,transcriber's notes3 7#a7 ,numbers following letters 7without space7 like ,c#b were originally printed in subscript4 ,letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore1 like ,cn4 7#b7 ,characters following a carat 77 were printed in superscript4 7#c7 ,side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs4 7#d7 ,macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted4 7#e7 root stands for the root symbol2 int for integral2 alpha1 beta1 etc4 for greek letters4 7#f7 ,the following typographical errors have been corrected3 ,,article ,,electrotherapeutics3 ,this is the normal reaction of the nerve to faradism4 'normal' amended from 'mormal'4 ,,article ,,electrotherapeutics3 ,if the current be suddenly reversed1 so that what was the anode becomes the kathode1 a stronger contraction is obtained than by simply making and breaking the current4 'stronger' amended from 'stonger'4 ,,article ,,electrotherapeutics3 ,thus ,,rd is present in infantile paralysis1 acute neuritis1 c41 but absent in progressive muscular atrophy where the wasting of nerve and muscle takes place extremely slowly4 'progressive' amended from 'progessive'4 ,,article ,,electrotherapeutics3 ,in the medical application of these facts it must be remembered that when an ion is introduced into the body by electrolysis1 it is probably forced into the actual cellular constituents of the body 444 'probably' amended from 'propably'4 ,,article ,,elginshire3 ,findhorn has been twice visited by calamities4 'visited' amended from 'vsited'4 ,,article ,,eliot1 ,,george3 ,romola1 which is what is called an historical novel1 owes its vitality not to the portraits of ,savonarola or of the heroine 444 'its' amended from 'it'4 ,,article ,,elzevir3 444 a chronological list and detailed description of all works printed by them1 their various typographical marks 444 'works' amended from 'words'4 ,,article ,,embalming 3 444 it being held by the ,egyptians a detestable thing to commit any violence or inflict a wound on the body4 'detestable' amended from 'destestable'4 ,,article ,,embryology3 ,in this manner the germinal disc has become converted into the blastoderm 444 'become' amended from' beecome'4 ,,article ,,embryology3 ,for instance1 in ,vertebrata this tissue gives rise to nervous tissue1 blood-vessels1 renal tubules 444 'rise' amended from 'tise'4 ,,article ,,emin ,,pasha3 ,this last step followed upon his receipt of a letter from ,nubar ,pasha1 informing him that it was impossible for the ,egyptian government to send him help 444 'from' amended from 'fom'4 ,,article ,,empire3 ,s4 ,riezler1 ,die literarischen ,widersacher der ,papste zur ,zeit ,ludwigs des ,baiers 7#ahgd72 444 'zur' amended from 'sur'4 ,,article ,,employers' ,,liability3 ,but it expressly applies to seamen4 'expressly' amended from 'expressely'4 ,,article ,,employers' ,,liability3 ,compensation becomes payable after the expiration of sixty days from the date of the accident4 'becomes' amended from 'bcomes'4 ,,article ,,encaustic ,,painting3 ,in this ley he boiled the wax1 cut into little bits1 for half an hour1 after which he removed it from the fire and allowed it to cool4 'little' amended from 'litle'4 ,,article ,,energetics3 444 which throw much light on the phenomena of actual systems not far removed from these ideal limits4 'from' amended from 'trom'4 ,,article ,,energetics3 ,it should be noted1 however1 that this argument applies only to fluid phases1 for in the case of deposition of a solid 444 'phases' amended from 'phrases'4 ,,article ,,engel1 ,,ernst3 444 and ,zeitschrift des ,statistischen ,bureaus des ,konigreichs ,sachsen4 ',statistischen' amended from ',statistichen'4 ,,encyclopaedia ,,britannica ,a ,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts1 ,,sciences1 ,,literature ,,and ,,general ,,information ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,volume ,,ix1 ,,slice ,,iii ,electrostatics to ,engis ,,articles ,,in ,,this ,,slice3 ,,electrostatics ,,eltville ,,electrotherapeutics ,,eltz ,,electrotyping ,,elvas ,,electrum1 ,,electron ,,elvey1 ,,sir ,,george ,,job ,,elegit ,,elvira1 ,,synod ,,of ,,elegy ,,el ,,wad ,,element ,,elwood ,,elemi ,,ely1 ,,richard ,,theodore ,,elephant ,,ely ,,elephanta ,,isle ,,elyot1 ,,sir ,,thomas ,,elephantiasis ,,elyria ,,elephant',s-,,foot ,,elysium ,,elets ,,elze1 ,,karl ,,eleusis ,,elzevir ,,eleutherius ,,emanation ,,eleutheropolis ,,emanuel ,i4 ,,elevators ,,embalming ,,elf ,,embankment ,,elgar1 ,,sir ,,edward ,,embargo ,,elgin 7,illinois1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,embassy ,,elgin 7,scotland7 ,,ember ,,days and ,,ember ,,weeks ,,elgin ,,and ,,kincardine1 ,,earls ,,of ,,embezzlement ,,elginshire ,,emblem ,,elgon ,,emblements ,,eli ,,embossing ,,elias ,,embracery ,,elias1 ,,john ,,embrasure ,,elias ,,levita ,,embroidery ,,elie ,,embrun ,,elie ,,de ,,beaumont1 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,embryology ,,elijah ,,emden ,,elijah ,,wilna ,,emerald ,,eliot1 ,,charles ,,william ,,emeric-,,david1 ,,toussaint-,,bernard ,,eliot1 ,,george ,,emeritus ,,eliot1 ,,sir ,,john ,,emerson1 ,,ralph ,,waldo ,,eliot1 ,,john ,,emerson1 ,,william ,,elis 7district of ,greece7 ,,emery ,,elis 7city of ,greece7 ,,emetics ,,elis1 ,,philosophical ,,school ,,of ,,emeu ,,elisavetgrad ,,emigration ,,elisavetpol 7,russian government7 ,,emilia ,,elisavetpol 7,russian town7 ,,eminence ,,elisha ,,eminent ,,domain ,,elisha ,,ben ,,abuyah ,,eminescu1 ,,michail ,,elixir ,,emin ,,pasha ,,elizabeth 7queen of ,england7 ,,emlyn1 ,,thomas ,,elizabeth ,,petrovna ,,emmanuel ,,elizabeth ,,amelie ,,eugenie ,,emmanuel ,,philibert ,,elizabeth 7,frederick ,v4 consort7 ,,emmaus ,,elizabeth ,,pauline ,,ottilie ,,emmendingen ,,elizabeth 7,charles ,i4 daughter7 ,,emmerich ,,elizabeth 7,marie ,helene7 ,,emmet1 ,,robert ,,elizabeth1 ,,saint ,,emmet1 ,,thomas ,,addis ,,elizabeth 7,new ,jersey1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,emmett1 ,,daniel ,,decatur ,,elizabethan ,,style ,,emmitsburg ,,elizabeth ,,city ,,emmius1 ,,ubbo ,,elk ,,emmons1 ,,ebenezer ,,elkhart ,,emmons1 ,,nathanael ,,elkington1 ,,george ,,richards ,,empedocles ,,ella ,,emperor ,,elland ,,emphysema ,,ellenborough1 ,,edward ,,law 7judge7 ,,empire ,,ellenborough1 ,,edward ,,law 7,earl7 ,,empiricism ,,ellery1 ,,william ,,employers' ,,liability ,,compensation ,,ellesmere1 ,,francis ,,egerton ,,empoli ,,ellesmere 7town in ,england7 ,,emporia ,,ellice 7,,lagoon7 ,,islands ,,emporium ,,ellichpur ,,empson1 ,,sir ,,richard ,,elliotson1 ,,john ,,empyema ,,elliott1 ,,ebenezer ,,empyrean ,,ellipse ,,ems 7river of ,germany7 ,,ellipsoid ,,ems 7town of ,germany7 ,,ellipticity ,,emser1 ,,jerome ,,ellis1 ,,alexander ,,john ,,enamel ,,ellis1 ,,george ,,encaenia ,,ellis1 ,,sir ,,henry ,,encaustic ,,painting ,,ellis1 ,,robinson ,,enceinte ,,ellis1 ,,william ,,encina1 ,,juan ,,del ,,elliston1 ,,robert ,,william ,,encke1 ,,johann ,,franz ,,ellora ,,enclave ,,ellore ,,encoignure ,,ellsworth1 ,,oliver ,,encyclical ,,ellsworth ,,encyclopaedia ,,ellwangen ,,endecott1 ,,john ,,ellwood1 ,,thomas ,,endive ,,elm ,,endoeus ,,elmacin1 ,,george ,,endogamy ,,elmali ,,endor ,,elmes1 ,,harvey ,,lonsdale ,,endospora ,,elmes1 ,,james ,,endymion ,,elmham1 ,,thomas ,,energetics ,,elmina ,,energici ,,elmira ,,energy ,,elmshorn ,,enfantin1 ,,barthelemy ,,prosper ,,elmsley1 ,,peter ,,enfidaville ,,elne ,,enfield 7,connecticut1 ,u4,s4,a47 ,,el ,,obeid ,,enfield 7,england7 ,,eloi1 ,,saint ,,enfilade ,,elongation ,,engadine ,,el ,,paso ,,engaged ,,column ,,elphinstone1 ,,mountstuart ,,engel1 ,,ernst ,,elphinstone1 ,,william ,,engel1 ,,johann ,,jakob ,,el ,,reno ,,engelberg ,,elsfleth ,,engelbrechtsdatter1 ,,dorthe ,,elsinore ,,engelhardt1 ,,johann ,,georg ,,veit ,,elssler1 ,,fanny ,,enghien1 ,,louis ,,antoine ,,henri ,,elster 7rivers of ,germany7 ,,enghien ,,elster 7spa of ,germany7 ,,engine ,,elswick ,,engineering ,,el ,,teb ,,engineers1 ,,military ,,elton1 ,,charles ,,isaac ,,engis ,,electrostatics1 the name given to that department of electrical science in which the phenomena of electricity at rest are considered4 ,besides their ordinary condition all bodies are capable of being thrown into a physical state in which they are said to be electrified or charged with electricity4 ,when in this condition they become sources of electric force1 and the space round them in which this force is manifested is called an electric field 7see ,,electricity74 ,electrified bodies exert mechanical forces on each other1 creating or tending to create motion1 and also induce electric charges on neighbouring surfaces4 ,the reader possessed of no previous knowledge of electrical phenomena will best appreciate the meaning of the terms employed by the aid of a few simple experiments4 ,for this purpose the following apparatus should be provided3--7#a7 two small metal tea-trays and some clean dry tumblers1 the latter preferably varnished with shellac varnish made with alcohol free from water2 7#b7 two sheets of ebonite rather larger than the tea-trays2 7#c7 a rod of sealing-wax or ebonite and a glass tube1 also some pieces of silk and flannel2 7#d7 a few small gilt pith balls suspended by dry silk threads2 7#e7 a gold-leaf electroscope1 and1 if possible1 a simple form of quadrant electrometer 7see ,,electroscope and ,,electrometer72 7#f7 some brass balls mounted on the ends of ebonite penholders1 and a few tin canisters4 ,with the aid of this apparatus1 the principal facts of electrostatics can be experimentally verified1 as follows3-- ,experiment ,i4--,place one tea-tray bottom side uppermost upon three warm tumblers as legs4 ,rub the sheet of ebonite vigorously with warm flannel and lay it rubbed side downwards on the top of the tray4 ,touch the tray with the finger for an instant1 and lift up the ebonite without letting the hand touch the tray a second time4 ,the tray is then found to be electrified4 ,if a suspended gilt pith ball is held near it1 the ball will first be attracted and then repelled4 ,if small fragments of paper are scattered on the tray and then the other tray held in the hand over them1 they will fly up and down rapidly4 ,if the knuckle is approached to the electrified tray1 a small spark will be seen1 and afterwards the tray will be found to be discharged or unelectrified4 ,if the electrified tray is touched with the sealing-wax or ebonite rod1 it will not be discharged1 but if touched with a metal wire1 the hand1 or a damp thread1 it is discharged at once4 ,this shows that some bodies are conductors and others non-conductors or insulators of electricity1 and that bodies can be electrified by friction and impart their electric charge to other bodies4 ,a charged conductor supported on a non-conductor retains its charge4 ,it is then said to be insulated4 ,experiment ,,ii4--,arrange two tea-trays1 each on dry tumblers as before4 ,rub the sheet of ebonite with flannel1 lay it face downwards on one tray1 touch that tray with the finger for a moment and lift up the ebonite sheet1 rub it again1 and lay it face downwards on the second tray and leave it there4 ,then take two suspended gilt pith balls and touch them 7a7 both against one tray2 they will be found to repel each other2 7b7 touch one against one tray and the other against the other tray1 and they will be found to attract each other4 ,this proves the existence of two kinds of electricity1 called positive and negative4 ,the first tea-tray is positively electrified1 and the second negatively4 ,if an insulated brass ball is touched against the first tray and then against the knob or plate of the electroscope1 the gold leaves will diverge4 ,if the ball is discharged and touched against the other tray1 and then afterwards against the previously charged electroscope1 the leaves will collapse4 ,this shows that the two electricities neutralize each other's effect when imparted equally to the same conductor4 ,experiment ,,iii4--,let one tray be insulated as before1 and the electrified sheet of ebonite held over it1 but not allowed to touch the tray4 ,if the ebonite is withdrawn without touching the tray1 the latter will be found to be unelectrified4 ,if whilst holding the ebonite sheet over the tray the latter is also touched with an insulated brass ball1 then this ball when removed and tested with the electroscope will be found to be negatively electrified4 ,the sign of the electrification imparted to the electroscope when so charged--that is1 whether positive or negative--can be determined by rubbing the sealing-wax rod with flannel and the glass rod with silk1 and approaching them gently to the electroscope one at a time4 ,the sealing-wax so treated is electrified negatively or resinously1 and the glass with positive or vitreous electricity4 ,hence if the electrified sealing-wax rod makes the leaves collapse1 the electroscopic charge is positive1 but if the glass rod does the same1 the electroscopic charge is negative4 ,again1 if1 whilst holding the electrified ebonite over the tray1 we touch the latter for a moment and then withdraw the ebonite sheet1 the tray will be found to be positively electrified4 ,the electrified ebonite is said to act by electrostatic induction on the tray1 and creates on it two induced charges1 one of positive and the other of negative electricity4 ,the last goes to earth when the tray is touched1 and the first remains when the tray is insulated and the ebonite withdrawn4 ,experiment ,,iv4--,place a tin canister on a warm tumbler and connect it by a wire with the gold-leaf electroscope4 ,charge positively a brass ball held on an ebonite stem1 and introduce it1 without touching1 into the canister4 ,the leaves of the electroscope will diverge with positive electricity4 ,withdraw the ball and the leaves will collapse4 ,replace the ball again and touch the outside of the canister2 the leaves will collapse4 ,if then the ball be withdrawn1 the leaves will diverge a second time with negative electrification4 ,if1 before withdrawing the ball1 after touching the outside of the canister for a moment the ball is touched against the inside of the canister1 then on withdrawing it the ball and canister are found to be discharged4 ,this experiment proves that when a charged body acts by induction on an insulated conductor it causes an electrical separation to take place2 electricity of opposite sign is drawn to the side nearest the inducing body1 and that of like sign is repelled to the remote side1 and these quantities are equal in amount4 ,seat of the ,electric ,charge4--,so far we have spoken of electric charge as if it resided on the conductors which are electrified4 ,the work of ,benjamin ,franklin1 ,henry ,cavendish1 ,michael ,faraday and ,j4 ,clerk ,maxwell demonstrated1 however1 that all electric charge or electrification of conductors consists simply in the establishment of a physical state in the surrounding insulator or dielectric1 which state is variously called electric strain1 electric displacement or electric polarization4 ,under the action of the same or identical electric forces the intensity of this state in various insulators is determined by a quality of them called their dielectric constant1 specific inductive capacity or inductivity4 ,in the next place we must notice that electrification is a measurable magnitude and in electrostatics is estimated in terms of a unit called the electrostatic unit of electric quantity4 ,in the absolute ,c4,g4,s4 system this unit quantity is defined as follows3--,if we consider a very small electrified spherical conductor1 experiment shows that it exerts a repulsive force upon another similar and similarly electrified body4 ,cavendish and ,c4,a4 ,coulomb proved that this mechanical force varies inversely as the square of the distance between the centres of the spheres4 ,the unit of mechanical force in the centimetre1 gramme1 second 7,c4,g4,s47 system of units is the dyne1 which is approximately equal to #a_/iha part of the weight of one gramme4 ,a very small sphere is said then to possess a charge of one electrostatic unit of quantity1 when it repels another similar and similarly electrified body with a force of one dyne1 the centres being at a distance of one centimetre1 provided that the spheres are in vacuo or immersed in some insulator1 the dielectric constant of which is taken as unity4 ,if the two small conducting spheres are placed with centres at a distance d centimetres1 and immersed in an insulator of dielectric constant ,k1 and carry charges of ,q and ,q' electrostatic units respectively1 measured as above described1 then the mechanical force between them is equal to ,,qq'_/,kd#b dynes4 ,for constant charges and distances the mechanical force is inversely as the dielectric constant4 ,electric ,force4--,if a small conducting body is charged with ,q electrostatic units of electricity1 and placed in any electric field at a point where the electric force has a value ,e1 it will be subject to a mechanical force equal to ,,qe dynes1 tending to move it in the direction of the resultant electric force4 ,this provides us with a definition of a unit of electric force1 for it is the strength of an electric field at that point where a small conductor carrying a unit charge is acted upon by unit mechanical force1 assuming the dielectric constant of the surrounding medium to be unity4 ,to avoid unnecessary complications we shall assume this latter condition in all the following discussion1 which is equivalent simply to assuming that all our electrical measurements are made in air or in vacuo4 ,owing to the confusion introduced by the employment of the term force1 ,maxwell and other writers sometimes use the words electromotive intensity instead of electric force4 ,the reader should1 however1 notice that what is generally called electric force is the analogue in electricity of the so-called acceleration of gravity in mechanics1 whilst electrification or quantity of electricity is analogous to mass4 ,if a mass of ,m grammes be placed in the earth's field at a place where the acceleration of gravity has a value g centimetres per second1 then the mechanical force acting on it and pulling it downwards is ,mg dynes4 ,in the same manner1 if an electrified body carries a positive charge ,q electrostatic units and is placed in an electric field at a place where the electric force or electromotive intensity has a value ,e units1 it is urged in the direction of the electric force with a mechanical force equal to ,,qe dynes4 ,we must1 however1 assume that the charge ,q is so small that it does not sensibly disturb the original electric field1 and that the dielectric constant of the insulator is unity4 ,faraday introduced the important and useful conception of lines and tubes of electric force4 ,if we consider a very small conductor charged with a unit of positive electricity to be placed in an electric field1 it will move or tend to move under the action of the electric force in a certain direction4 ,the path described by it when removed from the action of gravity and all other physical forces is called a line of electric force4 ,we may otherwise define it by saying that a line of electric force is a line so drawn in a field of electric force that its direction coincides at every point with the resultant electric force at that point4 ,let any line drawn in an electric field be divided up into small elements of length4 ,we can take the sum of all the products of the length of each element by the resolved part of the electric force in its direction4 ,this sum1 or integral1 is called the line integral of electric force or the electromotive force 7,e4,m4,f47 along this line4 ,in some cases the value of this electromotive force between two points or conductors is independent of the precise path selected1 and it is then called the potential difference 7,p4,d47 of the two points or conductors4 ,we may define the term potential difference otherwise by saying that it is the work done in carrying a small conductor charged with one unit of electricity from one point to the other in a direction opposite to that in which it would move under the electric forces if left to itself4 ,electric ,potential4--,suppose then that we have a conductor charged with electricity2 we may imagine its surface to be divided up into small unequal areas1 each of which carries a unit charge of electricity4 ,if we consider lines of electric force to be drawn from the boundaries of these areas1 they will cut up the space round the conductor into tubular surfaces called tubes of electric force1 and each tube will spring from an area of the conductor carrying a unit electric charge4 ,hence the charge on the conductor can be measured by the number of unit electric tubes springing from it4 ,in the next place we may consider the charged body to be surrounded by a number of closed surfaces1 such that the potential difference between any point on one surface and the earth is the same4 ,these surfaces are called equipotential or level surfaces1 and we may so locate them that the potential difference between two adjacent surfaces is one unit of potential2 that is1 it requires one absolute unit of work 7#a erg7 to move a small body charged with one unit of electricity from one surface to the next4 ,these enclosing surfaces1 therefore1 cut up the space into shells of potential1 and divide up the tubes of force into electric cells4 ,the surface of a charged conductor is an equipotential surface1 because when the electric charge is in equilibrium there is no tendency for electricity to move from one part to the other4 ,we arbitrarily call the potential of the earth zero1 since all potential difference is relative and there is no absolute potential any more than absolute level4 ,we call the difference of potential between a charged conductor and the earth the potential of the conductor4 ,hence when a body is charged positively its potential is raised above that of the earth1 and when negatively it is lowered beneath that of the earth4 ,potential in a certain sense is to electricity as difference of level is to liquids or difference of temperature to heat4 ,it must be noted1 however1 that potential is a mere mathematical concept1 and has no objective existence like difference of level1 nor is it capable per se of producing physical changes in bodies1 such as those which are brought about by rise of temperature1 apart from any question of difference of temperature4 ,there is1 however1 this similarity between them4 ,electricity tends to flow from places of high to places of low potential1 water to flow down hill1 and heat to move from places of high to places of low temperature4 ,returning to the case of the charged body with the space around it cut up into electric cells by the tubes of force and shells of potential1 it is obvious that the number of these cells is represented by the product ,,qv1 where ,q is the charge and ,v the potential of the body in electrostatic units4 ,an electrified conductor is a store of energy1 and from the definition of potential it is clear that the work done in increasing the charge q of a conductor whose potential is v by a small amount dq1 is vdq1 and since this added charge increases in turn the potential1 it is easy to prove that the work done in charging a conductor with ,q units to a potential ,v units is #a_/b ,,qv units of work4 ,accordingly the number of electric cells into which the space round is cut up is equal to twice the energy stored up1 or each cell contains half a unit of energy4 ,this harmonizes with the fact that the real seat of the energy of electrification is the dielectric or insulator surrounding the charged conductor4#a ,we have next to notice three important facts in electrostatics and some consequences flowing therefrom4 7i7 ,electrical ,equilibrium and ,potential4--,if there be any number of charged conductors in a field1 the electrification on them being in equilibrium or at rest1 the surface of each conductor is an equipotential surface4 ,for since electricity tends to move between points or conductors at different potentials1 if the electricity is at rest on them the potential must be everywhere the same4 ,it follows from this that the electric force at the surface of the conductor has no component along the surface1 in other words1 the electric force at the bounding surface of the conductor and insulator is everywhere at right angles to it4 ,by the surface density of electrification on a conductor is meant the charge per unit of area1 or the number of tubes of electric force which spring from unit area of its surface4 ,coulomb proved experimentally that the electric force just outside a conductor at any point is proportional to the electric density at that point4 ,it can be shown that the resultant electric force normal to the surface at a point just outside a conductor is equal to #dpisigma1 where sigma is the surface density at that point4 ,this is usually called ,coulomb's ,law4#b 7ii7 ,seat of ,charge4--,the charge on an electrified conductor is wholly on the surface1 and there is no electric force in the interior of a closed electrified conducting surface which does not contain any other electrified bodies4 ,faraday proved this experimentally 7see ,experimental ,researches1 series xi4 ,s #aagc7 by constructing a large chamber or box of paper covered with tinfoil or thin metal4 ,this was insulated and highly electrified4 ,in the interior no trace of electric charge could be found when tested by electroscopes or other means4 ,cavendish proved it by enclosing a metal sphere in two hemispheres of thin metal held on insulating supports4 ,if the sphere is charged and then the jacketing hemispheres fitted on it and removed1 the sphere is found to be perfectly discharged4#c ,numerous other demonstrations of this fact were given by ,faraday4 ,the thinnest possible spherical shell of metal1 such as a sphere of insulator coated with gold-leaf1 behaves as a conductor for static charge just as if it were a sphere of solid metal4 ,the fact that there is no electric force in the interior of such a closed electrified shell is one of the most certainly ascertained facts in the science of electrostatics1 and it enables us to demonstrate at once that particles of electricity attract and repel each other with a force which is inversely as the square of their distance4 ,we may give in the first place an elementary proof of the converse proposition by the aid of a simple lemma3-- ,lemma4--,if particles of matter attract one another according to the law of the inverse square the attraction of all sections of a cone for a particle at the vertex is the same4 ,definition4--,the solid angle subtended by any surface at a point is measured by the quotient of its apparent surface by the square of its distance from that point4 ,hence the total solid angle round any point is #dpi4 ,the solid angles subtended by all normal sections of a cone at the vertex are therefore equal1 and since the attractions of these sections on a particle at the vertex are proportional to their distances from the vertex1 they are numerically equal to one another and to the solid angle of the cone4 ,let us then suppose a spherical shell ,o to be electrified4 ,select any point ,p in the interior and let a line drawn through it sweep out a small double cone 7see fig4 #a74 ,each cone cuts out an area on the surface equally inclined to the cone axis4 ,the electric density on the sphere being uniform1 the quantities of electricity on these areas are proportional to the areas1 and if the electric force varies inversely as the square of the distance1 the forces exerted by these two surface charges at the point in question are proportional to the solid angle of the little cone4 ,hence the forces due to the two areas at opposite ends of the chord are equal and opposed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,hence we see that if the whole surface of the sphere is divided into pairs of elements by cones described through any interior point1 the resultant force at that point must consist of the sum of pairs of equal and opposite forces1 and is therefore zero4 ,for the proof of the converse proposition we must refer the reader to the ,electrical ,researches of the ,hon4 ,henry ,cavendish1 p4 #dai1 or to ,maxwell's ,treatise on ,electricity and ,magnetism1 #bnd ed41 vol4 i4 p4 #gf1 where ,maxwell gives an elegant proof that if the force in the interior of a closed conductor is zero1 the law of the force must be that of the inverse square of the distance4#d ,from this fact it follows that we can shield any conductor entirely from external influence by other charged conductors by enclosing it in a metal case4 ,it is not even necessary that this envelope should be of solid metal2 a cage made of fine metal wire gauze which permits objects in its interior to be seen will yet be a perfect electrical screen for them4 ,electroscopes and electrometers1 therefore1 standing in proximity to electrified bodies can be perfectly shielded from influence by enclosing them in cylinders of metal gauze4 ,even if a charged and insulated conductor1 such as an open canister or deep cup1 is not perfectly closed1 it will be found that a proof-plane consisting of a small disk of gilt paper carried at the end of a rod of gum-lac will not bring away any charge if applied to the deep inside portions4 ,in fact it is curious to note how large an opening may be made in a vessel which yet remains for all electrical purposes a closed conductor4 ,maxwell 7,elementary ,treatise1 c41 p4 #ae7 ingeniously applied this fact to the insulation of conductors4 ,if we desire to insulate a metal ball to make it hold a charge of electricity1 it is usual to do so by attaching it to a handle or stem of glass or ebonite4 ,in this case the electric charge exists at the point where the stem is attached1 and there leakage by creeping takes place4 ,if1 however1 we employ a hollow sphere and let the stem pass through a hole in the side larger than itself1 and attach the end to the interior of the sphere1 then leakage cannot take place4 ,another corollary of the fact that there is no electric force in the interior of a charged conductor is that the potential in the interior is constant and equal to that at the surface4 ,for by the definition of potential it follows that the electric force in any direction at any point is measured by the space rate of change of potential in that direction or ,e -d,v_/dx4 ,hence if the force is zero the potential ,v must be constant4 7iii47 ,association of ,positive and ,negative ,electricities4--,the third leading fact in electrostatics is that positive and negative electricity are always created in equal quantities1 and that for every charge1 say1 of positive electricity on one conductor there must exist on some other bodies an equal total charge of negative electricity4 ,faraday expressed this fact by saying that no absolute electric charge could be given to matter4 ,if we consider the charge of a conductor to be measured by the number of tubes of electric force which proceed from it1 then1 since each tube must end on some other conductor1 the above statement is equivalent to saying that the charges at each end of a tube of electric force are equal4 ,the facts may1 however1 best be understood and demonstrated by considering an experiment due to ,faraday1 commonly called the ice pail experiment1 because he employed for it a pewter ice pail 7,exp4 ,res4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bgi1 or ,phil4 ,mag4 #ahdc1 #bb74 ,on the plate of a gold-leaf electroscope place a metal canister having a loose lid4 ,let a metal ball be suspended by a silk thread1 and the canister lid so fixed to the thread that when the lid is in place the ball hangs in the centre of the canister4 ,let the ball and lid be removed by the silk1 and let a charge1 say1 of positive electricity 7,q7 be given to the ball4 ,let the canister be touched with the finger to discharge it perfectly4 ,then let the ball be lowered into the canister4 ,it will be found that as it does so the gold-leaves of the electroscope diverge1 but collapse again if the ball is withdrawn4 ,if the ball is lowered until the lid is in place1 the leaves take a steady deflection4 ,next let the canister be touched with the finger1 the leaves collapse1 but diverge again when the ball is withdrawn4 ,a test will show that in this last case the canister is left negatively electrified4 ,if before the ball is withdrawn1 after touching the outside of the canister with the finger1 the ball is tilted over to make it touch the inside of the canister1 then on withdrawing it the canister and ball are found to be perfectly discharged4 ,the explanation is as follows3 the charge 7,q7 of positive electricity on the ball creates by induction an equal charge 7-,q7 on the inside of the canister when placed in it1 and repels to the exterior surface of the canister an equal charge 7,q74 ,on touching the canister this last charge goes to earth4 ,hence when the ball is touched against the inside of the canister before withdrawing it a second time1 the fact that the system is found subsequently to be completely discharged proves that the charge -,q induced on the inside of the canister must be exactly equal to the charge ,q on the ball1 and also that the inducing action of the charge ,q on the ball created equal quantities of electricity of opposite sign1 one drawn to the inside and the other repelled to the outside of the canister4 ,electrical ,capacity4--,we must next consider the quality of a conductor called its electrical capacity4 ,the potential of a conductor has already been defined as the mechanical work which must be done to bring up a very small body charged with a unit of positive electricity from the earth's surface or other boundary taken as the place of zero potential to the surface of this conductor in question4 ,the mathematical expression for this potential can in some cases be calculated or predetermined4 ,potential of a sphere4 ,thus1 consider a sphere uniformly charged with ,q units of positive electricity4 ,it is a fundamental theorem in attractions that a thin spherical shell of matter which attracts according to the law of the inverse square acts on all external points as if it were concentrated at its centre4 ,hence a sphere having a charge ,q repels a unit charge placed at a distance x from its centre with a force ,q_/x#b dynes1 and therefore the work ,w in ergs expended in bringing the unit up to that point from an infinite distance is given by the integral _/x ,w ,qx-#b dx ,q_/x 7#a74 _/oo ,capacity of a sphere4 ,hence the potential at the surface of the sphere1 and therefore the potential of the sphere1 is ,q_/,r1 where ,r is the radius of the sphere in centimetres4 ,the quantity of electricity which must be given to the sphere to raise it to unit potential is therefore ,r electrostatic units4 ,the capacity of a conductor is defined to be the charge required to raise its potential to unity1 all other charged conductors being at an infinite distance4 ,this capacity is then a function of the geometrical dimensions of the conductor1 and can be mathematically determined in certain cases4 ,since the potential of a small charge of electricity d,q at a distance r is equal to d,q_/r1 and since the potential of all parts of a conductor is the same in those cases in which the distribution of surface density of electrification is uniform or symmetrical with respect to some point or axis in the conductor1 we can calculate the potential by simply summing up terms like sigmad,s_/r1 where d,s is an element of surface1 sigma the surface density of electricity on it1 and r the distance from the symmetrical centre4 ,the capacity is then obtained as the quotient of the whole charge by this potential4 ,thus the distribution of electricity on a sphere in free space must be uniform1 and all parts of the charge are at an equal distance ,r from the centre4 ,accordingly the potential at the centre is ,q_/,r4 ,but this must be the potential of the sphere1 since all parts are at the same potential ,v4 ,since the capacity ,c is the ratio of charge to potential1 the capacity of the sphere in free space is ,q_/,v ,r1 or is numerically the same as its radius reckoned in centimetres4 ,capacity of a thin rod4 ,we can thus easily calculate the capacity of a long thin wire like a telegraph wire far removed from the earth1 as follows3 ,let #br be the diameter of the wire1 l its length1 and sigma the uniform surface electric density4 ,then consider a thin annulus of the wire of width dx2 the charge on it is equal to #bpirsigma_/dx units1 and the potential ,v at a point on the axis at a distance x from the annulus due to this elementary charge is l_/#b _/ #bpirsigma ,v #b -----------------dx #dpirsigma loge 7#a_/b l rootr#b #a_/d l#b7 - loge r4 _/ root7r#b x#b7 #j ,if1 then1 r is small compared with l1 we have ,v #dpirsigmaloge l_/r4 ,but the charge is ,q #bpirsigma1 and therefore the capacity of the thin wire is given by ,c #a_/b loge l_/r 7#b74 ,potential of an ellipsoid4 ,a more difficult case is presented by the ellipsoid#e4 ,we have first to determine the mode in which electricity distributes itself on a conducting ellipsoid in free space4 ,it