assents to it according to that distinct knowledge4 7b7 ,faith is implicit regarding any truth1 when that truth is not known or not accepted in itself1 but is accepted in another truth4 ,example3 ,he has implicit faith in the ,eucharist who has not yet heard of it1 but who accepts all the teachings of the ,church1 even those he does not know4 #gfd4 ,faith is implicit as follows3 7a7 ,improperly1 faith is implicit1 if one does not give assent1 but is prepared to give it1 if necessary1 or wishes to give it4 ,these pious dispositions are not the act of faith itself1 but they are its beginnings1 or preparations leading up to it2 they are good1 but not sufficient4 ,example3 ,a pagan who says he would accept the ,christian creed1 if he thought it were true1 or who wishes that he could believe it4 7b7 ,properly1 faith is implicit1 if one gives assent to a truth by accepting another in which it is contained1 as a particular is contained in a universal 7e4g41 he who explicitly accepts all the truths of ,christianity1 implicitly accepts the ,eucharist1 even when in good faith he thinks it is not revealed71 or as an instrument is involved in its principal cause 7e4g41 he who explicitly believes in the ,redemption implicity believes in ,baptism1 which is the instrument by which ,redemption is applied71 or as means are contained in their end 7e4g41 he who explicitly believes that eternal life is a reward1 implicitly believes that good works must be performed as a means to that end71 or as the reality is expressed in the figure 7e4g41 those in the ,old ,testament who explicitly believed in the ,paschal ,lamb1 implicitly believed in the sacrifice of ,christ of which the ,paschal ,lamb was the figure71 or as the assent of the disciple is bound up with the assent of the teacher 7e4g41 the child who explicitly accepts as true the doctrines of faith taught by his pastor1 implicitly believes the sense and implications contained in the latter's instructions74 #gfe4 ,the points about which explicit faith is required can be reduced to four heads 7see ,catechism of the ,council of ,trent74 ,these heads are3 7a7 ,the things to be believed3 8,preach the ,gospel to every creature4 ,he that believeth shall be saved0 7,mark1 xvi4 #ae74 ,the ,gospel doctrine is summarized in the ,apostles' ,creed2 7b7 ,the things to be done3 8,teach them to observe all things whatsoever ,i have commanded you0 7,matt41 xxviii4 #bj74 ,the ,ten ,commandments 7see ,vol4 ,,ii7 are called the epitome of the whole law2 7c7 ,the ordinances to be observed2 8,baptize them in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost0 7,matt1 xxviii4 #ai74 ,the ,seven ,sacraments are the sacred instruments through which the merits of the ,passion of ,christ are applied to the soul2 7d7 ,the petitions to be made to ,god3 8,thus shall you pray3 ,our ,father1 etc40 7,matt41 vi4 #i74 ,the prayer 7see ,vol4 ,,ii7 given us by ,christ teaches us both the manner of prayer and the requests that should be offered4 #gff4 ,faith in the revelation given by ,god is necessary for salvation 7,heb41 xi4 #f71 but in the usual providence of ,god faith cannot be had or safeguarded without short formulas of its principal doctrines4 7a7 ,faith cannot be received without such formulas1 because1 its doctrines being many and frequently difficult and the study of all scripture and ,tradition being impossible for most persons1 a list of short and clear propositions of revealed truths 7,creed7 is needed that the faith may be proposed and accepted4 7b7 ,faith cannot be retained without such formulas1 because1 being unchanging in itself and yet for all times and places1 its doctrines would be easily corrupted if there were not an official standard 7,symbol7 by which both truth and error could be at once recognized 7,i ,cor41 i4 #aj2 ,,ii ,tim41 i4 #ac74 #gfg4 ,the formulas of ,christian teaching as summarized in the ,creeds1 since they must be brief and orderly1 are divided into short and connected propositions1 which are therefore known as articles4 ,brevity being the character of ,creeds1 not all revealed truths are expressed in them as articles1 but only those that have the following characteristics3 7a7 ,an article of the ,creed deals with one of the two main objects of belief1 namely1 the end of man1 which is eternal life 7,heb41 xi4 #a71 and the means thereto1 which is ,jesus ,christ 7,john1 xvii4 #c74 ,other things1 which are proposed for faith1 not for their own sake1 but only on account of their relation to these two main objects 7e4g41 the wandering of the ,israelites in the desert1 the details of the journeys of ,st4 ,paul1 etc471 are not mentioned in the ,creeds4 7b7 ,an article of the ,creed deals only with those doctrines concerning eternal life and ,christ which are in a special manner unseen or difficult1 for faith is 8the evidence of things that appear not0 7,heb41 xi4 #a74 ,other doctrines which have no special difficulty of their own are considered as implicit in those that express the general mysteries1 and hence they are not mentioned4 ,thus1 the three ,persons of the ,trinity are given distinct articles1 because the mysteriousness of the ,triune ,god cannot be reduced to any more general mystery1 whereas the ,eucharist is not mentioned1 as having no mystery that is not implied in the articles on the divine omnipotence and the sanctification of man through ,christ4 #gfh4 ,has there been an increase in the articles of faith8 7a7 ,if by increase is meant the addition through new revelation of main beliefs not contained in the primitive revelation1 there has never been an increase in the articles of faith2 for from the beginning ,god made known ,his own being1 which includes the eternal things of ,god and the end or happiness of man1 and ,his providence1 which includes the temporal dispensations of ,god and the means for the salvation of man 7,heb41 xi4 #f74 7b7 ,if by increase is meant the addition of new revelations that brought out more clearly and definitely things contained in previous revelation1 there was an increase in the articles of faith from the beginning of revelations down to the end of the ,apostolic age4 ,thus1 the nature of ,god and ,his purpose as regards the redemption of humanity were brought out ever more distinctly by new revelations in ,old ,testament times 7,exod41 vi4 #b71 and were given in final and complete form by the revelation of ,christ 7,heb41 i4 #a2 ,eph41 iii4 #e2 ,heb41 xii4 #bg1 #bh2 ,,ii ,tim41 i4 #ac74 7c7 ,if by increase is meant a clearer and fuller explanation of the revelation once delivered to the ,saints1 there has been and always can be an increase of articles of faith4 ,thus1 in the ,council of ,nicaea the ,apostles' ,creed was amplified2 in the ,council of ,constantinople the ,creed of ,nicaea was added to1 and similarly today or tomorrow the ,pope could add new explanations or developments to the ,creed1 if new heresies or necessities required that the true sense of revelation already given should be brought out more clearly or fully4 #gfi4 ,there are three principal ,creeds used by the ,church3 7a7 the ,apostles' ,creed1 which according to an early tradition was composed by the ,apostles themselves before they separated to preach the ,gospel4 ,it was in use from the first centuries in the ,roman ,church1 which required that the catechumens learn and recite it before receiving ,baptism4 ,it is divided into twelve articles2 7b7 the ,nicene ,creed1 which is used in the ,mass and was drawn up at the ,council of ,nicaea 7#cbe7 against the ,arian denial of the divinity of ,christ1 and was revised by the ,council of ,constantinople 7#cha7 against the ,macedonians1 who refused to acknowledge the divinity of the ,holy ,ghost2 7c7 the ,athanasian ,creed1 which is used in the ,office of ,prime and is a resume of the teaching of ,st4 ,athanasius on the ,trinity and ,incarnation4 ,it was composed in the ,west some time after the beginning of the fifth century4 #ggj4 ,summary of the teaching of the ,first ,article of the ,creed3 8,i believe in ,god1 the ,father ,almighty1 ,creator of heaven and earth40--7a7 8,i believe10 i4e41 ,i give unhesitating assent to ,god revealing ,his mysterious truths2 7b7 8in ,god10 i4e41 the ,supreme ,being1 one in nature and three in persons2 7c7 8the ,father10 i4e41 our ,maker and ,provider1 from whom also we receive the spirit of adoption of sons2 7d7 8almighty10 i4e41 all-powerful1 and therefore all-wise and endowed with every other perfection in the highest degree2 7e7 8,creator10 i4e41 who freely produced the world out of nothing1 without external model or effort of any sort1 and who preserves1 rules and moves all creatures2 7f7 8of heaven and earth10 i4e41 of the world of pure spirits1 of matter1 and of man1 who is at the confines of matter and spirit--in other words1 of all finite things1 visible and invisible4 #gga4 ,summary of the ,second ,article3 8,and in ,jesus ,christ1 ,his only ,son1 our ,lord40--7a7 8,jesus10 a name given by command of ,god and meaning 8,saviour02 7b7 8,christ10 i4e41 8the anointed10 because ,he was ,king1 ,priest1 and ,prophet2 7c7 8,his only ,son10 i4e41 born of the ,father before all ages1 ,god of ,god1 ,light of ,light1 true ,god of true ,god1 begotten not made1 consubstantial with the ,father1 by whom all things were made2 7d7 8our ,lord10 for as ,god ,he shares all the perfections of the divine nature1 as man ,he has redeemed us and thus deservedly acquired the title of ,lord over us1 while as the ,god-man ,he is the ,lord of all created things4 ,it should be noted that there is nothing imperfect or carnal in the generation of the ,son1 or in the procession of the ,holy ,ghost1 for ,god is a spirit and all-perfect4 #ggb4 ,summary of the ,third ,article3 8,who was conceived by the ,holy ,ghost1 born of the ,virgin ,mary40--7a7 8,who was conceived40 ,the ,only-begotten ,son1 the second ,person of the ,trinity1 for us men and for our salvation1 became incarnate and was made man4 ,thus1 the same ,divine ,person is in both the divine and human natures1 and the union preserves the properties and the actions of both natures4 7b7 8,by the ,holy ,ghost40 ,at the moment when ,mary consented to the announcement of the angel1 the body of ,christ was formed in her womb from her flesh1 the rational soul was infused1 and the divine and human natures were united in the ,person of the ,word4 ,thus1 ,mary is truly the ,mother of ,god4 ,this conception was miraculous1 accomplished without the aid of man1 through the sole operation of the three ,persons of the ,trinity4 ,being an external work of ,god in which love towards us is especially manifested1 the ,incarnation is attributed to the ,holy ,ghost1 who in the internal life of the ,deity proceeds as the mutual love of ,father and ,son4 7c7 8,born of the ,virgin ,mary40 ,mary was ever a virgin1 before1 during1 and after childbirth2 immaculate and holy in soul2 the spiritual ,mother of whom ,christians are born in holiness4 #ggc4 ,summary of the ,fourth ,article3 8,suffered under ,pontius ,pilate1 was crucified1 dead and buried40--7a7 ,the effect of that which is contained in this article is expressed in the words of the ,nicene ,creed1 8for us40 ,the passion and death of ,christ1 willed by ,himself1 accomplished our salvation1 as satisfaction1 sacrifice and redemption2 7b7 ,the manner in which this was brought about is declared in the words above quoted4 ,in ,his human nature ,christ suffered agony and pain of body2 ,he was sentenced to death by the ,roman governor and nailed to the cross4 ,his soul and body were separated in death1 although the ,divinity never departed from either1 and ,his dead body was laid in the tomb4 #ggd4 ,summary of the ,fifth ,article3 8,he descended into hell2 the third day ,he rose again from the dead40--7a7 8,he descended40 ,after ,his death the soul of ,christ went to the abode of the departed1 to liberate those who were there4 7b7 8,into hell40 ,the name hell is applied in a wide sense to all those secret abodes in which are detained the souls of those who have not obtained the happiness of heaven--viz41 the hell of the damned1 in which the impenitent suffer eternal pain of loss and sense2 purgatory1 in which the souls of just men are cleansed by temporary punishments2 limbo1 where the fathers of the ,old ,testament awaited in peaceful repose the coming of ,christ4 ,it was this last abode into which the soul of ,christ entered4 7c7 8,the third day0--i4e41 on ,sunday morning1 the third day after ,his burial4 7d7 8,he rose again40 ,as ,he had laid down ,his life by ,his own power1 so ,he took it up again by ,his own power4 7e7 8,from the dead40 ,christ not only returned to life1 ,he also conquered death2 ,he rose to die no more1 and thus ,he is first in the final resurrection4 7f7 8,according to the scriptures40 ,these words are added in the ,creed of ,constantinople1 to call attention to the fact that the resurrection is the attestation of the truth of our ,lord's claims and doctrine 7,i ,cor41 xv4 #ad1 #ag2 ,matt41 xii4 #ci1 #dj74 #gge4 ,summary of the ,sixth ,article3 8,he ascended into heaven1 sitteth at the right hand of ,god1 the ,father almighty40--7a7 8,he ascended40 ,by ,his own power as ,god and man ,christ ascended into heaven4 7b7 8,into heaven40 ,as ,god1 ,he never forsook heaven1 the ,divinity being omnipresent2 but as man1 body and soul1 ,he ascended to the abode of glory forty days after the resurrection4 7c7 8,sitteth at the right hand of ,god the ,father ,almighty40 ,christ is said to stand at the right hand of ,god1 inasmuch as ,he is our ,mediator with the ,father 7,acts1 vii4 #ee2 ,heb41 vii4 #be2 ,john1 xiv4 #b72 ,he is said to sit at the right hand of the ,father to express the permanent possession of royal and supreme power and glory 7,eph41 i4 #bj-bb2 ,heb41 i4 #ac74 #ggf4 ,summary of the ,seventh ,article3 8,from thence ,he shall come to judge the living and the dead40--,there is a particular judgment at death2 at the end of the ,world1 of which the time is uncertain1 there will be a general judgment1 both of the living and the dead4 ,christ will come a second time1 and as ,judge will pass sentence either of eternal loss and pain or of eternal happiness4 #ggg4 ,summary of the ,eighth ,article3 8,i believe in the ,holy ,ghost40--,the ,third ,person of the ,trinity is equal to the ,father and the ,son1 proceeds from them both as their mutual love1 and is spoken of1 therefore1 by appropriation1 as the ,author of works of grace and sanctification1 in which especially the charity of ,god is manifested3 8,the ,holy ,ghost1 the ,lord and ,giver of life1 who proceedeth from the ,father and the ,son1 who together with the ,father and the ,son is adored and glorified1 who spoke by the prophets0 7,creed of ,constantinople74 #ggh4 ,summary of the ,ninth ,article3 8,i believe the ,holy ,catholic ,church2 the ,communion of ,saints40--7a7 ,the ,church pertains to the material1 not the formal object of divine faith 7see #ged71 and hence it is not said3 8,i believe in the ,church40 ,we believe of the ,church that she is the visible society made up of the faithful scattered throughout the world1 called also the house of ,god 7,i ,tim41 iii4 #ae71 the flock of ,christ1 the spouse of ,christ 7,,ii ,cor41 xi4 #b71 the body of ,christ 7,eph41 i4 #bc2 ,col41 i4 #bd72 that besides the ,church militant on earth1 composed of both the good and the bad1 and outside of which are unbelievers and the excommunicated1 there is the ,church triumphant in heaven and the ,church suffering in purgatory2 that there are four marks by which the true ,church may be recognized--viz41 that she is one1 holy1 ,catholic1 and ,apostolic2 that she is divine in her origin and possesses divinely given powers4 7b7 8,the ,communion of ,saints40 ,the members of the ,church have different offices1 but there is among them a community of spiritual goods1 the ,sacraments being a bond of union1 and each one profiting according to his condition in the good works done by others1 ,the ,church suffering is assisted by our suffrages1 while we in turn are helped by the intercessions of the ,church triumphant4 #ggi4 ,summary of the ,tenth ,article3 8,the forgiveness of sins40--,god forgives all sins1 when they are truly repented of1 either through ,baptism 7in case of sins before ,baptism7 or through the due exercise of the power of the keys given the ,church 7in case of sins after ,baptism74 ,venial sins may be forgiven by private repentance4 #ghj4 ,summary of the ,eleventh ,article3 8,the resurrection of the body40--,the soul is immortal1 the body mortal4 ,but at the end of the world the bodies of all the dead1 even though corrupted1 shall be restored and reunited with their principle of life--i4e41 the soul to which they belonged4 ,substantially1 the risen body will be identical with the mortal body1 but it will have certain new qualities corresponding to its new state4 #gha4 ,summary of the ,twelfth ,article3 8,life everlasting40--,those who die in the friendship of ,god will be received into unending happiness1 in which they will be exempted from all evil and enjoy the beatific vision and other divine gifts4 #ghb4 ,the ,acts of ,faith4--,according to ,st4 ,paul1 there are two acts of faith1 one internal1 the other external3 8,with the heart we believe unto justice1 but with the mouth confession is made unto salvation0 7,rom41 x4 #aj74 7a7 ,the internal act of faith is the firm and constant judgment of the intellect assenting to divine revelation 7,,ii ,cor41 x4 #e71 but freely and under the command of the will 7,mark1 xvi4 #af71 being moved thereto by divine grace 7,eph41 ii4 #e74 7b7 ,the external act of faith is the profession before the world by signs1 such as words or deeds1 of the internal assent given to divine revelation4 #ghc4 ,the internal act of faith is one1 but it has a threefold relationship3 7a7 it believes about ,god1 if we consider the intellect as assenting to the material object2 7b7 it believes ,god1 if we consider the intellect as assenting to the formal object2 7c7 it believes in ,god1 if we consider the will as moving the intellect to assent1 and tending towards ,god as the ,last ,end4 #ghd4 ,the truths to which the assent of faith is given are either supernatural or natural4 7a7 ,supernatural truths or mysteries 7e4g41 the ,trinity of ,persons in ,god7 are revealed for faith1 that man may know1 desire and work for the supernatural destiny to which he has been raised4 7b7 ,natural truths 7e4g41 the ,oneness of ,god7 are revealed for faith1 so that mankind may obtain more quickly1 more generally1 and more certainly the knowledge of divine things which reason can afford4 ,it is impossible1 however1 that an act of faith and an act of knowledge should coexist in the same individual about the same truth1 for faith is of things that appear not4 #ghe4 ,the act of faith is a necessary preliminary to other supernatural acts1 for we do not tend towards the supernatural1 unless we first accept it by belief2 hence1 faith is necessary4 ,but the act of faith may also be made after other supernatural acts1 like those of hope and charity2 and so it may be meritorious4 7a7 ,the act of faith is necessary1 both as a means and as a precept 7see #cfj74 ,the necessity of means will be treated now1 the necessity of precept later1 when we speak of the commandments of faith 7see #iac sqq474 7b7 ,the act of faith before justification is meritorious congruously and in a wide sense2 but after justification it has condign merit 7see #aaj74 #ghf4 ,for all adults the act of faith is necessary for salvation as a necessity of means 7see #cfj71 for the ,apostle says3 8,without faith it is impossible to please ,god0 7,heb41 xi4 #f74 ,the truths which must be believed under necessity of means are of two kinds4 7a7 ,one must believe with implicit faith all revealed truths which one does not know and is not bound to know4 ,an act of implicit faith is contained in the formula3 8,o my ,god1 ,i firmly believe all the truths the ,catholic ,church teaches1 because ,thou hast revealed them40 7b7 ,one must believe with explicit faith all the truths which one is bound to know4 ,an act of explicit faith in all the truths necessary by necessity of means is contained in the ,apostles' ,creed4 ,other truths that must be explicitly believed on account of a necessity of precept will be discussed in #iah1 #ibj4 #ghg4 ,what specifically are the truths just referred to that all are bound to know as a necessary means8 7a7 ,theologians generally agree that it has always been necessary for adults to know and accept two basic mysteries--,god's existence1 as the supernatural ,end or happiness of man1 and ,his providence as exercised in supplying the means necessary for supernatural salvation 7see #gfh74 ,without such belief1 supernatural hope and charity1 at all times necessary1 are impossible4 7b7 ,a majority of theologians hold1 and with greater probability it seems1 that since the promulgation of the ,gospel it is necessary for adults to know and accept the two basic mysteries of ,chrisitanity-- viz41 that in ,god1 who is our beatitude1 there are three persons 7the ,trinity71 and that the way to our beatitude is through ,christ our ,redeemer 7the ,incarnation74 #ghh4 ,even before the ,gospel1 it was always necessary as a means that one believe explicitly in ,god as our supernatural happiness and as the provider of the means thereto4 ,thus1 the ,apostle1 speaking of the ancient patriarchs1 says3 8,he that cometh to ,god1 must believe that ,he is1 and is a rewarder to them that seek ,him0 7,heb41 xi4 #f74 ,he that would come to ,god 7i4e41 be saved71 must believe in ,god as the ,author of glory and of grace4 ,hence1 one must believe3 7a7 that ,god exists1 who is not ashamed to be called our ,god1 and who prepares for us a better1 that is1 a heavenly country 7,heb41 xi4 #f72 7b7 that ,god is a remunerator1 from whom must be expected the working out of ,his promises and the helps to attain the reward1 as well as the meting out of justice4 ,in this faith is included implicitly a faith in ,christ1 and thus in the ,old ,testament a belief1 at least implicit1 in the ,messiah to come was always necessary3 8,man is not justified by the works of the law1 but by the faith of ,jesus ,christ0 7,gal41 ii4 #af74 #ghi4 ,since the promulgation of the ,gospel 7see #cdb1 #ced71 it is also necessary as a means that one believe explicitly in the mysteries of the ,trinity and ,incarnation4 ,for he who does not accept these1 does not accept the ,gospel1 whereas ,christ says3 8,go ye into the whole world1 and preach the ,gospel to every creature4 ,he that believeth not shall be condemned0 7,mark1 xvi4 #ae1 #af74 7a7 ,theoretically1 this opinion seems more probable than the opposite opinion2 but chiefly on account of the difficulty about negative infidels1 which is discussed in dogmatic treatises on ,predestination and ,grace1 many theologians either reject it 7e4g41 those who say that belief in the two great ,christian mysteries is necessary only as a precept1 or that implicit faith suffices71 or modify it 7e4g41 those who say that belief in these two mysteries is not necessary as a means for justification1 but only for glorification1 and those who say that regularly such faith is a necessary means1 but that an exception is allowed for invincible ignorance1 or for the insufficient promulgation of the ,gospel in many regions74 7b7 ,practically1 this opinion is safer1 and hence all theologians1 even ,probabilists1 hold that one must act as if it were true and certain1 whenever it is possible to give instruction on the ,trinity and ,incarnation4 #gij4 ,knowledge about the mysteries of faith is either substantial 7by which one knows the essentials of a mystery7 or scientific 7by which one knows also its circumstances and details1 and is able to give a more profound explanation of it74 ,scientific knowledge is required1 on account of their office1 in those who are bound to teach the faith1 but substantial knowledge suffices for salvation4 ,hence1 for an adult to be saved1 it suffices that he have the following kind of knowledge about the four great mysteries3 7a7 ,there is a ,god who has spoken to us1 promising freely that ,he will take us to ,himself as our reward4 ,it is not necessary that one understand such theological concepts as the essence of deity1 the definition of supernaturality1 the formal and material objects of beatitude1 etc42 for many persons are incapable of understanding them4 7b7 ,this ,god1 who will be our reward1 is one1 but there are three divine ,persons--the ,father1 the ,son and the ,holy ,ghost1 really distinct and equal4 ,it is not necessary that one understand the distinction between nature and person1 nor subtle questions about the processions and properties4 7c7 ,god provides for us1 giving us the helps we need1 and also1 if we serve ,him1 the reward ,he has promised4 ,it is not necessary that one understand the theology of providence1 grace1 and merit4 7d7 ,jesus ,christ1 who is ,god the ,son1 became man1 suffered and died for us1 thus saving us from sin and winning back for us the right to heaven4 ,it is not necessary that one understand scientifically that in ,christ there are two natures united hypostatically in the one ,person of the ,word4 #gia4 ,since ,baptism is fruitless without due faith in the recipient1 it is not lawful as a rule to baptize those who lack substantial knowledge of the four mysteries just mentioned4 7a7 ,outside of danger of death1 it is never lawful to baptize a person1 adult in mind1 who is in substantial ignorance of any of these four mysteries4 ,such a person must first receive instruction4 7b7 ,in danger of death1 when instruction cannot be given1 an adult in substantial ignorance about the ,trinity and the ,incarnation may be baptized conditionally2 for it is probable that explicit knowledge of those two mysteries is not a necessity of means 7see #ghi2 ,canon #geb1 ,sec4#b74 #gib4 ,since absolution is invalid if the person absolved is incapable of receiving grace1 and since acts of faith in the four chief mysteries are an essential means to justification in adults1 absolution given to one who is in substantial ignorance about one of the four mysteries above mentioned is certainly or probably invalid1 as the case may be4 ,absolution certainly invalid is never lawful1 but absolution probably valid may in certain cases be regarded as lawful before administration1 and as valid after administration4 ,hence1 the following cases must be distinguished3 7a7 ,outside of danger of death1 it is not lawful to absolve one who is in substantial ignorance about any of those four mysteries4 ,such a person should be sent away for further instruction1 or given a brief instruction then and there1 if there is time4 7b7 ,in danger of death1 when instruction cannot be given1 an adult in substantial ignorance about the ,trinity and ,incarnation may be absolved conditionally1 for the reason given in the similar case of ,baptism4 7c7 ,after the fact1 absolution given to one who was in substantial ignorance of the ,trinity and ,incarnation1 may be regarded as valid1 since the opinion that explicit knowledge of these mysteries is not a necessary means1 is at least probable4 ,hence1 according to the principles of ,probabilism a penitent who made confessions ,while ignorant of those two mysteries is not obliged to repeat his confessions1 since he has probably satisfied his obligation4 #gic4 ,in the following cases 7which would be rare1 it seems7 ,baptism or absolution cannot be administered1 even to the dying who are unable to receive instruction3 7a7 when it is certain that the dying person is substantially ignorant about the existence of ,god1 the ,author of grace and glory2 7b7 when it is certain that the dying person is substantially ignorant of the ,trinity and ,incarnation through his own fault1 and is unwilling to hear about them4 #gid4 ,practical rules for granting the ,sacraments in case of doubt or urgency to those who seem to be indisposed on account of substantial ignorance are the following3 7a7 ,in danger of death1 when instruction is out of the question1 if there is doubt about his ignorance1 the dying person should be given the benefit of the doubt4 7b7 ,in danger of death1 and when instruction is impossible1 if there is doubt about the mental ability of the dying person and his obligation to have explicit faith1 he should receive the benefit of the doubt4 7c7 ,in danger of death or other urgent necessity1 when instruction is needed and possible1 it should be given briefly as follows3 8,let us say the act of faith3 ,i believe in one ,god1 the ,father1 ,son and ,holy ,ghost1 who has promised to take to ,himself after this life all those that love ,him1 and who punishes the wicked4 ,i hope to have the happiness of being received into ,his companionship through the help of ,jesus ,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 who became man and died for my salvation40 ,this or a similar instruction should be given by the priest or lay person present in baptizing an adult who is about to die4 ,when there is not immediate danger of death1 a person who is baptized or absolved after short instruction on account of emergency1 should be admonished of the duty of receiving fuller instruction later on4 #gie4 ,faith is the free exercise of the free assent of the intellect to the unseen1 an acceptance of obligations and tasks hard to human nature4 ,it is1 therefore1 an act of homage to the authority of ,god1 and is meritorious3 8,by faith the ancient patriarchs obtained the promises0 7,heb41 xi4 #cc74 ,is the freedom and meritoriousness of this act of faith lessened if one seeks for other arguments than the authority of ,god in giving one's assent to revelation8 7a7 ,the merit of the act of faith is not lessened1 when one seeks human arguments for the assent of credibility which is prior to the assent of faith2 for it is only the part of prudence that one should first assure oneself of the fact that a revelation has been made1 before one assents on faith to the doctrines contained in that revelation4 ,now1 the arguments by which one assures oneself of the fact of a revelation are human arguments1 such as proofs that revelation is possible and suitable1 that there are miracles1 prophecies and other signs to guarantee the divine mission of those who delivered the revelation1 etc4 7b7 ,the merit of the act of faith is not lessened if one seeks human arguments for the preambles of faith1 that is1 for those divine truths that can be established by natural reason 7such as the existence of ,god1 ,his infinite knowledge and truthfulness74 ,the person who demonstrates these preambles by philosophical proofs1 has knowledge1 not belief1 about them2 but the merit of faith is not lost1 if1 while knowing these truths1 he remains willing to accept them on the authority of revelation4 7c7 ,the merit of faith is not lessened1 if one seeks human arguments for the mysteries of faith1 that is1 for those truths of revelation that are above human reason 7such as the ,trinity and the ,incarnation71 provided these arguments are sought not for the demonstration1 but for the confirmation or defense of dogma4 ,nay1 a person ought1 in so far as he is able1 to use his reason in the service of faith1 and to do so is a sign1 not of little1 but of great faith4 8,be ready always10 says ,st4 ,peter 7,i ,peter1 iii4 #ae71 8to satisfy everyone that asketh you a reason of that hope which is in you40 ,and ,st4 ,anselm says3 8,it appears to me a sign of carelessness1 if1 having been confirmed in the faith1 we do not take pains to understand what we believe40 ,st4 ,thomas writes3 8,when a man is willing to believe1 he loves the truth1 meditates upon it1 and takes to heart whatever reasons he can find in support thereof2 and with regard to this1 human reason does not exclude the merit of faith1 but is a sign of greater merit40 7d7 ,the merit of faith is lessened if one seeks human arguments as the formal object1 that is1 as the motive on which faith is grounded2 for then one does not wish to believe1 or to believe so readily1 on the word of ,god alone1 but feels one must call in other testimony to support it4 ,the attempt to understand mysteries or to establish them by natural reason is opposed to the humble assent of faith3 8,he that is a searcher of majesty1 shall be overwhelmed by glory0 7,prov41 xxv4 #bg72 8,seek not the things that are too high for thee1 and search not into things above thy ability0 7,ecclus41 iii4 #bb72 8,faith loses its merit1 if it is put to the test of reason0 7,st4 ,gregory the ,great1 ,hom4 xxvi74 #gif4 ,besides the internal act of acceptance of revealed truth1 faith has also external acts4 7a7 ,it commands the external acts of the other virtues1 that is1 acts directed to the specific ends of those virtues4 ,hence1 one who fasts exercises an external act of the virtue of temperance1 but it is his faith in the virtue that commands the fast4 7b7 ,faith elicits the external act of profession of faith as its own proper external act directed to its own specific end3 8,i believed1 for which cause ,i have spoken0 7,ps4 cxv4 #aj2 ,,ii ,cor41 iv4 #ac74 ,external profession of faith1 therefore1 is not an act proceeding from faith2 it is an act of faith4 ,the necessity of this act will be considered below in the article about the commandments of faith4 #gig4 ,the ,habit of ,faith4--,faith is not only an act that passes1 but it is also a permanent quality or habit conferred by ,god1 one of the 8most great and perfect promises0 which man must make use of 7,,ii ,peter1 i4 #c sqq471 a charism that is not for a time but for all this life1 just like hope and charity 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #ac74 ,god1 who does all things sweetly 7,wis41 viii4 #a71 and who has provided for ,his natural creatures internal powers by which they incline and move themselves towards the ends of their activities1 has not done less for those whom ,he moves to a supernatural destiny2 and1 in justifying the sinner1 ,he infuses along with grace the supernatural virtues of faith1 hope and charity 7,council of ,trent1 ,sess4 ,,vi1 ,cap4 #f74 #gih4 ,the virtue of faith is thus defined by the ,council of the ,vatican3 8,faith is a supernatural virtue1 by which1 with the help of ,god's grace1 we believe the truths revealed by ,him1 not on account of an intrinsic evidence of the truths themselves1 perceived by natural reason1 but on account of the authority of ,god who revealed them40 #gii4 ,hence1 the virtue of faith has the following properties3 7a7 ,it is supernatural1 not only because its object and motive are supernatural1 but because it proceeds from a supernatural principle1 i4e41 grace 7,john1 vi1 #bi2 ,eph41 ii4 #h74 7b7 ,it is obscure1 because the believer assents to that which has no intrinsic evidence for him4 ,he does not see its truth as the blessed see ,god1 for 8we see now through a glass in a dark manner1 but then face to face0 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #ab74 ,he does not know its truth as he knows evident or naturally demonstrated propositions1 for faith is about truths that surpass reason--things 8that appear not40 ,this1 of course1 does not mean that faith is not rightly called a new light added to the mind1 and that the motives which call for the acceptance of faith are not evidently credible4 7c7 ,it is free1 because1 although one cannot dissent from that which is evident intrinsically 7e4g41 that two and two make four71 one is able to dissent from that which is obscure4 7d7 ,it is not a process of reasoning1 but a simple act of assent1 in which one accepts at the same time the authority of the ,revealer and the truth of ,his revelation4 8,jesus said to her 7,martha73 ,i am the resurrection and the life 4444 ,believest thou this8 ,she saith to ,him3 ,yea1 ,lord1 ,i have believed that ,thou art the ,christ1 etc40 7,john1 xi4 #be-bg74 7e7 ,it is firm and unshaken in a far higher degree than the assent of understanding and science1 since it rests on the infallible authority of ,god 7,i ,thess41 ii4 #ac74 #hjj4 ,before justification1 faith exists1 it seems1 only as an act performed under the influence of actual or transitory grace4 ,after the infusion of habitual grace1 faith is a habit or infused virtue4 ,but there are two modes of existence characteristic of this one habit1 and hence the distinction of living and dead faith 7,gal41 v4 #f2 ,james1 ii4 #bf74 7a7 ,living faith is that which is informed or animated by charity4 ,this latter virtue is called the soul of all the other virtues1 inasmuch as it directs them to their supreme end1 divine friendship1 and gives meritorious value to their works4 ,all those have living faith who join to belief a life in agreement with belief--that is1 the state of grace1 love of ,god and good works4 7b7 ,dead faith is that which is separated from charity4 ,it is a true virtue1 because it directs the assent of the intellect to its proper end2 but it is an imperfect virtue1 because its acts are not directed to the ,last ,end1 and are not meritorious of eternal life4 ,all those who believe1 but who do not live up to their belief in matters of importance1 who neglect serious duties to ,god or others1 have dead faith4 ,examples are those who call themselves ,catholics1 but neglect attendance at church and the reception of the ,sacraments4 #hja4 ,those who have1 or who had faith1 are the following3 7a7 the ,angels in the state of probation and our first parents in ,paradise1 for faith is necessary as a means in every condition short of the beatific vision 7see #ghe1 #aeh72 7b7 those in this life who are in the friendship of ,god1 and also those believers who are not in the friendship of ,god1 the former having living1 and the latter dead faith 7see #hjj72 7c7 the souls in purgatory1 the ancient patriarchs in limbo4 #hjb4 ,those who have not faith are the following3 7a7 those who have vision of the truths of faith1 that is1 the ,saints in heaven and ,christ while on earth 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #aj72 7b7 those who reject obstinately even one doctrine of faith1 for1 if individual judgment is put above the authority of ,god even in one point1 the motive or keystone of faith1 and therefore faith itself1 is no longer assented to2 7c7 the lost1 for1 being cut off entirely from grace1 these possess no virtue infused by ,god4 8,the devils believe and tremble0 7,james1 ii4 #ai71 but their belief is not supernatural or free1 but natural and unwilling4 #hjc4 ,of those who have faith1 some have greater1 and some less faith4 ,thus1 our ,lord reproved ,st4 ,peter for his little faith 7,matt41 xiv4 #ca71 and praised the ,woman of ,canaan for her great faith 7,matt41 xv4 #bh74 ,but since all are obliged to have supreme confidence in ,god and to accept all ,he teaches1 how is there room for different degrees of faith8 7a7 ,faith must be supreme appreciatively1 that is1 all must put the formal object of faith1 the motive of its assent1 above every other motive of assent1 for the ,first ,truth speaking deserves more adherence than any other authority4 ,in this respect1 therefore1 and in the exclusion of every doubt1 the faith of all is equal4 ,but faith need not be supreme intensively1 that is1 it is not required that the intellect should feel the assent of faith more than the assent given to natural truth1 or that the will must experience the highest alacrity1 devotion and confidence2 for the truths that are nearer to us move us more vehemently than do higher and invisible truths4 ,hence1 in this respect the faith of one may be more firm or fervent than the faith of another1 according as one is more childlike1 more loving1 more intense in his acceptance of ,god's ,word than another4 7b7 ,faith must be universal1 that is1 we must accept the entire material object of revelation1 and none may pick and choose according to his likes or fancies1 for all of revelation has ,god for its ,author4 ,in this respect the faith of all is equal1 all believers accepting twelve articles1 while those who accept eleven or six or one or none1 are not believers4 ,but faith need not be explicit as to all its doctrines1 and hence1 while one believer who is not thoroughly instructed may know only the twelve articles of the ,creed1 another believer who is better instructed may know the hundreds of other truths that are contained in the articles4 ,in this way the faith of one is greater extensively4 #hjd4 ,can faith grow or decline in the same person8 7a7 ,if there is question of acts of faith1 the later acts can be more or less firm or fervent than those that preceded1 in the way explained in the previous paragraph4 ,in this sense we may understand the ,apostles to have asked of our ,lord a higher degree of faith1 that they might work miracles in ,his name 7,luke1 xvii4 #e74 7b7 ,if there is question of the habit of faith1 it itself is increased at every increase of sanctifying grace 7see #gde74 ,st4 ,paul writes to the ,corinthians 7,,ii ,cor41 x4 #ae7 that he has hope of their 8increasing faith40 ,moreover1 by repeated acts of faith the ease and delight with which the habit is exercised increases1 as is the case with acquired habits4 ,but the habit of faith is not diminished directly as was explained regarding the infused virtues in general 7see #gde74 #hje4 ,the means of growing in faith are3 7a7 prayer to the ,father of lights3 8,lord1 increase our faith0 7,luke1 xvii4 #e72 7b7 reading of the scriptures1 the ,lives of the ,saints and other similar works1 and attendance at spiritual instructions2 7c7 frequent acts of faith in the world we see not and its coming rewards2 7d7 exercise of faith1 by directing our thoughts1 words1 and actions according to the teaching of faith1 rather than according to the maxims of the world2 for 8the just man liveth by faith0 7,heb41 x4 #ch71 and 8faith without works is dead0 7,james1 ii4 #bj74 #hjf4 ,the cause of faith is ,god4 7a7 ,it is ,god who directly through revelation1 or indirectly through the ,church1 the evangelists1 preachers1 etc41 8brings the message before man0 7,rom41 x4 #ae72 7b7 it is ,god who 8causes the mind of man to assent0 to ,his message4 ,no matter how persuasive the teacher or how well disposed or learned the hearer may be1 faith will not come unless the light of grace leads the way 7,eph41 ii4 #h74 #hjg4 ,the effects of faith are fear of ,god and purification of the heart4 7a7 ,dead faith causes one to fear the penalties of divine justice1 that is1 to have servile fear 7,james1 ii4 #ai73 living faith causes one to fear sin itself1 that is1 to have filial fear4 7b7 ,faith1 by elevating man to higher things1 purifies his soul from the defilements of lower things 7,acts1 xv4 #i73 if faith is dead1 it at least purifies the intellect from error2 if it is living1 it also purifies the will from evil4 #hjh4 ,the ,gifts of ,understanding and ,knowledge4--,as was said above 7see #aei71 the ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost are intended as means for perfecting the theological virtues4 ,there are two ,gifts that serve the virtue of faith1 namely1 the ,gifts of ,understanding and ,knowledge4 7a7 ,faith1 being assent1 must have a right idea of what is proposed for acceptance2 but1 as it is obscure 7see #gii71 and as there are things apart from faith that may corrupt our notion of it1 the ,gift of ,understanding is conferred1 a simple perception and divine intuition through which one receives a correct notion of the mysteries of faith4 7b7 ,faith1 being the starting point of all supernatural activities1 must be the norm by which we judge of what we should think and do in the affairs of life2 but1 as it is a simple act of assent 7see #gii7 and as the creatures of the world are a temptation and a snare 7,wis41 xiv4 #aa71 the ,gift of ,knowledge is given1 through which one receives a correct judgment about the things of this world4 ,these then take on a new and fuller significance in the light of the teachings of faith4 #hji4 ,the ,gift of ,understanding must not be confused with the ,beatific ,vision4 7a7 ,a perfect penetration of the mysteries1 which enables one to perceive their essence and causes 7e4g41 the how and the why of the ,trinity71 is given by the ,beatific ,vision2 but such understanding removes all obscurity1 and is therefore insociable with faith4 7b7 ,an imperfect penetration of the teachings of faith1 which does not take away the obscurity and mysteriousness1 is given by the ,gift of ,understanding1 and is therefore sociable with faith4 ,the effects of this ,gift are3 it distinguishes the truths of faith from false doctrines2 it conveys a clear view of the credibility of the mystery of faith against all difficulties and objections2 it gives knowledge of the supernatural import of the secondary truths of faith1 that is1 of those revealed happenings and facts that are not themselves supernatural 7,luke1 xxiv4 #cb72 it gives understanding of the practical aspect of a mystery--for example1 that the intratrinitarian relations of the ,divine ,persons are a model for the regulation of the ,christian life1 in knowledge and love of divine things4 #haj4 ,the ,gift of ,knowledge1 which like the other ,gifts is had by all the just1 must not be confused with sacred knowledge or theology1 nor with the extraordinary gifts of infused knowledge and the charism of knowledge4 7a7 ,the ,gift of ,knowledge resembles theology in that it reproduces objectively what reason does when it argues from the visible world to the invisible ,creator2 but1 while subjectively theology is the result of study in which one passes successively from premise to conclusion4 ,knowledge is the result of a divine light that may be found even in the illiterate1 and it takes in at a glance all that is contained in a process of argumentation4 ,through this ,gift the wonders of nature1 the events of history1 the arguments of philosophy1 lead one firmly and spontaneously to the ,last ,end and the supernatural realities of faith4 7b7 ,infused knowledge may have for its object things purely natural 7such as truths of philosophy and the ability to speak foreign languages71 while the ,gift of ,knowledge is concerned only with faith1 judging what is to be believed or done according to faith4 7c7 ,the charism of knowledge 7,i ,cor41 xii4 #h7 is a grace given one for the benefit of others1 by which one is able to communicate to them successfully the teachings of faith2 the ,gift of ,knowledge1 on the contrary1 proceeds from the habit of sanctifying grace1 and is intended for the benefit of its recipient4 #haa4 ,to each of the ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost correspond ,beatitudes and ,fruits 7see #aei74 7a7 ,to the ,gift of ,understanding corresponds the ,sixth ,beatitude3 8,blessed are the pure of heart1 for they shall see ,god40 ,for by ,understanding the mind is pure from wrong ideas of truth1 and sees that ,god is above all that the intellect can comprehend4 ,the two fruits that proceed from ,understanding are faith 7i4e41 conviction about revealed truth7 and ultimately joy1 in union with ,god through charity4 7b7 ,to the ,gift of ,knowledge corresponds the ,third ,beatitude3 8,blessed are they that mourn1 for they shall be comforted40 ,for by ,knowledge one judges rightly about created things1 grieves over the wrong use made of them1 and is comforted when they are turned to their proper end4 ,art4 #b3 ,,the ,,sins ,,against ,,faith 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #aj-ae47 #hab4 ,the sins against faith can all be reduced to four heads3 7a7 sins of unbelief 7see #hac-hhf71 which are opposed to the internal act of faith2 7b7 sins of blasphemy 7see #hhg-ijc71 which are opposed to the external act of faith2 7c7 sins of ignorance 7see #ijd-iaa71 which are opposed to the ,gift of ,knowledge2 7d7 sins of blindness and dullness 7#iab71 which are opposed to the ,gift of ,understanding4 #hac4 ,the ,sin of ,unbelief4--,unbelief in general is a want of faith4 ,it is of two kinds1 negative and positive4 7a7 ,negative unbelief is the absence of faith in a person who has never heard of it at all1 or only insufficiently4 ,thus1 the ,indians in ,america before the coming of ,christian missionaries were negative unbelievers4 ,this kind of unbelief is a punishment1 since it results from original sin2 but it is not a sin itself1 and those who die in negative unbelief are lost1 not on account of this1 but on account of sins against the natural law 7,john1 xv4 #bb2 ,rom41 x4 #ad74 ,with this kind of unbelief we are not here concerned4 7b7 ,positive unbelief is the absence of faith in one who has heard it sufficiently1 so that the lack of it is due to his own fault4 ,this kind of unbelief is1 of course1 a sin1 for it supposes that one is acting against the light one has received4 #had4 ,positive unbelief is either a refusal or a renouncement of faith4 7a7 ,ordinary unbelief is a refusal of faith1 that is1 non-acceptance of faith by one who has never had faith2 7b7 apostasy1 or desertion1 is the abandonment of faith by one who formerly accepted it4 ,this is not a distinct kind of unbelief1 since1 like ordinary unbelief1 it has for its object or term the denial of revealed truth2 but it is an aggravating circumstance of unbelief 7,,ii ,peter1 ii4 #ba74 #hae4 ,the sin of unbelief is1 committed either directly or indirectly4 7a7 ,it is committed directly1 when one rejects what pertains to faith 7its acts1 objects or motive72 7b7 it is committed indirectly1 when one guiltily places oneself or others in the occasion or danger of unbelief4 ,the dangers against faith will be considered after the sins of unbelief 7see #hdh-hhf74 #haf4 ,direct sins of unbelief are those opposed to the elements that belong to the nature of faith and that are contained in its definition 7see #gea1 #gih74 7a7 ,opposed to the act of assent are sins of non-assent or dissent 7see #hag-hci72 7b7 opposed to the certitude and firmness of assent are sins of doubt 7#hdj-hdf72 7c7 opposed to the right object of faith are sins of credulity 7#hdg72 7d7 opposed to the motive of faith is rationalism 7#hdg74 #hag4 ,sins of non-assent are those by which one omits to make an act of faith when one should4 ,this kind of sin will be treated when we come to the commandments of faith as to its internal and external acts 7see #ibe sqq47 #hah4 ,sins of dissent are sins of commission1 and are of two kinds3 7a7 privative unbelief1 which is the want of faith in one who has heard the faith sufficiently and should realize the obligation of embracing it1 but who refuses to believe1 although he makes no opposition to faith2 7b7 contrary unbelief1 which is the want of faith in one who has heard the faith and its motives of credibility sufficiently to know the duty of embracing it1 and who not only refuses to believe1 but even accepts the errors opposed to faith4 #hai4 ,what is the gravity of sins of dissent1 doubt1 and rationalism8 7a7 ,from their nature1 these sins are always mortal1 for they refuse to ,god the homage of the intellect and will that is due ,him1 deprive man of the beginning of spiritual life1 and lead to eternal condemnation 7,mark1 xvi4 #af74 7b7 ,from their circumstances1 these and other sins against faith may be venial 7see #ahj-ahd74 ,thus1 if a man refuses to believe or accepts error1 not having sufficient knowledge of his obligation or not fully consenting to the sin1 his fault is venial subjectively or formally4 #hbj4 ,are sins against faith more serious than all other kinds of sin8 7a7 ,from their nature1 sins against faith are worse than sins against the moral virtues1 for the former offend directly against ,god ,himself1 but not so the latter4 ,hatred of ,god1 however1 is a greater sin than sins of unbelief1 as will be shown when we treat of sins against charity4 7b7 ,from their circumstances1 sins against faith may be less serious than sins against the moral virtues4 ,example3 ,a venial sin against faith is less serious than a mortal sin against justice4 #hba4 ,with regard to the effect of sins against faith on good acts it should be noted3 7a7 an unbeliever is able to perform works that are ethically or naturally good 7,rom41 ii4 #ad71 and the ,church has condemned the opposite teaching of ,baius 7,denzinger1 ,enchiridion1 n4 #ajbe74 7b7 an unbeliever is not able to perform works that are supernaturally good and meritorious 7see #aab74 #hbb4 ,contrary unbelief 7see #hah71 which not only refuses to believe but also assents to contrary errors1 has three degrees according to the greater or less number of truths denied or errors admitted in these three degrees4 ,some theologians see different species of unbelief1 while other theologians regard them as only accidental modes or circumstances of the one species of sin4 7a7 ,the most extensive denial of faith is found in infidelity1 which rejects both ,christ and ,his revelation4 ,to this form of unbelief belong atheism1 agnosticism1 pantheism1 paganism1 polytheism1 animism1 and denials of ,christ and ,christianity4 ,the chief religious bodies today that profess such errors are3 ,confucianism1 ,taoism and ,shintoism 7founded in ,china and ,japan71 which are polytheistic and practise idolatry and ancestor worship2 ,brahmanism 7founded about #ad centuries before ,christ71 which is polytheistic or animistic3 ,buddhism 7founded #fth century ,b4,c4 in ,india71 which is polytheistic and practises idolatry2 ,zoroastrianism 7founded in ,persia about the #gth century ,b4,c471 which is dualistic2 ,mohammedanism 7founded in ,arabia in the #fth century ,a4,d471 which makes ,mohammed and his religion superior to ,christ and ,christianity1 and rejects the ,trinity and the ,incarnation4 7b7 ,a less complete departure from faith is found when ,christ and ,his revelation are accepted as contained in the figures and prophecies of the ,old ,testament1 but rejected in their fulfillment and development in ,jesus and the ,new ,testament4 ,this is the error of ,judaism1 which today has about #ae million adherents4 7c7 ,a still smaller degree of rejection of faith exists when ,christ is recognized as leader and teacher1 but not all of ,his revelation is accepted4 ,this kind of error is called heresy1 and those bodies which profess it are known as sects4 ,the chief heresies in times past were ,gnosticism and ,manicheism in the first centuries2 ,arianism and ,macedonianism in the fourth century2 ,nestorianism1 ,monophysism and ,pelagianism in the fifth century2 ,monothelism in the seventh century2 ,iconoclasm in the eighth century2 ,photianism in the ninth century2 ,albigensianism in the eleventh century2 ,waldensianism in the twelfth century2 ,wicliffism in the fourteenth century2 ,hussism in the fifteenth century2 ,protestantism in the sixteenth century1 and ,modernism in the twentieth century4 ,today1 the erring ,christian groups outside the ,church are the ,orientals1 called ,orthodox1 and the ,protestants4 #hbc4 ,since error is not consistent1 false teachings are found that accept all the above-mentioned degrees of unbelief1 or borrow impartially from all4 7a7 ,indifferentism or ,latitudinarianism holds that all forms of religion are equally true1 and that it makes no difference whether one is ,buddhist1 ,jew or ,christian4 ,in a modified form1 ,indifferentism teaches that any form of ,christian belief1 provided it suits the inclinations of the individual concerned1 may be followed1 and hence it is left to each one to decide whether he prefers ,catholicism or one of the bodies of the ,orthodox ,church or of ,protestantism4 ,many who profess a denominational creed or confession are ,indifferentists in belief4 7b7 ,syncretism holds that there are truths in all separate religions1 but that none of them has all the truth1 and hence that one must select what is good from each1 rejecting the evil4 ,thus1 the ,judaizers of the first century borrowed from ,judaism1 the ,gnostics and ,manicheans from paganism1 while today ,freemasonry1 ,theosophy1 ,christian ,science and ,spiritism accept1 along with the ,gospel1 ancient pagan1 ,buddhistic1 ,brahmanistic and ,mohammedan theories2 finally1 ,mormonism endeavors to unite characteristics of the ,old and the ,new ,testament dispensations4 ,in a restricted form1 religious ,syncretism teaches the doctrine of ,pan-,christianism--that is1 that truth is scattered among the various ,christian denominations1 and that all should confederate as equals on the basis of more important doctrines to be agreed on by all4 #hbd4 ,what is the order of gravity in unbelief1 as between infidelity1 ,judaism1 heresy8 7a7 ,the gravity of a sin against faith is to be determined primarily from the subjective resistance made to faith1 so that he sins more against the light to whom greater light was given4 ,the sin of unbelief in one who has received the ,gospel 7heresy71 is greater than the same sin in one who has accepted only the ,old ,testament 7,judaism72 in one who has received the revelation of the ,old ,testament 7,judaism7 the sin of unbelief is more serious than the same sin in one who has not received that revelation 7infidelity74 7b7 ,the gravity of unbelief is measured secondarily from the objective opposition of error to truth1 so that he is farther away from faith who is farther away from ,christ and the ,gospel4 ,thus1 a ,buddhist denies ,christian truths more radically than a ,jew1 and a ,jew more radically than a ,protestant4 ,hence1 of three apostates1 one to ,protestantism1 another to ,judaism and a third to ,buddhism1 the second sins more grievously than the first1 the third more grievously than the second4 #hbe4 ,if we leave out of consideration the radical truth of divine revelation 7formal object of faith71 it is possible that a heretic1 in spite of his acceptance of ,christ and the scriptures1 should be farther away objectively from faith than an infidel--that is1 that he should deny more revealed truths 7material objects of faith74 ,thus1 the ,manicheans called themselves followers and disciples of ,christ1 but their teaching on ,god contains more errors than does the doctrine of many pagans4 #hbf4 ,heresy4--,heresy is defined as 8an error manifestly opposed to faith and assented to obstinately by one who had sincerely embraced the faith of ,christ40 7a7 ,it is called 8error10 that is1 positive assent given to error1 or dissent from truth4 ,hence1 those who merely act or speak as if they do not believe1 but who internally do believe1 are not heretics1 although in the external forum they may fall under the presumption of heresy4 ,similarly1 those who have doubts or difficulties in matters of faith1 but who do not allow these to sway their judgment1 are not guilty of heresy1 since they give no positive assent to error 7see #hdb sqq474 ,examples3 ,titus is internally convinced of the truth of the ,church's teaching2 but he attends ,protestant services1 says he does not believe the ,trinity1 refuses to make a profession of faith required by the ,church1 separates himself from obedience to the authorities of the ,church1 and calls himself an independent4 ,by his former external acts he makes himself guilty of disobedience and falls under the suspicion of heresy1 and by his last external act he incurs the guilt of schism2 but1 since internally he does not disbelieve1 he is not a heretic4 ,balbus has doubts before his mind from his reading or conversation1 but he must immediately give his whole attention to a very pressing matter of business1 and so gives neither assent nor dissent to the doubts4 ,he is not guilty of heresy1 since he formed no positive erroneous judgment4 7b7 ,heresy is 8opposed to faith40 ,by faith here is understood divine faith1 especially divine and ,catholic faith 7see #gee74 ,hence1 an error opposed to what one held to be a genuine private revelation1 or to the public revelation1 especially when dogmatically defined by the ,church1 is heretical4 ,on the contrary1 an error opposed to ecclesiastical faith alone1 to human faith1 or to human science1 is not of itself heretical4 ,examples3 ,the ,saints who received special private revelations from ,christ with proofs of their genuineness would have been guilty of heresy1 had they refused to believe4 ,sempronius refuses to believe some ,biblical teachings about things not pertaining to faith and morals and not expressly defined by the ,church 7e4g41 chronological1 physical1 geographical1 statistical data74 ,if he really believes that what he denies is contained in the ,bible1 he is guilty of heresy4 ,balbus admits the infallibility and authority of the ,church1 but he does not believe that a certain ,saint solemnly canonized is in heaven1 that a certain non-infallible decision of a ,roman ,congregation is true1 that certain second lessons of the ,breviary or certain relics are genuine4 ,he is not a heretic1 since1 as supposed1 he denies no revealed truth2 but in his first unbelief he sins against ecclesiastical faith2 in his second unbelief1 if the contrary of the decision has not been clearly established1 he sins against the duty of religious assent2 in his third unbelief1 he sins against prudence1 if he has no good grounds for his opinion1 or against the respect due the ,church1 if he is moved by contempt for its judgment4 ,in a conversation between ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d and ,e1 the following opinions are defended4 ,a thinks that any use of natural knowledge with reference to matters of faith is wrong2 ,b1 that the theologian should employ mathematics and physical science1 but avoid reasoning and philosophy2 ,c1 that the method and principles of ,scholasticism are not suited to our ago or to all peoples2 ,d1 that the psychology and cosmology of the ,scholastics should be remade entirely2 ,e1 that many hypotheses of ,aristotle in physics have been proved false4 ,the opinion of ,a contains heresies condemned in the ,vatican ,council regarding the preambles of faith and the motives of credibility4 ,the opinions of ,b and ,c are at least contrary to the religious assent due the authority of the ,church 7see ,denzinger1 ,enchiridion1 nn4 #afeb1 #afhj1 #agac1 ,code of ,canon ,law1 ,canon #acff1 ,sec4#b1 ,humani ,generis1 n4 #aa-ad74 ,the opinion of ,d1 as it stands1 contains a denial of several doctrines of faith1 such as the immortality of the soul and the creation of the world1 and is thus implicitly heretical4 ,the opinion of ,e is true and admitted by all4 7c7 ,by 8opposed0 to faith is meant any judgment which1 according to the logical rules of opposition between propositions1 is irreconcilable with the truth of a formula of dogma or of a censure of heresy4 ,examples3 ,the ,council of ,trent defined that 8all sins committed after ,baptism can be forgiven in the ,sacrament of ,penance40 ,it would be heretical1 therefore1 to hold that 8no sins committed after ,baptism can be pardoned in the ,sacrament of ,penance0 7contrary opposition71 or that 8some sins committed after ,baptism cannot be absolved0 7contradictory opposition71 ,similarly1 the ,council of ,trent 7,sess4 ,,vi1 ,can4 #g7 rejected the proposition that 8all ,works done before justification are sinful10 and hence according to ,logic the contradictory--viz41 that 8some works before justification are not sinful0--is of faith1 for two contradictories cannot both be false2 the contrary--viz41 that 8no works before justification are sinful0--is not1 however1 defined1 for two contraries can both be false4 7d7 ,heresy is 8manifestly opposed to faith40 ,he who denies what is only probably a matter of faith1 is not guilty of heresy4 ,example3 ,the ,instruction of ,eugenius ,,iv on the matter of the ,sacraments is held by some authorities of note not to be a definition1 and hence those who accept opposite theories are not on that account heretical4 7e7 ,heresy is 8assented to obstinately10 ,this is the distinctive note of heresy1 and hence those who assent to error through ignorance1 whether vincible or invincible1 are not heretics1 if they are willing to accept the truth when known4 ,a heretic1 therefore1 is one who knowingly refuses to admit a truth proposed by the ,church1 whether his motive be pride1 desire of contradicting1 or any other vice4 7f7 ,heresy is held 8by one who had sincerely embraced the faith of ,christ40 ,this includes only catechumens and the baptized1 for others who deny the truths of faith are ,jews or infidels1 not heretics4 #hbg4 ,the sin of heresy 7heresy before ,god71 as just defined1 differs from the canonical crime of heresy 7heresy before the ,church71 since it is more inclusive4 7a7 ,these two differ as regards the error in the intellect1 for one is guilty of the sin1 but not of the crime1 even without error--that is1 if one denies what is really false1 thinking it to be defined doctrine2 7b7 they differ as regards the obstinacy in the will1 for one is guilty of the sin1 but not of the crime1 if one is prepared in mind and purpose to deny a truth not yet defined1 if it is ever defined2 7c7 they differ as regards the truths rejected1 for one is guilty of the sin1 but not of the crime1 if one rejects divinely revealed truths not defined as such by the ,church2 7d7 they differ as regards the person who denies1 for not everyone who merely accepted the faith of ,christ can be guilty of the crime of heresy1 but only those who after ,baptism retain the name of ,christian 7,canon #acbe1 ,sec4#b74 #hbh4 ,various ,kinds of ,heresy4--7a7 ,heresy is positive when error is accepted 7e4g41 the doctrine of consubstantiation72 it is negative when truth is denied 7e4g41 the doctrine of transubstantiation74 7b7 ,heresy is internal1 when it is in the mind alone and not externally professed4 ,it is external1 when expressed in an external way 7i4e41 by words1 signs1 acts or circumstances that clearly indicate present heresy71 if this is done not for a good purpose1 such as that of asking advice1 but for the purpose of professing error4 7c7 ,external heresy is occult1 when it is made known to no one1 or only to a few2 it is public or notorious1 when it is made known before a large number and cannot be concealed4 ,example3 ,one who calls himself a ,catholic and is known as such1 but who in conversation with a few intimate friends declares himself a ,modernist1 is an occult heretic4 ,one who declares in public addresses or articles that he agrees with ,modernism1 or who joins openly an heretical sect or has always belonged to one1 is a public heretic4 7d7 ,occult and public heresy may be either formal or material1 according as one is in good or bad faith4 ,heresy is formal1 if its malice is known and willed by the one in error2 if its malice is not known by him1 it is material4 #hbi4 ,heresy is not formal unless one pertinaciously rejects the truth1 knowing his error and consenting to it4 7a7 ,one must know that one's belief is opposed to divine revelation or to ,catholic faith4 ,hence1 those who were born and brought up in ,protestantism1 and who in good faith accept the confession of their denomination1 are not formal but material heretics4 ,even those who are ignorant of their errors through grave fault and who hold to them firmly1 are guilty1 not of formal heresy1 but of sinful ignorance 7see #ijd sqq47 7b7 ,one must willingly consent to the error4 ,but for formal heresy it is not required that a person give his assent out of malice1 or that he continue in obstinate rejection for a long time1 or that he refuse to heed admonitions given him4 ,pertinacity here means true consent to recognized error1 and this can proceed from weakness 7e4g41 from anger or other passion72 it can be given in an instant1 and does not presuppose an admonition disregarded4 ,hence1 if one sees the truth of the ,catholic ,church1 but fears that assent will involve many obligations and out of weakness turns away from the truth1 one then and there pertinaciously consents to error4 #hcj4 ,examples of material heresy are3 7a7 ,catholics who deny certain dogmas of faith1 because they have not been well instructed1 but who are ready to correct their errors1 whenever the ,church's teaching is brought home to them2 7b7 non-,catholics who do not accept the ,catholic ,church1 but who have never had any misgivings about the tenets of their own denomination1 or who in doubts have searched for the truth to the best of their ability4 #hca4 ,the sinfulness of heresy is as follows3 7a7 formal heresy is a grave sin1 as was said above regarding unbelief in general 7see #hai2 ,tit41 iii4 #aj72 7b7 material heresy is no sin at all1 if the ignorance is invincible2 it is a grave or a venial sin1 according to the amount of negligence1 if the ignorance is vincible4 #hcb4 ,circumstances of the sin of heresy are of various kinds4 7a7 ,circumstances that change the species4 ,most theologians hold that the particular article denied1 or the particular sect adhered to1 does not constitute a particular species of heresy1 and hence that in confession it suffices for one to accuse oneself generically of heresy4 7b7 ,circumstances that aggravate the sin4 ,the facts that heresy is external1 that it is manifested to a large number1 that it is joined with apostasy and adhesion to an heretical sect1 etc41 increase the accidental malice of this sin4 7c7 ,circumstances that multiply the number of sins4 ,it seems that when several articles or defined truths are denied at the same time1 so many numerically distinct sins are committed 7see #bai74 ,example3 ,titus says3 8,i do not accept the ,resurrection1 either of ,christ or of the dead40 ,the act is one1 but two sins are committed4 #hcc4 ,various penalties and inhabilities are incurred through heresy1 for example1 excommunication latae sententiae reserved to the ,pope 7,canon #bcad71 loss of the power of suffrage 7,canon #afg1 ,sec4#a1 n4#d71 irregularity 7,canon #ihd1 n4 #e2 #ihe71 inhability for the office of sponsor 7,canons #gfe1 #gie71 deprivation of ecclesiastical burial 7,canon #abdj1 ,sec4#a1 n4 #a74 ,the excommunication which perhaps had been incurred by those who now wish to join the ,church is absolved according to the form for the reception of converts prescribed by the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office1 ,july #bj1 #ahei1 and found in rituals4 ,rituals published after ,march1 #aidb1 contain the formula of profession of faith and abjuration approved by the ,holy ,office4 #hcd4 ,if a confessor should meet with a case of heresy1 his procedure will be as follows3 7a7 ,if the heresy was merely internal1 no censure was incurred1 and every confessor has power to absolve from the sin1 no matter how serious it was4 7b7 ,if the heresy was external1 but the person was in good faith1 or even in affected ignorance of the sin1 or inculpably ignorant of the penalty1 no censure was incurred2 for the excommunication attaches only to formal heresy1 and contumacity 7,canon #bbdb74 7c7 ,if the heresy was external and formal1 but not notorious 7i4e41 the party did not publicly join an heretical sect71 ordinarily the case should be brought before the bishop for absolution in the external or internal forum4 ,but in urgent cases every confessor has power to absolve as prescribed in ,canon #bbed4 7d7 ,if the heresy was public and notorious 7i4e41 if the party joined officially an heretical sect71 absolution is regularly to be given in both the external and internal forums4 ,the case should be submitted first to the ,ordinary1 unless there is urgency 7,cfr4 ,canon #bbed71 or the confessor has special powers from ,rome4 ,the ,ordinary can absolve in the external forum4 ,afterwards1 the heretic can be absolved by any confessor in the forum of conscience 7see ,canon #bcad1 ,sec4#b47 #hce4 ,apostasy4--,apostasy 7etymologically1 desertion7 has various meanings in theology4 7a7 ,in a special sense1 it means the abandonment of the religious or clerical state2 but in its usual sense it means the abandonment of the ,christian religion4 7b7 ,apostasy from faith in a wide sense includes both partial abandonment 7heresy7 and total abandonment2 but1 in the strict sense1 it means only total abandonment of ,christianity4 ,example3 ,a ,christian who denies one article of the ,creed becomes a heretic and an apostate in a wide sense2 if he rejects the entire ,creed1 he becomes an infidel and an apostate in the strict sense4 7c7 ,apostasy which extends to infidelity is also twofold3 before ,god and before the ,church4 ,the first kind is committed by any person who really had faith1 even though unbaptized or not a ,catholic2 the second kind is committed only by those who were baptized and were ,catholics4 ,examples3 ,a catechumen who accepted ,christianity and asked for ,baptism1 becomes an apostate before ,god if he abandons his belief and purpose and goes back to paganism4 ,similarly1 a person brought up as a ,lutheran becomes an apostate before ,god1 if he abandons all belief in ,christianity4 ,but the crime of apostasy of which the ,church takes cognizance is the desertion of ,christianity by a baptized ,catholic4 7d7 ,a ,catholic apostatizes from ,christianity1 either privatively 7by merely renouncing all belief in ,christ71 or contrarily 7by taking up some form of unbelief1 such as indifferentism or free thought1 or by joining some infidel sect1 such as ,mohammedanism or ,confucianism74 #hcf4 ,what was said above regarding the gravity1 divisions1 penalties and absolution of heresy1 can be applied also to apostasy4 #hhg4 ,as to the comparative gravity of sins of apostasy1 the following should be noted4 7a7 ,apostasy is not a species of sin distinct from heresy1 since both are essentially the same in malice1 being rejections of the authority of divine revelation2 but it is a circumstance that aggravates the malice of unbelief1 since it is more sweeping than heresy 7see #hbb1 #hbd74 7b7 ,apostasy into one form of infidelity is not specifically different from apostasy into another1 but the form of infidelity is an aggravating or extenuating circumstance4 ,example3 ,paganism is further from faith than ,mohammedanism2 atheism further than paganism4 #hch4 ,could one ever have a just reason for abandoning the ,catholic ,church or remaining outside its faith8 7a7 ,objectively speaking1 there can never be a just cause for giving up ,catholicism or for refusing to embrace it4 ,for the ,catholic ,church is the only true ,church1 and it is the will of ,christ that all should join it4 7b7 ,subjectively speaking1 there may be a just cause for leaving or not entering the ,church1 namely1 the fact that a person1 ignorant in this matter but in good faith1 believes that the ,catholic ,church is not the true ,church4 ,for one is obliged to follow an erroneous conscience1 and1 if the error is invincible1 one is excused from sin 7see #eha-ehc74 ,examples3 ,a ,protestant taught to believe that the teachings of the ,church are idolatrous1 superstitious and absurd1 is not blamed for not accepting them4 ,a ,catholic1 poorly instructed in religion and thrown in with non-,catholic and anti-,catholic associates1 might become really persuaded1 and without sinning against faith itself1 that it was his duty to become a ,protestant4 #hci4 ,apostasy is committed not only by those who leave the ,church and join some contrary religion 7e4g41 ,mormonism71 but also by those who1 while professing to be ,catholics1 assent to the non-,catholic principles of some society that claims to be philosophical1 charitable1 economic1 patriotic1 etc4 ,much more are those apostates who join societies that openly conspire against the ,church4 ,such are3 7a7 ,societies that are really non-,catholic sects1 because they have an infidel or heretical creed--e4g41 ,freemasonry 7which1 according to its own authorities1 is a brotherhood based on ,egyptian mysteries and claiming superiority to ,christianity71 ,theosophy 7which is a conglomeration of nonsensical ideas about the ,deity1 ,christ and ,redemption71 the ,red ,international1 whose aims are the destruction of property rights1 etc2 7b7 ,societies that are anti-,catholic sects1 because their creed is hatred of the ,church--e4g41 the ,orangemen's ,society1 the ,grand ,orient1 the ,ku ,klux ,klan1 ,junior ,order1 etc4 #hdj4 ,the ,sin of ,doubt4--,faith as explained above must be firm assent1 excluding doubt 7see #geb1 #gii71 and hence the saying3 8,he who doubts is an unbeliever40 ,the word 8doubt10 however1 has many meanings1 and in some of those meanings it is not opposed to firm assent1 or has not the voluntariness or acceptance of error that the unbelief of heresy or infidelity includes4 ,to begin with1 doubt is either methodical or real4 7a7 ,methodical doubt in matters of faith is an inquiry into the motives of credibility of religion and the reasons that support dogma1 made by one who has not the slightest fear that reason or science can ever contradict faith1 but who consults them for the purpose of clarifying his knowledge and of strengthening his own faith or that of others4 ,this kind of doubt is employed by ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 who questions about each dogma in turn 7e4g41 8,whether ,god is good071 and examines the objections of unbelievers against it2 but unlike his namesake1 the doubting ,apostle1 he does not withhold assent until reason has answered the objectors1 but answers his own questions by an act of faith3 8,in spite of all difficulties1 ,god is good1 for ,his ,word says3 #8,the ,lord is good to them that hope in ,him1 to the soul that seeketh ,him' 7,lament1 iii4 #be740 7b7 ,real doubt1 on the contrary1 entertains fears that the teachings of revelation or of the ,church may be untrue1 or that the opposite teachings may be true4 #hda4 ,real doubt in matters of faith is always unjustifiable in itself1 for there is never any just reason for doubting ,god's word2 but it is not always a sin of heresy or of infidelity4 ,there are two kinds of real doubt1 viz41 the involuntary and the voluntary4 7a7 ,doubt is involuntary1 when it is without or contrary to the inclination of the will1 or when it proceeds from lack of knowledge 7see #dj-ee on the ,impediments to ,voluntariness74 ,example3 ,indeliberate doubts1 and doubts that persist in spite of one1 lack the inclination of the will1 while doubts that proceed from invincible ignorance lack knowledge4 7b7 ,doubt is voluntary1 when it is according to inclination and with sufficient knowledge4 #hdb4 ,involuntary doubt in matters of faith is neither heretical nor sinful1 for an act is not sinful1 unless it is willed 7see #ii74 7a7 ,indeliberate doubts arise in the mind before they are adverted to and without any responsibility of one's own for their appearance4 ,from what was said above on first motions of the soul 7see #abi71 it is clear that such doubts are not sinful4 7b7 ,unwelcome doubts persist in the mind after they have been adverted to1 and1 since faith is obscure 7see #geb1 #gii71 it is not possible to exclude all conscious doubts1 or even to prevent them from occurring often or lasting a considerable time4 ,from what was said above on temptation 7see #bec sqq471 it is clear that1 if the person troubled with unwished doubts makes prompt and sufficient resistance1 he not only does not sin1 but gains merit4 ,but1 if his resistance is not all it should be1 and there is no danger of consent to the temptation1 he sins venially4 7c7 ,ignorant doubts occur in persons who have not received sufficient religious instruction1 through no fault of their own1 and who therefore regard the doctrines of faith as matters of opinion1 or at least look upon doubts as not sinful4 ,from what was said above on invincible ignorance 7see #cj71 it is clear that such persons do not sin by their doubts4 #hdc4 ,voluntary doubt is entertained either in ignorance for which one is responsible1 or in full knowledge2 in the former case it is indirectly voluntary1 in the latter1 directly voluntary4 7a7 ,the doubts of one who is responsible for them because he did not use the means to instruct himself in the faith1 are a sin of willful ignorance proportionate to the negligence of which he was guilty2 but1 if he is willing on better knowledge to put aside his doubts and accept the teaching of the ,church1 he is not pertinacious1 and hence not guilty of heresy or infidelity4 7b7 ,the doubts of one who is responsible for them1 and not uninstructed or ignorant in faith1 are sometimes positive1 sometimes negative4 ,neither of these kinds of doubt is equivalent to heresy or infidelity in every case4 #hdd4 ,negative doubt is the state of mind in which one remains suspended between the truth contained in an article of faith and its opposite1 without forming any positive judgment either of assent to or dissent from the article1 or its certainty or uncertainty4 7a7 ,if this suspension of decision results from a wrong motive of the will1 which directs one not to give assent on the plea that the intellect1 while not judging1 offers such formidable difficulties that deception is possible1 then it seems that the doubter is guilty of implicit heresy1 or at least puts himself in the immediate danger of heresy4 7b7 ,if this suspension of judgment results from some other motive of the will 7e4g41 from the wish to give attention here and now to other matters71 the guilt of heresy is not incurred1 for no positive judgment is formed4 ,neither does it seem1 apart from the danger of consent to positive doubt or from the obligation of an affirmative precept of faith then and there 7see #ibe71 that any serious sin in matters of faith is committed by such a suspension of judgment4 ,examples3 ,titus1 being scandalized by the sinful conduct of certain ,catholics1 is tempted to doubt the divinity of the ,church4 ,he does not yield to the temptation by deciding that the divinity of the ,church is really doubtful1 but the difficulty has so impressed him that he decides to hold his judgment in abeyance4 ,it seems that there is here an implicit judgment 7i4e41 one contained in the motive of the doubt7 in favor of the uncertainty of the divinity of the ,church4 ,balbus has the same difficulty as ,titus1 and it prevents him from eliciting an act of faith on various occasions4 ,but the reason for this is that an urgent business matter comes up and he turns his attention to it1 or that he does not wish at the time to weary his brain by considering such an important question as that of faith1 or that he thinks he can conquer a temptation more easily by diverting his thoughts to other subjects 7see #beg71 or that he puts off till a more favorable moment the rejection of the difficulty4 ,in these cases there is not heretical doubt1 since ,balbus forms no positive judgment1 even implicitly1 but there may be a sin against faith4 ,thus1 ,balbus would sin seriously if his suspension of assent should place him in immediate danger of positive doubt2 he would sin venially1 if that suspension be due to some slight carelessness4 #hde4 ,positive doubt is the state of mind in which one decides1 on account of some difficulty against faith1 that the latter is really doubtful and uncertain1 and that assent cannot be given to either side4 ,with regard to such a state of mind note3 7a7 ,if this judgment is formed by a ,catholic1 it is heretical2 for his faith1 as he knows and admits1 is the true faith1 revealed and proposed as absolutely certain4 ,hence1 although he does not deny the faith1 he does positively judge that what is revealed by ,god and proposed infallibly by the ,church as certain1 is not certain1 and thus in his intellect there is pertinacious error4 7b7 ,if this judgment is formed by a non-,catholic1 it is likewise heretical1 if the truth doubted belongs to divine or ,catholic faith1 for we are now considering the formal heretic who belongs to a non-,catholic sect against conviction2 but it is not heretical1 if the doctrine doubted belongs only to what is wrongly considered in his sect as divine faith1 or to what may be called ,protestant faith 7i4e41 the official confession of his religion71 for he does not profess to accept his church as an infallible interpreter4 #hdf4 ,the doubts ,we have been just discussing are the passing doubts that come to those who are believers1 or who consider themselves believers4 ,there are also doubts that are permanent1 and that are held by those who class themselves1 not as believers1 but as doubters or agnostics4 ,some of these sceptics doubt all religious creeds1 holding that it is works and not beliefs that matter4 ,this doctrine amounts to infidelity1 since it rejects ,christian faith entirely4 ,others profess ,fundamentalism1 which accepts a few ,christian beliefs and considers the others as optional1 pretending that the true faith cannot be recognized amid so much diversity of opinions4 ,this doctrine is heretical1 since it accepts some and rejects others of the articles of faith4 #hdg4 ,credulity and ,rationalism4--,opposed in special ways to the material and formal objects of faith are credulity and errors about the existence and nature of revelation4 7a7 ,other sins against faith are opposed to its material object 7i4e41 the articles of belief71 inasmuch as they subtract from it by denying this or that article4 ,credulity1 on the contrary1 adds to the material object of faith by accepting a doctrine as revealed when there is no prudent reason for so doing1 contrary to the teaching of scripture that 8he who is hasty to believe is light of heart0 7,ecclus41 xix4 #d74 ,this sin is opposed rather to prudence1 inasmuch as it causes one to neglect the consideration of the reasons on which a prudent judgment rests 7see ,vol4 ,,ii71 and hence it does not destroy the virtue of faith4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 injurious to faith1 since it brings ,christianity into contempt1 keeps others from embracing the teachings of the ,church1 and leads to superstition1 the 8twin-sister of unbelief40 ,examples3 ,sempronia1 who is not well educated1 accepts as matters of faith every pious legend1 every marvellous report of miracle no matter from what source it comes or how suspicious may be its appearance4 ,titus holds many views considered by good authorities as improbable or false1 or as at best only opinions1 but he gives them out as doctrines of the ,church that must be accepted1 or as infallible or revealed teaching4 ,the credulity of ,sempronia is excusable imprudence on account of her ignorance1 if she has not neglected instruction2 but that of ,titus is blameworthy1 for he ought to inform himself better before attempting to instruct others4 7b7 ,other kinds of unbelief are opposed to the formal object of faith 7i4e41 to the authority of revelation as the motive of belief72 for implicitly at least they substitute private judgment for authority4 ,the various systems of ,naturalism1 such as ,deism1 go farther and openly attack supernatural revelation as the ground of belief4 ,some of these systems deny the fact of revelation 7e4g41 ,deism71 others its character 7e4g41 ,modernism1 which makes revelation to consist in the internal experience of the believer71 others its necessity 7e4g41 ,rationalism74 ,these heterodox teachings pertain1 some to infidelity 7e4g41 ,deism71 some to heresy 7c4g41 ,modernism74 ,the great majority of ,protestants nowadays cannot be said to have faith1 declares ,cardinal ,newman1 since they deduce from scripture1 instead of believing a teacher4 ,what looks like faith is mere hereditary persuasion4 #hdh4 ,dangers to ,faith4--,one becomes guilty of heresy1 infidelity1 doubts against faith1 etc41 indirectly1 by placing oneself in the danger of those sins 7see #beh sqq41 on the ,dangers of ,sin74 ,dangers of this kind are partly internal1 partly external4 7a7 ,internal dangers to faith are especially the following3 intellectual pride or an excessive spirit of independence1 which makes one unwilling to accept authority2 love of pleasure1 which sets one at odds with the precepts of faith2 neglect of prayer and piety1 particularly in time of temptation4 7b7 ,external dangers to faith are especially as follows3 literature opposed to religion2 schools where unbelief is defended2 mixed marriages2 association with unbelievers in religious matters2 certain societies4 #hdi4 ,dangerous ,reading4--,there is a threefold prohibition against the reading of literature dangerous to faith4 7a7 ,the natural law forbids one to read or hear read written matter of any description which one knows is dangerous to one's faith1 even though it is not dangerous to others and not forbidden by the law of the ,church4 ,for a similar reason one may not keep such material in one's possession4 ,example3 ,titus and ,balbus read the letters of a friend on ,evolution4 ,titus finds nothing unsound in the letters1 and is not troubled by reading them2 but they fill the mind of ,balbus with doubts and perplexities1 as the subject is above him4 ,this reading is naturally dangerous for ,balbus1 but not for ,titus4 7b7 ,the law of the ,church forbids the use of certain kinds of writings or representations dangerous to faith 7,canon #acii71 as well as of those individual writings that have been denounced to the ,holy ,see and placed on the ,index1 or forbidden by other ecclestiastical authorities4 7,see ,appendix ,i for ,summary of ,common ,law on ,prohibition of ,books47 7c7 ,the law of the ,church also pronounces ipso facto excommunication against those who make use of works written by unbelievers in favor of their errors 7,canon #bcah74 #hej4 ,as regards the kind of sin committed by using writings dangerous to faith1 the following points must be noted3 7a7 ,if a writing is dangerous and forbidden under natural law1 the sin committed is of itself grave whenever the danger itself is serious and proximate2 it is venial1 when the danger is slight or remote4 ,the sin committed depends1 therefore1 not on the time spent in reading or the number of pages covered1 but on the danger 7see #bfj-bfa1 on the ,dangers of ,sin74 ,no sin at all is committed1 if the danger is slight or remote1 and there is reason for reading the writing in question 7e4g41 the defense of truth74 7b7 ,if the writing is forbidden under ecclesiastical law1 the sin committed is of itself grave1 even though the danger to an individual is not serious or proximate1 for the law is based on the presumption of a common and great danger 7see #dfj74 ,the sin is not grave1 however1 when the prohibition is generally regarded as not binding under grave sin1 or when the use made of the writing is inconsiderable4 ,no sin at all is committed1 if one has obtained the necessary permission to read forbidden works1 and is not exposed to spiritual danger in using the permission4 #hea4 ,there are two cases in which the use of writings forbidden by the ,church is only a venial sin4 7a7 ,when a writing1 which in itself is not dangerous or only slightly dangerous1 is forbidden1 not on account of its contents1 but only on account of its lack of ecclesiastical approval1 it is not ordinarily regarded as forbidden under grave sin 7e4g41 ,catholic ,translations of scripture that have not received the ,imprimatur74 7b7 ,when a writing has been condemned on account of its contents or manner of presentation1 one does not sin mortally1 if the use one makes of it is only slight4 #heb4 ,what constitutes notable use of forbidden matter is not determined by law1 but recent moralists1 bearing in mind the character of the law and what would prove proximately dangerous to faith for the generality today1 offer the following rules3 7a7 notable matter in reading a book is three or four pages from the more dangerous parts1 from thirty to sixty pages from the slightly dangerous parts2 7b7 notable matter in reading a paper or periodical is habitual use of it1 or even one very bitter article2 7c7 notable matter in retention of forbidden writings is a period in excess of the reasonable time 7say1 a month7 for securing permission or for delivering the writings to those who have a right to have them4 #hec4 ,it is more difficult to decide what is notable matter1 when a book has been condemned on account of its general tendency4 7a7 ,under the natural law1 of course1 even a page or less is notable matter1 if it places an individual in proximate danger2 7b7 under the positive law1 perhaps anything in excess of one-tenth of the book would place one in proximate danger4 ,but1 as we are dealing now with the general tendency of a writing1 this may have its effect on the reader before he has read one-tenth1 if the book is large1 or the treatment is very seductive4 ,hence1 8one-tenth0 is an approximation1 rather than a rule4 #hed4 ,the kinds of printed matter forbidden by the ,code 7,canon #acii7 are as follows3 7a7 the prohibition extends to books1 to other published matter 7such as magazines and newspapers71 and to illustrations that attack religion and what are called 8holy pictures0 7i4e41 images of our ,lord and the ,saints71 if opposed to the mind of the ,church2 7b7 the prohibition extends to published matter dangerous to faith1 and therefore to the following2 to writings or caricatures that attack the existence of ,god1 miracles or other foundations of natural or revealed religion1 ,catholic dogma1 worship or discipline1 the ecclesiastical hierarchy as such1 or the clerical or religious state2 to those that defend heresy1 schism1 superstition1 condemned errors1 subversive societies1 or suicide1 duelling1 divorce2 to non-,catholic publications of the ,bible and to non-,catholic works on religion that are not clearly free from opposition to ,catholic faith2 to liturgical works that do not agree with the authentic texts2 to books that publish apocryphal indulgences and to printed images of holy persons that would be the occasion of error 7e4g41 the representation of the ,holy ,ghost in human form74 #hee4 ,the mere presence1 however1 of condemned matter in a writing does not cause it to fall under prohibition4 7a7 ,some works are not forbidden unless the author's purpose to teach error or attack the truth is known4 ,hence1 books on religion written by non-,catholics which contain errors against the ,catholic ,faith are not forbidden1 unless they deal with religion ex professo 7i4e41 not incidentally or cursorily1 but clearly for the purpose of teaching74 ,it is not necessary1 however1 that religion be the main theme of the book1 ,similarly1 books that attack religion are forbidden1 not when attacks are casual or by the way1 but when they are made purposely2 and the same is true as regards books that insult the clerical state4 ,the purpose is recognized from the declaration of the author1 from the nature of the work1 from the systematic treatment1 length or frequency of argumentation or attack1 etc4 7b7 ,other works are not forbidden1 unless they contain not only agreement with error1 but also argument in defense of error4 ,thus1 books in favor of heresy1 schism1 suicide1 duelling1 divorce1 ,freemasonry1 etc41 are forbidden when they champion wrong causes by disputing in their behalf4 7c7 ,other works are forbidden1 not because they state1 but because they approve of error4 ,such are books that attack or ridicule the foundations of religion or the dogmas of faith1 those that disparage worship1 those that are subversive of discipline1 those that defend proscribed propositions1 those that teach and favor superstition1 etc4 #hef4 ,books that deal with religion ex professo 7i4e41 of set purpose71 or obiter 7i4e41 incidentally71 are as follows3 7a7 ,books that are ex professo religious are manuals of theology1 works of sermons1 treatises on the ,bible1 instructions on religious duties1 works of piety1 text-books of church history4 ,works of a profane character1 such as scientific books1 may also teach religion ex professo1 but it is not easy as a rule to perceive the intention of teaching religion in works of this kind4 7b7 ,books that deal with religion only obiter are works of a profane character1 in which the subject of religion is introduced only briefly 7e4g41 by way of illustration74 #heg4 ,books dealing ex professo with religion and written by non-,catholics are3 7a7 forbidden1 if they contain matter contrary to ,catholic faith2 7b7 not forbidden1 if it is clear to one 7e4g41 from a competent review7 that they contain nothing contrary to ,catholic faith4 #heh4 ,how is one to know in a particular case whether a book falls under one of the foregoing classes forbidden by the ,code8 7a7 ,if the ,holy ,see has made a declaration1 the matter is of course clear2 7b7 if no declaration has been made1 and one is competent to judge for oneself1 one may read as much as is necessary to decide whether the book is one of those proscribed by the ,code2 but if a person has not received the education that would fit him for judging1 he should consult some person more skilled than himself1 such as his parish priest or confessor4 #hei4 ,is it lawful to read newspapers1 magazines1 or reference works 7such as encyclopedias71 which contain some articles contrary to faith1 and others that are good or indifferent1 if these papers or books have not been condemned8 7a7 ,if the reading or consultation1 on account of one's individual character1 will subject one to grave temptations1 then according to natural law it should be avoided4 7b7 ,if there is no serious danger or temptation1 but the policy of the works or journals in question is anti-religious or anti-,catholic1 as appears from the space given to hostile attack1 their frequency or bitterness of spirit1 then1 according to the law of the ,code just mentioned1 one should avoid such reading matter4 ,examples of this kind of literature are papers devoted to atheistic or bolshevistic propaganda1 anti-,catholic sheets1 etc4 7c7 ,if there is no danger to the individual1 and the editorial policy is not hostile1 one may use such matter as is good and useful1 while passing over any elaborate or systematic attack on truth or defense of error4 #hfj4 ,individual books are forbidden by name to all ,catholics by the ,holy ,see and to their own subjects by ,ordinaries and other local or particular councils 7,canon #acie74 ,books condemned by the ,apostolic ,see must be considered as forbidden everywhere and in whatsoever language they may be translated into 7,canon #acif74 7a7 ,if a book is forbidden1 one may not read even the harmless parts of it1 for there is the danger that1 if one part is read1 the other parts will also be read4 ,but1 if the part that occasioned the prohibition be removed1 the prohibition ceases as regards the remainder of the book4 7b7 ,if a work is forbidden1 one may not read any volume1 if all the volumes deal with the same subject4 ,but1 if the volumes treat of different subjects or of one subject that is divisible 7e4g41 universal history71 one may read such volumes as do not contain the danger that occasioned the prohibition4 7c7 ,if all the works of an author are condemned1 the prohibition is understood to apply only to books 7i4e41 not to smaller works71 and only to books dealing with religion1 unless it appears that the other kinds of writings are also included2 but the prohibition is to be presumed to include works that appear after the condemnation1 unless the contrary is manifest4 #hfa4 ,some outstanding works that have been condemned are the following3 7a7 ,in ,english3 ,decline and ,fall of ,the ,roman ,empire 7,gibbons72 ,myth1 ,ritual1 and ,religion 7,andrew ,lang72 ,history of ,england 7,goldsmith72 ,the ,roman ,popes 7,ranke72 ,the ,life and ,pontificate of ,leo ,x 7,roscoe72 ,constitutional ,history of ,england 7,hallam72 ,political ,economy 7,mill72 ,happiness in ,hell 7,mivart72 ,history of ,english ,literature 7,taine72 ,reign of ,charles ,v 7,robertson72 ,zoonomia1 or ,the ,laws of ,organic ,life 7,darwin74 7b7 ,in ,french3 ,notre ,dame de ,paris 7,hugo72 ,life of ,jesus and eighteen other works of ,renan2 all the works of ,anatole ,france2 ,the ,social ,contract and four works of ,rousseau2 nearly all the works of ,voltaire2 ,the ,gospel and the ,church1 ,gospel ,studies1 ,the ,fourth ,gospel1 ,apropos of a ,little ,book1 ,the ,religion of ,israel 7,loisy72 all the works of ,jean ,paul ,sartre2 ,la ,deuxieme ,sexe and ,les ,mandarins by ,simone de ,beauvoir4 #hfb4 ,what is meant by 8use0 of forbidden writings8 7a7 ,in the first place1 those 8use0 a writing who read it--that is1 who go over it with their eyes1 understanding the meaning therein contained4 ,hence1 a person does not violate the church law against forbidden books if he merely listens to another read2 although he might sin against the natural law1 and even against the church law1 if he induced the other to read to him2 neither does a person violate the church law1 if he merely glances at the characters1 without understanding the sense expressed4 ,example3 ,titus1 a professor of theology1 has permission to read forbidden books1 and he sometimes reads to his class doctrinal passages from works on the ,index in order to explain and refute errors4 ,balbus examines very carefully the pages of a beautifully printed copy of a forbidden work1 but he understands hardly a word of it1 since it is in a foreign language4 ,neither ,titus' class nor ,balbus are guilty of reading as forbidden by the ,church1 for strict interpretation is given to penal laws 7see #dhe74 7b7 ,in the second place1 those 8use0 a forbidden writing who retain it--that is1 who keep it in their home as belonging to themselves or borrowed from another1 or who give it for safekeeping to another1 even though they are not able to read it4 ,hence1 a librarian who has forbidden books on his shelves does not break the law1 since the books are not his property1 nor are they kept in his home4 ,a bookbinder also who receives forbidden books is considered as excused through epieikeia for the time the books are in his shop1 especially if his customer has the permission to read those books4 ,example3 ,sempronius bought an expensive work and then discovered that it is on the ,index4 ,is he obliged to destroy it8 ,no1 if he does not wish to destroy it1 he may1 if he does not delay beyond a month1 either give it to someone who has permission to keep it1 or obtain that permission for himself4 7c7 ,in the third place1 those 8use0 a forbidden writing who communicate it to others--for example1 those who make presents of works that are on the ,index1 who lend such books to others1 or place them where others will read them1 who read to others passages or write out excerpts for them4 ,it is lawful1 however1 for professors in theological and other classes of sacred science to read from forbidden works to their student body1 if a suitable explanation and refutation exclude all danger4 7d7 ,lastly1 those fall under the law as violators who co-operate in the production or distribution of forbidden literature--for example1 publishers1 owners1 authors1 translators1 booksellers1 printers1 etc4 7cfr4 #igf sqq41 on cooperation in ,worship74 #hfc4 ,the church law on forbidden literature affects all ,catholics not excepted by law1 no matter how learned they may be1 what position they may hold1 or how immune from danger they may seem1 unless they obtain permission to read such literature from the ,holy ,see1 the ,ordinary1 or their regular ,superior 7,canon #adjb74 ,those excepted by law and who do not need to seek such permission are certain prelates and students4 7a7 ,cardinals1 ,bishops1 and other ,ordinaries 7,canon #adja71 and likewise major superiors in exempt clerical orders 7,canon #aih1 ,sec4 #a7 are not bound by the church prohibition of books dangerous to faith2 7b7 those who are pursuing theological or biblical studies may use forbidden editions of scripture1 provided these are correct and complete as to the text1 and contain no attacks on ,catholic teaching in the introductions and annotations 7,canon #adjj74 ,this permission extends not only to seminarians1 but also to lay students2 not only to those who are at school1 but also to those who are really studying outside of school1 such as professors1 writers and those who are preparing lectures or dissertations4 #hfd4 ,when the necessity of reading a forbidden book is urgent1 and the opportunity of asking permission from the ,holy ,see or ,ordinary is lacking1 a person whose duties call for acquaintance with such a book may consider that the law does not bind in his particular case 7see #daa-dag on epieikeia74 7a7 ,a professor1 editor1 critic1 etc41 who had not yet received permission might read a forbidden book1 if1 being called upon to criticize it1 he could not await the permission2 7b7 a confessor1 pastor1 etc41 in similar circumstances could read a forbidden book in order to be able to refute it4 #hfe4 ,those who have received permission to read books forbidden as generally dangerous to faith1 may also read papers and periodicals of the same character1 and they may use the permission given them anywhere1 since it is a personal indult 7see #ddf74 ,the following restrictions1 however1 are understood in the grant of permission3 7a7 ,permission to read1 no matter by whom granted1 does not make it lawful to read what is really a danger to one's faith1 for this 7as explained above in #hdi-hej7 is contrary to natural law4 ,moreover1 those who have received an apostolic indult may not read or retain books proscribed by their ,ordinaries1 unless the indult extends even to this4 7b7 ,permission to retain does not make it lawful to keep forbidden books in such a way that they will fall into the hands of those who have no right to read them4 ,on the contrary1 there is a grave obligation arising from the natural law to prevent such a thing from happening4 ,hence1 those who have permission to keep writings dangerous to faith should not place them on shelves to which there is general access1 or else they should label them as dangerous and forbidden 7see ,canons #adje1 ,sec4#a1 and #adjc1 ,sec4#b74 #hff4 ,according to ,canon #bcah1 the following censures are incurred through the use of forbidden books3 7a7 ,excommunication specially reserved to the ,apostolic ,see is incurred ipso facto by those who offer to the public books1 even of a non-religious character1 written by apostates1 schismatics1 or heretics in systematic defense of heresy or schism4 ,this censure applies1 first1 to the chief causes of publicity of the work--i4e41 to the author who offers it for publication1 and to the publisher and printer 7owner or manager of the press7 who accept it for that purpose--not1 however1 to remote cooperators or helpers2 secondly1 to such chief causes as understand the character of the book1 either from the word of the author or from the contents4 ,it is not incurred1 if the work is not published 7i4e41 if it remains in manuscript1 or is circulated only privately71 or if it is published in other than book form 7e4g41 as a pamphlet1 leaflet or article74 ,ignorance1 if not crass or supine 7see #bg71 excuses from this censure 7,canon #bbbi1 ,sec4#c1 n4 #a74 7b7 ,the same censure is incurred by those who defend the aforementioned books1 either materially 7e4g41 by saving them from destruction7 or morally 7e4g41 by defending1 praising1 or recommending them74 ,ignorance excuses here as in the case of publishers4 7c7 ,the same censure is incurred by those who defend books of any author condemned by name through ,apostolic letters4 ,hence1 the censure does not apply to books condemned by a pontifical congregation nor to books condemned in a ,papal ,letter1 if their title is not mentioned4 ,ignorance excuses here as in the previous case4 7d7 ,the same censure is incurred by those who knowingly keep or read any of the forbidden books mentioned so far in this paragraph4 ,the sense to be attached to the words 8keep or read0 has been given above 7see #hfb74 ,even crass and supine ignorance of law or penalty1 provided it be not affected1 as well as other causes that lessen imputability 7see #dj71 excuse from this censure 7,canon #bbbi1 ,sec4,sec4#a1 #b74 7e7 ,excommunication not reserved is incurred ipso facto by authors and publishers who are responsible for the printing without due authorization of books of ,holy ,writ1 or of notes or commentaries on the ,bible1 even though the text be correct and the explanation orthodox4 ,this censure is not incurred by those who are not responsible for the printing done1 such as typesetters and readers4 ,ignorance1 if not crass and supine1 excuses here 7,canon #bbbi1 ,sec4#c74 #hfg4 ,dangerous ,schools4--,with reference to their danger to faith1 schools are of three kinds3 7a7 sectarian schools1 in which heresy or infidelity is prescribed as part of the curriculum1 and assistance at non-,catholic rites is required4 ,examples are colleges and universities supported by ,protestant denominations1 sectarian ,sunday schools1 ,bible classes2 7b7 neutral schools 7i4e41 schools in which all religious teaching is forbidden and no recognition given to any denomination7 whose spirit and teaching in secular branches is anti-religious or anti-,catholic4 ,examples are non-sectarian colleges or universities in which materialism is incidentally taught1 or in which the faculty are freethinkers or bigots2 7c7 neutral schools in which no positive offense is given to religion or the ,church4 ,examples are public schools in which only the profane sciences are taught1 and care is exercised that neither the text-books nor the teachers shall be irreligious or interfere with the religious beliefs of others4 ,reducible to this category are mixed schools1 that is1 those which are open also to non-,catholics 7,canon #acgd74 #hfh4 ,the danger of the foregoing kinds of schools to the faith of pupils is as follows3 7a7 in the sectarian schools there is danger of heresy or infidelity1 since the pupils are obliged to hear the defense of false doctrine and to join in the services of a false religion2 7b7 in the neutral schools of an anti-religious spirit the danger is the same1 for the pupils must attend courses in which the interpretations given to history1 science1 philosophy1 letters1 etc41 are unfriendly to the faith2 7c7 in the neutral schools whose spirit is not anti-religious1 there is a danger of ,indifferentism that arises from the system itself2 for the very fact that religion is slighted tends to impress the students with the idea that it is unimportant or unrelated to other matters of life1 and this prepares the way for doubt and scepticism4 ,moreover1 since example teaches more effectively than the printed or spoken word1 the neglect or contempt of religion by professors and fellow-pupils in mixed schools is a danger to faith4 #hfi4 ,the lawfulness or unlawfulness of attending or patronizing schools dangerous to faith must be decided according to the principles given above on the occasions of sin 7see #bfc sqq474 7a7 ,if the danger to faith is voluntary1 the use of such schools is not lawful1 for those who are able are bound to seek or provide religious education both in elementary and higher schooling 7see ,canon #acgc74 ,example3 ,in the town of ,x there are good parochial and ,catholic high schools4 ,sempronius could easily send his children to these schools1 but he thinks that certain select schools offer greater social and financial advantages1 and so he chooses them4 ,his conduct is not lawful4 7b7 ,if the danger to faith is necessary1 the use of such schools is lawful1 provided the needed precautions are duly observed4 ,example3 ,in the country district of ,y there is no school except the public school1 and therefore ,balbus sends his children to that school4 ,his conduct is lawful1 but he must see that his children receive religious instruction outside of school4 #hgj4 ,the danger to faith is necessary when there is no ,catholic school1 or none that is sufficient for the needs of individual students1 and their parents are unable to send them elsewhere4 ,in such a case it is lawful to attend a school that is neutral1 but means must be used to make the proximate danger remote4 ,such means are the following3 7a7 religious instruction must be taken outside of school1 as in special week-day classes1 ,sunday school1 home study1 etc42 7b7 special attention must be given to the strengthening of faith on those points that are attacked or slighted in the neutral school2 7c7 parents1 guardians1 or others responsible must see that the reading and the associates of their wards in the neutral schools are good1 and that they are faithful to their religious duties4 #hga4 ,is attendance at non-,catholic schools sometimes unlawful1 even when there are serious reasons in its favor8 7a7 ,it is unlawful1 if the schools are sectarian1 and then no excuse can justify such attendance2 for1 in addition to scandal and cooperation in false worship1 there is present a proximate danger to faith that is not made remote4 ,parents or guardians who knowingly send their children to schools for education in a non-,catholic religion are suspected of heresy and incur excommunication ipso facto1 reserved to the ,ordinary 7see ,canon #bcai74 ,example3 ,titus sends his daughter to a sectarian academy because it is nearer and cheaper than the ,catholic academy4 ,he claims that she is old enough not to lose her religion1 that opposition will make her faith stronger1 etc4 ,titus' arguments are fallacious and his conduct gravely sinful4 7b7 ,attendance at non-,catholic schools is unlawful1 if the schools are neutral in theory1 but so dangerous in practice that loss of faith is practically certain if one attends4 ,example3 ,balbus sends his son to an undenominational university which is regarded as a hotbed of atheism1 and whose students practically to a man lose all religion4 #hgb4 ,absolution should be denied in some cases to those who send their children to non-,catholic schools1 if they refuse to change4 7a7 ,absolution should be denied on account of lack of faith in the parents themselves1 if they send their children to non-,catholic schools on account of their own ideas that are contrary to the teachings of the ,church4 ,example3 ,sempronius refuses to send his children to parochial schools1 because he thinks each one should judge about religion for himself1 and not receive it from instructors4 7b7 ,absolution should be denied on account of the danger caused to the faith of the children1 when the children are sent to sectarian schools1 or when they are sent to neutral schools and sufficient efforts are not used to counteract the evil influence there felt4 7c7 ,absolution should be refused on account of scandal or cooperation in evil1 if1 while the parents themselves are sound in faith and prevent all danger of perversion of their children1 they send them to non-,catholic schools without sufficient reason1 to the grave disedification of others1 or the great assistance of unchristian education4 #hgc4 ,absolution should not be denied in the following cases3 7a7 when the parents have a sufficient reason for sending their children to non-,catholic schools 7i4e41 a reason approved by the local ,ordinary as sufficient74 ,it belongs only to the ,ordinary to decide in what circumstances and with what precautions attendance at such schools is allowable 7,canon #acgd2 for application to the ,united ,states1 see ,holy ,office1 #bd ,nov41 #ahge2 ,council of ,baltimore1 ,,iii1 n4 #aii1 in regard to elementary and high schools4 ,as to colleges and universities1 see ,s4,c4,prop4,fid41 #g ,apr41 #ahfj2 ,fontes1 n4 #dfdi1 ,vol ,,vii1 p4 #cha2 n4#dhfh1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 p4#dje2 also ,s4,c4,prop4,fid41 #f ,aug41 #ahfg72 7b7 when the parents have no sufficient reason1 but there is no lack of faith on their part1 no danger of perversion of the children1 no grave scandal or sinful co-operation in evil4 #hgd4 ,the presence of ,catholics as teachers in non-,catholic schools is beneficial1 since it lessens to some extent the evil influence of such schools2 but there is also the danger that it may cause scandal or create the impression that attendance at ,catholic schools is not necessary4 ,hence1 it has been permitted by the ,church in certain cases but only when danger of scandal or wrong impression is absent4 7a7 ,the secular sciences may be taught by laymen in non-,catholic schools of higher or lower education1 if there is no scandal1 no unlawful cooperation1 and no immediate danger of perversion4 7b7 ,christian doctrine may be taught by priests to ,catholic students of neutral schools1 either in the school building or elsewhere 7as in a church71 and certain priests may be appointed as chaplains for this work 7,sacred ,congregation of the ,holy ,office to ,bishops of ,switzerland1 ,march #bf1 #ahff74 #hge4 ,dangerous ,marriages4--,the following kinds of marriage are dangerous to the faith of ,catholics3 7a7 marriage with non-,catholics1 unbaptized or bigoted persons 7mixed marriages72 7b7 marriage with fallen-away ,catholics 7that is1 with those who have given up the ,catholic religion1 although they have not joined another71 or with those who belong to societies forbidden by the ,church4 #hgf4 ,the danger to faith in the aforesaid kinds of marriage are serious and proximate1 and hence such unions are forbidden by divine law1 as long as the danger is not removed or made remote through the use of precautions4 ,the dangers are for the ,catholic party and the children4 7a7 ,the ,catholic party is in serious danger of losing the faith 7i4e41 of joining the religion or sharing the ideas of the other party71 or of doubting the truth of the ,church1 or of taking refuge in ,indifferentism4 ,for1 if domestic life is peaceful1 the ,catholic may easily be led in time to regard with favor the other party's religion or views2 if it is not peaceful1 the ,catholic through fear or annoyance may make compromises or sacrifices in matters of faith1 or else suffer temptations that could have been avoided4 7b7 ,the children born are in serious danger of being deprived of the faith 7i4e41 of not being brought up as ,catholics71 or of having their faith weakened by the example of parents who do not agree in the matter of religion4 ,if the non-,catholic or fallen-away ,catholic interferes with the religion of the children1 their baptism1 religious education1 attendance at church1 etc41 will be forbidden or impeded2 if that party does not interfere1 there will be at least the example during impressionable years of one parent who does not accept the ,catholic faith or who disregards its requirements4 ,statistics indicate that one of the chief sources of leakage in the ,church today is mixed marriages4 #hgg4 ,dangerous marriages are also forbidden by the law of the ,church4 7a7 ,lack of baptism in the non-,catholic party causes the diriment impediment of disparity of worship 7,canon #ajgj72 7b7 membership of the non-,catholic party in an heretical or schismatical sect causes the prohibitive impediment of mixed religion 7,canon #ajfj72 7c7 unworthiness of one of the parties1 on account of notorious apostasy or affiliation with forbidden societies 7see #ide sqq471 prevents the pastor from assisting at the marriage without permission from the ,ordinary 7,canon #ajfe74 #hgh4 ,no one may enter into any of the dangerous marriages here considered1 unless the requirements of the natural and ecclesiastical laws be complied with4 7a7 ,the natural law requires under pain of grave sin that the danger of perversion be removed1 that no non-,catholic ceremony take place1 and that the ,catholic spouse work prudently for the conversion of the other party4 7b7 ,the ecclesiastical law requires under grave sin that guarantees be given that the requirements of the natural law shall be fulfilled 7,canons #ajfa1 #ajga72 that there be grave and urgent reasons for the marriage 7ibid472 that dispensations from the impediments be obtained1 or permission1 in the case of unworthiness of one of the parties1 to assist at the marriage be granted by the ,ordinary 7,canons #ajcf1 #ajfe74 #hgi4 ,the canonical consequences of dangerous marriages illegally contracted are as follows3 7a7 ,those who knowingly contract a mixed marriage without dispensation are ipso facto excluded from legitimate ecclesiastical acts1 7e4g41 the office of godparent71 and from the use of sacramentals1 until a dispensation has been obtained from the ,ordinary 7,canon #bcge74 ,marriage contracted with the impediment of disparity of worship is invalid1 whether the parties are in ignorance or not 7,canon #ajgj1 ,sec4#af74 7b7 ,catholics who enter into marriage before a non-,catholic minister acting in a religious capacity or who contract marriage with the implicit or explicit understanding that any or all of the children will be educated outside the ,church incur excommunication latae sententiae reserved to the ,ordinary 7,canon #bcai74 #hhj4 ,the prenuptial guarantees required by church law in case of mixed or other dangerous marriages are as follows3 7a7 ,according to the ,code1 no dispensation for mixed marriages will be granted unless the non-,catholic party gives a guarantee that the danger of perversion for the ,catholic party shall be removed1 and both parties promise that all the children shall be baptized and brought up only in the ,catholic faith4 ,there must be moral certainty that the promises will be kept1 and as a rule they should be demanded in writing 7,canons #ajfa1 #ajga74 ,the permission for marriage with fallen-away ,catholics is not granted until the ,ordinary has satisfied himself that the danger to the ,catholic and the children has been removed 7,canon #ajfe1 ,sec4#b74 7b7 ,the pre-,code legislation further required that both parties promise that there would be no non-,catholic ceremony and that the ,catholic promise to work for the conversion of the other party4 ,canons #ajfb-ajfc speak of these obligations1 but do not exact promises4 #hha4 ,remedies against mixed and other dangerous marriages are the following3 7a7 ,before engagement ,catholics should be instructed and encouraged to marry those of their own faith4 ,thus1 confessors can discourage company-keeping with non-,catholics1 parents can provide their children with opportunities for meeting suitable ,catholics1 and1 above all1 pastors should frequently speak and preach to old and young on the evils of mixed marriages4 7b7 ,after engagement to a non-,catholic has been made1 the non-,catholic should be persuaded to accept the ,catholic religion1 if he or she can do this with sincerity2 otherwise1 the ,catholic should be warned of the danger of the marriage1 and the pastor should refuse to seek a dispensation unless there is a really serious cause 7see ,canon #ajfd2 ,,ii ,plenary ,council of ,baltimore1 n4 #ccf2 ,,iii ,plenary ,council of ,baltimore1 n4 #acc74 #hhb4 ,dangerous ,communication4--,mixed marriages are mentioned specially among the communications with non-,catholic that are dangerous to faith1 because marriage is a lifelong and intimate association4 ,but there are other communications with unbelievers that can easily corrupt faith1 the less dangerous being communication in matters that are not religious1 and the more dangerous being communication in religious matters4 7a7 ,non-religious or civil communication is association with non-,catholics in secular affairs1 such as business1 social life1 education1 politics4 7b7 ,religious communication is association with non-,catholics in sacred services or divine worship4 #hhc4 ,non-religious communication is sinful as follows3 7a7 ,it is sinful according to natural law1 when in a particular case it would be a proximate danger of perversion freely chosen1 or an involuntary danger against which one does not employ sufficient precaution4 ,examples3 ,titus chooses infidels and freethinkers for his friends and intimates1 understanding their character and bad influence4 ,balba on account of her poverty is obliged to work in a place where all her companions are unbelievers who scoff at religion and try in every way to win her over to their errors2 yet she is not concerned to arm herself more strongly in faith4 7b7 ,according to ecclesiastical law1 civil communication is forbidden with those who have been excommunicated as persons to be avoided 7,canon #bbfg74 ,such persons are those who lay violent hands on the ,roman ,pontiff 7,canon #bcdc71 or who have been excommunicated by individual name and as persons to be avoided through public decree or sentence of the ,apostolic ,see 7,canon #bbeh74 ,exception is made1 however1 for husband and wife1 children1 servants1 subjects1 and for others in case of necessity4 #hhd4 ,religious communication is sinful on account of danger in the following cases3 7a7 ,if it is a proximate and voluntary occasion of sin against faith4 ,examples3 ,sempronius goes to a non-,catholic church to hear a minister who attacks the divinity of ,christ and other articles of the ,creed4 ,the purpose of ,sempronius is to benefit himself as a public speaker1 but he knows that his faith suffers1 because he admires the orator4 ,balbus chooses to listen over the radio to attacks on religion and ,christianity1 which cause serious temptations to him4 7b7 ,if it is a necessary occasion of sin and one does not employ sufficient precautions against it1 religious communication becomes sinful4 ,example3 ,titus1 a prisoner1 has to listen at times to a jail chaplain1 who teaches that there are errors in the ,bible1 that man evolved from the ape1 etc4 ,titus feels himself drawn sympathetically to these teachings1 but makes no effort to strengthen his faith4 #hhe4 ,communication with unbelievers that is a remote occasion of sin1 is not sinful1 for 8otherwise one must needs go out of this world0 7,i ,cor41 v4 #i74 ,on the contrary1 reasons of justice or charity frequently make it necessary and commendable to have friendly dealings with those of other or no religious conviction4 7a7 ,reasons of justice4 ,it is necessary to cooperate with non-,catholic fellow-citizens in what pertains to the welfare of our common country1 state1 city1 and neighborhood2 to be just and fair in business relations with those outside the ,church1 etc4 7b7 ,reasons of charity4 ,catholics should be courteous and kind to all 7,heb41 xii4 #ad71 and be willing to assist1 temporarily and spiritually1 those outside the ,church4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,paul1 without sacrificing principle or doctrine1 made himself all things to all men1 in order to gain all 7,i ,cor41 ix4 #ai74 ,indeed1 the mission of the ,church would suffer1 if ,catholics today kept aloof from all that goes on about them4 ,the ,church must teach1 by example as well as precept1 must be a salt1 a light1 a leaven1 an example of the ,gospel in practice2 and surely this ministry will be weakened if her children aim at complete isolation and exclusivism4 #hhf4 ,societies that are purely civil or profane--e4g41 social clubs1 charitable organizations1 temperance societies1 labor unions1 that are not identified with any church and are neutral in religion--may be dangerous to faith4 7a7 ,there may be danger on account of the membership1 even when the nature of the society is purely indifferent or good4 ,example3 ,it would be dangerous to faith to join a convivial society whose members were mostly aggressive infidels1 even though the purpose of the organization was only recreation4 7b7 ,there may be danger to faith on account of certain methods or principles of the society4 ,example3 ,a ,boys' or ,girls' ,club whose purpose is to train young people for good citizenship is dangerous to faith1 if it acts as though the natural virtues were sufficient1 or as though moral education belonged to itself exclusively or principally4 #hhg4 ,the ,sin of ,blasphemy4--,so far we have spoken of the sins of unbelief that are contrary to the internal act of faith4 ,we now come to the sins that are contrary to the external act1 or profession of faith4 ,these sins are of two kinds3 7a7 ,the less serious sin is that of ordinary denial of the faith1 that is1 the assertion that some article of faith is false1 or that some contrary error is true4 ,this sin will be treated below in #iac sqq4 on the commandments of faith4 7b7 ,the more serious sin is blasphemy1 that is1 the denial to ,god of something that is ,his2 or the ascription to ,god of what does not belong to ,him4 ,of this sin we shall speak now4 #hhh4 ,blasphemy etymologically is from the ,greek1 and signifies damage done to reputation or character2 theologically1 it is applied only to insults or calumnies offered to ,god1 and is threefold according to the three stages of sin described above 7see #afh74 7a7 ,blasphemy of the heart is internal1 committed only in thought and will4 ,so 8the wicked man said in his heart3 ,there is no ,god0 7,ps4 xviii4 #a71 and the demons and lost souls blasphemed ,god without words 7,apoc41 xvi4 #i74 7b7 ,blasphemy of the mouth is external1 committed in spoken words1 or in their written or printed representations4 7c7 ,blasphemy of deeds is also external1 committed by acts or gestures4 ,the action of ,julian the ,apostate in casting his blood towards heaven was intended as a sign of contempt for ,christ4 #hhi4 ,internal blasphemy does not differ from unbelief or disrespect for ,god4 ,we are concerned here1 therefore1 only with external blasphemy1 which is contrary to the external profession of faith4 ,external blasphemy is opposed to faith either directly 7by denying what is of faith7 or indirectly 7by showing disrespect to what is of faith71 and hence it is either heretical or non-heretical4 7a7 ,heretical blasphemy affirms about ,god something false1 or denies about ,him something true4 ,the false affirmation is made directly1 when some created imperfection is attributed to ,god1 or indirectly1 when some divine perfection is attributed to a creature4 ,example3 ,it is heretical blasphemy to affirm that ,god is a tyrant or the cause of sin1 or that man is able to overcome ,god4 ,it is also heretical blasphemy to deny that ,god is able to perform miracles1 that ,his testimony is true1 etc4 7b7 ,non-heretical blasphemy affirms or denies something about ,god according to truth1 but in a mocking or blaming way4 ,this sin is opposed1 therefore1 to reverence rather than to faith1 and will be treated later among the sins against the virtue of religion 7see ,vol4 ,,ii74 ,example3 ,a person in anger at ,god says scornfully3 8,god is good60 #hij4 ,the nature of heretical blasphemy will better appear1 if we compare it with other kinds of speech disrespectful to ,god4 7a7 ,it differs from maledictions or curses1 7e4g41 8,may ,god destroy you6071 because the one directly offended in blasphemy is ,god ,himself1 while in a curse it is some creature of ,god4 7b7 ,it differs from non-heretical blasphemy1 from perjury and disregard of vow1 from vain use of the name of ,god1 because none of these necessarily proceeds from a lack of faith1 as does heretical blasphemy4 ,non-heretical blasphemy proceeds from hatred or contempt of ,god1 perjury from presumption1 disregard of vow from disobedience1 vain use of the ,divine ,name from irreverence4 7c7 ,heretical blasphemy differs from temptation of ,god 7e4g41 8,god must help me now if ,he can10 said by one who exposes himself rashly to danger71 for1 while temptation of ,god implies doubt1 it is directly an act of irreverence by which one presumes to put ,god ,himself to proof1 whereas heretical blasphemy is directly an act of denial of truth4 #hia4 ,heretical blasphemy calumniates ,god1 either in ,his own attributes and perfections1 or in those created persons or things that are specially ,his by reason of friendship or consecration4 ,thus1 we have3 7a7 blasphemy that attacks the ,divine ,being ,himself1 as was explained above2 7b7 blasphemy that attacks what is especially dear to ,god1 which consists in remarks or acts derogatory to the ,blessed ,virgin1 the ,saints1 the ,sacraments1 the crucifix1 the ,bible1 etc4 #hib4 ,unlike ,god1 creatures are subject to imperfections1 moral or physical1 and thus it is not always erroneous or blasphemous to attribute imperfections to the ,saints or sacred things4 7a7 ,if sacred persons or things are spoken ill of precisely on account of their relation to ,god1 or in such a way that the evil said of them reverts on ,god ,himself1 blasphemy is committed4 ,example3 ,it is blasphemous to say that the ,mother of ,god was not a ,virgin1 that ,st4 ,peter was a reprobate1 that ,st4 ,anthony and ,st4 ,simeon ,stylites were snobbish or eccentric1 that the ,sacraments are nonsense1 that relics are an imposture1 etc4 7b7 ,if sacred persons or things are criticized precisely on account of their human or finite imperfections1 real or alleged1 the sin of irreverence is committed1 when the criticism is prompted by malice or levity4 ,no sin at all is committed1 if one is stating facts with due respect for the character of the persons or things spoken of4 ,examples3 ,to call a ,doctor of the ,church an ignoramus out of anger at a theological opinion defended by him1 would be of itself a serious sin of disrespect4 ,to speak of a ,saint as a dirty tramp or idle visionary1 if the intention is to insult1 is also a serious sin of disrespect4 ,but1 if one were to say in joke that ,st4 ,peter was a baldhead1 ,st4 ,charles ,borromeo a big nose1 the sin of irreverence would be only slight4 ,no sin would be committed1 if one1 describing a religious painting from the artistic standpoint1 called it an abomination4 #hic4 ,heretical blasphemy is expressed not only by sentences that are complete and in the indicative mood1 but also by phrases or interjections1 by wishes1 commands1 or even signs4 7a7 ,blasphemy is expressed optatively1 imperatively1 or interrogatively4 ,examples3 8,away with ,god60 is equivalent to the assertion that ,god is not eternal4 8,come down from the cross1 if ,thou be the ,son of ,god0 7,matt41 xxvii4 #dj71 is equivalent to the statement that ,christ is not the ,son of ,god4 ,the question put to the ,psalmist1 8,where is thy ,god80 7,ps4 xli4 #d471 meant in the mouth of the ,psalmist's enemies that ,jehovah did not exist1 or was powerless4 7b7 ,blasphemy is expressed even by short words1 or by a grunt or snort of contempt4 ,example3 ,to utter the name of our ,lord in a contumelious way signifies that one regards ,him as of no account4 ,the word 8hocus-pocus0 is sometimes used in derision of the ,mass or other sacred rites4 7c7 ,blasphemy is expressed by acts that signify disbelief and dishonor1 for example1 to spit or shake one's fist at heaven1 to turn up the nose or make a wry face at the mention of ,god1 to trample in the dust a crucifix1 etc4 #hid4 ,rules for ,interpreting ,cases of ,doubtful ,blasphemy4--7a7 ,custom or usage is a better guide than etymology or grammar in discovering whether a blasphemous meaning is contained in certain common expressions of an ambiguous character4 ,examples3 ,according to signification the phrase1 8,sacred ,name of ,god10 is harmless and might be a pious ejaculation1 but according to the sense in which it is taken in ,french it curses ,god and is blasphemous4 ,according to signification1 the expression 8,ye gods0 in ,english1 8,thousand names of ,god0 in ,french1 8,thousand ,sacraments0 in ,german1 are blasphemous2 but according to the sense in which they are used by the people they merely express surprise1 and are at most a venial sin of irreverence4 ,the ,english language as a whole is singularly free from blasphemous expressions1 just as ,english classic literature as a whole is singularly free from obscenity4 7b7 ,the dispositions or feelings of the user are a better index of the presence or absence of blasphemy than the mere words1 if the latter are capable of various senses4 ,if doubt persists about the sense of an ambiguous expression that could be blasphemous1 it may be held that no blasphemy was intended4 ,examples3 ,titus1 a good man1 is so annoyed trying to correct his children that he exclaims3 8,why did the ,lord ever send me such pests80 ,balbus1 who is a hater of religion1 answers him3 8,who is to blame if they are pests80 ,since ,titus is habitually religious and ,balbus habitually irreligious1 the question of the former sounds like irritation1 the question of the latter like blasphemy4 ,claudius is a very religious-minded man1 but he meets with a series of calamities which so stun him that he exclaims3 8,i must be only a step-child of ,god4 ,certainly1 ,he cares little for me4 ,why did ,he ever create me80 ,the sentiment seems to be one of grief and wonder rather than of insult to ,god4 ,balbus is very devoted to his mother1 and often addresses her in hyperbolic language1 saying that he adores her1 that she is the goddess at ,whose shrine he worships1 his supreme beatitude1 etc4 ,taken literally1 these expressions are blasphemous1 but as used by ,balbus they are harmless4 #hie4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,blasphemy4--7a7 ,from its very nature 7i4e41 from the importance of the rights it attacks and the goods it injures71 blasphemy is a mortal sin1 since it outrages the ,majesty of ,god1 and destroys the virtues of religion1 love of ,god1 and frequently faith itself4 ,in the ,old ,testament it was punished with death 7,lev41 xxiv4 #ae sqq471 and ,canon #bcbc of the ,code prescribes that blasphemy be punished as the ,ordinary shall decide4 ,it is also a crime at common law and generally by statute1 as tending to a breach of the peace and being a public nuisance or destructive of the foundations of civil society2 when printed1 it is a libel4 7b7 ,unbelief is the greatest of sins after hatred of ,god 7see #hbj74 ,but blasphemy is the greatest of the sins against faith1 since to inner unbelief it adds external denial and insult4 7c7 ,blasphemy cannot become a venial sin on account of the smallness of the matter involved1 for even slight slander or scorn becomes great when its object is ,god ,himself4 ,example3 ,it is blasphemous to say that our ,lord was not above small or venial imperfections1 or to show contempt for even one of the least of the ,saints as such4 7d7 ,blasphemy cannot become a venial sin on account of unpremeditation1 if at the time it is committed one is aware of its character1 just as murder does not become a venial sin1 because one killed another in a sudden fit of anger4 ,example3 ,sempronius has the habit when driving his refractory mules of shouting at them3 8,you creatures of the devil60 ,a priest on hearing this admonishes ,sempronius that the expression is blasphemous4 ,but ,sempronius continues to use it whenever the mules irritate him1 making no effort to improve4 #hif4 ,there are some cases in which blasphemy is only a venial sin or no sin on account of the lack of deliberation4 7a7 ,if there is no advertence or only semi-advertence to the act itself1 the blasphemy pronounced1 unless it be voluntary in its cause 7see #ajb1 #aif71 is not a mortal sin4 ,in the former case1 there is no sin at all1 for the act is not human 7see #cc72 in the latter case there cannot be mortal sin1 for there is no full reflection on the deed 7see #age74 ,example3 ,balbus now and then catches himself humming blasphemous songs that he heard years ago1 but he always stops as soon as he thinks of what he is saying4 ,titus1 coming out of the ether after an operation1 makes a few blasphemous remarks1 but he is so dazed that he hardly knows who is speaking4 ,sempronius makes himself drunk1 foreseeing that he will blaspheme while out of his senses4 ,balbus commits no sin1 ,titus may be guilty of venial sin1 but ,sempronius is guilty of mortal sin in blaspheming4 7b7 ,if there is no advertence or only semi-advertence to the malice of the act1 the blasphemy pronounced1 if it is not voluntary in its cause1 is not a mortal sin2 for one is not responsible for more than one knows or should know 7see #ii-ajj1 on imputability74 ,examples3 ,titus1 a foreigner1 has been taught to repeat certain blasphemous phrases1 whose real meaning he does not suspect4 ,balbus has the habit when angry of blaspheming at his mules1 but he is doing his best to use more suitable language4 ,sempronius unawares gets into a tipsy condition in which he realizes his acts1 but is confused about moral distinctions1 and hence uses blasphemous expressions which he would abhor if he were in his normal state4 ,caius1 a boy1 blasphemes1 thinking that he is committing only a venial sin of 8cussing40 #hig4 ,different kinds of blasphemy must be noted with reference to the duty of confession4 a ,there are three distinct species of blasphemy--non-heretical1 which is opposed to the virtue of religion2 heretical1 which is opposed to religion and faith2 diabolical1 which is opposed to religion1 faith and the precept to love ,god4 ,these species should be distinguished in confession4 ,examples3 ,titus1 angered because his ,patron ,saint did not obtain a favor for him1 ironically turns the ,saint's picture to the wall1 saying3 8,you have great influence with ,god60 7non-heretical blasphemy74 ,balbus in similar circumstances said3 8,i have lost all faith in ,saints0 7heretical blasphemy74 ,sempronia1 ,whose child has just died1 rebels against ,god and calls ,him a cruel monster 7diabolical blasphemy74 7b7 ,circumstances may aggravate the malice of blasphemy4 ,blasphemy that is directly against ,god ,himself is worse than blasphemy against the ,saints2 blasphemy against the ,blessed ,virgin is worse than blasphemy against other friends of ,god2 blasphemy that ascribes evil to ,god is greater than blasphemy that denies ,him some perfection2 blasphemy that excuses itself or boasts is worse than blasphemy that is more concealed2 blasphemy that expressly intends to dishonor ,god is graver than blasphemy that only implicitly intends this4 ,some authors require that aggravating circumstances be mentioned in confession1 but others say this is not necessary 7see ,vol4 ,,ii74 #hih4 ,according to the causes from which they proceed 7see #bej71 blasphemies are divided into three kinds3 7a7 blasphemy against the ,father1 which is contumely spoken against ,god out of passion or weakness1 as when one being annoyed uses what he knows to be blasphemy2 7b7 blasphemy against the ,son1 which is contumely against ,god spoken out of ignorance4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,paul said of himself that he had been a blasphemer1 and a persecutor1 and contumelious1 but that he obtained mercy1 because he did it ignorantly in unbelief 7,i ,tim41 i4 #ab1 #ac72 7c7 blasphemy against the ,holy ,ghost1 which is contumely against ,god spoken out of sheer malice4 ,such was the sin of the ,jews1 who attributed the divine works of ,christ to the prince of demons 7,matt1 xii4 #ca74 #hii4 ,to the ,holy ,ghost are appropriated the supernatural gifts of ,god that prevent or remove sin2 and1 as these can be reduced to six1 there are also six sins against the ,holy ,ghost 7i4e41 six kinds of contemptuous disregard of spiritual life74 ,the expression of this inner contempt is a blasphemy4 7a7 ,man is kept from sin by the hope mingled with fear which the thought of ,god1 as both merciful and just1 excites in him4 ,hence1 despair and presumption which remove these divine preventives of sin are blasphemies against the ,holy ,ghost4 7b7 ,man is kept from sin1 next1 by the light ,god gives him to know the truth and by the grace ,he diffuses that all may perform good4 ,hence1 resistance to the known truth and displeasure at the progress of ,god's kingdom are also sins against the ,spirit of truth and holiness4 7c7 ,man is kept from sin by the shamefulness of sin itself and the nothingness of the passing satisfaction it affords2 for the former inclines him to be ashamed of sin committed1 or to repent1 while the latter tends to make him tire of sin and give it up4 ,hence1 the resolve not to grieve over sin and obstinate adherence to such a resolve are also sins against the ,holy ,ghost4 #ijj4 ,there is no sin which1 if repented of1 cannot be forgiven in this life4 ,how then does our ,lord say that the blasphemy against the ,holy ,spirit shall not be forgiven1 neither in this world nor in the world to come 7,matt41 xii4 #ca78 7a7 ,the sins against the ,holy ,ghost are unpardonable according to their nature1 just as some diseases are incurable according to their nature1 because not only do they set up an evil condition1 but they also remove or resist those things that could lead to betterment4 ,thus1 if one despairs1 or presumes1 or resists truth or good1 or determines not to abandon error or evil1 one shuts out the remedy of repentance1 which is necessary for pardon2 whereas1 if one sins through passion or ignorance1 faith and hope remain and help one to repentance4 7b7 ,the sins against the ,holy ,ghost are not unpardonable1 if we consider the omnipotence of ,god4 ,just as ,god can cure miraculously a disease that is humanly incurable1 so can ,he pardon a sin which1 according to its nature1 is unpardonable2 for ,he is able to bring hope and repentance to those who were in despair1 for example4 ,hence1 we repeat1 there is no sin which1 if repented of1 cannot be forgiven in this life4 #ija4 ,does one arrive at the state of malicious sin or blasphemy suddenly or gradually8 7a7 ,malice in sin 7i4e41 the willing choice of evil by one who is not weakened by ignorance or passion7 is sometimes due to a disorder in the will itself which has a strong inclination towards wrong1 as when long-continued habit has made sin attractive4 ,it is clear that in such cases one does not arrive at blasphemy suddenly1 ,example3 ,titus blasphemes with readiness and without remorse4 ,this argues that he is an adept and not a beginner1 for readiness and strong attachment are signs of practice4 7b7 ,malice in sin is sometimes due to the fact that the will has lost certain protections against sin1 and hence chooses sin readily and gladly1 as happens when a sin against the ,holy ,ghost has been committed4 ,generally1 the contempt of ,god's gifts contained in sins against the ,holy ,ghost does not come suddenly1 but follows as the climax of a progressive deterioration 7,prov41 xviii4 #c72 but1 since man is free and sin very alluring1 it is not impossible that one should suddenly become a blasphemer1 especially if one had not been careful before in other matters4 ,it is next to impossible1 however1 that a religious-minded man should all at once become a blasphemer or malicious sinner4 #ijb4 ,remedies ,against ,blasphemy4--7a7 ,those who blaspheme maliciously should be admonished of the enormity of their sin1 as well as the absurdity of defying the ,almighty 7,ps4 ii4 #a1 #d74 ,prayers and ejaculations in praise of ,god are a suitable penance for them4 7b7 ,those who blaspheme through habit or out of sudden anger or passion should be told that at least they cause great scandal1 and make themselves ridiculous4 ,a good practice for overcoming habit or sudden outbursts is that some mortification or almsdeed or litany should be performed each time blasphemy is uttered4 #ijc4 ,absolution of ,blasphemers4--7a7 ,if blasphemy is not heretical1 no censure or reservation is incurred under the general law1 and every confessor may absolve2 7b7 if blasphemy is heretical1 excommunication is incurred under the conditions given above in #hcd1 and absolution may be granted as explained there4 #ijd4 ,sins of ,ignorance1 ,blindness1 ,dullness4--,after the sins against faith itself come the sins against the ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost that serve faith 7see #hjh73 7a7 against the ,gift of ,knowledge is the sin of ignorance2 7b7 against the ,gift of ,understanding are the sins of blindness of heart and dullness of understanding4 #ije4 ,ignorance 7as explained in #bh and #bdi7 is a cause of sin--of material sin1 if the ignorance is antecedent1 of formal sin1 if the ignorance is consequent4 ,but ignorance is also a sin itself1 in the sense now to be explained4 7a7 ,ignorance may be considered in itself 7i4e41 precisely as it is the absence of knowledge71 and in this sense it is not called a sin1 since under this aspect it is not opposed to moral virtue1 but to knowledge1 the perfection of the intellect4 7b7 ,ignorance may be considered in relation to the will 7i4e41 precisely as it is a voluntary defect71 and in this sense it is a sin1 since under this aspect it is opposed to the moral virtue of studiosity 7i4e41 the part of temperance which moderates the desire of learning and keeps the golden mean between curiosity and negligence74 ,this sin of ignorance pertains to neglect1 and is twofold2 it is called affected ignorance1 if the will is strongly desirous of the lack of due knowledge1 and is called careless ignorance1 if the will is remiss in desiring due knowledge4 ,affected ignorance is a sin of commission1 careless ignorance a sin of omission4 7c7 ,ignorance may be considered in relation to obligatory acts 7i4e41 precisely as it makes one voluntarily incapable of fulfilling one's duties71 and in this sense it partakes of various kinds of sinfulness1 inasmuch as he who is voluntarily ignorant of his duty is responsible for the mistakes he will make4 ,thus1 he who is sinfully ignorant in matters of faith1 will fail against the precepts of that virtue2 he who does not know what his state of life as judge1 lawyer1 physician1 etc41 requires1 will fail against justice2 he who does not know what charity demands of him1 will sin against charity4 #ijf4 ,the malice of the sin of ignorance in matters of faith is as follows3 7a7 ,vincible ignorance of the truths one is obliged to know1 whether the obligation be of means or of precept 7see #cfj1 #ghf sqq471 is a grave sin1 for faith in these truths is commanded under pain of losing salvation 7,mark1 xvi4 #ae1 #af74 7b7 ,the sin committed is but one sin1 regardless of length of time1 and is incurred at the time one omits due diligence in acquiring knowledge1 as is the case with other sins of omission4 ,hence1 he who remains in culpable ignorance of ,christian doctrine for a year commits one sin1 but the length of time is an aggravating circumstance4 #ijg4 ,culpable ignorance regarding truths of faith1 as a distinct sin1 is as follows3 7a7 ,it is not distinct from its cause 7i4e41 negligence71 for ignorance is not a sin at all1 except in so far as it proceeds from negligence4 ,hence1 one would not be obliged to accuse oneself of the sins of omission in regard to instruction in ,christian doctrine and of ignorance in ,christian doctrine1 for these are but one sin4 7b7 ,culpable ignorance is not distinct from its effect 7i4e41 from a sin committed on account of the ignorance71 if the truth one is ignorant of has to be known only on account of some passing duty that must be performed here and now2 for in such a case the knowledge is required1 not for its own sake1 but for the sake of the duty4 ,hence1 ignorance of fact or of a particular law is not distinct as a sin from the sin that results from it4 ,examples3 ,titus knows that he should not take money that belongs to another2 but through his own carelessness he is ignorant of the fact that the money before him belongs to another1 and takes the money4 ,balbus knows that the precept of the ,church on fasting is obligatory2 but through his own negligence he is unaware that today is a fast day1 and does not fast4 ,titus and ,balbus committed one sin apiece4 7c7 ,culpable ignorance is distinct from its effect1 if the truth one is ignorant of has to be known for its own sake2 for in such a case one sins against the virtue of studiosity 7see #ije7 by not knowing something which one should know habitually1 and also against some other virtue by violating its precepts as a result of one's sinful ignorance4 ,truths one is obliged to know for their own sake are the mysteries of faith1 the ,commandments of the ,decalogue1 the ,precepts of the ,church1 and the duties of one's own state4 ,examples3 ,sempronius through his own carelessness does not know the mystery of the ,incarnation1 and as a result blasphemes ,christ4 ,titus does not know that stealing is a sin1 and therefore he steals4 ,in both cases two sins are committed1 the sin of ignorance and the sin that resulted from ignorance4 #ijh4 ,cases in which ignorance in matters of faith is not culpable are the following3 7a7 if one has used sufficient diligence to acquire knowledge1 one is not responsible for one's ignorance2 7b7 if one has not used sufficient diligence to acquire knowledge1 one is not responsible for one's ignorance1 if the lack of diligence is not one's fault4 #iji4 ,sufficient diligence is a broad term and has to be understood with relation to the mental ability of the person and the importance and difficulty of the truth in question4 ,what is sufficient diligence in an illiterate person1 or with regard to a matter of minor importance1 would be insufficient in a learned person1 or in a matter of greater importance4 ,however1 the following general rules can be given3 7a7 ,to be sufficient1 diligence need not be as a rule supreme 7i4e41 it is not necessary that one employ every possible means to acquire instruction71 for even the most conscientious persons feel they have used sufficient diligence when they have employed the usual means for obtaining religious instruction2 7b7 ,to be sufficient1 diligence should equal that which is employed by good people in similar circumstances4 ,thus1 the unlearned who consult the learned or frequent the instructions provided for them1 the learned who devote themselves to study as ordered and who seek assistance in doubts1 are sufficiently diligent4 #iaj4 ,one who has not used sufficient diligence is sometimes responsible1 sometimes not responsible4 7a7 ,a person is not responsible for his ignorance and lack of sufficient diligence1 if he conscientiously desires to have the proper amount of instruction1 and has not even a suspicion that his studies and knowledge are not sufficient4 ,example3 ,titus1 having gone through a very small catechism1 thought that he understood ,christian doctrine sufficiently and had done all that was required4 ,but some years later he discovered1 when examined1 that he was ignorant of many important matters1 and had entirely misunderstood others4 7b7 ,a person is responsible for his lack of diligence and knowledge1 if at heart he does not care to know1 even though no fears or doubts about his ignorance disturb him4 ,examples3 ,balbus always felt religion a bore4 ,at ,sunday school he was daydreaming2 now during sermons on ,sunday he falls asleep4 ,the result is that he has many infidel ideas1 but doesn't know it1 and is not much concerned4 ,caius secured for himself an office1 for which he is unfitted on account of his ignorance4 ,but he enjoys his position so much1 and cares so little about its responsibilities1 that he does not even dream of his incompetence1 and would not try to change things if he did4 #iaa4 ,similar to negligence about the truths of faith itself is negligence about truths connected with faith4 7a7 ,an unbeliever is guilty of negligence when against conscience he fails to pray for light and to inquire or inform himself about the credentials of religion1 revelation1 and the ,church2 7b7 a believer is guilty of negligence if he fails to seek answers to objections against faith1 when thrown much in the company of objectors4 #iab4 ,like to sins of ignorance are the two sins opposed to the ,gift of ,understanding4 7a7 ,dullness of understanding is a weakness of mind as regards spiritual things which makes it very difficult for one to consider or understand them4 ,it is sinful inasmuch as it arises from over-affection for carnal things1 especially the delights of eating and drinking4 7b7 ,blindness of mind is a complete lack of knowledge of divine things due to the fact that one refuses to consider them lest one feel obligated to do good1 or to the fact that one is so wedded to passion that one gives it all one's attention 7,ps4 xxv4 #d74 ,blindness is sometimes a punishment 7,is41 vi4 #aj2 ,wis41 ii4 #ba72 it is a sin when it is voluntary--that is1 when carnal delights1 especially lust1 make one disgusted or negligent as to the things of faith4 ,abstinence and chastity are two means that greatly aid spiritual understanding1 as is seen in the example of ,daniel and his companions 7,dan4 i4 #ag74 ,art4 #c3 ,,the ,,commandments ,,of ,,faith 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 q4 #af47 #iac4 ,unlike the commandments of justice1 which are summed up in the ,decalogue1 the commandments of faith are not given in any one place of scripture2 but they may be reduced to three3 7a7 one must acquire knowledge and understanding of one's faith according to one's state in life and duties2 7b7 one must believe internally the truths of faith2 7c7 one must profess externally one's belief4 #iad4 ,the ,commandment of ,knowledge4--,the first of the foregoing commandments includes three things4 7a7 ,the doctrines of faith must be taught and must be listened to--8,these words thou shalt tell to thy children0 7,deut41 vi4 #f71 8,teach ye all nations0 7,matt1 xxviii4 #ai71 8,he that heareth you heareth ,me1 and he that despiseth you despiseth ,me0 7,luke1 x4 #af74 7b7 ,one must apply oneself to understand what one hears--8,thou shalt meditate on these words1 sitting in thy house1 and walking on thy journey1 sleeping and rising0 7,deut41 vi4 #g71 8,meditate upon these things1 be wholly in these things4 ,take heed to thyself and doctrine0 7,i ,tim41 iv1 #ae1 #af74 7c7 ,one must retain what one has learned--8,thou shalt bind the words of the law as a sign on thy hand1 and they shall be and shall move between thy eyes4 ,and thou shalt write them in the entry and on the doors of thy house0 7,deut41 vi4 #h1 #i72 8,have in mind in what manner thou hast received and heard0 7,apoc41 iii4 #c74 #iae4 ,the means of communicating a knowledge of the faith to unbelievers are as follows3 7a7 ,the remote means is to get a hearing from those who have not the true faith1 and this supposes that one secure their good will through edifying example and charity towards them3 8,be without offense to the ,jews and the ,gentiles1 and to the church of ,god2 as ,i also in all things please all men1 not seeking that which is profitable to myself1 but to many that they may be saved0 7,i ,cor41 x4 #cb1 #cc72 8,let us work good to all men0 7,gal41 vi4 #aj74 7b7 ,the proximate means of communicating a knowledge of faith is the declaration of the faith to non-,catholics who are willing to hear1 through missionaries sent to foreign countries1 ,catholic literature given to those who are well-disposed1 invitations to ,catholic instructions1 public lectures on the faith1 the question box at missions1 etc4 7see ,canons #acej1 #acea74 cooperation with ,catholic schools and publications1 foreign and home missions1 etc41 makes one a sharer in the work of the apostles who are bearing the burden of the day4 #iaf4 ,the means appointed by the ,church for communicating the doctrines of faith to ,catholics are as follows3 7a7 ,for the ,laity4--,from childhood religious and moral training should have the first place in education1 and should not be confined to elementary schools1 but continued in secondary and higher schools 7,canons #acgb1 #acgc74 ,pastors are obliged to give catechetical instructions1 and parents must see that their children attend them 7,canons #acbi-accf74 7b7 ,for the ,clergy4--,aspirants to the priesthood must follow the courses prescribed for preparatory and higher seminaries or houses of studies 7,canons #aceb-acga1 #ehg-eib71 and no one is admitted to ,orders who has not passed canonical examinations 7,canons #iif1 #iig1 #chi1 ,sec4#b74 ,the faculties for hearing confessions and preaching also presuppose examinations 7,canons #acdj1 #hgg71 and no one is to be promoted to ecclesiastical offices1 such as that of parish priest1 unless he is judged competent in knowledge 7,canons #dei1 #adi74 ,the clergy are encouraged to take university studies and degrees 7,canons #achj1 #acgh74 #iag4 ,a person applies himself sufficiently to the understanding of the teaching of faith when he takes care that1 both extensively or in quantity and intensively or in quality1 his knowledge is all that is required of him4 7a7 ,extensively1 the knowledge should be such as to include at least all those truths that have to be known1 because explicit faith in them is necessary2 7b7 intensively1 the knowledge should be more or less perfect according to the greater or less intelligence1 rank or responsibility of the person4 #iah4 ,the truths that have to be known by all capable of the knowledge are as follows3 7a7 ,all must know1 from the necessity of the case 7necessity of means71 that they have a supernatural destiny and that ,christ is the ,way that leads to it2 for one cannot tend to a destination1 if one is unaware of its existence and of the road that will bring one there4 ,hence1 all must know the four basic truths3 ,god our ,last ,end1 the ,trinity1 the ,incarnation1 ,god the ,remunerator 7see #ghg74 7b7 ,all must know1 from the will of ,christ 7necessity of precept71 the other truths to which ,he wishes them expressly to assent1 and the duties1 general or particular1 that ,he wishes them to fulfill 7,mark1 xvi4 #af72 that is1 they must know the doctrine contained in the ,creed1 the commandments and ordinances of ,christ concerning the ,sacraments and prayer1 and the special obligations of each one's particular state or office4 #iai4 ,as to the degree of knowledge that one must possess intensively 7i4e41 as to its quality and perfection71 it is clear that knowledge ought to be more perfect in those who are more intelligent or whose duties call for a more excellent learning4 7a7 ,knowledge of the truths that should be known by all the faithful ought to be of a more developed kind in those whose minds are more mature4 ,a scientific and theological understanding of religion is not required in any lay person2 nor should we expect the same knowledge in a child as in an adult1 or in a subnormal person as in one who is normal mentally4 ,examples3 ,no religious instruction is necessary for an idiot 7i4e41 a grown-up person who has the mind of a two-year-old child71 for such a one cannot reason4 ,a child of seven or an imbecile 7i4e41 a grown-up person whose mentality is on a par with that of a child of seven7 may be received to ,communion1 after such a child or imbecile has learned in a simple way that the ,god-,man is received in the ,eucharist and that it is not common food4 ,a child who is between ten and twelve and a moron 7i4e41 a grown-up who is not mentally such a child's superior7 should receive more instruction than an imbecile4 7b7 ,knowledge of sacred doctrine naturally should be greater in priests than in the laity2 for in religious things priests are the teachers1 the people their pupils 7,mal41 ii4 #g74 ,a mediocre knowledge of theology in a priest is not sufficient1 especially in these days when the laity are educated1 when theological questions are debated on all sides1 and when so many outside the ,church as well as in it are looking for help and light4 ,a profound knowledge of abstruse questions1 however1 is not demanded of all priests in an equal degree3 more is expected of a bishop than of his parish priests1 more of a parish priest than of one who has not the care of souls or office of teaching1 more of one who has to speak to or write for the better educated than of one who has to do these things for those who are less educated1 etc4 ,knowledge should include not only learning1 but also prudence 7i4e41 good judgment and practical ability to use learning well71 for a priest learns1 not for his own sake alone1 but also for the benefit of others4 #ibj4 ,scientific or complete knowledge is not required of those who are not theologians1 as was said about the four basic truths 7see #gij74 ,it suffices for lay persons that they know in a simple way1 according to their age and capacity1 the substance of the truths they must believe4 ,thus1 they should know3 7a7 ,the ,creed4--,one should know about ,god1 that ,he is but one and that there are three divine ,persons1 ,father1 ,son and ,holy ,ghost2 that ,god is the maker of the world1 and that ,he will reward everyone according to his deeds4 ,one should know about ,christ1 that ,he is the ,son of ,god and ,god ,himself2 that ,he was miraculously born of the ,blessed ,virgin ,mary2 that ,he suffered and died for our salvation2 that ,he rose from the dead and by ,his own power ascended into glory and will come again after the general resurrection to judge all4 ,one should know about the ,church1 that it is the one true ,church founded by ,christ1 in which are found the communication of spiritual goods and the forgiveness of sins4 7b7 ,the ,decalogue4--,one should know the general meaning of the ,commandments so as to be able to regulate one's own conduct by them4 ,it is not necessary that a child should know all the kinds of crimes and vices that are forbidden by the ,commandments4 ,in fact1 it is better for such not to know much about evil4 ,nor is it required that a layman should know how to make correct applications of the ,commandments to complicated situations that require much previous study4 7c7 ,the ,virtues4--,one should know enough to be able to apply to one's own life1 for ordinary cases1 what a virtuous life demands4 ,it is not necessary that a child should know the requirements of prudence as well as an experienced person1 or that a layman should be able to settle doubts of conscience as well as a priest4 ,but each should know enough to fulfill what is required of one of his age and condition4 ,both old and young should know in substance the acts of faith1 hope1 charity and contrition2 for to these all are bound4 ,the young should know the laws of the ,church that apply to them 7e4g41 the law of abstinence72 the older people should understand the law of fasting which they are bound to observe1 etc4 7d7 ,the ,sacraments4--,one should know substantially the doctrine of the ,sacraments that are necessary for all1 namely1 ,baptism1 ,penance and the ,eucharist4 ,since all the faithful have the duty of baptizing in case of necessity1 all should know how to administer lay ,baptism properly and fruitfully4 ,when the time comes for receiving a ,sacrament1 the recipient should know enough to receive it validly1 licitly1 and devoutly1 although less knowledge is required in children and in the dying who cannot be fully instructed 7see ,canons #geb1 #hed1 #accj1 #acca1 #ajbj74 7e7 ,special ,duties4--,one should know the essentials of one's condition or state of life and the right way to perform its ordinary duties4 ,children should understand the obligations of pupils and of subjects2 the married1 religious and priests should know the duties of their respective states2 citizens1 the loyalty owed to the community2 officials1 judges1 lawyers1 physicians1 teachers1 etc41 the responsibilities to the public which their own professions imply4 7f7 ,the ,lord's ,prayer4--,the substance of this form of prayer should be known by all1 namely1 that ,god is to be glorified1 and that we should ask of ,him with confidence goods of soul and body and deliverance from evil4 ,though ,christ is the only necessary ,mediator 7,i ,tim41 ii4 #e71 it is most suitable that all should know substantially the ,hail ,mary1 namely1 that we should ask the intercession of her who is the ,mother of ,god and our ,mother 7,john1 xix1 #bg74 #iba4 ,is a person guilty of sin who does not know what to do in some manner that pertains to his state of life8 7a7 ,if he is blamably ignorant of the nature of a state he has undertaken or of the ordinary duties that it imposes1 he is guilty of sin2 for he is1 in a sense1 unjust to himself by obligating himself to what he does not understand1 and to others by promising what he cannot fulfill4 ,examples3 ,a young person who marries without understanding the meaning of the contract1 or becomes a religious without knowing the meaning of the vows1 would be ignorant of the nature of the state embraced4 ,a priest occupied in the ministry1 who does not know how to administer the ,sacraments validly1 how to explain the ,gospels correctly1 how to judge usual cases in confession rightly1 etc41 would be ignorant of the ordinary duties of his office4 ,a ruler who habitually acts beyond his authority1 a lawyer who regularly gives wrong advice1 and a teacher who makes mistakes in the elements of his specialty1 would also be ignorant of their ordinary duties4 7b7 ,if a person understands the nature of his state and his everyday duties1 but is ignorant of recondite points or extraordinary cases1 he is not guilty2 otherwise1 no one could undertake with a safe conscience the office of pastor1 physician1 judge1 etc42 for1 even when a person has devoted a lifetime to a calling1 he has to admit that he finds difficulties or problems that he cannot solve offhand4 ,example3 ,father ,titus gave an incorrect solution about a case of restitution1 because he had to express an opinion at once1 and there were so many angles and circumstances that some of them were overlooked4 #ibb4 ,the means appointed by the ,church for the retention of knowledge in matters of faith are3 7a7 ,for the ,laity4--,the course of ,christian doctrine should not be discontinued with the parochial school or ,sunday school1 but should be continued in the higher schools 7,canon #acgc74 ,moreover1 for adults catechetical instruction is given on ,sundays and feast days 7,canon #accb71 and the people are exhorted to attend sermons on matters of faith and morals that are preached at parochial ,masses 7,canons #accg-acdh74 7b7 ,for the ,clergy4--,the clergy are admonished not to give up study after ordination 7,canon #abi71 and the law requires that the junior clergy should take examinations annually during the first three or five years after ordination to the priesthood 7,canons #acj1 #eij71 and that all the clergy should take part in theological conferences several times a year 7,canon #aca74 #ibc4 ,what has been learned by heart is more easily retained in the memory1 and hence the common practice of committing the ,catechism to memory is to be recommended4 ,some believe that it is obligatory to memorize the ,creed and other points mentioned above 7see #ibj72 but this is unlikely1 since even the form of the ,decalogue and of the ,lord's ,prayer is not identical in different parts of scripture4 ,in the early centuries the catechumens were obliged to learn the ,creed and the ,lord's ,prayer by heart before ,baptism1 but there is no general law that requires this at the present time4 7a7 ,according to positive law1 one is not obliged to memorize the words and order of the ,creed and other formulas1 and it may be considered an indication that a person has retained sufficiently what was learned1 if he is able to reply correctly to questions put to him 7e4g41 to explain the first article of the ,creed by stating the direct and simple signification of its terms1 and so on with the rest74 7b7 ,according to natural law1 one is obliged to learn by rote ithe formulas of faith1 if this is possible and there is danger of spiritual detriment when it is not done4 ,there is hardly anyone who cannot by practice commit to memory the ,our ,father1 the ,apostles' ,creed1 and short forms of acts of faith1 hope1 charity1 and contrition2 and1 if none of them is thus known1 it is practically certain that the grave duty of prayer will be neglected4 ,hence1 it seems that there is a serious obligation of memorizing at least the ,our ,father4 ,feebleminded persons are not obliged to memorize1 or even to know1 the truths of faith1 if they are incapable4 #ibd4 ,confessors should examine in religion penitents who show signs of ignorance 7e4g41 in the manner of making their confession71 and should grant or deny absolution according to the case4 7a7 ,if the ignorance is about the truths that are necessary as a means of justification 7see #gij71 the penitents should be dealt with as explained in #gib4 7b7 ,if the ignorance is about the truths that are necessary because commanded and there is urgent need of absolution 7e4g41 on account of mortal sin committed71 the penitent may be absolved1 if he is truly contrite and promises to repair his negligence by studying his religion1 attending ,sunday school1 instructions1 etc4 7c7 ,if the ignorance is about the truths necessary because commanded1 and there is no urgent necessity of absolution1 the penitents may be sent away without absolution4 ,thus1 children who have no serious sins to confess and who do not know how to say the act of contrition or other prayers1 or who cannot answer simple questions of the ,catechism1 should be sent away with a blessing and told to study these things and return when they know them better4 #ibe4 ,the ,commandment of ,internal ,acts of ,faith4--,the second commandment of faith mentioned above 7see #iac7 is both negative and affirmative4 7a7 ,as negative1 it forbids at any time disbelief or doubt concerning that which ,god proposes for faith4 ,this aspect has been treated above in discussing the sins against faith 7see #hac sqq41 #hdj sqq474 7b7 ,as affirmative1 it commands that one at certain times should give assent to the truths revealed by ,god4 ,this aspect of the commandment will be considered now4 #ibf4 ,the existence of the command that one should elicit a positive act of assent to divine truth is taught in both ,testaments4 7a7 ,in the ,old ,testament1 implicit faith in all scripture was required2 for lawgivers1 prophets1 and inspired writers spoke as delivering a message from ,god4 ,moreover1 explicit faith in ,god and ,his ,providence was commanded 7see #ghh74 7b7 ,in the ,new ,testament1 implicit faith in all revealed doctrine is required1 whether delivered in writing or as tradition 7,,ii ,thess41 ii4 #ae74 ,moreover1 there is a command of explicit faith in the ,gospel3 8,this is ,his commandment that we should believe in the name of ,his ,son1 ,jesus ,christ1 and love one another1 as ,he hath given commandment unto us0 7,i ,john1 iii4 #bc74 #ibg4 ,this commandment obliges adults under grave sin as to all revealed truths4 7a7 ,the primary truths of revelation1 truths of faith and morals to which all are commanded to give assent 7i4e41 to believe explicitly71 are so important that those who refuse to believe them merit condemnation 7,mark1 xvi4 #af74 7b7 ,the secondary truths of revelation--i4e41 those that were made known by ,god1 not for their own sake1 but on account of their relation to the primary truths 7e4g41 the names of the patriarchs1 the size of ,saul1 the complexion of ,david and thousands of similar facts7--need not be known by all1 for that is impossible4 ,but all are seriously obliged to believe that everything contained in the ,word of ,god is true1 and to be ready to give assent even to the truths that are not known4 ,hence1 the minor truths of revelation must be believed under pain of grave sin--implicitly1 if they are not known1 explicitly1 when they become known4 #ibh4 ,the obligation of explicit faith in the primary truths or articles of faith is not grave with reference to every detail contained in those truths4 7a7 ,some details1 on account of their difficulty1 oblige to explicit faith only under venial sin4 ,such are 7in the ,creed7 the descent into ,limbo1 the procession of the ,holy ,ghost1 the mode of the ,communion of ,saints4 7b7 ,other details1 on account of less importance1 do not oblige to explicit faith under any sin4 ,such are the facts that it was ,pilate under whom ,christ suffered1 that it was the third day when ,christ rose from the dead4 #ibi4 ,an affirmative commandment 8obliges at all times1 but not for all times0 7see #cga74 ,hence1 the question3 ,how often or when must one give internal assent to the teachings of faith1 in order to fulfill the law8 ,before answering this question1 let us distinguish three kinds of laws that may oblige one to an act of faith3 7a7 the divine law expressly prescribing an act of faith2 7b7 the divine law prescribing an act of some other virtue1 which presupposes an act of faith2 7e7 human law prescribing something that at least presupposes or includes an act of faith4 #icj4 ,the divine law expressly prescribing an act of faith 7about which we spoke in #ibe71 obliges in the following cases3 7a7 at the time when the commandment is first presented to one1 and one recognizes its obligation3 8,preach the ,gospel to every creature4 ,he that believeth and is baptized shall be saved2 he that believeth not shall be condemned0 7,mark1 xvi4 #af72 7b7 it also obliges at other times during life2 for 8the just man liveth by faith0 7,rom1 i4 #ag74 ,the ,church has rejected the ,jansenistic teaching that an act of faith once in a lifetime suffices 7see ,denzinger-,banwart1 nn4 #aaja1 #aafg1 #abae74 #ica4 ,the commandment of internal belief is brought before one for the first time1 either of one's whole life or for the first time after loss of faith1 as follows3 7a7 ,it is brought before a person for the first time in his life1 when he first hears the truths of faith1 or first realizes his duty of accepting them4 ,examples3 ,a ,catholic child who has just reached the age of reason and has been told in ,sunday school that he must believe the ,creed and other truths he has been taught2 an adult ,catholic who hears for the first time of transubstantiation1 or of some other dogma just defined by the ,church2 a non-,catholic who has just perceived the truth of the ,catholic ,church4 7b7 ,the commandment of internal belief is brought before one for the first time after loss of faith1 as soon as the duty of returning to belief occurs to the mind4 #icb4 ,does this commandment require that1 as soon as the obligation of faith dawns on one1 one is obliged without an instant's delay to make a formal and explicit act of faith8 7a7 ,as regards children1 on account of the imperfection of their understanding1 it can easily happen that they do not perceive that the obligation binds them there and then1 or that it binds under sin1 and thus some time may elapse after the use of reason1 or after knowledge of the command of faith1 before the omission of the act of belief would become a sin4 ,practically every child of ,catholic education complies with the command when1 having learned the truths that must be known1 he says devoutly the act of faith1 either in his own words or according to the form given in the ,catechism4 7b7 ,as regards adults1 while the entrance of converts into the ,church admits of some delay for necessary preparation1 the act of faith itself should not be postponed for an instant1 once the necessity of making it is perceived as certain4 #icc4 ,as to its frequency or the times when the act of faith should be renewed1 there are various opinions1 but in actual life the question presents no difficulty4 7a7 ,as to theory1 the theologians are divided1 some holding that the act of faith should be made at least once a year1 others holding for once a month1 still others for all ,sundays and holydays4 ,there is no solid support for any of these opinions1 and it seems that the time and frequency of acts of faith are not determined by divine law4 7b7 ,as to practice1 the theologians agree that one who fulfills the usual religious duties of a ,catholic1 has also fulfilled the command to renew the act of faith4 ,thus1 those who attend ,mass and receive the ,sacraments1 as the law of the ,church prescribes1 make acts of faith in doing so1 which satisfy the divine law of faith4 #icd4 ,those who omit to make an act of faith in time of temptation against faith1 are also guilty of sin1 if the omission is through sinful neglect4 7a7 ,if the act of faith is the only means by which the temptation can be overcome 7a rare contingency1 outside the danger of death71 one is of course gravely bound to elicit the act4 ,the sin committed by one who would neglect the act of faith in such a circumstance is by some considered as opposed to the negative command1 that one do not dissent2 by others as opposed to the affirmative command1 that one assent to faith4 ,example3 ,caius is very much tempted to blasphemy1 and finds that the best remedy is an act of faith in the ,majesty of ,god4 7b7 ,if the act of faith would be harmful1 as prolonging or intensifying the temptation 7a thing that is not infrequent71 it is better to struggle against the temptation indirectly by turning the attention to other matters 7see #beg1 #hdd74 #ice4 ,other cases in which one is obliged to make an internal act of faith are as follows3 7a7 ,by reason of a divine commandment of some virtue other than faith1 it is sometimes necessary to make an act of faith also4 ,examples3 ,when a sinner is preparing himself for the state of grace1 of which faith is the prerequisite2 when one is tempted against hope1 justice1 etc41 and needs to call on faith to resist the tempter2 when one is near to death and must make an act of charity in preparing to meet ,god4 ,in these cases there are divine precepts of repentance1 hope1 justice1 charity1 and virtually of faith1 which is presupposed4 7b7 ,one must at times make an internal act of faith by reason of a human commandment enjoining some external act or virtue which supposes faith4 ,examples3 ,the command to swear on the ,bible1 or by some mystery of religion1 supposes an act of faith4 ,the commands to receive ,communion at ,easter 7,canon #hei71 to make meditation and spiritual retreats 7,canons #abe1 #abf1 #eie1 #ajja71 to apply the intention of ,mass 7,canons #cci1 ,sec4 #a1 #dff1 ,sec4 #a71 all include virtually the command of an act of faith1 for the things required 7,communion1 retreat1 ,mass7 cannot be rightly performed without such an act4 #icf4 ,the act of faith is either formal or virtual1 according as it is made in itself1 or in the act of another virtue that supposes it4 7a7 ,the act of faith is formal1 when one mentally accepts the truths of revelation on account of divine authority1 even though one does not express the assent in words or according to any set formula4 ,this kind of act of faith is necessary when one passes from non-belief or unbelief to belief1 for none of the acts prior to faith contains supernatural assent to revelation4 ,hence1 the commandment of faith requires in children or in converts from unbelief a formal act4 7b7 ,the act of faith is virtual1 when one elicits the act of some other supernatural virtue without thinking expressly about faith2 for faith is presupposed by all other supernatural virtues1 since one cannot wish what one does not believe4 ,thus1 the acts of hope1 charity1 and contrition are virtually acts of faith4 ,it seems that commandments of other virtues and of the renewal of faith itself do not require that one make a formal act of faith1 although of course this would be the better thing to do4 ,thus1 to fulfill the ,easter precept of yearly ,confession and ,communion well1 it is not required that one make a formal act of faith before ,confession1 since faith is included in the act of contrition4 ,it is not necessary1 then1 that the penitent should say3 8,i believe in the forgiveness of sins1 etc410 for in his purpose to receive forgiveness he makes a virtual act of faith in the tenth article of the ,creed and in the ,sacrament of ,penance1 as well as in the other mysteries of faith4 #icg4 ,practically1 there is no difficulty for confessors about the violation of the commandment regarding internal acts of faith4 7a7 ,if penitents are instructed and practical ,catholics1 they have made at some time a formal act of faith1 even though they do not remember the time1 for the act of faith precedes the acts of other virtues they are exercising4 ,true1 this act of faith may not have been made as soon as the age of reason was attained or the duty of faith perceived1 but invincible ignorance excuses those who were in good faith about the matter4 ,regularity in prayer and other duties is an index that the act of faith is being renewed in such a way as to comply with the commandment4 ,hence1 there is no necessity of questioning this class of penitents about the act of faith4 7b7 ,if penitents are very ignorant ,catholics 7e4g41 young children71 it is clear that they have not made an act of faith as they should1 for no one believes what he does not know4 ,they should1 therefore1 be instructed that it is their duty to acquire more knowledge1 and to make an act of faith along with their other prayers4 ,regarding absolution1 see #ibd4 7c7 ,if penitents are instructed but not practical1 the confession that they have neglected prayer1 ,mass1 and the ,sacraments1 means that they have also neglected the command of making acts of faith4 ,it is not necessary1 therefore1 that the confessor interrogate or instruct them about this command1 and he may absolve them1 if they are resolved to amend4 ,it is well1 however1 to recommend daily acts of faith1 hope1 charity and contrition to careless ,catholics1 especially to those who cannot attend ,mass or receive the ,sacraments often4 #ich4 ,the ,commandment of ,external ,profession of ,faith4--,the third commandment of faith given above 7see #iac7 is both negative and affirmative3 7a7 as negative1 it forbids denial of the faith or profession of error opposed to faith2 7b7 as affirmative1 it commands that one make open profession of one's faith4 #ici4 ,the existence of a prohibition against denial of the faith or profession of error is taught in scripture and the sinfulness of such denial is clear from its nature4 7a7 8,he that shall deny ,me before men1 ,i will also deny him before ,my ,father who is in ,heaven0 7,matt41 x4 #cc74 ,denial of ,christ is a grievous sin1 for it entails denial by ,christ4 7b7 ,he who denies the faith is a heretic or infidel1 if he means what he says2 he lies1 if he does not mean what he says1 and his lie is a grave injury to ,god1 whose truth is called into question1 and against the neighbor1 who is scandalized4 #idj4 ,with reference to its voluntariness1 denial of faith is either direct or indirect4 7a7 ,it is direct1 when one intends to deny the faith2 7b7 it is indirect1 when one does not intend to deny the faith1 but wills to use words1 acts1 etc41 which either from their signification or use1 or from the meaning that will or may be given them by others1 will in the circumstances express a denial of the faith4 ,examples3 ,a convert from paganism conceals a crucifix in the idol of a temple and then joins the pagans in their customary bows of reverence1 while intending only adoration to ,christ crucified and detesting the idol4 ,titus takes off his hat when passing any church1 as a mark of respect for the good they do4 ,balbus1 a convert from ,nestorianism1 recites the names of ,nestorius and ,dioscurus at ,mass1 intending only to honor the patron ,saints of those two heresiarchs4 #ida4 ,there are three ways of denying the faith3 7a7 by words1 spoken or written1 as when one says3 8,i am not a ,catholic10 8,i do not believe in miracles02 7b7 by acts1 as when one dissuades persons of good faith from entering the ,church1 or moves them to abandon it1 or refuses to genuflect before the ,blessed ,sacrament1 or studiously excludes scapulars1 pictures and all religious symbols2 7c7 by omission1 as when one fails to answer calumnies against faith1 which one could profitably answer1 or fails to protest when another speaks of oneself as a non-,catholic4 #idb4 ,there are various ways in which error opposed to faith is professed3 7a7 by words1 as when one says that one is a freethinker or ,christian ,scientist2 7b7 by acts1 as when one offers incense to an idol1 or receives the ,lord's ,supper in a ,lutheran church1 or cheers an anti-religious address2 7c7 by signs1 as when one uses the ,masonic grip1 wears the robes of a ,buddhist bonze1 takes a ,mohammedan or pagan name1 etc41 in order to pass oneself off as a non-,catholic2 7d7 by omission1 as when one is silent when introduced as a ,rationalist1 or makes no protest when ,indifferentism is being advocated by one's companions4 #idc4 ,the following are not a denial of faith or profession of error3 7a7 ,words that deny1 not one's allegiance to religion1 but one's acceptance of it as qualified by some calumnious designation4 ,examples3 ,titus denies that he is a 8,papist10 because he wishes his questioner to use a term that is not intended to be an insult4 ,balbus1 entering a pagan region where the name ,christian has the meaning of criminal or enemy on account of crimes committed there by white men in past times1 says to the tribesmen that he is not a ,christian1 but a follower of ,jesus and a ,catholic4 7b7 ,words that conceal one's rank or state in the ,church1 are not against faith1 because one can hold the faith without being in a certain rank or state in the ,church1 ,thus1 ,st4 ,peter's denial that he was a follower of ,jesus1 that he had ever known ,him1 etc41 was1 according to some authorities1 not a denial of the ,divinity of ,jesus or of the truth of ,his teaching4 ,example3 ,a ,catholic who hides or denies his character of priest or religious1 his membership in a ,catholic family1 organization1 race1 does not thereby necessarily deny his faith4 7c7 ,deeds that are contrary to practices of religion1 but not to the profession of faith1 are not denial of belief2 for one may be very much attached to one's religion1 even ready to fight for it1 but not willing to follow its requirements4 ,example3 ,caius is careless about church duties1 misses ,mass1 eats meat on ,fridays1 and never goes to the ,sacraments2 but he always calls himself a ,catholic and wishes to be considered one4 7d7 ,signs that have some association with non-,catholic religion1 but do not necessarily represent it 7since they are indifferent in themselves and have other and legitimate uses71 do not deny the faith1 when not used as symbols of false religion4 ,similarly1 the omission of signs that are associated with ,catholicity1 but which are optional1 is not a denial of the faith4 ,examples3 ,titus1 when travelling in the ,orient1 makes use of the national salutation of the pagan peoples among whom he lives4 ,balbus builds a church with architectural features borrowed from pagan temples4 ,caius wears a fez or turban in ,mohammedan regions where it is not looked on as a religious headgear4 ,sempronius practises circumcision as a hygienic measure4 ,claudius does not say grace at meals when dining in public1 and does not wear scapulars when bathing at the seashore4 7e7 ,omission of profession of faith1 when it is not obligatory1 is not a denial of faith2 for no one is bound to make known his affairs and convictions to every acquaintance4 ,example3 ,titus works in an office where most of the clerks are non-,catholics4 ,but no one ever speaks about religion1 and hence it is not known that he is a ,catholic4 #idd4 ,dangers of ,profession of ,unbelief4--,the principal dangers of making external profession of false religion1 if not of losing faith itself1 are the following3 7a7 membership in forbidden societies2 7b7 communication in sectarian services2 7c7 cooperation in activities whose tendency or principles are erroneous4 #ide4 ,forbidden ,societies4--,societies are forbidden by the ,church when they are intrinsically or extrinsically evil4 7a7 ,a society is intrinsically evil1 when it has an evil purpose1 or uses evil means to obtain even an honest end4 ,thus1 societies or parties that conspire against ,church or ,state1 or that seek to undermine ,christian doctrines or morals1 have an evil purpose2 while those that demand absolute secrecy or oaths of blind obedience to unknown persons1 that favor cremation1 use a sectarian ritual1 promote evil literature1 etc41 are employing evil means1 no matter what may be the end in view4 7b7 ,a society is extrinsically evil1 when its end and means are good1 but membership in it is dangerous to faith or morals on account of circumstances 7e4g41 on account of the bad type of individuals who make up the society or control it74 #idf4 ,the ,code 7,canon #fhd7 mentions the following kinds of societies as banned for ,catholics3 7a7 secret societies1 that is1 those which demand of members that certain things which the society considers secrets be told absolutely to no one outside the society1 or certain degrees of the society1 not even to those who may legitimately inquire about them1 such as the bishop or civil superior in the external forum1 parents with regard to their children not emancipated1 pastors and confessors in the internal forum4 ,those societies are also secret which demand blind and absolute obedience to unknown leaders2 7b7 condemned societies1 that is1 such as have been censured by the ,church1 or simply forbidden4 ,canon #bcce decrees ipso facto excommunication reserved to the ,holy ,see against all those who join ,masonic or similar associations which plot against the ,church or lawful civil authority4 ,among the societies forbidden without censure are3 various ,biblical societies1 societies for the promotion of cremation1 the ,knights of ,pythias1 the ,odd ,fellows1 the ,sons of ,temperance1 the ,independent ,order of ,good ,templars1 ,theosophical societies1 the ,y4,m4,c4,a4 ,female societies affiliated with these are also condemned1 since they are branches of the main society--for example1 the ,rebeccas1 the ,eastern ,star1 the ,pythian ,sisters4 ,worthy of detailed consideration is the condemnation of the ,communist ,party and the penalties attached to membership in1 or defense1 or propagation of the ,party4 ,the following questions were asked of the ,holy ,office3 #a4 ,whether it is licit to join the ,communist ,party or to favor it4 ,reply3 ,in the negative2 for ,communism is materialistic and anti-,christian2 and the leaders of the ,communists1 although they sometimes verbally profess that they are not attacking religion1 in fact1 nevertheless1 by doctrine and action show themselves to be enemies of ,god and of the true religion and the ,church of ,christ4 #b4 ,whether it is licit to publish1 propagate1 or read books1 periodicals1 daily papers1 or sheets which promote the doctrine or action of ,communists1 or to write in them4 ,reply3 ,in the negative3 for they are forbidden ipso iure 7see ,canon #acii74 #c4 ,whether the faithful who knowingly and freely do the acts mentioned in #a and #b can be admitted to the sacraments4 ,reply3 ,in the negative1 according to the ordinary principles governing the refusal of the sacraments to those who are not properly disposed4 #d4 ,whether the faithful who profess the materialistic and anti-,christian doctrine of ,communists1 and especially those who defend or propagate it1 incur ipso facto as apostates from the ,catholic faith the excommunication specially reserved to the ,holy ,see4 ,reply3 ,in the affirmative 7,decree of the ,holy ,office1 ,july #a1 #aidi74 ,the sanction of excommunication specially reserved to the ,holy ,see was imposed also upon those who teach boys and girls in associations set up by the ,communists to imbue youth with principles and training which are materialistic and contrary to ,christian morality and faith4 ,the associations themselves are subject to the sanctions of the decree of ,july #a1 #aidi4 ,moreover parents or guardians who send their children to such associations1 and the children themselves1 as long as they have part in these associations1 cannot be admitted to the reception of the sacraments 7,monitum of the ,holy ,office1 ,july #bh1 #aiej74 7c7 seditious societies1 that is1 those organizations1 even though not secret1 which aim at the overthrow of family and property rights2 7d7 suspect societies1 that is1 those whose principles or methods have the appearance of being unsound4 ,on ,january #aa1 #aiea the ,holy ,office in response to the question3 8,whether ,catholics may join the #8,rotary ,club'80 issued the following decree3 8,it is not licit for clerics to join the ,association #8,rotary ,club' or to be present at its meetings2 the laypeople are to be urged to preserve the prescript of ,canon #fhd40 ,the decree seems to have taken many ,english-speaking people by surprise1 one paper describing it as 8a bewildering document40 ,the surprise flowed from personal experience of ,rotary ,clubs as social clubs dedicated to bonhomie and community improvement4 ,nevertheless1 the decree was in accord with the general trend of ,church policy in regard to undenominational societies4 ,they are not approved2 they are not condemned as ,masonry has been condemned4 ,what is their position8 ,the response that layfolk are to be exhorted to observe ,canon #fhd is indicative of the attitude of the ,church in regard to such societies4 ,the canon instructs them to 8beware of secret1 condemned1 seditious and suspect societies40 ,since ,rotary ,clubs are seldom considered to be secret and never as condemned nor as seditious1 the implication is that they are suspect4 ,such was the interpretation of the decree given in the ,osservatore ,romano of ,jan4 #bg1 #aiea4 ,in regard to clerics1 the effect of the decree was to make illicit what was formerly simply inexpedient2 for the ,sacred ,consistory had replied on ,february #dth1 #aibi1 that it was not expedient for ,ordinaries to permit clerics to join ,rotary ,clubs1 or to take part in their meetings4 ,moreover1 as the ,osservatore article indicates1 the prohibition is limited to meetings of members only and does not extend to meetings at which non-members may be present1 provided the purpose of such meetings befits priestly activity4 ,the exhortation to layfolk in regard to 8,rotary0 simply reaffirms the ,church's general attitude to all secular associations4 ,as early as ,november #e1 #aibj the ,holy ,office1 referring specifically to ,y4,m4,c4,a41 warned the ,ordinaries that the note of 8suspicion0 attaches to all secular societies4 ,their efforts to promote good works and good moral standards independent of religious authority tend to foster the spirit of religious indifferentism and moral naturalism4 ,both the ,spanish hierarchy 7#aibi7 and the ,dutch hierarchy 7#aicj7 have so judged ,rotary4 ,however1 the degree of suspicion to be attached to each ,rotary ,club is a question of fact to be determined in specific instances by the proper local ,ordinary4 ,where evidence of suspicion is available1 exhortatious not to join the clubs must be made2 in the lack of such evidence1 the ordinaries may maintain discreet silence4 7e7 societies that aim to elude the lawful vigilance of religious authority4 #idg4 ,the following organizations fall under the censure against ,masonic societies3 7a7 all varieties and degrees of ,freemasonry1 for all the ,masonic sects are included in the ,canon4 ,the fact that ,american1 ,english and ,irish ,masons have many excellent individuals in their ranks1 and lack the irreligious and revolutionary character of the ,masonry of ,continental ,europe or ,latin countries1 does not exempt them from the censure4 7b7 all organizations similar to ,masonry1 that is1 secret societies that conspire against lawful authority4 ,such are societies like the ,carbonari1 the ,fenians1 anarchists and nihilists4 #idh4 ,the sin committed by membership in forbidden societies is grave1 since the purpose of the law--viz41 the safeguarding of faith against serious danger--is itself grave4 ,such membership is interpreted also as a profession of false religion1 when one joins oneself to a body which in its branches or degrees has a false creed of its own4 7a7 ,even though the branch or degree to which one belongs does not require assent to such a creed1 membership expresses a fellowship with those who do accept it2 7b7 similarly1 participation in the ritual of the lodges is a communication in ceremonies expressive of false religion2 for1 though their externals may appear good or even ,christian1 the internal meaning known to the adepts is anti-,catholic or anti-,christian4 #idi4 ,absolution of ,those ,who ,belong to ,forbidden ,societies4--7a7 ,the sin cannot be absolved unless there is repentance1 and hence absolution cannot be granted those who without sufficient reason refuse to withdraw from membership1 or who refuse to discontinue participation in false rites4 7b7 ,the excommunication is not incurred by those who joined forbidden societies in ignorance of the law or of the penalty1 provided the ignorance was not crass or supine4 ,if the censure was actually incurred1 the mode of absolution will depend on the nature of the case3 if the case is occult 7i4e41 if it is not known and not likely to become known that the penitent belonged to a society forbidden under pain of excommunication71 the ,ordinary may absolve or grant faculties to absolve 7,canon #bbcg72 if the case is a public one1 and it would be very inconvenient to await faculties from ,rome1 absolution is given under the condition of recourse to the proper authority within a month 7,canon #bbed74 ,many ,ordinaries have by ,indult faculties to absolve members of secret societies4 #iej4 ,nominal membership and temporary attendance at meetings may be permitted as an exception when there are sufficient reasons4 7a7 ,nominal membership means that one leaves one's name on the roster of the society and continues to pay its assessments1 but does not communicate with the society or attend its meetings4 ,in #ahif the ,holy ,office replied to the ,american ,bishops that this kind of membership in the ,odd ,fellows1 ,sons of ,temperance and ,knights of ,pythias might be permitted under certain conditions1 if there was a sufficient reason 7viz41 that grave material loss would be incurred by withdrawal74 7b7 ,temporary attendance at meetings means that for a short time1 and not for longer than absolutely necessary1 one is present at gatherings of the society1 but takes no active part in its false cult4 #iea4 ,the following conditions were laid down for permission of nominal membership in the ,odd ,fellows1 ,sons of ,temperance1 etc43 7a7 that the penitent joined the society in good faith1 before knowing that it was condemned2 7b7 that there be no danger of scandal1 or that it be removed by the declaration that membership is only nominal and only for the purpose of avoiding temporal losses2 7c7 that there be no danger of perversion of the party himself or of his family1 in case of sickness or of death1 and no danger of a non-,catholic funeral4 #ieb4 ,procedure of the confessor with a penitent who has incurred excommunication on account of membership in the ,masons or other like society should be as follows3 7a7 the faculty to absolve must be obtained 7see #idi71 7b7 the following promises must be exacted from the penitent--that he will withdraw entirely from the sect and that he will repair1 as well as he can1 the scandal he may have caused2 7c7 the penitent must be required to renounce the sect1 at least in the presence of the confessor1 and to deliver over to him the books1 manuscripts1 insignia1 and other objects that are distinctive of it 7the confessor should give these objects to the ,ordinary as soon as he prudently can1 but1 if grave reasons prevent this1 he should burn them72 7d7 a salutary penance should be given and frequent confession urged4 #iec4 ,procedure of the confessor with a penitent who belongs to the ,odd ,fellows or other society forbidden by name1 but without censure1 should be as follows3 7a7 if the penitent is contrite and promises to leave the society1 he can be absolved without special faculties2 7b7 if the penitent is contrite but wishes to retain nominal membership1 the case must be referred to the ,archbishop of the ,province or to the ,apostolic ,delegate2 7c7 if the penitent wishes to retain full membership1 he is not repentant and cannot be absolved4 #ied4 ,procedure of the confessor with a penitent who belongs to a society not condemned by name1 but which the confessor himself regards as evil should be as follows3 7a7 if the confessor is certain that the society is one of those condemned implicitly by the ,church1 because it exacts inviolable secrecy or blind obedience to its leaders1 or has ,masonic characteristics1 etc41 he should treat it in the same way as the societies condemned by name2 7b7 if the confessor is certain that the society is condemned by natural law for the penitent before him 7e4g41 on account of the evil associates and moral dangers it contains71 he should treat it as any other occasion of sin1 but it should be noted that no priest or local ,ordinary has authority to condemn publicly and by name any society not condemned by the ,church2 7c7 if the confessor is in doubt1 he should proceed according to the rules for an uncertain conscience 7see #fgh1 #fgi1 #gdb71 and for the prudent administration of the ,sacraments 7see ,vol4 ,,ii74 #iee4 ,as one of the chief remedies against evil societies is the formation of ,catholic societies1 the ,code 7,canon #fhd7 praises those of the faithful who enroll as members in associations established or recommended by the ,church4 ,catholic societies distinct from religious ,orders or ,congregations are of two kinds4 7a7 ,distinctly religious societies are those instituted for the purpose of promoting a more ,christian life among their members1 or of fostering works of piety and charity1 or of contributing to the solemnity of public worship4 ,such are the ,secular ,third ,orders1 ,confraternities of the ,blessed ,sacrament and of ,christian ,doctrine1 and other pious unions4 7b7 ,societies that are not distinctly religious1 but whose membership and spirit are ,catholic1 are of many kinds4 ,such are the ,knights of ,columbus1 ,ancient ,order of ,hibernians1 ,catholic ,daughters of ,america1 ,volksverein1 ,young ,men's ,institute1 etc4 #ief4 ,communication in ,worship4--,communication with non-,catholics 7as was said above in #hhb7 is either religious or non-religious4 ,it is clear that communication in non-religious matters does not contain a profession of error1 but the same cannot be said of communication in religious services1 since these are not only acts of worship1 but also expressions of faith in the creed of a certain religion4 ,we must distinguish1 however1 between private and public communication4 7a7 ,communication is private1 when a ,catholic and non-,catholic offer together the ,lord's ,prayer or other similar prayer as a private devotion1 not as an act of official worship4 ,private devotion is not the expression of a sectarian creed1 and1 if there is nothing false in it and no danger of scandal or perversion from communication between ,catholic and non-,catholic in such devotion1 this kind of communication is not unlawful4 ,in the following paragraphs there will be question of public communication4 7b7 ,communication is public1 when the rites performed are the official services of the ,catholic ,church or of some non-,catholic sect 7e4g41 the ,mass1 the ,lord's ,supper of the ,lutherans1 the ,evensong of the ,anglicans1 the prayer-meeting of other sects74 ,thus1 public communication takes place either when non-,catholics take part in ,catholic worship1 or ,catholics take part in non-,catholic worship4 #ieg4 ,participation of non-,catholics in ,catholic services is either by mere presence1 or by reception or performance of ,catholic rites4 7a7 ,mere presence consists in a purely material attendance at a service1 as when non-,catholics assist at ,mass and sit1 rise and kneel with the congregation or remain seated throughout4 ,there is no objection whatever to this kind of participation2 on the contrary1 non-,catholics should be invited to ,catholic sermons and services1 and made to feel welcome1 for in what better way can the divine command of working for their conversion be complied with8 ,only excommunicated persons are excluded from the offices of the ,church 7,canon #bbfi1 ,sec4#a74 ,it is also allowed that ,catholic bishops and clergy accompany a non-,catholic ruler to the church1 and assign him and his escort an honorable place therein4 7b7 ,reception of ,catholic rites is had when non-,catholics1 without performing any liturgical function1 receive some spiritual favor through the rites of the ,church1 as when a non-,catholic receives a priest's blessing4 7c7 ,performance of ,catholic rites exists when a non-,catholic exercises some office in a liturgical function of the ,catholic ,church1 as when a ,protestant acts as sponsor at a ,catholic ,baptism4 #ieh4 ,cases of reception of ,catholic rites by non-,catholics permitted by law are the following3 7a7 ,reception of ,sacramentals4--,since the purpose of these rites and objects is to implore graces and temporal favors with a view to the illumination and salvation of the recipient1 and since our ,lord ,himself blessed and cured even the pagans1 the ,church permits blessings and exorcisms to be conferred on non-,catholics 7,canons #aadi1 #aaeb74 ,similarly1 blessed candles1 palms1 ashes and other real sacramentals may be given to them4 ,examples3 ,the ,church has permitted priests to visit the homes of ,mohammedans to bless and pray over the sick1 and also to bless the houses of schismatics1 provided they were summoned and avoided all communication in prayer4 7b7 ,reception of ,sacraments4-,since it is possible that the salvation of a dying person may depend on absolution1 good moralists1 relying on decisions of ,roman ,congregations1 hold that conditional absolution may be given to a heretic or schismatic who is dying and unconscious1 or even to one such who is dying and conscious1 provided he is in good faith and contrite1 and danger of scandal has been removed4 7c7 ,reception of ,fruits of the ,mass4--,since ,christ died for all1 there is nothing in the nature of things to prevent the application of ,mass to any persons who are living or in ,purgatory2 and from ,canon #hji it appears that ,mass may be offered for any living person1 and also for any deceased person about whose salvation we may entertain hope4 ,hence1 neither the divine nor the ecclesiastical law forbids the application of ,mass for heretics1 schismatics1 or infidels4 ,the ,church also permits ,mass to be said privately1 all scandal removed1 for excommunicated persons4 ,under these same conditions1 then1 ,mass may be said for non-,catholics1 both living and dead 7,canon #bbfb1 ,sec4#b1 n4 #b74 7d7 ,reception of the ,suffrages of the ,church4--,since ,god wishes all to be saved and public peace to be maintained 7,i ,tim41 ii71 and since the ,church desires that ,ordinaries and pastors should have at heart the conversion of non-,catholics 7,canon #acej71 public prayers for the prosperity of non-,catholic rulers and officials--likewise sermons1 missions and other works for the conversion of unbelievers--are not only allowed1 but recommended and required4 #iei4 ,non-,catholics have not the same right as ,catholics to receive the rites of the ,church1 and hence when they are admitted to them1 there are certain restrictions to be observed4 7a7 ,restrictions as to ,sacred ,things4--,as admission of non-,catholics to sacramentals1 etc41 is a favor1 not a right1 it should be confined to cases allowed by the ,church4 ,thus1 it is forbidden to grant indulgences or to give the nuptial blessing to non-,catholics1 and only in very exceptional cases may any ceremonies be permitted at mixed marriages 7,canons #aajb1 #aaji74 ,non-,catholics may not receive the ,pax2 may not be invited to take part in the solemn services of receiving ashes on ,ash ,wednesday1 palms on ,palm ,sunday and candles on ,candlemas ,day2 may not receive ecclesiastical burial 7,holy ,office1 ,june #h1 #ahei74 ,children sent by their parents to non-,catholic services may not be confirmed 7,holy ,office1 ,august #bh1 #aghj72 a ,catholic priest is not allowed to supply for a non-,catholic minister1 by accompanying the body of a non-,catholic from the home to the graveyard1 even though the body be not brought to ,church1 nor the bell tolled 7,holy ,office1 ,january #bf1 #ahhf74 ,it is not permissible to lend a ,catholic church to non-,catholics for their services4 7b7 ,restrictions as to ,persons4--,as superstition and irreverence have to be avoided1 the sacramentals may not be administered or given at all to non-,catholics about whose good faith and purpose there is doubt4 7c7 ,restrictions as to ,mode4--,the ,church1 while she wishes to help and benefit non-,catholics1 must avoid anything that would cause scandal or have the appearance of equal recognition of believers and unbelievers4 ,thus1 when ,mass is offered for outsiders1 the same publicity and pomp is not permitted as when there is question of ,catholics4 #ifj4 ,as regards the performance of ,catholic rites by non-,catholics1 the ,church disapproves of every kind of such participation1 but does not refuse to tolerate the more remote kind1 when there is grave necessity and no scandal is caused4 7a7 ,by more remote participation we understand such as scarcely differs from passive assistance 7e4g41 to act as witness at a marriage71 or such as carries with it no recognition as an official of the ,church 7e4g41 to act as substitute or temporary organist74 ,hence1 the ,church has permitted this kind of participation in particular cases1 when the authorities decided that there was urgent necessity and no scandal4 ,examples3 ,moralists hold that1 when a heretic or schismatic has been designated as sponsor at ,baptism and cannot be refused without grave offense1 he may be allowed to act as witness4 ,the ,holy ,office has also declared that heretics should not be used as witnesses at marriage1 but may be tolerated as such by the ,ordinary1 when there is a grave reason and no scandal 7,august #ah1 #ahia72 that a non-,catholic organist may be employed temporarily1 if it is impossible to secure one who is a ,catholic1 and no scandal is caused 7,february #bc1 #ahbj72 that in certain special circumstances girls belonging to a schismatical sect might be allowed to sing with the ,catholics at church functions1 especially at ,exposition and ,benediction of the ,blessed ,sacrament 7,january #be1 #aijf74 7b7 ,proximate participation is the exercise of functions connected with a sacred rite 7e4g41 to act as server at ,mass71 or that imply a recognition of the religion of the one who participates 7e4g41 to act as representative of some sect at a funeral and receive liturgical honors74 ,the ,church has always refused to tolerate this kind of participation4 ,examples3 ,non-,catholics may not act as sponsors at ,baptism or ,confirmation under pain of invalidity of sponsorship 7,canons #gfe1 #gie71 nor chant the ,office in choir 7,holy ,office1 ,june #h1 #ahei71 nor be employed as singers of the liturgical music 7,holy ,office1 ,may #a1 #ahhi71 nor carry torches or lights in church ceremonies 7,holy ,office1 ,november #bj1 #ahej74 ,likewise1 non-,catholics may not become members of ,catholic confraternities1 nor assist at ,catholic services as official representatives of some sect or sectarian society4 #ifa4 ,participation of ,catholics in non-,catholic services may happen today in so many ways1 and it is so difficult at times to draw the line between lawful and unlawful communication1 that it is well before considering these cases to state the general rules that apply here4 7a7 ,it is lawful to perform an act from which two effects follow1 one good and the other bad1 if the act in itself is good or indifferent1 if there is a sufficiently grave reason for performing it1 if the evil effect is not intended1 and if the evil effect be not prior to the good effect 7see #ajd74 7b7 ,circumstances vary in different localities and countries1 and communication that would signify unity of belief in a place where ,catholics and non-,catholics are very unequal numerically might be very harmless in a place where there is no great numerical difference4 ,offense to non-,catholics should not be given needlessly4 7c7 ,in doubtful cases the decision whether or not a particular kind of communication is lawful or unlawful pertains to the ,ordinary 7,canon #abeh74 #ifb4 ,participation of ,catholics in non-,catholic services is either active or passive4 7a7 ,participation is active when one takes a part or fulfills some function in an act that is an official expression of the worship and belief of a sect1 even though this takes place outside a church1 or is not open to the general public4 7b7 ,participation is passive1 if one merely assists as a spectator1 and not as a worshipper1 at something pertaining to non-,catholic worship4 #ifc4 ,sacred things in which communication is possible are of three classes3 7a7 the chief acts of divine worship 7i4e41 ,sacrifices1 ,sacraments1 sacramentals72 7b7 the secondary acts of divine worship 7such as prayers1 processions1 vows1 oaths1 the ,divine ,office1 hymn singing1 scripture reading1 etc474 ,in the ,protestant denominations some one or other of these is1 as a rule1 the central or distinctive service1 although some have other proper features of their own1 such as the silent meeting of the ,quakers1 the seance of the ,spiritualists1 the march of the ,salvation ,army1 the charity kiss of the ,dunkards2 7c7 places 7e4g41 churches1 lodge rooms1 cemeteries71 times 7e4g41 days of feast or fast71 and objects 7e4g41 images1 badges1 aprons1 banners1 robes71 pertaining to divine worship4 #ifd4 ,it is unlawful for ,catholics in any way to assist actively at or take part in the worship of non-,catholics 7,canon #abeh74 ,such assistance is intrinsically and gravely evil2 for 7a7 if the worship is non-,catholic in its form 7e4g41 ,mohammedan ablutions1 the ,jewish paschal meal1 revivalistic 8hitting the trail10 the right hand of fellowship1 etc471 it expresses a belief in the false creed symbolized2 7b7 if the worship is ,catholic in form1 but is under the auspices of a non-,catholic body 7e4g41 ,baptism as administered by a ,protestant minister1 or ,mass as celebrated by a schismatical priest71 it expresses either faith in a false religious body or rebellion against the true ,church4 #ife4 ,it is unlawful for ,catholics to simulate active assistance in the worship of non-,catholics1 for1 while the non-,catholic rite would be avoided1 something which appeared to be that rite would be done1 and thus profession of faith in it would be given4 7a7 ,hence1 it is not lawful to do an indifferent act which bystanders from the circumstances will have to conclude is an act of false worship4 ,thus1 ,eleazar would not eat lawful meat which was put before him in order that he might pretend to eat the meat of sacrifice after the manner of the heathen 7,,ii ,mach41 vi74 7b7 ,it is not lawful to accept a false certificate of participation in false worship4 ,hence1 the early ,church condemned as apostates the ,libellatics 7i4e41 those ,christians1 who1 to protect themselves in time of persecution1 obtained by bribery or otherwise a forged or genuine magistrate's certificate that they had sacrificed to the heathen gods74 #iff4 ,it is unlawful for ,catholics to assist passively at non-,catholic worship1 unless there are present the conditions requisite for performing an act that has two results1 one good and the other evil 7see #ajd72 for even passive assistance frequently involves sin4 7a7 ,hence1 the assistance itself must be really indifferent1 that is1 it must be a merely passive presence without any active participation in the service4 ,examples3 ,a person who stands in the rear of a ,quaker meeting house as an onlooker assists passively2 but one who sits quietly among the others present1 as if in meditation1 assists actively4 ,a person who sits in a pew during a revival in order to see what is going on1 assists passively2 but1 if he joins with the congregation in bowing1 groaning1 etc41 he assists actively4 7b7 ,the evil effect that may result from assistance 7such as scandal and danger of perversion7 must not be prior to the good effect2 otherwise1 evil would be done for the sake of good4 ,examples3 ,titus1 a non-,catholic1 goes to ,mass as a spectator1 with his ,catholic friend ,balbus4 ,he then asks ,balbus to assist as a spectator at the services of his denomination1 and thus see for himself that the latter is better4 ,balbus1 in order to be courteous1 consents4 ,here ,balbus aims to show politeness1 which is good1 but the means he uses--namely1 the impression he gives that he is not convinced of the superiority of his own religion--is bad4 7c7 ,the evil effect 7i4e41 remote danger of perversion1 unavoidable scandal7 must not be intended or approved1 but only permitted4 ,example3 ,caius1 a ,catholic public official1 has to attend funerals and weddings in ,protestant churches as a mark of the public respect for notable persons4 ,he knows that a few will take scandal at his action1 but he wishes only to do his duty as an official1 and not to offend anyone 7see on ,scandal74 7d7 ,the cause of assistance must be in proportion to the kind of assistance4 ,hence1 a greater reason is required for assistance on several occasions than on one1 for assistance at infidel than at heretical services1 for assistance at the primary than at the secondary act of worship1 for assistance by a priest than for assistance by a layman1 etc4 ,example3 ,graver reason would be necessary to justify assistance at a non-,catholic funeral1 if there were signs of anti-,catholicism manifested 7e4g41 flower designs and regalia of a hostile sect placed on the coffin71 than if the service contained nothing offensive4 #ifg4 ,cases of communication in false sacrificial rites are as follows3 7a7 ,active participation is had in such acts as the slaying and offering of victims1 the burning of incense before idols1 the eating of sacrificial banquets2 7b7 ,passive participation is had when one merely watches the rite of sacrifice without taking any part therein4 #ifh4 ,cases of communication in the ,sacrifice of the ,mass are as follows3 7a7 ,active participation is had in such acts as taking the part of deacon in a schismatical ,mass1 assisting at a schismatical ,mass with the intention of hearing ,mass formally 7i4e41 of offering it with the priest74 ,if on ,sunday1 one is where there is only a schismatical church1 one is excused from the obligation of hearing ,mass1 and may not hear ,mass in that church 7,holy ,office1 ,december #e1 #afjh2 ,august #g1 #agjd74 7b7 ,passive participation is had when one is present merely as a spectator1 kneeling before the ,blessed ,sacrament1 but giving no other signs of religious devotion4 ,this is permissible under the conditions mentioned above 7see #iff71 if there is no scandal1 or danger of perversion 7,holy ,office1 ,april #bd1 #ahid74 #ifi4 ,cases of participation in the ,sacraments or sacramentals1 real or reputed1 are as follows3 7a7 ,active participation takes place when one receives a ,sacrament from a non-,catholic minister1 or offers one's child to receive a ,sacrament from such a minister1 or contracts marriage in the presence of such a minister1 or acts as sponsor at a non-,catholic baptism or confirmation or as the religious witness at a non-,catholic marriage1 or answers in public non-,catholic prayers1 or takes ashes blessed by schismatics4 7b7 ,passive participation is had when one merely looks on at the administration of a ,sacrament or sacramental by a non-,catholic minister1 without signs of approval or union in what is being done4 #igj4 ,there are certain cases that seem to be active participations in ,sacraments with non-,catholics1 and yet are permitted by the ,code4 ,in reality1 however1 there is no active communication in those cases4 7a7 ,canons #hhf and #ije allow the faithful to receive communion and absolution according to a ,rite different from their own1 so that one who belongs to the ,latin ,rite may lawfully receive in ,communion a ,host consecrated according to the ,greek ,rite1 or go to confession to an ,oriental priest4 ,but in these ,canons there is question of different ,rites within the ,catholic ,church1 not of those of non-,catholics4 7b7 ,canons #gdb and #hhb allow those who are in danger of death to receive ,baptism and absolution from an heretical or schismatical minister1 and theologians apply the same principle to ,extreme ,unction and the ,viaticum4 ,but there is no communication in non-,catholic ceremonies in these cases1 for the ,sacraments belong to the ,catholic ,church1 and for the sake of the dying she authorizes non-,catholic ministers to act as her representatives1 provided there is no scandal or danger of perversion4 #iga4 ,cases of participation in non-sacramental rites are as follows3 7a7 ,oaths and ,vows4--,participation is active when one swears in words or by other signs which1 according to local usage1 manifest belief in the creed of some sect2 it is not active1 when the manner of the oath does not signify adherence to a false creed2 ,example3 ,if one is required to swear1 by touching or kissing the non-,catholic ,bible1 as a sign of approval of ,protestantism or ,masonry1 one may not consent4 ,but1 if the ,government presents a non-,catholic ,bible with no thought of ,protestantism1 there is no approval of ,protestantism in the one who swears on that ,bible1 although1 if the custom is not general1 there might be scandal if no protest were made4 ,a ,catholic may bring his own ,bible with him1 or ask for a copy of the ,catholic ,bible4 7b7 ,services--,participation is active when one marches in an ,anglican procession1 plays the organ or sings at ,y4,m4,c4,a4 services1 joins in the prayers or responses offered in a ,protestant church1 etc4 7,holy ,office1 ,july #f1 #ahhi74 ,participation is passive if one looks on during a rare visit1 or listens by radio to the musical program broadcast from ,protestant services1 or if one is obliged to attend non-,catholic services habitually1 not as a profession of faith1 but as a matter of civil duty or of domestic discipline1 as happens with soldiers or with inmates of public institutions4 ,participation is not active if one adores the ,blessed ,sacrament carried in a schismatical procession which one meets by chance and unavoidably4 ,examples3 ,titus belongs to the honorary guard of a state ruler1 and has to accompany the latter to non-,catholic services on certain state occasions4 ,balbus is tutor in a non-,catholic family1 and is expected to take his charges to their church and back home on ,sundays4 ,claudia is a maid in a non-,catholic family1 and is ordered to hold one of the children while it is being baptized by the non-,catholic minister4 ,in all these cases the presence at the services is purely passive1 since the intention of the ,catholic present is not to perform any religious duty1 but only some civil or domestic service 7see ,,iv ,kings1 v4 #ah74 ,but1 on the other hand1 the martyrs during the reigns of ,elizabeth and her successors refused to attend the ,anglican services1 because this was required by law as a sign of conformity to the ,established ,church--that is1 an active presence was prescribed4 #igb4 ,cases of participation in religious places1 times and objects are as follows3 7a7 ,places4--,participation is active when one orders one's body to be buried in a sectarian graveyard1 when one enters a schismatical or heretical church privately in order to visit the ,blessed ,sacrament or pray1 when one offers up ,catholic services in a non-,catholic temple1 if these things are looked upon by the public as indications of identity of belief between ,catholics and non-,catholics4 ,participation is merely passive1 if one visits non-,catholic places of worship out of curiosity in order to look at the pictures1 hear the music or listen to or take part in a political lecture or debate4 ,in case of necessity1 the ,church permits ,catholic services to be performed in the same building as that wherein non-,catholic rites are held1 e4g41 the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre at ,jerusalem which is used by various denominations 7,holy ,office1 #ab ,april1 #agjd74 7b7 ,times4--,participation is active if one observes new moons1 sabbaths1 and days of fast as prescribed in the ,old ,law4 7c7 ,objects4--,participation is active if one wears the uniform of a condemned society1 the ring or other emblem of ,freemasonry1 etc41 or makes use of other insignia whose sole purpose is to indicate membership in some sect1 unless it be evident that these are used for some other purpose 7e4g41 in order to act a certain part in a play74 #igc4 ,cases of participation through attendance at non-,catholic religious instructions are as follows3 7a7 ,active participation in worship is had when one listens to a preacher1 ,sunday school teacher1 etc41 and signifies approval by joining in 8,amens0 or other acclamations4 7b7 ,participation is merely passive1 if at church or over the radio1 one listens out of curiosity1 or in order to be able to refute errors1 or for the sake of perfecting oneself in diction or eloquence1 or of showing respect to a person whose funeral oration is being delivered1 etc4 ,but1 even though there be no active participation1 it will usually be unlawful to listen to these sectarian discourses on account of the danger of perversion to the listener or of scandal to others4 ,catholics who are scientifically trained and staunch in faith may for good reasons hear sectarian sermons1 but the greater number would be disturbed or unsettled 7see the principles given above on dangerous books and schools1 #hed-heg1 #hfh74 ,moreover1 even those who have a right to listen to non-,catholic religious talks have to be on their guard against scandal1 for outsiders may regard their attention as approval of doctrine or participation in cult1 and ,catholics not sufficiently instructed may regard their example as an encouragement to imitate 7cfr4 #igi1 #iha74 #igd4 ,participation in non-,catholic assemblages or occasions whose character is of a mixed kind 7partly religious and partly non-religious7 are permitted by the ,church1 when due regard is had for avoidance of scandal1 perversion1 denial of faith1 etc4 7a7 ,some of these occasions are chiefly religious1 but are also looked on as family or civic solemnities1 such as christenings1 weddings1 funerals4 ,hence1 it is allowed to assist at the religious part of the occasion in a passive way for the sake of courtesy1 or to exercise some function which is looked upon as belonging to the non-religious part of the occasion4 ,caution must be taken to ensure that the particular sect involved does not consider the exercise of the particular function as participating in the religious aspect of the ceremony4 ,likewise1 on condition that the possibility of scandal1 perversion1 etc41 has been removed1 the following functions may be performed4 ,one may act as a witness at the christening of a near relative who is not a ,catholic2 however1 it is forbidden to be a sponsor1 even by proxy1 at baptisms performed by a heretical minister 7,holy ,office1 decr41 ,may #aj1 #aggj74 ,to be pallbearer or undertaker at a funeral1 to be an usher at a wedding1 to be an extra bridesmaid1 etc41 may be permitted4 7,if the function of best man or maid of honor be considered as merely attendants to the bride or groom1 such participation in itself would not be illicit2 but since the danger of scandal might often be present1 such participation is dangerous4 ,it is lawful for a ,catholic pastor to attend the funeral of a non-,catholic friend or relative1 provided he does not wear his sacred garb and takes no part in the ceremonies4 ,canon #abeh1 ,sec4#b establishes the general norm regulative of these cases3 a passive or merely material presence may be1 for a serious reason1 tolerated as a mark of esteem or social courtesy at funerals1 weddings1 and similar functions1 provided there is involved no danger of perversion or scandal2 in a doubtful case1 the serious reason for this presence must be approved by the local ,ordinary4 7b7 ,other occasions are chiefly non-religious in character1 but are also partly religious1 or have the appearance of being religious4 ,such are1 for example1 the coronation1 birthday1 wedding1 or funeral of a ruler1 school commencements1 political conventions1 patriotic meetings1 civil marriage before a magistrate who is also a non-,catholic minister4 ,when these exercises are chiefly non-religious or entirely civil1 even though conducted in non-,catholic churches or by non-,catholic ministers1 the ,church grants permission to participate in them to some extent1 if there is sufficient reason4 #ige4 ,among the mixed occasions just mentioned are not included such as have an anti-,catholic or anti-religious spirit1 such as funerals from which all manifestations of religion are excluded on account of hatred of religion1 entertainments held by forbidden societies in which the members are present in regalia1 picnics under the auspices of the ,orangemen1 etc4 #igf4 ,cooperation in ,religious ,activities4--,a third danger of making external profession of a false religion is cooperation in activities whose tendency or principles are erroneous 7see #idd74 ,cooperation in a false religion is of two kinds1 immediate and mediate4 7a7 ,cooperation is immediate1 when one takes a part in an act of a false religion itself 7e4g41 by worshipping an idol74 ,this kind of cooperation was discussed above1 as participation or communication 7see #ief-ige74 7b7 ,cooperation is mediate1 when one takes part1 not in an act of a false religion1 but in some other act which is a preparation for a help to the act of a false religion4 ,this is the kind of cooperation we are now considering4 #igg4 ,mediate cooperation is of various kinds4 7a7 ,it is proximate or remote1 according as the preparation or help afforded to false religion is near to or far from the religious act4 ,thus1 to make ready the lights1 incense1 flowers1 etc4 in front of an idol is proximate cooperation2 to give money to an idolatrous priest or bonze is remote cooperation4 7b7 ,mediate cooperation is material or formal1 according as the intention of the cooperator is to share in or help error itself1 or merely to help those who are in error1 while disapproving of their error4 ,thus1 if one prepares a pagan temple for worship or contributes money towards its maintenance because one's sympathies are with its idolatry1 one's cooperation is formal2 if one does these things only in order to make a living or to show friendship to an individual pagan1 one's cooperation is material4 ,it is clear that formal cooperation is a grave sin against faith1 and hence we shall speak now only of material cooperation4 #igh4 ,the principles governing the lawfulness of material cooperation will be treated at length below in their proper place among the sins opposed to charity4 ,but since1 on account of the mixed conditions of society today1 there are innumerable cases of material cooperation in religion1 it will be useful to state in advance in this place the principles bearing on material cooperation and their application to cases on religion and worship4 ,the principles are the same as those given for an act that has two effects1 one good and the other bad4 ,hence1 material cooperation is not lawful1 except when the following conditions are present3 7a7 ,the action of him who cooperates must be good in itself or at least indifferent1 for of course1 if it is evil1 it is not lawful4 ,thus1 if a person were to give to one pagan temple objects he had stolen from another temple1 his action would be intrinsically sinful on account of the theft4 ,similarly1 if a person were to contribute to a collection list as 8sympathizer0 with a school for the propagation of atheism or as 8beneficiary0 from the sacrifices to be offered an idol1 his act would be intrinsically sinful as being a promotion of error or superstition1 even though he were not really a sympathizer with atheism or a believer in idols4 7b7 ,the intention of him who cooperates must be good2 for1 if he wills to help a false religion1 he is guilty of formal cooperation2 if he wills some other wrong end1 he is guilty of some other species of sin4 ,thus1 if one who does not believe in idolatry contributes to it on account of sympathy with anti-,christian movements1 he is guilty of enmity to the truth4 7c7 ,there must be a reason for the cooperation proportionate to the gravity of the sin which will be committed by others1 to the proximity and necessity of the cooperation1 and to the obligation which one has of preventing the sin of others4 ,examples3 ,to contribute to a sect which plots the downfall of legitimate authority is never lawful1 for there is no reason of temporal or private good that can be a compensation for the destruction of the public good4 ,to contribute to the building of a ,mohammedan mosque does not require so serious a reason as to contribute to the building of a pagan temple1 for mosques are not used for idolatry4 ,a graver reason is needed to justify ringing the bell or ushering the people to their seats for a service of false worship than to justify sweeping and dusting the temple the day before the service1 for in the former case the cooperation is closer4 ,a greater reason is required to build a house of false worship1 when there is no one else to build it1 than when there are many others who will gladly build it if one refuses1 for in the former case one's cooperation is so necessary that without it the false worship cannot take place1 but not so in the latter case4 ,a much more serious reason would be required to justify parents conducting their children to a place of false worship than would be required to justify a public chauffeur in taking passengers thither2 for the parents have a special duty to guard the religion of their children4 #igi4 ,the above principles on mediate cooperation are clear enough1 but it is frequently very difficult to apply them on account of the uncertainty as to whether or not a particular act of cooperation is indifferent in itself1 or whether a particular reason for cooperation is sufficient4 ,but the following rules will help3 7a7 ,an act is indifferent or good1 when it does not tend to evil from its very nature or the circumstances1 but has purposes that are not bad4 ,it is bad when either intrinsically 7i4e41 from its nature7 or extrinsically 7i4e41 from circumstances7 it tends necessarily to evil4 ,examples3 ,a derisory image of ,christ and the manual of an obscene cult are intrinsically evil1 inasmuch as they necessarily convey error or immorality4 ,to draw up plans for a temple of idolaters in a ,christian country would have the appearance of favoring the propagation of idolatry2 to work on the construction of a temple in a pagan country where the lending of one's labor is regarded as a sign of acceptance of paganism1 to help build a meeting house for a sect that plots the overthrow of government or religion--all these acts are indifferent in themselves 7for one may also draw plans and put up walls for good or indifferent purposes71 but from the circumstances they are evil in the cases given4 7b7 ,reasons for cooperation may be ranked as great1 greater and greatest according to the kinds of goods that are at stake1 and their sufficiency or insufficiency may be determined by measuring them with the gravity of the cooperation that is given4 ,great reasons are3 fear of serious suffering1 or of the wrath of husband or other superior1 or of loss of an opportunity to make a considerable profit4 ,greater reasons are3 fear of loss of position1 or of notable detriment to reputation or fortune1 or of severe imprisonment4 ,among the greatest reasons for cooperation in the worship of a false religion are the following3 danger of loss of life or limb1 of perpetual imprisonment1 of great dishonor1 of loss of all one's earthly possessions1 of disturbance of the public peace4 #ihj4 ,cases of cooperation in false religion that occur most frequently are3 7a7 contributions made to schools1 churches1 institutions2 7b7 labor given to buildings and objects of worship or instruction2 7c7 labor given to acts of worship or instruction4 #iha4 ,contributions to false worship are unlawful1 even apart from scandal1 danger of perversion1 and the bad intention of the cooperator in the following cases3 7a7 ,when on account of circumstances the contributions are signs of sympathy with religious errors4 ,examples3 ,titus gives many stipends for ,masses to a schismatical priest4 ,balbus1 when asked1 contributes liberally to a fund for the building of a hall under the auspices of atheists4 ,caius1 without being asked1 gives a small donation towards the erection of a pagan temple4 ,claudius sends in a subscription to the treasury of a political organization whose purpose is anti-religious1 and promises to support their ticket4 7b7 ,contributions1 even though they manifest no sympathy with religious error1 are unlawful1 when there is no reason for the cooperation1 or only an insufficient reason4 ,examples3 ,caius contributes to a pagan temple for no other reason than that he has not the heart to refuse anyone4 ,titus advertises constantly in an antireligious paper in order to help his business 7cfr4 #aecj74 #ihb4 ,if there is no bad intention on the part of the contributor1 and if the danger of scandal or perversion is excluded1 contributions are permitted under the following conditions1 of which both must be present3 7a7 ,the contribution must not be a mark of sympathy with religious error4 ,this condition will be fulfilled more readily in countries of mixed religion1 where ,catholics and non-,catholics have been long associated together1 and where non-,catholic denominations are engaged in many things other than the preaching of their doctrines1 such as works of benevolence4 ,example3 ,balbus contributes at times to the building or maintenance of ,protestant orphan asylums1 hospitals1 and schools1 in a locality where these institutions are open to all and a contribution is not regarded as a sign of agreement with sectarian purposes4 7b7 ,there must be a sufficient reason for making the contribution1 such as the common good or great private necessity4 ,examples3 ,claudius contributes to the building of a non-,catholic church1 in order that ,catholics may thus obtain exclusive use of a church till then used by ,catholics and non-,catholics alike4 ,titus buys tickets for bazaars1 lawn fetes1 oyster suppers1 dances1 picnics and other entertainments held for the benefit of non-,catholic churches1 since1 if he does not do this1 he will lose trade and his business will be injured4 #ihc4 ,the building of houses of false worship1 the production and sale of articles used in false worship1 are unlawful also in two cases3 7a7 when1 on account of circumstances1 they are a mark of approval of the false worship4 ,examples3 ,christians of ,japan were forbidden by the ,church to cooperate in the erection of altars or temples to idols1 even if threatened with death or exile1 and the reason of the prohibition seems to have been in each instance that such work was looked on and demanded as a profession of faith in paganism4 ,similarly1 the construction of non-,catholic edifices in a ,catholic country1 of a pagan temple in a ,christian country1 or of an atheistic hall1 would be signs of approbation of error4 ,it is difficult to see how one who sells idols to those who request them for purposes of idolatry does not show favor to false worship1 although he might be excused if1 under threat of great harm1 he delivered them with a protest that he was acting under compulsion2 7b7 when there is no reason1 or no sufficient reason1 for cooperation with false worship4 ,example3 ,balbus helps to build non-,catholic places of worship for no other reason than that he is asked to do so1 or that he receives good pay4 #ihd4 ,building non-,catholic temples or furnishing the appurtenances of worship1 scandal and other evil being avoided1 are lawful under two conditions as above3 7a7 the work must not be regarded as a sign of approval of false worship4 ,examples3 ,the ,church has permitted ,christians to assist in the construction of ,mohammedan mosques1 when this was done unwillingly by them and under compulsion4 ,the manufacture of statues of ,buddha or of other idols is not a sign that one approves of idolatry1 because these objects have legitimate uses1 such as adornment of palaces or art galleries4 ,similarly1 the production and distribution of emblems of a non-,catholic sect or secret society is regarded as being in itself an indifferent sect1 on account of the various uses to which such objects may be put2 7b7 there must be a reason sufficiently grave for doing this kind of work4 ,hence1 a greater reason is needed to build a pagan temple than a ,mohammedan mosque1 and graver reason to build a mosque than an heretical place of worship2 likewise1 greater reason is required to cooperate as architect than as hirer and supervisor of labor1 greater reason to cooperate as supervisor of labor than as stonecutter1 bricklayer1 etc42 greater reason is required to justify selling than making idols2 greater reason to justify selling altar cloths and breads for the ,lord's ,supper than for selling pews and stained glass windows4 ,examples3 ,since lights1 benches1 bells1 tables1 cloths1 etc41 are not necessarily intended for direct use in acts of worship1 a sufficient reason for selling them to non-,catholic churches is the profit that will be made4 ,but1 since vestments and chalices pertain directly to worship1 a more serious reason is required for selling them than business gains4 #ihe4 ,making the preparations for non-,catholic services is unlawful in the two cases given above1 that is1 when there is approval or insufficient reason4 7a7 ,if the work manifests an approval of the services1 it is unlawful4 ,such positions as sexton1 sacristan1 usher1 beadle1 church-warden1 and trustee1 imply recognition of the worship or membership in the congregation1 although the same does not seem to be true of membership in the civil corporation of a church1 nor of external offices such as janitor1 caretaker1 and attorney4 ,examples3 ,balba1 an ,anglican who is sick1 wishes her minister to bring her communion4 ,she asks her nurse1 ,titia1 who is a ,catholic1 to telephone the minister to bring communion1 and also directs ,titia to prepare an altar and assist the minister on his arrival by lighting the candles1 making responses1 etc4 ,titia may not consent1 for such immediate cooperation would mean approval of and participation in ,anglican rites4 ,claudius1 a ,catholic1 is hired by the minister of a ,protestant church to take care of the yard and garden about the church and parsonage4 ,sometimes the minister asks ,claudius to play the chimes in his church tower which call the people to the services4 ,the gardening work is indifferent1 but the playing of the chimes seems at least an unlawful cooperation1 since it is an invitation to non-,catholic worship4 7b7 ,if there is no sufficient reason for the work1 it is unlawful4 ,examples3 ,gaia1 a ,catholic1 acts as scrubwoman and cleaner in a schismatical church for no other reason than friendship for members of the altar society4 ,on certain feast days her husband1 ,caius1 a ,catholic1 takes pilgrims to the schismatical church in a bus1 only because he makes considerable profit4 #ihf4 ,making preparations for non-,catholic services1 scandal and other danger being avoided1 is lawful when the two conditions given above are present4 7a7 ,hence1 the preparations must contain no indication of approval of the services4 ,examples3 ,if ,titia1 the nurse mentioned in the previous paragraph1 called in an ,anglican nurse to receive and fulfill the orders of ,balba1 she would show that she did not herself approve of the rites1 and her act would be indifferent in itself4 ,if she could not avoid telephoning the minister without serious consequences1 it would not be unlawful for her to tell him that ,balba wished him to call4 ,she might even in great necessity prepare the table herself1 but could take no part in the rite4 ,the acts of telling the minister that a visit from him was desired and of preparing the table would not be1 in the circumstances1 approving of the rite that followed4 ,if ,claudius mentioned in the foregoing paragraph wound up the clock in the church tower1 or rang the bell at certain times to indicate the hour of the day1 his acts would be indifferent1 since they have no necessary reference to worship4 7b7 ,there must be a reason sufficiently grave for engaging in the work that prepares for the services4 ,examples3 ,if ,caia mentioned in the preceding paragraph were in great poverty and could find no other employment1 this would be a sufficient reason for her cooperation4 ,likewise1 if her husband drove a bus that carried passengers to whatever destination they desired1 and he could not refuse to let them off at the church without being dismissed or causing other like inconveniences1 he would have sufficient reason for his cooperation4 #ihg4 ,the ,commandment of ,external ,profession of ,faith4--,the third commandment of faith 7mentioned in #iah7 has been considered so far in its negative aspect--that is1 as a prohibition against the denial of truth or the profession of error4 ,it remains to consider it in its affirmative aspect--that is1 as a precept of profession of faith or of denial of error4 #ihh4 ,the ways of making profession of faith are various3 7a7 ,it is made implicitly1 if one performs acts that suppose faith2 explicitly1 if one declares in words one's internal belief4 ,thus1 a ,catholic professes his faith implicitly by observing the precepts of the ,church2 explicitly1 by reciting before others an act of faith or the ,creed4 7b7 ,the declaration of one's faith in words is made in ordinary ways1 if one affirms it to others1 privately or publicly1 or if one teaches it or defends it in debate2 it is made solemnly1 if it is recited according to a prescribed form as a ceremony4 ,thus1 a ,catholic who answers to a questioner that he is a ,catholic1 or who explains the truths of faith to an inquirer1 or who replies to the objections of an unbeliever1 makes an ordinary profession of faith2 one who reads before the bishop or other designated authority a formula prescribed by the ,church1 makes solemn profession of faith4 ,the solemn profession of faith is usually made before the altar1 on which candles are lighted2 and he who makes profession of faith kneels before the authority who receives it4 ,sometimes witnesses are present and the profession is signed4 7c7 ,the solemn profession of faith is sometimes an abjuration 7i4e41 a declaration of one's adherence to the faith of the ,church and a recantation of previous errors72 sometimes it is a declaration or oath that one rejects errors or accepts truths4 ,thus1 converts before reception into the ,church abjure the errors they formerly held2 officials in the ,church before assuming authority make a profession of faith in which they reprobate ,modernism and express their belief in the ,creed and the teachings of the ,church4 #ihi4 ,the existence of a divine precept of profession of faith is proved from revelation and intrinsic reasons1 as follows3 7a7 8,if thou confess with thy mouth the ,lord ,jesus1 and believe in thy heart that ,god hath raised ,him up from the dead1 thou shalt be saved4 ,for with the heart we believe unto justice1 but with the mouth confession is made unto salvation0 7,rom41 x4 #i1 #aj74 ,this precept obliges under grave sin1 since it is required for salvation4 7b7 ,the first reason for external profession of faith is the honor of ,god2 for it is a mark of disrespect to ,god to be ashamed or afraid to acknowledge oneself as a believer in ,his ,word or a witness to its truth1 on account of what others may think or say or do4 7c7 ,a second reason for the external profession of faith is one's own good4 ,it is well known that faith is strengthened by external acts1 and that it grows weak and decays among ,catholics who have no priests or churches or means of practising their faith4 7d7 ,a third reason for profession of faith is the good of others1 for the confession of faith is an encouragement to those who are strong in faith1 an example to those whose faith is weak1 and a light to those who have not the faith4 #iij4 ,the divine precept of profession of faith1 since it is affirmative1 does not call for fulfillment at every moment4 ,it obliges only at those times when the honor of ,god1 the ,revealer of ,truth1 or the needs of our neighbor1 who is called to the truth1 demand that one declare externally one's internal belief4 7a7 ,the honor of ,god demands a confession of faith1 when a refusal to give it signifies that one does not accept the truths revealed by ,god1 that revelation contains error1 etc4 7b7 ,the needs of our neighbor demand a confession of faith1 when a refusal to give it will prevent another from embracing the faith1 or will cause him to lose it or give up its practices1 etc4 #iia4 ,the honor of ,god or the good of the neighbor calls for an external profession of faith at the following times3 7a7 when a person is joining the ,church or returning to it1 for the ,church is a visible society and membership in it should be visible2 7b7 when a ,catholic is interrogated about his faith1 for here the honor of ,god and the good of others require that he be not ashamed of ,christ or ,his ,words 7,luke1 ix4 #bf71 and that he should cause his light to shine before men 7,matt41 v4 #af72 7c7 when a ,catholic is in the company of others who are ridiculing or calumniating the faith1 and a protest is looked for from him on account of his authority1 knowledge1 etc4 #iib4 ,the profession of faith made by one who is joining the ,church must be external1 but the same publicity is not necessary for every case4 7a7 ,secret profession of faith is made when the reception of a convert is known only to himself and the priest who received him4 ,this is permitted only in grave necessity1 when the spiritual good of the convert requires it1 and no injury is done to the honor of ,god or the ,welfare of the neighbor4 ,example3 ,titus is dying and wishes to be baptized1 but for an important reason he is unwilling to have the fact of his conversion disclosed4 ,father ,balbus1 therefore1 baptizes without witnesses4 7b7 ,private profession of faith is made when the reception of a convert is made before the priest and two witnesses1 but the fact of the conversion is not made known to others on account of circumstances4 ,this is permitted only for a short time and for serious reasons 7see #icb1 #iic71 as the task of concealing one's faith for a long time is most difficult and is dangerous to faith itself4 ,example3 ,caius is a pagan who wishes to become a ,catholic1 but is kept back on account of dangers from his fellow-pagans1 who will persecute him as an apostate4 ,he1 therefore1 asks to be received as a secret ,christian1 with liberty to profess no religion externally4 ,this may be permitted for a time1 until ,caius can move to some other place1 but it cannot be permitted permanently4 7c7 ,public profession of faith is made when the reception of a convert is made before the priest and two witnesses1 and the convert thereafter makes it known that he is a ,catholic by attending ,mass1 receiving the ,sacraments1 etc4 ,this kind of profession of faith is ordinarily required1 but there is no law making it necessary for a convert to publish the news of his conversion4 #iic4 ,a difficult case occurs when one who wishes to become a convert is unable to make public profession of ,catholicity without suffering very great detriment1 and is unable to make private profession without continuing in external practices of the non-,catholic religion4 ,an example of this would be a non-,catholic girl who is threatened with destitution by her parents if she becomes a ,catholic openly1 and who knows that she will be forced to go to church with them if she becomes a ,catholic privately4 ,there are three courses in such a case3 7a7 public profession of ,catholicism at once could be advised if the party showed signs of a special divine call and of a heroism equal to the difficulties the public profession would entail2 7b7 private profession of ,catholicism could be tolerated for a time1 if the party was of such age and circumstances as to appear able to cope successfully with the temptations and perplexities that beset this course2 7c7 delay of ,baptism until things take a better turn would be the most prudent plan1 if the deprivation of spiritual advantages would in the long run prove a lesser evil than the inconveniences of public or private profession of ,catholicism4 #iid4 ,examination about one's religious status refers either to one's faith1 or to something not necessarily connected with faith4 7a7 ,when a person is examined about his faith 7e4g41 whether he is a ,catholic1 whether he believes in the doctrine of the ,real ,presence1 or in ,papal ,infallibility71 profession of faith is obligatory1 if its omission is equivalent to denial4 7b7 ,when he is examined about something not necessarily connected with faith1 denial or concealment of the truth would not be denial of faith1 and concealment might be lawful1 if the question were unfair4 ,evasion would be sinful1 if the denial or concealment contained a lie or caused scandal4 ,examples3 ,if a missionary in ,england or ,ireland in the sixteenth century had refused to admit that he was a priest or religious1 or a layman had refused to confess that he had harbored a priest in his house or had assisted at ,mass1 these denials would not necessarily contain a denial of the faith4 #iie4 ,examination about one's faith is made either by a private person or by public authority4 7a7 ,when a person is questioned about his religious belief by a private person1 he is not bound by reason of the question itself to make a profession of his faith1 for a private person has no authority to call upon one in the capacity of a solemn and public witness2 but he is bound to make a profession of faith by reason of circumstances1 if the honor of ,god or the good of his neighbor requires that he declare his belief4 ,examples3 ,titius is known as a very iniquisitive and meddlesome character1 who is continually asking others about their personal affairs and putting silly questions4 ,wherefore1 those who know him are accustomed to pay no attention to his questions1 or to tell him to mind his business1 or to give him some humorous reply4 ,one day ,titius asked ,balbus1 whom he knew very well to be a ,catholic3 8,what is your religion80 ,balbus retorted3 8,what is yours80 and left him4 ,caius is studying ,christianity with a view to embracing it1 and asks ,sempronius' opinion on miracles4 ,sempronius1 fearing the ridicule of some others present if he admits belief in miracles1 says that he knows nothing about that subject4 ,balbus had a right to deny an answer to his questioner2 but ,sempronius should have replied for the edification of ,caius and the honor of ,god4 7b7 ,when a person is questioned about his religious belief by public authority1 his obligation to make a profession of faith is certain1 if the questioner has the right according to law to ask the question1 and if it is made to one individually and out of hatred of the faith2 for to this case apply the words of ,christ3 8,you shall be brought before governors and kings for ,my sake1 for a testimony to them and to the ,gentiles0 7,matt41 x4 #ah74 #iif4 ,in the following cases1 one is not bound to confession of faith on account of the public authority that puts the question1 although one may be bound on account of the circumstances3 7a7 ,when the question is not put to an individual1 but to a whole community1 by a law which requires them in time of persecution to deliver themselves up as ,christians or ,catholics1 there is no obligation to comply with this law1 since it is unjust1 and neither the honor of ,god nor the good of others requires one to make the profession of faith it demands 7see #cgg1 #eeb74 7b7 ,when the question is put to an individual by one in authority but contrary to the law of the land1 there is no obligation to answer4 ,thus1 if according to civil law the magistrates have no right to examine about matters of conscience and one of them should nevertheless do so1 the party questioned could treat the question as out of order and deny any answer4 7c7 ,when the question is made according to law1 but does not proceed from hatred of the faith1 one is not obliged positively to profess one's faith1 unless the omission would seem to those present to be a denial of faith4 ,thus1 a person might remain silent1 or say that he did not wish to answer1 that he did not wish to say what his belief was1 etc41 and in the circumstances it would seem that he would not be denying his faith1 but merely for some reason refusing to discuss it when he thought there was no necessity4 #iig4 ,the third case mentioned above 7see #iia71 in which one is obliged to profess one's faith publicly1 is when the faith is4 being attacked in one's presence4 ,the honor of ,god and the good of the neighbor then require one to speak out4 7a7 ,thus1 if the doctrines of the faith are being blasphemed or ridiculed1 one should defend them1 if one is able4 ,otherwise1 one should protest or leave the company1 if this will be advantageous to religion4 7b7 ,if sacred things are being profaned1 one should resist physically1 if one is able to prevent what is going on4 #iih4 ,debates on religion between ,catholics and non-,catholics are not in themselves wrong1 but as a rule they are useless and inexpedient4 7a7 ,that such debates are not essentially wrong1 is clear from the fact that a suitable defender of the faith is able by argumentation to show the misconceptions that are entertained about the faith and the fallacious objections that are made against it4 ,this is honorable to ,god and profitable to the neighbor3 8,saul confounded the ,jews that dwelt at ,damascus1 affirming that this is the ,christ 4444 ,he spoke also to the ,gentiles and disputed with the ,greeks0 7,acts1 ix4 #bb1 #bi74 7b7 ,that controversy is generally unprofitable is a matter of experience4 ,religious debates often lead to bitterness1 and seldom effect conversions4 ,there is1 moreover1 an ever-present danger that the sophistry or eloquence of an adversary may give him the appearance of victory to the discredit of the faith1 for even a foolish person can raise difficulties which only a wise man can answer4 #iii4 ,consequently the rule governing religious disputations is that they should be avoided1 unless ecclesiastical authority deems them useful at times4 7a7 ,if no provocation is offered1 or if no good seems likely to result from a debate1 it should be avoided4 7b7 ,if one is attacked and it seems that the honor of ,god and the good of souls will be served by a debate1 then capable and prudent speakers are permitted by the ,church to defend the faith1 provided permission is secured from the ,holy ,see1 or1 in case of urgency1 from the local ,ordinary 7,canon #acbe1 ,sec4#c74 ,the prescriptions of this ,canon were reaffirmed recently by the ,holy ,office and applied especially to 8ecumenical0 conventions convoked to promote church unity4 ,catholics1 both lay and clerical1 may in no way be present at such meetings without the previous consent of the ,holy ,see 7,holy ,office1 ,monitum1 ,june #e1 #aidh74 ,see ,appendix ,,ii4 #ajjj4 ,the divine precept of profession of faith so far considered obliges on account of the virtue of faith itself1 that is1 on account of the external honor or service due to the ,word of ,god4 ,there is also a divine precept of profession of faith which obliges on account of other virtues that may require such a profession of faith to be made 7e4g41 on account of charity or justice74 ,the omission of the profession of faith in these cases1 however1 is not a sin against faith1 but against the other virtues1 and should be confessed as such4 7a7 ,justice requires a profession of faith when1 by reason of his office1 a person has the duty of teaching others in the faith1 for to teach the faith is to manifest one's own belief in it4 ,hence1 bishops and other pastors are obliged to preach3 8,woe is unto me1 if ,i preach not the ,gospel0 7,i ,cor41 ix4 #af72 and their teaching is a manifestation of faith3 8,having the same spirit of faith1 as it is written3 ,i believed1 for which cause ,i have spoken2 we also believe1 and therefore we speak also0 7,,ii ,cor41 iv41 #ac74 7b7 ,charity requires a profession of faith when a person has not the office of teacher1 but has a suitable opportunity to impart instruction to one who is in great ignorance about religion4 ,for1 as charity requires one to perform corporal works of mercy for the suffering and destitute1 so it requires one to perform spiritual works of mercy for the spiritually indigent1 such as to instruct the ignorant1 to counsel the doubtful4 ,thus1 a lay person who can prudently do so 7the circumstances of time1 place1 person1 etc41 being duly considered71 ought in charity to instruct in faith and morals the neglected children around him4 #ajja4 ,one is not bound to give instruction about matters of faith or morals when this would lead to more harm than good2 but misrepresentation must be avoided4 7a7 ,the purpose of instruction is to fulfill the will of ,god and to benefit others2 therefore1 if these ends are not obtained but rather defeated by an instruction1 it should be omitted4 ,the truth is always good in itself1 but its communication may not be expedient on account of the recipient1 who1 being immature1 may be harmed by the wrong impression he will receive1 or who1 being badly disposed1 may use knowledge as a means to wrongdoing4 ,strong meat should not be given to infants 7,heb41 vi4 #aa-ad72 pearls should not be cast before swine 7,matt41 vii4 #f74 ,examples3 ,the mysteries of the faith 7e4g41 transubstantiation71 should be explained with caution to those who are not well instructed1 lest they be overwhelmed with the brightness and misunderstand4 ,difficult matters 7such as predestination7 or dangerous subjects 7such as sex duties7 should not be discussed indiscriminately with all kinds of persons4 ,it is not right to instruct those who are in ignorance of their duty1 if this is not absolutely necessary and one foresees that instruction will not prevent them from continuing in evil ways but will only add to their guilt4 ,it is wrong to put the ,bible into the hands of those who will use it for bad purposes4 7b7 ,misrepresentation or suppression is a lie1 and in matters of doctrine a denial of faith2 hence1 it is never lawful4 ,the rule to be followed1 therefore1 in teaching the faith is that one communicate the same doctrine to all1 but according to the capacity of his hearers--to some in outline and to others more fully4 ,this was the method of ,christ1 who 8with many parables spoke to them the word1 according as they were able to hear0 7,mark1 iv4 #cc74 #ajjb4 ,the ,church has the duty not only of keeping the faith untarnished among ,catholics1 but also of spreading it among non-,catholics1 ,protestants1 ,jews and infidels1 as far as circumstances will allow4 ,for ,god 8,will have all men to be saved1 and to come to the knowledge of the truth0 7,i ,tim41 ii4 #d74 ,those1 therefore1 who assist missionary work for unbelievers at home or abroad1 do a work thrice blest1 for 7a7 it is a thanksgiving offering to ,god1 testifying our appreciation of the gift of faith which we have received from ,him1 7b7 it is a work of charity to ourselves1 for by helping others to receive the faith we strengthen our own faith1 and 7c7 it is an act of supreme mercy to those who are sitting in darkness and the shadow of death4 #ajjc1 ,in addition to the divine precepts1 there are also ecclesiastical laws prescribing profession of faith4 7a7 ,ecclesiastical precepts of profession of faith for various officials are contained in ,canon #adjf and in the ,sacrorum ,antistitum of ,pius ,x 7,september #a1 #aiaj71 and ,canon #bdjc decrees that those who contumaciously refuse to make the profession of faith of ,canon #adjf may be deprived of their office4 ,converts to the faith who are received without absolute ,baptism make an abjuration 7,holy ,office1 ,july #bj1 #ahei71 and persons who have incurred excommunication on account of apostasy1 heresy or schism are absolved in the external forum after juridical abjuration 7,canon #bcad74 7b7 ,the purpose of these ecclesiastical laws is to prevent the acceptance of spiritual or temporal jurisdiction or authority in the ,church1 or the commission of teaching or the benefits of membership by those who are unbelievers4 ,hence1 the purpose is grave1 and the laws themselves are held to bind under grave sin4 7c7 ,the persons bound by these ecclesiastical laws are both ecclesiastics and laymen1 namely1 those who are about to be received into or reconciled with the ,church1 and those who are about to be admitted to some dignity1 order1 office or function 7such as candidates for the ranks of ,cardinal1 bishop1 canon1 parish priest1 religious superior1 professor1 preacher1 confessor1 doctor1 etc74 7d7 ,the form of the profession of faith is the ,tridentine or ,pian given in the ,bull of ,pius ,,iv1 ,injunctum ,nobis1 of ,november #ac1 #aefd1 with additions referring to the ,vatican ,council4 ,the oath against ,modernism prescribed in the ,sacrorum ,antistitum of ,pius ,x1 of ,september #a1 #aiaj1 is also obligatory4 7e7 ,the times when these professions of faith must be made are at admission into the ,church and at the reception or renewal of an office4 #ajjd4 ,the affirmative precepts of profession of faith1 divine and ecclesiastical1 oblige only at the proper time and place1 and therefore on other occasions one is not obliged to make profession of faith4 7a7 ,hence1 one may avoid a profession of faith by evading interrogation in time of persecution--for example1 through the payment of money to be exempted from examination1 or through flight4 ,as these acts indicate that the person is unwilling to deny his faith1 but has reasons for wishing to preserve his life or to avoid the danger of apostasy1 they are not of themselves unlawful1 and may be a duty4 7b7 ,one may omit a profession of faith by concealing one's religion1 when prudence calls for concealment rather than publication4 #ajje4 ,flight in time of persecution is lawful or unlawful according to circumstances1 since in itself it is something indifferent1 being simply the act of moving from one place to another4 7a7 ,flight is unlawful1 if one's circumstances are such that one will do an injury to justice or charity by departure4 ,hence1 a pastor would sin against justice if he fled in time of persecution1 leaving his flock who stood in need of his presence3 8,the good shepherd giveth his life for his sheep4 ,but the hireling and he that is not the shepherd1 seeth the wolf coming1 and leaveth the sheep and flieth0 7,john1 x4 #aa1 #ab74 ,hence also1 one who has no care of souls but whose presence is necessary to a persecuted community should prefer out of charity their spiritual good to his own bodily safety3 8,we ought to lay down our lives for the brethren0 7,i ,john1 iii4 #af74 7b7 ,flight is necessary1 if one's circumstances are such that one will do an injury to justice or charity by remaining4 ,hence1 if a pastor's life is necessary for his flock1 while his absence can be supplied by others who will take his place1 justice to his subjects requires that he save his life for their sake4 ,thus1 for the good of souls ,st4 ,peter escaped from prison 7,acts1 xii4 #ag sqq472 ,st4 ,paul fled from ,damascus 7,acts1 ix4 #bd1 #be72 our ,lord ,himself hid when the ,jews took up stones to cast at ,him 7,john1 viii4 #ei74 ,similarly1 if a person is very fearful lest his courage may fail him if he is brought before the persecutors1 charity to self requires that he take flight so as to escape the danger of apostasy4 7c7 ,flight is permissible1 if there is no duty to remain and no duty to depart3 8,when they shall persecute you in this city1 flee into another0 7,matt41 x4 #bc74 ,hence1 if one's presence is useful but not necessary in time of persecution1 it is lawful for one to flee4 ,some authorities hold that the desertion of ,jesus by the disciples during the ,passion was not sinful flight4 #ajjf4 ,to refuse to flee when flight is permissible1 is usually not advisable1 for this is dangerous for most persons4 ,it would be advisable1 however1 if a person had strong and prudent confidence of his victory1 had the right intention1 and used the means to prepare himself for the struggle4 #ajjg4 ,concealment of one's faith is lawful1 if the requisite conditions are present4 7a7 ,thus1 it is not lawful to conceal one's faith at times when a profession of it is called for by divine or ecclesiastical law 7see #iia1 #ajjc72 at other times it is lawful4 ,example3 ,titus is travelling in a country where there are no ,catholic churches1 and where no one ever asks him about his religion4 ,he never tells anyone what he is4 7b7 ,it is not lawful to conceal one's faith from a dishonest motive4 ,example3 ,if ,titus conceals his religion in order not to be unjustly discriminated against1 his motive is good2 but if he wishes to be taken for a non-,catholic1 his motive is evil4 7c7 ,it is not lawful to conceal one's faith in a sinful way4 ,example3 ,if the means of concealment employed by ,titus imply deception or denial of the faith 7such as lying about his origin and active participation in non-,catholic worship71 he is guilty of sinful concealment4 ,but1 if the means employed are permissible 7such as silence about himself1 omission of grace before and after meals1 eating meat on ,fridays in virtue of dispensation1 etc471 his method of concealment is not sinful4 #ajjh4 ,generally speaking1 concealment of one's religion is not advisable4 7a7 ,the reasons for concealment are often imaginary1 rather than real4 ,we see that ,catholics who are not ashamed of their religion1 or afraid to have it known that they practise it1 are respected for their sincerity and conscientiousness even in bigoted regions1 while on the contrary those who are apologetic or who do not live up to their religion are looked down on as cowards or hypocrites4 7b7 ,the means employed for concealment will cause endless doubts and scruples1 for it is often difficult to decide what means are lawful and what unlawful4 ,art4 #d3 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,hope 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #ag-bb47 #ajji4 ,definition4--,the word 8hope0 is variously used4 7a7 ,in a wide and improper sense1 it signifies the expectation of some wished-for evil1 or desire without expectation4 ,hence1 colloquially one hopes for misfortune to another 7hope of a future evil71 or that another has succeeded or is in good health 7hope of past or present good71 or that some unlooked-for fortune will turn up 7hope without expectation74 7b7 ,in its strict and proper sense1 hope signifies the expectation of some desired good in the future4 ,thus1 one hopes to pass an examination1 or to recover from illness4 #ajaj4 ,hope1 strictly understood1 is of various kinds4 7a7 ,it is an emotion or an affection1 according as it proceeds from the sensitive or the rational appetite4 ,the emotion of hope is an inclination of the irascible appetite to possess some object known through the senses and apprehended as good and attainable1 and is found both in man and in the brutes4 ,the affection of hope is a spiritual inclination1 tending to good as known through the reason4 7b7 ,hope is either natural or supernatural1 according as it tends either to goods that are temporal and within the power of man to acquire1 or to goods that are eternal and above the unaided powers of creatures4 ,it is in this latter sense that hope is now taken4 #ajaa4 ,supernatural hope is understood1 sometimes in a wide sense1 sometimes in a strict sense4 7a7 ,in a wide sense1 it is used objectively to designate the object1 material or formal1 of hope4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,paul is speaking of the material object of hope 7i4e41 of the things hoped for71 when he says3 8,hope that is seen is not hope0 7,rom41 viii4 #bd71 8,looking for the blessed hope0 7,tit41 ii4 #ac72 while the ,psalmist is speaking of the formal object of hope 7i4e41 the motive of hope71 when he says3 8,thou hast been my hope1 a tower of strength against the face of the enemy0 7,ps4 lx4 #d74 7b7 ,in a strict sense1 hope is used subjectively to designate the act or habit of hope4 ,the act of hope is spoken of in the following texts3 8,we are saved by hope0 7,rom41 viii4 #bd72 8,rejoicing in hope0 7,rom41 vii4 #ab74 ,the habit of hope is indicated in these verses from ,job and ,st4 ,paul3 8,this my hope is laid up in my bosom0 7,job1 xix4 #bg72 8,there remain faith1 hope1 charity1 these three0 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #ac74 ,hope is now taken in the strict sense1 as a virtue or infused habit1 from which proceed supernatural acts4 #ajab4 ,the virtue of hope is defined3 8,an infused habit1 by which we confidently expect to obtain1 through the help of ,god1 the reward of everlasting life40 7a7 ,it is 8an infused habit40 ,these words express the genus to which hope belongs1 and they set it apart from the emotion and the affection of hope1 as well as from any acquired habit of hoping for purely natural goods4 ,a natural virtue of hope1 strengthening the will with reference to natural happiness1 is not necessary in any state of man1 fallen or unfallen1 for the will does not stand in need of a superadded virtue with respect to those things that fall within its proper sphere of action4 7b7 ,hope is a habit 8by which we expect1 etc40 ,these words express the specific subjective elements of hope1 that is1 the powers of the soul in which it resides and the kinds of acts it performs4 7c7 8,through the help of ,god40 ,these words express the formal object or motive of hope4 7d7 8,the rewards of eternal life40 ,these words express the material object of hope1 that is1 the thing that is hoped for4 #ajac4 ,there is a general similarity between the virtue of hope and natural hope as regards their objects and acts4 7a7 ,natural hope is the result of a love of some good1 and so differs from fear1 which is the dread of some evil4 ,similarly1 the virtue of hope springs from a love of heavenly goods 7,rom41 viii4 #bd1 #be74 7b7 ,natural hope has to do with a good that is absent1 and it is therefore desire1 not enjoyment4 ,similarly1 the virtue of hope looks forward to goods not as yet attained3 8,we hope for that which we see not1 we wait for it with patience0 7,rom1 viii4 #be74 7c7 ,natural hope1 unlike mere desire1 seeks a good whose attainment is not certain or easy1 and hence it presupposes courage4 ,similarly1 the virtue of hope demands strength of soul3 8,do ye manfully and let your heart be strengthened1 all ye that hope in the ,lord0 7,ps4 xxx4 #be74 7d7 ,natural hope tends towards an objective1 which1 while difficult1 is not impossible2 hence1 it expects with confidence1 for1 when an object of desire is impossible1 one does not hope for it1 but despairs4 ,the virtue of hope also is confident3 8,hold fast the glory and confidence of hope unto the end0 7,heb4 iii4 #f74 #ajad4 ,christian hope is superior to natural hope1 because it is a supernatural virtue4 7a7 ,it is a virtue1 since its acts are commanded by ,god1 and through it the will is directed to its beatitude and the secure means of realizing its lofty aspirations3 8,i have inclined my heart to do ,thy justifications for ever1 for the reward0 7,ps4 cxviii4 #aab72 8,trust in the ,lord1 and do good0 7,ps1 xxxvi4 #c74 7b7 ,christian hope is a supernatural virtue1 since through it man is sanctified and saved3 8,i 7,wisdom7 am the mother of holy hope0 7,ecclus41 xxiv4 #bd72 ,god 8hath regenerated us into a lively hope0 7,i ,pet41 i4 #c72 8,we are saved by hope0 7,rom41 viii4 #bd72 8,everyone that hath this hope in ,him sanctifieth himself0 7,i ,john1 iii4 #c74 #ajae4 ,though hope seeks its own reward1 it is not therefore mercenary or egotistic4 ,experience shows that hope produces idealism and self-sacrifice1 while the lack of it leads to engrossment in the things of time and sense and to selfishness4 7a7 ,thus1 the hope of the just man is not separated from charity1 and hence he loves ,god above all1 and his neighbor as himself3 8,i have inclined my heart to do ,thy justifications forever1 for the reward0 7,ps4 cxviii4 #aab74 7b7 ,the hope of the sinner is a preparation for charity1 since he must desire charity as a means to the beatitude he wishes3 8,he that hopeth in the ,lord shall be healed0 7,prov41 xxviii4 #be74 #ajaf4 ,just as faith is divided into living and dead faith1 so hope is divided into animated and inanimated hope4 7a7 ,animated hope is that to which is joined the state of grace and charity1 and which is thereby perfect as a virtue and meritorious4 ,this hope is stronger1 because we hope more confidently from friends4 ,an act of animated hope is more perfect when commanded by the virtue of charity1 less perfect when not so commanded--that is1 he who makes an act of hope out of love of ,god performs a better work than he who makes an act of hope out of some other motive 7such as self-encouragement74 7b7 ,inanimated hope is that to which the state of grace and charity is not joined1 and which therefore is an imperfect virtue and not meritorious4 #ajag4 ,the following divisions of hope made by the ,quietists are not admissible3 7a7 ,the division of hope into natural hope 7which seeks its own good1 and which is permitted to the ordinary faithful7 and supernatural hope 7which is entirely disinterested1 and which is necessary for the perfect7 contains ,rigorism2 for since natural hope is of no avail towards justification or for merit1 it would follow that without disinterested love of ,god one could not obtain forgiveness1 nor could an act be meritorious4 7b7 ,the division of hope into two supernatural species1 the one disinterested 7which desires heavenly goods for the glory of ,god alone7 and the other interested 7which desires heavenly goods for the advantage of self71 is useless2 for acts of disinterested love belong to charity1 not to hope 7,denz41 #acbg-acdi74 #ajah4 ,the ,object of ,hope4--,by the object of hope we mean three things3 7a7 the good that is hoped for 7material object1 the end which is intended72 7b7 the person for whom that good is hoped 7the end for whom72 7c7 the ground or foundation of hope 7formal object74 #ajai4 ,the material object of hope is twofold1 namely1 the primary object1 which is desired for its own sake1 and the secondary1 which is desired on account of the primary object4 7a7 ,the primary object of hope is ,god ,himself1 the infinite good1 considered as our ,last ,end and ,beatitude 7,ps4 lxxii4 #be74 ,connoted in this object is the beatific vision1 the finite act by means of which the creature attains to the possession of ,god4 ,the primary object of our hope is the imperishable crown 7,i ,cor41 ix4 #be71 glory 7,col41 i4 #bg71 the glory of the children of ,god 7,rom41 v4 #b71 salvation 7,i ,thess41 v4 #h71 eternal life 7,tit41 i4 #b71 entrance into the holy of holies 7,heli1 x4 #ai1 #bc71 the inheritance incorruptible and undefiled that cannot fade1 reserved in heaven 7,i ,pet41 i4 #d71 the vision of ,god 7,i ,john1 iii4 #c74 ,it is this object especially that distinguishes supernatural from natural hope 7,i ,cor41 xv4 #ai74 8,from ,god10 says ,st4 ,thomas 7,,ii-,,ii1 q4 #ag1 a4 #b71 8we should expect nothing less than ,god ,himself40 7b7 ,the secondary object of hope embraces all those created things that assist one to attain one's ,last ,end4 ,we may hope for all those things for which we may pray1 as ,st4 ,augustine remarks4 #ajbj4 ,the primary object of hope includes3 7a7 essential beatitude1 that is1 the beatific vision2 7b7 accessory beatitude1 that is1 all resultant joys1 such as glory of soul and body1 the companionship of the ,saints1 security from harm1 and the like4 #ajba4 ,the secondary object of hope includes3 7a7 spiritual goods1 such as graces2 7b7 temporal goods1 such as health and the means that will enable us1 at least indirectly1 to work for the life to come and acquire merit2 7c7 deliverance from evils that would hinder spiritual goods2 7d7 all that promotes one's salvation1 such as labors for ,god4 #ajbb4 ,the person for whom eternal life is hoped may be either oneself or one's neighbor4 7a7 ,absolutely speaking 7i4e41 apart from the supposition of friendship towards a neighbor71 a person can hope only for himself2 for the salvation of others is not attained by him1 but by them2 and thus1 if there is no bond of affection1 it cannot arouse in him that feeling of courageous confidence which belongs to hope4 7b7 ,accidentally 7i4e41 on the supposition of friendship or charity towards others71 one can hope for them2 for love makes a person regard the good of others as his own4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,paul is hopeful for the perseverance of the ,philippians 7,phil41 i4 #f71 and he labors for the ,corinthians that his hope for them may be steadfast 7,,ii ,cor41 i4 #g74 #ajbc4 ,the formal object of hope is twofold1 namely1 the primary object1 which is the principal cause that effects our salvation1 and the secondary object1 which is a secondary or instrumental cause of salvation4 7a7 ,the primary motive of hope is ,god ,himself1 the ,author of salvation1 and hence it is said3 8,cursed be the man that trusteth in man0 7,jer1 xvii4 #e74 7b7 ,the secondary motive of hope are creatures by whom one is assisted in obtaining the means for salvation 7such as the ,saints1 who aid us by their intercessions74 ,thus1 in the ,salve ,regina1 our ,lady is addressed as 8our hope40 ,the merits of ,christ and our own merits1 since they are instruments used by ,god1 are motives of hope4 #ajbd4 ,on what divine attribute is the virtue of hope based8 7a7 ,essentially1 hope is based on ,god's character of omnipotent helper2 for the specific and differentiating note of this virtue is its courageous confidence1 and this1 in view of the surpassing height one expects to attain and the feebleness of all created efforts1 must rely on the assistance of ,one who is equal to the task3 8,the ,lord is my rock and my strength4 ,god is my strong ,one1 in ,him will ,i trust0 7,,ii ,kings1 xxii4 #b1 #c72 8,you have hoped in the ,lord ,mighty forever0 7,is41 xxvi4 #d72 8,the name of the ,lord is a strong tower2 the just runneth to it and shall be exalted0 7,prov4 xviii4 #aj74 7b7 ,secondary 7i4e41 as regards acts that it presupposes1 or that are connected with it71 hope is concerned with other divine attributes4 ,thus1 a person does not hope unless he first believes that ,god has promised beatitude and that ,he is true to ,his promises1 unless he regards beatitude as something desirable2 and so he who hopes has placed his dependence on the loyalty of ,god to ,his given word1 and on the desirability of ,god as the prize of life's efforts3 8,let us hold fast the confession of our hope without wavering1 for ,he is faithful that hath promised0 7,heb41 x4 #bc72 8,unto the hope of life everlasting1 which ,god1 who lieth not1 hath promised before the times of the world0 7,tit41 i4 #b72 8,the ,lord is my portion1 therefore will ,i wait for ,him0 7,lam41 iii4 #bd72 8,fear not1 ,i am thy reward1 exceeding great0 7,gen41 xv4 #a74 ,just as faith presupposes a beginning of belief and a pious inclination towards it1 so does hope presuppose faith and the love of ,god1 as ,he is our beatitude4 #ajbe4 ,omnipotent divine help as the foundation of hope can be understood in two senses3 7a7 ,it may be taken for some created help1 that is1 for some gift of ,god possessed by us 7such as habitual or actual grace1 merits1 virtues1 etc74 ,it is not in this sense that divine help is called the motive of hope2 for even a sinner can and should hope1 and the just man's merits1 while they are dispositions for beatitude1 are not a principal cause that will conduct him to it4 7b7 ,this divine help may be taken for uncreated help1 that is1 for the act by which ,god confers ,his gifts upon us4 ,in this sense only is divine aid the basis of hope4 ,for if a person is asked why he is confident of salvation1 he will not answer1 8,because ,i am in the state of grace and do good works10 but 8,because ,i know that ,god will help me40 #ajbf4 ,the divine perfections included in the title of helper now given to ,god are3 7a7 essentially1 the almighty power of ,god2 for this is the immediate and sufficient reason for the confident expectation that one will at last possess the same object of felicity as ,god ,himself4 ,the higher and more difficult the goal one sets before oneself1 the greater must be the resources on which one counts for success2 7b7 secondarily1 these perfections include the infinite kindness of ,god2 for it is the goodness of ,god that prompts ,him to employ ,his omnipotence in assisting creatures to attain their ,last ,end4 ,man has hope1 therefore1 of attaining supreme felicity1 because he relies on supreme power to aid him1 while this supreme power aids him1 because it is directed by infinite goodness and mercy4 ,thus1 the ,psalmist says3 8,i have trusted in ,thy mercy0 7,ps4 xii4 #f74 ,just as faith rests proximately on the reliability of ,god and remotely on ,his perfection of being1 so hope rests proximately on ,god's almighty power and radically on ,his goodness and perfection4 #ajbg4 ,the ,excellence of ,hope4--,hope is a theological virtue1 and is therefore superior to the moral virtues4 7a7 ,it is a theological virtue1 inasmuch as it tends immediately to ,god ,himself4 ,as was said above 7see #ajai1 #ajbc71 we hope for ,god and we hope in ,god3 8,in ,god is my salvation and my glory4 ,he is the ,god of my help1 and my hope is in ,god0 7,ps4 lxi4 #h72 8,what is my hope8 ,is it not the ,lord80 7,ps4 xxxviii4 #h72 8,in ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 have ,i hoped0 7,ps4 xxx4 #a74 ,hence1 the ,apostle numbers hope along with the other theological virtues 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #ac74 8,by faith the house of ,god receives its foundations1 by hope it is reared1 by charity it is completed0 7,st4 ,augustine1 ,serm4 xxvii41 #a74 7b7 ,the two moral virtues that most resemble hope are longsuffering and magnanimity1 for the former is the expectation of good that is distant1 while the latter is the readiness to encounter difficulties in the quest of high ideals4 ,but these two virtues belong to courage1 rather than to hope2 for the goods they seek are finite1 and the difficulty they encounter is external struggle1 whereas the good which hope seeks is infinite1 and the difficulty lies in the very greatness of that good4 #ajbh4 ,there are various points of view from which virtues may be compared one with another4 7a7 ,one virtue is prior to another in duration1 when it precedes the latter in time4 ,thus1 the natural virtues that pagans have before their conversion are prior in duration to the supernatural virtues that are received in ,baptism4 7b7 ,one virtue is prior to another by nature1 or in the order of generation1 when it is the necessary preparation or disposition for that other1 which essentially presupposes it4 ,thus1 the intellectual virtues are naturally prior to justice1 for a man cannot will to give others their due1 unless he first knows that this is his duty4 7c7 ,one virtue is prior to another virtue in excellence as a habit1 when it has an object that is more elevated and comprehensive1 and when it is fitted to be the guide of the other virtue4 ,for the standard of comparison of habits must be taken from the objects to which they tend1 and from which they derive their specific character 7see #acd74 ,thus1 the habit of philosophizing is in itself more noble than the habit of accumulating wealth1 for truth is better than money4 7d7 ,one virtue is prior to another in excellence according to the general concept of virtue1 when it does more to set the will right4 ,for the standard of comparison then is to be taken from the influence exercised on one's acts 7as the word 8virtue0 or 8power0 intimates71 and the will is the motor power that sets the other faculties in motion4 ,thus1 for one who has debts to pay1 it is better that he give his time to earning money than to storing his mind with the lore of scientists2 justice has more of a claim on him than knowledge4 #ajbi4 ,comparison of ,hope with ,faith4--7a7 ,these virtues are not the same1 for1 while faith makes us cling to ,god as the giver of truth and assent to what is obscure to us1 hope makes up turn to ,him as the author of beatitude and strive for that which is difficult for us4 7b7 ,faith and hope are normally equal in duration1 since as a rule they are infused at the same time 7as in ,baptism74 ,accidentally1 however1 faith may precede hope1 as when one who preserves his faith loses hope on account of despair1 and later recovers it4 7c7 ,they are unequal as to natural precedence1 faith being prior to hope1 since both glory and grace--the objects of hope--must be known through faith 7,heb41 xi4 #f74 7d7 ,they are unequal in their excellence as habits1 faith being superior to hope1 as the intellectual habits are superior to the moral2 for faith is regulative and directive of hope1 and has an object more abstract and universal4 7e7 ,they are unequal in their excellence according to the general concept of virtue1 hope being superior to faith1 as the moral virtues are superior to the intellectual 7see #aef74 ,for hope includes a rightness of the will towards ,god that is not included in the concept of faith1 which is chiefly intellectual1 and it is the will that moves the other powers to action4 #ajcj4 ,comparison of ,hope with ,charity4--7a7 ,these virtues are not the same1 for1 while faith and hope adhere to ,god as the principle from which one derives truth or goodness1 charity adheres to ,god for ,his own sake4 ,hope tends towards ,god as our good1 from whom beatitude and the means thereto are to be expected2 but charity unites us to ,god so that we live for ,god rather than for self4 7b7 ,hope and charity are normally equal as to duration1 but accidentally hope may precede charity1 as when one commits a mortal sin1 but retains his hope of salvation1 and later recovers charity4 ,there is question now only of the habits1 because the acts of the sinner leading up to charity--faith1 fear1 hope1 contrition1 etc4--are for the most part successive1 although in a sudden conversion hope may be virtually included in charity4 7c7 ,they are unequal as to natural precedence1 hope being prior to charity1 for1 just as fear naturally leads to interested love such as is contained in hope1 so does this interested love prepare one for a higher love that is disinterested3 8,the end of the commandment is charity from a pure heart0 7,i ,tim41 i4 #e74 ,we speak here of hope unanimated by charity2 for animated or living hope trusts in ,god as a friend1 and hence presupposes charity4 7d7 ,they are unequal in excellence1 for hope proceeds from imperfect love1 which desires ,god for the sake of the one who loves1 while charity is perfect love and desires ,god for ,his sake4 #ajca4 ,hope1 as said above 7see #ajae-ajag71 is good and virtuous even when separated from charity1 or when exercised without the actual motive of charity4 ,but imperfect or less perfect hope must not be confused with the following acts1 which have only the appearance of hope3 7a7 acts that remove the material object of hope1 which are such as look for all beatitude in something different from ,god 7e4g41 in secondary joys of heaven72 7b7 acts that do injury to the objects of hope1 such as those that subordinate them to lesser goods 7e4g41 hope which puts self above ,god or delight above virtue74 #ajhb4 ,three types of the latter kind of pseudo-hope may be distinguished3 7a7 ,egotistical hope is that which places the end for which beatitude is hoped 7i4e41 self1 as was said in #ajbb7 above the end which is beatitude 7i4e41 ,god the ,last ,end1 as was said in #ajai sqq471 or which places subjective beatitude 7i4e41 the act of intuitive vision by which beatitude is attained7 above objective beatitude 7i4e41 ,god as the object in which beatitude consists74 ,just as the intellect is in error when it mistakes the conclusion for the premise1 so is the will in disorder when it takes a means for the end4 ,hence1 while there is nothing inordinate in a man's hoping for food on account of eating and in his eating on account of health 7since in reality health is the purpose of eating1 and eating the purpose of food71 it is extremely inordinate to hope for ,god on account of the beatific vision or on account of self1 since ,god is the ,end of all1 and the beatific vision is only the condition for attaining to this ,last ,end1 and self merely the subject to whom ,god and the beatific vision are to be given for its perfection through them4 7b7 ,epicurean hope is that which places pleasure above the other elements that pertain to subjective beatitude4 ,the subjective happiness of man consists essentially in the act that is highest and distinctly human--namely1 in the act of the intellect seeing ,god intuitively2 hence1 pleasure--even the chief spiritual pleasures-should be esteemed as something secondary and consequent4 7c7 ,utilitarian hope is that which places reward above virtue1 as if the latter were merely a means1 as when one says3 8,if there were no heaven1 ,i would practise no virtue40 ,there are three kinds of good3 7i7 useful good1 or that which is desirable only because it serves as a means to something else 7e4g41 bitter medicine1 which is wished1 not for its own sake1 but for the sake of health72 7ii7 moral good1 or that which is desired for its own sake1 as being agreeable to the rational nature of man 7such as virtue72 7iii7 delightful good1 that is1 the repose or satisfaction of the will in possession of that which is desirable for its own sake4 ,it is a mistake1 therefore1 to regard virtue as merely a useful good1 something that is disagreeable in itself and cannot be practised on account of its inherent goodness4 ,it is also a mistake to consider heaven as something above and apart from virtue2 for eternal life is the perfect flowering and fruitage of the moral life that has been planted and developed here on earth4 ,the things of this world are only means to virtue1 and virtue reaches its climax in the beatific vision4 ,the delights of heaven are results of that vision1 not its end4 #ajcc4 ,hope1 therefore1 must seek ,god as the chief good2 it must not prefer the lesser to the greater1 and it must not hold virtue as good only in view of the reward4 ,but1 on the other hand1 hope seeks ,god as its own good1 and it need not be joined to disinterested love1 in order to be a true virtue4 7a7 ,hence1 it is not necessary that one hope with the proviso that1 in the impossible hypothesis that ,god were unwilling to reward virtue1 the reward would not be expected2 for it is not necessary to consider chimerical cases4 7b7 ,it is not necessary that hope be elicited by the act of charity 7i4e41 that one always direct one's desire of salvation to the end that ,god may be glorified71 for thus the motive of hope would cease to be active1 and the lesser virtue would be absorbed in charity4 7c7 ,it is not necessary that hope be commanded by the act of charity 7i4e41 that one hope for salvation as one's own good1 only when a previous act of charity has bidden that this be done as a mark of love towards ,god71 for to desire that which ,god wishes one to desire is in itself good and laudable1 and stands in need of no other act to justify it4 #ajcd4 ,discouragement and aridity occur even in the lives of great ,saints1 and at such times1 when pure love of ,god seems almost impossible1 hope comes to the rescue by offering encouragement and spurring on to activity4 ,hence1 the importance of this virtue in the spiritual life2 for 7a7 hope is an anchor of the soul in times of tempest1 since it offers reasons for patience and good cheer 7,heb1 vi4 #ai2 ,ecclus41 iii4 #i2 ,rom41 xii4 #ab1 viii #be2 ,i ,thess41 v4 #h72 7b7 hope gives wings to the soul in times of weariness1 since the motives it presents are inducements to courage and good works 7,is41 xl4 #ca1 xxx4 #ae2 ,ps4 cxviii4 #cb2 ,heb41 ,x4 xi74 #ajce4 ,the following means are recommended for growth in hope3 7a7 to ask this from ,god3 8,grant us1 ,o ,lord1 an increase of faith1 hope1 and charity0 7,missal1 #acth ,sunday after ,pentecost72 7b7 to meditate on the rewards of heaven and the motives of hope1 and to make corresponding acts 7,,ii ,cor41 iv4 #ah2 ,ecclus41 ii4 #aa-ac72 7c7 to have recourse to ,god in all our needs1 casting all our care on ,him 7,i ,pet41 v4 #g72 7d7 to work courageously for salvation and to preserve purity of conscience 7,ps4 xxvi4 #ad2 ,i ,john1 iii4 #ba1 #bb74 #ajcf4 ,the ,subject of ,hope4--,by the subject of hope we mean the power of the soul to which this virtue belongs and also the persons who are capable of hope4 7a7 ,the faculty of the soul in which hope resides is the will1 for this virtue seeks the good1 not the true4 7b7 ,the persons capable of hope are all those who have not yet received their final reward or punishment4 #ajcg4 ,the virtue of hope does not remain in the blessed4 7a7 ,they cannot hope for the principal object of bliss1 since they already enjoy it3 8,hope that is seen is not hope4 ,for what a man seeth1 why doth he hope for80 7,rom41 viii4 #bd74 7b7 ,the blessed can desire secondary objects1 such as the continuance of their state1 the glorification of their bodies1 the salvation of those who are still on earth1 etc42 but this desire belongs to the virtue of charity1 since with the blessed there is no longer the struggle and expectation of the future that is contained in the desire of hope4 ,moreover1 the desire of objects other than ,god does not constitute the theological virtue of hope1 which tends directly to ,god4 #ajch4 ,as to the departed who are not in heaven1 we must distinguish between those in hell and those in purgatory4 7a7 ,those who are in hell1 whether demons or men1 cannot hope2 for it is part of their punishment that they know their loss is eternal 7,matt41 xxv4 #da2 ,prov41 xi4 #g74 ,dante expresses this truth when he says that on the gates of hell it is written3 8,hope abandon ye that enter here40 ,only in an improper sense can the lost be said to hope1 inasmuch as they desire evils1 or things other than heaven4 ,unbaptized infants either do not know their loss1 or else are not tormented by the thought that heaven is for them unattainable1 realizing that its privation has resulted from no personal fault of their own4 7b7 ,those who are in purgatory have hope2 for1 although they are certain of their salvation1 it still remains true that they must ascend through difficulties to their reward4 ,hence1 in the ,mass the ,church prays for the departed 8who sleep the sleep of peace0--that is1 who are secure about their salvation4 ,the ,fathers in limbo also had hope before their introduction into heaven3 8,all these died according to faith1 not having received the promises1 but beholding them afar off and saluting them1 and confessing that they are pilgrims and strangers on the earth4444 ,they desire a better1 that is to say a heavenly country0 7 ,heb41 xi4 #ac1 #af74 #ajci4 ,as to those who have not yet passed from this mortal life1 some have hope1 others have it not4 7a7 ,those who have no hope are unbelievers and those believers who have rejected hope4 ,unbelievers have no theological hope1 since faith is 8the substance 7i4e41 basis7 of things to be hoped for0 7,heb41 xi4 #a74 ,hence1 even though one accepts the ,article of the ,creed1 8,i look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come10 one's hope is not real1 if one culpably rejects some other ,article2 for then one expects the end without the necessary means 7,heb4 xi4 #f74 ,believers who despair of salvation1 or who do not look to ,god for it1 have not the virtue of hope2 for1 just as faith is lost if its object or motive is not accepted1 so also hope perishes if its object is not expected or its motive is not relied on4 7b7 ,those who have hope are all believers not guilty of a sin contrary to hope4 ,sinners cannot expect to be saved if they continue in sin1 but they can expect through the grace of ,god to be freed from sin and to merit eternal life2 indeed1 they are bound to believe that ,god wishes their salvation and to hope for it4 #ajdj4 ,the certainty of hope does not exclude the uncertainty of fear2 on the contrary1 man must both hope and fear1 as regards his salvation4 7a7 ,if a person looks to the motives of hope 7i4e41 ,god's power and mercy71 he has the assurance of faith that ,god can and will help him to attain salvation2 and thus there arises in him a firm and unshaken hope3 8,i know whom ,i have believed1 and ,i am certain that ,he is able to keep that which ,i have committed unto ,him1 against that day0 7,,ii ,tim41 i4 #ab2 cfr4 ,heb41 vi4 #ah2 ,ps4 xxiv4 #b2 ,ps4 xxx4 #b42 ,rom41 xiv4 #d7 7b7 ,but1 if a person looks to his own frailty and remembers that others have hoped and yet have been lost1 he is not certain that he will cooperate with ,god and be saved1 and hence he must fear 7,eccles41 ix4 #a sqq42 ,i ,cor41 iv4 #d1 ix4 #bg74 ,the ,council of ,trent declares that no one can promise himself with absolute certainty that he will persevere 7,sess4 ,,vi1 ,cap4 #ac74 ,therefore1 it is written3 8,he that thinketh himself to stand1 let him take heed lest he fall0 7,i ,cor41 x4 #ab72 8,with fear and trembling1 work out your salvation0 7,phil41 ii4 #ab74 #ajda4 ,the ,gift of ,fear of the ,lord4--,the ,gift of the ,holy ,ghost that perfects the virtue of hope is ,fear of the ,lord 7see #aei sqq472 for 7a7 hope is the root from which the ,gift of ,fear is derived1 since hope joins the affections to ,god1 and fear acts upon the soul that is thus tending towards its beatitude--we fear to lose what we hope for2 7b7 fear assists hope1 since it makes us dread1 not the loss of beatitude or of divine help1 but the lack of cooperation on our own part with the assistance given by ,god4 #ajdb4 ,not every kind of fear pertains to the ,gift called ,fear of the ,lord4 ,in the first place1 we must distinguish between physical and moral fear4 7a7 ,fear1 physically considered1 is the emotion treated above 7see #da sqq41 #abj71 which manifests itself in aversion1 bashfulness1 shame1 dismay1 alarm1 horror1 etc4 ,this kind of fear1 like the other passions 7see #aba71 is morally indifferent in itself4 7b7 ,fear1 morally considered1 is a dread of imminent evil as leading one to ,god or away from ,him4 ,in this sense fear is now discussed4 #ajdc4 ,the object of fear is always some evil1 for the good does not repel1 but attracts4 ,the motive of fear1 however1 is something good2 for one dreads evil on account of some good one wishes to obtain or retain4 ,by reason of the motive1 then1 fear may be divided into two moral species1 namely1 fear of the world and fear of ,god4 7a7 ,fear of the world is that which dreads creatures more than ,god1 because it sets more store by the things of time than by those of eternity4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,peter's denial of ,christ was prompted by fear of the world4 ,when the object of this fear is loss of the esteem of men1 it is called human respect4 7b7 ,fear of ,god is that which dreads the ,creator more than creatures1 because it prizes ,him above all4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,peter's death for ,christ proceeded from his fear of ,god4 #ajdd4 ,fear of the world is always sinful1 because it makes one offend1 or be willing to offend1 ,god for the sake of escaping some temporal evil4 ,it is forbidden by our ,lord3 8,fear ye not them that kill the body and are not able to kill the soul1 but rather fear ,him that can destroy both body and soul in hell0 7,matt1 x4 #bh74 ,elias 7or ,eliseus7 is praised because of his freedom from fear of the world3 8,in his days he feared not the prince0 7,ecclus41 xlviii4 #ac74 ,we should note1 however1 the distinction between habitual fear1 on the one hand1 and actual or virtual fear1 on the other hand4 7a7 ,habitual worldly fear is a state1 not an act--that is1 the condition of those who are in mortal sin1 and have therefore preferred self to ,god as the supreme end of life4 ,it is a matter of faith that not all the acts of sinners or unbelievers are bad1 for they are able to seek certain particular or natural goods4 7b7 ,actual fear of the world is a deliberate choice of sin out of fear of some temporal evil2 virtual fear is a deliberate act proceeding from such a choice though without advertence to the choice or fear4 ,in both these kinds of fear there is sin1 for actual fear commands evil1 virtual fear executes it4 ,examples3 ,sempronius internally resolves to be guided by his fear of imprisonment rather than by the law of ,god against perjury 7actual fear74 ,he then proceeds to perjure himself1 adverting to what he says1 but not thinking about his previous fear 7virtual fear74 #ajde4 ,the species of sin to which worldly fear belongs are as follows3 7a7 ,the theological species of this sin depends on the disposition of the person4 ,he sins mortally1 if on account of fear he is ready to offend ,god seriously2 he sins venially1 if on account of fear he is prepared to commit only a venial sin4 ,examples3 ,titus1 in order to escape imprisonment or exile1 swears falsely4 ,balbus1 having been absent from his office without leave1 tells a little lie to escape reproof for this misdemeanor4 ,titus' fear is a grave sin1 that of ,balbus a venial sin4 7b7 ,the moral species of worldly fear is1 as a rule1 the same as the species of the sin to which it leads1 so that but one sin is committed and need be confessed4 ,the reason is that generally the object of fear is something that deserves to be dreaded1 and that the aversion from it is not wrong except in so far as it is carried to the extreme of using sin as a means of escape4 ,example3 ,caius is wrongly suspected of theft4 ,to free his reputation he swears falsely about a circumstance that appears incriminating4 ,his fear of losing his good name is not a sin in itself1 and hence he is guilty of the one sin of perjury4 #ajdf4 ,there are exceptional cases when fear is a distinct sin from the sin to which it leads4 7a7 ,if the fear of losing some temporal good is so great that one is prepared to commit any sin to escape the loss1 and if later by reason of this fear one swears falsely1 two sins are committed--one against charity1 because a temporal good was preferred to ,god1 and the other against religion1 because ,god was called on to witness to falsehood4 7b7 ,if the fear is that one will not be able to commit one kind of sin1 and this induces one to commit another kind of sin1 evidently two sins are committed4 ,example3 ,balbus wishes to calumniate ,caius1 but is not able to do so himself4 ,fearing that ,caius will escape his vengeance1 he steals money and offers it to ,sempronius as an inducement to calumniate ,caius4 ,the two sins1 calumny and theft1 are committed4 #ajdg4 ,not every fear of man or of temporal evil falls under worldly and sinful fear4 7a7 ,to fear or reverence man in those things in which he represents the authority of ,god is a duty3 8,render to all men their dues 444 fear to whom fear1 honor to whom honor0 7,rom41 xiii4 #g74 7b7 ,to fear temporal evils 7such as loss of life1 reputation1 liberty1 property7 in a moderate and reasonable manner1 is good4 ,hence1 our ,lord bids us pray for deliverance from evil4 #ajdh4 ,fear of ,god is of two specifically distinct kinds1 according as the object one dreads is offense of ,god or punishments from ,god4 7a7 ,servile fear1 that of a servant with regard to his master1 dreads sin because of the punishment it entails2 7b7 filial fear1 that of a son with regard to his father1 dreads sin because of the offense to ,god that is contained in it4 #ajdi4 ,servile fear may be considered either as to its substance or as to its accidents4 7a7 ,the substance or essence of servile fear is derived from its object 7see #ga71 that is1 from the evil of penalty which it entails2 7b7 the accidents of servile fear are its circumstances 7see #gb71 such as the state of the person who has the fear1 the manner in which he fears1 etc4 #ajej4 ,servile fear in itself is good and supernatural4 7a7 ,that servile fear is good1 is a dogma of faith defined in the ,council of ,trent 7,sess4 ,,vi1 ,can4 #h2 ,sess4 ,,xxiv1 ,can4 #e74 ,our ,lord recommends this fear when he says3 8,i will show you whom ye shall fear4 ,fear ye ,him who after ,he hath killed1 hath power to cast into hell4 ,yea1 ,i say to you1 fear ,him0 7,luke1 xii4 #e74 the object of this fear is penalty1 which is an evil1 and consequently something that ought to be dreaded4 7b7 ,that servile fear is supernatural1 follows from the fact that its acts are supernatural4 ,it comes from the ,holy ,ghost that man may prepare himself for grace2 it is 8the beginning of wisdom0 7,ps4 cx4 #aj71 because through it the wisdom of faith first becomes effective as a rule of action1 causing man to depart from sin on account of the justice of ,god which it makes known to him4 ,servile fear is thus far superior to that natural fear of pain and suffering which all have4 #ajea4 ,though servile fear is good1 useful and praiseworthy1 it is not perfect4 7a7 ,it is inferior to filial fear2 for1 while servile fear looks upon ,god as a powerful master who cannot be offended with impunity1 filial fear regards ,him as a loving ,father whom one does not wish to offend4 ,hence1 the ,old ,law1 given amid the thunder of ,sinai and with many threats against transgressions1 is less perfect than the ,new ,law1 which relies more on love than on fear 7,rom41 viii4 #ae2 ,heb41 xii4 #ah-be2 ,gal41 iv4 #bb sqq474 7b7 ,servile fear1 although it is regarded by some theologians as an infused habit1 is not a ,gift of the ,holy ,ghost1 since it may coexist with mortal sin4 ,it seems that it is not even a virtue1 since it turns man away1 not from moral1 but from physical evil2 but a number of authorities consider it as a secondary act of the virtue of hope4 #ajeb4 ,servile fear1 as to its circumstances1 may be evil4 7a7 ,the circumstance of the state of the person who has servile fear is good1 when the person is a friend of ,god2 it is evil1 when that person is an enemy of ,god4 7b7 ,the circumstance of the manner in which servile fear is elicited is good1 if punishment is not feared as the greatest evil2 it is bad1 if punishment is feared as the greatest evil1 for then one makes self the principal end of life1 and would be disposed to sin without restraint1 were there no punishment4 #ajec4 ,the effect of evil circumstances on servile fear itself is as follows3 7a7 ,servile fear is not rendered evil because of the evil state of the person who fears4 ,just as a person who is habitually foolish may actually say or do something wise1 so a person who is habitually wicked may perform virtuous acts4 ,mortal sin is no more a defect of servile fear in a sinner than it is a defect of faith or hope in one who has faith or hope without works2 neither faith nor hope nor fear is to be blamed for the state of mortal sin1 but the person who has those gifts of ,god is at fault4 ,true1 the sinner1 by reason of his lack of love of ,god1 does not put fear of sin above fear of punishment4 ,but from this it does not follow that he puts fear of punishment above fear of sin1 for he may fear punishment absolutely 7i4e41 without making any comparison between the evil of sin and the evil of punishment74 ,the fear which makes no comparisons is good1 or else we must say that only filial fear avails1 which1 as said above1 is not true4 7b7 ,servile fear is rendered evil as to the manner in which it is performed1 when one compares sin and punishment1 dislikes only the latter1 and avoids sin only to escape punishment4 ,this kind of fear is slavish1 for it makes one do something good unwillingly1 like a slave forced to labor against his wishes1 whereas ,god is pleased only with service that comes from a willing spirit 7,i ,par41 xxviii4 #i74 #ajed4 ,hence1 we must distinguish the following cases of servile fear3 7a7 ,fear of punishment is purely servile when it makes a person avoid sin1 but does not make him put away his love of ,god4 7b7 ,fear of punishment is not purely servile1 when it causes a sinner not only to cease from sin1 but to give up his affection for sin2 this fear is distinct from charity1 but prepares for it3 8,the fear of the ,lord driveth out sin0 7,ecclus41 i4 #bg74 7c7 ,still less is the fear of punishment purely servile1 when it leads a just man1 who already detests sin as an offense against ,god1 to detest it as involving punishment from ,god4 ,this fear exists along with charity1 for the love of ,god and the right love of self are not exclusive4 ,but1 as charity increases1 servile fear must decrease2 the more a person loves ,god1 the less is he concerned about his own good1 the more confidently does he hope in ,god1 and hence the less does he fear penalty4 #ajee4 ,there are two degrees of filial fear to be distinguished3 7a7 ,initial fear is that of beginners in charity4 ,on account of past sins1 they fear punishments from ,god2 on account of their present love of ,god1 they fear they may be again separated from ,him4 ,the second fear is stronger with them1 and it commands that the first fear be aroused to hold the will more firmly against whatever might separate from love4 ,of this fear it is said3 8,the fear of ,god is the beginning of ,his love0 7,ecclus41 xxv4 #af74 7b7 ,perfected fear is that of those who are established in charity4 ,the more the love of ,god sways the heart1 the more is every other love1 that of self included1 subjugated to the love of ,god1 and the less is one troubled by the thoughts of evils that may befall self4 ,even in this present life some souls are so strong in the love of ,god that all servile fear disappears3 8,i am sure that neither death nor life 444 shall be able to separate us from the love of ,god0 7,rom41 viii4 #ch1 #ci72 8,perfect charity casteth out fear1 because fear hath pain1 and he that feareth is not perfected in charity0 7,i ,john1 iv4 #ah74 #ajef4 ,the perfected fear of ,god has two acts3 7a7 ,in the present life1 where it is possible that one may offend ,god and lose ,his friendship1 one dreads the commission of offense and the loss of friendship4 ,this fear should be always with us3 8,keep ,his fear and grow old therein0 7,ecclus41 ii4 #f74 ,with the growth of charity there is a corresponding growth in the fear of separation from ,god1 because the more ardently ,god is loved1 the more one realizes the greatness of the loss sustained through sin4 7b7 ,in eternal life1 where sin and separation from ,god are impossible1 the blessed do not fear these evils3 8,he that shall hear ,me1 shall rest without terror1 and shall enjoy abundance without fear of evils0 7,prov41 i4 #cc74 ,but in the presence of the ,divine ,majesty the ,angels and ,saints are filled with awe and reverence3 8,i saw them that had overcome the beast1 singing3 ,who shall not fear ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 and magnify ,thy name80 7,apoc41 xv4 #c1 #d72 8,the pillars of heaven tremble and dread at ,his beck0 7,job1 xxvi4 #aa72 8,through whom 7,christ7 the ,angels praise ,thy majesty1 the ,dominations worship it1 the ,powers are in awe0 7,preface of the ,mass74 ,this holy fear is unending1 for the infinite distance between ,god and ,his creatures1 ,his incomprehensibility to them1 will never cease3 8,the fear of the ,lord is holy1 enduring forever and ever0 7,ps4 xviii4 #aj74 #ajeg4 ,the filial fear of ,god is identical with the ,gift of fear of the ,lord1 spoken of in scripture3 8,he shall be filled with the spirit of the fear of the ,lord0 7,is41 xi4 #c74 ,the function of the ,gifts is to make the soul docile to the inspirations of the ,holy ,spirit1 and to supplement or serve the habits of virtue1 and both these benefits are conferred by filial fear4 7a7 ,this fear makes the soul ready to follow impulses prompted by ,god1 for through it we subject ourselves to ,god as our ,father1 revering ,his wondrous majesty and fearing to stray from ,him4 ,indeed1 this is the first of the ,gifts1 for the realization of one's nothingness before ,god is the starting-point of promptitude in receiving ,his teaching and guidance4 7b7 ,filial fear is a principle from which proceed acts of all the moral virtues1 inasmuch as the reverence for ,god's surpassing majesty and respect for ,his almighty power and justice incline one to lay aside pride1 intemperance1 and every vice1 and exercise good works that are pleasing to ,him3 8,the root of wisdom is to fear the ,lord1 and the branches thereof are long-lived0 7,ecclus41 i4 #bg74 7c7 ,filial fear is especially and primarily related to the virtue of hope1 for these two complement each other1 as do the emotions of hope and fear4 ,hope aspires to conquer the heights of heaven1 and feels that ,god is on its side2 fear reminds one of the greatness of ,god and of the dangers of over-confidence4 ,each then is necessary to balance the other3 8,the ,lord taketh pleasure in them that fear ,him1 and in them that hope in ,his mercy0 7,ps4 cxlvi4 #aa74 #ajeh4 ,to the ,gift of ,fear correspond the first ,beatitude and the fruits of modesty1 continency and chastity4 7a7 ,filial fear makes one realize that all but ,god is as nothing1 and hence that true greatness must be sought1 not in the self-esteem of pride1 nor in the external pomp of riches and honors1 but in ,god alone3 8,some trust in chariots1 and some in horses2 but we will call upon the name of the ,lord our ,god0 7,ps4 xix4 #h74 ,this is the disposition of soul to which is promised the ,first ,beatitude3 8,blessed are the poor in spirit1 for theirs is the kingdom of heaven0 7,matt1 v4 #c74 ,to the first of the ,gifts1 in the order of preparation1 corresponds the first of the ,beatitudes4 7b7 ,filial fear makes one dread the thought of separation from ,god1 and hence it leads one to use temporal things with moderation1 or to abstain from them entirely1 ,to it1 then1 pertain the ,fruits of the ,spirit1 which ,st4 ,paul names 8modesty1 continency1 chastity0 7,gal1 v4 #bc74 #ajei4 ,the ,sins ,against ,hope4--,there are two sins contrary to hope3 7a7 despair1 which is the opposite of hope by defect2 7b7 presumption1 which is the opposite of hope by excess4 #ajfj4 ,since hope has many elements of which it is composed1 despair--or the falling short of hope--may happen in various ways4 7a7 ,hope is a turning of the soul towards beatitude1 and so the omission of the act of hope may be called despair 7negative despair74 7b7 ,hope regards beatitude as its good1 and so aversion from divine things may be called despair 7despair improperly so-called74 7c7 ,hope pursues a good that is difficult of attainment1 and so he who is dejected by the difficulty is said to despair4 7d7 ,hope firmly believes that its goal may be reached1 and hence one who doubts the possibility of success in the quest of heaven is in despair4 7e7 ,hope has the expectation of one day entering into eternal life1 and hence he is guilty of despair who admits that salvation will be secured by others1 but denies that he himself should expect it4 #ajfa4 ,definition of ,despair4--,leaving out of consideration negative despair and despair improperly so-called1 the sin we are now considering may be defined as follows3 8,despair is an act of the will by which one turns away from the beatitude one desires1 not under the aspect in which it appears as good1 but because one apprehends it as impossible1 or too difficult1 or never to be realized1 and under this aspect as evil40 7a7 ,despair is an 8act of the will10 and as such it differs from the intellectual sin of unbelief4 ,the ,novatians1 who rejected the forgiveness of sins1 and a heretic who denies the future life1 are guilty by these acts of sin against faith1 though of course one who disbelieves must also despair 7see #ajbi1 #gea74 7b7 ,despair is a positive 8turning away from beatitude40 ,it differs1 therefore1 from the mere omission of the act of hope or from an act of feeble hope1 as well as from the sins against the moral virtues1 which consist primarily in a turning towards some created good4 7c7 ,despair turns away 8from ,god10 and thus it differs from despondency about other things4 7d7 ,despair turns away from ,god 8apprehended as good and desired as the beatitude of man10 for no one is said to despair of what he considers evil or undesirable4 ,hence1 despair differs from aversions and fears2 such as hatred of ,god 7which regards ,him as evil7 or fear of ,god 7which thinks of ,him1 not as a rewarder1 but as the author of chastisement74 7e7 ,despair1 however1 does not reject ,god1 because ,he is good and desirable1 but because ,he is apprehended as a 8beatitude that is impossible10 or too difficult for one1 or as a good that one will never attain to4 ,for a person does not turn away from that which he regards as the object of his happiness1 unless he considers that there is some inconvenience in seeking after it4 #ajfb4 ,is despondency about things other than ,god a sin8 7a7 ,it is the sin of pusillanimity1 when it makes a person abandon hope of something which he is capable of attaining and which he should aim at1 as when students1 on account of the labor required1 give up hope of learning a certain subject which they have been assigned4 ,this sin will be treated in the section on ,fortitude4 7b7 ,it is no sin1 if a person gives up the expectation of something about which he has no reason to hope1 or which he is not obliged to hope for4 ,examples3 ,caius gives up the hope of getting an education1 because he lacks money to pay the expenses4 ,balbus ceases to pray for health1 because he thinks it is not ,god's will to grant that request4 ,titus abandons the expectation of a long life1 and even at times wishes for death4 #ajfc4 ,to wish for death may include despair of salvation or other sin4 7a7 ,if this wish means that one has no desire for any kind of existence 7as when one desires extinction71 manifestly eternal life is not looked for1 and hence there is despair4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that such expressions as1 8,would that ,i had never been born60 8,would that ,i were out of existence60 often signify nothing more than weariness of life on earth1 or disgust with conditions4 7b7,if the wish is not for annihilation1 but only that ,god send death1 it is not a sin of despair2 but if the wish is inordinate1 some other species of sin is committed--for example1 if the person wishing to die is not resigned or submissive to ,god's will in the matter1 he is guilty of rebellion against ,providence1 and his sin is grave1 if there is sufficient reflection and consent4 7c7 ,if the wish is merely for death and is not inordinate1 it may be an act of virtue1 as when1 out of a longing for heaven1 one deliberately desires to be taken from this world1 if this be pleasing to ,god4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,paul said that he desired 8to be dissolved and to be with ,christ0 7,philip41 i4 #bc74 #ajfd4 ,certain acts of fear or sadness must not be mistaken for despair3 7a7 acts that are praiseworthy1 like servile and filial fear spoken of above 7see #ajdh sqq471 grief over sin1 etc42 7b7 acts that are a trial from ,god1 such as spiritual desolations in holy persons1 scruples about forgiveness of sins1 anxieties about predestination1 perseverance1 or the ,judgment2 7c7 acts that are sinful1 such as worldly fear1 fear of ,god that is purely servile1 timidity 7i4e41 an excessive dread of death or other evils74 ,those who fear that1 on account of their frailty1 they may not acquire a good habit or overcome an evil one1 are guilty of pusillanimity4 ,those who1 on account of sadness1 neglect prayer are guilty of spiritual sloth4 #ajfe4 ,there are two species of despair1 namely1 the despair of unbelief and the despair that is found even in those that have faith4 7a7 ,the despair of unbelief arises from a judgment contrary to faith1 as when one holds as general principles that salvation is impossible1 that ,god is not merciful to sinners1 that all sins or certain sins cannot be forgiven4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,paul designates the pagans who do not accept the ,final ,resurrection as those 8who have no hope0 7,i ,thess41 iv4 #ab74 7b7 ,the despair of believers arises from a judgment formed by them which is not directly opposed to faith1 but which is erroneous1 and is induced by some wicked habit or passion4 ,example3 ,titus lives a very disorderly life1 and so thinks that he is predestined to hell1 or that he is too weak to repent and persevere4 ,since his predestination and perseverance are not matters of faith1 he is not guilty of unbelief by his judgment about them1 but the judgment itself is wrong1 and one which he has no right to form or act on4 #ajff4 ,signs which indicate that a penitent suffering depression has not been guilty of despair are3 7a7 if he retains the faith and has not abandoned the usual practices of religion and piety2 7b7 if he retains the faith1 but has given up some of its practices through discouragement or weakness1 but intends to repent4 ,his sin is sloth or cowardice or attachment to some vice4 #ajfg4 ,hence1 the erroneous judgment that precedes despair is similar to that which precedes every act of sin1 namely1 it is always practically erroneous1 though not always speculatively so4 7a7 ,judgment is speculatively erroneous with regard to duty1 when one decides that in general something is lawful which is unlawful2 or vice versa1 as when one thinks that lying is pleasing to ,god4 ,it is clear that this kind of error need not precede sin1 or else all sinners would err against the faith4 7b7 ,judgment is practically erroneous about duty1 when a person decides that here and now he should do something which in fact he should not do1 as when he knows well that lying is displeasing to ,god1 and yet makes up his mind that1 all things considered1 he ought to tell a lie4 ,it is clear that this kind of error precedes every sin1 for no one wills something unless his judgment has first told him that he ought to will it4 ,the sinner first judges in a particular case that he should prefer the good of pleasure or of utility to the good of virtue1 or he first neglects to consider the right manner in which he should act3 8,they err that work evil0 7,prov41 xiv4 #bb74 #ajfh4 ,the ,malice of ,despair4--7a7 ,despair is a sin1 for ,holy ,scripture declares woe to the fainthearted1 who trust not ,god and lose patience 7,ecclus41 ii4 #ae1 #af71 and it holds up the despair of ,cain and ,judas for reprehension4 ,the malice of despair appears in this1 that it is based on a perverse judgment that one ought not to labor for salvation in confident expectation1 despite ,god's promise and command to the contrary4 7b7 ,it is a mortal sin according to its nature1 for it destroys the theological virtue of hope1 turns man away from ,god his ,last ,end1 and leads to irreparable loss4 #ajfi4 ,in the following cases despair is not a mortal sin1 nor at times even a venial sin4 7a7 ,when there is not sufficient reflection1 despair is not a grave sin4 ,examples3 ,those who are ignorant of the sinfulness of despair1 those who on account of great discouragement or fear do not fully advert to their despair of amendment1 do not sin gravely4 ,despair is often a result of insanity4 7b7 ,when there is not full consent of the will1 despair is not a grave sin4 ,examples3 ,those who1 on account of a melancholy disposition1 inclination to pessimism1 past sins1 etc41 are tempted to give up the hope of salvation1 are not guilty of sin1 provided they fight against these suggestions of the mind or imagination4 #ajgj4 ,the gravity of despair as compared with other sins is as follows3 7a7 ,despair is a greater sin than offenses against the moral virtues1 for the chief inclination of despair is aversion from ,god1 whereas the chief inclination of the latter kind of sins is conversion towards creatures4 ,thus1 a person who drinks excessively does not primarily intend offense against ,god1 but his own enjoyment or escape from certain worries4 7b7 ,despair in itself is less serious than the sins of unbelief and hatred of ,god2 for1 while despair is opposed to ,god as ,he is our good1 the other two sins are opposed to ,god's own truth and goodness4 7c7 ,despair is more serious than the sins of unbelief and hatred of ,god with reference to the danger it contains for the sinner2 for it paralyzes effort and resists remedies3 8,why is my sorrow become perpetual and my wound desperate1 so as to refuse to be healed80 7,jer41 xv4 #ah7 8,if thou lose hope1 being weary in the day of distress1 thy strength shall be diminished0 7,prov41 xxiv4 #aj74 ,despair is1 therefore1 a sin against the ,holy ,ghost1 a sort of attempt at spiritual suicide4 ,but 7see #ijj7 it is not unpardonable and may be overcome by divine grace4 #ajga4 ,it is important to know the causes of despair1 for this knowledge enables us to distinguish it from the mystical state known as 8the dark night of the soul10 and to prescribe suitable remedies4 ,despair comes from one's own fault1 whereas mystical purgation from ,god is a preparation for a higher state of divine union4 ,the causes of despair can be reduced to two1 luxury and sloth4 7a7 ,the secondary characteristic of a hopeful pursuit of heaven is courage1 the adventurous spirit which foregoes ease and comfort for the sake of higher things1 despising the danger and difficulty4 ,hence1 the vice of lust1 since it makes one love bodily delights and disregard or underestimate those that are spiritual1 is a cause of despair1 as well as of other sins opposed to the spiritual life 7,gal41 v4 #ag74 7b7 ,the chief and most distinctive characteristic of hope is its cheerful confidence of success4 ,hence1 the vice of sloth1 since it is sadness weighing down the soul and making it unwilling to think rightly or to exert itself1 is the principal cause of despair 7,prov41 xvii4 #bb74 #ajgb4 ,the apparent despair that is a trial to holy persons can be distinguished1 therefore1 from the sin of despair1 especially by two signs3 7a7 though they are spiritually desolate and find no joy in religious practices1 these persons do not turn to unlawful delights for consolation1 but retain their dislike for lower pleasures2 7b7 though overcome with dismay at the thought of their own imperfection and of ,god's holiness1 they do not so lose heart as to give over their exercises of piety 7cf4 ,st4 ,john of the ,cross1 ,the ,dark ,night1 ,bk4 ,i1 e4 #i ff474 #ajgc4 ,spiritual writers make the following recommendations for cases of spiritual desolation3 7a7 the afflicted persons should understand that the deprivation of former sensible devotion is a sign of ,god's love and has been experienced by the ,saints1 and should1 therefore1 possess their souls in peace1 leaving to ,god the time and manner of ,his heavenly visitation2 7b7 they should not burden themselves with new and heavier mortifications1 lest they be overcome by too great sorrow1 but should go on with their accustomed good works1 and realize that1 though bitter to them1 these works are now all the more pleasing to ,god 7,ibid41 c4 #aj74 #ajgd4 ,some ,remedies for the ,sin of ,despair4--7a7 ,if the cause is lust1 one should learn that spiritual joys are nobler and more enduring than the joys of the flesh1 and should take the means to sacrifice the lower in favor of the higher4 7b7 ,if the cause of despair is spiritual sloth1 one should meditate on the greatness of ,god's power1 mercy and love1 and should avoid whatever fosters undue sadness1 8lest he be swallowed up with over-much sorrow0 7,,ii ,cor41 ii4 #g74 ,thus1 those who are tormented by the thoughts of past sins or future temptations must subject their scruples to direction1 and remember the mercy shown to the good thief1 to ,magdalene1 and other penitents2 those who have lost courage because they read spiritual books of a rigorous or terrifying nature1 or have been advised to attempt that for which they were unsuited1 should seek more prudent instruction and counsel2 those who are naturally nervous or melancholy1 should employ such therapeutical or preventive measures as are useful or necessary4 ,all should follow the direction of ,st4 ,peter to labor the more1 that by good works they may make sure their calling and election 7,,ii ,pet41 i4 #aj74 #ajge4 ,presumption is the name given to certain acts of the intellect4 7a7 ,sometimes it signifies an arrogant self-esteem1 as when an ignorant person thinks he is able to dispute with a learned scholar4 7b7 ,sometimes it is a judgment about the affairs of others made rashly or out of fear3 8,a troubled conscience always presumeth grievous things0 7,wis41 xvii4 #aj74 7c7 ,sometimes it is a conclusion based on probable evidence1 and which by jurists is called violent1 strong1 or weak presumption according to the evidence 7see #feh74 #ajgf4 ,presumption is also a name given to various acts of the will4 7a7 ,it is used1 in a good sense1 to signify an excellent confidence or hope1 which seems rash according to human standards1 but is really well founded1 since it rests on the immensity of the divine goodness4 ,thus1 ,judith prayed3 8,o ,god of the heavens1 ,creator of the waters and ,lord of the whole creation1 hear me a poor wretch1 making supplication to ,thee1 and presuming on ,thy mercy0 7,jud41 ix4 #ag74 ,thus1 too1 ,abraham hoped against hope 7,rom41 iv4 #ah74 7b7 ,generally1 however1 the word 8presumption0 is applied to acts of the will in a bad sense1 and indicates the purpose to do what exceeds one's powers4 #ajgg4 ,here we are concerned only with presumption as it is an act of the will choosing to do what exceeds one's power4 8,power0 may he understood in three ways1 and thus there are three kinds of sins all bearing the name of presumption4 7a7 ,if a person chooses to overstep his moral power 7i4e41 his right of action71 he is guilty of the general sin of presumption1 which is not a special category of sin1 but a circumstance common to any kind of sin in which one acts with full knowledge1 and without subjection to any fear or coercion4 ,hence1 in ,canon ,law it is said in various places3 8,if anyone shall presume to transgress0 7i4e41 if anyone shall coldbloodedly transgress74 7b7 ,if a person wishes to accomplish by his own efforts something so great and difficult that it surpasses his physical powers1 he is guilty of the special sin of presumption that is opposed to the moral virtue of magnanimity or greatness of soul1 which attempts great things for which it is suited4 ,thus1 he is presumptuous who undertakes a profession1 when he has no sufficient knowledge of its duties 7cf4 ,luke1 xiv4 #bh sqq474 ,this may be called the moral sin of presumption4 7c7 ,if one wishes to obtain through divine aid something that surpasses even the divine power to confer1 one is guilty of the special sin of presumption that is opposed to the theological virtue of hope1 which expects from ,god only such things as are worthy of ,god and as ,god has promised4 ,thus1 he who looks forward to a free admission into eternal bliss1 without repentance or obedience1 does injury both to the character of ,god and to the virtue of hope4 ,it is this special sin of presumption that we are now considering4 ,it may be called the theological sin of presumption4 #ajgh4 ,definition of ,presumption4--,the theological sin of presumption may be defined as follows3 8,an act of the will by which one rashly expects to obtain eternal happiness or the means thereto40 7a7 ,it is an act of the will1 and hence is distinct from intellectual sins1 such as disbelief in the justice of ,god or the necessity of repentance4 7b7 ,it is an act of pleasing expectation1 and so differs generically from fear1 which is an act of dreadful expectation4 7c7 ,it is a rash expectation1 and so is specifically opposed to hope1 which is well-founded expectation4 #ajgi4 ,the objects of presumption are material and formal4 7a7 ,the material object is eternal happiness and the means thereto1 such as forgiveness of sin1 observance of the ,commandments1 etc4 ,this object by extension would include also such extraordinary supernatural gifts as the hypostatic union1 equality in glory with the ,mother of ,god1 etc42 for it would be rash to expect against ,his will what ,god has made unique privileges4 7b7 ,the formal object1 or motive1 of presumption is divine mercy not joined with justice1 or divine power not regulated by wisdom1 as when one hopes for heaven because one reasons that ,god is too merciful to be a just judge of sinners4 ,the motive by extension would include also the unaided power of human nature relied on as equal to the task of working out salvation1 as when a man feels so confident of his own virtue and his security against temptation that he thinks he can dispense with prayer and all appointed means of grace and yet save his soul4 ,similarly1 a person is presumptuous if he feels that it is absolutely impossible for him to be lost1 because he has received ,baptism or other ,sacraments4 #ajhj4 ,presumption is rash1 therefore1 for the following reasons3 7a7 because it leads one to expect what is impossible according to the absolute or ordinary power of ,god 7e4g41 to share in some divine attribute1 to sit at the right hand of ,christ in glory71 or 7b7 because it makes one expect to obtain supernatural goods in ways other than those ordained by ,god 7e4g41 to obtain forgiveness without repentance1 to obtain glory without merits or grace74 #ajha4 ,the nature of presumption as compared with temptation of ,god and blasphemous hope is as follows3 7a7 they are alike1 inasmuch as all three wrongly expect something from ,god2 7b7 they differ1 for presumption looks towards salvation and one's own happiness1 whereas temptation of ,god seeks rashly some sign from ,god as a proof that ,he is wise1 good1 powerful1 etc41 or that the person is innocent1 holy1 etc41 and blasphemous hope expects