must be such a distribution that the potential in the interior will be constant1 since the electric force must be zero4 ,it is a well-known theorem in attractions that if a shell is made of gravitative matter whose inner and outer surfaces are similar ellipsoids1 it exercises no attraction on a particle of matter in its interior#f4 ,consider then an ellipsoidal shell the axes of whose bounding surfaces are 7a1 b1 c7 and 7a da71 7b db71 7c dc71 where da_/a db_/b dc_/c mu4 ,the potential of such a shell at any internal point is constant1 and the equipotential surfaces for external space are ellipsoids confocal with the ellipsoidal shell4 ,hence if we distribute electricity over an ellipsoid1 so that its density is everywhere proportional to the thickness of a shell formed by describing round the ellipsoid a similar and slightly larger one1 that distribution will be in equilibrium and will produce a constant potential throughout the interior4 ,thus if sigma is the surface density1 delta the thickness of the shell at any point1 and rho the assumed volume density of the matter of the shell1 we have sigma ,adeltarho4 ,then the quantity of electricity on any element of surface d,s is ,a times the mass of the corresponding element of the shell2 and if ,q is the whole quantity of electricity on the ellipsoid1 ,q ,a times the whole mass of the shell4 ,this mass is equal to #dpiabcrhomu2 therefore ,q ,a#dpiabcrhomu and delta mup1 where p is the length of the perpendicular let fall from the centre of the ellipsoid on the tangent plane4 ,hence sigma ,qp_/#dpiabc 7#c74 ,capacity of an ellipsoid4 ,accordingly for a given ellipsoid the surface density of free distribution of electricity on it is everywhere proportional to the length of the perpendicular let fall from the centre on the tangent plane at that point4 ,from this we can determine the capacity of the ellipsoid as follows3 ,let p be the length of the perpendicular from the centre of the ellipsoid1 whose equation is x#b_/;a#b y#b_/;b#b z#b_/;c#b #a to the tangent plane at x1 y1 z4 ,then it can be shown that #a_/p#b x#b_/;a#d y#b_/;b#d z#b_/;c#d 7see ,frost's ,solid ,geometry1 p4 #agb74 ,hence the density sigma is given by ,q #a sigma -------- -----------------------------------1 #dpiabc root7x#b_/;a#d y#b_/;b#d z#b_/;c#d7 and the potential at the centre of the ellipsoid1 and therefore its potential as a whole is given by the expression1 _/ sigmad,s ,q _/ d,s ,v --------- -------- ------------------------------------ 7#d74 _/ r #dpiabc _/ rroot7x#b_/;a#d y#b_/;b#d z#b_/;c#d7 ,accordingly the capacity ,c of the ellipsoid is given by the equation #a #a _/ d,s -- -------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ 7#e74 ,c #dpiabc _/ root7x#b y#b z#b7root7x#b_/;a#d y#b_/;b#d z#b_/;c#d7 ,it has been shown by ,professor ,chrystal that the above integral may also be presented in the form1#g #a _/oo dlambda -- #a_/b ---------------------------------------- ---------------- 7#f74 ,c _/#j root7a#b lambda77b#b lambda77c#b lambda7 ,the above expressions for the capacity of an ellipsoid of three unequal axes are in general elliptic integrals1 but they can be evaluated for the reduced cases when the ellipsoid is one of revolution1 and hence in the limit either takes the form of a long rod or of a circular disk4 ,thus if the ellipsoid is one of revolution1 and ds is an element of arc which sweeps out the element of surface d,s1 we have _/dx _/py #bpib#b d,s #bpiyds #bpiydx _/ 7 -- 7 #bpiydx _/ 7 -- 7 -------- dx4 ds_/ b_/ p ,hence1 since sigma ,qp_/#dpiab#b1 sigmad,s ,qdx_/#b;a4 ,accordingly the distribution of electricity is such that equal parallel slices of the ellipsoid of revolution taken normal to the axis of revolution carry equal charges on their curved surface4 ,the capacity ,c of the ellipsoid of revolution is therefore given by the expression #a #a _/ dx -- -- ----------------- 7#g74 ,c #b;a _/ root7x#b y#b7 ,if the ellipsoid is one of revolution round the major axis a 7prolate7 and of eccentricity e1 then the above formula reduces to #a #a _/#a e -- --- logepsilon7 ----- 7 7#h74 ,c#a #b;ae #a - e_/ ,whereas if it is an ellipsoid of revolution round the minor axis b 7oblate71 we have #a sin-#a ae --- ---------- 7#i74 ,c#b ae ,in each case we have ,c a when e #j1 and the ellipsoid thus becomes a sphere4 ,in the extreme case when e #a1 the prolate ellipsoid becomes a long thin rod1 and then the capacity is given by ,c#a a_/logepsilon #b;a_/b 7#aj71 which is identical with the formula 7#b7 already obtained4 ,in the other extreme case the oblate spheroid becomes a circular disk when e #a1 and then the capacity ,c#b #b;a_/pi4 ,this last result shows that the capacity of a thin disk is #b_/pi #a_/a4ega of that of a sphere of the same radius4 ,cavendish 7,elec4 ,res4 pp4 #acg and #cdg7 determined in #aggc experimentally that the capacity of a sphere was #a4eda times that of a disk of the same radius1 a truly remarkable result for that date4 ,three other cases of practical interest present themselves1 viz4 the capacity of two concentric spheres1 of two coaxial cylinders and of two parallel planes4 ,capacity of two concentric spheres4 ,consider the case of two concentric spheres1 a solid one enclosed in a hollow one4 ,let ,r#a be the radius of the inner sphere1 ,r#b the inside radius of the outer sphere1 and ,r#b the outside radius of the outer spherical shell4 ,let a charge ,q be given to the inner sphere4 ,then this produces a charge -,q on the inside of the enclosing spherical shell1 and a charge ,q on the outside of the shell4 ,hence the potential ,v at the centre of the inner sphere is given by ,v ,q_/,r#a - ,q_/,r#b ,q_/,r#c4 ,if the outer shell is connected to the earth1 the charge ,q on it disappears1 and we have the capacity ,c of the inner sphere given by ,c #a_/,r#a - #a_/,r#b 7,r#b - ,r#a7_/,r#a,r#b 7#aa74 ,such a pair of concentric spheres constitute a condenser 7see ,,leyden ,,jar71 and it is obvious that by making ,r#b nearly equal to ,r#a1 we may enormously increase the capacity of the inner sphere4 ,hence the name condenser4 ,capacity of two coaxial cylinders4 ,the other case of importance is that of two coaxial cylinders4 ,let a solid circular sectioned cylinder of radius ,r#a be enclosed in a coaxial tube of inner radius ,r#b4 ,then when the inner cylinder is at potential ,v#a and the outer one kept at potential ,v#b the lines of electric force between the cylinders are radial4 ,hence the electric force ,e in the interspace varies inversely as the distance from the axis4 ,accordingly the potential ,v at any point in the interspace is given by _/ ,e -d,v_/d,r ,a_/,r or ,v -,a ,r-#a d,r1 7#ab71 _/ where ,r is the distance of the point in the interspace from the axis1 and ,a is a constant4 ,hence ,v#b - ,v#a -,a log ,r#b_/,r#a4 ,if we consider a length l of the cylinder1 the charge ,q on the inner cylinder is ,q #bpi,r#alsigma1 where sigma is the surface density1 and by ,coulomb's law sigma ,e#a_/d pi1 where ,e#a ,a_/,r#a is the force at the surface of the inner cylinder4 ,accordingly ,q #bpi,r#al,a_/#dpi,r#a ,al_/#b4 ,if then the outer cylinder be at zero potential the potential ,v of the inner one is ,v ,a log 7,r#b_/,r#a71 and its capacity ,c l_/#b log ,r#b_/,r#a4 ,this formula is important in connexion with the capacity of electric cables1 which consist of a cylindrical conductor 7a wire7 enclosed in a conducting sheath4 ,if the dielectric or separating insulator has a constant ,k1 then the capacity becomes ,k times as great4 ,capacity of two parallel planes4 ,edge effect4 ,the capacity of two parallel planes can be calculated at once if we neglect the distribution of the lines of force near the edges of the plates1 and assume that the only field is the uniform field between the plates4 ,let ,v#a and ,v#b be the potentials of the plates1 and let a charge ,q be given to one of them4 ,if ,s is the surface of each plate1 and d their distance1 then the electric force ,e in the space between them is ,e 7,v#a-,v#b7_/;d4 ,but if sigma is the surface density1 ,e #dpisigma1 and sigma ,q_/,s4 ,hence we have 7,v#a - ,v#b7 d #dpi,q_/,s or ,c ,q_/7,v#a - ,v#b7 ,s_/#dpid 7#ac74 ,in this calculation we neglect altogether the fact that electric force distributed on curved lines exists outside the interspace between the plates1 and these lines in fact extend from the back of one plate to that of the other4 ,g4,r4 ,kirchhoff 7,gesammelte ,abhandl4 p4 #aab7 has given a full expression for the capacity ,c of two circular plates of thickness t and radius r placed at any distance d apart in air from which the edge effect can be calculated4 ,kirchhoff's expression is as follows3-- pir#b r _/ #afpir7dt7 d t ,c ------- ------ 7 d logepsilon ------------ t logepsilon ----- 7 7#ad74 #dpid #dpid epsilond#b t _/ ,in the above formula epsilon is the base of the ,napierian logarithms4 ,the first term on the right-hand side of the equation is the expression for the capacity1 neglecting the curved edge distribution of electric force1 and the other terms take into account1 not only the uniform field between the plates1 but also the non-uniform field round the edges and beyond the plates4 ,guard plates4 ,in practice we can avoid the difficulty due to irregular distribution of electric force at the edges of the plate by the use of a guard plate as first suggested by ,lord ,kelvin4#h ,if a large plate has a circular hole cut in it1 and this is nearly filled up by a circular plate lying in the same plane1 and if we place another large plate parallel to the first1 then the electric field between this second plate and the small circular plate is nearly uniform2 and if ,s is the area of the small plate and d its distance from the opposed plate1 its capacity may be calculated by the simple formula ,c ,s_/#dpid4 ,the outer larger plate in which the hole is cut is called the guard plate1 and must be kept at the same potential as the smaller inner or trap-door plate4 ,the same arrangement can be supplied to a pair of coaxial cylinders4 ,by placing metal plates on either side of a larger sheet of dielectric or insulator we can construct a condenser of relatively large capacity4 ,the instrument known as a ,leyden jar 7q4v47 consists of a glass bottle coated within and without for three parts of the way up with tinfoil4 ,systems of condensers4 ,if we have a number of such condensers we can combine them in parallel or in series4 ,if all the plates on one side are connected together and also those on the other1 the condensers are joined in parallel4 ,if ,c#a1 ,c#b1 ,c#c1 c41 are the separate capacities1 then ,sigma7,c7 ,c#a ,c#b ,c#c c41 is the total capacity in parallel4 ,if the condensers are so joined that the inner coating of one is connected to the outer coating of the next1 they are said to be in series4 ,since then they are all charged with the same quantity of electricity1 and the total over all potential difference ,v is the sum of each of the individual potential differences ,v#a1 ,v#b1 ,v#c1 c41 we have ,q ,c#a,v#a ,c#b,v#b ,c#c,v#c c41 and ,v ,v#a ,v#b ,v#c c4 ,the resultant capacity is ,c ,q_/,v1 and ,c #a_/7a_/;,c#a #a_/;,c#b #a_/;,c#c c47 #a_/,sigma7#a_/;,c7 7#ae74 ,these rules provide means for calculating the resultant capacity when any number of condensers are joined up in any way4 ,if one condenser is charged1 and then joined in parallel with another uncharged condenser1 the charge is divided between them in the ratio of their capacities4 ,for if ,c#a and ,c#b are the capacities and ,q#a and ,q#b are the charges after contact1 then ,q#a_/;,c#a and ,q#b_/;,c#b are the potential differences of the coatings and must be equal4 ,hence ,q#a_/;,c#a ,q#b_/;,c#b or ,q#a_/,q#b ,c#a_/;,c#b4 ,it is worth noting that if we have a charged sphere we can perfectly discharge it by introducing it into the interior of another hollow insulated conductor and making contact4 ,the small sphere then becomes part of the interior of the other and loses all charge4 ,measurement of ,capacity4--,numerous methods have been devised for the measurement of the electrical capacity of conductors in those cases in which it cannot be determined by calculation4 ,such a measurement may be an absolute determination or a relative one4 ,the dimensions of a capacity in electrostatic measure is a length 7see ,,units1 ,,physical74 ,thus the capacity of a sphere in electrostatic units 7,e4,s4,u47 is the same as the number denoting its radius in centimetres4 ,the unit of electrostatic capacity is therefore that of a sphere of #a cm4 radius4#i ,this unit is too small for practical purposes1 and hence a unit of capacity #ijj1jjj greater1 called a microfarad1 is generally employed4 ,thus for instance the capacity in free space of a sphere #b metres in diameter would be #ajj_/ijj1jjj #a_/ijjj of a microfarad4 ,the electrical capacity of the whole earth considered as a sphere is about #hjj microfarads4 ,an absolute measurement of capacity means1 therefore1 a determination in ,e4,s4 units made directly without reference to any other condenser4 ,on the other hand there are numerous methods by which the capacities of condensers may be compared and a relative measurement made in terms of some standard4 ,relative determinations4 ,one well-known comparison method is that of ,c4,v4 de ,sauty4 ,the two condensers to be compared are connected in the branches of a ,wheatstone's ,bridge 7q4v47 and the other two arms completed with variable resistance boxes4 ,these arms are then altered until on raising or depressing the battery key there is no sudden deflection either way of the galvanometer4 ,if ,r#a and ,r#b are the arms' resistances and ,c#a and ,c#b the condenser capacities1 then when the bridge is balanced we have ,r#a 3 ,r#b ,c#a 3 ,c#b4 ,another comparison method much used in submarine cable work is the method of mixtures1 originally due to ,lord ,kelvin and usually called ,thomson and ,gott's method4 ,it depends on the principle that if two condensers of capacity ,c#a and ,c#b are respectively charged to potentials ,v#a and ,v#b1 and then joined in parallel with terminals of opposite charge together1 the resulting potential difference of the two condensers will be ,v1 such that 7,c#a,v#a - ,c#b,v#b7 ,v ------------- 7#af72 7,c ,c7 and hence if ,v is zero we have ,c#a 3 ,c#b ,v#b 3 ,v#a4 ,the method is carried out by charging the two condensers to be compared at the two sections of a high resistance joining the ends of a battery which is divided into two parts by a movable contact4#aj ,this contact is shifted until such a point is found by trial that the two condensers charged at the different sections and then joined as above described and tested on a galvanometer show no charge4 ,various special keys have been invented for performing the electrical operations expeditiously4 ,a simple method for condenser comparison is to charge the two condensers to the same voltage by a battery and then discharge them successively through a ballistic galvanometer 7q4v47 and observe the respective throws or deflections of the coil or needle4 ,these are proportional to the capacities4 ,for the various precautions necessary in conducting the above tests special treatises on electrical testing must be consulted4 ,absolute determinations4 ,in the absolute determination of capacity we have to measure the ratio of the charge of a condenser to its plate potential difference4 ,one of the best methods for doing this is to charge the condenser by the known voltage of a battery1 and then discharge it through a galvanometer and repeat this process rapidly and successively4 ,if a condenser of capacity ,c is charged to potential ,v1 and discharged n times per second through a galvanometer1 this series of intermittent discharges is equivalent to a current n,c,v4 ,hence if the galvanometer is calibrated by a potentiometer 7q4v47 we can determine the value of this current in amperes1 and knowing the value of n and ,v thus determine ,c4 ,various forms of commutator have been devised for effecting this charge and discharge rapidly by ,j4,j4 ,thomson1 ,r4,t4 ,glazebrook1 ,j4,a4 ,fleming and ,w4,c4 ,clinton and others4#aa ,one form consists of a tuning-fork electrically maintained in vibration of known period1 which closes an electric contact at every vibration and sets another electromagnet in operation1 which reverses a switch and moves over one terminal of the condenser from a battery to a galvanometer contact4 ,in another form1 a revolving contact is used driven by an electric motor1 which consists of an insulating disk having on its surface slips of metal and three wire brushes a1 b1 c 7see fig4 #b7 pressing against them4 ,the metal slips are so placed that1 as the disk revolves1 the middle brush1 connected to one terminal of the condenser ,c1 is alternately put in conductive connexion with first one and then the other outside brush1 which are joined respectively to the battery ,b and galvanometer ,g terminals4 ,from the speed of this motor the number of commutations per second can be determined4 ,the above method is especially useful for the determinations of very small capacities of the order of #ajj electrostatic units or so and upwards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,dielectric constant4--,since all electric charge consists in a state of strain or polarization of the dielectric1 it is evident that the physical state and chemical composition of the insulator must be of great importance in determining electrical phenomena4 ,cavendish and subsequently ,faraday discovered this fact1 and the latter gave the name specific inductive capacity1 or dielectric constant1 to that quality of an insulator which determines the charge taken by a conductor embedded in it when charged to a given potential4 ,the simplest method of determining it numerically is1 therefore1 that adopted by ,faraday4#ab ,he constructed two equal condensers1 each consisting of a metal ball enclosed in a hollow metal sphere1 and he provided also certain hemispherical shells of shellac1 sulphur1 glass1 resin1 c41 which he could so place in one condenser between the ball and enclosing sphere that it formed a condenser with solid dielectric4 ,he then determined the ratio of the capacities of the two condensers1 one with air and the other with the solid dielectric4 ,this gave the dielectric constant ,k of the material4 ,taking the dielectric constant of air as unity he obtained the following values1 for shellac ,k #b4j1 glass ,k #a4gf1 and sulphur ,k #b4bd4 ,,table ,i4--,dielectric ,constants 7,k7 of ,solids 7,k for ,air #a74 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,substance4 ,k4 ,authority4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,glass1 double extra dense flint1 density #d4e #i4hif ,j4 ,hopkinson ,glass1 light flint1 density #c4b #f4gb ,glass1 hard crown1 density #b4dhe #f4fa _/ #b4bd ,m4 ,faraday #b4hh ,coullner ,sulphur 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #c4hd ,l4 ,boltzmann #d4j ,p4,j4 ,curie #b4id ,p4,r4 ,blondlot _/ #b4je ,rosetti #c4ae ,boltzmann ,ebonite 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #b4ba ,schiller #b4hf ,elsas ,india-rubber1 pure brown #b4ab ,schiller ,india-rubber1 vulcanized1 grey #b4fi ,gutta-percha #b4dfb ,j4,e4 ,h4 ,gordon _/ #a4igg ,gibson and ,barclay #b4cb ,boltzmann ,paraffin 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #b4bi ,j4 ,hopkinson #a4ii ,gordon _/ #b4ie ,wallner ,shellac 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #b4gd ,gordon #c4jd ,a4,a4 ,winkelmann _/ #f4fd ,i4 ,klemencic #h4jj ,p4,j4 ,curie ,mica 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #g4ih ,e4,m4,l4 ,bouty #e4ig ,elsas ,quartz-- along optic axis #d4ee ,p4,j4 ,curie perp4 to optic axis #d4di ,p4,j4 ,curie ,ice at -#bc deg4 #gh4j ,bouty ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,since ,faraday's time1 by improved methods1 but depending essentially upon the same principles1 an enormous number of determinations of the dielectric constants of various insulators1 solid1 liquid and gaseous1 have been made 7see tables ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii4 and ,,iv474 ,there are very considerable differences between the values assigned by different observers1 sometimes no doubt due to differences in method1 but in most cases unquestionably depending on variations in the quality of the specimens examined4 ,the value of the dielectric constant is greatly affected by the temperature and the frequency of the applied electric force4 ,,table ,,ii4--,dielectric ,constant 7,k7 of ,liquids4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,liquid4 ,k4 ,authority4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,water at #ag deg4 ,c4 #hj4hh ,f4 ,heerwagen #be deg4 ,c4 #ge4g ,e4,b4 ,rosa #be4c deg4 ,c4 #gh4hg ,franke ,olive oil #c4af ,hopkinson ,castor oil #d4gh ,turpentine #b4ae ,p4,a4 ,silow #b4bc ,hopkinson ,petroleum #b4jgb ,silow #b4jg ,hopkinson ,ethyl alcohol at #be deg4 ,c4 #be4g ,rosa ,ethyl ether #d4eg ,doule #d4h ,bouty ,acetic acid #i4g ,franke ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,table ,,iii4--,dielectric ,constant of some ,bodies at a very low ,temperature 7-#ahe deg4 ,c47 7,fleming and ,dewar74 --------------------------------------- ,substance4 ,k ,k at #ae at -#ahe deg4 ,c4 deg4 ,c4 --------------------------------------- ,water #hj #b4d to #b4i ,formic acid #fb #b4da ,glycerine #ef #c4b ,methyl alcohol #cd #c4ac ,nitrobenzene #cb #b4f ,ethyl alcohol #be #c4a ,acetone #ba4he #b4fb ,ethyl nitrate #ag4g #b4gc ,amyl alcohol #af #b4ad ,aniline #g4e #b4ib ,castor oil #d4gh #b4ai ,ethyl ether #d4be #b4ca --------------------------------------- ,the above determinations at low temperature were made with either a steady or a slowly alternating electric force applied a hundred times a second4 ,they show that the dielectric constant of a liquid generally undergoes great reduction in value when the liquid is frozen and reduced to a low temperature4#ac ,the dielectric constants of gases have been determined by ,l4 ,boltzmann and ,i4 ,klemencic as follows3-- ,,table ,,iv4--,dielectric ,constants 7,k7 of ,gases at #ae deg4 ,c4 and #gfj mm4 ,vacuum #a4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,dielectric ,optical ,gas4 ,constant root,k4 ,refractive ,k4 ,index4 mu4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,air #a4jjjeij #a4jjjbie #a4jjjbic ,hydrogen #a4jjjbfd #a4jjjacb #a4jjjaci ,carbon dioxide #a4jjjidf #a4jjjdge #a4jjjded ,carbon monoxide #a4jjjfij #a4jjjcde #a4jjjcce ,nitrous oxide #a4jjjiid #a4jjjdig #a4jjjeaf ,ethylene #a4jjacab #a4jjjfef #a4jjjgbj ,marsh gas 7methane7 #a4jjjidd #a4jjjdgh #a4jjjddb ,carbon bisulphide #a4jjbijj #a4jjadej #a4jjadgh ,sulphur dioxide #a4jjied #a4jjdggj #a4jjjgjc ,ether #a4jjgdd #a4jjcgbj #a4jjaed ,ethyl chloride #a4jaeeb #a4jjggfj #a4jjaagd ,ethyl bromide #a4jaedf #a4jjggcj #a4jjabb ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,in general the dielectric constant is reduced with decrease of temperature towards a certain limiting value it would attain at the absolute zero4 ,this variation1 however1 is not always linear4 ,in some cases there is a very sudden drop at or below a certain temperature to a much lower value1 and above and below the point the temperature variation is small4 ,there is also a large difference in most cases between the value for a steadily applied electric force and a rapidly reversed or intermittent force--in the last case a decrease with increase of frequency4 ,maxwell 7,elec4 and ,magn4 vol4 ii4 ,s #ghh7 showed that the square root of the dielectric constant should be the same number as the refractive index for waves of the same frequency 7see ,,electric ,,waves74 ,there are very few substances1 however1 for which the optical refractive index has the same value as ,k for steady or slowly varying electric force1 on account of the great variation of the value of ,k with frequency4 ,there is a close analogy between the variation of dielectric constant of an insulator with electric force frequency and that of the rigidity or stiffness of an elastic body with the frequency of applied mechanical stress4 ,thus pitch is a soft and yielding body under steady stress1 but a bar of pitch if struck gives a musical note1 which shows that it vibrates and is therefore stiff or elastic for high frequency stress4 ,residual ,charges in ,dielectrics4--,in close connexion with this lies the phenomenon of residual charge in dielectrics4#ad ,if a glass ,leyden jar is charged and then discharged and allowed to stand awhile1 a second discharge can be obtained from it1 and in like manner a third1 and so on4 ,the reappearance of the residual charge is promoted by tapping the glass4 ,it has been shown that this behaviour of dielectrics can be imitated by a mechanical model consisting of a series of perforated pistons placed in a tube of oil with spiral springs between each piston4#ae ,if the pistons are depressed and then released1 and then the upper piston fixed awhile1 a second discharge can be obtained from it1 and the mechanical stress-strain diagram of the model is closely similar to the discharge curve of a dielectric4 ,r4,h4,a4 ,kohlrausch called attention to the close analogy between residual charge and the elastic recovery of strained bodies such as twisted wire or glass threads4 ,if a charged condenser is suddenly discharged and then insulated1 the reappearance of a potential difference between its coatings is analogous to the reappearance of a torque in the case of a glass fibre which has been twisted1 released suddenly1 and then gripped again at the ends4 ,for further information on the qualities of dielectrics the reader is referred to the following sources3--,j4 ,hopkinson1 ,on the ,residual ,charge of the ,leyden ,jar1 ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahgf1 #aff ii41 p4 #dhi1 where it is shown that tapping the glass of a ,leyden jar permits the reappearance of the residual charge2 ,on the ,residual ,charge of the ,leyden ,jar1 ib4 #afg ii41 p4 #eii1 containing many valuable observations on the residual charge of ,leyden jars2 ,w4,e4 ,ayrton and ,j4 ,perry1 ,a ,preliminary ,account of the ,reduction of ,observations on ,strained ,material1 ,leyden ,jars and ,voltameters1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #ahhj1 #cj1 p4 #daa1 showing experiments on residual charge of condensers and a comparison between the behaviour of dielectrics and glass fibres under torsion4 ,in connexion with this paper the reader may also be referred to one by ,l4 ,boltzmann1 ,zur ,theorie der elastischen ,nachwirkung1 ,wien4 ,acad4 ,sitz4-,ber41 #ahgd1 #gj4 ,distribution of ,electricity on ,conductors4--,we now proceed to consider in more detail the laws which govern the distribution of electricity at rest upon conductors4 ,it has been shown above that the potential due to a charge of q units placed on a very small sphere1 commonly called a point-charge1 at any distance x is q_/x4 ,the mathematical importance of this function called the potential is that it is a scalar quantity1 and the potential at any point due to any number of point charges q#a1 q#b1 q#c1 c41 distributed in any manner1 is the sum of them separately1 or q#a_/x#a q#b_/x#b q#c_/x#c c4 ,sigma7q_/x7 ,v 7#ag71 where x#a1 x#b1 x#c1 c41 are the distances of the respective point charges from the point in question at which the total potential is required4 ,the resultant electric force ,e at that point is then obtained by differentiating ,v1 since ,e -d,v_/dx1 and ,e is in the direction in which ,v diminishes fastest4 ,in any case1 therefore1 in which we can sum up the elementary potentials at any point we can calculate the resultant electric force at the same point4 ,we may describe1 through all the points in an electric field which have the same potential1 surfaces called equipotential surfaces1 and these will be everywhere perpendicular or orthogonal to the lines of electric force4 ,let us assume the field divided up into tubes of electric force as already explained1 and these cut normally by equipotential surfaces4 ,we can then establish some important properties of these tubes and surfaces4 ,at each point in the field the electric force can have but one resultant value4 ,hence the equipotential surfaces cannot cut each other4 ,let us suppose any other surface described in the electric field so as to cut the closely compacted tubes4 ,at each point on this surface the resultant force has a certain value1 and a certain direction inclined at an angle theta to the normal to the selected surface at that point4 ,let d,s be an element of the surface4 ,then the quantity ,e cos thetad,s is the product of the normal component of the force and an element of the surface1 and if this is summed up all over the surface we have the total electric flux or induction through the surface1 or the surface integral of the normal force mathematically expressed by int,e cos thetad,s1 provided that the dielectric constant of the medium is unity4 ,we have then a very important theorem as follows3--,if any closed surface be described in an electric field which wholly encloses or wholly excludes electrified bodies1 then the total flux through this surface is equal to #dpi- times the total quantity of electricity within it4#af ,this is commonly called ,stokes's theorem4 ,the proof is as follows3--,consider any point-charge ,e of electricity included in any surface ,s1 ,s1 ,s 7see fig4 #c71 and describe through it as centre a cone of small solid angle domega cutting out of the enclosing surface in two small areas d,s and d,s' at distances x and x'4 ,then the electric force due to the point charge q at distance x is q_/x1 and the resolved part normal to the element of surface d,s is q costheta_/x#b4 ,the normal section of the cone at that point is equal to d,s costheta1 and the solid angle domega is equal to d,s costheta_/x#b4 ,hence the flux through d,s is qdomega4 ,accordingly1 since the total solid angle round a point is #dpi1 it follows that the total flux through the closed surface due to the single point charge q is #dpiq1 and what is true for one point charge is true for any collection forming a total charge ,q of any form4 ,hence the total electric flux due to a charge ,q through an enclosing surface is #dpi,q1 and therefore is zero through one enclosing no electricity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,stokes's theorem becomes an obvious truism if applied to an incompressible fluid4 ,let a source of fluid be a point from which an incompressible fluid is emitted in all directions4 ,close to the source the stream lines will be radial lines4 ,let a very small sphere be described round the source1 and let the strength of the source be defined as the total flow per second through the surface of this small sphere4 ,then if we have any number of sources enclosed by any surface1 the total flow per second through this surface is equal to the total strengths of all the sources4 ,if1 however1 we defined the strength of the source by the statement that the strength divided by the square of the distance gives the velocity of the liquid at that point1 then the total flux through any enclosing surface would be #dpi times the strengths of all the sources enclosed4 ,to every proposition in electrostatics there is thus a corresponding one in the hydrokinetic theory of incompressible liquids4 ,let us apply the above theorem to the case of a small parallel-epipedon or rectangular prism having sides dx1 dy1 dz respectively1 its centre having co-ordinates 7x1 y1 z74 ,its angular points have then co-ordinates 7x - #a_/b dx1 y - #a_/b dy1 z - #a_/b dz74 ,let this rectangular prism be supposed to be wholly filled up with electricity of density rho2 then the total quantity in it is rho dx dy dz4 ,consider the two faces perpendicular to the x-axis4 ,let ,v be the potential at the centre of the prism1 then the normal forces on the two faces of area dy4dx are respectively _/d,v #a d#b,v _/d,v #a d#b,v - 7 -- -- ---- dx 7 and 7 -- - -- ---- dx 71 dx #b dx#b _/ dx #b dx#b _/ and similar expressions for the normal forces to the other pairs of faces dx4dy1 dz4dx4 ,hence1 multiplying these normal forces by the areas of the corresponding faces1 we have the total flux parallel to the x-axis given by -7d#b,v_/dx#b7;dx dy dz1 and similar expressions for the other sides4 ,hence the total flux is _/d#b,v d#b,v d#b,v - 7 ---- ---- ---- 7 dx dy dz dx#b dy#b dz#b_/ and by the previous theorem this must be equal to #dpirhodx dy dz4 d#b,v d#b,v d#b,v ,hence ---- ---- ---- #dpirho #j 7#ah74 dx#b dy#b dz#b ,this celebrated equation was first given by ,s4,d4 ,poisson1 although previously demonstrated by ,laplace for the case when rho #j4 ,it defines the condition which must be fulfilled by the potential at any and every point in an electric field1 through which rho is finite and the electric force continuous4 ,it may be looked upon as an equation to determine rho when ,v is given or vice versa4 ,an exactly similar expression holds good in hydrokinetics1 provided that for the electric potential we substitute velocity potential1 and for the electric force the velocity of the liquid4 ,the ,poisson equation cannot1 however1 be applied in the above form to a region which is partly within and partly without an electrified conductor1 because then the electric force undergoes a sudden change in value from zero to a finite value1 in passing outwards through the bounding surface of the conductor4 ,we can1 however1 obtain another equation called the surface characteristic equation as follows3--,suppose a very small area d,s described on a conductor having a surface density of electrification sigma4 ,then let a small1 very short cylinder be described of which d,s is a section1 and the generating lines are normal to the surface4 ,let ,v#a and ,v#b be the potentials at points just outside and inside the surface d,s1 and let n#a and n#b be the normals to the surface d,s drawn outwards and inwards2 then -d,v#a_/;dn#a and -d,v#b_/;dn#b are the normal components of the force over the ends of the imaginary small cylinder4 ,but the force perpendicular to the curved surface of this cylinder is everywhere zero4 ,hence the total flux through the surface considered is -7d,v#a_/;dn#a7 7d,v#b_/;dn#b7;d,s1 and this by a previous theorem must be equal to #dpisigmad,s1 or the total included electric quantity4 ,hence we have the surface characteristic equation1#ag 7d,v#a_/;dn#a7 7d,v#b_/;dn#b7 #dpisigma #j 7#ai74 ,let us apply these theorems to a portion of a tube of electric force4 ,let the part selected not include any charged surface4 ,then since the generating lines of the tube are lines of force1 the component of the electric force perpendicular to the curved surface of the tube is everywhere zero4 ,but the electric force is normal to the ends of the tube4 ,hence if d,s and d,s' are the areas of the ends1 and ,e and -,e' the oppositely directed electric forces at the ends of the tube1 the surface integral of normal force on the flux over the tube is ,ed,s - ,e'd,s' 7#bj71 and this by the theorem already given is equal to zero1 since the tube includes no electricity4 ,hence the characteristic quality of a tube of electric force is that its section is everywhere inversely as the electric force at that point4 ,a tube so chosen that ,ed,s for one section has a value unity1 is called a unit tube1 since the product of force and section is then everywhere unity for the same tube4 ,in the next place apply the surface characteristic equation to any point on a charged conductor at which the surface density is sigma4 ,the electric force outward from that point is -d,v_/dn1 where dn is a distance measured along the outwardly drawn normal1 and the force within the surface is zero4 ,hence we have -d,v_/dn #d4jpisigma or sigma -7#a_/d pi7d,v_/dn ,e_/#dpi4 ,the above is a statement of ,coulomb's law1 that the electric force at the surface of a conductor is proportional to the surface density of the charge at that point and equal to #dpi times the density4#ah ,if we define the positive direction along a tube of electric force as the direction in which a small body charged with positive electricity would tend to move1 we can summarize the above facts in a simple form by saying that1 if we have any closed surface described in any manner in an electric field1 the excess of the number of unit tubes which leave the surface over those which enter it is equal to #dpi-times the algebraic sum of all the electricity included within the surface4 ,every tube of electric force must therefore begin and end on electrified surfaces of opposite sign1 and the quantities of positive and negative electricity on its two ends are equal1 since the force ,e just outside an electrified surface is normal to it and equal to sigma_/#dpi1 where sigma is the surface density2 and since we have just proved that for the ends of a tube of force ,ed,s ,e#a;d,s'1 it follows that sigmad,s sigma'd,s'1 or ,q ,q'1 where ,q and ,q' are the quantities of electricity on the ends of the tube of force4 ,accordingly1 since every tube sent out from a charged conductor must end somewhere on another charge of opposite sign1 it follows that the two electricities always exist in equal quantity1 and that it is impossible to create any quantity of one kind without creating an equal quantity of the opposite sign4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,we have next to consider the energy storage which takes place when electric charge is created1 i4e4 when the dielectric is strained or polarized4 ,since the potential of a conductor is defined to be the work required to move a unit of positive electricity from the surface of the earth or from an infinite distance from all electricity to the surface of the conductor1 it follows that the work done in putting a small charge dq into a conductor at a potential v is v dq4 ,let us then suppose that a conductor originally at zero potential has its potential raised by administering to it small successive doses of electricity dq4 ,the first raises its potential to v1 the second to v' and so on1 and the nth to ,v4 ,take any horizontal line and divide it into small elements of length each representing dq1 and draw vertical lines representing the potentials v1 v'1 c41 and after each dose4 ,since the potential rises proportionately to the quantity in the conductor1 the ends of these ordinates will lie on a straight line and define a triangle whose base line is a length equal to the total quantity ,q and height a length equal to the final potential ,v4 ,the element of work done in introducing the quantity of electricity dq at a potential v is represented by the element of area of this triangle 7see fig4 #d71 and hence the work done in charging the conductor with quantity ,q to final potential ,v is #a_/b ,,qv1 or since ,q ,,cv1 where ,c is its capacity1 the work done is represented by #a_/b ,,cv#b or by #a_/b ,q#b_/;,c4 ,if sigma is the surface density and d,s an element of surface1 then intsigmad,s is the whole charge1 and hence #a_/b int ,vsigmad,s is the expression for the energy of charge of a conductor4 ,we can deduce a remarkable expression for the energy stored up in an electric field containing electrified bodies as follows3#ai ,let ,v denote the potential at any point in the field4 ,consider the integral #a _/ _/ _/ _/d,v#b _/d,v#b _/d,v#b ,w ----- 7----7 7----7 7----7 dx dy dz4 7#ba7 #hpi_/_/_/ dx_/ dy_/ dz_/ where the integration extends throughout the whole space unoccupied by conductors4 ,we have by partial integration _/ _/ _/ _/d,v#b _/ _/ d,v _/ _/ _/ d#b,v 7----7 dx dy dz ,v -- dy dz - ,v ---- dx dy dz1 _/_/_/ dx_/ _/_/ dx _/_/_/ dx#b and two similar equations in y and z4 ,hence #a _/ _/ _/ _/d,v#b _/d,v#b _/d,v#b ----- 7----7 7----7 7----7 dx dy dz #hpi_/_/_/ dx_/ dy_/ dz_/ #a _/ _/ d,v #a _/ _/ _/ ----- ,v -- d,s - ----- ,vnabla,v dx dy dz 7#bb7 #hpi_/_/ dn #hpi_/_/_/ where d,v_/dn means differentiation along the normal1 and nabla stands d#b d#b d#b for the operator ---- ---- ----4 ,let ,e be the resultant electric dx#b dy#b dz#b force at any point in the field4 ,then bearing in mind that sigma 7#a_/d pi7d,v_/dn1 and rho -7#a_/d pi7nabla,v1 we have finally #a _/ _/ _/ #a _/ _/ #a _/ _/ _/ ----- ,e#b;dv -- ,vsigmad,s -- ,vrhodv4 #hpi _/_/_/ #b _/_/ #b _/_/_/ ,the first term on the right hand side expresses the energy of the surface electrification of the conductors in the field1 and the second the energy of volume density 7if any74 ,accordingly the term on the left hand side gives us the whole energy in the field4 ,suppose that the dielectric has a constant ,k1 then we must multiply both sides by ,k and the expression for the energy per unit of volume of the field is equivalent to #a_/b ,,de where ,d is the displacement or polarization in the dielectric4 ,furthermore it can be shown by the application of the calculus of variations that the condition for a minimum value of the function ,w1 is that nabla,v #j4 ,hence that distribution of potential which is necessary to satisfy ,laplace's equation is also one which makes the potential energy a minimum and therefore the energy stable4 ,thus the actual distribution of electricity on the conductor in the field is not merely a stable distribution1 it is the only possible stable distribution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,method of ,electrical ,images4--,a very powerful method of attacking problems in electrical distribution was first made known by ,lord ,kelvin in #ahde and is described as the method of electrical images4#bj ,by older mathematical methods it had only been possible to predict in a few simple cases the distribution of electricity at rest on conductors of various forms4 ,the notion of an electrical image may be easily grasped by the following illustration3 ,let there be at ,a 7see fig4 #e7 a point-charge of positive electricity q and an infinite conducting plate ,,po1 shown in section1 connected to earth and therefore at zero potential4 ,then the charge at ,a together with the induced surface charge on the plate makes a certain field of electric force on the left of the plate ,,po1 which is a zero equipotential surface4 ,if we remove the plate1 and yet by any means can keep the identical surface occupied by it a plane of zero potential1 the boundary conditions will remain the same1 and therefore the field of force to the left of ,,po will remain unaltered4 ,this can be done by placing at ,b an equal negative point-charge -q in the place which would be occupied by the optical image of ,a if ,,po were a mirror1 that is1 let -q be placed at ,b1 so that the distance ,,bo is equal to the distance ,,ao1 whilst ,,aob is at right angles to ,,po4 ,then the potential at any point ,p in this ideal plane ,,po is equal to q_/,,ap - q_/,,bp ,o1 whilst the resultant force at ,p due to the two point charges is #bq,a,o_/,,ap#c1 and is parallel to ,,ab or normal to ,,po4 ,hence if we remove the charge -q at ,b and distribute electricity over the surface ,,po with a surface density sigma1 according to the ,coulomb-,poisson law1 sigma q,a,o_/#bpi,,ap#c1 the field of force to the left of ,,pd will fulfil the required boundary conditions1 and hence will be the law of distribution of the induced electricity in the case of the actual plate4 ,the point-charge -q at ,b is called the electrical image of the point-charge q at ,a4 ,we find a precisely analogous effect in optics which justifies the term electrical image4 ,suppose a room lit by a single candle4 ,there is everywhere a certain illumination due to it4 ,place across the room a plane mirror4 ,all the space behind the mirror will become dark1 and all the space in front of the mirror will acquire an exalted illumination4 ,whatever this increased illumination may be1 it can be precisely imitated by removing the mirror and placing a second lighted candle at the place occupied by the optical image of the first candle in the mirror1 that is1 as far behind the plane as the first candle was in front4 ,so the potential distribution in the space due to the electric point-charge q as ,a together with -q at ,b is the same as that due to q at ,a and the negative induced charge erected on the infinite plane 7earthed7 metal sheet placed half-way between ,a and ,b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,the same reasoning can be applied to determine the electrical image of a point-charge of positive electricity in a spherical surface1 and therefore the distribution of induced electricity over a metal sphere connected to earth produced by a point-charge near it4 ,let q be any positive point-charge placed at a point ,a outside a sphere 7fig4 #f7 of radius r1 and centre at ,c1 and let ,p be any point on it4 ,let ,,ca d4 ,take a point ,b in ,,ca such that ,,cb4,,ca r#b1 or ,,cb r#b_/;d4 ,it is easy then to show that ,,pa 3 ,,pb d 3 r4 ,if then we put a negative point-charge -qr_/d at ,b1 it follows that the spherical surface will be a zero potential surface1 for q_/,,pa - rq_/d 4 #a_/,,pb #j 7#bd74 ,another equipotential surface is evidently a very small sphere described round ,a4 ,the resultant force due to these two point-charges must then be in the direction ,,cp1 and its value ,e is the vector sum of the two forces along ,,ap and ,,bp due to the two point-charges4 ,it is not difficult to show that ,e -7d#b - r#b7q_/r,a,p#c 7#be71 in other words1 the force at ,p is inversely as the cube of the distance from ,a4 ,suppose then we remove the negative point-charge1 and let the sphere be supposed to become conductive and be connected to earth4 ,if we make a distribution of negative electricity over it1 which has a density sigma varying according to the law sigma -7d#b - r#b7q_/#dpir,a,p#c 7#bf71 that distribution1 together with the point-charge q at ,a1 will make a distribution of electric force at all points outside the sphere exactly similar to that which would exist if the sphere were removed and a negative point charge -qr_/d were placed at ,b4 ,hence this charge is the electrical image of the charge q at ,a in the spherical surface4 ,we may generalize these statements in the following theorem1 which is an important deduction from a wider theorem due to ,g4 ,green4 ,suppose that we have any distribution of electricity at rest over conductors1 and that we know the potential at all points and consequently the level or equipotential surfaces4 ,take any equipotential surface enclosing the whole of the electricity1 and suppose this to become an actual sheet of metal connected to the earth4 ,it is then a zero potential surface1 and every point outside is at zero potential as far as concerns the electric charge on the conductors inside4 ,then if ,u is the potential outside the surface due to this electric charge inside alone1 and ,v that due to the opposite charge it induces on the inside of the metal surface1 we must have ,u ,v #j or ,u -,v at all points outside the earthed metal surface4 ,therefore1 whatever may be the distribution of electric force produced by the charges inside taken alone1 it can be exactly imitated for all space outside the metal surface if we suppose the inside charge removed and a distribution of electricity of the same sign made over the metal surface such that its density follows the law sigma -7#a_/d pi7d,u_/dn 7#bg71 where d,u_/dn is the electric force at that point on the closed equipotential surface considered1 due to the original charge alone4 ,,bibliography4--,for further developments of the subject we must refer the reader to the numerous excellent treatises on electrostatics now available4 ,the student will find it to be a great advantage to read through ,faraday's three volumes entitled ,experimental ,researches on ,electricity1 as soon as he has mastered some modern elementary book giving in compact form a general account of electrical phenomena4 ,for this purpose he may select from the following books3 ,j4 ,clerk ,maxwell1 ,elementary ,treatise on ,electricity 7,oxford1 #ahha72 ,j4,j4 ,thomson1 ,elements of the ,mathematical ,theory of ,electricity and ,magnetism 7,cambridge1 #ahie72 ,j4,d4 ,everett1 ,electricity1 founded on part iii4 of ,deschanel's ,natural ,philosophy 7,london1 #aija72 ,g4,c4 ,foster and ,a4,w4 ,porter1 ,elementary ,treatise on ,electricity and ,magnetism 7,london1 #aijc72 ,s4,p4 ,thompson1 ,elementary ,lessons on ,electricity and ,magnetism 7,london1 #aijc74 ,when these elementary books have been digested1 the advanced student may proceed to study the following3 ,j4 ,clerk ,maxwell1 ,a ,treatise on ,electricity and ,magnetism 7#ast ed41 ,oxford1 #ahgc2 #bnd ed4 by ,w4,d4 ,niven1 #ahha2 #crd ed4 by ,j4,j4 ,thomson1 #ahib72 ,joubert and ,mascart1 ,electricity and ,magnetism1 ,english translation by ,e4 ,atkinson 7,london1 #ahhc72 ,watson and ,burbury1 ,the ,mathematical ,theory of ,electricity and ,magnetism 7,oxford1 #ahhe72 ,a4 ,gray1 ,a ,treatise on ,magnetism and ,electricity 7,london1 #ahih74 ,in the collected ,scientific ,papers of ,lord ,kelvin 7#c vols41 ,cambridge1 #ahhb71 of ,james ,clerk ,maxwell 7#b vols41 ,cambridge1 #ahij71 and of ,lord ,rayleigh 7#d vols41 ,cambridge1 #aijc71 the advanced student will find the means for studying the historical development of electrical knowledge as it has been evolved from the minds of some of the master workers of the #aith century4 7,j4 ,a4 ,f47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,see ,maxwell1 ,elementary ,treatise on ,electricity 7,oxford1 #ahha71 p4 #dg4 #b ,see ,maxwell1 ,treatise on ,electricity and ,magnetism 7#crd ed41 ,oxford1 #ahib71 vol4 i4 p4 #hj4 #c ,maxwell1 ,ibid4 vol4 i4 ,s #gd;a2 also ,electrical ,researches of the ,hon4 ,henry ,cavendish1 edited by ,j4 ,clerk ,maxwell 7,cambridge1 #ahgi71 p4 #ajd4 #d ,laplace 7,mec4 ,cel4 vol4 i4 ch4 ii47 gave the first direct demonstration that no function of the distance except the inverse square can satisfy the condition that a uniform spherical shell exerts no force on a particle within it4 #e ,the solution of the problem of determining the distribution on an ellipsoid of a fluid the particles of which repel each other with a force inversely as the nth power of the distance was first given by ,george ,green 7see ,ferrer's edition of ,green's ,collected ,papers1 p4 #aai1 #ahga74 #f ,see ,thomson and ,tait1 ,treatise on ,natural ,philosophy1 ,s #eai4 #g ,see article ,electricity1 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica 7#ith edition71 vol4 viii4 p4 #cj4 ,the reader is also referred to an article by ,lord ,kelvin 7,reprint of ,papers on ,electrostatics and ,magnetism1 p4 #agh71 entitled ,determination of the ,distribution of ,electricity on a ,circular ,segment of a ,plane1 or ,spherical ,conducting ,surface under any given ,influence1 where another equivalent expression is given for the capacity of an ellipsoid4 #h ,see ,maxwell1 ,electricity and ,magnetism1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bhd-cje 7#crd ed41 #ahib74 #i ,it is an interesting fact that ,cavendish measured capacity in globular inches1 using as his unit the capacity of a metal ball1 #a in4 in diameter4 ,hence multiplication of his values for capacities by #b4ed reduces them to ,e4,s4 units in the ,c4,g4,s4 system4 ,see ,elec4 ,res4 p4 #cdg4 #aj ,for fuller details of these methods of comparison of capacities see ,j4,a4 ,fleming1 ,a ,handbook for the ,electrical ,laboratory and ,testing ,room1 vol4 ii4 ch4 ii4 7,london1 #aijc74 #aa ,see ,fleming1 ,handbook for the ,electrical ,laboratory1 vol4 ii4 p4 #acj4 #ab ,faraday1 ,experimental ,researches on ,electricity1 vol4 i4 ,s #abeb4 ,for a very complete set of tables of dielectric constants of solids1 liquids and gases see ,a4 ,winkelmann1 ,handbuch der ,physik1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #ih-adh 7,breslau1 #aije72 also see ,landolt and ,bornstein's ,tables of ,physical ,constants 7,berlin1 #ahid74 #ac ,see the following papers by ,j4,a4 ,fleming and ,james ,dewar on dielectric constants at low temperatures3 ,on the ,dielectric ,constant of ,liquid ,oxygen and ,liquid ,air1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #ahig1 #fj1 p4 #cfj2 ,note on the ,dielectric ,constant of ,ice and ,alcohol at very low ,temperatures1 ib41 #ahig1 #fa1 p4 #b2 ,on the ,dielectric ,constants of ,pure ,ice1 ,glycerine1 ,nitrobenzol and ,ethylene ,dibromide at and above the ,temperature of ,liquid ,air1 id4 ib4 p4 #caf2 ,on the ,dielectric ,constant of ,certain ,frozen ,electrolytes at and above the ,temperature of ,liquid ,air1 id4 ib4 p4 #bii--this paper describes the cone condenser and methods used2 ,further ,observations on the ,dielectric ,constants of ,frozen ,electrolytes at and above the ,temperature of ,liquid ,air1 id4 ib4 p4 #cha2 ,the ,dielectric ,constants of ,certain ,organic ,bodies at and below the ,temperature of ,liquid ,air1 id4 ib4 p4 #ceh2 ,on the ,dielectric ,constants of ,metallic ,oxides dissolved or suspended in ,ice cooled to the ,temperature of ,liquid ,air1 id4 ib4 p4 #cfh4 #ad ,see ,faraday1 ,experimental ,researches1 vol4 i4 ,s #abde2 ,r4,h4,a4 ,kohlrausch1 ,pogg4 ,ann41 #ahed1 #ia2 see also ,maxwell1 ,electricity and ,magnetism1 vol4 i4 ,s #cbg1 who shows that a composite or stratified dielectric composed of layers of materials of different dielectric constants and resistivities would exhibit the property of residual charge4 #ae ,fleming and ,ashton1 ,on a ,model which imitates the behaviour of ,dielectrics4 ,phil4 ,mag41 #aija #f1 #b1 p4 #bbh4 #af ,the beginner is often puzzled by the constant appearance of the factor #dpi in electrical theorems4 ,it arises from the manner in which the unit quantity of electricity is defined4 ,the electric force due to a point-charge q at a distance r is defined to be q_/r#b1 and the total flux or induction through the sphere of radius r is therefore #dpiq4 ,if1 however1 the unit point charge were defined to be that which produces a unit of electric flux through a circumscribing spherical surface or the electric force at distance r defined to be #a_/d pir#b1 many theorems would be enunciated in simpler forms4 #ag ,see ,maxwell1 ,electricity and ,magnetism1 vol4 i4 ,s #gh;b 7#bnd ed474 #ah ,id4 ib4 vol4 i4 ,s #hj4 ,coulomb proved the proportionality of electric surface force to density1 but the above numerical relation ,e #dpisigma was first established by ,poisson4 #ai ,see ,maxwell1 ,electricity and ,magnetism1 vol4 i4 ,s #ii;a 7#crd ed41 #ahib71 where the expression in question is deduced as a corollary of ,green's theorem4 #bj ,see ,lord ,kelvin's ,papers on ,electrostatics and ,magnetism1 p4 #add4 ,,electrotherapeutics1 a general term for the use of electricity in therapeutics1 i4e4 in the alleviation and cure of disease4 ,before the different forms of medical treatment are dealt with1 a few points in connexion with the machines and currents1 of special interest to the medical reader1 must first be given4 ,faradism4--,for the battery required either for faradism or galvanism1 cells of the ,leclanche type are the most satisfactory4 ,being dry they can be carried in any position1 are lighter1 and there is no trouble from the erosion of wires and binding screws1 such as so often results from wet cells4 ,the best method of producing a smooth current in the secondary coil is for the interruptor hammer to vibrate directly against the iron core of the primary coil4 ,for this it is best that the interruptor be made of a piece of steel spring1 as a high rate of interruption can then be maintained1 with a fairly smooth current in the secondary coil4 ,this form of interruptor necessitates that the iron core be fixed1 and variation in the primary induced current is arranged for by slipping a brass tube more or less over the iron core1 thus cutting off the magnetic field from the primary coil4 ,the secondary current 7that obtained from the secondary coil7 can be varied by keeping the secondary coil permanently fixed over the primary and varying the strength of the primary current4 ,where1 as suggested above1 the iron core is fixed1 the primary and secondary induced currents will be at their strongest when the brass tube is completely withdrawn4 ,as there is no simple means of measuring the strength of the faradic current1 it is best to start with a very weak current1 testing it on the muscles of one's own hand until these begin to contract and a definite sensory effect is produced2 the current can then be applied to the part1 being strengthened only very gradually4 ,galvanism4--,for treatment by galvanism a large battery is needed1 the simplest form being known as a patient's battery1 consisting of a variable number of dry cells arranged in series4 ,the cells used are those of ,leclanche1 with ,e4,m4,f4 7or voltage7 of #a4e and an internal resistance of 4#c ohm4 ,thus the exact strength of the current is known2 the number of cells usually employed is #bd1 and when new give an ,e4,m4,f4 of about #cf volts4 ,by using the formula ,c ,e_/,r1 where ,e is the voltage of the battery1 ,r the total resistance of battery1 electrodes and the patient's skin and tissues1 and ,c the current in amperes1 the number of cells required for any particular current can be worked out4 ,the resistance of the patient's skin must be made as low as possible by thoroughly wetting both skin and electrodes with sodium bicarbonate solution1 and keeping the electrodes in very close apposition to the skin4 ,a galvanometer is always fitted to the battery1 usually of the d',arsonval type1 with a shunt by means of which1 on turning a screw1 nine-tenths of the inducing current can be short-circuited away1 and the solenoid only influenced by one-tenth of the current which is being used on the patient4 ,in districts where electric power is available the continuous current can be used by means of a switchboard4 ,a current of much value for electrotherapeutic purposes is the sinusoidal current1 by which is meant an alternating current whose curve of electromotive force1 in both positive and negative phase1 varies constantly and smoothly in what is known as the sine curve4 ,in those districts supplied by an alternating current1 the sinusoidal current can be obtained from the mains by passing it through various transformers1 but where the main supply is the direct or constant current1 a motor transformer is needed4 ,static ,electricity4--,for treatment by static electricity the ,wimshurst type of machine is the one most generally used4 ,a number of electrodes are required2 thus for the application of sparks a brass ball and brass roller electrode1 for the breeze a single point and a multiple point electrode1 and another multiple point electrode in the form of a metal cap that can be placed over the patient's head4 ,the polarity of the machine must always be tested1 as either knob may become positive or negative1 though the polarity rarely changes when once the machine is in action4 ,the oldest method of subjecting a patient to electric influence is that in which static electricity is employed4 ,the patient is insulated on a suitable platform and treated by means of charges and discharges from an electrical machine4 ,the effect is to increase the regularity and frequency of the pulse1 raise the blood pressure and increase the action of the skin4 ,the nervous system is quieted1 sleep being promoted1 the patient often becoming drowsy during the application4 ,if while the patient is being treated a point electrode is brought towards him he feels the sensation of a wind blowing from that point2 this is an electric breeze or brush discharge4 ,the breeze is negative if the patient is positively charged and vice versa4 ,the breeze discharge treatment is especially valuable in subduing pain of the superficial cutaneous nerves1 and also in the treatment of chronic indolent ulcers4 ,quite recently this form of treatment has been applied with much success to various skin lesions--psoriasis1 eczema and pruritus4 ,static electricity is also utilized for medical purposes by means of sparks1 which are administered with a ball electrode1 the result being a sudden muscular contraction at the point of application4 ,the electrode must be rapidly withdrawn before a second spark has time to leap across1 as this is a severe form of treatment and must be administered slowly4 ,it is mainly employed for muscular stimulation1 and the contractions resulting from spark stimulation can be produced in cases of nerve injury and degeneration1 even when the muscles have lost their reaction to faradism4 ,the sensory stimulation of this form of treatment is also strong1 and is useful in hysterical anaesthesia and functional paralysis4 ,where a milder sensory stimulation is required friction can be used1 the electrode being in the form of a metal roller which is moved rapidly outside the patient's clothing over the spine or other part to be treated4 ,the clothing must be dry and of wool1 and each additional woollen layer intensifies the effect4 ,another method of employing electricity at high potential is by the employment of high frequency currents4 ,there are two methods of application3 that in which brush discharges are made use of1 with undoubtedly good effects in many of the diseases affecting the surface of the body1 and that in which the currents of the solenoid are made to traverse the patient directly4 ,the physiological value of the latter method is not certain1 though one point of interest in connexion with it is that whereas statical applications raise the blood pressure1 high frequency applications lower it4 ,it has been used in the case of old people with arterio-sclerosis1 and the reduction of blood pressure produced is said to have shown considerable permanence4 ,the ,faradic ,current4--,g4,b4 ,duchenne was the first physician to make use of the induced current for treatment1 and the term faradization is supposed to be due to him4 ,but in his day the differences between the two currents available1 the primary and the secondary1 were not worked out1 and they were used somewhat indiscriminately4 ,nowadays it is generally accepted that the primary current should be used for the stimulation of deep-lying organs1 as stomach and intestines1 c41 while the secondary current is employed for stimulation of the limb muscles and the cutaneous sensory nerves4 ,the faradic current is also used as a means of diagnosis for neuro-muscular conditions4 ,when the interrupted current is used to stimulate the skin over a motor nerve1 all the muscles supplied by that nerve are thrown into rapid tetanic contraction1 the contraction both beginning and ceasing sharply and suddenly with the current4 ,this is the normal reaction of the nerve to faradism4 ,if the muscle be wasted from disuse or some local cause unconnected with its nerve-supply1 the contraction is smaller1 and both arises and relaxes more slowly4 ,but if the lesion lies in the nerve itself1 as in ,bell's palsy1 the muscles no longer show any response when the nerve is stimulated1 and this is known as the reaction of degeneration in the nerve4 ,it is usually preceded by a condition of hyperexcitability4 ,these results are applied to distinguish between functional paralysis and that due to some organic lesion1 as in the former case the reaction of faradism will be as brisk as usual4 ,also at the beginning of most cases of infantile paralysis many more groups of muscles appear to be affected than ultimately prove to be1 and faradism enables the physician to distinguish between those groups of muscles that are permanently paralysed owing to the destruction of their trophic centre1 and those muscles which are only temporarily inhibited from shock1 and which with proper treatment will later regain their full power4 ,in the testing of muscles electrically that point on the skin which on stimulation gives the maximum contraction for that muscle is known as the motor point for that muscle4 ,it usually corresponds to the entry of the motor nerve4 ,faradic treatment may be employed in the weakness and emaciation depending on any long illness1 rickets1 anaemia1 c4 ,for these cases it is best to use the electric bath1 the patient being placed in warm water1 and the two electrodes1 one at the patient's back and the other at his feet1 being connected with the secondary coil4 ,the patient's general metabolism is stimulated1 he eats and sleeps better and soon begins to put on weight4 ,this is especially beneficial in severe cases of rickets4 ,in the weakness and emaciation due to neurasthenia1 especially in those cases being treated by the ,weir ,mitchell method 7isolation1 absolute confinement to bed1 massage and overfeeding71 a similar faradic bath is a very helpful adjunct4 ,in tabes dorsalis faradic treatment will often diminish the anaesthesia and numbness in the legs1 with resulting benefit to the ataxy4 ,perhaps the most beneficial use of the faradic current is in the treatment of chronic constipation--especially that so frequently met with in young women and due to deficient muscular power of the intestinal walls4 ,in long-standing cases the large intestine becomes permanently dilated1 and its muscular fibres so attenuated as to have no power over the intestinal contents4 ,but faradism causes contraction at the point of stimulation1 and the peristaltic wave thus started slowly progresses along the bowel4 ,all that is needed is a special electrode for introduction into the bowel and an ordinary roller electrode4 ,the rectal electrode consists of a #f-;inch wire bearing at one end a small metal knob and fitted at the other into a metal cup which screws into the handle of the electrode4 ,the only part exposed is the metallic knob2 the rest is coated with some insulating material4 ,the patient reclines on a couch on his back1 the rectal electrode is connected1 and having been vaselined is passed some three inches into the rectum4 ,a current is started with the secondary coil in such a position as to give only an extremely weak current4 ,the roller electrode is then wetted with hot water and applied to the front of the abdomen4 ,at first the patient should feel nothing1 but the current should slowly be increased until a faint response is perceptible from the abdominal muscles4 ,this gives the required strength1 and the roller electrode1 pressed well into the abdominal wall1 should very slowly be moved along the course of the large intestine beginning at the right iliac fossa4 ,thus a combination of massage and faradic current is obtained1 and the results are particularly satisfactory4 ,treatment should be given on alternate days immediately after breakfast1 and should be persevered with for six or eight weeks4 ,the patient can be taught to administer it to himself4 ,the ,galvanic1 ,continuous or ,direct ,current4--,in using the galvanic or direct current the electrode must be covered with padded webbing or some other absorbent material1 the metal of the electrode never being allowed to come in contact with the skin4 ,the padding by retaining moisture helps to make good contact1 and also helps to guard against burning the skin4 ,but when a continuous current of #c am4 or more is passed for more than #e min4 the electrodes must be raised periodically and the skin inspected4 ,if the current be too strong or applied for too long a time1 small blisters are raised which break and are very troublesome to heal4 ,nor does the patient always feel much pain when this occurs4 ,also the electrodes must be remoistened every five or six minutes1 as they soon become dry1 and the skin will then be burnt4 ,it is best to use a solution of sodium bicarbonate4 ,again1 the danger of burning the skin depends on the density of the current per sq4 in4 of electrode1 so that a strong current through a small electrode will burn the skin1 whereas the same current through a larger electrode will produce a beneficial effect4 ,if the patient be immersed up to his neck in an electric bath1 much stronger currents can be passed without causing either pain or injury1 as in this case the whole area of the skin in contact with the water acts as an electrode4 ,in passing the current it must be remembered that the negative electrode or kathode is the more painful of the two1 and its action more stimulating than the positive electrode or anode1 which is sedative4 ,if a muscle be stimulated over its motor point1 it will contract with a sharp twitch and then become quiescent4 ,with normal muscle the ,,kcc 7kathodal closure contraction7 is stronger than that produced by the closure of the current at the anode ,,acc 7anodal closure contraction74 ,and if the muscle be normal the opening contraction ,,koc and ,,aoc are not seen4 ,when a galvanic current is passed along a nerve its excitability is increased at the kathode and diminished at the anode4 ,the increased excitability at the kathode is katelectrotonus1 and the lowered excitability at the anode anelectrotonus4 ,but since in a patient the electrode cannot be applied directly to the nerve1 the lines of force from the electrode pass into the nerve both in an upward and downward direction1 and hence there are two poles produced by each electrode4 ,if the current be suddenly reversed1 so that what was the anode becomes the kathode1 a stronger contraction is obtained than by simply making and breaking the current4 ,to avoid the four poles on the nerve to be tested1 it is found most satisfactory to have one electrode placed at some distance1 on the back or chest1 not on the same limb4 ,as explained above1 when the nerve supplying a muscle is diseased it no longer responds to the faradic current4 ,on further testing this with the galvanic or continuous current it responds1 but the contraction is not brisk but begins slowly and relaxes slowly1 though the contraction as a whole may be larger than that of a normal muscle4 ,this excessive contraction is known as hyperexcitability to galvanism4 ,this form of contraction is that obtained when the muscle fibre itself is stimulated4 ,again1 whereas in normal muscle ,,kcc ,,acc1 when the nerve is degenerated ,,kcc ,,acc or ,,acc ,,kcc4 ,also in the more severe forms of nerve injury tetanic contractions may be set up in the paralysed muscles1 by closure of the current either at the anode or kathode4 ,these charges are known as the reaction of degeneration or ,,rd1 and are of great value in diagnosis4 ,they occur only after sudden or acute damage to the nerve cells of the anterior horn of the spinal cord1 or to the motor nerve fibres proceeding from these cells4 ,thus ,,rd is present in infantile paralysis1 acute neuritis1 c41 but absent in progressive muscular atrophy where the wasting of nerve and muscle takes place extremely slowly4 ,the reaction of degeneration in the nerve is shown by disappearance of reaction to either kind of current1 preceded for some days by hyperexcitability to either current4 ,where the muscle wasting is due to a lesion in the muscle alone1 as in ischaemic myositis 7usually due to injury from tight bandaging or badly applied splints71 no reaction of degeneration is found2 the only change is a loss of power in the contraction4 ,if the damage to the anterior horn cells be only very slight1 there may only be partial ,,rd1 and the prognosis is given according to the extent of ,,rd4 ,from this account it is clear that the greatest value of the continuous current lies in its use in diagnosis4 ,but it is also applied extremely successfully1 in combination with massage1 to cases of infantile paralysis4 ,wrist drop from lead poisoning and lead neuritis of all kinds1 reflex muscular atrophy and the muscular wasting of hemiplegia1 are all benefited by the continuous current2 the severe pain of sciatica1 and the inflammation of the nerve sheath in these cases1 can be arrested more quickly by galvanic treatment than in any other way4 ,nearly all forms of neuritis1 both of the cranial and other nerves1 are best treated by the continuous current4 ,the action in all cases is to stimulate the natural tendency to repair1 very largely by improving the circulation through the injured parts4 ,another effect of an electric current is electrolysis1 and the phenomena of electrolytic conduction involve not merely the ionization of the compounds1 but also the setting in motion of the ions towards their respective poles4 ,solutions which conduct electric currents are called electrolytes1 and in the case of the human body the electrolyte is the whole mass of the saline constituents in solution throughout the body4 ,when a current is passed through an electrolyte1 dissociation into ions takes place1 the ions which are freed round the anode being called anions and those which are freed round the kathode being called kations4 ,the anions carry negative charges and are consequently attracted by the positive electricity of the anode4 ,the kations carry positive charges1 hence they are repelled by the anode and attracted by the kathode4 ,but a certain number of molecules do not dissociate1 and hence in an electrolytic solution there are neutral molecules1 anions and kations4 ,the chemical actions1 and thus the antiseptic1 remedial or toxic effects of electrolytes1 are due to the actions of their ions4 ,the phosphides and phosphates may be taken as examples4 ,some are extremely toxic1 while others are quite harmless4 ,but it is to the phosphorus ion that the toxic or therapeutic effect is due4 ,in the phosphates the phosphorus is part of a complex ion possessing quite different properties to those of the phosphorus ion of the phosphides4 ,the strikingly different effects of the sulphates and sulphides are due to similar conditions1 as also of many other compounds4 ,there are certain solvents1 as alcohol1 chloroform1 glycerin and vaseline which do not dissociate electrolytes1 and consequently the latter become inert when mixed with these solvents4 ,these solutions do not conduct electricity1 and hence ionic effects are extremely slow4 ,a vaseline ointment containing #e of phenol makes a good dressing for an ulcer of the leg1 and produces no irritant effect1 but a #e aqueous solution may be both caustic and toxic4 ,since the toxic or therapeutic action of a solution is due to its ions1 the action must be proportional to the number of ions in a given volume1 that is1 the action of an electrolyte depends on the degree of dissociation4 ,thus a strong acid is one that is much dissociated1 a weak acid one that has undergone but little dissociation and so