that ,god will help one in working revenge or committing other sin4 #ajhb4 ,the ,malice of ,presumption4-7a7 ,it is a sin1 because it is an act of the will agreeable to false intellectual judgments1 namely1 that ,god will pardon the impenitent or grant eternal life to those who have not labored for it4 7b7 ,it is a mortal sin1 since it does grave injury to the divine attributes4 ,we cannot hope too much in ,god1 but we can expect what a perfect ,god cannot grant2 in this latter respect--that is1 in its contempt of ,god's majesty and justice--consists the offense of presumption4 7c7 ,it is a sin against the ,holy ,ghost1 because it makes one despise the grace of ,god1 repentance1 etc41 as if they were not necessary4 #ajhc4 ,the gravity of presumption as compared with other sins1 is as follows3 7a7 ,it is graver than sins against the moral virtues1 because it is directly against ,god4 ,thus1 theological presumption1 being injurious to the power of ,god1 is a more serious offense than moral presumption1 which is an exaggeration of the power of man4 7b7 ,it is less grave than despair1 for1 while presumption is a disregard of ,god's vindictive justice1 despair is a disregard of ,his mercy1 and ,god's vindictive justice is due to the sins of man1 ,his mercy to ,his own goodness4 7c7 ,presumption is less grave1 therefore1 than unbelief and hatred of ,god1 which1 as said above1 are more wicked than despair 7see #ajgj74 #ajhd4 ,presumption and ,unbelief4--7a7 ,presumption is joined with unbelief whenever it proceeds from a speculatively false judgment about matters of faith4 ,persons1 however1 who are in error 7e4g41 ,pelagians1 ,lutherans1 ,calvinists1 etc471 may be in good faith1 and hence guiltless of the formal sin of presumption4 ,examples3 ,caius expects to win heaven by his own unaided efforts 7,pelagian presumption74 ,balbus expects to be equal in glory to the greatest ,saints1 and to be saved by the merits of ,christ without repentance or observance of the ,commandments 7,lutheran presumption74 ,titus expects to be saved on the strength of wearing scapulars1 practising certain devotions1 or giving alms1 while he wholly disregards church duties and important ,commandments 7,pharisaic presumption74 ,sempronius thinks that all members of his sect are predestined1 and hence concerns himself little about the ,commandments1 being persuaded that all must end well with the elect 7,calvinistic presumption74 7b7 ,presumption is committed without unbelief1 when it proceeds from a practical judgment that one should act as if salvation were obtainable without merits or repentance1 or as if natural efforts were alone sufficient1 although speculatively one does not accept such errors 7see #ajfg74 ,the same is true when presumption springs from a failure to consider the divine justice or the established means of obtaining salvation4 #ajhe4 ,presumption and ,loss of the ,virtue of ,hope4--7a7 ,presumption properly so-called 7i4e41 hope of the impossible7 takes away the virtue of hope1 for it removes the motive and reasonableness of the virtue2 now1 the essence of true hope is a reasonable expectation1 just as the essence of faith is assent to divine authority4 ,hence1 he who expects future blessedness unreasonably 7i4e41 through his own efforts alone or through exaggerated mercy exercised by ,god71 is not hopeful1 but presumptuous4 7b7 ,presumption improperly so-called 7i4e41 hope of the uncertain7 does not take away the virtue of hope1 since it does not remove the motive of hope4 ,thus1 one who commits sin1 trusting to go to confession and to make restitution after he has enjoyed the benefits of wrongdoing1 is presumptuous in the sense that he puts himself in a state of sin1 for it is uncertain whether the time to repent will be granted him4 ,however1 he is relying on the mercy of ,god1 which never abandons man during life1 and not on his own efforts1 or on pardon given freely4 ,he is guilty of a want of charity towards self1 and of injustice to his neighbor1 rather than of a want of hope4 #ajhf4 ,presumption properly so-called is a sin rarely committed by ,catholics4 ,for 7a7 the presumption of unbelief is excluded by their faith in the justice of ,god and in the necessity of repentance and good works2 7b7 the presumption that is not the offspring of erroneous doctrines is also unusual1 because even those who go on sinning with the expectation of being saved in the end1 generally have the purpose of repenting at some future date4 #ajhg4 ,is a sin worse because committed with the hope that later it will be pardoned8 7a7 ,if1 at the moment of sin1 a person has the intention to continue in sin1 though he hopes for pardon1 he is guilty of presumption1 and his sin is made worse4 7b7 ,if he has the intention of sinning1 but hopes for pardon1 and is resolved to repent later on as a means to pardon1 he is not guilty of presumption4 ,the intention not to continue in sin diminishes the sin1 for it shows that one is not so strongly attached to evil4 #ajhh4 ,the intention to sin now and repent later varies in malice according to circumstances4 7a7 ,if the hope of obtaining forgiveness is concomitant as regards the sin now committed--that is1 if one sins with the hope1 but not because of the hope of pardon-one is less guilty4 ,example3 ,titus while on a tour indulges in much drunkenness1 because he has the opportunity and is not known2 but he intends to repent on his return home4 7b7 ,if the hope of obtaining forgiveness is antecedent as regards the sin--that is1 if one sins because of the hope of pardon--one is more guilty4 ,example3 ,balbus stays away from ,mass most ,sundays1 because he reasons with himself that ,god is kind and it will be easy to obtain pardon4 ,caius1 when urged to repent1 always replies that it will be a simple matter to turn over a new leaf at the hour of death4 ,sempronius goes on multiplying sins from day to day1 because he argues that it is just as easy to be pardoned late as early1 just as easy to repent of a hundred sins as of ten4 #ajhi4 ,in the following cases presumption is not a grave sin3 7a7 no mortal sin is committed1 if there is not sufficient reflection2 for example1 a person who is invincibly ignorant of the seriousness of presumption1 or who on account of immaturity has exaggerated ideas of his own strength1 does not sin gravely if he presumes on ,god's mercy or his own power2 7b7 no mortal sin is committed1 if there is not full consent of the will4 ,for example1 ,titus is a self-made man1 and hence is inclined at times to feel that he can work out even his salvation without any assistance1 but he rids his mind of this presumptuous thought as soon as he takes notice of it4 #ajij4 ,are there cases in which presumption and despair are transformed into venial sin1 not on account of the imperfect knowledge or consent of the subject1 but on account of the slightness of the matter involved8 7a7 ,if there is question of presumption and despair properly so-called1 they are never venial on account of the lightness of the matter1 for the matter1 man's eternal destiny1 must always be an affair of the utmost moment4 7b7 ,if there is question of presumption and despair in a wider sense1 these sins may be venial on account of smallness of matter2 for they may be understood with reference to things other than salvation4 ,examples3 ,titus despairs of his success in overcoming a habit of arriving late for his meals or of talking too much4 ,balbus imprudently trusts to his own efforts to get up promptly in the morning1 or to fight against some slight distraction in prayer4 #ajia4 ,the causes of presumption are as follows3 7a7 the presumption which depends too much on one's own powers arises from vainglory1 for1 the more one desires glory1 the more is one inclined to attempt things that are above one1 especially such as are new and will attract applause2 7b7 the presumption that depends rashly on divine assistance seems to result from pride1 for a person who desires and expects pardon without repentance1 or heaven without merits1 must have a very exaggerated opinion of his own importance4 #ajib4 ,the ,commandments of ,hope and of ,fear4--,since hope is a necessary preparation for justification1 and since man should tend towards the supernatural beatitude prepared for him by ,god1 we cannot be surprised that scripture in many places inculcates the duty of hope4 7a7 ,in the first legislation1 given in the ,decalogue1 neither faith nor hope are enjoined by distinct ,commandments1 for1 unless man already believed and hoped in ,god1 it would be useless to give him commandments from ,god4 ,hence1 in the ,decalogue faith and hope are presupposed1 faith being enjoined only in so far as it is taught1 as when the law begins with the words3 8,i am the ,lord thy ,god0 7,exod41 xx4 #b71 and hope being prescribed only in so far as promises are added to the precepts1 as in the ,first and ,fourth ,commandments4 7b7 ,in the later laws there are given distinct commandments about hope1 in order to remind man that he must observe not only the law1 but also that which the law presupposes4 ,thus1 we read3 8,hope in ,him1 all ye congregation of people0 7,ps4 lxi4 #i72 8,charge the rich of this world not to be high-minded1 nor to hope in the uncertainty of riches1 but in the living ,god0 7,i ,tim41 vi4 #ag74 #ajic4 ,since acts of hope are obligatory for all adults in this life1 the ,quietists were in error when they defended disinterested love and absolute holy indifference 7,denzinger1 #abba ff41 #acbg-acdi74 7a7 ,hence1 man can at times make acts of pure love of ,god1 in which self is not thought about1 or even acts of renunciation of beatitude on condition that that were possible and necessary2 but the habitual state of pure love1 in which self-interest is entirely lost sight of1 cannot be admitted 7,philip41 iii4 #ad2 ,,ii ,tim41 iv1 #h74 7b7 ,indifference to the happenings of life1 sin excluded1 is good2 but it is not lawful to be indifferent about one's own salvation1 or the means thereto4 ,indifference about salvation is not holy1 but unholy4 #ajid4 ,is it lawful to desire to surrender beatitude for the sake of another's spiritual good8 7a7 ,if there is question of beatitude itself1 this is not lawful4 ,the prayer of ,moses that he be stricken from ,god's book 7,exod41 xxxiii4 #ca1 #cb71 and of ,st4 ,paul that he suffer loss of ,messianic benefits 7,rom41 ix4 #c71 were only velleities or hyperbolical expressions of their great love for their race4 7b7 ,if there is question1 not of beatitude itself1 but of something that refers to it 7such as the time of receiving it1 present certainty about its possession71 one may be willing to sacrifice this good for the benefit of his neighbor4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,martin of ,tours was willing to have his entrance into heaven delayed for the sake of his flock 7cfr4 ,philip41 i4 #bb sqq471 and ,st4 ,ignatius ,loyola would have preferred to remain uncertain of salvation and labor for souls1 rather than to be certain of salvation and die at once4 #ajie4 ,at what times does the commandment of hope oblige8 7a7 ,in its negative1 or prohibitory aspect1 this commandment obliges for all times and at all times 7see #cga74 ,hence1 it is not lawful to despair1 even when things are darkest1 nor to presume1 even when they are brightest4 7b7 ,in its affirmative1 or preceptive aspect1 this commandment obliges for all times1 but not at all times4 ,hence1 the law of hope remains always in force1 but one is not obliged at every instant to make acts of hope4 #ajif4 ,by reason of the virtue of hope itself 7i4e41 on account of the response one should make to the promises of ,god concerning eternal life71 an act of hope is obligatory on the following occasions3 7a7 ,such an act is obligatory at the beginning of the moral life1 that is1 at the time when one first realizes that one must choose between ,god and creatures as the object of one's happiness4 ,this moment occurs for all when the age of reason is attained1 and to it we may apply in this connection the words of ,christ3 8,seek ye first the kingdom of ,god and ,his justice0 7,matt1 vi4 #cc74 ,this moment occurs for those who are in the state of sin as soon as they perceive the necessity of turning from creatures towards ,god3 8,delay not to be converted to the ,lord1 and defer it not from day to day0 7,ecclus1 v4 #h74 7b7 ,during the course of the moral life1 one is also bound to renew the act of hope3 8,the grace of ,god our ,saviour hath appeared to all men1 instructing us that we should live soberly1 and justly1 and godly in this world1 looking for the blessed hope0 7,titus1 ii4 #aa1 #ab71 8,serving the ,lord1 rejoicing in hope0 7,rom41 xii4 #aa1 #ab72 8,he that plougheth1 should plough in hope0 7,i ,cor41 ix4 #aj74 ,even those who are more perfect must have on 8the helmet of hope0 7,i ,thess41 v4 #h71 for by hope all are saved 7,rom1 viii4 #be74 7c7 ,it seems that at the end of life one is especially bound to elicit an act of hope1 as on that moment eternity depends 7,heb41 iii4 vi74 ,but1 if one has received the ,last ,sacraments or is otherwise well prepared for death and undisturbed by temptations to despair1 there is no manifest need of making an express act of hope 7cfr4 #icj74 #ajig4 ,how frequently should acts of hope be made during life8 7a7 ,about the theoretical question1 there is the same diversity of opinion as with regard to the act of faith 7see #icc74 7b7 ,but1 practically1 there is agreement among theologians that the commandment is fulfilled by all those who make an act of hope when this is necessary to preserve the virtue on account of danger of presumption or despair1 and who comply with the duties of a ,christian life1 such as attendance at ,mass and the reception of the ,sacraments4 #ajih4 ,how should the act of hope be made8 7a7 ,the act is made explicitly1 when one expresses one's confident expectation1 the objects expected and the basis of the expectation1 as when one prays according to the formulas of the ,catechism or prayer books3 8,o my ,god1 relying on ,thy all-powerful assistance and merciful promises1 ,i firmly hope to obtain pardon for my sins1 obedience to ,thy commandments1 and life everlasting40 ,this form of the act of hope is recommended1 since it expresses the essential elements of the virtue4 7b7 ,the act of hope is made implicitly1 when one offers petitions to ,god as one ought2 for the confidence that accompanies every good prayer makes it an expression of hope of ,god and of hope in ,god4 ,thus1 the words1 8,thy ,kingdom come10 utter the soul's expectation of bliss and its reliance on ,god4 ,the implicit act of hope satisfies the commandment1 and hence those who comply with the duty of prayer1 comply also with the duty of hope4 #ajii4 ,by reason of some virtue other than hope 7cfr4 #ice71 there also arises at times an obligation of making an act of hope4 7a7 ,if another virtue will be lost or endangered without the assistance of hope1 one is bound to make an act of hope4 ,examples3 ,titus is so discouraged by the difficulties of his duties that he will not perform them1 unless he stirs up his will by thinking of the reward4 ,balba1 on account of aridity1 finds prayer so hard that she will give it up1 unless the motive of future blessedness is before her mind4 7b7 ,if another commandment presupposes an act of hope1 one is bound to the act of hope1 although it may be made virtually or implicitly1 as being contained in another virtue4 ,example3 ,sempronius is in the state of sin1 and therefore obliged to repentance4 ,since repentance presupposes hope of pardon as a means to salvation1 ,sempronius must not only grieve over his sins1 but must also have confidence in the divine mercy4 #aajj4 ,do those persons sin against hope by omission who wish they could remain in the enjoyment of the present life forever8 7a7 ,if those persons are so disposed that they would willingly forego heaven for earth1 they are guilty of a neglect of the precept of hope 7,i ,tim41 vi4 #ag74 ,hope requires that ,god be the chief object of our desires1 but these persons give the first place to creatures 7see #ajai1 #ajca74 7b7 ,if such persons are not willing to relinquish heaven1 and their wish to remain here forever merely denotes an over-fondness for life or its goods or an exceeding dread of death1 hope is not excluded1 but they are guilty1 slightly or seriously according to the case1 of inordinate love of creatures4 7c7 ,if such persons mean by their wish only that they are very much attached to something of earth and wish to retain it as long as ,god will allow1 there is no sin committed4 ,thus1 man and wife happily mated or other friends sometimes express the wish that both might live forever1 meaning only that the thought of any separation is unpleasant4 #aaja4 ,so far we have spoken of the necessity of precept of the act of hope4 ,but there is also a necessity of means1 as was said above about faith 7see #ghe1 #iah71 as regards both the act and the habit of hope4 7a7 ,the act of hope is an indispensable condition of salvation for all adults4 ,the unjustified man cannot prepare himself for pardon unless he hopes in ,god's mercy2 he cannot resolve on amendment of life unless he relies on the necessary divine help4 ,the justified man must earn heaven by his works and must pray to ,god in his necessities--things that are impossible without the firm confidence of hope 7,rom41 vi4 #bc74 7b7 ,the habit of hope is an indispensable condition of salvation for all1 infants included4 ,for it is by justification1 in which the soul and its various powers are sanctified 7,rom41 v4 #f71 that one is elevated to the supernatural sphere and made ready for the beatific vision4 #aajb4 ,the habit of hope is not lost by every sin against hope4 7a7 ,it is not lost by sins of omission1 for it depends on divine infusion1 not on human acts 7see #gde74 7b7 ,it is not lost by sins of commission that do not remove its formal object or motive1 such as sins against charity and the moral virtues4 ,for it is possible for one to expect external happiness and at the same time not love ,god for ,his own sake1 or not regulate one's conduct conformably to the happiness desired1 just as it is possible for one to believe and yet not practise one's belief 7see #ajaf1 #ajcj74 7c7 ,hope is lost by sins of commission that remove its foundation or its formal object4 ,hence1 sins of unbelief 7since they remove the foundation of hope7 and sins of desperation and despair 7since they take away the formal object of hope7 are destructive of this virtue4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that sins which only in a wider sense are named presumption and despair1 do not remove the object1 nor consequently the virtue of hope4 ,examples3 ,titus does not believe in a future life1 and hence does not expect it4 ,claudius believes in a future life1 but he is so weak in virtue that he has given up all expectation of its rewards for himself4 ,balbus1 on the contrary1 is living on stolen property and intends to continue to do so1 but he hopes that somehow all will turn out well in the end4 ,sempronius1 who is associated with ,balbus1 intends to make a deathbed repentance and restitution4 ,the sins of the first three are ruinous to hope1 since by reason of them there is no expectation of salvation1 or only an expectation that is not based on divine power4 ,the sin of ,sempronius is presumptuous1 since it risks a most grave danger imprudently2 but it is not theological presumption1 since it expects forgiveness through divine power and in a way that does not exceed divine power4 ,it is not contrary to1 but beyond theological hope4 #aajc4 ,divine ,commandments ,concerning ,fear4--7a7 ,servile fear was not commanded in the ,decalogue by any distinct precept1 for fear of punishment is supposed in those who received the law2 it was1 however1 commanded there implicitly1 inasmuch as penalties were attached to transgressions4 ,later1 in order to keep man more strictly to the law already given1 instructions or commandments about the necessity of fear were given4 ,thus1 ,job says3 8,i feared all my works1 knowing that ,thou didst not spare the offender0 7,job1 ix4 #bh71 and the ,psalmist prays3 8,pierce ,thou my flesh with ,thy fear1 for ,i am afraid of ,thy judgments0 7,ps4 cxviii4 #abj72 our ,lord commands3 8,fear ,him that can destroy both soul and body in hell0 7,matt1 x4 #bh74 7b7 ,filial fear1 on the contrary 7i4e41 reverential love of ,god71 since it is the principle from which proceed the external acts of respect and homage enjoined in the ,decalogue1 was inculcated at the time the first law was given4 8,what doth the ,lord thy ,god require of thee1 but that thou fear the ,lord thy ,god1 and walk in ,his ways1 and love ,him1 and serve the ,lord thy ,god80 7,deut41 x4 #ab74 #aajd4 ,as to the times and frequency of obligation1 the principles and conclusions given above for hope can be applied also to fear4 ,art4 #e3 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,charity 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #bc-bg47 #aaje4 ,definition4--,the word 8charity0 7carum1 what is held dear1 highly esteemed7 is used either in a more general1 or in a particular sense4 7a7 ,in its more general sense1 it is applied to acts or feelings of a kindly nature towards others1 whether or not ,god be concerned in them as the object or motive4 ,thus1 it is applied to kindly judgments about others1 to a benevolent disposition towards their welfare1 to gratuitous relief of the needy or suffering1 to the bestowal of gifts for public benefit1 and the like4 ,in scripture the word is sometimes applied to friendship3 8,it is better to be invited to herbs with charity than to a fatted calf with hatred0 7,prov41 xv4 #ag74 7b7 ,in its particular sense1 charity refers to divine love1 that is1 to the love of ,god for man or the love of man for ,god4 ,here we are considering charity as the virtue by which the creature loves ,god for ,his own sake1 and others on account of ,god4 #aajf4 ,love in general is the inclination towards a suitable good1 or what is considered as one's good4 ,it is the root of all appetites of the soul1 and hence the importance that the object of love be a true good4 7a7 ,every attraction is based on the recognition of some suitability in a certain good that attracts1 and so is based on love4 ,example3 ,love may result from desire1 as when from a desire of money springs love of the giver of money2 but in the last analysis it will be found that the desire itself came from a previous love1 for a person would not wish for money1 unless he saw in it some advantage which inclined him towards its possession4 7b7 ,every repulsion is based on the fact that a certain thing is opposed to that which is suitable for self1 and hence results from love4 ,example3 ,love sometimes is an effect of hate1 as when one loves ,a because he hates ,a's enemies2 nevertheless1 hate is basically always the result of some love1 for one hates only those things that impede or destroy what one loves4 7c7 ,every satisfaction is due to the possession or presence of something helpful or congenial1 and so it presupposes love4 ,example3 ,a particular satisfaction may cause love1 as when one loves a person because his company is entertaining2 but the satisfaction is due to the love one has of being entertained4 #aajg4 ,the effects of love are two2 7a7 union of affection1 for the lover regards the object of love as another self and desires its presence2 he delights to think of it and wishes what it wishes2 7b7 separation from other things1 for the lover's thoughts are on the object of his love1 and he is jealous of anything that might take it from him4 #aajh4 ,several degrees of love may be distinguished3 7a7 ,natural love is the tendency of things to their ends which results1 not from knowledge1 but from nature1 and which is found in the irrational and inanimate as well as in higher forms of being4 ,thus1 we may say that fire loves to burn1 that every being loves its own existence2 7b7 ,sense love 7amor7 is the attraction that follows on knowledge obtained through the senses1 and that exists in the brutes as well as in man4 ,thus1 a dog loves bones1 a cat loves fish4 ,sex-attraction is a species of sense love2 7c7 ,rational love 7dilectio7 arises from the reflection of the mind1 and is a choice based on the judgment of the reason concerning the worth of the beloved object4 #aaji4 ,rational love is of two kinds3 7a7 love of desire 7amor concupiscentiae71 which is affection for an object which one desires for oneself or for another1 in such a way that good is not wished for the object1 but the goodness of the object is wished for something else 7thus1 one loves food or money with the love of desire1 because one does not wish good for them1 but from them72 7b7 love of benevolence 7amor benevolentiae71 which is had for an object to which one wishes good 7thus1 one loves a poor person with the love of benevolence when one wishes to give him food or money74 #aaaj4 ,the love of benevolence is called friendship when the following conditions exist3 7a7 when the love is mutual1 for1 if one party who is loved does not reciprocate the other party's affection1 they are not considered friends2 7b7 when the love is based on some similarity which is a bond of union1 for friendship supposes that the parties have common interests and that they delight in each other's company1 which is impossible without congeniality 7see ,ecclus41 xiii4 #ai74 ,thus1 there is friendship of relative for relative1 of citizen for citizen1 of soldier for soldier1 of scholar for scholar4 ,true1 those who belong to the same state in life are often enemies2 but this is due1 not to the similarity of their life1 but to some individual dissimilarity1 as when one is successful and the other unsuccessful1 one rich and the other poor4 ,aristotle remarked that potters never got along together1 and ,proverbs1 xiii4 #aj1 says that between the proud there are always quarrels2 for each potter saw in the other potter one who took away profits1 and each proud man sees in another proud man an obstacle to personal glory4 ,unfriendly feeling may exist1 then1 among those who are alike1 but friendship is impossible when the parties have nothing special in common4 #aaaa4 ,two kinds of friendship must be distinguished4 7a7 ,the friendship of utility or of pleasure is that by which one desires good for one's friend1 not for the friend's sake1 but for one's own advantage or gratification4 ,hence1 friendships of this kind contain some love of benevolence1 but they are prompted by love of desire4 ,on account of this admixture of selfishness1 they fall short of friendship in the truest sense4 ,examples3 ,titus cultivates the friendship of ,balbus1 because the latter is wealthy and will patronize his business2 ,balbus1 on his part1 returns the friendship of ,titus1 because he finds his prices cheaper 7a friendship of convenience or utility74 ,caius and ,claudius associate together much and help each other gladly1 but the only thing that draws them together is the amusement they get out of each other's companionship 7a friendship of pleasure74 7b7 ,the friendship of virtue is that by which one desires good for another1 and by which the cause of attraction is the virtue of the friends4 ,this is true friendship1 because it is unselfish and has the highest motive2 it is naturally lasting1 since it is built on moral goodness1 the real good of an intelligent being 7,ecclus41 vi4 #ad-af74 ,example3 ,david and ,jonathan became friends because each recognized the other's virtue4 #aaab4 ,charity is a true friendship between ,god and ,his intellectual creature1 for in scripture the just are called the friends of ,god 7,john1 xv4 #ae2 ,james1 ii4 #bc2 ,ps4 cxxxviii4 #ag71 and the conditions of true friendship are affirmed about their relation to ,god4 7a7 ,there is a mutual love of benevolence between ,god and the just3 8,i love them that love ,me0 7,prov41 viii4 #bj72 8,he that loveth ,me shall be loved of ,my ,father1 and ,i will love him0 7,john1 xiv4 #ba74 7b7 ,there is a common bond2 for1 while according to nature ,god and man are infinitely distant1 according to grace man is an adopted son of ,god and the heir to glory in which he will share happiness with ,god4 #aaac4 ,charity is twofold1 namely1 uncreated and created4 7a7 ,uncreated charity is ,god ,himself4 ,the entire ,trinity is called charity1 just as ,it is also called truth1 wisdom1 etc43 8,god is charity1 and he that abideth in charity1 abideth in ,god0 7,i ,john1 iv4 #h74 ,the ,holy ,ghost especially is called charity1 because he proceeds in the ,trinity as love4 ,hence1 in the ,veni ,creator ,he is addressed as 8,fount of life1 fire1 charity1 and spiritual anointing40 7b7 ,created charity is a supernatural habit added to the will1 inclining it to the exercise of love of ,god and enabling it to act with promptness and delight3 8,the charity of ,god is poured out in our hearts by the ,holy ,ghost who is given to us0 7,rom41 v4 #e74 ,we are concerned here only with created charity4 #aaad4 ,created charity is defined3 8,a supernatural virtue infused by ,god1 through which we love with friendship ,god1 the author of our beatitude1 on account of ,his own goodness1 and our neighbor1 on account of ,god40 ,charity is given with sanctifying grace1 but differs from it1 inasmuch as grace is a principle of being and makes man himself holy1 whereas charity is a principle of acting and makes acts holy4 #aaae4 ,the ,excellence of ,charity4--,human friendship of the lower kind is not a virtue1 while that which is higher is rather the extension or result of virtue than a virtue in itself4 ,the divine friendship1 however1 constitutes the theological virtue of charity4 7a7 ,thus1 charity is a virtue1 since through it our acts are regulated by their supreme standard and our affections united to the divine goodness4 7b7 ,charity1 although it exercises a sway over the other virtues1 is distinct from them2 for it has its own proper object1 namely1 the divine goodness1 all-perfect in itself3 8,these three3 faith1 hope and charity0 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #ac74 7c7 ,charity1 although it includes our neighbor as well as ,god among the objects of love1 is but one virtue1 since it has but one end 7i4e41 the goodness of ,god71 and it is based on but one fellowship 7i4e41 the beatific vision to be bestowed by ,god74 #aaaf4 ,charity is less perfect than the act of the intellect by which ,god is seen intuitively in the beatific vision1 but it is preeminent among the virtues of this life4 7a7 ,thus1 it is superior to the normal virtues1 for while they regulate actions by the inferior rule of reason1 charity regulates them by the supreme rule1 which is ,god ,himself4 7b7 ,it is superior to the other theological virtues1 since it tends to ,god in ,himself1 whereas faith and hope tend to ,god as ,he is the principle whence we derive truth and blessedness3 8,the greatest of these is charity0 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #ac74 #aaag4 ,the other virtues require charity for their perfection4 7a7 ,without charity the other virtues are either false virtues1 or true but imperfect virtues2 for they are then directed1 not to the universal and last ,end1 but at most to some particular and proximate good end4 ,nor are they meritorious without charity1 for 8if ,i should distribute all my goods to feed the poor1 and if ,i should deliver my body to be burned1 and have not charity1 it profiteth me nothing0 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #c74 7b7 ,with charity the other virtues become true and perfect virtues4 ,examples3 ,titus gives alms to the poor in order to win them to infidelity 7false charity74 ,caius avoids drunkenness1 not because he dislikes it1 but because he is a miser and dislikes to spend money 7false temperance74 ,balbus has no religion1 but is very faithful to his family duties 7imperfect justice74 ,claudius discharges his duties to his family and neighbors out of love for ,god 7perfect justice74 #aaah4 ,the influence of charity on the other virtues is expressed by various titles4 7a7 ,charity is called the informing principle of the other virtues4 ,this does not mean that charity is the type on which the other virtues are modelled1 or the internal character that makes them what they are2 otherwise1 all the virtues would be absorbed in the one virtue of charity4 ,it means1 then1 that the other virtues derive the quality of perfect virtue from charity1 through which they are directed to the ,last ,end4 7b7 ,charity is called the foundation and root of virtues 7,eph41 iii4 #ag71 not in the sense that it is a material part of them1 but in the sense that it supports and nourishes them4 7c7 ,it is also spoken of as the end and the mother of the other virtues1 because it directs the other virtues to the ,last ,end1 and produces their acts by commanding their exercise3 8,the end of the commandment is charity0 7,i ,tim41 i4 #e74 #aaai4 ,charity causes the other virtues1 negatively by forbidding evil1 affirmatively by commanding good 7,i ,cor41 xiii1 #d-g74 7a7 ,it forbids that evil be done the neighbor1 either in desire or in deed3 8,charity envieth not1 dealeth not perversely40 7b7 ,it forbids evil passions by which one is injured in oneself1 such as pride1 ambition1 greed1 anger3 8,charity is not puffed up1 is not ambitious1 seeketh not her own1 is not provoked to anger40 7c7 ,it forbids that one harm one's own soul by thoughts or desires of wrong3 8,charity thinketh no evil1 rejoiceth not in iniquity40 7d7 ,it commands that good be done the neighbor1 bears with his defects1 rejoices over his good and bestows benefits upon him3 8,charity is patient1 is kind2 rejoiceth with the truth1 beareth all things40 7e7 ,it commands that good be done towards ,god by the practice of the theological virtues of faith and hope1 and by continuance in them3 8,charity believeth all things1 hopeth all things1 endureth all things40 #aabj4 ,direction is given by charity to the other virtues that makes them perfect and meritorious4 7a7 ,actual direction--that is1 the intention here and now to believe1 or hope1 etc41 out of love for ,god--though more perfect1 is not required for merit in faith1 hope and other virtues3 otherwise1 merit would become extremely difficult and rare4 7b7 ,habitual direction--that is1 the mere fact that one has the habit of charity1 though it in no way influences an act of faith1 or of hope1 etc1 now made--does not suffice2 otherwise1 it would follow that an act of faith recited by a person in the state of charity1 but here and now unconscious1 is meritorious1 which would make merit too easy4 7c7 ,virtual direction--that is1 the influence of an intention1 once made and never retracted1 of acting out of love for ,god1 which continues1 though it is not adverted to1 while one believes1 hopes1 etc4--at least is necessary2 otherwise1 one would make oneself deserving of the ,last ,end1 without ever having desired it1 for the other virtues do not tend to the ,last ,end in itself4 ,in practice1 however1 there is no person in the state of grace who does not perform all his acts that are human and virtuous under the direction of charity1 actual or virtual4 #aaba4 ,production of ,charity4--,the virtue of charity belongs to the appetitive part of the soul1 but supposes a judgment by which its exercise is regulated4 7a7 ,thus1 the power of the soul in which charity dwells is the will1 for its object is good apprehended by the intellect2 but 7b7 the judgment by which it is regulated is not human reason1 as is the case with the moral virtues1 but divine wisdom 7,eph41 iii4 #ai74 #aabb4 ,the ,origin of ,charity4--7a7 ,charity is not caused by nature1 nor acquired by the powers of nature4 ,natural love of ,god1 indeed1 is possible without grace2 but charity is a supernatural friendship based on a fellowship in the beatitude of ,god4 7b7 ,it is introduced or begotten by other virtues1 in the sense that they prepare one to receive it from ,god 7,i ,tim41 i4 #e74 #aabc4 ,the cause of charity1 then1 is ,god1 who infuses it into the soul3 8,the charity of ,god is poured forth in our hearts by the ,holy ,ghost1 who is given to us0 7,rom41 v4 #e74 ,the measure according to which ,god infuses the gift of charity depends on ,his will and bounty4 7a7 ,the ,angels received charity at their creation1 according to their natural rank1 so that those who were higher excelled those who were lower1 both in nature and in grace4 7b7 ,those who receive charity through infant baptism have it according 8to the measure of the giving of ,christ0 7,eph41 iv4 #g2 cfr4 ,john1 iii4 #h2 ,i ,cor41 xii4 #b74 7c7 ,those who receive charity through repentance1 have it1 8everyone according to his proper ability0 7,matt41 xxv4 #ae71 that is1 according to the disposition with which he has prepared himself4 ,but the preparation itself depends on the grace of ,god 7,col41 i4 #ab74 #aabd4 ,charity may be increased3 8,i pray that your charity may more and more abound0 7,philip41 i4 #i74 ,it must1 however1 be noted that3 7a7 the increase is not in the motive of charity1 for the goodness of ,god is supreme and incapable of increase1 nor is it in the objects of charity1 for even the lowest degree of this virtue extends to all those things that must be loved on account of ,god2 7b7 the increase1 then1 is in the manner in which charity exists in the soul1 in that it becomes more deeply rooted and takes stronger hold of the will1 whose acts of love become correspondingly more intense and fervent4 ,just as knowledge grows as it becomes clearer and more certain1 so does charity progress to higher degrees as it exists more firmly in its subject4 #aabe4 ,with reference to the increase of charity1 acts of love are of two kinds3 7a7 the less fervent are those that do not surpass the degree of charity one already possesses2 7b7 the more fervent are those that surpass the degree of charity one has4 ,example3 ,if one has ten degrees of habitual charity1 an act of five degrees is less fervent1 an act of fifteen degrees is more fervent4 #aabf4 ,every act of charity1 even the less fervent1 contributes to an increase of the charity one already possesses4 ,this is true whether the act be elicited by charity 7i4e41 an act of love of ,god71 or commanded by charity 7i4e41 an act of some other virtue performed out of love for ,god74 ,every act of charity merits from ,god an increase of the habit of charity 7see ,council of ,trent1 ,sess4 ,,vi1 ,can4 #cb74 ,even a cup of cold water given in the name of a disciple shall not go without its reward 7,matt41 ,x4 #db74 #aabg4 ,as to the manner and time in which the increase takes place1 there are various opinions1 but the following points sum up what seems more probable3 7a7 ,the increase of the habit of charity merited by a more fervent act is conferred at once1 for ,god confers ,his gifts when one is disposed for their reception4 ,example3 ,titus1 who has habitually ten degrees of charity1 makes an act of charity whose degree is fifteen2 he thereby merits the increase of the habit1 and it is conferred at once4 7b7 ,the increase of the habit of charity merited by less fervent acts is not conferred until the moment one enters into heaven or purgatory1 for there is no time during life on earth when one has a disposition equal to the added quantity contained in less fervent acts1 since1 as just said1 more fervent acts are rewarded at once by the increase that corresponds to them1 while less fervent acts do not dispose one for an increase then and there4 ,but the increase must be conferred when one enters into glory2 otherwise1 one would lose the degree of beatitude one merited during life4 ,hence1 those who make many--even though less fervent--acts of charity during life1 will receive a very high degree of reward for them hereafter4 #aabh4 ,the increase of charity will come to an end in the future life1 when one has attained the degree of perfection to which one was predestined by ,god 7,philip1 iii4 #ab74 ,but1 as long as a person lives here below1 he may continually grow in charity1 for each increase makes him capable of receiving from the infinite power of ,god a further participation in the infinite charity1 which is the ,holy ,ghost 7,,ii ,cor41 vi4 #aa74 #aabi4 ,charity is absolutely perfect1 when it loves ,god in the same degree in which ,he is lovable--that is1 infinitely2 but it is clear that so great charity is possible only to ,god4 ,charity is relatively perfect1 when one loves ,god as much as one can4 ,this relatively perfect charity is possible to man 7,matt1 v4 #dh2 ,i ,john1 ii4 #e1 iv4 #ab1 #ag72 but it has three degrees3 7a7 ,the perfect charity of heaven1 which is not possible in this life1 consists in this1 that one is constantly occupied in thinking of ,god and loving ,him4 7b7 ,the perfect charity of earth1 which is special to some of the just1 consists in this1 that one gives all one's time to divine things1 as far as the necessities of mortal existence allow4 7c7 ,the perfect charity of earth that is common to all the just1 consists in this1 that habitually one gives one's whole heart to ,god1 permitting no thought or desire opposed to the divine love4 #aacj4 ,those who are growing in charity are divided into three classes3 7a7 the beginners1 or those whose chief care is freedom from sin and resistance to what is contrary to divine love2 7b7 the proficients1 or those who must still fight against temptation1 but whose chief attention is given to progress along the way of virtue2 7c7 the perfect1 or those who are progressing in holiness1 but whose chief desire is to reach the end of the journey and be with the object of their love 7,philip41 i4 #ac74 #aaca4 ,the ,decline of ,charity4--7a7 ,actual charity can decline1 in the sense that subsequent acts can be less fervent than those that preceded 7,apoc41 ii4 #d74 7b7 ,habitual charity cannot grow less in itself4 ,the only causes that can be supposed for a decline in habitual charity are omission of the act of charity and commission of venial sin2 the former1 however1 cannot lessen charity1 since this habit1 being infused1 does not depend on human acts2 the latter1 which is a disorder about the means to the end1 does not contradict charity1 which is the right order of man with reference to his ,last ,end itself4 ,thus1 charity differs from human friendships1 which grow cold through neglect or slights4 7c7 ,habitual charity can be lessened1 first1 with reference to the disposition that makes for its preservation and increase 7as when one commits numerous and dangerous venial sins71 and secondly1 with reference to itself 7as when one rising from sin has less charity than he had before74 ,but in neither of these cases does the same numerical habit decrease4 #aacb4 ,the ,loss of ,charity4--7a7 ,the charity of the blessed cannot be lost1 because they see ,god as ,he is1 and are constantly occupied in loving ,him4 ,but the charity of earth1 since it proceeds from a less perfect knowledge and is not always in use1 may be surrendered by man's free will 7see ,council of ,trent1 ,sess4 ,,vi1 ,cap4 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 ,can4 #bc74 7b7 ,the habit of charity is lost1 not only by any sin against the love of ,god1 but by any other mortal sin opposed to other virtues 7see ,council of ,trent1 ,sess4 ,,vi1 ,cap4 #ae74 ,every mortal sin is a turning away from the ,last ,end1 and so is incompatible with charity1 which is a turning to ,god1 the ,last ,end3 8,he that hath ,my commandments and keepeth them1 he it is that loveth ,me0 7,john1 xiv4 #ba74 ,venial sin diminishes the fervor of charity1 but does not remove charity itself4 #aacc4 ,the ,object of ,charity4--,there is a threefold object of charity3 7a7 the formal object1 that is1 the reason for love1 which is the infinite amiability of ,god in ,himself1 as known from the supernatural illumination of faith2 7b7 the primary material object1 that is1 the chief thing which charity loves1 which is ,god 7i4e41 the divine ,essence1 the divine ,persons1 the divine attributes73 8,thou shalt love the ,lord1 ,thy ,god4 ,this is the greatest and the first commandment0 7,matt1 xxii4 #cg1 #ch72 7c7 the secondary material object1 that is1 the thing loved because of ,god1 which is self and the neighbor3 8,and the second is like to this3 ,thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself0 7ibid1 #ci74 #aacd4 ,the love of creatures is not always an act of the virtue of charity4 7a7 ,sinful love of creatures1 by which one loves them more than ,god or inordinately1 destroys or deviates from charity4 ,hence1 ,st4 ,john says3 8,love not the world1 nor the things that are in the world0 7,i ,john1 ii4 #ae74 7b7 ,natural love of creatures1 by which one loves them on account of reasons apart from love of ,god 7such as the benefits one derives from them or the excellences they possess71 is not charity1 even though good4 ,thus1 gratitude which sees in another only a benefactor1 friendship which sees in another only a congenial spirit1 and philanthropy which sees in another only a fellow-man1 differ from charity1 although they are good in themselves4 7c7 ,supernatural love of creatures1 by which one loves them on account of the divine that is in them1 inasmuch as they are friends of ,god or made for the glory of one's divine ,friend1 does not differ specifically from love of ,god1 for in both loves there is the same motive 7viz1 the amiability of ,god ,himself74 #aace4 ,since charity is friendship1 it does not include among its objects those things that are loved with the love of desire 7see #aaji71 that is1 those things whose good is desired1 but for another4 7a7 ,hence1 charity itself is not an object of charity1 for it is loved not as a friend1 but as a good that one wishes for one's friends4 ,the same applies to other virtues and to beatitudes4 7b7 ,irrational creatures are not objects of charity1 for a fellowship with them in friendship1 and especially in the beatific vision1 is impossible4 ,we can love them out of charity1 however1 inasmuch as we desire their preservation for the sake of those whom we love with charity 7e4g41 desiring that they be preserved for the glory of ,god or the use of man74 #aacf4 ,love of self is of various kinds4 7a7 ,sinful self-love is that by which a person loves himself according to his lower and corrupt nature1 and not according to his higher or rational nature1 or loves himself egotistically to the hurt of others4 ,of those who indulge their passions it is said3 8,in the last days shall come dangerous times4 ,men shall be lovers of themselves0 7,,ii ,tim41 iii4 #a1 #b72 of those who love themselves selfishly it is said3 8,all seek the things that are their own1 not the things that are ,jesus ,christ's0 7,philip41 ii4 #ba72 whereas charity seeketh not her own 7,i ,cor41 xiii47 to the exclusion of others1 but desires what is for the advantage of the neighbor 7,i ,cor41 x4 #cc74 7b7 ,natural self-love is that necessary desire which each one has for his own good1 happiness1 existence1 etc4 7,,ii ,cor41 v4 #d71 or any desire for reasonable self-improvement that is not prompted by a supernatural love of ,god4 ,this love is stronger than love for another1 for it implies not merely union1 but unity4 ,it is not friendship1 but the root of friendship1 for one is said to be friendly towards another when one holds him as another self4 7c7 ,supernatural self-love is that love which one has for ,god1 and consequently for self as a friend of ,god4 #aacg4 ,if by 8self0 we understand the substance and nature of man1 as composed of soul and body1 then both good and bad understand aright the meaning of self and desire its preservation4 ,but if by 8self0 we mean principally the inward man and secondarily the outward man 7,,ii ,cor41 iv4 #af71 then only the good understand what self is1 and have a true love for it1 whereas the wicked hate their own souls 7,ps4 x4 #f74 ,for the five marks of true friendship are shown to the inner man by the good1 to the outward man by the sinner3 7a7 the good are solicitous for the life of the soul1 the wicked for that of the body2 7b7 the good desire spiritual treasures for the soul1 the wicked carnal delights for the body2 7c7 the good labor to provide for the needs of the soul1 the wicked work only for the needs of the body2 7d7 the good are pleased to converse with their souls1 finding there thoughts of past1 present and future good things to delight them1 while the wicked seek to distract themselves from wholesome thought by pleasure2 7e7 the good are at peace with their souls1 whereas the wicked are troubled by conscience4 #aach4 ,supernatural love of self1 which pertains to charity1 extends not only to the soul1 but also to the body2 for 7a7 according to its nature1 the body is good1 since it is from ,god and may be employed for ,his service 7,rom41 vi4 #ac71 and hence it may be loved out of charity with the love of desire on account of the honor it may give to ,god and the service it may render in good works2 7b7 according to grace1 the body is capable of sharing in secondary beatitude1 through glorification with the soul1 and hence it may be loved with charity and with the love of benevolence1 inasmuch as we desire for it a share in beatitude3 8,we would not be unclothed1 but clothed over1 that that which is mortal may be swallowed up by life0 7,,ii ,cor41 v4 #d72 7e7 according to the consequences of sin that are in it1 the body is a drag on the soul1 or a hindrance to it1 and one should not love but rather desire the removal of its imperfections4 ,hence1 ,st4 ,paul desired to be freed from the body 7,rom41 vii4 #bd2 ,philip11 i4 #bc71 and the ,saints have shown their hatred of the body's corruption by the mortifications to which they subjected it 7,john1 xii4 #be74 #aaci4 ,love of neighbor is of three kinds3 7a7 sinful love1 which is all love that is excessive1 irregulated1 or directed to what is evil in others2 7b7 natural love1 which is all love that is attracted by some excellence of a human or created kind1 such as knowledge or skill2 7c7 supernatural love1 which is that by which one is drawn towards another on account of the divine in him1 such as his gifts of grace and of heavenly calling4 #aadj4 ,hence1 it seems that there is no such thing as a special and distinct virtue of human friendship4 7a7 ,thus1 friendships of utility or of pleasure are clearly not virtues1 since they are not caused by attraction towards moral good4 7b7 ,virtuous friendships are the consequences of virtues rather than virtues1 for the attraction one has for one's friend arises from the attraction for the virtue one sees in him4 ,thus1 friendship for another because he is not the slave of passion1 is an exercise of the virtue of temperance4 7c7 ,supernatural friendships are not distinct from the virtue of charity1 for the gifts and graces which evoke them are participations of ,god's goodness1 which is the object of charity4 #aada4 ,the neighbors whom we are to love according to charity are all those who can have with us the relation of supernatural friendship1 that is1 all rational creatures4 7a7 ,hence1 the ,angels are objects of this love1 and in the resurrection men will be fellow-citizens with them 7,heb41 xii1 #bb72 7b7 our fellow-men are objects of this love1 for they also are called to the heavenly companionship 7ibid41 #bc74 #aadb4 ,charity for ,sinners4--,should we love with charity those who are sinners and enemies of ,god8 7a7 ,if we consider sinners precisely as enemies of ,god1 we may not love them1 for their sin is an evil1 an offense to ,god and a hurt to themselves4 ,on the contrary1 we should hate even in those who are nearest to us whatever is opposed to love of ,god 7,luke1 xiv4 #bf74 7b7 ,if we consider sinners precisely as creatures of ,god1 we may not love them with charity or as friends1 if they are demons or lost souls2 for in their case fellowship with us in beatitude is out of the question4 ,we may1 however1 love their nature out of charity towards ,god1 desiring that it be preserved by ,him for ,his glory4 7c7 ,if we consider sinners precisely as creatures of ,god1 we may love them with charity or as friends1 if they are still in the present life2 for we should wish that ,god may be glorified in them by their conversion and salvation4 ,the commandment of love of neighbor was not restricted to loving the just4 #aadc4 ,if sinners be considered precisely as they are enemies of ,god1 is it lawful to hate them and wish evil to them8 7a7 ,it is lawful to hate the evil that is in sinners1 but not their persons4 ,he who hates their sin1 loves themselves1 for their sin is against their own interests4 ,in this way the ,psalmist hated sinners 7,ps4 cxviii4 #aac1 cxxxviii4 #cb74 7b7 ,it is lawful to wish that punishment overtake sinners1 if one is actuated1 not by a spirit of malevolence1 but by love of justice 7,ps4 lvii4 #aa2 ,wis41 i4 #ac2 ,ps4 x4 #h74 ,it is also lawful to wish that the sinfulness that is in them may be destroyed1 that they themselves may be saved4 ,in this sense we may understand some of the imprecations that are met in scripture 7,ps4 ciii4 #ce74 ,thus1 a judge sentences a criminal1 not because he hates the man before him1 but because he wishes to reform him1 or to protect society1 or to do an act of justice4 #aadd4 ,the evils of punishment or of destruction of sin are in a broader view not evils1 but goods4 ,but the following punishments may not be desired3 7a7 that anyone living lose his soul and be condemned to hell1 for charity requires that we desire the salvation of sinners2 7b7 that a sinner be punished by blindness of heart and go from bad to worse4 ,he who wishes sin approves of the offense to ,god2 but it does not seem unlawful to wish that ,god permit a person to fall into sin1 as a means to a spiritual awakening4 #aade4 ,association with ,sinners4--7a7 ,it is never lawful to associate with sinners in their sins1 for thus one becomes a sharer in their guilt4 ,hence1 ,st4 ,paul says3 8,go out from among them and be ye separate0 7,,ii ,cor41 vi4 #ag74 7b7 ,it is not lawful to associate with sinners even in matters indifferent or good1 if one is weak and apt to be led away by them into sin 7see #beh sqq474 7c7 ,it is lawful to associate with sinners in things not forbidden1 if one is not endangered1 and if one aims to convert them to better ways4 ,thus1 our ,lord ate with sinners1 because ,he came to call them to repentance 7,matt41 ix4 #aj-ac74 #aadf4 ,friendship with ,sinners4-7a7 ,if this means that we like and dislike the same things as the sinners1 it is an evil friendship1 and it should be discontinued2 7b7 if it means that we seek to bring the sinner to imitate our good likes and dislikes1 the friendship pertains to charity 7,jer1 xv4 #ai74 #aadg4 ,should one continue to show signs of special regard to a friend who has taken to ways of sin8 7a7 ,as long as there is hope of betterment1 one should not deny the other the benefits of friendship4 ,if it would be wrong to desert a friend because he was perishing from starvation1 much more would it be wrong to desert him because he was perishing morally4 7b7 ,but if all hope of betterment has gone1 one should give up a companionship which is not profitable to either party1 and may prove harmful4 #aadh4 ,charity towards ,enemies4--,enemies can be considered in two senses3 precisely as enemies1 or precisely as human beings destined for beatitude4 7a7 ,if considered as enemies1 they are not to be loved with charity--that is1 it should be displeasing to us that they are enemies and opposed to us1 for it would be contrary to charity to love in a neighbor that which is evil in him4 7b7 ,if considered as human beings1 enemies should be loved with charity--that is1 their nature created by ,god and capable of receiving grace and glory should be pleasing to us1 for love of ,god should make us love all that belongs to ,him1 even that which is not well disposed towards ourselves4 #aadi4 ,the precept of love of enemies did not originate with the law of ,christ4 7a7 ,it pertains to the natural law1 for 7i7 it follows from the natural principle3 8,do unto others as you would have them do unto you10 and 7ii7 it was known by natural reason 7e4g41 ,plato and ,cicero knew it74 7b7 ,love of enemies was commanded in the ,old ,law1 being the second great commandment of that law 7,matt41 xxii4 #ci71 and was taught in various ,old ,testament books 7,lev41 xix4 #ag1 #ah2 ,exod41 xxiii #d1 #e2 ,prov41 xxi4 #ba1 #bb74 7c7 ,it was renewed by ,christ1 who corrected the false interpretation of ,leviticus1 xix4 #ah1 given by the scribes and ,pharisees1 who taught3 8,thou shalt love thy friend and hate thy enemy40 ,in the ,sermon on the ,mount our ,lord declares3 8,i say to you3 ,love your enemies3 do good to them that hate you3 that you may be the children of your ,father who is in heaven0 7,matt41 v4 #dd1 #de74 #aaej4 ,the following examples of love of one's enemies are found in the ,bible3 7a7 in the ,old ,testament1 ,joseph forgave his brethren who had sold him into ,egypt1 ,david spared the life of his persecutor ,saul and wept over the ungrateful ,absalom1 and ,moses prayed for the people who had rebelled against him2 7b7 in the ,new ,testament our ,lord mourned over ,jerusalem which had rejected ,him1 and on the ,cross prayed for ,his enemies4 #aaea4 ,what kind of love must we entertain for enemies8 7a7 ,a general love of enemies is that which extends to all neighbors for the love of ,god1 no exception being made as regards enemies4 ,this kind of love is required4 ,example3 ,caius makes an act of love in which he declares his love for his neighbor1 but mentions no names4 ,titus makes this act of love3 8,i love all except ,caius40 ,the act of love made by ,caius is sufficient1 that of ,titus is insufficient4 7b7 ,a special love of enemies is that which extends to them in particular1 not as included in the human race or the community1 but as individuals1 as when one expressly mentions the name of an enemy in his act of love4 ,this kind of love of enemies is not required at all times4 #aaeb4 ,is there an obligation of special love of enemies8 7a7 ,in cases of necessity 7e4g41 when the omission of a special love would bring on hate71 one is bound to special love4 7b7 ,outside of cases of necessity1 one is bound to be willing to love an enemy in particular1 if the necessity should arise4 7c7 ,outside of necessity1 one is not bound to love an enemy in particular1 for it is impossible to give such attention even to all those who are not enemies4 ,but to give an enemy more love than is required is a sign of perfect charity4 #aaec4 ,the principles just given as to internal love of enemies apply also to external love1 or to the signs by which internal love is manifested4 ,for ,st4 ,john says3 8,let us not love in word1 nor in tongue1 but in deed1 and in truth0 7,i ,john1 iii4 #ah74 7a7 ,hence1 it is not lawful to deny to an enemy the common signs of charity 7i4e41 such benefits as are bestowed on his community or class as a whole71 for to do so would be to signify a desire for revenge 7,lev41 xix4 #ah74 ,consequently1 he who excludes his enemies from prayers offered for his neighbor sins against charity4 7b7 ,in cases of necessity1 as when an enemy is in great need as to life1 fame1 fortune or salvation1 one is bound to show special signs of charity1 such as salutation1 conversation1 assistance1 etc4 ,thus1 we are told3 8,if thy enemy be hungry1 give him to eat2 if he be thirsty1 give him to drink0 7,prov41 xxv4 #ba74 7c7 ,outside of cases of necessity1 one is bound to be ready to assist an enemy1 should there be need4 7d7 ,outside of necessity1 one is not bound actually to manifest particular love for an enemy1 by speaking to him1 trading with him1 visiting him1 etc4 ,hence1 ,david1 although he had pardoned ,absalom1 would not meet him 7,,ii ,kings1 xiv4 #bd74 ,to confer special benefits on an enemy when there is no obligation is a counsel of perfection3 8,do good to those that hate you0 7,matt41 v4 #bd74 ,this heaps coals of fire upon the head of the enemy1 curing him by the salutary pain of repentance1 and so overcomes evil by good 7,rom41 xii4 #bj1 #ba74 #aaed4 ,the common signs of charity are not limited to those that are shown to all mankind1 but include also such as are usually shown by one ,christian to another ,christian1 by one citizen to a fellow-citizen1 by a relative to a relative1 etc4 ,thus1 to make a social call1 though it would be a sign of special regard in the case of one not a relative1 might be only a common sign of charity in the case of a relative4 7a7 ,hence1 it is against charity to deny an enemy signs of charity that are customarily shown to all men4 ,example3 ,titus dislikes ,balbus1 and therefore refuses to sell to him1 does not return his salutations1 speaks to all others in company1 while ignoring ,balbus1 and will not even answer if ,balbus addresses him4 7b7 ,it is against charity to deny an enemy signs of charity that are commonly shown to all those to whom one is similarly related4 ,examples3 ,claudia calls on her other children frequently and makes them presents1 but she keeps away from one daughter1 even when the latter is sick and poor and she is calling next door4 ,sempronius habitually invites to his house for family festivities all his relatives except his brother4 7c7 ,it is against charity to deny to an enemy some benefit not commonly shown1 but which one has bestowed out of liberality on the group to which the latter belongs4 ,in such a case a special sign of charity becomes common4 ,example3 ,titus prepares a banquet for a neighboring institution1 and purposely sends no invitation to two members whom he dislikes4 #aaee4 ,the rule that common signs of charity must be shown does not apply1 if some higher or more urgent duty requires that they be omitted3 however1 internal charity must persist all the while4 7a7 ,thus1 by reason of charity owed to self or to the better interests of an offender1 one should at times omit the common signs of charity4 ,examples3 ,caius avoids ,balbus1 with whom he has had a quarrel1 because he knows well that ,balbus is seeking some pretext to get revenge4 ,titus has a surly way of speaking1 and his mother1 in order to cure him1 does not answer until he has spoken civilly4 7b7 ,by reason of justice1 the signs of charity should sometimes be denied as a punishment4 ,examples3 ,claudia punishes her children1 when they are disobedient1 by refusing them for a time privileges given the other children4 ,for the same reason she refuses to call on a daughter who ran away from home and married a worthless fellow4 7c7 ,by reason of justice1 the signs of charity should be refused1 when this is required for the protection of one's own rights4 ,example3 ,titus goes about defaming ,sempronius and his family1 but appears very affable when he meets ,sempronius2 the latter knows all this1 and hence is very cool with ,titus1 to show that the injuries are not held as light4 #aaef4 ,the following are the rules for judging whether 7apart from scandal to others7 sin has been committed through refusal of the signs of charity3 7a7 ,if internally there is hatred 7i4e41 a contempt for one's neighbor1 as if he were unworthy of common charity71 or malevolence 7i4e41 a will to exercise spite71 then one is guilty of grave uncharitableness1 unless the smallness of the matter makes it only a venial sin4 7b7 ,if externally the denial of charity is such that in the judgment of a prudent man it indicates real hatred1 and the injured party perceives this and is scandalized or hurt thereby1 the sin of uncharitableness is committed1 even though there be no internal hatred4 ,the gravity depends on the scandal or offense caused the other party4 ,example3 ,claudius and ,balbus1 once very friendly1 have had a disagreement4 ,now1 when ,claudius sees ,balbus coming in his direction1 he turns off by a side street1 not to show hatred1 but to avoid a meeting4 ,if ,balbus does not know this1 or does not care1 no sin--or at most only a venial sin--is committed2 but if ,balbus is deeply wounded or scandalized by this conduct1 ,claudius sins seriously against charity4 #aaeg4 ,refusal of ,greetings4--7a7 ,to refuse to exchange a bow or salutation 7such as 8,good morning07 indicates a want of charity1 when such mutual courtesy is expected according to custom2 not1 however1 when custom does not require it1 ,example3 ,in ,balba's office the girls employed usually salute one another on arrival and departure1 but ,balba never salutes ,titia1 and hence is regarded as her enemy4 ,on ,caius' street the neighbors are of a very mixed kind1 and it is not customary to speak to everybody4 ,hence1 the fact that ,caius never salutes certain neighbors1 whom he dislikes1 does not signify any uncharitableness on his part4 7b7 ,to refuse to salute another first1 where custom expects this1 is a mark of uncharity1 unless one has a sufficient excuse4 ,examples3 ,claudius has a grudge against ,sempronius1 an elderly man who is much his senior1 and says he will never salute him as others do4 ,titus refuses to greet ,balbus1 his acquaintance1 when they meet1 because in the past ,balbus has treated his greetings with contempt1 and shows that he does not care to notice ,titus4 7c7 ,to refuse to return a salutation sincerely given indicates a want of charity4 #aaeh4 ,the ,order of ,charity4--,charity not only requires that we love ,god1 ourselves1 and our neighbors1 but it also obliges us to love these objects according to a certain order1 some being preferred to others4 7a7 ,god must be loved above all1 more than self 7,matt1 xvi4 #bd71 more than father and mother 7,matt41 x4 #cg2 ,luke1 xiv4 #bf71 for ,he is the common good of all1 and the source of all good4 7b7 ,other things being equal1 one should love self more than one's neighbor1 for the love of self is the model for the love of neighbor 7,matt41 xxii4 #ci71 and nature itself inclines to this in accordance with the saying3 8,charity begins at home40 7c7 ,among neighbors those should be loved more who have more of a claim on account of their greater nearness to ,god or to ourselves4 #aaei4 ,love can become greater in two ways3 7a7 objectively1 when the person loved is esteemed as of greater worth1 or has more titles to affection1 or has a more enduring right to be loved2 7b7 subjectively1 when the person loving is more touched and moved in his feelings1 even though the object be not more amiable in itself4 #aafj4 ,the ,character of our ,love of ,god4--7a7 ,it must be supreme objectively1 since ,he is infinite perfection and has the highest of all claims on our love4 ,hence1 one should be disposed to suffer any loss rather than abandon ,god4 7b7 ,it must be supreme subjectively1 in our desire1 that is1 realizing that ,god is the highest good1 we should at least wish to give ,him the utmost of our fervor and ardor4 7c7 ,it need not be supreme subjectively1 in fact2 for we are not always masters of our feelings1 and things that are nearer to us affect us more than those that are more important1 but remote from sense4 ,hence1 it is not against charity that one should be more moved sensibly at the thought of a dear human friend than at the thought of ,god1 provided the will places ,god above all4 #aafa4 ,regarding the love of ,god for the sake of reward1 we must note3 7a7 ,if there is question of the eternal reward1 one may love and serve ,god for the sake of reward1 provided one makes the reward the end of one's service1 but not the end of ,god2 for salvation is really the end of our faith 7,i ,pet41 i4 #i71 but ,god is the end of all1 and ,he is to be preferred to all4 ,this love of ,god for the sake of reward coexists with charity1 for one may love a friend for his own sake1 and at the same time expect benefits from the friendship1 provided the love of benevolence is uppermost4 7b7 ,if there is question of a temporal reward1 one may love and serve ,god for the sake of the reward1 not in the sense that spiritual things are made a means and temporal things their end1 but in the sense that one hopes one's service of ,god will be so blessed that one will have health1 strength and opportunity1 so as to be enabled to continue and progress in that service4 #aafb4 ,regarding the love of self 7i4e41 of the inner man1 or our spiritual nature71 we should note3 7a7 ,objectively1 one esteems others who are higher in sanctity than oneself 7e4g41 the ,blessed ,virgin71 as more worthy of love4 ,but one may desire for self according to charity such progress in virtue that one will pass some others who are now better than oneself2 for the virtue of charity is given us that we may perfect ourselves4 7b7 ,subjectively1 one holds self as being nearer than other persons1 and thus loves oneself with a greater intensity4 #aafc4 ,is it lawful to sacrifice one's own spiritual goods for the benefit of a neighbor8 7a7 ,one may not sacrifice necessary spiritual goods for the benefit1 spiritual or temporal1 of any one1 not even of the whole world2 for in so doing one inflicts a wound on one's own soul and prefers the good of others to one's own spiritual welfare4 ,hence1 it is not lawful to wish to be damned in place of another2 to commit sin1 mortal or venial1 to prevent another from sinning2 or to expose oneself to the certain and proximate danger of sin for the sake of another's spiritual progress4 7b7 ,one may1 however1 sacrifice unnecessary or less necessary spiritual goods for the benefit1 spiritual or temporal1 of a neighbor2 for1 by doing this1 one chooses the course which ,god wishes1 and does not lessen but rather increases one's own profit4 ,thus1 a priest should interrupt his devotions to hear the confession of a penitent2 a daughter should give up the idea of becoming a nun as long as her parents need her2 a lay person should stay away from ,mass on ,sunday1 if an invalid has to be cared for1 or a dying person must be baptized2 it is laudable to make the heroic act of charity1 by which one transfers the satisfactory value of one's good works to the souls in purgatory2 one may expose oneself to a remote danger of sin in order to perform a great service of charity1 as in waiting on a sick person who on account of irritability is a great temptation to anger2 one may wish that one's entrance into heaven be delayed1 so that one may labor longer for souls 7,philip41 i4 #bc1 #bd74 #aafd4 ,the ,love of the ,body4--7a7 ,one should prefer the spiritual welfare of one's neighbor to one's own bodily welfare1 for our neighbor is called to be a partaker with us in the beatific vision1 while the body will share only in accidental glory4 7b7 ,one should prefer one's own bodily welfare to that of another1 all other things being equal1 for it has more of a claim on one4 #aafe4 ,there are three kinds of spiritual necessity in which a neighbor may be placed1 and in which one might be called on to sacrifice one's bodily welfare for the other's good 7cfr4 #abcf71 ,thus1 there is3 7a7 extreme spiritual need1 or that in which a neighbor will perish eternally unless help is given him1 as when an infant is about to die without baptism2 7b7 grave spiritual need1 or that in which a neighbor runs grave danger of losing his soul unless help is given1 as when a dying person1 who is in mortal sin1 asks for a confessor1 because he is scarcely able to make an act of perfect contrition2 7c7 ordinary spiritual need1 or that in which a neighbor is in remote danger of damnation1 or in proximate danger of sin1 but can easily help himself1 as is the case with those who from choice live in occasions of sin4 #aaff4 ,for a neighbor who is in extreme spiritual need1 one should risk death 7,i ,john1 iii4 #af7 or lesser evils1 if the following conditions are present3 7a7 if there is a good prospect of success in helping the needy one 7e4g41 a mother is not obliged to undergo an operation dangerous to her life1 in order to secure the baptism of her child1 if it is uncertain that the baptism can be administered72 7b7 if there is no one else who can and will give the needed help2 7c7 if there is no reason of public good that stands in the way2 thus1 if by helping one in extreme need a person would lose his life1 and so deprive of his aid a large number who are also in extreme need1 he should prefer to help the many rather than the one4 #aafg4 ,for a neighbor who is in grave spiritual necessity1 the same risk is not required of all4 7a7 ,the risk of death itself is required of pastors of souls 7,john1 x4 #aa71 since they have bound themselves to this4 ,hence1 a pastor who would refuse to go to a parishioner dying of pestilence and needing absolution and ,extreme ,unction1 would offend against justice1 while another priest who would go to such a dying person would practise the perfection of charity2 for the dying person can help himself by an act of contrition1 and the strange priest is not bound by office to care for him4 7b7 ,the risk of some great corporal evil 7such as a sickness or impairment of health7 should be taken even by those who are not pastors of the person in need1 if there is no one else to help4 ,thus1 if a pastor were sick1 another priest ought to visit a dying person1 even at the risk of catching a severe cold4 #aafh4 ,for a neighbor who is in ordinary spiritual necessity charity requires that something be done 7,ecclus1 xvii4 #ab74 7a7 ,but it does not require the risk of life or of serious bodily loss1 for the person in danger can easily and better help himself4 ,thus1 it is not necessary that one should penetrate into the haunts of criminals and endanger one's life1 in order to drag away one who chooses to go to such places4 7b7 ,it does require that one be willing to undergo a slight bodily inconvenience or deprivation4 ,thus1 an ordinary headache or the loss of a meal ought not to stop one from counselling another in order to keep him away from bad company4 #aafi4 ,if only corporal good 7life1 health1 liberty1 etc47 is compared with corporal good of the same kind1 then1 as said above1 one should prefer one's own good to that of another4 ,thus1 it is not lawful to offer oneself as substitute for a condemned criminal1 or to put one's family into bankruptcy to save another family from bankruptcy4 ,but1 if a neighbor's corporal good is of a more important kind or is connected with higher goods1 then one may sacrifice one's own good for that of another4 7a7 ,thus1 one may prefer a greater corporal good of a neighbor to a lesser corporal good of one's own4 ,examples3 ,one may weaken one's health to save another's life4 ,one may give of one's blood for a transfusion to assist another who is in danger of death4 7b7 ,one may prefer an equal corporal good of a neighbor to an equal corporal good of one's own1 if the common good requires this2 for the good of all is preferable to that of an individual4 ,thus1 one may expose oneself to the peril of death in order to protect a public person whose life is very important to the nation4 ,thus1 policemen and firemen1 soldiers and sailors1 are daily imperilling their own safety for the safety of the public4 7c7 ,one may prefer an equal corporal good of another1 who is only a private individual1 to one's own equal good1 if the intention is to practise virtue1 to assist a person in need1 or to give edification4 ,at least1 it is more probable that this is lawful1 for the good of virtue is a higher good than the good of the body1 and the ,fathers praise holy men who sold themselves into slavery1 or who gave themselves as hostages to barbarians1 for the liberation of captives2 and they hold up for admiration ,damon and ,pythias1 each of whom was ready to die for the other4 ,hence1 it is not against the charity owed to self to jump into a river and risk one's life in order to rescue a drowning person1 for heroic charity is a hotter adornment to self than mere1 ordinary charity4 ,similarly1 if two explorers in a wilderness have only enough provisions for one to reach civilization1 one of them may surrender his rations to the other1 that both may not be lost4 #aagj4 ,there are two exceptions to the rules just given3 7a7 ,a person should not risk his life for another's life1 if he thereby endangers his own salvation 7e4g41 if he is in a state of sin and cannot reconcile himself to ,god74 ,but this case is theoretical1 for it is admitted that one who makes the supreme sacrifice of giving his life with a virtuous intention1 has not only charity1 but the perfection of charity 7,john1 xv4 #ac71 which will certainly purify him even from a multitude of sins4 7b7 ,one should not risk one's life for the life of another1 if a third party has a higher claim on him4 ,thus1 a married man1 who has a dependent wife and children1 may not throw away his life for the sake of a friend4 #aaga4 ,the order of charity between different neighbors is as follows3 7a7 as to good in general 7e4g41 the attainment of salvation71 we should love all neighbors alike1 for we should desire salvation for all2 7b7 as to good in particular 7e4g41 the degree of beatitude71 we should love some more than others4 ,thus1 we should desire a higher degree of glory for the ,blessed ,virgin than for the ,saints4 #aagb4 ,the reasons for loving one neighbor more than another can be reduced to two4 7a7 ,one neighbor may be nearer to ,god than another1 and hence more deserving of love--for example1 a saintly acquaintance may be nearer to ,god than a sinful relative4 7b7 ,one neighbor may be nearer to ourselves on account of relationship by blood or marriage1 friendship1 civil or professional ties1 etc4 ,thus1 a cousin is nearer by nature to his cousin than another person who is not a relative4 #aagc4 ,the order of charity as between those nearer to ,god and those nearer to self is as follows3 7a7 ,objectively1 we should esteem more those who are better1 and desire for them that higher degree of ,god's favor which belongs to their merits4 ,but we may desire for those nearer to ourselves that they will finally surpass in holiness those now better than they are1 and thus attain to a greater beatitude4 ,moreover1 while we prefer in one respect 7i4e41 that of holiness7 a saintly person1 who is a stranger1 we prefer in many respects 7e4g41 on account of relationship1 friendship1 gratitude7 another who is less holy4 7b7 ,subjectively1 the love for those nearer to self is greater1 that is1 more intense1 more vividly felt4 ,the preferences for those nearer to self1 therefore1 far from being wrong or the expression of mere natural love1 are expressions of charity itself4 ,for it is ,god's will that more love should be shown to those who are nearer to us3 8,if any man have not care of his own1 and especially of those of his house1 he hath denied the faith1 and is worse than an infidel0 7,i ,tim41 v4 #h74 ,hence1 charity itself inclines one to have more love for one's own1 and it supernaturalizes filial piety1 patriotism1 and friendship4 #aagd4 ,the order to be followed in the manifestation of charity will correspond with the order of charity itself4 7a7 ,to those to whom greater objective love is due1 on account of their holiness1 more respect due to their excellence should be shown4 7b7 ,to those to whom greater return of love is due on account of the benefits they have shown 7as parents1 friends1 etc471 more assistance should be given spiritually and temporally4 ,that is1 if one had to choose between helping either a relative or a stranger who was more virtuous1 one would have to decide in favor of the relative4 7c7 ,to those to whom greater subjective love is due1 more signs of affection 7such as visits7 should be given4 #aage4 ,exceptions to the above are the following cases1 in which the good of the better person should be preferred3 7a7 if the common good requires such a preference4 ,thus1 public interest demands that in conferring positions1 making appointments1 or voting for candidates1 one should not be guided by family affections or private friendships1 but only by the common welfare2 and one should decide in favor of the better man2 7b7 if the person nearer to self has forfeited his claims to preference4 ,thus1 a son who has treated his father with contempt and is a wastrel1 may be deprived of his share of the family goods in favor of strangers who are self-sacrificing and who promote some holy cause4 #aagf4 ,the order of charity between various kinds of natural relationships is as follows3 7a7 the relationship that arises from consanguinity is prior and more stable1 since it arises from nature itself and cannot be removed2 7b7 the relationship of friendship1 since it arises from one's own choice1 may be more congenial and may be preferred even to kinship1 when there is question of society and companionship 7,prov41 xviii4 #bd74 #aagg4 ,in practice1 other things being equal1 one should manifest more love to a relative in those things that belong to the relationship4 7a7 ,to those who are related by blood1 corporal or temporal assistance is more due4 ,if one has to choose between helping one's indigent parents or an indigent friend1 one should rather help one's parents4 7b7 ,to those who are spiritually related 7e4g41 pastor and parishioner1 director and penitent1 god-parent and god-child71 more spiritual assistance in instruction1 advice and prayer is due4 ,thus1 a pastor is supposed to be more solicitous about instructing his congregation than his relatives who belong to another congregation4 7c7 ,to those who are related by some special tie1 political1 military1 religious1 etc41 more is due in things political1 military1 religious1 etc41 than to others4 ,thus1 a soldier owes obedience to his officer1 and not to his father1 in matters that pertain to army life2 a priest owes deference to an ecclesiastical superior in clerical matters1 not to his parents4 #aagh4 ,kinship1 as being an older and more fundamental relationship1 should have precedence in assistance over any other kind of private relationship in case of conflict and extreme necessity4 7a7 ,thus1 as regards spiritual matters 7e4g41 calling a priest to give absolution71 if a parent and a spiritual father were both in extreme necessity1 one's first duty would be to one's parent4 7b7 ,as regards temporal matters1 if one has to choose between assisting one's needy parents and remaining in some relationship in which one cannot help them1 one should give up the relationship1 if possible4 ,thus1 a ,religious is allowed to return to the world1 if his parents require his support4 #aagi4 ,the order of charity as between kinsfolk gives preference of course to the nearer relatives-parents1 children1 wife4 ,between these nearer relatives there is also an order of preference1 as follows3 7a7 objectively 7or with reference to the greater or less claim to respect and honor71 the order is3 father1 mother1 wife1 children2 7b7 subjectively 7or with reference to the greater or less intensity of affection71 the order is the reverse1 namely3 children1 wife1 parents4 #aahj4 ,the following should be noted about this order of preference between the members of one's family3 7a7 the basis of preference given is only kinship1 and hence there may be other considerations to change the order given 7e4g41 a pious mother is rightly more respected and honored by her children than a worthless father72 7b7 there is no notable excess in the claim of one member of the family over that of another1 and hence those whose affections do not follow the order given are not guilty of serious sin4 #aaha4 ,the order in which relatives have a claim on assistance when several are in equal need is as follows3 7a7 in cases of ordinary need the order is1 first1 the wife1 for a man leaves his parents for his wife 7,gen41 ii4 #bd71 second1 the children1 for ordinarily parents must provide for children1 and not children for parents 7,,ii ,cor41 xii4 #ad71 third1 parents2 after these come in order1 brothers and sisters1 other relatives1 friends1 fellow-citizens of the same locality or country1 all others2 7b7 in case of extreme need1 however1 parents are to be preferred to all others1 even to wife1 children or creditors1 since one receives life from parents4 #aahb4 ,the order of charity is also observed in heaven4 7a7 ,thus1 ,god is loved above all1 not only objectively1 but also subjectively1 for ,his amiability is better understood and is not for a moment neglected4 7b7 ,self is loved less1 objectively1 than those who are higher1 and more1 objectively1 than those who are lower in glory3 for the state of the blessed is fixed1 and each of them desires that which ,god wills4 ,but1 subjectively1 each loves self with a more intense love1 since charity itself inclines that one first direct self towards ,god1 and then wish the same for others4 7c7 ,among neighbors1 since love of them will be entirely divine1 the reason of earthly preferences 7such as dependence of one on another7 having ceased1 those who are more perfect in holiness will be loved with deeper appreciation and affection than those who are nearer by kinship or friendship4 #aahc4 ,the ,acts of ,charity4--,the principal act of the virtue of charity is love4 ,it is sometimes spoken of as benevolence1 but in reality the love of charity includes more than mere benevolence4 7a7 ,thus1 benevolence wishes well to another according to a right judgment1 and so it pertains to charity1 which rejoices in the perfections of ,god and wishes beatitude to man2 but 7b7 love is a union of affection with another1 which makes one regard him as another self1 and so it pertains to charity1 which1 as said above1 is a supernatural friendship1 ,one can be benevolent towards a stranger and for a passing moment1 but love is intimate and lasting1 from its nature4 #aahd4 ,exercise of the ,act of ,love4--7a7 ,from benevolence proceed gladness at the perfections of ,god 7,i ,pet41 i4 #h71 zeal for ,his external glory 7,i ,pet41 iv4 #aa71 grief over sin committed against ,him 7,ps4 lxxii4 #c71 obedience to ,his commandments 7,john1 xiv4 #ae1 #ba1 #bc74 7b7 ,from the union of affection proceed a warmth of inclination and a personal interest in the things of ,god1 so that one rejoices over the divine perfections1 not merely because one knows that this is a duty1 but because one feels the attachment of a friend for all that pertains to ,god4 #aahe4 ,charity loves ,god3 7a7 for ,his own sake2 7b7 immediately2 7c7 entirely2 7d7 without measure4 #aahf4 ,we love ,god for ,his own sake1 in the sense that there is nothing distinct from ,god that causes ,him to be loved4 7a7 ,thus1 there is no ulterior end on account of which ,he is loved1 for ,he is the ,last ,end of all2 7b7 there is no perfection different from ,his nature that makes ,him lovable1 since ,he is perfection itself2 7c7 there is no source of ,his goodness on account of which ,he is loved1 since ,he is the ,primal ,source4 #aahg4 ,we may love ,god for the sake of reward 7see #aafa71 on account of benefits1 and for fear of punishment1 in the following senses3 7a7 the eternal reward is the proximate end of our love of ,god3 8,receiving the end of your faith1 even the salvation of your souls0 7,i ,pet41 i4 #i72 but the end of salvation itself1 and the ,last ,end of love of ,god1 is ,god ,himself2 7b7 temporal rewards1 benefits received1 and the wish to avoid punishment1 are dispositions that lead up to love of ,god1 or to progress in ,his love2 but they are not the end of the act of love4 #aahh4 ,charity loves ,god immediately1 and so differs from natural love of ,god4 7a7 ,thus1 natural love of ,god rises from love of neighbor whom we see to love of ,god whom we do not see1 just as natural knowledge rises from the creature to the ,creator4 7b7 ,charity1 on the contrary1 tends to ,god first1 and by reason of ,him includes the neighbor in its love4 #aahi4 ,charity loves ,god entirely4 7a7 ,but this does not mean that the creature's love is adequate to the amiability of ,god1 for ,god is infinite1 whereas love in the most perfect creature must be finite4 7b7 ,it means1 with reference to the object of love1 that charity loves everything that pertains to ,god--each of the ,divine ,persons1 all of the divine perfections4 7e7 ,it means1 with reference to the person who loves1 that he loves ,god to the best of his ability1 by subordinating all else to ,god and preferring ,his love to other loves4 ,on earth1 charity gives to ,god the greatest objective love2 in heaven1 it also gives ,him the greatest subjective love 7see #aabi73 8,thou shalt love the ,lord1 thy ,god1 with thy whole heart0 7,deut41 vi4 #e74 #aaij4 ,charity loves ,god without measure1 as ,st4 ,bernard says 7,de diligendo ,deo1 cap4 #a74 ,god has fixed a degree of perfection in charity beyond which a soul will not progress1 but no one should set a limit for himself1 for love has to do with ,god1 who is not measured1 but is the measure of all things4 7a7 ,hence1 in the internal act of love1 there is no possibility of excess1 since the ,object is infinitely amiable and the ,end of all1 and so the greater the charity1 the better it is4 7b7 ,in external acts proceeding from charity1 however1 there is a possibility of excess1 since these acts are a means to an end1 and have to be measured by charity and reason4 ,thus1 it would be excessive to give more to strangers than to one's needy parents1 for this act would not be according to the rule of charity4 ,it would also be excessive to perform works of charity1 when one ought to be attending to household duties1 for reason requires that everything be done at its proper time and place4 #aaia4 ,the love of an enemy may be a better act than the love of a friend1 when there are special excellencies in the former love that are not found in the latter4 7a7 ,thus1 if the enemy1 all things considered1 is a better person than the friend1 and if he is for that reason objectively preferred1 this is as it should be 7see #aagc74 7b7 ,if the parties are of equal merit1 an act of love towards the enemy on account of supernatural charity is better than an act of love towards the friend on account of natural affection3 8,if you love them that love you1 what reward shall you have8 do not even the publicans this80 7,matt1 v4 #df74 #aaib4 ,if all other things are equal1 the love of the friend is essentially better1 while the love of the enemy is better in some minor respects4 7a7 ,thus1 the love of the friend has a better object1 for the friend who loves us is better than the enemy who hates us2 it has also an object that has a greater claim on charity1 as being nearer to self4 ,hence1 it is essentially a better and more meritorious act4 7b7 ,the love of the enemy is more difficult1 and may thus be a more convincing sign that one really loves ,god4 ,but the fact that an act is more difficult does not suffice to make it more meritorious1 or else we should have to say that the love of neighbor is more meritorious than the love of ,god4 ,art4 #f3 ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,charity 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #bh-cc47 #aaic4 ,internal ,effects of ,charity4--,there are three acts of the soul that result from love1 viz41 joy1 peace1 mercy4 7a7 ,the joy of charity is a repose or delight of the soul in the perfections of ,god and in the union of self and the neighbor with ,him3 8,the fruit of the ,spirit is charity1 joy0 7,gal41 v4 #bb74 7b7 ,the peace of charity is the harmony of man with ,god1 self and the neighbor3 8,there is much peace to those that love ,thy law0 7,ps4 cxviii4 #afe74 7c7 ,mercy is an inclination of the will to relieve the misery of another2 it follows from charity1 for love of the brotherhood 8weeps with them that weep0 7,rom41 xii4 #aj1 #ae74 #aaid4 ,joy4--,the precept of charity includes a precept of joy1 and hence the ,apostle says3 8,rejoice in the ,lord always2 again1 ,i say1 rejoice0 7,philip41 iv4 #d1 #e74 ,this joy of charity has the following properties3 7a7 it is about good1 not about iniquity1 and it is not unrestrained2 it rejoices 8in the ,lord02 7b7 it should not be discontinued or interrupted by sin1 but should rejoice 8always40 ,it may1 however1 be mixed with sorrow over sin or the delay of entrance into the presence of ,god 7 ,rom41 xii4 #ae2 ,ps4 cxix4 #e71 for only in heaven will joy be filled 7,john1 xv4 #aa74 ,st4 ,paul spoke of himself as 8sorrowful1 yet always rejoicing0 7,,ii ,cor41 vi4 #aj74 #aaie4 ,peace4--,the precept of charity also includes a precept of peace1 and our ,lord commands3 8,have peace among yourselves0 7,mark1 ix4 #di74 ,peace1 like joy1 has two properties3 7a7 it should be genuine 7i4e41 it should be a contentment and agreement based on right71 for there is a false peace1 of which ,christ says3 8,i am not come to bring peace0 7,matt1 x4 #cd71 which rests in a good that is only apparent1 and which does not exclude great evil and anxiety 7,wis41 xiv4 #bb71 7b7 peace is constant1 for1 as long as charity remains1 there are friendly relations with ,god and man1 and order in the interior of the soul4 ,perfect tranquility1 it is true1 is found only in heaven4 ,on earth1 disturbances may arise in the lower part of the soul1 or from without1 but the will continues in the peace of ,god 7,,ii ,cor41 i4 #d74 #aaif4 ,reconciliation of a sinner to ,god is effected through an act of perfect charity3 8,he who loves ,me1 will be loved by ,my ,father and ,i will love him0 7,john1 xiv4 #ba74 7a7 ,thus1 sin is washed away1 even before ,baptism or absolution1 when the sinner makes an act of love of ,god joined with a desire1 at least implicit1 of receiving the ,sacrament of ,baptism or ,penance4 ,the act of love is not the cause1 but the final disposition introducing justification4 7b7 ,the punishment of sin is forgiven1 when one makes an act of love1 or performs a good deed out of love of ,god2 but the degree of remission corresponds to the fervor of the charity4 #aaig4 ,does the precept of peace demand unanimity of judgments8 7a7 ,in matters of greater importance1 there should be agreement in judgments2 else1 there will not be that harmony of wills1 desiring the same things and disliking the same things1 which constitute peace4 ,in necessary things1 therefore1 there should be unity of judgments3 8,i beseech of you1 brethren1 by the name of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 that you all speak the same thing1 and that there be no schisms among you1 but that you be perfect in the same mind and in the same judgment0 7,i ,cor41 i4 #aj74 7b7 ,in matters of slight importance1 difference of opinion does not remove friendship1 for each one thinks that his judgment will better serve the good that is sought alike by all4 ,we find that even very holy men have disagreed on matters of opinion--for example1 ,paul and ,barnabas on the question whether or not ,mark should be taken on the second missionary journey 7,acts1 xv4 #cg71 ,jerome and ,augustine on the status of ,mosaic observances after the death of ,christ4 ,disputes may offend against charity1 however1 if they become too personal or too heated1 as sometimes happens even to minds occupied with heavenly things 7e4g41 theologians1 spiritual writers74 #aaih4 ,reconciliation with enemies is necessary1 in order that peace may be maintained4 ,it includes3 7a7 internally1 the putting away of thoughts and feelings contrary to concord2 7b7 externally1 signs of renewed charity1 if there has been an open breach4 #aaii4 ,the duty of reconciliation does not necessitate the forgiveness of every kind of wrong suffered from an enemy--that is1 it does not always oblige one freely to remit the consequences of an enemy's acts4 ,there are three kinds of wrong3 7a7 offenses1 which are such contradictions offered to the will of another as do not trespass on any strict right or occasion any damage4 ,example3 ,balbus1 who is in great distress1 asks his friend ,titus to secure employment for him4 ,titus could easily do this favor1 but he refuses2 7b7 injuries1 which are violations of the strict right of another1 but without damage4 ,example3 ,claudia addresses ,caia in very disrespectful language when no witnesses are present2 7c7 damages1 which are the taking from another of what is his1 or harm done to him as regards his soul1 his life1 his fame1 or his fortune4 ,examples are theft1 scandal1 assault and slander4 #abjj4 ,whether an offender asks pardon or not1 one is obliged to forgive the offense--that is1 to put aside all aversion1 indignation and hatred3 8,forgive us our trespasses1 as we forgive them that trespass against us0 7,matt41 vi4 #ab74 ,but1 granting that one desires salvation for the offender as for others1 shows the common signs of charity1 and is not prompted by hatred1 the following are not required3 7a7 that one so pardon the offense as to take the offender back to the same special friendship as may have existed before2 7b7 that one overlook an injury so as not to require satisfaction 7and hence1 without acting against charity1 ,gaia may insist on an apology from ,claudia for the disrespectful language used by the latter72 and 7c7 that one renounce restitution or reparation for damage done one4 ,no one is obliged to give to another what is one's own1 and1 if there is no other way of securing one's rights1 one may have recourse to court4 ,if the result of prosecution will be punishment of the offender rather than restitution 7as in case of libel or slander71 it is not uncharitable to prosecute the offender1 if one's motive is the fulfillment of justice1 the prevention of the same wrong to others1 or the honor of one's family 7,lev41 xix4 #ag74 #abja4 ,there are cases1 however1 in which charity requires one to forgive a debt of satisfaction or restitution1 namely1 when this would impose too heavy a burden on the offender1 compared with the benefit that would be derived therefrom4 7a7 ,thus1 restitution should not be insisted on1 when the offender is repentant and can ill afford to pay the debt1 and the party offended can easily get along without the payment4 7b7 ,punishment should not be insisted on1 if the harm done the offender or his family will be out of proportion to any good that may result4 7c7 ,prosecution should not be used1 if a wrong can be amicably adjusted out of court 7,i ,cor41 vi4 #a74 #abjb4 ,who should make the advances towards reconciliation after a rupture of charitable relations8 7a7 ,if only one party was the offender1 he should normally make the first move towards reconciliation4 ,it is of counsel1 but not of precept1 that the innocent party ask for reconciliation1 unless the circumstances require that he should do so1 as when the offended party can much more easily make the advances1 or when great scandal will arise1 or when the offender will become hardened in hate and lose his soul1 if the party offended does not make efforts for peace4 7b7 ,if both parties were offenders1 he who offended more seriously should make the advances4 7c7 ,if both offended equally1 he who was first to disturb the peace should also be first to work for its restoration4 7d7 ,if it does not appear which of the parties was more to blame in any of the foregoing ways1 both are equally bound4 #abjc4 ,the manner of seeking reconciliation is as follows3 7a7 ,reconciliation can be sought either in person1 or through an intermediary who is a friend to both parties4 7b7 ,it can be sought either explicitly 7by expressing regret and asking pardon71 or implicitly 7by a friendly conversation or favors shown74 ,generally speaking1 an inferior 7e4g41 a child7 should explicitly request reconciliation with a superior 7e4g41 a parent72 but it will suffice for a superior to seek forgiveness from an inferior implicitly4 #abjd4 ,the time for seeking reconciliation is the earliest possible moment3 8,if thou offer thy gift at the altar1 and there thou remember that thy brother hath anything against thee1 leave there thy offering before the altar1 and go first to be reconciled to thy brother1 and then coming thou shalt offer thy gift0 7,matt1 v4 #bc1 #bd74 7a7 ,thus1 internal reconciliation 7i4e41 repentance on the part of the offender and forgiveness on the part of the one offended7 should not be delayed1 and should precede any sacred action1 such as offering a gift to ,god1 if this latter is to be acceptable and meritorious4 7b7 ,external reconciliation 7i4e41 asking pardon and making satisfaction7 and the manifestation of forgiveness should be attended to as soon as the circumstances of time and place permit4 ,the resolve to be reconciled externally is included in internal reconciliation1 but prudence dictates that one wait for the suitable occasion1 lest precipitation make matters worse4 #abje4 ,mercy4--,from charity results mercy1 for he who loves his neighbor as a friend in ,god1 must grieve over the latter's sorrows as if they were his own4 ,our ,lord commands3 8,be ye merciful1 as your ,heavenly ,father is also merciful0 7,luke1 vi4 #cf74 ,but not all compassion is true mercy or supernatural4 7a7 ,thus1 as regards the object that causes sorrow1 true mercy grieves over the evils that befall another against his will1 such as sickness1 failure in an enterprise1 or undeserved misfortune4 ,but wilful evil1 such as sin1 provokes not mercy1 but rather indignation1 although one may compassionate sinners on account of the ills their sins bring on them 7,matt41 ix4 #cf74 7b7 ,as regards the internal cause of sorrow or sympathy1 supernatural mercy arises from the love of charity for the one suffering2 natural mercy1 from the fear one has that a similar evil may overtake oneself1 or that oneself may suffer loss on account of another's misfortune4 7c7 ,as regards the act of mercy1 it is to be noted that it proceeds from the will1 regulates the emotions1 and is itself regulated by reason4 ,thus1 mercy differs from the sensible distress a refined person experiences at the sight of suffering1 which1 though good in itself1 may never lead to a wish to alleviate sorrow4 ,thus1 also1 it differs from unregulated sympathy1 which bestows help or forgiveness indiscriminately1 without thought of the greater evils that may result2 it differs from sentimentality1 which does not restrain tears and other emotional expressions within due bounds4 ,the virtue of mercy has a care for the interests of justice1 but mere pity1 like prejudice1 blinds the mind to what is true and right4 #abjf4 ,the causes of an unmerciful spirit are3 7a7 lack of charity towards one who is in misery2 7b7 pride or too much prosperity1 which makes one feel that others suffer justly1 or that one is above their condition 7,prov41 xxviii4 #d72 7c7 great misfortunes or fears that have hardened one's disposition1 or made one self-centered4 #abjg4 ,mercy ,compared with the ,other ,moral ,virtues4--7a7 ,mercy1 if taken for the emotion of sympathy as regulated by reason1 is inferior to prudence and justice1 which are perfections of the higher powers of the soul 7i4e41 of the intellect and will74 7b7 ,mercy1 if taken for an act of the will disliking the misery of another and moving one to remove that misery1 surpasses the other moral virtues2 indeed1 it may be said to be something divine1 and hence more than a virtue4 ,certainly1 it is the greatest of the virtues that have to do with the neighbor1 for of its nature it implies freedom from some defect and the relief of that defect in others1 which is not the case with other virtues4 ,thus1 while prudence directs acts and justice renders to others their due1 these do not of themselves remove ignorance or destitution in a neighbor4 #abjh4 ,mercy ,compared with ,charity4--7a7 ,in itself 7i4e41 considered precisely as to its essential notes of freedom from misery and relief given to the miserable71 mercy is the greatest of the virtues4 ,for1 carried to its highest development1 freedom from defect means infinite perfection2 while relief of defect in others means that1 out of infinite love for the ,supreme ,good1 relief is poured out by ,god on ,his creatures4 ,thus1 in ,god mercy is an extension of the love ,god has towards ,his own goodness1 for the benefit of creatures1 and is greater than charity3 8,the mercy of ,god is above all ,his works0 7,ps4 cxliv4 #i74 7b7 ,in its subject 7i4e41 considered precisely as to the perfection it brings to its possessor71 mercy is inferior in creatures to charity4 ,for it is better to be united by love to the ,supreme ,good than to remove evil in a creature3 8,above all these things have charity0 7,col1 iii4 #ad74 ,mercy is the sum of the ,christian religion as far as external works are concerned1 but charity is the sum of ,christianity as regards internal acts4 #abji4 ,the ,obligation of ,mercy4-7a7 ,the natural law itself inculcates mercy1 but those not influenced by divine revelation have not highly esteemed it or practised it4 ,thus1 ,plato wished that all the poor might be sent into exile4 ,virgil thought that freedom from pity was a sign of wisdom2 ,seneca called mercy a vice of the soul2 ,nietzsche taught that compassion has no place in the morality of the superman4 7b7 ,the divine law commands mercy1 especially in the ,new ,testament4 ,assistance of the poor1 the widows1 the orphans1 the sick1 the captives1 the slaves and other unfortunates is everywhere insisted on3 8,i will show thee what the ,lord requireth of thee3 verily to do justice1 and to love mercy1 and to walk solicitous with thy ,god0 7,mich41 vi4 #h74 #abaj4 ,external ,effects of ,charity4--,three external effects of charity will now be considered-beneficence1 almsgiving and fraternal correction4 ,these are not distinct virtues1 but only separate acts pertaining to the virtue of charity and proceeding--like love1 joy and peace--from the same motive of love of ,god4 7a7 ,thus1 beneficence naturally results from charity1 since one of the acts of friendship is to do good to one's friend2 7b7 almsgiving is one of the special ways in which beneficence is exercised2 7c7 fraternal correction is a species of spiritual almsgiving4 #abaa4 ,beneficence4--,not every act of helping others is virtuous1 nor is all virtuous assistance called beneficence4 7a7 ,thus1 to assist others in evil is maleficence1 nor is it virtuous to help them with an evil purpose4 ,examples3 ,to give money to criminals to help them defeat the law is participation in crime4 ,to give presents to others in order to receive a return of favor from them is cupidity 7,luke1 xiv4 #ab74 7b7 ,to assist others or to give to them out of compassion for misery1 is mercy2 to do so out of a sense of obligation1 is justice2 to do so out of love of ,god1 is beneficence4 #abab4 ,beneficence is a duty1 and like charity should be universal3 8,while we have time1 let us work good to all men0 7,gal41 vi4 #aj72 8,do good to them that hate you0 7,matt41 v4 #dd74 ,but this does not mean that no discrimination is to be used in beneficence1 or that impossibilities are required4 7a7 ,not every kind of activity in which others are engaged is deserving of assistance1 not every kind of suffering of others may be removed4 ,examples3 ,criminals or enemies of the ,state are not to be assisted in their wrongdoing1 but one may attempt to bring them to better conduct2 one who has been justly sentenced to prison may not be aided to escape1 but he may be visited and consoled and given religious assistance4 7b7 ,not all can be helped individually2 even the richest and most generous person can benefit only a small percentage of those who are deserving4 ,charity requires1 however1 that one be so disposed that one would help all individually1 if it were possible1 and that one does help all generally1 by praying for both ,catholics and non-,catholics4 #abac4 ,since it is impossible to help all individually1 beneficence should be regulated by the order of charity 7see #aagd sqq471 and particular good should be done to those with whom on account of conditions of time or place one is more closely associated4 ,hence1 the following general rules are given3 7a7 ,in benefits that pertain to a particular kind of relationship2 one should give the preference1 other things being equal1 to those with whom one has that relationship4 ,examples3 ,to make a banquet for another is a benefit pertaining to friendship1 and hence should be shown to one who is a friend1 rather than to one who is a business associate1 but not an intimate4 ,to support another person is a benefit pertaining to kinship1 and hence should be shown to a parent1 rather than to a stranger4 7b7 ,in benefits given to those with whom one has the same kind of relationship1 one should give the preference1 other things being equal1 to those nearer in relationship4 ,example3 ,in dispensing alms1 one should help one's own family rather than distant relatives4 #abad4 ,if other things are not equal1 the foregoing rules must sometimes be reversed4 7a7 ,when the common good is involved1 preference should be given those who represent it1 even though others are nearer to one as regards private good4 ,hence1 a citizen should help the fortunes of his adopted country rather than those of his mother country2 in a civil war one should aid rather one's comrades than one's kinsmen who are on the opposite side4 7b7 ,when a supreme good of a private person is at stake1 one should prefer to help him1 even if a stranger1 rather than another who is a friend1 or relative1 but who is not in the same distress4 ,example3 ,one should give one's loaf to a man dying of starvation rather than to one's own father1 who is hungry but not starving4 7c7 ,when the means with which a benefit is bestowable belong to another1 one must prefer to give back what belongs to the other1 even if this person is a stranger1 rather than use it for the good of a friend or relative4 ,thus1 if a person has stolen money or has borrowed money from a stranger1 he must return it to the owner1 rather than make a present of it to his own wife4 ,an exception would be the case in which the wife was in dire necessity1 whereas the owner was not2 but the duty of restitution would remain for the future4 #abae4 ,no general rule can be laid down for all cases in which one party is nearer to self and the other party more in need1 and many such cases have to be decided according to prudent judgment in view of all the circumstances4 ,it should be noted that1 though wife and children are nearer to one than parents1 the latter have a greater claim on charity when they are in equally extreme necessity1 on account of the supreme benefit of life received from them4 ,but ordinarily one is bound rather to provide for one's children 7,,ii ,cor41 xii4 #ad74 #abaf4 ,almsgiving4--,almsgiving is defined3 8,assistance to one who is in need1 given out of compassion and for the love of ,god40 ,hence1 this act pertains to various virtues4 7a7 ,it is elicited by the virtue of mercy1 which means that compassion for misery is the immediate principle which produces almsgiving4 7b7 ,it is commanded by the virtue of charity1 which means that love of ,god is the remote principle or end of an alms1 for1 as said above 7see #abje71 mercy itself is an effect of charity 7,i ,john1 iii4 #ag74 7c7 ,secondarily1 it may also be commanded by other virtues4 ,thus1 if a person gives an alms to satisfy for his sins1 he performs an act of justice2 if he gives in order to honor ,god1 he performs an act of religion2 if he gives without undue grief over the loss of what he gives1 he practises liberality4 #abag4 ,qualities ,recommended for ,almsgiving4--7a7 ,alms should not be given ostentatiously 7,matt1 vi4 #b sqq471 though it is often edifying that they receive publicity 7,matt41 v4 #af72 7b7 they should be given cheerfully 7,,ii ,cor41 ix4 #g74 #abah4 ,forms of ,almsgiving4--7a7 ,in the strict sense1 an alms is a gift made without any obligation of payment or return2 7b7 in a wide sense1 almsgiving includes selling on credit as a favor to a poor customer1 a loan granted at a low rate of interest or without interest1 help in securing employment1 etc4 ,thus1 if a poor man is sufficiently helped by the use of an article1 there is no need of making him a present of it4 #abai4 ,almsgiving is to be distinguished1 also1 from mere giving4 7a7 ,thus1 assistance given the poor out of a bad motive 7e4g41 to lead them away from their religion1 to induce them to crime7 is sinful2 7b7 assistance given the poor out of a merely natural good motive 7e4g41 pity for their sufferings7 is philanthropy1 but not charity 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #c71 and may coexist with the state of hatred of ,god4 #abbj4 ,corporal alms1 in the form of bodily necessaries given freely in themselves or in their money equivalent1 are of as many kinds as there are bodily needs4 7a7 ,hence1 the common necessities of food1 drink1 clothing and shelter should be provided as alms to the starving and to those who lack sufficient clothing1 or who are without a home4 7b7 ,special necessities1 whether internal 7such as sickness7 or external 7such as persecution or imprisonment71 should be relieved or assuaged by remedies1 visits1 protection or relief4 7c7 ,the necessity of the body after death is that it be cared for with the honor which the memory of the deceased deserves1 and hence burial of the dead is numbered among the corporal alms4 #abba4 ,thus1 there are seven corporal works of mercy4 7a7 ,those that pertain to the needs of the body during life are mentioned by our ,lord in ,matt41 xxv4 #ce1 #cf4 7b7 ,the burial of the dead is praised in scripture as a good work1 as we see in the cases of ,tobias 7,tob41 i1 ii1 xii71 and of those who buried our ,lord 7,matt1 xxvi4 #ab1 xxvii4 #eg sqq474 #abbb4 ,spiritual alms1 consisting of assistance given those who suffer want in mind or spirit1 are either prayers1 by which divine aid is asked for them1 or various acts by which human aid is conferred4 ,these acts are also of two kinds1 and constitute seven spiritual works of mercy4 7a7 ,the defects from which a soul suffers1 and which are not moral1 include ignorance in the intellect1 doubt in the practical judgment1 and sadness in the affections2 and hence the acts of almsgiving for such cases are instruction1 counsel1 and comfort4 7b7 ,the defects of soul which are moral are the guilt of sin and its consequences--that is1 the offense given and the burdens that result for the sinner or others4 ,the corresponding spiritual alms are admonition against sin1 pardon of the offense done to self1 patience in bearing with the difficult ways of others1 especially if they err through infirmity1 or willingness in helping them to bear the consequences of their errors 7,rom41 xv4 #a74 #abbc4 ,the giving of spiritual alms may suppose superiority or authority in the giver over the receiver1 or a certain procedure to be followed2 hence1 in the administration of spiritual benefits1 the due order of time1 place and persons has to be remembered4 7a7 ,thus1 in the instruction of the ignorant1 it is not every kind of ignorance that is a defect1 but only the ignorance of things one must know2 and it is not every person who is to give the needed instruction4 7b7 ,in the correction of sinners1 it is not every kind of reproof that is to be used1 but gentleness and secret admonition should be employed where possible 7,prov41 xxvii4 #f74 #abbd4 ,comparison of ,corporal and ,spiritual ,alms4--7a7 ,spiritual alms are better1 because their nature is higher and they are of greater benefit to the recipient1 even though he appreciates them less4 ,thus1 it is better to enjoy peace of mind than to feast sumptuously4 7h7 ,corporal alms are sometimes more necessary in a particular case1 and hence they should be attended to first4 ,thus1 for one suffering from hunger food is more necessary than words of comfort 7,james1 ii4 #ae1 #af74 #abbe4 ,though corporal alms are not spiritual in the assistance they give1 they are spiritual in their effects4 7a7 ,thus1 they bless the recipient corporally1 by relieving his hunger or other need2 7b7 they bless the giver spiritually1 since ,god will reward his charity 7,ecclus41 xxiv1 #ac1 #ad71 and the person helped will pray for his benefactor 7ibid41 #ae74 #abbf4 ,the ,duty of ,giving ,alms4--7a7 ,the natural law requires that we do to others as we would be done by1 and there is no one who does not wish that help be rendered him if he falls into need4 ,moreover1 the common welfare requires that the rich assist the poor1 for otherwise there will be discontent and disorder4 ,hence1 even unbelievers are not exempt from the obligation of almsgiving4 7b7 ,the divine law1 in both ,old and ,new ,testaments1 commands almsgiving3 8,give alms out of thy substance1 and turn not away thy face from any poor person0 7,tob41 iv4 #g72 8,depart from ,me1 you cursed1 into everlasting fire1 for ,i was hungry1 and you gave ,me not to eat0 7,matt41 xxv4 #da-db72 8,let us love1 not in word1 nor in tongue1 but in deed and in truth0 7,i ,john1 iii4 #ah74 ,tobias1 ,dorcas1 ,cornelius1 and ,zacheus are praised for their charitable gifts4 #abbg4 ,almsgiving1 being an affirmative commandment1 does not oblige for every moment of time1 but only when right reason calls for it on account of the state of the giver or of the receiver4 7a7 ,the state of the giver requires him to give alms only when he has a superfluity of goods1 for no one is bound to deprive himself of what is necessary for his own use 7see #aafd1 #aafi74 ,john the ,baptist said to the people3 8,he that hath two coats1 let him give to him that hath none2 and he that hath meat1 let him do in like manner0 7,luke1 iii4 #aa74 8,that which remaineth10 says our ,lord1 8give as alms0 7,luke1 xi4 #da74 7b7 ,the state of the receiver gives him a claim on charity1 when he is in necessity and unable to help himself4 ,temporal goods1 according to the will of ,god1 are for the benefit of the whole human race2 and1 while the ownership of particular goods belongs to the rightful possessor1 he should not withhold the use of them from those who are in need1 when he has more than he needs for his own use4 ,neither is it necessary that one be asked for an alms2 one is obliged to give it when one knows that one's neighbor is in want1 though unable or ashamed to beg for help4 #abbh4 ,it is not a precept1 therefore1 but only a counsel1 that one give alms in other cases4 7a7 ,thus1 when one is in equal need oneself and has no superfluous goods1 one may give to another2 7b7 when one's neighbor is not in need1 or is able to help himself1 one may still give to him out of charity1 if he is deserving 7see #aafi74 #abbi4 ,superfluities are those goods that remain over and above what are necessary for life1 or the maintenance of one's state of life justly acquired and socially useful4 7a7 ,necessaries of life are the goods one must have to provide food1 clothing and home for oneself and one's family4 ,among necessaries of life we may include what one has to set aside for old age1 sickness1 increase of family1 and the future sustenance of dependents who will need it 7,,ii ,cor41 xii4 #ad74 ,but they should not be extended to include imaginary cases1 or all the possible cases of personal need that may arise in the future2 otherwise1 one is guilty of that exaggerated solicitude for the morrow which our ,lord forbids 7,matt1 vi4 #cd74 7b7 ,necessaries of state are the goods a person must have to keep up his position and that of his family according to the standard of living of his class4 ,this includes provision for the education and advancement of one's children1 for hospitality1 adornment of home1 and the care and improvement of one's business2 but it does not include provision for excessive pleasures or luxuries1 or improbable future opportunities of bettering one's condition2 otherwise1 even the wealthiest person might say that all his money was tied up and that he had no superfluous goods4 #abcj4 ,what is necessary for the decency of particular stations in life8 7a7 ,this does not consist in any fixed amount1 for1 even when considerable additions to or subtractions from a person's wealth have been made1 he may retain and support the same social rank4 7b7 ,it consists1 therefore1 in the amount sufficient for him to maintain1 according to the opinion of prudent men1 what is becoming in one of his class4 ,thus1 one's position may require that one do much entertaining or keep up an expensive household1 or it may require only that one live moderately4 #abca4 ,the giving in alms of goods for which the giver himself has need is governed by the following rules3 7a7 ,necessaries of life should be given away to another1 as a matter of precept1 if the common good is bound up with the life of that other1 but not with one's own life2 they may be given away to another1 as a matter of counsel1 when the common good does not require it1 but the higher good of virtue invites one to sacrifice one's life for one's neighbor 7probable opinion74 ,examples3 ,one should give away one's last loaf to save the life of a leader on whom the salvation of his people depends4 ,one may make the same sacrifice1 if one is single and without dependents1 and another is married and has a dependent family4 ,but one may not give away what is necessary for the life of one's family 7,i ,tim41 v4 #h74 7b7 ,necessaries of state1 at least in part 7see #abea71 should be given away to another1 as a matter of precept1 if the public good or the life of a private individual are at stake1 or if that which is given in alms can be easily recovered and will now prevent a very grave calamity2 they may be given away1 as a matter of counsel1 if the higher good of virtue invites one to embrace voluntary poverty3 8,if thou wouldst be perfect1 go sell all that thou hast and give to the poor0 7,matt41 xix4 #ba74 ,examples3 ,one should offer one's fortunes in support of one's government1 if in some crisis the nation cannot otherwise be saved4 ,one may give up riches and become poor in order to follow ,christ in the religious life4 #abcb4 ,superfluities of one's state are the goods from which the precept of almsgiving requires that assistance ordinarily be given4 ,but the mere fact that one has a superfluity does not oblige one to give alms4 ,as in every virtuous act1 so also in almsgiving there must be not only an object according to reason1 but also circumstances according to reason4 ,hence1 one who has a superfluity is bound to give alms only when the proper conditions of time1 place1 person1 etc41 are present4 7a7 ,as regards time1 a person is not obliged to devote to almsgiving the time that is needed for other duties4 7b7 ,as to persons1 a person is not obliged to give alms1 if there is no needy person known to him4 #abcc4 ,as to need1 we may distinguish three classes of persons3 7a7 ,those in apparent need are such as pretend poverty1 sickness1 or misfortune1 in order to get sympathy and financial aid 7e4g41 professional beggars74 ,alms should not be given persons of this kind1 since they take what would be given to the really poor and needy4 ,rather they should be exposed and punished4 7b7 ,those in real need through choice should not be helped1 if they take to begging because they are too lazy to work1 or find it profitable to live off others2 for they have no right to beg1 being able to help themselves1 and it would be wrong to encourage them in idleness and an imposition on others 7,,ii ,thess41 iii4 #aj74 ,but those who are voluntarily poor for ,christ's sake1 whether they belong to a religious order or not1 are worthy of respect and it is meritorious to assist them4 7c7 ,those who are in real need against their will1 should be assisted2 for1 even though they became destitute through their own fault1 they are in fact unable to help themselves now4 #abcd4 ,regarding money obtained under the false pretense of poverty and the duty of restitution1 the following rules may be given3 7a7 ,if a person obtains considerable alms by pretending to be blind1 disabled1 in great want1 etc41 and he is not afflicted or in need1 he should give back the money to the donors or1 if this is impossible1 to the poor1 since the donors wished to help the poor1 not to encourage idlers4 7b7 ,if one obtains only a small amount under a false pretense of poverty1 some moralists say there is no duty of restitution1 since the donor may be presumed to give unconditionally in the case of minute sums2 likewise1 if a beggar is really poor but exaggerates his need1 it does not seem that he is bound to restitution1 for those who give alms expect a certain amount of romancing from tramps and other professional beggars4 #abce4 ,what is one's duty in cases of doubtful need8 7a7 ,minute inquiries are inexpedient1 since the really deserving are often unwilling to publish their needs2 7b7 refusal of alms except in cases where one is certain of the need1 is not a good general rule to follow1 since it is a less evil that an unworthy person be helped than that a worthy one be refused4 #abcf4 ,there are three degrees of corporal need 7cfr4 #aafe74 7a7 ,a person is said to be in extreme need1 when he is in manifest danger of losing his life1 if help is not given him at once4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that a person is not in extreme need until he is breathing his last breath2 for at that moment he is beyond the reach of human aid4 7b7 ,a person is in grave need1 when he is in probable danger of death1 or is in manifest danger of some very serious misfortune1 such as severe sickness1 amputation of some member1 long and bitter imprisonment1 insanity1 loss of good name1 reduction from wealth to poverty1 destruction of home by fire1 etc4 7c7 ,a person is in common need1 when he suffers the inconvenience of poverty1 such as being obliged to beg1 to deprive himself of many things1 to wear poor clothes or to eat ordinary victuals1 but is not in danger of any serious loss4 #abcg4 ,rules on ,giving ,alms from the ,superfluities of ,one's ,state4--7a7 ,to those who are in extreme or grave necessity alms must be given in each individual case1 for these cases are rare1 and the persons in need have a personal claim on one's charity when this is the sole means of saving them from death or other great evil4 ,example3 ,last year ,titus saved a mother from death and her child from disease by giving his money and services free of charge4 ,this would not exempt him from the duty of doing a like charity1 if a like necessity presents itself now4 7b7 ,to those who are in common necessity alms must be given from time to time--now to one1 now to another1 as prudence dictates--but there is no obligation for an individual case4 ,even the richest man could not give to all who are in common need1 and their want is not so pressing that any one of them can be said to have an individual claim4 #abch4 ,gravity of the ,obligations to ,give ,alms4--7a7 ,for cases of extreme and grave necessity1 the obligation of almsgiving is grave4 ,there is general agreement among theologians on this point1 since the loss suffered by the neighbor is serious and the withholding of help indicates a lack of charity 7,i ,john1 iii4 #ag74 ,example3 ,the priest and the levite who passed by the wounded man on the road to ,jericho were guilty1 from the nature of their act1 of mortal sin4 7b7 ,for cases of common necessity1 the obligation of almsgiving1 as it appears1 is also grave2 for it seldom happens that one is called on to assist those who are in extreme or grave necessity1 whereas almsgiving is inculcated as an ordinary duty1 and the reasons given by our ,lord in ,matt41 xxv4 #da-df1 for exclusion from heaven seem to be neglect of alms in common necessity4 ,but some theologians hold that the obligation is only light1 since the need is light2 and1 since these authorities are numerous and of repute1 a confessor could not refuse absolution to a rich man who refused on principle to give anything to those in common necessity4 ,such a one should be advised1 rather than reproved1 on this point4 #abci4 ,from what was said above1 the following conclusions may be drawn about the gravity of the sin of refusing alms3 7a7 ,it is certainly a mortal sin to refuse alms to one in extreme or grave need1 and probably also a grave sin to refuse ever to give alms to those in common need1 7b7 ,it is not a mortal sin to refuse an alms in a particular case1 if one is not sure of the obligation 7e4g41 if there is doubt about one's ability to give the alms or the other's need71 or if it seems that others will give assistance1 or that the need will disappear1 or that one will suffer some serious inconvenience by giving1 etc4 #abdj4 ,refusal of ,alms and ,restitution4--7a7 ,the mere refusal of an alms does not oblige one to make restitution4 ,for restitution is the giving back to another of what strictly belongs to him1 and it cannot be said that a poor person has a strict right to a gift from another4 ,a violation of charity may be gravely sinful1 and yet not oblige to restitution4 7b7 ,the refusal of an alms1 if joined with injustice1 does oblige one to make restitution4 ,thus1 if by threats or force one prevents a starving man from taking the food that has been denied him1 injustice is committed2 for in extreme necessity one has the strict right to take what is necessary1 and reparation should be made if this is prevented4 #abda4 ,alms given from ill-gotten goods are sometimes lawful1 sometimes unlawful4 7a7 ,if the acquisition of the goods was unjust1 because they belong to another and the present possessor has no right to keep them1 it is not lawful to give them as alms1 for they must be returned to the owner4 ,an exception would have to be made1 however1 for the case of extreme necessity1 for in such a case the person in danger of death would have a right prior to that of the owner not in need4 ,example3 ,it is unlawful to give stolen money as an alms to the poor1 when one is able to restore it to the rightful owner4 7b7 ,if the acquisition of the goods was unjust1 because both giver and receiver acted against law and forfeited their rights to possession1 the former has no claim to restitution1 nor the latter to retention1 and the goods ought to be devoted to alms4 ,example3 ,if a simoniacal transaction is forbidden under pain of loss of the price paid and received1 the receiver is obliged to give the money to the poor4 7c7 ,if the acquisition was not unlawful1 but the manner through which it was made was unlawful1 the gain is shameful1 but still it belongs to the one who has earned it1 and may be devoted to alms4 ,example3 ,titus hired ,balbus to work on ,sundays4 ,the violation of the ,sunday law was a sin1 but the labor given was serviceable to ,titus and difficult to ,balbus4 ,hence1 the latter is not bound to give back the money1 but may keep it and use it for a good purpose4 #abdb4 ,though shameful gain may be used for almsgiving1 it should not be devoted to sacred purposes1 when this will cause scandal or be irreverent to religion4 ,thus1 the chief priests would not accept the 8blood money0 of ,judas for the use of the temple 7,matt41 xxvii4 #f71 because the law forbade the offering of gifts that were an abomination to the ,lord 7,deut41 xxiii4 #ah2 ,ecclus41 xxxiv4 #bc74 #abdc4 ,the ,proceeds of ,gambling and ,almsgiving4--7a7 ,profits made from gambling may not be used for alms1 when one is bound to restore them to the loser4 ,thus1 according to natural law he who wins money at cards or similar games from a minor or other person who has not the right to dispose of money1 or who wins through fraud1 must give back the winnings4 ,likewise1 restitution is due according to some1 if the civil law makes such aleatory contracts null and void2 but others deny this4 7b7 ,profits made from gambling may be devoted to alms1 when according to law one has a right to them1 as when one has played for recreation1 with moderation and with fairness to the loser4 #abdd4 ,persons who may give alms are all those who have a right to dispose of goods as gifts4 ,others who have no such general right 7e4g41 religious1 wives1 children and servants71 may also give alms as follows3 7a7 ,they may give alms from any goods that belong to them1 and of which they have the control4 ,thus1 a wife may give alms from money which is her own1 by inheritance1 earnings1 etc4 7b7 ,they may give alms from such goods as are placed in their charge and dispensation4 ,thus1 the procurator of a religious house has the right to give alms with permission of his superior and according to his ,constitution 7,canon #ecg74 ,a religious who is a parish priest may administer and dispense parish alms 7,canon #fcj1 ,sec4#d74 7c7 ,they may give alms with express or implied permission4 ,thus1 children may give articles of food to the poor1 when their parents consent4 7d7 ,they may give alms without permission in a case of extreme need4 ,thus1 a wife could make use of her husband's money without his consent1 if this should be necessary to save a life4 #abde4 ,the right of a wife to give alms from her husband's earnings is as follows3 7a7 from the money given her for the support of herself and the family1 the wife may give reasonable alms2 7b7 from the common money of the family she may give alms with her husband's express or presumed consent4 ,but1 if he is miserly and unwilling to give alms1 she may nevertheless use what is reasonable according to the family resources for almsgiving 7e4g41 in helping her impoverished parents74 #abdf4 ,the right of servants to give alms from the goods of their employer is as follows3 7a7 the rule is that servants have no right to give away anything that belongs to their employer without his express permission1 for1 if permission could be presumed1 the property of employers would not be safe2 7b7 an exception to the rule is made for such things as are to be thrown away 7e4g41 leavings of the table71 since if they are given in alms the proprietor suffers no loss4 #abdg4 ,since charity should be universal1 no class of persons1 such as strangers1 unbelievers or sinners1 may be excluded from the benefit of almsgiving 7,matt1 v4 #de74 ,however1 charity is also well ordered1 and hence there is a preference to be observed1 as follows3 7a7 ,other things being equal1 one should favor those who are nearer to oneself by bonds of kinship1 friendship1 etc41 since their claim on one's charity is greater4 ,charity begins at home4 7b7 ,if other things 7such as worthiness1 need or public utility7 are on the side of those not related by kinship1 friendship1 etc41 the order of preference may be reversed4 ,thus1 if a person had to choose between helping a distant relative for whom he was not specially responsible1 and who was a worthless fellow1 or who was not in great need or who was not of great value to the community1 and helping a stranger1 who was most deserving1 or in dire distress1 or of great value to the community1 the latter should be assisted rather than the former4 7c7 ,in case of two strangers in equal poverty1 one should help first the one who is more worthy or who feels his distress more4 ,thus1 a person who is poor through misfortune is more deserving than one who gambled his money away2 those who were once wealthy feel the sufferings of poverty more than those who are inured to a life of privation4 #abdh4 ,is it permissible for one appointed to distribute alms to keep some himself1 if he is really poor8 7a7 ,if the persons are designated to whom the alms are to be given1 the distributor must give only to them2 7b7 if it is left to the discretion of the distributor1 he may keep a reasonable alms for himself4 #abdi4 ,the amount that should be given in alms has to be measured according to the income of the giver and the need of the receiver4 7a7 ,as to the income of the giver1 he should give in proportion to his income3 8,according to thy ability be merciful4 ,if thou have much1 give abundantly2 if thou have little1 take care even so to bestow willingly a little0 7,tob41 iv4 #i74 ,a rich man who spends more in the barber shop on cosmetics1 etc41 than he gives to the poor1 and a poor man who gives more towards alms than to the feeding of his own family1 are not giving according to their means4 7b7 ,as to the need of the receiver1 a person should give his share towards providing for the case before him4 ,thus1 if there is no one else who can or will give1 and a neighbor is in grave necessity1 a charitable person will bear the whole expense1 as was done by the good ,samaritan4 ,but if the necessity is ordinary 7as in the case of street beggars71 or there are others who will help1 a smaller alms suffices4 ,steady employment is a better charity than temporary doles1 inasmuch as it gives permanent assistance4 #abej4 ,hence1 in the following cases alms are excessive3 7a7 ,when1 outside the instances given in #abca1 one gives away all the necessaries of one's life or station4 ,the poor widow who gave all her living 7,luke1 xxi4 #a-d7 is praised1 but doubtless she was able somehow to obtain enough to provide for her own life4 7b7 ,alms are excessive when one gives from one's superfluities so much that the recipients are spoiled and encouraged to do nothing for themselves1 ,for the purpose of almsgiving is not that those who have wealth be impoverished and others enabled to live in luxury1 but that the poor be relieved of suffering and the rich gain the merit of charity 7,,ii ,cor41 viii4 #ac74 #abea4 ,regarding the obligation of giving all the goods of one's station in life or of one's superfluities1 the following points should be noted3 7a7 ,some theologians hold that1 in a case of extreme necessity1 one is bound to give all the goods necessary to one's state of life1 since a neighbor's life is a more important good than one's own position in life4 ,others deny this on the ground that one is not bound1 even for preserving one's own life1 to have recourse to extraordinary means and so lose the rank and style of living one has4 ,thus1 a self-supporting workingman would not be obliged to reduce himself to beggary in order to prolong the life of a dying person4 ,a well-to-do person is not obliged to sell his office1 conveyance1 books1 and other things needed for his business or profession1 in order to rescue a captive held for ransom by bandits4 7b7 ,there are theologians who hold that one is bound to give away all one's superfluous wealth in alms1 even apart from cases of extreme or grave necessity2 but others teach that1 while this is of counsel1 it is not obligatory1 since the needs of the poor will be sufficiently relieved if all who have means give something from their superfluities4 ,moreover1 the retention of some superfluous goods is necessary for the promotion of industrial and commercial enterprises1 and1 by increasing national wealth1 this policy indirectly benefits the poor4 #abeb4 ,ecclesiastical law1 however1 requires all clerics who enjoy a benefice to give all that remains over and above from the returns of the benefice1 after they have provided for their own decent maintenance1 to the poor or to pious causes4 ,this obligation is held as grave4 ,it will be treated below when we come to the special duties of the clergy4 #abec4 ,is there any definite amount or percentage1 then1 which should be contributed to alms8 7a7 ,for a case of extreme or grave necessity1 one should contribute enough1 according to one's ability1 either in conjunction with others or alone 7if others will not help71 to give relief4 ,thus1 if a neighbor is about to die of starvation1 a charitable man will give food free of charge4 ,if a poor man is about to be treated unjustly1 a charitable lawyer will give him advice without charge4 ,but it is not necessary that one provide extraordinary remedies or helps--for example1 that one pay the expenses of a trip to ,europe for a poor person whose health would be benefitted by the travel4 7b7 ,for cases of common necessity1 ,st4 ,alphonsus held that one should give two per cent of what remains from the yearly income after the necessities of life and station have been taken care of4 ,but other moralists believe that today the amount cannot be fixed mathematically1 and that only the general direction can be given that one should be generous according to one's means1 and regulate one's yearly alms according to the prevalence of poverty4 #abed4 ,is it better to give a little to many1 or much to one person in need8 7a7 ,if the one person is in great need1 and others are only in slight need1 it is better to give to the one in great need4 ,example3 ,if one has ten dollars to give in alms1 it is better to buy an overcoat for ,titus who is shivering from the cold1 than to give ten one-dollar bills to ten men who need new collars and neckties4 7b7 ,if the need is equal1 it is better to divide the alms1 for thus more distress is alleviated and the danger of spoiling a recipient with overmuch bounty is avoided4 ,example3 ,caius has #cj1jjj to give in charity and there are three deserving institutions of charity known to him1 all of which are in great need--a hospital1 an orphan asylum and a school4 ,he ought to divide his money between the three4 #abee4 ,the ,time for ,giving ,alms4-7a7 ,one should give at one time all the amount of one's alms for a certain period1 if one is able to do this1 and there is a need that calls for it--8,he gives twice who gives quickly0 7,prov41 iii4 #bh7--;for the poor may perish or may be driven to acts of desperation or violence1 if help is postponed4 7b7 ,one may distribute one's almsgiving if there is no urgent call for it--that is1 one may make partial contributions at various times1 retaining meanwhile money for almsdeeds in order to invest it for future charities1 or to await greater needs to which it may be applied1 etc4 #abef4 ,the ,manner of ,giving ,alms4--7a7 ,one gives alms directly when one ministers relief personally to the needy1 giving food to the starving and medicine to the sick1 helping to put out a fire1 etc4 7b7 ,one gives alms indirectly when one pays taxes for the support of alms-houses1 public hospitals1 orphan asylums1 homes for the aged1 the insane1 etc42 when one contributes to charitable collections or drives or to organizations for relief 7such as the ,st4 ,vincent de ,paul ,society72 when one assists or promotes movements for the free education of those who cannot pay1 for the betterment of living and working condition of laborers1 for security against loss of employment1 pensions for the aged1 etc4 #abeg4 ,public charity done by the ,state is useful and necessary under the conditions of modern life1 but it does not and cannot take the place of charity done by the ,church or by private individuals4 7a7 ,state-administered charity does not reach all1 or even the most deserving1 cases of need4 ,hence1 those who pay their taxes for the support of state charities are not thereby exempted from the obligation of contributing to cases they may meet1 especially of extreme or grave necessity4 ,the payment of these taxes1 however1 diminishes need1 and so it also diminishes the amount one is bound to give in alms4 7b7 ,state charity provides for the corporal needs of the recipient1 and it is imposed as compulsory on the giver4 ,hence1 it cannot take the place of alms given by the ,church or by individuals that will care for both soul and body1 and that are given cheerfully and received gratefully4 #abeh4 ,fraternal ,correction4--,fraternal correction is defined3 8,an act of charity and mercy by which one uses suitable words or other means in order to convert one's neighbor from sin to virtue40 7a7 ,thus1 it is an act of charity1 for it is a love of our neighbor and the desire of his spiritual welfare that prompts this correction4 ,hence1 the admonition of a sinner for his own good differs from a correction administered to a wrongdoer for the good of another or of the public2 the former is fraternal correction and is an act of charity1 while the latter is judicial correction and is an act of justice4 7b7 ,fraternal correction is an act of mercy1 for1 just as feeding the hungry and other corporal alms remove bodily misery1 so does admonition of sinners remove spiritual misery4 7c7 ,fraternal correction uses suitable words or other means1 for while it proceeds from charity and mercy1 it must be regulated by prudence4 ,it is not an easy matter to correct another successfully1 and hence the need of good judgment as to the means to be employed1 whether they shall be words or equivalent signs 7e4g41 sad looks1 a gesture of disapproval1 a change of subject of a sinful conversation1 or refusal of help71 and whether one shall use reproof1 instruction1 counsel1 or warning4 7d7 ,fraternal correction aims at turning a neighbor from sin to virtue4 ,it is the proper remedy for sins of negligence1 as judicial correction is for sins of malice4 ,it is applied1 also1 chiefly to the cure of sin that has already been committed2 but it should be extended so as to include the prevention of sin in the future1 since there is no less an obligation of preventing than of removing sin4 ,hence1 those who are in dangerous occasions receive fraternal correction when a charitable warning is given4 7e7 ,fraternal correction is given to a neighbor 7i4e41 to an individual71 and so it differs from the general censure of vice that is given by preachers1 whose duty it is to correct sins that are prevalent1 provided this be done prudently1 in such a way as to effect good and not harm4 ,unpopularity or other such handicaps do not excuse a preacher from the duty of correction4 #abei4 ,fraternal correction is a grave duty1 and more important than that of almsgiving4 7a7 ,the natural law requires that a person should do unto others as he would wish them to do unto himself1 and everyone ought to wish that1 if he needs correction1 it will be given him4 ,even the pagans proclaimed the need of correction4 ,seneca desired to have a monitor who1 by advice and reproof1 would guard him against the dangers of evil examples and conversations2 and ,plautus said that a friend who refuses to chide the faults of his friend is himself worthy of blame4 7b7 ,the divine positive law also commands that one should correct one's brother in order to save him from another offense 7,ecclus41 xix4 #ac1 #ad71 and to win him back to good 7,matt4 xviii4 #ae71 that the spiritual should instruct with mildness those who have committed some transgression 7,gal1 vi4 #a71 that a sinner should not be treated as an enemy1 but admonished as a brother 7,,ii ,thess41 iii4 #ae74 #abfj4 ,does the duty of fraternal correction oblige one to go out and seek a person who is living a life of sin8 7a7 ,if the sinner is under one's care1 so that one is responsible for him1 there is a duty to seek him as long as there is hope of amendment2 for the good shepherd goes after the lost sheep 7,matt41 xviii4 #ab1 #ac74 ,hence1 parents1 pastors and superiors must try to win back their subjects from the ways of sin4 7b7 ,if the sinner is not under one's care1 there is no duty to seek him out2 for obligations that are owed to our neighbor in general1 but not to any determinate person1 do not require that we go out to look for the persons to be aided1 but only that we aid those whom we meet4 ,hence1 a private person is not obliged to frequent the haunts of vice and crime in order to reform those who are there2 but the community at large has duties regarding such cases4 #abfa4 ,since the precept of fraternal correction is affirmative1 it does not oblige for every time and place2 acts of virtue must be so performed that not only the object and the motive shall be good1 but the circumstances also should be suitable4 ,but the object and motive of correction 7viz41 the conversion of a sinner7 are primary1 and the circumstances of time1 place1 etc41 secondary considerations4 7a7 ,hence1 correction is good and a duty when it will serve to convert or improve a sinner1 now or later1 although it may be imperfect as to some of the circumstances4 7b7 ,correction is not good1 nor a duty1 when it will not serve to convert the sinner1 even though other circumstances would seem to call for it 7,ecclus41 xxxii4 #f74 ,consequently1 a person ought not to correct when either he or the other person is under the influence of anger1 lest matters be made worse4 ,this1 of course1 is said of fraternal1 not of judicial correction2 for a judge or other superior must condemn even when the culprit will not be made better1 in order to restrain him from evil and to provide for the common good1 the protection of justice1 and the avoidance of scandal4 #abfb4 ,in the following cases fraternal correction defeats its own purpose3 7a7 when the sinner will not be bettered by the correction1 for his continuance in sin will become graver by reason of his rejection of the admonition2 7b7 when the sinner will become hardened and embittered by correction1 and as a result commit more numerous or more serious sins4 ,thus1 if one knows that a blasphemer is only made worse by scolding or remonstrances1 it is a sin to attempt to correct him as to those ways3 8,rebuke not a scorner lest he hate thee0 7,prov41 ix4 #h74 #abfc4 ,the duty of fraternal correction depends1 therefore1 on the knowledge or opinion one has about the success it will have4 ,hence1 the following cases may occur3 7a7 ,if one is certain that the correction will be beneficial1 one should give it2 if one is certain it will not be beneficial1 one should omit it4 7b7 ,if it is likely that the admonition will be profitable1 and certain that it will not be positively harmful1 it should be given1 for a physician in order to help a sick person should give a remedy that is harmless1 even though only probably beneficial1 if there is nothing else that can be done4 7c7 ,if it is doubtful whether the admonition will do any good1 and also doubtful whether it will do harm 7e4g41 when one is dealing with a stranger1 whose character one does not know71 one should weigh the good and the evil and decide accordingly1 as will be explained in the next paragraph4 #abfd4 ,cases of doubt concerning the advantage of a fraternal correction may occur as follows3 7a7 ,if the good expected is superior to the evil that is feared1 one should give the correction4 ,example3 ,if it seems that a sinner1 if admonished1 may suffer great confusion or be for a time estranged1 but may also be finally converted1 the good result of conversion is to be preferred to prevention of confusion or estrangement4 ,if it seems doubtful whether correction will help or hurt a dying man1 the good of his salvation should be preferred to the good of freedom from a new sin4 7b7 ,if the good expected and the evil feared are about equal1 the correction should be omitted1 since the negative precept of not injuring a neighbor outweighs the affirmative precept of doing him a service4 #abfe4 ,when is sin committed by omitting fraternal correction8 7a7 ,if the correction is omitted out of charity1 the omission is good and meritorious4 ,example3 ,titus omits to correct ,sempronius1 because he thinks the reproof would do harm to the latter or to others1 or because he awaits a more favorable occasion4 7b7 ,if the correction is omitted contrary to charity 7i4e41 because a person hates his neighbor or disregards his spiritual welfare71 the omission is a mortal sin4 ,example3 ,caius neglects to correct ,sempronius1 because he prefers to see ,sempronius go to ruin rather than lose his friendship or incur his enmity4 7c7 ,if the correction is omitted in spite of charity1 the omission is a venial sin4 ,example3 ,balbus1 who is not a superior1 fails to correct ,sempronius1 because through frailty he fears to give offense1 or to be considered over-bold1 but he prefers the latter's spiritual welfare to his own human fears and interests1 and would give the correction1 if he felt that it was absolutely necessary4 #abff4 ,the sin committed by delaying fraternal correction is to be judged according to the rules just given about omission of correction4 ,but is it lawful to put off correction in the hope that the sinner1 through experience of the evil effects of sin1 may become more tractable8 7a7 ,if there is hope of present amendment through correction1 this should not be delayed2 otherwise1 one is careless about the honor of ,god1 the edification of others1 and the possible hardening of the sinner or his death in the midst of his sins4 7b7 ,if there is no probability of present amendment through correction1 one can only wait in the hope that the experience of the evils of sin may bring the prodigal back to ,god4 #abfg4 ,it is not often necessary for one who is not a superior to make fraternal correction1 since there are many conditions that must exist before one is obliged to it4 ,these conditions include the purpose to be attained1 of which we have just spoken1 and the proper circumstances1 which are as follows3 7a7 the fault to be corrected should be a known and serious sin2 7b7 the person to give the correction should be one who has the right and duty to correct2 7c7 the manner of giving the correction should be such as will promote the end in view4 #abfh4 ,one should not attempt to correct a fault1 unless one is morally sure that a fault has been committed1 or is about to be committed4 ,for this reason the scrupulous1 who are inclined to suspect or see evil where there is none1 are generally excused from the duty of making corrections4 ,reasons why doubt1 fear1 suspicion or rumor do not suffice1 are3 7a7 correction is not pleasant to the one corrected1 and1 if his guilt is not provable1 he will be able to argue with the corrector1 and so quarrels and enmities will result2 7b7 charity bids us to give the benefit of the doubt to a neighbor1 and1 if this is not done1 the one who is being corrected will be able to correct the corrector on account of uncharitable suspicions4 #abfi4 ,is one obliged1 therefore1 to make inquiries into the conduct of those whom one suspects of wrongdoing8 7a7 ,if there is question of judicial correction1 the public authority is bound in justice to examine juridically into matters of doubt before acting4 7b7 ,if there is question of fraternal correction1 a parent or other superior is bound in charity to make paternal inquiries into the conduct of his subjects2 for1 as a father does not wait until his children ask for corporal goods but inquires about their needs1 so neither should he wait until their spiritual distress is brought to his attention4 ,the superior here should avoid the extremes of suspicion1 on the one hand1 which will lead him to act rashly and win for him the hatred of his subjects1 and of over-trustfulness1 on the other hand1 which will foster all kinds of secret irregularities4 ,likewise1 he should not betray a special watchfulness about one individual that will be harmful to the latter's reputation4 7c7 ,if there is question of fraternal correction1 private individuals should not inquire into the affairs of others4 ,those who go about spying on or shadowing others1 even if their purpose is to reform1 are acting against charity to themselves and to the persons they wish to improve2 their own affairs will suffer1 since the number who need reformation is large1 and the person who is being investigated will be annoyed or otherwise injured3 8,lie not in wait1 nor seek after wickedness in the house of the just1 nor spoil his rest0 7,prov41 xxiv4 #ae74 #abgj4 ,the kinds of faults that call for fraternal correction are as follows3 7a7 grave sins should be corrected1 for otherwise one allows a soul to perish that might have been saved 7,matt41 xviii4 #ad1 #ae71 7b7 slight sins or transgressions of rules should also be corrected1 when they are the occasion of grave scandal or disorder in a community1 and superiors who are negligent about this commit mortal sin2 7c7 slight sins or transgressions should not be corrected in ordinary cases1 for these faults are so numerous that1 if one had to correct them1 an intolerable burden would be laid on everyone1 ,persons who scold and lecture over every trifling misdeed are regarded as pests and do more harm than good4 #abga4 ,the purpose of fraternal correction is to save one who is in danger of losing his soul4 ,hence1 it should not be restricted to those sins that are an offense to the corrector1 but it should extend also to sins that are against ,god1 the neighbor1 or the offender himself4 #abgb4 ,since fraternal correction is given for the purpose of converting a sinner from the evil of his ways1 it is not called for when one's neighbor is not a sinner1 strictly speaking1 or has already reformed4 ,thus1 there is no need of this correction in the following cases3 7a7 when a person sins through ignorance and is not guilty of formal sin2 7b7 when a person who was a sinner in the past has given up his old ways4 #abgc4 ,a person who sins from vincible ignorance should not be corrected unless the two following conditions are present3 7a7 there must be hope of amendment1 otherwise the admonition would only aggravate the sinner's guilt2 7b7 there must be no greater evil that will result from the admonition and correction4 #abgd4 ,a person who sins from invincible ignorance is not guilty of formal sin1 and hence1 as said above1 he is not a subject for fraternal correction4 ,but charity often requires that he be instructed especially by superiors1 confessors1 etc41 with a view to the prevention of various evils4 ,these evils are of the following kinds3 7a7 injury to ,god1 as when a person unacquainted with the language uses expressions that are blasphemous2 7b7 injury to self1 as when a child not understanding the power of liquor becomes intoxicated2 7c7 injury to the neighbor1 as when a person who does not know that it is a fast day causes scandal by not keeping the fast4 #abge4 ,if there is hope that the instruction will have a good result1 one should instruct the invincibly ignorant in order to prevent injury to ,god1 themselves1 or their neighbor2 but1 if it seems that an instruction will do only harm or more harm than good1 it should be omitted4 ,the duty of instruction rests especially on superiors1 such as parents1 teachers1 confessors4 ,these principles are applied to various cases as follows3 7a7 ,a material sin may have been committed in the past4 ,titus through inadvertence ate meat on a day of abstinence1 but gave no scandal2 ,balbus did the same thing1 and this caused considerable scandal4 ,now1 there might be an obligation of telling ,balbus what he did in order to repair the scandal1 but no such obligation would exist in the case of ,titus4 ,sempronius and ,caius both married invalidly1 but are in good faith4 ,if ,sempronius is told about his marriage1 matters can be easily rectified2 but if ,caius is informed that his marriage is null1 he will abandon his putative wife and his family1 and there will be serious discords and scandals4 ,hence1 ,sempronius should be told1 but not ,caius4 7b7 ,material sin may be about to be committed against the natural or divine law4 ,titus is about to destroy what he thinks is an abandoned and useless picture1 but which is in reality a very valuable work of art belonging to ,balbus4 ,caius is going to the altar to be married2 ,claudius knows of a diriment impediment to the marriage1 but cannot make it known without causing a scene and giving great scandal4 ,titus should be instructed1 but it is a duty to say nothing to ,caius4 7c7 ,material sin may be about to be committed against human law4 ,sempronius sees ,claudius and others eating meat on a day of abstinence1 which they have forgotten4 ,he also sees ,father ,balbus1 who has forgotten to put on an alb or a chasuble1 going to the altar to say ,mass4 ,there is no obligation to call the attention of ,claudius to the day of abstinence1 but for the sake of respect to divine worship the attention of ,father ,balbus should be directed to the missing vestments4 #abgf4 ,certain past sins do not demand fraternal correction3 7a7 those sins that have been repented of1 especially if there is no danger of a relapse 7e4g41 a wife should not be always reminding her now sober husband that he was addicted to drink before he met her72 7b7 those sins that will in all probability be remedied shortly without one's intervention4 ,hence1 it is not necessary to reprove ,titus because he drank too much1 if he is not careless about his salvation and will soon approach the ,sacraments1 or if his parents or wife are better fitted to make the correction and will not fail to do so4 #abgg4 ,to what persons may correction be given8 7a7 ,judicial correction can be given only to one's subjects1 since it supposes authority2 7b7 fraternal correction can be given1 not only to inferiors and equals1 but also to superiors4 ,for charity should be shown to all those who are in need of assistance1 and1 the higher the office1 the greater the danger4 ,superiors who are giving scandal or doing harm to others should be remonstrated with by their equals1 or1 if need be1 by their subjects4 ,fraternal correction among the clergy is especially advantageous4 #abgh4 ,when fraternal correction is given to a superior3 7a7 the superior should take a proper correction with gratitude and humility1 imitating ,st4 ,peter when reproved by ,st4 ,paul 7,gal41 ii4 #aa72 7b7 the inferior should give the correction without boldness or harshness1 but respectfully and mildly3 8,an elderly man rebuke not1 but entreat him as a father0 7,i ,tim41 v4 #a74 ,it is better that the person giving the correction be himself of some standing1 lest the act seem to proceed from contempt1 and so only embitter the superior who is at fault4 ,example3 ,children should plead with parents who steal1 get drunk or neglect religion1 to mend their ways4 #abgi4 ,what persons may administer correction8 7a7 ,judicial correction as just said can be given only by a superior2 7b7 fraternal correction may be given by any person who is not so unfitted that a correction from him will necessarily be useless or harmful4 ,it is not required1 however1 that one be immaculate1 for if immunity from all sin were necessary in a corrector1 who could reprove delinquents 7,i ,john1 i4 #h78 #abhj4 ,the fact that a person is known to be a sinner1 or not in the state of grace1 or guilty of the same things he reproves1 does not unfit him for giving a fraternal correction2 because1 in spite of his own sinfulness1 he may retain a right judgment and so be able to correct wrongdoing4 ,in the following cases1 however1 correction made by a sinner is reprehensible1 on account of circumstances other than that of the person3 7a7 the motive of the correction is sinful1 when the sinner corrects only in order to distract attention from himself1 to conceal bad deeds by good words1 to practise revenge1 etc42 7b7 the mode of the correction is sinful when the sinner corrects with pride1 as if he himself were above correction3 8,wherein thou judgest another thou condemnest thyself1 for thou dost the same things which thou judgest0 7,rom1 ii4 #a72 7c7 the consequences of correction made by a sinner are an evil circumstance1 as when scandal results4 ,thus1 if a person who is guilty of far greater sins corrects his neighbor1 this has a demoralizing effect1 when the impression is given that good words rather than good deeds are important4 #abha4 ,one who prefers his neighbor's conversion to his own deviates from the right order of charity1 since he should love himself more4 ,but a person may without any transgression against the precept of fraternal correction seek to correct his neighbor before he has corrected himself4 7a7 ,thus1 from the nature of correction itself or from the provisions of the commandment1 there does not seem to be any obligation of correcting self before correcting others2 for a humble correction made by a sinner with acknowledgment of his unworthiness to censure others1 or by a sinner who is thought to be good or to have reformed1 may be just as efficacious as a correction made by a truly virtuous man4 ,but it is of counsel that one correct oneself as a means towards the better correction of another4 7b7 ,because of special reasons1 a person may be otherwise obliged to correct himself before he attempts to correct another1 as when self-correction is the only means towards obtaining some necessary end4 ,thus1 a superior who cannot enforce discipline because he is unobservant himself1 the friend of a dying man who cannot convert the latter unless he gives evidence of his own conversion1 a person who cannot repair the scandal he has given unless he manifests repentance--all these should begin by correcting themselves4 ,one should take the beam out of one's own eye1 if otherwise one cannot remove the mote from a neighbor's eye 7,matt1 vii4 #e74 #abhb4 ,all suitable persons1 then1 are bound by the duty of fraternal correction3 8,he gave to every one of them commandment concerning his neighbor0 7,ecclus41 xvii4 #ab74 ,but the duty rests more heavily on some than on others4 7a7 ,thus1 bishops and other pastors are held out of justice to fraternal correction1 and even at the peril of life4 7b7 ,other prelates1 confessors1 parents1 husbands1 masters1 teachers and guardians1 are held to fraternal correction from charity and by reason of their office2 but they are not held to this duty when there is grave personal danger to themselves4 7c7 ,private persons are held out of charity1 but their obligation is less than in the case of those whose office requires them to make corrections4 #abhc4 ,a person is not bound to make a correction for the sole reason that he is able to make it successfully4 ,for he is excused3 7a7 if correction by him is not necessary1 as when parents or others better able than himself will attend to the matter2 7b7 if his correction will bring on himself evils which he is not obliged to incur4 #abhd4 ,an obligation of making a correction even when this will cause an injury to the corrector1 exists in the following cases3 7a7 ,if the correction is necessary to avert extreme spiritual evil 7i4e41 damnation71 one should be prepared to make a sacrifice1 even of life itself1 to give the correction 7see #aafe74 ,example3 ,titus is dying of a contagious disease1 and will lose his soul1 if ,balbus does not come to advise him4 7b7 ,if the correction is necessary to avert grave spiritual evil1 a pastor should be willing to risk his life1 and another person should be willing to risk the loss of money1 and even some injury to health4 ,but a subject is not bound to correct his superior1 when this will bring on him persecutions2 a scrupulous person is not bound to correct1 for this would cause him worries and suffering4 #abhe4 ,the manner of making a correction is as follows3 7a7 ,the internal dispositions should include charity towards the one corrected and humility as regards one's own fitness4 ,for fraternal correction is not opposed to the commands of bearing with the weaknesses of others 7,gal1 vi4 #b71 and of not proudly preferring self to others 7,philip41 ii4 #c74 ,one should correct inferiors paternally1 equals kindly1 and superiors respectfully4 ,in every correction there should be seriousness mingled with mildness4 7b7 ,the external order to be followed is that given by our ,lord in ,matt41 xviii4 #ae-ah1 namely1 that1 when possible1 admonition should be given privately1 and that one should not proceed to accusation before superiors until other means1 such as the calling in of witnesses1 have proved unavailing4 ,the order to be followed in fraternal correction is not only of the positive divine law1 but it is also of the natural law4 ,for the natural law requires that we do for others what we wish done for ourselves1 and there is no one who does not desire that correction be given him in such a way that the least possible injury be done to his feelings and to his good name4 #abhf4 ,in what cases should secret admonition be used8 7a7 ,for public sins 7i4e41 real sins known or soon to be known to the larger part of the community71 no secret admonition is required1 since the guilt is already publicly known2 a public correction1 on the contrary1 is necessary to remedy the scandal3 8,them that sin reprove before all1 that the rest also may have fear0 7,i ,tim41 v4 #bj74 7b7 ,for occult sins that are against the common good or the good of a third person no secret admonition is required1 but one should denounce them immediately2 for the spiritual or corporal welfare of the multitude or of an innocent private individual is a greater good than the reputation of the guilty person4 ,exception should be made1 however1 for the case in which one is certain that by a secret admonition one can correct the sinner and prevent the harm that threatens others4 ,examples3 ,if ,titus knows that there is a plot to rob the house of ,balbus1 and that any effort to dissuade the criminals would only bring him into danger1 he ought to warn ,balbus or the authorities4 ,if ,claudius knows that in his school a certain student is teaching the other boys to steal and become drunk1 he should make this known1 and hence cannot be absolved if he refuses4 ,but the seal of the confessional must be observed4 7c7 ,for occult sins that are not against the common good or that of a third person1 one should have recourse to secret admonition before making the sins known4 ,this will save the sinner from loss of reputation and from consequent hardness in sin2 it will also save others from a share in his infamy1 or from the scandal caused by publicity4 #abhg4 ,what is the obligation of reporting an occult sin that is doing harm in a community1 when the person who reports will suffer for telling what he knows8 7a7 ,if harm to the community will result from silence1 one is obliged even at the cost of great inconvenience to speak 7see #abhd74 ,example3 ,claudius knows that a fellow-student has a bad influence over his companions1 and is leading more and more of them into stealing1 with the result that a large number will be corrupted and the institution disgraced4 ,but he cannot speak without serious harm to himself1 because he also has been implicated1 or because informers are regarded and treated as traitors4 7b7 ,if some private harm will result from silence1 one is not bound at the cost of great inconvenience to speak4 ,example3 ,if ,claudius knows that only one or two are being led astray1 he is not bound to implicate himself or to incur the ignominy of being regarded as a spy4 #abhh4 ,there are exceptional cases in which occult faults1 not injurious to others1 are reproved publicly1 without previous private admonition4 7a7 ,god as the supreme ruler has the right to publish hidden sins1 although ,he admonishes men secretly through the voice of conscience or through external preaching or other means4 ,st4 ,peter1 in making known the sin of ,ananias and ,saphira1 acted as the instrument of ,god's justice and in virtue of a revelation given him 7,acts1 v4 #c1 #d1 #i74 7b7 ,members of a society who are agreed to remind one another publicly of transgressions of their regulations1 do not violate the order of fraternal correction given by ,christ1 if there is nothing defamatory in these reminders4 ,example3 ,the proclamations made in the chapter of faults in religious orders4 #abhi4 ,may a prelate 7e4g41 in a visitation7 oblige his subjects to carry to him1 without a previous secret admonition of the person to be accused1 information about the secret sins of fellow-subjects that are not harmful to others8 7a7 ,if a sin is entirely secret1 and the subjects have not renounced their right to reputation in the sight of the prelate1 the latter has no right to give orders that he be informed at once1 since the rule given by ,christ requires that a fraternal correction be first given4 ,a subject would be bound1 therefore1 if such orders were given1 to obey the divine injunction1 rather than that of the prelate 7,acts1 v4 #c1 #d1 #i74 7b7 ,if a sin is entirely secret1 but subjects have renounced their right to receive first a private admonition1 a prelate may require that information be brought to him at once4 ,this is the rule in certain religious societies2 but even in them a sin should not be reported to the prelate if the sinner has already amended1 nor should the higher superior be informed if the immediate superior can take care of the matter sufficiently4 ,these religious have a right to their reputation4 7e7 ,if a sin is not entirely secret1 because there are some indications 7such as ill-repute or grounds for suspicion71 a prelate may require that information be brought to him immediately4 #abij4 ,if1 after several private admonitions have been made1 there is no hope of success by this method1 what should be done8 7a7 ,if it appears that the other means prescribed by our ,lord will be successful1 they should be tried1 just as a physician has recourse to new remedies when old ones have failed4 7b7 ,if it appears that any further efforts will do harm rather than good1 the attempt to correct a private sin that harms only the sinner should be given up4 #abia4 ,the order to be followed in fraternal correction1 after personal reproof or remonstrance has failed1 is as follows3 7a7 ,one should enlist the services of one or two others to assist in making the brotherly correction4 ,the conversion of the culprit is more important than his reputation with these others2 whereas their knowledge of the matter safeguards the corrector from the charge of being a mischievous talebearer1 should things go further1 and it should arouse the culprit to the need of correcting himself1 before his case is brought before the superior for correction4 7b7 ,when other things have failed1 recourse should be had to the superior of the person at fault1 if there is hope that this will prove successful4 ,if the superior is imprudent or given to wrath or is known to dislike the person to be corrected1 or if the latter would only be enraged by a reproof from this superior1 charity would urge one to say nothing about the matter4 ,example3 ,titus makes himself intoxicated from time to time4 ,balbus is the only one who knows this1 and he tries to correct ,titus4 ,but1 as the latter denies the accusation1 ,balbus asks ,caius and ,sempronius1 friends of ,titus1 to be witnesses2 and all three of them make an effort to convert ,titus4 ,this correction also has no effect1 and so ,balbus and the other two make the matter known to the parents of ,titus1 that they may watch their son more carefully and keep him away from occasions of drink4 #abib4 ,what are the duties of a superior to whom a subject has been reported for fraternal correction8 7a7 ,he should try to discover the truth of the matter4 ,means to this end are a consideration of the character and motives of the accuser1 the reply which the accused makes in his own defense1 and in case of necessity a confrontation of accuser and accused1 a cross-examination1 etc4 7,i ,cor41 i4 xi2 ,dan41 xiii4 #e74 ,those who make a practice of gladly carrying tales to superiors are disturbers of peace1 and they should be given to understand that their accusations are not wanted1 and that they should mind their own business4 7b7 ,if the superior has reason to believe that the accusation in question is true1 he should use moderate remedial measures1 while at the same time preserving the good name of the person to be corrected4 ,for the information has been brought before him1 not as judge1 but as father of the person accused1 and hence public punishments or corrections injurious to reputation must be avoided4 ,removal from an office1 a change of place and special vigilance may be used1 when this can be done prudently4 #abic4 ,cases in which a subject may be reported to his superior for fraternal correction without previous admonitions are not impossible2 for the law given by ,christ concerning the order to be followed is affirmative1 and hence obliges only under the proper circumstances4 7a7 ,thus1 if previous admonitions would be harmful1 whereas an admonition by the superior will be beneficial1 recourse should be had at once to the superior4 7b7 ,if an admonition by the superior will be more advantageous1 the other admonitions may be omitted4 ,thus1 if the superior is more revered by the person to be corrected and will be listened to more readily1 or if there is danger of delay in making previous admonitions1 it is better that the matter be brought before the superior at once4 ,what is said of the superior can be applied also to some other pious and prudent person from whom a correction would be better received4 #abid4 ,the obligation of fraternal correction by private individuals may be summed up as follows3 7a7 ,one is bound to correct when one is certain about a grave sin which will not be corrected except by oneself1 and when one has good reason to hope that the correction will be profitable to the sinner and not unreasonably harmful to the corrector4 ,those who interfere when these conditions are not present are meddlesome or imprudent1 rather than charitable4 7b7 ,one is bound to report to a superior when one is certain about a grave sin which is harmful to the community or which cannot be corrected so well by private admonition1 if one believes that it will not be reported except by oneself1 and that one's report will be for the good of others and not an undue detriment to oneself4 ,those who report of their own choice when these conditions are not existent1 are malicious tale-bearers or rash news-carriers1 rather than charitable accusers4 ,art4 #g3 ,,the ,,sins ,,against ,,love ,,and ,,joy 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #cd-cf47 #abie4 ,the sins against charity and its subordinate virtues can be reduced to the following3 7a7 hatred1 which is opposed to love2 7b7 sloth and envy1 which are contrary to the joy of charity2 7c7 discord and schism1 which are opposed to the peace of charity2 7d7 scandal1 which is the opposite of beneficence and fraternal correction4 #abif4 ,hate4--,hate is an aversion of the will to something which the intellect judges evil1 that is1 contrary to self4 ,as there are two kinds of love1 so there are also two kinds of hate4 7a7 ,hatred of dislike 7odium abominationis7 is the opposite of love of desire1 for1 as this love inclines to something as suitable and advantageous for self1 so hatred of dislike turns away from something1 as being considered unsuitable and harmful to self4 7b7 ,hatred of enmity 7odium inimicitiae7 is the opposite of love of benevolence1 for1 as this love wishes good to the object of its affection1 so hatred of enmity wishes evil to the object of its dislike4 #abig4 ,hatred of ,god4-,a thing cannot be hated unless it is looked upon as evil1 and hence ,god cannot be hated except by those who regard ,him as evil to themselves4 7a7 ,thus1 those who see the ,divine ,essence 7i4e41 the blessed71 cannot hate ,god1 for ,his ,essence is goodness itself1 and1 therefore1 the blessed can see in ,god only reasons for love4 7b7 ,those who see ,god obscurely through the things made by ,him 7i4e41 wayfarers on earth71 cannot hate ,god considered as the author of effects that are in no way displeasing to the will1 such as existence1 life1 intelligence2 but they can hate ,god as the author of effects displeasing to their will1 such as law and punishment4 ,thus1 no one can hate ,god because ,god has given him being1 for existence of itself is something good and desirable2 but a depraved will can hate ,god for having forbidden sin1 or for inflicting chastisements1 or for permitting some evils to accompany the blessings of life4 ,that hatred of ,god is not a mere possibility1 the scriptures in many places attest3 8,the pride of them that hate ,thee ascendeth forever0 7,ps1 lxiii4 #bc71 8,now they have seen and hated both ,me and ,my ,father0 7,john1 xv4 #bd74 #abih4 ,it should not be inferred from what has just been said that it is not ,god in ,himself that is hated1 but only ,his works2 nor that it is a sin against ,god to dislike evils or even divine punishments4 7a7 ,thus1 ,god ,himself is not the principle or motive cause of the hatred directed against ,him1 for in ,god there is no evil that can produce dislike2 but ,god is the term or object of the hatred aroused in the sinner by the divine effects that displease him1 as the texts given above from scripture indicate4 ,for example1 a man hates his neighbor on account of certain defects he perceives or thinks he perceives2 the defects are the principle1 but the neighbor is the term of the hatred4 7b7 ,dislike of the evils that are in the world1 or of chastisements sent by ,god1 is not dislike of ,god ,himself1 since ,god does not ask us to love evil1 but only to endure such evils as cannot be cured4 ,even murmurs against ,providence are usually manifestations of impatience1 not of hatred of ,providence4 ,it is only the sinner that dislikes ,god ,himself for permitting or inflicting evils1 who is guilty of hatred of ,god4 #abii4 ,hatred of ,god of various kinds4 7a7 ,as regards the intention1 it is either interpretative or formal4 ,interpretative hatred is aversion that is not intended directly or for its own sake1 but only indirectly and by reason of something else whose love is preferred4 ,formal hatred is an aversion that is intended directly and expressly in itself4 ,every mortal sin is an act of interpretative hatred of ,god1 since mortal sin consists in placing one's own pleasure or interest above the friendship of ,god2 but it is only the special sin which attacks ,god directly that constitutes formal hate4 ,thus1 he who murders his enemy does not directly intend dislike of ,god1 but revenge2 whereas the condemned murderer who blasphemes ,god1 because he is to be executed1 directly dislikes ,god4 7b7 ,as regards the degree of malice it contains1 formal hatred of ,god is either dislike or enmity4 ,dislike of ,god is the sin of those who do not like some attribute of ,god2 enmity towards ,god is the sin of those who wish some evil to ,god4 ,thus1 one who deliberately wishes that ,god would sanction injustice dislikes the divine attribute of justice1 while an unjust man who wishes he might be rid of ,god and ,his judgment is guilty of enmity to ,god4 #acjj4 ,hatred of ,god as a ,special ,sin4--7a7 ,interpretative hatred of ,god is not a special sin but a general circumstance of every mortal sin2 but formal hatred is a special sin1 and indeed one that is comparatively rare1 and that must be specially mentioned in confession4 ,this is a sin which is distinct1 not only from the sins against the other theological virtues 7e4g41 unbelief1 despair71 but also from the sins against the other objects of charity 7e4g41 hatred of the neighbor74 7b7 ,formal hatred of ,god is not a special sin against the ,holy ,ghost 7see #hii72 but its malice pervades every such sin1 and it is thus a general sin against the ,holy ,ghost4 ,for example1 presumption is a dislike of ,god's law which requires that one must attain salvation through the observance of the commandments2 rejection of the known truth is a dislike of ,god's revelation4 #acja4 ,the ,gravity of ,hatred of ,god4-7a7 ,it is a mortal sin from its nature1 and can never be venial on account of the smallness of the injury1 but only on account of lack of deliberation or consent4 ,dislike of even one attribute of ,god is a grave injury1 for everything pertaining to ,god is perfect and infinitely lovable4 7b7 ,hatred of ,god is the worst of all mortal sins2 for it is directly opposed to ,god 7the supreme good7 and to charity 7the most excellent virtue in a creature71 whereas other mortal sins offend against these goods only indirectly4 #acjb4 ,the comparison just made between hatred of ,god and other sins supposes that the other sins do not include hatred of ,god1 for it is clear that simple hatred of ,god existing in the will is less serious than a composite sin1 such as external blasphemy uttered to manifest internal hatred of ,god4 7a7 ,thus1 hatred of ,god without unbelief is worse than unbelief without hatred of ,god2 7b7 hatred of ,god without hatred of the neighbor is worse than hatred of the neighbor without hatred of ,god4 #acjc4 ,degrees of ,malice in ,hatred of ,god4--7a7 ,a new species of sin is added to hatred of ,god1 when out of hatred one proceeds to sin against creatures1 or to commit other offenses against ,god ,himself4 ,example3 ,titus hates ,god1 and therefore persecutes those who believe in ,god1 and also blasphemes ,god4 7b7 ,a new degree of malice is added to hatred of ,god when one proceeds from dislike to enmity1 or when the circumstances of person1 place1 manner1 etc41 aggravate the malice4 ,example3 ,hatred of ,god outwardly manifested adds the evil of scandal2 not so hatred of ,god that is concealed4 #acjd4 ,hatred of ,creatures4--,all dislike of ,god is sinful1 because there is nothing in ,god that merits dislike4 ,but in creatures imperfections are found as well as perfections4 7a7 ,hence1 dislike of the imperfections of our neighbor 7i4e41 of all that is the work of the devil or of his own sinfulness71 is not against charity1 but according to charity2 for it is the same thing to dislike another's evil as to wish his good4 ,thus1 ,god ,himself is said to hate detractors1 that is1 detraction 7,rom41 i4 #cj71 and ,christ bids ,his followers hate their parents who would be an impediment to their progress in holiness1 that is1 the sinful opposition of those parents 7,luke1 xiv4 #bf74 ,only when dislike is carried beyond reason is it sinful4 ,thus1 a wife who dislikes her husband's habit of drunkenness so much that she will not give him a necessary medicine on account of the alcohol it contains1 carries her dislike to extremes4 7b7 ,dislike of the perfections of nature or of grace in our neighbor 7i4e41 of anything that is the work of ,god in him71 is contrary to charity4 ,thus1 ,god does not hate the detractor himself1 nor should children ever hate the person of a parent1 or the natural relationship he holds to themselves1 no matter how bad the parent may be4 ,as ,st4 ,augustine says3 8,one should love the sinner1 but hate his vices40 #acje4 ,the same principles apply to dislike of self4 7a7 ,thus1 one should dislike one's own imperfections1 for they are the enemies of one's soul4 ,so1 contrition is defined as a hatred and detestation of one's vices1 and it is a virtue and an act of charity to self4 7b7 ,one should not dislike the good one has1 except in so far as it is associated with evil4 ,thus1 one should not regret one's honesty1 even if by reason of it one loses an opportunity to make a large sum of money2 but one may regret having married1 if one's choice has been unfortunate and has made one's life miserable4 #acjf4 ,should a person dislike in others their opposition to himself8 7a7 ,if their opposition is unjust1 he should dislike it1 for it is then a sin in them and an injury to himself1 and charity to them and to self requires that he should dislike what is harmful to all concerned4 7b7 ,if their opposition is just1 he should like it1 for it is virtuous in them and beneficial to himself3 8,better are the wounds of a friend than the deceitful kisses of an enemy0 7,prov41 xxvii4 #f74 #acjg4 ,direct enmity to self is not possible1 for nature inclines each one so strongly to love of self that it is impossible for anyone to wish evil to himself as evil3 8,no one hateth his own flesh0 7,ephes41 v4 #bi74 ,but indirectly a person may be at enmity with himself1 inasmuch as he wishes evil under the guise of good2 and hence ,st4 ,augustine1 commenting on the words1 8,he that loveth his life shall lose it0 7,john1 xii1 #be71 says3 8,if you love self wrongly1 you hate it2 if you hate self rightly1 you love it40 ,this indirect enmity to self happens in two ways4 7a7 ,a person sometimes wishes himself what is not a true1 but only an apparent good1 as when he chooses the satisfaction of revenge rather than that of pardon of injuries4 7b7 ,a person sometimes chooses what is good1 not for his true1 but for his lower self1 as when he decides to gratify the body at the expense of the soul4 #acjh4 ,is it ever lawful to wish evil to self or to others8 7a7 ,it is not lawful to wish anyone evil as evil1 for even ,god in punishing the lost does not will their punishment as it is evil to them1 but as it contains the good of justice4 ,hence1 it is contrary to charity to wish that a criminal be put to death1 if one's wish does not go beyond the sufferings and loss of life the criminal will endure4 7b7 ,it is lawful to wish evil as good1 or1 in other words1 to wish misfortunes that are blessings in disguise4 ,thus1 one may wish that a neighbor lose his arm1 if this is necessary to save his life4 #acji4 ,one may easily be self-deceived in wishing evil to one's neighbor under the pretext that it is really good one desires1 for the true intention may be hatred or revenge4 ,hence1 the following conditions must be present when one wishes evil as good3 7a7 ,on the part of the subject 7i4e41 of the person who wills the evil71 the intention must be sincerely charitable1 proceeding from a desire that the neighbor be benefitted4 ,thus1 it is lawful to wish that a gambler may meet with reverses1 if what is intended is1 not his loss1 but his awakening to the need of a new kind of amusement4 ,st4 ,paul rejoiced that he had made the ,corinthians sorrowful1 because their sorrow worked repentance in them 7,,ii ,cor41 vii4 #g-aa74 ,of course1 the desire of a neighbor's good does not confer the right to wrong him1 for the end does not justify the means4 7b7 ,on the part of the object 7i4e41 of the evil which is wished to another71 it must be compensated for by the good which is intended4 ,it is not lawful to desire the death of another on account of the property one expects to inherit1 for the neighbor's life is more important than private gain2 but it is lawful to wish1 out of interest in the common welfare1 that a criminal be captured and punished1 for it is only by the vindication of law that public tranquillity can be secured 7,gal41 v4 #ab74 #acaj4 ,is it lawful to wish the death of self or of a neighbor for some private good of the one whose death is wished8 7a7 ,if the good is a spiritual one and more important than the spiritual good contained in the desire to live1 it is lawful to desire death4 ,thus1 it is lawful to wish to die in order to enter into a better life1 or to be freed from the temptations and sinfulness of life on earth4 ,but it is not lawful to wish to die in order to spare a few individuals the scandal they take from one's life1 if that life is needed by others as a source of edification 7,philip41 i4 #ba sqq474 7b7 ,if the good is a temporal one but sufficiently important1 it does not seem unlawful to desire death4 ,thus1 we should not blame a person suffering from a painful and incurable disease1 which makes him a burden to himself and to others1 if1 with resignation to the divine will1 he prays for the release of death2 for 8death is better than a bitter life0 7,ecclus41 xxx1 #ag74 ,but lack of perfect health or a feeling of weariness is not a good reason for wishing to die1 especially if one has dependents1 or is useful to others4 #acaa4 ,is it ever lawful to wish spiritual evil to anyone8 7a7 ,spiritual evil of iniquity may never be desired1 for the desire of sin1 mortal or venial1 is a sin itself 7see #bdb71 and it cannot be charitable1 for charity rejoiceth not with iniquity 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #f74 ,it is wrong1 therefore1 to wish that our neighbor fall into sin1 offend ,god1 diminish or forfeit his grace1 or lose his soul4 ,on the contrary1 we are commanded to pray that he be delivered from such evils4 7b7 ,the good that ,god draws out of spiritual evil may be desired4 ,some are permitted to fall into sin1 or be tempted1 that they may become more humble1 more charitable1 more vigilant1 more fervent4 ,it seems that the permission of sin in the case of the elect is one of the benefits of ,god's predestination1 inasmuch as ,god intends it to be an occasion of greater virtue and stronger perseverance4 ,it is not lawful to wish that ,god permit anyone to fall into sin1 but it is lawful to wish that1 if ,god has permitted sin1 good will follow after it4 #acab4 ,gravity of the ,sin of ,hatred of ,neighbor4--7a7 ,hatred1 whether of dislike or of enmity1 is from its nature a mortal sin1 since it is directly opposed to the virtue of charity1 which is the life of the soul4 7b7 ,dislike1 if enmity is not joined to it1 is rarely in fact a mortal sin4 ,aversions and antipathies for others usually are either indeliberate1 or have to do with what are real or fancied defects in others4 ,dislike is a mortal sin only when one despises another so much that one deliberately loathes even that which is of divine provenance in the other1 or dislikes a real imperfection so immoderately as to inflict serious injury 7e4g41 by refusing pardon or the common signs of charity1 by giving grave scandal1 etc47 7c7 ,enmity in fact is often only a venial sin1 either because one wishes only a small harm 7e4g41 the loss of a small sum of money71 or because one wishes harm1 even a great harm 7e4g41 the commission of mortal sin71 without full deliberation4 ,enmity is a mortal sin1 however1 when one deliberately wishes a grave evil 7e4g41 mortal sin or the loss of reputation7 to one's neighbor4 #acac4 ,hatred ,compared with ,other ,sins ,against the ,neighbor4--7a7 ,hatred is a graver sin than other internal sins against the neighbor1 such as envy1 anger2 for1 while each of these latter attacks some particular kind of good of the neighbor or only to a limited degree1 hatred may be directed against any good and knows no measure4 ,thus1 covetousness is directed against the external goods or possessions of a neighbor1 while hate may extend to either internal or external goods4 ,envy is opposed to the neighbor's good relatively1 in so far as it is considered an obstacle to one's own glory1 but hate detests another's good absolutely4 ,the hater finds his satisfaction1 not in any profit derived for self1 but in his aversion for another's good1 and the harm that is wished his neighbor4 ,this comparison here made should be understood1 other things being equal1 so that hatred of another's life is contrasted with envy of his life1 etc42 for1 if the goods are not the same1 hatred may be a lesser sin1 as when hatred of a neighbor's temporal good is compared with envy of his spiritual good4 7b7 ,hatred of a neighbor is a more serious sin than external offenses done against him1 for hatred sets the will wrong1 and it is in the will that sin takes root3 8,he who hates his brother is a murderer0 7,i ,john1 iii4 #ae74 ,the external act1 on the contrary 7e4g41 killing an innocent man71 is not a formal sin when the will is guiltless4 7c7 ,hatred is a less harmful sin to the neighbor than external offenses2 for example1 internal dislike and malevolence will not break any bones1 as may happen from a severe blow4 #acad4 ,why is hatred not numbered among the capital vices8 ,as was said above 7see #bfi71 a capital vice is one from which naturally and usually other species of sin take their origin4 ,now1 hatred of ,god or the neighbor1 in the natural and usual course of sin1 does not precede1 but rather follows other sins4 ,hence1 hatred is not a capital sin4 ,this will appear more clearly if we distinguish two kinds of hatred3 7a7 ,hate of that which is truly evil and opposed to the true good of man 7e4g41 hate of vice71 is naturally prior to other disinclinations1 since rational nature first inclines one to love its good and hate its evil 7see #aajf74 7b7 ,hate of that which is not evil 7as hate of ,god or of the neighbor71 is naturally subsequent to other sins1 for it is only a nature already corrupt that detests true goodness4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that the whole catalogue of lesser sins must have been committed before hatred is arrived at1 nor that in individual cases a sinner has not the freedom to hate before he has committed less grave sins4 #acae4 ,in a certain wide sense1 however1 it may be said that hatred of the neighbor goes before all other sins against the neighbor1 just as was remarked above 7#abii7 concerning sins against ,god4 7a7 ,hence1 interpretative hate--i4e41 a feeling against another that makes one act in effect as if there were hatred--does precede the other sins4 ,thus1 if ,titus1 who bore no ill-will to ,balbus1 becomes enraged against him and inflicts death1 the murder is traced back to anger1 but this anger may be called hate1 inasmuch as dislike of the life of ,balbus is included in the desire of revenge4 7b7 ,formal hate--i4e41 dislike of another that is absolute1 and not modified by such considerations as desire of revenge or sorrow over one's own inferiority--does not precede1 but rather follows the other sins1 as was explained in the previous paragraph4 ,it is only this sin of formal hate that is a special sin4 ,titus in the example murdered ,balbus1 not because he had an absolute dislike for him1 but because the thirst for revenge made ,balbus displeasing to him4 #acaf4 ,the causes of the sin of hatred are as follows3 7a7 causes that dispose one to hate are anger and envy1 for to desire evil to another1 for revenge or on account of one's own glory1 prepares the way to desire evil to him absolutely1 which is hatred4 ,envy1 however1 disposes to hate more than anger1 since it is more akin to hatred3 anger wishes evil to another as something owed to justice1 but both envy and hatred look upon the neighbor's good as a thing distasteful4 7b7 ,the cause that induces sinful hatred of the neighbor is envy2 for one cannot hate that which is good unless one regards it as in some way disagreeable1 and it is the vice of envy that makes one regard one's neighbor's good as one's own evil4 ,hatred of ,god also indirectly results from envy1 for1 while the creature does not envy ,god1 his envy of his neighbor breeds hatred of his fellow-man1 and this in turn may produce hatred of ,god4 #acag4 ,various ,species of the ,sin of ,hatred4--7a7 ,hatred of ,god and hatred of the neighbor are sins specifically distinct1 and hence to be declared specifically in confession4 ,they are opposed to the same virtue of charity1 but1 on account of the generical difference of sin against ,god and sin against the creature1 they must be classed as different species of sin4 7b7 ,hatred of the neighbor in itself is but one species of sin1 since all its acts have this one essential character in common1 that evil is wished to a neighbor as evil--that is1 one wishes another evil in general or every kind of evil1 but does not specify particular evils1 such as damnation or death4 7c7 ,hatred of the neighbor on account of its circumstances or results may be connected with sins of other species4 ,thus1 he who hates his neighbor because the latter is pious1 adds irreligion to his hatred2 he who out of hatred wishes the death of his neighbor1 adds the guilt of murder to hatred2 he who out of hatred wishes to destroy his neighbor's property1 adds the guilt of injustice to his hatred3 he who hates his parents1 adds impiety to uncharitableness2 he who calls down a curse on another1 adds malediction to hate4 #acah4 ,penitents who accuse themselves of hatred often have in mind a sin specifically distinct from the sin of hatred1 or an act not sinful at all4 7a7 ,thus1 8hatred of ,god0 is sometimes used to signify a want of resignation to the divine will4 7b7 8,dislike of the neighbor0 is sometimes used to signify uncongeniality on account of difference of character1 etc41 or positive disapproval of qualities or acts that deserve dislike or censure4 ,thus1 a penitent who always feels ill at ease in the company of a neighbor on account of some natural incompatibility or of some fear which he himself does not understand1 or who dreads meeting an individual whose manners are boorish or whose conversation is distasteful1 may accuse himself of sinful dislike4 7c7 8,wishing evil to the neighbor0 is sometimes used to signify one's desire that justice take its course or that the order of charity be observed4 ,thus1 a penitent who wished for the common good that a criminal be punished1 or according to charity that his friend would defeat others in competition for a prize1 may accuse himself that he wished harm to the criminal or had luck to the competitors against his friend4 #acai4 ,circumstances of hatred should be mentioned in confession as follows3 7a7 when they add a new species--thus1 the person hated 7e4g41 one's father7 or the evil wished 7e4g41 a fall into mortal sin1 loss of reputation1 death1 etc47 may add a new sin to that of hate2 7b7 when they multiply the number of sins within the species of hate1 as when one hates a large number of persons 7see #bai74 #acbj4 ,the ,sin of ,sloth4--,sloth is a sadness or dejection of the will about the divine good one possesses1 and arises from a want of esteem for one's ,last ,end and the means thereto4 7a7 ,sloth is a sadness of the will4 ,hence1 the sin of sloth differs from the passion of sadness1 and also from bodily weariness4 ,the passions 7as said in #aba7 are not evil in themselves1 but become evil when exercised immoderately1 or turned to an evil object4 ,weakness or weariness of body is not sinful1 but it disposes one for the passion of sadness1 and this in turn may tempt the will to sloth1 when duties owed to ,god are to be attended to4 7b7 ,sloth is a sadness about good1 and so it differs from sadness about the smallness of one's good4 ,humility demands that one be sensible of one's own shortcomings and of the greater merits of those who are better4 ,but it is not humility but ingratitude and sloth to depreciate and grieve over the good which one has received from ,god1 such as the gift of faith1 membership in the ,church1 etc4 7c7 ,sloth is sadness about the divine good1 which is loved by charity4 ,thus1 the sin of sloth differs from the circumstance of sloth1 which is found in every sin4 ,there is no sin that does not contain a sadness or disgust about the act of the opposite virtue2 the very thought of moderation is depressing to the glutton1 and religion is associated with gloom by the irreligious4 ,but what is special to the sin of sloth is1 that it grieves about that divine good itself over which charity rejoices1 and which is the end of all the other virtues4 7d7 ,sloth is a sadness about the divine good as shared by self1 that is1 about the end offered oneself and the means thereto1 such as eternal beatitude1 the friendship of ,god1 the ,sacraments1 the ,commandments1 good works and other divine gifts which should be esteemed and received with gladness4 ,sloth thus differs from hatred of ,god1 which is a sadness over ,god's own goodness2 and from envy1 which is a sadness over the good of the neighbor4 7e7 ,sloth is a sadness over the divine good1 which is considered by one as an evil4 ,the sin of sloth looks upon the joys of heaven or the practice of virtue with contempt2 it directly spurns them as unworthy of love 7cfr4 ,num41 xxi4 #d74 ,hence1 sloth differs from laziness or idleness1 for this latter sin dislikes the exercise of virtue1 not because it considers virtue as evil1 but because it has a dread of the labor and exertion which virtue entails1 and is overmuch in love with repose and ease4 #acba4 ,sloth is a sin4 7a7 ,it is forbidden by ,god3 8,bow down thy shoulder and bear wisdom1 and be not grieved with her bands0 7,ecclus41 vi4 #bf74 7b7 ,it is an evil sorrow1 for it grieves over good4 7c7 ,it has evil effects1 since it keeps man from his duty1 swallowing him up with overmuch sorrow 7,,ii ,cor41 ii4 #g74 #acbb4 ,qualities of the ,sin of ,sloth4--7a7 ,sloth is a special sin1 since1 as explained above1 its individual objects differentiate it from the general slothfulness that is found in every sin1 as well as from hatred1 envy and laziness4 ,but it is a sin1 by comparison1 rarely committed4 7b7 ,it is a mortal sin1 from its nature1 since it is a horror and detestation for the divine good4 ,it is implicitly forbidden in the ,third ,commandment1 7c7 ,it is a capital sin 7i4e41 a vice naturally productive of others71 for sadness inclines man to many evils as means of escape from sorrow or of consolation in sorrow4 #acbc4 ,in the following cases sloth is not a mortal sin4 7a7 ,it is not a mortal sin if in the object there is not grave matter4 ,when a person is grieved at the thought that he will be forced to some spiritual good which is not of precept but of counsel1 he does not sin thereby1 for one does not sin by not choosing the counsels4 ,strictly speaking1 however1 this grief is not the sin of sloth1 which is a sorrow over the divine good that one is bound to accept with joy4 7b7 ,sloth is not a mortal sin1 if in the subject there is not sufficient reflection or full consent4 ,hence1 mere bodily weariness in serving ,god1 is no sin at all1 and a feeling of disgust for spiritual things1 not consented to1 is only a struggle of the flesh against the spirit1 and at most a venial sin4 #acbd4 ,sins that ,spring from ,sloth4--7a7 ,to escape his sadness about divine things1 the slothful man avoids or flees the things that sadden him--his last end 7sin of despair7 and the means thereto 7sins of cowardice and carelessness74 ,he also attacks the causes of his grief--the persons who would lead him to ,god 7sin of rancor7 or the spiritual things themselves 7sin of malice74 7b7 ,to console himself for the want of joy in spiritual things1 he seeks comfort in forbidden things3 his mind is unquiet and curious about that which does not concern him1 his talk is excessive1 his bodily movements are restless1 and he must be continually moving from place to place4 #acbe4 ,the ,conquest of ,sloth4--7a7 ,flight is a suitable form of resistance to temptation1 whenever the temptation grows stronger by thinking over the matter1 as is the case with temptations against purity 7,i ,cor41 vi4 #ah74 7b7 ,attack is a suitable form of resistance1 when the temptation becomes weaker as one thinks over the matter 7see #beg74 ,this is the case with sloth1 for1 the more one gives oneself to the consideration of spiritual things1 the more pleasing do they become4 #acbf4 ,laziness1 as distinct from the capital vice of sloth1 is a generic name given to a number of sins or circumstances of sin1 and hence it will be treated in several places4 7a7 ,thus1 negligence is a want of prompt decision about duties to be performed4 ,it is opposed to the virtue of diligence or solicitude1 which pertains to prudence4 ,hence1 negligence will be considered among the sins against prudence4 7b7 ,sluggishness 7pigritia7 is a tardy performance of duty1 and will be considered among the sins opposed to diligence4 7c7 ,carelessness 7torpor7 is a perfunctory discharge of duties1 without thought or love4 ,it is one of the consequences of sloth given above 7see #acbd71 and hence it is a sin against charity4 7d7 ,indolence is an excessive dislike of labor or exertion1 caused by an inordinate love of recreation or bodily rest4 ,it will be considered when we treat the sin of softness or delicacy1 which is opposed to fortitude4 7e7 ,idleness is the actual omission of one's duty on account of indolence1 and hence it is considered among the sins against the various precepts4 ,thus1 under the precepts of charity and of justice will be discussed the omission of labor to which one is bound4 #acbg4 ,the sin of carelessness about the service of ,god is also known as tepidity or lukewarmness4 ,it consists in a want of fervor1 and causes one to live in spiritual languor1 wishing on the one hand to live holily and avoid sin1 but fearing on the other hand the effort and generosity required for the practice of virtue and the struggle against evil4 ,it is1 therefore1 most dangerous4 7a7 ,even if it is only internal1 it may be more dangerous to the one concerned than grave sin itself1 since threats and promises that move a sinner are often unavailing with one who is tepid and moving on to grave sin4 ,thus1 we read3 8,i know thy works1 that thou art neither cold1 nor hot4 ,i would that thou wert cold or hot4 ,but because thou art lukewarm1 and neither cold1 nor hot1 ,i will begin to vomit thee out of my mouth0 7,apoc41 iii4 #ae1 #af74 7b7 ,if it is external1 this sin is a danger to others who witness the disrespectful way in which one prays or exercises other duties owed to ,god4 #acbh4 ,the ,sin of ,envy4--,envy is a sadness at the good of a neighbor1 which one considers as a detriment to one's own excellence or glory1 and therefore as an evil to self4 7a7 ,envy is a species of sadness1 that is1 it is a displeasure of the will at the presence of what one regards as an evil4 ,in this way envy differs from the sin of rejoicing at the evils of others1 which1 as will be said below 7see #acdb71 is one of the consequences of envy1 although both are of the same species4 ,thus also1 envy differs from pride and vainglory 7which are not aversions but inclinations71 and from covetousness 7which is the desire of what belongs to another74 7b7 ,envy is about some good1 especially about those goods from which men obtain the esteem and honor of others1 such as virtue1 ability1 rank1 success1 prosperity4 ,thus1 envy differs from sorrow about evil or the evil effects of good1 such as repentance for one's sins1 regret that one is not as good as others1 displeasure at the bad use that men make of health or wealth4 7c7 ,envy is about the good of a neighbor1 for only an insane person would feel chagrin at the superiority of ,god1 and self-envy is a contradiction in terms4 ,thus1 envy differs from sorrow at the good of ,god 7hatred of ,god71 and from sorrow at the good of self 7sloth74 ,a person may be said1 however1 to envy ,god in the sense that he is mortified at the external glory of ,god1 if he feels himself an antagonist of that glory4 ,in this way the devil is said to envy the attributes of ,god1 because they overcome his efforts to promote impiety1 and man is said to envy the ,holy ,ghost1 when he is discontented at the progress of holiness in the souls of men4 7d7 ,the envious man considers his neighbor's good as a detriment to his own good4 ,this is the distinctive trait of envy which sets it apart from other forms of repining at another's good fortune4 ,thus1 displeasure at the excellence or glory of another without reference to detriment to self is not envy1 but hatred2 with reference to the unworthiness of another1 it is not envy1 but indignation4 7e7 ,hence1 envy looks on the neighbor's prosperity as a calamity to self1 as a sort of punishment and the contradiction of one's own desires4 ,here envy stands in contrast with mercy1 for1 while the merciful regard the misfortunes of neighbors as the misfortunes of themselves1 the envious regard the prosperity of others as their own misfortune4 #acbi4 ,the ,objects of ,envy4--7a7 ,the material objects are many1 but they are reduced to excellence and glory4 ,excellence includes every kind of desirable quality4 ,glory is the honor1 fame and praise that follow on public knowledge of one's excellence4 ,as a rule1 envy is concerned with the excellence of glory1 but it may also be about internal or objective excellence4 ,thus1 if two disputants are alone1 the less able will perhaps envy the greater knowledge of the more able2 but1 if there is an audience1 the more able will perhaps envy the greater applause received by his less able opponent4 7b7 ,the formal object of envy is one1 namely1 the detriment to the excellence or glory of self which the envious person sees in the excellence or glory of another4 ,detriment must not be understood absolutely here1 as if the envious person lost something or failed to obtain something on account of the other person4 ,it must be understood relatively1 in the sense that the envious person feels that the situation between himself and the other person is no longer the same1 that the latter has gained on him or passed him1 and has thus lessened his excellence4 #accj4 ,the ,subjects of ,envy4--7a7 ,the persons most inclined to envy are of two quite different types1 namely1 the ambitious and the pusillanimous4 ,the ambitious man ardently covets honors1 and he is correspondingly saddened when others surpass him1 especially if he already enjoys repute or is not far removed from the object of his desires4 ,the pusillanimous man1 being petty1 holds every small advancement of others as great and as a blow to his own prestige4 ,he is1 therefore1 filled with intense envy1 where a different person would see little or no cause for such a feeling4 ,on the contrary1 those who recognize their own unsuitability for what is above them1 and those who are great of soul1 are not so much inclined to envy4 ,there are few1 however1 even among the most perfect1 who are not tempted to envy in some form4 7b7 ,the persons who are most likely to be envied are those who in some way or other are one's likes or equals1 for one does not feel that one is thrown into the shade by a person who is always far above one1 or by those who are far removed in time1 place1 age1 etc4 ,thus1 a beggar will envy a fellow-beggar who becomes a millionaire1 but not those acquaintances who were always rich1 and still less the fortunate persons whom he knows only from hearsay4 ,the elder son envied his brother1 not his father 7,luke1 xv4 #bh74 ,many exceptions to this are only apparent4 ,thus1 persons sometimes are envious of those far above them1 but it is because these have advanced at their expense1 as when a poor person envies those who have the property he once owned4 ,persons are sometimes envious of their equals who have not surpassed them1 but it is because these latter have obtained with little or no effort what they themselves have gained only by hard work4 ,persons are sometimes envious of their inferiors1 but this is because they make a comparison from some viewpoint in which there is equality1 as when an old man envies a youth the advantages that were not enjoyed in his own youth1 or the present promotion that surpasses his own4 #acca4 ,it was said above 7see #acac7 that hatred differs from other sins against charity1 inasmuch as it dislikes another's good unqualifiedly1 whereas these other sins dislike his good with some qualification4 ,hence1 envy differs from hate1 because envy is a qualified displeasure4 ,it differs from other kinds of displeasure over the prosperity of others1 because the qualification in each case is different4 7a7 ,thus1 emulation is displeased at the thought of a neighbor's prosperity1 not because it does not like his success1 but because it dislikes the unsuccess of self4 ,example3 ,titus is grieved when he thinks of the virtue of ,balbus1 because he himself lacks virtue4 7b7 ,fear dislikes the prosperity or superiority of another1 not on account of the prosperity or superiority in itself1 but on account of the evil results it apprehends from that prosperity4 ,example3 ,caius is displeased at the elevation of ,claudius1 because he knows the latter is his enemy and will persecute him4 ,he is also displeased that1 in spite of his own greater learning and soundness1 he has not the influence possessed by ,balbus1 who misleads many by long-winded sophistry4 7c7 ,indignation 7nemesis7 is displeased that a neighbor has a certain good1 of which he is unworthy4 ,example3 ,sempronius is angry because ,titus1 who is dishonest1 succeeds in business4 7d7 ,envy grieves over a neighbor's prosperity1 not because it thinks this prosperity will actually bring about a lessening of the honor of self1 but because it regards the very fact of that prosperity1 in itself and apart from any consequences1 as a change in one's relationship to the neighbor1 and to that extent an obscuration of the glory of self4 ,example3 ,balbus is grieved at the prosperity of ,claudius1 because he knows ,claudius will use his resources to defame him4 ,caius is grieved at ,claudius' prosperity1 because he regards it as a reflection on his own fame1 since he is less prosperous4 ,balbus fears1 ,caius envies4 #accb4 ,is emulation a sin8 7a7 ,if emulation is about spiritual things1 it is not sinful1 but praiseworthy4 ,st4 ,paul encourages a holy rivalry among the ,corinthians for the higher gifts of ,god 7,i ,cor41 xii4 #ca74 ,st4 ,jerome writes to ,laeta that her daughter should be associated with other girls as fellow-pupils1 that the progress of the latter and the praises they receive may act as a spur to the daughter not to be outdone4 ,one who equals or surpasses the virtue or knowledge of another does not take away or lessen the other's good1 but improves his own good2 and thus emulation is not harmful1 but beneficial in spiritual matters4 7b7 ,if emulation is about temporal things1 it is also lawful to be sorry at their absence4 ,but1 if the desire is inordinate1 then emulation is sinful4 ,example3 ,sempronius is not inferior in ability to ,titus1 and hence1 while not desiring monopoly or disliking competition1 he is sorry that he has not attained an equal success in business4 ,balbus is very deficient in education1 in initiative and in character1 while ,caius excels in all these qualities2 and yet ,balbus is discontented that he does not hold the responsible position of ,caius1 or one of equal importance4 ,the emulation of ,sempronius is reasonable1 that of ,balbus is unreasonable4 #accc4 ,rivalry is called jealousy1 when it proceeds from a love so ardent that it wishes to have exclusive possession of the object loved4 ,this jealousy is lawful or unlawful1 according as the person who loves has or has not exclusive rights4 7a7 ,jealousy is unlawful in a mother who is vexed because her child loves his father as well as herself4 ,the child ought to love both parents1 and it is an evil jealousy that makes the mother grieve when the child does this4 7b7 ,jealousy is lawful in a wife who grieves because her husband gives to others the affection he promised would be hers alone4 ,scripture speaks of ,god ,himself as jealous of the fidelity of ,his creatures1 and declares that ,he will suffer no rival1 but must have sole dominion over the heart 7,josue1 xxiv4 #ai sqq472 and ,st4 ,paul tells the ,corinthians that he is jealous of them1 with the jealousy of ,god1 because they have not been faithful to his preaching1 but have been friendly to false teachers 7,,ii ,cor41 xi74 #accd4 ,is grief at the prosperity of another a sin1 when it is caused by fear of the harm he will do8 7a7 ,if it is clear that the other will use his prosperity to act against justice or charity or the like1 it is not a sin to grieve over the prosperity4 ,for1 since it is right to deprive a neighbor of the means of sinning when one has the power to do so1 it is not wrong to wish that he lacked those means4 ,thus1 it is not a sin to grieve over the election of an official who will promote lawbreakers and persecute the law-abiding3 8,when just men increase1 the people shall rejoice2 when the wicked shall bear rule1 the people shall mourn0 7,prov41 xxix4 #b74 ,st4 ,gregory the ,great declares that1 as it is not uncharitable to rejoice at the downfall of an enemy1 neither is it envious to be saddened at his success2 since his downfall is a blessing to the oppressed1 while his success means injustice to many4 7b7 ,if it is clear that the other will use his power1 wealth1 or other goods to inflict evils that are deserved or not unjust1 it is wrong to be sorry that he has the power1 wealth1 etc41 just as it would be wrong to deprive him of them4 ,thus1 it is wrong to grieve over the election of an honest official who will correct abuses and punish lawbreakers4 ,it is not unlawful1 however1 for a lawbreaker to be sorry for himself at the prospect of the penalty he will receive4 7c7 ,if it is uncertain whether the other will use his prosperity to do injury to oneself or to others1 it is lawful to fear and to be on one's guard1 but it is not lawful to grieve unconditionally at the prosperity1 just as it is not lawful in the circumstances to deprive the other of his prosperity4 #acce4 ,is grief at the prosperity of another sinful1 when it is caused by his unworthiness of prosperity8 7a7 ,if the indignation could be about spiritual things1 of course it would be sinful2 but this is not possible1 for it is precisely spiritual goods 7such as virtues7 that make one deserving4 ,indignation1 then1 is about temporal goods1 which are enjoyed by the bad1 as well as the good4 7b7 ,if the indignation is about temporal things owned by the wicked1 and one grieves that they have prosperity1 sin is committed4 ,for it is ,god who distributes to the undeserving the goods they have2 ,his purpose is just1 namely1 that these goods may be for the correction or the punishment of the wicked2 those who grieve over the prosperity of the unworthy overlook the fact that eternal goods are a reward to man1 temporal goods only a trust to be administered4 ,hence1 the ,psalmist says3 8,be not emulous of evil-doers1 nor envy them that work iniquity1 for they shall shortly wither away as grass0 7,ps4 xxxvi4 #a74 #accf4 ,two special cases of sorrow over the prosperity of the wicked must be considered4 7a7 ,if one sorrows precisely because the prosperity is had by an undeserving person1 and is not thinking of the divine cause and purpose in human affairs1 it does not seem that one sins2 for1 abstracting from ,divine ,providence1 there does appear an unsuitability in the prosperity enjoyed by the wicked1 and hence it is something to be sorry about4 ,but such sorrow is at least a preparation for the sin spoken of in the previous paragraph1 and so it should be shunned3 8,my feet were almost moved1 my steps had well-nigh slipped1 in anger at the wicked1 seeing the prosperity of sinners0 7,ps4 lxxii4 #b1 #c74 7b7 ,if one sorrows precisely because the sinner will use his prosperity in such a way as to become more wicked and to incur chastisement1 the sorrow is not uncharitable1 but charitable4 #accg4 ,sorrow at being surpassed by another on account of the relative loss of glory to self1 with the wish that the other had not the good that makes him superior1 is envy1 as explained above4 ,this sorrow is a sin4 7a7 ,thus1 it is condemned in scripture3 8,let us not be made desirous of vainglory1 envying one another0 7,gal1 v4 #bf72 8,the patriarchs through envy sold ,joseph into ,egypt0 7,acts1 vii4 #i71 8,charity envieth not0 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #d74 7b7 ,it is not reasonable to be grieved at the prosperity of others1 since prosperity is something good and an object of joy rather than of sorrow4 #acch4 ,from its nature envy is a mortal sin4 7a7 ,thus1 it is directly opposed to the principal acts of charity1 which are love of the neighbor1 desire of his good1 and joy over his prosperity2 and charity is the life of the soul 7,i ,john1 iii4 #ad74 ,secondary acts of charity1 such as kissing the sores of a leper1 may be omitted without loss of love1 but envy destroys love itself4 7b7 ,envy is directly contrary to mercy2 for1 while mercy grieves at the evil of others1 envy grieves at their good4 ,the envious are not merciful1 neither are the merciful envious4 #acci4 ,envy is a greater sin than the other kinds of sorrow at a neighbor's good4 7a7 ,thus1 envy grieves over the neighbor's good 7even if he is worthy71 and is greater or less in proportion to that good2 7b7 emulation grieves over one's own deficiency1 fear over the consequences of the other's good1 indignation over the prosperity of one who is unworthy4 #acdj4 ,envy is not a mortal sin in the following cases3 7a7 if the object is not grave1 as when one is envious about some trifle 7such as good looks72 7b7 if the subject does not give sufficient reflection or full consent1 as when infants are jealous of one another1 or adults feel the stirrings of envy4 ,even holy men are not above the first movements or inclinations towards envy1 and very many envious thoughts are not mortal1 because not fully adverted to4 #acda4 ,degrees of ,gravity in ,sins of ,envy4--7a7 ,there are no different species of envy of the neighbor1 for all acts of envy have the one essential trait that they are sorrow over the excellence of another1 viewed1 not absolutely in itself1 but relatively as a lessening of one's own excellence4 ,we should distinguish1 however1 the envy which is a sin against ,god 7viz41 envy at another's spiritual good1 or sorrow at the diffusion of grace7 from the envy which is a sin against the neighbor4 7b7 ,there are different degrees of envy within the species1 according to the greater or less excellence of the good which is envied4 ,thus1 it is a greater sin to be envious about spiritual things 7e4g41 another's influence for good7 than about temporal things 7e4g41 another's ability to get money72 it is a greater sin to be envious about the wellbeing of the body than about dress1 style1 etc4 #acdb4 ,envy is one of the capital vices1 that is1 it is an evil tree which from its very nature yields the evil fruits of other sins4 ,the fruits of envy are progressive in evil4 7a7 ,thus1 in the beginning of envy1 one tries to diminish the glory of the person one envies1 either secretly 7sin of whispering7 or openly 7sin of detraction74 7b7 ,in its progress1 envy rejoices at the adversity of the neighbor1 if its attempt to injure succeeds2 or it sorrows over his continued prosperity1 if its effort at blackening has failed4 ,rejoicing at a neighbor's adversity is not different specifically from envy2 but the affliction over the neighbor's prosperity now spoken of is of the same species as the vice which sought to undermine the neighbor4 ,thus1 if the envious person resorted in vain to detraction1 his grief at the failure of his efforts is in guilt a sin of detraction4 7c7 ,in its consummation1 envy becomes hatred1 as was said above on the causes of hate 7see #acaf74 #acdc4 ,envy is not the first of the seven capital vices4 7a7 ,thus1 it is caused by pride1 for one who inordinately desires his own excellence will easily grieve over what he regards as the lessening of that excellence by the excellence of another4 7b7 ,it is caused by vainglory1 for one who inordinately longs for fame and honors1 will easily be grieved over the fame and honors enjoyed by others4 #acdd4 ,in what way is envy preeminent among sins8 7a7 ,envy is not the most enormous vice1 for1 as said above 7see #acja71 hatred of ,god is from its nature the worst of all sins4 ,but there is one kind of envy--namely1 envy of a brother's spiritual good--which has a place among those gravest offenses called 8sins against the ,holy ,ghost0 7see #hii74 7b7 ,envy is most like to the sin that brought all woe into the world1 for 8by the envy of the devil death entered the world0 7,wis41 ii4 #bd74 ,it was sorrow at the gifts bestowed upon our first parents that moved the demon to tempt them1 and accordingly his envy led to their fall and to the loss of original justice by the ,whole race4 #acde4 ,useful ,considerations against ,envy4--7a7 ,envy is useless1 since it does not obtain that on which one's heart is set1 or obtains it only by the sacrifice of charity1 which is something better4 7b7 ,envy is harmful1 since it carries its own torment with it 7,gen41 iv4 #e2 ,wis41 vi4 #be2 ,prov41 xiv4 #cj71 and brings on many sins against the neighbor4 ,through envy the first murder was committed 7,gen41 iv4 #h71 and it was envy that brought about the crucifixion of ,christ 7,matt1 xxvii4 #ah74 #acdf4 ,useful practices against envy are3 7a7 the uprooting of its causes1 pride and vainglory2 7b7 the cultivation of an unselfish charity and of emulation of what is best in others3 8,so that by all means1 whether by occasion1 or by truth1 ,christ be preached1 in this ,i rejoice1 yea1 and will rejoice0 7,philip41 i4 #ah72 8,let us consider one another1 to provoke unto charity and to good works0 7,heb41 x4 #bd74 ,art4 #h3 ,,the ,,sins ,,against ,,peace 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #cg-db47 #acdg4 ,the following sins are opposed to the peace of charity3 7a7 discord1 which is opposed to peace in wills2 7b7 contention or quarreling1 which is opposed to peace in words2 7e7 schism1 war1 fights and sedition1 which are opposed to peace in works4 #acdh4 ,discord4--,as here understood1 discord is a disagreement in the wills of two or more persons in matters pertaining to the divine good1 or the good of the neighbor1 and concerning which charity requires that they be in agreement4 7a7 ,discord is a disagreement in wills1 that is1 in wishes and desires4 ,hence1 it is not the same as difference of opinion 7see #aaig71 which is a disagreement in judgments4 7b7 ,it is about matters in which agreement is necessary1 that is1 in which the law of ,god requires that all wish the same things1 and have but one heart and soul4 ,thus1 discord differs from disagreement about matters of supererogation4 ,examples3 ,titus and his wife are at variance1 because ,titus is unwilling to give any alms4 ,balbus and his wife are at variance1 because she wishes him to give away in alms more than is strictly necessary4 ,in the first husband there is discord1 but not in the second4 7c7 ,discord is opposed to the divine good1 or the good of the neighbor4 ,thus1 it differs from a disagreement with another who is attacking the divine good or the good of the neighbor4 ,the standard of concord is the divine will1 and he only of the persons at variance is discordant who is not in harmony with the divine will4 7d7 ,discord is confined to those matters in which charity calls for agreement4 ,if it be some other virtue that demands unanimity 7e4g41 justice71 the disagreement is not discord in the special sense now employed1 ,thus1 he whose will refuses consent to the command of a superior is disobedient2 he whose will refuses to pay the debt due a creditor is dishonest4 #acdi4 ,there are two kinds of discord3 7a7 intentional discord1 which is the act of one who knowingly and purposely contradicts in a matter about which charity requires that he agree2 7b7 unintentional discord1 which is a disagreement between persons1 who both intend the divine good or the good of the neighbor1 but who are divided in opinion as to what that good here and now requires4 #acej4 ,sinfulness of ,intentional ,discord4--7a7 ,from its nature1 this species of discord is a mortal sin1 since it directly excludes charity4 ,hence1 those who are guilty of discord shall not obtain the kingdom of heaven 7,gal1 v4 #ba74 7b7 ,from the lack of sufficient reflection or consent1 the first impulses towards discord are not mortal sins4 #acea4 ,sinfulness of ,unintentional ,discord4--7a7 ,from its nature1 this kind of discord is not opposed to charity1 nor is it sinful2 for the concord of charity consists in a union of wills1 not in a union of opinions4 ,thus1 the disagreement between ,paul and ,barnabas about ,john ,mark 7,acts1 xv4 #ci7 was not sinful1 although the difference of judgment indicated their human limitations4 7b7 ,from its circumstances1 this kind of discord may be sinful1 as when it is caused by culpable ignorance in matters of faith1 or is carried on with obstinacy4 #aceb4 ,by whom is the sin of discord committed8 7a7 ,it is committed sometimes by one party only1 as when one knowingly resists the will of another who wishes to perform a necessary act of charity4 7b7 ,it is committed at other times by both parties1 as when each in defending his own good infringes knowingly on the charity due the other4 #acec4 ,is it lawful to promote divisions1 when one's purpose and the result will be good8 7a7 ,to promote division that takes away the concord of charity is never lawful1 but a mortal sin3 8,there are six things the ,lord hates1 and a seventh which ,his soul detests1 a sower of discord among brethren0 7,prov41 vi4 #af1 #ai74 7b7 ,to promote division that takes away a concord of malice is lawful and praiseworthy4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,paul introduced a dissension between the ,pharisees and the ,sadducees1 who had been in agreement against him 7,acts1 xxiii4 #f1 #g74 ,but the intention of the ,apostle was to win the ,pharisees to the defense of the ,resurrection and of himself1 not to incite the ,sadducees to a denial of the ,resurrection1 and so there was no question of his using evil means for a good end4 #aced4 ,the ,origin of ,discord4--7a7 ,the disagreement with the will of a neighbor arises from envy4 ,for he who considers the excellence of his neighbor as a lessening of his own excellence1 is inclined to contradict the wishes of the neighbor1 even if he recognizes them as good4 7b7 ,the preference of one's own will and persistence in it are due to pride and vainglory4 ,for he who unduly desires his own excellence or fame does not wish to yield to others or change his purposes4 ,he feels that1 even though he is in the wrong1 he must not take what he regards as a position of inferiority4 #acee4 ,contention4--,contention is discord carried into words or equivalent signs1 7i4e41 a dispute or altercation71 in which one denies what the other affirms4 ,it is divided as follows3 7a7 by reason of the intention1 it is either an investigation of the truth1 a defense of the truth1 or an attack on the truth2 7b7 by reason of the manner in which it is conducted1 it is either suitable or unsuitable to the persons and the matter in question4 #acef4 ,contention whose aim is the discovery of the truth is lawful as follows4 7a7 ,such contention is lawful and useful in itself1 for it is a means of acquiring useful knowledge1 of seeing both sides of a question1 and of sharpening the mind for the refutation of error4 ,hence1 a contest in a court of justice1 a controversy in a scientific journal1 a public debate on some important matter1 and a theological disputation are according to their nature lawful1 and may be necessary4 ,even to argue against the truth1 for the sake of practice in discussion or to bring out the truth more clearly and forcibly1 is1 apart from danger1 scandal1 or prohibition1 not unuseful4 7b7 ,debate is unlawful in its manner when a disputant does not argue according to the rules1 appeals to prejudice or ignorance1 uses an insulting tone or unparliamentary language1 etc4 #aceg4 ,the ,sin of ,contention4--,contention is a sin when its aim is the concealment or discomfiture of the truth4 7a7 ,from its nature this kind of contention is a mortal sin1 for it is the external expression of internal discord in matters about which charity requires concord and the same speech4 ,hence1 the ,apostle numbers contention among the works of the flesh that exclude from the kingdom of ,god 7,gal1 v4 #bj74 7b7 ,from the lightness of the matter or the imperfection of the consent1 this kind of contention is very often1 if not usually1 only a venial sin1 or no sin at all4 ,examples3 ,a person argues against what he knows is true1 but the matter is trivial 7e4g41 his weight72 or he is distracted by the heat of dispute or the tactics of the other party4 #aceh4 ,mortal sin is not committed by contention1 therefore1 unless the truths against which one contends are of a serious kind4 ,such truths are3 7a7 truths of a religious or moral character1 such as the doctrines of faith and the commandments of ,god2 7b7 natural truths of a universal character1 the knowledge of which pertains to the perfection of the intellect1 such as first principles2 7c7 natural truths of a particular character in which important rights are involved4 ,example3 ,an historian who writes against some deservedly revered person of the past1 or a lawyer who attempts to prove against an accused what he knows is not a fact1 are guilty of the sin of contention4 #acei4 ,hence1 one may be defending one kind of truth and contending against another kind of truth at the same time4 ,st4 ,paul1 accordingly1 makes the distinction between announcement of the truth out of charity and announcement of the truth out of contention 7,philip1 i1 #ae sqq474 7a7 ,the truth is defended out of charity when one does not use truth as a means for the defense of error2 7b7 it is defended out of contention when one makes use of it as a means for the propagation of error4 ,thus1 while ,st4 ,paul was imprisoned at ,rome in #fa1 certain personal enemies preached ,christ1 but at the same time spoke or hinted falsehoods against ,st4 ,paul in order to undermine his authority or add to the bitterness of his captivity4 ,similarly1 if one defends the truth to make oneself appear different or better than one is1 one speaks from contention4 #acfj4 ,ways in which one is guilty of the mortal sin of contention3 7a7 when one contends formally against the truth1 that is1 when one knows the truth and intends to overcome it or suppress it2 7b7 when one contends virtually against the truth1 that is1 when one is so bent on carrying one's point that one does not care whether it is true or false4 ,thus1 the ,sophists aimed to win1 right or wrong4 #acfa4 ,when the aim of contention is the overthrow of error3 7a7 in itself1 such contention is good and praiseworthy1 and at times necessary2 7b7 by reason of circumstances1 it may be a venial or a mortal sin4 ,examples3 ,a dispute on a matter that is unbecoming1 such as which of the disputants is greater 7,luke1 xxii4 #bd72 dispute with greater warmth than the case requires2 a dispute that leads to scandal or other evil consequences1 as in religious controversies 7,i ,tim41 ii4 #ad74 #acfb4 ,the ,causes of ,sinful ,contention4--7a7 ,the cause of that which is principal in contention--namely1 the departure from the truth held by another and the stand made for error--is envy1 pride and vainglory1 as said above 7see #ahed7 concerning discord4 7b7 ,the cause of that which is secondary in contention--namely1 the wrangling or bawling manner and the shouts or screams of the contenders--is anger4 #acfc4 ,the sins in act against the peace of charity are the following3 7a7 schism which is opposed to the peace of the spiritual society1 the ,church2 7b7 war1 which is opposed to international peace1 and sedition1 which is opposed to national peace2 7c7 fighting1 which is opposed to peace between individuals4 #acfd4 ,schism4--,schism 7etymologically1 a split1 rent7 is defined3 8,a voluntary separation of oneself from the unity of the ,church40 7a7 ,schism is a voluntary separation1 that is1 a separation intended for its own sake4 ,every sinner in a sense separates himself from unity1 for sin divides one from ,god 7,is41 lix4 #b72 but it is only the schismatic who expressly intends separation as such4 ,other sinners expressly intend some inordinate gratification4 ,moreover1 schism is not the same thing as the state of the unbaptized1 who have not separated themselves from unity1 or of the excommunicated1 whom the ,church herself rejected from her body on account of some sin other than schism4 7b7 ,schism is a separation from unity1 and so it differs from disbelief in unity 7heresy7 and dislike of unity 7hatred74 ,one may separate oneself from unity1 although one believes in it4 ,one may hate unity1 and yet not separate oneself from it4 ,further1 schism does not necessarily include affiliation with some schismatical body or the setting up of such a body4 7c7 ,schism is a separation of oneself from unity--that is1 schism does not deprive the ,church of the note of unity1 but separates the schismatic himself from that unity which is in the ,church4 ,the schismatic may wish to take away the unity of the ,church1 but he accomplishes only the loss of union of himself with the ,church4 7d7 ,schism is a separation from unity1 that is1 from fellowship in the mystical body of ,christ 7,i ,cor41 xii74 ,it is a refusal to recognize the authority of the head of the ,church1 or to communicate with those subject to him4 ,thus1 schism differs from disobedience to the head of the ,church or to particular prelates in the ,church1 for one may disobey orders and still recognize the authority of him who gives the orders4 7e7 ,schism is a separation from the unity of the ,church1 that is1 of the spiritual kingdom of ,christ on earth4 ,hence1 rebellion in matters purely civil against a churchman who has civil authority1 is not schism1 but is unjust war or sedition4 ,schism is possible only in the ,church ,militant1 for the members of the ,church ,suffering and the ,church ,triumphant cannot fall away from unity4 #acfe4 ,the ,principal ,schismatical ,movements4--7a7 ,in ,apostolic times there were local factions and dissensions1 though not real schisms1 at ,corinth 7,i ,cor41 i4 #aj sqq47 and in ,asia ,minor 7,,iii ,john1 i4 #aj74 7b7 ,in post-,apostolic times there have been numerous schisms1 such as that of the ,novatians at ,rome in the third century1 that of the ,meletians in ,egypt in the fourth century1 that of the ,donatists in ,africa in the fourth century1 that of the ,acacians in the ,east in the fifth century4 ,the most lamentable of all the schisms1 because of the number of those whom it led away from unity1 was the ,eastern ,schism1 begun by ,photius in the ninth century and made permanent under ,michael ,caerularius in the eleventh century4 #acff4 ,schism is voluntary in two ways3 7a7 directly1 when one intends schism itself1 wishing to separate oneself from the head or members of the ,church2 7b7 indirectly1 when one intends to do that from which schism follows4 ,thus1 a person who prefers to act as if he were not a member of the ,church rather than desist from his design of calling or presiding over an unauthorized ,council1 is guilty of schism1 even though he does not directly intend separation from the ,church4 ,his case is similar to that of one who does not wish to kill his neighbor1 and yet is determined to do something from which the neighbor's death will surely result4 #acfg4 ,there is a threefold unity of the ,church1 as follows3 7a7 unity in the theological virtues and in the ,sacraments4 ,all the faithful have the same faith1 hope1 charity1 ,sacraments1 and thus there is a unity of similarity2 7b7 unity between head and members4 ,there is but one head of the ,church1 ,christ in heaven and the ,vicar of ,christ an earth4 ,thus1 there is a unity of subordination2 7c7 unity between the members of the ,church4 ,all the faithful form but one society1 and all are parts of one great whole4 ,thus1 there is a collective unity4 #acfh4 ,the sin of schism is committed in two ways 7,canon #acbe1 n4 #b74 7a7 ,it is committed by separation from the head of the ,church on earth and the keystone of unity1 that is1 the ,pope 7,col41 ii4 #ah1 #ai74 ,the mere fact that a man is in rebellion against his bishop does not make him a schismatic1 if he continues to acknowledge subjection to the ,holy ,see4 ,but such rebellion is often the first step towards schism4 7b7 ,the sin of schism is also committed by separation from the members of the ,church4 ,thus1 one who refuses to communicate with ,catholics in matters of faith or worship1 choosing to act as an independent in those things1 is a schismatic4 #acfi4 ,rejection of a decision or command of the ,pope can happen in three ways3 7a7 ,the reason for rejecting the decision may be the thing commanded1 and not the one who gave the command1 as when a person refuses to keep a fast or make a restitution commanded by the ,pope1 because he considers it too difficult4 ,in this case the person is guilty of disobedience1 but not of schism1 even though he persists in his refusal2 for he rejects a commandment of the ,church1 not the head of the ,church4 7b7 ,the reason for rejecting the command may be the one who gave the command1 considered as a private individual4 ,as the ,pope in his personal relations is not above human weakness1 he may be swayed by hatred1 prejudice or impulsiveness in issuing commands to or forming judgments about individual subjects4 ,hence1 if we suppose that it is reasonably certain that a ,pope is unfavorable to an individual1 and that the latter accordingly is unwilling to have a case in which he is concerned fall under the immediate decision of that ,pope1 neither schism nor any other sin is committed2 for it is natural that the person should wish to protect his own interests against unfairness4 7c7 ,the reason for rejecting the ,pope's judgment may be the one who gave the command considered in his official capacity as ,pope4 ,in this case the person is guilty of schism1 since he disobeys1 not because the thing ordered is difficult or because he fears that the individual will be unjust1 but because he does not wish to recognize the authority of ,pope in him who issued the judgment4 #acgj4 ,comparison of ,heresy and ,schism4--7a7 ,these sins are not the same1 since heresy is opposed to faith1 schism to charity4 ,a person who really believes that the ,church is one in its head and its body1 may nevertheless out of pride1 hatred1 ambition1 interest1 self-sufficiency1 etc41 decide not to recognize the authority of the head1 or not to communicate with the body4 7b7 ,there is an intimate union between heresy and schism1 since every heretic separates himself from the unity of faith1 while schism is always found to adopt some heresy as a justification for its separation 7,i ,tim41 i4 #f74 ,thus1 the ,eastern ,schism soon trumped up charges of heresy against the ,church1 and history shows that schism almost invariably leads to a denial of papal primacy4 #acga4 ,the ,opposition between ,schism and ,charity4--7a7 ,charity in itself is a spiritual bond of unity between the soul and ,god1 for love is unitive4 ,one who sins against this unity by offending ,god or his neighbor1 is not thereby a schismatic1 since one may hate an individual1 for example1 without hating the ,church4 7b7 ,charity in its effect is the communion of all the faithful in one mystical body of ,christ1 for charity inspires the desire to love1 not only individuals1 but also the spiritual society formed of individuals in the entire world4 ,one who sins against the unity and peace of the ,church is a schismatic4 #acgb4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,schism4--7a7 ,schism has a special seriousness1 since it is opposed to the union and peace of mankind as a whole in the universal spiritual society which is the ,church4 ,it seems to be the greatest sin against the neighbor2 for other sins are against the individual or against the multitude in temporal things1 while this sin is against the multitude and in spiritual things4 ,scripture 7cfr4 ,i ,cor41 i4 #aj7 and ,tradition 7e4g41 ,st4 ,clement of ,rome1 ,st4 ,ignatius of ,antioch1 ,st4 ,irenaeus1 ,st4 ,cyprian1 ,st4 ,augustine7 energetically condemn the sin of schism4 7b7 ,objectively1 it is not as serious as unbelief1 since unbelief is against ,god1 schism against the neighbor2 but subjectively1 or in its consequences1 it may be greater than unbelief1 as when a schismatic sins with greater contempt than an unbeliever1 or is an occasion of more danger to others4 #acgc4 ,schism1 like heresy1 may be either formal or material 7see #hbh74 7a7 ,formal schism is that described above1 in which one wishes to separate oneself from the unity of the ,church1 and is in culpable revolt4 ,it is a mortal sin4 7b7 ,material schism is that in which one is in fact separated from the unity of the ,church1 but is in good faith4 ,an example is the ,great ,schism of the ,west 7#acgh-adag71 when there were rival claimants for the ,papacy1 and invincible ignorance among the people as to who was the true head4 ,this kind of schism is not a mortal sin4 #acgd4 ,the ,spiritual ,powers of ,schismatics4--7a7 ,the power of ,orders is not lost through schism1 for that power is conferred through a consecration1 and the consecrations of the ,church are permanent4 ,hence1 a schismatical priest can perform validly the acts that pertain to the power of ,orders1 such as the celebration of ,mass and administration of the ,sacraments2 but he does not perform those acts lawfully1 unless the ,church permits1 for the power of ,orders should not be used by an inferior except as permitted by the superior4 7b7 ,the power of jurisdiction may be lost through schism1 for that power depends on a commission received from a superior1 which may be withdrawn by him4 ,hence1 a schismatical priest deprived of jurisdiction could not absolve1 excommunicate1 grant indulgences1 or perform other acts that pertain to the power of jurisdiction4 #acge4 ,the law of the church on the powers of schismatics is as follows3 7a7 ,all schismatics incur ipso facto excommunication1 as well as various inhabilities and penalties 7,canon #bcad74 ,it is fitting that those who separate themselves should be declared outside the communion of the faithful1 and this is what ,moses commanded to be done at the time of the schism of ,core3 8,depart from the tent of these wicked men and touch nothing of theirs1 lest you be involved in their sin0 7,num41 xvi4 #bf74 7b7 ,the excommunicated are forbidden the celebration of ,mass and the active use and administration of the ,sacraments and sacramentals1 except when the faithful apply to them or when there is danger of death1 as declared in ,canon #bbfa4 7c7 ,the excommunicated are denied the power of jurisdiction except in certain cases where the ,church grants it for the sake of the common good4 ,thus1 they may give absolution in danger of death 7,canon #hhb71 or in common error 7,canon #bji71 or at request1 if they are not vitandi or sentenced 7,canon #bbfa74 ,it is the teaching of learned authorities that the ,roman ,church for the good of souls has allowed ecclesiastical jurisdiction to remain in the schismatic ,oriental ,churches for the conferring of the ,sacraments4 #acgf4 ,war4--,war is defined as a state of conflict between two or more sovereign nations carried on by force of arms4 7a7 ,it is a state of conflict1 and so differs from passing conflicts1 such as battles1 skirmishes1 campaigns4 ,the enemy in war is not only those with whom one is actually fighting1 but all those who side with them1 as counsellors1 helpers1 etc4 7b7 ,war is between sovereign nations1 and so differs from civil war1 sedition1 riots1 duels4 ,moreover1 war is made by nation against nation1 not against particular individuals or groups of individuals within a nation4 7c7 ,it is carried on by force of arms1 and so differs from trade war1 rivalry in preparedness for war1 embargo1 blockade1 breach of diplomatic relations1 etc4 #acgg4 ,there are two kinds of war1 just and unjust4 7a7 ,war is just when undertaken for a right cause 7e4g41 the independence of the nation72 7b7 it is unjust when undertaken for a wrong cause 7e4g41 the enslavement of a nation74 #acgh4 ,just war is either offensive or defensive4 7a7 ,offensive war is attack made on an enemy in order to avenge an injury or enforce a right 7e4g41 invasion of the enemy's territory to obtain compensation for damages inflicted by him72 7b7 defensive war is resistance to unjust attack made or menaced by an enemy 7e4g41 war made on the invader of one's country74 #acgi4 ,just war is called defensive in two senses4 7a7 ,in the strict sense1 it is defensive when the nation whose rights are unjustly attacked does not initiate hostilities1 that is1 does not declare or begin the war4 7b7 ,in a less strict sense1 it is defensive when the nation unjustly attacked declares war or strikes the first blow4 ,thus1 if the innocent nation knew that the enemy was secretly preparing war against its independence1 it would be on the defensive1 even though it declared war4 #achj4 ,war is not against the law of ,god4 7a7 ,under the law of nature ,melchisedech blessed ,abraham returning from victory over the four kings 7,gen41 xiv4 #ah-bj74 7b7 ,under the written law1 ,god many times ordered or approved of war1 as can be seen from ,exodus and following books in numerous places4 7c7 ,under the ,new ,law1 ,john the ,baptist acknowledged the lawfulness of the soldier's profession 7,luke1 iii4 #ad71 a centurion was praised by ,christ 7,matt1 viii4 #aj71 ,acts1 x4 #b1 speaks of the officer ,cornelius as a religious man1 and ,st4 ,paul lauds warriors of the ,old ,testament such as ,gedeon1 ,barac1 ,samson1 etc4 7,heb1 xi4 #cb-cd74 ,our ,lord ,himself used physical force against evildoers 7,john1 ii4 #ad sqq474 #acha4 ,certain sayings of our ,lord--for example1 that those who take the sword shall perish by the sword 7,matt1 xxvi4 #eb71 and that one should not resist evil 7,matt1 v4 #ci7--;are not an endorsement of extreme pacifism1 but are respectively a condemnation of those who without due authority have recourse to violence1 and a counsel of perfection1 when this serves better the honor of ,god or the good of the neighbor4 ,moreover1 these words of ,christ were addressed1 not to states1 which are responsible for the welfare of their members1 but to individuals4 ,the ,quakers have done excellent service for the cause of world peace1 but their teaching that all war is contrary to the law of ,christ cannot be admitted4 ,the spirit of the ,gospel includes justice as well as love4 #achb4 ,war is not against the law of the ,church4 7a7 ,the ,church has never condemned war as such4 ,she has always labored for the promotion of peace or for the lessening of the evils of wars that could not be prevented2 but her official declarations and the writings of the ,fathers and ,doctors show that she recognized that recourse to arms by nations is not necessarily sinful4 7b7 ,the ,church has put her approval on some wars as necessary and laudable4 ,thus1 the ,crusades1 to which the salvation of ,christian civilization is due1 were promoted by the ,church2 military orders for the defense of the ,holy ,sepulchre were instituted by her1 and she has raised to the honors of the altar soldiers like ,sebastian1 ,maurice1 and ,martin of ,tours4 #achc4 ,war is not against the law of nature4 7a7 ,as the law of nature allows even a private individual to use force to drive off an unjust aggressor1 it cannot be unlawful for a nation to have recourse to defensive war when its rights are invaded4 7b7 ,as the law of nature allows the individual to seek satisfaction for injury and restitution for loss1 it cannot be unlawful for a nation to make offensive war when another nation will not make reparation1 unless compelled to it by force4 ,if physical coercion were unlawful1 a conscienceless nation would take advantage of this at the expense of other nations1 and thus a premium would be set on iniquity4 #achd4 ,like every other act1 war is not morally good1 unless its object1 its purpose and its circumstances are in accord with right4 ,war is not lawful1 therefore1 unless the three following conditions exist3 7a7 ,hostilities must be authorized by the public authority1 for the care of the ,state against internal and external disturbances has been committed to the ruler 7,rom41 xii4 #d2 ,ps4 lxxxi4 #d71 and the individual or the subject state can have recourse for protection of its rights to the higher authority4 7b7 ,there must be a just cause for war1 that is1 some fault on the side of the other nation2 for1 if a nation may not use force against its own subjects without sufficient reason1 much less may it do so against those who are not its subjects4 7c7 ,there must be a right intention1 that is1 the desire to obtain some good or to ward off some evil4 ,even if war is declared by the proper authority and there is a sufficient reason for it1 those who take part in the war are guilty of sin if they have evil motives1 such as the exercise of cruelty1 revenge1 pride1 or avarice4 ,to delight in war because one loves excitement or wishes to show one's skill or get promotion1 is not a right frame of mind4 #ache4 ,what public authority has the right to declare war8 7a7 ,ordinarily1 only the sovereign power--that is1 the person or body in whom the chief authority is vested according to the constitution of the nation--can make war4 ,war is an act of the nation1 and hence only the authority that represents the nation can make war4 ,subordinate bodies in a confederation or union of states have the right to make war1 if custom or law allows it4 7b7 ,in extraordinary circumstances1 an inferior power can authorize war1 as when war is necessary and it is impossible to await a declaration from the sovereign power4 ,thus1 if a province were suddenly invaded1 it would be lawful for the head of the province to make war on the invaders at once4 ,it seems1 indeed1 that the head of a province could justly authorize the invasion of a neighboring state1 to protect such province against aggressions1 if the central authority would do nothing2 for such a war would be really defensive4 #achf4 ,in order that the cause of war be just1 it is necessary that the enemy nation has done or now menaces an injury which cannot be repaired without war1 and which is so serious that the evils of war are less than that of toleration4 7a7 ,thus1 a serious injury or grave dishonor inflicted by another nation is the only just cause for the armed conflict which constitutes war1 for war is exercised as a punishment or a compulsion1 and these are unjust if no grave and formal fault is supposed4 7b7 ,only an injury that cannot be otherwise repaired is a just cause for war1 because a state has no right to use force against another sovereign state except as a last resort4 ,hence1 if the country at fault has already made satisfaction or has promised to make satisfaction1 war should not be declared4 7c7 ,only an injury so grave that it outweighs the risks and losses of war is a justification for making war1 for when two effects1 one good and one evil1 follow from an act1 there must be a proportionately grave reason for permitting the evil effect before acting 7see #ajd1 #aje74 ,it would be wrong to avenge some small insult or some isolated injury at the expense of immense treasure and enormous loss of life4 ,modern warfare is so devastating that only the gravest reasons known to society can authorize it4 ,for1 according to scientists1 a single ,h-bomb may cause death and destruction over a wide area1 perhaps the space of a hundred square miles4 ,in view of the havoc which is foreseen to outweigh the benefits of victory1 it could happen that a nation with justice on its side and the potential to wage war would nevertheless not be justified in waging war 7see #adaj74 ,this destructive power of modern weapons1 however1 need not imply a sweeping condemnation of all warfare4 ,spiritual values1 e4g41 freedom from tyranny1 freedom to worship ,god1 still hold primacy over material values and can be deemed so precious as to outweigh the great loss of lives and property involved in defending them or recovering them through modern warfare4 8,a people menaced by1 or already victims of unjust aggression1 if it desires to think and to act in a ,christian manner1 cannot remain in passive indifference0 7,pope ,pius ,,xii1 ,christmas ,message of #aidh74 #achg4 ,in comparing the advantages and disadvantages of war1 one should take into consideration1 not only the losses oneself will suffer1 but also the losses that will be suffered by others4 7a7 ,thus1 if the enemy nation will be ruined as the price of one's obtaining some small right1 charity would urge that one abstain from war4 7b7 ,if the world in general or posterity will suffer greater evils materially or spiritually than a nation is now suffering from the denial of some non-essential right1 charity at least should rule out a declaration of war4 #achh4 ,is there a just reason for war1 when a fault has been committed on both sides8 7a7 ,if the injuries are about equal and still in being1 there is no reason for war1 for neither nation is in a position to accuse the other of injustice4 7b7 ,if the injuries are quite unequal or one nation has shown a willingness to cease from injury1 the less guilty nation has a right to make war2 but it should first clear itself of injustice1 before it proceeds to chastise injustice in the other4 #achi4 ,sufficient causes for making war are3 7a7 grave injury to the honor of a nation1 such as insult to its ruler or ambassadors 7,,ii ,kings1 x472 7b7 injury to the natural right of the nation to existence1 self-preservation1 property1 free action within its own sphere2 thus1 a people may make war to defend their independence 7,i ,mach41 iii4 #ei71 to recover territory taken from them unjustly1 to resist a violation of neutrality 7,,ii ,kings1 viii4 #e71 to protect their own citizens and commerce2 7c7 injury to the rights of the nation under positive law4 ,thus1 a nation may make war to uphold important international agreements1 to enforce the observance of treaties1 and the like4 #acij4 ,injury done to a third nation or to the subjects of a third nation may also be a sufficient reason for war4 7a7 ,thus1 out of justice1 a nation is obliged to help its allies in a just war2 for to help those with whose interests one's own interests are involved is only self-defense4 7b7 ,out of charity1 a nation that has the right of intervention may lawfully go to war to protect a weaker nation against a stronger and bullying nation1 to assist a government unjustly attacked by its subjects1 or to help innocent subjects who are tyrannized over by their government4 #acia4 ,is it lawful to go to war over religion or morality8 7a7 ,error in the religion or immorality in the practices of another people is not a sufficient reason for making war on them4 ,no one can be forced to believe1 says ,st4 ,augustine2 and it is likewise true that no one can be forced to love virtue1 whereas external conformity without conviction or love is hypocritical4 ,moreover1 a nation has no authority to correct the sins of those not subject to it4 ,hence1 it would not be right to attack a people for the sole reason that it was pagan or polygamous4 7b7 ,interference1 however1 with the religious rights of others or sinful practices that are injurious to others are a sufficient reason for war4 ,no war ever had a more legitimate cause than the ,crusades1 which were undertaken to defend the ,christian religion against the unspeakable atrocities of infidels4 ,the cause of humanity justifies a war to put an end to such evils as cannibalism or human sacrifice4 #acib4 ,is it lawful to make war on another nation in order to bring to it the benefits of modern civilization8 7a7 ,if the uncivilized nation lacks a government and suffers from disorder1 it is an act of charity for a civilized nation to set up a government there which will act for the benefit of the people of the country4 ,it is also lawful to make war on those who resist the government thus established4 7b7 ,if the uncivilized nation has its own orderly form of government and is at peace1 no other nation has the right to interfere under pretext of introducing a higher type of government4 ,colonial expansion is not a sufficient reason for war in such circumstances4 #acic4 ,the following causes for war are not sufficient3 7a7 ,motives clearly sinful are such as do not suppose any injury done by the other nation1 but rather some evil passion of pride1 greed1 jealousy1 suspicion1 or selfishness on one's own side4 ,hence1 it is not lawful to go to war for the glory of a ruler or of the nation1 for the enlargement of one's territory1 for the advantage that may be gained over a commercial rival1 for the preservation of the balance of power1 or for the prevention of difficulties at home4 7b7 ,motives apparently just1 but really sinful1 are injuries done by another1 if one has secretly provoked them in order to have a pretext for war4 ,it is not right to make war on a people because of attacks made by their citizens1 if these attacks were purposely caused by one's own citizens4 7c7 ,motives of displeasure with another nation are not sufficient as motives for war1 if the other nation has violated no right of justice1 but only acted in a way not consonant with charity or friendship4 ,thus1 the fact that one nation denies another financial assistance or the tariff advantages granted to a third nation is not a casus belli2 for in matters of benevolence or privilege there is no strict claim or title1 and hence no right to have recourse to arms4 #acid4 ,is war lawful when the justice of the cause is doubtful8 7a7 ,the government may not declare war1 unless it is morally certain that right is on its side4 ,the consequences of war are so dreadful1 and the use of force against another nation is such an extreme measure1 that one should refrain from hostilities as long as one's moral right is uncertain4 7b7 ,volunteers not already enlisted may not offer their services to a belligerent1 unless they are morally certain that his cause is just4 ,they participate in war from choice1 and they should assure themselves that their choice is correct4 7c7 ,subjects called to the colors should fight for their country1 even if they are in doubt about the justice of the cause1 for the presumption is on the side of the government4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that one should be willing to fight for one's country1 right or wrong4 nor that one would be obliged to fight for a cause manifestly unjust1 or to obey an order flagrantly wrong4 #acie4 ,what is the meaning of 8moral certitude0 in the previous paragraph8 7a7 ,some moralists believe that a high degree of probability of the righteousness of his cause suffices in order that a ruler may take steps towards war4 7b7 ,the greater number of moralists1 however1 hold that no degree of probability suffices4 ,the justifying reasons must be clearer than day1 and the state which goes to war must not entertain a single doubt that its cause is right4 ,this opinion we prefer2 for1 if a jury may not sentence an accused to death as long as there is a reasonable doubt of his innocence1 neither ought a nation to pass what is really a death sentence on hundreds or thousands of citizens as long as there exists a doubt of a compelling reason for such a course4 ,it should1 however1 be observed that a ruler who has only probable evidence that an injury has been done already1 may have certainty that it will be done1 if it is not prevented by war4 #acif4 ,is it possible that the cause of war should be just on both sides8 7a7 ,materially or objectively1 the cause of war is just only on one side1 for1 if one nation has the right to demand satisfaction or restitution1 manifestly the other nation has no right to refuse or resist4 7b7 ,formally or subjectively1 the cause of war is just only on one side1 if the facts and obligations are known to both disputants1 for the nation that knows the right of the other side and yet opposes it1 does not act in good faith4 7c7 ,formally or subjectively1 the cause of war is just on both sides1 if the nation that is objectively in the wrong is subjectively persuaded that it is in the right4 ,and1 even though a government is in bad faith1 its people as a rule will be in good faith as a result of not understanding the facts or merits of the controversy4 #acig4 ,it is possible that there should be objective justice and injustice on the same side4 7a7 ,thus1 the side which is just as regards the cause of the war1 may be unjust in its conduct of the war on account of the unlawful means it employs to win1 or its continuation of a hopeless struggle4 7b7 ,the side which was just as regards the original cause of the war1 may be unjust as regards a new cause that appears4 ,thus1 a nation which goes to war to regain a lost territory1 but which continues to fight for the sake of conquest after the legitimate end has been achieved1 contends for a just cause at the beginning1 but for an unjust cause later on4 7c7 ,the side whose grounds are justifiable from the immediate point of view may be in the wrong if causes are traced farther back4 #acih4 ,what are the duties before the beginning of war1 according to natural law8 7a7 ,examination of the ,cause of ,war4--,it is clear that those charged with the declaration of war are bound to examine diligently and prayerfully into the dispute1 weighing the reasons on both sides1 and asking light from on high4 ,to this end they should seek the counsel1 not of a few1 but of many--not merely among those who are experts in the diplomatic1 legal1 economic1 and military aspects of the question1 but also among those who will look at the matter from its ethical side and who are guided by fairness and justice4 ,since it is the people who have to bear the burdens of war1 it seems that many wars in the past would have been prevented1 had the wishes of the people been consulted4 7b7 ,judgment about the ,merits of the ,controversy4--,it is also clear that those who have to decide for war or peace should be impartial in their judgment4 ,hence1 they have to be on their guard against jingoism1 yellow journalism1 and war interests1 as well as against the pacifist or the favorer of a foreign country at the expense of his own4 ,they should not proceed to offensive war1 if their cause remains doubtful1 unless the other side provokes war by refusing peaceful settlement2 but1 if they are in possession1 they have the right to make defensive war4 7c7 ,judgment about the ,feasibility of ,war4--,prudence demands that1 even when a nation is convinced that it has a just cause to make war1 it should nevertheless refrain from this1 unless it has a well-grounded expectation that war will improve matters 7,luke1 xiv4 #ca1 #cb74 ,statesmen who plunge their people into adventures whose end they cannot at all foresee1 are criminals4 7d7 ,efforts at ,peaceful ,solution4--,even if the cause is just and the war feasible1 hostilities should not be resorted to except as a last means4 ,hence1 pacific means--such as direct negotiation1 mediation1 arbitration1 judicial settlement1 or pressure through trade embargoes1 boycotts1 breach of diplomatic intercourse1 etc4--should be tried in the first place4 #acii4 ,the ,chief ,duties before ,beginning ,war1 ,according to ,international ,law4--7a7 ,before war is declared1 an ultimatum should be issued to the other nation1 offering it final terms and a last opportunity to make apology or satisfaction4 7b7 ,foreigners who are in one's territory should be given an opportunity to settle their affairs and leave the country within a reasonable time4 7c7 ,ambassadors and other representatives of the enemy should be provided with passports4 #adjj4 ,in itself1 as said above 7see #achj sqq471 war is not unlawful4 ,but in the light of the conditions required for a just war and of circumstances as they are today1 can war at the present time be ever justifiable8 7a7 ,if the supreme interests of a nation are at stake 7such as its independence1 the policies or interests vital to its existence1 its obligations under covenant or treaty of peace71 war can still be lawful today1 for a nation cannot surrender its right to self-defense1 or betray its solemn engagements of cooperative defense4 7b7 ,if less than supreme interests are at stake1 war today seems unjustifiable1 for what proportion is there between the minor interests of a single or several nations and the enormous destruction of modern war and the dislocation of international security8 ,efforts of statesmen to secure a world pact1 outlawing or renouncing war as a means of national policy1 indicates progress for this view4 #adja4 ,what are the duties during war8 7a7 ,one should use every lawful means1 according to one's position1 to secure victory for one's country4 ,fighting to gain only a 8stalemate10 in itself1 is immoral4 7b7 ,one should avoid such means as are opposed to natural or international law4 #adjb4 ,it is not true that all is fair in war1 for even a just cause cannot sanction unjust means4 ,the commandments of ,god and the laws of nations retain their force even amid the clash of arms4 ,examples of acts of war that are unlawful1 as being opposed to the natural law are the following3 7a7 acts of irreligion1 such as wanton destruction of churches or monasteries2 7b7 attempts to seduce enemy soldiers from the obedience or loyalty owed their commanders2 7c7 murder1 that is1 the direct killing of innocent and unarmed persons1 as when one refuses quarter to soldiers who wish to surrender1 fires on an officer bearing a flag of truce1 sinks passenger ships not engaged on errands of war1 massacres the civil population by raids from the air1 places a defenceless population at the mercy of savages or criminals employed as soldiers2 7d7 the dishonoring of women1 the establishment of brothels for soldiers2 7e7 stealing1 such as the unauthorized pillage of a town or countryside2 7f7 lying1 such as breaking treaties1 not keeping faith with the foe1 entering into perjured agreements1 circulating false stories of atrocities1 forging of documents1 etc4 #adjc4 ,just war is resistance to unjust aggression1 and so the same means are lawful in warfare as are lawful in private aggression4 7a7 ,thus1 the means used against an aggressor must not be evil in themselves1 as when a person protects himself against a murderer by making an innocent person a shield4 ,hence1 in war one may not use any means that is opposed to the law of ,god1 or to human contracts or other obligations4 7b7 ,the means employed must be such as are really necessary for overpowering the aggressor4 ,thus1 it is not lawful to kill a burglar when wounding him will suffice for the protection of one's property4 ,likewise1 in war it is not lawful to exterminate or depopulate an enemy1 if the end of war can be attained by depriving the enemy of his weapons4 #adjd4 ,the principal classes of acts of war from the moral standpoint are3 7a7 acts in which violence is done to things connected with religion2 7b7 acts of violence against persons2 7c7 acts of violence against property2 7d7 acts used to conceal truth4 #adje4 ,acts of ,war and ,sacred ,times4--7a7 ,it is lawful to carry on warfare1 offensively or defensively1 on feasts1 when this is necessary1 just as it is lawful to do servile work on those days in case of necessity 7,i ,mach41 ii4 #da2 ,john1 vii4 #bc74 7b7 ,but if a suspension of hostilities can be arranged for feast days 7especially for the greater ones1 such as ,christmas and ,easter71 warfare should be discontinued at those times4 #adjf4 ,acts of ,war and ,sacred ,places4--7a7 ,it is lawful to attack a church building1 if it is certainly being used for military purposes4 ,it is also lawful to attack fortifications1 and thus unintentionally to harm adjacent church buildings4 7b7 ,it is not lawful1 apart from these reasons of real military necessity1 to injure sacred places or edifices4 #adjg4 ,acts of ,war and ,sacred ,persons4--7a7 ,it is lawful for clerics to cooperate in a just war in spiritual ways1 as by exhortations1 prayers1 and religious ministrations4 ,moses prayed for the armies of ,israel during battle 7,exod41 xvii4 #h sqq471 the priests accompanied ,josue around the wall of ,jericho 7,jos41 vi4 #d71 and ,st4 ,bernard and other holy men preached crusades4 7b7 ,it is not lawful1 apart from necessity 7as in case of conscription71 for clerics to take part in actual fighting4 ,warfare is unbecoming in a cleric1 because he is enrolled for a spiritual warfare 7,,ii ,tim41 ii4 #d71 and because his leader1 ,christ1 shed ,his own blood1 not that of others 7,matt1 xxvi4 #eb74 ,hence1 the ,church forbids clerics to volunteer as soldiers 7,canon #ada74 #adjh4 ,the persons to whom violence is done during war are3 7a7 ,combatants1 that is1 all those who are engaged in the actual promotion of the war4 ,direct combatants are the fighters1 such as the officers and privates of army1 navy1 and air force2 indirect combatants are the unarmed auxiliaries of the soldiers in military ways1 such as makers of munition1 transporters of supplies1 and those in the communication service4 7b7 ,non-combatants are enemy subjects who are neither fighters nor auxiliaries of the armed forces1 such as chaplains and members of the medical service in the army1 persons in civil life and occupation1 old men1 women1 and children4 7c7 ,neutrals are those who are not subject to either of the warring contenders1 and who take no part in the hostilities1 although they may sympathize with one side4 #adji4 ,the ,killing or ,wounding of ,enemy ,combatants4--7a7 ,according to natural law1 it is lawful to kill or wound the enemy in battle1 or to starve him by blockade1 just as it is lawful in self-defense to kill or wound an unjust aggressor4 7b7 ,according to international law1 it was expressly forbidden to attack in ways that make war more cruel without hastening the decision4 #adaj4 ,the ,killing or ,wounding of ,non-,combatants4--7a7 ,the indirect killing of non-combatants 7i4e41 killing which is unintentional and unavoidable7 is lawful1 according to the rules given for double effect 7see #ajc1 #ajd74 ,hence1 it is lawful to bombard the fortifications1 arsenals1 munition works1 and barracks of a town1 to sink passenger liners that are carrying arms or stores to the enemy1 to cut off food supplies from a town or country in order to starve out its troops1 although these measures will entail the deaths of some civilians as well as of combatants4 ,humanity requires1 however1 that an effort be made to spare the non-combatants1 when possible1 as by serving warning of attack1 so that they may be removed to safety4 ,when it is a question1 however1 of the use of modern weapons 7the atom1 hydrogen or cobalt bombs7 on military targets in the vicinity of large cities1 where it is foreseen that many thousands of civilians will be killed or severely wounded1 then the principle of double effect seems to rule out the lawfulness of using such devastating weapons4 ,the immediate evil effect1 the slaughter of the innocents1 could hardly be called incidental and only reluctantly permitted4 ,concretely1 the inevitable results of the use of such weapons would have to be intended directly1 if not as an end1 at least as a means4 7b7 ,the direct killing of non-combatants 7i4e41 killing which is intentional7 is unlawful and constitutes the sin of murder4 ,obliteration bombing1 the dropping of ,h-bombs or atom bombs on a residential section of a city containing no military objectives1 are of this character2 for they are attacks on civilians4 ,it can not be argued that such an attack would probably break down the morale of the citizens to such an extent that they would force their rulers to make peace and so save many thousands of lives4 ,for this argument is based on the principle that a good end justifies evil means4 ,occasionally it is argued that modern 8total0 warfare demands that all citizens contribute to the war effort and that consequently everyone is a combatant4 ,the argument can hardly be sustained1 for ,catholic doctrine insists that those whose participation is only remote and accidental are not to be classified as combatants4 ,in a well-documented article on 8,the ,morality of ,obliteration ,bombing10 by ,john ,c4 ,ford1 ,s4,j4 7,theological ,studies1 ,v1 #aidd1 pp4 #bfa-cji71 the validity of the distinction between combatants and innocent non-combatants1 even in the condition of modern war1 is upheld4 ,fr4 ,ford shows that in an industrial city1 as found in the ,united ,states1 three-fourths of the population belong to the non-combatant category1 and he lists more than a hundred trades or professions which1 according to the natural law1 exclude their members from the category of combatants4 ,direct attacks on such a population clearly would constitute unjustifiable killing or wounding of non-combatants4 #adaa4 ,the ,sentence of ,death for ,military ,crimes4--7a7 ,it is lawful to sentence to death persons guilty of international crime1 such as those who approach when warned to halt1 civilians who fire on the troops1 guerrillas1 pirates1 spies and deserters4 7b7 ,it is not lawful to sentence to death persons not guilty of international crime4 ,thus1 a private soldier should not be executed because under orders he killed a non-combatant2 a hostage1 not guilty of any capital crime1 should not be put to death1 because his fellow-citizens for whom he is held rebel or break faith4 #adab4 ,imprisonment and ,restraint4--7a7 ,combatants may be made prisoners of war1 non-combatants are subject to the restrictions of military rules when their territory is occupied1 and in very exceptional cases they may be transported behind their enemy's lines4 7b7 ,prisoners of war and inhabitants of occupied territory are to be treated as human beings1 but not better than the soldiers of one's own army4 ,they may not be reduced to slavery1 held as hostages1 tortured or starved to death1 or placed in front trenches as a shield to one's own forces4 #adac4 ,the ,destruction or ,seizure of ,property ,during ,war4--7a7 ,the military property of the enemy nation or of its subjects may be confiscated or destroyed1 just as an individual has the right to destroy the weapon of an unjust aggressor4 ,hence1 a commander may demolish fortifications1 war factories1 airships1 warships1 weapons and artillery2 he may cut off or seize supplies and provisions of money1 food or drink4 7b7 ,the public1 non-military property of the enemy may be occupied by a successful invader4 ,he may appropriate movable goods 7works of art and some others are excepted by international law71 and he may use immovable goods 7public places of worship1 museums1 etc41 are excepted by law74 7c7 ,as to private property of enemy subjects on land1 international law requires that immovables generally be respected1 and movables can be seized only for some necessary purpose of war4 ,requisitions and contributions may be exacted and soldiers may be billeted in the homes of citizens1 but only so much may be levied as is needed for army maintenance and civil administration1 and compensation must be made1 or a receipt be given for future compensation4 ,war is made1 not against private persons1 but against the state4 7d7 ,as to private property on sea1 the usage has been that the merchant ships of the enemy may be captured and made a lawful prize4 7e7 ,the property of neutrals on land must not be molested1 unless it is not really neutral1 as when it is being used by the enemy4 ,as regards the ships and shipping of neutrals on the high seas1 they are not up to the present protected by international agreement4 ,rather the naval powers are divided between the theories of command of the seas and freedom of the seas4 ,thus1 ,great ,britain claims the right to search1 seize and hold the vessels or cargoes of neutrals who carry contraband or attempt to trade with the enemy in the face of a blockade4 #adad4 ,it is an axiom that booty taken in war belongs1 not to the private soldiers1 but to their government4 ,hence1 the question arises3 ,are private soldiers1 who take the goods of citizens without authorization from their officers1 bound to make restitution8 7a7 ,if they take what is necessary for their own sustenance1 they act against military discipline1 but not against justice1 and are not bound to restore4 7b7 ,if they take other things1 they are bound to restore1 since international agreements make this a duty of justice4 ,but1 if neither of the belligerents observed this agreement1 the obligation of restitution cannot be insisted on as grave4 #adae4 ,is it lawful to give over a city to be looted by the soldiery8 7a7 ,in ancient times1 this was sometimes permissible1 as when compensation and victory in a just war was otherwise impossible4 7b7 ,in modern times and according to present international law1 looting is strictly forbidden4 ,violation of agreements by city heads gives no right to attack the property of the citizens who are not responsible1 and valiant defense of the city by its troops does not forfeit the rights of the inhabitants to their goods4 #adaf4 ,stratagems in ,war4--7a7 ,it is lawful to use various artifices for concealing one's plans from the enemy1 such as camouflage1 smoke screens1 censored reports of engagements1 etc4 ,thus1 ,josue by command of the ,lord prepared an ambush for the citizens of ,hai 7,jos41 viii4 #b74 7b7 ,it is lawful also to conceal one's identity by wearing the uniforms of the enemy in order to obtain information about his plans4 ,the ,lord commanded ,moses to send out men to spy on the land of ,chanaan 7,num41 xiii4 #a74 ,while it is not lawful to tell or signify untruth1 it is lawful to conceal the truth from those who have no right to know it4 #adag4 ,reprisals are acts of retaliation by which one replies to unlawful aggressions of the enemy by equivalent aggressions against him4 ,their morality depends on circumstances4 7a7 ,thus1 if the act of the enemy is opposed only to international law1 it is not unlawful to use the same act against him1 for1 since he has broken faith1 the treaty obligation no longer binds the other side4 ,for example1 if the enemy1 contrary to agreement1 uses poison gas in warfare1 it is lawful to use poison gas against him4 ,reprisals should not be made1 however1 without authorization from the proper authority4 7b7 ,if the act of the enemy is opposed to natural law1 it is not permissible to retaliate by the same kind of acts4 ,two wrongs do not make a right4 ,but one may retaliate in lawful ways1 or else issue a protest and await compensation at the conclusion of the war4 ,thus1 if the enemy murders the civil population1 this does not justify one in murdering enemy citizens who are in one's power4 #adah4 ,duties of the ,nation ,victorious in ,war4--7a7 ,the victorious nation must not prolong the war after victory has been gained1 or after the enemy has sued in good faith for peace or armistice4 7b7 ,it must not exact from the defeated foe more than it has a just right to4 #adai4 ,the ,rights of the ,victor4--7a7 ,if the cause of the victorious nation was unjust1 its victory gives it no claim1 for might does not make right4 ,on the contrary1 it may be obliged to make restitution to the defeated nation for the losses it has suffered4 7b7 ,if the cause of the victor was just1 the victorious nation has a claim to three things3 7i7 to the satisfaction or restitution for the sake of which the war was undertaken2 7ii7 to compensation for damages caused by the enemy during the war1 and 7iii7 to guarantees against a recurrence of the former injury4 ,supervision of peace treaties by an impartial tribunal has much to recommend it1 since victors are prone to disregard charity and justice when treating with a conquered foe1 and to extort from him forced agreements4 #adbj4 ,the ,obligation of a ,victor ,whose ,cause was ,unjust4--7a7 ,if the victorious nation fought in good faith1 and only later perceived the injustice of its cause1 it is bound to restore only those things which it has not consumed1 and which make it better off than it was before the war4 7b7 ,if it fought in bad faith1 it should restore all4 ,victory does not prove that one was right1 but only that one was stronger4 ,it does not make a bad cause good4 #adba4 ,the ,obligation of a ,victor ,who ,fought ,without ,due ,authorization1 or with a ,wrong ,purpose4--7a7 ,soldiers who inflict damage on the enemy against the orders of the commanders 7e4g41 by burning dwellings1 robbing private citizens1 murdering1 etc471 are obliged to restitution for those injuries1 for such acts are not war1 but brigandage4 7b7 ,soldiers who fight with a wrong motive 7e4g41 out of hatred71 are not obliged to restitution1 since they have not committed injustice2 for similarly a judge1 who sentences a convicted criminal1 sins if his motive is hate1 but he is not held to restitution4 #adbb4 ,what ,indemnity may be ,imposed on the ,vanquished8--7a7 ,according to justice1 one may exact compensation for the losses and expenses one has sustained on account of war1 since the enemy is responsible for these4 7b7 ,according to charity1 one may be obliged to relinquish part of what is owed1 or to grant easier terms of payment1 or to cancel a debt1 as when the enemy is greatly impoverished1 or cannot easily pay at present4 #adbc4 ,in cases of doubt1 as when counter claims are made and neither party is entirely victorious1 or when a vanquished nation denies its ability to pay what is demanded1 recourse may be had to other ways of settlement4 7a7 ,thus1 in the former case a compromise or mutual condonation of claims1 especially if both sides are exhausted by the war1 seems the reasonable solution4 7b7 ,in the latter case submission to an impartial tribunal of arbitration would benefit the victors as well as the vanquished1 since in the long run it is not to the advantage of the former that the latter be deprived of its goods and productivity4 #adbd4 ,guarantees for the ,future4--7a7 ,one may insist on such guarantees as will insure against a probable renewal of the offense committed by the conquered nation4 ,hence1 one may require that it destroy or deliver over fortifications and munition plants1 sink warships1 reduce its military force1 punish certain individuals1 or depose certain rulers4 7b7 ,one may not insist on such guarantees as will make a renewal of war by the enemy1 now or in the future1 absolutely impossible4 ,as said above1 a nation has the right to go to war to defend itself against aggression1 but it has no right to work at destroying equality or competition on the part of other nations4 ,hence1 it is not lawful to demand that the conquered nation surrender its independence or the management of its affairs1 or that one be allowed to annex all the territory taken during war1 if one's rights or reasonable security does not require these conditions4 ,subjugation or temporary occupation are lawful1 however1 if there is no other way of obtaining redress or securities4 #adbe4 ,punishment of ,enemy ,soldiers for ,crimes ,committed during ,war4--7a7 ,special crimes committed during war 7e4g41 massacres of non-combatants7 may be punished1 but the punishment should be visited on those responsible1 not on those who merely executed orders4 7b7 ,the crime of the war itself should not be revenged on private soldiers1 for it is unjust to punish subjects for the madness of their officers and rulers4 ,as to the latter1 moral guilt is not easily established4 ,the ,nurenberg trials held commanders and high officers responsible for crimes against humanity1 and not without precedent4 #adbf4 ,preparation for ,future ,wars4--7a7 ,reasonable preparedness is not only lawful1 but a duty of the state to its own people4 ,a nation should have such a military establishment or such alliances as will safeguard its right against probable attack4 7b7 ,unreasonable preparedness is unlawful since it burdens the people and prepares the way for war4 ,examples of unreasonable preparations3 maintenance of an army or navy far in excess of those nations of similar rank2 oppressive military expenses or burdens2 maneuvers offensive to other governments or too dangerous for the troops engaged2 ruinous competition in armaments4 #adbg4 ,preparation for peace or against war is a duty no less obligatory than preparation for defensive war4 ,two chief ways of preparing for peace3 7a7 will for peace2 7b7 work for peace4 7a7 ,the will for peace is promoted when the nations educate their people to a realization of the brotherhood of man1 of the wrongfulness and folly of a narrow nationalism1 of the sinfulness of war which has not all the conditions of a just war in its favor4 ,without the will for peace1 conferences and treaties will effect little4 7b7 ,work for peace is done by all who give their service to practical plans for the prevention of war and the preservation of lasting world amity4 ,among these plans are agreements among nations to substitute moral right for material force1 to abolish conscription and armaments1 to establish international tribunals1 associations and world courts1 to make arbitration of disputes among themselves compulsory1 to codify international law4 ,history bears witness to the many and great services to humanity which the ,popes have rendered by acting as arbiters between nations that were on the point of war4 ,if jealousies prevent agreement among governments1 the peoples of the world should nevertheless continue to work for peace and by constitutional means make their wishes prevail among the governments4 ,with the ,church we should pray3 8,from pestilence1 famine and war1 deliver us1 ,o ,lord40 #adbh4 ,fighting4--,fighting is an angry conflict between two or more persons carried on by means of physical violence4 7a7 ,thus1 it is an angry conflict1 and so differs from contests of strength or skill made for the sake of sport1 amusement1 recreation1 health1 exercise and training4 ,hence1 wrestling and boxing matches1 football games1 fencing and similar athletic contests1 in which fair play and a sportsmanlike spirit prevail1 are not fighting as here understood4 ,similarly1 the tournaments of the medieval knights were sports or spectacles1 rather than fights4 7b7 ,it is a conflict1 and so differs from punishment inflicted by lawful authority1 as when a police officer uses his club to prevent a crime1 a parent or teacher chastises insubordinate children1 or a sober man scuffles with an inebriate to take away his flask or with a lunatic to deprive him of a weapon4 7c7 ,it is a conflict between two or more individuals1 and so differs from war and sedition1 which are conflicts between nations or parts of a multitude4 7d7 ,it is conducted by means of physical violence1 that is by the infliction of bodily injuries or harm4 ,thus1 fighting differs from quarreling1 which is a dispute in words4 ,it makes no difference whether the attack be made by fists1 fingernails or teeth1 or by weapons or missiles1 or whether the bodily harm be direct 7e4g41 a blackened eye7 or indirect 7e4g41 a hat knocked off the head74 #adbi4 ,kinds of ,fighting4--7a7 ,as to its origin1 fighting is provoked or unprovoked1 according as one who fights is attacking another or defending himself against attack4 7b7 ,as to its manner1 it is an ordinary fight or a duel1 according as it takes place without or with previous arrangement and stipulated conditions4 7c7 ,as to its eject1 the civil law distinguishes between assault and battery4 ,assault is a show of violence against the person of another1 as when one lifts one's fist or cane in a threatening manner to put another in fear of bodily harm4 ,battery is the actual infliction of personal violence1 as when one strikes1 pushes1 scratches1 bites1 or spits on another4 #adcj4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,fighting4--7a7 ,unprovoked fighting is from its nature a mortal sin4 ,it is classed among the works of the flesh that exclude from the kingdom of heaven 7,gal1 v4 #bj1 #ba71 and it is essentially opposed to the charity owed to a neighbor4 ,it is frequently only a venial sin1 either because the act is not entirely deliberate1 as when one fights in sudden anger1 or because the violence is of a trifling kind1 as when school-children pull one another's hair or throw snowballs4 7b7 ,fighting under provocation is no sin at all1 when one intends only to defend one's rights and does not go beyond what is necessary for lawful defence1 as when one struggles with a burglar who is trying to enter one's house1 and pushes him through the door4 ,it is a venial sin1 when the person who is resisting aggression acts with some slight degree of hate or revengefulness1 or inflicts a little more injury than is really necessary4 ,it is a mortal sin1 when the person who was attacked fights in a spirit of hate and revenge1 or deliberately and needlessly seeks to kill or seriously maim the adversary4 #adca4 ,causes of ,fighting4--,the remedy of sinful fighting is the removal of its causes4 ,the sources of fighting are proximate and remote4 7a7 ,the immediate cause is anger4 ,the angry man provokes fights 7,prov41 xv4 #ah1 xxix4 #bb71 for anger1 being a desire of revenge1 is not content to injure another secretly1 but wishes to punish him--that is1 to injure him in such a ,way that he will know he is being punished and will feel grief on that account4 ,anger also blinds one to the foolishness of one's actions1 and so leads one precipitately into quarrels and fights 7,prov41 xviii4 #f74 7b7 ,the remote cause of fighting is an inordinate desire of temporal things1 such as wealth1 power1 ease3 8,why are there wars and disputes among you8 ,is it not because of the desires that war among your members80 7,james1 iv4 #a74 ,those who are overmuch concerned with their own interests1 easily take offense at what they consider slights or insults or opposition1 their rage bursts forth1 and they proceed at once to visit revenge on those at whom they are offended4 ,it was greed and envy that caused the herdsmen of ,palestine to fill up the wells dug by ,isaac and to fight with his servants for possession 7,gen41 xxvi4 #ad sqq474 #adcb4 ,hatred and ,fighting4--7a7 ,hatred is not necessarily a cause of fighting4 ,the hater wishes evil to his neighbor1 not as punishment1 but absolutely2 his passion is calmer1 more lasting1 and more insatiable than that of the angry man4 ,if it suits him1 he will bide his time patiently1 pretending friendship1 but all the while plotting ruin to the one he hates4 7b7 ,hatred at times does bring on fighting1 for1 if the hater sees that he can safely attack openly1 he will use quarreling and fighting as a means to his purpose4 #adcc4 ,occasions that ,frequently ,bring ,on ,fighting4--7a7 ,boasting about self or depreciation of others in the presence of persons who will take offense occasions fights1 for 8he that boasteth and puffeth himself up stirreth up quarrels0 7,prov41 xxviii4 #be74 ,thus1 disputes over the respective merits of nations or political parties often bring on bloody encounters4 7b7 ,drunkenness occasions fights1 for it so stupefies the mind that one minimizes one's danger and exaggerates one's own strength1 and so is emboldened to attack others 7,prov41 xxiii4 #bi1 #cj74 #adcd4 ,evil ,consequences of ,fighting4--7a7 ,charity is wounded by fighting1 wherefrom there often result lasting hates1 discords1 scandals4 7b7 ,justice is wounded by fighting1 as when a person unjustly maims or kills his neighbor1 and is himself imprisoned or executed1 to the disgrace and deprivation of his dependents4 #adce4 ,duelling4--,a duel is a prearranged combat between two persons fought with deadly weapons1 for the purpose of settling a private quarrel4 7a7 ,thus1 it is a combat1 and hence the 8suicide duel10 in which the contenders draw lots with the understanding that the loser must kill himself within a specified time1 is not properly a duel4 7b7 ,a duel is prearranged1 that is1 the time1 place1 and weapons are determined in advance4 ,hence1 if two feudists meet accidentally and proceed at once to shoot1 their combat is not strictly a duel4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 that a formal letter of challenge and a letter of acceptance precede the fight4 7c7 ,it is between two persons1 that is1 a determinate combatant is matched against a determinate opponent4 ,a true duel1 however1 might be carried on between many couples simultaneously1 as in the fight between the twelve soldiers of ,abner and the twelve soldiers of ,joab 7,,ii ,kings1 ii4 #ac-ag74 ,the presence of seconds or witnesses is not essential to a duel4 7d7 ,a duel is fought with deadly weapons1 that is1 with such arms as are capable of inflicting severe wounds1 so that there is serious danger of grave wound or mutilation or death4 ,there is no duel1 therefore1 if one fights with weapons that cannot do serious harm 7such as fists1 light sticks1 mud71 or if by agreement one uses dangerous weapons in a way that precludes injury 7e4g41 by padding the edge of one's sword1 loading one's revolver with blanks1 firing into the air1 as in sham or mock duels74 ,but academic duels1 in which students try to stab each other in the face with small daggers1 are true duels2 for1 while the fighters are well protected in vital parts and serious or fatal wounds rarely happen1 it remains true that this manner of fighting is mortally dangerous4 ,the same remark applies to duels fought on condition that only one or two rounds of shots shall be fired1 or that fighting shall cease as soon as blood has been drawn4 7e7 ,a duel is fought for the purpose of settling a private quarrel4 ,a hand-to-hand combat during battle between two soldiers of contending armies is not a duel in the proper sense of the word1 since there is no private quarrel between them1 but only the public quarrel of their countries4 #adcf4 ,the ,morality of ,duelling4--7a7 ,generally1 the duel is mortally sinful4 ,like ordinary fighting1 it is against charity1 and in addition it includes a will to kill or gravely injure another1 to expose one's own life or limb to chance1 and to usurp the function of the ,state4 ,this applies to the challenged as well as to the challenger1 for one can decline the combat to which one is dared4 7b7 ,exceptionally1 a duel would not be sinful1 if it took on the character of a war1 or of self-defense against an unjust aggressor4 ,thus1 in order to shorten a war or to lessen the bloodshed1 it might be lawful to make the whole issue depend on a single combat between the commanders or between champions chosen from opposing armies1 as in the case of ,david and ,goliath 7,i ,kings1 xvii72 but in modern times such a practice has been abandoned4 ,again1 if a person had to choose between certain death1 if he refused a duel1 and possible death1 if he consented to a duel1 it would seem that he is in the position of one attacked by an unjust aggressor2 but it is not easy to picture such a case as happening in normal conditions4 #adcg4 ,the ,fallacy of the ,arguments for ,duelling4--7a7 ,the amusement of the spectators was the purpose of the gladiatorial duels fought in ancient ,rome4 ,but today there is no one who would not grant that the butchering of human beings to make a holiday for the populace is savagery4 7b7 ,the decision of doubtful cases before the courts was the purpose of the judicial duels fought among the ,germans and ,lombards in the early ,middle ,ages4 ,but manifestly such duels are a temptation of ,god1 since they rashly call on ,him to disclose1 through a duel between the litigants1 what the evidence in court did not disclose4 ,the outcome of the duel shows which party is stronger or more skilful1 not which is in the right4 7c7 ,training in bravery and the termination of serious differences is the excuse offered for military and university duels4 ,but to kill1 cripple1 or brutalize youth does not make the nation stronger1 and the substitution of violence for law as a means of settling disputes is an encouragement to crime4 7d7 ,satisfaction for insults or other injury1 or the avoidance of the reputation of being a coward1 is the reason given for so-called affairs of honor4 ,but is it not a superstition and a relic of barbarism to think that dishonor is wiped out by a dishonorable fight1 or that a person shows himself brave because he lacks the moral bravery to act against the wrong opinions of the multitude8 #adch4 ,penalties against ,duelling4--7a7 ,church law deprives of ecclesiastical burial those who die as the result of a duel1 if unrepentant 7,canon #abdj72 it also declares excommunication reserved simply to the ,holy ,see and infamy against duellists and their helpers 7,canon #bcea74 7b7 ,civil law in ,english-speaking countries makes duelling a crime4 ,if death results1 it is regarded as murder1 and the seconds are liable to punishment as accessories4 #adci4 ,what is the moral duty of restitution on account of injuries caused in a duel8 7a7 ,the challenger and his heirs have no right to restitution4 7b7 ,the challenged1 if he accepted willingly1 has no right to restitution1 for his free acceptance of the fight implies the cession of such a right4 7c7 ,the challenged1 if he accepted under grave compulsion1 has the right to restitution4 ,if he is wounded1 the aggressor should pay the medical expense2 if he is killed1 the heirs should be compensated4 #addj4 ,sedition4--,sedition is a discord between different factions of the same multitude so grave as to extend to physical conflict1 and to the destruction of the unity of the ,state4 7a7 ,it is a discord1 that is1 a disagreement of wills1 and so it resembles schism1 war and fighting4 ,difference of opinion in the political parties of a country is not sedition1 since there is a unity of will and purpose in all of them with reference to the common good and the peace of the ,state 7cfr4 #aaig1 #acdh74 ,in fact1 under a democratic system of government1 the existence of some opposite parties has proved a useful1 if not necessary means of stimulating the interest of citizens1 and of expediting the business of legislation4 7b7 ,sedition is between different factions of the same multitude1 that is1 between different sections or groups of the same body politic4 ,thus1 it differs from war 7which is between states71 and from fighting 7which is between individuals74 7c7 ,sedition extends to physical conflict1 that is1 it tends from its character to break out into violence and to array the opposite factions in fight against one another4 ,if not accompanied by actual hostilities1 it is simple sedition4 ,but1 if fighting has begun1 it is insurrection or rebellion1 when the people seek to overthrow the government2 it is civil war1 if one part of the nation seeks to secede from or overcome the other4 7d7 ,it is prejudicial to the civil unity and peace of the people1 that is1 it tends to the violent dismemberment of the ,state1 or at least to the disturbance of the common good4 ,thus1 sedition is more serious than riots1 tumults1 gang-warfare1 and like particular disturbances1 which are not directed against the ,state itself1 or against the harmony of the whole body of the people4 ,sedition differs also from the peaceful separation of parts of a state1 and from the lawful self-defense of the people against a tyrannical government4 #adda4 ,from the definition given above1 it is plain that sedition is a special distinct species of sin4 7a7 ,it differs from spiritual discord1 for unlike schism it is opposed1 not to the unity of the ,church1 but to the unity of the ,state4 7b7 ,it differs from other kinds of temporal discord1 for unlike war and fighting it is opposed1 not to peace between nations or individuals1 but to peace between the members of the same civil body4 ,war takes away peace with foreigners1 sedition takes away peace with fellow-citizens2 fighting attacks a private person or persons1 sedition attacks the public welfare of the country4 #addb4 ,sedition in the strict meaning given it above is always sinful4 7a7 ,thus1 it is a mortal sin from its nature1 since it is opposed to what is manifestly one of the greatest of temporal goods1 namely1 the unity of the ,state4 7b7 ,it is opposed to charity1 as destroying the bond of peace2 it is opposed to justice1 as injuring a unity based on law and common utility1 to which the nation has a strict right4 7c7 ,sedition is graver in some persons than in others4 ,thus1 the moral causes of sedition 7i4e41 those that sow discords or promote disaffection7 are more responsible than those who are led and who carry out acts of violence4 ,the gravity of the sin in each case depends on the amount of damage that is due to one's influence or acts4 #addc4 ,is one who resists a tyrannical government guilty of the sin of sedition8 7a7 ,when resistance is made by legal and pacific means1 such as the rejection of a bad government at the polls1 there is no sedition4 7b7 ,when legal and pacific means are impossible and armed aggression against a tyrant will benefit the common good1 a rebel is not guilty of the sin of sedition4 ,in this case1 it is rather the bad ruler who causes discords and is seditious against the common good1 whereas the people only defend themselves according to the laws4 ,thus1 the rebellion of the ,machabees against their ,syrian oppressors was not seditious4 7c7 ,when legal means are impossible but armed aggression will not benefit the common good1 a rebel is guilty of the sin of sedition4 ,art4 #i3 ,,the ,,sins ,,against ,,beneficence 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 q4 #dc47 #addd4 ,having discussed in the preceding paragraphs the sins opposed to the internal acts of charity 7love1 joy and peace71 we come now to treat of scandal and cooperation which are opposed to the external acts of charity--beneficence and brotherly correction4 #adde4 ,scandal4--,scandal is derived from a ,greek word signifying a snare or trap prepared for an enemy1 or a stone or block laid in the road that he may stumble or trip over it4 ,in use1 it is applied in a wide or general sense1 and in a strict or special sense4 7a7 ,in its wide sense1 it refers to any kind of harm1 especially of a spiritual or moral nature1 that one brings on others4 7b7 ,in its strict sense1 it refers to a fall into sin which one occasions for others by misconduct4 #addf4 ,the following are some examples of the word 8scandal0 as employed in its wide sense3 7a7 ,it is used to signify physical or natural injuries of various kinds4 ,thus1 the servants of ,pharaoh called the plagues brought on ,egypt by ,moses a scandal 7,exod41 x4 #g71 and the ,psalmist says of the sinner that he laid a scandal 7calamity7 against his brother 7,ps4 xlix4 #bj74 ,those who spread defamatory gossip are called scandal-mongers1 and 8scandal0 often signifies opprobrium or disgrace1 as when ,shakespeare speaks of the wrangling of nobles as a scandal to the crown4 7b7 ,the word 8scandal0 is also used to signify moral injuries distinct from inducement to sin4 ,thus1 the shock and offense given to virtuous persons by blasphemous language spoken in their hearing is described as a scandal1 and one who would prevent another from following some more perfect course or practice to which there is no obligation 7such as entering religion1 saying grace at meals1 etc471 is sometimes said to scandalize4 #addg4 ,definition of ,scandal4--,in the strict sense1 scandal is defined as 8any conduct that has at least the appearance of evil and that offers to a neighbor an occasion of spiritual ruin40 7a7 ,by conduct is understood external behavior or manner of acting in the presence of others4 ,thus1 scandal differs from sin1 for sin is committed1 not only by external acts done before others1 but also by internal thoughts and desires and external acts that are secret4 7b7 ,scandal is conduct which is evil at least in appearance1 that is1 sinful1 or from the circumstances seemingly sinful4 ,thus1 an act is not scandalous1 if it is morally indifferent or a less good1 and is perceivable as being such4 7c7 ,scandal tends to spiritual ruin1 that is1 to a fall into sin1 great or small4 ,here scandal strictly understood differs from scandal in the wide senses given in the previous paragraph4 7d7 ,scandal is an occasion of a fall into sin1 that is1 it sets an example of sin before the attention1 and thus suggests to the will that the will imitate the sin4 ,scandal is not1 however1 the cause of sin1 for a person causes his own sin in yielding consent to the suggestion offered by scandal4 7e7 ,scandal is to another4 ,a person may be said to scandalize himself in the sense that by his looks or acts he puts himself in an occasion of sin 7,matt41 v4 #bi1 #cj71 or inasmuch as he maliciously makes the acts of a virtuous neighbor an occasion of sin2 but scandal is more properly understood of an occasion of sin prepared for one's neighbor4 #addh4 ,causes of ,scandal4--,there are various divisions of scandal according to the kinds of external acts4 7a7 ,there is scandal in words1 as profane language or calumnies spoken in a gathering of people4 7b7 ,there is scandal in acts1 as when one is perceptibly drunk or fights in a city street4 ,scandal applies also to things1 in so far as they are the result of acts or related to acts1 such as disedifying books1 pictures1 dress4 ,thus1 one gives scandal by having sinful objects on display1 such as profane mottoes on one's wall1 obscene advertisements or announcements on one's billboards4 7c7 ,there also may be scandal in omission1 as when one is conspicuously absent from ,mass on ,sundays4 #addi4 ,the following kinds of sinful acts are not scandalous1 for they are unknown to others1 and hence cannot suggest sin3 7a7 internal acts1 such as wicked thoughts1 desires1 emotions2 7b7 external acts concealed from others1 such as inaudible profanity1 intoxication not noticeable by others1 omission of an obligatory penance about which others have no knowledge4 #adej4 ,there are1 likewise1 various divisions of scandal according to the internal purpose of the scandalizer4 7a7 ,scandal is directly intentional1 when the purpose of the scandalizer is to lead others to the guilt of sin 7diabolical scandal74 ,example3 ,titus blasphemes religion before ,caius in order that the latter may become irreligious1 and thus be more easily persuaded to follow a life of crime4 7b7 ,scandal is indirectly intentional when the purpose of the scandalizer is to perform some action whose nature is such that it will lead others to the guilt of sin1 and he is determined to perform that action1 although not directly willing the neighbor's guilt that will result4 ,example3 ,titus does not like to see his children drunk1 but he likes to get drunk himself occasionally1 knowing all the while that his example encourages them to drink4 #adea4 ,in the following cases there is no intention of scandal3 7a7 when one does an act that has no appearance of evil1 and one neither directly nor indirectly wills that it should be an occasion of sin to anyone4 ,example3 ,balbus performs his duties faithfully1 although he knows to his regret that his fidelity occasions envy and hatred in ,claudius2 7b7 when one does an act that is evil or apparently evil1 but is invincibly ignorant of the scandal it may give4 ,example3 ,sempronius and ,titus converse together in a foreign tongue which they confidently think ,caius does not understand4 ,the conversation is disedifying1 and ,caius1 who does understand1 is shocked by what they say4 #adeb4 ,the act of the scandalizer who intends1 directly or indirectly1 the spiritual ruin of his neighbor1 is called active scandal1 while the act of the person who takes occasion from the active scandal to incur spiritual ruin1 is called passive scandal4 ,active and passive scandal are sometimes together1 sometimes apart4 7a7 ,thus1 there is both active and passive scandal1 when the scandalizer wills the fall of his neighbor1 and the scandalized does fall4 7b7 ,there is active but not passive scandal1 when the scandalizer wills the fall of his neighbor1 but the latter does not fall into the snare4 7c7 ,there is passive but not active scandal1 when one makes the good action rightly performed by another an occasion of sin4 ,thus1 some made the life and passion of our ,lord a pretext for not accepting ,him 7,matt41 xiii4 #eg2 ,john1 vi4 #fb2 ,i ,cor41 i4 #bc71 and are said to have been scandalized at ,him4 #adec4 ,as to the act that occasions the spiritual ruin of another1 it must be wrong either in reality or in appearance4 7a7 ,the scandalous act is wrong in reality1 when it is forbidden as a sin--for example1 offering sacrifice in the temple of an idol1 or diverting to personal use money collected for the poor4 7b7 ,the scandalous act is wrong in appearance1 when on account of circumstances it seems to be an act forbidden as a sin4 ,thus1 to take part in a banquet held in a pagan temple might seem like participation in sacrificial rites 7,i ,cor41 viii4 #aj71 to expend secretly the money collected for the poor might have the appearance of improper use of funds 7,,ii ,cor41 viii4 #bj1 #ba74 ,hence1 ,st4 ,paul directs2 8,from all appearance of evil refrain yourselves0 7,i ,thess41 v4 #bb74 #aded4 ,the acts wrong in reality or in appearance that give scandal are innumerable1 since the whole world is seated in wickedness 7,i ,john1 v4 #ai74 ,but today there are a number of acts that should be specially mentioned1 as they occasion sin oftener or for more persons than other acts4 ,among these are3 7a7 occasions of sin against faith1 such as atheistical literature1 as discussed in the section on faith2 7b7 occasions of sin against morals1 such as obscenity in dress1 pictures1 plays1 writings1 and dances4 ,these last-mentioned will be discussed now in separate paragraphs4 #adee4 ,obscenity4--,obscenity is a quality of words1 acts or objects by which impure thoughts are conveyed1 or impure desires or actions suggested4 ,we may consider it either internally 7i4e41 in the intention of the person who uses the words1 acts or objects7 or externally 7i4e41 in the nature of the things themselves which are used74 7a7 ,thus1 internal obscenity1 or the will to use what will corrupt the minds and morals of others1 is of course a mortal sin4 ,if the intention is to deprave another1 the guilt of direct scandal is incurred2 if the intention is only to satisfy one's own wish to use the sinful words1 acts or objects1 the guilt is that of indirect scandal4 ,thus1 a woman who dresses fashionably in order to excite impure love is guilty of direct scandal2 if she dresses immodestly1 not to excite impure love1 but to follow a fashion1 she is guilty of indirect scandal4 7b7 ,external obscenity is the tendency of words1 acts or objects themselves to call up impure images in the mind1 or to excite impure desires or actions in those to whom they are presented4 ,the use of such words1 acts1 etc41 is therefore a mortal sin4 ,for1 if the thing said or done is wrong in itself 7such as obscene language71 it is a scandalous sin against purity1 if it is wrong on account of those who will be influenced 7such as a talk on sex matters to immature or weak persons71 it is a sin of scandal4 ,hence1 a good or even religious motive 7such as instruction1 refutation of error1 health1 or mysticism7 does not excuse the employment of what is clearly obscene1 for the end does not justify the means4 #adef4 ,it is not always easy to determine in particular cases when a thing is obscene from its very nature1 but the following general rules can be given3 7a7 ,pictures1 statues and other images are obscene1 when they represent scenes of immoral or sexual acts1 or lascivious attitudes or postures2 also1 when they represent nude or partly nude human figures1 ut quando depinguntur verenda adultorum vel pectora aut partes minus honestae mulierum4 7b7 ,female dress or adornment is lascivious1 when there is a notable display of the person through abbreviated skirts1 necks1 and sleeves2 or a suggestiveness expressed in transparency of material or a closeness of fit that brings out the lines and curves of the figure2 or in an extremity of fashion whose striking color or design will make the wearer conspicuous and direct special attention to her physical charms4 7c7 ,plays on the stage or moving picture screen are obscene by reason of the lesson taught 7as when purity is derided or impurity condoned71 by reason of the thing represented 7as when the main theme is impurity1 or when acts of impurity are represented or suggested1 or when sexual passion is emphasized71 or by reason of the players 7as when they are noted for immorality1 or when their dress is indecent1 or their language objectionable74 7d7 ,dances are obscene in themselves when the postures1 movements1 or contact of the dancers is indecent2 they are obscene by reason of the dancers1 when these are indecently attired4 ,public dance halls1 cabarets1 road houses1 and night clubs--where there is no supervision and young girls come unattended to dance until late hours with men unknown to them1 and where there is intoxication and boisterousness--are the natural haunts of the obscene dance1 but it may be found even in more respectable places4 7e7 ,books or other writings contain obscenity ,when they inculcate or recommend impure acts1 or advise how these may be committed2 when they treat sins of impurity or narrate immoral facts or stories in such a manner as to make vice seem alluring or pardonable to the intended reader2 when an erotic composition by language1 allusions1 details1 sympathetic treatment1 etc41 gives prominence to animal passion4 #adeg4 ,as is stated elsewhere 7see #adfa sqq471 scandal is not given unless the persons affected by one's conduct are susceptible to evil influence4 ,hence1 there is no obscenity when on account of circumstances there is no suggestion of evil in things which under other conditions would be immoral and seductive4 7a7 ,images of the nude in the studio of an artist1 and anatomical charts1 figures or illustrations in a book intended for the instruction of medical men1 are not classed as obscene1 since the persons for whom they are made are supposed to be so much under the influence of the esthetic or scientific principles of their professions that no harm will be taken4 7b7 ,the obscenity of dress is largely dependent on its novelty1 for things that are usual cease to excite special attention4 ,this we can see from the fact that styles that are conservative today would have been extreme ten years ago4 ,and so the scanty attire of hot countries1 the dress of the bathing beach1 and the moderate decollete tolerated in private gatherings are not obscene in their own proper times and places4 7c7 ,plays which contain gross or unseemly expressions or passages are not therefore obscene1 if in the main they uphold decency and morality2 otherwise1 we should have to regard as immoral even the classic drama4 ,newman says of ,shakespeare3 8,often as he may offend against modesty1 he is clear of a worse charge1 sensuality1 and hardly a passage can be instanced in all that he has written to seduce the imagination or to excite the passions40 ,it is a simple matter to omit from plays of this kind the word or phrase that is offensive to modern ears or to the innocence of youth4 7d7 ,the fact that some individuals find all dancing a strong stimulus to impure passion does not prove that every dance is obscene4 ,some types of dance1 it is true1 might be rightly called 8the devil's march02 other dances1 named after various animals1 may also be suggestive4 ,but there are also standard types of dance in which many experience not temptation1 but innocent pastime1 and which have also physical1 esthetic and social values4 7e7 ,to books and other writings should be applied what was said about plays1 namely1 that they are not to be classed as obscene on account of isolated passages unsuited for the reading of children or other susceptible persons1 or excitable to prurient or impure minds4 ,even the ,bible may seem objectionable to a prude1 and the indecent will go through its pages with a fine-tooth comb in the search for indecent matter2 but public opinion will rightly class as a lunatic the person who would endeavor to have the ,bible rated as obscene4 #adeh4 ,persons ,who ,give ,scandal on ,account of ,obscenity4--7a7 ,in case of obscene pictures or statues1 scandal is given by the artists1 painters1 sculptors or others who make the images1 and by the responsible persons who place them in museums1 galleries1 parks or other places to which there is general admission4 7b7 ,as regards female dress1 the guilty parties are proximately the wearers1 but remotely and principally the designers and society leaders who impose their will in making the fashions dangerous and in causing one extreme mode to follow quickly upon another4 7e7 ,with respect to obscene plays1 the scandal is given by playwrights1 managers1 actors and actresses1 and those who patronize or applaud them4 ,the public itself and the civil authorities share in the guilt1 when they supinely tolerate the degradation of the stage and the corruption of morals4 7d7 ,in the case of obscene dances1 the givers of scandal are the proprietors of resorts where the dances are held1 the musicians and singers 7especially when the songs themselves are obscene71 and the dancers1 spectators and other patrons4 7e7 ,in the case of salacious publications or writings1 authors1 publishers1 printers1 vendors1 and the reading public share responsibility for the scandal4 ,government censorship of the press is not desirable1 but government suppression of obscenity has always been the policy of countries of ,english origin4 ,the private citizen1 then1 is not free of guilt if he takes no interest even when he sees piles of indecent magazines1 pictures1 etc41 being sold openly on the newsstands4 ,canon ,law 7,canon #adjd7 forbids booksellers to sell1 lend1 or keep books that deal ex professo with obscenity1 though there is no objection to expurgated editions1 as in the case of classical works4 #adei4 ,results of ,scandal4--,the spiritual ruin occasioned by scandal is sin4 7a7 ,thus1 formal or material sin may be the result of scandal4 ,example3 ,titus blasphemed before a boy who did not understand the meaning of the word and before a youth who did understand1 with the result that both repeated the same blasphemy4 ,thus1 the scandal given by ,titus produced material sin in the boy and formal sin in the youth4 7b7 ,mortal sin or venial sin may be the result of scandal1 just as a stone in the road may cause either a fall or a stumble4 7c7 ,sin of the same species or sin of a different species from that committed by the scandal-giver may be the result of scandal4 ,thus1 a calumny spoken against a neighbor may induce a hearer either to repeat the calumny1 or to imitate the act imputed by the calumniator1 or to give up religion4 7d7 ,sin already committed by the person scandalized or sin which is new to him1 sin he had in mind to commit or sin he had not contemplated--any one of these results suffice for scandal4 ,example3 ,it is scandal to recall to drunkenness by bad example a person who had reformed1 or by bad example to bring back to another's mind and desire a sin on which he was once resolved4 #adfj4 ,scandal resembles solicitation and complicity1 since like them it exercises an evil influence on others2 but it is not identical with them4 7a7 ,thus1 solicitation influences another to evil by counsel1 persuasion1 command1 or invitation2 scandal may influence to evil either in these ways or by mere example4 ,again1 solicitation does not necessarily intend the fall of another into guilt1 as does scandal4 ,thus1 one may solicit another to get drunk who had already determined to get drunk1 or one may persuade another that drunkenness is no sin1 and then solicit him to drunkenness4 ,but1 if one who intends the demoralization and corruption of his neighbor solicits him to drunkenness1 solicitation is joined with scandal4 7b7 ,complicity or cooperation influences another to evil by helping him in the commission of sin2 scandal influences him to evil by suggesting that he commit sin4 ,example3 ,titus1 an elderly man1 gets drunk or praises drunkards in the presence of ,balbus1 a youth4 ,influenced by these acts and words1 ,balbus tells his acquaintance ,claudius that he intends to get drunk1 and ,claudius supplies him with the intoxicants4 ,titus is guilty of scandal1 ,claudius of cooperation4 #adfa4 ,the persons before whom disedifying words1 deeds or omissions are done1 are of two classes4 7a7 ,persons apt to be scandalized are those who are not experienced either in vice 7especially that to which the disedifying example would lead71 or in virtue 7especially the opposite virtue72 for such persons are readily subject to bad influence4 ,thus1 young persons ,whose character is yet unformed1 the ignorant and well-meaning persons who are weak1 are peculiarly disposed to be led astray by example4 7b7 ,persons not apt to be scandalized are those who are habitually so bad or so good that anything disedifying done before them is not calculated to influence their attitude towards evil4 #adfb4 ,may a person hold himself guiltless of scandal1 therefore1 because his wrongdoing was committed before those who are not apt to be scandalized8 7a7 ,if he is certain that the witnesses will not be weakened morally on his account1 and if he does not intend their fall1 he is free of the guilt of scandal4 ,thus1 if one blasphemes in the presence of a lady renowned for piety1 or of a rough crowd of men whose daily talk is interspersed with blasphemies1 it is practically sure that no scandal is given4 7b7 ,if a person is not certain that the witnesses will suffer no moral harm through his example1 he cannot hold himself as not guilty of scandal4 ,for1 no matter how good or how bad the witnesses may appear to him1 they may not be as fixed in character as he thinks1 and his misconduct may be the starting point for them of a downward course or of a more rapid descent into evil4 ,generally speaking1 there is this uncertainty about the influence of bad example1 for the reading of character is no easy matter1 and many sins are internal4 #adfc4 ,there are two cases especially1 when even the very good may become bad or the very bad become worse through force of evil example3 7a7 when the sin committed is from its nature very alluring4 ,sic auctores censent vix fieri posse quin in materia luxuriae malum exemplum peccati motus cieat2 7b7 the second case is when the authority of the one who gives scandal is great4 ,for the fact that he sides with or seems to side with evil1 will demoralize the good and encourage the wicked in wrongdoing4 #adfd4 ,passive scandal 7see #adeb71 that is1 the spiritual fall consequent on the example of another1 is of two kinds3 7a7 scandal given1 which is a fall into sin occasioned by conduct really disedifying1 as when a youth becomes drunk because he has seen his elders intoxicated2 7b7 scandal taken1 which is a fall into sin occasioned by conduct irreproachable in itself1 but wrongly interpreted1 either out of malice 7,pharisaic scandal71 or out of ignorance or frailty 7scandal of little ones74 ,the ,pharisees were scandalized at our ,lord's dining with sinners1 because they themselves were unmerciful 7,matt41 ix4 #aa sqq471 and the weak brethren at ,corinth were scandalized at the eating of certain meats1 because their consciences were tender 7,i ,cor41 xi4 #bc sqq474 #adfe4 ,sinfulness of ,scandal4--7a7 ,scandal in the wide sense is not necessarily a sin4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,peter acted out of love for his ,master when he wished to dissuade ,him from the ,passion1 but our ,lord1 in order to correct more vigorously the wrong ideas of ,peter1 called them a scandal 7,matt41 xvi4 #bc74 7b7 ,passive scandal is always a sin in the one who falls because of the conduct of another2 but it does not always suppose that the conduct which occasioned the fall was a sin1 as is clear from the remarks made above on ,pharisaic scandal and the scandal of little ones4 7c7 ,active scandal is always a sin in the one whose conduct occasions the fall of another1 since that conduct is either sinful1 or has such an appearance of sin that it should have been omitted4 ,but it does not always suppose a sin in the person who witnesses the scandal1 for he may proceed without a fall in spite of the obstacle placed in his path4 #adff4 ,is scandal a distinct species of sin1 or only a circumstance that may happen to any kind of sin8 7a7 ,passive scandal is not a special kind of sin4 ,for the scandalized person may fall into any and every kind of sin1 and the fact that example occasions his fall does not add any special or new opposition to the virtue against which he offends4 ,thus1 he who breaks the fast because he saw others break the fast1 is guilty of the same sin of intemperance as those who gave him scandal4 ,but passive scandal may be an aggravating or an extenuating circumstance1 aggravating if the scandal was taken1 extenuating if the scandal was given4 7b7 ,active scandal1 if it is only indirectly intentional 7see #adej7 and is offered by conduct evil in itself1 is not a special sin4 ,the reason is that in such scandal one does not specially intend the spiritual ruin of a neighbor1 but only the satisfaction of one's own desire4 ,thus1 he who breaks the fast before others to satisfy his own appetite1 does not directly wish the corruption of those others1 and hence his sin is that of intemperance with the added circumstance of bad example4 7c7 ,active scandal1 if it is only indirectly intentional and is offered by conduct not evil but evil-appearing1 is reductively the special sin of scandal1 ,for1 since all active scandal is sinful1 and in this case there is no other species of sin1 the conduct not being really evil in itself1 the sin in question must be reduced to scandal4 ,thus1 one who is dispensed from the law of abstinence and who eats meat on a day of abstinence in the presence of others who know he is a ,catholic but do not know he is dispensed1 does not sin against temperance1 but against edification4 ,his sin is that of scandal only reductively1 since he does not directly will the fall of others4 ,there is also the circumstance that the law of abstinence may suffer as a result of the scandal4 7d7 ,active scandal1 if it is directly intentional 7see #adej71 is directly also the special sin of scandal4 ,for this kind of scandal directly intends the spiritual ruin of a neighbor1 and so is directly opposed to a special good of another person and to the special charitable act of fraternal correction4 ,hence1 a person who breaks the fast in order to lead his neighbor into a like transgression is guilty of both intemperance and scandal2 he who to make his neighbor sin appears to break the fast1 is guilty of scandal1 but not of intemperance4 #adfg4 ,practical ,applications of the ,preceding ,paragraph to ,confession4--7a7 ,species of ,sins4--,in case of passive scandal there is only one species of sin to be confessed1 namely1 the intemperance occasioned by bad example2 in case of active scandal indirectly intended and offered by evil conduct1 there is only one species of sin1 namely1 intemperance1 with the circumstance of publicity or bad example2 in case of active scandal indirectly intended and offered by evil-seeming conduct1 there is only one species of sin1 namely1 scandal2 in case of active scandal directly intended1 there is only the species of scandal1 if the conduct of the scandalizer is only evil-seeming1 but there are several species of sin1 if his conduct is really evil1 namely1 his own intemperance and the scandal he gives4 7b7 ,number of ,sins4--,as many sins of scandal are committed as there are persons present to be scandalized1 for scandal is given to those present as individuals1 not as parts of a group 7see #bai74 ,hence1 one commits more scandals by being drunk on a public street than by being drunk with a roomful of companions2 and by attacking religion before a large assembly than by attacking it before a small circle4 7c7 ,circumstances of ,intention and ,conduct4--,those who give bad example should confess especially the end and the means employed1 for on these depends the important distinction between directly intentional and indirectly intentional scandal and the specific character of the sin committed1 as explained in the preceding paragraph4 7d7 ,circumstance of ,condition of the ,persons ,involved4--,this should be mentioned in confessing scandal1 if it adds a new malice4 ,thus1 the fact that scandal is given by a superior bound by his office to give good example1 adds to the violation of charity a violation of justice2 the fact that the person whose ruin is intended is consecrated to ,god1 or married1 or a relative1 adds to the malice of intentional scandal against chastity2 the fact that a person is scandalized entirely against his will1 makes the sin scandal rather than simple solicitation4 7e7 ,circumstance of the ,result of ,scandal4--,the results of scandal should be confessed when they add a new malice to the sin or induce an obligation of restitution4 ,this subject will be considered in the three following paragraphs4 #adfh4 ,is the scandalizer guilty of the species of sin to which his conduct is calculated to lead the scandalized8 7a7 ,if the scandal is directly intentional1 that is1 if the scandalizer intends that some special sin or sins shall be committed by the one scandalized1 the former is guilty in desire of that which he intends that the latter shall be guilty of in reality 7cfr4 #if1 #ajb74 ,hence1 if by calumniating clerics or religious or church members one intends that one's listeners shall be induced to repeat these calumnies1 or to do what the calumniated persons were said to do1 or to abandon religion1 one is guilty in desire of the particular sin or sins that one wills4 7b7 ,if the scandal is only indirectly intentional1 that is1 if the scandalizer foresees but does not expressly will the fall of the scandalized 7e4g41 if he calumniates others to injure the calumniated and not those who hear the calumny71 the matter is more difficult1 and authorities differ in their opinions4 ,some moralists think that the scandalizer is guilty of the result he foresees1 because he wills it interpretatively by offering the occasion for it4 ,others think that he is not guilty of the result foreseen1 because he does not effect it1 either in intention 7for he does not desire it7 or in reality 7for he is not bound1 except by charity1 to prevent its accomplishment in others72 he permits1 but does not approve1 the sin of his neighbor4 #adfi4 ,a practical application of the previous paragraph to confession may be made as follows3 7a7 those who are guilty of direct scandal must confess not only their own sin1 but also the sin to which their conduct leads their neighbor2 7b7 those who are guilty of indirect scandal are not obliged1 according to the second opinion given above1 to confess the species of sin to which their conduct incited the beholder1 and hence1 if their conduct was only evil-seeming1 it suffices for them to confess that they gave scandal4 #adgj4 ,is the scandalizer responsible for the injuries to third parties resulting from the sins occasioned by his scandal8 7a7 ,according to one opinion1 he is bound to make his share of restitution for injustices occasioned by his own bad example1 because it is admitted that he who counsels injustice is so bound1 and example is more persuasive than words of counsel4 ,hence1 one who steals from his employer before fellow-employees1 and so brings on a custom of stealing among them1 is bound to restore1 not only what he took himself1 but also a share of other losses not made good to the employer4 7b7 ,according to the more common opinion1 however1 the scandalizer in the present case is not held to restitution1 except as regards his own ill-gotten goods1 even if there is question of scandal directly intended4 ,for1 either the scandalizer is not guilty of the injustice committed by the others1 as not desiring it2 or1 at any rate1 he is only the occasion1 not the cause or cooperator in that injustice4 #adga4 ,if scandal amounts to incitation or cooperation1 the guilt of the neighbor's sin and responsibility for injury the neighbor causes are incurred by the scandalizer4 7a7 ,thus1 bad example may amount to incitation to sin1 as when a person knows that others are directed to imitate him1 and yet he gives them bad example4 ,even though he does not directly intend their fall into sin1 he does intend his own conduct1 while realizing that there is attached to it the circumstance that it is an invitation to sin2 and hence it would seem that the guilt of this sin is also contracted4 7b7 ,bad example may amount to cooperation in sin1 as when a person by his bad example shows others the way to commit sin1 which they could not have learned without his example4 ,hence1 if a person opens a safe to steal1 knowing that other dishonest persons are observing in order to learn the combination and steal1 it seems that to some extent he shares in the guilt and duty of restitution of the thieves who learn from him4 ,there is no doubt that a defamer is bound to make reparation1 not only before his immediate listeners1 but also before others who have listened to them2 for1 by defaming before talkative persons1 he virtually authorized them to spread his words4 #adgb4 ,the ,gravity of the ,sin of ,scandal4--7a7 ,from its nature all active scandal is a mortal sin4 ,it turns man away from ,christ 7,i ,cor41 viii4 #ab72 it is spiritual murder1 destructive of the souls of others1 and so contrary to the mercy and brotherly correction required by charity 7,rom1 xiv4 #ae72 it brings on oneself the wrath of ,god 7,matt41 xviii4 #f71 and on one's family1 friends and profession obloquy and disgrace4 7b7 ,from the indeliberation of the act or from the smallness of the matter1 active scandal may be venial1 as will be seen in the following paragraph4 #adgc4 ,mortal and ,venial ,scandal4--7a7 ,passive scandal is always a sin1 mortal or venial according to the fall occasioned by the conduct witnessed4 ,but mortal sin may be occasioned by venial sin1 as when an inferior takes the liberty to blaspheme1 because his superior used profane language2 and venial sin may be occasioned by mortal sin1 as when the blasphemy of an infidel provokes his neighbor to use profane language against the blasphemer4 7b7 ,active scandal indirectly intended is sometimes a venial sin1 as when the scandalous conduct is only a venial sin1 or is no sin but has the appearance of a slight sin2 sometimes it is a mortal sin1 as when the scandalous conduct is a mortal sin1 or when a person so despises the spiritual welfare of his neighbor that he chooses to do an evil-seeming act that will cause the neighbor to fall into serious sin4 7c7 ,active scandal directly intended is sometimes a venial sin1 as when a person intends by conduct venially sinful to lead a neighbor into venial sin2 sometimes it is a mortal sin1 as when one intends to lead one's neighbor into mortal sin1 or commits a mortal sin in order to lead one's neighbor into venial sin4 #adgd4 ,increase and decrease in gravity of scandal depends on the internal dispositions of the scandal-giver and the external influence he has on the person scandalized4 7a7 ,the internal factors on which the quantity of scandal depends are the amount of deliberation and the degree of intention4 ,it is more serious to speak a scandalous word with premeditation than to speak it somewhat thoughtlessly2 more scandalous to speak it when the hearer's spiritual ruin is directly intended1 than when that ruin is not directly intended4 7b7 ,the external factors on which the quantity of scandal depends are the amount of influence the bad example has and the character of the evil to which it leads4 ,it is more serious to corrupt ,a1 who would not otherwise have been corrupted1 than to corrupt ,b1 who would have been corrupted even without one's bad example2 it is more serious to cause another to commit mortal sin1 than to cause him to commit venial sin4 #adge4 ,persons ,scandalized4--,is it possible to scandalize people who are firmly rooted in virtue8 7a7 ,if the question be understood of scandal in a wide sense1 even the perfect may be scandalized4 ,they may be shocked and horrified at the evil example they witness2 they may be hindered from performing the external good works they desire to accomplish 7,i ,thess41 ii4 #ah74 ,but these things do not hinder them internally1 or separate them from the love of ,god 7,rom41 viii4 #ch1 #ci74 7b7 ,if the question be understood of possibility in an absolute sense1 even the perfect may suffer real scandal1 that is1 they may be influenced to sin on account of the example witnessed4 ,since they are not confirmed in grace in this life1 it is not repugnant that they commit sin and lose grace4 7c7 ,if the question be understood of possibility in a relative sense--that is1 if we consider what we should expect in view of the character of perfect men1 and what does usually happen--the perfect cannot be scandalized1 since they are so firmly united to ,god that the sayings or doings1 no matter of whom1 cannot cause them to sin 7,ps4 cxxiv4 #a1 #b71 although they may at times be disturbed thereby 7,ps4 lxxii4 #b74 #adgf4 ,is it possible that the perfect should give scandal8 7a7 ,if the question be understood of absolute possibility1 even the perfect may give scandal1 since they are not immune from defect 7,i ,john1 i4 #h74 7b7 ,if the question be understood of relative possibility1 as explained above1 the perfect cannot scandalize1 for their sins are mostly internal acts not entirely deliberate1 while the external words or acts in which they fall short deviate so slightly from right as to offer no occasion of sinning to another4 ,the perfect man is one who is on his guard1 especially that he become not a stumbling-block to others1 and it is therefore a rare exception when he causes scandal4 #adgg4 ,duty of ,avoiding ,scandal4--,at times it is impossible to avoid giving scandal1 unless one surrenders some spiritual or temporal good4 ,hence1 on this point there are two questions to be considered3 7a7 ,when is one obliged to surrender spiritual goods for the sake of avoiding scandal8 7b7 ,when is one obliged to surrender temporal goods for the sake of avoiding scandal8 #adgh4 ,the ,surrender of ,spiritual ,goods in order to ,avoid ,scandal4--7a7 ,spiritual goods that are so necessary that one cannot give them up without committing sin may not be surrendered2 for1 according to the order of charity1 one must be more solicitous to keep oneself from sin than to preserve others1 and moreover a good end does not justify sinful means4 ,hence1 it is not lawful to commit mortal or even venial sin to avoid giving scandal to another4 ,examples3 ,one may not tone down the doctrine of right and wrong in order to keep another from blasphemy4 ,one may not tell a slight lie to keep another from taking undeserved offense4 7b7 ,spiritual goods which can be put aside without sin are not to be neglected on account of malicious or ,pharisaic scandal1 as long as there is a good reason which calls for their use2 for the person who takes malicious scandal from these spiritual things is in difficulty through his own fault and can rescue himself1 and it is not reasonable that his malice should be permitted to impede the benefit of others4 ,thus1 our ,lord declared that no attention was to be given the scandal which the ,pharisees took from ,his doctrine 7,matt41 xv4 #ad74 7c7 ,spiritual goods which can be put aside without sin should be neglected on account of ,pharisaic scandal1 if there is no great reason for their use2 for one should not give another an occasion of sinning1 even if the other is in bad faith1 unless there is necessity4 ,thus1 our ,lord declared that the act of teaching truth to others should be omitted1 if it would only provoke rejection 7,matt1 vii4 #f74 ,example3 ,a wife may omit saying grace aloud1 if her prayer moves her husband to mimicry or to attempts to make the prayer a mockery4 7d7 ,spiritual goods which can be put aside without sin should be omitted on account of the scandal of little ones1 as long as it remains scandal from weakness or ignorance2 for charity requires that one assist those who are in spiritual need1 and persons who are in danger of scandal through no fault1 or through a slight fault of their own1 are in spiritual need4 ,hence1 one should conceal or delay the performance of good works that are not necessary1 if they would scandalize the weak1 or else one should explain to these persons the righteousness of such works4 ,in any case1 one should not do these works before those who without malice will be scandalized1 but should await such a time as will give them better knowledge1 or put them in bad faith4 ,examples3 ,if a person knows that personal acts of piety which he performs seem to some well-meaning persons superstitious and will shake their faith1 he should omit these acts when such persons are present4 ,if parents are scandalized because a child wishes to leave them in order to become a priest or a religious1 the child should delay for a while1 if there is hope of a change of view on their part4 #adgi4 ,as was said in the chapter on law 7see #bhh sqq471 the higher law has the preference in case of a conflict4 ,now1 natural law itself requires that one avoid the scandal of the weak4 ,hence the following cases3 7a7 ,negative precepts of the natural law may not be contravened in order to avoid the scandal of the weak2 for such contravention is necessarily sinful4 ,hence1 one may not lie or commit perjury to prevent scandal4 7b7 ,affirmative precepts of the natural law should be contravened in order to avoid the scandal of the weak1 but only when such scandal is a greater evil than the omission of the thing commanded4 ,thus1 one should omit a fraternal correction or a punishment1 if the one corrected would be made worse1 or the punishment occasion a schism4 ,but one may not neglect to help a person in extreme need because of scandal4 7c7 ,precepts of the divine law should be contravened on account of scandal of the weak1 unless contravention of the law is a greater evil than permission of the scandal4 ,thus1 the preaching of the ,gospel is commanded by divine law1 and yet it may be omitted to avoid scandal 7,matt41 vii4 #f74 ,item integritas confessionis de jure divino est1 et tamen poenitens deberet peccatum silere1 si intelligeret confessarium cui ex necessitate confiteri deberet grave ex eo scandalum passurum4 ,but it is not lawful to omit ,baptism in order to avoid scandal to those who will be provoked to anger or blasphemy4 7d7 ,precepts of ecclesiastical law should be contravened1 when otherwise there will arise a scandal of the weak which is a graver evil than the contravention of the precepts4 ,thus1 a parish-priest should say ,mass on ,sunday1 even though not fasting1 if this is necessary in order to avoid great scandal among the people4 ,a wife may omit ,mass or a fast1 in order to prevent her ignorant husband from using blasphemies or imprecations1 or to avoid notable dissensions in the home4 ,puella quae scit juvenem infirmum ex suo aspectu scandalizari debet sacro omisso domi manere4 #adhj4 ,in order that scandal of the weak may be considered a greater evil than contravention of a grave precept1 it is necessary that the following conditions be verified3 7a7 ,the evil of the scandal must be certain and grave1 for an uncertain or slight scandal is not a greater evil than certain contravention of a grave precept4 ,thus1 if one only has vague fears that scandal may be given1 or if one has no determined person in mind and thinks only that someone or other will be harmed1 there is no excuse for contravention of the precept4 7b7 ,the evil of contravening the precept must not impose intolerable hardships or lead to greater scandals2 for one is not required to attempt the impossible1 or to give scandal in order to avoid scandal4 ,thus1 it would be unreasonable to expect that a student should never read the classical poets or philosophers of ,greece or ,rome1 lest scandal be given some person overstrict in this matter2 that a wife absent herself from ,mass permanently1 lest her ignorant husband be provoked to rage2 that a young lady be deprived of fresh air and exercise1 lest an old relative be disedified4 ,if we have to choose between occasioning irreligion in one person by attending ,mass and occasioning irreligion in many persons by staying away from ,mass1 we should rather permit the scandal of the one4 ,moralists generally hold that scandal of the weak does not justify absence from obligatory ,mass oftener than once or twice1 and some hold that it does not require absence from ,mass at all4 #adha4 ,good works that are of counsel only 7such as evangelical poverty71 and those that are obligatory only under certain conditions 7such as almsdeeds71 may be more easily put aside in order to avoid scandal of the weak4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that for some persons these works are of precept1 and hence they are to be judged1 as regards those persons1 according to the rules given for contravention of precepts4 7a7 ,thus1 the counsels are obligatory for those who have vowed them 7e4g41 religious74 7b7 ,corporal and spiritual works of mercy are obligatory for prelates and other clerics because of their office4 #adhb4 ,spiritual goods1 therefore1 whether of precept or of counsel1 are not to be surrendered entirely on account of any scandal1 whether it be ,pharisaic scandal or scandal of the weak4 ,but1 out of charity for others1 these goods should not be made use of 7apart from necessity7 in a way that would occasion spiritual ruin to anyone4 ,hence1 if there is danger of scandal3 7a7 they should be concealed1 as when one goes to ,mass early in the morning or by another way1 so as not to occasion blasphemy in one's neighbor2 7b7 they should be delayed1 as when one puts off a fraternal correction until the other person is in a frame of mind to be corrected with profit2 7c7 they may be used but should be explained1 as when one is called to give ,baptism to a person dying in a notorious resort and takes witnesses with him1 or tells the bystanders the reason of his visit4 #adhc4 ,when ,should ,temporal ,goods be ,surrendered for the ,sake of ,avoiding ,scandal4--7a7 ,temporal goods of which one is not the owner1 but only the custodian or administrator1 may not be surrendered at will on account of scandal2 for no one has the right to give away the property of others4 ,hence1 rulers in ,church or ,state may not arbitrarily surrender common property2 guardians may not give up the property of their charges4 7b7 ,temporal goods of which one is owner should be surrendered on account of the scandal of little ones1 unless a greater evil results from such surrender2 for1 as said above 7see #aafe sqq471 one should be willing to suffer some detriment in temporal things to avert from one's neighbor detriment in spiritual things4 ,hence1 one should abstain from a certain food1 if one's eating of it will cause spiritual ruin to some innocent person 7,i ,cor41 viii4 #ac74 7c7 ,temporal goods are not to be surrendered on account of ,pharisaic scandal2 for this would be injurious to the common good1 since it would encourage the wicked to despoil the conscientious1 and it would also be injurious to the wicked themselves1 since they would continue in sin by keeping what was not their own4 ,hence1 one may demand money owed1 even if the debtor is greedy and will use profane language4 #adhd4 ,the surrender of temporal goods spoken of in the previous paragraph may be understood in a number of senses4 7a7 ,it can be understood either of the act of giving another what is held by us and is our own property1 or of the act of permitting another to keep that which is held by him but which belongs to us4 ,charity may call for either kind of surrender as a means to the avoidance of scandal4 ,example3 ,rather than have a bitter quarrel or lose a friendship over a few cents of change1 it is better to let the other man keep what he owes you1 or give him what you do not owe1 if he is also in good faith4 7b7 ,the surrender of temporal goods can also be understood either of the internal willingness to sacrifice temporal things for things spiritual1 when necessity requires1 or of the actual external sacrifice4 ,charity demands the internal willingness1 but it does not always demand the actual sacrifice2 for sometimes such a sacrifice would be harmful to the common welfare and the welfare of individuals4 ,thus1 the saying of our ,lord that we should not contend with a neighbor who wishes to take our coat1 but should rather let him take our cloak as well 7,matt1 v4 #dj71 and the saying of ,st4 ,paul that the ,corinthians should prefer to suffer injury and fraud rather than have lawsuits against fellow-,christians 7,i ,cor41 vi4 #g71 are to be understood of a willingness to sacrifice temporal things in order to avoid scandal1 when a greater good makes this necessary4 ,but those texts do not mean that it is obligatory or advisable to make an actual sacrifice at other times4 7c7 ,the surrender of temporal goods may be understood either of a giving over to others without protest or remonstrance1 or of a yielding to them only after one has tried to prevent scandal without incurring temporal loss4 ,charity does not require1 even when there is danger of scandal of the weak1 that one should surrender one's goods without any effort to save them4 ,thus1 if an ignorant ,catholic is shocked because his priest asks for money to support the ,church1 the latter will do him a service by explaining the right the ,church has to be supported and the duty of the members to contribute4 #adhe4 ,temporal goods may be understood here either of things of great value 7e4g41 necessaries of life7 or of things of minor value 7e4g41 luxuries74 7a7 ,thus1 if scandal will place a neighbor in extreme spiritual need1 even things of great value should be surrendered1 if this is necessary to avoid scandal4 7b7 ,if scandal will not place him in extreme need1 one is not obliged to surrender any except things of minor value 7see #aafe sqq474 ,thus1 ,st4 ,paul does not ask that his converts give up all food in order to avoid scandalizing the weak1 but only such food as they can get along without 7,rom1 xiv4 #ae2 ,i ,cor41 viii4 #ac74 #adhf4 ,should church goods ever be surrendered in order to avoid scandal of the weak8 7a7 ,on the one hand1 goods of the ,church have a special sacredness1 because they have been given and set apart for spiritual purposes and the common good of the ,church4 ,hence1 he would be an unfaithful steward who would devote them to merely temporal ends1 such as the enrichment or exaltation of himself or of his friends1 or who would alienate them without due authority4 7b7 ,on the other hand1 the temporal goods of the ,church are to serve spiritual ends1 and the spiritual must not be subordinated to the temporal4 ,hence1 one of the chief causes of scandal in the ,church is the appearance of avarice in churchmen 7even as regards goods that are not personal1 but common71 especially if they seem to put money before the salvation of the people4 ,there are times1 therefore1 when to avoid scandal a prelate or priest ought to forego something really due the ,church4 #adhg4 ,cases of ,scandal and ,renouncement of ,church ,goods4--7a7 ,if there is question of ,pharisaic scandal alone1 one should not renounce the goods of which one is the custodian1 but should resist spoliation as far as one is able4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,thomas of ,canterbury would not agree to the invasion of church rights by ,henry ,,ii4 ,so also a pastor should not neglect the collection of dues needed for the maintenance of the church1 because some malcontents will take offense at this2 neither should he yield to the extortionate demands of some hired person who will be scandalized because more is not paid4 7b7 ,if there is question of the scandal of the weak1 concessions should be made1 lest spiritual things be made to suffer for the temporal4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,paul would not accept any support for himself from persons newly converted to ,christianity1 lest this prove a hindrance to the preaching of the ,gospel 7,i ,cor41 ix4 #ab74 ,for the sake of the ignorant or the weak1 therefore1 the ,church does not insist on dues and other payments1 until these persons have had the opportunity of learning their duty4 ,the faithful1 indeed1 are bound to contribute to the pastors who serve them1 but the precept is an affirmative one1 and obliges therefore not at all times1 but when the conditions of time1 place1 person1 etc41 make this possible4 ,it would be a real scandal of the weak1 if a person were driven from church because he did not realize his duty of contributing1 or if a poor person were taxed beyond his means1 or if an affluent cleric were always asking for money and never giving to the needy1 or if a priest were to talk collections instead of doctrine1 or devoted most of his time to money-making enterprises4 ,anything that commercializes religion is also a scandal both to ,catholics and non-,catholics4 #adhh4 ,duty of ,repairing ,scandal4-,the paragraphs immediately preceding have spoken of the duty of avoiding scandal4 ,there is also a duty of repairing scandal that has been given4 7a7 ,thus1 there is a duty of charity to repair the scandal one has given2 for1 if all are required to practise fraternal correction1 those especially are bound to this who are responsible for the sins of others4 7b7 ,there is sometimes a duty of legal justice1 as when superiors1 who are bound from their office to give good example1 give scandal to their subjects4 7c7 ,there is sometimes a duty of commutative justice1 as when the scandalizer has employed unjust means 7such as force1 fear or traps7 in order to lead another into scandal4 #adhi4 ,ways of ,repairing ,scandal4--7a7 ,scandal is repaired publicly or privately4 ,reparation is public1 when it is made before the community1 and private1 when it is made before individuals4 7b7 ,scandal is repaired explicitly or implicitly4 ,explicit reparation is made by retractation of one's words1 by condemnation of one's acts1 by the destruction of one's scandalous writings1 by efforts to bring back to virtue those whom one has misled1 etc4 ,implicit reparation is made by reformation of one's conduct1 the abandonment of that which gave scandal1 the practice of good example1 prayer for the person scandalized1 etc4 #adij4 ,particular ,kinds of ,scandal to be ,repaired4--7a7 ,scandal is public or private4 ,public scandal is given before the community at large1 as when one openly apostatizes so that it is the talk of the whole neighborhood or town1 or writes a signed article favoring atheism1 or makes a disedifying speech before a gathering of people4 ,scandal is private1 when it is given before a few persons1 and when it does not tend to become generally known1 as when husband and wife quarrel before their domestic circle4 7b7 ,scandal is ordinary or extraordinary4 ,ordinary scandal is given by bad example alone2 extraordinary scandal adds to bad example injury or injustice1 or the debt of punishment for a crime4 ,thus1 one who becomes slightly intoxicated at a party gives ordinary scandal2 while one who by trickery schemes to get another into a situation in which he will be effectually scandalized1 or who strikes an inoffensive priest1 or who spreads disedifying printed matter1 is guilty of extraordinary scandal4 #adia4 ,it rests with the prudent judgment of the confessor or ecclesiastical authority to decide in particular instances the way in which scandals are to be repaired4 ,but in general the following rules may be given3 7a7 ,public scandal should be repaired publicly1 even though it has not actually seduced those who are aware of it2 for otherwise the evil influence remains4 ,thus1 a drunkard should take the pledge of total abstinence1 or else give an example of sobriety2 an apostate should renounce his errors as openly as he defended them4 7b7 ,private scandal may be repaired privately1 that is1 before the few persons who were scandalized4 ,thus1 the husband and wife who quarrelled before their children make reparation when they tell the children not to quarrel1 and when they strengthen this advice by good example4 7c7 ,ordinary scandal may be repaired implicitly1 that is1 by turning over a new leaf4 ,thus1 one who has been away from ,mass and the ,sacraments for a long time makes reparation when he appears at church1 goes to confession1 and receives ,communion2 one who has been keeping bad company makes reparation when he separates from his former associates4 7d7 ,extraordinary scandal is repaired explicitly1 that is1 by making the restitution or satisfaction which justice demands1 or by performing the penalty required by the law4 ,thus1 if through treachery a person has seduced another from virtue1 he must either himself or through others endeavor to recall the scandalized person to his former virtue2 if a person has been guilty of laying violent hands on a cleric1 he must perform the penance prescribed2 if a person has distributed scandalous literature1 he must try to stop its circulation1 or to distribute contrary literature4 #adib4 ,when satisfaction requires public apology or retraction1 this can be made in various ways4 7a7 ,thus1 one may withdraw through the press false statements publicly made2 7b7 one may apologize before a number of witnesses authorized to make this known2 7c7 one may retract before the pastor or confessor1 with the understanding that the priest will later declare that all due satisfaction has been made4 #adic4 ,denial of ,sacraments in ,cases of ,scandal4--,is it lawful to administer the ,sacraments to one who has not made satisfaction for public scandal8 7a7 ,if the obligation of reparation is not grave1 it is lawful to administer the ,sacraments1 since the person who gave the scandal is not subject to grave sin and unworthy of the ,sacraments1 and his admission to them will not be a new scandal4 7b7 ,if the obligation of reparation is grave1 it is lawful to admit the party in question to the ,sacrament of ,penance2 for every person rightly disposed has a right to absolution1 and the fact that a person who gave scandal goes to confession is edifying4 ,but absolution should be given on condition that reparation for the scandal is seriously promised4 7c7 ,if the obligation of reparation is grave1 it is not lawful as a rule to admit to the other ,sacraments1 until the reparation has been actually performed4 ,thus1 if it is notorious in a parish that a certain individual has been living in a serious occasion of sin or has been circulating impious doctrines1 the occasion of sin should be removed or the doctrines should be retracted1 before the individual is admitted to ,communion1 etc42 otherwise1 a new scandal would be given the faithful from the apparent approval given the scandalizer by the minister of the ,sacrament received4 #adid4 ,in certain cases1 however1 the ,sacraments other than ,penance may also be given before reparation for grave scandal has been made1 namely1 when the circumstances are such that the administration of the ,sacraments will offer no scandal4 7a7 ,thus1 a dying person who is penitent but unable to perform some satisfaction for scandal given is granted the ,sacraments4 7b7 ,a person who is well disposed1 but who has not yet made satisfaction for scandal1 may sometimes be given ,communion privately4 7c7 ,a person who is not well disposed1 and who will not make satisfaction for scandal1 is sometimes permitted to contract marriage before the priest1 namely1 when there is a grave reason for marriage and scandal is precluded4 #adie4 ,seduction4--,having discussed scandal1 which leads others into sin by bad example1 we shall now consider1 first1 solicitation or seduction1 which leads others into sin by moral inducement1 and1 secondly1 cooperation1 which assists another to sin 7see #adfj74 #adif4 ,seduction is some external act 7words1 writing1 signs or gesture7 by which one directly and explicitly seeks to win the consent of another to sin4 ,there are various modes of solicitation4 7a7 ,there is command to sin1 which is an authoritative direction to commit sin imposed by a superior on his subject4 ,command is given expressly1 as when a father tells his son to steal2 or implicitly1 as when he tells his son that it will please him if the son steals4 7b7 ,there is counsel to sin1 which is direct persuasion to do evil made through argument that sin is lawful1 or through instruction on the ways of committing sin1 or through advice1 request1 promises1 threats1 etc41 as when one writes in praise of suicide to a person who is very discouraged1 and recommends it4 7c7 ,there is enticement which is an indirect persuasion to sin made through flattery1 insinuation1 calumny1 narratives1 etc4 ,thus1 ,absalom worked on the people of ,israel and beguiled them into rebellion against his father 7,,ii ,kings1 xv4 #a-f74 ,those who ridicule temperance and so lead others to drink excessively1 entice to drunkenness4 ,a host who offers little except fine meats on a ,friday entices to the violation of abstinence4 #adig4 ,the ,malice of ,solicitation4--7a7 ,the gravity of this sin according to its nature is mortal1 but it may be venial on account of imperfect deliberation or smallness of matter 7see #adgc74 ,thus1 it is a mortal sin to command one's son to commit grand larceny or perjury1 a venial sin to command him to commit petty theft or tell a harmless lie4 7b7 ,the circumstances of the sin that aggravate or extenuate are the greater or less degree of deliberation and malice1 the greater or less evil of the sin to which one induces one's neighbors1 etc4 7see #adgc1 #adgd74 7c7 ,the species of the sin of solicitation is twofold2 there is the sin of scandal1 opposed to charity1 inasmuch as a neighbor is led to sin1 and there is also the sin which one persuades a neighbor to commit 7see #adfh sqq474 #adih4 ,applications to ,confession and ,satisfaction4--7a7 ,since the seducer willed the species of sin to which he induced his neighbor1 it does not suffice that he tell in confession that he induced another to sin2 he must also tell the species of sin 7e4g41 theft71 to which he induced or attempted to induce another4 7b7 ,since the seducer is guilty of injustice against the person seduced1 if he employed fraud1 traps1 violence1 etc41 it does not suffice in such cases merely to confess that he seduced2 he must also tell that he used unjust means to seduce4 7c7 ,since the seducer is guilty of spiritual damage1 he is bound to make reparation for scandal given 7see #adhh sqq474 7d7 ,since the seducer is responsible for temporal damages that are due to his influence 7e4g41 when he commands ,a to steal from or calumniate ,b71 he is held to restitution for any such damages 7see ,vol4 ,,ii on ,justice74 #adii4 ,in confessing a sin whose nature implies an accomplice 7e4g41 obscene conversation71 is it necessary to mention the circumstance that one seduced the other party8 7a7 ,if the seduction includes a special malice against charity or against justice1 it should be mentioned4 ,thus1 if the party seduced had been innocent and was scandalized1 or was trapped into sin1 the fact of seduction should be mentioned4 7b7 ,if the seduction includes no special malice against charity or justice1 it seems there is no obligation to mention it4 ,thus1 if the party solicited had been living a life of sin and consented to the solicitation without any detriment to ideals or any unwillingness1 no scandal is given and no injustice committed by the solicitation1 as far as that party is concerned1 and there seems to be no reason why the circumstance of seduction must be confessed4 #aejj4 ,seduction is incitement to sin1 and so differs from mere permission of sin in another4 ,it is never lawful to incite to sin1 but it is lawful for a sufficient reason to permit sin in others1 as was said above in reference to ,pharisaic scandal 7see #adgg1 #adhb1 #adhc74 ,but1 in applying this principle to concrete cases1 it is sometimes difficult to draw the line between incitement and mere permission4 ,we shall discuss now the following cases in which this difficulty occurs3 7a7 when one requests another to do something which one knows will be a sin for him2 7b7 when one advises another to commit a less rather than a greater evil2 7e7 when the opportunity for another to commit sin is not removed1 or is prepared4 #aeja4 ,is it lawful to ask another to do something1 when one knows that he will not consent without sinning8 7a7 ,if the thing requested is sinful in itself1 the request is also sinful4 ,hence1 it is not lawful to ask a thief to sell the goods he has stolen1 nor is it lawful to request absolution from a priest who lacks jurisdiction4 7b7 ,if the thing requested is lawful in itself1 but there is no sufficient reason for the request in view of the fact that the other will sin by granting it1 the request is sinful4 ,hence1 it is not lawful to ask baptism from a person who is in the state of sin1 when one can easily obtain it from another person who is in the state of grace4 7c7 ,if the thing requested is lawful1 and there is a sufficient reason for the request1 one does not sin by making the request4 ,hence1 it is lawful for the sake of the common welfare to require that witnesses take an oath1 even though one knows that one of them will commit perjury4 #aejb4 ,is it lawful to advise another to commit a less evil in preference to a greater evil8 7a7 ,if the other has not made up his mind to commit either evil1 it is not lawful to advise that he do either4 ,thus1 to counsel another to steal1 and to make his victims the rich rather than the poor1 is a species of seduction4 7b7 ,if the person has made up his mind to commit the greater evil and the lesser evil is virtually contained in the greater1 it is lawful to advise that he omit the former for the latter4 ,for in thus acting one prevents the greater evil and does not cause the lesser evil1 since it is virtually contained in the greater evil which the other person had already decided on4 ,thus1 if ,titus is bent on stealing #ajj1 ,balbus is not guilty of seduction1 if he persuades ,titus to take only #aj4 ,we are supposing1 of course1 that ,titus is so determined to steal that it is out of the question to deter him from taking at least a small amount4 7c7 ,if the person in question has decided on the greater sin and the lesser is not virtually contained in the greater1 it is not lawful to recommend that he commit the smaller instead of the greater sin4 ,for1 if one does this1 one does not save the other from the internal guilt of the greater sin intended1 while one does add the malice of the lesser sin which was not intended4 ,thus1 if ,titus plans to kill ,caius1 it is not lawful to advise that he rob him instead1 or that he kill ,claudius instead1 for robbery is a specifically distinct sin from murder1 and ,claudius is a different person from ,caius4 ,but1 if ,titus planned to kill ,caius in order to rob him1 it would not be unlawful to point out that the robbery could be carried out without murder and to advise accordingly4 #aejc4 ,not all theologians accept the last solution just given4 7a7 ,some reject it1 and hold that1 even when the lesser evil is not virtually contained in the greater1 it is lawful to advise the lesser4 ,they argue that what one does thereby is not to commit the lesser evil1 to induce it or approve it1 but only to permit it in order to lessen the harm that will be done1 and they confirm their argument from scripture 7,gen41 xix4 #h74 ,according to this opinion1 then1 which has some good authorities in its favor1 it would be lawful to advise robbery in order to dissuade another from the greater evil of murder4 7b7 ,others modify the solution given in the previous paragraph1 and hold that it is lawful to propose the lesser evil or mention it1 provided one does not attempt to induce the other person to carry it into effect4 #aejd4 ,is it lawful so to prearrange circumstances that an occasion of sin will seem to offer itself to another8 7a7 ,if the end and the means used are good1 this is lawful2 for there is no scandal or seduction1 but sin or the danger of sin is permitted for a proportionately grave reason4 ,examples3 ,sempronius knows that someone is robbing his desk1 and it is important that he discover the thief4 ,he leaves the desk open and watches from concealment to see whether a suspected person who is coming to the room will steal4 ,claudius is quite certain that ,titus is stealing his chickens1 but he needs evidence in order to have ,titus convicted and deterred from future stealing4 ,so1 he leaves doors open and hides himself with witnesses that ,titus may be caught in the act4 7b7 ,if the end or means is bad1 it is not lawful to prepare an opportunity for sin1 because in either case one intends something sinful4 ,examples3 ,sempronius knows that his wife ,titia has been unfaithful and he threatens to leave her4 ,she1 wishing to have a countercharge to make or to secure evidence to discredit his word1 hires various dissolute females to lay traps for him and his friends4 ,claudius out of revenge wishes that ,caius be sent to jail1 and he therefore employs agents to provoke ,caius into something criminal in word or deed that will justify incarceration4 ,balbus knows that ,mercurius is a dangerous character1 and he frames a scheme by which ,mercurius will be invited to participate in an act of banditry and be captured4 ,titia and ,claudius sin1 because their purpose is wrong2 ,balbus sins because he uses wrong means4 ,all three are guilty of seduction1 at least in intention4 #aeje4 ,seduction was described above 7see #adif7 as an inducement to sin through such manifest means as command1 counsel1 or enticement4 ,but there is also a more subtle form of seduction1 which does not appeal directly to the intellect or will1 but makes a physical approach by acting upon the body1 senses1 or imagination4 ,this is a more cunning1 but none the less guilty form of seduction1 examples of which are the following3 7a7 ,seduction through bodily states is exemplified in those who minister secretly to others drinks or drugs or foods that will produce emotional disturbances or mental confusion and make them more susceptible to temptation4 7b7 ,seduction through the senses is exemplified in those who surround others with pictures1 companions1 music1 examples1 etc41 that continually speak of the desirability of vice or the undesirability of virtue4 7c7 ,seduction through the imagination is seen in hypnotism or suggestion when used to produce a vivid and strong impression of something dangerous to be thought on4 ,a spirit of bigoted uniformity which demands that all dress1 think and act alike even in matters where there should be liberty1 may also be very seductive2 for1 rather than commit the unpardonable sin of seeming queer1 a person may take to drunkenness or whatever vice is popular in his crowd or group4 #aejf4 ,cooperation in ,sin4--,cooperation or participation in sin1 strictly understood1 is help afforded another1 whom one has not seduced1 to carry out his purpose of sinning4 7a7 ,hence1 cooperation differs from scandal and solicitation1 for these lead into sin one who had not decided on sin1 while cooperation supposes that the other party had already made up his mind to sin4 ,the scandalizer leads into sin1 but does not help in its commission2 the cooperator does not lead into sin but he helps in its commission4 7b7 ,cooperation1 however1 may include scandal and solicitation as regards future sins or as regards third parties4 ,example3 ,balbus1 who had decided on his own initiative to steal1 finds to his surprise that his conduct receives aid and comfort from ,titus1 a person of some authority4 ,this cooperation will act as an example or incitement to ,balbus to repeat the offense1 and will likewise be an occasion of sin to others4 #aejg4 ,cooperation is also different from complicity as follows3 7a7 ,the cooperator acts as assistant or subordinate agent to the one who commits sin1 providing him with moral or physical help1 or supplying him with the means requisite for the act of sin4 ,thus1 he whose services are commandeered by robbers and who carries away the stolen goods1 or who puts a revolver into the hand of one bent on murder or obscene books into the hands of one bent on the corruption of youth1 is a cooperator4 7b7 ,the accomplice acts as an equiprincipal or coordinate agent with another in the commission of the same sin1 performing his own proper part or share of the joint act of sin4 ,thus1 he who enlists as a member of a robber band and acts as their chauffeur or lookout at the time of 8hold-ups10 or who fights a duel1 or who carries on an obscene dialogue1 or listens willingly to obscene talk1 is an accomplice4 ,the accomplice is always guilty1 but the cooperator may be guiltless4 #aejh4 ,kinds of ,cooperation4--,divisions of ,cooperation according to ,different ,kinds of ,acts4--7a7 ,from the viewpoint of the internal act1 cooperation is either formal or material1 according as one does or does not intend the sin whose external commission one is aiding4 ,examples3 ,caius offers a burglar information as to ways of climbing into a second-story window4 ,claudius1 being covered by a revolver1 makes no resistance or outcry while bandits are rifling his employer's office4 ,caius is an abettor of crime and a formal cooperator on account of his guilty intent2 ,claudius aids the commission of burglary1 but he is only a material cooperator1 since he does not intend what the criminals intend4 7b7 ,from the viewpoint of the external act1 cooperation is positive or negative1 according as one does something to help the principal agent1 or does nothing to impede him4 ,in the examples given above1 ,caius was a positive1 ,claudius a negative cooperator4 ,positive cooperation is given in a moral manner1 as when one votes for an unjust law or sentence1 or cheers a sinful remark2 or in a physical manner1 as when one helps bandits to bind and gag their victims1 or leaves doors and windows unfastened for the convenience of thieves4 #aeji4 ,divisions of ,cooperation according to its ,degree of ,influence4--7a7 ,from the viewpoint of its activity1 cooperation is either occasional or effective4 ,by occasional cooperation is understood that which leads another into sin1 or allows him to be drawn into sin1 but does not assist him to commit sin 7e4g41 scandalous example1 failure to give a fraternal correction or admonition74 ,by effective cooperation is understood assistance given another enabling him to carry out1 or to carry out more easily1 an act of sin on which he had resolved4 ,as is clear from the explanation given above 7see #aejf71 there is question here only of effective cooperation4 7b7 ,from the viewpoint of its nearness to the act of the principal agent1 cooperation is either immediate or mediate1 according as one shares in the sinful act of the principal agent1 or in some act that preceded or followed it4 ,thus1 he who helps a thief to carry away stolen goods is an immediate cooperator1 while he who supplied the thief with necessary keys before the theft1 and he who offered refuge to the thief or concealment for the stolen goods after the theft1 are mediate cooperators4 7c7 ,from the viewpoint of the dependence on it of what is done1 cooperation is either indispensable or not indispensable1 according as the principal agent cannot act without it1 or can4 ,example3 ,balbus supplies intoxicants to ,titus and ,sempronius1 who are intemperate4 ,titus cannot secure intoxicants except from ,balbus2 ,sempronius can secure them elsewhere4 ,balbus' cooperation is indispensable for ,titus1 but not for ,sempronius4 #aeaj4 ,cooperation is also divided from the viewpoint of responsibility or of the consequences incurred through it1 into unjust cooperation and merely unlawful cooperation4 7a7 ,unjust cooperation is participation in the guilt of an injury done to a third party which involves the duty of restitution or strict reparation4 ,thus1 those who act as 8fences0 or receivers of stolen goods1 cooperate in injustice and are bound to restitution to the rightful owners4 7b7 ,unlawful cooperation is participation in a sin that contains no injustice to a third party1 and that entails only the obligations of repentance and satisfaction1 and1 if the case requires it1 of amends for scandal1 proofs of sincerity1 avoidance of dangers and submission to penalty4 ,thus1 those who cooperate by marrying illegally1 or by providing obscene literature to persons who demand it and insist on having it1 are guilty of sin and also fall under various punishments prescribed in law4 ,cooperation1 in so far as it is unjust1 will be treated specially under the head of ,justice 7see ,vol4 ,,ii72 here we are concerned with cooperation in general1 and as it is a sin against charity4 #aeaa4 ,formal cooperation is either explicit or implicit4 7a7 ,it is explicit1 when the end intended by the cooperator 7finis operantis7 is the sin of the principal agent4 ,examples3 ,balbus gives incense money to an idolater1 because he approves of idolatry and wishes to see idolatrous rites performed4 ,caius joins an anarchistic society because he agrees with its aims and wishes to help in their fulfillment4 7b7 ,formal cooperation is implicit1 when the cooperator does not directly intend to associate himself with the sin of the principal agent1 but the end of the external act 7finis operis71 which for the sake of some advantage or interest the cooperator docs intend1 includes from its nature or from circumstances the guilt of the sin of the principal agent4 ,examples3 ,balbus detests idolatry1 but in order to show courtesy he helps a pagan to burn incense before an idol1 or he assists in the repairing of a pagan shrine1 though his act is looked on as a sign of worship4 ,caius joins a freethinking society1 not because he likes its principles1 but because he wishes to obtain through membership certain social or financial advantages which he cannot obtain in any other way4 #aeab4 ,mediate cooperation is also subdivided into proximate and remote4 7a7 ,it is proximate or remote by reason of nearness1 according as the act of sin will follow closely or otherwise on the act of cooperation4 ,thus1 he who gives a ladder to a burglar cooperates in a remote preparation2 he who holds the ladder while the burglar goes up cooperates in a proximate preparation4 7b7 ,mediate cooperation is proximate or remote as to definiteness1 according as the preparation points clearly or only vaguely to the commission of sin4 ,proximate cooperation is an action which1 from its nature or circumstances1 is regarded as morally connected with the evil action of the principal agent1 while remote cooperation is an action that has no such moral connection with the sin that is committed4 ,thus1 he who sells a revolver to a gunman who is preparing for a murder cooperates proximately1 while he who sells the materials for this weapon cooperates only remotely4 ,again1 if one sells to a burglar a 8jimmy10 a dark lantern1 a mask1 a revolver1 and explosives1 the cooperation is definite1 since the circumstances indicate that robbery is contemplated4 ,but if one sells a burglar a pair of soft-sounding shoes1 the cooperation is indefinite1 for the burglar may wish them in order to give no disturbance in his own home1 and not in order to attract no attention in the homes of others4 #aeac4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,cooperation4--,the ,sinfulness of ,formal ,cooperation4--7a7 ,formal cooperation is always sinful1 for it includes the approval of the sin of another and the willing participation in the guilt of that sin4 7b7 ,formal cooperation is from its nature opposed to charity2 for charity disapproves of the sins of others and strives to prevent them1 while formal cooperation1 on the contrary1 approves and assists the sins of others4 7c7 ,formal cooperation is also opposed to the virtue violated by the sin of the principal agent1 in so far as the will of the cooperator delights in or approves of the circumstance of help given to the sin of the other 7see #adfh74 ,thus1 if one opens the door to a caller whom one suspects to be a burglar and at the same time mentally sympathizes with the act of burglary1 one is guilty in will of the act one approves4 7d7 ,formal cooperation as to its external act is opposed to the virtue violated by the cooperator1 when the external act has a malice of its own4 ,thus1 if one swears falsely in order to conceal the presence of a burglar hidden in the house1 one is guilty of perjury2 if one disobeys the laws of the ,church by marrying clandestinely1 one is guilty of disobedience2 if one scandalizes third parties by cooperating with sin1 one is guilty of scandal2 if one shares in fraud1 one is guilty of injustice1 etc4 ,hence1 in confession it does not suffice to say that one has cooperated in sin1 but one must also tell the sin committed and the necessary circumstances4 #aead4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,material ,cooperation4--7a7 ,material cooperation1 in itself1 is sinful2 for charity commands that one strive to prevent the sin of another1 and much more therefore does it forbid one to help in the sin of another4 7b7 ,material cooperation1 in case of great necessity1 is not sinful2 for charity does not oblige under serious inconvenience to self1 and it does not forbid one to cooperate by an indifferent act to prevent a neighbor from committing a greater evil than the evil he has in mind4 ,he who cooperates materially through necessity does not cause sin1 but uses his own right1 which the bad will of the other abuses and makes an occasion of sin 7see #addg d74 #aeae4 ,lawfulness of ,material ,cooperation4--,the conditions necessary in order that material cooperation be lawful are the same as for any other act that has a double result 7see #ajd72 for from the cooperation follow two results1 one that is bad 7viz41 the sin of the other person7 and one that is good 7viz41 the avoidance of loss or the retention of good74 ,two of the conditions required in the principle of double result need not be considered1 however1 since their presence is manifestly assured by the very fact that the cooperation is merely material4 7a7 ,thus1 the condition that the good effect must not be secured through the evil effect is verified2 for1 if one intends the sin of the other party as a means to the good end1 cooperation is formal4 ,hence1 if ,balbus helps ,claudius to get sinfully drunk1 so that ,claudius may go to confession the sooner1 the cooperation of ,balbus in the drunkenness of ,claudius is formal4 7b7 ,the condition that the evil effect is not intended is also verified2 for the very definition of material cooperation excludes the intention of the sin committed by the other party4 #aeaf4 ,hence1 we may confine our attention to the two remaining conditions stated in the principle of double effect1 and conclude that material cooperation is lawful when and if the act of the cooperator is itself good or indifferent1 and he has a reason sufficiently weighty for permitting the sin of the other party4 #aeag4 ,the first condition of material cooperation is that the act of the cooperator must be good or at least indifferent2 for1 if it is evil1 the cooperation becomes implicitly formal4 ,but1 since it is often difficult to determine in particular instances whether cooperation is intrinsically evil or merely indifferent1 one must examine the nature and circumstances of the act4 7a7 ,thus1 according to its nature1 an act of cooperation is intrinsically evil1 if it has no uses except such as are evil2 it is indifferent1 if1 according to the intention of those who use it1 it is now good1 now evil4 ,hence1 it is intrinsically wrong to assist in the manufacture or distribution of obscene books or pictures1 or of drugs or instruments used exclusively for immoral purposes1 since the only use to which such things can be put is sinful4 ,it is also intrinsically wrong to take part even remotely in pagan superstitions1 or to give any immediate assistance to an act which from its nature is opposed to the ,sixth ,commandment4 ,but it is not intrinsically wrong to assist in the manufacture of firearms or poisons1 which have many good uses1 or to act as bodyguard to a person who fears harm from others4 7b7 ,according to its circumstances1 an act of cooperation is evil1 if by reason of adjuncts it is wrong1 as when it signifies approval of evil1 gives scandal to others1 endangers the faith or virtue of the cooperator1 or violates a law of the ,church4 ,thus1 it is not from the nature of the act wrong to invite a pedestrian to ride in one's car2 but it is wrong from the circumstances when the pedestrian asks to be taken to a spot where he intends to commit robbery4 ,it is not wrong intrinsically to work at building a temple2 but it is wrong from the circumstances1 when this act is regarded by the public as a sign of adherence to a false religion1 or when the act causes scandal 7see #ihc74 ,the laws of the ,church on mixed marriage or neutral schools afford other examples of cooperation lawful in one set of circumstances1 but unlawful in another on account of significance1 scandal1 danger1 etc4 #aeah4 ,but the circumstance that the cooperator knows for certain that the principal agent will use the cooperation for sinful purposes1 or will take scandal to the extent of being strengthened in his evil designs by reason of the assistance given1 does not necessarily make cooperation evil4 7a7 ,thus1 the cooperator may know from the declaration of the principal agent just what is to be done1 and yet have no will whatever to concur in the evil4 ,hence1 if a person is forced at the point of a revolver to help in robbing his own guests1 he knows very well what is being done1 but he certainly does not approve of it4 7b7 ,the cooperator may know that scandal will be occasioned by the cooperation1 either to the principal agent or to others1 but he may have sufficient reasons for permitting it 7see #adgh1 #adhb74 ,thus1 if the employee of an undertaking establishment has orders to assist at the funeral of an anarchist1 and will lose his means of livelihood if he does not comply1 he is not obliged to suffer this great detriment to avoid ,pharisaic scandal or even scandal of the weak4 ,but he should1 if possible1 declare his want of sympathy with anarchy1 if he knows of some anarchist present who regards his cooperation as a mark of sympathy for the principles of the deceased4 #aeai4 ,the second condition for lawful material cooperation is that the cooperator should have a reason sufficiently weighty for permitting the evil connected with his cooperation4 ,the standards for judging whether a reason is sufficiently weighty1 are the rules given above on permission of an evil effect 7see #aje74 7a7 ,hence1 the graver the sin that will be committed1 the graver the reason required for cooperation4 ,thus1 a greater reason is required for cooperation in assault than for cooperation in theft4 7b7 ,the nearer the cooperation is to the act of sin1 the greater the reason required for cooperation4 ,thus1 he who sells paper to the publisher of obscene books cooperates remotely2 he who sets the type or reads the proofs of such books cooperates proximately4 ,a greater reason is necessary for the latter than for the former cooperation4 7c7 ,the greater the dependence of the evil act on one's cooperation1 the greater the reason required for cooperation4 ,thus1 a more serious reason is needed to justify giving intoxicants to a person who abuses liquors1 if he is unable to procure them elsewhere1 than if he can easily get them from others4 ,but the fact that1 if you deny intoxicants or other cooperation1 another person will grant what you deny1 is not of itself a sufficient reason for cooperation4 7d7 ,the more certain the evil act1 the greater the reason required for cooperation4 ,example3 ,titus gets drunk frequently1 ,balbus at intervals4 ,hence1 a greater reason is needed for providing liquor to ,titus than to ,balbus4 7e7 ,the more obligation one is under to avoid the act of cooperation or to prevent the act of sin1 the greater the reason must be for cooperation4 ,hence1 a much greater reason is necessary for lawful cooperation by those who are bound ex officio1 from piety or justice1 to prevent a sin 7such as parents1 spiritual directors1 and policemen7 than on the part of those who are not so bound4 #aebj4 ,reasons for cooperation correspond in gravity with the importance of the goods or evils involved 7see #aafc sqq474 7a7 ,hence1 a grave reason for cooperation exists when1 if one refuses it1 a great good will be lost or a great evil incurred4 ,a day's wages or income is generally a great good2 a severe or long-continued pain1 great anger of an employer or other superior1 things that bring on notable annoyance1 shame1 repugnance1 etc41 are examples of great evils4 7b7 ,a very grave reason for cooperation is the gain or retention of a very great good or the avoidance of a very great evil4 ,a notable percentage of the goods of one's station in life should be considered as a very great good4 ,a severe and long-continued illness1 unemployment on the part of the breadearner of a needy family1 serious detriment to one's honor1 reputation or peace of mind1 etc41 are examples of very great evils4 7c7 ,graver reasons for cooperation are those that surpass the very grave without being supreme1 such as the loss of one's station in life1 incurable disease1 loss of an eye or other principal member1 severe or perpetual imprisonment4 7d7 ,most grave reasons for cooperation are the public safety of ,church or ,state1 loss of all one's property1 death1 extreme disgrace1 and the like4 #aeba4 ,when the sin committed by the principal agent is grave1 but contains no injustice to a third party1 the reasons for cooperation need not be so serious as when the sin is grave and unjust4 7a7 ,thus1 immediate and indispensable cooperation is justified in order to avoid grave loss to self2 for example1 one may ask absolution from an unworthy minister1 in order to recover the state of grace more quickly4 7b7 ,immediate and not indispensable cooperation1 or mediate and indispensable cooperation1 is lawful when it is necessary in order to avoid a moderate loss4 ,examples3 ,one may receive ,communion from an unworthy minister in order to make the ,easter duty more conveniently4 ,one may supply intoxicants to a drunkard in order to avoid a brawl1 if there is no time to call in the strong arm of the law to subdue the drunkard4 7c7 ,mediate and not indispensable cooperation is justified even by avoidance of a slight loss4 ,example3 ,a butcher may sell meat on ,friday to a cook who will serve it to some persons bound by abstinence1 if the cook can easily get the meat from others and the profit will go elsewhere1 unless the butcher sells her the meat4 #aebb4 ,when the sin committed by the principal agent is a grave injustice to a private party1 the reasons for cooperation need not be so serious as when the sin is against the public good4 7a7 ,thus1 immediate and indispensable cooperation is permissible1 if without it one cannot avoid a loss to self that is both certain and of a higher kind1 or at least a greater one of the same kind than that which will be suffered by the injured party2 for this latter would be unreasonable1 if he expected one to suffer a greater loss in order to spare him4 ,example3 ,mercurius1 a servant1 is threatened with instant death if he does not open a safe of his employer1 take from it certain papers1 and deliver them to a burglar4 7b7 ,immediate and not indispensable cooperation1 or mediate and indispensable cooperation1 is allowed if necessary for the avoidance of an equal loss to self4 ,examples3 ,the burglar mentioned above can blow open the safe if ,mercurius refuses to open it1 but1 if he is put to this trouble1 he will steal from ,mercurius valuables comparable to the papers in the safe4 ,claudius1 a servant1 opens a backdoor1 the only way through which a burglar can enter secretly1 because he is taken by surprise1 and refusal on his part will inevitably cost him the loss of papers equally as valuable as those the burglar wishes to secure4 ,sempronius wishes to rob a house1 but he cannot get there without the assistance of ,caius1 a chauffeur4 ,caius understands the purpose of ,sempronius1 but1 if he refuses to take him to the house1 ,sempronius will give out information that will do almost as much harm to ,caius as the robbery would do to the owner of the house4 7c7 ,mediate and not indispensable cooperation is justified by the avoidance of a loss to self less than the loss of the injured party1 but in proportion to it1 ,example3 ,balbus is usually honest1 but today he is going out to 8fleece0 a number of unsuspecting victims1 and he gives orders to his servant ,titus to get his coat and hat and open the door1 and to his chauffeur ,caius to drive him to the gambling place4 ,titus and ,caius have an inkling of ,balbus' plans1 but no proofs4 ,if they disobey his orders1 other servants will do what ,balbus asks1 the swindling will not be stopped1 but ,titus will be demoted1 and ,caius thrown out of the position necessary for his livelihood4 #aebc4 ,when the sin committed by the principal agent is against some good of a public character1 though not against the common safety1 still greater reasons are necessary for cooperation than those given above4 7a7 ,thus1 immediate and indispensable cooperation is allowed to avoid a greater public evil1 or an equal public evil joined with grave loss to self2 for it is lawful to permit a lesser in order to escape a greater evil4 ,thus1 the law may tolerate certain evils for the sake of public tranquillity1 if the attempt to suppress them would lead to serious disturbances4 ,one may delay to denounce a practice that is doing harm to a family1 if an immediate complaint would cause an equal harm to the family and bring on the maker of the complaint a serious evil4 7b7 ,immediate and not indispensable cooperation1 or mediate and indispensable cooperation1 is permitted when it is necessary to avoid an equal public evil1 or a very serious personal evil proportionate according to prudent judgment to the public harm done4 ,thus1 an actor who has a harmless part in a somewhat evil play may act it for a time1 if the company can easily obtain substitutes but he cannot easily obtain other employment and needs his wages4 ,similarly1 the owner of the only theatre in town may rent it to that company in order to be able to refuse it to another company that is worse4 7c7 ,mediate and not indispensable cooperation may be allowed when there is need of avoiding a grave loss to self which cannot be prevented except by cooperation4 ,thus1 the ushers in the theatre who have no present way of supporting dependents except by the wages they are earning1 may help patrons to seats1 even when the play that is being shown is not morally unobjectionable4 #aebd4 ,when the sin committed by another is directed against the necessary public welfare 7i4e41 against the common safety of ,church or ,state71 one may not cooperate1 but should resist4 ,in this case3 7a7 cooperation is unlawful1 for there is no greater public good to justify it1 and much less can it be justified by private good2 7b7 resistance should be made1 if possible2 for the individual should be willing to suffer loss1 spoliation1 and death itself to conserve the safety of the ,church or of the ,state4 #aebe4 ,in giving reasons sufficient for cooperation with sins injurious to the sinner alone or to some third party1 we considered only the harm or loss to oneself that would result from a refusal to cooperate4 ,but the good of others may also suffice for cooperation4 7a7 ,thus1 the good of the sinner may justify one in cooperating1 as when one assists in order to prevent the commission of a greater evil4 ,it would not be wrong to give whisky to one who wished to make himself drunk1 if otherwise he would take poisoned alcohol4 7b7 ,the good of a third party may justify cooperation1 as when one assists in perpetrating a minor injury against him in order to stop a major injury4 ,it would not be wrong to bind and gag a man who was being robbed1 if otherwise a burglar would murder him4 7c7 ,the common good will often be a justifying reason4 ,thus1 in political affairs it is at times necessary in indifferent matters to compromise with opponents1 whose general policies one does not approve1 in order to secure the election of good citizens or the passing of good laws1 when these ends are very important for the general welfare4 ,it is lawful to administer a ,sacrament to one who is unworthy in order to avoid a public evil1 such as disturbance or scandal among the people4 #aebf4 ,lawfulness of ,immediate ,cooperation4--7a7 ,if one cannot cooperate immediately without performing an act that is intrinsically evil 7see #aeag71 immediate cooperation is1 of course1 unlawful4 ,thus1 if one helped a trembling assassin to administer poison or to stab or shoot to death the victim1 one would be an accomplice in murder2 if one assisted a decrepit pagan to burn incense before an idol1 one would be an accomplice in false worship4 7b7 ,if one can cooperate immediately without performing an act intrinsically evil1 immediate cooperation is held lawful by some authorities1 but there are others who say that all immediate cooperation is sinful4 #aebg4 ,arguments for the ,opposing ,opinions on ,immediate ,cooperation4--7a7 ,those who deny the lawfulness of all immediate cooperation argue that immediate cooperation does not differ from complicity1 and hence that it is always intrinsically wrong4 ,if theft is the taking away of goods without the knowledge and consent of the owner1 what shall we call the act of a servant who assists a thief by carrying out the family silver to a waiting automobile8 ,the fact that the servant does this to save himself from wounds or death cannot change the moral character of the act1 else we shall have to say that the end may justify the means4 ,and what is said of theft1 can be said likewise of other species of sin4 7b7 ,those who affirm the lawfulness of immediate cooperation in certain cases argue that circumstances may take away evil from an act of assistance given to a sinner1 so that the act becomes indifferent or good4 ,thus1 theft is the taking away of what belongs to another against the reasonable will of the owner4 ,now1 the owner would be unreasonable if he were unwilling that one should cooperate in removing his goods1 if one had to do so in order to protect one's life1 at least if one had not engaged to defend his goods2 for one is bound to protect one's life in preference to the goods of another4 ,if a starving man may take a loaf of bread without the owner's consent1 why may not one save one's life by assisting a desperate criminal to carry off money8 ,moreover1 it is commonly admitted that a person in great need may lawfully ask a ,sacrament from a minister who is unworthy and who will sin by conferring it2 that is1 one may cooperate immediately with the unworthy administration of a ,sacrament and yet be free of guilt on account of the circumstances4 #aebh4 ,special ,cases of ,cooperation4--,the cases of cooperation1 like those involving scandal1 are innumerable1 but there are certain cases which occur today more frequently than others1 namely1 those of cooperation with evil publications1 dances1 and theatres1 and those of the cooperation of merchants1 innkeepers1 renters1 servants1 and workingmen4 ,cooperation in sins against faith and sins against justice are treated in their proper places1 but it will be useful here to speak of these other special kinds of cooperation1 since they offer many difficulties and a consideration of them now will illustrate the general principles on cooperation just given4 ,however1 the following points should be noted3 7a7 ,the application of the definitions and rules about cooperation to particular cases is one of the most difficult tasks of ,moral ,theology1 and hence there will be found great diversity of opinion among theologians on particular points4 ,space forbids a discussion here of the opposing opinions1 and we shall have to content ourselves1 in some of the illustrations that follow1 with solutions that are likely1 but whose opposites are also likely4 7b7 ,the cases that follow are treated according to the principles of cooperation4 ,but frequently in actual life there will be other factors to be considered1 such as the occasion of sin to oneself or scandal to others4 ,it should be remembered1 then1 that when a particular kind of material cooperation is here said to be lawful1 this must be understood as abstractly speaking2 for in an individual instance there may be circumstances of danger or disedification which would make it unlawful--a thing that often happens4 #aebi4 ,formal ,cooperation with ,evil ,reading ,matter4--7a7 ,cases of formal cooperation on account of explicit intention to do harm are those of the managers1 editors1 ordinary collaborators and authors of periodicals1 newspapers1 books1 etc41 which are opposed ex professo to faith and good morals2 for these persons are the brains which direct and select what is to be written and published1 and the matter they are creating or putting on paper is evil1 and has no direct purpose except evil4 7b7 ,cases of formal cooperation on account of implicit intention to do harm are those of the responsible heads of printing or publishing firms and their printers1 who agree to publish such objectionable written matter2 of booksellers1 owners of newsstands1 etc41 who agree to sell it2 for1 as we suppose1 these persons understand that the matter in question is intrinsically harmful and gravely forbidden4 #aecj4 ,cooperation with evil newspapers and other reading matter is material and lawful if the matter itself is not entirely evil1 that is1 if it has good uses as well as bad1 and one has a reason for cooperation that is just and proportionate to the kind of cooperation4 ,the following are examples of cooperation that may be merely material and lawful3 7a7 ,moral cooperation is given by writers of good matter who assist as collaborators2 by those who offer small notices or advertisements2 by readers who use a book1 periodical1 newspaper1 etc41 for the good matter it contains and skip the rest4 ,for all these persons contribute in a greater or less degree1 according to their influence1 reputation1 and ability1 to the prestige and success of the journal1 magazine or volume1 with which their names are connected or which they patronize4 ,reasons sufficient to excuse in these cases1 given by some authors1 are the following3 for a permanent contributor1 a very grave reason1 such as the need of support for his family which he cannot earn in any other way2 for an occasional contributor1 a rather grave reason1 such as the opportunity of refuting error or of setting forth true principles 7see ,canon #achf1 ,sec4 #b72 for the habitual reader1 a reason somewhat grave1 such as the advantage of reports useful for his business which cannot be found elsewhere2 for the occasional reader1 a slight reason1 such as entertainment to be derived from reading a good story2 for the small advertiser1 a slight reason1 such as profit in business4 ,those who by laudatory descriptions in advertisements or book reviews urge others to buy and read evil books are guilty of seduction1 rather than cooperation 7see #adie74 7b7 ,financial cooperation is given by those who endow or subsidize a publication1 by shareholders1 by large advertisers1 by subscribers1 etc4 ,reasons considered sufficient in these cases are as follows3 for the original providers of capital1 only a most grave reason2 for the buyers of much stock or advertising space1 only a very grave reason2 for subscribers1 a grave reason such as would suffice for habitual reading4 7c7 ,material assistance is given by those who produce or distribute a publication and by those who furnish necessary material4 ,among the producers1 the proximate cooperators are1 first1 the managers of the printing company1 and1 secondly1 the printers1 the 8readers0 and the correctors2 the remote cooperators are the typesetters1 arrangers of ink and paper1 binders1 and machine operators4 ,for proximate cooperation it is held that a most grave reason suffices1 as when a printer cannot otherwise support himself and his family2 for remote cooperation a grave reason is needed4 ,among the distributors1 there are degrees of proximity in cooperation as follows3 first1 those who put the reading matter into the hands of others 7e4g41 by keeping it on the tables in their waiting rooms or offices72 next1 those who keep it for purchasers who may ask for it2 finally1 those who are employed as keepers of newsstands1 newsboys1 etc4 ,we cannot think of any reason sufficient to excuse the first kind of cooperation1 since there is no lack of good reading matter which doctors1 lawyers1 barbers1 etc11 can provide for those who are waiting in their rooms2 for the second kind of cooperation1 a very grave reason suffices1 such as loss of trade by a poor bookseller1 if he would not supply his patrons with popular books or periodicals of a less elevated kind2 for the third kind of cooperation1 a grave reason suffices4 ,among the suppliers are those who sell to the printer his ink1 type1 machinery1 etc4 ,these cooperate only remotely1 and it is held that profit is a sufficient reason for their cooperation4 ,this we admit1 if the cooperation is not indispensable1 but we do not think that profit alone would uniformly justify voluntary cooperation upon which depended the publication of pernicious matter4 #aeca4 ,formal ,cooperation with ,evil ,dances or ,plays4--7a7 ,cases of formal cooperation on account of explicit intention to do harm are those of the originators of sinful dances and the writers of indecent plays4 7b7 ,cases of formal cooperation on account of implicit intention to do harm are those of the managements that produce bad shows1 organize bad dances1 or make the arrangements or issue the invitations for these affairs4 #aecb4 ,material ,cooperation with ,evil ,dances or ,plays4--,material cooperation is lawful1 if the cooperation is not itself intrinsically wrong1 and if there is a sufficient reason for permitting it4 7a7 ,cases of immediate material cooperation are those of players and dancers who have harmless parts in the performance4 ,a very grave reason1 such as avoidance of penury1 is considered as sufficient excuse here1 at least for a time4 7b7 ,cases of proximate material cooperation are those of musicians or singers1 who do not perform lascivious music2 of spectators1 who show no approval of the evil that is done2 of those who buy tickets but do not attend4 ,a more serious reason is required in the musician at the dance than in the musician at the play1 for the former directs the dance1 while the latter only accompanies the play4 ,likewise1 a more serious reason is required when one attends often1 or when one's patronage is essential to the success of the occasion1 than when one attends only rarely1 or when the play or dance does not depend on one's presence or patronage4 7c7 ,cases of remote material cooperation are those of the owners who rent their theatres or dance-halls or cabarets1 of ushers1 guards1 box-office employees1 stage hands1 etc4 ,it is held that profit is a sufficient reason to justify the owners in renting their places1 if the theatrical company or dance management can readily find other places in case they are sent away4 ,the ushers1 guards1 and the like are excused1 if they cannot easily find other employment2 but this does not justify gazing on immodest spectacles or laughing at or applauding obscene jokes4 #aecc4 ,formal ,cooperation by the ,manufacture or ,sale of ,objects ,whose ,sole ,purpose is ,gravely or ,venially ,sinful4--7a7 ,cases of explicit cooperation are those of the inventor of contraceptives or of instruments that frustrate generation1 of the designers of blasphemous representations or of tablets in honor of false deities1 the authors of somewhat profane or irreverent cards1 and the like4 7b7 ,cases of implicit cooperation are those of persons who1 for profit only1 make or sell objects such as those just mentioned1 while knowing that the purpose to which they naturally tend is the commission of sin4 #aecd4 ,material cooperation by the manufacture or sale of objects that are used for gravely or venially sinful purposes1 is lawful under the conditions given in #aeae4 ,hence1 in the first place1 the cooperation itself must not be intrinsically sinful1 that is1 the object made or sold must have good as well as evil uses4 ,there are two classes of objects of this kind3 7a7 there are some objects which may have good uses1 but which in fact are nearly always made to serve bad ends 7e4g41 idols1 insignia of forbidden societies1 pictures of the nude1 ultra-fashionable dress1 certain drugs or poisons1 blackjacks1 and pistol silencers72 7b7 there are other objects which are indifferent in themselves1 although often employed for sinful uses 7e4g41 dice1 playing cards and chips1 rouge1 lipsticks1 necklaces and other feminine adornments1 imitation jewelry1 adulterated articles1 and the like74 #aece4 ,the rules about proportionate cause for cooperation by the manufacture or sale of things that are employed in committing sin are those given above in #aeai4 7a7 ,hence1 the greater the sin that will be committed or the more harmful the consequences that will ensue from the use of an object1 the greater the reason required for making1 repairing or selling it4 ,in some instances only a most grave reason will excuse1 such as peril of instant death for refusal4 ,thus1 one may not sell poison or drugs to a person who contemplates suicide1 murder1 or abortion4 ,one may not sell narcotics to a person who asks for them in good faith and who cannot obtain them elsewhere1 but who will become a drug-fiend if they are given him4 ,one may not sell morphine1 heroin1 etc41 to a person who is already a drug-addict and who will abuse the drugs1 unless there is a very grave reason for not refusing1 such as danger that refusal will lead him to set fire to the building4 ,if one has all the playing cards in some remote hamlet1 one should not sell them without grave reason to a customer who will spend a great part of the time at games to the neglect of serious duties1 nor without a very grave reason to a customer who is a card sharper and who will swindle many innocent victims1 or to a gambler who will waste the money due to his wife and family4 7b7 ,the more closely related an object is with sinful uses1 the graver must be the excuse for having part in its manufacture or sale4 ,thus1 an ordinary reason 7e4g41 profit7 might suffice for selling a lamb to a pagan or attractive ornaments of dress to a woman1 where only a very grave or most grave reason would suffice for selling incense to a pagan or ornaments that are frequently used as amulets or charms4 ,generally speaking1 it is seriously wrong and gravely sinful to make or sell articles whose ordinary use is gravely sinful4 7c7 ,the more a customer depends on a determinate manufacturer or merchant to obtain such an object1 the more serious must be the reason for making or selling it4 ,thus1 a grave reason1 such as a notable loss1 is sufficient reason for selling a special fancy apparel to a notorious 8vampire0 7i4e41 a woman who carries on scandalous flirtations in order to get presents71 if the adornments can be obtained from other dressmakers or modistes or stores2 but a much graver reason would be required1 if the apparel could not be purchased except at one place4 ,in the former case1 refusal to sell would not prevent the activities of this woman2 in the latter case1 it would at least hinder her to some extent4 7d7 ,the more certain it is that an object will be employed sinfully1 the greater must be the reason for making1 repairing or selling it4 ,examples3 ,sempronius1 a curio dealer1 is asked by three men for a statue of ,joss along with joss-sticks and papers4 ,the first customer says he intends to use these articles for religious rites2 the second will not tell what his purpose is2 the third wishes to present the articles to a museum4 ,sempronius may not sell to the first customer except for a most grave reason1 such as fear of death if he refuses2 he may not sell to the second customer without a very great reason1 such as a very considerable loss to himself2 he may sell to the third customer for an ordinary reason1 such as the profit he makes from the sale4 ,titus1 who sells firearms1 knows that some of his customers1 though he has no particular individuals in mind1 will use these weapons unlawfully in poaching or shooting out of season4 ,since evil is not to be presumed of any particular individual1 ,titus has the right to sell to all for the usual reason of business profit4 #aecf4 ,is a merchant bound to inquire the use which a customer will make of an article that is often employed for sin8 7a7 ,if the positive law requires that the merchant inform himself1 he is bound to make inquiries necessary for obtaining the information4 ,thus1 if the civil law forbids the sale of weapons without a permit or of poisons without a prescription1 the merchant has to ask for the customer's authorization to buy4 7b7 ,if the positive law has no such regulation1 we should distinguish between articles that are frequently used for sin and articles that are generally used for sin4 ,when an article of the former class is requested1 there is no obligation to make inquiries1 for such an obligation would be unduly burdensome2 but1 if an article of the latter class is desired1 one should make inquiries1 unless one is morally certain that the intention of the customer is good1 or there is a very grave reason for seeking no information4 ,thus1 one may sell a deck of cards to a stranger without asking for proofs that he is not a confidence man in disguise2 but one may not sell deadly poison to an entire stranger merely on the strength of his word that he needs it for medical or other lawful purposes4 #aecg4 ,sinful ,cooperation in ,providers of ,food and ,drink4--7a7 ,there is explicit formal cooperation with sins of gluttony1 drunkenness1 violation of fast or abstinence1 whenever one gladly supplies the means for these sins to those who are about to commit them4 ,thus1 if a host supplies a guest who is overdrinking with all the intoxicants the latter desires1 and secretly wishes that the guest may make himself drunk1 there is explicit cooperation4 ,there is implicit formal cooperation when he who supplies the food or drink does not directly intend evil1 but when the act of giving the food or drink is from the circumstances of the case an evil act1 as when a person is given a meal which will not agree with him and will make him sick or aggravate a malady1 or when a person who wishes to violate a fast ostentatiously to show contempt is furnished with the eatables he asks for4 7b7 ,there is unlawful material cooperation when one does not approve of the sin that will be committed1 but nevertheless without sufficient reason supplies the food or drink4 ,thus1 there is sinful cooperation when a restaurant owner gives meat on ,friday to one not dispensed1 for no other reason than the profit he himself will make4 #aech4 ,material cooperation in providing food or drink to those who ask it1 but have no right to take it1 is lawful when one has the right to provide the food or drink1 and there is a sufficient reason for cooperation4 ,the sufficiency of the reason depends on circumstances1 as explained in #aeai4 7a7 ,hence1 a greater reason is required when the sin that the other person will commit will be greater4 ,thus1 a grave reason1 such as indignation of a customer1 might suffice for cooperation with a venial violation of temperance or abstinence2 but a graver reason1 such as a serious quarrel1 is required if the violation will be mortally sinful4 ,a graver reason is also necessary when the consequences will be more harmful 7e4g41 the fights of the drunkard1 or the serious illness of one who has neglected his diet7 than when they are less harmful 7e4g41 the foolish talk of the drunkard1 or the stupefaction of the glutton74 7b7 ,a greater reason is required when the cooperation is closer4 ,thus1 in supplying meat the butcher cooperates only remotely1 while the cook who prepares it and the waiter who serves it cooperate proximately4 7c7 ,a greater reason is necessary when one's cooperation is essential to the commission of the sin4 ,thus1 in a large town where there are many restaurants1 the fact that a customer would quarrel if denied meat on a day of abstinence would excuse cooperation1 whereas in a small village which has only one eating place1 it seems there should be a more serious reason1 such as blasphemies or boycott or strike against one's business which the refusal of meat might evoke4 7d7 ,a greater reason is called for when the sin of the other person is more certain to follow4 ,thus1 a restaurant-keeper who is patronized by strangers of all kinds1 temperate and intemperate1 ,catholic and non-,catholic1 may serve wine at meals1 where this is allowed1 and provide meat on days of abstinence for all comers2 for the diners are not known to him1 and it would not be possible for him to inform himself whether they are sober in their habits or exempted from the law of abstinence4 ,but in a boarding house the landlady should not consent to have strong beverages on the table1 when she knows that some of those present will thereby become intoxicated2 neither should she agree to provide meat on ,fridays for a ,catholic who is not excused from abstinence1 unless there is a serious reason1 such as the loss of this boarder which she cannot afford on account of her poverty4 ,moreover1 since dispensation is given from the laws of fast and abstinence but not from the law of temperance1 there is less certainty about the intent to sin when one asks for meat on ,friday than when one asks for a great quantity of liquor to be brought to one's table4 ,drunkenness is also more certain when a person who asks for drink is already somewhat under its influence4 #aeci4 ,the sins with which one cooperates by supplying food or drink to others who have no right to it are more or less serious according as they violate the natural law or only positive human law4 7a7 ,thus1 violation of fast and abstinence is opposed to the natural law when it is intended as a manifestation of hatred of religion4 ,one may not cooperate with a violation of fast and abstinence which is manifestly of this character4 7b7 ,violation of temperance is also opposed to natural law1 and doubly so when it leads to such evils as quarrels1 fights1 murders1 blasphemies1 etc4 ,it is not lawful to cooperate with intemperance1 unless this is necessary in order to prevent the commission of a greater sin by the other person1 or a serious loss to oneself4 ,thus1 it is not unlawful to supply whisky to a burglar who wishes to get drunk1 if this is the only way one can prevent the robbery of a third party or serious injury to oneself4 7c7 ,violation of a fast or abstinence in itself is opposed only to positive law2 and1 since fasting is more difficult than abstinence1 one is more easily excused from the observance of the former than from that of the latter4 ,hence1 if there is a doubt whether a customer has a right to receive the food or drink he asks for1 a restaurant-keeper can decide more readily in the customer's favor if there is question of fast or abstinence than if there is question of intemperance1 and more readily still if there is question of fast than if there is question of abstinence4 ,generally speaking1 a restaurant-keeper may supply meat on ,friday to all who ask it1 provided he has other substantial food indicated on his bill of fare and shows himself willing to serve that as well as meat4 #aedj4 ,renting of ,houses or ,rooms and cooperation in ,sin4--7a7 ,he who rents to persons who wish to carry on disorderly1 immoral1 idolatrous1 unlawful1 or other sinful occupations or practices1 is guilty of formal or unlawful material cooperation1 if he approves of the conduct of the renters or has no sufficient reason for renting to them4 ,the same is true if in a similar way one permits persons bent on evil 7e4g41 pickpockets7 to lounge in one's offices1 hotels1 etc4 7b7 ,he who gives the use of his house1 room1 hall1 field1 etc41 to persons who will employ them for evil1 is only a material and not a guilty cooperator1 if there is no prohibition of his act1 and he has a sufficient reason for it4 #aeda4 ,examples of reasons sufficient for cooperation in renting are as follows3 7a7 ,a very grave reason4--,in civitatibus in quibus majoris mali vitandi causa permissum est1 licet locare domum meretricibus1 dummodo non sequatur grave nocumentum vicinis honestis vel major ansa peccandi ob domus situm1 et adsit ratio proportionate gravis1 utputa quod alii locatorii non adsint1 dominus notabile damnum patiatur si domus non occupetur1 et meretrices facile alium locatarium obtinere possint4 ,hodie vero quum constet meretrices plerasque invite vitam turpem exercere 7white slavery7 et morbis pessimis morteque praematura affligi1 meretricium vero nocumentum multigenum bono publico 7the social evil7 inferre1 omnis vir probus abhorrebit a pretio locario ab administratoribus lupanarium oblato4 7b7 ,a more grave reason4--,meetings whose purpose is contrary to the common good 7e4g41 anti-religious gatherings71 even though permitted by civil law1 should not be given the use of one's premises except in a rare case of the greatest necessity4 #aedb4 ,unlawful ,cooperation of ,servants1 ,employees1 and ,workingmen4--7a7 ,cooperation is formal if these intend the sin of their employer with which they cooperate1 or if the act of cooperation is itself intrinsically evil4 ,thus1 a bookkeeper does no wrong in merely keeping a record of receipts and expenses2 but1 if he notices many instances of great frauds and injustices done by his firm and keeps at his post in order that dishonesty may be covered up and continued1 he becomes a formal cooperator4 ,but a bookkeeper who falsifies or destroys records in order that his business may be able to issue an incorrect statement of its financial condition is involved in its guilt1 even though his motive is pity or loyalty4 ,other examples of formal cooperation are those of a secretary who takes down dictation which contains blasphemous or obscene expressions1 and of a taxi-driver who tells his passengers how to get to gambling dens1 or who helps a criminal to get away by driving him through dark streets4 7b7 ,cooperation is material and unlawful1 when the intention and the act itself are not evil1 but when there is no sufficient reason for the cooperation4 ,thus1 the following proposition was condemned by ,innocent ,,xi in #afgi as scandalous and pernicious3 8,famulus qui submissis humeris scienter adjuvat herum suum ascendere per fenestras ad stuprandam virginem1 et multoties eidem subservit deferendo scalam1 aperiendo januam1 aut quid simile cooperando1 non peccat mortaliter1 si id faciat metu notabilis detrimenti1 puta ne a domino male tractetur1 ne torvis oculis aspiciatur1 ne domo expellatur0 7,denzinger1 n4 #abja74 ,though the acts of cooperation of the servant here mentioned are not intrinsically evil1 the cooperation is proximate and positive and habitual1 and the wrong done so serious that only a most grave reason1 such as fear of death1 could justify the help given by the servant to his master4 #aedc4 ,lawful ,cooperation of ,servants1 ,workingmen1 or ,employees4--7a7 ,if cooperation is remote and is not indispensable to the sin to be committed1 the mere fact that one is employed by the principal cause will excuse2 for the employee is not supposed to question the employer about the reasons of orders given1 and he is not responsible for the intentions of the employer1 but for the performance of what is assigned to himself4 ,hence1 the following kinds of cooperation are held permissible for no other reason than that of service3 carrying liquor or food to an employer who wishes to make himself drunk or to break the fast1 buying and carrying to him papers which he should not read1 giving him his hat and coat or getting his car ready as he starts out to attack an enemy1 opening the door to a slanderer whom the mistress of the house wishes to employ4 ,also1 a public taxi-driver may take his patrons to clubs or road-houses where they will become intoxicated1 if he is in no way responsible for their intention and shows no approval of it1 and they can go just as well without him4 7b7 ,if cooperation is proximate1 the mere fact that one is employed is not sufficient as an excuse for cooperation2 there must be some other reason that is sufficiently weighty in view of the gravity of the sin and the other circumstances4 ,thus1 to drive one's employer to the place where he is to receive stolen valuables is justifiable1 if one is under threat of great bodily harm if one refuses4 ,item ob incommodum gravius evitandum permittitur famulo deferre litteras heri amatorias ad amasiam cum qua illicitum commercium habet1 tempus et locum conveniendi amasiae nuntiare1 excubias agere dum simul adsint4 ,but a servant who is called on habitually to cooperate in these ways should secure another position1 if possible4 #aedd4 ,the principles given as to servants should be applied likewise to other persons who are subordinates1 with due allowance made for the difference of circumstances4 7a7 ,thus1 children1 wives1 pupils1 etc41 may be less excusable in cooperation than servants1 since the former may be in a better position to remonstrate against what is ordered4 ,hence1 if the master of the house who sometimes goes on a spree orders a servant to bring him his demijohn1 disobedience might be more difficult than if the same order was given the wife4 7b7 ,children1 wives1 pupils1 etc41 may be more excusable1 since unlike the servants they may be unable to go elsewhere4 ,those who agree to work at places known as vicious resorts1 or who let their employer understand that they will not see or hear many things1 or who habitually perform services proximately related to sin 7what is called 8dirty work071 are guilty of formal cooperation1 at least when they can secure good employment elsewhere4 ,children1 on the contrary1 may be so dependent on a tyrannical father that they cannot refuse cooperation without serious consequences to themselves4 #aede4 ,duties of ,confessors4--,instruction should be given to penitents who are guilty of sinful cooperation4 7a7 ,the confessor should instruct ignorant penitents on the sinfulness of their cooperation1 when there is a duty of justice to do this1 as when the penitents ask to be instructed2 or when there is a duty of charity1 as when the sinfulness of the cooperation in question is known to many persons1 or the penitents by reason of cooperation are giving great scandal or are in serious danger4 7b7 ,the confessor should not instruct ignorant penitents on the sinfulness of their cooperation--at least1 not for a time--if they are in good faith and if graver evils would result from the instruction than from silence4 #aedf4 ,obligations to be ,imposed on ,penitents on ,account of ,sinful cooperation4--7a7 ,some cases of cooperation cause the culprit to fall under ecclesiastical penalties1 for example1 those who act as seconds or spectators at duels 7,canon #bcea74 7b7 ,some cases entail a duty of reparation for scandal given1 as when one has aided the diffusion of irreligious or obscene literature or whisperings among the people4 7c7 ,some kinds of cooperation include dangerous occasions of sin which one is bound to avoid1 as when one works for a man who produces adulterated wares or gets money under false pretenses4 ,art4 #aj3 ,,the ,,commandments ,,of ,,charity 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 q4 #dd47 #aedg4 ,there is no commandment concerning charity in the ,decalogue1 but charity is implicitly contained in all the commandments of other virtues2 for charity is the end of every commandment 7,i ,tim41 i4 #e74 ,thus1 the commandments of the first table of the ,law tend to the love of ,god2 the commandments of the second table to the love of neighbor4 ,on account of its supreme importance1 however1 charity was made the object of special commandments in both the ,old and the ,new ,testament4 7a7 ,in the ,old ,testament1 at the second giving of the tables of the ,law1 it is declared3 8,now1 ,israel1 what doth the ,lord thy ,god require of thee1 but that thou fear the ,lord thy ,god1 and walk in his ways1 and love him1 and serve the ,lord thy ,god1 with all thy heart and with all thy soul80 7,deut41 x4 #ab74 7b7 ,in the ,new ,testament1 our ,lord1 being asked which is the great commandment in the law1 replied3 8,thou shalt love the ,lord1 thy ,god1 with thy whole heart1 and with thy whole soul1 and with thy whole mind4 ,this is the greatest and the first commandment4 ,and the second is like to this3 ,thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself4 ,on these two commandments dependeth the whole law and the prophets0 7,matt1 xxii4 #cg-dj74 #aedh4 ,charity must come 8from a pure heart1 and a good conscience and faith unfeigned0 7,i ,tim41 i4 #e71 and these words may be used to indicate how all other commandments have charity for their purpose4 7a7 8,a pure heart0 is had by the observance of the negative commandments of the natural law1 which forbid evil1 or of the commandments about the virtues regulative of the passions2 and it is a disposition preparatory for the love of ,god1 since an impure heart will be taken up with evil or with earthly things1 and so turned away from the goodness of ,god4 7b7 8,a good conscience0 is had by the observance of the affirmative commandments of the natural law1 or of the commandments regulative of actions2 and it too tends to charity as its goal1 for a bad conscience fills one with dread and horror of the justice of ,god4 7c7 8,faith unfeigned0 is had by the observance of the supernatural law1 or of the commandments about worship of the true ,god2 and it leads up to charity1 for a feigned faith1 or false worship1 separates one from the truth of ,god4 #aedi4 ,though charity is but one virtue 7see #aaae71 it has two acts3 one about love of ,god1 which is the end1 and another about love of neighbor1 which is a means to that end4 7a7 ,if all understood that the end includes the means and the means supposes the end1 there would be no necessity for two distinct commandments2 for there is no love of ,god without love of neighbor 7,i ,john1 iv4 #bj71 and he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law 7,rom41 xiii4 #h74 7b7 ,but since many would not perceive that one of the commandments of charity contains the other1 it was necessary to propose these commandments separately3 8,we have this command from ,god that he who loves ,god love also his brother0 7,i ,john1 iv4 #ba74 #aeej4 ,charity extends to other objects than ,god and the neighbor1 namely1 to self and one's own body 7see #aacc sqq472 it also has other acts than that of love1 such as the acts of joy1 peace1 beneficence 7see #aaic sqq471 and the suppression of uncharitable hatred1 sloth1 envy 7see #abie sqq471 etc4 ,nevertheless1 on the two commandments of love of ,god and love of neighbor depend the whole law and the prophets 7,matt41 xxii4 #dj71 and other commandments about charity are not necessary4 7a7 ,thus1 the objects of love are either the end or the means to the end1 and1 as the two commandments of charity refer to both of these1 they omit nothing that is to be loved4 ,it was not necessary to make express command of love of self1 for nature inclines to that sufficiently1 and the duty of keeping love of self within bounds is provided for in the commandments that ,god be loved above all and the neighbor as oneself4 7b7 ,the acts of charity distinct from love result from love1 and the acts opposed to charity are virtually forbidden in the commandments of their opposites4 ,hence1 there was no need of explicit precepts about the secondary acts of charity or of explicit prohibitions of the sins against charity4 ,but for the sake of those who might not perceive that the minor functions of charity are commanded and acts of uncharitableness forbidden in the two great commandments1 special and explicit laws were given which enjoin peace1 joy1 etc41 and forbid hatred1 envy1 etc4 #aeea4 ,the precepts of the secondary acts of charity are3 7a7 joy3 8,rejoice in the ,lord always0 7,phillip41 iv4 #d72 7b7 peace3 8,follow peace with all men0 7,heb41 xii4 #ad72 and 7c7 beneficence3 8,while we have time1 let us do good to all0 7,gal41 vi4 #aj74 #aeeb4 ,the prohibitions of uncharitableness are as follows3 7a7 against hatred3 8,thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy heart0 7,lev1 xix4 ,,it72 7b7 against sloth3 8,bow down thy shoulder and hear her 7wisdom71 and be not grieved with her bands0 7,ecclus41 vi4 #bf72 7c7 against envy3 8,let us not be made desirous of vainglory1 provoking one another1 envying one another0 7,gal41 v4 #bf71 7d7 against discord3 8,speak the same things and let there be no schisms among you0 7,i ,cor41 i4 #aj72 and 7e7 against scandal3 8,put not a stumbling-block or a scandal in your brother's way0 7,rom41 xiv4 #ac74 #aeec4 ,the ,commandment of ,love of ,god4--,in the commandment of love of ,god two things are expressed3 7a7 the matter of the commandment is ,god1 the object of love2 7b7 the manner of the commandment is that ,god be loved as the ,last ,end1 to whose love all other love is to be subordinated4 #aeed4 ,there is a twofold manner or mode of performing a virtuous act3 7a7 ,the intrinsic mode is that which comes from the nature of the virtue commanded4 ,thus1 in the ,fourth ,commandment is included not only the substance of an act 7viz41 that honor be shown71 but also the mode of the act 7i4e41 that such honor and so much honor be shown as is owed to a parent by his child74 ,the intrinsic mode is always included in a commandment along with the substance of the act prescribed 7cfr4 #dhj sqq474 7b7 ,the extrinsic mode is that which belongs to some virtue different from the one commanded4 ,this mode is not included in a commandment4 ,thus1 if honor be shown to parents out of love of ,god1 the mode of love of ,god is extrinsic to the commandment1 for the commandment is concerned with the virtue of filial piety1 and the mode of the act pertains to charity1 which is a virtue distinct from filial piety4 #aeee4 ,the intrinsic mode of performing an act of virtue is also twofold3 7a7 ,the essential mode is that without which an act is not virtuous4 ,thus1 he who gives to his indigent parents according to his means and their needs fulfills the essential mode of the ,fourth ,commandment1 for1 if he gave them less than he could afford and they needed1 his act would not come up to the requirements of the commandment4 7b7 ,the ideal mode of the performance of virtue is that which adds to the virtue greater goodness and value1 and which is intended by a lawgiver as the end1 but not as the object of his command4 ,thus1 he who gives to his indigent parents not only sufficiently1 but also with a great willingness and cheerfulness1 fulfills the ,fourth ,commandment with greater perfection than another who supports his parents with less alacrity4 #aeef4 ,the mode of the love of ,god prescribed in the first and great commandment is that ,god be loved with the whole heart1 etc4 ,but 8to love with the whole heart1 etc410 can be understood in various senses4 7a7 ,thus1 it may be understood to mean a love that is subjectively or intensively great1 as when one loves ,god with much fervor and affection4 ,this mode of love is ideal1 since the measure of loving ,god is to love ,him without measure1 but it is not essential4 ,the end of the commandment is that we love ,god ever more and more1 and perform what is required with ever greater promptitude and gladness2 but the commandment does not fix any certain degree of intensity1 although it would be inordinate to choose to love ,god less intensely than we love creatures 7see #aafj74 7b7 8,to love with the whole heart0 may be understood to mean a love that is objectively or appreciatively great1 as when one esteems and loves ,god as the ,supreme ,good4 ,this mode of love is essential1 and hence without it the commandment is not observed4 ,however much one loves ,god1 if one does not love ,him as the ,supreme ,good1 one does not love ,him aright1 and does not practise the virtue of charity that is commanded4 #aeeg4 ,love of ,god from the whole heart1 objectively or appreciatively understood1 is either actual or habitual4 7a7 ,actually1 one loves ,god with one's whole heart when there is never any interruption or distraction to one's love1 and one is continually engaged in an act of loving ,god above all else4 ,this is the ideal mode of fulfilling the commandment of love1 and it is also the end to which the commandment is intended to lead4 ,but it is only in heaven1 where ,god will be all in all 7,i ,cor41 xv4 #bh71 that this ideal fulfillment will take place4 7b7 ,habitually1 one loves ,god with one's whole heart when one is in the state of grace1 preferring the love of ,god to every contrary love1 although it is only at intervals that one is able to make acts of love4 ,this is the essential mode of fulfilling the command of love here on earth4 ,the whole heart must be given to ,god to the exclusion of love for any mortal sin1 for mortal sin separates from ,god4 #aeeh4 ,the mode of loving ,god is expressed in various places in scripture 7,deut41 vi4 #e2 ,matt41 xxii4 #cg2 ,mark1 xii4 #cj2 ,luke1 x4 #bg71 and there are slightly different interpretations given to the words by which it is conveyed4 ,thus1 some exegetes see in the expressions 8heart10 8soul10 8mind10 8strength10 synonymous significations of the one thought that ,god should be loved over all1 and they think that different words are used only in order to give greater clearness and energy to the thought4 ,but the following seems also a reliable explanation3 7a7 ,god must be loved with one's whole heart1 that is1 the will must not intend any ,last ,end other than ,god2 7b7 ,god must be loved with one's whole mind1 soul and strength1 that is1 the powers moved by the will--intellect1 appetites and executive faculties--must be subject to ,god1 must be regulated according to ,his will1 and must carry out ,his commandments4 #aeei4 ,love of ,god with one's whole heart excludes1 then1 opposite loves1 but it does not exclude other loves that are not opposite or other dispositions that are less perfect4 7a7 ,thus1 love of ,god with one's whole heart does not exclude love of self or of neighbor4 7b7 ,love of ,god with one's whole heart does not exclude the use of acts in reference to ,god that do not reach the height of disinterested love1 such as acts of hope1 gratitude1 or fear 7see #ajcc1 #ajed1 #ajic74 #aefj4 ,there are various degrees of perfection in the fulfillment of the commandment of love of ,god4 7a7 ,the most perfect fulfillment is found in heaven1 where there is no turning from the love of ,god by grave sin1 no impediment to its exercise by venial sin1 and no interruption of its act by other occupations4 7b7 ,the more perfect fulfillment of this commandment found on earth is modelled on the love of ,god exercised by the ,saints in heaven1 and the nearer one approaches to the model1 the better does one fulfill the commandment4 ,thus1 he who avoids not only what is against charity 7i4e41 mortal sin71 but also1 as far as possible1 what is aside from charity 7i4e41 venial sin71 loves ,god more perfectly than one who is careless about venial sin2 and he who shuns1 not only things unlawful that are harmful to charity1 but also things lawful that interrupt the exercise of charity1 loves ,god more1 other things being equal1 than another who avoids the unlawful1 but whose mind is greatly occupied with lawful temporal matters4 7c7 ,the ordinarily perfect fulfillment of the commandment is found in all those who1 both in their internal and in their external acts1 avoid all that is contrary to the love of ,god1 although they fall into venial sin and are mostly occupied with temporal affairs4 ,thus is charity the bond of perfection 7,col1 iii4 #ad71 the tie that binds man to his highest good2 those who keep the commandments for its sake are followers after perfection1 those who embrace counsels for its sake are in the state of perfection4 #aefa4 ,the ,commandment of ,love of ,self4--,love of self is understood in many senses4 7a7 ,according to its moral character1 love of self is either sinful or virtuous1 and virtuous self-love is either natural or supernatural 7as was explained in #aacf74 7b7 ,according to its physical character1 love of self is either innate or elicited4 ,innate love of self is the tendency of nature to desire what pertains to the perfection of self1 such as existence and its preservation 7see #aajh74 ,elicited love of self is the choice on the part of the reason and will of an ultimate happiness for self and of the means thereto4 #aefb4 ,charity obliges each one capable of precept to an elicited supernatural love of self4 ,the obligation is grave for the following reasons3 7a7 the love of ,god includes love of self1 for we cannot love ,god truly unless we also love those things that are ,his1 especially ,his rational creatures made to ,his image and destined for ,his society2 7b7 the love of neighbor supposes love of self1 for the commandment of love 7,matt41 xxii4 #ci7 offers love of self as the model for love of others4 #aefc4 ,the goods which the law of charity to self requires one to desire and seek after1 are all those things that are necessary for the attainment of one's happiness and due perfection4 7a7 ,thus1 as to supernatural goods1 one is bound to obtain for oneself things necessary for salvation4 ,one is obliged1 then1 to acquire a sufficient knowledge of the faith2 to enter into a state of life for which one is suited 7e4g41 matrimony or religion72 to avoid sin and the occasions of sin2 not to delay conversion for a notable length of time2 to put oneself in the state of grace1 especially at the hour of death4 ,but one is not obliged to perform these duties with the motive of charity in mind1 nor to elect for self works of supererogation or counsels of perfection4 7b7 ,as to intellectual goods1 one is bound to seek what is necessary for a proper fulfillment of the duties of one's station in life4 ,thus1 one owes it in charity to oneself to seek the education and training that are presupposed in one's profession or occupation1 and to bestow the necessary study and attention4 ,see above1 on the intellectual virtues 7#add sqq47 and on the sin of ignorance 7#ijd sqq474 7c7 ,as to corporal goods1 one is obliged to use the ordinary means for preserving life and health 7on the desire of death1 see #ajfc74 ,hence1 in matters of food1 drink1 clothing1 and recreation1 each one is in duty bound to follow the laws of hygiene4 7d7 ,as to the external goods of person 7i4e41 honor and reputation71 there is a strict duty of guarding them or of recovering them1 as far as possible4 7e7 ,as to external goods of fortune 7i4e41 wealth and possessions71 one must aim to acquire as much as is necessary for one's subsistence and the fulfillment of duties to others4 ,hence the duty of labor for those who do not possess the necessary means4 ,but charity to self does not demand that one aspire to reach the top of the ladder in the financial world or to accumulate a very large surplus4 ,one may indeed lawfully seek to become a millionaire1 or to become so wealthy as to be able to retire with leisure1 if one goes about this lawfully2 but there is no obligation to strive after more than is reasonably necessary4 #aefd4 ,man owes it to himself to put to good use the talents ,god has bestowed upon him for his self-improvement and self-development4 ,it is a sin1 therefore1 greater or less according to circumstances1 to neglect the care of the mind or of the mental culture one should possess4 7a7 ,thus1 reason is the faculty that elevates man above the irrational world1 and knowledge is the perfection and excellence of that faculty4 ,what life or health is to the body1 reason or knowledge is to the mind2 and so1 just as it is a sin against the body to neglect life or health1 it is also a sin against the mind to neglect reason or knowledge4 ,persons predisposed to insanity who expose themselves to alienation of mind by the use of drugs or strong spirits or by practices or occupations that expose them to shocks 7such as gambling71 and others who value ignorance1 scepticism1 and error as if these infirmities were goods1 sin against the mind1 at least materially4 7b7 ,reason and knowledge are also necessary in numberless ways to man's bodily1 social1 cultural1 and religious life4 ,without the elements of a general education in reading1 writing and arithmetic1 one is very seriously handicapped in making a bare living2 and without the education of the high school1 college or university1 one is frequently under a disadvantage in seeking to better oneself or improve one's position4 ,besides these utilities for practical affairs1 education has advantages of a loftier kind3 it makes its possessor a more capable citizen1 a more pleasant companion and friend1 a more influential exponent of good causes1 and a greater credit to the religion he practises2 it gives enjoyment to leisure1 comfort to rest1 and dignity to success2 the labor of acquiring it is a discipline of the will2 the taste for higher things it imparts is a natural protection against much that is evil2 the mental power and knowledge that are its gifts enable one to expose error and fallacy and to uphold the truth and the right4 ,it is of precept1 therefore1 that one acquire the moral and mental training which one's salvation and calling in life make necessary2 it is of counsel--and the counsel is one that should be much urged in our times--that one who has the opportunity of attaining to a higher proficiency1 to the advantage of self and society1 should avail himself of that opportunity4 #aefe4 ,examples of ,sins ,committed by ,neglect of ,necessary ,education--7a7 ,directly1 one sins against the duty of cultivation of the mind when through laziness or malice one slights the means of acquiring necessary knowledge--as when pupils absent themselves from school1 or give no attention to the teacher or no preparation to their lessons2 or when collegians sacrifice study to athletics and amusements4 7b7 ,indirectly one sins against the duty of knowledge1 when one is responsible for habits that impede or prevent necessary concentration of mind1 as when one goes about so much socially that the mind is always in a whirl1 or reads so much light literature that everything serious becomes a bore1 or overeats so much that the brain becomes sluggish1 or pays no attention to the wise rule that a sound mind needs a sound body4 #aeff4 ,the proper care of the body and of health is not merely a thing next to godliness2 it is a moral duty1 and so a part of godliness4 ,god ,himself on ,sinai gave to the ,chosen ,people of old a sanitary code1 and the faithful observance by orthodox ,jews of those regulations has had much to do with the superior health and longevity of their race4 ,moral ,theology1 therefore1 is not digressing from its proper subject-matter1 if it gives some attention to rules of health4 ,the duties owed to physical well-being can be reduced to the following3 7a7 to secure for the body the things needed for the maintenance and replenishment of its substance and vigor1 such as food1 air1 sleep and exercise2 7b7 to ward off or remove those things that are injurious to or destructive of health1 such as excessive heat or cold1 waste matter1 poisons1 and disease2 7c7 to assist these physical means by psychical or spiritual ones1 such as cheerfulness and the will to keep well and fit4 #aefg4 ,food and drink are naturally a prime requisite for life1 since they furnish the material from which the body is built and renewed4 ,they should be used1 however1 in such a way as to serve their purpose4 7a7 ,thus1 the quantity and quality have to be regulated according to the needs of the individual and circumstances1 and so will vary with climate1 age1 health1 and occupation4 ,the distinction of clean and unclean foods does not exist in the ,new ,law 7,rom41 xiv4 #ad2 ,matt41 xv4 #ag-bj71 but it is clear that the same kinds or amounts of food and drink do not agree with all constitutions2 that overeating1 undereating1 and want of variety in diet are not conducive to good health4 ,physicians recommend that something raw be eaten every day and something indigestible at every meal1 and that a person watch his weight1 keeping a little overweight up to middle life and a little underweight after that age4 7b7 ,the manner of eating is of first-rate importance1 since the digestion is harmed if one eats without appetite or with mental preoccupation on deep subjects1 or bolts the food1 or makes excessive use of relishes or condiments4 #aefh4 ,fresh air1 on which the production of pure blood and the continuance of vitality depend1 is another necessity of life4 ,hence1 we may well heed the following rules which hygienists lay down on this point3 7a7 let in fresh air and sunshine to the places where you live and work1 and exclude dust and smoke2 7b7 wear light1 loose and porous clothing1 so that the skin may have air2 7c7 get out of doors in the open air part of the time every day1 even though the weather is uninviting1 for sunshine or natural light is also a requisite of good health2 7d7 breathe through the nose1 and not through the mouth4 ,breathing should be deep1 slow and regular1 and one should take deep-breathing exercises several times a day2 7e7 sleep in a well-ventilated room1 or out-of-doors if possible4 #aefi4 ,rest and relaxation are needful for body and mind alike1 that the burdens of life may not bear too heavily1 and nature may be allowed to exercise her ministries of renewal and restoration4 ,but here1 as in other things1 the guiding rule must be moderation4 7a7 ,through excess1 some harm their health by indulging in too much repose4 ,a strong1 healthy individual who remains in bed from midnight till noon1 or who gives most of the afternoon to a prolonged nap1 is storing up more energy than he or she needs1 and will feel the worse for it4 ,similarly1 persons whose life is one round of vacations or diversions pay for their aimless existence in various kinds of mental or nervous disorders1 to say nothing of the moral dangers to which they are exposed 7,ecclus41 xxxiii4 #bi74 7b7 ,through defect1 on the other hand1 some injure their health by depriving themselves of the sleep or rest they ought to take4 ,the time that should be given to repose differs with the individual4 ,the young1 brain-workers and the feeble are in greater need than others2 but there is no one who can dispense with his proper share of rest4 ,it is sinful1 therefore1 to reduce needed sleep by late retiring or early rising1 or to work unremittingly to such an extent that the bodily powers and resistance become unequal to the demands made on them and unfitted for duties4 ,according to physicians1 seven hours out of every twenty-four should be spent in bed1 and the hours before midnight are much more precious for rest than the early morning hours4 ,some holidays and vacations are a necessity in these days of rapid and strenuous life4 #aegj4 ,physical exercise is a factor of good health1 for it stirs up the circulation of the blood1 assists digestion1 and rids the body of surplus weight4 ,moreover1 it has great value for the mind 7to which it gives diversion and refreshment7 and for the soul 7since it promotes temperance and chastity74 ,if taken in the form of sports1 physical exercise is a training in cooperation with others1 in loyalty1 discipline1 and fairness4 ,but health is impaired by excess as well as by defect in exercise4 7a7 ,examples of over-exercise are athletes who carry on endurance tests to the point of exhaustion1 devotees of violent forms of contests or matches that overtax the heart1 etc4 7b7 ,examples of under-exercise are ablebodied persons who prefer to lounge about the house all day rather than bestir themselves2 also those who work indoors all day and who from choice ride rather than walk1 no matter how short the distance they have to go1 etc4 ,persons of sedentary life who can do so1 should exercise every day1 preferably out-of-doors1 playing at some game like golf1 taking a brisk walk of about five miles1 or doing some manual labor1 such as gardening or sawing wood4 ,regular gymnastics or setting-up exercises1 and the habit of sitting1 standing1 and walking erect at all times are prescribed by experts on health as very important4 #aega4 ,under the head of preventive or curative measures that ought to be attended to for the sake of bodily well-being are the following3 7a7 ,in time of health sickness has to be guarded against4 ,suitable clothing and shelter must be used as protection against injurious effects of heat or cold2 cleanliness must be cultivated by such means as daily baths1 frequent ablutions1 washing of teeth1 tongue and gums2 infections must be avoided2 drugs or stimulants hurtful to one's health must not be indulged in1 and attention must be given to daily1 regular and natural elimination and to the exclusion of poisons from the system4 ,according to authorities1 one should drink at least six glasses of water a day1 but warm water is often preferable to cold or hot4 7b7 ,in time of sickness efforts must be made at restoration of health1 if this is possible4 ,it is of obligation to use the ordinary means to recover physical fitness1 that is1 to take remedies and medicines that are suitable1 not on the advice of acquaintances or advertisements1 but on the recommendation of a competent physician in whose knowledge and skill one has perfect confidence 7,ecclus41 xxxviii4 #a sqq474 ,but there is no obligation to have recourse to extraordinary means of recovery1 such as a trip to a more balmy climate when one's purse cannot afford it4 ,similarly1 a very painful and uncertain operation or mutilation is not obligatory1 unless one has dependents1 and the danger to life from the operation is slight4 ,in time of sickness1 as well as in health1 we should not omit to implore the divine aid4 #aegb4 ,the state of mind has very much to do with good or bad health4 ,it is well known1 for instance1 that a happy1 cheerful attitude helps digestion and sleep2 whereas worry1 fear1 anger or other emotional stress will bring on dyspepsia1 insomnia1 disease1 and perhaps insanity4 ,we should not overlook1 therefore1 the importance of the mental factor in our efforts to maintain good health4 7a7 ,natural means of cultivating an even temper and a buoyant disposition are3 some kind of labor or occupation1 avoidance of hurry and worry in one's affairs1 cultivation of some interesting hobby or avocation that will vary the monotony of business or work1 use of congenial recreations1 whether of a more refined 7e4g41 conversation with friends1 literature1 music1 art1 the drama1 travel to historic or beautiful scenes1 etc47 or of a more material kind 7e4g41 reading tales of mystery or adventure1 raising pet animals1 witnessing baseball games1 races1 etc41 playing billiards1 cards1 etc41 smoking1 attending banquets1 picnics1 etc474 ,a sense of humor and laughter in moderation are good for the health and not opposed to spirituality4 7b7 ,religious practices are all-important for cheerfulness of spirit4 ,christian ,science1 indeed1 is in error when it holds that faith thinks or wills sorrow and disease and death out of existence1 for evil is a reality2 but virtue and a good conscience rid one of many enemies to peace1 and there exist in the ,church many supernatural and miraculous means that benefit body1 mind and spirit4 #aegc4 ,persons who give exaggerated attention to their health cannot justify themselves by the commandment of charity to self2 for this commandment has to be interpreted according to the order of charity as explained above 7see #aafd sqq474 ,the bodily good has to be cared for1 but with due subordination to higher goods 7,matt1 vi4 #be2 ,rom41 xiv4 #af74 7a7 ,thus1 spiritual goods are more important than those of the body1 and it is lawful to practise mortifications by fastings1 vigils1 hair-shirts1 and the like1 which1 though afflictive to the flesh1 are refreshing to the spirit1 provided all be done according to holy prudence4 7b7 ,intellectual goods are better than those of the body1 and it is not sinful to devote oneself to studies1 researches and other mental occupations in preference to manual labor or athletic exercises which would improve one's physique1 but not one's mind4 ,it is even lawful for the sake of mental improvement to suffer some slight detriment to health4 7c7 ,public good is greater than private good1 and hence it is not only lawful but laudable to expose health1 or even life1 for the advancement of science or the welfare of the community4 ,many men and women in daily life do this as part of the day's work4 #aegd4 ,does charity to self oblige one to desire honors1 such as dignities1 titles1 positions or rank1 precedence1 testimonials1 eulogies1 medals1 decorations1 monuments1 and the like8 7a7 ,charity to self demands that one strive to acquire the excellence that is expected of one1 and so to be deserving of honor4 ,for we must let our light shine before men 7,matt41 v4 #af2 ,rom41 xii4 #ag2 ,,ii ,cor41 vii4 #ba74 7b7 ,charity to self does not require that one actually secure honors4 ,for one cannot force another to declare one's praises1 since he may be prejudiced or ignorant1 and it is not seemly to sing one's own greatness or merit 7,,ii ,cor41 x4 #ah71 except in self-defense 7,,ii ,cor41 xii4 #aa74 7c7 ,charity to self would require one to seek after an honor1 if the honor were necessary and the manner of seeking it honorable4 ,thus1 it is a duty to self to seek to obtain a diploma or certificate of good character or proficiency1 if this document is needed to exercise the profession for which one has trained4 7d7 ,charity to self would forbid one to seek after an honor1 if the honor would prove harmful1 or if it could not be obtained in a respectable way4 ,thus1 if an honor rightfully belonged to another1 or if it were bestowed in recognition of evil done1 or if it would impose obligations for which one knows oneself to be unsuited1 or if it could not be attained except by dishonesty1 charity to self would urge one to fly from the honor4 7e7 ,charity to self in other cases would permit one either to seek an honor 7as when a dignity will be useful and will be employed for good1 and is not sought out of vainglory or hypocrisy7 or to forego it 7as when it is not necessary and one is moved to shun it1 not out of contempt1 but out of some virtuous motive74 #aege4 ,does charity to self require one to desire a good name8 7a7 ,charity to self does require that one desire to be worthy of a good name1 for one owes it to oneself as well as to others to be blameless 7,phil41 ii4 #ad-af7 and to provide good things in the sight of men 7,rom41 xii4 #ag74 7b7 ,charity to self does require that one desire to have a good name4 ,spiritually1 a good name is an advantage1 for many a one is encouraged to continue in virtue by the good opinion which others have of him1 while many another is discouraged from attempting or continuing a good life because he has a bad reputation4 ,temporally also1 a good name is useful or necessary1 for1 if others do not trust us or respect us1 we shall find it difficult to secure employment or position1 or to exercise our office fruitfully4 ,hence1 scripture admonishes3 8,take care of a good name1 for this shall continue with thee1 more than a thousand treasures precious and great0 7,ecclus41 xli4 #ae74 7c7 ,charity to self does not require that one actually have a good name1 since reputation may be lost through the work of detractors or through one's own unintentional imprudence1 or through circumstances over which one has no control4 7d7 ,charity to self ordinarily requires that one seek to acquire a good name1 if it has not yet been earned1 also to preserve it1 when gained1 to recover it1 when lost2 for1 as a rule1 there is no greater good for which the good of reputation should be sacrificed4 ,the means to be employed1 however1 should not be evil1 as when one uses hypocritical pretense in order to pass as a man of piety1 or has recourse to lying or duelling1 to undermining or attacking another in order to recover one's reputation4 ,a good name is built up by fidelity to the duties of one's calling and the avoidance of what may be offensive or scandalous to others2 it is preserved or rebuilt by good deeds1 especially those one is known or supposed to have lacked1 and in case of need by words of self-defense1 vindicating one's conduct1 or refuting aspersions or false charges4 7e7 ,charity does not require one to seek after a good name1 when this should or may be sacrificed for the sake of some higher good4 ,st4 ,paul faithfully practised what he preached1 that no dishonor might be reflected on the ,gospel2 and yet his enemies looked on him as a seducer and a nobody1 as a melancholy and avaricious man4 ,but the ,apostle answered his traducers that neither honor nor dishonor1 neither evil report nor good report1 would move him from the exercise of his ministry 7,,ii ,cor41 vi4 #d sqq74 #aegf4 ,sacrifice of reputation is not lawful1 however1 unless there is a proportionately grave reason and the means are good4 7a7 ,the end must be good and relatively important1 not only if compared with the good of personal reputation1 but also if compared with the public good and the rights of third parties4 ,examples3 ,it would not be right to allow oneself to be defamed in order to cover up the tracks of a rascal who deserved punishment1 or to distract attention from an evil that is being done2 for the purpose would then be the defeat of justice or the success of some sinful plan4 ,in such cases the end would not be good4 ,neither would it be right to allow the sacrifice of a good name for the notoriety and money profits to be gained in stage or book royalties4 ,the practice of many young men of accepting imputed faults1 of which they are not guilty1 in order to be popular1 or interesting1 or attractive1 is also sinful4 ,money cannot buy back a lost reputation1 and popularity with the thoughtless is no compensation for disgrace before the judicious and loss of self-respect4 ,in these cases the end is not important1 if compared with the advantage of a good name4 ,and even when an end is good and more important than one's fame1 there will frequently be rights of others involved that forbid a sacrifice of reputation1 as when a passive attitude in the face of calumny would give scandal or cast discredit on one's profession1 office1 work1 religion1 family1 or friends4 7b7 ,the means must be good4 ,examples3 ,even if the ambition to be 8a good fellow0 is praiseworthy1 drunkenness and profanity are not suitable ways of winning esteem1 and the same applies to pretending wickedness or accusing oneself of imaginary escapades and vices to please a circle which admires wildness in youth4 ,the means used in these cases 7drunkenness1 profanity1 lying7 are evil in themselves4 ,again1 the wish to cultivate humility does not justify one in giving scandal by consorting with evildoers as intimates1 or by conducting oneself in such a way as to lower the esteem or respect that is entertained for one's position4 ,the means used in those cases are at least evil-seeming and disedifying4 #aegg4 ,is self-detraction1 that is1 the revelation of some real fault or defect1 lawful8 7a7 ,if there is question of faults or defects that are of a public nature and generally known1 a disclosure made in a good spirit and in a proper manner1 and from which beneficial and not harmful results can be foreseen1 is lawful1 and sometimes obligatory4 ,example3 ,balbus has calumniated his neighbors1 and he now admits the fact1 not to boast about or excuse it1 but to make satisfaction2 he does not repeat the details of his defamatory remarks1 but merely states that he wishes to retract what he had no right to say2 he has every reason to think that his present course will undo the harm caused by the defamation4 ,balbus does right in thus acknowledging his mistake4 7b7 ,if there is question of faults or defects not generally known1 the reasons for mentioning them should be more serious1 unless the sins are of a trifling nature4 ,examples3 ,caius once served a term in jail for dishonesty1 but he is now a decent citizen4 ,his family would be scandalized and would feel disgraced1 if they knew this4 ,but ,caius thinks it would be a suitable reparation to tell them of his former guilt4 ,caius is wrong4 ,to speak of his past experience would only add the sin of scandal to the old one1 and there are other ways in which he can do penance in further expiation of dishonesty4 ,claudius wishes to marry ,sempronia1 but the latter insists that there must be no secrets between husband and wife1 and that he must give her complete and accurate answers on certain questions about his past career--for example1 whether he has ever been drunk1 whether he has ever wished to be drunk1 whether he has ever had questionable relations with other women1 etc4 ,claudius should not deceive ,sempronia1 nor leave her in ignorance of any serious objection to the marriage1 even if she forgot to mention it in her questions2 but he owes it to himself not to put himself in her power by giving her information which she would probably use against him then or later4 ,titus has stolen a considerable sum1 and1 for the sake of getting advice and direction on how to make restitution1 he consults a prudent friend who will regard his communication as confidential1 just as if he were a confessor4 ,titus does not act against his own reputation by telling his case to this friend4 #aegh4 ,confession of ,sins against ,charity ,owed to ,self4--7a7 ,it is not necessary to declare in confession that one has acted against the charity due to self1 if there is question only of sins in which transgression of that charity was not directly intended2 for to say that one has sinned against ,god by blasphemy1 or against self by intemperance1 or against the neighbor by injustice1 is equivalent to saying that one has hurt one's own soul by sin4 7b7 ,it is necessary to declare a want of charity to self1 if one has expressly intended such a sin4 ,thus1 if a person who has been admonished to have care for his own soul is so enraged thereat that he vows to deliver his soul over to evil1 and thereupon proceeds to commit various kinds of sin1 he does not declare his true state of conscience by merely mentioning these latter sins4 ,a case of this kind1 however1 is not usual 7see #acjg74 #aegi4 ,the ,commandment of ,love of ,neighbor4--,charity to fellow-creatures1 especially to members of the chosen nation1 was commanded in the ,old ,law4 7a7 ,thus1 internal love was made obligatory4 ,the ,lord forbade hatred1 revenge1 remembrance of injuries 7,lev41 xix4 #ag71 and commanded love of fellow-citizens 7ibid47 and kindness to foreigners dwelling in the land 7,lev41 xix4 #cc74 7b7 ,external love was also obligatory4 ,alms and help were to be given the needy 7,deut41 xxii4 #a1 #b1 xv4 #aa71 loans were to be made without interest 7,deut41 xxiii4 #ai71 kindness was to be shown to widows1 orphans1 the blind1 the crippled 7,exod41 xxii4 #bb1 #bc2 ,lev41 xix4 #ad71 part of each harvest was to be left for the poor1 and in the third1 seventh and fiftieth years special assistance was to be rendered the needy 7,lev41 xix4 #i1 xxv4 #b-ab2 ,deut41 xiv4 #bh1 #bi74 #aehj4 ,in the ,new ,testament1 which is the law of love1 the precept of charity to neighbors is given with greater clearness and perfection4 7a7 ,thus1 internal love must be universal and modelled on the love which ,christ had for humanity4 ,enemies are to be loved as well as friends1 the bad as well as the good 7,matt41 v4 #dc-de71 ,gentiles as well as ,jews1 since there is one ,lord of all 7,rom41 x4 #ab74 ,the new commandment1 whose observance will mark the faithful follower1 is an imitation of the charity of ,christ 7,john1 xiii4 #cd1 #ce74 7b7 ,external charity must be practised1 even at the cost of self-sacrifice 7,i ,john1 iii4 #af71 for it will be regarded by ,christ as done to ,himself 7,matt41 xxv4 #dj71 and will be the subject of interrogation and eulogy at the judgment 7,matt41 xxv4 #cd-df74 #aeha4 ,in giving the commandment of love towards fellow-creatures1 our ,lord indicated both the reason for the love and the mode in which the love should be exercised3 8,thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself0 7,matt1 xxii4 #ci74 7a7 ,the reason for this love is that a fellow-creature is our neighbor1 or1 as it is elsewhere expressed1 our brother 7,i ,john1 iv4 #bj1 #ba71 our friend 7,lev41 xix4 #ah74 ,he1 like ourselves1 is made to the image of ,god and is destined for the same beatitude4 7b7 ,the mode of this love is that it should be similar1 though not equal1 to the love one has for oneself4 ,hence1 the end of loving our neighbor should be ,god1 that it may be a holy love2 the rule to be followed in loving him should be that we agree with his wishes in good1 but not in evil1 that the love may be just2 the manner of loving him should be that one wishes him well1 not that one only seeks pleasure or advantage from him1 and so the love will be sincere4 ,for1 as love of self must be holy1 just and sincere1 the same qualities are required in love of the neighbor4 #aehb4 ,the following conditions must1 therefore1 be met in the love of neighbor which charity commands3 7a7 ,love must not be of a covetous or selfish or superficial kind1 but must be sincerely benevolent and beneficent 7see #aaji74 ,those who wish to retain the companionship or association of a neighbor because this redounds to their own gain1 on account of his wealth1 influence1 etc41 while harming the neighbor1 love themselves rather than the neighbor4 ,nor is love of neighbor genuine if it exists only in the emotions1 or if it is manifested only in expressions of good will2 for true love includes benevolence and will be translated into beneficence when the occasion presents itself 7,james1 ii4 #ad sqq42 ,i ,john1 i4 #bb74 ,persons who are most ready to shed tears at the distress of others1 or who are most profuse in compliments or good wishes1 are frequently most unwilling to assist others1 especially if some sacrifice is necessary4 7b7 ,the love of the neighbor must not be a sinful benevolence or beneficence1 but must desire for him and confer on him what are real1 and not merely apparent goods1 such as we ought to desire for ourselves 7,matt41 vii4 #ab74 ,those who secure for others lower and unnecessary goods at the sacrifice of those that are higher and necessary1 putting wealth1 pleasure1 or position above virtue and a good conscience1 have not the love of charity1 for 8what does it profit a man to gain the whole world1 and lose his soul80 7,matt41 viii4 #cf74 7c7 ,the love of the neighbor must not be purely natural1 but must wish for him and confer on him real goods out of a supernatural motive4 ,this motive is the friendship one has for ,god1 so that the neighbor is loved because ,god loves him and desires to communicate to him a share in the divine life through grace and glory4 ,the motive of charity is absent1 therefore1 when one loves only one's friends1 when one is kind to others out of pity1 or generosity1 or admiration for their good qualities1 if there is no thought of ,god in this philanthropy or humanitarianism4 #aehc4 ,the commandment of love of neighbor is sufficiently complied with as to its acts by all those who are leading a good ,christian life4 7a7 ,thus1 the internal acts of sincere affection1 peace1 joy1 and mercy are exercised by prayer for the living and the dead1 or a devout recitation of the ,lord's ,prayer4 7b7 ,the external acts of spiritual and corporal mercy are performed by those who are giving according to their means and the necessities they meet4 #aehd4 ,the commandment of love of neighbor is sufficiently complied with as to its motive1 even though the supernatural motive is not actually present before the mind1 or other and natural motives are also present4 7a7 ,thus1 the supernatural motive directs our love of neighbor1 if it is present virtually1 as will be explained in #aeij4 7b7 ,natural motives of love that are good in themselves 7such as ties of relationship or nationality1 common intellectual or other interests1 the virtue or ability of a neighbor7 do not detract from the supernaturality of love1 provided their influence is subordinated to the divine friendship and the desire of beatitude for the neighbor4 ,even a certain amount of natural repugnance is not inconsistent with charity2 on the contrary1 charity is seen to be great1 if for love of ,god one does good to implacable enemies1 or waits on persons suffering from a loathsome disease4 #aehe4 ,fulfillment of the ,commandments of ,charity4--,we speak now only of the commandment of love1 in which the other commandments of charity are contained 7see #aeej b74 ,the love which is commanded must have the following qualities3 7a7 on the side of the subject who loves1 it must be internal and made at the proper times--that is1 one must love from the heart and affection1 as well as in works and manifestations1 and must make and renew the act of love as the law requires2 7b7 on the side of the object loved1 it must be both universal and well-ordered2 one must not only love all to whom charity is due 7see #aacc sqq471 but one must also bestow love according to the rank of precedence in which charity is due 7see #aaeh sqq474 #aehf4 ,the act of charity can be made in various ways4 7a7 ,it is made in itself1 when one elicits or expresses love2 it is made in its manifestations1 when one performs an act of virtue distinct from charity4 ,one who sincerely loves ,god with his whole heart will keep the commandments 7,john1 xiv4 #ba71 and hence acts of temperance1 justice1 fortitude1 etc41 may be called acts of love1 in the sense that they are indications of love4 7b7 ,the act of charity may be made internally or externally4 ,thus1 affection for another as a friend in ,god1 and a sincere desire of his good1 are internal acts of love2 while spiritual or temporal alms bestowed upon him1 such as instruction or aid in time of sickness1 are external acts of love4 7c7 ,the act of charity may be made explicitly or implicitly4 ,charity is called explicit with reference to a person or object which is loved in itself1 and not as included in another2 it is called implicit with reference to a person or object loved as included in another1 as when means and end involve each other1 or a part is contained in the whole4 ,thus1 he who loves ,god above all things loves ,god explicitly and his neighbor implicitly2 he who loves his neighbor as a future co-sharer in bliss loves his neighbor explicitly and ,god implicitly 7see #aedi72 he who includes all mankind in a common act of love1 gives explicit love to the race collectively1 and implicit love to individual members of the race not mentioned 7e4g41 enemies or strangers74 #aehg4 ,for the fulfillment of the commandment of charity other acts of virtue are not enough4 ,there must also be love4 7a7 ,thus1 as to charity towards ,god1 our ,lord declares that love of ,god is the great commandment on which the others depend1 and ,st4 ,paul makes salvation depend on love3 8,if any man love not our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 let him be anathema0 7,i ,cor41 xvi4 #bb74 7b7 ,as to charity towards the neighbor1 the fulfillment of other commandments in his regard is inferior to the fulfillment of the commandment of fraternal love1 and thus the commandments of justice to others are distinct from the commandment of love4 ,innocent ,,xi condemned the proposition that we are not obliged to love our neighbor by a formal act of love 7,denzinger1 ,enchiridion1 n4 #aafj74 #aehh4 ,for the fulfillment of the law of charity1 external acts of love are not enough2 there must also be internal love or affection4 7a7 ,with regard to charity towards ,god1 there can be no question of external charity through acts of beneficence1 as is clear2 but one is obliged to signify one's love of ,god1 if silence would cause scandal or convey an expression of hatred of ,god4 ,mere lip-service1 however1 will not do1 for ,god must be loved and served from the heart 7,matt41 xxii4 #cg2 ,eph41 vi1 #f2 ,,ii ,thess4 iii41 #e2 etc474 7b7 ,with regard to charity towards the neighbor1 external charity is commanded 7see #abaj sqq4 and #aeea74 ,but there must also be internal charity1 for we are bidden to love our neighbor as we love ourselves 7,matt1 xxii4 #ci71 as ,christ loved us 7,john1 xv4 #ab71 from the heart 7,i ,pet41 i4 #bb74 ,if a man distributed his goods to feed the poor1 not out of love1 but out of vanity or other sinful motives1 his act would not be an exercise of charity4 ,innocent ,,xi condemned the proposition that we may satisfy through external acts alone the precept of loving our neighbor 7,denzinger1 n4 #aafa74 #aehi4 ,must the internal act of love be explicit8 7a7 ,love of ,god should be explicit1 for the commandment of charity is that ,god be loved as the ,last ,end1 and the other commandments are to be observed as means to that ,end 7see #aabj1 #aedg74 ,the ,last ,end is that which is loved for its own sake1 and hence distinctly1 while the means are loved for the sake of the ,last ,end4 7b7 ,love of the neighbor is required to be explicit as regards all neighbors in general1 when this is necessary for the preservation of charity towards ,god1 or the fulfillment of obligations of charity towards man2 it should be explicit as regards an individual1 when this is necessary for the proper discharge of external works or other duties of charity1 as when one will not be able to overcome a temptation to hatred unless one makes an act of charity which expressly includes the person one is tempted to hate4 ,but one who loves his neighbor implicitly through an act of supernatural love of ,god1 and neglects no external duty of charity towards others1 is considered to have sufficiently complied with the law in ordinary circumstances4 #aeij4 ,the ,intention of ,performing ,all ,good ,works out of ,love for ,god4--7a7 ,this intention is actual1 when one expressly wills ,god as the ,last ,end of one's actions4 ,the commandment of loving ,god above all things does not require an actual reference of each good work to ,his love 7see #aabj1 #he1 #hf74 7b7 ,this intention is virtual but explicit1 when previously a person had the actual intention and never retracted it1 and now acts under the influence of that explicit and unretracted intention1 though he does not advert to the ,last ,end as he now acts4 ,thus1 if an act of love of ,god above all things is made supernaturally by a ,christian or naturally by a non-,christian1 and later on by reason of the acts of love these persons give alms to the poor and do not think of ,god as they give the alms1 their works are not actually1 but virtually and explicitly done for ,his love4 ,the commandment of love of ,god1 as we shall see 7#aeic sqq471 obliges one at certain times to elicit an act of love of ,god as the ,last ,end1 loved above all things else 7in unbelievers it must be an act of natural benevolence1 and in believers an act of supernatural charity72 and1 since such an act includes a consecration of one's works to ,god1 the commandment requires likewise at certain times a virtual and explicit reference of good works to the love of ,god4 7c7 ,the intention is virtual and implicit1 when there is no previous act of love of ,god influencing a present act1 but this act itself is good1 tending from its character and object to the ,last ,end1 and it is precisely its character and object that cause it to be chosen by the agent4 ,thus1 if an infidel1 who has made no offering of his works to ,god1 gives an alms out of love of mercy1 or honors his parents out of love of piety1 or pays his debts out of love of justice1 he has explicit love for virtue and implicit love for the ,author and ,end of virtue4 ,the commandment of love of ,god1 being affirmative1 does not oblige one at all times to elicit acts of love of ,god as the ,supreme ,good1 and hence1 apart from the occasions when that affirmative commandment calls for exercise1 a virtual and implicit intention of acting for the sake of ,god suffices to excuse from sin4 #aeia4 ,applications of the ,preceding ,paragraph4--7a7 ,a ,christian who makes acts of love of ,god at the necessary times fulfills the commandment of loving ,god with his whole heart and the precepts of doing all things for the glory of ,god 7,i ,cor41 x4 #ca71 and in charity 7,i ,cor41 xvi4 #ad71 and in the name of ,christ 7,col41 iii4 #ag74 7b7 ,an infidel invincibly ignorant of the supernatural law1 who makes acts of natural benevolence with reference to ,god when he should1 does not sin against the precept of charity1 and observes the law of natural love4 7c7 ,a person who in no way refers a deliberate act to love of ,god1 natural or supernatural1 sins in that act4 ,his sin is venial1 if the evil intended is small 7e4g41 an alms given purely out of vainglory72 it is mortal1 if the evil is grave 7e4g41 an alms given for the purpose of seduction into serious sin74 #aeib4 ,it should not be inferred from what has been said on the qualities which charity must have1 or the influence it must exercise1 that the duty of love of ,god is only for the perfect1 or that it is with difficulty accomplished4 7a7 ,on the contrary1 charity is a universal obligation1 for it is the first commandment 7,matt41 xxii4 #ch71 and he who does not love is accursed 7,i ,cor41 xvi4 #bb74 7b7 ,neither is the commandment hard 7,i ,john1 v4 #c71 for nature itself inclines one to love the ,supreme ,good1 and grace helps one to remove the impediments to a love of friendship that will cling to ,god above all4 ,the observance of the commandments indicates that one is guided habitually by love1 while a devout recitation of the ,lord's ,prayer is an actual expression of that love2 and hence conscientious persons should not worry lest they may have been wanting in ,god's love4 #aeic4 ,with reference to the times when the precepts of charity oblige1 we should distinguish three kinds of precepts3 7a7 the negative precepts forbid sins against charity 7such as hatred1 envy1 scandal1 etc471 and they oblige at all times2 7b7 the positive precepts of external beneficence oblige when occasion requires1 as was said above 7see #abaj sqq472 7c7 the positive precepts of internal love oblige at certain special times1 as will now be explained4 #aeid4 ,the precept of love of ,god obliges directly--that is1 by reason of the virtue of charity itself--at the following times3 7a7 at the beginning of the moral life1 that is1 of the use of reason2 7b7 during life2 7c7 at the close of life1 or when one is about to die 7,denzinger1 nn4 #aaja1 #abhi74 #aeie4 ,the ,obligation of an ,act of ,love of ,god at the ,beginning of the ,moral ,life4--7a7 ,the beginning of the moral life here signifies the moment when a child arrives at a full use of reason1 and is able to deliberate on things of grave importance1 such as the duty of having a supreme purpose in life and of doing good and avoiding evil4 ,this moment does not coincide necessarily with any fixed period of the child's age 7e4g41 the seventh year71 but depends on the gradual development of the moral conscience and may be earlier or later according to intelligence1 surroundings1 education1 etc1 7see #icb74 7b7 ,the act of love of ,god here signifies the turning to ,god as one's ,last ,end1 but it may be made either formally or virtually1 according to the knowledge had4 ,a formal act of love of ,god is made1 when one has explicit knowledge1 either through faith or through natural reason1 concerning ,god as the ,supreme ,good and ,last ,end1 and when one loves ,him as such4 ,a virtual act of love of ,god consists in a resolution to direct one's life according to reason1 or in a love of the goodness of virtue2 for in such an act there is implied a love of the ,author and ,end of moral good4 ,the faithful who cannot remember having made this first act of charity when they came to the use of reason1 should not disturb themselves at this1 for the commandment was fulfilled by any service they freely offered to ,god4 7c7 ,the reason for requiring an act of love at the beginning of the moral life is1 that in that moment one has the choice placed before one of good or evil1 and that faith1 hope and charity1 being fundamental precepts1 should precede the other virtues of the law4 #aeif4 ,ignorance as ,excusing from the ,act of ,love of ,god4--7a7 ,ignorance of ,god as the ,author of the supernatural order excuses from the precept of supernatural love or charity1 if it is invincible ignorance4 ,thus1 a pagan who knows nothing of revelation does not sin by omitting an act of charity towards ,god4 7b7 ,ignorance of ,god as the ,author of the order of nature does not excuse from a natural act of benevolence towards ,god1 if the person in ignorance1 though an infidel1 has sufficient use of reason1 for ignorance of ,god is then inexcusable 7,rom41 i4 #bj74 #aeig4 ,the ,obligation of the ,act of ,love of ,god throughout ,life4--7a7 ,the existence of an obligation to make frequent acts of love of ,god during life is a consequence of the preponderant part played by charity among the virtues 7see #aaae sqq471 for how is one to regulate one's life according to the virtues1 if one does not frequently renew that virtue which is the inspiration and direction of all the others8 ,the ,old ,testament requires that one have the commandment of love of ,god frequently in one's thoughts 7,deut41 vi4 #e-g71 and in the ,new ,testament it is called the commandment on which all the others depend 7,matt41 xxii4 #cg-dj74 ,the ,church has condemned propositions that made infrequent performance of the act of love--such as once in a lifetime1 once in five years--sufficient 7,denzinger1 nn4 #aaee-aaeg74 7b7 ,the details of this obligation--that is1 the frequency with which and the times at which the act of love of ,god must be made under pain of grave sin--is a matter of dispute among authorities4 ,some think once in three years sufficient2 others1 guided perhaps by the analogy of the precept of yearly ,communion1 regard once a year as sufficient2 others1 with ,st4 ,alphonsus1 hold for once a month1 basing their opinion on the difficulty of overcoming temptations if acts of love of ,god are omitted for more than a month2 others1 with ,scotus1 think the act of love of ,god should be made once a week1 for1 since the ,sundays are set aside for the worship of ,god1 the ,church seems to have thereby determined with regard to the act of divine charity that which the law of ,god had left undetermined2 finally1 some teach that an act of love of ,god must be made daily1 arguing that ,christ commanded the ,lord's ,prayer to be said daily1 and that its first petitions contain formal acts of love of ,god4 #aeih4 ,none of the opposed opinions just given can be considered as demonstrated and theoretically certain4 ,but in actual life this offers no difficulty1 and the following are accepted as practical rules that may be acted on3 7a7 ,those who live habitually in the state of grace may be regarded as having fulfilled sufficiently the commandment of love of ,god1 for 8if any man love ,me1 he will keep ,my word0 7,john1 xiv4 #bc74 7b7 ,those who live habitually in an occasion of sin or in sin itself1 no doubt neglect the commandment of love of ,god2 but it is not necessary that they accuse themselves of the omission to their confessor1 since it is understood in the mention of the occasion of sin or bad habit4 ,the confessor1 however1 ought to admonish careless penitents about the obligation of love of ,god1 of recitation of the ,our ,father1 etc4 ,mortal sin revokes the direction of one's works towards ,god1 and1 though one is not obliged to renew that direction immediately after repentance1 a delay beyond four or five months according to some authors would be notable4 #aeii4 ,obligation of the ,act of ,love of ,god at the ,close of ,life4--,the duty of making an act of love of ,god when one is at the point of death is admitted by all for the following cases3 7a7 the dying person is directly obliged to make an act of love of ,god when this is the only way in which he can secure justification1 as when he is not in the state of grace and cannot receive the ,sacraments2 7b7 the dying person is indirectly obliged to make an act of love of ,god when otherwise he cannot securely struggle against temptations to despair1 doubt1 etc4 #afjj4 ,the duty of making an act of love of ,god at the time when death is near is considered as doubtful by some authorities when the following points are morally certain3 7a7 when the dying person has already sufficiently complied with the duty of making an act of love 7e4g41 when he made such an act just before he fell into danger of death71 or is now in the state of grace 7e4g41 when he has received absolution with attrition just before or after the danger72 and also 7b7 when the dying person will not expose himself on account of omission of the act of charity to the violation of any serious commandment4 #afja4 ,in practice1 the priest who is attending the dying person should act as follows3 7a7 ,he should remind the dying person of the obligation1 if it appears certain1 and should suggest to him the motives and assist him in pronouncing the form4 ,in many manuals of the ,ritual exhortations and aspirations suitable for this purpose are given4 7b7 ,the priest should recommend the act of love of ,god1 even though the obligation does not appear certain1 if no harm will result from his doing so4 ,for this will better prepare the dying person for entrance into eternity4 7c7 ,he should not speak of the act of love of ,god1 if the obligation is uncertain and harm would result from his doing so 7e4g41 if the dying person is in good faith1 and would be much disturbed if told about the act of love to be made74 #afjb4 ,thus far we have spoken of the obligation which the precept of love of ,god imposes directly1 or by reason of charity itself4 ,there is also an obligation that is indirect1 or by reason of some virtue or commandment distinct from charity4 7a7 ,thus1 by reason of a virtue distinct from charity1 one is bound to make an act of love of ,god1 if this act is the only means of avoiding sin against that virtue4 ,example3 ,titus suffers severe temptations to injustice1 and finds that only the love of ,god keeps him from injustice4 ,in temptation1 therefore1 he should make an act of love of ,god4 7b7 ,by reason of a commandment distinct from that of charity1 one is bound to make an act of love of ,god1 if otherwise one cannot fulfill rightly the commandment in question4 ,thus1 if a person has to receive or administer a ,sacrament of the living1 or solemnly to administer a ,sacrament1 when he is not in the state of grace and has not the opportunity of receiving absolution1 he is obliged to make an act of perfect contrition1 which includes an act of love of ,god4 #afjc4 ,an implicit love of neighbor is contained in every true act of love of ,god 7see #aedi1 #aehf74 ,but in some cases love of neighbor must be explicit 7see #aehi74 7a7 ,thus1 one is bound to explicit love directly 7or by reason of charity itself71 when the law of charity requires this4 ,per accidens1 charity requires an internal act of love1 when without this act some good commanded by charity 7e4g41 reconciliation with an enemy1 alms to one in distress7 will not be done1 or some evil forbidden by charity 7e4g41 hatred1 revenge7 will not be overcome4 ,per se1 it does not seem that charity requires explicit acts of love towards the neighbor1 but only those implicit acts contained in the love of ,god2 in practice1 however1 conscientious persons frequently make explicit acts of fraternal charity1 as when they pray for the living and the dead1 or say the ,our ,father with due attention and devotion4 7b7 ,one is bound to explicit love indirectly 7or by reason of some other virtue than charity71 when apart from such explicit love that other virtue cannot be exercised as commanded4 ,example3 ,balbus is often tempted to defraud ,caius1 and does not resist the temptation successfully1 unless he puts himself into a charitable disposition towards ,caius4 #afjd4 ,the ,necessity of ,charity4--7a7 ,the habit of charity is necessary as a means 7see #cfj1 #ghe7 for all persons1 infants included1 so that without it no one can be saved4 ,for it is only with this virtue that one possesses the divine indwelling 7,i ,john1 iv4 #af71 and is made a friend of ,god4 ,those who have not the wedding garment of charity are cast into the outer darkness 7,matt41 xxii4 #ac74 7b7 ,the act of charity is also necessary as a means of salvation to all adults1 for it is only by actual charity that they turn towards their ,last ,end1 and without actual charity they are in death 7,i ,john1 iii4 #ad74 ,a person who is justified through attrition joined with a ,sacrament receives grace and the habit of charity1 and by his voluntary acceptance he consents to the divine friendship and thus makes an act of charity4 7c7 ,the act of charity is obligatory under grave precept at the beginning of the moral life1 frequently during life1 and at the hour of death 7see #aeid sqq474 #afje4 ,is it possible that a sin against the love of ,god be only venial8 7a7 ,the imperfection of the act makes such a sin only venial1 as when without full deliberation one wishes to omit an obligatory act of love4 7b7 ,the slightness of the matter makes such a sin venial1 when it is aside from1 but not contrary to1 the love of ,god1 as when one makes an act of love of ,god with culpable lukewarmness4 ,venial sin is not1 strictly speaking1 opposed to the commandment of love1 since it does not destroy love4 #afjf4 ,as the order of charity is commanded as a part of the law of charity1 one is obliged not only to love those to whom love is commanded1 but also to give greater love to those to whom greater love is due4 7a7 ,god must be loved above all creatures1 since ,he is to be loved with the whole heart 7,deut41 vi4 #e2 ,matt41 x4 #cg74 7b7 ,self must be loved more than the neighbor1 for love of neighbor is commanded only as like to that of self 7,matt41 xxii4 #i74 7c7 ,one should love one's neighbor more than one's own body1 since we ought to lay down our lives for the brethren 7,i ,john1 iii4 #af74 ,the claims of self and of the neighbor to love are in the following order3 the spiritual goods of self1 the spiritual goods of the neighbor1 the bodily goods of self1 the bodily goods of the neighbor1 the external goods of self1 the external goods of the neighbor4 7d7 ,among neighbors1 those who are better or more nearly related to self should be given the preference in love2 for we should do good to all1 but especially to those who are of the household of the faith 7,gal1 vi4 #aj71 and those persons are specially blamed who have no care for their own and for those of their own house 7,i ,tim41 v4 #h74 ,the claims of neighbors on our help 7as was explained in #aagf sqq47 rank in the following order3 wife1 children1 parents1 brothers and sisters1 other relatives1 friends1 domestics1 citizens of the same town1 state1 and country1 and1 finally1 all others4 #afjg4 ,the order of charity is commanded1 because it is a mode intrinsic to the performance of the act of charity 7see #aeed72 it is a circumstance without which the act of love is not in proportion to the person to whom it is shown4 ,thus1 love given to ,god is not in proportion to ,his lovableness1 if it is exceeded by the love given to a creature2 love given to the members of one's family is not in proportion to their claims1 if it is less than the love given to strangers4 7a7 ,hence1 outside cases of a neighbor's need1 the law of charity requires that one give him the amount of internal love that corresponds with the external charity due to him4 ,thus1 love for a father should be in proportion to the external honor one is bound to show one's parent2 love for a brother in proportion to the external marks of friendship that are due a brother4 ,he who has no filial love for his parents1 or fraternal love for his brethren1 does not fulfill the law of charity4 7b7 ,in cases of a neighbor's need1 the law of charity requires that the internal love be in proportion to the external charitable assistance one should give4 ,thus1 if a parent and a stranger are in equal necessity1 more help and more love are due the parent2 but if a stranger is in need1 and a parent is not in need1 more help and more corresponding love1 as to that particular case1 are due the stranger4 #afjh4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that there is a twofold love of the neighbor4 7a7 ,obligatory love is that which is commanded1 and which is due another as a debt1 such as love for ,god1 for a parent1 for all neighbors in general1 etc4 ,the amount of love for fellow-creatures that is obligatory is1 of course1 not infinite1 for no creature is infinitely lovable2 neither is it mathematically fixed1 for1 as said above1 it may be greater or less according to circumstances2 but it is comparative or relative--that is1 it should agree with the higher or lower claim to external charity that a neighbor has on one4 7b7 ,optional love1 or love of supererogation1 is that which is not commanded1 but which may be given lawfully1 such as special friendship outside a case of need for an enemy or stranger4 ,as there is no precept regarding this kind of love1 neither is there any precept regarding the order of love as between those to whom it is given1 and one may invert the order that is obligatory as regards commanded love4 ,thus1 if a brother and a cousin are both well-to-do1 and one has property to bequeath to which neither of them has any right1 it is not against charity to leave more to the cousin and less to the brother1 or some to the cousin and none to the brother4 ,this supposes1 however1 that in the matter of obligatory love the preference in order of charity has been shown the brother 7as explained in #aaeh-aahb74 ,art4 #aa3 ,,the ,,gift ,,of ,,wisdom 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #de1 #df47 #afji4 ,wisdom is the ,gift of the ,holy ,ghost which corresponds with and serves the virtue of charity 7see #aei sqq41 #hjh sqq41 #ajda sqq471 and hence it is discussed in this place4 ,the following points concerning ,wisdom will be treated3 7a7 the ,nature of the ,gift of ,wisdom2 7b7 the ,persons who ,possess the ,gift of ,wisdom2 7c7 the ,beatitude of the ,peacemakers1 which pertains especially to ,wisdom2 7d7 the ,sin of ,foolishness1 which is opposed to ,wisdom4 ,so far is it from being improper to give some space in ,moral ,theology to the ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost 7as if they pertained only to higher mysticism71 that it is even necessary to emphasize them4 ,the ,gifts are essential to salvation1 and play a most important part in the daily spiritual life1 whether in correcting or reinforcing the virtues1 or in giving immediate direction from the ,holy ,spirit4 ,man1 it is true1 does not set them into action1 but it is man's part to value them1 to hold himself in readiness for them1 and to hearken to their whispered enlightenment and counsel4 ,the ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost are the very soul of ,theology and of the ,christian life4 #afaj4 ,the ,nature of the ,gift of ,wisdom4--,wisdom is defined as 8a habit for judging things in the light of their ,first ,cause1 the ,supreme ,good1 which is infused into the soul along with sanctifying grace40 7a7 ,wisdom is a habit1 and so it differs from passing acts4 ,thus1 a man in the state of sin who avoids idolatry1 judges in the light of the highest cause that worship is not to be given to creatures2 but he lacks the indwelling of the ,holy ,ghost1 and therefore does not judge in virtue of that special instinct or power which originates from the abiding presence of the ,holy ,ghost4 7b7 ,wisdom judges1 and this sets it apart from habits that belong to the will 7e4g41 the ,gifts of ,piety1 ,fortitude1 and ,fear71 as well as from habits whose chief act is assent 7e4g41 the virtue of ,faith7 or penetration 7e4g41 the ,gift of ,understanding74 7c7 ,the standard by which ,wisdom judges things is the ,first ,cause of all1 or the ,supreme ,good1 as when our ,lord explained that the condition of the man born blind was due to the purpose of ,god to be glorified through that blindness 7,john1 ix4 #c74 ,the wise man is he who goes back to first principles1 to the origins of things1 to ultimate purposes2 but it is not every wisdom that estimates things according to the ,supreme ,good1 and there is a false wisdom 7see #afbc7 whose canon of excellence is the imperfect good opposed to ,supreme ,good4 ,the ,gift of ,wisdom1 therefore1 is distinct from sinful wisdom1 which is wise at doing evil 7,jer41 iv4 #bb72 from particular wisdom1 which understands well the theory and practice of some science1 art1 or profession1 and is able therefore to decide correctly and to arrange successfully such matters as fall under a special kind of activity1 as in medicine or architecture or strategy 7,i ,cor41 iii4 #aj74 7d7 ,the things that make up the object of ,wisdom are1 in the first place1 divine things 7e4g41 the attributes1 plans1 government1 operations of ,god72 and1 in the second place1 created things1 whether in the speculative order 7e4g41 mind and matter1 good and evil1 science1 religion1 history71 or in the practical order 7i4e41 human actions74 ,wisdom contemplates the divine as known from faith or the beatific vision1 and then1 with the things of ,god as its rule1 it judges the things of earth and directs the conduct of men3 8,the spiritual man judgeth all things0 7,i ,cor1 ii1 #ae74 ,thus does ,wisdom differ from the ,gifts of ,knowledge and of ,counsel2 for ,knowledge is concerned directly with secondary causes and rises from the creature to the ,creator1 ,while ,counsel is not a speculative but a practical ,gift1 and is a response to direction given by the ,holy ,spirit for the guidance of conduct4 7e7 ,the ,gift of ,wisdom is an infused perfection of the intellect1 8a wisdom descending from on high0 7,james1 iii4 #ae74 ,hence1 while it resembles the virtue of ,wisdom1 which also judges human and divine things through first causes 7see #ade71 it differs from that virtue1 even with reference to the same objects1 on account of its different way of approach4 ,theology and philosophy judge correctly because they employ study and the investigation of reason2 but the ,gift of ,wisdom has a right judgment because it depends1 not on analysis or argumentation1 but on a supernatural knowledge had through faith 7or vision in case of the blessed7 and a supernatural experience of ,god through charity4 ,wisdom may express itself1 indeed1 in the concepts and language of philosophy or theology1 but it is not through scientific processes that it knows and judges4 7f7 ,the ,gift of ,wisdom is infused into the soul along with sanctifying grace2 for1 like the other ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost1 it is intended to supplement through the action of the ,holy ,spirit the control exercised by grace1 which is imperfect on account of the limitations of the virtues4 ,the ,gift of ,wisdom1 therefore1 is an ordinary and normal fact in the spiritual life1 and must not be confused with rare and extraordinary phenomena--with the 8word of wisdom0 7,i ,cor41 xii4 #h71 which was granted to the ,apostles and at times to other preachers of the faith1 nor with the clear contemplation of ,god bestowed in the state of innocence1 nor with the infused knowledge or light of glory enjoyed by ,christ and some of the ,saints while on earth4 ,thus1 while all who are in the state of grace possess the ,gift of ,wisdom1 comparatively only a few have received the 8word of wisdom0--that is1 the ability to instruct others in the higher mysteries of faith and to explain to them with ease and in suitable language the meaning of these mysteries and their relation to supreme causes4 ,both these graces are supernatural1 but1 while the ,gift of ,wisdom is needed by each individual for his own sanctification1 the word of wisdom is needed only in certain cases for the sanctification of others4 #afaa4 ,from the foregoing definition it is seen that ,wisdom belongs both to the will and to the intellect4 7a7 ,in its cause1 ,wisdom belongs to the will4 ,the cause of right judgment by means of divine things is either the suitability of the intellect1 which knows well how to judge1 or the suitability of the will1 which is inclined towards divine things4 ,thus1 he who is well versed in moral science will give a correct decision about a case of chastity as it falls under the inquiry of reason1 and he who is chaste will judge correctly about the same case1 even without moral science1 but from the sympathy he has for the virtue4 ,the intellectual virtue of ,wisdom1 then1 judges aright because the intellect is sound in its procedures2 but the ,gift of ,wisdom is right in its judgments1 because the will has been united to ,god through charity1 so that there has resulted in one a suitability for judging about the things of ,god3 8,give me one who loves1 and he will understand what ,i say0 7,augustine1 ,tract4 xxvi4 in ,joan474 7b7 ,in its essence1 ,wisdom belongs to the intellect1 for it consists in judgment1 and this is an act that is exercised1 not by the affections1 but by the reason4 ,through love the soul becomes one spirit with ,god 7,i ,cor41 vi4 #ag71 and the will experiences the sweetness of this union 7,ps4 xxxiii4 #i72 the intellect then judges concerning the divine which has been the object of its mystical communion4 ,the ,gift of ,wisdom1 built as it is on faith and charity1 differs utterly from private interpretation of revelation 7which is subversive of faith7 and from the ,modernistic experience of the divine 7which is explained as a natural intuition had by a special religious sense of a reality that is divine and yet only subjective and unknowable74 #afab4 ,from the definition and explanation of the ,gift of ,wisdom it also follows that this ,gift is practical as well as speculative4 7a7 ,primarily1 ,wisdom is speculative1 for one must consider divine things in themselves before one applies them to other things2 and1 moreover1 the object of ,wisdom is ,god1 who is the first truth in the order of knowledge or speculation4 ,it is by ,wisdom1 then1 as well as by the other intellectual ,gifts or extraordinary graces1 that the act of supernatural contemplation is exercised2 but ,wisdom1 more perfect than the other ,gifts1 ascends at once to things that are heavenly1 divine and eternal1 and thinks of ,god as transcending in perfection every known or knowable degree of created excellence1 and as being most true1 most beautiful1 most lovable 7,eph41 iii4 #ag-ai74 7b7 ,secondarily1 ,wisdom is practical1 for ,god whom it contemplates is the supreme rule of action1 as well as the first truth4 ,thus does the higher ,gift of ,wisdom unite in itself what are found separate in lower virtues--the speculative quality of the virtue of ,wisdom and the practical quality of ,prudence 7see #afbj74 #afac4 ,the practical uses of the ,gift of ,wisdom are indicated in ,coloss41 iii4 #af-ag1 iv4 #f3 8,let the word of ,christ dwell in you abundantly1 in all ,wisdom1 teaching and admonishing one another in psalms1 hymns and spiritual canticles1 singing in grace in your hearts to ,god4 ,all whatsoever you do in word or in work1 do all in the name of the ,lord ,jesus ,christ4444 ,walk with ,wisdom towards them that are without1 redeeming the time4 ,let your speech be always with grace1 seasoned with salt40 7a7 ,the contemplation of divine things is useful for instruction in the truths of faith and the duties of religion 78teaching and admonishing one another072 for the mind becomes in a way divine1 like the things on which it dwells1 filled with knowledge of ,god and of ,christ and of the means of holiness4 7b7 ,wisdom helps one to fulfill the duty of praying to ,god with reverence and interior devotion 78singing in your hearts to ,god072 for ,wisdom makes one perceive and feel the sweetness and attraction of the things of ,god4 7c7 ,it directs one in both words and works 78do all in the name of ,christ072 for the intellect which judges things in the light of eternity and with the fervor of divine charity will not mislead in matters of salvation4 7d7 ,it enables one to profit by opportunities of edification 78redeeming the time072 for the example of a life directed by tender love of ,god and by kindness and courtesy to all is a recommendation of virtue and religion in the sight of the world4 #afad4 ,wisdom is a ,gift of the ,holy ,ghost1 and is numbered with the other six communications of the ,spirit3 8,and the ,spirit of the ,lord shall rest upon him1 the ,spirit of ,wisdom1 etc40 7,is41 xi4 #b74 7a7 ,likeness to the ,other ,gifts4--,the ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost are energies diffused in the powers of the soul as instruments of the supernatural governance of the indwelling ,spirit1 just as the moral virtues are the instruments of the natural governance of reason4 ,the infused virtues 7e4g41 faith or charity71 unlike the acquired virtues 7e4g41 temperance or fortitude71 do not suffice for the government of the soul2 for1 while these latter are according to nature1 the former surpass nature1 and are received by it imperfectly4 ,hence the need of the ,gifts1 which on earth supplement the infused virtues1 strengthening them against contrary vices1 developing secondary acts of the virtues which the virtues only initiate1 and in heaven perfecting the blessed in good4 7b7 ,unlikeness to the ,other ,gifts4--,wisdom1 which is enumerated by ,isaias in the first place1 is also given the highest rank among the ,gifts by theologians1 on account of its greater elevation1 more universal scope1 and the directive power it exercises4 ,fittingly1 then1 is ,wisdom assigned as the ,gift that serves ,charity1 the queen of the virtues3 ,charity loves ,god above all things2 ,wisdom dwells with delight upon the object of this love 7,wis41 viii4 #af71 looks upon life with the eyes of love1 and in directing its human actions communicates to them something of the savor and sweetness of divine charity4 #afae4 ,the ,persons ,who ,possess ,wisdom4--,the ,gift of ,wisdom1 as said above 7see #afaj71 is given with sanctifying grace1 and hence only those and all those who are in ,god's friendship have this supernatural endowment4 7a7 ,only those in the state of grace have divine ,wisdom1 for without love of ,god it is impossible to have that right judgment of things that is consequent on the relish for and connaturality with divine things4 ,hence1 it is said3 8,wisdom will not enter into a malicious soul1 nor dwell in a body subject to sins0 7,wis41 i4 #d74 7b7 ,all those who are in the state of grace have the ,gift of ,wisdom1 for man is so weak and the supernatural virtues are so far above him that1 even when he has received these virtues1 he is unable to make proper use of them or to preserve them in time of temptation1 unless he has received the supplementary forces that will enable him to obey more easily and promptly the voice and impulse of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,thus1 ,charity destines man to beatitude1 but1 unless he has ,wisdom to value this virtue and privilege1 to spurn the false wisdom of the world1 to think on the love of ,god with delight and to make it the norm of his judgments and decisions1 he will not progress in ,charity1 nor retain it1 nor arrive at the beatitude to which it destines him4 #afaf4 ,though all who are in the state of grace possess all the ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost1 these ,gifts are not had in the same way by all their possessors4 ,thus1 the following points should be noted with reference to the ,gift of ,wisdom3 7a7 ,the ,gifts1 like the infused virtues1 are possessed habitually by baptized children and insane persons1 and actually by adults4 ,just as infants have the possession but not the use of certain natural gifts 7such as reason and responsibility71 so likewise supernatural life and powers are granted them through baptismal regeneration1 but the exercise of this life and of these powers is prevented by their inability to realize what they possess and to make use of it4 ,the lack of bodily development1 which impedes the use of natural reason1 also impedes the use of supernatural ,wisdom4 7b7 ,the ,gift of ,wisdom is had in itself by all who are in the state of grace2 but in its extension1 which is the 8word of ,wisdom10 it is possessed only by highly gifted souls who have a special mission from ,god 7see above1 #afaj sqq474 ,with sanctifying grace1 each one receives the supernatural ,gift of judging rightly about heavenly things and of regulating his conduct by them in so far as is necessary for the attainment of salvation2 otherwise1 we should have to say that grace is inferior to nature1 and does not provide what is necessary for its end4 ,but the ability to explain heavenly things so as to draw others to the truth1 and to apply heavenly doctrines to the guidance of others so as to lead them to good1 is one of the gifts freely given1 which the ,spirit divides according as ,he wills 7,i ,cor41 xii4 #aa73 8,to one by the ,spirit is given the word of ,wisdom1 to another the word of ,knowledge1 etc40 7ibid1 #h74 #afag4 ,the ,gift of ,wisdom in itself 7i4e41 as intended directly for the benefit of the recipient and not for the benefit of others7 is also had in varying degrees4 7a7 ,thus1 different persons do not possess this ,gift in equal measure2 for to some is granted the contemplation of loftier mysteries not granted to others1 and suprahuman ,wisdom plays a greater part in the direction of some lives than in that of others4 7b7 ,the same persons do not possess ,wisdom in an equal degree at all times4 ,thus1 in ,baptism all the ,seven ,gifts are received1 but in ,confirmation they are in some way perfected1 either in themselves by a greater refinement or sensibility to the action of the ,holy ,spirit1 or as regards their possession by their subject through a firmer hold of them4 #afah4 ,the ,exercise of the ,gift of ,wisdom4--7a7 ,the external magisterium 7i4e41 revelation and the teaching ,church7 conveys the truths of faith to the mind of the believer4 7b7 ,the internal ,teacher1 the ,holy ,ghost1 illuminates the soul with ,wisdom1 so that it ponders on the first principles of faith and makes the love of them control its judgments1 ,words1 and actions3 8,you have the unction from the ,holy ,one and know all things0 7,i ,john1 ii4 #bj71 that is1 all that is needed for salvation4 #afai4 ,the ,beatitude and the ,fruits that ,correspond to ,wisdom4--,the ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost1 by supplying for what is imperfect in the habits of virtue 7e4g41 by protecting faith against dullness of perception1 hope against presumption1 charity against distaste for divine things71 give to these virtues a perfectionment like to that which they will have in the state of beatitude1 and to their exercise a corresponding enjoyment4 ,hence1 to the ,gifts1 which are most excellent habits1 correspond those most perfect or most delightful acts of virtue known as ,beatitudes and ,fruits 7see #aei sqq474 7a7 ,there appears a special correspondence of the seventh beatitude 78,blessed are the peacemakers1 for they shall be called the sons of ,god10 ,matt41 v4 #i7 with ,wisdom1 both as regards their merit1 and as regards their reward4 ,the work of ,wisdom is to reduce all things to unity1 to see life and the world as a whole1 to look upon creatures as parts of one great divine plan4 ,similarly1 the work of the peacemakers is to put an end to dissension and division and to reconcile the warring powers of the soul1 or to introduce harmony between those that are at enmity3 8,the ,wisdom that is from above is peaceable0 7,james1 iii4 #ag74 ,again1 the reward promised the peacemakers is that they shall be called the sons of ,god1 and of ,wisdom it may be said that it makes one the image of the ,son of ,god1 who is ,eternal ,wisdom4 7b7 ,the ,fruits of the ,holy ,ghost that are assigned to ,wisdom are1 with regard to ,god3 charity1 or a tender love of ,god 78,the charity of ,god is poured out in our hearts10 ,rom41 v4 #e471 joy1 or delight at union with ,god 78,rejoice in the ,lord always10 ,phillip41 iv4 #d71 peace1 or security in the enjoyment of ,god 78,there is much peace to them that love ,thy law10 ,ps4 cxviii4 #afe74 ,the ,fruits that have reference to the love of neighbor are3 goodness1 or an internal benevolence characterized by sweetness 78,the fruit of the light is in all goodness10 ,eph41 v4 #i71 and kindness1 or a beneficence accompanied by cheerfulness 78,the ,lord loves the cheerful giver10 ,,ii ,cor41 ix4 #g74 #afbj4 ,st4 ,james 7iii4 #ag1 #ah7 describes the direction which ,wisdom gives to human actions 7see #afab1 #afac7 and the fruit of peace to which it conducts them1 as follows3 8,the ,wisdom that is from above1 first indeed is chaste1 then peaceable2 modest1 easy to be persuaded2 consenting to the good1 full of mercy and good fruits1 without judging1 without dissimulation4 ,and the fruit of justice is sown in peace to them that make peace40 7a7 ,thus1 first1 ,wisdom directs one to be free from sin 78chaste071 for the fear of the ,lord is the beginning of ,wisdom 7,ps4 cx4 #aaj74 7b7 ,next1 ,wisdom directs one to work for peace within one's own soul1 by following moderation where one can decide for oneself 78modest071 by seeking advice where one is in doubt 78easy to be persuaded074 7c7 ,further1 ,wisdom directs one to be peaceful towards others1 to be well disposed towards their good or benefit 78consenting to the good071 compassionate and helpful in their distress 78full of mercy and good fruits071 not partial or hypocritical in criticizing their defects 78without judging1 without dissimulation074 7d7 ,finally1 ,wisdom1 having sown in peace1 reaps the peace of righteousness4 ,false wisdom leads to wrangling and disorder1 true ,wisdom to concord and harmony4 #afba4 ,the ,sins ,opposed to ,wisdom4--,just as blindness and dullness-that is1 the want of all or of sufficient perceptiveness in spiritual things--are opposed to the ,gift of ,understanding 7see #iab71 so stupidity and foolishness--that is1 the want of all or of sufficient good judgment about spiritual things--are opposed to the ,gift of ,wisdom4 #afbb4 ,foolishness is defined as 8a slowness and darkness of mind that is due to some moral defect1 and that makes it difficult for one to judge rightly about the ,last ,end of things and the ,chief ,good40 7a7 ,foolishness is slow and darksome1 and thus the contrary of ,wisdom1 which is alert and discerning4 7b7 ,it is a defect of judgment1 and so differs from the sins of blindness and dullness of heart4 7c7 ,it is an error of judgment about the chief concern of life and the things of greatest value1 and thus it is different from the innocent simplicity of many good persons1 whose judgment is not sound in affairs of this world4 7d7 ,it is brought on by moral fault1 and is therefore not to be identified with invincible ignorance1 which is a physical imperfection caused by nature1 as in the weak-minded and the insane4 #afbc4 ,just as true ,wisdom seems foolishness to the world1 so does true foolishness seem wisdom to the world 7,i ,cor41 iii4 #ah sqq474 ,there is a counterfeit wisdom1 which places its last end in some created good1 and which is therefore foolishness before ,god4 ,st4 ,james 7iii4 #ae7 describes false wisdom as 8earthly1 sensual1 devilish02 and these words express very well three chief classes of worldly wisdom4 7a7 ,some of the worldly-wise aim above all things at amassing and increasing wealth or other external possessions 7earthly wisdom74 7b7 ,others seek chiefly pleasure1 health1 comfort1 or other bodily goods 7animal wisdom74 7c7 ,others imitating ,lucifer1 who is king over all the sons of pride 7,job1 xli4 #be71 devote their whole lives solely to the pursuit of inordinate excellence of some kind--that is1 of selfish domination or honors or glory1 etc4 7devilish wisdom74 #afbd4 ,the foolishness we are now considering is sinful1 for it is a voluntary choice of evil1 a violation of commandments1 and the ruination of man4 ,in scripture the term 8fool0 is applied to the wicked1 the impious1 the objects of divine anger 7,ps4 xiii4 #a71 and hence it was that our ,lord declared severe penalty against those who call another a fool 7,matt41 v4 #bb74 7a7 ,foolishness is a voluntary choice of evil1 for it consists in a turning away from spiritual things or an entire absorption in the things of this world1 with the result that one becomes unfitted to judge aright concerning the values of human existence3 8,the animal man does not perceive the things of the ,spirit of ,god0 7,i ,cor41 ii4 #ad74 ,but the fact that his taste is perverted1 and that he has no relish for the spiritual1 is due to his own deliberate rejection of good and the cultivation of evil4 7b7 ,foolishness is a violation of commandments about the knowledge and employment of truth 7see #iad sqq473 8,see how you walk1 not as unwise1 but as wise0 7,eph41 v4 #ae1 #af74 7c7 ,foolishness leads to perdition1 for1 being defective in its judgment1 it barters away the future for present satisfaction and sells its birthright for a mess of pottage3 8,the prosperity of fools destroys them0 7,prov41 i4 #cb72 8,thou fool1 this night shall thy soul be required of thee0 7,luke1 xii4 #bj74 #afbe4 ,the causes of the sin of foolishness1 as was said above 7see #afbc71 are the wrong and sinful views taken of life1 which make men judge all things by the standards of gain or pleasure or power1 rather than by the standard of the ,first ,cause1 in comparison with whom all these lower goods are but trivial4 ,but1 among all the vices that lead mankind astray from ,wisdom1 the preeminence is held by lust1 for its attraction is greater and its hold on the soul more complete4 ,as chastity especially disposes for heavenly contemplation and ,wisdom 7see #iab7 by the refinement and elevation and spirituality it gives the mind1 so does sensuality especially indispose for these goods by the coarseness and degradation and materialism that follow in its wake4 ,,part ,,ii ,,special ,,moral ,,theology 7,continued7 ,question ,,ii ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,all ,,classes ,,of ,,men 7,,the ,,moral ,,virtues7 #afbf4 ,after the theological virtues1 which offer to ,god the services of faith1 hope and charity1 and which direct man to his ,last ,end1 follow the cardinal or moral virtues1 which perfect the actions and passions of man1 and make of them means for tending to the ,last ,end4 ,of these four virtues 7prudence1 justice1 fortitude and temperance71 prudence is ranked first1 as being the director of the others4 ,art4 #a3 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,prudence 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #dg-ef47 #afbg4 ,definition4--,all the definitions of prudence are in substantial agreement1 and from them we may formulate a detailed definition as follows3 8,prudence is the virtue that consults well about the means to be used for leading a good life and applies the knowledge acquired through consultation to particular contingencies as they arise40 7a7 ,thus1 prudence consults well1 for its office is to study ways and means to right conduct1 and to arrive at a sound judgment in spite of various uncertainties or unknown factors4 ,of the two practical virtues of the intellect1 namely1 art and prudence1 the former deals with the application of right reason to cases in which there are1 for the most part1 certain and determinate ways of arriving at the end in view 7e4g41 the rules of logic or grammar1 the methods of music or sculpture72 while the latter has to do with the application of right reason to cases in which the ways of obtaining the end in view are not certain or determinate 7i4e41 the infinitely varied questions of lawfulness or unlawfulness that present themselves in concrete and particular situations74 7b7 ,prudence studies the means to a good life2 and hence we do not consider a man as generally prudent1 if he consults well for this or that particular good end1 but not for the general end of leading a good life4 ,nevertheless1 prudence falls short of the ,gift of ,wisdom1 for prudence is concerned with human good1 wisdom with divine good4 7c7 ,prudence applies knowledge to the direction of conduct1 for the purpose of the practical virtues of the intellect is to guide the activities and productions of man according to the light of right reason4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that whereas the application of knowledge is intrinsic to prudence1 it is extrinsic to art2 for prudence includes in its very essence a determination of the will to goodness1 but not so art4 ,hence1 a painter is not the less skilled in his profession if he voluntarily fails to exercise it or exercises it badly1 but a person skilled in moral science is imprudent if voluntarily he fails to use his knowledge or uses it amiss4 ,the sin against art is not to know2 the sin against prudence is either not to know what one should know or not to apply rightly what one does know4 #afbh4 ,the ,objects of the ,act of ,prudence4--7a7 ,prudence is concerned1 not with speculative truth 7i4e41 with those things that are known for the sake of knowledge71 but with practical truth 7i4e41 with those things that are known for the sake of use74 ,it aims1 not to investigate and discover what is the nature of virtue1 but to guide man so that he may become virtuous and practise virtue4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that the acts of the speculative reason1 although they do not belong to prudence itself1 are like other acts subject to the direction of prudence2 for in pursuing speculative studies one should use good judgment as to the subjects to be considered1 the time1 place1 manner1 etc41 of study4 7b7 ,prudence is not concerned with necessary truths and first principles of morality1 but with their application to contingent and particular cases1 just as a physician is called on to cure1 not a universal or abstract man1 but the particular and individual man before him4 ,but since one cannot well apply that of which one is ignorant1 the prudent man must be acquainted both with the general rules of right living and with the particular things to which his knowledge is to be applied4 ,he lacks prudence1 therefore1 who from vincible ignorance does not know a general principle 7e4g41 that too much drink is bad71 or a case to which that principle should be applied 7e4g41 that the quantity of drink before one is too much74 #afbi4 ,it is customary to distinguish a twofold object of a virtue1 namely1 the material object 7i4e41 the kind of activity the virtue perfects1 whether in the field of knowledge1 or of action1 or of production7 and the formal object 7i4e41 the special viewpoint of goodness from which the material object is considered74 7a7 ,the material object of prudence embraces individual human actions performed under choice and freely 7agibilia74 7b7 ,the formal object of prudence is the right deliberation1 decision1 and direction 7recta ratio7 to be given to human actions1 with a view to the observance of the golden mean4 #afcj4 ,necessity of ,certitude4--,prudence1 being an intellectual virtue1 must have certainty 7see on the ,certain ,conscience1 #fdj sqq474 ,but with regard to particular contingencies 7e4g41 whether ,balbus ought to marry ,caia7 there are various kinds of certainty4 7a7 ,there is the certainty of knowledge based on a generalization from experience of what happens in the majority of cases 7e4g41 that persons well mated by reason of birth1 age1 dispositions1 etc41 marry successfully74 ,this kind of certainty belongs to moral science4 7b7 ,there is also a certainty of knowledge based on the indications in a particular case 7e4g41 that ,balbus and ,caia appear to have congenial dispositions and a mutual affection that will make their marriage a success74 ,this is the certainty of opinion1 and while it may suffice as a rule for conscience 7see the ,systems of ,conscience1 #fgb sqq471 events do not always verify its predictions4 ,hence it is said3 8,the thoughts of mortal men are fearful and our counsels uncertain0 7,wis41 ix4 #ad74 7c7 ,there is finally the certainty of practical truth1 which consists in harmony with a good will4 ,this is the certainty that is proper to prudence1 for this virtue is not a matter of reason alone4 ,hence1 even though a matter properly decided on should not take place or should fail of the purpose intended 7e4g41 if the marriage of ,balbus and ,caia is prevented or turns out badly71 it remains that prudence was not deceived in its decision1 for that decision when made was according to right reason and a good will 7see #egh74 #afca4 ,relation of ,prudence to the ,other ,moral ,virtues4--7a7 ,prudence does not direct the moral virtues to their own proper ends2 for the knowledge of those ends comes from synteresis1 or moral understanding 7i4e41 the natural perception of the first principles of right and wrong71 while the inclination to those ends is from the moral virtues themselves4 ,prudence does not deal with first principles1 nor is it an inclination towards particular ends4 ,hence1 it is the intellectual virtue of synteresis that directs the moral virtues through the dictate that right reason must be followed1 that moderation must be observed1 that the passions of anger1 pleasure1 sorrow1 etc41 must be so regulated that both extremes of excess and defect will be avoided4 7b7 ,prudence directs the moral virtues to the ways and means by which their ends are to be attained2 for the regulation of things particular and variable1 such as ways and means1 pertains to prudence4 ,synteresis is concerned with necessary principles1 and the moral virtues give a uniform and steady inclination to follow the mean of right reason1 but neither the one nor the other can indicate how principles are to be applied or how inclinations are to be put in practice4 ,hence1 it is the work of moral science to determine what or how much anger1 pleasure1 sorrow1 etc41 is moderate for the average case2 but prudence has to decide this for a particular case here and now 7see on ,conscience1 #ege74 ,without prudence bravery becomes foolhardiness1 temperance degenerates into fanaticism1 and mercy changes to weakness4 #afcb4 ,prudence1 indeed1 directs the acts of all the virtues1 ruling the virtues inferior to it 7i4e41 art and the moral virtues71 and serving the virtues that are its superiors 7i4e41 the speculative intellectual virtues and the theological virtues74 7a7 ,thus1 in exercising the intellectual virtues through study1 contemplation1 art1 etc41 one would go sadly astray if one did not consult prudence as to the time1 manner1 and method of performing these acts4 ,hence1 a housewife who spent too much time in meditation would neglect her domestic duties4 7b7 ,in exercising the theological virtues1 through acts of faith1 hope1 and charity1 there is also need of prudence1 for it is not possible to continue in these acts without interruption1 since there are times when other acts of virtue have to be attended to1 and also times for repose4 ,thus1 a person who goes about giving alms to the poor at hours when he is supposed to be at work for which he receives pay1 is not prudent in his charity1 since he does not choose the right time to exercise it4 #afcc4 ,the ,exercise of ,prudence4--,the acts that belong to prudence are those that one needs in order to direct one's conduct to that moderation which is the end of virtue4 ,they are three3 deliberation1 decision1 direction4 7a7 ,hence1 in the first place1 prudence takes counsel on1 and deliberates about1 the ways and means2 7b7 after ways and means have been discovered1 it passes judgment 7see #ege7 on their suitability 7e4g41 that restitution should be made at such a time1 in such a way1 in such an amount1 etc41 or that moderation in eating and drinking requires that this or that amount be taken1 that this or that kind of food be avoided1 etc472 7c7 finally1 but chiefly1 prudence gives the command that what has been decided on be carried out1 whether this be the quest of certain things that are advantageous or the avoidance of certain things that are dangerous4 #afcd4 ,qualities of ,prudence4--,the qualities that should characterize prudence are carefulness and confidence4 7a7 ,carefulness is a watchful attention given to deliberation and judgment enabling one to act with readiness and decision when the moment for action has arrived4 ,its necessity for prudence is clear1 for one does not counsel or judge well unless one has a matter at heart1 is anxious about its success1 and devotes to it serious study and vigilance2 nor does one direct well if there is hesitation and delay instead of promptness in performing what has been decided on4 ,in a word1 one should be quick in execution1 but slow in deliberation4 ,hence the admonition of ,st4 ,peter to be prudent1 and to be attentive to prayer as a preparation for a good life and for the judgment 7,i ,peter1 iv4 #g74 ,an example of carefulness is ,st4 ,paul1 who was solicitous about all his churches 7,i ,cor41 xi4 #bh71 ever inquiring about their condition1 their progress1 their needs1 etc4 7b7 ,confidence1 as a quality of prudence1 is a reliance on judgments carefully formed which excludes worries and undue hesitations4 ,this is necessary as a balance to carefulness2 for while it is true that absolute certainty is not to be expected in forming decisions about courses of action 7the future event and also many present things bearing on it being unknown to us71 it is also true that overcarefulness blinds the judgment and paralyzes decision4 ,in the character of ,hamlet ,shakespeare pictures the man who is imprudent through excess of caution4 #afce4 ,the ,parts or ,kinds of ,prudence4--,as the divisions of parts correspond with the divisions of wholes1 we should note that there are three kinds of wholes3 a subjective1 an integral1 and a potestative whole4 7a7 ,a subjective whole is one that is present as to its entire essence and all its power in each of the parts4 ,this kind of whole is found in the genus1 each of whose species partakes of the entire nature and energy included in the generic concept1 just as the mode of being and of acting expressed by the term 8animal0 is found fully in dogs1 cats1 horses1 and so on with the other kinds of animals4 7b7 ,an integral whole is one that is not present in all its fullness either of essence or of power in the single parts4 ,this kind of whole is found in a finished composite made up of heterogeneous units1 such as a house2 for neither walls1 nor roof1 nor foundation1 nor any other single portion of the building is a complete house or has all the uses of a house1 but if any one of them is lacking the house is not integral or complete4 7c7 ,a potestative whole is one that is present in all its essence1 but not in all its power in each single part4 ,this kind of whole is exemplified in an active principle functioning through diverse faculties1 such as the soul which thinks1 wills1 perceives1 accomplishes by means of mind1 will1 sense1 and bodily organs4 ,the soul is present in its entirety in each of these1 since it is a simple substance1 but in one it exercises one power1 in another a different power1 in none of them all its powers4 #afcf4 ,it is customary to speak also of the integral1 subjective and potestative parts of a moral virtue4 7a7 ,thus1 the quasi-integral parts of a virtue are those functions without which its act is not perfectly performed2 and with which it is more perfect4 7b7 ,the subjective parts are the species into which the virtue is divided4 7e7 ,the quasi-potestative parts are certain subsidiary or annexed virtues which have to do with the secondary acts of a principal virtue1 as not having the full efficacy of the latter4 #afcg4 ,integral ,parts of ,prudence4--,the integral parts of prudence1 considered as a cognitive virtue or as an index of the right means1 are those acts which enable one to have knowledge and to acquire knowledge4 7a7 ,thus1 the acts requisite for the possession of knowledge about ways and means are the memory of the past and the understanding of the present situation4 7b7 ,the acts requisite for the acquisition of new knowledge are docility1 by which one learns from others1 and quickness of perception1 by which one discovers for oneself4 #afch4 ,the integral parts of prudence1 considered as an operative or a preceptive virtue--that is1 as the counsellor and director of life and behavior--are the acts without which one cannot make good use of knowledge as applied to conduct4 7a7 ,thus1 knowledge of general principles must be applied to particular affairs1 and this supposes that one knows how to reason correctly1 how to infer the particular from the general1 how to put facts together4 ,even those who are not skilled dialecticians have a certain amount of natural logic1 and are able to make good use of data or premises in drawing conclusions about their obligations1 and thus to make a prudent application of what they know4 7b7 ,knowledge gained through deliberation has to be effectually made use of2 that is1 the reason must impose its judgment carefully formed1 must determine the line of action to be followed1 must properly dispose the means in view of the end4 ,this requires that a person should so direct his future acts as means to the end he has in view that they will be good in themselves 7foresight or providence7 and in their circumstances 7circumspection71 and that he will be guarded against external impediments that might hinder him1 steering clear of both ,scylla and ,charybdis 7caution73 8,the prudent man considereth his steps0 7,prov41 xiv4 #ae74 ,examples3 ,titus wishes to help the poor1 and decides on certain methods of raising the money that are dishonest and disedifying4 ,balbus wishes to induce ,caius to go to church1 and therefore shows him marks of friendship1 not reflecting that these acts of friendship1 on account of the character of ,caius1 will arouse only haughtiness or suspicion4 ,claudius1 in order to practise mortification1 resolves on a fast1 but also makes up his mind to visit certain friends who will try to make him break his resolution4 ,sempronius resolves to provide well for his family and also for certain deserving charities1 but he fails to insure his property1 to invest his money well and to make a will1 with the result that neither his family nor the poor are provided for as he had intended4 ,titus lacked foresight1 ,balbus was not circumspect1 ,claudius and ,sempronius were incautious4 #afci4 ,the ,subjective ,parts or ,species of ,prudence4--,prudence in general is the right direction of human actions to their ends2 and hence there will be as many different kinds of prudence as there are different kinds of ends of human actions4 ,but the division of ends will be into the particular good of the individual and the common good of the multitude1 and thus there are the two species of individual or personal prudence and social prudence4 7a7 ,individual prudence is the right management of his own acts by the individual1 with a view to his personal uprightness4 7b7 ,social prudence is the right management of the acts of others or of self1 with a view to the general welfare of a society4 #afdj4 ,social prudence in turn is subdivided in accordance with the two classes of society1 the perfect and the imperfect1 into political and domestic prudence4 7a7 ,political prudence is the right administration of the affairs of a larger multitude1 such as the ,state4 7b7 ,domestic prudence is the right administration of the affairs of the family4 #afda4 ,political prudence1 according to usage1 often has or may bear an unfavorable and evil signification4 ,hence1 as we are considering now the virtue of prudence1 we should remark that political prudence here is something very different from political methods or practices that are wise in evil1 but not in good1 though often called prudent 7see #afea1 #afgd sqq474 ,examples3 7a7 ,evil forms of government1 such as tyranny1 oligarchy1 or mob rule1 cannot be said to have the virtue of political prudence1 no matter how successful they may seem1 for they do not rule in the interests of the people at large1 and this interest is the very beginning and end of true social prudence4 7b7 ,evil practices in the regulation of government or of political parties--such as employment of foul means to maintain the interests of the ,state1 corruption1 bribery1 intimidation1 used for the purpose of winning the election of a ticket or candidate--cannot be honored with the name of prudence1 but should rather be called ,machiavellism and dishonest politics4 #afdb4 ,prudence exercised for the benefit of the nation as a whole should be found1 not only in rulers1 but also in private citizens4 ,we may distinguish1 then1 the following kinds of prudence3 7a7 in those who conduct the affairs of the nation there should be governmental prudence or statesmanship4 ,of rulers prudence in the highest degree is expected2 for the chief function of prudence is to direct actions1 and the heads of ,states must direct not only their own actions but those of great bodies of men4 ,scripture speaks of prudence and justice as the two virtues that are especially needed in a prince 7,jer41 xxiii4 #e72 7b7 in those who direct the defense of the nation against its enemies there should be military prudence1 for bravery has to be guided by wisdom3 8,a wise man is strong1 and a knowing man1 stout and valiant1 because war is managed by due ordering1 and there shall be safety where there are many counsels0 7,prov41 xxiv4 #e1 #f72 7c7 in subjects there should also be political prudence1 for1 as they are rational beings and members of society1 they should willingly rule their acts according to the law and should fulfill their own particular offices with a view1 not only to their own individual good1 but to the good of the whole community4 #afdc4 ,utility of ,prudence for ,society4--,hence1 we see that none of the virtues is selfish or concerned exclusively with the good of individuals4 7a7 ,thus1 prudence1 as just said1 is political and domestic as well as individual2 7b7 justice is legal 7i4e41 towards society7 as well as commutative 7i4e41 towards individuals72 7c7 even temperance 7e4g41 avoidance of drunkenness7 and courage 7e4g41 defense of public safety7 pertain to the common good and are commanded in laws of the ,state4 #afdd4 ,prudence attends chiefly to good morals1 but it attends also to other goods that benefit human life4 7a7 ,thus1 personal prudence directs one1 not only to seek after virtue1 but also to seek after lawful conveniences and to shun such things as are embarrassing or undesirable4 ,hence1 the prudent man acts so as to avoid offense and to gain the good will of others2 he studies the dispositions of those with whom he lives1 so as to live peaceably1 etc42 he protects himself against the attacks and snares of the unfriendly 7cfr4 ,acts1 xxiii4 #f2 ,matt41 xxii4 #ag74 7b7 ,domestic prudence provides not only for the virtuous lives of the members of the household1 but also for their health and happiness1 food and clothing1 and other necessities and lawful pleasures 7,luke1 xii4 #db74 7c7 ,political prudence is exercised1 not only in the regulation of the conduct of the people through good laws1 but also in the promotion of their welfare1 peace1 prosperity1 and contentment4 7d7 ,military prudence provides for religion and good morals1 by appointing chaplains1 giving opportunity for religious exercises1 insisting on discipline and military virtues1 etc42 but it also looks after the interests of the individual men1 the efficiency of all branches of the service1 preparedness of the fighting forces1 etc4 #afde4 ,neither should practical prudence or practicality 7i4e41 the knowing what to do and how to do it7 be identified with merely material pursuits1 since it is a quality that pervades all human activity1 from the lowest to the highest1 from the manual to the intellectual1 from the temporal to the spiritual4 ,just as there are unpractical mechanics and business men who are not skilled at their work1 so also there are practical students and church people who do their own work well and get good results4 #afdf4 ,the ,potential ,parts of ,prudence4--,as was explained in #afcf1 the potential parts of a virtue are certain annexed virtues1 usually inferior ones1 that have to do with the secondary acts of a virtue to which they are subordinated4 ,the principal act of prudence is direction1 its secondary acts are deliberation and decision 7#afcc74 ,hence1 we have the following potential parts of prudence3 7a7 wise deliberation 7eubulia71 which is a habit of debating with oneself according to correct methods the means to be employed for virtuous choice2 7b7 wise decision1 which is an habitual state of the mind which makes it ready to draw right conclusions about the means to be chosen for virtuous conduct4 #afdg4 ,wise deliberation and wise decision differ from prudence1 which is wise direction1 and they are subject to it just as counsellors are subject to a commander4 ,but is it possible for these three virtues to exist apart8 7a7 ,if there is question only of natural dispositions to these virtues1 they may exist apart4 ,thus1 we find that certain persons have an imagination ready to discover ways and means2 that others are not so inventive1 but are remarkable for common sense in choosing the most suitable means2 and that still others are so inclined to some virtue that they will promptly make use of means that tend to it4 ,the first class are readily listened to in deliberations1 the second in decisions1 while the third are usefully employed in executing matters that suit their natural bent 7e4g41 the naturally generous in dispensing alms74 7b7 ,if there is question of the virtues themselves1 they do not exist apart2 for a man is not prudent if he does not deliberate as he should 7e4g41 if he searches for evil means to effect his good purpose71 or if he does not decide as he should 7e4g41 if he concludes to prefer evil means to the good ones his deliberation had shown him71 or if he does not direct his actions as he should 7e4g41 if he neglects to carry out what he had decided on as a necessary duty or performs it in a careless or improper way74 ,true prudence1 then1 is wise in deliberation1 in decision1 in direction4 ,a good man may be excused if he is not resourceful1 or if he lacks sound judgment in worldly matters1 but one who is imprudent in the matter of a virtuous life is not a good man4 #afdh4 ,the ,persons ,who ,possess ,prudence4--,political prudence1 if understood of the ability to rule well1 is not found in all persons1 not even in all the good4 7a7 ,thus1 those who are imprudent in their own affairs are not fitted to rule1 and hence a man who is unjust1 or intemperate1 or cowardly1 lacks political prudence3 8,if one knows not how to govern his own house1 how will he be able to take care of the ,church of ,god80 said ,st4 ,paul in discussing the qualifications of prelates 7,i ,tim41 iii4 #e74 ,he who does not know how to obey well does not know how to rule well4 7b7 ,those who have infused prudence on account of the state of grace are not necessarily fitted to govern1 for even children have the grace of prudence through ,baptism and there are many grown-up persons of saintly lives who are not a success in office and administration4 ,thus1 ,pope ,celestine ,v1 though a most holy man1 resigned from the ,papacy1 because he felt himself unequal to the task of ruling in troublous times4 7c7 ,those who have acquired prudence through reason and experience1 and who are therefore just1 temperate and strong1 are morally well fitted in natural endowments to rule4 ,he who has learned to obey well is prepared to learn to rule well4 #afdi4 ,political prudence pertains to subjects as well as to rulers1 although not in the same manner4 7a7 ,thus1 rulers in the civil community should have political prudence in a supreme degree1 or statesmanship1 so that they may be able to discharge well the function of sovereignty entrusted to them1 whether as legislators by deliberating wisely and choosing suitable laws1 or as judges by correctly interpreting and applying the law1 or as executives by maintaining the government and enforcing its laws4 7b7 ,the citizens who exercise the power of suffrage should be gifted with no small degree of political prudence3 they should be loyal to the institutions1 laws1 and welfare of the country1 able to form a good judgment about men and measures that are the issues in a campaign1 and ready to vote according to conviction rather than prejudice or personal interest4 7c7 ,the people can also exercise political prudence when obeying the laws1 as when they act from a sense of duty and as rational beings1 not unwillingly or blindly2 for thus they rule themselves as freemen and enlightened beings1 deliberating and deciding with themselves how they may cooperate for the common good and directing their acts according to law4 #afej4 ,the principles just given concerning political prudence will apply also1 due proportion being observed1 to domestic prudence4 7a7 ,hence1 it is the duty of those who have authority over a family or a similar community to cultivate domestic prudence1 without which they cannot discharge rightly the duties of their position of parent1 rector1 superior1 manager1 etc4 ,confessors and directors of souls need especially to be prudent2 for even though a priest is thoroughly grounded in the principles of a moral system of conscience and in the teachings of ascetical theology1 he will have to be guided by prudence in making use of his knowledge1 so as to apply it well in the great variety of cases that will come before him1 and to decide what will be most useful for the spiritual welfare of each individual subject4 7b7 ,it is the duty of those who elect or appoint others to positions of authority 7such as the positions of guardian1 teacher1 superintendent1 etc47 to be assured beforehand of the fitness of the person chosen as regards prudence1 namely1 that he is devoted to the welfare of those whom he will rule1 that he has acquired sufficient knowledge and experience1 and that his habits are temperate1 resolute1 just4 #afea4 ,relations between ,prudence and ,other ,virtues4--,in the preceding paragraphs the possession of prudence has been joined with the moral virtues4 ,hence the question presents itself3 ,can one who lacks the moral virtues possess prudence8 7a7 ,evil prudence1 which chooses ways and means well adapted to some nefarious scheme1 and imperfect prudence1 which means and judges well but does not strongly resolve1 are of course found in sinners4 ,evil prudence is called after the virtue1 because it is a counterfeit of the latter's goodness1 but it is more properly named astuteness or cunning4 ,its sinfulness is strongly expressed in ,rom41 viii4 #f1 which declares that the prudence of the flesh is death4 ,imperfect prudence is also sinful1 for it permits a right judgment to remain ineffectual and is thus recreant to conscience4 ,examples of evil prudence are the unjust steward mentioned in the ,gospel 7,luke1 xvi4 #a71 who was wise enough to cheat his master and serve his own interests1 and artful swindlers who know how to lure their victims and then escape without detection4 ,instances of imperfect prudence are persons who deliberate well on the means to overcome assaults of temptation or to escape occasions of sin1 but whose resolutions never last4 7b7 ,indifferent prudence is resourceful in finding ways to accomplish purposes that are good1 but that are not necessarily referred to moral aims4 ,thus1 certain men seem to have an uncanny instinct in business or industry of hitting on the methods that lead to success and of acting at the right time1 and a similar fact is observed in the fields of science1 medicine1 art1 etc4 ,this kind of ability of knowing and doing the right thing is variously described as insight1 discrimination1 tact1 and is variously explained as luck1 genius1 industry1 etc4 ,but1 morally speaking1 it is neither virtuous nor sinful1 since we find1 for example1 that men endowed with business acumen or a practical sense of the uses of some art or science devote their talents sometimes to good1 sometimes to evil1 according to the difference of their characters4 7c7 ,good prudence is that which in thought and in act functions well with regard to the means for leading a good life4 ,it is only this prudence that receives the name of virtue2 and1 since it is clear from its concept that it supposes a good life1 we must conclude that the virtue of prudence is not found in sinners4 ,it may happen1 therefore1 that a man is most sagacious in managing temporal affairs1 or most skillful in administering the spiritual interests of others1 and withal most imprudent1 because he neglects his own salvation4 #afeb4 ,sins that ,cause ,one to ,forfeit the ,virtue of ,prudence4--7a7 ,infused prudence is lost by any and every act of mortal sin1 whether the sin be against the knowledge had through faith or the knowledge had through reason4 7b7 ,acquired prudence is lost by repeated acts of mortal sin opposed to the knowledge had through reason1 but not by one sole act4 ,thus1 a person who through experience and practice has become prudent in overcoming past vices1 loses this prudence if he disregards the lessons of the past and exposes himself to the old dangers of mortal sin 7see #ach74 #afec4 ,we may sum up as follows regarding sinners and the possession of the virtue of prudence3 7a7 sinners guilty of venial sin only have infused prudence1 and also the habit of natural prudence1 if they have acquired it by their own efforts2 7b7 sinners guilty of mortal sin against supernatural light 7e4g41 those who sin against faith or hope7 have not the infused virtue of prudence1 though they may have the acquired virtue2 7c7 sinners guilty of habitual mortal sin against natural light 7e4g41 those who are accustomed to sin against temperance or justice7 have neither the infused nor the acquired virtue of prudence4 ,even one mortal sin1 though it will not take away the inclination of the habit of prudence1 will deprive one of the perfection of the virtue of prudence1 for which it is required that in every act there be a judgment agreeable to a good will4 #afed4 ,the ,virtue of ,infused ,prudence in ,those ,who ,are in the ,state of ,grace4--7a7 ,infants in the state of grace through ,baptism possess this virtue in an habitual1 but not in an actual manner--that is1 on account of their sanctification they have the power1 but on account of their want of reason they have not the use of the power4 7b7 ,all adults in the state of grace have this virtue both habitually and actually1 as far as the need of salvation requires its exercise4 ,grace enables them either to perceive what they should do to live well1 or to seek counsel from the better instructed and to distinguish between good and bad advice4 7c7 ,some adults in the state of grace have good judgment in a superior degree and are able to direct not only themselves but others1 and to deliberate and decide rightly1 not only in matters necessary for salvation1 but in all kinds of affairs pertaining to the direction of human life4 #afee4 ,can the ,acquired ,virtue of ,prudence ,exist in ,young ,people8--7a7 ,if there is question of a formed habit of prudence1 the virtue is not in the young1 but in those who are advanced in years4 ,acquired prudence is originated by deliberation on particular cases and by habit1 and these are not had without experience and time4 ,hence1 this virtue is to be looked for in the elderly1 both because the passions that disturb calm deliberation are no longer so impetuous in them1 and because their years have taught them many lessons and given them the opportunity to acquire fixed ways of acting3 8,in the ancient is wisdom1 and in length of days prudence0 7,job1 xii4 #ab2 cfr4 ,,iii ,kings1 xii74 7b7 ,if there is question of a formative prudence1 this is found in the young1 for they deliberate and decide at times with judgment and firmness1 and1 if such acts are frequently repeated1 they will eventually proceed from a settled moral inclination4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 that the moral training of the young begin early1 that instruction1 counsel and direction be given them by parents and other guides1 so that the way of virtue may be made more easy4 ,the young are in duty bound to listen frequently1 willingly and reverently to the admonitions of their elders1 and hence the modern tendency of youth to act as critics of morals is as foolish as it is presumptuous4 #afef4 ,is ,there ,such a ,thing as an ,instinctive or ,native ,prudence8--7a7 ,if we speak of the knowledge of universal principles of right and wrong which are applied by prudence1 those principles that are most general are known naturally 7i4e41 even without instruction or inference71 but not so the less general principles that follow from them 7see #cbj sqq474 ,broadly speaking1 therefore1 one might say that prudence is natural1 for in respect of its first principles it has a natural evidence2 but it is more correct to say that knowledge of first principles belongs to intuitive reason or understanding1 which is also called synteresis in reference to practical truths 7see #ade71 and which is a gift of nature4 7b7 ,if we speak of the particular knowledge of virtuous aims that is presupposed to prudence1 one may possess naturally a right judgment about those aims1 inasmuch as the right objectives of human life are not variable but determinate1 and accordingly may be the centers of attraction to nature1 which is drawn to the invariable and determinate1 as is seen in irrational creatures4 ,in fact1 certain persons are by nature disposed to certain virtues 7e4g41 temperance71 and readily form accurate judgments as to what concerns these virtues4 ,broadly speaking again1 we may say that prudence is natural in the sense that nature disposes some persons to judge rightly about moral ends4 7c7 ,if we speak of the particular knowledge concerning ways and means to fulfill virtuous purposes1 there is no natural knowledge of this kind1 for the ways and means to moderation are infinitely varied according to the differences of affairs1 persons1 and circumstances4 ,and since prudence strictly understood is concerned1 not with universal principles or the ends of virtues1 but with individual cases and the particular means to be employed1 it follows that in the strict sense prudence is not natural4 ,but just as we find that some men are better fitted by nature to judge correctly in speculative matters1 so also some persons are superior to others in the ability to reason about practical cases and the means conducive to morality4 #afeg4 ,the ,growth and ,decay of ,prudence4--7a7 ,as repeated acts form a habit of prudence1 so do repeated acts strengthen prudence already formed1 especially when the chief act of prudence 7i4e41 the command that things wisely deliberated on be performed7 is often brought into play4 ,even infused prudence is augmented and perfected by use and practice3 8,strong meat is for the perfect1 for them who by custom have their senses exercised to the discerning of good and evil0 7,heb41 v4 #ad74 7b7 ,as prudence consists primarily in a dictate which applies the reason's knowledge to the control of will and conduct1 this virtue is corrupted chiefly by passion4 ,we see that those who are swayed by pleasure or pain lose sight of the true motive of choice and action1 and do not issue to themselves the order which prudence and their better judgment inspire4 ,thus1 lust deceived even the elders of the people 7,dan41 xiii4 #ef71 and bribes blind even the prudent 7,exod41 xxiii4 #h74 ,nature enables a man to judge rightly about the universal principles of right and wrong2 but1 when judgment is to be given about particular lines of action1 8as a man is1 so he judges10 the licentious man judging for pleasure1 the cowardly man for neglect of duty4 ,hence1 the moral virtues must be united with prudence1 else it perishes4 7c7 ,as prudence presupposes a fund of general moral principles1 forgetfulness is an impediment to this virtue2 yet not so that every loss of memory which deprives one of arts and sciences will also take away prudence4 ,for1 while art and science consist entirely of knowledge1 prudence has also a moral element derived from a right inclination of the will towards goodness1 and its chief office is the utilization of principles in practice4 ,the virtuous man will continue to follow prudence1 even though he has forgotten its theory or rules1 guiding himself by good habits formed or by the counsel of those wiser than himself4 #afeh4 ,the ,gift of ,counsel4--,the ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost supplement the theological virtues by ministering to them2 but they supplement the moral virtues1 of which prudence is the first1 by aiding and perfecting them4 ,the ,gift that corresponds directly to prudence is ,counsel1 for both are concerned with the direction of human acts1 prudence directing by the standard of human reason and counsel by the ,holy ,ghost ,himself4 #afei4 ,definition4--,counsel is defined as 8an infused habit which makes the soul prompt to receive and act upon the enlightenment offered by the ,holy ,ghost about the means to be chosen with a view to its own eternal salvation40 7a7 ,counsel is different from the virtue of wise deliberation spoken of in #afdf2 for1 while the virtue enables one to do good in a human manner and from one's own motion 7e4g41 by seeking advice1 by making inquiries1 etc471 the ,gift enables one to do good in a superhuman manner and under the motion of the ,holy ,ghost 7i4e41 by hearkening to the advice offered by ,god74 7b7 ,counsel is different also from the charism of good counsel1 which makes certain persons remarkable as advisors or directors4 ,thus1 ,mathathias when dying said to his sons3 8,i know that your brother ,simon is a man of counsel2 give ear to him always1 and he shall be a father to you0 7,i ,mach41 ii4 #fe74 ,st4 ,antoninus of ,florence was so successful in guiding those who came to him with their difficulties that he was called 8,antoninus of the ,counsels40 ,the ,gift is intended to benefit its possessor1 and it is therefore had by all the just2 but the charism is for the benefit of others1 and is freely bestowed according to the will of ,god only on certain individuals who have a special mission of directing or assisting their neighbors4 #affj4 ,subject-,matter of ,counsel4--,the subject-matter of the ,gift of ,counsel embraces all that pertains to salvation1 both the things that are necessary and are commanded and the things that are not necessary and are only counselled4 #affa4 ,the ,gift of ,counsel may direct one at times to courses that are singular and extraordinary4 ,but1 since the ,apostolic rule is that one should not believe every spirit but should prove the spirits whether they are from ,god 7,i ,john1 iv4 #a2 ,i ,thess41 v4 #ba71 persons who feel called to unusual kinds of life should submit their ideas to the judgment of the ,church3 8,arise and go into the city1 and there it shall be told thee what thou must do0 7,acts1 ix4 #g74 #affb4 ,the ,beatitude and ,fruits that ,correspond to the ,gift of ,counsel4--7a7 ,counsel directs one to all the means that are useful for the attainment of life eternal1 but especially to acts of mercy1 for1 as ,st4 ,augustine remarks1 without mercy shown to others we cannot be freed from our own evils4 ,cognate to ,counsel1 therefore1 is the ,fifth ,beatitude3 8,blessed are the merciful1 for they shall obtain mercy0 7,matt41 v4 #g74 7b7 ,counsel is practical1 and hence its ultimate result will be action of some kind4 ,the acts which its farseeing view puts especially into exercise are acts of mercy1 and acts of mercy have sweetness and agreeableness when accompanied by a sympathetic love of the afflicted and a cheerful and generous service of their needs4 ,there belong to mercy1 then1 the two delightful acts or fruits of the ,spirit mentioned in ,gal41 v1 #bb1 and called goodness 7i4e41 internal benevolence7 and kindness 7i4e41 external beneficence74 #affc4 ,the ,sins ,against ,prudence4--,there are two classes of sins opposed to prudence4 7a7 ,manifestly opposed to it are those sins that consist in a want of the acts or conditions requisite for prudence4 ,these may be called sins of imprudence or sins that offend prudence by way of non-use4 7b7 ,seemingly allied with prudence are those sins that consist in a wrong application of the acts or conditions of the virtue4 ,these may be called sins of pseudo-prudence1 or sins that offend against prudence by way of abuse4 ,we shall speak first of imprudence and then of pseudo-prudence4 #affd4 ,kinds of ,imprudence4--,there are three kinds of imprudence4 7a7 ,negatively considered1 imprudence is nothing more than the absence of prudence1 and it is not necessarily a sin4 ,thus1 children and young people through no fault of their own are negatively imprudent1 though of course their lack of prudence may be traced back to original sin4 7b7 ,privatively considered1 imprudence is the failure to have the habitual prudence that one is bound and able to possess4 ,this failure is due to the fact that one has taken no pains to educate oneself through study1 sermons1 instructions1 etc41 so as to be able to act prudently when the occasion arises4 ,privative imprudence is therefore reducible to the sin of negligence1 although negligence itself1 as being opposed to carefulness 7#afcd71 is also against prudence1 as we shall see4 7c7 ,contrarily considered1 imprudence is the voluntary omission of some act or condition demanded by prudence 7as when one is so taken up with amusements that one makes no effort to deliberate on an important matter or deliberates with undue haste71 or the voluntary commission of an act exclusive of an act or condition of prudence 7as when one expressly contemns deliberations or decides to act against the rules of prudence74 ,this kind of imprudence is a mortal sin when it leads away from things necessary for salvation2 otherwise it is a venial sin4 #affe4 ,sinfulness of ,imprudence4--,is imprudence a general sin1 that is1 a sin which is included in every kind of sin8 7a7 ,imprudence is not included in every kind of sin in the sense that it forms a part of the very nature of every kind of sin2 for1 just as prudence has its own special acts 7i4e41 to direct according to reason71 distinct from those of other virtues1 so has imprudence its own special defects that do not belong to other kinds of sin4 7b7 ,imprudence is included in every kind of sin in the sense that everyone who sins acts imprudently in sinning2 for1 just as one does not act virtuously unless prudence directs one1 so one does not act sinfully unless there is some defect in the deliberation1 or decision1 or direction given by reason4 #afff4 ,it should be noted that1 while the defects against deliberation1 decision1 and direction are so many different kinds of imprudence1 they do not form species of sin distinct from the motivating sin if they are all directed to one evil purpose4 ,hence1 if a person has deliberated badly1 decided badly1 and directed badly in the matter of striking a priest1 he needs to confess but one sin1 namely1 that of laying sacrilegious hands on a cleric4 #affg4 ,the ,sin of ,haste4--,the sin of haste or precipitancy passes over or hurries over the processes of deliberation that ought to precede action2 it devotes little or no attention to memory of past experiences1 understanding of present conditions1 or conjecture of future possibilities2 it does not give to a question the proper amount of study or of consultation4 ,it is of two kinds1 ordinary and rash4 7a7 ,ordinary precipitancy results from a strong inclination of the will or of the passions1 as when a person speaks in anger before he has thought of the serious consequences of his words1 or marries without reflection1 or purchases an article the worth of which he does not know1 or agrees to something about which he is in the dark1 etc4 ,both ,holy ,writ and popular proverbs strongly condemn this sin4 7b7 ,rash precipitancy results from contempt of the law1 as when one so despises an ordinance as to violate it without the slightest hesitation or reflection4 ,this sin pertains to pride as well as to imprudence4 ,in various censures the word 8rashness0 or 8temerity0 is used as here given1 as when excommunication is pronounced against rash violators of the law4 #affh4 ,the ,sin of ,thoughtlessness4--,the sin of thoughtlessness or inconsideration is a neglect or contempt of the means of arriving at a wise decision4 ,it is a failure1 therefore1 to make use of right understanding1 which looks well at the particular case before it and studies and measures it in the light of first principles4 7a7 ,he is guilty of thoughtlessness1 then1 who fails to do what he can to judge rightly about his duty2 nor is he excused if he leaves the whole matter to ,god1 for it is temptation of ,god to expect that ,he will provide when man does not do his own part 7,prov41 iv4 #be74 7b7 ,he is not guilty of thoughtlessness who has not the opportunity of judging1 or who lacks sufficient knowledge1 or who is taken unawares2 nor is he guilty of temptation of ,god1 if in such difficulties he commits all to ,providence4 ,thus1 when various nations were gathered together to fight against ,juda1 ,king ,josaphat prayed3 8,as we know not what to do1 we can only turn our eyes to ,thee0 7,,ii ,par41 xx4 #ab74 ,and ,our ,lord promised special help to the disciples for cases of need when they were unable to help themselves 7,matt41 x4 #ai74 #affi4 ,the ,sin of ,inconstancy4--,the sin of changeableness or inconstancy is committed when1 owing to anger1 jealousy or other inordinate passion1 the reason repudiates things that had been rightly decided on and fails to act on judgments that had been rightly made 7,is41 xxxvii4 #c74 ,from inconstancy result incontinence 7i4e41 instability in the face of pleasure7 and effeminacy 7i4e41 instability in the face of sadness74 #afgj4 ,causes of the ,sins of ,haste1 ,thoughtlessness1 and ,inconstancy4--7a7 ,every inordinate desire brings on these sins by diverting the mind from a good to an evil object4 ,experience shows that the avaricious1 the ambitious1 the angry1 the jealous1 etc41 do not listen to reason1 but act imprudently3 8,where envying and contention is1 there is inconstancy0 7,james1 iii4 #af74 7b7 ,desire of pleasure1 especially of venereal pleasure1 is most fatal to prudence by extinguishing the judgment of reason4 ,the intellect is immaterial and is occupied with abstract truth1 whereas sensual delights are immersed in the material and sensible4 ,hence1 carnal sins are more injurious to prudence than spiritual sins4 ,the sensual man not merely does not listen to reason1 but he does not even hear it4 ,venus steals away the reason1 said ,aristotle1 and this truth is well exemplified in ,king ,solomon4 #afga4 ,the ,sin of ,negligence4--,the sin of negligence is opposed to carefulness or diligence1 and consists in the failure of the reason to direct properly an act1 or some circumstance of an act1 to which one is obliged4 7a7 ,negligence is a general sin in the sense that it has no special matter of its own1 such as a passion to be moderated 7as is the case with temperance and fortitude7 or an action to be regulated 7as is the case with justice74 ,the acts of reason should extend to every kind of matter1 and hence a person may be negligent 7and likewise inconstant1 thoughtless1 hasty7 with reference to any kind of action or passion4 7b7 ,it is properly a special sin1 as being the opposite of carefulness1 which is a special act of prudence4 #afgb4 ,negligence is distinct from the following sins3 7a7 from laziness and lukewarmness1 which are defects of the external act1 while negligence is a defect of the internal act 7see #acbf1 #acbg72 7b7 from sins of omission1 which pertain to external acts and are results of negligence1 and are opposed to some other virtue than prudence 7e4g41 negligence in paying debts is against justice72 7c7 from inconstancy1 which fails to command an act to which one is bound1 as though one were impeded1 while negligence fails because there is a want of promptness in the will4 ,the inconstant man is easily diverted from his course2 the negligent man is slow in getting under way4 #afgc4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,negligence4--7a7 ,it is a mortal sin when some act or circumstance necessary for salvation is omitted on its account 7e4g41 when a debtor puts off from day to day the payment of a bill1 and in consequence causes a great injury71 or when it proceeds from contempt or preference of the creature to ,god4 7b7 ,it is a venial sin when the act or circumstance omitted is not necessary for salvation 7e4g41 when a judge causes a slight injustice by reason of his procrastination71 or when it proceeds from a want of fervor4 #afgd4 ,false ,prudence4--,so far we have considered the sins of imprudence2 now we shall speak of the sins of false prudence1 which turn to wrong objects the acts that prudence employs for good1 or which use inordinately the care that prudence employs in moderation4 ,thus1 there are several kinds of imitation-prudence4 7a7 ,prudence is in love with the good of virtue as the end of life2 the prudence of the flesh is in love with some pleasure or utility1 and makes this good the center of attraction for all its acts4 7b7 ,prudence deliberates and judges about good and lawful means for its end2 astuteness deliberates and judges how it may make use of evil means1 and it employs trickery and fraud to perform what it decides on4 7c7 ,prudence is chiefly concerned about the spiritual1 but its concern is not excessive2 solicitude for temporal things or for the morrow is more anxious about the things of this world1 or is unduly anxious about spiritual things4 #afge4 ,the prudence whose end is bad is the sin of those ,who counsel1 judge1 and direct well as to the means for securing temporal goods which they have made the supreme purpose of their lives4 ,this sin is given the one general name1 8prudence of the flesh10 from ,rom41 viii4 #f1 where the aspirations of the flesh are contrasted with the aspirations of the spirit4 ,but it is also sometimes distinguished according to the different kinds of created things in which false prudence puts its desire1 or according to the different kinds of allurements to such created goods4 7a7 ,thus1 those who aim chiefly at internal goods 7i4e41 bodily pleasures1 health1 etc47 are said to have the prudence of the flesh1 while those who long mostly after externals 7such as fine clothes1 jewelry1 estates1 etc47 are said to have the prudence of this world3 8,the children of this world are more prudent in their generation than the children of light0 7,luke1 xvi4 #h74 7b7 ,we may also divide prudence about a wrong end into earthly1 animal and devilish1 according to the threefold source of temptation1 as was explained above in #afbc4 #afgf4 ,sinfulness of the ,prudence of the ,flesh4--7a7 ,if prudence of the fiesh be understood in its stricter meaning as designating the condition of those who make the things of this world the be-all and the end-all of existence1 it is a mortal sin2 for it is impossible that one should have two last ends or serve two masters whose interests are opposite3 8,the wisdom of the flesh is an enemy to ,god1 for it is not subject to the law of ,god1 neither can it be0 7,rom41 viii4 #g74 7b7 ,if prudence of the flesh be taken in a less strict sense as signifying the behavior of those who make ,god the supreme end of their lives1 but who in some affair plan shrewdly for a particular end that does not entirely square with right reason1 it is then a venial sin4 ,an example is a host who is very practical in buying supplies and making all the arrangements for a banquet at which the guests will conduct themselves with too much hilarity4 7c7 ,if prudence of the flesh be used in a wide or improper sense as signifying the care of the body and other temporal things for the sake of a good end1 it is not sinful1 but virtuous4 ,thus1 a person who is careful about his diet in order that he may conserve his health and be enabled to work more efficiently and fruitfully1 is virtuously prudent4 ,the use of the term 8prudence of the flesh10 for these last two cases is inaccurate and misleading4 #afgg4 ,astuteness1 ,trickery and ,fraud4--,the prudence whose means are bad is the sin of those who skillfully plan and carry out wicked ways and methods of securing some desired end1 even though it be a good end4 7a7 ,the planning of wicked means through which some design can be successfully achieved is the sin of astuteness1 and the persons who are well-fitted for such things are known as schemers and plotters4 ,the counsel of the ,jews against ,christ 7,matt41 xxvi4 #c-e7 and the bribery of the sepulchre guards 7,matt41 xxviii4 #ab-ad7 are examples of astuteness4 7b7 ,the carrying out of astute plans may be done either by violence or by stealth2 but1 as evil loves to hide itself and to pose as good lest its success be endangered1 schemers usually resort to trickery and fraud4 ,lord ,bacon's essay on 8,dissimulation0 is a good description of the method of worldly policy4 #afgh4 ,trickery in general is the secret employment of sinful means with the view to impose on others and thus gain some advantage one has in mind4 ,hence1 it has a wide application and includes fraud as well as other uses of unlawful means4 ,but trickery may be distinguished from fraud as follows3 7a7 trickery is the execution of an astute plan by words calculated to deceive or circumvent another person4 ,words are the chief means of communication between men1 and hence trickery is more usual than fraud4 ,examples of trickery are the artful traps prepared for ,our ,lord by the ,pharisees when with apparent respect they asked ,his views about the condemnation of the adulteress 7,john1 viii4 #c sqq47 and the payment of tribute 7,matt41 xxii4 #ag71 their purpose being to obtain evidence that ,he spoke against the ,law2 7b7 fraud is the execution of astute plans by means of dishonest actions1 as when a person cheats by not observing the rules of a game1 or defrauds by selling inferior goods1 or imposes on others by passing himself off as their friend1 etc4 #afgi4 ,trickery may be used for good as well as evil ends1 and thus ,st4 ,paul disowns the practice of persuading men to embrace the ,faith by appealing to their prejudices or by toning down the ,gospel3 8,we renounce the hidden things of dishonesty1 not walking in craftiness1 nor adulterating the word of ,god2 but by manifestation of the truth commending ourselves to every man's consciousness in the sight of ,god0 7,,ii ,cor41 iv4 #b74 #afhj4 ,the gravity of the sins of astuteness1 trickery and fraud depends on the character of the object1 end and circumstances4 7a7 ,thus1 on account of the object the sin is grave when the means chosen are very bad 7e4g41 serious calumnies71 venial when the means are slightly evil 7e4g41 lies about unimportant matters72 7b7 on account of the end the sin is mortal when one intends to perpetrate a serious offense 7e4g41 clever ruses to get into a house in order to rob it71 venial when the purpose is not so bad 7e4g41 cheating at cards in order to win a small sum72 7c7 on account of the circumstances the sin is made mortal by some grave defect or disorder in the act resulting from the condition of time1 place1 person1 etc4 ,thus1 there might easily be great scandal if a person of authority were known to lie habitually1 as it suited his interests4 #afha4 ,solicitude4--,another form of spurious prudence is solicitude1 that is1 an inordinate carefulness about temporal things or about the future4 ,its sinfulness appears from the following considerations4 7a7 ,our ,lord condemns solicitude3 8,be not solicitous therefore saying3 #8,what shall we eat1 or what shall we drink1 or wherewith shall we be clothed8' 444 ,be not solicitous for the morrow1 for the morrow will be solicitous for itself4 ,sufficient for the day is the evil thereof0 7,matt1 vi4 #ca1 #cd74 7b7 ,solicitude seeks temporal things without the moderation that reason requires1 does not duly esteem the spiritual1 and does not confide in ,divine ,providence4 ,without any human care ,god bestows upon man the gift of life itself1 provides for the animals and plants1 directs the whole inanimate creation1 and it is therefore unreasonable to fret and fume over the temporal things of one individual as if ,god were unable or unwilling to see to them 7,matt1 vi4 #be sqq474 #afhb4 ,cases of ,unlawful ,solicitude about ,temporalities4--7a7 ,solicitude is sinful on account of the things sought if one makes temporal things the end of life1 as when a person follows religion purely as a business matter1 for the sake of the living and worldly advantages this secures4 7b7 ,solicitude is sinful on account of the immoderate desire of obtaining some good1 when one pursues the temporal with such avidity that the spiritual is made to suffer1 as when a person devotes so much time and thought to business1 politics1 society or science that religion is more and more set aside in his life3 8,the cares of this world choked up the word0 7,matt41 xiii4 #bb74 7c7 ,solicitude is sinful on account of the immoderate fear of losing a temporal good1 when one is deterred from religion by the thought that fidelity to virtue means the sacrifice of the necessaries of life4 ,examples of this immoderate solicitude are persons who never attend church or contribute to religion1 lest they lose time or money1 or who practise race-suicide to escape the burden of supporting a family4 #afhc4 ,cases of ,lawful ,solicitude4--7a7 ,when the end is a genuine temporal good1 moderate solicitude is not only lawful but is a duty dictated by prudence4 ,thus1 a man who labors industriously and who saves1 spending economically for the support of himself and his dependents and the upkeep of his home and business1 is prudent in the true sense of the word1 provided he is not too much absorbed in money-making or too anxious about financial affairs3 8,work must be attended to1 but worry must be banished0 7,st4 ,jerome74 7b7 ,when the end is a spiritual one1 moderate solicitude is also a duty4 ,thus1 ,st4 ,paul was solicitous for his ,churches 7,,ii ,cor41 xi4 #bh71 ,timothy for the ,philippians 7,phil41 ii4 #bj72 those who have charge as almoners should be solicitous for the goods given for the poor1 etc4 #afhd4 ,cases of ,unlawful ,solicitude about the ,future4--7a7 ,solicitude is unlawful on account of the end that is intended1 when one makes temporal things one's god1 and is therefore perturbed about the future1 as when a person has set his heart upon obtaining some honor by fair means or foul1 and is restless and disturbed in mind lest it escape him4 7b7 ,solicitude is unlawful on account of immoderate desire1 when one seeks for more than one should1 as when a person who has sufficient means busies himself about too many things and deprives himself of peace and health in order to be wealthier in the future4 7c7 ,solicitude is unlawful on account of the unsuitability of the time1 when one anticipates the season for care1 as when a farmer worries during planting season about the harvest1 and during harvest time about the next planting4 ,those who willingly occupy and disquiet themselves with forebodings of dire calamities that are uncertain 7e4g41 the imminent destruction of the world7 or of evils that cannot be prevented 7e4g41 their death71 are also guilty of sinful solicitude4 #afhe4 ,cases of ,lawful ,solicitude about the ,future4--7a7 ,when the end is a lawul temporal good1 moderate solicitude about the future is good1 for providence for the future is a part of prudence 7see #afed74 ,scripture praises the ant which gathers its food in the summer against the winter 7,prov41 vi4 #f74 ,joseph stored up a reserve of grain 7,gen41 xii4 #cd sqq472 ,our ,lord appointed ,judas to act as treasurer for ,himself and ,his followers 7,john1 xii4 #f72 the ,apostles kept for future expenses offerings made from the sale of fields 7,acts1 iv4 #cd1 #ce74 7b7 ,when the end is spiritual1 reasonable solicitude is also good1 and this is seen in the conduct of the early ,christians who gathered alms in advance that they might have the means to bestow assistance during a famine which had been predicted 7,acts1 xi4 #bg sqq474 #afhf4 ,false ,prudence and ,avarice4--,the sins of false prudence are caused chiefly by avarice4 7a7 ,they are sins in which reason plays a great part1 though it is not put to a good use2 and hence they do not naturally spring from carnal vices or cowardice1 which obscure reason4 ,avarice1 on the contrary1 reasons much on how it may get and keep2 it is shrewd1 cunning1 deliberate1 foresighted4 7b7 ,they are sins that have recourse to stealth and secrecy1 and thus are unlike pride1 vainglory1 and anger1 which incline to display and openness4 ,but avarice puts utility above considerations of glory or revenge1 and prefers to be without fame or to bear with slights rather than lose profits4 #afhg4 ,commandments of ,prudence4--,prudence is not expressly commanded in the ,decalogue1 but there are precepts concerning this virtue in other parts of ,scripture4 7a7 ,prudence is not enjoined in the ,decalogue1 because the ten commandments are concerned with those ends of virtue that are manifest to all1 whereas prudence is about the means to practise virtue4 7b7 ,prudence is commanded in many places of ,scripture3 8,get wisdom and with all thy possession purchase prudence0 7,prov41 iv4 #g72 8,walk in the ways of prudence0 7ibid1 ix4 #f72 8,purchase prudence1 for it is more precious than silver0 7ibid1 xvi4 #af72 8,be ye prudent as serpents0 7,matt41 x1 #af72 8,speak the things that become sound doctrine1 that the aged men be sober1 chaste1 prudent0 7,tit41 ii4 #a1 #b72 8,be prudent and ,watch in prayers0 7,i ,peter1 iv4 #g74 ,art4 #b3 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,justice 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #eg-fj47 #afhh4 ,after prudence follows justice4 ,this virtue regulates human actions and renders to others their due1 and so it has preeminence over fortitude and temperance1 which govern the passions and make man virtuous as regards his own acts only and not as regards his neighbor4 ,the logical order1 then1 is that justice should precede fortitude and temperance4 #afhi4 ,nature of ,justice4--,in ,god justice is an attribute in virtue of which ,he so treats ,his creatures that they can have no well-founded complaint against ,him3 8,his own justice supported ,him4 ,he put on justice as a breastplate0 7,is1 lix4 #af1 #ag74 ,in man it is goodness towards ,god or towards neighbors2 and it is called in ,scripture by various names1 such as 8justice10 8equity10 8truth10 8righteousness40 7a7 ,in a wide sense1 justice signifies the general virtue of holiness1 or the collection of all the virtues1 as when ,our ,lord says3 8,blessed are they that hunger and thirst after justice 7i4e41 holiness70 7,matt41 v4 #f74 ,holiness1 as a supernatural life communicated to the soul1 is also called justice or justification3 8,the justice of ,god by faith of ,jesus ,christ1 unto all and upon all them that believe in ,him0 7,rom41 iii4 #bb74 7b7 ,in a strict sense1 it signifies the special moral virtue that consists in a firm purpose of the will to give to everyone his due or right3 8,love justice1 you that are judges of the earth0 7,wis41 i4 #a72 8,if in every deed you speak justice0 7,ps4 lvii4 #b74 ,in its strict sense the word 8justice0 is hereafter used4 #afij4 ,definition of ,right4--,right signifies originally that which follows a straight course or does not deviate from the true standard1 as in the expressions 8right ahead10 8to be in the right40 ,but in moral matters right has the derived meaning of that which is good1 proper1 suitable2 and in general it is of two kinds1 objective and subjective1 the former being the foundation of the latter4 7a7 ,objective right is that which is prescribed by law1 or it is the law itself as the rule and standard of what ought to be done1 especially in the relations of men towards one another4 ,in this sense there is a twofold right1 natural and positive1 according as reason itself or free will imposes a law 7see #bhf1 #bif74 7b7 ,subjective right is that relationship introduced between men by reason of the laws governing their conduct one to another1 which gives to one an authority to exercise certain capabilities 7active right1 right properly so-called71 and imposes on another the necessity of respecting that authority 7passive right1 duty74 #afia4 ,right properly so called is defined as the moral power of doing or possessing something4 7a7 ,it is a moral power1 that is1 a power created by the moral law giving one a true title and forbidding others to interfere with its enjoyment and use4 ,it is not a physical power1 for might does not make right2 on the contrary1 he who has moral power is sometimes hindered from exercising it by another who has physical power4 ,nor is it a mere legal power1 or capacity to act validly and within human law1 but an ethical power that enables one to act licitly before ,god and conscience4 7b7 ,it is a power to do 7e4g41 to labor7 or to have 7e4g41 to own land74 ,the former includes also the moral power to forbear action 7e4g41 to rest on ,sunday71 to require that another act 7e4g41 pay what he owes me71 or that he forbear action 7e4g41 keep off my property72 while the latter includes also the power to acquire1 to use1 to transfer1 etc4 #afib4 ,divisions of ,right4--7a7 ,by reason of its source1 or of the law from which it springs1 a right is either natural 7e4g4 the right to life1 liberty1 pursuit of happiness71 positive-divine 7e4g41 the right to receive the ,sacraments71 positive-human 7e4g41 the right of parishioners that ,mass be said for them by their pastor1 the right of citizens to vote and to be voted for74 7b7 ,by reason of its term1 or of the power which it confers1 a right is strict 7legal7 or non-strict 7moral74 ,one has a strict right when something is due one1 because it is one's own by a proper and exclusive title 7e4g41 the right to life and property74 ,one has a non-strict right when something is due one1 only because it is something common that is to be distributed and one is a deserving member of the community 7e4g41 the right to receive an appointment from the government71 or because virtue 7e4g41 the right to receive gratitude for benefits shown7 or the perfection of virtue 7e4g41 the right to be treated with liberality or affability or friendship by others7 requires it4 #afic4 ,natural rights are subdivided as follows3 7a7 in respect of their object1 some rights are absolute1 as being based on nature alone 7e4g41 the right of a child to support from its parent arises from natural origin72 or they are relative1 as being based on nature in its relation to concrete and contingent facts 7e4g41 the right of an owner to private possession of his land arises from the nature of land1 which was made to serve man1 and from the contingent fact that it cannot serve man as a rule without private ownership72 7b7 in respect of their source1 some rights are innate1 that is1 they are had from birth by the very fact of human nature 7e4g41 the right of life in the newborn child72 others are acquired1 that is1 obtained in course of time through some contingent fact4 ,thus1 titles to goods of fortune which the owner is the first to possess 7original titles7 are obtained by occupation and accession2 titles to goods obtained from others 7derivative titles7 are obtained through prescription1 inheritance1 contract2 7c7 in respect to their firmness1 some rights are alienable1 that is1 they are such as may be renounced or superseded lawfully1 since they are not obligatory 7e4g41 the right to marry1 the right to drink alcohol72 while others are inalienable1 that is1 not subject to renunciation or deprivation1 as being obligatory 7e4g41 the right to repel temptation1 the right to serve ,god74 #afid4 ,signs by which ,strict and ,non-,strict ,rights ,may ,be ,distinguished4--7a7 ,that to which one has a strict right belongs to one as one's own1 and hence it must be determinate or determinable4 ,the right of a beggar to receive some assistance from someone is not a strict right1 since it cannot be urged against any particular thing or any individual person2 but the right of a creditor is a strict right1 since it can be urged against the debtor for a definite amount4 7b7 ,that to which one has a strict right is owed in justice1 and hence it may be enforced by legal means1 or in case of need by physical force4 ,the right of a child not to be slighted in the distribution of presents made by its parents1 the right of a person who has had a falling out with another that the latter shall accept advances for a reconciliation1 and the right of a benefactor that the beneficiaries show signs of gratitude1 are not strict rights1 because they cannot be enforced in courts of justice1 but the right of a laborer against his employer is a strict right1 since it can be vindicated by legal means4 ,it should be noted that a strict right is one that is granted as a proper1 exclusive and enforceable power by any law1 whether natural or positive1 and hence the fact that human law will not vindicate a right 7e4g41 the right arising from a contract naturally good1 but legally not defensible1 the right of a parent to his child's respect7 does not prove that the right is not strict4 #afie4 ,a strict right to have or to own is either in re or ad rem4 7a7 ,a right in re 7real or complete right7 is the right to that which one already lawfully has as one's own 7e4g41 the right that ,caius has to the wages paid him by ,balbus74 7b7 ,a right ad rem 7personal or inchoate right7 is the right to that which one is entitled to obtain as one's own 7e4g41 the right that ,caius has to receive the wages promised him by ,balbus74 #afif4 ,legal ,enforcement of ,strict ,rights4--7a7 ,the right in re authorizes recourse to a real action 7actio in rem71 that is1 to a suit against the thing itself1 no matter where it be or by whom it be held1 as when one sues to recover one's property through the ejectment of a wrongful possessor2 for the thing is immediately and juridically bound to him who has the right1 as being his own4 7b7 ,the right ad rem enables one to enforce one's claim by a personal action 7actio in personam71 that is1 to bring a suit against a definite person on whom one has a claim by reason of contract1 domestic relationship1 fiduciary position1 etc41 as when one sues for recovery on account of the non-fulfillment of the conditions of a compact4 #afig4 ,the right in re to property is either perfect or imperfect4 7a7 ,a perfect right 7right of full dominion7 is that which enables one to exercise all the prerogatives of ownership1 that is1 to dispose at will of an object 7e4g41 to sell1 lend1 give away1 etc471 to use it 7e4g41 to occupy a house1 to make alterations in it1 to tear it down1 etc471 and to exclude others 7e4g41 to put a fence about one's property to exclude the public74 7b7 ,an imperfect right 7right of partial dominion7 is had when one is restricted as to the right of the disposition of one's goods1 for example1 when one is forbidden to sell2 or when one has the right of disposition without the right of use1 for example1 when one is forbidden on account of the vows of religion to use property one owns 7radical dominion72 or when one has the right of use without the right of disposition1 for example1 when one is forbidden to make permanent alterations in a house one occupies as tenant 7indirect or useful dominion72 or when one has the other rights of ownership but lacks the right of exclusion1 for example1 when one may not exclude a neighbor's flock from grazing in one's pasture 7ownership subject to servitude74 #afih4 ,the ,subject of ,justice1 or the ,faculty of the ,soul in ,which ,it ,exists4--7a7 ,justice is not in the intellect1 for we are not called just because we know a thing rightly1 but because we act rightly2 7b7 nor is it in the sensitive appetite1 since a sense faculty does not apprehend the relations between rights and duties2 7c7 hence1 justice is in the rational appetite or will4 #afii4 ,the ,objects or ,subject-,matter of ,justice4--7a7 ,the material object of justice 7i4e41 all those things with which it deals7 is remotely the external things which are the objects of exchange and distribution among men1 and proximately the actions by which they are exchanged or distributed4 7b7 ,the formal object of justice 7i4e41 that which it principally intends in dealing with its material object7 is that the rights of others1 or their inviolable moral power of doing1 having or acquiring1 may be respected4 ,justice thus differs from charity4 ,for charity is owed also to self1 justice only to the neighbor2 charity considers the neighbor as he is one with self and gives him what belongs to self1 while justice considers the neighbor as he is distinct from self and gives him what belongs to him4 #agjj4 ,since justice is shown not to self but to another1 it is not so fully-realized when two persons are in some sense one4 7a7 ,parent and child are especially one1 since the child is from the parent and a part of the parent1 and hence the natural obligations that spring from their special relationship pertain to the virtue of filial and paternal piety1 which is not strictly justice1 but obliges more strictly on account of the greater rights involved4 ,but obligations that spring from relationships that are common 7e4g41 from a contract between a father and his son7 pertain to strict justice2 for in these relationships they treat with one another1 not as father and son1 but as man and man4 ,employer and employee may also be considered as one1 inasmuch as the latter is the agent or instrument of the former1 and the same conclusions may therefore be applied to them4 7b7 ,husband and wife are less perfectly one than parent and child and than master and servant1 for neither is descended from the other1 and neither is servant to the other4 ,but since they form one conjugal society and the husband is head of the wife1 they owe one another stricter obligations than if they were strangers to one another1 although those obligations partake less rigorously of the character of justice4 #agja4 ,division of ,justice4--,justice is divided according to the rights it respects into legal and particular4 7a7 ,legal justice 7observance of law7 is that which is owed by the individual1 whether he be ruler or subordinate1 to the community of which he forms a part1 or to the law and the common good of the entire body4 7b7 ,particular justice 7fairness7 is that which is owed to the private good of an individual4 #agjb4 ,is legal justice a distinct and separate virtue1 or only a general condition found in all virtues8 7a7 ,practically speaking1 legal justice is a general virtue1 inasmuch as its desire of promoting the common good will impel a man to observe all the laws and to practise other virtues than justice1 such as fortitude and temperance4 ,the law commands us to perform the actions of the courageous man1 of the temperate man1 of the gentle man1 and hence1 as ,aristotle says 7,ethics1 lib4 ,v1 cap4 #b71 legal justice is often regarded as the supreme virtue1 the summary of all virtue1 more glorious than the star of eve or dawn4 7b7 ,essentially1 it is a distinct virtue1 for it alone moves a man primarily and directly to respect the rights of the common good as being that greater whole of which the individual is but a part4 ,it differs even from patriotism and filial piety 7for these are moved by one's own debt to the source of one's life7 and from obedience 7for legal justice seeks the welfare of the community even in things that are not commanded74 #agjc4 ,comparison of ,legal and ,particular ,justice4--7a7 ,particular justice partakes more of the nature of justice1 for there is a greater distinction or separation between the party who has an obligation and the party who has a right1 when the latter is an individual1 than when the latter is a whole of which the former is a part4 ,a distinctive characteristic of justice1 as said just above1 is that it takes account of the independence or 8otherness0 of those between whom it exists1 so much so that only in a metaphorical sense can we speak of justice when only one person and nature is in question 7e4g41 justice between man and his soul1 body1 powers74 7b7 ,legal justice is a more perfect virtue than particular justice or filial piety1 since it seeks a higher object 7that is1 the common good as such7 and is more voluntary4 #agjd4 ,is the right which the community has to receive from the goods of its members one of legal or one of particular justice8 7a7 ,the right of eminent domain 7i4e41 the right which the ,state has over the goods of private persons when they are necessary for the common good7 is a right of legal justice1 for even without compulsion the citizen should be willing to contribute what is necessary for the community of which he is part4 7b7 ,the right of the members of a government to receive compensation for their services is a right of particular justice1 for there is an implicit contract between the rulers and the ,state that the former will serve the interests of the latter and that the later will pay the expenses of the former1 as if both parties were private individuals 7see #agjh74 #agje4 ,distributive and ,commutative ,justice4--,on account of the inequality or equality of the individuals between whom it exists1 particular justice is subdivided into distributive and commutative1 which are distinct species of justice4 7a7 ,that the distinction is well-founded is proved by the fact that this justice--that is1 relations towards particular persons--is either the relation of whole to part or of part to part4 ,the former relations are governed by distributive justice1 which is defined as the virtue that inclines the ruler1 as the representative of the community1 to portion out the public goods 7e4g41 money1 honors1 offices7 and burdens 7e4g41 taxes71 not according to favoritism or personal likes1 but according to merits and abilities2 the latter relations are governed by commutative justice1 which is defined as the virtue that inclines the individual to pay to other individuals what is their due1 whether the rights be personal 7e4g41 the right to reputation7 or real 7e4g41 the right to wages or price74 ,commutative justice receives its name from the fact that it is oftenest called for in commutations 7i4e41 in exchanges1 such as buying and selling74 7b7 ,that the distinction of particular justice into distributive and commutative is specific appears from the fact that the main characteristics of justice 7viz41 debt owed another and equality between payment and debt7 are found in each of these kinds of justice in a way proper to itself4 ,there is a debt in commutative justice when a thing is owed another because he has an individual right to it and it is already under his dominion2 there is a debt of distributive justice1 when a thing is owed another because he has a community interest in it and a right that it be entrusted to him in view of his merits or abilities4 #agjf4 ,thus1 the equality observed in commutative justice is arithmetical1 or of quantity 7e4g41 if a horse is worth #ajj1 it is just to pay #ajj for it72 the equality observed in distributive justice is geometrical1 or of proportion 7e4g41 if one who had an average of #ij in a civil service examination receives a position that pays #ij1 it is just to give another whose average was #hj a position that pays #hj74 ,an indication of the specific difference between distributive and commutative justice is that the same individual may be just in private matters and unjust in public matters4 ,example3 ,titus1 an office-holder1 pays his personal debts faithfully1 but he appoints only his friends1 whether they be worthy or unworthy1 to important honors4 #agjg4 ,corrective ,justice4--,corrective 7i4e41 vindicative or punitive7 justice is a virtue inclining a public person or a superior1 such as a ruler1 magistrate1 or judge1 to inflict on evil-doers penalties adequate to their faults4 ,it is not to be confused with just vengeance or retaliation1 which is the virtue that moderates in a private person the desire for punishment of an offense against self1 and which is not justice strictly speaking1 either commutative or distributive1 but only a potential part of justice 7as stated below in ,article #f74 7a7 ,thus1 corrective justice is elicited by commutative justice1 for a punishment is inflicted by a judge in order that there may be equality between the satisfaction made by the evil-doer and the debt owed to another on account of the offense4 ,it aims at redressing an unfairness by taking away so much from the offender and adding so much to the party offended1 that both will stand in the same position as before4 ,if the person punished accepts the penalty in the same spirit1 he also practises commutative justice4 7b7 ,corrective justice may be commanded by legal justice1 for the judge may intend the punishment for the sake of the common good1 as well as of the individual who has been injured4 #agjh4 ,different ,species of ,justice in ,one ,act4--,different species of justice may be present in one and the same act4 7a7 ,the same act may be elicited by one kind of justice and commanded by another kind of justice 7see #ef sqq471 as in the examples given just above of vindicative justice4 7b7 ,the same act may be elicited by two kinds of justice1 as when a debt is owed both in virtue of commutative and of distributive justice4 ,some think an example of this is found in the payment of government employees1 for payment is made by distribution from common funds 7distributive justice71 and it is owed for services contracted for 7commutative justice74 ,but it seems more correct to say that wages for services given the community are due in commutative justice rather than in distributive justice2 for in the former justice equality is between what is given and what is received1 in the latter between the proportion received by one and the proportion received by another1 and government salaries should be paid on the basis of value received in service 7see #agjd1 #agee1 #agfg74 #agji4 ,the ,object of ,justice4--,the function of a moral virtue is to direct according to moderation all those things that are subject to the free will of man1 and can be regulated by reason1 namely1 the actions of man and the external things of which he makes use4 7a7 ,the actions of man can be understood either in a wide sense1 so as to include both those internal affections that are accompanied by notable bodily changes 7the passions1 such as anger1 sadness71 and those actions that do not so strongly act upon the body 7operations74 ,every virtue has for its object action in the wide sense1 for virtue is defined as a habit that makes the agent good and his action good2 but not every virtue has action in the strict sense for its object1 since the virtues of fortitude and temperance regulate1 not the operations1 but the passions4 7b7 ,operations are of two kinds1 namely1 internal1 by which men do not communicate with one another 7such as thoughts and desires71 and external1 by which men communicate with one another4 ,these latter either have to do with external things 7such as land1 houses1 money1 produce1 etc471 and we then have such operations as loan1 sale1 lease and other contracts1 or no external thing is introduced1 and we have such operations as honor1 praise1 calumny1 etc4 ,all the moral virtues have to do with the internal operation of choice1 for virtue is a good election of the will2 but there is this difference between justice and the other moral virtues1 that fortitude and temperance merely dispose the intellectual appetite for a good choice by the regulation they give to the sensitive appetite1 while justice has for its proper act to choose well the means for moderating external operations4 ,as for external operations themselves1 these are the objects of justice1 but not of the other two moral virtues4 #agaj4 ,the purpose of the other moral virtues is to regulate man in himself2 for the passions that are moderated by fortitude and temperance 7such as fear and desire7 affect primarily their subject and not other persons4 ,the purpose of justice1 on the contrary1 is to regulate man in his relations to others2 for external operations and things directly affect others1 either helping or injuring them1 ,but both the passions and external operations have effects and consequent ends that give them new relationships1 and hence we may distinguish between the primary object to which a virtue tends directly1 and the secondary object to which it tends only indirectly on account of the effects of the primary object4 7a7 ,the primary object of justice is external operations and external things2 the primary object of fortitude and temperance is the passions1 for justice seeks the good of others1 whereas fortitude and temperance seek the good of the agent4 7b7 ,the secondary object of justice is the passions1 whenever its principal object cannot be easily regulated without regulation of the passions4 ,thus1 when lust urges to the injustice of adultery or avarice to the injustice of denial of payment due1 justice calls on the virtue of temperance or liberality1 as the case may be1 to moderate the passion opposed to it4 ,similarly1 the secondary object of fortitude and temperance may be external operations1 whenever the effect on the subject of the principal object 7i4e41 the passions7 has reactions in reference to other persons4 ,thus1 if fear is moderated by fortitude and desire by temperance1 these virtues have external consequences such as combat against evil1 abstinence from food or drink that belongs to others2 but if anger is immoderate1 it may lead to unjust attack1 and if desire is immoderate1 it may lead to the injustice of theft of food or drink4 #agaa4 ,the ,golden ,mean of ,virtue4--,the golden mean of virtue is not the same in all the moral virtues 7see #aed74 7a7 ,thus1 fortitude and temperance regulate the passions for the benefit of their subject1 that he may avoid in them the extremes of excess and defect4 ,hence1 the middle way they follow must be determined by reason from a consideration of the subject and his circumstances 7the mean of reason71 and so will vary with different subjects and with individual cases4 ,thus1 in the matter of temperance it is an old saying that what is one man's meat is another man's poison4 ,it would be absurd to say1 therefore1 that there is only one middle way of temperance1 and that all persons must conform to the same rule as to quality and quantity of food and the time and manner of eating and drinking4 ,on the contrary1 the rule here must suit the subject1 and that will be moderate which agrees with the health1 appetite1 duties1 manner of life1 etc41 of the person4 7b7 ,justice1 on the contrary1 regulates external operations for the benefit1 not of the subject1 but of other persons whom they affect1 in order that the subject in dealing with others may avoid inequality1 which means excess on one side and defect on the other side4 ,hence1 the middle way of justice is discovered by reason from a consideration of external things or acts owed to other persons 7the mean of reason and of the thing71 and so it does not vary with the circumstances of the subject4 ,if the real value of a horse is #ajj--;it makes no difference whether the seller be a prince or a peasant1 whether the buyer be rich or poor--the just payment will be #ajj4 ,excess will be unfair to the buyer1 deficiency to the seller4 #agab4 ,though the mean of justice is determined1 not by reference to the person who acts1 but by reference to some external thing1 it may be that this external thing cannot be evaluated without consideration of the person to whom justice is owed4 7a7 ,in distributive justice this is always the case1 for the mean of the thing in distributions consists in equality between relative proportions of distributions and relative merits or abilities of persons to whom distributions are made4 ,hence1 distributive justice must consider the conditions of the person to whom it is owed as compared with the conditions of other persons1 in order to observe equality by giving proper shares to all4 7b7 ,in commutative justice1 this is sometimes the case1 namely1 when the condition of a person who has been offended 7e4g41 that he is a ruler7 increases the debt of satisfaction that is owed him2 for the mean of the thing in commutative justice is equality between the payment and the debt4 #agac4 ,is observance of the mean of the thing sufficient to make an act just1 no matter what may be the dispositions of the subject8 7a7 ,if there is question of material justice1 the reply is in the affirmative1 for a virtue is said to be exercised materially when its mean is observed4 ,the mean of fortitude and temperance cannot be observed without reference to the condition of the subject 7e4g41 he is not brave who undertakes a difficult task that is beyond his strength72 but the same is not true of justice 7e4g41 he is just who pays the last penny of a debt though the payment was beyond his means and required a sacrifice74 7b7 ,if there is question of formal justice1 the reply is in the negative1 for a virtue is said to be exercised formally 7i4e41 from a virtuous habit7 when the motive of the subject and the circumstances are agreeable to reason4 ,thus1 he who performs deeds of valor purely out of vainglory exercises fortitude materially1 not formally2 and likewise he who pays his debts faithfully1 merely in order to avoid the penalties of the law1 exercises justice materially but not formally4 #agad4 ,comparison of ,justice and the ,other ,virtues4--,the differences between particular justice and the other moral virtues are1 therefore1 the following3 7a7 justice is for the good of another1 the other virtues for the good of the agent himself2 7b7 justice deals with external actions and things1 the others with the passions2 7c7 justice follows a mean of the thing1 the others a mean of reason2 7d7 justice is had materially without any suitability to the circumstances of the agent1 not so the other virtues4 #agae4 ,while justice is inferior to the theological and intellectual virtues 7see #aef1 #aeg1 #ajbh71 it is superior to most of the moral virtues that perfect the sensitive or the intellectual appetite4 ,the superiority of justice to fortitude1 temperance1 and the annexed virtues1 such as mercy 7see #abjg71 is seen from the following reasons4 7a7 ,legal justice is greater than those other virtues1 for1 while they pursue the private good of their subject1 it seeks the public good4 8,great is the splendor of justice10 says ,st4 ,ambrose 7,de ,officiis1 lib4 ,i1 cap4 #bh71 8which is born for others rather than for itself1 and which aids society and the community4 ,it holds high position1 that all may be subject to its judgment1 that it may bestow assistance1 not refuse responsibility1 take upon itself the dangers of others40 ,moreover1 since the law commands us to perform the actions of the courageous man1 of the gentle man and of the temperate man1 legal justice1 as ,aristotle says 7,ethics1 lib4 ,v1 cap4 #b71 is often regarded as the supreme virtue1 the summary of all the virtues1 more glorious than the star of eve or dawn4 7b7 ,private justice is also greater than those other virtues1 since it perfects a nobler power of the soul 7viz41 the will71 and seeks the good1 not only of its own possessor1 but also of others4 ,justice too is impartial or blind as between persons1 demanding satisfaction1 even though a debtor be a monarch1 and granting redress1 even though an injured party be the humblest or most undeserving of mankind4 ,an indication that justice is nobler than regulation of the passions is seen by ,aristotle 7,ethics1 lib4 ,v1 cap4 #d7 in the fact that it is more difficult and rarer3 8,many people are capable of exhibiting virtue at home1 but incapable of exhibiting it in relation to their neighbor4 ,accordingly1 there seems to be good sense in the saying of ,bias1 that #8office will reveal a man1' for one who is in office is at once brought into relation and association with others4 ,as then the worst of men is he who exhibits his depravity both in his own life and in relation to his friends1 the best of men is he who exhibits his virtue1 not in his own life only1 but in relation to others2 for this is a difficult task40 #agaf4 ,two virtues of the sensitive appetite that appear more excellent than justice are courage and liberality1 but in reality justice is nobler than they4 7a7 ,thus1 courage seems to be better1 because it is more essential to the common good in time of great danger2 but in reality justice is more useful to the community1 for at all times1 whether in peace or in war1 it is justice that preserves unity and contentment among the people and promotes courage and devotion to the public welfare4 7b7 ,liberality seems to be better than justice1 because it gives more than is due1 while justice gives only what is due4 ,but1 on the other hand1 justice is of more general advantage1 since of necessity liberality must be exceptional and shown only to comparatively few1 while justice must be exercised continually and must be shown to all2 justice is also more necessary1 for one must be just in order to be liberal1 and not vice versa1 since no one is praised as generous unless he first pays the debts of justice2 finally1 although liberality gives more than is due and may thus be a greater private benefit1 justice without liberality is more serviceable to the common interest than liberality without justice4 #agag4 ,two virtues of the will which some authorities hold to be more important than justice are the virtues of religion and mercy4 7a7 ,the virtue of religion has a nobler object1 since it regulates the worship owed to ,god1 while justice regulates the things owed to man2 and its obligation is stricter even than that of legal justice4 7b7 ,the virtue of mercy1 which is a rational inclination of the will to relieve the suffering or misfortune of others1 is held to be greater than justice1 because to relieve the distress of the community or of an individual indicates greater perfection than to pay merely what is due to another4 #agah4 ,virtues may be compared1 not only from the viewpoint of the objective excellence which they have from their own natures 7whereby they are unequal and rank according to the greatness of their objects71 but also from the viewpoint of the subjective participation of them in the souls of their possessors4 7a7 ,in a certain sense1 all the virtues are equal in their possessor1 since all of them alike are related to charity as their perfection 7see #aaah71 and all of them increase or diminish in like proportions with the growth or decline of grace1 which is their root 7see #gde74 7b7 ,in a certain sense1 too1 the rank of the virtues may depart from the order of the dignity of their objects4 ,for the facility and promptitude of exercise of an infused virtue does not depend formally on the infused virtue itself1 but on subjective conditions1 such as natural inclination or custom1 or on a special gift of ,god 7see #ace1 #acf72 and hence it may happen that a saint shows greater excellence and enjoys greater renown in an inferior than in a superior virtue4 ,thus1 ,abraham was singular in faith1 ,moses in meekness1 ,josue in bravery1 ,david in fervor and devotion 7,ecclus41 xlv-xlviii71 and ,st4 ,joseph is praised as 8a just man0 7,matt41 i4 #ai74 #agai4 ,injustice4--,just as the word 8justice0 is taken in a wide sense for holiness or the collection of all the virtues1 and in a strict sense for a special cardinal virtue1 so likewise the word 8injustice0 is taken widely as a synonym for any transgression1 iniquity1 or sin 78,he sendeth rain upon the just and the unjust10 ,matt41 v4 #de71 but strictly for violation of the special virtue of justice 78,hear what the unjust judge saith10 ,luke1 xviii4 #f74 ,it is of this latter injustice that we now speak4 #agbj4 ,species of ,injustice4--,injustice is of two kinds4 7a7 ,legal injustice is a special vice that moves one to despise the common good or to act against it intentionally4 ,thus1 if one steals or overeats merely to gratify a passion for money or for food1 there is a certain condition of legal injustice1 inasmuch as one violates a law2 but if one does these things also or solely to injure the common good1 there is a special sin of legal injustice1 to be declared in confession4 7b7 ,particular injustice is a special vice against the private good of others that moves one to seek for more than is one's share1 or to desire more of the benefits and less of the burdens than equality appoints4 ,examples3 ,to sell above the just price or buy below the just price 7commutative injustice72 to show favoritism in the distribution of public offices or burdens1 as when a person in authority showers public benefits on his unworthy relatives or friends1 and overburdens with taxes those who are not his friends 7distributive injustice74 #agba4 ,the ,theological ,species of ,legal and ,particular ,injustice4--7a7 ,from its nature injustice is a mortal sin1 for it is an attack on a very great good1 namely1 the peace and security of society2 the very foundations of orderly community life are shaken when injustice is done either to common or to private rights4 ,moreover1 acts of injustice 7unlike sins of mere passion71 if the matter is serious1 offend against charity1 the life of the soul2 for charity 8envieth not1 dealeth not perversely0 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #d72 while injustice injures the neighbor and leads to hatred1 quarrels1 and separations4 ,hence1 the ,apostle says of injustice3 8,do not err3 neither adulterers1 nor thieves1 nor covetous1 nor extortioners1 shall possess the kingdom of ,god0 7,i ,cor41 vi4 #aj72 and ,our ,lord1 speaking of justice1 says3 8,if you would enter into life1 keep the commandments0 7,matt1 xix4 #ah74 7b7 ,from want of sufficient advertence in the subject 7see #agc sqq471 or from smallness of matter in the object 7see #agb71 a sin of injustice may be only venial4 ,thus1 if one takes money that belongs to another on account of vincible ignorance due to slight negligence1 or if one takes only a small amount that does no serious injury1 the injustice is venial4 #agbb4 ,rule for ,determining the ,gravity of ,sins of ,injustice4--,the rule for judging whether the matter of a sin of injustice is great or small1 is the quantity of injury it inflicts1 or the degree of reasonable unwillingness of the offended person to suffer the injustice2 for sins against the neighbor are culpable precisely on account of and in proportion to the harm they do to others4 ,hence1 since every injustice offends either the public or private good1 or both1 the following acts of injustice are gravely sinful3 7a7 mortal sin is committed when injury is done to a private right in a matter of such great moment that the person offended is reasonably and gravely unwilling to sanction the injustice 7e4g41 cases of calumny1 adultery1 incendiarism74 ,but if the injury itself is small and the party offended is nevertheless gravely unwilling to suffer it1 only venial sin is committed against justice1 but there may be a mortal sin done against charity1 as when one steals a worthless trinket1 knowing that the owner is so unreasonably attached to it that the loss will almost break his heart or will provoke in him violent anger1 profanity1 etc42 7b7 mortal sin is also committed when injury is done to a public right in a matter so important that the community is with good reason gravely averse to the commission of the injury4 ,this happens when the common good is directly attacked1 as when a citizen rebels against lawful government1 or when the peace and security of the community is imperilled because of injury done to a private person1 as when one steals a sum that is considerable from a wealthy person1 even though the latter will not seriously feel the loss4 ,hence1 an injury to a private person that does not seriously harm him may seriously harm the community1 and be gravely sinful on account of the disastrous consequences to social order that would follow if such an injury were not gravely forbidden4 #agbc4 ,moral ,species of ,legal and of ,particular ,injustice4--,these are distinguished according to the main classes of objects or rights that are injured or offended 7see #aii74 ,hence1 there are the following four kinds of injustice3 7a7 injuries to spiritual rights or goods1 whether natural or supernatural 7e4g41 superstition1 idolatry1 simony72 7b7 injuries to internal goods of soul 7e4g41 lies7 or of body 7e4g41 murder1 mutilation72 7c7 injuries to external goods1 whether incorporeal 7e4g41 calumny7 or corporeal 7e4g41 theft1 fraud74 #agbd4 ,accidental ,forms of ,injustice4--,there are also many accidental forms of injustice1 that is1 variations that do not of themselves change the moral species 7see #bjj74 7a7 ,thus1 as to its manner1 injustice is done either positively1 by action 7e4g41 by stealing from an employer71 or negatively1 by omission 7e4g41 by allowing another to steal from one's employer74 ,in both cases the same kind of injustice is committed2 for example1 he who permits theft is just as much a thief as if he had stolen himself4 7b7 ,as to its consequences for the injured person1 injustice is either merely injurious or injurious and damaging1 according as a strict right is violated without loss 7e4g41 adultery from which no child is born71 or with loss to the injured party 7e4g41 adultery from which a child is born74 ,the character of the sin is the same in both cases1 but in the latter case restitution is due 7cfr4 #aaii1 #abjj74 ,the loss 7damnum7 that results from violation of a strict right 7injuria7 may be in internal goods 7such as salvation1 life1 health1 sanity of mind7 or in external goods 7such as reputation1 money1 property74 7c7 ,as to its consequences for the party who does the injury1 injustice is either profitable to him 7as in the case of unjust taking7 or unprofitable 7as in the case of unjust damage74 ,the moral species is the same in either case1 for the fact that the unjust person gains by his injustice does not make the injury greater1 and the fact that he does not gain does not make the injury less4 #agbe4 ,injury is not suffered by one who knows and wills an act that is done contrary to his right 7,rule #bg of the ,decretals71 for such a one cedes his right4 ,hence1 if a man looks out with a smile while neighborhood boys take apples from his orchard and the latter take this as permission1 no injustice1 material or formal1 is done4 ,but the legal maxim needs interpretation1 for the following two conditions are necessary in order that there be a surrender of right3 7a7 the party who consents must be able to surrender his right1 since1 if he is not able to do so1 his cession is invalid4 ,hence1 one who kills a person asking for death is unjust to ,god and to the ,state2 one who commits adultery with a woman whose husband gives permission is unjust to the marriage state and the lawful children2 one who strikes a cleric who waived his privilege of canon 7privilegium canonis7 is unjust to the clerical state2 one who takes property from a ward with the latter's consent1 is unjust to the estate1 since the ward has no authority to alienate it4 ,many of the martyrs1 it is true1 wished to lose their lives at the hands of persecutors1 but this meant only that they consented to the will of ,god1 not that they consented to their own murder by the tyrants1 for they had not the right to give the latter dominion over their lives2 7b7 the party who consents must really will to yield his right1 and hence1 if there is error1 fraud1 fear or violence1 the cession is of no effect4 ,thus1 a buyer who through ignorance takes a defective article or pays an exorbitant price1 a workman who through necessity accepts less than a living wage1 or a man who yields his purse to a burglar at the point of the revolver1 does not surrender his rights1 since true consent is wanting4 ,similarly1 when one follows the counsel of ,christ not to resist spoliation 7,matt41 v4 #dj7 or when a saintly person rejoices over injury done him 7,heb41 x4 #cd71 the intention is not to surrender rights to the unjust1 nor to approve their conduct1 but to practise heroic virtue by patience1 humility1 forgiveness1 etc4 #agbf4 ,internal ,injustice4--,does internal injustice 7i4e41 the intention of injuring another7 make an external action unjust8 7a7 ,if the intention makes the external act to be a violation of a strict right1 it also makes the external act unjust4 ,thus1 to take a book from another's room is of itself an indifferent action1 for there may be1 no violation of right 7e4g41 when the intention is to borrow71 or there may be such violation 7e4g41 when the intention is to steal74 7b7 ,if the intention does not make the external act a violation of strict right1 even though that act be harmful to the other party1 it does not make the external act unjust4 ,hence1 if the other party has no strict right against the external act 7e4g41 ,titus sees the house of ,balbus on fire1 but he is not hired to take care of ,balbus' property1 and he gives no alarm in order that the house may burn down7 or if the agent has a strict right to perform the external act 7e4g41 ,claudius1 a judge1 condemns ,sempronius1 according to law1 but his chief intention is the harm he will inflict on the latter71 the unjust intention does not make the external act unjust4 ,but in these cases sin1 and even grave sin1 is committed against charity4 #agbg4 ,judgment4--,judgment1 or the right determination of what is just and due to others1 is the proper act of the virtue of justice1 and hence ,aristotle 7,ethics1 lib4 ,v1 cap4 #g7 declares that people take their disputes to a judge as to justice personified4 ,judgment is either public or private4 7a7 ,public judgment is passed by a judge who has the authority to compel disputing parties to abide by his decisions4 7b7 ,private judgment is passed by individuals without public authority concerning the morals or conduct of others4 #agbh4 ,since judgment is an act of virtue1 it is lawful1 and we find that both in the ,old and the ,new ,testament men have been appointed with authority to judge others4 ,thus1 ,god ordered that judges be chosen in all the cities of ,israel 7,deut41 xvi4 #ah72 ,st4 ,paul declares that the judge is the minister of ,god 7,rom41 xiii4 #d71 and from ,apostolic times tribunals have been set up in the ,church4 ,but certain conditions are required for moral goodness1 both in those who ask for judgment and in those who pass judgment4 7a7 ,thus1 those who seek judgment must be actuated by proper motives and must conduct themselves in a virtuous manner4 ,our ,lord in ,matt41 v1 teaches that it is better to suffer temporal loss rather than to contend in judgment from a motive of revenge to the prejudice of one's spiritual good1 and ,st4 ,paul condemns the ,corinthians because they gave scandal by reason of their lawsuits before heathen tribunals and had recourse to frauds and injuries in their litigation 7,i ,cor41 vi4 #a sqq474 7b7 ,those who pass judgment must have a good intention1 must proceed according to law1 and must decide according to prudence4 ,if the first condition is wanting1 judgment is unjust or otherwise sinful1 according as the judge chooses against the right or is merely prompted by some human motive 7such as hatred1 anger1 vainglory1 avarice72 if the second condition is lacking1 judgment1 if public1 is usurped or illegal1 if the third condition is not had1 judgment is rash4 ,but it should be noted that the ,church has condemned the teaching of ,wicliff that office and authority are forfeited by sinners 7,denzinger1 #eie1 #eig74 #agbi4 ,first ,condition of ,righteous ,judgment4--,the first condition of righteous judgment is that the purpose of the judge be just and sincere4 ,but is it possible for judgment to be righteous if the judge is a bad man--that is1 if he is in the state of mortal sin8 7a7 ,if the sin of the judge is public1 and judgment is given against a sin of the same character 7e4g41 if a notorious thief passes sentence on another thief71 serious scandal is given2 for justice is discredited and an occasion offered for criticism of authority and for lawlessness4 ,but if the sin is not of the same character as the one condemned 7e4g41 if a notorious thief passes sentence on a murderer71 the scandal is not grave in so far as justice is concerned4 7b7 ,if the sin is not public1 it is clear that no scandal is given2 and if the judge is moved by the duty of his office and by zeal for justice to condemn even the same kind of sin of which he himself is guilty1 he commits no sin whatsoever in so doing 7cfr4 #abhj74 ,but he is guilty of hypocrisy if he uses the opportunity to pretend a personal righteousness which he does not possess4 ,it is this that ,our ,lord reprobated in the ,pharisees1 who1 although guilty of many and grave crimes1 wished to put to death an adulteress in order that they themselves might thus shine as immaculate4 ,the words1 8,let him that is without sin among you cast the first stone0 7,john1 viii4 #g71 condemn hypocrisy in judges1 though they do not require that a judge be free from all sin4 ,but though sinners may act against sin as lawmakers1 prosecutors1 judges1 jurymen1 police1 etc41 they should be admonished by their office to reform themselves according to the words of ,st4 ,paul3 8,in judging another1 thou condemnest thyself1 for thou dost the same things which thou judgest0 7,rom41 ii4 #a74 #agcj4 ,second ,condition4-,the second condition of righteous judgment is legality1 if there is question of judgment in court4 7a7 ,thus1 the judge must have public authority1 for1 just as laws cannot be made except by public authority1 neither can they be interpreted except by the same authority 7,rom41 xiv4 #d74 ,hence1 proceedings that are not held in the proper place1 at the proper time1 or in the manner prescribed by law are void1 and the same is true if a court has not jurisdiction over the parties or over the subject-matter in controversy4 7b7 ,the judge must administer justice according to the law and the usual method observed in courts1 since his office is to interpret1 not to make law or custom 7jus dicere1 non facere74 ,his opinions as precedents may affect the development and growth of law1 and hence he is especially bound to be faithful to general principles that are binding on him4 ,if a statute in its operation is found to impede the just disposition of controversies1 judges perform a public service by indicating this to those who have authority to regulate procedure4 ,if the application of a law would work injustice1 no judge can in conscience pronounce sentence according to that law2 but there are many cases recognized in jurisprudence in which courts of equity afford relief to rights that cannot be defended or protected in courts of law1 and in cases of this kind the judge should be guided by recognized principles of natural justice and the rules of his court4 #agca4 ,third ,condition4--,the third condition of righteous judgment is that the sentence or decision be prudent or well-founded4 ,thus1 in a judicial process the facts of a case must be examined and the rules of evidence be observed in judging the meaning of the facts4 ,since rash judgment is a sin committed1 not only externally and in public1 but also and especially internally and in private conclusions formed about the character or deeds of others1 and since it is one of the commonest of sins1 it will be well to explain its nature somewhat fully4 7a7 ,it is an internal sin1 and so it differs from external acts against the neighbor2 but calumny1 detraction1 and unjust sentence are its outward expressions4 7b7 ,rash judgment is an internal sin of decision in which something is affirmed or denied mentally about a neighbor1 and so it differs from a mere representation or thought4 ,this distinction is important for scrupulous persons who think that mere suggestions against others that flash through their minds are rash judgments4 ,these suggestions are a very common temptation1 and1 if repelled1 are an occasion of merit2 they become sinful only when entertained with pleasure4 7c7 ,rash judgment is a decision unfavorable to another in matters of character or honor4 ,thus1 it differs from favorable decisions 7as when without reason one holds that another is virtuous or has extraordinary merit71 and from unfavorable decisions on matters other than character or honor 7as when one concludes that a neighbor is mentally or physically deficient1 and these defects are not connected with depravity nor considered as ignominious71 and from unfavorable decisions that relate to sin but are not personal 7as when one thinks that an expression used by an ignorant man is blasphemous1 but passes no judgment on the state of conscience of the man74 7d7 ,rash judgment is a decision that expresses conviction1 and not mere supposition4 ,thus1 it differs from the prudential attitude by which one assumes for the sake of security that a stranger is to be distrusted1 since he may be dishonest4 7e7 ,rash judgment is a certain conviction or judgment1 that is1 one which holds its own view as true and certain and does not consider the opposite of its view as worthy of consideration4 ,thus1 it differs from doubt 7that is1 a state in which the mind is suspended between the unfavorable view and its opposite1 and does not incline to one more than the other71 from suspicion 7that is1 a state in which the mind inclines to the unfavorable view1 but does not assent to it as being either probable or certain71 and from opinion 7that is1 a state in which the mind assents to the unfavorable view as being probably true1 but admits that it may be untrue74 ,these various forms of mental reaction were treated in #fed sqq4 7f7 ,rash judgment is rash1 that is1 a belief based on insufficient authority1 or an inference that is really groundless or not well drawn from premises4 ,thus1 if one judges that one's neighbor is a thief1 because this was told one by an honest and well-informed person1 the judgment is prudent2 but1 if one judges this on the word of a person who is unreliable or who has no knowledge of the facts1 the judgment is imprudent4 ,again1 if one judges that it is certain that one's neighbor is a thief1 because one has evidence that removes all doubt1 the judgment is prudent2 but if the evidence is merely probable1 an opinion based on it is prudent1 but a judgment based on it is imprudent4 ,it is not rash to hold that the majority of mankind are lost1 or that the present generation is not as good as the generation that preceded1 if one has good reasons for such beliefs2 but a sweeping and all-inclusive pessimism in such matters is unwarranted4 #agcb4 ,the reasons for a judgment may be sufficient for something else1 but insufficient for the judgment actually formed4 7a7 ,thus1 they may be reasons sufficient for judging that one kind or degree of sin has been committed1 but insufficient as regards another kind or degree of sin4 ,for example1 if one breaks the lock of another's desk1 there is an argument for willful trespass1 but this alone does not prove larceny or the intent to steal4 7b7 ,they may be sufficient for doubt and insufficient for suspicion1 sufficient for suspicion and insufficient for opinion1 or sufficient for opinion and insufficient for judgment4 #agcc4 ,rash ,judgment4--,opinion1 suspicion1 and doubt are also rash1 if there is no sufficient reason to warrant them4 7a7 ,thus1 if there are no probable reasons for an unfavorable opinion1 it is rash to form such an opinion4 ,for example1 the mere fact that two men have frequent and whispered conference together does not make it likely that they are plotting evil4 7b7 ,if there are no sufficient reasons for inclining towards an unfavorable opinion or for suspending all assent1 suspicion and doubt are rash4 ,for example1 the mere fact that a man enters a house when the owners are absent is no reason to suspect him of dishonest purposes1 or even to have doubts1 if he is of good reputation and enters the house in daylight and in a usual way4 #agcd4 ,sinfulness of ,rash ,judgment4--,rash judgment strictly understood1 then1 is a firm assent of the mind1 based on insufficient data1 and given to the view that a neighbor is or has been guilty of sin4 7a7 ,from its nature this sin is mortal1 for it consists in a contempt for1 and an injury to1 what is regarded as one of the chief goods of man1 namely1 the favorable opinion of him that is entertained by others4 ,it is denounced in ,scripture as an injury to the law itself 78,he that judgeth his brother judgeth the law10 ,james1 iv4 #aa71 and as meriting condemnation 78,judge not1 and you will not be judged1 condemn not and you will not be condemned10 ,luke1 vi4 #cg74 7b7 ,from the imperfection of the act or from the lightness of the matter rash judgment may be only a venial sin1 as when unfounded suspicions arise in the mind without advertence to their sinfulness1 or when one rashly judges in some small matter 7e4g41 that another person stole a pin or a cent74 #agce4 ,rash judgment is not mortally sinful in an individual case unless the following conditions are present3 7a7 there must be perfect deliberation1 that is1 full advertence to the judgment itself and to its sinfulness and gravity 7see #age74 ,there is no full advertence to the sinfulness and gravity of the judgment1 however1 if one does not perceive at least in a confused manner that one is deciding in one's mind without sufficient reason that one's neighbor is guilty of serious sin1 and is thereby doing the latter a great injury4 ,but it is not necessary that the rash judgment continue for a considerable time1 for the malice depends on the evil done1 not on the length of time it has lasted2 7b7 there must be serious rashness1 for the sinfulness of the judgment rests on its rashness4 ,hence1 if one judges a sin to be certain which is very probable or almost certain1 there is no great imprudence and therefore no serious sin2 7c7 there must be grave injury and contempt1 for in these the malice of rash judgment consists4 ,hence1 if one judges that another is a drunkard and neither the latter person nor others in the same place regard drunkenness as very dishonorable1 there is no great harm done4 ,similarly1 if one judges that some indeterminate individual of a multitude or group is a rascal1 or that a stranger whom one sees on the street late at night is out on an evil errand1 or that an unknown party seen from a distance is on his way to a disreputable meeting1 it does not seem that there is great injury done2 for one does not greatly resent lack of esteem in others to whom one is not known4 #agcf4 ,rules on ,perfect ,advertence to ,rashness of ,judgment4--7a7 ,there is perfect advertence when one actually perceives that the reasons for one's unfavorable judgment are very insufficient2 7b7 there is perfect advertence when one virtually perceives the serious insufficiency of the reasons1 that is1 when one could and should perceive it1 but is vincibly blind to it 7see #cj1 #ca7 on account of some passion wilfully indulged1 such as hatred or envy of the person judged4 ,in these cases one judges with negligence and precipitancy in a serious matter 7see ,imprudence74 #agcg4 ,rules on ,insufficiency of ,reasons for ,unfavorable ,judgments4--7a7 ,those authorities for sin are not sufficiently trustworthy whose reliability is of inferior worth 7e4g41 because they are enemies of the person against whom they speak1 or calumniators1 or gossipers1 or of bad reputation1 etc471 or whose story does not merit the credence they claim for it 7e4g41 because the person against whom they speak is known as upright74 ,if both the authorities for a story and the person against whom they speak are equal in good qualities1 there is sufficient reason for doubts1 but nothing more4 7b7 ,those arguments for sin are not sufficient which create for what is concluded only a slight presumption 7see #feh71 that is1 which offer facts that are never1 or seldom1 or not necessarily causes or effects or indications of sin4 ,thus1 it is rash to judge that a mature man and woman conversing together in a dignified manner and in a public and open place are discussing obscene matters2 or that a respectable person whose face is flushed1 or whose hand trembles1 or who slips on the street1 has been imbibing too freely2 or that a man climbing into a second story on a frequented highway and in broad daylight is a burglar4 ,this rule may be expressed in other words by saying that reasons for drawing unfavorable conclusions are insufficient when in view of the circumstances and time1 place1 persons1 deed1 etc41 no prudent person would consider the conclusions as warranted4 #agch4 ,rules on ,gravity of ,matter in ,rash ,judgments4--7a7 ,from the nature of the thing ascribed to the other person1 only judgments that mortal sin has been committed are grave matter2 for only mortal sin is in itself a grave reproach4 7b7 ,from the circumstances of persons or acts1 rash judgment of mortal sin may be only venial2 for it sometimes happens that certain kinds of serious sins are not considered very ignominious in certain persons or conditions4 ,thus1 in some places it is considered honorable for soldiers or students to have wounded adversaries in duels2 some persons of a rough kind are proud of their proficiency in blasphemy or obscenity2 where drunkenness is common1 it is not considered as very disgraceful4 7c7 ,from the circumstances of persons or acts1 rash judgments of venial sin or of what is not sin at all may be mortal2 for to those from whom much is expected slighter defects may be causes of great disgrace4 ,thus1 it is very dishonoring to the parties concerned to think that a prelate is an habitual liar1 that a nun visits too often1 that a public official is illegitimate or stupid or afflicted with syphilis1 and therefore unworthy of his position4 #agci4 ,the ,moral ,species of the ,sin of ,rash ,judgment4--7a7 ,it is a sin against justice1 because it infringes the strict right of the neighbor that he be not judged guilty of evil without sufficient reason1 and that he be not held worthy of contempt until he has clearly forfeited the right to respect4 ,it is true that judgment as here taken is an internal act1 and that it was said above that only external acts form the subject-matter of justice2 but internal acts that are referred immediately to external acts1 as concupiscence tends to lust and anger to injury1 may be classed with these external acts4 ,hence1 internal judgment naturally leads up to external judgment1 and so it pertains to justice1 just as the desire to steal is unjust and the desire to make restitution is just4 7b7 ,it is a sin against charity1 because it does not practise benevolence 78,charity thinketh no evil10 ,i ,cor41 xiii4 #e71 and is usually associated with ill-will or envy4 ,he who judges rashly does not love his neighbor as himself1 for he does not observe the rule not to do to others what he would not have done to himself4 #agdj4 ,the moral species of rash judgment is not changed according to the species of sin attributed to another 7such as heresy1 dishonesty1 impurity71 and these circumstances of the rash judgment need not be mentioned in confession4 #agda4 ,the ,moral ,species of ,rash ,opinion1 ,suspicion and ,doubt4--,do the conclusions given above on the theological species of rash judgment apply also to rash opinion1 suspicion1 and doubt8 7a7 ,some theologians answer in the affirmative1 and argue that the same grave injury and contempt of the neighbor is found in these sins as in rash judgment1 and that ,scripture makes no distinction between the one and the other4 ,on the contrary1 they say1 murmurings1 detractions1 and hatreds are caused oftener by doubts1 suspicions1 and opinions1 since firm and certain judgments are not so often formed2 and moreover there is no one who would not prefer to be judged certainly guilty of fornication than to be doubted or suspected of more heinous crimes1 such as incest or sodomy4 7b7 ,other theologians answer in the negative1 and argue that suspicion and doubt do not inflict a severe harm1 since they stop short of firm decision of the mind and so are incomplete injuries which diminish rather than take away the esteem due to another4 ,but the defenders of the affirmative reply that1 while opinion1 suspicion and doubt are incomplete as regards assent1 they are not incomplete as regards deliberation and consent1 and so can be mortally sinful1 as is seen in the case of doubts against faith 7see #hdj sqq474 7c7 ,still other theologians hold that rash opinions1 suspicions and doubts are from their nature mortal sins on account of the arguments for the first opinion1 but that in actual experience they are usually venial on account of the imperfection of the act 7since on account of human frailty doubts1 suspicions1 or evil opinions of others can easily arise before they are noticed71 or the lightness of the matter 7for there is rarely one of these mental states without some reason that seems to be at least approximately a justification74 ,but it seems likely that rash judgments themselves are seldom mortal sins1 since the conditions for mortal sin are not often realized in them4 #agdb4 ,the ,chief ,reasons for ,rash ,conclusions about the ,character of ,others4--7a7 ,a first reason is that the person who draws the conclusion is bad himself4 ,evil-doers are very prone to suspect others of evil1 for sin seems so delightful to them that they think others must find the same pleasure in it3 8,the fool when he walketh in the way1 since he himself is a fool1 esteemeth all men fools0 7,eccles41 x4 #c74 7b7 ,a second reason is that the wish is often father to the thought4 ,thus1 if one hates or envies another or is angered against him1 even trifles light as air will suffice to make one judge him guilty of sin4 ,just as love blinds an infatuated lover to the sins or crimes of the object of his affection1 so does prejudice give a distorted vision that can see nothing but evil in the object of its dislike4 7c7 ,a third reason for rash views unfavorable to others is long experience in dealing with human nature4 ,thus1 old men sometimes become not merely cautious1 which is reasonable1 but unduly suspicious4 ,similarly1 those who have encountered many trials or disappointments in life often become cynical and misanthropic1 and to them the actions of all their fellowmen appear either evil or at least spoiled by an evil purpose4 #agdc4 ,rash ,doubts4--,doubt about the probity of others is sinful1 when there are no sufficient reason for it2 for example1 it would be unreasonable to suspend judgment about a man of excellent reputation because a well-known calumniator had spoken against him4 ,but a doubt may be reasonable1 as when a person has had a good reputation for honesty but a reliable witness declares that he is dishonest4 ,in such a case should one decide for the innocence or for the guilt of the party called into doubt1 or should one suspend judgment on the matter8 7a7 ,it is not lawful to interpret reasonable doubts in a sense unfavorable to another person1 for this would amount to rash judgment1 since the reasons are sufficient for doubt but not for decision4 ,hence1 it would be wrong to believe that a person of good repute was a thief1 because another person of good repute said so4 7b7 ,it is lawful to suspend judgment in case of reasonable doubts1 if there is no obligation of deciding one way or the other1 for in so doing one does no injury either to one's own intelligence 7since the doubt is reasonable7 or to the honor of another person 7since1 as supposed1 there is no obligation of judging positively in his favor74 ,just as there is no duty of making acts of love of our neighbor on every occasion1 neither is there a duty of deciding doubts to his advantage on every occasion1 or of having any opinion about him whatever4 ,some authors do not admit this1 but the common teaching is against them4 7c7 ,it is not lawful to suspend judgment1 but the reasonable doubt must be resolved in a favorable sense1 if there is an obligation or a wish to decide one way or the other2 otherwise one would decide in an unfavorable sense and be guilty of rash judgment4 ,this is what is meant by the well-known maxim that doubts about the character of a neighbor should be settled in favor of the neighbor4 ,hence1 if one were in serious danger of forming a rash judgment and could not otherwise overcome the temptation1 a suspension of judgment should give place to favorable judgment4 ,it is true that one may be frequently in error by thus judging well of mankind1 since man is inclined to evil from his youth 7,gen41 viii4 #ba7 and the number of fools is infinite 7,eccles41 i4 #ae74 ,but it is a less evil to fall into the speculative error of taking a bad man for good than by adopting another course to fall into the practical error of becoming bad oneself by violating a law of prudence1 justice and charity2 and it is less harmful that many sinners should receive more credit than they deserve1 than that one just man should be deprived of the good opinion that belongs to him4 ,pseudo-,ambrose 7,apol4 ii1 ,david1 c4 #b1 n4 #e7 says that those who judge others rashly often become worse by this act than the persons they judge2 and ,st4 ,thomas remarks that favorable opinions of others harm no one1 whereas unfavorable opinions are a wrong to innocent persons4 #agdd4 ,the interpretation of doubts in a favorable sense does not mean that one may not take into consideration the possibility of danger or deception and use remedies or precautions4 ,this course is not rash judgment1 for even when one judges that another person is good1 one knows that the judgment is possibly wrong1 and therefore cannot be entirely relied on for external guidance4 7a7 ,it is lawful1 therefore1 to act as if one did have a bad opinion of another when there is a possibility of harm that must be guarded against4 ,thus1 a father may forbid his children to keep company with other children1 for these latter may be corrupt2 an employer may keep his money under lock and key1 because servants may be dishonest2 a traveller may carry weapons1 because the inhabitants among whom he travels may be treacherous4 ,even though appearances are favorable1 one may be on one's guard1 for appearances are often deceptive4 7b7 ,it is not lawful1 however1 to protect oneself or others in such a needlessly conspicuous or offensive manner as to sadden or defame the other party against whom one takes the precautions4 ,thus1 it would be unjust and uncharitable to go about ostentatiously locking safes and drawers whenever a certain person appeared1 for this would be equivalent to saying that he was a thief4 ,art4 #c3 ,,the ,,subjective ,,parts ,,of ,,justice3 ,,commutative ,,and ,,distributive ,,justice 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #fa1 #fb47 #agde4 ,the ,three ,species of ,justice4--,the subjective parts of a virtue are those that partake of its essence and that are the subordinate species into which it may be distinguished1 as prudence is divided into individual1 domestic and political 7see #afci74 ,there are three species of justice1 and their division is taken from the threefold relation that exists in a whole4 7a7 ,thus1 legal justice directs the parts to respect the rights of the whole1 and it is exercised by all those who promote the common good of a society by fulfilling well the duties which pertain to their position and rank in the society4 7b7 ,distributive justice regulates the whole in reference to the parts1 and it is exercised by all those who seek for such a distribution of the common things of a society as accords with the inequalities of merit and ability of the members4 ,hence1 distributive justice is found not only in the heads of a state1 or family1 or other body1 but also in the subordinates who are content with the fair distributions made by the heads4 7c7 ,commutative justice orders the relations between the parts1 and it is exercised by all who practise fair dealing with their equals1 that is1 by states with states1 families with families1 societies with like societies1 individuals with individuals2 or with those who act as their equals1 as when a society acting as a moral person makes a contract with one of its members as another moral person4 #agdf4 ,resemblance between ,distributive and ,commutative ,justice4--,the general likeness between distributive and commutative justice may be summed up as follows3 7a7 they have the same remote matter1 since both alike are concerned with external things1 persons or works4 ,thus1 things such as goods of fortune may be distributed by the community to its members1 or may be exchanged by individuals between them2 labors to be performed may be assigned by the community or may be agreed on by private persons through contract2 7b7 they have the same general form1 since both alike seek to impress equality on the matter with which they deal1 by rendering in these things to every one his due1 and by making man's actions towards his neighbor to follow the mean of reason and of the thing 7see #agaa74 #agdg4 ,the ,special ,differences between ,distributive and ,commutative ,justice4--7a7 ,they differ in their proximate matter1 that is1 in the operations by which use is made of external things1 persons or works2 for while distributive justice acts through distribution 7or division71 appointment1 or assignment among many1 commutative justice acts through exchange1 or transfer from one to another between two persons4 7b7 ,they differ in their special form2 for distributive justice seeks equality and the golden mean1 according to proportion1 while commutative justice seeks the same according to quantity 7see #agab74 ,distributive justice does not treat parties as equals1 but gives to each one according to his personal worth--to the more deserving the superior positions and high salaries1 to the less deserving the inferior positions and lower salaries4 ,commutative justice1 on the other hand1 treats the parties as equal1 and decrees that debts must be paid and injuries repaired1 even though payment or reparation must be made by a good man to a bad man1 and that the recompense must equal the difference created between the parties by the debt or the injury4 #agdh4 ,commutations of ,commutative ,justice4--,there are various kinds of commutations or exchanges used by commutative justice1 but they do not create new species of justice1 since they are only accidental modes of the act of giving the equivalent of what one receives4 ,they are classified as follows3 7a7 involuntary commutations1 which are those in which reparation is made for the use against the will of another of the things1 persons1 or works that pertain to him4 ,thus1 the property of another is used unlawfully by secret theft and by open robbery2 the person of another is injured by murder and wounds2 the honor of another by secret calumny and detraction1 by open false testimony and contumely2 the rights of another to persons are used unlawfully by adultery with his wife1 by seduction of his servant1 and the like2 7b7 voluntary commutations1 which are those in which compensation is made for a benefit that one derived with the owner's consent from something that was his1 or in which one gives or returns to another what is his4 ,they include the various forms of contracts1 or agreements between two parties in which the consent of both to the same proposal is externally manifested and obligation is produced to abide by the terms of agreement4 #agdi4 ,forms of ,contract4--,the chief forms of contract are the following3 7a7 gratuitous contracts1 which are those that confer advantage on only one of the contractants1 or those in which no payment or compensation for his acts or goods is made to one party by the other party4 ,they include unilateral contracts1 which produce obligation on one side only 7e4g41 a promise1 gift1 testament71 and bilateral contracts1 which produce obligation on both sides4 ,the bilateral contracts are also known as bailments1 or understandings whereby a thing or business is transferred from one person to another in trust1 on condition that a return will be made to the owner1 ,they include the following contracts3 loans1 in which return must be made of the identical things borrowed 7commodatum71 or of a thing similar in kind 7mutuum72 deposit1 in which a thing must be returned after safekeeping 7depositum72 an agency1 in which one conducts the business of another with the obligation of making returns1 either from express contract 7mandatum7 or from imputed agreement 7negotiorum gestio74 ,in commodatum and mutuum the advantage is had by the bailee1 in the other three by the bailor2 7b7 onerous contracts of certain event1 which are those that confer an advantage on both parties1 and in which the thing agreed on is certain and definite4 ,they include contracts in which one party transfers ownership to the other 7e4g41 buying and selling1 barter1 loan at interest1 contracts for annuities1 stocks and bonds7 or useful dominion 7e4g41 lease of property1 contractor's agreement1 hire of labor71 and contracts in which both parties transfer rights to a moral person of which they are the members 7partnership72 7c7 onerous contracts of uncertain event1 which are those that confer advantage on both parties1 but in which the thing agreed on is contingent and uncertain4 ,examples are insurance1 wager1 gaming contracts1 lottery1 and stock market speculation2 7d7 subsidiary contracts1 which are those that are made in order to give security to principal contracts to which they are annexed or for whose sake they are made4 ,such are guaranty and surety1 pledge and pawn1 and mortgage4 #agej4 ,the ,equality ,sought by ,commutative ,justice4--,the equality in quantity sought by commutative justice means that in involuntary transactions the offender must suffer a punishment equal to the injury he offered or must pay a recompense equal to the damage he caused1 and that in voluntary transactions one must give the equal of what one receives4 ,but this can be understood in two ways4 7a7 ,thus1 equality may be taken for identity in species1 in the sense that the same kind of thing must be taken or returned 7e4g41 a life for a life1 an eye for an eye1 a tooth for a tooth74 ,this kind of equality will do in some instances1 as in cases of exchange of goods1 but as a rule it would not be fair to both parties4 ,thus1 if a subject strikes a ruler1 he is not sufficiently punished if he receives the same kind of blow1 for the injury to the ruler is greater on account of his office2 when a man steals a cow or a sheep1 he is not sufficiently punished if he restores what he took1 for he would suffer no loss and the community whose peace he had offended would go without satisfaction 7,exod41 xxii4 #a72 if one gives one's cow for another's cow1 or if a shoemaker trades his products for the clothes made by a tailor1 the exchange may be unfair1 since the thing given on one side may be better than that given on the other side4 7b7 ,equality may be understood as identity in value1 in the sense that the thing taken or returned has the same quantity of goodness or excellence as the thing received1 no matter how they differ in species4 ,this kind of equality must be observed as a rule both in involuntary and voluntary transactions4 ,thus1 for injury done to merchandise payment is made in money1 or vice versa4 ,if equality in value is not possible1 because the good for which one owes is on a higher plane than the good which one is able to give1 it seems that justice requires one to approximate equality as far as possible1 and hence mayhem or defamation should be compensated for by the goods of fortune 7see #ahjb and #bjij74 #agea4 ,restitution4--,justice not only commands that one pay or give back what is due in voluntary transactions1 but also that one repair injury which one has caused in involuntary transactions4 ,but the four acts of payment1 restoration1 satisfaction1 and restitution must not be confused4 7a7 ,thus1 payment is the lawful bestowal by one person on another person of something of value in return for some other thing of value4 ,it is clear that payment differs from satisfaction and restitution1 since it supposes no act of injustice done4 7b7 ,restoration is the return to another of his property of which one had just possession1 as when a borrower gives back to the lender1 or a depositee to the depositor4 ,this also differs from satisfaction and restitution1 since it is a voluntary transaction 7see #agib1 #agif74 #ageb4 ,differences between ,satisfaction and ,restitution4--7a7 ,they differ as to their principle or cause1 since satisfaction is due for injury to honor1 restitution for injury to goods by unjust detention or unjust damage4 ,hence1 a person who has dishonored another 7e4g41 by disrespect7 is bound to satisfaction2 a person who has injured another 7e4g41 by destroying his goods7 is bound to restitution2 a person who has both injured and dishonored another 7e4g41 by adding insults to robbery7 is bound to restitution and satisfaction4 7b7 ,satisfaction and restitution differ as to their term or object1 since satisfaction is chiefly concerned with the person to whom amends must be made 7as by apology71 while restitution is chiefly concerned with the thing which must be given back in itself or in its equivalent4 #agec4 ,when ,restitution ,is ,due4--,restitution is the act by which one places another in renewed possession or ownership or chance of ownership of that which is owed to him because it is his by reason of a strict right in re or ad rem2 in other words1 it restores the equality that existed before an injury was done to the goods of another4 7a7 ,thus1 restitution is not due for violation of virtues other than justice1 because these virtues are not concerned with strict obligations and rights4 ,repentance and satisfaction are due for all sins1 but they are not the same thing as restitution4 ,hence1 one is not bound to restitution if one refused to help with alms a person in extreme need1 or if1 not being obliged to it by office1 one neglected to extinguish a fire or to prevent a robbery4 ,these are sins against charity1 not against justice4 7b7 ,restitution is not due for violations of virtues that pertain to justice but do not confer strict rights1 and hence it is only a violation of commutative justice that entails the obligation of restitution4 ,thus1 if one has been surly or ungrateful1 no legal right has been violated and no restitution is due4 #aged4 ,does ,distributive ,injustice ,oblige to ,restitution8--7a7 ,if only distributive injustice is committed 7e4 g41 if a parent gives his children all necessaries but shows special favor to those that are less deserving71 there is no duty of restitution1 for there is no strict claim to special favors4 7b7 ,if commutative injustice accompanies the distributive injustice 7e4g41 if a ruler acts against his agreement to give the best position to the person who passes the best examination71 there is a duty of restitution1 for there is a strict claim to rights under contract4 #agee4 ,distributive ,justice and the ,violation of ,strict ,rights4--,injustice in distribution is frequently accompanied by injustice in transaction on account of some strict right violated1 and hence by reason of the latter injustice there will be a duty of restitution 7see #agjh1 #ahjh74 7a7 ,thus1 distributive injustice is accompanied by violation of a strict right of society when an unfair distribution is contrary to agreement made with the community 7e4g41 when one is appointed or paid especially to make fair distributions1 or the law or contract expressly imposes this obligation71 or when it causes harm to the community which one is bound ex officio to prevent 7e4g41 when one appoints as public physician or surgeon a person who is entirely unfitted for the post74 7b7 ,distributive injustice is accompanied by violation of a strict right of an individual when it is against contract 7e4g41 when a person undertakes to select the best statue or portrait presented in a contest1 but chooses one that is inferior71 or when it inflicts loss on a private person 7e4g41 when a tax assessor requires more than is due from some persons1 or an examiner admits to a school which receives only a limited number an unworthy candidate and thus excludes a worthy one1 or a board rejects a worthy candidate as unworthy74 #agef4 ,commutative ,justice and ,unfair ,awards of ,prizes4--,unfair awards of prizes in competitions are not violations of commutative justice unless the following conditions are present3 7a7 the promise of award must be given as a contract binding in justice1 for if the promisor intends only to bind himself in fidelity1 the promisee obtains no strict right4 ,hence1 an unfair distribution is not against commutative justice if a competition has not the character of a real contest or of an onerous compact to reward the person who surpasses his rivals1 but is rather an opportunity to compete for the free bounty of the promisor 7e4g41 if the organizer of an entertainment offers a prize for the prettiest baby71 or an encouragement to useful industry 7e4g41 a first prize for the best garden in a neighborhood74 ,on the contrary1 if the promise is part of an onerous contract1 the promisor is bound in justice and the promisee obtains a strict right4 ,this is the case when the competition has the character of a real contest1 in which the contestants must undergo special labor1 preparation1 expense or trouble1 etc41 in order that the award be given to the most meritorious2 7b7 the thing promised as subject of award must be the prize1 and not merely a claim or right to be considered for the prize4 ,hence1 if an examination is held in order that a number of worthy persons may be listed for future vacancies in offices or dignities1 the person who passes as most worthy has no strict right to be given an office or dignity1 but only to be considered for it4 #ageg4 ,has a person who passes as most worthy in an examination held in order to fill a vacant post a strict right to receive the post8 7a7 ,according to the common opinion he has a strict right1 because there is at least an implicit contract to the effect that the position will be given to the most worthy1 since the examination is competitive4 7b7 ,according to some authorities he has no strict right1 because public positions are not to be regarded as rewards of merit1 and the examination is not part of a contract but is only a means used by a superior to assist him in acting according to distributive justice4 ,nevertheless1 even in this opinion an unjust award is a sin1 and at times a grave sin1 against distributive justice1 and may accidentally be joined with commutative injustice 7see #agee74 7c7 ,under the civil service method1 or merit system1 of appointment1 the appointing official is bound by law to observe the rules of the civil service commission4 ,the usual procedure is for the commission to submit the names of the three persons highest on the examination list4 ,position on the list is determined by competitive examination plus preferential points for veterans1 experience in jobs1 etc4 7,on the whole the preferential system does not seem to involve any injustice to those who do not receive the preference47 ,one of the three must be chosen for the first vacancy2 for the second vacancy the remaining two1 together with the next highest eligible1 are proposed4 ,grave injustice against distributive justice would be done in not proceeding according to the legal method1 and some degree of injustice might be done to an eligible who is illegally removed from a list1 passed over1 etc4 ,of the three highest eligibles no one has a strict right to the vacant post1 but solely the right to be seriously considered4 #ageh4 ,what should be said of a superior who would promote undeserving persons to ecclesiastical benefices8 7a7 ,as regards guilt1 it is a mortal sin to confer a benefice on one who is unworthy1 or even 7when there is question of a benefice to which the care of souls is attached7 on one who is less worthy 7see ,canon #dei1 ,sec4 #a74 7b7 ,as regards restitution1 there is an obligation of reparation to the community1 when it is made to suffer loss1 and of compensation to an individual who is passed over in spite of his strict right 7see three preceding paragraphs74 #agei4 ,the ,obligation of ,restitution4--7a7 ,the obligation is both of natural and divine law4 ,reason itself dictates that everyone should receive his due1 and revelation expressly commands restitution1 as when it declares that he who has injured his neighbor's field or vineyard must restore according to the damage done 7,exod41 xxii4 #e74 7b7 ,the obligation is both of means and of precept1 for without restitution the offender does not obtain pardon from ,god 7,ezech41 xxxiii4 #ac sqq12 ,tob41 ii4 #bj sqq474 ,hence1 one who has seriously injured his neighbor cannot be saved unless he actually makes restitution1 if he is able1 or intends to make restitution when possible1 if here and now he is not able to do so4 ,a debtor who makes no effort to make restitution 7e4g41 one who refuses to deny himself luxuries1 to curtail his expenses1 to leave restitution money in his will71 cannot be said to have a sincere intention of fulfilling his duty4 ,but it is not true that a person who dies in venial sin on account of restitution neglected must remain in ,purgatory till all the restitution is made2 for this would make the punishment depend on the negligence of the heirs or on accident4 7c7 ,the obligation is grave if the damage 7absolute or relative7 and the fault were both grave1 for restitution is an obligation of strict justice 7see #agec72 the obligation is light if both the damage and the fault were light1 for the injury then is light4 #agfj4 ,duties of ,confessors about the ,obligation of ,restitution4--7a7 ,as to confession1 the penitent is obliged to mention the number of sins committed against the duty of restitution1 if there have been many acts of intention not to pay 7see #bjb sqq472 but as a rule those who have for a long time continued in sinful neglect of the duty of restitution have committed only one sin thereby1 or else they do not apprehend their duty of mentioning the distinct internal acts1 and hence confessors are advised not to question overmuch about this4 7b7 ,as to absolution1 the penitent lacks true contrition if he is under a serious obligation to make restitution and is wilfully opposed to the performance of this duty at all or at the proper time4 ,such a one may not be absolved4 ,but the confessor should not admonish a penitent of the duty of restitution1 if the penitent is in good faith and the admonition would only do harm4 ,if the obligation of restitution is only light1 absolution may not be refused1 and prudence will often advise that no admonition about the obligation be given4 #agfa4 ,there are a number of situations possible when damage done is grave and culpability slight4 7a7 ,thus1 the damage may be entirely involuntary1 as when the offender could not foresee it and did not wish it 7e4g41 ,sempronius commits a venial sin by speaking harshly to ,claudius1 whom he likes1 but the latter is so depressed at this that he commits suicide74 ,in this case there is clearly no obligation of restitution4 7b7 ,the damage may be voluntary only interpretatively1 as when the offender could not foresee