on4 ,in #ahif-ahig it was shown that the bactericidal action of salts varies with their degree of dissociation and therefore depends on the concentration of the active ions4 ,in the medical application of these facts it must be remembered that when an ion is introduced into the body by electrolysis1 it is probably forced into the actual cellular constituents of the body1 whereas the drug administered by one of the usual methods though circulating in the blood may perhaps never gain access to the cell itself4 ,hence the different effects that have been recorded between a drug administered by the mouth or subcutaneously and the same administered by electrolysis4 ,thus a solution of cocaine injected subcutaneously produces quite different effects to that introduced by electrolysis4 ,by the latter method it produces anaesthesia but does not diffuse1 and the anaesthesia remains strictly limited to the surface covered by the electrode4 ,it would appear that the ion is never introduced into the general circulation but into the cell plasma4 ,in the technical working of medical electrolysis the most minute precautions are required4 ,the solution of the drug must be made with as pure water as possible1 recently distilled4 ,the spongy substance forming the electrode must be free from any trace of electrolytic substances4 ,hence all materials used must be washed in distilled water4 ,absorbent cotton answers all requirements and is easily procured4 ,the area of introduction can be exactly circumscribed by cutting a hole in a sheet of adhesive plaster which is applied to the skin and on which the electrolytic electrodes are pressed4 ,the great advantage of electrolytic methods is that it enables general treatment to be replaced by a strictly local treatment1 and the cells can be saturated exactly to the degree and depth required4 ,strong antiseptics and materials that coagulate albumen cannot be introduced locally by ordinary methods1 as the skin is impermeable to them1 but by electrolysis they can be introduced to the exact depth required4 ,the local effects of the ions depend on the dosage2 thus a feeble dose of the ions of zinc stimulates the growth of hair1 but a stronger dose produces the death of the tissue4 ,naturally the different ions produce different effects4 ,thus the ions of the alkalis and magnesium are caustic1 those of the alkaline earthy metals produce actual mortification of the tissue and so on4 ,according to the ion chosen the effect may be caustic in various degrees1 antiseptic1 coagulating1 producing vascular or nervous changes1 c41 c4 ,and again electrolysis can also be used for extracting from the body such ions as are injurious1 as uric and oxalic acid from a patient suffering from gout4 ,one of the latest advances is the treatment of ankylosed joints by the electrolytic method1 the electrolyte used being chloride of sodium1 and the marvellous results being attributed to the introduction of the chlorine ions4 ,this sclerolytic property of the current is applicable to all parts of the body accessible to the current4 ,old cases of rheumatic scleritis1 entirely unaffected by the routine treatment of salicylates and iodide1 have often cleared up entirely under electrolytic treatment4 ,cases of chronic iritis with adhesions and old pleural adhesions are also suited for this method of procedure4 ,certain menstrual troubles of women and also endometritis yield rapidly to electrolysis with a zinc anode4 ,before this method of introduction1 the zinc salts1 though excellent disinfectants1 acted only on the surface in consequence of their coagulating action on the albuminoids1 but by the electric current1 under the influence of a difference of potential1 the zinc iron will penetrate to any desired depth4 ,cases of rodent ulcer unaffected by all other methods of treatment have been cured by electric kataphoresis with zinc ions1 and the method is now being applied to the treatment of inoperable malignant tumours4 ,as very strong currents are required for this latter1 the patient has first to be anaesthetized by a general anaesthetic4 ,another direction in which electric ions are being used is that of the induction of local anaesthesia before minor surgical operations4 ,cocaine is the drug used1 the resulting anaesthesia is absolute1 and the operation can be made almost bloodless by the admixture of suprarenal extract4 ,,electrotyping1 an application of the art of electroplating 7q4v47 to typography 7q4v474 ,in copying engraved plates for printing purposes1 copper may be deposited upon the original plate1 the surface of which is first rendered slightly dirty1 by means of a weak solution of wax in turpentine or otherwise1 to prevent adhesion4 ,the reversed plate thus produced is then stripped from the first and used as cathode in its turn1 with the result that even the finest lines of the original are faithfully reproduced4 ,the electrolyte commonly contains about #a-a_/b lb4 of copper sulphate and #a_/b lb4 of strong sulphuric acid per gallon1 and is worked with a current density of about #aj amperes per sq4 ft41 which should give a thickness of #j4jjjefc in4 of copper per hour4 ,as time is an object1 the conditions alluded to in the article on ,,copper as being favourable to the use of high current densities should be studied1 bearing in mind that a tough copper deposit of high quality is essential4 ,moulds for reproducing plates or art-work are often taken in plaster1 beeswax mixed with ,venice turpentine1 fusible metal1 or gutta-percha1 and the surface being rendered conductive by powdered black-lead1 copper is deposited upon it evenly throughout4 ,for statuary1 and undercut work generally1 an elastic mould--of glue and treacle 7#hj3bj parts7--may be used2 the mould1 when set1 is waterproofed by immersion in a solution of potassium bichromate followed by exposure to sunlight1 or in some other way4 ,the best results1 however1 are obtained by taking a wax cast from the elastic mould1 and then from this a plaster mould1 which may be waterproofed with wax1 black-leaded1 and used as cathode4 ,in art-work of this nature the principal points to be looked to in depositing are the electrical connexions to the cathode1 the shape of the anode 7to secure uniformity of deposition71 the circulation of the electrolyte1 and1 in some cases1 the means for escape of anode oxygen4 ,silver electrotyping is occasionally resorted to for special purposes4 ,,electrum1 ,,electron 7,gr4 ,greek3 elektron1 amber71 an alloy of gold and silver in use among the ancients1 described by ,pliny as containing one part of silver to four of gold4 ,the term is also applied in mineralogy to native argentiferous gold containing from #bj to #ej of silver4 ,in both cases the name is derived from the pale yellow colour of electrum1 resembling that of amber4 ,,elegit 7,lat4 for he has chosen71 in ,english law1 a judicial writ of execution1 given by the ,statute of ,westminster ,,ii4 7#abhe71 and so called from the words of the writ1 that the plaintiff has chosen 7elegit7 this mode of satisfaction4 ,previously to the ,statute of ,westminster ,,ii41 a judgment creditor could only have the profits of lands of a debtor in satisfaction of his judgment1 but not the possession of the lands themselves4 ,but this statute provided that henceforth it should be in the election of the party having recovered judgment to have a writ of fieri facias 7q4v47 unto the sheriff on lands and goods or else all the chattels of the debtor and the one half of his lands until the judgment be satisfied4 ,since the ,bankruptcy ,act #ahhc the writ of elegit has extended to lands and hereditaments only4 7,see further ,,execution47 ,,elegy1 a short poem of lamentation or regret1 called forth by the decease of a beloved or revered person1 or by a general sense of the pathos of mortality4 ,the ,greek word ,greek3 elegeia is of doubtful signification2 it is usually interpreted as meaning a mournful or funeral song4 ,but there seems to be no proof that this idea of regret for death entered into the original meaning of ,greek3 elegeia4 ,the earliest ,greek elegies which have come down to us are not funereal1 although it is possible that the primitive ,greek3 elegeia may have been a set of words liturgically used1 with music1 at a burial4 ,when the elegy appears in surviving ,greek literature1 we find it dedicated1 not to death1 but to war and love4 ,callinus of ,ephesus1 who flourished in the #gth century1 is the earliest elegist of whom we possess fragments4 ,a little later ,tyrtaeus was composing his famous elegies in ,sparta4 ,both of these writers were1 so far as we know1 exclusively warlike and patriotic4 ,on the other hand1 the passion of love inspires ,mimnermus1 whose elegies are the prototypes not only of the later ,greek pieces1 and of the ,latin poems of the school of ,tibullus and ,propertius1 but of a great deal of the formal erotic poetry of modern ,europe4 ,in the #fth century ,b4,c41 the elegies of ,solon were admired2 they are mainly lost4 ,but we possess more of the work of ,theognis of ,megara than of any other archaic elegist1 and in it we can observe the characteristics of ,greek elegy best4 ,here the ,dorian spirit of chivalry reaches its highest expression1 and war is combined with manly love4 ,the elegy1 in its calm movement1 seems to have begun to lose currency when the ecstasy of emotion was more successfully interpreted by the various rhythmic and dithyrambic inventions of the ,aeolic lyrists4 ,the elegy1 however1 rose again to the highest level of merit in ,alexandrian times4 ,it was reintroduced by ,philetas in the #crd cent4 ,b4,c41 and was carried to extreme perfection by ,callimachus4 ,other later ,greek elegists of high reputation were ,asclepiades and ,euphorion4 ,but it is curious to notice that all the elegies of these poets were of an amatory nature1 and that antiquity styled the funeral dirges of ,theocritus1 ,bion and ,moschus--which are to us the types of elegy--not elegies at all1 but idylls4 ,when the poets of ,rome began their imitative study of ,alexandrian models1 it was natural that the elegies of writers such as ,callimachus should tempt them to immediate imitation4 ,gallus1 whose works are unhappily lost1 is known to have produced a great sensation in ,rome by publishing his translation of the poems of ,euphorion2 and he passed on to the composition of erotic elegies of his own1 which were the earliest in the ,latin language4 ,if we possessed his once-famous ,cytheris1 we should be able to decide the question of how much ,propertius1 who is now the leading figure among ,roman elegists1 owed to the example of ,gallus4 ,his brilliantly emotional ,cynthia1 with its rich and unexampled employment of that alternation of hexameter and pentameter which had now come to be known as the elegiac measure1 seems1 however1 to have settled the type of ,latin elegy4 ,tibullus is always named in conjunction with ,propertius1 who was his contemporary1 although in their style they were violently contrasted4 ,the sweetness of ,tibullus was the object of admiration and constant imitation by the ,latin poets of the ,renaissance1 although ,propertius has more austerely pleased a later taste4 ,finally1 ,ovid wrote elegies of great variety in subject1 but all in the same form1 and his dexterous easy metre closed the tradition of elegiac poetry among the ancients4 ,what remains in the decline of ,latin literature is all founded on a study of those masters of the ,golden ,age4 ,when the ,renaissance found its way to ,england1 the word elegy was introduced by readers of ,ovid and ,propertius4 ,but from the beginning of the #afth century1 it was used in ,english1 as it has been ever since1 to describe a funeral song or lament4 ,one of the earliest poems in ,english which bears the title of elegy is ,the ,complaint of ,philomene1 which ,george ,gascoigne began in #aefb1 and printed in #aegf4 ,the ,daphnaida of ,spenser 7#aeia7 is an elegy in the strict modern sense1 namely a poem of regret pronounced at the obsequies of a particular person4 ,in #aegi ,puttenham had defined an elegy as being a song of long lamentation4 ,with the opening of the #agth century the composition of elegies became universal on every occasion of public or private grief4 ,dr ,johnson's definition1 ,elegy1 a short poem without points or turns1 is singularly inept and careless4 ,by that time 7#agee7 ,english literature had produced many great elegies1 of which the ,lycidas of ,milton is by far the most illustrious4 ,but even ,cowley's on ,crashaw1 ,tickell's on ,addison1 ,pope's on an ,unfortunate ,lady1 those of ,quarles1 and ,dryden1 and ,donne1 should have warned ,johnson of his mistake4 ,since the #ahth century the most illustrious examples of elegy in ,english literature have been the ,adonais of ,shelley 7on ,keats71 the ,thyrsis of ,matthew ,arnold 7on ,clough71 and the ,ave atque ,vale of ,mr ,swinburne 7on ,baudelaire74 ,it remains for us to mention what is the most celebrated elegy in ,english1 that written by ,gray in a ,country ,churchyard4 ,this1 however1 belongs to a class apart1 as it is not addressed to the memory of any particular person4 ,a writer of small merit1 ,james ,hammond 7#agaf-agdb71 enjoyed a certain success with his ,love ,elegies in which he endeavoured to introduce the erotic elegy as it was written by ,ovid and ,tibullus4 ,this experiment took no hold of ,english literature1 but was welcomed in ,france in the amatory works of ,parny 7#agec-ahad71 in those of ,chenedolle 7#agfi-ahcc71 and of ,millevoye 7#aghb-ahaf74 ,the melancholy and sentimental elegies of the last named are the typical examples of this class of poetry in ,french literature4 ,lamartine must be included among the elegists1 and his famous ,le ,lac is as eminent an elegy in ,french as ,gray's ,country ,churchyard is in ,english4 ,the elegy has flourished in ,portugal1 partly because it was cultivated with great success by ,camoens1 the most illustrious of the ,portuguese poets4 ,in ,italian1 ,chiabrera and ,filicaia are named among the leading national elegists4 ,in ,german literature1 the notion of elegy as a poem of lamentation does not exist4 ,the famous ,roman ,elegies of ,goethe imitate in form and theme those of ,ovid2 they are not even plaintive in character4 ,,elegiac ,,verse has commonly been adopted by ,german poets for their elegies1 but by ,english poets never4 ,schiller defines this kind of verse1 which consists of a distich of which the first line is a hexameter and the second a pentameter1 in the following pretty illustration3-- ,in the hexameter rises the fountain's silvery column4 ,in the pentameter aye falling in melody back4 ,the word elegy1 in ,english1 is one which is frequently used very incorrectly2 it should be remembered that it must be mournful1 meditative and short without being ejaculatory4 ,thus ,tennyson's ,in ,memoriam is excluded by its length2 it may at best be treated as a collection of elegies4 ,wordsworth's ,lucy1 on the other hand1 is a dirge2 this is too brief a burst of emotion to be styled an elegy4 ,lycidas and ,adonais remain the two unapproachable types of what a personal elegy ought to be in ,english4 7,e4 ,g47 ,,element 7,lat4 elementum71 an ultimate component of anything1 hence a fundamental principle4 ,elementum was used in ,latin to translate the ,greek ,greek3 stoicheion 7that which stands in a ,greek3 stoichos1 or row71 and is a word of obscure origin and etymology4 ,the root of ,lat4 alere1 to nourish1 has been suggested1 thus making it a doublet of alimentum1 that which supports life2 another explanation is that the word represents ,,lmn41 the first three letters of the second part of the alphabet1 a parallel use to that of ,,abc4 ,apart from its application in chemistry1 which is treated below1 the word is used of the rudiments or principia of any science or subject1 as in ,euclid's ,elements of ,geometry1 or in the beggarly elements 7,greek3 taptocha stoicheia1 of ,st ,paul in ,gal4 iv4 #i72 in mathematics1 of a fundamental concept involved in an investigation1 as the elements of a determinant2 and in electricity1 of a galvanic 7or voltaic7 element in an electric cell 7see ,,battery3 ,electric74 ,in astronomy1 element is used of any one of the numerical or geometrical data by which the course of a varying phenomenon is computed2 it is applied especially to orbital motion and eclipses4 ,the elements of an orbit are the six data by which the position of a moving body in its orbit at any time may be determined4 ,the elements of an eclipse express and determine the motion of the centre of the shadow-axis1 and are the data necessary to compute the phenomena of an eclipse during its whole course1 as seen at any place4 ,in architecture the term element is applied to the outline of the design of a ,decorated window1 on which the centres for the tracery are found4 ,these centres will all be found to fall on points which1 in some way or other1 will be equimultiples of parts of the openings4 ,chemical ,elements4 ,ancient ideas4 ,like all other scientific concepts1 that of an element has changed its meaning many times in many ways during the development of science4 ,owing to their very small amount of real chemical knowledge1 the generalizations of the ancients were necessarily rather superficial1 and could not stand in the face of the increasing development of practical chemistry4 ,nevertheless we find the concept of an element as a substance from which all bodies are made or derived held at the very beginning of occidental philosophy4 ,thales regarded water as the element of all things2 his followers accepted his idea of a primordial substance as the basis of all bodies1 but they endeavoured to determine some other general element or elements1 like fire or spirit1 or love and hatred1 or fire1 water1 air and earth4 ,we find in this development an exact parallelism to the manner in which scientific ideas generally arise1 develop and change4 ,they are created to point out the common part in a variety of observed phenomena1 in order to get some leading light in the chaos of events4 ,at first almost any idea will do1 if only it promises some comprehensive arrangement of the facts2 afterwards1 the inconsistencies of the first trial make themselves felt2 the first idea is then changed to meet better the new requirements4 ,for a shorter or longer time the facts and ideas may remain in accord1 but the uninterrupted increase of empirical knowledge involves sooner or later new fundamental alterations of the general idea1 and in this way there is a never-ceasing process of adaptation of the ideas to the facts4 ,as facts are unchangeable by themselves1 the adaptation can be only one-sided2 the ideas are compelled to change according to the facts4 ,we must therefore educate ourselves to regard the ideas or theories as the changing part of science1 and keep ourselves ready to accept even the most fundamental revision of current theories4 ,the first step in the development of the idea of elements was to recognize that a single principle would not prove sufficient to cover the manifoldness of facts4 ,empedocles therefore conceived a double or binary elementary principle2 and ,aristotle developed this idea a stage further1 stating two sets of binary antagonistic principles1 namely dry-wet and hot-cold4 ,the ,aristotelian or peripatetic elements1 which played such a great role in the whole medieval philosophy1 are the representatives of the several binary combinations of these fundamental properties1 fire being hot and dry1 air hot and wet1 water cold and wet1 earth cold and dry4 ,according to the amount of these properties found in any body1 these elements were regarded as having taken part in forming this body4 ,concerning the reason why only these properties were regarded as fundamental1 we know nothing4 ,they seem to be taken at random rather than carefully selected2 they relate only to the sense of touch1 and not to vision or any other sense1 possibly because deceptions in the sense of touch were regarded as non-existent1 while the other senses were apparently not so trustworthy4 ,at any rate1 the ,aristotelian elements soon proved to be rather inadequate to meet the requirements of the increasing chemical knowledge2 other properties had therefore to be selected to represent the general behaviour of chemical substances1 and in this case we find them already much more chemical in the modern sense4 ,elements of the alchemists4 ,among the various substances recognized by the chemists1 certain classes or groups readily distinguished themselves4 ,first the metals1 by their lustre1 their heaviness1 and a number of other common properties4 ,according to the general principle of selecting a single substance as a representative of the group1 the metallic properties were represented by mercury4 ,the theoreticians of the middle ages were rather careful to point out that common mercury 7the liquid metal of to-day7 was not at all to be identified with philosophical mercury1 the last being simply the principle of metallic behaviour4 ,in the same way combustibility was represented by sulphur1 solubility by salt1 and occasionally the chemically indifferent or refractory character by earth4 ,according to the subsistence and preponderance of these properties in different bodies1 these were regarded as containing the corresponding elements2 conversely1 just as experience teaches the chemist every day that by proper treatment the properties of given bodies may be changed in the most various ways1 the observed changes of properties were ascribed to the gain or loss of the corresponding elements4 ,according to this theory1 which accounted rather well for a large number of facts1 there was no fundamental objection against trying to endow base metals with the properties of the precious ones2 to make artificial gold was a task quite similar to the modern problem of1 e4g4 making artificial quinine4 ,the realization that there is a certain natural law preventing such changes is of much later date4 ,it is therefore quite unjust to consider the work of the alchemists1 who tried to make artificial gold1 as consummate nonsense4 ,a priori there was no reason why a change from lead to gold should be less possible than a change from iron to rust2 indeed there is no a priori reason against it now4 ,but experience has taught us that lead and gold are chemical elements in the modern sense1 and that there is a general experimental law that elements are not transformable one into another4 ,so experience taught the alchemists irresistibly that in spite of the manifoldness of chemical changes it is not always possible to change any given substance into another2 the possibilities are much more limited1 and there is only a certain range of substances to be obtained from a given one4 ,the impossibility of transforming lead or copper into noble metals proved to be only one case out of many1 and it was recognized generally that there are certain chemical families whose members are related to one another by their mutual transformability1 while it is impossible to bridge the boundaries separating these families4 ,work of ,robert ,boyle4 ,the man who brought all these experiences and considerations into scientific form was ,robert ,boyle4 ,he stated as a general principle1 that only tangible and ponderable substances should be recognized as elements1 an element being a substance from which other substances may be made1 but which cannot be separated into different substances4 ,he showed that neither the peripatetic nor the alchemistic elements satisfied this definition4 ,but he was more of a critical than of a synthetical turn of mind2 although he established the correct principles1 he hesitated to point out what substances1 among those known at his time1 were to be considered as elements4 ,he only paved the way to the goal by laying the foundations of analytical chemistry1 i4e4 by teaching how to characterize and to distinguish different chemical individuals4 ,further1 by adopting and developing the corpuscular hypothesis of the constitution of the ponderable substances1 he foreshadowed1 in a way1 the law of the conservation of the elements1 viz4 that no element can be changed into another element2 and he considered the compound substances to be made up from small particles or corpuscles of their elements1 the latter retaining their essence in all combinations4 ,this hypothesis accounts for the fact that only a limited number of other substances can be made from a given one--namely1 only those which contain the elements present in the given substance4 ,but it is characteristic of ,boyle's critical mind that he did not shut his eyes against a serious objection to his hypothesis4 ,if the compound substance is made up of parts of the elements1 one would expect that the properties of the compound substance would prove to be the sum of the properties of the elements4 ,but this is not the case1 and chemical compounds show properties which generally differ very considerably from those of the compounds4 ,on the one hand1 the corpuscular hypothesis of ,boyle was developed into the atomic hypothesis of ,dalton1 which was considered at the beginning of the #aith century as the very best representation of chemical facts1 while1 on the other hand1 the difficulty as to the properties of the compounds remained the same as ,boyle found it1 and has not yet been removed by an appropriate development of the atomic hypothesis4 ,thus ,boyle considered1 e4g4 the metals as elements4 ,however1 it is interesting to note that he considered the mutual transformation of the metals as not altogether impossible1 and he even tells of a case when gold was transformed into base metal4 ,it is a common psychological fact that a reformer does not generally succeed in being wholly consistent in his reforming ideas2 there remains invariably some point where he commits exactly the same fault which he set out to abolish4 ,we shall find the same inconsistency also among other chemical reformers4 ,even earlier than ,boyle1 ,joachim ,jung 7#aehg-afeg7 of ,hamburg developed similar ideas4 ,but as he did not distinguish himself1 as ,boyle did1 by experimental work in science1 his views exerted only a limited influence amongst his pupils4 ,phlogiston theory4 ,in the times following ,boyle's work we find no remarkable outside development of the theory of elements1 but a very important inside one4 ,analytical chemistry1 or the art of distinguishing different chemical substances1 was rapidly developing1 and the necessary foundation for such a theory was thus laid4 ,we find the discussions about the true elements disappearing from the text-books1 or removed to an insignificant corner1 while the description of observed chemical changes of different ways of preparing the same substance1 as identified by the same properties1 and of the methods for recognizing and distinguishing the various substances1 take their place4 ,the similarity of certain groups of chemical changes1 as1 for example1 combustion1 and the inverse process1 reduction1 was observed1 and thus led to an attempt to shape these most general facts into a common theory4 ,in this way the theory of phlogiston was developed by ,g4,e4 ,stahl1 phlogiston being 7according to the usual way of regarding general properties as being due to a principle or element7 the principle of combustibility1 similar to the sulphur of the alchemists4 ,this again must be regarded as quite a legitimate step justified by the knowledge of the time4 ,for experience taught that combustibility could be transferred by chemical action1 e4g4 from charcoal to litharge1 the latter being changed thereby into combustible metallic lead2 and according to ,boyle's principle1 that only bodies should be recognized as chemical elements1 phlogiston was considered as a body4 ,from the fact that all leading chemists in the second half of the #ahth century used the phlogiston theory and were not hindered by it in making their great discoveries1 it is evident that a sufficient amount of truth and usefulness was embodied in this theory4 ,it states indeed quite correctly the mutual relations between oxidation and reduction1 as we now call these very general processes1 and was erroneous only in regard to one question1 which at that time had not aroused much interest1 the question of the change of weight during chemical processes4 ,lavoisier's reform4 ,it was only after ,isaac ,newton's discovery of universal gravitation that weight was considered as a property of paramount interest and importance1 and that the question of the changes of weight in chemical reactions became one worth asking4 ,when in due time this question was raised1 the fact became evident at once1 that combustion means not loss but gain of weight4 ,to be sure of this1 it was necessary to know first the chemical and physical properties of gases1 and it was just at the same time that this knowledge was developed by ,priestley1 ,scheele and others4 ,lavoisier was the originator and expounder of the necessary reform4 ,oxygen was just discovered at that time1 and ,lavoisier gathered evidence from all sides that the theory of phlogiston had to be turned inside out to fit the new facts4 ,he realized that the sum total of the weights of all substances concerned within a chemical change is not altered by the change4 ,this principle of the conservation of weight led at once to a simple and unmistakable definition of a chemical element4 ,as the weight of a compound substance is the sum of the weights of its elements1 the compound necessarily weighs more than any of its elements4 ,an element is therefore a substance which1 by being changed into another substance1 invariably increases its weight1 and never gives rise to substances of less weight4 ,by the help of this criterion ,lavoisier composed the first table of chemical elements similar to our modern ones4 ,according to the knowledge of his time he regarded the alkalis as elements1 although he remarked that they are rather similar to certain oxides1 and therefore may possibly contain oxygen2 the truth of this was proved at a later date by ,humphry ,davy4 ,but the inconsistency of the reformer1 already referred to1 may be observed with ,lavoisier4 ,he included heat and light in his list of elements1 although he knew that neither of them had weight1 and that neither fitted his definition of an element2 this atavistic survival was subsequently removed from the table of the elements by ,berzelius in the beginning of the #aith century4 ,in this way the question of what substances are to be regarded as chemical elements had been settled satisfactorily in a qualitative way1 but it is interesting to realize that the last step in this development1 the theory of ,lavoisier1 was based on quantitative considerations4 ,such considerations became of paramount interest at once1 and led to the concept of the combining weights of the elements4 ,j4,b4 ,richter's work4 ,the first discoveries in this field were made in the last quarter of the #ahth century by ,j4,b4 ,richter4 ,the point at issue was a rather commonplace one3 it was the fact that when two neutral salt solutions were mixed to undergo mutual chemical decomposition and recombination1 the resulting liquid was neutral again1 i4e4 it did not contain any excess of acid or base4 ,in other words1 if two salts1 ,a',b' and ,a ,b1 composed of the acids ,a' and ,a and the bases ,b' and ,b1 undergo mutual decomposition1 the amount of the base ,b' left by the first salt1 when its acid ,a' united with the base ,b to form a new salt ,a',b1 was just enough to make a neutral salt ,a,b' with the acid ,a left by the second salt4 ,at first sight this looks quite simple and self-evident1--that neutral salts should form neutral ones again and not acid or basic ones1--but if this fact is once stated very serious quantitative inferences may be drawn from it1 as ,richter showed4 ,for if the symbols ,a'1 ,a1 ,b'1 ,b denote at the same time such quantities of the acids and bases as form neutral salts1 then if three of these quantities are determined1 the fourth may be calculated from the others4 ,this follows from the fact that by decomposing ,a',b' with just the proper amount of the other salt to form ,a',b1 the remaining quantities ,b' and ,a exist in exactly the ratio to form a neutral salt ,a ,b'4 ,it is possible1 therefore1 to ascribe to each acid and base a certain relative weight or combining weight by which they will combine one with the other to form neutral salts4 ,the same reasoning may be extended to any number of acids and bases4 ,it is true that ,richter did not find out by himself this simplest statement of the law of neutrality which he discovered1 but he expressed the same consequence in a rather clumsy way by a table of the combining weights of different bases related to the unit amount of a certain acid1 and doing the same thing for the unit weight of every other acid4 ,then he observed that the numbers in these different tables are proportionate one to another4 ,the same holds good if the corresponding series of the combining weights of acids for unit weights of different bases were tabulated4 ,it was only a little later that a ,berlin physicist1 ,g4,e4 ,fischer1 united the whole system of ,richter's numbers simply into a double table of acids and bases1 taking as unit an arbitrarily chosen substance1 namely sulphuric acid4 ,the following table by ,fischer is therefore the first table of combining weights4 ,bases4 ,acids4 ,alumina #ebe ,fluoric #dbg ,magnesia #fae ,carbonic #egg ,ammoniac #fgb ,sebacic #gjf ,lime #gic ,muriatic 7hydrochloric7 #gab ,soda #hei ,oxalic #gee ,strontiane #acbi ,phosphoric #igi ,potash #afje ,formic #ihh ,baryte #bbbb ,sulphuric #ajjj ,succinic #abji ,nitric #adje ,acetic #adhj ,citric #afhc ,tartaric #afid ,it is interesting again to notice how difficult it is for the discoverer of a new truth to find out the most simple and complete statement of his discovery4 ,it looks as if the amount of work needed to get to the top of a new idea is so great that not enough energy remains to clear the very last few steps4 ,it is noteworthy also to observe how difficult it was for the chemists of that time to understand the bearing of ,richter's work4 ,although a summary of his results was published in ,berthollet's ,essai de statique chimique1 one of the most renowned chemical books of that time1 nobody dared for a long time to take up the scientific treasure laid open for all the world4 ,john ,dalton's atomic theory4 ,at the beginning of the #aith century the same question was taken up from quite another standpoint4 ,john ,dalton1 in his investigations of the behaviour of gases1 and in order to understand more easily what happened when gases were absorbed by liquids1 used the corpuscular hypothesis already mentioned in connexion with ,boyle4 ,while he depicted to himself how the corpuscles1 or1 as he preferred to call them1 the atoms of the gases1 entered the interstices of the atoms of the liquids in which they dissolved1 he asked himself3 ,are the several atoms of the same substance exactly alike1 or are there differences as between the grains of sand8 ,now experience teaches us that it is impossible to separate1 for example1 a quantity of pure water into two samples of somewhat different properties4 ,when a pure substance is fractionated by partial distillation or partial crystallization or partial change into another substance by chemical means1 we find constantly that the residue is not changed in its properties1 as it would be if the atoms were slightly different1 since in that case e4g4 the lighter atoms would distil first and leave behind the heavier ones1 c4 ,therefore we must conclude that all atoms of the same kind are exactly alike in shape and weight4 ,but1 if this be so1 then all combinations between different atoms must proceed in certain invariable ratios of the weights of the elements1 namely by the ratio of the weights of the atoms4 ,now it is impossible to weigh the atoms directly2 but if we determine the ratio of the weights in which oxygen and hydrogen combine to form water1 we determine in this way also the relative weight of their atoms4 ,by a proper number of analyses of simple chemical compounds we may determine the ratios between the weights of all elementary atoms1 and1 selecting one of them as a standard or unit1 we may express the weight of all other atoms in terms of this unit4 ,the following table is ,dalton's 7,mem4 of the ,lit4 and ,phil4 ,soc4 of ,manchester 7,,ii471 vol4 i4 p4 #bhg1 #ahje74 ,table of the ,relative ,weights of the ,ultimate ,particles of ,gaseous and other ,bodies4 ,hydrogen #a ,nitrous oxide #ac4g ,azot #d4b ,sulphur #ad4d ,carbone #d4c ,nitric acid #ae4b ,ammonia #e4b ,sulphuretted hydrogen #ae4d ,oxygen #e4e ,carbonic acid #ae4c ,water #f4e ,alcohol #ae4a ,phosphorus #g4b ,sulphureous acid #ai4i ,phosphuretted hydrogen #h4b ,sulphuric acid #be4d ,nitrous gas #i4c ,carburetted hydrogen from ,ether #i4f stagnant water #f4c ,gaseous oxide of carbone #i4h ,olefiant gas #e4c ,dalton at once drew a peculiar inference from this view4 ,if two elements combine in