it1 but would have willed it had he foreseen it 7e4g41 ,sempronius is glad when he learns that ,claudius committed suicide1 but would be much surprised if he knew that a harsh word of his caused it74 ,in this case according to some there is a grave duty of restitution1 because internal guilt and external damage are present2 but others1 with greater probability1 deny the duty of restitution1 for the damage was not caused by the internal sin of hate1 which is not effective of itself1 nor by the external harsh word1 which was an occasion rather than a cause 7see #addg1 #agfc74 7c7 ,the damage may be voluntary directly1 as when the offender wills it in itself 7e4g41 ,titus steals a considerable sum from ,balbus1 but he is invincibly ignorant and thinks that the wealth of ,balbus makes the sin only venial71 or the damage done is voluntary indirectly 7e4g41 ,caius is guilty of slight carelessness in guarding his cattle1 and they get into a neighbor's garden and cause great damage to crops2 ,caius foresaw some damage1 but he could not have foreseen the actual grave damage that was done74 ,about these cases there are various opinions1 which will be given in #agfe4 #agfb4 ,the ,roots of ,restitution4--,the roots or sources of restitution are usually reduced to two1 according to the following two general kinds of injury inflicted on others3 7a7 unjust damage1 which is the loss inflicted1 on the goods of another1 without advantage to the offender1 as in murder or incendiarism2 7b7 unjust possession1 which is the loss inflicted on another by the possession of his goods without his consent or against his will1 to the advantage of the offender1 as when a murderer steals from his victim1 or an incendiary gets the insurance from the house he destroyed4 #agfc4 ,unjust damage that obliges to restitution is only an act 7or omission7 that is both injurious 7being a guilty violation of another's strict right7 and productive of loss4 ,hence the following conditions3 7a7 the act must be objectively unjust1 a contravention of a strict right in re or ad rem 7see #afie sqq471 for example1 stealing or keeping back the wages due an employee4 ,but it is objectively unjust to deprive another of a non-strict right 7e4g41 the right of a beggar to an alms7 by unjust means1 such as force1 fraud1 calumny1 etc4 ,if a neighbor is not hindered from his strict right and unfair means are not employed1 there is no objective injustice 7e4g41 when a merchant improves his place of business and thus draws away customers from a rival merchant72 7b7 the act must be efficaciously unjust or the true cause of the loss which another suffers1 for one is not responsible for what does not proceed from one's act4 ,an act is not efficaciously unjust1 therefore1 if it is only the occasion of damage 7e4g41 ,titus steals and ,balbus imitates him2 ,claudius steals1 and on account of circumstantial evidence not arranged by ,claudius1 ,sempronius is arrested and sentenced to prison71 or if it is only a conditio sine qua non 7e4g41 ,caius gives whisky to ,julius1 who needs its stimulation to nerve himself for a crime71 or if it is only an accidental cause 7e4g41 ,titus steals a small sum of money from a miser1 and the latter1 to the great surprise of ,titus1 becomes insane72 7c7 the act must be subjectively unjust1 that is1 culpable and imputable2 for one is not bound to satisfy for acts that are inculpable or not imputable 7see #ig sqq474 ,there must be either theological culpability1 that is1 the intention to harm another1 which is sinful before ,god 7e4g41 he who purposely sets fire to his neighbor's barn71 or juridical culpability1 that is1 carelessness which causes injury to the legal right of another 7e4g41 he who lights a fire near his neighbor's buildings and by his absent-mindedness permits the buildings to catch fire74 #agfd4 ,some ,causes ,that ,remove or ,diminish ,theological ,culpability4--7a7 ,mental derangement or passion 7e4g41 great fear or anger7 may make an injurious act unintentional and so take away natural liability for restitution 7see #dj sqq471 but the civil law does not always admit the excuse1 and after sentence the offender is bound to pay4 7b7 ,according to some authorities1 error about the extent of the harm that is being done1 if invincible1 excuses from restitution for damage that was not apprehended1 as when a thief throws a gem into the ocean1 thinking that it is only an imitation gem4 ,but the offender would be held for the entire loss1 if sentenced4 7e7 ,error about the person injured1 even though invincible1 probably does not excuse from restitution1 if the intention was to harm a class 7e4g41 ,sempronius intends to kill ,balbus1 because the latter is a policeman1 but by accident he kills another policeman7 or an individual 7e4g41 ,caius intends to kill ,titus and by mistake kills ,claudius1 the twin-brother of ,titus74 7d7 ,error about the thing injured1 even though invincible1 probably does not excuse from restitution1 if the intention was to do damage 7e4g41 ,julius puts poison in a plate in order to kill his neighbor's dog1 but the cat takes the poison and is killed74 #agfe4 ,restitution for ,damages ,that ,are ,only ,venially ,sinful but ,seriously ,harmful4--7a7 ,when one injurious act is committed 7as when through slight carelessness one sets fire to one's neighbor's chicken coop71 some deny1 but others affirm1 the duty of restitution1 while still others distinguish according to the full or only partial advertence to the sinfulness of what is done4 ,of those who hold for restitution1 some think that all the damage should be repaired1 since all was caused2 but others think that it suffices to repair part1 since the culpability was limited4 7b7 ,if several injurious acts1 which taken singly are slight but taken together are serious1 were done to the same person 7e4g41 a waiter breaking dishes at various times while working for the same proprietor71 restitution is due as soon as the sinner realizes the amount of harm he has caused2 but it is disputed whether the obligation is grave or light4 ,if the injuries were done to different persons 7e4g41 a boy breaking windows in many houses in the neighborhood71 there is more probably only a light obligation4 #agff4 ,restitution on ,account of ,law for ,damages ,that ,are ,only ,juridically ,culpable4--7a7 ,before sentence of court there is no obligation of restitution1 for it would be too heavy a burden to impose this in view of the absentmindedness of so many persons and the numerous distractions one encounters4 7b7 ,after sentence of court there is an obligation of restitution1 for the law which gives the court a right to impose it is reasonable1 since juridical fault is often accompanied by theological fault1 and moreover men will thus be led to a greater prudence in the care of their own goods and in respect for those of others4 #agfg4 ,restitution on ,account of ,contract for ,damages ,that ,are ,only ,juridically ,culpable4--7a7 ,express contract obliges to restitution even for light fault 7i4e41 the omission of precautions taken by the more prudent71 or most light fault 7i4e41 the omission of precautions taken by the most prudent only71 or1 if so stipulated1 for no fault at all4 7b7 ,implied contract perhaps also obliges to restitution for juridical fault1 for it seems that equity requires one to make good the losses caused by the absence of a care which the contract took for granted4 ,thus1 if the advantage is with the bailor alone 7e4g41 gratuitous deposit71 ordinary care is expected and the bailee is not held in danger to prefer the bailor's goods to his own2 if the advantage is with both parties 7e4g41 onerous deposit or loan71 it seems that more than ordinary care is demanded and that usually the obligor may give preference to his own goods4 #agfh4 ,restitution for ,careless ,discharge of ,fiduciary ,duties1 as in the ,case of ,physicians1 ,lawyers1 ,spiritual ,advisers4--7a7 ,if there was theological fault1 restitution is due1 unless the injured party took the risk upon himself4 7b7 ,if there was only juridical fault1 it seems there is no natural duty of restitution1 since no injustice was done2 but a court may oblige to damages4 #agfi4 ,two ,cases in ,which ,culpability ,seems ,doubtful4--7a7 ,when one has inculpably done or omitted something from which damage to another can be foreseen1 and one has now become aware of the danger 7as when ,balbus lights a fire on his own property and sees that a change of the wind makes this fire dangerous for his neighbor's barn71 one must prevent the damage1 if this can be done without equal or greater damage to oneself2 otherwise one must make restitution4 7b7 ,when one has culpably done or omitted something from which damage to another was foreseen1 but has tried1 though in vain1 to prevent the damage after the cause was placed1 restitution is due if the cause was physical 7e4g41 ,claudius gave poison to ,titus1 and then moved by remorse gave an antidote1 but ,titus died71 since the party who set the cause in operation is responsible2 but if the cause was moral 7e4g41 ,balbus ordered a gunman to beat up ,caius1 but withdrew the order1 and the gunman on his own responsibility then assaulted ,caius71 restitution is not due when the revocation ends one's influence upon the damage that ensues4 #aggj4 ,three ,kinds of ,unlawful ,possessors4--,the second root of restitution mentioned above 7#agfb7 is unjust possession1 which includes the acceptance or the retention of another person's goods against the latter's will4 ,there are three kinds of unlawful possessors3 7a7 the possessor in good faith1 who is one that has been invincibly ignorant of the unlawfulness of his possession1 but now learns his error 7e4g41 a buyer who discovers that the horse he purchased did not belong to the seller but was stolen property72 7b7 the possessor in doubtful faith1 who is one that has serious reasons for fearing his possession is unlawful 7e4g41 the buyer of a horse learns that the seller is known to have sold some stolen property1 or that the price he charged for the horse was remarkably small72 7c7 the possessor in bad faith1 who is one that knows his possession is unjust 7e4g41 a buyer who purchases a horse which he knew had been stolen by the seller74 #agga4 ,obligations of the ,possessor in ,good ,faith in ,reference to the ,property ,itself4--7a7 ,if the property is still in his keeping1 he is generally obliged to return it to the owner1 for a thing calls for its owner4 ,an exception would be the case in which the possessor can not return the property to the owner without a greater loss to his own property4 7b7 ,if the property has perished1 the possessor is generally obliged or not to restitution according as he has been enriched or not by the property2 for one person should not be enriched at the expense of another1 but property perishes to its owner4 7c7 ,if the property is in possession of a third party to whom the possessor transferred it1 he is generally obliged or not to restitution to the third party1 on the latter's dispossession1 according as he has been enriched or not by the third party's goods2 for if he received nothing for the goods1 he is clearly bound to nothing1 but if he received payment1 he must indemnify the buyer who is evicted for lack of title4 #aggb4 ,obligations of the ,possessor in ,good ,faith in ,reference to the ,fruits of the ,property4--7a7 ,he must restore the fruits of the thing itself that are in existence1 for the thing fructifies to its owner4 ,hence1 he should restore to the owner the natural fruits 7e4g41 the fruit on the owner's trees7 and the civil fruits 7e4g41 the money received from hire of the owner's horse74 7b7 ,he must restore the fruits of the thing itself which are not in existence1 but from which he has been enriched 7e4g41 the net profit from last year's crops which the possessor has in the bank74 7c7 ,he is not obliged to restore the fruits of his own labor or industrial fruits 7e4g41 the extraordinary interest derived from the owner's money through the good judgment and energy of the possessor71 nor the fruits that he consumed without enrichment 7e4g41 the vegetables he gave away or wasted74 #aggc4 ,rights of the ,possessor in ,good ,faith in ,deducting ,expenses4--7a7 ,he may deduct for all expenses that have benefited the owner1 that is1 for all the money he spent in necessary or useful ways in preserving or caring for the property4 7b7 ,he may not deduct for expenses that have not benefited the owner1 or which the owner would not have reasonably authorized1 such as special beautification of the property4 ,but he may take away such adornments added by him as can be removed without injury to the property4 #aggd4 ,obligations of the ,possessor in ,bad ,faith in ,reference to the ,property ,itself4--7a7 ,if the property is still in his keeping1 he must return it to the owner1 for a thing calls for its owner4 ,but if the actual possessor had the property from the thief and could not restore it to the owner without serious loss to himself1 it is held by some that he could return it to the thief in order to recover his money4 7b7 ,if the property has perished or restitution of it has become impossible1 he must compensate the owner1 even though he has not been enriched1 unless the goods would have perished equally with the owner2 for he is then the efficacious cause of the loss4 ,the same principle may be applied to damages through deterioration4 ,the civil law often holds the thief responsible1 no matter how the goods perished in his hands4 7c7 ,if the property is in possession of a third party who bought it in bad faith from the possessor in bad faith1 the seller is not bound to restitution to his purchaser on the purchaser's eviction1 unless there was agreement to that effect2 for he who buys1 knowing that there is no good title1 buys at his own risk4 #agge4 ,obligation of the ,possessor in ,bad ,faith in ,reference to the ,fruits of the ,property4--7a7 ,he must restore the natural and civil fruits1 even though the owner would not have obtained them from the thing1 but he may keep the industrial fruits4 7b7 ,he must make restitution for the profits lost and the losses suffered by the owner through the unjust deprivation of his property1 for these are damages of which the possessor was the unjust and efficacious cause4 #aggf4 ,obligations of the ,possessor in ,doubtful ,faith ,who ,began ,possession in ,good ,faith 7,supervening ,doubt74--7a7 ,if he does not culpably neglect attempts to settle his doubt1 he becomes a possessor in good faith4 ,if the doubt is settled against him1 he must restore 7#agga72 if the doubt continues1 he may retain possession and prescribe 7i4e41 acquire ownership through long exercise of ownership rights71 for presumption favors the possessor1 but he must he willing to restore1 should another appear as the rightful owner4 7b7 ,if he culpably neglects attempts to settle the doubt1 he becomes a possessor in bad faith4 ,if the doubt is settled against him1 he must restore 7#ahjj71 at least for the time during which his culpability was grave2 if the doubt continues and its settlement is impossible through his fault1 it seems that he should share ratably with another claimant according to the strength of the respective claims2 if the doubt continues and there is no other claimant1 it seems that he may act on the principle that presumption favors the possessor4 #aggg4 ,obligations of the ,possessor in ,doubtful ,faith ,who ,began in ,bad ,faith 7,antecedent ,doubt74--7a7 ,if the property came to the possessor in doubtful faith without legal title 7e4g41 by violence71 he has the obligations of one in bad faith1 for presumption favors the former possessor4 7b7 ,if the property came to him by legal title 7e4g41 by gift or sale71 but from a former possessor of doubtful or suspected faith 7e4g41 one who seemed to have the property through theft71 he must attempt to settle the doubt4 ,should the doubt nevertheless continue1 some think he should divide it with another probable claimant1 but others believe he may retain all4 7e7 ,if the property came to him by legal title and from a former possessor in good faith1 he must attempt to settle the doubt2 but if the doubt remains in spite of his inquiries1 he may retain the property in good faith1 as long as matters continue in the same state4 #aggh4 ,cooperators and ,restitution4--,restitution is owed for cooperation in injustice when the cooperator becomes at least partially an unjust and efficacious cause of damage to another4 ,it should be noted that this cooperation may be of a limited kind1 as when it extends only to the mode of the damage1 or when it is not indispensable to the commission of the injury4 7a7 ,thus1 he who cooperates only as to the mode of injury is probably liable only for that damage which he added to the substantial damage4 ,thus1 if ,balbus intended to steal #aj1 and ,claudius persuaded him to steal #bj1 it seems that the influence of ,claudius extended only to the amount of #aj4 7b7 ,he who cooperates1 but whose assistance is not necessary1 is bound to restitution as a cooperator1 since he is an unjust and efficacious cause of damage4 ,thus1 if ,caius steals for ,sempronius1 knowing that1 should he refuse1 ,mercurius would carry out the orders of ,sempronius1 the readiness to steal on the part of ,mercurius does not excuse ,caius or make his act any less harmful4 #aggi4 ,positive cooperators in injury are bound to restitution when their act is the unjust and efficacious cause of the damage4 ,the principal cases of positive cooperation are the following3 7a7 a mandator is a superior who explicitly or implicitly commands an inferior subject to commit an act of injustice1 as when a father bids his son to steal4 ,the mandator bids another to act in his name1 and therefore he is the principal and not the accessory or secondary cause of injury4 ,he must indemnify both the victim and the agent for losses he caused them2 but he is not liable if he effectively recalled his mandate before the damage was done2 7b7 an advisor is one who through instruction or persuasion induces another person to commit an injury which is not done in the name of or for the benefit of the advisor himself4 ,he must make restitution both to the person whose injury he recommended and to the person to whom he gave the advice for the damages he brought upon them4 ,those who give wrong advice in good faith1 or who recall their advice before the damage is done1 are generally excused from responsibility4 ,bad example does not seem to be equivalent to bad advice1 and he who recommends a lesser evil only because he wishes to prevent a greater one is not an efficacious cause of the lesser evil 7see #aejb1 #aejc72 7c7 an implicit advisor 7palpo7 is one who by flattery1 excuse1 blame1 ridicule or other such indirect means leads another to commit injustice against a third party4 ,the implicit advisor is bound to restitution for damages caused or reparation denied through his fault2 7d7 a protector or encourager 7receptans7 is one who knowingly and willingly bestows upon a malefactor1 as such1 security or comfort1 in order that the latter may do injury with greater confidence or omit restitution for evil already done4 ,he is bound to restitution for the unjust damage or retention of property caused by him2 7e7 a consenter is one who gives his vote1 decision1 or approval to injustice1 or denies it to justice4 ,he must recall his consent to iniquity before evil results from it1 and he must make restitution for damages that depend on his conduct2 7f7 a partaker in injustice is one who gives assistance in the commission of injustice1 positively and physically1 by sharing in the injury or in some previous or subsequent act naturally connected with it4 ,if he is a cooperator in unjust damage1 he must indemnify the injured party2 if he is a cooperator in unjust retention of property1 he must give back to the owner the stolen goods received by him 7#aggd74 #aghj4 ,negative cooperators are those who by their silence or inaction permit an injury to be done or to go unrepaired4 ,they are bound to restitution for the damages caused by them2 but it seems that per se at least they are not bound to restitution for bribes taken by them or fines lost through their fault4 ,their responsibility for damages supposes the usual conditions1 namely3 7a7 they must be the efficacious causes of damage1 and hence if their silence or inaction is involuntary1 or if outcry or resistance would be useless they are not responsible2 7b7 they must be unjust causes1 that is1 there must be an obligation to act owed by reason of strict right1 contract1 or implied contract4 ,examples are confessors who culpably neglect to give penitents needed spiritual advice1 parents who permit damage to be done by their children who have not the use of reason1 voters who absent themselves and thus cause damage they were bound by contract to prevent1 owners of animals who sinfully permit their beasts to ravage the fields of another person1 doorkeepers who allow thieves to enter a house under their charge1 collectors who permit bills to go unpaid4 ,but if the obligation is owed by reason of some other virtue than commutative justice 7e4g41 one is bound only in charity to turn in a fire alarm when one notices a fire1 if one is not the custodian of the house71 one sins1 and at times gravely1 by inaction2 but there is no duty of restitution4 #agha4 ,the ,circumstances of ,restitution4--,by the circumstances of restitution are understood the persons by whom and to whom compensation is to be made1 the things to be restored1 the manner1 time and place of restitution4 #aghb4 ,the persons bound to make restitution are all those who singly or cooperatively commit injustice4 ,but when several commit injustice together1 the following kinds of causes of the injustice must be distinguished3 7a7 the causes are equal when there is no subordination among the cooperators2 they are unequal when one is a principal upon whom the others depend as secondary causes or instruments 7e4g41 when one hires thieves to steal for one72 7b7 the causes are considered as total causes of the injury when they are principal causes1 or equal but indispensable cooperators1 or conspirators2 and perhaps also if they are sufficient causes 7e4g41 ,caius and ,sempronius each fire at a neighbor's cow and each inflicts a mortal wound71 or if the thing damaged is either not divided 7such as a vineyard7 or indivisible 7such as a painting74 ,in other causes cooperators are considered as partial causes of the injury4 #aghc4 ,cooperators in damage are bound to restitution either in solidum or pro rata4 7a7 ,thus1 they are bound in solidum 7i4e41 jointly and severally7 for all the loss when they are total causes of the damage1 ,but the principal cause is bound absolutely1 the secondary or equal cause only conditionally1 that is1 the principal must pay all the restitution himself1 the others must pay all only when the principal or other associates fail to do their duty4 7b7 ,they are bound pro rata 7i4e41 each one according to his share7 when they are only partial causes of the damage4 ,the obligation of restitution in solidum should not be imposed1 if it is uncertain1 or if the cooperator is in good faith and the admonition would only produce harm4 #aghd4 ,the order of restitution among cooperators in injury is according to the priority of the obligation of one to that of another1 in the sense that one is obliged to pay all and the other is obliged only in the former's default4 ,this order of priority in obligation is in force when many cooperators are bound in solidum and when they cooperated in different ways 7e4g41 one as possessor1 another as advisor1 another as performer1 etc474 ,the order generally given by moralists is as follows3 7a7 the possessor is bound first of all1 since he has the goods of another and the goods call for their owner2 7b7 the cooperators are bound next in the following order3 the originator 7such as a perpetrator acting in his own name1 or a mandator72 the perpetrator acting in the name of another2 the others who aided the commission of the act 7such as advisors1 flatterers1 etc472 those who did not prevent or resist injustice4 #aghe4 ,the obligations of cooperators when restitution in full is made by one of their number1 or when condonation of debt is made to one of their number1 are as follows3 7a7 if restitution was due pro rata1 the other cooperators must indemnify their associate who paid all1 or must pay their shares to the injured party who gave condonation only to one of their group2 7b7 if restitution was due in solidum1 payment by or condonation to a principal cause frees the secondary causes2 but payment by or condonation to a secondary cause does not exempt a principal cause1 and the latter is still held either to the secondary cause or to the injured party1 as the case may be2 payment by or condonation to an equal cause does not exempt the other equal causes4 #aghf4 ,the person to whom restitution must be made is the person whose strict right has been violated1 or1 in his absence1 it is society4 ,but the following cases should be distinguished3 7a7 when the injured person is known for certain and his right is certain1 restitution should be made to the injured person or his representatives or successors1 or1 if this is not possible1 to charitable or pious causes2 7b7 when the injured person is entirely unknown1 if the one who is the cause of the loss is in good faith1 his obligations are those of a possessor in good faith2 but if he is in bad faith1 the common opinion is that he is bound1 at least from customary law1 to make restitution by giving to the poor or to religion2 7c7 when the injured person is partly unknown1 the person who is the cause of the loss should make restitution to the best of his ability4 ,if the doubt extends to only a few persons 7say four or five71 any one of whom may be the injured person1 restitution should be divided in the best way possible among these persons2 if the doubt extends to many1 but the injured persons were only a few1 it seems that restitution may be made by giving to charity or religion either in the place of the injury or elsewhere2 if the doubt extends to many1 and the injured persons were many inhabitants of the locality1 restitution must be made if possible to the injured parties themselves1 otherwise to some public cause of the local community4 #aghg4 ,order of ,preference ,among ,creditors4--,the natural order of preference is to be shown to creditors when the debtor is unable to pay them all4 7a7 ,those who have a right in re 7e4g41 those whose property is held by the debtor7 have precedence over those who have only a right ad rem 7e4g41 those who are creditors from contract74 7b7 ,creditors from onerous contract or delinquency1 it is generally admitted1 have priority over creditors from gratuitous contract4 7c7 ,creditors from delinquency and creditors from onerous contract1 according to what seems to be the common opinion1 are equal in rights and should be settled with pro rata4 7d7 ,debts that are certain have priority over debts that are uncertain1 according to some2 others deny this1 but admit that the uncertain debts need be paid only in proportion to their probability4 7e7 ,creditors who are certain are by some preferred to creditors who are uncertain2 but others think that payment to the poor1 in place of the unknown creditor1 is the latter's presumed will1 and that it has an equal standing with debts owed to known creditors4 7f7 ,poor creditors have no just claim to preference over rich creditors2 but charity dictates that1 when the poor creditor is in distress1 he should be given the preference4 7g7 ,earlier creditors have a preference over later creditors in a real claim1 but it is disputed whether this holds also in a personal claim4 7h7 ,the creditor who asks for a settlement sooner has a preference1 if the petition is made juridically1 and perhaps also if it is made privately4 #aghh4 ,the order of preference among creditors according to civil law is generally as follows3 7a7 proprietary creditors 7i4e41 those whose property is held by the debtor72 7b7 privileged creditors 7i4e41 those whose debts have a special urgency1 such as judicial expenses1 doctors' bills1 wages for hired help1 living costs1 etc472 7c7 hypothecatory creditors 7i4e41 those who have claims against the property of the debtor1 in the form of liens1 mortgages1 etc472 7d7 common creditors 7i4e41 all those who are paid after the previous creditors have been satisfied74 ,american law contains provisions in regard to dispositions of property made during the four months before bankruptcy is tiled1 so as to protect the creditors of a person who is insolvent4 ,the property of a bankrupt is placed in the hands of an assignee and allowance is made for the debtor's needs and perfected liens 7i4e41 charges legally made upon property for debt74 ,the property is then subject to levy by the creditors as follows3 maintenance expenses1 legal fees1 costs of administration1 wages of workmen1 taxes1 debts having priority under ,federal or ,state law4 #aghi4 ,the 8,thing0 to ,be ,restored4--7a7 ,in case of unjust possession1 the identical object must be restored1 if it has an individual value2 otherwise it may be restored in its equivalent4 7b7 ,in case of contract1 the identical object must be restored1 if that is the agreement 7e4g41 in loan of a chattel1 or deposit71 otherwise it may be restored in its equivalent 7e4g41 in loan of money74 #agij4 ,the 8,amount0 of ,restitution in ,certain ,cases4--7a7 ,when an ,object ,had ,various ,values ,during the ,time of ,its ,possession in ,bad ,faith4--,if the change was from an internal cause and was for the better 7e4g41 the calf stolen by a thief has become a cow71 the return must be made in the improved state2 if the change was from an internal cause1 and was for the worse but would have happened in any case 7e4g41 the cow taken by the thief has become old71 return must be made in the actual state2 if the change was from an internal cause and for the worse1 which would not have happened had the object remained with the owner 7e4g41 a cow taken by a thief has become lame on account of the thief's carelessness71 return must be made also for the deterioration4 ,if the change was from an external cause 7e4g41 the wine taken by a thief has risen and declined in value several times71 it seems that practically nothing more can be imposed by way of restitution than the value the object had when taken4 7b7 ,when ,unjust ,damage has been ,done4--,if the damage was caused positively1 the injured person must be indemnified entirely1 if the damage was caused negatively1 the injured party should be indemnified more or less according to the reasonable expectation he had of the gain of which he was deprived4 #agia4 ,the 8,manner0 of ,making ,restitution4--,the general rule is that it should be made in such a way that the injury will be repaired and the injured person indemnified for his loss4 ,generally speaking1 there is freedom of choice as to various forms in the modes of restitution4 ,thus1 it may be made publicly or secretly1 directly or through an intermediary1 positively 7by payment7 or negatively 7by cancellation of a debt74 ,it may even be made without the knowledge and intention of the parties4 7a7 ,thus1 the injured party may be compensated1 even though he is unaware that he was cheated or that he is being paid back2 7b7 the offender may restore1 even though he does not know he is doing so 7e4g41 if he pays while intoxicated71 and probably even though he has no express intention of doing so 7e4g41 if he makes a present of #aj1 and then remembers that he owed damages to the amount of #aj74 #agib4 ,second ,restitution4--,natural law must be applied to certain cases in which restitution sent through an intermediary perishes on the way through no fault of the debtor4 7a7 ,if the debt is owed on account of possession in good faith1 the debtor is not bound to a second restitution4 7b7 ,if the debt is owed on account of contract1 the goods perish to the owner4 ,thus1 if the contract was one of loan1 the loss must be borne by the lender2 if it was one of sale1 by the seller4 7e7 ,if the debt is owed on account of delinquency1 there is an obligation to a second restitution1 unless the injured party assumed the risk of transmission4 ,it is held as probable that the choice of the confessor as intermediary for restitution has the consent of the injured party1 and hence that1 if the restitution perishes on the way through chance or the fault of a third party1 there is no duty of second restitution4 #agic4 ,the 8,time0 ,when ,restitution ,must ,be ,made4--7a7 ,internal restitution1 or the purpose of restoring1 must be made at once1 that is1 as soon as one adverts to the necessity of this resolve4 7b7 ,external restitution1 or the fulfillment of the resolution1 must be made at the first suitable opportunity4 #agid4 ,unjust ,refusal to ,make ,restitution or ,pay ,bills4--7a7 ,those who unjustly refuse to make restitution or to pay their bills at the proper time are guilty of mortal or venial sin according to the damage their refusal causes to the creditor4 7b7 ,they are not worthy of absolution if there is serious bad faith on their part1 as when they have many times broken their promises1 or when they refuse to pay even the part or installment which is within their power4 7c7 ,they are bound to additional damages for the losses caused by the unjustifiable delay4 #agie4 ,the 8,place0 ,where ,restitution ,must ,be ,made4--7a7 ,he who is a debtor on account of injury must make restitution at the place where the thing would be were it not for the injury4 7b7 ,he who is a debtor on account of possession in good faith should notify the owner where the property is1 but he is not obliged to bring it to the owner4 7c7 ,he who is a debtor on account of contract must abide by the agreement1 or by the statutes that regulate the contract4 ,thus1 in this country the place of delivery in sales is according to law the seller's place of business or his residence4 #agif4 ,burden of ,expense or ,loss ,when ,restitution ,is ,sent to the ,place of the ,creditor4--7a7 ,if the obligation of restitution arises from injury1 the debtor is generally bound to pay the transportation and to stand the loss when the goods perish in transit4 7b7 ,if the obligation arises from contract1 the expenses and losses must be borne according to the agreement4 ,if nothing was stipulated1 it seems equitable that the expenses of transportation be borne by the party who benefits or who requested the contract4 ,according to the ,sales ,act in the ,united ,states1 the seller is the loser when goods perish in transit1 if a place of delivery had been agreed on2 but the buyer is the loser when in pursuance of the contract the goods had been delivered to a carrier for transmission to the buyer 7see #ahhh d74 #agig4 ,the ,causes ,that ,excuse ,temporarily from ,restitution4--,these causes can be reduced to two1 namely1 physical and moral impossibility4 7a7 ,physical impossibility exists when the debtor has not the means to pay and cannot secure them2 and it excuses as long as it continues4 ,one who is bankrupt is excused from restitution during the continuance of his insolvency2 if he later becomes able to pay1 it seems to some that the civil declaration of bankruptcy according to the law of the country releases him from further payment1 unless his bankruptcy was fraudulent or due to culpable neglect4 7b7 ,moral impossibility exists when the debtor has the means1 but cannot pay immediately without incurring a loss of a higher order 7e4g41 if he pays the small sum of money1 he will lose his own excellent reputation71 or without suffering a greater loss in his own goods of the same order 7e4g41 if he pays the money1 he will be reduced to starvation71 or without surely bringing on a far greater evil than delay of restitution to the creditor or a third party 7e4g41 if a stolen weapon is returned to its owner1 he will commit suicide or murder74 #agih4 ,the ,causes ,that ,excuse ,permanently from ,restitution4--,these causes can also be reduced to two general ones1 namely1 the cessation of the object and the termination of the obligation through the act of the creditor1 or of the debtor1 or of authority4 7a7 ,thus1 the cessation of the object releases from the duty of restitution whenever the object perishes to its owner1 as when it is lost by a possessor in good faith who has not been enriched by it1 or even by a possessor in bad faith1 if it would have been lost equally by the owner 7see #agga1 #aggd74 7b7 ,the termination of obligation through the act of the creditor occurs when the creditor freely and lawfully excused the debtor from payment4 ,in some cases condonation may ordinarily be presumed1 either on account of the affection of the creditor for the debtor 7e4g41 in case of debts owed by children to their parents7 or on account of the familiar relationship between the parties and the smallness of the debt 7e4g41 in case of appropriation by servants or employees of some unimportant articles not kept under lock and key71 or on account of the indigence of the debtor and the smallness of the damage 7e4g41 in case of trifling harm to goods of a wealthy person1 if there was no great malice and the debtor is very poor74 7c7 ,the termination of obligation is also effected by equivalent payment1 which in certain cases is made by payment of the creditor's creditor1 or the cancellation of an equal debt owed the debtor by the creditor1 and perhaps also by a gift made the creditor by the debtor and equal in value to the debt4 ,occult compensation by the creditor is the secret taking by him of what he is entitled to when the debtor will not give it of his own accord4 ,this is lawful when the debt is certain1 other means of recovery impossible1 and the compensation not injurious2 but it covers restitution1 and hence the creditor cannot accept another payment from the debtor4 7d7 ,the termination of obligation is also effected by the act of competent authority4 ,thus1 judicial declaration frees from the duty of restitution a person who has lawfully and in good faith received certain goods as damages or award2 prescription 7see #ahge7 gives a clear title to property held by adverse possession over a certain number of years1 and it frees from the duty of payment1 at least in certain cases 7though not in the ,united ,states72 papal composition for good reasons exempts from their obligation those who owe restitution to pious causes or to church property injured by them4 #agii4 ,condonation of the domestic thefts of wives and children of the family cannot be presumed in all cases 7see #aijc74 7a7 ,thus1 if the things stolen are articles of food and drink 7or tobacco71 and were consumed by the members of the family1 there is no duty of restitution1 since the father or husband is then unwilling1 not so much that these things should be taken1 as that they should be taken furtively4 7b7 ,if the things taken do not fall under the class of eatables and are still in the possession of the thief1 they should be restored4 ,hence1 if a son steals money from his father in order to have the means for debauchery1 he must give back that money4 7c7 ,if the things taken were not eatables1 but were of great value and have been consumed or alienated1 it will depend on circumstances whether restitution is obligatory or not4 ,thus1 if the father thinks much of the son who took the money and the family does not miss it much1 condonation may perhaps be taken for granted2 but if the son is not on good terms with his father1 or if the theft is very harmful to the family1 restitution may be due4 #ahjj4 ,excuse from ,restitution on ,account of ,doubtfulness of ,obligation4--7a7 ,one who doubts positively and in good faith whether or not he did damage to another is excused from restitution if the doubt is about the fact of the damage 7e4g41 whether his competitor lost business7 or about his own culpability 7e4g41 whether he circulated a calumny about his competitor72 he is probably held to restitution pro rata of the doubt1 if the doubt is about the responsibility of his culpable act for the damage that followed 7e4g41 whether his calumny or the poorness of the competitor's wares caused the falling off in business72 he is probably held to only his share1 if the doubt is whether his culpable act was responsible for the whole or only a part of the damage 7e4g41 whether his calumny caused all the damage1 in view of the fact that others were also spreading calumnies74 7b7 ,one who doubts positively and in good faith whether the restitution owed by him has been paid 7e4g41 whether his fellows in calumny have paid their portions of restitution1 whether he has paid a bill for goods or services received7 is held to full payment by some1 to part 7pro rata7 payment by others1 to nothing by others4 ,some moralists think the presumption favors the creditor1 others that it favors the debtor1 others that it favors neither and that a compromise is the right solution4 #ahja4 ,doubt does not excuse restitution in the following cases3 7a7 when it is merely negative and the presumption is against the doubter 7e4g41 when a person knows that he purchased and received goods1 but does not know whether or not he paid for them1 and has no reason to think he did pay72 7b7 when it is in bad faith1 that is1 knowingly or intentionally produced 7e4g41 when two men simultaneously fire at a neighbor's cow1 knowing that it will thus become impossible to determine the author of the damage74 #ahjb4 ,special ,cases4--,there are some special cases of restitution for negative injury in thwarting another's prospects1 or for positive injury to goods of fortune1 of body1 of soul1 or of spirit4 7a7 ,for ,frustration of ,another's ,good4--,restitution is due for keeping another from a good to which he has a strict right 7e4g41 an office to which he has been chosen1 property for which he has paid71 or for using force1 fraud1 bribes1 or other unjust means to keep another from a good to which he has a non-strict right 7e4g41 a position for which he has made application1 a gift which another contemplates bestowing on him74 ,the amount of restitution should be calculated according to the previous probability of success on the part of the injured party and the permanent results of the injury4 7b7 ,for ,injury ,done to ,goods of ,fortune4--,private injuries are spoken of elsewhere 7see #agfb sqq471 and now we consider only injuries that are in some way public4 ,commutative injustice entailing restitution to the community is committed by damage to public property1 breach of contract made with the community1 unjust means employed to prevent the government from obtaining its dues1 unjust cooperation in any of the aforementioned acts2 commutative injustice entailing reparation to individuals is committed when the transgression of a law places an undue burden on a fellow-citizen 7e4g41 when one unjustly escapes military or jury service and causes a substitute to be called who would not have been called otherwise1 or when one unjustly evades one's taxes and thereby certainly causes the taxes of others to be raised74 ,if a tax law is just1 it obliges in conscience1 but whether as penal or preceptive1 whether in virtue of legal or commutative justice1 is a much debated question2 and hence the question of sin and of restitution due is not easily settled4 ,impossibility or a general and admitted custom excuse from restitution 7see #bfcg sqq474 7c7 ,for ,injury ,done to ,goods of ,body or ,personal ,goods4--,according to one view no restitution is due for merely personal injuries1 since the damage cannot be repaired by a good of the same kind as that which was taken away 7e4g41 the murderer cannot give back life to his victim72 but according to another view restitution is due for these injuries1 since justice requires that every kind of damage be repaired as far as possible 7see #agea and #bjij74 #ahjc4 ,restitution for ,various ,kinds of ,damage ,done to ,persons4--7a7 ,for ,bodily ,injury by ,unjust ,homicide or ,mutilation4--,the offender 7or his heirs7 is obliged to restitution to the victim 7or his heirs or dependents7 for spiritual loss 7such as death without the ,sacraments71 probably for personal loss 7such as pain1 facial disfigurement71 and for real losses due to the injury 7such as hospital expenses1 loss of support by the widow and orphans74 ,the spiritual loss is compensated by spiritual goods1 such as suffrages for the departed1 the personal loss by compensation suited to the circumstances 7e4g41 money employment71 the real loss by payment of medical expenses1 loss of time1 support lost by dependents1 etc4 ,the offender is not liable for damages of which he is not the unjust cause 7e4g41 the alms that will be lost by poor persons on account of homicide1 since they have no strict right to the alms71 or the efficacious cause 7e4g41 the pay that will be lost by creditors on account of homicide1 for as a rule the slayer cannot foresee this71 nor for damages which the injured person clearly condones4 7b7 ,for ,bodily ,injuries by ,fornication or ,adultery4--,in case of fornication the offender owes restitution to the person seduced and also at times to the latter's parents1 and both sinners are bound to support their illegitimate child4 ,the form of the compensation will depend much on circumstances1 but in general it should be either marriage with the person seduced or some kind of pecuniary compensation4 ,it should be noted that a promise to marry1 even though it is canonically valid1 gives no action to enforce marriage1 but even an invalid engagement gives rise to action for unjust material damages1 such as loss of chance to marry or loss of money spent in view of the marriage 7see ,canon #ajag74 ,in case of adultery the guilty party or parties are bound to make restitution to the injured husband if an illegitimate child is being reared at his expense1 and also to the legitimate children for injuries to their strict rights1 as in the diminished inheritance received from their parents on account of the illegitimate child4 ,a child is not obliged to accept the word of his mother that he is illegitimate1 but if he is certain about his illegitimacy1 he may not take that to which he is not entitled4 ,in restitution for fornication or adultery1 care must be taken to preserve the good names of all the parties concerned4 7c7 ,for ,injuries of ,soul4--,in case of unjust and efficacious damage to physical goods 7e4g41 when one by fraud or force administers to another drugs or intoxicants that take away the use of reason or self-control1 when a professor neglects his office of teaching or teaches error71 restitution is certainly due for any material damages that result1 and probably for the personal injury alone4 ,in case of damage to spiritual goods1 by inducement to commit sin or by dissuasion from good1 restitution is due when the influence exerted was unjust 7e4g41 by fraud1 force1 threats71 not when it was merely uncharitable 7e4g41 by advice1 persuasion1 request1 example74 ,restitution for spiritual damage may be made negatively1 that is1 by removal of the unjust influence2 but if a person who was seduced has in consequence become a hardened sinner1 it seems that restitution should be made positively1 that is1 by counsels1 requests1 prayers to ,god1 and other prudent means calculated to recall the injured party to a life of virtue4 ,art4 #d3 ,,the ,,vices ,,opposed ,,to ,,commutative ,,and ,,distributive ,,justice 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #fc-gh47 #ahjd4 ,the ,vice ,opposed to ,distributive ,justice4--,favoritism 7i4e41 acceptance of persons1 partiality7 is defined as 8a species of injustice which moves one to distribute the common goods or burdens of society1 not according to merit or fitness1 but according to some other and impertinent standard40 7a7 ,the common goods include offices1 honors1 functions1 while the common burdens include taxes1 contributions1 and penalties4 7b7 ,the common goods of which we now speak are those that belong to society and that must be portioned out to its members justly4 ,hence1 there is no question of goods that belong to private persons1 which the owners are not obliged to give to others unless it be in virtue of charity or liberality4 ,a rich man is not guilty of acceptance of persons1 if he bestows his largesses on those who are less in need or less deserving1 but more acceptable to himself2 and ,god is not unjust when he gives unequal graces to those who are equally sinners 7,matt41 xx4 #ad1 #ae74 7c7 ,the right standard of just distribution is merit or fitness1 as when an applicant is appointed to the post of teacher or superior on account of good character and knowledge4 ,any other standard which leaves merit and fitness out of consideration is unjust1 as when a public official selects for offices or honors1 not those who have worked the hardest or who give the most promise1 but those who have more money or who are related to himself4 #ahje4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,favoritism from ,revelation4--,in ,holy ,scripture favoritism is reproved 78,how long will you judge unjustly and accept the persons of the wicked80 ,psalm lxxi4 #b71 and impartiality is praised 78,thou art a true speaker and teachest the way of ,god in truth1 neither carest ,thou for any man1 for ,thou dost not regard the person of man10 ,matt41 xxii4 #af2 8,masters1 know that the ,lord both of servants and you is in heaven1 and there is no respect of persons with ,him10 ,eph41 vi4 #i74 ,distributive justice is commanded in many passages of ,holy ,writ 78,consider not the person of the poor1 nor honor the countenance of the mighty2 but judge thy neighbor according to justice10 ,levit4 xix4 #ae2 8,there shall be no difference of persons1 you shall hear the little as well as the great1 neither shall you respect any man's person10 ,deut41 i4 #ag2 8,thou shalt not accept persons nor gifts10 ,deut41 xvi4 #ai2 cfr4 ,james1 ii4 #a sqq474 #ahjf4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,favoritism from ,reason4--,favoritism transgresses a divine command and substitutes personal will for right in the treatment of subjects by superiors4 ,hence1 it is morally evil1 for disobedience is sinful in the high as well as in the low1 and violation of rights is unjust whether the rights be of the community or of the individual4 #ahjg4 ,the ,gravity of the ,sin of ,favoritism4--7a7 ,from its nature1 favoritism is a mortal sin2 for it is a form of injustice 7see #agdf71 and indeed it is no less damaging than commutative injustice 7e4g41 theft7 and is often accompanied by the latter4 7b7 ,from its matter and from the lack of deliberation or consent it may be venial4 ,thus1 if favoritism is shown in a trifling matter 7e4g41 in conferring a post that is unremunerative and unimportant7 or in a small degree 7e4g41 in preferring an applicant who is only slightly less worthy71 there is only venial injustice4 #ahjh4 ,distributive injustice is also frequently accompanied by commutative injustice4 7a7 ,thus1 a first class of common goods that are distributed are those intended primarily for the common good1 and only indirectly and secondarily for the good of individuals1 such as public offices1 dignities1 and benefices4 ,he who distributes these offices unfairly1 by appointing unworthy persons1 or by appointing the less worthy when he is under contract to appoint the more worthy1 violates commutative justice and is held to restitution to the community2 but the worthy or more worthy persons slighted had no strict right1 and hence no restitution is due them1 unless there was a compact with them or unjust means were used to exclude them 7see #agee74 7b7 ,a second class of common goods are those that are intended primarily for the benefit of individuals1 such as a fund created for the relief of the destitute or afflicted or pensions set aside for those who have deserved well of society4 ,he who distributes these goods unfairly is guilty of commutative injustice against private persons1 since the goods were destined for them1 and they had a right ad rem to the goods1 and hence to these persons restitution is owed4 #ahji4 ,favoritism in ,spiritual ,matters4--7a7 ,partiality in granting favors is sinful1 and gravely so when the matter is serious4 ,examples are the grant to the unworthy of the power of ,orders or of jurisdiction1 the concession of permissions and dispensations to one's friends that are denied to others4 7b7 ,partiality in imposing burdens is also sinful1 as when a prelate issues an onerous command1 and grants exemption to his friends4 ,but if the thing commanded is obligatory already by reason of law1 it should be observed in spite of the favoritism of the prelate4 #ahaj4 ,who is to be considered as more worthy for appointments in spiritual matters8 7a7 ,the more worthy person is the one who will better serve the common good in the office4 ,hence1 the more pious or the more learned man is not necessarily the more worthy1 for another may have greater industry1 influence1 executive ability1 initiative1 prudence1 experience1 etc41 and so be better suited to fill the position4 ,but no person should be considered as worthy of spiritual offices unless his moral character is good1 and excellence in temporal things does not compensate for negligence in spiritual matters4 7b7 ,the more worthy person is the one who is more available when the appointment has to be made4 ,hence1 the one who is better gifted for the office is not necessarily the more worthy1 for another may be better known and it may be impossible to make investigations and comparisons at the moment4 #ahaa4 ,opinion of the ,applicant or ,appointee about ,his ,own ,fitness4--7a7 ,the applicant need not think that he is worthy or the most worthy2 indeed1 according to ,st4 ,thomas1 it would be presumptuous for him to think so highly of himself1 and he would thus become unworthy4 ,it suffices1 then1 that the applicant have in mind only to try for the office1 leaving the decision about fitness to the examiner or appointer4 7b7 ,the acceptor who feels that he is unworthy or less worthy is not guilty of injustice2 for he is not the judge of his own abilities and may rely on the judgment of those who appoint him4 ,moreover1 he can trust to divine grace and his own efforts to make up for any deficiency or inferiority of which he is conscious4 ,but it seems that1 if the appointee were absolutely certain that his appointment was unjust1 he would be bound to surrender his office1 if this were possible4 #ahab4 ,favoritism in ,secular ,matters4--,do the conclusions in reference to ecclesiastical offices apply also to secular offices8 7a7 ,in both cases distributive justice is violated by favoritism1 for the standard followed is not merit or fitness1 and thus the more worthy persons are injured4 ,the opinion that civil society has dominion of public offices and therefore the right to distribute them at will1 without regard to the merits or fitness of persons selected1 is not probable2 for civil rulers1 like spiritual rulers1 should consider themselves as ministers and dispensers only 7,i ,cor41 iv4 #a71 and even if they had dominion over offices1 they would be bound to use that power for the benefit of the public for whom they rule4 7b7 ,in both cases also commutative justice is violated in some instances1 the offense being either against society or against individuals 7see #agee1 #ahjh74 ,thus1 an official who appoints a subordinate knowing that he will oppress and rob1 is responsible and bound to restitution to the victims as being a cooperator in injustice4 #ahac4 ,favoritism in ,marks of ,esteem or ,honor ,shown to ,others4--7a7 ,there is no favoritism if honor and esteem are shown to those who deserve it on account of their virtue or position4 ,hence1 it is not unjust but just to show special marks of veneration to holy persons1 and even to those who are not holy1 but whose authority or age deserves respect 7such as rulers and prelates1 parents and aged men74 7b7 ,there is favoritism if honor and esteem are shown to those who have no genuine claim to it on account of goodness or rank4 ,thus1 wealthy men are worthy of special respect on account of goodness when they employ their riches in useful ways1 or on account of preeminence in the community in rank1 ability1 influence1 etc41 and he who shows special courtesy or attention to the wealthy for reasons such as these is not a respector of persons4 ,but if mere wealth is worshipped1 sinful favoritism is shown1 as when a villainous rich man is honored and a worthy poor man is despised1 or well-dressed persons are conducted honorably to comfortable seats in church and good persons whose attire is poor are treated with contempt 7,james1 ii74 #ahad4 ,favoritism in ,judges 7,umpires1 ,arbitrators7 and the ,like4--7a7 ,in the course of a trial there may be favoritism in matters left to the judge's discretion4 ,this does not happen1 however1 when the discretionary power is intended for the judge's own benefit 7e4g41 when on a free day he decides to hear one side rather than the other71 but when it is meant for the benefit of the litigants 7e4g41 when he grants to one side a longer time for preparation of its case than to the other side and for no reason pertinent to the matter at issue74 7b7 ,in the sentence pronounced there is favoritism1 if the decision is not based on the merits of the litigants1 but on extraneous considerations1 such as the fact that one of the parties is a friend or relative of the judge or arbitrator1 or belongs to the same political party or business1 etc43 8,it is not good to accept the person of the wicked1 to decline from the truth of judgment0 7,prov41 xviii4 #e74 ,if the arguments are about evenly balanced on both sides1 it would be favoritism to decide in favor of one against the other4 ,alexander ,,vii condemned the proposition that a judge may take money in such a case of doubt to decide for one party 7,denzinger1 n4 #aabf74 #ahae4 ,the ,vices against ,commutative ,justice4--,these vices can be classified under two general heads3 7a7 the vices committed in involuntary commutations 7see #agdh71 which include deeds against the person 7such as homicide1 mutilation1 imprisonment7 and against property 7such as theft and rapine71 and unjust words1 whether spoken during judicial process 7by judges1 advocates1 witnesses1 etc471 or outside of judicial process 7such as contumely1 detraction1 etc72 7b7 vices committed in voluntary commutations 7see #agdh71 which include fraud and usury4 #ahaf4 ,homicide4--,life destroyed is either that of an irrational being 7i4e41 of a plant or beast7 or of a rational being4 ,in the latter case we have homicide1 which is defined as follows3 8an act or omission of a human being that is the efficacious cause 7see #agfc7 of the death of a human being40 ,a parent who denies his child the food1 remedies or climate which it needs and which he can afford commits homicide by omission2 a physician who practises abortion commits homicide by act4 ,the following distinctions of homicide have a bearing on its substantial morality 7i4e41 its lawfulness or unlawfulness73 7a7 in reference to the intention1 homicide is either voluntary or involuntary1 and voluntary homicide is intended either as a punishment or as a defense2 7b7 in reference to the slayer1 homicide is either the act of a public or of a private person1 of a cleric or of a layman2 7c7 in reference to the person slain1 homicide is either the killing of one who is guilty or of one who is innocent1 either the killing of a neighbor or of self 7suicide72 7d7 in reference to the manner1 homicide is either direct or indirect1 according as the action from which death results is from its nature 7finis operis7 productive of death or of some other effect4 ,thus1 it is directly homicidal to practise embryotomy 7i4e41 the destruction of the vital organs of a fetus7 or abortion 7i4e41 the ejection of a fetus at a stage of development when it is unable to live outside the mother71 but it is not directly homicidal to give a pregnant woman remedies necessary for her life1 although harmful to the fetus2 for the object or purpose of the former is to kill1 of the latter to cure4 #ahag4 ,other distinctions of homicide have a bearing on its added or accidental malice4 7a7 ,a new species of sin is added to that of injustice when other virtues are offended against4 ,thus1 the virtue of piety is violated when the victim is a person to whom the slayer owed special respect and devotedness1 as in parricide1 regicide1 fratricide1 uxoricide2 the virtue of religion is offended when murder is committed in a church4 7b7 ,an aggravating circumstance is added by the greater deliberation with which the homicide is planned1 or the greater treachery or cruelty with which it is executed 7e4g41 assassination1 death by starvation74 ,some circumstances1 however1 may be morally indifferent1 such as the fact that the victim is killed by one kind of poison rather than another4 #ahah4 ,the ,killing of ,animals 7or ,vegetation74--7a7 ,in itself1 the killing of animals is not sinful2 for animals are made for the use of man4 ,hence1 it is lawful to kill1 not only harmful animals1 such as those that prey on human beings or breed pestilence or destroy property1 etc41 but also other animals1 when their death is necessary for some good purpose1 such as the provision of food1 clothing or medicine for man4 7b7 ,in its circumstances1 the killing of animals may be sinful1 and even gravely sinful1 as when one kills the animals of one's neighbor 7,exod1 xxii4 #aj1 #aa71 or hunts against the law1 or injures society by prodigal destruction of animal or plant life1 or kills animals in cruel ways4 ,the skinning of animals alive1 in order to secure finer-looking furs to satisfy the vanity of women1 is an inhuman barbarism of the worst type that should be reprobated by everybody4 #ahai4 ,when ,homicide ,is ,lawful4--,killing of human beings is lawful in two cases4 7a7 ,it is lawful when the common safety requires that the ,state inflict death for a crime 7capital punishment72 for just as it is lawful to amputate a gangrenous member which threatens to destroy the body1 so is it lawful to remove from human society by death an individual who menaces the safety of the community4 7b7 ,it is lawful when the safety of an individual demands that he kill an unjust aggressor 7self-defense72 for a man owes his first duty to his own life in such a case1 and the aggressor in making a deadly attack voluntarily assumes the risk of being killed4 ,it is more correct1 however1 to say here that it is lawful to defend one's life with resultant death to the offender 7as will be explained below1 in #ahbf1 #ahbh1 #ahcd74 #ahbj4 ,arguments for the ,lawfulness of ,capital ,punishment4--7a7 ,scripture4--,in the ,old ,testament the death sentence was prescribed for certain more serious crimes1 such as murder 78whosoever shall shed man's blood1 his blood shall be shed10 ,gen41 ix4 #f72 in the ,new ,testament ,our ,lord recognizes that the power of a judge to sentence to death comes from above 7,john1 xix4 #aj71 and ,st4 ,paul declares that princes do not wield the sword without reason1 but act as ministers of ,god when they punish evil-doers 7,rom41 xiii4 #d74 7b7 ,tradition4--,the ,church has always taught the lawfulness of capital punishment and rejected contrary errors1 as in the case of the ,waldensians condemned by ,innocent ,,iii4 7c7 ,reason4--,the ,state has both the duty and the right to promote the common good and to defend it against its enemies1 whether by war against external foes or by coercive measures against internal disturbers of the peace4 ,now1 the experience of all the centuries and of all countries has shown that1 generally speaking1 the lives of law-abiding persons and the general peace are not sufficiently protected unless the supreme penalty be appointed for certain crimes4 #ahba4 ,though lawful1 capital punishment is not always necessary2 for it is a means to an end1 and it may be omitted1 therefore1 when the end can be obtained by the use of other and less severe means4 7a7 ,thus1 a general suspension of the capital punishment is lawful in a community whose members are peaceful and not inclined to violence or other crimes subversive of law and order4 ,whether such ideal conditions exist today may be doubted1 and indeed some countries that abolished the death penalty have found that this proved an incentive to crime and they were forced to restore the former laws4 7b7 ,a particular exemption from capital punishment is lawful1 when there are good reasons recognized by law for commutation or clemency4 ,this has been the practice of governments throughout history1 and is justified when it furthers the common welfare1 or at least shows mercy to a deserving individual without harm to society4 ,but a judge has to condemn when the law and the facts call for condemnation1 and the authority in whom the pardoning power is vested has to use his power prudently1 lest he encourage lawlessness4 #ahbb4 ,it is not morally lawful to put criminals to death unless the following conditions are present3 7a7 the crime must be external and of such a character that the public welfare requires the supreme punishment1 either on account of the enormity of the act 7e4g41 murder71 or on account of its danger 7e4g41 sleeping at one's post in time of war74 ,further1 the crime must be certain and sufficiently established1 for1 since the punishment should fit the offense and the law presumes innocence until guilt is proved1 no one should be sentenced to death except for a serious and certain crime4 ,the ,fifth ,amendment to the ,american ,constitution declares that no person shall be deprived of life1 liberty or property without due process of law2 7b7 the sentence of death and its execution should be performed by those who have public authority for these acts and in the manner required by law4 ,for capital punishment is a means of self-defense used by society1 and its use pertains there fore to the representatives of society4 ,moreover1 if private individuals exercised this function1 accused persons would not receive the consideration of their rights or the opportunity of defense due them1 and the public peace would be overthrown by murders of revenge committed in the name of justice4 7c7 the penalty should be carried out in a humane and ,christian manner1 as is manifest4 ,the convicted man should be allowed time and opportunity to make his peace with ,god and1 if possible1 to say farewell to relatives4 ,slow and agonizing forms of killing are of course entirely wrong1 no matter how wicked the criminal who is being executed4 ,the ,american law and other laws do not permit a pregnant woman to be executed until she has delivered her child4 #ahbc4 ,unlawful ,killing of ,offenders4--,the killing of offenders is1 therefore1 unlawful in the following cases3 7a7 when the offense is not serious or fully deliberate 7e4g41 involuntary manslaughter71 or when it has not been sufficiently established 7e4g41 if it is not certain that the supposed victim of murder is dead or that he died from a homicidal act74 ,in civilized countries today the law inflicts capital punishment only for the most serious crimes1 and the ,state has to prove its case beyond reasonable doubt before the punishment can be decreed4 ,but in the past death was often the penalty for horse- or sheep-stealing1 or even smaller offenses1 and in times of excitement men have sometimes been sentenced to death without a fair trial2 7b7 when the sentence of death is not pronounced or executed legally4 ,those who lynch the perpetrators of heinous crimes are often in good faith1 especially if the processes of the law are too slow or uncertain1 but since they act without authority1 their deed is really murder4 ,the same is true of a husband who kills his wife taken in adultery1 of the relative of a seduced girl who kills the seducer1 of an officer of the law who unnecessarily or without authorization kills a man sentenced to death when the latter is trying to escape4 ,the ,state has the right1 though1 to declare a notorious malefactor outlawed1 and thus to give to private citizens the right to take him dead or alive1 or to kill him on sight2 but it is clear that the exercise of this right is a dangerous remedy and one to be used sparingly2 7c7 when the mode of killing or the circumstances are repugnant to ,christian feeling4 ,today capital punishment is generally inflicted in a humane manner1 but history records many cruel forms of execution1 as when men were hanged1 drawn and quartered1 or burned at the stake1 or put to death amid the jeers and curses of the populace4 #ahbd4 ,is ,tyrannicide ,lawful8--7a7 ,if the ruler is a tyrant in act 7that is1 one who has a lawful title to rule but who abuses his authority71 it is not lawful to kill him on account of his misdeeds or crimes1 since the subject has not the authority to act in the name of the nation 7,rom41 xiii4 #a sqq42 ,i ,peter1 ii4 #ah74 ,in case of self-defense1 however1 as when the tyrant unjustly makes a personal attempt on the life of a citizen1 the latter has the right to kill4 ,the ,council of ,constance condemned the doctrine of ,wycliff that every subject has the right to assassinate a tyrannical prince1 a doctrine that would make the position of every ruler unsafe1 since there are always persons who think they are victims of persecution4 ,the nation1 however1 has the right to depose or even to execute a wicked ruler1 for government is given to rulers for the benefit1 not for the destruction1 of the common good4 7b7 ,if the ruler is a tyrant in title 7that is1 a usurper71 it is not lawful to kill him1 when he has already obtained peaceful possession2 for here again it cannot be said that the killer would have the authorization of the nation4 ,if1 however1 the tyrant has not obtained possession but is struggling for it1 his status will not be that of ruler but of public enemy1 and it will be lawful to kill him as an act of war1 provided the conditions of a just war are present 7see #achd74 #ahbe4 ,judges and ,executioners in ,canon ,law4--,according to the law of the ,church 7,canon #ihd1 nn4 #f1 #g71 those who pass the death sentence as judges and the executioners and their immediate and voluntary helpers become irregular 7i4e41 incapable of lawfully receiving ,orders or of exercising their powers74 ,the reasons for this ancient discipline are chiefly two3 7a7 clerics are the ministers of ,christ1 and therefore they should be like their ,high ,priest1 whose sacrifice they offer at the altar4 ,now ,christ 8when ,he was reviled1 did not revile1 when ,he suffered1 ,he threatened not1 but delivered ,himself to him that judged ,him unjustly0 7,i ,peter1 ii4 #bc74 ,hence1 it is unbecoming that clerics should condemn to death or kill their fellow-men1 even criminals2 7b7 clerics are the ministers of the ,new ,testament1 and therefore they should conform themselves to its spirit of mildness4 ,the divine law itself declares that a bishop should not have private quarrels or inflict blows 7,i ,tim41 iii4 #c71 but the church law goes further and declares that a cleric should not even act as public judge or executioner in capital cases4 ,the ,old ,testament inflicted corporal punishments and death1 and hence we read that its priests and levites put sinners to death with their own hands 7,exod41 xxxii4 #bh2 ,num41 xxv4 #g1 #h2 ,i ,kings1 xv4 #cc2 ,,iii ,kings1 xviii4 #dj2 ,i ,mach41 ii4 #bd71 but the law of ,christ contains no sentences of death or of bodily chastisement4 #ahbf4 ,the ,right of ,self-,defense4--,the second case of lawful homicide mentioned above 7#ahai7 is the killing of an unjust aggressor1 not intended by the slayer1 but consequent on his defense of his life against the aggressor4 ,this right of self-defense is granted by natural law itself1 and has been denied by but few moralists4 7a7 ,thus1 nature inclines man to prefer his own life to that of another1 other things being equal1 and therefore it authorizes him to defend his life even at the cost of an aggressor's life4 ,even the brute animals are armed by nature to defend themselves against attack4 7b7 ,the natural law also permits one to perform an act from which two effects will follow1 one good and the other bad1 provided the good effect alone is intended and there is a sufficient reason for permitting the evil effect 7see #ajd74 ,in the present case the killing of the aggressor is an evil1 while the protection of the innocent party is a good2 but it is only the protection that is intended1 and the killing is not an extreme measure in view of the greatness of the good that is at stake4 #ahbg4 ,the right of self-defense is also sanctioned by human laws4 7a7 ,thus1 church law recognizes this right in the words of ,innocent ,,iii3 8,all laws permit one to repel force by force1 but the defense must not be immoderate1 nor exercised from desire of revenge40 ,according to the ,code 7,canon #ihe1 n4 #d7 irregularity arises from voluntary homicide1 but this does not include the case of lawful self-defense1 although a provisional dispensation must be asked for4 ,a cleric has the right of self-defense1 as well as a layman4 7b7 ,civil law also has always admitted the right of a person assailed by another to defend himself1 even by killing the assailant1 if there is no other alternative4 #ahbh4 ,conditions for the ,exercise of ,this ,right4--7a7 ,the assault must be a true aggression 7i4e41 an act of violence threatening the life of the person assaulted7 and unjust 7i4e41 an attack made without public authority72 7b7 the resistance must be true self-defense 7i4e41 an act used to ward off attack or to make the assailant powerless7 and moderate 7i4e41 the person attacked must not use more force than necessary and he must not intend to kill the assailant74 #ahbi4 ,the person who is killed must be a true aggressor1 for otherwise the slayer is himself the aggressor and guilty of unjustifiable homicide4 ,killing is therefore unjust in the following cases3 7a7 when the opponent is not using true violence1 as when he merely prays and hopes that you may die or be killed2 7b7 when he is not using actual violence1 as when he is disarmed or helpless1 or when he has only threatened to kill you in the future1 or to bring you to the gallows by his testimony or vote4 #ahcj4 ,must one wait1 then1 until the aggressor has actually attacked1 before using self-defense8 7a7 ,one need not wait until physical aggression has started 7e4g41 until the adversary has fired a shot or struck a blow72 otherwise self-defense would very often be futile4 7b7 ,one should wait until moral aggression has been shown before proceeding to defense2 that is1 the other party must perform some external act which according to the judgment of a prudent person at the time and place is one with the act of physical aggression1 as when an angry man reaches for a gun or knife1 or a desperado advances in a threatening manner4 #ahca4 ,the aggression must also be unjust or contrary to the right of the person attacked4 7a7 ,thus1 if the aggression is just1 it is not lawful to kill the aggressor4 ,hence1 it is not lawful to kill an officer of the law who is making an arrest1 or guarding a prisoner1 or leading him to execution4 7b7 ,if the aggression is not just1 self-defense is lawful4 ,it makes no difference whether the aggression is formally unjust 7e4g41 when the aggressor attacks you because he wishes to wreak revenge1 or because he fears you71 or only materially unjust 7e4g41 when you are a stranger to the aggressor1 but he is drunk1 or a dope fiend1 or a maniac74 ,similarly1 a son may defend himself against his parent1 a subject against his superior1 a layman against a cleric1 an adulterer against the injured husband1 a calumniator against the person calumniated2 for authority or personal injury suffered does not give these persons the right to inflict by private authority the punishment of death4 #ahcb4 ,self-defense must be merely a protection of self against future evil and not a punishment of the aggressor for past attacks1 for capital punishment belongs to society1 not to private persons4 ,hence1 if an aggressor has taken to flight1 or has been disarmed1 or knocked senseless1 or has begged for mercy1 it is not permissible to kill him4 #ahcc4 ,self-defense must be moderate1 for injury or the death of a human being is a thing that should be avoided when possible4 7a7 ,thus1 the person attacked must not reply with force at all1 if this is possible4 ,he should escape1 or call a policeman1 or throw the weapon out of the window1 etc41 if these means will suffice4 ,some authors excuse from flight those who would suffer disgrace if they ran away from danger1 such as those who are pugilists or professional fighting men4 7b7 ,the person attacked should use only such force as is necessary1 if force must be employed4 ,thus1 if the aggressor can be made helpless by the use of gas1 permanent bodily harm should not be done him2 if he can be subdued with the fists1 knife or pistol wounds should not be resorted to2 if wounds will suffice to hold him at bay 7e4g41 by blackjacking71 killing should not be resorted to4 ,in the heat of a fight1 however1 the person assailed sometimes unintentionally goes beyond what moderation requires4 #ahcd4 ,the intention of the person who uses force to repel an unjust aggressor must be good4 7a7 ,thus1 as his end he must intend only the preservation of his own life and look upon the death of his neighbor as a misfortune4 7b7 ,as the means to this end he must intend only to stop the attack that is being made1 not to bring on the death of the aggrcssor4 ,those who are commissioned by public authority to put a human being to death 7e4g41 the public executioner or soldiers in time of war7 may intend these homicides1 since they are means to the common good2 but the death of one private person is not a means to the good of another private person1 and hence it should not be directly aimed at4 #ahce4 ,the mind of the person who defends himself against the unjust aggressor must also be free from sinful dispositions1 such as hatred and revenge2 otherwise he sins against charity4 ,our ,lord reprobated the teaching of the ,scribes that it is lawful to return injury for injury in a revengeful spirit1 and declared that one should prefer to receive a second blow rather than return a blow for the sake of revenge 7,matt41 v4 #ch sqq42 cfr4 also ,rom41 xii4 #ai74 #ahcf4 ,when ,self-,defense ,is ,obligatory4--,self-defense is sometimes an obligation4 7a7 ,thus1 it is an obligation1 if the only factors considered are the life of the guilty aggressor and the life of the innocent person who is assailed2 for the life of the innocent should not be sacrificed for the guilty1 and charity indicates that the first duty of the person attacked is to himself4 7b7 ,it is an obligation1 if1 on account of circumstances1 the person attacked owes it to others to preserve his life--for example1 if he is the father of a dependent family1 or a public official whose life is very necessary for the welfare of the community1 or whose office it is to resist those who menace public security4 ,this is true from the viewpoint of society also1 for the world needs the good men it has1 while there are too many wicked men already4 #ahcg4 ,sometimes self-defense is not obligatory4 7a7 ,thus1 it is merely optional1 when no duty to others commands self-defense and a divine counsel invites one to omit it 7see #aafi74 ,hence1 if the assailant is certainly in mortal sin1 while the person assailed is certainly in the state of grace1 it would be very commendable to die rather than kill the assailant1 in order to grant him time for repentance4 ,but a case of this kind is rather theoretical than practical1 for how could one be sure that the assailant would profit by the opportunity allowed him of doing penance8 ,at any rate1 the sacrifice is optional1 for the aggressor is either formally unjust1 and hence not in extreme spiritual need1 or only materially unjust1 and it will be uncertain whether he is in spiritual need or whether1 if he is in such need1 the respite will be used by him 7see #aafe sqq474 7b7 ,self-defense is unlawful according to some1 if the life of the assailant is necessary for the common good1 and the life of the person assailed is not necessary4 ,but this would be a very rare case4 #ahch4 ,defense of ,neighbor's ,life4--,the principles on defense of one's own life against an unjust aggressor1 even at cost of the latter's life1 may be applied to the life of an innocent third party4 7a7 ,thus1 it is necessary to defend the innocent person1 even if the aggressor has to be killed1 when one is bound to give this protection by natural duty 7e4g41 because the innocent person is one's child or father and the aggressor is not a relative71 or by contract 7e4g41 because one is a hired bodyguard or policeman74 7b7 ,it is lawful to defend the innocent person1 even if the aggressor has to be killed1 and even though there is no duty of nature or contract to give this protection 7,exod41 ii1 #ab74 ,but it is disputed whether it is also necessary to do this4 ,the affirmative opinion calls attention to the extreme bodily need of the innocent party1 the negative to the extreme spiritual need of the aggressor4 ,it is not necessary to risk one's life in order to protect the life of the innocent party1 unless the public safety is in peril1 or one has undertaken this obligation 7see #aafi74 #ahci4 ,a private individual may defend life at the cost of the life of an unjust aggressor1 because he is obliged or permitted to protect the life that has more of a claim on him4 ,he may also defend certain other most important goods that belong to him or to his neighbor1 even if need be at the cost of the unjust aggressor's life1 because the common good is more valuable than the life of the aggressor1 and the defense of those goods is bound up with the common good4 ,thus1 if it were not permissible to defend valuable property even to the extent of killing a burglar1 criminals would be encouraged1 peaceful citizens would be at a disadvantage1 and the public security would greatly suffer4 ,among the goods now spoken of are goods of fortune and goods of body4 ,it is not always obligatory1 however1 to exercise the right of extreme self-defense 7e4g41 in case of violation1 provided no consent is given the deed74 #ahdj4 ,defense of ,goods of ,fortune ,against an ,unjust ,aggressor4--7a7 ,if the attack is equivalent to an attack on life 7e4g41 the aggressor wishes to take the last loaf from a starving man or the plank from a drowning man71 or if it seems to be an attack on life 7e4g41 the burglar enters a room as if he meant to kill71 the killing of the unjust aggressor is not unlawful1 as is clear from the previous paragraphs4 7b7 ,if the attack is made on goods of fortune only1 but they are of great value and actually possessed1 the question is disputed4 ,according to some1 killing in this case is unlawful1 because life is more valuable than property2 but the common opinion is that killing is lawful1 both because ,scripture excuses the person who kills the nocturnal robber 7,exod41 xxii4 #b71 and because the public safety is at stake and therefore justifies extreme measures4 7c7 ,if the attack is made only on goods of fortune1 and they are not yet possessed 7e4g41 a legacy one hopes to obtain7 or have only a small value 7e4g41 one gold piece71 killing is unlawful2 for there is no proportion between external goods that are only hoped for or that are of minor importance and the life of a human being4 ,pope ,innocent ,,xi condemned the teaching that one may use homicidal defense to protect a coin or the prospect of receiving an office4 #ahda4 ,defense of ,bodily ,purity ,against an ,unjust ,aggressor4--7a7 ,if the attack is equivalent to an attack on life1 or seems to be an attack on life1 self-defense even by killing is lawful1 and hence it may be permissible to kill one who is attempting rape4 7b7 ,if the attack is on bodily purity only1 but per actum consummatum luxuriae1 the question is controverted4 ,one opinion is that killing may not be resorted to1 for the aggressor cannot take away purity of soul1 and the purity of body that he violates is less good than life4 ,the opposite opinion holds that killing may be employed in self-defense1 since bodily purity has a higher value than even notable goods of fortune1 especially as violation is usually accompanied by spiritual damage or disgrace of family1 etc42 and the public interest demands that such outrages be sternly suppressed on account of the strong inclination of many persons to commit them4 7c7 ,if the attack is on bodily purity only1 and per actum non-consummatum luxuriae 7e4g41 per osculum vel amplexum71 killing is not justified1 but other means of defense1 such as blows or wounds1 may be used4 #ahdb4 ,defense of ,bodily ,integrity ,against an ,unjust ,aggressor4--7a7 ,if the attack is equivalent to an attack on life 7e4g41 if the aggressor intends to mutilate or wound1 but there is danger that he will kill71 defense even with resultant killing is lawful4 7b7 ,if the attack is not equivalent to an attack on life1 but is very notable 7as when a principal member will be lost or the person horribly disfigured71 some authorities claim that defense which would cause the aggressor's death is unlawful1 because death is too heavy a price to pay for wounds4 ,but against this it may be argued that the loss of limbs or organs is more serious than the loss of money1 and1 in some respects1 is more damaging than violation4 ,the civil law gives a person the right to protect himself in body and limbs1 even by killing the assailant when absolutely necessary4 7c7 ,if the attack menaces only a minor detriment 7e4g41 a black eye or bloody nose71 certainly killing is unjustified4 ,but the person attacked may hit harder and oftener than the assailant1 if he is able1 so that the latter may beware of him another time4 #ahdc4 ,defense of ,honor or ,reputation4--,when honor or reputation is unjustly attacked1 the more perfect course is to bear the injury patiently and to pardon the offense1 according to the teaching of ,christ4 ,but it is not sinful to defend honor and reputation1 just as it is not sinful to defend life1 limbs and property4 ,how far may one go in defense of honor or reputation against an unjust aggressor8 7a7 ,if the aggression is merely in words 7as when the offender calls the other party a liar1 or says that he is illegitimate71 it is not lawful to use violence1 at least such as would cause death2 for there are other and less drastic means of defense that suffice 7e4g41 to answer the allegations1 or even to retort the same epithets against the aggressor71 and1 unless the violence of even justifiable resentment were restrained1 the world would be filled with disorder and homicidal violence4 ,innocent ,,xi and ,alexander ,,vii condemned the doctrine that one may kill in order to prevent the spread of calumny4 7b7 ,if the aggression is in deeds 7as when the offender slaps the other person or throws mud or rotten eggs at him71 it is not lawful to kill2 for here also defense can be made in other ways 7e4g41 by bringing the aggressor before the court for punishment1 or1 if this cannot be done1 by returning slap for slap1 etc474 ,innocent ,,xi rejected the proposition that it is lawful to kill the aggressor who gave one a blow and then fled4 ,it is only when the aggressor is continuing his attack1 and imperilling the innocent party in life or limb1 that the latter may repel the extreme force by extreme force4 #ahdd4 ,killing of the ,innocent4--,so far we have spoken of the killing of malefactors and unjust aggressors1 which under certain conditions is not sinful4 ,the next subject is the killing of the innocent1 that is1 of those who are neither malefactors nor unjust aggressors worthy of death4 7a7 ,the killing of the innocent by human authority1 if it is done directly and intentionally1 is always sinful1 whether the cause be a private individual or society4 ,but since ,god is the ,master of life and death1 ,he could command the death of an innocent person1 as was done when he bade ,abraham to sacrifice his son 7,gen41 xxii4 #ab74 7b7 ,the killing of the innocent1 if it is indirect and unintentional1 is not sinful when there is a serious reason for performing an act from which the killing results2 for it is lawful to perform an act from which two effects follow1 if the good is intended but the evil only permitted1 and there is a sufficient justifying reason 7see #ajc sqq474 #ahde4 ,unlawful killing of the innocent is a most heinous crime4 7a7 ,it is an injury to the rights of ,god over human life1 and is forbidden in the ,fifth ,commandment of the ,decalogue3 8,thou shalt not kill0 7,exod41 xx4 #ac74 ,to judges the special command was given3 8,the innocent and just person thou shalt not put to death0 7,exod41 xxiii4 #g74 ,the man-slayer destroys the image of ,god1 a crime so detestable that in ,scripture ,god declares that ,he will revenge the blood of man1 even though shed by a beast 7,gen41 ix4 #e2 ,exod41 xxi4 #bh74 7b7 ,it is a most grave sin against the individual1 for it deprives him of his chief natural good and the means of securing and enjoying many great spiritual goods4 ,if the person killed desired or asked for death1 no injustice is done to him1 since he waived his right1 but uncharitableness is committed1 since the neighbor's life should be loved1 and the uncharitableness is greater according as the person is more worthy of love4 ,scripture numbers murder among the sins that cry to heaven for vengeance 7,gen41 iv4 #aj1 ix4 #e74 7c7 ,it is an outrage against society1 for such killing unduly deprives the community of one of its members1 causes scandal and disturbs the peace4 ,hence1 the law has always inflicted the severest punishment on slayers of the innocent4 #ahdf4 ,since the end does not justify the means1 the following ends do not justify the direct and intentional killing of innocent persons3 7a7 the public good does not excuse1 for example1 if an enemy were to threaten destruction against a city unless it put to death an innocent person who dwelt in its borders4 ,the criminal on account of his lawlessness is an obstacle to the common good1 but the law-abiding citizen promotes the common good and it would be harmful to the public peace if he could be put to death without any fault of his own4 ,the ,state is for the citizen1 not the citizen for the ,state4 ,but if the common safety depended on the sacrifice of one man's life1 charity and patriotism would require this man to make the sacrifice spontaneously 7see #aafi72 that is1 he should deliver himself to the enemy1 and were he to refuse1 it seems the community would have the right to deliver him4 ,similarly1 it is not lawful to kill hostages1 even though the enemy has broken faith1 or killed one's subjects2 7b7 the private good of other individuals does not excuse2 for example1 it is not lawful to kill a maniac lest he do harm to those around him1 at least unless the conditions of unjust aggression are fulfilled4 ,similarly1 it is not lawful to kill a woman with child1 in order to baptize the child2 7c7 the private good of the individual himself does not excuse2 for example1 it is not lawful to shoot or poison those who are mortally wounded or suffering from an incurable disease1 or who are old and helpless1 in order to spare them suffering4 ,but one may give a person at the point of death a medicine that may hasten the end1 if there is good hope that it will cure him and other remedies are futile1 for the purpose is not to kill but to cure 7see #bdhe74 ,it is lawful also for embalmers to puncture the heart or sever an artery of a person who seems to be dead1 if there are certain signs of his death1 for the purpose is not to kill this person1 but to free his friends from fear that he is buried alive4 #ahdg4 ,indirect or ,unintentional ,killing of the ,innocent4--,indirect and unintentional killing of the innocent is lawful 7#ahgb7 only when there is a reason of sufficient gravity 7i4e41 one of a value proportionate to the life of the innocent person74 7a7 ,the public safety is such a sufficient reason4 ,thus1 in time of war it is lawful to attack a city1 even though the death of many non-combatants will result1 or to charge the enemy1 even though innocent persons have been placed by the latter as a shield to his front ranks4 7b7 ,private safety from death is not a sufficient reason1 if it does not compensate for the loss1 or if it is secured unlawfully 7see #ajd74 ,thus1 if ,balbus cannot escape from an unjust aggressor without running down and killing an unbaptized infant or a man whose life is very necessary for the community1 the temporal life of ,balbus does not compensate for eternal life lost by the infant in the first instance1 and the mere private good of ,balbus does not compensate for the public good sacrificed in the second instance4 ,again1 if ,caius cannot escape from drowning without pushing a shipwrecked companion from the only plank which is insufficient for both1 or if ,sempronius who has been sentenced to death for crime cannot escape execution unless he kills his guard1 the means of securing safety are unlawful4 7c7 ,private safety from death is a sufficient reason1 if it compensates for the loss and is secured lawfully4 ,hence1 if the life of the innocent person is only of equal importance1 self-defense against an unjust aggressor by means of flight that will involve the innocent person's death does not make one guilty of homicide 7e4g41 ,titus is speeding in his car in order to escape a pursuer bent on murder and he cannot avoid hitting and killing a cripple who crosses the road74 ,if self-defense is conducted by means of attack1 one may use violence against the aggressor 7e4g41 one may shoot at him1 although an innocent person whom he is using as a shield will be killed71 but not against the innocent person 7e4g41 one may not shoot at the innocent person in order to deprive the aggressor of his shield1 nor may one hold the innocent person before one in order that he receive the assailant's bullet74 #ahdh4 ,destruction of the ,unborn4--7a7 ,direct and intentional destruction of this kind is unlawful and is known as feticide1 when the fetus is killed within the womb1 or abortion1 when a non-viable fetus is expelled from the womb4 ,it is not abortion to hasten the birth of a viable fetus 7i4e41 one which is about six or seven months old and can live outside the womb71 since the child can be kept alive1 but grave reasons are required to make it licit1 since it presents a risk to the child's life4 ,but to deliver or expel a non-viable fetus is abortion4 ,every direct abortion is regarded by the ,catholic ,church as murder and is penalized with the censure of excommuuication 7,canon #beej1 ,sec4 #a74 ,it might be argued that the direct killing of what is surely a human being is murder1 but when does the fetus become a human being8 ,the ancient theory of ,aristotle1 followed by ,st4 ,thomas and most medieval authors1 maintains that the embryo did not become human until some time after conception1 an opinion that still has great probability physically4 ,others maintain that animation is simultaneous with conception4 ,since we do not know the exact moment of animation1 the moment of conception must be accepted in practice as the beginning of human life4 ,probabilism is ruled out in this instance1 for there is no doubt about the law and its application3 we must not directly kill what is probably a human being4 ,accordingly1 abortion is considered to be murder4 ,hence1 even in the case of a girl who has been raped--although it is a probable opinion that measures may be taken to remove the semen from-her body--it would be gravely sinful to give any treatment which would abort an impregnated ovum4 7b7 ,indirect and unintentional killing1 or rather permission of death1 is not unlawful in such a case1 when there is a proportionately grave reason1 such as the life of the mother4 ,thus1 it is permissible to give the mother a remedy necessary to cure a mortal disease 7e4g41 medicinal drugs1 baths1 injections1 or operations on the uterus71 even though this will bring on abortion or the death of the fetus2 for the mother is not obliged to prefer the temporal life of the child to her own life4 ,but the baptism of the child must be attended to1 for its salvation depends on the ,sacrament1 and the eternal life of the child is to be preferred to the temporal life of the mother1 if the conditions of #aaff are verified4 7c7 ,contemporary moral opinion considers that in tubal pregnancies 7ectopic gestation7 the tube itself is in a pathological condition long before rupture of the tube1 as experts in obstetrics teach1 and hence can be excised as a diseased organ of the human body4 ,as such1 the excision of such a tube would be in itself a morally indifferent act and1 granting verification of the other conditions for the principle of double effect1 could be licitly performed4 7,for a history of the moral question1 medical testimony and full argumentation see ,chapter ,x of ,medical ,ethics by ,charles ,j4 ,mc,fadden1 ,o4,s4,a47 ,some theologians1 however1 believe that the tube cannot be removed unless it can be proved in each case that a pathological condition1 placing the woman in danger of death1 exists4 ,the first view is accepted as sufficiently safe to be followed in practice4 7,see ,francis ,j4 ,connell1 ,c4,,ss4,r41 ,morals in ,politics and ,professions1 p4 #aah47 #ahdi4 ,it is unlawful positively to kill the mother in order that the unborn child may be saved or baptized4 ,when a caesarean section offers the sole chance of saving the mother's life1 it is permitted4 ,it is seriously doubtful whether a mother is morally obliged to undergo the operation in situations where a threat to her life exists4 ,in this case1 if baptism in the uterus is possible without increasing the danger to the mother's life1 it should be attempted4 ,when a caesarean section does not offer any chance of saving the mother's life1 but will directly contribute to her death1 the operation should not be performed4 ,one must await the death of the mother and then observe the norm of ,canon #gdf2 8,immediately after the death of a pregnant woman1 a caesarean section should be done in order that the fetus may be baptized40 ,the procedure to be followed is outlined in medical-ethics books4 7,see ,mc,fadden op4 cit41 pp4 #bdd ff47 #ahej4 ,direction in ,cases of ,doubt1 ,ignorance1 or ,error4--7a7 ,in case of doubt1 if there are positive and solid reasons for believing that an operation performed to save a woman's life will not be destructive of the life of a fetus1 the operation seems lawful2 for in doubt1 the woman1 as the certain possessor of life1 has the presumption4 7b7 ,in case of ignorance or error 7e4g41 when a penitent asks whether a certain operation is permissible1 or a surgeon in good faith performs an operation that is not lawful71 either a truthful answer should be given to questions1 or silence should be observed when an admonition would only be harmful 7e4g41 if to require the ,caesarean operation from a dying mother would have no other result than to make her die in bad faith instead of good faith74 #ahea4 ,canonical ,penalties for ,homicide and ,abortion4--7a7 ,homicide1 if voluntary1 produces irregularity 7,canon #ihe1 n4 #d7 and subjects the guilty party to exclusion from legitimate ecclesiastical acts or to degradation from the ecclesiastical state 7,canon #bced74 ,moreover1 a church is violated by the crime of homicide 7,canon #aagb74 7b7 ,abortion of a human fetus1 when the effect is produced1 brings irregularity on those who procure it and also on the cooperators 7,canon #ihe1 n4 #d74 ,moreover1 those who procure abortion effectively1 the mother not excepted1 incur excommunication latae sententiae reserved to the ,ordinary1 and1 if clerics1 they are to be deposed 7,canon #bcej74 #aheb4 ,suicide4--,suicide1 or the killing of oneself1 is1 like homicide in general1 of various kinds4 7a7 ,thus1 in reference to the intention1 it is voluntary or involuntary1 according as it proceeds from knowledge and choice1 or as it is committed without realization of what is done or without the intention to produce death4 ,examples of involuntary suicide are a person who is temporarily insane on account of impending calamity and drowns himself1 and a person who1 attempting to frighten another by pretending to hang himself1 actually strangles to death4 ,it would be a mistake to say that no person who commits suicide is free1 but no doubt a large percentage of those who kill themselves are not responsible for their act4 7b7 ,in reference to the mode1 suicide is direct1 if that which is done tends from its nature to the death of the person who does it 7e4g41 firing a pistol into one's brain72 it is indirect1 if that which is done tends from its nature to another end 7e4g41 to struggle with a criminal who is firing a revolver74 ,direct suicide is committed in many ways1 all of which can be reduced to positive 7e4g41 the eating or drinking of deadly poison7 and negative 7e4g41 the refusal to eat or drink anything74 #ahec4 ,the difference between direct and indirect suicide is also explained as follows3 7a7 direct suicide is an act or omission that has but one effect1 namely1 death 7e4g41 taking deadly poison72 7b7 indirect suicide is an act or omission that has two effects1 one of which is the peril of death4 ,this peril of death is certain1 if death always follows 7e4g41 jumping from the roof of a skyscraper72 proximate1 if death usually follows 7e4g41 jumping from a third- or fourth-story window72 remote1 if death now and then follows 7e4g41 jumping from a second-story window74 #ahed4 ,sinfulness of ,suicide4--,voluntary and direct suicide is always a most grave sin1 if committed without due authority 7i4e41 the command of ,god74 7a7 ,it is a grave injury against the rights of ,god1 for it usurps ,his authority1 refuses ,him the service ,he desires1 spurns the gift ,he has bestowed1 dishonors the image of ,god 7,gen41 ix4 #f71 and destroys the property of ,god3 8,thou1 ,o ,lord1 hast the power of life and death0 7,wis41 xvi4 #ac74 7b7 ,it is an offense against society1 for the community has a right to be benefited by the lives of its members1 and to receive a return for the protection and assistance it affords them4 ,moreover1 death by suicide is usually felt as a great sorrow and disgrace by the relatives of the departed1 and it has a demoralizing effect on many persons of suggestible minds4 ,the fact that the death of this or that man is not felt as a loss by a family or the ,state1 but rather as a relief1 is no argument2 for if suicide were left to human decision1 how many fatal mistakes would be made 7see #dfj76 ,persons valuable to society would rashly kill themselves1 fearing in a mood of depression that they were worthless2 others who could contribute nothing in material ways would destroy themselves and deprive their fellow-men of an example of fortitude1 or at least of the opportunity of showing charity and mercy to the needy4 7c7 ,direct and voluntary suicide is a sin against the deepest natural inclination1 for self-preservation is called the first law of nature 7see #bih71 and also against that love of self which charity requires 7see #aacf sqq474 ,since charity to self is more obligatory than charity to the neighbor1 suicide is a more serious sin than other forms of homicide4 ,nor is it excused by the desire of some good for self4 ,the suicide does not better himself by his act1 for1 since he has not fulfilled his trust in this life1 what can he expect in the next life8 ,he escapes the lesser evils of physical miseries or moral temptations1 but he incurs the greater evils of physical death and of moral cowardice and defeat1 to say nothing of his punishment in the hereafter4 #ahee4 ,cooperation in ,suicide4--,cooperation in suicide has the guilt of unlawful homicide4 7a7 ,thus1 those who incite1 advise1 command1 or assist another to commit suicide are guilty of moral murder4 7b7 ,those who carry out together a suicide pact are guilty both of suicide and of moral murder4 #ahef4 ,permission or ,authorization to ,commit ,suicide4--7a7 ,divine authority could command or permit suicide1 since ,god has the power over life and death4 ,but whether ,god has ever done this is uncertain4 ,some argue for the affirmative from the death of ,sampson1 who pulled down the house upon himself saying3 8,let me die with the ,philistines0 7,judges1 xvi4 #cj71 and of ,razias who killed himself to escape ill-usage 7,,ii ,mach41 xiv4 #cg sqq471 and from the acts of certain female martyrs who from love of ,god or from the desire to preserve chastity rushed to their deaths4 ,but others think that invincible ignorance may explain these cases4 ,the act of ,sampson may also be understood as indirect suicide lawfully committed for the public good of his country4 7b7 ,human authority1 according to some authors1 could authorize a condemned malefactor really guilty of a capital crime to execute himself2 for1 they argue1 there is little difference between opening one's mouth to swallow poison administered by an executioner and taking it with one's own hands1 as was done by ,socrates4 ,others deny that ,god has given the ,state the authority to order suicide1 and they declare that it is both unnecessary and inhuman to force a condemned man to be his own executioner4 ,still others believe that the ,state could command self-execution1 at least in necessity1 but that such a punishment is so strange1 cruel and unnatural that it should be avoided2 for1 if it is shocking to ask a father to execute his child1 much more shocking would it be to ask a man to kill himself4 ,the argument is inconclusive which says that because it is lawful to perform an act preparatory for death1 but which is indifferent and would never cause death 7such as opening the mouth for poison71 it is also lawful to perform the act which inflicts death 7such as taking the poison74 #aheg4 ,indirect ,suicide4--,indirect suicide is committed when one is the cause of an act or omission1 indifferent in itself1 but from which one foresees as a result that one's life will be lost or notably shortened1 ,this kind of 8suicide0 is lawful when and if the conditions for a case of double effect are present--in other words1 if there is a proportionately grave reason for permitting the evil effect 7see #ajc sqq474 ,the following reasons are considered sufficient3 7a7 the public good1 for the welfare of society is a greater good than the life of an individual4 ,eleazar is praised because he exposed himself to death in order to deliver his people 7,i ,mach41 vi4 #dc sqq474 ,it is not sinful1 then1 but rather obligatory for a soldier to advance against the enemy or to blow up an enemy fortification1 though it be certain that his own death will result2 nor is it wrong for a pastor to go about ministering to his flock during a pestilence1 though it be certain that he will fall a victim to the plague4 ,explorers and experimenters may also risk their lives for the advancement of science2 7b7 the good of another suffices for indirect suicide1 when he is in extreme spiritual need4 ,indeed1 there may be an obligation of charity to risk one's life for the salvation of a soul 7see #aaff74 ,hence1 it is lawful to go as a missionary to a country whose climate is so trying that strangers die there after a few years2 7c7 the higher good of self 7i4e41 the good of virtue7 justifies indirect suicide1 when there is an urgent reason for exercising a virtue in spite of the peril of death4 ,thus1 for the sake of charity a shipwrecked passenger may yield his place in the life-boat to his parent1 wife1 friend1 or neighbor2 for the sake of faith1 one may refuse to flee in time of persecution 7see #ajjf71 or may refuse and should refuse to take food or drink offered as a mark of idolatry2 for the sake of chastity a virgin1 at the peril of her life1 may jump from a high window or resist the assailant1 although it does not seem that this is obligatory if no internal consent will be given to the rape2 for the sake of justice1 a criminal in the death house who has an opportunity to escape from prison1 may decide to remain and be executed1 or a malefactor condemned to die by starvation may refuse to take food secretly brought him2 for the sake of mortification1 one may practise moderate austerities1 as by fastings1 watchings1 scourgings1 hair-shirts1 etc41 which sometimes shorten life1 though generally they lengthen it2 7d7 the preferable temporal good of self suffices1 that is1 one may risk the danger of death to escape another danger that is more likely to happen or more terrible4 ,thus1 a man in a burning building may leap from a high window1 even though death from the fall is almost certain1 for death by burning is more terrible2 a prisoner who is about to be tortured to death may make a break for liberty if he sees a chance of escape1 for death is more certain if he remains4 ,on the same principle1 one may engage in hazardous but useful occupations1 such as working on high buildings1 or as a diver or miner1 for it is better to live a shorter time with employment and the necessities of life1 and to be of service to the public1 than to live a longer time without these advantages4 ,but a worker should not undertake dangerous tasks for which he is unfitted or unprepared1 and the employer is bound to safeguard the lives of the workers4 #aheh4 ,the same reasons are not sufficient in all cases4 7a7 ,thus1 the greater the risk of death1 the more serious the reason required4 ,hence1 to save the money one has it might be lawful to jump from a second-story window1 but not from a higher window when the fall would most likely kill one4 7b7 ,the more immediate the danger of death1 the more serious the reason required4 ,thus1 to save money one might lawfully enter a quarantined house1 but the risk would not be permitted if the house were tottering in an earthquake4 7c7 ,the more notable the shortening of life1 the greater the reason needed to permit it4 ,thus1 if the practice of a certain mortification or labor reduces the expectancy of life for a few years1 a lesser reason suffices than if it reduces the expectancy for ten or more years4 #ahei4 ,indirect suicide is unlawful and has the guilt of self-murder when the reason for risking death is frivolous or insufficient or sinful4 7a7 ,examples of insufficient reasons are found in the cases of persons who engage in occupations or actions that are very dangerous to life or limb but of little public or private value1 as when for the sake of performing a feat a man walks a tight-rope1 pricks himself with pins and needles1 or puts his head into a lion's mouth4 ,but if the performer is very skillful and has no other means of livelihood1 it seems that he may exercise his art for the sake of entertainment4 7b7 ,examples of sinful reasons for risking death are found in persons who abbreviate their lives by over-eating1 drunkenness1 habitual indulgence in strong spirits1 or immoderate passion of any kind2 and also in those who refuse to make use of the ordinary means for the preservation of health 7see #aeff sqq47 or of the ordinary remedies against disease 7see #aega74 ,it is not necessary that one be anxious to live long 7see #ajfc71 but it is obligatory to use the normal means for the preservation of life1 and those who notably neglect these means are guilty of indirect suicide4 #ahfj4 ,is it suicidal to refuse a surgical operation pronounced necessary for life8 7a7 ,if the operation is likely to be successful and there is no good reason for refusing it1 it seems that one may not refuse it without the guilt of indirect suicide1 although one might be excused on account of good faith4 7b7 ,if the success of the operation is doubtful1 or if there is a good reason for refusing1 one who refuses is not guilty of suicide4 ,among the good reasons are spiritual ones 7e4g41 modesty1 the fear of falling into blasphemy or despair under the pain are given by some writers7 and temporal ones 7e4g41 the poverty that would be brought upon the patient's family or the hardship that would result for the patient himself74 #ahfa4 ,canonical ,penalties for ,suicide4--7a7 ,those who attempt suicide are irregular ex delicto 7,canon #ihe1 n4 #e74 7b7 ,if they die1 they are not given ecclesiastical burial unless they gave signs of repentance before death 7,canon #abdj1 n1 #c71 and1 if they recover1 they are subject to various penalties 7,canon #bcej1 ,sec4 #b74 7c7 ,if it is doubtful whether a person committed suicide1 or was responsible1 the doubt is decided in his favor1 provided no scandal is likely4 #ahfb4 ,accidental ,homicide4--,accidental homicide is that which happens without any direct purpose to kill4 ,but the following cases should be distinguished3 7a7 when the homicide is not voluntary1 either in itself or in its cause 7see #ce1 #id71 that is1 when the slayer had no intention to kill and could not foresee that death would result from his act or omission2 7b7 when the homicide is voluntary only in its cause1 inasmuch as the person who kills is guilty of negligence in a lawful thing1 or of something unlawful1 and death results from the negligence or from that which is unlawful1 although there was no direct wish to kill4 #ahfc4 ,the ,case of ,one ,from ,whose ,lawful ,act or ,omission ,homicide ,accidentally ,results4--7a7 ,if this person was not guilty of negligence1 he is not responsible for the resultant homicide1 since it was not voluntary1 either directly or indirectly4 ,thus1 if a man who was said to be dead1 but who knows nothing about the report1 calls at his home and his wife drops dead on seeing him1 he is not responsible for her death4 7b7 ,if the person in question was negligent1 he is guilty of homicide in a greater or less degree according to the seriousness of his neglect4 ,thus1 a sane man who flourishes a loaded revolver in a crowded room is responsible if the revolver goes off and kills someone present2 but a nurse who leaves a sick room for just a moment with the result that her patient falls out of bed and is killed1 is only slightly responsible at the most1 if there was little reason to expect what happened4 #ahfd4 ,the ,case of ,one ,from ,whose ,unlawful ,act or ,omission ,homicide ,accidentally ,results4--7a7 ,if this person was not negligent and his conduct was not dangerous to the lives of others1 he is not guilty of homicide2 for the death that ensued was not voluntary1 either directly or indirectly4 ,thus1 if a thief is driving away carefully with a stolen automobile and a reckless pedestrian gets in front of the car and is killed1 the driver is guilty of theft1 but not of homicide4 7b7 ,if the person in question was not negligent but his conduct was nevertheless dangerous to the lives of others1 he is guilty of homicide2 for the death that followed was voluntary indirectly1 since he could have foreseen the homicide and should have avoided the conduct4 ,thus1 if a person strikes lightly a pregnant woman and she suffers an abortion1 or if one who is not a surgeon tries to mutilate an innocent person and kills him1 he is responsible for the death1 since the acts committed remained dangerous to life1 no matter how careful the offender may have been to avoid killing4 #ahfe4 ,moral and ,legal ,guilt4--,the law may hold one responsible for homicide1 even though there is no theological guilt 7see #agff sqq474 7a7 ,thus1 one may be held responsible for the consequence of acts only juridically negligent1 as when an automobilist while driving at a speed unreasonable in law1 but not in fact1 kills a pedestrian4 7b7 ,one may be held responsible for acts committed by those subject to one's care or control1 as when a man keeps a dog loose not knowing that it is vicious and it kills a neighbor's child1 or when he illegally lends his car to a minor1 thinking the latter is a good driver1 and the minor carelessly runs down a person in the road4 #ahff4 ,bodily ,injuries4-,injustice is done not only by destroying the life of a human being1 but also by harming him in his rights to bodily integrity or well-being4 ,the chief bodily injuries are the following3 7a7 mutilation1 which deprives a person of limbs or members1 without inflicting death2 7b7 wounding1 which by an act of violence 7such as a stab or blow7 breaks the continuity of the body1 or impairs its strength or beauty2 7c7 enfeeblement1 which impairs or destroys the health1 strength1 or comfort of the body in unlawful ways 7e4g41 by deprivation of necessary food1 sleep1 fresh air1 by communication of infection1 by beating1 hazing1 etc472 7d7 restraint1 which hinders the lawful exercise of the bodily powers 7e4g41 by holding a person against his will1 by chaining him to a post1 by locking him in a room74 #ahfg4 ,mutilation4 ,in general1 any kind of act which injures or impairs bodily integrity is called mutilation4 ,in the strict sense1 mutilation is any cutting off1 or some equivalent action1 through which an organic function or a distinct use of a member is suppressed or directly diminished4 ,accordingly1 three distinct types of mutilation are possible3 7a7 when a part of the body with a distinct function is excised2 7b7 when a distinct organic function is totally suppressed1 without excision of the organ2 7c7 when the function is directly lessened or partially suppressed4 #ahfh4 ,morality4 7a7 ,liceity4 ,the basic principle governing the morality of mutilation is3 ,man is not the master of his own life1 but only the custodian4 ,accordingly1 neither is he master of his own body4 ,thus1 ,pope ,pius ,,xii1 speaking of the 8,surgeon's ,noble ,vocation0 7,the ,catholic ,mind1 ,aug4 #aidh1 pp4 #dij ff471 declared3 8,god alone is ,lord of the life and integrity of man1 ,lord of his members1 his organs1 his potencies1 particularly of those which make him an associate in the work of creation4 ,neither parents1 nor spouse1 nor the individual in question may dispose of them at will40 ,as steward1 man has duties toward his body1 its health and welfare1 according to the norms of reason and the divine law1 so that it may be a means of his attaining life with ,god4 ,acting in accord with these norms and the end of life1 it may become necessary and licit for man to mutilate his body in order to safeguard health or to save his life4 ,the principle expressing the morality of mutilation1 known as the principle of totality 7,pius ,,xii1 ,nous vous saluons1 ,,aas #de-fgd71 may be formulated3 ,man may licitly mutilate his body only insofar as this is expedient for the good of the whole4 ,in fact1 such mutilation is often obligatory1 since one must use ordinary means to protect his life and health1 and since the part is for the whole4 ,thus1 one would be bound to undergo an operation for appendicitis in order to save one's life4 ,although an organ be not diseased1 it may under certain circumstances be removed4 ,thus1 a surgeon operating for hernia may remove a healthy appendix1 should the danger of adhesions be foreseen that would require a later operation4 ,nor is it necessary that there be a 8present0 danger4 ,the words of ,pope ,pius ,,xii1 that mutilations are permissible when required 8to avoid 444 serious and lasting damage0 7,,aas #dd-ghb71 are suggestive of the liceity of prophylactic operations4 7,see medical-ethics texts for special cases1 such as lobotomy1 thalamotomy1 experimentation1 etc47 ,the problem of mutilation involved in organic transplantation for the benefit of a neighbor is highly controverted at the present time1 ,pope ,pius ,,xii discussed the legality of corneal transplants from the dead to the living 7,the ,pope ,speaks1 ,autumn1 #aief1 pp4 #aih ff471 but he did not touch the matter of transplants from living bodies4 ,in this controversial matter1 the following principles seem to be clear3 #a7 ,mutilation for the good of the neighbor cannot be justified by the principle of totality1 for the subordination implied in the principle is characteristic of a physical1 not a moral1 not even the ,mystical1 body4 #b7 ,minor mutilations1 such as skin grafts or blood transfusions1 are certainly permissible4 ,the speculative basis is still a matter of dispute4 #c7 ,it is solidly probable extrinsically that organic transplantations may be permitted1 possibly out of charity and for a proportionate reason4 ,some contend1 however1 that the act of mutilation involved is intrinsically evil and can not be justified by the extrinsic motive of charity4 ,mutilation is lawful by public authority in punishment of a criminal2 for if the state has the right to inflict death for serious crime1 much more has it the right to indict the lesser punishment of mutilation4 ,the expediency1 however1 of exercising the right must be judged in terms not only of punishment1 but also of prevention of crime4 ,mutilation has no necessary connection 7apart from special circumstances7 with deterring criminals from further crime4 7b7 ,in other cases mutilation is unlawful2 for just as man is not the master of his life1 neither is he the master of his limbs1 and he commits a wrong against ,god1 society1 and the individual if he destroys parts of his body when neither public good nor private safety demands that this can be done4 ,thus1 mutilation of a criminal performed by private authority is unlawful4 ,hence1 a husband may not mutilate a man who has broken up his home4 ,mutilation of an innocent person that it not necessary for his bodily safety is unlawful4 ,even spiritual good is not a sufficient reason2 for example1 one may not castrate oneself in order to escape temptation1 for this operation does not take away passion1 and1 moreover1 there are spiritual means which suffice against temptation4 ,when ,our ,lord says that one should cut off a hand or foot that causes scandal 7,matt41 xviii4 #h71 ,he is speaking metaphorically of the avoidance of the occasions of sin4 ,much less is temporal good a sufficient reason for mutilation4 ,hence1 a youth may not have his teeth pulled in order to escape military service2 a pauper may not have his arm amputated in order to get larger alms2 a boy may not be castrated in order to give him a better singing voice2 a woman may not have the hysterectomy or other similar operations performed merely to prevent conception2 a man may not have the operation of vasectomy performed on him in order to prevent generation4 #ahfi4 ,morality of ,sterilization4 ,mutilations which frustrate the power of procreation in men and women are called sterilization4 ,two kinds are distinguished2 indirect1 to remove diseased organs2 direct1 to prevent conception4 7a7 ,indirect sterilization 7also called by many therapeutic7 is lawful when it is necessary to save life or health4 ,the ethical principle involved is the indirect voluntary or the principle of double effect4 ,hence1 vasectomy may be used to prevent idiocy or death1 or to remove or allay physiological abnormalities that bring on certain sexual perversities or disturbances1 if it is likely that these evils are imminent or present and that the operation will be beneficial4 7b7 ,direct sterilization by public authority includes both punitive and eugenical sterilization4 ,the latter was condemned by ,pope ,pius ,,xi in ,casti ,connubii4 ,in context the ,holy ,father was dealing with the false claims made in the name of eugenics that the ,state might legitimately sterilize those who by reason of hereditary defect might be considered likely to generate defective offspring4 ,this position is vehemently rejected3 8,public magistrates have no direct power over the bodies of their subjects4 ,therefore where no crime has taken place and there is no cause present for grave punishment1 they can never directly harm or tamper with the integrity of the body1 either for the reasons of eugenics or for any other reason4 ,st4 ,thomas teaches this when1 inquiring whether human judges for the sake of preventing future evils can inflict punishment1 he admits that the power indeed exists as regards certain other forms of punishment1 but justly and properly denies it as regards the maiming of the body40 ,in the same context1 punitive sterilization1 whether as punishment for crime or as deterrent1 was also declared to be unlawful4 ,however1 fasciole #ad of the ,,aas for #aicj emended the text and seems to have withdrawn the formal condemnation of punitive sterilization4 a subject of theological discussion at the time4 ,the matter had not been closed and the emendation had the force of reopening the question4 ,theological opinion is still divided as to the liceity of punitive sterilization4 ,some still maintain that since the state can inflict the superior penalty of death for serious crime1 a fortiori also the lesser punishment of sterilization4 ,others deny the liceity1 for sterilization does not achieve the essential purposes of punishment2 it is not corrective1 preventive1 retributive1 or emendatory4 ,accordingly punitive sterilization is unreasonable and inconvenient4 ,this latter view prevails among most modern moral theologians4 ,confirmation for the view is sought in the response of the ,holy ,office 7,,aas #cb-gc7 that direct sterilization is prohibited by the law of nature4 ,since punitive sterilization has as its immediate effect1 whether as an end or as a means1 sterility of the generative potency1 it may well fall under the category of direct and hence also under condemnation of the ,holy ,office4 #ahgj4 ,other ,bodily ,punishments4--,other bodily harms 7wounds1 blows1 restraint7 may not be inflicted except under the following conditions3 7a7 there must be sufficient authority4 ,the ,state1 being a perfect society1 has greater coercive power1 and may inflict penalties that are of a permanent character1 such as death or mutilation or wounds 7e4g41 by branding72 and it may impose restraint1 not only from unlawful1 but also from lawful acts4 ,the family1 being an imperfect society1 has a limited coercive power1 and hence the father1 or those who hold his place 7e4g41 teachers71 may administer corporal chastisements that are not of an irreparable kind to his children 7such as beatings1 whippings74 ,other persons may punish or restrain only in case of urgent necessity 7e4g41 one may hold a stranger who is about to commit murder2 one may chastize a neighboring boy who cannot be kept from depredations on one's property in any other way74 ,it is not wrong1 however1 to inflict moderate bodily hurts1 if the other person is not unwilling and there is a reasonable purpose1 such as exercise1 training in the art of boxing or wrestling1 recreation1 or mortification2 7b7 there must be a sufficient reason for the harm done4 ,the good of the public is a sufficient reason2 for example1 when a criminal is incorrigible and it is dangerous for him to be at large1 it is not unreasonable to give him a life sentence4 ,the good of the individual is also sufficient2 for example1 when a surgeon has to wound in order to cure1 when a father has to use the rod in order to improve the child or to uphold discipline 7,prov41 xiii4 #bd1 xxiii4 #ac72 7c7 there must be moderation in the harm or pain inflicted4 ,thus1 while children should not be spoiled1 nor prisoners pampered1 the other extreme of maltreatment or torture must be avoided4 ,it is cruel to box children soundly on the ears1 or to push them roughly about1 or to tie them up in the dark1 as they may suffer permanent injury from such methods4 ,likewise1 it is barbarous to send convicts to a place or prison so horrible that they lose their minds or fall victims to lingering disease1 or to inflict excruciating punishments by rack1 thumb-screw1 prolonged scourgings1 etc4 #ahga4 ,injury to ,health4--,harm unjustly done to the health of others is sinful1 and1 if the harm is great1 the sin is mortal4 ,examples3 7a7 ,harm to health is done negatively by omission of duty1 as when a medical man or physical director does not use sufficient care and a patient thereby suffers detriment to health1 or an employer does not see that his factory or place of business is sanitary1 or that the work is not too exhausting with the result that employees lose their vigor4 7b7 ,harm to health is done positively by acts or objects that tend to deprive another of the means to physical well-being 7e4g41 annoyances1 noises that prevent sleep1 adulterated food1 maintenance of a nuisance which creates suffocating smells or harmful vapors1 etc471 or that bring to another the infection of disease 7e4g41 when a well person is made to live or room with one who has tuberculosis74 #ahgb4 ,theft and ,robbery4--,having considered the injuries to person committed by homicide1 mutilation1 imprisonment1 etc41 we shall now take up the injuries to property committed by theft and robbery4 ,private ownership of property is allowed by natural and divine law1 and it is necessary when1 as at present1 human affairs cannot be well managed under another system4 ,it has its limits1 however1 since it is subordinate to the public good1 and charity requires that those who have the goods of this world share them with those who are in need 7see #abaj sqq474 ,the chief titles to private ownership are the following3 7a7 original titles1 which are those by which one takes possession and dominion of goods that have never had or have not now an owner1 and these are reduced to two1 namely1 occupation 7i4e41 the taking possession of a material thing7 and accession 7i4e41 the union of a material thing with one's property72 7b7 derivative titles1 which are those by which one obtains dominion1 through transfer of right1 of the goods that belong to another4 ,these titles are produced by the law itself 7as in prescription71 or by the law and the free will of man 7as in inheritance from testament or from intestate71 or by the free will of man 7as in contracts74 #ahgc4 ,the ,chief ,kinds or ,ways of ,occupation4--7a7 ,animals4--,domestic animals 7e4g41 dogs1 cats7 may not be occupied1 even though they have strayed from their owner2 tamed animals 7e4g41 bees1 pigeons1 songbirds7 may be occupied only when they have recovered their liberty2 wild animals 7e4g41 birds1 foxes1 fishes1 hares1 etc41 at large7 may not be occupied1 unless they are kept in a small enclosure from which they cannot escape4 7b7 ,land and ,plants4 ,these may be occupied only when they have no present owner4 7c7 ,treasure-trove4--,this is a deposit of precious movables hidden away so long ago that it is impossible to discover the owner4 ,according to natural law it may be occupied by the finder1 but the civil law sometimes decides that the find must be divided with the owner of the place or with the government4 7d7 ,lost ,property4--,this embraces those movables which an owner has recently parted with1 through accident or forgetfulness1 without any intention of giving up his ownership of them1 and which are now easily findable1 although their owner is not known4 ,the finder is obliged to make reasonable efforts to find the owner4 ,if he neglects to make these efforts1 proportionate to the worth of the found article1 and is convinced that he might have found the owner1 he is considered by some theologians to be a possessor in bad faith and bound to reserve the article for the owner or turn it over to the poor or to pious causes4 ,having made the effort unsuccessfully1 according to natural law1 he may use the article as his own4 ,the prescriptions of civil law as to the time interval before he may begin to use the article must be observed4 7e7 ,abandoned ,goods4--,according to natural law one may occupy goods voluntarily relinquished by the owner 7e4g41 an old automobile left by the roadside71 but the civil law sometimes awards certain classes of goods 7e4g41 immovables7 to the ,state4 7f7 ,vacant ,goods4--,according to natural law the goods of one who died without heirs may be occupied2 but under the civil law they usually devolve to the ,state1 whether they be movables or immovables4 #ahgd4 ,principles on ,accession4--7a7 ,according to natural law1 if the two things united are separable1 then each owner should be given his own property2 but if the things are inseparable and one is more valuable1 the owner of the more valuable part keeps all1 but compensates the owner of the less valuable part2 if the things are inseparable and of equal value1 there is joint ownership4 7b7 ,according to positive law1 these natural principles are applied to various cases of accession1 whether it be natural 7as through growth of plants or deposit of land by rivers7 or artificial 7as through change made in a material by labor1 or addition of one substance to another74 ,these details are treated in books on law4 #ahge4 ,prescription4--,prescription laws 7see #agih7 are valid in conscience1 since they are determinations about property rights made in the interest of the common welfare4 ,but the following conditions are required for acquisition of property through prescription3 7a7 the object of prescription must be a thing prescriptible according to natural and positive law4 ,thus1 natural rights and public property may not be prescribed against2 7b7 the subject of prescription must be a person capable of possessing1 and he must be honestly convinced that he has a right to what he possesses2 7c7 the claim of the subject to the object must rest on possession1 on apparent title to the property1 and on the lapse of the legal time during which possession has been held or ownership has remained undisputed4 #ahgf4 ,wills4--,a will is a declaration made in legal form 7i4e41 with the solemnities required by law7 of the disposal to be made of one's property after one's death4 ,defects in a will or legacy sometimes operate to take away the moral obligations of observing it4 7a7 ,thus1 if the defect is one of natural law 7e4g41 a will made under duress71 there is no moral right or obligation produced by reason of the gift4 7b7 ,if the defect is of positive law only and makes the will rescindable 7e4g41 a will not subscribed1 as by law required1 in presence of the testator71 the gift is good in conscience until adverse decision of court4 7c7 ,if the defect is of positive law only and makes the will ipso facto invalid 7e4g41 a legatee acts as witness to a will71 the gift is good in conscience1 if there is question of pious causes1 since property donated to ,god may not be alienated by human laws4 ,but the ,church desires civil formalities to be observed in the making of wills 7,canon #aeac74 7d7 ,if the defect is positive and ipso facto invalidating1 and there is question of profane causes1 the will is not good in conscience1 even before declaration of court4 #ahgg4 ,contracts4--,a contract may be deined as a mutual agreement concerning the transfer of a right4 #a4 ,a contract is a mutual agreement1 i4e41 there must be consent of at least two parties to the same object4 ,an offer made but not accepted is not a contract1 for only one party consents4 #b4 ,the contractants transfer a right which produces in most instances under justice a corresponding obligation of doing or omitting something4 ,promises1 pledges1 pacts1 etc41 while they impose obligations based on truthfulness1 loyalty1 etc41 are not contracts4 ,see #ahhh 7a74 #c4 ,the obligation in justice may be on both sides 7bilateral7 or only on one side 7unilateral71 but consent must be on both sides4 ,the elements of a contract are made up of essentials and accidentals4 7a7 ,the essentials include the subject-matter1 the parties contractant1 their agreement1 and the external form that manifests the agreement4 7b7 ,the accidentals include bonds1 oaths1 conditions and modes4 #ahgh4 ,the subject-matter of a contract--that is1 the thing or action or forbearance with which the agreement is concerned--must have the following qualities3 7a7 it must be something possible1 for one may not undertake what one cannot perform4 ,thus1 one cannot bind oneself by an accessory contract 7such as suretyship71 if the principal contract itself is ipso facto invalid4 ,but if the impossibility is only moral 7i4e41 great difficulty71 one who knowingly undertakes the arduous is bound to fulfill his promise2 if it is only partial1 one is held to the part that is possible2 if it is culpable1 one is bound to repair damage caused the other party through non-fulfillment2 7b7 it must be something disposable1 for one may not transfer that over which one has no right of control or transfer4 ,thus1 one may not contract to sell public property that is extra commercium1 or property of which one has only the possession1 or goods over which others have a claim 7e4g41 a debtor may not bestow gifts to the detriment of creditors' rights71 or goods not transferable for pay 7e4g41 payment for a favorable decision by a judge1 or property owed to a third party7 or for money 7e4g41 academic degrees1 public offices1 ,sacraments1 indulgences72 7c7 it must be something existent and determinable1 for no one wishes to contract for a right that is valueless and illusory4 ,thus1 one may not sell shares of a stock company that has no assets1 or an indefinite house or lot or chattel2 7d7 it must be something good and lawful1 for one may not bind oneself to iniquity4 ,if it is sinful 7e4g41 a contract to sell a house in order to spite a third party71 the agreement is per se valid4 ,but if the substance is evil 7e4g41 a contract for fornication made with a prostitute71 the agreement is null before the performance of the promised sin2 but it seems to many that after performance of the sin the promisor is obliged to pay the money promised1 unless the law makes the contract void 7see #ahhf c74 ,if the law merely denies protection to a sinful engagement1 or forbids it under penalty1 it would seem that after performance of the sin one may follow1 as far as strict justice is concerned1 the rule that right is with the possessor4 ,in the ,united ,states immoral and illegal contracts and those that are opposed to public policy are generally regarded as null1 but in some cases the law declares immoral conditions de futuro non-existent and considers the agreement to which they are added as valid 7e4g41 wills and gifts inter vivos in some codes74 #ahgi4 ,sinful ,contracts4--,there is no form of contract that may not be made sinful as to its substance on account of the wicked offer or consideration 7e4g41 sale may deal with immoral objects1 labor may be given to criminal projects71 but there are certain forms of contract that are particularly open to abuse and hence are frequently associated with evil circumstances or results4 ,some contracts are often illicit according to natural law4 7a7 ,thus1 a gift is sinful1 on the part of the donor1 when it is made by an employer for the purpose of seducing a servant1 and on the part of the servant1 when it is accepted for the purpose of encouraging the unlawful attentions of the employer2 but if the gift is unconditional1 there is no obligation in justice to return it4 7b7 ,borrowing is sinful1 when the lender is in greater need1 or when one becomes unduly obligated to the lender2 lending is sinful when the lender cannot afford to part with the thing loaned1 or when the borrower is encouraged in thriftlessness1 or when he will make evil use of the thing borrowed1 etc4 7c7 ,wagers are frequently sinful1 since many of them are incitements to sin 7e4g41 a bet that another is afraid to get drunk71 or results of sinful motives 7e4g41 bets made in order to deceive1 or to satisfy avarice1 or to live without work71 or causes of great evils 7e4g41 destitution of families1 frauds1 scandal1 and corruption74 7d7 ,gaming is sinful when the form of the sport is objectionable 7e4g41 the ancient gladiatorial fights in which the combatants killed each other71 or when the motives or circumstances are wrong 7e4g41 to play as a professional gambler so as to avoid work1 to play cards all day ,sunday1 to play for higher stakes than one can afford1 to spend time in 8gambling hells074 7e7 ,lottery is sinful when the object is bad 7e4g41 the raffle of an important office with the risk that incompetent persons may be chosen71 or when the circumstances are bad 7e4g41 if persons are led into superstition or idleness and prodigality74 7f7 ,speculation is sinful in many instances1 since it often brings on a gambling fever that makes the speculator useless to himself and his dependents1 and causes poverty and crime4 7g7 ,pawning of property is often unjustifiable1 since it makes persons deprive themselves of necessary property in order to indulge in some useless or extravagant whim with borrowed money4 #ahhj4 ,illegal ,contracts4--,for reasons of public policy the positive law puts its disapproval on many of the above-mentioned contracts1 at least in certain instances4 7a7 ,thus1 sometimes the law makes a contract unenforceable in court1 though the natural obligation is not affected4 ,hence1 if a wager is only denied a hearing before a judge1 the winner may keep his gains1 and the loser should pay4 7b7 ,if the law merely declares that a contract is illegal1 the effect seems to be that the contract retains its natural validity unless the party who has suffered by it wishes to disavow it4 ,as to the sinfulness of such a contract1 that depends on whether or not the law is penal or preceptive in intent4 ,thus1 many regard laws that make betting illegal as preceptive under venial sin1 while others regard them as punitive only4 ,other examples of illegal contracts are3 gifts made to a judge in connection with a trial2 lottery1 in ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states2 certain games of chance1 in some ,states2 and in ,canon ,law1 as regards the clergy1 alcatory games for money1 speculation and trading 7,canons #ach1 #adb74 7c7 ,if the law makes a contract voidable1 the effect is that the contract possesses its natural force until adverse decision is given by court4 ,hence1 if a wager is voidable in law1 the winner may keep his gains until obliged by a judge to give them up1 but the loser is not bound to pay1 unless he confirms the wager4 7d7 ,if the law makes the contract ipso facto void1 the agreement loses its natural force 7see #eeh-efj74 ,in most of our ,states1 wagering contracts are illegal and void whether by statute or by judicial decision4 ,in many of these ,states the statute permits the recovery of the money from the winner or the stakeholder4 ,gifts offered as bribes are invalid1 and those who give or take such gifts are guilty of serious sin and of a criminal offense4 ,in some of our ,states1 certain gaming contracts are also null4 #ahha4 ,qualities ,necessary in the ,parties ,contractant4--,the parties contractant must have the following qualities3 7a7 from natural law it is necessary that they have the use of reason sufficient to understand what they are doing4 ,incompetent are babies and the insane1 and also those who are totally drunk or otherwise temporarily deranged4 ,less competent are the half-witted and those who need a guardian in important matters2 7b7 from positive law it is necessary that they be not legally excluded4 ,in ,canon ,law administrators of church property and solemnly professed religious are unable to make certain contracts 7,canons #aebg1 #ecf74 ,in civil law there are restrictions on the contractual powers of minors1 wives1 aliens1 guardians and corporations4 ,persons not yet conceived are not capable in civil law of receiving a donation1 and there are many prohibitions against the tender or acceptance of gifts by those who can reasonably be suspected of exercising undue influence or of being subject to undue influence4 #ahhb4 ,legal ,privileges of ,minors4--,the law grants certain benefits to minors and the like2 for example1 in some cases they are not bound by a non-executed agreement1 while the other party is bound1 or in an executed contract they may recover property without restoring or offering to restore the consideration1 if they have nothing with which to replace it4 7a7 ,minors and other persons who are legally incompetent to contract1 may avail themselves of the benefits of the law with a good conscience1 if they are in good faith2 for it is just that the law should protect those who are unable to protect themselves1 and those who make contracts with such persons should know that they 7the competent parties7 act at their own risk4 7b7 ,minors and other persons legally incompetent may not avail themselves of the benefit of the law if they have acted in bad faith 7e4g41 if a minor by deceit induced the other party to sell to him74 #ahhc4 ,qualities ,necessary for ,valid ,consent4--,the agreement or consent of the contracting parties must have the following qualities3 7a7 it must be internal1 that is1 one must accept in will and not merely in words the proposal or consideration offered by the other party4 ,if one consents only to the form of the contract1 the contract is null1 and the same is probably true if one does not accept internally the obligations of the contract2 if one consents to the obligations1 but does not intend to fulfill them1 the contract is valid1 but unlawful4 ,one who contracts invalidly sins1 and is bound in the external forum to keep the contract seriously made1 and in the internal forum to repair the damage to the other party by giving true consent or making restitution4 ,one who contracts unlawfully also sins1 and is bound to the engagement2 7b7 it must be external1 that is1 one must manifest in some sensible way one's agreement to the proposition contained in an offered contract4 ,silence gives consent only when the contract is favorable to the party who is silent1 or when that party should and easily could manifest his lack of consent1 if the proposal did not please him4 ,in the case of contracts between parties who are not in each other's presence1 the intimation to the offerer of the offeree's acceptance is not necessary for validity1 if the contract is gratuitous2 but the contrary seems to be true1 at least per se1 if the contract is onerous4 ,we shall speak later 7#ahhe7 on the legal formalities required in contracts2 7c7 it must be mutual1 that is1 there must be a meeting of minds in the same sense1 or agreement of both parties to the same thing4 ,mutuality requires that consent be contemporaneous1 that is1 that the acceptance of one be given while the offer of the other still holds good4 ,but it does not require that the parties be in each other's presence1 or that they contract through direct personal communication1 or 7at least according to natural law7 that the knowledge of the accomplishment of mutual agreement be known to the offerer4 ,the law in the ,united ,states generally is that an offer may be withdrawn immediately or after a reasonable time1 unless it was made on time for a consideration2 and that a contract between the absent begins only on receipt by the offerer of the acceptance of the offeree1 if the former stipulated for this1 or if the offerer uses one means of communication as his agency and the offeree another4 ,in other cases it begins the moment that acceptance is entrusted to the agent of the offerer2 7d7 it must be free1 that is1 it must have the advertence and voluntariness necessary for a human act4 ,if the contract is of grave import1 there should be the same kind of deliberation as is necessary for commission of a mortal sin 7see #agc sqq472 if it is of lesser import1 the deliberation should correspond with the seriousness of the case4 ,but some authors think there should be perfect deliberation in every contract1 since the contractants are assuming obligations of justice4 #ahhd4 ,defects that ,invalidate ,consent4--,the defects that vitiate consent by taking away knowledge or choice render contracts either void or voidable 7see #dj-ee74 ,these impediments are the following3 7a7 error1 which is a judgment of fact or of law in reference to the contract1 not in harmony with the truth1 but not maliciously caused by other persons4 ,if error is substantial 7that is1 about the nature of the contract or the nature of the subject-matter of the contract71 the agreement is naturally void2 if error is only accidental 7that is1 about features of the contract1 subject-matter or co-contractant1 that are only incidentally intended71 an onerous agreement is naturally valid1 but positive law in the interest of freedom will often grant the privilege of rescindment 7see ,canon #afhd1 n4 #b74 ,but if error cannot be proved1 courts will stand for the validity of a contract2 7b7 fraud1 which is error or mistake about a contract caused in one of the parties by the dishonest representations of the other party or of a third person 7e4g41 when an insurance agent deceives about the benefits1 or a policy-taker deceives about his age or health74 ,fraud exists1 then1 when there is intention1 at least indirect1 to mislead1 and statements1 acts or omissions calculated to mislead2 but the usual boasts of vendors and advertisers about the wonderful excellence of their wares are not fraudulent1 since the public understands that such talk must be taken cum grano salis4 ,the effects of fraud on the value of contracts are the same as those produced by error2 but it should be noted that the person guilty of the fraud is bound to make good the losses of the injured party1 even though the contract be valid and not rescindable1 or though the guilty person be not a party to the contract2 7c7 fear1 which is a disturbance of mind caused by the belief that some danger is impending on oneself or others 7see #da sqq474 ,it makes a contract invalid in natural law1 when it takes away all consent 7e4g41 when it overpowers the reason1 or makes one dissent internally from what is agreed to externally71 and probably also when it takes away perfect freedom in a gratuitous contract1 or makes one enter into a contract for immunity from an unjust vexation2 it renders an act or engagement invalid according to positive law in many special cases 7e4g41 the ,canons declare null elections1 resignations1 marriages1 vows1 etc41 which are made under the influence of fear74 ,contracts are considered naturally voidable if one of the parties unjustly extorts the consent of the other by grave fear1 or if a third party intimidates a person into bestowing something through gratuitous contract2 and the positive law generally treats agreements entered into under grave fear as rescindible 7see ,canon #ajc1 n4 #b74 ,fear unjustly caused1 even though it does not make a contract void or voidable1 is at times a reason for the duty of restitution1 as when a third party by his unjust threats forces an innocent person to make expensive contracts as a measure of protection1 and probably also when a third party directly constrains one to make an onerous contract with a person who knows nothing about the coercion4 ,fear1 no matter how great1 does not in any way weaken a contract1 if there is consent and the fear is induced by a natural cause 7e4g41 a storm71 or by a human cause acting justly 7e4g41 an injured man threatening a lawsuit72 7d7 violence or coercion1 which is like to fear1 the latter being moral force and the former physical force 7see #eb74 ,according to natural law1 violence invalidates a contract1 unless we suppose that it is only concomitant1 as when ,sempronius uses coercion to make ,balbus sign a contract which ,balbus is really willing to sign4 ,positive law does not recognize1 or will set aside1 agreements made under overpowering constraint 7see ,canon #ajc1 n4 #a74 #ahhe4 ,form of ,contract4--,the form of a contract is the external manner in which1 according to the positive law1 the internal consent of the parties must be expressed and manifested4 7a7 ,thus1 ,canon ,law in certain contracts 7e4g41 engagement of marriage1 marriage1 alienation of church property7 requires specified solemnities under pain of nullity of act4 7b7 ,civil law in the ,united ,states designates various formalities to be used in transfers of property 7e4g41 that a deed for real estate be written1 signed1 sealed and attested2 that a gift be made by delivery or equivalent act2 that certain contracts be in writing2 that no contract be of worth unless it be for a consideration1 or else be on paper with seal attached74 ,the law has the right to annul informal contracts ipso facto1 but whether this is the intention in modern codes is a matter of dispute4 ,the practical rule to be followed1 then1 is that the possessor is to be favored1 unless there has been a court decision against his claim4 ,it should be noted1 too1 that some legal conditions1 such as valuable consideration in simple contracts1 are required for enforceability1 not for validity1 and hence a good contract wanting some such condition1 though indefensible before the courts1 is obligatory in conscience4 #ahhf4 ,the ,accidentals of a ,contract4--7a7 ,bond is the agreement by the obligor of a contract to pay a certain forfeit to the obligee1 if the former does not perform his contract or does not perform it before a certain date4 ,this agreement obliges in conscience1 if the promise was seriously made1 if the penalty is not excessive1 and if the breach of agreement is culpable4 7b7 ,oaths added to contracts have moral effects on the contracts themselves and also on acts contrary to them4 ,as regards the contract1 an oath adds the obligation of religion to that of justice1 if the contract is valid and irrescindable2 and the common opinion is that it strengthens a contract extrinsically1 that is1 it induces an obligation of religion to keep the promise1 if the oath is invalid or rescindable by positive law only and in favor of a private privilege2 but an oath in no way strengthens a contract that is naturally invalid or rescindable positively on account of the public good4 ,as regards acts that are contrary to an invalid or rescindable contract that was confirmed by a valid oath1 they are sinful1 as being irreligious1 but not invalid nor unjust 7see #bbfj74 7c7 ,conditions are accidents or circumstances so added to a contract that the consent or dissent is made dependent upon their existence or fulfillment4 ,an immoral condition1 if unfulfilled1 takes from the contract all obligation1 exception being made for separable parts that are not affected by the immoral clause2 but if it has been fulfilled1 it seems that there is a moral obligation to pay the consideration promised 7see #ahgh d74 7d7 ,modes are accidents or circumstances so added to a contract as to qualify the rights or duties of the contractants1 or the purpose1 matter or time of the contract1 but not so as to make the consent dependent on the fulfillment of the thing designated4 ,thus1 if ,titus leaves money to ,balbus1 chiefly because ,balbus is his nephew1 and secondarily because he imposes on ,balbus the obligation of using the money for his education1 ,balbus in accepting the money accepts also the obligation1 but the gift does not lapse if the obligation is not complied with4 ,if a donor adds an immoral mode to his gift 7e4g41 that the donee use in immoral ways the money left him71 this purpose is regarded as non-existent and the gift stands in spite of it4 ,if an agent violates a mode 7e4g41 he pays #ajja when he was directed to pay #ajjj7 but not a condition 7e4g41 that he purchase land and not a house71 the contract stands4 #ahhg4 ,the ,moral ,obligation of ,entering into a ,contract4--7a7 ,there is a duty of justice when one is under public or private engagement to make a contract4 ,examples are a merchant who opens a store for public patronage1 or an auctioneer who holds a sale before invited patrons1 or an owner who makes with another person a contract to sell1 or a man and woman who make solemn espousals4 7b7 ,there is a duty of charity when a neighbor is in such need that he deserves to be helped1 for example1 by a loan or by assistance to make a loan3 8,from him that would borrow of thee turn not away0 7,matt41 v4 #db72 8,a good man is surety for his neighbor0 7,ecclus41 xxix4 #ah74 #ahhh4 ,every valid contract obliges to faithful performance as a duty of conscience1 even though it be unenforceable and without civil obligation4 ,we shall discuss the properties of this obligation4 7a7 ,quality of the ,obligation4--,onerous contracts oblige in virtue of commutative justice and under pain of restitution2 gratuitous contracts oblige according to some from justice1 according to others from fidelity1 according to others from fidelity or justice as the obligor intends 7see #afib1 #agec74 ,in practice one may follow the rule that a liberal promise or wager or other gratuitous contract obliges only from fidelity with no duty of restitution1 unless it be certain that the promisor intended to bind himself in justice4 ,one is responsible1 however1 for damages resultant on breach of promise4 ,the obligation seems to be one of legal justice only when the thing promised is something on which a pecuniary value cannot be set and consists in compliance with law 7e4g41 in suretyship or bail for keeping the peace or appearing in court74 7b7 ,quantity of ,obligation4--,in onerous contracts the degree of obligation depends on the importance of the subject matter1 and hence it is a mortal sin to violate a contract in which a grave right is concerned2 in gratuitous contracts the degree of obligation depends entirely1 according to some1 on the will of the person who liberally binds himself1 but others hold that it depends on the importance of the subject-matter4 7c7 ,subjects of ,obligation4--,the parties to the contracts and those who take their place 7e4g41 heirs1 executors7 or who are responsible for the contract 7e4g41 those who commanded the agreement7 are morally bound to fulfill the agreement1 while others are bound not to interfere with the fulfillment4 7d7 ,objects of ,obligation4--,directly1 there is the duty of observing what is contained explicitly or implicitly in the agreement1 and indirectly of making good any losses caused by breach of contract4 ,a rescindable contract obliges until it is lawfully disaffirmed by the party who has the right to break it2 a quasi-contract imposes on the party who has benefited by the services or expenses of another a moral obligation of making compensation4 ,if a contract transfers ownership 7e4g41 contract of sale passing title to buyer1 mutuum71 the transferee must bear the risks and expenses of the thing transferred2 but if it does not transfer ownership 7e4g41 contract to sell1 commodatum7 or has not yet done so 7e4g41 contract of sale in which title will pass later1 on delivery or payment71 the transferer has the risk and expense 7see #agif74 #ahhi4 ,cessation of ,obligation4--,the obligation of a contract ceases in various ways3 7a7 by action of the contractants1 as when a promisee renounces his right1 or each of the parties to a promise has made a gratuitous promise in favor of the other and one refuses to keep his word2 7b7 by action of law1 for example1 by prescription1 by annulment2 7c7 by impossibility1 as when a thing freely promised has become unlawful or useless1 or when the donee of a gift mortis causae dies before the donor4 #ahij4 ,theft4--,theft is the secret taking of what belongs to another1 with the intention of appropriating it to oneself1 against the reasonable wishes of the owner4 7a7 ,it is a taking1 that is1 a carrying away of goods4 ,but theft also includes the receiving or keeping of property1 since the harm done is the same as when the goods are carried away4 ,hence1 he who does not restore borrowed or deposited or found objects1 or who does not pay back a loan1 when he could and should1 is a thief4 7b7 ,it is a secret taking1 that is1 the property is taken away without the knowledge of the owner or lawful possessor1 even though he be present4 ,in this respect theft differs from robbery4 7c7 ,it is the taking of property4 ,this includes not only corporeal things 7e4g41 books1 money1 jewelry1 clothing71 but also incorporeal things 7e4g41 patents1 trademarks1 copyrights71 and even persons if they are looked on as possessions4 ,hence1 plagiarism or infringement of copyright or man-stealing or kidnapping 7i4e41 the carrying off of another's slave or child7 are forms of theft4 7d7 ,it is the taking of property that belongs to another1 that is1 of goods of which another person is the owner1 or lawful possessor as usufructuary1 guardian1 depositary1 etc4 ,hence1 one can steal from oneself by taking one's goods by stealth from the bailee with the design of charging him for their value or of depriving him of their use to which he has a right4 7e7 ,it is the taking away of goods with the intention of appropriating them to one's own possession1 use or enjoyment to the exclusion of the rightful owner4 ,hence1 strictly speaking1 it is not theft to carry away property with the intention of borrowing it for a time or of destroying it2 but these are acts of unlawful possession or of unlawful damage4 ,it is obligatory to take an object from another1 if this is necessary to prevent the commission of a crime 7e4g41 to take away and hide the gun with which another intends to kill74 7f7 ,it is against the wishes of the owner4 ,this refers to the substance 7that is1 the conversion of the property to one's use71 not to the mode 7that is1 secrecy with which it is done74 ,hence1 if the owner is unwilling that the property be taken1 he who takes it is guilty of theft2 if the owner is not unwilling that it be taken1 but is unwilling that it be taken without his knowledge1 he who takes it in this way sins at least venially1 but is not guilty of theft in the strict sense4 7g7 ,it is against the reasonable wishes of the owner or possessor2 for no injury is done if he does or should consent to the loss4 ,the owner does consent if the person who takes the goods is acting according to a general and recognized custom 7e4g41 when a servant takes things left over from her employer's table1 which it is certain the latter does not wish to keep72 the owner should consent1 if justice forbids that he prevent the taking 7e4g41 when a starving man is taking food from one who has plenty71 or if domestic duty commands that he should give the thing taken 7e4g41 when a wife takes from her husband's pockets the needed money he denies his family1 for a wife and family have the right to receive from the head of the house support according to their station and means74 ,but the owner is not bound to consent to the loss of his goods from the mere fact that he misuses them to his own spiritual disadvantage1 or owes them in charity to the taker4 ,hence1 it is theft to take a flask from the pocket of one who drinks too much1 or to steal a book from one who is harmed by reading it1 or to filch money from a rich man because one is poor and he will not give an alms4 #ahia4 ,unauthorized ,use of ,another's ,funds4--,what is the guilt of one who uses for his own purposes the money of another entrusted to him for other purposes8 7a7 ,there is no theft1 for it is supposed that the purpose of the user is to make only a temporary loan of the money4 7b7 ,there is an act of injustice1 if the permission of the owner cannot be presumed2 for the rights of an owner are violated when one converts his property to uses displeasing to him4 ,thus1 if the prospect is that the owner may never get his money back or that he will lose profits by the use made of it1 the guilt of unjust damage is incurred1 at least in intention 7e4g41 a depositary uses a deposit to buy stocks on margin1 or a company official makes an unauthorized loan instead of investing the amount for the company's benefit74 7c7 ,there is no sin1 if the permission of the owner can be reasonably presumed2 for to him who willingly consents no injury is done4 ,thus1 if one who is managing the funds of another has the chance to make a large amount of money today by using those funds for himself but cannot get in touch with the owner1 the latter's consent can be presumed1 if he will suffer no present loss and it is absolutely certain that his funds will be returned tomorrow4 ,but on account of the risk that is ordinarily present1 this case would be rare4 #ahib4 ,comparison of ,theft and ,robbery4--7a7 ,they differ in species1 for theft contains injustice to an owner in his property1 but robbery1 which is an unjust and violent taking of what belongs to another1 contains injustice both to property and to person4 ,the unwillingness of the owner in the case of theft is due to his ignorance of his loss2 in the case of robbery it is due to intimidation or force4 7b7 ,they differ in gravity1 robbery being according to its nature the more serious kind of stealing2 for the robber does a twofold injury1 and the owner's unwillingness to be robbed is greater4 #ahic4 ,kinds of ,theft and ,robbery4--7a7 ,there are many varieties of theft1 the differences arising from the circumstances in which the stealing is done4 ,thus1 he who steals from the ,church is guilty of sacrilegious theft2 he who uses the public goods for his private ends commits peculation2 he who takes from his parents practises domestic thievery4 7b7 ,there are also many ways in which robbery or rapine is committed4 ,the following persons are guilty of robbery3 pirates1 bandits1 highwaymen1 burglars1 usurers1 profiteers1 venal judges1 unmerciful creditors who deprive debtors of necessaries1 debtors who escape payment by fraudulent bankruptcy1 profiteers1 laborers who extort unjust wages1 those who force subordinates to contribute graft1 and blackmailers4 ,two forms of robbery are described in ,scripture as sins that cry to heaven for justice1 namely1 defrauding laborers of their wages 7,james1 v4 #d7 and oppression of the poor1 which happens especially when one denies their rights to those who are unable to defend them4 ,the following persons are also classed as thieves3 pickpockets1 spongers1 smugglers1 forgers1 counterfeiters1 embezzlers1 and those who misappropriate funds entrusted to them4 ,in the civil law theft is also known as larceny1 and is defined as the unlawful severance of personal property from the possession of its owner4 ,the following kinds of larceny are distinguished3 7a7 in respect to the manner of perpetration1 a theft is larceny when the property is taken from the possession of the owner by one who had no possession1 whether the latter be a stranger or a custodian2 it is embezzlement when committed by one upon whom the owner had conferred temporary possession on account of a fiduciary relationship between them2 it is false pretence when committed by one who procures permanent possession or ownership through fraudulent representations2 7b7 ,in respect to the matter or quantity stolen1 theft is called petit larceny when it falls below a certain sum fixed by the law1 grand larceny when it exceeds that sum4 #ahid4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,theft4--7a7 ,from its nature theft--and1 much more1 robbery--is a grave sin2 for it is opposed to the virtues of charity and justice1 it is expressly forbidden in the ,seventh ,commandment 78,thou shalt not steal10 ,exod41 xx4 #ae71 and it excludes from eternal life 78,neither thieves nor extortioners shall possess the kingdom of ,god10 ,i ,cor41 vi4 #aj74 ,the thief attacks the sacred right of the individual to his property1 and imperils the peace and stability of society itself4 ,theft is a grave sin1 even when it is committed by little and little1 as happens when a merchant gives underweight habitually3 8,a deceitful balance is an abomination to the ,lord0 7,prov41 xi4 #a74 ,the proposition that restitution for a large sum taken in parts at different times is not a grave duty was condemned by ,innocent ,,xi 7,denzinger1 #aahh74 ,canonical penalties for theft include exclusion from acts and offices1 censures1 and deposition 7,canon #bced74 7b7 ,from the imperfection of the act theft may be only a venial sin1 for example1 when the thief is a kleptomaniac and steals without advertence1 or when he is invincibly ignorant that the thing taken is not his own or is of great value1 or from the smallness of the matter involved 7e4g41 when the thing taken has little value1 or the owner is opposed rather to the stealthy manner of taking than to the taking1 or is only slightly unwilling to lose the goods74 #ahie4 ,theft of a small amount may be a mortal sin 7see #ahg74 ,this may happen3 7a7 on account of the internal or subjective circumstances1 as when the thief intends to steal as much as he can or a large amount here and now1 or when he intends to steal a small amount here and new but to keep this up every day until he has stolen a considerable amount1 or when a child steals a small sum from its parents and falsely thinks that the theft is gravely sinful in itself2 7b7 on account of external or objective circumstances1 as when the amount taken today is small but constitutes1 with amounts previously taken1 a large sum1 or when the thief foresees serious consequences from his act 7e4g41 that the person from whom the goods are taken will fall under suspicion and be discharged or arrested74 ,it should be noted1 however1 that the consequences of the theft do not necessarily make the sin grave precisely as it is a sin of theft 7e4g41 in the case just given the theft was a venial sin1 but the unjust damage was a mortal sin71 or even precisely as it is a sin of injustice 7e4g41 if one steals a picture of small value1 foreseeing that the owner will be afflicted beyond measure at the loss1 the sin against justice is small1 but the sin against charity is mortal74 #ahif4 ,the determination of the amount that constitutes grave matter in theft or robbery 7or in unjust damage7 is a very difficult task1 because the factors upon which the injury depends are to some extent doubtful and vary in particular cases4 ,hence1 there is a great diversity of opinion among moralists on this subject1 and it will frequently be uncertain in an individual case whether a theft is mortally or only venially sinful in itself4 ,but on account of the spiritual and temporal interests that are concerned it is necessary to give at least general rules for direction that will enable one to distinguish between grave and venial theft1 and to know when the duty of restitution is serious1 when light4 #ahig4 ,moralists are in agreement on the following points3 7a7 the standard for measuring gravity of matter is not an invariable one1 but will differ according to circumstances of times and places4 ,thus1 money has much less purchasing power today than it had before the ,civil ,war1 and the same amount will not go so far nor last so long in the ,united ,states as in some countries of ,europe4 ,hence1 other things being equal1 it is less harmful to steal the sum of #aj in #aieh than it was to steal the same sum in #aheh1 less harmful to steal that amount from an ,american than to steal its equivalent from a ,european2 7b7 the standard for a particular country and period is to be interpreted morally1 not mathematically2 for it depends on the opinions or estimates of the prudent1 which after all are only approximations and subject to revisions4 ,hence1 it would be absurd to draw such a hard and fast distinction between grave and venial theft--for example1 to decide from the amounts alone that he who stole #ej is certainly guilty of mortal sin and fit for hell1 while he who stole #di4ii is guilty of venial sin only and not fit for hell4 ,the figures given by moralists for grave matter are averages1 and hence they cannot be expected to suit each individual locality or moment or injured person4 ,but1 being based on actual conditions1 they are serviceable4 ,if a sum stolen is much above or below them1 they indicate truly the theological species of the sin2 if it is only a little above or below them1 they afford a basis for probability1 or at least show that there is room for doubt4 #ahih4 ,moralists are also at one in measuring the injury of theft by the following considerations3 7a7 it should be estimated by the property loss1 that is1 that theft should be deemed a grave sin which in view of all the circumstances and the common opinion indicts a notable loss on the owner in his property rights4 ,this is a matter of common sense1 for every one can see that it is a very different thing to steal a cent and to steal #ajj4 7b7 it should be estimated by the personal injury1 that is1 by the unwillingness of the proprietor to suffer the loss4 ,this is also clear1 since the unwillingness of the proprietor is one of the ingredients of theft1 as was explained above in the definition1 and everyone will readily grant that an amount which would be notable if stolen from a stranger1 would not be notable if stolen from an indulgent parent4 #ahii4 ,there are two opinions about the estimation of the property loss4 7a7 ,thus1 an older opinion held that the standard should be an absolute one1 that is1 that the loss should be determined independently of the wealth or poverty of the person injured1 since the financial situation of this person is a purely extrinsic circumstance of the theft4 ,the rich man has just as much right to his #aj as the poor man has to his #aj1 and it is therefore just as injurious to deprive the former of the sum as it is to deprive the latter4 ,what is a mortal theft in one case is a mortal theft in every case4 7b7 ,a later opinion1 which seems to be the common one today1 distinguishes two standards3 an absolute one1 which fixes one highest amount that is always grave matter on account of its magnitude1 however wealthy the loser may be1 and a relative one1 which proposes a scale of lower amounts that are grave matter on account of the economic condition of the persons stolen from4 ,it is argued that a relative standard should be set up1 since the injury of theft is certainly felt more by those who have less means to fall back on2 and that an absolute standard is also necessary1 since without it the property of the rich would not be sufficiently safeguarded and the peace and order of society would be endangered4 #aijj4 ,opinions on the ,amounts that ,are ,grave ,matter4--7a7 ,the older opinion1 according to which there is only one invariable standard for all classes and conditions1 regards as grave matter the amount necessary to support for a day1 according to his state and obligations1 a man whose financial condition is midway between wealth and poverty2 for the loss of a day's support is usually looked on as a serious loss1 and a standard for all should be taken from the average4 ,this daily support amount may be reckoned from the amount of daily wages or income4 ,in the ,united ,states in #aiee the average daily wage was between #ad and #ae1 but1 if only skilled laborers or those who are in moderately prosperous circumstances are considered1 the average would be considerable higher4 ,perhaps it would range between #be and #cj4 ,or if we strike a medium between the highest and the lowest figures given by the advocates of two standards1 we should arrive at approximately #cj or #ce4 7b7 ,the common opinion today fixes the absolute amount1 which is grave matter even when theft is from the wealthiest person or society as the equivalent of a week's wages for the head of a family living in fairly good circumstances but dependent upon his work for its support4 ,as to the actual amount1 authors differ4 ,thus1 ,father ,francis ,connell1 ,c4,,ss4,r41 wrote in #aide in ,american ,ecclesiastical ,review 7p4 #fi73 8,to lay down a general norm in view of actual conditions and value of money1 it would seem that the actual sum for grave theft would be about #dj40 ,in #aidf1 writing in the ,homiletic and ,pastoral ,review 7p4 #fid71 ,father ,joseph ,donovan1 ,c4,m41 stated3 8,it is hard to see how less than #ajj could be absolutely grave with the chances of a higher amount being probably so4099 ,this sum was criticized as being excessive and did not meet with ready acceptance by all moral theologians4 ,on page #abg of the third printing of his ,outlines of ,moral ,theology 7#aiee71 ,father ,francis ,j4 ,connell1 ,c4,,ss4,r41 suggested #ge as a reasonable absolute sum considering the value of money at the time1 and1 as a practical norm1 the sum has been acceptable to most confessors and authors4 ,relatively grave matter corresponds with the amount needed to support a worker and his family for a day or1 according to some1 the amount required for the support of the worker alone4 ,relatively grave matter would range from about #e from a poor person on relief1 through #bj-ce from skilled laborers and persons in comfortable circumstances1 to #ge from the wealthy4 ,the latter sum constitutes the absolute standard4 ,for a general norm to establish relatively grave matter1 then1 an acceptable procedure is to take the daily earning power or expenses of those who do not belong to the wealthiest classes1 but who just barely make a living by reason of their work or charity4 99 ,this is not to suggest that the authors cited hold to the 8week's pay norm0 as the standard4 ,father ,connell1 for example1 defines the absolute as 8a sum which is so large that society would suffer much if it could be stolen without grave sin even from the richest or from a wealthy corporation0 7op4 cit41 pp4 #abg-abh74 ,the interest in citing the authors is to show the precise sums suggested by them at various times regardless of the norm used in arriving at the particular amount suggested4 #aija4 ,what is grave matter in theft of sacred objects8 7a7 ,if these objects have a value that may be measured by money 7e4g41 the gold or jewels that enter into a reliquary71 grave matter is estimated by the material value1 just as in profane objects4 7b7 ,if these objects have no monetary value 7e4g41 sacred relics71 grave matter is judged from the dignity or rarity of the object4 ,thus1 it would be a serious sin to steal even the smallest splinter from the ,true ,cross4 #aijb4 ,it was said above 7#ahih7 that the gravity of theft is estimated1 not only by the property loss1 but also by the personal loss1 that is1 the reluctance1 unwillingness or sorrow of the owner at the deprivation of his goods4 ,this does not mean that a greater unwillingness on the part of the owner increases the gravity of the theft1 if the owner's unwillingness is excessive or unreasonable 7e4g41 it is not a mortal sin of theft to steal a dollar from a miser1 if the miser on account of his love of money feels the loss as keenly as another person in his place would feel the loss of #dj74 ,but a less unwillingness of the owner diminishes the injury1 and hence increases the amount necessary for grave matter4 ,there are three reasons especially that diminish the unwillingess of the owner at the loss of his property4 7a7 ,thus1 by reason of the persons who steal1 the owner is less unwilling when these persons have a greater claim on his affection 7e4g41 his children or wife71 or when custom permits them to some extent a greater freedom than is granted to others 7e4g41 servants1 employees74 7b7 ,by reason of the things stolen1 the owner is less unwilling when these are things of less value1 like crops1 that are produced mostly by nature and are left exposed1 such as fruits growing by the wayside1 branches and pieces of fallen timber lying on uncultivated land4 7c7 ,by reason of the manner of the theft1 the owner is usually less unwilling when goods are taken gradually and on several occasions1 or piecemeal1 than when they are taken all at once4 #aijc4 ,the ,common ,opinion on ,domestic ,thefts and ,grave ,matter4--7a7 ,in theft from one's parents about double the usual quantity is required4 ,but in an individual case the parents may be just as unwilling1 and with good reason1 to be despoiled by members of the family as by outsiders1 and in such a case the rule would not apply4 ,hence1 in considering thefts by children one must bear in mind the ability of the family to suffer the loss1 the number of the children1 the uses to which the stolen goods are put1 the liberality or thrift of the parents1 the affection or dislike which the parents have for the child who steals1 etc4 ,thus1 if poor parents are denying themselves in every way in order to rear and educate a large family1 thefts from them are a serious matter4 7b7 ,in theft from one's husband even a greater amount is required4 ,but there are exceptions1 as when the husband is especially unwilling to have his property stolen by his wife1 for example1 when the money she takes is devoted1 not to the benefit of the family or other useful purposes1 but to vanity or sin1 or to the great detriment of the husband or family 7see #agii74 #aijd4 ,theft from ,one's ,wife or ,minor ,child4--7a7 ,according to the law in the ,united ,states1 a wife cannot steal from her husband nor the husband from the wife1 but this principle has reference to the common property of which husband and wife are joint tenants 7,robinson1 ,elementary ,law1 ,sec4 #efc74 ,both husband and wife may have also their own separate property1 and in that case either of them is guilty of injustice if he or she damages or takes without leave the goods of the other4 7b7 ,according to ,american law1 the father has the right to the earnings of his minor children who live with him and receive their maintenance from him2 but the law gives the father no right over the separate real or personal estate of these children4 ,hence1 a parent would be guilty of theft if he unlawfully took or used the individual property of his child4 #aije4 ,the ,common ,opinion on ,thefts ,committed by ,employees4--7a7 ,if the things stolen are small articles which the employer customarily supplies for his help 7e4g41 food and drink for domestic servants1 pencils and paper for his clerks71 the theft is not serious as a rule4 ,but there are exceptions1 as when the employee gives or sells to others these articles1 or when he uses or wastes them to such a degree that the employer suffers a considerable loss4 ,and one should also consider such circumstances as the great or small value of the services given by the employee1 his good or bad standing with the employer1 etc4 7b7 ,if the thing stolen is not meant for consumption 7e4g41 furnishings of the home or office1 merchandise of the store1 tools or machinery of the factory7 or is of a very precious kind 7e4g41 rare wines or expensive brands of tobacco71 grave matter is of the same amount as when an outside person does the stealing4 ,in fact1 the guilt of the employee is more serious on account of his abuse of confidence or violation of contract4 ,the property of employers would be subject to constant risk1 if employees were permitted greater liberties than outsiders4 #aijf4 ,theft of ,things about ,whose ,loss the ,owner ,is ,less ,concerned4--7a7 ,vegetation that ,belongs to the ,public and ,is ,left ,unprotected4--,if these things are of minor importance 7e4g41 wild fruits or berries1 broken twigs1 branches1 etc41 in public lands71 it seems that it is not theft to take them1 at least when one is poor and a member of the community2 for laws against such acts are generally regarded as penal4 ,but one sins1 and may even sin gravely1 when extensive damage is done to public property 7e4g41 by cutting down trees1 carrying away flowers and plants1 injuring shrubs1 etc474 7b7 ,vegetation that ,belongs to ,private ,parties and ,is ,left ,unprotected4--,if only a small quantity is taken 7e4g41 an apple or a bunch of grapes hanging over a public highway taken by a passerby71 it seems no theft is done1 unless the owner or law expressly forbids4 ,but it seems to be a venial sin to take more 7e4g41 as much as a hungry person can eat71 and a mortal sin to take a quantity whose market value is equal to grave matter4 #aijg4 ,travelling ,without ,paying ,fare4--,is it theft to ride in public conveyances without paying the fare8 7a7 ,if one rides without payment or ticket1 it seems that theft is committed1 unless the company is willing to give a free ride4 ,it may be said that the company suffers no loss on account of one passenger who has not paid for his transportation1 since the same number of cars and the same expenses would be required even without that passenger4 ,but since the owners are unwilling to furnish their service gratis1 he who takes it without pay is guilty of theft4 7b7 ,if one rides without payment1 but uses the ticket of another1 there is no injustice if the rules of the company permit this 7e4g41 ,a buys a round-trip ticket1 but gives the return ticket to ,b71 but there is fraud if the rules of the company and the agreement of the purchaser make the ticket non-transferable 7e4g41 ,b uses the half-rate ticket which ,a had received as a personal privilege from the railroad company74 #aijh4 ,small ,thefts ,which ,amount to a ,large ,sum4--,small amounts stolen may accumulate into a large amount4 ,this happens in the following ways3 7a7 the thief takes small sums on different occasions from the same person or from different persons1 and continues at this until he has stolen a considerable amount2 7b7 the thief conspires with other thieves to steal on the same occasion from one person or several persons1 and1 though the sum he steals is small1 the sum taken by the whole group is considerable4 ,similarly1 petty damages or vexations may accumulate into a mortal injustice4 ,thus1 if ,claudius1 aiming to break down the health1 sanity1 success1 reputation1 business1 etc41 of ,balbus1 plans and carries out a systematic campaign of small injuries daily repeated for years1 ,claudius is guilty at least in purpose of serious damage4 #aiji4 ,small thefts that grow into a large theft are mortally sinful in the following cases3 7a7 they are mortally sinful by reason of the previous intention when one steals a little now and a little again1 but has it in mind from the outset to steal a total sum that will be grave matter1 or when one conspires with others to steal a notable sum although one's own share will not be a notable amount4 ,in these cases the purpose is to commit a grave injustice1 either against an individual 7if all is taken from one person7 or against society 7if portions are taken from various persons71 and hence one is internally guilty of grave sin1 even though one has not yet performed it externally4 ,examples are merchants who use false weights and measures1 or who adulterate their commodities with small portions of water1 etc41 and thus make large profits by minute cheating2 7b7 they are mortally sinful by reason of the subsequent intention when one had no purpose to steal a large amount1 but adverts to the fact that a small theft here and now committed will constitute grave matter if added to previous petty thefts1 or that the amount of stolen goods now possessed is large1 and nevertheless resolves to go ahead with the theft or to retain the stolen goods4 ,this does not mean that a number of venial sins coalesce into a mortal sin 7see #ahi71 but only that the object of a sin which is slight in itself becomes serious on account of the circumstance that it is morally connected with previous sins4 ,the last act in a connected series must not be taken singly1 but in connection with the acts that precede1 as is seen in the violation of a fast or in omission of parts of an hour4 ,in the cases now considered1 therefore1 grave injustice is actually and purposely done1 and mortal sin is committed1 even though there was no thought of this in advance4 #aiaj4 ,the case of young men who are educated free of charge in the expectation that they will go on to the priesthood and who do not persevere4--7a7 ,if they act in bad faith 7i4e41 if they enter the college or seminary merely to get their education1 or to avoid work1 or if they remain after they have abandoned thought of the clerical state71 they are guilty of theft and bound to restitution4 7b7 ,if they are not in bad faith 7i4e41 if they wish to try out their vocation1 or if they begin with the intention to persevere71 they are not guilty of injustice4 ,this is true1 even though they are rejected on account of idleness or other faults1 provided there was no intention to defraud4 #aiaa4 ,in the following cases small thefts which added to others make a large sum seem not to be the cause of grave loss1 and hence not mortally sinful3 7a7 the small theft of one person following on the small thefts of others1 when there is no bond of example1 advice1 conspiracy1 etc41 to unite the various thefts2 for none of the thieves can be held responsible for the part of the loss caused by the others4 ,example3 ,titus1 knowing that ,balbus has been cheated by various persons to the amount of #i and that #aj will be a serious loss to ,balbus1 proceeds to steal #a from ,balbus3 7b7 the small thefts of several persons who steal together1 and who influence one another only by example2 for example is an occasion1 not a true cause of the imitator's act 7see #addg1 #agfc74 ,example3 ,sempronius and ,claudius go into a store together and find that there is no one around4 ,sempronius thereupon steals a number of articles and leaves4 ,claudius notices this and steals other things1 which will make the total loss serious4 #aiab4 ,moral ,connection between ,repeated ,acts of ,theft4--,the moral connection between repeated acts of theft by one person is necessary1 as was said1 in order that these acts unite into one grave sin4 ,this moral connection does not exist1 however1 if the series is broken by interruption or revocation4 7a7 ,thus1 the connection is broken by interruption when there is a long interval between small thefts1 because thefts that are small and infrequent do not inflict severe loss on individuals or society4 ,this supposes1 of course1 that there is no intention to practise small thievery habitually in order to become enriched by it1 but that one steals now and then as opportunity or necessity occurs1 or 7according to some7 that one intends to steal only small amounts and at long intervals4 7b7 ,the connection is also broken by restitution or revocation4 ,it is clear that1 if the thief has given back his former thefts1 they should not be computed with later thefts2 and it seems also--though some do not admit this--that1 if he has sincerely resolved to give back things taken before 7e4g41 things which are useless for him71 there is no moral connection between the past thefts and a theft he is committing now4 #aiac4 ,interval of ,time between ,acts of ,theft4--,the interval of time that breaks the connection between small thefts cannot be determined with mathematical exactness1 but the following rule seems to be accurate enough3 thefts combine to form a great theft only when considerable property is taken by degrees1 but within such a brief period of time as to be of notable advantage to the thief and of notable disadvantage to the loser4 ,some moralists think that six months is a long space1 sufficient to prevent union between thefts1 but that two months is too short a space to prevent the union2 others1 on the contrary1 believe that the amounts stolen should be taken into consideration2 and hence that the following intervals between thefts separate them into distinct venial sins without coalescence3 7a7 a period of one year between thefts1 each of which almost amounts to grave matter1 when the property is kept 7e4g41 when a dressmaker who has kept not a little of her patron's material of a twelvemonth ago does the same thing again this year72 7b7 a period of two months1 when the matters are almost grave1 but the property is not kept 7e4g41 when a thief who beat a restaurant out of the price of a very elaborate meal at the beginning of ,january does the same thing at the beginning of ,march74 ,but it is hard to see how one could have the habit of stealing in this way and not have the intention of stealing a large amount1 for a person who steals what is almost grave matter every two months or so must realize that he will shortly be enriched to a considerable extent by his dishonesty4 ,moreover1 the interval of two months might be needed by the thief for avoiding suspicion2 7c7 a period of one month1 when the thing stolen falls far short of grave matter 7e4g41 a meal of simple fare plainly cooked and served72 7d7 a period of about two weeks1 when the matters are very small 7e4g41 when a thief takes a few secret sips from a wine bottle on each of his fortnightly visits to a certain house1 or carries away some trifling object as a souvenir74 ,these thefts would not surpass five or ten cents a month2 7e7 some authors think that one week or perhaps even one day will prevent coalescence between extremely small thefts2 and surely there are some paltry objects 7e4g41 a pin or needle1 a match1 a small lump of coal1 a piece of string7 which would not total a large value even after many years have passed4 #aiad4 ,species and ,number of ,petty ,thefts that ,coalesce into ,grave ,matter4--7a7 ,if the thefts proceed from a previously formed purpose of stealing by installments a large sum1 each of them is a mortal sin1 but they do not form numerically distinct sins1 unless there was a revocation of the intent 7see #bad1 #bae74 7b7 ,if the thefts did not proceed from a previously formed plan1 those that preceded the culminating theft 7i4e41 the one whose addition makes the quantity grave7 are so many separate venial sins of theft4 ,the culminating theft is a mortal sin1 if the thief adverts to the fact that he has now stolen a notable sum2 otherwise it is a venial sin4 ,the act1 after the gravity of the matter has been noticed1 is the initial mortal sin1 if it means consent to the grave injustice done 7e4g41 retention of the ill-gotten goods1 intention not to make restitution72 it is an additional mortal sin1 if it means a renewal of consent to the grave injustice previously done 7e4g41 the theft of a new small amount with the purpose of keeping it as well as the rest74 #aiae4 ,sum ,required for ,grave ,matter in ,petty ,thefts that ,coalesce4--7a7 ,according to one opinion1 it is always larger than the sum required for grave matter in a theft of the same amount on a single occasion2 for the owner does not feel the loss so much when his goods are stolen in small amounts and at different times4 ,thus1 a man is less unwilling to have #ajj stolen from him through pilferings of cents and dollars over a period of a year or two than to have it all stolen from him on one day4 7b7 ,according to another opinion1 grave matter for petty thefts is not larger than grave matter for large thefts of the same amount1 if the petty thief had the intention all along to accumulate a notable sum4 ,but some who are of this opinion make an exception for the case when the petty thief steals not from one but from several owners1 for in this way the loss is distributed and less harm done4 ,grave matter in this case1 they say1 is the same as absolutely grave matter4 #aiaf4 ,there are various opinions on the amounts required for grave matter in the case of petty thefts that coalesce4 7a7 ,if all the thefts are against the same person1 the usual opinion fixes grave matter at one and one-half times or twice the amount fixed for large thefts4 ,some authors limit this to cases wherein the thief had not the purpose from the beginning to steal a great amount 7see #aiae71 and some state that the amount for large thefts which is considered is the relative1 not the absolute sum4 7b7 ,if the thefts are against different persons1 some think that grave matter is the same as the absolute matter of one large theft1 while others make it one and one-half times or twice that amount4 ,here again some moralists limit these increases in the sum for grave matter to cases wherein there was no purpose from the beginning to steal a notable amount4 #aiag4 ,theft from ,joint ,owners4--,is it a grave sin to steal a considerable amount of property that belongs to joint owners8 7a7 ,if the amount taken is absolutely grave1 the sin is serious for the reasons given in #ahih sqq42 7b7 if the amount taken is relatively grave 7e4g41 because a community is very poor1 or because the owners are only two or three and the individual loss is heavy71 the sin is serious2 7c7 if the amount taken is not relatively grave1 as happens when an organization is not poor and has many members or when the loss will be so distributed among the joint owners as to be little felt by them individually1 the sin is not serious4 #aiah4 ,restitution in ,cases of ,theft4--7a7 ,restitution is owed for the property stolen4 ,he who stole a serious amount but gave back part1 retaining only what is light matter1 is bound under venial sin to restore the rest4 ,confessors should urge restitution even of small amounts1 when possible1 in order to deter men from theft1 and it may sometimes be useful to require children to seek a condonation from their parents for a similar reason4 7b7 ,restitution is owed also for damage caused by the theft 7see #ahie74 ,thus1 if one steals the tool of a poor farmer1 which is of little value in itself but which brings on him a serious loss1 one is responsible for the loss as well as for the tool4 #aiai4 ,cases of ,doubt4--7a7 ,doubts of ,law4--,the rules given by moralists on grave matter in thefts are not to be regarded as certain and authentic1 since they are only the opinions of theologians1 and have no obligatory sanction from the ,church4 ,they are reasonable and well founded1 indeed1 but in spite of them there will occur cases wherein it is doubtful whether a theft is mortal or venial 7see #ahif74 ,it is no disgrace to be ignorant in such difficult cases1 for ,st4 ,augustine himself admitted that he did not always know where to draw the line4 ,hence1 confessors should not feel obliged to decide with finality in every instance whether the sin committed was in itself grave or light2 on the contrary1 it will sometimes be necessary to avoid a definite answer1 while calling attention to the sinfulness of all theft and the duty of restitution4 ,but the obligation of restitution should not be imposed as certain1 where the doctors disagree4 7b7 ,doubts of ,fact4--,the application of the rules for grave matter will also be at times very difficult on account of uncertainties about circumstances of time1 person1 etc4 ,in such cases one must have recourse to the systems for decision in the presence of a doubtful conscience4 ,if a thief does not know from whom he stole1 it may be doubtful whether the matter is relatively grave or only light2 but the presumption then will be that the loser was a person of average means4 ,again1 when there is a strong likelihood that an owner was not greatly unwilling1 one must insist that the thefts cease for the future1 but one cannot always impose restitution4 ,if a petty thief does not know how much he stole1 or whether all the thefts were from the same person1 or whether the intervals between the thefts were great or small1 or whether he had the intention from the outset to take a large sum1 the confessor will have to form an opinion by questioning the penitent on the time of his last confession1 the amounts he generally took1 the general frequency of the thefts1 etc4 #aibj4 ,conversion of ,others' ,property4--,the conversion of property owned by others or held by them may be permitted1 or at least tolerated1 when the owner or possessor would be unreasonable if he objected as in the following cases3 7a7 in extreme necessity1 for according to natural law each one has the right to preserve his life by using the temporal things of the earth 7see #aega74 ,in danger of death things necessary for escaping the danger become common property1 and no injury is done by the person in danger if he uses the goods of another person to save his own life2 7b7 in certain cases when occult compensation is the only way in which one can defend or secure one's right to property1 for it is not wrong to take what is one's due1 if this is done without harm to the rights of others4 #aiba4 ,conditions for ,lawful ,occupation of the ,goods of ,others in ,extreme ,need4--7a7 ,the occupation must be necessary for securing one's own or another's natural right to some supreme good1 such as life or what is almost the equivalent of life 7e4g41 freedom from cruel restraint1 escape from fearful disease74 ,a supreme good is at stake1 then1 when one is in extreme1 quasi-extreme1 or most grave need 7see #abcf71 that is1 exposed to the certain or very probable peril of losing life1 limbs1 liberty1 sight1 chastity1 etc42 occupation is necessary when there is no other way 7e4g41 by begging7 to avert the danger4 7b7 ,the occupation must be made without detriment to the rights of others4 ,hence1 one may not occupy more than is really necessary to escape the danger2 one may not occupy at all if the owner is situated in an equal danger 7e4g41 one may not take the plank from a man in danger of drowning in order to save oneself72 one may not retain the thing taken1 if the danger has passed 7e4g41 one who commandeered his neighbor's car in order to escape from a thug must return the car74 ,the neglect to ask permission1 however1 does not exceed a venial sin and does not impose the duty of restitution1 if there is a real reason for occupation4 ,one may not take the goods without permission1 if this can be obtained without too much difficulty2 nor forcibly1 if possession can be had peaceably4 #aibb4 ,restitution for ,occupied ,goods4--,is the occupier bound to restitution for occupied goods that were consumed 7e4g41 food and drink71 if he afterwards becomes able to pay for them8 7a7 ,if the occupier had no prospect at the time of ever being able to pay for what he took1 he is not bound to restitution--not because of possession1 since the thing has perished1 nor because of the taking1 since there was no onerous contract1 nor because of injury1 since he acted within his rights4 ,the owner cannot complain at this1 since charity obliges him to give of his own free will to one who is in supreme need and not to expect that the alms be paid back1 while justice forbids that he impede the appropriation of what is needed by the person in distress4 ,it seems1 however1 that a case of this character would rarely happen1 and1 if it did happen1 the more decent thing would be to pay for what was used4 ,some moralists think that more probably there would be an obligation of justice to do this1 since occupation is lawful only in so far as it is necessary4 7b7 ,if the occupier had the prospect at the time of being able to pay for what he took1 he is bound to restitution2 for one should not occupy more than is necessary1 and1 if a loan suffices to tide one over a difficulty1 it is not right to expect a gift4 ,hence1 men who raid bakery shops in times of food shortage1 are bound to make restitution to the bakers when able4 #aibc4 ,occupation in the ,case of ,merely ,grave ,necessity4--,is it lawful to occupy in merely grave or ordinary necessity8 7a7 ,this is not lawful1 for otherwise the doors would be opened to thefts without number1 and both the security of property and the peace of the public would be at an end4 ,innocent ,,xi condemned the proposition that it is permissible to steal in great need 7,denzinger1 n4 #aahf74 7b7 ,such occupation is less sinful than to occupy without necessity1 and indeed the theft may be only venial if one is in grave need and has vainly sought work or charity to relieve the difficulty1 as when a poor man who is not able to give his children all the food they need steals provisions now and then4 #aibd4 ,occupation of a ,large ,sum by ,one in ,dire ,need4--7a7 ,one opinion holds that even for the sake of avoiding death this is not permissible1 for one has no right to extraordinary means for the protection of one's life4 7b7 ,a second opinion maintains that this occupation is lawful1 under the conditions given in #aiba2 for life is more precious than even a large sum of money1 and in such extreme need property right yields to the right to life4 7c7 ,a third opinion distinguishes between the case in which extreme necessity is proximate or urgent 7e4g41 an unarmed ,watchman is threatened with instant death if he does not hand over at once the money he has in charge7 and the case in which it is only remote 7e4g41 the doctor tells a poor man that he will die shortly from tuberculosis unless he goes to a more healthy altitude1 but the patient is too poor to follow these instructions74 ,in the former case the person in need may take what is necessary 7on account of the reasons for the second opinion and also because the civil laws allow this71 but he is not bound to do so 7on account of the reasons for the first opinion72 in the latter case1 more probably he has no right to occupation1 for this would be prejudicial to the public welfare and is moreover strictly forbidden by civil laws 7see #aega1 #abec74 #aibe4 ,duty of the ,owner towards ,one in ,dire ,need4--7a7 ,in charity the owner is bound to come to the aid of the needy person2 but1 if he neglects this duty1 he does not offend justice and is not held to restitution 7see #abdj1 #agec74 7b7 ,in justice the owner is bound not to prevent the needy person from taking or using what he is entitled to2 but should the owner do this and the necessity cease1 there is no duty of restitution1 for the right of the needy person ends with the necessity4 #aibf4 ,lawfulness of ,receiving ,support from a ,thief4--,is it lawful for the wife and family to receive support from the head of the family1 when he is a thief8 7a7 ,it is lawful when the persons stolen from are not thus deprived of their goods or of the prospect of restitution4 ,this happens when the actual support does not come from the stolen property1 and the thief is able to make restitution from other property that belongs to him1 or the wife and children earn as much for the family by their work as they receive in support4 ,in this case the family may take from the thief even things that are not necessary for their support4 7b7 ,it is lawful when the persons stolen from are deprived of restitution1 but the obligation of restitution has ceased on account of grave necessity 7see #agig74 ,this happens when the support does not actually come from the stolen property1 but the thief is unable to make restitution from his own property without depriving his own family who are in grave need4 ,in this case the family may take from the thief only such things as are necessary for them according to their station in life4 7c7 ,it is lawful when the persons stolen from are deprived of their goods1 but the right to occupy these goods has arisen on account of the extreme necessity of the family 7see #aibj sqq474 ,this happens when the support comes from the stolen property itself4 ,but the family may use only what is really necessary for the relief of their dire distress4 #aibg4 ,compensation4-,compensation is of two kinds1 strict or legal and wide or extra-legal4 7a7 ,in a strict sense1 compensation is counterclaim1 or the comparison of the debts of two persons to one another with a view to the cancellation of one or of both debts4 ,this method of extinction of debt is allowed by law in order to reduce the amount and expenses of litigation4 ,it is known as recoupment or offset when a defendant brings a cross-action against a plaintiff for non-fulfillment by the latter of some part of the contract in controversy1 and as set-off when the defendant introduces the debt owed to him over against the debts sued for by the plaintiff4 ,counterclaim is just when no injury is done to one party 7e4g41 it would be unjust to keep the horse of ,titus which you had borrowed1 simply because ,titus owed you a debt equal to the value of the horse1 for the horse might be worth more to ,titus72 it is legal when recognized by the law 7cfr4 #agig1 #agih74 7b7 ,in a wide sense1 compensation is the summary recovery by a creditor of the thing or the debt owed him by the debtor4 ,the recovery is summary in the sense that the creditor does not go to law1 or proceed according to law1 but takes from the debtor either openly 7open compensation7 or secretly 7occult compensation7 what is owed4 #aibh4 ,lawfulness of ,occult ,compensation4--7a7 ,ordinarily1 or per se1 it is not lawful2 for it contains such evils as disregard of due process of law1 scandal1 infamy1 public disturbance1 the menace that the common good will be harmed by frequent abuse1 the danger that the debtor will suffer loss through a second payment of the same debt1 etc4 ,innocent ,,xi condemned the proposition that domestic servants may practise occult compensation when they decide that their services are worth more than the salary they are receiving 7,denzinger1 n4 #aahg74 7b7 ,exceptionally1 or per accidens1 it is lawful2 for under certain conditions it offends neither public nor private welfare and it is necessary for the vindication of a right4 ,just as the natural law gives authority to occupy the goods of another in case of extreme need1 so does it justify occult compensation in the special cases just mentioned4 #aibi4 ,unlawful ,occult ,compensation and ,restitution4--,does unlawful occult compensation oblige one to restitution8 7a7 ,if the compensation is not only unlawful but also injurious 7e4g41 a servant takes what is not due her under the pretext of compensation71 it is not rightly called compensation1 but is really theft1 and restitution is due4 7b7 ,if the compensation is unlawful but not injurious 7e4g41 a servant takes what is really due her1 but she could have obtained it by asking for it71 there is no theft or duty of restitution1 since the property of another was not stolen4 #aicj4 ,conditions ,required by ,commutative ,justice for ,occult ,compensation4--7a7 ,before the ,compensation4--,there must be a strict right to the thing taken2 for1 if there is no such right1 one takes what belongs to another against his will1 or commits theft4 ,hence1 if an employer has freely promised to make a gift to his servant and then fails to keep the promise1 the servant has no right to take what was promised1 since it is owed from liberality or fidelity or gratitude1 but not from commutative justice4 ,the same applies to a non-necessary heir who has been left nothing in a will1 since he had no strict right4 ,it is also unjust to take secret compensation for a debt that has not yet fallen due4 7b7 ,during the ,compensation4--,no wrong must be done to the debtor 7e4g41 by taking more than is due1 by taking an article which the debtor needs for earning his living7 or to third parties 7e4g41 by taking goods deposited by them with the debtor74 ,if possible1 compensation should be made from goods of the same nature and kind as those that were taken or damaged1 for the debtor should not be forced to part with things he wishes to retain and which are not necessary for the creditor's satisfaction4 7c7 ,after the ,compensation4--,one must avoid injury to the debtor 7e4g41 the keeping of a payment which is now not owed by him and which one can refuse or return to him7 and to third parties 7e4g41 the casting of suspicion on a servant in order to divert attention from one's act of occult compensation74 #aica4 ,must the strictness of the right be morally certain1 or1 in other words1 must reasonable doubt of fact and of law be excluded8 7a7 ,as to doubt of fact1 it must be excluded2 for in such doubt the presumption is with the possessor1 or at least it is certainly wrong to perform an act that will probably be injurious to another person 7see #gac74 ,moreover1 everyone can see that the public good would suffer greatly1 if occult compensation were permissible when the existence of a debt is uncertain4 ,hence1 if it is only probable that one sold goods to another person or that another person has not yet paid for services received by him1 occult compensation must be avoided4 7b7 ,as to pure doubt of law1 the question is controverted4 ,some think that it also must be excluded1 since the possessor should not be deprived of possession unless it is certain that there is a right to do this4 ,others think that occult compensation may be used in spite of a mere doubt of law1 if the doubt concerns only the mode of making the compensation1 or if the probability in favor of the creditor is so strong that a judge could conscientiously decide for him against the possessor4 ,examples of doubts of law here are three cases that are in dispute among authors1 namely1 whether one may take money as compensation for defamation that will not be repaired by restoration of fame 7see #ahjb1 #ahjc71 whether one may deny reparation for defamation when one has been defamed by the other party and has not received restitution1 whether one has rights to a legacy of which one is deprived on account of a mere informality in the document4 ,in these cases the right is held by some authorities to be probable1 but the decision in a particular instance should be made only on the advice of a learned and conscientious person1 since the matter is very complicated and there is great danger of self-deception4 #aicb4 ,some ,cases in ,which ,there ,is a ,strict ,right to ,compensation4--7a7 ,employees 7i4e41 servants1 workingmen1 artisans1 officials1 etc47 have a strict right when they are injured by the employer's non-observance of the contract 7e4g41 the stipulated salary is not paid2 unjust subtractions are made from the salary1 as by fines for the inadvertent and infrequent breaking of tools1 etc41 about which there was no agreement in the contract2 labors not contracted for are exacted71 or when an unjust contract is imposed on them 7e4g41 they are induced by force or threats to accept less than a living wage2 advantage is taken of their grave necessity to wring from them agreement to such a wage74 7b7 ,merchants have a strict right when a debt which they cannot collect is certainly owed them1 or when they sold below the minimum just price1 because forced to this unjustly1 or because they made a mistake in charging4 ,they may compensate themselves by diminishing weights or measurements4 7c7 ,one has a right to compensation who has been condemned under a sentence manifestly unjust1 because the law is certainly unjust or because the judge clearly gave a wrong decision in a matter of fact 7e4g41 he erroneously presumed that a debt had been contracted1 or that it had not been paid74 #aicc4 ,some ,cases in ,which ,there ,is ,no ,right to ,compensation4--7a7 ,employees have no right to compensation for subtractions from their salary1 if they culpably injure the property of their employer1 or if they agreed to such subtractions2 nor for the smallness of their wage1 if they freely accepted it 7e4g41 if they regarded it as a favor to be employed1 and the employer did not really need them71 or if it is made up for by presents1 board or lodging1 opportunity for good tips1 etc42 nor for unusual labors1 if they hired themselves out for general service 7unless they are asked to perform work of an entirely unforeseen kind1 such as a very perilous mission71 or if they undertook these labors freely without the knowledge or wish 7express or tacit7 of the employer4 7b7 ,merchants have no right to compensation for goods sold by them below the minimum just price1 if they freely agreed to sell at that price4 #aicd4 ,children and ,employees and ,compensation4--,some special questions arise for consideration in case of parents who employ their own children1 and of employers who are forced to underpay on account of the dishonesty of their help4 7a7 ,children who work for their parents and who are entitled to a salary1 by agreement or from the law1 have the same rights as other employees1 but injustice against them would be less frequent4 ,in this country the father has a right to the services and wages of his unemancipated child1 but the child becomes independent of the father when it reaches the age of majority or when the father relinquishes his right4 7b7 ,employees who are underpaid because the employer is cheated by his help have the right to occult compensation1 if they are forced to take less than a living wage 7#aicb72 otherwise this is not permissible1 unless it be certain that the employer is not unwilling that the honest employees receive more than their pay4 ,in practice1 on account of the great peril of injustice1 it is advisable that such workers seek better pay through their organizations or else look for employment elsewhere4 #aice4 ,conditions ,required by ,legal ,justice for ,occult ,compensation4--7a7 ,occult compensation must not be used if payment can easily be obtained through suit at law or agreement2 for the order of law and the public welfare require that one should not have recourse to the extraordinary means of occult compensation if ordinary means will suffice and not cause notable difficulties4 ,but as a rule it seems this obliges only under venial sin1 since ordinarily the departure from normal procedure in this matter is not seriously detrimental to public morals or order2 and it does not impose a duty of restitution1 since he who takes only what belongs to him does not offend against commutative justice4 ,indeed1 if it is certain that other means will be futile 7e4g41 because one has not sufficient evidence to win or because the decision would he biased7 or harmful 7e4g41 because great dissensions will be aroused1 or heavy expenses incurred in litigation71 occult compensation is not even venially unlawful4 7b7 ,occult compensation1 according to law1 should not be used by a bailee1 for he has a lien for his services and proper expenditures in caring for the object bailed1 but not for any other debt the bailor may owe him 7,bolles1 ,handy ,law ,book74 ,this is obligatory at least for the external forum4 #aicf4 ,some ,conditions ,required by ,charity for ,occult ,compensation 7see #aafe1 #abcf1 #adhc74--7;a7 ,charity towards the ,debtor4--,the creditor should see1 when possible1 that the debtor suffers no loss by occasion of the compensation4 ,hence1 in order to spare the debtor the evils of a bad conscience in reference to the debt or of a second payment of the debt1 the creditor should1 if possible1 inform the debtor that the debt is cancelled or that payment is not expected4 7b7 ,charity towards ,third ,parties4-,the creditor should1 if possible1 prevent any trouble or loss to others that might be occasioned by the compensation1 such as suspicion of theft that might fall on servants4 #aicg4 ,the ,lawfulness of ,open ,compensation4--7a7 ,if one's property is being stolen or carried away1 it is lawful to protect or recover it by force2 for this is only just defense4 7b7 ,if one's property has already been carried away but is still in being and in a safe place1 legal justice requires that one seek redress from the courts4 ,but it does not seem a serious fault if one recovers goods by using moderate force1 since the property is one's own and the public manner of seizing it enables the law to take cognizance of the case4 ,american law recognizes with certain restrictions the rights of recaption and of entry whereby a person takes possession without legal process of goods unlawfully taken or withheld from him 7,robinson1 ,elementary ,law1 ,sec4#bci1 #bdj74 7c7 ,if a debt owed to one is denied by the debtor1 it is not lawful to take payment from him by force1 since this is against the law and productive of scandal and disturbance1 and moreover one is not the owner of the goods which one thus takes by force4 #aich4 ,notanda pro ,confessariis4--7a7 ,ante factum1 rarissime consulenda est occulta compensatio1 tum quia ut plurimum illicita est 7#aibh7 utpote periculo injustitiae1 scandali1 perturbationis plena1 tum quia lex civilis non solet eam ut remedium agnoscere sed potius ut furtum habet4 ,publice de occulta compensatione non expedit loqui1 et praestat ut qui privatim de ea interrogentur1 etiam datis conditionibus ad liceitatem necessariis1 per modum tolerationis tantum annuant4 7b7 ,post factum1 facilius in favorem utentis compensatione judicari potest1 in ordine ad restitutionem1 sed prudenter1 et quasi evasive loquendum1 ne praxis ita agendi ut per se et generaliter licita approbari videatur4 #aici4 ,judicial ,injustice4--,we pass now from injustices committed by deed to those committed by words1 and shall consider first unjust words spoken in courts of law and next unjust words spoken in private or outside of legal processes4 ,judicial injustice will be treated under the following heads3 7a7 injustice in judges2 7b7 injustice in plaintiffs or accusers2 7c7 injustice in defendants2 7d7 injustice in witnesses2 7e7 injustice in lawyers4 #aidj4 ,the ,office of ,judge4--,judgment is the proper act of justice 7#agbg7 and therefore when exercised under due conditions it is not only lawful1 but virtuous4 ,the exercise of public judgment belongs to the judge1 who is a person vested with authority to decide litigated questions in civil or criminal cases4 7a7 ,thus1 in the strict sense1 a judge is the official who has public authority to preside over tribunals of justice1 in which major matters are tried and a formal procedure is followed1 and whose function it is to direct the course of the proceedings and to settle questions of fact or of law that arise4 7b7 ,in the wide sense1 a judge is any person who has lawful authority to pass an obligatory sentence in criminal or civil matters4 ,the name may be applied1 then1 to those who preside over a tribunal in which minor or urgent questions are considered and treated summarily 7justices of the peace1 police magistrates1 etc472 to those who do not preside over a tribunal1 but who are attorneys at law appointed as officers of a court to pass on some issue of a pending proceeding or suit 7referees72 to those who act as assistants of the presiding judge1 by determining the truth of alleged facts in civil cases1 or the innocence or guilt of an accused in criminal cases 7trial jurymen72 to those who are chosen1 by the parties to the dispute or by a court1 as substitutes for the ordinary courts provided by law1 to hear and settle1 without legal formalities1 the matter in controversy 7arbitrators74 #aida4 ,classes of ,courts4--,there are various classes of courts and therefore various kinds of judges4 7a7 ,thus1 according to their relative dignity and jurisdiction there are higher and lower courts1 courts of the first1 second and last instance4 7b7 ,according to the cases they try1 courts are either civil 7in which redress of private injuries is sought7 or criminal 7in which the community prosecutes public wrongs74 7c7 ,according to the law which they use courts are ecclesiastical or secular4 7d7 ,according to the form of procedure used and the remedies applied1 courts in the ,united ,states are divided into courts of common law1 courts of equity1 probate1 admiralty1 and military courts4 #aidb4 ,jurisdiction4--,authority is necessary in a judge1 for judgment is a binding decision that may be executed by force1 and this supposes that he who pronounces the judgment is the superior of the person on whom the judgment is passed1 ,hence1 he who acts as judge when he lacks jurisdiction acts invalidly 7unless jurisdiction is supplied1 as in common error for an ecclesiastical judge1 in ,canon #bji71 and offends against the rights of another judge and of the person on whom he passes sentence4 ,examples would be secular judges acting in ecclesiastical cases or ecclesiastical judges acting in temporal cases4 #aidc4 ,the ,qualifications of a ,judge4--7a7 ,mentally1 he must be endowed with knowledge of the law and with prudence1 so as to be competent to pronounce correctly on the questions that are brought to him for decision2 for1 as being the authorized interpreter and custodian of the law1 he is bound by quasi-contract with the community and with those who appear before him to be competent for these offices4 ,if a judge realizes that he is incompetent in these ways1 he must either resign his office1 or make up for his deficiency by study or consultation with those who are more learned than himself4 ,a juryman1 being a layman to the law1 is not expected to have the mental equipment of a lawyer2 but it is his duty to give his attention to the statements1 arguments and testimony and to the instructions of the judge4 7b7 ,morally1 the judge must be a lover of justice1 whether commutative1 distributive or legal2 for the proper office of the judge is to apply the law to particular cases and to declare officially the mutual rights and obligations of litigants who are before him4 ,he must not be a respecter of persons1 one who is moved for or against a man on account of rank1 position or wealth1 nor one who is swayed by fear or favor1 by popular outcry or personal ambition4 ,not only legal but also commutative justice obliges him to perform his duties conscientiously2 for in taking his office he enters into a quasi-contract with the community to execute his functions faithfully and well1 and similarly by trying a case he engages that those before him will receive evenhanded justice4 ,a juror should be a conscientious person who is openminded and free from prejudice for or against those on whom he has to vote4 #aidd4 ,conduct of a ,judge4--,a judge must be above suspicion1 since respect for the courts is the very life of the ,state4 ,but there is good reason to suspect a judge who judges in his own case1 or in a case in which he will be naturally inclined to favor one side4 ,hence the duty of abstaining from certain things4 7a7 ,thus1 he should avoid business1 social and political activities that will give ground for belief that he uses his office for the promotion of private interests4 7b7 ,he should not act in a case in which his own advantage or the advantage of his friends might appear to conflict with the duty of strict impartiality1 as when he has personal litigation in the court1 or when a near relative of his is party in a controversy1 or when one of the contestants is his personal or political friend or enemy1 etc4 ,canon #afac of the ,code forbids a church judge to act in the case of a person related by blood or marriage in the direct line or in the first and second degrees of the collateral line1 or of a person for whom he is guardian or administrator1 or in cases in which he had previously acted as advocate or proxy1 or from which he stands to profit or lose4 7c7 ,he should refrain from conduct that would tend to arouse doubts of his impartial attitude1 such as incivility to counsel or witnesses1 unexplained rulings that have the appearance of arbitrariness1 private interviews or dealings with one of the parties before him in ways calculated to influence his action4 #aide4 ,accepting ,gifts from ,litigants or ,others4--,may a judge take money or other goods from those whose interests are submitted to him1 such as litigants or lawyers in his court or their friends8 7a7 ,if the goods are extorted by threats or pressure or unjust vexation1 the judge is guilty of robbery1 since he forcibly takes that to which he has no right4 7b7 ,if the goods are given as payment for the judge's services during the trial1 the judge sins against commutative justice in receiving payment for services already due1 since his salary comes from the community and obliges him to administer justice without charge to those who seek it4 ,neither is it lawful to take money as compensation for trying one case before another1 or for hastening a case1 or for giving unusual diligence to a complicated case1 or for deciding for one side when the evidence is equal on both sides4 ,but the law could permit a judge to collect his expenses from both parties if the trial necessitated a personal outlay of money 7e4g41 for travel or hire of assistants7 and there was no public fund to defray these costs4 7c7 ,if the goods are offered as bribes1 in order that the judge may be influenced to act against justice1 it is clear that grave injustice is done both to the community and to the party who is injured4 7d7 ,if the goods are given as free gifts1 with no condition attached1 some think they may be lawfully accepted1 if there is little probability that they will influence the judge 7e4g41 because they are small or given after the trial has ended74 ,but others hold1 and it seems more correctly1 that both natural and positive law forbids this4 ,natural law forbids because of the danger 78,presents and gifts blind the eyes of judges1 and make them dumb in the mouth1 so that they cannot correct10 ,ecclus41 xx4 #ca71 and because of the mistrust and scandal that will result4 ,it is incorrect to suppose that small gifts and gifts offered after sentence would not have influence1 for the contending parties would soon come to vie with one another in making gifts1 while judges would begin to think about the gratuities that might be looked for at the conclusion of a trial4 ,canon ,law forbids all ecclesiastical judges and all who assist in court to accept any gifts whatever that are offered in connection with the trial 7,canon #afbd71 and the civil law provides severe penalties for bribes offered as gifts4 7e7 ,if goods are given as a mere alms or from civility or hospitality 7e4g41 food and drink such as is usually offered to a guest or visitor71 it does not seem unlawful in itself to accept them1 but1 since there is a danger of suspicion and scandal1 even this should be avoided4 #aidf4 ,obligation of a ,judge to ,restore ,goods ,received in the ,above-,mentioned ,ways4--7a7 ,if retention of the goods is contrary to the reasonable wishes of the person who gave them1 restitution is necessary4 ,hence1 the judge must give back money that was extorted and the payments made by private parties for the exercise of his official duties4 7b7 ,if retention of the goods is contrary to law1 restitution is also necessary4 ,hence1 if a judge has taken a bribe1 he must give it back1 because the agreement is null1 and he cannot lawfully keep his part of the compact by acting contrary to justice4 ,the same is true when the law voids the contract whereby he received the goods1 or when a court decree obliges him to return a free gift bestowed upon him4 7c7 ,if retention of the goods is not contrary to the will of the giver nor to the law1 restitution is not necessary4 ,hence1 if a judge has received a pure gift and no corruption was intended or practised1 he sinned in taking it1 but the donation was valid and there is no obligation to return it4 ,and even though he has taken a bribe1 and in consideration of it has acted against justice1 it seems there is no natural obligation to make restitution to the party who gave the bribe1 since the latter has received a consideration for his payment1 but the judge is held to indemnify the injured party4 #aidg4 ,duties of a ,judge in the ,course of a ,trial4--7a7 ,the purpose of the investigation is to discover the truth in the matter before the court1 and consequently it is the duty of a judge to give a case the study and attention it deserves4 7b7 ,the method of procedure is intended to secure a fair hearing for both parties and so to expedite business that the litigants will not be harmed by needless delays4 ,the judge should therefore observe the necessary and customary forms of law1 while avoiding waste of time and unnecessary interruptions4 8,it is not the custom of the ,romans10 said ,festus to the ,jews who asked him to condemn ,paul1 8to condemn any man1 before that he who is accused have his accusers present1 and have liberty to make his answer1 to clear himself of the things laid to his charge0 7,acts1 xxv4 #ae74 #aidh4 ,duties of a ,judge at the ,conclusion of a ,trial4--7a7 ,the sentence must be just1 that is1 it must be based on the law and the evidence4 ,even though a judge does not personally approve of a law1 thinking it unwise or unnecessary or over-severe1 he should nevertheless enforce it2 for he is appointed1 not to change or reform1 but to apply the law1 yet so1 however1 that the spirit is not sacrificed4 7b7 ,sentence must not be relaxed as a rule1 for otherwise the rights of the ,state or of the party winning the case will be harmed4 ,but there are times when the public good or some other sufficient reason calls for relaxation1 and in such cases judges have the power to refrain from passing sentence or to suspend or respite a sentence already announced4 ,the defeated party should be allowed the opportunity which the law grants him for seeking a reversal of the judgment4 #aidi4 ,sentence ,passed under a ,law ,manifestly ,unjust4--7a7 ,if the law is manifestly opposed to divine or natural law and sentence under it would command the commission of an act intrinsically evil 7e4g41 cohabitation of those who are not really married1 8mercy killing0 of the physically or mentally incapacitated1 eugenic sterilization of defectives or criminals71 the judge should resign rather than give such a sentence4 7b7 ,if the law is manifestly opposed to divine or natural law and sentence under it would inflict a grievous penalty 7e4g41 death or long imprisonment7 on the transgressor of the law1 sentence would be unlawful4 ,but if only a light penalty would be inflicted 7e4g41 a small fine or short confinement71 it seems that sentence might be tolerated2 for the person condemned might be considered to yield his rights in such a case for the sake of the public good1 which suffers from the loss of conscientious officials4 ,the act of the judge in giving the sentence would be only material cooperation1 which is lawful for grave reasons 7see #aeae sqq474 7c7 ,if the law is manifestly opposed to ecclesiastical law1 sentence may be given lawfully1 if scandal is avoided and the ,church yields her right in the case1 as is sometimes done in favor of ,catholic judges1 lest they be deprived of their positions4 #aiej4 ,may a ,catholic ,judge ,grant a ,decree of ,divorce8---,apart from scandal or a positive ecclesiastical prohibition3 7a7 ,the judge may grant a divorce to a couple not married validly although they have had a marriage ceremony recognized by civil law4 ,this would occur in the case of ,catholics married before a civil magistrate or non-,catholic minister4 ,also1 when the ,church has pronounced a marriage invalid1 civil divorce may be granted for the sake of civil effects4 7b7 ,divorce may be granted if the judge knows that one of the parties will invoke the ,pauline privilege4 7c7 ,if the judge is morally certain that neither party will attempt remarriage and that the divorce is being sought merely for the sake of civil effects1 he may grant the divorce4 ,in the case of ,catholics the consent of ,church authorities would be required for this procedure4 7d7 ,if the marriage is valid and it is known that the parties will attempt a new marriage1 some consider that a decree of divorce is intrinsically evil1 since it but applies a law that attempts1 contrary to divine right1 to dissolve the marriage bond4 ,others 7and this is the more common view today7 distinguish and think that the decree of divorce does not concern the religious obligation of the petitioners1 but is simply an official declaration that the state regards the civil effects of the marriage as no longer existing4 ,under certain circumstances1 7e4 g41 loss of office for refusal to accept a divorce case1 loss of prestige1 antagonism1 etc471 such a decree1 in itself morally indifferent1 may be permitted4 7e7 ,if there is question of partial divorce 7i4e41 separation from bed and board7 of ,catholic spouses1 a decree is lawful1 the ,church consenting1 for a reason recognized by ecclesiastical authority1 such as adultery4 #aiea4 ,when ,evidence ,is ,contrary to ,personal ,knowledge of ,judge4--7a7 ,in a civil case1 the judge should follow the public evidence rather than his private knowledge2 for he acts as a public1 not as a private1 person4 ,moreover1 the ,state has the power to transfer property from one to another1 when the common good requires this1 and the common good requires that civil decisions be based on public evidence rather than on private information4 ,some moralists deny this conclusion on the ground that it is intrinsically wrong to force a person to pay who does not owe1 even though the evidence is against him4 7b7 ,in a criminal case1 the judge should follow the evidence rather than his own knowledge1 if the evidence calls for acquittal of the accused2 for it is better for the public welfare that a guilty man escape than that the judicial order be neglected and a rule admitted that might convict the innocent as well as the guilty4 7c7 ,in a criminal case in which the evidence points to guilt while the judge's private knowledge assures him of the innocence of the accused1 the judge must not condemn1 if there is any legal way to avoid it4 ,but if the evidence stands and the judge has to pronounce sentence1 it is not easy to determine the course that should be followed4 ,according to ,st4 ,thomas1 the judge should condemn1 since he is a public official and must therefore be guided by the allegations and proofs offered during the trial1 especially since public order and respect for law depend on the good reputation of the courts4 ,if judges could disregard at will the evidence offered on account of private knowledge they claimed to have1 the confidence of the public in the integrity of courts would be shaken1 men would take the law into their own hands1 and peace and order on which the happiness of the community depend would be at an end4 ,moreover1 the judge is not guilty in sentencing in this case1 since he does not intend evil and acts according to the principle of double effect 7see #ajc sqq474 ,according to a second opinion attributed to ,st4 ,bonaventure1 the judge should acquit1 since it is intrinsically wrong to condemn to death a person about whose innocence one is certain4 ,according to a third opinion1 which ,st4 ,alphonsus considers as probable1 the judge should condemn in minor criminal cases in which only pecuniary penalties are imposed 7for the ,state has the right to exercise eminent domain in order to safeguard an important public good like that of respect for the law and the courts72 but he should acquit in major cases in which personal punishments are inflicted1 for society has no right to deprive an innocent person of life or liberty4 #aieb4 ,when the ,judge ,is the ,unjust ,cause of ,damaging ,evidence4--,in some cases the judge may be the unjust cause of the evidence that convicts an innocent man1 as when the judge has committed a crime and thrown suspicion on the accused 7,dan1 xiii71 or when the judge has moved others to testify falsely against a man he knows to be innocent4 7a7 ,one opinion holds that the judge would be obliged to condemn1 on account of the reasons just given for the opinion of ,st4 ,thomas1 if the judge were unable to overcome the evidence4 ,but those who hold this add that this is purely speculative1 for in a concrete case there would be many ways by which the judge could extricate both himself and the accused from the difficulty4 7b7 ,another opinion says that in no case could the judge of the present hypothesis condemn4 ,those who favor this opinion declare that ,st4 ,thomas is to be understood only of the case in which the judge is not the cause of the unjust accusation2 for one who has culpably placed a cause of damage is bound to remove that cause before it acts1 if this is possible1 and in the present instance it is possible for the judge1 if all other things have failed1 to free the innocent person by testifying for him1 or even by acknowledging his own guilt4 #aiec4 ,practical ,conclusions about the ,three ,controverted ,opinions ,given ,above in #aiea4--7;a7 ,in a case tried according to ,canon ,law1 it seems that the opinion of ,st4 ,thomas should be followed1 since ,canon #ahfi1 n4 #b1 declares that the ecclesiastical judge must not give sentence unless he is certain about the matter of the sentence1 and that his certainty must be derived from the acts and proofs of the trial4 7b7 ,in a case tried according to civil law1 it seems that the whole controversy is today very often of little practical importance2 for court decisions are now frequently left to jurymen1 and these men must either have no private certainty before they are admitted to their office 7as is the case in the ,united ,states71 or they have the obligation of using private knowledge in casting their vote and of communicating it to fellow-jurors during the deliberations 7as is the case in some other countries74 ,hence1 the moral question whether it is lawful to decide according to private knowledge against the public evidence largely disappears4 ,but when a case of the kind now considered does occur1 the position of the civil law also agrees1 it seems1 with that of ,st4 ,thomas3 8,neither the judge nor the jury can consider a private fact of which they have a merely personal knowledge1 however important may be its bearing on the issue1 unless it has been brought to their attention by evidence properly produced in open court0 7,robinson1 ,elementary ,law1 ,sec4 #ccd74 ,but the lightest penalty allowed by the law should be imposed in such a case4 ,if a judge were privately certain that a jury verdict was unjust1 he could offer his own testimony or appeal to the pardoning power4 #aied4 ,the principle that a judge must be guided only by his public knowledge applies also to other officials who are required to follow the results of a public investigation1 but not to those who are required to act according to their best knowledge1 whether public or private4 7a7 ,thus1 public knowledge must be the guide of those who are ministers of a court and on whom it falls to execute its decrees2 for they are the instruments and subjects of the president of the court4 ,if they have private information of a material and relevant kind1 they should disclose it as witnesses4 7b7 ,private knowledge that is opposed to and more reliable than public knowledge must be the guide of those who are supposed to act according to the most trustworthy knowledge they have4 ,hence1 a superior who has the power to make appointments to office should disregard the votes of his advisors1 if he can prove that they are wrong in their opinions about a nominee for office4 ,he may confirm or annul their choice according to his honest conscience4 #aiee4 ,when ,guilt ,is ,doubtful in ,criminal ,cases4--,in a criminal case or a case in which punishment is inflicted1 if the guilt of the accused is doubtful1 the sentence should be for acquittal2 for no one should be condemned unless his guilt is morally certain 7see #agbh sqq474 7a7 ,thus1 according to ,canon ,law1 an ecclesiastical judge who is not certain that sentence for the plaintiff will be just1 must declare that the latter has not established his case and must dismiss the defendant1 though exception is made for cases that have the favor of law 7such as marriage1 liberty1 testaments1 ,canon #ahfi1 n4 #d74 ,canon ,law places the burden of proof on him who makes an assertion1 and it rules that the defendant is to be acquitted if the plaintiff or accuser fails to prove1 even though the person on trial says nothing 7,canon #agdh74 7b7 ,according to the civil law the rules on evidence also favor the accused in cases of doubt4 ,he must not be held guilty unless the ,state has proved affirmatively and beyond reasonable doubt every material allegation in the indictment4 ,in capital cases the evidence of guilt must be equivalent in weight and conclusiveness to the direct testimony of two competent and reliable witnesses4 ,a reasonable doubt in the mind of a juryman is one for which he can give himself an adequate and satisfactory reason 7,robinson1 ,elementary ,law1 ,sec4 #fjh74 #aief4 ,doubt in ,civil ,cases4--,in civil cases1 if it is uncertain after the investigation for whom the decision should be given1 the following rules seem to be just3 7a7 if the parties are unequal in claim1 the decision should be for the one whose claim is more weighty2 for the judge is appointed by society to investigate the truth of a controversy and to decide according to the merits of the case4 ,thus1 decision should be for the party ,whose arguments are of at least equal strength--but who has legitimate possession 7for 8possession is nine points in law071 or whose case enjoys the favor of the law 7e4g41 in ,canon ,law1 the cases of widows1 wards1 minors71 or for the party whose case is stronger and more probable4 ,innocent ,,xi condemned the proposition that a judge may decide for the side whose arguments are less probable 7,denzinger1 n4 #aaeb72 7b7 if the parties are equal in their claims1 some think that property in dispute should be equally divided between the contestants1 others that the parties should be persuaded to compromise1 or1 if this is impossible1 that the decision may be given for either one of them4 ,but if positive law regulates the manner of proceeding in such a case1 its provisions should be followed4 ,thus1 in ,canon ,law1 if a judge is in doubt as to which one of two competitors has possession1 he may grant it to both of them indivisibly1 or he may command them to deposit it with a sequester1 pending the settlement of the dispute 7,canon #afig74 #aieg4 ,what should be decided when the defendant has possession with probable title and the plaintiff has more probable title8--7a7 ,if the possession is not certain1 or not certainly legitimate1 decision should be for the plaintiff1 for uncertain possession does not create any presumption of right and hence the more probable case prevails4 7b7 ,if the possession is certainly legitimate1 the common opinion is that decision should be for the defendant2 for certain possession is not overcome by more probable1 but only by certain arguments for the plaintiff4 ,some authors1 however1 believe that the judge should decide for the plaintiff1 since possession prevails only when the arguments are of equal strength on both sides2 or at least that he could decide for him1 since it is probable that the plaintiff by presenting a more convincing case has sufficiently established his right to eject the defendant4 #aieh4 ,the ,standard by ,which a ,judge ,should ,weigh the ,evidence4--7a7 ,when the proving force of an argument is settled by the law itself1 the legal rule should be followed4 ,thus1 in ,canon ,law certain kinds of proofs are expressly declared to be demonstrative 7e4g41 a public instrument not contested1 ,canon #ahaf71 while other proofs are held to be insufficient or only of partial value 7e4g41 certain kinds of testimony1 ,canon #agef74 ,likewise in civil law public documents are prima facie evidence1 oral interpretation of a written document which contradicts its language is not admitted1 etc4 7b7 ,when the proving force of an argument is left to the discretion of the judge1 he must follow his conscience1 that is1 he must sincerely and impartially decide to the best of his ability the value of the argument1 whether it is decisive1 or likely1 or ,weak4 ,thus1 in judging circumstantial evidence a juryman must use his own common sense and intelligence in determining whether the premises are doubtful or the inference illogical2 in estimating testimony a judge must bear in mind the quality of the witnesses and the character of their testimony4 #aiei4 ,the ,moral ,obligation of a ,judicial ,sentence that ,is ,certainly ,just4--7a7 ,it is binding in conscience2 for it is merely the application of law to a particular case1 and law obliges 7see #cgg74 7b7 ,it obliges in virtue of legal justice when the case is only penal1 and hence he who is fined by court is held as a duty of obedience to pay the fine2 it obliges in virtue of commutative justice when the case is about a strict right1 and hence if the court requires an heir to pay a legacy1 the latter must make restitution for neglect of this duty 7see #agbh74 #aifj4 ,the ,moral ,obligation of a ,judicial ,sentence that ,is ,certainly ,unjust4--7a7 ,if the sentence is unjust because it is the application of an unjust law1 it produces no obligation in those cases in which the judge cannot lawfully apply the law 7see #aidi72 for an unjust law does not oblige in conscience per se1 but only per accidens 7see #cgg1 #dfa74 7b7 ,if the sentence is unjust because it is not based on the law or the evidence1 or because the trial was not conducted fairly1 it produces no obligation per se1 but there may be an obligation per accidens1 as when scandal or great public disturbance will otherwise result4 ,hence1 one who through plain injustice is deprived of an inheritance has the right to occult compensation 7see #aibh71 while the other party is bound to restitution of the inheritance 7unless he is in good faith or has prescribed7 and also to damages1 if he went to law in bad faith4 #aifa4 ,the ,moral ,obligation of a ,judicial ,sentence in ,case of ,doubt4--7a7 ,if the doubt is about fact or law1 not about the right of the judge to give sentence 7see #aiee sqq471 the sentence may be safely followed2 for it is the office of the judge to settle doubtful matters1 and to promote the common welfare by ending litigation4 ,thus1 in doubtful criminal cases the judge sometimes acquits a guilty man1 and in doubtful civil cases he sometimes awards property to one who has no right to it2 but these sentences are not unjust1 since they are based on rules which long experience has shown to be necessary for the public welfare4 7b7 ,if the doubt is about the justice of the sentence1 there is an obligation of conscience to observe the judgment1 since the presumption favors the judge4 ,were this not so1 the authority of tribunals of justice would be at an end1 for almost everyone who loses a case thinks that he has been treated unjustly4 ,but one may enter an appeal1 where this is allowed by law4 #aifb4 ,when a ,judge ,is ,bound to ,restitution4--,a judge is bound to restitution when he causes unjust damage to the community or to litigants 7see #agfb sqq471 and hence he must either recall his unjust act1 or repair to the best of his ability the harm done4 ,but the conditions for unjust damage must be verified 7see #agfc74 7a7 ,thus1 the judge's act must be objectively unjust1 that is1 in violation of a strict right under commutative justice4 ,this happens when he conducts the trial unjustly 7e4g41 when he neglects the essential procedure1 tries without an accuser1 and the like7 or when he passes unjust sentence 7e4g41 condemns without proof of fact or crime1 or in spite of evidence for innocence1 votes for acquittal when there is no reasonable doubt of guilt1 imposes penalties that are insufficient or excessively severe1 or awards property to one who to his knowledge has no right to it74 7b7 ,the judge's act must be efficaciously unjust1 that is1 it must be the real cause of the loss sustained by the other person4 ,hence1 there is no duty of restitution if loss does not result 7e4g41 if the party who is in the right wins in spite of unfairness on the part of the judge71 or if loss cannot be traced to the judge's action 7e4g41 when a judge is not entirely impartial in his charge to the jury1 but his words do not influence them1 as they would have given an unfair verdict anyway74 7c7 ,the judge's act must be subjectively unjust1 that is1 the judge must be seriously responsible for the damage on account of his culpable ignorance1 negligence1 or malice4 ,even though he has made mistakes through excusable inadvertence or error1 he becomes seriously responsible for damage1 if1 foreseeing it1 he does not do what is in his power to avert it 7see #agfi74 #aifc4 ,when a ,judge ,is ,not ,bound to ,restitution4 ,a judge is not bound to restitution1 however1 for violations of virtues other than commutative justice4 7a7 ,thus1 charity is offended1 but not justice1 if the judge has personal hatred against a person before him1 but does not permit this to influence his conduct or decisions4 7b7 ,legal1 but not commutative1 justice is offended1 if the judge is negligent about exemplary damages1 provided the common good does not suffer2 for there does not seem to be any strict right to the fine before sentence has been given4 ,this is disputed1 however1 by some moralists1 who hold that the judge is under contract with the community in this matter1 and hence that he offends commutative justice1 if he is habitually and to notable amounts indulgent about fines4 #aifd4 ,kinds of ,accusation4--,from injustice committed by judges we pass now to that committed by accusers4 ,it should be noted that there are two kinds of accusation3 7a7 extrajudicial accusation is that which is brought before a superior in order that he may correct or restrain1 without recourse to judicial process1 a subject who is delinquent4 ,this is evangelical or canonical correction1 which was discussed in #abic1 #abhi2 7b7 judicial accusation1 with which we are now concerned1 is that which is brought before a judge1 in order that redress may be obtained through judicial process against an accused person4 #aife4 ,judicial accusation is also made in two ways4 7a7 ,the accuser sometimes does not act as one of the two antagonistic parties1 and does not assume the burden of proving his accusation4 ,he makes an official complaint or denunciation1 and then drops out of the case1 leaving it to the magistrate or other officer to examine whether a process should be instituted and the informer summoned as a witness4 7b7 ,the accuser is sometimes one of the two antagonistic parties during the process1 and he then assumes the burden of proving his accusation4 ,in ,canon ,law there are two kinds of processual accusers1 the actor in civil cases and the accuser 7an official known as the promotor justitiae7 in criminal cases4 ,in ,american law1 the accuser in cases of private wrong is known as the plaintiff2 in cases of public wrong he is the ,district ,attorney or public prosecutor4 #aiff4 ,the ,duty of ,judicial ,accusation or ,denunciation4--7a7 ,if a wrong has been committed which is directly prejudicial to the common welfare 7e4g41 treason1 counterfeiting1 banditry71 there is an obligation to make accusation1 for each member of society is held to come to its assistance when its peace and order are endangered1 and this is done by cooperating with the tribunals of justice4 ,duty to one's family also requires that one prosecute1 when this is necessary in order to protect its members against some great evil4 7b7 ,if a wrong has been committed which is not immediately prejudicial to the common welfare1 there is not per se an obligation of accusation2 for the purpose of accusation is to obtain punishment or the correction of a wrong--an end that should not be waived when the common good is at stake1 but which may be waived when private interests are concerned4 ,but per accidens1 or by reason of circumstances1 there is often an obligation of denouncing or accusing private wrongs4 #aifg4 ,cases in ,which ,there ,is a ,duty of ,making ,complaint about ,private ,wrongs4--7a7 ,such complaint is obligatory in virtue of commutative justice1 when by reason of his office1 oath1 or function a person is under contract to accuse violators of the law2 and hence serious negligence in such a person entails the duty of restitution for any damage caused through his fault4 ,examples here would be a watchman who fails to report thefts1 a man serving on the grand jury who does not vote for an indictment when he should1 a prosecutor who is careless4 ,the obligation is grave when the danger or injury to the common good is serious4 7b7 ,this complaint is obligatory in virtue of legal justice1 when there is a positive precept of the law which requires that accusation be made4 ,the civil law rarely obliges to this as a duty of conscience1 but there are a number of cases in ,canon ,law in which it is a duty of conscience to denounce 7e4g41 when there has been a sollicitatio ad turpia74 7c7 ,this complaint is obligatory in virtue of charity1 when without serious inconvenience one can thereby save a neighbor from a grave evil1 such as unjust sentence of death or infamy3 8,deliver them that are led to death0 7,prov41 xxiv4 #aa72 8,rescue the poor1 and deliver the needy out of the hand of the sinner0 7,psalm lxxxi4 #d74 #aifh4 ,is a ,malefactor ,bound to ,accuse ,himself8--7a7 ,as a rule1 he is not bound to confess guilt1 either explicitly or implicitly1 for this is too much opposed to natural inclination1 and hence is not demanded by law 7see #eeb74 ,this seems to be true even though an accused has unjustly declared himself innocent1 and has not been questioned further or has been acquitted2 for legal justice obliges the accused to give a true answer only when he is being questioned 7see #aigh74 ,in ,canon ,law those who would sustain damage from their own testimony are not bound to take the witness stand1 and hence persons who reasonably fear that their evidence will subject themselves or their relatives to infamy1 vexation or other disadvantage cannot be forced to testify 7,canon #agee1 n4 #b74 ,in civil law one may not be convicted on one's own testimony alone1 unless the confession was voluntary1 that is1 made neither under fear1 nor with the hope of favor1 nor as the result of any species of coercion 7,robinson1 ,elementary ,law1 ,sec4#fjh74 7b7 ,in exceptional cases1 one would be bound to accuse oneself1 namely1 if there were a grave and urgent necessity of the community which outweighed the loss that would follow from self-accusation 7see #aegf1 #aegg74 ,self-accusation is also a duty when one is the gravely culpable cause of the punishment of an innocent person1 if there is no other lawful way of freeing him1 and the self-accusation will not bring on one a much more serious evil than that which the innocent person suffers4 #aifi4 ,ethical ,conditions for ,lawful ,accusation or ,denunciation4--7a7 ,there must be no injury to the common welfare4 ,hence1 if the order and peace of society would be disturbed by the accusation of a crime which was private and from which no further damage could be anticipated1 it would be better to leave this occult crime unpunished rather than bring on greater evils to the public4 7b7 ,there must be no injury to private welfare4 ,hence1 if the accuser does not believe that his accusation is just1 or if he knows that there is no suitable evidence for his charges1 or if he is excluded by law from making an accusation 7e4g41 when his knowledge has been derived from the confessional or in other confidential ways71 it would be unjust to accuse2 if the offender offers to make full satisfaction for a private wrong and has already amended1 or was not accustomed to commit such wrongs1 or if the loss he will suffer from the accusation will be far in excess of the wrong he has done1 it would be uncharitable to make formal accusation 7see #abjj1 #abja74 #aigj4 ,persons ,who ,may ,not ,act as ,accusers4--,generally speaking1 the following persons are naturally incapable of acting as accusers3 7a7 those who are guilty of greater misdeeds or who are infamous1 since it is unbecoming for them to accuse2 7b7 those who are enemies of the other party1 since they are swayed by spite or revengefulness2 7c7 those who are near relatives of the other party1 since it is unnatural for them to attack their own flesh and blood4 #aiga4 ,in ,whose ,favor ,may ,one ,denounce a ,private ,wrong8--7a7 ,one may denounce it in one's own favor1 for one is not obliged to sacrifice one's right to redress1 and hence accusation is permissible 7see #aaii74 ,those who are considered as one person with the injured party may accuse for him1 such as parents1 husband1 wife1 children4 7b7 ,one may denounce a private wrong in favor of an innocent third party1 as when an innocent person is being harassed by oppression1 even though one can defend him only with notable inconvenience to oneself 7see #aifg74 7c7 ,one may denounce a private wrong in favor of the guilty party himself1 as when he is guilty of offenses that are harmful only to himself 7e4g41 drunkenness1 impurities71 if he has a bad reputation already or his delinquencies are manifest4 #aigb4 ,accusation and ,fraternal ,correction4--,whether obligatory or permissible accusation should be preceded by a fraternal correction is controverted among moralists4 ,but perhaps the two opposite views may be reconciled as follows3 7a7 per se1 that is1 in view of the purpose of accusation 7punishment1 vindication of justice1 example71 there is no duty of previous fraternal admonition1 since the purpose of the admonition is the amendment of the wrongdoer 7see above1 #abhi1 #abic72 7b7 per accidens1 that is1 in view of the circumstance that there may be hope of correcting the wrongdoer and of averting evil1 and that punishment may not be very necessary to the public welfare1 previous fraternal correction for secret delinquencies may sometimes be a duty of charity4 #aigc4 ,unjust ,accusation4--,injustice in accusation is committed in the following ways3 7a7 injury is done the accused when a crime is falsely imputed to him through malice 7calumny71 or through a too great readiness to believe rumors 7rashness72 7b7 injury is done the community if one whose duty it is to conduct a prosecution makes only a sham attack or colludes with the defense 7prevarication71 or if without good reason he abandons the prosecution 7tergiversation74 #aigd4 ,cessation of ,duty of ,accusation4--,the duty of accusation ceases3 7a7 when accusation is found to be unjust1 for example1 when the prosecutor discovers the accused is really innocent1 etc4 7see #aifi72 7b7 when accusation is found to be useless1 for example1 when one discovers that the authorities are already aware of the fact about which one intended to give information1 or when one perceives that the charge cannot be substantiated4 #aige4 ,the ,defendant4--,the party who is required to make answer to the charges of the plaintiff or prosecutor is known as the defendant or the accused4 ,we shall now speak of the ways in which he may be guilty of injustice1 and shall consider the following cases3 7a7 the defendant in civil cases2 7b7 the accused in criminal cases who is innocent2 7c7 the accused in criminal cases who is guilty4 #aigf4 ,the ,duties of the ,defendant in ,civil ,cases4--7a7 ,before ,sentence4--,if the cause of the plaintiff is clearly just1 the defendant as a matter of justice should recognize the claim and withdraw from the case4 ,but a defendant may take exception to arguments offered by the plaintiff which1 though actually valid1 are not juridically made4 7b7 ,after ,sentence4--,if the cause of the plaintiff is clearly just but loses in court1 the defendant is obliged in conscience to pay the claim1 even though the plaintiff does not appeal the case2 he is also obliged in conscience to indemnify the plaintiff for the expenses of litigation1 if the latter lost the case on account of unjust means employed by the defendant4 #aigg4 ,the ,duties of ,one ,who ,has ,been ,arrested on a ,criminal ,charge4--7a7 ,if the accused person is innocent1 he may take to flight or even offer positive resistance1 provided he does no injury to those who attack him1 and public scandal or disorder does not result from the resistance4 ,this is according to natural law1 which permits one to use self-defense against unjust aggression2 but since the positive law requires the accused to submit to arrest that is not manifestly unlawful and empowers the officers to employ force against those who resist1 it seems that generally the accused should permit himself to be taken under protest1 if he cannot escape4 7b7 ,if the accused person is guilty1 he may take to flight1 since he has not yet been sentenced as guilty nor officially deprived of his liberty2 but he may not offer resistance to those who are sent to apprehend him1 since their aggression against him is not unjust4 ,the accused person1 if not yet convicted1 may even use indifferent means to escape from prison1 such as sawing his way out or eluding the vigilance of the guards2 but he may not employ sinful means1 such as bribery of officials4 #aigh4 ,duty of the ,accused to ,plead ,guilty1 if ,questioned by the ,judge4--7a7 ,if the accused is innocent1 he may not plead guilty1 as is clear4 ,if to escape most grave evils he did plead guilty1 he would be guilty of lying 7if under oath1 of perjury71 but not of self-defamation2 for1 as the owner of his reputation1 he has the right to sacrifice it in order to escape greater evils4 ,neither would he be guilty of suicide1 according to some1 if the death penalty were the consequence of the confession2 for his purpose would be to avoid what he dreaded more than death4 7b7 ,if the accused is guilty1 he must reply truthfully1 if the judge has the right to ask the question2 for if the judge has the right to question1 the accused has the obligation to answer1 even though unpleasant things will befall him in consequence4 7c7 ,if the accused is guilty1 but the judge has no right to ask about his guilt 7that is1 if the judge does not question juridically or according to law1 or if he questions from a false presumption of guilt71 or if the accusation cannot be proved juridically1 the accused is not obliged to answer4 ,he may keep silence or evade the truth1 but it is not lawful to lie4 #aigi4 ,legal ,right of a ,judge to ,question a ,prisoner about ,his ,guilt4--7a7 ,according to older legislation a judge had this right1 and could enforce it by torture1 when the common good was involved and the guilt of the prisoner was likely on account of infamy or manifest indications of crime or half-proof of guilt4 ,in itself1 this practice was not opposed to natural law and had some good results2 but it was open also to many abuses4 ,some moralists teach that a judge cannot impose a grave obligation of confessing guilt in capital or similar cases1 if the accused has otherwise a hope of escape and no great evil is likely to befall the common interests by reason of an acquittal4 ,they argue that human law cannot oblige so rigorously as a rule4 7b7 ,according to modern civil legislation the right of exacting a confession is denied to a judge4 ,thus1 according to ,american law no person may be compelled 8in any criminal case to be a witness against himself0 7,constitution1 ,article ,v74 ,in ,american law the plea of not guilty is not a lie1 even though the accused knows that he is guilty1 for1 as everyone understands1 the plea means either that one is innocent or that one is using the privilege of not confessing4 ,neither is it considered a lie to say that an unprovable charge is a calumny1 for an accusation that cannot be proved juridically is juridically a calumny4 7c7 ,the general law of the ,church rules for ecclesiastical processes that1 when the judge questions the parties-litigant1 they are obliged to answer and to confess the truth1 unless the question is not legitimate 7e4g41 questions about irrelevant or privileged matters1 or questions made in a captious or leading manner71 or the answer would incriminate the parties themselves 7,canon #agdc74 ,neither is an ecclesiastical judge permitted to put an accused in a criminal case under oath to tell the truth 7,canon #agdd74 ,an instruction of the ,holy ,office of #ahff required that the guilty party in a case of solicitation should confess1 but the instruction was directive rather than preceptive4 ,particular law 7e4g41 the statutes of a ,religious ,institute7 might perhaps prescribe confession by an accused1 but most ,constitutions of ,religious ,institutes bind only under penalty1 and1 as for the rest1 an ecclesiastical superior could at most advise1 but could not impose1 confession by an accused4 #aihj4 ,rights and ,duties of ,accused in ,conducting ,his ,own ,defense4--7a7 ,in ,reference to ,judge or ,attorneys4--,the accused1 if questioned1 may not conceal the truth by lies1 ambiguities1 or half-truths1 since these are evil means1 nor may he use evasion if he is lawfully interrogated4 ,but if the question put to him is unlawful1 he may evade an answer4 ,it is commonly held that lies told in giving testimony or evidence are not necessarily mortal sins1 as there may be no perjury committed or grave harm done another by reason of them 7e4g41 when an innocent man 8doctors0 a paper and thereby without harming anyone escapes from an unjust sentence74 7b7 ,in ,reference to the ,opponent or ,his ,witnesses4--,the accused has the right to disclose secret but real crimes of the accusers1 when this is an exercise of his legal right of taking exception to the witnesses as incompetent1 or of his natural right of clearing himself of the charge against him4 ,it makes no difference whether the evidence of the accusers is true or false1 whether given according to the order of law or not4 ,but he must not go beyond the limits of moderate self-defense 7see #ahbf74 ,innocent ,,xi condemned the proposition that it is probable that calumny may be used without mortal sin as a defense of one's justice or honor 7,denzinger1 n4 #aaid74 #aiha4 ,if the accused objects secret crimes of the opposition1 he must beware of injustice or uncharitableness4 7a7 ,thus1 it is unjust to disclose crimes that cannot be proved1 or that are irrelevant 7e4g41 it may be irrelevant to prove that the person who testifies that the accused committed murder is himself a fornicator1 but it would be relevant to show that this witness is a liar1 or dishonest1 or an enemy of the accused71 or that need not be revealed 7e4g41 if the witness's testimony can be overcome by showing that the witness is weak-minded or under obligations to the opposition1 it is not necessary to defame him74 7b7 ,it is uncharitable to disclose a crime1 if the witness will suffer far more from this defamation than the accused would suffer from the testimony4 ,if1 however1 the witnesses are giving false evidence of their own accord1 they take the risk of revelations by the defense4 #aihb4 ,rights and ,duties of an ,accused ,who ,has ,been ,found ,guilty4--7a7 ,appeals4--,it is lawful to appeal from a sentence that is unjust 7whether because of the innocence of the accused1 or of the illegality of the process71 because appeal is a means of self-defense granted to the innocent4 ,it is not lawful to appeal from a sentence that is certainly just1 merely in order to cause delay or to defeat an adversary2 but one may make an appeal when there are just reasons 7e4g41 in criminal cases the hope of getting an easier sentence or of prolonging life1 in civil cases the discovery of new proofs1 or of probable arguments against the sentence given74 ,but one who has pledged his word not to appeal from the decision of an arbitrator should abide by his promise1 and there is no appeal from the final decision of the highest court1 which in the ,church is the ,roman ,pontiff 7,canon #ahhj71 and in the ,state the ,supreme ,court4 7b7 ,escape from ,prison4--,if the sentence was unjust1 it is lawful to escape1 unless the means employed are intrinsically evil 7e4g41 killing of guards71 or the results will be more harmful than continuance in prison 7e4g41 the overthrow of public order1 the too great risk of the attempt to escape74 ,if the sentence was just1 there are various opinions on the lawfulness of flight4 ,some think it is never lawful1 because a just sentence is a precept of authority and should be obeyed2 others think that flight is lawful in grave cases 7e4g41 when the prisoner has been sentenced to death or to life imprisonment1 or when the conditions of prison life are unbearable1 because human law cannot impose as a normal regulation what is too difficult for human nature72 still others think that flight is always lawful1 because the court sentence is that the prisoner be forcibly confined1 not that he remain in prison voluntarily4 ,but one is not necessarily bound to escape 7see #aheg74 7c7 ,resistance to ,sentence4--,if the sentence is unjust1 resistance is not unlawful per se1 because one has the right of self-defense against unjust aggression 7,ezech4 xxii4 #bg74 ,hence1 if one were condemned to execute oneself 7e4g41 by taking poison71 the common opinion is that the sentence would be unjust 7see #ahef71 and therefore not obligatory4 ,if the sentence is just1 even though it be a capital sentence1 resistance is not lawful1 for the judge who duly pronounces sentence on a guilty man has the right to obedience 7,rom41 xiii4 #a-e74 #aihc4 ,jail-,breaking and ,restitution4--,if one does not sin by jail-breaking1 is one bound to restitution for the damages connected with the escape8 7a7 ,if the damages are not caused by1 but only follow accidentally on the flight 7e4g41 escape of other prisoners1 dismissal of guards71 there is no obligation to make restitution for them2 for the flight would not be the efficacious or the unjust cause of such damages4 7b7 ,if the damages result from the flight as from their efficacious and unjust cause1 there is an obligation of restitution 7see #agfc71 as when a prisoner1 in order to escape1 does needless damage1 or damage out of all proportion to the evil from which he seeks to escape4 ,but ordinary property damage1 such as a hole cut in a wall1 does not seem unjust1 if there is no other way to get out4 #aihd4 ,reliability of ,witnesses and ,testimony4--,a witness in court is a person who declares during a judicial proceeding that he knows some statement1 deed or omission in reference to the matters at issue4 ,the testimony of witnesses has proving force only in so far as these persons appear to have knowledge of the matters on which they testify and appear to be truthful4 ,hence1 certain kinds of witnesses and certain kinds of testimony are unreliable4 7a7 ,thus1 a witness is unreliable either through his own fault 7e4g41 if he is regarded in his community as below the standard in truthfulness1 or has the reputation of being a calumniator7 or without his own fault 7e4g41 if his powers of observation or his memory are subnormal1 or he is devoted or hostile to or dependent on one of the contending parties74 ,it is a duty1 indeed1 to presume good of a person in whom the opposite does not appear1 if he is the only one whose interests are concerned2 but when there is danger to a third party1 one must be on one's guard 7see #agdd74 ,hence1 ,st4 ,john admonishes not to believe every spirit 7,i ,john1 iv4 #a74 7b7 ,testimony is unreliable because of the number of the witnesses 7e4g41 one witness is often legally insufficient to prove1 especially in graver matters71 or the quality of their evidence 7e4g41 because in substantial points a witness contradicts himself or is contradicted by his co-witnesses1 or because there are signs of collusion or conspiracy71 or the counter-evidence of the opposition4 #aihe4 ,obligation of ,freely ,appearing as a ,witness4--7a7 ,there is an obligation of commutative justice to offer testimony1 if one is under contract to do this1 as when one is hired as a detective or agent to gather evidence against lawbreakers4 7b7 ,there is an obligation of legal justice to testify1 even at the cost of serious inconvenience1 if the testimony is necessary for averting a serious evil that threatens the common welfare4 ,a person who knows of a plot against the peace of the ,state should bring this to the notice of the authorities1 even at the risk of his life4 ,but a person who knows that a crime has been committed1 is not bound to give witness about it1 if the escape of its author will not be a serious detriment to public or private welfare 7e4g41 if one knows that an apparent case of suicide was really a homicide committed by accident74 7c7 ,there is an obligation of charity to testify 7but not at the cost of serious inconvenience71 if the testimony is necessary for averting a serious evil that threatens a private person4 ,a person who can prove that the evidence which is about to hang an innocent man is false should testify for the accused1 unless the testimony will bring an equal evil upon himself4 #aihf4 ,obligation of ,appearing under ,lawful ,citation to ,give ,testimony4--7a7 ,he who avoids citation 7e4g41 by flight into another jurisdiction1 by concealment of his person when the subpoena is being served71 more probably does not violate legal justice by this act1 since a precept that has not been received cannot be violated4 7b7 ,he who disregards citation offends legal justice1 since the summons to appear has a claim on his obedience4 ,but it does not seem that he violates commutative justice1 unless the party for whom he could testify has a strict right to the testimony4 #aihg4 ,obligation of ,witness to ,answer ,truthfully4--,a witness who is questioned legitimately 7i4e41 by one who has the authority to question him7 and juridically 7i4e41 according to the form and order prescribed in law7 is obliged per se to answer according to the truth as he knows it1 for one is bound to obey a superior when he gives a lawful command4 ,but there are exceptions to this rule per accidens1 that is1 when a higher law exempts one from the necessity of divulging a certain matter1 or when the question asked refers only to what one knows juridically4 ,in all these cases the witness may answer that he does not know1 for he has no knowledge that he may1 or should1 or must use4 7a7 ,thus1 the natural law permits reticence when a revelation would work notable damage to the witness or those closely related to him1 for the command of a superior does not oblige under such great inconvenience4 ,this supposes1 of course1 that the revelation is not required in order to prevent a great harm to the commonwealth or a far greater harm to a private person than that which threatens the witness4 ,a person who knows that he will be assassinated if he testifies against a powerful criminal is not ordinarily bound to make the sacrifice4 ,canon and civil law excuse witnesses from making disclosures that would expose them to prosecution or penalties 7see ,canon #agee1 ,sec4 #b1 n4 #b74 7b7 ,the natural law commands reticence when a revelation would be injurious to divine1 public or private rights4 #aihh4 ,matters ,regarding ,which a ,witness ,should ,not ,testify4--,there are certain cases in which natural law forbids a witness to make known a fact about which he is questioned4 7a7 ,a witness may never testify to matters known to him only from ,sacramental ,confession1 for to break the seal of confession is an injury to the rights of ,god4 ,in an ecclesiastical process a priest may not testify from ,sacramental knowledge1 even though he has the penitent's permission 7,canon #ageg1 ,sec4 #c1 n4 #b74 7b7 ,a witness may not testify as a rule to matters that are known to him only in a confidential way1 such as the communications between lawyer and client1 physician and patient2 for the public interest as well as the interest of individuals requires that generally there be security against defamation for those who give their confidence to others1 especially if they are in great need of professional assistance4 ,privileged communications are recognized both in ,canon ,law 7,canon #agee1 ,sec4 #b7 and in civil law4 ,but knowledge obtained as a secret may be used when this is necessary in order to avert a great evil that threatens the public welfare or the welfare of an innocent person1 whether this person be the giver of the secret1 or a third party1 or oneself2 for to oblige to secrecy in these cases would be to throw protection around crime4 ,thus1 a lawyer may make disclosures of confidential knowledge1 if this is necessary in order to defend himself against the false accusations of a client1 or to prevent a crime which the client intends to commit4 7c7 ,a witness may not testify to matters about which he has unjust knowledge 7e4g41 by wire-tapping1 by unjust coercion1 by intoxicating another person1 by reading private papers without permission71 for1 as the knowledge was unjustly acquired1 it cannot be justly used 7see #bdbj74 #aihi4 ,there are also certain cases in which a question refers only to what the witness knows juridically1 or in which he is called upon to answer according to the mind of the questioner4 7a7 ,if the witness is asked to state what he knows about a case1 he is not obliged to mention what he merely thinks or what he is uncertain about2 and if he is asked what he has heard1 he is not obliged to state what was told him by persons of poor authority4 7b7 ,if he is asked whether the accused was to his knowledge guilty of a crime1 he is not obliged to mention an act of the accused that was unlawful but done in good faith4 ,but in a civil case1 in which inquiry is made about juridical faults1 the witness should testify even to the existence of delinquencies in which there was no element of theological fault4 7c7 ,if he is the only one who has knowledge of a delinquency and it will be certainly useless for him to testify about the matter without corroboratory evidence1 it seems that he may keep silence about what he knows4 ,but if the testimony of one witness is sufficient according to law1 then the witness should speak of the facts known to him4 #aiij4 ,sinfulness of ,false ,testimony4--,when we speak of false testimony1 we mean testimony which the witness knows to be false4 7a7 ,by reason of his false oath1 the witness is guilty of perjury1 which is a grave sin against the virtue of religion4 7b7 ,by reason of the injury done by the testimony1 the witness is guilty of injustice1 which from its nature is a grave sin4 ,in the ,decalogue 7,exod41 xx4 #af7 false testimony is forbidden among the sins against justice3 8,thou shalt not bear false testimony against thy neighbor40 ,legal justice is offended1 since false testimony is an act of disobedience to lawful authority1 and usually commutative justice is also violated1 since by false testimony one of the litigants as a rule suffers loss4 7c7 ,by reason of the deliberate falsehood1 the witness is guilty of lying1 which1 however1 is not always a grave sin4 #aiia4 ,it may happen then1 though rarely1 that false testimony is only a venial sin1 for example1 when the witness is not under oath and he gives false testimony in a matter of small importance1 or without full deliberation on what he is saying1 or when he forges or corrupts a document to supply for another that has been lost and from which his certain right could be proved4 #aiib4 ,obligation of ,witness to ,make ,restitution4--,the obligations of restitution by a witness on account of failure to perform his duties properly are as follows3 7a7 if the witness has not sinned against commutative justice1 there is no obligation of restitution 7see #agec74 ,hence1 if he has evaded testimony to which he was bound in legal justice or charity alone1 he is guilty of sin1 but he is not held to restitution4 ,similarly1 if he has given false testimony and thereby deprived the ,state of a fine under a penal law1 or saved a guilty party from punishment1 he has sinned against legal justice1 but is not obliged to make good the fine or pay damages2 7b7 if the witness has sinned against commutative justice1 materially but not formally1 he is not the gravely guilty cause of damage1 and hence is not obliged from justice 7but there may be an obligation from charity7 to make restitution 7see #agfd74 ,but if he perceives that his testimony was materially or venially unjust and will cause serious damage1 he is obliged to recall his testimony1 or in some other suitable way prevent the damage1 if this is possible 7see #agfi72 7c7 if the witness has sinned against commutative justice formally1 he is the efficacious and culpable cause of the damage that results1 and hence is bound to restitution1 unless there is an excusing cause 7see #agig sqq474 ,thus1 if false testimony1 or testimony about matters which the witness had no right to disclose1 has led to the death sentence for an innocent man1 the witness who gave that testimony must retract1 even at the risk of his own life2 for in equal danger the rights of the innocent have the preference4 ,again1 if ,titus by false testimony has saved ,balbus from paying damages for injury done to public property1 ,titus must make restitution for the loss caused1 if ,balbus will not make reparation4 #aiic4 ,is a witness guilty against commutative justice when he unlawfully conceals facts and damage results thereby to another person8 7a7 ,if by concealment is meant the destruction of evidence 7e4g41 the burning of a will or letter or forging71 the witness or other person responsible is guilty of a positive act of commutative injustice and is bound to restitution4 7b7 ,if by concealment is meant silence about material facts that the witness is lawfully called on to disclose1 distinction has to be made between the witness who is not obliged from contract to give evidence and the witness who is so bound4 ,the former witness is a negative cooperator and sins against legal justice and charity2 the latter witness is a negative cooperator and sins against commutative justice 7see #aghj74 #aiid4 ,payment of ,witnesses4--,is a witness permitted to accept pay for giving true and lawful testimony8 7a7 ,for the testimony itself a witness may not accept pay1 for he is bound to tell the truth freely1 just as the judge is bound to dispense justice freely4 7b7 ,for the expenses he incurs and the time he loses by reason of his assistance in court1 he may accept pay2 since1 as ,st4 ,paul says1 he who does a service for another is not required to meet the expenses of the service 7,i ,cor41 ix4 #g74 ,both ,canon and civil law make allowances for suitable compensation to be granted to witnesses 7see ,canons #aghg1 #aghh74 ,but if a witness receives compensation in excess of what is allowed by law1 the court and the adverse party have a right to be informed of this4 #aiie4 ,lawyers4--,lawyer is the general term used to designate all those who are versed in the law and who give assistance to others in legal ways during lawsuits or apart from them4 7a7 ,thus1 apart from lawsuits a lawyer may act as legal adviser1 giving instruction1 information or direction on rights and duties under the law4 7b7 ,during a lawsuit he advises about the case 7jurisconsult7 or carries on for clients the prosecution or defense in a court of justice4 ,the lawyers who attend to only the more mechanical parts of a suit are sometimes called attorneys1 in distinction from counsellors or counsel1 who argue and plead in the courtroom1 but generally 8attorney-at-law0 and 8lawyer0 are synonymous terms4 ,the counsellors are known in ,england as barristers when they conduct cases in superior courts2 they are called solicitors in chancery1 and advocates in ,roman law4 ,canon ,law distinguishes between the advocate who defends1 and the procurator who represents1 a litigant2 the former argues for his client by invoking the law in his favor2 the latter acts merely as the representative of his client and is restricted by his commission4 #aiif4 ,the ,qualifications of ,lawyers4--7a7 ,the mental and moral requisites are competency in the knowledge of their profession and devotion to justice1 morality1 the constitution1 and law 7see #aidc74 ,a lawyer should be zealous for the dignity and reputation of the bar and loyal to associates1 but not afraid to take action against practices that are detrimental to his honorable profession4 7b7 ,the legal requisites for practising as a lawyer vary with the place or government4 ,in ,canon ,law1 it is necessary that an advocate be a doctor or expert in ecclesiastical jurisprudence1 that he be twenty-one years of age1 duly approved1 etc4 7see ,canons #afeg sqq474 #aiig4 ,the ,duties of a ,lawyer in ,introducing ,cases4--7a7 ,he may not stir up litigation1 as a means of bringing himself occupation and gain4 ,the ,catechism of the ,council of ,trent1 ,translated into ,english with ,notes 7,joseph ,f4 ,wagner1 ,inc41 ,new ,york ,city1 #aibc71 p4 #dge1 denounces this practice as among the chief violations of the ,tenth ,commandment4 ,among lawyers it is regarded as unprofessional1 and at common law it is an indictable offense4 7b7 ,a lawyer may not take or assist an unjust cause--one1 namely1 that is in opposition to moral or positive law1 as when a party comes to him with the request that he conduct a spite case whose purpose is to harass or oppress an innocent person4 ,he who defends injustice is a cooperator1 and is therefore guilty 7see #aggi74 ,but if a case has a good foundation in law1 the lawyer is not bound to inquire into the subjective dispositions or the conscience of the client in the matter1 and he may take the case even though he does not know that the client is in good faith4 7c7 ,a lawyer should not refuse a just cause1 merely because the person he is asked to assist is indigent or not in favor4 ,commutative justice does not oblige him to offer his services to one in need of them2 but there is a duty of legal justice to give his best efforts if he is appointed as counsel for a poor person1 and also at times a duty of charity to do this if he is asked for legal help by one who is in need4 #aiih4 ,the precept about works of mercy1 being affirmative1 does not oblige for every instance1 but only when the due circumstances of time1 place1 opportunity1 etc41 are present4 ,hence1 a lawyer is not obliged by charity to devote himself to every deserving case that is presented to him 7see #abbg74 7a7 ,thus1 as to place1 charity does not require that one go about looking for the needy1 but that one help those who are at hand4 7b7 ,as to time1 charity does not require that one take care of future needs1 but that one help those who are in present distress4 7c7 ,as to persons1 charity does not require that help be given to all alike1 for some have a greater claim on one's charity than others 7,i ,tim41 v4 #h74 7d7 ,as to need1 charity does not command that help be given those who can easily help themselves1 or who can obtain it from third parties who are better fitted to bestow it4 #aiii4 ,charity does not oblige to works of almsgiving1 if the inconvenience to the donor is out of proportion to the distress from which the donee is rescued 7see #aaeh74 ,the inconveniences that correspond with the various degrees of distress are thus explained by theologians3 7a7 if distress is extreme 7e4g41 a prisoner is about to be sentenced to death unjustly71 a proportionate inconvenience is1 according to some1 a grave loss1 or1 according to others1 the loss of at least a part of the necessaries of one's state 7see #abca1 #abea72 7b7 if distress is very grave or grave 7e4g41 an accused man will be sentenced unjustly to a long and harsh imprisonment71 the loss of goods without which one's state of life cannot be maintained so becomingly is1 according to one opinion1 not excessive2 but1 according to another view1 any notable loss or inconvenience is excessive2 7c7 if distress is ordinary 7e4g41 an accused will be unjustly sentenced to a small fine71 the loss of goods that are purely superfluous is1 according to some1 a proportionate inconvenience1 but others think that only such assistance need be given as will cause no inconvenience whatever1 such as advice or other service given during spare times4 #bjjj4 ,when ,is a ,cause to ,be ,regarded as ,unjust8--7a7 ,in civil cases the suit or defense is unjust when it clearly has no moral right4 ,a lawyer who recommends litigation in a case of this kind is unjust to the adverse party1 if that party loses2 he is unjust to his client1 if the client loses and is thus put to unnecessary expense4 ,generally speaking1 a ,catholic lawyer ought not to accept a divorce case4 ,the lawyer's position is different from that of a judge4 ,occasionally a judge cannot refuse a case without serious inconvenience to himself 7see #aidi1 #aiig72 the lawyer1 however1 is free to accept or refuse these cases4 ,the general prohibition is founded on the fact that in this country most divorce cases are means to an invalid remarriage4 ,some theologians argue that since it is the remarriage1 not the divorce1 that is intrinsically evil1 a lawyer might accept a divorce case for a very grave reason1 e4g41 to relieve desperate financial conditions4 ,in practice1 however1 owing to the danger of scandal1 the exception would be rare4 ,exceptions which are possible include cases where divorce is sought for a marriage that is invalid coram ecclesiam1 e4g41 civil marriage of ,catholics1 or simply for the settlement of civil effects ,where no danger of remarriage is involved4 ,in all cases involving ,catholics1 the lawyer should bear in mind the necessity imposed upon ,catholics by the ,third ,council of ,baltimore to consult ecclesiastical authorities before seeking civil separation from bed and board4 7b7 ,in criminal cases the prosecution is unjust if the accused is clearly innocent4 ,but the defense is not unjust1 even though the accused is known to be guilty1 for both natural and positive law give the accused a right of defense1 and hence he may choose or may be given an advocate1 in spite of his guilt4 #bjja4 ,duty of a ,lawyer ,when the ,justice of a ,cause ,is ,doubtful4--7a7 ,in a civil cause1 the lawyer may act1 whether for the plaintiff or for the defendant4 ,he may even take a case whose justice seems less probable1 for the purpose of the trial is to settle the doubt1 and not infrequently the cause that seemed doubtful or less probable at the outset is vindicated by the examination4 ,some moralists distinguish for cases in which the doubt is one of fact between the defendant and the plaintiff3 if the former's case is less or equally probable1 they say1 one may take it1 but not so if this is true of the latter's case4 7b7 ,in a criminal case1 when life1 reputation or other grave issue is involved1 the common opinion is that a lawyer may not prosecute if the case of the people is doubtful or less probable1 but he may defend1 as was just said1 even though he is certain that the accused is guilty4 ,the office of the prosecutor is not necessarily to secure a conviction1 but to see that justice is upheld1 while the office of the defender is to take care that an accused person is deprived of no right or protection that he should have under the law4 #bjjb4 ,if a lawyer through ignorance takes an unjust case1 thinking it just1 he is excused or not excused according to the character of his ignorance 7see #bh1 #bdi74 7a7 ,thus1 antecedent ignorance excuses from sin and restitution2 7b7 concomitant ignorance excuses from restitution1 but not from sin2 7e7 consequent ignorance excuses from neither sin nor restitution1 if it is crass or affected1 but it diminishes responsibility1 if it is only slightly sinful4 #bjjc4 ,duty of a ,lawyer ,who ,discovers that a ,case ,is ,really ,unjust4--7a7 ,a lawyer who took a case in the belief that it was just1 but discovers that it is really unjust1 owes it to himself to abandon the case1 for he cannot honorably cooperate with iniquity4 ,the same principle applies1 if a client insists upon unjust courses in the support of his case1 even though the cause itself be just4 7b7 ,the lawyer owes it to his client in the hypothesis we are considering to preserve the latter's confidence inviolate 7see #aihh74 ,he should endeavor to persuade the client to abandon the case2 but since the client's case is unjust1 he may not recommend a compromise1 except perhaps in reference to expenses4 #bjjd4 ,lawyer's ,duties towards ,client4--,since every contract depends on the mutual consent of the contractants1 and since the purpose of the person who retains a lawyer is to receive honest advice and assistance and to give in return a fair compensation1 it follows that the lawyer's duty to a client is to give what is thus expected and not to exact more than this deserves4 7a7 ,before the case the lawyer should be perfectly candid with the client as to the advisability of litigation or of the employment of himself as counsel in the case4 ,if there is a reason why he would be a less desirable advocate in the case1 he should speak of this1 so that his consultant may have freedom of choice4 ,he should also study the question presented to him1 and give his honest opinion on the strength of the case4 ,if a fair and amicable adjustment outside of court can be made1 the lawyer should recommend that this be done1 and if it is not clear which party is right1 he should advise a compromise4 7b7 ,during the case the lawyer should be faithful to the interests of his client and diligent in the affairs for which he is engaged4 ,loyalty demands that the advocate give his undivided devotion to his client 7e4g41 he may not give assistance to the adverse party1 he may not receive gifts or compensations from that party2 see ,code1 ,canons #afff1 #bdjg71 and that he respect the client's confidences 7e4g41 he may not use to the client's disadvantage the information given him74 ,diligence requires that the lawyer use his best ability and efforts to the end that the client1 no matter how poor or unpopular or persecuted1 may receive all the remedies or defenses that the law grants him1 and that his case may be terminated with all possible speed4 7c7 ,after the case he should be honest in his charges and true to the confidence that was reposed in him4 ,the compensation for the lawyer's services should be just1 that is1 a fair return for what he gave4 ,the amount of the fee should be fixed1 therefore1 by such standards as the law or custom1 or by the value of that which the lawyer devotes to the case 7e4g41 his time and labor1 his loss of other employment or prospects1 the risk he takes in undertaking the case71 or of that which the client receives 7e4g41 the amount which he gains1 the benefit he receives74 ,the wealth of a client does not justify an excessive charge1 but the poverty of the client makes it a duty of charity at times to lessen the charges or to make no charges at all 7see #abcf-abci74 ,it is clear that a lawyer should not compensate himself from the client's business contrary to the latter's just wishes4 #bjje4 ,lawyer's ,duties towards ,other ,parties4--,the duties of the lawyer to his client do not exempt him from certain duties to other persons who have a part in the trial2 for he is responsible to his own conscience and cannot act on the principle that he must win at any cost1 or that the client takes all the blame for anything dishonorable that is done4 7a7 ,thus1 respect is due to the judge and politeness to the opposite party1 his lawyers and witnesses4 ,abusive language and improper personalities1 therefore1 should not be resorted to1 and customary courtesies should be shown4 7b7 ,truth and fair dealing are due to those to whom or against whom the pleading is directed4 ,it is contrary to truthfulness to cite statutes or decisions that are no longer in force1 to misquote laws1 testimony or the language of opponents1 to assert as a fact what has not been proved1 to introduce false witnesses or documents1 to coach clients or witnesses in untrue stories1 to resort to quibbles or sophistry1 etc42 it is unfair to attempt to gain special favor from a judge or a jury1 to make improper statements or remarks with a view to influencing the jury or the bystanders or the public2 to conceal the arguments upon which one relies until the opposition has no opportunity to reply2 in a word1 to practise any of the tricks of pettifoggery4 #bjjf4 ,concealment of ,truth in ,presenting a ,case4--,is concealment of the truth in the presentation or defense of a case sinful8 7a7 ,if concealment is not unjust or mendacious1 it is lawful4 ,indeed1 a lawyer should conceal such facts as would be harmful to his own case 7e4g41 incidents that are really of no moment1 but that would create prejudice against his client71 or as he has learned in confidence4 ,this is not unjust1 since the opposite party has no right to the knowledge1 and it is not deception1 since it does not cause but merely permits others to draw erroneous conclusions4 ,neither is an advocate bound in justice to point out to the opposition matters favorable to their case1 of which they are ignorant or which they do not notice4 7b7 ,if concealment is unjust or mendacious1 it is unlawful4 ,thus1 if a lawyer discovers that serious fraud has been practised or that the court or the opposition has been harmfully imposed upon1 he is unjust if he takes advantage of this through silence4 ,similarly1 a prosecutor is unjust if he suppresses facts or testimony or papers that would establish the innocence of an accused person4 #bjjg4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,introducing ,false or ,corrupted ,documents4--7a7 ,truthfulness is sinned against by this practice1 whether the document be entirely fictitious or a copy substituted for an original that has been lost1 or an authentic instrument has been changed or interpolated 7see #aihj a1 #aiia74 7b7 ,this practice is also against legal justice1 since the law requires that no misrepresentations be made about the evidence produced4 ,indeed1 this is a very serious matter1 for1 if it were ever permissible to tamper with documentary evidence1 a way would be opened to frauds innumerable to the great detriment of the public4 7c7 ,commutative justice is offended by this form of dishonesty1 if the cause defended is not certainly just2 for the opposite party1 since justice is perhaps on his side1 has the right that he be not defeated by untruthful means4 ,but if the cause defended is certainly just1 there is not per se any violation of commutative justice1 since the adverse party is not deprived of anything that is his1 but is rather prevented from doing injustice2 per accidens1 though1 there might be commutative injustice 7e4g41 if the use of a forged exhibit was known to be risky and did actually lose the case for a client74 7d7 ,charity to self is violated by this deception1 since a lawyer should not value his client's interests above his own conscience1 reputation and prospects4 #bjjh4 ,when a ,lawyer ,is ,bound to ,restitution4--7a7 ,unjust damage obliges to restitution 7see #agfc71 and hence a lawyer must indemnify his client or the opposite party for the losses either one suffers through his unjust conduct4 ,the client has a right to restitution if he was put to unnecessary expense because his lawyer did not tell him the case was hopeless or too risky1 or if he lost a case because the lawyer was very incompetent or negligent or helped the opposite party1 or if he was injured in his reputation or prospects by the violation of his confidences4 ,the opposite party is entitled to restitution if he lost a right or was condemned because the lawyer unjustly took the case against him1 or if he suffered other injuries because the lawyer employed foul means to his disadvantage4 ,if a lawyer acts as the mandatary of his client in the use of injustice1 the duty of restitution rests primarily on the client and secondarily on the lawyer 7see #aghc72 if the lawyer alone is guilty1 he is responsible for all the damage done4 ,there is no duty of restitution if only legal justice is violated 7e4g41 if some deception is practised in order to win for the side that is in the right71 or if charity is wronged 7e4g41 if one refuses to take the case of a person who is in need74 7b7 ,unjust possession also obliges to restitution 7see #aggj71 and hence a lawyer who appropriates goods of his client against the latter's right1 or who charges exorbitant rates for his services1 or who drags out a case for lucre's sake1 or who has not refunded when he withdrew from a case1 should restore his ill-gotten goods4 ,if the amount of a fee is settled by law1 an attorney who takes more than the legal sum does not necessarily incur the duty of restitution4 ,all will depend on the character of the law1 whether it is penal or preceptive1 and if preceptive1 whether it obliges in virtue of legal or of commutative justice4 #bjji4 ,unjust ,words4--,we shall now take up the injustice that is done through words spoken outside of a judicial process1 or the classes of verbal injustice that are not peculiar to courts1 but are committed on all sorts of occasions1 public and private4 ,the principal sins here are distinguished according to the different injuries intended by the sinful speaker1 and are as follows3 7a7 sinful words that signify or effect in another person the evil of guilt1 thereby depriving him of benefits that are connected with virtue4 ,some evil speakers deprive their neighbor of tributes that are paid to virtue by others1 such as honor 7injury by contumely71 fame 7injury by defamation71 friendship 7injury by whispering72 while other evil speakers deprive a person of the tribute of virtue paid by his own conscience1 namely1 self-respect and peace of mind 7injury by derision72 7b7 sinful words that signify or effect against another person the evil of punishment4 ,the words are known under the general name of cursing4 #bjaj4 ,contumely4--,contumely is unjust dishonor shown to a person in his presence4 7a7 ,it is unjust1 and hence those are not guilty of contumely who speak words that are not honorable to persons deserving of reproof 7e4g41 in ,luke1 xxiv4 #be1 ,our ,lord calls the two disciples 8foolish and slow of heart02 in ,gal41 iii4 #a1 ,st4 ,paul addresses the ,galatians as 8senseless074 ,similarly1 it is not contumelious to call another person by a name that sounds somewhat disrespectful1 if this is done in banter or pleasantry and will be taken in good part by the other and do no harm4 ,thus1 to send a comic valentine or good-naturedly to ridicule some of the spectators at a farce is not contumelious as a rule1 since most persons are not galled by these gibes1 nor are the jokes taken seriously as a rule by the public4 ,but care must be exercised both in serious and playful rebukes to keep within moderation4 ,st4 ,augustine declares that even in corrections one should use reproachful terms sparingly and only in case of great necessity4 7b7 ,contumely is dishonor1 and so it is distinguished from injurious words that offend some other right 7e4g41 detraction offends reputation74 ,honor is an external manifestation of the respect felt for another's excellence or superiority in some natural or supernatural perfection given by ,god1 such as virtue1 authority1 nobility1 rank1 wealth1 etc4 ,contumely1 therefore1 is either negative1 as when one ostentatiously refuses to show another the honor due him 7e4g41 the salute or title or deference which custom allows him71 or positive1 as when one manifests signs of disrespect 7e4g41 names derogatory to virtue or intelligence1 or which mean that the person addressed is vile and contemptible74 7c7 ,contumely is shown to another in his presence1 that is1 it is an affront directed to his person immediately 7e4g41 the mockery of ,eliseus by the little boys near ,bethel1 in ,,iv ,kings1 ii1 #bc71 or mediately 7e4g41 the dishonor of ,david's ambassadors by the ,ammonites1 in ,,ii ,kings1 x71 or at least to his knowledge 7e4g41 the enemies of ,st4 ,paul in ,phil41 i4 #ag1 who spoke of him insultingly in the expectation that their words would be carried to him74 #bjaa4 ,are all persons deserving of honor8 7a7 ,if honor be taken in its strictest sense for reverence shown to a person who is one's superior in some good quality1 or for veneration for the proper excellence of mankind 7viz41 virtue71 then honor cannot be shown except to those who are more exalted than oneself or to those who are virtuous4 7b7 ,if honor be taken in its wider and more usual sense for respect for a good quality1 natural1 moral or supernatural1 in which a neighbor is more worthy at least than some others1 then honor can be shown to every rational creature 7except the damned1 who are irretrievably wicked and outside the pale of friendship72 for there is no one1 however bad or lowly1 in whom there is not something that deserves respect4 ,st4 ,paul exhorts ,christians to be beforehand in honoring one another 7,rom41 xii4 #aj71 and he urges that each esteem the other as better than himself 7,philip41 ii4 #c74 #bjab4 ,various ,forms of ,contumely4--7a7 ,by reason of the signs used or the external form it takes1 contumely is either in words 7e4g41 the names 8thief10 8lunatic10 8bastard07 or in deeds that are equivalent to word 7e4g41 offensive cartoons or caricatures1 insulting valentines or postcards1 8poisoned pen0 letters1 lampoons1 scurrilous or opprobrious gestures or acts1 sardonic grins1 mimicry74 7b7 ,by reason of the thing signified or the contemptible quality that it ascribes to another contumely is also distinguished into reproach1 which accuses another of sin 7e4g41 of drunkenness71 revilement 7convicium71 which ascribes to another either a fault or its consequences 7e4g41 drunkenness or imprisonment1 or diseases of alcoholism71 taunting 7improperium71 which twits another with misfortunes or inferiority 7e4g41 his lowly origin or poverty or the favors one formerly showed him74 #bjac4 ,manner of ,confessing ,contumely in the ,sacrament of ,penance4--7a7 ,circumstances that are of an essential kind1 that is1 those that change the species or add a new species1 must be mentioned 7e4g41 the fact that contumely was blasphemous or calumnious or scandalous or directed against a cleric or parents74 7b7 ,circumstances that are merely accidental1 such as those given in the previous paragraph1 need not be mentioned1 for they are merely various ways of committing the same sin of contumely4 #bjad4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,contumely4--7a7 ,from its nature contumely is a grave sin of injustice1 for it robs one of honor1 which is more prized than any other external possession1 since it is a testimony to virtue and to the esteem of fellowmen honestly earned4 ,hence1 men will often sacrifice health or wealth or life itself to save honor4 ,he who calls his brother a fool is deserving of hell 7,matt41 v4 #bb71 and the contumelious are classed with those who are delivered over to a reprobate sense 7,rom41 i4 #cj74 ,but1 as sins of the tongue are imputable only in so far as they express the mind of the speaker1 contumelious words are gravely sinful only when they proceed from a direct purpose to inflict serious disgrace 7e4g41 ,titus applies to ,balbus an epithet that is not regarded as very abusive1 but his purpose is to manifest his supreme contempt71 or from an indirect intention to effect this 7e4g41 ,claudius jokingly addresses ,sempronius by a very disgraceful title1 not meaning any great harm1 but knowing that ,sempronius will feel this deeply or that in the eyes of the bystanders he will be greatly dishonored74 7b7 ,from the imperfection of the act or the smallness of the matter1 contumely is made a venial sin4 ,thus1 if one who is suddenly carried away by anger or who is not thinking of what he says calls another person a very vile name1 there is not sufficient advertence for a grave offense2 and if one who is acting with full deliberation addresses another in language that is only slightly disrespectful1 there is not sufficient harm done to constitute a mortal sin4 #bjae4 ,the gravity of the matter in contumely depends1 not only on the character of the signs of disrespect1 but also on the persons concerned4 7a7 ,thus1 the less the respect which the offender owes the offended party1 the less the offense4 ,hence1 for a subordinate to call his superior a liar or an ass is a more grievous fault than for a superior to give the name to his subordinate4 7b7 ,the less authoritative the word of the person who utters contumely1 or the less evil animus that attaches to his speech1 the less the dishonor and the sin4 ,thus1 fishwomen were once notorious for vituperation1 but little attention or weight was given to their words4 ,a person of that character1 then1 might commit only a venial sin by a very abusive word1 whereas a person of more respectable character would sin mortally by using the same expression4 ,similarly1 when parents or teachers berate their subjects as fools1 blockheads1 dunces1 etc41 there is generally no bad spirit behind these exclamations1 and hence the use of such expressions is not very sinful1 even when correction is not being made4 #bjaf4 ,is the gravity of contumely lessened by the fact that the offended person feels the injury less8 7a7 ,if the contumely is felt less because the dishonor itself is less1 the gravity of the sin is of course lessened1 for example1 if the person offended is less deserving1 or the person who offends is not taken seriously 7see #bjae74 7b7 ,if the contumely is felt less only because the person dishonored is very meek and patient1 the gravity is not lessened1 but is rather increased 7see #agbe74 ,if the person offended does not feel the injury at all 7e4g41 because he is very thick-skinned or is very fortunate71 less damage is done1 but the wrong remains1 otherwise1 theft from the rich could be excused on the plea that they will not miss what is stolen4 #bjag4 ,the ,causes of ,contumely4--7a7 ,pride is sometimes a cause1 inasmuch as those who consider themselves better than others are quick to express the contempt they feel for others1 if they hope that this will add to their own glory 7,prov41 xi4 #b74 ,but a proud person will just as often disdain to revile those whom he despises4 7b7 ,foolishness 7see #afba7 is sometimes a cause of contumely1 for the foolish man speaks without thinking as he should or without caring what damage his words may cause 7,prov41 xx4 #c74 ,hence1 those who speak abusively to others merely in order to raise a laugh among the bystanders1 little caring about the disrespect they show1 cannot excuse themselves on the plea that it was all a joke4 7c7 ,anger is the usual cause of contumely1 for the angry man seeks to show his revenge in some open and manifest way1 and there is no easier or more ready means to this end than bitter1 scornful or jeering words4 ,hence the danger of contumelious reprimands given by superiors4 ,the subject will be enraged by the hard names applied to him1 and the superior in his wrath will easily go to extremes1 even of mortal sin1 on account of the language he uses 7e4g41 exaggerated invective7 or on account of circumstances 7e4g41 the scandal given74 #bjah4 ,the ,duty of ,bearing with ,contumely4--7a7 ,as to the internal disposition1 one should be ready and willing to suffer insults without making any answer to them1 if this is necessary4 ,for the precept of patience requires that one be prepared in mind to tolerate injuries and to give place to wrath1 should the circumstances at any time call for such restraint4 ,in this sense ,our ,lord spoke when ,he commanded that one turn the other cheek to the striker 7,matt1 v4 #ci71 and ,he practised ,his teaching by making no reply to the insolence of those who were implacable or who only sought material for accusations4 7b7 ,as to external conduct1 one should repel contumely when there are good and sufficient reasons for this course1 and hence ,our ,lord protested against the unlawful blow given ,him in the court room1 and which the judge should have reprimanded 7,john1 xviii4 #bc74 ,he also refuted those who decried ,him as a blasphemer1 or glutton1 or demoniac1 or political disturber4 ,but if no good end will be served by self-defense1 or if greater evils will follow from it1 no answer should be made4 ,one should be more desirous to possess the right to honor and fame--viz41 virtue and a worthy life--than to possess honor and fame themselves1 for goodness is always a blessing1 but prosperity is not unfrequently a real misfortune4 ,indeed1 ,our ,lord says that to be persecuted1 reviled and calumniated places one in the same class as the good men of the past 7,matt41 v4 #aa74 #bjai4 ,the ,chief ,reasons for ,resistance to ,contumely or ,detraction4--7a7 ,the good of the offender1 in order that his boldness be subdued and that he be deterred from such injuries in the future1 is a sufficient reason4 ,hence the words of ,proverbs 7xxvi4 #e7 that one should answer a fool1 lest he think himself wise4 7b7 ,the good of others is another reason1 in order that they be not demoralized by the vilification of one whom they have looked up to as an example and guide1 especially if silence will appear to be a sign of weakness or carelessness or guilt4 ,hence1 ,st4 ,gregory says that preachers should answer detractors1 lest the ,word of ,god be without fruit4 7c7 ,the good of self is a third reason for replying to contumely1 for to enjoy the respect and esteem of others helps many a good person to act worthily of the opinion in which he is held1 and it restrains many a sinner from descending to worse things than those of which he is guilty4 ,hence1 ,eccl41 xli4 #ae1 admonishes that one take care of a good name1 and ,prov41 xxii4 #a1 places a good name above wealth4 #bjbj4 ,the ,duty of ,one ,who ,answers ,contumely or ,detraction4--7a7 ,the spirit of the answer should be that of charity1 not that of revenge or of unquiet or exaggerated anxiety about personal honor or fame2 otherwise one becomes like to the offender 7,prov41 xxii1 #b74 ,a person would sin even by silence in the face of contumely1 if the spirit behind his non-resistance was malicious 7e4g41 if he intended to enrage the other party the more by disregarding the attack74 7b7 ,the manner of the answer should be moderate1 and the reply should not go beyond the bounds of reasonable self-defense 7see #ahcc74 ,it is lawful to deny the charge1 or by retort to turn the tables on the assailant1 or to sue him for slander or libel2 but it is not lawful to challenge him to a duel or to utter calumnies 7see #ahdc74 #bjba4 ,the ,duty of ,making ,restitution for ,contumely4--7a7 ,if contumely is not contrary to commutative justice1 there is no duty of restitution4 ,hence1 dishonor that is purely negative1 such as the refusal to uncover on meeting a clergyman1 does not oblige one to make restitution1 for the omission is contrary to the virtue of observance or reverence but not to commutative justice4 ,the case would be different1 however1 if negative dishonor were so marked or noticeable as to be equivalent to positive disrespect1 as when at the entrance of a distinguished personage all in the room arise except one man who remains seated and gives a bitter look at the newcomer4 7b7 ,if contumely is contrary to commutative justice1 restitution is due4 ,all agree that commutative justice is violated when contumely becomes vilification1 or when an insult is committed in the presence of onlookers with the purpose of making the offended person seem contemptible in their eyes4 ,but there are two opinions about the case when contumely is merely revilement1 or an insult offered when there are no others present and the purpose is to make the offended person appear vile in his own eyes4 #bjbb4 ,opinions on the ,duty of ,restitution for ,revilement4--7a7 ,one opinion holds that injury is done1 not damage1 and hence that satisfaction is owed rather than restitution4 ,further1 it is held that satisfaction is penal and so not obligatory 7except out of charity7 before judicial sentence4 7b7 ,another opinion says that damage is done as well as injury1 since men regard an insult1 even though offered in private1 as an unjust deprivation of a great good4 ,satisfaction of a very humiliating kind1 such as the begging of pardon on bended knees1 as being penal1 can await an order from authority1 but the ordinary forms of reparation1 such as expression of regret or request for forgiveness1 should be made without any such order 7,matt41 v4 #bd74 #bjbc4 ,what ,kind of ,reparation ,should ,be ,made for ,contumely8--7a7 ,in general1 the rule is that contumely should be repaired by a bestowal of the same kind of goods as those of which the offended party was deprived2 and hence dishonor is repaired by honor1 disrespect by respect4 ,the injured party should be aware that reparation is being made1 or at least that honor is being shown him4 ,if by reason of contumely one is responsible for other damages that followed 7e4g41 if one foresaw that one's affront would lead to money losses1 enmities1 quarrels1 bloodshed1 etc471 one is duty bound to make good these losses also4 7b7 ,in particular1 the honor that should be offered in atonement is generally an apology1 for this is both satisfaction for the wrong done and a token of esteem4 ,at times1 according to some1 more is required1 for if the insult was very gross1 a mere request for pardon is perhaps not sufficient2 on the other hand1 less may suffice1 as when the indignity was slight4 ,many authors hold that a respectful apology is sufficient reparation for any contumely4 ,among the lesser forms of restitution for dishonor are signs of friendship1 courteous greetings1 a pleasant chat1 an invitation to call at one's home1 a dinner or toast1 a eulogistic speech1 etc4 #bjbd4 ,the ,manner of ,making ,apologies4--7a7 ,they should be made with at least as much formality as accompanied the insult4 ,hence1 if the injury was public1 the acknowledgment of error should also be public4 7b7 ,they may be made either personally or by intermediary4 ,if the guilty person cannot very well appear before the offended person1 he may send his regrets by letter or through a representative4 #bjbe4 ,since the gravity of contumely depends on the relations between the parties and other circumstances1 an apology is not always necessary4 7a7 ,thus1 if the offender is an inferior or an equal1 an apology should be made for a serious insult1 at least when the offended person insists on it4 ,thus1 a cheerful salutation by a child does not atone for a vile name applied to his father4 ,if an inferior dishonors a superior through ignorance1 he makes amends by acknowledging his ignorance and showing respect1 as was done by ,st4 ,paul 7,acts1 xxiii4 #e74 7b7 ,if the offender is a superior1 an apology is never necessary1 lest by abasing himself he lose the prestige which his office should have4 ,hence1 if a father has used harsh language to his child1 it would not be seemly for him to ask the child's pardon1 but he should show some mark of kindness to heal the wound4 #bjbf4 ,cessation of ,obligation of ,restitution4--,the obligation of restitution for contumely ceases in certain cases 7see #agig1 #agih74 7a7 ,thus1 impossibility excuses1 as when one cannot make reparation without renewing an old feud that has been buried and forgotten4 7b7 ,forgiveness by the offended person excuses4 ,the offended party forgives the debt expressly when he says or shows that he does not care to have an apology2 he forgives implicitly1 when he retaliates by an equally injurious action1 defends himself by retorting equal contumely on his adversary1 or obtains equivalent satisfaction from a court of justice4 #bjbg4 ,a confessor should not impose the duty of an apology in certain cases4 7a7 ,thus1 if this command would be harmful1 it should be omitted1 as when a penitent is in good faith and would be put in bad faith by the admonition4 7b7 ,if this command is not necessary1 it should be omitted1 as when the duty of an apology has ceased for one reason or another4 ,in the case of children who speak or act disrespectfully to their elders1 it may at times be taken for granted that the elders1 especially the parents1 do not expect an apology for trifling cases of disrespect4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it may often be advisable to require such children to apologize for their rudeness1 in order to cure them of it4 #bjbh4 ,defamation4--,defamation 7backbiting7 is the unjust blackening of the reputation of another person by secret words4 7a7 ,it is unjust1 that is1 it has no reasonable motive to justify it4 ,defamation differs from just revelation of secret faults4 7b7 ,it is a blackening or besmirching1 that is1 a taking away or lessening of fame4 ,defamation casts a shadow over or totally obscures the brilliance of a good reputation4 7c7 ,it is against reputation1 that is1 against the favorable opinion and report of the public on the virtue and character or other good qualities of a person1 ,thus1 it is defamation to say that an individual is a drunkard1 or that a professional man is incompetent1 if these persons are not known to have such defects4 ,if a person has no reputation here and now1 except a bad one 7e4g41 a criminal who has just been convicted and sentenced to prison1 a loafer who is often seen intoxicated on the streets1 a woman who is often heard peddling scandals71 it is not defamation to speak about the true and public faults of this person2 nor is it sinful to speak thus if there is some suitable reason 7e4g41 to discuss a murder trial that is being reported in the papers1 or to tell a humorous incident that will do no harm74 ,but those who uselessly or harmfully discuss the known weaknesses of their neighbors are sinners called gossipers or fault-finders4 7d7 ,it is against the reputation of a person1 that is1 of an individual possessed of right4 ,the party offended by defamation can be a natural person 7i4e41 a rational being1 whether infant or adult1 high or low1 rich or poor7 or an artificial person 7i4e41 a society1 group or collection of individuals endowed with reason72 he can be either a living or a deceased person1 for death does not destroy the soul nor take away the right to reputation4 7e7 ,it is against the reputation of another1 that is1 defamation as now used is a sin of injustice1 and one cannot be strictly unjust to oneself2 but 8self-defamation0 may be used in a wider sense to designate a sin opposed to charity 7see #aege sqq474 7f7 ,it is accomplished by means of words1 that is1 by oral communication or its equivalent4 ,one can defame1 therefore1 by word of mouth1 by deaf and dumb language1 by writing1 by a gesture1 by silence1 or by a look4 7g7 ,it is done by words or signs that are secret1 that is1 by words or signs expressed before others but in the absence of the person who is defamed1 or at least when he is thought to be absent 7backbiting74 ,the defamer is like the thief who wishes to do harm but does not wish the victim to know the author of the harm4 #bjbi4 ,the ,differences between ,defamation and ,contumely4--7a7 ,they differ in their purposes1 for the defamer intends to hurt another in his reputation before the public1 while the contumelious man intends to hurt another in his honor1 either in his own eyes or in those of others4 7b7 ,they differ in their manner of procedure1 for defamation is behind the back1 contumely before the face1 of the party who is injured4 ,the defamer has some respect for his enemy1 for he fears to face him and resorts to undermining1 but the contumelious sinner despises his enemy and shows it by insulting him to his face4 #bjcj4 ,various ,forms of ,injury to ,good ,name4--7a7 ,by reason of the intention1 the injury is either defamatory 7as when derogatory things are said about another behind his back7 or contumelious 7as when derogatory things are insultingly said to him in his presence74 ,hence1 there can be injury to reputation that is not contumelious 7e4g41 the secret spreading of a rumor that ,balbus is a drunkard72 there can be contumely that is not injurious to fame 7e4g41 the addressing of ,balbus as a drunkard when no else is by1 or when those present know already that he is a drunkard71 and contumely that is injurious to reputation 7e4g41 when one calls ,balbus a drunkard before others who thought he was a sober man74 7b7 ,by reason of the purpose1 defamation is willed either explicitly or implicitly4 ,in the former case the defamer expressly intends the blackening of his neighbor's reputation2 in the latter case he intends something unnecessary1 such as mere indulgence of levity or talkativeness1 though the blackening of his neighbor is foreseen4 ,explicit defamation is regularly a mortal offense1 implicit defamation a venial one2 but the degrees of sinfulness may be changed1 if the former sin causes slight1 or the latter sin serious damage4 7c7 ,by reason of the injury done defamation is either detraction or calumny4 ,detraction blackens a reputation by revealing faults or defects that are real2 calumny 7slander7 injures reputation by stories that are untrue4 ,a common form of calumny is a mixture of truth and falsehood 7e4g41 when a historian ascribes to a villain1 in addition to real crimes1 faults of which the latter was innocent71 or of half-truths that convey the impression of what is untrue 7e4g41 when a historian narrates that a certain character killed a man and does not give the background or causes of the killing1 such as provocation1 challenge1 mistake2 or when a biographer tells of the crimes of his subject and glosses over the virtues1 or makes no mention of his amendment74 7d7 ,by reason of the means used defamation is either direct or indirect4 ,direct defamation is more open and positive2 indirect defamation is rather concealed or negative4 ,there is also the distinction of slander 7which is oral7 and libel 7which is written or printed74 ,libel is more grievous1 since it has a permanence that is not found in spoken words4 #bjca4 ,examples of ,indirect ,defamation4--7a7 ,faint praise is a subtle mode of defamation1 as when one says of an absent person that he has not committed murder yet1 or that like everyone he has some good points1 for to the listeners this indicates that the speaker does no hold a high opinion of the person discussed4 7b7 ,silence is also at times a hidden form of defamation1 as when ,titus says to ,balbus that the absent ,caius is good and ,balbus out of malice answers3 8,let's talk about something else2 we must be charitable01 or when ,sempronius falsely declares in company that the absent ,claudius is to the knowledge of ,julius a depraved character and ,julius1 who is present1 makes no protest against the misrepresentation4 7c7 ,depreciation is defamatory1 as when one says that a person who is being discussed is not as pious or reliable as is commonly believed1 or that there is great room for improvement1 or that he is much better now than in times past1 or that there is another side to the picture1 or that he is good1 but4444 7d7 ,denial of good qualities is defamatory1 when it lessens the esteem in which a person is held4 ,the good qualities here referred to are those that render a person distinguished or commendable among his fellows3 chiefly these are moral qualities 7viz41 virtuous habits1 dispositions and acts72 secondarily1 natural and internal qualities 7such as learning1 quickness of mind1 experience1 strength and health of body1 and in women1 beauty72 finally1 natural and external goods 7such as wealth1 famous ancestry1 able assistants in business1 or the excellent merchandise supplied1 etc474 #bjcb4 ,examples of ,direct ,defamation4--,the following are examples of direct defamation3 7a7 sinister interpretation1 as when one states that words or acts of a neighbor that were good or at least open to a good interpretation1 were dictated by greed1 ambition1 pride1 etc42 7b7 unjust revelation 7detraction71 as when one reveals secret faults or crimes2 7c7 exaggeration1 as when one magnifies a venial into a mortal sin1 an exceptional or indeliberate fault into an habitual or deliberate sin2 or when one distorts a sin of one species into a sin of another and far more heinous species1 or accuses a whole class or body of men because one of their number has fallen4 ,those who add their own little detail or circumstance to a defamatory tale as they pass it along are proverbial examples of exaggeration3 8,fama crescit eundo02 7d7 false accusation 7calumny7 is the worst kind of defamation4 ,innocent ,,xi condemned the proposition that one may probably use calumny without serious sin as a defense of one's own justice and honor 7see ,denzinger1 n4 #aaid74 #bjcc4 ,direct defamation is committed either by plain words or by insinuation4 7a7 ,examples of defamation by innuendo are those ambiguous expressions or half-veiled accusations that arouse suspicion and often do more injury than plain accusations4 ,thus1 to say with a laugh or in an ironical tone that a certain person is human1 or broadminded1 or prudent may be equal to volumes of abuse1 since the words can have a bad meaning as well as a good one4 ,similarly1 such expressions as1 8,what ,i know about him is not to be told10 8,i know what no one would believe10 etc41 may be taken for slurs on character4 7b7 ,examples of defamation by plain speech are all those innumerable statements which1 either in general terms 7e4g41 that another person is a scoundrel1 a villain1 a reprobate7 or in specific ones 7e4g41 that another person is a blasphemer1 a thief1 a liar71 tend to blacken the good name of a neighbor4 #bjcd4 ,good ,repute or ,fame4--,good repute or fame is of various kinds4 7a7 ,thus1 by reason of its object1 good reputation is either negative or positive4 ,a negatively good reputation consists in the absence of any unfavorable opinion or belief about a person1 while a positively good reputation is the common judgment in favor of a person's worth4 7b7 ,by reason of its relation to the real character of a person1 it is either true or false4 ,thus1 if a man is regarded by the community as honest1 his reputation is true when he is really honest1 but it is false when he is in fact dishonest4 7c7 ,by reason of its degree1 it is either ordinary or extraordinary4 ,ordinary good repute is that which every person needs1 and it consists in the public belief that an individual is trustworthy and competent in the affairs and duties that pertain to his state or occupation4 ,extraordinary fame is that which is not necessary1 such as the celebrity which a person enjoys for unusual ability as a statesman1 orator1 financial expert1 mathematician1 or for virtue that is far above the average4 #bjce4 ,the ,right to ,good ,reputation4--7a7 ,those who are absolutely unknown 7i4e41 both as to their identity and their character7 have no right to reputation1 since reputation attaches to one who can be named or described1 and hence it is not defamation 7though it might be rash judgment7 to say that a stranger who passed on the street and was lost in the darkness must have been a criminal4 7b7 ,those who are known by sight or name1 but who have not as yet shown what they are1 have a right to a negatively good reputation1 for a man should not be considered evil until his conduct has given ground for unfavorable judgment 7see #agbg sqq474 ,it is not defamation to say about an unknown family that has moved into a locality that we do not know what kind of people they are1 but it is defamation to say that they are likely undesirable4 7c7 ,those who are known in a place and who have already acquired a good name there have a right to a positively good reputation2 for1 if the reputation is true1 it is a good which they have honestly acquired2 if it is false1 it is a good of which they are in possession1 and possession itself is entitled to respect4 #bjcf4 ,sinfulness of ,detraction4--,the civil law does not generally punish slander if the slanderer can prove that his statements are true1 but this does not make veracious defamation morally lawful4 ,god detests and punishes crimes 7e4g41 fornication7 of which human law sometimes takes no account4 ,the harmfulness of veracious defamation is both public and private4 7a7 ,defamation ,does ,public ,harm4--,the peace and order of the community would be seriously disturbed1 if it were lawful to attack reputations simply because one was persuaded that they were unfounded3 the person detracted would be hampered in his official business and social relations1 innocent persons would be blackened as well as the guilty1 and the friends and relatives would suffer with the person detracted4 7b7 ,defamation ,does ,private ,harm4--,the peace and security of the individual would be uselessly assailed4 ,reputation is profitable both in spiritual and temporal ways1 and it is therefore a ruthless act to rob a person of it1 when he has done nothing in public to forfeit it and its possession by him is harmful to no one4 #bjcg4 ,right to ,true and ,false ,reputation4 ,there is1 nevertheless1 a difference between the right to a true and the right to a false reputation4 7a7 ,thus1 the right to a true reputation is an absolute and universal right1 one which does not cease in any case1 for truth and justice demand that one should not represent as evil a person who is really good4 ,this right applies to an extraordinary1 as well as to an ordinary reputation4 7b7 ,the right to a false reputation is a relative and limited right1 one which ceases when the common good on which it rests no longer supports it 7e4g41 when it cannot be maintained without injustice74 ,moreover1 there is no right to an extraordinary reputation1 if it is based on false premises1 for the common good does not require such a right1 and hence it is not detraction to show that the renown of an individual for superior skill or success is built up on advertising alone or merely on uninformed rumor4 #bjch4 ,sinfulness of ,gossip or ,criticism about ,real and ,known ,defects4--7a7 ,it is not unjust1 per se1 since it does not take away fame1 that being non-existent4 7b7 ,it is sinful1 if there is no sufficient reason for it1 but not mortally sinful per se1 since grave harm is not done to the reputation of one whose reputation is already bad4 ,the sin committed is usually that of idle talk or of uncharitableness1 by reason of the disedification offered the listeners1 or the malice that prompts the speaker1 or the sadness that is caused to the person gossiped about4 ,gossip is dangerous1 since it prepares the way for detraction1 as detraction prepares the way for calumny4 #bjci4 ,moral ,species of ,defamation4--7a7 ,moralists agree that wrongful defamation is a sin against justice and charity4 ,it violates justice1 since it infringes a right which is not less strict than that of proprietorship over goods of fortune2 it violates charity1 since it is opposed to friendship and love of neighbor4 ,they also agree that other species of sin can be added to defamation 7e4g41 infidelity1 as when one denies that ,christ was sinless1 or blasphemy1 as when one defames a ,saint74 7b7 ,moralists disagree on the question whether certain forms of defamation are distinct sub-species or only degrees of one lowest species4 ,some hold that detraction and calumny are distinct species1 because calumny adds mendacity to defamation2 others say that detractions about specifically different sins are distinct kinds of detraction 7e4g41 that it is one species of sin to say that a neighbor is a drunkard1 and another species to say that he is a thief1 and the reason is that the reputation for temperance is a different thing from the reputation for honesty1 etc472 still others hold that defamation of parents and other immediate relations is a special form of defamation1 as being contrary to piety4 ,there are1 on the contrary1 theologians who reject all these distinctions and hold that the difference between defamations is only one of more or less1 since all of them have the characteristic note of attack on reputation1 which is one right4 ,hence1 just as the stealing of a cow and the stealing of a cat are only greater and lesser forms of the sin of theft1 so likewise calumny and detraction1 etc41 are only major and minor degrees of the sin of defamation 7see #bjab1 #bjac1 #baae74 #bjdj4 ,species of ,sins of ,defamation4--,since the species of sins must be particularized in confessions1 the question of the distinction between defamations has practical importance4 ,the common opinion on the line of action to be observed seems to be as follows3 7a7 the penitent is obliged as a rule in serious matters to tell whether his defamation was simple detraction or calumny4 ,the reason for this1 according to some1 is the specific difference between these two sins2 according to others1 the reason is that otherwise the confessor cannot know whether the sin was mortal or venial1 or what restitution is to be imposed4 ,as to detraction of parents or superiors1 it seems that the quality of the person detracted should be mentioned1 if there was any incitement to disrespect or disobedience2 7b7 the penitent is not obliged to mention the sins or defects he ascribed to the person he defamed4 ,nor should the confessor inquire about this unless it is necessary in order to know what was the gravity of the sin or what kind of reparation should be enjoined 7cfr4 #bjac74 ,moreover1 questions about what was said might easily lead to a disclosure of the name of the person defamed1 and thus the confessional would be turned into a place of defamation4 #bjda4 ,the ,numerical ,multiplication of ,defamations4--7a7 ,they are multiplied when there are many sinful acts about distinct objects2 for example1 when ,balbus calumniates ,caius today as a thief and ,claudius tomorrow as another thief1 there are two calumnies 7see #bji74 7b7 ,defamations are multiplied when there are many sinful acts about the same object2 for example1 when ,balbus calumniates ,caius today as a thief and repeats the same calumny tomorrow1 there are two calumnies4 ,but if ,balbus begins his story today and does not finish it till tomorrow1 there is one calumny 7see #bad1 #bae74 7c7 ,defamations are multiplied when there is one sinful act about many distinct objects2 for example1 when ,balbus calumniates by saying that the two worst thieves he knows are ,caius and ,claudius1 there are two sins4 ,but if ,caius and ,claudius are regarded as a unit 7e4g41 if they are the firm of ,caius and ,claudius71 there is one sin4 ,a like calumny would be that ,caius came from a dishonest family 7see #baf-bai74 ,if ,balbus calumniates ,caius before ten persons1 he does not commit ten defamations1 it seems1 but ten scandals1 since the ten form a body in the matter of fame1 but are individuals in the matter of example4 ,if ,balbus calumniates by saying that ,caius has broken all of the ten commandments1 there may be ten calumnies or but one calumny1 according to the intention and the effect 7see #bag1 #bah74 #bjdb4 ,the ,theological ,species of ,defamation4--7a7 ,from its nature defamation is a mortal sin1 and hence the ,apostle declares 7,rom1 i4 #bi1 #cj7 that detractors are hateful to ,god4 ,in the first place1 it inflicts an atrocious injury on the public welfare1 sowing everywhere hatreds1 dissensions and disorders--so much so that detractors are rightly called an abomination to mankind 7,prov41 xxiv4 #i74 7b7 ,from the smallness of the matter or the imperfection of the act defamation may be only a venial sin4 ,criticism of others is a vice so widespread that almost all mankind 7even pious persons7 would be involved in continual mortal sins1 were it not for the fact that sins of speech are frequently the result of ignorance1 thoughtlessness1 or sudden passion 7,james1 iii4 #b sqq471 and that the things said are frequently of no great harm to the person criticized4 #bjdc4 ,the gravity of the harm done by defamation is well expressed by ,st4 ,bernard when he says that defamation at one blow inflicts a mortal ,wound on the person defamed1 on the defamer himself1 and on the listener4 7a7 ,thus1 the person defamed is robbed and often irreparably of a good name1 one of the most esteemed of possessions2 he is deprived of many spiritual and temporal opportunities1 and is frequently dragged down to social and moral ruin1 and even to suicide4 ,scripture says that the tongue of the detractor has the sharpness of a razor1 and it compares him to an arrow dipped in poison1 and to a biting serpent4 7b7 ,the defamer destroys his own good name1 at least in the sight of ,god1 for he defiles his own soul with guilt2 he disgraces himself before others1 since it is well known that defamation is the vice of those who feel themselves inferior or guilty4 ,and1 worst of all1 his sin is seldom repented of or repaired by satisfaction1 since the defamer is generally too proud1 hateful1 jealous or revengeful to acknowledge his error1 or is so blind that the thought of the harm he has done and of the grave obligation of satisfaction never crosses his mind4 7c7 ,the listener is scandalized and contaminated by what he hears1 his ideals are shattered1 his respect for virtue or religion is destroyed1 and he is encouraged to continue the work of the defamer4 #bjdd4 ,comparison of ,defamation with ,other ,injuries against the ,neighbor4--7a7 ,defamation is less sinful than injuries to internal goods1 and hence homicide and adultery1 which are opposed to the good of the body and of life itself1 are graver sins than defamation4 7b7 ,defamation is less sinful than injury to higher external goods perpetrated in a contemptuous manner1 for defamation being secret does not add insult to injury4 ,hence1 just as robbery is more offensive than theft1 so is contumely more sinful than defamation4 7c7 ,defamation is more sinful than injury to lower external goods1 such as lands and money1 for fame along with honor approaches spiritual things on account of their relation to virtue1 whereas wealth is of the order of corporeal things4 ,hence1 the ,scriptures teach that a good name is more important than great riches 7,prov41 xxii4 #a71 more enduring than thousands of vast and precious treasures 7,ecclus41 xli1 #ae74 #bjde4 ,it should be noted that the foregoing comparison is based on the nature of the sins compared1 for by reason of circumstances the order given may be reversed2 for example1 a slight indignity is less serious than an outrageous calumny1 the theft of thousands of dollars is far more sinful than the circulation of a ludicrous story that is harmful1 but only in a slight degree1 to the reputation of a neighbor 7cfr4 #bbj sqq474 #bjdf4 ,rule for ,determining the ,seriousness of ,defamation4--,the rule for determining whether the matter of defamation is serious or not is the amount of harm done by the defamation1 and hence not one but several factors have to be considered4 7a7 ,thus1 the defect ascribed to the neighbor has to be considered1 for some kinds of defects 7e4g41 littleness of body or prodigality7 are less disgraceful than others 7e4g41 dwarfishness of mind or soul or niggardliness71 and it is more harmful to reveal one mortal sin than to reveal a hundred venial sins4 7b7 ,the person defamed is to be considered1 for imputed defects that are not harmful to one person may be harmful to another 7e4g41 the charge of being a toper might be considered praise among persons of gay or rough habits1 but it would be regarded as disgraceful among serious and refined persons74 7c7 ,the person who defames is also to be considered1 for little attention is paid to the talk of some1 but much weight is given to the slightest words of others4 ,indeed1 some persons' condemnation is equivalent to praise4 7d7 ,finally1 the persons before whom the defamation is spoken are to be considered1 for everyone knows that it is much more harmful and dangerous to speak ill of others before certain ones than before others 7cfr4 #adfa1 #adfb74 #bjdg4 ,the ,harm ,done by ,reason of the ,defects ,revealed4--7a7 ,if the defects are natural imperfections of soul or body that do not connote moral stain or turpitude1 and if no great detriment is caused by revelation 7e4g41 to say that another person is deaf1 hunchbacked1 a beggar1 or dense71 disclosure is not in itself serious1 or even sinful2 for little or no harm is done1 and the defects are of such a character that they can be readily discovered by observation4 ,but if the defects are very ignominious or harmful1 defamation is a grave sin 7e4g41 to say that a very distinguished person is illegitimate1 or of a mixed race1 or that his immediate relative was a criminal74 7b7 ,if the defects are related to moral stain1 but do not imply it1 revelation of them is not a grave sin1 provided no great loss is caused by it 7e4g41 to say that a person is scrupulous about himself1 or has certain peccadillos or human imperfections74 ,if a shortcoming is usually understood as a propensity rather than as a fault 7e4g41 quick temper1 high-strung disposition1 pride1 closeness with money71 there is little if any harm done by speaking of it4 ,but if the defects mentioned are such as imply or insinuate actual moral lapses 7e4g41 to say that a person has a venereal disease and the cause is unknown1 or that he has delirium tremens or morphinism1 or is of a very passionate nature71 the revelation is defamatory and more or less sinful4 7c7 ,if the defects are moral1 he who reveals them is guilty of sinful defamation4 ,but the harm done by the imputation of moral guilt is greater in some cases and less in others4 ,some sins are more disgraceful from their degradation 7e4g41 carnal sins1 see #bbd71 and from this point of view it is worse to accuse a neighbor of gluttony or sexual irregularity than of pride4 ,some sins 7e4g41 solicitation1 sodomy7 are especially heinous in the eyes of the law and produce legal infamy1 because they are more harmful to the public or more subject to public contempt 7see ,canons #bcbj1 #bcbh1 #bcdc1 #bcea1 #bcef1 #bceg74 ,there are also some defamations that are less harmful to reputation1 but more damaging to material prosperity 7e4g41 it is usually more hurtful to the prospects of a person in business to be charged with incompetency1 dishonesty1 or carelessness than to be charged with religious indifference or impurity74 ,finally1 there are gradations in the malice of the same kinds of sin 7see #aig71 as in the angry thought1 the angry word1 the angry deed1 in tipsiness and drunkenness1 in occasional and habitual lying1 etc4 #bjdh4 ,is it sinful to narrate the secret faults of another1 if at the same time one tells of his repentance and amendment8 7a7 ,if the infamy remains in spite of the remarks about a change of life for the better 7as is generally the case71 the narrator is guilty of sinful detraction4 ,thus1 it is very harmful to one in an exalted position if it is given out that he was at one time bibacious1 but succeeded in thoroughly curing his appetite4 ,the same principle applies to those who praise in one matter and detract in another 7e4g41 by stating that a person is very learned1 but also very dishonest74 7b7 ,if the infamy does not remain1 because the atonement is so extraordinary as to make the hearers think little or nothing about the fault1 the narrator is not guilty of sinful detraction4 ,thus1 it is not detraction to narrate that a saint was so grieved over a lie he told that he did lifelong penance for it1 or that a person who was once lukewarm--a thing that is quite common--has in later years become fervent in an uncommon degree4 ,but the stigma that attaches to uncommon sins or carnal sins is hardly overcome by the mention of repentance1 unless the person spoken of is already long dead or is one from whom very little is expected4 #bjdi4 ,the ,harm ,done by ,reason of the ,person ,defamed4--7a7 ,serious faults are sometimes attributed to certain persons without serious sin1 because1 on account of the life led by these persons or the notoriety they have already achieved1 they suffer no serious detriment when defects like to those already known are charged against them4 ,thus1 if it is well known that a person keeps company with a fast set or consorts with a tough gang1 he suffers little if one reveals that he uses profanity1 gambles1 drinks to excess1 etc42 and if it is known that a person has these vices1 he is not harmed much by mention of a particular instance or by the additional report that he has been arrested for cheating and disorderly conduct4 ,but the case is different if defects unlike those already known are charged 7e4g41 if one says of a person known as a liar that he is also a thief71 unless the person spoken of has so black a name as an all-around cheat that no new crime charged to his account can give a deeper dye to his reputation4 7b7 ,light faults or acts that are not sinful in themselves are sometimes matter of grave defamation when spoken of certain persons1 namely1 when so much is expected from these persons that even minor defects are serious blots on their fame4 ,thus1 to say that a layman is a confirmed liar or loves the opposite sex might be only a venial sin or no sin at all1 but the same statements about a grave cleric would be seriously defamatory4 #bjej4 ,defamation supposes that the party who is injured is in possession of a good name4 ,but it is possible that the same individual who enjoys a good name in one place or time1 has a bad name in another place or time4 ,hence1 a number of special cases on defamation present themselves for consideration4 7a7 ,thus1 there is the case in which a person who has a good name here is juridically infamous elsewhere2 that is1 he has lost his good name elsewhere through a final and valid sentence1 conviction1 or confession made in a public trial 7see ,canon #baig74 7b7 ,there is the case in which a person who has a good name here is actually infamous elsewhere1 that is1 his crime is known to so many persons there that it is morally impossible to keep it secret or excuse it4 7c7 ,there is the case in which a person who has a good name now was in bad repute formerly2 that is1 his bad name of the past has been forgotten or has been obliterated by many years of good living4 #bjea4 ,meaning of the ,expression 8,infamous in a ,certain ,place40--7a7 ,the place referred to is either a closed community 7e4g41 a monastery1 a college1 a family7 or an open community 7e4g41 a village1 a neighborhood1 a parish1 a town1 a city72 7b7 the notoriety referred to is either universal 7i4e4 known to all the community71 or general 7i4e41 known to the greater part of the community71 or sufficient 7i4e41 known to so many and such talkative persons that the whole community will shortly be made to share in it74 ,a crime known only to one or two1 or to a small circle of ,christian-living persons1 is not notorious4 #bjeb4 ,number of ,persons ,who ,are ,required for ,sufficient ,notoriety4--7a7 ,some authors assign certain definite figures for this purpose--for example1 in a closed community of thirty or a hundred members a fact is notorious if known to seven or fifteen2 in a neighborhood of forty persons1 if it is known to eight individuals from different families2 in a village whose population is one thousand1 if it is known to twenty here and there2 in a town of five thousand people1 if it is known to forty here and there4 7b7 ,other authors hold that no invariable rule can be given1 but that in each case the matter has to be determined by a prudent judgment based on the character of the crime1 the quality of the guilty person and of the persons present at the time1 the publicity of the place1 etc4 ,thus1 if the crime was committed in some central spot from which news was quickly disseminated1 a smaller number of spectators would make a deed notorious in the surrounding territory4 #bjec4 ,publicity of ,commission or ,report4-,actual infamy or disrepute is produced either by the publicity of the crime or by the publicity of the report4 7a7 ,thus1 a crime has publicity in its commission when it was done in a public place 7e4g41 on the street1 in a public room7 or in a private place but before a considerable number of persons1 or when its indications were publicly given 7e4g41 by a confession1 by maintenance of a suspected woman in one's home71 or when it was submitted to public notice or judgment 7e4g41 the acts of one in public office1 the words of one who delivers a public address1 the deeds of one who boasts about them74 7b7 ,a crime has publicity in its report1 when it is widely known1 whether due to the talk of the people1 or to presumptions or suspicions4 #bjed4 ,revelation about a ,person ,who ,is ,juridically in ,disrepute ,elsewhere4--7a7 ,this exposure is not contrary to commutative justice1 according to the common opinion1 for the condemnation deprives the criminal of his right to fame 7as regards the matter in which he is found guilty7 in all places1 and it is often to the interest of the public to know who has been convicted of crime elsewhere4 ,exception should be made for the case in which a trial is conducted secretly in order to spare the reputation of the condemned1 as when a corporation expels one of its members after a hearing and an unfavorable vote 7see #bjeg74 7b7 ,this revelation is contrary to charity when it deprives a person without reason of the good fame which he possesses and which he would not otherwise have lost2 for we should love our neighbor as ourselves4 ,example3 ,balbus served a term in jail in the town of ,a1 on account of drunkenness4 ,he then moved to the distant town of ,b and by his good conduct built up an excellent reputation4 ,claudius from ,a arrives and maliciously spreads around the news that ,balbus had been once in jail for drunkenness4 ,claudius sins gravely against charity4 #bjee4 ,revelation about a ,person ,who ,is ,actually in ,disrepute ,elsewhere4--,if the person in question will in all likelihood soon lose the reputation he has here1 the following cases must be considered3 7a7 if the disrepute is based on the publicity of a misdeed1 the revelation is not opposed to commutative justice2 for he who sins publicly thereby resigns his right to reputation as regards all those persons and places to which knowledge of his delinquency is likely to arrive4 ,the revelation is against charity1 however1 if there is no sufficient reason for it2 but since the news would be soon brought hither from other sources1 no great harm is done and no serious sin committed by the revelation2 7b7 if the disrepute is based on public rumor and the rumor is unjust1 revelation1 according to some1 is opposed to commutative justice1 since it is nothing but a continuation and extension of the original injury4 ,others hold that1 unless one knows the rumor to be false1 revelation is not unjust in this case1 since1 as is supposed1 the revealer was not the author of the rumor1 and those to whom he spoke would have learned it shortly even without him4 ,of course1 if the person about whom the revelation is made suffers some considerable damage by reason of the early loss of his good name1 the person who makes the revelation unnecessarily is guilty of serious sin4 ,and rumor should never be represented as an established fact4 #bjef4 ,if the revelation is made about one who is actually in disrepute elsewhere1 but who is in little danger on that account of losing the good name which he has here1 opinions differ regarding the extent of the guilt4 7a7 ,some hold that revelation in this case is a grave sin against charity1 since in a serious matter it saddens a neighbor1 and thus violates the rule of love to do unto others as we would have them do unto us2 and others add that it is also a grave sin against justice1 if the party spoken against is solicitous about his fame1 since it deprives him without reason of a great good to which he is entitled on account of undisturbed possession4 7b7 ,others hold that this revelation is not a grave sin1 either against justice 7since the right of the community to know about crimes that were committed elsewhere prevails over the right of the individual7 or against charity 7since charity does not oblige under grave inconvenience74 7c7 ,others again distinguish between different cases1 ,thus1 some say that1 if the crime in question is one that is very detrimental to the public 7e4g41 murder1 treason1 white slave traffic1 scandalous impurity71 the opinion under 7b7 is true2 whereas1 if it is one that is not of that character 7e4g41 drunkenness in a private person71 the opinions under 7a7 are true4 ,some also distinguish in the case of non-pernicious delinquencies between those that are notorious elsewhere by reason of the public way in which sin was committed and those that are notorious only on account of rumor2 in the former case1 they say1 the manifestation is not unjust1 for1 although public good does not call for it1 the guilty person himself has forfeited his right by the public manner in which he sinned2 but in the latter case it may easily be unjust 7see previous paragraph74 ,the mere fact1 however1 that a fault which contains no threat to the public welfare was committed in a public manner does not seem to be a sufficient reason for manifestation 7e4g41 when it will injure a man in earning a living or in supporting his family71 and we believe that one who speaks of such a fault without necessity sins against charity1 if not against justice1 and that the sin is often mortal4 #bjeg4 ,notoriety in a ,closed ,community4--,notoriety in a closed community is not absolute publicity1 and hence the conclusions just given on absolute publicity do not apply to closed communities4 7a7 ,thus1 if a fault is actually notorious in a closed community1 the members may speak about it to one another1 if there is any sufficient reason for this4 ,hence1 if the majority of the members of a religious house know about a fault that has been committed there1 it may be divulged to one who is in ignorance about it for his instruction or warning4 ,similarly1 servants in a house may tell other domestics about faults which are commonly known in the house4 7b7 ,if a fault is notorious in a closed community but not outside1 the members as a rule may not speak or write about it to outsiders without injustice1 for generally speaking there is no reason arising from necessity or utility for such a revelation4 ,moreover1 the community itself suffers in repute from such disclosures1 since outsiders will be impressed with the thought that the community has wicked members or is lax1 and that there is a lack of unity among them4 ,to carry stories from one monastery or house to another 7even of the same ,order7 is a form of detraction to outsiders1 according to ,st4 ,alphonsus4 #bjeh4 ,revelation about a ,person ,formerly in ,disrepute4--,when the revelation concerns one who was in disrepute formerly1 but who has a good name now1 either because his crime has been forgotten or because he has lived it down1 a distinction must be made between juridical and actual notoriety4 7a7 ,if the former disrepute was juridical notoriety1 the revelation of it is not unjust1 since condemnation pronounced in a court of law gives the right to others to make the sentence known in any place or at any time2 but more probably it is mortally uncharitable1 if made without necessity1 since it harms the other person or his family in the reputation which he has honestly recovered1 thus depriving him of a good most useful to him and hurtful to no one else4 7b7 ,if the former disrepute was actual notoriety only1 the revelation is uncharitable1 according to all1 since it does not observe the golden rule of doing to others as we would be done by4 ,many hold that it is also unjust1 since an obliterated crime is the same as an occult crime1 which cannot be divulged without injustice 7see #bjfg74 ,moreover1 the person who has built up for himself a new reputation has a right to it1 and by the revelation of the old reputation this right is infringed1 inasmuch as his present good name is also lost or made useless4 ,it should be noted that the common good sometimes makes exceptions1 and thus it is not forbidden to historians to make revelations about happenings that throw a new and unfavorable light on the youth or earlier years of persons no longer living 7see #bjgb ,sqq474 #bjei4 ,case in ,which the ,name of the ,person ,defamed ,is ,not ,given4--7a7 ,if there is nothing to indicate the individual and no reflection is cast on a body to which he belongs1 per se no sin is committed4 ,hence1 if one says1 8,a certain person whom we shall call ,balbus stole a sheep10 there is no defamation in the narrative1 even though a real happening is described4 ,similarly1 if one says that in the city where he is speaking there are many criminals1 or that even among his numerous auditors there are doubtless some who are living in mortal sin1 there is no defamation4 7b7 ,if there is something to indicate the individual meant1 or if reflection is cast on a body to which the individual belongs1 sin is committed by the remarks4 ,hence1 if the narrative about ,balbus and the stolen sheep went on to describe incidents so that the hearers could easily perceive that ,balbus was a person known to them1 this person would be injured in his fame4 ,again1 if one states that in a certain city which one names #ij of the married people are addicted to drunkenness1 or that the party who was guilty of some scandalous act was a member of a ,religious ,institute1 harm is brought directly upon individuals or damage is done to societies4 ,it is true that an organization is not really discredited by the misdeeds of one of its members1 but in popular opinion very often the disgrace of one is the disgrace of all4 #bjfj4 ,defamation of ,deceased and ,legal ,persons4--7a7 ,defamation of the dead1 whether they be long or only recently dead1 is sinful per se1 since the departed are capable of a glorious or inglorious memory1 and it is reasonable that one should wish one's good name to be respected after one's death1 both for one's own sake and for the sake of others4 ,hence the saying1 8,de mortuis nil nisi bonum40 ,but per accidens it is not sinful to make revelations about the dead when this is necessary for historical truth 7see #bjgb sqq474 ,defamation of the dead in itself is less sinful than defamation of the living1 since the dead have less need of a good reputation2 but circumstances may be such that one who defames a dead person does serious harm and commits a mortal sin4 7b7 ,defamation of legal persons is also sinful per se1 since these bodies possess along with other rights of natural persons the right to a good name4 ,public esteem is very necessary for them1 and they are protected in their enjoyment of it by the laws4 ,thus1 it is injurious to state that a certain ,religious ,order or monastery or diocese is relaxed1 or that a certain business corporation is not well managed4 ,but per accidens it is not sinful to make revelations about organizations1 when there is a sufficient reason for the revelation 7see #bjfg74 ,for example1 if a political party is preying on the citizens1 or if a mercantile house is practising frauds1 the common good would require one to make these facts known4 ,neither is it sinful to mention faults or defects that are notorious1 for example1 that a certain government is warlike1 that a certain people is backward1 that a certain group is devoted to erroneous principles or practices 7,tit41 i4 #ab74 #bjfa4 ,the ,harm ,done by ,reason of the ,person of the ,defamer4--7a7 ,the person of the defamer increases the harm when his authority is greater4 ,a person who is supposed to be better informed 7e4g41 one who reports that he was an eyewitness of the event he narrates71 or who enjoys a better reputation for truth 7e4g41 one who is in an official position1 or who is thought to be honest and disinterested71 does more harm by defamation than another whose authority is weak4 7b7 ,the person of the defamer decreases the harm when his authority is less4 ,hence1 those who give out unfavorable reports about others with reservations 7such as 8perhaps10 8it is not impossible10 8it seems so1 but ,i would not swear to it10 etc471 and also those whose weight as authorities is light 7such as talkative1 lightminded1 envious1 gossipy1 or untruthful persons71 do less harm than persons who are held in higher repute4 ,the confessor should not let these defamers off easily1 however1 since many of them act on the principle that if enough mud is thrown1 no matter how foolish the charges1 some of the mud will stick4 #bjfb4 ,one of the commonest forms of defamation is the narration of some crime or defect at second hand1 as when the defamer introduces his remarks as follows3 8,they say10 or1 8,it is reported10 or1 8,i hear10 etc4 7a7 ,the mode of defamation here lessens the sin when it weakens the effect of the story upon the hearers4 ,hence1 if one says that the talk of the town is that ,claudius is a heavy drinker1 and the listeners gather from this only that there is a vague rumor which cannot be traced to any source or be confirmed by any fact and which is therefore unreliable1 the harm is less4 7b7 ,the mode of defamation here does not lessen the sin when it does not weaken the impression of the story2 on the contrary1 it increases the sin when it adds strength to the story4 ,hence1 if one says that ,claudius is said to be an excessive drinker1 and if from the phrasing the listeners will understand that the report originated with very good authorities1 or that it is based on general knowledge of the public1 the harm is greater4 ,justice is violated if the narrative itself inclines the hearers to sinister thoughts or suspicions1 for then the narrator causes the harm2 charity alone may be violated if it is only the character of the listeners 7e4g41 their suspicious or frivolous minds or their own guilt7 that engenders in them evil opinion1 for then the narrator only occasions the harm 7cfr4 #addg1 #adfd74 #bjfc4 ,the ,harm ,done by ,reason of the ,listeners4--7a7 ,the quality of the listeners makes a difference1 since it may cause the person defamed to suffer more or less readily in their eyes 7e4g41 if they are suspicious1 or prejudiced1 or credulous1 or guilty themselves1 they will more easily believe evil about others7 or in the eyes of others 7e4g41 if the listeners are newsmongers or enemies of the person defamed1 the spread of the defamatory story is more certain74 ,the loss itself may be greater or less on account of the character or position of the listener 7e4g41 loss of reputation with a friend or a virtuous person is felt more1 loss of reputation with customers or employers is more damaging1 etc474 7b7 ,the quantity of the listeners also makes a difference1 since it is more harmful1 other things being equal1 to be defamed before several than before one4 ,hence1 the fact that many persons are present when the defamation is uttered is an aggravating circumstance of the sin4 ,whether it multiplies the sin numerically1 so that one commits as many sins of defamation as there are persons who hear and are impressed1 is a disputed point4 ,those who hold for multiplication argue that the defamed person has a distinct right to his reputation with each person present2 those who deny multiplication contend that the right to reputation is a single object1 since reputation is the opinion of others1 whether they be many or few4 ,this latter view seems to be more common1 and its practical bearing is that a penitent need not mention the number of persons before whom he defamed his neighbor 7see #bag74 #bjfd4 ,is the malice of defamation aggravated by the fact that the listeners are peculiar and think the defect mentioned is far more serious than it really is8 7a7 ,if only the harm to reputation is considered1 it does not seem that the over-strict notions of the listeners increase the sinfulness of defamation2 for the harm to reputation is to be measured by the common opinion1 not by the singular ideas of certain persons4 ,example3 ,sempronius tells that ,balbus wastes a little time in telling humorous incidents and reading detective stories4 ,the small group of auditors think that this is one of the blackest of crimes4 7b7 ,if other harms are taken into account1 the peculiar ideas of the listener may add to the sinfulness of defamation4 ,thus1 if a young person of delicate conscience will be scandalized at hearing that ,caius plays cards1 or if older listeners will be led by this remark to take their trade away from ,caius1 the sins of scandal and of unjust damage are added to defamation4 ,defamation often destroys in the listener all faith in humanity1 or all belief in religion4 #bjfe4 ,detraction to ,one ,discreet ,person4--,is detraction a mortal sin1 if the revelation of a serious sin is made without sufficient reason but to only one prudent and discreet person1 who will neither divulge the information1 nor be influenced by it to the harm of the party spoken against8 7a7 ,if the purpose of the speaker is to inflict serious injury on his neighbor1 mortal sin is committed1 since the gravity of the sin is measured by the malevolence of the will4 7b7 ,if the purpose of the speaker is not to inflict serious injury1 but only to indulge his love of talk1 levity of mind1 etc41 the gravity of the sin depends on the actual harm that is done2 for one wills indirectly the harm connected with one's acts1 even when one does not desire it directly 7see #ajb74 ,hence1 if the harm is in fact serious1 mortal sin is incurred by the detractor1 unless he is excused from it by the imperfection of his deliberation or consent4 ,how much harm1 then1 is done in this case8 ,most moralists1 it seems1 think grave harm is done1 since the loss of good name with one prudent man is generally more distasteful than its loss with many light-minded persons4 ,some moralists1 however1 dissent from this view1 and hold that the harm done is small4 ,they argue that the loss of good name with one prudent person 7exception being made for the cases when he is the one person whose esteem is prized above that of all others1 or when the crime revealed is an enormous or very degrading one7 is not a great blow to reputation1 since reputation consists in the opinion of many persons1 and since a prudent man will be inclined to help rather than harm one who has been defamed in his presence4 ,the advocates of the first opinion appeal also to the analogy of contumely and rash judgment1 for these two sins are grave1 even when the loss of honor or good opinion is in respect to one person only4 ,but their adversaries deny the assumed parity3 for1 while contumely includes the purpose to injure and rash judgment includes the imputation to another of a defect of which he is not guilty or not known to be guilty1 the detraction now considered is innocent both of design to injure and of calumny4 ,both opinions are probable1 but the former seems to be more common and more likely4 #bjff4 ,belittling a ,person to ,himself4--,it is not impossible to belittle a person to himself1 for example1 to make him believe that lie is illegitimate1 that he is regarded with contempt by others1 that his ability is mediocre or his character defective1 etc4 ,is this defamation1 or is it sinful8 7a7 ,to lower a person in his own estimation is not defamation in the strict sense of the word1 since defamation is properly an injury to the reputation that one has with one's neighbors or with the public1 not to the opinion one has of oneself4 ,this sin belongs rather to derision 7see #bajf74 7b7 ,to lower a person in his own eyes is sinful or not sinful according to the purpose intended or the means employed4 ,thus1 if a parent1 wishing to correct the pride or presumption of his son1 gives the latter a true picture of his failings or limitations1 the act is one of virtuous correction4 ,but if an envious person1 wishing to produce a sense of inferiority in another1 deprives the latter of rightful peace of mind and of reasonable confidence in self1 charity and justice are violated and there is a duty of restitution4 #bjfg4 ,disclosing ,matters ,detrimental to ,third ,party4--,in what cases is it lawful to disclose to others matters that will be detrimental to the reputation of a third party8 7a7 ,if the communication is false1 it is never lawful1 no matter how important the reason2 for the end does not justify the means4 ,it is sinful1 therefore1 to resort to calumny as a defense of one's own reputation or dignity 7see #bjce1 #bjcf74 7b7 ,if the communication is truthful and the matter is already well known to the persons addressed1 there is no defamation1 unless the communication makes these persons strongly convinced1 whereas they had been rather uncertain before1 or reveals to them some important detail about which they had been in ignorance4 7c7 ,if the communication is truthful1 but the defects are secret and unknown to the parties addressed1 there is defamation1 unless the person whose defects are revealed has lost his right to good name on account of the right of another person which has precedence and cannot otherwise be upheld 7cfr4 #bjce74 ,in this latter case there is no obligation to maintain silence1 neither from justice 7since the lesser right must yield to the greater right7 nor from charity 7since this virtue does not oblige at the cost of great inconvenience74 ,thus1 ,our ,lord made known to the ,apostles that the ,pharisees were hypocrites 7,luke1 xii1 #a2 ,matt41 xvi4 #f71 and ,st4 ,paul told ,timothy that ,alexander and ,hymeneus had neither faith nor a good conscience 7,i ,tim41 i4 #bj74 #bjfh4 ,rights that ,have ,precedence over a ,false ,reputation4--7a7 ,the public good is to be preferred to a false reputation1 for the public welfare is the ground for the right to such reputation1 the subject himself being unworthy of the good name he bears 7see #bjcg74 ,it is right1 therefore1 to denounce criminals or conspirators to the proper authorities1 or to testify against them4 ,employers have the duty to discuss together the failings or imperfections of their employees that interfere with the business2 subjects should manifest abuses about which they are asked in a canonical visitation2 students in a college should give information about companions who are depraving the morals of the student body or exercising an evil influence on the other residents1 etc4 7b7 ,the private good of innocent parties may be preferred to the fame of one who enjoys a false reputation4 ,one may reveal secret defects for one's own defense2 for example1 a person whose life1 honor or property is being unjustly attacked may reveal sins of the guilty in order to deter them or weaken their authority2 a person who has been injured by his superior or another party may speak of this to a friend for the sake of obtaining consolation1 or to a confessor1 a lawyer or other adviser for the sake of obtaining counsel or assistance4 ,one may also reveal secret defects for the protection of others2 for example1 one should put unsuspecting persons on their guard against seducers1 impostors1 quacks2 one should reveal impediments that stand in the way of a marriage1 or should warn a young woman that the man to whom she is engaged is a criminal or diseased2 one should make known the true author of a crime for which an innocent person is about to suffer2 one should tell the truth to inquirers about the incompetency of servants or other persons whom one has employed4 7c7 ,the higher good of the person whose faults are revealed may also be preferred to the lower good of his false reputation2 for it is to his interest that his higher good be promoted1 even at the expense of an inferior good4 ,it is lawful to tell parents about the misdeeds of their children 7e4g41 that a daughter is involved in a scandalous liaison71 in order that the latter may be corrected2 or to speak to the friends of wayward persons about the misconduct of the latter in order that prayers may be said for their conversion4 #bjfi4 ,unlawful ,attack on ,another's ,false ,reputation4--,if the false reputation of another is not the unjust cause of a loss that is feared1 it is not right to deprive him of his good name4 ,examples3 7a7 ,it is not lawful to accuse a person who is about to be promoted to some office or dignity of which he is worthy1 if the motive of the accusation is to secure the honor for oneself or one's friend2 otherwise ambitious persons would be encouraged to practise spying1 manufacturing of evidence1 etc41 and the public peace would be greatly disturbed4 7b7 ,it is not lawful to accuse a person who is giving one no offense1 if the motive of the accusation is to distract attention from oneself or to make oneself shine by the comparison4 #bjgj4 ,conditions that ,justify ,revelation of ,another's ,defects4--,in revealing defects on account of some necessary good1 one must observe the conditions for an act of double result 7see #ajc74 7a7 ,thus1 the action itself must not be evil1 and hence one may not break the seal of secrecy to which one is bound 7as will be said in the next ,article in discussing violations of secrets71 nor make use of knowledge unjustly acquired1 nor reveal more or to more persons than the case demands1 nor reveal anything1 if a warning to the offender will suffice 7see #abhf74 7b7 ,the good result must be intended1 and the evil result of detriment to fame must be only permitted4 ,those who assign pious motives 7pity1 zeal1 sincerity7 for talk against a neighbor1 but who are really actuated by hatred1 revenge1 ambition to defeat a rival1 or other like passion1 sin on account of their wrong intention4 ,a hypocritical form of defamation is practised by some persons exteriorly devout1 who under the pretext of asking prayers for their neighbor's conversion spread stories about those whom they dislike4 7c7 ,the reason for permitting the evil must be sufficiently weighty4 ,hence1 the good result intended must be one that is likely to follow on the revelation1 and it must be of some importance2 for it would be cruel to throw away a neighbor's good name on the mere possibility that a considerable good would be secured1 or on the certainty that only a slight benefit would be obtained4 ,it does seem1 however1 that the good which is hoped for must be of an equal dignity with the good of fame1 since the innocent and the guilty party are not on the same footing1 and furthermore all admit1 for example1 that the fame of an employee who is stealing from his employer is not to be preferred to the goods of the employer4 ,in doubt about the seriousness of the evil following on revelation1 the innocent party is to be favored4 #bjga4 ,revelations about ,public ,officials or ,candidates for ,public ,office4--7a7 ,these are lawful when the public good calls for them 7e4g41 when a man has used corrupt practices in order to be elected1 or when he is incompetent1 or when he has been guilty of malfeasance in office71 and the conditions of the previous paragraph are observed4 7b7 ,these revelations are unlawful when the public good suffers from them 7e4g41 when the safety or dignity of society itself would be injured by attacks on the head of government71 or when the due conditions are not observed 7e4g41 when one resorts to personalities about a deserving public official1 or practises muckraking because of mere prejudice or partisanship74 ,the law permits fair comment on public persons or works1 but it also grants an action for criticism that contains unfair aspersions of personal character or unjust accusations about public conduct4 #bjgb4 ,revelations about ,historical ,personages4--7a7 ,these revelations are not lawful unless there is a proportionate reason that justifies them4 ,for historians there are sufficient reasons to narrate impartially the crimes as well as the virtues of those who appear in their pages4 ,these reasons are3 the nature of history as a record of facts and causes 78the first law of history is that it dare not tell any untruth1 that it fear not to tell any truth10 ,leo ,,xiii72 the rights of the persons who are treated in the annals 7e4g41 it is often impossible to understand the deeds of one character in history or to do him justice unless the secret crime of another character is revealed72 the rights of the readers 7e4g41 the reader has the right to know that the persecutors of religion have been wicked in their personal lives74 ,the historian1 therefore1 may search for material bearing on the lives and deeds of historical personages of the past1 he may collect similar material relating to current events1 he may narrate defects or delinquencies of the past that were unknown or forgotten4 ,but matters of a purely private character that have no bearing on public events do not belong1 according to some moralists1 to the legitimate province of the historian2 for otherwise there would be an end to the rights of the dead over their fame4 ,moreover1 there is the risk of calumny and of violation of elementary justice1 since the historian is a self-appointed judge and the person condemned is not able to defend himself4 7b7 ,these historical revelations are not lawful unless the conditions mentioned in #bjgj are observed4 ,thus1 a historian should not write down details that were told him in confidence by a person long since dead2 he should not be swayed either by unreasonable likes or unreasonable dislikes in the expression of his views2 he should not publish what will cause harm rather than good1 such as circumstances in the lives of persons recently deceased which1 if revealed1 will be detrimental to living persons4 #bjgc4 ,it is not always easy to determine whether more harm is likely to result if the persons whose glory is dimmed are high in public esteem on account of the prestige of their office or their great exploits4 ,much will depend on circumstances and on the author's manner of treatment4 7a7 ,thus1 per se1 or from the nature of things1 it does not cause greater harm to narrate truth about the imperfections of great men1 for only error or prejudice or evil has reason to fear the truth4 ,the inspired ,scriptures themselves deal candidly with the public failings of personages who were high in religious or civil position1 for example1 the hesitation of ,moses1 the infidelity of ,aaron1 the fall of ,king ,david1 the disobedience of the prophet ,jonas1 the denials of ,peter1 the doubts of ,thomas1 the treason of ,judas4 ,these histories are not harmful1 but1 on the contrary1 contain most useful lessons of instruction1 warning and direction4 7b7 ,per accidens1 or on account of special conditions1 it may be more harmful to write of the failings of the great 7cfr4 #ajja74 ,thus1 the class of persons for whom one is writing may be immature 7e4g41 a textbook of history for children would give scandal if it spoke openly of sexual crimes71 the conditions of the time may be unfavorable 7e4g41 a new historical production might lead to injury to some class of persons at a time of great prejudice against them71 the total effect of a book may be bad 7e4g41 chronicles of scandals1 historical biographies or novels or plays written in a seductive manner74 ,the class of modern writers known as 8debunkers10 whose aim it is to destroy all hero-worship1 offend against truth and ideals by the prominence they give to evil1 while the so-called psychological historians are frequently purely subjective as well as immoral4 #bjgd4 ,revelations about ,persons ,who ,figure in the ,news of the ,day4--7a7 ,if the matters revealed are of a public nature1 the lawfulness or unlawfulness of the revelation will depend on the reasons for it and the manner in which it is given4 ,in discussing political affairs1 a newspaper has the right to call attention to mistakes and faults of public men1 since the freedom of the press in this respect is a protection to liberty and to progress1 and those who enter public life implicitly consent to criticism of their conduct2 in reporting the news1 a newspaper has the right to speak of murders1 robberies and other public crimes that have been committed1 since the common good requires that the authors of public offenses be known as such4 ,but if this kind of news is disserviceable in any instance to the order1 peace or dignity of the community1 or if the news is obtained in unjust or dishonorable ways1 or if the motive is merely to gratify curiosity1 to indulge prejudice1 or to make money1 the newspaper management is morally guilty1 even though it may be legally within its right4 ,yellow journalism and 8tabloidism0 are reprehensible because they are injurious to the minds and morals of their readers on account of the undue prominence given to crime1 even of the most disgusting sort1 and the appeal made to sense and emotion rather than to thought4 7b7 ,it the matters revealed are of a private nature1 the morality of the revelation has to be judged by the principles given in #bjfg sqq4 ,it would be wrong to make a practice of spying into the private life and affairs even of public persons merely to add interest to one's columns2 but if there is some really important advantage to the public or to a private person that will be served1 and if the other conditions are observed 7see #bjgj71 one may publish even private defects that are real and certain4 #bjge4 ,injustice in ,professional ,critics4--7a7 ,injustice is done by professional critics 7such as book reviewers1 dramatic and art critics1 and the like7 to the persons who rely upon their opinion1 if there is a compact with them to give a competent and unbiased judgment and the compact is not lived up to by the critic with resultant damage to the client 7see #agic74 ,if there is no compact1 the critic is nevertheless guilty of deception and uncharitableness1 if he performs his office carelessly 7e4g41 by eulogizing a worthless book or play or picture74 7b7 ,injustice is done the person criticized1 if his work is undervalued purposely 7e4g41 because the critic is jealous1 or in an ill humor or is hired by others to dispraise71 or if uncalled-for personalities are indulged in at the expense of the person's fame4 ,a carping critic may by the stroke of the pen spoil the work of years1 and hence ignorance does not excuse those censors who practise wholesale and unfair denunciations 7see #ije74 #bjgf4 ,cooperation in ,defamation4--,not only the defamer sins1 but also those who cooperate with him4 ,among the cooperators with defamation are those who give orders for defamation1 those who show how it can be done1 those who protect defamers1 and those who participate in defamation by directing the conversation to a certain subject or by joining in the criticisms4 ,the most ordinary form of participation in defamation is that of the listener1 for no one defames successfully unless he has a sympathetic listener4 ,those who listen to detraction in such a way as to consent to what is said share in the guilt of the detraction4 ,this happens as follows3 7a7 the listener consents directly to defamation when he spurs the speaker on 7e4g41 by saying1 8,tell us about ,so-and-,so10 by insincerely praising an absent person in order to excite dispraise1 by nodding approvingly1 cheering1 or smiling1 by showing great marks of favor to those who bring him news against others or of disfavor to those who refuse to do this71 or when he rejoices internally at the defamation he hears1 because he hates the victim3 7b7 the listener consents indirectly to defamation when he does not spur the speaker on nor approve of what is said1 but omits to stop the defamation or to protest against it1 when he could and should do one or the other of these things4 #bjgg4 ,sinfulness of ,direct ,consent to ,defamation4--,the listener who consents directly shares in the guilt of the defamer according to the words of ,st4 ,paul3 8,they who do such things 7detractors1 etc47 are worthy of death1 and not only they that do them1 but they also that consent to them that do them0 7,rom41 i4 #cb71 ,indeed1 ,st4 ,bernard says that it is not easy to say which is more deserving of condemnation1 to defame or to listen to defamation4 ,but we may distinguish as follows3 7a7 he who spurs the defamer on is more guilty than the defamer4 ,this listener sins against the detractor whom he scandalizes by inducing to sin1 against the detracted whom he deprives of his good name4 ,thus1 he is both uncharitable to the detractor and unjust to the detracted1 and is the moving cause of all the harm that is done 7cfr4 #bjfe72 7b7 he who hears the defamer willingly may be more guilty internally than the defamer1 since his hatred of his neighbor and his love of injustice may be more intense2 but externally his sin is less1 since1 as is supposed1 he is not bound to resist the defamation and he does not give any cooperation to the external injustice4 ,he sins against justice affectively 7i4e41 in wish71 but not effectively 7i4e41 in word or deed74 #bjgh4 ,persons ,who ,listen from ,curiosity4--,what of those listeners who hear defamation willingly1 not because they approve of the harm or evil that is being done1 but because they are unusually curious or the speaker is unusually interesting8 7a7 ,if these listeners could and should stop the defamation1 they consent to it indirectly by their silence and thus are guilty 7cfr4 #bjgi74 7b7 ,if these listeners are not able or are not bound to stop the defamation1 some would nevertheless hold them guilty of grave sin1 since they wish to hear something only because the knowledge will give them pleasure1 knowing all the while that this knowledge cannot be had except at the expense of the good opinion they have of a neighbor4 ,but the general view is that in this case there is no grave sin2 for the listener does not approve of the moral evil 7he is interested only in the graceful or eloquent or witty manner of the speaker1 or the strangeness of the things related1 or he is only concerned to hear the latest news1 cfr4 #bcd71 and what he hears does not cause the lowering of his neighbor in his own opinion4 ,but here it is supposed that the listener in no way encourages the defamation and that he is not bound to stop it4 ,curiosity about things that do not concern one is1 however1 a venial sin4 #bjgi4 ,sinfulness of ,indirect ,consent to ,defamation4--,the listener who consents indirectly to defamation by not impeding it as he should is also guilty of sin1 and in ,scripture his conduct is strongly forbidden3 8,have nothing to do with detractors0 7,prov41 xxiv4 #ba72 8,hedge in thy ears with thorns1 hear not a wicked tongue0 7,ecclus41 xxviii4 #bh74 7a7 ,it is commonly admitted that the listener in question sins doubly against charity1 and grievously if the defamation is seriously harmful2 for he sins against the detractor by refusing to give a brotherly correction 7see #abeh sqq471 and he sins also against the one detracted by refusing to raise his voice in behalf of the absent who cannot defend himself4 7b7 ,it is also commonly admitted that1 if the listener is the superior of the defamer or of the person defamed1 he sins more gravely1 since he is specially bound to correct his subject who is detracting in his presence1 or to defend his absent subject who is being defamed4 ,if the listener is a private person not responsible for the defamed person's reputation1 he does not sin against justice by his indirect consent to the defamation4 ,indeed1 the inferiors or equals of the defamer rarely sin gravely by their neglecting to oppose his defamatory remarks4 #bjhj4 ,guilt of ,superior ,who ,consents to ,defamation4--,is the superior who indirectly consents to defamation of a non-subject by a subject guilty thereby of injustice8 7a7 ,as regards the spiritual injury 7i4e41 the guilt of sin incurred by the defamer71 the superior is guilty of injustice towards his subject1 if by reason of his office or contract he is bound to correct faults and neglects to do so4 ,thus1 a bishop or pastor is supported by his people1 and there is at least an implied agreement that he will direct them in spiritual matters and reprove their faults4 ,hence1 it seems that a spiritual superior of this kind is unjust1 if he fails to correct a subordinate who carries defamatory tales to his ears4 7b7 ,as regards the temporary injury 7i4e41 the detriment to fame incurred by the person maligned71 all depends on whether the superior is bound by reason of his office or contract to prevent injury to non-subjects by those who are his subjects4 ,if the superior exercises his authority in the temporal order and has an agreement with those not subject to him to protect them against defamation by his subjects1 he is bound in justice to abide by his agreement4 ,but the common opinion is that a superior in the spiritual order is not responsible ex officio for the fame or other temporal welfare of those not subject to him4 #bjha4 ,is the superior who indirectly consents to defamation of a subject guilty thereby of injustice8 7a7 ,if the superior has authority in the temporal order1 he is unjust by his inaction1 in so far as law1 custom or agreement hold him to prevent the defamation of his subject4 ,thus1 a guardian entrusted with the care of his ward's reputation is unjust if he makes no effort to prevent defamation of the latter4 7b7 ,if the superior is in the spiritual order1 some believe that he is unjust by inaction1 since fame is closely connected with spiritual goods1 being necessary for moral influence over others and useful for personal perseverance in virtue4 ,but others--and it seems more commonly--deny this1 and state that the relation between fame and spiritual goods is only accidental4 #bjhb4 ,circumstances ,which ,lessen ,guilt of ,indirect ,consent4--,indirect consent to defamation is often only a venial sin4 7a7 ,thus1 by reason of the lightness of the matter1 as when only trivial defects are mentioned by the defamer2 7b7 by reason of insufficient reflection1 as when the listener is distracted in mind and does not clearly advert to the sinfulness of the words he hears2 7c7 by reason of insufficient consent1 as when the failure to stop or protest against the defamation is due to slight laziness1 to bashfulness1 or to fear of the speaker1 at least when the defamation is not extremely harmful to fame or other good1 or gravely slanderous4 #bjhc4 ,inaction in the ,face of ,defamation4--,inaction in the face of defamation of a third party is sometimes no sin at all4 7a7 ,thus1 there is no sin when one is unable to act 7e4g41 when a slanderous speech is being delivered by a person in authority who will not suffer any interruption to be made71 or is unable to act with any success 7e4g41 when the attempt to correct would provoke worse defamation1 when the listener is too unskilled to refute or remonstrate74 ,scrupulous persons should not attempt to correct1 since they are not suited for this4 ,their attempts to defend an absent person would generally make them ridiculous1 and would often be unjust to the person whom they suspected of defamation4 7b7 ,there is no sin when one is not obliged to act 7e4g41 when interference will expose one to very serious evils1 when the defamation is not grave or is not taken very seriously1 when the listener is uncertain whether the speaker is really guilty of defamation or whether he himself is bound to intervene74 ,it is sometimes unwise to interrupt a defamatory story1 for many such story seems to promise dire disclosures at its beginning1 but when heard to the end is seen to be an affair of no importance or to contain little that is new or startling or credible4 #bjhd4 ,ways of ,opposing ,defamation ,made in ,one's ,presence4--7a7 ,positive resistance is made by a command to the defamer to be silent1 or by refutation of his words if they are false1 or by a rebuke if his words are true4 ,this mode of correction is generally required if the listener is the superior of the defamer1 and is sometimes suitable if he is the latter's equal4 7b7 ,negative resistance is made by leaving the company1 by having no share in the conversation1 by changing the subject1 by showing displeasure or at least gravity in one's looks or acts3 8,the north wind driveth away rain1 as doth a sad countenance a backbiting tongue0 7,prov41 xxv4 #bc74 ,this mode of resistance is usually the proper one for an inferior1 and as a rule is found more satisfactory even between equals 7see #abfg74 #bjhe4 ,restitution for ,defamation4--,restitution for injuries committed is necessary 7see #agei71 and hence it is required of the defamer4 ,in the language of ,scripture 7,prov41 xiii4 #ac71 he that speaks ill of his neighbor obliges himself for the future4 ,the two injuries to be repaired are3 7a7 the unjust taking1 that is1 the fame of which he has deprived his neighbor2 7b7 the unjust damage1 that is1 the detriment to fame or the losses that resulted from the defamation 7such as failure to obtain or keep a position1 decline of business1 etc41 which were foreseen at least in a confused manner74 ,it is clear there is no duty of restitution1 if in spite of talk against a neighbor he suffered no loss 7e4g41 if the listeners gave no heed or credence to the talk74 #bjhf4 ,gravity of ,obligation of ,restitution4--,the obligation of restitution for defamation is grave or light according to the degree of injury done1 and the grave obligation binds even at the expense of serious inconvenience1 the light obligation at the cost of small inconvenience4 ,but the following points should be noted3 7a7 the injury is not necessarily grave if the defect imputed to another is grave1 for many circumstances have to be considered 7e4g41 blasphemy is a serious charge1 but it would not be very harmful to a man publicly known as very impious1 see #bjec sqq472 7b7 the injury is not necessarily slight if the defect imputed is slight1 for circumstances may make the injury considerable 7e4g41 it is not very defamatory to say that a woman is very talkative1 or unable to speak or spell correctly1 but this would be very damaging if it lost the woman a very lucrative position as secretary74 #bjhg4 ,conditions ,which ,entail ,duty of ,restitution4--,restitution is not obligatory unless one is the unjust and efficacious author of the damage 7see #agfc74 ,hence1 disclosures unfavorable to the reputation of others entail the duty of restitution only when the following conditions are present3 7a7 the detriment to fame or other loss must be unjust objectively1 and hence those who have a just reason for exposing the vices of others are not held to restitution2 7b7 the detriment must be unjust subjectively1 and hence one who in good faith speaks of a neighbors sin1 thinking that it is true and public1 whereas it is false or secret1 is not bound to restitution1 if he discovers his error after the results of the defamation have been removed 7see1 however1 #bajb74 ,but if he discovers his mistake while the neighbor is still under a cloud because of the report1 he becomes from that moment responsible and subjectively unjust1 if he does not take steps as far as he conveniently can to correct the error 7see #agfi72 7c7 the detriment must be due to oue's act as to its efficacious cause1 and hence one is not bound to restitution if a listener understands one to disparage when in fact one has not disparaged4 #bjhh4 ,cooperators and ,restitution4--,those who cooperate in injustice are also held to restitution 7see #aggh sqq471 and hence the following are bound to indemnify a defamed person3 7a7 positive cooperators are held to restitution1 such as those who command1 counsel1 or encourage defamation4 ,the same is true of those who share in a defamatory conversation or who merely listen1 but by their questions1 or show of interest or approval1 induce the defamer to continue1 or to speak with more assurance2 7b7 negative cooperators are also held to restitution1 if they were bound in justice to resist or impede defamation4 ,this will apply chiefly to a superior who does not prevent1 as he should1 the defamation of his subject or community1 whether by a subject or a non-subject 7see #bjhj sqq474 #bjhi4 ,circumstances of ,restitution4--,we shall now speak of the circumstances of restitution for defamation3 7a7 the persons bound to restitution besides the defamer1 namely1 his heirs1 the listeners1 etc42 7b7 the persons to whom restitution is to be made2 7c7 the manner of making restitution2 7d7 the time for making restitution 7see #agha sqq474 #bjij4 ,restitution for ,defamation to ,be ,made by an ,heir of the ,defamer4--7a7 ,for the injury to fame1 it seems that the heir is not bound1 since the duty of restitution of fame is a personal one1 that is1 an obligation to perform an act of retraction or apology1 not an obligation to pay compensation 7see #dfc74 ,but some hold that defamation may be satisfied for by pecuniary compensation 7#agej1 #ahjb71 and that1 if the injured party should insist on this kind of compensation for the infamy suffered1 the heirs would be obliged to pay it4 7b7 ,for the damages resulting from injury to fame the heir is bound1 since restitution for losses is a real one and rests upon the property or estate of the deceased4 ,but those who are in good faith are sometimes to be left undisturbed1 lest they become guilty of formal sin4 #bjia4 ,the ,persons to ,whom ,restitution for ,defamation ,is to ,be ,made4--7a7 ,to the person defamed restitution of fame is owed1 and this is true even when the person is already dead4 ,just as one who dishonors the dead by desecrating their tombs or their remains owes it to their memory to make reparation1 so one who defames the dead owes it to their reputation to make restitution4 ,in fact1 the heirs may be bound in conscience to insist upon this restitution1 and it seems they cannot condone it1 since it is not their own fame that has been hurt4 7b7 ,to the listeners restitution is not owed1 since no injustice was done them1 but reparation for scandal given them may be obligatory4 ,and1 since justice to the person defamed requires retraction or other reparation1 the defamer must recall his words before the persons to whom he addressed them4 ,hence1 if defamation appeared in a journal1 the honorable reparation should also appear in the same journal and with the same prominence given it as was given the offensive remarks4 #bjib4 ,responsibility of ,defamer for ,spread of ,defamation4--,is the defamer bound to recall his words to the wider audience that learned them from his first listeners8 7a7 ,if the defamer is not responsible for the spread of his talk beyond the circle which he addressed 7e4g41 if he imposed strict silence upon his listeners or had good reason to think that they would keep his remarks to themselves1 and his words nevertheless leaked out71 the common opinion is that he is not held to reparation before the subsequent listeners4 7b7 ,if the defamer is responsible for the spread of his talk 7e4g41 if he gave his listeners permission to quote or repeat1 or if he knew well that they would carry his words far and wide71 he is bound to reparation before the later listeners1 in so far as this is possible1 especially if he was guilty of calumny4 ,whether he or his listeners have the first duty of restitution will depend on the relationship in their cooperation 7see #aghd74 ,if he can do nothing better1 he should admonish his listeners to retract before their listeners4 #bjic4 ,the ,first ,way of ,making ,restitution for ,defamation4--7a7 ,if the defamation was by calumny1 the defamer 7and also the propagator7 must take back his words1 admitting that what he said was untrue4 ,if necessary1 he should also make affidavit to this effect1 or even admit that he lied4 ,the reason is that the innocent party has a greater right to his fame than the guilty party4 ,but the defamer is not obliged to confess his own malice1 when this is not necessary1 and it may suffice to say merely that his former statement was not correct4 7b7 ,if the defamation was by detraction1 the defamer cannot truthfully say that his words were false1 and he must counteract directly or indirectly the effect of his defamation by something favorable to the person he has injured4 ,if the listeners will not be confirmed in their belief by his explanation1 the defamer should explain to them that his statements were unjust1 that he had no right to make them1 that he wishes them to regard as unsaid all that he said1 etc4 7direct revocation74 ,if this cure would be worse than the sickness by strengthening the belief of the listeners that the defamation was true1 the defamer should be silent about his former statements4 ,but he should so honor or praise the person defamed that others will be led to believe1 not that restitution is being made1 but that the former good opinion they had of the person defamed was correct 7indirect revocation74 ,thus1 if the defamer knows that the injured person has reformed1 he may call attention to and emphasize the virtues he now has2 if the defamed person has still the same failing1 he may be excused1 when possible1 or praised for the good qualities he does possess1 or he may be spoken of in general terms of esteem2 if the listeners have been led to dishonor the person who was detracted1 the defamer may show special signs of esteem or confidence to the latter1 etc4 #bjid4 ,other ,methods of ,making ,restitution4--,if the listeners will not be impressed by any of the methods of satisfaction just indicated1 what should be done8 7a7 ,if1 in the case of calumny1 the listeners are unwilling to accept the formal statement that the defamation was untrue1 the defamer is obliged to nothing more4 ,for the slanderer has done all that is possible to change the erroneous view of the listeners1 and the bad opinion they have of their neighbor must now be attributed1 not to the defamer1 but to their own wickedness or stubbornness4 7b7 ,if the listeners cannot be properly impressed by the direct or indirect revocation of detraction1 the defamer1 being unable to make honorable compensation by restoration of fame1 should make a profitable compensation by the bestowal of a benefit that will in some way be commensurate with the good of reputation and be acceptable to the other party4 ,thus1 if the person defamed is satisfied with money or something measurable in terms of money1 he should be given damages2 if this kind of compensation is of little use or is not esteemed 7few persons of honor would take money alone as pay for a lost reputation71 he should be given some other good which in his own judgment and that of a prudent man is more nearly an equivalent for the good of which he has been deprived4 ,an apology is not sufficient1 since the begging of pardon does not restore what was taken2 neither is it generally advisable1 because the admission to another that one has been secretly defaming him and is now sorry for this may lead to quarrels and hatreds rather than to forgiveness and peace4 #bjie4 ,legal ,reparation for ,defamation4--,one who has been sentenced by a lawful judgment of court to reparation and penalty for defamation is obliged to obedience1 but if the satisfaction decided on by a jury is excessive or meager1 it can be set aside by the court4 ,in ,canon ,law 7,canon #bcee7 one who has been convicted of defamation may be sentenced3 7a7 to satisfaction2 7b7 to damages2 7c7 to suitable penalties1 even to suspension or removal from office or benefice4 #bjif4 ,the ,time ,when ,restitution for ,defamation ,is to ,be ,made4--7a7 ,it should be made as soon as possible1 for the longer it is delayed the greater the injury that is suffered1 since defamation becomes harder to correct as it progresses1 or at least has a longer life when it is not corrected early4 ,but prudence will sometimes dictate that one await a psychological or favorable moment for a retractation4 7b7 ,restitution should be promised before absolution is given1 and1 if there is a well-founded doubt about the sincerity of a promise1 the confessor may delay absolution until restitution has been made4 #bjig4 ,cessation of ,duty of ,restitution4--,the duty of restitution ceases1 at least temporarily1 in certain cases 7see #agig sqq471 and hence one who has been guilty of injustice through defamation is sometimes excused from reparation4 7a7 ,thus1 one is excused temporarily on account of impossibility2 7b7 one is excused permanently on account of the cessation of the other party's good name or the termination of one's own obligation4 #bjih4 ,excuse from ,restitution on ,account of ,impossibility4--7a7 ,physical impossibility excuses1 for example1 when one does not know who the persons were before whom one detracted1 or cannot recall who the person was whom one defamed4 ,but in this case the defamer should at least make satisfaction by praying for the person whom he defamed1 or by having ,masses offered for him4 7b7 ,moral impossibility excuses from restitution1 as when the defamer will suffer a far greater loss than he inflicted on the person defamed 7e4g41 if the defamer cannot retract without losing his life1 or a reputation which is far more valuable than that of the obscure person who was defamed74 ,but if the defamer has subjected the injured party to the peril of death1 or if he has calumniated an innocent man1 he must make satisfaction even at the peril of his own life or at the cost of his own fame2 for the right of the innocent prevails over that of the guilty defamer4 #bjii4 ,excuse from ,restitution on ,account of ,cessation of ,other ,party's ,good ,name4--,the defamer may also be excused from restitution on account of cessation of the other party's good name through another cause1 as when the secret defect first made known by the defamer becomes public from another source4 7a7 ,the detractor is excused from the duty of restoring reputation1 since the person he defamed has now independently of the first defamation lost his right to reputation 7see #bjec sqq474 7b7 ,the detractor is not excused1 however1 from payment for damages which the defamed person suffered from the first defamation or for expenses which it caused him4 ,some moralists hold him obligated also for some compensation for the infamy suffered before the crime became public through others4 #bajj4 ,excuse from ,restitution on ,account of the ,termination of ,obligation4--7a7 ,the act of the defamed person ends the obligation1 when1 without injury to others1 he expressly or tacitly condones the offense2 for he has dominion over his own fame1 as he has over his own money or lands4 ,thus1 it may often be presumed that parents overlook the restitution owed them by their children for criticisms made by the latter4 7b7 ,the act of the defamed person also ends the obligation1 according to the common opinion1 when he has inflicted an equal injury by defaming his defamer and is unwilling to make satisfaction for the injury2 for though it is unlawful to repay evil with evil1 and though one damage does not cure another damage1 he who will not pay a creditor cannot insist that the creditor pay him an equal debt4 ,thus1 if ,titus has burned the barn of ,claudius and ,claudius then burns the barn of ,titus1 and neither will pay damages1 the debts neutralize each other1 if the losses are equal4 ,the same principle applies in defamatory recriminations4 #baja4 ,right of ,defamed ,person to ,condone ,injury4--,the person defamed has the right to condone the injury1 if it is only personal to himself1 but he has not always the right to condone the injury when the defamation causes harm to others4 7a7 ,thus1 the defamed person would sin against justice and his act would be invalid1 if he forgave the debt of restitution despite the fact that his own fame was necessary for the fame of others 7e4g41 when a monk loses his good name1 the monastery is also disgraced71 or was necessary for the fulfillment of duties owed by him in justice to others 7e4g41 when a prelate1 priest or public official loses his good name1 the good influence he should exercise over his subjects is ended74 ,this conclusion is probable4 7b7 ,the defamed person would sin against charity1 but his act would be valid1 if he forgave the debt of restitution despite the fact that his fame was necessary for the fulfillment of charitable duties owed to others1 or that his silence in the face of defamation would cause great scandal 7e4g41 when a preacher loses his reputation1 his words do not move1 and thus he is unable fruitfully to accomplish works of charity by instructing the ignorant1 etc474 #bajb4 ,excuse from ,restitution ,when ,reputation ,has ,been ,recovered4--,the obligation of restitution for defamation also ceases when reputation has been recovered without any act on the part of the defamer2 for it is clear that one is not bound to give back that which is already had4 ,but restitution may be due1 nevertheless1 for damages incurred1 and some think that compensation 7e4g41 apology1 honor1 praise7 should be made for the injury of infamy that existed before the good name was regained4 ,the usual ways in which reputation is recovered without the act of the defamer are3 7a7 by overthrow of the defamation1 as when the facts against it become manifest1 or when witnesses prove its falsity1 or when a tribunal declares it a criminal libel2 7b7 by oblivion1 as when a misdeed of years ago has faded entirely out of the public memory4 ,if the defamer is uncertain whether his past defamations have been forgotten1 he has to act with great prudence2 for1 if he makes inquiries the memory of the defamations may be awakened1 while if he says nothing1 the defamations1 because never corrected or retracted1 may break out anew4 ,he should consider the circumstances1 therefore1 and treat the defamed person as he would wish himself to be treated in a like case4 #bajc4 ,whispering or ,tale-,bearing4--,whispering 7susurratio71 also called mischief-making and tale-bearing1 is a speech unfavorable to another person secretly made with the purpose of breaking up a virtuous friendship4 7a7 ,it is unfavorable speech1 that is1 the whisperer says something to his listener that will turn the latter against the person spoken about4 ,the thing attributed to the absent person may be either something evil or something that is only seemingly evil1 but in either case it will be something displeasing to the listener4 ,whispering1 therefore1 does not necessarily include defamation4 7b7 ,it is secret1 that is1 the whisperer speaks privately1 and usually in the way of confidence to the person whose mind he wishes to impress4 ,often1 however1 he goes now to one of the friends1 now to another1 speaking in different senses to each1 to make his work doubly effective4 ,this kind of whisperer is known as double-tongued3 8,the whisperer and the double-tongued is accursed0 7,ecclus41 xxviii4 #ae74 7c7 ,it is aimed at the breaking up of a friendship1 that is1 the whisperer intends to destroy the feeling of respect and affection which his listener has for the absent person1 or even to instill into the listener's mind a feeling of disrespect and dislike for the absent person4 ,whispering1 therefore1 is incomplete when it ends a friendship1 and complete when it makes enemies of those who had been friends and sows discords and quarrels3 8,a passionate man kindleth strife1 and a sinful man will trouble his friends1 and bring in debate in the midst of them that are at peace0 7,ecclus41 xxviii4 #aa72 8,when the tale-bearer is taken away1 contentions shall cease0 7,prov41 xxvi4 #bj74 ,whispering1 then1 differs from simple defamation1 whose purpose is to steal away fame1 for the mischief-maker intends to steal away friendship4 7d7 ,it is directed against a virtuous friendship1 for there is no sin but rather an act of charity in the effort to end a sinful or harmful friendship1 as when a parent tries to keep his daughter away from a wicked man with whom she is infatuated1 or his son away from a disorderly set whose companionship appeals to the youth 7see #acec74 #bajd4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,whispering4--7a7 ,theological ,species4--,whispering is from its nature a mortal sin1 since it is hateful to ,god 7the soul of the ,lord detesteth 8him that soweth discord among brethren10 ,prov41 vi4 #ai71 and deprives man of the boon of a virtuous friendship1 the greatest of external goods4 8,a faithful friend is a strong defence1 and he that hath found him hath found a treasure4 ,nothing can be compared to a faithful friend1 and no weight of gold and silver is able to countervail the goodness of his fidelity4 ,a faithful friend is the medicine of life and immortality0 7,ecclus41 vi4 #ad-af74 ,whispering is a greater sin than contumely or defamation1 since honor is less esteemed than friendship1 and reputation is only a means to friendship4 7b7 ,moral ,species4--,generally1 whispering is a sin against justice on account of the unjust means 7e4g41 force1 fraud1 lies1 detractions7 to which it resorts2 but from its nature it is only a sin against charity1 for the injured party has no strict right to friendship1 which is a free relationship that may be terminated at will by either of the parties4 #baje4 ,circumstances ,which ,affect the ,species of ,whispering4--,is the species of whispering changed by circumstances8 7a7 ,the theological species is changed when the sinful act is imperfect in malice 7e4g41 when the whisperer had not reflected well on the evil that would be caused by him71 or when the harm done is slight 7e4g41 when no enmity was caused and the friendship broken up was not strong or important to the friends74 ,it is not a small matter1 however1 to destroy friendships that are very necessary1 such as the friendship between husband and wife1 between parent and child4 7b7 ,the moral species is not subdivided1 for1 though there are different kinds of friendships 7see #aaaa71 whispering is not directed against the special features1 but against the general character common to all of them1 namely1 unity of soul and mutual affection4 ,hence1 the whisperer is not obliged to mention in confession whether the friendship he broke up was based on utility1 or pleasure1 or virtue4 ,it is clear1 however1 that a new species may be added to whispering4 ,thus1 he who separates husband and wife1 intending to secure the wife for himself1 is guilty also of adultery2 he who separates a business man and his patrons1 intending to attract the trade to himself1 is guilty also of theft2 he who separates ruler and subjects by his whispering1 is also guilty of sedition1 etc4 #bajf4 ,derision4--,derision is a jest that reproaches another with some defect or evil in order to put him to confusion4 7a7 ,it is a jest1 that is1 it is spoken in fun and consists in making the defects of another person the object of laughter or amusement4 ,thus1 it differs in manner from contumely1 detraction and whispering1 which are spoken seriously4 7b7 ,its purpose is the confusion of the person ridiculed1 that is1 it intends to take from him the good opinion that he is entitled to have of himself and the peace of conscience that he enjoys4 ,thus1 it differs in object and purpose from the other injurious words hitherto considered 7see #bjji74 ,the intention to put another person out of countenance by ridicule is either formal or material1 according as the purpose before the mind is to disconcert that person1 or only to have one's joke1 though one sees that this will mean shame and suffering for the victim of the joke4 #bajg4 ,distinction between ,derision and ,jesting4--,moderate jesting at another's expense is not derision1 nor sinful1 if it is justified by a reasonable motive4 7a7 ,thus1 a serious motive for jesting at another is fraternal correction4 ,to ridicule a person who is making a fool of himself is often the best way to correct him1 for many persons are less moved at being called wicked than at being called absurd4 ,similarly1 a satirical rebuke sometimes serves to abash a person who has an exalted opinion of himself4 ,in such cases a truth spoken in jest is an act of charity to a sinner4 7b7 ,a playful motive for jesting at another is recreation4 ,the good-natured exchange of banter about trivial defects between persons who enjoy this give and take is a reasonable form of amusement in itself2 indeed1 it pertains to the virtue known as eutrapelia4 ,but some persons who enjoy a jest at the expense of another are extremely sensitive to ridicule and fly into a rage if fun is poked at themselves1 or even if they suspect that someone is laughing at them4 #bajh4 ,even jesting whose purpose is good may be sinful on account of the offensive or immoderate way in which it is conducted 7see #bjaj74 ,there are three general forms of jest1 but they do not constitute distinct species of sin when jest is unlawful1 since the difference between them is accidental as far as morality is concerned4 7a7 ,thus1 jest of the mouth is one that is made by words or laughter4 7b7 ,a jest of the face is made by the expression of the countenance 7e4g41 by wrinkling up the nose1 sticking out the tongue74 7c7 ,a jest of act1 or practical joke1 is some trick played on another1 horseplay1 and the like4 #baji4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,derision4--7a7 ,when the derider makes light of a grave evil1 he commits a mortal sin1 for he shows grave contempt towards the person derided1 treating the latter as if he were entirely worthless--one whose misfortunes were matters for joke4 ,indeed1 derision is a more serious injury than contumely1 for the contumelious person treats the evil of his neighbor as something serious1 whereas the derider makes sport of it and is thus more insulting4 ,in ,scripture grave punishment is threatened to deriders3 8,god shall scorn the scorners0 7,prov41 iii4 #cd74 ,but if an evil grave in itself is commonly looked upon as light on account of the inferior condition of the person who has the defect 7viz41 because he is an infant or an idiot71 there is no grave sin of contempt4 7b7 ,when the derider makes light of an evil that is really light1 there is no contempt shown1 but there may be serious embarrassment caused to the person derided4 ,for the peace of a good conscience is a great blessing 78,our glory is this1 the testimony of our conscience10 ,,ii ,cor41 i4 #ab2 8,a secure mind is like a continual feast10 ,prov41 xv4 #ae71 and that which disturbs it can be a serious distress and harm4 ,if the butt of the joke does not take the matter much to heart1 the sin is venial4 ,but should he suffer great mental pain or disturbance on account of the ridicule1 the quality of the sin is disputed4 ,some think that mortal sin is committed1 if the derider foresees the serious evil that will ensue2 but others hold that the sin is venial1 since it is the over-sensitiveness of the person derided that accounts for his great discomfiture of mind4 #baaj4 ,the gravity of the sin of derision is increased by the object against whom it is directed2 for the greater the reverence due a person1 the greater the injury shown by making a mockery of him4 7a7 ,thus1 the worst form of derision is that which is directed against ,god1 and it is not distinct from blasphemy4 ,hence1 ,isaias 7,,iv ,kings1 xix4 #f7 calls the deriders of the ,god of ,israel blasphemers1 and ,st4 ,luke 7xxii4 #fd1 #fe7 says that the soldiers who gave ,our ,lord a mock coronation spoke in blasphemy4 7b7 ,next in gravity is derision of parents1 and ,scripture declares the special horror of this sin3 8,the eye that mocketh at his father1 let the ravens of the brooks pick it out and the young eagles eat it0 7,prov41 xxx1 #ag74 7c7 ,finally1 there is a special enormity in derision of saintly persons1 for virtue deserves honor1 and those who dishonor it deter men1 as far as in them lies1 from cultivating or esteeming it4 #baaa4 ,cursing4--,cursing in general is the speaking of evil for some person or thing1 that is1 in order that the evil spoken may befall him or it4 ,thus1 it differs from contumely and derision1 which are the speaking of evil to another1 and from defamation and whispering1 which are the speaking of evil against another4 ,cursing is also different from prediction of evil1 and some passages in the ,imprecatory ,psalms1 though couched in terms of malediction1 are prophecies of the future1 rather than curses4 ,an example is ,psalm cviii1 which foretells the fate of the traitor ,judas4 ,cursing is expressed in two ways3 7a7 imperatively1 when one pronounces with authority that punishment is to be inflicted or evil visited upon some person or object4 ,in this way ,god decrees eternal or temporal penalties against sinners1 judges sentence criminals1 and the ,church anathematize the contumacious2 7b7 optatively1 when one who has not the power or authority to command punishment1 expresses the wish that misfortune or evil of some kind may overtake a person or thing4 ,examples are3 8,bad luck to you10 8,may you break your leg10 8,the devil take you10 8,god damn you40 ,a curse made in the form of a prayer is called an imprecation4 #baab4 ,when ,cursing ,is ,not ,sinful4--,cursing a person is not sinful when the evil which is ordered or wished is not intended as to the evil that is in it1 but as to some good2 for so the intention is directed to good1 not to evil4 7a7 ,thus1 evil may be ordered on account of the good of justice that is in it1 as when a judge decrees capital punishment1 which in its physical being is an evil1 but morally is the vindication of justice and therefore a good4 ,some of the curses made by holy men in the ,bible are of this character3 they proclaim the just sentence of ,god1 as when ,elias called down fire from heaven upon his persecutors 7,,iv ,kings1 i71 and ,eliseus cursed the boys that mocked him 7,,iv ,kings1 ii4 #bd72 or they express the submission of the human will to the just decree of ,god3 8,and the ,levites shall pronounce with a loud voice1 #8,cursed be he that abideth not in the words of this law1' and all the people shall say1 #8,amen'0 7,deut41 xxvii4 #ad1 #bf74 7b7 ,evil may be desired1 if the intention takes in only the good of public or of private utility that is contained in it1 as when one hopes a jury will find a dangerous criminal guilty1 if one has in view1 not the sufferings or death of the criminal1 but the safety of the community4 ,it is right1 therefore1 to wish confusion and defeat to the enemies of religion1 of the ,church1 or of one's country2 it is lawful to pray ,god to visit a sinner with sickness that he may thereby be reformed or prevented from harming others4 ,but in wishing evils one must remember that it is not always lawful to do what one wishes may happen in some lawful manner1 nor is it lawful to wish a greater evil as a means of escape from a lesser evil 7see #acjh sqq474 #baac4 ,sinfulness of ,cursing4--,cursing a person is sinful when the evil ordered or wished is intended precisely as it is the hurt or loss of this person4 7a7 ,from its nature this sin is mortal1 since it shuts out the curser from heaven 78,neither cursers nor extortioners shall possess the kingdom of ,god10 ,i ,cor41 vi4 #aj71 and it is essentially opposed to charity1 being the natural expression of hatred 7see #abif74 ,but1 other things being equal1 optative cursing is less serious than defamation1 for it is less harm to another to wish him evil 7e4g41 that he be defamed7 than to inflict that evil on him4 7b7 ,from the imperfection of the act or the lightness of the matter1 cursing becomes at times a venial sin4 ,the act is imperfectly deliberate when one curses in a sudden fit of temper2 it is imperfectly intentional1 when one curses in fun or from habit and does not really wish that the evils pronounced should be fulfilled4 ,the curses1 8,go to hell10 8,god damn you10 are usually not meant or understood to express a wish that the person addressed be consigned to eternal punishment4 ,hence1 they are generally in themselves venial sins only4 ,but it should be remembered that venial curses of this kind may become mortal by reason of scandal 7e4g41 when parents habitually address such curses to their children1 or other superiors to their subordinates71 or by reason of irreverence 7e4g41 when children curse their parents74 ,the matter of a curse is light when the evil spoken is harmful only in a small degree 7e4g41 to wish that a person may lose a small sum of money74 #baad4 ,rules for ,deciding as to ,gravity of the ,sin4--,persons who have expressed a grave curse against a neighbor are sometimes in doubt whether there was enough ill-will in the curse to make it a mortal sin4 ,for such doubts theologians give the following rules3 7a7 if the reason for doubting is that after the curse one cooled off and hoped that no evil would happen to one's neighbor1 mortal sin was committed during the curse1 but the bad disposition quickly passed away2 7b7 if the reason for doubting is that one is not sure about the state of mind one was in during the curse1 a good index of that state of mind will be the feeling one has towards the person who was cursed4 ,thus1 if one is well disposed towards that person1 the presumption is that the curse was not meant except as an expression of anger2 but if one is hostile to that person1 the presumption is rather that the evil in the curse was really intended4 ,if one is indifferent as regards the person whom one cursed1 the presumption will follow what one is accustomed to desire in one's curses1 whether that be to give forceful expression to displeasure or to manifest a malevolent hatred4 #baae4 ,circumstances ,which ,change the ,moral ,species of ,cursing4--,there are certain circumstances of person and objects which change the moral species of cursing1 and which must therefore be mentioned in confession4 7a7 ,thus1 by reason of difference in the persons cursed the species is changed1 for where special love or reverence is owed a special sin is committed by hatred or irreverence4 ,the gravest curse is that against ,god1 which is the sin of blasphemy 7see #hhg sqq474 ,next in wickedness is the curse against one's parents1 which is a sin of impiety4 7b7 ,by reason of difference in the evils that are desired1 the species is also changed1 since the essential malices of the will and of the deed are the same 7see #ij1 #bdb74 ,in this respect cursing differs from contumely and detraction1 for in these sins the evils spoken are not pleasing1 but rather displeasing to the speaker 7see #bajc74 ,hence1 he who wishes death to his neighbor commits murder in his heart1 he who wishes loss of property is a thief at heart1 etc4 ,but if one curses a neighbor in a general way1 without mentioning any particular evil1 one sins by hatred4 #baaf4 ,numerical ,multiplication in ,sins of ,cursing4--7a7 ,by reason of the specific difference in the evils wished 7e4g41 death1 disgrace1 poverty71 one is guilty of several sins by one and the same act2 for1 though the act is physically one1 it is morally many1 as was said in the previous paragraph4 ,but some authors add that only one sin is committed if all the evils wished are united in the mind as expressions of the one sin of hate or as means of the one purpose of injury 7see #bag74 7b7 ,by reason of the different persons cursed1 one is also guilty of several sins by one and the same act1 or at least is guilty of one sin that is equivalent to many2 for he who curses a whole family or group1 formally and expressly intends evil to each member1 and thus he differs from a thief who steals from many persons1 but does not will individual injuries 7see #bah74 #baag4 ,the ,cursing of ,evil4--7a7 ,it is not sinful to curse evil as such1 that is1 to wish that sin or wrong may be defeated4 ,hence1 it is lawful to pray against the evil spirits1 the enemies of ,god and man4 ,but it is sinful to curse any creature of ,god1 even though he is among the lost1 for the nature of every creature is good1 since it comes from ,god4 7b7 ,it is not sinful to curse evil tropologically1 that is1 to curse a creature of ,god that is taken to represent evil1 as being its cause 7e4g41 ,job cursed the day of his birth1 the beginning of many evils71 or location 7e4g41 ,david cursed ,mount ,gelboe1 the spot where ,saul and ,jonathan were slain71 etc4 ,but it would be a sin to curse these creatures of ,god in themselves4 #baah4 ,it is not sinful to curse an irrational creature on account of its relation to man1 if there is a sufficient reason to curse man himself 7see #baab71 either on account of the good of justice 7e4g41 when ,god cursed the earth as a punishment on ,adam1 when ,christ cursed the fig-tree as a sign of the curse on ,judea71 or on account of the good of utility 7e4g41 when one wishes that the liquor ordered by a drunkard may be lost74 #baai4 ,unlawful ,cursing of an ,irrational ,creature4--7a7 ,it is unlawful to curse an irrational creature1 considered precisely as a creature of ,god1 for in so doing one reflects on ,god ,himself1 and incurs the guilt of blasphemy4 7b7 ,it is unlawful to curse an irrational creature1 considered precisely in relation to man1 if there is no just cause to curse man4 ,thus1 if one wishes that a neighbor's cattle may die1 intending only the harm that will be done the neighbor1 one is guilty of sinful cursing 7see #baac74 7c7 ,it is unlawful to curse an irrational creature1 considered precisely in itself1 for such an act is vain and useless4 ,those who curse the inclemency of the weather1 the infertility of the soil1 the stubbornness of mules or other animals1 the uselessness of a tool1 etc41 do not generally speaking commit a grave sin1 since they intend only to voice their impatience with conditions that are displeasing4 #babj4 ,murmuring4--,murmuring is the expression of unjust discontent or complaint by inarticulate sounds or by secret words4 7a7 ,it is unjust1 and so it does not differ essentially from the sins of speech given above4 ,if it is an injustice to honor1 it is reducible to contumely2 if it is an injury to fame1 it pertains to defamation1 etc4 ,the injustice of murmuring results either from the thing complained of 7e4g41 a child murmurs against the just orders of its parents71 or from the manner of the complaint 7e4g41 a subordinate complains against an unjust order1 but angrily1 contemptuously1 or uselessly74 7b7 ,it is made by inarticulate sounds 7e4g41 by whistling1 grunting71 or by secret words 7e4g41 in whispered1 inaudible manner74 ,this is an accidental difference between murmuring and other vocal sins4 #baba4 ,fraud4--,having discussed the various kinds of injustice that are committed in involuntary commutations1 we now pass on to the study of those injustices that are done in voluntary transactions 7see #agdh74 ,these vices can be reduced to the following3 7a7 injustices perpetrated against a person who is entirely unwilling 7viz41 theft and robbery71 as when one steals an object that had been entrusted to one as a pledge or loan1 or compels another1 by fear or violence1 to sign a contract unfavorable to himself and which he does not wish to agree to4 ,it is unnecessary to speak of theft and robbery in contracts1 since the same principles apply to them as to theft and robbery outside of contracts 7see #ahij sqq472 7b7 injustices perpetrated against a person who is partly willing1 since he consents to a contract1 but is also partly unwilling1 since unfairness or fraud is used against him4 ,these injuries are of two general kinds3 fraud1 a sin committed in buying and selling and other contracts in which payment is made for some valuable consideration2 usury1 a sin committed in the loan of money in which payment is made for something that is nonexistent4 #babb4 ,definition of ,fraud4--,by fraud 7see #afgg-afgi7 we here understand any unlawful conduct on the part of one party to a contract that puts the other party under a disadvantage in agreeing to the contract 7e4g41 misrepresentations about the excellence of merchandise71 or that takes away the equality that should exist between the parties 7e4g41 an excessive price charged for merchandise2 see #agej74 ,the contract of sale is the type of all onerous contracts 7see #agdi71 and to it all the others1 whether certain or aleatory1 can be reduced1 for in every one of them there is a thing that is purchased 7e4g41 in aleatory contracts the hope of securing some prize71 and a price that is paid for the object of purchase4 ,hence1 it will suffice to speak of the frauds that are committed in sales1 and the same principles that govern these can be applied to other kinds of contract4 #babc4 ,two ,kinds of ,injustices in ,sales4--,equality between the buyer and the seller requires that each give the other a good equivalent for what he receives4 ,hence1 the injustices committed in sales are reducible to two kinds3 7a7 injustices in the prices charged or paid2 7b7 injustices as to the goods furnished or taken4 #babd4 ,injustice ,regarding the ,price4--,sin is committed in reference to the price charged as follows3 7a7 by fraud1 when one of the parties uses deception against the other party in order to charge more or pay less than is fair2 for one who is party to a contract has the right that no lying or trickery be used against him1 a contract being an agreement to which knowledge and consent are requisite2 7b7 by overcharge or underpayment2 for sale has for its purpose the mutual advantage of the buyer and seller1 and hence one of them should not be overburdened for the advantage of the other1 but the burdens and benefits should be equally distributed4 ,hence1 it is unjust to sell an object for more than it is worth1 or to buy it for less than it is worth4 #babe4 ,the ,criteria of a ,just ,price4--7a7 ,the constitutive norm of a just price is not merely subjective1 that is1 the fairness does not depend on the arbitrary wishes or on the special needs of the contractants1 or on some monopoly which controls the prices2 it is objective1 that is1 founded on the value of the thing sold1 its capacity to be of benefit and satisfaction to its possessor1 its rarity1 the amount of labor put into its production and care1 etc4 7b7 ,the manifestative norm for commodities that are in common use 7such as the necessities of life and the more usual luxuries7 is the common judgment expressed either in law 7legal price7 or in the free custom of buyers and sellers at a particular place and time 7market price72 for objects that are not in common use and that have no settled price 7e4g41 rare archeological finds1 ancient documents or paintings7 the norm is the prudent and free judgment of the parties1 or the decision of an expert chosen by them4 #babf4 ,the ,obligation of ,observing ,prices ,settled by ,law ,or ,custom4--7a7 ,the legal price 7e4g41 in some countries the prices on government monopolies1 such as tobacco and salt71 which in modern times is rare1 is ordinarily obligatory in virtue of commutative justice1 since its disregard harms one of the parties to the sale4 ,but in exceptional cases the price may for reasons of equity be no longer obligatory 7e4g41 when the lawgiver does not insist on its observance74 7b7 ,the market price is ordinarily of like obligation1 and for the same reason4 ,but it should be noted that the current price allows of some latitude1 since the common estimate does not agree on exactly the same figure1 and hence there is a highest1 a lowest1 and an average price4 ,injustice is done when one sells above the highest market price1 that is1 when one charges a sum notably in excess of that charged by others at the same place and time2 or when one buys below the lowest market price1 that is1 when one pays a sum notably less than that paid by other buyers4 ,st4 ,alphonsus gives as a rule that when a commodity is valued at #e1 it may be sold for #f or bought for #d2 when valued at #aj1 it may be transferred or acquired for #ab or #h2 when valued at #ajj1 it may be exchanged for #aje or #ie4 #babg4 ,when the ,market ,price ,may ,be ,disregarded ,without ,injustice4--,in some exceptional cases one may disregard the market price without injustice1 if there are reasons that justify this4 7a7 ,reasons that rest on the matter of the contract are that the thing on sale has increased or decreased in value 7e4g41 the merchandise is of extraordinary excellence or rarity71 or that the contractant would lose or risk loss from the sale itself by keeping to the market price 7e4g41 the buyer would by his purchase deprive himself of money that could be used more profitably in another transaction2 the article if sold would have to be replaced by the seller at a higher price2 the vendor by waiting can make a better sale later2 the object which a person wishes to purchase is especially prized by the owner and cannot be duplicated74 ,in these cases1 however1 the vendor should give notice to the buyer that for special reasons a higher price is being asked1 so that the latter may have the choice of going elsewhere1 if he prefers4 7b7 ,reasons that rest on the manner of the contract are that certain exceptional forms of sales are justified by law or custom and do not violate basic justice4 ,auction sales are of this kind1 and1 if the conditions of aleatory contracts are observed so that the risk will be equal on both sides1 it is not unfair to take a price above the highest current price or to bid and buy below the minimum price4 #babh4 ,if the reason for the increase is the accommodation of the sale itself to the purchaser1 because he specially prizes the article1 does it justify an increase above the market price8 7a7 ,if the article has become of greater value to many because of its own worth1 the market value has also risen1 and one may raise one's price2 but if its greater value to many is due only to public distress1 as in time of war1 it would be a cruel form of injustice known as profiteering to raise the price exorbitantly4 7b7 ,if the article has become of greater value to one person only1 the seller may not raise his price for that reason1 since the special worth the article has is not inherent in it1 and hence it may not be sold by the owner as if it were his own possession4 ,if1 however1 the purchaser wished to add something as a free gift1 there would be no objection to his doing so4 ,the same principles apply to the purchase of an article at less than its value1 for the sole reason that ready money has special value for the seller4 #babi4 ,unjust ,sales ,based on ,ignorance of ,real ,value4--,there are also cases in which an object is purchased at an unjust price because its true value was unknown to the contractants or was hidden4 7a7 ,if the value was unknown on account of substantial error 7e4g41 a woman buys paste ornaments1 thinking they are genuine diamonds71 the contract is invalid2 if it was unknown on account of the individual error of a contractant 7e4g41 a woman buys a diamond of great value for a few dollars1 because the seller did not know the value of the jewel71 the contract is unjust2 if it was unknown on account of public error reflected in the current price 7e4g41 an art dealer buys at a low price a masterly painting1 because his superior judgment enables him to recognize in it qualities which others did not perceive71 the contract is both valid and just4 ,it is also lawful to buy at the present prices when one knows from sources that one can honorably use that the objects purchased will soon rise greatly in value1 for one is not bound to share with others one's personal knowledge4 7b7 ,if the hidden value is no man's property or is abandoned 7e4g41 a man buys a field in which he1 but not the owner1 knows that a treasure is concealed1 or he buys a goose and finds gold pieces in its stomach and cannot discover how they got there71 the buyer is entitled to acquisition2 but if it has an owner who can be discovered 7e4g41 a man buys a coat in a second-hand store and discovers a large quantity of money in bills sewed inside the lining1 and is able to trace back the coat to its former wearer1 if he tries71 the buyer is bound to restitution4 #bacj4 ,obligation of ,restitution on ,account of ,unjust ,prices4--7a7 ,unjust ,possession4--,if there was bad faith without fraud1 the seller should restore the difference between what he received and the highest current price1 the buyer the difference between what he paid and the lowest current price4 ,overcharges or underpayments in conventional prices should be compensated for according to a reasonable standard1 such as the decision of the experts4 7b7 ,unjust ,damage4--,if there was bad faith and fraud with resultant damages to one of the parties1 the losses should be made good1 even though the just price itself was not violated by excess or defect 7see #agfb74 7c7 ,nullity4--,if there was good faith on both sides1 there is no obligation of restoration1 unless we suppose substantial error1 lack of proper consent1 conditional agreement1 etc41 which make the sale null or rescindable 7see #agbe74 #baca4 ,injustice ,regarding the ,thing ,sold4--,having spoken of the injustices committed in reference to the price1 we shall now treat of the injustices committed in reference to the thing sold4 ,the contract supposes that the thing sold be of a certain character1 and hence injustice is done if one of the parties wilfully misleads the other about that character4 7a7 ,thus1 the species of the thing sold enters into the contract1 and so it is unjust to deceive another person about the nature of the thing that is being sold 7e4g41 if the seller gives inferior substitutes or adulterated goods to those who desire the genuine and pure article1 or if the buyer deceives an inexperienced merchant into thinking that the high-grade clothing material he has for sale is low grade74 7b7 ,the quantity of the thing sold is also a part of the contract1 and it is unjust to take advantage by giving less or taking more than is agreed on3 8,thou shalt not have divers weights in thy bag1 a greater and a less1 neither shall there be in thy house a greater bushel and a less0 7,deut41 xxv4 #ac1 #ad74 7c7 ,the quality of the thing sold belongs to the contract1 and hence there is fraud if one of the parties deceives the other about it 7e4g41 if the horse sold is sickly or slow1 when he is supposed to be healthy and speedy74 #bacb4 ,defects in the ,thing ,sold4--,if there are defects in an article sold1 but a fair reduction in the price is made on account of the imperfection of the article1 there is no injustice in the price4 ,but the seller is unjust1 nevertheless1 if he conceals the defects in spite of a contrary condition in the contract1 for he injures the buyer by leading him into an agreement against his will4 7a7 ,there is an indicated condition when the buyer inquires whether there are defects in the article1 having the intention to take nothing that has any considerable defect4 ,in such a case if the seller conceals even an accidental defect 7i4e41 one that makes the article less suitable for the buyer71 the contract is null on account of lack of consent1 or at least1 as others think1 it is rescindable on account of the fraud practised4 ,but if a defect is inconsiderable1 the contract1 unless it is expressly stipulated to the contrary1 is good and lawful1 for there is hardly anything that has not some small defects4 7b7 ,there is an implied condition when the buyer makes no inquiry1 but there is a substantial defect 7i4e41 one that makes the article dangerous or unsuitable for the purchaser71 and this defect is hidden1 either because it is of a kind that would escape most persons1 or because the purchaser is inexperienced or unable to perceive it for himself4 ,since every person who buys intends to get something useful1 there is no consent and the contract is invalid1 if one is given something harmful 7e4g41 corrupted or poisonous food instead of good food71 or something entirely useless to him either for service or for sale 7e4g41 a lame horse instead of a sound horse for one who deals in race-horses74 #bacc4 ,circumstances in ,which ,defects ,need ,not ,be ,revealed4--,fairness of price being supposed1 the seller is not unjust in not calling attention to defects in the thing he sells1 if the buyer does not ask about defects and there is no implied condition that the seller should volunteer the information4 ,this happens as follows3 7a7 if the defect is hidden1 but only accidental1 there is no condition that the seller shall point out the defect1 for the understanding is only that the buyer shall receive something serviceable at a fair return for his money1 ,nevertheless1 most merchants wish to please the public and will take back or exchange an article that is not satisfactory2 7b7 if the defect is open1 but accidental1 there is no condition that the seller shall instruct the buyer about things that the latter can and should observe for himself2 for it is supposed that the buyer will exercise ordinary care and prudence in making purchases1 nor is the seller paid for supplying this1 nor for assisting the buyer to make good bargains4 ,thus1 if a man were to buy a one-eyed horse1 because he had not examined the horse1 he should blame his own negligence1 not the silence of the seller1 for his bad bargain4 #bacd4 ,definition of ,trading4--,trading 7negotiatio7 in the strict sense is the purchase of an object with the intention of selling it unchanged at a profit4 ,if any one of the conditions mentioned in this definition are lacking1 there is trading in a wide sense4 7a7 ,thus1 trading includes purchase1 and hence he who sells the produce of his own farm or vineyard is not strictly a trader2 7b7 there must be an intention of reselling the thing bought1 and hence there is trading only in a wide sense if one buys an article for one's own use but1 finding it unsuitable to that use1 sells it to another person2 7c7 the object must be sold unchanged1 that is1 in the same form in which it was received1 otherwise there is not strict negotiation1 as when one buys colors and canvas and makes them into a picture2 7d7 the object must be sold at a higher price than was paid for it1 and hence it is not trading in the strict sense to let a customer have an article for just what it has cost oneself4 #bace4 ,the ,morality of ,trading in the ,strict ,sense4--7a7 ,in itself1 trading has the appearance of evil1 inasmuch as money-making may be an encouragement to avarice4 ,but in reality profit as an end is morally indifferent1 neither good nor bad1 and all will depend on the ultimate reason for which one engages in business4 ,he who makes the whole purpose of his existence the acquisition of gain is a materialist1 but he who has some higher end1 such as public benefit or private maintenance1 is virtuous in his aims4 7b7 ,for clerics1 trading is forbidden by ,canon ,law 7,canon #adb71 and the reason is that clerics should be free from the distractions and dangers of commerce1 so as to devote themselves entirely to their own spiritual duties 7,,ii ,tim41 ii4 #d74 #bacf4 ,usury4--,the sin of usury is committed in two ways4 7a7 ,usury in the strict sense is the taking of interest by reason of intrinsic title 7i4e41 on account of the use7 for money or other fungible loaned on condition that it be restored in kind 7mutuum74 ,this is unjust since it exacts payment for that which is nonexistent1 that is1 for use1 as a distinct value1 of a fungible whose only value is in its use 7see ,aristotle1 ,politics1 ,bk4 ,i1 ,ch4 #aj1 #abeh;b #b-h2 ,st4 ,thomas1 ,summa ,theologica ,,ii-,,ii1 q4 #gh1 a4 #a74 ,this was the opinion of most medieval theologians based on the fact that money was solely a medium of exchange4 ,interest was permitted1 however1 on the grounds of extrinsic titles1 e4g41 compensation for the expense of a transaction 7damnum emergens71 the loss of opportunity to make good bargains 7lucrum cessans74 7b7 ,usury in the wide sense1 which is all too common1 is the taking of interest for a fungible loaned at mutuum1 where there is an extrinsic title 7e4g41 the loss or inconvenience suffered by the lender7 for the interest1 but the rate charged is unjust1 exceeding that fixed by law or that which is fair and reasonable 7see ,canon #aedc74 ,this is unjust when the lender takes more than his loan is worth2 it is uncharitable when the lender does not demand more than the worth of his loan1 but does exact what is due in a heartless manner4 ,examples of usury in the wide sense are the acts of loan sharks who take advantage of the distress of the poor to make them pay enormous interest for small loans1 or who hold the debtor to the strict letter of the agreement at a great loss to him4 ,in recent years a new concept of usury in the wide sense has emerged4 ,it is based upon the fact that in modern times the function of money has changed4 ,in ancient times it was solely a medium or measure of exchange that could not be turned easily into capital4 ,with the emergence of the capitalistic system1 opportunities for investment increased1 and money assumed the role of a factor of production4 ,money assumed a new value and function3 it became virtually productive1 and so today money does fructify4 ,to place money1 then1 at the disposal of another to be employed in profitable ventures constitutes an economic service and1 as such1 is worth its price as any other service4 ,this price of money constitutes modern interest1 which seems to differ radically from the old contract of interest and to be more one of hire or lease4 ,so viewed1 interest1 or the price of money1 is determined in the same way as the price of any other service2 the unjust price1 or usury1 is an excessive price4 ,this is the modern concept of usury4 #bacg4 ,principles ,obligatory in ,all ,forms of ,contract4--,the principles of equality and honesty that are morally obligatory in sales and loans at interest are also obligatory in other forms of contract4 ,the following are examples of equality4 7a7 ,gratuitous ,contracts4--,obviously these contracts do not require equality in respect to recompense1 since their nature is that no recompense is given for what is received4 ,but in other ways equality must be observed4 ,thus1 there must be mutual consent1 offer on one side and acceptance on the other2 there must be mutual respect1 for each must honor the gratuitous promises made to the other2 there must be a return of the same thing in quality and quantity as was borrowed1 unless this would mean 7as in mutuum7 a loss to the borrower1 etc4 ,moreover1 the fact that all the advantage is received by one party is balanced by the fact that this party must bear the ordinary expenses and is held to special care himself1 but cannot exact special care in the other party4 ,thus1 a borrower has all the advantage from a loan1 and he is obliged to use extreme care in using the lender's property1 while a depositor has all the advantage from the contract of deposit and cannot demand more than ordinary diligence of the depositary in guarding the goods left with him4 7b7 ,aleatory ,contracts4--,aleatory contracts1 or contracts of chance1 are concerned with some uncertain event whose outcome depends upon luck or skill or a combination of both4 ,the chief forms are betting1 lottery and gaming 7all are considered as gambling71 to which must be added insurance and market speculations4 ,all of these are indifferent in themselves and obtain their morality from circumstances4 ,however1 gambling1 besides conforming to the requirements of contracts in general1 must observe some special conditions to guarantee its lawfulness3 #a7 ,the outcome should be objectively uncertain and not a 8sure thing0 to be truly a contract of chance4 ,while the contractants may be subjectively certain of winning1 neither may so manipulate the matter as to exclude the other's chance of winning4 ,should one insist upon betting against another's assurance of a certain outcome1 he is making a gift1 hardly a bet4 #b7 ,each must stake what belongs to himself and is not needed for satisfying other obligations1 e4g41 supporting one's family1 paying creditors1 etc4 ,failure to observe this condition leads to many sins of theft or negligence4 ,should a person gamble with money belonging to another1 per se he has a right to the winnings under the title of industrial fruits4 ,however1 if it would be impossible for him to restore in the event of a loss1 the wager is void and the winnings must be restored to the other player1 since the amount bet could not be lawfully won by the other contestant4 #c7 ,a reasonable proportion should be observed between what is bet and the probable winnings1 and all betting should offer a fair chance of winning4 ,equality is not necessary1 but odds and handicaps should be offered by the favored side4 ,however1 the odds may be waived by other bettors4 #d7 ,honesty must prevail to exclude fixing the outcome or an unlawful style of play4 ,the conventions of each bet or game establish the norms of cheating4 ,thus1 hidden cards1 marked cards1 false dice void a bet4 ,but running a horse solely to 8tighten him0 or 8round him into shape0 without full effort to win is expected in horse racing4 ,winnings through cheating must be refunded4 #e7 ,the loser must pay4 ,since civil law forbids many forms of organized gambling1 the question arises whether a wager that has been outlawed constitutes matter for a valid contract that must be fulfilled4 ,if the law is purely penal1 the contract is valid and the obligations ensue2 if it is a law that binds morally1 then the contract is invalid1 and the loser probably need not pay1 but has acted sinfully in gambling4 ,although not sinful in itself1 gambling is so open to serious abuse that it has been strictly regulated by civil laws which bind in conscience4 ,insurance is reduced to the category of contracts of chance1 although its purpose is different from gambling1 for it is concerned not with an uncertain good1 i4e41 to make money quickly1 but with an uncertain evil1 i4e41 to avoid loss4 ,in many instances an individual who does not take out insurance gambles more than one who does4 ,conditions ,requisite for ,validity4 ,the special conditions requisite for the validity of an insurance contract are founded upon its aleatory nature4 ,this involves especially that the matter of the contract is in some way outside the control of both insured and insurer and beyond their power1 both legal and moral1 to govern beforehand4 ,from this follows the second essential condition1 that there be some risk for both parties4 ,some moralists today maintain that many insurance contracts are unjust to the insured by reason of defect of proportionate risk on the part of the insurer4 ,they argue that the insurer avoids all risks and makes increasing profits annually whenever insurance is on such a large scale that the use of statistical tables favors the insurer4 ,the fact that insurance companies are listed among the most wealthy corporations lends credence to the argument and explains why some moralists favor the insured in cases of restitution not involving fraud on the part of the beneficiary4 ,other moralists insist that such injustice can not be proved1 that high profits are owing to increased efficiency and better service1 that premiums are adjusted when it becomes apparent that they are out of proportion to the risks involved by the insurers4 ,on the part of the insurer is required the ability to pay indemnities occurring at the normal rate1 but not to cover all at once4 ,his right to the premiums is correlative to the obligation to pay the stipulated indemnities1 while his liabilities are based upon probable losses occurring successively4 ,in regard to the insured1 his basic obligation is to make an honest and complete disclosure of the risk involved4 ,moral cases1 for the most part1 are concerned with error1 innocent misrepresentation1 and fraud on the part of the insured4 ,both the natural and civil law indicate the effect of these elements on an insurance contract4 ,the natural law invalidates a contract in which consent of one or both parties arises from substantial error concerning the nature or the matter of the contract--in insurance1 the risk involved4 ,in general1 then1 whenever the error of the insured is such that he would not have contracted had he known the facts1 the contract is invalid1 even if the error was due to innocent non-disclosure or misrepresentation on the part of the insured4 ,in such cases1 the innocent insured has no right to the indemnity owing to the invalidity of the contract2 he has1 however1 a natural right to all premiums paid out1 since no contract is involved and the insurer has no claim to them4 ,in case of fraud1 at least after judicial decision1 the insured would have no right to the premiums and must also recompense the insurer for expenses sustained4 ,error is considered accidental and as not invalidating in natural law when the insurer1 knowing the facts1 would have issued a policy1 but at a higher premium4 ,in this case the beneficiary may accept the indemnity1 but must return the difference in the amount owed in premiums4 ,a special case of substantial error involving a disease unknown to the insured and undiscovered or undiscoverable by the insurance company doctors is considered by moralists as not invalidating a contract in natural law4 ,it is argued that the insurer must assume such risks and that the insured intends to cover such unknown conditions4 ,moreover1 an invalidating clause concerning such a contingency may be considered penal in nature and obligatory only after the sentence of a judge4 ,insurance contracts and the civil laws governing them are so complicated that expert legal knowledge is required to understand the legal status of many insurance cases4 ,however1 a few dispositions of the civil law which differ from the tenets of the natural law should be kept in mind by the priest or confessor in dealing with the matters4 ,two favor the insurance companies over the insured3 #a7 when fraud or misrepresentation lead to accidental error1 the contract is declared void or voidable2 #b7 innocent non-disclosure or misrepresentation in good faith leading to accidental error also render the insurance contract voidable or perhaps even void4 ,it is probable that the beneficiary in such cases might be permitted to claim the benefits due him according to the naturally valid contract1 since these civil law dispositions are contrary to the conclusions of the natural law4 ,he would be obliged1 however1 to restitution for damages caused by his fraud or misrepresentation committed with grave theological fault4 ,one prescription recognized by civil law and in some places made mandatory favors the insured1 the convalidating or incontestability clause4 ,the insurance company recognizes the validity of the policy after a specified period of time has elapsed1 even in cases involving fraud on the part of the insured4 ,if the contract prior to the time was voidable1 the company loses its right to contest its validity2 if the contract was void1 it becomes convalidated4 ,by terms of this clause1 the natural-law obligation to restore by reason of fraud ceases and the beneficiary may lawfully keep the insurance money4 ,obligations ,arising after the ,policy ,is ,issued4 #a7 ,the insured must pay the premiums at the times and according to the terms stated in the policy4 #b7 ,the insured must not increase the risk assumed by the company4 ,concretely1 in cases of property insured1 the insured is bound in commutative justice not to deliberately destroy or damage the property covered by the policy under penalty of losing all rights to compensation4 ,compensation could be claimed1 however1 if the damaging or destructive action was only theologically right4 #c7 ,he must not claim or accept indemnity for articles not damaged2 he must not submit a claim beyond a just estimate of the real damage4 ,some moralists maintain that a claim may be made for a higher amount with the intention of getting a just value after the insurance adjustor has made his investigation and lowered the estimated value4 ,the adjustor's estimate1 even if higher than the insured estimate1 may be accepted provided no means have been taken to prevent a full and free examination of damage4 ,operations on the stock market and similar markets are primarily contracts of buying and selling2 they become contracts of chance when they assume the quality of speculation1 i4e41 gambling on future changes of prices4 ,it is generally conceded that such contracts are not morally wrong in themselves and follow the laws of betting4 ,additional justification is added on the ground that such transactions in many instances supply the capital required for large-scale operations1 future deliveries1 etc4 ,occasional dissenting voices insist that certain aspects of such transactions1 e4g41 dealing in future values of wheat1 rye1 and other commodities1 are immoral since they tend to determine prices independent of the real value of the products1 the laws of supply and demand1 etc4 ,however1 the arguments seem to involve more abuses controllable1 if not actually controlled1 by marketing laws and civil laws rather than any immorality in the operations themselves4 7c7 ,onerous ,contracts4--,these contracts require that there be equality between the recompense and the thing received4 ,thus1 in a lease the lessor must not charge excessive rent1 and the lessee must pay the rent faithfully2 in a contract of labor1 the employer must pay a fair wage 7that is1 one that at the minimum will meet the primary needs of the worker and his family to live in frugal comfort1 and which will moreover equal the special value of the service given2 for a complete treatment of the theology of the just wage1 see ,fr4 ,jeremiah ,newman1 8,the ,just ,wage10 ,theology ,digest1 ,vol4 #b1 ,spring #aieg1 pp4 #abj-abf1 and 8,a ,note on the ,living ,wage10 by ,edward ,dui1 ,s4,j41 in the same issue71 and the laborer on his part must give a fair day's work as to quantity and quality2 in partnership1 the members must divide the profits and loss according to a reasonable distribution2 in guaranty1 pledge1 and mortgage1 justice requires that the burden assumed be not out of proportion to the benefit that is received4 #bach4 ,fraudulent ,contracts4--,examples of fraud in contracts are the following3 7a7 in gratuitous contracts1 a donee who by false representations obtains a gift1 a lender who fails to make known to the borrower defects or dangers in the thing loaned2 7b7 in onerous contracts1 a landlord who conceals defects from one who is renting a house1 members of a business concern who keep back information from partners or who give out false statements in order to entice investors1 creditors who conceal their knowledge about the unreliability of a man for whom surety is given them2 7c7 in aleatory contracts1 in a pure wager1 a person who bets on a thing supposed to be uncertain but about which he has certain information1 or who knows that he will be unable to pay should he lose1 or who will allow no odds though he knows that the probabilities are in his favor2 in gaming1 a player who pretends to be ignorant in order to inveigle another person into a game of skill1 or who does not observe the rules of the game1 or who fixes the cards or dice for himself in a game of chance2 in lottery1 a drawer who manipulates the lots so as to favor some of the players1 etc4 ,art4 #e3 ,,the ,,quasi-,,integral ,,and ,,potential ,,parts ,,of ,,justice2 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,religion ,,and ,,the ,,opposite ,,vices 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #gi-ajj47 #baci4 ,the ,quasi-,integral ,parts of ,justice4--,the integral parts of a virtue are certain functions necessary for the perfect use of the virtue2 for example1 memory1 perception1 docility and quickness are needed for the fullest exercise of prudence 7see #afdh sqq474 ,these parts are called here 8quasi-integral10 so as not to be confused with the properly integral parts1 or divisions of quantity1 in a material composite4 ,in its first use 8integral part0 is spoken of bodily things2 in its derived use of incorporeal things 7such as virtues74 ,the two previous articles treated the subjective parts of justice2 the present article will begin with a consideration of the integral parts and the opposite sins4 #badj4 ,the integral parts of justice are expressed in the words of ,psalm xxxiii4 #ae--8,turn away from evil1 and do good0--for the perfectly just man will both establish the equality of justice by giving others their dues1 and will preserve that equality by refraining from injuries4 7a7 ,thus1 these integral parts are acts of virtue1 and hence the avoidance of evil here is not a purely negative attitude2 it includes a positive repudiation by the will of all wish to harm others1 and it is exercised especially when one is attacked and yet refuses to resort to injustice4 7b7 ,these integral parts of justice are also distinct1 one from the other4 ,the other moral virtues regulate the passions by bringing them to the moderation that lies midway between two evil extremes1 and hence in respect to those virtues to turn away from evil is the same thing as to do good4 ,but justice regulates human operations and external things both by reducing them to due equality and also by avoiding that which upsets the equality1 and thus in the matter of justice it is one thing to do good1 another thing to avoid evil4 7c7 ,these integral parts of justice are also special1 that is1 they are distinct from other virtues4 ,for1 while every virtue turns away from evil and does good1 the two acts we are now considering do these things with the express purpose of fulfilling justice4 ,thus1 he who observes the commands and prohibitions of the law in order to render to ,god and the common good their dues1 is perfect in general or legal justice2 he who gives to other individuals what is owed them and also avoids doing them injury1 is perfect in particular justice4 ,to the two integral parts of justice are opposed the two sins of transgression and omission 7see #ce-ci74 #bada4 ,the ,potential ,parts of ,justice4--,the potential parts of justice1 that is1 its annexed virtues1 are those good habits that are subsidiary to justice1 partaking in some degree1 but not entirely1 of its nature or activity4 ,we saw above 7#affd sqq47 that wise deliberation and wise decision belong to prudence1 inasmuch as they are concerned with the government of conduct by reason1 but that they fall short of its principal act1 which is wise direction1 and hence they are counted as potential parts4 ,in like manner1 there are a number of virtues which must be assigned to justice1 since they regulate man's will towards others1 but which must be considered as its potential parts1 because they do not share in one or the other of the two remaining essential notes of strict justice1 namely1 that a return is given which is equal to a debt1 and that the debt is owed on account of a strict or legal right 7see #afib74 #badb4 ,in the following enumeration are given the chief potential parts of justice in which there is a strict debt1 but not an equal repayment4 7a7 ,thus1 to ,god man owes whatever honor and veneration he manifests1 but with all his efforts man can never pay to ,god a worship that is equal to the debt4 ,thus1 man cannot sufficiently thank ,god for ,his benefits3 8,what return can ,i make to the ,lord for all that ,he has done for me80 7,psalm cxv4 #ab74 ,the virtue of religion1 therefore1 is a potential part of justice4 7b7 ,to parents children cannot make a full return for the benefits of life and upbringing1 and the same may be said of one's country3 8,a due return is out of the question in honors paid to the gods and to parents 444 but a person is considered to be virtuous if he pays such regard as lies within his power0 7,aristotle1 ,ethics1 lib4 ,,viii1 cap4 #af74 ,hence1 the virtue of piety is also a potential part of justice4 ,in exceptional cases1 however1 a child may make an equal or even a greater return to his parents for the benefits received from them2 for example1 by saving his father from death he makes an equal return for the benefit of life1 and by converting his parents to the faith he gives them spiritual life1 which is more valuable than the natural life he received from them4 7c7 ,to men of virtue we are unable to make a sufficient return for the good they do us by their instruction and example1 and hence the honor we show them is less than the benefit we receive from them4 ,the virtue of reverence 7observantia7 is then a potential part of justice4 #badc4 ,degrees of ,moral ,debt4--,the remaining potential parts of justice are those in which there is not a legal debt1 which is enforced by some law1 but a moral debt to which one is obliged from the decency or the greater decency of virtue4 ,there are1 then1 two degrees of moral debt4 7a7 ,a moral debt is more urgent1 when without its fulfillment one cannot keep to the decency of virtue1 that is1 one cannot preserve the character of a virtuous man4 ,thus1 if a moral debt is considered from the side of the debtor1 he is obliged to show himself in words and deeds to others what he really is1 has been1 or intends to be 7virtue of truthfulness72 if the debt be viewed from the side of the creditor to whom some recompense is owed1 there is the duty of gratitude to him for his benefits and of punishment for his injuries 7virtues of gratitude and vindication74 ,these parts of justice just mentioned are readily distinguishable from acts that pertain to general or particular justice and that are owed as legal debts4 ,thus1 truthful testimony on the witness stand is a legal obligation1 for the person who questions has a strict right to hear the truth2 but veracity in social intercourse1 or the habit of speaking the truth to others1 is a moral obligation1 one imposed by ,god but not enforced legally4 ,compensation for services bestowed according to contract is a legal duty1 and the debtor can be compelled to pay2 but thankfulness for gifts or other benefits is only a moral duty1 and generally laws do not take account of ingratitude4 ,punishment of a delinquent by public authority is an act of commutative justice2 but punishment meted out by a private person in self-defense1 who appeals to the law or who forcibly but lawfully repels an injury1 is an act of a virtue annexed to justice4 7b7 ,a moral debt is less urgent1 when without its fulfillment one can preserve virtue1 but not the more becoming or more perfect course of virtue4 ,the chief examples here are the virtues of friendship or affability and of liberality4 ,to treat others in a friendly manner and to make oneself agreeable in company is suitable1 not chiefly because of any benefits one has received from others1 but because one is better for this oneself and by it the ways of life are made easier for all4 ,likewise liberality is not due1 but it shows a better disposition as to money and other temporal goods to be willing to distribute them to others willingly and generously4 ,without friendship and liberality the peace and harmony of social intercourse may be maintained1 but with them it is maintained more easily and receives an added grace and distinction4 #badd4 ,epieikeia4--,the above-mentioned potential parts of justice are adjuncts of particular justice4 ,there remains one more virtue to be noted1 that of epieikeia or equity1 which pertains to legal justice4 ,this is a subjective part of justice1 since it is the superior function of legal justice1 guiding it to follow what is substantial right1 and preserving it from the danger of mere legalism or over-strict interpretation or application of ,written law 7see #ceh74 ,with this1 the crowning virtue of justice1 the enumeration of its parts is brought to a close4 #bade4 ,the ,virtue of ,religion4--,we shall now proceed to treat of the various parts of justice in the order in which they were given above 7#badb-badd71 beginning with the virtue that renders to ,god ,his due4 ,religion 7holiness7 is defined as 8a moral virtue that disposes us to offer to ,god the worship and honor that belong to ,him as the supreme ,author of all things40 7a7 ,thus1 religion is a moral virtue1 for1 though it tends towards ,god1 it is not numbered among the theological virtues1 but among the moral virtues1 being one of the potential parts of justice4 7b7 ,it is an inclination1 that is1 it is a habit of the soul or the exercise of that habit in some act4 ,the acts of religion are either elicited by it or commanded by it1 according as they are its own proper activities and proceed directly from it and are directed immediately to ,god 7e4g41 acts of adoration1 sacrifice1 prayer71 or belong to some other virtue employed by religion for the honor of ,god2 for example1 to visit the widows and orphans in their tribulation is an act of mercy1 to keep oneself unspotted from this world is an act of temperance1 but when used for the honor and glory of ,god these acts are also acts of religion 7,james1 i4 #bg74 7e7 ,it is paid to ,god1 that is1 being an act of justice1 it renders to another what is ,his due4 ,religious honor given the saints or sacred images refers to ,god1 for whose sake they are venerated4 7d7 ,it is paid to ,god as the ,supreme ,being1 that is1 just as we are bound to tend to ,god and to serve ,him1 because ,he is our ,last ,end1 so are we bound to honor ,him1 because ,he is our ,maker and ,ruler4 7e7 ,it offers to ,god the tribute of worship1 that is1 some internal or external work done in acknowledgment of ,god's ,majesty and with the purpose of impressing the worshipper or others with the sense of ,his greatness1 or it is the sense of that greatness4 #badf4 ,religion as a ,moral ,virtue4--7a7 ,religion takes its rank among the moral1 not among the theological1 virtues4 ,a theological virtue has the ,last ,end for its immediate object or subject-matter 7e4g41 faith is concerned directly with ,god1 since it believes ,him and in ,him71 and has no mean of virtue 7e4g41 faith cannot go to extremes by believing ,god too much72 whereas a moral virtue has the means to ,god for its immediate object 7e4g41 justice is concerned directly with the actions we owe to others7 and it must observe the golden mean 7e4g41 justice must pay the just price1 neither more nor less1 and at the proper time1 place1 and to the proper person1 etc474 ,now1 it is clear that religion has for its immediate object the due performance of worship1 although ,god is the person for whose sake it is offered and ,his excellence the foundation of its necessity2 and also that one must observe moderation in worship as to circumstances of place1 time1 etc41 although it is impossible to be extreme in the quantity or fervor one gives to worship1 since even the best efforts will fall short of the honor ,god deserves 7,ecclus41 xliii4 #cc74 7b7 ,religion is the greatest of the moral virtues1 since the person in whose favor it is exercised is ,god ,himself1 and its obligation is correspondingly stricter than that of the other virtues4 ,general and particular justice are owed to creatures1 but the claim of a creature is much less than that of ,god4 ,there is no contradiction in making religion a part of justice and then preferring it to justice1 for it is more correct to speak of the integral and potential parts of virtues as quasi-parts1 since they are called parts only from analogy to parts that are found in material or living things1 though they are not similar to those parts in all respects 7see #afdg1 #afdh1 #baci74 ,neither does the fact that religion cannot pay in full make it inferior to justice1 since in matters of virtue good will take precedence over the ability to pay4 ,since religion is the supreme moral virtue1 irreligion is the chief offense against the moral virtues 7e4g41 malicious blasphemy is worse than injustice or intemperance74 #badg4 ,superiority of ,religion as a ,virtue4--,religion1 therefore1 is superior to the following virtues3 7a7 it is superior to legal justice1 the chief of the moral virtues that deal with human and natural good2 7b7 it is superior to humility1 the chief of the moral virtues moderative of the passions2 7c7 it is superior to mercy1 the greatest of the virtues that relieve distress1 for religion is offered to ,god1 not for ,his utility1 but for ,his external glory and our benefit2 7d7 it is greater than repentance1 for it honors ,god1 while repentance only disposes or prepares for satisfaction to ,his honor2 7e7 it is greater than large external offerings made to ,god without spirit1 for 8obedience is better than victims0 7,i ,kings1 xv4 #bb72 that is1 the internal acts of religion 7reverence and devotion7 are of more importance than external acts of worship conducted with great pomp or magnificence but without the inner reverence1 the obedience or other dispositions pleasing to ,god4 #badh4 ,necessity of the ,acts of ,religion4--7a7 ,the internal acts 7devotion and prayer7 are chiefly necessary1 for these are exercised by the soul1 and it is through them that the external acts are made truthful3 8,god is a spirit and those who adore ,him must adore in spirit and in truth0 7,john1 iv4 #bd74 7b7 ,the external acts 7adoration1 sacrifice1 etc47 are also necessary to man4 ,god does not need these acts 7,psalm xlix4 #ac71 it is true1 for no creature can add to the glory ,god has from ,himself4 ,but man needs the elevation and perfection which he receives from communication with the ,supreme ,being1 and1 as he is not all spirit1 he must employ symbols and ceremonies to arouse1 hold and strengthen the affections of his soul4 ,hence1 although the ceremonial law of the ,old ,testament was abolished by ,christ 7see #cdb71 the ,christian religion recognizes the need of ceremonies1 as is plain both from the ,scriptures and the teaching and practice of the ,church at all times4 ,in the ,new ,testament we read that ,our ,lord used vocal prayer1 prayed on ,his knees1 and made use of sacred hymns2 and like external acts of religion are ascribed to ,sts4 ,peter1 ,paul1 and ,stephen 7,luke1 xxii4 #ca2 ,matt41 xxvi4 #ci2 ,acts1 ii4 #db1 vii4 #ei1 ix4 #dj74 ,public worship is also a necessity on account of the nature of the ,church as a visible society4 #badi4 ,the ,internal ,acts of ,religion4--,these internal acts are offerings made to ,god of the worship of the soul itself1 and they may be reduced chiefly to two3 7a7 devotion1 which is the offering of the will and the highest act of religion1 since from the will the other acts arise2 7b7 prayer1 which is the offering of the intellect2 for in prayer the thoughts of the mind rise to ,god as an oblation made to ,him4 #baej4 ,definition of ,devotion4--,devotion is defined as 8the will to give oneself readily to those things that pertain to the divine service40 ,we find an example of it in ,exod41 xxxv4 #ba1 where it is said that the multitude offered first fruits to the ,lord with a most ready and devout mind4 ,one who is devoted to another is strongly attached to that other's interests1 and so one who is devout is zealous for the service of ,god4 7a7 ,thus1 devotion is an act of the will1 that is1 an offering of oneself to the service of ,god1 the ,last ,end4 ,but devotion will be found in other acts in so far as they are done under the will's impulse1 such as prayer1 adoration1 sacrifice4 ,the looks1 gestures1 and voice of those who pray or take part in services of divine worship are influenced by internal devotion1 and so become fitting expressions of honor shown to ,god and an inspiration to beholders4 7b7 ,devotion contains a ready willingness1 that is1 the devout person is quick to choose the divine honor as a purpose1 quick also to select and to employ suitable means for this purpose4 ,the great model of this is ,our ,lord1 who declared that ,his very food was to serve ,his ,father 7,john1 iv4 #cd74 7c7 ,devotion is exercised in things that pertain to the divine service1 that is1 to the worship or honor of ,god4 ,thus1 he who offers himself to ,god intending the offering as an act of spiritual union or friendship exercises the virtue of charity1 while he who forms the intention of doing good in order to glorify ,god exercises devotion4 ,but devotion and charity are not separated1 for charity inspires devotion and devotion nourishes charity4 #baea4 ,devotion should not be confused with emotion1 spiritual consolation1 or pious exercises known as devotions4 7a7 ,thus1 emotion or pleasure of a non-religious kind is not devotion1 though sometimes mistaken for it when the emotion or pleasure is of an elevating kind and occasioned by religious exercises4 ,neither esthetic joy 7e4g41 over the music1 the ceremonies1 the architecture of the church71 nor literary pleasure 7e4g4 over a sublime passage of ,holy ,writ or a charming liturgical composition71 nor intellectual satisfaction 7e4g41 over the refinement and culture imparted by religious truths71 is necessarily joined with that strong attachment to ,god and inclination to do ,his will which is the soul of devotion4 7b7 ,spiritual consolations are sometimes called devotion1 but they are not the same thing as the devotion we now speak of4 ,substantial devotion with which we are now concerned is in the will and consists in the strong inclination to praise and honor ,god1 whereas accidental devotion is rather in the sensible appetite and consists in a feeling of sweetness or elevation in exercises of piety which sometimes reacts upon the body1 as when a devout person weeps for joy at the thought of ,god4 ,substantial devotion is essential and should be maintained1 even though there is no feeling of attraction or fervor4 ,an example of this is furnished by ,our ,lord1 who prayed earnestly during the agony in the garden and the desolation on the cross4 ,accidental devotion is not of itself evil1 nor useless1 and it may be desired and prayed for2 but it is dangerous for those persons who are puffed up by it1 or who become inordinately attached to it1 or who are disposed to mistake it for substantial devotion1 for1 like the consoling vision of ,thabor1 it is passing and is not an end in itself4 7c7 ,devotions are various forms of external cult shown to ,god1 ,christ1 the ,blessed ,virgin1 the ,saints1 celebrated shrines1 etc41 whether of a liturgical or a popular1 of a public or a private kind4 ,examples are the ,forty ,hours' ,devotion1 novenas1 consecrated days and months1 the use of scapulars1 medals1 etc41 pilgrimages1 and the like4 ,all these devotions that have the approval of the ,church are good and useful in themselves4 ,but devotees often made a bad use of them1 substituting devotions for devotion and the non-essential for the essential1 as when religion is made to center in pictures or music or a sentimental attachment for some favorite ,saint4 ,persons who multiply external observances may be without the least degree of real devotion4 #baeb4 ,external and ,internal ,cause of ,devotion4--,the external cause of devotion is ,god1 who by grace bestows the will of serving ,him gladly1 and therefore the ,church prays ,god to bestow upon us the disposition of piety and devotion1 and to increase in us devotion unto salvation4 ,but there is also an internal cause1 namely1 mental prayer or consideration of divine things1 for the will follows on the intellect4 ,hence1 it is impossible to animate external acts of worship with true devotion1 unless one practises daily or frequent mental prayer4 ,the subjects of mental prayer that promote devotion are reducible to two3 7a7 one should think on one's own weakness 7sins1 dangers1 temptations1 etc47 and one's need of ,god1 for this serves to remove the impediments to devotion4 ,those who would be devoted to ,god must free themselves from presumption and self-confidence in the spirit of the pilgrim going up to the ,temple who said2 8,i will raise my eyes to the mountains from which help cometh to me0 7,psalm cxx1 #a72 7b7 one should think on points that will excite the love of ,god1 such as the thought of ,his goodness1 the memory of ,his benefits1 the mysteries of the life of ,christ2 for these considerations by inspiring charity will thereby indirectly introduce devotion to ,god4 8,it is good for me to cling fast to ,god and to place my hope in the ,lord10 said the ,psalmist1 after he had thought over the blessings received from ,providence 7,psalm lxxii4 #bh74 #baec4 ,prayer4--,prayer can be taken in various senses4 7a7 ,thus1 in the widest sense prayer is any act of religion or a holy life4 ,st4 ,augustine says that a good life is the best of all prayers1 and the command of ,christ that we pray always has been understood to mean that we should always follow good4 7b7 ,in a less wide sense1 prayer is the raising of the mind to ,god1 in order to praise1 adore1 thank ,him1 etc4 ,the motive of veneration here present distinguishes prayer from mere thoughts about ,god as when one studies or discusses theological subjects to satisfy curiosity or to impart information4 7c7 ,in its strict sense1 prayer is the asking for suitable things from ,god4 ,by suitable things are meant such as are lawful and becoming1 and hence it would not be a prayer1 but a mockery1 to ask ,god for help to accomplish sin or for miracles in trivial matters4 ,we are now considering prayer in its strict and less wide senses4 #baed4 ,the ,psychology of ,prayer4--7a7 ,prayer in its nature is an act of the reason1 for it is a conversation or communication with ,god4 ,it belongs1 however1 not to the speculative1 but to the practical reason1 since it is not a mere process of apprehension1 judgment or reasoning1 but the arrangement and presentation of requests1 plans1 etc41 before ,god with a view to their acceptance by ,him4 ,by prayer1 then1 we do not understand thinking on ,god1 as in meditation and contemplation 7though these are known as mental prayer71 but speaking to ,god4 7b7 ,prayer in its origin is an act of the will1 for the practical reason presents before ,god only such things as are desired by him who prays4 ,prayer is the interpreter of desire4 ,indeed1 ,god may take the will for the request and grant what has not yet been asked3 8,the ,lord heard the desire of the poor0 7,ps4 ix4 #ag72 8,before they cry ,i shall hear them0 7,is41 lxv4 #bd74 ,moreover1 prayer should spring out of an inclination towards ,god ,himself and a desire for union with ,him 7,ps4 xli4 #a4 #b2 ,ps4 xxvi4 #d74 #baee4 ,the ,necessity of ,prayer4--7a7 ,prayer is not necessary on ,god's account1 as though ,he needed to be informed of our wants1 or could not be happy without our homage1 or might be induced to change ,his plans2 7b7 it is necessary for our own sakes1 for1 although ,god could and sometimes does grant favors unasked1 ,he wishes that ordinarily we should have the double benefit of the prayer and of the favor given in answer to the prayer4 ,god could grant the crops of the fields without human cultivation1 or even tools and finished articles without human invention or labor1 but man would then lose the fruits that belong to labor of mind and body4 ,prayer is most beneficial1 even when unanswered3 it attracts man to perform his basic duty of honoring his ,creator1 to keep in use his spiritual powers1 and to exercise the necessary virtues of faith1 hope and charity2 it gives him the privilege of speaking directly with ,god and with ,christ and of asking for what he desires--an intimacy that must in time correct and elevate man's whole spiritual life2 then prayer is a pouring out of the heart to ,god the ,heavenly ,father1 and this will afford relief in times of misfortune or peril4 #baef4 ,the ,duty of ,prayer for all ,adults4--7a7 ,prayer is necessary from divine precept1 as is declared in many passages of ,scripture4 ,thus1 we are commanded to watch and pray 7,matt1 xxvi4 #da71 to pray always and not to faint 7,luke1 xviii4 #a71 to ask and to knock 7,matt41 vii4 #g sqq471 to pray without ceasing 7,i ,thess41 v4 #ag71 to watch in prayers 7,i ,peter1 iv4 #g74 ,in the ,mass the ,lord's ,prayer is prefaced with the words3 8,commanded by salutary precepts and admonished by divine instructions1 we make bold to say3 ,our ,father1 etc40 ,there is1 however1 no divine precept of vocal prayer or as to the use of the form of words given by ,christ1 but one must pray at least mentally and in the manner indicated by ,christ4 7b7 ,prayer is also necessary as a means 7see #cfj71 at least generally speaking2 not that ,god could not save man without prayer1 but that ,he has made it an indispensable condition1 as is true also of ,baptism1 without which salvation is not conferred4 ,this is the common opinion and it rests on strong arguments4 ,thus1 there are certain necessary goods 7such as perseverance7 that cannot be had except through prayer1 and there are certain necessary duties 7such as the acts of faith1 charity1 and religion7 that are not exercised apart from prayer4 ,then1 there is the teaching of the ,church and of the ,fathers and ,doctors that prayer is needed in order to observe the ,commandments 7,council of ,trent71 that no one is assisted who does not pray 7,gennadius71 that prayer is to the soul what breath is to the body 7,st4 ,benedict71 that he who prays will certainly be saved1 while he who prays not will surely be lost 7,st4 ,alphonsus74 #baeg4 ,times and ,frequency of ,prayer4--,as to the times and frequency of prayer1 in fulfillment of the obligation1 there are the same opinions and conclusions as for the acts of faith1 hope1 and charity 7see #ibi sqq41 #ajie-ajig1 #aeic sqq474 ,on this point we may conclude as follows3 7a7 directly1 or by reason of the precept of prayer itself1 there is a duty to pray at the beginning of the moral life1 frequently during life 7whether daily1 weekly1 monthly1 yearly1 etc4 cannot be precisely determined2 but there is no practical difficulty1 since those who devoutly hear ,mass at the times commanded comply with the duty of prayer71 and also in danger of death4 ,at the outset of the moral life the reason and will should turn to ,god1 and this is prayer at least in the widest sense2 during life prayer should be frequent and continuous according to the words of ,scripture2 at the hour of death1 prayer is necessary1 since we are specially bidden to ask for perseverance till the end2 7b7 indirectly1 or by reason of some precept distinct from that of prayer1 prayer is necessary whenever one needs to have recourse to ,god to fulfill some command or avoid something prohibited4 ,thus1 one should pray at ,mass1 for according to church law ,mass must be heard devoutly2 one should pray when a dangerous temptation assails one1 or when there are great calamities1 especially of a public character1 for according to the precept of charity one must help oneself and others in difficulties4 #baeh4 ,practical ,corollaries about ,prayer with ,reference to ,confession4--7a7 ,practical ,catholics1 that is1 those who comply with the precepts of the ,church1 but who accuse themselves of neglecting morning and evening prayers or grace at meals1 cannot be judged guilty of sin1 even of venial sin1 on account of this neglect2 for there is no common precept directly obliging to such prayers4 ,but there may often be a venial sin for other reasons1 as when the omission is due to a spirit of lukewarmness1 or when indirectly there is a duty to pray at those times for special reasons1 such as daily needs or temptations4 ,we do not agree1 then1 with the opinion that omission of morning and evening prayers1 especially when it is habitual1 is never sufficient matter for absolution4 7b7 ,unpractical ,catholics1 that is1 those who have been away from ,mass or the ,sacraments contrary to the laws of the ,church as habitual transgressors1 and who say nothing about their neglect of prayer1 should be questioned whether in all the years of absence from their duties they have also omitted all prayers4 ,for1 if this be the case1 they have sinned against the duty of prayer4 ,morning and evening prayer and grace at table should be earnestly recommended to all1 because these are customs that have come down from the earliest times1 and also because those who disregard them often come to neglect all prayer1 or at least expose themselves to dangers or to the loss of precious graces4 #baei4 ,to ,whom ,may ,prayer ,be ,offered8--,only ,god may be addressed as the ,bestower of favors 78,the ,lord giveth grace and glory10 ,ps4 lxxxiii4 #ab71 but the ,saints may be prayed to as intercessors before ,god 78,the smoke of incense of the prayers of the saints ascended up before ,god from the hands of the angel10 ,apoc41 viii4 #d74 ,hence1 the ,church asks ,god to have mercy on us2 it asks the ,saints to pray for us4 ,it is lawful privately to invoke the prayers of an infant who died after baptism1 of a soul in ,purgatory1 and one may ask the prayers of those who are still alive1 as ,st4 ,paul frequently does in his ,epistles4 ,there is no command that we pray to the saints1 and hence one who did not pray to them would not be guilty of grave sin per se2 but there would be grave sin1 if their intercession was neglected on account of contempt1 and venial sin1 if one failed to call on them 7especially on the ,blessed ,virgin1 the ,mediatrix of all graces7 on account of negligence about one's own spiritual good4 #bafj4 ,the ,persons for ,whom ,prayer ,is ,offered4--,there is an obligation of charity to pray for ourselves and also for others1 for we should ask for the things that we are obliged to desire 7see #bafa74 ,this duty is taught in ,holy ,scripture 7e4g41 ,our ,lord prayed for ,peter2 ,st4 ,paul asks for the prayers of his ,churches2 ,st4 ,james1 in v4 #af1 admonishes us to pray for one another that we may be saved72 also in the creed and liturgy of the ,church1 for we profess belief in the communion of saints1 and offer ,masses and suffrages for the living and the dead4 ,one should pray for enemies in common prayers that are offered for all1 and in special prayers for them in particular1 when there is a special reason1 such as their grave necessity or the scandal that would be given if one refused to join in a special prayer for one's enemy 7,matt41 v4 #dd72 but one may not pray for the success of the evil projects of an enemy1 and one is not obliged to make special prayers for him apart from necessity 7see #aaea74 ,for the excommunicated one should pray in private prayers and also in public prayers1 when this is permitted by the law1 as in the services of ,good ,friday and under certain conditions in ,masses 7,canon #bbfb74 ,for sinners prayers should be said1 unless they are already lost4 ,the souls in ,purgatory are also to be prayed for1 although the obligation does not seem grave1 since it is not certain as to any particular soul that it is in need of our prayers4 ,as to the blessed1 one may pray for their canonization or accidental glory1 not for their essential glory1 which they already possess4 #bafa4 ,things that ,may ,be ,prayed for4--7a7 ,evils4--,one may never pray for moral evil1 even of the slightest kind1 and it would be a grave irreverence to beseech ,god to become our helper in the commission of sin4 ,as to physical evils1 one may not ask them as evils or for their own sake2 but it is lawful to pray for them in the larger sense in which they are goods4 ,thus1 for oneself one may ask from ,god sickness1 poverty or death1 in so far as these ills are means of correction1 improvement1 merit1 penance1 or escape from sin2 for an enemy one may ask that ,god restrain him1 even by the use of temporal misfortunes1 if this be necessary to keep him from sin4 7b7 ,indifferent ,things4--,one may not desire an indifferent thing1 if there is no moral purpose to justify it 7see #hc74 ,hence1 one may not ask ,god for the gratification of idle wishes 7e4g41 that one win a game in which the only purpose in gain71 but it does not seem that there is grave irreverence in so doing4 7c7 ,temporal ,goods4--,these may not be asked for from a primary intention1 since we must seek first the kingdom of ,god and ,his justice 7,matt41 vi4 #cc71 which are more important2 neither may we ask for any determinate temporal thing unconditionally1 since we are uncertain whether it will prove beneficial or harmful4 ,but temporal things may be asked for from a secondary intention 7that is1 in so far as they are means that assist us to attain spiritual goods7 and conditionally 7that is1 under the proviso that they will prove spiritually beneficial74 ,thus1 the ,church prays for protection against storms and disturbances1 and asks for good weather1 abundant harvests1 peace1 etc4 7d7 ,spiritual ,goods4--,eternal salvation and the means thereto we should pray for as the principal objects of our desire and should ask for them unconditionally2 for ,god is our true ,end1 and the things that lead to ,him cannot be harmful to us4 ,miracles may be asked for1 but it is wrong to beg ,god for privileges that are reserved for others 7e4g41 to sit at the right hand of ,christ in glory74 #bafb4 ,the ,qualities of ,prayer4--7a7 ,as to its manner1 prayer is either unaccompanied or accompanied by external acts of worship1 such as bodily gestures or speech4 ,but not infrequently the thoughts are voiced in words1 and we then have what is known as vocal prayer4 ,prayer made by a private person for himself or others may be internal2 but public prayer that is offered by the ministers of the ,church in the name of the ,church should be vocal1 since it should be manifested to the people for whom it is being offered4 ,but the use of words or other external signs is advantageous even in private prayer1 since it excites greater devotion in a person and is a help to attention4 7b7 ,as to persistence1 prayer is continuous or interrupted4 ,prayer should be continuous if there is question of its cause1 which is prayerfulness of spirit1 or desire of salvation2 and in this sense may be understood the words of ,scripture that command us to pray always 7,luke1 xviii4 #a2 ,eph41 vi4 #ah2 ,i ,thess41 v4 #ag 71 ,but if we speak of prayer itself1 it is impossible to pray unceasingly in this life1 as there are many other things that have to be done and rest is a necessity4 7c7 ,as to quantity1 prayers are lengthy or brief4 ,our ,lord rejected the belief of the pagans that the efficacy of prayer depends on many words 7,matt1 vi4 #g71 but ,he did not forbid long prayers1 since ,he often spent nights in prayer4 ,the rule about the length of private prayers is that one should pray for such a space of time as is favorable to devotion1 and should cease from prayer as soon as it becomes tedious2 similarly1 public devotions should not be so lengthened out that those present become wearied and inattentive4 ,the ,fathers of the ,desert were wont to offer many brief but ardent ejaculatory prayers1 fearing that prayer long drawn out would fall away from the fervor of intention with which it began4 ,but1 if devotion continues1 prayer should not easily be broken off4 #bafc4 ,the ,confidence ,requisite for ,successful ,prayer4--7a7 ,confidence must exclude doubt or distrust in reference to ,god or prayer itself3 8,how shall they call on ,him whom they have not believed80 7,rom41 ,x4 #ad72 8,let not that man 7that wavereth7 think that he shall receive anything of the ,lord0 7,james1 i4 #f1 #g74 7b7 ,confidence does not exclude doubt about one's own dispositions 78,it is not for our justice that we present our prayers before ,thee1 but for the multitude of ,thy tender mercies072 on the contrary1 the prayer of the ,pharisee was not heard1 because he trusted in himself 7,luke1 xviii4 #i74 ,neither does confidence in prayer mean that one may ask unconditionally for temporal things 7see #bafa c74 #bafd4 ,intention and ,attention4--,attention is the voluntary application of the mind to that which is done1 or the consideration or advertence of the mind given to an act4 ,it differs from intention1 which is an act1 not of the reason1 but of the will1 consisting in the purpose to perform an act4 ,prayer requires both intention and attention4 7a7 ,there must be intention1 for prayer in its origin is an act of the will and it pertains to religion only because of the devotion by means of which it is elicited4 ,a man who1 while reading aloud from a novel1 recites the words of a prayer contained in the novel1 does not pray1 for his intention is pleasure or instruction1 not worship4 ,and even one who says or answers prayers attentively during services does not really pray if his motive is not one of religion4 7b7 ,there must be attention1 for prayer is of its nature an act of the mind 7see #baed74 ,a parrot or a phonograph is not said to pray when it repeats the words of the ,our ,father or ,hail ,mary4 #bafe4 ,the ,intention ,required in ,prayer4--7a7 ,an actual intention is had when one either expressly or implicitly wills to offer a prayer1 as when one says internally2 8,i will now say a prayer10 or when without such express act one deliberately performs that which is a prayer1 making internal acts of faith1 reciting the ,rosary1 reading from a prayer-book1 etc4 ,this kind of intention is necessary at the beginning of prayer1 and is the best that may be had during the course of prayer4 7b7 ,a virtual intention is had when one is occupied in prayer on account of an actual intention previously formed and not retracted1 but here and now1 on account of human weakness1 one is thinking of indifferent things impertinent to the prayer and its purpose4 ,this kind of intention continues unless withdrawn directly by contrary intention or indirectly by the performance of acts inconsistent with prayer4 ,virtual intention suffices during the course of prayer1 for a continuous and uninterrupted actual intention is humanly impossible4 ,the more the mind struggles to keep the thought fixed on one object alone1 the more do other thoughts arise to distract1 as experience proves4 7c7 ,an habitual intention is had when one is occupied in prayer1 not on account of any actual intention previously formed1 but on account of a propensity or inclination resulting from previous acts4 ,this is not properly an intention and it does not suffice for prayer1 since with it the acts performed do not proceed actually or virtually from any determination of the will4 ,thus1 a person who is asleep or intoxicated is not said to pray when he mechanically repeats well-known words of prayer1 for his will has no part in those words1 any more than the will of the somnambulist has part in the dangerous walks he takes4 #baff4 ,the ,attention in ,prayer4--7a7 ,by reason of its object1 attention is external or internal1 according as the mind is taken up only with the externals of prayer 7i4e41 the exclusion of external acts inconsistent with prayer and the proper bodily posture7 or with the things internal to prayer 7i4e41 the words1 sense and purpose of the prayer74 ,internal attention is called verbal or superficial when it is directed only to the words1 as when a person who does not understand the meaning of a prayer says it carefully so as not to mispronounce the words2 it is literal1 when it is directed only to the sense1 as when a person who says a very obscure prayer pays close attention so as to follow its meaning2 it is spiritual1 when it is directed to the purpose of prayer 7i4e41 the worship of ,god by an act of religion71 or to the objects of prayer 7i4e41 eternal salvation or the means thereto1 such as grace and the virtues1 the mysteries of religion1 etc474 7b7 ,by reason of its subject1 attention is either perfect or imperfect4 ,perfect attention excludes every distracting thought1 even such as are involuntary2 imperfect attention excludes voluntary but not involuntary distractions4 #bafg4 ,acts that ,exclude ,external ,attention4--,what external actions are inconsistent with external prayer and exclusive of external attention8 7a7 ,those acts exclude external attention which either from their nature 7on account of the great mental application they demand7 or from the weakness of a person's mind 7for it is not everyone who can like ,julius ,caesar think on several things at the same time7 make it impossible to have recollection in prayer when those acts are being performed4 ,acts of this kind are reading about other matters1 painting1 writing1 carrying on conversation with those around1 boisterous laughing1 etc4 ,but if the one who prays engages in these acts inadvertently 7e4g41 if a person reciting the ,breviary does not notice that he is giving considerable attention to an inscription or advertisement on an adjacent wall71 the distraction is merely involuntary and inculpable4 7b7 ,those acts do not exclude external attention that either not at all or only in slight measure interfere with internal recollection in prayer4 ,such acts are slow walking1 riding1 looking about at the scenery1 picking a flower now and then1 dressing1 undressing1 bathing1 combing the hair1 etc1 ,the ,church prescribes certain prayers to be said while the priest vests for ,mass1 and it was an old rule among the monks to join labor and prayer4 #bafh4 ,when ,external ,attention ,is ,sufficient4--,is external attention sufficient in prayer when internal attention is voluntarily excluded8 7a7 ,in public prayers external attention is sufficient as to a number of effects4 ,thus1 in the administration of the ,sacraments the want of internal attention in the minister does not make the ,sacrament invalid1 since the ,sacraments produce grace ex opere operato2 in public suffrages the indevotion and distraction of the priest do not deprive the beneficiary of the impetratory fruit1 since the public prayers are offered in the name of the ,church itself2 in the ,divine ,office merely external attention suffices to fulfill the positive obligation1 according to many1 because it is not certain that the ,church requires more4 7b7 ,in all prayers mere external attention is insufficient for the personal effects of impetration1 merit and satisfaction4 ,for to pray with willful indevotion is not an act deserving of remission1 reward and a favorable answer1 but rather of punishment 78,before prayer prepare thy soul and be not as a man that tempteth ,god10 ,eeclus41 xviii4 #bc72 it is disrespectful to ,god and therefore cannot claim the benefits of an act of worship4 #bafi4 ,the ,kind of ,internal ,attention ,required in ,prayer4--7a7 ,the minimum that suffices for the personal benefits of merit and impetration is the verbal or the literal attention1 and the imperfect attention that is mixed with some unwilled distractions or mind wanderings4 ,indeed1 a person who intends to pray well1 but whose whole prayer is a continual distraction in spite of his efforts to be recollected1 does not lose1 but rather by reason of his good will and effort increases1 his merit4 ,but for spiritual refreshment there must be freedom from distraction2 for1 just as a student gets no mental nourishment from a lesson if his mind is many miles away1 and a listener gets no instruction from a discourse spoken in a foreign language 7,i ,cor41 xiv4 #d71 so one who prays with an absent mind loses the devotion and joy that are afforded by actual communion with heavenly thoughts4 7b7 ,the maximum that should be aimed at in prayer for the greater blessing it brings is the spiritual attention fixed on the presence of ,god and the perfect attention that keeps away as far as possible the interruption from any vain1 perverse or extraneous thoughts4 #bagj4 ,distractions4--,just as certain external acts exclude external attention1 so also certain internal states exclude internal attention4 ,these latter are known as distractions1 and may be defined as internal acts or omissions opposed to the nature or purpose of prayer1 but performed during prayer4 7a7 ,distractions are either acts or omissions4 ,thus1 a person who slumbers lightly or is partly asleep during prayer is inattentive or wanting by omission2 while the person who thinks out plots for stories or plays during prayer time is distracted or wanting by commission4 7b7 ,distractions are sometimes opposed to the nature of prayer4 ,to the nature of vocal prayer belong the words and the sense1 and hence1 even though one is rapt in meditation1 there is no vocal prayer if words are mispronounced or left out or so changed or transposed as to make nonsense or no sense1 though negligence about a word here and there does not necessarily exclude superficial attention4 ,those who from long familiarity with forms of prayer are able to repeat them automatically1 with no thought about the words or their meaning1 direct or mystical1 are not distracted if their thoughts are on the motive of prayer4 ,but it would not be fitting to observe no order in these matters1 for example1 to dwell always on the glorious mysteries during passiontide prayer and on the sorrowful mysteries during paschal prayers4 7c7 ,distractions are sometimes opposed to the purpose of prayer4 ,the purpose of prayer itself is the union of the mind with ,god1 while the purpose of the one who prays is the special good to which he directs his prayer4 ,union with ,god is necessary above all in prayer1 and though it need not be expressly thought on1 as was said above 7#bafi71 yet there must be no thought in the mind contrary to it4 ,thoughts1 desires and imaginations are contrary to the end of prayer when they are not means to that end 7e4g41 sinful thoughts1 idle thoughts1 thoughts on lawful occupations or affections that have nothing to do with the prayer71 or when they are means to that end but are perverted to a purely natural use 7e4g41 when verbal attention is made an exercise in voice culture1 or literal attention a grammatical study1 or attention to the purpose of prayer means that one is speculating on foolish questions about divinity or thinking on the money1 food1 or clothing1 for which one is praying as if they were the ends of prayer74 ,scrupulous persons make attention itself a distraction1 for they worry all during prayer lest their thoughts be wandering1 and so they are thinking about themselves rather than about the words1 meaning or purpose of prayer4 7d7 ,distractions occur during prayer4 ,hence1 an interruption is not a distraction1 as when one who is praying is called to attend to some business or leaves off prayer for the moment to make a note of some important thought that came to mind4 ,neither is the breaking off of prayer a distraction1 as when one starts to pray but feels so distracted or unwell as to give over for the time being the attempt to pray4 #baga4 ,voluntary and ,involuntary ,distractions4--7a7 ,voluntary distractions result in the first place from purpose1 as when one who is praying deliberately dozes at intervals when he feels drowsy1 or deliberately turns over in his mind the points of an address he intends to give2 they result in the second place from negligence1 as when the person who is praying does not expressly wish to be inattentive1 but hurries through his words with no pains to keep his thoughts on what he is doing or why he is doing it4 ,those who rarely speak or read about divine things1 but give themselves much to foolish reading or talk1 prepare for themselves many distractions1 unless they counteract this by special aids to recollection1 such as pictures or prayer books4 7b7 ,involuntary distractions are those that result neither from purpose nor from carelessness1 but from human weakness4 ,thus1 a person who is troubled with scruples or with a severe headache or nervous strain1 who is worn out bodily or much worried mentally1 or who is surrounded by noise or disturbance1 is often physically unable to concentrate his mind for any length of time1 no matter how much he may desire to do so4 ,indeed1 ,st4 ,thomas says that it is hardly possible for anyone to say an ,our ,father without some distraction1 and many persons are distracted against their will by every slight sound or movement that falls under their notice4 #bggb4 ,sinfulness of ,distraction in ,prayer4--7a7 ,involuntary distractions are not sinful1 since one is not bound to the impossible4 ,hence1 a penitent who has nothing except these distractions to confess may not be absolved1 since there is no matter for absolution in his confession4 7b7 ,voluntary distractions are sinful1 since1 though one is free to address ,god at any time1 one is bound to do this in a respectful manner and in spirit and in truth1 as ,god requires4 ,communion with ,god is by means of the mind1 and it is disrespectful to turn the mind away to other things when the communion has been sought4 ,besides1 lip service is displeasing to ,god1 just as burnt offerings were not acceptable when made without love4 ,but the sin is of its nature only venial2 for the intention to pray1 together with the essential moral goodness of the act1 is retained1 and the defect consists in the circumstance that the intention is executed remissly 7see #gh74 #bagc4 ,when is voluntary distraction a grave and when a venial sin8 7a7 ,it is a venial sin when one says a non-obligatory prayer1 even with the express will to be inattentive1 and also when one says an obligatory prayer 7such as the ,divine ,office7 with distractions due to carelessness1 but without abandonment of the intention to pray4 7b7 ,it is a mortal sin when one indulges in distractions from contempt1 and also when one says an obligatory prayer with distractions that last during a notable part of the prayer and that are deliberately entertained4 #bagd4 ,distractions during ,divine ,office are the absence of the attention which the ,church requires under grave sin for satisfaction of the canonical obligation4 ,there are two opinions about the kind of distractions that make recitation insufficient and gravely sinful4 7a7 ,according to the older opinion1 internal attention is required1 but it seems that generally those who maintain this view do not hold that internal distractions alone deprive the ,office of its sufficiency4 ,thus1 they state that one who has had voluntary distractions may consider that he has fulfilled his duty1 unless he is certain that he also adverted to his state of distraction and did nothing to end it4 7b7 ,according to the opinion of many modern authors1 external attention suffices4 ,hence1 in this view mortal sin is incurred by notable defect in external1 but not in internal attention4 #bage4 ,the ,external ,acts of ,religion4--,we proceed now to those acts of religion which are performed in an outward manner4 ,but it should be noted that just as devotion and prayer find external expression 7as in vocal prayer71 so the external acts of religion should proceed from internal devotion4 ,the outward religious acts may be classified under three groups3 7a7 the acts in which one offers one's body as a mark of veneration to ,god 7adoration72 7b7 the acts in which one offers external goods1 whether given 7sacrifices1 offerings1 first-fruits1 tithes7 or promised 7vows72 7c7 the acts in which one makes use of divine things to honor ,god 7,sacraments1 oaths1 adjuration1 praises74 #bagf4 ,definition of ,adoration4--,adoration or worship is honor shown to ,god through bodily acts offered in acknowledgment of ,his supreme excellence and of our dependence on ,him4 7a7 ,thus1 it is acknowledgment of dependence on ,god1 and as such it differs from mere honor1 which may be shown even to an equal4 7b7 ,it is an acknowledgment of supreme excellence1 and so it differs from veneration shown to creatures who are above us4 ,adoration 7latria71 therefore1 is not the same thing as the sacred cult or veneration shown the ,blessed ,virgin 7hyperdulia7 and the ,saints 7dulia7 on account of their supernatural grace and glory2 much less is it the same thing as the civil cult shown to persons illustrious for natural qualities1 such as acquired knowledge1 political dignity or power1 etc43 8,the ,lord thy ,god shalt thou adore and ,him only shalt thou serve0 7,matt1 iv4 #aj74 #bagg4 ,unity and ,variety of ,adoration4--,adoration is but one1 though it has various expressions4 7a7 ,the unity of adoration depends on the unity of its object4 ,there is but one ,god to whom belong the various divine attributes1 and the three ,divine ,persons share the same majesty4 ,hence1 there is but one adoration4 7b7 ,the variety in adoration is in the expression4 ,the higher expression of adoration is internal3 it does not depend on bodily acts or places1 and it is offered by ,angels as well as by man4 ,the lower expression of adoration is made through bodily acts1 such as genuflections1 prostrations1 prayer with face to the east1 and the use of sacred places for worship1 all of which externals are employed as aids to devotion and symbols of the divine glory 7,matt41 xviii1 #bj2 ,luke1 xix4 #df74 ,some of the actions here mentioned are sometimes used in the religious or civil cult shown to creatures1 but internal adoration belongs to ,god alone4 #bagh4 ,definition of ,sacrifice4--,sacrifice is the offering to ,god and a real changing of a sensible thing1 made by a lawful minister1 in acknowledgment of ,god's supreme dominion and of our subjection to ,him4 7a7 ,it is an offering or oblation2 that is1 one makes a gift directly to ,god ,himself4 ,thus1 sacrifice differs from contributions of the people made for the clergy or the church4 7b7 ,it offers a sensible thing1 that is1 some object perceptible by the senses or hidden under sensible species2 for sacrifice is an outward sign of the inner offering1 by which the soul itself is subjected to ,god4 7c7 ,it is made by a lawful minister1 for sacrifice is a public act performed in the name of the community1 and hence it may be offered only by those who represent the community4 ,st4 ,paul declares that a high-priest is chosen from men to offer sacrifice1 and that no one may take the honor to himself unless he is called as ,aaron was 7,heb41 v4 #d74 7d7 ,it is made to ,god alone1 since ,god alone is our ,first ,beginning and ,last ,end3 8,he who sacrifices to other gods besides the ,lord shall be put to death0 7,exod41 xxii4 #bj74 ,mass in honor of the ,blessed ,virgin or the ,saints means that sacrifice is offered ,god in thanksgiving for their merits or in petition that we may imitate their virtues4 ,oblations may be made to men1 but sacrifice may be offered only to ,god4 7e7 ,it is through a real change of the thing offered1 which thus becomes the victim of sacrifice2 for the supreme act of worship reserved to ,god acts upon the substance itself of an external thing to signify that the worshipper offers his own being to ,god4 ,the change in the thing sacrificed consists in its being made sacred1 or set apart as the central object in the supreme act of worship4 7f7 ,it is made in acknowledgment of ,god's supreme dominion and of our subjection to ,him2 that is1 it is an act whose direct and proper end is the exercise of the virtue of religion4 ,thus1 sacrifice differs from acts of self-sacrifice such as continence1 abstinence1 martyrdom1 even when they are offered in honor of ,god1 for the direct and proper end of these acts is some other virtue than that of religion4 ,the act of sacrifice may have no purpose except worship1 but other virtuous acts have their own ends to make them praiseworthy1 even when they are used as acts of worship4 #bagi4 ,the ,essentials of ,sacrifice4--7a7 ,the outward sign may be said to consist of matter and form4 ,the matter is some sensible thing used as victim1 whether it be inanimate 7e4g41 the bread and wine of ,melchisedech71 or animate 7e4g41 the paschal lamb71 or human 7e4g41 ,our ,lord in ,his passion74 ,the form is some sensible action that makes the victim sacred by dedicating it to sacrificial oblation 7e4g41 the breaking of bread1 the libation of wine1 the offering of the slain lamb1 the voluntary and visible acceptance of death by ,our ,lord74 ,in the ,mass ,christ is sacrificed1 not as existing under ,his own appearances1 but as present under the sacramental species and offered through ,his representatives2 and hence in the ,mass the ,victim is sensible by means of the species that signify and contain ,him1 while the dedication by the ,supreme ,priest is made sensible through the words of the ministering priest who acts for ,christ4 7b7 ,the inner thing that is signified in sacrifice is primarily the offering of self to ,god1 in recognition that from ,him we have our being and in ,him is our happiness4 ,but secondarily it signifies the fruits we derive from union with ,god 7e4g41 the benefits of redemption and salvation74 ,thus1 the sacrificial death of ,christ is also a symbol of man's death to sin and life in ,god 7,i ,peter1 iv4 #a74 #bahj4 ,the ,obligation of ,sacrifice4--7a7 ,the internal or spiritual sacrifice is obligatory for all1 since all are bound to offer ,god devotion of will1 communion of mind1 recognition of ,his supremacy4 7b7 ,the external sacrifice improperly so called1 which consists in the practice of works of virtue1 is obligatory for all in so far as commanded acts are concerned1 but not when virtuous deeds are of supererogation4 7c7 ,the external sacrifice properly so called1 which consists in an outward sign indicative of internal worship of ,god1 is by natural law necessary1 for reason itself shows to man that he is an inferior and dependent being1 and so should acknowledge the superiority of ,god and his own submission by acts suitable to his nature as a being composed of body and soul1 and for whom sensible things are signs of spiritual truths4 #baha4 ,exemptions ,based on the ,natural ,law4--,though the external sacrifice strictly so called is obligatory from natural law1 it is not a primary precept of nature1 nor does nature determine its details4 7a7 ,hence1 the fact of the obligation may be unknown to an individual1 since 7though reason indicates it7 it is not evident and rests upon a number of premises from which it has to be reasoned out4 ,unlike the duty of honoring parents1 which is immediately inferred from natural principles1 the duty of offering sacrifice is only remotely inferred1 and hence admits of invincible ignorance 7see #cbj74 7b7 ,the manner of fulfilling the obligation1 since not defined by natural law1 has to be determined by positive laws1 or1 in the absence of these1 by suitability to the circumstances in which one lives4 ,before the positive divine law was given1 there was no obligatory rite for sacrifice and the oblation was not entrusted to any special body of men1 and hence we read that in the times of the patriarchs there was great freedom as to the ceremonies and the ministry employed in sacrifice4 ,but under the ,mosaic ,law the manner of sacrificing was minutely prescribed and its office entrusted to the sons of ,aaron1 even to the exclusion of monarchs2 while under the law of ,christ there is but the one sacrifice of the ,cross perpetuated in the ,mass in an unbloody manner1 and the ministers who have power to offer sacrifice are only the bishops and priests4 #bahb4 ,is ,sacrifice ,superior to ,all the ,other ,acts of ,religion8--7a7 ,sacrifice is not superior to the internal act of religion1 for devotion or the internal sacrifice is the soul that animates and moves the external rites 7see #badi73 8,the multitude offered victims and praises and holocausts with a devout mind0 7,,ii ,par41 xxix4 #ca72 8,obedience is better than sacrifice0 7,i ,kings1 xv4 #bb74 7b7 ,sacrifice is preeminent among the external acts of religion4 ,some acts of religion are optional 7e4g41 vows1 oaths1 adjurations71 but sacrifice is a natural obligation4 ,some acts of religion are obligatory1 but marks of respect similar to them may also be shown to creatures 7e4g41 customary offerings1 praises71 whereas no kind of sacrifice may be offered to a creature4 ,some acts of religion are reserved to ,god1 but they have no rite that is peculiar to the worship of ,god and that may not be exercised by all 7e4g41 acts of adoration71 whereas sacrifice has a service reserved to ,god and which only priests can perform4 ,sacraments are primarily for the welfare of man2 sacrifice is primarily for the honor of ,god4 ,non-sacrificial acts of religion may be performed in the name of an individual 7e4g41 adoration71 whereas sacrifice is in the name of the community2 other acts of religion may signify dependence on ,god for temporal and corporal things 7e4g41 offering of first-fruits71 but sacrifice signifies the dependence of the soul itself on ,god for existence and beatitude4 #bahc4 ,offerings4--,offerings are gifts made immediately to ,god1 to be employed without change for divine worship or for the needs of the ministers of divine worship1 the purpose being to worship ,god by the tribute paid4 7a7 ,thus1 offerings are gifts2 that is1 they are offered to ,god without the compulsion of any law1 or at least without any determination by law of the amount to be given4 ,natural reason teaches man that he should bestow something from his goods in this manner as a thank offering for the divine bounty1 when there are representatives of ,god to whom the gift may be given4 ,the gift should be a free-will offering 7,exod41 xxv1 #b71 unless there are special circumstances that render it a debt1 such as contract1 promise1 custom1 or the need of the ministers of the ,church4 7b7 ,they are made immediately to ,god ,himself1 and so they differ from tithes or other dues that are paid to the clergy for their support4 7c7 ,they are not changed at all in the act of worship 7e4g41 an offering of sacred vessels or altar furnishings71 or at least they are not changed into the sacred condition of a sacrificial victim 7e4g41 offerings of candles1 incense1 etc41 that are consumed during ,mass74 ,thus1 simple oblation differs from sacrificial oblation4 7d7 ,they are devoted to the service of ,god1 since they are gifts made to ,him4 ,hence1 they are used in divine worship and1 if consecrated 7e4g41 chalices1 vestments71 may not be used for other purposes2 or they are used for the needs of the ministers of divine worship or of the poor1 since those who serve the altar should live by the altar 7,i ,cor41 ix4 #ad71 and ,our ,lord shared ,his purse with the poor 7,matt41 xxvi4 #i1 #aa74 7e7 ,they are given as a mark of honor to ,god1 especially in recognition of favors received from ,him4 ,thus1 in the ,old ,law the people were obliged to give the first-fruits of their fields and crops to ,god1 in thanksgiving for the gift of the promised land and of its fruits 7,deut41 xxvi4 #aj74 #bahd4 ,goods ,unsuitable as ,offerings to ,god4--,there are certain goods1 however1 that should not be used as offerings to ,god4 7a7 ,thus1 those goods that are forbidden by positive law may not be offered to ,god4 ,in the ,old ,law certain animals could not be offered to ,god1 either because they were legally unclean 7e4g41 dogs were associated with pagan rites and were regarded as symbols of rapacity71 or because they were of inferior quality 7e4g41 a blind or lame sheep or other animal worthless to its owner74 7b7 ,those goods that the offerer has no right to give away or that are unsuitable on account of circumstances may never be given as offerings to ,god4 ,thus1 one may not make an offering to ,god of money that belongs to another 7,ecclus41 xxxiv4 #ba72 a son may not give as a gift to ,god the money he should spend on his needy parents 7,matt41 xv4 #c-f74 ,neither may one offer corrupted wine for the ,mass1 nor the wages of prostitution to the church if there will be scandal1 nor gifts that are mean and contemptible1 etc4 #bahe4 ,contributions4--,contributions to the support of the clergy and church causes are neither sacrifices nor offerings in the strict sense of these words1 since they are given not directly to ,god but to the ministers of ,god4 ,the manner of making contributions to the ,church has varied with time4 7a7 ,thus1 in the first ages of the ,church clerics having the care of souls were supported by the voluntary gifts of the people4 ,these gifts were made especially during ,mass4 ,bread and wine and other things necessary for divine worship and the support of the clergy were brought at the ,offertory 7the origin of the present ,offertory collection71 while food for the agapae or for the poor was presented for a blessing towards the end of the ,canon1 or before ,mass4 7b7 ,after peace had been given to the ,church and the number of the faithful and of the clergy had greatly increased1 it was found necessary to devise means for a more regular and certain supply of income4 ,as early as the sixth century the ancient customs of first-fruits and tithes were made the subjects of conciliar enactments and imposed as specific taxes on crops or revenues4 ,a more permanent system of church support was that of endowments or benefices which1 owing to the increasing difficulties of older methods1 sprang up about the sixth century and became universal in the eleventh4 ,fees in connection with the administration of sacred rites and stipends for ,masses were in use in the seventh century4 7c7 ,today the system of benefices is the rule1 while first-fruits and tithes are rare1 though recognized by ,canon ,law4 ,in some countries where benefices have been confiscated1 part compensation is made in the form of pensions2 in other countries 7e4g41 in the ,united ,states7 the free-will offerings of the faithful is the usual system4 #bahf4 ,obligation of ,contributing to the ,support of the ,clergy4--7a7 ,natural ,law4--,those who serve the common welfare1 whether in spiritual or in temporal matters1 should be supported by those whom they serve2 for1 as their time and labor is given to others1 it is a duty of justice that these latter make a return for the benefits received4 ,hence1 just as citizens are naturally bound to contribute to public officials1 so are the faithful naturally bound to contribute according to their means to the ministers of religion4 7b7 ,divine ,law4--,our ,lord commanded ,his disciples to depend for their maintenance on those to whom they preached 78,for the laborer is worthy of his meat10 ,matt41 x4 #aj72 and hence ,st4 ,paul says 7,i ,cor41 ix4 #ac1 #ad73 8,they who work in the holy place eat the things that are of the holy place1 and they that serve the altar partake with the altar4 ,so also the ,lord ordained that they who preach the ,gospel should live by the ,gospel40 7c7 ,church ,law4--,the ,canons reaffirm what is of natural and divine law1 namely1 that the faithful are obliged to support the clergy 7,canon #adif72 and as to the manner of making contributions they sanction local customs1 such as parish payments 7,canon #dfc7 and tithes and first-fruits 7,canon #aejb71 command the payment of cathedraticum 7,canon #aejd71 etc4 #bahg4 ,the ,church1 the ,apostolic ,see1 individual churches and moral persons of ecclesiastical law have the right to the temporal means requisite for their mission2 and hence the faithful have the duty to contribute to necessary church causes1 such as divine worship1 the spread of the ,gospel1 and charity 7,canons #adie sqq474 #bahh4 ,quality of the ,obligation of ,contributing to the ,church4--7a7 ,the obligation is one of justice as well as of religion1 for there is a quasi-contract between the faithful on the one side and the ,church and its ministers on the other side1 the latter being obliged to give spiritual ministries and benefits1 the former to supply the temporal sustenance and means4 ,hence1 ,st4 ,paul compares the salaries given to the clergy to the wages or fruits paid to the laborer4 ,it is not strange that those who sow spiritual things for others1 should reap from the temporal things of the latter3 for a soldier does not serve at his own expense2 a planter1 a shepherd1 a plowman1 and a thresher expect a share from their labors2 indeed1 even the animal that serves man is worth its keep 7cfr4 ,i ,cor41 ix4 #d sqq474 7b7 ,the obligation is grave1 because it arises both from justice and from religion 7see #agdh1 #badh74 ,he who refuses to contribute to the ,church evades payment for services given him and also denies to divine worship his share of support4 #bahi4 ,attitude ,towards ,persons ,refusing to ,contribute4--,the duties of the priest towards those who refuse to contribute their share to the support of the ,church may be defined as follows3 7a7 as to absolution1 it should not be denied unless there is certainty that the penitent is in grave sin4 ,hence1 according to ,kenrick and the common opinion1 unless there is a law fixing a tax or the delinquent church member is inflicting severe privation on the church or heavy burdens on others who have to contribute more than their share1 the confessor should not enjoin payment under pain of denial of absolution4 ,apart from these cases1 the ,church1 for the sake of souls1 does not insist upon her right1 as we see in the dealings of ,st4 ,paul with the ,corinthians who neglected to give towards his support4 ,the ,apostle did not correct these men1 although he would have done so had he considered them guilty of mortal sin2 7b7 as to restitution1 it seems it should not be insisted on4 ,one who has guiltily refused to pay his church dues has offended justice1 it is true1 but the ,church is concerned more with spiritual than with temporal things1 and rather than place an obstacle to the conversion of a sinner or occasion scandal to the weak1 she prefers to forego what is really her due 7see #adhg72 7c7 as to administration of the ,sacraments or sacramentals1 it should not be denied to those who are unable or unwilling to pay the customary fees4 ,the recipient of the rites disgraces himself by unwillingness to do what others do1 but religion itself would be degraded if the rites were refused for reasons of money4 #baij4 ,those to ,whom ,religious ,contributions ,are ,due4--7a7 ,the entire ,church should contribute to the support of the ,pope1 the ,pastor of the whole flock of ,christ1 who is charged with the welfare of all4 ,in the ,old ,law the ,levites themselves were obliged to pay tithes to the high-priest 7,num1 xviii4 #bf sqq472 but the amount to be given to ,peter's ,pence is left to the generosity and religious devotion of the contributors4 7b7 ,each individual church or body in the ,church should contribute to its own bishop or superior a just amount for necessary uses1 as determined by law or lawful custom4 #baia4 ,vows4--,a vow is a promise made to ,god to perform that which is better4 7a7 ,it is a promise1 that is1 an agreement by which one binds oneself under obligation to another to do or omit something 7,eccles41 v4 #c1 #d71 ,thus1 a vow differs from deliberation about doing good or the purpose to do it1 for it includes in addition to deliberation and purpose the decree of the reason which places one under the moral necessity of performing one's promise4 ,thus1 persons who make good resolutions or who promise themselves that they will carry out certain good courses 7e4g41 a drunkard who takes the pledge to abstain from intoxicants7 do not sin against a vow when they break their resolutions4 ,even a promise or resolution made under oath is not necessarily a vow2 and hence one who swears to observe chastity may be freed from the obligation by an ecclesiastical superior who has not the power of dispensing from a vow of chastity 7see #bbcd1 #bbfb74 7b7 ,a vow is a promise made to ,god2 that is1 the person who takes the vow intends to honor ,god and to bind himself to ,god4 ,a vow may be made in honor of the ,blessed ,virgin or other ,saint1 in the sense that one vows to ,god what one promises to the ,saint1 or that one calls on the ,saint to witness or to assist the vow1 or that one offers the vow principally to ,god and secondarily to the ,saint4 ,hence1 if one were to make a promise to a ,saint 7e4g41 if a girl promises perpetual virginity to the ,blessed ,virgin7 with no thought about ,god or no thought of obliging oneself before ,god1 the act would be a promise pertaining to the virtue of veneration 7dulia71 but it would not be an act of religion or a vow4 ,promises made to living persons even under solemn circumstances 7e4g41 a death-bed promise made to a dying mother7 are sacred1 but they have not the nature of a vow4 7c7 ,a vow is a promise to perform that which is better2 that is1 since a vow is a free promise made to ,god1 to whom only good is pleasing and to whom the lesser good is less pleasing1 a vow does not promise ,god what is evil or entirely indifferent or less pleasing4 ,it would dishonor a human being to promise him something offensive1 it would not honor him to promise something vain or useless1 it would not show him special honor to promise to do something less agreeable to him4 ,hence1 it would be irreligious to take a vow to steal1 or to count one's steps1 or to prefer marriage itself to celibacy4 ,certain solemn promises are called vows 7e4g41 the vows of ,baptism1 the marriage vows71 but they are not vows in the strict sense as here understood1 for they do not promise that which is better1 the promisors having no intention to place on themselves the obligation of religion4 #baib4 ,the ,various ,kinds of ,vows4--7a7 ,by reason of its object1 a vow is either personal 7i4e41 the promise of some act or omission1 such as a fast or the avoidance of an occasion of sin71 real 7i4e41 the promise of some payment or object1 such as an alms71 or mixed 7i4e41 the promise of some action and some object1 such as pilgrimage to a shrine with an offering74 7b7 ,by reason of its subject1 a vow is either singular 7i4e41 made by a physical person7 or common 7i4e41 made by a moral person or community74 7c7 ,by reason of its duration1 a vow is either temporary 7e4g41 a vow taken for one year7 or perpetual 7i4e41 a vow taken for life74 7d7 ,by reason of its manner1 a vow is either absolute 7e4g41 an unconditional vow of chastity7 or conditional 7e4g41 a vow to go on pilgrimage1 if one recovers one's health2 a vow to enter religion1 if parents consent74 ,a conditional vow is either non-penal1 as in the example just given1 or penal1 in which the promise is that one shall undergo a penalty if fault is committed 7e4g41 a vow to say the ,rosary every time one uses profane language1 to fast every time one becomes intoxicated1 to give alms every time one is dishonest74 7e7 ,by reason of its form a vow is either express 7i4e41 externally manifested by words or other signs7 or tacit 7i4e41 externally assumed by reason of some office to which it is annexed1 as when one takes the subdiaconate in the ,latin ,church1 to which is attached the duty of celibacy4 7,it must be noted1 however1 that some authors consider celibacy arising from the subdiaconate as a duty arising from ecclesiastical law and not from a vow47 ,the express vow in turn is explicit 7i4e41 manifested by signs that immediately express the vow1 as when the vower mentions poverty and chastity7 or implicit 7i4e41 manifested by signs that express another vow which includes the implicit vow1 as when the vower mentions only obedience according to the rule1 but the rule includes the other two vows of poverty and chastity74 ,an explicit vow is either determinate 7i4e41 one in which the thing promised is definitely indicated1 as when one vows a pilgrimage7 or disjunctive 7i4e41 one in which the vower promises to perform at his will one or more out of a number of things indicated1 as when he vows either to make a pilgrimage or to perform a fast74 7f7 ,by reason of its position before the ,church1 a vow is either private 7i4e41 one made without the intervention or acceptance of the ,church1 as when a person in danger of shipwreck makes a vow for his safety7 or public 7i4e41 one made before the ,church and accepted in its name by an ecclesiastical superior1 as in the essential vows made in approved ,orders or ,congregations74 ,the public vow is either simple or solemn1 according as the ,church has determined for different religious institutes4 #baic4 ,vows in ,canon ,law4--,the canonical dispositions in reference to vows in general will be found in ,canons #acjg-acae1 while religious vows are treated in the section on religious 7,canons #dib sqq471 and the effects of vows on matrimony are declared in ,canons #ajgb1 #ajgc1 #ajeh4 ,a fuller treatment of the canonical aspects of vows than can be given here will be found in commentaries on these parts of the ,code4 #baid4 ,distinction between ,solemn and ,simple ,vows4--,is the distinction between a solemn and a simple vow one of divine or one of ecclesiastical law8 7a7 ,as to accidental solemnity 7i4e41 the conditions of time1 place1 age1 fitness1 rubrics1 etc471 the solemn vow depends on the ,church1 for there is no doubt that the ,church has the right to determine these matters as circumstances may require4 ,hence1 the ,church may appoint conditions for the validity of a solemn vow1 and she may also change these conditions as she sees fit4 7b7 ,as to the essential solemnity 7i4e41 the internal characteristic that distinguishes the solemn from other vows71 the solemn vow depends1 not on the law of the ,church1 but on the divine law1 since1 unlike other vows1 it is not a mere promise of acts1 but an irrevocable giving over to ,god of one's person itself and an internal spiritual consecration or espousals accepted by the ,church4 ,this is denied1 however1 by some authorities1 who place the difference between the solemn and the simple vow in the different juridical effects which they produce in ,canon ,law1 the solemn vow making acts opposed to it invalid and the simple vow rendering opposed acts illicit1 but not invalid 7see ,canon #egi74 ,all agree that the ,church may for just reasons dispense even in solemn vows4 #baie4 ,knowledge and ,deliberation ,necessary for ,valid ,vow4--,in the intellect of him who takes a vow there must be such knowledge and deliberation as are required for making an important contract1 for he who takes a vow assumes a grave obligation 7see #ahhc74 ,the rule given by many is that the deliberation which suffices for a mortal sin suffices also for a vow1 but this does not appear to be exact1 since a mortal sin may be committed when there is only a confused perception of the gravity of the sin 7see #agg74 7a7 ,thus1 a vow is invalidated by substantial ignorance or error 7e4g41 ,titus1 thinking his gold watch is brass1 vows to give it as an alms2 ,balbus1 thinking that a distant sanctuary is not very far off1 vows to make a pilgrimage to it2 ,claudius1 being wrongly informed that his father is sick1 makes a vow to go on a pilgrimage for his father's recovery71 but not by ignorance or error that is merely accidental 7e4g41 ,sempronius1 thinking that a sanctuary which is four miles away is only three miles distant1 vows to go there on pilgrimage1 but he would have made the vow1 even though he had known the true distance2 ,caius1 intending chiefly to perform an act of religion1 and secondarily to visit a friend1 vows a pilgrimage to a neighboring town1 not being aware that the friend has moved elsewhere74 ,the vows of religion1 according to the common opinion1 are not invalidated on account of ignorance or error about accidentals1 even though the vows would not have been taken had these accidentals been known2 for the common good demands that the religious state1 like the married state1 have stability1 and that those who enter it intend to accept all the obligations that go with it4 7b7 ,a vow is invalidated by the absence of full deliberation 7e4g41 vows made by children who have not the perfect use of reason1 by persons who are only half-conscious or who are delirious or laboring under a hysterical delusion or fixed idea1 by persons who act on the impulse of the moment without full advertence to the import or force of the vow71 but not by the absence of long or studious deliberation 7e4g41 a vow is valid if one has thought over its meaning and obligation1 even though one has done this hurriedly and without reflection on the details and has regretted the vow soon after its pronouncement74 #baif4 ,freedom of ,will ,necessary for ,valid ,vow4--,in the will of the person who takes a vow there must be freedom of choice1 and the absence of such impediments as take away self-determination or consent4 7a7 ,thus1 the natural law itself invalidates a vow made under force or under such fear as takes away the power of giving due deliberation to the vow4 7b7 ,the natural law1 according to many1 invalidates a vow made under fear that is grave 7though not disturbing to the reason71 and that is produced unjustly and with a view to coerce one into making the vow4 ,the reason for this opinion is that ,god cannot accept a promise to ,himself caused by injustice1 nor can one be held to a promise made under unjust pressure4 7c7 ,the positive law 7see ,canon #acjg1 ,sec4#c7 invalidates a vow given under grave and unjust fear4 ,many canonists interpret this law as meaning that even when the unjust fear is not employed as a means to force one into taking the vow1 but does in reality cause one to take the vow1 the promise is null in both forums in virtue of ,canon ,law4 #baig4 ,cases in ,which ,fear ,does ,not ,invalidate a ,vow4--7a7 ,all admit that fear does not invalidate when it proceeds from a natural cause 7e4g41 vows made during a storm at sea7 or an internal cause 7e4g41 vows made under the influence of fear that one will fall into sin without the protection of the vow72 for in these cases one chooses a lesser burden to avoid a greater one1 and the thing chosen is involuntary1 not simply1 but only in a certain respect 7see #dd74 7b7 ,it is commonly admitted that fear does not invalidate when it proceeds from an external and just cause 7e4g41 if a guilty person were threatened with the penalties of law unless he vowed not to repeat the offense71 since the cause of the vow is then internal rather than external1 namely1 the guilt of the person who takes the vow and his wish to evade punishment4 #baih4 ,vows of ,doubtful ,validity4--,in the following cases it is disputed whether fear invalidates a vow4 7a7 ,it is disputed whether fear unjustly caused invalidates in the forum of conscience when it is light 7e4g41 ,titia constantly importuned by her parents to enter religion makes a vow to follow their wishes74 ,some answer in the negative1 because a fear that is slight both in itself and in its influence on the vower cannot be considered as the real cause of the vow4 ,others answer in the affirmative1 because light reasons do move persons to take grave steps1 and it is not reasonable to think that ,god will accept a vow brought on by unjust1 though light1 fear4 7b7 ,it is also disputed whether grave fear unjustly caused invalidates1 when the person who causes the fear intends to force the vower1 not to the vow1 but to something else 7e4g41 ,balbus threatens to kill ,caius unless the latter pays a large sum of money1 and ,caius vows to give the money to religion if he escapes the danger74 ,some hold for the affirmative and refer to ,canon #acjg1 mentioned above4 ,others hold for the negative because the vow is taken1 not to accommodate the aggressor1 but to honor ,god and benefit self4 ,this is the interpretation given the pre-,code legislation4 ,still others distinguish1 affirming invalidity for the case in which fear is the cause of the vow and denying invalidity for the case when fear is only the occasion of the vow4 #baii4 ,the ,intention ,necessary for a ,valid ,vow4--,as was said in the explanation of the definition1 a vow must include a will to bind oneself1 that is1 the intention to make a vow4 7a7 ,the object of this intention is the obligation itself1 not its fulfillment4 ,hence1 he who makes a vow1 but intends not to oblige himself1 vows invalidly2 for he has two contrary intentions and 7unless the intention to vow is stronger7 the substance of the vow is excluded4 ,on the contrary1 he who makes a vow1 intending not to fulfill it1 vows validly but illicitly1 since he really intends to oblige himself1 but he sins by his purpose not to keep his vow 7see #ahhc74 7b7 ,the quality of the intention must be such that the character of the vow as a deliberate act and a sincere agreement to obligation will be preserved4 ,hence1 an habitual intention 7e4g41 ,claudius intending to take a vow on the morrow pronounces the words of promise while asleep7 does not suffice1 because the act made with such an intention is not deliberate or human4 ,likewise1 an external intention 7e4g41 ,balba forced by her parents to enter a convent takes the vows1 intending only the external rite7 and an indirect intention 7e4g41 ,sempronius1 foreseeing that if he drinks certain liquors he will bind himself by vow to a number of things1 takes the drinks and makes the vows7 are not sufficient1 because with them there is no real agreement to obligation4 ,on the other hand1 it suffices to have an actual but implicit or tacit intention 7e4g41 ,titus receives subdeaconship intending the obligations annexed to the office1 but not knowing that celibacy is a duty vowed by subdeacons71 or a virtual intention 7e4g41 ,caius intended to make religious profession1 but at the moment of pronouncing the vows he is distracted and gives no attention to the words71 for in either case there is a human act and real agreement to obligation 7see #bafd1 #bafe74 #bbjj4 ,the ,matter of a ,vow4--7a7 ,a vow is a free promise1 and hence its matter must not be something necessary4 7b7 ,a vow is made to ,god1 and hence its matter must not be something that is not pleasing to ,him4 #bbja4 ,vows that ,promise ,something ,necessary4--7a7 ,if the necessity is absolute1 because a certain thing must be or cannot be1 a vow is invalid4 ,a vow to die is null1 because death is a necessity2 a vow to avoid venial sin1 deliberate and indeliberate1 is null1 because it is impossible without a special privilege from ,god to keep such a vow2 a vow that one's child shall enter religion is also null1 because one has no power over that which depends on the will of another4 ,the vows made by communities do not oblige their successors or posterity as vows1 but only as laws or customs having the force of law1 or as contracts to which agreement is given1 etc4 7b7 ,if the necessity is hypothetical1 because a certain thing must be done or omitted if one is to observe the natural or positive law1 the vow is valid4 ,for though it is necessary to observe a commandment 7e4g41 to avoid intoxication71 it is not necessary to add to the existent obligation the new obligation of religion4 ,the most suitable matter for a vow1 however1 is something that is of counsel1 but not of precept1 for example1 to practise celibacy4 #bbjb4 ,when ,fulfillment of ,vow ,is ,only ,partly ,possible4--7a7 ,if the vower intended that his promise should be an entire one obliging him to fulfillment of all the items1 the vow is invalid1 since its fulfillment as intended is impossible4 ,thus1 if one vowed to go on foot to a place of pilgrimage but was unable to accomplish the journey on foot1 or vowed to go to ,rome and became unable to go the full distance1 there would be no obligation4 7b7 ,if the vower intended that his promise should be severable1 the difficulty can be settled as follows3 he is held to nothing if the matter is severable but the principal part impossible 7e4g41 if he vowed to go on a pilgrimage and also to go barefooted1 he is not bound to go barefooted an equal distance if the pilgrimage becomes impossible74 ,he is held to the part that is possible1 if it is really severable and was intended as the principal part of the vow 7e4g41 if he vowed to go on a pilgrimage and to go barefooted1 but is unable to go barefooted74 7c7 ,if the intention of the vow-maker is uncertain1 it seems he is held to perform what is possible 7e4g41 if one has vowed to pay for the erection of a church but becomes unable to pay for more than a part of the expense72 but if there is a good reason to presume that he intended an entire vow1 or a severable vow whose chief part has become impossible1 one may decide the doubt in the sense of that presumption 7cfr4 #dfe74 #bbjc4 ,vows that ,promise ,something ,displeasing to ,god4--7a7 ,vows that promise what is always evil 7e4g41 to steal7 are invalid and1 on account of the irreverence1 gravely sinful1 at least if the sin promised is mortal4 7b7 ,vows that promise something that may turn out either evil or good 7e4g41 ,jepthe's vow to immolate the first living being that came before him7 are imprudent1 and should not be kept as to the part that is sinful4 #bbjd4 ,what should be said of vows that promise something good1 but that have an evil end or other evil circumstances8 7a7 ,the vow is invalid and illicit if the evil circumstance affects the thing promised itself1 so that the fulfillment of the vow must be sinful1 for example1 when one promises to give an alms in order to seduce the recipient into sin or to build a church in order to gratify pride or spite4 ,similarly1 invalid and illicit are vows made to obtain something evil 7e4g41 the vow of an alms in order to obtain success in a robbery7 or to render thanksgiving for success in evil already done 7e4g41 the vow to give ,god half the booty taken in robbery72 for such vows can not be fulfilled without the implicit protestation that ,god is the author of sin4 7b7 ,the vow is valid but illicit if the evil circumstance affects only the act of vowing2 for the thing promised is good and is to be performed properly1 but the disposition of the vower is not free from sin as he makes his promise4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that the evil circumstance does not always deprive the act of vowing of substantial goodness 7see #gh74 ,thus1 if one vows to build a church and the sole motive for making the vow is the applause one will receive1 the vow is substantially illicit2 but if vainglory is only a secondary motive1 the vow is substantially licit4 7c7 ,the vow is valid and licit if the evil circumstance affects neither the act promised nor the act of vowing1 both of these being good4 ,thus1 it is lawful to vow an alms for every time one yields to a sinful habit4 ,it is also lawful to vow an offering to ,god if one escapes unhurt from a duel1 for such a vow does not ask ,god to bless the duel but to protect one's life4 #bbje4 ,vows that ,promise ,something ,indifferent4--7a7 ,these vows are invalid if there is no circumstance to make the promise honorable to ,god 7e4g41 if one promises to save up a certain percentage of one's earnings each month74 ,the sin committed by those who vow necessary1 impossible or indifferent things1 does not seem to exceed venial fault per se1 for the vow is illicit1 not because its matter is evil and displeasing to ,god1 but because it is not good and pleasing to ,him4 ,the sin seems to be one of levity rather than of irreverence4 7b7 ,these vows are valid and lawful if there is a circumstance that makes the indifferent subject-matter honorable to ,god 7e4g41 if one vows to save up so much each month in order to practise frugality1 or to set aside means for some charitable or pious cause74 #bbjf4 ,meaning of a ,better ,good4--,it is also necessary for validity of a vow that the thing promised be a better good2 for this is the will of ,god1 our sanctification 7,i ,thess41 iv4 #c71 and the vow is made to ,god4 7a7 ,by the better good is not meant that which has no good superior to it1 for then one could vow only the most excellent good1 which is not true4 7b7 ,by the better good1 then1 is understood that which is preferable to its contrary good 7e4g41 virginity is better than marriage71 that which is absolutely or objectively preferable to its contradictory 7e4g41 it is better to give an alms than not to give one1 it is better to keep the law of fasting than not to keep it71 that which is relatively or subjectively better than its contradictory 7e4g41 it is better to marry than to commit fornication1 or live in concubinage1 or give scandal1 or leave children illegitimate74 ,generally1 however1 it is not advisable to vow matrimony1 for1 even if the vow is not invalid1 it seems to have little advantage4 ,if a person thinks marriage is better for him1 let him take the marriage vows or engage to marry the woman of his choice4 #bbjg4 ,vows ,invalidated by ,promise of ,lesser ,good4--7a7 ,the vow to do what is less pleasing to ,god 7e4g41 never to make a vow1 never to embrace a counsel7 is invalid per se4 ,there may be cases1 however1 in which a vow of this kind would be better and therefore valid 7e4g41 when a person who is prone to making vows is bidden by the confessor to make no other vows without advice74 7b7 ,the vow to do what may easily become less pleasing to ,god also seems to be invalid4 ,thus1 if one were to make a vow to play no more games in order to give more time to prayer or to avoid temptations1 the vow might later be a cause of spiritual harm1 for at times it is more pleasing to ,god to take recreation than to abstain from it4 #bbjh4 ,case in ,which ,one ,has ,taken ,two ,opposite ,vows4--7a7 ,if the vows are equally good1 or if it is doubtful which is better1 the first prevails2 the second being impossible does not oblige4 7b7 ,if the second is certainly better1 it prevails1 and the first does not oblige1 being impossible4 ,thus1 if one has first vowed to go on a pilgrimage and next to stay at home and attend the sick during an epidemic1 the pilgrimage should not stand in the way of the more urgent good of caring for those in distress4 #bbji4 ,the ,obligation of a ,vow4--,every valid vow obliges to fulfillment1 for it is a promise1 and loyalty to promises is a moral duty4 ,scripture declares that one must pay one's vows1 and that it is better not to vow than to vow and not fulfill 7,eccles41 v4 #d71 that ,god will hold as sin the neglect of a vow 7,deut41 xxiii4 #ba71 that a faithless promise displeases ,him 7,eccles41 ,v4 #c74 7a7 ,the ,quality of the ,obligation4--,a vow is an act of religion1 since it promises to ,god a tribute of honor1 even though the thing promised 7e4g41 a fast1 virginity7 does not belong to worship but to some other virtue4 ,hence1 the violation of a vow is a sin against fidelity and also against religion4 ,but it seems that sacrilege is committed only by sins against certain vows1 namely1 those whose matter is a sacred thing dedicated to ,god2 for example1 the violation of the vow to fast would not be sacrilegious1 while the violation of a public vow of chastity is a sacrilege4 ,all transgressions of vows1 as such1 are sins of the same species1 namely1 sins against religion4 7b7 ,the ,quantity of the ,obligation4--,a vow1 as being a duty of religion 7see #badf1 #badh71 obliges under grave sin4 ,but in an individual case the sin committed may be only venial on account of lightness of matter or imperfection of the act4 #bbaj4 ,gravity of the ,obligation of a ,vow4--,a vow has the nature of a private law1 since it is an obligation which the vow-maker voluntarily imposes on himself4 ,but a law obliges under grave sin when the subject-matter itself and the intention of the lawgiver require strict obligation 7see #cha sqq474 ,hence1 gravity of matter in a vow depends on the great importance of the thing vowed and on the will of the vower to assume a grave obligation4 7a7 ,thus1 the thing vowed must be of great importance1 either in itself 7e4g41 chastity7 or from its relation to divine worship 7e4g41 a fast1 a communion74 ,one cannot oblige oneself to a grave obligation under a vow whose matter is absolutely and relatively of minor importance 7e4g41 a daily ,hail ,mary1 an alms of twenty-five cents2 see #chb74 7b7 ,the intention of the vower must be to bind himself under grave sin4 ,he is free not to oblige himself by vow at all1 and hence1 should he elect to vow1 he may bind himself1 even though the matter of the vow is of great importance1 either under grave or under light sin 7or only to penalty71 as he wishes4 ,exception must be made1 however1 for public vows taken in religious institutes and for the vow of chastity and celibacy taken in the reception of subdeaconship1 for the law of the ,church on account of the public good decrees that these vows oblige under grave sin4 #bbaa4 ,rules for ,determining ,what ,is ,important ,matter in a ,vow4--7a7 ,in personal vows1 an act of omission may be made the subject of grave obligation1 if it may be made the subject of grave precept by the ,church 7e4g41 the hearing of ,mass1 ,confession1 ,communion1 a fast or abstinence1 a ,rosary74 7b7 ,in real vows1 some fix grave matter according to the standards for commutative justice 7see #ahif sqq474 ,but such a rule seems unsuitable4 ,the amounts absolutely and relatively grave in theft are determined by the wealth of the person stolen from1 but1 since ,god is owner of all things1 we do not see how those amounts could be fixed in reference to ,him4 ,on the other hand1 the duty of religion obliges more strictly than that of commutative justice1 and hence it does not seem that grave matter should be the same for both4 ,in practice1 the matter is not grave when it is quite inconsiderable 7say less than a dollar71 or when the vower intends only a light obligation4 ,if the matter is not inconsiderable and the intent of the vower is uncertain1 one may decide as to the obligation of the vow from presumptions based on custom1 the circumstances of the vow1 or the rule that grave obligation is not to be taken for granted 7see #gji1 #gad1 #fei74 #bbab4 ,coalescence of ,light into ,grave ,matter4--7a7 ,if the vower has determined the relation of the items of the vow one to another1 coalescence can be judged from his intention4 ,thus1 if the vower intends that the items shall be parts of one whole1 there is coalescence 7e4g41 if he vows to give fifty cents in alms daily and neglects this for a year1 there is grave sin72 but if he intends the items as separate promises1 there is no coalescence 7e4g41 if he vows to say a ,hail ,mary every day and neglects this for a year1 there are many venial sins74 ,if some of the items have been performed1 others omitted1 and the omissions coalesce1 there is grave sin according to some as soon as a notable quantity is reached1 but others believe that there is grave sin only when a notable percentage 7say one-third or one-fourth7 of the matter vowed has been neglected4 7b7 ,if the vower has not determined the relation between the items of the vow1 the presumption as a rule favors coalescence in real vows1 non-coalescence in personal vows 7as in the examples of a vow to give fifty cents daily and of a vow to say a ,hail ,mary every day74 ,but there are exceptions1 as when one vows to give a small alms every ,saturday in honor of the ,blessed ,virgin1 for the chief intention in this case may be to show respect to the ,mother of ,god and not to give a certain amount to the poor4 #bbac4 ,the ,time ,when a ,vow ,obliges4--7a7 ,a negative vow 7e4g41 not to drink certain intoxicants7 obliges at once and always 7see #cga74 7b7 ,an affirmative vow to which the vower has annexed a time for fulfillment obliges at the time determined4 ,if the time was intended as a principal circumstance 7e4g41 a vow to say the ,rosary on the ,feast of the ,assumption71 the vow ceases with that time1 even though performance was culpably neglected2 but if the time was intended only as a secondary circumstance 7e4g41 a vow to go to confession next week made by one who needs it badly71 the vow continues in force even after the time set has elapsed without fulfillment 7see #dfh sqq474 ,anticipation of fulfillment on account of inability to fulfill at the time appointed in the vow1 is not necessary1 unless the vow was attached to a certain space and cannot be fulfilled in the latter part of this space2 for example1 if one has vowed to say the ,rosary today and foresees that the whole afternoon will be occupied1 one should say the ,rosary in the forenoon 7see #dgj1 #dga74 7c7 ,an affirmative vow for which the vower has fixed no special time should be accomplished as soon as this can be conveniently done1 for such is the rule in every absolute promise1 and1 moreover1 no better time for fulfillment can be assigned2 8,when thou hast made a vow to the ,lord thy ,god1 thou shalt not delay to pay it1 because the ,lord thy ,god will require it4 ,and if thou delay it shall be imputed to thee for a sin0 7,deut41 xxiii4 #ba74 #bbad4 ,delay in ,fulfilling ,vow4--,sin may be committed by delaying to keep a gravely obligatory vow for which no date was set4 7a7 ,there is no sin if the delay is reasonable in view of the subject-matter of the vow 7e4g41 to put off a ,rosary or fast for two or three days1 a pilgrimage of #ej miles for a week1 a pilgrimage of #ajjj miles for several months1 etc47 or of the circumstances 7e4g41 if one has to delay entrance into religion until one has better health or has closed up a business74 7b7 ,there is venial sin if the delay is unreasonable but does not notably diminish what is promised or endanger its fulfillment4 ,thus1 a ,rosary1 a fast1 or a pilgrimage is as good next year as this year1 and1 apart from danger of forgetting or omitting1 no lapse of time seems to constitute a notable delay in respect to such obligations4 7e7 ,there is mortal sin if the delay is unreasonable and notably depreciates what is promised or notably endangers performance of the vow4 ,thus1 to put off the fulfillment of a vow to enter religion lessens the value of the thing promised1 if one waits until old age2 it imperils the promise1 if one remains in the world for several years exposed to the danger of losing vocation4 ,moralists hold that three or four years would be a considerable delay in reference to a vow to enter religion4 #bbae4 ,the ,person ,obliged to ,fulfill a ,vow4--7a7 ,a personal vow obliges only the vower1 because by its nature a vow is a law which one imposes on oneself 7see #dfc1 #afif1 #ahh74 ,but vows taken by a city or community may be obligatory on the subjects in virtue of law1 and vows taken by ancestors may oblige posterity in virtue of lawful and obligatory custom4 7b7 ,a real vow 7and a mixed vow as to the part that is real7 obliges also the heirs1 for this kind of vow is a debt of the vower's estate 7see ,canon #acaj74 ,the obligation of the heirs is one1 not of religion1 but of justice1 and they are not held beyond the resources of the estate4 #bbaf4 ,the ,manner of ,fulfilling a ,vow4--7a7 ,as to ,internal ,disposition4--,it is not necessary that one have at the time of fulfillment the purpose of fulfillment1 provided there is no intention exclusive of that purpose1 for the vow binds one only to do what was promised 7cfr4 #dgg74 ,hence1 if one has vowed to hear ,mass and then hears a ,mass out of devotion1 not thinking of the vow1 one may take this assistance at ,mass as a satisfaction of the vow4 7b7 ,as to ,external ,performance4--,if a vow is personal1 one must perform it personally1 for one's own act was promised1 and hence1 if personal performance becomes impossible1 it is not necessary or valid to use a proxy2 if a vow is real1 one may use goods given by others1 but one is not obliged in case of poverty to seek the goods of another1 since one's own goods were promised4 #bbag4 ,the ,obligation of ,certain ,kinds of ,vows4--7a7 ,conditional ,vow4--,the vower is not obliged by the vow unless the condition is fulfilled1 and this is probably true even when the condition is equivalently1 but not formally1 fulfilled 7e4g41 ,titus1 who has to support his mother1 vows to enter religion as soon as she contracts marriage1 but the mother unexpectedly dies and ,titus is thus freed of her support74 ,the vower is not guilty of sin against the vow if he prevents the fulfillment of the condition1 unless he uses unlawful means4 ,such means are not employed if one is not obliged to fulfill the condition 7e4g41 a vow to pay an alms of #aj if one gets drunk71 or if non-fulfillment is due to weakness1 not to the purpose to defeat the vow 7e4g41 a vow to pay an alms of #ajj1 if one remains sober for a year1 when the vower becomes intoxicated accidentally or through frailty before the year is up71 or if non-fulfillment is due to the exercise of one's right 7e4g41 a vow to enter religion if one's parents consent1 when the vower in lawful ways persuades his parents not to consent74 ,the vower is guilty of sin against the vow1 if he uses unlawful means to prevent the condition's fulfillment 7e4g41 if he gets drunk purposely in order to evade the alms promised for sobriety1 or if he uses fraud or force to keep his parents from consenting to a vow which he has made dependent on their consent74 7b7 ,penal ,vow4--,the vower is not obliged by the vow if the act against which the vow is made is committed by him but is not sinful 7e4g41 ,claudius vowed not to play cards1 but on a certain occasion did play after having received a dispensation71 or is only materially sinful 7e4g41 ,balbus vowed not to use profane language1 but on a certain occasion did use such language inadvertently71 or is not sinful against the vow1 at least if the penalty is for violation of the vow 7e4g41 ,caius vowed not to quarrel under penalty of an alms for breaking the promise1 but on a certain occasion did quarrel1 adverting to the sin against charity1 but not to the vow71 or is venially sinful on account of the imperfection of the act1 at least if the penalty is grave4 ,if the vower has not determined the number of times the penalty is to be paid1 it seems that it should be paid only after the first fault1 if the penalty is grave and one that is not customarily repeated 7e4g41 a distant pilgrimage1 a large alms71 but should be repeated after every fault if the penalty is slight and one that is customarily repeated 7e4g41 a decade of the ,rosary1 a small alms74 7c7 ,disjunctive ,vow4--,the vow is null if one of the objects to be chosen from is evil1 vain or impossible 7e4g41 a vow either to earn or to steal the money for an alms74 ,the vower is held to nothing if before his choice one of the things to be chosen from has become impossible 7e4g41 ,claudius vows to give one or the other of two chalices he owns1 but before he makes his choice one of the chalices is stolen71 or if after his choice the thing chosen becomes impossible 7e4g41 ,claudius decided to give the larger of two chalices1 but before he could give it1 it was stolen74 ,the vower is held1 however1 if one of the things to be chosen from has become impossible before choice through the vower's own fault 7e4g41 ,claudius' chalice was stolen before his choice because he had culpably delayed to make a choice71 or if the thing not chosen has become impossible after the choice 7e4g41 ,claudius decided to give the large chalice and the small one was stolen afterwards74 7d7 ,doubtful ,vow4--,doubts about the essentials1 that is1 whether a vow was really made 7e4g41 whether it was a vow or only a resolution1 whether there was the requisite intention or deliberation1 whether the vow was invalid on account of fear1 etc471 or whether a vow certainly made was fulfilled1 must be settled according to the principles for directing a doubtful conscience 7see #fgb sqq474 ,thus1 if it is more probable that a vow was made or that a vow was not fulfilled1 the decision must be for obligation according to the ,probabiliorists2 but if there remains a positive doubt whether only a resolution was made1 or whether a vow was fulfilled1 there is no obligation according to the ,probabilists4 ,doubts about accidentals1 that is1 whether a vow was of this kind or that 7e4g41 the circumstances of quality1 quantity1 number1 etc471 must be settled according to reasonable rules of interpretation of the mind of the vower4 #bbah4 ,general ,rules of ,interpretation of ,doubtful ,vows4--7a7 ,private vows must be interpreted according to the expressed or presumptive intention of the vower1 for a vow is a private law1 and the vower the lawmaker4 7b7 ,public vows must be interpreted according to the sound doctrine of approved authorities on theology and ,canon ,law4 #bbai4 ,special ,rules for ,interpreting the ,mind of the ,vower4--7a7 ,a doubtful vow should be interpreted from internal evidence1 that is1 from the language of the vow itself and the significance usually attached to the terms used1 for the presumption is that the vower meant to express himself in the ordinary speech used for vows4 ,thus1 a vow of 8virginity0 usually means the same as a vow of 8chastity10 and should be so understood unless there is reason for a stricter interpretation4 ,the language of a vow is to be understood in the light of the purpose of the vower 7e4g41 a vow to give a chalice to a church does not mean a glass chalice1 since the ,church employs only chalices of precious metal72 a vow to hear ,mass daily does not mean that one must hear two ,masses on ,sunday1 since the purpose of the vow is to let no day pass without assistance at ,mass4 7b7 ,a doubtful vow that cannot be sufficiently construed from internal evidence should be judged from general presumptions1 that is1 from the custom as regards the vow taken 7e4g41 one who vows an alms is understood to promise the amount that others in his condition promise71 from the custom or law as regards the matter of the vow 7e4g41 one who vows a perpetual fast is understood to promise a fast on days other than ,sundays and holydays1 for the church law distinguishes between fast days and feast days71 from the rules governing the interpretation of laws 7e4g41 since things odious are to be of strict interpretation1 he who vows to give something may himself determine what he wishes to give1 provided it is not ridiculously small71 from the conditions that are implied in every vow as to possibility1 the rights of others1 change in circumstances1 etc4 7e4g41 he who promises to become a religious means that he will do so1 if a ,religious ,order will accept and keep him2 he who promises a gift means that he will give without prejudice to the claims of third parties1 etc474 #bbbj4 ,the ,advantages of ,vows to the ,vowers4--7a7 ,a first advantage is that a vow strengthens the will of the vower to do good and avoid evil4 ,this is an important advantage1 since human nature is so weak and inconstant and so much in need of helps that will add resolution and perseverance to its efforts4 ,the vow is a promise binding not only in honor but also as a religious duty1 and an act that has a special claim on divine assistance and a favorable answer1 and hence it is a powerful ally to a virtuous life4 ,true1 he who takes a vow is subject to greater sin if he is unfaithful4 ,but there is no good that has not some risk attached to it1 and the risk here is due1 not to the vow itself1 but to the weakness of the will which may use it improperly4 ,the person who thinks only of the dangers of storms will neither sow nor reap 7,eccles41 xi4 #d74 7b7 ,a second advantage is that a vow makes the good done more meritorious and praiseworthy4 ,it adds to the virtue practised 7e4g41 abstinence7 the virtue that directs 7viz1 divine worship or religion1 the most excellent among the moral virtues72 it offers ,god a more perfect subjection1 since it presents to ,him1 not only a single act here and now1 but the power itself of the will to do the opposite2 it acts from a greater resolution and firmness1 a circumstance that gives perfection to virtue4 ,all this should be understood per se1 or with the qualification 8other things being equal02 for if we suppose that a person who has no vow serves ,god with great charity and fervor1 there is no doubt that he is better before ,god than one who has vows and performs them carelessly and reluctantly4 #bbba4 ,when a ,good ,vow ,may ,be ,sinful4--,a vow good in itself may be sinful or the occasion of sin on account of the dispositions of the vower4 7a7 ,thus1 in taking vows one commits sin if one acts imprudently in not taking into consideration the circumstances4 ,hence1 before making a vow one should consider carefully and consult one's confessor or director or some other prudent man4 7b7 ,after taking vows one commits sin by regrets1 if these regrets include the desire not to comply with obligations 7e4g41 when one regrets having lived up to a vow in the past or intends not to live up to it in the future1 or when one keeps the vow only from human motives and wishes one could violate it71 or if they manifest ingratitude towards ,god 7e4g41 when one regrets without good reason that one ever took the vow74 ,the sin committed by desire not to comply with obligation is mortal or venial according to the nature of the obligation2 the sin of ingratitude is venial4 ,there is no sin at all1 it seems1 if for a reasonable cause one regrets having made a vow or wishes there were no obligation to perform something of supererogation that one vowed1 unless by such wishes one is exposed to temptations and the danger of sinning against the vow4 #bbbb4 ,merit of ,fulfilling a ,vow that ,one ,regrets4--,if one regrets having made a vow but intends to keep it1 is the good work performed better by reason of the vow8 7a7 ,if the intention to keep the vow is prompted by a religious motive 7e4g41 the desire to please ,god or the fear to offend ,him71 the good work is more meritorious than if there were no vow1 for it has the double value of an act of religion and of an act of some other virtue1 of a good work done and of a vow to do it4 7b7 ,if the intention to keep the vow is prompted by a human motive 7e4g41 the desire to please some human person or to secure some temporal benefit71 the good work is not made more meritorious1 but indeed is not meritorious at all1 since not done for ,god's sake4 #bbbc4 ,who ,can ,make a ,vow8--,every person living in the state of mortal existence1 whether ,catholic or non-,catholic1 is able to take a vow1 unless there is an impediment of natural or positive law4 7a7 ,natural law excludes vows made by those who are not masters of their own acts or who have not the use of reason2 for1 since a vow is a law which one knowingly places on oneself1 it cannot be made by those who have not the right of disposition over their acts or who do not understand the meaning of the obligation4 ,hence1 religious and other subject persons are restricted as to the right of making vows1 while infants and insane persons are utterly incapable of making a vow4 7b7 ,positive law of the ,church has laid down certain conditions for the validity of public vows 7e4g41 age1 performance of the novitiate1 etc471 and hence those persons in whom the conditions are not found are incapable of taking these vows4 ,the power of binding and loosing has been given the ,church1 and the regulations on public vows exercise this power for the benefit of the ,church as a whole and of the persons who take vows1 ,as to private vows1 it is a matter of dispute whether the ,church has the power to appoint conditions for them1 since they are internal acts 7see #dbf71 but it seems that no such conditions have ever been made4 #bbbd4 ,twofold ,dependence on the ,will of ,another4--,those who are not masters of their own acts are unable to vow on account of their subjection to or dependence on the will of another4 ,there is a twofold dependence of this kind4 7a7 ,there is a dependence of the will of the subject1 as in the case of religious who have vowed obedience to their rule and superiors1 and in the case of those who have not attained the age of puberty and who must be guided and ruled by their father or guardian4 ,this dependence means1 not that the subject must have the positive consent of the superior for every act1 but that he must not will or do anything contrary to the just will of the superior4 7b7 ,there is a dependence of the matter of the vow1 when it is subject to the wishes of another person1 as happens in the case of those who have obligations to others4 ,thus1 a wife cannot make a vow of chastity without the consent of her husband1 otherwise she infringes upon conjugal rights2 a servant cannot make a vow to spend in visiting churches time for which he is paid2 a son who lives with his parents and is not emancipated cannot vow to give his earnings in alms1 for he owes them to his family4 #bbbe4 ,the ,validity of ,vows ,made by ,subjects4--7a7 ,if the vow is against the rights of another person1 it is invalid without his consent4 ,thus1 if a wife makes a vow of chastity without her husband's consent1 the vow obliges her to ask his consent1 but it has no force if he refuses his consent4 7b7 ,if the vow is against the subjection due another1 it is invalid if he denies his consent4 ,thus1 if a religious vows an act for which according to his rule permission must be sought1 the vow has no actual force until the permission is obtained2 if he vows an act that is good in itself1 but absolutely forbidden in his rule 7e4g41 if a novice bound to remain in the cloister vowed to go on a pilgrimage71 the vow is null1 since it is better to keep the rule4 7c7 ,if the vow is neither against the right of another nor against the subjection due1 it seems that the vow is valid without the knowledge and consent of the superior4 ,thus1 if a religious privately vows to do what is commanded in a particular law or rule1 or what is counselled by his superiors1 or what is good and not forbidden1 the vow is valid until annulled by the superior2 for1 as was said in the previous paragraph1 the subject is not bound to have the positive consent of his superior for all acts1 and it is supposed now that the thing vowed is not detrimental to the rights of the superior or others4 #bbbf4 ,cessation of ,vows4--,since a vow is a private law1 it may cease1 just as a law ceases in certain cases 7see #ejj sqq474 ,there are1 therefore1 two ways in which a vow ceases or ceases to oblige4 7a7 ,the vow ceases from within1 or from internal causes1 when the matter of the vow has so changed as to be detrimental or useless1 or the purpose of the vow is no longer served by the vow4 ,for the nature of a vow is that it promotes a better good to the greater glory of ,god4 ,it is clear also that a temporary vow ceases when the time limit fixed to it has expired1 and that a conditional vow ceases if the condition is not fulfilled 7e4g41 one vows an alms of thanksgiving if one's mother recovers from sickness1 but she dies74 7b7 ,the vow ceases from without1 or from external causes1 when it is removed or suspended by the authority of ,god to whom it was made 7dispensation7 or by the authority of one who has power over the will of the vower or over the matter of the vow 7annulment71 or even by the authority of the vower himself in so far as belongs to him the right to substitute some equal or better work for the work vowed 7commutation74 #bbbg4 ,public vows do not cease from intrinsic causes1 for this would be productive of many disadvantages to religious communities and to those who take vows in them4 ,the chief cases in which private vows cease for internal reasons are as follows3 7a7 ,they cease on a substantial change in the thing promised1 for then the subject-matter has become morally different4 ,there is a substantial change if the matter of the vow has become illicit 7e4g41 ,titus vowed an alms to a beggar1 but he learns that the beggar will use the alms to become drunk71 or if it has become useless 7e4g41 ,claudius vowed not to visit a certain house on account of the bad language used there1 but the guilty parties have now moved away71 or if it has become an obstacle to a greater good 7e4g41 ,balbus vowed to go on a pilgrimage1 but an epidemic has broken out and it is better for him to remain home and care for the sick71 or if it has become impossible 7e4g41 ,sempronius vowed to give an alms1 but lost his money and cannot afford to keep the promise74 ,some also think there is a substantial change when circumstances are so different that1 had the vower been able to foresee them1 he would not have taken the vow4 7b7 ,they cease on the disappearance of the principal reason that induced the vower to make his promise4 ,thus1 if ,caius vows a sum of money to an institution solely because it is poor and it becomes wealthy before he has fulfilled his vow1 his obligation is at an end 7see ,canon #acaa74 #bbbh4 ,annulment of ,vows4--,the annulment of a vow is made in two ways1 directly and indirectly4 ,a full treatment of this subject will be found in commentaries on ,canons #acab1 #dii1 #hh1 #hi1 #fge1 #eja4 7a7 ,direct annulment is the operation of a person distinct from the vower which1 by affecting immediately the vower's act1 recalls the vow and makes it of no force4 ,hence1 this kind of annulment may be exercised by all those who have such private authority over the will of the vower as to be able either to confirm or to cancel his acts4 ,private authority over the will of another is contained in the paternal power of the father over his children1 in the domestic power of the husband over his wife1 and in the governing power of a religious superior over his subjects4 ,the paternal power may be exercised to annul the vows of children 7at least1 of those who have not reached puberty71 since these children are incompetent to decide for themselves4 ,the governing power also may annul directly the private vows of professed subjects made after profession1 since these subjects have made a quasi-contract of submission in this matter4 ,the domestic power of the husband1 according to some1 cannot directly annul the post-matrimonial vows of the wife1 since the wife is competent to direct herself in these affairs1 and has made no engagement of subjection in their regard2 but others argue that at least positive law 7,num41 xxx4 #b-ag2 ,eph41 v4 #bd7 gives the husband this authority4 ,the paternal power in this matter is had1 not only by the father1 but also by those who take his place 7such as the guardian or the mother72 the governing power is had by religious superioresses1 by immediate and other regular superiors1 by bishops in reference to their non-exempt communities1 and by the ,pope in reference to all communities4 7b7 ,indirect annulment is the operation of a person distinct from the vower which1 by affecting the matter or object of the vow1 suspends the obligation produced by the vow4 ,hence1 this kind of annulment may be exercised by all those who have a right over the matter of the vow1 when and as long as the vow is prejudicial to their right4 ,thus1 the ,pope may annul a vow of any of the faithful that is detrimental to his rights or the rights of the ,church2 parents may annul the vows even of their children who have attained puberty1 when these vows interfere with family order2 religious superiors may annul the vows of novices that are harmful to religious discipline2 husbands and wives may annul each other's vows that trespass on conjugal rights2 a master may annul a vow of his servant that keeps the servant from performing work due the master4 #bbbi4 ,reason ,necessary for ,annulment of a ,vow4--,is a just reason necessary for annulment of a vow8 7a7 ,for validity it is not necessary that there be a just reason1 since there is always the implicit condition in a vow3 8unless the superior or other person whose consent is necessary refuses40 7b7 ,for lawfulness it is necessary that there be a just reason1 for it is not lawful to deprive ,god of honor promised ,him1 unless one has a good reason to do so 7see ,canon #acab74 ,but the sin committed by one who annuls or who asks for annulment without sufficient reason does not regularly exceed a venial sin4 #bbcj4 ,differences between ,direct and ,indirect ,annulment4--7a7 ,direct annulment extinguishes a vow1 since it affects the act of vowing itself1 and hence1 if a father annuls the vow of his son who has not reached the age of fourteen1 the vow ceases entirely4 ,indirect annulment1 on the contrary1 only suspends a vow1 since it affects only the matter of the vow and this matter may be withdrawn from the power of him who annuls4 ,thus1 if a master annulled the vow of his cook to hear ,mass daily1 the vow would revive when the cook took service elsewhere4 7b7 ,he who has power to annul directly may exercise the power even though he granted permission for the vow1 or promised not to annul it1 or gave his approval to it2 for he retains his power over his subject and may change his own decision4 ,but he who has only indirect power of annulment more probably may not annul once he has given his permission or ratification to a vow2 for his power is only over the matter of the vow1 and this1 after he has consented to its dedication to ,god1 is no longer under his control4 #bbca4 ,dispensation4--,a dispensation is the relaxation of a vow granted in the name of ,god by one who has competent jurisdiction4 7a7 ,it is a relaxation1 that is1 it removes the obligation 7see #dja74 ,thus1 a dispensation differs from a mere declaration or interpretation that a law is not binding4 7b7 ,it is a relaxation of the vow1 that is1 the dispensation1 at least in modern practice1 takes away not only the obligation but also the vow itself4 ,it is not merely a suspension or a commutation1 but a total removal of the vow4 7c7 ,it is granted in the name of ,god2 that is1 the dispenser acting for ,god remits the promise that was made to ,god4 ,thus1 a dispensation differs from an annulment1 for the latter is made by the annuller in his own name on account of the authority he has over the will of the vower or over the matter of the vow4 7d7 ,it is given by one who has competent jurisdiction1 that is1 public spiritual authority in the ,church over the external forum4 ,for1 as a vow is an obligation to ,god1 it cannot be removed without the act of those whom ,god has appointed as ,his representatives in spiritual matters4 ,here again a dispensation differs from an annulment1 for the latter requires1 not the power of jurisdiction1 but only dominative or domestic power4 #bbcb4 ,reasons ,sufficient for a ,dispensation4--,a dispensation is granted in the name of ,god1 and therefore1 unlike an annulment1 it requires a just reason for its validity2 for the remission of a religious promise cannot be satisfactory to ,god1 unless there exists a justifying reason4 ,a dispensation conceded for insufficient reasons is invalid1 even though all the parties concerned were in good faith2 but1 in doubt1 the presumption is that the reasons were sufficient4 ,the reasons sufficient for a dispensation can be reduced to two classes3 7a7 the public good of the community or of the ,church 7e4g41 if a person bound by vow leads a dissolute life to the scandal of the public72 7b7 the private good of the vower 7e4g41 if he finds the observance of the vow too difficult1 if he took the vow without much deliberation or with such fear as is insufficient to nullify1 see #baie1 #baif74 #bbcc4 ,sinfulness of an ,unnecessary ,dispensation from ,vows4--7a7 ,the superior who grants the dispensation is guilty if he is certain that there is no sufficient reason for it1 or if he doubts whether there is any reason for it4 ,but he dispenses validly and lawfully1 if he is certain that there is a reason for the dispensation1 but doubts whether the reason is sufficient 7see #djg71 ,usually1 a superior who has been asked for a dispensation should not be anxious about his right to give it1 for the very insistence of the subject indicates that the vow has become harmful or useless4 7b7 ,the subject is guilty if he asks for a dispensation while knowing that he has no right to ask for it1 or if he uses it while knowing that there was manifestly no sufficient reason for it4 ,but in case of doubt whether the reason was sufficient1 the subject should be guided by the judgment of the superior1 not by his own1 for the decision belongs to the superior4 #bbcd4 ,persons ,who ,have the ,power of ,dispensation4--,the ,church has the power to dispense both public and private vows1 for ,our ,lord gave this power when ,he said3 8,whatsoever thou shalt loose upon earth1 shall be loosed in heaven0 7,matt41 xvi4 #ai71 and the power thus given has been exercised from the beginning 7see #cad74 ,those who have the power of dispensation are the following3 7a7 the ,pope1 since he is the ,vicar of ,christ1 has the fullness of dispensing power4 ,he may dispense from every dispensable vow1 solemn vows included1 and there are certain vows from which he alone may dispense4 ,the vows reserved to the ,pope or his delegate are almost all public vows and the two private vows of perfect and perpetual chastity and of entrance into a ,religious ,order of solemn vows4 ,the two latter vows are reserved1 however1 only when made absolutely and with perfect freedom by one who has completed his or her eighteenth year2 7b7 local ,ordinaries 7and superiors with quasi-episcopal jurisdiction1 such as regular prelates7 can dispense from the non-reserved vows4 ,in certain cases1 such as urgent necessity or a doubtful vow1 they can also dispense from the two private vows reserved to the ,pope4 ,these matters are treated more fully by canonists1 especially in connection with ,canons #beh and #ajde4 ,it is the common opinion that regular confessors who have the privileges of ,mendicants can dispense1 either in confession or outside of confession1 from all non-reserved vows not made principally for the advantage of a third party and accepted by him4 ,parish-priests and other confessors may dispense from a vow of chastity discovered at the last moment when all preparations have been made for marriage 7see ,canon #ajde74 #bbce4 ,dispensation from ,religious ,vow of ,chastity4--,does the ,church dispense from the vow of chastity taken in religious profession or in the reception of ,sacred ,orders8 7a7 ,there are no known examples of public dispensation of priestly celibacy for the sake of contracting marriage1 but dispensations are granted from the religious vow of chastity4 7b7 ,there have been cases in which subdeacons and deacons were permitted to marry for the sake of some common good of the ,church or of a nation1 and in which the marriages of priests were validated1 as at the time of the ,anglican ,schism and of the ,french ,revolution4 ,but the clerics thus dispensed were forbidden the exercise of their clerical powers4 #bbcf4 ,dispensation from a ,vow ,made for the ,benefit of a ,third ,party4--7a7 ,if the promise is gratuitous and not yet accepted by the third party1 the dispensation can be given2 for in such a case the only obligation is one arising from the vow1 and the ,church can dispense from vows4 ,hence1 if one vowed to have ,masses said for the soul of a deceased person or to give alms to the poor without determining any particular persons1 the vows can be dispensed4 7b7 ,if the promise is gratuitous and accepted by the third party1 but is made chiefly in honor of ,god and only secondarily for the benefit of the third party1 it is probable that the dispensation can be given4 ,for that which is secondary in the promise should follow that which is primary1 and here the vow1 which is the primary intention1 is dispensable4 7c7 ,if the promise is gratuitous and accepted1 but the purpose to benefit the third party is not subordinate to the purpose to make a vow1 or if the promise is onerous1 the dispensation cannot regularly be given4 ,the reason is that in these cases there is question not only of a vow but also of a contract1 not only of an obligation to ,god but also of an obligation to man1 and justice demands that the rights of a party to a contract be not taken away without his consent4 ,thus1 a vow of stability made on entrance into a ,congregation cannot be dispensed without the consent of the ,congregation itself1 for the vow was also a contract between the ,congregation and the vower4 ,there are exceptions1 however1 as when the third party renounces his right1 or when the ,pope1 in virtue of his supreme authority over ecclesiastical goods or of his dominative authority1 grants a dispensation for which there are just and sufficient reasons4 #bbcg4 ,persons ,who ,may ,be ,dispensed from ,vows4--7a7 ,dispensation may be granted to subjects and1 in certain cases1 even to non-subjects4 ,thus1 a superior whose faculty is not restricted may dispense himself 7see #djc72 but it is advisable that dispensation be always sought from another person on account of the danger of self-deception4 ,a local ,ordinary also has the power to dispense1 not only his own subjects1 but also outsiders who are in his territory 7see ,canon #acac74 7b7 ,dispensation may be given either in the confessional or outside of the confessional1 unless the contrary is stipulated in the faculty4 ,it is more suitable1 however1 that it be given in the confessional4 7e7 ,dispensation may not be granted except to those who are willing to accept it1 and in this respect it differs from an annulment1 which may be made even against the will of the vower4 ,the reason for this is that the vower placed the obligation on himself freely 7see #djc74 ,this holds at least as regards the dispensation of a private vow4 #bbch4 ,commutation of ,vows4--,the commutation of a vow is the substitution of some good work for the one promised by vow with the transfer of the religious obligation to the new work4 ,commutation differs from annulment and dispensation1 for these take away the obligation while commutation only changes the matter1 the obligation of the vow remaining unchanged4 ,thus1 if the vow to make a pilgrimage is commuted into prayers1 one is no longer obliged to make the pilgrimage1 but one is bound under vow to say the substituted prayers4 ,the power of the ,church to commute vows is clear from what was said above about the power of dispensation1 for he who can do what is greater can also do what is less4 #bbci4 ,kinds of ,good ,works that ,may ,be ,substituted for ,vows4--7a7 ,the good work can be a better work than the old one1 that is1 a work which1 if not more difficult1 is more pleasing to ,god and more spiritually advantageous to the vower4 ,hence1 if one has vowed to give an alms to a poor stranger1 the vow may be commuted1 if the stranger has not accepted the promise1 in favor of another stranger who is poorer or in favor of one's father who is also poor4 7b7 ,the good work may be a work equally good1 that is1 one which morally speaking has the same difficulty or spiritual value4 ,thus1 one prayer may be exchanged for another of equal length1 one alms for another of equal amount1 one pilgrimage for another of equal distance4 ,but equality is to be determined1 not mathematically but morally1 and hence one kind of work may be exchanged for another1 one kind of vow for another1 and it is not necessary that the works be of exactly the same worth4 ,in fact1 the new work1 which objectively is only equal1 is subjectively better1 since it is more advantageous to the vower4 7c7 ,the good work may be a work less good1 that is1 one which is clearly less difficult or meritorious1 as when a ,mass is commuted into a ,rosary4 #bbdj4 ,persons ,who ,have ,authority to ,commute a ,vow4--7a7 ,the commutation of a non-reserved vow into something better or equally good may be made by the vower himself1 if there are no rights of a third party to forbid this4 ,for the ends of the original vow 7viz41 the honor of ,god and the spiritual welfare of the vower7 are thus better or at least equally served4 ,but ordinarily one should not commute one's own vows1 since for most persons it is not an easy matter to decide what is a better or an equal good4 ,how many understand the respective rank of the virtues8 ,and even if one does know1 for example1 that religion is better than temperance1 one cannot decide from this alone that a ,rosary is an equal or a better substitute for a fast4 ,one who wishes commutation for his vow1 therefore1 should consult his confessor or another priest4 7b7 ,the commutation of a vow into something less good can be granted only by the one who has a special faculty2 for this kind of commutation partakes of the nature of a dispensation1 inasmuch as it relaxes to some extent the original vow4 ,those who have the power of dispensing 7e4g41 regular confessors who have the privileges of ,mendicants7 have also the power of commuting2 but those who have only the power of commuting may not change a vow into something that is of notably less value4 ,a good rule to follow in commuting a vow into something less is that more frequent reception of the ,sacraments be the substitute ordered4 ,the limitations on dispensations by reason of the rights of third parties 7see above #bbcf7 apply also to commutations4 #bbda4 ,the ,cause ,required for ,commutation of a ,vow4--7a7 ,for commutation into something better no cause is required1 since the new work is its own justification4 7b7 ,for commutation into something of equal value1 some cause is required1 since it is a mark of inconstancy and therefore displeasing to ,god to give over one's promises without good reason4 ,but a light reason is sufficient1 such as greater devotion or less danger of violating the vow4 7c7 ,for commutation into something of less value1 a proportionate reason is necessary1 not only for lawfulness1 but also more probably for validity1 since this kind of commutation is a partial dispensation4 ,but the reason need not be so serious as that needed for a full dispensation4 #bbdb4 ,reversion to ,original ,vow4--,the return to the original vow by one whose vow has been commuted is always lawful1 and in certain cases may be obligatory4 7a7 ,it is lawful1 even though the vow was commuted into something better2 for a commutation is a privilege1 and there is no obligation of using a personal privilege 7see #ebc74 ,some authors hold that this doctrine does not apply when the vower himself commuted his vow into something better1 but the common opinion is that the principle of privilege applies to every case1 and that one may even choose between different works if a vow has been commuted a number of times4 ,those who make vows should be on their guard1 however1 against frequent and needless changes1 since inconstancy is harmful spiritually4 7b7 ,the return to the original vow is obligatory according to some when the vower commuted his own vow to something better and the new matter has become impossible2 for the effect of the commutation was not to extinguish the old vow at once1 but to offer a satisfaction in its place1 and hence when this satisfaction proves impossible the vow must be performed4 ,others deny this and maintain that the old vow is extinguished immediately1 since one who commutes a former vow is immediately held under vow to the substituted work4 ,all agree1 however1 that if the commutation is granted by authority1 the old vow is extinguished and there is no duty to return to it if the substituted work becomes impossible1 even though the impossibility is due to the vower's own fault4 ,hence1 if a pilgrimage is commuted into a fast and the vower through his carelessness becomes sick and unable to fast1 there is no obligation either to make the pilgrimage or to fast4 ,it should be noted1 though1 that private vows made before religious profession are suspended only so long as the vower remains in the institute he has joined1 and hence1 if he is dismissed or leaves1 the vows revive 7,canon #acae74 #bbdc4 ,duties of ,confessors in ,reference to ,private ,vows4--7a7 ,a confessor should not readily permit penitents to take private vows1 since a vow is a serious matter and should receive mature deliberation4 ,a vow taken hastily in a fit of fervor will likely be soon repented of 7see #bbba74 ,but if it seems that a penitent will be benefited by a vow1 the confessor should give permission1 though it will frequently be advisable to limit the duration of the vow at first to a month or a year or other fixed period4 7b7 ,nor should a confessor be easy in recommending commutations of private vows1 lest those who have taken them be encouraged to make continual changes4 ,on the other hand1 if there is a good reason for a change 7such as danger or difficulty in the old matter or greater devotion in the new matter71 the confessor should not stand in the way of a commutation4 ,confessors who have not the faculties must have recourse to authority for dispensations and dispensative commutations1 and the same course is advised for some difficult cases of annulment 7e4g41 when a husband and wife have made a mutual vow of continence74 #bbdd4 ,external ,acts of ,religion in ,honor of ,god4--,we now pass on to consider those external acts of religion in which the worshipper makes use of divine things in order to show honor to ,god 7see #bage74 ,these sacred things are of two classes1 namely1 objects whose use is the sanctification of man 7,sacraments and sacramentals7 and words whose use is the power they have on others or the manifestation of reverence towards ,god 7the ,divine ,name74 ,sacraments and sacramentals will be dealt with later4 ,for the present we shall speak of the honor shown to ,god by the use of ,his ,name1 and hence we shall take up in turn the following subjects3 7a7 use of the divine name to confirm before others one's declarations or promises 7oaths72 7b7 use of the divine name to move others to do or omit something 7adjuration72 7c7 use of the divine name to express praise and invocation4 #bbde4 ,oaths4--,an oath is the calling upon ,god to witness the truth of what we say4 7a7 ,it is a calling upon ,god2 that is1 it is the selection of ,god as the witness of what is said4 ,the oath is not merely an address made to others or a declaration that a fact is known to ,god 7e4g41 8,god knows she has been a good woman072 it is an address or invocation made to ,god ,himself4 ,neither is it a mere prayer that ,god will in some way bring out the truthfulness of what is said2 it is an appeal to ,him to corroborate that truthfulness by ,his own testimony4 ,neither does it appeal to testimony already given 7e4g41 the words of ,god found in ,sacred ,scripture71 but to testimony to be given about the present matter4 ,a prayer to ,god to prove one's innocence or the proof of a theological proposition from the ,word of ,god is not1 therefore1 an oath4 7b7 ,it is a calling on ,god1 and hence if appeal is made to some creature 7e4g41 in the expression1 8upon my word of honor07 or to some false deity 7e4g41 8,by ,jove1 ,i'll do that071 there is no oath4 7c7 ,it calls on ,god to bear witness2 that is1 it confirms the truth of one's words by ,god ,himself1 who can neither deceive nor be deceived4 ,he who swears does not ask that ,god intervene here and now by some visible or miraculous sign1 but that ,god confirm1 where and when it pleases ,him1 what is said1 at least on that day when ,he will clear up the hidden things of darkness and reveal the secrets of hearts 7,i ,cor41 iv4 #e74 ,the proving force of the oath is that one who believes in ,god will not be so wicked or rash as to call upon the ,all-,holy to defend iniquity and falsehood4 #bbdf4 ,the ,various ,kinds of ,oaths4--7a7 ,by reason of the matter1 an oath is either assertory or promissory4 ,an assertory oath refers to the past or present 7e4g11 8,i swear that ,i saw the accident10 8,i swear that ,i am insolvent071 a promissory oath to the future 7e4g41 8,i swear that ,i will execute my office faithfully074 ,the promissory oath is either without a pact made with another 7e4g41 in the comminatory oath1 8,i swear that ,i will prosecute1 if you do that07 or with a pact4 ,this latter oath is called confirmatory1 and1 according as the pact is with ,god or with man or with both1 it is either a sworn vow1 or a sworn contract1 or a sworn vow and contract4 7b7 ,by reason of its mode1 an oath is either contestatory 7invocatory7 or execratory4 ,the contestatory oath simply calls on ,god as a witness 7e4g41 8,god is my witness that this is true10 8,i swear by ,god1 etc4074 ,the execratory oath asks ,god1 even though the ,divine ,name is not expressly mentioned1 to punish the swearer in his own person or in the persons or goods that pertain to him1 if the statement made is not true 7e4g41 8,may ,god strike me dead1 if this is not true60 8,may the devil take my children1 if ,i swear falsely6074 ,the form commonly used1 8,so help me ,god and these holy ,gospels60 has an execratory sense1 the meaning being 8,may ,god help me if ,i speak truly1 may ,he deny me help if ,i speak falsely60 7c7 ,by reason of the person invoked1 an oath is either explicit or implicit4 ,the former calls on ,god by name 7e4g41 8,god is my witness10 8,i speak the truth in ,christ072 the latter calls on some creature as the reflection of a divine attribute1 or in some other way the representative of ,god 7e4g41 the oath of ,moses in ,deut41 xxx4 #ai3 8,i call upon heaven and earth this day to witness that ,i have offered you life and death074 7d7 ,by reason of its legal form1 an oath is either solemn or simple1 judicial or extra-judicial4 ,the solemn oath is taken with ceremony 7e4g41 before the altar1 with hand placed on the ,bible1 with upraised hand1 etc472 the simple oath is taken privately1 without special form of words or ceremony4 ,the judicial oath is taken in court or in reference to the public decision of questions of right1 fact or delinquency 7e4g41 in ,canon ,law the oaths of calumny1 malice1 etc41 which are treated in canonical works72 the extra-judicial oath1 solemn or simple1 is taken on other occasions 7e4g41 when two contractants strengthen their compact by oath74 ,examples of solemn oaths in the ,bible are found in ,gen41 xiv4 #bb1 xxiv4 #b1 #c2 ,jeremias1 xxxiv4 #ah4 #bbdg4 ,moral ,difference between the ,various ,kinds of ,oaths4--7a7 ,essentially1 there is no difference1 since all the kinds agree in the principal features mentioned in the definition4 7b7 ,accidentally1 there is a difference in circumstances of form1 solemnity1 etc4 ,moreover1 one kind of oath may be more obligatory 7e4g41 the solemn oath on account of the special deliberation given it and the scandal caused by its non-observance is more sacred than the simple oath71 or it may have other species of obligation besides that of religion 7e4g41 the oath to keep a compact binds in justice as well as religion74 #bbdh4 ,lawfulness of ,oaths4--7a7 ,it is lawful to take an oath that has the necessary qualities1 for in ,scripture ,god ,himself is represented as swearing 7,gen1 xxii4 #af2 ,psalm cix4 #d1 ,heb41 vi4 #ac1 vii4 #ba71 holy men swear and are praised for swearing as they should 7,,ii ,cor41 i4 #bc2 ,psalm xiv4 #d71 and the ,church has always made use of oaths4 ,the origin of oaths is man's faith in ,god1 and their purpose is the useful one of lending authority to important assertions4 ,indeed1 an oath is an act of religion1 for men swear only by one who is greater 7,heb41 vi4 #ac71 and hence an oath is a profession of reverence for ,god's superior knowledge1 truth1 and justice4 7b7 ,it is not lawful to take an oath that lacks a necessary quality4 ,here we should note an important difference between an oath and other acts of religion1 such as vows4 ,an oath is not desirable for its own sake1 since it is occasioned by human weakness and unreliability2 hence1 like medicine and other necessities occasioned by evil1 it should be used only in serious need and sparingly4 ,a vow or other act of religion1 on the contrary1 originates from the desire to honor ,god1 even apart from necessity1 and hence it may be used oftener4 ,this explains why ,scripture forbids the habit of swearing 7,ecclus41 xxiii4 #i2 ,matt41 v4 #cc2 ,james1 v4 #ab72 but it is a wrong interpretation of these texts that sees in them an absolute prohibition of oaths4 ,from the context and other passages it is clear that the ,scriptures just cited reprove the ,pharisees who taught that promiscuous swearing was lawful1 provided only the matter was true or the ,divine ,name was not used1 and also those persons who delighted to swear on all occasions4 #bbdi4 ,necessary ,qualities of a ,lawful ,oath4--,the necessary qualities that should accompany an oath are expressed in ,jeremias1 iv4 #b3 8,and thou shalt swear1 #8,as the ,lord liveth1' in truth1 and in judgment and in justice40 ,judgment refers to the good dispositions of the person who swears1 truth and justice to the righteousness of the cause for which he swears4 7a7 ,thus1 an oath should have judgment2 that is1 the person who swears should do so only from serious necessity1 with faith and devotion1 and in a manner respectful to ,god whom he invokes4 ,an oath that lacks judgment is called incautious or disrespectful1 as when one swears about a trivial matter or swears jokingly4 7b7 ,an oath should have truth2 that is1 one should not swear except to that which one believes to be true1 after reasonable diligence has been used in seeking for the truth4 ,an oath that lacks truth is called false or perjured1 as when one swears to what one knows or believes to be false1 or promises what one does not intend to fulfill1 or swears that one is certain when one has only opinion1 or swears with a purely mental reservation1 or swears after insufficient investigation of a matter4 7c7 ,an oath should have justice2 that is1 one should not promise what one has no right to promise 7e4g41 to tell a lie71 and one should not say what one has no right to say 7e4g41 what is defamatory74 ,the matter of the oath1 then1 both as to its object and its circumstances1 must be good1 even though one is swearing truthfully and respectfully4 ,an oath that lacks justice is called a wicked oath1 as when one promises under oath to commit murder1 or not to follow what is of counsel1 or swears about a real fact in such a way as to do unnecessary harm to another person or to boast about one's own crimes4 #bbej4 ,sinful ,oaths4--7a7 ,an incautious or disrespectful oath is from its nature only a venial sin1 since its malice consists1 not in any direct injury to the divine truth or other attribute1 but only in levity of mind2 and1 moreover1 it is not opposed to the purpose of an oath1 which is to confirm the truth4 ,but accidentally it may be a serious sin on account of the scandal it gives 7e4g41 when a person of standing swears without necessity71 or on account of the danger to which it exposes the swearer 7e4g41 when one swears habitually and is thereby put in the occasion of swearing falsely or unjustly74 ,on account of the evils of familiarity1 etc41 to which habitual swearing leads1 ,our ,lord warn us to be content as a rule to support the truth with simple assertion or denial 7,matt41 v4 #b74 ,at least for ordinary1 daily communications the word of a ,christian or honest man ought to be sufficient without his oath4 7b7 ,a lying or perjured oath is from the nature of the act always 7see #agb7 a mortal sin1 since it consists essentially in contempt for ,god and disrespect for ,his attributes4 ,the perjurer dares to ask ,god to be an accomplice in a lie1 or else supposes that ,god can be deceived4 ,hence1 only by reason of the imperfection of the act can perjury ever escape the guilt of mortal sin1 as when one commits perjury without sufficient reflection on or full consent to the oath or to its falsity4 ,pope ,innocent ,,xi condemned the doctrine that perjury is only a light sin 7,denzinger1 n4 #aagd74 ,in ,canon ,law those who perjure themselves are debarred from acting as witnesses or giving expert testimony1 and are subject to penalties at the discretion of the ,ordinary 7see ,canons #ageg1 #agie1 #bcbc74 ,in ,american civil law perjury is a false oath given before a tribunal and is a crime against public justice1 while subornation of perjury and false oaths given on private occasions are also crimes or punishable offenses4 7c7 ,a wicked oath1 even though the thing sworn to be true and the oath be given only after consideration and in a respectful manner1 is a sin against religion and any other virtue it offends4 ,the sin committed by reason of the oath is from its nature mortal according to some1 since the swearer gravely insults ,god by asking ,him to become a partaker in sin and by turning into an instrument of sin what should be an act of religion2 others hold that the sin is only venial1 since it is not serious disrespect to ask ,god to witness the truth of what is true2 others again make the gravity of the sin depend on the wickedness of the matter or circumstances4 ,this wickedness committed by reason of the statement or promise is venial or mortal according to the case4 ,thus1 there is grave injustice in revealing a fact seriously detrimental to another and which one is bound to keep as confidential2 there is venial scandal in swearing in order to lead another person into a slight fault of detraction2 there is a grave sin of impurity in promising to commit adultery2 there is a light sin of theft in promising to steal a small sum of money4 ,finally1 others hold that the oath is mortally sinful when it furthers a grave sin 7e4g41 an oath confirming serious detraction71 and that it is venial in other cases 7e4g41 an oath confirming a boast about past mortal sins74 #bbea4 ,mental ,reservation in an ,oath4-7a7 ,strict mental reservation 7i4e41 the internal restriction of one's words so that the listener cannot gather the true meaning1 as when one says one has seen ,rome1 meaning a picture of ,rome7 is a lie1 and hence cannot be used in an oath without perjury4 ,see propositions condemned by ,innocent ,,xi 7,denzinger1 n4 #aagf74 7b7 ,wide mental reservation 7i4e41 the internal restriction of one's words that may be gathered by the listener from circumstances1 as when a servant says his master is not at home1 meaning that he cannot be seen7 is lawful only when there is some reason of justice or charity that demands it4 ,hence1 it is a mortal sin to swear with this kind of reservation when the questioner has the right to know the truth2 it is no sin at all when the questioner has no right to question and mental reservation is the only escape from a serious evil4 ,if the questioner has no right to demand an oath and the deponent has no right to use mental reservation 7e4g41 when the oath is only private and not concerned with contract or other important matter71 the sinfulness of a mental reservation is a matter of dispute4 ,some think the oath is mortally sinful1 because it is gravely irreverent to ,god to call on ,him to witness testimony meant to deceive4 ,others think the oath is only venially sinful1 because the offense is not against truth or justice1 but only against judgment or discretion4 #bbeb4 ,cooperation in ,sinful ,oaths4--7a7 ,formal cooperation is never lawful1 because it makes the cooperator will the guilt of what is done4 ,thus1 he who by command1 counsel1 promise1 etc41 induces another to swear falsely is guilty as the principal or accessory to the crime 7see #aeac1 #aggh74 7b7 ,material cooperation is lawful when there is a sufficient reason for it1 as when a public official demands the oath according to law from a person who1 as he knows1 will swear falsely4 ,for the public good demands that in certain cases oaths be administered1 notwithstanding that for some persons this will prove an occasion of perjury4 ,but the lawgiver should not multiply temptations by demanding sworn statements unnecessarily2 otherwise the oath becomes a mere formality deprived of proving value1 and the crime of perjury is made common4 #bbec4 ,sinful ,oaths ,demanded or ,accepted by ,private ,persons4--7a7 ,incautious or ,disrespectful ,oaths4--,it is not lawful to ask or receive an oath1 when there is no great public or private need for it2 otherwise one makes a sacred act cheap and common4 ,neither is it lawful to ask or receive an oath from those who do not believe in oaths 7e4g41 the ,mennonites1 some ,quakers72 otherwise one compels another to swear against his conscience and indevoutly4 ,those who believe that oaths are sinful may be required1 nevertheless1 to bind themselves on their solemn word of honor1 and may be punished in the same manner as perjurers if they speak falsely4 7b7 ,perjured ,oaths4--,it is not lawful for a private person to ask or receive an oath from another1 if he is sure that the latter will commit perjury2 but one may ask and receive an oath1 even though one does not know whether the other person will swear truly or not1 if one has a sufficient reason4 7c7 ,wicked ,oaths4--,it is clearly unlawful to ask or receive a wicked oath1 in which something sinful is promised or stated2 for the thing itself is then desired and there is formal cooperation4 ,but it is not necessarily sinful to ask or receive a wicked oath1 in which the sinfulness is found1 not in the matter of the oath1 but in the dispositions of the swearer1 for there may be only material cooperation4 ,thus1 he who exacts a sworn promise of murder agrees to murder1 but he who demands a sworn statement against a third party for which there is necessity does not necessarily agree to hatred1 if the person taking the oath swears out of hate or revenge4 #bbed4 ,fictitious ,oaths4--,a fictitious oath is one in which a person swearing externally has no intention internally to call on ,god as a witness4 7a7 ,this kind of oath is invalid1 for1 as was just said1 without a real intention to swear there is no oath4 ,hence1 a fictitious oath produces no obligation of religion1 but there may be an obligation of justice1 as when the oath is the unjust cause of damage to another4 7b7 ,this kind of oath is sinful1 for1 if it testifies to error1 it includes the grave sin of external dishonor to ,god2 if it testifies to truth1 it includes the venial sin of taking ,god's name in vain4 ,the fictitious oath is a grave sin if the circumstances are such that a sincere oath is gravely obligatory1 as when a superior or judge lawfully imposes an oath in a serious matter1 or the parties to an important onerous contract bind themselves by oath in order to strengthen their pact4 #bbee4 ,expressions ,confused with ,oaths4--,expressions that are sometimes mistakenly confused with sinful swearing are the following3 7a7 profane or vulgar talk1 such as 8,hell10 8,the devil10 8,doggone it02 7b7 cursing1 such as 8,go to hell10 8,god damn you10 8,damn it01 7e7 contumely1 such as 8bastard10 8son of a bitch02 7d7 vain use of the name of ,god1 such as 8by ,god10 8,christ10 etc41 when used as common exclamations2 7e7 temptation of ,god1 such as3 8,if there is a ,god1 may ,he strike me dead602 7f7 blasphemy1 such as3 8,may ,god perish1 if this is not true60 ,the expressions1 8,this is as true as the ,gospel10 8,god's own word is not more truthful10 8,i am as innocent as the ,blessed ,virgin10 etc41 if used to confirm the truth1 are not meant to assert the speaker's equality to ,god and the ,saints1 and hence they are venial sins of taking the ,lord's name in vain4 ,but1 if they are used to confirm error1 they are mortal sins of blasphemy4 #bbef4 ,obligation ,imposed by ,promissory ,oath4--,an assertory oath imposes the obligation of telling the truth and of repairing any damage that results from the falsity or injustice of the declaration4 ,in addition1 a promissory oath binds one in virtue of religion to perform one's promise2 for1 as said above 7#bbdi71 an oath must have truth4 ,hence1 ,scripture bids those who have sworn to fulfill the promise 7,matt41 v4 #cc7 not to make the word of no effect 7,num1 xxxi4 #c74 ,but the thing promised must be possible and lawful1 or otherwise the oath lacks judgment or justice4 7a7 ,thus1 an impossible promise is not binding1 for no one can oblige himself to perform what he cannot perform 7cfr4 #bbja72 7b7 an unlawful promise is not binding1 for no one can oblige himself to perform what he is bound not to do4 ,thus1 an oath to revenge murder by murder is null1 and sin is committed both in taking and in keeping it4 #bbeg4 ,obligation ,imposed by ,negative ,oaths4--,the obligation of a sworn promise not to do what is better 7e4g41 not to take a vow71 or to do what is vain and useless 7e4g41 an oath to count the steps one takes71 depends on the circumstances4 7a7 ,if there are no rights of a third party involved1 these oaths do not hold 7e4g41 he who swears not to vow acts laudably in disregarding the oath74 ,for one may not call ,god to witness or be guarantee for that which is less pleasing to ,him1 or which in no way honors ,him1 and for which there is no claim on the part of a third person4 7b7 ,if there are rights of a third party involved1 these oaths oblige one to give the third party what he is entitled to from the promise 7e4g41 a nurse who swears to remain with a sick person may not violate the oath by entering religion74 #bbeh4 ,obligation of ,oath ,is ,personal4--,an oath added to a promise made to man and obligatory in justice is personal1 and hence it binds the one who makes the oath1 but not his heirs 7see #bbaf74 #bbei4 ,interpretation of ,promissory ,oaths4--7a7 ,an oath should be interpreted strictly1 for the presumption is that the promisor intended to place upon himself the least possible burden4 ,thus1 if a person swears to observe the statutes of a certain ,congregation1 it should be understood that he pledges himself to present1 not to future statutes2 if he swears not to gamble1 the oath does not forbid games in which money is not played for4 ,but if the promisor acts deceitfully1 the oath is to be interpreted according to the intention of him who receives the promise 7,canon #acba74 7b7 ,an oath is always subject to the limitations and reservations which the nature of the case1 law1 or custom demands4 ,hence1 even though an oath is made unconditionally1 the following conditions are understood3 8,if fulfillment will be physically and morally possible10 8saving the rights of superiors10 8unless the other party renounces his right10 8unless the other party fails to keep his part of the agreement10 8unless there comes a notable change in conditions40 ,if the promisor explains beforehand to the promisee what he understands by the oath1 he swears only in the sense thus set forth by him4 7c7 ,an oath follows the nature and conditions of the act 7e4g41 resolution1 promise1 vow1 contract7 that it confirms1 for the accessory follows the principal4 ,hence1 if the act to which the oath is attached cannot be obligatory 7e4g41 an act detrimental to eternal salvation1 or the public good1 or the rights of a third party71 the oath gives no strength to this act 7,canon #acah72 if the act is naturally invalid 7e4g41 a promise obtained through substantial fraud71 the oath is also invalid2 if the act does not become effective 7e4g41 a promise not accepted71 neither does the oath become effective2 if the act ceases to oblige 7e4g41 a promise of secrecy made for a time71 the oath also ceases to oblige2 if the act is not obligatory under grave sin1 the oath is not obligatory under grave sin 7e4g41 if one swears to observe the statutes of a university1 one is not bound to observe those that are commonly neglected1 one commits no sin by transgressing those that are merely penal or optional1 and one commits no grave sin by violating those that oblige under venial sin74 #bbfj4 ,kind of ,obligation ,produced by a ,valid ,promissory ,oath4--7a7 ,the obligation is one of religion1 because the significance of the oath is that it adds the duty of respect owed to ,god to the duty of fidelity owed to the promise4 ,men swear in order to make their promises more trustworthy through the sacredness of the oath4 ,the violation of a promissory oath is1 therefore1 always a sin against religion4 ,there are other sins added in some species of oath1 namely1 a second sin against religion in case of a sworn vow1 a sin against justice and fidelity in case of a sworn contract1 a second sin against religion and a sin against justice and fidelity in case of a sworn vow and contract 7see #bbdf a74 7b7 ,the obligation1 other things being equal1 is less than that produced by a vow1 because the vow binds in virtue of fidelity to ,god1 but the oath only in virtue of respect4 ,the obligation of fidelity seems to be stronger1 because unfaithfulness always contains disrespect1 but not vice versa4 ,moreover1 in the case of a vow not only the fulfillment of the promise1 but the thing promised itself is sacred1 which is not true in the case of an oath4 ,an assertory oath1 however1 seems to be more binding than a vow1 because it is a greater injury to ,god to make ,him the witness for falsehood than to break a promise made to ,him4 #bbfa4 ,degree of the ,obligation of a ,valid ,promissory ,oath4--7a7 ,the obligation is grave1 from the nature of an oath1 because the virtue of religion is preeminent among the moral virtues 7see #badf74 ,there is no doubt that mortal sin is committed when one gives a sworn promise and has no intention to fulfill it1 for this is perjury 7see #bbej b72 and also when one unjustly refuses to live up to an important engagement made under oath1 for this is irreligion and injustice in a serious matter4 ,the remarks on grave matter in vows 7#bbaa7 apply here1 but1 since the vow obliges more strictly1 a somewhat greater amount is needed for serious matter in violation of an oath4 7b7 ,the obligation may be light on account of the smallness of the matter involved4 ,even a vow1 which is more binding than an oath1 may be of venial obligation in this way 7see #bbaa74 ,a person who makes a promise under oath1 fully intending to keep the promise1 but who later changes his mind without sufficient reason1 does not show disrespect to ,god1 since when the oath was made he intended to abide by it1 and does not seriously injure his neighbor1 since1 as we suppose1 the matter of the oath is small4 ,the sin1 therefore1 is one of inconstancy or levity1 and1 if there is disrespect1 it is slight4 ,thus1 if a person who had sworn to drink no more wine took a drop now and then1 these transgressions would be only venial4 ,some authors1 however1 believe that every unfaithfulness to a promissory oath1 no matter how small the subject-matter1 is a grave sin1 because perjury is committed by the breach of promise4 ,this is commonly denied1 because the meaning of a promissory oath is that ,god is called on to witness the truth of a present intention and the obligation 7great or small7 of a future performance4 #bbfb4 ,cessation of ,obligation of ,promissory ,oath4--,the obligation of a promissory oath1 like that of a vow 7see #bbbf71 ceases intrinsically or extrinsically4 7a7 ,intrinsically1 an oath ceases when there is a substantial change in the matter 7e4g41 it is or has become impossible or unlawful1 as in ,herod's oath to ,salome71 when the principal reason for the oath has ceased 7e4g41 ,titus swore to give an alms to ,sempronius because the latter was poor1 but before the alms was given ,sempronius became rich71 or when the time or condition by which the oath was limited terminates the obligation4 7b7 ,extrinsically1 an oath ceases by condonation 7e4g41 when the ,state or a private person to whom a sworn promise has been made yields the right and remits the obligation71 by annulment 7e4g41 when a father nullifies the oath of his minor child71 by dispensation 7e4g41 when the ,church absolves from an oath taken under grave compulsion71 by commutation 7e4g41 when the ,church changes the matter of a sworn vow into something more suitable74 ,those who can annul1 dispense or commute vows have the same power over oaths2 but if the dispensation of an oath is detrimental to others who are unwilling to forego the promise1 only the ,apostolic ,see can dispense1 and then on account of a necessary reason 7see ,canon #acbj74 #bbfc4 ,adjuration4--,adjuration is the invocation of the name of ,god used in a request or command to another person in order to move that person to do or omit something4 7a7 ,it is an invocation1 and in this respect it is like an oath1 for both an oath and an adjuration call upon the name of ,god4 7b7 ,it calls upon the name of ,god either explicitly 7e4g41 8,i command you in the name of ,god07 or implicitly 7e4g41 8,i beseech you for the sake of the passion of ,christ074 ,if command or request is made in the name of a creature and without reference to ,god's attributes reflected in them1 there is not1 properly speaking1 an adjuration1 as when one implores a favor from another person in the name of a ,patron ,saint1 or of one's country1 parents1 friendship1 etc4 7c7 ,it is used in a command or a request1 and thus it differs from prayer1 which cannot be made in the form of a command4 ,but adjuration may be used in prayers to ,god ,himself or to the ,saints1 as is done in obsecrations4 7d7 ,its purpose is to move another to an act or omission1 and thus it is different from an oath4 ,the end of an oath is to confirm one's words by the testimony of ,god2 the end of an adjuration is to influence another to a certain course through an appeal to his respect1 fear or love of ,god4 #bbfd4 ,the ,species of ,adjuration4--7a7 ,adjuration is solemn or simple 7private74 ,the solemn adjuration is made in the name of the ,church by her ministers and in the ritual form prescribed by her1 as in the exorcisms of ,baptism4 ,the simple adjuration is made by private persons and without ritual ceremony4 7b7 ,adjuration is imperative or deprecative4 ,the imperative is given in the form of a command to inferiors or demons1 as when ,st4 ,paul writes to the ,thessalonians3 8,i charge you by the ,lord that this epistle be read0 7,i ,thess41 v4 #bg74 ,the deprecative is given in the form of a request made to ,god or to any creature not damned1 as when ,st4 ,paul writes to the ,romans3 8,i beseech you1 brethren1 by the love of ,god that you present your bodies a living sacrifice0 7,rom41 xii4 #a74 #bbfe4 ,qualities of ,lawful ,adjuration4--,adjuration is lawful and an act of the virtue of religion1 since it professes reverence for the divine attributes in using them as the most efficacious motives of appeal4 ,but1 like an oath1 adjuration must be accompanied by qualities that make it lawful4 7a7 ,thus1 there must be judgment1 and hence those persons are guilty of sin who employ adjuration without necessity 7e4g41 those who constantly urge the love of ,god and other religious motives when asking for any favor71 or without devotion 7e4g41 those who in anger are wont to command 8for ,god's sake10 etc474 ,the sin committed does not seem grave1 since there is no great disrespect and the malice consists in taking ,god's name in vain1 not in insult4 7b7 ,there must be truth1 and hence an adjuration is sinful when used for a lying cause1 as when a well-to-do person pretends to be indigent and begs that alms be given him for the love of ,god4 ,the sin committed does not seem grave1 since the act to which the other person is invited is good1 and the act of adjuration itself does not ask ,god to testify to the lie1 but only uses ,his name without reason4 ,if the deception is mortally sinful1 however1 some authorities think that the adjuration added to it is a grave sin against religion4 7c7 ,there must be justice1 and therefore an adjuration is sinful when used to obtain something unlawful1 as when one demands in the name of ,god that another person tell a lie or commit murder4 ,the adjuration is gravely irreverent to ,god if the thing sought 7e4g41 murder7 is a mortal sin2 it is lightly irreverent1 according to the common opinion1 if the thing sought 7e4g41 a harmless lie7 is only a venial sin4 #bbff4 ,persons ,who ,may ,be ,adjured4--,god may be adjured1 but only in a deprecative manner1 as is done in the obsecrations1 8through ,jesus ,christ10 8through ,thy ,passion and ,death10 etc4 ,the purpose of adjurations addressed to ,god is not to change the divine decrees1 but to obtain through ,his goodness what ,he intended from eternity that we should obtain by prayer4 ,but the same form of adjuration cannot be used for all creatures4 7a7 ,thus1 deprecative adjuration may be used in reference to those who are in some way one's superiors4 ,hence1 we may pray the ,angels and ,saints to grant a prayer for the love of ,god1 and a beggar may ask in ,our ,lord's name that a wealthy man give him an alms4 7b7 ,imperative adjuration may be used in addressing subjects or inferiors4 ,adjuration of demons must not be made in friendly words1 nor with a view to obtaining services or knowledge from them1 but in words of reproach and only as a means to end their nefarious activities4 7e7 ,no kind of adjuration may be used in regard to irrational creatures1 since they are without knowledge sufficient for receiving a command or a request4 ,the adjurations of animals1 the elements1 inanimate objects1 etc41 that are contained in the ,ritual1 must be understood as deprecative adjurations addressed to ,god1 or imperative adjurations addressed to evil spirits1 that the creatures prayed over may be to our benefit and not to our hurt4 ,examples are the exorcisms of water1 salt1 mice1 locusts1 houses1 or storms4 #bbfg4 ,the ,use of ,exorcisms4--7a7 ,as to their effect1 exorcisms are of two kinds1 exorcisms in the strict sense 7i4e41 the expulsion of demons from possessed persons7 and exorcisms in the wide sense 7i4e41 the diminution of demonic influence74 ,examples of the former are found in the ,gospels1 where ,our ,lord drives out many evil spirits from afflicted persons2 examples of the latter are found in the exorcisms administered in ,baptism and in the exorcisms of salt1 water and other inanimate or irrational creatures4 7b7 ,as to their manner1 exorcisms are also of two kinds1 the solemn and the private4 ,the former are made in the name of the ,church in the manner prescribed by the ,ritual1 and their administration is reserved to clerics who have a special and express permission from the ,ordinary 7,canon #aaea1 ,sec4 #a74 ,the latter kind may be made even by members of the laity1 and we read that certain ,saints1 like ,st4 ,anthony and ,st4 ,catherine of ,siena1 had great power over evil spirits4 ,it is recommended that priests frequently use private exorcisms1 at least secretly1 for persons who are vexed by temptations or scruples1 and for which they may use the form3 8,in the name of ,jesus ,christ1 unholy spirit1 ,i command you to depart from this creature of ,god40 #bbfh4 ,the ,effects of ,adjurations4--7a7 ,adjurations addressed to one's fellow-men upon earth impose no obligation of religion upon the persons addressed4 ,hence1 if a rich man turns a deaf ear to an appeal for charity made in the name of ,god1 he violates charity but not religion2 if a child disregards a command urged upon him for the love of ,god1 he violates obedience but not religion4 7b7 ,adjurations addressed to demons are not of infallible efficacy1 at least as to the entire effect intended1 for power over the spirits of darkness is given only in such measure as is needed for the propagation of the ,gospel4 ,but we believe that an exorcism pronounced lawfully by one who has the ,order of ,exorcist acts ex opere operato1 at least to restrain the wickedness of the demons3 8,in ,my name they shall cast out demons0 7,mark1 xvi4 #ag74 #bbfi4 ,praise of ,god4--,having discussed oaths and adjurations1 in which honor is shown the name of ,god1 and the immediate end of which is or may be some human advantage1 we come now to the honor shown the name of ,god by praise in which the immediate end is some spiritual advantage4 ,praise is defined as 8the declaration of another's greatness with approval40 ,the divine praises include the prayers of wonder1 of honor1 of thanksgiving2 but they differ from prayer properly so called or petition 7see #baec74 #bbgj4 ,internal and ,external ,praise of ,god4--7a7 ,internal praise is expressed by the thoughts and affections of the soul4 ,this is the most important part of praise1 and without it external praise loses much of its value4 ,our ,lord reproved the ,pharisees for honoring ,god with their lips1 while their hearts were far from ,him 7,matt41 xv4 #h71 and ,st4 ,paul admonishes the ,ephesians to sing and make melody to the ,lord in their hearts 7,ephes1 v1 #ai74 7b7 ,external praise is expressed in words 78,i will bless the ,lord at all times1 ,his praise is always in my mouth10 ,psalm xxxiii4 #a71 or in song 78,admonishing one another in psalms1 hymns and spiritual canticles1 singing in grace in your hearts to ,god10 ,col41 iii4 #af71 or by music 78,praise ,him with sound of trumpet1 with psaltery and harp1 with timbrel and choir1 with strings and organs1 with high-sounding cymbals10 ,psalm cl74 #bbga4 ,excellence of ,praise of ,god4--7a7 ,praise ,is ,due to ,god4--,his essence and attributes are ineffable and above all praise 7,ecclus41 xliii4 #cc71 and they must be honored by the superior acts of worship and reverence4 ,but the effects of ,his goodness shown to us should be declared and glorified3 8,i will remember the tender mercies of the ,lord1 the praise of the ,lord for all the things the ,lord hath bestowed upon us0 7,is41 lxiii4 #g74 7b7 ,praise of ,god ,is ,advantageous to ,man4--,internal praise lifts the soul on high and prepares it to receive benefits from ,god1 while external praise helps the mind to keep its attention fixed on ,god1 excludes those things that are contrary to ,him1 and offers edification to others4 ,st4 ,augustine narrates in his ,confessions how profoundly he was moved in spirit1 even to tears1 on hearing the hymns and canticles of the ,church4 #bbgb4 ,qualities that ,should ,be ,present in the ,divine ,praises4--7a7 ,internally1 there should be devotion4 ,it is useful that those who perform or assist at the praises of ,god understand what is said1 but it suffices for devotion that they know ,his greatness and goodness is being proclaimed4 ,the intention should be to honor ,god1 and hence there is no act of personal religion if in reciting or hearing ,god's praises one intends only ostentation or pleasure2 attention should also be given to what is said1 and hence ,st4 ,augustine says that it is a sin to think rather of the music than of the praise of ,god proclaimed by the music 7see #bafd sqq474 7b7 ,externally1 the divine praises should be respectful to ,god and helpful to recollection and devotion4 ,hence1 the law of the ,church excludes from her services all that is of a disturbing1 profane or sinful character1 such as theatrical displays1 musical instruments that distract the mind from religious thoughts1 lascivious airs or those suggestive of the dance4 ,the ,code prescribes that impure music of every kind must be eliminated from churches 7,canon #abfd71 and ,pius ,x in his ,motu ,proprio of #aijc lays down the rule that there must be nothing in the services of the ,church that is calculated to diminish piety1 give reasonable scandal or disgust1 or offend the decorum of sacred functions or the sacredness of the place 7see also ,instruction on ,sacred ,art ,holy ,office1 #cj ,june1 #aieb1 ,,aas #dd-edb74 ,the sin committed by misbehavior or levity during divine services depends on the seriousness of the disrespect shown to ,god or the scandal given the beholders4 #bbgc4 ,the ,sins against ,religion4--,inasmuch as religion is a moral virtue and therefore consists in the observance of a golden mean1 the sins opposed to it are the extremes of excess or defect4 7a7 ,the sins of excess offend1 not because they offer too much worship to ,god 7a thing that is impossible71 but because they exceed by giving worship where it is not due or in a manner that is not due 7superstition74 7b7 ,the sins of defect offend by denying due religious reverence to ,god ,himself 7temptation of ,god1 perjury7 or to sacred things 7sacrilege1 simony74 #bbgd4 ,superstition4--,superstition is false religion1 or a vice that offers improper worship to the true ,god or divine worship to a false god4 ,improper worship of the true ,god is either false or superfluous4 7a7 ,false worship is opposed to the truth of religion 7e4g41 ,old ,testament rites which signify that ,christ is still to come71 or of rites 7e4g41 ,mass by a layman1 ,mass according to a form disapproved by the ,church71 or of facts 7e4g41 fictitious revelations1 ecstasies1 mysticism1 miracles1 relies71 or of morals 7e4g41 human sacrifice1 praises of ,god to the accompaniment of lascivious words or music1 etc474 7b7 ,superfluous worship is offered when an external observance in no way serves the purposes of religion 7viz41 the glory of ,god1 the elevation of the soul to ,him1 the repression of the passions71 or is opposed to law or common custom4 ,the purposes of religion are not served by actions foolish in themselves 7e4g41 the repeated mumbling of meaningless sounds7 or in their intent 7e4g41 undue emphasis given to minor details of a religious act1 such as color of the candles on the altar1 the stature of the celebrant1 the hour or condition of the weather1 etc41 as if weighty consequences depended on them74 ,the chain prayer is another example of a superstition that places all the virtue of an act of worship in some small external circumstance4 ,the law and custom are not followed in such superstitions as additional crosses1 alleluias1 credos1 etc41 made in violation of ,mass rubrics1 or a devotion consisting of fasts on ,sundays1 or new forms of piety that lack ecclesiastical approval4 ,there is no superstition1 however1 in modes of worship approved by the ,church 7such as novenas1 tridua1 ,gregorian ,masses1 and the like71 for the ,church recognizes no devotion or ceremony unless it is true and useful as an expression of religion4 #bbge4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,improper ,worship of ,god4--7a7 ,false worship is from its nature a grave sin2 it is seriously insulting to ,god because it offers ,him dishonor as honor1 and it is also seriously harmful to man because it casts discredit by its falsity on the name of religion4 7b7 ,superfluous worship is from its nature a venial sin1 since it contains no notable irreverence towards ,god and1 being outlawed1 does not reflect on religion4 ,accidentally1 however1 it may be a mortal sin1 as when it is performed in such a way as to cause great scandal4 #bbgf4 ,worship of ,false ,deity4--,worship of a false deity is performed by offering a creature an act of homage due to ,god alone4 ,hence1 there are three species of this superstition3 7a7 a creature is recognized as ,god1 when it is offered a service 7such as sacrifice7 that testifies to supreme and infinite excellence 7idolatry72 7b7 a creature is given the credit of divine knowledge1 when instruction about hidden matters which only ,god could bestow is asked from it 7divination71 7c7 a creature is treated as the supreme ruler1 when assistance which only ,god can grant is sought from it 7vain observance74 #bbgg4 ,definition of ,idolatry4--,idolatry is the supreme worship of latria offered to a creature4 7a7 ,it is supreme worship1 and hence the inferior reverence of hyperdulia1 dulia1 or civil honor1 offered respectively to the ,blessed ,mother1 angels1 saints1 superiors1 etc41 is not idolatry4 ,the external signs of worship that belong to ,god alone 7such as sacrifice1 temples1 priesthood1 altars1 etc471 may never be used in the veneration of creatures2 nor the signs that are common to ,god and creatures 7such as genuflexions1 prostrations1 prayers1 etc471 if the intention is to adore4 7b7 ,idolatry is offered1 that is1 by it an act of worship is intended or is at least performed in a serious manner4 ,hence1 it would not be idolatry so to enact a pagan ceremony that the onlookers could understand that no religious rite was being performed 7e4g41 if it were done on the stage1 or in a joking manner74 7c7 ,idolatry is offered to a creature1 and hence the relative honor that is shown the images of the ,trinity or of ,christ on account of the persons represented by them is not idolatry4 ,the creature to whom idolatry is shown is either a person 7e4g41 an ,angel1 the soul of a departed person1 a living human being71 or an irrational creature 7e4g41 the bull ,apis1 a sacred plant71 or an inanimate substance 7e4g41 statues or pictures1 the elements1 the heavenly bodies71 or a fictitious being 7e4g41 ,jupiter and the other gods of mythology74 #bbgh4 ,the ,kinds of ,idolatry4--7a7 ,idolatry is either internal or external4 ,internal idolatry has the intention to adore a creature1 as when a ,satanist offers sacrifice to demons4 ,external idolatry performs an outward rite that signifies adoration of a creature1 although there is no will to give adoration1 as when a ,christian out of fear of death reluctantly burns incense before an idol4 7b7 ,internal idolatry is either perfect or imperfect4 ,perfect idolatry includes belief in a false god1 as when an ignorant pagan prays to the sun and moon4 ,imperfect idolatry is committed when1 without belief in a false god1 there is the will to offer it divine worship on account of hatred of ,god1 wish to obtain favors from demons1 or the like4 #bbgi4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,idolatry4--7a7 ,idolatry is a most grievous crime4 ,it entails rebellion against the majesty of ,god1 attack on the virtue of religion1 unbelief or denial of faith1 and scandal2 and hence it is forbidden in the first commandment3 8,thou shalt not have strange gods before ,me4 ,thou shalt not adore them1 nor serve them0 7,exod41 xx4 #c sqq474 7b7 ,idolatry in itself and in its highest degree is the most grievous of sins1 for it includes both hatred of ,god 7since it would deprive ,him of ,his unique excellence by giving ,his honors to creatures7 and blasphemous unbelief 7since the idolater publicly professes that ,god is not above all74 ,now1 it was said above that unbelief1 hatred of ,god and blasphemy are the most enormous of sins 7see #hbj1 #hie1 #acja1 #acjb71 and so it follows that the worst form of idolatry is graver than other sins4 7c7 ,idolatry1 by reason of the dispositions of the person who commits it1 may be less grievous than other sins4 ,thus1 it is worse to hate or deny ,god internally than to worship an idol externally only2 it is worse to blaspheme with great hatred and contempt than to practise idolatry with less malice4 ,imperfection of the act1 as in cases of ignorance or want of consent1 makes the sin venial1 or no formal sin at all4 #bbhj4 ,comparison of ,different ,sins of ,idolatry4--7a7 ,internal idolatry is worse than external idolatry1 because the former1 though not the latter1 includes approval of the superstition committed4 7b7 ,imperfect idolatry is worse than perfect idolatry1 if both be considered precisely as idolatry1 since the former proceeds from malice1 and the latter from greater or less ignorance4 7c7 ,external idolatry is aggravated when its motive is more sinful or makes the act more voluntary 7e4g41 it is worse to pretend sacrifice to an idol if the motive is to ingratiate oneself with the idolaters or to spite the ,christians1 than if the motive is to escape death at the hands of the pagans74 #bbha4 ,idolatry ,possible in ,christian ,worship4--,the guilt of idolatry may be incurred even by ,christians offering worship to ,god4 7a7 ,thus1 in the adoration of the ,eucharist there would be idolatry1 at least material1 if an unconsecrated host were exposed for veneration or given in communion4 7b7 ,in the veneration of the ,saints there would be idolatry1 if they were honored or invoked as if they possessed divine attributes4 #bbhb4 ,definition of ,divination4--,divination 7soothsaying1 fortune-telling7 is a form of superstition in which the evil spirits are invoked explicitly or implicitly with a view to the discovery of what is future or occult4 7a7 ,it is a form of superstition1 because it seeks to obtain through natural means knowledge that cannot be had except from ,god1 or substitutes other teachers for ,god4 7b7 ,it contains the invocation of evil spirits1 for the information sought surpasses the powers of nature and1 being illicit1 cannot be expected from supernatural powers that are good 7such as ,god1 the ,angels1 the ,saints74 7c7 ,the invocation is explicit or implicit4 ,there is explicit calling on the evil spirits when one prays to the demon or makes an agreement with him2 there is implicit invocation when one does not address an evil spirit1 but does employ means for the discovery of knowledge which are not adequate1 either from their nature or from the will of ,god1 for the desired effect4 7d7 ,the knowledge desired is of future or occult things1 that is1 of such things as cannot be foreseen in their causes or discovered by natural means 7such as the future acts of free beings1 the secret thoughts of the heart74 #bbhc4 ,distinction between the ,fact and ,sin of ,divination4--7a7 ,the fact of divination--that is1 the actual manifestation by evil spirits of things humanly unknowable--is not impossible1 since the demons are far superior to man in intelligence and knowledge1 and it is the teaching of revelation that they use their powers to mislead and seduce mankind4 ,their knowledge1 however1 does not extend to future contingencies1 nor to the secrets of hearts1 and their word cannot be relied on4 ,a case of real communication by an evil spirit is that of the girl of ,philippi possessed by a pythonical spirit 7,acts1 xiv4 #af-ah71 and some think that the same can be said of the ,witch of ,endor 7,i ,kings1 xxvii4 #g-be72 but no doubt there have been many instances of divination in which the intervention of demons was only imaginary4 7b7 ,the sin of divination is committed when one has the will to receive occult knowledge from forbidden sources1 or uses the means to obtain knowledge from those sources1 even though there be no communication or response on the part of the spirits of evil4 #bbhd4 ,forms of ,explicit ,invocation4--,divination in which there is explicit invocation of the demon is of various kinds according to the medium through which instruction is given or expected4 7a7 ,thus1 the medium is direct if it is an external sensible appearance representing the demon 7praestigium7 or an internal picture in the imagination or a dream containing his answer 7oneiromancy74 7b7 ,the medium is indirect and rational when it is a human being1 dead or living4 ,divination through the evocation of the departed is known as necromancy1 while that which is given through living possessed persons is called pythonism4 ,modern ,spiritism partakes of the character of both necromancy 7since the spirits of the departed are consulted7 and pythonism 7since persons supposed to be under the control of familiar spirits act as mediums74 7c7 ,the medium is indirect and irrational when it is some solid body 7such as iron1 stone or crystal7 in which figures or signs appear2 idols from which oracles are received2 tables or ouija boards from which answers are given by raps or writing2 divining rods supposed to lead the way to any hidden person or thing1 etc4 7geomancy72 or some liquid body 7hydromancy71 or air 7aeromancy71 or fire 7pyromancy71 or the entrails of sacrificial victims or natural prodigies1 such as lightning 7haruspicy74 ,here also may be mentioned the superstition of ordeal by fire1 boiling water1 combat1 etc41 once used to determine the guilt or innocence of an accused person4 #bbhe4 ,forms of ,implicit ,invocation4--,divination in which there is only implicit invocation of evil spirits is manifold1 just as the natural causes from which preternatural knowledge is expected are manifold4 ,among the principal forms are the following3 7a7 that which is made from the human mind1 when clairvoyance or clair-audience is employed4 ,it is supposed that certain persons have the natural gift1 at least when in a trance or hypnotic state1 of perceiving what is done or said at a distance without any of the normal means of communication1 and even of reading minds4 ,this supposed inborn gift is sometimes called second sight or telepathy4 ,some authorities hold that there is sufficient evidence for vision at a distance as a sixth sense in certain individuals1 especially among primitive peoples and persons bound by a tie of blood or intimate friendship4 ,moreover1 many facts learned through telepathy seem to have been verified sufficiently to render telepathy probable4 ,accordingly1 to believe telepathy or to practice it1 excluding all superstition and invocation of demons1 is not illicit4 7b7 divination that is made from the human body in physiognomy1 phrenology1 and chiromancy4 ,the physiognomist pretends that he is able to discover the hidden character1 latent abilities or defects1 secret thoughts1 etc41 by a study of the features or expression of the countenance4 ,the phrenologist claims that he can read the mental and moral traits of a person from the bumps or prominences of the skull4 ,the chiromantist1 or palmist1 promises to foretell the future1 read the past1 discover the present secret character and aptitudes of an individual from an inspection of the shape1 lines and configuration of his hand and of the character of the lines and marks of his palms2 7c7 divination that is made from non-human and necessary events in astrology4 ,this pseudo-science gives predictions about the fortunes of an individual drawn from a study of his horoscope 7i4e41 the aspect of the heavenly bodies at the moment of his birth7 and of certain rules of interpretation2 7d7 divination that is made from non-human and contingent events in augury and auspice1 which divine from the voices or manner of flight of birds2 in omen or portent1 which divine the future from some chance happening 7such as meeting with a red-haired woman or a hunchback1 a sneeze1 etc471 in sortilege1 which divines by lots or signs arbitrarily chosen 7such as the letters that appear on opening a book at random1 the numbers or figures that appear when cards are drawn or dice thrown74 ,superstitions about omens are of two kinds1 some happenings being regarded as signs of good luck 7e4g41 to find a pin71 others as signs of bad luck 7e4g41 to meet a black cat1 to spill the salt1 to break a mirror1 to raise an umbrella in the house74 #bbhf4 ,the ,malice of the ,sin of ,divination4--7a7 ,the ,theological ,species4--,if there is explicit invocation of evil spirits1 divination is of its nature a mortal sin that admits of no lightness of matter1 for it gives divine worship to a creature1 acts on friendly terms with the enemy of ,god1 and prepares one for apostasy and eternal damnation4 ,if there is no explicit invocation of the spirits of evil1 the sin is of its nature mortal on account of the implicit commerce with the devil2 but generally the sin will be light on account of the dispositions of the offender 7e4g41 because he is ignorant1 or consults divination as a joke or from curiosity1 or has no faith in it74 ,hence1 the faithful should be warned not to go to fortune-tellers or put faith in dreams1 but1 apart from such cases as serious scandal1 habitual direction of one's life by superstition1 cooperation in serious sin of a diviner1 etc41 the sin will usually be venial1 at least in young people4 ,persons who occasionally act or omit to act in some indifferent matter on account of dreams they have had are often excused from all sin on account of the fear or hope which the dreams excited4 7b7 ,the ,moral ,species4--,all forms of divination1 it is commonly held1 belong to the same species of worship of a false god 7,deut41 xviii4 #aj-ab74 ,yet1 the confessor should be told about an explicit pact with evil spirits1 if there was one1 since thus he will be able to decide the gravity of the sin and to make inquiries about other sins that usually accompany such a pact 7e4g41 blasphemy1 promise to serve the devil1 sacrileges1 etc474 #bbhg4 ,when ,knowledge ,is ,obtained from ,god4--,there is no sin of divination when knowledge is obtained from ,god4 7a7 ,thus1 ,god can communicate directly in a vision or dream1 and there are examples of this in ,scripture1 ,but generally one should not be guided by dreams as if they were means for supernatural knowledge1 since nearly all dreams are produced by natural causes4 ,it is not sinful to believe that a dream of an extraordinary kind 7e4g41 one in which the future is wonderfully foretold or a warning given1 or which produces great spiritual good7 was sent by ,god4 7b7 ,god can communicate through other human beings1 and hence it is not superstitious to put faith in the private visions or revelations that have been recognized by the ,church1 or that have the marks of genuineness required by the ,church4 7c7 ,god has sometimes communicated through the instrumentality of irrational beings or by means of portents4 ,thus1 ,gedeon took the words of enemy soldiers as a premonition of victory 7,judges1 vii4 #ae72 ,eliezer chose a sign by which to recognize the woman who should be the wife of ,isaac 7,gen1 xxiv4 #ad72 the ordeal of bitter waters was prescribed in ,numbers1 v4 #aa sqq42 ,josue discovered the guilt of ,achan by lots 7,josue1 vii4 #ad71 and ,st4 ,matthias was elected to the ,apostolate by lots 7,acts1 i4 #bc-bf74 ,but these were exceptional cases in which men were inspired to consult ,god as they did1 and it would be superstitious to seek knowledge in these ways against the will of ,god4 ,those who desire light and guidance should have recourse to the teachers ,god has provided on earth and should pray to ,god1 leaving to ,him the ways and means of ,his answer4 ,hence1 the ,church has declared it unlawful1 even in private1 to call upon the good spirits to give answers through automatic writing 7,collect4 de ,prop4 ,fide1 #ahid71 or to interrogate the dead at spiritistic seances 7,,aas1 #aiag1 ,,ix1 #bfh74 ,it is not superstitious1 however1 in a grave matter when there is no ordinary means of instruction at hand1 to offer a prayer to ,god and then have recourse to lots to decide what course shall be followed 7,prov41 xvi4 #cc74 #bbhh4 ,when ,knowledge ,is ,obtained ,through ,natural ,causes4--,there is no sin of divination when knowledge of the future or of hidden things is obtained through proportionate natural causes or indications4 7a7 ,thus1 knowledge of future happenings is naturally deducible from their necessary causes1 when these causes are known4 ,the effect may be predicted with certainty if the cause is so determined to one course that its result is invariable 7e4g41 the revolution of the earth around the sun always brings on the four seasons of the year72 it may be predicted with the greatest probability if the cause is so constituted that almost always it has a certain consequence 7e4g41 a seed properly planted usually grows into a tree74 ,hence1 there is no superstition in astronomical predictions1 weather forecasts by meteorologists1 tables of life expectancy drawn up by insurance experts1 etc41 since these are inferences from known scientific laws4 7b7 ,knowledge of hidden things is naturally deducible with more or less certainty from the presence of their known causes1 or effects1 or indications4 ,hence1 a physician is not accused of superstition if he reasons out the character or phase of an internal disease from the symptoms that exhibit themselves4 ,moralists today generally agree that the use of the magic wand 7divining rod1 dipping rod1 dowser7 for the discovery of subterranean springs1 mineral deposits1 oil wells1 etc41 is not superstitious1 although there is some difference of opinion and uncertainty about the cause of the phenomenon4 ,it is true that many means of detection or discovery1 supposedly scientific1 are due to misunderstanding of scientific principles or of logic2 but their authors1 since they rely on natural causes1 are guilty of ignorance or quackery rather than superstition4 #bbhi4 ,use of ,lots4--,is it lawful to use lots in settlement of some business1 when there is no intention to seek preternatural oracle8 7a7 ,it is lawful to do this1 if there is some reason of necessity or utility or amusement to justify the lots1 and no injustice or prohibition of law4 ,hence1 if there is no other convenient method of decision1 one may use the drawing of straws or cards to decide how lands or goods shall be divided between claimants1 or which of several competitors shall receive a reward or office4 7b7 ,it is not lawful to do this1 if there is a prohibition of law 7e4g41 ecclesiastical elections may not be made by lot71 or if there is no necessity for the lots 7e4g41 it is at least foolish to use the ,gospels for deciding by lot matters that could be decided by reflection71 or if injury is done another person 7e4g41 to decide by lot when the merits of two contestants are unequal1 to practise unfairness in the drawing74 #bbij4 ,vain ,observance4--,vain observance is a superstition that ascribes to certain things effects for which they have no natural or communicated power4 7a7 ,it ascribes the effects to natural things1 but it supposes that in some way supernatural forces1 not of religion1 are at work in or through these things4 ,thus1 just as in divination1 there is in vain observance either an express or an implied invocation of the spirits of evil4 ,the alchemists1 who thought there was a philosopher's stone able to transmute base metals into gold or an elixir that could greatly prolong life1 looked to natural causes1 and hence to that extent seem to be guilty of false science1 rather than of superstition4 ,scientific materialism1 though1 is a crasser form of ignorance than any superstition that trusts in super-material powers4 7b7 ,the things which vain observance makes use of are persons1 acts1 objects1 circumstances1 happenings1 etc4 ,even sacred things may be employed as the material for vain observance1 as happens when some accidental and unnecessary circumstance of a sacred rite 7e4g41 the size or color of candles7 is given the credit of the sacred results4 ,here again vain observance and divination are alike1 since the same means are employed by both4 7c7 ,the effects looked for in vain observance1 or the purpose had in view1 is some fact or event4 ,it is this characteristic that distinguishes vain observance from divination3 the latter aims at occult knowledge1 the former at supranatural results4 ,the expected fact or event is something that surpasses the natural powers of physical or human agencies 7e4g41 sensation without sense excitants1 mind-reading without external indications1 scientific knowledge without study1 bodily feats without corresponding bodily powers1 detection of secret and hidden things without human means for detection71 or even of the invisible world of spirits 7e4g41 creation1 generation of new substances1 evocation of the dead1 internal motion of man's will74 7d7 ,there is no natural power in the things used for producing the substance or mode of the desired effects1 that is1 no inherent and sufficient force or activity4 ,hence1 vain observance is not to be confused with scientific marvels or natural wonders whose explanation is unknown to the general public1 or which cannot be fully explained by scientists themselves4 ,thus1 the baffling tricks of white magic are due to legerdemain1 ventriloquism1 ocular delusions1 and the like2 the physiological changes 7e4g41 convulsions1 hysteria1 somnambulism1 bodily cures7 produced in mesmerism1 hypnotism1 thought healing1 etc41 are explained by suggestion and the motor power of images excited to produce bodily motions1 passions1 or changes2 the mental phenomena 7e4g41 hyperaesthesia1 wondrous visions1 increased vigor of mind7 of certain drugs such as hashish1 mescal and opium1 are caused by properties of these drugs4 7e7 ,there is no communicated power in the things employed1 that is1 no instrumental virtue bestowed by a higher cause4 ,hence1 since ,sacraments1 sacramentals1 and miracle-working relics have from ,god in a greater or less degree an efficacy for results above nature1 there is no superstition in their proper use1 ,but1 as was noted just above1 sacred things themselves may be used superstitiously1 as happens when they are regarded as principal agents1 or when1 contrary to fact1 they are deemed to act infallibly or independently of any human cooperation or disposition4 #bbia4 ,forms of ,vain ,observance4--,among the forms of vain observance are the following3 7a7 those by which one puts into use vain ceremonies or objects in the expectation that they will secure certain desired effects1 or puts an exaggerated confidence in lawful rites or sacred objects2 7b7 those by which one directs one's life through fortuitous and impertinent happenings in the belief that they have the power to influence one's fortunes favorably or adversely4 ,this form of superstition is like divination by omens2 the difference is that in using omens one chiefly seeks for knowledge of the future1 while in observing chance events one chiefly intends the direction of one's conduct4 ,examples are found in persons who fear to make a journey on ,friday or to begin any important affair during the dark of the moon4 #bbib4 ,vain ,observances from which ,desired ,effects ,are ,expected4--7a7 ,useful results are sometimes expected1 such as knowledge for the mind 7notorious art7 or health for the body 7healing observances74 ,the notorious art consisted in the repeating of certain formulas or the gazing upon certain figures1 prayers and fasts at times being added1 and it was supposed that these practices would obtain infused knowledge without the necessity of labor or study4 ,healing observances are remedies used for man or beast that manifestly have no natural curative properties 7e4g41 a buckeye or rabbit's foot carried in the pocket to ward off rheumatism74 7b7 ,wondrous results are sometimes expected1 such as the power to bring on storms1 telekinesis1 materialization1 and levitation1 through the use of incantations1 theurgic sacraments1 spiritistic rites1 etc4 ,this is known as the black art or black magic4 7c7 ,evil effects are sometimes expected1 such as the power to blight another by a glance 7evil eye or fascination71 the power to cast a spell over another person by certain spoken words1 to bring disease or misfortune on a person by piercing or striking his effigy1 to excite impure love for a determinate person by the administration of love philtres or charms1 etc4 7sorcery1 witchcraft74 #bbic4 ,distinction between the ,fact and the ,sin of ,vain ,observance4--7a7 ,the ,fact4--,the demons have naturally powers over our world that surpass those of human or physical agents1 and it is not impossible for them to produce prodigies or seeming miracles4 ,the magicians of ,egypt by enchantments and certain secrets changed rods into serpents1 etc4 7,exod41 vii4 #ab1 viii4 #g72 the ,new ,testament narrates that ,simon the ,magician bewitched the ,samaritans by his magic 7,acts1 viii4 #aa71 and it clearly foretells the lying wonders of ,satan and ,antichrist 7,matt41 xxiv4 #bd2 ,,ii ,thess41 ii4 #i74 ,but there are limits to the power of the fallen spirits2 for example1 they cannot infuse knowledge1 and occultism has contributed nothing to the advancement of science or civilization4 ,moreover1 many effects that have been attributed to demonic intervention were due to natural causes or to fraud 7e4g41 a large proportion of spiritistic phenomena71 or they were supposed to exist only because the popular mind was carried away by excitement or was bent on persecution 7e4g41 most of the witchcraft accusations of a few centuries ago74 7b7 ,the ,sin4--,vain observance in which there is no express invocation of evil spirits is common enough2 even religious1 educated and practical persons are found to act on superstitious hopes or fears or to put confidence in charms or amulets4 ,but vain observance that includes an express invocation of demons is a comparatively rare sin4 ,it is not impossible1 however1 that a person should come to such a pass of despair or malice as to wish to have dealings with ,satan1 or should be so carried away by curiosity1 desire of wealth1 power1 fame1 or honor as to be willing to barter his soul in exchange for them4 ,that there were professional wizards from ancient times is a matter of history1 and ,scripture contains severe prohibitions against dealings with them 7,levit41 xix4 #ca1 xx4 #bg2 ,deut41 xviii4 #aj74 #bbid4 ,superstition in ,religious ,observances4--,superstition is sometimes found even in religious observances4 7a7 ,thus1 there is superstition in the observance itself when vain additions are made to an approved usage 7e4g41 the addition to a prayer against sickness of gestures1 breathings1 gibberish1 etc41 that have no significance of reverence for ,god74 7b7 ,there is superstition in the manner of the observance when one attributes the virtue of a sacred rite or object to some unimportant circumstance 7e4g41 the shape of the reliquary in which a relic is carried1 the 8propitious0 day on which a sacramental was received71 or expects from a sacred thing an effect which it has no power to produce 7e4g41 infallible certainty of salvation from the performance of a certain devotion or the presence of a holy picture or blessed object74 ,it is not superstition1 however1 to attach significance to circumstances that have a sacred meaning 7e4g41 holydays1 figures that have a religious symbolism71 or to put a confidence in sacred things that is based on their character or approved usage 7e4g41 the hope and trust that blessings will be impetrated and salvation itself through fidelity to an authorized devotion74 #bbie4 ,sinfulness of ,vain ,observance4--,the malice of vain observance is essentially the same as that of divination1 for in both superstitions the same virtue of religion is offended by the sinful cult that is performed4 7a7 ,thus1 there is mortal sin from the nature of the act1 when vain observance is exercised with invocation of evil spirits or with false religious rites 7for a serious injury is done to the honor due to ,god71 or when a vain observance is meant to bring a curse or grave misfortune on a neighbor 7for a serious injustice is willed74 7b7 ,there is regularly only a venial sin1 when a vain observance is of a non-religious kind1 consisting in foolish heed given to chance happenings 7such as a rabbit running across the road1 the mention of death1 the presence of a person regarded as a ,jonah71 or the use of improportionate means 7e4g41 to change one's place at a card table in order to change the luck74 ,for usually there is no irreverence in such practices1 and at the worst they are foolish and idle acts4 ,often there is no sin at all1 the vain observance being due to ignorance or the wish to joke4 7c7 ,there is no sin at all1 but rather subjective virtue1 in religious practices to which on account of simplicity or invincible ignorance too much power is attributed1 as when one who is faithful to the essential duties of religion has greater confidence in some personal devotion of his own than in them4 ,but superstition of this kind1 though in itself it is the least reprehensible form of superstition1 may be very harmful and disedifying4 #bbif4 ,cooperation in ,divination or ,other ,form of ,superstition4--7a7 ,formal cooperation is of course never lawful 7e4g41 to act as the medium or one of the deceivers at a spiritistic meeting74 7b7 ,material cooperation is lawful only when there is a proportionately grave reason1 no danger of sin1 and no scandal4 ,thus1 it seems that no sin is committed by a scientist who assists at a spiritistic seance in order to discover the frauds that are resorted to1 or who makes experiments with table turning or planchette movements in order to examine into the theory that the phenomena are due to the action of the persons present4 #bbig4 ,doubtful ,cases of ,vain ,observance4--,cases in which it is a matter of doubt or dispute whether divination or vain observance is present4 7a7 ,there is sometimes uncertainty whether an extraordinary fact is due to natural or supranatural causes1 ,thus1 authorities commonly take the position1 it seems1 that certain phenomena of ,spiritism 7e4g41 the apparently automatic movement of tables on which a group of persons rest their finger tips1 the answers to questions that are rapped out by such tables71 and of mental healing 7e4g41 the cure of bodily ailment by sympathy or moral influence71 are accomplished through natural powers of matter or mind4 ,but other authorities incline to a supranaturalistic explanation4 7b7 ,there is also at times uncertainty whether a fact or practice has a religious or an irreligious character4 ,as to facts1 they sometimes appear to be so marvellous as to pass the natural1 and yet it is difficult to determine whether their source is good or evil 7e4g41 when an ignorant person not noted for piety seems to have a remarkable ability for treating and curing all kinds of diseases74 ,as to practices1 they are sometimes susceptible of a religious or a superstitious interpretation4 ,thus1 one who says1 8,god bless us10 at a sneeze may intend a prayer against sickness2 one who knocks on wood after boasting may intend a prayer to ,him who died on the wood of the cross1 lest he be punished for boasting4 #bbih4 ,licitness of ,using ,doubtfully ,superstitious ,means4--,it is lawful to use means that are only doubtfully superstitious if the following conditions are present3 7a7 internally or subjectively1 there must be a good conscience about the use of the means4 ,the rule can be followed that what is not certainly of a supranatural character may be regarded as natural1 but that what seems to be supranatural is not to be ascribed to ,god unless it has the marks and fruits of a divine work4 ,when lawfully using means of a dubious character1 it is advisable to make an inner protestation that one acts from reasonable necessity1 and has no wish to take part in superstition2 7b7 externally or objectively1 there must be nothing in the object or circumstances or results to make the use of the means illicit4 ,thus1 even though a practice be not superstitious1 it may be unlawful because of the immorality of its object or tendency 7e4g41 frauds used