different ratios1 one must conclude that different numbers of atoms unite4 ,there must be1 therefore1 a simple ratio between the quantities of the one element united to the same quantity of the other4 ,dalton showed at once that the analysis of carbon monoxide and of carbonic acid satisfied this consequence1 the quantity of oxygen in the second compound being double the quantity in the first one4 ,a similar relation holds good between marsh gas and olefiant gas 7ethylene74 ,this is the law of multiple proportions 7see ,,atom74 ,by these considerations ,dalton extended the law of combining weights1 which ,richter had demonstrated only for neutral salts1 to all possible chemical compounds4 ,while the scope of the law was enormously extended1 its experimental foundation was even smaller than with ,richter4 ,dalton did not concern himself very much with the experimental verification of his ideas1 and the first communication of his theory in a paper on the absorption of gases by liquids 7#ahjc7 attracted as little notice as ,richter's discoveries4 ,even when ,t4 ,thomson published ,dalton's views in an appendix to his widely read text-book of chemistry1 matters did not change very much4 ,it was only by the work of ,j4,j4 ,berzelius that the enormous importance of ,dalton's views was brought to light4 ,work of ,j4,j4 ,berzelius4 ,berzelius was at that time busy in developing a trustworthy system of chemical analysis1 and for this purpose he investigated the composition of the most important salts4 ,he then went over the work of ,richter1 and realized that by his law he could check the results of his analyses4 ,he tried it and found the law to hold good in most cases2 when it did not1 according to his analyses1 he found that the error was on his own side and that better analyses fitted ,richter's law4 ,thus he was prepared to understand the importance of ,dalton's views and he proceeded at once to test its exactness4 ,the result was the best possible4 ,the law of the combining weights of the atoms1 or of the atomic weights1 proved to hold good in every case in which it was tested4 ,all chemical combinations between the several elements are therefore regulated by weight according to certain numbers1 one for each element1 and combinations between the elements occur only in ratios given by these weights or by simple multiples thereof4 ,consequently ,berzelius regarded ,dalton's atomic hypothesis as proved by experiment1 and became a strong believer in it4 ,at the same time ,w4,h4 ,wollaston had discovered independently the law of multiple proportions in the case of neutral and acid salts4 ,he gave up further work when he learned of ,dalton's ideas1 but afterwards he pointed out that it was necessary to distinguish the hypothetical part in ,dalton's views from their empirical part4 ,the latter is the law of combining weights1 or the law that chemical combination occurs only according to certain numbers characteristic for each element4 ,besides this purely experimental law there is the hypothetical explanation by the assumption of the existence of atoms4 ,as it is not proved that this explanation is the only one possible1 the existence of the law is not a proof of the existence of the atoms4 ,he therefore preferred to call the characteristic combining numbers of the elements not atomic weights but chemical equivalents4 ,although there were at all times chemists who shared ,wollaston's cautious views1 the atomic hypothesis found general acceptance because of its ready adaptability to the most diverse chemical facts4 ,in our time it is even rather difficult to separate1 as ,wollaston did1 the empirical part from the hypothetical one1 and the concept of the atom penetrates the whole system of chemistry1 especially organic chemistry4 ,if we compare the work of ,dalton with that of ,richter we find a fundamental difference4 ,richter's inference as to the existence of combining weights in salts is based solely on an experimental observation1 namely1 the persistence of neutrality after double decomposition2 ,dalton's theory1 on the contrary1 is based on the hypothetical concept of the atom4 ,now1 however favourably one may think of the probability of the existence of atoms1 this existence is really not an observed fact1 and it is necessary therefore to ask3 ,does there exist some general fact which may lead directly to the inference of the existence of combining weights of the elements1 just as the persistence of neutrality leads to the same consequence as to acids and bases8 ,the answer is in the affirmative1 although it took a whole century before this question was put and answered4 ,in a series of rather difficult papers 7,zeits4 f4 ,phys4 ,chem4 since #ahie1 and ,annalen der ,naturphilosophie since #aijb71 ,franz ,wald 7of ,kladno1 ,bohemia7 developed his investigations as to the genesis of this general law4 ,later1 ,w4 ,ostwald 7,faraday lecture1 ,trans4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #aijd7 simplified ,wald's reasoning and made it more evident4 ,the general fact upon which the necessary existence of combining weights of the elements may be based is the shifting character of the boundary between elements and compounds4 ,it has already been pointed out that ,lavoisier considered the alkalis and the alkaline earths as elements1 because in his time they had not been decomposed4 ,as long as the decomposition had not been effected1 these compounds could be considered and treated like elements without mistake1 their combining weight being the sum of the combining weights of their 7subsequently discovered7 elements4 ,this means that compounds enter in reaction with other substances as a whole1 just as elements do4 ,in particular1 if a compound ,,ab combines with another substance 7elementary or compound7 ,c to form a ternary compound ,,abc1 it enters this latter as a whole1 leaving behind no residue of ,a or ,b4 ,inversely1 if a ternary compound ,,abc be changed into a binary one ,,ab by taking away the element ,c1 there will not be found any excess of ,a or ,b1 but both elements will exhibit just the same ratio in the binary as in the ternary compound4 ,experimentally this important fact was proved first by ,berzelius1 who showed that by oxidizing lead sulphide1 ,pb,s1 to lead sulphate1 ,pb,s,o#d1 no excess either of sulphur or lead could be found after oxidation2 the same held good with barium sulphite1 ,ba,s,o#c1 when converted into barium sulphate1 ,ba,s,o#d4 ,on a much larger scale and with very great accuracy the inverse was proved half a century later by ,j4,s4 ,stas1 who reduced silver chlorate1 ,ag,cl,o#c1 silver bromate1 ,ag,br,o#c1 and silver iodate1 ,ag,i,o#c1 to the corresponding binary compounds1 ,ag,cl1 ,ag,br and ,ag,i1 and searched in the residue of the reaction for any excess of silver or halogen4 ,as the tests for these substances are among the most sensitive in analytical chemistry1 the general law underwent a very severe test indeed4 ,but the result was the same as was found by ,berzelius--no excess of one of the elements could be discovered4 ,we may infer1 therefore1 generally that compounds enter ulterior combinations without change of the ratio of their elements1 or that the ratio between different elements in their compounds is the same in binary and ternary 7or still more complicated7 combinations4 ,this law involves the existence of general combining weights just in the same way as the law of neutrality with double decomposition of salts involves the law of the combining weights of acids and bases4 ,for if the ratio between ,a and ,b is determined1 this same ratio must obtain in all ternary and more complicated compounds1 containing the same elements4 ,the same is true for any other elements1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 c41 as related to ,a4 ,but by applying the general law to the ternary compound ,,abc the same conclusion may be drawn as to the ratio ,a 3 ,c in all compounds containing ,a and ,c1 or ,b 3 ,c in the corresponding compounds4 ,by reasoning further in the same way1 we come to the conclusion that only such compounds are possible which contain elements according to certain ratio-numbers1 i4e4 their combining weight4 ,any other ratio would violate the law of the integral reaction of compounds4 ,as to the law of multiple proportions1 it may be deduced by a similar reasoning by considering the possible combinations between a compound1 e4g4 ,,ab1 and one of its elements1 say ,b4 ,,ab and ,b can combine only according to their combining weights1 and therefore the quantity of ,b combining with ,,ab is equal to the quantity of ,,ab which has combined with ,a to form ,,ab4 ,the new combination is therefore to be expressed by ,,ab#b4 ,by extending this reasoning in the same way1 we get the general conclusion that any compounds must be composed according to the formula ,am ,bn ,cp4441 where m1 n1 p1 c41 are integers4 ,the bearing of these considerations on the atomic hypothesis is not to disprove it1 but rather to show that the existence of the law of combining weights1 which has been considered for so long as a proof of the truth of this hypothesis1 does not necessarily involve such a consequence4 ,whether atoms may prove to exist or not1 the law of combining weights is independent thereof4 ,atomic weight determinations4 ,two problems arose from the discoveries of ,dalton and ,berzelius4 ,the first was to determine as exactly as possible the correct numbers of the combining weights4 ,the other results from the fact that the same elements may combine in different ratios4 ,which of these ratios gives the true ratio of the atomic weights8 ,and which is the multiple one8 ,both questions have had most ample experimental investigation1 and are now answered rather satisfactorily4 ,the first question was a purely technical one2 its answer depended upon analytical skill1 and ,berzelius in his time easily took the lead1 his numbers being readily accepted on the continent of ,europe4 ,in ,england there was a certain hesitation at first1 owing to ,prout's assumption 7see below71 but when ,turner1 at the instigation of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 tested ,berzelius's numbers and found them entirely in accordance with his own measurements1 these numbers were universally accepted4 ,but then a rather large error in one of ,berzelius's numbers 7for carbon7 was discovered in #ahda by ,dumas and ,stas1 and a kind of panic ensued4 ,new determinations of the atomic weights were undertaken from all sides4 ,the result was most satisfactory for ,berzelius1 for no other important error was discovered1 and even ,dumas remarked that repeating a determination by ,berzelius only meant getting the same result1 if one worked properly4 ,in later times more exact measurements1 corresponding to the increasing art in analysis1 were carried out by various workers1 amongst whom ,j4,s4 ,stas distinguished himself4 ,but even the classical work of ,stas proved not to be entirely without error2 for every period has its limit in accuracy1 which extends slowly as science extends4 ,in recent times ,american chemists have been especially prominent in work of this kind1 and the determinations of ,e4,w4 ,morley1 ,t4,w4 ,richards and ,g4,p4 ,baxter rank among the first in this line of investigation4 ,during this work the question arose naturally3 ,how far does the exactness of the law extend8 ,it is well known that most natural laws are only approximations1 owing to disturbing causes4 ,are there disturbing causes also with atomic weights8 ,the answer is that as far as we know there are none4 ,the law is still an exact one4 ,but we must keep in mind that an absolute answer is never possible4 ,our exactness is in every case limited1 and as long as the possible variations lie behind this limit1 we cannot tell anything about them4 ,in recent times ,h4 ,landolt has doubted and experimentally investigated the law of the conservation of weight4 ,landolt's experiments were carried out in vessels of the shape of an inverted ,u1 each branch holding one of the substances to react one on the other4 ,two vessels were prepared as equal as possible and hung on both sides of a most sensitive balance4 ,then the difference of weight was determined in the usual way by exchanging both the vessels on the balance4 ,after this set of weighings one of the vessels was inverted and the chemical reaction between the contained substances was performed2 then the double weighing was repeated4 ,finally also the second vessel was inverted and a third set of weighings taken4 ,from blank experiments where the vessels were filled with substances which did not react one on the other1 the maximum error was determined to #j4jc milligramme4 ,the reactions experimented with were3 silver salts with ferrous sulphate2 iron on copper sulphate2 gold chloride and ferrous chloride2 iodic acid and hydriodic acid2 iodine and sodium sulphite2 uranyl nitrate and potassium hydrate2 chloral hydrate and potassium hydrate2 electrolysis of cadmium iodide by an alternating current2 solution of ammonium chloride1 potassium bromide and uranyl nitrate in water1 and precipitation of an aqueous solution of copper sulphate by alcohol4 ,in most of these experiments a slight diminution of weight was observed which exceeded the limit of error distinctly in two cases1 viz4 silver nitrate with ferrous sulphate and iodic acid with hydriodic acid1 the loss of weight amounting from #j4jfh to #j4aii mg4 with the first and #j4jdg to #j4agg mg4 with the second reaction on about #ej g4 of substance4 ,as each of these reactions had been tried in nine independent experiments1 ,landolt felt certain that there was no error of observation involved4 ,but when the vessels were covered inside with paraffin wax1 no appreciable diminution of weight was observed4 ,these experiments apparently suggested a small decrease of weight as a consequence of chemical processes4 ,on repeating them1 however1 and making allowance for the different amounts of water absorbed on the surface of the vessel at the beginning and end of the experiment1 ,landolt found in #aijh 7,zeit4 physik4 ,chem4 #fd1 p4 #eha7 that the variations in weight are equally positive and negative1 and he concluded that there was no change in weight1 at least to the extent of #a part in #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,the periodic arrangement4 ,there is still another question regarding the numerical values of the atomic weights1 namely3 ,are there relations between the numbers belonging to the several elements8 ,richter had arranged his combining weights according to their magnitude1 and endeavoured to prove that they form a certain mathematical series4 ,he also explained the incompleteness of his series by assuming that certain acids or bases requisite to the filling up of the gaps in the series1 were not yet known4 ,he even had the satisfaction that in his time a new base was discovered1 which fitted rather well into one of his gaps2 but when it turned out afterwards that this new base was only calcium phosphate1 this way of reasoning fell into discredit and was resumed only at a much later date4 ,to obtain a correct table of atomic weights the second question already mentioned1 viz4 how to select the correct value in the case of multiple proportions1 had to be answered4 ,berzelius was constantly on the look-out for means to distinguish the true atomic weights from their multiples or sub-multiples1 but he could not find an unmistakable test4 ,the whole question fell into a terrible disorder1 until in the middle of the #aith century ,s4 ,cannizzaro showed that by taking together all partial evidences one could get a system of atomic weights consistent in itself and fitting the exigencies of chemical systematics4 ,then a startling discovery was made by the same method which ,richter had tried in vain1 by arranging all atomic weights in one series according to their numerical values4 ,the ,periodic ,law4--,the history of this discovery is rather long4 ,as early as #ahag ,j4,w4 ,dobereiner of ,jena drew attention to the fact that the combining weight of strontium lies midway between those of calcium and barium1 and some years later he showed that such triads occurred in other cases too4 ,l4 ,gmelin tried to apply this idea to all elements1 but he realized that in many cases more than three elements had to be grouped together4 ,while ,ernst ,lenssen applied the idea of triads to the whole table of chemical elements1 but without any important result1 the other idea of grouping more than three elements into series according to their combining weights proved more successful4 ,it was the concept of homologous series just developed in organic chemistry which influenced such considerations4 ,first ,max von ,pettenkofer in #ahej and then ,j4,b4,a4 ,dumas in #ahea undertook to show that such a series of similar elements could be formed1 having nearly constant differences between their combining weights4 ,it is true that this idea in all its simplicity did not hold good extensively enough2 so ,j4,p4 ,cooke and ,dumas tried more complicated types of numerical series1 but only with a temporary success4 ,the idea of arranging all elements in a single series in the order of the magnitude of their combining weights1 the germ of which is to be found already in ,j4,b4 ,richter's work1 appears first in #ahfj in some tables published by ,lothar ,meyer for his lectures4 ,independently1 ,a4,e4,b4 de ,chancourtois in #ahfb1 ,j4,a4,r4 ,newlands in #ahfc1 and ,d4,i4 ,mendeleeff in #ahfi1 developed the same idea with the same result1 namely1 that it is possible to divide this series of all the elements into a certain number of very similar parts4 ,in their papers1 which appeared in the same year1 #ahfi1 ,lothar ,meyer and ,mendeleeff gave to all these trials the shape now generally adopted4 ,they succeeded in proving beyond all doubt that this series was of a periodic character1 and could be cut into shorter pieces of similar construction4 ,here again gaps were present to be filled up by elements to be discovered1 and ,mendeleeff1 who did this1 predicted from the general regularity of his table the properties of such unknown elements4 ,in this case fate was more kind than with ,richter1 and science had the satisfaction of seeing these predictions turn out to be true4 ,the following table contains this periodic arrangement of the elements according to their atomic weight4 ,by cutting the whole series into pieces of eight elements 7or more in several cases7 and arranging these one below another in the alternating way shown in the table1 one finds similar elements placed in vertical series whose properties change gradually and with some regularity according to their place in the table4 ,not only the properties of the uncombined elements obey this rule1 but also almost all properties of similar compounds of the elements4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,he #d4j ,li #g4jc ,be #i4a ,b #aa4j ,c #ab4jj ,n #ad4ja ,o #af4jj ,f #ai4j 44 44 44 ,ne #bj ,na #bc4jj ,mg #bd4cb ,al #bg4a ,si #bh4d ,p #ca4j ,s #cb4jf ,cl #ce4de 44 44 44 ,ar #ci4i ,k #ci4ae ,ca #dj4a ,sc #dd4a ,ti #dh4a ,v #ea4b ,cr #eb4j ,mn #ee4j ,fe #ee4i1 ,ni #eh4g1 ,co #ei4j 44 ,cu #fc4f ,in #fe4d ,ga #gj ,ge #gb4e ,as #ge4j ,se #gi4b ,br #gi4if 44 44 44 ,kr #hc4j ,rb #he4e ,sr #hg4f ,y #hi4j ,zr #ij4f ,cb7,nb7 #id ,mo #if4j 44 ,ru #aja4g1 ,rh #ajc4j1 ,pd #ajf4e 44 ,ag #ajg4ic ,cd #aab4d ,in #aae ,sn #aai4j ,sb #abj4b ,te #abg4f ,i #abf4ig 44 44 44 ,xe #acj4g;,cs #acb4i ,ba #acg4d ,la #ach4i ,ce c4 #adj,ta #aha ,w #ahd 44 ,os #aia1 ,ir #aic4j1 ,pt #aid4h 44 ,au #aig4b ,hg #bjj4j ,tl #bjd4a ,pb #bjf4i ,bi #bjh4j 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 ,ra #bbe 44 ,th #bcb4e 44 ,u #bch4e 44 44 44 44 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,but upon closer investigation it must be confessed that these regularities can be called only rules1 and not laws4 ,in the first line one would expect that the steps in the values of the atomic weights should be regular1 but it is not so4 ,there are even cases when it is necessary to invert the order of the atomic weights to satisfy the chemical necessities4 ,thus argon has a larger number than potassium1 but must precede it to fit into its proper place4 ,the same is true of tellurium and iodine4 ,it looks as if the real elements were scattered somewhat haphazard on a regular table1 or as if some independent factor were active to disturb an existing regularity4 ,it may be that the new facts mentioned above will lead also to an explanation of these irregularities2 at present we must recognize them and not try to explain them away4 ,such considerations have to be kept in mind especially in regard to the very numerous attempts to express the series of combining weights in a mathematical form4 ,in several cases rather surprising agreements were found1 but never without exception4 ,it looks as if some very important factor regulating the whole matter is still unknown1 and before this has been elucidated no satisfactory treatment of the matter is possible4 ,it seems therefore premature to enter into the details of these speculations4 ,transmutation of elements4 ,in recent times not only our belief in the absolute exactness of the law of the conservation of weight has been shaken1 but also our belief in the law of the conservation of the elements4 ,the wonderful substance radium1 whose existence has made us to revise quite a number of old and established views1 seems to be a fulfilment of the old problem of the alchemists4 ,it is true that by its help lead is not changed into gold1 but radium not only changes itself into another element1 helium 7,ramsay71 but seems also to cause other elements to change4 ,work in this line is of present day origin only and we do not know what new laws will be found to regulate these most unexpected reactions 7see ,,radioactivity74 ,but we realize once more that no law can be regarded as free from criticism and limitation2 in the whole realm of exact sciences there is no such thing as the ,absolute4 ,prout's assumption4 ,another question regarding the values of atomic weights was raised very soon after their first establishment4 ,from the somewhat inexact first determinations ,william ,prout concluded that all atomic weights are multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen1 thus suggesting all other elements to be probably made up from condensed hydrogen4 ,berzelius found his determinations not at all in accordance with this assumption1 and strongly opposed the arbitrary rounding off of the numbers practised by the partisans of ,prout's hypothesis4 ,his hypothesis remained alive1 although almost every chemist who did exact atomic weight determinations1 especially ,stas1 contradicted it severely4 ,even in our time it seems to have followers1 who hope that in some way the existing experimental differences may disappear4 ,but one of the most important and best-known relations1 that between hydrogen and oxygen1 is certainly different from the simple ratio #a 3 #af1 for it has been determined by a large number of different investigators and by different methods to be undoubtedly lower1 namely1 #a 3 #ae4hg4 ,therefore1 if ,prout's hypothesis contain an element of truth1 by the act of condensation of some simpler substance into the present chemical elements a change of weight also must have occurred1 such that the weight of the element did not remain exactly the weight of the simpler substance which changed into it4 ,we have already remarked that such phenomena are not yet known with certainty1 but they cannot be regarded as utterly impossible4 ,international table of atomic weights4 ,it may here be mentioned that the internationality of science has shown itself active also in the question of atomic weights4 ,these numbers undergo incessantly small variations because of new work done for their determination4 ,to avoid the uncertainty arising from this inevitable state of affairs1 an international committee was formed by the co-operation of the leading chemical societies all over the world1 and an international table of the most probable values is issued every year4 ,the following table is that for #aiaj3-- ,international ,atomic ,weights1 #aiaj4 ,atomic ,atomic ,weights4 ,weights4 ,name4 ,symbol4 ,o #af4 ,name4 ,symbol4 ,o #af4 ,aluminium ,al #bg4a ,mercury ,hg #bjj4j ,antimony ,sb #abj4b ,molybdenum ,mo #if4j ,argon ,ar #ci4i ,neodymium ,nd #add4c ,arsenic ,as #gd4if ,neon ,ne #bj4j ,barium ,ba #acg4cg ,nickel ,ni #eh4fh ,beryllium ,be #i4a ,nitrogen ,n #ad4ja 7,glucinum7 ,gl _/ ,osmium ,os #aij4i ,bismuth ,bi #bjh4j ,oxygen ,o #af4jj ,boron ,b #aa4j ,palladium ,pd #ajf4g ,bromine ,br #gi4ib ,phosphorus ,p #ca4j ,cadmium ,cd #aab4dj ,platinum ,pt #aie4j ,caesium ,cs #acb4ha ,potassium ,k #ci4aj ,calcium ,ca #dj4ji ,praseodymium ,pr #adj4f ,carbon ,c #ab4jj ,radium ,ra #bbf4d ,cerium ,ce #adj4be ,rhodium ,rh #ajb4i ,chlorine ,cl #ce4df ,rubidium ,rb #he4de ,chromium ,cr #eb4j ,ruthenium ,ru #aja4g ,cobalt ,co #eh4ig ,samarium ,sm #aej4d ,columbium ,cb #ic4e ,scandium ,sc #dd4a 7,niobium7 7,nb7 _/ ,selenium ,se #gi4b ,copper ,cu #fc4eg ,silicon ,si #bh4c ,dysprosium ,dy #afb4e ,silver ,ag #ajg4hh ,erbium ,er #afg4d ,sodium ,na #bc4jj ,europium ,eu #aeb4j ,strontium ,sr #hg4fb ,fluorine ,f #ai4j ,sulphur ,s #cb4jg ,gadolinium ,gd #aeg4c ,tantalum ,ta #aha4j ,gallium ,ga #fi4i ,tellurium ,te #abg4e ,germanium ,ge #gb4e ,terbium ,th #aei4b ,gold ,au #aig4b ,thallium ,tl #bjd4j ,helium ,he #d4j ,thorium ,th #bcb4db ,hydrogen ,h #a4jjh ,thulium ,tm #afh4e ,indium ,in #aad4h ,tin ,sn #aai4j ,iodine ,i #abf4ib ,titanium ,ti #dh4a ,iridium ,ir #aic4a ,tungsten ,w #ahd4j ,iron ,fe #ee4he ,uranium ,u #bch4e ,krypton ,kr #hc4j ,vanadium ,v #ea4b ,lanthanum ,la #aci4j ,xenon ,xe #acj4g ,lead ,pb #bjg4aj ,ytterbium ,lithium ,li #g4jj 7,neoytterbium7 ,yb #agb4j ,lutecium ,lu #agd4j ,yttrium ,y #hi4j ,magnesium ,mg #bd4cb ,zinc ,zn #fe4cg ,manganese ,mn #ed4ic ,zirconium ,zr #ij4f ,concluding remarks4 ,in the long and manifold development of the concept of the element one idea has remained prominent from the very beginning down to our times3 it is the idea of a primordial matter4 ,since the naive statement of ,thales that all things came from water1 chemists could never reconcile themselves to the fact of the conservation of the elements4 ,by an experimental investigation which extended over five centuries and more1 the impossibility of transmuting one element into another--for example1 lead into gold--was demonstrated in the most extended way1 and nevertheless this law has so little entered the consciousness of the chemists that it is seldom explicitly stated even in carefully written text-books4 ,on the other side the attempts to reduce the manifoldness of the actual chemical elements to one single primordial matter have never ceased1 and the latest development of science seems to endorse such a view4 ,it is therefore necessary to consider this question from a most general standpoint4 ,in physical science1 the chemical elements may be compared with such concepts as mass1 momentum1 quantity of electricity1 entropy and such like4 ,while mass and entropy are determined univocally by a unit and a number1 quantity of electricity has a unit1 a number and a sign1 for it can be positive as well as negative4 ,momentum has a unit1 a number and a direction in space4 ,elements do not have a common unit as the former magnitudes1 but every element has its own unit1 and there is no transition from one to another4 ,all these magnitudes underlie a law of conservation1 but to a very different degree4 ,while mass was considered as absolutely invariable in the classical mechanics1 the newer theories of the electrical constitution of matter make mass dependent on the velocity of the moving electron4 ,momentum also is not entirely conservative because it can be changed by light-pressure4 ,entropy is known as constantly increasing1 remaining constant only in an ideal limiting case4 ,with chemical elements we observe the same thing as with momentum2 though till recently considered as conservative1 there is now experimental evidence that they do not always show this character4 ,generally the laws of the conservation of mass1 weight and elements are expressed as the law of the conservation of matter4 ,but this expression lacks scientific exactness because the term matter is generally not defined exactly1 and because only the above-named properties of ponderable objects do not change1 while all other properties do to a greater or less extent4 ,considered in the most general way1 we may define matter as a complex of gravitational1 kinetic and chemical energies1 which are found to cling together in the same space4 ,of these energies the capacity factors1 namely1 weight1 mass and elements1 are conservative as described1 while the intensity factors1 potential1 velocity and affinity1 may change in wide limits4 ,to explain why we find these energies constantly combined one with another1 we only have to think of a mass without gravity or a ponderable body without mass4 ,the first could not remain on earth because every movement would carry it into infinite space1 and the second would acquire infinite velocity by the slightest push and would also disappear at once4 ,therefore only such objects which have both mass and weight can be handled and can be objects of our knowledge4 ,in the same way all other energies come to our knowledge only by being 7at least temporarily7 associated with this combination of mass and weight4 ,this is the true meaning of the term matter4 ,in this line of ideas matter appears not at all as a primary concept1 but as a complex one2 there is therefore no reason to consider matter as the last term of scientific analysis of chemical facts1 and the idea of a primordial matter appears as a survival from the very first beginning of ,european natural philosophy4 ,the most general concept science has developed to express the variety of experience is energy1 and in terms of energy 7combined with number1 magnitudes1 time and space7 all observed and observable experiences are to be described4 7,w4 ,o47 ,,elemi1 an oleo-resin 7,manilla elemi7 obtained in the ,philippine ,islands1 probably from ,canarium commune 7nat4 ord4 ,burseraceae71 which when fresh and of good quality is a pale yellow granular substance1 of honey-like consistency1 but which gradually hardens with age4 ,it is soluble in alcohol and ether1 and has a spicy taste with a smell like fennel4 ,in the #agth and #ahth centuries the term elemi usually denoted an oleo-resin 7,american or ,brazilian elemi7 obtained from trees of the genus ,icica in ,brazil1 and still earlier it meant oriental or ,african elemi1 derived from ,boswellia ,frereana1 which flourishes in the neighbourhood of ,cape ,gardafui4 ,the word1 like the older term animi1 appears to have been derived from enhaemon 7,gr4 ,greek3 enaimon71 the name of a styptic medicine said by ,pliny to contain tears exuded by the olive tree of ,arabia4 ,,elephant1 the designation of the two existing representatives of the ,proboscidea1 a sub-order of ungulate mammals1 and also extended to include their more immediate extinct relatives4 ,as the distinctive characteristics of the sub-order1 and also of the single existing genus ,elephas1 are given in the article ,,proboscidea1 it will suffice to point out how the two existing species are distinguished from one another4 ,the more specialized of the two species is the ,indian or ,asiatic elephant1 ,elephas maximus1 specially characterized by the extreme complexity of the structure of its molar teeth1 which are composed of a great number of tall and thin plates of enamel and dentine1 with the intervals filled by cement 7see ,,proboscidea1 fig4 #a74 ,the average number of plates of the six successive molar teeth may be expressed by the ridge-formula #d1 #h1 #ab1 #ab1 #af1 #bd4 ,the plates are compressed from before backwards1 the anterior and posterior surfaces 7as seen in the worn grinding face of the tooth7 being nearly parallel4 ,ears of moderate size4 ,upper margin of the end of the proboscis developed into a distinct finger-like process1 much longer than the lower margins1 and the whole trunk uniformly tapering and smooth4 ,five nails on the fore-feet1 and four 7occasionally five7 on the hind-feet4 ,the ,asiatic elephant inhabits the forest-lands of ,india1 ,burma1 the ,malay ,peninsula1 ,cochin ,china1 ,ceylon and ,sumatra4 ,elephants from the last-named islands present some variations from those of the mainland1 and have been separated under the names of ,e4 zeylonicus and ,e4 sumatranus1 but they are not more than local races1 and the ,ceylon animal1 which is generally tuskless1 may be the typical ,e4 maximus1 in which case the ,indian race will be ,e4 maximus indicus4 ,the appearance of the ,asiatic elephant is familiar to all4 ,in the wild state it is gregarious1 associating in herds of ten1 twenty or more individuals1 and1 though it may under certain circumstances become dangerous1 it is generally inoffensive and even timid1 fond of shade and solitude and the neighbourhood of water4 ,the height of the male at the shoulder when full grown is usually from #h to #aj ft41 occasionally as much as #aa1 and possibly even more4 ,the female is somewhat smaller4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,asiatic ,elephant 7,elephas maximus74 ,the following epitome of the habits of the ,asiatic elephants is extracted from ,great and ,small ,game of ,india and ,tibet1 by ,r4 ,lydekker3-- ,the structure of the teeth is sufficient to indicate that the food consists chiefly of grass1 leaves1 succulent shoots and fruits2 and this has been found by observation to be actually the case4 ,in this respect the ,asiatic species differs very widely from its ,african relative1 whose nutriment is largely composed of boughs and roots4 ,another difference between the two animals is to be found in the great intolerance of the direct rays of the sun displayed by the ,asiatic species1 which never voluntarily exposes itself to their influence4 ,consequently1 during the hot season in ,upper ,india1 and at all times except during the rains in the more southern districts1 elephants keep much to the denser parts of the forests4 ,in ,southern ,india they delight in hill-forest1 where the undergrowth is largely formed of bamboo1 the tender shoots of which form a favourite delicacy2 but during the rains they venture out to feed on the open grass tracts4 ,water is everywhere essential to their well-being2 and no animals delight more thoroughly in a bath4 ,nor are they afraid to venture out of their depth1 being excellent swimmers1 and able1 by means of their trunks1 to breathe without difficulty when the entire body is submerged4 ,the herds1 which are led by females1 appear in general to be family parties2 and although commonly restricted to from thirty to fifty1 may occasionally include as many as one hundred head4 ,the old bulls are very generally solitary for a considerable portion of the year1 but return to the herds during the pairing season4 ,some 'rogue' elephants--gunda of the natives--remain1 however1 permanently separated from the rest of their kind4 ,all such solitary bulls1 as their colloquial name indicates1 are of a spiteful disposition2 and it appears that with the majority the inducement to live apart is due to their partiality for cultivated crops1 into which the more timid females are afraid to venture4 ',must' elephants are males in a condition of--probably sexual--excitement1 when an abundant discharge of dark oily matter exudes from two pores in the forehead4 ,in addition to various sounds produced at other times1 an elephant when about to charge gives vent to a shrill loud 'trumpet'2 and on such occasions rushes on its adversary with its trunk safely rolled up out of danger1 endeavouring either to pin him to the ground with its tusks 7if a male tusker7 or to trample him to death beneath its ponderous knees or feet4 ,exact information in regard to the period of gestation of the female is still lacking1 the length of the period being given from eighteen to twenty-two months by different authorities4 ,the native idea1 which may be true1 is that the shorter period occurs in the case of female and the longer in that of male calves4 ,in ,india elephants seldom breed in captivity1 though they do so more frequently in ,burma and ,siam2 the domesticated stock is therefore replenished by fresh captures4 ,occasionally two calves are produced at a birth1 although the normal number is one4 ,calves suckle with their mouths and not with their trunks4 ,unlike the ,african species1 the ,indian elephant charges with its trunk curled up1 and consequently in silence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,immature ,african ,elephant 7,elephas africanus74 ,as regards their present distribution in ,india1 elephants are found along the foot of the ,himalaya as far west as the valley of ,dehra-,dun1 where the winter temperature falls to a comparatively low point4 ,a favourite haunt used to be the swamp of ,azufghur1 lying among the sal-forests to the northward of ,meerut4 ,in the great tract of forest between the ,ganges and ,kistna rivers they occur locally as far west as ,bilaspur and ,mandla2 they are met with in the ,western ,ghats as far north as between latitude #ag deg4 and #ah deg41 and are likewise found in the hill-forests of ,mysore1 as well as still farther south4 ,in this part of the peninsula they ascend the hills to a considerable height1 as they do in the ,newara ,eliya district of ,ceylon1 where they have been encountered at an elevation of over #gjjj ft4 ,there is evidence that about three centuries ago elephants wandered in the forests of ,malwa and ,nimar1 while they survived to a later date in the ,chanda district of the ,central ,provinces4 ,at the comparatively remote epoch when the ,deccan was a forest tract1 they were probably also met with there1 but the swamps of the ,bengal ,sundarbans appear unsuited to their habits4 ,of tusks1 the three longest specimens on record respectively measure #h ft4 #i in41 #h ft4 #b in4 and #h ft42 their respective weights being #ha1 #hj and #ij lb4 ,these are1 however1 by no means the heaviest--one1 whose length is #g ft4 #c-c_/h in41 weighing #ajb lb42 while a second1 of which the length is #g ft4 #c-a_/d in41 scaled #ig-a_/b lb4 ,of the largest pair in the possession of the ,british ,museum1 which belonged to an elephant killed in #ahff by ,colonel ,g4,m4 ,payne in ,madras1 one tusk measures #f ft4 #h in4 in length1 and weighs #gg-c_/d lb41 the other being somewhat smaller4 ,it should be added that some of these large tusks came from ,ceylon2 such tuskers being believed to be descended from mainland animals imported into the island4 ,white elephants are partial or complete albinos1 and are far from uncommon in ,burma and ,siam4 ,young ,indian elephants are hairy1 thus showing affinity with the mammoth4 ,the ,african elephant is a very different animal from its ,asiatic cousin1 both as regards structure and habits2 and were it not for the existence of intermediate extinct species1 might well be regarded as the representative of a distinct genus4 ,among its characteristics the following points are noticeable4 ,the molar teeth are of coarse construction1 with fewer and larger plates and thicker enamel2 the ridge-formula being #c1 #f1 #g1 #g1 #h1 #aj2 while the plates are not flattened1 but thicker in the middle than at the edges1 so that their worn grinding-surfaces are lozenge-shaped4 ,ears very large4 ,the upper and lower margins of the end of the trunk form two nearly equal prehensile lips4 ,only three toes on the hind-foot4 ,a very important distinction is to be found in the conformation of the trunk1 which1 as shown in fig4 #b1 looks as though composed of a number of segments1 gradually decreasing in size from base to tip like the joints of a telescope1 instead of tapering gradually and evenly from one extremity to the other4 ,the females have relatively large tusks1 which are essential in obtaining their food4 ,except where exterminated by human agency 7and this has been accomplished to a deplorable extent71 the ,african elephant is a native of the wooded districts of the whole of ,africa south of the ,sahara4 ,it is hunted chiefly for the sake of the ivory of its immense tusks1 of which it yields the principal source of supply to the ,european market1 and the desire to obtain which is rapidly leading to the extermination of the species4 ,in size the male ,african elephant often surpasses the ,asiatic species1 reaching nearly #ab ft4 in some cases4 ,the circumference of the fore-foot is half the height at the shoulder1 a circumstance which enables sportsmen to estimate approximately the size of their quarry4 ,a tusk in the ,british ,museum measures #aj ft4 #b in4 in length1 with a basal girth of #bd in4 and a weight of #bbf-a_/b lb42 but a still longer1 although lighter1 tusk was brought to ,london in #aije4 ,several local races of ,african elephant have been described1 mainly distinguished from one another by the form and size of the ears1 shape of the head1 c4 ,the most interesting of these is the pigmy ,congo race1 ,e4 africanus pumilio1 named on the evidence of an immature specimen in the possession of ,c4 ,hagenbeck1 the well-known animal-dealer of ,hamburg1 in #aije4 ,according to ,hagenbeck's estimate1 this elephant1 which came from the ,french ,congo1 was about six years old at the time it came under scientific notice4 ,moreover1 in the opinion of the same observer1 it is in no wise an abnormally dwarfed or ill-grown representative of the normal type of ,african elephant1 but a well-developed adolescent animal4 ,in height it stood about the same as a young individual of the ordinary ,african elephant when about a year and a half old1 the vertical measurement at the shoulder being only #d ft41 or merely a foot higher than a new-born ,indian elephant4 ,hagenbeck's estimate of its age was based on the presence of well-developed tusks1 and the relative proportion of the fore and hind limbs1 which are stated to show considerable differences in the case of the ,african elephant according to age4 ,nothing was stated as to the probability of an increase in the stature of the ,french ,congo animal as it grows older2 but even if we allow another foot1 its height would be considerably less than half that of a large ,central ,african bull of the ordinary elephant4 ,by ,dr ,paul ,matschie several races of the ,african elephant have been described1 mainly1 as already mentioned1 on certain differences in the shape of the ear4 ,from the two ,west ,african races 7,e4 a4 cyclotis and ,e4 a4 oxyotis7 the dwarf ,congo elephant is stated to be distinguished by the shape of its ear2 comparison in at least one instance having been made with an immature animal4 ,the relatively small size of the ear is one of the most distinctive characteristics of the dwarf race4 ,further1 the skin is stated to be much less rough1 with fewer cracks1 while a more important difference occurs in the trunk1 which lacks the transverse ridges so distinctive of the ordinary ,african elephant1 and thereby approximates to the ,asiatic species4 ,if the differences in stature and form are constant1 there can be no question as to the right of the dwarf ,congo elephant to rank as a well-marked local race2 the only point for consideration being whether it should not be called a species4 ,the great interest in connexion with a dwarf ,west ,african race of elephant is in relation to the fossil pigmy elephants of the limestone fissures and caves of ,malta and ,cyprus4 ,although some of these elephants are believed not to have been larger than donkeys1 the height of others may be estimated at from #d to #e ft41 or practically the same as that of the dwarf ,congo race4 ,by their describers1 the dwarf ,european elephants were regarded as distinct species1 under the names of ,elephas melitensis1 ,e4 mnaidriensis and ,e4 cypriotes2 but since their molar teeth are essentially miniatures of those of the ,african elephant1 it has been suggested by later observers that these animals are nothing more than dwarf races of the latter4 ,this view may receive some support from the occurrence of a dwarf form of the ,african elephant in the ,congo2 and if we regard the latter as a subspecies of ,elephas africanus1 it seems highly probable that a similar position will have to be assigned to the pigmy ,european fossil elephants4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the dwarf ,congo elephant be regarded as a species1 then the ,maltese and ,cyprian elephants may have to be classed as races of ,elephas pumilio2 or1 rather1 ,e4 pumilio will have to rank as a race of the ,maltese species4 ,in this connexion it is of interest to note that1 both in the ,mediterranean islands and in ,west ,africa1 dwarf elephants of the ,african type are accompanied by pigmy species of hippopotamus1 although we have not yet evidence to show that in ,africa the two animals occupy actually the same area4 ,still1 the close relationship of the existing ,liberian pigmy hippopotamus to the fossil ,mediterranean species is significant1 in relation to the foregoing observations on the elephant4 ,it may be added that fossil remains of the ,african elephant have been obtained from ,spain1 ,sicily1 ,algeria and ,egypt1 in strata of the ,pleistocene age4 ,some of the main differences in the habits of the ,african as distinct from those of the ,asiatic elephant have been mentioned under the heading of the latter species4 ,the most important of these are the greater tolerance by the ,african animal of sunlight1 and the hard nature of its food1 which consists chiefly of boughs and roots4 ,the latter are dug up with the tusks2 the left one being generally employed in this service1 and thus becoming much more worn than its fellow4 7,r4 ,l4997 ,,elephanta ,,isle 7called by the natives ,gharapuri71 a small island between ,bombay and the mainland of ,india1 situated about #f m4 from ,bombay4 ,it is nearly #e m4 in circumference1 and the few inhabitants it contains are employed in the cultivation of rice1 and in rearing sheep and poultry for the ,bombay market4 ,the island1 till within recent times1 was almost entirely overgrown with wood2 it contains several springs of good water4 ,there are also important quarries of building stone4 ,but it owes its chief celebrity to the mythological excavations and sculptures of ,hindu superstition which it contains4 ,opposite to the landing-place was a colossal statue of an elephant1 cracked and mutilated1 from which the island received from the ,portuguese the name it still bears4 ,the statue was removed in #ahfd1 and may now be seen in the ,victoria ,gardens1 ,bombay4 ,at a short distance from this spot is a cave1 the entrance to which is nearly #fj ft4 wide and #ah high1 supported by pillars cut out of the rock2 the sides are sculptured into numerous compartments1 containing representations of the ,hindu deities1 but many of the figures have been defaced by the zeal of the ,mahommedans and ,portuguese4 ,in the centre of the excavations is a remarkable ,trimurti or bust1 formerly thought to represent the ,hindu ,triad1 namely1 ,brahma the ,creator1 ,vishnu the ,preserver1 and ,siva or ,mahadeva the ,destroyer1 but now held to be a triform representation of ,siva alone4 ,the heads are from #d to #e ft4 in length1 and are well cut1 and the faces1 with the exception of the under lip1 are handsome4 ,the head-dresses are curiously ornamented2 and one of the figures holds in it's hand a cobra1 while on the cap are1 amongst other symbols1 a human skull and an infant4 ,on each side of the ,trimurti is a pilaster1 the front of which is filled up by a human figure leaning on a dwarf1 both much defaced4 ,there is a large compartment to the right1 hollowed a little1 and covered with a great variety of figures1 the largest of which is #af ft4 high1 representing the double figure of ,siva and ,parvati1 named ,viraj1 half male and half female4 ,on the right is ,brahma1 four-faced1 on a lotus--one of the very few representations of this god which now exist in ,india2 and on the left is ,vishnu4 ,on the other side of the ,trimurti is another compartment with various figures of ,siva and ,parvati1 the most remarkable of which is ,siva in his vindictive character1 eight-handed1 with a collet of skulls round his neck4 ,on the right of the entrance to the cave is a square apartment1 supported by eight colossal figures1 containing a gigantic symbol of ,mahadeva or ,siva cut out of the rock4 ,in a ravine connected with the great cave are two other caves1 also containing sculptures1 which1 however1 have been much defaced owing to the action of damp and the falling of the rocks2 and in another hill is a fourth cave4 ,this interesting retreat of ,hindu religious art is said to have been dedicated to ,siva1 but it contains numerous representations of other ,hindu deities4 ,it has1 however1 for long been a place not so much of worship as of archaeological and artistic interest alike to the ,european and ,hindu traveller4 ,it forms a wonderful monument of antiquity1 and must have been a work of incredible labour4 ,archaeological authorities are of opinion that the cave must have been excavated about the #ajth century of the ,christian era1 if not earlier4 ,the island is much frequented by the ,british residents of ,bombay2 and during his tour in ,india in #ahge ,king ,edward ,,vii41 then prince of ,wales1 was entertained there at a banquet4 ,,elephantiasis 7,barbadoes leg2 ,boucnemia71 is a disease dependent on chronic lymphatic obstruction1 and characterized by hypertrophy of the skin and subcutaneous tissue4 ,two distinct forms are known1 7#a7 elephantiasis arabum1 due to the development of living parasites1 filaria sanguinis hominis 7or filaria ,bancrofti71 and 7#b7 the non-filarial form due to lymphatic obstruction from any other cause whatsoever1 as erysipelas1 the deposit of tuberculous or cancerous material in the lymphatic glands1 phlegmasia dolens 7white leg71 long-continued eczema1 c4 ,the enlargement is limited to a particular part of the body1 generally one1 or in rare cases both of the lower limbs1 occasionally the scrotum1 one of the labiae or the mammary gland2 far more rarely the face4 ,an attack is usually ushered in by febrile disturbance 7elephantoid fever71 the part attacked becoming rapidly swollen1 and the skin tense and red as in erysipelas4 ,the subcutaneous tissues become firm1 infiltrated and hard1 pitting only on considerable pressure4 ,the skin becomes roughened with a network of dilated lymphatics1 and vesicles and bullae may form1 discharging a chyle-like fluid when broken 7lymphorrhoea74 ,in a later stage still the skin may be coarse and wart-like1 and there is a great tendency for varicose ulcers to form4 ,at the end of a variable time enlargement ceases to take place1 and the disease enters a quiescent state3 but recrudescences occur at irregular intervals1 always ushered in by elephantoid fever4 ,at the end of some years the attacks of fever cease1 and the affected part remains permanently swollen4 ,the only difference in the history of the two forms of the disease lies in the fact that the non-filarial form progresses steadily1 until either the underlying condition is cured1 or in the case of cancer1 c41 brings about a fatal issue4 ,the elephantiasis due to filaria is spread by the agency of mosquitoes1 in whose bodies the intermediate stage is passed4 ,the dead mosquito falls upon the water1 which thus becomes infected1 and hence the ova reach the human stomach4 ,the young worm develops1 bores through the gastric mucous membrane and finally becomes lodged in the lymphatics1 usually of one or other of the extremities4 ,a large number of embryonic filariae are produced4 ,some remain in the lymphatic spaces and cause lymphatic obstruction1 while others enter the blood stream by night 7filaria nocturna71 or by day 7filaria diurna74 ,it is supposed that a mosquito1 biting an infected person1 itself becomes infected with the blood it abstracts1 and that so a new generation is developed4 ,treatment for this condition is unsatisfactory4 ,occasionally the dilated lymph trunks can be found1 and an operation performed to implant them in some vein 7lymphangeioplasty74 ,and in some few other cases artificial lymphatics have been made by introducing sterilized silk thread in the subcutaneous tissues of the affected part1 and prolonging it into the normal tissues4 ,this operation has been most successful when performed on elephantoid arms dependent on a late stage of cancerous breast4 ,elevation of the limb and elastic pressure should always be tried1 but often amputation has to be resorted to in the end4 ,the disease is totally different from the so-called elephantiasis graecorum or true leprosy1 for which see ,,leprosy4 ,,elephant',s-,,foot1 the popular name for the plant ,testudinaria elephantipes1 a native of the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,it takes its name from the large tuberous stem1 which grows very slowly but often reaches a considerable size1 e4g4 more than #c yds4 in circumference with a height of nearly #c ft4 above ground4 ,it is rich in starch1 whence the name ,hottentot bread1 and is covered on the outside with thick1 hard1 corky plates4 ,it develops slender1 leafy1 climbing shoots which die down each season4 ,it is a member of the monocotyledonous order ,dioscoreaceae1 climbing plants with slender herbaceous or shrubby shoots1 to which belong the yam and the ,british black bryony1 ,tamus communis4 ,,elets1 a town of ,russia1 in the government of ,orel1 #abb m4 by rail ,e4,s4,e4 of ,orel1 on the railway which connects ,riga with ,tsaritsyn on the lower ,volga4 ,pop4 7#ahhc7 #cf1fhj2 7#aijj7 #ch1bci4 ,owing to its advantageous position ,elets has grown rapidly4 ,its merchants buy large quantities of grain1 and numerous flour-mills1 many of them driven by steam1 prepare flour1 which is forwarded to ,moscow and ,riga4 ,the trade in cattle is very important4 ,elets has the first grain elevator erected in ,russia 7#ahhg71 a railway school1 and important tanneries1 foundries for cast iron and copper1 tallow-melting works1 limekilns and brickworks4 ,the cathedral and two monasteries contain venerated historic relics4 ,elets is first mentioned in #aadg1 when it was a fort of ,ryazan4 ,the ,turkish ,polovtsi or ,kumans attacked it in the #abth century1 and the ,mongols destroyed it during their first invasion 7#abci7 and again in #acje4 ,the ,tatars plundered it in #adae and #adej2 and it seems to have been completely abandoned in the latter half of the #aeth century4 ,its development dates from the second half of the #agth century1 when it became a centre for the trade with south ,russia4 ,,eleusis1 an ancient ,greek city in ,attica about #ad m4 ,n4,w4 of ,athens1 occupying the eastern part of a rocky ridge close to the shore opposite the island of ,salamis4 ,its fame is due chiefly to its ,mysteries1 for which see ,,mystery4 ,tradition carries back the origin of ,eleusis to the highest antiquity4 ,in the earlier period of its history it seems to have been an independent rival of ,athens1 and it was afterwards reckoned one of the twelve ,old ,attic cities4 ,a considerable portion of its small territory was occupied by the plains of ,thria1 noticeable for their fertility1 though the hopes of the husbandmen were not unfrequently disappointed by the blight of the south wind4 ,to the west was the ,greek3 ,pedion ,rharion or ,rharian ,plain1 where ,demeter is said to have sown the first seeds of corn2 and on its confines was the field called ,orgas1 planted with trees consecrated to ,demeter and ,persephone4 ,the sacred buildings were destroyed by ,alaric in ,a4,d4 #cif1 and it is not certain whether they were restored before the extinction of all pagan rites by ,theodosius4 ,the present village on the site is of ,albanian origin2 it is called ,lefsina or ,lepsina1 officially ,greek3 ,elensis4 ,illustration3 ,map of ,eleusis4 ,the ,site4--,systematic excavations1 begun in #ahhb by ,d4 ,philios for the ,greek ,archaeological ,society1 have laid bare the whole of the sacred precinct4 ,it is now possible to trace its boundaries as extended at various periods1 and also many successive stages in the history of the ,telesterion1 or ,hall of ,initiation4 ,these complete excavations have shown the earlier and partial excavations to have been in some respects deceptive4 ,in front of the main entrance of the precinct is a large paved area1 with the foundations of a temple in it1 usually identified as that of ,artemis ,propylaea2 in their present form both area and temple date from ,roman times2 and on each side of the ,great ,propylaea are the foundations of a ,roman triumphal arch4 ,just below the steps of the ,propylaea1 on the left as one enters1 there has been discovered1 at a lower level than the ,roman pavement1 the curb surrounding an early well4 ,this is almost certainly the ,greek3 kallichoron phrear mentioned by ,pausanias4 ,the ,great ,propylaea is a structure of ,roman imperial date1 in close imitation of the ,propylaea on the ,athenian ,acropolis4 ,it is1 however1 set in a wall of #fth-century work1 though repaired in later times4 ,this wall encloses a sort of outer court1 of irregular triangular shape4 ,the ,small ,propylaea is not set exactly opposite to the ,great ,propylaea1 but at an angle to it2 an inscription on the architrave records that it was built by ,appius ,claudius ,pulcher1 the contemporary of ,cicero4 ,it is also set in a later wall that occupies approximately the same position as two earlier ones1 which date from the #fth and #eth centuries respectively1 and must have indicated the boundary of the inner precinct4 ,from the ,small ,propylaea a paved road of ,roman date leads to one of the doors of the ,telesterion4 ,above the ,small ,propylaea1 partly set beneath the overhanging rock1 is the precinct of ,pluto2 it has a curious natural cleft approached by rock-cut steps4 ,several inscriptions and other antiquities were found here1 including the famous head1 now in ,athens1 usually called ,eubouleus1 though the evidence for its identification is far from satisfactory4 ,a little farther on is a rock-cut platform1 with a well1 approached by a broad flight of steps1 which probably served for spectators of the sacred procession4 ,beyond this1 close to the side of the ,telesterion1 are the foundations of a temple on higher ground2 it has been conjectured that this was the temple of ,demeter1 but there is no evidence that such a building existed in historic times1 apart from the ,telesterion4 ,the ,telesterion1 or ,hall of ,initiation1 was a large covered building1 about #agj ft4 square4 ,it was surrounded on all sides by steps1 which must have served as seats for the mystae1 while the sacred dramas and processions took place on the floor of the hall3 these seats were partly built up1 partly cut in the solid rock2 in later times they appear to have been cased with marble4 ,there were two doors on each side of the hall1 except the north-west1 where it is cut out of the solid rock1 and a rock terrace at a higher level adjoins it2 this terrace may have been the station of those who were not yet admitted to the full initiation4 ,the roof of the hall was carried by rows of columns1 which were more than once renewed4 ,the architectural history of the hall has been traced by ,professor ,w4 ,dorpfeld with the help of the various foundations that have been brought to light4 ,the earliest building on the site is a small rectangular structure1 with walls of polygonal masonry1 built of the rock quarried on the spot4 ,this was succeeded by a square hall1 almost of the same plan as the later ,telesterion1 but about a quarter of the size2 its eastern corner coincides with that of the later building1 and it appears to have had a portico in front like that which1 in the later hall1 was a later addition4 ,its roof was carried by columns1 of which the bases can still be seen4 ,this building has with great probability been assigned to the time of ,peisistratus2 it was destroyed by the ,persians4 ,between this event and the erection of the present hall1 which must be substantially the one designed by ,ictinus in the time of ,pericles1 there must have been a restoration1 of which we may see the remains in a set of round sinkings to carry columns1 which occur only in the north-east part of the hall2 a set of bases arranged on a different system occur in the south-west part1 and it is difficult to see how these two systems could be reconciled unless there were some sort of partition between the two parts of the hall4 ,both sets were removed to make way for the later columns1 of which the bases and some of the drums still remain4 ,these later columns are shown1 by inscriptions and other fragments built into their bases1 to belong to later ,roman times4 ,at the eastern and southern corners of the hall of ,ictinus are projecting masses of masonry1 which may be the foundation for a portico that was to be added2 but perhaps they were only buttresses1 intended to resist the thrust of the roof of this huge structure1 which rested at its northern and western corners against the solid rock of the hill4 ,on the south-east side the hall is faced with a portico1 extending its whole width2 the marble pavement of this portico is a most conspicuous feature of ,eleusis at the present day4 ,the portico was added to the hall by the architect ,philo1 under ,demetrius of ,phalerum1 about the end of the #dth century ,b4,c4 ,it was never completed1 for the fluting of its columns still remains unfinished4 ,the ,telesterion took up the greater part of the sacred precinct1 which seems merely to have served to keep the profane away from the temple4 ,the massive walls and towers of the time of ,pericles1 which resemble those of a fortress1 are quite close in on the south and east2 later1 probably in the #dth century ,b4,c41 the precinct was extended farther to the south1 and at its end was erected a building of considerable extent1 including a curious apsidal chamber1 for which a similar but larger curved structure was substituted in ,roman times4 ,this was probably the ,bouleuterion4 ,the precinct was full of altars1 dedications and inscriptions2 and many fragments of sculptures1 pottery and other antiquities1 from the earliest to the latest days of ,greece1 have been discovered4 ,it is to be noted that the subterranean passages which some earlier explorers imagined to be connected with the celebration of the mysteries1 have proved to be nothing but cisterns or watercourses4 ,the excavations of ,eleusis1 and the antiquities found in them1 have been published from time to time in the ,greek3 ,ephemeris ,archaiologike and in the ,greek3 ,praktika of the ,greek ,archaeological ,society1 especially for #ahhg and #ahie4 ,see also ,d4 ,philios1 ,eleusis1 ses mysteres1 ses ruines1 et son musee4 ,inscriptions have also been published in the ,bulletin de correspondance hellenique4 7,e4 ,gr47 ,,eleutherius1 pope from about #age to #ahi4 ,allusions to him are found in the letters of the martyrs of ,lyons1 cited by ,eusebius1 and in other documents of the time4 ,the ,liber ,pontificalis1 at the beginning of the #fth century1 says that he had relations with a ,british king1 ,lucius1 who was desirous of being converted to ,christianity4 ,this tradition--,roman1 not ,british--is an enigma to critics1 and1 apparently1 has no historical foundation4 7,l4 ,d4997 ,,eleutheropolis 7,gr4 ,greek3 ,eleuthera polis1 free city71 an ancient city of ,palestine1 #be m4 from ,jerusalem on the road to ,gaza1 identified by ,e4 ,robinson with the modern ,beit ,jibrin4 ,this identification is confirmed by ,roman milestones in the neighbourhood4 ,it represents the ,biblical ,mareshah1 the ruins of which exist at ,tell ,sandahannah close by4 ,as ,betogabra it is mentioned by ,ptolemy2 the name ,eleutheropolis dates from the ,syrian visit of ,septimius ,severus 7,a4,d4 #bjb74 ,eusebius in his ,onomasticon uses it as a central point from which the distances of other towns are measured4 ,it was destroyed in #gif1 rebuilt by the crusaders in #aacd 7their fortress and chapel remain1 much ruined74 ,it was finally captured by ,bibars1 #abdd4 ,beit ,jibrin is in the centre of a district of great archaeological interest4 ,besides the crusader and other remains in the village itself1 the surrounding country possesses many tells 7mounds7 covering the sites of ancient cities4 ,the famous caves of ,beit ,jibrin honeycomb the hills all round4 ,these are immense artificial excavations of unknown date4 ,roman milestones and aqueducts also are found1 and close by the now famous tomb of ,apollophanes1 with wall-paintings of animals and other ornamentation1 was discovered in #aijb2 a description of it will be found in ,thiersch and ,peters1 ,the ,marissa ,tombs1 published by the ,palestine ,exploration ,fund4 7,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,m47 ,,elevators1 ,,lifts or ,,hoists1 machines for raising or lowering loads1 whether of people or material1 from one level to another4 ,they are operated by steam1 hydraulic or electric power1 or1 when small and light1 by hand4 ,their construction varies with the magnitude of the work to be performed and the character of the motive power4 ,in private houses1 where only small weights1 as coal1 food1 c41 have to be transferred from one floor to another1 they usually consist simply of a small counter-balanced platform suspended from the roof or an upper floor by a tackle1 the running part of which hangs from top to bottom and can be reached and operated at any level4 ,in buildings where great weights and numbers of people have to be lifted1 or a high speed of elevation is demanded1 some form of motor is necessary4 ,this is usually1 directly or indirectly1 a steam-engine or occasionally a gas-engine2 sometimes a water-pressure engine is adopted1 and it is becoming more and more common to employ an electric motor deriving its energy from the general distribution of the city4 ,large establishments1 hotels or business houses1 commonly have their own source of energy1 an electric or other power plant1 on the premises4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,the ,plunger1 or ,direct ,lift ,hydraulic ,engine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,the ,otis ,standard ,hydraulic ,passenger ,lift1 with ,pilot ,valve and ,lever-operating ,device4 ,construction of elevators4 ,the hydraulic elevator is the simplest in construction of elevators proper1 sometimes consisting merely of a long pipe set deeply in the ground under the cage and containing a correspondingly long plunger1 which rises and falls as required and carries the elevator-cage on its upper end 7fig4 #a74 ,the stroke is thus necessarily equal to the height traversed by the cage1 with some surplus to keep the plunger steady within its guiding-pipe4 ,the pipe or pump chamber has a length exceeding the maximum rise and fall of the plunger1 and must be strong enough to sustain safely the heavy hydraulic pressures needed to raise plunger and cage with load4 ,the power is usually supplied by a steam pump 7occasionally by a hydraulic motor71 which forces water into the chamber of the great pipe as the elevator rises1 a waste-cock drawing off the liquid in the process of lowering the cage4 ,a single handle within the cage generally serves to apply the pressure when raising1 and to reduce it when lowering the load4 ,the most common form of hydraulic elevator1 for important work and under usual conditions of operation1 as in cities1 consists of a suspended cage1 carried by a tackle1 the running part of which is connected with a set of pulleys at each end of a frame 7fig4 #b74 ,the rope is made fast at one end1 and its intermediate part is carried round first one pulley at the farther end of the frame and then round another at the nearer end1 and so on as often as is found advisable in the particular case4 ,the two pulley shafts carrying these two sets of pulleys are made to traverse the frame in such a way as1 by their separation1 to haul in on the running part1 or1 by their approximation1 to permit the weight of the cage to haul out the rope4 ,by this alternate hauling and rendering of the rope the cage is raised and lowered4 ,the use of a number of parallel and independent sets of pulleys and tackles assures safety in case of the breakage of any one1 each being strong enough alone to hold the load4 ,the movement of the pair of pulley shafts is effected by a water-pressure engine1 actuating the plunger of a pump which is similar to that used in the preceding apparatus1 but being relatively of short stroke and large diameter1 is more satisfactory in design and construction as well as in operation4 ,electricity may be applied to elevators of this type by attaching the travelling sheaves to a nut in which works a screwed shaft driven by an electric motor4 ,in other electric lifts the cables which support the cage are wound on a drum which is turned by a motor1 the drum being connected to the motor-shaft either by a series of pinions or by a worm-gear4 ,the drum may also be worked by a steam or gas engine4 ,where the traffic is not very heavy1 a form of elevator that requires no attendant is convenient4 ,in this any one wishing to use the lift has merely to press a button placed by the side of the lift-gate on the floor on which he happens to be standing1 when the car will come to him2 and having entered it he can cause it to travel to any floor he desires by pressing another button inside the car4 ,the motive power in such cases may be either electric or hydraulic1 but the control of the switches or valves that govern the action of the apparatus is electric4 ,essentials of design1 c4 ,the history of the elevator is chronologically extensive1 but only since #ahej has rapid or important progress been effected4 ,in that year ,george ,h4 ,fox ,co4 built an elevator operated by the motion of a vertical screw1 the nut on which carried the cage4 ,this device was used in a number of instances1 especially in hotels in the large cities1 during the succeeding twenty years1 and was then generally supplanted by the hydraulic lift of the kind already described as the plunger-lift4 ,with the increased demand for power1 speed1 safety1 convenience of manipulation1 and comfort in operation1 the inventive ability of the engineer developed the various systems more and more perfectly1 and experience gradually showed to what service each type was best adapted and the best construction of each for its peculiar work4 ,whatever the class1 the following are the essentials of design1 construction and operation3 the elevator must be safe1 comfortable1 speedy and convenient1 must not be too expensive in either first cost or maintenance1 and must be absolutely trustworthy4 ,it must not be liable to fracture of any element of the hoisting gear that will permit either the fall of the cage or its projection by an overweighted balance upwards against the top of its shaft4 ,it must be possible to stop it1 whether in regular working or in emergency1 or when accident occurs1 with sufficient promptness1 yet without endangering life or property1 or even very seriously inconveniencing the passengers4 ,acceleration and retardation in starting and stopping must be smooth and easy1 the stop must be capable of being made precisely where and when intended1 and no danger must be incurred by the passengers from contact with running parts of the mechanism or with the walls and doors of the elevator shaft4 ,these requirements have been fully met in the later forms of elevator commonly employed for passenger service4 ,usual sizes range from loads of #ajjj to #ejjj lb4 with speeds of from #hj to #bej ft4 a minute unloaded1 and #ge to #bjj ft4 loaded1 and a height of travel of from #ej to #bjj ft4 ,in some very tall buildings1 as the ,singer and ,metropolitan buildings in ,new ,york1 elevators have been installed having a maximum speed of #fjj ft4 a minute1 with a rise of over #ejj ft4 ,where electric motors are employed1 their speed ranges from #fjj and #gjj revolutions per minute in the larger to #ajjj and #abjj in the smaller sizes1 corresponding to from #bj down to #d or #e h4p4 ,two or more counter-weights are employed1 and from four to six suspension cables ensure as nearly as possible absolute safety4 ,the electric elevators of the ,central ,london railway are guaranteed to raise #ag1jjj lb4 #fe ft4 in some of its shafts1 in #cj secs4 from start to stop4 ,over #ajj1jjj ft4 of #g_/h in4 and #ag1jjj ft4 of #c_/d in4 steel rope are required for its #bd shafts1 and each rope can carry from #af to #bb tons without breaking4 ,the steel used in the cables1 of which there are four to six for each car and counter-weight1 has a tenacity of #he to #ij tons per sq4 in4 of section of wire4 ,the maximum pull on each set of rope is assumed to be not over #iejj lb41 the remainder of the load being taken by the counterbalance4 ,oil dash-pots or buffers1 into which enter plungers attached to the bottom of the cage1 prevent too sudden a stop in case of accident1 and safety-clutches with friction adjustments of ample power and fully tested before use give ample insurance against a fall even if all the cables should yield at once--an almost inconceivable contingency4 ,the efficiency1 i4e4 the ratio of work performed to power expended in the same time1 was in these elevators found by test to be between #gj and #ge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,safety ,air-,cushion4 ,safety devices4 ,safety devices constitute perhaps the most important of the later improvements in elevator construction where passengers are carried4 ,the simplest and1 where practicable1 most certain of them is the air-cushion1 a chamber into which the cage drops if detached or from any cause allowed to fall too rapidly to the bottom1 compression of the air bringing it to rest without shock 7fig4 #c74 ,this chamber must be perfectly air-tight1 except in so far as a purposely arranged clearance around the sides1 diminishing downwards and in well-established proportion1 is adjusted