by psychical researchers1 obscene messages given by laboratory telepathists71 or of its purpose 7e4g41 table-rapping used as the instrument of pretended religious revelations71 or because of the evil consequences for body or soul 7e4g41 devotees of the ouija board give scandal to others and often end in insanity or suicide74 #bbii4 ,irreligiousness4--,we now proceed to the four sins that offend religion by defect1 namely1 temptation of ,god and perjury1 which show disrespect to ,god ,himself1 and sacrilege and simony1 which show disrespect to holy things 7see #bbgc74 ,perjury has been treated above 7see #bbdi71 and hence we shall consider now only the other three forms of irreligiousness4 #bcjj4 ,temptation of ,god4--,temptation of ,god is a word or deed that puts ,god to the test to discover whether ,he possesses or will exercise some perfection4 7a7 ,it is a word or deed1 such as a prayer whose purpose is to discover whether ,god is possessed of knowledge1 power or goodness1 or an act of defiance performed in order to prove that there is no ,god4 7b7 ,it puts ,god to the test1 that is1 the temptation is not seductive 7since it is impossible to influence ,god to sin71 but experimental4 ,he who tempts ,god desires that ,god give some proof of ,his attributes4 7c7 ,it is concerned with ,god1 hence there is no temptation of ,god if one legitimately tests out the character of a human being4 ,god ,himself tempted by trial holy men like ,abraham1 ,job1 and ,tobias in order that their virtue might be manifested and an example given to others4 ,and of spirits ,st4 ,john says3 8,believe not every spirit1 but try the spirits if they be of ,god1 because many false prophets are gone out into the world0 7,i ,john1 iv4 #a74 7d7 ,the purpose is to discover1 without regard to the ordinary means of instruction and guidance appointed by ,god1 whether ,god possesses or will exercise an attribute2 that is1 temptation of ,god is due to unbelief or to presumption4 #bcja4 ,cases ,wherein ,there ,is no ,temptation of ,god4--7a7 ,to seek a proof of divine perfections is not temptation of ,god1 if the purpose is only to find new reasons for what one already accepts1 or to experience in an affective way what one already admits speculatively4 ,hence1 a theologian may study the attributes of ,god with a view to further illumination2 hence also1 one may prove the sweetness of ,god or the goodness of ,his will from the spiritual taste or relish for divine things 7,psalm xxxiii4 #i2 ,rom41 xii4 #b74 7b7 ,to seek a sign of ,god's will or a manifestation of ,his perfections is not temptation of ,god1 if this is done1 not from curiosity1 ostentation or other vain motive1 but from some reason of necessity or great utility1 as when ,gedeon prayed for a sign that the ,lord had spoken to him or was with him 7,judges1 vi4 #ag1 #cg71 or when ,elias called on ,jehovah to show ,his power before the worshippers of ,baal 7,,iii ,kings1 xviii4 #cg74 ,hence1 he does not tempt ,god who1 when ordinary means of direction fail him in some critical affair1 asks humbly for a sign of ,god's will2 or who in a matter of great moment asks for miraculous help if it be pleasing to ,god to grant it2 or who exposes himself to serious danger for some priceless good that cannot otherwise be had1 in the trust that ,god will be with him4 #bcjb4 ,kinds of ,temptation of ,god4--7a7 ,in relation to its source1 temptation of ,god arises either from unbelief or from presumption4 ,the former1 which is temptation of ,god in the strict sense1 exists when one disbelieves or doubts some attribute of ,god and seeks to put it to the proof1 as when the ,israelites in the desert called into question the providence and power of ,jehovah 7,exod41 xvii4 #g1 ,psalm lxxvii4 #ah1 #ai71 or when a person doubting the ,real ,presence asks for a miraculous sight of ,christ in the ,eucharist4 ,the latter sin1 which is temptation of ,god in the wide sense1 is committed when a believing person asks without a just cause for a miraculous manifestation of ,god's will1 or powers1 or of some other thing1 as when a lazy man asks that his work be done in some miraculous way1 or a rash man neglects the ordinary care of his health1 asking that ,god supply for his carelessness4 ,but temptation of ,god is not to be identified with the theological sin of presumption 7see #ajha74 7b7 ,in relation to its manner1 temptation of ,god is either express or interpretative4 ,it is express when one intends by one's word or act to put ,god to the proof in respect to knowledge1 power1 reliability1 or other perfection 7as when the ,jews demanded that ,christ come down from the ,cross1 if ,he were the ,son of ,god7 or to satisfy a vain curiosity or boldness 7as when ,herod asked ,christ to work some miracles for his amusement74 ,temptation of ,god is interpretative when one does not intend to discover ,god's perfections or make presumptuous requests1 but nevertheless so acts or omits to act that one's conduct is useful for nothing except temptation of ,god1 as when a believer rashly promises a miracle to convince an unbeliever1 a sick man refuses to use any medical care 7,ecclus41 xxxviii4 #d71 a lecturer goes entirely unprepared to his lecture1 etc4 ,prayer made without the proper dispositions is a quasi-temptation of ,god 7,ecclus41 xviii4 #bc71 because it is disrespectful and presumptuous2 but it is not real temptation of ,god1 nor of its nature mortally sinful1 the direct end of the act being laziness or some other state of soul unsuitable to prayer4 #bcjc4 ,causes that ,exclude the ,interpretative ,temptation of ,god4--,there is no interpretative temptation of ,god strictly speaking if one acts rashly or encounters danger1 but does not at all expect miraculous or special intervention from ,god4 ,this happens as follows3 7a7 when one is unconcerned whether evil results or not1 or desires that it may result 7e4g41 when a person who is tired of life seeks a dangerous occupation for the diversion and excitement it affords1 or when a person practises abstinence from certain remedies as an act of moderate mortification72 7b7 when one does not wish the evil result1 but is so stupid or rash as to believe that an imprudent risk can be taken and evil escaped through chance or good luck1 as when a student goes up for a difficult examination with slight preparation1 trusting that only the things he knows will be asked4 #bcjd4 ,refusal of ,medicine or ,hygienic ,care4--7a7 ,if there is a sufficient reason for this conduct1 no sin is committed4 ,there may be sufficient reasons of a natural kind 7e4g41 that the remedies are harmful or useless or too expensive71 or of a supernatural kind 7e4g41 ,st4 ,agatha refused all medicines because ,god ,himself was her physician1 certain ,saints were divinely inspired to make no effort to remove bodily maladies on account of the spiritual profit derived from them74 7b7 ,if there is no sufficient reason for this conduct1 it is sinful4 ,thus1 one sins against faith1 if the reason for the conduct is disbelief in the existence of evil 7e4g41 ,christian ,science or ,eddyism attributes sickness and pain to imagination1 and says that the only cure is 8faith072 one sins by temptation of ,god1 if the reason for the conduct is vain expectation of miracles2 one is guilty of suicide or homicide1 if the purpose is to end life1 etc4 #bcje4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,temptation of ,god4--7a7 ,to doubt the perfections of ,god1 or to call upon the extraordinary ,providence of ,god in disregard of the ordinary ,providence ,he has established is the essence of temptation of ,god4 ,it is sinful1 because it includes either unjustifiable doubt or vincible ignorance in the intellect or presumption in the will4 ,hence the command given in ,deuteronomy 7vi4 #af73 8,thou shalt not tempt the ,lord thy ,god40 ,but invincible ignorance excuses from sin1 and hence many of those who in times past resorted to ordeals by painful or dangerous tests 7e4g41 walking on burning coals1 risking death in deep waters71 in order that ,god might settle a doubtful matter1 were1 on account of their good faith1 guiltless of temptation of ,god4 ,the practice was condemned by the ,church in the ninth century4 7b7 ,to doubt about the positive and unknown will of ,god1 or to call upon the extraordinary ,providence of ,god 7i4e41 the direct intervention of the ,first ,cause71 without disregard of the ordinary ,providence 7i4e41 of second causes appointed by ,god71 is not sinful1 if it is justified by necessity4 ,thus1 being unable to resist the nations leagued against him1 ,josaphat prayed3 8,as we know not what to do1 we can only turn our eyes to ,thee0 7,,ii ,paral41 xx4 #ab74 ,and ,our ,lord promised the disciples that1 when they should be unable to prepare their defense on account of the persecutions to which they were subjected1 the ,spirit ,himself would speak through them 7,matt41 ,x4 #ai71 and that ,he would enable them to do things as difficult as moving mountains when real necessity called for it 7,matt41 xvii4 #ai74 ,it is not unbelief to doubt about matters pertaining to ,god that are really doubtful 7i4e41 not ,his perfections1 but ,his positive and unknown will71 and hence one does not tempt ,god who asks for divine guarantees of a religion proposed as divinely revealed 7see #gie72 it is not presumption to ask ,god for a sign or proof1 if ,god directs one to do this 7e4g41 ,abraham in ,gen41 xv4 #h1 was inspired to seek a sign that the promised land would be given his posterity2 ,achaz in ,isaias1 vii4 #aa1 was bidden for the sake of others to ask for a sign71 or if1 when a sign from ,god seems necessary or very useful1 one prays for it prudently and on condition that the request is pleasing to ,god 7e4g41 the ,apostles in ,acts1 iv4 #cj1 prayed for signs and wonders in confirmation of their preaching74 #bcjf4 ,the ,malice of ,temptation of ,god4--7a7 ,it is a sin directly against religion1 for one shows contempt to ,god when one demands that ,he prove ,his perfections1 or when one takes the liberty to disregard the ordinary means ,he has established and to call for others4 ,the sin is less1 however1 than that of superstition1 since temptation of ,god professes doubt1 while superstition professes positive error4 ,temptation of ,god offends also against other virtues1 such as faith 7e4g41 when one doubts the perfections of ,god71 hope 7e4g41 when one presumes that ,god will do all without one's cooperation71 charity 7e4g41 when a person exposes his own life to risk or his neighbor to scandal in a vain confidence that the danger will be miraculously averted74 7b7 ,it is a mortal sin from its nature1 since it offends religion4 ,but it may be venial on account of the imperfection of the act1 as when from weakness of faith or without reflection one asks unnecessarily for a sign 7,luke1 i4 #aa-bj74 ,it may be venial also from the lightness of the matter1 if the temptation is interpretative1 as when one presumes on the divine aid in a slight sickness1 an unimportant talk1 or other small affair4 #bcjg4 ,as a rule temptation of ,god is only a venial sin1 and in an individual case it is rarely mortal1 except in the following instances3 7a7 when one intends a grave offense against ,god1 as by doubting ,his goodness1 demanding or attempting a miracle to satisfy curiosity2 7b7 when one exposes oneself to grave peril1 as by leaping from the roof of a high building1 refusing all remedies or means of preserving health1 neglecting to provide for one's sustenance1 etc41 in the expectation that ,god will miraculously provide2 7c7 when one causes grave harm to others1 as when a person rashly asking for signs exposes faith to the derision of unbelievers or scandalizes believers4 #bcjh4 ,sacrilege4--,sacrilege in the wide sense is any sin against the virtue of religion4 ,but in the strict sense1 in which it is now taken1 it is defined as 8the violation of a sacred thing40 7a7 ,sacrilege is against a thing1 that is1 against some person1 place or object dedicated to divine worship as a possession of ,god4 ,sacrilege differs from the two previous sins of irreligiosity 7namely1 temptation of ,god and perjury72 for they are against the reverence due to ,god ,himself1 while sacrilege is against the reverence due to things on account of their use in the worship of ,god4 7b7 ,it is against a sacred thing1 that is1 against the sanctity which a thing acquires from its dedication to ,god 7e4g41 when a church or a chalice is consecrated to divine worship1 when a virgin is dedicated to ,god by vow71 or from the immunity or privilege conferred on it by the ,church on account of its dedication to ,god 7e4g41 the clerical privileges of forum and of canon in ,church ,law74 ,but sacrilege is present only when a sacred thing is attacked in that special quality or relation in which it is sacred4 ,hence1 he who violates the chastity of a virgin consecrated to ,god is guilty of sacrilege1 since it is her chastity that was vowed to ,god2 he who strikes her is also guilty of sacrilege1 since he attacks the sacred immunity which the law confers on her2 he who calumniates her or steals from her is not guilty of sacrilege1 since her name and goods are not consecrated to divine worship nor protected by its special sacredness in law4 7c7 ,sacrilege is a violation1 that is1 an action or omission physically or morally injurious to the sacred character of a person1 place or thing4 ,the difference between the injury done in sacrilege and that done in simony is that the former injustice belongs to the class of wrongs inflicted in involuntary commutations1 such as theft or robbery 7see #agdh1 #ahae71 whereas the latter injustice pertains to the category of wrongs perpetrated in voluntary commutations1 such as buying1 selling1 or lending4 ,in both cases there is an injury to the property or possession of ,god1 but the difference is that in sacrilege the parties involved are the sacrilegious person acting as aggressor against ,god1 in simony the parties are two men bargaining together to buy and sell the sacred things of ,god4 #bcji4 ,what ,kind of ,consecration ,must ,be ,violated to ,constitute ,sacrilege8--,there are various opinions about the kind of assignment to worship necessary for the sacredness which is injured by sacrilege4 7a7 ,the opinion that seems to be common today holds that the assignment must be made through some public rite or consecration on the part of the ,church4 ,hence1 according to this view1 the violation of a private vow or resolution is not sacrilegious1 but rather perfidious or disloyal4 ,the argument for this opinion is that the public acceptance of the ,church1 which has control over divine worship1 is a necessary factor in making anything sacred to that worship2 and that many absurdities would follow from the principle that each individual has the power to give the sacredness in question to his own person1 acts or possessions4 7b7 ,according to a stricter opinion1 no public assignment is necessary if the consecration is a personal one2 and hence the violation of even a private vow of chastity would be sacrilegious4 ,the argument is that even a private vow affecting the person sets it apart as a sacred thing4 7c7 ,according to a still stricter view1 no public assignment to worship is necessary1 whether the consecration be personal or non-personal1 and hence even the violation of a vow to fast would be sacrilegious4 ,the argument is that anything set apart for ,god's honor1 either publicly or privately1 becomes sacred to ,him4 #bcaj4 ,is ,sacrilege a ,special ,sin8--7a7 ,as regards its matter or subject sacrilege may be called1 though improperly1 a general sin1 in the sense that many different classes of sins may be sacrilegious 7e4g41 murder is sacrilegious when a sacred person is killed1 lust is sacrilegious when a person vowed to ,god is violated2 theft is sacrilegious when objects consecrated to divine worship are stolen1 etc474 7b7 ,as regards its form or essence1 and hence properly speaking1 sacrilege is a special sin1 because there is a peculiar deformity contained in the very nature of sacrilege that is not in other sins1 namely1 the disrespect shown to ,god through contempt for things that are sacred to ,him4 ,moreover1 there may be a sin of sacrilege that is separate from other sins1 such as murder1 lust1 and theft1 for example1 when the right of asylum is violated4 #bcaa4 ,the ,species of ,sacrilege4--7a7 ,personal sacrilege is committed when the sacredness of a person is violated4 ,this happens in the first place when bodily or real harm 7e4g41 gravely sinful striking1 citing before a secular tribunal1 subjecting to civil duties or burdens1 such as military service7 is done to a cleric2 and in the second place when a grave sin of unchastity is committed by or with a person dedicated to ,god by a vow 7at least by a public vow7 of chastity4 ,sacrilege committed through bodily or real harm is treated by canonists under the questions of the privileges of canon 7,canon #aai71 forum 7,canon #abj71 immunity 7,canon #aba74 ,sacrilegious impurity committed with a person vowed to chastity and sacrilegious impurity committed by a person vowed to chastity are grave sins of lust1 even though they be only of thought or desire4 7b7 ,local sacrilege is committed when the sacredness of a place is injured4 ,a place is considered sacred or religious when it possesses sanctity as being consecrated or blessed for divine worship or for burial of the faithful1 namely1 churches1 public or semi-public oratories1 and consecrated cemeteries4 ,injury is done to the holiness of the place by desecration or profanation4 ,desecration is the performance in a sacred place of a notorious act of irreverence which so spiritually contaminates it that the divine offices may not be lawfully celebrated therein until the rite of reconciliation has been performed4 ,canon #aagb enumerates four causes of desecration3 the crime of homicide2 the injurious and serious shedding of human blood2 impious or sordid uses 7e4g41 if a church were turned into a brothel or gambling den1 a dump1 or cattle stable71 and burial of an infidel or person excommunicated by condemnatory or declaratory sentence4 ,profanation of a sacred place is a disregard for the religious respect or immunity due to it which in some way materially contaminates it 7e4g41 if a church is not kept nice and clean2 if markets and fairs are held in its precincts2 if it is used for shows1 plays1 moving pictures1 banquets1 court proceedings2 if the right of asylum is violated2 if the church is broken into1 seriously defaced1 burned74 ,these matters are treated more fully in commentaries on ,canons #aagb sqq4 7c7 ,real sacrilege is committed when the sacredness of an object is violated4 ,an object is sacred when it contains the ,author of holiness or confers holiness 7viz41 the ,eucharist and the other ,sacraments71 when it is naturally related to the ,sacraments or sacred persons 7e4g41 the sacred vessels1 images and relics of the ,saints71 when it is set aside for the uses of worship 7e4g41 holy water and other sacramentals1 candles for the altar7 or the maintenance of the ,church or its ministers 7viz41 movables and immovables of a parish1 money left for the support of the clergy1 seminarians1 etc474 ,injury is done to the holiness of an object by unworthy treatment or by unjust damage or conversion4 ,examples of unworthy treatment are the following3 the invalid or sinful administration or reception of a ,sacrament1 parodies of ,sacred ,scripture1 scandalous manner of enacting sacred rites or saying prayers1 use of sacred chalices or other sacred vessels or of blessed articles for profane purposes1 use of unblessed holy articles for sordid or ignoble purposes1 handling of chalices1 etc41 by those who have no right to touch sacred vessels 7,canon #acjf74 ,examples of unjust damage or conversion are3 contemptuous breaking or burning of relics1 oils1 pictures used for worship2 theft of moneys or goods belonging to the ,church4 #bcab4 ,special ,cases ,regarding ,local ,sacrilege4--,local sacrilege is not committed by every sin1 even though grave1 that is done in a holy place1 for the character of this sacrilege is that it be such an injury to the sacredness of the place as to make what should be hallowed seem horrible1 or contemptible1 or common4 ,hence1 there is no sacrilege in detractions1 lies1 perjuries1 blasphemies1 or in most internal sins1 when committed in a church or cemetery4 ,but there are two kinds of sins which are sacrilegious profanations of holy places1 namely1 theft and impurity4 7a7 ,theft in a holy place is certainly sacrilegious when the thing taken is sacred 7e4g41 a chalice1 money in the votive stands74 ,it is probably not sacrilegious when the thing taken is not sacred 7e4g41 the pocketbook of a person kneeling in the church71 and if the thing taken was not left in the custody of the place4 ,this matter1 however1 is disputed4 7b7 ,impurity1 if external and perfect 7voluntaria effusio seminis71 is sacrilegious1 though under the ,code it does not seem to be a desecration4 ,the same is probably true of external but imperfect sins 7such as touches1 looks1 words1 gestures74 ,internal acts of impurity are not sacrilegious1 unless they include a desire to sin externally in a holy place4 #bcac4 ,cases ,wherein ,there ,is ,no ,sacrilege4--,in the following cases no sacrilege is committed3 7a7 when the thing violated is not sacred4 ,there is no personal sacrilege in an act of unchastity committed by a person privately vowed to chastity 7common opinon74 ,while some authors teach that personal sacrilege is committed by the violation of poverty and obedience 7see ,merkelbach1 ,summa ,theologiae ,moralis ,,ii1 n4#hjd1 #d71 it seems better to hold the opposite opinion and restrict personal sacrilege to violations of chastity by persons with religious vows or admitted to the religious state4 ,there is no local sacrilege in the profane use of a place devoted to works of piety but not specially set apart for them by ,church authority 7such as a private oratory1 or a hospital conducted by the laity71 nor in the burial of infidels in an unblessed graveyard4 ,there is no real sacrilege in profane use of things which are not set apart exclusively for sacred use 7e4g41 to use the candelabra and candles of the altar to read by in one's room71 or which have not been made sacred 7e4g41 to steal money promised but not delivered to the ,church or the personal belongings of a cleric72 7b7 when the thing injured is sacred1 but the action or omission is not opposed to the attribute in which it is holy1 or to a law made to ensure respect for it4 ,thus1 a person who has the vow of chastity does not commit sacrilege if he becomes intoxicated or uses profane language1 for he was not consecrated against those sins2 a sacred place is not sacrilegiously violated by an act not opposed to its holiness or the respect demanded for it by the law 7e4g41 organ recitals or awards for ,christian ,doctrine in church1 sale of candles in the vestibule1 physical violence against a disturber of divine service74 ,sacrilege is not done in reverently destroying an old and tattered vestment1 in respectfully handling agnus deis1 relics1 unused palls1 and other objects that may be touched by all4 #bcad4 ,sacredness as ,aggravating ,circumstance of ,sin4--,but a sin that is not sacrilegious is often made worse by reason of the sacredness of some thing with which the sin is connected4 7a7 ,thus1 the sin is aggravated by such circumstances as person and place4 ,in this way it is worse for a person vowed to ,god to blaspheme or lie than for one who has no vow2 it is worse to carry on frivolous or calumnious conversations in church than on the street4 7b7 ,the sin receives the additional malice of sacrilege if the sinner expressly intends the circumstance of time1 place1 etc41 in order to show contempt4 ,thus1 it is not sacrilege to get drunk on a ,sunday or holyday1 unless one wishes by the sin to show dishonor to the sacred time2 it is not sacrilege to conduct oneself with levity in church1 unless one wishes by the levity to show contempt for the place4 #bcae4 ,the ,malice of ,sacrilege4--7a7 ,the moral malice of sacrilege is that of irreligiousness 7see #bbii74 ,the three kinds of sacrilege 7personal1 local and real7 are commonly regarded as three distinct species of sin2 for1 just as injuries done to a man's person1 to his immovable property1 and to his movable goods are looked upon in law as different kinds of offenses1 so are injuries offered to the ministers of ,god1 the house of ,god1 and the objects used in the service of ,god unequal in the dishonor which they give to ,god before the public4 ,more probably there are no sub-species of these three classes of sacrilege4 ,hence1 in so far as the disrespect to ,god is concerned1 there seems no essential difference between the sin of violating and that of striking a consecrated virgin4 7b7 ,the theological malice of sacrilege is mortal from the nature of the sin4 ,just as it is gravely insulting to a man to treat his representatives or his home or chattels with contempt1 likewise disrespect for the things of ,god is disrespect for ,god ,himself4 ,the seriousness of sacrilege is seen from the punishments visited on ,core1 ,dathan and ,abiron 7,num41 xvi71 on the sons of ,heli 7,i ,kings1 ii4 #ag1 iv4 #aa71 on ,king ,balthasar 7,dan41 v4 #b sqq471 and on the sellers in the temple 7,john1 ii4 #ad74 ,sacrilege may be venial1 however1 on account of the imperfection of the act 7e4g41 when one strikes a priest without reflecting that he is a clergyman7 or the smallness of the matter 7e4g41 to quote ,scripture in a decent joke1 to use altar linen that is only slightly soiled or torn1 to touch the chalice without permission1 to steal a few pennies from a church74 #bcaf4 ,conditions that ,govern ,gravity of ,sacrilege4--,to decide in a concrete case whether a sacrilege is gravely or lightly sinful1 one should consider the internal state of mind of the offender and the external character of the offense4 7a7 ,thus1 if the purpose is directly and formally to dishonor ,god1 the sin is grave1 but1 if there is some other purpose1 it may be light4 7b7 ,if the thing dishonored is more closely related to ,god1 or if the act of dishonor is in public estimation more insulting1 the sin is more serious4 ,unworthy treatment of the ,eucharist is the worst of sacrileges2 ill-usage of a sacred person is worse than disrespect for a sacred place2 treading the ,sacred ,species under foot is more contemptuous than an unworthy ,communion1 etc4 #bcag4 ,simony4--,simony derives its name from ,simon ,magus1 the first person in ,new ,testament times1 as far as we know1 who committed this crime4 ,for it is written of ,simon 7,acts1 viii4 #ah sqq47 that he attempted to buy from ,st4 ,peter the power of imposition of hands4 ,but the sin was not unknown in the ,old ,testament1 as we see from the examples of ,baalam 7,numb41 xxii4 #g71 ,giezi 7,,iv ,kings1 v4 #bj sqq471 and ,jason 7,,ii ,mach41 iv4 #g sqq474 #bcah4 ,definition of ,simony4--,simony is defined as 8the studied will to buy or sell for a temporal price or consideration something that is spiritual either intrinsically or extrinsically40 7a7 ,simony is in the will1 for it is an act of injustice pretending to have or to receive the right of dominion over spiritual things that belong to ,god alone1 and injustice is a vice of the will4 ,hence1 simony is not an internal sin of the intellect2 for1 though one who practises simony externally makes to some extent a profession of belief in the heresy that man is the owner of spirituals and gives grounds for the suspicion that he holds that the sale of spirituals is lawful1 yet he may know well that the things of ,god are priceless and still wish to give or receive a price for them4 ,again1 simony is not to be identified with the external act of bargaining for spirituals2 for1 though the law punishes only external or completed simony1 the guilt and malice of the sin is present even when one has the desire to traffic in spiritual things1 but makes no overtures or compact4 7b7 ,simony is a studied will2 that is1 it is an act of free and deliberate choice selecting some form of internal or external simony as a desirable means4 ,hence1 it is not sufficient for the sin of simony that there be an internal wish not fully voluntary on account of inculpable ignorance or imperfect consent2 nor1 on the other hand1 is it necessary for incurring the guilt of simony that there be a mutual pact1 but it suffices that one party alone have the will to make the pact or to obligate another party to simony4 7c7 ,it is a wish to buy or sell1 that is1 to give or receive a temporal thing in exchange for a spiritual thing4 ,there is question here1 then1 not only of the contract of sale1 but of any other form of onerous contract1 such as hire1 rent1 loan1 exchange1 do ut des1 facio ut facias1 etc4 ,to be simoniacal1 however1 a contract need not be fulfilled or explicitly manifested2 it suffices that it be unfulfilled or tacitly made1 if the sinful intent can be gathered from the circumstances of the case4 ,hence1 from the present part of the definition it follows that there is no simony in a gratuitous contract 7e4g41 when one gives a gift to another hoping and expecting that the later from gratitude will give in return something spiritual which it is lawful to bestow from gratitude2 when a poor person offers to make a novena for benefactors who give him an alms74 ,it is simony1 however1 to make an onerous contract under the guise of a gratuitous contract1 for example3 8,i give you this money as a pure gift on condition that you will not be ungrateful but will give me this spiritual favor as a pure gift40 7d7 ,the price or consideration in simony is some thing1 action or forbearance which in some way is of advantage to the recipient4 ,simony in the strictest sense is committed when a temporal thing is offered for a spiritual thing 7e4g41 money paid for a ,sacrament72 simony in the wide sense is committed when1 contrary to the law on simony1 things like in character are exchanged 7#bcbc a74 ,thus1 if the ,church forbids ,mass to be exchanged for ,mass1 or benefice for benefice1 or the office of sacristan for that of sexton1 transgressors are guilty of the second form of simony4 7e7 ,the matter of simony is something intrinsically or extrinsically spiritual4 ,in general1 the spiritual is that which proceeds from ,god or tends to ,him as the ,author or ,end of eternal salvation 7viz41 the destiny1 law1 means1 works1 etc41 proposed to us in ,christian revelation and religion74 ,among these things those are intrinsically spiritual that pertain to the supernatural order on account of some inherent character of their own 7e4g41 grace1 ,sacraments1 ,mass1 miracles7 or some intimate union with things spiritual 7e4g41 benefices attached to spiritual offices1 consecration to be given a chalice72 those are extrinsically spiritual that are in themselves temporal1 but in church law are treated as spiritual for the sake of reverence to the intrinsically spiritual 7e4g41 chrism in regard to the material itself of the oil and other ingredients74 ,if the matter of a contract is neither intrinsically nor extrinsically spiritual1 there is no simony in buying or selling it 7e4g41 devotional books1 household furnishings of a rectory1 personal effects of a cleric74 #bcai4 ,temporal ,price in ,simony4--,the temporal price in simony is some temporal good or advantage4 ,st4 ,gregory the ,great distinguishes three kinds of simoniacal prices as follows3 7a7 the price from the hand 7munus a manu7 is either money or things that have a money value1 such as movable or immovable property1 corporeal or incorporeal rights4 ,it would be simony to give a benefice in exchange for a sum of money1 for a loan1 for real estate2 7b7 the price from the tongue 7munus a lingua7 is any kind of patronage1 such as praise1 recommendation1 protection1 defense1 opposition to competitors1 etc4 ,it would be simony to confer a benefice in exchange for the influence in one's favor which the recipient of the benefice would exercise with some powerful person1 for his vote in an election1 etc42 7c7 the price in service 7munus ab obsequio7 is any kind of temporal labor or assistance given for another's benefit1 such as the management of his business or the instruction of his children4 ,it would be simony to grant a benefice in exchange for work done as secretary1 treasurer1 or advisor4 #bcbj4 ,the ,spiritual ,thing in ,simony4--,the thing inherently spiritual in simony is also of three kinds4 7a7 ,that which is spiritual from its nature is a thing that is supernatural in itself1 such as sanctifying grace1 the ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost1 and the power of orders or of jurisdiction4 7b7 ,that which is supernatural from its cause is a thing produced by a supernatural agency or power1 such as health obtained through miracle4 7c7 ,that which is supernatural from its effect is a thing having the virtue of producing supernatural results1 ex opere operato1 or ex opere operantis1 or as an occasion 7e4g41 ,sacraments1 prayers1 sermons74 #bcba4 ,temporal ,thing ,united with ,spiritual4--,in the two following ways things are made spiritual in reference to simony through intimate union with spirituals3 7a7 by necessary connection1 when a temporal thing is so annexed with a spiritual thing that it cannot exist without it4 ,this includes the things annexed consequently1 and perhaps also those annexed concomitantly and intrinsically 7see #bcbb72 7b7 by contractual connection1 when a spiritual and a temporal are the partial objects of a contract1 as when in the sale of a consecrated chalice the price is raised on account of the consecration4 #bcbb4 ,temporal ,thing ,annexed to ,spiritual4--,in three ways a temporal thing is annexed to a spiritual thing4 7a7 ,the temporal thing is annexed antecedently if it precedes the spiritual thing as its prepared or appointed or presupposed matter or subject4 ,thus1 all things that receive a consecration or blessing 7e4g41 chalices1 rosaries7 or a property to which a right of patronage is attached are of this kind4 ,relics are properly of this category1 but1 since they have usually no material value1 it is customary to include them amongst spirituals4 7b7 ,the temporal thing is annexed concomitantly if it is simultaneous with the spiritual thing as being the action or labor that produces it4 ,if the union is essential and inseparable1 the temporal thing is said to be annexed intrinsically 7e4g41 the work performed in saying ,mass1 preaching1 making a sick call72 if the union is not essential1 the temporal thing is said to be annexed extrinsically 7e4g41 the special work performed in saying ,mass1 if it has to be sung1 or said in a distant church1 or at a determined hour74 7c7 ,the temporal thing is annexed consequently when it presupposes the spiritual thing as the cause on which it depends4 ,thus1 the revenues of a parish are a temporal thing1 but they follow on the pastoral office which is a spiritual thing4 #bcbc4 ,the ,various ,kinds of ,simony4--7a7 ,in reference to its matter or the law violated1 simony is either against natural and divine law or against positive ecclesiastical law4 ,simony against divine law consists in the exchange for temporalities of things that are spiritual or intimately annexed to the spiritual 7see #bcba71 such as ,sacraments1 indulgences1 or jurisdiction4 ,simony against church law consists in an exchange that has the appearance of simony against divine law1 or that easily leads to simony against the divine law1 and is consequently forbidden by the ,church in order to safeguard religious respect for sacred things1 as when one violates the law by taking money for holy oils4 ,in the former kind of simony1 things of different orders 7spirituals and temporals7 are exchanged one for the other2 in the latter kind of simony1 things of the same sort 7spirituals for spirituals1 temporals for temporals1 etc47 are exchanged where the law forbids 7,canon #gbg74 7b7 ,in reference to its manner1 or the way in which it is committed1 simony is internal or external4 ,internal simony is the will1 without the external agreement1 to exchange spirituals for temporals2 it is purely mental if nothing external is done by reason of the internal will2 it is not purely mental if something external is done by reason of the internal will 7e4g41 if the person who desires to commit simony makes a money present to another in the hope that the latter will feel morally bound to give something spiritual in return1 or if one gives something spiritual looking for a substantial gift of money as compensation74 ,external simony is an outward pact freely entered into between two parties to exchange spirituals for temporals4 ,it is called purely conventional1 if neither party has as yet performed his part of the agreement2 it is semi-real or mixed1 if one of the parties has executed his part2 it is real if both parties have performed1 at least in part1 what they agreed to4 ,a simoniacal compact is explicit1 if expressed by clear words or signs 7e4g41 8,i will pay #ajj for your vote072 it is tacit1 if circumstances indicate the evil intention 7e4g41 very unusual presents given before an election74 #bcbd4 ,confidential ,simony4--,simony committed in reference to benefices is called confidential because the contract is illegal1 giving no judicial protection1 and there is only the confidence or reliance on another's word to give assurance that the agreement will be kept4 ,canonists discuss at length the following contracts in which it is committed3 7a7 the contract per accessum grants a benefice with the agreement that the grantee will later resign1 so that access to it may be had by the grantor or a third party at present incapable2 7b7 the contract per ingressum resigns a benefice not yet taken possession of with the understanding that the person who now enters into possession will leave the place open for his predecessor if he himself resigns or is promoted2 7e7 the contract per regressum resigns a benefice already possessed with the understanding that it may be recovered by the person now resigning or by a third party2 7d7 the contract per reservationem partis obtains a benefice for another with the stipulation that he will pay a certain percentage of its revenues to the person who obtains it for him or to a third party 7see ,canon #adda74 #bcbe4 ,simony ,against ,divine ,law4--,simony against divine law is committed in reference to spiritual things when a temporal price is formally or virtually given or received for them4 7a7 ,thus1 the temporal thing is formally set up as the price1 when it is regarded or treated as the end of the spiritual thing or action itself 7finis operis71 one of the things exchanged being used as the measure of value of the other4 ,this happens when a person wills to buy or sell a spiritual thing1 either because he thinks that its value may be expressed in terms of money or other temporal thing1 or because he judges that he should treat it as though money were its equivalent1 as when one fulfills a spiritual office and excludes every other motive than that of lucre 7,denzinger1 n4 #aaif74 7b7 ,the temporal thing is virtually set up as the price1 when it is intended as the sole proximate end of the agent himself 7finis operantis71 though there is no explicit thought about values or prices or comparisons4 ,this happens when one gives a temporal thing and has no other immediate personal purpose in this act than the acquisition of a spiritual thing1 or performs a pretendedly gratuitous service1 intending thereby to obligate the beneficiary to the grant of some spiritual benefit1 or bestows a 8gratuitous0 temporal favor as compensation for a spiritual benefit or vice versa 7,denzinger1 n4 #aaie74 ,this is simony1 for he who explicitly intends only an exchange1 implicitly intends a price2 and if it were not simony1 then simony would be almost entirely an entity of the mind1 since it is a very simple matter to will that the temporal thing exchanged shall be not the price1 but only the motive of the contract or gratuitous compensation4 #bcbf4 ,the temporal thing is not made the virtual price of the spiritual thing1 if there is a lawful proximate motive 7i4e41 one recognized by the ,canons or legitimate custom7 for giving the temporal thing and the desire of receiving the spiritual thing is only the remote reason or occasion of the act4 ,for in such a case the temporal thing is given for a lawful purpose and is not the price of a spiritual thing4 ,examples3 7a7 ,if the recipient of the temporal thing has a right to it1 there is no simony4 ,thus1 the ministers of the altar have a right to their support 7see #bahf71 and it is not simoniacal1 when asking spiritual things from them 7e4g41 the application of ,mass to one's intention1 the performance of ,sacraments and sacred functions71 to offer a stipend or fee2 7b7 if the bestower of the temporal thing gives it freely out of pure friendship1 liberality1 charity1 gratitude or good will1 so that it is an absolute gift1 there is no simony1 even though he hopes or expects that he will receive something spiritual as a mark of appreciation4 ,but 8a charitable or friendly gift0 may easily be palliated simony2 that is1 there may be a pretense of liberality to conceal the real purpose of purchasing spirituals with temporals4 #bcbg4 ,rules of ,alexander ,,iii for ,determining ,simony4--,alexander ,,iii gave several rules for determining whether a gift is made from liberality or with simoniacal intent4 7a7 ,the following are marks of simoniacal intent3 the quality of the giver 7e4g41 that he is poor1 or in great need1 or not customarily generous71 the quantity of the gift 7e4g41 that it corresponds with the value of a vacant benefice1 that it is surprisingly large71 the time of the gift 7e4g41 that it is made when the donee is not in any special need1 or when he is about to confer an office1 or after hints have been made74 ,if a gift is bestowed in connection with a spiritual thing received1 the presumption is for simoniacal intent1 unless there was a sincere and reasonable motive for the gift4 7b7 ,the following1 on the contrary1 are marks of a liberal intent3 the quality of the giver 7e4g41 that he is wealthy1 noted for kindness and compassion1 or liberal to all1 or is a relative of the donee72 the quantity of the gift 7e4g41 that it is small or normal in size71 the time of the gift 7e4g41 if it is made when necessity1 festal occasion1 or the like calls for it74 #bcbh4 ,simony against ,divine ,law in ,reference to ,things ,annexed to ,spirituals4--7a7 ,it is simony against divine law to buy or sell things annexed to spirituals consequently 7e4g41 the revenues of a benefice7 or concomitantly and intrinsically 7e4g41 the ordinary labor and fatigue connected with preaching1 saying ,mass72 for in the former case the temporal grows out of a spiritual and is morally one with it1 while in the latter case the temporal has no value except in so far as it is joined with the spiritual4 7b7 ,it is not simony against divine law to buy or sell things annexed to spirituals antecedently 7e4g41 blessed candles1 sacred vestments71 if the price is not raised on account of the spiritual thing1 or things annexed concomitantly and extrinsically 7e4g41 the extraordinary labor and fatigue caused by saying ,mass in a distant place or at a late hour72 for in both cases the temporal has its own proper value and is not considered as inseparable from the spiritual4 ,there is simony against divine law1 however1 if the price is raised on account of the spiritual part 7e4g41 if something is added for the blessing given a candle71 and simony against church law if the transaction is forbidden as simoniacal 7e4g41 deductions and payments made in the act of preferment to a benefice are contrary to ,canon #adda74 #bcbi4 ,conditions ,necessary for ,simony against ,ecclesiastical ,law4--7a7 ,there must be an exchange through some kind of onerous contract1 but it suffices that the understanding be tacit and non-executed1 as was explained above 7see #bcbc74 7b7 ,there must be a law of the ,church which1 from a motive of respect for sacred things1 forbids the exchange4 7c7 ,the simoniacal exchange is made1 whether a temporal annexed to a spiritual is given for another temporal annexed to a spiritual 7e4g41 benefice for benefice71 or a spiritual for a spiritual1 or a temporal for a temporal4 ,canonists enumerate the following as examples of simony of ecclesiastical law3 gifts made in connection with a competitive examination for a parochial benefice1 with ordination or grant of certain testimonial letters 7,canon #ede71 with erection of confraternities2 sale of blessed oil or chrism1 or of the right of patronage 7,canon #adgj72 remuneration for collection of stipends or for expenses of ,mass 7,canons #hdj1 #acjc74 #bccj4 ,certain and ,uncertain ,simony4--7a7 ,cases in which simony is certain are the administration of ,sacraments or sacramentals to the unworthy for the sake of the fee or favors1 the sale of indulgences1 taxes or charges made contrary to law 7e4g41 for a ,mass of bination74 ,other examples are given in #bcbc sqq4 ,the ,church demands that certain ministrations 7e4g41 ,confirmation1 ,eucharist1 ,penance1 ,extreme ,unction1 ,orders7 be gratis1 but there may be local customs or conditions that justify exceptions4 ,some moralists teach that there is no simony when a stipend is exacted for an obligatory ministry1 if the simoniacal motive is absent4 7b7 ,cases in which simony is controverted are those in which a tax or stipend in excess of what is just or lawful is exacted 7e4g41 a ,mass stipend higher than custom permits74 ,some claim there is simony1 because the excess must be for the spiritual thing2 others hold that there is no simony1 but only an unjust increase in the stipend allowed for support2 others say that there is no simony in the internal forum if the intent is not simoniacal1 but that there is simony in the external forum on account of the presumption of simoniacal intent4 #bcca4 ,doubtful ,cases of ,simony4--,in some gifts and payments the presence or absence of simony depends on the object for which they are given4 7a7 ,thus1 when they are given for omission of a spiritual act1 there is simony if the omission includes the exercise of spiritual power 7e4g41 to omit absolution is to retain sins or censures72 there is no simony if the omission is the mere exercise of free will 7e4g41 to omit ,mass1 confession74 7b7 ,when they are given for omission of opposition or annoyance1 so that one may be able to obtain some office or benefice1 there is simony if the temporal thing is thereby given for the benefice itself or for the way to it 7i4e41 if one has no strict right to the spiritual thing1 or if the opposition is just71 as when the candidate for a benefice pays a competitor to withdraw1 or pays an accuser to keep silence2 there is no simony if the temporal thing is given for freedom from unjust vexation 7i4e41 if one has a strict right to the spiritual thing and the opposition is clearly unjust1 as when one who has acquired a right to an office pays an enemy to desist from placing impediments74 ,the payment made by ,jacob to ,esau for the birthright1 to which ,jacob was entitled by divine disposition1 may be regarded as having had for its end1 not the paternal blessing and other spiritual rights of the first-born1 but immunity from persecution by ,esau4 7e7 ,when they are given for instruction1 there is simony if the instruction has for its direct purpose the spiritual benefit of the disciple 7e4g41 catechetical instructions1 sermons1 spiritual direction72 there is no simony if the instruction has for its direct purpose the improvement of the mind or the utility or advantage which the disciple will derive from it 7e4g41 instruction in theology1 preparation for examinations74 7d7 ,when they are given for admission to religious life1 there is simony if the money is paid for the religious state itself1 the vows1 or other spirituals2 there is no simony if the money is paid for the temporal support of the religious institute1 that it may be able to meet its expenses4 #bccb4 ,cases in ,which a ,transaction ,is ,not ,simoniacal1 but ,lawful4--7a7 ,there is no simony when a temporal is given on the occasion of but not for a spiritual4 ,this happens when there is a just title for bestowal of the temporal1 such as right of support 7e4g41 pastors' salaries1 ,mass stipends1 fees71 extrinsic values in a work or object 7e4g41 the special labor in saying ,mass under certain conditions1 and1 according to some1 the special affection one has for a relic1 the lucrum cessans on account of some function performed74 7b7 ,there is no simony when something of value is given in exchange1 but not for a spiritual1 nor in contravention of an anti-simony law4 ,this happens whether like be exchanged for like 7e4g41 ,mass for ,mass71 or a temporal for a thing associated with a spiritual as the latter's subject 7e4g41 money for a rosary or cemetery plot which has been blessed74 ,in the former case there is no prohibition2 in the latter1 the temporalities have their own distinct values which may be paid for1 if the price is not raised on account of the spiritual 7see ,canons #gcj1 #aeci74 #bccc4 ,cases in ,which a ,transaction ,is ,not ,simoniacal1 but ,is ,sinful4--7a7 ,sins against ,god4--,one who performs functions of religion primarily and principally1 as far as his personal motive 7finis operantis7 is concerned1 for the salary1 stipend or fee1 is not guilty of simony1 since he does not regard the temporal even virtually as the price of the spiritual4 ,but he does sin by indevotion1 and the sin may even be mortal 7e4g41 a canon goes to choir chiefly because this yields him a living74 ,offenses committed in the matter of ,mass stipends are not called simony in the ,code1 but the penal law classes them with offenses against religion1 as may be seen from ,canon #bcbd4 ,nepotism1 favoritism in giving offices1 and political and dishonest maneuvers to obtain church dignities are not in themselves simoniacal2 but they are an unworthy and scandalous treatment of sacred things4 7b7 ,sins against ,others4--,it is not simony but injustice to deny the ,sacraments to parishioners who do not contribute1 to overcharge in lawful fees1 and also1 according to some1 to take money for the omission of a spiritual act owed in justice 7e4g41 for refusal to hear the confession of a parishioner71 or to demand money as the stipend for the performance of such a spiritual act 7e4g41 for hearing a confession74 ,it is disobedience to take money in ways forbidden 7e4g41 to take ,mass stipends in the confessional1 to earn money by gambling or trading forbidden in the ,canons74 ,again1 it is not strictly simony to put up as the stakes in a game a spiritual thing 7e4g41 the recitation of the ,rosary7 against a temporal thing 7e4g41 ten dollars71 for there is no intention to value the spiritual thing by the temporal2 but such a practice is scandalous4 ,greed about getting or keeping money pertains to avarice1 not necessarily to simony4 #bccd4 ,cases in ,which a ,transaction ,is ,not ,simoniacal1 but ,virtuous4--7a7 ,some acts done in ,god's honor 7e4g41 to purchase a spiritual object1 such as a sacred vessel or relic1 from a person who would misuse it71 when the purchaser intends the prevention of profanation4 ,it is certainly not irreverence to a sacred thing to use means necessary to rescue it from such irreverence4 7b7 ,some acts done for the good of others 7e4g41 to give prizes to children who frequent the ,sacraments or ,sunday school1 dowries to young girls that they may be able to enter religion1 free education to worthy young men as an inducement to embrace the ecclesiastical state74 ,in all these cases there is no purchase of a spiritual thing1 because the temporal is a pure gift1 and the spiritual is received1 not by the giver of the temporal1 but by another4 ,there is no simony in the fees imposed for dispensations or in the alms sometimes prescribed for indulgences2 for the temporal is not a price paid for the spiritual1 but in the one case either a penance or a charge for expenses1 and in the other a spiritual good work and duty prescribed as a condition for a spiritual benefit4 7e7 ,some acts done for the spiritual good of self 7e4g41 if one were in danger of death and could be baptized only by a person ,who demanded money for the service1 it would not be simony to pay the money1 since the price would be offered1 not for the ,sacrament1 but for the removal of an unjust annoyance74 #bcce4 ,theological ,malice of the ,sin of ,simony4--7a7 ,simony against the divine law is a mortal sin from its nature and in every instance4 ,no matter how small the spiritual thing that is sold1 it is priceless1 and a grave injury is done by putting a price on it4 ,simony is a serious injury to ,god1 since it usurps ,his place as the only ,lord of spiritual things 7,i ,cor41 iv1 #a71 to the spiritual things themselves1 since it estimates their worth by vile material gain 7,prov41 iii4 #ae2 ,acts1 viii4 #bj71 and to the recipients1 who should receive the gifts of ,god freely 7,matt1 x1 #h74 ,hence1 ,st4 ,peter denounced ,simon ,magus as deserving of perdition 7,acts1 viii4 #bj71 and in law simony is spoken of as the worst of pests1 a cancer1 leprosy1 a scourge4 7b7 ,simony against ecclesiastical law is a mortal sin from its nature1 since it is forbidden as a protection to religion and under grave sin2 but in particular cases it may be only a venial sin1 since the church laws do not bind under grave sin1 when the matter or the danger is not serious1 as was said in #chb4 #bccf4 ,moral ,malice of the ,sin of ,simony4--7a7 ,simony is reducible to real sacrilege 7see #bcaa c74 ,it is treated separately for the sake of convenience1 on account of the large number of questions that pertain to it1 and also because there is reason to consider it as a distinct species of sin 7#bcjh c74 ,hence1 the moral malice of simony is that of irreligiousness4 7b7 ,simony of divine law and simony of ecclesiastical law1 according to the more common and likely opinion1 are alike in moral malice4 ,for although the mere prohibition of the ,church does not make a non-sacred thing sacred1 it does make the non-sacred thing unsaleable precisely because related to things that are sacred4 ,in other words1 the motive of the law is the protection of sacred things against the appearance or danger of simony1 and the motive of the law is the factor that determines the moral character of precepts and prohibitions of human law4 ,thus1 to miss ,mass on ,sunday is a sin against religion1 because the ,church commands in virtue of religion that ,mass be heard on ,sunday2 to eat meat on ,friday is a sin against temperance1 because the ,church forbids the use of meat on ,friday in virtue of temperance4 ,hence1 it is not merely disobedience1 but simony1 to violate a law which forbids a certain contract because of its nearness to the sale of spirituals for temporals4 ,moreover1 he who willfully exposes himself to the immediate danger of some sin wills the malice of that sin4 #bccg4 ,invalidity and ,penalties of ,simoniacal ,contracts4--7a7 ,every simoniacal contract is invalid and of no force either in the external or in the internal forum1 because it sells what is unsaleable under divine or ecclesiastical law4 ,if the contract has to do with benefices1 offices or dignities 7e4g41 8,you vote as ,i wish and ,i will give you such and such favors10 8,you obtain for me such a dignity and ,i will pay you well071 the appointment to them is rendered null and void1 even though the simoniacal act be done by a third party without the knowledge of the beneficiary1 unless it be done by that third party to injure the beneficiary or against his protest 7,canon #gbi74 ,invalidity is also produced in case of simoniacal resignations 7,canon #ahe71 commissions 7,canon #adda71 presentations 7,canon #adfe1 ,sec4 #b71 and prescription does not operate for one who holds a benefice obtained through simony 7,canon #addf74 7b7 ,certain simoniacal contracts subject the guilty parties to special punishments4 ,thus1 the penalty for simony in appointments1 elections or promotions to office and dignities is excommunication latae sententiae reserved simply to the ,holy ,see1 and deprivation forever of all right of nominating1 voting1 presenting1 and suspension 7,canon #bcib72 the penalty for simony in elevation to ,orders or in use of other sacraments is suspicion of heresy and suspension reserved to the ,holy ,see 7,canon #bcga74 #bcch4 ,when the ,canonical ,penalties for ,simony ,do ,not ,apply4--7a7 ,purely mental simony is not subject to ecclesiastical penalties1 since the ,church does not pronounce on internal acts4 ,but this does not take away the serious guilt in the sight of ,god4 7b7 ,external simony is subject to ecclesiastical penalties1 but canonists dispute about the meaning of certain ,canons1 for example1 whether only real simony falls under the punishments latae sententiae1 whether the penalties of ,canons #gbi and #bcib apply only to simony of divine law1 or to simony of ecclesiastical law as well4 #bcci4 ,influence of ,simony on ,spiritual ,effects4--7a7 ,on ,effects of the ,power of ,orders4--,sacraments administered simoniacally are valid1 for the law nullifies only the contract made about the ,sacrament1 not the ,sacrament itself4 ,it seems also that in the case of sacramentals 7such as simple blessings imposed on articles7 the blessing is not lost by sale of the article1 provided the price is asked only for the object and not for the blessing4 ,a blessed or consecrated object loses its blessing or consecration when it is put up for public sale 7,canon #acje74 7b7 ,on ,effects of the ,power of ,jurisdiction4--,acts of jurisdiction are valid in spite of simony1 unless there is special provision to the contrary4 ,indulgences are lost ipso facto1 if anything temporal is taken for the indulgenced object 7,canon #ibd74 ,religious profession1 it seems1 is valid1 even though simoniacal4 #bcdj4 ,restitution of the ,temporal ,price ,received for a ,spiritual ,thing4--7a7 ,if the simoniacal contract is semi-real 7that is1 if the spiritual consideration has not been received71 the price must be restored2 for we have then the case of an immoral and unexecuted contract 7see #ahgh d74 7b7 ,if the simoniacal contract is real 7that is1 if the spiritual consideration has been received71 the price should be given back2 for the case then is one of commutative justice1 a temporal price being taken for a thing 7e4g41 a blessing7 that has no temporal price1 or for a service that one was bound to give gratis 7e4g41 parochial sermon by the pastor74 ,but if a service was not obligatory1 it is held by some that there is no certain duty of restitution1 if the spiritual thing cannot be restored 7e4g41 when one received a stipend for a ,mass of bination or demanded an excessive fee for a sacred function74 #bcda4 ,restitution of the ,temporal ,price ,received for ,temporal ,things ,annexed to ,spirituals4--,restitution is obligatory as follows3 7a7 when commutative justice is violated1 as when one charges for a blessed candle or rosary in excess of its market value or just price1 or when by fear or force one compels another to exchange a chalice for a ciborium2 7b7 when law or judicial sentence imposes restitution as a penalty for an offense1 as when for money one has resigned one's benefice in favor of another person4 #bcdb4 ,circumstances of ,restitution for ,simony4--7a7 ,the ,time for ,restitution4--,if simony is against natural law1 restitution is due before sentence2 if against ecclesiastical law only1 restitution is due only after sentence4 7b7 ,the ,person to ,whom ,restitution ,is to ,be ,made4--,satisfaction should be given to the owner1 or injured party 7e4g41 to the person who was charged for a blessing71 or1 if this is impossible1 to the poor or pious causes4 ,the revenues derived from a benefice simoniacally obtained should be restored to the church to which the benefice belongs1 unless this is advantageous to the guilty parties1 or probably to charity1 or religion1 or the successor in the benefice4 7c7 ,excuses from ,restitution4--,impossibility1 condonation or the permission of the ,church1 express or presumed1 excuses from the duty of restitution4 #bcdc4 ,restitution of ,spiritual ,thing ,simoniacally ,received4--,the spiritual thing simoniacally received must be restored even before the sentence of the judge 7,canon #gbi1 ,sec4#a74 7a7 ,thus1 if it is a benefice1 office or dignity that was obtained or conferred through simony1 it must be resigned2 nor may the guilty party keep the fruits1 unless he was in good faith and permission is given4 7b7 ,if the spiritual thing is something other than a benefice1 it should likewise be given up1 provided it is of a kind that can be restored 7e4g41 it is impossible to restore a ,sacrament received or a consecration given to a church7 and restitution will not cause irreverence 7e4g41 it would be irreverent to restore blessed objects or relics to the seller if he meant to profane them74 ,art4 #f3 ,,the ,,remaining ,,potential ,,parts ,,of ,,justice2 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,piety2 ,,the ,,commandments 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #aja-abb47 #bcdd4 ,having treated of religion1 the chief potential part of justice1 we shall new consider the remaining subsidiary virtues of the present group1 namely1 piety1 reverence1 truthfulness1 gratitude1 vindication1 friendship1 liberality1 equity 7see #bada-badc74 #bcde4 ,the ,virtue of ,piety4--,in general1 piety is the virtue that inclines one to show due recognition of indebtedness to those from whom one has received life and existence4 ,there are three senses of the word3 7a7 in its strictest meaning1 it refers to the dutifulness owed to the immediate or secondary causes of our being1 namely1 parents and country2 7b7 in a derived meaning1 it is applied to the religious duties owed to ,god1 who is our ,heavenly ,father and the ,first ,author of our being4 ,hence1 those who are faithful to the worship of ,god are called pious and the divine services are known as works of piety2 7c7 in its widest meaning1 piety is applied to works of mercy1 since they are most pleasing to ,god as a tribute of filial devotion4 ,the merciful man has pity 7piety71 because his kindness to the unfortunate honors ,god more than victims or sacrifices4 ,hence1 since ,god is merciful1 ,he ,himself is sometimes called pious3 8,the ,lord is compassionate 7pius7 and merciful0 7,ecclus41 ii4 #ac74 #bcdf4 ,definition of ,piety4--,piety in the strictest sense is defined as 8a moral virtue that inclines one to pay to father and fatherland the duty of respect and assistance that is owed them as the authors and sustainers of our being40 7a7 ,it is a moral virtue1 one pertaining to justice1 and hence it differs from the special duty of charity owed to parents and country 7see #aaeh1 #aaga sqq474 ,charity loves parents and country out of love for ,god whose creatures they are2 piety honors them in recognition of the benefits received from them and the authority vested in them4 7b7 ,piety is shown to father and fatherland2 that is1 just as religion gives worship to ,god in acknowledgment of ,his excellence and our dependence upon ,him1 so does piety show due respect to those who hold the place of ,god in our respect on earth4 ,filial piety is owed to the mother as well as to the father1 and in a less degree to other relatives1 inasmuch as they share or continue the blood of one's parents and may be regarded as representing them 7e4g41 brothers and sisters1 husband or wife74 ,patriotism belongs to one's native land or the country1 nation1 state1 city1 etc41 of which one is a citizen2 and it should include1 not only fellow-citizens1 but also the friends and allies of one's country4 ,he who is the adopted citizen of a country should love the place of his birth1 but loyalty and obedience are owed to the nation to which he has transferred his allegiance4 7c7 ,piety offers respect and assistance4 ,the first duty is owed to parents on account of their position of progenitors and superiors2 the second is owed to their condition when they are infirm or destitute or otherwise in need4 ,it is more probable that filial piety is violated only when the personal goods 7e4g41 life1 health1 body1 fame1 honor7 of parents are injured1 and that injury to their real goods pertains to fraud1 theft or damage1 rather than to impiety4 ,moreover1 on account of the community of goods that exists between parents and children1 real injuries between them are not rigorously acts of injustice and require more than the ordinary grave matter for serious sin 7see #aijb74 7d7 ,piety is owed to parents and country as the authors and sustainers of our being4 ,thus1 it differs from legal justice1 which is the duty owed the ,state or community1 precisely as it is the whole of which one is a part4 ,it differs likewise from commutative justice1 which is obligatory in agreements with parents or other superiors1 for the duty is then owed them as partners to a free contract4 ,on account of this nobility of the formal object1 filial piety and patriotism are very like to religion and rank next after it in the catalogue of virtues4 #bcdg4 ,the ,reverence ,required by ,piety4--7a7 ,parents should be honored internally by the esteem in which their parental dignity and merits 7not their personal failings7 are held2 externally1 by the marks of respect customarily shown to parents4 7b7 ,relatives should receive a lower degree of respect commensurate with the nearness and quality of the kinship4 ,thus1 parents should treat their children with the consideration owed to members of the family1 and not as servants or strangers1 brothers and sisters and relatives of remoter degree should give one another that courtesy and regard which respect for common parents or ancestors calls for4 ,lineal relatives are nearer than collaterals1 and elder relatives 7such as grandparents1 uncles and aunts7 are more entitled to respect than younger relatives 7such as grandchildren1 nephews and nieces74 7e7 ,country should be honored1 not merely by the admiration one feels for its greatness in the past or present1 but also and primarily by the tender feeling of veneration one has for the land that has given one birth1 nurture and education4 ,even though a country be poor and humble1 it should be patriotically revered 7,ps4 cxxxvi74 ,external manifestations of piety towards country are the honors given its flag and symbols1 marks of appreciation of its citizenship 7,acts1 xxi4 #ci71 and efforts to promote its true glory at home and abroad4 #bcdh4 ,the ,assistance ,required by ,piety4--7a7 ,parents should be helped in their needs1 spiritual or temporal4 ,if they are sick1 they should be visited2 if they are poor1 they should be assisted2 if they are in need of the ,sacraments or prayers or suffrages1 these spiritual means should be provided4 ,but a son is not bound to pay the debts of his deceased father who left him nothing1 since the debt was a personal one4 7b7 ,relatives should also be assisted in their needs1 especially if the necessity is urgent and the relationship close 7as in the case of brothers and sisters74 ,but this duty is not as strict as that owed to parents1 and1 if the relationship is distant1 there is no special obligation of piety4 7c7 ,country is helped by the aid given to fellow-countrymen who are in moral1 mental or corporal need4 ,the noblest patriots are those who devote their lives1 labors or substance to the promotion of religion1 education and contentment among their people1 to the correction of real evils that threaten decay or disaster to the national life1 and to the preservation of those special ideals and institutions that constitute what is characteristic and best in the nation4 #bcdi4 ,sins against ,piety4--7a7 ,by ,excess4--,exaggerated respect for relatives or country is a sin1 since it is not according to order or reason4 ,thus1 while children should not dishonor their parents under the pretext of religion 7,matt41 xv4 #c-i71 neither should they be more devoted to their parents than to ,god 7,luke1 xiv4 #bf2 ,matt41 viii4 #bb71 nor neglect ,god's call when their parents do not need them 7,matt41 iv4 #bb74 ,thus also1 patriotism should not degenerate into patriolatry1 in which country is enshrined as a god1 all-perfect and all-powerful1 nor into jingoism or chauvinism1 with their boastfulness or contempt for other nations and their disregard for international justice or charity4 7b7 ,by ,defect4--,disrespect for parents is felt when they are despised on account of their poverty1 ignorance1 or feebleness2 it is shown by word 7e4g41 when they are addressed in bitter1 reproachful1 or contemptuous speech2 or when they are ill spoken of to others71 by signs 7e4g41 when mocking gestures or mimicry are used to ridicule them71 by deeds 7e4g41 when they are threatened or struck71 and by omissions 7e4g41 when their children are too proud to recognize them or to give them tokens of honor74 ,disrespect for one's country is felt when one is imbued with anti-nationalistic doctrines 7e4g41 the principles of ,internationalism which hold that loyalty is due to a class1 namely1 the workers of the world or a capitalistic group1 and that country should be sacrificed to selfish interests2 the principle of ,humanitarianism1 which holds that patriotism is incompatible with love of the race2 the principle of ,egoism which holds that the individual has no obligations to society72 it is practised when one speaks contemptuously about country1 disregards its good name or prestige1 subordinates its rightful pre-eminence to a class1 section1 party1 personal ambition1 or greed1 etc4 #bcej4 ,malice of ,sins against ,piety4--7a7 ,the moral malice is distinct from that of other sins1 since injustice committed against the debt owed to the human principle of existence has a special character of wrong1 as being opposed to a special kind of right4 ,parricide and matricide have always been looked on as having a peculiar enormity among sins of homicide2 and similarly1 disrespect to father and mother are greater evils than disrespect to persons who have no like claim to honor4 ,hence1 he who has struck his father must mention the circumstance of relationship in confession1 since it is a circumstance that changes the species of the sin4 ,but he who has struck his fourth cousin need not confess the relationship1 for distant kinship1 though an aggravating circumstance1 does not give the injury the character of impiety4 7b7 ,the theological malice of the sin is grave from the sin's nature1 since piety ranks next to religion and is the object of a special commandment and promise from ,god4 ,but the sin may be venial on account of lightness of the offense 7e4g41 when young children answer back or speak saucily to their parents1 but without contempt7 or on account of the lesser importance of the person offended 7e4g41 when a brother slaps his brother1 the sin is not as serious as when a child strikes his parent74 ,children who have been seriously disrespectful to their parents are obliged to beg pardon2 but to impose the obligation regularly in confession is deemed unwise1 since insistence may only lead the penitent to new sins1 and moreover the forgiveness of parents may generally be presumed when there is amendment4 #bcea4 ,the ,virtue of ,reverence4--,this virtue is known in ,latin as observantia1 because its object is persons of authority1 whom it carefully observes in order to revere their dignity and to learn their commands4 ,it is defined as 8a moral virtue which inclines one to render to persons of higher position the tribute of honor and obedience that is due their authority40 7a7 ,it is a moral virtue1 that is1 one concerned immediately with the direction of human acts4 ,reverence belongs to justice because it renders to others what is due them4 7b7 ,the persons to whom it does justice are those of higher position1 that is1 superiors who rule over us or over others1 and men distinguished for virtue1 knowledge or other excellent qualities that make them fit to govern4 ,superior here does not mean that the person who receives reverence must be in every way better than the person who shows reverence 7e4g41 he who is superior in jurisdiction owes some reverence to a subject who is more learned or virtuous than himself71 or that there must be inequality between the one who gives and the one who receives reverence 7e4g41 two distinguished persons of equal rank and merit owe mutual reverence to each other on account of the superiority which each has to many others74 7c7 ,the reason for reverence is the authority vested in these persons1 that is1 the excellence of their state1 which gives them a higher dignity than others1 and their office of ruling1 which empowers them to direct a subject to his proper end4 ,here we see that reverence is a distinct virtue1 for1 while piety and reverence are both forms of veneration1 the motive of each is different4 ,thus1 a child owes to his father piety1 because from the father was received the beginning of his life1 and reverence1 because from the father is received direction to his end4 ,again1 a subject owes the rulers of his country both piety and reverence3 piety1 as regards their relation to the common good and the nation 7e4g41 when the ruler is given his special salute71 reverence1 as regards their personal rank and glory 7e4g41 when assistance is given the ruler to lessen the burden of his office74 7d7 ,the first tribute paid by reverence is honor1 which is a testimony given to worth1 and is offered to the dignity or rank of the superior4 ,honor differs from reverence as the effect differs from the cause1 or the means from the end2 for it is reverence that prompts one to show honor1 and honor is meant to excite in others reverence for the person honored4 ,the debt of honor is due those who are superior in jurisdiction1 from legal justice2 it is due to those who are superiors1 but not in jurisdiction1 not from legal justice1 since the law does not enforce it1 but from moral obligation1 since it is decent and becoming4 7e7 ,the second tribute of reverence is obedience1 which is submission to law1 and is offered to the ruling power of the superior4 ,this tribute of reverence is paid only to one's own ruling superior1 since others have no power to impose upon one their will or precept4 #bceb4 ,species of ,honor4--7a7 ,as to kinds1 there is common honor which is shown to all and by all 7e4g41 ,god honors the ,saints1 and ,tobias and ,mardochaeus were honored by their sovereigns71 and the special honor of homage which includes submission and is shown only by inferiors or servants to their superiors or masters4 7b7 ,as to modes1 there is honor in general and praise1 which is a special form of honor2 ,praise is given in speech or writing2 honor is shown not only by words1 but also by deeds 7e4g41 by salutations1 prostrations7 and things 7e4g41 by monuments1 presents1 banquets1 titles74 7c7 ,as to motives1 there is civil honor 7i4e41 the respect shown to the temporal authority of rulers1 teachers1 employers1 etc471 religious honor 7i4e41 the respect shown to the spiritual authority of the ,pope1 bishops1 priests1 etc471 and supernatural honor 7i4e41 the respect given to the virtue of holy men74 ,this last honor is known as dulia 7service7 when offered to the ,saints who reign with ,christ in heaven1 as hyperdulia 7superior service7 when offered to the ,mother of ,god4 #bcec4 ,obligation of ,showing ,honor to ,deserving ,excellence4--7a7 ,common honor should be given to all who are not irrevocably evil and malignant1 that is1 it should be shown to all creatures1 the damned excepted4 ,for1 as was said above1 there is no one who is not possessed of superiority in some respect1 and it is even reasonable to believe that the most unpromising person is better than oneself in some quality or other4 ,hence1 the ,scriptures admonish us to honor all 7,i ,peter1 ii4 #ag71 to be beforehand in giving honor to one another 7,rom41 xii4 #aj71 and humbly to believe that others are superior 7,phil41 ii4 #c74 ,but in bestowing honor1 while one should have at least in general an honorable opinion of others1 the duty of external honor does not oblige at all times or in all circumstances2 and the same kind of honor is not to be given by or to all persons4 ,those who show the ordinary signs of charity 7as they should7 in greetings1 salutations1 courtesies1 and the like1 comply sufficiently with the duty of common honor4 7b7 ,special honor should be given all those who have a right to it3 8,tribute to whom tribute is due1 honor to whom honor is due0 7,rom41 xiii4 #g74 ,thus1 rulers and prelates should be given the respect due their station1 even though personally they are wicked1 for in the honor given their rank reverence is shown to ,god1 whose ministers they are1 and to the community which they represent4 ,there is a moral1 though not a legal1 obligation to honor men distinguished for holiness for their own sakes since1 while honor is not a sufficient reward of virtue1 it is a distinguished mark of recognition1 and for the sake of others1 since virtue in honor is like a lamp placed upon a stand and shining for many 7,matt41 v4 #ae74 #bced4 ,obligation of the ,religious ,cult of ,dulia4--7a7 ,there is no strict duty of giving veneration to the ,blessed ,virgin1 the ,angels1 ,saints1 images1 or relics1 for absolutely speaking it suffices for salvation to adore ,god4 ,but it is of faith that the cult of these holy persons and things is lawful and useful2 hence he who should neglect it would not merely disregard the earnest advice of the ,church1 but he would also deny to ,god's friends and heroes the honors they deserve 7,ecclus41 xliv4 #a2 ,heb41 xi71 and would deprive himself of precious helps of intercession and inspiration4 ,some believe it is at least venially sinful never to invoke the ,blessed ,virgin1 and surely there would be sin--and perhaps even grave sin1 per accidens--if the neglect was scandalous or perilous to salvation4 7b7 ,there is an obligation in performing acts of cult to make the veneration suitable to the dignity of the object 7e4g41 to the ,mother of ,god belongs hyperdulia1 to the ,saints of ,god dulia2 to holy persons is given absolute cult1 to holy objects relative cult7 and conformable to the laws of the ,church 7e4g41 the titles of ,venerable1 ,blessed1 ,saint are conferred only by the ,church2 public cult may be performed only by those authorized to act in the name of the ,church and only by such rites as have been approved74 ,it is lawful privately to pray to infants who died after ,baptism1 and1 according to many1 to the souls in ,purgatory2 but it would be superstitious to give to the damned or false saints the cult that belongs only to the canonized ,saints4 #bcee4 ,obedience4--,obedience is a moral virtue annexed to justice which inclines one to comply promptly and willingly with the command of one's superior1 because it is a command and obligatory4 7a7 ,obedience is prompt and willing1 and so it differs from forced or unwilling or tardy submission and from servile and politic obedience 7which would not obey were it not for fear or self-interest71 for these lack either the good will or the good motive required by virtue4 ,note also that the virtue of obedience differs from the vow of obedience in this1 that the vow obliges to the external performance of a command1 while the virtue includes also internal submission4 7b7 ,it is shown to a superior4 ,between equals there is not obedience in the strict sense1 though one of them may out of charity or friendship yield to what the other desires4 7c7 ,it is compliance with a command1 that is1 with a law or precept imposed by authority4 ,some authorities hold that it is an act of obedience to fulfill the known will of a superior1 even though it has not been imposed as obligatory2 but others see in such a fulfillment1 not obedience1 but the perfection or spirit of obedience4 ,thus1 if a son knows that his father wishes him to perform a certain work1 but has received no orders to do it and leaves it undone1 this omission according to the first opinion is disobedience1 while according to the second it is a want of the spirit of obedience4 7d7 ,it obeys precisely because the superior's will has been expressed as a command4 ,it is this intention that sets off obedience from other acts of virtue about commanded matters4 ,there is a material obedience which is a circumstance of other virtues and may be called a general virtue 7e4g41 when one keeps the first commandment out of love for ,god1 there is charity2 when one keeps the seventh commandment out of love of honesty1 there is justice74 ,the formal obedience of which we now speak is a peculiar and distinct virtue1 because it keeps the law simply because it is law and as such should be kept4 #bcef4 ,power of ,jurisdiction and ,dominative ,power4--,there are two kinds of power that confer moral authority to impose a command--the power of jurisdiction and dominative power4 7a7 ,the power of jurisdiction is had by one who rules in a perfect society 7,church or ,state71 which has supreme authority and the right to impose laws4 7b7 ,dominative power is had by one who rules in an imperfect society1 which has dependent authority and the right to impose precepts only4 ,this power arises either from the very nature of society as a body composed of superior and subjects 7e4g41 in the family the children are necessarily subject to the father71 or from agreement between the parties concerned 7e4g41 the wife by marrying becomes subject to her husband1 the servant by taking employment becomes subject to the employer1 the religious by entering a community or by vowing obedience becomes subject to the superior74 #bceg4 ,degrees of ,obedience4--,ascetical authors distinguish three degrees of obedience3 7a7 external obedience1 which performs with exactness the thing commanded though there is no heart or willingness in its act2 7b7 internal obedience1 which joins willingness to external submission though the judgment doubts the wisdom or value or good faith of the command2 7c7 blind obedience1 which submits the judgment itself to the superior's judgment1 provided of course the thing ordered is not clearly sinful 7,matt1 ix4 #i2 ,gen41 xxii4 #c sqq42 ,matt41 ii4 #ac sqq474 #bceh4 ,comparison of ,obedience with the ,other ,virtues4--7a7 ,obedience1 as was explained above 7#bcee71 is distinct from the other virtues on account of its different formal object4 ,its act is found sometimes joined with other virtues 7e4g41 to fast during ,lent in order to keep the law is an act of obedience1 but it is also an act of temperance if actuated by love of moderation1 or an act of religion if offered as homage to ,god72 but obedience may be separate from other virtues1 as when a superior commands or forbids something indifferent in order to try a subject's obedience 7e4g41 to take a walk solely because it has been commanded is an act of obedience only74 7b7 ,obedience is less perfect than the theological virtues1 since it belongs to the moral virtues1 which are not directly concerned with ,god ,himself but with the means to union with ,him 7,i ,tim41 i4 #e74 ,among those moral virtues that consist in contempt of temporal things1 obedience which serves ,god in all things has a certain preeminence1 inasmuch as it contemns for ,god's sake the noblest human good1 one's own will1 whereas the other virtues contemn lower goods 7those of the body and external things72 on the other hand1 obedience is inferior to religion1 since1 while obedience consists in veneration of the law1 religion consists in veneration of ,god ,himself4 ,but acts of worship performed without devotion or without regard for ,god's will are not to be compared with respectful obedience1 since the former are sins and the latter is both religious and obedient2 hence1 it is said that obedience is better than sacrifice 7,i ,kings1 xv4 #bb71 which means that internal devotion is to be preferred to mere external worship4 ,spiritual writers praise obedience as the guardian of all the virtues and the safe road in which they walk 7,prov41 xxi4 #bh74 #bcei4 ,comparison of ,acts of ,obedience4--7a7 ,all acts of obedience are of the same species1 since in spite of diversity of superiors or of laws there is always in obedience the same essential character on account of the motive4 ,whoever may be the superior or whatever may be the law1 the reason for obedience is always the authority that commands and the obligation that it imposes4 ,thus1 whether one obeys ,god1 or the ,church1 or the ,state1 or parents1 the virtue is always one and the same4 7b7 ,all acts of obedience are not of the same perfection1 for circumstances 7e4g41 the willingness1 the duration1 the difficulty7 add to the merit of obedience4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that to obey by performing what one likes is not necessarily less virtuous than to obey by performing what one dislikes2 for the thing liked may be something hard that appeals to few and may be performed from a spirit of willing obedience1 whereas the thing that is disliked may be something easy and may be performed with less willingness4 #bcfj4 ,the ,duty of ,obedience4--,since obedience is obligatory because a superior has the right to command1 the extent of the duty depends on the extent of the superior's authority4 7a7 ,thus1 ,god must be obeyed in all things that ,he commands1 for ,he is ,lord of all and cannot command what is unlawful3 8,let us do all that the ,lord has spoken and we shall be obedient0 7,exod41 xxiv4 #g74 ,man is not bound1 however1 to wish all that ,god wishes in particular1 since ,god wishes things from the viewpoint of the universal good1 and the creature from the viewpoint of the limited good known to him 7e4g41 it is not lawful for man to wish the damnation or the misfortune of those whom ,god will permit to suffer these evils72 but man is bound to wish that which ,god desires him to wish 7e4g41 that his neighbor will not be lost1 that his father will not now die74 ,neither is man bound to perform what ,god proposed to him as a counsel4 ,in certain instances 7,gen41 xxii4 #b2 ,exod41 xii4 #cf2 ,osee1 i4 #b7 it appears that ,god commanded sin1 but only a foolish or blasphemous person would interpret the facts in that impossible sense4 ,in the physical order1 a miracle wrought by ,god is not contrary to the law of nature established by ,him1 but to the usual course of nature2 and similarly the commands referred to were not contrary to the laws of virtue1 but to the usual manner of virtue1 as was explained in #cjh sqq4 7b7 ,man must be obeyed in all those things in which he has lawful authority to command1 first1 because ,god ,himself requires this and he who resists resists ,god 7,rom1 xii4 #b72 next1 because without obedience the peaceful order of society cannot be maintained4 ,even though the superior be wicked or an infidel1 obedience is due him1 for it is given him1 not in his personal1 but in his official capacity 7,matt1 xxiii4 #b1 #c74 ,the ,scriptures command obedience to all classes of lawful superiors1 whether ecclesiastical 7,heb1 xiii4 #ag71 civil 7,titus1 iii4 #a2 ,i ,peter1 ii4 #ac71 or domestic 7,eph1 vi4 #a1 v4 #bb-bd1 vi4 #e-h74 #bcfa4 ,when ,obedience ,is ,not ,lawful or ,obligatory4--,obedience to a human superior is not lawful or not obligatory in those matters in which the superior has no authority to command4 7a7 ,it is not lawful to obey a human superior when his command is clearly contrary to the command of a higher superior1 and therefore unlawful4 ,thus1 one may not obey any human superior when he orders sin1 even a venial sin1 for we must obey ,god rather than man 7,acts1 v4 #bi2 ,rom41 iii4 #h72 neither may one obey a subordinate official who commands something clearly opposed to the law or to the regulations of his own superior4 ,it does not belong to the subject1 however1 to sit in judgment on his superior1 and hence1 unless the unlawfulness of a command is manifest1 the subject must presume that it is lawful4 7b7 ,it is not necessary to obey a human superior when his command exceeds his competency1 or when he orders things over which he has no control4 ,thus1 ,god alone has authority over the internal action of the soul and over the natural state of the body2 and as regards these things all men are equal1 one indeed being less perfect mentally or bodily than another1 but none being subject to another in these matters4 ,divine law regulates the interior 7e4g41 the command to believe1 the prohibition to covet71 but human law is confined to external acts2 divine law can regulate things pertaining to the nature of the body 7e4g41 ,god could command an individual to marry1 or to observe virginity1 or to abstain from all food71 but human law is concerned with external things1 in which men are unequal1 and it cannot take away natural rights to life or the means thereto 7see #bib on ,inalienable ,rights74 ,moreover1 even as regards external acts and things1 the authority of a superior is limited by the bounds which its nature gives it2 for example1 temporal authority cannot command spiritual acts1 a ruler placed over one territory or group cannot command for others1 a constitutional body cannot make laws beyond the powers conferred by its constitution1 ecclesiastical laws or customs rejected by the ,code cannot be enforced1 etc4 ,it is clear1 too1 that no superior may command the execution of what is physically or morally impossible1 and generally a subject should not be required to practise heroic virtue 7e4g41 to expose his life to danger2 see #cgd74 ,if a command is plainly ridiculous 7that is1 if it lacks a reasonable motive71 it would be more perfect to obey1 but it seems it would not be a sin to disregard it4 #bcfb4 ,obedience in ,cases ,where ,there ,is ,normally ,no ,obligation4--,if a superior oversteps his authority1 the subject may obey when the matter is lawful and the motive of submission is good4 ,in certain cases it is even obligatory to obey a superior in matters over which normally he would not have authority4 ,such cases are the following3 7a7 on account of a vow or other free and moral agreement1 a subject is held to obedience in matters pertaining to the nature of the body 7e4g41 when he has made a vow of virginity74 ,the ,church cannot impose virginity1 but he who has vowed to observe it1 must fulfill the conditions and precautions necessary for its observance1 and can be ordered so to do2 7b7 on account of circumstances1 such as scandal or danger of great evils1 it is sometimes necessary to yield submission to a command that is not of itself obligatory 7see #cgf1 #cgg74 #bcfc4 ,internal ,actions and ,human ,superiors4--,internal actions in themselves do not fall under human authority1 and hence the ,apostle says3 8,judge not before the time until the ,lord come1 who will make manifest the counsels of the heart0 7,i ,cor41 iv4 #e74 ,but in two ways these actions may be dealt with authoritatively by human superiors4 7a7 ,thus1 in the internal forum and there alone1 internal acts themselves are subject to a human superior2 for the confessor knows and acts there1 not as man1 but as the representative of ,god1 and hence he may pass on and prescribe internal thoughts and desires just as ,god may pass on them and prescribe them4 7b7 ,in the external forum1 the ,church deals with internal acts in so far as they enter into an external act as a necessary ingredient of its goodness or malice1 as when she commands a devout communion or pronounces censure against judges who are swayed by fear or favor4 ,this question was treated above in #dbf4 #bcfd4 ,obligation of the ,vow of ,obedience4--7a7 ,the vow obliges a religious to observe the commands of superiors that are given according to the rule which the religious professed4 ,hence1 there would be no obligation in virtue of the vow of performing commands that are not authorized explicitly or implicitly in the rule 7e4g41 if a cloistered religious were bidden to engage in hospital work71 nor1 unless otherwise vowed1 of keeping each prescription of the rule or constitutions4 ,a command to accept a relaxation from the rule is obligatory1 unless the dispensation is clearly invalid 7cfr4 #bbbe1 #bbcg74 7b7 ,the obligation is grave only when superiors command in a grave matter and with the intention of imposing a grave precept4 ,the intention of a superior is indicated by a form of words and other circumstances which the rule or constitutions prescribe for the imposition of a grave precept4 #bcfe4 ,sins against ,obedience4--,since obedience is a moral virtue and therefore observes a mean1 there is both an excess and a defect that it avoids4 7a7 ,thus1 the sin of excess is not found in the quantity of obedience1 for the more obedient a subject is1 the more is he worthy of praise4 ,it is found1 therefore1 in other circumstances of the act of submission1 as when one obeys a person or a command which one should not obey4 ,sinful submission is just as foreign to obedience as superstition is to religion2 cringing submission or servility in matters where one should think and judge for oneself is only a simulacrum of obedience4 7b7 ,the sin of defect is found in disobedience to a lawful command4 ,this sin may also be said to include both excess and defect--the former because the subject follows his own desires more than he should1 and the latter because the superior does not receive what he is entitled to 7see #agaa sqq474 #bcff4 ,definition of ,disobedience4--,disobedience is the transgression of the lawful command of a superior4 7a7 ,it is a transgression1 that is1 a voluntary neglect or refusal to perform what is ordered or to omit what is forbidden1 or to perform or omit at the time or in the manner ordered4 ,thus1 there is no disobedience if fulfillment is impossible--for example1 if a subject who is summoned to present himself at a certain place does not receive the notice or becomes too ill to make the journey1 or if he is asked to give what he cannot give1 or if he is burdened with so many laws or regulations that he cannot even know what they are1 much less attempt to observe them4 7b7 ,disobedience transgresses a lawful command1 that is1 one which is morally good and issues from competent authority4 ,it is not disobedience to refuse to do what is evidently illicit 7e4g41 to lie or steal71 or what is illegally ordered 7e4g41 to submit to arrest blindly1 to perform what the law forbids the superior to order74 7c7 ,it is violation of a command1 that is1 of a law or precept4 ,hence1 it is not disobedience to neglect advice or exhortations or requests made by superiors1 if the subject-matter is not otherwise obligatory 7e4g41 a daughter is not disobedient if she does not choose the husband picked out for her by her parents74 7d7 ,it is against the command of a superior1 and hence1 if there is opposition between laws or precepts1 the higher law and the higher superior prevails 7#bhh sqq474 #bcfg4 ,the ,kinds of ,disobedience4--7a7 ,by reason of the subject1 disobedience is either material or formal1 according as the transgressor intends only the satisfaction of his sinful desire against some other virtue1 or intends the violation of obedience itself4 ,material disobedience is found in every sin1 since every sin is a transgression1 and in this sense the pride of the original sin is called disobedience 7,rom41 v4 #ai72 but formal disobedience is a special sin1 and it is committed only when the sinner transgresses purposely in order not to submit4 7b7 ,by reason of the object1 formal disobedience is contempt either for the law or for the superior4 ,in the former case the transgressor despises the commandment given him and vents his dislike in disobedience2 in the latter case the transgressor belittles the authority of the lawmaker or superior who made the law or who gave the precept2 or scorns his sinfulness1 ignorance1 or low birth2 or hates or envies him1 and therefore proceeds to break his laws or precepts4 ,if contempt moves one to rebel against every command1 it is perfect2 if it extends to only one or another matter1 it is imperfect4 #bcfh4 ,it is not sinful contempt of a person in authority1 however1 if the subject does not admire his character1 or agree with his opinions1 or approve of his courses1 when the subject has good reason for his view and does not forget the respect and obedience due to authority and law4 #bcfi4 ,theological ,sinfulness of ,formal ,disobedience4--7a7 ,from its nature formal disobedience is a grave sin1 since it is contrary to charity1 which is the life of the soul and the end of the law4 ,love of ,god demands that we keep ,his commandments and be submissive to ,his representatives 7,rom41 xiii4 #b2 ,john1 xiv1 #ba2 ,rom41 ii4 #bc1 xiii4 #b2 ,luke1 ,x4 #af74 ,disobedience is classed by ,st4 ,paul with the worst sins of the ancient pagans 7,rom41 i4 #cj7 and of the sinners of the last days 7,,ii ,tim1 iii4 #a71 with witchcraft and idolatry 7,i ,kings1 xv4 #bc74 7b7 ,from the imperfection of the act formal disobedience is sometimes only a venial sin1 as when in a sudden fit of anger against his superiors a child refuses to obey his teachers or parents4 7c7 ,from the lightness of the matter1 formal disobedience is only a venial sin1 if the contempt is imperfect and not directed against ,god1 and the matter of the command or transgression is not serious 7e4g41 if one gets up a few minutes late in the morning once or twice as a protest against a regulation74 ,but1 even though the matter is not serious in itself1 formal disobedience is a grave sin1 when the contempt is perfect 7e4g41 if in a spirit of defiance and of anarchistic contempt for all his laws one pays no heed to some minor regulation of a superior71 and perhaps also when contempt is directed against a divine precept 7e4g41 if with the feeling that the eighth commandment is foolish or useless1 one tells small lies72 for in the former case there is grave contempt1 in the latter case blasphemy4 #bcgj4 ,moral ,species of ,disobedience4--7a7 ,in formal disobedience1 if the command belongs to some special virtue1 there are two sins1 namely1 that against obedience and that against the virtue intended by the lawgiver 7e4g41 when out of contempt one violates the third commandment72 but1 if the command was given for the sake of obedience only1 there is but the one sin of formal disobedience 7e4g41 when out of stubbornness a child refuses to do the study or other work imposed by parents or teachers74 7b7 ,in material disobedience1 if the command was given for the sake of some special virtue1 there is but the one sin against that virtue1 as when one breaks the fifth or sixth commandment to satisfy passion2 but if the command was given for the exercise of submission only1 there is but the one general sin of disobedience1 as when a child eats between meals against the command given by his mother4 #bcga4 ,circumstances that ,aggravate ,formal ,disobedience4--,one act of formal disobedience can be worse than another such act in two ways3 7a7 by reason of the rank of the person who gave the command4 ,thus1 it is more serious to disobey ,god than to disobey man1 and more serious to disobey a higher than a lower superior2 7b7 by reason of the rank which the thing commanded has in the intention of the superior4 ,thus1 when disobeying ,god it is more serious to transgress against the higher than against the lower good1 for ,god always prefers the better good2 but in disobeying man alone it is more serious to transgress against the good1 higher or lower1 which the lawgiver has more at heart4 #bcgb4 ,comparison of ,formal ,disobedience with ,other ,sins4--7a7 ,disobedience against ,god 7e4g41 contempt for ,his law7 is worse than sins against the neighbor 7e4g41 murder1 theft1 adultery74 ,this is true when these latter sins do not include formal disobedience against ,god1 for1 per se and other things being equal1 a sin against ,god is more serious than a sin against a creature2 it is also true when sins against creatures include formal disobedience against ,god but offend a less important commandment1 as when the one sin is perjury and the other theft4 7b7 ,contempt for the lawgiver1 even without disobedience1 is worse than contempt for the law with disobedience1 since the lawgiver is of greater importance than his precept4 ,thus1 it is worse to blaspheme ,god than to despise ,his commandment2 it is worse to hold a superior in contempt than to disregard his precept4 #bcgc4 ,the ,virtue of ,gratitude4--,religion1 piety1 reverence and obedience are annexed to justice on account of a legal debt2 the virtues that remain1 beginning with gratitude1 are assigned to justice on account of a moral debt only 7see #badc74 ,gratitude is defined as 8a moral virtue that inclines one to acknowledge with appreciation and to repay with gladness the favors one has received40 7a7 ,the object of gratitude is favors received1 that is1 some good useful and acceptable to the recipient and gratuitously bestowed4 ,thus1 gratitude is not owed for a thing that is harmful 7e4g41 for aid in the commission of sin1 for gifts offered with purpose of bribery or simony7 or useless 7e4g41 for old articles which the giver only wished to get rid of and forced one to take74 ,neither is gratitude owed for presents made with the purpose of ridicule or offense4 ,finally1 no thanks are due for what was owed in justice 7e4g41 wages for work performed71 though courtesy demands a pleasant response to every good one receives1 even when it is not a favor4 7b7 ,the offices of gratitude are acknowledgment and repayment4 ,the former consists in thoughts or words1 such as remembrance of benefactors1 praise of their good deeds1 words of thanks2 the latter consists in acts or things1 such as honor1 service1 assistance1 and gifts 7,tob41 xii4 #b1 #d74 #bcgd4 ,two ,kinds of ,gratitude4--7a7 ,in a wide sense1 gratitude is the recognition of favors received from superiors1 and does not differ from religion1 piety and reverence1 by which one gives due acknowledgment to ,god as the first cause of all benefits1 to parents as the second cause of life and training1 and to rulers as the second cause of direction or guidance or of public and common benefits4 7b7 ,in its strict sense1 gratitude refers only to special and private benefits distinct from those mentioned above4 ,gratitude1 then1 is a distinct virtue and follows in order after reverence4 #bcge4 ,is greater gratitude due to ,god for the gift of innocence or for the gift of repentance8 7a7 ,if we consider only the greatness of the favor1 the one who has been preserved from sin owes more gratitude to ,god2 for1 per se and other things being equal1 it is a greater favor to be kept from sin than to be rescued from it4 7b7 ,if we consider the liberality of the favor1 the one who has received the gift of repentance should be more thankful1 for ,god is more generous when ,he bestows ,his grace on one who deserved punishment4 #bcgf4 ,circumstances of ,gratitude4--7a7 ,to ,whom ,gratitude ,should ,be ,shown4--,every benefactor should be repaid internally 7e4g41 by kind remembrance and prayers7 and also externally1 unless this is impossible 7e4g41 when he has become so depraved that one can have no dealings with him74 ,the internal debt is lessened if the benefactor was less benevolent 7e4g41 if he gave grudgingly1 or in an unkind manner1 or only with a view to self-advertisement71 for the gift is esteemed chiefly from the good will of the giver2 the external debt is lessened if the benefactor stands less in need of external help 7e4g41 if he is wealthy or famous74 7b7 ,by ,whom ,gratitude ,should ,be ,shown4--,every person who is favored should be thankful4 ,there is no one so high that another cannot be his benefactor1 and the greatest or wealthiest person should not feel it beneath his dignity to repay even small favors sincerely given4 ,neither is there anyone so low1 whether child or pauper1 that he cannot to some extent1 by his respect1 affection1 prayers1 etc41 recompense his benefactors4 7c7 ,the ,time for ,gratitude4--,internal gratitude should be immediate1 and should be shown by the kindly manner in which a favor is received2 but external repayment should await a suitable time1 as it seems forced or unappreciative to give a favor in return as soon as one is received4 7d7 ,the ,degree of ,gratitude ,owed4--,if the favor was bestowed by reason of a friendship of utility1 the gratitude should correspond with the benefit received2 but1 if it was bestowed out of pure friendship or liberality1 the gratitude should be measured by the benevolence that prompted the favor4 ,hence1 as ,seneca remarks1 gratitude is sometimes more due to one who bestows small favors1 but with liberality and willingness and disinterestedness4 e ,the ,amount of ,recompense for ,favors4--,it is suitable that one repay benefactors by giving more than was received from them1 if this is possible2 for otherwise one will seem only to give back all or part of what was received4 ,but in gratitude1 as in benefits1 the good will counts for more than the favor2 and hence if one cannot hope to surpass the favor 7e4g41 the case of children in relation to parents71 one can at least surpass in desire and internal benevolence4 #bcgg4 ,the ,sins against ,gratitude4--7a7 ,since gratitude is a moral virtue1 the sins against it are either by excess 7e4g41 if one is grateful for things one should not desire71 or by defect 7that is1 by ingratitude74 ,since gratitude inclines to surpass favors received1 it is more offended by lack of thanks or ingratitude than by excessive thanks4 7b7 ,as to its motive1 ingratitude is twofold1 material and formal4 ,formal ingratitude consists in contempt for the benefit or the benefactor1 as when the person favored disdains what has been done for him1 and therefore omits to give thanks or commits some injury against the benefactor4 ,material ingratitude is any injury done a benefactor without contempt for him or his favor4 7c7 ,as to its mode1 formal ingratitude is also twofold1 that by omission and that by commission4 ,the former is the culpable neglect of the grateful act of repaying a benefactor1 or of the grateful word of thanking him1 or of the grateful thought of remembering him with affection2 the latter is the culpable return of evil for good 7,jerem41 xviii4 #bj2 ,exod41 xviii4 #c7 by an injurious act1 or by a word in contempt of the favor1 or by a thought that it is a disfavor4 #bcgh4 ,the ,moral ,species of ,ingratitude4--7a7 ,material ingratitude is not a special sin1 since it may be found in all kinds of sins committed against a benefactor2 for example1 every violation of a commandment is an act of ingratitude to ,god1 and every injury done a human benefactor is an act of ingratitude to man4 ,but material ingratitude is an aggravating circumstance1 since it is worse to harm those to whom we owe thanks than to harm others4 7b7 ,formal ingratitude is a special sin1 for it is the denial of a special debt owed in decency1 and which a special virtue requires one to pay 7see #bcgd74 ,st4 ,paul lists ingratitude with other special classes of sin 7,,ii ,tim41 iii4 #b74 #bcgi4 ,the ,theological ,species of ,ingratitude4--7a7 ,formal ingratitude from its nature seems to be a mortal sin1 since it is against charity1 which bids us love our benefactors4 ,it may be venial1 however1 on account of the imperfection of the act or the smallness of the matter4 ,thus1 to offend a benefactor in some trifling matter would not be mortal1 even though there be some slight contempt in the act4 7b7 ,material ingratitude is venial or mortal according to the nature of the injury done the benefactor4 ,thus1 a small injury is done when one gives a cheap present to a benefactor from whom one had received a valuable gift1 for his right to more was not strict1 and hence the sin is venial2 but a grave injury is done when one seriously calumniates a benefactor1 and the sin is then mortal4 #bchj4 ,is ,it ,right to ,confer ,favors on the ,ungrateful8--7a7 ,if the favors will be of benefit1 one should not desist merely because of the ingratitude with which they are received4 ,it is not always certain that the beneficiary is ungrateful1 and there may be reason to hope for his improvement 7,luke1 vi4 #ce74 7b7 ,if the favors are not beneficial1 because the recipient is made worse 7e4g41 arrogant1 lazy7 through them1 they should be discontinued4 #bcha4 ,the ,virtue of ,vengeance4--,just as gratitude returns good for evil1 so does vengeance 7vindicatio7 return evil for evil1 that is1 the evil of punishment for the evil of sin4 ,vengeance is defined as 8a moral virtue that inclines a private person to use lawful means for the punishment of wrongdoing1 with a view to the satisfaction of public or private justice40 7a7 ,vengeance is a virtue of private persons2 that is1 it belongs to those who are not charged officially with the punishment of offenses4 ,the duty of public persons1 such as judges1 is a much stricter one and pertains to the virtue of vindictive justice1 which is a form of commutative justice2 whereas vengeance is only a virtue annexed to justice 7see above1 #bada sqq474 ,vindictive justice attends to the equality between fault and punishment1 vengeance to the protection of the person who has been injured4 7b7 ,vengeance is concerned with the punishment of wrongdoing1 or the infliction of some painful retribution upon one who has already committed an injury4 ,thus1 this virtue is not strictly identical with lawful self-defense1 which is directed against an evil that is not past but present1 though self-defense may be rated as a secondary act of the virtue of vengeance4 7c7 ,vengeance uses only lawful means2 that is1 it seeks redress or reparation from the authorities who have the right to give it and follows due process of law4 ,this virtue differs1 then1 from private revenge1 vendetta1 lynch law1 exercise of the 8unwritten law10 etc41 which are acts of sinful violence1 though sometimes subjectively excusable on account of ignorance4 ,the virtue of vengeance is also exercised by those who desire that justice may be done against malefactors1 or who visit upon them with moderation such punishments as are not forbidden to private persons 7e4g41 denial of friendship74 ,parents also exercise this virtue whenever they properly correct and chastise their children4 7d7 ,vengeance has for its ends public and private justice1 that is1 the vindication of the right order of society or the compensation or satisfaction of an injured person4 ,if some other good motive causes one to desire requital of evil deeds1 the act will pertain to another virtue3 thus1 if one aims at the amendment of the evil-doer1 one's act pertains to charity2 if one desires by the deterrent of punishment to secure the peace and prosperity of the commonwealth1 the act is one of legal justice2 if one seeks the honor of ,god1 the act is one of religion1 etc4 ,if an evil motive prompts the desire of punishment1 the wish is not virtuous at all1 but sinful4 ,thus1 he who labors to have a criminal captured1 sentenced and executed1 and whose intention is not the vindication of justice but the gratification of jealousy1 hatred1 cruelty or other like passion1 sins grievously and perhaps makes himself worse than the criminal4 ,to return evil for evil in this way is to be overcome by evil 7,rom41 xii4 #ag-ba74 #bchb4 ,the ,morality of ,vengeance4--7a7 ,vengeance is lawful1 since it pertains to justice1 and ,our ,lord declares that it is found in the just and is approved by ,god 7,luke1 xviii4 #g74 ,it is1 moreover1 a special virtue1 for it regulates the special natural inclination which moves man to attack what is harmful and injurious and has its own distinctive ends 7see #bcha74 ,it is closely related to fortitude and zeal1 which prepare the way for it2 zeal1 being a fervent love of ,god and man1 inspires indignation against injustice1 while fortitude removes the fear that might keep one back from attack on injustice4 ,accidentally1 however1 on account of greater evils1 vengeance is sometimes unlawful1 as when it would involve the innocent with the guilty1 or fall more heavily upon the less guilty 7,matt41 xiii4 #bi1 #cj74 7b7 ,vengeance is obligatory when an injury to oneself is also an injury to a public or other necessary good 7e4g41 to the rights of ,god or of the ,church74 ,hence it was that ,elias and ,eliseus punished those who maltreated them 7,,iv ,kings1 i4 #i sqq41 ii4 #bc1 #bd71 that inspired writers pray ,god to punish the wicked 7,psalms xviii1 xxxiv1 lxviii1 cviii1 lxxviii1 cxxxvi2 ,jeremias1 xi4 #bj1 xvii1 #ah1 xviii4 #ba1 xx4 #ab71 and ,pope ,sylvester excommunicated those who sent him into exile4 ,if an injury to oneself is merely personal1 one should be willing to forego punishment of the guilty person1 and should actually do so when this course is expedient1 as ,our ,lord teaches in ,matthew1 vi4 #ad1 #ae 7see #aaih sqq474 ,when no necessity requires one to vindicate a personal wrong1 the more perfect course is to pardon the wrong for the sake of ,god2 for in avenging injuries to self there is always the danger of such evils as selfish motive1 arrogance1 hatred1 scandal1 and the loss of such goods as peace of mind1 conversion of the other party1 edification1 and greater claim on ,god's forgiveness of self4 ,hence1 vengeance is called 8a little virtue10 since it is so often the less perfect way4 #bchc4 ,excess and ,defect4--,punitive justice is a moral virtue and hence should be characterized by moderation as to all its circumstances4 ,it should avoid the extremes of excess and defect4 7a7 ,the sin of excess here is cruelty1 which in the quality or the quantity of the punishment offends human rights or surpasses the measure of the crime or the custom of the law4 ,thus1 it is immoral to associate young prisoners with hardened criminals1 to deprive an offender of religious opportunities2 it is inhuman to treat a human being as if he were a brute or less than a brute 7e4g41 by confinement in a loathsome dungeon1 by overwork with starvation1 by torture72 it is unfair to use severe punishments unknown to law or custom1 or whose rigor far surpasses the degree of offense4 ,there is excess even in medicinal or reformatory penalties1 if a higher good is sacrificed for a lower 7e4g41 the spiritual for the temporal1 a major for a minor good quality71 for then the remedy is worse than the disease4 7b7 ,the sin of defect in punishments is laxity1 which rewards crime1 or allows it to go unpunished1 or imposes penalties which are agreeable to offenders1 or not a deterrent1 or not at all equal to the offense4 ,scripture condemns this lenity when it declares that the parent who spares the rod spoils the child 7,prov41 xiii4 #bd74 ,in weighing the gravity of a delinquency account should be taken of the fault itself1 of the injury done and the scandal given4 ,in the fault consideration must be had of the objective element 7i4e41 the nature and importance of the law violated71 of the subjective element 7i4e41 the age1 instruction1 education1 sex1 and state of mind of the offender71 of the circumstances 7e4g41 the time1 the place1 the persons involved1 and the frequency74 ,see ,canon #bbah4 #bchd4 ,circumstances of ,punitive ,justice4--7a7 ,punishments that ,may ,be ,used4--,punishment is virtuous only in so far as it restrains from evil those who cannot be restrained by love of virtue1 but only by fear of penalty4 ,hence1 penalties should consist in the deprivation of goods that are more prized than the satisfactions obtained through delinquencies4 ,both divine and human laws1 therefore1 have established as punishments the loss of a bodily good 7e4g41 by death1 flogging1 imprisonment7 or of an external good 7e4g41 by exile1 fine1 infamy71 the chief inducements to crime being found in bodily or external things4 ,the extreme penalty of death should be reserved for extreme cases1 and the other penalties should be suited to the crime1 so as to remove the incentive or means 7e4g41 dishonesty should be punished by loss of goods1 calumny by infamy1 lust by pain1 etc474 7b7 ,persons ,who ,may ,be ,punished4--,punishment again is virtuous only because it pertains to justice and rights the inequality caused by sin4 ,accordingly1 no one should be punished unless he has sinned or voluntarily transgressed4 ,it is unlawful to punish the innocent for the guilty1 or to punish an innocent person in order to keep him from future sins4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that ,god inflicts temporal evils on the just for the sake of spiritual goods 7e4g41 that they may not become attached to this world1 may have opportunities of merit1 and may give good example72 that one person may be punished for the sin of another when he associates himself with or approves of that sin1 as when careless parents have bad children or careless subjects bad rulers 7,job1 xxxiv4 #cj2 ,exod1 xx4 #e72 that for a sufficient reason an innocent person may be deprived of a good for which he is unfitted 7e4g41 ordination when one is irregular by defect7 or to which he has no personal or absolute claim 7e4g41 the family property when it is lost to the children because the father is fined74 #bche4 ,the ,virtue of ,truthfulness4--,having treated the virtues of gratitude and vengeance1 which deal with moral obligations caused by an act of the one owed1 we now pass on to truthfulness1 which is a moral obligation arising from the acts of the one owing in which he communicates with others4 ,for he who speaks1 writes1 or otherwise manifests his mind to others puts himself under a duty of not deceiving4 ,truthfulness or veracity is defined as 8a moral virtue that inclines one duly and faithfully to express what is in one's mind40 7a7 ,it is a virtue1 that is1 a good habit1 and so it differs from truth1 which is the object of intellectual habits4 ,thus1 the ,first ,truth or ,god is the object of faith4 ,truthfulness is not the object of a virtue1 but it is a virtue4 7b7 ,it is a moral virtue4 ,it deals with external things 7viz41 the words or signs by which we express our thoughts71 and so it is not a theological virtue2 moreover1 though the knowledge of truth belongs to the intellect1 the right manifestation of truth depends on a good will1 and so truthfulness is not an intellectual virtue3 the truthful man may be unlearned1 but he loves honesty4 7c7 ,it regulates the expression of the mind1 that is1 the words1 writing1 gestures1 conduct1 and other external signs1 so as to make them conformable to the mind which they stand for4 ,truthfulness deals with internal things 7e4g41 when the speaker says that he has good health or is well disposed towards another7 and with external things as they appear to the speaker 7e4g41 when he says that he is certain or believes that a report is accurate74 7d7 ,it is a faithful expression of what is in the mind or belief4 ,hence1 one may be truthful while making statements contrary to fact1 or untruthful while making statements agreeable to facts1 for truthfulness is sincerity1 not correctness4 7e7 ,it is a due expression of one's mind or belief2 that is1 it is given when and where and as it should be given4 ,a person who speaks out his mind on all occasions1 with no regard for results1 is not a liar1 but he is at least imprudent1 and he cannot be said to possess the virtue of truthfulness1 for every virtue is prudent4 ,examples of this are persons who unnecessarily indulge self-praise by telling their true virtues or perfections 7,prov41 xxvii4 #b71 or who vaingloriously or otherwise foolishly publish their true sins or imperfections 7,is4 iii4 #i74 #bchf4 ,the ,excellence of ,truthfulness4--7a7 ,truthfulness is a virtue1 since it makes right use of language and other signs by employing them for the truth1 and also serves society1 which rests on the trust that men have in the words and promises of their fellow-men4 ,st4 ,paul admonishes the ,ephesians 7iv4 #be7 that each one speak the truth to his neighbor1 since all are members of the other4 7b7 ,it is a moral virtue1 preserving moderation in conversations and other interchanges of thought4 ,this virtue sees that facts are neither exaggerated nor understated1 that truth is not manifested when it should be concealed1 nor concealed when it should be spoken4 7c7 ,it is a special virtue1 for1 while the other moral virtues regulate actions and external things1 none of them except truthfulness regulates those objects precisely in their character of media or instruments for signifying and conveying thoughts1 opinions1 and decisions4 ,and since a great part of human life is occupied in conference or correspondence with others1 truthfulness is one of the most useful of the virtues and one whose exercise is most frequently called for4 7d7 ,it is a virtue annexed to justice4 ,on the one hand1 it is like justice1 since it pays a debt which one social being owes another of speaking the truth2 on the other hand1 it falls short of justice1 since the debt is moral1 not legal4 ,this is said of truthfulness in ordinary intercourse1 for in judicial process and in contracts there is also a legal obligation of justice to tell the truth4 #bchg4 ,sincerity and ,fidelity4--,two virtues that pertain to truthfulness are sincerity and fidelity4 7a7 ,sincerity 7simplicity7 is the virtue of one who is consistent with himself1 avoiding duplicity and double dealing of every kind1 such as lies1 equivocations1 sophistries1 specious excuses1 quibbles1 dishonest shifts1 distractions1 concealments1 and the like4 7b7 ,fidelity 7loyalty7 is the virtue of one who fulfills promises that are obligatory only in virtue of his word freely given4 ,it differs from constancy1 which is concerned not with promises but resolutions1 and from virtues concerned with promises that are obligatory in virtue of legal debt1 such as contracts1 promissory oaths 7see #afib1 #agdi1 #agec1 #ahhh74 ,fidelity makes an honest man's word as good as his bond1 and it is therefore one of the most appreciated of virtues 7,matt41 xxv4 #ba2 ,psalm xiv74 ,horace calls it the sister of justice4 #bchh4 ,vices ,opposed to ,truthfulness4--7a7 ,by defect one sins against truth through lying and breach of promise2 7b7 by excess one sins against truthfulness in violation of secret or other unjustifiable disclosures4 #bchi4 ,lying4--,a lie is a word spoken with the purpose of stating what is not true4 7a7 ,it is said to be a word1 by which is meant any external sign consisting in speech or its equivalent4 ,a lie may be expressed by language1 oral or written1 by signs1 by gestures1 by insinuation1 by expressive silence1 by actions or conduct 7see #bjab1 #bjbh74 7b7 ,a lie is spoken1 that is1 expressed externally4 ,but the guilt is found in the will1 and hence those who plan lies are guilty of mendacity1 even though they do not carry out their plans4 7c7 ,a lie is told with purpose2 that is1 there is a comparison by the intellect of the sign with the thing signified and a voluntary choice of the insufficient sign to be used4 ,an infant or an unconscious person1 therefore1 may tell an untruth1 but he cannot tell a lie4 ,moreover1 a person who has no good command of language or no clear understanding of a subject is not guilty of lying when in spite of his efforts to the contrary he gives misleading impressions4 ,but those who do not think before they speak1 or who use language carelessly or inaccurately1 may be guilty of injustice and deception1 or even of indirect lying4 7d7 ,the purpose of a lie is the statement of what is not true1 or the pretense that what is not in one's mind is in one's mind4 ,just as truth is the agreement of the word with the thought1 so a lie is the disagreement of word with thought4 ,but a lie need not be entirely false1 and indeed one of the most dangerous of lies is what is known as a half-truth1 in which some real facts are told in order to give support to pretended facts1 or in which valid arguments are adduced to throw dust in the eyes as regards other arguments that are sophistical4 #bcij4 ,statements ,liable to ,misunderstanding or ,misinterpretation4--,a word that sufficiently expresses one's idea is not a lie or a deception1 even though another idea will be taken from it by a listener or is conveyed by its mere letter4 7a7 ,thus1 misunderstanding due to defect1 not of the speaker1 but of the listener1 does not make one's words untruthful1 any more than it makes them scandalous 7see #adfb71 as when the listener has not given attention to what was said 7,john1 xxi4 #bc74 ,even a speech worded obscurely because the matter is obscure1 or because the listener would be harmed by plainer speech 7see #ajja71 is not mendacious but prudent4 7b7 ,misinterpretation to which a statement is open on account of its wording does not make the statement untruthful1 if the context or circumstances sufficiently disclose the true meaning of the words4 ,examples3 hyperbolical1 ironical or other metaphorical speech2 words spoken in jest or in terms of customary politeness1 such as 8your most obedient servant01 statements made inquiringly or hypothetically 7e4g41 when a judge or prosecutor accuses a defendant of crime in order to discover the truth2 cfr4 ,gen41 xiii4 #i71 or by way of mere quotation or of fictitious narrative 7e4g41 fairy tales1 stories1 reveries71 or of disputation as in school debates exercised for the sake of practice in argumentation4 ,it is not a lie to write under a pen-name1 to speak according to the personality one represents 7,gen41 xxxi4 #ac2 ,tob41 v4 #ah71 to answer according to the mind of a questioner1 as when ,a says to ,b3 8,have you seen your father80 meaning1 8,do you know where he is80 and ,b replies3 8,i have not seen him10 meaning 8,i do not know where he is40 ,lying contests1 in which fishermen1 sportsmen1 etc41 vie with one another to see who can tell the most incredible yarn or tall tale1 are not in themselves sinful1 but there may be circumstances 7for example1 scandal1 deception1 danger7 that make them reprehensible4 #bcia4 ,divisions of ,lies4--7a7 ,intrinsically1 or in respect to its nature as a departure from the speaker's mind1 every lie is either an exaggeration1 which tells more than the truth1 or a suppression1 which tells less than the whole truth4 ,he who affirms what he does not believe1 or who states as certain what he thinks is uncertain1 exaggerates2 he who denies what he believes1 or who states as doubtful what he holds as certain1 is guilty of suppression4 7b7 ,extrinsically1 or in respect to purpose1 mode1 and result1 lies are of many kinds4 ,as to mode1 a lie is either spoken or acted1 the former being a falsehood and the latter a simulation or hypocrisy4 ,as to its immediate purpose1 a lie is meant either to express falsehood only or to deceive1 the former being misrepresentation and the latter deceit 7e4g41 if ,claudius knows that he calumniated and that ,sempronius heard the calumny1 and yet brazenly denies the calumny to ,sempronius1 there is misrepresentation72 if ,claudius tries to mislead others who only suspect him and gives false alibis1 there is deceit4 ,as to its ulterior purpose1 a lie is meant for good 7an officious or jocose lie7 or for evil 7a pernicious lie71 or is directed to both good and evil4 ,as to its result1 a lie sometimes produces and sometimes does not produce a statement at variance with fact2 it sometimes deceives and sometimes does not deceive the auditors4 #bcib4 ,classification of ,lies4--,every lie is harmful from its nature1 since it tends to deceive others and so to disturb the good order of society4 ,but the reason that moves persons to lie is not always evil1 and hence we have the following classes of lies4 7a7 ,some lies are told for a good purpose1 as when one lies in order to please 7jocose lie7 or to serve another 7officious lie74 ,jocose lies include all kinds of humorous and interesting narrations and descriptions meant only to afford pleasure1 but given out as facts by one who does not believe them to be facts4 ,untruths told in such a way 7e4g41 with a laugh or in a playful tone1 especially if the auditors have a sense of humor7 that it is clear they are not meant to be taken seriously1 are not jocose lies or lies of any kind4 ,officious lies are told with a view to assisting or accommodating a neighbor1 that he may receive some good 7e4g41 to hold out false promises as an inducement to good conduct7 or escape some evil 7e4g41 to fill the ears of a despondent man with false reports of good news in order to revive his spirits74 ,it seems that we should regard as officious lies various statements made by ,jacob 7,gen41 xxvii4 #ce71 ,david 7,i ,kings1 xx4 #f1 xxi4 #b1 xxvii4 #aj71 and ,judith 7,x4 xi4 xii74 7b7 ,some lies are told for an evil purpose1 as when one lies merely to indulge a propensity for falsehood or for the sheer pleasure of lying 7lies of inclination71 or when one lies to injure another person 7pernicious lies74 #bcic4 ,motives for ,lying4--,the motives for lying are not always simple1 and it may happen that in one and the same lie there are several motives of different character4 7a7 ,thus1 an officious lie is not always dictated by pure benevolence4 ,it may be selfish 7e4g41 when one lies to conceal the delinquency of another in which one was involved71 as well as altruistic 7e4g41 when the liar derives no benefit from the lie71 or self-sacrificing 7e4g41 when the liar is put to expense1 trouble or loss through his lie74 7b7 ,an officious lie may also be pernicious and jocose1 for it may affect different persons in different ways4 ,thus1 if ,claudius calumniates ,julius in order to shield ,balbus from the bad opinion of ,caius1 who does not know ,balbus1 and to amuse ,sempronius who knows the truth1 the lie is pernicious as regards ,julius1 officious as regards ,balbus1 and jocose as regards ,sempronius4 #bcid4 ,comparison of the ,gravity of ,various ,lies4--7a7 ,lies of exaggeration are not worse as lies than lies of suppression1 for in both cases the truth is departed from4 ,but it is more imprudent to overstate than to understate1 and in this sense the lie of exaggeration is worse4 7b7 ,lies are aggravated by the purpose to harm1 and the greater the harm1 the greater the sin4 ,thus1 the worst of all pernicious lies is that which is directed against ,god1 as in false religious doctrine2 and the lie that harms a man in spiritual goods is worse than a lie that harms in temporal things only4 7c7 ,lies are mitigated by the purpose to help1 and the greater the good intended the less the sin4 ,in other words1 lies that are not pernicious are not so bad as pernicious lies1 officious lies are less sinful than jocose lies1 officious lies told for the sake of some great good are not so grave as those told for the sake of a lesser good4 ,thus1 it is a less evil to lie in order to save a man's life than to lie in order to take his life2 it is less sinful to lie in order to spare another the shock of bad news than to lie for the sake of embellishing a tale2 it is a less offense to lie in order to ward off a bodily harm than to lie in order to prevent a financial loss4 #bcie4 ,sinfulness of ,all ,lies4--,but though lies are unequal in sinfulness1 it remains that no lie1 even the smallest 7such as are called fibs or white lies71 is ever justified1 even by the greatest good 7,job1 xiii4 #g71 for a lie is intrinsically evil1 and the end does not justify the means4 7a7 ,a lie is a sin1 because it is an abuse of speech and other signs given by ,god for the manifestation of truth2 because it is an unfriendly and unsocial act1 tending to the disruption of kindly relations between men2 because it is directly opposed to truth1 the proper and distinctive good of the human mind4 ,even the pagans have regarded liars with contempt and considered lies as disgraceful1 and even those who lay no claim to virtue feel gravely insulted if called liars4 ,in many places the ,scriptures forbid lying 7,exod41 xxiii4 #g2 ,levit41 ,xix4 #aa2 ,prov41 xii4 #bb2 ,ecclus41 xx4 #bf2 ,col41 iii4 #i71 and ,st4 ,paul especially 7,eph41 iv4 #be7 is very clear on this point3 8,putting away lying1 speak ye the truth every man with his neighbor1 for we are members one of another40 ,the ,fathers and the theologians are generally agreed that no necessity1 not even the danger of death1 excuses a lie1 any more than it excuses theft or adultery4 ,if ,god could approve of even one lie1 would not that approval undermine our faith in ,his own veracity8 ,surely we have no implicit confidence in one who helps to deceive us even in a small matter4 7b7 ,a lie1 considered precisely as a lie1 seems from its nature to be only a venial sin1 for the disorder of using signs against one's mind is not serious1 and the harm done society by mere denial of truth is not necessarily grave 7the case would be otherwise if truth could be denied on principle as a lawful thing74 ,even pious persons do not regard harmless lies as very sinful 7see #badc1 #bchf74 ,hence1 as jocose and officious lies have no other malice than that of untruthfulness and as the malice is lessened by the intention1 they are generally venial2 but some extrinsic circumstance 7such as scandal1 the fact that one lies habitually and without scruple1 or disastrous results7 may render them mortal4 ,pernicious lies have another malice besides that of untruthfulness1 and accordingly the case with them is different4 #bcif4 ,when ,lying ,entails ,no ,formal ,sin4--,lies are sometimes free from all formal sin on account of ignorance 7as in the case of children or uninstructed persons1 who think they may use lies in case of great difficulty7 or on account of irresponsibility 7as in the case of certain defectives who seem to be born liars74 #bcig4 ,pernicious ,lies4--,pernicious lies are mortal sins from their nature1 but may become venial from the imperfection of the act or the lightness of the matter4 ,for a pernicious lie sins not against truth only1 but also against justice or charity4 ,hence1 it is said that the liar destroys his own soul 7,wis41 i4 #aa71 that a lie is abominated and hated by the ,lord 7,prov41 vi4 #ag1 xii4 #bb71 that it has the devil for its father 7,john1 viii4 #dd71 that it brings down divine vengeance 7,ps4 v4 #g7 and will receive its portion in the pool of fire and brimstone 7,apoc41 xxi4 #h74 ,this sin is committed in two ways1 as follows3 7a7 a lie is pernicious when its matter is harmful1 as being contrary to sound doctrine1 good morals or true science4 ,hence1 a preacher sins gravely if the substance of his pulpit teaching is mendacious 7e4g41 if in a sermon he enunciates or defends erroneous principles of conduct71 venially if he lies about accidentals 7e4g41 if he gives the wrong chapter or verse for a text72 a scientist1 a physician1 a jurist1 or the like is similarly guilty of a pernicious lie when he misleads the public by unreliable information4 ,a penitent in the confessional and a witness in court lie perniciously if their statements about relevant matters are untrue1 for the one injures the ,sacrament and the other injures public justice2 but if the lie is about some matter of slight importance1 the sin is venial1 unless there is no other matter in the confession1 or the testimony is under oath2 7b7 a lie is also pernicious when the intention of the liar is to injure ,god or his neighbor1 even though the matter itself is not opposed to true doctrine or is not official testimony4 ,examples are found in those who lie in a humorous way in order to injure or sadden others4 #bcih4 ,concealment of the ,truth4--,truthfulness is offended not only by the declaration of falsity 7i4e41 of what is not in the mind71 but also by the unlawful concealment of the truth 7i4e41 of what is in the mind74 ,the truth is concealed either negatively or positively4 7a7 ,there is negative concealment of the truth1 when one has recourse to silence or evasion4 ,everyone admits that this kind of concealment is lawful when there is no obligation to give information1 or when there is an obligation not to give it4 ,thus1 a person who is besieged by newspaper reporters does not feel obligated to answer all their questions2 a person who is interrogated by curious individuals about his business or financial affairs1 does not feel guilty if he evades their questions by changing the subject1 or by asking them similar questions1 or by putting them off till a more convenient time1 etc4 7b7 ,there is positive concealment of the truth1 when one gives a reply in language that is obscure to the listener or obscure in itself4 ,if the listener has no right to the truth1 it is not wrong to speak to him in words which he will not understand 7e4g41 in technical or scientific terms72 for if he is deceived1 he can blame only his own impertinence or dullness4 ,the case is more difficult1 however1 if the reply is obscure in itself1 that is1 if use is made of ambiguity or mental reservation4 #bcii4 ,mental ,reservation4--,mental reservation is an act of the mind by which a speaker restricts or limits his words to a meaning which they do not naturally or clearly convey2 or it is an internal modification of an external speech delivered without any or without clear external modification4 ,there are two kinds of mental reservation4 7a7 ,strict mental reservation is that in which the internal modification is manifested by nothing external1 neither by the natural sense of the words 7i4e41 the meaning that ordinarily attaches to them7 nor by their accidental sense 7i4e41 the meaning they receive from their context1 such as the circumstances of time1 place1 usage1 person who questions1 person who is questioned1 etc474 ,example3 ,titus1 who struck ,balbus with a club1 denies that he hit him1 meaning that it was the club which hit ,balbus directly4 7b7 ,broad mental reservation is that in which the internal modification can be perceived1 at least by a prudent person1 either from the natural sense of the words 7because they are known to be capable of different meanings71 or from the context 7because circumstances indicate that the words are not to be taken in their obvious sense74 ,example3 ,claudius accidentally ran against and wounded ,sempronius and the latter thinks that someone struck him a blow4 ,claudius denies that he struck ,sempronius1 or declares to those who have no right to ask that he knows nothing about the matter4 #bdjj4 ,lawfulness of ,mental ,reservation4--7a7 ,strict mental reservation is unlawful and has been condemned by the ,church 7see ,denzinger1 nn4 #aagd-aagh74 ,the reasons are1 first1 that it is a lie1 since it employs words that do not at all express what the speaker has in mind1 and his mental reservation cannot give them a significance they do not possess2 secondly1 that1 if it were lawful1 every dishonest person could easily escape the guilt of lying and yet deceive at will4 ,according to ,scripture the sophistical speaker is hateful 7,ecclus41 xxxvii4 #bc71 but the just man speaks and swears without guile 7,ps4 xxxiii4 #ad1 xxiii4 #d74 7b7 ,broad mental reservation is unlawful when there is a reason that forbids its use1 or when there is no sufficient reason to justify its use4 ,reservation is forbidden when a questioner has the right to an answer free from all ambiguity1 for example1 when a pastor questions parties preparing for marriage1 when a person who is about to be inducted into office is asked about his freedom from disqualifications1 when a witness in court is interrogated about matters on which he can testify1 when one party to a contract seeks from the other necessary knowledge about the contract2 for in all these cases injury is done by concealment of the truth4 ,reservation is not justified1 unless it is necessary in order to secure some good or avoid some evil1 whether spiritual or temporal1 whether for self or for another1 and the end compensates by its importance for the deception that may be caused4 ,apart from such necessity mental reservation is1 to say the least1 a departure from the virtue of ,christian sincerity or simplicity1 which pertains to truthfulness and which forbids one to conceal the truth from others when there is no good reason for concealment 7,matt1 v4 #cg74 ,moreover1 the friendly relations of mankind would be impaired if it were lawful to speak equivocally even when trifling things are discussed or when there is no reason to be secretive4 7c7 ,broad mental reservation is lawful when there is a sufficient reason for it1 such as the public welfare 7e4 g41 the preservation of state secrets or of military plans71 spiritual welfare 7e4g41 the prevention of blasphemy or intoxication71 bodily welfare 7e4g41 the prevention of death or murder71 or financial welfare 7e4g41 the prevention of robbery74 ,but the reservation must be necessary1 as being the only lawful means that will secure the end 7e4g41 one should not use reservation when evasion or silence will suffice72 and it should not be injurious to the rights of another 7e4g41 it should not be employed against the common good1 in favor of a private good74 ,the reason for the present conclusion is found in the principle of double result 7see #ajc sqq47 and in the fact that a broad mental reservation is not intrinsically evil1 since it contains no lie or insincerity and causes no injury to individuals or society4 ,there is no lie1 because the words correspond with the thought1 either from their natural signification 7in case of double-meaning words71 or from their accidental signification 7in case of words whose meaning is varied by the context72 there is no insincerity1 for the aim is only to conceal a truth that should not be made known2 there is no injury to the listener or questioner1 since1 if he is deceived1 this is due to his own heedlessness or dullness or unjustified curiosity2 there is no injury to society1 since the general welfare demands that there be some honest means of eluding unjust inquiries and of protecting important secrets4 ,our ,lord ,himself1 who is infinitely above all suspicion of duplicity or insincerity1 may have used broad mental reservations when ,he declared 7,john1 vii4 #h-aj7 that ,he would not go up to ,jerusalem1 that the daughter of ,jairus was not dead but sleeping 7,matt41 ix4 #bd74 ,other cases of mental reservation in ,scripture are found in ,eliseus 7,,iv ,kings1 vi4 #ai74 #bdja4 ,when ,is ,broad ,mental ,reservation ,lawful8--,there is general agreement that broad mental reservation is lawful in the following cases3 7a7 it is lawful and obligatory when one is bound to keep the truth from the person who asks it4 ,hence1 those who are questioned about secrets which sacramental or professional confidence forbids them to disclose 7e4g41 confessors1 doctors1 lawyers1 statesmen1 and secretaries7 should deny knowledge1 or1 if hard-pressed1 even the facts4 ,the answer1 8,i do not know0 or 8,no10 in these cases simply means3 8,i have no personal or communicable knowledge40 ,in war time a government has the right to censor the news in order to keep information from the enemy4 ,a reason of charity might also make it obligatory to disguise the truth by mental reservation 7e4g41 when a clear reply given to the question of a sick person would only weaken a slender hope of saving his life1 or when exact information given to a gunman would enable him to overtake an intended victim72 7b7 it is lawful when a reasonable local custom permits one to withhold the truth4 ,thus1 an accused person1 even though guilty1 has the right to plead not guilty1 which means that he does not confess guilt2 a person who has a visitor at an unseasonable hour may send word that he is not at home1 which means that she is not at home to visitors1 a person who is asked for an alms or a loan which he cannot conveniently grant may answer1 according to many1 that he has not the money1 which means that he has no money to spare for those purposes 7see #bbea74 #bdjb4 ,ambiguous ,answers4--,are ambiguous answers which are not given according to the questioner's mind1 and for which there are no reasonable justifications1 to be classed as lies8 7a7 ,if the answer1 even in the setting of its context1 retains its ambiguity or can be interpreted in two ways1 there is not strictly speaking a lie1 for the words signify1 though obscurely1 what is in the speaker's mind4 ,but this is a form of insincerity known as equivocation or quibbling1 which many regard almost as disreputable as plain lying4 ,the pagan oracles that made predictions that would suit any turn of events and politicians who so word themselves as to be on opposite sides at the same time are examples of equivocation4 7b7 ,if the answer1 though verbally susceptible of two senses1 is contextually limited to one sense1 it is a lie2 for it does not express the speaker's mind4 ,thus1 if ,titus knows that ,balbus is good physically or mentally but not morally1 he equivocates by answering that ,balbus is good1 if from the circumstances this indicates only that in some way or other ,balbus is good2 but ,titus lies by answering that ,balbus is good and restricting his meaning to physical goodness or industry1 if the question propounded referred to moral goodness4 #bdjc4 ,simulation or ,pretence4--,a special form of untruthfulness is simulation or pretence1 which uses external deeds or things to signify the contrary of what one thinks or intends internally4 7a7 ,simulation uses external deeds or things1 and thus there is an accidental difference between lying and simulation1 the one being untruthfulness in word and the other untruthfulness in deed 7see #afgh sqq474 7b7 ,it employs deeds or things to signify4 ,unlike words1 deeds and things were not meant principally to signify1 and hence not all conduct at variance with one's ideas is simulation4 ,one may act without any thought of the impression the act makes on others 7e4g41 when one keeps sober1 not from wish1 but from necessity74 ,and even when an act is done with the intention to influence others by it1 the purpose may be1 not to signify1 but to conceal something 7e4g41 ,josue fled from the troops of ,hai to keep them from a knowledge of his plans1 ,jos41 viii4 #a sqq42 ,david feigned insanity to conceal his identity1 ,i ,kings1 xxi4 #aa4 sqq474 ,thus1 simulation teaches error1 and dissimulation hides truth from those who have no right to it4 ,that dissimulation is generally recognized as lawful is seen from such examples as stratagems1 ambushes1 camouflage in war1 disguises in detective work1 and concealment of marriage by couples not ready for housekeeping4 7c7 ,it signifies the contrary of what one has in mind1 as when one who is sad laughs and jokes to make others think he is happy1 or one who is well apes the actions of a sick man so as to appear unwell1 or when one who hates his neighbor treats him as a friend in public4 ,a special form of simulation is hypocrisy1 which makes a show of virtue that one does not possess at all or in the degree pretended4 ,there is no simulation if the exterior corresponds with what one has is mind1 for example1 at ,emmaus ,christ made as though ,he would go farther 7,luke1 xxiv4 #bh71 but ,he meant not to stop without an invitation4 #bdjd4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,simulation4--7a7 ,in general1 simulation is a sin1 since it is nothing else than an acted lie4 ,but deeds1 with the few exceptions of bows1 nods1 gestures and the like1 are not from their nature signs of thoughts1 and those employed to serve as signs are more indeterminate and equivocal than words2 hence1 it is not always as easy to decide that an act is simulatory as to decide that a word is a lie4 ,thus1 it is not simulation to make use of false hair1 false teeth1 or false jewelry as means of protection or of adornment1 there being no intention to mislead2 neither is it simulation for a wicked cleric to wear the clerical garb1 for the dress signifies primarily his state1 and not necessarily his personal moral character4 7b7 ,in particular1 simulation by hypocrisy and treachery is detestable2 for hypocrisy prostitutes works of virtue to the ignoble ends of applause or lucre or worse1 while treachery uses the intimacy or marks of friendship as means for betrayal4 ,the most stinging rebukes of ,our ,lord were given the hypocritical ,pharisees 78,blind guides1 whited sepulchres1 serpents1 generation of vipers10 ,matt41 xxiii4 #bc sqq471 and among the saddest words of ,christ are those addressed to ,judas 78,dost thou betray the ,son of man with a kiss80 ,luke1 xxii4 #dh74 ,against the former he pronounced woes1 and ,he declared that it were better if the latter had never been born 7,matt41 xxvi4 #bd74 #bdje4 ,sinfulness of ,hypocrisy4--7a7 ,hypocrisy in its strictest sense is the simulation of one who wishes to seem but not to be virtuous4 ,this sin is mortal1 since it cares nothing for virtue1 and its external pretense is but a mockery4 ,it is this hypocrisy that is so scathingly denounced in ,scripture4 7b7 ,hypocrisy in a less strict sense is the simulation of one who is in mortal sin1 but wishes for some reason to appear virtuous or to lead a double life4 ,the sin is mortal or venial according to the motive2 for example1 to act the hypocrite in order to seduce another is a mortal sin1 though1 if the motive is only vanity1 the sin is venial4 ,it should be noted that it is not hypocrisy for a just cause to conceal one's sin by dissimulation2 indeed1 ,isaias severely blames those who scandalize others by flaunting their wickedness before the public 7,is1 iii4 #i74 7c7 ,hypocrisy in the widest sense assumes the appearance of a high degree of sanctity above that requisite for salvation1 as when a person of ordinary goodness tries to gain the reputation of miracle-worker1 or to pass as one better than others in faith1 zeal1 humility1 etc4 ,this sin is not mortal in itself1 but it may become mortal on account of some motive1 some means1 or some other circumstance4 ,there is no hypocrisy at all1 however1 in showing oneself for the virtue one really has2 on the contrary1 he lies1 who being good pretends that he is not good1 or who being free of a vice pretends that he is guilty of it4 #bdjf4 ,self-,glorification and ,self-,depreciation4--,two forms of lying about self are self-glorification and self-depreciation4 7a7 ,braggadocio is untruthful self-glorification1 as when one pretends to be of royal descent1 or makes a display of wealth beyond one's means1 or poses as an authority on matters of which one is ignorant1 or tries by bluff to make one's defects seem perfections4 ,this sin is mortal when the lie is seriously injurious to ,god or others 7,ezech41 xxviii4 #b1 ,luke1 xviii4 #aa71 or when the motive is gravely sinful1 such as grave arrogance1 ambition1 or avarice4 7b7 ,feigning of defects 7irony7 is untruthful self-depreciation1 as when one falsely denies a good quality which one possesses 7e4g41 an excessively humble man denies the good deeds that others ascribe to him1 though he knows they are real71 or when one falsely admits a bad quality which one lacks 7e4g41 a person who wishes to curry favor accuses himself of misdeeds which he knows never happened74 ,this sin is usually less than braggadocio1 since as a rule its purpose is to avoid offense to others2 but it may be serious sin on account of some circumstance1 as when one speaks ill of self in order to scandalize or seduce another4 ,at times the feigning of defects is a concealed braggadocio1 as when one dresses in rags1 hoping by this expedient to acquire repute as a person of great spirituality 7,prov41 xxvi1 #be2 ,matt41 vi4 #af2 ,ecclus41 xix4 #bc74 #bdjg4 ,infidelity and ,violation of a ,secret4--,it remains to speak of the vices of infidelity and violation of secret 7see #bchh a74 ,as to the former1 since it has been discussed elsewhere 7#ahgg sqq41 #ahhh1 #ahhi2 see also the matter on ,promissory ,oaths71 it will suffice here to ask the question3 ,is the breach of a promise freely given a sin8 7a7 ,if observance of the promise is due from fidelity only1 there is no legal fault1 but there is moral fault1 and hence the breach of the promise is a sin4 ,the malice is essentially the same as that of untruthfulness 7see #bcie71 for both the liar and the promise-breaker show themselves unreliable1 the former because his words do not square with his mind and the latter because his deeds do not live up to his plighted word4 ,breach of promise1 then1 seems per se to be a venial sin1 though there are often circumstances 7such as damage done7 that make it mortal4 7b7 ,if observance of the promise is not due even from fidelity1 on account of the presence of some defect1 there is no moral obligation to keep the promise and no sin is committed by not keeping it4 ,the defects referred to are such as make the promise lack force from the beginning 7e4g41 if it was immoral or extorted by force71 or deprive it of the force it had 7i4e41 inability on the part of the promisor or loss of right on the part of the promisee74 ,the promisor is unable to keep the promise1 if the thing promised has become physically impossible 7e4g41 he no longer has the strength or the means to perform what he promised71 or morally impossible 7e4g41 the thing promised has become unlawful1 or a notable change has taken place which1 could it have been foreseen1 would have prevented the promise74 ,the promisee loses his right if the sole or principal reason that dictated the promise has ceased1 or if the promise has become useless to the promisee1 or if the promisor has been released1 or if the promisee forfeits his claim by his own perfidy towards the promisor 7see #bbef sqq41 #ahhi74 #bdjh4 ,definition of a ,secret4--,a secret is a matter 7e4g41 an invention1 valuable information1 concealed virtues1 the fact that a crime has been committed7 known privately by only one person or by so few that it is neither public property nor notorious4 ,moralists distinguish the following kinds of secrets3 7a7 a natural secret1 which is one that cannot be revealed without causing injury or annoyance to another1 as when the revelation will harm a person in his reputation1 honor1 influence property4 ,it is called natural for it arises from the very nature of the matter of the secret and not from any promise or contract4 7b7 a promised secret1 which is one that a person has promised1 but only after he had already learned it1 to guard inviolate4 ,it makes no difference whether the promisor learned the secret from the promisee or from some other source2 7c7 an entrusted or committed secret1 which is one that a person promised 7and before he learned it7 to keep from others4 ,the promise here is either implicit or explicit4 ,an implicit promise of secrecy is one that is demanded by the confidential nature of communications between two parties 7professional secret71 as when physicians1 lawyers1 priests1 parents1 or friends are told of private matters on account of their position or relationship4 ,an explicit promise is one that is given in express terms1 as when ,a says to ,b3 8,i have a matter of great importance to tell you1 but you must first promise that you will keep it secret02 and on ,b promising1 ,a confides to him the secret4 #bdji4 ,sinfulness of ,violating a4 ,secret4--,a secret is the property of its owner1 and to it he has a strict right2 for if it is a good secret 7such as an original idea or discovery71 it is the product of his labor or at least a possession which he has lawfully come by2 if it is an evil secret 7such as a crime of which he has been guilty71 it may not be made known without infringing on his right of reputation4 ,it is no more lawful to violate the right to a secret than to violate the right to property1 and1 as there are three kinds of injuries to property1 so there are three kinds of injuries to a secret4 7a7 ,thus1 the right of possession is injured by those who by fraud or force or other illegal means deprive another of his secret 7e4g41 by secretly intercepting private letters1 by making a person drunk in order to learn a secret74 7b7 ,the right of use is injured by those who on acquiring knowledge of a secret guide themselves or others by it to the detriment of the owner's rights4 7c7 ,the right of disposition is injured by those who reveal a secret which they were obliged not to reveal4 #bdaj4 ,prying ,into ,others' ,secrets4--,to seek to discover the secrets of others is not lawful unless the following conditions are present3 7a7 one must have a right to the knowledge4 ,hence1 if there is question about a crime that has been committed or that is about to be committed1 one has a right to investigate in order to prevent harm to public or private good2 in war one may try to discover the plans of the enemy4 ,but it is not lawful to pry into purely personal matters1 to fish from others natural or confidential secrets which they are bound to keep1 to steal from another the thoughts1 plans1 inventions1 etc1 which are his own2 7b7 one must use only honest means to discover secrets to which one has a right 7#aejd74 ,thus1 it does not seem lawful generally to inebriate another in order to learn his secret1 and it is certainly sinful to resort to lies or simulation or immorality4 #bdaa4 ,reading ,another's ,letters or ,papers4--,when is it lawful to read the letters or other papers of another person8 7a7 ,this is lawful when the writings are not intended to be secret to anyone1 as when a circular is meant for public use1 when greetings are written on a postcard which all may read1 and when a letter is left open and thrown away or otherwise abandoned4 ,but a sealed letter1 or one left open in a private room1 or one lost in a public place1 is secret4 ,if a letter or manuscript has been torn up by its owner and thrown away on the street or other public place1 it does not seem lawful to piece the fragments together and read the writing1 for1 though the paper has been abandoned1 the owner by destroying it has indicated his will to keep the contents secret4 7b7 ,it is also lawful to read the writing of others that are not secret as regards oneself1 as when one has received a just permission from the writer to peruse a letter written by him1 or when one may presume such permission on account of friendship with the writer1 or when rule or lawful custom gives the superior of an institution the right to inspect the correspondence of his subjects4 ,exception must be made for exempted matter for which there is no permission1 such as letters containing conscience matters and letters directed to higher religious superiors 7see ,canon #faa74 7c7 ,it is also lawful to read the writings of others that are meant to be secret1 if one has a right to know what is in them3 for in such a case the owner would be unreasonable if he wished to exclude one from the knowledge4 ,thus1 the public authority 7e4g41 in time of war7 has the right to open and read letters and private papers1 when this is necessary for the common good2 parents and heads of boarding schools may examine the correspondence of their subjects1 though parents should respect conscience matter and others should not read family secrets2 private individuals have the natural right1 as a measure of self-defense1 to read another's letter1 when there is a prudent reason for thinking that it contains something gravely and unjustly harmful to themselves 7such as conspiracy1 a trap1 calumny74 #bdab4 ,lawfulness of ,utilizing ,knowledge of ,secret4--,one is said to use the knowledge obtained from a secret when one guides one's conduct by the knowledge1 doing or omitting what one would not otherwise do or omit4 ,is this use of a secret lawful8 7a7 ,if there was a promise not to use the secret1 such use is unlawful 7see #bdad74 ,breach of promise is then1 in case of a merely promised secret1 an act of infidelity at least1 and in case of an entrusted secret an act of injustice4 ,thus1 when one consults a professional person1 there is a tacit understanding that the knowledge communicated will not be used against one's interests or without one's consent1 and hence a lawyer would be unjust if1 on learning in the course of work for a client that the latter's business was not prosperous1 he gave word of this to one of the client's creditors4 7b7 ,if there was no promise not to use the secret1 the use of it is nevertheless unjust1 if it infringes a strict right 7e4g41 to make money from a secret process on which another has a patent1 to get knowledge of another's information and plans through reading his letters and thereby to prevent him from securing a vacant position71 or if it is equivalent to unjust revelation of a secret4 ,the use is uneharitable if it harms another person without necessity 7e4g41 to take away one's trade from a deserving merchant solely because one has learned that on one occasion he was accidentally intoxicated74 7c7 ,if there was no promise to avoid use and no harm will be done by use1 it is lawful to use a secret for a non-necessary good 7e4g41 to raise the price on one's property when one accidentally learns through overhearing a secret conversation that the property is worth the higher price71 and it is obligatory to use it for a necessary good 7e4g41 to assist a neighbor when one is told under secret that he is in dire need of one's charitable help74 ,even though harm will result to another by use of the secret1 use is not sinful if it infringes no right and could be sacrificed only at great inconvenience to oneself1 as when one has discovered by one's own industry some important truth in an art or science which another had previously discovered but had neglected to make his own by exclusive right1 or when one learns under secret that another person is one's enemy and has to be watched and avoided4 #bdac4 ,the ,sin ,committed by ,stealing or ,unduly ,using the ,secret of ,another4--7a7 ,from its nature 7cases of mere fidelity excepted7 the sin is mortal1 as being a violation of commutative justice or of charity4 ,injury to property rights1 whether in goods or in knowledge1 is violation of a strict right 7see #ahij1 #ahid74 ,the sin is aggravated by the greater import of the secret or by the greater damages or displeasure caused4 7b7 ,from the imperfection of the act or the lightness of the matter the sin may become venial1 as when one thoughtlessly reads another person's letters1 or opens correspondence without authority1 feeling morally sure that there is nothing confidential in it1 or makes use of an unimportant secret without permission4 #bdad4 ,the ,obligation of ,keeping a ,secret4--7a7 ,the natural secret obliges per se under grave sin2 for violation of it offends charity and justice by saddening and harming a neighbor4 ,the sin may become venial on account of lightness of matter1 as when little sadness or harm is caused4 7b7 ,the promised secret obliges ordinarily under light sin only2 for as a rule the promisor intends to obligate himself in virtue of fidelity alone 7#ahhh71 and the obligation of fidelity1 as said above 7see #bdjg71 is not grave4 ,but exceptionally the obligation may be grave1 as when the promisor intended to bind himself in virtue of justice and under grave sin1 or when the secret is natural as well as promised4 7c7 ,the entrusted secret obliges per se under grave sin2 for there is a duty of commutative and of legal justice to keep it1 on account of the rights of contract and of the common good that are involved4 ,the violator of an entrusted secret injures private good by disregard for contract1 and he injures public good by weakening confidence in officials or professional persons to whom others must go for advice or assistance4 ,violation of a committed secret may be only a venial sin on account of the lightness of the matter4 ,thus1 some think it is not a serious injustice to reveal a secret to one very discreet person1 if the person whose secret is made known is not very much opposed to this and no other damage will result 7see #bjfe74 #bdae4 ,comparison of ,secrets as ,regards ,binding ,force4--7a7 ,the promised secret obliges less than the natural or the entrusted1 as was said in the previous paragraph4 7b7 ,the natural secret obliges less per se than the entrusted secret1 for the safeguarding of the latter is agreed to in an onerous contract1 while no engagement is made to keep the former4 7c7 ,some entrusted secrets are more sacred than others4 ,thus1 a secret confided from necessity is more binding than one confided without necessity2 a secret one has sworn to keep is more obligatory than a secret one has given one's word of honor to keep2 a professional secret is more imperious than a private secret2 a state secret is far more important than any secret of private individuals4 ,the most inviolable of all secrets is that of the confessional1 because its violation is always a sacrilege4 #bdaf4 ,cases ,wherein ,it ,is ,not ,necessary to ,keep a ,secret4--7a7 ,if there has been no obligation from the time the secret was learned1 it is not necessary to keep it4 ,thus1 if a merely promised secret was accepted under compulsion and revelation will be advantageous and not harmful1 it does not seem necessary to keep the secret4 7b7 ,if the obligation of the secret has ceased1 it is not necessary to be silent4 ,examples are cases in which secrecy was promised only for a certain space of time1 or in which a matter formerly secret has become public1 or in which the owner of the secret wishes it to be divulged1 or in which he has not kept faith with the possessor of the secret1 provided of course that in these cases no injury or unnecessary harm is done by making known the secret4 ,similarly1 if the recipient of the secret cannot keep it without grave harm 7e4g41 death7 to himself1 he is not bound by it1 unless charity 7see #aafe1 #abcf7 or justice calls for the contrary4 ,commutative justice would demand silence 7though many make exception for a most grave reason1 regarding a promise to the contrary as prodigal7 if there had been an express contract to guard the secret at all risks2 legal justice would demand it1 if the safety of the republic were involved4 #bdag4 ,cases ,wherein ,it ,is ,not ,lawful to ,keep a ,secret4--7a7 ,if a secret cannot be kept without greater harm to the common good1 it may not be kept1 for legal justice requires that private good be subordinated to public safety4 ,the violation of secrets is a harm to the public good and a greater harm than ordinary evils against the community 7such as the escape of a guilty person72 but it is a less harm than serious evils against the people 7such as menace to public health1 sedition1 or treason74 ,the possessor of a natural or promised secret must make it known at the command of lawful authority1 as in court2 but the superior has no right to question about entrusted secrets of a necessary kind1 and this is usually recognized by positive law in the protection extended to professional communications4 7b7 ,if a secret cannot be kept without greater harm to the private good of the owner of the secret1 distinction is made between a non-entrusted and an entrusted secret4 ,in the former case the secret may not be kept1 for charity bids one to help a neighbor escape a greater evil1 and the owner of the secret would be unreasonable if he were opposed to its revelation 7see #eja sqq474 ,in the latter case1 some are of the opinion that the secret should be kept1 if it is professional 7since the public good then takes precedence over the private good of the owner of the secret71 but this is denied by others4 ,example3 ,titus knows that ,balbus is about to marry with a secret impediment that will nullify the marriage1 but he cannot persuade ,balbus to disclose this impediment to the pastor4 7c7 ,if a secret cannot be kept without greater harm to the private good of a third party 7i4e41 one other than the owner of the secret71 distinction is made between cases1 according as injury is or is not done by the owner of the secret to the third party4 ,if no injury is done the third party1 the secret should be kept 7e4g41 if one knows in confidence that ,sempronius has made an invention which will supersede an invention made by ,claudius1 one is not at liberty to make this known to the latter1 for ,sempronius has done no injury to ,claudius74 ,if1 however1 injury is done the third party by the owner of the secret when the secret is kept1 one should not keep the secret2 for charity requires that one help an innocent person to escape from harm1 even if this has to be done at the expense of harm to the guilty cause of the harm4 ,examples3 ,if one knows as a secret that ,a1 ,b and ,c have conspired to murder ,d tomorrow night1 and one cannot otherwise prevent the murder1 one should if possible break the secret1 at least by sending warning to ,d that his life is in danger tomorrow night4 ,if a doctor knows that a man who is about to contract marriage is syphilitic and pretends that he is sound1 and if the doctor cannot persuade this man to make the facts known to the intended wife1 the doctor himself should give notice to the woman1 according to some authorities1 unless the laws of the country forbid such use of professional knowledge4 #bdah4 ,what should the possessor of an entrusted secret do1 if from the secret he knows that the one who entrusted it is guilty of a crime for which an innocent third person is about to be convicted and sentenced8 7a7 ,if the guilty party is responsible for the plight of the innocent party 7e4g41 because he falsely accused him or threw suspicion on him71 natural law would require the possessor of the secret to make known the true state of affairs2 for the guilty party is then the unjust cause of damage and is bound to accuse himself 7see #agfc74 ,revelation of the true culprit would not be necessary1 however1 if there was some other way of saving the innocent person4 7b7 ,if the guilty person is not responsible for the difficulty in which the innocent person finds himself1 not having used any means to bring the latter into suspicion1 some believe that the secret should be kept1 since the guilty person has then the right to keep his secret and therefore has also the right that his confidants keep it 7see #aifh74 ,but others1 while granting that the guilty person is not obliged to accuse himself1 deny that the confidant is not obliged to accuse him2 for the right of the guilty that his secret be kept and the right of the innocent that he be not deprived of life or liberty are in conflict and unequal1 and he who prefers the former right does an injury to the innocent person 7see #bhh74 #bdai4 ,the previous question was concerned with an innocent third party4 ,if the holder of the secret is also the accused1 it seems he is not obliged1 unless perhaps when he agreed to it1 to prefer the inviolability of the secret to his own justification2 for the acceptance of a secret does not mean that one binds oneself to grave hardship for its preservation 7see #bdah74 ,the thing to do would be to warn the guilty person to escape in time1 and then to exculpate oneself by making known the truth4 #bdbj4 ,lawfulness of ,revealing a ,secret ,learned by ,stealth or ,force4--,is it lawful1 in order to avert some great evil1 to use or reveal against the interests or wishes of its owner a secret which one has learned by stealth 7e4g41 by spying1 eavesdropping1 wiretapping1 unauthorized inspection of papers7 or by force8 ,various answers are given to this question1 but to us the following seems the best3 7a7 if the stealth or force would not be unjust here and now1 because the owner of the secret has a duty to disclose it 7e4g41 on account of the public good1 on account of the extreme need of a private person71 or the other party has a right to seek after it 7e4g41 because he cannot otherwise defend himself against the unjust vexation of the owner of the secret71 the answer is in the affirmative2 for in such a case there is only applied the principle of lawful occupation or of lawful self-defense 7see #aibj sqq41 #ahai74 ,but if the stealth or force is excessive in its manner or productive of unnecessary harm1 it is sinful and induces the duty of restitution1 nor is there any right to make such use or such revelation of a secret as is sinful in itself 7e4g41 on account of calumnies1 scandals1 disorders72 7b7 if the stealth or force would be unjust here and now1 the answer is in the negative2 for in such a case there is real theft of a secret1 a person's most intimate possession1 and a continuation of the original injury by the use of the stolen property against its owner1 or at least an unlawful conversion of property4 ,hence1 if there is no grave or proportionate reason for the use of the secret1 or if other and simpler methods can be employed1 the secret may not be used4 ,those who play the detective ostensibly for other reasons but really for purposes of blackmail or other personal advantage1 are therefore in the same class as thieves and are bound to restitution2 their sin is per se mortal1 for secrets are usually esteemed more highly than money1 and it would be seriously detrimental to the public weal if the practice of using secrets unlawfully obtained 7e4g41 by secretly taking down privileged communications or state secrets7 were permissible4 #bdba4 ,the ,virtues of ,affability and ,liberality4--,these two virtues1 though they are not so important as those that preceded1 are still most useful to human life 7see #badc74 ,affability 7friendliness1 politeness7 is a virtue which inclines a person to show himself in serious matters properly agreeable to others in order thus to fulfill a duty to society4 7a7 ,affability has for its object to be agreeable to others1 that is1 in looks1 manner1 words and deeds to treat them with kindness and consideration1 and so to give them pleasure4 ,affability is more than mere civility1 which avoids rudeness and observes necessary proprieties1 but does not manifest a gracious spirit4 ,the gentleman1 according to ,cardinal ,newman 78,idea of a ,university10 ,discourse viii1 #aj71 is one who does not inflict pain and whose great concern is to make others at their ease and at home4 ,the true gentleman is considerate for all his company1 guards against unseasonable allusions or topics1 is seldom prominent in conversation and never wearisome1 makes light of his own favors1 never speaks of himself except when compelled1 avoids personalities and insinuations of evil1 and is indulgent towards opponents4 7b7 ,affability is as agreeable as is becoming1 or proper2 that is1 it observes the golden mean1 attending to moderation and circumstances1 suiting its deportment to the time1 place1 occasion1 and persons and observing the recognized laws of etiquette for social1 official1 business1 religious1 domestic and other relations4 ,indeed1 there are times when affability should not be shown1 as when it is necessary to display severity and displeasure1 or even to sadden others1 for the sake of some higher good 7,,ii ,cor41 vii4 #h1 #i74 7c7 ,its purpose is to fulfill a social duty4 ,without affability the ways of life are made rougher and more difficult for all1 and therefore1 since man is a social being1 it becomes obligatory that each one should so conduct himself towards others as to avoid the displeasing and to cultivate the pleasing4 ,thus1 affability is less than friendship 7see #aaaj71 since it does not include special benevolence and is shown to friend and foe alike2 but it is more than polish1 for it consists not merely in external good manners but chiefly in an internal sense of responsibility to society and of deference to its requirements4 ,affability is at its best1 however1 when prompted by friendship and ,christian charity4 ,a modicum of courtesy1 if accompanied by sincerity and goodness of heart1 is more appreciated than profuse compliment and ceremony behind which there is little genuineness or little affection4 7d7 ,affability regulates conduct in serious matters1 for the regulation of amusements or recreations pertain chiefly to modesty and falls under temperance rather than justice4 ,aristotle calls the virtue directive of games eutrapelia1 which may also be called reasonable relaxation1 urbanity1 or pleasantness4 #bdbb4 ,offices of ,affability4--,all1 and especially the clergy1 should practise courtesy1 imitating ,st4 ,paul1 who became all things to all men1 in order to gain all to ,christ 7,i ,cor41 ix4 #bb71 and following his advice to be without offense to ,jew or ,gentile or to the ,church of ,god 7,i ,cor41 x4 #cb74 ,the offices of affability can be reduced to the negative and the positive1 as follows3 7a7 the negative offices are the avoidance of excess 7adulation7 and defect 7surliness72 7b7 the positive offices are the observance on special occasions of the appropriate forms and usages and on all occasions the exercise of a gentle and thoughtful regard for the feelings of others4 #bdbc4 ,the ,sins against ,affability4--7a7 ,adulation is the vice of those who in the effort to please others go beyond what is proper1 of the complaisant man who aims to gratify by merely conventional or extravagant compliments1 and of the flatterer who seeks to win favors for himself by expressions of fulsome admiration4 ,adulation is shown by exaggerated debasement of self 7servility1 obsequiousness71 as well as by exaggerated exaltation of others 7toadyism74 ,the sin of adulation is not grave from its nature1 being only an excessive will to please2 but circumstances sometimes make it grave1 such as its matter 7e4g41 when one compliments another's sins1 ,is41 v4 #bj71 its effect 7e4g41 when the person flattered will be made proud71 or its purpose 7e4g41 when the flatterer means to seduce the other person1 ,prov41 xxvii4 #f74 ,like to adulation in its exaggeration1 but unlike it in manner1 is the display of friendliness by offensive familiarity or boisterous conduct4 7b7 ,surliness is the sin of those who are ungracious in their manners1 not because of hate or anger1 but because of a desire to be unpleasant and to make others yield to themselves4 ,the surly man is always ready to contradict or argue1 he is hard to please1 sensitive1 sour in visage1 gruff in words1 and much given to complaint or sullen silence4 ,surliness is per se worse than adulation but not a mortal sin2 for it is farther removed from affability than adulation1 but does not necessarily inflict a severe wound on charity4 ,but the smooth palaverer is usually a more dangerous character than the morose man 7,ps4 cxl4 #e74 ,like to surliness is the boorishness of those who from cynicism or laziness despise refinement1 or from greed neglect proper manners at table4 ,but entirely different from surliness is that dignity which can be reserved without being distant or hard of approach1 and that seriousness which can be grave or silent without being ungracious4 #bdbd4 ,liberality4--,liberality is a virtue that moderates the love of riches and inclines one in ordinary affairs to bestow one's own goods upon others willingly1 when and as right reason may dictate4 7a7 ,it moderates the love of riches2 that is1 it makes one value and esteem money at its true worth4 ,in this respect it pertains at least improperly to temperance inasmuch as the love of money is a passion4 ,liberality is thus distinguished from mercy and beneficence4 ,these virtues are open-handed from charity1 and give because another is in need or is loved2 liberality1 on the contrary1 may be without charity and its bounty may be shown even to those who are not in need or who are not liked1 for it is free in using money precisely because it does not prize external things excessively4 7b7 ,it inclines one to bestow one's own possessions1 or freely to communicate them4 ,in this respect liberality is assigned to justice1 since its object is external things as owed by a certain moral debt to others4 ,since liberality consists primarily in a generous inclination1 even the poor may have this virtue2 in fact1 the poor oftentimes1 being less wedded to money1 are far more disposed to liberality than the rich4 7c7 ,it functions in ordinary affairs1 for there is a special virtue of magnificence that makes wealthy men spend money lavishly in enterprise of the greatest moment4 7d7 ,the beneficiary of liberality is another1 for no special virtue is needed to make one use money freely for one's own needs or comfort4 7e7 ,liberality bestows gladly1 but according to right reason1 for there is no merit in unwilling gifts1 and no virtue in gifts bestowed unsuitably as to time1 place1 purpose1 person1 quantity1 quality1 etc4 ,liberality1 then1 is not inconsistent with prudence about temporal affairs1 that is1 with economy which adapts expenditures to income1 with thrift which puts something by for the future1 and with frugality which spares unnecessary expenses on self1 especially in the matter of luxuries 7see #afha sqq474 #bdbe4 ,the ,importance of ,liberality4--7a7 ,liberality is not the greatest virtue4 ,it is less than temperance1 for temperance regulates the passions in reference to the body1 while liberality regulates them in reference to externals2 it is less than fortitude and justice1 which serve the common good1 whereas liberality regards individuals2 it is less than the virtues that are concerned with divine things1 for liberality has to do directly with temporals4 7b7 ,liberality is one of the most useful of virtues since it disposes one to use money well in the service of ,god and humanity1 and gives one an influence that can be employed for good 7,ecclus41 xxxi4 #bh74 ,according to ,aristotle1 the virtues that chiefly attract fame are first bravery1 next justice1 and then liberality4 ,moreover1 this virtue of generosity is one of the surest indexes of internal religion and charity1 as being the natural expression of devotion and benevolence 7see #bahe1 #abaa71 while miserliness is a sign of coldness towards ,god and man4 #bdbf4 ,vice of ,avarice4--,the vice which is opposed to liberality by defect in giving is avarice1 which1 properly speaking or as distinguished from theft and robbery1 is an immoderate desire1 love or delight entertained in respect to external corporal goods1 such as lands or money4 7a7 ,the ,absolute ,malice of ,avarice4--,this sin is per se venial1 since it is only an excess in the love of a thing that is in itself indifferent and lawful2 but it becomes mortal if the affection for money is so great that one is prepared to sacrifice grave obligations for its sake 7e4g41 to stay away from church rather than contribute to religion or the suffering poor74 ,it is not merely carnal1 since not concerned with bodily pleasure2 nor merely spiritual1 since riches are not a spiritual object2 hence1 it stands midway between spiritual and carnal vices4 7b7 ,the ,comparative ,malice of ,avarice4--,in regard to deformity1 avarice is not worse than other sins1 but rather the contrary4 ,the less the good to which a vice is opposed1 the less the deprivation caused by the vice2 and hence since external goods1 to whose proper esteem avarice is opposed1 are less important than divine or human goods1 it follows that avarice is not so sinful as irreligion1 homicide1 theft1 etc4 ,in regard to shamefulness1 however1 avarice is worse than other sins4 ,the less valuable the created good that a vice pursues1 the more disgraceful the vice2 and hence since the miser sets his heart on external things1 which are the lowest of all goods1 preferring them to goods of body and of soul 7e4g41 to health1 education7 and even to divine goods1 he is rightly regarded as more contemptible than other sinners4 ,some forms of avarice1 too1 are more despicable than others4 ,thus1 in some persons avarice shows itself in their fear to consume or expend for their own necessary uses 7parsimony1 penuriousness72 in others it shows itself by an unwillingness to give to others 7stinginess1 niggardliness71 or a willingness to live at the expense of others 7sponging72 finally1 the most disgusting form of avarice is seen in those who cannot bear to part with their possessions either for their own sake or for the sake of others1 and find their happiness in mere possession 7miserliness74 ,in regard to influence1 avarice has a pre-eminence among sins that causes it to be numbered among the seven capital vices4 ,a capital vice is one of the chief sources of evil attraction that produces other sins1 and it is clear that immoderate love of riches is one of the most prolific of sins4 ,all are drawn to happiness1 and money seems to secure the requisites for happiness 7,ecclus41 x4 #af72 hence we see that for the sake of holding to money men become hard of heart 7,matt41 xxiii4 #ad2 ,luke1 xvi4 #ba71 for the sake of acquiring it they become carnal and restless in mind 7,ecclus41 xiv4 #i2 ,matt41 xiii4 #bb7 and have recourse to deeds of violence 7,,iii ,kings1 xxi4 #b71 of deception 7,acts1 xxiv4 #bf71 of perjury 7,matt41 xxviii4 #ab sqq471 of fraud 7,luke1 xvi4 #d sqq471 and of treachery 7,matt41 xxvi4 #ae74 ,avarice is at the same time one of the most dangerous of sins1 for it will lead a man to sell even his own soul 7,ecclus41 ,x4 #aj7 and to commit any enormity 7,i ,tim41 vi4 #i71 and one of the most incurable1 for the miser never has enough 7,prov41 xxx4 #ae1 #af7 and is always able to make believe that his avarice is prudence or some other virtue 7,wis41 xv4 #ab74 #bdbg4 ,vice of ,prodigality4--,the vice opposed to liberality by excess in giving is prodigality1 which is an insufficient regard for temporal things and an extravagant bestowal of them on others4 7a7 ,it is an insufficient care for temporal things3 that is1 as the miser loves money too much1 so the prodigal esteems it too little2 as the miser is over-anxious to get and keep money1 so the prodigal is careless about earning or saving4 7b7 ,it is an extravagant bestowal of temporal things2 that is1 the prodigal gives more than he should1 or else the circumstances do not call for his gift1 as when he gives when or where or to whom he should not give4 #bdbh4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,prodigality4--7a7 ,from its nature it is venial4 ,the prodigal is not the absolute owner of his goods1 but a steward who is held to administer them according to reason4 ,but his sin is not grave1 since it does not injure others and the goods of which he deprives himself are of the lowest kind4 7b7 ,from its circumstances it may be mortal4 ,thus1 it is made mortal on account of the purpose 7e4g41 extravagant presents made with a view to seduction or bribery71 or the consequences 7e4g41 wastefulness which makes one unable to pay debts or assist a relative who is in grave need71 or the special obligation of devoting superfluities to charity1 as when one squanders the excess revenues of a benefice 7see #abeb74 #bdbi4 ,comparison of ,avarice and ,prodigality4--7a7 ,they are associable1 for the same person may be both avaricious and prodigal1 though in different respects 7e4g41 some persons are spendthrifts in giving money away1 and are thus forced to be grasping to get money and ready to obtain it by any means1 foul or fair74 7b7 ,they are unequal in malice4 ,prodigality is less sinful than avarice1 because it is less removed from liberality1 less harmful to self and others1 and less difficult to cure4 ,it is said that prodigality is the vice of youth1 avarice the vice of old age4 #bdcj4 ,the ,virtue of ,equity4--,the virtues that have been so far treated in the present ,article are forms of particular justice1 and they have the status of adjuncts or potential parts4 ,we shall conclude the list of virtues grouped with justice by discussing equity1 which belongs to general 7legal7 justice and has the rank of a subjective part 7see above1 #afce1 #afcf1 #agde1 #agja1 #agjd74 #bdca4 ,definition of ,equity4--,in law1 equity is any court system of extraordinary justice in which the standard is natural honesty as declared by the conscience of the judge or by a body of rules and procedures that supplement or override the usual rules and procedures where these are too narrow or limited4 ,thus1 in ,england and in the ,united ,states courts of equity are those that take care of defined special cases for which there is no remedy in the usual or common law courts 7,robinson1 ,elementary ,law1 ,sec4#cdh74 ,but as here taken equity is a moral virtue1 and is of two kinds1 particular equity which pertains to particular justice 7natural equity7 and general equity which belongs to legal justice 7legal equity74 7a7 ,natural equity is a moral virtue that inclines one not to insist unnecessarily on one's strict or legal rights when to do so will be unpleasant or burdensome to others4 ,it is exemplified in the acts of an employer who freely grants a bonus to deserving employees in addition to the wage promised1 and of a creditor who grants an extension of time to a hard-pressed debtor4 ,this virtue partakes of both charity and justice2 of charity1 since it tempers justice with mercy2 of justice1 since it is really identical with the virtue of affability or friendliness mentioned above 7#bdba74 ,its obligation as an act of justice is not grave1 since the debt is not of a rigorous kind4 7b7 ,legal equity is a moral virtue that inclines one to justice beyond the common laws1 or it is a correction of the law in that wherein the law by reason of its universality is manifestly deficient4 ,the law is said to be deficient here when its application in a particular case would be prejudicial to the supreme purpose of law 7i4e41 to the common good or to equal justice74 ,some precepts of the natural law 7e4g41 the prohibitions against lying and adultery7 cannot be deficient in this way and need no supervising equity4 ,but other precepts of natural law1 according to some 7e4g41 the command that a deposit be returned to the depositor71 and also precepts of positive law are found to be unsuitable in exceptional cases4 ,the reason for this defect in a good law lies in the nature of the case2 for these laws must be made in view of what happens in the majority of cases1 and accordingly they are couched in general terms and permit of exceptions which the lawgiver himself would allow 7see on ,epieikeia1 #daa sqq74 #bdcb4 ,the ,greatness of ,legal ,equity4--7a7 ,it is a distinct virtue1 since it inclines the will to do good and avoid iniquity in a matter of special difficulty4 ,it is not a transgression of law1 since it upholds the spirit when the letter departs from the spirit1 and prizes the lawgiver's intention to do what is just and right above the lawgiver's words4 7b7 ,it is a subjective part of common justice1 since all that is contained in the concept of justice belongs to equity4 ,thus1 it differs from the potential and integral parts of justice so far treated in ,articles #e and #f4 7c7 ,it pertains to the species1 not of particular1 but of general or legal justice2 for equity extends to all the virtues and is concerned with the debt owed to the common good4 ,thus1 per se its obligation is grave 7see #agba74 7d7 ,it is the higher part of legal justice4 ,just as prudence has two parts--good judgment 7synesis71 which settles ordinary cases of morals according to the usual rules of conduct1 and acute judgment 7gnome71 which passes on moral problems that are out of the ordinary run--so legal justice has two acts1 a lower which applies the law to usual cases1 and a higher 7equity7 which applies more remote principles 7viz41 that the common good be not injured1 nor injustice done7 where the immediate principles of the law are clearly inadequate4 ,thus1 if a madman demands from a depositary the return of his revolver in order to commit murder1 the letter of the law would uphold the madman1 but equity would decide against him2 if the enemy are attacking a city and one cannot repel them except by disregarding an ordinance of the city1 the law would forbid one to transgress the ordinance1 while equity would command one to transgress it4 7e7 ,equity is1 therefore1 the noblest act of strict justice4 ,for legal justice is preferred to particular justice 7#agjc1 #agae71 and equity is the superior act of legal justice4 ,in will and intention the common good and justice must take precedence over laws and statutes at all times2 but in act the supreme ends of law are served1 except in extraordinary cases1 by obedience to law4 #bdcc4 ,the ,complements of ,justice4--,to each of the various virtues correspond certain complements1 namely1 ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost1 ,fruits of the ,holy ,ghost1 and ,beatitudes 7see #aei74 7a7 ,the ,gift that corresponds to justice is piety1 for1 like justice1 piety is exercised towards another1 and moreover piety is the completion of the virtue of religion1 the highest development of justice4 ,this ,gift is defined as 8an infused habit that renders the soul well disposed towards ,god as its kind ,father1 and makes it quickly responsive to the ,holy ,spirit when ,he moves it to acts of filial affection towards ,god40 ,as the virtue of piety is shown to earthly fathers1 so the ,gift of ,piety is shown to the ,father in heaven3 8,you have received the spirit of adoption of sons1 in which we cry3 ,abba1 ,father0 7,rom41 viii4 #ae74 ,religion honors ,god as ,lord1 piety as ,father2 filial fear reveres ,his majesty1 piety ,his lovingkindness4 ,and as a child tenderly loves all that belongs to a good father1 so piety makes the soul rejoice and be glad in the things of ,god1 in the ,saints1 the ,scriptures1 the practices of religion1 and the like4 7b7 ,the ,beatitudes assigned here are the fourth 7,blessed are they that hunger and thirst after justice1 for they shall have their fill71 which agrees with justice1 and the fifth 7,blessed are the merciful1 for they shall obtain mercy71 which is suitable for piety inasmuch as one who finds his love and joy in ,god as ,father will be compassionate to the suffering creatures of ,god4 ,like justice1 both of these ,beatitudes are exercised in reference to the neighbor 7see #afd74 7c7 ,the ,fruits that seem most appropriate here are good will and kindness1 which find a sweet joy in purposing and performing services for others4 ,like justice1 these acts have reference to others 7#afc72 like piety1 they see in their neighbors the children of the same heavenly ,father4 ,thus1 justice when alone is guided by prudence2 it pays what is due to ,god as ,lord1 to man as neighbor2 it acts perhaps with pain1 but from a sense of duty4 ,but when justice is supernaturally perfected1 it is the ,spirit of ,piety which guides1 and which makes one to see in ,god one's ,father and in man the child of ,god2 even that which is not owed is given from mercy1 and there is a hunger and thirst for justice2 and in the payment of duty to others there is at last a joy found in the very difficulty itself4 #bdcd4 ,the ,commandments of ,justice4--,the various precepts regarding justice are contained in the ,decalogue4 ,for justice consists in the fulfillment of duties towards others whether they be superiors1 equals or inferiors4 ,the ,ten ,commandments sum up these duties of justice2 the first three prescribe the duties owed to ,god1 the fourth the duties owed to human superiors1 and the other six the obligations which man has to his equals or to all fellowmen4 #bdce4 ,the order of the ,commandments is most appropriate1 for their purpose is to form man to virtue and to lead him to perfection1 which consists in the love of ,god and neighbor 7see #aaah1 #aeec sqq471 and they therefore outline first the service that is owed to ,god 7,commandments of the ,first ,table7 and next the service that is owed to man 7,commandments of the ,second ,table74 7a7 ,the ,commandments of the ,first ,table lay the foundation of the edifice of justice1 for they teach us that our first duty is to render to ,god the things that are ,god's4 ,we must avoid1 therefore1 the excess of superstition 7,thou shalt not have strange gods before ,me7 and the defect of irreligiousness 7,thou shalt not take the name of the ,lord ,thy ,god in vain72 we must practise the virtue of religion 7,remember thou keep holy the ,sabbath ,day74 7b7 ,the ,commandments of the ,second ,table begin with the duties owed to those to whom we are most bound after ,god1 namely1 parents1 country1 superiors 7,honor thy father and thy mother74 ,next follow prohibitions against injuries done to any neighbor by deeds or words1 whether the harm be to his person 7,thou shalt not kill71 or to those who are as one person with him 7,thou shalt not commit adultery71 or to a neighbor's external corporal goods 7,thou shalt not steal71 or to his external incorporeal goods of fame and honor 7,thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor74 ,finally1 there are prohibitions against thoughts or desires injurious to the neighbor1 mention being made specially of those internal sins that are most common on account of the utility 7,thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's goods7 or the pleasure 7,thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife7 they afford4 #bdcf4 ,we shall not give here any special treatment of the ,decalogue4 ,rather we refer the reader to the excellent explanations that are contained in ,part ,,iii of ,the ,catechism of the ,council of ,trent4 ,moreover1 each of the ,commandments has been treated in the present work1 chiefly in the ,articles on justice1 and supplementary matter can be drawn from some others of its articles4 ,for the sake of convenience1 however1 we give here a list of references1 showing the passages of this ,moral ,theology in which the ,commandments of the ,decalogue are explained4 7a7 ,thus1 for the ,first ,commandment read on superstition 7#bbgd sqq47 for the prohibitory part1 on faith1 hope and charity 7#gdf sqq47 for the perceptive part4 7b7 ,for the ,second ,commandment read on irreligiousness 7#bbii7 for the prohibitory part2 on oaths1 adjuration and praise 7#bbde sqq47 for the preceptive part4 7c7 ,for the ,third ,commandment as to its natural precept1 read on the virtue of religion 7#bade sqq472 as to its positive precept1 read on positive laws 7#cdj sqq41 #ceb1 #dbe7 and on the first ,commandment of the ,church 7see #bege sqq474 7d7 ,for the ,fourth ,commandment read on the virtues of piety1 reverence1 obedience and gratitude 7#bcdd sqq474 ,other matter will be found under charity 7#aaeh sqq41 #abaa sqq47 and under the duties of particular states4 7e7 ,for the ,fifth ,commandment read on homicide1 suicide1 and bodily injury 7#ahaf-ahga74 ,other matter will be found in the ,articles on charity 7#aegi sqq41 #aaic sqq47 and on affability 7#bdba sqq474 7f7 ,for the ,sixth ,commandment read on injustice 7#agai sqq471 on restitution 7#ahjc71 and on the virtue of temperance 7#bdfa sqq474 7g7 ,for the ,seventh ,commandment read on commutative and distributive justice 7#agde sqq471 on restitution 7#agea sqq471 on injuries to property 7#ahgb-aich71 on fraud 7#baba sqq471 on liberality 7#bdbd sqq474 7h7 ,for the ,eighth ,commandment read on judicial injustice 7#aici sqq471 on unjust words 7#bjji ,sqq471 and on truthfulness 7#bche sqq474 7i7 ,for the ,ninth and ,tenth ,commandments read on internal sins 7#bcj sqq471 and on the malice of the internal act of sin 7#hi-ic74 ,art4 #g3 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,fortitude 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #abc-adj47 #bdcg4 ,the ,virtue of ,fortitude4--,this virtue ranks next after justice and before temperance4 ,prudence has the greatest amount of goodness since it deals directly with reason1 the essential good of man2 justice is next because it realizes the dictates of reason in human affairs2 the other virtues uphold the reign of reason against the rebellion of passion1 fortitude repressing fear1 the most powerful foe of reason1 and temperance subduing pleasure1 which is after fear the strongest of reason's enemies 7cfr4 #aeg1 #afbg1 #afhh74 ,fortitude is nobler than temperance because more closely related to reason2 it is the more difficult virtue1 because it is harder to bear pain than to abstain from pleasure4 #bdch4 ,fortitude in ,general4--,fortitude 7etymologically1 strength1 vigor1 firmness7 in general is a moral quality which makes a person unshaken from the right by danger or difficulty4 ,it has various senses4 7a7 ,it is used for a seeming virtue1 which has the act but not the requisites 7i4e41 the knowledge and the free choice7 of a moral virtue4 ,thus1 some are brave from ignorance or want of reflection1 because they do not realize the danger 7e4g41 intoxicated persons7 or because habit makes them act without thought1 or because many successes have rendered them over-sanguine2 others are brave from compulsion1 because cowardice is severely punished1 or from passion1 because they are beside themselves with pain1 anger1 desire1 etc4 7b7 ,it is used for an inchoate virtue or a natural fitness to withstand attack or encounter danger4 ,thus1 some persons are so constituted physically that the thought of risk1 pain1 or death does not affect them strongly 7fearlessness1 intrepidity71 or even attracts them 7adventurousness74 ,this kind of bodily bravery is a preparation or predisposition for moral courage4 7c7 ,fortitude is also the name of a general virtue or rather of a general condition which must be found in every virtue4 ,for there is no virtue without firmness and persistence in good1 as the name virtue 7i4e41 strength7 indicates4 ,thus1 a person who is weakly inclined to temperance and opposes no strong resistance to temptation cannot be said to possess the virtue of temperance4 7d7 ,finally1 fortitude is the name of a special virtue which confers vigor and steadfastness in a special kind of trial1 such as perils and pains which threaten or inflict severe evils4 ,it is of this fortitude that we now speak4 #bdci4 ,definition of ,fortitude4--,fortitude is defined as 8a virtue which in the face of the greatest evils moderates the passions of fear and confidence within the bounds dictated by right reason40 7a7 ,the primary object of fortitude is the passions1 or motions of the sensuous appetite through which the appetite is attracted or repelled by an object brought before it as good or evil1 agreeable or disagreeable4 ,justice is concerned with operations1 fortitude and temperance with passions 7see #agji74 7b7 ,the passions that chiefly fall within the scope of fortitude are fear and confidence2 and thus it is set apart from temperance1 which deals with the passions of pleasure4 ,fortitude has to do with that which is disagreeable to sense1 temperance with that which is agreeable4 ,fear is a disturbance of soul produced by the imminence of an external evil that cannot be easily escaped2 confidence is a feeling of self-reliance impelling one to face or attack a threatening evil4 7c7 ,the function of fortitude is to moderate fear and confidence1 or to keep them to the happy mean between excess and defect4 ,the passions in themselves are not evil1 but they need regulation 7see #aba1 #abb72 and hence without fortitude one falls either into cowardice or rashness4 7d7 ,fortitude acts in the face of the greatest evils1 that is1 even when death itself1 the greatest of corporal evils and the king of terrors1 is at hand4 ,virtue is the act of a perfect man1 and hence we do not ascribe fortitude to a man who is not brave except in reference to things that are fearful only slightly or not at all 7such as having a tooth pulled or a finger lanced74 ,the right regulation of fear springs1 therefore1 from different good qualities1 according to the kinds of objects that inspire alarm3 to fortitude in the strictest sense1 if there is question of supreme natural evil 7that is1 death or its equivalent in deadly disease1 mortal wound or torture72 to fortitude in a wider sense1 if there is question of lesser corporal evils 7e4g41 blows1 wounds or mutilation that do not cause death72 to some other virtue1 if there is question of other kinds of evils 7e4g41 liberality regulates the fear of losing money74 7e7 ,the motive of fortitude is conformity with right reason4 ,the courageous person despises dangers because he wishes to hold fast to virtue and has for his last aim ,god and true beatitude4 ,fortitude is exercised1 then1 only when one is courageous in a good cause2 the end of the work 7finis operis71 or at least the end of the agent 7finis operantis71 must be virtuous4 ,the aim of bravery itself is virtuous when it is the common good 7e4g41 soldiers fighting in defense of country7 or the good of a particular virtue 7e4g41 a judge contending for justice1 a virgin for purity1 a martyr for religion72 the aim of the brave man is good when he performs an indifferent act for virtue's sake 7e4g41 waits on another during pestilence because of friendship1 goes on a perilous journey because of a pilgrimage74 ,on the contrary1 fortitude is not exercised if bravery has nothing to do with virtue 7e4g41 the imperturbability during sickness or shipwreck of a person who had resolved on suicide71 or if it is opposed to virtue 7e4g41 the daring and coolness of a pirate1 bandit1 gunman or dueller72 to risk ignoble death with bravado is not a virtue4 #bddj4 ,the ,two ,acts of ,fortitude4--7a7 ,the moderation of fear is followed by endurance or firmness in the midst of danger1 as in the case of the martyrs4 ,this act in common speech is more especially designated 8fortitude40 ,it is not accurate to speak of it as passive resistance or passive courage4 ,by it1 indeed1 no external act is performed1 but this is due to a most firm internal resolution and self-control1 such as a refusal to accept defeat1 surrender principles or make peace with wrong4 ,endurance to undergo is not the same thing1 then1 as stoical indifference or apathy4 7b7 ,the moderation of confidence is followed1 where circumstances call for it1 by prudent attack or even1 when discretion is the better part of valor1 by retreat as in warriors4 ,a truly brave man does not fear to be called a coward1 and hence he will not advance when reason forbids nor hesitate to retire when reason commands4 ,brave endurance is a nobler act of fortitude than brave attack2 for endurance struggles against superior strength1 it feels the evil already present1 and its fight is long and continuous1 whereas attack is borne on by a sense of power1 the object of dread is still in the distance1 and its rush is quick and passing 7,prov41 xvi4 #cb74 ,hence1 not all who are courageous in attack are courageous under attack4 ,but both acts are noble1 and each is necessary at its proper time4 #bdda4 ,the ,excellence of ,fortitude4--7a7 ,its ,rank4--,fortitude is one of the four principal or cardinal virtues4 ,a principal virtue is one that exercises in the most difficult circumstances one of the four qualities that every moral virtue must have4 ,these qualities are firmness 7for every virtue is a habit or strongly rooted quality71 rectitude 7since a virtue inclines to the good as the right or obligatory71 moderation 7since a virtue is moral1 or measured according to reason71 and discretion 7since good inclinations must be guided by true direction74 ,now1 just as rectitude is most difficult1 on account of self-love1 in dealing with others1 and moderation in governing the appetites1 and discretion in ruling one's own actions1 so firmness is most difficult in the presence of the greatest dangers2 and therefore with justice1 temperance1 and prudence must also be associated fortitude as one of the chief of all virtues4 ,these four principal virtues are also called cardinal virtues 7from cardo1 a hinge71 because the whole moral life of man hinges on them4 ,thus1 though perils of death are comparatively rare1 the occasions of such perils are common and one is constantly called on to exercise fortitude 7e4g41 to be prepared to incur mortal enmities rather than forsake justice1 or purity1 or religion74 7b7 ,its ,utility4--,fortitude has a certain general utility1 for it is found to be of advantage everywhere4 ,thus1 brave men and just men are admired in peace as well as in war1 whereas liberal men are serviceable only in certain matters 7,aristotle74 ,fortitude is like a strong tower1 or like an army that protects the other virtues1 and there are continual demands for its exercise4 ,the life of man is a warfare 7,job1 vii4 #a71 and a manly spirit is needed to struggle against the temptations1 injuries1 infirmities1 and trials that threaten virtue4 ,without fortitude1 then1 no one can be saved1 for the kingdom of heaven is captured only by the aggressive 7,matt41 xi4 #ab71 and only those who fight shall receive the crown 7,,ii ,tim41 ii4 #e74 #bddb4 ,martyrdom4--,as judgment is the chief act of justice 7see #agbg71 so martyrdom is the chief act of fortitude1 and in a sense the most perfect of all acts4 ,for martyrdom is defined as 8the voluntary acceptance for the sake of ,god of a violent death inflicted out of hatred of virtue40 ,martyrdom belongs to fortitude which produces it1 to love of ,god which commands it 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #ac71 and to faith which attracts it4 ,merely as an act of courage1 it is inferior to some other acts1 since fortitude is not the highest virtue1 and the goods for which martyrdom is undergone must be preferable to martyrdom itself4 ,but in two ways martyrdom is the greatest act of virtue4 7a7 ,thus1 internally it has charity for its end1 and 8greater love than this no man hath1 that a man lay down his life for his friends0 7,john1 xv4 #ac72 it is the greatest sign of love of ,god4 7b7 ,externally it is a profession of faith in the superiority of the invisible and future to the visible and present goods1 and no more efficacious proof of this faith can be given than martyrdom 7,job1 ii4 #d2 ,,ii ,cor41 iv4 #aa74 #bddc4 ,kinds of ,martyrdom4--,the word martyrdom is sometimes used loosely or less accurately1 and hence we distinguish the following kinds of martyrdom3 7a7 false martyrdom is death suffered in an evil cause1 as when one dies for erroneous principles or doctrines 7e4g41 for anarchy71 ,martyrdom is testimony of blood given to the truth1 not to error1 and hence it is not the suffering but the cause that makes the martyr4 ,improper martyrdom is death suffered for some purely natural good1 as when a person dies for the cause of science or of a political party1 or in defense of natural truths about ,god but without a religious motive2 7b7 true and proper martyrdom1 which is not the virtue but the crown of martyrdom1 is death inflicted on an infant out of hatred for ,christ1 as in the case of the ,holy ,innocents4 ,this is baptism of blood for infants1 as the virtue is for adults1 supplying the place of baptism of water 7,matt41 x4 #ci72 7c7 the virtue of martyrdom in the sight of ,god 7theological martyrdom7 is either in desire or in act4 ,martyrdom of desire1 which is the wish to die for ,god1 may have the same essential glory as martyrdom in act1 but it lacks the accidental glory1 since it does not really suffer the trial 7see #hi-ic74 ,martyrdom in act1 which is external suffering for justice's sake1 has three degrees3 the lowest degree is suffering that lacks one or other of the essential conditions 7see #bddd7 for supreme self-sacrifice 7imperfect martyrdom71 the higher degree has all the essential conditions 7perfect martyrdom71 while the highest degree has also the accidentals that are most suitable for martyrdom 7complete martyrdom72 7d7 the virtue of martyrdom in the sight of the ,church 7canonical martyrdom7 is that which1 in addition to the conditions for perfect martyrdom1 possesses also external indications sufficient to prove their existence and character4 #bddd4 ,conditions for ,martyrdom4--,since martyrdom is a virtue and the supreme testimony1 it must have the following conditions3 7a7 the cause of the martyrdom must be faith 7e4g41 persecution because the martyr is a ,catholic71 or some virtue containing a profession of faith1 inasmuch as a divine good 7e4g41 chastity7 or a human good 7e4g41 the truth of a science1 the safety of one's country7 is defended for the sake of ,god2 7b7 the persecutor must act from hatred of virtue1 but it is not necessary that he be an unbeliever1 or that he avow his hatred of virtue as the motive of persecution1 or that he pronounce or execute the sentence of death himself2 7c7 the martyr must accept martyrdom willingly 7actual or virtual intention suffices1 and perhaps also habitual72 he must be free from guilt that provoked the sentence1 and must be in the state of grace or at least repentant2 he must die from a virtuous motive1 not from vainglory1 despair1 or other sinful reason4 ,some make non-resistance a condition for what we called perfect martyrdom1 while others make it a condition for what we called complete martyrdom2 according to the former opinion the crusaders or other soldiers dying in a just war cannot be called martyrs of religion1 but according to the second opinion they may be ranked with the martyrs2 7d7 the punishment inflicted on the martyr must be death1 either instant 7as in decapitation7 or delayed 7as in gradual starvation1 death by slow poisoning1 mortal wounds1 imprisonment or other hardship71 ,hence1 those who are not put to death1 but who are tortured1 mutilated or imprisoned 7e4g41 ,st4 ,john the ,evangelist71 are confessors of the faith1 but only in an imperfect sense are they martyrs4 ,some believe that suffering is necessary for perfect martyrdom1 and hence that those who are put to death painlessly are not1 strictly speaking1 martyrs2 but others--and with better reason1 it seems--deny this4 ,those who are not killed 7e4g41 persons who die from disease contracted while attending the sick or from austerities71 or who are killed by themselves 7e4g41 the ,circumcellions who thought to win martyrdom by suicide71 are not martyrs 7on the cases of ,sts4 ,apollonia and ,pelagia1 see #ahef74 #bdde4 ,practical ,questions about ,martyrdom4--7a7 ,the ,desire of ,martyrdom4--,a general desire for or the willingness to suffer martyrdom if the necessity should arise is required for salvation 7,i ,john1 iii4 #af2 ,rom41 x4 #aj74 ,apart from necessity1 a special desire of martyrdom is not of precept1 since martyrdom is an act of perfection2 but such a desire is of counsel1 since it is encouraged by ,christ 7,i ,peter1 ii4 #ba71 and many ,saints have prayed for martyrdom4 7b7 ,the ,choice of ,martyrdom4--,regularly it is not lawful to offer oneself freely for martyrdom1 for to do so gives the tyrant an occasion of committing injustice1 and as a rule there are not sufficient reasons of public or private good for permitting his sin 7see #ajc sqq474 ,exceptionally it is lawful1 when there is no danger that one will be overcome and there are urgent reasons for the act1 such as the glory of ,god or the peace of the faithful4 7c7 ,provocation of ,martyrdom4--,regularly it is not lawful to bring on a persecution by aggression 7e4g41 by destroying idols71 since generally this will make one guilty of complicity and presumption4 ,but there are exceptional cases1 when the good of souls demands attack on evils 7,dan41 xiv4 #bf2 ,matt41 xiv4 #c1 #d74 ,it is not provocation of persecution1 however1 to live virtuously 7,tob41 ii4 #h1 #i71 or to reprove a persecutor after one has been apprehended 7,,ii ,mach41 viii4 #ae-ag2 ,acts1 vii4 #ea-ed74 7d7 ,flight from ,martyrdom4--,flight is sometimes sinful1 sometimes obligatory1 sometimes optional1 according to circumstances1 as was explained in #ajje1 #ajjf4 #bddf4 ,sins ,opposed to ,fortitude4--7a7 ,number4--,the vices opposed to fortitude are four1 two of excess and two of defect1 according as fear and confidence are not regulated as to time1 place1 manner and other circumstances in the way of moderation4 ,he who fears when or as he should not1 is timorous 7e4g41 one who kills himself because he fears the hardships of life1 one who neglects religion out of human respect72 he who does not fear when or as he should1 is insensible 7e4g41 one who exposes himself to peril of death for the sake of excitement74 ,he who does not dare when or as he should1 is cowardly 7e4g41 a superior who does not correct as he should72 he who dares when or as he should not1 is foolhardy 7e4g41 a superior who corrects when there is no chance of a good result74 7b7 ,malice4--,these sins per se are venial1 since excess or defect in emotions1 which in themselves are indifferent1 is not a serious disorder4 ,but they become mortal if they lead to grave evil 7e4g41 if from fear of persecution one becomes a pagan71 or to grave danger 7e4g41 if from foolhardiness one exposes oneself to death or mutilation74 ,insensibility and foolhardiness are caused by pride or vainglory1 by contempt for life or for the strength of others4 ,timidity and cowardice diminish culpability1 though they do not remove it4 #bddg4 ,the ,parts of ,fortitude4--,as has been said above1 the parts of a virtue are subjective1 integral and potential 7see #afce1 #afcf74 7a7 ,fortitude has no subjective parts1 for it is concerned with a very specialized matter1 namely1 the danger of death2 and hence there is no room for differences of kind1 although there are differences of degree 7e4g41 greater courage is needed to face an ignominious or cruel death than to face death amid applause or with little suffering74 7b7 ,the integral parts of fortitude are those that are necessary for the perfect functioning of its offices in reference to major dangers 7i4e41 of death74 ,now1 the first act of fortitude1 namely1 attack1 requires greatness of soul 7which makes one love the best things and despise all that is opposed to them7 and greatness of deed 7which makes one perform generously what was nobly willed74 ,the second act of fortitude1 namely1 endurance1 requires patience 7that the soul be not thrown into dejection by difficulties7 and steadfastness 7that the soul be not turned aside from its purpose or wearied by long-continued opposition74 7c7 ,the potential parts of fortitude are the four just named1 but as exercised in reference to minor dangers4 #bddh4 ,greatness of ,soul4--,greatness of soul or nobility 7,latin1 magnanimitas7 is a virtue that inclines one to aspire after excellence in things most honorable1 but to esteem and use honors themselves with moderation4 7a7 ,the first act of this virtue is aspiration4 ,it desires the higher manifestations of every virtue--the things that are more difficult and that befit a generous and elevated spirit1 such as great austerity1 great labor1 great sacrifice1 etc4 ,thus1 it resembles fortitude1 for both virtues are exercised in difficult circumstances4 7b7 ,the second act of this virtue is moderation4 ,it esteems honors at their true worth1 for it is greatly concerned to possess the higher honors 7i4e41 good repute before ,god and godly men71 knowing that these are solid and lasting1 but it is less concerned about lower honors 7i4e41 the esteem and applause of the world71 knowing that these are frail1 fleeting1 and common to good and bad alike4 ,hence1 the great of soul are not elated in prosperity or dejected in adversity4 ,this virtue here differs from fortitude1 since fortitude is concerned with dangers1 which are unpleasant1 while greatness of soul is occupied with honors which are pleasant4 #bddi4 ,comparison between ,greatness of ,soul and ,humility4--,greatness of soul and humility are different1 but not contrary4 7a7 ,thus1 greatness of soul makes one regard oneself as worthy of great things1 when one is indeed worthy of them on account of gifts bestowed by ,god 7,luke1 i4 #df74 ,hence1 the great of soul put the good above the profitable1 they do not busy themselves unduly about lesser things1 they are slow to ask and quick to grant favors1 they are not outdone in generosity1 they are not subservient before the mighty1 and they are familiar only with friends4 ,but if they are truly great of soul1 they are also humble1 knowing that the good is from ,god1 and that of themselves they are weak and sinful4 7b7 ,greatness of soul makes one regard oneself as superior to lower things1 for it makes one loathe anything that would be unbecoming the gifts one has received from ,god4 ,hence1 as ,st4 ,thomas says1 the noble character does not flaunt his ideals1 nor obtrude himself into places or offices of honor2 he does not complain or remember injuries2 he is not haughty with inferiors but gentle and considerate with all2 in manner he is quiet and unhurried1 speaks sincerely1 and is not much given either to praise or to blame others4 ,but though the noble person despises all that is petty1 he is not proud2 and hence he can see the good that is in others1 and he reveres those who are superior to himself4 #bdej4 ,vices ,opposed to ,greatness of ,soul by ,excess4--,the vices opposed to greatness of soul by excess are such as desire great deeds1 or honors1 or fame1 when or where or how they should not be desired4 7a7 ,excessive desire of great deeds is presumption1 which attempts to do greater things than one is able to perform 7cfr4 #ajge sqq471 ,this happens in conceited persons who overestimate their own abilities1 taking on themselves offices for which they are incompetent or exercising powers for which they have no authority2 also in vulgar persons who mistake their fortuitous advantages1 such as wealth or influence or birth1 for character and ability4 ,presumption is a mortal sin when its cause is a grave sin 7e4g41 lack of faith7 or when its effects are very harmful 7e4g41 when one who is ignorant presumes to teach or practise medicine1 when one who is morally frail presumes to enter occasions of sin74 ,there is no sin if one attempts too much in good faith and from inculpable ignorance4 7b7 ,excessive desire of honors 7see #bjaj1 #bjaa1 #bcea7 is ambition1 or an inordinate hankering after distinctions and deference4 ,the great of soul desire honors when these are due to their station or when there is a just reason1 such as the glory of ,god or the advantage of the neighbor 7,matt41 v4 #ae1 #af2 ,heb41 v4 #d74 ,the ambitious1 on the contrary1 seek to be honored beyond their deserts 7e4g41 when an ignorant man longs for academic degrees1 a tyrant wishes to be respected on account of his tyranny1 an inferior man seeks to perpetuate himself in temporary elective offices1 a rich man or athletic hero expects that he will be revered above those who are eminent for virtue or learning71 or they seek honor for its own or their own sake1 like the ,pharisees who loved the first places at feasts and the first chairs in the synagogues1 and salutations in the market place1 and to be called by men ,rabbi 7,matt41 xxiii4 #g2 cfr4 ,i ,tim41 iii4 #a sqq42 ,matt41 xx4 #be74 ,this sin1 being excessive desire of something indifferent1 is not per se mortal2 but it is made mortal either by a cause that is seriously sinful 7e4g41 if one's whole life is but a mad chase for preferments7 or by a result that is seriously harmful 7e4g41 if one commits or is ready to commit serious injustice or uncharitableness to win a coveted dignity74 ,ambition is cured chiefly by charity1 for charity is not ambitious 7,i ,cor41 xiii4 #e2 cfr4 ,gal41 v4 #ac74 7c7 ,excessive desire of praise or celebrity is vanity 7see #bjbh1 #bbfi74 ,the great of soul desire the good opinion of their fellow-men 7see #aege sqq471 but they also desire that their good reputation be well founded1 and their motive is the glory of ,god or the spiritual profit of man4 ,the vain1 on the contrary1 are eager for admiration and praise for which there is no justification 7e4g41 those who wish to be praised for virtues they do not possess7 or which are valueless 7e4g41 those who fish for compliments over things of no great importance1 such as good looks or dress1 or who wish to appear learned among the uneducated1 or who crave notoriety71 or seek admiration without a proper motive 7e4g41 those who advertise themselves for self-glorification alone74 ,vanity1 like ambition1 is per se only a venial sin1 but it becomes mortal on account of its cause 7e4g41 when the motive is to conceal crimes that are planned71 or its results 7e4g41 when the desire to be famous makes one boast of one's crimes1 or refuse to repair injuries done to others1 or neglect the honor of ,god71 or its matter 7e4g41 when one is vain about a reputation for skillful injustice74 ,vanity is one of the capital sins 7see #bfh sqq471 since it is one of the motives that chiefly lead men into sin2 for all desire excellence1 and in consequence the love of renown is one of the chief incentives to action4 ,even the ambitious crave honors because of the glory honors bring4 ,the offspring of vanity includes the sins by which a man seeks unlawfully to show off his good points1 or to prove that he is not inferior and thus capture popularity or glory4 ,in the first class are the publication by word or deed of one's own true or pretended exploits 7boasting hypocrisy71 the cultivation of novelties and eccentricities designed to attract attention 7such as singularity in opinion1 in pronunciation1 in dress1 etc474 ,in the latter class are sins of intellect which make one hold obstinately to one's views 7stubbornness71 sins of will which make one resist desires of others 7discord71 sins of word which make one loudly dispute 7contention71 sins of deed which make one refuse to yield to authority 7disobedience74 #bdea4 ,vice ,opposed to ,greatness of ,soul by ,defect4--,the sin opposed to greatness of soul by defect is pusillanimity 7littleness of soul71 which does not desire great things when one should desire them4 7a7 ,pusillanimity is sinful1 because it excludes nobility of soul1 springs from a lazy ignorance of one's own ability and worth and from a false fear of failure1 and leads to the loss of great things that could be done for ,god and humanity4 ,the ,scriptures reprove ,jonas1 who fled from the great task set for him by ,god 7,jonas1 i4 #a sqq471 and the fearful servant who hid his talent in a napkin 7,matt1 xxv4 #bd sqq474 ,pusillanimity is not to be confused1 therefore1 with humility2 for humility excludes the unreasonable or immoderate desire of excellence1 whereas pusillanimity represses even that desire of greatness which is reasonable and moderate4 ,indeed1 meanness of spirit may be associated with pride on account of obstinate refusal to take upon oneself what is commanded 7,prov41 xxvi4 #af74 ,thus1 ,moses and ,jeremias showed humility by their fears of unworthiness 7,exod1 iii4 #aa2 ,jerem41 i4 #f71 but they would have sinned by pusillanimity1 and also by pride1 had they held out against ,god's charge to them4 7b7 ,pusillanimity is per se a venial sin 7see #bdej71 but it may become mortal on account of its matter or consequences1 as when one is so self-depreciative as to neglect grave obligations of correcting abuses4 ,it is essentially more evil than presumption1 for it turns one away from things and pursuits that are noble1 and is thus more opposed to greatness of soul2 but radically presumption is more evil1 as it springs from pride 7,ecclus41 xxxvii4 #c74 ,the dread of attempting great deeds or pursuits is sometimes no sin at all1 as when it is due to inculpable ignorance of what one can do or what one deserves1 or from a fear that overpowers judgment1 or from bodily disease1 or from a sense of inferiority caused by education1 excessive repression and habit 7,col41 iii4 #ba74 #bdeb4 ,greatness of ,deed4--,greatness of deed is the execution of the great things to which one is inclined by greatness of soul4 7a7 ,the virtue is a general one1 if it includes every kind of noble performance2 it is a special one1 if restricted to princely generosity in the expenditure of large sums for great works 7virtue of magnificence or munificence74 ,the munificent person spends large sums from his purse in behalf of the worship of ,god 7e4g41 in building churches1 monasteries1 etc471 and for the common good 7e4g41 in founding schools1 in endowing educational institutions1 hospitals1 etc474 ,this virtue resembles fortitude by the grandeur of its accomplishment2 it falls short of fortitude1 since it deals not with sacrifice of self but with sacrifice of goods4 ,the ,maecenases and the generous patrons of religion are among the greatest benefactors of humanity1 for without them the best things would often languish for want of support4 7b7 ,the vices opposed to this virtue are meanness by deficiency and vulgarity by excess4 ,the mean man is unable to do things on a great scale1 and prefers to ruin a noble work rather than make the proper outlay 7e4g41 after planning a beautiful church1 he will spoil it by using cheap materials74 ,the vulgar man1 on the contrary1 is avid for ostentation1 or heavy expenditure when there is no call for it4 ,he is liberal to works of less importance 7e4g41 his own usual personal needs or comforts71 but penurious with works of great importance 7e4g41 charitable causes72 or he lavishes money needlessly on great works1 as when his residence is over-ornamented and offensive to good taste1 or when his wedding breakfast is served with profuse extravagance and waste in order to make a display of wealth4 ,per se1 these sins are venial1 but they may be mortal on account of circumstances4 ,munificence is the virtue of the rich1 but even the poor may have the merit of this virtue1 by a good intention1 especially when they show liberality to great enterprises according to their means4 #bdec4 ,patience4--,patience is a virtue which from the love of moderation so controls the sadness caused by present afflictions that this passion neither excessively disturbs the internal powers of the soul nor produces anything inordinate in the external conduct4 ,hence it differs from the following3 7a7 from temperance1 for1 although temperance also regulates sadness1 the sadness with which it deals is caused by lack of pleasures1 while that with which patience deals is caused by the presence of evils1 especially of those brought on by annoyances from others2 7b7 from the endurance of fortitude1 for fortitude regulates fear of death1 while patience regulates sadness caused by evils of whatever nature1 such as sickness1 bereavements1 loss of money1 persecution2 7c7 from longsuffering and constancy1 for the matter of these virtues is a good which cannot be obtained except by long waiting or a good which must be continually exercised1 whereas the matter of patience is an evil that has to be endured in the present4 ,but since the delay of a desired good causes sadness 7,prov41 xiii4 #ab71 and since continuance in good is irksome to the flesh1 both longsuffering and constancy are included under patience4 #bded4 ,the ,greatness of ,patience4--7a7 ,its ,rank4--,patience is less than the theological virtues1 and also is inferior to prudence and justice1 which perfect one in goodness2 it is also less than fortitude and temperance1 which preserve from the greatest impediments to goodness2 for the office of patience is only to preserve one from lesser impediments1 namely1 the common adversities of life4 ,but1 on the other hand1 patience is a part of fortitude--a potential part1 because it does not connote the supreme heroism of fortitude1 and an integral part1 because courage in the face of death is bettered by the serenity which patience imparts4 7b7 ,its ,necessity4--,patience is a most useful virtue4 ,without it one cannot long continue in the way of virtue on account of the many trials man encounters 7,heb41 x4 #cf71 whereas with it the enemies of other virtues are destroyed2 and hence it is called the root and guardian of virtue 7cfr4 ,rom41 v4 #c1 #d2 ,james1 i4 #b-d2 ,luke1 xxi4 #ai74 ,but there are degrees of patience3 the lowest is equanimity1 which offends ,god neither in thought1 word nor deed even though sorely tried 7,job1 ii4 #g-aj72 a higher degree is submission1 which prefers adversity to prosperity 7,ps4 cxviii4 #ga72 the highest degree is joyful resignation1 which smiles at grief and rejoices in tribulation 7,,ii ,cor41 xii4 #aj1 vii4 #d74 #bdee4 ,the ,vices ,opposed to ,patience4--7a7 ,the sin of deficiency in sorrow is stolidity1 which is a brutal insensibility that is moved neither by one's own nor by others' misfortunes4 ,this is not a virtue1 but an inhuman and unnatural way of life1 which takes no account of man as a feeling as well as a reasoning being4 7b7 ,the sin of excess in sorrow is impatience1 which mourns excessively under afflictions1 or in looks1 words or deeds expresses a complaining and rebellious spirit 7,prov4 xiv4 #ag2 ,judith1 viii4 #bd1 #be74 ,stolidity and impatience are per se venial sins1 but they become mortal per accidens on account of some circumstance1 as when the unfeeling man gives great scandal by his hardhearted acts1 or the impatient man blasphemes 7see #bdej1 #bdea74 #bdef4 ,steadfastness4--,steadfastness is a virtue which is so devoted to the goodness of continuing in the right that it is not fatigued by the length of time or the repeated effort required for a good work 7virtue of persistence or perseverance71 nor disheartened by the opposition which a good work encounters 7virtue of manliness or constancy71 but goes on unmoved until the conclusion which right reason calls for has been arrived at4 7a7 ,the ,virtue4--,steadfastness belongs to fortitude1 since the essence of both is a struggle against difficulty2 but steadfastness is the inferior1 since it is nobler and more heroic to be undismayed by the peril of death than to be unconquered by strain of monotony or opposition4 ,steadfastness is a most important virtue1 for it avails one little to begin a work well if it is not carried to a successful conclusion4 ,without it one puts hand to the plow but looks back 7,luke1 ix4 #fb71 or begins to build but does not finish 7,like1 xiv4 #cj72 with it the work begun is crowned1 the harvest will be reaped 7,gal41 vi4 #i1 #aj71 and salvation secured 7,matt41 x4 #bb74 ,scripture abounds with exhortations to steadfastness 7,i ,cor41 xv4 #eh2 ,phil41 iv4 i2 ,,ii ,tim41 iii4 #ac2 ,ecclus41 xi4 #ba1 #bb1 v4 #ab2 ,john1 viii4 #ca2 ,heb41 xii4 #g72 but final perseverance is a special gift of ,god 7,i ,peter1 v4 #aj74 7b7 ,the ,opposite ,vices4--,opposed to steadfastness by deficiency is the vice of effeminacy or weakness1 by excess the vice of pertinacity4 ,the effeminate person1 lacking stamina to go on in a necessary good1 surrenders to weariness or opposition by abandoning the undertaking or by taking up with evil 7,matt41 xi4 #g1 #h74 ,the pertinacious person continues in the course he has begun when right reason bids him to discontinue1 as when one has taken a vow and does not wish to accept the dispensation which a change of circumstances necessitates4 ,these sins are venial unless they go counter to a grave duty1 as when an effeminate person gives up the resolution to avoid a very dangerous occasion of sin1 or the headstrong person determines to fast during the remainder of ,lent when this will seriously injure his health4 #bdeg4 ,the ,complements of ,fortitude4--,we shall now speak of the ,gift1 the ,beatitude1 and the ,fruits that correspond to fortitude 7see #aei and #bdcc74 7a7 ,the ,gift of ,fortitude is an infused habit which makes the appetitive powers readily responsive to the encouragement of the ,holy ,spirit and filled with a courage that is more than human4 ,thus1 the ,gift of ,fortitude supplies for what is wanting in the virtue of fortitude4 ,the virtue is regulated by the rules and measure of human prudence1 but the ,gift is inspired by the presence and command of the ,holy ,spirit ,himself 7,ps4 xliii4 #d1 xvii4 #b1 #c72 the virtue strengthens the soul1 but the ,gift supports even the weakness of the flesh1 for the ,spirit helpeth our infirmity 7,rom41 viii4 #bf2 cfr4 ,luke1 xxii4 #dc72 the virtue aids one against the perils of death1 but the ,gift strengthens in difficulties both of life and death1 reinforcing not only courage but also the allied virtues1 greatness of soul1 munificence1 patience and perseverance1 for we can do all things in ,him that strengthens us 7,phil41 iv4 #ac72 the virtue gives firm resolution to adhere to the right in spite of death itself1 but the ,gift adds the unshaken confidence that one shall surmount every difficulty and win the crown of victory 7,rom41 viii4 #ca sqq474 7b7 ,the ,beatitude which is the special exercise of the ,gift of ,fortitude is the eighth3 8,blessed are they that suffer persecution for justice's sake1 for theirs is the kingdom of heaven0 7,matt1 v #aj74 ,the ,gift of ,fortitude makes the persecuted feel a great confidence and security in the midst of the struggle1 and this is a foretaste of the copious1 exceeding and eternal reward that follows this ,gift 7,gen41 xv4 #a2 ,rom41 viii4 #ah2 ,,ii ,cor41 iv4 #ag2 ,ps4 xciii4 #ai2 ,,ii ,cor41 i1 #a74 ,others assign to this ,gift the ,beatitudes of the meek and of those who hunger and thirst for holiness4 7c7 ,the ,fruits that are most appropriate here are patience in bearing evil and longsuffering in awaiting or performing good2 for these are acts that add a finish of maturity to fortitude 7see #bddg1 #bded1 #bdef71 and in their most excellent state 7see #bded7 the performance of them is no longer bitter but sweet4 #bdeh4 ,the ,commandments of ,fortitude4--7a7 ,fortitude itself is commanded both in the ,old and the ,new ,testament4 ,in the ,old ,testament are found precepts of bravery in bodily warfare1 as in ,deut4 xx4 #c3 8,hear1 ,o ,israel1 you join battle this day against your enemies4 ,let not your heart be dismayed1 be not afraid1 do not give back1 fear ye them not40 ,the ,new ,law commands courage before spiritual foes2 8,your adversary the devil goeth about like a roaring lion1 seeking whom he may devour1 whom resist ye strong in faith0 7,i ,peter1 v4 #h72 8,resist the devil and he will fly from you0 7,james1 iv4 #g72 8,fight the good fight0 7,i ,tim41 vi4 #ab74 ,it also commands fortitude in the presence of corporal dangers3 8,fear not them that kill the body1 but cannot kill the soul0 7,matt41 x4 #bh74 7b7 ,the annexed virtues are counselled when 7as is the case with greatness of soul and munificence7 they incline to the excellent and superabundant2 they are commanded when 7as in the case of patience and perseverance7 they are necessitated by normal conditions of earthly existence4 ,greatness of soul is recommended in the invitations to be perfect 7,matt41 v4 #dh71 to love ,god more ardently 7see #aefj7 and to follow the counsels 7see #cfd sqq471 and in the praise bestowed on the excellent virtue of ,noe 7,gen41 vi4 #i71 of ,john the ,baptist 7,matt41 xi4 #aa71 and of ,mary ,magdalene 7,luke x4 #db74 ,munificence is recommended in the eulogies of ,solomon 7,ecclus41 xlvii4 #bj71 of ,magdalene 7,mark1 xiv4 #i7 and of ,joseph of ,arimathea 7,luke1 xxiii4 #ej ff474 ,patience is commanded in ,luke1 xxi4 #ai 7,in patience possess your souls71 and in ,rom41 xxii4 #ab 7,be patient in tribulation72 perseverance in ,ecclus41 ii4 #d 7,in sorrow endure71 in ,matt41 x4 #bb 7,he that perseveres to the end shall be saved71 in ,i ,cor41 xv4 #eh 7,be steadfast and unmovable7 and in ,heb4 xxi4 #g 7,persevere under discipline74 #bdei4 ,obligation of the ,precepts of ,fortitude and ,annexed ,virtues4--7a7 ,the precepts of fortitude are negative or prohibitory1 and therefore it is obligatory at all times to omit what they forbid 7see #cga74 ,it is never lawful to be timorous1 insensible1 cowardly1 or foolhardy--to do anything intrinsically wrong1 even to escape death 7see #cag1 #cah74 ,but it is not necessary to sacrifice life for the fulfillment of an affirmative precept1 unless injury to ,god or the common safety1 or an extreme spiritual loss to self will otherwise result 7see #cag1 #hah1 #cfa74 7b7 ,the precepts of patience and perseverance are also negative1 and hence it is never lawful to be guilty of stolidity1 impatience1 effeminacy or stubbornness4 ,but since patience and perseverance are not so difficult as fortitude1 they have also affirmative precepts4 ,these latter laws oblige always1 but not for every occasion 7see #cga74 ,thus1 one must be always willing to exercise patience1 but one who is spared trials has not the occasion to exercise the virtue4 ,patience itself never ceases to be a virtue1 but there is a pseudo-patience which consists in toleration of evils that should not be tolerated1 and which is not a virtue but a kind of supineness or spinelessness that pertains to effeminacy rather than to patience4 #bdfj4 ,subjects of ,fortitude4--7a7 ,laws have universal extension1 and hence it would not be true to say that active fortitude is a masculine1 passive fortitude or patience a feminine virtue4 ,but greater courage is expected in some than in others on account of greater strength 7e4g41 the adult1 the physically well7 or greater necessity 7as in soldiers1 policemen1 firemen1 pastors1 physicians1 rulers74 7b7 ,the counsel of munificence1 however1 is only for the rich as regards exercise1 since others have not the means wherewith to exercise this virtue4 ,art4 #h3 ,,the ,,virtue ,,of ,,temperance 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,ii-,,ii1 qq4 #ada-agj47 #bdfa4 ,definition of ,temperance4--,temperance is a moral virtue which regulates according to reason the gratification of the lower pleasures and desires of sense4 7a7 ,it moderates pleasure and desire1 and in consequence also the sadness caused by the absence of pleasure4 ,just as a special virtue 7fortitude7 is needed to check the strongest of the repelled emotions 7fear of death71 so likewise a special virtue 7temperance7 is necessary to bridle the most vehement of the attracted emotions 7pleasure and desire74 7b7 ,it moderates sensible pleasure1 that is1 satisfactions derived from the use of the external senses--sight1 hearing1 smell1 taste1 and touch4 ,spiritual pleasures1 which are derived from the loftier powers of intellect1 will and imagination 7e4g41 from the study of theology1 the reading of classical literature1 the meeting of mother and child or of friend and friend71 have no opposition to reason1 except accidentally when a still higher activity which should be exercised is impeded by them4 ,some of these 7such as the pleasures of the intellect7 may be called purely spiritual1 since they make little or no impression on the sensible appetite2 others1 on the contrary 7such as the pleasures of the will71 may be called mixed pleasures1 since at times they vehemently excite the sensitive appetite and powerfully affect the body 7e4g41 mothers have been known to die of joy at the return of a child who was thought to be dead74 7c7 ,temperance moderates the lower sensible pleasures1 that is1 the satisfactions caused primarily by touch and taste1 and secondarily by other senses1 in the activities necessary for preservation of the individual 7eating and drinking7 and of the race 7sexual intercourse74 ,these passions are called the lower1 animal1 or carnal pleasures1 since they are common to man and beast1 and are strongly rebellious against reason4 ,the special virtue of temperance is necessary1 then1 to make man follow reason1 not ,bacchus or ,venus4 ,the higher sensible pleasures1 on the other hand1 are produced by a sensible object1 not on account of any relation to venereal or gustatory delight1 but on account of a perfection in the object that makes it suitable to the sense 7e4g41 the enjoyment derived from beautiful scenery1 classical music1 fragrant roses1 or downy or velvety cloth74 ,the esthete or the connoisseur obtains from these agreeable sensations a pleasure unknown to the animals1 and one that is not from its nature refractory to reason nor seductive to carnal excess4 ,hence1 these higher sensual pleasures are not gross1 but refined2 they should be moderated by prudence1 but they are not so dangerous as to demand a special virtue1 like temperance1 for their regulation4 ,neither should we class with carnal pleasures the joys of physical well-being1 such as the refreshment of sleep1 the exhilaration of a sea bath or of a massage1 the comfort of a balmy breeze1 the ease of strength1 or the relaxation of exercise4 #bdfb4 ,the ,rule of ,moderation4--,the rule of moderation which temperance imposes on the carnal appetites is this3 8,indulge only as necessity requires and duty allows40 ,for pleasure is a means whose end is some reasonable need of life1 and it is therefore a perversion to make pleasure an end by indulging it apart from need and duty 7see #he74 ,but necessity is to be understood broadly1 so as to include not only the essentials1 but also the conveniences of life 7e4g41 seasonings and desserts with food74 7a7 ,as to venereal pleasures1 then1 the rule means that they should not be used outside matrimony1 nor in matrimony except for the procreation of children and the other lawful ends of marriage4 7b7 ,as to the pleasures of the table1 they should not be indulged except for the benefit of mind and body1 and in such manner1 quantity1 quality1 etc41 as this purpose requires4 ,but one may regulate one's food or drink by the higher purpose of mortification1 and partake of less than the body demands here and now4 #bdfc4 ,the ,excellence of ,temperance4--7a7 ,temperance is among the four principal or cardinal virtues4 ,it keeps in order one of the passions that is most natural and most necessary for the present life1 and among the virtues it excels in the quality of moderation1 since it chastens the inclination that is hardest to hold within bounds1 and guards the senses1 the gateways of the soul 7see #bdda74 8,wisdom teaches temperance1 prudence1 justice and fortitude1 than which there is nothing more useful in life0 7,wis41 viii4 #g74 7b7 ,in its nature temperance is not the chief but the least of the moral virtues4 ,for justice and bravery are of greater service to the common welfare1 and the good of the multitude1 as ,aristotle remarks1 is more divine than the good of the individual4 ,but in accidental respects temperance has a superiority2 for it is more tender and graceful than fortitude1 more arduous than justice1 and there is perhaps no other virtue whose exercise is so constantly called for4 #bdfd4 ,the ,vices ,opposed to ,temperance4--7a7 ,the vice of deficiency has been called insensibility1 and consists in an unreasonable dislike of the inferior sensible pleasures1 which makes one unwilling to use them when and as reason commands4 ,thus1 the ,stoics and ,manichees believed that material joys are intrinsically evil1 and there have been fanatical advocates of teetotalism 7e4g41 the ,aquarians7 and of purity 7e4g41 the ,puritans who would not permit a man to kiss his wife on ,sunday1 the prudish and censorious who fear or suspect evil without reason1 the ,pharisees who think they are defiled if a sinner speaks to them1 the misogynists who disapprove of marriage74 ,the sin is venial per se1 since it does not submit to passion2 but it may be mortal on account of some circumstance1 as when the marriage debt is unjustly refused or necessary nourishment is not taken4 ,this vice is rarer than its opposite1 and it must not be confused with austerity1 which for the sake of a spiritual good foregoes some lawful but unnecessary sensible enjoyment4 7b7 ,the vice of excess is immoderation1 which includes gluttony and impurity4 ,this is the most disgraceful of sins1 because the most unworthy of a rational being2 it enslaves man to pleasures of which the lower animals are capable2 unlike other vices1 it contains in itself nothing of intelligence1 industry1 generosity1 and nothing that would at all liken it to virtue4 ,the lowest depths of degradation are reached when immoderation is brutish even in its manner1 as when one is gluttonous of human flesh or desirous of sodomitic pleasure4 ,immoderation is called by ,aristotle a 8childish sin10 because1 as a child is eager for pleasures and will follow them unduly unless instructed and trained1 so also an immoderate person thinks only of his appetite1 and will go from bad to worse unless he accepts the discipline of reason4 ,but the child is excusable1 while the immoderate man should know better4 ,immoderation is worse than timidity2 for1 while the former seeks selfish delight and acts with willing unrestraint1 the latter seeks self-preservation and is under some external menace4 #bdfe4 ,the ,parts of ,temperance4--7a7 ,the subjective parts or species of temperance are two1 since there are two distinct objects of the virtue4 ,these objects are the two delights of touch that are ruled by the virtue1 namely1 those associated with the nutritive and those associated with the generative function4 ,the first subjective part of temperance includes abstemiousness as to food and sobriety as to drink2 the second part includes chastity1 as regards the principal sexual act 7copulation71 and decency or pudicity1 as regards the secondary acts 7kisses1 touches1 embraces1 etc74 7b7 ,the integral parts are also two1 since there are two conditions for the perfect exercise of temperance4 ,these conditions are the fear and avoidance of what is disgraceful 7shamefacedness1 reserve1 or delicacy7 and the love of what is honorable 7virtue of propriety or refinement74 ,shamefacedness is a passion1 but1 as physical fearlessness is a disposition for moral courage1 so is the fear of incurring reproach a preparation for virtue4 ,hence1 this delicacy is a laudable passion1 and is ascribed chiefly to temperance1 whose opposite is chief among things disgraceful4 ,propriety is also assigned to temperance1 because it is an attraction towards that which is spiritually good and beautiful1 a habit most useful for temperance1 which must subordinate the delightful to the good1 the carnal to the spiritual4 7c7 ,the potential parts of temperance are its minor or servant virtues4 ,they resemble temperance inasmuch as their chief praise is in moderation1 but they are inferior to it inasmuch as that which is moderated by them is less recalcitrant than the sexual or gustatory appetites4 ,first among these potential parts are those whose task of moderating1 while not of the greatest difficulty1 is yet more than ordinarily difficult2 and here we have continence1 which calms a will agitated by immoderate passion1 and meekness1 which governs the passion of anger4 ,next among the potential parts are those whose task of moderating offers less or ordinary difficulty1 because they keep in order matters less removed from reason4 ,all the virtues of this second group are given the common name of modesty4 ,they are reduced to four3 humility and studiosity1 which moderate the internal appetites of excellence and of learning respectively2 modesty of bearing and modesty of living1 which regulate respectively the external acts of the body and the external goods of food1 drink1 clothing1 furnishings1 etc4 #bdff4 ,abstemiousness4--,abstemiousness is a virtue that moderates according to reason the desire and enjoyment of the pleasures of the table4 7a7 ,it is a special virtue1 because the appetite it curbs is very powerful1 and on account of the body's need of nourishment is often tempted4 7b7 ,it moderates by avoiding both defect and excess in meals as to time1 place1 quantity1 quality1 etc4 ,there is not1 then1 one standard amount of food for all1 since the needs and duties of all are not the same1 and hence he who takes more or less than is normal or usual cannot from that alone be accused of being unabstemious4 ,neither is the mean for an individual so rigidly fixed as not to permit some latitude within certain limits4 ,it should be noted here too that abstemiousness is not the same thing as abstinence4 ,thus1 a person who is immoderately abstinent1 denying himself the food necessary for life or for duty or for optional works better than his abstinence1 is not abstemious1 since he is not guided by prudence or obligation4 7c7 ,it moderates according to reason2 that is1 it decides what is proper for an individual1 not merely from the viewpoint of bodily health1 vigor1 and longevity1 as is done by the arts of medicine and hygiene1 but also and chiefly from the viewpoints of higher goods1 such as mental power1 control of passion1 austerity4 7d7 ,it moderates the pleasures of the table1 that is1 the desire for and actual enjoyment of food and non-intoxicating beverages4 ,moderation in intoxicants is the special virtue of sobriety1 which will be discussed later4 ,hence1 a person who drinks too much ginger ale or water1 tea or coffee1 sins against abstemiousness2 he who drinks too much whisky1 beer1 or wine sins against sobriety4 #bdfg4 ,degrees of ,abstemiousness4--7a7 ,the lower degree practises temperance1 taking sufficient food and drink for the preservation1 not only of life and health1 but also of the very pink of physical condition1 yet so as to avoid all excess4 7b7 ,the higher degree practises austerity1 taking less than is necessary for the best condition1 or strength or comfort of the body1 but sufficient for life and health4 ,the austere person eats less than he could reasonably take1 but not less than his health and work demand4 ,the subtraction he makes in his food will more likely benefit his health in the long run and promote longevity1 for1 in the wise words of old ,galen1 8abstemiousness is the best medicine40 ,but even though this austerity be slightly detrimental to health1 or may slightly abbreviate life1 it is still lawful1 since the higher goods of the mind and of virtue may always be secured at such reasonable sacrifice of corporal goods 7see #aafd sqq41 #aefa sqq474 #bdfh4 ,austerity4--,the two chief forms of austerity in food and drink are fasting and abstinence4 7a7 ,nature4--,the natural fast is the omission of all eating and drinking1 or the omission to receive into the stomach anything whatever that has the nature of food1 drink or medicine4 ,the moral fast is the omission to take a certain quantity of food that could be taken without intemperance4 ,abstinence is the omission to take a certain quality of food1 such as meat or eggs4 7b7 ,kinds4--,fast and abstinence are in respect to duration either perpetual 7e4g41 the abstinence from meat of the ,carthusians7 or temporary 7e4g41 the abstinence for ,fridays and other appointed days of the faithful generally72 either voluntary 7e4g41 a fast which one assumes under private vow7 or obligatory 7e4g41 the fasts and abstinences prescribed in the general or particular laws of the ,church74 ,the ecclesiastical fast and abstinence will be spoken of later when we treat of the precepts of the ,church and ,holy ,communion4 #bdfi4 ,the ,excellence of ,fasting and ,abstinence4--7a7 ,lawfulness4--,fasting and abstinence are acts of virtue1 for they subdue the unruly flesh1 fit the mind for divine contemplation 7,dan1 x4 #c sqq471 satisfy for sins 7,joel1 ii4 #ab71 and add weight to prayers 7,tob41 xii4 #h2 ,judith1 iv4 #aa2 ,matt41 xvii4 #bj74 ,the greatest men of the ,old and ,new ,testaments practised fasting--,moses1 ,samson1 ,elias1 ,john the ,baptist1 and ,st4 ,paul4 ,our ,lord ,himself fasted forty days and forty nights 7,matt1 iv4 #b74 ,st4 ,paul1 therefore1 numbers fasting with other virtues3 8,in fastings1 in knowledge1 in chastity0 7,,ii ,cor41 vi4 #e74 ,examples of abstinence are ,daniel avoiding meat 7,dan1 i4 #h sqq47 and ,eleazar who died rather than eat forbidden swine flesh 7,,ii ,mach41 vi4 #ah sqq474 ,abstention from solid or liquid nourishment is not a virtue1 however1 if practised from purely indifferent or evil motives1 for example1 merely in order to recover health through diet1 or to train for an athletic contest1 or to preserve shape and beauty1 or to commit suicide1 or to simulate virtue1 or to profess false doctrines or if carried to extremes4 ,the forty-day fasts of ,moses1 ,elias and of ,our ,lord are for our admiration1 but very few are able to imitate these examples4 7b7 ,obligation4--,fasting and abstinence in general are obligatory under natural law1 because without them certain necessary ends cannot be obtained4 ,they are remedies for past sins and preservatives against future sins2 and1 as sin is the common state of man 7,james1 iii4 #b2 ,gal41 v4 #ag71 it would be presumptuous to neglect these antidotes4 ,under the positive law fasting and abstinence have been prescribed in detail1 and this was necessary since it is the duty of the ,church to determine the time1 manner and other circumstances of natural duties of religion which the natural law itself has not determined4 #bdgj4 ,the ,sins ,opposed to ,abstemiousness4--7a7 ,the sin of deficiency in the matter of food is self-starvation4 ,this is the sin of those who are martyrs to fashion1 who in order to have a frail figure follow a diet 7e4g41 denying oneself all substantial food to reduce obesity7 that undermines their constitutions and leaves them a prey to disease4 ,it is also the sin of those who from unwise zeal for rigorous fasting deprive themselves of the necessaries of life1 or eat what their stomachs rebel against4 ,this sin does not differ from suicide or bodily injury treated above 7see #aeff sqq41 #aheg sqq474 8,it is the same thing to kill yourself by slow degrees as to kill yourself in a moment4 ,and he who kills himself by fasting is like one who offers ,god a sacrifice from stolen property0 7,st4 ,jerome74 7b7 ,the sin of excess in food is gluttony4 ,there is no sin in desiring food or in taking food with satisfaction1 for the ,author of nature has willed that such an essential act as eating should be pleasurable1 and it is a fact that digestion and health suffer when food is taken without appetite or a peaceful frame of mind4 ,but the glutton goes to excess by the inordinate and unreasonable enjoyment he takes in feeding himself4 #bdga4 ,ways of ,committing ,gluttony4--,there are many ways of committing gluttony1 but they can all be reduced to two heads4 7a7 ,gluttony in food is excess in the substance1 quantity1 or quality of the things eaten4 ,the gourmet is extremely fastidious about the substance of his food2 he must have the most dainty or costly or rare viands1 and nothing else will satisfy him4 ,cannibalism seems to be lawful in extreme necessity1 but it is not lawful to kill human beings in order to eat them4 ,the gorger or gourmand may not be particular about the kind of food that is given him1 but he desires a large quantity1 more than is good for him4 ,the epicure is too hard to please as to quality2 even when there is no festal occasion1 he must have a great variety of foods and they must be most carefully prepared1 so that he may get the utmost joy of the palate4 ,we should not class among gluttons1 however1 those who require special foods or special cooking for a good reason1 as when health or hard work forces one to observe a strict diet4 7b7 ,gluttony in eating is excess as to the time or manner of taking food4 ,there is excess about the time when a person is over-eager about the dinner bell1 eats before or oftener than he should1 or lingers too long at table4 ,there is excess about the manner when a person eats greedily1 hurriedly1 or selfishly1 rushing at his food like a tiger1 bolting it like a dog1 or depriving others like a pig4 #bdgb4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,gluttony4--7a7 ,gluttony is a mortal sin when it is so serious as to turn man away from his end itself1 making him prefer his appetite to ,god4 ,thus1 those sin gravely who are such high livers that they are unable to pay their debts1 to the serious detriment of creditors2 or who gormandize so much that they can do little work and have to spend most of their time in exercising or taking cures2 or whose heavy eating is the occasion of serious sins of anger1 impurity1 or neglect of religious or other duties4 ,to all these apply the words of ,st4 ,paul 7,phil41 iii4 #ai73 8,whose god is their belly40 ,to eat until one vomits seems to be a mortal sin1 if the vomit is caused by the enormous quantity of food consumed1 for such an act seems to be gravely opposed to reason2 but there is no grave sin if the vomit is due to the quality of the food or the weakness of the stomach4 7b7 ,gluttony in itself is a venial sin since it is a disorder about the means1 and not a turning away from the end4 ,this happens when one is inordinately fond of gastronomic joys1 but is not prepared to sacrifice grave duties for their sakes4 ,thus1 a person who gives too much indulgence to a sweet tooth1 or who likes to stuff himself now and then1 but who doesn't disable himself or give scandal by his weakness1 sins venially4 #bdgc4 ,gluttony as a ,capital ,sin4--7a7 ,the first condition of a capital sin is that it be one of the main sources of evil attraction4 ,this condition is verified of gluttony1 for all seek happiness1 and gluttony contains one of the ingredients of happiness1 namely1 pleasure in an unusual degree4 ,among all sensual delights those of the palate and stomach are admitted to be1 along with those of sexual love1 the most intense4 ,the first of the three temptations with which ,satan assailed ,christ was that of gluttony 7,matt41 iv4 #a-d74 7b7 ,the second condition of a capital vice is that it be the final or motive cause of a large crop of sins4 ,this condition is also verified in gluttony1 since the greedy man is so in love with his pet vice that in order to pamper it he is ready to suffer various kinds of evils which he should not permit4 ,evils of soul that are caused by gluttony are3 heaviness in the mind1 for an overloaded stomach unfits the mind to reflect on higher things or to consider the duty of moderation in rejoicing1 in words or in acts 7,ecclus41 ii4 #c72 absurd mirth in the will1 a feeling of security and gladness and unrestraint1 for the glutton thinks only of his present contentment and does not consider the evils of his sin2 loquacity in word1 for his mental faculties being dulled and his will hilarious the glutton gives free rein to his tongue1 often sinning by detraction1 betrayal of secrets1 contumely1 and blasphemy 7,prov41 ,x4 #ai72 levity in act1 for the glutton wishes to give vent to his animal spirits1 and he does so by unbecoming jokes and clownishness4 ,evils of body due to gluttony are dirtiness and disease3 the glutton is often filthy in his manner of eating1 his breath is fetid1 he is much occupied with natural necessities1 excretion and exgurgitation1 and he suffers from gout or indigestion or one of the numerous other maladies that are the price of overindulgence4 #bdgd4 ,sobriety4--,sobriety in its strictest sense is a virtue that keeps one to the moderation of temperance in the liking for intoxicating liquors and in their use4 7a7 ,thus1 sobriety is concerned with intoxicants1 that is1 with substances that produce a poisonous effect upon the nerves and brain4 ,it is1 therefore1 a different virtue from abstemiousness1 since it has to subdue a vice far more alluring and deleterious than gluttony4 ,alcohol has the same effect as a narcotic drug1 for it benumbs both mind and body1 sometimes to the point of insensibility1 so that those who are under its influence are unable to think1 speak or regulate their movements properly2 but it gives a feeling of exhilaration and elevation and leaves behind it an insatiable craving1 so that those who have once taken too much are very likely to repeat the act4 ,habitual intoxication breaks down both morals and health1 and the toper goes to a disgraceful and early grave4 7b7 ,sobriety is concerned with liquors1 that is1 with beverages and medicines4 ,but secondarily it also controls the appetite for narcotics1 such as opium1 chloroform1 tobacco1 and the desire to inhale strong liquors or vapors or gases which may produce intoxication4 #bdge4 ,obligation to ,practise ,sobriety4--,sobriety should be cultivated by all1 but certain ones are more bound to it than others4 7a7 ,thus1 on account of the greater physical evils of insobriety in their regard1 the virtue should be especially cultivated by the young1 the old1 women1 and persons of sedentary life4 ,young people are greatly harmed by too much alcohol1 because it stunts their growth and affects them more seriously in mind and body than adults4 ,the old have not the strength to throw off the poison of too much stimulation and are accordingly more injured4 ,women1 being more excitable than men1 are more easily affected by strong drink1 and hence among the ancient ,romans females abstained from wine4 ,finally1 those who lead a sedentary or indoor life do not so easily get the poison out of their systems1 and they feel the evil effects more than those who live out of doors or who engage in manual work4 ,but there is no constitution1 however iron it may be1 that is not conquered in the end by alcoholism4 7b7 ,on account of the greater spiritual ills that result from their insobriety1 the virtue of soberness is more imperative in certain individuals4 ,thus1 there are some who do greater spiritual harm to themselves by intoxication1 for example1 the young1 whose passions are more easily inflamed1 and females1 who are more readily taken advantage of2 and hence ,st4 ,paul recommends sobriety to women and young men particularly 7,i ,tim41 iii4 #aa2 ,tit41 ii4 #f74 ,there are also some who do greater harm to others by intoxication1 such as those who should instruct others 7,tit41 ii4 #b71 or who should give good example 7,i ,tim41 iii4 #b71 or who are rulers over the people 7,prov41 xxxi4 #d74 #bdgf4 ,the ,sins against ,sobriety4--7a7 ,the sin of excess may be called1 for want of a special name1 over-sobriety4 ,it is committed by those who condemn all liking for or enjoyment of intoxicants as intrinsically evil 7e4g41 the ,manichees1 who said that wine was the gall of the devil72 also by those who deny to themselves or others intoxicants when the use of them is necessary 7e4g41 the ,encratites1 who would allow only water for the ,eucharist1 or a fanatical teetotaler who would see a man die rather than give him a necessary dose of whisky74 7b7 ,the sin of deficiency against sobriety is drunkenness1 which is a voluntary and unjustified loss of the use of reason brought on by the consumption of too much intoxicating liquor4 ,drunkenness as a sin 7active drunkenness71 therefore1 is to be distinguished from drunkenness as a condition 7passive drunkenness74 ,there is active drunkenness or the sin of drunkenness when intoxication is both voluntary and inexcusable2 there is passive drunkenness or the mere state of drunkenness when one or the other of these two conditions is lacking4 ,usually those who sin by drunkenness seek the pleasure or forgetfulness which potations bring1 but this is not essential1 it seems1 to the sin of inebriety2 the malice of drunkenness is found not merely in the excessive pleasure1 but especially in the subordination of spirit to the flesh and in the damage done to mind and body4 ,hence1 a person who yields to the insistence of a banquet companion that he drink wine which is disgusting to him1 is guilty of drunkenness if he takes too much4 #bdgg4 ,cases of ,mere ,passive ,drunkenness4--7a7 ,involuntary ,drunkenness4--,this occurs when there is invincible ignorance of fact 7e4g41 when an adult becomes intoxicated in good faith1 because he had no reason to suspect that a cocktail or eggnog was very strong1 or that his stomach was very weak71 or of law 7e4g41 when a child gets drunk because he does not know that it is wrong to do so71 or when there is lack of intention 7e4g41 when drink is forced on a person who does not want it74 7b7 ,excusable ,drunkenness4--,this occurs according to most theologians when there is a proportionately grave reason which justifies the evil of intoxication 7see #ajc sqq474 ,such grave reasons are the saving of life 7e4g41 to escape death from snake bite71 the cure of serious disease 7e4g41 cholera or influenza71 the avoidance or mitigation of severe suffering 7e4g41 before a surgical operation1 or after a very painful accident1 or when there is no other means of helping a grave case of insomnia74 ,in all these cases it is generally admitted that one may bring on unconsciousness by the use of anesthetics and sedatives 7such as chloroform1 ether1 morphine1 opium72 and there is no reason why we should not view intoxicants also in the light of remedies which may be taken on the advice of physicians or other competent persons if other remedies cannot be had4 ,some theologians1 however1 refuse to excuse intoxication for any reason1 since they regard drunkenness as intrinsically evil4 ,in addition to the excuses just mentioned some also give that of escape from violent death1 as when a burglar threatens to kill unless those present make themselves helpless by intoxication4 ,but all agree that intoxication is not excused by ordinary advantages1 such as escape from slight physical pain 7e4g41 toothache1 seasickness71 nor by the desire to avoid what can be avoided by other and more suitable means 7e4g41 worry about one's troubles1 an unpleasant meeting or conversation74 #bdgh4 ,the ,morality of ,total ,abstinence4--7a7 ,obligation4--,per se1 there is no obligation of abstaining from every or any kind of intoxicating beverage1 either perpetually or temporarily1 for food and drink were intended by ,god for the use of man and the moderate use of intoxicants1 especially when the percentage of alcohol is light1 is found by many to be a help to digestion1 a refreshing stimulant1 an excellent tonic and remedy4 ,the example of ,our ,lord1 who changed water into wine1 who partook of wine at banquets1 and who made wine one of the elements of the most sacred of rites1 is proof that it is not sinful to drink strong liquors4 ,this is also clearly taught in the ,bible1 which praises moderate drinking of wine 7,ecclus41 xxxi #cf71 recommends that a little be taken for a weak stomach 7,i ,tim41 v4 #bc71 and declares that it is not what enters the mouth that defiles 7,matt41 xv4 #b74 ,but1 per accidens1 there is an obligation of total abstinence when a greater good requires that one sacrifice intoxicants1 whether the good be of self 7e4g41 when intoxicants are a serious danger to one's health or morals1 or when one is bound by vow or pledge to abstain from them7 or of another 7e4g41 when the use of intoxicants gives serious scandal1 ,rom41 xiv4 #ba74 ,if the common safety is seriously imperilled through drunkenness1 and obligatory abstinence can be enforced and will be the most reasonable method of correcting the evil1 we can see no objection to prohibition laws4 ,but whether these conditions exist in this or that particular place or case is a question of fact and has to be decided by impartial study4 7b7 ,lawfulness4--,per se1 it is also permissible to abstain freely from all intoxicants1 for the sake of some higher good 7e4g41 in order the better to apply the mind to studies1 ,ecclus41 ii4 #c71 to silence calumnious tongues1 to practise mortification1 or to give good example4 ,but1 per accidens1 it is not lawful to abstain when law 7e4g41 in the celebration of ,mass7 or necessity 7e4g41 a man dying from influenza who cannot be saved without whiskey7 requires one to drink spirits4 ,examples of total abstinence are the ,nazarites 7,num41 vi4 #c71 ,samson 7,judges1 xiii4 #g71 ,judith 7,jud41 xii4 #b1 #ai71 and ,john the ,baptist 7,luke1 i4 #ae74 #bdgi4 ,degrees of the ,sin of ,drunkenness4--7a7 ,the sin of perfect or complete drunkenness is a voluntary excess in intoxicants carried so far that one loses temporarily the use of reason4 ,this does not mean that one must become insensible or fall in a stupor or be unable to walk or have delirium tremens 7dead drunk71 but only that one loses the mental power to direct oneself morally1 even though one still retains enough judgment to direct oneself physically 7e4g41 to cross the street or ascend the stairs safely1 or to find one's own quarters without help74 ,the indications of perfect drunkenness are that the intoxicated person no longer distinguishes between right and wrong1 perpetrates evils he would abhor in his right senses 7e4g41 beats his wife1 runs down a pedestrian1 blasphemes1 or provokes quarrels71 and cannot remember on sobering up the chief things he said or did while drunk4 7b7 ,the sin of imperfect or incomplete drunkenness is a voluntary excess in intoxicants carried so far that one is somewhat confused in mind1 but does not lose the use of reason4 ,hence1 a person who is physically impeded though not mentally incapable on account of drink1 who staggers1 speaks incoherently1 or sees uncertainly1 but who knows that he should not beat his wife1 or kill1 or blaspheme1 or quarrel1 etc41 is imperfectly drunk4 ,there are also circumstances that aggravate the evil of perfect or imperfect drunkenness4 ,thus1 it is worse to be a toper or habitual drunkard than to be an occasional drunkard1 and worse to go on a long spree than to be drunk only for an evening4 #bdhj4 ,malice of the ,sin of ,drunkenness4--7a7 ,perfect drunkenness is a mortal sin1 because it is a grave disorder to deprive oneself of moral judgment and thus expose oneself to the danger of perpetrating serious crimes and injuries4 ,moreover1 it is a monstrous thing to despoil oneself unnecessarily of reason1 the greatest natural good of man1 and to make oneself for the time being a maniac1 more like a beast than a human being4 ,st4 ,paul declares that those who would put on ,christ must put away drunkenness with other works of darkness 7,rom41 xiii4 #ac71 and that drunkards shall not inherit the kingdom of ,god 7,gal1 v4 #ba74 ,the opinion that perfect drunkenness is only venial if not habitual is now obsolete1 and the opinion that perfect drunkenness is not mortal unless it lasts a considerable time 7say1 more than an hour7 is commonly rejected2 for the essential malice of drunkenness depends on its nature1 not on its frequency or duration4 ,a person who takes enough to make himself completely drunk and then escapes the consequences by artificial means 7e4g41 by using a drug or bringing on a vomit71 does not sin mortally by drunkenness2 but it seems that such a swinish person must sin mortally by reason of gluttony1 injury to health1 or scandal4 7b7 ,imperfect drunkenness is a venial sin1 because the harm done is not considerable1 for a tipsy man usually suffers nothing more than a slightly fuddled brain and some unsteadiness of body4 ,indeed1 if wine or beer produces nothing more than a spirit of moderate hilarity and talkativeness1 there is no sin4 ,accidentally1 imperfect drunkenness may be a mortal sin by reason of circumstances1 as when the person who is intoxicated gives great scandal on account of his position or office1 or when the motive is to inflame passion or to commit other serious sin1 or when the drunkenness is constantly repeated1 or when the drunkard seriously neglects his business1 family1 or religious duties1 or does other grave harm in consequence of his love of the bottle4 ,in fact1 there may be grave sin when one is not intoxicated at all1 but is only a tippler4 ,for the habit of drinking alcoholic beverages frequently 7e4g41 a nip or dram of whisky several times a day7 is1 according to medical authority1 more harmful to the system 7alcoholism7 than intoxication at long intervals1 especially if the portion is generous and the drinker is young4 #bdha4 ,drunkenness ,compared with ,other ,sins4--7a7 ,it is not the worst of sins4 ,sins against the theological virtues are more wicked1 since they offend against divine good1 whereas drunkenness is against human good4 ,many sins against the moral virtues are worse1 since they injure a greater human good2 for example1 it is more harmful to take away life than to suspend the use of reason4 7b7 ,it is one of the most ruinous of sins in its consequences 7see #bdgb1 #bdgc73 first1 for society1 since a large percentage of crime1 insanity1 destitution1 and misery is due to intemperance2 secondly1 to religion1 since indulgence in one sensual pleasure sharpens the appetite for others1 while creating a distaste for spiritual things1 for effort and self-sacrifice2 thirdly1 to the intellect1 for strong drink steals away the mind and memory2 fourthly1 to the body1 for drunkenness not only prostrates the nervous system at the moment and has most painful after-effects in bursting headaches and disabled stomach1 but it also causes permanent disasters 7to brain1 heart1 nerves1 kidneys1 and liver71 weakens the resistance to disease and brings on an early death2 fifthly1 to goods of fortune1 since drunkards squander their all for drink2 sixthly1 to posterity1 since intemperate parents transmit constitutional weakness to their children4 #bdhb4 ,responsibility of ,drunkard for ,sins ,committed ,while ,intoxicated4--7a7 ,if the drunkenness is fully voluntary and culpable1 he is responsible for all the sins he foresaw or should have foreseen2 for then these sins are willed in their cause 7see #id sqq474 ,hence one who is accustomed while under the influence of liquor to blaspheme1 betray secrets1 quarrel1 etc41 should confess that he committed them while drunk1 or that he was prepared to commit them in getting drunk4 ,under similar conditions one who misses ,mass because he was drunk is responsible for the omission2 one who is too drunk to attend to a business appointment and thereby causes loss to another is held to restitution4 ,but1 if grave sins are foreseen only in a very confused way1 generally they will be imputable only as venial in themselves4 7b7 ,if the drunkenness is fully voluntary and culpable1 but the sins that ensued were not foreseen and could not humanly have been foreseen1 the drunkard is excused at least in part from the guilt of these sins4 ,hence1 a person who gets drunk for the first time or who usually sleeps after getting drunk is not responsible for the bad language he uses1 if the thought of profanity was farthest from his mind when he became drunk4 ,but if this person was not completely drunk and had some realization of the malice and scandal of bad language1 he is at least venially guilty of profanity and scandal4 7c7 ,if the drunkenness was involuntary1 the drunken person is excused entirely in case of complete drunkenness2 he is excused partially in case of incomplete drunkenness that did not exclude some realization of the sinfulness of what he said or did while intoxicated 7see ,canon #bbja1 ,sec4#c74 ,in the civil law drunkenness is not held to be an excuse for a criminal act1 but it may negative a specific intent 7,robinson1 ,elements of ,law1 ,sec4,sec4#dga1 #ebe1 #eca74 #bdhc4 ,material ,cooperation in the ,sin of ,drunkenness--7a7 ,if there is no grave reason for the cooperation1 it is illicit4 ,mere hospitality is not a sufficient reason for furnishing a table with a great supply of strong drinks when some of the guests are dipsomaniacs1 and mere good fellowship does not justify one who has been treated to order another round of treats if some of the drinkers are already inebriated4 ,parents or others in authority who get drunk before their subjects are guilty of scandal2 those who encourage drunkenness are guilty of seduction2 those who supply others with drink in order that these may become drunkards are guilty of formal cooperation4 7b7 ,if there is a grave reason for cooperation1 it is not illicit 7#aeae sqq41 #aech sqq474 ,whether it is lawful to persuade another to get sinfully drunk in order to keep him from the commission of a greater evil 7e4g41 homicide or sacrilege71 is a disputed question 7see #aejb74 #bdhd4 ,is it lawful to make another person drunk when he will be guiltless of sin1 and there is a grave reason8 7a7 ,according to one opinion this is not lawful1 because drunkenness1 like impurity1 is intrinsically evil and never permissible1 since the end does not justify the means4 ,hence1 just as it would be wrong to induce a drunken person to impurity1 so it would also be wrong to intoxicate a child or an insane person 7see #cjf74 7b7 ,according to the common opinion1 it is lawful to intoxicate oneself for a grave reason 7see #bdgg b71 and hence also it is lawful to intoxicate another for a similar reason4 ,thus1 if a criminal were about to blow up a building and destroy many lives1 it would be permissible or even obligatory to put powerful intoxicants into his drink so as to make him helpless4 ,if one were about to be roasted by cannibals and could escape by making the cannibals drunk1 it would not be sinful to make them drunk4 #bdhe4 ,licit ,use of ,narcotics4--,there are a great many substances that produce the same effects on mind and body as intoxicating liquors1 namely1 the narcotic poisons1 such as morphine1 opium1 chloroform1 ether1 or laughing gas4 ,to them then will apply the principles given above in reference to strong drink4 ,thus1 it would be a serious sin to make oneself insensible by using morphine1 if there were no just reason2 but it is lawful to take ether for an operation1 gas when having a tooth pulled1 morphine when it is ordered by a physician to relieve pain1 etc4 ,in his address of ,feb4 #bd1 #aieg to a symposium of the ,italian ,society of ,anaesthesiology 7,the ,pope ,speaks1 ,summer1 #aieg1 pp4 #cc ff47 ,pope ,pius ,,xii considered some special aspects of the use of drugs in the practice of analgesis4 ,among the questions submitted to him for consideration were the following3 #a7 ,is there a general moral obligation to refuse analgesis and to accept physical pain in a spirit of faith8 ,after indicating that in certain cases the acceptance of physical suffering is a matter of serious obligation1 the ,pope responded that there was no conflict with the spirit of faith to avoid pain by the use of narcotics4 ,pain can and does prevent the achievement of higher goods and interests and may licitly be avoided2 obviously1 too1 the pain may be willingly accepted in fulfillment of the ,christian duty of renunciation and of interior purification4 #b7 ,is it lawful for the dying or the sick who are in danger of death to make use of narcotics when there are medical reasons for their use8 ,the ,pope responded2 8,yes--provided that no other means exist1 and if1 in the given circumstances1 that action does not prevent the carrying out of other moral and religious duties40 ,the duties referred to include settling important business1 making a will1 or going to confession4 7,should a dying man refuse first to attend to these duties and persist in asking for narcotics1 the doctor can administer the drugs without rendering himself guilty of formal co-operation in the fault committed1 which results1 not from the narcotics but from the immoral will of the patient47 ,among the conditions and circumstances laid down for the licit use of narcotics in the case in question are the following3 8if the dying person has received the last ,sacraments1 if medical reasons clearly suggest the use of anaesthesia1 if in delivering the dose the permitted amount is not exceeded1 if the intensity and duration of the treatment is carefully reckoned1 and finally1 if the patient consents to it1 then there is no objection1 the use of anaesthesia is morally permissible40 #c7 ,can narcotics be used even if the lessening of pain probably be accompanied by a shortening of life8 ,the ,pope responded that 8every form of direct euthanasia1 that is1 the administration of a narcotic in order to produce or hasten death1 is unlawful because in that case one presumes to dispose directly of life 444 ,if between the narcotics and the shortening of life there exists no direct causal link1 imposed either by the intention of the interested parties or by the nature of things 7as would be the case if the suppression of the pain could be attained only by the shortening of life71 and if1 on the contrary1 the administration of narcotics produces two distinct effects1 one1 the relief of pain and the other the shortening of life1 then the action is lawful4 ,however it must be determined whether there is a reasonable proportion between these two effects and whether the advantages of the one effect compensate for the disadvantages of the other4 ,it is important also to ask oneself whether the present state of science does not make it possible for the same result to be obtained by other means4 ,finally1 in the use of the narcotics1 one should not go beyond the limits which are actually necessary40 #bdhf4 ,the ,virtue of ,purity4--,as abstemiousness and sobriety preside over the pleasures of the self-preservative instinct1 so purity governs those that pertain to the species-preservative instinct4 ,purity is an inclusive name for the virtues of chastity and decency or pudicity1 and its office is to regulate proximately the internal movements of the soul 7thoughts and desires7 and remotely the external words and acts that have to do with sexual delights4 7a7 ,chastity in its strictest sense is a virtue that moderates or chastens through reason venereal pleasure1 chiefly as to its principal or consummated act 7i4e41 intercourse1 semination7 or as to its principal bodily centers 7i4e41 the genital organs74 ,hence1 there is a twofold chastity1 conjugal and celibate3 conjugal chastity abstains from unnatural pleasure1 and uses the natural reasonably in marriage2 celibate chastity abstains from all venereal pleasure1 as being unlawful in the single state4 7b7 ,decency 7pudicitia7 in its strictest sense is a virtue that moderates by the sense of shame venereal pleasure chiefly in its secondary or non-consummated external acts 7e4g41 looks1 conversations1 touches1 embraces1 kisses71 which are related to the principal act as being an enticement to it1 its preparation1 or its external sign and accompaniment4 ,the conjugal act1 though lawful1 occasions a feeling of shame1 and the same is true of the non-consummated acts2 but decency is especially concerned with these latter1 because they are usually more openly performed than the consummated act4 ,decency means1 then1 that manifestations of carnal desire should be conducted with a sense that this desire arises from a lower and rebellious passion1 removed in itself farthest from reason1 and not more suited for unrestrained expression or public exhibition than other lower animal acts4 ,the sense of shame and decency is a protection to the virtue of the unmarried and the married1 restraining the former from the unlawful and holding the latter to moderation in the use of the lawful4 #bdhg4 ,chastity and decency are not separate virtues2 rather decency is a circumstance of chastity4 7a7 ,thus1 chastity moderates also the secondary acts1 for reason must chastise the pleasure that is taken in these acts1 if this passion is to be kept in due bounds1 7b7 ,decency moderates also the primary act1 for in the use of marriage there should be nothing unworthy1 nothing to bring a blush of confusion4 #bdhh4 ,virginity4--,the highest form of chastity is virginity1 which is a purity unblemished that retains the bloom of its original innocence4 ,conjugal chastity uses venereal pleasures moderately and virtuously2 virginity abstains from them entirely and virtuously4 ,virginity is threefold4 7a7 ,virginity of body is freedom from corruption in the genitals1 which means that a male has never had sexual intercourse1 that the hymen of a female is inviolate4 ,this physical purity belongs to the virtue of virginity accidentally1 seeing that it is the result or indication of the virtue2 but it does not belong to the virtue essentially1 since virtue is in the soul1 not in the body4 ,hence1 one may be virginal in body without the virtue of virginity 7e4g41 a new-born infant71 or vice versa 7e4g41 a woman vowed to virginity who has been raped74 7b7 ,virginity of the lower part of the soul 7the passions7 is freedom from venereal pleasure voluntarily experienced4 ,primarily1 this refers to pleasure in consummated acts1 secondarily to pleasure in non-consummated acts and internal acts of thought and desire4 ,this kind of purity belongs to the virtue of virginity essentially1 since sexual pleasures are the material element or subject-matter of virginity1 whose office it is to exclude all indulgence of them4 ,hence1 a person who has had even one voluntary experience of these satisfactions1 lawful or gravely unlawful1 has lost virginity permanently1 though the virtue of chastity may remain or may be recovered4 ,for virginity cannot continue when its subject-matter has been removed4 ,it should be noted that involuntary pleasures1 as in nocturnal pollution or in rape or in passive spermic discharges1 are not detrimental to the virtue of virginity4 7c7 ,virginity of the higher part of the soul 7the mind7 is the intention to abstain from every venereal act in the future4 ,this purity of soul also belongs to the virtue of virginity essentially1 being its formal element1 since acts of the sensitive appetites are made moral and virtuous only from the direction and influence of reason and will4 ,hence1 one who has had no experience of voluntary carnal pleasure1 but who intends to marry and use its rights or to act unchastely1 has not in the first case the virtue of virginity1 or in the second case the virtue of chastity4 #bdhi4 ,loss of ,virginity4--,physical or bodily virginity once lost can never be recovered1 for this virginity means that a certain bodily action or passion has not occurred1 whereas the loss means that such action or passion has occurred4 ,of course1 a miracle could restore bodily integrity4 ,but a more important question is this3 is moral virginity1 or the virtue of virginity1 also irrecoverable8 7a7 ,if the virtue has been lost as to its chief material element1 it cannot be recovered4 ,this material element 7i4e41 the absence of all voluntary seminal experience7 cannot be restored1 for even ,god cannot make what has been experienced a non-actuality4 ,however1 it should be noted once for all that loss of virginity does not necessarily imply loss of conjugal chastity1 and that lost chastity may be recovered by repentance4 7b7 ,if virginity has been lost as to its formal element1 and the intention not to abstain was unlawful and naturally1 though not actually1 productive of semination 7e4g41 copulation of a completely aspermatic adult1 or internal and intense libidinous sin from which accidentally pollution does not result71 it seems that the virtue cannot be recovered4 ,for in these cases the sinner wills1 at least indirectly1 the loss of the chief material element of virginity1 and it seems repugnant to reason to ascribe the glory of virginity to one who has sinned in this way4 ,non expedit regulariter monere poenitentes de eorum virginitate irreparabiliter amissa1 sed praestat quaerentibus respondere omnia peccata remitti de quibus contritio habeatur4 7c7 ,if virginity has been lost as to its formal element and the intention not to abstain was lawful 7e4g41 a maid not under vow decided to marry and have children1 but changed her mind and decided to remain single71 or was unlawful but neither naturally nor actually productive of semination 7e4g41 external unchastity of a child incapable through impuberty of emissions1 or internal and only mildly exciting unchastity of an adult71 the virtue may be recovered1 certainly in the first case and probably also in the second case4 ,for the matter of virginity is certainly not taken away by the mere intention to have lawful venereal pleasure1 nor probably even by pleasures that do not tend to semination4 ,recovery of virginity is made in the one case by the retractation of contrary intention and in the other case by repentance and renewal of good purpose4 #bdij4 ,conditions ,necessary for the ,virtue of ,virginity4--7a7 ,as to its manner1 it seems more probable that this purpose must be expressed as a vow4 ,the reason for this according to some is that virginity is a special virtue only because of the sacred character which religion gives it1 and according to others also because of the unshakable renunciation which is conferred by a vow4 ,but it is also held as probable that unvowed virginity may be called a lesser degree of the special virtue of virginity1 ,at least1 it is a higher degree of the virtue of chastity4 7b7 ,as to its motive1 virginity must be justified by an extrinsic reason4 ,chastity is justified by its own end1 which is reasonable moderation4 ,virginity1 on the contrary1 is not self-justificatory1 since in itself it is unfruitful and without advantage4 ,hence1 it is not praiseworthy unless it serves some higher good than that of propagation1 such as a good of the mind 7e4g41 ,plato remained single for the sake of philosophy7 or of the will 7e4g41 the ,new ,testament recommends virginity for the sake of greater devotion to the things of ,god74 ,virginity that results from mere contempt for sensible pleasure would be an excess1 and continence embraced merely to escape the burdens of marriage and to lead an easy1 self-indulgent1 irresponsible life would be selfishness2 but virginity followed from an ideal of self-sacrifice which reason approves observes the golden mean 7see ,pius ,,xii1 ,sacra ,virginitas1 ,march #be1 #aied74 #bdia4 ,the ,excellence of ,virginity4-7a7 ,virginity has the highest rank among the various forms of chastity4 ,every kind of chastity 7pre-nuptial1 conjugal1 vidual7 is of great importance1 because to this virtue is entrusted the right propagation of the entire race and the moral and physical health of the individual in the most insistent of passions4 ,the material reproduction of the race is indeed a more urgent need than virginity1 since without it the human species would die out2 and if there were danger of race extinction1 it would be more imperative to marry than to remain continent4 ,but if we confine our attention to the ordinary course of things and compare virginity and non-virginal chastity from the viewpoint of nobility1 it must be said virginity is more valuable both to the community and to the individual than the other kinds of chastity4 ,it is more valuable to the community1 since the example of its excellence is a protection to public morals1 and its permanence gives the opportunity for a more general and ready service of society4 ,it is more valuable to the individual1 since to be occupied with the things of ,god is better than to be engrossed in the things of the world1 and the unmarried have the opportunity to devote more time with less distraction to higher things4 ,scripture affirms the superiority of virginity to marriage by its teaching 7e4g41 ,our ,lord in ,matt41 xix4 #ab1 counsels virginity2 ,st4 ,paul in ,i ,cor41 vii4 #g sqq41 says that it is the better and more blessed state71 by its examples 7,our ,lord1 the ,blessed ,virgin1 ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 ,st4 ,john the ,evangelist1 and in the ,old ,dispensation ,josue1 ,elias1 ,eliseus1 ,jeremias71 and by its promised rewards 7,apoc41 xiv4 #d74 ,a popular philosophy of materialism today makes repressed sex-urges responsible for hysteria and other emotional disturbances1 but experience proves that continence benefits both psychical and physical health4 7b7 ,virginity does not rank first among all the virtues4 ,the theological virtues surpass it1 being its goal2 martyrdom and religious obedience are greater1 because they sacrifice the superior goods of life and of the will4 ,it may happen1 then1 that a person in the married state or a penitent 7,luke1 vii4 #cf sqq47 is personally more holy than one dedicated to continence2 a married person or penitent may surpass a virgin in faith1 hope and charity1 and may be therefore1 simply speaking1 more perfect4 #bdib4 ,the ,sin of ,impurity4--,this sin1 which is also known as lust1 is an inordinate desire of sexual pleasure4 7a7 ,its object is sexual pleasure1 that is1 the sense of physical enjoyment in the bodily organs or of psychical satisfaction in the lower appetites of the soul derived from acts related to generation4 ,hence1 we should distinguish impurity from sensuality 7which is an inordinate attachment to esthetic pleasure or other higher sense-pleasure71 from luxury 7which is an excessive desire of health and comfort71 and from the vice called curiosity 7which is an over-fondness for intellectual delights1 see #bdfa74 ,but it should be noted that sensual pleasure easily leads to venereal delight1 and that intellectual curiosity about sex matters is dangerous1 and hence this sensuality and curiosity may be1 and frequently are1 a temptation to impurity 7see below on ,temptations to ,impurity74 7b7 ,impurity is in desire1 for the passions in themselves are indifferent 7see #aba71 and they become sinful only when their abuse is consented to by the will4 7c7 ,impurity is inordinate2 that is1 it takes pleasure against lhe dictate of reason4 ,this happens when sexual gratifications are indulged by the unmarried1 or by the married in unnatural ways4 ,it is a perversion and a sin to cheat the stomach in order to gratify the palate1 because ,god willed that the pleasure of eating should serve the nourishment of the body1 or1 as the proverb has it1 because man does not live to eat1 but eats to live4 ,now1 sex pleasure has been ordained by ,god as an inducement to perform an act which has for its purpose the propagation and education of children1 duties that cannot be rightly attended to except in the married state4 ,hence1 those who seek venereal pleasure outside of matrimony1 or outside the way intended by nature1 act unreasonably1 for they sacrifice the end for the means4 ,instinct guides the animal aright in these matters1 but man is a nobler creature and must guide himself by religion and reason4 #bdic4 ,kinds of ,impurity4--7a7 ,impurity is consummated when the act is continued to its natural conclusion and complete venereal satisfaction is had4 ,this occurs in semination1 which is the termination of the process set up by the impure thought and desire and the realization of its full pleasure4 ,semination occurs either in the process of coition1 or in extracoitional issues known as 8pollution40 ,equivalent to semination1 morally speaking1 are other emissions or secretions that accompany complete or almost complete gratification1 but in which the fluid is not prolific 7e4g41 the urethral emissions in boys who have not attained puberty or in eunuchs1 the vaginal flow in women1 urethral distillations74 ,consummated impurity is either natural 7that is1 suitable for reproduction1 the end intended by nature71 as in fornication or adultery1 or unnatural 7that is1 not suited for reproduction71 as in sodomy or pollution4 7b7 ,impurity is non-consummated when not carried to its natural conclusion of complete satisfaction and semination4 ,there are two classes of the non-consummated sins1 namely1 the internal 7as in thoughts and desires7 and the external or lewdness 7as in words1 looks1 kisses74 ,this happens without carnal commotion 7e4g41 when a frigid old man thinks with mental pleasure only on the wild deeds of his youth71 or with carnal commotion1 that is1 with an excitement and stimulation in the genital organs that prepares the way for semination4 #bdid4 ,gravity of the ,sin of ,impurity4--7a7 ,impurity is a mortal sin1 because it is a disorder that affects a good of the highest importance 7viz1 the propagation of the race71 and brings in its train public and private1 moral and physical1 evils of the most serious kind4 ,man has no more right to degrade his body by lust than he has to kill it by suicide1 for ,god is the absolute ,lord over the body and ,he severely forbids impurity of every kind4 ,those who do the works of the flesh1 whether according to nature 7e4g41 fornicators and adulterers7 or against nature 7e4g41 sodomites7 or by unconsummated sin 7e4g41 the unclean1 the impure71 shall not obtain the kingdom of ,god 7,gal41 v4 #ai2 ,i ,cor41 vi4 #i sqq471 nor have any inheritance with ,christ 7,eph41 v4 #e74 7b7 ,impurity is not the worst of sins1 because sins against ,god 7e4g41 hatred of ,god1 sacrilege7 are more heinous than sins against created goods1 and sins of malice are more inexcusable than sins of passion or frailty4 ,but carnal sins are peculiarly disgraceful on account of their animality 7see #bdfd b1 #bbd71 and in a ,christian they are a kind of profanation1 since his body has been given to ,christ in ,baptism and the other ,sacraments 7,i ,cor41 vi4 #aa-ai74 7c7 ,impurity is one of the seven capital vices4 ,the capital sins have a preeminence in evil1 as the cardinal virtues have a superiority in good4 ,the preeminence in evil is due1 first1 to some special attractiveness of a vice that makes it an end for the commission of other sins1 which are used as means to it or are incurred for its sake2 or1 secondly1 to a power and influence that is so strong as to hurry those under its sway into various kinds of sin4 ,now1 impurity is a moral disease that ravages every part of the soul1 its deadly effects appearing in the reason1 the will and external speech2 for the more one subjects oneself to the dominion of passion1 the less fitted does one become for the higher and nobler things of life2 and the more ignoble the inner life1 the more vulgar1 cheap and degrading will be the conversation4 ,hence1 the ,fathers trace back to impurity the following sins of imprudence in the mind3 wrong apprehension1 about the end or purpose of life1 and precipitancy in deliberation1 thoughtlessness in decision1 inconstancy in direction1 in reference to the means to the end 7see #afic sqq474 ,they also trace to impurity the following sins in the will3 as to the end1 voluptuarism 7which subordinates all to fleshly pleasure7 and hatred of ,god 7which abhors the ,supreme ,lawgiver who forbids and punishes lust72 as to the means1 love of the present and horror of the future life 7since the carnal man revels in bodily pleasures and dreads the thought of death and judgment74 ,finally1 they trace the following sins of the tongue to the vice of impurity3 the subject of the lewd man's talk is filthy1 for out of the heart the mouth speaketh 7,matt41 xii4 #cd71 the expression itself is foolish1 since passion clouds his mind1 the origin of his talk is emptiness of mind which shows itself in frivolous words1 and his purpose is unsuitable amusement1 which leads to farcical or vulgar jokes4 #bdie4 ,evil ,fruits of ,impurity4--,in addition to these moral consequences1 impurity is also prolific of many other evil fruits4 7a7 ,thus1 for the sinner himself it is like a cruel goad that constantly annoys him and takes away his peace 7,st4 ,ambrose71 like a sword that kills the nobler instincts 7,st4 ,gregory the ,great71 like a descent from human dignity to a condition below the beasts 7,st4 ,eusebius of ,caesarea74 7b7 ,for society it is disastrous in many ways1 since it propagates dread mental and physical diseases1 disrupts the peace of families1 brings disgrace and destitution on innocent children1 eats away fortunes and leads up to innumerable crimes of injustice and violence4 #bdif4 ,is ,impurity ,ever a ,venial ,sin8--7a7 ,by reason of the imperfection of the act1 impurity is venial when there is no sufficient deliberation or consent4 ,invincible ignorance in reference to the sixth commandment itself sometimes happens1 especially in reference to internal sins of thought1 to external sins of pollution if the person is young1 and to other external sins when there is some complication of circumstances 7e4g41 kissing and other intimacy by engaged persons1 onanism when married persons are poor or the woman sickly72 and more frequently there is invincible ignorance about details of the sixth commandment 7e4g41 about the precise theological or moral malice of what is known to be sinful74 7b7 ,by reason of the matter1 impurity according to the common teaching is always mortal if directly willed1 but sometimes venial if only indirectly willed4 ,impurity is directly willed when one posits an act intending to obtain from it unlawful venereal delectation1 or perceives that such delectation is already present and consents to it4 ,no matter how brief this voluntary assent1 no matter how slight the commotion of the animal nature1 no matter how far from the consummated is the impure act in question1 there is always a serious injury done to a great good or at least 7exception is made for the case of married persons7 the proximate danger of such injury1 and hence mortal sin 7see #bfj74 ,that even slight yielding to impurity is a serious peril is the teaching of ,scripture 7which declares that lust has killed even the strongest1 ,prov41 vii4 #bf71 of the ,church 7which condemns the opinion that libidinous kisses are not dangerous1 see ,denzinger1 ,enchiridion1 n4 #aadj71 of theology 7which reminds us that by original sin reason has been darkened1 the will enfeebled and the passions strengthened71 and of experience 7which shows that those who expose themselves to passion's flame will be burnt74 ,a small spark of fire is not trivial in the vicinity of a powder magazine1 a minute flaw in a machine is not unimportant if it may bring on disaster1 a first step is not safe if it is made on a slippery downward declivity4 7c7 ,impurity is indirectly willed when deliberately and without sufficient reason one posits an act which is not venereal pleasure 7whether the act be good1 such as a prayer made with great sensible fervor1 or bad1 such as gluttony1 or indifferent1 such as reading a book1 looking at a picture1 taking a bath71 but which produces foreseen venereal pleasure 7consummated or non-consummated7 that one neither intends nor directly consents to4 ,impurity thus indirectly willed is sinful1 because the pleasure is foreseen and permitted without sufficient reason 7see #ajb71 or in other words because one exposes oneself to danger of internal defilement 7consent71 or external pollution without justification 7see #bfj74 ,indirect impurity is mortal when there is proximate danger of grave sin in the act done1 that is1 when the posited act per se or from its nature strongly incites the agent to sexual passion1 as when one gazes long and fixedly at obscene pictures1 knowing that always or nearly always this arouses impure emotions4 ,the sin is venial when there is only remote danger of grave sin4 ,this happens when the posited act is not of a venereal kind 7an unnecessary conversation on indifferent topics7 or is only mildly exciting 7e4g41 a passing glance at an obscene object71 or when the agent himself is not greatly affected by it 7e4g41 when an old man1 or one who is of very cold disposition1 or an artist whose only thought is the esthetic excellence1 carefully studies a picture of the nude74 #bdig4 ,temptations to ,impurity4--,before treating the various kinds of impurity1 we shall speak briefly of temptations that occasion this sin and of the duties of the person tempted4 7a7 ,external temptation comes from the devil or the world1 and the duty of struggling against it has been treated elsewhere 7see #beb1 #adee sqq41 #adie sqq474 ,thus1 he who finds that certain persons1 places or things are for him a temptation to impurity must be guided by the principles given for occasions of sin 7#bfc sqq472 he who finds that another wishes to seduce him into impurity must refuse all internal consent 7see #bed sqq471 and must also resist violence when there is hope of success1 or when this is necessary to avoid giving scandal or yielding consent 7see on self-defense1 #ahda74 7b7 ,internal temptation comes from the flesh4 ,it consists in inchoative disturbances or excitements of the organs or fluids that serve generation 7e4g41 erections1 clitoral movements74 ,sometimes it is produced involuntarily1 without any intention or consent of the will1 by physiological states 7e4g41 conditions of the blood1 nerves1 etc41 due solely to the weather1 to disease1 to aphrodisiac properties of ailment1 to clothing1 or position7 or by psychical states 7e4g41 spontaneous images or appetites of the soul mentioned in #abi71 and in these cases the temptation is manifestly free from all sin4 ,st4 ,pius ,v condemned the teaching of ,baius that those who suffer motions of concupiscence against their will are transgressors of the command3 8,thou shalt not covet0 7see ,denziger1 ,enchiridion1 nn4 #ajej1 #ajea1 #ajge74 ,sometimes the temptation is directly voluntary1 as when the passion is deliberately awakened for the purpose of sin1 and then there is grave guilt 7see #bdif b74 ,sometimes the temptation is indirectly voluntary1 as when with the foresight of the passion but without desire of it an action is performed that arouses it4 ,in this last case1 if there is a just reason for the excitatory action 7e4g41 a physician sees and hears things that are calculated to be a temptation1 but his reason is the exercise of his profession71 no sin is committed2 but if there is no just reason for the action 7e4g41 a person reads an erotic book1 and curiosity is his only motive71 sin is committed1 and its gravity depends on the amount of danger to which one exposes oneself 7see #bdif c74 #bdih4 ,resistance to ,internal ,temptations4--,the fight against internal temptations is of various kinds4 7a7 ,by reason of its subject1 the conflict is chiefly in the will1 to which it belongs to give or withhold consent2 secondarily1 in the other powers of the soul and the body1 which under command from the will perform acts designed to overcome temptation4 7b7 ,by reason of its manner1 the conflict is either removal of the temptation 7i4e41 cessation from an act which produces the temptation7 or resistance1 passive or active4 ,passive resistance is the suspension of activity relative to the temptation till it ends of itself1 as when internally the will neither consents nor dissents1 or externally nothing is done for or against the temptation4 ,active resistance is positive opposition offered to temptation4 ,it is made in two ways3 first1 by way of flight1 as when internally the mind turns away to other thoughts 7e4g41 absorbing studies1 meditation on the passion of ,christ71 or the will devotes itself to other subjects of resolve 7e4g41 acts of love of ,god or of purity71 or externally the body is removed or freed from conditions that excite temptation2 secondly1 by way of attack1 as when internally the mind turns against the temptation 7e4g41 thinking of its dangers1 calling on ,god to drive it away71 or the will rejects the temptation 7e4g41 by despising it1 by expressing dislike1 disapproval and unwillingness1 by firmly resolving not to yield1 by deciding on measures against the passion71 or when externally the body is subjected to pain or mortification4 7c7 ,by reason of its circumstances1 resistance to temptation is either prolonged1 as when the act by which the will resists is of considerable duration or is renewed at frequent intervals1 or is brief1 as when the act of rejection is momentary and is not repeated4 #bdii4 ,what ,opposition to ,temptation ,is ,sufficient8--,opposition to temptations of the flesh must be sufficient to remove the temptation1 when the temptation is due to the continuance of one's own sinful or unjustified act2 for one is obliged to cease from sin or the unreasonable4 ,this happens 7a7 when the temptation is directly voluntary--for example1 one who wished to experience temptation and therefore reads a very seductive book must give over this reading2 or 7b7 when the temptation is not directly voluntary and is without sufficient reason--for example1 one who experiences carnal temptation due to a book which he reads from idle curiosity must desist from the book4 ,but one is not bound to omit or interrupt necessary or useful acts1 such as rest and sleep1 prayer and charity2 consent should be denied the evil1 but the good should be continued4 #bejj4 ,insufficient1 ,harmful and ,unnecessary ,opposition4--,in other cases opposition to temptations of the flesh must be such as is sufficient to keep one from consent1 that is1 to protect one against the proximate danger of sin4 7a7 ,hence1 that resistance is insufficient which does not strengthen the will4 ,it seems that passive will-resistance is of this kind1 since it is most difficult for the will to remain inactive in the presence of carnal stimulation or motions of the sensible appetites without being moved by the evil suggestion4 ,in external resistance1 however1 passive opposition suffices when it alone is feasible1 as when temptation grows out of necessary work1 or rest that cannot be discontinued or interrupted by active resistance1 provided the will registers internally its displeasure or disapproval2 but external passivity is not permissible when the will needs the help of external resistance1 as in the case of vehement and prolonged temptations4 7b7 ,that resistance is harmful which strengthens the temptation4 ,hence1 resistance by direct attack or by formal rejection is oftentimes to be omitted in favor of resistance by flight or by contempt2 for it is a common teaching of the ,fathers and ,doctors confirmed by experience that dwelling on reasons and means of repelling passion often adds to its strength1 and that resolving mightily and expressly to crush a weak and passing temptation often serves only to give it a longer life4 ,it is better to brush a mosquito away than to risk one's neck by chasing it up and down stairs4 7c7 ,that resistance is unnecessary which demands a physical or moral impossibility4 ,thus1 a prolonged act of resistance or one repeated at intervals of a few minutes1 or a resistance that includes extreme corporal austerities1 is not required in ordinary cases at least4 ,when a temptation is unusually vehement or is due to one's own fault1 there should be proportionately greater resistance to offset the greater danger2 but when a temptation is only moderately dangerous1 it suffices to reject it firmly but briefly and to repeat this when there arises a new crisis or danger and the renewal of resistance is useful4 #beja4 ,weapons against ,carnal ,temptations4--,the most powerful weapons against carnal temptations are spiritual ones1 and of these the most necessary is grace1 which should be asked in prayer 7,wis41 viii4 #ba71 especially through the intercession of the ,blessed ,virgin ,mary 7see ,pius ,,xii1 ,sacra ,virginitas1 ,march #be1 #aied74 ,but corporal means1 chiefly of a preventive kind1 should not be neglected4 7a7 ,physical measures are the observance of what are now often spoken of as sex hygiene for normal and sex therapeutics for abnormal cases4 ,special health rules whose observance conduces to good morals are especially the cultivation of habits of bodily cleanliness1 of hard mental and physical work1 of vigorous exercise and the avoidance of unhealthful habits 7such as constipation1 drug or spirit stimulation71 unsuitable clothing or sleeping conditions4 ,surgical or medical treatment for structural abnormalities or for mental or bodily diseases that react unfavorably on sex life requires the service of a conscientious and competent physician4 7b7 ,religious measures are various forms of corporal mortification1 such as custody of the eyes and other senses1 deprivation in food 7fasting and abstinence7 and sleep 7vigils1 night watches71 afflictive penances through the use of hairshirts1 painful girdles1 scourges or disciplines4 ,but austerities must be suited to the health1 age1 condition1 duties and other circumstances of the person who practises them1 and should not be used without the consent of one's confessor or spiritual director4 #bejb4 ,sinfulness of ,negligence in ,resisting ,temptations4--,it is sinful not to struggle against temptation1 since he who in no way resists1 not even passively1 surrenders or yields to sin4 ,hence1 the ,church condemned the quietistic indifference to temptation of ,molinos 7,denzinger1 nn4 #abcg1 #abeg1 #abfg74 ,it is also sinful to resist1 but only insufficiently1 as regards promptness1 vigor1 manner1 etc4 7a7 ,the ,theological ,malice4--,it is mortally or venially sinful to be negligent against temptation1 according to the greatness or smallness of the danger to which the negligence exposes one 7see #bef-bfb74 ,thus1 it is not a serious sin to omit all resistance to a weak and dying temptation1 or to neglect from indolence or other venial fault all external resistance when the danger is made remote by the internal displeasure or resolution2 but it is a serious sin to trifle with any very attractive temptation or to put off resistance until a progressing temptation has grown formidable and made self-control difficult1 and this is true even though consent is not finally given to the impure suggestion4 7b7 ,the ,moral ,malice4--,negligences in reference to carnal temptations do not differ specifically but only in degree1 according to the approach the stimuli make towards complete lust4 ,even when there is an object 7e4g41 fornication1 adultery7 before the mind1 the difference in species of the object1 it seems1 does not induce a difference in species of the sin1 since the sin is the general one of carelessness in presence of temptation4 ,hence1 it suffices to confess that one has been remiss in banishing impure emotions or thoughts4 #bejc4 ,applications4--7a7 ,the principles here given in reference to emotions of the sensible appetite and rebellions of the flesh should be applied to other involuntary acts in the imagination1 reason and will 7see #abi74 ,thus1 thoughts or images of impure scenes that pass through the mind should be treated in the same way as temptations of the flesh4 7b7 ,the principles here given about the person who suffers temptation should also be applied to the person who causes temptation4 ,since it is a mortal sin to commit impurity1 it is also a mortal sin to solicit impurity2 since it is a mortal sin of lust to make oneself drunk in order to experience carnal emotions1 it is also a mortal sin of lust to make another person drunk that he may become likewise inflamed2 since it is a mortal sin to expose oneself to extreme danger by reading a pornographic work1 it is also a mortal sin to wish to expose another to a like danger4 ,and this is true even though the temptation is unsuccessful4 ,physicians who minimize the wrong of masturbation1 or who counsel fornication to young men on the absurd plea that continence is unhealthy or productive of impotency1 share in the guilt of pollution or fornication which they counsel2 and young persons who seek to win the sinful love of others by nourishing their hair1 painting their faces1 exposing their bodies1 etc41 have the guilt1 if not the gain1 of seduction4 #bejd4 ,non-,consummated ,sins of ,impurity4--,these include all those preparatory sins in which unlawful sex pleasure is not carried to completion by coition or pollution4 ,we shall speak first of the internal sins of thought1 delight1 and desire 7see #bcb sqq471 and next of the external sins of unlawful looks1 words1 kisses1 and embraces4 #beje4 ,impure ,thoughts4--,impure thoughts 7delectatio morosa7 are representations in the mind or imagination of impure venereal objects in which deliberate pleasure is taken4 7a7 ,they are representations1 that is1 mental pictures or images of things absent from the senses1 but thought of or imagined as present4 ,thus1 impure thoughts differ from desires1 which consist in attraction with will to accomplish1 and also from sense contact of various kinds with objects present to the eyes1 ears1 or touch4 7b7 ,they are joined with deliberate pleasure of the will1 that is1 one intends them or consents even momentarily to them after perceiving their presence and malice1 even though carnal pleasure is not felt or does not threaten4 ,thus1 impure thoughts differ from tempting thoughts1 which are transient and unwished forms that appear in the mind1 and are thought on before their true character is adverted to1 or which gain a lodging in spite of efforts to eject them4 ,a tempting thought is not sinful1 but an occasion of merit when resisted1 no matter how long it endures 7see #bdig b74 7c7 ,the pleasure is taken in a venereal object1 that is1 in the thought of fornication1 adultery or other carnal sin1 committed by oneself or by another4 ,hence1 impure thoughts are not to be confused with the pleasure taken in knowledge about impurity 7e4g41 a professor of medicine or morality is not impure when he rejoices at the sexual knowledge he possesses and which is necessary for his duties1 or willingly thinks about sex matters when it is necessary or useful for him to do so71 or with pleasure taken in the morally indifferent manner of the venereal sin4 ,for example1 amusement over a ridiculous feature of a sin which one detests is not an impure thought 7see #bcc-bcf74 #bejf4 ,the ,malice of ,impure ,thoughts4--7a7 ,the ,theological ,malice4--,impure thoughts are mortal sins3 for he who deliberately rejoices at the thought of sin1 loves sin and is therefore guilty of it4 ,they are venial sins when there is imperfect advertence1 and also when there is lightness of matter on account of the remoteness of the danger of a thought only indirectly voluntary4 ,they are mortal when there is full deliberation and the impure thought is directly voluntary or gravely dangerous 7see #bdif74 7b7 ,the ,moral ,malice4--,impure thoughts have the same specific malice as the representation of the object which is entertained as a welcome guest in the mind2 for not only is impurity given the hospitality of the mind1 but a particular kind of impurity 7see #ij1 #bce74 ,hence it follows1 first1 that a specifically different object 7as is the case with different consummated sins7 makes a specifically different sin 7e4g41 to think pleasurably of unlawful intercourse is mental fornication if the persons in mind are unmarried1 and is mental adultery if the person in mind is married72 secondly1 that objects not specifically different--as is the case with different non-consummated sins of lewdness--do not make specifically different sins 7e4g41 to think pleasurably of a sinful kiss and to think sinfully of a sinful touch are both mental lewdness or impure thoughts72 thirdly1 that special malices of the object from which the mind can prescind--viz41 those which in the external act do not change the species or do not explain the venereal pleasure--and from which it does prescind1 are not incurred 7e4g41 to think pleasurably of sin with a woman who is married and a relative1 if the thought that she is married or one's relative is not pleasing or is displeasing1 is mental fornication1 not mental adultery or mental incest74 ,in praxi vero consulitur confessariis ut regulariter abstineant a quaestionibus de specie morali delectationis morosae2 nam fideles plerumque nesciunt faciliter distinguere inter species morales cogitationum1 et sic interrogatio evaderet vel inutilis1 vel etiam ratione materiae perieulosa4 ,ad haec quum casus crebriores sint1 maximo esset incommodo1 tum confessariis1 tum poenitentibus1 si sacerdos exquireret quae vix cognosci possunt4 ,sufficit igitur ordinarie sciscitari de specie theologica 7utrum voluntas complacuerit71 vel de specie morali generali 7utrum actus internus delectatio morosa vel potius desiderium fuerit74 ,see ,canon #hhh1 ,sec4#b2 ,norms for ,confessors in ,dealing with the ,sixth ,commandment1 ,holy ,office1 ,may #af1 #aidc4 #bejg4 ,impure ,rejoicing4--,impure rejoicing is a deliberate pleasure of the mind yielded to the recollection of a past sin of impurity4 ,hence1 this sin of rejoicing is committed when one thinks with approval of a fornication of former days1 but the sin of rejoicing is not committed when one confines one's pleasure to some good consequence of a fornication 7e4g41 the excellent child that was born71 or to a lawful pleasure of the past1 as when a widower thinks without present carnal commotion or danger of his former married life4 ,the circumstances are more readily willed here than in impure thoughts1 for here the mind is picturing an actual1 not an imaginary case of sin1 and the mental representation will therefore be more distinct2 nevertheless1 in the case of impure rejoicing the moral sub-species--at times even the distinction between impure rejoicing and impure thoughts--is usually not perceived4 ,the principles of the previous paragraph apply to impure rejoicing4 #bejh4 ,impure ,desires4--,impure desire is a deliberate intention to commit impurity in the future4 7a7 ,it is a deliberate intention1 that is1 a purpose or will to which consent is given internally4 ,hence1 an impure desire is not the same thing as a statement of fact1 as when a passionate person declares that he would sin1 were it not for fear of the consequences1 meaning only that he is frail1 not that he wishes to sin4 ,neither is it the same as a mere velleity1 which desires venereal pleasure under circumstances that would make it lawful1 as when a married man wishes that he were lawfully married to a woman other than his present wife1 or that both he and the other woman were free to marry each other4 ,but these velleities are foolish and venially sinful1 and often on account of danger they are mortally sinful4 ,an impure desire exists when the will consents unconditionally 7as when a person decides or wishes to fornicate tomorrow7 or conditionally under a proviso that does not take away the malice 7as when a person decides that he would fornicate were it not for fear of punishment1 or ,wishes that it were lawful for him to practise fornication74 7b7 ,it is an intention to commit impurity1 and hence there is no impure desire in wishing what is not venereal pleasure 7e4g41 the spiritual1 mental or bodily relief that follows on an involuntary pollution71 or what is lawful venereal pleasure 7e4g41 when engaged persons think1 but without carnal commotion or danger1 of the benefits of their future married relationship74 #beji4 ,malice of ,impure ,desires4--,impure desires are mortal sins and have the malice of the object and of the circumstances that one has in mind2 that is1 one commits the same kind of sin in desiring as in performing impurity4 ,hence1 ,our ,lord declares that he who looks upon a woman to desire her unlawfully has already committed adultery in his heart 7,matt41 v4 #bh71 and hence also the ninth commandment forbids sins of impure desire4 ,the principles given in #bejf1 #bejg1 apply also to impure desires with this difference that the mind when it wills external performance considers the object as it is in itself1 not as it is mentally represented1 and hence is less likely to prescind from actual circumstances known to it1 ,but even here confessional investigation is sometimes not necessary on account of its moral impossibility4 #beaj4 ,lewdness4--,after the internal sins follow the external sins of lewdness or indecency 7impudicitia74 ,these may be defined as 8external acts which are performed from or with deliberate venereal pleasure that is not consummated1 and which are not directed to the conjugal act40 7a7 ,they are external acts of the body1 such as the looks of the eye1 the speech of the tongue1 kisses of the lips1 touches1 fondling1 embraces1 pressure of the hand1 etc4 ,those also are guilty of lewdness who permit themselves to be petted1 kissed or otherwise impurely handled1 unless it is morally impossible to resist1 as when a woman who gives no internal consent cannot defend herself against a forced kiss without being killed1 or cannot without great scandal refuse to shake hands with one whose motive is impure love4 ,lewdness 7e4g41 an impure look7 may also be directed to one's own person1 or to an animal1 or to an artificial object1 such as a statue or book4 7b7 ,they are performed from or with pleasure2 that is1 passion either causes or accompanies the impure look or other act4 ,these non-consummated acts are indifferent in themselves and may be licitly performed for a just cause2 they become sinful by reason of the evil passion that animates them4 ,the carnal motive appears either from the end of the act 7e4g41 an indecent kiss naturally tends to impurity or grave danger thereof1 no matter what good purpose the kisser may have71 or from the end of the one acting 7e4g41 a decent kiss becomes an impure act if the one who kisses is moved by carnal desire74 ,hence1 there is no sin of lewdness when one of the acts now considered is performed becomingly as to externals and innocently as to the internal motive and quality 7e4g41 from a sense of duty1 not from pleasure74 7c7 ,the pleasure intended or consented to is venereal2 that is1 such as is consummated in copulation or pollution4 ,hence1 there is no sin of lewdness when the acts in question are performed becomingly and with and for pleasure of a spiritual kind 7as when members of a family give one another the customary kiss or embrace of affection71 or of a merely sensual kind 7e4g41 when a nurse kisses the tender skin of an infant74 ,on the distinction of intellectual1 sensual and venereal pleasures see above 7#bdfa74 7d7 ,the external act is not consummated by copulation or pollution4 ,these are often its result but they are a different degree of sin1 and lewdness is committed even without them 7see #bdhf74 7e7 ,lewdness is an action not directed to the conjugal act4 ,coition itself is lawful in the married state1 and this legitimatizes all the preparatory or accessory endearments4 ,hence1 the rule as to married persons is that venereal kisses and other such acts are lawful when given with a view to the exercise of the lawful marriage act and kept within the bounds of decency and moderation2 that they are sinful1 gravely or lightly according to the case1 when unbecoming or immoderate2 that they are venially sinful1 on account of the inordinate use of a thing lawful in itself 7#he a71 when only pleasure is intended2 that they are mortally sinful1 when they tend to pollution1 whether solitary or not solitary1 for then they are acts of lewdness4 ,the rights and duties during courtship and engagement will be treated below in ,question ,,iii4 #beaa4 ,cases ,wherein ,no ,sin ,is ,committed4--,since lewdness proceeds from or is accompanied by culpable venereal pleasure1 it does not exist in the following cases3 7a7 in children who have not attained puberty and the capacity for sex pleasure1 and hence there is no sin by reason of proximate danger in looks or touches exercised by them1 which would be gravely sinful in those who have reached the age of puberty4 ,these children may1 however1 sin against modesty or obedience1 at least venially4 ,they should be trained from their earliest years to reserve and decency1 and it is a most serious sin to scandalize their innocence4 ,the question of sex instruction for the young will be dealt with in the ,question on the ,duties of ,particular ,states4 ,if an adult person were as unmoved as a child by the stimulus of passion1 such a one would incur no personal guilt of lewdness by kissing and the like acts1 but such an adult person is very rare2 7b7 in adult persons when a dangerous act is exercised by them1 without consent or proximate danger1 and with a sufficient reason for the exercise4 ,thus1 a student of literature may read an erotic story from the classics1 if he is proof against the danger and intends only improvement in style1 though for the young such books should be expurgated2 a professor of medicine or moral theology may discourse prudently to his students on venereal diseases or sins2 an artist may use naked models in painting1 if and as far as this is necessary2 farm hands may attend to the service of female by male animals2 looks and touches that would otherwise be immodest are lawful for proportionate reasons of utility1 as in bathing oneself1 in performing the services of nurse or physician for others1 etc4 7see #bdig sqq474 #beab4 ,conditions ,governing ,propriety of ,external ,acts4--,the becomingness of the external acts spoken of in #beaj b includes two conditions4 7a7 ,on the side of its object1 the act must not be directed unnecessarily to the parts of the body that are shameful and private 7i4e41 the genitals and immediately adjacent parts74 ,it is customary to distinguish the remaining or non-shameful parts of the body into becoming1 which are uncovered 7e4g41 face1 hands1 feet71 and less becoming1 which are covered 7e4g41 legs1 breast1 back74 ,but as to less decent parts much depends on local usage4 ,for example1 at a bathing beach it is not unbecoming to appear in a mixed crowd with uncovered legs or arms1 and in very warm countries it is not improper to go about in public with less clothing than is worn in colder climates4 7b7 ,on the side of its subject1 the act must be performed with moderation and respect for reasonable custom4 ,thus1 columbine 7popularly called 8,french07 kissing and the ardent or prolonged embraces known as 8necking0 or 8petting0 are admittedly indecent1 even when not accompanied by sexual excitement4 ,oral abuse committed by or with either sex is indecent both as to the object1 i4e41 the part of the body involved1 and as to the subject1 i4e41 the mode of action4 ,it is the filthiest form of lewdness and is usually joined with pollution 7irrumation74 #beac4 ,morality of ,kissing and ,similar ,acts4--7a7 ,per se1 or from their nature1 these acts are indifferent1 since they can be employed1 not only for evil 7,job1 xxxi4 #bg2 ,luke1 xxii4 #dh71 but also for good1 as we see from the examples of the kiss of peace 7,i ,thess41 v4 #bf71 the kiss of fraternal greeting 7,gen41 xxvii4 #bf1 #bg71 and the kiss of respectful homage 7,luke1 vii4 #ch1 #de74 7b7 ,per accidens1 or from their circumstances1 these acts are often venially or mortally sinful against purity or against some other virtue1 or against both4 ,thus1 justice is offended by injuries or violence 7e4g41 stolen kisses1 unhygienic kisses that transmit venereal or other disease72 charity is offended by scandal given the object of affection or the onlookers 7e4g41 kisses given by way of greeting to a member of the opposite sex by an ecclesiastic or religious1 kisses forced upon children by grown-ups and which are harmful to the youthful sense of modest reserve72 purity itself is offended by familiarities which1 though not impure in themselves1 constitute a peril for the virtue of one or both parties1 as is true especially in demonstrations of sensual affection or pleasure4 ,but even though there be some carnal commotion1 it is not unlawful to give with a pure intention the decent salutation customary in one's country 7e4g41 to shake hands with a lady1 to kiss one's stepmother or sister-in-law74 #bead4 ,morality of ,sensual ,gratification4--,sensual gratification1 or the pleasure experienced from the perfection in the sensible order of some object1 is indifferent and lawful in itself 7see #bdfa1 #bdib74 ,when it is aroused by objects not venereally exciting 7e4g41 the beauty of the heavens or scenery1 the harmony of music1 the tender softness of the rose71 it does not tempt to impurity2 but when it is aroused by objects that are venereally exciting 7e4g41 the beautiful face or eyes or sweet voice or soft skin of a person much admired71 it approaches so closely to the confines of venereal gratification as to seem almost the same thing4 ,hence arises the question2 is deliberate sensual gratification about objects sexually exciting always a mortal sin8 7a7 ,many theologians answer in the affirmative1 and give as their reason that in the state of fallen nature there is no one who can be assured that such gratification is not for him or her a proximate occasion of pollution1 or of what is morally the same thing1 of inchoate pollution4 ,this opinion does not include gratifications not deliberately sought or yielded to1 nor those in which experience has shown that the venereal attraction of the object1 at least for the subject concerned1 is nil or practically nil 7e4g41 sensual kisses of an infant by a nurse47 7b7 ,other theologians dissent from the rigorous view1 and argue that1 since sensual and venereal attraction are really distinct1 there is always the possibility of intending the former and excluding consent to the latter4 7c7 ,to the present authors it seems that there is room for a middle way between these two extreme views4 ,as was said above 7#bdig71 it is sometimes sinful and sometimes not sinful to encounter temptation1 according to the intention and reason one has1 and a temptation willed unjustifiably but only indirectly is a grave or a light sin according to the great or small danger that is risked4 ,now1 it seems that certain forms of sensual gratification 7e4g41 those derived from beautiful but modest music or paintings7 have only a very slight sexual allurement for even the passionate2 whereas other forms 7e4g41 those derived from the warm kiss or caress of a handsome adult person of the opposite sex7 are vehemently alluring4 ,hence1 if sensual pleasure of the first kind is sought inordinately1 or if it is dangerous to purity1 there is a venial sin2 if sensual pleasure of the second kind is sought1 there is very likely mortal sin4 #beae4 ,the ,theological ,species of the ,sin of ,lewdness4--7a7 ,per se1 or from its nature1 this sin is mortal1 even though the external act 7kiss1 etc47 be decent 7see #beab7 and of the briefest duration2 for lewdness is consent to unlawful venereal pleasure1 which from the nature of the case is a serious matter1 tending either to illicit copulation or to pollution 7see #bdif74 ,hence1 even a shake of the hand made with lustful intent is a mortal sin4 ,if the guilt of adultery is found even in libidinous thoughts 7,deut41 v4 #ba7 and glances 7,matt41 v4 #bh71 much more is it found in lewd kisses1 embraces1 and conversations4 ,scripture strongly condemns every form of lewdness3 impure speech 78,uncleanness let it not so much as be named among you1 or obscenity1 or foolish talking10 ,eph41 v4 #c1 #d71 impure reading 78,evil communications corrupt good morals10 ,i ,cor41 xv4 #cc71 impure looks 78,whosoever shall look on a woman to lust after her hath already committed adultery with her in his heart10 ,matt41 v1 #bh71 impure kisses and other touches 78,it is good for a man not to touch a woman1 but for fear of fornication let every man have his own wife10 ,i ,cor41 vii4 #a74 7b7 ,per accidens1 this sin may be venial as follows3 first1 on account of the imperfection of deliberation1 as when a person under the influence of liquor1 drugs or sleep acts with only a partial realization of what he is doing1 especially if the lewd offense has not occurred before2 secondly1 on account of the lightness of the matter1 when the lewd act is indirectly voluntary and the danger remote 7see #bdif71 as when slight danger is risked in gratifying the sensual desire to gaze at a famous painting1 or in yielding to an impulse of curiosity1 levity1 or playfulness1 to indulge in suitable recreations or even unnecessary conversations in which occur glances or touches that arouse some small degree of sexual emotion4 ,were mortal guilt of impurity incurred in these instances1 very few could remain free from it unless there was a general retirement into isolation4 ,but even in the per accidens cases there may be other mortal sins 7e4g41 that of drunkenness or of scandal74 #beaf4 ,a large proportion of the sins of lewdness are only indirectly voluntary1 and hence they are mortal or venial according to the amount of danger to which one exposes oneself4 ,no ironclad rules1 however1 can be given to determine universally what things are gravely and what slightly dangerous1 since the force and direction of concupiscence are not the same in all persons4 ,some persons are oversexed or passionate1 others are undersexed or cold2 some have normal1 others abnormal inclinations 7e4g41 homosexuality1 sadism1 masochism1 sexual fetishism7 in matters venereal4 ,hypersexuality and abnormal sexuality are not in themselves sinful1 but are manifestations of that inordinate concupiscence that is the effect of original sin and1 if yielded to1 becomes the cause of actual sin4 ,proximately they may be due to disease4 ,but since these subjective differences do exist1 what we shall set down in the following paragraphs about gravity and lightness of danger is to be understood of the average or normal person and in the abstract1 for it is impossible to consider every individual case4 #beag4 ,circumstances ,that ,increase or ,lessen the ,danger of ,sin4--7a7 ,the ,person ,acting4--,there is less danger before and after than during puberty1 less for an invalid than for a person full of health1 less for an inhabitant of a cold region than for a dweller in the tropics1 less for one habituated to suppress venereal passion 7e4g41 a bachelor7 than for one who has been accustomed to indulge it 7e4g41 a widower71 less in some cases for the married who can lawfully enjoy sexual intercourse than for the single who cannot4 ,familiarity also can give a certain amount of immunity 7e4g41 where naked bathing or naked statuary in public places is according to custom1 the natives are less disturbed by these things than outsiders74 ,those who know 7without self-deception7 from their experience that certain things excite them very little do not run grave danger in encountering such things4 7b7 ,the ,person or ,being ,who ,is the ,object of the ,act4--,there is less allurement in an animal than in a human1 less in a small than in a large animal1 less in a representation than in the original1 less in young children than in adults1 less in one's own person or sex than in another person or the opposite sex1 less in an elderly or homely person than in one who is young and attractive4 7c7 ,the ,sense ,used4--,hearing 7and1 for a similar reason1 reading7 is less dangerous than sight1 for hearing is nearer to the immanent activities of thought and desire1 while sight has more of an emanant character 7e4g41 to hear or read about an obscene act is farther removed from it1 and hence less seductive1 than to see it in picture or reality74 ,sight in turn is less dangerous than touch1 for sight is a more elevated and less material kind of perception1 being exercised by a cognitional1 not by a physical contact with its object1 as is the case with touch 7e4g41 to