to permit a dash-pot action and to prevent rebound4 ,the air-cushion should be about one-tenth the depth of the elevator shaft2 in high buildings it may be a well #bj or #cj ft4 deep4 ,the ,empire building1 in ,new ,york1 is twenty storeys in height1 the total travel of the cage is #bhg ft41 and the air-cushion is #ej ft4 deep1 extending from the floor of the third storey to the bottom of the shaft4 ,sliding doors of great strength1 and automatic in action1 at the first and second floors1 are the only openings4 ,the shaft is tapered for some distance below the third floor1 and then carried straight to the bottom4 ,an inlet valve admits air freely as the cage rises1 and an adjusted safety-valve provides against excess pressure4 ,a car1 falling freely from the twentieth storey1 was checked by this arrangement without injury to a basket of eggs placed on its floor4 ,other safety devices consist of catches under the floor of the cage1 so arranged that they are held out of engagement by the pull on the cables4 ,but if the strain is suddenly relieved1 as by breakage of a cable or accident to the engine or motor1 they instantly fly into place and1 engaging strong side-struts in the shaft1 hold the car until it can be once more lifted by its cables4 ,these operate well when the cables part at or near the car1 but they are apt to fail if the break occurs on the opposite side of the carrying sheaves at the top of the shaft1 since the friction and inertia of the mass of the cables may in that case be sufficient to hold the pawls out of gear either entirely or until the headway is so great as to cause the smashing of all resistances when they do engage4 ,another principle employed in safety arrangements is the action of inertia of parts properly formed and attached4 ,any dangerous acceleration of the cage causes the inertia of these parts to produce a retardation relative to the car which throws into action a brake or a catch1 and thus controls the motion within safe limits or breaks the fall4 ,the hydraulic brake has been used in this apparatus1 as have mechanical and pneumatic apparatus4 ,this control of the speed of fall is most commonly secured by the employment of a centrifugal or other governor or regulator4 ,the governor may be on the top of the cage and driven by a stationary rope fixed between the top and bottom of the shafts1 or it may be placed at the top of the shaft and driven by a rope travelling with the car4 ,its action is usually to trip into service a set of spring grips or friction clutches1 which1 as a rule1 grasp the guides of the cage and by their immense pressure and great resultant friction bring the cage to rest within a safe limit of speed1 time and distance4 ,a coefficient of friction of about #ae is assumed in their design1 and this estimate is confirmed by their operation4 ,pressures of #aj tons or more are sometimes provided in these grips to ensure the friction required4 ,there are many different forms of safety device of these various classes1 each maker having his own4 ,the importance of absolute safety against a fall is so great that the best builders are not satisfied with any one form or principle1 but combine provisions against every known danger1 and often duplicate such precautions against the most common accidents4 ,the travelling staircase1 which may be classed among the passenger elevators1 usually consists of a staircase so constructed that while the passenger is ascending it the whole structure is also ascending at a predetermined rate1 so that the progress made is the sum of the two rates of motion4 ,the system of treads and risers is carried on a long endless band of chain sustained by guides holding it in its desired line1 and rendering at either end over cylinders or sprockets4 ,the junctions between the stairway and the upper or lower floors are ingeniously arranged so as to avoid danger of injury to the passengers4 ,freight elevators have the same general forms as the passenger elevators1 but are often vastly larger and more powerful1 and are not as a rule fitted up for such heights of lift1 or constructed with such elaborate provision for safety or with any special finish4 ,elevators raising grain1 coal1 earth and similar materials1 such as can be taken up by scooping into a bucket1 or can be run into and out of the bucket by gravity1 constitute a class by themselves1 and are described in the article ,,conveyors4 ,the term grain elevator is often used to include buildings as well as machinery1 and it is not unusual in ,europe to hear a flour-mill1 with its system of motor machinery1 mills1 elevator and storage departments1 spoken of as an ,american elevator 7see ,,granaries74 ,,elf 7,o4 ,eng4 aelf2 cf4 ,ger4 ,alp1 nightmare71 a diminutive supernatural being of ,teutonic mythology1 usually of a more or less mischievous and malignant character1 causing diseases and evil dreams1 stealing children and substituting changelings1 and thus somewhat different from the ,romanic fairy1 which usually has less sinister associations4 ,the prehistoric arrow-heads and other flint implements were in ,england early known as elf-bolts or elf-arrows1 and were looked on as the weapons of the elves1 with which they injured cattle4 ,so too a tangle in the hair was called an elf-lock1 as being caused by the mischief of the elves4 ,,elgar1 ,,sir ,,edward 7#aheg- 71 ,english musical composer1 son of ,w4,h4 ,elgar1 who was for many years organist in the ,roman ,catholic church of ,st ,george at ,worcester1 was born there on the #bnd of ,june #aheg4 ,his father's connexion with music at ,worcester1 with the ,glee ,club and with the ,three ,choirs ,festivals1 supplied him with varied opportunities for a musical education1 and he learnt to play several instruments4 ,in #ahgi he became bandmaster at the county lunatic asylum1 and held that post till #ahhd4 ,he was also a member of an orchestra at ,birmingham1 and in #ahhc an intermezzo by him was played there at a concert4 ,in #ahhb he became conductor of the ,worcester ,amateur ,instrumental ,society2 and in #ahhe he succeeded his father as organist at ,st ,george's1 ,worcester4 ,there he wrote a certain amount of church music4 ,in #ahhi he moved to ,london1 but finding no encouragement retired to ,malvern in #ahia2 in #aijd he went to live at ,hereford1 and in #aije was made professor of music at ,birmingham ,university4 ,to the public generally he was hardly known till his oratorio ,the ,dream of ,gerontius was performed at ,birmingham in #aijj1 but this was at once received as a new revelation in ,english music1 both at home and by ,richard ,strauss in ,germany1 and the composer was made a ,mus4 ,doc4 at ,cambridge4 ,his experience in writing church music for a ,roman ,catholic service cannot be overlooked in regard to this and other works by ,elgar1 who came to be regarded as the representative of a ,catholic or neo-,catholic style of religious music1 for which an appreciative public was ready in ,england at the moment1 owing to the recent developments in the more artistic and sensuous side of the religious movement4 ,and the same interest attached to his later oratorios1 ,the ,apostles 7#aijc7 and ,the ,kingdom 7#aijf74 ,but ,elgar's sudden rise into popularity1 confirmed by his being knighted in #aijd1 drew attention to his other productions4 ,in #ahif his ,scenes from the ,saga of ,king ,olaf was recognized by musicians as a fine work1 and in the same year his ,scenes from the ,bavarian ,highlands and ,lux ,christi were performed2 and apart from other important compositions1 his song-cycle ,sea-,pictures was sung at ,norwich in #ahii by ,clara ,butt1 and his orchestral ,variations on an original theme were given at a ,richter concert in the same year4 ,in #aija his popular march ,pomp and ,circumstance was played at a promenade concert1 the stirring melody of his song ,land of ,hope and ,glory being effectually utilized4 ,it is impossible here to enumerate all ,sir ,edward ,elgar's works1 which have excited a good deal of criticism in musical circles without impairing his general recognition as one of the few front-rank ,english composers of his day2 but his most important later production1 his first orchestral symphony1 produced in #aijh with immediate success1 raised his reputation as a composer to an even higher place1 as a work of marked power and beauty1 developing the symphonic form with the originality of a real master of his art4 ,in #aijh he resigned his professorship at ,birmingham ,university4 ,,elgin1 a city of ,kane county1 ,illinois1 ,u4,s4,a41 in the ,n4 part of the state1 #cf m4 ,n4,w4 of ,chicago4 ,pop4 7#ahhj7 #hghg2 7#ahij7 #ag1hbc2 7#aijj7 #bb1dcc1 of whom #edai were foreign-born2 7#aiaj census7 #be1igf4 ,elgin is served by the ,chicago ,north-,western and the ,chicago1 ,milwaukee ,st ,paul railways1 and by interurban electric railways to ,chicago1 ,aurora and ,belvidere4 ,the city is the seat of the ,northern ,illinois hospital for the insane1 of the ,elgin ,academy 7chartered #ahci2 opened #ahef71 and of ,st ,mary's ,academy 7,roman ,catholic72 and has the ,gail ,borden public library1 with #ce1jjj volumes in #aijh4 ,the city has six public parks1 ,lord's ,park containing #aab1 and ,wing ,park #aba acres4 ,the city is in a fine dairying region and is an important market for butter4 ,among ,elgin's manufactures are watches and watch-cases1 butter and other dairy products1 cooperage 7especially butter tubs71 canned corn1 shirts1 foundry and machine-shop products1 pipe-organs1 and caskets and casket trimmings2 in #aije ,elgin's total factory product was valued at #i1cdi1bgd4 ,the ,elgin ,national ,watch factory1 and the ,borden milk-condensing works1 are famous throughout the ,united ,states and beyond4 ,the publishing office of the ,dunkers1 or ,german ,brethren1 is at ,elgin2 and several popular weeklies with large circulations are published here4 ,a permanent settlement was made as early as #ahce1 and ,elgin was chartered as a city in #ahed and was rechartered in #ahhj4 ,,elgin1 a royal1 municipal and police burgh1 and county town of ,elginshire1 ,scotland1 situated on the ,lossie1 #e m4 ,s4 of ,lossiemouth its port1 on the ,moray ,firth1 and #ga-a_/d m4 ,n4,w4 of ,aberdeen1 with stations on the ,great ,north of ,scotland and ,highland railways4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #hdfj4 ,it is a place of very considerable antiquity1 was created a royal burgh by ,alexander ,i41 and received its charter from ,alexander ,,ii4 in #abcd4 ,edward ,i4 stayed at the castle in #abif and #acjc1 and it was to blot out the memory of his visit that the building was destroyed immediately after national independence had been reasserted4 ,the hill on which it stood was renamed the ,ladyhill1 and on the scanty ruins of the castle now stands a monument to the #eth duke of ,gordon1 consisting of a column surmounted by a statue4 ,the burgh has suffered periodically from fire1 notably in #adeb1 when half of it was burnt by the earl of ,huntly4 ,montrose plundered it twice in #afde4 ,in #agdf ,prince ,charles ,edward spent a few days in ,thunderton ,house4 ,his hostess1 ,mrs ,anderson1 an ardent ,jacobite1 kept the sheets in which he slept1 and was buried in them on her death1 twenty-five years afterwards4 ,for fifty years after this date the place retained the character and traditions of a sleepy cathedral city1 but with the approach of the #aith century it was touched by a more modern spirit4 ,as the result much that was picturesque disappeared1 but the prosperity of ,elgin was increased1 so that now1 owing to its pleasant situation in the ,garden of ,scotland1 its healthy climate1 cheap living1 and excellent educational facilities1 it has become a flourishing community4 ,the centre of interest is the cathedral of ,moray1 which was founded in #abbd1 when the church of the ,holy ,trinity was converted to this use4 ,it was partially burned in #abgj and almost destroyed in #acij by ,alexander ,stewart1 the ,wolf of ,badenoch1 natural son of ,robert ,,ii41 who had incurred the censure of the ,church4 ,in #adjb ,alexander1 lord of the ,isles1 set fire to the town1 but spared the cathedral for a consideration1 in memory of which mercy the ,little ,cross 7so named to distinguish it from the ,muckle or ,market ,cross1 restored in #ahhh7 was erected4 ,after these outrages it was practically rebuilt on a scale of grandeur that made it the most magnificent example of church architecture in the north4 ,its design was that of a ,jerusalem cross1 with two flanking towers at the east end1 two at the west end1 and one in the centre1 at the intersection of the roofs of the nave and transepts4 ,it measured #bhb ft4 long from east to west by #abj ft4 across the transepts1 and consisted of the choir1 the gable of which was pierced by two tiers of five lancet windows and the ,omega rose window2 the north transept1 in which the ,dunbars were buried1 and the south transept1 the doorway of which is interesting for its dog's-tooth ornamentation2 and the nave of five aisles4 ,the grand entrance was by the richly carved west door1 above which was the ,alpha window4 ,the central steeple fell in #aejf1 but was rebuilt1 the new tower with its spire reaching a height of #aih ft4 ,by #aech the edifice was complete in every part4 ,though the ,reformation left it unscathed1 it suffered wanton violence from time to time4 ,by order of the privy council the lead was stripped off the roofs in #aefg and sold to ,holland to pay the troops2 but the ship conveying the spoils foundered in the ,north ,sea4 ,in #afcg the roof-tree of the choir perished during a gale1 and three years later the rich timber screen was demolished4 ,the central tower again collapsed in #agaa1 after which the edifice was allowed to go to ruin4 ,its stones were carted away1 and the churchyard1 overgrown with weeds1 became the dumping-ground for rubbish4 ,it lay thus scandalously neglected until #ahbd1 when ,john ,shanks1 a drouthy cobbler1 was appointed keeper4 ,by a species of inspiration this man1 hitherto a ne'er-do-well1 conceived the notion of restoring the place to order4 ,undismayed1 he attacked the mass of litter and with his own hands removed #cjjj barrow-loads4 ,when he died in #ahda he had cleared away all the rubbish1 disclosed the original plan1 and collected a quantity of fragments4 ,a tablet1 let into the wall1 contains an epitaph by ,lord ,cockburn1 recording ,shanks's services to the venerable pile1 which has since been entrusted to the custody of the commissioners of woods and forests4 ,the chapter-house1 to the north-east of the main structure1 suffered least of all the buildings1 and contains a ',prentice pillar1 of which a similar story is told to that of the ornate column in ,roslin chapel4 ,in the lavatory1 or vestibule connecting the chapter-house with the choir1 ,marjory ,anderson1 a poor half-crazy creature1 a soldier's widow1 took up her quarters in #agdh4 ,she cradled her son in the piscina and lived on charity4 ,in the course of time the lad joined the army and went to ,india1 where he rose to the rank of major-general and amassed a fortune of ,l#gj1jjj with which he endowed the ,elgin ,institution 7commonly known as the ,anderson ,institution7 at the east end of ,high ,street1 for the education of youth and the support of old age4 ,within the precincts of the cathedral grounds stood the bishop's palace 7now in ruins71 the houses of the dean and archdeacon 7now ,north and ,south ,colleges71 and the manses of the canons4 ,other ecclesiastical buildings were the monasteries of ,blackfriars 7#abcj7 and ,greyfriars 7#adaj7 and the preceptory of ,maisondieu 7#abdj74 ,they also were permitted to fall into decay1 but the #crd marquess of ,bute undertook the restoration of the ,greyfriars' chapel4 ,the parish church1 in the ,greek style1 was built in #ahbh4 ,gray's hospital1 at the west end of ,high ,street1 was endowed by ,dr ,alexander ,gray 7#agea-ahjh71 and at the east end stands the ,institution1 already mentioned1 founded by ,general ,andrew ,anderson 7#agdf-ahbb74 ,other public buildings include the assembly rooms1 the town-hall1 the museum 7in which the antiquities and natural history of the shire are abundantly illustrated71 the district asylum1 the academy1 the county buildings and the court house1 the market buildings1 the ,victoria school of science and art1 and ,lady ,gordon-,cumming's children's home4 ,in #aijc ,mr ,g4,a4 ,cooper presented his native town with a public park of #db acres1 containing lakes representing on a miniature scale the ,british ,isles4 ,grant ,lodge1 an old mansion of the ,grant family1 occupying the south-west corner of the park1 was converted into the public library4 ,from the top of ,ladyhill the view commands the links of the ,lossie and the surrounding country1 and a recreation ground is laid out on ,lossie ,green4 ,the industries include distilling and brewing1 nursery gardening1 tanning1 saw and flour mills1 iron-foundries and manufactures of woollens1 tweeds and plaiding1 and the quarrying of sandstone4 ,elgin combines with ,banff1 ,cullen1 ,inverurie1 ,kintore and ,peterhead to return one member to parliament1 and the town is controlled by a council with provost and bailies4 ,two miles and a half ,s4 by ,w4 of ,elgin stands the church of ,birnie1 with the exception of the church at ,mortlach in ,banffshire probably the oldest place of public worship in ,scotland still in use4 ,it is not later than #aaej and1 with its predecessor1 was the cathedral of ,moray during the rule of the first four bishops2 the fourth bishop1 ,simon de ,toeny1 an ,englishman1 was buried in its precincts in #aahd4 ,in the church is preserved an old ,celtic altar-bell of hammered iron1 known as the ,ronnell bell4 ,such is the odour of sanctity of this venerable church that there is an old local saying that to be thrice prayed for in the kirk of ,birnie will either mend or end ye4 ,six miles to the ,s4,w4 of ,elgin1 charmingly situated in a secluded valley encircled by fir-clad heights1 lie the picturesque remains of ,pluscarden ,priory1 a ,cistercian house founded by ,alexander ,,ii4 in #abcj4 ,the ruins1 consisting of tower1 choir1 chapter-house1 refectory and other apartments1 are nearly hidden from view by their dense coating of ivy and the fine old trees1 including many beautiful examples of copper beech1 by which they are surrounded4 ,its last prior1 ,alexander ,dunbar1 died in #aefj4 ,the ,liber ,pluscardensis1 a valuable authority on early ,scots history1 was compiled in the priory by ,maurice ,buchanan in #adfa4 ,the chronicle comes down to the death of ,james ,i4 ,the #crd marquess of ,bute acquired the ruins in #ahig4 ,,elgin ,,and ,,kincardine1 ,,earls ,,of4 ,,thomas ,,bruce1 #gth earl of ,elgin 7#agff-ahda71 ,british diplomatist and art collector1 was born on the #bjth of ,july #agff1 and in #agga succeeded his brother in the ,scottish peerage as the #gth earl of ,elgin 7cr4 #afcc71 and #aath of ,kincardine 7cr4 #afdg74 ,he was educated at ,harrow and ,westminster1 and1 after studying for some time at the university of ,st ,andrews1 proceeded to the continent1 where he studied international law at ,paris1 and military science in ,germany4 ,when his education was completed he entered the army1 in which he rose to the rank of general4 ,his chief attention was1 however1 devoted to diplomacy4 ,in #agib he was appointed envoy at ,brussels1 and in #agie envoy extraordinary at ,berlin2 and from #agii to #ahjb he was envoy extraordinary at the ,porte4 ,it was during his stay at ,constantinople that he formed the purpose of removing from ,athens the celebrated sculptures now known as the ,elgin ,marbles4 ,his doing so was censured by some as vandalism1 and doubts were also expressed as to the artistic value of many of the marbles2 but he vindicated himself in a pamphlet published in #ahaj1 and entitled ,memorandum on the ,subject of the ,earl of ,elgin's ,pursuits in ,greece4 ,in #ahaf the collection was purchased by the nation for ,l#cf1jjj1 and placed in the ,british ,museum1 the outlay incurred by ,lord ,elgin having been more than ,l#ej1jjj4 ,lord ,elgin was a ,scottish representative peer for fifty years4 ,he died at ,paris on the #adth of ,november #ahda4 ,,james ,,bruce1 #hth earl of ,elgin 7#ahaa-ahfc71 ,british statesman1 eldest son of the #gth earl by his second marriage1 was born in #ahaa1 and succeeded to the peerage as #hth earl of ,elgin and #abth of ,kincardine in #ahda4 ,he was educated at ,eton and at ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 where he had as companions and rivals his younger predecessors in the office of governor-general of ,india1 ,dalhousie and ,canning4 ,he began his official career in #ahdb at the age of thirty1 as governor of ,jamaica4 ,during an administration of four years he succeeded in winning the respect of all classes4 ,he improved the condition of the negroes and conciliated the planters by working through them4 ,in #ahdf ,lord ,grey appointed him governor-general of ,canada4 ,son-in-law of the popular earl of ,durham1 he was well received by the colonists1 and he set himself deliberately to carry out the ,durham policy4 ,in this his frank and genial manners aided him powerfully4 ,his assent to the local measure for indemnifying those who had suffered in the troubles of #ahcg led the mob of ,montreal to pelt his carriage for the rewarding of rebels for rebellion1 as ,mr ,gladstone described it4 ,but long before his eight years' term of service expired he was the most popular man in ,canada4 ,his relations with the ,united ,states1 his hearty support of the self-government and defence of the colony1 and his settlement of the free-trade and fishery questions1 led to his being raised in #ahdi to the ,british peerage as ,baron ,elgin4 ,soon after his return to ,england in #ahed1 ,lord ,palmerston offered him a seat in the cabinet as chancellor of the duchy of ,lancaster1 which he declined4 ,but when1 in #ahef the seizure of the ,arrow by ,commissioner ,yeh plunged ,england into war with ,china1 he at once accepted the appointment of special envoy with the expedition4 ,on reaching ,point de ,galle he was met by a force summoned from ,bombay to ,calcutta by the news of the sepoy mutiny at ,meerut on the #aath of ,may4 ,his first idea1 that the somewhat meagre intelligence would justify most energetic action in ,china1 was at once changed when urgent letters from ,lord ,canning reached him at ,singapore1 the next port1 on the #crd of ,june4 ,h4,m4,s4 ,shannon was at once sent on to ,calcutta with the troops destined for ,china1 and ,lord ,elgin himself followed it1 when gloomier letters from ,india reached him4 ,the arrival of the ,shannon gave new life to the handful of white men fighting for civilization against fearful odds1 and before the reinforcements from ,england arrived the back of the mutiny had been broken4 ,nor was the position in ,china seriously affected by the want of the troops4 ,lord ,elgin sent in his ultimatum to ,commissioner ,yeh at ,canton on the same day1 the #abth of ,december1 that he learned the relief of ,lucknow1 and he soon after sent ,yeh a prisoner to ,calcutta4 ,by ,july #aheh1 after months of ,chinese deception1 he was able to leave the ,gulf of ,pechili with the emperor's assent to the ,treaty of ,tientsin4 ,subsequently he visited ,japan1 and obtained less considerable concessions from its government in the ,treaty of ,yeddo4 ,it is true that the negotiations were confined to the really subordinate ,tycoon or ,shogun1 but that visit proved the beginning of ,british influence in the most progressive country of ,asia4 ,unfortunately1 the ,chinese difficulty was not yet at an end4 ,after tedious disputes with the tariff commissioners as to the opium duty1 and a visit to the upper waters of the ,yang-tzse1 ,lord ,elgin had reached ,england in ,may #ahei4 ,but when his brother and the allied forces attempted to proceed to ,peking with the ratified treaty1 they were fired on from the ,taku forts at the mouth of the ,peiho4 ,the ,chinese had resolved to try the fortune of war once more1 and ,lord ,russell again sent out ,lord ,elgin as ambassador extraordinary to demand an apology for the attack1 the execution of the treaty1 and an indemnity for the military and naval expenditure4 ,sir ,robert ,napier 7afterwards ,lord ,napier of ,magdala7 and ,sir ,hope ,grant1 with the ,french1 so effectually routed the ,tatar troops and sacked the ,summer ,palace that by the #bdth of ,october #ahfj a convention was concluded which was entirely satisfactory to ,her ,majesty's government4 ,lord ,elgin had not been a month at home when ,lord ,palmerston selected him to be viceroy and governor-general of ,india4 ,he had now attained the object of his honourable ambition1 after the office had been filled in most critical times by his juniors and old college companions1 the marquis of ,dalhousie and ,earl ,canning4 ,he succeeded a statesman who had done much to reorganize the whole administration of ,india1 shattered as it had been by the mutiny4 ,but1 as the first viceroy directly appointed by the ,crown1 and as subject to the secretary of state for ,india1 ,lord ,elgin at once gave up all ,lord ,canning had fought for1 in the co-ordinate independence1 or rather the stimulating responsibility1 of the governor-general1 which had prevailed from the days of ,clive and ,warren ,hastings4 ,on the other hand1 he loyally carried out the wise and equitable policy of his predecessor towards our feudatories with a firmness and a dignity that in the case of ,holkar and ,udaipur had a good effect4 ,he did his best to check the aggression of the ,dutch in ,sumatra1 which was contrary to treaty1 and he supported ,dost ,mahommed in ,kabul until that aged warrior entered the then neutral and disputed territory of ,herat4 ,determined to maintain inviolate the integrity of our own north-west frontier1 ,lord ,elgin assembled a camp of exercise at ,lahore1 and marched a force to the ,peshawar border to punish those branches of the ,yusufzai tribe who had violated the engagements of #aheh4 ,it was in the midst of this little war that he died4 ,soon after his arrival at ,calcutta1 he had projected the usual tour to ,simla1 to be followed by an inspection of the ,punjab and its warlike ring-fence of ,pathans4 ,he even contemplated the summoning of the central legislative council at ,lahore4 ,after passing the summer of #ahfc in the cool retreat of ,peterhoff1 ,simla1 ,lord ,elgin began a march across the hills from ,simla to ,sialkot by the upper valleys of the ,beas1 the ,ravi and the ,chenab1 chiefly to decide the two allied questions of tea cultivation and trade routes to ,kashgar and ,tibet4 ,the climbing up to the ,rotung ,pass 7#ac1jjj ft47 which separates the ,beas valley from that of the ,chenab1 and the crossing of the frail twig bridge across the ,chundra torrent1 prostrated him by the time he had descended into the smiling ,english-like ,kangra valley4 ,thence he wrote his last letter to ,sir ,charles ,wood1 still full of hope and not free from anxiety as to the ,sittana expedition4 ,at the lovely hill station of ,dharmsala1 the place of piety1 he died of fatty degeneration of heart on the #bjth of ,november #ahfc4 ,for his whole career see ,letters and ,journals of ,james1 ,eighth ,earl of ,elgin1 edited by ,walrond1 but corrected by his brother-in-law1 ,dean ,stanley2 for the ,china missions see ,narrative of the ,earl of ,elgin's ,mission to ,china and ,japan1 by ,laurence ,oliphant1 his private secretary2 for the brief ,indian administration see the ,friend of ,india for #ahfb-ahfc4 ,,victor ,,alexander ,,bruce1 #ith earl of ,elgin 7#ahdi- 71 ,british statesman1 was born on the #afth of ,may #ahdi1 the son of the #hth earl1 and was educated at ,eton and ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,in #ahfc he succeeded as #ith earl of ,elgin and #acth of ,kincardine4 ,a ,liberal in politics1 he became first commissioner of works 7#ahhf71 and subsequently viceroy of ,india 7#ahid-ahii74 ,his administration in ,india was chiefly notable for the frontier risings of #ahig-ahih4 ,the ,afridis broke out into a fanatical revolt and through hesitation on the part of the government were allowed to seize the ,khyber ,pass1 necessitating the ,tirah ,expedition4 ,after his return to ,england he was nominated chairman of the royal commission to investigate the conduct of the ,south ,african ,war2 and on the formation of ,sir ,henry ,campbell-,bannerman's ministry in ,december #aije1 he became a member of the cabinet as secretary of state for the colonies4 ,in this capacity1 though he showed many statesmanlike qualities1 he was somewhat overshadowed by his brilliant under-secretary in the ,commons1 ,mr ,winston ,churchill1 whose speeches on colonial affairs were as aggressive as ,lord ,elgin's were cautious2 and when in ,april #aijh1 ,mr ,asquith became prime minister1 ,lord ,elgin retired from the cabinet4 ,,elginshire1 or ,,moray 7,gaelic among the seaboard men71 a northern county of ,scotland1 bounded ,n4 by the ,moray ,firth1 ,e4 and ,s4,e4 by ,banffshire1 ,s4 and ,s4,w4 by ,inverness and ,w4 by ,nairnshire4 ,it comprises only the eastern portion of the ancient province of ,moray1 which extended from the ,spey to the ,beauly and from the ,grampians to the sea1 embracing an area of about #cijj sq4 m4 ,the area of the county is #cje1aai acres1 or #dgg sq4 m4 ,elginshire is naturally divided into two sections1 the level and fertile coast and its hinterland--the ,laigh o' ,moray1 a tract #cj m4 long by from #e to #ab m4 broad--and the hilly country in the south4 ,there are1 however1 no high mountains4 ,carn ,ruigh 7#aghd ft471 ,larig ,hill 7#aghc7 and ,carn ,kitty 7#agaa7 are the chief eminences in the south-central district until the ridge of the ,cromdale ,hills is reached on the ,banffshire border1 where the highest point is #bcbi ft4 above the sea4 ,the two most important rivers1 the ,spey 7q4v47 and the ,findhorn1 both have their sources in ,inverness-shire4 ,about #ej m4 of the course of the ,spey are in ,elginshire1 to which it may be roughly said to serve as the boundary line on the south-east and east4 ,the ,findhorn rises in the ,monadliadh ,mountains which form the watershed for several miles between it and the ,spey4 ,of its total course of nearly #gj m4 only the last #ab are in the county1 where it separates the woods of ,altyre from the ,forest of ,darnaway1 before entering the ,moray ,firth in a bay on the north-eastern shore to which it has given its name4 ,during the first #g m4 of its flow in ,elginshire the stream passes through some of the finest scenery in ,scotland4 ,it is liable to sudden risings1 and in the memorable ,moray floods of ,august #ahbi wrought the greatest havoc4 ,of other rivers the ,lossie rises in the small lakes on the flanks of ,carn ,kitty and pursues a very winding course of #cd m4 till it reaches the ,moray ,firth2 ,ballintomb ,burn1 ,rothes ,burn and ,tulchan ,burn are left-hand affluents of the ,spey2 the ,dorbock and ,divie1 uniting their forces near ,dunphail ,house1 join the ,findhorn at ,relugas2 and ,muckle ,water1 a left-hand tributary of the ,findhorn1 comes from ,nairnshire4 ,the ,spey and ,findhorn are famous for salmon1 but some of the smaller streams1 too1 afford good sport4 ,the lochs are few and unimportant1 among them being ,loch ,spynie1 #b-a_/b m4 ,n41 and ,loch-na-,bo1 #d m4 ,s4,e4 of ,elgin2 ,loch of ,blairs1 #b-a_/b m4 ,s4 of ,forres2 ,loch ,romach1 #c m4 ,s4 of ,rafford2 ,loch ,dallas1 about #d m4 ,s4,w4 of ,dallas1 and ,lochindorb in the ,s4,w41 #f m4 ,n4,n4,w4 of ,grantown4 ,loch ,spynie was once a lake extending from the ,firth to within #b-a_/b m4 of ,elgin and covering an area of over #bjjj acres4 ,its shores were the haunt of a great variety of birds1 and its waters were full of salmon1 sea-trout and pike4 ,but early in the #aith century it was resolved to reclaim the land1 and the drainage works then undertaken reduced the beautiful loch to a swamp of some #abj acres4 ,lochindorb is now the largest lake1 being #b m4 in length and fully #a_/b m4 wide4 ,in the upper end1 on an island believed to be artificial1 stand the ruins of ,lochindorb ,castle1 in the #adth century the stronghold of the ,wolf of ,badenoch1 and afterwards successively the property of the earl of ,moray1 the ,campbells of ,cawdor and the earl of ,seafield4 ,sir ,thomas ,dick ,lauder saw at ,cawdor ,castle a massive iron gate which1 according to tradition1 ,sir ,donald ,campbell of ,cawdor carried on his back from ,lochindorb to ,cawdor1 a distance of #ac m4 ,in the southern half of the county1 amongst the hills1 are several glens1 among them the ,glen of ,rothes1 ,glen ,lossie1 ,glen ,gheallaidh1 ,glen ,tulchan and ,glen ,beag4 ,strathspey1 though more of a valley than a glen1 is remarkable for its extent and beauty4 ,geology4--,this county may be divided geologically into two areas1 the hilly region to the south being composed of the crystalline schists of the ,central ,highlands and the fertile plain of ,moray being made up of ,old ,red ,sandstone and ,triassic strata4 ,in the ,cromdale ,hills in the south-east of the county the metamorphic series comprises schistose quartzite1 quartz-schists1 micaceous flagstones and mica-schists1 which are granulitic and holocrystalline1 the dark laminae in some cases containing heavy residues such as ilmenite and zircon4 ,the greater portion of the metamorphic area west of the ,spey consists of granulitic quartz-biotite-granulites and bands of muscovite-biotite-schist belonging to the ,moine series of the ,geological ,survey 7see ,,scotland3 ,geology74 ,in certain areas these are permeated by granitic material in the form of thin strings1 knots and veins4 ,excellent sections of these rocks are exposed in the ,findhorn1 the ,divie and the tributaries of the ,spey4 ,near ,grantown there is a group locally developed1 comprising crystalline limestone with tremolite1 kyanite gneiss1 muscovite-biotite-schist and quartzite1 the age and relations of which are still uncertain4 ,the general strike of the crystalline schists1 save where there are local deflections1 is north-east and south-west1 and the general dip is to the south-east4 ,between ,lochindorb and ,grantown there is a mass of granite belonging to the later intrusions of the ,highlands represented by the ,cairngorm granite4 ,within the county there are representatives of the middle and upper divisions of the ,old ,red ,sandstone resting unconformably on the crystalline schists4 ,the strata of the middle or ,orcadian series consist of conglomerates1 sandstones1 shales and clays1 with limestone nodules containing fish remains4 ,this sequence is well displayed in the banks of the ,spey north of ,boat of ,bridge and in the ,tynet ,burn east of ,fochabers1 the latter being one of the well-known localities for ichthyolites in the middle or ,orcadian division4 ,in the ,tynet and ,gollachie ,burn sections1 the fish bed is overlaid by conglomerates and red pebbly sandstones1 passing upwards into a thin zone of andesite lavas1 indicating contemporaneous volcanic action4 ,west of the ,tynet ,burn and ,spey sections there is no trace of the members of the ,orcadian division till we reach the ,muckle ,burn and ,lethen ,bar in ,nairnshire1 save the coarse conglomerate filling the ancient hollow of the valley of ,rothes which may belong to the middle series4 ,in that direction they are overlapped by the ,upper ,old ,red ,sandstone1 which in the river ,lossie1 in the ,lochty ,burn and the ,findhorn rest directly on the metamorphic rocks4 ,even to the south of the main boundary of the upper division there are small outliers of that series resting on the crystalline schists4 ,hence there must be a discordance between the ,middle and ,upper ,old ,red ,sandstone in this county4 ,the strata of the upper division consist of red1 grey and yellow false-bedded sandstones with conglomeratic bands1 which are well seen in the ,findhorn between ,sluie and ,cothall1 where they are associated with a bed of cornstone1 all dipping to the ,n4,n4,w4 at gentle angles4 ,south of ,elgin they are exposed in the ,lossie and at ,scaat ,craig1 while to the north of that town they extend along the ridge from ,bishopmill to ,alves4 ,by means of the fish remains1 which occur at ,scaat ,craig1 in the ,bishopmill quarries1 at ,alves1 in the ,findhorn cliffs and in the ,whitemyre quarry on the ,muckle ,burn1 the ,upper ,old ,red ,sandstone in this county is arranged in two groups1 the ,alves and ,rosebrae4 ,in the area lying to the north of the ,upper ,old ,red ,sandstone ridge at ,bishopmill and ,quarrywood1 the strata of ,triassic age occur1 where they consist of pale grey and yellow sandstones and a peculiar cherty and calcareous band1 known as the cherty rock of ,stotfield4 ,the sandstones are visible in quarries on the north slope of ,quarry ,wood1 at ,findrassie1 at ,spynie and along the ridge and sea-shore between ,burghead and ,lossiemouth4 ,they are invested with special interest on account of the remarkable series of reptilian remains obtained from them1 comprising ,stagonolepis1 a crocodile allied to the modern caiman in