behold others embrace is not so moving as to give or receive an embrace74 ,thus1 impure touches 7kisses1 embraces1 handling7 are the most dangerous form of lewdness4 7d7 ,the ,sense-,object ,acted ,upon4--,the degree of danger corresponds with the approach made to the act of generation 7e4g41 smutty stories are worse when they deal with consummated than with non-consummated acts7 or to the genitals 7e4g41 impure touches are worse when directed to the organs of reproduction than to the non-shameful regions74 7e7 ,the ,manner4--,there is greater danger when the act is prolonged than when it is momentary1 when it is ardent than when it is calm 7e4g41 a passing glance or peep at an obscene picture is not as dangerous as a leisurely inspection1 a loose linking of arms not as dangerous as a hug74 ,the more exposed the object of attraction and the more secluded the parties themselves1 the greater the danger 7e4g41 love-making between parties who are not fully clothed or who are alone in the dark or in a closed and curtained room is more dangerous than love-making between those who are properly dressed and seated among a crowd of people74 #beah4 ,cases ,wherein the ,danger of ,sin ,is ,grave or ,slight4--,a physician must know the difference between mortal and non-mortal diseases1 and likewise a priest must know the distinction between various kinds of spiritual leprosies4 ,but when certain cases are listed as less dangerous1 this does not mean that they are not dangerous at all and that no account should be taken of them4 ,especially in the matter of impurity should the warning of ,scripture be remembered3 8,he that contemneth small things shall fall by little and little0 7,ecclus41 xix4 #a74 ,with this in mind1 we now subjoin some examples of grave and slight danger for cases in which a lewd act is indirectly voluntary1 but is prompted only by curiosity1 joke1 levity or other such insufficient reason4 7a7 ,speech4--,dirty or suggestive stories1 conversations1 songs1 music1 or radio entertainments are a grave danger when the persons present are very impressionable 7e4g41 on account of age or character71 or if the topic is utterly vile 7e4g41 descriptions of filthy or unnatural sex acts71 or if the manner is very seductive 7e4g41 the terms used are unfit for polite society1 or the story is very detailed1 or sin is boasted about1 or the conversation is prolonged74 ,on the other hand1 the danger is light when the persons present are of mature age and not strongly inclined to impurity1 especially if the topic and the language are not very disgusting2 but there may be serious sin on account of circumstances1 as when the speaker or approving listener is a person from whom good example is expected4 ,obscene talk is generally not a serious sin when the persons are husband and wife1 or a group of married men or of married women2 on the contrary1 it is generally a serious matter when the persons are a group of young people of the same sex1 more serious when they are a mixed group1 and still more serious when they are a boy and a girl or a young man and a young woman4 ,the fact that those of the younger generation often do not admit this1 does not change its abiding truth4 7b7 ,reading4--,the remarks made on speech apply also to reading1 which is a kind of silent speech4 ,a noteworthy difference between the two in the present matter1 however1 is that reading is often more dangerous than conversation1 since it is usually more protracted4 ,love letters and romances were once the chief temptation in this line1 but today they seem mild in comparison with the supply of pornography that is easily accessible to all 7e41g41 the magazines and papers that pander to depraved tastes1 the stories and pseudo-scientific books that corrupt the youth of every land74 ,even without grave danger to self1 one may still be guilty of grave sin in reading obscene books on account of the cooperation with the vendors of immorality1 or the scandal1 or the disobedience thereby shown to the ,church 7see #adee sqq41 #aebi1 #aecj74 7c7 ,looks4--,there is generally no danger in a look at the full nudity of a small infant1 or at the less becoming parts of a person of the same sex2 there is generally only slight danger when the object is the privates of self or of another of the same sex1 or the coition of animals1 unless the gaze be fixed1 prolonged and the object near2 there is grave danger in beholding a completely non-infant naked person of the opposite sex1 or the coition or other grave external sex acts of human beings 7unless the glance be brief or not attentive71 or even at times the less becoming parts of the opposite sex1 if the look is very intent and continuous4 ,representations of the bodily parts or acts just mentioned 7pictures1 drawings1 diagrams1 etc47 have generally the same dangers as the originals1 though the allurement in itself is less vivid2 circumstances may even make the representations equally or more dangerous 7e4g41 on account of a thin veil of concealment in paintings or sculpture that only increases the attraction2 or on account of the suggestive music1 the voluptuous dance1 the crowd atmosphere that accompanies an immoral scene on the stage or screen74 ,the saying of ,oscar ,wilde that esthetics are above ethics is opposed both to morality 7since all conduct should be guided by reason7 and to art 7for the highest beauty is that of virtue and the spirit and purity74 7d7 ,touches4--,kisses are seriously dangerous to purity when warmly or lingeringly exchanged between adults of different sex who are attracted to one another as male and female2 in other cases1 kisses1 if impressed on decent parts of the body and in a decent manner1 may be only slightly dangerous4 ,holding or grasping between such adults is also a serious danger when it is vehement 7e4g41 the tight squeeze or hug of certain dances7 or long 7e4g41 the repeated or hour-long fondling of love-makers72 it is of slight or no danger in other cases1 as in the customary handclasp of greeting1 ,handling or feeling1 if passing1 hurried or light1 is generally not dangerous1 when it has to do with the becoming parts of another person1 or with the less becoming parts of a person of the same sex1 or with personal private parts2 it is only slightly dangerous1 under the same conditions1 in reference to the verenda of animals or small infants2 it is gravely dangerous when directed to the privates of another person who has passed infancy1 or to the less becoming parts of a person of opposite sex1 or to the breasts of a woman1 unless it be entirely casual1 passing1 or light4 ,tactile contact made under the clothing is of course more dangerous than that which is external4 #beai4 ,the ,moral ,species of ,lewdness4--7a7 ,theoretically1 it is more probable that the imperfect sins of impurity do not differ from the perfect sins to which they tend2 for the natural circumstances or antecedents of an act have really the same morality as the act itself 7see #bdhf74 ,in the physical order1 the fetus1 the infant1 and the child do not differ essentially from the full-grown man2 and likewise1 in the moral order1 the thought1 the purpose and the external beginning do not differ essentially from completed murder1 even though for some reason the act be not finished4 ,hence1 immodest words1 reading1 looks and touches belong to fornication1 or adultery1 or incest1 or sodomy1 according to their tendency 7e4g41 to read an immodest love story with another man's wife and to kiss her is incipient adultery1 and1 if the guilty person has a vow of chastity1 it is also sacrilege74 ,but the species is taken only from the object1 not from the purely accidental circumstances1 such as the elicitive faculty 7e4g41 an immodest look at another does not differ essentially from an immodest touch7 or the intensity 7e4g41 incomplete pleasure in touches by one who has not attained puberty does not differ essentially1 according to some1 from the completed pleasure of which he is capable74 ,moreover1 it seems that1 in regard to looks if not as regards touch1 abstraction 7see #bejf7 is easily made by the guilty person from various circumstances2 for example1 one who looks immodestly on a person consecrated to ,god1 may be thinking only of his unlawful love for a person of the other sex1 and so may be guilty of incipient fornication1 but not of sacrilege1 or he may be thinking1 without any affection for the other person1 only of his own pleasure1 and so may perhaps be guilty only of incipient pollution4 ,a less probable opinion makes lewdness a species of sin distinct from pollution and the other consummated sins4 7b7 ,practically1 penitents should confess that their sin was indecent and not completed lust 7such as pollution71 and they should also confess whether the lewdness was committed by speech1 reading1 looks1 kisses1 embraces1 or touches2 and also the object of the sin1 whether male or female1 whether married or single1 relative or non-relative1 etc4 ,otherwise1 since few penitents know how to distinguish the moral species of sins1 there will be great danger of incomplete confessions2 and1 moreover1 the additional sins usually committed in cases of lewdness 7e4g41 scandals1 injustices1 and bad company keeping7 will not be disclosed4 ,if a consummated sin of fornication1 pollution1 etc41 followed the indecency1 this consummated sin should be confessed distinctly4 ,similarly1 those who expose1 incite or tempt others to impure thoughts or to lewdness in word1 reading1 looks1 kisses or touches1 should confess the kind of sin they intended 7see #adig71 even though their purpose failed1 whether it was incipient fornication1 sacrilege1 sodomy1 etc4 ,but some authors admit a generic confession 7in which the penitent merely states that he sinned mortally or venially1 as the case was1 by indecency71 if the lewdness was solitary1 or was committed with another but certainly without scandal or lustful desire of the other person4 #bebj4 ,the ,consummated ,sins of ,impurity4--,there are in all seven species of completed acts of impurity4 7a7 ,thus1 some sins of impurity are against reason because they do not observe the ends of sexual intercourse4 ,these ends are1 first1 the begetting of children 7to which is opposed unnatural impurity71 and1 secondly1 the rearing of children 7to which is opposed fornication74 7b7 ,other sins of impurity are against reason because they violate a right of the person with whom intercourse is had 7incest71 or of a third party to whom that person belongs4 ,if the third party is injured in conjugal rights1 there is adultery2 if in parental rights1 there is defloration or rape1 according as the injury is done without or with force2 if in religious rights1 there is sacrilege4 ,this second category of sins is classed under impurity rather than under injustice1 because the purpose of the guilty person and his act belong to venereal sin4 #beba4 ,comparative ,malice of the ,sins of ,consummated ,lust4--7a7 ,in the abuse of an act1 the worst evil is the disregard of what nature itself determines as the fundamentals upon which all else depends1 just as in speculative matters the worst error is that which goes astray about first principles4 ,now1 the prime dictates of nature as to sexual intercourse are that it serve the race and the family4 ,hence1 the sin of unnatural lust 7which injures the race by defeating its propagation7 and the sin of incest 7which injures the family by offending piety7 are the worst of carnal vices4 7b7 ,in the abuse of an act a lesser evil is that which observes the natural fundamentals1 but disregards what right reason teaches about things secondary1 in the manner of performing the act4 ,but reason requires that in sexual intercourse the rights of the individual be respected4 ,a most serious violation of individual right is adultery1 which usurps the right of intercourse belonging to another2 next in gravity is rape1 which violently seizes for lust a person under the care of another or undefiled2 next is defloration1 which trespasses on the right of guardianship1 or removes bodily virginity1 but without violence2 last among these sins is fornication1 which is an injury done not to the living1 but to the unborn4 #bebb4 ,multiplication of ,sins of ,lust4--,the various kinds of lust may be combined in one and the same act1 as when unnatural vice 7e4g41 sodomy7 is practised with a relative 7incest74 ,sacrilege1 of course1 aggravates every other kind of carnal sin1 and thus there is sacrilegious sodomy1 sacrilegious adultery1 sacrilegious incest1 etc4 #bebc4 ,fornication4--,fornication is the copulation of an unmarried man with an unmarried woman who is not a virgin4 7a7 ,it is copulation1 or sexual intercourse suited for generation of children4 ,thus1 it differs from lewdness1 which consists in unconsummated acts1 and from sodomitic intercourse1 which is consummated but unsuited for generation4 ,onanism is an aggravating circumstance of fornication1 or rather a new sin of unnatural intercourse4 7b7 ,it is committed by unmarried persons1 and thus it differs from adultery4 7c7 ,it is committed with a woman1 and is thus distinguished from sodomy4 7d7 ,it is committed with a woman who is not a virgin1 and thus differs from defloration4 #bebd4 ,sinfulness of ,fornication4--,it is of faith that fornication is a mortal sin4 7a7 ,thus1 it is gravely forbidden by the divine positive law4 ,hence1 whores and whoremongers are an abomination to the ,lord 7,deut41 xxiii4 #ag72 fornicators are worthy of death 7,rom41 i4 #bi-cb71 they shall not enter the kingdom of ,god 7,gal41 ,v4 #ai-ba2 ,eph41 v4 #e2 ,heb41 xiii4 #d2 ,apoc41 xxi4 #h74 ,the ,fathers teach that fornication is a grave crime 7,st4 ,fulgentius71 and that it brings condemnation on the guilty person 7,st4 ,chrysostom74 ,the declarations of the ,church on the evil of this sin are found in the ,council of ,vienne and in the censures of ,alexander ,,vii and ,innocent ,,xi 7,denzinger1 nn4 #dgg1 #aabe1 #aaih74 7b7 ,fornication is gravely forbidden by the natural law4 ,for it is seriously against reason to cause an injury to the entire life of another human being2 but fornication does this very thing by depriving the unborn child of its natural rights to legitimacy1 to the protection of both parents1 and to education in the home circle4 ,true1 in some cases there may be no prospect of a child1 or there may be provision for its proper rearing2 but these cases are the exception1 since fornication from its nature tends to the neglect of the child1 and the morality of acts must be judged1 not by the exceptional and accidental1 but by the usual and natural4 ,those who commit fornication are thinking of their own pleasure rather than of duty1 and will generally shirk the difficult burdens of parenthood4 ,society also would be gravely wounded if unmarried intercourse were at any time lawful4 ,hence1 ,st4 ,paul reproves the pagans1 though ignorant of ,scripture1 for their sins of fornication 7,i ,cor41 vi4 #i-aa2 ,eph41 v4 #a-f71 since reason itself should have taught them the unlawfulness of this practice4 ,it seems1 though1 that invincible ignorance of the wrong of fornication is possible among very rude or barbarous people1 since the injury to the neighbor does not show itself so clearly in this sin as in many others4 #bebe4 ,fornication ,compared with ,other ,sins4--7a7 ,it is less serious than those that offend a divine good 7e4g41 unbelief1 despair1 hatred of ,god1 irreligion71 or human life 7e4g41 abortion71 or the human goods of those already in being 7e4g41 adultery74 7b7 ,it is more serious than sins that offend only an external good 7e4g41 theft71 or that are opposed only to decency in the marriage state 7e4g41 unbecoming kisses of husband and wife74 #bebf4 ,circumstances of ,fornication4--7a7 ,circumstances that aggravate the malice are the condition of the person with whom the sin is committed 7e4g41 that the female is a widow1 or the employee of the man1 or his ward1 or a minor74 7b7 ,circumstances that add a new malice to fornication are of various kinds4 ,thus1 previous circumstances are the distinct desires of the sin entertained beforehand1 the solicitation and scandal of the other party or parties with whom the sin was committed2 concomitant circumstances are the quality of the persons 7e4g41 fornication is sacrilegious if one of the parties is consecrated to ,god1 and also1 according to some1 if one party is a ,christian and the other an infidel2 it is unjust if one of the couple is betrothed to a third party71 or the quality of the act itself 7e4g41 if it is performed onanistically1 though pollution may be excused if it results accidentally from the good purpose to discontinue the sinful act72 subsequent circumstances are injury done to the partner in sin 7e4g41 by refusal to pay the support or restitution due7 or to the offspring 7e4g41 by exposure1 abortion1 neglect74 ,whether the fornication of an engaged person with a third party is a distinct species of sin is disputed4 7a7 ,according to some1 it is a distinct species1 or at least a form of adultery on account of the infidelity4 7b7 ,according to others1 it is a distinct species if the guilty party is the woman1 but not if it is the man1 for the infidelity of the former is a far more serious matter than the infidelity of the latter4 7c7 ,according to still others1 it is never a distinct species1 since engagement to marry is a dissoluble agreement and the injury to the contract is therefore not a notable one4 ,in this last opinion the manner of the sin is an aggravating circumstance1 not a distinct species that has to be declared in confession4 #bebg4 ,forms of ,fornication4--,there are three special forms of fornication1 which are all the same essentially1 but which differ accidentally in malice or in results4 7a7 ,thus1 ordinary fornication is that which is committed with a woman who is neither a harlot nor a concubine4 ,this sin is in itself the least grave of the three1 since it is not so harmful as whoremongering1 nor so enduring as concubinage4 ,ordinary fornication also has its degrees of bad and worse3 thus1 engaged persons who sin together habitually are worse than those who sin only occasionally1 and circumstances such as artificial onanism and abortion add to the guilt4 7b7 ,whoremongering is fornication committed with a harlot1 that is1 with a woman who makes a business of illicit intercourse and hires herself out for pay to all comers4 ,rarely does a harlot choose her life from passion or love1 but is dragged in by white slavers1 or enters from poverty1 or after disgrace1 or the like4 ,this sin is worse than ordinary fornication from the viewpoint of propagation1 since few harlots become mothers4 ,but its most dire consequences are visited on the guilty persons themselves and on society3 for the life of a prostitute is a most degrading slavery2 to her patrons she communicates the most terrible diseases1 which are then carried to innocent wives and children1 and to the innocent she often becomes a cause of ruin1 seeking her trade in the streets and public places4 ,today1 according to reliable newspaper reports1 many men and women have become rich in the terrible business known as the white-slave traffic4 ,this horrible abuse has grown into a vast international machine which is efficiently organized1 and which profits not only from prostitution1 but from many other kinds of crime4 ,the patrons of brothels1 therefore1 cooperate with the crying injustice that is often done the fallen woman1 and with the criminals who destroy souls and bodies for their own advantage4 7c7 ,free love is fornication committed with one's concubine1 that is1 with a woman who is not a public harlot but who has contracted with one man for habitual sexual intercourse as if they were man and wife4 ,according to reports1 this is quite common in ,europe1 where lawful marriage is very often preceded by free unions4 ,the trial marriage advocated by some in this country1 in which paramours agree to live together as husband and wife for a certain term of years or at pleasure1 also falls under the category of concubinage4 ,this sin is worse than mere whoremongering in one respect1 namely1 that it includes the purpose to continue in the state of sin1 at least for a certain length of time4 ,moreover1 there is often the public scandal and contempt for public opinion which other kinds of fornication may be free from4 ,one who practises concubinage is living in a proximate occasion of sin1 and hence he cannot be absolved unless he dismisses the concubine1 if they cohabit1 or agrees to keep away from her1 if they do not cohabit4 #bebh4 ,the ,state and ,places of ,prostitution4--,it is clear that civil government has no right to support or provide places of prostitution1 or to give permission for its practice1 since fornication is intrinsically evil4 ,but what should be said of toleration or license given to prostitutes by the public authority8 7a7 ,theoretically1 the civil power has the right to give toleration or license2 for1 if the common welfare will suffer from a greater evil unless a lesser evil is suffered to go on1 the lesser evil should be endured1 and it is certain that there are greater evils than prostitution 7such as rape and unnatural crimes of lust74 7b7 ,practically1 the question is open to dispute4 ,older moralists held that toleration was actually more beneficial to the common good than suppression4 ,but under the conditions of the present time many moralists think it is a mistake to give any recognition to prostitutes1 and much less to houses of prostitution4 ,even in large cities1 where alone the license could be beneficial1 the purposes of toleration are not fulfilled2 for the moral evil seems to be greater1 since an appearance of legality is given to prostitution1 its practice is facilitated1 its habitats become dens of every kind of iniquity1 and the purpose of segregation is not realized2 the physical evils also are not lessened1 but perhaps increased1 for even with medical inspection of prostitutes1 syphilis and gonorrhea cannot be prevented4 #bebi4 ,defloration and ,rape4--,defloration and rape are distinct species of lust1 for each of them in its very concept includes a special and notable deformity not found in other species of impurity4 7a7 ,defloration is unlawful carnal knowledge of a woman who is virginal in body 7#adhh a74 ,it has the special deformity of depriving the woman of the physical integrity that is most highly prized among all the unmarried of her sex1 or at least of her own self-respect1 and of setting her on the way to become a strumpet rather than an honorable wife or spinster4 ,some authors do not consider defloration a special sin unless it is done by violence1 or unless injury is done the parental right over the virgin2 and even the authors who consider unforced defloration a special sin hold that the new or additional malice in it is slight and venial1 and therefore not a necessary matter of confession4 ,the first sin of fornication by a male is not a special sin1 because the consequences are not so serious for the man as for the woman1 but of course seduction is always a special sin1 whether the injured party be male or female4 7b7 ,rape is physical or moral coercion 7i4e41 force or fear7 employed against any person 7male or female1 married or single1 pure or corrupt71 or against his or her guardians1 to compel him or her to an act of lust4 ,it has the special deformity of inflicting bodily injury on the person ravished4 ,the sin of rape should not be confused with the canonical crime of rape1 which consists in abduction1 and which is an impediment to marriage 7,canon #ajgd72 nor with seduction1 as when an innocent person is deceived into believing that an act of impurity is lawful1 or is tricked into sin by false promises of marriage4 ,equivalent to rape is the carnal knowledge of a person drugged1 hypnotized1 or otherwise unconscious1 or the seduction of an infant4 ,a person who is ravished is obliged to deny all consent internally1 and to resist or make outcry when this is possible 7see #bdig a74 #becj4 ,adultery4--,adultery is also a distinct species of lust4--7a7 ,definition4--,adultery is sexual intercourse with the husband or wife of another4 ,if the sin is committed only in desire1 there is mental adultery2 if the paramours allow themselves unlawful familiarities without intercourse1 or if a married person is guilty of solitary lust1 there is imperfect adultery4 7b7 ,sinfulness of ,adultery4--,adultery is a grave sin1 since it is an act of impurity and is expressly forbidden in the sixth commandment 7,exod41 xx4 #ad71 and is classed among the sins that exclude from the kingdom of heaven 7,i ,cor41 vi4 #i1 #aj74 ,it is a special sin1 because it is a violation of the faith pledged in the contract and ,sacrament of ,matrimony1 and an injury to the right of one's spouse and of the conjugal state 7,matt41 xix4 #e2 ,rom41 vii4 #c2 ,i ,cor41 vii4 #ci74 ,even though a husband gives his wife permission to commit adultery or vice versa1 the injustice remains1 for though the individual is not formally injured1 the married state is injured1 since no married person has the right to give a permission opposed to the sacredness of the marriage vows 7,denzinger1 n4 #abjj74 7c7 ,degrees of ,malice4--,there are three degrees of malice in adultery4 ,the first is that in which a married man sins with a single woman2 the second that in which a married woman sins with a single man2 the third that in which a married man sins with another man's wife4 ,the second is worse than the first1 on account of its consequences 7e4g41 sterility1 uncertainty of paternity1 rearing of an illegitimate child in the family72 the third is worse than the second1 because in addition to the consequences just mentioned1 it contains a double injustice 7viz41 unfaithfulness to an innocent wife and unfaithfulness to an innocent husband71 and it multiplies the sin4 ,if an adulterer's husband or wife is also unfaithful1 the injustice is lessened1 but not removed2 for not merely the two married persons are to be considered1 but also the children1 the family1 society1 and ,god2 and the wrong done by one of the parties does not take away the right to fidelity pledged absolutely to all of these in marriage4 7d7 ,effects4--,the party whose marriage rights have been injured by adultery was permitted under some former civil codes to kill a wife taken in adultery4 ,but such laws were against justice and charity3 against justice since no guilty person should be put to death unheard1 and no injured person should be judge and accuser in his own case2 against charity1 since by such summary vengeance the adulteress would be sent to death in the midst of sin and without opportunity for repentance4 ,the remedies of ,canon ,law for the innocent spouse will be noted below 7#bedb74 #beca4 ,incest4--,incest is impurity committed with a person related to one within the degrees in which marriage is forbidden4 7a7 ,it is impurity1 internal or external4 ,internal desires are mental incest1 while external unconsummated 7e4g41 kisses7 or consummated 7e4g41 intercourse7 acts are actual incest4 7b7 ,it is committed with a relative1 that is1 with a person1 male or female1 who is near to one by the tie of common ancestry 7blood relationship1 kinship1 consanguinity71 or of marriage to one's kin 7marriage relationship1 affinity71 or of sacramental administration 7spiritual relationship71 or of adoption 7legal relationship74 ,alias species cognationis non pertinent ad incestum1 sed novam aliquam malitiam possunt tribuere2 v4g41 si partes sunt parochus et parochiana1 confessarius et poenitens1 habetur scandalum1 seductio4 7c7 ,the relationship is within the canonical degrees4 ,thus1 marriage between blood relatives is forbidden in all degrees of the direct line 7e4g41 as to all female ancestry and posterity of a man7 and in the first three degrees of the collateral line1 which includes1 for a man1 his sisters1 nieces1 grandnieces1 aunts1 first and second cousins1 grand aunts and their daughters and granddaughters4 ,marriage between those who are relatives-in-law is forbidden in all degrees of the direct line 7e4g41 as to wife's mother1 daughter1 etc47 and in the first two degrees of the collateral line 7e4g41 wife's sister1 first cousin1 aunt or niece74 ,spiritual relationship which is impedient of marriage exists between a person baptized and his baptizer1 and also between the god-child and the god-parent in baptism4 ,legal relationship exists between the adopter and the adopted1 when and as the civil law makes it a bar to marriage4 7d7 ,incest is committed within the forbidden degrees1 and hence if a dispensation from an impediment of relationship had been granted to parties about to marry1 a sin between them would not be incestuous4 #becb4 ,incest as a ,distinct ,species of ,sin4--7a7 ,there is a specific distinction between incest and other forms of lust1 since incest violates not only purity1 but also the piety and respect due each other by those who are so closely related as to be unable to contract a lawful marriage4 ,nature itself abhors this sin2 for1 apart from the exceptional cases in which a dispensation is given1 even lawful marriage with near relatives would be an incentive to many sins before marriage and would prevent the widening circle of friendships between mankind which marriage with non-relatives produces1 and would cause a physical and mental enfeeblement of the race4 ,in ,scripture incest is spoken of with peculiar horror as a nefarious deed deserving of death 7,lev41 xx4 #aa sqq471 and as an act unworthy even of pagans 7,i ,cor41 v4 #a sqq474 7b7 ,there are three distinct sub-species of incest1 namely1 natural incest 7between kin by blood or marriage71 spiritual incest 7between the baptized and his baptizer or god-parent71 and legal incest 7between persons who are kin in virtue of #h1 marriage-impeding adoption74 ,the first violates piety due to natural origin1 the second that due to spiritual origin1 and the third that due to legal origin4 ,and in each species the nearer the relationship1 the greater the sin 7e4g41 incest with a sister-in-law is less than that with a sister1 incest with a sister is less than that with a mother74 #becc4 ,carnal ,sacrilege4--,carnal sacrilege is the violation by an act of impurity of the sacredness of a person1 place or thing4 7a7 ,it is a violation of sacredness1 and thus it is a special sin1 adding irreligion to lust 7see #bcjh sqq474 7b7 ,it is an act of impurity1 internal or external1 consummated or non-consummated4 ,the impurity1 however1 must be so related to that which is sacred as to treat its sanctity with injury or contempt 7formal disrespect71 and there is no sacrilege if the impurity is associated with something holy in such a way as not to show any notable irreverence 7material disrespect74 7c7 ,its first species is personal sacrilege1 and it is committed by a sacred person 7see #bcji7 when he is impure internally or externally1 or by a non-sacred person when in desire or act he commits impurity with a sacred person4 ,if two sacred persons sin together1 there is a double sacrilege1 which multiplies the sin4 7d7 ,its second species is local sacrilege1 and is committed when an impure act is done in a sacred place 7#bcaa7 in such a way as to show formal disrespect4 ,hence1 consummated acts done in a church are sacrilegious1 and the same is probably true of non-consummated acts1 at least if they are of an enormous kind 7e4g41 a lascivious dance71 and even of internal desires to sin in the sacred place4 ,but impure thoughts or passing glances of prurient curiosity in a church are not sacrilegious4 7e7 ,its third species is real sacrilege1 and it occurs when impurity is committed in such a way as to show formal disrespect to a sacred object 7#bcaa74 ,hence1 there is sacrilege of this kind when one commits impurity immediately after ,communion1 or when one uses the ,sacrament of ,penance as a means to solicit impurity4 ,but the fact that a person commits impurity while wearing a scapular is not sacrilegious1 unless contempt for the scapular was intended4 #becd4 ,unnatural ,lust4--,worst among the sins of impurity1 as such1 are crimes of unnatural lust1 for they exercise the sexual act1 not only illicitly1 but also in a manner that defeats its purpose of reproduction4 ,in some non-venereal respects1 however1 natural sins of impurity may be worse than the unnatural2 for example1 adultery is worse as regards injustice1 sacrilegious lust as regards irreligion1 etc4 ,there are four distinct species of unnatural impurities-- pollution1 unnatural coition1 sodomy1 bestiality 7see ,denzinger1 n4 #aabd74 7a7 ,for procreation nature requires copulation1 and hence pollution is unnatural1 for it exercises semination without copulation1 either alone 7self-abuse1 solitary vice1 masturbation7 or with another 7softness74 7b7 ,for procreation nature requires proper copulation1 that is1 one that will permit of a fertile union between the two life elements1 the sperma and the ovum4 ,hence1 unnatural coition does not comply with this necessity1 for it does not employ the proper organ of sexual union1 substituting rectal for vaginal intercourse1 or else by some form of natural or artificial onanism it frustrates the act of its destined conclusion4 ,this sin is worse than pollution1 since pollution omits to use intercourse1 whereas unnatural coition positively abuses it4 7c7 ,for procreation nature requires heterosexual intercourse1 a condition disregarded by sodomy1 which is the lustful commerce of male with male 7pederasty1 uranism71 or of female with female 7tribadism1 sapphism1 ,lesbian love74 ,this sin is worse than unnatural coition1 for it is a greater perversity to neglect one of the two needed life elements than to neglect the right process for their union 7see ,gen41 xix4 #bd1 #be2 ,lev41 xx4 #ac2 ,rom41 i4 #bf1 #bg74 7d7 ,finally1 for procreation nature requires homogeneous intercourse1 a law violated by bestiality1 which is coition of a human being1 male or female1 with a brute animal4 ,this is the worst of unnatural impurities1 since it sins against the most fundamental condition for the sexual act1 namely1 that the participants be of the same nature 7see ,lev41 xx4 #ae1 #af74 ,similar to bestiality is the crime of necrophilism 7intercourse with a corpse74 #bece4 ,pollution4--,pollution is the voluntary emission of semen apart from coition4 7a7 ,it is an emission1 that is an external discharge4 ,the internal secretion in the so-called female semination is also included by many under the head of pollution4 ,the carnal motions spoken of in #bdig b are a preparation for pollution4 7b7 ,it is a discharge of semen1 that is1 of the male fluid that fertilizes the female ovum4 ,but equivalent pollution1 from the moral viewpoint1 is found in the discharge of certain non-prolific fluids that are accessory to generation or that produce in their movement a venereal satisfaction1 such as the vaginal fluid in females 7female semination71 the urethral fluid in males capable or incapable of procreation 7distillation74 ,there is no pollution1 however1 in natural discharges such as menstruation and urination4 7c7 ,it is apart from coition1 and thus it differs from other consummated sins4 ,but pollution may be committed either alone 7solitary vice71 or with another1 and in the latter case it pertains reductively to adultery1 fornication1 sodomy1 etc41 as the case may be4 7d7 ,it is voluntary directly or indirectly3 directly1 when one intends it as an end 7e4g41 for the sake of the pleasure7 or as a means 7e4g41 as a relief from temptation or bodily itching1 to obtain a specimen of semen for medical diagnosis72 indirectly1 when one unjustifiably does something from which one foresees that pollution will result4 ,in all these cases pollution is formal or sinful1 and it is not to be confused with material or natural pollution1 which is a discharge of semen or distillation that is involuntary or unimputable4 #becf4 ,cases of ,material or ,non-,sinful ,pollution4--7a7 ,involuntary pollution is passive or active4 ,the former happens even when one is awake4 ,it is evoked by such slight causes as physical movement and exertion1 and is unaccompanied by pleasure2 when habitual1 it is a disease due to organic debility ,the latter happens during sleep1 and may be caused by a superfluity of fluid4 ,it is accompanied by pleasure and often by libidinous dreams4 ,it is a means used by nature to relieve the system1 and is therefore healthful and beneficial1 unless the discharges are too frequent 7e4g41 nightly74 ,there is no obligation of repressing the continuance of a pollution that began involuntarily during sleep1 since it may be regarded as an act of nature2 but consent must be withheld 7#bdih sqq474 ,moreover1 if merely natural pollution be considered1 not as to its venereal gratification but solely as to its good effects 7e4g41 that it ends a temptation1 that it benefits the mind or the health71 there is no sin in rejoicing at its accomplishment or in desiring its fulfillment1 provided nothing is done to produce it and the intention is good2 for then the object of the will is indifferent and the end is good4 7b7 ,unimputable pollution is caused by a lawful act from which one foresees that pollution will ensue1 there being no proximate danger of consent to sin1 and the pollution being only permitted1 and that for a proportionately grave reason4 #becg4 ,unimputable ,pollution4--,in reference to unimputable pollution the following distinctions should be noted3 7a7 the danger risked by an act may be either of formal pollution 7i4e41 with consent to sin7 or of material pollution 7i4e41 without consent to sin72 7b7 the danger of pollution is either proximate or remote1 the former being that from which pollution naturally and usually results and the latter that from which it does not naturally or usually result4 ,remotely dangerous are acts of a non-venereal kind1 such as horseback riding1 gymnastics1 drinking alcoholic beverages1 and also acts of a sexual kind that are only mildly exciting1 such as conversations or books that are slightly 8off color0 when the parties are of mature age 7see #beag1 #beah74 ,proximately dangerous are acts of a venereal kind that notably inflame passion1 such as warm and lingering kisses between persons of opposite sexes 7see #beag1 #beah72 7c7 the reason for running the danger of pollution is either grave1 serious1 or slight4 ,a grave reason is real necessity 7e4g41 the removal of disease or pain or of a very painful or troublesome itch due to the blood or disease7 or great utility 7e4g41 the preservation of health1 cleanliness of body72 a serious reason is an important convenience of soul or body 7e4g41 the exercise of common politeness1 the enjoyment of reasonable comfort72 a slight reason is one in which none of the mentioned motives is found 7e4g41 the satisfaction of an idle curiosity1 the removal of a trifling irritation or itch74 #bech4 ,proximate and ,remote ,occasions of ,pollution4--,it is never lawful to expose oneself to the immediate danger of sin1 for he who loves the danger loves the sin 7see #beh1 #bfj72 but if one uses means to make the danger remote1 one may lawfully encounter it for a good reason 7see #beh1 #bfj1 #bfa74 ,it is lawful to permit an evil effect when there is sufficient justification according to the principle of double effect 7see #ajc sqq474 7a7 ,hence1 if there is proximate danger of formal pollution 7that is1 of consent to sin71 no reason excuses an act even of a non-sexual kind1 such as horseback riding4 ,but if the act is necessary1 the danger must be made remote by the use of special means1 such as prayer1 firm resolves1 etc4 7see #bdig sqq474 7b7 ,if there is proximate danger of material pollution1 a grave reason suffices 7e4g41 the care of patients by physicians and nurses1 assistance of bathers by attendants1 warm soporific drinks taken for the sake of sleep74 7c7 ,if there is remote danger of material pollution1 a serious reason suffices 7e4g41 customary salutations of the country1 physical exercises1 moderate comfort in posture1 seasoning in food474 ,a slight reason may excuse at times from mortal sin 7e4g41 unnecessary curiosity about the sciences of anatomy or sexology74 #beci4 ,the ,theological ,malice of ,sinful ,pollution4--7a7 ,from its nature pollution is a mortal sin1 because it is an act of impurity 7#adid7 and a perversion of nature 7#becd74 ,moreover1 its consequences are most injurious to society 7it tends to self-indulgence and the avoidance of the burdens of marriage7 and to the individual 7when habitual1 it weakens mental and will power and often brings on a breakdown of bodily vigor especially among young people71 ,in ,scripture it is represented as gravely illicit 7,i ,cor41 vi4 #aj2 ,gal41 v4 #ai2 ,eph41 v4 #c74 ,hence1 pollution is always a mortal sin when directly willed 7e4g41 when practised deliberately in order to be rid of a temptation or of bodily irritation or itch certainly due to superfluity of semen or to passion71 and also when indirectly willed if there is proximate danger of consent to sin 7e4g41 when one who has always committed formal pollution in certain company goes into that company without necessity1 or without use of means to prevent a fall7 or grave danger of pollution and no sufficient reason for permitting it 7e4g41 undue familiarities from which nocturnal pollution is foreseen as most probable74 7b7 ,from the imperfection of the internal act1 pollution is sometimes only a venial sin4 ,this happens in case of invincible ignorance 7e4g41 young children who do not understand the evil of masturbation1 students who have been taught by instructors or physical directors that it is necessary for health or that it is unsanitary but not sinful71 or of incomplete consent 7e4g41 when the person is only half awake and does not ordinarily desire pollution1 when he is a psychopathic and not fully responsible for his acts74 7c7 ,from the lightness of the matter pollution is venial when willed indirectly and permitted without sufficient reason1 if there is only slight danger of it from the nature of the action performed 7see #bdif74 ,examples are the reading for pastime of love stories before falling asleep with the prevision that this may possibly bring on pollution during sleep4 #bedj4 ,if the action productive of pollution is gravely illicit1 as being seriously opposed to chastity 7e4g41 lewdness7 or to some other virtue 7e4g41 extreme intemperance in drugs or alcohol71 is one thereby guilty of the grave sin of pollution8 7a7 ,if the case be considered in the abstract1 the answer is in the negative4 ,for if the action in question is only remotely dangerous as regards pollution 7e4g41 an action of a non-venereal kind such as intemperance does not necessarily tend to impurity1 an act of a venereal kind that is momentary1 such as a desire1 does not strongly affect the passions71 the sin is only venial in so far as pollution is concerned 7see #beag1 #beah74 7b7 ,if the case be considered in the concrete1 the answer is in the affirmative as a rule when there is question of a habit4 ,for generally those who act habitually in this way yield consent to the pollution as well as to the sin that precedes4 ,authorities note1 however1 that he who repents of the cause of pollution before the pollution results is not guilty of the actual pollution4 #beda4 ,the ,moral ,species of ,sinful ,pollution4--7a7 ,the general species of pollution is distinct from other consummated sins of impurity1 since it is unnatural1 and this in a special way 7see #becd1 and ,denzinger1 n4 #aabd71 ,but some authors regard equivalent pollution 7see #bdic1 #bece7 as not a consummated sin1 since it is without true semination1 and hence according to them it may be confessed simply as impure pleasure 7see #beai b74 7b7 ,the particular species of pollution is derived from circumstances that give it a new essential malice4 ,if it is solitary1 and committed by one who is under no bond of marriage or vow1 and accompanied by no thought or desire except in reference to self or self-gratification 7autoerotism1 narcissism71 there is the single sin of pollution4 ,but there are other sins if it is committed by one under special obligation 7i4e41 adultery or sacrilege71 or if committed with another person 7e4g41 seduction1 cooperation1 rape71 or if committed with impure thoughts or desires about others 7e4g41 mental adultery1 fornication1 sodomy1 bestiality74 ,the manner in which pollution is performed 7e4g41 whether cooperative pollution is active or passive1 by irrumation or concubitus or touch1 with or without an instrument7 is per se an accidental circumstance4 ,according to some authors1 cooperative pollution brought on by touch alone is not diversified in species1 if there is no special affection for the other person1 but only the desire of carnal gratification1 and hence it may be declared simply as pollution from touch4 #bedb4 ,penalties for ,immorality ,decreed in ,canons #bceg-bcei4--7;a7 ,laymen who are guilty of certain offenses against the sixth commandment become infamous on conviction and are excluded from legitimate ecclesiastical acts4 ,in case of adultery1 the injured spouse may obtain a separation1 temporary or perpetual1 from the offending spouse 7,canon #aabi74 7b7 ,clerics in minor orders are subject to special punishments1 and may even be dismissed from the clerical state4 7c7 ,clerics in major orders are subject to penalties named in law 7e4g41 suspension1 infamy1 deposition7 for graver crimes such as concubinage1 adultery1 and to penalties decreed by the lawful superior for other delinquencies4 #bedc4 ,the ,potential ,parts of ,temperance4--,the appetites of pleasure are the most difficult to restrain1 and there is need of a perfect virtue like temperance to rule over them and keep them within the bounds of reason4 ,the analogous or potential virtues of temperance are that one which is able to check1 though it does not tame1 the animal appetites 7continency71 and those that preside and rule over the less violent appetites for vengeance1 exercise of authority1 superior excellence1 knowledge1 amusement and display 7meekness1 etc474 ,see above1 #bdfe c4 #bedd4 ,continence4--7a7 ,its ,nature4--,this quality1 as here taken1 is the state of one who has not gained mastery over the passions sufficient to keep down strong1 frequent and persistent rebellions1 but whose will is firmly disposed to resist their attacks4 ,it is less than a moral virtue1 then1 since it does not tranquillize the lower appetites4 ,the temperate man has already subdued his passions1 and hence he is less disturbed by them1 or at least he has less trouble in rejecting their onsets4 7b7 ,its ,relation to ,temperance4--,greater difficulty increases merit1 if it is due to the presence of a corporal or external impediment 7e4g41 a man of sickly constitution or one who suffers great opposition deserves more credit for his work than a man of vigorous constitution or one who enjoys great favors and opportunities72 not1 however1 if it is due to the absence of a spiritual excellence 7e4g41 a man who finds work hard because he is lazy does not deserve more credit than another who finds it easy because he is industrious74 ,hence1 temperance is more deserving than continence1 for it controls passion with greater ease simply because it has subjected not only the higher but also the lower appetite to the dictates of reason4 7c7 ,its ,opposite4--,the vice opposed to continence is incontinence1 which does not follow the dictate of reason to resist the onslaughts of passion2 it sees and approves the higher things1 but it follows the lower4 ,this sin is less grievous than intemperance1 just as a passing indisposition is less harmful than a settled malady4 ,for passion comes and goes1 and the incontinent man quickly regrets his weakness2 but a sinful habit of gluttony or impurity is permanent1 and is so like a second nature that its votaries rejoice when they have satisfied their desires 7,prov41 ii4 #ad74 ,incontinence in pleasure is more disgraceful than incontinence in anger1 for anger is less distant from reason2 but on the other hand the irascible man usually sins more grievously by the greater harm he does to others4 ,it is more difficult to contain oneself from wrath than from intemperance in the sense that wrath storms the soul by a more vehement and compelling attack2 yet1 it is harder to be unconquered by pleasure1 because it lays persistent siege to the soul and demands a more unwearied vigilance4 #bede4 ,meekness4--,meekness or mildness is the virtue that moderates anger4 7a7 ,it is a virtue1 since it consists in moderation according to right reason4 ,our ,lord proclaims it blessed 7,matt41 v4 #d74 and ,st4 ,paul numbers it among the ,fruits of the ,spirit 7,gal41 v4 #bc74 ,illustrious models of mildness are ,joseph 7,gen41 l4 #bj71 ,moses 7,num41 xii4 #c71 ,david 7,i ,kings1 xxiv71 ,christ 7,luke1 xv2 ,john1 i4 #bi1 viii4 #aa71 ,st4 ,paul 7,acts1 xx4 #ca74 7b7 ,its office is moderation1 and hence in its manner1 though not in its matter1 it is like temperance4 ,it follows the middle way between the extremes of sinful indignation and sinful indulgence4 7c7 ,its matter is the passion of anger1 that is1 the sensitive appetite that inclines one to avenge an evil by punishing its author4 ,like other passions 7#aba71 anger is indifferent in itself1 but it is made good or evil by its reasonableness or unreasonableness4 ,the meek man is angry at times1 but only when and where and as he should be 7,ps4 iv4 #e72 his anger is not a blind impulse1 but a righteous zeal that attacks a wrong only after reason has shown that this is the proper course4 #bedf4 ,anger4--,anger is sinful when it deviates from reason1 as to its matter or its manner4 7a7 ,thus1 it is unreasonable as to its matter 7i4e41 its vengeance7 when it punishes unjustifiably 7e4g41 when the person punished is innocent1 when the penalty is excessive1 when the legal order is not followed1 when the motive is not justice or correction1 but hatred1 etc74 7b7 ,it is unreasonable as to its manner 7i4e41 the degree of excitement felt or shown7 when temper goes beyond measure4 ,great anger is not sinful when a great evil calls for it 7e4g41 the anger of ,our ,lord against the money-changers in ,john1 vi4 #ad sqq42 that of ,mathathias against the idolatrous ,jew in ,i ,mach41 ii4 #bd72 but to fly into a rage at nothings or trifles is sinful4 #bedg4 ,gravity of the ,sin of ,anger4--7a7 ,if anger is sinful on account of its matter1 it is mortal from its nature as being opposed to charity and justice4 ,he that is angry against his brother is worthy of hell fire 7,matt41 v4 #ba1 #bb74 ,it may be venial1 however1 on account of imperfection of the act 7e4g41 the sudden impulse to strike down those who do not agree with one's opinions7 or the lightness of the matter 7e4g41 a slap or push or box on the ears given a naughty child when a word of reproof would have sufficed74 7b7 ,if anger is sinful on account of its manner1 it is venial from its nature2 for excess in an otherwise indifferent passion is not a serious disorder 7see #bdej74 ,but the sin may be mortal by reason of circumstances1 as when an angry person acts like a wild man1 curses and swears1 breaks the furniture1 gives serious scandal on account of his position1 or the time or place1 or injures his health by the violence of his paroxysm4 #bedh4 ,is ,anger a ,graver ,sin than ,hatred and ,envy8--7a7 ,as to its matter1 anger is less grave than hatred and envy1 for it pursues evil under the guise of spiritual good1 pretending at least that the harm it intends is just1 whereas hatred and envy pursue evil precisely as it is injurious to another1 or as it is a means to one's own temporal and external good or glory4 ,likewise1 anger is less grave objectively than concupiscence1 for the voluptuous man aims at utility or pleasure1 whereas the revengeful man aims at what he makes believe is just4 7b7 ,as to its manner1 anger surpasses the vices mentioned in certain of its violent manifestations4 ,the infuriated man1 when crossed1 creates a scene and makes a fool of himself2 his blood boils1 his face is flushed1 his eyes dart fire1 he froths at the mouth and trembles1 he pounds1 stamps and bellows like an enraged bull4 #bedi4 ,anger as ,one of the ,seven ,capital ,vices4--7a7 ,it has a certain preeminence in evil4 ,its matter is quite attractive1 for revenge is sweet and the cloak of just retaliation makes it seem good2 its manner is powerful1 for it drives one on to dare even the most shocking crimes4 7b7 ,it is the spring of many sins4 ,in the heart anger produces indignation against the object of displeasure1 whom the angry man looks upon as base and unworthy1 and soreness about the treatment of self1 which fills the mind with plans of revenge4 ,sins of the mouth due to anger are incoherent cries of rage1 words of contumely and blasphemy 7,matt41 v4 #bb71 while its sinful deeds include quarrels and every kind of injury4 #beej4 ,sinful ,indulgence4--,sinful indulgence1 which is opposed to meekness by excess1 is often a mortal sin on account of the grave harm it inflicts upon the common welfare and the protection it affords to crime4 ,thus1 ,heli was seriously reproved and punished because he winked at grave disorders1 or at least was too easy-going in his corrections 7,i ,kings1 ii1 iii74 #beea4 ,clemency4--,clemency is a virtue that inclines one1 from a spirit of kindness and moderation1 to be as easy in inflicting punishments as the claims of justice will allow4 7a7 ,clemency is a virtue1 because it is reasonable1 does good to others1 and makes the doer good4 ,it is beneficial to public as well as private interest3 8,mercy and truth preserve the king1 and his throne is strengthened by clemency0 7,prov41 xx4 #bh74 7b7 ,it inclines one to be easy1 that is1 to temper or relax the severity of the law4 ,thus1 it differs from the virtues of legal justice and of charitable forgiveness1 the former of which1 when necessary1 insists on the full rigor of the law 7see #bcha sqq471 whereas the latter1 when permissible1 grants an enemy a full pardon 7see #aaih74 7c7 ,its matter is punishment1 that is1 the external evil of chastisement visited on wrongdoers4 ,hence1 it differs from meekness1 which deals with the internal emotion of anger1 and from mercy1 which deals with external goods bestowed upon the suffering4 7d7 ,it is easy only in so far as the claims of justice will allow2 that is1 it acts from a sense of responsibility to the rights and claims of the common good and of all the interests involved1 and decides according to an impartial and enlightened judgment that circumstances of person1 deed1 cause1 etc41 call for a departure from the strict requirements of law or custom4 ,clemency is not the same thing1 then1 as arbitrary laxity or sentimentalism4 7e7 ,it is moved in the first place by kindness to the offender1 and thus it differs both from the virtue of equity 7which acts from the sense of higher justice7 and from the vices of favoritism1 extortion1 and cowardice 7which extend forbearance only to friends or to those who offer bribes or who bring pressure to bear74 7f7 ,it is moved secondly by a spirit of moderation4 ,many persons are spoiled by authority3 feeling their own importance1 they desire to exercise their powers to the limit and to keep others down as much as possible4 ,the clement man1 on the contrary1 keeps his poise and uses his authority with moderation4 ,meekness should be practised by all1 but clemency is the proper virtue of superiors4 #beeb4 ,the ,vices ,opposed to ,clemency4--7a7 ,the extreme of defect is cruelty1 which is a hardness of heart1 not moved by the sufferings of others1 that disposes one to inflict excessive punishments4 ,the worst form of cruelty is savagery1 which takes inhuman delight in the sufferings of others and inflicts pain without regard for guilt or innocence4 7b7 ,the extreme of excess is undue leniency1 which spares the rod when it should be used4 ,there are times when severity is necessary1 as when a crime was malicious and cold-blooded1 when an offender is stubborn and irreformable1 and when mildness will harm the public welfare or invite the sinner to repeat his offense4 ,in such cases it would be unwise and harmful to mitigate the sentence which wise statutes or customs provide for the offense4 #beec4 ,humility4--,humility is the virtue that makes one modest in the desire of greatness4 7a7 ,it is a virtue1 that is1 a moral excellence and a voluntary disposition4 ,hence1 it is not the same as physical humility 7e4g41 the humble or lowly circumstances in which a person was born7 or as involuntary humility 7e4g41 the humiliation which comes upon those who exalt themselves74 7b7 ,it is concerned with greatness1 that is1 with the higher things that pertain to greatness of soul 7see #bddh sqq474 ,there is no opposition between these two virtues1 for greatness of soul makes one set such a value upon the gifts one has received from ,god as to aspire to the betterment for which they prepare one1 while humility makes one realize one's own shortcomings so sincerely that it keeps one from the desire of those excellences for which one is unsuited4 7c7 ,it is modest2 that is1 it regulates according to the standard of reason the passion for greatness1 so that one may avoid the extremes of pride and of abjectness or littleness of soul 7see #bdfe c74 #beed4 ,the ,three ,acts of ,humility4--7a7 ,its regulatory act is in the intellect1 and consists in the knowledge and acknowledgment of one's infirmity and inferiority1 not only in comparison with ,god1 but also in comparison with men4 7b7 ,its essential act is in the appetite and consists in a regulation of the hope for greatness so that1 recognizing one's limitations1 one does not strive for that for which one is unfitted4 ,higher degrees of humility are those which do not desire honor1 or which are pained by it1 or which desire dishonor4 7c7 ,its expressive act is in the external conduct4 ,st4 ,benedict says that the humble person avoids singularity in deed1 is sparing in his words and not given to loudness1 and bears himself modestly1 not staring about or laughing immoderately4 ,but there is also a false humility1 which is only in externals1 and this is really proud hypocrisy 7,ecclus41 xix4 #bc74 #beee4 ,two ,requirements of ,humility4--,humility is chiefly an abasement of self before ,god 7,gen41 xviii4 #bg71 and it is not opposed to truth or to good order4 ,hence1 the two following rules on the lowering of self before fellow-creatures3 7a7 in the internal act1 humility requires that each one acknowledge his neighbor as his better1 if comparison is made between what the former has from himself and what the latter has from ,god 7,phil41 ii4 #c2 ,osee1 xiii4 #i74 ,but it is not against humility to believe that one has more of divine grace or less of human imperfection than another1 if there are good reasons for the belief 7,eph41 iii4 #e2 ,gal41 ii4 #ae72 7b7 in the external act1 humility requires that one show proper signs of respect to one's betters4 ,but of persons who are in authority ,st4 ,augustine says that1 while before ,god they should prostrate themselves at the feet of all1 before man they should not so demean themselves to inferiors as to detract from their dignity or authority4 ,like the other virtues1 humility must be guided in its manifestations by prudence as to place1 time1 and other circumstances4 #beef4 ,the ,excellence of ,humility4--7a7 ,humility is inferior to the theological virtues1 which tend immediately to the end itself1 and also to the intellectual virtues and legal justice1 which rightly dispose mind and will about the means to that end4 ,humility and the remaining virtues incline one to follow the direction of mind and will1 but with this difference that1 while humility makes one ready for submission in all that is right1 temperance1 fortitude and the rest prepare one for submission only in some one or other particular matter4 ,to these latter virtues1 then1 humility is superior4 7b7 ,humility is the groundwork of the spiritual edifice negatively or indirectly2 for1 since ,god resists the proud and gives grace to the humble 7,james1 iv4 #f71 the obstacles to the other virtues are removed by humility4 ,but it is faith which positively and directly places the cornerstone of the spiritual life1 for faith is the first approach towards ,god3 8,he who would come to ,god must believe0 7,heb41 xi4 #f74 #beeg4 ,pride4--,pride is an inordinate desire of one's own personal excellence4 7a7 ,it is a desire1 for the object of pride is that which is pleasing and yet not easy of attainment4 7b7 ,the desire is concerned with excellence1 that is1 with a high degree of some perfection 7such as virtue1 knowledge1 beauty1 fame1 honor7 or with superiority to others in perfection4 7c7 ,the excellence sought is personal2 that is1 the object of pride is self as exalted on high or raised above others4 ,ambition seeks greatness in honors and dignities1 presumption greatness in accomplishment1 and vanity greatness in reputation and glory2 pride1 from which these other vices spring1 seeks the greatness of the ego or of those things with which the ego is identified1 such as one's own children1 one's own family1 or one's own race4 7d7 ,the desire is inordinate1 either as to the matter1 when one desires an excellence or superiority of which one is unworthy 7e4g41 equality with ,our ,lord71 or as to the manner1 when one expressly desires to have excellence or superiority without due subjection 7e4g41 to possess one's virtue without dependence on ,god or from one's own unaided merits74 ,in the former case pride is opposed to greatness of soul1 in the latter case to humility4 ,the contempt which is proper to pride is a disdain for subjection1 and the contempt which belongs to disobedience is a disgust for a precept2 but pride naturally leads to contempt for law and for ,god and the neighbor 7see #bcfg74 #beeh4 ,the ,acts of ,pride4--7a7 ,in his intellect1 the proud man has an exaggerated opinion of his own worth1 and this causes his inordinate desire of praise and exaltation4 ,but pride may also be the cause of conceited ideas1 for those who are too much in admiration of themselves often come to think that they are really as great as they wish to be4 7b7 ,the will of the proud man worships his own greatness1 and longs for its recognition and glorification by others4 7c7 ,in his external words and works1 the proud man betrays himself by boasting1 self-glorification1 self-justification1 by his haughty appearance and gestures and luxurious style1 by arrogance1 insolence1 perfidy1 disregard of the rights and feelings of others1 etc4 #beei4 ,the ,sinfulness of ,pride4--7a7 ,complete pride1 which turns away from ,god because it considers subjection detrimental to one's own excellence1 is a mortal sin from its nature1 since it is a manifest rebellion against the ,supreme ,being 7,ecclus41 x4 #ad74 ,such was the pride of ,lucifer1 but it is rare in human beings4 ,complete pride may be venial from the imperfection of the act1 when it is only a semideliberate wish4 7b7 ,incomplete pride1 which turns inordinately to the love of created excellence but without disaffection to superiors1 is in itself a venial sin1 for there is no serious disorder in the excess of an otherwise indifferent passion4 ,but circumstances may make this pride mortal 7e4g41 when it is productive of serious harm to others74 #befj4 ,pride ,compared with ,other ,sins4--7a7 ,gravity4--,complete pride is less than hatred of ,god1 for the former has as its object personal excellence1 the latter separation from ,god4 ,but after hatred of ,god complete pride is worse disloyalty than any other mortal sin2 it separates from ,god directly1 since it abjures allegiance to the ,supreme ,being1 while other sins separate from ,god only indirectly1 since they offend1 not from contempt1 but from ignorance1 or passion or excessive desire4 7b7 ,origin4--,pride was the first sin1 because by it the angels and our first parents fell1 the angels desiring likeness to ,god in beatitude1 ,adam and ,eve likeness in knowledge 7,ecclus41 x4 #ae2 ,prov41 xviii4 #aa2 ,tob41 iv4 #ad74 7c7 ,influence4--,pride is called the queen and mother of the seven capital vices--namely1 vainglory 7#bdej71 gluttony 7#bdgc71 lust 7#bdid71 avarice 7#bdbf71 sloth 7#acbb71 envy 7#acdb71 and anger 7#bedi7--not in the sense that every sin is the result of pride 7for many persons sin from ignorance1 passion1 etc471 but in the sense that the inordinate desire of personal excellence is a motive that can impel one to any kind of sin1 just as covetousness offers a means that is useful for every temporal end 7,i ,tim41 vi4 #aj74 ,pride is also most dangerous1 since it steals away the reward of virtue itself 7,matt41 vi4 #b72 and1 as humility is the first step towards heaven1 pride is the first step towards hell4 #befa4 ,abjection4--,the other extreme of pride is abjection4 7a7 ,as a turning away from these higher things to which one should aspire1 this sin is the same as littleness of soul1 and it is opposed to greatness of soul 7see #bdea74 7b7 ,as a turning to lower things or to a submission to others which is unreasonable1 this vice is directly opposed to humility4 ,examples are persons of knowledge who waste their time on menial labor when they should be more usefully employed in other pursuits1 or who permit themselves to be corrected and guided by the errors and false principles of the ignorant4 #befb4 ,studiousness4--,studiousness 7studiositas7 is the virtue that makes one modest in the desire of knowledge4 7a7 ,its object is the desire of knowledge2 for man is gifted with powers of sensation and understanding1 and nature inclines him to desire the exercise of these powers to see1 hear1 picture1 apprehend1 judge1 reason1 etc4 7b7 ,its function is to make one modest in this desire 7see #bdfe c72 that is1 it regulates the inclination of nature according to reason1 so that one may avoid both excess and defect in the pursuit of knowledge4 ,on the one hand1 the soul has the urge to discover and learn1 but just as bodily hunger leads to gluttony1 if not restrained1 so does mental hunger become a vice 7curiosity71 if it is not moderated4 ,on the other hand1 the body has a disinclination for the labor1 weariness and hardship which study demands1 and1 if this reluctance is not overcome1 one becomes guilty of the sin of negligence or ignorance 7see #ijd1 #acbf1 #afga74 7c7 ,its character1 therefore1 is that of a virtue1 since it holds a natural appetite within moderation1 avoiding the extremes of excess and defect1 and keeping custody over senses and mind4 ,this virtue is praised in ,prov41 xxvii4 #aa3 8,study wisdom1 my son1 and make my heart joyful02 and in ,i ,tim41 iv4 #ac3 8,attend to reading40 ,essentially1 it is a potential part of temperance1 for its chief characteristic is moderation of an eager desire2 but secondarily1 it belongs to fortitude1 for great courage1 persistence1 and self-sacrifice are necessary for a student4 #befc4 ,the ,vices ,opposed to ,studiousness4--7a7 ,the vice of excess is called curiosity4 ,it is a desire of knowledge that is inordinate on account of the motive 7e4g41 when one is curious about the doings of others because one wishes to injure them1 when one gazes about to satisfy impure desire7 or on account of its circumstances 7e4g41 a curiosity about the latest news or rumors that keeps one from duty or more important matters1 a curiosity that consults fortune-tellers1 a curiosity that tries to peer into the inscrutable mysteries of ,god1 ,ecclus41 iii4 #bb74 7b7 ,the vice opposed to studiousness by defect is negligence1 which is a voluntary omission of study of those matters one is bound to know1 as when a schoolboy wastes his time in play and idleness4 ,curiosity and negligence are usually found in the same person 7e4g41 those who pry into the affairs of others without reason1 do not1 as a rule1 mind their own business well74 #befd4 ,the ,malice of the ,sins against ,studiousness4--7a7 ,curiosity in itself is venial1 for it does not seem a serious offense to busy oneself with things superfluous4 ,but circumstances sometimes make it mortal4 ,thus1 the subject-matter may make it serious1 as when one is curious about obscene books1 or has a prurient desire to gaze on unbecoming pictures or plays1 or tries to fish out of others sacramental or other confidential secrets2 or the purpose may make it serious as when one is inquisitive or spying because one wishes to blacken a neighbor 7,prov41 xxiv4 #ae71 or the means may make it mortal as when recourse is had to calumny1 fraud1 reading private papers1 etc41 in order to get information4 7b7 ,negligence is mortal or venial according to the gravity of the duty of knowledge4 ,thus1 if a lawyer gave no study at all to a case and thereby inflicted a grave loss on his client1 the negligence would be a mortal sin4 #befe4 ,modesty4--,modesty should control not only the internal passions for excellence and learning1 but also the external movements of the body 7modesty of bearing7 and the external use of corporal things 7modesty of living74 7a7 ,thus1 modesty of bearing moderates the bodily actions1 both in serious things 7modest behavior7 and in things playful 7modest relaxation74 7b7 ,modesty of living makes one temperate in the use of the externals that serve life 7modesty in style7 and of the clothing one wears 7modesty in dress74 #beff4 ,modest ,behavior or ,decorum4--7a7 ,the ,virtue4--,the movements and gestures of the body should be regulated by reason1 both because they are indications of one's own character and disposition1 and because they express one's disposition towards those with whom one lives4 ,hence1 they are not a matter of indifference1 but reason demands that they be suitable both to oneself 7i4e41 to one's sex1 age1 position1 etc47 and to one's neighbor 7i4e41 to the requirements of good social usage in each business or affair of life74 ,thus1 virtuous decorum employs both sincerity1 which makes one honestly respectful in act 7#bdjc71 and affability1 which makes one agreeable in the company of others 7#bdba74 ,that this is an important virtue for individuals and society is declared both by sacred and human authority4 ,ecclesiasticus 7xix4 #bf1 #bg7 calls attention to the importance for himself of a man's looks1 laughter and gait2 ,st4 ,augustine says that there should be nothing offensive to others in one's movements2 and ,aristotle mentions among the qualities of the high-minded man that he is sedate and dignified in demeanor4 7b7 ,the ,opposite ,vices4--,modest behavior is offended by various vices of excess and defect4 ,thus1 sincerity is offended by bluntness and affectation1 self-respect by stiffness and servility1 and consideration for others by flattery and rudeness4 #befg4 ,modest ,relaxation4--7a7 ,the ,virtue4--,just as the body fatigued by manual labor demands the refreshment of sleep and the recuperation afforded by vacations or by intermissions of work1 so also the mind cannot be healthy or active unless from time to time it is relieved by some kind of amusement or diversion4 ,the desire for recreation is1 therefore1 one of the chief inclinations of man1 and there is special need of its temperate management by right reason4 ,the person who prudently provides for pastimes and pleasures as a part of his life has the virtue which ,aristotle called eutrapelia 7good wit1 urbanity71 and which ,st4 ,thomas named gaiety or pleasantness4 7b7 ,the ,sin of ,excess4--,relaxation is excessive in various ways4 ,sometimes the entertainment itself is improper 7e4g41 obscene comedies1 scandalous dances1 unjust games of chance74 ,sometimes the disposition of the person himself is sinful 7e4g41 those who make recreation the chief occupation of life1 ,wis41 xv4 #ab2 those who recreate only for pleasure1 or who enjoy themselves uproariously74 ,sometimes the circumstances make an amusement unsuitable1 such as the person 7e4g41 when a man of dignity belittles himself by acting as clown1 when a female takes part in sports unsuited to her sex71 or the time 7e4g41 when the hours that should be given to divine services1 or to study or other ,work1 are spent in golfing or fishing2 when ,good ,friday or a day of bereavement or penance is chosen for a ball or picnic71 or the place 7eg1 when a church is used for sports or farces71 or the quality 7e4g41 when the ,scriptures or other sacred things are caricatured or parodied71 or the quantity 7e4g41 when one spends so much on theatres1 automobiles1 trips and other enjoyments that one has nothing left for duties of justice1 charity or religion2 when health is injured by violent games74 7b7 ,the ,sin of ,defect4--,those persons offend here who deprive themselves of necessary relaxation 7e4g41 misers who fear to take a holiday or go on an outing lest they lose some money71 or who interfere with the recreation of others 7e4g41 killjoys who wish to see others miserable1 fanatics who believe that all fun is of the devil74 ,those who have little sense of humor or who suffer much may be excused to some extent if they never laugh1 but at least they should try to look pleasant at times1 or at least not frown on innocent happiness4 #befh4 ,gravity of the ,sins ,opposed to ,moderate ,enjoyment4--7a7 ,the ,absolute ,gravity4--,the sins just mentioned are mortal or venial according to the character of what is done and the circumstances4 ,thus1 it is a mortal sin to find recreation in wild revelry and debauchery1 or to drive one's children to the devil by forbidding them necessary diversion2 it is a venial sin to spend a little too much time at the card table or to work rather too hard4 7b7 ,the ,comparative ,gravity4--,it is worse to relax too much than too little1 for amusement is not taken for its own sake1 but is subordinated to serious things4 ,just as it is more senseless to take too much salt or other relish in food than to take too little1 because the salt is secondary1 so it is more foolish to play too much than too little4 #befi4 ,modesty in ,style of ,living and ,dress4-7a7 ,the ,virtue4--,external goods1 such as dwellings and clothing1 are necessary for body and soul1 as a protection to health and decency2 others1 such as furnishings1 decorations1 ornaments1 cars1 radios1 entertainments for guests1 etc41 are useful for convenience1 beauty and the maintenance of one's station4 ,but one may be immoderate in the use of these goods1 and hence there is need of a virtue to regulate their use1 so that it may truthfully be in keeping with one's position and be not offensive to others4 7b7 ,the ,sin of ,excess4--,this is committed when one's style is extravagant according to the standards of the community1 or when like ,dives1 clothed in purple and fine linen1 one aims only at display or sensual gratification1 or when one is too much preoccupied with externals 7e4g41 when too much time is spent before the mirror or too much money at the dressmaker's74 ,dignitaries and the ministers of the altar are not guilty of excess in the pomp and splendor which the ,church sanctions1 since the honor is intended for their station and the divine worship they perform4 7c7 ,the ,sin of ,defect4--,this is committed when one's mode of life is not up to the reasonable standard of one's community1 especially if this is due to negligence or itch for notoriety or disregard for decency4 ,examples are those who through carelessness go about unwashed or unshaven1 who keep their quarters in a filthy and disorderly state1 or who wear their clothing untidily2 also females who dress in male attire1 nudists who appear undressed in public places1 and cynics who scorn the conventions of refined society4 ,it is not sinful1 however1 but a virtuous act of temperance1 to wear simpler and poorer garments from the spirit of mortification and humility 7,heb41 xi4 #cg74 ,the clergy and religious1 since they should be models of the penitential spirit1 are to be praised1 therefore1 when they give an example of plainness and simplicity in personal style and dress4 #begj4 ,morality of ,self-,beautification4--,is it wrong to beautify oneself in order to improve one's looks or to win admiration8 7a7 ,in itself there is no harm1 especially for females1 in using means to improve one's looks1 such as remedies for deformities1 facial paints1 powders and cosmetics1 hair waves and dyes1 and the like4 ,but accidentally there could be sin 7e4g41 deception74 ,a poor man would be a deceiver if he lived in great style to make a woman believe he was wealthy1 and likewise a woman would be a deceiver if she used an artificial beauty to deceive a man about her age 7see #bdjd74 7b7 ,in itself also it is not sinful to desire that others approve one's appearance and dress4 ,thus1 a wife should strive to be attractive to her husband 7,i ,cor41 vii4 #cd71 and modest ornamentation may be used to win a suitor 7,i ,tim41 ii4 #i74 ,it is mortally sinful1 however1 to attire oneself with the purpose or in a manner to arouse carnal temptation or to awaken sinful desire in others--for example1 if one wishes to capture the sex love of others without marriage 7,prov41 vii4 #aj72 it is venially sinful to groom oneself well from mere vanity1 that is1 from a silly ambition to be regarded as handsome and fashionable4 ,by a ,decree of the ,sacred ,congregation of the ,council 7,january #ab1 #aicj71 parish-priests1 parents1 and teachers are admonished to oppose indecent female dress2 and it is ordered that women and girls improperly dressed shall be excluded from ,communion or even from church1 and special services and sermons on decency are prescribed for ,december #h of each year 7see #adef1 #adeg74 #bega4 ,complements of the ,virtue of ,temperance4--7a7 ,the ,gift of the ,holy ,ghost that perfects temperance is fear of the ,lord4 ,the virtue of temperance makes one abstain from unlawful pleasures because to do so is reasonable2 fear of the ,lord inclines one to the same abstinence from reverence4 ,the ,gift of ,fear looks first to the greatness of the ,heavenly ,father1 before whom the nations are as a drop in the bucket and are counted as the smallest grain of the balance and the islands as but a little dust 7,is41 xl4 #ae72 and in this respect it represses presumption and serves the virtue of hope 7see #ajda sqq474 ,but secondarily it looks to the insignificance of every delight that is apart from ,god1 and sees that these inferior joys are passing1 insipid and bitter1 like dust blown away by the wind1 like a thin froth dispersed by the storm1 like smoke scattered by the breeze 7,wis41 v4 #ae71 like a sweet poison that turns to gall and destroys 7,job1 xx4 #ab sqq472 and in this respect fear of ,god sustains temperance1 which must regulate the cravings of the flesh and lower appetites4 ,fear of ,god1 then1 makes one fly from those things which chiefly allure one to offend ,him1 and hence the ,psalmist 7,ps4 cxviii4 #abj7 prays3 8,pierce ,thou my flesh with ,thy fear40 7b7 ,the ,beatitude that corresponds to the present ,gift is the second3 8,blessed are they that mourn1 for they shall be comforted40 ,those who have the fear of ,god perceive the true nature of illicit joys and the evil end that awaits those who chase after them4 ,they prefer1 then1 to be sorrowful1 that is1 to deprive themselves of every wicked pleasure and love for the sake of the love of ,god in this life and the enjoyment of ,god in the life to come3 8,your sorrow shall be changed into joy0 7,john1 xx4 #af74 7c7 ,the fruits of fear of the ,lord are modesty1 continency and chastity4 ,like a good tree that produces a rich harvest of delightful fruits1 filial reverence for ,god brings forth acts of virtue that have in them a delicious savor more enjoyable and more lasting than the fruits of the flesh4 ,these goodly and pleasant fruits of the spirit of fear of ,god are modesty in words1 deeds and external things1 continency of the single and chastity of the married in thoughts and desires4 #begb4 ,the ,commandments of ,temperance4--7a7 ,negative ,precepts4--,in the ,decalogue the vices of intemperance that are most directly opposed to the love of ,god and the neighbor 7,i ,tim41 i4 #e7 are expressly forbidden1 namely1 adultery in act and adultery in desire4 ,elsewhere other sins are forbidden4 ,thus1 drunkenness 78,drunkards shall not possess the kingdom10 ,i ,cor41 vi4 #aj71 every kind of lust 78,the works of the flesh are fornication1 uncleanness1 immodesty1 luxury 444 those who do such things shall not obtain the kingdom10 ,gal41 v4 #ai1 #ba71 anger 78,let all bitterness and anger and indignation be put away from you10 ,eph41 iv4 #ca71 pride 78,god resisteth the proud10 ,james1 iv4 #f71 etc4 7b7 ,affirmative ,precepts4--,the positive modes of observing temperance 7i4e41 rules on fasting7 are not prescribed in the ,decalogue4 ,for the law confines itself to general principles that1 are of universal application1 whereas the manner of practising fasts and abstinences has to be suited to conditions of time and place4 ,hence1 it pertains to the ,church to settle by her legislation the details of mortification in eating and drinking1 so that they may be suited to the ever-changing conditions of human life 7#bdfi74 ,question ,,iii ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,particular ,,classes ,,of ,,men #begc4 ,the theological and moral virtues treated in the previous ,question are obligatory upon all states and conditions1 for all men have the same supernatural destiny1 and all alike are bound to govern their acts and their passions by the rule of reason4 ,but not all have the same calling or office1 or consequently the same particular ends to be striven for or the same special means to be used2 wherefore1 there are moral duties proper to particular classes and particular ways of life4 ,those special obligations1 however1 do not constitute new virtues1 but are applications of the seven general virtues to the states of man diversified in reference to the acts and habits of the soul4 ,the diversities now spoken of may be reduced to the three mentioned by ,st4 ,paul 7,i ,cor41 xii4 #d sqq471 namely1 diversities of graces 7i4e41 some are gifted to edify the ,church in marvellous ways by knowledge1 speech or miracles71 diversities of operations 7i4e41 some are called to the life of contemplation1 others to active life71 and diversities of ministries 7i4e41 there are various stations1 ranks1 occupations1 both in ecclesiastical and non-ecclesiastical life74 ,the higher graces and ways of the spiritual life of man are treated in works of ascetical and mystical theology1 and we shall confine ourselves here to two subjects3 7a7 the duties of men as members of the ,church1 that is1 the general duties of the faithful and the special duties of clerics and religious2 7b7 the duties of men as members of domestic and civil society4 ,before proceeding any further1 a word is in order regarding the role of the laity in the ,church4 8,we desire that all who claim the ,church as their mother should seriously consider that not only the sacred ministers and those who have consecrated themselves to ,god in religious life1 but the other members as well of the ,mystical ,body of ,jesus ,christ1 have the obligation of working hard and constantly for the upbuilding and increase of this ,body0 7,pius ,,xii1 ,mystici ,corporis74 ,the ,catholic layman1 long a silent partner in the ,church's apostolate1 has assumed a more active part in recent years4 ,his role1 his apostolate1 his milieu1 his special claims to divine graces1 his spiritual prerogatives--all have been made subjects of theological investigation particularly by ,european writers4 ,controversy1 uncertainty1 at times even error have characterized their efforts as they grope their way in a new area of theology4 ,their efforts ultimately will lead to the elaboration of a developed theology of the laity1 an extremely important and equally necessary body of knowledge1 for 8the laity are in the front line of the ,church's life2 through them the ,church is the vital principle of human society4 ,accordingly they especially must have an ever clearer consciousness not only of belonging to the ,church1 but of being the ,church44440 7,pius ,,xii1 ,allocution to the ,sacred ,college1 ,,aas1 #ch-adi74a #a ,to detail the advances made in this new area of theology would demand a volume for itself4 ,we shall have to be content with indicating a select bibliography of the outstanding works available4 ,francis ,m4 ,keating1 ,s4,j41 8,theology of the ,laity10 ,proceedings of the ,catholic ,theological ,society of ,america1 #aief1 pp4 #aif ff42 ,ives ,m4 ,j4 ,congar1 ,o4,p41 ,jalons pour une theologie du laicat1 7,paris1 ,cerf1 #aiec72 translated as ,lay ,people in the ,church1 7,the ,newman ,press1 ,westminster1 ,md41 #aieg72 ,g4 ,philips1 ,le role du laicat dans l',eglise1 7,casterman1 ,tournai-,paris1 #aied72 translated as ,the ,role of the ,laity in the ,church4 7,mercier1 ,cork1 #aiee72 ,karl ,rahner1 8,the ,apostolate of ,laymen10 ,theology ,digest1 7,spring #aieg71 pp4 #gc ff42 ,jacques ,leclercq1 8,can a ,layman be a ,saint80 ,theology ,digest1 7,winter #aief71 pp4 #c ff4 7,this same issue contains a select bibliography on spirituality of the laity1 p4 #h472 ,paul ,dabin1 ,s4,j41 ,le sacerdoce royal des fideles dans les livres saints1 7,blond et ,gay1 #aida72 ,le sacerdoce royal des fideles dans la tradition ancienne et moderne1 7,les ,editions ,universelles1 ,brussels1 #aiej73 ,gustave ,weigel1 ,s4,j41 8,the ,body of ,christ and the ,city of ,god10 ,social ,order1 7,vol4 #e1 #aiee1 p4 #bge ff474 ,art4 #a3 ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,members ,,of ,,the ,,church #begd4 ,the ,general ,duties of the ,faithful4--,the ,church has the power to make laws which will promote the common good of the whole body and the individual good of the members 7see #dah74 ,chief among the laws that bind the faithful in general are the six known as the ,precepts of the ,church1 namely1 the laws on the observance of ,sundays and holydays1 on fasting and abstinence1 on yearly confession1 on ,easter ,communion1 on the support of pastors1 and on marriage4 #bege4 ,the ,first ,precept of the ,church4--,this precept commands that on ,sundays and holydays of obligation ,mass be heard and servile and other like works be omitted 7,canons #abdg-abdi7 by the subjects of church laws 7#dbg sqq474 7a7 ,this precept is of natural and divine law as to its purpose and substance1 for reason teaches and the ,third ,commandment of the ,decalogue prescribes that man set aside some time for the external worship of ,god1 and avoid those things that distract him from worship 7,catechism of the ,council of ,trent1 pp4 #cif sqq174 ,hence1 even non-,catholics1 though they do not sin by missing ,mass 7#dbi1 #dcj71 are guilty of sin if they do not from time to time worship ,god externally4 7b7 ,this precept is of ecclesiastical law only as to its details 7i4e41 the time set apart and the manner of worship and sanctification decreed74 ,the ,old ,testament ,law observed the ,sabbath or last day of the ,week in memory of the creation of the ,world1 and it abstained most rigorously from work on the ,sabbath1 because there was a divine prohibition and because this rest was a figure of things to come4 ,but in the ,new ,law the ceremonial precepts of ,judaism no longer have force1 and the ,christian precepts substituted for them were not instituted by ,christ ,himself but arose from the custom of the ,church4 ,during the lifetime of the ,apostles themselves ,sunday 7or the first day of the week7 came to be venerated as the ,lord's ,day in memory of the ,resurrection1 which completed the work of ,redemption 7,acts1 ii4 #df1 iii4 #a1 v4 #ab1 xxi4 #bf72 and from early times various special holydays were appointed and made days of obligatory worship1 as had been the case with certain feasts in the ,old ,testament4 ,as early as the third and fourth centuries laws were made confirming the primitive customs of assisting at ,mass and resting on ,sundays and holydays4 #begf4 ,the ,affirmative and ,negative ,parts of the ,first ,precept4--,the first precept of the ,church has two parts1 an affirmative 7preceptive7 part which commands the hearing of ,mass1 and a negative 7prohibitive7 part which forbids the doing of servile works4 ,the law is therefore most salutary and simple1 requiring that one take part in the greatest act of worship1 the sacrifice which is a commemoration of ,christ1 and that one rest from the labors and cares of the week and be spiritually refreshed4 ,in reference to the ,mass1 the precept requires that ,mass itself be heard1 and that it be an entire ,mass and the same ,mass4 7a7 ,thus1 ,mass itself must be heard1 and hence one does not satisfy the ,sunday obligation by attending other services that precede 7e4g41 the ,asperges1 blessing of palm71 accompany 7e4g41 sermon71 or follow 7e4g41 ,vespers1 ,benediction7 the celebration of ,mass4 ,neither does this precept oblige one to attend other services on ,sunday1 although it is most suitable to do this1 also to make internal acts of faith1 hope and charity1 and to read pious books and perform works of charity1 and it is sometimes necessary as a natural obligation to attend the sermon or catechetical instruction 7see #iad sqq474 7b7 ,a whole ,mass must be heard1 that is1 all the ceremonies from the prayers at the foot of the altar until the blessing at the end1 and it is irreverent to leave church without necessity before the priest has left the altar4 ,he who can assist at only the essential and integral parts of the sacrifice 7i4e41 from the ,consecration to the ,communion71 is obliged to so much2 but he who arrives after the ,consecration and cannot hear another ,mass is not obliged according to one opinion to remain for the present ,mass1 since the ,consecration1 the essential part1 is already past4 7c7 ,the same ,mass must be heard1 and hence one cannot satisfy the obligation by hearing the first half of one ,mass being said on one altar and the second half of another ,mass being said simultaneously on another altar 7see ,denzinger1 n4 #abjc71 nor by hearing the ,consecration in one ,mass and the ,communion in a previous or subsequent ,mass1 thus dividing the sacrifice4 ,but if one may have heard from the ,consecration to the end in one ,mass1 one may hear the omitted pre-,consecration parts1 it seems1 in another ,mass that follows1 and one should do this if possible4 #begg4 ,how ,mass ,must ,be ,heard4--,in reference to the person who hears ,mass1 the positive part of the precept calls for external assistance and internal devotion4 7a7 ,thus1 the external or bodily assistance must be such that one can be said to take part in the divine worship4 ,this happens when one is physically present1 that is1 when one is in the same building or place as the celebrant and can either see or hear him1 or is morally present1 that is1 not in the same building but able to see or hear him naturally 7e4g41 by looking from the window of a neighboring house71 or is unable to see or hear him but joined with the congregation 7e4g41 those who are outside the closed doors of the church but who can follow the bells and choir to some extent1 those who are inside with the congregation but behind a pillar that shuts off the view74 ,in a field ,mass amplifiers can carry the voice far out to the edge of a vast crowd4 ,but there does not seem to be a sufficient moral presence when ,mass is 8seen0 by television or 8heard0 over the radio1 since in these cases one is not present to the consecrated species or united to the worshippers4 7b7 ,internal or mental assistance requires the actual or virtual intention of the will to perform what the ,church requires 7see #bafe71 and the attention of the mind1 external according to some1 internal according to others 7see #baff sqq474 ,thus1 he who goes to church merely to hear the music or look at the pictures does not hear ,mass for lack of intention2 he who sleeps soundly all through the service does not hear ,mass for lack of attention4 ,one who knows what is going on before him1 but whose thoughts are not on any religious matter1 complies with the precept of the ,church according to some1 but he sins by irreverence and voluntary distraction4 ,it suffices during ,mass to think either on the ,mass itself 7which is the best attention71 or to think on other pious subjects 7e4g41 to make an examination of conscience1 to say the ,rosary74 ,certain actions 7e4g41 those that are related to the ,mass1 such as ringing the bell1 taking up the collection1 playing the organ7 do not exclude external attention1 but others certainly exclude it 7e4g41 writing a letter71 and others are doubtful 7e4g41 going to ,confession74 #begh4 ,time and ,place of ,mass4--,in reference to circumstances1 the precept requires that ,mass be heard at the proper place and the proper time4 7a7 ,place4--,the precept may be complied with by attending ,mass in any ,catholic rite 7,latin1 ,greek1 etc471 and it makes no difference whether ,mass is celebrated in the open air1 in a church1 or in a public or semi-public oratory 7,canon #abdi74 ,but private chapels are for the benefit of the grantee alone4 7b7 ,time4--,the precept must be complied with on the feast itself1 that is1 during the period of twenty-four hours from midnight to midnight4 ,sunday ,mass cannot be anticipated on ,saturday or put off till ,monday4 ,likewise servile works are unlawful from midnight to midnight4 #begi4 ,servile ,works4--,the prohibitory part of the precept is concerned with servile works1 that is1 labor of a kind that tends to make one unfit for devotion or that shows disrespect for the sacredness of the day1 even though the labor be done gratis1 or for recreation1 or out of devotion4 ,hence1 the law forbids3 7a7 works given to the service of the devil1 that is1 sins that deprive one of holiness1 such as riotous recreations1 gambling1 drunkenness1 reading improper matter1 and attendance at evil movie performances4 ,but these works are opposed to the end1 not to the text1 of the law2 and hence the circumstance of time aggravates their malice but does not give them a new species 7see #bcad72 7b7 works given to the service of the body 7servile works properly so called7 or to the service of external goods 7forensic and commercial works74 ,servile works in the strict sense cause bodily fatigue and are taken up with material things1 and hence they distract the mind from religious thoughts4 ,such are manual labors 7e4g41 plowing1 digging1 housecleaning7 and mechanical or industrial labors 7e4g41 printing1 building1 plastering1 shoemaking74 ,forensic and commercial labors 7e4g41 arguing in court1 auctioneering7 are also of a very worldly kind and unsuitable for the quiet and recollection of ,sundays and holydays4 #behj4 ,the prohibitory part of the ,sunday precept does not affect works which are no impediment to devotion and which cast no dishonor on the day4 ,such are3 7a7 works devoted immediately to the service of ,god4 ,the purpose of the law is to allow leisure for these works1 and hence manifestly their performance is not forbidden4 ,such works are saying ,mass1 preaching1 administering the ,sacraments1 singing in church1 and visiting the poor and sick 7,john1 vii4 #bc2 ,matt41 xii4 #e74 ,but works that are only remotely related to divine worship 7e4g41 cleaning the church1 painting the altar1 repairing the vestments1 decorating the shrines7 should not be done on ,sunday without necessity2 7b7 works devoted to the service of the mind 7liberal works74 ,these works are of a more elevated kind1 do not require great bodily exertion1 and are not looked upon as unsuitable to the ,sabbath4 ,such are intellectual works 7e4g41 teaching1 reading1 writing1 studying71 artistic works 7e4g41 playing the organ1 singing1 drawing1 painting a picture1 embroidering71 and works of recreation 7moderate sports or diversions such as baseball1 tennis1 and chess74 #beha4 ,other ,kinds of ,works and ,sunday ,observance4--7a7 ,common works are those that stand between the liberal and the servile1 since they are exercised equally by mind and body1 such as walking1 riding1 hunting1 and fishing that is not very laborious4 ,these are lawful4 7b7 ,doubtful works are those that are now non-servile1 now servile1 according to the manner in which they are conducted1 such as the work of painters1 sculptors1 typists1 seamstresses1 and photographers4 ,thus1 it is a liberal work to paint a portrait1 a servile work to paint the walls of a house4 ,in settling the character of various kinds of work1 one must be guided by the prudent opinion of one's locality1 and in case of doubt and need must seek a dispensation4 7,for a history of the theology of servile works see ,franz ,x4 ,pettirsch1 ,s4,j41 8,a ,theology of ,sunday ,rest10 ,theology ,digest1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 no4 #b1 ,spring #aieh1 pp4 #aad ff42 for a survey of modern studies on the problem see ,proceedings of the ,catholic ,theological ,society of ,america1 #aieg74 #behb4 ,is it lawful without necessity to hire the servile work of non-,catholics on ,sunday1 if these persons are not thereby impeded from the natural duty of worshipping ,god and no scandal is given8 7a7 ,if the non-,catholics are infidels and not bound by church laws1 this is lawful4 ,the same would be true of those who lack the use of reason 7see #dbg sqq474 7b7 ,if the non-,catholics are heretics1 it is not lawful in the case given to make them work on ,sunday4 #behc4 ,obligation of ,first ,precept4--,the first precept of the ,church obliges under pain of grave sin1 because it determines a necessary act of religion 7#badh71 and experience shows that where the ,sabbath is neglected the social1 spiritual and physical interests of man are seriously harmed 7see ,denzinger1 n4 #abjb74 ,there is always hope for ,catholics who attend ,mass1 whereas those who miss ,mass soon become ,catholics only in name4 ,but since neglect of worship may be only slightly disrespectful1 and since the end of the precept may be substantially obtained without complete fulfillment1 a transgression may be only venial by reason of lightness of matter4 7a7 ,preceptive ,part4--,grave matter is a part of the ,mass that is notable on account of dignity 7i4e41 the essential and integral parts of the ,mass1 for example1 the ,consecration and ,communion71 or on account of its duration 7i4e41 a third of the whole ,mass1 e4g41 from the beginning to the ,offertory inclusively1 from the beginning to the ,gospel and from the ,communion to the end1 from the ,preface to the ,consecration1 from the ,consecration to the ,agnus ,dei1 etc474 ,hence1 he who is culpably absent or asleep during a notable part of the ,mass sins gravely1 but he who is absent or asleep during an inconsiderable part of the ,mass 7e4g41 one who arrives just at the ,offertory or who leaves after the ,communion7 sins venially1 unless he is so disposed that he does not care how much he misses4 7b7 ,prohibitive ,part4--,grave matter is labor that is notable on account of its quality 7e4g41 forensic proceedings even for a brief space on ,sunday would be a serious distraction and scandal71 or its quantity 7e4g41 two and a half hours given to very exhausting manual work1 such as digging a ditch1 three hours given to less arduous labor1 such as sowing74 ,he who commands ten laborers to work an hour each on ,sunday cooperates in ten venial sins 7see #bai71 but he may be guilty of mortal sin on account of scandal4 #behd4 ,excuses from ,observance of ,first ,precept4--,these reasons may be reduced to two classes1 namely1 external reasons 7i4e41 a dispensation or a lawful custom7 and internal reasons 7i4e41 one's own inability or necessity74 7a7 ,external ,reasons4--,dispensations may be given under certain conditions by local ,ordinaries1 by parish-priests1 and by superiors of exempt clerical institutes 7,canon #abde74 ,custom in certain places excuses from ,mass for a month women who have just given birth to a child or who have lost their husband by death1 and also--from the ,mass in which their banns are to be proclaimed--those women who are about to marry4 ,custom further permits necessary labors1 such as cooking1 ordinary housecleaning1 barbering1 the work of railroad and garage men1 etc4 7b7 ,internal ,reasons4--,impossibility or serious inconvenience excuses from hearing ,mass 7e4g41 those who have to walk an hour's journey to church or ride a two hours' journey1 regarding which1 in terms of distance travelled1 it has been suggested that the figures should be more than three miles each way if one must walk1 more than thirty miles if a car is available and the roads are good2 those who will suffer great detriment to health1 honor1 fortune1 etc41 if they go2 those who are kept away by duties of charity or employment or office that cannot be omitted74 ,necessity or duty to others permits one to work on ,sunday at least to some extent 7e4g41 those who must labor on a ,sunday in order to live1 or to keep out of serious trouble1 or to perform services or works of charity that cannot easily be done at another time74 ,to avoid self-deception the faithful should consult their pastor or other prudent person if there is doubt about the sufficiency of the excuse4 #behe4 ,though the ,church does not impose excessive ,sabbatarianism1 neither does she admit laxity in the important matter of the ,lord's ,day4 7a7 ,hence1 not every reason excuses from the church precept4 ,thus1 those are guilty who unnecessarily place themselves in the impossibility of observing the law 7e4g41 by moving to a place where there is no church1 by taking a position that requires work all ,sunday morning1 by starting on a vacation or auto trip to a churchless region71 or whose excuses are frivolous 7e4g41 those who stay away from ,mass because they dislike the priest1 or who work on ,sunday merely to keep busy74 7b7 ,reasons that excuse from part of the ecclesiastical precept do not excuse from all of it4 ,thus1 those who are unable to hear ,mass are not thereby justified in doing servile work1 those who can hear the essential part of ,mass 7,consecration and ,communion71 but not the other parts1 should hear the essential part2 those who can hear ,mass only on one ,sunday a year are not excused on that ,sunday4 7c7 ,reasons that excuse from the ecclesiastical precept do not excuse from the divine precept 7see #bege7 of worshipping ,god4 ,hence1 those who are really obliged to work every ,sunday should sanctify the ,lord's ,day by whatever private prayer or devotion they can substitute4 ,some authors very rightly believe that those who can never go to ,mass on ,sunday are held by divine law to hear ,mass on weekdays three or four times a year at least1 when this is possible 7see #badh1 #bahj74 #behf4 ,the ,second ,precept of the ,church4--,this precept commands that on all ,fridays of the year and certain other specified days 7unless they fall on a holyday outside of ,lent7 every baptized person who has completed the age of seven and has attained the use of reason shall abstain from eating flesh meat and from drinking the broth or soup made from flesh meat 7,canons #abej-abed74 7a7 ,under the name flesh are included all land and warm-blooded animals 7i4e41 mammals and birds74 ,the law does not include aquatic animals 7i4e41 fishes1 clams1 oysters and other shellfish1 lobsters1 shrimps1 crabs and other crustaceans71 nor cold-blooded animals 7i4e41 reptiles1 snails and amphibians1 such as frogs1 tortoises74 ,some authors include under aquatic animals otters1 beavers1 seals1 walruses1 loons1 and coots1 though generally the birds are regarded as flesh4 ,in doubt whether a food is fish or flesh1 it may be judged to be fish1 for in doubts laws are to be interpreted benignly4 7b7 ,under the name meat are included all the parts of an animal 7i4e41 its flesh1 blood1 marrow1 brains1 lard1 meat extracts1 mince-pie1 pepsin7 but not its fruit 7e4g41 eggs1 milk1 and things made from milk1 such as butter1 cheese74 7c7 ,under the name broth is included any liquid made from the juice of meat1 such as beef tea1 chicken broth1 mutton soup1 gravy1 etc4 ,but the law does not forbid condiments made from animal fats 7e4g41 margarin74 #behg4 ,obligation of the ,second ,precept of the ,church4--7a7 ,origin of the ,obligation4--,in substance this precept is of the natural law1 but in details 7time1 manner1 etc47 it is of ecclesiastical law 7#bdfh b7 and has come down from customs that began in the first ages of ,christianity4 ,the church regulation on abstinence is most wise and moderate3 the foods forbidden are those whose deprivation is a mortification to most persons1 and at the same time a great benefit to spiritual and bodily health2 the times appointed are few but appropriate 7viz41 days of sorrow1 special prayer1 penance1 preparation1 such as ,fridays1 ,ember ,days1 ,lent1 vigils71 and they are so distributed as to sanctify by mortification each week and each season of the year4 ,true1 no food is evil in itself 7,matt41 xv4 #aa2 ,i ,cor41 viii1 #h2 ,i ,tim41 iv4 #c2 ,col41 ii4 #af71 but just as the physician can forbid certain foods to his patient for the sake of temporal good1 so for the sake of spiritual good ,god forbade to ,adam the fruit of one tree and to the ,jews the flesh of certain animals2 and the ,church from the days of the ,apostles 7,acts1 xv4 #bi7 has exercised the same right4 7b7 ,gravity of the ,obligation4--,the abstinence required by the ,second ,precept is a grave duty1 because the ,church makes it the necessary act of the necessary virtue of abstemiousness and a serious duty of obedience4 ,but not every transgression is a serious injury to the spirit of this law1 and hence some sins against it are venial4 ,grave matter is such a quantity of forbidden food as gives considerable nourishment1 and hence for practical purposes the rule may be given that flesh meat which weighs two ounces 7or1 according to others1 what would be the size of a walnut or of a small hen's egg7 is grave matter4 ,some hold for a more liberal interpretation when the food is not strictly flesh meat1 and believe that liquid from meat is not grave matter at any time1 or at least when it weighs less than four ounces4 ,vegetables cooked or seasoned with meat or meat juice are also considered light matter4 ,he who eats meat twice on a ,friday or other abstinence day commits two sins1 just as he who works twice on a ,sunday or holyday commits two sins4 ,it is commonly held that many venial sins against abstinence committed on the same day coalesce to form grave matter1 but on account of the separation between the eatings a larger amount is necessary for grave matter4 7c7 ,exceptions to the ,obligation4--,those are not bound to observe a day of abstinence who have been exempted by indult 7,canon #abec71 who have been dispensed by the ,ordinary1 pastor or superior 7,canon #abde71 or who are excused on account of real impossibility 7e4g41 the poor1 the sick1 those obliged to perform very hard work1 those who are morally forced to eat meat but not as a sign of contempt of the law74 ,persons dispensed from abstinence may not eat meat oftener than once a day on fast days1 unless they have a special grant4 ,the faithful should be guided by the ,lenten regulations of their dioceses1 and in doubt they should consult their pastors4 #behh4 ,the ,obligation of ,fasting4--,the ,second ,precept also commands that on the weekdays of ,lent and certain other specified days 7holydays outside ,lent excepted7 every baptized person between the ages of twenty-one years completed and sixty years begun shall eat not more than one full meal a day 7,canon #abea74 7a7 ,the law speaks of eating1 that is1 of solid food1 and hence the ,lenten and other similar fasts are not broken by liquids which are beverages rather than foods1 or which are used to allay thirst1 or carry food or assist digestion1 and not chiefly to nourish 7e4g41 water1 teas1 coffee1 light cocoa1 wine1 beer1 lemonade1 fruit juice74 ,likewise1 sirups taken as medicines are not considered foods1 even though they contain nourishment1 unless one drinks a large quantity for its food content4 ,light ices may be considered drink1 but ice-cream is food4 ,on the contrary1 liquids that are chiefly nourishing are regarded as food 7e4g41 soup1 oil1 honey74 ,finally1 some liquors vary between food and drink1 according to their richness or weakness1 their great or small quantity4 ,thus1 hot chocolate as made in the ,united ,states contains only a small amount of solid and may be considered as a drink1 but as made in ,europe it is stronger and rather food than drink4 7b7 ,the law admits as an indulgence on fast days1 in addition to the one meal1 a small breakfast in the morning and a light collation to be taken either around noon 7lunch7 or in the evening 7supper74 ,the quality and quantity of these two repasts are left to local custom4 ,the ,uniform ,norm for ,fast and ,abstinence in the ,united ,states adopted by the ,hierarchy1 ,nov4 #ad1 #aiea1 establishes the following norm for these two meatless meals4 ,they are to be 8sufficient to maintain strength1 may be taken according to each one's needs2 but together they should not equal another full meal40 ,this norm1 called the relative standard1 was adopted by many ,bishops of the ,united ,states1 beginning with ,lent of #aieb4 ,thus1 the amount of food is dependent to some degree on a person's own needs and appetite4 ,the relative standard is distinguished from the absolute norm which allows about two ounces for the morning collation and eight ounces for the evening4 7c7 ,the law permits one to eat but once in the day 7exception being made for breakfast and collation71 but it places no limits as to the quality of the food at the principal meal 7unless the day be also a day of abstinence1 when meat is forbidden71 or as to its quantity1 though temperance bids one to eat at all times in moderation4 ,on fast days1 therefore1 one may not eat between meals1 nor so divide or prolong the dinner that it really becomes several meals4 ,a notable interruption 7two or three hours7 made without good reason divides a dinner into two meals1 and over two hours of uninterrupted eating1 under ordinary circumstances1 seems to be more than the one full meal which the law allows4 #behi4 ,the ,obligation of the ,precept of ,fasting4--7a7 ,origin4--,the natural law commands fasting in general1 since without some kind of austerity above common temperance certain desirable ends 7such as atonement for past transgressions1 conquest of unruly passions1 and elevation of the soul7 cannot be attained2 and as these ends are necessary it is also necessary to use the means as far as one needs them4 ,the particularization of this natural law has been made by the positive law of the ,church1 and with such wisdom as to promote the good of both soul and body4 ,the times appointed are most appropriate 7e4g41 the season when the ,passion is commemorated1 ,luke1 v4 #ce72 the duration of the long fast is modelled on that of ,christ 7,matt41 iv4 #a72 the curtailment of food required is not only beneficial 7as an exercise of self-control and a rest and change to the metabolism71 but is moderate1 since it permits sufficient food for the day1 and even in the fast of ,lent the ,sundays occur to give a respite4 7b7 ,gravity4--,the precept of fasting is grave1 both from the purpose of the law 7see #bdfi71 and from the express declaration of the lawgiver 7,denzinger1 n4 #aabc74 ,but the spirit of the precept is not notably deviated from by every transgression1 and hence even in reference to matter there are minor or venial violations2 and moreover the precept is probably 7unlike that of abstinence7 an indivisible one1 since it consists in the limitation to one meal1 and hence it cannot be violated more than once a day4 ,grave matter1 when the absolute norm is used1 seems to be about four ounces added to the collations or taken between meals1 either all at once or at different times during the day 7,denzinger1 n4#aabi71 ,but if the relative norm is used1 a greater quantity is needed to establish grave matter1 e4g41 one fourth of a full meal4 ,but he who has broken his fast 7e4g41 by a second full meal7 does not break it again by a third or fourth full meal on the same day1 for after the second full meal the fast has become impossible for that day4 ,he who accidentally takes too much at breakfast can still keep the fast by proportionately diminishing his evening repast4 7c7 ,exceptions4--,physical or moral impossibility excuses from the fast1 and gives the right to eat meat as often as moderation allows on days that are not meatless days4 ,the chief persons who labor under impossibility are those who are too weak to fast 7e4g41 the sick1 the convalescent1 pregnant and nursing mothers1 the nervous71 those who are too poor to get one square meal a day 7e4g41 street beggars who have nothing may eat as often as they are given an alms1 if it does not buy them a dinner71 and those who cannot do their necessary or customary hard work if they fast4 ,hard work is such as is exercised for many hours continuously1 or for a less time if it is very intense1 and which is greatly fatiguing to the mind 7e4g41 daily teaching1 lecturing1 studying1 hearing confessions1 preaching1 etc47 or to the body 7e4g41 heavy manual labor1 the difficult jobs in offices or stores1 work that requires one to be on one's feet for hours at a time1 necessary journeys made under hardship74 ,the confessor or physician can decide about cases of impossibility that are not manifest1 but dispensation should be had from the pastor 7,canon #abde74 ,those who are dispensed from the ecclesiastical fast or abstinence should remember that they are not dispensed from the natural law of temperance1 and they should practise some abstemiousness according to their ability 7e4g41 by self-denial in alcoholic beverages1 tobacco1 sweets1 etc41 or mortification in the quantity or quality of food74 #beij4 ,the ,third ,precept of the ,church4--,this precept commands that all the faithful1 male and female1 who have reached the age of discretion go to confession at least once a year 7,canon #ijf74 7a7 ,the subject of this precept is every baptized person who has entered the ,church through valid ,baptism and who has the use of reason1 which begins usually at the age of seven4 ,infants are incapable of committing sin1 and the unbaptized are incapable of receiving the ,sacrament of ,penance4 7b7 ,the matter of the precept is a good sacramental confession of the grave sins not yet confessed1 made with the purpose of obtaining absolution to any duly authorized priest4 ,hence1 those who have only venial sins on their conscience are not bound according to the common opinion by this precept1 and1 on the other hand1 those who make a sacrilegious or voluntarily null confession do not fulfill the law 7,denzinger1 n4 #aaad2 ,code1 ,canon #ijg74 ,it seems that one who1 after a confession of venial sins at ,easter1 falls into grave sin is not bound from this precept to confess again before the end of the year4 7c7 ,the time for fulfillment of the precept is once during the year4 ,the law leaves one free to confess on any day during the twelvemonth1 and to count the year either civilly 7i4e41 from ,january #a to ,december #ca71 or ecclesiastically 7e4g41 from ,easter time to ,easter time1 as is commonly done71 or from the date of the last confession4 ,the limit is set1 however1 not to terminate but to insist upon obligation1 and hence it seems that he who has not made his #aieg confession must make it as soon as possible in #aieh1 but the #aieg confession made in #aieh will satisfy for the #aieh obligation also 7see #dfh sqq474 #beia4 ,the ,obligation of the ,third ,precept4--7a7 ,origin4--,from divine law sacramental confession is necessary for all who have fallen into serious sin after ,baptism1 since ,christ has given ,his ,church the keys of heaven and appointed ,his bishops and priests the physicians and judges to cure and pardon 7,matt41 xviii4 #ah2 ,john1 xx4 #bc74 ,but ,our ,lord did not fix the frequency of confession1 and it is this which the present precept determines4 ,the law of annual confession goes back to the ,fourth ,lateran ,council 7#abae74 7b7 ,gravity4--,the precept of annual confession obliges under pain of mortal sin1 for its purpose is of vital importance and the ,church has always regarded it as a grave obligation4 ,the purpose of the law is to ensure the use of the ,sacrament instituted by ,christ for forgiveness and to keep sinners from delaying their repentance too long4 ,if a good business man takes stock of his assets and liabilities at least once a year1 and those who are careful of their health have medical attention or examination at least yearly1 it is most reasonable that the faithful should settle their spiritual accounts and attend to the well-being of their souls within an equal period of time4 ,in the early centuries when fervor was greater and conditions different1 no general church law on the frequency of confession was needed2 but there is no doubt that the ,lateran ,decree met well the need that began after the change from the early penitential discipline1 ,the penalties for violation of this precept were excommunication and exclusion from ecclesiastical burial1 and1 though they are not enforced today1 they show the intention of the ,church to impose a grave duty4 #beib4 ,the ,fourth ,precept of the ,church4--,this precept commands that all the faithful1 male and female1 who have attained the use of reason1 go to ,holy ,communion at least once a year1 and that during ,easter time 7,canon #hei74 7a7 ,the subjects of this precept are the same as those of the previous precept1 and consequently children of seven years or thereabout1 who are able to understand1 must make the ,easter duty4 7b7 ,the matter of the precept is a worthy ,communion 7,viaticum or ordinary ,communion7 received in any parish1 but preferably in one's own parish4 ,persons living in community 7e4g41 religious1 soldiers1 college boarders7 may make the ,easter duty in their own chapels1 strangers and vagi in any church or chapel1 and priests in the place where they say ,mass4 7c7 ,the time of the precept is the ,paschal ,season 7i4e41 from ,palm ,sunday to ,low ,sunday1 but in the ,united ,states1 by privilege1 from the ,first ,sunday of ,lent to ,trinity ,sunday74 ,the ,easter time may be prolonged for an individual by his pastor or confessor for a just reason4 ,the year within which the ,easter duty is to be made begins1 it seems1 with the opening of one ,paschal ,season and ends with the opening of the ,paschal ,season of the following calendar year4 ,since the law requires that the ,easter duty be made1 not only within the ,paschal ,season1 but also once a year1 it follows that he who neglects ,communion during the ,easter period is still bound by the law to go to ,communion before the opening of the next ,paschal ,season1 but probably he is not bound to go at the first opportunity4 ,as a rule1 we believe those who do not make their ,easter duty during a year are guilty of but one sin1 since they do not think of distinct violations4 #beic4 ,the ,obligation of the ,fourth ,precept4--7a7 ,origin4--,there is a divine precept of receiving ,communion some time during life1 since ,our ,lord willed the ,eucharist to be the necessary nourishment of the soul's journey 7,john1 vi4 #ed7 and the perpetual memorial of ,himself 7,i ,cor41 xi4 #bd74 ,the ,church in the present precept has prescribed both the frequency and the time for complying with the will of ,christ4 ,since the ,eucharist is a daily bread1 the law does not permit it to be abstained from by anyone beyond a year2 and1 since the ,paschal ,season brings the anniversary of ,christ's sacrifice and of the institution of the ,blessed ,sacrament1 it is the time most fitly chosen for the obligatory ,communion4 7b7 ,gravity4--,the precept obliges under pain of grave sin1 for it determines a law given by ,our ,lord ,himself and regulates the minimum in the use of the ,eucharist1 the greatest of the ,sacraments and the end of all the others4 ,the doctrine of theologians is that it is a grave sin to delay culpably the ,easter ,communion for even a day beyond the ,paschal ,season as prescribed4 #beid4 ,the ,fifth and ,sixth ,precepts of the ,church4--,the ,fifth ,precept commands the proper maintenance of the clergy by the laity4 ,the manner of giving the support is left to the special statutes and customs of each country 7,canons #adif1 #aejb74 ,this ecclesiastical law is but a determination of the natural law of justice and religion1 and also of the divine law2 for even in the ,old ,testament the ,levites were supported by the people4 ,the duty is1 therefore1 grave 7see #bahe sqq474 ,respect and obedience in spiritual matters are owed the clergy1 and it is sinful to usurp their functions 7see #bcea1 #bcee sqq41 and ,canons #aai1 #fhc1 #aica1 #aff74 ,the ,sixth ,precept commands the proper solemnization of marriage and prohibits the solemn blessing of marriages at stated times4 ,canon #aajh1 ,sec4#b specifies these times as 8from the first ,sunday of ,advent until the day of the ,nativity of ,our ,lord inclusive1 and from ,ash ,wednesday until ,easter ,sunday inclusive40 ,it is to be noted that the forbidden time excludes only the solemn blessing1 and even this may be permitted by the ,ordinary for just cause1 subject to liturgical laws 7,canon #aajh1 ,sec4#c74 #beie4 ,two ,other ,important ,general ,laws of the ,church4--7a7 ,the prohibition of wicked and dangerous writings 7,canons #achd sqq47 is based on the natural law1 which requires one to avoid what is proximately dangerous to faith or morals4 ,this subject is treated above in #adef1 #hdi sqq41 #aebi4 7b7 ,the prohibition of the cremation of corpses 7,canon #abjc7 is not based on natural law or on any dogma1 as though the burning of dead bodies were intrinsically evil or repugnant to our faith in immortality and resurrection4 ,on the contrary1 in exceptional cases 7e4g41 in time of war or epidemic7 cremation is permitted1 if a real public necessity requires it4 ,the reasons for the anti-cremation law are3 the tradition of the ,old and ,new ,testaments 7,gen41 iii1 #ai2 ,i ,cor41 xv4 #db71 and especially the example of ,christ whose body was consigned to the tomb2 the association of burial throughout the history of the ,church with sacred rites and the doctrine of the future life1 and the contrary association of cremation both in times past and today with paganism and despair2 the sacred dignity of the human body 7,gen41 i4 #be2 ,i ,cor41 iii4 #af1 vi4 #e71 and the feeling of affection for parents1 relatives1 friends1 which is outraged when their bodies are consigned to the furnace4 ,the practical arguments offered for cremation are chiefly hygienic and economic2 but it is certain that proper burial at sea or in the grave is no menace to public health1 and is not more expensive or difficult than cremation4 ,a most serious objection to cremation is that it makes exhumation impossible1 and is therefore a means of concealing murder by poison4 ,it is not lawful for a ,catholic to cooperate 7except materially in case of necessity7 with cremation1 or to belong to any society that promotes the incineration of corpses2 it is not lawful for a priest to give the last ,sacraments or funeral rites to those who ordered the cremation of their bodies4 #beif4 ,the ,special ,duties of ,clerics4--,from the duties of ,catholics in general we pass now to the special duties of clerics2 for the clergy1 on account of their position as the salt of the earth and the light of the world 7,matt41 v4 #af71 are bound to a greater internal and external holiness and edification than the laity4 ,the word 8cleric0 is understood in a wide or in a strict sense4 ,in the wide sense1 a cleric is any ,christian specially set apart for the service of ,god1 whether by ordination or religious profession 7e4g41 lay brothers1 nuns72 in the strict sense1 a cleric 7clergyman7 is one who has been admitted to ,orders1 or at least to their preparation through tonsure 7,canon #ajh74 7a7 ,duties ,before ,entering the ,clerical ,state4--,the person who would enter the clerical state must have a vocation and a right intention4 ,as to the latter1 since the clerical state has for its ends the glory of ,god and the salvation of souls1 it would be a serious sin to choose it principally for temporal ends1 such as wealth1 dignity or pleasure2 but it is not a sin to desire secondarily and moderately the necessary support of the clerical state 7,i ,cor41 ix1 #c74 7b7 ,duties ,after ,entering the ,clerical ,state4--,the privileges of clerics are treated in canonical works4 ,here we speak only of duties4 ,the obligations of a cleric are of two kinds--the positive1 such as celibacy1 and the negative1 such as the avoidance of unbecoming amusements or occupations4 #beig4 ,vocation to the ,clerical ,state4--7a7 ,internal ,vocation4--,no one should enter the religious or clerical state unless called thereto by ,god 7,john1 xv4 #af2 ,acts1 xiii4 #b2 ,heb41 v4 #d1 #e2 ,i ,cor41 xii4 #d sqq474 ,the foundation of the entire religious1 priestly and apostolic life1 namely divine vocation1 consists of two essential elements1 the one divine1 the other ecclesiastical4 ,as to the first element1 ,god's call to embrace the priestly or religious life must be considered so necessary that in its absence the foundation upon which the whole structure is to rest is absent 7,pius ,,xii1 ,sedes ,sapientiae74 ,the signs of a divine call do not necessarily or even ordinarily include a feeling of inspiration or invitation from the ,holy ,spirit1 but it suffices that one may have a liking1 a right intention1 and fitness 7physical1 mental1 moral7 for the life2 for1 where ,god gives a call1 ,he gives the means to fulfill the duties4 ,thus1 those who will not be able to say ,mass1 or who cannot master ,latin or theology1 or who cannot observe celibacy1 or who are vicious 7e4g41 mischief-makers1 drunkards7 or unspiritual 7e4g41 the lazy1 those who dislike exercises of piety71 do not show the signs of a priestly vocation4 7b7 ,external ,vocation4--,no one should be admitted to the religious life or to ,orders unless he has given sufficient signs of a call from ,god4 ,thus1 a ,bishop would sin most gravely and be a sharer in the sins of others if he conferred ,major ,orders on anyone about whose unworthiness he was morally certain on positive grounds 7,canon #igc72 nor may a ,religious ,superior receive to profession any novice about whom he is doubtful 7,canon #ega74 ,scarcity of vocations is no excuse for laxity1 since it is better to have a few creditable clerics than a multitude of unworthy ones 7,benedict ,,xiv74 ,what ,st4 ,paul said of deacons 78,let these first be proved1 and so let them minister1 having no crime10 ,i ,tim41 iii4 #aj71 is therefore to be applied to all candidates for the clerical life4 ,a vocation is tested by the years of probation which the church law provides for seminarians1 novices and other aspirants to the ecclesiastical state4 ,no cleric has a right to ordination before he receives the free call from a bishop1 but on the other hand it is criminal to prevent a suitable candidate from embracing the clerical state 7,canon #iga74 8,by a divine vocation to the religious and clerical state a person undertakes publicly to lead a life of holiness in the ,church1 a visible and hierarchical society1 and to exercise this hierarchical ministry4 ,such a person1 therefore1 ought to be authoritatively tested1 approved and directed by the hierarchical rulers to whom ,god has entrusted the administration of the ,church0 7,pius ,,xii1 ,sedes ,sapientiae74 #beih4 ,sinfulness of ,disregarding ,vocation4--7a7 ,he who enters the clerical state1 not knowing that he has a vocation1 is guilty of sin1 as is clear from the previous paragraph4 ,according to some1 anyone who receives ,major ,orders1 even with serious doubt about his vocation1 commits a mortal sin1 since he inflicts a serious injury on the rights of ,god1 the ,church1 himself and his neighbor4 ,according to others1 the sin is only venial when one enters the clerical state conscious of the absence of vocation1 but determined with the help of ,god to live up to all the duties2 for1 though the act is rash1 there is good will and good intention1 and grace will not be wanting4 7b7 ,he who refuses to enter the clerical state1 though knowing for certain that he has a vocation1 is also guilty of sin1 for only negligence or improper motives such as laziness1 sensuality1 or too great love of liberty can produce such reluctance4 ,the sin is grave or light according to the circumstances4 ,there is grave sin1 if the resistance to the call constitutes serious disobedience1 pride or uncharitableness 7e4g41 if there were a great scarcity of priests and the bishop commanded a worthy layman to take ,orders72 there is venial sin in other cases when the rejection is only dissent to an invitation and exposes neither self nor other to grave peril of losing salvation4 ,finally1 if the signs of vocation do not produce certainty1 there may be no sin at all1 but rather virtue1 in refusal to ascend to the clerical state1 for no one is bound to take up grave obligations when uncertain of his duties1 and many holy persons from humility or fear of unworthiness have decided1 against the advice or invitation of others1 not to become clerics4 #beii4 ,the ,positive ,duties of ,clerics4--7a7 ,duties to ,god4--,all clerics are held to frequent reception of the ,sacrament of ,penance1 to daily devotions 7i4e41 mental prayer1 visit to the ,blessed ,sacrament1 a third part of the ,rosary1 examen71 and to triennial spiritual retreats 7,canons #abe1 #abf74 ,moreover1 clerics in ,sacred ,orders1 benefice holders1 and solemnly professed religious bound to the choir are obliged to the daily recitation of the ,canonical ,hours1 each one according to his own rite and calendar 7,canons #ace1 #bac sqq41 #adge1 #faj74 ,this obligation is grave1 because its purpose is the important one of consecrating each hour of the day by the public prayer of the ,church according to the usage that goes back to the earliest centuries4 ,but the choral obligation of simply professed religious is light1 unless the choir is impossible without their presence4 7b7 ,duties to ,superiors4--,clerics are especially obliged to show respect to their ,ordinaries and to give them the obedience promised in ordination 7,canon #abg74 7c7 ,duties to the ,clerical ,state4--,clerics are required to cultivate their minds by sacred and sound studies1 and to this end examinations and conferences are also prescribed 7,canons #abi-aca72 to keep themselves pure in soul and body by the observance of celibate chastity 7,canons #acb1 #acc72 to conduct themselves in externals 7dwelling1 dress1 etc47 in a manner befitting their position 7,canons #acd1 #acf74 ,the clerical garb in this country is the cassock or habit in the house and church1 and dark clothes and the ,roman collar1 or other distinctive sign for priests and brothers elsewhere4 ,the dress of the clergy should avoid the extremes of dudishness and slovenliness 7,second ,council of ,baltimore1 #adh2 ,third ,council1 #gg74 ,the duty of wearing clerical dress at least away from home and regularly is of serious importance1 since its purpose is the honor of the clerical state and the protection of its members4 ,it is also forbidden to clerics to cultivate their hair 7e4g41 to grow long locks1 to use curling irons1 to oil or perfume their head in dandyish fashion71 since this is unbecoming in the followers of a thorn-crowned ,leader4 ,the use of the beard is a thing indifferent in itself1 and hence it is forbidden in some places 7generally in the ,latin ,church7 and required in others 7as in the ,orient71 according to tradition and local usage4 #bfjj4 ,the ,obligation of the ,divine ,office4--7a7 ,matter4--,a cleric is gravely obliged to recite the ,office according to his own rite and in the language of his rite1 and not to make any notable change in the ,office prescribed by the ,ordo1 either as to quantity 7e4g41 by omission of a ,little ,hour or of parts equally long7 or as to quality 7e4g41 by substitution of a minor office for that of one of the great solemnities47 ,the omission of the ,vespers of ,holy ,saturday1 of ,pretiosa1 or of the ,rogation ,litanies seems to be only a venial sin1 because in the first two cases the prayer is short1 while in the third case the precept seems to be sub levi4 ,there is also lightness of matter in the omission of an inconsiderable part of the day's ,office1 or in the substitution without good reason of an equal part for a prescribed part4 7b7 ,manner4--,since the ,office is a prayer1 of a public and daily kind1 it must be said3 mentally1 that is1 there must be at least virtual intention 7which is present from the fact that one takes up the ,breviary to fulfill the obligation7 and at least external attention 7see #baff sqq472 vocally1 that is1 the words must be consciously formed by the lips1 mouth1 or tongue1 but it is not necessary that they be audible1 unless two or more are saying the ,office together2 within the limits of the day1 that is1 ,matins and ,lauds may be anticipated from #b p4m4 of the previous day1 but the whole ,office must be finished before midnight of the current day4 ,these are substantial requisites and bind sub gravi1 but there may be only venial sin when they are deviated from inconsiderably4 ,next1 since the ,office has a continuity of thought1 an order of precedence among its hours and their subdivisions1 and a special dignity1 it must be said uninterruptedly 7i4e41 without break between the parts of an hour71 in order 7i4e41 according to the succession of ,matins1 ,lauds1 ,prime1 etc471 with external respect as to place and posture 7i4e41 he who is bound to choral ,office should say it in choir and with the rubrical postures1 while he who is bound only to private ,office should say it in church or some other becoming place1 and should observe the rubrical or at least a respectful posture74 ,these are accidental requisites and bind sub levi4 ,for a good reason one may interrupt the ,office even for a notable part of the day 7e4g41 one may discontinue in the midst of a ,psalm to pay a duty of politeness or to attend to business71 and for convenience one may invert the order of hours or of parts of hours1 or may say the evening hours in the morning4 #bfja4 ,excuses from the ,obligation of the ,divine ,office4--7a7 ,for ,substitution4--,a sufficient reason makes it permissible to substitute another office not notably different in quantity or quality1 as when one lacks a new office1 or has greater devotion for another office4 ,when substitution has been made unintentionally1 the following rules may be observed1 though the last two are not admitted by all3 office counts for office1 7e4g41 he who through mistake has said the office of another day may let that office stand for today's office1 but should add enough to make up for any notable shortness in the office said72 hour does not count for hour 7e4g41 he who through mistake said ,tierce twice cannot count the second ,tierce for ,sext72 an error should be corrected when noticed 7e4g41 he who notices at ,sext that he is not saying the right office should change from ,sext72 an error is not corrected by another error 7e4g41 he who said today's office yesterday should not say yesterday's office today74 7b7 ,for ,omission4--,the causes that excuse1 in whole or in part1 from recitation of the ,office are physical inability 7e4g41 loss of the breviary1 blindness of one who does not know the hours by heart1 sickness or convalescence which makes the recitation a grave hardship71 moral impossibility 7e4g41 when an urgent duty of charity or justice so takes up one's time that one cannot get in all the ,office71 just dispensation or commutation given by the ,pope or1 for temporary release1 by the ,ordinary4 #bfjb4 ,the ,precept of ,clerical ,celibacy4--7a7 ,origin4--,this law is not divine but ecclesiastical1 since it arose1 not from any command of ,christ1 but from a custom of the ,church that goes back to the first centuries4 ,nevertheless1 celibacy of the clergy is an imitation of ,christ and the ,apostles1 a following of the counsel given by the ,lord1 an honor to the sacrifice of the altar1 and an example that single chastity is possible4 ,moreover1 by means of it the priest is freed from domestic relations and better enabled to minister as the father1 pastor1 confessor and counsellor of his people4 ,the celibate is unencumbered by family responsibilities and expenses1 and is therefore better able to respond to difficult and dangerous tasks1 such as mission work in pagan lands and ministrations to the dying in fire1 wreck1 or plague1 ,the ,church does not denounce or condemn the married clergy of non-,catholic bodies2 on the contrary1 she permits to some extent a married clergy among the ,oriental ,catholics1 who for many centuries have been accustomed to a married priesthood4 ,but the law of celibacy for the ,catholic clergy has not only proved itself more suitable for their work1 but it has also justified itself by the general fidelity with which it has been observed and the attachment to it of clergy and laity alike4 7b7 ,obligation4--,the law commands chastity as a grave duty of religion 7,canon #acb72 it forbids the contract or use of marriage 7,canon #ajgb74 ,it forbids1 where there is danger to chastity or scandal1 cohabitation and companionship with women 7,canon #acc74 ,cohabitation refers to dwelling in the same house1 even though it be only during the day1 and the woman be a servant2 companionship refers to visits1 conversations1 signs of friendship1 and the like4 ,the danger to good name or virtue depends on circumstances1 such as age1 beauty1 levity1 and privacy of association2 and the law presumes that a relationship is suspicious unless a woman is a near relative by blood or by marriage 7i4e41 in the first or second degree71 or is mature in age 7about forty years old7 and proved in virtue and of good repute4 #bfjc4 ,negative ,duties of ,clerics4--,the negative duties of clerics are the avoidance of certain acts1 occupations1 or amusements forbidden as worldly1 undignified1 dangerous1 distracting or scandalous 7,i ,thess41 v4 #bb2 ,,ii ,tim41 ii4 #d74 7a7 ,forbidden ,acts4--,a cleric may not go surety without permission1 lest he or his church be involved in scandalous embarrassments 7,canon #acg72 nor engage in trade1 lest he be distracted from his spiritual duties and exposed to the danger or suspicion of injustice or greed 7,canon #adb2 for penalty attached see ,decree of the ,sacred ,congregation of the ,council1 ,,aas1 #db-cc;,d74 7b7 ,forbidden ,occupations4--,these include1 first1 employments and pursuits unbecoming to clerics 7such as those of butcher1 actor1 innkeeper72 next1 those that are incompatible with the ministry 7such as the practice for profit of the medical profession1 public magistracies1 government jobs1 civil court functions1 legislative offices1 ,canon #aci72 finally1 those that are contrary to the mildness that should distinguish clerics 7viz1 the occupation of fighting man or soldier1 ,canon #ada2 see also ,canon #ihd on executioners74 ,but exceptions may be made for a just cause4 7c7 ,forbidden ,amusements4--,clerics should not take part in undignified diversions or cruel sports1 such as the hunting of big game with great uproar of dogs and guns 7,canon #ach7 or in gambling1 and they should not enter saloons or similar places 7,canon #ach74 ,clerics are also forbidden to assist at unbecoming shows1 performances1 dances1 or at any theatrical entertainment where their presence gives scandal 7,canon #adj74 ,to gamble much 7say1 several times a week and for a considerable time at each game7 is considered a serious matter2 but it is not sinful to indulge in a game of chance now and then1 if the stakes are moderate and there is no scandal4 #bfjd4 ,the ,prohibition against ,trading4--7a7 ,meaning4--,trading as here understood is purely gainful merchandizing 7i4e41 buying an article at a lower price in order to sell it unchanged at a higher price7 or industrial merchandizing 7i4e41 buying an article in order to sell it at a profit after it has been changed by hired labor74 ,hence1 there is no canonical trading in commerce which lacks one of the conditions mentioned1 for example1 if one buys goods for one's household or community and1 on discovering that a superfluity has been purchased1 sells at a profit what is left over 7see #bacd1 #bace74 ,trading includes not only a business conducted personally or for personal profit1 but also one conducted through agents or for the benefit of others1 such as the poor or pious causes4 7b7 ,obligation4--,the violation of this law is grave in itself1 but a serious sin demands on the part of the subject that there be real trading 7i4e41 a number of acts morally united and proceeding from a purpose to continue in lucrative merchandizing71 and on the side of the object that there be a large amount involved4 ,hence1 it would be venial to engage in lucrative trading with a large profit once1 and with a small profit twice or thrice4 7c7 ,excuses4--,necessity 7e4g41 if a cleric needs the money to live or to maintain his state1 or if a business has fallen to him by inheritance and cannot be given up without loss7 justifies trading1 if there is permission4 #bfje4 ,is ,it ,lawful for ,clerics to ,purchase and ,sell ,stocks and ,bonds8--7a7 ,if this conduct has the character of gambling or trading for profit1 it is forbidden by ,canon #ach or #adb1 as the case may be1 and is gravely or venially sinful according to the circumstances4 ,thus1 pure speculation or mere betting on the market is a game of chance1 and the frequent purchase of stocks with the thought of quick sales and huge profits from sudden changes of the market is lucrative trading4 7b7 ,if the gambling or trading element is absent1 the conduct in question is not forbidden by ,canon ,law4 ,it is generally admitted that bond investments are permissible1 since they are only a loan of one's money at interest4 ,there are two views about stock dealings3 the stricter view regards them as always containing the character of forbidden trading 7since all the notes of strict negotiation are found in them71 or at least as being a game of chance2 the milder view1 which is common1 holds that they are no more an affair of chance than many other business undertakings1 and that there is no strict negotiation1 if the stockholder is not a member or director of the corporation1 since the buying and selling is done neither directly nor indirectly by him4 ,buying of stocks1 then1 may be nothing more than a prudent investment of money in a deserving enterprise with the hope of a reasonable return1 and selling out the stocks at a large profit may be nothing more than the disposal of superfluous goods which it would be inconvenient to retain4 ,it must be remembered1 though1 that it is unlawful to cooperate with a company whose purpose is evil or suspect1 or to have part in frauds1 or to give disedification4 #bfjf4 ,special ,duties of ,clerical ,superiors from ,divine ,law4--7a7 ,as individuals1 they should strive to be personally more perfect than their subjects1 for they are supposed to give an example in faith1 religion1 zeal1 labor1 and self-denial1 8being made a pattern of the flock from the heart0 7,i ,peter1 v4 #c74 7b7 ,as rulers1 they must have the virtues of good superiors1 such as legal justice or firm devotion to the common good1 distributive justice or avoidance of partiality and prejudice1 prudence or knowledge of how to direct men and means successfully to the glory of ,god and the salvation of souls1 and commutative justice or respect for the rights of subjects4 7c7 ,as pastors1 they must avoid the qualities of the wolf and of the hireling1 and cultivate those of the good shepherd1 being kind and amiable to ,catholic and non-,catholic1 and practising the spiritual and corporal works of mercy4 #bfjg4 ,special ,duties from ,canon ,law of ,those ,who ,have ,care of ,souls4--7a7 ,bishops have grave obligations of residing in their see or diocese 7,canon #cch71 of attending to the instruction of their flock 7,canons #acbg1 #ccf71 of applying the ,mass pro populo 7,canon #cci71 of making a diocesan report 7,canon #cdj71 of confirming and of ordaining worthy candidates 7,canon #ghe71 of visiting their dioceses 7,canon #cdc71 of making the ad limina visit 7,canons #cdj1 #cdb71 and of calling a diocesan synod at least every tenth year 7,canon #cef74 7b7 ,pastors must reside generally in their parish 7,canon #dfe71 and1 if lawfully absent1 they must make provision for the sick calls and other spiritual necessities of their flocks4 ,they must preach the word of ,god on ,sundays and holydays1 and it would be a serious matter to neglect this duty for a considerable time 7e4g41 a whole month7 without good reason 7,canon #acdd74 ,it is also a serious obligation to attend to the necessary catechetical instruction of young and old 7,canons #accj1 #accb71 to apply the ,mass pro populo 7,canon #dff71 and to administer the ,sacraments 7at least ,baptism1 ,penance1 ,extreme ,unction7 to those in grave spiritual need 7see #aafg74 ,pastors are also obliged to know their flock1 to visit the sick and dying1 to correct abuses1 to see that the customary administration of the ,sacraments and the usual church functions are attended to1 to watch over the schooling of the children1 and to direct the temporalities and attend to the reports and records of the parish4 ,the duties of chaplains of hospitals1 institutions1 soldiers1 etc41 are similar to those of pastors1 but in particular cases the former are subject to special prescriptions or to local usage or to rules made by the ,ordinary4 7c7 ,assistant pastors are subject in the care of souls to the instruction and direction of the parish-priest4 ,their particular duties are known from the diocesan statutes1 the letters of the ,ordinary1 and the commission of the pastor4 ,regularly1 they are bound to reside in the parish rectory and to assist the pastor or supply for him in all the parish work1 the ,mass pro populo excepted 7,canon #dgf74 #bfjh4 ,the ,duty of ,charity to the ,poor4--7a7 ,according to ,canon ,law all beneficed clergy 7,cardinals excepted7 must give all the superfluous fruits of their benefice to charitable or pious causes 7,canon #adgc74 ,but it is an extremely strict view which holds that all the secular clergy are beneficed4 7b7 ,according to the divine law of charity 7see #abbf1 #abeb7 even the unbeneficed clergy have the duty of giving alms from their surplus wealth4 ,thus1 it would be unmerciful if a clergyman spent on himself all the fortune he had inherited from his relatives without thought of the poor2 it would be often a source of scandal if a priest enriched his relatives with money received in ministerial ways1 but left nothing to pious causes4 #bfji4 ,canon #adgc on the ,disposition of ,superfluous ,wealth by ,beneficed ,clergy4--7a7 ,the ,money to be ,spent4--,the ,canon does not refer to the property of the ,church 7i4e41 the foundation or endowment of the benefice71 for of this the beneficed clergyman is only the administrator1 and he would be unjust if he alienated its funds to other purposes2 nor does it refer to the clergyman's own property1 such as goods received by inheritance or other profane title 7patrimonialia71 or by title of personal ministerial service1 such as stipends and fees 7quasi-patrimonialia74 ,it refers1 then1 to the revenues of the benefice 7e4g41 the bishop's or pastor's salary7 and to the amount that is left over after the deduction of all reasonable and customary expenses that have been made1 or could have been made for decent personal support4 7b7 ,the ,use of ,surplus ,money4--,the alms should be given to any pious or charitable cause1 such as the promotion of divine worship1 the assistance of needy missions1 the spiritual or corporal works of mercy4 ,the cleric is free to bestow his gift either during his lifetime 7which is better7 or to leave it in his will4 #bfaj4 ,the ,obligation of ,canon #adgc4--7;a7 ,the obligation is most probably not one of justice1 since the holder of the benefice owns the superfluous fruits1 but one of obedience to the ,church4 ,some authors also consider this precept as binding in virtue of religion and charity1 and regard its violation as a sacrilege or sin against charity4 ,the holder of the benefice is not held to restitution1 however1 since neglect of the precept is not an injustice4 ,as to his successors through gift inter vivos or testament1 they are not bound to give the superfluities as an alms1 since the church precept was for the cleric himself4 ,successors to an intestate should observe the wishes of the deceased1 but1 if the character of the goods they inherit is doubtful1 they may usually be left in good faith4 7b7 ,the obligation is grave1 since it is commanded as an act of religion1 or at least as an act of obedience in a very important matter4 ,from the time of the ,apostles it was customary to distribute to the poor what was left over of the goods of the ,church1 and the clergy were regarded as the fathers and protectors of the needy4 ,again1 since the goods of a benefice originated in gifts offered to ,god ,himself1 it is most becoming that their superfluities be devoted to the causes most pleasing to ,god4 ,grave matter would be three times the amount required in theft1 because a violation of this precept is not the taking of what is not one's own1 but the using in a forbidden way of what is one's own4 #bfaa4 ,the ,special ,duties of ,religious4--,the particular obligations of religious are declared in the proper rules of the various institutes1 just as the particular obligations of the secular clergy are set forth in the statutes of local synods and councils4 ,we shall outline here only the general obligations of religious1 to which they are held by the common law of the ,church4 7a7 ,by reason of his profession1 a religious is obliged to strive after the perfection of charity 7see #aefj1 #cfg7 through the religious life1 that is1 by means of the rules and constitutions of his own institute 7,canon #eic74 ,all religious1 superiors and subjects1 are bound to observe their laws1 but per se these laws oblige under penalty1 not under sin 7see #egj74 ,per accidens1 however1 the transgression of rule or constitutions may be sinful1 as when the matter belongs also to divine or church law or to the observance of a vow1 or when the transgression includes contempt1 scandal1 or demoralization of discipline4 7b7 ,by reason of the vows1 a religious is obliged to follow the three evangelical counsels 7see #baia sqq47 and any other vows of his institute according to his rule 7e4g41 poverty is a renunciation of even community possession in some rules and of individual possession in others74 ,the vows oblige per se under grave sin1 on account of the duty of religion 7see #bbji7 and the intention of the religious to bind himself gravely2 but there may be venial sin on account of imperfection of act or lightness of matter4 #bfab4 ,the ,obligation of the ,three ,principal ,vows4--7a7 ,poverty is a renunciation of the independent use of external corporal goods1 such as money and lands and chattels 7simple vow71 or also of the radical dominion 7see #afig7 or right of ownership of such goods 7solemn vow74 ,grave matter in the unjust violation of poverty seems to be the same as in other acts of unjust damage or acquisition1 and hence in thefts from outsiders a less amount is grave matter1 in domestic thefts from the monastery a greater sum is required 7see #aijj1 #aijc74 ,grave matter in the violation of poverty that is not unjust 7e4g41 in use of money without permission7 seems to be the same as absolutely grave matter for thefts1 unless the constitutions rule otherwise2 but grave matter here does not coalesce from many small violations4 ,the virtue1 but not the vow1 of poverty is offended by purely internal acts 7e4g41 attachment to wealth71 and there is no offense at all in dominion over spirituals 7such as fame1 good reputation7 which are not renounced by the vow of poverty1 and in certain acts of disposition 7e41g41 acceptance of deposit1 distribution of alms7 or proprietorship 7e4g41 of manuscripts7 permitted by rule4 7b7 ,chastity is a renunciation of all venereal pleasure1 internal and external1 lawful and unlawful4 ,grave matter is the same as for the virtue of chastity1 but the vow could be violated without the violation of the virtue 7e4g41 in the use of marriage by one simply professed74 ,for the protection of this vow the ,church has made the law of cloister1 which forbids under certain conditions the entrance of outsiders into a religious house or the egress of the religious 7,canons #edg1 #eih1 #fjj-fjd1 #fgi1 #bcdb74 7c7 ,obedience is the renunciation of one's own will with the duty of submission to commands of a ,superior given according to the rules and constitutions4 ,there is grave matter against the vow if one disobeys in an important matter imposed by the ,superior in the name of obedience and according to the rite prescribed by the rule or constitutions 7see #bcfd74 ,the virtue1 but not the vow1 is offended by internal insubordination 7see #bceg72 neither virtue nor vow is offended when a ,superior commands what is above the rule 7e4g41 the accomplishment of the impossible1 heroic acts that do not pertain to the nature of the institute71 or against the rule1 unless he has power to dispense1 or probably what is beneath the rule 7such as things manifestly ridiculous and useless74 ,since obedience is vowed to the precepts of the ,superior1 the vow is not broken by transgression of points of the rule not expressly included under the vow1 nor by transgressions of the general precepts of ,god and the ,church4 ,art4 #b3 ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,members ,,of ,,domestic ,,and ,,civil ,,society #bfac4 ,the ,duties of ,husbands and ,wives4--,conjugal obligations may be classed under three heads according to the three ends of marriage4 7a7 ,thus1 the first blessing of marriage is offspring1 and this imposes upon parents the obligation of providing for their children and of training them in mind and will 7see #bfcj sqq474 7b7 ,the second blessing of marriage is fidelity to the engagement made by husband and wife to deliver to each other exclusive power over their bodies for procreation 7conjugal debt7 and to love each other with a special but pure affection3 8,the wife hath not power of her own body1 but the husband2 and in like manner the husband hath not power of his own body but the wife0 7,i ,cor41 vii4 #d72 8,husbands1 love your wives as ,christ also loved the ,church0 7,eph41 v4 #be74 ,conjugal love admits no rivals2 the husband must prefer his wife to every other woman1 and the wife likewise must think more of her husband than of any other man 7see #aagi74 7c7 ,the third blessing of marriage is the ,sacrament or the unbreakable bond of marriage3 8,the ,lord commanded that the wife depart not from the husband1 and if she depart that she remain unmarried1 or be reconciled to her husband4 ,and let not the husband put away his wife0 7,i ,cor41 vii4 #aj74 ,this imposes the duties of a permanent domestic society in which the spouses dwell together permanently and each has certain special functions of assistance to the other4 #bfad4 ,the ,obligation of ,paying the ,conjugal ,debt4--7a7 ,the duty is one of justice1 since it arises from the contract of marriage1 in which the parties freely and solemnly bind themselves to it as the subject-matter of their pact4 7b7 ,the obligation is grave1 since the marriage contract is one of the most momentous of human agreements1 its direct end being the propagation of the race1 while the denial of its essential right is productive of most serious evils1 such as incontinence1 scandals and the disruption of families4 ,there is light matter1 however1 as when the request is not imperative1 or the denial is infrequent and without danger of incontinence4 #bfae4 ,absence of ,obligation4--,the obligation of paying the conjugal debt does not exist1 however1 when the right to make the request has been lost or when the request is unreasonable4 7a7 ,thus1 the right to make the request is lost when one party has broken faith by committing adultery and has not been forgiven by the innocent party1 and also when one party is incapable 7e4g41 on account of insanity or drunkenness7 of asking in a rational manner4 7b7 ,the request is unreasonable1 first1 when it is immoderate 7e4g41 when it cannot be granted without serious and unusual detriment to health1 or without danger of death1 or without likelihood of abortion or other great harm to a child conceived or to be conceived72 secondly1 when it is seductive 7e4g41 when it is an invitation to commit onanism74 #bfaf4 ,suspension of ,obligation4--,the obligation of granting and the right of requesting conjugal relations are suspended when the marriage is discovered to be null or uncertain4 7a7 ,thus1 if the marriage is certainly null1 abstinence is necessary until the marriage is made valid2 otherwise the parties are guilty of fornication4 ,but if nullity is due to a merely ecclesiastical impediment1 the impediment probably ceases in cases of most grave inconvenience when the nullity is known to only one spouse and the dispensation cannot be obtained at once4 7b7 ,if the marriage is only doubtfully null1 abstinence is not necessary unless both parties have a serious doubt and no examination has yet been made4 ,light doubts should not be considered1 nor doubts that have not been corroborated by investigation2 while1 if only one party doubts1 he or she cannot refuse the debt lest injustice be done the other4 #bfag4 ,is ,there an ,obligation of ,requesting ,conjugal ,intercourse8--7a7 ,per se1 there is no obligation1 since one may lawfully decide not to enjoy one's right1 and not to use what belongs to one4 ,as man and wife were free to marry or not to marry1 so are they free to agree either to consummate or not consummate marriage4 ,it is even lawful for married people to contract together to abstain temporarily or permanently from marriage relations 7e4g41 for the sake of health1 or of economy1 or of mortification74 ,by mutual consent one or both may make a vow of chastity1 as was done by ,st4 ,joseph and the ,blessed ,virgin1 or the husband may enter the priesthood and the wife become a nun4 7b7 ,per accidens1 there is often an obligation of requesting intercourse1 for experience shows that continual non-use of marriage often leads to incontinence or to loss of affection 7see #bbbh74 #bfah4 ,the ,morality of ,venereal ,acts of ,marriage4--7a7 ,non-consummated ,acts4--,these acts1 whether internal or external1 are lawful per se when they are used only as accessories to the act of marriage or as means to foster or preserve conjugal love1 for the acts are meant by ,god to serve the purposes mentioned 7#beaj74 ,but per accidens there may be venial sin1 on account of inordinateness in the motive 7i4e41 when only pleasure is intended71 or in the manner 7i4e41 when due decency is not observed74 ,there is mortal sin when these acts are not referred to the lawful conjugal act1 but either directly or indirectly to pollution1 namely1 when there is foreseen proximate danger of pollution and the acts are either solitary or cooperative but performed without sufficient reason 7such as expressions of special affection71 for pollution is gravely sinful in the married1 as well as in the single state 7see #beci sqq474 7b7 ,natural ,consummated ,act4--,this act in itself is not only lawful1 but meritorious1 because it exercises such virtues as obedience 7,gen41 i4 #bh71 justice 7,i ,cor41 vii4 #c sqq471 and love of the common good and religion 7,tob41 viii4 #i74 ,since marriage intercourse has for its ends not only reproduction1 but also the expression of mutual love and the allaying of concupiscence1 it is lawful even when conception is impossible or less probable1 as when the parties are sterile1 or the woman is pregnant1 or during the so-called agenesic period1 or at the time of lactation4 ,it is a venial sin to exercise the conjugal act when one excludes every motive except that of pleasure 7,denziger1 n4 #aaei72 and there may be even mortal sin on account of circumstances1 such as place 7e4g41 scandal to others present71 manner 7e4g41 external immoderation1 internal desire of another person71 evil consequences 7e4g41 when one of the parties has a contagious or veneral disease1 when abortion will likely result1 etc474 7c7 ,unnatural ,consummated ,acts4--,pollution is mortally sinful 7#bece sqq471 and is worse in married than in single persons1 as being an injury to the faith pledged in marriage2 and hence it is not lawful to practise it even for the purpose of artificial fecundation4 ,rectal copulation is also gravely sinful1 being unnatural lust 7see #becd7 and a violation of conjugal faith4 ,the usual forms of unnatural vaginal coition1 which are very much practised today1 are contraceptive in purpose1 and are of two general kinds in the procedure--the physiological or preventive1 which uses instruments to keep the semen from the uterus 7such as sponges or pessaries for the female1 condoms or protectors for the male71 or which employs douches or syringes to remove semen from the vagina1 or uses chemicals to devitalize it4 #bfai4 ,nota4--7a7 ,non habetur onanismus1 nec peccatum1 si copula abrumpitur1 ex necessitate 7v4g41 ad vitandum scandalum persona inopinate supervenientis71 vel ex utilitate1 mutuo dato consensu et periculo pollutionis excluso2 nam seminatio extra vas1 aut involuntaria est1 aut nulla4 7b7 ,non habetur contraceptio nec peccatum1 sed potius actus honestus1 si1 ob defectum physicum viri vel mulieris1 naturae adjuvetur mediis artificialibus ut copula fiat1 vel ut semen introducatur in uterum2 nam fini matrimonii non obstat1 sed obsecundat iste modus agendi4 7c7 ,artificial ,insemination4 ,the subject-matter of the latter part of the preceding paragraph is distinguished from several unlawful practices considered by moralists under the heading of artificial insemination4 ,pope ,pius ,,xii on several occasions has given a clear1 accurate and complete statement of ,catholic teaching on the subject4 ,we append here his texts3 #a7 ,the practice of artificial insemination1 when it refers to man1 cannot be considered1 either exclusively or principally1 from the biological and medical point of view1 ignoring the moral and legal one4 ,artificial insemination1 outside of marriage1 must be condemned as essentially and strictly immoral4 ,natural law and divine positive law establish1 in fact1 that the procreation of a new life cannot but be the fruit of marriage4 ,only marriage safeguards the dignity of the spouses 7principally of the wife in the present case7 and their personal good4 ,it alone provides for the well-being and education of the child4 ,it follows that no divergence of opinion among ,catholics is admitted on the condemnation of artificial insemination outside of marriage4 ,the child conceived in those conditions would be1 by that very fact1 illegitimate4 ,artificial insemination produced in a marriage by the active element of a third party is equally immoral and consequently to be condemned without appeal4 ,only the spouses have a reciprocal right upon each other's body to generate a new life3 an exclusive1 inalienable right1 which cannot be ceded4 ,and so it must be1 even out of consideration for the child4 ,on whoever gives life to a small being1 nature imposes1 by the very strength of that tie1 the duty to keep and educate it4 ,but no ties of origin1 no moral or legal bonds of conjugal procreation1 exist between the legitimate husband and the child who is the fruit of the active element of a third party 7even if the husband has given his consent74 ,as far as the legitimacy of artificial insemination in marriage is concerned1 it suffices1 for the moment1 to recall these principles of natural law3 the simple fact that the result desired is obtained by this means does not justify the use of the means itself2 nor does the desire of the husband and wife1 in itself perfectly legitimate1 to have a child1 suffice to establish the legitimacy of resorting to the artificial insemination which would satisfy this desire4 ,it would be erroneous1 therefore1 to think that the possibility of resorting to this means might render valid a marriage between persons unable to contract it because of the impedimentum impotentiae4 ,on the other hand1 it is superfluous to mention that the active element can never be obtained legitimately by means of acts against nature4 ,although new methods cannot be ruled out a priori for the sole reason of their novelty1 nonetheless1 as far as artificial impregnation is concerned1 extreme caution is not enough2 it must be absolutely excluded4 ,saying this does not necessarily proscribe the use of certain artificial means destined only to facilitate the natural act1 or to assure the accomplishment of the end of the natural act regularly performed4 ,let it never be forgotten that only the procreation of a new life according to the will and the designs of the ,creator brings with it1 to a marvelous degree of perfection1 the accomplishment of the proposed ends4 ,it is at the same time in conformity with corporeal and spiritual nature and the dignity of the married couple1 as well as with the healthy1 normal development of the child 7,address to ,physicians1 ,sept4 #bi1 #aidi1 ,discorsi e ,radiomessaggi1 vol4 xi1 pp4 #bba ff74 #b7 ,we also believe that it is of capital importance for you1 gentlemen1 not to neglect this perspective when you consider the methods of artificial fecundation4 ,the means by which one tends toward the production of a new life take on an essential human significance inseparable from the desired end and susceptible of causing grave harm to this very end if these means are not conformable to reality and to the laws inscribed in the nature of beings4 ,we have been asked to give some directives on this point also4 ,on the subject of the experiments in artificial human fecundation 8in vitro10 let it suffice for ,us to observe that they must be rejected as immoral and absolutely illicit4 ,with regard to the various moral problems which are posed by artificial fecundation1 in the ordinary meaning of the expression1 or 8artificial insemination10 ,we have already expressed ,our thought in a discourse addressed to physicians on ,september #bi1 #aidi 7,discorsi e ,radiomessaggi1 vol4 xi4 pp4 #bba ff474 ,for the details ,we refer you to what ,we said then and ,we confine ,ourself here to repeating the concluding judgment given there3 8,with regard to artificial fecundation1 not only is there reason to be extremely reserved1 but it must be absolutely rejected4 ,in speaking thus1 one is not necessarily forbidding the use of certain artificial means destined solely to facilitate the natural act or to achieve the attainment of the natural act normally performed40 ,but since artificial fecundation is being more and more widely used1 and in order to correct some erroneous opinions which are being spread concerning what ,we have taught1 ,we have the following to add3 ,artificial fecundation exceeds the limits of the right which spouses have acquired by the matrimonial contract1 namely1 that of fully exercising their natural sexual capacity in the natural accomplishment of the marital act4 ,the contract in question does not confer on them a right to artificial fecundation1 for such a right is not in any way expressed in the right to the natural conjugal act and cannot be deduced from it4 ,still less can one derive it from the right to the 8child10 the primary 8end0 of marriage4 ,the matrimonial contract does not give this right1 because it has for its object not the 8child10 but the 8natural acts0 which are capable of engendering a new life and are destined to this end4 ,it must likewise be said that artificial fecundation violates the natural law and is contrary to justice and morality #a 7,marriage and ,parenthood1 ,may #ai1 #aief74 ,see ,the ,pope ,speaks1 ,vol1 ,,iii1 ,no4 #b1 ,autumn of #aief1 pp4 #aid ff4 #a ,the ,holy ,father here spoke for several minutes in ,latin as follows3 ,alia nunc occurrit quaestio1 ad quam pertractandam magis addecet latinam linguam adhibere4 ,quemadmodum rationalis animus noster artificiali inseminationi adversatur1 ita eadem ethica ratio1 a qua agendi normo sumenda est1 pariter vetat1 quominus humanum semen1 peritorum examini subiciendum1 masturbatiouis ope procuretur4 ,hanc agendi rationem attigimus ,nostra quoque allocutione coram ,urologiae doctoribus coetum participantibus1 die ,,viii mensis ,octobris anno ,,mdccccliii prolata1 in qua haec habuimus1 verba3 8,du reste le ,st-,office a decide deja le #b aout #aibi 7,acta ,ap4 ,sedis1 vol4 ,,xxi a4 #aibi1 p4 #dij1 ,,ii7 qu'une 8#8masturbatio directe procurata ut obtineatur sperma' n'est pas licite1 ceci quel que soit le but de l'examen0 7,discorsi e ,radiomessaggi vol4 ,,xv1 pag4 #cgh74 ,cum vero ,nobis allatum sit1 pravam huiusmodi consuetudinem pluribus in locis invalescere1 opportunum ducimus nunc etiam1 quae tunc monuimus1 commemorare atque iterum inculcare4 ,si actus huiusmodi ad explendam libidinem ponantur1 eos vel ipse naturalis hominis sensus sua sponte respuit1 ac multo magis mentis iudicium1 quotiescumque rem mature recteque considerat4 ,iidem actus tamen tunc quoque respuendi sunt1 cum graves rationes eos a culpa eximere videntur1 uti sunt3 remedia iis praestanda qui nimia nervorum intentione vel abnormibus animi spasmis laborant2 medicis peragenda1 ope microscopii1 spermatis inspectio1 quod venerei vel alius generis morbi bacteriis infectum sit2 diversarum partium examen1 ex quibus semen ordinarie constat1 ut vitalium spermatis elementorum praesentia1 numerus1 quantitus1 forma1 vis1 habitus aliaque id genus dignoscuntur4 ,eiusmodi procuratio humani seminis1 per masturbationem effecta1 ad nihil aliud directe spectat1 nisi ad naturalem in homine generandi facultatem plene exercendam2 quod quidem plenum exercitium1 extra conjugalem copulam peractum1 secum fert directum et indebite usurpatum eiusdem facultatis usum4 ,in hoc eiusmodi indebito facultatis usu proprie sita est intrinseca regulae morum violatio4 ,haudquaquam enim homo ius ullum exercendi facultatem sexualem iam inde habet1 quod facultatem eandem a natura recepit4 ,homini nempe 7secus ac in ceteris animantibus rationis expertibus contingit7 ius et potestas utendi atque exercendi eandem facultatem tantummodo in nuptiis valide initis tribuitut1 atque in iure matrimoniali continetur1 quod ipsis nuptiis traditur et acceptatur4 ,inde elucet hominem1 ob solam hanc causam quod facultatem sexualem a natura recepit1 non habere nisi potentiam et ius ad matrimonium ineundum4 ,hoc ius tamen1 ad objectum et ambitum quod attinet1 naturae lege1 non hominum voluntate discribitur2 vi huius legis naturae1 homini non competit ius et potestas ad plenum facultatis sexualis exercitium1 directe intentum1 nisi cum coniugalem copulam exercet ad normam a natura ipsa imperatam atque definitam4 ,extra hunc naturalem actum1 ne in ipso quidem matrimonio ius datur ad sexuali hac facultate plene fruendum4 ,hi sunt limites1 quibus ius1 de quo diximus1 eiusque exercitium a natura circumscribuntur4 ,ex eo quod plenum sexualis facultatis exercitium hoc absolute copulae coniugalis limite circumscribitur1 eadem facultas intrinsece apta efficitur ad plenum matrimonii naturalem finem assequendum 7qui non modo est generatio1 sed etiam prolis educatio71 atque eius exercitum cum dicto fine colligatur4 ,quae cum ita sint1 masturbatio omnino est extra memoratam pleni facultatis sexualis exercitii naturalem habilitatem1 ideoque etiam extra eius colligationem cum fine a natura ordinato2 quamobrem eadem omni iuris titulo caret atque naturae et ethices legibus contraria est1 etiamsi inservire intendat utilitati per se iustae nec improbandae4 ,quae hactenus dicta sunt de intrinseca malitia cuiuslibet pleni usus potentiae generandi extra naturalem coniugalem copulam1 valent eodem modo cum agitur de matrimonio iunctis vel de matrimonio solutis1 sive plenum exercitium apparatus genitalis fit a viro sive a muliere1 sive ab utraque parte simul agente2 sive fit tactibus manualibus sive coniugalis copulae interruptione2 haec enim semper est actus naturae contrarius atque intrinsece malus4 #bfbj4 ,contraception4--,contraception in all its forms 7onanism1 condonism1 vaginal irrigation1 spermatocide7 is a grave crime4 7a7 ,it is an ,injury to ,god4--,marriage was instituted by ,god to propagate the human race 7,gen41 i4 #bg1 #bh7 and to bless homes with children 7,ps41 cxxvi1 cxxvii71 and ,he has made it a sacred institution and a ,sacrament4 ,contraception defeats the ends of marriage and degrades it to the level of a mere instrument of carnal gratification4 ,the hatred of ,god for this sin appears in general from the horror with which ,scripture speaks of unnatural lust1 and in particular from the case of ,onan1 whose sin is called detestable and whom ,god slew in punishment 7,gen41 xxxviii4 #aj74 7b7 ,it is an ,injury to ,society4--,the perpetuation of the human race is endangered as soon as marriage is abused as to its natural end4 ,hence1 after the crime of homicide which destroys human life already in existence1 contraception seems to rank next in enormity1 since it prevents human life from coming into existence4 ,this vice spreads moral degeneracy and decay from the home itself1 and is rightly called race-suicide1 since it depopulates and destroys the nation by the act of its own people4 7c7 ,it is an ,injury to the ,family4--,the happiness and success of the home depend chiefly on the respect which its members have one for the other and on the cultivation of the sturdy virtues that strengthen character4 ,the husband and wife who practise onanism or other similar carnal vices cannot have the mutual respect they should have2 the wife is deprived of the treasure of her modesty and is treated as a prostitute rather than as an honored wife and mother1 and the husband is brutalized by the removal of the natural restraint to his sex passion4 ,such self-indulgent persons will either selfishly neglect the one or two children they may have1 or will spoil them for life by the luxury and laziness in which they are reared4 7d7 ,it is an ,injury to the ,individual4--,as concerns the body1 there is a perversion of the sex act from its definite use and specific end1 and hence contraception has been described as 8reciprocal masturbation40 ,as regards the soul1 its higher goods of will and intellect are subordinated by the contraceptionist to the delight of passion1 the lower impulses are greatly strengthened and self-control made more and more difficult1 and the spiritual objectives that should prompt a rational creature are sacrificed for the passing gratification that moves the beasts4 #bfba4 ,some ,arguments of ,neo-,malthusians and ,other ,advocates of ,contraception4--7a7 ,necessity for the ,individual4--8,this practice is demanded by comfort 7e4g41 in order to have a good and easy time1 to have more opportunity for pleasures and occupations outside the home1 to preserve form and beauty1 to escape the troubles of child-bearing and child-rearing71 or by utility 7e4g41 in order that suffering wives be freed from the slavery of excessive child-bearing1 in order that children receive more attention and care than is possible in large families740 ,this argument from comfort is unworthy of any but a pagan or materialist1 for the end of existence is something higher than pleasure or escape from all hardship4 ,but even if happiness alone be considered1 the childless home is not the most cheerful1 and it often happens that parents who have sinfully limited their parenthood will lose an only child and be left sterile and desolate4 ,the argument from utility proves only that sometimes 7not often7 it is inadvisable for a couple to have any or many children1 but it does not prove that family limitation through means forbidden by the laws of ,god and of nature is permissible4 ,the normal woman is not harmed but helped by child-bearing1 whereas onanism and other unnatural vices are fearfully damaging both to mental and physical health4 ,experience too shows that mothers of five or more children live longer1 and that children from large families are very often superior in qualities and achievements and stand a better chance in life4 ,exceptions only emphasize the rule4 7b7 ,necessity for the ,family4--8,large families are impossible to many persons because the high cost of children today 7expenses for clothing1 food1 medical care1 schooling1 etc47 is beyond their means40 ,the inability to support many children is often due to extravagance or to insufficient wages1 and the remedy lies in prudent economy or in improvement of the economic condition of workers1 not in the abuse of marriage4 ,the weakness of the objection is shown from the fact that race-suicide is more common among the well-to-do than among the poorer classes4 ,however1 in a genuine case of inability to maintain a large family1 limitation of children is a duty1 but not by means of the sin of contraception or onanism4 7c7 ,necessity for the ,community4--8,the cause of unemployment1 destitution1 famine and war is the overpopulation of the world4 ,moreover1 if the poorer classes would practise contraception and the better-to-do classes have larger families1 the standard of living of the former would be raised1 the culture of the latter would be preserved1 and the quality of the whole race be greatly improved40 ,the resources of the earth are easily adequate to support many times the present population1 and the misfortunes referred to are due1 not to the number of people who inhabit the earth1 but to accident or to human greed or imprudence4 ,the eugenic argument is a vain dream1 for the history of nations and modern facts show that the ideal of race improvement makes little appeal when the easier way of indulgence has been learned4 ,as said above1 it is the wealthy and educated classes who have the fewest children4 7d7 ,necessity of a ,moral ,kind4--8,contraception is a useful control of nature similar to that employed by physicians1 surgeons and other scientists2 it is not a contradiction of nature1 since it preserves the end of the sexual faculty in expressing physical love4 ,the motives of those who use it are not necessarily carnal1 but may be of a very ,christian kind 7e4g41 the need of limitation of family in order the better to practise one's vocation1 or in order to spare one's wife1 or to keep her from abortion71 and they may sincerely believe it to be lawful40 ,contraception does not control1 but defeats nature1 by voluntarily frustrating the primary end which nature has in view1 and1 if permitted1 it logically leads to every kind of sensual indulgence4 ,the motives or conscience of those who use it cannot change its character1 for the end does not justify the means and a wrong conscience does not change the law4 ,those who have not been spoiled or misled by contraceptive propaganda or advice1 instinctively regard artificial birth-control as well as onanism with disgust4 #bfbb4 ,is ,birth-,control ,ever ,lawful8--7a7 ,if this refers to an end 7viz41 the limitation of the number of children or the spacing of their arrival71 it is not unlawful in itself 7see #bfag72 and it is sometimes a duty1 as when the wife is in very poor health or the family is unable to take care of more4 ,but in view of the decline and deterioration in populations today1 it seems that couples who are able to bring up children well should consider it a duty to the common welfare to have at least four children1 and it should be easy for many to have at least a dozen children4 ,the example of those married persons of means who are unable to have a number of children of their own1 but who adopt or raise orphaned little ones1 is very commendable4 7b7 ,if birth control refers to a means of family limitation1 it is lawful when that means is continence or abstinence from marital relations1 not if it is onanism or the use of mechanical or chemical means to prevent conception4 ,the objection that husbands cannot restrain themselves is really an insult to ,god's grace and is contradicted by numerous facts4 ,a man of manly character should be ashamed to admit that he is the slave of passion1 and the fact that ,god commands chastity and that millions obey ,him both in the wedded and single state is sufficient proof that1 even though hard1 sexual abstinence is not impossible1 if there is a real resolve and the right means are employed1 such as rooming apart and concentration on other and higher things4 ,continence or abstinence is counselled by the ,church should conditions make the conception of children inadvisable4 ,it is counselled1 not commanded1 since it involves heroic sacrifice which makes it all the more meritorious and praiseworthy3 8,it is wronging men and women of our times to deem them incapable of continuous heroism4 ,today1 for many reasons--perhaps with the goad of hard necessity and even sometimes in the service of injustice--heroism is exercised to a degree and to an extent which would have been thought impossible in days gone by4 ,why4 then1 should this heroism1 if the circumstances really demand it1 stop at the borders established by the passions and inclinations of nature8 ,the answer is clear4 ,the man who does not want to dominate himself is incapable of so doing4 ,he who believes he can do so1 counting merely on his own strength without seeking sincerely and perseveringly help from ,god1 will remain miserably disillusioned0 7,pope ,pius ,,xii1 ,allocution to the ,italian ,catholic ,union of ,midwives1 ,oct4 #bi1 #aiea74 ,another lawful means of family limitation is 8periodic continence0 or 8rhythm10 the deliberate avoidance of conception by restricting intercourse1 temporarily or permanently1 to the days of natural sterility on the part of the wife4 ,many of the faithful are under the impression that the system has received the unqualified approval of the ,church1 that it constitutes a form of 8,catholic ,birth-,control40 ,this is not completely true4 ,all theologians agree that the use of marriage during the sterile period is not per se illicit4 ,the act is performed in the natural way2 nothing has been done positively to avoid conception2 and the secondary ends of matrimony1 mutual love and the quieting of temptation1 have been fostered4 8,if the carrying out of this theory means nothing more than that the couple can make use of their matrimonial rights on the days of natural sterility1 too1 there is nothing against it1 for by so doing they neither hinder nor injure in any way the consummation of the natural act and its further natural consequences0 7,pope ,pius ,,xii1 ibid474 8,if1 however1 there is further question--that is1 of permitting the conjugal act on those days exclusively--then the conduct of the married couple must be examined more closely0 7ibid74 ,the following points summarize papal teaching on this aspect3 #a7 ,a premarital agreement to restrict the marital right and not merely the use to sterile periods1 implies an essential defect in matrimonial consent and renders the marriage invalid4 #b7 ,the practice is not morally justified simply because the nature of the marital act is not violated and the couple are prepared to accept and rear children born despite their precautions4 #c7 ,serious motives1 7medical1 eugenic1 economic and social71 must be present to justify this practice4 ,when present1 they can exempt for a long time1 perhaps even for the duration of the marriage1 from the positive obligations of the married state4 #d7 ,the married state imposes on those who perform the marital act the positive obligation of helping to conserve the human race4 ,accordingly1 to make use of the marital act continuously and without serious reason to withdraw from its primary obligation would be a sin against the very meaning of conjugal life 7ibid474 ,pope ,pius explicitly confirmed the common teaching of theologians3 #a7 ,rhythm1 by mutual consent1 for proportionate reasons1 and with due safeguards against dangers would be licit4 #b7 ,without a good reason1 the practice would involve some degree of culpability4 ,not expressly confirmed1 but simply an expression of common moral principles is the common agreement3 #c7 ,that the sin could be mortal by reason of injustice1 grave danger of incontinence1 serious family discord1 etc4 ,since the ,allocution1 the more common opinion in this country asserts that the ,holy ,father taught3 #a7 that married people who use their marital right have a duty to procreate2 #b7 that this duty is binding under pain of sin2 #c7 there are1 however1 reasons that excuse the couples from this obligation and1 should they exist for the whole of married life1 the obligation does not bind them at all2 #d7 the sin does not consist in the exercise of marital rights during the sterile periods2 but in abstention from intercourse during the fertile periods precisely to avoid conception1 when the couple could have and should have made its positive contribution to society4 ,sin is present when the practice is unjustifiedly undertaken2 #e7 the formal malice of illicit periodic continence is not against the sixth commandment2 i4e41 against the procreation of children or the use of the generative faculty1 but against the seventh commandment1 i4e41 against social justice4 ,the couple is not making its contribution to the common good of society2 #f7 from #d and #e above1 it follows that the individual acts of intercourse during a period of unjust practice of rhythm do not constitute numerically distinct sins4 ,rather1 granting the continuance of a single will act to practice rhythm1 there is one sin for the whole period of illicit abstention during the fertile periods4 ,since the ,pope abstained from an explicit statement on the gravity of the sin1 the controversy of whether the practice intrinsically is a mortal sin or not continued4 ,the opinion in this country which holds the greatest authority states that mortal sin is involved in the case of continued practice with a total exclusion of children and frequent use of marital rights during the sterile period4 ,diversity of opinion has arisen as to the means of estimating when a serious sin has been committed4 ,some have used a temporal norm1 e4g41 unjustified use of rhythm for five or six years would constitute a serious matter4 ,undoubtedly most of the proponents of this norm would not accuse a couple of certain mortal sin if they already have one or more children2 after that1 indefinite use of the practice without excusing causes would not be a mortal sin4 7,this is admitted by most theologians47 ,others have proposed a numerical norm as a basis to determine whether or not a couple has made its contribution to the conservation of the race4 ,concretely the proponents of this theory regard four or five children as sufficient to satisfy the obligation in such a way2 a7 that the use of rhythm to limit the family to this number is licit provided the couple is willing and morally able to practice it2 b7 that the limitation through rhythm to less than four requires a serious justifying cause4 ,the intention involved to prevent conception would be seriously sinful in itself1 since it causes great harm to the common good and involves in practice subordination of the primary to the secondary end or ends of matrimony4 ,at the present time this opinion seems to be more favored in ,america than the first which places the gravity of the sin in the unjustified practice of rhythm for five years4 7,for a survey of recent opinion1 see the ,conference ,bulletin of the ,archdiocese of ,new ,york1 ,vol4 ,,xxxiv1 ,no4 #a1 pp4 #cf ff47 ,on the other hand1 some ,european theologians have denied that the practice constitutes a mortal sin in itself1 independently of circumstances such as injustice and danger of incontinence4 ,the present state of opinion1 then1 is definitely undecided and calls for caution both in dealing too severely with penitents or too readily recommending the practice4 ,the response of the ,sacred ,penitentiary of ,june #af1 #ahhj1 affords a safe guide in practice3 8,married couples who use their marriage rights in the aforesaid manner are not to be disturbed1 and the confessor may suggest the opinion in question1 cautiously1 however1 to those married people whom he has tried in vain to dissuade from the detestable crime of onanism40 ,as to the theological censure to be attached to 8rhythm10 it is not approved1 nor recommended1 but seems to be tolerated for sufficiently grave reasons4 8,instead of being freely taught and commended1 it is rather to be tolerated as an extreme remedy or means of preventing sin0 7,official ,monitum1 ,patrick ,cardinal ,hayes1 ,sept4 #h1 #aicf1 ,conference ,bulletin of ,archdiocese of ,new ,york1 ,volume ,,xiv1 ,no4 #b1 p4 #gh74 #bfbc4 ,cooperatio ,uxoris ad ,onanismum vel ,contraceptionem4--7a7 ,cooperatio formalis graviter illicita est1 quum includat approbationem ipsius peccati4 ,unde graviter peccat uxor quae suis quaeremoniis de molestiis graviditatis virum cogit ad congressum onanisticum1 vel quae nec interdum conatur eum avertere ab iniquo consilio onanistice congrediendi1 vel quae active adjuvat abruptionem copulae1 vel quae interne gaudet de ipso peccato 7#aeac74 7b7 ,cooperatio materialis ad onanismum ex gravi causa 7e4g41 ex metu fundato rixarum1 molestae cohabitationis1 adulterii viri7 licet2 nam actio mulieris1 scil4 copulam habere naturalem1 honesta est1 atque causa sufficiens adest permittendi abusum factum a comparte 7#aeae sqq474 ,imo uxor debitum petere potest a suo viro onanistico1 si secus diu abstinere cogeretur ab omni usu conjugii cum periculo incontinentiae1 quia caritas erga virum non obligat ad abstinentiam cum tanto incommodo4 7c7 ,cooperatio mere materialis ad contraceptionem1 non videtur possibilis2 nam copula contraceptiva est intrinsece et ab initio mala 7#aeag1 #aebg74 ,unde uxori nec petere debitum licet1 nec passive se habere4 ,sed qualibet vice tenetur positive pro viribus resistere4 ,sin autem gravissima causa sit actum permittendi1 ut puta periculum mortis1 eam tantum resistentiam opponere debet ad quam obligatur virgo oppressa 7#bdig71 consensu ut patet denegato 7,see ,irish ,ecclesiastical ,record1 ,june1 #aidj1 pp4 #fcd ff41 and ,march1 #aidh1 pp4 #bdd ff47 #bfbd4 ,recapitulatio de ,licitis et ,illicitis in ,conjugio4--7a7 ,illicita graviter sunt extra matrimonium facta1 v4g41 moechia1 mollities solitaria1 alienae conjugis concupiscentia2 sed probabiliter actus imperfecti et solitarii in proprium corpus exerciti leve non excedunt1 citra periculum pollutionis1 siquidem in delectationem veneream quae in conjugio licita est natura sua ordinentur1 sicque minus indecentes fiant4 7b7 ,illicita graviter sunt intra matrimonium facta sed contra finem1 i4e41 naturae matrimonii seu generationi prolis repugnantia1 ut sunt pollutio mutua1 onanismus1 impudicitia quae non in copulam sed in pollutionem tendit4 7c7 ,illicita leviter sunt intra matrimonium facta sed praeter finem1 i4e41 qum generationi nec prosunt1 nec obsunt1 sed in circumstantiis aliquam prae se ferunt inordinationem 7e4g41 copula ob solam voluptatem habita71 imprudentiam 7e4g41 copula tempore parum apto habita71 immoderantiam 7e4g41 impudicitia pudori nociva1 situs innaturalis1 ut si stent vel vir succubet1 ex levitate electus74 7d7 ,licita sunt intra matrimonium facta1 quae tum ex parte objecti 7scil41 quia actus ordinatur ad finem matrimonii71 tum ex parte circumstantiarum 7scil41 quia debito tempore1 loco1 modo1 etc41 ut prudentia exigit1 exercentur7 rationi rectae concordant4 ,unde non peccant conjuges sibi licita concupiscendo vel de iis gaudendo4 ,immo mulier onanistae licite cooperata non est peccati arguenda si gavisa sit de ipsa copula vel de bonis ejus effectibus1 vel 7saltem quando probabile videtur se semen excipisse7 si ad completam voluptatem se excitaverit4 #bfbe4 ,regulae pro ,confessariis4--7a7 ,interrogationes4--,si nulla ratio est suspicandi copulam modo innaturali exerceri1 praestat ut plurimum de circumstantiis 7v4g41 de motivo copulae7 non quaerere1 ne conjuges taedio afficiantur vel bona fide inutiliter priventur4 ,si tamen fundata suspicio est abusum matrimonii celari1 hac de re confessarius inquirere debet1 sed prudenter1 ne scandalo sit poenitentibus verbis indiscretis4 7b7 ,monitiones4--,si deprehenditur poenitentem onanistam esse1 per se severe reprehendendus est 7quod de viro praesertim dicitur7 nec absolvendus nisi signa contritionis prius dederit2 per accidens autem1 si datur ignorantia invincibilis et monitio nullatenus profutura praevidetur1 poenitens in bona fide relinquatur4 #bfbf4 ,marriage as a ,sacrament4--,the third benefit of marriage is that of the ,sacrament4 ,the union of man and wife is not merely a physical union1 but also a social one1 and it should be modelled on the union of ,christ and the ,church3 8,this is a great sacrament2 but ,i speak in ,christ and the ,church0 7,eph41 v4 #cb74 7a7 ,christ abides with the ,church1 and so the husband should dwell with his wife 7,matt41 xix4 #e74 ,the cohabitation of the parties is demanded by the very nature of the promises made in marriage1 and hence it is wrong for the husband to be absent from the home for notable periods of time1 or1 what is worse1 to drive his wife from home--or vice versa4 ,grave reasons and mutual consent justify long absences1 as when the husband is called away on distant business2 but1 if he goes away for a considerable part of the year1 he should1 if possible1 take his wife with him1 or visit or write to her frequently4 ,very grave reasons suffice for obtaining a separation1 either permanent1 on account of adultery1 or during the continuance of the reason1 as when there is serious unhappiness 7,canons #aabh sqq474 7b7 ,christ is the head of the ,church1 and so also the husband is superior to the wife in authority 7,eph41 v4 #bc74 ,ordinarily man excels in the qualities suited for rule of the home 7such as physical strength1 decision1 courage71 and hence as every society1 no matter how small1 must have a head1 the husband is the natural head of the home4 ,but obedience is due a husband in domestic matters in which he is head of the house--for example1 the choice of the place of residence1 the management of the family income1 the discipline of the children1 but not in the wife's personal affairs 7e4g41 her conscience1 her politics1 her property7--and only in commands that do not exceed his authority1 for he has no power to command if he is irrational1 and he has no claim to obedience if he orders something sinful or foolish4 ,moreover1 since the wife is a partner and not a servant1 and since she usually excels as sympathetic and wise adviser and careful household manager and is naturally more virtuous1 the husband should consult with her on important family questions and decide them as far as possible by mutual consent1 and should gladly leave to her sole control and direction the many things in which she is more competent than himself4 7c7 ,christ gave ,himself for the ,church 7,eph41 v4 #be71 and so also the husband has the duty of providing for his wife1 spiritually and temporally4 ,usually the man should attend to the external affairs of the family 7such as its support and protection71 while the wife should take care of the internal affairs 7such as the housekeeping and the training of the children74 ,it is to be regretted that the smallness of the husband's salary often compels the wife to work outside her home4 ,women should not be compelled to take up occupations unsuited to their sex1 much less those that interfere with the supreme duty of motherhood4 ,injury done the common personal goods of husband and wife by one of them is unjust1 if due to illegal action2 it is at least uncharitable1 if due to carelessness4 ,the family goods are usually under the control of the head of the family4 ,the wife has no right to use the earnings of her husband without his consent1 unless he fails to provide suitably for his family1 or uses his money extravagantly4 #bfbg4 ,the ,duties of ,persons ,engaged to ,marry4--,we shall speak first of the duty of entering into a nuptial engagement1 and next of the duties which engagement imposes4 7a7 ,per se1 there is no obligation for an individual to marry1 for the need of marriage is not a personal but a social one1 and social duties do not all fall upon each particular person4 ,each person must take necessary food1 for without it the individual perishes1 and eating is thus an individual duty2 but each person need not be a soldier1 or farmer1 or builder1 or merchant1 or married2 for it suffices that these offices be fulfilled1 one by one individual1 another by another4 ,indeed1 if marriage is an impediment to a more urgent good of the common welfare 7e4g41 perilous public service incompatible with married life71 or of private good 7e4g41 the duty of maintaining parents1 the wish to remain single because one feels oneself unsuited for marriage or called to continence71 marriage should not be chosen4 7b7 ,per accidens1 there is sometimes a duty of marrying on account of public or private necessity4 ,thus1 if the community is depopulated by race-suicide1 the public good should move suitable persons to marry in order to assist the birth rate2 for1 if those are considered slackers who refuse their service or money in war time when the nation is threatened with death from without1 are not those also culpable who will not assist a community threatened with extinction from within8 ,marriage is also obligatory on those who feel that they are unable to live continently1 and will be lost unless they marry 7,i ,cor41 vii4 #i74 ,in case of seduction1 marriage is a form of restitution to the injured girl1 but since forced marriages are usually unhappy1 the injury should be atoned for in some other way if the seducer does not care for the girl or is not desirable himself 7see #ahjc74 #bfbh4 ,the ,duties ,imposed by ,engagement to ,marry4--7a7 ,before ,engagement4--,courtship is lawful for those who intend to marry1 for without it the mutual knowledge which is requisite for a prudent choice is impossible4 ,but courtship should be employed1 not as a period of pleasure and extravagance1 but as an opportunity for learning the suitability of the parties1 one for the other1 and their desirability in virtue1 religion1 sanity1 intelligence1 health1 wealth1 position1 love of children1 sobriety1 steadiness1 etc4 ,visits are lawful during courtship1 but not the same familiarity as is permissible after engagement4 ,the time of wooing should not be protracted1 and as a rule after a year the parties should either become engaged or decide they are not well matched4 7b7 ,at the ,time of the ,engagement4--,the parties are gravely bound to make known to each other all personal defects which cannot be concealed without serious injustice1 such as the lack of virginity or other quality which one party makes a conditio sine qua non1 or the presence of a diriment impediment or of a very harmful or displeasing characteristic 7such as venereal disease1 sterility1 disgrace1 race1 the fact that one is a widow1 etc474 ,there is no duty of justice to manifest defects whose concealment will not be detrimental 7such as poverty1 lowly origin71 but there may be a duty of charity to reveal them1 as when their concealment now will lead to an unhappy marriage4 ,as to fornication1 the man is not obliged to confess it1 unless perhaps when he has an illegitimate child2 nor the woman1 unless she is actually pregnant1 or cannot keep the matter hidden afterwards and can make it known without serious harm to herself 7see ,self-defamation1 #aegg2 cfr4 #aigh1 #bacb74 ,but those who have been guilty of these mistakes should undergo a test on the question of physical health4 7c7 ,during the ,engagement4--,fidelity requires that an engaged person be true to the other party1 avoid paying court to a third person 7see #bebf71 and give the signs of affection that are usual between engaged persons4 ,the relationship between the engaged parties does not give them the right to what is intrinsically evil 7e4g41 voluntary pollution1 proximate danger of consent to sin1 continuance in a familiarity which is a proximate occasion of sin71 or to what is lawful only to married persons 7e4g41 intercourse and the liberties pertinent to it74 ,but it does give them the right to manifest their affection by acts indifferent in themselves 7e4g41 visits which are not private1 too frequent1 or too prolonged2 the decent kisses usual between betrothed lovers on meeting and parting71 even though unintentionally pollution may follow 7#bech74 ,persons who intend to marry soon should acquaint themselves before marriage and from reliable sources with the fundamental physiological facts of sex1 so as to avoid the mistakes which often wreck conjugal happiness1 beginning with the honeymoon itself2 they should have some money or the prospect of being able to support themselves1 and the woman should know how to take care of a home4 7d7 ,at the ,end of the ,engagement4--,a formal promise to marry 7,canon #ajag7 imposes the duty of marriage within a reasonable time 7i4e41 at the appointed date1 or1 if no date was fixed1 at the time when one of the parties reasonably requests it71 unless the engagement be broken 7e4g41 by mutual consent1 by a circumstance that makes marriage impossible1 such as marriage to a third party or choice of the clerical state2 or unnecessary1 such as the fulfillment of a resolutory condition1 supervening impediment1 ,papal dispensation given for a just cause72 or unless one of the parties has a right not to keep the engagement on account of a notable change in the circumstances1 or a breach of faith1 or opposition of parents that will make the marriage inadvisable1 etc4 ,the obligation to marry is one of justice1 and is grave when the contract was bilateral2 it is one of fidelity or justice1 and grave or light according to the intention of the promisor1 when the contract was unilateral 7see #ahhh74 ,there is no action to enforce an engagement1 for forced marriages are unwise 7,canon #ajag1 n4 #c72 and in practice confessors and pastors should not insist on fulfillment of the promise4 ,but damages can be sued for1 and the confessor should deny absolution to one who refuses to make just restitution in a case of breach of promise 7see #ahjc74 ,an informal promise to marry 7i4e41 one invalid naturally or positively7 produces no obligation to marry in either forum 7see #ded72 but it does produce a duty of restitution in breach of promise1 if there was force1 fraud1 or deceit4 #bfbi4 ,conditions for the ,signs of ,affection between ,engaged ,persons4--7a7 ,objectively1 these signs must be suited to the condition of merely engaged1 not of married persons4 ,brief and modest kisses are proper for lovers1 but greater intimacy1 such as long and lone conversations in secluded spots1 are wrong4 ,the chaster the relations between the betrothed1 the less occasion for future regrets and recriminations4 8,petting0 purchases a cheap physical thrill or excitement at the cost of present moral danger for two persons1 of the degradation of love to its lowest expression1 and of loss of self-respect1 with the probable risk of a future ill-fated marital career ending speedily in disillusionment and divorce4 ,it is essentially selfish and unwise4 7b7 ,subjectively1 the signs of affection must not be a proximate occasion of sin2 nor may they be accompanied by consent to sin1 or be used for the sake of venereal pleasure4 ,joy at the thought of future marriage intercourse and sensual pleasure in present kisses 7#bead7 are in themselves not sinful1 but in practice they are as a rule gravely dangerous4 ,motiones carnales1 quales sunt erectiones1 signa sunt delectationis venereae quando conjuguntur eum pollutione vel proxime praeviis ad eam2 sunt signa delectationis mere sensualis1 quando amorem sensibilem sequuntur ex motu sanguinis1 quin in resolutionem seminis ex se tendant 7#bdig b74 #bfcj4 ,the ,duties of ,parents and ,children4--,in addition to the duties that belong to all superiors and subjects 7see #bfce sqq47 there are special obligations incumbent on parents and children by reason of the special relationship between them4 ,the duties of the parents are of two kinds4 7a7 ,duties of ,charity4--,parents should give their children special love and special signs of affection1 as the order of charity requires 7see #aaeh sqq474 ,hence1 those parents sin grievously who hate or curse their children1 even the illegitimate or wayward1 or who drive the children from home by unkindness4 7b7 ,duties of ,piety4--,parents should1 as far as they are able1 give their children the honor and help that belongs to members of the family 7see #bcdf sqq471 though illegitimate children have not the right to dwell in the home of the legitimate children or to share in the family inheritance 7see #ahjc b74 ,the help owed to children is spiritual and material1 and the obligation1 which is natural and divine1 is most grave 7,canon #aaac74 ,spiritual help includes religious and moral training and example 7see #hfg sqq472 material help includes food1 clothing1 lodging1 medical care1 means to learn a necessary trade1 art or profession or to enter marriage or take up a suitable state in life1 protection and defense4 ,parents are bound to help their children1 at least in necessities1 as long as the latter are in need4 ,sins are committed also against the unborn 7e4g41 when the pregnant mother does not take care of her health1 or when she is ill-treated by her husband7 and young infants 7e4g41 when the child is unnecessarily suckled by strangers and thus exposed to danger1 or is placed in a foundling asylum or other institution because the parents are unwilling to be bothered74 ,on the other hand1 those parents sin through excess who spoil or 8sissify0 their children by luxury and idleness1 or who are too indulgent to give needed correction and even moderate chastisement4 #bfca4 ,compensation of ,children4--,a child1 even though subject to parental authority1 seems to have a right to compensation for extraordinary services given his parents1 and also to at least a fair commission for gains made in the course of extraordinary services for which he is receiving no compensation4 ,in their wills1 after satisfying just debts and expenses1 parents should leave their offspring who need it enough to maintain their state in life4 #bfcb4 ,sex ,education of ,children4--7a7 ,necessity4--,some moralists believe that sex education of the young should be indirect4 ,they hold that it is dangerous to speak of venereal matters to the young2 that silence itself is to them a lesson of modesty2 that the practice of piety and mortification1 along with parental watchfulness1 will keep them pure2 that sufficient knowledge will come at the proper time as ,god will provide4 ,others reject this theory as opposed to the tradition of the ,church as well as to experience4 ,the defenders of direct sexual education point to the evil of silence3 the bad habits contracted and grown strong before their sinfulness is understood1 or the scruples and misery into which ignorance will plunge young people entering the crisis of puberty1 the false and corrupt ideas with which unavoidably the minds of the innocent will be indoctrinated by immoral companions or physicians1 the loss of confidence in parents who have refused important knowledge and advice1 and the ruin of innocent lives by seducers which a timely word of warning would have prevented4 ,hence1 there is an invincible ignorance which cannot be removed without direct education1 and which is more harmful at least to well-reared children than any evil that may be caused by the education4 7b7 ,preparation for ,direct ,education4--,training for purity should be directed both to will and intellect1 for knowledge without character is powerless against temptation4 ,children should be trained from the beginning morally 7i4e41 they should be kept as far as possible from sources of contamination2 should be taught to have implicit confidence in parents and to bring to them their questions and difficulties2 should be trained to practise continual mortification and restraint and to struggle against evil tendencies until the habit of self-control becomes a second nature7 and religiously 7i4e41 to use prayer1 the ,sacraments and other means of grace until they are well formed in piety74 ,this previous moral education and religious conviction will stand on guard as a protection against the suggestions of indulgence which initiation into sex matters may suggest4 7c7 ,the ,subject-,matter of ,sex ,education4--,the fundamentals of sex instruction include such points as the diversity of sex1 its origin from ,god and its dignity1 the beginning of life in plants and animals1 the organs of reproduction1 the functions of maternity and paternity1 the grave reasons that demand sexual morality1 respect for womankind1 the great sinfulness of masturbation and fornication1 the meaning of puberty and its accompaniments in male and female1 the possibility and healthfulness of continence1 the moral dangers of the world and the social diseases to be guarded against1 and the hygienic aids to chastity4 7d7 ,the ,method of ,instruction4--,it is clear that not all the details just mentioned can be imparted at one time1 for young children would not understand or there would be scandal of little ones2 but1 while fiction and exaggeration should be avoided1 a strictly scientific and technical instruction is not necessary or generally advisable4 ,it is clear also that parents1 and especially mothers1 are naturally suited for the delicate task of early guardians of chastity1 though the later instruction should be supplemented in catechism class1 sermon1 school1 and an individual advice given in confession4 ,it would be impossible in brief space to outline sufficiently a program of sex instruction1 but parents and persons who are about to marry should read1 study and apply some of the excellent books prepared for their guidance4 #bfcc4 ,duties of ,children4--,the duties of children to their parents can also be classed under those of charity and piety4 7a7 ,duties of ,charity4--,children owe their parents a special internal and external love 7see #aagf sqq474 ,those children sin gravely who hate their parents or wish them serious evil1 or who treat them with great unkindness or neglect1 or bring them great sorrow or worry1 or who never visit or write to them4 7b7 ,duties of ,piety4--,children must respect and assist their parents 7see #bcdg1 #bcdh74 ,it is a serious sin to have contempt for one's parents1 or to show them serious dishonor in words 7e4g41 by injurious or mocking names71 in signs 7e4g41 by laughing at them1 mimicking them71 in deeds 7e4g41 by striking them1 speaking against them71 in omission 7e4g41 by refusing to acknowledge them or show them the usual marks of courtesy74 ,it is not disrespect1 however1 for a child to dislike or protest against evils done by his parents4 ,the assistance owed to parents is both spiritual and corporal1 and children sin when they neglect the religious welfare of their parents 7e4g41 by not respectfully admonishing them when the parents do not lead a good life1 by not obtaining for them the ,sacraments1 prayers and suffrages they need71 or deny them bodily aid 7e4g41 by refusing them help or comfort when they are poor1 persecuted1 or suffering74 ,children who live at home with their parents should contribute from their earnings or individual property to the maintenance of the home1 unless the parents do not need this pay and do not wish it4 ,see ,catechism of the ,council of ,trent1 on the ,fourth ,commandment 7pages #djh sqq474 #bfcd4 ,duties of ,near ,relatives4--,there are similar duties of charity and piety between other near relatives1 for example1 between brothers and sisters1 grandparents and grandchildren uncles and aunts and their nephews and nieces1 and between first cousins4 ,the obligation seems1 to some authors1 to be a grave one as far as the second degree of kinship1 but is light in the other degrees4 ,the relationship and duty to kin by marriage is not so strong4 #bfce4 ,the ,duties of ,superiors and ,subjects3 ,duties of ,superiors4--,superiors both in domestic and civil society need especially prudence and justice in order to fulfill well their special duties of ruling successfully and lawfully 7,jerem41 xxiii4 #e74 7a7 ,prudence4--,if every individual must use wise deliberation1 decision and direction to guide himself aright1 much more does a ruler1 whether of the home or of the ,state1 need these qualities2 and hence it is the prudent servant who is placed over his master's household 7,matt41 xxiv4 #de71 whereas the imprudent ruler brings confusion upon his community 7,is41 iii4 #d sqq74 ,parents1 guardians1 executives1 lawmakers and magistrates are1 therefore1 bound to fit themselves by competent knowledge of their duties4 ,at the minimum1 they must know what constitutes the welfare of their circle or community1 and how it should be promoted4 ,for this1 in positions of subordinate importance1 common sense with good will often suffices1 but from those who are heads of large organizations much more is expected4 ,a chief who has to direct a great multitude must have unusual ability and unusual knowledge or unusual quickness to learn from study and conference what measures will safeguard the interests of his body and promote the happiness and prosperity of its members 7see #afdj sqq474 7b7 ,justice4--,in their rule superiors must be lovers of the common good2 they must decree1 judge and govern according to natural justice and the law2 in distributions of burdens and favors they must be guided by fairness to all1 avoiding partiality1 bribery1 peculation and every form of political corruption2 in discipline they must conscientiously enforce the right2 in personal life they must be a model to their subjects1 showing themselves moral1 religious1 truthful1 dignified but approachable and patient 7not arrogant1 stubborn1 sensitive1 ill-humored or revengeful71 given to work and duty rather than to pleasure and display4 #bfcf4 ,duties of ,subjects4--,the general duties of subjects to superiors are chiefly honor and obedience 7see #bcea sqq474 7a7 ,honor4--,honor is owed to superiors on account of their position of authority1 which is derived from ,god1 not on account of their personal character1 for personally they may be wicked4 ,it is disrespectful even in a democracy to deny them the honorable address1 salutation or courtesy which is customary1 or to treat them insultingly by word1 manner or writing4 ,but it is not disrespectful to disagree with the personal views of a superior or to seek legitimately his removal from office if he is unfit or less fit4 7b7 ,obedience4--,obedience is owed to superiors and their laws when they strictly command what is not sinful or illegal or outside their authority 7see #cge sqq474 ,unemancipated children are obliged to obey their parents in all that falls under the parental authority1 namely1 in what pertains to good morals 7e4g41 attendance at religious duties1 avoidance of bad companions7 or the good order of the home 7e4g41 the hours for meals1 the time of retiring1 the visitors to be received74 ,but parents have no authority to command fraud or other sin2 nor are children under subjection in the matter of taking up a state of life1 for this demands liking and fitness1 and the command of a superior cannot give liking and fitness4 ,it is a serious sin for parents to force a child to take up religious life or the priesthood1 or to marry a certain individual2 but a child should yield when his parents are reasonably opposed to his choice of a vocation1 as when they need his support1 or wish him to test his vocation a little1 or know that the person selected for wife will disgrace the family4 #bfcg4 ,taxes4--,citizens owe the government particularly the tribute of taxation1 and in war that of military service4 ,taxes are contributions exacted by the public authority from subjects for the purpose of defraying public expenses or promoting the public welfare4 7a7 ,thus1 they are contributions1 and hence a tax is not to be confused with a payment 7e4g41 fares for passage on government railroads71 or with a fine 7e4g41 pecuniary penalty for evasion of customs74 7b7 ,they are exacted from subjects 7i4e41 from citizens71 who are subject on account of their persons as being members of the ,state1 and from aliens1 who are subject on account of their goods1 as receiving privileges of residence1 commerce1 passage1 etc4 #bfch4 ,kinds of ,taxes4--,there are many kinds of taxes1 but they can all be reduced to two general categories4 7a7 ,direct taxes are those collected from the person on whom the burden is ultimately to fall4 ,examples are poll or personal taxes and property taxes 7such as those on general property1 incomes or inheritances71 for these charges remain an expense of the taxpayer himself4 7b7 ,indirect taxes are those collected from a person other than the one on whom the burden is ultimately to fall4 ,examples are duties imposed on outsiders 7such as customs or tariffs1 duties raised for revenues1 protection1 etc471 external revenue taxes imposed on certain acts 7such as the manufacture or sale of commodities7 or occupations 7e4g41 licenses for trades1 sports1 etc474 ,in these the charge falls immediately on the taxpayer1 but ultimately on a consumer4 #bfci4 ,just ,taxes4--,tax laws1 like other laws1 must be just2 that is1 they must be made by lawful authority and must promote the common good 7see #bhe74 ,the common good requires that taxes be not imposed except for just reasons1 and that there be a fair distribution of the burden4 7a7 ,just reasons are those of public utility or necessity4 ,a tax would be unjust1 if it were levied for unjust or unnecessary purposes4 7b7 ,fair distribution requires that citizens be assessed according to their ability to pay 7sacrifices for the public good1 special benefits from the use of a tax fund1 etc474 #bfdj4 ,obligation to ,pay ,taxes4--,the obligation in conscience of just tax laws is admitted by all ,catholic authorities4 7a7 ,the teaching of ,scripture is quite clear1 since ,our ,lord1 in answer to the question whether it were lawful to pay tribute to ,caesar1 replied3 8,render to ,caesar the things that are ,caesar's0 7,matt41 xxii4 #ag-ba72 and ,st4 ,paul teaches3 8,be subject of necessity1 not only for wrath1 but also for conscience' sake4 ,render therefore to all men their due1 tribute to whom tribute is due1 custom to whom custom0 7,rom41 xiii4 #e1 #f74 7b7 ,reason too shows the need of obligation in conscience1 for1 unless these laws oblige thus1 the common good will suffer through lack of money needed for public purposes1 and some individuals will be unjustly burdened and others unjustly favored4 #bfda4 ,quality of the ,obligation4--,there are various opinions about the quality of the obligation in conscience of taxation laws4 7a7 ,thus1 according to one opinion they oblige in conscience and under sin1 that is1 as preceptive laws 7see #efa sqq474 ,for the natural law and justice require that the members of society contribute the necessaries to the social body organized for their benefit1 or that the people live up to their implicit contract with their government by giving compensation for the services they receive4 7b7 ,according to another opinion tax laws oblige in conscience only under penalty1 that is1 as penal laws4 ,the arguments for this view are1 first1 the sufficiency of the penal obligation 7i4e41 the heavy fines imposed7 for the attainment of the laws' purpose1 and1 secondly1 the common opinion of citizens that they commit no sin by merely evading payment of taxes4 ,furthermore1 it is added that1 if these laws were preceptive1 conscientious citizens would be under a great disadvantage1 for they would be placed in the dilemma of either acting against their conscience and committing sin or of paying more than their due on account of the neglect of tax dues by citizens who are not conscientious4 7c7 ,according to a third opinion distinction has to be made between different cases4 ,thus1 some held that laws on direct taxes are preceptive and laws on indirect taxes merely penal1 while others say that the kind of obligation depends on the will of the lawgiver1 and that tax laws that are preceptive in one country may be only penal in another4 ,if tax laws are merely penal1 there is no obligation of restitution1 but there is an obligation of payment and of penalty after sentence4 #bfdb4 ,obedience to ,tax ,laws4--,obedience to just laws is owed either from legal justice alone1 or also from commutative justice with the burden of restitution4 ,there are various opinions about the case of tax laws4 7a7 ,according to the traditional opinion1 the obligation is one of commutative justice1 because there is an implicit contract between the government and the people1 in virtue of which the former is bound to provide for the safety of the people at home and abroad and to secure those things that are necessary for the common welfare 7such as roads1 postal service1 etc471 while the latter are bound in return to pay the expenses of the government4 7b7 ,according to a recent opinion1 the obligation is one of legal justice only1 because the imposition of taxes is an exercise of authority by the government1 and taxes themselves have the character of a tribute from the part to the whole rather than of a wage or payment4 ,hence1 though he who evades taxes is not held to restitution1 he sins against justice1 and sins gravely if the matter is considerable4 7c7 ,according to other opinions1 tax laws oblige sometimes from legal1 sometimes from commutative justice4 ,thus1 some admit that in feudal times there was a contract between the governed and the ruler1 and therefore an obligation of commutative justice to give services and taxes2 but in modern times they say there is no such contract1 and the duties of ruler and subjects rest on natural law and legal justice1 not on any compact4 ,others again distinguish between the obligation before the quota has been determined1 which is the duty of legal justice to declare properly the value of one's property1 and the obligation after assessment1 which is a duty of commutative justice to pay just tax bills4 #bfdc4 ,the ,duty of ,exercising the ,electoral ,franchise4--7a7 ,there is a grave duty of using the privilege granted to citizens of voting in public elections1 and especially primaries2 for the welfare of the community and the moral1 intellectual and physical good of individuals depend on the kind of men who are nominated or chosen to rule1 and on the ticket platforms voted for4 ,hence1 those who neglect to vote cooperate negatively with a serious harm 7viz41 evil in power71 or at least with public unconcern about public matters--for example1 those who neglect through laziness or indifference to condemn by their vote4 ,a grave inconvenience 7e4g41 sickness1 ostracism1 exile1 persecution71 but not a slight inconvenience 7such as loss of time1 trouble1 ridicule71 excuses from the duty2 for an affirmative law has exceptions4 ,neither is there an obligation to vote when an election is a mere formality1 as when there is but one candidate or party4 7b7 ,the duty is not one of commutative justice1 as the ballot is either a privilege1 or a thing commanded by authority1 but not a service to which the citizen has bound himself by contract or office4 ,the obligation is1 therefore1 one of legal justice1 arising from the fact that the common weal is everybody's business and responsibility1 especially in a republic4 ,hence1 representatives of the people who by abstention from voting cause a serious damage which they were bound ex officio to prevent1 are guilty of commutative injustice and are held to restitution2 but a citizen who stays away from the polls sins1 and perhaps gravely1 against legal justice1 though there is no duty of restitution for the damages that result4 ,moreover1 in a general election the vote of one citizen is usually not of decisive influence1 and citizens do not make themselves responsible for all the acts of their representatives4 #bfdd4 ,manner of ,voting4--7a7 ,object4--,it is not necessary to vote for the best candidate1 provided one votes for a person who is fitted by character1 ability1 record1 experience1 etc4 for the office1 and gives indications1 not merely promises1 that he will serve the community well4 ,but in certain ecclesiastical elections the voters must take oath beforehand to vote1 not only for a worthy candidate1 but also for the person whom they honestly think1 all things considered1 most worthy4 ,in minor offices 7such as constable or town clerk7 it suffices that the candidate be known as conscientious2 but in major offices 7such as ,president1 governor1 congressman1 legislator1 or judge7 the party principles for which he stands have to be considered chiefly4 ,per accidens1 it is lawful to vote for an unworthy candidate when this is necessary to prevent a greater evil1 as when the opposing candidate is much worse1 or a good ticket cannot be elected unless some less worthy candidates are included4 7b7 ,purpose4--,the end which the voter should have in mind is the good of the public1 and hence it is not right to vote for candidates solely or chiefly because they are personal friends1 members of one's own race1 organization or religion1 or because one wishes to gain favor or escape enmity4 7c7 ,circumstances4--,the voter must avoid all that is contrary to natural law 7e4g41 selling of votes1 repeating1 stuffing ballot boxes7 or positive law 7e4g41 state laws require not only citizenship and a period of previous residence1 but also other conditions such as registration and freedom from bribery and other election crimes74 ,the opinion that politics is necessarily corrupt1 and that all is fair that helps to win1 is a false and pernicious doctrine4 ,the conditions for ecclesiastical elections are given in ,canons #afj sqq4 #bfde4 ,obligation to ,seek ,office4--,a worthy man should run for office in the following case3 7a7 when the public good calls for his candidacy 7e4g41 when his election or candidacy will avert serious evils1 and there is no one else so available72 and 7b7 there is no grave impediment to his candidacy 7such as supremely important private affairs or ill-health that makes it impossible to run74 #bfdf4 ,duties of ,employers and ,employees4--,between employers and their domestic servants or workingmen there are general mutual duties as between superiors and subjects1 and special mutual duties as between parties to an explicit and implicit contract4 ,of these latter duties we shall now speak4 #bfdg4 ,duties of ,employers4--7a7 ,justice4--,the labor assigned must not be excessive 7e4g41 unduly perilous1 exhausting1 protracted7 or injurious 7e4g41 harmful to religion or morals1 an unreasonable impediment to marriage1 to cultural opportunity or amusement72 the wage paid must be just 7i4e41 one that will enable the worker to support himself and his family in reasonable comfort7 and equitable 7i4e41 one that rewards special merit and service by pensions or additional compensation72 the terms of the contract must be observed 7e4g41 arbitrary lowering of wages or dismissal are unjust74 7b7 ,charity4--,liberality should be shown by preference to employees1 since they have a special claim on the employ good will4 ,the employer should consider that he is responsible for the spiritual betterment and material improvement of his workers1 and should have them in mind when making contributions to religious1 educational or special causes1 so that his own employees will benefit in particular by his gifts to these worthy causes4 ,trade schools and insurance against sickness and unemployment are especially deserving of his assistance4 #bfdh4 ,duties of ,employees4--7a7 ,justice4--,workers are bound to give a fair return in quantity and quality of labor for the pay they receive1 and to be loyal to their employer as regards his person1 reputation1 and property4 ,hence1 it is unjust to loaf or come late or leave early1 to turn out work too slowly or of an inferior grade1 to damage machinery or property1 to waste food or provisions1 to act as a household spy or informer1 to try to extort what is not due4 7,for a consideration of the worker's obligation to join unions see 8,catholics in ,labor ,unions0 by ,francis ,j4 ,connell1 ,c4,,ss4,r41 ,american ,ecclesiastical ,review1 ,vol4 ,,cxvi1 no4 #f ,june1 #aidg1 pp4 #dbb ff47 7b7 ,charity4--,workers should be willing even at the expense of some right or of some slight loss to help an employer who is in grave necessity2 for example1 it would be uncharitable for farm hands to stop work promptly on time when this will cause a serious damage to the farmer's crop1 or for a cook to leave on her free day when her mistress is very sick and will be left alone4 #bfdi4 ,labor ,disputes between ,employers and ,employees4--7a7 ,in themselves these disputes are indifferent1 as they are a species of industrial war 7see #achj sqq47 or of industrial self-defense 7#ahbf sqq474 ,if the end1 the means and the circumstances are not against right reason1 the disputes are lawful or even laudable4 7b7 ,in the concrete1 the strike is labor's chief means for enforcing demands4 ,since organized labor seeks to equalize the bargaining power between employer and employee1 the way to counteract refusal to pay fairly is by a concerted refusal to work1 i4e41 a strike4 ,a strike may be defined as an organized cessation from work by a group of workers to obtain advantages from an employer4 ,since an organized strike is a kind of war1 moral theologians apply the principles of a just war to determine concretely the morality of a strike4 #a7 ,there must be a just reason for the strike4 ,too little pay1 too long hours1 brutal treatment1 unsafe or unsanitary conditions constitute genuine grievances for what may be called a defensive strike1 which presupposes injustice in the part of the employer4 ,on the other hand an ameliorative strike does not presuppose an employer's injustice1 but consists essentially in the worker's attempt to better conditions1 e4g41 a better salary1 shorter working hours1 etc4 ,such a strike seems to be unlawful if it violates a just work contract in effect at the time of the strike4 ,if no such contract has been made1 the ameliorative strike can be lawful1 granting a proportionately grave cause2 but it is never given unqualified approval owing to the fact that such a strike involves many and grave losses both material and moral to the workers1 employer1 and community4 7,see ,merkelbach1 ,summa ,theologiae ,moralis ,,ii1 n4#eef47 #b7 ,the strike must be the last means4 ,owing to the fact that a strike is a kind of warfare1 all other peaceful means should be tried1 e4g41 arbitration1 governmental inquiry boards1 injunctions1 fact-finding boards etc4 ,the moral principle involved is2 if an evil is avoidable but not avoided1 it cannot be considered as merely incidental to a good end4 #c7 ,the strike would be called by proper authority4 ,the decision to strike should be made by the men themselves freely and ,without intimidation4 ,organized labor must have the backing of a responsible union in its strike1 for this is the channel of bargaining or arbitration that the employer must use1 and it should be used by the workers also4 ,accordingly1 8wildcat0 strikes are unlawful unless the unions have ceased to represent the men and have been repudiated by them4 #d7 ,the benefits expected from the strike must compensate for the evils inseparable from it4 ,in this matter not only the worker's personal gains are to be considered1 but also the welfare of others1 namely the employers and the public4 ,thus1 in a long-drawn-out strike the economic advantage gained in a small salary increase for the worker can never be proportionate to the financial losses inflicted on the workers themselves in loss of income1 on the employers1 and particularly on a community which suffers the loss of purchasing power of a number of its members4 ,many strikes in which the products or services of the workers are necessary to the public 7transportation1 food distribution1 etc47 seem to be more a strike against the community than against an employer2 and the harm inflicted on the innocent public is not incidental as it must be in order to be justified4 ,only extraordinarily grave reasons can justify such strikes4 #e7 ,the means employed must be just4 ,the common means are work stoppage1 persuasion of other workers to keep the work stopped until the demands are met1 and picketing in a peaceful manner4 ,sabotage and violence against an employer's person or property constitute unjust means4 8,scabs10 or professional strike-breakers1 may be prevented from depriving the workers of their jobs to which the workers keep their rights2 but violence in defense of this right seems illicit1 unless violence is begun by the strike-breakers and the workers are forced to defend themselves4 7c7 ,kinds of ,strike4 ,thus far the analysis has been concerned with a direct strike4 ,other kinds of strike demand special consideration4 #a7 ,slow-down strike4 ,since it does not involve cessation from work1 but simply a reduction in production or services while the worker is receiving full pay under contract1 the strike seems to be immoral4 ,the striker is not giving the work paid for4 #b7 ,sit-down strikes4 ,some authors justify these strikes by analogy with an act of self-defense in which the person attacked seizes the weapon from the attacker4 ,the analogy seems defective since the place of work is hardly a weapon4 ,this strike seems to be immoral since it involves an unjust invasion of property rights by way of excluding an owner from the use of his property4 #c7 ,sympathy strikes4 ,there is a great diversity of opinion in this kind of strike4 ,a moderate view distinguishes between strikes of several groups against the same employer and one or several groups against different and unassociated employers4 ,the first kind seems justified1 for it is directed against the same unjust employer1 and the workers are cooperators to defend the rights of one group against him4 ,in the second case of striking against different employers1 the 8sympathizers0 are striking against a just employer and are violating their work contract which binds in commutative justice4 ,hence this type of strike seems to be essentially unjust4 7d7 ,the lockout is the employer's strike4 ,unwilling to grant the worker's demand1 the employer shuts down his plant1 thus terminating employment of both strikers and non-strikers4 ,the same conditions and restrictions that apply to the strike are applicable to lockouts4 ,that the lockout itself is not unjust1 but at least morally indifferent1 appears to be evident in this1 that as workers are not bound to submit to injustice1 neither is the employer4 ,he cannot be expected to pay wages when essential employers have quit or stalled production4 7e7 ,a boycott is a mass refusal to patronize a certain business with the effort to persuade others to join in the refusal4 ,historically it has been used by labor to gain support from the public against an employer or by elements of the public itself to protest some evil practice of a business establishment1 e4g41 ,legion of ,decency boycotts of indecent pictures1 ,,nodl boycotts of literature1 etc4 ,in itself1 a boycott is not immoral1 since no one is obliged to trade in one place in preference to another and may refuse to trade with persons who are unjust or otherwise immoral4 ,there seems to be no reason also to prevent a person from lawfully persuading others to follow his cause4 ,the principles of a just strike are applicable to the justification of boycotts1 and the conditions of a sympathy strike are to be applied to secondary boycotts1 i4e41 against other firms doing business with a boycotted firm4 ,these other firms are not themselves unjust and should not be made to suffer for the injustice of another4 ,hence1 a very grave cause1 co-operation in injustice1 for example would be necessary to bring pressure against them4 #bfej4 ,is ,there ,any ,obligation of ,giving ,employment8--7a7 ,the ,state certainly has an obligation in legal justice of offering opportunities of work to those who cannot find it1 if the public welfare is compromised by widespread unemployment4 ,even if only one worker were without work through no fault of his own1 the duty of helping him would seem to devolve on the ,state1 since the laborer has a right to work and the ,state has the duty of promoting the temporal welfare of its subjects when they are unable to provide for themselves4 7b7 ,employers have a duty of commutative justice to give work to men with whom they have made a contract of labor and not to keep work from men unfairly2 hence1 arbitrary dismissal or blacklisting is a crime against justice4 ,they should also try to secure other employment for good workers whom they are unable to keep1 so as to tide over for the men the slack seasons when some have to be laid off4 ,industry1 organized labor and individuals should interest themselves practically in private movements and plans to remedy unemployment situations1 for these are matters that should not be left entirely to the ,state and charity4 ,employment and honest wages are in the long run to the advantage of employers as well as of employees1 and are therefore good business as well as good morals4 #bfea4 ,duties of ,certain ,professions4--7a7 ,judges and ,lawyers4--,the duties of men of the law were discussed already in #aidj sqq4 ,clients on their part owe their lawyers fair treatment and just compensation for services1 while those who have part in a judicial process must give respect to the judge and other officials of the court and due obedience to their directions4 7b7 ,teachers and ,students4--,teachers must make themselves proficient in their matter and in the art of pedagogy2 must take care that their teaching is accurate and beneficial2 must be steady1 punctual1 orderly2 must give no example or advice but what is good2 must be neither too lenient nor too exacting2 must preserve discipline in their classes by correcting1 punishing1 or expelling as need requires2 must be just1 neither petting nor bullying1 and must award honors and averages according to merit4 ,there may be grave harm and sin in denying important academic degrees 7such as ,s4,t4,m41 ,s4,t4,d41 ,j4,d4,c41 ,m4,d47 to the worthy or in conferring them on the unworthy4 ,students on their part owe to their teachers respect and obedience in class matters1 to their parents and themselves diligence in study1 and to their school avoidance of cheating and of disorderly conduct4 ,in athletics they should not aim at winning for winning's sake1 or playing for playing's sake1 but at the true goal of a sound mind in a sound body4 ,in the selection of preferred studies they should remember that nothing worth while is won without hard work1 and that the true objectives of learning are not mere utility1 or gain or diversion1 but the culture of mind and of spirit4 7c7 ,physicians1 ,surgeons1 ,nurses1 and ,druggists4--,these persons must have sufficient knowledge and skill1 and must keep up with the progress of medical science2 they must not deny their services or delay to come when there is urgent need2 they must give a case diligence proportionate to its seriousness2 they must consult in case of doubt1 follow the safer opinions1 and use the more likely remedies4 ,in his relations with his patient a doctor must be chaste 7e4g41 avoiding immoral advice or operations1 unnecessary psychoanalytic conversations1 or bodily exposures72 loyal to the confidences received2 honest and charitable1 not prescribing useless remedies1 or overcharging1 or refusing service to the poor2 mindful of the religious needs of his patients1 being not too ready to exempt them from church duties nor slow to remind them when they should send for the priest4 ,patients on their part should honor the physician1 call him in need1 obey his directions1 and properly compensate him for his services4 ,what is here said of physicians and surgeons is true also of nurses in their duties and capacities4 ,pharmacists are bound to exercise great care in filling prescriptions2 they should not cooperate with abortion or contraception by selling medicines1 instruments or appliances to be used for those purposes2 they should not sell drugs1 dopes1 poisons1 liquors1 etc41 forbidden by law4 ,question ,,iv ,,the ,,sacraments #bfeb4 ,in the three ,questions that preceded we spoke of the means by which man is sanctified and is enabled to secure supernatural rewards through the merits of his own works2 for the virtues make their possessor as well as his acts morally righteous1 while through ,god's grace the good deeds done for ,his sake entitle the doer to the crown of eternal life4 ,in the present ,question we pass on to consider certain means by which ,god is honored by man and man is sanctified through the application to his soul of the merits and passion of ,christ2 for the ,sacraments were instituted by ,christ both as external acts of religion 7#bage1 #bbdd7 and as most powerful agencies to begin1 restore1 and increase the life of holiness4 #bfec4 ,it should be observed1 first1 that the present work is concerned with ,moral ,theology2 and1 secondly1 that it must be confined within the limited number of pages which a two-volume production of convenient size necessitates4 ,hence the reader will understand why in the ,question now beginning we speak only of man's duties in reference to the ,sacraments1 and omit other points that do not so strictly pertain to ,moral4 7a7 ,thus1 the nature1 institution1 number and effects of the ,sacraments belong to ,dogma1 which the authors hope to treat later in a similar work4 7b7 ,the administration of the ,sacraments1 their rites1 rubrics1 ceremonies are set forth in ritual books and works on liturgy4 7c7 ,the legal rights of ministers1 canonical requirements on registration1 penal and processual legislation in reference to the ,sacraments1 and like juridical questions are treated fully in commentaries on pertinent sections of the ,code4 ,art4 #a3 ,,the ,,sacraments ,,in ,,general2 ,,the ,,sacramentals 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,iii1 qq4 #fj-fe47 #bfed4 ,nature of a ,sacrament4--,in the ,new ,law a ,sacrament is an outward sign instituted permanently by ,christ to signify and convey grace4 7a7 ,the internal cause or essence of a ,sacrament is the outward sign1 which has two parts4 ,the indeterminate part or matter is a visible object 7e4g41 the water of ,baptism1 the chrism of ,confirmation1 the bread and wine of the ,eucharist1 the oil of ,extreme ,unction1 the imposition of hands in ,orders7 or a perceptible act that looks to another act for its perfectionment 7e4g41 the confession1 etc41 of the penitent in penance2 the giving of oneself as spouse in ,matrimony74 ,the determining part1 or form1 is either the sacred formula spoken over the material element 7e4g41 in ,baptism the words 8,i baptize thee1 etc407 or an act that completes another act 7e4g41 the acceptance of another as spouse in ,matrimony74 ,as the matter must be visible or otherwise sense-perceptible1 so the form must be audible or at least 7in ,matrimony7 equivalently audible2 for a ,sacrament is a sensible sign4 ,the words are audible when they are heard or are capable of being heard at least by the minister4 7b7 ,the external efficient cause or instituter of the ,sacraments is ,christ1 the founder of the ,new ,testament religion and the productive and meritorious author of grace as our ,god and ,saviour4 7c7 ,the external final cause or purpose of the ,sacraments is to symbolize outwardly by their rite and to work inwardly by their instrumental virtue the application of ,christ's redemption in the soul of properly disposed recipients4 ,it is the nature of ,baptism and ,penance 7,sacraments of the ,dead7 to produce first grace or forgiveness1 of the others to produce second grace or increase of holiness 7,sacraments of the ,living74 ,furthermore1 three of the ,sacraments 7,baptism1 ,confirmation1 ,orders7 have a second effect1 since they sign the soul with the indelible character of member or soldier or minister of ,christ1 and hence these ,sacraments cannot be repeated4 #bfee4 ,rules on the ,invalid ,use of the ,matter and ,form of the ,sacraments4--7a7 ,since the matter and form are essential constituents without which the ,sacraments are not had1 it is sacrilegious to invalidate a ,sacrament by substantial changes in either of these parts4 ,the matter is changed substantially when it is so modified as currently to be considered and called something different from the element appointed by ,christ4 ,thus1 wine is unfit for the ,eucharist if corrupted into vinegar1 or made unsuitable as a drink 7e4g41 probably as long as it remains frozen71 or notably adulterated 7e4g41 when it is mixed half and half with water74 ,the form is changed substantially when it is so modified that to a listener it no longer conveys the sense intended by ,christ4 ,this happens when the changed form does not express the chief ideas of the correct form1 as when it does not determine who is the minister of ,penance 7e4g41 8,you are absolved071 or who is the subject of ,baptism 7e4g41 8,ego baptizo in nomine1 etc4071 or what is the effect of the ,eucharist 7e4g41 8,hoc non est corpus meum10 8,hoc est corpus10 8,hic meum est corpus071 or the action of the minister of ,penance 7e4g41 8,ego abluo te a peccatis071 or the profession in ,baptism of faith in the ,trinity 7e4g41 8,ego te baptizo1 ,amen074 7b7 ,since the matter and form are parts of a single composite sign1 it is sacrilegious to invalidate a ,sacrament by substantial separations1 which destroy the continuity or unity of signification4 ,there is a substantial separation within the form when such long intervals occur between the pronunciation of its syllables or words that it is not in common estimation a united sentence or proposition2 for example1 if the celebrant says1 8,hoc est cor-10 then sneezes two or three times1 and 7instead of repeating the words7 concludes 8-pus meum10 or says 8,hoc est corpus0 and after an interruption of several minutes 7instead of repeating7 finishes with3 8meum40 ,there is substantial separation between the matter and form1 if the former is applied by one minister and the latter is spoken by another1 although the form declares that the matter is applied by the speaker of the form3 for example1 if ,titus pours the water while ,claudius says3 8,i baptize thee1 etc40 ,even when the same minister applies both matter and form1 there is a substantial separation between these parts when the form is not spoken at the same time or for the same time that the matter is posited1 and thereby1 from the special character of the ,sacrament1 leaves the signification of the sacramental matter unsettled4 ,this happens when the form is spoken too long before or too long after the presence or application of the matter1 or when the form is limited by a future condition which will not be verified during the continuance of the matter 7see #bffh74 #bfef4 ,simultaneity of ,matter and ,form4--,the simultaneity of matter and form which validity requires must be either moral or physical according to the character of the ,sacrament4 7a7 ,there is physical simultaneity when matter and form are present in the same instants of time4 ,this kind of union is demanded in the ,eucharist1 for it has the character of a transubstantiation of bread and ,wine present at the moments the words of consecration are said over them4 ,there would be no ,sacrament if the bread were absent even during a part of the consecration4 7b7 ,there is a moral simultaneity like to the physical contemporaneousness when the matter and form are partly present in the same instants of time1 and perhaps also 7as some hold7 when one follows the other with such close succession that not more than a ,pater or ,ave could be said between them4 ,this kind of union is the maximum in ,penance and ,matrimony1 for absolution must follow after confession1 and conjugal acceptance must follow after conjugal offer4 ,it suffices in ,baptism1 ,confirmation1 ,extreme ,unction1 and ,orders2 for these four ,sacraments do not consecrate the matter 7and hence some little separation is allowed71 but they do signify in the present tense the bestowal of grace through the application of the matter 7and hence any separation must be of the slightest74 7c7 ,there is a purely moral simultaneity when the form follows the matter after a somewhat considerable interval of time has elapsed1 but with a connection between the two based on human usage which carries the matter on in human estimation over to the time the form is employed4 ,this suffices in ,penance and ,matrimony4 ,penance has the character of a judicial process1 whose unity is not destroyed by some little delay between the discussion and the sentence2 and hence it seems that absolution could be given validly an hour after confession4 ,matrimony has the character of a contract1 whose unity is preserved even in spite of a long interval between the date of consent of the first party and the date of consent of the second party4 #bfeg4 ,lawfulness of ,moral ,simultaneity in the ,sacraments ,other than the ,eucharist4--7a7 ,in ,baptism1 ,confirmation1 ,extreme ,unction1 and ,orders1 it would seem on account of the danger of nullity to be a serious sin to exclude all physical simultaneity between matter and form 7e4g41 to pour all the water and then to begin the words3 8,i baptize thee1 etc410 or vice versa74 ,in practice the ,rubrics should be followed4 7b7 ,in ,penance and ,matrimony it is more or less sinful to make needless1 though not invalidating1 delays4 ,in ordinary practice the confessor should absolve as soon as the confession has been heard and the penance accepted1 and the bride should express her consent immediately after the bridegroom has expressed his4 #bfeh4 ,accidental ,changes or ,separations as to ,matter and ,form4--7a7 ,these administrations are not invalid1 for they preserve the essence of the elements or the sense of the words appointed by ,christ4 ,examples of accidental change of matter are baptismal water to which a relatively very small quantity of wine has been added1 or wine for the ,eucharist to which a relatively trifling amount of water has been added4 ,the form is accidentally modified if translated into the vernacular or rendered by synonymous words 7e4g41 8,ego abluo te1 etc4071 or if an unimportant word 7e4g41 8enim07 is added or subtracted1 or if the words are transposed or partially repeated or unintentionally mispronounced without detriment to sense 7e4g41 8,hoc est meum corpus10 8,hoc1 hoc1 est1 est1 etc410 8,hoc est copus meum074 ,there is accidental separation when slight pauses are made between words1 or when an interval not destructive of the sense falls between the use of the matter and the use of the form 7see #bfee1 #bfef74 7b7 ,these administrations are unlawful and from their nature mortally sinful1 since they are transgressions of a precept of the ,church meant to safeguard respect for the ,sacraments of ,christ1 and they are therefore opposed to the virtue of religion 7#badg74 ,but the sin may be venial by reason of lightness of matter 7e4g41 omission of the word 8enim071 or of imperfection of the act4 ,scandal1 danger of invalidity1 contempt1 and bad intention would make even a small change a serious sin4 ,in practice the rule to follow is to observe exactly the prescribed matter and form and entire rite1 to pronounce the words clearly and slowly1 to repeat the form when any involuntary interruption happens between its essential parts1 and to unite the matter and form as closely as possible4 #bfei4 ,substantial ,changes or ,separations4--,substantial changes or separations a fortiori are grave sins4 ,they offend against religion 7since they make a mockery of the sacred signs appointed by ,christ71 against obedience 7since they disregard a most serious precept of the ,church71 against charity 7since they deprive the recipient of sacramental grace71 and against justice 7at least when the minister is bound ex officio to confer the ,sacrament1 since there is then a quasi-contract with the recipient to administer the ,sacrament correctly74 #bffj4 ,doubtful ,matter4--,it is sometimes probable but not certain that an element suffices for the matter of a ,sacrament 7e4g41 coffee or tea for ,baptism1 chrism for ,extreme ,unction74 ,hence the question3 8,is it lawful to use probable matter in the administration of a ,sacrament80 7a7 ,if certain matter cannot be had and the ,sacrament is urgently necessary or very useful1 probable matter may be used4 ,for the ,sacraments were instituted by ,christ to benefit man 78,the ,sacraments are for men071 and hence it is not irreverent to give to one in need a probably valid ,sacrament when a certainly valid ,sacrament is impossible4 ,thus1 a dying infant may and should be baptized with coffee1 if no pure water can be procured in time2 the last anointing may be conferred with chrism1 if the oil of the sick cannot be had before a dying man will have expired4 7b7 ,if certain matter can be had1 or if the ,sacrament is not urgently necessary or useful1 probable matter may not be used without grave sin2 for there is then no reason of necessity to justify the risk to which the ,sacrament and perhaps also the recipient are exposed1 ,thus1 it is not lawful to baptize with coffee when pure water can be secured1 or to confirm with chrism not blessed by a bishop a dying man who had just received the last ,sacraments1 even though other chrism is unobtainable 7see #ffa1 #fgh1 #gaa1 and ,denziger1 n4 #aaea74 #bffa4 ,what ,sacraments ,have a ,necessity of ,means 7see #cfj1 #ghf1 #baef78--7;a7 ,those ,sacraments have a necessity of means without which sanctifying grace and salvation cannot be had4 ,hence the necessity for individuals of ,baptism 7without which there is no regeneration71 of ,penance 7without which there is no reconciliation71 of the ,eucharist's effect 7without which there is no incorporation with ,christ71 and for the ,church the necessity of ,orders 7without which there are no ministers and dispensers of grace1 ,prov41 xi1 #ad74 7b7 ,those ,sacraments have no necessity of means without which sanctifying grace and salvation can be had2 but they have a necessity of convenience1 inasmuch as they perfect grace already had and make salvation more easy4 ,in this sense1 then1 ,confirmation and ,extreme ,unction may be called necessary for the individual1 since the former perfects the grace of ,baptism and the latter the grace of ,penance2 and ,matrimony may be called necessary for the ,church1 since it perfects with a sacramental grace the propagation of the children of the ,church4 #bffb4 ,reception of ,sacraments in re or in voto4--,the ,sacraments that have a necessity of means must be received either in themselves 7in re7 or in desire 7in voto74 7a7 ,thus1 ,baptism in re is necessary for all infants 7,john1 iii4 #e71 ,baptism in re or in voto for all adults 7,john1 xiv4 #ba-bc74 ,baptism of desire consists in an act of perfect charity or contrition made by an unbaptized person1 which includes the will to do all that ,god has commanded1 and consequently at least an implicit or virtual desire of ,baptism of water4 ,as is proved in ,dogmatic ,theology1 ,baptism may be supplied for1 as regards grace1 by martyrdom in an infant and by martyrdom joined with attrition in an adult4 7b7 ,penance in re or in voto is necessary for all who have committed grave sin after ,baptism4 ,the desire of the ,sacrament is an act of perfect charity or contrition1 which includes at least implicitly the wish to receive absolution4 ,martyrdom joined with attrition also suffices4 7c7 ,the ,sacrament of the ,eucharist is not a necessary means for anyone1 either in re or in voto2 for the essential grace of justification can be obtained through ,baptism and ,penance4 ,but the proper result 7res7 of the ,eucharist1 which consists in incorporation with ,christ1 perseverance1 and life eternal1 is a necessary means in voto1 tacitly or interpretatively2 for ,baptism1 as was said1 is absolutely necessary for salvation1 and ,baptism itself is a tacit or interpretative desire of the result of the ,eucharist1 inasmuch as ,baptism is but a means to that result and the beginning of its accomplishment4 #bffc4 ,what ,sacraments ,have a ,necessity of ,precept8--,an act is said to fall under precept per se1 when it is directly commanded in a law that mentions it specifically2 it is said to fall under precept per accidens1 when it becomes obligatory in virtue of a law that does not command it directly or specifically 7cfr4 #ice1 #ajii1 #afjb74 7a7 ,there is a divine precept obliging per se and sub gravi in reference to ,baptism 78,preach the ,gospel to all nations1 baptizing them1 etc410 ,matt41 xxviii4 #ai71 ,penance 78,whose sins you shall forgive1 they are forgiven them1 etc401 ,john1 xx4 #bc71 and the ,eucharist 78,unless you eat the flesh of the ,son of man1 you shall not have life in you10 ,john1 vi4 #ed74 ,according to some authorities there is also a divine precept obliging at least sub levi to receive ,confirmation 78,he commanded them to await the promise of the ,father10 ,acts1 i4 #d7 and ,extreme ,unction 78,is there any man sick among you8 ,let him bring in the priests of the ,church10 ,james1 v4 #ad74 7b7 ,there is a divine precept obliging per accidens and sub gravi in reference to ,confirmation and ,extreme ,unction1 when they cannot be omitted without peril to salvation1 scandal to neighbors1 or other such inconvenience which one is seriously bound to prevent4 ,similarly1 there might be a per accidens obligation of receiving ,matrimony or ,orders 7see #bfbg74 7c7 ,there are ecclesiastical precepts determining the circumstances of the reception of ,penance and the ,eucharist 7see #beij-beic7 and prescribing ,confirmation for candidates to ,orders 7,canon #igd74 ,moreover1 the ,code reminds us that no one may lawfully neglect ,confirmation when he has an opportunity to receive it 7,canon #ghg71 and likewise that it is not lawful to neglect ,extreme ,unction 7,canon #idd74 #bffd4 ,twofold ,ministry of the ,sacraments4--7a7 ,the ministry of production 7confectio7 is the application of form to matter that makes the ,sacrament 7e4g41 the consecration of bread and wine72 7b7 the ministry of bestowal 7administratio7 is the application of the ,sacrament to the human recipient 7e4g41 the ,communion74 ,the ,eucharist is a permanent object1 whereas ,baptism and the rest are transitory actions4 ,hence it is that in the ,eucharist1 but not in the other ,sacraments1 the two ministries are separated1 and hence it is also that the ,eucharist may be validly given or validly received by those who cannot validly consecrate4 #bffe4 ,requirements in the ,minister for ,valid ,performance of a ,sacrament4--7a7 ,the ,person of the ,minister4--,as the minister represents ,christ1 only those may perform a ,sacrament to whom ,christ has given authority4 ,hence1 ordinarily only mortals and human beings--not the ,angels or departed ,saints--can administer a ,sacrament4 ,further1 as the ministry of a ,sacrament may include an act of power and authority1 there are various ranks of ministers4 ,thus1 the ministry of ,matrimony supposes no power or orders or spiritual authority1 and the ministers are the parties themselves2 that of ,solemn ,baptism1 ,eucharist1 ,penance1 and ,extreme ,unction supposes orders and lower authority1 and the minister is the priest2 that of ,confirmation and ,orders supposes higher authority1 and the minister is the bishop4 7b7 ,the ,acts of the ,minister4--,as the minister acts as ,christ's responsible agent to whose wise discretion the dispensation of the ,sacraments is committed1 he must have at least the external attention of mind sufficient to perform all that the rite demands and the internal intention of will sufficient to make his ministry an act that is human1 sacred1 and definitely symbolical of the sacramental effects4 #bfff4 ,the ,necessary ,intention4--,the intention or purpose of the minister therefore must have the following qualities3 7a7 objectively1 there must be an intention of doing what the ,church does 7i4e41 of performing a sacred rite instituted by ,christ1 for the minister acts in the name and authority of ,christ74 ,hence a mock sacrament--or even1 more probably1 a purely external performance with no purpose to enact a sacred rite--does not suffice4 ,but1 on the other hand1 an unbeliever can administer validly if he really intends to do what ,christians do or what ,christ commanded to be done4 ,the intention not to do what the ,church does was the chief cause of the nullity of ,anglican ,orders2 7b7 subjectively1 the intention must be at least virtual1 so as to ensure a deliberate act4 ,an actual intention is not necessary1 because it is often impossible on account of its difficulty2 while an habitual intention is not sufficient1 because it does not influence the act so as to make it human 7see #bafe74 ,the interpretative intention 7i4e41 a purpose that never existed1 but that would presumably have existed1 had attention been given the matter7 is with greater reason insufficient2 7c7 modally1 the intention must be such as to make precise the character of the action as a special sacred rite2 for just as the matter awaits the form or word to receive the imprint of a sacred significance1 so do the ceremonial words themselves look to the internal purpose of the minister for their fixed meaning4 ,hence1 the ,sacrament is invalid if the minister's purpose is indeterminate 7e4g41 if a priest wills to consecrate ten undesignated hosts out of the hundred contained in a ciborium1 or to absolve one undesignated person of a multitude72 or if the purpose is self-exclusive 7e4g41 if a bridegroom has two mutually incompatible intentions1 namely1 to marry the bride and also to marry her only for a time72 or if the purpose is left in suspense 7e4g41 if a priest makes his absolution depend on future restitution or any other non-existent condition1 and most probably also if the minister makes the ,sacrament depend on the recipient's predestination or other such condition known only to ,god74 #bffg4 ,rules on ,plurality of ,intentions4--7a7 ,when opposite intentions are simultaneous1 if one of them is predominant in the minister's will and not insociable with the ,sacrament1 that one prevails and the ,sacrament is valid2 otherwise the ,sacrament is null4 7b7 ,when opposite intentions are successive1 the later prevails over the earlier1 unless the earlier was stronger and meant to endure in spite of other intentions1 and it has not been recalled expressly by the will4 #bffh4 ,requisites for ,use of ,conditional ,intention4--7a7 ,the use must be valid or non-suspensive 7#bfff e71 and hence 7,matrimony excepted on account of its special character as a contract7 the minister may not confer a ,sacrament under a condition de futuro4 ,but conditions de praesenti 7e4g41 8,i absolve you1 if you are repentant07 or de praeterito 7e4g41 8,i baptize you1 if you have not received ,baptism07 are valid4 7b7 ,the use of a conditional intention must be lawful1 or justified by a sufficient reason4 ,normally the minister should intend absolutely to give a ,sacrament1 as the forms of the ,sacraments are unconditional4 ,but if the absolute intention would be disrespectful1 because there is doubt whether all the requisites for the ,sacrament are present1 while on the other hand denial of the ,sacrament would be harmful because the subject needs it1 both disrespect to the ,sacrament and harm to the subject are avoided by conditional administration4 ,the doubt spoken of may refer to the recipient 7e4g41 whether he is living or otherwise capable1 whether he is contrite or otherwise disposed7 or to the ,sacrament 7e4g41 whether it has been received or received validly1 whether the form has been rightly spoken1 whether the present matter is valid74 7c7 ,the use of the conditional intention must be legal according to the rules prescribed by the ,church4 ,thus1 according to the ,ritual the conditional intention in ,baptism and ,extreme ,unction 78,si non es baptizatus10 8,si vivis07 must be expressed vocally4 ,moreover1 conditional marriages are not permitted as a rule except there be a grave reason and the bishop consents4 #bffi4 ,lawful ,administration of ,sacraments4--,lawful administration of a ,sacrament demands1 in addition to the conditions for validity 7#bffe-bffh71 that the minister and his ministry be worthy1 for even in the ,old ,law it was strictly commanded that holy things be treated in a holy manner 7,isa41 lii4 #aa2 ,lev41 xxi4 xxii74 ,hence1 a person who fulfilled the conditions for validity but who lacked one or other of the qualities mentioned below would perform and confer a true ,sacrament1 but he would sin more or less seriously on account of the unworthy administration1 unless good faith excused him4 7a7 ,the ,minister's ,worthiness before ,god4--,the state of grace is required in consecrated ministers when they minister solemnly and ex officio in performing a ,sacrament2 for they act then as representatives of ,christ1 who is holy1 and exercise most sacred functions which ,he appointed as means of holiness and which they were ordained to perform holily4 ,the sin of unworthiness is a grave sacrilege4 ,it seems there is per se no grave sin1 if the minister is not consecrated 7e4g41 in lay ,baptism71 or if the ministry is not ex officio 7e4g41 in a ,baptism of necessity given by a priest but without the solemn ceremonies71 or if a ,sacrament is not made or performed 7e4g41 when confession is heard but absolution not given1 when ,communion is administered1 when the ,blessed ,sacrament is carried74 ,it is generally admitted that there is no grave sin even in a solemn and official performance of a ,sacrament1 if the ,sacrament is urgently necessary and the state of grace cannot be recovered in time2 also in the exercise of a function which is not itself a ,sacrament 7e4g41 to be official witness at a marriage or deacon at ,mass1 to preach1 bless1 give ,minor ,orders1 chant or say the ,office74 ,when the state of grace is necessary for his ministry1 one who is in sin must to the best of his ability recover that state by going to confession or at least by making an act of contrition4 7b7 ,the ,minister's ,worthiness ,before the ,church4--,since the ,church is the custodian of the ,sacraments1 these cannot be lawfully performed or administered by those who are under her censure or who have not received her license4 ,the excommunicated and the irregular sin gravely if they administer ,sacraments1 unless the faithful lawfully request administration from them 7see #bfhc74 ,only priests are licensed to act as ministers of ,baptism1 ,penance1 ,extreme ,unction and the ,eucharist1 and the pastor of a place is the authorized minister for that territory2 but in case of need even the laity may administer ,baptism1 a priest other than the pastor may give the ,last ,sacraments1 and the sick may confess to any confessor with due faculties4 7c7 ,worthiness of the ,ministration4--,internally the ministry should be devout and attentive2 for1 if private worship should be religiously made1 much more the worship contained in the ,sacraments 7see #baej1 #bbdd74 ,voluntary distractions1 however1 do not seem to be gravely sinful1 unless the validity of the rite is imperilled by them4 ,externally the ministry should be dignified and rubrical4 ,canon #gcc requires that each one observe the accidental ceremonies of his own ,rite and liturgical books4 ,since ceremonies were instituted by the ,church from the earliest ages and are prescribed in virtue of religion 7,catechism of the ,council of ,trent1 page #aeb71 it is sinful to neglect them unless a rubric is merely directive or optional1 such as the rules before and after ,mass4 ,the preceptive rubrics oblige sub gravi as to notable matter 7e4g41 the anointing in ,baptism71 sub levi as to inconsiderable matter 7e4g41 words1 bows1 crosses1 etc4 of minor importance72 but one may be excused from guilt1 or grave guilt1 on account of imperfection of act 7e4g41 inadvertence caused by external distractions7 or impossibility 7e4g41 ceremonies curtailed because of approaching death1 scandal or wonder of the people74 ,the ,roman ,ritual 7,title ,i1 n4 #aj7 advises the explanation of the ceremonies for the benefit of those who assist at the administration of the ,sacraments1 and recommends the ,catechism of the ,council of ,trent for this purpose4 #bfgj4 ,multiplication of ,sins of ,unworthy ,administration4--,how many sins are committed by the minister when ,sacraments are unworthily administered to many recipients at one time1 as when several children are baptized together1 or a large gathering of penitents are heard one after the other1 etc48 7a7 ,according to the strict view1 there are as many distinct sins as there are distinct administrations1 for each ,sacrament is separate from the other4 ,but in case of ,communion1 since the separate ,communions are parts of the one ,eucharistic banquet1 there is but one sin1 mortal or venial1 according to the view taken of an administration that is not also performance of a ,sacrament4 7b7 ,according to the mild view1 there is but one sin1 since sins are not multiplied numerically when they form morally but one act on account of the unity given them by the purpose of the agent and the circumstances4 #bfga4 ,requirements for a ,valid ,sacrament in ,reference to the ,recipient4--7a7 ,the ,person of the ,recipient4--,since the ,sacraments were instituted as means of salvation1 they can be given only to those who are still wayfarers in the present mortal existence1 and hence a ,sacrament administered to a brute animal or a corpse would be invalid1 or1 in the case of ,communion1 would not be received sacramentally4 ,as ,baptism is the preparation for the other ,sacraments1 but need not presuppose personal sinfulness1 its subject is any and every unbaptized person1 infant or adult1 male or female4 ,the other six ,sacraments presuppose ,baptism1 and only those who have been initiated into the ,church by ,baptism can receive them validly4 ,as to these six ,sacraments only males are capable of ,orders1 which is for the rulers of the ,church2 only adults are capable of ,penance1 ,extreme ,unction and ,matrimony1 which suppose personal sin or personal contract4 ,further1 the impotent and impeded are incapable of ,matrimony1 and those who are not in danger of death from sickness are incapable of ,extreme ,unction4 ,finally1 those who have been baptized1 confirmed1 or ordained1 cannot be rebaptized1 reconfirmed1 or reordained1 since these three ,sacraments can be given but once2 he who is married cannot marry again while his wife lives and the bond endures2 he who has been anointed cannot be reanointed during the same danger4 7b7 ,the ,acts of the ,recipient4--,if the recipient is an infant1 no disposition on his part is necessary1 since he does not understand4 ,if the recipient is an adult1 it is necessary in the performance of every ,sacrament 7on the ,eucharist see #bffd7 that he have some intention or willingness to receive the ,sacrament1 since ,christ does not wish to confer benefits or impose certain grave burdens on those who are unwilling4 ,a forced ,sacrament to which the subject yielded no internal consent would be a null ,sacrament4 ,further1 since an essential part 7namely1 the matter1 or according to others a conditio sine qua non7 of ,penance is the faith and repentance of the recipient1 these dispositions are necessary in that ,sacrament4 #bfgb4 ,qualities of the ,recipient's ,intention4--7a7 ,objectively1 the recipient should intend to receive what the ,church confers1 and hence intentions that are not serious1 or are mistaken or external 7e4g41 ,baptism received for the sake of rehearsal1 or in the belief that it is a profane ablution1 or accepted as a pure formality71 do not seem sufficient 7see #bfff74 7b7 ,subjectively4--,the recipient must positively will the ,sacrament1 for it seems that the so-called neutral intention--in which the subject neither consents nor dissents internally1 but is passive and indifferent1 and acquiesces externally only to please another--is not a true desire4 ,but the strength or influence of the recipient's intention need not be so great as the minister's1 since the role of the minister is to perform the rite1 that of the subject only to receive the rite 7see #bffe74 #bfgc4 ,when a ,virtual ,intention ,is ,necessary4--,it is generally agreed1 therefore1 that while the interpretative intention does not suffice1 the actual intention and even1 for the most part1 the virtual intention are not necessary4 ,but about the virtual intention the following should be noted2 7a7 a virtual and explicit intention is necessary in ,matrimony if a party be considered1 not precisely as recipient1 but as minister of the ,sacrament 7see #bfff7 and as maker of the contract 7see #ahhc72 7b7 a virtual and at least implicit intention is necessary in ,penance1 if a penitent is considered precisely as positing the requisite matter or condition of the ,sacrament1 since this consists in repentance1 and repentance includes either an express or an implied desire of sacramental absolution4 #bfgd4 ,when an ,habitual ,intention ,suffices4--,the habitual intention is found in those who are not conscious 7see #bafe71 but it suffices for the reception of a ,sacrament1 since the recipient does not affect the ,sacrament1 and it is enough that he had the good will to accept it and has not retracted that will4 7a7 ,an habitual and explicit intention suffices for the three ,sacraments that impose special obligations1 namely1 ,baptism1 ,orders1 and ,matrimony4 ,hence1 he who has asked for ,baptism is validly baptized after he becomes delirious2 he who has asked for ,orders is validly ordained even when unconscious2 he who has sent his consent to a marriage by proxy receives the ,sacrament during his sleep1 if the other party's consent closing the contract is given at that time4 7b7 ,an habitual and implicit intention included in a particular will to do a good act on which the ,sacrament follows in natural course1 suffices for the other three ,sacraments which do not impose special obligations4 ,hence1 a person who purposed to live as a ,catholic is validly confirmed while unconscious2 a person who intended to die as a ,catholic is validly absolved and anointed1 as far as intention is concerned1 at the moment of death1 even though he be out of his mind4 ,further1 if an unbaptized person has resolved to become a ,catholic but has no knowledge of ,baptism itself1 he is validly baptized in virtue of his implicit desire1 even though he be unconscious4 7c7 ,an habitual and implicit intention included in a general will to do all that is necessary for salvation or a good life is taught by some authors1 and is by them considered sufficient for ,baptism1 since it is the most necessary ,sacrament1 and the ,sacraments are for men4 ,an unbaptized person of good will who has supernatural contrition or charity is justified through ,baptism of desire1 but if he has only supernatural attrition the ,sacrament itself is necessary for him4 ,hence1 in case of urgent need conditional ,baptism should be given a dying and unconscious infidel who was well disposed2 but1 as the intention is not certain1 the ,baptism should be repeated in case of recovery4 ,the same principle is extended by some moralists to the administration of ,penance and ,extreme ,unction to schismatics and heretics who are in danger of death4 #bfge4 ,requirements for ,lawful or ,fruitful ,reception of a ,sacrament by an ,adult4--7a7 ,worthiness of the ,recipient from ,divine ,law4--,the two ,sacraments of the ,dead1 ,baptism and ,penance1 were intended by ,christ to be means of forgiveness to the repentant1 and hence they require at least that the recipient believe himself attrite4 ,the five ,sacraments of the ,living were meant by ,christ to strengthen grace and life already had1 and consequently he who approaches them must have no serious fault on his conscience4 ,conscious unworthiness is a sacrilege1 and only extreme necessity can excuse reception in such a state 7e4g41 when a sinner takes ,communion to save the ,host from profanation74 7b7 ,worthiness from ,church ,law4--,the recipient must be free from church censures 7,canon #bbfj7 or impediments1 and must possess the preparation or qualification which the church law prescribes 7e4g41 a certain age is required for ,confirmation2 the ,eucharist must be received fasting2 the candidate for ,orders must be approved1 etc474 7c7 ,worthiness of ,reception4--,the ,sacraments should be received devoutly1 with proper preparation1 attention1 and thanksgiving4 ,in the case of the ,eucharist1 though intention is not necessary for validity1 it is required for a sacramental or fruitful ,communion2 an habitual and implicit intention suffices for the ,viaticum 7and ,easter ,communion71 an habitual explicit intention for ,communion of devotion4 #bfgf4 ,when ,is the ,minister of the ,sacraments ,bound to ,give ,them8--7a7 ,a pastor is obliged to give a ,sacrament to one of his own subjects who reasonably requests it1 and to do so willingly1 freely 7,canon #gcf71 and1 if he has no substitute1 in person2 for a spiritual shepherd has a grave duty of justice and charity to feed his flock4 ,a request is not reasonable1 however1 if compliance will put the pastor to an inconvenience greater than that which the parishioner will suffer from a refusal1 for example1 when ,baptisms1 ,confessions1 or ,communions are needlessly asked for outside the appointed hours1 or when sick calls that can be attended during the day are sent in at night4 ,the ,sacraments necessary for salvation 7,baptism and ,penance7 should be given even at the risk of life1 if the subject is in grave need and there is assured hope of success 7see #aafg71 and doubtless this should be applied also to ,extreme ,unction or even the ,viaticum4 7b7 ,one who is not a pastor is obliged from charity to give the ,sacraments to those who reasonably ask4 ,he would be obliged even to risk his life to save a soul1 if there were no one else to administer a necessary ,sacrament to a person in extreme spiritual peril who could be saved by his ministry4 #bfgg4 ,when ,is the ,minister of the ,sacraments ,bound to ,deny ,them8--7a7 ,he must always deny them to those who are incapable1 for otherwise he insults the ,sacrament4 ,under no circumstances1 then1 may a priest baptize one who is already baptized1 or absolve one who is unrepentant2 and he may not assist at the attempted marriage of a divorcee4 ,likewise1 as is manifest1 he must always deny the ,sacraments to those who ask for them out of hatred or contempt for religion1 for to grant them in such circumstances would be an act intrinsically evil4 7b7 ,he must deny them1 as a rule1 to those who to his knowledge are certainly unworthy 7e4g41 on account of lack of requisite instruction or moral disposition72 otherwise1 he casts pearls before swine1 cooperates in the sacrilege of others1 and scandalizes the people4 ,hence1 a public sinner--that is1 one whose unworthiness is notorious 7see #bjec7--should not be given the ,sacraments publicly1 until he has repaired the scandal he gave2 and no unworthy person1 even though he be a hidden sinner whose guilt is known only to the minister1 should be given a ,sacrament in private until he has shown signs of repentance4 ,generally the minister is bound to assure himself beforehand of the good disposition of the one who asks for a ,sacrament1 though in case of ,communion this is often impossible1 and it suffices to presume that all who approach the altar becomingly are in the state of grace4 #bfgh4 ,administration to ,unworthy ,persons4--,since material cooperation with sin is lawful for a sufficient reason 7see #aeae sqq471 one may administer a ,sacrament to an unworthy person when refusal would cause a greater evil than ministration4 ,this happens in the following cases3 7a7 when refusal will necessitate a more wicked sacrilege 7viz41 injury to a ,sacrament by the minister himself74 ,this case occurs when the minister knows the subject's unworthiness only from the latter's sacramental confession1 and hence cannot exclude him without violation of the seal2 7b7 when the refusal will bring on more widespread evils 7viz41 discouragement of the use of the ,sacraments74 ,this happens when the subject who asks the ,sacrament is not publicly known as a sinner1 but his request is public1 so that a refusal will amount to a defamation of him by the minister4 ,if priests had the right to inflict public disgrace on those who approached the ,sacraments1 it is easily seen what grave scandals and disorders would follow1 and that a ready excuse would present itself for personal spite and neglect of religion4 ,our ,lord administered ,communion to ,judas rather than betray his secret guilt to the other ,apostles4 #bfgi4 ,is the fear of bodily harm or of death a sufficient reason for administering a ,sacrament to an unworthy person8 7a7 ,if a greater evil will be caused by bestowal of the ,sacrament1 it should not be bestowed4 ,this happens when the ,sacrament is asked out of hatred or contempt of religion1 and when great scandal will result if the priest yields4 7b7 ,if a greater evil will be caused by refusal of the ,sacrament1 it should not be refused4 ,examples are those of the previous paragraph4 ,the mere private good of the minister is not preferable to the good of the ,sacrament4 #bfhj4 ,simulation and ,dissimulation of a ,sacrament8--,is it lawful in case of difficulty to give a ,sacrament only in appearance8 7a7 ,if this means simulation of a ,sacrament1 or the use of its externals in such a way as to make it null 7i4e41 by withholding internal intention or using invalid matter or form71 the answer is in the negative2 for simulation is always an acted lie 7see #bdjc1 #bdjd71 and when applied to ,sacraments it produces a sacrilegious mutilation and also1 in the case of the ,eucharist 7e4g41 when an unconsecrated host is given to a communicant71 an occasion of idolatry4 7b7 ,if this means dissimulation of a ,sacrament1 or the use of some nonsacramental act to conceal the denial of a ,sacrament1 the answer is in the affirmative1 for it is lawful to keep from others knowledge to which they have no right4 ,thus1 a priest who wishes to conceal from onlookers that he has refused absolution to a penitent1 can lawfully say a prayer and make a sign of the cross over this person4 #bfha4 ,administration of ,penance and ,extreme ,unction to ,heretics and ,schismatics4--7a7 ,regularly this is unlawful1 even though these persons are in good faith and ask for the ,sacraments4 ,they must first renounce their errors and become reconciled with the ,church 7,canon #gca74 7b7 ,exceptionally1 according to some moralists1 this is lawful when there is extreme need4 ,hence1 according to this view a priest may secretly give conditional absolution to an unconscious heretic or schismatic in danger of death who has given signs of repentance2 he may absolve and anoint a dying heretic or schismatic1 even though conscious1 if this person appears to be in good faith and repentant and willing to do all that ,god requires of him4 ,but the priest should first try to convert the dying person1 if this is possible and the latter's good faith will not be disturbed2 and he must also avoid giving scandal4 #bfhb4 ,repetition of a ,sacrament on ,account of ,invalid ,administration4--7a7 ,this is unlawful when the fear of invalidity is groundless and foolish2 for it is seriously disrespectful to a ,sacrament and disedifying to others to repeat the rite without reason4 ,but scrupulous persons are sometimes free of grave sin1 since they mean well in repeating and are not accountable for their fears4 7b7 ,this is lawful but not obligatory when there is a prudent misgiving about a useful ,sacrament 7,confirmation1 ,matrimony1 anointing of one who is conscious72 also when there is a slight reason of law or fact for fear about a necessary or more important ,sacrament 7,baptism1 ,orders1 absolution of a dying person1 anointing of an unconscious person1 consecration of the ,eucharist74 ,for the ,sacraments are for men4 ,but if only a small loss or an unlikely loss will be caused by their non-repetition1 the duty of repeating them cannot be insisted on4 7c7 ,this is gravely obligatory when there is a prudent fear about a necessary or more important ,sacrament2 it is gravely or lightly obligatory 7to be determined in each case7 when there is a well-founded fear about a useful ,sacrament1 if charity1 justice or religion calls for repetition and the inconvenience will not be too great4 ,in ,matrimony the alternate methods of convalidation or sanation may be used as the case demands4 ,again1 the ,sacraments are for men1 and hence1 if man will likely be subjected to a notable loss by the minister's neglect of repetition1 the duty of repetition is clear4 #bfhc4 ,reception of a ,sacrament from an ,unworthy ,minister4--,may a ,sacrament be received from a minister who1 to one's certain knowledge1 cannot give it without sin on account of unworthiness 7such as a state of sin or censure78 7a7 ,per se1 this is unlawful1 for it is cooperation with sacrilege and is often attended by scandal and danger of perversion to self4 7b7 ,per accidens1 this is lawful1 for material cooperation is justified when a proportionately grave reason exists 7#aeae sqq474 ,moreover1 often the minister can put himself in the state of grace before he gives the ,sacrament1 or can be excused from sacrilege on account of the necessity4 ,the less the irreverence or danger of scandal1 the less need be the reason for asking or taking a ,sacrament from an unworthy person4 ,if the minister is a sinner or is under ordinary suspension or other censure1 a serious reason of spiritual advantage suffices 7e4g41 the opportunity to make the ,easter duty72 if the minister is under sentence 7,canon #bbfa n4 #c71 only danger of death suffices2 if the minister is a heretic or schismatic1 only extreme need suffices1 and the danger of scandal and perversion must be avoided4 #bfhd4 ,sacramentals4--,the sacramentals are the sacred things 7e4g41 rosaries1 scapulars1 agnus deis7 and actions 7e4g41 consecrations1 blessings1 exorcisms7 used by the ,church in imitation of the ,sacraments to obtain through her intercession blessings chiefly of a spiritual sort 7,canon #aadd74 7a7 ,necessity4--,our ,lord gave to the ,church the power of instituting sacramentals1 and certain of those used by the ,church are but developments of the blessings and exorcisms that ,he used4 ,some of the sacramentals are commanded by the ,church 7viz1 those that are used in the administration of the ,sacraments or in other sacred services72 others are recommended1 but not commanded4 7b7 ,use4--,the virtue of religion requires that the sacramentals be administered1 received and treated with devotion and respect1 the extremes of irreligion and superstition being avoided 7see #bbdd74 ,the laws of the ,church on the ministers1 recipients1 and rites of the sacramentals are treated in works on ,canon ,law and liturgy4 ,art4 #b3 ,,baptism2 ,,confirmation2 ,,the ,,eucharist2 ,,the ,,sacrifice ,,of ,,the ,,mass 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,iii1 qq4 #ff-hc47 #bfhe4 ,the general duties of the ministers and recipients of the ,sacraments have been outlined in the previous ,article4 ,the principles therein given are the basis of the special duties that pertain to each of the seven ,sacraments4 ,in this and the remaining ,articles1 therefore1 it will suffice to apply without explaining anew the rules already given and to add the special details proper to each ,sacrament4 #bfhf4 ,the ,sacrament of ,baptism4--,the first and most essential ,sacrament is ,baptism 7,greek1 washing71 which may be defined3 8,the ,sacrament of regeneration by water in the word0 7,catechism of the ,council of ,trent1 page #afc74 ,the internal grace of the ,sacrament is expressed by regeneration1 the external sign by water and the word4 7a7 ,the effect of ,baptism is regeneration1 for it cleanses from sin and penalty1 and makes him who was a child of wrath to be a child of ,god and a co-heir of ,christ4 ,baptism also christens1 since it seals one with the indelible character of ,christian1 or member of the ,church4 ,as all are under the original curse by birth from ,adam1 so all who would inherit blessing are in need of this new birth through ,christ 7see #bffa73 8,unless a man be born again of water and the ,holy ,ghost1 he cannot enter into the kingdom of ,god0 7,john1 iii4 #e74 7b7 ,the material element 7remote matter7 of ,baptism is water1 that is1 any and every form of liquid which in common estimation is pure and unchanged water 7e4g41 water taken from the ocean1 from streams1 fountains1 or wells2 water melted from snow1 ice or hail2 water gathered from steam1 dew1 or mist2 chemical and mineral water74 ,but animal and plant fluids1 though they contain water1 are looked upon as distinct substances1 and hence ,baptism cannot be administered with milk1 blood1 spittle1 sweat1 oil1 flower or fruit juices 7e4g41 wine1 cider71 or extracts of barks or roots4 ,doubtful matter are liquids that1 while in large part composed of water1 seem to be generally regarded as not water 7e4g41 thin soup1 tea or coffee1 light beer72 and hence only in necessity can these be lawfully used for ,baptism4 7c7 ,the formal element of ,baptism is the word or the formula appointed by ,christ4 ,in the ,latin ,church the words are3 8,i baptize thee in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost10 ,almost every word in this form is necessary for the sense given by ,christ1 and hence almost any omission makes it necessary1 or at least lawful1 to repeat ,baptism 7see #bfee1 #bfhb74 ,the declaration of the form demands that the application of the water 7proximate matter7 be made in the manner of an ablution 7i4e41 by sprinkling1 pouring or immersion74 ,if sprinkling or pouring is used1 the body of the recipient 7i4e41 the skin of his head7 must be washed 7i4e41 the water must touch the head and flow thereon7 by the baptizer 7i4e41 the person who pronounces the words must pour or sprinkle the water74 ,but in case of necessity one may use the opinion that ,baptism is valid when the water touches only the hair or some part distinct from the head1 or even the afterbirth of a fetus4 #bfhg4 ,solemn and ,private ,baptism4--,though in essentials ,baptism is but one1 it is distinguished in reference to accidental ceremony into solemn and private4 7a7 ,solemn ,baptism is that which is administered with all the rites prescribed by the ,liturgy4 ,it requires consecrated water1 sponsors and special ceremonies2 its minister is a clergyman 7ordinarily the parish-priest or ,ordinary1 extraordinarily a delegated deacon72 its place is the baptistery or church4 ,in the ,baptism of adults even greater solemnity may be used1 for there is a special rite of administration1 and the ,church recommends that this ,baptism be performed when possible by the ,ordinary1 or at least in cathedral churches1 and on the vigil of ,easter or ,pentecost4 7b7 ,private ,baptism is given in danger of death1 or when an adult convert is rebaptized conditionally 7,canon #gei74 ,it requires only true and natural water1 though the water should be as clean and decent as possible1 and baptismal or blessed water is preferable2 generally the simple form without other rite suffices2 sponsors are not necessary1 unless they can be had without difficulty1 but if possible at least one or two witnesses should be present2 the ,baptism may be given in the private home or the hospital or other place where the candidate is staying2 anyone who has the use of reason and is able to perform the rite may act as minister4 ,when several persons suitable to minister private ,baptism are present1 the order of preference to be followed is3 priest1 deacon1 subdeacon1 cleric1 layman1 woman2 but a woman should be preferred to a man if modesty calls for this1 or if the woman is better acquainted with the manner of baptizing4 ,it is considered a serious sin needlessly to prefer a non-priest to a worthy priest1 a non-,catholic to a ,catholic1 an outsider to the parish-priest4 ,if possible1 parents should not baptize their own children1 since it is more becoming that the spiritual parent and the carnal parent be different persons4 #bfhh4 ,duties of ,parish-,priests as to ,baptism4--7a7 ,before ,baptism4--,baptismal water should be blessed1 added to or renewed1 as the ritual regulations of one's place require2 the faithful should be frequently admonished in sermons of the serious duty of having their infants baptized as soon as possible 7,canon #ggj72 the people should also be told 7especially midwives1 physicians and surgeons7 how lay ,baptism is to be given validly 7,canon #gdc74 7b7 ,at the ,time of ,baptism4--,converts preparing for ,baptism should be well instructed in the principal religious truths 7viz1 those contained in the ,creed71 and precepts 7viz41 the laws of the ,decalogue and of the ,church1 see #iad sqq471 and prayers 7viz1 the ,our ,father1 the acts of faith1 hope1 charity1 and contrition72 and they should learn the nature and effects of ,baptism4 ,the parish-priest may delegate a deacon to baptize solemnly in his place1 if there is a sufficient reason1 as when he himself is impeded by sickness1 absence1 or occupation 7,canon #gda74 7c7 ,after ,baptism4--,the pastor in virtue of his office has the responsibility of attending to the registration of baptisms in the proper book 7,canon #ggg74 ,the registration should be made without delay--that is1 before the sponsors have departed1 or immediately after the ceremony1 or at least on the same day1 if possible2 the entry should be made accurately and legibly4 ,the duty of keeping proper baptismal records is considered grave1 since important evils would follow on their neglect4 #bfhi4 ,duties of ,parents and ,guardians in ,reference to ,baptism4--7a7 ,as to ,administration of ,baptism4--,parents are obliged under grave sin not to expose their children to the loss of salvation by undue delay of ,baptism 7see #bcdd1 #bfcj74 ,if there is danger of death1 a child must be baptized at once2 if there is no immediate danger of death1 the child must nevertheless1 on account of the absolute necessity of ,baptism1 be baptized as soon as possible4 ,some moralists consider a needless delay gravely sinful if it exceeds three or four days2 others1 if it exceeds ten or eleven days4 ,since infants can be baptized in the womb1 a mother is not obliged to undergo the ,caesarean operation to ensure ,baptism2 but she may permit the operation for the sake of a more certain ,baptism1 unless her obligations to husband or other children will suffer on account of the danger to her life4 ,if a mother dies in pregnancy1 the fetus should be extracted and baptized4 ,the duty here rests with the relatives and the physician 7,canon #gdf74 7b7 ,as to ,details of ,baptism4--,parents should choose suitable names for their children1 avoiding such as are obscene1 ridiculous1 or impious4 ,it is advisable that the name of a ,saint or of some other person distinguished for holiness be chosen1 for this will be of a spiritual advantage to the child and an edification to others4 ,parents have the right to appoint the sponsors of their infant children1 and should choose only those who are canonically admissible4 ,if ,baptism has been administered at home1 the parents should1 if the child survives1 bring it as soon as possible to the church for conditional ,baptism1 or for the baptismal ceremonies 7,canons #gei1 #gfj74 #bfij4 ,sponsors4--,from early times the ,church has required in ,baptism the use of sponsors1 and the reasons for this usage will appear from the duties of these god-parents4 ,the present law 7,canons #gfb sqq47 retains the ancient tradition1 and prescribes as a serious duty that in ,solemn ,baptism 7even of adults1 whenever possible7 there shall be at least one sponsor 7male or female71 and that not more than two be used1 one a male and the other a female4 7a7 ,requirements for ,validity--,since the sponsor takes obligations1 he must have the use of reason and give consent to the office2 since he is charged with the duty of spiritual guidance1 he must be baptized and not be a member of a heretical or schismatic sect2 since he exercises an office of honor1 he must not be under the displeasure of the ,church by sentence of excommunication or the like2 since he is to act as spiritual father1 he must not be the parent or spouse of the baptized2 since he is to stand for the baptized person1 he must be designated by the latter or his parents or by the minister4 ,the sponsor must also indicate 7in person or by proxy7 his acceptance of the care of the baptized person by physically touching him at the moment of ,baptism 7either by holding the infant over the font1 or by placing a hand on the candidate71 or immediately after the ,baptism 7by raising from the waters or receiving from the hands of the minister the one who has been immersed1 or by taking from the font one who has been baptized by pouring74 ,non-,catholics1 therefore1 may not be sponsors1 but to avoid great offense or other serious evil they may sometimes be admitted as witnesses or honorary sponsors 7see #ief sqq474 7b7 ,requirements for ,lawfulness4--,the sponsor should have reached his fourteenth year 7unless the minister sees fit for a just cause to admit a younger person71 and should know the rudiments of faith2 he must be a person of respectability among ,catholics1 and hence one who is notorious on account of certain penalties or on account of crime or of membership in the ,freemasons is not acceptable2 he must be free to act as sponsor1 and hence religious and clerics in ,major ,orders must have permission of the superior qualified in each instance to grant this permission4 #bfia4 ,duties of ,sponsors4--7a7 ,they are obliged to look upon their spiritual children as their perpetual charges1 to see to their ,christian education and to the fulfillment of the baptismal promises for which they stood surety 7,canon #gfi74 7b7 ,these obligations are grave1 since the matter is grave2 but1 as the care of children falls principally upon the parents1 it is only when the parents neglect their duty that the sponsors are held to do what they can for the instruction and correction of their god-children 7,catechism of ,council of ,trent1 page #age74 #bfib4 ,duties of ,adult ,recipients of ,baptism or of ,those ,who ,have the ,use of ,reason4--7a7 ,before ,baptism4--,an unbaptized person who has faith and who sees the necessity of ,baptism1 is gravely obliged to ask for ,baptism at once1 if he is in danger of death1 or as soon as he conveniently can1 if he is not in danger of death2 for since ,baptism is the divinely appointed means of entering the ,church and of sharing in its privileges1 he who would delay it unduly would disobey an important command of ,god and would be seriously neglectful of his own salvation4 ,for a sufficient reason1 however 7e4g41 for the sake of instruction or probation1 or to avoid persecution71 ,baptism may be delayed even for years2 but the catechumen should then make at once an act of contrition or charity so as to obtain the benefit of ,baptism of desire4 ,converts should prepare for ,baptism by taking a course of instructions1 or1 when there is danger of death1 a summary instruction 7#gia sqq474 7b7 ,at ,baptism4--,the internal dispositions include1 besides intention1 faith and repentance3 8,he that believeth and is baptized shall be saved0 7,mark1 xvi4 #af72 8,do penance and be baptized0 7,acts1 ii4 #ch74 ,there must be an explicit faith in the four chief mysteries 7see #ghi74 ,in this country converts who are being baptized conditionally make an abjuration and profession of faith before ,baptism1 and go to confession and receive conditional absolution after ,baptism4 ,the ,code recommends that those who are well receive ,baptism fasting2 and that1 unless grave reason excuses1 the neophyte assist at ,mass and receive ,communion after his ,baptism 7,canon #gec74 7c7 ,after ,baptism4--,since ,baptism makes one a member of the ,church1 those who receive it are subject to church laws4 ,the promises made in ,baptism are not strictly vows1 but an engagement of loyalty to the faith and the commandments 7see #baia74 #bfic4 ,duties of the ,minister of ,baptism4--7a7 ,in ,reference to the ,parents4--,if the parents insist on giving an unsuitable name to their child1 the pastor should silently add a suitable name of some ,saint chosen by himself1 and should inscribe both names in the register 7,canon #gfa74 ,a child of non-,catholic parents should not be baptized by ,catholics1 unless this can be done without injury to the natural right of the parents of training their own children and without danger to the future perseverance of the child4 ,hence these children1 if infants1 should not be baptized against the will of their parents unless they are in danger of death and can be baptized without too great inconvenience2 but if a child is able to judge for himself1 or if there is no parental opposition 7at least not of both parents71 and there are good reasons to believe that the child will be brought up as a ,catholic1 he may be baptized 7,canons #gej1 #gea74 7b7 ,in ,reference to the ,sponsors4--,if a sponsor cannot be admitted1 the pastor must use great kindness and prudence1 so as not to give offense4 ,if a non-,catholic has been appointed as sponsor1 the difficulty may sometimes be overcome by naming a sacristan or servant as sponsor and permitting the non-,catholic to act as witness4 7c7 ,in ,reference to the ,capacity of the ,recipient4--,the minister must give the ,sacrament only to those who are capable4 ,hence1 he cannot baptize what is not human 7e4g41 uterine growths which do not pertain to a fetus71 or not living 7e4g41 a stillborn infant71 or not unbaptized 7e4g41 a convert or an infant about whose valid ,baptism there is no reasonable doubt74 ,speculatively there is some difficulty about ,baptism of unborn fetuses1 of abortive fetuses1 and of monstrosities 7e4g41 an infant with two heads or two hearts74 ,for1 as to the first1 it seems that the physically unborn are incapable of spiritual rebirth2 as to the second1 it seems that the soul of an undeveloped fetus may be sub-human2 and1 as to the third1 it may be doubtful whether a monstrosity is one individual or several individuals4 ,practically1 however1 one should proceed on the principle that the ,sacraments are for men1 and give the benefit of a doubt to the infants by conditional ,baptism4 ,intra-uterine ,baptism should not be used except in case of urgent necessity1 and it is then permissible to employ a mixture of one part of chloride of mercury with two parts of water to avoid infection4 ,midwives1 nurses1 mothers1 and physicians should be especially careful to baptize abortive fetuses1 and should know how this can be done 7see ,commentaries on ,canons #gdf-gdh74 7d7 ,in ,reference to the ,willingness of the ,recipient4--,an infant is not required to will the ,sacrament1 and hence the perpetually insane1 who are unable to distinguish between right and wrong1 may be baptized without any desire on their part4 ,but an adult must intend to be baptized 7see #bfga b74 ,hence1 the minister must inquire about the wishes of an adult candidate1 ,if an unbaptized person is now out of his mind 7insane1 afflicted with lethargy or sleeping sickness1 delirious71 but formerly had the use of reason1 he is classed with adults1 and his intention has to be considered4 ,he should not be baptized1 therefore1 until he comes to himself1 unless there is danger of death and signs of a desire to receive ,baptism were given before 7,canons #gde1 #ged74 7e7 ,in ,reference to the ,worthiness of the ,recipient4--,the minister should remind the candidate of the duty of attrition4 ,if the person who asks for ,baptism wishes to retain certain habits 7e4g41 superstition1 concubinage1 or unlawful business7 which cannot be reconciled with ,christianity1 he cannot be regarded as suited for ,baptism4 ,but in danger of death good faith should not be uselessly disturbed4 7f7 ,in ,reference to the ,pastor4--,solemn ,baptism either in or out of one's territory may not be given without permission from the proper pastor who has jurisdiction 7,canons #gch-gdj74 ,and a minister who is not the pastor of the baptized person must send notice of the ,baptism to the pastor1 as soon as possible1 if the latter was not present 7,canon #ggh74 7g7 ,in ,reference to ,himself and the ,sacrament4--,the minister should inform himself1 if necessary1 about the existence or validity of a previous ,baptism1 and he should observe the ceremonies1 essential and accidental1 of his ,rite4 ,foundlings should be baptized conditionally1 unless it is certain that they have been already baptized validly 7,canon #gdi74 ,the internal dispositions of intention and state of grace are necessary1 while for baptism of adults fasting is advisable 7,canon #gec74 #bfid4 ,the ,sacrament of ,confirmation4--,next to ,baptism1 not in necessity or dignity but in likeness and in time1 is ,confirmation2 for ,confirmation completes the work begun in ,baptism1 and it is also frequently received immediately or next after ,baptism4 ,it may be defined as 8the ,sacrament in which through the anointing with chrism and the prayer of the bishop a baptized person is perfected and strengthened in the grace received and signed indelibly with the character of soldier of ,jesus ,christ40 7a7 ,the element of the ,sacrament 7remote matter7 is chrism1 that is1 a mixture of olive oil and balsam specially blessed by the bishop and applied 7proximate matter7 by an anointing and the imposition of hands on the forehead of the recipient4 ,the law of the ,church requires that the chrism be new 7i4e41 made at the last previous consecration of oils71 and that the anointing be made with the right thumb in the form of a cross4 7b7 ,the form of ,confirmation in the ,latin ,church is as follows3 8,i sign thee with the sign of the cross1 and ,i confirm thee with the chrism of salvation in the name of the ,father and of the ,son and of the ,holy ,ghost40 #bfie4 ,the ,minister of ,confirmation4--7a7 ,qualifications4--,the ordinary minister of this ,sacrament is only the bishop2 but a priest may act as extraordinary minister1 either from the common law 7viz41 ,cardinals1 ,abbots1 etc471 or from special indult 7,canon #ghb74 ,the bishop may confirm outsiders in his own diocese1 unless their own ,ordinary forbids1 and with permission he may confirm outside his diocese 7,canon #ghc74 ,since ,january #a1 #aidg1 by force of the decree of the ,congregation of the ,discipline of the ,sacraments 7,spiritus ,sanctus7 the following were established as extraordinary ministers within the limits of their territories and for subjects in danger of death4 #a7 8pastors having their own territories1 therefore excluding personal and family pastors1 unless they have also their own territory40 ,under this heading are included secular and religious pastors4 ,it is to be noted that1 since national parishes in the ,united ,states are assigned a definite territory1 pastors of such parishes enjoy the privilege of this decree4 ,pastors of ,negro and ,indian parishes1 even if they are considered to be personal pastors1 may be included1 for the jurisdiction is both personal and territorial4 ,military chaplains can not confirm in virtue of this decree4 #b7 8the vicars spoken of in ,canon #dga1 and also parochial administrators 7vicarii oeconomi740 ,the first group are canonically innominate and authors adopt various titles for the personages involved4 ,however1 the reference is always to the priests placed in actual charge of cura animarum in parishes which have been fully incorporated4 ,the second group mentioned are the vicarii oeconomi1 priests appointed canonically as administrators of vacant parishes 7see ,canons #dgb1 n4#a2 #dgc1a74 ,all other vicars lack the power1 namely1 the ,diocesan ,administrator 7vicarius capitularis71 ,vicar ,general1 ,vicarius ,substitutus 7priest who takes place of absent pastor71 ,vicarius ,adjutor 7assists a disabled pastor71 ,vicarius ,cooperator 7curate71 those who according to ,canon #dgb1 n4#b1 take temporary charge of a vacant parish prior to appointment of a true administrator1 chaplains of schools1 hospitals1 and other charitable institutions 7by rescript of ,nov4 #ah1 #aidh1 the faculty was extended also to chaplains of maternity hospitals and foundling homes in the ,united ,states1 and this faculty is renewable71 the seminary rector1 religious superiors even in exempt communities4 #c7 8priests to whom is entrusted exclusively and permanently within a definite territory1 and with a definite church1 the complete care of souls together with the rights and duties of pastors40 ,such territorial arrangements are not common in the ,united ,states4 ,the reference may be to priests established as quasi-pastors in ,canon #baf1 ,sec4#c 7hence pastors in missionary territory and prefectures71 episcopal delegates to the territories later to be erected as parishes or to maintain the status of a perpetual vicarage4 ,perhaps the reference is only to special arrangements made by particular diocesan laws4 7b7 ,duties4--,the ordinary minister of this ,sacrament should confer it when his subjects reasonably request it1 and the ,ordinary should see that the ,sacrament is administered to his people1 if possible1 at least every five years 7,canon #ghe74 ,it would be unreasonable1 however1 to expect a bishop to go to every sick or dying person who desires ,confirmation1 as the ,sacrament is not necessary for salvation and the task would be morally impossible1 ,the ,sacrament should be performed validly1 worthily1 and rubrically4 ,when ,confirmation is given1 fasting is of counsel1 not of precept4 ,the use of a sponsor in ,confirmation seems to be a grave obligation1 when possible4 ,a recipient can have but one sponsor1 and a sponsor can act for only one or two confirmandi1 unless it appear to the minister that there is sufficient reason to have a sponsor act for more 7,canon #gid74 ,the pastor of the recipient1 if he is unaware of the ,confirmation1 should be notified as soon as possible 7,canon #gii74 7c7 ,various prescriptions1 some of them subjects of special study1 are attendant upon the grant of power to confirm to pastors and 8equivalent pastors40 ,the major ones are summarily stated here4 ,the pastor obtains this power when he acquires the office4 ,it lasts as long as he holds office4 ,the exercise of his power becomes unlawful if he falls under censure2 in certain cases it may then even be invalid4 ,theologians disagree as to the precise nature of the power1 whether it be of orders1 of jurisdiction1 of both1 an intrinsic or extrinsic modification of orders1 etc4 ,the common opinion holds that it is solely a power of orders4 ,hence1 ,canon #bji may not be safely used here1 and an ordinary assistant who attempts to confirm would not fall under any irregularity2 a pastor1 however1 might1 by misuse of his power1 be not only deprived of it1 but be placed under an irregularity4 ,use of the power is not dependent on the permission of the local ,ordinary4 ,it may be necessary to inquire however1 whether the bishop wishes to confirm in particular cases4 ,episcopal instructions on this matter must be complied with4 7d7 ,subjects of the ,extraordinary ,minister4 ,the decree1 ,spiritus ,sanctus1 in its second rule lays down a condition for the valid administration of ,confirmation by the extraordinary minister and determines the proper subject4 ,the new faculty is strictly personal 7hence it may not be delegated to others7 and strictly territorial 7hence the administration must take place within the confines of the minister's district and therein extends even to exempt places74 ,the recipient must be 8in real danger of death because of a serious illness from which it is foreseen that he will die40 ,before treating the illness established as a condition for validity1 other conditions of the subject must be considered4 ,the decree describes the proper recipient as fidelis in two places4 ,the question has been discussed whether this limits the subjects to ,catholics and excludes validly baptized ,protestants4 ,authors are not agreed4 ,perhaps1 since the extraordinary minister can act only within the powers given him in the decree1 he would have to interpret fidelis as extending solely to ,catholics4 ,on ,may #a1 #aidh1 the ,congregation for the ,oriental ,church issued a grant of powers to the ,latin extraordinary ministers to confer ,confirmation under the same conditions to ,catholics of the ,oriental rite who live under the jurisdiction of a ,latin ,ordinary1 who are in the territory of the ,latin pastor and whose rite has no established parish or mission in the locality4 7,this grant of power was previously impossible by virtue of ,canon #ghb1 ,sec4#d47 ,in emergency cases there would be no need to await the arrival of the proper pastor4 ,since ,ruthenian ,catholics are not under the ,latin ,ordinaries in this country1 it seems that the decree might not extend to them4 ,the point is disputed1 but it would be imprudent to act on the opinion that the ,ruthenians are included until the question is officially settled4 ,the recipient need not be a permanent resident in the territory by reason of domicile or quasi-domicile2 physical presence suffices4 ,the final condition of dangerous sickness is similar to the one in ,extreme ,unction2 it must arise from an intrinsic cause1 not from an extrinsic cause4 and includes not only sickness1 but also wounds and accident cases4 ,the decree speaks of the subject in 8vero mortis periculo40 ,some thought that the wording distinguished the sickness from mere 8periculo0 mortis1 and hence must be certain1 not doubtful or probable4 ,in response to the ,cardinal of ,palermo1 on ,march #f1 #aidg1 the ,congregation of the ,sacraments favored the opinion that the norms for 8urgente mortis periculo0 7,canons #ajdc1 #ajdd1 #ajdf7 are applicable4 ,as a rule of thumb1 many authors propose3 if the sickness permits the administration of ,extreme ,unction1 it also justifies the giving of ,confirmation in accordance with the terms of the decree4 #bfif4 ,the ,recipient of ,confirmation4--7a7 ,qualifications4--,the subject of this ,sacrament is only a baptized person1 and in adults intention is necessary4 ,the general custom in the ,latin ,church is not to confirm before the seventh year1 or thereabout1 has been attained2 but the ,sacrament may be given even earlier1 if an infant is in danger of death1 or if there seems to the minister to be a just and grave reason for confirming one under seven years of age 7,canon #ghh74 ,those who have the use of reason should not be admitted to ,confirmation without previous instruction on the nature of the ,sacrament and the requirements for its proper reception4 7b7 ,duties4--,there is an obligation to receive this ,sacrament when one has the opportunity 7,canon #ghg72 but apart from scandal1 contempt1 or danger to salvation the obligation seems light4 ,hence1 if a person advanced in years is ashamed to receive ,confirmation with the children1 he should be advised but not reproved2 nor should he be denied absolution as if he were certainly guilty of serious fault4 ,the recipient should be in the state of grace1 and it is advisable that he go to confession beforehand if he have serious sin on his conscience4 ,though not necessary1 it is more suitable that the recipient be fasting4 ,a new name may be taken in ,confirmation1 and it is proper that those whose baptismal name is unsuitable should either have it changed at this time or add the name of a ,saint4 ,those who are being confirmed should be present for the entire ceremony 7,canon #ghi74 #bfig4 ,the ,sponsors in ,confirmation4--7a7 ,qualifications4--,the requirements for validity are1 mutatis mutandis1 practically the same as for baptismal sponsorship4 ,thus1 the sponsor must be designated by the parents or the candidate1 or1 in default of them1 by the pastor or minister2 he must not be the parent or spouse of the confirmandus2 he must physically touch the confirmandus at the moment of ,confirmation4 ,further1 it is required that the sponsor be already confirmed himself4 ,the requirements for licitness are the same as for ,baptism1 and moreover1 as a rule1 the sponsor at ,confirmation should be of the same sex as the recipient and be different from the baptismal sponsor 7,canons #gie1 #gif74 7b7 ,duties4--,the godfather at ,confirmation contracts a lifelong spiritual relationship with his godchild 7which does not constitute a matrimonial impediment74 ,the latter should have a special place in his prayers according to the order of charity1 and1 if necessity arises1 should receive his protection and assistance in spiritual matters 7,canon #gig74 #bfih4 ,duties of the ,pastor in ,reference to ,confirmation4--7a7 ,the pastor should instruct his people on the nature and advantages of ,confirmation and should see to it that they receive the ,sacrament in due time 7,canon #ghg74 ,he should also instruct his parishioners about the terms of ,spiritus ,sanctus4 ,his power as extraordinary minister imposes an obligation per se grave to use it when the cases arise2 excusing causes1 however1 are possible1 and neglect in a single case would be only venial4 ,at appointed times each year he should hold a continuous course of instructions over a period of several days in order to prepare the classes of children for the proper reception of ,confirmation 7,canon #acjj74 7b7 ,the pastor should see that the ,confirmations of his parishioners are entered in a special book of record1 and should also note in the baptismal register the fact of ,confirmation 7,canons #gih1 #dgj1 n4 #b74 #bfii4 ,the ,sacrament of the ,eucharist4--,this is the chief ,sacrament1 for1 while the other ,sacraments produce the grace or the grace and the character of ,christ1 this one contains ,christ ,himself2 and1 while the other ,sacraments are means that prepare man to consecrate or to receive the ,eucharist or at least symbolize it1 the ,eucharist is the end of them all4 ,the ,eucharist may be defined as follows3 8,the body and blood of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ present through the words of consecration under the appearances of bread and wine to be offered to ,god and to be received by man40 ,thus1 we may distinguish various aspects of the ,eucharist4 7a7 ,it is a sacrifice1 since the ,mass is the supreme act of worship and is one with the sacrifice of the cross 7see #bagh sqq474 7b7 ,it is a permanent ,sacrament1 since unlike the other ,sacraments it does not consist in the passing application of a sacred sign to a recipient1 but in the abiding presence of a thing absolutely sacred contained under sensible forms4 7c7 ,it may be considered in its passing phases of beginning1 in which it is consecrated by the priest 7performance of the ,sacrament71 and termination1 in which it is received by the communicant 7application1 dispensation of the ,sacrament74 #bgjj4 ,the ,matter and ,form of the ,eucharist4--,since the essence of a ,sacrament is found in the outward sign1 it is commonly held that the ,sacrament of the ,eucharist consists in the species of bread and wine as signifying the body and blood of the ,saviour1 which is really1 truly and substantially contained under them4 7a7 ,the matter of the first consecration is that which ,christ used1 namely1 bread4 ,the bread must be true bread in the strict and usual ,scriptural sense of the word4 ,hence1 for validity it is necessary that it be made from wheat flour 7bread made from beans1 peas or other legumes1 bread made from non-wheaten cereals such as corn1 oats1 and probably also rye and barley1 is not valid matter72 that the flour be mixed with water 7bread made from a notable quantity1 i4e41 about one-third of other liquid1 such as milk1 oil1 wine1 is invalid matter72 further1 that the mixture be sufficiently baked 7dough or half-baked cakes are invalid matter74 ,the bread must be entire and not substantially adulterated or changed2 hence1 bread from which all the gluten has been abstracted1 bread to which a notable amount of foreign substance 7such as sugar or non-wheaten flour7 has been added1 bread so old that it has corrupted1 cannot be consecrated4 ,accidental qualities do not affect validity1 and hence any kind of wheat may be used 7hard1 soft1 red1 or white74 ,but the church law strictly requires that a priest observe the tradition of his own ,church 7i4e41 among ,latins the bread must be unleavened and the host round71 and that all consecrated matter be new 7i4e41 not baked more than fourteen days1 or1 according to others1 twenty or forty days71 clean1 and unbroken4 ,the small particles for the laity should be about one inch in diameter1 the large hosts about two or three inches2 and all altar breads should be of moderate thickness4 7b7 ,the matter of the second consecration is likewise that appointed by ,christ at the ,last ,supper1 namely1 wine4 ,only wine strictly so called according to ,scriptural and common usage is valid matter4 ,hence1 the ,eucharistic wine must be made from grapes1 and consequently cherry wine1 currant wine1 peach wine1 blackberry wine1 cider1 wild grape wine1 artificial wine1 etc41 are insufficient2 the grapes must be ripe1 and verjuice is therefore invalid matter4 ,the wine must also be entire1 unadulterated1 and uncorrupted2 and hence wine from which all the alcohol has been removed1 brandy or cognac 7i4e41 spirits distilled from wine71 wine to which a notable quantity of water1 tartaric acid1 sugar1 alcohol or other substance has been added1 and wine which has become vinegar1 are not fit matter for the ,sacrament4 ,accidental qualities are of no importance to validity1 and hence the wine may be red or white1 dry or sweet2 it may be made either from ripe or dry grapes 7raisin wine72 and the ,church permits the fortification of weak wine by a process of heating that does not prevent fermentation1 or by the addition when fermentation has begun to subside of grape or wine alcohol on condition that the final alcoholic strength does not exceed #ab1 or in some cases1 if the wine possessed so much1 #ag or #ah4 ,but the church law strictly requires for licit matter that wine be fermented1 though must or new wine is permissible in case of necessity1 if it have about #e alcohol2 that it be neither souring nor frozen1 nor mixed with substances added for the sake of aroma1 color or sweetness1 nor with water poured in before ,mass4 ,the tradition and law of the ,church1 based on the example of ,christ1 make it a grave obligation that a few drops of water be added to the wine at the altar1 but1 if the water equals a third part of the wine1 the matter becomes of doubtful sufficiency4 7c7 ,the form is contained essentially in the words of consecration used by ,christ at the institution of the ,eucharist1 namely1 8,hoc est corpus meum0 over the bread1 and 8,hic est calix sanguinis mei0 over the wine4 ,but a grave precept of the ,church requires that all the other principal words of the consecration be pronounced 7i4e41 the 8novi et aeterni testamenti1 etc410 the 8,haec quotiescumque1 etc410 the 8,qui pridie10 the 8,simili modo074 ,the omission of the particle 8enim0 would be only venially sinful4 #bgja4 ,the ,minister of ,consecration4--7a7 ,qualifications4--,every priest and only a priest can consecrate validly1 for only to the ,apostles and their successors in the priesthood were spoken the words of ,christ3 8,do this in commemoration of ,me40 ,but only those priests can consecrate lawfully who have the faculty of celebrating ,mass 7see #bgji74 7b7 ,duties as regards ,valid ,consecration4--,internally1 there must be the intention 7actual or virtual7 of acting in the name of ,christ1 and of effecting what the words of consecration signify2 and hence a merely narrative recitation of the form is insufficient4 ,this actual or virtual intention must also determine the individual matter to be consecrated1 and hence a host placed on the corporal is not consecrated if the priest neither saw it nor took it up for consecration4 ,small crumbs in the ciborium and small drops of wine on the inner side of the chalice are consecrated1 unless excluded by the priest's intention2 but drops of wine on the outside of the chalice should be considered unconsecrated1 since it is unlawful to consecrate what is not contained in the chalice4 ,externally1 bread and wine must be physically present to the priest1 that is1 so within his reach or range that according to human usage they can be correctly designated by the demonstrative pronoun 8this0 used in the form4 ,accordingly1 they must be near the minister2 how near cannot be mathematically defined1 and authors variously assign about ten1 twenty1 thirty1 forty and fifty paces as the extreme limit4 ,again1 the bread and wine must not be separated from the minister by any dividing partition1 such as a wall1 or the altar1 or perhaps even the closed door of the tabernacle1 though a closed container 7such as a covered ciborium or chalice7 would not put the matter away from the minister's presence4 ,finally1 they must not be behind the minister's back1 and1 even if they are before him but hidden 7e4g41 hosts under the corporal or chalice71 the consecration is doubtful4 7c7 ,duties as regards ,lawful ,consecration4--,internally1 there must be the state of grace1 which the divine law prescribes1 ,further1 one who is conscious of grave sin certainly committed and certainly unconfessed 7unless inculpably omitted in confession7 must go to confession beforehand1 unless there be need to celebrate at once 7e4g41 because otherwise there will be no parochial ,mass on a day of precept1 or because grave scandal or defamation will result1 or a dying person will be deprived of the ,viaticum7 and confession is impossible 7i4e41 there is no confessor present who has jurisdiction1 or who can be resorted to without a serious inconvenience extrinsic to confession1 and moreover it is very difficult on account of distance1 health1 weather1 or other like reasons to go elsewhere to confession74 ,under these circumstances1 he may make an act of perfect contrition and then proceed to celebrate4 ,but one who has consecrated without confession because of such necessity must go to confession as soon as possible--i4e41 within three days1 or1 if circumstances so require1 earlier than that 7e4g41 if a confessor can be had the same day1 but not again for a week7 or later 7e4g41 if a confessor cannot be had for a week74 ,these rules about confession are of grave obligation1 from ,church law at least 7,canon #hjg74 ,on account of disrespect1 it seems that grave sin is committed when the celebrant is voluntarily and advertently distracted during consecration1 but he should not repeat the form unless it is certain or very probable that something essential has been omitted4 ,externally1 consecration must be made only during ,mass1 both species must be consecrated1 a larger quantity must not be consecrated than can be conveniently used1 the matter at the moment of consecration must rest on the corporal and above the stone of the altar1 and a ciborium must be uncovered while its bread is being consecrated4 #bgjb4 ,inadvertent ,neglect of ,grave ,liturgical ,precept4--,is the consecration valid when the minister inadvertently neglects some grave liturgical precept as to the matter or manner of consecration8 7a7 ,some authors reply in the negative1 because they feel that no priest has the will to consecrate in a way forbidden by the ,church under pain of grave sin4 ,according to this opinion1 then1 if accidentally no water were placed in the chalice1 or if the chalice were unconsecrated1 or if the ciborium were left off the corporal1 the consecration would be invalid4 7b7 ,other authors distinguish as follows3 if the celebrant intended not to consecrate with a material breach of grave liturgical prescription1 the consecration would be null2 if the celebrant had only the intention to consecrate all valid matter before him1 the consecration would be valid4 ,this latter intention1 it seems1 should be formed by all priests once for all1 since it ensures the validity of their consecrations and is not sinful1 as it does not aim to violate the rubrics1 but only to provide for exceptional cases when a rubric is unintentionally violated4 #bgjc4 ,the ,minister of ,communion4--7a7 ,qualifications4--,the ordinary minister of ,communion is a priest1 the extraordinary minister a deacon4 ,pastors and other priests to whose custody the ,blessed ,sacrament is entrusted have the right to give ,communion1 and others also who have express or presumed permission4 ,the celebrant of ,mass may give ,communion during his ,mass1 and1 if ,mass is private1 just before and just after it4 ,a sick priest who is unable to say ,mass may communicate himself1 at least when there is no other minister at hand2 and even a layman may1 in the absence of a major cleric1 give himself the ,viaticum1 or consume the ,host to save it from profanation 7,canons #hde-hej74 7b7 ,duties4--,internally1 the minister is bound sub levi to be in the state of grace1 and sub gravi to be free from censures 7such as suspension7 which forbid him the exercise of the ministry4 ,externally1 he must observe the church laws on the manner1 time and place for distribution of the ,sacrament 7,canons #hea1 #heb1 #hfg-hfi71 and also the liturgical rules for ,communion during and outside of ,mass1 for ,communion of the sick and the dying1 and for the avoidance of defects in giving ,communion 7,rituale ,rom41 ,tit4 ,,iv2 ,missale ,rom41 de defectibus ,missae74 #bgjd4 ,the ,recipient of the ,eucharist4--7a7 ,those ,who ,may ,receive ,communion4--,according to divine law1 every living person who has received ,baptism of water is capable of receiving the ,eucharist1 infants and the insane not excluded4 ,ecclesiastical law requires other conditions1 which are justified by considerations of respect for the ,blessed ,sacrament or other good reason4 ,communion may not be given1 first1 to those who have not the use of reason 7i4e41 to infants and the perpetually insane71 nor to those who are unable to understand the essential truths of religion and morality 7i4e41 to those who have always been deaf and dumb or blind1 and who are uninstructed72 for1 on the one hand1 the ,sacrament is not necessary for these persons1 and1 on the other hand1 there is great danger of irreverence if it be given them4 ,secondly1 ,communion may not be given to those who cannot receive without grave peril of unbecoming treatment of the ,sacrament1 as in the case of those who cough or vomit continually or frequently1 or of those who are delirious1 or unconscious1 or insane1 ,but if the danger is certainly slight 7e4g41 if the person can swallow an unconsecrated host without spitting it out71 ,communion may be given1 at least the ,viaticum or ,easter ,communion4 ,next those persons are denied ,communion who cannot receive without scandal 7e4g41 those who are infamous1 such as prostitutes or defamers1 persons intoxicated or insufficiently dressed74 ,finally1 no one may receive ,communion who has already received it that day1 lest the ,sacrament become common and be taken without due preparation2 but exception is made when it is necessary to communicate a second time in order to comply with the divine law of receiving ,viaticum or of saving the ,host from profanation 7,canons #hec-heh74 7b7 ,those ,who ,must ,receive ,communion4--,there is a divine precept that adults receive the ,eucharist worthily 7,john1 vi4 #ed74 ,it obliges per se1 when one is certainly or almost certainly in proximate danger of death1 unless one has recently 7that is1 according to some1 within a week's time7 received ,communion2 for this ,sacrament is the wayfarer's provision for his journey to eternity4 ,it obliges also now and then during life1 since the ,eucharist is man's spiritual nourishment for the journey of life4 ,it obliges per accidens1 when ,communion is necessary to avoid grave sin1 for charity to self obliges one to use the means without which serious spiritual harm cannot be escaped4 ,the church law determines the details for the fulfillment of the divine precept4 ,all the faithful who have reached the age of reason1 even though they be under seven years1 must fulfill the yearly ,easter duty 7see #beib1 #beic74 ,in reference to ,first ,communion1 the ,church requires that children who are not in danger of death must have a mental and moral fitness1 consisting in a knowledge of the chief mysteries of faith and a devotion towards the ,eucharist such as is possible at their time of life4 ,in reference to the last ,communion1 or ,viaticum1 the ,code declares that it is obligatory1 no matter what be the cause of the danger of death2 it reminds us that the duty should not be put off too long2 it recommends that the ,viaticum be administered even to those who had communicated the same day before the danger of death arose1 and that it be given on distinct days during the danger4 ,for children who are in danger of death it suffices that they are able to distinguish the ,eucharist from ordinary food and to adore it reverently 7,canons #hei-hfe1 #hed74 #bgje4 ,dispositions for ,worthy ,communion4--7a7 ,dispositions of ,soul4--,the divine law requires the state of grace 7,i ,cor41 xi4 #bg sqq471 and probably also the previous sacramental confession which the ,church prescribes sub gravi for one who is conscious of serious sin not yet remitted through absolution4 ,but he is excused from the duty of previous confession who cannot omit ,communion now 7e4g41 because while at the rails he remembers a grave sin and cannot leave without being disgraced7 and who is unable to go to confession 7see #bgja c74 ,the recipient must also have a knowledge of the ,sacrament suited to his mental capacity1 and he must desire it1 at least habitually4 ,since the ,sacraments are fruitful in proportion to the cooperation given them1 and since the presence and visit of ,christ deserves honor and recognition1 ,communion should be received devoutly1 and should be preceded by a preparation and followed by a thanksgiving 7,canons #hef1 #gca74 ,the faithful may receive in any ,rite1 but their own ,rite is advised for ,easter ,communion and strongly urged for the ,viaticum 7,canon #hff74 7b7 ,dispositions of ,body4--,the communicant must observe the ,eucharistic fast and must conduct himself with external reverence4 ,by ecclesiastical law a person is bound to the fasting from midnight to receive the ,holy ,eucharist lawfully 7,canons #hjh1 #heh74 ,despite the changes made by the ,apostolic ,constitution1 ,christus ,dominus 7,jan4 #af1 #aiec7 and the ,motu ,proprio1 8,sacram ,communionem0 7,mar4 #ai1 #aieg71 priests and the faithful who are able to do so are exhorted to observe this venerable and ancient form of ,eucharistic fast before ,mass or ,holy ,communion4 ,the legislation of these two papal documents1 intended to increase devotion to the ,blessed ,sacrament by fostering frequent ,communion1 decrees3 #a7 that natural water does not break the fast2 #b7 that the period for observing the ,eucharist fast before ,mass1 at whatever hour it may be said 7morning1 afternoon1 midnight71 is three hours from solid food and alcoholic beverages1 and one hour from non-alcoholic beverages4 ,the priest who is to celebrate computes his time from the beginning of ,mass2 the faithful1 from the time of ,communion2 #c7 that the sick1 although not confined to bed1 may consume non-alcoholic beverages and real and appropriate medicines1 liquid or solid1 without any restriction of time4 ,the ,eucharistic fast is based on primitive tradition and is enjoined by the ,church as a grave obligation that admits of no lightness of matter4 ,the fast is violated by the smallest portion of food or alcoholic drink4 ,food is any solid which the physician considers digestible or alterable by the stomach1 and hence the fast is not broken if wood1 string1 paper1 hairs or fingernails are swallowed4 ,but the food or drink must be eaten or drunk1 that is1 it must come from outside the mouth and be taken into the stomach in the way of consumption1 and hence the fast is not broken by what comes from within the mouth 7e4g41 blood from the gums1 food remaining in the teeth from the previous day7 or by what is taken into the stomach in the way of saliva 7e4g41 the accidental remnants of a mouth wash or of a throat gargle1 or spray1 or of a chew of tobacco or gum1 when one has spit out the contents as much as possible71 or in the way of breathing 7e4g41 snuff1 tobacco smoke inhaled1 an insect or a raindrop blown into the mouth74 ,a solid1 like a caramel1 however1 which is dissolved in the mouth before it is swallowed1 can not be considered as a liquid4 ,the liquid of the ,sacram ,communionem must be a liquid before it enters the mouth4 7,see 8,some ,further ,elucidations on ,sacram ,communionem0 by ,cardinal ,ottaviani1 ,american ,ecclesiastical ,review1 ,vol4 ,,cxxxxvii1 ,no1 #b1 ,august #aieg1 p4 #gd47 ,the reasons that excuse from the ,eucharist fast1 in regard to solids or alcoholic beverages1 in lay ,communion1 are1 in case of the well1 the good of the ,sacrament 7i4e41 its preservation from profanation71 or the good of self 7e4g41 avoidance of serious disgrace1 as when one who is at the altar rail remembers only then that he is not fasting72 in the case of the ill1 the danger of death 7the ,viaticum may be received even daily after nourishment74 ,the salt taken in ,baptism does not break the fast1 and one who has a papal indult1 which is granted for sufficient reasons1 may receive ,communion when not fasting4 ,external reverence means that one should approach ,communion with cleanliness of body1 respectability of dress1 and modesty of behavior4 ,no one is unfitted for ,communion because of inculpable unsightliness 7e4g41 a sick man who has irremovable scars or deformities1 a poor man who cannot afford any but the simplest garb1 a crippled person whose gait is awkward74 ,but unwashed hands and face1 dirty mouth or teeth1 worn or torn dress1 and the like1 which one avoids elsewhere as unsuited for human company1 should be avoided when receiving the ,eucharist4 ,women immodestly dressed should be refused ,communion1 if otherwise scandal will result 7,canon #heh74 #bgjf4 ,frequent ,communion4--,what dispositions are required for frequent ,communion 7i4e41 ,communion made several times a week7 and daily communion8 7a7 ,the necessary dispositions are the same as for rare ,communion1 namely1 the state of grace and a right intention4 ,right intention means positively that one have in view the ends that ,christ intended when ,he instituted the ,sacrament1 namely1 that by means of ,communion one may please ,him1 may be more closely united to ,him1 and may receive a remedy for one's defects and infirmities4 ,those who receive devoutly have these purposes at least implicitly1 which suffices2 but it would be a serious sin wilfully to exclude all these ends4 ,right intention means negatively that one must not frequent ,communion merely from routine1 or from vanity1 or from purely human motives1 such as pecuniary profit or advantage4 ,if the true ends are not excluded1 these improper motives do not exceed a venial sin4 7b7 ,useful1 but not necessary1 dispositions are freedom from venial sins1 especially such as are deliberate1 and freedom from affection for venial sins4 #bgjg4 ,duties of ,parents1 ,pastors1 ,confessors in ,reference to ,communion4--7a7 ,parents4--,the obligation of the ,easter duty for boys under fourteen and for girls under twelve rests morally and juridically upon the consciences of those who are charged with their care1 namely1 parents1 guardians1 pastors1 and confessors 7see #bfcj1 #bfca74 ,the parents are the best judges of the mental development1 moral disposition and instruction of their children1 and therefore of their fitness for ,first ,communion 7,canons #hfj1 #hed1 n4 #d74 7b7 ,confessors4--,the decision or counsel about the fitness of children for ,first ,communion1 of penitents for frequent or daily ,communion1 about the frequency of the ,viaticum1 is left by the ,church to the prudence of the confessor 7,canons #hfj1 #hfc1 #hfd1 #heh1 n4#b74 7c7 ,pastors4--,the ,code prescribes that pastors be especially zealous in the matter of holding ,lenten classes for the instruction of children in order that they may receive their ,first ,communion worthily2 it vests in the pastor the duty of seeing that no child approaches ,first ,communion who has not the use of reason or proper dispositions1 as well as of seeing that those children who are fit receive ,communion without delay2 it also requires that he provide for the fuller instruction in ,christian doctrine of children who have made their ,first ,communion 7,canons #accj1 #hed1 n4 #e1 #acca74 ,pastors should recommend to their people the practices of frequent ,communion and of worthy ,communion at every ,mass they hear1 and should take care that the dying receive the ,viaticum while they are in possession of their mental faculties 7,canons #hfc1 #hfe74 ,on the duty of administering ,communion see #bfgf4 #bgjh4 ,reservation of the ,blessed ,sacrament4--,having considered the duties owed to the consecration and communion of the ,eucharist1 we shall conclude by mentioning those that are owed to the ,sacrament in its permanency or to ,christ dwelling in the tabernacle4 7a7 ,the ,duty of ,custody4--,the ,blessed ,sacrament must be reserved in cathedral1 abbatial1 parochial1 and religious churches2 and it may be reserved with due permission of the ,ordinary in collegiate churches and in certain public oratories2 but there must be someone in charge1 and it is not allowed to reserve the ,eucharist in private homes or to carry it about when travelling4 ,churches which have the ,blessed ,sacrament should be open at least a few hours daily to the faithful4 ,it is not lawful to reserve the ,sacrament habitually on more than one altar of the church1 and that altar should be the one that is most honorable or most suited for worship1 and it should be suitably decorated4 ,the tabernacle should be as precious as possible and be carefully guarded1 and the ,hosts should be reserved inside in a solid pyx or ciborium4 ,before the tabernacle should burn day and night a sanctuary lamp fed by olive or other oil 7,canons #abfe-abga74 7b7 ,the ,duty of ,renewal of the ,hosts4--,the consecrated species kept for ,communion and adoration should be frequently renewed1 lest they be corrupted4 ,it would be a serious sin of irreverence to neglect this duty for over one or two months1 or even for a shorter time if the danger of corruption is great on account of local conditions1 such as dampness 7,canon #abgb74 7c7 ,the ,duty of ,worship4--,pastors and others in charge of religious instruction should encourage devotion to the ,eucharist1 and especially the practice of assistance at ,mass even on weekdays and of visits to the ,blessed ,sacrament4 ,benediction may be given frequently1 and at least once a year there should be held in every parish church the ,devotion of the ,forty ,hours1 or at least some more solemn exposition of the ,blessed ,sacrament for a number of hours 7,canons #abgc-abge74 #bgji4 ,the ,sacrifice of the ,mass4--,in the ,eucharist is contained not only a ,sacrament which confers the grace of spiritual nutrition on its recipients1 but also a sacrifice which offers to ,god ,christ's oblation as an act of adoration1 thanksgiving1 satisfaction and intercession4 ,it is this sacrifice--which is one with the sacrifice of the cross1 though offered unbloodily--that is known as the ,mass4 ,the chief persons who have duties in reference to the ,mass are the celebrant and the assistants4 7a7 ,the celebrant is the priest1 who acts in the name and person of ,christ4 ,to say ,mass validly one must have the power of ,orders conferred in the presbyterate or priesthood1 and must intend to consecrate 7see #bgja b72 to say ,mass licitly one must be free from impediments which debar from ,mass1 such as suspension or irregularity4 ,strange priests who wish to say ,mass are required to present a celebret or testimonial letter to the rector of the church 7,canon #hjd71 without prejudice1 however1 to their right to say ,mass once or twice when they present themselves in clerical garb and sign the visiting priest's book4 7b7 ,the assistants are all those who hear ,mass4 ,their duties were already explained in the question on the first precept of the ,church 7#begf sqq474 ,we shall confine ourselves here1 therefore1 to the duties of the celebrant4 #bgaj4 ,the ,obligation of ,saying ,mass4--7a7 ,the ,obligation by reason of ,orders or ,priesthood4--,divine law imposes on priests as a body a grave obligation of celebrating ,mass with such frequency that the memory of ,christ's passion be kept alive1 which is the purpose of the priesthood1 according to the words3 8,do this in commemoration of ,me40 ,divine law also imposes on each individual priest the obligation of saying ,mass at frequent intervals 7i4e41 at least1 it would seem1 on the greater feasts and at dates not more than six months apart72 for a priest is ordained primarily to give glory to ,god and to impart blessings to man by the ,sacrifice of the ,mass 7,heb41 v4 #a74 ,it seems1 therefore1 that a priest receives grace in vain or neglects the sacrifice 7,,ii ,cor41 vi4 #a1 ,,ii ,mach41 iv4 #ad7 if he omits ,mass on the most solemn occasions of the year when nearly all the faithful are accustomed to receive ,communion1 or if he omits it for such a notable period as more than six months4 ,it seems that the sin is per se venial1 as being opposed to fervor rather than to charity2 but it may be mortal per accidens1 as when serious scandal is given4 ,there is no sin1 however1 if a priest has no opportunity to celebrate1 or is lawfully impeded 7e4g41 on account of humility1 scrupulosity1 illness1 or censure74 ,the law of the ,church recalls this obligation in ,canon #hje1 and calls on bishops and religious superiors to exhort their subjects to say ,mass at least on all ,sundays and holydays4 ,daily ,mass is quite customary today1 and there might be serious scandal if without reason ,mass were said only exceptionally4 7b7 ,the ,obligation by ,reason of ,special ,offices or ,duties4--,pastors are bound to say or provide ,mass for their people on days of obligation as a duty of justice1 and it seems on other days also as a duty of charity if there is a great need or demand and no reasonable impediment4 ,there is an obligation of justice to celebrate ,mass1 if one has contracted to do so2 an obligation of fidelity1 if one has freely promised2 an obligation of religion1 if one has vowed2 an obligation of obedience1 if one has been lawfully commanded by one's superior4 #bgaa4 ,dispositions for the ,celebration of ,mass4--7a7 ,dispositions of ,soul4--,the celebrant must be in the state of grace1 and must go to confession before ,mass if he has a serious sin on his conscience 7see #bgja c74 ,he must have the intention and attention which the validity of the consecration requires 7#bgja b71 and the reverence and devotion which is due the prayers of the ,mass 7#baec sqq471 ,voluntary and fully deliberate distractions entertained for a considerable time during the ,canon seem to be seriously sinful4 ,it is most suitable1 though apparently not commanded by the ,church1 that ,matins and ,lauds be said before ,mass4 ,there is1 however1 a duty of religion and of charity to self to make a suitable preparation and thanksgiving2 but negligence here is a light sin1 unless there be contempt or serious scandal4 ,fifteen minutes or a half-hour is recommended by ascetical writers1 and the prayers may be taken from those given in the ,breviary and ,missal1 ,internal prayer1 however1 is more important than external recitation 7,canon #haj74 7b7 ,dispositions of ,body4--,the ,eucharistic or natural fast is of grave obligation for the celebration of ,mass 7,canon #hjh74 ,the only excuses are necessity according to divine law or exemption by ecclesiastical law4 ,necessity occurs when one must complete the sacrifice 7e4g41 when after the ,communion the priest notices that he consecrated one species invalidly71 or must avoid scandal 7e4g41 when a priest remembers after going to the altar that he is not fasting71 or must consecrate for the ,viaticum 7e4g41 when there is no consecrated host for a dying person74 ,since the law is ecclesiastical1 the ,church could dispense for a grave reason 7e4g41 to enable a sickly priest to say ,masses on ,sunday at widely separated points of his missions74 ,it is clear that the celebration of ,mass calls for cleanness of body1 suitableness of dress1 neatness and rubrical correctness of vestments 7,canon #haa74 ,the omission of a principal vestment 7i4e41 blessed alb1 stole or chasuble7 is a serious sin1 except in grave necessity2 the omission of minor vestments 7e4g41 amice7 is a venial sin1 unless there is a just reason4 ,the color of the day is not gravely obligatory1 except by reason of scandal1 and a good reason makes it lawful to use another color4 #bgab4 ,gravity of ,regulations ,concerning ,circumstances of ,mass4--,serious disrespect or serious scandal is caused by disregard of important regulations concerning the circumstances of the ,mass4 ,hence1 the following rules oblige under grave sin1 though exceptions are permitted for cases of grave or very grave necessity4 7a7 ,the ,time of ,mass4--,mass may not be said on ,good ,friday1 nor private ,masses on ,holy ,thursday and ,holy ,saturday4 ,only one ,mass may be said a day1 except on ,christmas ,day and ,all ,souls' ,day1 and on other days when there is reason for bination or trination allowed by the ,church4 ,ordinarily the hour for beginning ,mass should not be earlier than one hour before dawn 7i4e41 in the latitude of ,new ,york from about #a3bg a4m4 to #e3jj a4m41 according to the season71 nor later than one hour after noon4 ,but the time is to be understood morally1 and it is not a grave sin in being earlier or later than the times fixed1 unless there is a difference of an entire hour 7e4g41 if one began ,mass at #b3jj p4m47 and not just excuse or dispensation4 ,the ,holy ,see has extended to local ,ordinaries the power to permit the daily celebration of ,mass after noon1 if the spiritual good of a considerable number of the faithful demands it 7,sacram ,communionem74 ,the ,holy ,see has also granted permission to ,ordinaries to allow the celebration of an evening ,mass on ,palm ,sunday accompanied by the blessing of palms and procession4 ,on ,holy ,thursday the ,mass of the ,lord's ,supper must be celebrated at the most convenient hour1 but not before #d3jj p4m4 and not after #i3jj p4m42 ,ordinaries may grant permission for one or even two low ,masses 7besides the principal ,mass7 to be celebrated in churches and public oratories1 and for one in semi-public oratories within the same hours1 #d3jj-i3jj p4m4 ,the proper hour for the ,easter ,vigil is that which permits the ,mass of the ,easter ,vigil to be started around midnight4 ,permission may be granted to conduct the vigil at a time not before sunset 7,dispositions and ,regulations concerning the ,holy ,week ,liturgy1 ,feb4 #a1 #aieg1 ,sacred ,congregation of ,rites74 ,one ,christmas may be said at midnight4 ,it is a serious sin to say ,mass in less than a quarter of an hour1 and a private ,mass should not be prolonged beyond a half-hour4 7b7 ,place4--,mass may not be celebrated regularly except in a church or oratory that is at least blessed and is not polluted1 execrated or interdicted4 ,it must be said on an altar1 and it would be a serious sin1 except in grave or very grave necessity1 to celebrate without at least one altar cloth or one lighted wax candle1 or without a rubrical chalice1 paten1 or corporal 7,canons #hbb1 #hbc74 7c7 ,rites4--,the principal rubrics of the ,mass are gravely obligatory1 for example1 to use an acolyte unless excused by dispensation or necessity1 to say each prayer of the ,canon1 and each part outside the ,canon that occurs in every ,mass 7e4g41 the prayers at the foot of the altar1 the ,gospel71 to perform the main liturgical actions 7e4g41 the ,offertory1 the breaking of the host1 the purification of the chalice74 ,the secondary rubrics oblige under venial sin 7see ,canons #hjc1 #hab-hai74 #bgac4 ,is it ,lawful to ,discontinue a ,mass8--7a7 ,to terminate ,mass before the end has been reached is unlawful unless there be a serious reason2 otherwise1 disrespect is shown the ,holy ,sacrifice4 ,a grave reason 7e4g41 sudden sickness7 suffices if ,mass be discontinued before the ,consecration2 a most grave reason 7i4e41 danger of death or of profanation of the ,sacrament7 if ,mass be discontinued between the ,consecration and the ,communion4 ,but a ,mass that is broken off after the ,consecration and before the ,communion must be completed by the celebrant or another1 at least if this can be done within an hour from the time of cessation2 else the sacrifice is mutilated4 7b7 ,to interrupt ,mass is also unlawful without serious cause4 ,thus1 a grave reason excuses an interruption outside the ,canon1 for example1 to preach a sermon after the ,gospel or ,communion2 but only a very grave reason excuses an interruption during the ,canon1 for example1 a sick call to give a necessary ,sacrament 7,baptism1 ,penance1 ,extreme ,unction1 or ,viaticum7 to a dying person4 #bgad4 ,application of the ,mass4--,all the faithful1 especially those who are present and also the celebrant himself1 benefit by the ,mass1 but there is a special fruit reserved to those for whose intention the ,mass is offered by the priest2 for the ,mass is a sacrifice of intercession1 propitiation1 and satisfaction1 and since the priest acts in the person of ,christ he may apply its benefits specially to some particular person or persons4 ,in the following cases the celebrant is bound to make this application of the ministerial fruit of the ,mass4 7a7 ,in virtue of their office1 pastors are seriously obliged to say ,mass for their flocks4 ,there is a natural obligation on account of the relationship between the pastor and the people1 and there is also a divine obligation1 inasmuch as the priest is appointed to offer gifts and sacrifices for sin 7,heb41 v1 #a74 ,the details of this duty1 as to the time1 place and person1 are prescribed in ,canons #cjf1 #cci1 #dff4 ,there is a grave duty of saying for the people the number of ,masses which the ,church orders2 but the non-observance of the circumstances is not a mortal sin1 unless it happens frequently and without reason4 7b7 ,in virtue of justice1 a priest who has received a stipend is bound to apply the ,mass for the intention of the donor1 and to observe the conditions of the agreement 7i4e41 the time1 place1 and kind of ,mass specified by the donor74 ,the duty of application is a grave one1 because the loss inflicted on the donor by non-application of the ,mass to his intention is serious2 the duty of observance of the accidental conditions1 however1 is not generally grave1 but it becomes grave if its neglect inflicts serious harm 7e4g41 if the donor makes the date of the ,mass a conditio sine qua non1 or if the ,mass must be said at once on account of an urgent and immediate necessity74 ,restitution is obligatory if the ,mass is not applied1 or if essential conditions are not complied with2 it is obligatory sub gravi1 if the stipend equals what is relatively grave matter in theft4 7c7 ,in virtue of obedience1 subjects are held to apply ,masses for the intention of their prelates1 secular or religious1 though bishops are counselled to exact this most rarely4 ,the obligation is grave or light according to the intention of the superior1 but if the application is also due in justice to the giver of the stipend1 there is a serious duty4 7d7 ,in virtue of religion or fidelity1 there is an obligation of application when a priest has vowed this to ,god1 or freely promised it to man4 ,the duty is grave or light according to the intention of the vower or promisor 7see #bbaj1 #bdjg74 ,but if there is an onerous promise 7e4g41 in a society of priests whose members agree to say ,mass for fellow-members who have died71 the duty is one of justice4 ,one ,mass satisfies several free promises1 if distinct ,masses were not promised4 #bgae4 ,duties of the ,priest as to the ,application of ,mass4--7a7 ,for ,whom ,may ,mass ,be ,applied8--,mass may be offered for all objects not forbidden4 ,from the divine law it is forbidden to offer ,mass for those who are incapable of receiving its benefits 7e4g41 the demons1 infants who died without ,baptism1 the ,saints71 or for intentions that are displeasing to ,god 7e4g41 for success in evil74 ,from the ecclesiastical law certain restrictions are made on the application of ,mass in order to safeguard reverence and prevent scandal4 ,thus1 ,mass may be said only privately 7that is1 without publicity or special liturgical solemnity7 and prudently 7that is1 with avoidance of scandal1 for example1 by the declaration that ,mass is said for the faithful departed with the purpose of aiding also a departed unbeliever1 if this is pleasing to ,god7 for the living and dead outside the ,church1 such as infidels1 heretics1 schismatics1 and the excommunicated4 ,moreover1 for a vitandus ,mass may be applied only when the intention is his conversion 7,canon #hji74 7b7 ,how ,mass ,must ,be ,applied4--,the intention must be formed by the priest1 since he represents ,christ4 ,but since his application does not produce but only bestows the fruits1 it suffices that his applicatory intention be habitual and implicit1 as when the celebrant has forgotten the intention formed before ,mass1 or applies according to the mind of his superior4 ,the person or purpose to which ,mass is applied must be at least implicitly determined1 and the application must be made at least before the second consecration4 ,if there are two conflicting intentions1 the stronger prevails 7#bffg71 and1 if it is doubtful which one was stronger1 ,mass should be next offered for the intention which ,god knows was not satisfied4 ,it is unlawful to apply ,mass by anticipation for the next person who will offer a stipend4 #bgaf4 ,mass ,stipends4--,it is not unlawful to receive a stipend for the application of ,mass1 but irreligion1 injustice1 avarice1 scandal and disobedience must be avoided4 7a7 ,irreligion is committed if the stipend is offered or taken as the price of the ,mass1 or if ,mass is said only because of the stipend1 or is requested only for the sake of human favor 7see #bccc72 7b7 injustice is committed1 if an excessive stipend is exacted2 7c7 avarice is committed when one is over-anxious about large stipends2 7d7 scandal is given when there is commercialism or the appearance of it in dealing with stipends2 7e7 disobedience is incurred when the laws of the ,church on the amount of a stipend1 the number of stipends that may be taken1 their distribution1 satisfaction1 etc41 are violated 7see ,canons #hbd-hdd74 ,it is forbidden to require two stipends for one ,mass1 or one stipend for mere celebration and another for application4 ,art4 #c3 ,,repentance2 ,,penance2 ,,extreme ,,unction 7,summa ,theologica1 ,,iii1 qq4 #hd-ij2 ,supplement1 qq4 #a-cc47 #bgag4 ,penance is the name both of a virtue and of a ,sacrament of the ,new ,law4 ,the virtue was at all times necessary2 the ,sacrament is necessary since its institution by ,christ4 ,having considered in the previous ,article how the spiritual life is begotten1 matured and preserved through the ,sacraments of ,baptism1 ,confirmation and ,eucharist1 we shall consider in the present ,article how spiritual death and infirmity are overcome by the remedies of ,penance and ,extreme ,unction4 ,but first we shall speak of the virtue of penance or repentance which is a requisite for the fruitful reception of the ,sacrament of ,penance and of its complement1 ,extreme ,unction4 #bgah4 ,the ,virtue of ,repentance4--,this virtue is a gift of ,god and a permanent habit of the soul1 but there are certain acts by which man cooperates with ,god and prepares himself for the gift4 ,sometimes a sinner is converted through consideration of ,god's goodness or of the rewards of heaven2 but usually those who have been drawn by sinful delights are first deterred from them by the thought of ,god's justice1 and amendment begins from fear4 ,faith1 hope1 fear and love1 at least virtually1 are always found in the process of turning to ,god1 and usually they follow one another in that process in the order here given4 7a7 ,the beginning of conversion is with ,god who draws the heart3 8,convert us to ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 and we shall be converted0 7,lament1 v4 #ba74 7b7 ,then follows the movement of faith1 for he that would come to ,god must first believe that ,he is 7,heb41 xi4 #f74 7c7 ,next follow servile fear1 which removes one from sin1 and hope1 which leads one to ,god1 for faith holds out both threats of punishment and promises of mercy4 7d7 ,then come the movements of love1 which detests sin for its own sake1 and of filial fear1 which offers satisfaction to ,god out of reverence4 #bgai4 ,repentance4--,repentance may be defined as 8a moral virtue that inclines the will of one who is subject to sin to grieve over it and to make reparation to ,god for the injury it does to ,his rights40 7a7 ,thus1 repentance has its remote subject in one who is subject to sin1 that is1 in a person who has sinned or who is able to sin4 ,hence1 it is not in ,christ1 who is impeccable1 nor in the holy ,angels1 whose wills are fixed in good2 but it is found in the ,saints1 inasmuch as their former sin is displeasing to them and their former contrition and satisfaction pleasing4 7b7 ,the proximate subject of repentance is the will1 for its acts of regret1 resolution1 and reparation belong to the higher appetitive faculty1 ,hence1 repentance does not consist in emotional sorrow1 and it does not need to be sensibly felt or joined with tears4 7c7 ,the formal object or motive of repentance is reparation to ,goal for the injury done ,him by one's own personal sin4 ,sin may be considered as opposed to the divine goodness1 and in this respect it is detested by charity2 or as opposed to the good of man himself1 and so hope detests it2 or as opposed to the moral goodness of some particular virtue1 and in this respect it is hated by that virtue1 as temperance shuns intemperance2 or as opposed to the right which belongs to ,god1 the ,last ,end1 that all actions be done for ,him1 and in this respect sin is considered by repentance4 ,one may regret original sin or sins done by others1 but one is not properly said to repent of them4 7d7 ,the material object or subject-matter of repentance is the acts by which reparation is made to ,god1 namely1 grief over sin and its accompaniments1 hatred of moral wickedness in the present1 regrets for the past1 and good resolutions for the future4 ,thus1 repentance differs from religion1 for religion looks upon ,god as ,lord and ,benefactor and offers ,him worship1 while repentance considers ,him as the ,last ,end who has been offended and offers ,him satisfaction4 ,the difference between filial fear and repentance is seen in this1 that the former falls back upon its own littleness1 whereas the latter throws itself at the feet of ,god4 #bgbj4 ,the ,character of ,repentance4--7a7 ,it is a virtue1 since it is commanded 78,do penance10 ,matt41 iii4 #b71 and also since it moderates according to reason the sorrow felt for sin1 keeping it from the extreme of despair1 lest it become the remorse of a ,cain or a ,judas4 7b7 ,it is a moral virtue1 since its direct object is the human acts by which reparation is made to ,god1 and its office the regulation of those acts within the bounds of moderation4 7c7 ,it belongs to justice1 being a compensation offered for injury to another's right2 but it is only a potential part of justice1 as there is not perfect justice between an inferior and the superior to whose power the former is subject 7#badb74 ,it is classed under commutative justice on account of the return that is offered for the offense2 #bgba4 ,the ,excellence of ,repentance4--7a7 ,its ,dignity4--,repentance ranks below other virtues1 for1 while they are naturally advantageous to man1 repentance is beneficial only hypothetically1 namely1 in the supposition of sin4 ,in one respect1 however1 it holds a certain preeminence1 for the infused virtues are bestowed only in justification1 whereas the acts of repentance that prepare for justification come before those virtues4 7b7 ,its ,necessity4--,in the actual providence of ,god no mortal sin is remitted unless it be first repented of1 and hence it is said3 8,unless you do penance1 you shall all likewise perish0 7,luke1 xiii4 #e74 ,this is reasonable1 since it is fitting that he who has turned away from ,god by his own act1 should also return to ,god by his own act4 ,as to venial sin1 since it consists in an inordinate cleaving to created things and must be removed by its contrary1 there is need of an actual rejection of the exaggerated attachment1 and hence need of repentance2 moreover1 since one should be restored to ,god's friendship before being restored to ,his familiarity1 penitence in regard to a venial sin does not avail1 unless the penitent is in the state of grace4 ,the act of repentance need not be formal 7i4e41 one in which a person expressly thinks of his sins and expressly detests them71 but a virtual act suffices1 that is1 an act of love of ,god which implicitly includes repentance1 though the latter is not expressly taken into consideration4 #bgbb4 ,is ,repentance ,necessary as a ,means or as a ,precept8--7a7 ,it is necessary as a means of salvation because1 if it be omitted1 salvation cannot be attained4 ,god desires that the sinner assist in and consent to his own forgiveness1 and repentance1 as we saw1 is the most suitable way in which the sinner can do this4 7b7 ,it is also necessary as a precept4 ,the natural law requires that those who have done an injury1 make reparation2 the divine law calls on sinners to repent and be converted to ,god 7,acts1 ii4 #ch1 iii4 #ai1 viii4 #bb71 and the church law prescribes annual confession4 #bgbc4 ,how ,soon ,does the ,precept of ,repentance ,oblige8--7a7 ,it obliges at once 7i4e41 without any delay71 when there is immediate necessity for it4 ,this happens per se1 when one is in grave danger of death1 for at that moment one is bound to prepare immediately to meet ,god1 which supposes repentance4 ,it happens per accidens1 when by reason of some urgent precept distinct from that of repentance one is obligated here and now to rid oneself of sin 7e4g41 when one is called on to administer a ,sacrament and must have a pure conscience1 or when one is gravely tempted and will surely fall unless one repents of the past74 7b7 ,it obliges soon 7i4e41 without any unreasonable delay71 when there is no immediate necessity4 ,it is not a new sin to put off repentance until tomorrow or next week in such a case2 for the commandment of repentance1 being affirmative1 does not bind for each instant1 but only for a reasonable time4 ,but the common opinion is that a new sin is committed when repentance is delayed for a considerable time1 since this exposes the sinner to further sins1 impenitence1 and damnation4 ,practically1 it seems that those who comply with the church law of yearly confession commit no sin of unrepentance1 though some consider it a mortal sin to delay repentance beyond a month4 #bgbd4 ,accompaniments of ,repentance as to ,mortal ,sin4--7a7 ,when one mortal sin is forgiven1 every other mortal sin is forgiven at the same time4 ,for no one can be truly repentant unless he grieves over his separation from ,god1 and this means that he grieves over each individual mortal sin4 ,but1 since venial sin does not separate from ,god1 it is possible to be sorry for one venial sin without being sorry for another4 7b7 ,when mortal sin is forgiven1 the eternal punishment is also forgiven1 for forgiveness makes man a friend of ,god and an heir to heaven4 ,but the temporal punishment may remain due1 as is proved by the examples of ,adam 7,gen41 iii4 #bc2 ,wisd41 x4 #b71 of ,mary1 the sister of ,moses 7,num41 xii471 of ,moses 7,num41 xx4 #ab71 of ,david 7,,ii ,kings1 xii4 #ac1 #ad71 and of others4 ,god is not only a merciful ,father1 but also a just ,ruler1 and it is fitting that ,he should exact satisfaction even for sin forgiven4 ,but if repentance is very perfect like that of ,magdalen and ,st4 ,paul1 even the temporal punishment is forgiven4 #bgbe4 ,the ,fruits of ,repentance4--7a7 ,every sin1 no matter how grievous1 is removed by repentance 7,is41 i4 #ah71 and hence there is always room for forgiveness4 ,for man is always able to repent and ,god is always ready to pardon the penitent 7,joel1 ii4 #ac74 ,the unpardonable sin is refusal to repent of sin1 if one continues in that refusal1 but even impenitence is forgiven when laid aside 7see #ijj74 7b7 ,sin once forgiven does not return1 for ,god does not regret ,his gifts 7,rom1 xi4 #bi71 and ,his pardon means that the guilt of a sin is destroyed and wiped out forever1 ,but he who falls into the same sins after pardon increases his guilt by reason of his ingratitude4 7c7 ,the repentant sinner recovers the infused virtues he lost by sin and also his former merits 7,luke1 ,,xv4 #bb2 ,joel1 ii4 #be2 ,ezech41 xxxiii4 #ab2 ,heb41 vi4 #aj74 ,virginity of body and innocence of soul are not recovered as to their material elements 7i4e41 bodily integrity and freedom from all sin71 but they are restored as to their formal part1 which is the resolve to abstain from all venereal pleasure or to avoid all sin4 ,it seems that former merits are also recovered1 not necessarily in their entirety1 but in a degree that corresponds with the greater or less excellence of repentance4 #bgbf4 ,forgiveness of ,sin through the ,use of the ,sacraments4--7a7 ,mortal sins are forgiven by the ,sacraments in virtue of the rite itself 7ex opere operato7 and immediately2 that is1 the ,sacraments either per se or per accidens 7according as they are ,sacraments of the ,dead or ,sacraments of the ,living7 produce in the soul first grace or justification1 which is the opposite of mortal sin4 7b7 ,venial sins are forgiven by the ,sacraments in virtue of the rite itself but not immediately2 that is1 the ,sacraments produce directly either first or second grace1 and indirectly through this grace they may awaken fervor1 which is the opposite of venial sin4 ,the sacramentals1 on the contrary1 remit venial sins1 not in virtue of the rite itself but in virtue of the intercession of the ,church attached to the rite 7ex opere operantis ,ecclesiae72 for the prayers of the ,church are acceptable to ,god and can obtain from ,him a grace of repentance that will remove venial sin4 #bgbg4 ,the ,sacrament of ,penance4--,for those who lose grace after ,baptism the ,sacrament of ,penance is necessary as a part of repentance and a means of forgiveness4 ,this ,sacrament may be defined as 8a ,sacrament of the ,new ,law instituted by ,christ in the form of a judicial process1 in which1 through the absolution of the priest1 sins committed after ,baptism are forgiven to penitents who confess them with sorrow40 7a7 ,the remote matter of this ,sacrament is the personal sins committed after ,baptism1 for ,baptism washes away all sins committed before its reception4 ,of this remote matter1 some is necessary 7i4e41 sins that must be confessed71 namely1 post-baptismal mortal sins not yet declared or directly absolved in confession2 some is free 7i4e41 sins that may1 but need not be confessed71 namely1 post-baptismal mortal sins already forgiven in confession1 and post-baptismal venial sins1 whether already remitted or not 7,canon #ijb74 ,imperfections which are not sins1 or whose sinfulness is doubtful1 are not sufficient matter for absolution2 and if they alone are confessed1 absolution may not be given1 unless there is necessity1 and then it may be granted conditionally 7see #ahe1 #ahf74 7b7 ,the proximate matter of this ,sacrament1 according to the view commonly held1 is the three acts of the penitent--contrition in the heart1 confession in words1 and satisfaction in work4 ,contrition must exist actually1 but the other two acts in case of necessity need not exist actually1 but are included implicitly in the act of contrition4 7c7 ,the form of the ,sacrament is contained in the words of absolution spoken by the priest4 ,certainly the words1 8,ego te absolvo a peccatis tuis10 are sufficient for validity4 ,but lawfulness requires that one use the entire form and the other accompanying prayers as given in one's approved ,ritual4 ,in case of necessity1 as in shipwreck or sudden danger of death1 an abbreviated form is permitted4 ,absolution must be spoken or vocal1 for the ,church has never recognized absolution by signs or in writing4 ,it must be given to one who is present1 that is1 one who is in the same place and not too far away to hear and be heard4 ,those who are in different rooms that do not open on each other are not in the same place2 those who are more than twenty feet apart are too far away for presence1 according to the common opinion2 but in great need a more liberal view may be followed1 and even absolution by speaking tube or telephone may be resorted to4 7d7 ,the subject of the ,sacrament of ,penance is every baptized person who has committed venial or mortal sin after ,baptism4 ,if there is doubt about the ,baptism or about the sin1 absolution may be given conditionally4 ,besides the conditions given for the ,sacraments in general1 the recipient of ,penance must exercise the three acts of contrition1 confession and satisfaction4 ,the first is essential in every case1 and the second when possible2 and without the third the ,sacrament is not integral or complete4 #bgbh4 ,probabilism in ,administration of the ,sacrament4--,in the administration and reception of the ,sacrament of ,penance it is lawful to follow opinions that are truly probable except in the following cases3 7a7 when the validity of the ,sacrament is at stake 7#fgh71 unless there is a case of emergency 7#fgi74 ,hence1 as the law of material integrity pertains to the lawful1 not to the valid use of ,penance1 one may use probable opinions in its regard 7see #bgdj72 7b7 when the seal of the ,sacrament is involved1 lest confession become odious4 #bgbi4 ,contrition4--,the first act of the penitent is contrition4 ,it is defined by the ,council of ,trent as a sorrow and hatred for sin committed1 with a resolution of sinning no more and a desire of doing what is necessary for the proper reception of the ,sacrament of ,penance4 7a7 ,thus1 it presupposes a hatred of personal past transgressions1 for one grieves only about that which displeases one1 and the acts of the will begin with likes and dislikes4 7b7 ,it consists essentially in sorrow or affliction of spirit1 for contrition1 being the chief act of repentance1 looks to reparation to ,god for the injury done ,him1 and it therefore punishes the sinner by sadness for his misdeeds4 7c7 ,it includes as a property or consequence the resolution to avoid future sin and to do what ,god requires for forgiveness2 for no one is sincerely sorry for the past unless this sorrow makes him decide not to repeat the offense1 and makes him desire to fulfill the conditions that ,god lays down for reconciliation4 #bgcj4 ,the ,two ,kinds of ,contrition4--7a7 ,perfect contrition is that which is caused by charity1 or the love of benevolence or of friendship 7#aaji1 #aaaj7 towards ,god4 ,this love is had1 whether the object of one's affection is the divine being or persons1 the divine and infinite perfections1 or a single attribute2 for all of these are really ,god ,himself4 ,this contrition justifies the sinner at once1 for it includes charity and the will 7at least implicit7 to do what ,god wishes1 and ,god takes up ,his abode with those who love ,him 7,john1 xiv4 #bc74 ,perfect contrition is necessary1 both as a means and as a divine precept1 whenever the duty of repentance or of the ,sacrament of ,penance obliges with a like necessity1 and there is no opportunity of receiving the ,sacrament2 for it is then the only way of recovering grace4 7b7 ,imperfect contrition1 or attrition1 is contrition caused by a supernatural motive inferior to that of charity1 i4e41 by a less perfect motive suggested by faith that leads one to grieve over sin committed1 for example1 the heinousness of sin in itself1 its eternal punishment by ,god 7i4e41 the pain of loss or the pain of sense71 or its temporal punishment by ,god in this life or in ,purgatory4 ,this contrition does not justify the sinner without the ,sacrament1 for it does not rectify or retract the disorder introduced by sin as far as lies within the sinner's power 7that is1 ex opere operantis74 ,by his sin the sinner preferred the creature to ,god2 by his attrition he does not go so far as to prefer ,god positively to every created good1 else his contrition would be perfect4 ,but attrition suffices for justification of the sinner with the ,sacrament of ,penance1 for it includes the essentials of contrition in general1 and thus removes the impediments to the activity of the ,sacrament 7that is1 the production of grace ex opere operato74 ,the same holds good also of the sufficient disposition for ,baptism1 and more probably of that for the ,sacraments of the ,living received in good faith by one who is not in grace4 #bgca4 ,is ,attrition ,based ,solely on ,fear of ,punishment ,laudable8--7a7 ,fear of the world is sinful1 because it offends ,god to escape evil 7#ajdd72 slavish fear of ,god is sinful also1 because it makes self the last end1 avoiding sin solely because of the harm it will bring on self 7#ajec74 ,sorrow for sin caused by slavish fear is not attrition1 and is not laudable4 7b7 ,servile fear of ,god in itself is good and supernatural 7#ajej71 and the sorrow for sin or attrition based on such fear is also good2 and if it includes a resolution of amendment1 it suffices for justification with the ,sacraments4 ,the end 7i4e41 to escape punishment7 is good 7,matt41 x4 #bh72 the means 7i4e41 sorrow for sin7 is good2 and the use of the means for the end is good1 for desertion of sin is the way to escape unhappiness 7,luke1 iii4 #g1 #h74 ,nor is it wrong to make a nobler good 7such as avoidance of sin7 a means to a lesser good 7such as escape from punishment7 when the lesser good is not made the last end1 but only the immediate end1 of the greater good4 ,thus1 when we pray for temporal goods1 we make a spiritual thing a means to a material end1 but the ,last ,end of the prayer is ,god ,himself4 ,servile fear1 unlike slavish fear 7timor serviliter servilis71 does not make self the last end 7,denzinger1 #hah1 #aadf1 #aebe74 #bgcb4 ,attrition in the ,sacrament of ,penance4--,must attrition based on fear of punishment be joined with love of ,god to justify in the ,sacrament8 7a7 ,some form of love is required1 for all contrition is detestation of sin1 and sin is not hated unless its opposite is loved4 ,hence1 just as attrition must be accompanied by faith and hope1 so it must also be accompanied by some form of love of ,god 7#bgah74 7b7 ,disinterested love is not required4 ,this is certain as regards love of friendship1 for even the smallest degree of that love is charity and justifies even without the ,sacrament 7#aaab1 #bgcj74 ,this is commonly held in reference to love of benevolence1 which seems practically to be always united with love of friendship or charity4 ,a love that inclines to ,god for ,his own sake but that does not predominate over other loves is held by some to be necessary1 but it is difficult to understand such a love or to see its possibility4 7c7 ,interested love 7the love of concupiscence or of hope7 is therefore necessary4 ,the common opinion today seems to be that it also suffices1 and that it need be only virtual or implicit4 ,in other words1 the prevalent view is that every attrition prompted by fear of punishment contains an initial love of ,god which suffices to turn the sinner to ,god and to remove any obstacle to the action of the ,sacrament4 ,for 8the fear of ,god is the beginning of ,his love0 7,ecclus41 xxv4 #af71 the hope of pardon is a beginning of love of the ,author of pardon and justice1 the resolve to amend is an inclination to keep the great command of love of ,god 7#aeef74 #bgcc4 ,the ,conditions for ,valid ,contrition and ,attrition4--7a7 ,it must be internal1 for contrition is an act of repentance and must be in the heart4 ,merely pretended sorrow1 and sorrow which one mistakenly thinks one has1 are insufficient4 7b7 ,it must be supernatural1 for contrition is a disposition for the reception of the supernatural habit of grace4 ,sorrow for sin induced by natural motives1 such as the punishments inflicted by human agencies1 if these are not viewed in the light of faith1 is not sufficient4 7c7 ,it must be universal1 that is1 there must be sorrow for all mortal sins not yet forgiven1 for it is impossible to be really sorry for one serious sin while retaining affection for another4 ,but it is not necessary to repent of all venial sins before one is forgiven 7see #bgbd74 7d7 ,it must be sovereign1 that is1 if the contrition is perfect1 ,god must be loved above every other good2 if it is imperfect1 sin must be hated above every evil that could lead to sin4 ,if the sinner does not detest his dishonesty more than the privation he will suffer by being honest1 he is not really contrite4 ,it is1 however1 not necessary that contrition be sensibly felt1 or be of supreme intensity1 or that its act be of long duration2 and it is rash to call to mind the kinds of evils or torments one would prefer to suffer rather than commit sin 7see #aeef74 #bgcd4 ,valid and ,fruitful ,reception of the ,sacrament4--,some theologians1 distinguishing between contrition as matter of the ,sacrament and contrition as a disposition of the penitent1 hold that it is possible to have a valid but unfruitful reception of the ,sacrament1 and that revival of its grace is possible4 ,they explain thus3 7a7 the contrition required for the matter and the validity of the ,sacrament must be such as can be known with moral certainty by the confessor from external indications1 and hence it suffices for validity that the sorrow be true and sincere and supernatural2 7b7 the contrition required for the disposition of the penitent and the fruitfulness of the ,sacrament must be such as excludes all affection for every grave sin and includes the resolution to avoid all mortal sin in the future1 and hence it is required for fruitfulness that sorrow be also universal and sovereign4 7,this opinion has very few1 if any at all1 adherents among modern theologians4 ,it is retained here solely as a matter of record47 #bgce4 ,properties of ,contrition4--,since contrition belongs to the matter of ,penance1 it must have the properties of sacramental matter 7#bfee sqq474 7a7 ,thus1 the matter must be sensible1 and hence contrition must be shown in some external way1 as by a sorrowful confession1 devout request for absolution1 or1 in the case of those who are unconscious1 by a call for a priest or the practices or prayers of a ,christian life4 7b7 ,the matter must be united with the form1 and hence contrition must be elicited at the moment of absolution1 or a short time before 7not more than a few hours before1 according to some1 or even a few days before1 according to others74 ,but if a penitent recalls immediately after absolution a forgotten mortal sin1 and is then absolved from it also1 more probably he is not obliged to renew his act of contrition1 because the act just made virtually continues2 in practice1 however1 he might be told to make another act of contrition and a new penance or the same penance may be imposed before the second absolution4 ,moreover1 for absolution when one is unconscious and in danger of death1 since an habitual intention suffices 7#bfgd71 it seems that contrition made long ago1 but not retracted1 is sufficient4 7c7 ,the matter must have at least a moral unity of its own parts1 and hence the contrition must in some way be directed to the confession2 that is1 either before or during or after the act of contrition there must be an intention to confess with the sorrow for sin contained in that act of contrition1 or to apply that sorrow to the confession just made4 ,otherwise it does not appear that one has the purpose to make a sacramental confession4 ,but there is no practical difficulty1 as every act of contrition contains implicitly the will to confess1 or every sincere confession includes the will to use the contrition one has exercised or will exercise4 #bgcf4 ,resolution of ,amendment4--,the resolution of amendment which true contrition calls for is at least implicit in the hatred of sin1 but it is advisable that the penitent expressly resolve to avoid sin in the future4 ,this determination should have the following qualities3 7a7 it should be firm1 that is1 the penitent should make up his mind not to relapse into deliberate sin4 ,yet1 it is not necessary that he feel certain of his perseverance1 and his resolve does not cease to be firm1 if he foresees that he will fall again1 provided he is decided to do the best he can2 7b7 it should be efficacious1 that is1 the penitent must decide to use suitable means to fulfill his good intentions as to reparation for scandal1 calumny1 and injustice1 as to the avoidance of sinful occasions1 etc42 7c7 it should be universal1 that is1 the penitent must resolve at least generically to avoid each and every grave sin in the future4 ,if only free matter 7#bgbg7 is confessed1 the penitent may direct his resolution of amendment to all past mortal sins confessed1 or to one of the present venial sins declared1 or he may resolve to do better in reference to a certain class of sins 7e4g41 deliberate sins1 faults of speech71 or he may resolve to diminish the frequency of his venial sins4 #bgcg4 ,confession4--,the second act of the penitent is confession1 that is1 the declaration of one's sins made to a duly authorized priest with the purpose of obtaining absolution4 ,confession is obligatory both from divine and ecclesiastical law4 7a7 ,according to divine law1 the forgiveness of grave post-baptismal sins is subject to the power of the keys1 which is exercised in the form of a judgment and requires confession 7,matt41 xviii1 #ah2 ,john1 xx4 #bc74 ,this law obliges per se in danger of death1 and occasionally during life2 per accidens1 when one in sin intends to receive ,communion1 when one is unable without confession to recover the necessary state of grace or overcome a serious temptation or bad habit4 7b7 ,according to church law1 the faithful must go to confession once a year 7#beij71 and confession is also prescribed at times for those who wish to receive ,communion 7#bgje7 or celebrate ,mass 7#bgja c1 #bgaa74 #bgch4 ,the ,qualities of ,confession4--7a7 ,confession is an act of virtue and should have the conditions of a virtue2 that is1 it should be discreet 7e4g41 the penitent should not reveal the names or sins of others71 willing1 and pure in motive 7e4g41 the penitent should not confess for temporal ends1 such as the good opinion of the confessor71 and courageous 7i4e41 the penitent should not be deterred by shame74 7b7 ,confession is an act of penitence1 and1 as penitence includes hatred and regret for sin and abasement of self1 confession should not be boastful1 jocular or proud1 but shamefaced1 sorrowful and humble4 7c7 ,confession is essentially a declaration of fact1 and hence it should avoid the defects that make a declaration valueless or imperfect1 namely1 falsehood1 obscurity1 digression1 or concealment4 ,confession1 then1 should be truthful1 clear1 to the point1 and entire4 7d7 ,confession belongs to the ,sacrament of ,penance1 which is the forum of conscience1 and hence the penitent accuses himself1 submits to the judgment of the father confessor1 and is heard in secret4 ,public confession is valid but not obligatory4 ,hence1 one who does not speak the language of the confessor is not bound to use an interpreter4 ,regularly confession should be vocal1 but for grave reasons 7e4g41 if the penitent is dumb1 or the confessor is deaf1 or there is danger of being heard by those nearby7 it may be made by signs or in writing4 ,in case of a written confession the penitent should declare orally1 if possible1 that the writing contains his confession 7see ,canon #ijc74 #bgci4 ,is it a ,grave ,sin to ,lie to the ,confessor8--7a7 ,there is a grave sin when the lie deceives the confessor about necessary matter 7e4g41 when a circumstance changing the theological species of a sin is denied71 or about free matter which is the only sin confessed 7e4g41 when a penitent lyingly accuses himself of only one sin and that a venial one71 or about free matter which the confessor asks about and needs to know 7e4g41 about habits or occasions of sin74 ,he who falsely accuses himself of a grave sin1 or who exaggerates the number of his grave sins1 per se sins mortally2 but he is excused if he is ignorant or is under a momentary excitement or delusion4 ,not only is there grave sin in the cited cases1 but the confession is made invalid by the defect in essential matter which the lie produces2 for the confessor does not understand the true state of the penitent's soul4 7b7 ,there is mortal sin when the lie deceives the confessor about matter that is impertinent to the confession1 but is grave in itself1 as when the penitent seriously calumniates a neighbor to the priest4 ,in this case the confession is made invalid by the want of disposition on the part of the penitent4 7c7 ,there is light sin when the lie deceives the confessor about free matter which is not the only sin confessed1 or which the confessor does not need to know in order substantially to pass judgment and give direction2 also when the lie is not serious and is impertinent to the confession4 ,in these cases the ,sacrament is not made invalid1 for the insincerity does not change the confessor's decision4 #bgdj4 ,integral ,confession4--,the completeness or integrity of confession is twofold4 7a7 ,material completeness consists in the declaration of all mortal sins committed and not yet confessed and absolved4 ,this kind of completeness is sometimes impossible1 and therefore unnecessary4 ,for completeness is obligatory in virtue of a positive law of ,christ1 and positive laws do not bind in case of impossibility 7#cfa74 7b7 ,formal completeness consists in the declaration of all the mortal sins which here and now1 all things considered1 one can and should mention4 ,this kind of completeness is necessary for a valid and fruitful confession1 because the law of ,christ calls for a complete confession1 as far as possible1 and formal completeness is possible4 ,since he who is obliged by a law is also obliged to use the means to keep the law1 those who are going to confession should examine their consciences beforehand1 unless this is impossible or unnecessary4 ,the time and diligence to be given this examination depends on the person and his circumstances2 but all should be careful about it1 while avoiding scrupulosity1 and should also remember that contrition is even more important than confession4 #bgda4 ,manner of ,confession4--,completeness of confession as regards mortal sins extends to the following points3 7a7 the theological and the lowest moral species of a sin 7#aig sqq47 must be given1 for otherwise the confessor does not understand the case before him4 ,he who has committed a mortal theft does not satisfy by confessing a venial theft2 he who is guilty of the specific sin of calumny does not satisfy by the generic accusation of sins of the tongue4 ,but impossibility excuses1 as when the penitent has only a general recollection about a sin2 7b7 the number of the sins must be given exactly or1 if this is impossible1 approximately4 ,he who unintentionally exaggerates the number or tells a sin of which he is not guilty1 is not bound to correct this1 but he who unintentionally lowers the number to a notable extent should tell in his next confession what was omitted 7see #bjb sqq472 7c7 the circumstances that change the species of a sin must be declared1 for example1 the fact that the person who was scandalized was one's subject1 that the person who was treated disrespectfully was one's superior1 that the amount stolen was large 7see #gb72 7d7 the external act that completed an internal sin must be declared1 and hence he who committed impurity does not confess properly by saying that he gave consent to impure desires 7see #hi-ic74 #bgdb4 ,disputed ,cases4--7a7 ,circumstances that ,notably ,aggravate a ,sin without ,changing ,its ,species4--,for the obligation of confessing these circumstances1 it is argued that1 if the confessor does not know them1 he is unable to guide the penitent properly4 ,against obligation1 it is argued that the species of the sin gives the confessor sufficient knowledge1 and that the obligation of confessing aggravating circumstances would make the burden too heavy for the penitent4 ,but all admit that per accidens there may be a duty of confessing a circumstance of this kind1 as when it makes a sin reserved1 or consists in an occasion of sin or evil habit1 or when it produces a great change in reference to satisfaction 7e4g41 the theft of #aj1jjj is quite different from the theft of #ajjj74 7b7 ,as to the ,imputable ,external ,effects of a ,sin4--,one opinion is that these must be confessed1 since they are willed in their cause 7#if1 #ajb72 another opinion is that they need not be confessed since they are not sins1 but results that followed on a sin2 a third opinion answers that they must be confessed if the evil will was not retracted before they happened1 but otherwise not4 ,all agree1 however1 that the sinner in this case should confess that he sinned with foresight of the consequence1 and that he should confess the consequence itself if there is attached to it something that should be known to the confessor 7e4g41 censure1 irregularity1 etc474 7c7 ,sins ,whose ,commission1 or ,gravity1 or ,remission is ,uncertain4--,if the uncertainty is about the fact or gravity of the sin1 there is no obligation to confess the sin1 even though its commission or its gravity be probable2 for the obligation cannot be proved4 ,but if it is certain that grave sin has been committed and uncertain whether the sin has been confessed1 a mere doubt or suspicion in favor of confession does not exempt from obligation2 a probable opinion in favor of confession excuses according to ,probabilism1 but it does not excuse according to ,equiprobabilism1 unless the doubt is about a confession made long ago by one who was careful in making his confessions1 or unless there is question of a scrupulous person 7#fee sqq41 #gjh1 #gji74 #bgdc4 ,when ,material ,integrity ,is ,not ,necessary4--,material integrity is not due because of real impossibility in the following cases3 7a7 when there is physical impossibility1 as when one is at the point of death and too weak to make confession1 or is deaf and dumb1 or cannot speak the confessor's language correctly1 or cannot finish confession on account of shipwreck or other great peril2 7b7 when there is moral impossibility1 as when material integrity cannot be had except at the expense of a great temporal or spiritual evil distinct from the inconvenience intrinsic to the confession itself1 and there is some serious reason that makes it necessary to go to confession here and now 7e4g41 the desire of not remaining long in the state of sin74 ,examples are3 great spiritual harm1 as when a penitent is scrupulous2 great temporal harm1 as when the penitent has to flee to escape assassination4 ,some affirm1 while others deny1 the duty of mentioning a sin that will defame an accomplice with the confessor1 and in practice it seems the duty cannot be insisted on 7cfr4 #bjfe74 #bgdd4 ,completion or ,repetition of ,past ,incomplete ,confessions4--7a7 ,completion of past confessions must be made when they lacked material integrity1 if the impossibility has ceased4 7b7 ,particular repetition is necessary when a confession lacked formal integrity or other essential2 that is1 if a sin was unlawfully concealed or unrepented of in confession1 the sacrilege must be confessed and the previous confession made over1 since it was invalid4 ,but if the new confession is made to the same confessor and he has a general remembrance of it1 the new confession may be made summarily4 7c7 ,general repetition is necessary when several past confessions were certainly invalid on account of lack of formal integrity or other defect4 ,thus1 he who has made bad confessions for three months must make a general confession of that period of time4 ,general confession is advisable when there is a prudent doubt about the worth of past confessions2 it is permissible when it will help a penitent to be more contrite and lead a better life2 it is not lawful when it will do harm1 as when a scrupulous penitent will be harrowed and maddened by the thought of his past sins4 #bgde4 ,satisfaction4--,the third act of the penitent is satisfaction1 which is defined as 8a compensation for the injury done to ,god by sin1 appointed by ,god's minister in the ,sacrament of ,penance and accepted and performed by the penitent40 7a7 ,this act is a compensation or payment made to ,god as an act of reparation and justice4 7b7 ,the compensation is appointed by the confessor1 for its chief purpose is restoration of friendship between ,god and the sinner1 and hence equality is not sought1 but the good will to do what ,god's minister imposes4 7c7 ,the compensation is accepted and performed4 ,this is required for the completeness1 not for the essence1 of the ,sacrament4 ,he who is really contrite desires to satisfy1 he who confesses offers to satisfy2 and hence1 if for any reason he does not actually satisfy1 his satisfaction of desire suffices for the validity of the ,sacrament1 but his omission to perform the satisfaction makes the ,sacrament incomplete4 #bgdf4 ,the ,effects of ,actual ,satisfaction4--7a7 ,there is a remissive effect1 consisting in the ex opere operato release of a portion or of all the temporal punishment due to sin forgiven4 7b7 ,there is a medicinal effect1 consisting in the appreciation of the evil of sin1 the caution and vigilance against future relapse1 and the removal of evil tendencies1 which the penitential works inculcate and promote4 #bgdg4 ,the ,conditions for ,effective ,satisfaction4--7a7 ,for validity 7that is1 for discharge of the obligation7 the penitent must perform the penance as to essentials in the way prescribed by the confessor1 and he must perform it personally1 unless the confessor permits or enjoins fulfillment by proxy 7,canon #hhg74 ,a penance performed during the actual commission of or with actual affection for sin1 is not a satisfaction1 but a new offense4 7b7 ,for fruitfulness it is necessary that the penitent be in the state of grace when he fulfills the penance1 for the works of ,his enemies are not supernaturally pleasing to ,god4 ,or1 more exactly1 a penance done in the state of sin1 but without affection for sin and under the influence of actual grace1 has no strict right either of justice or of friendship to divine acceptance2 but it seems fitting that such penance be accepted by the divine liberality in part satisfaction for sins forgiven4 #bgdh4 ,the ,obligation of ,accepting and ,performing a ,penance4--7a7 ,per se1 the obligation is grave1 since the penance belongs to the integrity of the ,sacrament1 and hence its refusal or neglect is an injury to a sacred thing4 7b7 ,per accidens1 the obligation may be light1 and this is held to be the case when the penance was imposed for free matter1 or when the satisfaction prescribed is a light work 7such as one or two ,hail ,marys74 ,a penitent is not bound to accept an unreasonable penance1 and he may seek a commutation if such a penance is imposed4 ,as a rule1 negligence about the circumstances of a penance 7e4g41 the time1 or posture7 is not a grave sin1 but exceptionally it may be serious 7e4g41 if one delays a gravely obligatory penance six months1 or so long as to be in danger of forgetting it2 if one omits to say a prayer on bended knees when this was chiefly intended by the confessor74 #bgdi4 ,causes ,that ,excuse from a ,penance ,imposed4--7a7 ,commutation4--,if there is a just reason 7e4g41 the over-severity of the penance71 the penitent may have his penance changed to something lighter4 ,the confessor who imposed the penance may be asked to change it1 even probably after and outside of confession1 and after a long time1 and though he does not remember the confession4 ,another confessor may lessen the penance1 but only in confession and after he has heard at least a summary repetition of the sins for which the penance was given4 7b7 ,cessation4--,there is no obligation to fulfill a penance in case of impossibility1 whether physical 7e4g41 if the penitent is dying and can neither say the prayers ordered nor ask for a commutation71 or moral 7e4g41 if the penitent has forgotten the penance and cannot conveniently ask the confessor about it74 #bgej4 ,requirements in the ,minister for ,valid ,absolution4--7a7 ,the divine law requires the power of ,orders1 for only priests were appointed by ,christ as the ministers of ,penance1 7b7 ,the natural law requires the power of jurisdiction1 since the ,sacrament of ,penance is exercised in the form of a judicial process1 which supposes authority to judge4 7c7 ,the law of the ,church requires the approval of the ,bishop1 or his decision that the priest is a fit person to hear confessions4 ,approbation is always given along with jurisdiction4 #bgea4 ,power of ,jurisdiction4--,the power of jurisdiction is so necessary that without it absolution is null4 7a7 ,jurisdiction in general is treated in ,canons #hgb sqq4 of the ,code4 ,ordinary jurisdiction is had by the ,pope for the whole ,church1 and by ,ordinaries1 parish-priests1 exempt religious superiors1 etc41 for their own subjects4 ,delegated jurisdiction comes from the law itself in favor of penitents who are dying 7,canon #hhb71 or who are making a sea voyage 7,canon #hhc71 a privilege extended recently also to those who are making air journeys1 or who are outside their domicile 7,canon #hha71 etc42 while delegated jurisdiction from man is had by those priests who have obtained faculties orally or in writing from the competent superior 7,canon #hgi74 7b7 ,jurisdiction in special cases is treated in ,canons #hgd1 #hge1 #hgf1 #eai sqq4 ,religious women living in community should have for each house one ordinary confessor and one extraordinary confessor who comes four times a year4 ,further1 the bishop should appoint supplementary confessors to whom the ,religious may freely make their confessions1 and special confessors for individual ,sisters when spiritual progress is aided by such an arrangement4 #bgeb4 ,when the ,church ,supplies ,jurisdiction4--,in certain cases the ,church1 for the good of souls1 supplies jurisdiction for the time being to priests who lack it3 7a7 in case of common error1 that is1 when all or many of the faithful in a place think that a priest has jurisdiction1 as when he is seated in the confessional of a public church hearing or waiting to hear those who are going to confession4 ,the common error is not of law1 but of fact2 7b7 in case of uncertainty of law 7e4g41 whether a certain sin is reserved7 or of fact 7e4g41 whether the confessor's jurisdiction has expired7 about the confessor's jurisdiction1 if the confessor has a positive or probable reason in favor of his right to absolve4 ,the ,church supplies jurisdiction in the absolution of a reserved censure whose reservation was not known to the priest1 unless it be ab homine or most specially reserved to the ,holy ,see 7,canon #bbdg1 n4 #c72 7c7 in case of danger of death1 when full jurisdiction is granted to every priest 7,canon #hhb74 #bgec4 ,limitation of jurisdiction4--7a7 ,reserved ,sins or ,cases4--,for the sake of discipline and the good of souls the absolution of certain more atrocious or pernicious crimes is reserved to higher superiors1 namely1 to the ,pope or the ,ordinary4 ,reservation is not incurred in a case reserved on account of censure1 if the penitent's act was not gravely imputable2 nor probably in a case reserved for its own sake 7unless the reserving authority willed otherwise71 if the penitent was ignorant 7though not crassly or supinely7 of the reservation 7,canon #bbbi74 ,to fall under reservation1 a sin must be mortal1 consummated 7i4e4 not merely attempted7 certain and formal 7i4e41 perpetrated with knowledge of the special malice that caused reservation74 ,reservation ceases when confession is made by the sick who are unable to leave the house or by those who are about to be married2 when the ,superior has refused the request for faculties to absolve a reserved case1 or the confessor prudently decides that the request for faculties cannot be made without grave detriment to the penitent or danger to the seal2 when confession is made outside the territory of the ,superior who reserves the sin 7,canon #ijj74 7b7 ,reserved ,persons4--,those who have not special faculties cannot validly hear the confessions of nuns 7,canon #hgf71 for the director of consciences of these ,religious should be endowed with special virtue1 knowledge and prudence4 ,religious ,superiors1 novice-masters1 and rectors of seminaries or colleges should not act habitually as confessors of their subjects 7,canons #eah1 n4 #b1 #hia71 lest the distinction between the internal and the external forum be forgotten4 ,finally1 to prevent abuse of the ,sacrament and occasions of relapse1 a confessor cannot validly absolve his accomplice in a sin against the ,sixth ,commandment1 consummated or unconsummated1 or from the sin of complicity itself1 as necessary matter of the ,sacrament1 if the sin was on both sides external1 certain1 and both internally and externally grave 7,canons #hhd1 #bcfg74 #bged4 ,absolution from ,reserved ,cases4--7a7 ,in danger of death1 any priest can absolve every reserved sin and censure1 but1 should the penitent recover1 there is a duty in certain specified cases of having recourse to the lawful superior 7,canons #hhb1 #bbeb74 ,the latter ,canon specifies two cases in which recourse is necessary after the person recovers1 namely1 a censure ab homine and one most specially reserved to the ,holy ,see4 ,a third case has been added by the ,sacred ,penitentiary1 namely1 when a priest who has attempted marriage and is unable to separate asks for absolution from the censure of ,canon #bchh1 ,sec4#a1 in danger of death4 7b7 ,in urgent cases1 namely1 if censures latae sententiae cannot be observed externally without grave danger of scandal or infamy1 or if it is hard for the penitent to remain in the state of grave sin for such time as may be necessary in order that the competent superior may provide1 then any confessor can1 in the sacramental forum1 absolve from these censures1 no matter how they are reserved1 imposing1 under pain of falling back into the censure1 the obligation of having recourse within a month 7at least by letter and through the confessor1 if it can be done without grave inconvenience71 without mentioning the name1 to the ,sacred ,penitentiary or to a ,bishop or other superior who has the faculty4 ,the confessor imposes also the obligation of fulfilling his injunctions 7,canon #bbed1 ,sec4#a74 ,it is to be noted3 #a7 the circumstances constituting an urgent case are the two specified in the ,canon3 the difficulty of observing the censure2 the hardship of remaining in sin4 #b7 the object of the absolution is all censures latae sententiae1 however reserved1 with one exception1 namely1 the censure incurred under ,canon #bchh1 ,sec4#a1 the case of a priest who1 after an attempted marriage1 is unable to separate4 ,no absolution as an urgent case under this ,canon can be given4 ,the censure latae sententiae for false denunciation can be absolved under this ,canon only if the conditions of ,canon #bcfc have been fulfilled 7actual formal retraction and reparation2 imposition of a grave and long penance2 and the sin itself remains reserved ratione sui to the ,holy ,see74 #c7 ,sufficient extrinsic authority is available to make safe in practice the extension of the grant of power of this ,canon to censures ab homine which are ferendae sententiae4 #d7 ,sections #b and #c of this ,canon indicate the right of the penitent to go afterwards to a privileged confessor without making the recourse to the superior enjoined upon him or observing the mandata from the superior in case he has already made recourse1 and the procedure to be followed when recourse is morally impossible4 7c7 ,outside of necessity1 only those can absolve who have ordinary or delegated faculties4 ,the law itself grants to pastors the power to absolve during the whole of paschal time from all sins which the ,ordinary has reserved to himself1 and missionaries have the same power during the time they are giving a mission 7,canon #hii1 n4 #c74 ,this does not apply to censures nor to cases reserved to the ,ordinary by the ,apostolic ,see or by law1 such as the excommunication latae sententiae which ,canon #bcej declares against the procurers of abortion4 #bgee4 ,absolution ,given by ,one ,not ,possessed of ,jurisdiction4--7a7 ,effect4--,absolution of mortal sins given without jurisdiction is invalid2 and of venial sins1 is unlawful and probably invalid4 ,in some cases1 however1 the ,church supplies jurisdiction1 as was said above 7#bgeb74 7b7 ,guilt4--,there is no sin if the absolution is given in good faith1 as when a confessor is inculpably ignorant of a reservation4 ,if absolution is given in bad faith and the confessor knows that the ,church does not supply1 there is a grave sin on account of the irreverence to the ,sacrament and the harm to the penitent4 ,if the confessor knows that he lacks jurisdiction1 but that the ,church supplies on account of common error1 it seems that no sin is committed if there is a good reason for giving absolution 7e4g41 the absence of other priests72 but otherwise there is mortal or venial sin according to circumstances4 7c7 ,penalty4--,he who with presumption hears confessions without jurisdiction or absolves from a reserved case for which he has no faculties1 incurs in the former case ipso facto suspension from the power of ,orders1 and in the latter case ipso facto suspension from hearing confessions 7,canon #bcff74 #bgef4 ,duties of the ,confessor before ,confession4--7a7 ,fitness to ,hear ,confessions4--,the confessor should have sufficient knowledge to be able readily to solve the usual cases and to work out or find the solution of the more difficult cases2 sufficient prudence to be able to apply his knowledge well and to avoid what is dangerous or suspicious2 sufficient goodness to be sincerely desirous of the spiritual advantage of the penitent1 and to be patient in hearing him and firm in correcting him4 7b7 ,willingness to ,h ear ,confessions4-,the confessor is obliged either from justice or charity 7#bfgf7 to hear the confessions of those who reasonably request it4 ,he should observe the rules of the ,ritual and of the ,code as to the manner and place of confession 7,canons #ijh-iaj74 #bgeg4 ,duties of the ,confessor as ,judge in ,hearing the ,case4--7a7 ,since confession should be entire1 the confessor is gravely bound to question the penitent1 when there is reason to think that the confession is not entire4 ,with pious and well-instructed persons1 of course1 there is no need of questioning1 and1 since the duty of integrity rests primarily on the penitent1 the confessor's negligence may be regarded as venial when he is burdened by a great multitude of confessions4 7b7 ,since confession must not be made onerous or harmful to penitents1 the confessor is bound to be very discreet in the questions he asks1 and to follow the rule that it is far better to say too little than to say too much4 ,he must avoid any word or remark that might teach sin to the young or scandalize the old2 he must be very reserved when speaking of matters that pertain to the ,sixth ,commandment1 and1 if there is need to question about them1 should begin with very general queries4 ,neither directly nor indirectly may he inquire the name of an accomplice of the penitent 7,canon #hhh72 but he is allowed to investigate matters which he has a right to know1 even though the accomplice thereby becomes known to him4 ,if the common good requires that a complaint be lodged against the accomplice1 the confessor may oblige the penitent to make this complaint to the proper superior2 but it is seldom advisable that the confessor agree to perform this duty himself1 and then he should require that the penitent speak to him about the affair outside of confession1 if this can be done 7see #abhg74 7c7 ,since the penitent acts as the accuser in confession1 he should be believed both for and against himself4 ,but should it happen that the confessor knows for certain that his penitent is lying1 his procedure will depend on the source of his knowledge4 ,if the knowledge is not of sacramental origin but comes from the confessor's own reliable experience 7e4g41 because he saw the penitent commit a sin and is sure that the silence about the sin is not due to forgetfulness1 ignorance or previous confession of it71 he should try to induce the penitent to confess1 and1 if the latter refuses1 should deny absolution4 ,if the confessor is morally certain on account of the word of a third person that the penitent is now concealing a sin1 it seems to some authorities that absolution may be either granted or refused1 to others that it must be refused4 ,finally1 if the confessor's knowledge comes from a previous sacramental confession or other obligatory secret1 he is held to respect the secret2 he may not ask any questions which he would not have asked otherwise1 and1 if the penitent will not confess1 he must either grant absolution1 as some hold1 or dissimulate its denial1 as others think4 #bgeh4 ,duties of the ,confessor-,judge in ,deciding about the ,case4--7a7 ,the confessor should pass judgment on the past state of the penitent's soul as declared to him1 but defect or mistake here would not make the ,sacrament null4 ,the objective malice of the sins 7i4e41 their theological and moral malice7 will be recognized by the priest from his knowledge of theology1 and the subjective malice from the declarations or replies of the penitent4 ,at times the confessor will have to rest satisfied with the decision that the sin or its character is uncertain4 7b7 ,the confessor should pass judgment on the present dispositions of the penitent1 or the sincerity of his sorrow and resolution2 but it suffices that the judgment be probable1 and there be no strong suspicion against it4 ,the penitent's devout confession1 or his promise of amendment1 the trouble he took to make his confession1 etc41 are indexes of good faith1 just as boastful confession1 disregard for former promises1 and unwillingness or carelessness about coming to confession are signs of bad faith4 #bgei4 ,duties of the ,confessor-,judge in ,passing ,sentence4--7a7 ,the ,duty of ,binding4--,the confessor must impose upon the penitent such duties as are necessitated by the essence of the ,sacrament 7e4g41 there is no true contrition without willingness to make due restitution1 reparation1 or satisfaction1 and to avoid sinful occasions and to struggle against bad habits71 or such penalties as are required for its integrity 7i4e41 the priest must impose a suitable penance74 ,to safeguard morals1 the law of the ,church gravely obliges a confessor to require his penitent sub gravi to denounce another confessor certainly guilty of the crime of solicitation1 unless there be a grave reason that excuses the penitent2 and1 if the penitent refuses1 absolution must be denied4 ,on the details of this law and on the penalties for solicitation1 refusal to denounce1 and false accusation1 see ,commentaries on ,canons #ijd1 #bcfh and #bcfc of the ,code4 7b7 ,the ,duty of ,loosing4--,the confessor is bound sub gravi to give absolution at once to one who is properly disposed1 for there is a tacit contract between the penitent and the confessor that absolution will be granted if the penitent is worthy2 the penitent puts himself to considerable trouble to obtain forgiveness1 and he is deprived of a great good if absolution is refused 7,canon #hhf74 ,if only free matter is confessed1 it is a venial sin now and then to deny absolution without reason1 but no sin to deny it for a good reason if the penitent consents4 7c7 ,the ,duty of ,retaining4--,the confessor should always refuse absolution to those who are certainly not contrite and in whom he cannot awaken true repentance1 for absolution would be of no benefit to such persons and would make the confessor an encourager of sin4 ,likewise1 absolution should be denied those who are incapable 7e4g41 those who have not as yet committed sin or who confess only imperfections74 ,if there is doubt about the fitness or capacity of the penitent1 absolution should generally be delayed2 but it may be granted conditionally for a serious reason 7e4g41 if the penitent is in a state of sin and cannot return to confession for a long time71 and it should be granted conditionally for a very serious reason 7e4g41 if the penitent will probably not return1 or if he is confessing in preparation for marriage74 #bgfj4 ,penitents to ,whom ,absolution ,should ,be ,denied4--,there are three classes of penitents especially to whom absolution should be frequently denied on account of their lack of repentance3 7a7 those who refuse to abandon a proximate and voluntary occasion of grave sin1 for these are impenitent and unworthy of absolution4 ,but absolution may be given those who promise to abandon a proximate and voluntary occasion1 or to use the proper means of safety if they are in a proximate and necessary occasion of sin 7see #bfc sqq472 7b7 those who have contracted the habit of some grave sin1 if they are unwilling to use the proper means to overcome it2 but if they seriously promise to use means prescribed by the confessor1 they should be considered as well disposed4 ,a sin is habitual when it is committed often--that is1 for an external sin about five times a month1 and for an internal sin about five times a week-and when the sinner acts for the proper motive of the vice1 e4g41 in injustice for disorder1 in intemperance for pleasure of the sense1 in sins against charity out of hatred1 etc4 ,but consideration should be taken also of the character of the person 7i4e41 a weak-willed person is enslaved by habit more readily than a strong-willed person7 and of the vice 7i4e41 an alluring sin like impurity becomes a habit more quickly than other sins72 7c7 those backsliders or recidivists who have confessed the same grave sin in three or four previous confessions and have relapsed into it again without any improvement4 ,these persons should be absolved if they are sincere now and give some special indication as proof of sincerity 7e4g41 some effort made to conquer their habit72 otherwise 7except in great necessity1 when they may be given the benefit of the doubt and be granted conditional absolution7 they should not be absolved but should be put off kindly for a short space1 since there is no reason to believe that the present sorrow is any better than that of the past4 #bgfa4 ,the ,sacramental ,penance4--7a7 ,obligation4--,the confessor is bound to impose a penance in order to provide for the integrity of the ,sacrament and the good of the penitent4 ,exceptions to this rule are the cases when the penitent cannot perform any penance1 as when he is at the point of death1 and when the penitent after the imposition of a penance and absolution remembers new and necessary matter4 ,it is at least a venial sin to delay the giving of a penance till after the absolution1 and it is a grave sin to give no penance at all1 unless 7as some hold7 only a light penance was due4 7b7 ,quantity4--,the amount of the penance should be suited as a punishment to the degree of the penitent's guilt1 that is1 a heavier penance should be given for necessary matter and a lighter penance for free matter4 ,the penance should also take into consideration the moral malice and the frequency of the sins4 ,works that the ,church may order under pain of serious sin suffice for necessary matter 7such as a ,mass1 a fast1 five decades of the ,rosary1 or the ,litany of the ,saints74 ,light penances are the ,de ,profundis1 the ,litany of ,st4 ,joseph1 five ,paters and five ,aves4 ,for a sufficient reason 7e4g41 the sickness of the penitent1 the probability that a grave penance will keep him from future confession1 the fact that his sorrow is very great or that he has gained a plenary indulgence1 the performance of satisfaction for him by the confessor himself7 the quantity of a penance may be lessened4 ,a grave penance may be lightened by joining it with some duty already owed 7e4g41 by requiring the penitent to say the ,rosary while hearing ,sunday ,mass1 by obliging him to hear ,mass on ,sunday and also to say a few prayers after the ,mass74 7c7 ,quality4--,the character of the penance should make it suitable as a remedy for the spiritual disease of the penitent2 that is1 as far as possible he should be required to perform works that tend to correct his chief failings4 ,thus1 for those who are uncharitable or avaricious an alms or other work of mercy is a good penance2 for those who are given to pleasures of sense1 a fast or other corporal austerity2 for those who are lax or irreligious1 a prayer1 a visit to the ,blessed ,sacrament1 a meditation1 or frequentation of the ,sacraments4 ,ordinarily it suffices to impose prayers as penances1 since prayer is a universal remedy4 ,penances unsuitable to the penitent 7e4g41 fasts for one who needs nourishment on account of labors71 those that are too difficult 7e4g41 perpetual or long-continued practices71 those that are harmful 7e4g41 penances that will bring the penitent into suspicion or ridicule71 must be avoided4 #bgfb4 ,the ,duties of the ,confessor as ,spiritual ,physician4--7a7 ,general ,remedies4--,the confessor should give much attention to the study of moral and ascetical works1 so as to be able to suggest suitable means to his penitents for overcoming their spiritual infirmities and avoiding future relapses4 ,thus1 if a penitent desires to know or ought to be told how to struggle against anger1 drunkenness or impurity1 the confessor should know how to advise him and what measures to recommend to him4 7b7 ,special ,remedies4--,certain classes of penitents need special attention4 ,thus1 the tempted and afflicted should be told the means of fighting temptation and sadness2 the scrupulous should be forbidden to examine their consciences too carefully1 or to accuse themselves minutely1 or to spend too much time at devotions2 the sick and the dying should be encouraged to dispose themselves well and to put aside thoughts of fear and discouragement2 pious persons often need assistance when they suffer temptations to tepidity or spiritual desolation4 ,the careless1 lazy1 malicious1 and hardened should be reproved1 but sternness should not be unmingled with kindness1 lest the penitent be driven away from his duty altogether4 #bgfc4 ,the ,duties of the ,confessor as ,teacher and ,guide4--7a7 ,instruction4--,the confessor should teach children and other ignorant persons if he finds that they do not know truths necessary to be known for a fruitful reception of the ,sacrament--that is1 the mysteries of faith that must be believed explicitly and the dispositions for receiving absolution 7#ibd74 ,he should instruct about duties when this will be for the penitent's good--that is1 when the penitent falsely believes something to be sinful which is not sinful1 or to be gravely sinful that is only lightly sinful1 or when the penitent's ignorance of an obligation is gravely culpable1 or when he is invincibly ignorant but will be kept from a sin without graver evil if he is instructed now4 ,if an instruction will probably do no good1 a confessor should not instruct an invincibly ignorant penitent about his duties1 unless silence will be productive of greater evils than instruction4 ,thus1 if the confessor foresees that the penitent will only be put in bad faith if he is told about a duty of restitution1 it would be useless and wrong to speak to him about it2 but if he should foresee that1 if he does not speak1 the penitent will do worse things with great injury or scandal to others1 it would be necessary to instruct him4 7b7 ,direction4--,in spiritual matters a confessor should be willing and able to counsel and advise1 for example1 about the choice of a state of life 7marriage1 clerical state1 religious life71 about voluntary rules or practices 7vows1 austerities71 and about the performance of duties 7e4g41 training of children74 ,for advice on temporal matters a priest should either direct his penitents to lawyers1 physicians or other professional advisers1 or1 if he can give prudent direction himself 7e4g41 on artistic1 educational1 or business questions71 he should preferably discuss the matter elsewhere than in the confessional4 #bgfd4 ,the ,duties of the ,confessor ,after ,confession4--7a7 ,per se1 or by reason of his office itself1 the confessor is held to guard inviolate the secret of the confessional--that is1 he may not disclose1 or use to the penitent's disadvantage1 any information received from sacramental confession4 ,this duty is a grave one imposed by natural law 7since there is a quasi-contract that the confessor will treat the penitent's confession as confidential71 by divine law 7since ,christ1 in willing that confession be used1 implicitly willed that it be so conducted as not to become a thing odious1 scandalous and harmful71 and by church law 7for ,canons #hhi1 #hij1 #ageg1 #bcfi strictly forbid revelations or use of sacramental knowledge and decree severe penalties against transgressors74 ,since ,god wipes out from remembrance the sins ,he has pardoned1 the confessor1 being ,god's representative1 must treat what he has heard as not known to him4 ,the obligation of the seal is so strict that no one may dispense from it1 that neither ,probabilism nor epieikeia may be applied to it1 and that no exception is allowed unless the penitent himself freely1 unmistakably and for a serious reason gives permission for it to the confessor4 7b7 ,per accidens1 or by reason of a mistake committed by him 7e4g41 absolution mistakenly refused or invalidly given1 erroneous notion about the gravity of a sin imparted or not corrected1 restitution imposed where not due or not imposed where due71 a confessor is held to see that the mistake is corrected and that the penitent or a third party is spared or rescued from the harm which will follow from the mistake4 ,the obligation is one of justice in those cases where there is a violation of implicit agreement 7e4g41 absolution unreasonably withheld71 or damage positively and culpably caused 7e4g41 erroneous advice about the gravity of a sin or about the duty of restitution72 it is one of charity in other cases where the confessor can without undue inconvenience assist the spiritual or temporal need of the penitent or of another 7e4g41 penitent's misunderstanding about his duty of restitution which the confessor failed to clear up74 ,the duty of repairing mistakes is grave when there is grave damage 7e4g41 invalid absolution of mortal sins7 and grave guilt was contracted by the mistake 7e4g41 if the invalidity was voluntary7 or will be contracted by refusal to prevent the consequences of the mistake 7e4g41 if the invalidity has been discovered1 and one knows that the penitent will die unabsolved1 if one does not rectify the error74 ,the duty is light if there is light damage 7e4g41 invalid absolution of free matter1 or of necessary matter confessed by a person who will go to the ,sacraments soon again71 or light culpability 7e4g41 failure to question about the species or number of sins1 or to impose a penance1 when the failure is due to distraction or forgetfulness74 #bgfe4 ,manner of ,repairing ,defects ,made in ,hearing a ,confession4--7a7 ,the ,reparation to be ,made4--,if the penitent has been deprived of absolution1 he should be absolved2 if he has been wrongly instructed1 he should be set right2 if temporal loss has been caused1 temporal restitution should be made4 7b7 ,the ,person to ,whom ,restitution ,should ,be ,made4--,the injured person should be compensated4 ,hence if restitution was mistakenly imposed on the penitent and he cannot recover his property1 the confessor should reimburse him2 if the penitent was mistakenly excused from restitution1 payment is due the third party who loses by the advice4 7e7 ,the ,manner of ,making ,reparation4--,if possible1 the reparation should be made in the penitent's next confession1 as this is less troublesome to all concerned4 ,but if the confessor has wrongly instructed the penitent in an important matter1 he is bound more probably 7after obtaining the penitent's permission to speak about confession matter7 to retract1 even outside of the confessional1 if this can be done without scandal or other serious evil1 which would be rare4 #bgff4 ,excuses from the ,duty of ,repairing ,mistakes4--7a7 ,physical ,impossibility4--,if the confessor does not know who the penitent is or cannot find him1 there is nothing to do but to repent over the mistake and to pray for the penitent that ,god may provide for him4 7b7 ,moral ,impossibility4--,grave inconvenience excuses1 unless the confessor has been seriously at fault against justice 7e4g41 by omitting absolution1 by giving incorrect instruction in an important matter1 by neglecting to warn against an occasion of serious sin1 by wrongly advising on restitution of a large sum71 or the salvation of a soul is at stake1 as when an unabsolved penitent is dying 7see #agig sqq47 #bgfg4 ,the ,obligation of the ,seal of ,confession4--7a7 ,its ,subject4--,primarily the duty of the seal obliges the confessor1 secondarily all others to whom the matter of sacramental confession in any way becomes known1 such as bystanders1 interpreters1 or those who have spied into a confession4 ,the penitent on his part is bound to keep as a natural secret the words of the confessor which the latter would rightly wish to be kept confidential 7e4g41 it would not be fair to excuse oneself in making necessary corrections1 by saying that one was acting under advice of one's confessor1 especially since the confessor cannot defend himself74 7b7 ,its ,object4--,primarily1 the seal extends to all sins confessed1 whether they be light or grave1 private or public2 and a confessor may not confirm from his knowledge as confessor what he also knows from other knowledge4 ,secondarily1 it extends to all that is declared for a fuller explanation of the sins1 such as circumstances1 purpose1 occasion1 cooperation1 and to all those things whose revelation would endanger the seal or make the ,sacrament odious1 such as the denial of absolution1 the penance given1 the insincerity1 impatience or scrupulosity shown in confessing1 the fact that a confession was long or a general review4 ,other matters not generally known and which the penitent reasonably wishes to be confidential 7e4g41 the fact that he made his confession1 his natural defects of illegitimacy or deafness7 should be kept as natural secrets4 ,but there is no duty of sacramental or natural silence about matters which the confessor knows from other sources and which he is free to mention 7e4g41 facts learned from a non-sacramental confession made to the priest and others with a view to its use1 or from the confessor's own perception of a theft committed by the penitent in the act of confession74 #bgfh4 ,sins against the ,seal of ,confession4--7a7 ,direct violation happens if a confessor declares1 either to the penitent himself or to another1 matter protected by the seal1 and with such clearness that both the penitent and his sin can be recognized4 ,this occurs even though no names are mentioned1 or the penitent is unknown to the listeners1 or is no longer living1 or when the listeners do not perceive that sacramental knowledge is being used4 ,the sin is grave1 and1 since the injury to religion and the public is always serious1 it admits of no lightness of matter4 ,the penalty is excommunication most specially reserved to the ,pope 7,canon #bcfi74 7b7 ,indirect violation happens if a confessor so speaks or acts as to create a danger of direct violation 7e4g41 if he speaks so loud in the confessional that those outside can hear1 or if he is suspiciously silent when the penitent is being commended1 or if he warns the parents of a penitent to be specially watchful of him1 or if he refuses to hear a confession because he knows from a previous confession that the person is very scrupulous1 or if he shows less confidence or regard for the penitent74 ,the sin admits of lightness of matter1 since the danger of direct violation may be remote2 but if there is grave culpability1 suspension or even severer penalties may be inflicted 7,canons #bcfi1 #bcfh74 7c7 ,unlawful use of sacramental knowledge happens if there is no direct or indirect violation of the seal1 but the confessor's conduct is such as to make confession distasteful either to the penitent or to others1 as when a superior is guided in giving his vote or directing his subject by information gathered from confession4 ,this is forbidden in ,canon #hij4 7d7 ,apparent violation of the seal happens if there is really no direct or indirect violation of the seal1 or unlawful use of confessional knowledge1 but a priest's language is calculated to arouse a reasonable suspicion that some such sin is being committed 7e4g41 if a preacher or retreat master or writer of moral cases uses illustrations from confessions heard by him which will excite distrust in his own or other penitents74 ,serious scandal and defamation may also be caused by public statements unfavorable to the morals of a certain city or community or class4 #bgfi4 ,special ,abuses4--,two abuses to which confession is especially exposed are defamation and impurity1 and hence the law of the ,church provides special safeguards against these dangers 7see #bgec1 #bgeg1 #bgei74 7a7 ,defamation4--,the fame of third parties is protected by the law which forbids the confessor to inquire about the penitent's accomplice1 the fame of the penitent by the law of the sacramental seal1 and the fame of the confessor by the law which subjects those who bring a false accusation of solicitation against a confessor to excommunication specially reserved to the ,pope1 to retractation1 reparation1 and severe penance 7,canons #hhh1 n4 #b1 #hhi sqq41 #bcfc74 7b7 ,impurity4--,the danger that a confessor will be tempted to solicitation by his knowledge of the frailty of a penitent is provided for by the law which severely commands formal denunciation of those guilty of solicitation 7,canon #ijd72 the danger that a penitent may be induced to yield to solicitation by a promise to absolve the sin is met by the law which invalidates absolution of an accomplice 7,canon #hhd74 #bggj4 ,absolutio ,complicis4--,absolutio complicis in peccato turpi invalida est praeterquam in mortis periculo 7,canon #hhd74 7a7 ,objectum legis est peccatum turpe1 i4e41 quodvis peccatum contra sextum1 consummatum vel non consummatum1 colloquiis1 aspectibus vel factis patratum4 ,necesse est autem quod peccatum sit utrinque certum 7quoad factum et jus71 externum1 et grave 7qua internum et qua externum74 ,unde non agitur de peccatis contra alias virtutes1 neque de peccatis luxuriae mere internis vel levibus4 7b7 ,subjectum de quo in lege est complex seu socius immediatus et formalis in ipso actu peccati2 et sic non sufficit ad complicitatem cooperatio etiam proxima 7#aejg71 nec peccatum mere materiale1 quale fit ab amente1 dormiente1 ebrio1 infante1 renitente4 ,non requiritur tamen quod compar sit puber vel alius sexus1 neque quod confessarius tempore complicitatis jam inter clericos adscriptus sit4 #bgga4 ,effectus ,legis de ,absolutione ,complicis4--7a7 ,quoad ,absalutionem4--,invalida et illicita est absolutio directa peccati nondum remissi si extra periculum mortis datur4 ,est valida sed illicita3 absolutio directa peccati nondum remissi1 in periculo mortis data1 quando alius sacerdos confessionem recipere potest2 necnon absolutio indirecta peccati nondum remissi1 extra periculum mortis data1 quando poenitens bona fide peccatum reticet4 ,est valida et licita absolutio directa peccati nondum remissi1 in periculo mortis vel in gravissima necessitate 7utputa urgente praecepto ecclesiastico et divino confessionis et communionis annuae7 data1 quando alius sacerdos aut nullimode aut nonnisi cum gravi incommodo 7scil4 infamiae1 scandali1 periculi confessionis sacrilegae7 haberi potest2 necnon absolutio directa peccati jam remissi1 etiam extra hoc periculum et hanc necessitatem facta4 ,non una tamen est sententia auctorum in interpretandis dubiis hujus legis1 nec omnes conveniunt cum placitis hic positis1 nam de dubiis alii strictius1 alii mitius judicant4 7b7 ,quoad ,censuram4--,excommunicatio specialissime reservata ,s4 ,sedi ipso facto incurritur a confessario qui illicite absolvit vel fingit absolvere1 sive directe1 sive 7quando poenitens ad tacendum inductus est a confessario ipso7 indirecte4 ,censura non incurritur igitur si confessio tantum auditur1 si poenitens propria sponte peccatum reticet1 si sacerdos dubitat num poenitens complex sit 7,canon #bcfg74 #bggb4 ,sacerdos reus delicti sollicitationis in confessione intra mensem denuntiandus est a poenitente loci ,ordinario vel ,s4,c4,s4 ,officii 7,canon #ijd74 7a7 ,delictum sollicitationis est provocatio1 etiam inefficax1 poenitentis eujuscumque ut actum quemcumque gravem contra castitatem committat4 ,provocatio fit vel per verba 7e4g41 declarationes amoris1 invitationes1 laudes71 per facta 7e4g41 dona71 per sermones 7e4g41 colloquia de turpibus a poenitente confessis71 per tractatus 7scil4 colloquia de re turpi agenda71 per consensum internum-externum sollicitationi poenitentis datum4 7b7 ,delictum sollicitationis est provocatio quae ordinem habet ad confessionem1 i4e41 quae fit tempore factae confessionis 7i4e41 inter1 immediate ante1 immediate post confessionem71 vel tempore confessionis faciendae 7i4e41 occasione confessionis petitae a poenitente1 praetextu confessionis falso allegatae a confessario1 in loco confessionis cum confessionis simulatione74 #bggc4 ,confessarius debet1 graviter onerata ejus conscientia1 de onere denuntiationis poenitentem monere4 7a7 ,obligatio confessarii gravis est4 ,sed antequam moneat1 serio consideret utrum poenitens persona fide digna sit1 utrum certo constet de facto1 de turpitudine1 de gravitate1 de ordine ad confessionem1 utrum detur causa excusans 7e4g41 mors sollicitantis2 probabiliter1 ejus plena emendatio per plures annos manifestata2 grave damnum poenitentis quoad vitam1 famam1 fortunam1 nisi gravius damnum simul immineat bono communi74 ,si de delicto sollicitationis et de obligatione poenitentis nullum dubium est1 confessarius moneat1 etiamsi poenitens in bona fide sit et praevideatur certo non obtemperaturus1 mortis periculo autem excepto4 ,si poenitens irrationabiliter renuat denuntiare1 absolvi non potest1 sed confessarius de casu consulere debet ,ordinarium4 7b7 ,obligatio poenitentis etiam gravis est4 ,denuntiatio facienda est intra mensem a cognita obligatione41 ,ordinario sollicitantis1 vel loci delicti1 vel poenitentis1 personaliter et judicialiter4 ,poenitens qui nec comparere nec scribere potest1 interea excusatur2 sed ille qui justa causa exemptionis carens scienter omittit denuntiare intra terminum unius mensis incurrit in excommunicationem latae sententiae nemini reservatum1 non absolvendus nisi postquam obligationi satisfecerit aut se satisfacturum serio promiserit 7,canon #bcfh1 n4 #b74 ,confessarius non tenetur in se suscipere onus denuntiationis1 nisi secus gravissimum damnum bono publico inferretur4 #bggd4 ,the ,sacrament of ,extreme ,unction4--,as ,confirmation perfects ,baptism by bringing to maturity the new life of grace1 so ,extreme ,unction perfects ,penance by strengthening against the spiritual debility that remains after sin itself has been wiped away4 ,confirmation makes ready for the battle of life1 ,extreme ,unction assists during the struggle of death4 ,the fifth ,sacrament is defined3 8,a ,sacrament of the ,new ,law in which through the anointing with oil and the prayer of the priest adult persons who are in danger of death receive health of soul1 and also at times health of body40 7a7 ,the remote matter or element of the ,sacrament is oil 7,james1 v1 #ad1 #ae74 ,for validity it is required that this be olive oil1 blessed by a bishop or by a priest having special papal delegation1 with the special blessing for the oil of the sick 7,o4 ,i472 for lawfulness1 sub gravi that it be oil blessed the previous ,holy ,thursday 7,canon #gcd71 sub levi at least that it be blessed by the bishop of the diocese1 or1 in case of vacancy1 by the neighboring bishop4 ,in necessity the old oils may be lawfully used1 while chrism and the oil of the catechumens may be used as doubtful matter4 ,unblessed oils and oils blessed by an unauthorized priest do not suffice for validity4 7b7 ,the proximate matter is the anointing of the sick man with blessed oil4 ,in urgent necessity it suffices to anoint one sense1 or rather the forehead2 in other cases the various senses should be anointed in the order given in the ,ritual4 ,each anointing of a double sense should begin with the right organ 7e4g41 the right eye7 and should be given with the right thumb in the form of a cross4 ,if one organ is missing 7e4g41 a hand amputated71 the anointing should be made1 if possible1 near to its place 7e4g41 on the wrist72 if there is danger of contagion1 the anointing may be made by means of an instrument1 such as a brush or small stick4 ,the anointing of the reins should always be omitted and the anointing of the feet may be omitted for any good reason1 such as inconvenience to the dying person4 7c7 ,the form of the ,sacrament is the prayer used by the priest4 ,in the ,latin ,church the ordinary form is contained in the words3 8,per istam sanctam unctionem1 etc4 ,by this holy anointing and ,his most tender mercy may the ,lord forgive thee whatever sin thou hast committed by sight 7by hearing1 by smell1 by taste and speech1 by touch1 by thy steps74 ,amen40 ,the extraordinary rite for use when there is not time to give all the anointings is bestowed on the forehead in the words3 8,per istam sanctam unctionem et suam piissimam misericordiam indulgeat tibi ,dominus quidquid deliquisti4 ,amen40 ,the essential words of the form are3 8,per istam unctionem indulgeat tibi ,dominus quidquid deliquisti10 because they express the intercession and the effect of the rite4 ,it would probably be a grave sin to omit the reference to the senses in the ordinary form1 as that seems to be a notable part of the form2 but it would be a light sin1 apart from contempt or scandal1 to omit an unimportant word such as 8,amen40 ,if there is doubt about the recipient's capacity 7i4e41 whether he has reached the use of reason1 whether he is in danger of death1 whether he is already dead1 whether he is impenitent and unwilling to receive the ,sacrament71 the form should be conditional4 ,the condition should be 8si es capax10 not 8si es dispositus10 even in the last-mentioned case4 ,for the ,sacrament is given validly even to one who is not well disposed 7i4e41 who lacks repentance7 and there is thus the possibility1 when validity is not made dependent on the condition of good disposition1 that sacramental fruitfulness will follow later when impenitence1 the obstacle to the ,sacrament's activity1 shall have been removed4 7d7 ,the recipient of the ,sacrament is a ,catholic who after attaining the use of reason has come into the danger of death through sickness or old age4 ,no one is capable of receiving this ,sacrament unless he is baptized1 for ,baptism is the gateway of the ,sacraments 7#bfga72 unless he has reached the use of reason1 for the ,sacrament is a remedy against personal sin and supposes that the recipient can or formerly could distinguish between right and wrong2 unless he is in danger of death through the infirmity of disease or of decrepitude1 for ,st4 ,james teaches that the anointing is for those who are enfeebled by illness dangerous unto death4 ,hence ,extreme ,unction cannot be administered validly to the unbaptized1 to young children who have not come to the use of reason1 to the perpetually insane1 to those who are sick but not in danger of death1 to those who are in danger of death but not sick 7e4g41 a strong man going to the gallows or to battle74 ,but the ,sacrament may be administered to children who have not yet made their first confession1 if they are capable of sin1 and to the insane who once had the use of reason4 ,the danger of death need not be immediate1 and hence ,extreme ,unction may be given when the disease is mortal but the patient will last for several months or even a year1 as in tuberculosis4 ,illness includes not only chronic sickness1 but also fatal disorders caused by wounds1 accidents1 poison4 ,the rule about the old is that those who have reached sixty years and show some signs of approaching death1 such as great feebleness or fainting spells1 even though they have no special malady1 may be anointed2 for their old age itself is a disease4 7e7 ,the minister of ,extreme ,unction is the priest1 since ,st4 ,james directs that the presbyters 7i4e41 the priests7 of the ,church be called to anoint the sick4 ,extreme ,unction1 unlike ,penance1 is not exercised in the form of a judicial process1 and hence the power of ,orders suffices for its valid administration1 and any priest1 even one who lacks jurisdiction1 gives it validly4 ,but for lawful administration church law prescribes that the minister regularly be the ecclesiastical superior or spiritual director 7i4e41 the pastor for his parish1 the head of a clerical religious institute for his house1 the parish-priest or chaplain for a lay religious body1 the confessor for nuns71 and that the minister extraordinarily 7i4e41 in necessity7 be any other priest who has permission1 or reasonably presumed permission4 7f7 ,the effects of ,extreme ,unction are per se an increase of sanctifying grace1 since this is a ,sacrament of the ,living2 per accidens 7i4e41 when the recipient is not in the state of grace1 but is in good faith and has attrition7 the forgiveness of sins and first grace4 ,extreme ,unction produces first grace more surely than does absolution1 if the penitent is unconscious1 since it does not call for any external manifestation of contrition2 hence the importance of anointing those who are dying but unconscious4 ,the special benefit of ,extreme ,unction is immediate preparation of the soul for entrance to heaven1 though restoration of the health of the body is sometimes vouchsafed when this is for the spiritual good of the sick person4 ,venial sins and the remains of past sins 7i4e41 the debility left by them7 are removed and the soul is strengthened with confidence as to things past and future and with peace and resignation as to present suffering4 ,since the ,sacrament is given for the period of danger of death1 it cannot be repeated during the same danger2 but should the patient recover and relapse into a distinct danger through the same or another sickness1 there arises a new need and the ,sacrament may then be repeated4 #bgge4 ,special ,duties4--,in addition to the duties that are common in all the ,sacraments1 the following duties should be noted in reference to ,extreme ,unction4 7a7 ,the ,recipient4--,per se1 ,extreme ,unction is not necessary as a means to salvation1 for sanctifying grace may be had or recovered without it2 but per accidens it would be necessary as a means1 if a dying person were in mortal sin and could not recover grace except through it4 ,he who omits ,extreme ,unction unwillingly or for a good reason 7e4g41 because he is well prepared for death and cannot get a priest without very grave inconvenience7 does not sin4 ,he who omits the ,sacrament voluntarily and without good reason1 is guilty of grave sin if he acts from contempt1 or gives scandal1 or exposes himself to eternal damnation2 but if there is no contempt1 scandal or danger to salvation1 sin is indeed committed by the neglect at such a crisis of so important a spiritual aid1 but only venial sin1 since there is no grave precept to receive this ,sacrament4 ,the recipient of ,extreme ,unction should be in the state of grace2 and hence1 if he has mortal sin on his conscience1 he must beforehand make an act of contrition or receive absolution with attrition1 or1 if neither is possible1 he must make an act of attrition4 ,the custom of the ,church calls for confession before ,extreme ,unction1 and divine law commands confession if one is in mortal sin and in danger of death4 7b7 ,the ,minister4--,the pastor is gravely bound in justice to give or have given the ,sacrament of ,extreme ,unction to all his subjects who reasonably request it2 other priests not charged with the spiritual care of the dying person are held in charity to anoint him1 if he has not received the last rites and cannot otherwise be anointed4 ,it is clear that sick calls should be attended to promptly1 and it would be a serious matter to delay so long as to put the sick person in danger of dying without ,extreme ,unction or of receiving it when he had become unconscious and could not dispose himself properly4 ,if the person has been pronounced dead before the priest's arrival1 he should nevertheless be absolved and anointed conditionally if the last breath was not long before2 because physicians teach that death takes possession gradually1 life lingering in the body for some time after its external signs have ceased1 for about a half hour when the end has come after long illness1 for one or two hours when death is sudden or accidental4 ,the ceremonies are obligatory under pain of sin1 and it is considered a serious matter to neglect the more notable parts1 that is1 without reason to omit all or nearly all the prayers1 or to give the ,sacrament without any sacred vestment4 7c7 ,the ,pastor4--,the oil of the sick should be kept in a neat and properly decorated place1 and should be contained in a vessel of silver or white metal4 ,only in exceptional cases is it lawful to keep it in the rectory 7,canon #idf74 ,the ,catechism of the ,council of ,trent 7page #cjg7 declares that ,extreme ,unction should form a subject of frequent instruction4 ,it is important to exhort the people not to delay in sending for the priest till the sick person has become insensible1 nor to omit to send for him in case of sudden death1 since1 as already said1 life remains for some time in the body after apparent death4 7d7 ,the ,people4--,all those who are responsible for the good of the dying person1 such as members of the family1 physicians1 nurses1 relatives1 friends1 or neighbors1 should beware of deceiving him about his condition and his need of preparation for death2 on the contrary1 they should see to it as far as they can1 that he receives the last ,sacraments in good time and while he has the full use of his senses1 when the spiritual benefit and the comfort of mind will be of greater assistance and the bodily cure more likely4 ,art4 #d3 ,,holy ,,orders2 ,,matrimony 7,summa ,theologica1 ,supplement1 qq4 #cd-fh47 #bggf4 ,the first five ,sacraments arc necessary for the spiritual welfare of individuals1 the remaining two1 which are the subject of this ,article1 are needful1 not for each person1 but for the ,church as a body4 ,a member of the ,church may save his soul though he remains outside the priesthood and the married state1 but the spiritual good of the ,church itself requires both ,orders and ,matrimony4 ,without ,orders the ,church would be deprived of her rulers1 teachers and ministers of divine things2 without ,matrimony the family would lack that sacramental protection which is so important for the ,christian home and the right rearing of members of society4 #bggg4 ,the ,sacrament of ,orders4--,the spiritual office and power of a member of the clergy is called ,orders on account of the order or rank of superiority which it gives in the ,church4 ,the rite or ,sacrament by which an ,order is conferred is strictly called ,ordination1 and hence it is more correct to speak of the ,sacrament of ,ordination than of the ,sacrament of ,orders4 ,ordination may be defined as 8a ,sacrament of the ,new ,law in which a member of the clergy receives spiritual power in reference to the ,eucharist and the grace to exercise properly the duties of his office40 7a7 ,orders is conferred only on a member of the clergy4 ,just as ,baptism is preceded by catechumenate and ,matrimony by espousals or engagement1 so is ,ordination preceded by tonsure1 a ceremony instituted by the ,church whereby a man is separated from the laity and enrolled among clerics with a view to prepare him for ,holy ,orders4 ,the candidate for tonsure must be a male who has received ,baptism and ,confirmation 7sub levi71 and who has begun his course of theology2 he sins if he approaches without a divine vocation or with the purpose not to go on for the priesthood4 ,the privileges of clerics are those of forum and canon1 and they are capable of receiving ,orders1 jurisdiction and benefice 7,canons #ajh sqq74 ,in the reception of tonsure the cleric is admonished to make his life agree with the garb which he then assumes1 or1 in other words1 to cultivate the special virtues of his state 7see #beif sqq474 7b7 ,ordination confers spiritual power in reference to the ,eucharist1 the ,sacrament of ,sacraments4 ,just as the sacred vessels of the altar receive a permanent consecration1 so likewise the ministers of the altar are set apart by ,ordination1 which confers upon them an indelible character with the power to exercise higher or lower offices in reference to the supreme ,sacrament and the sole ,sacrifice of the ,new ,law4 ,hence1 an ,order once conferred is eternal and the ,ordination cannot be repeated4 7c7 ,ordination confers grace1 which is per se second grace1 or an increase of holiness4 ,the special feature of the grace of ,orders is its suitability for the duties of the person ordained1 for1 where ,god imposes a special obligation1 ,he confers also a special grace4 ,it is clear that the duties of the ordained in reference to the real ,body of ,christ 7i4e41 duties as to the ,eucharist and divine worship7 and the mystical ,body of ,christ 7i4e41 duties to the faithful who receive the ,eucharist and the other ,sacraments7 call for a high degree of virtue and a life edifying to all4 ,hence the need of a special grace in ,ordination4 #bggh4 ,distinction of the ,orders4--,the following distinctions of the orders or ranks of the clergy should be noted3 7a7 an ,order is either sacramental or non-sacramental1 according as it was instituted by ,christ ,himself or by the ,church4 ,it is the teaching of ,st4 ,thomas that all of the ,orders are sacramental in character1 but there is not the same degree of certainty in each case4 ,as to the priesthood1 there is the certainty of defined dogma2 as to the diaconate 7and also episcopal consecration according to many7 there is theological certainty1 but no definition of faith2 as to the subdiaconate1 and the lower ,orders1 there is probability2 7b7 an ,order is ,major 7sacred7 or ,minor 7non-sacred7 according as its functions are concerned with consecrated or non-consecrated matter in the celebration of the ,eucharist4 ,the ,major ,orders1 therefore1 are the priesthood 7whose office is to consecrate the ,body and ,blood of ,christ71 diaconate 7whose office is to dispense ,communion to the faithful71 and sub-diaconate 7whose office is to prepare the bread and wine of the sacrifice in the consecrated vessels1 that is1 the chalice and paten74 ,the ,minor ,orders are those that prepare the matter of the ,eucharist in non-consecrated vessels 7acolythate71 or that dispose the people for the ,eucharist by freeing them from the impediments of demonic influence 7exorcistate7 or of ignorance 7lectorate71 or that exclude unbelievers from participation in the sacred rites 7portership74 ,to the ,sacred ,orders1 on account of their closer approach to the ,eucharist1 are annexed the duties of celibacy and of the ,divine ,office4 #bggi4 ,the ,hierarchy of ,orders and ,jurisdiction4--,the ,orders of the clergy may be considered1 not only in reference to power over the real ,body of ,christ 7i4e41 the ,eucharist71 but also in reference to power over the mystical ,body of ,christ 7i4e41 the ,church74 ,those who have power over the members of the ,church belong to the hierarchy1 and this is understood in two senses3 7a7 the hierarchy of ,orders is composed of those who receive in ,ordination a permanent superiority over others in reference to the worship of ,god and the sanctification of souls by the ministry of the ,sacraments4 ,from divine institution this hierarchy is composed of the three ranks of bishops1 priests1 and deacons2 and from ecclesiastical institution of the lower clergy in ,orders4 ,thus1 the deacon is able to baptize and administer ,communion as extraordinary minister2 the priest is the ordinary minister of ,baptism and the ,eucharist1 and only a priest can act as minister of ,penance and ,extreme ,unction2 the bishop is the minister1 not only of the ,sacraments mentioned1 but also of ,confirmation and ,orders2 7b7 the hierarchy of jurisdiction is composed of those members of the ,church who receive in their accepted election or canonical commission a power over the faithful which can be lost or resigned1 and which relates to the instruction and government of subjects in matters of faith and morals4 ,from divine law this hierarchy is composed of the ,supreme ,pontificate and the subordinate ,episcopate2 from ecclesiastical law there are other ranks of authority1 such as those of parish-priest1 prelate1 abbot1 archbishop1 primate1 patriarch and cardinal4 #bghj4 ,the ,matter and ,form of the ,various ,orders in the ,latin ,church4--7a7 ,in the ,minor ,orders the matter consists in the bestowal of the symbols of office1 and the form in the words of ordination that accompany this bestowal4 ,the porter is ordained when he touches with his right hand the keys of the church which the bishop presents to him with the words3 8,conduct yourself as one who must give an accounting for the things that are under those keys01 the reader1 when he touches the lectionary 7i4e41 ,missal1 ,breviary1 ,bible7 offered him by the bishop with the form3 8,receive this book and announce well the ,word of ,god1 knowing that1 if you perform your office faithfully and usefully1 you shall receive a portion with those who from the beginning have been good ministers of ,god's word02 the exorcist1 when he touches the book of exorcisms 7e4g41 the ,ritual1 ,pontifical or ,missal7 presented to him with the words3 8,receive and commit to memory and have power to impose hands on the possessed1 whether baptized or catechumens01 the acolyte1 when he touches the symbols of his office 7i4e41 first the candle and candlestick1 next the empty cruet71 while the words are said3 8,receive this candlestick and candle and know that you are deputed to light the lamps of the church1 in the name of the ,lord02 8,receive this cruet to furnish the wine and water for the ,eucharist of the blood of ,christ1 in the name of the ,lord40 8,amen0 should be added by the acolyte after each form4 7b7 ,in the subdiaconate1 ordination is given when the candidate touches the empty chalice and the paten 7the ,bishop saying3 8,see what a ministry is committed to you2 ,i admonish you1 therefore1 so to conduct yourselves that you may be pleasing to ,god07 and the ,book of ,epistles1 such as ,missal or ,bible 7the ,bishop saying3 8,receive the ,book of ,epistles and have power to read them in the holy ,church of ,god1 both for the living and for the dead4 ,in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost074 7c7 ,pope ,pius ,,xii in an official decree1 an ,apostolic ,constitution of ,nov4 #cj1 #aidg 7see ,,aas1 #dj-e71 determined the essential elements of ordination to diaconate1 priesthood and episcopate4 ,formerly this had been a matter of discussion among theologians4 ,in the diaconate ordination is given by the single imposition of the hands of the ,bishop that occurs in the rite with the words of the 8,preface10 of which these are the essential3 8,send into him1 ,we ask1 ,o ,lord1 the ,holy ,spirit1 by which he shall be strengthened by the gift of ,thy sevenfold grace for the faithful performance of the work of the ministry40 7d7 ,the matter of the priesthood is the first imposition of hands of the ,bishop which is made in silence4 ,the form consists in the words of the 8,preface0 of which these are the essential and required for validity3 8,give1 we ask ,thee1 omnipotent ,father1 to this ,thy servant the dignity of the priesthood 4440 7e7 ,in episcopal consecration the matter is the imposition of the hands of the consecrating ,bishop2 the form is the 8,preface10 the essential words being3 8,fill out in ,thy priest the fullness of the ministry44440 ,it is a disputed matter whether the episcopacy is a distinct ,order from the priesthood or simply an extension of it4 ,the common opinion favors the negative side and consequently maintains that the consecration of a ,bishop is not sacramental4 ,accordingly1 the supreme ,order of ,priesthood includes the simple priests or presbyters and the high priests or bishops4 ,the episcopacy confers no new power in reference to the ,eucharist1 but it extends the character of the priesthood to new powers in reference to ,christ's ,mystical ,body1 the ,church4 #bgha4 ,the ,minister of ,ordination4--7a7 ,for validity it is necessary that the minister be a consecrated bishop2 but the ,orders of ecclesiastical institution 7i4e41 subdiaconate and ,minor ,orders7 may be given by a priest authorized by law1 or by special indult of the ,apostolic ,see4 ,thus1 ,cardinals1 ,vicars and ,prefects ,apostolic1 and ,abbots have the power of conferring tonsure and ,minor ,orders from ,canon #bci4 7b7 ,for lawfulness it is necessary that the consecrator of a bishop be the ,pope or a bishop designated by him2 that the ordainer to other ranks of the clergy be the proper bishop of the candidate 7i4e41 the bishop of his place of origin and residence or of his place of domicile71 or a delegated bishop 7i4e41 the bishop who has received dimissorial letters from the proper bishop or religious superior74 ,see ,canons #iea-ifg4 #bghb4 ,the ,special ,duties of the ,minister4-7a7 ,as to the ordinandus1 the ordaining prelate must be morally certain from positive arguments that the candidate is suitable according to the ,canons2 otherwise he would be guilty of a very grievous sin and would expose himself to the danger of sharing in the sins of others 7,i ,tim41 v4 #bb2 ,canon #igc1 n4 #c74 7b7 ,as to the ordination1 the minister is bound to observe the law on time and place1 and to follow carefully and exactly the ceremonies of his own ,rite4 ,if anything essential is omitted1 it has to be supplied1 absolutely or conditionally1 according as there is certain or only doubtful lack4 ,the omission of an accidental but notable ceremony 7e4g41 the anointing of hands7 would be seriously culpable 7,canons #ajjb-ajji74 #bghc4 ,the ,recipient of ,orders4--7a7 ,for validity it is necessary that the recipient be of the male sex1 for the divine law has reserved sacerdotal and ministerial functions to men1 and the church law has properly followed this example in regard to the ,orders that are of church institution2 the recipient must be baptized1 for without ,baptism one has no capacity for other ,sacraments2 if he is an adult1 he must have at least an habitual intention freely formed of receiving the ,order to which he is raised4 7b7 ,for lawfulness it is not sufficient that the recipient be in the state of grace1 since ,ordination is not merely a personal matter1 but also a matter of great consequence to the whole ,church4 ,the recipient of ,orders takes his place among the representatives and ministers of the ,church1 and therefore he should have the special qualities that fit him for his dignity and office4 ,intellectually1 the ordinandus must be competent in theological and profane knowledge1 and must have made a satisfactory course of studies 7,canons #igb1 #acfd sqq41 #ehi-eia74 ,according to the ,code1 first tonsure should not be given before the study of theology has begun1 ,minor ,orders may be given during the first and second years of theology1 subdeaconship only towards the end of the third year1 deaconship only after the beginning of the fourth year1 and priesthood only after the first half of the fourth year 7,canon #igf74 ,morally1 the ordinandus should be of commendable life and have the internal and external excellence which is supposed by the ,order he is to receive4 ,virtues to which the ,pontifical especially exhorts clerics at their ordination are love and labor given to the ,church and the things of ,god's house 7porter71 devotion to the ,scriptures and sacred study 7lector71 conquest of passion 7exorcist71 the light of good example and the self-sacrifice of good works 7acolyte71 temperance1 vigilance1 prayerfulness 7subdeacon71 liberality to the poor1 chastity1 fortitude1 zeal for preaching the word of ,god 7deacon71 elderliness in dignity1 leadership in virtue1 and justice in stewardship 7priesthood74 ,no one should be admitted to a ,sacred ,order who is unable to overcome a serious habit of sin 7especially in materia turpi71 even though secret2 and if there is doubt about amendment1 a test during a suitable period of time should be made4 #bghd4 ,canonical ,requirements for ,ordination4--7a7 ,positive requirements are3 proper age 7that is1 the twenty-first1 twenty-second1 and twenty-fourth years completed are necessary for subdeaconship1 deaconship1 priesthood1 respectively72 ,confirmation should have been received before ,ordination1 for it is suitable that those who are to strengthen others in the faith should have the character of soldier of ,christ2 promotion from ,order to ,order should be from lower to higher in proper succession1 that fitness may be shown in lesser offices before the greater are received2 an interval must elapse between certain ,orders1 which will give to clerics the opportunity to exercise the powers they have received 7e4g41 between acolythate and subdiaconate a year1 between subdiaconate and diaconate three months72 the candidate for sacred ordination must have a title or some canonical means of support 7i4e41 for secular clergy the title of benefice1 or patrimony or ministerial service2 for religious the title of profession1 common life1 etc474 ,the law allows certain dispensations from some of these requirements 7,canons #igd sqq474 7b7 ,negative requirements are freedom from certain disabilities introduced by the ,church for the sake of the honor and dignity of the sacred ministry4 ,some of these disqualifications are of their nature permanent1 and they are removed only by dispensation or by disposition of the law 7e4g41 in certain cases by cessation of the cause1 or by baptism1 or by religious profession71 and these are known as irregularities2 other disqualifications1 which are of their nature temporary and cease with lapse of time or changes in circumstances1 are known as simple impediments4 ,the effect of disqualification is to make it unlawful to receive an ,order1 or to exercise an ,order already received4 ,irregularities are produced either by deficiency or by delinquency1 but the cause in either case must be certain2 and1 in case of delinquency1 it must be a personal sin committed after ,baptism1 which is mortal1 external1 and consummated in act4 ,the irregularities from defect are3 illegitimate birth2 mental imperfection 7such as epilepsy1 insanity1 possession72 bodily imperfection that makes one unsuited for the service of the altar1 on account of mutilation 7e4g41 those who have lost hand or foot1 or thumb or index finger71 or of unsoundness 7e4g41 the blind1 the deaf1 the dumb1 cripples1 paralytics71 or of very noticeable deformity that excites ridicule or horror 7e4g41 dwarfs1 giants1 noseless persons1 those who are hunchbacked72 successive bigamy1 that is1 the fact that one has been twice validly married1 for ,st4 ,paul ruled that a cleric should be a man of not more than one wife 7,i ,tim41 iii4 #b1 #ab2 ,tit41 i4 #e1 #f72 infamy of law1 that is1 the commission of certain crimes which the law declares infamous ipso facto or after sentence 7such as profanation of the ,eucharist or of graves1 violence done to the ,pope or a ,cardinal1 duelling1 simultaneous bigamy1 and certain sexual sins72 participation in capital punishment by pronouncing 7i4e41 as judge or juryman7 or executing the sentence of death4 ,the irregularities from delinquency are3 apostasy1 heresy1 schism2 reception of ,baptism from a non-,catholic2 attempt at adulterous or sacrilegious marriage2 voluntary homicide1 cooperation in an abortion1 mutilation of self or of another1 attempt to commit suicide2 unlawful exercise of medicine or surgery by a cleric with fatal results2 unlawful exercise of the powers of ,major ,orders by a cleric or layman4 ,the simple impediments are found in the following3 in those who may be weak in faith1 namely1 persons whose parents are non-,catholics1 or who are themselves converts 7,i ,tim41 iii4 #f72 in those who are prevented by other occupations1 namely1 persons held by marriage1 business forbidden to clerics1 slavery1 military service 7,,ii ,tim41 ii4 #d72 in those who are actually in bad repute before the community on account of misconduct 7,i ,tim41 iii4 #g74 ,see ,canons #ihc-iia4 #bghe4 ,duties of ,ordinandi ,according to ,canon ,law4--7a7 ,before ,ordination4--,application to the bishop must be made beforehand at an opportune time1 and testimonials of ,baptism1 ,confirmation1 ,orders already received1 certificates of good character and studies1 and letters from superiors testifying to freedom from impediments and general fitness must be presented4 ,the candidate must undergo a special examination and make a spiritual retreat before the day of his ordination4 ,the profession of faith is made before subdeaconship4 7b7 ,during ,ordination4--,all the ceremonies should be observed1 and especially the physical touching of the instruments 7chalice and paten1 etc471 which seems to be essential in ,minor ,orders and the ,subdiaconate4 ,in the imposition of the hands in the other ,major ,orders1 the head of the subject should be touched physically1 although even moral touch is sufficient for validity of the ,sacrament 7,pius ,,xii1 ,apostolic ,constitution already cited74 ,the law requires that the recipients of ,major ,orders receive ,communion1 and the obligations seems to be grave for the new priests1 since they celebrate with the bishop4 7c7 ,after ,ordination4--,the nocturn 7three ,psalms and their antiphons7 which the ordaining prelate imposes on the newly ordained subdeacons and deacons should be taken from the first nocturn of the day1 whether it be feria1 feast or ,sunday1 unless the bishop appoints otherwise4 ,the three ,masses of the ,holy ,ghost1 ,blessed ,virgin1 and for the dead1 imposed on the newly ordained priests1 need not be applied for the bishop's intention1 and a stipend may be taken when they are said2 but it is fitting that they be applied in thanksgiving and for the benefit of the bishop as well as of the whole ,church on earth and in ,purgatory4 ,these prayers and ,masses do not seem to oblige under sin1 though some hold them to bind sub gravi4 ,on the life duties of the clergy1 see above 7#beif sqq474 #bghf4 ,registration of ,ordinations4--,as in the case of marriage1 ordinations should be registered in a special book and notice of them 7if subdiaconate was received7 should be sent to the pastor of the parish of ,baptism4 ,a certificate of ordination is also to be given to the cleric ordained 7,canons #ajaj1 #ajaa74 #bghg4 ,the ,sacrament of ,matrimony4--,marriage in general is defined as 8the conjugal union of man and woman1 contracted between two qualified persons1 which obliges them to one another for life40 7a7 ,the word union may be taken actively for the passing act of internal and external consent1 and then it refers to marriage in its state of becoming1 as it is a contract and 7among ,christians7 a ,sacrament2 or it may be taken1 as it were passively1 for the bond that results from the mutual consent pledged by the parties1 and then it refers to marriage as a permanent state of life4 7b7 ,the marriage union is conjugal2 that is1 its end is the procreation and rearing of children1 or the making of a family1 and it therefore gives the right to the natural acts of generation4 ,a contract which has other ends 7e4g41 a business agreement of labor or of partnership71 or which excludes procreation 7e4g41 an agreement of onanistic concubinage71 is not a marriage4 7c7 ,marriage is between qualified persons1 for certain individuals are excluded by natural1 divine or human law from making a valid contract of marriage4 7d7 ,marriage is between two1 one man and one woman4 ,this unity of marriage is its first property1 resulting from its nature as a relationship intended primarily for the propagation of the race and its proper upbringing1 and secondarily for the peace and contentment of the married couple1 their mutual assistance to one another1 and their protection against carnal temptations 7#bii74 ,for polyandry is opposed to both these ends1 and therefore to natural law1 while polygamy does not accord well with the secondary ends of matrimony and is forbidden for all by the law of ,christ 78,they shall be two in one flesh10 ,matt41 xix4 #c sqq474 ,on the permission of polygamy in the later ,old ,testament ages1 see #cjc1 #caa4 7e7 ,marriage obliges the parties to one another for life4 ,this indissolubility of marriage is its second property1 and also follows from the natural ends of marriage4 ,for the right propagation of the human race is a matter that concerns not merely the married couple or human society1 but also ,god ,himself1 who is matrimony's immediate author and lawgiver1 and ,god has decreed that marriage be unbreakable except in the few instances allowed by ,himself3 8,what ,god hath joined together let no man put asunder0 7,matt41 xix4 #f74 ,since the good of marriage is inferior to the good of faith1 the divine law permits a dissolution of the bond in the case known as the ,pauline ,privilege 7,i ,cor41 vii4 #ab-ae72 similarly1 in a very few instances where there is a serious good more important than the preservation of the bond 7the faith of a convert from infidelity1 the observance of the counsel of chastity1 the public welfare71 and where the bond itself has not the strength of sacramentality 7i4e41 in a non-,christian marriage71 or has not been consummated in a ,christian marriage1 the divine law authorizes the ,church1 the representative of ,god1 to decree a dissolution 7see #cfc1 #cad74 ,not only are these cases few1 but the conditions are strict 7see ,canons #aabj-aabg71 and hence these exceptions are no menace to the ends of marriage4 ,but once consummation has been added to consent in a ,christian marriage1 thereby perfecting the natural contract and extending the sacramental signification from the mystical and severable union of ,christ with the soul by grace to the physical and perpetual union of ,christ with the ,church by the ,incarnation1 the indissolubility becomes complete and admits of no exception4 ,the bill of divorce under the ,mosaic ,law seems to have been a true and complete dissolution of the marriage tie1 but there is good reason to think that it was a toleration of the ,jewish civil code1 not a permission given by ,god4 ,the valid marriages of infidels as such are not subject to the judgment of the ,church2 and the civil authority has no power to dissolve them 7even when they are childless71 otherwise individuals and the family and the ,state will suffer1 as experience proves4 #bghh4 ,distinctions4--7a7 ,in reference to validity1 marriage may be true 7i4e41 validly contracted71 or presumed 7i4e41 taken by the law to be validly contracted on account of some fact1 as when the validity of a marriage was not attacked during the lifetime of the parties71 putative 7i4e41 really invalid1 but contracted in good faith by at least one of the spouses and not yet known by both to be certainly null71 attempted 7i4e41 contracted invalidly in bad faith1 at least one of the parties being aware of an invalidating impediment74 7b7 ,in reference to perfection1 marriage is legitimate 7when it is validly contracted between non-baptized persons71 ratified or sacramental 7when it is celebrated between baptized persons71 consummated 7when the consent given in the contract is subsequently completed by the conjugal act74 ,it seems that marriage lawfully contracted between a baptized and a non-baptized person is not ratified or sacramental1 for1 as the consent must be mutual1 so should the ,sacrament be mutual4 ,but a marriage free from substantial defects is always a ,sacrament1 even though the contractants do not wish this1 when it is contracted between ,christians1 whether they be ,catholics or non-,catholics2 and a marriage contracted between non-,christians becomes a ,sacrament on the ,baptism of the parties4 7c7 ,in reference to its manner1 marriage may be clandestine 7i4e41 not celebrated before the pastor and two witnesses71 or secret 7i4e41 celebrated before the pastor and two witnesses pledged to secrecy1 and without the publicity the ,church ordinarily requires71 public 7i4e41 celebrated before pastor and witnesses and with publicity such as announcement to the people and registration in the usual marriage book74 ,the secret marriage is also known as a marriage of conscience 7,canons #aajd-aajg74 7d7 ,in reference to the law under which it is performed1 marriage is either canonical or civil4 ,a purely civil marriage between ,catholics is invalid1 as far as the bond is concerned1 since their contract1 as being a ,sacrament1 is subject to the ,church4 ,but the civil marriage1 as far as the purely civil consequences are concerned1 is a lawful ceremony1 and is obligatory if required by law4 ,a morganatic marriage is made between two persons of unequal condition 7e4g41 between a king and a plebeian woman7 on condition that the inferior spouse and progeny shall not share entirely in the titles and property of the superior spouse4 #bghi4 ,the ,elements of the ,contract of ,marriage4--7a7 ,the subject-matter of the contract is the conjugal right or the lawful power of exercising with the other party acts suitable for generation4 7b7 ,the ends of the contract are1 primarily1 the good of the race and of the children1 and secondarily the good of the couple through mutual assistance and protection in spiritual and temporal matters4 ,to these general ends may be added others which a particular person has in view1 such as dignity1 wealth1 honor1 lawful pleasure4 7c7 ,the essence of the contract is the consent1 for every pact consists in mutual agreement4 ,but if marriage be regarded as a permanent state1 its essence is the bond of union1 and consent is the efficient cause productive of the bond4 ,marriage consent must have the qualities 7internal1 external1 mutual1 free7 that are necessary in every contract1 as explained in #ahhc4 #bgij4 ,requirements for ,valid ,marriage ,consent4--7a7 ,internal ,consent4--,if both or one of the parties internally and positively wills to exclude marriage1 or the right to the conjugal act1 or an essential property of marriage1 the contract is null1 since there is no purpose to contract a real marriage4 ,similarly1 if both or one of the parties negatively 7or by lack of all intention7 excludes consent1 there is no marriage4 ,it should be noted that he who intends to get a divorce later on does not intend a permanent union or marriage1 whereas he who intends to be unfaithful or to practise onanism may nevertheless intend to oblige himself to the duties of fidelity and of the lawful use of marriage1 and therefore to a true marriage4 ,fictitious consent1 unless a serious reason excuses 7e4g41 when one is forced under grave fear to marry1 when one becomes aware of a diriment impediment at the altar and cannot retire without great scandal71 is a mortal sin1 as being a lie in a very important matter and an injustice4 ,if the other party was deceived1 the party guilty of feigned consent is bound to make reparation for the damage done1 and1 unless the marriage has become impossible or inadvisable1 the means of reparation should be a genuine consent revalidating the marriage4 ,this is especially true when there is a conflict between the internal and the external forums on account of the inability to establish juridically the nullity of the invalid marriage4 7b7 ,external ,consent4--,both as contract and as ,sacrament1 matrimony requires some sensible manifestation of the internal consent4 ,since the contract of marriage between ,christians falls under the jurisdiction of the ,church1 the manner of expressing the consent is regulated by ,canon ,law4 ,the solemnities required for valid and lawful marriage will be treated below in #bhbf1 #bhbg4 7c7 ,mutual ,consent4--,both parties must agree to the marriage1 since no one is obliged by a contract without his consent4 ,but mutuality does not imply simultaneity1 for1 if the previous consent given by one party continues1 the subsequent consent given by the other is joined to it and the consent becomes mutual4 7d7 ,free ,consent4--,if every contract must be deliberate and voluntary1 this is especially true in the case of marriage1 since it entails very heavy duties and its obligations are lifelong 7cfr4 #baie74 ,in marriage there must be full and perfect consent1 though it is not necessary that one think expressly on the essentials of the contract when assenting to it4 #bgia4 ,defects in ,consent4--,consent supposes sufficient knowledge1 and hence it may be vitiated by a defect as to knowledge4 7a7 ,mental ,derangement4--,those who are not in possession of their mental faculties cannot marry1 whether the derangement be habitual 7e4g41 idiots1 the completely insane1 monomaniacs on the subject of marriage7 or actual 7e4g41 infants1 those who are completely drunk or doped1 the hypnotized or delirious1 somnambulists74 ,but defectives who are not unbalanced all the time or on all subjects1 may be able now and then to realize the meaning of marriage and to give deliberate consent1 though the presumption is against them4 ,those whose mentality is of a low grade1 but who are able to judge and reason correctly 7e4g41 stupid persons1 the deaf and dumb1 or blind71 and those who have some little fanaticism or eccentricity are not excluded2 otherwise very few of either sex could marry4 7b7 ,ignorance4--,substantial ignorance1 or the absence of knowledge about the essentials of marriage 7viz41 that it is a permanent association of man and woman for the purpose of raising children of their own71 makes the contract null1 for one does not consent to what one does not know4 ,accidental ignorance1 on the contrary1 does not nullify1 for he who understands the main facts about marriage can intend to contract it as others do1 even though he does not know its details or secondary features4 ,ignorance invalidates marriage1 therefore1 if one of the parties does not know that marriage is meant for the procreation of children or that children are procreated by carnal intercourse2 but it does not invalidate if the parties are ignorant about physiology or scientific explanations4 ,substantial ignorance in persons of marriageable age 7especially young women7 is not uncommon even in these days1 but it is not presumed after puberty 7,canon #ajhb1 ,sec4#b74 7c7 ,error4--,error which excludes consent to the essential object of the contract nullifies1 and hence a substantial error about the person with whom one is contracting makes marriage of no effect 7e4g41 if ,titus thinks he is marrying ,claudia1 but is really marrying her twin sister1 ,sempronia2 if ,balbus intends to marry ,caia only on condition that she is a virgin and she is not a virgin2 if ,julius intends to marry the woman who is present solely as differentiated by a personal or individual characteristic which he mistakenly believes her to have1 such as seniority among her sisters74 ,error which does not prevent essential consent does not nullify the contract4 ,hence1 a mere accidental error about the other party 7e4g41 ,titus marries ,claudia1 thinking she is rich1 whereas she is poor1 and he would never have married her had he known her poverty7 does not make marriage null1 though the ,church makes the marriage of no effect when a slave is married in the belief that he or she is free 7,canon #ajhc1 ,sec4#b1 n1 #b74 ,a mere speculative error about the properties of marriage 7e4g41 if one believes that marriage may be lawfully dissolved for adultery7 or about the validity of one's own marriage 7e4g41 if the bride erroneously believes that the marriage she is contracting is null7 does not deprive the contract of its force1 if there is really a purpose to marry as best one may2 for such an error does not act upon the will or take away consent4 #bgib4 ,forced ,consent4--,consent also supposes self-determination1 and hence in certain cases force or fear makes a marriage null and unlawful4 7a7 ,effect on ,validity4--,coercion nullifies marriage from natural law1 when overpowering physical might extorts an external assent1 or when moral violence so terrifies as to unsettle the reason2 from church law at least1 when being grave1 external and unjustly caused1 it compels one to marry in order to escape the evil it inflicts or threatens4 ,in other cases fear does not void marriage1 even though it be the cause of the contract1 as when the fear is slight1 or when it is induced by shipwreck or by the fear of sin1 or when a seducer marries only because he is threatened with prosecution unless he marries the girl whom he seduced4 7b7 ,effect on ,lawfulness4--,he who by intimidation impels another to marry1 sins gravely if the fear is unjust and grave1 or unjust and productive of serious evils2 he sins venially if the fear1 though unjust1 is light and not productive of serious evils2 he sins not at all2 if the fear is justly caused1 unless he offends charity by his manner of acting2 revengeful spirit1 etc4 ,he who marries knowing that the other party is forced into the contract1 is guilty of serious injustice2 and he who marries unwillingly1 but with the purpose to live as if he were validly married1 sins gravely by his will to live in impurity4 #bgic4 ,conditional ,consent4--,conditional consent is that in which the agreement to marriage is made dependent on some fact or event4 7a7 ,a condition makes marriage invalid if it neutralizes consent 7e4g41 if the condition is de praesenti but unfulfilled2 if it is de futuro and against the substance of marriage2 if it is impossible but seriously added72 it suspends marriage if it is de futuro1 possible1 and not against the substance of marriage2 it neither nullifies nor suspends if it is de praesenti or de praeterito and fulfilled4 ,in law the presumption is that de futuro necessary or impossible conditions and shameful conditions are not serious1 or are modes rather than conditions 7see #ahhf71 and of course in the external forum invalidity on account of a condition has to be proved4 ,conditions against the substance of marriage are such as deny essential conjugal rights or duties 7i4e41 the right to have conjugal intercourse1 the duty of fidelity to the consort1 of loyalty to the bond72 but they should not be confused with the purpose to violate marriage engagements1 or with a resolution1 or a vow1 or a pact in the form of a mode1 not to make use of the right to conjugal intercourse4 7b7 ,a condition added to marriage consent is gravely sinful1 unless there is a very urgent reason for it2 otherwise most serious evils would result4 ,moreover1 there is responsibility in justice for culpable damages1 as when one party gives consent conditionally without the knowledge or against the will of the other party4 ,a suspensive condition 7e4g41 8if my parents will consent07 is regularly unlawful without the bishop's permission1 and marriage rights may not be used in a marriage dependent on a condition whose fulfillment is not known to the parties4 ,it is unlawful to make a vow or promise of chastity in the married life unless there is moral certainty that it will be kept4 #bgid4 ,the ,elements of ,marriage as a ,sacrament4--7a7 ,the matter and form of marriage are found in the contract1 for the ,sacrament is the natural pact elevated to the dignity of a sacred sign productive of grace4 ,the remote matter is1 therefore1 the bodies of the spouses1 or the bodily rights which they give one another 7,i ,cor41 vii4 #d74 ,since the indeterminate part of a contract is the offer or bestowal1 and the determinate part the approval1 the proximate matter of ,matrimony is found in the grant of mutual conjugal rights externally manifested1 and the form in the acceptance of that right externally manifested4 7b7 ,the ministers and the recipients of ,matrimony are the parties themselves1 since it is they alone who make and receive the contract4 ,in order to be a recipient of the ,sacrament it is necessary that a person be baptized and be free from all natural1 divine and human impediments that make one incapable of the contract of marriage4 7c7 ,the effects of ,matrimony are per se second grace1 which increases sanctity and is of help especially for the due performance throughout life of the duties of the conjugal state and for domestic blessedness and happiness4 #bgie4 ,duties in ,connection with ,marriage4--,the duties in reference to marriage as a permanent state of life were treated already in #bfac sqq41 and we shall consider here only the duties that have to do with marriage as a contract and a ,sacrament4 ,these duties can be arranged under three heads3 7a7 before marriage1 there are obligations in reference to the preparation for marriage1 which consists remotely in engagement or espousals1 and proximately in compliance with duties owed to divine1 ecclesiastical1 and civil law 7e4g41 license from the ,state1 establishment of freedom to marry1 proclamation of banns1 dispensations1 confession72 7b7 during marriage1 in addition to the common obligations of intention and a state of grace1 there are special duties in reference to the external form or rite of marriage2 7c7 after marriage1 there is a duty of making canonical records and of validating defective marriages4 #bgif4 ,betrothal or ,engagement4--,engagement is a promise of their future marriage made by competent persons4 7a7 ,it is a promise1 either unilateral or bilateral1 the latter being espousals or betrothal in the strict sense of the word 7#agdi74 ,like every promise1 engagement is not binding unless it be made with requisite deliberation and freedom from force and fear4 ,but a valid engagement to marry has not the same strength1 either from divine or from human law1 as a contract of marriage1 and hence fraud or light fear unjustly produced and which induces one to become engaged leaves the engagement rescindable at the will of the innocent party4 ,canon ,law requires certain formalities for a valid engagement1 and without them there is no obligation in either forum4 ,the law is that the contract of betrothal be in writing1 and be signed by the parties and also by the pastor or local ,ordinary or two witnesses1 and that1 if one or both of the parties be unable to write1 this be noted in the document and an extra witness be added 7,canon #ajag74 7b7 ,it is a promise made by competent persons4 ,hence1 there is no valid engagement if a party is incapable either naturally 7e4g41 one who has not the use of reason7 or canonically 7e4g41 one who has not attained the age of seven years74 ,it is against good morals to be engaged to two persons at the same time1 with the understanding that one will marry the second after the expected death of the first2 and much more is it immoral for a married person to become engaged to marry another1 the marriage to take place after the death of the present consort4 ,some canonists hold that engagements are not valid before the age of puberty1 on account of the lack of sufficient discretion4 7c7 ,it is a promise of future marriage1 that is1 a contract to marry1 not a contract of marriage4 ,a nuptial engagement is invalid if the marriage promised is invalid or unlawful1 for no one can bind himself to sin4 ,an invalid marriage is promised if there is a diriment and not dispensable impediment in the way1 or if in spite of a removable impediment the engagement is unconditional1 unless the mind of the parties is to marry after the impediment has ceased4 ,the ,church seems to regard as null an engagement made on the condition that the ,pope will dispense an impediment4 ,an unlawful marriage is promised when the parties cannot marry without sin 7e4g41 when the marriage will bring great sorrow or disgrace on parents71 or when they promise to marry in a sinful way 7e4g41 with the understanding that they will abuse marriage74 ,but an unlawful promise of a lawful marriage is not necessarily invalid1 and hence an engagement dependent on an immoral condition not opposed to the substance of marriage would become obligatory on fulfillment of the condition 7see #ahgh d1 #ahhf74 #bgig4 ,it should be noted that the former diriment and impedient impediments produced by espousals are no longer in force1 and even a valid engagement gives no right to an action for the celebration of marriage4 #bgih4 ,is an ,engagement ,necessary before ,marriage8--7a7 ,an engagement is not strictly necessary4 ,neither the validity nor the lawfulness of marriage depends on espousals1 for there is no law that requires this4 ,hence1 if for a reasonable cause a man and woman married without any previous binding pledge on either side1 the marriage would be good and lawful4 ,the formal engagements of ,canon ,law are not common in this country1 but an informal engagement usually precedes matrimony4 7b7 ,engagement is most suitable and useful4 ,men are accustomed to fit themselves by long and serious study for the business of a profession or calling1 and to enter into preliminary agreements about contracts of major importance 7as in contracts to sell71 and certainly marriage1 a contract and vocation that binds until death and upon which the spiritual and temporal welfare of society and individuals rests1 is among the most momentous of human agreements4 ,the special advantage of engagement is that it affords a means of preventing hasty and ill-advised unions1 of discovering impediments1 of securing the consent of parents1 and of preparing oneself in knowledge and virtue for the duties of the married state4 ,if engagements were regarded and treated as a period of training for serious and sacred duties1 not as a time for frivolity or enjoyment1 there would be fewer divorces and less talk about trial marriages4 ,on the duties of engaged persons to one another1 see #bfbh1 #bfbi4 #bgii4 ,duties to ,parents or ,guardians in ,reference to ,marriage4--7a7 ,there is1 per se1 a duty of consulting with one's parents about one's marriage2 for he who marries without their knowledge1 generally exposes himself to the danger of making a serious mistake1 and moreover as a rule the interests of parents themselves are bound up intimately with the marriages of their children4 ,hence1 unless a very serious reason excuses1 he who marries without advising with his parents sins grievously by his rashness or want of filial affection4 ,the same is true1 if a child wilfully disregards the wishes of his parents by stubbornly marrying when for a good reason they disapprove4 ,if their opposition is imperative and emphatic1 or if they are grief-stricken at thought of the imprudent marriage1 the sin is serious2 but if their opposition is mild and the match not a very bad one1 the sin is venial4 ,the consent or counsel of parents is not necessary for validity1 however1 since it is not they who are getting married1 and no law makes their consent or counsel an essential part of the compact4 ,per accidens1 their consent or counsel is not even necessary for lawfulness1 as when the children live far away from their parents1 or when marriage has to be contracted without delay1 or when the parents are unreasonable in their opposition4 7b7 ,there is1 per se1 no duty of obeying one's parents in the matter of marriage3 first1 because marriage supposes choice1 admiration1 and love1 and these do not submit to dictation1 even from parents2 next1 because in things that pertain to nature1 such as self-preservation and procreation1 children are not subject to their parents2 finally1 because the authority of parents does not extend to the whole lifetime of their children and marriage is a lifelong union4 ,hence1 parents may not compel their children to marry or to remain single2 they may not make the match for their children against the latters' will1 they may not force a child to marry a person whom he or she detests1 they may not veto a marriage that does not appeal to them if the son or daughter has good reasons for it4 ,those parents sin1 then1 who refuse their blessing to a marriage out of selfishness1 and those parents sin gravely who force their children into loveless unions and so make them unhappy in this world and endanger their salvation for the world to come4 ,per accidens1 there is a duty of obeying parents in reference to marriage when one is obliged even apart from their command to do what they prescribe1 when the marriage which they forbid is also forbidden by law 7e4g41 if the child is needed at home to support his indigent parents1 if the mate selected will bring disgrace upon the family and the match can easily be broken off71 or when the marriage which they require is also demanded by duty 7e4g41 if a son will surely enter upon a wild and reckless life unless he marries74 ,see above1 #bbbh1 #bfbg1 #bfcc1 #bfcf1 #bcdg1 #bcdh1 #bcfa sqq4 #bhjj4 ,duties of ,parents in ,reference to ,marriage4--7a7 ,if there is question of the marriage of a child1 parents should guide themselves by the rule of ,st4 ,paul3 8,let her marry whom she will1 only in the ,lord0 7,i ,cor41 vii4 #ci74 ,undue pressure should be avoided1 but bad marriages should be opposed1 and parents should assist their children to marry well4 7b7 ,if there is question of a parent's second marriage1 the children's interests should be considered in making the choice of the step-father or step-mother1 and1 if the children are grown up1 they should be consulted1 or at least they should not be unreasonably saddened or harmed by the new marriage4 #bhja4 ,obstacles to ,marriage4--,since marriage is a most important contract and a ,sacrament1 it is necessary to ascertain beforehand with moral certainty that there is no obstacle to its valid and lawful celebration4 ,this imposes duties on the pastor1 the couple themselves1 and the faithful who know them4 7a7 ,the pastor in virtue of his office is gravely obliged to make inquiries about the competency and fitness of the prospective husband and wife1 and even in a death-bed marriage the obligation does not cease4 ,church law prescribes the method of inquiry1 which should include an examination and instruction of the couple and a publication of the marriage4 ,of course1 there is an obligation of confidential secrecy4 7b7 ,the couple are bound to present themselves to the pastor within a reasonable time before the marriage in order to make these arrangements1 and should bring with them the necessary papers 7for example1 their baptismal certificates1 license to marry1 testimonials74 ,they are gravely obliged to make known either to the pastor or to the confessor any impediment1 even though it be of a secret and culpable nature1 in order that their marriage may be valid and lawful1 unless they wish to give up the marriage or seek a dispensation in some other way4 7c7 ,the people who know of an impediment to a marriage are bound under pain of mortal sin to make it known in time to the pastor or ,ordinary2 for the natural and divine laws1 as well as the law of the ,church1 hold one to speak when this will prevent irreverence to the ,sacrament of ,matrimony1 sin and other serious evils to the neighbor4 ,the obligation ceases1 however1 when the revelation is either impossible or useless4 ,cases of impossibility are those in which revelation will cause great spiritual harm 7e4g41 public scandal71 or great temporal harm of a public kind 7e4g41 violation of professional secret71 or a great temporal harm of a private kind 7e4g41 persecution71 unless a more serious evil will result from concealment4 ,revelation is useless when the marriage can be stopped or made legal in some other way 7e4g41 by persuading the couple to break their engagement or get a dispensation71 or when one foresees that the revelation will have no effect4 #bhjb4 ,duties of the ,pastor in the ,examination of ,engaged ,persons4--7a7 ,he should question both the man and the woman separately and prudently about their freedom to marry1 even though he is certain that there are no impediments4 ,he should inquire especially whether there has been a previous marriage1 and should also ask specifically about any impediment that seems likely4 ,about impediments of a defamatory kind he should not interrogate before others1 leaving that matter if necessary to his doctrinal instruction or to the confessor4 7b7 ,he should ask both of them1 and especially the woman1 whether they have decided on marriage freely1 without force or pressure from any person4 ,but children who live with their parents should be asked whether or not they have obtained their parents' consent to the proposed marriage4 #bhjc4 ,special ,proofs of ,freedom to ,marry4--7a7 ,proof of ,baptism4--,a baptismal certificate should be presented by the parties 7if baptized in another parish71 even by one who is a baptized non-,catholic4 ,if a certificate cannot be had1 other proofs are necessary4 ,in danger of death1 the sworn testimony of the parties suffices2 outside danger of death1 the testimony of a reliable witness1 or of the person himself1 if he can remember his ,baptism1 or1 it seems1 a certificate of ,confirmation or ,first ,communion will do4 ,if ,baptism cannot be proved and there is a prudent doubt1 it should be administered conditionally4 7b7 ,proof of ,single ,state4--,if it is manifest that a previous civil marriage was null and was dissolved by divorce1 the proof of the facts suffices4 ,if the husband or wife of a previous marriage has died1 but the pastor has no personal knowledge of this1 positive proof of the decease in the form of a public document or of sworn testimony of two or at least one reliable witness is necessary1 and if the pastor cannot obtain these he must have recourse to the ,ordinary4 #bhjd4 ,matrimonial ,impediments4--7a7 ,definition4--,an impediment is a circumstance directly affecting the contract of marriage and rendering it illicit or invalid4 ,thus1 an impediment differs from an unfitness that refers immediately to marriage as a sacred rite or ,sacrament 7such as lack of proper intention or a state of mortal sin71 or that does not directly affect the parties 7such as forbidden time74 7b7 ,division4--,in reference to effects1 an impediment is either impedient 7i4e41 one that forbids marriage under pain of grave sin but does not render it null and void7 or diriment 7i4e41 one that not only forbids marriage1 but also makes it null and void74 #bhje4 ,sinfulness of ,marrying with an ,impediment4--7a7 ,if the impediment is certain1 grave sin is committed2 for deception and disobedience are committed in a grave and sacred matter1 and1 if the impediment is diriment1 the marriage contract is made null4 ,great necessity1 however1 would sometimes excuse4 7b7 ,if the impediment is uncertain1 no sin is committed when the impediment is one of ecclesiastical law and the doubt is one of law1 for in such a case the legislator removes the obligation 7,canon #ae72 nor when the impediment is impotency 7,canon #ajfh71 in view of the fact that the general law of propagation of the race leaves a natural presumption against impotency1 which can be overcome only by a certain impediment4 ,it would be an intolerable hardship if marriage were made impossible by a doubt where proof is so difficult4 ,there is a serious sin1 however1 in other cases1 because one is either exposing the ,sacrament to nullity or is refusing1 contrary to a serious command of the ,church1 to seek a dispensation4 #bhjf4 ,the ,impedient or ,prohibitive ,impediments 7,canons #ajeh-ajff74--7;a7 ,vow4--,the following simple vows make marriage illicit3 the vow of virginity1 that of perfect chastity1 the vow not to marry1 the vow to receive ,sacred ,orders1 the vow to enter religious life1 the simple vows of religion4 ,a vow to abstain from the use of marriage is not against the substance of marriage1 but it is difficult to keep in the married state2 the vows to enter religion1 or take ,sacred ,orders1 or not to wed1 are incompatible with marriage4 ,hence1 the ,church forbids one who has these vows to marry1 unless the vow be first dispensed4 ,those who marry while bound by one of these vows sin gravely1 and are held to keep the vow if this is possible or the other party's rights do not prevent4 7b7 ,legal ,relationship4--,in those countries where relationship from adoption makes marriage illicit1 there is also an impedient impediment of ,canon ,law4 ,the ,church wishes1 in so far as possible1 to preserve harmony between her own law and that of the ,state4 ,hence1 she includes in her ,code the civil law regulations that forbid marriage to certain persons on account of the intimate relation that exists between them through civil law adoption4 ,the law of some ,european 7e4g41 ,france1 ,germany1 ,switzerland7 and ,south ,american countries have a prohibitive impediment of adoption1 but in the ,united ,states1 the ,british ,empire1 and many other countries adoption is no such hindrance to marriage4 7c7 ,mixed ,religion4--,marriage between two baptized persons1 one a ,catholic and the other a member of an heretical or schismatical sect1 is severely forbidden by the ,church4 ,mixed marriages in themselves are opposed to divine and natural law1 inasmuch as they offer an occasion for communication in false worship and a danger of perversion2 and hence they have been disapproved from the very beginning of the ,church 7,,ii ,john1 ,x4 #aa2 ,i ,cor41 v4 #aj2 ,tit41 iii4 #aj74 ,but the divine prohibition ceases if appropriate measures are used to safeguard the faith of the ,catholic and the children1 and the ,church will grant a dispensation1 though reluctantly and only for just and grave causes4 #bhjg4 ,duties in ,reference to ,mixed ,marriages4--7a7 ,the ,pastor4--,a dispensation should not be sought unless there is first a sufficient reason1 all things considered1 and generally the reason should be the public good 7such as the relative fewness of ,catholics in a district1 hope of conversion of the non-,catholic1 avoidance of scandal74 ,secondly1 there must be guarantees given by the non-,catholic that the faith of the ,catholic will not be interfered with1 and both parties must promise that all the children will receive ,catholic and no other baptism and education4 ,finally1 these promises must be such as to produce moral certainty of fulfillment1 and as a rule it should be required that they be given in writing4 ,after the marriage has been celebrated the pastor is held both in charity and in justice to do what he can to have the promises faithfully lived up to4 7b7 ,the ,parties4--,neither before nor after the marriage in the ,catholic ,church is it lawful to have any non-,catholic religious ceremony 7see #ief sqq472 and if the pastor knows that this has been done or will be done1 he may not assist at the marriage without permission from the ,ordinary1 which is granted for a most grave reason 7scandal being avoided74 ,after the marriage the parties are bound in justice to keep the promises made1 and the ,catholic is held in charity to seek prudently1 by good example and advice1 to convert the non-,catholic4 #bhjh4 ,marriages with ,bad ,catholics4--7a7 ,if the bad ,catholic is unworthy in the matter of faith1 because he has notoriously given up the ,church 7even though he has not joined any other religion71 or because he is a member of a forbidden society1 there is a danger of perversion4 ,in such a case the pastor may not assist at the marriage unless the ,ordinary decides that there is a sufficient reason1 that the danger of perversion is made remote1 and that the ,catholic education of the children is provided for4 7b7 ,if the bad ,catholic is unworthy in the matter of morals1 because he is a public sinner 7e4g41 one who neglects the ,easter duty71 or notoriously under censure and therefore a person to whom the ,sacraments must be denied1 the pastor is confronted with the law that one may not cooperate formally1 even by assistance1 in the profanation of a ,sacrament4 ,as the guilt of the unworthy person is public in these cases1 there must be public reparation before the marriage can be sanctioned by the presence of the ,church's representative4 ,the reparation is to be made either by the sinner going to confession or by the censured person obtaining absolution4 ,but since the priest's presence can be only a material cooperation1 it may be permitted by the ,ordinary for a grave reason when the unworthy person refuses to comply with the conditions4 #bhji4 ,other ,obstacles to ,marriage4--,other obstacles which forbid marriage1 though they are not strictly canonical impediments1 are the following3 7a7 valid engagement gravely forbids marriage with a third party4 ,this is a natural obstacle which results from the very nature of a binding promise2 7b7 special prohibition of the ,church at times gravely forbids a particular marriage1 as when the ,holy ,see in granting a dispensation for a present marriage forbids a future marriage4 ,if an irritant clause is added1 the prohibition has the force of a diriment impediment4 ,the ,ordinary also may forbid a particular marriage for a time1 as when there is suspicion of a secret impediment1 or when great damage will likely ensue from a marriage4 ,this prohibition is for a special case or time or person1 and thus it differs from the impediments of the law2 7c7 closed times 7,lent and ,advent7 are the seasons when1 on account of the penitential and mournful character of the liturgy then in use1 the solemn blessing of marriage is not regularly permitted4 ,this is not really an impediment1 since marriage itself may be contracted at any time of the year1 according to the general law4 #bhaj4 ,diriment ,impediments to ,marriage4--,the diriment or nullifying impediments to marriage are personal incapacities in a person which render him or her incapable1 from divine or ecclesiastical law1 of contracting marriage with anyone 7absolute impediments71 or of contracting marriage with a certain individual 7relative impediments74 #bhaa4 ,the absolute diriment impediments are the following3 7a7 those that are due to a personal defect making one unable to promise with sufficient discretion 7impediment of age7 or to perform what is promised 7impediment of impotency72 7b7 those that are due to a voluntary act which consecrates one to ,god with the obligation of perpetual celibacy 7the impediments of ,orders and vows74 #bhab4 ,the relative impediments are the following3 7a7 that one which is due to an obligation to one's present husband or wife 7the impediment of bond72 7b7 that one which is due to too great a difference between two parties 7impediment of disparity of cult72 those that are due to too close a kinship between two parties1 whether natural 7impediments of consanguinity and affinity7 or like to the natural 7impediments of public decency1 spiritual kinship1 legal kinship72 7d7 those that are due to a relationship caused by a crime that makes it unsuitable for two parties to marry4 ,if one party is perpetrator and the other the victim1 there is the impediment of abduction2 if the two parties are accomplices1 there is the impediment of crime4 #bhac4 ,the ,impediment of ,age4--7a7 ,nature4--,this impediment exists in males who have not completed their sixteenth year1 and in females who have not completed their fourteenth year4 ,these ages are set by the general law1 because all parts of the world have to be considered and sufficient discretion may be presumed at those ages everywhere4 ,but substantial ignorance even after those years invalidates consent1 and moreover1 in colder countries where development is slower1 marriage is generally inadvisable before the parties are #ah and #af respectively4 ,the marriageable ages according to the statute law in most of our ,states are #ah and #af with parental consent1 and #ba and #ah without it4 7b7 ,effect4--,this impediment is of ecclesiastical law in so far as the precise determination of age is concerned1 but of natural law in so far as the use of reason is demanded4 ,hence1 the ,church may dispense1 and hence also the impediment as ecclesiastical does not bind the unbaptized1 even when being underaged they marry ,christians4 #bhad4 ,the ,impediment of ,impotency4--7a7 ,nature4--,impotency is the inability to exercise the sexual act in a way suitable for procreation4 ,the requisites for this act are immissio membri virilis in vaginam mulieris cum seminis effusione1 and hence those are impotent who lack sexual organs 7such as the emasculated or spayed71 or who on account of psychical or physical abnormalities are unable to have complete intercourse 7e4g41 anaphrodisiacs1 some hermaphrodites1 those who suffer from hypospadias1 vaginism1 etc474 ,sterility1 or the mere inability to procreate from sexual intercourse 7as in old persons71 is not the same thing as impotency1 and is not an impediment to marriage4 ,authorities are not agreed whether or not the operations of male vasectomy and evariotomy produce impotency or sterility4 ,but many regard the former operation as unlawful except for a most grave cause 7such as the saving of life71 since it takes away a power given by nature for the benefit of society1 exposes the individual to very serious temptations1 and opens the way to terrible abuses4 7b7 ,effect4--,impotency anterior to marriage and perpetual1 whether in the man or in the woman1 whether known to the other party or not1 voids marriage from the law of nature itself1 and hence is not dispensable4 ,but impotency that arises after marriage or that is only temporary does not invalidate1 and impotency that is relative 7i4e41 in reference to one person only7 does not nullify marriage except in reference to a determinate person4 ,in justice to the other spouse1 married persons who have an easily curable impotency should have this defect removed4 #bhae4 ,the ,impediments of ,orders and ,vows4--7a7 ,orders4--,those who are in ,sacred ,orders 7priesthood1 deaconship and1 in the ,latin ,church1 subdeaconship7 cannot marry validly4 ,the impediment is decreed by ecclesiastical law alone1 and hence the ,church has the power to dispense4 ,one who was ordained through compulsion or in ignorance of the duty of celibacy1 is permitted to marry1 if he does not wish to ratify his ordination2 but he then loses all right to exercise his ,order 7#bbce74 7b7 ,vows4--,professed religious with solemn vows or simple vows that annul marriage cannot marry validly4 ,it is more probable that this impediment1 in so far as solemn vows are concerned1 is of divine right2 but the ,pope1 as the ,vicar of ,christ1 is able to dispense 7see #baid1 #bbcd1 #bbce1 #aghg e74 #bhaf4 ,the ,impediment of ,bond4--7a7 ,a person who is already validly married cannot marry again until the bond of the existing marriage is removed by the death of the other spouse or by dissolution4 ,an exception is the case of the ,pauline ,privilege2 but even then the bond of the first marriage remains till the second is contracted 7see #bghg e74 7b7 ,this impediment is of natural and divine law1 and it binds all men1 the unbaptized as well as the baptized4 ,no dispensation can be granted from the impediment as long as it continues2 and moreover those who would contract a second marriage must offer proof that the bond of the first marriage was non-existent1 or that it has ceased4 ,nullity of a previous marriage must be established by canonical process 7,canons #aihf sqq472 dissolution of an unconsummated marriage through vow or ,papal dispensation is proved sufficiently by an authentic document2 cessation of bond through death of consort must be demonstrated with moral certainty1 if it is not manifest 7see #bhjc74 ,the procedure to be observed in cases of the ,pauline ,privilege is explained by commentaries on ,canons #aabj sqq4 of the ,code4 #bhag4 ,the ,impediment of ,disparity of ,cult4--7a7 ,a marriage of a ,catholic 7i4e41 of a person baptized in or converted to the ,catholic ,church7 with an unbaptized person is null and void4 ,this impediment bars the marriage of a professed ex-,catholic with an infidel1 but not the marriage of a non-,catholic with an infidel2 and by infidel is understood here not only a non-,christian 7such as a ,jew71 but also a ,christian unbaptized or invalidly baptized4 ,a person accidentally baptized by a ,catholic is not considered a ,catholic if born of heretical or schismatical parents and reared by them in their sect4 7b7 ,this impediment as prohibitive is of divine ordinance1 for the same reasons as in the case of mixed marriages 7see #bhjf c73 8,bear not the yoke with unbelievers0 7,,ii ,cor41 vi4 #ad74 ,but neither natural nor divine law nullifies such a marriage with unbelievers2 for the substantial ends of marriage 7i4e41 procreation and education of children7 can be had even in such unions1 and very holy personages have contracted marriage even with pagans 7e4g41 ,jacob with the daughters of ,laban1 ,joseph with the daughter of ,putiphar1 ,moses with the daughter of ,jethro1 ,esther with ,assuerus1 ,st4 ,cecilia with ,valerian1 ,st4 ,monica with ,patricius1 ,st4 ,clotilda with ,clovis1 etc474 ,the ,church1 however1 has made disparity of cult a diriment impediment on account of the special danger1 and it grants no dispensation unless the precautions decreed for mixed marriages be observed 7see #hbd1 #bhjg74 #bhah4 ,the ,impediments of ,kinship4--7a7 ,consanguinity4--,marriage is null when contracted between blood relatives1 that is1 persons descended from one another or from one common ancestor within certain limits4 ,in the direct line consanguinity invalidates marriage between all ascendants and descendants1 legitimate or natural1 that is1 between a man and all his female ancestry 7mother1 grandmother1 etc47 and posterity 7daughter1 etc471 and between a woman and all her male ancestors and posterity4 ,in the collateral line it invalidates to the third degree inclusively1 that is1 between a man and a woman whose parents are related as first cousins or even more closely4 ,the degree of consanguinity between this man and woman is first1 second or third1 according as one1 two or three generations separate them 7i4e41 both or the one farthest removed7 from the nearest ancestor of both 7see ,canons #if and #ajgf74 ,consanguinity is multiplied when two parties are descended from several common stocks4 ,this impediment is of the natural law as regards the first1 and probably all the other degrees of the direct line2 for reverence due to parents forbids one to marry them4 ,marriage between brother and sister is not opposed to the absolute or primary law of nature1 but to the relative or secondary law 7see #cjc72 for natural inclination teaches that it is unbecoming for members of the same family to intermarry1 and further the children of their unions are very apt to be weakly or defective4 ,in other degrees consanguinity is an impediment of church law only1 and may be dispensed for a good reason1 but a more serious reason is necessary for nearer relationship4 7b7 ,affinity4--,marriage is null when contracted between relatives-in-law1 or those who are kin by valid1 even though unconsummated1 marriage4 ,but the impediment exists only between the husband and his wife's blood relatives1 and vice versa4 ,in the direct line it includes all degrees2 in the collateral line it extends to the second degree inclusive4 ,hence1 a widower is impeded from marrying all the lineal relatives of his deceased wife 7her mother1 grandmother1 daughter1 granddaughter1 etc471 and the following of her collateral relatives3 her sisters1 her aunts1 her nieces1 her first cousins4 ,affinity is multiplied by multiplication of the consanguinity on which it is based 7e4g41 when a woman is doubly related to one's deceased wife71 and by successive marriages 7e4g41 when a woman is the sister of a man's two deceased wives74 ,the impediment of affinity is justified by moral reasons--by the mutual reverence that should exist between those who are closely related by marriage1 by the dangers to which their relationship would be exposed if they were able to marry1 and by the good of society1 which is promoted when marriage is not confined within to narrow a circle4 ,but the impediment is entirely ecclesiastical1 for the ,church can dispense in all degrees1 and the relationship is only an imperfect copy of consanguinity4 7c7 ,public ,decency4--,this impediment1 also known as quasi-affinity1 arises from an invalid1 even though unconsummated1 marriage1 and from public or notorious concubinage2 and it annuls marriage in the first and second degrees of the direct line between the man and the blood relatives of the woman1 and vice versa4 ,the reason for the impediment is the unbecomingness of marriage with the near relatives 7i4e41 the mother1 daughter1 grandmother1 granddaughter of the woman1 and the father1 son1 grandfather1 grandson of the man7 of a person with whom one has lived in putative marriage or concubinage4 ,the impediment is less strict than that of affinity1 and is of ecclesiastical law only4 7d7 ,spiritual ,relationship4--,this impediment nullifies marriage between a baptized person and the person who baptized him or her or who stood for him or her in ,baptism4 ,the minister and the sponsor contract a relationship of spiritual parenthood to the baptized person1 since ,baptism is a supernatural birth and the godparents are charged with the religious welfare of the godchild4 ,reasons of respect and of intimate relationship make marriage between such persons unbecoming1 and hence the ,church from early times has ruled against it4 7e7 ,legal ,relationship4--,persons who in civil law are unable to marry one another on account of the relationship arising from legal adoption are also barred from marriage in ,canon ,law4 ,the relations between an adopted person and the members of the family into which he is adopted are so close that human lawmakers have often felt it necessary to declare adoption an impediment to marriage4 #bhai4 ,matrimonial ,impediments ,produced through ,misdeeds4--7a7 ,abduction4--,there can be no valid marriage between a man who holds a woman under restraint in order to compel her to marry him1 if she has been abducted by him or is violently detained by him in her residence or elsewhere4 ,if the woman who has been carried away or who is held against her will marries unwillingly1 the marriage is invalid according to natural law2 if she marries willingly1 the marriage is invalid from church law4 ,hence the impediment of abduction is of positive law only and does not oblige infidels 7see ,canon #ajfd74 7b7 ,crime4--,there can be no valid marriage between the following3 those who during a legitimate marriage have consummated adultery together and have mutually promised future marriage or have attempted marriage1 even though only civilly 7,canon #ajge72 those who during the same lawful marriage have consummated adultery together1 and of whom one has committed conjugicide2 those who have cooperated physically or morally1 even though they are not adulterers1 to murder the spouse of one of them4 ,the purpose of this impediment is to safeguard the fidelity and rights of married persons1 and to punish those who resort to adultery or murder in the hope of a new marriage4 ,the impediment is ecclesiastical and does not affect infidels4 #bhbj4 ,duties of the ,pastor ,after the ,inquiry about ,impediments4--7a7 ,dispensation4--,if the pastor finds an impediment of natural or divine law 7e4g41 the bond of an existing marriage71 or an impediment which is never dispensed 7e4g41 consanguinity in the first degree of the collateral line1 notorious conjugicide1 when there is no danger of death71 he cannot proceed with the marriage4 ,if he discovers another impediment1 he must inquire whether or not there is sufficient reason for dispensation4 ,for the impediments of occult crime1 disparity of cult outside of mission countries1 age1 ,sacred ,orders and religious profession 7also for neglecting the form of marriage71 a grave reason is necessary to permit marriage2 but for the remaining impediments1 a less grave reason is required4 ,the usual or grave reasons for dispensation include the public good 7e4g41 peace between peoples1 prevention of serious litigations71 a great private good 7e4g41 a suitable marriage offered to a woman who on account of age or locality can hardly find another such chance71 great spiritual good 7e4g41 prevention of a mixed or civil marriage or great scandal1 termination of open concubinage71 great temporal good 7e4g41 means to support the family of a poor widow72 but other and lesser reasons sometimes suffice1 as when the woman is illegitimate1 an orphan1 deflowered1 sickly1 or homely1 or the man needs someone to take care of him or of his small children from a previous marriage1 or when the marriage has already been announced or will be of great advantage to the parents of one of the parties4 ,in case of urgent necessity or of danger of death1 the pastor and also the confessor or priest who assists at the marriage are empowered to grant certain dispensations2 in other cases dispensation can be granted only by the local ,ordinary or by the ,holy ,see4 ,the petition for a dispensation must state the facts truthfully1 but must conceal the identity of the petitioner when the impediment is occult4 ,in executing a dispensation one must observe the conditions laid down by the superior who granted it 7see commentaries on ,canons #ajdc sqq474 7b7 ,publication4--,even though it is morally certain that there is no impediment1 the banns of marriage should be proclaimed beforehand and in the place where the parties have their domicile or quasi-domicile 7or residence1 if they are vagi71 and also1 if necessary1 in other places where they have lived4 ,this is a grave duty1 since its purpose is to ensure the validity and lawfulness of marriages4 ,if it is morally certain that there is no impediment1 the ,ordinary may dispense for a good reason 7see commentaries on ,canons #ajbb sqq474 #bhba4 ,after the ,examination and ,proclamation4--7a7 ,if it is certain that there is an impediment1 the procedure will be that given in #bhbj a2 7b7 if it is doubtful whether there is a diriment impediment1 the matter should be investigated more fully1 but without defamation of the parties1 and if the doubt remains1 the question should be submitted to the ,ordinary 7see above1 #bhje b72 7c7 if no impediment1 certain or doubtful1 has been discovered1 the pastor should approve the parties for marriage4 #bhbb4 ,duties of the ,pastor as ,regards the ,religious ,instruction of the ,engaged ,couple4--7a7 ,the pastor should require those who are not confirmed to receive ,confirmation before their marriage1 if they can do this without serious inconvenience4 7b7 ,he should instruct the parties in the essentials of ,christian doctrine1 if they are ignorant in these matters 7see #ibj sqq471 and he should point out to them the nature of marriage as a contract and as a ,sacrament1 its purposes and properties1 the grace it confers and the conjugal and parental duties it imposes1 the necessity of preparing for the ,sacrament and of receiving it in the state of grace4 ,he should also speak about the impediments1 so that the couple may understand the disqualifications for a valid and lawful marriage2 but this should be done prudently1 so as not to shock the innocent or to help others to evade the law4 ,but ignorance of the ,catechism is not strictly an impediment2 and if the parties are unwilling to take instruction1 they should be married without it4 ,in a mixed marriage it is often very useful to give the non-,catholic a short course in ,catholic teaching1 and all couples who are preparing for marriage would do well to read some of the good works prepared especially for the use of engaged or newly married people4 ,the ,code requires of pastors that in their sermons they instruct the people on marriage and exhort them to avoid mixed marriages and marriages with the unworthy 7,canons #ajah1 #ajfd1 #ajfe74 #bhbc4 ,the ,pastor and the ,duties of ,engaged ,couple4--,the pastor should also inquire about duties owed by the couple to others4 7a7 ,duties to ,parents4--,he should seriously admonish minors subject to parental authority not to marry without the knowledge or against the reasonable wishes of their parents4 ,if the parents are opposed to the marriage1 the pastor should decide from the circumstances whether the opposition is justified or not2 if one parent only is unwilling1 the wishes of the father per se have preference over those of the mother1 as he is the head of the family4 ,if the engaged couple will not heed the pastor1 he is seriously bound to refuse to marry them until the case has been presented to the ,ordinary for decision 7,canon #ajcd74 7b7 ,duties to ,civil ,law4--,the ,state has no power over the ,sacrament of ,matrimony1 its bond1 or its inseparable temporal effects 7such as the rights and duties of spouses1 legitimacy of children and the like71 but it is competent in reference to merely civil effects and conditions1 which are temporal circumstances separable from the substance of marriage4 ,hence1 those who are getting married should comply with civil formalities that do not trespass on church rights1 such as registration or marriage license4 #bhbd4 ,opposition of ,parents to ,marriage4--,in deciding whether the parental opposition to a marriage is reasonable or not1 the pastor should take into consideration both the motives for the opposition and the reasons in favor of the marriage4 7a7 ,the motives for the opposition are reasonable1 if the parents object because of the undesirability of one of the couple1 or their incompatibility1 or the evil consequences that will follow the marriage4 ,a person is undesirable on account of defects of soul 7e4g41 an atheist1 a drunkard1 a libertine1 a man or woman of ill-fame1 a cruel man1 an ill-tempered woman71 or of body 7e4g41 a person who is deformed1 or malodorous1 or afflicted with syphilis or other serious disease71 or of mind 7e4g41 a half-witted person71 or of economical ability 7e4g41 a man who is a gambler or spendthrift1 or who is unable to earn a living2 a woman who is loaded with debts or who cannot take care of a home74 ,there is incompatibility when the ages of the couple or their rank in life1 their race1 their education1 their tastes1 or their dispositions are utterly different4 ,there are evil consequences when scandals1 hatreds1 disgrace1 or loss of temporal goods will ensue4 7b7 ,the reason for the marriage1 however1 may suffice to prevail over the parental objections4 ,thus1 if the strong disapproval of relatives is the only reason against a marriage and its abandonment will make the couple unhappy for life1 charity does not oblige to such a sacrifice4 ,and the temporal advantage of a family should not be preferred to the spiritual benefit1 if their son who is wild wishes to marry a poor girl who has a good influence over him rather than a wealthy girl whom he does not admire4 #bhbe4 ,religious ,duties before ,marriage4--7a7 ,confession4--,a public sinner 7e4g41 one who has been living in concubinage7 is obliged to go to confession before marriage in order to repair his scandal4 ,a sinner whose guilt is not public must repent before receiving the ,sacrament of ,matrimony1 since it is a ,sacrament of the ,living and supposes the state of grace2 but an act of contrition strictly suffices4 ,it is recommended1 however1 that all persons go to confession as a preparation and that they make a general confession4 ,the confessor should be told of any occult or incriminating impediment that was not disclosed to the pastor1 and it is therefore advisable that the confession precede the ceremony by several days1 so as to allow time for possible dispensations4 7b7 ,communion4--,it is better that ,communion be received on the day of one's marriage1 but1 if this is not convenient1 it may be received several days before or several days after4 ,there is no command as to this1 but the ,church's counsel is most earnest4 #bhbf4 ,the ,celebration of ,marriage4--7a7 ,requisites for ,validity4--,in order to be valid1 a ,catholic's marriage must be celebrated in the presence of the parish-priest or ,ordinary1 or of a priest delegated by either1 and of at least two witnesses4 ,there are two exceptions to this law1 namely1 in danger of death when the priest cannot be had and in the case of inability to appear before a priest within a month4 ,this law is most suitable1 since marriage is not a mere profane contract1 but a ,sacrament subject to the ,church2 the law is also necessary1 since secret or clandestine marriages would be impossible of proof1 and society and the family would be seriously harmed if they were permitted except in very extraordinary cases4 7b7 ,requisites for ,lawfulness4--,the pastor assists lawfully at a marriage if he has assured himself of the freedom of the parties to marry and of his own right to assist officially at their marriage4 ,the pastor has the right to witness a marriage when the parties are his subjects by reason of their location in his parish1 or when he has permission from their pastor or ,ordinary to assist at the nuptials4 ,when the bride is from one parish and the groom from another1 the rule is that the marriage should be held before the bride's pastor 7,canons #ajid sqq47 #bhbg4 ,the ,rite of ,marriage4--7a7 ,the essential rite consists in the words of consent spoken by the bride and groom4 ,the assisting priest asks for this consent1 and then 7except in a mixed marriage7 blesses the newly married pair and the ring4 ,marriage by sign language or through an interpreter or proxy is not lawful without special permission1 and marriage by letter is not recognized 7,canons #ajhh sqq474 7b7 ,the accidental rite is the nuptial blessing bestowed during the ,nuptial ,mass that follows on the marriage4 ,this is omitted in mixed marriages1 and also as a rule during ,advent and ,lent4 ,the place for marriage is regularly in the parish church1 if it is a ,catholic marriage1 but outside the church if it is a mixed marriage 7see ,canons #aajj sqq474 ,the ,ordinary may dispense from the requirements of place 7,canon #aaji74 #bhbh4 ,cooperation in an ,unworthy ,marriage4--7a7 ,the ,priest4--,the clergyman acts as the official representative of the ,church1 and hence only a serious reason will permit his assistance when the unworthiness of one of the parties is known to him in an extra-confessional way4 ,a serious reason would be a threat of bodily harm to the priest or great spiritual detriment to the parties1 such as their continuance in the state of sin4 ,a more serious reason is required if one of the parties is an excommunicatus vitandus4 ,finally1 at times only passive assistance is permitted1 as in certain mixed marriages in which the non-,catholic refuses to give guarantees1 but there is greater danger of perversion without than with the assistance 7see #bfgg sqq474 7b7 ,the ,spouses4--,the bride and groom are the ministers as well as the recipients of ,matrimony1 and hence1 if one of the parties knows that the other is not in the state of grace1 there is an administration of a ,sacrament to an unworthy recipient4 ,but only charity would bid one to deny the ,sacrament to that other party1 if one could not induce him to dispose himself1 and charity does not oblige with great inconvenience4 ,hence the worthy party1 if he or she has a suitable reason for marrying1 does not sin by reason of the other party's unworthiness4 7c7 ,the ,witnesses4--,the cooperation of the witnesses is less than that of the priest and of the worthy party1 and hence only in an extraordinary case do the witnesses sin by assisting at a marriage contracted before the ,church4 ,they may presume that all is well1 if the pastor has agreed to the marriage2 and even though they are certain that the bride or groom is in mortal sin1 the fear of incurring displeasure or harm will ordinarily excuse the best man or bridesmaid from all sin1 or at least from grave sin4 #bhbi4 ,registration of ,marriages4--,the ,code requires that marriages be recorded in the matrimonial and baptismal registers1 and that notification be sent to the pastors of the parishes where the bride and the groom were baptized4 ,this duty seems to be grave1 since its end is to provide for stable conditions and secure proof of freedom to marry4 ,the entries should be made without delay 7i4e41 within three days at least71 lest they be overlooked or be made incorrectly 7,canon #aajc74 #bhcj4 ,when an ,impediment ,is ,discovered after ,marriage4--,a diriment impediment or other invalidating defect is sometimes discovered after the celebration of marriage4 ,there are various solutions of this difficulty4 7a7 ,if the marriage can be validated 7or made valid71 this should be done4 ,the manner of simple validation of marriages null on account of diriment impediment1 defective consent or lack of form1 is declared in ,canons #aacc-aacg4 7b7 ,if the marriage cannot be validated simply1 it may be made valid in certain cases by the special validation known as a sanatio in radice4 ,this supposes that a consent naturally sufficient1 but juridically insufficient1 was given1 and that a renewal of consent cannot be obtained 7see ,canons #aach-aada74 7c7 ,if marriage cannot be validated in any way 7as in the case of an indispensable impediment71 the parties should be separated1 or permitted to live together as brother and sister1 or left in good faith4 ,thus1 if the nullity of the marriage is public1 the parties should be separated after a declaration of nullity2 if the nullity is secret and unprovable1 the parties may be permitted to live together as brother and sister1 if they know the marriage is null1 but are not exposed to the danger of incontinence2 if the parties are in good faith about their marriage and it is foreseen that serious evils would result were they told the truth 7such as bad faith1 or misfortunes for the children71 they may be left as they are4 #bhca4 ,the ,lawfulness of ,divorce and ,separation4--7a7 ,complete divorce1 or dissolution of the bond with the right to remarry during the lifetime of the other spouse1 is never lawful1 except in the cases mentioned in #bghg e4 ,moreover1 the civil lawgiver has no right ever to dissolve the marriage tie1 for the marriage bond of ,christians is sacramental and not subject to the ,state1 while the marriage bond of non-,christians is indissoluble by human authority4 ,on the death of one spouse1 however1 the survivor is free to marry again1 though chaste widowhood is more honorable4 7b7 ,incomplete divorce1 or separation from bed and board1 is allowed permanently to the innocent spouse in case of adultery1 and temporarily when there are other good reasons4 ,thus1 if one of the parties becomes an apostate1 or gives non-,catholic education to the children1 or leads a criminal or disgraceful life1 or makes common life too hard by his cruelty1 or endangers the other party in soul or body1 the innocent spouse may separate after appealing to the ,ordinary1 or may depart on his or her own authority1 if the facts are certain and there is danger in delay 7,canons #aaah sqq474 ,with permission one may even seek a civil divorce1 if it is a separation only1 in order to be free as regards civil effects of marriage 7#aiej74 ,,appendix ,i ,,summary ,,of ,,common ,,law ,,on ,,prohibition ,,of ,,books 7,holy ,office1 #ag ,apr41 #aidc7 placed at end of ,volume ,i1 after section #afbe1 in print edition ,seeing that delays and omissions in denouncing the books frequently occur1 and that many of the faithful are in a state of deplorable ignorance regarding the denunciation and prohibition of harmful books1 the ,supreme ,sacred ,congregation of the ,holy ,office deems it appropriate to call to mind the principal provisions of the sacred canons on this subject2 for it is beyond doubt that bad or harmful writings expose purity of faith1 integrity of morals1 and the very salvation of souls to the greatest dangers4 ,certainly the ,holy ,see cannot by itself1 with adequate care and in due time1 prohibit the numberless writings against faith and morals which1 especially in our time1 are being published almost daily in various languages all over the world4 ,hence it is necessary that the ,ordinaries of places1 whose business it is to preserve sound and orthodox doctrine and to protect good morals 7,c1 #cdc1 ,sec4#a71 should1 either personally or through suitable priests1 be watchful as to the books which are published or sold in their territory 7,c4 #acig1 ,sec4#d71 and forbid to their subjects those which they judge should be condemned 7,c4 #acie1 ,a,sec4#a74 ,the right and duty to forbid books for just cause belongs also to an ,abbot of an independent monastery and to the ,superior ,general of a clerical exempt ,institute acting with his ,chapter or ,council2 nay1 in case of urgency1 it belongs also to the other ,major ,superiors with their proper ,council1 it being understood1 however1 that these must as soon as possible report the matter to the ,superior ,general 7,c4 #acie1 ,sec4#c74 ,nevertheless1 books which require a more expert scrutiny1 or in regard to which1 for salutary results1 the judgment of the supreme authority seems to be required1 should be referred by the ,ordinaries to the judgment of the ,holy ,see 7,c4 #acig1 ,sec4#e74 ,it is1 of course1 the duty of all the faithful1 and especially of clerics1 to denounce pernicious books to the proper authority2 but this duty is especially incumbent on clerics who have some ecclesiastical dignity1 such as the ,legates of the ,holy ,see and the ,ordinaries of places1 and on those who are eminent in doctrine1 as for example the ,rectors and ,professors of ,catholic ,universities4 ,the denunciation is to be made either to this ,congregation of the ,holy ,office or to the ,ordinary of the place1 giving by all means the reason why it is thought the book should be forbidden4 ,the persons to whom such a report is made have a strict duty to keep secret the names of those who make it 7,c4 #acig1 ,sec4#a1 #b1 #c74 ,finally1 ,ordinaries of places and others who have the care of souls should duly inform the faithful of the following3 a7 ,the prohibition of books has the effect that1 unless due permission is obtained1 the forbidden book may not be published1 nor republished 7without making the corrections and obtaining due approbation71 nor read1 nor retained1 nor sold1 nor translated into another language1 nor in any way communicated to other persons 7,c4 #acih1 ,sec4#a1 #b72 b7 ,books condemned by the ,holy ,see are considered as forbidden everywhere and in whatever language they may be translated 7,c4 #acif72 c7 ,the positive ecclesiastical law forbids not only those books which are individually condemned by a special decree of the ,holy ,see and placed on the ,index of ,forbidden ,books1 or which are proscribed by particular ,councils or ,ordinaries for their subjects1 but also the books which are forbidden by the common law itself1 that is1 in virtue of the rules contained in ,canon #acii1 which forbids in a general manner nearly all books which are bad and harmful in themselves2 d7 ,the natural law forbids the reading of any book which occasions proximate spiritual danger1 since it forbids anyone to place himself in danger of losing the true faith or good morals2 accordingly1 permission to use forbidden books1 from whomsoever it be obtained1 in no way exempts from this prohibition of the natural law 7,c4 #adje1 ,sec4#a74 ,,appendix ,,ii ,the 8,ecumenical ,movement0 placed at end of ,volume ,i1 after the preceding ,appendix1 in print edition ,on ,december #bj1 #aidi the ,holy ,office issued an instruction on the 8,ecumenical ,movement0 addressed to all local ,ordinaries4 ,in its prefatory remarks the ,instruction insisted upon the ,church's intense interest to attain to the full and perfect unity of the ,church4 ,it noted as an occasion of joy the desire of many separated from the ,church to return to the unity of ,christ's fold1 a good intention1 indeed1 which1 however1 in being put into practice has not been regulated by right principles4 ,accordingly the ,holy ,office prescribed that local ,ordinaries maintain due vigilance over the associations seeking ,church ,unity1 that they designate well-qualified priests to pay close attention to everything which concerns the 8,movement10 and that they supervise publications on this matter by ,catholics or by non-,catholics1 in as far as these are published1 or read1 or sold by ,catholics4 ,the manner and method of proceeding in this work is to be regulated by the ,ordinaries1 who are cautioned to prevent the growth of indifference to ,catholic truth and fallacious hopes of unity based upon false or impossible foundations4 ,with regard to mixed assemblies of ,catholics and non-,catholics1 when there seems to be hope of spreading knowledge of ,catholic doctrine1 the ,ordinary is instructed to designate well-qualified priests1 to explain and defend the ,church's teaching4 ,special permission1 however1 must be obtained from ,ecclesiastical ,authority if ,catholic laymen are to attend4 ,where no hope of good results exists1 the meetings are to be ended or gradually suppressed4 ,the following specific instructions are given for the conduct of 8,ecumenical meetings40 ,all the aforesaid conferences and meetings1 public and non-public1 large and small1 which are called for the purpose of affording an opportunity for the ,catholic and the non-,catholic party1 for the sake of discussion1 to treat of matters of faith and morals1 each presenting on even terms the doctrine of his own faith1 are subject to the prescriptions of the ,church which were recalled to mind in the ,monitum1 8,cum compertum0 of this ,congregation under date of #e ,june1 #aidh4 ,hence1 mixed congresses are not absolutely forbidden2 but they are not to be held without the previous permission of the competent ,ecclesiastical ,authority4 ,the ,monitum1 however1 does not apply to catechetical instructions1 even when given to many together1 nor to conferences in which ,catholic doctrine is explained to non-,catholics who are prospective converts1 even though the opportunity is afforded for the non-,catholics to explain also the doctrine of their church so that they may understand clearly and thoroughly in what respect it agrees with the ,catholic doctrine and in what it differs therefrom4 ,neither does the said ,monitum apply to those mixed meetings of ,catholics and non-,catholics in which the discussion does not turn upon faith and morals1 but upon ways and means of defending the fundamental principles of the natural law or of the ,christian religion against the enemies of ,god who are now leagued together1 or where the question is how to restore social order1 or other topics of that nature4 ,even in these meetings1 as is evident1 ,catholics may not approve or concede anything which is in conflict with divine revelation or with the doctrine of the ,church even on social questions4 ,as to local conferences and conventions which are within the scope of the ,monitum as above explained1 the ,ordinaries of places are given1 for three years from the publication of this ,instruction1 the faculty of granting the required previous permission of the ,holy ,see on the following conditions3 #a4 ,that communicatio in sacris be entirely avoided2 #b1 ,that the presentations of the matter be duly inspected and directed2 #c4 ,that at the close of each year a report be made to this ,supreme ,sacred ,congregation1 stating where such meetings were held and what experience was gathered from them4 #d4 ,as regards the colloquies of theologians above mentioned1 the same faculty for the same length of time is granted to the ,ordinary of the place where such colloquies are held1 or to the ,ordinary delegated for this work by the common consent of the other ,ordinaries1 under the same conditions as above1 but with the further requirement that the report to this ,sacred ,congregation state also what questions were treated1 who were present1 and who the speakers were for either side4 ,as for the interdiocesan conferences and congresses1 either national or international1 the previous permission of the ,holy ,see1 special for each case1 is always required2 and1 in the petition asking for it1 must also be stated what are the questions to be treated and who the speakers are to be4 ,and it is not allowed1 before this permission has been obtained1 to begin the external preparation of such meetings or to collaborate with non-,catholics who begin such preparation4 #e4 ,although in all these meetings and conferences any communication whatsoever in worship must be avoided1 yet the recitation in common of the ,lord's ,prayer or of some prayer approved by the ,catholic ,church1 is not forbidden for opening or closing the said meetings4 #f4 ,although each ,ordinary has the right and duty to conduct1 promote1 and preside over this work in his own diocese1 yet the cooperation of several ,bishops will be appropriate or even necessary in establishing offices and works to observe1 study1 and control this work as a whole4 ,accordingly it will rest with the ,ordinaries themselves to confer together and consider how a proper uniformity of action and coordination can be obtained4 #g4 ,religious ,superiors are bound to watch and to see to it that their subjects adhere strictly and faithfully to the prescriptions laid down by the ,holy ,see or by the local ,ordinaries in this matter4 ,in order that so noble a work as the 8union0 of all ,christians in one true faith and ,church may daily grow into a more conspicuous part of the entire care of souls1 and that the whole ,catholic people may more earnestly implore this 8union0 from ,almighty ,god1 it will certainly be of assistance that in some appropriate way1 for example through ,pastoral ,letters1 the faithful be instructed regarding these questions and projects1 the prescriptions of the ,church in the matter1 and the reasons on which they are based4 ,all1 especially priests and religious1 should be exhorted and warmly encouraged to be zealous by their prayers and sacrifices to ripen and promote this work1 and all should be reminded that nothing more effectively paves the way for the erring to find the truth and to embrace the ,church than the faith of ,catholics1 when it is confirmed by the example of upright living4 ,,index ,,to ,,volumes ,i-,,ii ,the numbers refer to the sections in the text4 ,nos4 #a-afbe are contained in ,volume ,i of the print edition4 ,abjectedness1 definition1 #befa4 ,abnormal ,mental ,states1 as obstacles to voluntariness of acts1 #dj1 #ee2 effect on voluntariness of acts1 #ee4 ,abortion1 canonical penalties for1 #ahea a4 ,absolute ,standard1 in grave matter1 #ahii4 ,abstemiousness1 subjective part of temperance1 #bdfe a2 definition1 #bdff2 degrees of abstemiousness1 #bdfg a2 austerity1 #bdfh2 excellence of fasting and abstinence1 #bdfi a2 sins opposed to abstemiousness1 #bdgj a4 ,see also ,gluttony2 ,sobriety4 ,abstinence1 excellence of1 #bdfi a4 ,abstinence1 ,total1 see ,sobriety4 ,accession1 title to private ownership1 #ahgb a2 principles of accession1 #ahgd4 ,accusation1 ,judicial1 obligation1 #aiff2 when a malefactor is bound to accuse himself1 #aifh2 ethical conditions for lawful accusation or denunciation1 #aifi2 persons who may not act as accusers1 #aigj2 judicial accusation and fraternal correction1 #aigb2 unjust accusation1 #aigc2 cessation of duty of accusation1 #agid4 ,see also ,complaint4 ,accused1 see ,defendant4 ,act1 ,virtuous1 intrinsic and extrinsic modes of performing1 #aeed2 essential and ideal modes1 #aeee4 ,acts1 ,human1 #bb-fb2 definition1 #bc2 knowledge requisite for1 #bd2 ignorance renders them involuntary1 #bh2 effect of error1 forgetfulness and inadvertence on1 #cb-cc2 consent requisite for1 #cd2 free and necessary1 #ce a2 perfectly and imperfectly voluntary1 #ce b2 voluntary absolutely and under a certain aspect1 #ce c2 voluntary in themselves or directly and in their cause or indirectly1 #ce d2 voluntary1 approvingly and permissively1 #cf2 omissions1 #cg-ci2 obstacles which destroy or lessen voluntariness1 #dj sqq42 voluntary acts either elicited or commanded by the will1 #ef-fb2 intellectual1 #fa-fb2 sensible1 #fa-fb2 external corporal1 #fa-fb2 morality of1 #fc sqq42 acts forbidden to clerics1 #bfjc a4 ,acts1 ,meritorious1 #ajf sqq4 ,acts1 ,moral1 #fc sqq42 good1 #gf-gh2 bad1 #gi-hj2 indifferent1 #hb sqq42 morality of external act1 #hi sqq42 morality of act indirectly willed1 #id-ie2 morality of consequences of act1 #if1 imputability1 #ig sqq12 imputability in cases of double result1 #ajc sqq42 acts that are objectively efficaciously and subjectively unjust1 #agfc a1 b1 c4 ,see also ,acts1 ,meritorious4 ,acts of ,charity1 see ,charity4 ,acts of ,faith1 see ,faith4 ,acts of ,hope1 see ,hope4 ,acts1 ,voluntary1 #ce-ci4 ,see also ,acts1 ,human4 ,adjuration1 definition1 #bbfc2 species of adjuration1 #bbfd2 solemn or simple adjuration1 #bbfd a2 imperative or deprecative adjuration1 #bbfd b2 qualities of lawful adjuration1 #bbfe2 persons who may be adjured1 #bbff2 use of exorcisms1 #bbfg2 effects of adjurations1 #bbfh4 ,adoration1 see ,religion4 ,adornment1 when lascivious1 #adef b4 ,adulation1 sin against affability1 #bdbc a4 ,adultery1 definition1 #becj2 sinfulness of adultery1 #becj b2 degrees of malice1 #becj c4 ,advertence1 full and partial1 #agd sqq41 #aec1 #aif4 ,advisor1 implicit1 #aggi c4 ,aeromancy1 form of divination1 #bbhd ,g4 ,affability1 virtue of1 #badc b2 definition1 #bdba2 offices of affability1 #bdbb2 sins against affability1 #bdbc4 ,affectation1 vice opposite to modesty1 #beff b4 ,afflictions1 ,medicinal1 as remedies against sin1 #bhc4 ,agapae1 in ,early ,church1 #bahe a4 ,age of ,reason1 ,puberty and ,majority1 #dcc4 ,agency1 #agdi a4 ,aggression1 ,unjust1 #ahca4 ,albigensianism1 #hbb c4 ,almsgiving1 external effect of charity1 #abaj2 definition1 #abaf2 manner of giving1 #abag2 forms of almsgiving1 #abah2 seven corporal works of mercy1 #abba2 seven spiritual1 #abbb2 comparison of corporal and spiritual alms1 #abbd2 duty of almsgiving1 #abbf sqq42 three classes of needy persons distinguished1 #abcc2 three degrees of corporal need1 #abcf2 rules on giving alms1 #abcg2 gravity of the obligation1 #abch2 refusal of alms and restitution1 #abdj2 alms from ill-gotten goods1 #abda sqq42 almsgiving from the goods of another1 #abdd-abdf2 order of charity in almsgiving1 #abdg2 amount to be given1 #abdi1 #abec2 employment as alms1 #abdi b2 when alms are excessive1 #abej2 clerics and almsgiving1 #abeb2 time for almsgiving1 #abee2 manner1 #abef2 public charity cannot take the place of almsgiving1 #abeg4 ,alphonsus ,liguori1 ,saint1 preference for ,equiprobabilism1 #fif1 #fig1 #fih2 on obligation of judge when evidence is contrary to his personal knowledge1 #aiea c4 ,ambiguous ,answers1 lawfulness of1 #bdjb4 ,ambition1 as incentive to envy1 #accj2 vice against greatness of soul1 #bdej b4 ,amendment1 ,resolution of1 #bgcf4 ,american ,law on ,bankruptcy1 #aghh4 ,amusements1 forbidden to ,clerics1 #bfjc c4 ,anarchists1 condemned by ,church1 #idg b4 ,anger1 #bfi2 immediate cause of fighting1 #adca2 a cause of contumely1 #bjag c2 definition1 #bedf2 gravity of the sin of anger1 #bedg2 anger compared with hatred and envy1 #bedh2 one of the seven capital vices1 #bedi4 ,annuities1 #agdi b4 ,anti-,nationalism1 sin against piety1 #bcdi b4 ,anti-,tutiorism1 #fgb b4 ,apology1 as reparation for contumely1 #bjbc b2 manner of apologizing1 #bjbd4 ,apostasy1 definition1 #hce2 comparative gravity of sins of apostasy1 #hcg2 objectively speaking1 no reason can justify apostasy1 #hch2 apostasy to non-,catholic and anti-,catholic sects1 #hci4 ,appeal1 right of accused1 #aihb4 ,appetites1 ,sensible1 #df4 ,appetites1 ,sensitive1 as subject of sin1 #bca4 ,appetites1 ,spiritual1 #df4 ,arianism1 #hbb c4 ,art1 intellectual virtue1 #adf b2 one of the two practical virtues of intellect1 #afbg a4 ,assent1 ,external and ,internal1 #gfj a1 b2 objects1 #gfa d4 ,assistant ,priest1 special duties of1 #bfjg c4 ,astrology1 a form of divination1 #bbhe c4 ,astuteness1 a form of evil prudence1 #afea a4 ,attrition1 see ,contrition4 ,augury1 a form of divination1 #bbhe d4 ,auspice1 a form of divination1 #bbhe d4 ,austerity1 nature and kinds1 #bdfh4 ,authority1 can supply indirect certitude1 #feb2 kind necessary to make opinion solidly probable1 #gjg4 ,avarice1 #bfi2 opposed to liberality1 #bdbf2 comparison of avarice and prodigality1 #bdbi4 ,backbiting1 see ,defamation4 ,bailments1 #agdi4 ,bankruptcy in ,american ,law1 #aghh4 ,baptism1 ,sacrament of1 faith necessary for adult candidate1 #gia2 the most necessary ,sacrament1 #bfhf2 effect is regeneration1 #bfhf a2 material element of ,baptism1 #bfhf b2 formal element1 #bfhf c2 ,solemn ,baptism1 #bfcg a2 ,private ,baptism1 #bfhg b2 duties of pastors1 #bfhh2 duties of parents and guardians1 #bfhi2 sponsors required by ,church from very early times1 #bfij2 requirements for validity and lawfulness of sponsors1 #bfij a1 b2 duties of sponsors1 #bfia2 duties of adult recipients of ,baptism1 #bfib2 duties of minister of ,baptism1 #bfic4 ,barter1 #agdi c4 ,beatitudes1 #aei c1 #afd1 #affb2 rewards promised1 #afe2 ,third1 #haa2 ,first1 #ajeh2 ,seventh1 #afai2 ,sixth1 #affb2 ,fourth and ,fifth1 #bdcc2 ,eighth1 #bdeg2 ,second1 #bega4 ,beneficence1 external effect of charity1 #abaa sqq42 regulated by the order of charity1 #abac-ae2 sins against1 #addd sqq4 ,see ,scandal2 ,obscenity2 ,seduction2 ,cooperation4 ,benefices1 ,ecclesiastical1 #ageh2 institution of benefices1 #bahe h4 ,bestiality1 form of impurity1 #becd d4 ,betrothal1 duties of persons engaged to marry1 #bfbg2 duties imposed by engagement to marry1 #bfbh2 courtship1 #bfbh2 duty to manifest defects1 #bfbh b2 fidelity during the engagement1 #bfbh c2 right to manifest affection1 #bfbh c2 formal promise to marry imposes duty of marriage within a reasonable time1 #bfbh d2 breaking of engagement1 #bfbh d2 duty of restitution in breach of promise1 #bfbh d2 signs of affection between engaged persons1 #bfbi4 ,bills1 unjust refusal to pay1 #agid4 ,birth-,control1 see ,matrimony1 ,sacrament of4 ,bishop1 interpreter of diocesan laws1 #dhf2 special duties1 #bfjg a4 ,blackstone1 on purely penal character of civil laws1 #egj b4 ,blasphemy1 ,sin of1 #hhg sqq42 heretical and non-heretical1 #hhi2 interpreting cases of doubtful blasphemy1 #hid2 sinfulness of blasphemy1 #hie2 the greatest sin against faith1 #hie b2 species of blasphemy1 #hig2 circumstances which aggravate1 #hig d2 blasphemies against the ,three ,divine ,persons1 #hih2 despair and presumption as blasphemy1 #hii a2 sin against ,holy ,ghost1 #ijj2 state of malicious sin1 #ija2 remedies against blasphemy1 #ijb2 absolution1 #ijc4 ,blessed ,sacrament1 ,confraternities of1 #iee a4 ,bluntness1 vice opposite to modesty1 #beff b4 ,bonaventure1 ,saint1 on obligation of judge when evidence is contrary to his personal knowledge1 #aiea c4 ,bond1 definition of1 #ahhf a4 ,bonds1 purchase by clerics1 #bfje e4 ,books1 when obscene1 #adef e2 forbidden1 see ,writings1 ,forbidden4 ,booty1 obligation to make restitution1 #adad4 ,borrowing1 ,sinful1 #ahgi b4 ,brahmanism1 #hbb a4 ,breach of ,promise1 damages resultant on1 #ahhh a4 ,bribery1 ,judicial1 see ,judge4 ,broth1 use forbidden on ,friday1 #behf c4 ,buddhism1 #hbb a4 ,buying and ,selling1 #agdi b4 ,calumny1 definition1 #bjcj e2 worst kind of defamation1 #bjcb d4 ,see also ,defamation4 ,candidates for ,public ,office1 lawfulness of revelations about1 #bjga4 ,capital ,vices1 ,seven1 #bfi sqq4 ,carbonari1 forbidden by ,church1 #idg h4 ,cardinal ,virtues1 #aej4 ,see also ,prudence2 ,justice2 ,fortitude2 ,temperance4 ,carelessness1 caused by sloth1 #acbd1 #acbf c1 #acbg4 ,casuistic ,method1 in ,moral ,theology1 #ac4 ,catholic ,daughters of ,america1 #iee b4 ,caution1 integral part of prudence1 #ajh b4 ,celibacy1 origin and obligation1 #bfjb a4 ,censorship1 ,government1 not desirable1 #adeh e4 ,censures1 by the ,church1 #gfa c4 ,ceremonial ,law1 see ,law1 ,mosaic4 ,certainty1 of knowledge1 #afcj2 certainty of practical truth1 #afcj4 ,certitude1 necessary for prudence1 #afcj4 ,certitude of ,conscience1 necessity1 #fda-fdb2 kinds1 #fdc sqq42 metaphysical1 physical and moral1 #fdd sqq42 speculative and practical1 #fdg2 demonstrative and probable1 #fdi2 direct and indirect1 #fea2 principle of authority and reflex principles supply indirect certitude1 #feb4 ,charity1 theological virtue of1 #aea2 compared with faith and hope1 #aeg2 remains in the blessed1 #aeh2 ,fruit of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afc2 definition1 #aaje2 charity and natural love1 #aajf sqq42 true friendship with ,god1 #aaab2 uncreated and created charity1 #aaac-aaad2 excellence of1 #aaae2 charity and beatific vision1 #aaaf2 production of charity1 #aaba2 origin1 #aabb2 may be increased1 #aabd2 perfect charity1 #aabi2 three degrees1 #aacj2 decline of charity1 #aaca2 loss of1 #aacb2 object of1 #aacc2 love of creatures not always charity1 #aacd2 sinful1 natural and supernatural self-love1 #aacf2 friendship and charity1 #aacg-aada2 love of neighbor1 #aaci2 charity for sinners1 #aadb-aadg2 for enemies1 #aadh sqq42 common signs of charity1 #aaed2 refusal of greeting a lack of charity1 #aaeg2 general order of charity1 #aaeh2 character of love of ,god1 #aafj sqq42 sacrifice of spiritual goods for neighbor's sake1 #aafc2 love of the body1 #aafd2 order of charity between neighbors1 #aaga sqq42 order of charity between relations1 #aagf sqq42 acts of1 #aahc sqq42 exercise of act1 #aahd2 internal effects of charity1 #aajc2 joy1 #aaid2 peace1 #aaie sqq42 reconciliation with ,god effected by charity1 #aaif2 what reconciliation with enemies demands1 #aaih2 manner and time of seeking reconciliation1 #abjb sqq42 external effects of charity1 #abaj2 beneficence 7q4v471 #abaa2 almsgiving 7q4v471 #abaf2 fraternal correction 7q4v471 #abeh sqq42 hate 7q4v471 #abie sqq42 sins against peace1 #acdg sqq42 opposition between schism and charity1 #acga2 schism greatest sin against neighbor1 #acgb2 duty of owner towards one in dire need1 #aibe a4 ,charity1 ,commandments of1 in ,old ,testament1 #aedg a2 in ,new ,testament1 #aedg b2 precepts of secondary acts of charity1 #aeea2 prohibitions of uncharitableness1 #aeeb2 commandment of love of ,god1 #aeec sqq42 modes of performing act of love of ,god1 #aeed-aeee2 must be subjectively and objectively great1 #aeef2 actual and habitual1 #aeeg2 degrees of perfection of this act1 #aefj2 commandment of love of self1 #aefa2 pursuit of supernatural1 intellectual and corporal goods1 #aefc-aefd2 care of the mind1 #aefd2 commandment of love of neighbor1 #aegi sqq42 conditions1 #aehb2 fulfillment of the commandments of charity1 #aehe sqq42 various ways of fulfillment1 #aehf2 external acts must be accompanied by internal love1 #aehh2 internal act must be explicit1 #aehi2 proper intention1 #aeij2 obligation is universal1 #aeib2 times when the precepts of charity oblige1 #aeic sqq42 ignorance as excuse for omission1 #aeif2 cases when love of neighbor must be explicit1 #afjc2 necessity of habit of charity1 #afjd2 order of charity is also commanded1 #afjf4 ,chastity1 ,fruit of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afc2 subjective part of temperance1 #bdfe a2 definition of chastity1 #bdhf2 fruit of ,fear of the ,lord1 #bega c2 vow and virtue of chastity1 #bfab b4 ,chauvinism1 sin against piety1 #bcdi a4 ,children1 compensation of1 #bfca2 sex education of children1 #bfcb2 duties of children1 charity and piety1 #bfcc2 special love of parents1 #bfcc a2 respect and assistance owed to parents1 #bfcc b4 ,chiromancy1 form of divination1 #bbhe b4 ,christian ,doctrine1 ,confraternities of1 #iee a4 ,christian ,science1 #hbc b2 refusal of medicine or hygienic care1 #bcjd4 ,circumspection1 #afch b4 ,clairvoyance1 form of divination1 #bbhe a4 ,clemency1 definition1 #beea2 vices opposed to clemency1 #beeb a4 ,clergy1 duty of charity to the poor1 #bfjh a2 disposition of superfluous wealth by beneficed clergy1 #bfji a4 ,see also ,clerics4 ,clerics1 special duties of1 #beif2 duties before entering clerical state1 #beif a2 duties after entering clerical state1 #beif b2 internal vocation1 #beig a2 external vocation1 #beig b2 sinfulness of disregarding vocation1 #beih a2 positive duties of clerics1 #beii a2 obligation of ,divine ,office1 #bfjj a2 excuses from the obligation of ,divine ,office1 #bfja a2 precept of clerical celibacy1 #bfjb a2 negative duties of clerics1 #bfjc2 forbidden acts1 #bfjc a2 forbidden occupations1 #bfjc b2 forbidden amusements1 #bfjc c2 prohibition against trading1 #bfjd a2 clerics and purchase and sale of stocks and bonds1 #bfje a2 duties of clerical superiors1 #bfjf a2 special duties of those who have care of souls1 #bfjg a4 ,clients1 duties to lawyers1 #bfea b4 ,coercion1 as obstacle to consent1 #dj2 effect on voluntariness of acts1 #eb4 ,coition1 ,unnatural1 form of impurity1 #becd b4 ,commandments1 natural and supernatural1 #ccj2 of faith1 #iac sqq42 hope1 #ajib sqq42 charity1 #aedg sqq42 prudence1 #afeg2 justice1 #bdcd-bdcf2 fortitude1 #bdeh-bdfj2 temperance1 #begb4 ,commandments1 ,ten1 #bdcf sqq4 ,commodatum1 #agdi a4 ,communication1 ,dangerous1 #hhb sqq42 civil and religious communication1 #hhb2 when non-religious communication is sinful1 #hhc2 when religious communication is sinful1 #hhd2 communication in worship1 #ief sqq42 private and public1 #ief2 participation of non-,catholics in ,catholic worship1 #ieg-ieh2 restriction of this participation1 #iei2 performance of ,catholic rites by non-,catholics1 #ifj4 ,communion1 ,holy1 minister1 #bgjc2 recipient of the ,eucharist1 #bgjd2 persons who may receive ,communion1 #bgjd a2 persons who must receive ,communion1 #bgjd b2 requirements in candidates for ,first ,communion1 #bgjd b2 dispositions for worthy ,communion1 #bgje2 confession1 preparation and thanksgiving1 #bgje a2 ,rite in which ,communion may be received1 #bgje a2 dispositions of body 7,eucharistic fast and external reverence71 #bgje b2 necessary dispositions for frequent ,communion1 #bgjf a2 useful dispositions for frequent ,communion1 #bgjf b2 duties of parents1 pastors and confessors in reference to ,communion1 #bgjg4 ,see also ,eucharist1 ,holy4 ,commutations1 involuntary1 #agdh a2 voluntary1 #agdh b4 ,commutative ,justice1 see ,justice4 ,compensation1 various kinds of1 #aibg2 lawfulness of occult compensation1 #aibh2 unlawful occult compensation and restitution1 #aibi2 conditions required by commutative justice for occult compensation1 #aicj2 occult compensation in doubt of law1 #aica b2 where there is strict right to compensation1 #aicb2 where there is no right to compensation1 #aicc2 compensation of children and employees1 #aicd2 conditions required by legal justice for occult compensation1 #aice2 conditions required by charity for occult compensation1 #aicf2 lawfulness of open compensation1 #aicg4 ,compensationism1 #gca sqq4 ,see also ,systems1 ,moral4 ,complaint1 duty of making complaint about private wrongs1 #aifg2 persons in whose favor one may denounce a private wrong1 #aiga4 ,see also ,accusation1 ,judicial4 ,complicity1 see ,cooperation4 ,concupiscible ,passions1 #aah-aai4 ,see also ,passions4 ,condemnations1 of error by the ,church1 #gfa b4 ,condign ,merit1 see ,merit4 ,condiments1 not forbidden on ,friday1 #behf c4 ,confession1 see ,penance1 ,sacrament of4 ,confessors1 duties of1 regarding obligation of restitution1 #agfj2 need of prudence1 #afej a4 ,see also ,penance1 ,sacrament of4 ,confirmation1 ,sacrament of1 #bfid2 remote and proximate matter1 #bfid a2 form1 #bfid b2 minister of ,confirmation1 #bfie2 recipient of ,confirmation1 #bfif2 sponsors in ,confirmation1 #bfig2 qualifications and duties of sponsors1 #bfig a1 b2 duties of pastor in reference to ,confirmation1 #bfih4 ,confucianism1 #hbb a4 ,congruous ,merit1 see ,merit4 ,conscience1 and ,moral ,theology1 #b2 definition1 #ege2 variously divided1 #egf2 true or false1 #egg2 good 7right7 or bad 7wrong71 #egh a2 certain or uncertain1 #egh b2 obligation of1 #ehj2 authority not unlimited1 #eha2 no autonomous morality1 #eha a2 when conscience must be followed1 #ehb2 erroneous and doubtful conscience1 #ehe2 results of following erroneous conscience1 #ehh2 results of disobeying erroneous conscience1 #ehi-eia2 a good conscience1 #eic sqq42 antecedent and consequent conscience1 #eid2 vigilant1 tender and timorous conscience1 #eie2 scrupulous conscience1 #eif2 lax conscience1 #eif sqq42 malicious or non-malicious laxity 7reprobate or weak conscience71 #eih2 partial or entire laxity1 #eii-fjj2 ,pharisaic conscience1 #fjj2 inculpable and culpable laxity1 #fja2 causes of a lax conscience1 #fja2 dangers of lax conscience1 #fjb2 rules regarding sins due to lax conscience1 #fjc-fjd2 opinion as state of conscience1 #ffb sqq42 remedies for lax conscience1 #fje2 scrupulous differs from strict 7tender7 conscience1 #fjg a2 scrupulous conscience differs from scrupulosity1 #fjg b2 rules regarding scrupulous conscience and sins1 #fjh2 dangers of scrupulous conscience1 #fji2 perplexed conscience1 #faa sqq42 directions of ,st4 ,alphonsus regarding perplexed conscience1 #fab2 scrupulosity1 #fad sqq42 distinct from scrupulous conscience1 #fad a2 from a tender conscience1 #fad b2 from anxious1 doubtful or guilty conscience1 #fad c2 chief subjects of scruples1 #fae2 signs of scrupulosity1 #faf2 internal causes of scrupulous conscience1 #fag2 external causes1 #fah2 sometimes tolerated by ,god1 #fai2 dangers of scrupulosity1 #fbj2 rules for the scrupulous1 #fba2 qualities necessary for successful direction of scrupulous1 #fbe2 scrupulous and past confessions1 #fbf2 scrupulous and present confessions1 #fbg2 scrupulous and performance of duties1 #fbh2 scrupulous and commission of sin1 #fcj2 remedies for scruples1 #fcb sqq42 signs of a good conscience1 #fch2 certain conscience1 #fdj sqq42 kinds of certitude1 #fdc sqq42 uncertain conscience1 #fed-fee2 doubt and suspicion1 #fef2 presumption1 #feh2 reflex principles to settle doubts1 #feg sqq42 opinion1 #ffb sqq42 accusing or excusing1 #ffh a2 forbidding or permitting1 #ffh b2 the moral systems1 #fgb sqq42 ,tutiorism1 #fgf sqq42 ,laxism1 #fhj sqq42 ,probabiliorism1 #fhc sqq42 ,equiprobabilism1 #fhh sqq42 ,probabilism1 #gja sqq42 ,compensationism1 #gca sqq42 respective merits and use of the rival systems of conscience1 #gdj sqq42 use by confessors1 #gda4 ,conscience1 ,systems of1 see ,systems1 ,moral1 and ,conscience4 ,consent1 act of will1 #ei2 consent of the will1 condition of mortal sin1 #agh1 #ahd1 #aif2 obstacles to1 see ,obstacles to ,consent2 qualities necessary for valid consent1 #ahhc2 defects that invalidate consent1 #ahhd4 ,consolations1 ,spiritual1 differ from devotion1 #baea b4 ,contention1 definition1 #acee2 sinfulness1 #aceg2 causes1 #acfb4 ,continence1 potential part of temperance1 #bdfe c2 nature of1 #bedd4 ,continency1 fruit of ,fear of the ,lord1 #afc1 #bega c4 ,contraception1 see ,matrimony1 ,sacrament of4 ,contract1 forms of1 #agdi2 gratuitous contracts1 #agdi a2 contract as title to private ownership1 #ahib b2 elements of contract1 #ahgg2 subject-matter of contract1 #ahgh2 when contracts are immoral1 #ahgh a2 sinful contracts1 #ahgi2 qualities necessary for valid consent1 #ahcc2 defects that invalidate consent1 #ahhd2 when fear invalidates consent to contract1 #ahhd c2 form of contract1 #ahhe2 accidentals of a contract1 #ahhf2 conditions added to contract1 #ahhf c2 modes of contract1 #ahhf d2 obligation of entering into contract1 #ahhg a2 obligation of valid contract1 #ahhh2 quality of obligation in onerous and gratuitous contracts1 #aehh a2 quantity of obligation in onerous and gratuitous contracts1 #ahhh b2 objects of obligation of contract1 #ahhh d2 obligation of quasi-contract1 #ahhh d2 cessation of obligation1 #ahhi2 unilateral and bilateral contracts1 #agdi a2 onerous contracts1 #agdi b1 c2 subsidiary contracts1 #agdi d2 immoral contracts1 #ahgh d2 sinful contracts1 #ahgi2 illegal contracts1 #ahhj2 unenforceable contracts1 #ahhj a2 voidable contracts1 #ahhj c2 contracts ipso facto void1 #ahhj d2 qualities necessary in the parties contractant1 #ahha2 legal privileges of minors in connection with contracts1 #ahhb2 principles obligatory in all forms of contracts1 #bacg2 gratuitous contracts1 #bacg a2 onerous contracts1 #bacg b2 aleatory contracts1 #bacg c2 fraudulent contracts1 #bach4 ,contractor's ,agreement1 #agdi b4 ,contrition1 the first act of the penitent1 #bgbi2 perfect contrition1 #bgcj a2 imperfect contrition or attrition1 #bgcj b2 attrition based solely on fear of punishment1 #bgca2 servile fear of ,god1 #bgca b2 slavish fear1 #bgca b2 attrition in the ,sacrament of ,penance1 #bgcb2 disinterested love not required in ,penance1 #bgcb b2 interested love necessary in ,penance1 #bgcb e2 conditions for valid contrition and attrition1 #bgcc2 internal sorrow2 #bgcc a2 supernatural sorrow1 #bgcc b2 universal sorrow1 #bgcc c2 sovereign sorrow1 #bgcc d2 properties of contrition1 #bgce4 ,contumely1 definition1 #bjaj2 various forms of1 #bjab2 manner of confessing contumely in ,sacrament of ,penance1 #bjac2 sinfuless of contumely1 #bjad2 gravity of matter in contumely1 #bjae2 causes of contumely1 #bjag2 duty of bearing with contumely1 #bjah2 reasons for resistance to contumely or detraction1 #bjai2 duty of one who answers contumely or detraction1 #bjbj2 duty of restitution for contumely1 #bjba2 what kind of reparation should be made1 #bjbc2 method of apologizing for contumely1 #bjbd2 cessation of obligation of restitution1 #bjbf2 the differences between defamation and contumely1 #bjbi4 ,cooperation1 and restitution1 #agge2 positive cooperators in injury1 #aggi2 negative cooperators1 #aghj2 distinction between cooperators as equal or unequal causes of injury1 #aghb2 cooperation in suicide1 #ahee2 cooperation in defamation1 #bjgf sqq42 cooperation in sinful oaths1 #bbeb2 cooperation in divination or other form of superstition1 #bbif2 cooperation in the sin of drunkenness1 #bdhc a2 cooperation and restitution1 see ,restitution4 ,see also ,cooperation in ,sin4 ,cooperation in ,religious ,activities1 #igf sqq42 immediate and mediate1 #igf sqq42 lawfulness of material cooperation1 #igh2 most usual cases of cooperation1 #ihj2 contributions to false worship1 #iha2 building of houses of false worship1 #ihc-ihd2 preparing for non-,catholic services1 #ihe-ihf2 resemblance to scandal1 #adfj b4 ,cooperation in ,sin1 definition1 #aejf2 how it differs from complicity1 #aejg2 formal or material1 #aejh a2 positive or negative1 #aejh b2 occasional or effective1 #aeji a2 immediate or mediate1 #aeji b2 indispensable or not indispensable1 #aeji c2 unjust or unlawful1 #aeaj2 explicit or implicit1 #aeaa2 proximate or remote1 #aeab2 sinfulness1 #aeac2 lawfulness of material cooperation1 #aeae2 gravity of reasons necessary for cooperation1 #aebj sqq42 lawfulness of immediate cooperation1 #aebf2 special cases1 #aebh2 formal cooperation with evil reading matter1 #aebi2 with evil dances or plays1 #aeca2 material cooperation with evil dances or plays1 #aecb2 cooperation by manufacture of sinful objects1 #aecc sqq42 cooperation in supplying food and drink1 #aecg-aeci2 in renting houses1 rooms1 etc41 #aedj-aeda2 lawful and unlawful cooperation of employees1 #aedb2 duties of confessors1 #aede-aedf4 ,correction1 ,fraternal1 definition1 #abeh2 distinct from judicial correction and censure of vice1 #abeh a1 e2 includes prevention of sin1 #abeh d2 duty1 #abei-abfa1 #abhb1 #abhd2 when advisable and inadvisable1 #abfb-abfc2 doubtful cases1 #abfd2 sin committed by omission or delay1 #abfe-abff2 when person not a superior should make correction1 #abfg2 obligation of inquiring into suspected wrongdoing1 #abfi2 private spying uncharitable1 #abfi c2 faults that call for correction1 #abgj sqq42 correction of vincibly and invincibly ignorant1 #abgc sqq42 past sins do not demand correction1 #abgf2 persons to be corrected1 #abgg2 correction of superior1 #abgh2 persons to administer correction1 #abgi2 persons excused from duty1 #abhc2 manner of correction1 #abhe-abia2 secret and public corrections1 #abhf2 obligation of reporting an occult sin1 #abhg2 duties of superior when subject is reported for fraternal correction1 #abib-abic2 obligations for private individuals summarized1 #abid4 ,council of ,trent1 ,catechism of the1 points about which explicit faith is required1 #gfe4 ,counsel1 ,gift of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afj a4 ,counsels of ,new ,testament1 #g1 #cfd sqq42 the three chief1 #cfh2 superiority of1 #cff4 ,counterclaim1 definition1 #aibg a4 ,courage1 inferior to justice1 #agaf a4 ,courtship1 see ,betrothal4 ,cowardice1 caused by sloth1 #acbd2 sin against fortitude1 #bddf b4 ,creditors1 order of preference among1 #aghg4 ,credulity1 #hdg4 ,creed1 knowledge of necessary1 #ibj4 ,creeds1 summarize formulas of ,christian teaching1 #gfg2 what articles deal with1 #gfg2 ,apostles'1 ,nicene and ,athanasian ,creeds1 #gfi2 ,summary of teaching of ,apostles' ,creed1 #ggj sqq4 ,cremation1 societies for the promotion of1 forbidden by ,code1 #idf b2 cremation of corpses1 #beie b4 ,criticism1 when sinful1 #bjch2 when injustice is committed by professional critics1 #bjge4 ,cruelty1 vice opposed to clemency1 #beeb a4 ,culpability1 see ,guilt4 ,cunning1 #afea a4 ,curiosity1 compared with impurity1 #bdib a4 ,cursing1 definition1 #baaa2 when cursing is not sinful1 #baab2 sinfulness of cursing1 #baac2 gravity of sin of cursing1 #baad2 circumstances that change moral species of cursing1 #baae2 numerical multiplication in sins of cursing1 #baaf2 cursing of evil1 #baag2 unlawful cursing of an irrational creature1 #baai4 ,custom1 effect on law1 #cia sqq42 kinds of1 #cib4 ,see also ,customs in ,canon ,law4 ,customs in ,canon ,law1 #ejf sqq42 may interpret1 abrogate or introduce law1 #ejf2 kinds of1 #ejg2 origin of1 #ejh a2 legal force of1 #ejh b2 time required for acquisition of legal force1 #eaa2 cessation of1 #eac4 ,damnum1 definition1 #agbd b4 ,dances1 when obscene1 #adef d2 evil1 formal cooperation with1 #aeca2 evil1 material cooperation with1 #aecb4 ,danger1 of formal sin1 #fge a1 #fgh2 of material sin1 #fge b4 ,dangerous ,reading1 see ,reading1 ,dangerous4 ,debates on ,religion1 generally inexpedient1 #iih4 ,debt1 moral and legal debt1 #afib1 #bada-dc2 moral degrees of1 #badc4 ,debt1 ,conjugal1 #bfad-ag4 ,decalogue1 invincible ignorance of generally impossible1 #cba2 ,laws of the ,first and ,second ,tables1 #cch2 the precepts contained in the ,decalogue1 #bdcf4 ,deceit1 form of lying1 #bcia b4 ,decency1 subjective part of temperance1 #bdfe a2 definition of decency1 #bdhf b4 ,decision1 ,wise1 potential part of prudence1 #afdf b4 ,defamation1 definition1 #bjbh2 self-defamation1 #bjbh e2 different forms of defamation1 #bjcj2 differences between defamation and contumely1 #bjbi2 implicit and explicit defamation1 #bjcj b2 direct and indirect defamation1 #bjcj d2 examples of indirect defamation1 #bjca2 examples of direct defamation1 #bjcb2 defamation by innuendo1 #bjcc a2 defamation by plain speech1 #bjcc b2 sinfulness of detraction1 #bjcf2 right to true and false reputation1 #bjcg2 sinfulness of gossip or criticism about real and known defects1 #bjch2 moral species of defamation1 #bjci2 species of sins of defamation1 #bjdj2 numerical multiplication of defamations1 #bjda2 theological species of defamation1 #bjdb2 harm done by defamation1 #bjdc2 comparison of defamation with other injuries against neighbor1 #bjdd2 rule for determining seriousness of defamation1 #bjdf2 harm done by reason of defects revealed1 #bjdg2 revelation of secret faults1 #bjdh2 harm done by reason of person defamed1 #bjdi2 meaning of the expression 8infamous in a certain place10 #bjea sqq42 revelation about a person juridically in disrepute elsewhere1 #bjed2 revelation about a person actually in disrepute elsewhere1 #bjee2 notoriety in a closed community1 #bjeg2 revelation about a person formerly in disrepute1 #bjeh2 when the name of person defamed is not given1 #bjei2 defamation of deceased and legal persons1 #bjfj2 harm done by reason of person of defamer1 #bjfa2 defamation at second hand1 #bjfb2 harm done by reason of listeners1 #bjfc2 detraction to one discreet person1 #bjfe2 belittling a person to himself1 #bjff2 disclosing matters detrimental to third party1 #bjfg2 rights that have precedence over false reputation1 #bjfh2 unlawful attack on another's false reputation1 #bjfi2 conditions that justify revelation of another's defects1 #bjgj2 revelations about public officials or candidates for public office1 #bjga2 revelations about historical personages1 #bjgb2 revelations about persons who figure in news of day1 #bjgd2 injustice in professional critics1 #bjge2 cooperation in defamation1 #bjgf2 direct consent to defamation1 #bjgg2 persons who listen to defamation from curiosity1 #bjgh2 sinfulness of indirect consent to defamation1 #bjgi2 guilt of superior who consents to defamation1 #bjhj2 circumstances which lessen guilt of indirect consent1 #bjhb2 inaction in face of defamation1 #bjhc2 ways of opposing defamation made in one's presence1 #bjhd2 restitution for defamation1 #bjhe2 gravity of obligation of restitution1 #bjhf2 conditions which entail duty of restitution1 #bjhg2 cooperators and restitution1 #bjhh2 circumstances of restitution1 #bjhi2 persons by whom restitution must be made1 #bjhi1 #bjij2 persons to whom restitution must be made1 #bjja2 responsibility of defamer for spread of defamation1 #bjib2 first way of making restitution1 #bjic2 other methods of making restitution1 #bjid2 legal reparation for defamation1 #bjie2 time when restitution for defamation is to be made1 #bjif2 cessation of duty of restitution1 #bjig2 excuses from restitution1 #bjih sqq42 right of defamed person to condone injury1 #baja4 ,see also ,derision2 ,tale-,bearing2 ,reputation4 ,defects1 ,natural1 of fallen man1 #bhc4 ,defendant1 definition1 #aige2 duties of defendant in civil cases1 #aigf2 duties in criminal cases1 #aigg2 duty of accused to plead guilty1 #aigh2 rights and duties of accused in conducting own defense1 #aihj2 rights and duties of accused who has been found guilty1 #aihb4 ,defense of ,self1 see ,self-,defense4 ,definitions of the ,church1 solemn and ordinary1 #gfa b2 by the ,church1 #gfa c4 ,defloration1 definition1 #bebi4 ,deism1 #hdg b4 ,deliberation1 ,wise1 potential part of prudence1 #afdf a4 ,delight1 #aai4 ,demerit1 definition1 #ajg4 ,demon1 ,the1 #bhd4 ,denunciation1 see ,accusation1 ,judicial2 ,complaint4 ,deposit1 #agdi a4 ,derision1 definition1 #bajf2 distinction between derision and jesting1 #bajg2 sinfulness of derision1 #baji4 ,desire1 #aai2 sinful1 #bcg sqq4 ,desires1 ,evil1 #bcb1 #bdj sqq4 ,desires1 ,impure1 see ,impurity4 ,despair1 definition1 #ajfa2 despondency1 #ajfb2 pusillanimity and spiritual sloth1 #ajfd2 despair of unbelief1 #ajfe2 signs indicating despair1 #ajeg2 malice of despair1 #ajfh2 despair compared with other sins1 #ajgj2 causes of despair1 #ajga2 remedies for1 #ajgd2 caused by sloth1 #acbd4 ,detraction1 reasons for resistance to contumely or detraction1 #bjai2 duty of one who answers contumely or detraction1 #bjbj2 definition1 #bjcj c4 ,see also ,defamation4 ,devotion1 definition of1 #baej2 differs from emotion1 #baea e2 from spiritual consolations1 #baea b2 external and internal cause of devotion1 #baeb4 ,devotions1 different forms of1 #baea c4 ,discord1 #acdg sqq42 definition1 #acdh2 sinfulness of intentional and unintentional1 #acej-acea2 origin1 #aced2 prohibition against1 #aeeb4 ,disobedience1 see ,obedience4 ,dispensation from ,law1 #dja2 who may be dispensed8 #djc4 ,dispensations1 in the strict or wide sense1 #cji1 #ebd sqq42 differ from privileges1 #ebd2 persons who can grant dispensations1 #ebe-ecj2 manner of seeking1 #eca2 how invalidated1 #ecc2 when dispensation is refused1 #ecd2 interpretation of faculty of dispensing1 #ecf-ecg2 cessation of1 #ecg-eda4 ,see also ,matrimony1 ,sacrament of2 ,vows4 ,distractions1 see ,prayer4 ,distributive ,justice1 see ,justice4 ,divination1 see ,religion1 ,sins against4 ,divining ,rods1 and divination1 #bbhd c4 ,divorce1 books in favor of divorce forbidden1 #hee b4 ,see also ,matrimony1 ,sacrament of4 ,docility1 integral part of prudence1 #afcg b4 ,doctors1 as source of ,moral ,theology1 #aj4 ,domicile1 true and quasi-domicile1 #dcf4 ,double ,result1 effect on imputability of acts1 #ajc sqq4 ,doubt1 #fee sqq42 positive or negative1 #fee2 as state of conscience1 #fef sqq42 reflex principles for solution of doubt1 #feg sqq42 cases of negative doubt to be settled in favor of obligation1 #ffa2 negative doubt of law1 #gji a2 of fact1 #gji b-c2 rash doubts1 #agdc2 supervening doubt of possessor in doubtful faith1 #aggf2 antecedent doubt of possessor in doubtful faith1 #aggg4 ,doubt1 ,sin of1 #hdj sqq42 methodical and real1 #hdj-hda2 involuntary1 indeliberate1 unwelcome and ignorant1 #hdb2 negative1 #hdd2 positive1 #hde2 passing and permanent1 #hdf4 ,dress1 when lascivious1 #adef b2 modesty in1 #befi a4 ,druggists1 duties of1 #bfea c4 ,drunkenness1 sin against sobriety1 #bdgf b2 passive drunkenness1 #bdgg a2 degrees of the sin of drunkenness1 #bdgi a2 malice of the sin1 #bdhj a2 drunkenness compared with other sins1 #bdha a2 responsibility of drunkard for sins committed while intoxicated1 #bdhb a2 cooperation in the sin of drunkenness1 #bdhc4 ,duelling1 books in favor of1 forbidden1 #hee b2 definition1 #adce2 morality of1 #adcf2 fallacy of arguments for1 #adcg2 penalties against1 #adch4 ,dulia1 species of reverence1 #bcbe c2 obligation of religious cult of dulia1 #bced4 ,duties1 with regard to habits1 #adj2 of man1 #gdd sqq4 ,easter ,communion1 obligation of1 #beib sqq4 ,eastern ,star1 among societies forbidden by ,church1 #idf b4 ,education1 neglect a sin against self1 #aefe4 ,effects of ,omissions1 may be directly and indirectly voluntary1 #ch-ci4 ,egoism1 sin against piety1 #bcdi b4 ,election1 act of will1 #ei4 ,embezzlement1 definition1 #ahic a4 ,emotion1 differs from devotion1 #baea a4 ,employees1 duties in justice and charity1 #bfdh4 ,see also ,employers4 ,employers1 duties in justice and charity1 #bfdg2 duties of1 #bfdh2 labor disputes1 #bfdi2 obligation of giving employment1 #bfej4 ,emulation1 distinct from envy1 #acca a1 #acci2 when it is a sin1 #accb4 ,enemies1 charity towards1 #aadh2 general and special love of1 #aaea4 ,enfeeblement1 definition1 #ahff c4 ,engagement to ,marry1 see ,betrothal4 ,enjoyment1 see ,relaxation4 ,envy1 #bfi2 sin against charity1 #acbh sqq42 definition1 #acbh2 objects of1 #acbi2 subjects of1 #accj2 distinct from emulation1 fear and indignation1 #acca2 lawful and unlawful emulation1 #accb2 lawful and unlawful jealousy1 #accc2 lawful and unlawful grief at another's prosperity1 #accd-accg2 envy by nature a mortal sin1 #acch2 degrees of gravity1 #acda2 one of capital vices1 #acdb2 how preeminent among sins1 #acdd2 useful considerations and practices against envy1 #acde-acdf2 as origin of discord1 #aced2 origin of contention1 #acfb2 prohibition against1 #aeeb4 ,epieikeia1 #ceh2 in human laws1 #che1 #daa sqq42 definition1 #dab2 limits on use1 #dad sqq42 use in determining obligation of ecclesiastical laws1 #ejc2 a4 subjective part of justice1 #badd4 ,see also ,equity4 ,equiprobabilism #fhh sqq4 ,see also ,systems1 ,moral4 ,equity1 subjective part of justice1 #bdcj2 greatness of legal equity1 #bdcb2 definition of equity1 #bdca4 ,error1 resembles ignorance1 #cb2 practical and speculative1 effect on gravity of sin1 #bdi2 may diminish theological guilt1 #agfd b4 ,escape from ,prison1 when licit1 #aihb b4 ,espousals1 see ,betrothal4 ,ethics1 and ,moral ,theology1 #b4 ,eucharist1 ,holy1 #bfii2 the chief ,sacrament of the ,church1 #bfii2 matter and form of the ,eucharist1 #bgjj2 qualities of the bread1 #bgjj a2 qualities of the wine1 #bgjj b2 grave precept of ,church regarding the form1 #bgjj c2 minister of consecration1 #bgja2 duties of minister as regards valid consecration1 #bgja b2 confession as preparation for consecration1 #bgja c2 effect on consecration of inadvertent neglect of grave liturgical precept1 #bgjb2 reservation of the ,blessed ,sacrament1 #bgjh2 duty of custody1 #bgjh a2 duty of renewal of hosts1 #bgjh b2 duty of worship1 #bgjh c2 visits to the ,blessed ,sacrament1 #bgjh c2 ,forty ,hours' ,devotion1 #bgjh c4 ,see also ,communion1 ,holy2 ,mass1 ,sacrifice of the4 ,eugenical ,sterilization1 #ahfi c4 ,euthanasia1 definition1 #bdhe4 ,eutrapelia1 virtue1 #bdba e1 #befg4 ,exaggeration1 form of defamation1 #bjcb c4 ,executioners1 become irregular by ,canon ,law1 #ahbe4 ,exorcisms1 use of1 #bbfg4 ,extreme ,unction1 see ,unction1 ,extreme4 ,faith1 ,theological ,virtue of1 and ,moral ,theology1 #b2 definition1 #aea2 compared with charity1 #aeg2 ceases in the blessed1 #aeh2 excellence1 #gdg2 utility1 #gdh-gdi2 meaning1 #gej2 ,st4 ,paul's definition1 #gea2 ,st4 ,chrysostom's definition1 #gea a2 ,st4 ,thomas' definition1 #gea b2 definition by ,vatican ,council1 #gih2 material and formal objects1 #ged2 divine and ,catholic faith1 #gee2 divine and ecclesiastical faith1 #gef2 private revelations1 #geg2 human faith1 #geh d2 external and internal assent1 #gfj2 solemn and ordinary definitions of ,church1 #gfa b2 condemnations of error1 #gfa b2 definitions and censures1 #gfa c2 religious assent1 #gfa d2 explicit and implicit1 #gfc sqq42 obligation of explicit faith1 #ibh2 points about which explicit faith is required by ,catechism of ,council of ,trent1 #gfe2 faith is necessary for salvation1 #gff2 formulas summarized in ,creeds1 #gfg2 increase in articles of faith1 #gfh2 ,apostles_/ ,nicene and ,athanasian ,creeds1 #gfi2 summary of teaching of ,apostles' ,creed1 #ggj sqq42 internal and external acts of faith1 #ghb sqq42 supernatural and natural truths to which assent must be given1 #ghd2 act of faith necessary1 #ghe sqq42 what must be believed with implicit and explicit faith1 #ghf2 mysteries that must be believed1 #ghg sqq41 #iah1 #ibj2 substantial and scientific knowledge of mysteries1 #gij2 faith necessary for absolution1 #gib2 merit of the act of faith2 assent of credibility1 #gie a2 preambles of faith1 #gie b2 habit of faith1 #gig2 properties of faith1 #gii2 living and dead faith1 #hjj2 persons who have or had faith1 #hja2 persons who have not faith1 #hjb2 how faith must be supreme1 #hjc a2 faith must be universal but not necessarily explicit1 #hjc b2 growth and decline of faith1 #hjd-hje2 cause of faith1 #hjf2 effects1 #hjg2 internal and external dangers to1 #hdh2 dangerous reading1 #hdi sqq42 dullness of understanding as sin1 #iab2 blindness of mind as sin1 #iab2 ,commandments of1 #iac sqq42 commandment of knowledge1 #iad2 means of communicating knowledge1 #iae2 degree of knowledge necessary1 #iai2 knowledge of ,creed1 ,decalogue1 virtues1 ,sacraments1 duties of one's state1 ,lord's ,prayer1 #ibj2 means for retention of knowledge1 #ibb2 memorizing of ,catechism1 #ibc2 commandment of internal acts of faith1 #ibe2 primary and secondary truths of revelation1 #ibg2 obligation of affirmative commandment1 #ibi2 when and how often act of faith should be made1 #icc-ice2 formal and virtual act of faith1 #icf2 commandment of external profession1 #ich sqq42 denial of faith1 #ici2 ways of denying faith1 #ida2 commandment of external profession1 #ihg sqq42 divine precept of profession1 #ihi2 secret1 private and public profession1 #iib sqq12 obligation to give instruction on matters of faith and morals1 #ajja2 ecclesiastical precept of profession1 #ajjc2 flight to avoid profession1 #ajje2 when concealment of one's faith is lawful1 #ajjg2 sins of unbelief1 see ,unbelief1 ,sin of4 ,see also ,unbelief2 ,heresy2 ,apostasy2 ,doubt2 ,credulity2 ,rationalism4 ,fame1 see ,reputation4 ,fare1 travelling without paying1 #aijg4 ,fasting1 excellence of1 #bdji a4 ,see also ,abstemiousness4 ,favoritism1 sinfulness declared by ,revelation1 #ahje2 sinfulness declared by reason1 #ahjf2 gravity of sin of favoritism1 #ahjg2 favoritism in spiritual matters1 #ahji2 favoritism in secular matters1 #ahab2 favoritism in marks of esteem or honor1 #ahac2 favoritism in judges1 umpires1 arbitrators and the like1 #ahad a4 ,fear1 as obstacle to consent1 #dj1 #dd2 acts done with and through fear1 #dc2 two moral species 7fear of the world and of ,god71 #ajdc2 habitual and actual fear1 #ajdd2 worldly fear as sin1 #ajde2 servile and filial fear of ,god1 #ajdh sqq42 initial and perfected fear1 #ajee2 divine commandments concerning fear1 #aajc2 compared with envy1 #acca b1 #acci4 ,fear of the ,lord1 ,gift of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afj b2 perfects hope1 #ajda2 distinct from other kinds of fear1 #ajdb2 corresponds to ,first ,beatitude and ,fruits of modesty1 continency and chastity1 #ajeh2 complement of temperance1 #bega a4 ,fecundation1 ,artificial1 #bfah c4 ,fees1 in connection with administration of sacred rites1 #bahe b4 ,feigning of ,defects1 form of lying1 #bdjf b4 ,fenians1 ,society forbidden by ,church1 #idg b4 ,fidelity1 ,fruit of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afc4 ,see also ,truthfulness4 ,fighting1 definition1 #adbh2 kinds1 #adbi2 sinfulness1 #adcj2 causes1 #adca2 hatred as cause of fighting1 #adcb2 frequent occasions1 #adcc2 evil consequences1 #adcd4 ,first-,fruits1 and tithes1 #bahe b4 ,fitness1 the right standard for distributive justice1 #ahjd c4 ,flattery1 vice opposite to modesty1 #beff b4 ,flesh ,meat1 #behf sqq4 ,foolhardiness1 sin against fortitude1 #bdff b4 ,foolishness1 sin of1 opposed to ,gift of ,wisdom1 #afba2 description of sin1 #afbd2 causes1 #afbe2 cause of contumely1 #bjag b4 ,foresight1 #afch b4 ,forgetfulness1 resembles ignorance1 #cb4 ,form1 ,sacramental1 see ,sacrament4 ,formal ,sin1 #bdh4 ,fornication1 definition1 #bedc2 sinfulness of fornication1 #becd2 fornication compared with other sins1 #bebe a2 circumstances of fornication1 #bebf a2 fornication of engaged person1 #bebf b2 forms of fornication1 #bebg2 the ,state and places of prostitution1 #bebh4 ,fortitude1 #aej2 golden mean in1 #aed a1 #aeg b2 ,gift of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afj b2 rank among moral virtues1 #bdcg2 definition of fortitude1 #bdci2 two acts of fortitude1 #bddj2 excellence1 #bdda2 sins opposed to fortitude1 #bddf2 integral and potential parts of fortitude1 #bddg2 differs from patience1 #bdec b2 complements of fortitude1 #bdeg2 ,gift of ,fortitude1 #bdeg a2 fortitude and the ,eighth ,beatitude1 #bdeg b2 fortitude and the ,fruits of ,patience and ,longsuffering1 #bdeg c2 commandments of fortitude1 #bdeh2 subjects of fortitude1 #bdfj4 ,see also ,martyrdom4 ,franchise1 ,electoral1 see ,voting4 ,fraternal ,correction1 see ,correction1 fraternal4 ,fraud1 invalidates consent of contract1 #ahhd b2 injustice in voluntary commutations1 #baba2 definition of fraud1 #babb2 two kinds of injustice in sales1 #babc2 injustice regarding price1 #babd2 criteria of a just price1 #babe2 obligation of observing prices settled by law or custom1 #babf2 when market price may be disregarded without injustice1 #babg2 unjust sales based on ignorance of real value1 #babi2 obligation of restitution on account of unjust price1 #bacj2 injustice regarding thing sold1 #baca2 defects in the thing sold1 #bacb4 ,free ,love1 definition1 #bebg c4 ,freemasonry1 #hbc b2 books in favor of1 forbidden1 #hee b2 ,society forbidden by ,code1 #idg a4 ,friday ,abstinence1 #behf c4 ,friendship1 #aaaj2 friendship of utility1 pleasure and virtue1 #aaaa2 five marks of true friendship1 #aacg2 human friendship not a distinct virtue1 #aadj2 virtue of friendship1 #badc b4 ,fruition1 as act of will1 #eh4 ,fruits of the ,holy ,ghost1 #aei b2 twelve in number1 #afc1 #haa1 #ajeh1 #afai1 #affb1 #bdcc1 #bdeg1 #bega4 ,gambling1 sinful1 #ahgi d2 gambling forbidden to clerics1 #bfjc c4 ,geomancy1 form of divination1 #bbhd c4 ,gift1 sinful1 #ahgi a2 when are free gifts to judges permissible8 #aide d4 ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost1 #aei a2 intellectual1 #afj a2 appetitive1 #aei1 #afj1 #afj b2 ,understanding and ,knowledge1 #hjh-haj2 ,fear of the ,lord1 #ajda-ajeg2 ,wisdom1 #afji sqq42 ,counsel1 #affb2 ,piety1 #bdcc2 ,fortitude1 #bdeg2 ,fear of the ,lord1 #bega4 ,gluttony1 #bfi2 sin opposed to abstemiousness1 #bdgj b2 ways of committing gluttony1 #bdga2 sinfulness of gluttony1 #bdgb a2 gluttony as capital sin1 #bdgc #aa4 ,gnome1 part of judgment1 #bdcb d4 ,gnosticism1 #hbb c4 ,gnostics1 #hbc b4 ,god1 belief in ,his existence and providence necessary for salvation1 #ghg4 ,golden ,mean1 in virtues1 #aec-aed4 ,good1 ,common4 #bhe c4 ,goods1 external1 not last end of man1 #bj2 of the body1 not last end of man1 #bj2 of the soul1 not last end of man1 #bj2 when temporal goods should be surrendered to avoid scandal1 #adhc4 ,goods1 ,abandoned1 when they may be occupied1 #ahgc e2 when vacant goods may be occupied1 #ahgc f4 ,good ,templars1 ,independent ,order of1 forbidden by ,church1 #idf b4 ,good ,will1 ,fruit of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afc4 ,gossip1 sinfulness of1 #bjch4 ,grace1 #bhd4 ,gratitude1 virtue of1 #badc a2 definition of virtue1 #bcgc2 two kinds of gratitude1 #bcgd2 circumstances of gratitude1 #bcgf2 sins against gratitude1 #bcgg2 moral species of ingratitude1 #bcgh2 theological species of ingratitude1 #bcgi2 is it right to confer favors on the ungrateful8 #bchj4 ,grave ,matter1 absolute and relative standards1 #ahii2 opinions on the amounts that are grave matter1 #aijj a4 ,greatness of ,deed1 integral part of fortitude1 #bddg b2 definition of virtue1 #bdeb4 ,greatness of ,soul1 integral part of fortitude1 #bddg b2 definition of virtue1 #bddh2 greatness of soul and humility1 #bddi2 vices opposed to1 #bdej sqq4 ,grief1 at another's prosperity1 when lawful and unlawful1 #accd-accg4 ,guaranty1 #agdi d4 ,guilt1 formal guilt1 #bdh2 material guilt1 #bdh2 causes that remove or diminish theological guilt1 #agfd a4 ,habits1 as obstacle to voluntariness of acts1 #dj1 #ec2 definition1 #ec2 antecedent and consequent1 #ec2 in general1 #acb sqq42 definition1 #acc2 entitative and operative1 #acd a2 good and evil1 #acd b2 infused and acquired1 #acd c1 #ace-acf2 strengthening and weakening of1 #acg sqq42 exercise great influence on morality1 #adj2 our duties regarding1 #ada4 ,see also ,virtue2 ,vice4 ,half-,truths1 form of lying1 #bjcj c4 ,haruspicy1 form of divination1 #bbhd c4 ,hate1 #aai 7see also ,passions1 concupiscible72 sin against charity1 #abie2 definition and kinds1 #abif2 hatred of ,god1 #abig2 interpretative and formal hatred1 #abii1 #acae2 hatred of ,god as a special sin1 #acjj2 gravity of this sin1 #acja2 degrees of malice1 #acjc2 hatred of creatures1 #acjd2 dislike of self1 #acje1 #acjg2 may one wish evil to self or others8 #acjh2 wish for death or spiritual evil1 #acaj-acaa2 gravity of sin of hatred of neighbor1 #acab2 comparison with other sins1 #acac2 hatred not a capital vice1 #acad2 species of sin1 #acag2 manner of confessing sin1 #acah-acai2 as cause of fighting1 #adcb2 prohibition against1 #aeeb4 ,health1 ,injury to1 a form of injustice1 #ahga4 ,heresy1 #hbb c1 #hbf sqq42 as a sin and canonical crime1 #hbg2 positive and negative1 #hbh a2 internal and external1 #hbh b2 occult and public1 #hbh c2 material and formal1 #hbh d1 #hbi-hcj2 sinfulness of1 #hca2 circumstances that modify guilt1 #hcb2 penalties1 #hcc2 books in favor of1 forbidden1 #hee b2 heresy compared with schism1 #acgj4 ,hibernians1 ,ancient ,order of1 #iee b4 ,hire of ,labor1 form of onerous contract1 #a #gdi b4 ,historical ,personages1 lawfulness of revelations about1 #bjgb4 ,holy ,ghost1 ,fruits of1 see ,fruits of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,holy ,ghost1 ,gifts of1 see ,gifts of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,homicide1 definition1 #ahaf2 when homicide is lawful1 #ahai2 unlawful killing of offenders1 #ahbc2 lawfulness of tyrannicide1 #ahbd a2 homicide in self-defense1 #ahbf2 killing of the innocent1 #ahdd sqq42 unintentional killing of the innocent1 #ahdg2 destruction of the unborn1 #ahdh sqq42 canonical penalties for1 #ahea a2 accidental homicide1 #ahfb2 moral and legal guilt of homicide1 #ahfe4 ,see also ,punishment1 ,capital1 #ahbj4 ,honor1 definition1 #bjaj b2 persons who are deserving of honor1 #bjaa2 species of honor1 #bceb2 obligation of showing honor1 #bcec2 honor due to superiors1 #bfcf a4 ,honors1 ,pursuit of1 sometimes demanded by charity to self1 #aegd4 ,hope1 ,theological ,virtue of1 #aea1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #ajji sqq42 definition1 #ajji-ajab2 supernatural and natural hope1 #ajac2 animated and inanimated hope1 #ajaf2 disinterested and interested hope1 #ajag b1 #ajcc2 object of1 #ajah2 excellence of1 #ajbg2 comparison with faith1 #ajbi2 with charity1 #ajcj2 pseudo-hope 7egotistical1 ,epicurean1 and utilitarian71 #ajcb2 hope overcomes spiritual discouragement and aridity1 #ajcd2 means for growth in hope1 #ajce2 subject of hope1 #ajcf2 certainty of1 #ajdj2 perfected by ,fear of the ,lord 7q4v471 #ajda2 sins against hope1 #ajei sqq42 despair 7q4v471 #ajfa sqq42 spiritual desolations1 #ajfd2 pusillanimity and spiritual sloth1 #ajfd2 presumption 7q4v471 #ajge sqq12 commandments of hope1 #ajib2 acts of hope obligatory1 #ajic2 unlawful to surrender beatitude1 #ajid2 when the commandment of hope obliges1 #ajie sqq4 ,horror1 #aai4 ,see also ,passions1 concupiscible4 ,houses of ,study1 courses of theology must follow ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 #aj4 ,human ,acts1 see ,acts1 ,human4 ,humanitarianism1 sin against piety1 #bcdi b4 ,humility1 greatness of soul and humility1 #bddi2 potential part of temperance1 #bdfe c2 definition1 #beec2 the three acts of humility1 #beed a2 two requirements of humility1 #beee2 excellence of humility1 #beef a4 ,hunting1 forbidden to clerics1 #bfjc c4 ,husbands1 see ,matrimony1 ,sacrament of4 ,hussism1 #hbb c4 ,hydromancy1 form of divination1 #bbhd c4 ,hyperdulia1 species of reverence1 #bceb c4 ,hypocrisy1 form of lying1 #bcia b2 sinfulness of hypocrisy1 #bdje4 ,iconoclasm1 #hbb c4 ,idleness1 #acbf e4 ,idolatry1 see ,religion1 ,sins against4 ,ignorance1 various kinds1 #bd sqq42 concomitant1 consequent and antecedent1 #bf1 #bi2 vincible and invincible1 #bg1 #cj2 influence on voluntariness of acts1 #bh2 effect on sin1 #bdi2 sins of ignorance1 see ,ignorance1 ,sin of2 invincible1 in relation to ,natural ,law1 #cbj2 of ,christian ,law1 possibility of1 #cef2 confessors should examine penitents who show signs of ignorance1 #ibd4 ,ignorance1 ,sin of1 #bej b1 #ijd sqq12 culpable ignorance as distinct sin1 #ijg4 ,see also ,ignorance4 ,images1 when obscene1 #adef a4 ,immoderation1 vice opposed to temperance1 #bdfd b4 ,immorality1 see ,impurity4 ,impatience1 vice opposed to patience1 #bdee b4 ,impediments1 simple impediments to reception of ,holy ,orders1 #bghd b2 matrimonial impediments1 #bhjd sqq4 ,imperfections1 ,moral1 #ahe2 when they become sin1 #ahf4 ,impossibility1 ,physical1 #cfa a2 moral1 #cfa b4 ,impurity1 definition1 #bdib2 sensuality1 luxury and curiosity1 #bdib n2 kinds of impurity1 #bdic a2 gravity of sin1 #bdid a2 one of the capital vices1 #bdid c2 evil fruits of impurity1 #bdie2 when venial and mortal1 #bdif a2 when directly willed1 #bdif b2 when indirectly willed1 #bdif c2 temptations to impurity1 #bdig2 resistance to internal temptations1 #bdih2 what opposition to temptation is sufficient1 #bdii2 insufficient1 harmful and unnecessary opposition1 #bejj2 weapons against carnal temptations1 #beja2 sinfulness of negligence in resisting temptations1 #bejb2 non-consummated sins of impurity1 #bejd2 impure thoughts1 #beje2 malice of impure thoughts1 #bejf a2 impure rejoicing1 #bejg2 impure desires1 #bejh2 malice of impure desires1 #beji2 sins of lewdness1 #beaj2 consummated sins of impurity1 #bebj2 comparative malice of the sins of consummated lust1 #beba a2 multiplication of sins of lust1 #bebb2 fornication1 #bebc2 incest1 #becb2 carnal sacrilege1 #becc2 unnatural lust1 #becd2 pollution1 #bece2 non-sinful pollution1 #becf2 unimputable pollution1 #becg2 proximate and remote occasions of pollution1 #bech2 theological malice of sinful pollution1 #beci2 moral species of sinful pollution1 #beda2 canonical penalties for immorality1 #bedb4 ,see also ,lewdness2 ,fornication4 ,imputability of ,acts1 #ig sqq4 ,inadvertence1 resembles ignorance1 #cb4 ,incest1 definition1 #beca4 ,inconvenience1 degrees of1 #aebj4 ,index of ,forbidden ,books1 #hfb c4 ,indifferentism1 #hbc a4 ,indignation1 differs from envy1 #acca c1 #acci4 ,indolence1 #acbf d4 ,infamy1 #bjea sqq4 ,infidelity1 #hbb ff4 ,ingratitude1 see ,gratitude4 ,inhabitant1 definition1 #dcg2 when subject to laws1 #dch4 ,inheritance1 title of private ownership1 #ahgb b4 ,inhibition1 of passions1 #aca4 ,injuria1 definition1 #agbd b4 ,injuries1 ,bodily1 a form of injustice1 #ahff4 ,injustice1 definition1 #agai2 species of legal and particular injustice1 #agbj2 theological species of legal and particular injustice1 #agba2 when injury to private or public right is mortal sin1 #agbb a1 b2 moral species of injustice1 #agbc2 profitable and unprofitable injustice1 #agbd c2 when injury is no injustice1 #agbe2 internal injustice1 #agbf2 distributive injustice alone does not oblige to restitution1 #aged2 cooperators in injustice and restitution1 #aggh sqq42 mandator of act of injustice1 #aggi a2 advisor of act of injustice1 #aggi b2 protector in act of injustice1 #aggi d2 consenter in act of injustice1 #aggi e2 partaker in injustice1 #aggi f2 sin of injustice1 #ahff s2 judicial injustice1 #aici2 principal sins of verbal injustice1 #bjji4 ,injustice in ,buying and ,selling1 see ,fraud4 ,innocent1 unintentional killing of1 #ahdg4 ,insensibility1 sin against fortitude1 #bddf b2 vice opposed to temperance1 #bdfd4 ,insurance1 #agdi c4 ,intellect1 art and prudence the two practical virtues of1 #afbg4 ,intention1 as act of will1 #eh4 ,see also ,prayer4 ,internationalism1 ,false1 sin against piety1 #bcdi b4 ,interpretation1 of law1 #cae sqq42 verbal or emendatory1 #cae2 by private or public authority1 #caf2 of ecclesiastical laws1 #dhc sqq42 rules for doctrinal interpretation1 #dhe4 ,invocation1 of a demon1 #bbhd2 invocation of spirits1 see ,religion1 ,sins against4 ,irascible ,passions1 #aah1 #abj4 ,irregularities1 as disqualifications for reception of ,holy ,orders1 #bghd b4 ,irreligiousness1 see ,religion1 ,sins against4 ,jail-breaking1 and restitution1 #aihc4 ,jealousy1 lawful and unlawful1 #accc4 ,jesting1 distinction between derision and jesting1 #bajg4 ,jingoism1 sin against piety1 #bcdi a4 ,joy1 ,fruit of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afc2 sinful1 #bcg2 as effect of charity1 #aaic-aaid4 ,judaism1 #hbb b4 ,judaizers1 #hbc b4 ,judge1 office of1 #aidj2 qualifications1 #aidc2 conduct1 #aidd2 accepting gifts from litigants1 #aide2 obligation to restore bribes1 etc41 #aidf2 duties during a trial1 #aidg2 duties on conclusion of a trial1 #aidh2 obligation in connection with a law manifestly unjust1 #aidi2 ,catholic judge and degrees of divorce1 #aiej2 obligation when evidence is contrary to his personal knowledge1 #aiea2 when judge is unjust cause of damaging evidence1 #aieb2 obligation in doubtful criminal cases1 #aiee2 obligation in doubtful civil cases1 #aief2 standard by which he should weigh evidence1 #aieh2 when a judge is bound to restitution1 #aifb2 when he is not bound to restitution1 #aifc2 right to question prisoner about his guilt1 #aigi2 judges who pass death sentence become irregular by ,canon ,law1 #ahbe4 ,see also ,witness4 ,judgment1 virtue of1 #agbg2 public and private judgment1 #agbg a2 three conditions of righteous judgment1 #agbi-agca2 necessary quality of lawful oath1 #bbdi e4 ,judgment1 ,rash1 #agca b2 sinfulness of rash judgment1 #agcd2 rules on perfect advertence to rashness of judgment1 #agcf2 rules on insufficiency of reasons for unfavorable judgments1 #agcg2 rules on gravity of matter in rash judgments1 #agch2 moral species of the sin of rash judgment1 #agci2 chief reasons for rash conclusions about character of others1 #agdb2 rash doubts1 #agdc4 ,judgments1 ,moral1 #fgb sqq42 the safer and more likely1 #fgc4 ,jurisdiction1 of a judge1 #aidb4 ,justice1 #aej2 golden mean in1 #aed a1 #aeg b2 precedence over charity1 #bia b2 compared with other virtues1 #agad2 private justice1 #agae b2 legal justice1 #agae a2 justice superior to courage1 #agaf a2 superior to liberality1 #agaf b2 regarded by some as inferior to virtue of religion and mercy1 #agah a1 b2 justice demands proper motives in those who seek or pass judgment1 #agbh a2 legal justice distinct from distributive and commutative1 #agde a2 distributive justice1 #agde b2 commutative justice1 #agde c2 resemblance between distributive and commutative justice1 #agdf2 special differences between distributive and commutative justice1 #agdg2 commutations of commutative justice1 #agdh2 equality sought by commutative justice1 #agej2 distributive justice and violation of individual rights1 #agee2 commutative justice and violation of individual rights1 #agef2 vice opposed to distributive justice1 #ahjd2 distributive injustice frequently accompanied by commutative injustice1 #ahjh2 vices against commutative justice1 #ahae2 legal justice1 classes of courts1 #aida2 jurisdiction of #i1 judge1 #aidb2 quasi-integral parts of justice1 #baci2 potential parts of justice1 #bada2 degrees of moral debt1 #badc2 necessary qualities of lawful oath1 #bbdi c2 complements of justice1 #bdcc2 ,beatitudes that correspond to justice1 #bdcc b2 ,fruits of the ,holy ,ghost that correspond to justice1 #bdcc c2 commandments of justice1 #bdcd2 justice1 a duty of superior1 #bfce b4 ,see also ,equity2 ,restitution4 ,killing1 of animals1 #ahah a2 of human beings1 see ,homicide4 ,kindness1 ,fruit of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afc4 ,kinsfolk1 order of charity between1 #aagf sqq4 ,kissing1 morality of kissing and similar acts1 #beac4 ,knights of ,columbus1 #iee b4 ,knights of ,pythias1 ,society forbidden by ,church1 #idf b4 ,knowledge1 ,gift of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afj a2 given to perfect theological virtues1 #hjh4 ,lands1 how they may be occupied1 #ahgc b4 ,larceny1 definition of1 #ahic b2 petit and grand larceny1 #ahic b4 ,last ,end of ,man1 existence of1 #ai2 nature of1 #bj2 how attained1 #ba4 ,latitudinarianism1 #hbc a4 ,law1 #bhd sqq42 definition1 #bhe2 eternal1 natural and positive divine1 #bhf2 collision of laws1 #bhh2 precedence1 #bhi sqq12 basis of all laws1 #bic2 customs may interpret1 abrogate or introduce law1 #ejf4 ,law1 ,christian1 comparison with ,mosaic ,law1 #cdf sqq42 as regards their aims1 #cdg2 as regards their precepts1 #cdh2 as regards their difficulty of observance1 #cdi2 as regards external and internal works1 #cej-cea2 moral1 ceremonial and judicial precepts of ,new ,testament1 #ceb2 duration of1 #ced2 subjects of1 #cee2 ignorance of1 #cef2 dispensation from1 #ceg2 interpretation of1 #ceh-cei2 when observance of law is impossible1 #cfj-cfa2 ,counsels of 7q4v471 #cfd sqq42 the three chief ,counsels1 #cfi4 ,see also ,law1 ,mosaic4 ,law1 ,civil1 #edb sqq42 persons in whom legislative authority is vested1 #edc2 acceptance by people not necessary for obligation of law in itself1 #edd2 obligation of laws made by one without authority1 #ede2 subject-matter1 #edf2 relation to natural law1 #edg2 relation to divine and ecclesiastical law1 #edh2 and human rights and liberties1 #edi2 persons subject to1 #eej2 obligation of1 #eea2 when penalty is incurred before sentence1 #eeb2 special kinds1 #eeg sqq42 laws that determine ownership1 #eeg2 irritant or voiding laws1 #eeh2 four kinds of laws with reference to penalty1 #efa2 moral obligation1 #efa sqq4 ,see also ,laws1 ,human4 ,law1 ,ecclesiastical1 precedence over civil1 #bij1 #dah sqq42 charter of1 #dah2 character of1 #dai2 general law of ,church1 #dbj2 effects of ,code on liturgical and disciplinary laws and customs1 #dba2 rules governing interpretation of ,code1 #dbb2 lawgivers in ,church1 #dbc-dbi2 subject-matter of ,church ,law1 #dbe2 kinds of acts governed by ,church ,law1 #dbf2 persons bound by general laws1 #dbg sqq42 persons bound by particular laws1 #dce2 promulgation1 #ddg2 acceptance of1 #ddh2 irritant laws1 #dej sqq42 effects of ignorance1 force or fear on acts irritated by law1 #def2 when an irritant law ceases to bind1 #deg2 obligation of law based on presumption of common danger1 #dfj2 obligation of law based on presumption of particular fact1 #dfa2 personal1 minute1 partial and simultaneous fulfillment of laws1 #dfb sqq42 time of fulfillment1 #dfh sqq42 unwilling fulfillment1 #dgf2 intention required in fulfillment1 #dgg sqq42 virtuous dispositions in fulfillment1 #dhj sqq42 interpretation of1 #dhc2 cessation of obligation1 #dhg2 exemption from1 #dhh2 ignorance and impossibility as excuses for non-observance1 #dhi sqq42 cessation of1 #ejj sqq42 use of epieikeia in determining obligation1 #ejc4 ,law1 ,eternal1 ,the1 basis of all laws1 #bic4 ,law1 ,mosaic1 began with promise to ,abraham1 #ccb a2 promulgation1 #ccb b2 excellence1 #ccc2 subjects of1 #ccd2 duration of obligation1 #cce2 precepts1 ceremonies and judgments1 #ccf sqq42 ceremonial laws1 #cdj2 sacred times and places1 sacraments and customs1 #cdj2 four periods of ceremonial law1 #cdb2 four kinds of judgments or judicial laws1 #cdc-cde2 comparison with ,christian ,law1 #cdf sqq4 ,law1 ,natural1 precedence over positive1 #bhi2 definition1 #bie2 relation to other laws1 #bif2 division1 #big2 common and proper1 #big b2 primary and secondary1 #bih2 first principle and secondary principles1 #cjj a2 precepts 7axiomatic and inferred1 general and particular71 #cjj-cja2 necessary and contingent laws1 #cjb2 absolute and relative laws1 #cjc2 properties of1 #cje2 of universal obligation1 #cjf2 unchangeable1 #cjg sqq12 possibility of dispensation from1 #cji1 #cad sqq42 possibility of modification1 #cac2 when observance is physically or morally impossible1 #cag-cah2 promulgated by light of reason1 #cai2 ineradicable from human heart1 #cbd2 wrong applications of1 #cbf4 ,law1 ,positive ,divine1 definition1 #cbh2 necessity1 #cbh c2 differs from ,natural ,law in certain respects1 #cbi2 natural and supernatural commandments1 #ccj2 division of1 #cca2 in state of original innocence1 #cca a2 in law of nature1 #cca b2 ,mosaic ,law1 #ccb sqq42 ,christian ,law1 #cdf sqq4 ,lawgivers1 in the ,church1 #dbc-dbd4 ,laws1 ,administration of1 see ,judge4 ,laws1 ,ceremonial1 of ,old ,testament1 #cdj sqq41 ,see also ,law4 ,mosaic4 ,laws1 ,ecclesiastical1 in a wide sense1 #ead sqq42 precepts1 #eai2 rescripts1 #ebj2 privileges1 #eba-ebc2 dispensations1 #ebd4 ,laws1 ,human1 #cgj sqq42 definition1 #cgj2 divisions1 #cga2 qualities1 #cgb2 should not prescribe what is too difficult1 #cgb2 obligation1 #cge2 necessity1 #cge2 when unjust1 #cgf2 obedience to unjust laws not obligatory1 #cgg2 degrees of obligation1 #cgc sqq42 interpretation1 #che-chf2 epieikeia1 #che2 those subject to law1 #chg-chh2 change of1 #chi2 constitutional law1 #cij2 effects of custom on law1 #cia2 dispensation from1 #dja sqq4 ,see also ,law1 ,civil4 ,laws of ,new ,testament1 #g4 ,laws of the ,first and ,second ,tables1 #cch4 ,see also ,decalogue4 ,lawyer1 general duties1 #aiie2 qualifications1 #aiif2 duties in introducing case1 #aiig1 obligation in charity towards persons in distress1 #aiih-ii2 duty when cause is unjust1 #bjjj2 duties when justice of cause is doubtful1 #bjja2 duty when he discovers case is really unjust1 #bjjc2 duties towards client1 #bjjd2 duties toward other parties1 #bjje2 concealment of truth in presenting case1 #bjjf2 sinfulness of introducing false or corrupted documents1 #bjjg2 when bound to restitution1 #bjjh4 ,laxism1 see ,systems1 ,moral4 ,laziness1 as distinct from sloth1 #acbf2 various forms1 #acbf a-e4 ,lease1 #agdi b4 ,leniency1 ,undue1 vice1 #beeb b4 ,lenten ,fast1 #behh4 ,lesbian ,love1 form of impurity1 #becd c4 ,lewdness1 definition1 #beaj2 propriety of external acts1 #beab2 morality of kissing and similar acts1 #beac2 morality of sensual gratification1 #bead2 theological species of the sin of lewdness1 #beae2 circumstances that increase or lessen the danger of sin1 #beag2 cases wherein the danger of sin is grave or slight1 #beah2 lewd books1 #beah b2 lewdness in speech1 #beah a2 in reading1 #beah b2 in looks1 #beah c2 in touches1 #beah d2 moral species of lewdness1 #beai a4 ,libel1 definition1 #bjcj d4 ,liberality1 inferior to justice1 #agaf b2 virtue of liberality1 #badc b2 definition of virtue1 #bdbd2 importance of liberality1 #bdbe4 ,see also ,avarice2 ,prodigality4 ,lies1 see ,lying4 ,lipstick1 morality of use1 #begj4 ,liquids1 may or may not break fast1 #behh4 ,loans1 #agdi a2 loan at interest1 #agdi b4 ,longsuffering1 ,fruit of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afc4 ,looting1 forbidden by modern international law1 #adae4 ,loss1 definition1 #agbd b4 ,lots1 ,use of1 when lawful1 #bbhi4 ,lottery1 when lawful1 #ahgi e4 ,love1 definition1 #aai2 root of all appetites of soul1 #aajf2 effects1 #aajg2 degrees1 #aajh2 love of desire and love of benevolence1 #aaji2 love of creatures not always charity1 #aacd2 kinds of self-love 7q4v471 #aacf2 obligatory1 #afjh a2 of supererogation1 #afjh b4 ,love of ,god1 see ,charity4 ,love of ,neighbor1 see ,neighbor1 ,love of4 ,love of ,self1 see ,self-,love4 ,lukewarmness1 #acbg4 ,lust1 #bfi4 ,see also ,impurity4 ,luxury1 compared with impurity1 #bdib a2 modesty in luxury1 #befi a4 ,lying1 definition1 #bchi2 misunderstanding a form of lying1 #bcij a2 misinterpretation a form of lying1 #bcij b2 divisions of lies1 #bcia2 hypocrisy1 #bcia b2 simulation1 #bcja b2 misrepresentation and deceit1 #bcia b2 classification of lies1 #bcib2 lies of inclination1 #bcib b2 pernicious lies1 #bcib b2 motives for lying #bcic2 jocose lie1 #bcib a2 officious lie1 #bcib a2 comparison of gravity of various lies1 #bcid2 sinfulness of all lies1 #bcie2 when lying entails no formal sin1 #bcif2 pernicious lies1 #bcig2 concealment of the truth1 #bcih2 mental reservation1 #bcii2 morality of strict mental reservation1 #bdjj2 morality of broad mental reservation1 #bdjj b2 when broad mental reservation is lawful1 #bdja2 ambiguous answers1 #bdjb2 simulation or pretence1 #bdjc2 sinfulness of simulation1 #bdjd4 ,macedonianism1 #hbb c4 ,magnanimity1 see ,greatness of ,soul4 ,majority1 ,age of1 #dcc4 ,malefactor1 when bound to accuse himself1 #aifh4 ,malice1 sins of1 #bej e2 caused by sloth1 #acbd4 ,mandatum1 #agdi a4 ,manicheans1 #hbc b4 ,manicheism1 #hbb c4 ,marriage1 see ,matrimony1 ,sacrament of4 ,marriage1 ,trial1 definition1 #bebg c4 ,marriages1 ,dangerous1 #hge2 canonical consequences1 #hgi2 prenuptial guarantees1 #hhj2 remedies against mixed and dangerous marriages1 #hha4 ,martyrdom1 definition1 #bddb2 kinds of martyrdom1 #bddc2 conditions for martyrdom1 #bddd2 practical questions about martyrdom1 #bdde4 ,mass1 ,sacrifice of the1 #bgji2 obligation of saying ,mass1 #bgaj2 dispositions for the celebration of ,mass1 #bgaa2 confession before ,mass1 #bgaa a2 distractions during the ,canon1 #bgaa b2 preparation and thanksgiving before ,mass1 #bgaa a2 ,eucharistic or natural fast1 #bgaa b2 rubrical vestments1 #bgaa b2 time of ,mass1 #bgab a2 place1 #bgab b2 rites1 #bgab c2 when it is lawful to discontinue ,mass1 #bgac2 application of the ,mass1 #bgad2 obligation of pastors to say ,mass for flocks1 #bgad a2 obligation of ,mass stipends1 #bgad b2 persons for whom ,mass may be applied1 #bgae2 how ,mass must be applied1 #bgae b2 lawfulness of ,mass stipends1 #bgaf4 ,masturbation1 form of impurity1 #becd a4 ,material ,sin1 #bdh4 ,matrimony1 ,sacrament of1 first blessing of marriage 7offspring71 #bfac a2 second blessing of marriage 7fidelity71 #bfac b2 third blessing of marriage 7sacrament71 #bfac c2 obligation of paying the conjugal debt1 #bfad2 absence of obligation1 #bfae2 suspension of obligation1 #bfaf2 obligation of requesting conjugal intercourse1 #bfag2 morality of venereal acts of marriage1 #bfah2 unnatural consummated acts1 #bfah c2 artificial fecundation1 #bfah c2 rectal copulation1 #bfah c2 contraception1 #bfbj2 contraception an injury to ,god1 #bfbj a2 an injury to society1 #bfbj b2 an injury to the family1 #bfbj c2 an injury to the individual1 #bfbj d2 arguments of ,neo-,malthusians and other advocates of contraception1 #bfba2 is birth-control ever lawful8 #bfbb2 cooperatio uxoris ad onanismum vel contraceptionem1 #bfbc2 recapitulatio de licitis et illicitis in conjugio1 #bfbd2 marriage as a ,sacrament1 #bfbf2 reasons that justify separation1 #bfbf a2 husband superior to wife in authority1 #bfbf b2 husband has duty of providing for wife1 #bfbf c2 no obligation for individual to marry1 #bfbg a2 unity of marriage its first property1 #bghg d2 indissolubility of marriage its second property1 #bghg e2 ,pauline ,privilege1 #bghg e2 dissolution1 #bghg e2 divorce under ,mosaic ,law1 #bghg e2 marriages of infidels1 #bghg e2 true1 presumed1 putative and attempted marriage1 #bghh a2 legitimate1 ratified1 consummated marriage1 #bghh b2 clandestine1 secret1 public marriage1 #bghh c2 marriage of conscience1 #bghh c2 marriage is canonical or civil1 #bghh d2 elements of contract of marriage1 #bghi a2 ends of contract1 #bghi b2 essence of contract is the consent1 #bghi c2 valid consent1 #bgij2 defects in consent1 #bgia2 mental derangement as defect1 #bgia a2 ignorance as defect1 #bgia b2 error as defect1 #bgia c2 effect of forced consent on validity1 #bgib a2 effect of forced consent on lawfulness1 #bgib b2 conditional consent1 #bgic2 elements of marriage as ,sacrament1 #bgid2 ministers and recipients of ,matrimony1 #bgid b2 effects of ,matrimony1 #bgid c2 duties in connection with marriage1 #bgie2 obligation of betrothal or engagement1 #bgif2 is engagement necessary before marriage8 #bgih2 duties to parents or guardians in reference to marriage1 #bgii2 duties of parents in reference to marriage1 #bhjj2 obstacles to marriage1 #bhja2 duty to make known impediment to marriage1 #bhja c2 duties of pastor in examination of engaged persons1 #bhjb2 special proofs of freedom to marry1 #bhjc2 proof of ,baptism1 #bhjc a2 proof of single state1 #bhjc b2 matrimonial impediments1 #bhjd2 sinfulness of marrying with an impediment1 #bhje2 impedient or prohibitive impediments1 #bhjf2 vow as impediment1 #bhjf a2 impediment of legal relationship1 #bhjf b2 impediment of mixed religion1 #bhjf e2 duties of pastor and parties in connection with mixed marriages1 #bhjg2 valid engagement forbids marriage with third party1 #bhji a2 special prohibition of particular marriage by the ,church1 #bhji b2 closed times1 #bhji e2 diriment impediments to marriage1 #bhaj2 absolute diriment impediments1 #bhaa2 impediment of age1 #bhac2 impediment of impotency1 #bhad2 impediment of bond1 #bhaf2 impediment of difference of religion1 #bhag2 impediment of kinship1 #bhah2 consanguinity1 #bhah a2 affinity1 #bhah b2 public decency1 #bhah c2 spiritual relationship1 #bhah d2 legal relationship1 #bhah e2 matrimonial impediments produced through misdeeds1 #bhai2 impediment of abduction1 #bhai a2 impediment of crime1 #bhai b2 duties of pastor after inquiry about impediments1 #bhbj2 dispensation1 #bhbj a2 publications of banns of marriage1 #bhbj b2 duties of pastor after examination and proclamation1 #bhba2 duties of pastor as regards religious instruction of engaged couple1 #bhbb2 pastor and duties of engaged couple1 #bhbc2 pastor's duties to parents1 #bhbc a2 pastor's duties to civil law1 #bhbc b2 opposition of parents to marriage1 #bhbd2 religious duties of parties before marriage1 #bhbe2 confession1 #bhbe a2 ,communion1 #bhbe b2 celebration of marriage1 #bhbf2 requisites for validity1 #bhbf a2 requisites for lawfulness1 #bhbf b2 rite of ,matrimony1 #bhbg2 ,nuptial ,blessing and ,nuptial ,mass1 #bhbg b2 cooperation in unworthy marriage1 #bhbh2 registration of marriages1 #bhbi2 when impediment is discovered after marriage1 #bhcj2 lawfulness of divorce and separation1 #bhca4 ,see also ,betrothal4 ,matter of ,sin1 grave1 #aga-agb2 light1 #ahb4 ,matter1 ,sacramental1 see ,sacrament4 ,meanness1 vice against greatness of deed1 #bdeb b4 ,medicinal ,afflictions1 as remedies against sin1 #bhc4 ,meekness1 ,fruit of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afc2 potential part of temperance1 #bdfe c2 definition1 #bede4 ,memory1 #afcg a4 ,mental ,derangement1 removes theological guilt1 #agfd a4 ,mercy1 result of charity1 #aaic2 definition1 #aaic c2 natural and supernatural1 #abje2 causes of unmerciful spirit1 #abjf2 mercy compared with other moral virtues1 #abjg2 compared with charity1 #abjh2 obligation1 #abji2 seven corporal works of mercy1 #abba2 seven spiritual works1 #abbb-abbc2 regarded by some as superior to justice1 #agag b4 ,merit1 definition1 #ajg2 human and divine1 #ajh2 natural and supernatural1 #aji2 condign and congruous1 #aaj2 the right standard for distributive justice1 #ahjd c4 ,merits1 former merits recovered by repentance1 #bgbe c4 ,methods in ,moral ,theology1 ,casuistic1 ,positive and ,scholastic1 #ac4 ,minors1 legal privileges in connection with contracts1 #ahhb4 ,misrepresentation1 form of lying1 #bcia b4 ,moderation1 see ,temperance4 ,modernism1 #hbb c1 #hda b4 ,modesty1 ,fruit of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afc2 of bearing and living potential part of temperance1 #bdfe e2 definition of modesty1 #befe2 modest behavior or decorum1 #beff a2 vices opposed to modesty1 #beff b2 modesty in style of living and dress1 #befi a2 morality of self-beautification1 #begj2 fruit of the ,fear of the ,lord1 #bega c4 ,mohammedanism1 #hbb a4 ,monophysitism1 #hbb c4 ,morality1 definition1 #fd2 constitutive norm1 #fe2 manifestative norm1 #fg2 perceptive norm1 #fh2 three species of1 #fi2 three sources1 the object1 circumstances1 and end1 #gj sqq42 moral value of passions1 #aba sqq42 important influence of habits on1 #adj4 ,moral ,science1 office of1 #afca b4 ,moral ,systems1 see ,systems1 ,moral4 ,moral ,theology1 objects1 #d2 medium1 #d2 sources1 #f2 use of natural reason1 philosophy and natural sciences in1 #aa-ab2 ,positive1 ,scholastic and ,casuistic ,methods1 #ac2 history of1 #ae2 ,patristic ,period1 #ae a2 ,medieval ,period1 #ae b2 ,modern1 #ae c2 division and order of parts1 #ag2 ,general and ,special1 #ah4 ,mormonism1 #hbc b4 ,mortgage1 #agdi d4 ,motions of the ,soul1 ,first and ,second1 #abi4 ,motives of ,sin1 #bfh sqq4 ,munificence1 virtue1 #bdeb e4 ,murder1 see ,homicide4 ,murmuring1 definition and sinfulness of1 #babj4 ,mutilation1 definition1 #ahff a2 when lawful1 #ahfg4 ,mutuum1 definition1 #agdi a4 ,mysteries1 that must be believed1 #ghg sqq41 #iah1 #ibj2 substantial and scientific knowledge of1 #gij4 ,narcotics1 licit use1 #bdhe4 ,naturalism1 #hdg b4 ,necessity1 ,spiritual1 degrees of1 #aafe4 ,necessity1 ,temporal1 degrees of1 #abcf2 extreme necessity justifies conversion of others' property1 #aiba a4 ,necromancy1 form of divination1 #bbhd b4 ,necrophilism1 form of impurity1 #becd d4 ,negligence1 #acbf a4 ,negotiorum gestio1 definition1 #agdi a4 ,neighbor1 ,love of1 three kinds1 #aaci sqq42 sacrifice of spiritual goods or bodily welfare for neighbor's sake1 #aafc sqq42 order of charity between neighbors1 #aaga sqq4 ,see ,charity2 ,friendship2 ,emulation2 ,jealousy2 ,hate2 ,correction1 ,fraternal4 ,neo-,malthusians1 arguments in favor of contraception1 #bhba4 ,nestorianism1 #hbb c4 ,new ,testament1 ordinances1 #g2 counsels1 #g2 laws1 #g2 temporary regulations1 #g2 law of1 see ,law1 ,christian4 ,nihilists1 society forbidden by ,church1 #idg b4 ,non-,catholics1 participation in ,catholic rites1 #ieg sqq4 ,non-,combatants1 treatment during war1 #adab4 ,nurses1 duties of1 #bfea c4 ,oaths1 moral effects of accidentals added to contracts1 #ahhf b2 definition of an oath1 #bbde2 assertory or promissory oaths1 #bbdf a2 comminatory or confirmatory oaths1 #bbdf a2 contestatory or execratory oaths1 #bbdf b2 explicit or implicit oaths1 #bbdf b2 solemn or simple1 judicial or extrajudicial oaths1 #bbdf d2 moral difference between various kinds of oaths1 #bbdg2 lawfulness of oaths1 #bbdh2 necessary qualities of a lawful oath1 #bbdi2 sinful oaths1 #bbej2 incautious oath1 #bbej a2 perjured oaths1 #bbej b2 wicked oaths1 #bbej c2 mental reservation in oaths1 #bbea2 cooperation in sinful oaths1 #bbeb2 sinful oaths demanded or accepted by private persons1 #bbec2 fictitious oaths1 #bbed2 expressions confused with oaths2 obligation imposed by promissory oath1 #bbef2 obligation imposed by negative oath1 #bbeg2 obligation of oath is personal1 #bbeh2 interpretation of promissory oath1 #bbei2 kind of obligation produced by a valid promissory oath1 #bbfj2 cessation of obligation of promissory oath1 #bbfb4 ,see also ,adjuration4 ,obedience1 definition of virtue1 #bcee2 power of jurisdiction and dominative power1 #bcef2 degrees of obedience1 #bceg2 comparison of obedience with other virtues1 #bceh2 comparison of acts of obedience1 #bcei2 duty of obedience1 #bcfj2 when obedience is not lawful or obligatory1 #bcfa2 internal actions and human superiors1 #bcfc2 obligation of vow of obedience1 #bcfd2 sins against obedience1 #bcfe2 definition of disobedience1 #bcff2 kinds of disobedience1 #bcfg2 theological sinfulness of formal disobedience1 #bcfi2 moral species of disobedience1 #bcgj2 circumstances that aggravate formal disobedience1 #bcga2 comparison of formal disobedience with other sins1 #bcgb2 vow and virtue of obedience1 #bfab c2 obedience due to superiors1 #bfcf b4 ,objects1 ,sinful1 formal cooperation by manufacture of1 #aecc2 material cooperation1 #aecd sqq4 ,obscenity1 definition1 #adee2 internal and external1 #adee a-b2 general rules for determining what is obscene1 #adef2 persons who give scandal through obscenity1 #adeh2 government suppression of obscenity aim of ,league of ,nations1 #adeh e4 ,obstacles to ,consent1 #dj sqq42 fear1 #da2 ignorance1 #dj1 #bd sqq4 ,occasions of ,sin1 #bfc sqq4 ,occult ,heresy1 #hbh c4 ,occult ,sin1 #abhg4 ,occupation1 title to private ownership1 #ahgb a2 chief ways of occupation1 #ahgc2 when occupation of others' goods is lawful1 #aiba sqq4 ,see also ,theft4 ,occupations1 forbidden to clerics1 #bfjc b4 ,odd ,fellows1 ,society forbidden by ,church1 #idf b4 ,offerings1 act of religion1 #bahc4 ,office1 ,divine1 distractions during1 #bagd2 obligation of matter and manner1 #bfjj a2 excuses from the obligation of the ,divine ,office1 #bfja a4 ,officials1 ,public1 lawfulness of revelations about1 #bjga4 ,offset1 definition of1 #aibg a4 ,old ,testament1 moral precepts still binding1 #g2 ceremonial laws no longer obligatory1 #g4 ,omen1 form of divination1 #bbhe d4 ,omissions1 voluntary1 #cg2 effect of may be voluntary1 #ch4 ,oneiromancy1 form of divination1 #bbhd a4 ,opinion1 as state of conscience1 #ffb sqq4 ,ordeal by ,fire1 sin against religion1 #bbhd c4 ,order of ,charity1 #aaeh2 between neighbors1 #aaga sqq42 in almsgiving1 #abdg4 ,orders1 ,holy1 ,sacrament of1 #bggg2 distinction of the ,orders1 #bggh2 ,major and ,minor ,orders1 #bggh b2 hierarchy of ,orders1 #bggi a2 hierarchy of jurisdiction1 #bggi b2 matter and form of the various ,orders in the ,latin ,church1 #bghj2 episcopal consecration1 #bghj a2 minister of ordination1 #bgha2 special duties of minister1 #bghb2 recipient of ,orders1 #bghc2 conditions for validity of reception1 #bghc a2 conditions for lawfulness of reception1 #bghc b2 canonical requirements for ordination1 #bghd2 irregularities1 #bghd b2 simple impediments1 #bghd b2 irregularities from defect or delinquency1 #bghd b2 duties of ordinandi according to ,canon ,law1 #bghe a2 registration of ordinations1 #bghf2 ordination of acolyte1 #bghj a2 ordination of exorcist1 #bghj a2 ordination of porter1 #bghj a2 ordination of reader1 #bghj a2 ordination of subdeacon1 #bghj b2 ordination of deacon1 #bghj c2 ordination of priest1 #bghj d4 ,ordinances1 of the ,new ,testament1 #g4 ,orientals1 #hbb c4 ,original ,sin1 #bgb sqq4 ,ouija ,boards1 form of divination1 #bbhd c4 ,ownership1 ,private1 allowed by natural and divine law1 #ahgb2 chief titles to private ownership1 #ahgb4 ,pacifism1 ,extreme1 not inculcated by ,christ1 #acha4 ,pain1 of loss1 #bha a2 of sense1 #bha b4 ,palpo1 definition1 #aggi e4 ,pan-,christianism1 #hbc b4 ,parents1 duties of charity and piety1 #bfcj2 compensation of children1 #bfca2 sex education of children1 #bfcb4 ,participation of ,catholics in ,non-,catholic ,services1 #ifa2 active and passive participation1 #ifb-igc2 things wherein communication is possible2 #ifc2 simulated active assistance1 #ife2 cases of communication in false worship1 #ifg sqq42 cases where a communication in another ,catholic ,rite is allowed1 #igj2 participation in non-sacramental rites1 #iga2 participation in religious places1 times and objects1 #igb4 ,partnership1 #agdi b4 ,passion1 as obstacle to consent1 #dj1 #de2 antecedent1 makes act less free1 #dh2 consequent1 does not affect voluntariness of acts1 #di2 when it removes or diminishes theological guilt1 #agfd a4 ,passions1 definition1 #de1 #aaf sqq42 definition1 #aag2 concupiscible1 #aah-aai2 irascible1 #aah1 #abj2 moral value of1 #aba sqq42 physical1 mental and moral dangers of1 #abf2 antecedent or involuntary 7first motions of the soul71 #abi2 consequent or voluntary 7second motions of the soul71 #abi2 inhibition of1 #aca2 important influence of habits on1 #adj4 ,pastor1 duty to give ,sacraments1 #bfgf a2 duties in reference to ,baptism1 #bfhh2 to ,confirmation1 #bfih2 to ,communion1 #bgjg c2 to worship1 #bgjh c2 to celebration of ,mass1 #bgaj b2 to application of ,mass pro populo1 #bgad a2 jurisdiction for confession1 #bgea a2 on reserved cases1 #bged b2 duty to hear confessions1 #bgef b2 to give ,extreme ,unction1 #bgge c2 rank among the clergy1 #bggi b2 duties in reference to marriage1 #bhjb1 #bhjg1 #bhjh1 #bhbj sqq41 #bhbf1 #bhbi4 ,pathological ,states1 see ,abnormal ,mental ,states4 ,patience1 ,fruit of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afc2 act of fortitude1 #bddg b2 definition1 #bdec2 patience differs from temperance1 #bdec a2 differs from longsuffering and constancy1 #bdec c2 greatness of patience1 #bded2 vices opposed to patience1 #bdee2 virtue of steadfastness1 #bdef4 ,patriolatry1 sin against piety1 #bcdi a4 ,patriotism1 very like to religion1 #bcdf d4 ,pawn1 #agdi d4 ,pawning1 unjustifiable1 #ahgi g4 ,peace1 ,fruit of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afc2 as effect of charity1 #aaie sqq42 reconciliation with ,god1 #aaif2 reconciliation with enemies1 #aaif2 reconciliation with enemies demanded by charity1 #aaih2 what duty of reconciliation demands1 #aaii2 what this duty necessitates1 #aaii sqq42 person who should make the first advances1 #abjb2 manner and time of seeking reconciliation1 #abjc-jd2 sins against peace1 #acdg sqq4 ,see ,discord2 ,contention2 ,schism2 ,war2 ,fighting2 ,duelling2 ,sedition4 ,pederasty1 kind of impurity1 #becd c4 ,pelagianism1 #hbb c4 ,penance1 ,sacrament of1 #bgbg2 remote matter1 #bgbg a2 proximate matter1 #bgbg b2 form of1 #bgbg c2 subject of1 #bgbg d2 ,probabilism in administration of ,sacrament1 #bgbh2 contrition the first act of the penitent1 #bgbi2 valid and fruitful reception of the ,sacrament of ,penance1 #bgcd2 resolution of amendment1 #bgcf2 confession1 second act of penitent1 #bgcg2 qualities of confession1 #bgch2 gravity of lying to confessor1 #bgci2 integral confession1 #bgdj2 material and formal completeness1 #bgdj a1 b2 moral species of sin must be confessed1 #bgda a2 number of sins must be given1 #bgda b2 circumstances that change the species must be declared1 #bgda c2 external act that completed an internal sin must be declared1 #bgda d2 circumstances that notably aggravate a sin without changing its species1 #bgdb a2 external effects of a sin must be confessed1 #bgdb b2 uncertain sins must be confessed1 #bgdb c2 when material integrity is not necessary1 #bgdc2 completion or repetition of past incomplete ,confessions1 #bgdd2 when a general ,confession should be made1 #bgdd c2 satisfaction1 the third act of the penitent1 #bgde2 effects of actual satisfaction1 #bgdf2 conditions for effective satisfaction1 #bgdg2 obligation of accepting and performing a penance1 #bgdh2 causes that excuse from a penance imposed1 #bgdi2 requirements in the minister for valid absolution1 #bgej2 power of jurisdiction1 #bgea2 when the ,church supplies jurisdiction 7cases of common error and of uncertainty of law or fact71 #bgeb2 limitation of jurisdiction1 #bgec2 reserved sins1 #bgec a2 reserved persons1 #bgec b2 absolution from reserved cases1 #bged2 absolution given by one not possessed of jurisdiction1 #bgee2 duties of confessor before confession1 #bgef2 duties of confessor as judge in hearing the case1 #bgeg2 duties of confessor in deciding about cases1 #bgeh2 duties of confessor in passing sentence1 #bgei2 penitents to whom absolution should be denied1 #bgfj2 backsliders 7recidivists71 #bgfj c2 obligation1 quality and quantity of sacramental penance1 #bgfa2 duties of the confessor as spiritual physician1 #bgfb2 duties of the confessor as teacher and guide1 #bgfc2 spiritual direction1 #bgfd b2 duties of the confessor after confession1 #bgfd2 ,probabilism or epieikeia may not be applied to sacramental seal1 #bgfd a2 attitude of confessor to tempted and afflicted1 #bgfb b2 attitude to scrupulous1 #bgfb b2 treatment of sick and dying1 #bgfb b2 attitude towards the pious1 #bgfb b2 attitude towards the hardened sinner1 #bgfb b2 manner of repairing defects made in hearing a confession1 #bgfe2 excuses from duty of repairing mistakes1 #bgff2 obligation of seal of confession1 #bgfg2 sins against the seal of confession1 #bgfh2 special abuses to which confession is exposed1 #bgfi2 danger of defamation1 #bgfi a2 danger of impurity1 #bgfi b2 absolutio complicis1 #bggj2 effectus legis de absolutione complicis1 #bgga2 sollicitatio in confessione1 #bggb2 denuntiatio sollicitantis1 #bggc4 ,perception1 #afcg b4 ,pessimism1 defective judgment1 #agca f4 ,philanthropy1 as distinguished from almsgiving1 #abai4 ,philosophy1 use in ,moral ,theology4 #aa1 #ab4 ,phrenology1 form of divination1 #bbhe b4 ,physicians1 duties of1 #bfea c4 ,physiognomy1 divination by1 #bbhe b4 ,pictures1 when obscene1 #adef a4 ,piety1 ,gift of the ,holy ,ghost1 #afj b2 a potential part of justice1 #badb b2 various senses of1 #bcde2 definition of virtue of piety1 #bcdf2 reverence required by piety1 #bcdg2 assistance required by piety1 #bcdh2 sins against piety1 #bcdi2 malice of sins against piety1 #bcej2 ,gift of ,piety directed to ,our ,father in ,heaven1 #bdcc a4 ,plants1 when they may be occupied1 #ahgc b4 ,plays1 when obscene1 #adef c2 formal cooperation with evil plays1 #aeca2 material cooperation with1 #aecb4 ,pleasures1 ,sensible1 and temperance1 #bdfa b4 ,pleasures1 ,spiritual1 and temperance1 #bdfa b4 ,pledge1 #agdi d4 ,pollution1 see ,impurity4 ,pope1 authentic interpreter of all ecclesiastical laws1 #dhf2 three ways of rejecting papal decisions1 #acfi4 ,positive ,method1 in ,moral ,theology1 #ac4 ,possessors1 ,unlawful1 three kinds of1 #aggj sqq42 obligations in reference to the property and its fruits1 #agga sqq4 ,poverty1 vow and virtue1 #bfab a4 ,power of ,jurisdiction1 and dominative power1 #bcef4 ,practicality1 #afde4 ,praise of ,god1 #bbfi2 internal and external praise of ,god1 #bbgj2 excellence of praise of ,god1 #bbga2 qualities that should be present in the divine praises1 #bbgb4 ,prayer1 definition1 #baec2 the psychology of prayer1 #baed2 the necessity of prayer1 #baee2 a duty for all adults1 #baef2 times and frequency of prayer1 #baeg2 corollaries about prayer and confession1 #baeh2 to whom prayer may be offered1 #baei2 persons for whom prayer is offered1 #bafj2 things that may be prayed for1 #bafa2 qualities of prayer1 #bafb2 confidence requisite for successful prayer1 #bafc2 attention and intention in prayer1 #bafd2 actual1 virtual and habitual intention in prayer1 #bafe a1 b1 c2 internal or external1 verbal or superficial1 literal1 spiritual1 perfect or imperfect attention in prayer1 #baff2 acts that exclude external attention1 #bafg2 when external attention is sufficient1 #bafh2 kind of internal attention required in prayer1 #bafi2 distractions in prayer1 #bagj2 voluntary and involuntary distractions1 #baga2 sinfulness of distraction in prayer1 #bagb2 distractions during ,divine ,office1 #bagd4 ,precepts1 axiomatic and inferred1 #cjj2 general and particular1 #cja2 ecclesiastical1 #eae-eai4 ,precepts of the ,church1 ,first derived from natural and divine as well as ecclesiastical law1 #bege a2 affirmative and negative parts of ,first ,precept1 #begf2 how ,mass must be heard1 #begg2 external and bodily assistance1 #begg a2 internal or mental assistance requires actual or virtual intention of will1 #begg b2 the necessary attention1 #begg b2 time and place of ,mass1 #begh2 servile works1 #begi2 forensic and commercial labors forbidden1 #begi b2 liberal works tolerated1 #behj b2 definition of common works1 #beha a2 doubtful works1 #beha b2 lawfulness of hiring non-,catholics to do servile work1 #behb2 obligation of ,first ,precept1 #behc2 excuses from observance of ,first ,precept1 #behd2 scope of ,second ,precept1 #behf2 definition of flesh meat1 #behf a2 broth and condiments1 #behf c2 obligation of ,second ,precept1 #behg #ba2 exceptions to the obligation1 #behg c2 the obligation of fasting1 #behh sqq42 scope of ,third ,precept1 #beij2 subject and matter of ,third ,precept1 #beij a2 time for fulfillment of ,third ,precept1 #beij2 origin and gravity of ,third ,precept1 #beia2 scope of ,fourth ,precept1 #beib2 origin and gravity of ,fourth ,precept1 #beic a2 ,fifth ,precept1 #beid2 ,sixth ,precept of the ,church1 #beid4 ,prescription1 title to private ownership1 #ahgb b2 conditions for valid prescription1 #ahge2 may terminate the obligation of contract1 #ahhi b4 ,presumption1 sin of1 #ajge sqq42 definition1 #ajgh2 objects of1 #ajgi2 comparison with temptation of ,god and blasphemous hope1 #ajha2 malice of1 #ajhb2 gravity compared with other sins1 #ajhc2 presumption and unbelief1 #ajhd2 presumption takes away virtue of hope1 #ajhe2 causes of1 #ajia2 vice against greatness of soul1 #bdej a4 ,presumption of a ,pact1 #feb4 ,pretence1 see ,simulation4 ,price1 just and unjust1 see ,fraud4 ,pride1 as origin of discord1 #aced2 origin of contention1 #acfb2 cause of contumely1 #bjag a2 definition of pride1 #beeg2 acts of pride1 #beeh a2 sinfulness of pride1 #beei a2 pride compared with other sins1 #befj n2 pride mother of the seven capital sins1 #befj c4 ,principles1 first and secondary1 #cjj a2 reflex1 see ,reflex ,principles4 ,prison1 escape from1 lawfulness1 #aihb b4 ,prisoners1 treatment during war1 #adab1 #adag4 ,privilege1 ,pauline1 see ,matrimony1 ,sacrament of4 ,privileges1 #eba sqq42 definition1 #eba2 wide and strict interpretation of1 #ebb2 obligation to accept and use1 #ebc4 ,probabiliorism1 see ,systems1 ,moral4 ,probability1 intrinsic signs of1 #ffe a2 extrinsic signs of1 #ffe b2 kinds of1 #gjc2 of law1 #gaa a2 of fact1 #gaa b1 #gab4 ,probabilism1 see ,systems1 ,moral4 ,prodigality1 a vice opposed to liberality1 #bdbg2 sinfulness1 #bdbh2 comparison of avarice and prodigality1 #bdbi4 ,promotion of ,undeserving ,candidates1 #ageh4 ,profession of ,faith1 commandment of1 #ich sqq4 ,see ,faith4 ,propensities1 ,natural1 effect on voluntariness of acts1 #ed4 ,property1 ,private1 chief ways in which it may be occupied1 #ahgc2 when lost property may be occupied1 #ahgc d2 conversion of property against the wishes of owner1 #ahia b2 conversion of property1 #ahia4 ,propriety1 integral part of temperance1 #bdje b2 propriety of external acts1 #beab4 ,protestantism1 #hbb e4 ,providence1 #afch b4 ,prudence1 #adf1 #aej2 ranked first among cardinal virtues1 #afbf2 definition of prudence1 #afbg2 one of the two practical virtues of intellect1 #afbg a2 inferior to the ,gift of ,wisdom1 #afbg b2 objects of act of prudence1 #afbh a2 prudence concerned with application of truths and first principles of morality to contingent and particular cases1 #afbh b2 formal object of prudence1 #afbi a2 material object1 #afbi a2 prudence needs certitude1 #afcj2 relation of prudence to the other moral virtues1 #afca a2 prudence rules the inferior virtues and serves the superior1 #afcb2 prudence and the intellectual virtues1 #afcb a2 prudence and the theological virtues1 #afcb b2 the exercise of prudence1 #afcc2 the three acts of prudence1 deliberation1 decision1 direction1 #afcc2 qualities of prudence1 #afcd2 moral1 integral1 subjective1 potestative parts of prudence1 #afce1 #afcf2 integral parts of prudence1 #afcg2 prudence knows how to reason correctly1 #afch a2 subjective parts of prudence1 #afci2 individual prudence1 #afci a1 #afdd a2 social prudence1 #afci b2 political prudence1 #afdj a1 #afdd c1 #afdh2 domestic prudence1 #afdj b1 #afdd b1 #afej2 governmental prudence1 #afdb a2 military prudence1 #afdb b1 #afdd d2 utility of prudence for society1 #afdc2 potential parts of prudence1 #afdf2 persons who possess prudence1 #afdh2 evil prudence1 #afea a2 imperfect prudence1 #afea2 indifferent prudence1 #afea b2 good prudence1 #afea c2 infused prudence1 #afed a2 prudence in young people1 #afee a2 formed habit of prudence1 #afee a2 prudence a duty of superior1 #bfce a2 formative prudence1 #afee b4 ,puberty1 ,age of1 #dcc4 ,punishment1 eternal and temporal1 #bhj4 ,punishment1 ,capital1 lawfulness of1 #ahbj2 when it should not be imposed1 #ahba2 unlawful killing of offenders1 #ahbc a4 ,punishments1 ,bodily1 #ahgj4 ,punitive ,sterilization1 #ahfi b4 ,purity1 ,virtue of1 #bdhf2 definition1 #bdhf2 definition of chastity1 #bdhf a2 definition of decency1 #bdhf b4 ,see also ,virginity2 ,impurity4 ,purpose1 ,wrong1 may make venial sin mortal1 #aia2 or mortal venial1 #aie4 ,pusillanimity1 #ajhd2 as incentive to envy1 #accj2 vice against greatness of soul1 #bdea a4 ,pyromancy1 form of divination1 #bbhd c4 ,pythian ,sisters1 ,society forbidden by ,church1 #idf b4 ,pythonism1 form of divination1 #bbhd b4 ,quickness1 #afcg b4 ,rancor1 caused by sloth1 #acbd4 ,rape1 #bebi4 ,rash ,opinion1 #agcc4 ,see also ,judgment1 ,rash4 ,rationalism1 #hdg4 ,reason1 ,age of1 #dcc4 ,reason1 ,natural1 use in ,moral ,theology1 #aa2 as subject of sin1 #bca4 ,reading1 ,dangerous1 #hdi sqq42 forbidden by natural and ecclesiastical law1 #hej4 ,rebeccas1 ,society forbidden by ,church1 #idf b4 ,rebellion1 not schism1 #acfd4 ,recoupment1 definition of1 #aibg a4 ,reflex ,principles1 for solution of doubts1 #feg sqq42 may supply indirect certitude1 #feb b4 ,regulae pro confessariis de licitis et illicitis1 in conjugio1 #bfbe4 ,relationships1 various kinds1 #aage4 ,relatives1 order of charity among1 #aagf sqq42 duties of near1 #bfcd4 ,relaxation1 as virtue1 #befg a1 b2 sins opposed to moderate enjoyment1 #befh a4 ,religion1 ,virtue of1 regarded by some as superior to justice1 #agag a2 a potential part of justice1 #badb a2 definition of the virtue1 #bade2 religion as a moral virtue1 #badf2 superiority of religion as a virtue1 #badg2 necessity of the acts of religion1 #badh2 internal acts of religion1 #badi2 definition of devotion1 #baej2 external and internal causes of devotion1 #baeb2 external acts of religion1 #bage2 definition of adoration1 #bagf2 difference between latria and hyperdulia and dulia1 #bfga b2 difference between latria and civil homage1 #bagf b2 unity and variety of adoration1 #bagg2 definition of sacrifice1 #bagh2 essentials of sacrifice1 #bagi2 obligation of sacrifice1 #bahj2 exemptions from sacrifice based on the natural law1 #baha2 sacrifice compared with the other acts of religion1 #bahb2 goods unsuitable as offerings to ,god1 #bahd2 contributions to religion1 #bahe2 obligation of contributing to the support of the clergy1 #bahf2 quality of the obligation of contributing to the ,church1 #bahh2 priest's attitude towards persons refusing to contribute1 #bahi2 those to whom religious contributions are due1 #baij2 external acts of religion in honor of ,god1 #bbdd4 ,religion1 ,sins against1 #bbgc2 superstition1 #bbgd2 false worship1 #bbgd a2 superfluous worship1 #bbgd b2 sinfulness of improper worship of ,god1 #bbge2 worship of false deity1 #bbgf2 definition of idolatry1 #bbgg2 kinds of idolatry1 #bbgh2 sinfulness of idolatry1 #bbgi2 comparison of different sins of idolatry1 #bbhj2 idolatry possible in ,christian worship1 #bbha2 definition of divination1 #bbhb2 distinction between the fact and sin of divination1 #bbhc2 forms of explicit invocation1 #bbhd2 forms of implicit invocation1 #bbhe2 malice of the sin of divination1 #bbhf2 when knowledge is obtained from ,god1 #bbhg2 when knowledge is obtained through natural causes1 #bbhh2 use of lots1 #bbhi2 vain observance1 #bbij2 forms of vain observance1 #bbia2 distinction between fact and sin of vain observance1 #bbic2 superstition in religious observances1 #bbid2 sinfulness of vain observance1 #bbie2 cooperation in divination or other form of superstition1 #bbif2 doubtful cases of vain observance1 #bbig2 licitness of using doubtfully superstitious means1 #bbih2 irreligiousness1 #bbii2 temptation of ,god1 #bcjj2 cases wherein there is no temptation of ,god1 #bcja2 kinds of temptation of ,god1 #bcjb2 causes that exclude the interpretative temptation of ,god1 #bcjc2 refusal of medicine or hygienic care1 #bcjd2 sinfulness of temptation of ,god1 #bcje2 malice of temptation of ,god1 #bcjf4 ,see also ,sacrilege2 ,simony4 ,religious1 special duties of1 #bfaa2 perfection of charity1 #bfaa a2 evangelical counsels1 #bfaa b2 obligation of the three principal vows1 #bfab a4 ,remorse of ,conscience1 penalty of sin1 #bgi4 ,repentance1 ,virtue of1 #bgah2 character of repentance1 #bgbj2 excellence1 #bgba2 dignity1 #bgba a2 necessity1 #bgba b2 repentance as a means and as a precept1 #bgbb2 accompaniments of repentance1 #bgbd2 fruits of1 #bgbe2 restores infused virtues and former merits1 #bgbe c2 removes every sin1 #bgbe a4 ,reproach1 definition1 #bjab b4 ,reprisals1 in war1 #adag4 ,reputation1 when charity requires one to seek good reputation1 #aege2 when sacrifice of reputation is lawful and unlawful1 #aegf2 when self-detraction is lawful1 #aegg2 definition of good1 true1 false1 ordinary and extraordinary reputation1 #bjcd a-c2 right to good reputation1 #bjce2 right to true and false reputation1 #bjcg2 meaning of the expression 8infamous in a certain place10 #bjea2 rights that have precedence over a false reputation1 #bjfh2 unlawful attack on another's false reputation1 #bjfi2 conditions that justify revelation of another's defects1 #bjgj2 revelations about public officials or candidates for public office1 #bjga4 ,see also ,defamation4 ,rescripts1 #ebj4 ,reservation1 strict and broad mental reservation in an oath1 #bbea4 ,see also ,lying4 ,resident1 definition1 #dcg2 when subject to laws1 #dch4 ,restitution1 distinct from payment1 restoration and satisfaction1 #agea2 difference between satisfaction and restitution1 #ageb2 when restitution is due1 #agec2 confessor's duties regarding the obligation of restitution1 #agfj2 roots of restitution1 #agfb2 when unjust damage obliges to restitution1 #agfc2 restitution for damages that are only venially sinful but seriously harmful1 #agfe2 for damages only juridically culpable1 #agff2 for careless discharge of fiduciary duties1 #agfh2 restitution when culpability seems doubtful1 #agfi2 cooperators and restitution1 #aggh2 circumstances of restitution1 #agha2 restitution in solidum or pro rata1 #aghc2 order of restitution among cooperators1 #aghd2 person to whom restitution must be made1 #aghf2 creditors with right in re have preference over creditors with right ad rem1 #aghg2 8thing0 to be restored1 #aghi2 8amount0 of restitution in certain cases1 #agij2 8manner0 of making restitution1 #agia2 second restitution1 #agib2 8time0 when restitution must be made1 #agic2 unjust refusal to make restitution1 #agid2 8place0 where restitution must be made1 #agie1 #agif2 causes that excuse temporarily from restitution1 #agig2 causes that excuse permanently from restitution1 #agih2 excuse from restitution on account of doubtfulness of obligation1 #ahjj2 restitution for frustration of another's good1 #ahjb a2 restitution for injury done to goods of fortune1 #ahjb b2 restitution for injury done to goods of body or personal goods1 #ahjb c2 restitution for unjust homicide or mutilation1 #ahjc2 restitution for fornication or adultery1 #ahjc b2 restitution for injuries of soul1 #ahjc c2 restitution for occupied goods1 #aibb2 restitution of bribes1 etc41 #aidf c2 restitution for jail-breaking1 #aihc2 obligation of witness to make restitution1 #aiib2 when a lawyer is bound to restitution1 #bjjh2 restitution for contumely1 #bjba sqq42 cessation of obligation of restitution for contumely1 #bjbf2 restitution for defamation1 #bjhe sqq42 restitution of temporal price received for spiritual thing1 #bcdj2 restitution of temporal price received for temporal things annexed to spirituals1 #bcda2 circumstances of restitution for simony1 #bcdb2 restitution of spiritual thing simoniacally received1 #bcdc2 restitution necessitated by breach of promise to marry1 #bfbh d2 restitution for theft4 ,see also ,compensation4 ,restraint1 definition1 #ahff d4 ,revelations1 private1 #geg4 ,reverence1 potential part of justice1 #badb c2 definition of virtue1 #bcea2 species of honor1 #bceb2 obligation of religious cult of dulia1 #bced4 ,revilement1 definition1 #bjab b4 ,rights1 precedence in case of collision1 #bib4 ,robbery1 comparison with theft1 #ahib a2 kinds of theft and robbery1 #ahic a2 what constitutes grave matter in robbery1 #ahif4 ,see also ,theft2 ,injustice4 ,rubrics1 directive and preceptive1 in administration of the ,sacraments1 #bffi c4 ,rudeness1 vice opposite to modesty1 #beff b4 ,sacraments1 of ,old ,testament1 #cci2 denial of ,christian ,sacraments in cases of scandal1 #adic2 nature of ,sacrament1 #bfed2 outward sign1 #bfed a2 instituter of ,sacraments1 #bfed b2 purpose of ,sacraments1 #bfed c2 ,sacraments of the ,dead and of the ,living1 #bfed c2 indelible character of some ,sacraments1 #bfed c2 matter and form of the ,sacraments1 #bfee2 substantial changes in matter or form1 #bfee a2 substantial separations of matter and form1 #bfee b2 simultaneity of matter and form1 #bfef2 accidental changes or separations of matter and form1 #bfeh2 substantial changes or separations1 #bfei2 doubtful matter1 #bffj2 ,sacraments that have a necessity of means1 #bffa2 reception of ,sacraments in re or in voto1 #bffb2 ,sacraments that have a necessity of precept1 #bffc2 twofold ministry of the ,sacraments 7production and bestowal71 #bffd2 requirements in the minister for valid performance of ,sacrament1 #bffe2 necessary intention1 #bfff2 virtual1 actual1 habitual and interpretative intention1 #bfff b2 rules on plurality of intentions1 #bffg2 requisites for use of conditional intention1 #bffh2 lawful administration of ,sacraments1 #bffi2 minister's worthiness before ,god1 #bffi a2 minister's worthiness before ,church1 #bffi b2 worthiness of ministration1 #bffi c2 directive and preceptive rubrics1 #bffi c2 explanation of ceremonies advised1 #bffi c2 multiplication of sins by unworthy administration1 #bfgj2 requirements for valid ,sacrament in recipient1 #bfga2 qualities of recipient's intention1 #bfgb2 neutral intention1 #bfgb b2 when virtual intention is necessary1 #bfgc2 when habitual and explicit intention suffices1 #bfgd b2 when habitual and implicit intention suffices1 #bfgd b2 requirements for lawful or fruitful reception of ,sacrament by adult1 #bfge2 obligation of minister to confer ,sacraments1 #bfgf2 obligation of pastor to confer ,sacraments1 #bfgf a2 when minister is bound to deny them1 #bfgg2 administration to unworthy persons1 #bfgh2 simulation and dissimulation of ,sacrament1 #bfhj2 administration of ,penance and ,extreme ,unction to heretics and schismatics1 #bfha2 repetition of ,sacrament on account of invalid administration1 #bfhb2 reception of ,sacrament from unworthy minister1 #bfhc2 forgiveness of sin through use of ,sacraments1 #bgbf4 ,sacrament1 ,blessed1 see ,eucharist1 ,holy4 ,sacramentals1 definition1 #bfhd2 necessity and use1 #bfhd a1 b4 ,sacrifice1 see ,religion1 ,virtue of4 ,sacrilege1 definition1 #bcjh2 violation of what kind of consecration involves sacrilege8 #bcji2 is sacrilege a special sin8 #bcaj2 species of sacrilege1 #bcaa2 personal sacrilege1 #bcaa a2 local sacrilege1 #bcaa b2 desecration1 a form of sacrilege1 #bcaa b2 profanation1 a form of sacrilege1 #bcaa b2 real sacrilege1 #bcaa c2 special cases regarding local sacrilege1 #bcab2 cases wherein there is no sacrilege1 #bcac2 sacredness as aggravating circumstance of sin1 #bcad2 malice of sacrilege1 #bcae2 conditions that govern gravity of sacrilege1 #bcaf2 carnal sacrilege1 #becc2 personal sacrilege1 #becc c2 local sacrilege1 #becc d2 real sacrilege1 #becc e4 ,sadness1 concupiscible passion1 #aai4 ,sapphism1 form of impurity1 #becd c4 ,satisfaction1 for sin1 #bhc4 ,see also ,penance1 ,sacrament of4 ,scandal1 various uses of word1 #adde-df2 definition1 #addg2 causes of1 #addh2 directly intentional 7diabolical7 and indirectly intentional1 #adej2 active and passive1 #adec2 acts that give scandal1 #aded2 obscenity 7q4v471 #adee sqq42 results of scandal1 #adei2 scandal resembles solicitation and complicity1 #adfj2 persons apt to be scandalized1 #adfa2 scandal given and scandal taken1 #adfd2 ,pharisaic scandal and 8scandal of little ones10 #adfd b2 sinfulness1 #adfe2 is scandal a distinct species of sin8 #adff2 how scandal should be confessed1 #adfg2 responsibility of scandalizer for injuries to third parties1 #adgj-ga2 gravity of sin1 #adgb2 is any person immune from scandal8 #adge2 duty of avoiding1 #adgg2 scandal of the weak forbidden by the natural law1 #adgi2 surrender of temporal goods to avoid scandal1 #adhc2 surrender of ,church goods to avoid scandal1 #adhf-hg2 duty of repairing scandal1 #adhh2 ways of repairing1 #adhi2 public and private scandal1 #adij a2 ordinary and extraordinary1 #adij b2 denial of ,sacraments in cases of scandal1 #adic2 prohibition against1 #aeeb4 ,schism1 books in favor of1 forbidden1 #hee b2 definition1 #acfd2 principal schismatic movements1 #acfe2 directly and indirectly voluntary schism1 #acff2 schism committed in two ways1 #acfh2 three ways of rejecting decisions of ,pope1 #acfi2 schism compared with heresy1 #acgj2 opposition between schism and charity1 #acga2 greatest sin against neighbor1 #acgb a2 not so serious as unbelief1 #acgb b2 formal and material schism1 #acgc4 ,schismatics1 spiritual powers of1 #acgd4 ,scholastic ,method1 in ,moral ,theology1 #ac4 ,schools1 ,dangerous1 #hfg sqq42 sectarian and neutral1 #hfg2 absolution of parents of children attending1 #hgb2 ,catholic teachers in non-,catholic schools1 #hgd4 ,sciences1 ,natural1 use in ,moral ,theology1 #ab4 ,scripture1 as ,source of ,moral ,theology1 #g4 ,scrupulous1 see ,conscience4 ,seal of ,confession1 see ,penance1 ,sacrament of4 ,second ,sight1 #bbhe a4 ,secret1 violation of 7infidelity71 #bdjg2 definition of a secret1 #bdjh2 natural1 promised1 entrusted or committed secret1 #bdjh2 sinfulness of violating secret1 #bdji2 prying into others' secrets1 #bdaj2 reading another's letters or papers1 #bdaa2 lawfulness of utilizing knowledge of secret1 #bdab2 sin committed by stealing or unduly using secret of another1 #bdac2 obligation of keeping secret1 #bdad2 comparison of secrets as regards binding force1 #bdae2 cases wherein it is not necessary to keep secret1 #bdaf2 cases wherein it is not lawful to keep secret1 #bdag2 lawfulness of revealing secret learned by stealth or force1 #bdbj4 ,sedition1 definition1 #addj2 distinct species of sin1 #adda2 resistance to tyrannical government not sinful1 #addc4 ,seduction1 #adie sqq42 definition1 #adif2 malice1 #adig2 differs from mere permission to sin1 #aejj2 sinful request1 #aeja2 advice to commit evil1 #aejb2 prearrangement of circumstances that lead to sin1 #aejd4 ,self-,abuse1 form of impurity1 #becd a4 ,self-,beautification1 morality of1 #begj4 ,self-,defamation1 sin opposed to charity1 #bjbh e4 ,self-,defense1 ,right of1 #ahbf2 conditions for exercise of this right1 #ahbf a2 self-defense must be moderate1 #ahcc2 when it is obligatory1 #ahcf2 when it is not obligatory1 #ahcg2 defense of neighbor's life against unjust aggressor1 #ahch2 defense of material goods against unjust aggressor1 #ahdj2 defense of bodily purity against an unjust aggressor1 #ahda2 defense of bodily integrity against an unjust aggrossor1 #ahdb2 defense of honor or reputation1 #ahdc4 ,self-,depreciation1 form of lying1 #bdjf4 ,self-,glorification1 form of lying1 #bdjf4 ,self-,love1 commandment of1 #aefa2 understood in many senses1 #aefa2 sinful1 natural and supernatural1 #aacf2 charity demands an elicited supernatural self-love1 #aefb2 demands pursuit of all goods necessary for attainment of happiness1 #aefc2 care of the mind1 #aefd2 neglect of education sinful1 #aefe2 care of the body and health1 #aeff2 care as to food and drink1 #aefg2 fresh air1 rest1 physical exercise1 #aefh-aegc2 pursuit of honors and good name1 #aegd-aege2 when self-detraction is lawful1 #aegg2 dislike of self1 #acje1 #acjg2 may one wish evil to self8 #acjh4 ,self-,starvation1 sin opposed to abstemiousness1 #bdgj a4 ,seminaries1 courses of theology must follow ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 #aj4 ,sensuality1 #bcb1 #aag sqq42 compared with impurity1 #bdib a4 ,sentence1 ,judicial1 when it may be resisted1 #aihb c2 moral obligation when this is certainly just1 #aiei2 moral obligation when this is certainly unjust1 #aifj4 ,separation1 see ,matrimony1 ,sacrament of4 ,servility1 vice opposite to modesty1 #beff b4 ,set-off1 definition1 #aibg a4 ,shamefacedness1 integral part of temperance1 #bdfe b4 ,shintoism1 #hbb a4 ,simony1 origin of name1 #bcag2 definition1 #bcah2 temporal price in simony1 #bcai2 spiritual thing in simony1 #bcbj2 temporal thing united with spiritual1 #bcba2 temporal thing annexed to spiritual1 #bcbb2 various kinds of simony1 #bcbc2 confidential simony1 #bcbd2 simony against divine law1 #bcbe2 rules of ,alexander ,,iii for determining simony1 #bcbg2 simony against divine law in reference to things annexed to spirituals1 #bcbh2 simony against ecclesiastical law1 #bcbi2 certain and uncertain simony1 #bccj2 doubtful cases of simony1 #bcca2 cases in which transaction is not simoniacal1 #bccb2 theological malice of simony2 #bcce2 moral malice of simony1 #bccf2 invalidity and penalties of simoniacal contracts1 #bccg2 canonical penalties for simony1 #bcch2 influence of simony on spiritual effects1 #bcci2 restitution of temporal price received for spiritual thing1 #bcdj2 restitution of temporal price received for temporal things annexed to spirituals1 #bcda2 circumstances of restitution for simony1 #bcdb2 restitution of spiritual thing simoniacally received1 #bcdc4 ,simulation1 form of lying1 #bcia b2 definition1 #bdjc2 sinfulness of simulation1 #bdjd4 ,see also ,hypocrisy4 ,sin1 definition1 #afg2 spiritual and carnal1 #afh a1 #bbd sqq42 against ,god1 neighbor or self1 #afh h2 mortal and venial1 #afh c1 #afi2 of commission or omission1 #afh d2 stages of 7heart1 mouth1 work71 #afh e2 by excess or defect1 #afh f2 original and actual1 #afh g2 when matter of sin is grave1 #aga-agb2 advertence and consent conditions of mortal sin1 #agd sqq42 mortal1 condition of1 #afi sqq42 venial1 definition1 #ahj2 conditions1 #aha sqq42 when imperfections become a sin1 #ahf2 when venial sin becomes mortal1 #ahg-ahi2 coalescence of1 #ahi2 multiplication of1 #aij2 possible effect of wrong purpose1 circumstances and harm foreseen1 #aia sqq12 when mortal sin becomes venial1 #aid sqq12 causes of sin1 #bdf2 effect of ignorance1 passion and malice on1 #bdi2 external causes of1 #beb2 distinct from temptation1 #bec2 proximate and remote danger of1 #beh2 possibility of1 #bei2 guilt of one who exposes himself to sin1 #baej2 occasions of 7proximate or remote1 necessary or free1 present or absent71 #bfc sqq42 motives of1 #bfh sqq42 results and penalties of1 #bgb sqq42 original and actual1 #bgb sqq42 stain of1 #bgf2 every sin removed by repentance1 #bgbe a2 forgiveness of sin through the use of the ,sacraments1 #bgbf4 ,see also ,sins4 ,sincerity1 see ,truthfulness4 ,sinners1 charity for1 #aadb2 association with1 #aade2 friendship with1 #aadf4 ,sins1 theological and moral species1 #aig2 specific distinction1 #aih2 numerical multiplication1 #aig1 #bjb sqq42 rules of numerical distinction1 #bjg sqq42 comparison of1 #bbj2 sins against ,god1 #bbg2 against creatures1 #bbh2 subjects of 7sensitive appetites1 reason1 will71 #bcj sqq12 sins of sensuality1 #bcb2 sins of thought1 #bcc sqq42 sins of desire1 #bcg sqq42 material 7or objective7 and formal 7or subjective71 #bdh2 sins of weakness1 ignorance and malice1 #bej4 ,see also ,sin4 ,slander1 definition1 #bjcj d4 ,see also ,defamation4 ,sloth1 #bfi2 spiritual1 #ajfd1 capital sin1 #acbj sqq42 definition1 #acbj2 sinfulness1 #acba2 qualities of sin1 #acbb2 sins that spring from sloth1 #acbd2 conquest of sloth1 #acbe2 prohibition against1 #aeeb4 ,sluggishness1 sin opposed to diligence1 #acbf b4 ,sobriety1 subjective part of temperance1 #bdfe a2 definition1 #bdgd2 obligation to practise sobriety1 #bdge2 sins against sobriety1 #bdgf a2 morality of total abstinence1 #bdgh a2 licit use of narcotics1 #bdhe4 ,see also ,drunkenness4 ,societies1 ,forbidden1 #ide sqq42 forbidden by ,code1 #idf2 absolution of members1 #idi4 ,sodomy1 form of impurity1 #becd c4 ,softness1 #becd a4 ,solicitation1 resemblance to scandal1 #adfj a4 ,see ,seduction4 ,sons of ,temperance1 ,society forbidden by ,church1 #idf b4 ,soul1 ,first and ,second ,motions of the1 #abi4 ,sortilege1 form of divination1 #bbhe d4 ,speculation1 ,sinful1 #ahgi f4 ,spiritism1 #hbc b2 sin against religion1 #bbhd b4 ,sponsors1 see ,baptism1 ,sacrament of2 ,confirmation1 ,sacrament of4 ,stain of ,sin1 #bgf4 ,state of ,life1 ,duties of1 knowledge of obligatory1 #ibj4 ,statesmanship1 #afdb a1 #afdi a4 ,states of ,man1 ,four ,historical1 #cca4 ,steadfastness1 act of fortitude1 #bddg b4 ,sterilization1 morality of1 #ahfi a4 ,stiffness1 vice opposite to modesty1 #beff b4 ,stipends1 ,mass1 institution of1 #bahe b4 ,see also ,mass1 ,sacrifice of the4 ,stocks1 purchase by clerics1 #bfje a4 ,stocks and ,bonds1 #agdi b4 ,stolidity1 vice opposed to patience1 #bdee4 ,stranger1 definition1 #dcg2 when subject to laws1 #dci-ddf4 ,students1 duties of1 #bfea b4 ,studiosity1 potential part of temperance1 #bdfe c2 definition of studiousness1 #befb2 vices opposed to studiousness1 #befc a2 malice of the sins against studiousness1 #befd a2 negligence1 a sin against studiousness1 #befd b4 ,subjects1 duties to domestic and civil superiors1 #bfcf4 ,suffrage1 ,power of1 #afdi b4 ,see also ,voting4 ,suicide1 books in favor of1 forbidden1 #hee b2 voluntary and involuntary1 direct and indirect1 #aheb a2 sinfulness of suicide1 #ahed2 cooperation in suicide1 #ahee2 authorization to commit suicide1 #ahef2 when indirect suicide is lawful1 #aheg1 #aheh2 when indirect suicide is unlawful1 #ahei2 is it suicidal to refuse s necessary surgical operation8 #ahfj2 canonical penalties for suicide1 #ahfa a4 ,sunday1 ,sanctification of1 see ,precepts of the ,church4 ,superfluities1 from which alms must be given1 #abbg-abbi4 ,superior1 ,clerical1 duties of1 #bfjf a2 special duties to flock1 #bfjg a4 ,superiors1 ,domestic and ,civil1 duties of1 #bfce4 ,see also ,employers2 ,subjects4 ,superstition1 see ,religion1 ,sins against4 ,surety1 #agdi d4 ,surgeons1 duties of1 #bfea c4 ,surliness1 sin against affability1 #bdbc b4 ,syncretism1 #hbc b4 ,synesis1 part of judgment1 #bdcb d4 ,synteresis1 and ,moral ,theology1 #b2 directs the moral virtues1 #afca a4 ,systems1 ,moral1 #fgb sqq42 ,tutiorism1 #fgb a1 #fgf sqq42 ,anti-tutiorism1 #fgb b2 condemned by ,church1 #fgf2 ,laxism1 #fhj sqq42 condemned by ,church1 #fha2 ,probabiliorism1 #fhc sqq42 ,equiprobabilisrn1 #fhh2 ,probabilism1 #gja sqq42 ,compensationism1 #gca sqq42 practical conclusions1 #gci2 respective merits and use of the rival systems1 #gdj2 use by confessors1 #gda4 ,tale-,bearing1 definition1 #bajc2 sinfulness1 #bajd2 circumstances which affect the species of tale-bearing1 #baje4 ,taoism1 #hbb a4 ,taunting1 form of contumely1 definition1 #bjab b4 ,taxes1 definition1 #bfcg2 kinds of taxes1 #bfch2 just taxes1 #bfci2 obligation to pay taxes1 #bfdj sqq42 obedience to tax laws1 #bfdb4 ,teachers1 duties of1 #bfea b4 ,telepathy1 and the virtue of religion1 #bbhe a4 ,temperance1 #aej2 golden mean in1 #aed a1 #aeg b2 differs from patience1 #bdec a2 definition of temperance1 #bdfa2 temperance and sensible pleasures1 #bdfa b2 temperance and spiritual pleasures1 #bdfa b2 rule of moderation1 #bdfb2 excellence of temperance1 #bdfc2 vices opposed to temperance1 #bdfd2 subjective parts of temperance1 #bdfe a2 potential parts of temperance1 #bdfe c2 integral parts of temperance1 #bdfe b2 sobriety1 #bdgf sqq42 continence1 #bedd2 incontinence1 #bedd c2 sinful indulgence1 #beej2 complements of the virtue of temperance1 #bega a2 commandments of temperance1 #begb a4 ,temptation1 not a sin1 #bec2 implicit or explicit1 internal or external1 direct or indirect1 virtual or actual resistance to1 #bee2 rules regarding resistance to1 #bef2 exterior and interior temptations to impurity1 #bdig2 resistance to internal temptations1 #bdih2 what opposition to temptation is sufficient1 #bdii2 insufficient1 harmful and unnecessary opposition1 #bejj2 weapons against carnal temptations1 #beja2 negligence in resisting temptations1 #bejh4 ,temptation of ,god1 see ,religion1 ,sins against4 ,tepidity1 consequence of sloth1 #acbg4 ,testament1 ,new1 see ,new ,testament4 ,testament1 ,old1 see ,old ,testament4 ,testimony1 see ,witness4 ,theft1 sin of injustice1 #ahgb2 definition of theft1 #ahij2 plagiarism is form of theft1 #ahij c2 copyright infringement1 a form of theft1 #ahij c2 kidnapping1 a form of theft1 #ahij c2 comparison of theft and robbery1 #ahib a2 kinds of theft1 #ahic a2 sinfulness of theft1 #ahid a2 grave matter in theft of sacred objects1 #aija2 grave matter in domestic theft1 #aijc a2 theft by wife or minor child1 #aijd a2 theft by employees1 #aije a2 theft of things about whose loss owner is less concerned1 #aijf a2 travelling without paying fare1 #aijg2 when small thefts amount to grave matter1 #aijh sqq42 moral connection between repeated acts of theft1 #aiab2 interval of time between acts of theft1 #aiac2 theft from joint owners1 #aiag2 restitution in cases of theft1 #aiah a2 cases of doubt as to grave matter1 #aiai a2 occult compensation1 #aibj b2 when conversion of others' property is permissible1 #aibj2 conditions for lawful occupation of others' goods1 #aiba a2 restitution for occupied goods1 #aibb2 occupation in case of merely grave necessity1 #aibc2 occupation of large sum by one in dire need1 #aibd a2 lawfulness of receiving support from thief1 #aibf2 compensation for theft1 see ,compensation2 condonation of domestic thefts1 #agii4 ,theologians1 as source of ,moral ,theology1 #aj4 ,theological ,virtues1 #aea2 golden mean in1 #aed c2 rank among virtues1 #aef4 ,see ,faith1 ,hope and ,charity4 ,theology1 ,ascetical and ,mystical1 #begc4 ,theology1 ,moral1 definition1 #a2 relation to ,dogmatic ,theology1 #c4 ,theosophical ,societies1 forbidden by ,church1 #idf b4 ,theosophy1 #hbc b4 ,third ,orders1 ,secular1 #iee a4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 ,saint1 as source of ,moral ,theology1 #aj2 arrangement of ,moral ,theology1 #ag2 opinion on obligation of judge when evidence is contrary to his personal knowledge1 #aiea c4 ,thought1 ,sins of1 #bcc sqq4 ,thoughts1 ,impure1 see ,impurity4 ,thoughts1 ,sinful1 #bcd4 ,timidity1 sin against fortitude1 #bddf b4 ,trading1 definition1 #bacd2 morality of trading in the strict sense1 #bace2 trading forbidden to clerics1 #bfjd a4 ,tradition1 #h2 divine1 ,apostolic1 ecclesiastical1 #i4 ,treasure ,trove1 when it may be occupied1 #ahgc c4 ,tribadism1 form of impurity1 #becd c4 ,truth1 necessary quality of lawful oath1 #bbdi b4 ,see also ,truthfulness2 ,lying4 ,truthfulness1 #badc a2 definition of virtue1 #bche2 excellence1 #bchf2 sincerity and fidelity1 #bchg2 vices opposed to truthfulness1 #bchh4 ,see also ,lying4 ,truths1 ,natural and ,supernatural1 to which assent must be given1 #ghd4 ,tutiorism1 see ,systems1 ,moral4 ,tyrannicide1 lawfulness of1 #ahbd a4 ,unbelief1 ,sin of1 negative and positive1 #hac2 ordinary and apostasy1 #had2 direct and indirect1 #hae-haf2 non-assent1 #hag2 dissent 7private and contrary unbelief71 #hah2 infidelity1 #hbb a2 order of gravity in unbelief1 #hbd2 dangers which lead to external expression of unbelief1 #idd sqq4 ,see also ,heresy2 ,apostasy4 ,unction1 ,extreme1 ,sacrament of1 #bggd2 remote matter1 #bggd a2 proximate matter1 #bggd b2 form1 #bggd c2 recipient1 #bggd d2 minister1 #bggd e2 effects of1 #bggd f2 special duties of recipient1 #bgge a2 special duties of minister1 #bgge b2 special duties of pastor1 #bgge c2 special duties of faithful1 #bgge d4 ,understanding1 integral part of prudence1 #afcg a4 ,understanding1 ,gift of1 #afj a2 given to perfect theological virtues1 #hjh4 ,unity of the ,church1 threefold1 #acfg4 ,uranism1 form of impurity1 #becd c4 ,use1 act of will1 #ei4 ,usury1 definition1 #bacf4 ,vagus1 definition1 #dcg2 when subject to laws1 #dch4 ,vainglory1 as origin of discord1 #aced2 origin of contention1 #acfb4 ,vanity1 vice against greatness of soul1 #bdej c4 ,vengeance1 definition1 #bcha2 morality of vengeance1 #bchb2 excess and defect in vengeance1 #bchc2 circumstances of vengeance1 #bchd4 ,viaticum1 see ,communion1 ,holy4 ,vice1 definition1 #afg2 and sin1 see ,sin4 ,vices1 ,capital1 ,seven1 #bfi sqq4 ,vindication1 virtue1 #badc a4 ,see also ,vengeance4 ,violence1 invalidates consent to contract1 #ahhd d4 ,see also ,coercion4 ,virginity1 definition1 #bdhh2 loss of virginity1 #bdhi2 conditions necessary for virtue of virginity1 #bdij a2 excellence of virginity1 #bdia a4 ,virtue1 subjective parts1 #afci h1 #agde2 integral parts1 #afcg1 #baci2 potential parts1 #afdf1 #bada2 parts1 #afce1 #afcf1 #bddg1 #bdfe4 ,virtues1 definition1 #adb2 division1 #adc2 practical intellectual1 #adf-adh2 moral1 definition1 #adi2 four cardinal virtues1 #aej2 theological1 #aea2 three causes of virtues 7nature1 practice and infusion71 #aeb2 inchoative and perfected1 #aeb2 properties of1 #aec2 golden mean in1 #aed b2 rank among virtues1 #aef-aeg2 in the blessed1 #aeh2 complements of1 #aei2 properties of seven infused virtues1 #gde2 order of theological virtues1 #gdf2 priority of a virtue in duration1 by nature1 and in excellence1 #ajbh4 ,see also ,faith2 ,hope2 ,charity2 ,cardinal ,virtues2 ,act1 virtuous4 ,vision1 ,beatific1 relation to charity1 #aaaf4 ,vocation1 internal1 #beig2 external1 #beig b2 vocation to the clerical state1 #beig a2 sinfulness of disregarding vocation1 #beih a4 ,volksverein1 #iee b4 ,voting1 duty of exercising the electoral franchise1 #bfdc2 manner of voting1 #bfdd2 obligation to seek office1 #bfde4 ,vow1 definition1 #baia2 personal1 real and mixed vows1 #baib2 singular and common vows1 #baib b2 temporary and perpetual vows1 #baib c2 absolute and conditional vows1 #baib d2 penal and non-penal vows1 #baib d2 explicit and implicit vows1 #baib e2 determinate and disjunctive vows1 #baib e2 private and public vows1 #baib f2 simple and solemn vows1 #baib f2 vows in ,canon ,law1 #baic2 distinction between solemn and simple vows1 #baid2 knowledge and deliberation necessary for valid vow1 #baie2 freedom of will necessary for valid vow1 #baif2 cases in which fear does not invalidate vow1 #baig2 vows of doubtful validity1 #baih2 intention necessary for valid vow1 #baii2 matter of vow1 #bbjj2 vows that promise something necessary1 #bbja2 when fulfillment of vow is only partly possible1 #bbjb2 vows that promise something displeasing to ,god1 #bbjc2 vows that promise something indifferent1 #bbje2 meaning of better good in vow1 #bbjf2 vows invalidated by promise of lesser good1 #bbjg2 when one has taken two opposite vows1 #bbjh2 obligation of vow1 #bbji2 gravity of obligation1 #bbaj2 rules for determining what is important matter in vow1 #bbaa2 coalescence of light into grave matter in vow1 #bbab2 delay in fulfilling vow1 #bbad2 time when vow obliges1 #bbac2 person obliged to fulfill a vow1 #bbae2 manner of fulfilling vow1 #bbaf2 obligation of certain kinds of vows1 #bbag2 interpretation of doubtful vows1 #bbah2 advantages of vows to vowers1 #bbbj2 when good vow may be sinful1 #bbba2 merit of fulfilling vow that one regrets1 #bbbb2 persons who can make vow1 #bbbc2 dependence of vower on will of another1 #bbbd2 validity of vows made by subjects1 #bbbe2 cessation of vows1 #bbbf2 annulment of vows1 #bbbh2 reason necessary for annulment of vow1 #bbbi2 differences between direct and indirect annulment of vow1 #bbcj2 dispensation of vow1 #bbca2 reasons sufficient for dispensation1 #bbcb2 sinfulness of unnecessary dispensation1 #bbcc2 persons who have power of dispensation1 #bbcd2 dispensation from religious vow of chastity1 #bbce2 dispensation from vow made for benefit of third party1 #bbcf2 commutation of vows1 #bbch2 good works that may be substituted for vows1 #bbci2 persons who have authority to commute vow1 #bbdj2 cause required for commutation of vow1 #bbda2 reversion to original vow1 #bbdb2 duties of confessors in reference to private vows1 #bbdc2 obligation of vow of obedience1 #bcfd2 religious vows1 obligation of the three principal vows1 #bfab a4 ,vulgarity1 vice against greatness of deed1 #bdeb b4 ,wagers1 ,sinful1 #ahgi c4 ,waldensianism1 #hbb c4 ,war1 definition1 #acgf2 just and unjust1 #acgg2 offensive and defensive1 #acgh2 not against law of ,god1 #achj2 nor against law of nature1 #achc2 three conditions for lawfulness1 #achd2 who may declare war8 #ache2 what is just cause of war8 #achf2 sufficient causes1 #achi sqq42 insufficient causes1 #acic2 when justice of cause is doubtful1 #acid2 can there be justice on both sides8 #acif2 duties before beginning war1 #acih-ii2 duties during war1 #adja sqq42 lawful means of warfare1 #adjc2 acts of war and sacred times1 #adje2 and sacred places1 #adjf2 and sacred persons1 #adjg2 combatants1 non-combatants and neutrals1 #adjh2 killing or wounding of combatants1 #adji2 of non-combatants1 #adaj2 punishment of military crimes1 #adaa2 imprisonment and restraint of enemy subjects1 #adab2 destruction and seizure of property1 #adac2 booty and looting1 #adad-adae2 lawfulness of stratagems1 #adaf2 of reprisals1 #adag2 duties of victor1 #adah2 rights1 #adai2 obligation of victor whose cause was unjust1 #adbj-ba2 indemnities1 #adbb2 guarantees for future1 #adbd2 punishment for crimes committed during war1 #adbe2 preparation for future wars1 #adbf2 preparation for peace1 #adbg4 ,weakness1 ,sins of1 #bej a4 ,whispering1 form of defamation1 #bajc sqq4 ,whoremongering1 definition1 #bebf b4 ,wicliffism1 #hbb c4 ,will1 acts elicited or commanded by1 #ef-fb2 three acts of1 #eh2 consent of1 condition of mortal sin1 #agd1 #ahd1 #aif2 as subject of sin1 #bca4 ,will 7,testament71 definition1 #ahgf2 defects of a will1 #ahgf4 ,wisdom1 intellectual virtue1 #aeg c4 ,wisdom1 ,gift of1 #afj a2 corresponds with and serves charity1 #afji2 nature of ,gift1 #afaj2 object of1 #afaj d2 in its cause1 ,wisdom belongs to the will1 #afaa a2 in its essence1 to the intellect1 #afaa b2 ,wisdom is both speculative and practical1 #afab2 practical uses of1 #afac2 likeness to the other ,gifts1 #afad a2 difference from1 #afad b2 persons who possess ,wisdom1 #afae2 differs from the 8word of wisdom10 #afaf b2 varying degrees1 #afag2 exercise of ,gift1 #afah2 corresponds to ,seventh ,beatitude1 #afai a2 and to certain ,fruits1 #afai b2 direction given by ,wisdom to human actions1 #afbj2 sins opposed to ,wisdom1 #afba2 false wisdom1 #afbc4 ,wish1 as act of will1 #eh4 ,witness1 reliability of1 #aihd2 obligation of freely appearing as witness1 #aihe2 obligation of appearing under lawful citation1 #aihf2 obligation to answer truthfully1 #aihg2 witness and concealment of facts1 #aiic2 payment of witnesses1 #aiid2 matters regarding which witness should not testify1 #aihh2 sinfulness of false testimony1 #aiij2 obligation of witness to make restitution1 #aiib2 concealment of truth in presenting case1 #bjjf2 sinfulness of introducing false or corrupted documents1 #bjjg4 ,wives1 see ,matrimony1 ,sacrament of4 8,word of ,wisdom10 #afaf b4 ,words1 ,unjust1 see ,injustice4 ,works of ,mercy1 seven corporal1 #abba2 seven spiritual1 #abbb4 ,worship1 ,false1 communication in1 #ief sqq42 cooperation in1 #igf sqq42 contributions to1 #iha2 building of houses of false worship1 #ihc4 ,see also ,religion1 ,sins against4 ,wounding1 definition1 #ahff b4 ,writings1 ,forbidden1 #hfa2 when use allowed1 #hfb2 permission to read1 #hfe2 censures incurred through use1 #hff2 formal cooperation with1 #aebi4 ,see ,books and ,reading1 ,dangerous4 ,y4,m4,c4,a41 ,society forbidden by ,church1 #idf b4 ,young ,men's ,institute4 #iee b4 ,zoroastrianism1 #hbb a4