form2 ,telerpeton and ,hyperodapedon1 species of lizards2 ,dicynodonts 7,gordonia and ,geikia7 and a horned reptile1 ,elginia mirabilis 7see ,,scotland3 ,geology74 ,the palaeontological evidence points to the conclusion that these reptiliferous sandstones must belong in part to the ,trias1 indeed it is possible that the lower portion may be of ,permian age4 ,in the ,cutties ,hillock quarry west of ,elgin these reptiliferous beds rest directly on the sandstones containing ,holoptychius of ,upper ,old ,red ,sandstone age1 so that the apparent conformability must be entirely deceptive4 ,within the area occupied by the ,trias west of ,stotfield1 flagstones appear1 charged with fish scales of ,upper ,old ,red age1 where they form a low ridge protruding through the younger strata4 ,both the ,upper ,old ,red and ,triassic sandstones have been largely quarried for building purposes4 ,on the shore at ,lossiemouth there is a patch of greenish white sandstones yielding fossils characteristic of the ,lower ,oolite4 ,the glacial deposits distributed over the fertile plain of ,moray and in the upland valleys are of interest4 ,the low grounds were crossed by the ice descending the ,moray ,firth in an easterly and south-easterly direction1 which carried boulders of granite from ,strath ,nairn and augen gneiss from ,easter ,ross4 ,in the ,elgin district1 boulders belonging to the horizons of the ,lower and ,middle ,lias1 the ,oxford ,clay and the ,upper ,chalk are found both in the glacial deposits and on the surface of the ground4 ,the largest transported mass occurs at ,linksfield1 where a succession of limestones and shales rests on boulder clay and is covered by it1 which from the fossils may be of ,rhaetic or ,lower ,lias age4 ,climate and ,agriculture4--,the climate of the coast is equable and mild1 even exotic fruits ripening readily in the open4 ,the uplands are colder and damp4 ,the average temperature in ,january is #ch deg4 ,f4 and in ,july #eh4e deg41 while for the year the mean is #dg deg4 ,f4 ,the rainfall for the year averages #bf in4 ,considering its latitude and the extent of its arable land the standard of farming in ,elginshire is high4 ,the rich soil of the lowlands is well adapted for wheat1 barley and oats4 ,the acreage confined to the glens and straths under barley approximates that under oats4 ,in the uplands1 oats is the principal cereal4 ,the breeding of live-stock is profitable1 and some of the finest specimens of shorthorned and polled cattle and of crosses between the two are bred4 ,on the larger farms in the ,laigh ,leicester sheep are kept all the year round1 but in the uplands the ,blackfaced take their place4 ,large numbers of horses and pigs are also raised4 ,other ,industries4--,whisky is the chief product1 and the numerous distilleries are usually busy4 ,there are woollen mills at ,elgin and elsewhere and chemical works at ,forres and ,burghead4 ,owing to the absence of coal what little mineral wealth there is 7iron and lead7 cannot be remuneratively worked4 ,the sandstone quarries1 yielding a building-stone of superior quality1 are practically inexhaustible4 ,the plantations mainly consist of larch and fir and1 to a smaller extent1 of oak4 ,much timber was once floated down the ,spey and other rivers1 but1 since the increased facilities of carriage afforded by the railways1 trees have been felled on a wider scale4 ,boat-building is carried on at ,burghead1 ,lossiemouth and ,kingston--so-called from the fact that a firm from ,kingston-on-,hull laid down a yard there in #aghd--while at ,garmouth the fishing fleet lies up during the winter and is also repaired there4 ,the ,firth fisheries are of considerable value4 ,the boats go out from ,findhorn1 ,burghead1 ,hopeman and ,lossiemouth1 which are all furnished with safe harbours4 ,findhorn has been twice visited by calamities4 ,the first village was overwhelmed by the drifting sands of ,culbin1 and the second was buried beneath the waves in #agja4 ,kingston harbour is tidal1 exposed1 and liable to interruption from a shifting bar4 ,the deep sea fisheries comprise haddock1 cod1 ling and herring1 and the ,spey1 ,findhorn and ,lossie yield large quantities of salmon4 ,the ,great ,north of ,scotland railway enters the shire in the ,s4,e4 from ,craigellachie1 whence a branch runs up the ,spey to ,boat of ,garten in ,inverness-shire1 and in the ,n4,e4 from ,port ,gordon1 running in both cases to ,elgin1 from which a branch line extends to ,lossiemouth4 ,the ,highland railway traverses the western limits of the shire running almost due north to ,forres1 whence it turns westward to ,nairn and eastward to ,elgin4 ,from the county town it runs to ,aberdeen via ,orbliston and ,keith1 with a branch to ,fochabers from ,orbliston4 ,population and ,government4--,the population was #dc1dga in #ahia and #dd1hjj in #aija1 when #ahfe persons spoke both ,gaelic and ,english1 and #b spoke ,gaelic only4 ,the chief towns are ,elgin 7pop4 in #aija1 #hdfj71 ,forres 7#dcac7 and ,lossiemouth 7#cijd71 to which may be added ,rothes 7#afba71 ,grantown 7#aefh7 and ,burghead 7#aeca74 ,in conjunction with ,nairnshire the county returns one member to parliament4 ,elgin and ,forres are royal burghs2 the municipal and police burghs include ,burghead1 ,elgin1 ,forres1 ,grantown1 ,lossiemouth1 and ,rothes4 ,elginshire is included in one sheriffdom with ,inverness and ,nairn1 and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at ,elgin4 ,the county is under school-board jurisdiction1 several of the schools earning grants for higher education4 ,there are academies at ,elgin and ,fochabers and science and art and technical schools at ,elgin and ,grantown4 ,the bulk of the residue grant is spent in subsidizing the agricultural department of ,aberdeen ,university and the science schools and art and technical classes in the county4 ,history4--,moray1 in the wider sense1 was first peopled by ,picts of the ,gaelic branch of ,celts1 of whom relics are found in the stone circle at ,viewfield and at many places in ,nairnshire4 ,christianity1 introduced under the auspices of ,columba 7from whose time the site of ,burghead church has probably been so occupied71 flourished for a period until the ,columban church was expelled in #gag by ,king ,nectan4 ,thereafter the district was given over to internecine strife between the northern and southern ,picts1 which was ended by the crushing victory of ,kenneth ,mac,alpine in #hca1 as one result of which the kingdom of ,pictavia was superseded by the principality of ,moravia4 ,still1 settled order had not yet been secured1 for the ,norsemen raided the country first under ,thorstein and then under two ,sigurds4 ,it was in the time of the second ,sigurd that the ,firth was fixed as the northern boundary of ,moray4 ,in spite of such interruptions as the battle of ,torfness 7,burghead7 on the #adth of ,august #ajdj1 in which ,thorfinn1 earl of ,orkney and ,shetland1 overthrew a strong force of ,scots under ,king ,duncan1 the consolidation of the kingdom was being gradually accomplished4 ,after ,macbeth ascended the throne the ,scandinavians held their hands4 ,though ,macbeth and his faineant successor1 daft ,lulach1 were the only kings whom ,moray gave to ,scotland1 the province never lacked for able1 if headstrong1 men1 and it continued to enjoy home rule under its own marmaer1 or great steward 7the equivalent of earl1 the title that replaced it71 until the dawn of the #abth century1 when as an entity it ceased to exist4 ,with a view to breaking up the power of the marmaers ,david ,i4 and his successors colonized the seaboard with settlers from other parts of the kingdom4 ,nevertheless1 from time to time the clansmen and their chiefs descended from their fastnesses and plundered the ,laigh1 keeping the people for generations in a state of panic4 ,meanwhile1 the ,church had become a civilizing force4 ,in #aajg ,alexander had founded the see of ,moray and the churches of ,birnie1 ,kinneddar and ,spynie were in turn the cathedral of the early bishops1 until in #abbd under the episcopate of ,andrew of ,moray 7de ,moravia71 the church of the ,holy ,trinity in ,elgin was chosen for the cathedral4 ,another factor that drew men together was the struggle for independence4 ,in his effort to stamp out ,scottish nationality ,edward ,i4 came as far north as ,elgin1 where he stayed for four days in ,july #abif1 and whence he issued his writ for the parliament at ,berwick4 ,wallace1 however1 had no doughtier supporter than ,sir ,andrew ,moray of ,bothwell1 and ,bruce recognized the assistance he had received from the men of the north by erecting ,moray into an earldom on the morrow of ,bannockburn and bestowing it upon ,thomas ,randolph 7see ,,moray1 ,,thomas ,,randolph1 ,,earl ,,of74 ,henceforward the history of the county resolved itself in the main into matters affecting the power of the ,church and the ambitions of the ,moray dynasties4 ,the ,church accepted the ,reformation peacefully if not with gratitude4 ,but there was strife between ,covenanters and the adherents of ,episcopacy until1 prelacy itself being abolished in #afhi1 the bishopric of ,moray came to an end after an existence of #eha years4 7,for the subsequent history of the earldom1 which was successively held by the ,randolphs1 the ,dunbars1 the ,douglases1 the royal ,stewarts and an illegitimate branch of the ,stewarts1 see ,,murray or ,,moray1 ,,earls ,,of47 ,other celebrated ,moray families who played a more or less strenuous part in local politics were the ,gordons1 the ,grants and the ,duffs4 ,still1 national affairs occasionally evoked interest in ,moray4 ,in the civil war ,montrose ravaged the villages which stood for the ,covenanters1 but most of the great lairds shifted in their allegiance1 and the mass of the people were quite indifferent to the declining fortunes of the ,stewarts4 ,charles ,,ii4 landed at ,garmouth on the #crd of ,july #afej on his return from his first exile in ,holland1 but hurried southwards to try the yoke of ,presbytery4 ,the fight at ,cromdale 7,may day1 #afij7 shattered the ,jacobite cause1 for the efforts in #agae and #agde were too spasmodic and half-hearted to affect the loyalty of the district to ,hanoverian rule4 ,a few weeks before ,culloden ,prince ,charles ,edward stayed in ,elgin for some days1 and a month afterwards the duke of ,cumberland passed through the town at the top of his speed and administered the coup de grace to the ,young ,pretender on ,drummossie ,moor4 ,twice ,elginshire has been the scene of catastrophes without parallel in ,scotland4 ,in #afid the barony of ,culbin--a fine estate1 with a rent roll in money and kind of ,l#fjjj a year1 belonging to the ,kinnairds1 comprising #cfjj acres of land1 so fertile that it was called the ,granary of ,moray1 a handsome mansion1 a church and several houses--was buried under a mass of sand in a storm of extraordinary severity4 ,the sandy waste measures #c m4 in length and #b in breadth1 and the sand1 exceedingly fine and light1 is constantly shifting and1 at rare intervals1 exposing traces of the vanished demesne4 ,this wilderness of dome-shaped dunes divided by a loftier ridge lies to the north-west of ,forres4 ,the other calamity was the ,moray floods of the #bnd and #crd of ,august #ahbi4 ,the ,findhorn rose #ej ft4 above the ordinary level1 inundating an area of #bj sq4 m42 the ,divie rose #dj ft41 and the ,lossie flooded all the low ground around ,elgin4 ,the floods tore down bridges and buildings1 and obliterated farms and homesteads4 ,,authorities4--,lachlan ,shaw1 ,history of the ,province of ,moray 7,gordon's edition1 ,glasgow1 #ahhb72 ,a ,survey of the ,province of ,moray 7,elgin1 #agih72 ,w4 ,rhind1 ,sketches of the ,past and ,present ,state of ,moray 7,edinburgh1 #ahci72 ,e4 ,dunbar ,dunbar1 ,documents relating to the ,province of ,moray 7,edinburgh1 #ahie72 ,c4,a4 ,gordon1 ,history of the ,house of ,gordon 7,aberdeen1 #ahij72 ,c4 ,rampini1 ,history of ,moray and ,nairn 7,edinburgh1 #ahig72 ,c4 ,innes1 ,elgin1 ,past and ,present 7,elgin1 #ahfj72 ,j4 ,macdonald1 ,burghead 7,proceedings of ,glasgow ,archaeological ,soc471 7#ahia72 ,sir ,t4 ,dick ,lauder1 ,the ,wolf of ,badenoch 7,glasgow1 #ahhf72 ,an ,account of the ,great ,floods of ,august #ahbi in the ,province of ,moray and ,adjoining ,districts 7,elgin1 #ahgc74 ,,elgon1 also known as ,,masawa1 an extinct volcano in ,british ,east ,africa1 cut by #a deg4 ,n4 and #cd-a_/b deg4 ,e41 forming a vast isolated mass over #dj m4 in diameter4 ,the outer slopes are in great measure precipitous on the north1 west and south1 but fall more gradually to the east4 ,the southern cliffs are remarkable for extensive caves1 which have the appearance of water-worn caves on a coast line and have for ages served as habitations for the natives4 ,the higher parts slope gradually upwards to the rim of an old crater1 lying somewhat north of the centre of the mass1 and measuring some #h m4 in diameter4 ,the highest point of the rim is about #ad1ajj ft4 above the sea4 ,steep spurs separated by narrow ravines run out from the mountain1 affording the most picturesque scenery4 ,the ravines are traversed by a great number of streams1 which flow north-west and west to the ,nile 7through ,lake ,choga71 south and south-east to ,victoria ,nyanza1 and north-east to ,lake ,rudolf by the ,turkwell1 the head-stream of which rises within the crater1 breaking through a deep cleft in its rim4 ,to the north-west of the mountain a grassy plain1 swampy in the rains1 falls towards the chain of lakes ending in ,choga2 towards the north-east the country becomes more arid1 while towards the south it is well wooded4 ,the outer slopes are clothed in their upper regions with dense forest formed in part of bamboos1 especially towards the south and west1 in which directions the rainfall is greater than elsewhere4 ,the lower slopes are exceptionally fertile on the west1 and produce bananas in abundance4 ,on the north-west and north the region between #fjjj and #gjjj ft4 possesses a delightful climate1 and is well watered by streams of ice-cold water4 ,the district of ,save on the north is a halting-place for ,arab and ,swahili caravans going north4 ,on the west the slopes are densely inhabited by small ,bantu-,negro tribes1 who style their country ,masawa 7whence the alternative name for the mountain72 but on the south and north there are tribes which seem akin to the ,gallas4 ,of these1 the best known are the ,el-gonyi1 from whom the name ,elgon has been derived4 ,they formerly lived almost entirely in the caves1 but many of them have descended to villages at the foot of the mountain4 ,elgon was first visited in #ahhc by ,joseph ,thomson1 who brought to light the cave-dwellings on the southern face4 ,it was crossed from north to south1 and its crater reached1 in #ahij by ,f4,j4 ,jackson and ,ernest ,gedge1 while the first journey round it was made by ,c4,w4 ,hobley in #ahif4 7,e4 ,he47 ,,eli 7,hebrew for high8 #a ,sam4 chaps1 i4-iv471 a member of the ancient priesthood founded in ,egypt 7#a ,sam4 ii4 #bg71 priest of the temple of ,shiloh1 the sanctuary of the ark1 and also judge over ,israel4 ,this was an unusual combination of offices1 when it is considered that in the history preserved to us he appears in the weakness of extreme old age1 unable to control the petulance and rapacity of his sons1 ,hophni and ,phinehas1 who disgraced the sanctuary and disgusted the people4 ,while the central authority was thus weakened1 the ,philistines advanced against ,israel1 and gained a complete victory in the great battle of ,ebenezer1 where the ark was taken1 and ,hophni and ,phinehas slain4 ,on hearing the news ,eli fell from his seat and died4 ,in a passage not unlike the account of the birth of ,benjamin 7,gen4 xxxv4 #af sqq471 it is added that the wife of ,phinehas1 overwhelmed at the loss of the ark and of her husband1 died in child-birth1 naming the babe ,ichabod 7#a ,sam4 iv4 #ai sqq474 ,this name1 which popular etymology explained by the words the glory is removed 7or1 stronger1 'banished'7 from ,israel 7cf4 ,hos4 x4 #e71 should perhaps be altered from ,i-kabod 7as though not glory7 to ,jochebed 7,yokebed1 a slight change in the original71 the name which tradition also gave to the mother of ,moses 7q4v474 ,after these events the sanctuary of ,shiloh appears to have been destroyed 7cf4 ,jer4 vii4 #ab1 xxvi4 #f1 #i71 and the descendants of ,eli with the whole of their clan or father's house subsequently appear as settled at ,nob 7#a ,sam4 xxi4 #a1 xxii4 #aa sqq41 cp4 xiv4 #c71 perhaps in the immediate neighbourhood of ,jerusalem 7,is4 x4 #cb74 ,in the massacre of the clan by ,saul1 and the subsequent substitution of the survivor ,abiathar by ,zadok 7#a ,kings ii4 #bg1 #ce71 later writers saw the fulfilment of the prophecies of judgment which was said to have been uttered in the days of ,eli against his corrupt house 7#a ,sam4 ii4 #bg sqq41 iii4 #aa sqq474#a ,see further1 ,,samuel1 ,,books ,,of2 and on ,eli as a descendant of a ,levite clan 7#a ,sam4 ii #bg sq471 see ,,levites 7,s #c74 7,w4 ,r4 ,s42 ,s4 ,a4 ,c47 ,,footnote3 #a ,on the old views relating to the succession of the priests1 according to which the high-priesthood was diverted from the line of ,eleazar and ,phinehas into that of ,ithamar1 see ,robertson ,smith1 ,old ,test4 in ,jewish ,church1 #bnd ed41 p4 #bff4 ,,elias1 of ,cortona 7c4 #aahj-abec71 disciple of ,st ,francis of ,assisi1 was born near ,assisi1 about #aahj1 of the working class1 but became schoolmaster at ,assisi and then notary at ,bologna4 ,in #abag he was the head of the ,franciscan mission to the ,holy ,land1 and in #abai ,st ,francis made him first provincial minister of ,syria4 ,when ,st ,francis was recalled from the ,east in #abbj he brought ,elias with him4 ,elias played a leading part in the early history of the ,franciscan order 7see ,,franciscans72 ,francis made him his vicar general in #abba2 and he was the practical acting superior of the order till ,francis' death in #abbf1 and the real superior till the general chapter of #abbg4 ,this chapter did not elect him minister general1 but that of #abcb did2 at the chapter of #abci he was deposed4 ,during these years he erected the basilica and monastery at ,assisi which were entirely his creation--he collected the funds and carried the work through1 being himself the builder and even the architect4 ,elias was a man of extraordinary ability1 the friend both of ,gregory ,,ix4 and of his opponent ,frederick ,,ii4 ,after his deposition ,elias joined the party of the emperor and so incurred excommunication4 ,frederick sent him as ambassador to ,constantinople4 ,he dressed and lived as a ,franciscan throughout and a small number of friars adhered to him2 for these he built a church and monastery at ,cortona4 ,unavailing efforts were made to bring about his reconciliation with the order and the ,church2 at last on his death-bed he made his submission to the pope and died in #abec1 having received the ,sacraments4 ,the best account of ,elias is that by ,ed4 ,lempp1 ,frere ,elie de ,cortone 7#aija71 who points out the conflict of view1 as to the relations between ,elias and ,francis1 between the ,speculum perfectionis and the ,first ,life1 by ,thomas of ,celano2 ,lempp and ,sabatier accept the hostile picture given by the ,speculum perfectionis4 ,but see further ,,francis ,,of ,,assisi1 ,,saint1 ,note on ,sources1 and especially the articles by ,goetz1 there referred to1 in the ,hist4 ,vierteljahrsschrift4 ,there is a good article on ,elias1 but written before the new materials had been produced1 in ,wetzer und ,welte1 ,kirchenlexicon 7ed4 #b74 7,e4 ,c4 ,b47 ,,elias1 ,,john 7#aggd-ahda71 ,welsh ,nonconformist preacher and reformer1 was born on the #bnd of ,may #aggd1 in the parish of ,abererch1 ,carnarvonshire4 ,in his youth he came under the influence of the ,calvinistic ,methodist revival and became a preacher at nineteen4 ,in #agii he married and settled at ,llanfechell in ,anglesey1 giving up his trade as a weaver to become a small shopkeeper4 ,his fame as a preacher increased1 and under the direction of ,thomas ,charles of ,bala he established numerous ,sunday schools1 and gave and secured considerable ,welsh support to the founding of the ,london ,missionary ,society1 the ,british and ,foreign ,bible ,society and the ,religious ,tract ,society4 ,on ,charles's death in #ahad he became the recognized leader of the ,calvinistic ,methodist ,church1 and the story of his life is simply a record of marvellously successful preaching tours4 ,he died on the #hth of ,june #ahda2 ten thousand people attended his funeral4 ,his eloquence was so remarkable that he was known as the ,welsh ,demosthenes4 ,his strength lay in his intense conviction of an intimate connexion between sin and punishment and in his power of dramatic presentation4 ,as an ecclesiastic he was not so successful2 he helped to compile his church's ,confession of ,faith in #ahbc1 and laid great stress on a clause which limited the scope of the atonement to the elect4 ,he was a stout ,tory in politics and had many friends among the ,anglican clergy2 he opposed the movement for ,roman ,catholic emancipation4 ,several of his sermons were published in ,welsh4 ,,elias ,,levita 7#adfi-aedi71 ,jewish grammarian1 was born at ,neustadt on the ,aisch1 a place in ,bavaria lying between ,nuremberg and ,wurzburg4 ,he preferred to call himself ,ashkenazi1 the ,german1 and bore also the nickname of ,bachur1 the youth or student1 which latter he gave as title to his ,hebrew grammar4 ,before the end of the #aeth century he went to ,italy1 which thenceforth remained his home4 ,he lived first at ,padua1 went in #aeji1 after the capture of this town by the army of the ,league of ,cambrai1 to ,venice1 and finally in #aeac to ,rome1 where he found a patron in the learned general of the ,augustinian ,order1 the future cardinal ,egidio di ,viterbo1 whom he helped in his study of the ,kabbalah1 while he himself was inspired by him to literary work4 ,the storming of ,rome by the army of the ,constable de ,bourbon in #aebg compelled ,elias to go to ,venice1 where he was employed as corrector in the printing-house of ,daniel ,bomberg4 ,in the years #aeda and #aedb he lived at ,isny1 in ,southern ,wurttemberg1 where he published several of his writings in the printing-house of the learned pastor ,paul ,fagius4 ,the last years of his life he spent at ,venice1 continuously active in spite of ill-health and the weakness of old age4 ,his monument in the graveyard of the ,jewish community at ,venice boasts of him that he illuminated the darkness of grammar and turned it into light4 ,the importance of ,levita rests both in his numerous writings and in his personal activity4 ,in the remarkable period which saw the rise of the ,reformation and gave to the study of the ,hebrew ,bible and to its language an importance in the history of the world1 it was ,levita who furthered in an extraordinary manner the study of ,hebrew in ,christian circles by his activity as a teacher and by his writings4 ,to his pupils especially belong ,sebastian ,minoter1 who translated ,levita's grammatical works into ,latin1 also ,george de ,selve1 bishop of ,lavaur1 the ,french ambassador in ,venice 7#aecf71 who was instrumental in obtaining for ,levita an invitation from ,francis ,i4 to come to ,paris1 which invitation1 however1 ,levita did not accept4 ,levita's writings on ,hebrew grammar 7,bachur1 a text-book1 #aeah2 ,harkaba1 an explanation1 alphabetically arranged1 of irregular word-forms2 a ,table of ,paradigms2 ,pirke ,elijahu1 a description--partly metrical--of phonetics1 and other chapters of the grammar1 #aebj2 his earliest work1 a ,commentary on ,moses ,kimhi's ,hebrew ,grammar1 #aejh7 were by reason of their methodical exposition1 their clear articulation1 their avoidance of prolixity1 especially suited as an introduction to the study of the ,hebrew language4 ,amongst ,levita's other writings is the first dictionary of the ,targumim 7,meturgeman1 #aeda7 and the first attempt at a lexicon in which much of the treasure of late ,hebrew language was explained 7,tishbi1 explanation of #gab new ,hebrew vocables1 as a supplement to the dictionaries of ,david ,kimhi and ,nathan b4 ,yehiel1 #aedb74 ,scientifically most valuable1 and of original importance1 are the works of ,levita on the ,massora2 his ,concordance to the ,massora 7,sefer ,zikhronot completed in the second revision #aecf71 of which hitherto only a small part has been published1 and especially his most celebrated book ,massoreth ,hamasoreth 7#aech71 published with ,english translation by ,chr4 ,d4 ,ginsburg1 ,london1 #ahfg4 ,this was the first attempt to give a systematic account of the contents and history of the ,massora4 ,by his criticism of the ,massora1 and especially by proving that the punctuation of the books of the ,hebrew ,bible is of late origin1 ,levita exercised an epoch-making influence4 ,of his other writings may be mentioned his running commentary on ,david ,kimhi's ,grammar and ,dictionary 7in the ,bomberg editions #aede1 #aedf71 his ,german translation of the ,psalms 7#aede7 and the ,baba-,buch 7more properly ,buovobuch1 a ,german recension of the ,italian novel ,historia di ,buovo d' ,antona1 #aejh74 ,of the literature on ,levita may be mentioned3 ,y4 ,levi1 ,elia ,levita und seine ,leistungen als ,grammatiker 7,breslau1 #ahhh72 ,w4 ,bacher1 ,e4 ,levita's wissenschaftliche ,leistungen in ,z4 d4 ,d4 ,m4 ,g4 xliii4 7#ahhi71 p4 #bjf-bgb4 7,w4 ,ba47 ,,elie1 a village and watering-place of ,fifeshire1 ,scotland1 on the shore of the ,firth of ,forth4 ,pop4 #fhg4 ,it is #aj m4 due ,s4 of ,st ,andrews1 but #bj m4 distant by the ,north ,british railway1 which makes a great bend by following the coast4 ,though it retains some old houses1 and the parish church dates from #afci1 ,elie is1 as a whole1 quite modern and is one of the most popular resorts in the county on account of its fine golf links and excellent bathing4 ,the royal burgh of ,earlsferry 7pop4 #cag7 is situated in the parish of ,elie1 which it adjoins on the west4 ,its charter1 granted by ,malcolm ,canmore1 having been burned1 it was renewed by ,james ,,vi4 ,the chief structure is the town hall1 which is modern but has an ancient steeple4 ,the place derived its name from its use by the earls of ,fife as a ferry to the opposite shore of ,haddington1 #h m4 distant4 ,macduff's cave near ,kincraig ,point is believed traditionally to have been that in which the thane took refuge from ,macbeth4 ,two and a half miles north is ,balcarres ,house1 belonging to the earl of ,crawford1 where ,lady ,anne ,barnard 7#agej-ahbe7 was born4 ,,elie ,,de ,,beaumont1 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,armand ,,louis ,,leonce 7#agih-ahgd71 ,french geologist1 was born at ,canon1 in ,calvados1 on the #beth of ,september #agih4 ,he was educated at the ,lycee ,henri ,,iv4 where he took the first prize in mathematics and physics2 at the ,ecole ,polytechnique1 where he stood first at the exit examination in #ahai2 and at the ,ecole des ,mines 7#ahai-ahbb71 where he began to show a decided preference for the science with which his name is associated4 ,in #ahbc he was selected along with ,dufrenoy by ,brochant de ,villiers1 the professor of geology in the ,ecole des ,mines1 to accompany him on a scientific tour to ,england and ,scotland1 in order to inspect the mining and metallurgical establishments of the country1 and to study the principles on which ,greenough's geological map of ,england 7#ahbj7 had been prepared1 with a view to the construction of a similar map of ,france4 ,in #ahce he was appointed professor of geology at the ,ecole des ,mines1 in succession to ,brochant de ,villiers1 whose assistant he had been in the duties of the chair since #ahbg4 ,he held the office of engineer-in-chief of mines in ,france from #ahcc until #ahdg1 when he was appointed inspector-general2 and in #ahfa he became vice-president of the ,conseil-,general des ,mines and a grand officer of the ,legion of ,honour4 ,his growing scientific reputation secured his election to the membership of the ,academy of ,berlin1 of the ,academy of ,sciences of ,france and of the ,royal ,society of ,london4 ,by a decree of the president he was made a senator of ,france in #aheb1 and on the death of ,arago 7#ahec7 he was chosen perpetual secretary of the ,academy of ,sciences4 ,elie de ,beaumont's name is widely known to geologists in connexion with his theory of the origin of mountain ranges1 first propounded in a paper read to the ,academy of ,sciences in #ahbi1 and afterwards elaborated in his ,notice sur le systeme des montagnes 7#c vols41 #aheb74 ,according to his view1 all mountain ranges parallel to the same great circle of the earth are of strictly contemporaneous origin1 and between the great circles a relation of symmetry exists in the form of a pentagonal reseau4 ,an elaborate statement and criticism of the theory was given in his anniversary address to the ,geological ,society of ,london in #ahec by ,william ,hopkins 7,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc474 ,the theory has not found general acceptance1 but it proved of great value to geological science1 owing to the extensive additions to the knowledge of the structure of mountain ranges which its author made in endeavouring to find facts to support it4 ,probably1 however1 the best service ,elie de ,beaumont rendered to science was in connexion with the geological map of ,france1 in the preparation of which he had the leading share4 ,during this period ,elie de ,beaumont published many important memoirs on the geology of the country4 ,after his superannuation at the ,ecole des ,mines he continued to superintend the issue of the detailed maps almost until his death1 which occurred at ,canon on the #bast of ,september #ahgd4 ,his academic lectures for #ahdc-ahdd were published in #b vols41 #ahde-ahdi1 under the title ,lecons de geologie pratique4 ,a list of his works was published in the ,ann4 des ,mines1 vol4 vii4 #ahge4 ,p4 #bei4 ,,elijah 7a ,hebrew name meaning ,yahweh is ,god71 in the ,bible1 the greatest and sternest of the ,hebrew prophets1 makes his appearance in the narrative of the ,old ,testament with an abruptness not out of keeping with his character and work 7#a ,kings xvii4 #a74a ,the first and most important part of his career lay in the reign of ,ahab1 i4e4 during the first half of the #ith century ,b4,c4 ,he is introduced as predicting the drought#b ,god was to send upon ,israel as a punishment for the apostasy into which ,ahab had been led by his heathen wife ,jezebel4 ,during the first portion of this period ,elijah found a refuge by the brook ,cherith1 before the ,jordan4 ,this description leaves it uncertain whether the brook was to the east of ,jordan in ,elijah's native ,gilead1 or--less probably--to the west in ,samaria4 ,here he drank of the brook and was fed by ravens1 who night and morning brought him bread and flesh4#c ,when this had dried up1 the prophet betook himself to ,zarephath1 a ,phoenician town near ,sidon4 ,at the gate of the town he met the widow to whom he had been sent1 gathering sticks for the preparation of what she believed was to be her last meal4 ,she received the prophet with hospitality1 sharing with him her all but exhausted store1 in faith of his promise in the name of the ,god of ,israel that the supply would not fail so long as the drought lasted4 ,during this period her son died and was miraculously restored to life in answer to the prayers of the prophet 7#a ,kings xvii4 #h-bd74 ,elijah emerged from his retirement in the third year1 when1 the famine having reached its worst1 ,ahab and his minister ,obadiah had themselves to search the land for provender for the royal stables4 ,to the latter ,elijah suddenly appeared1 and announced his intention of showing himself to ,ahab4 ,the king met ,elijah with the reproach that he was the troubler of ,israel1 which the prophet boldly flung back upon him who had forsaken the commandments of the ,lord and followed the ,baalim4#d ,the retort was accompanied by a challenge--or rather a command--to the king to assemble on ,mount ,carmel all ,israel and the four hundred and fifty prophets of ,baal4 7,the four hundred prophets of ,asherah have been added later47 ,from the allusion to an altar of ,jehovah that was broken down 7#a ,kings xviii4 #cj7 it has been inferred that ,carmel was an ancient sacred place4 7,on ,mount ,carmel and ,elijah's connexion with it in history and tradition see ,,carmel47 ,the scene on ,carmel is perhaps the grandest in the life of ,elijah1 or indeed in the whole of the ,old ,testament4 ,as a typical embodiment for all time of the conflict between superstition and true religion1 it is lifted out of the range of mere individual biography into that of spiritual symbolism1 and it has accordingly furnished at once a fruitful theme for the religious teacher and a lofty inspiration for the artist4 ,the false prophets were allowed to invoke their god in whatever manner they pleased4 ,the only interruption came in the mocking encouragement of ,elijah 7#a ,kings xviii4 #bg71 a rare instance of grim sarcastic humour occurring in the ,bible4 ,its effect upon the false prophets was to increase their frenzy4 ,the evening came1#e and the god had made no sign4 ,elijah now stepped forward with the quiet confidence and dignity that became the prophet and representative of the true ,god4 ,all ,israel is represented symbolically in the twelve stones with which he built the altar2 and the water which he poured upon the sacrifice and into the surrounding trench was apparently designed to prevent the suspicion of fraud6 ,in striking contrast to the vain repetitions of the false prophets are the simple words with which ,elijah makes his prayer to ,yahweh4 ,once only1 with the calm assurance of one who knew that his prayer would be answered1 he invokes the ,god of his fathers4 ,the answer comes at once3 ,the fire of the ,lord 7,gen4 xix4 #bd1 ,lev4 x4 #b7 fell and consumed the burnt offering1 and the wood1 and the stones1 and the dust1 and licked up the water that was in the trench4 ,so convincing a sign was irresistible2 all the people fell on their faces and acknowledged ,yahweh as the true ,god4 ,this was immediately followed by the destruction of the false prophets1 slain by ,elijah beside the brook ,kishon 7xviii4 #dj74 ,the deed1 though not without parallel in the ,old ,testament history1 stamps the peculiarly vindictive character of ,elijah's prophetic mission4#f ,on the evening of the day that had witnessed the decisive contest1 ,elijah proceeded once more to the top of ,carmel1 and there1 with his face between his knees 7possibly engaged in the prayer referred to in ,james v4 #ag sq471 waited for the long-looked-for blessing4 ,his servant1 sent repeatedly to search the sky for signs1 returned the seventh time reporting a little cloud arising out of the sea like a man's hand4 ,the sky was speedily full of clouds and a great rain was falling when ,ahab1 to escape the storm1 set out in his chariot for ,jezreel4 ,as a proof of ,elijah's supernatural power1 it is stated that the prophet1 for some unknown object1 ran before the chariot to the entrance of ,jezreel1 a distance of at least #af m4 ,on being told what had taken place1 ,jezebel sent a messenger to ,elijah with a vow that ere another day had passed his life would be even as the lives of the prophets of ,baal1 and the threat was enough to cause him to take to instant flight 7xix4 #a-c2 cp4 ,,lxx4 in v4 #b74 ,the first stage of the journey was to ,beersheba1 on the southern limits of ,judah4 ,here he left his servant 7according to old ,jewish tradition1 the widow's son of ,zarephath1 afterwards the prophet ,jonah71 and proceeded a day's journey into the wilderness4 ,resting under a solitary broom bush 7a kind of genista71 he gave vent to his disappointment in a prayer for death4 ,by another of those many miraculous interpositions which occur in his history he was twice supplied with food and drink1 in the strength of which he journeyed forty days and forty nights until he came to ,horeb1 where he lodged in a cave4#g ,a hole just large enough for a man's body 7,stanley71 immediately below the summit of ,jebel ,musa1 is still pointed out by tradition as the cave of ,elijah4 ,if the scene on ,carmel is the grandest1 that on ,horeb is spiritually the most profound in the story of ,elijah 7xix4 #i sqq474 ,not in the strong wind that brake the rocks in pieces1 not in the earthquake1 not in the fire1 but in the still small voice that followed the ,lord made himself known4 ,a threefold commission was laid upon him3 he was to return to ,damascus and anoint ,hazael king of ,syria2 he was to anoint ,jehu1 the son of ,nimshi1 as king of ,israel in place of ,ahab2 and as his own successor in the prophetic office he was to anoint ,elisha 7xix4 #ae-ah74h ,leaving ,horeb and proceeding northwards along the desert route to ,damascus1 ,elijah met ,elisha engaged at the plough probably near his native place1 ,abel-meholah1 in the valley of the ,jordan1 and by the symbolical act of casting his mantle upon him1 consecrated him to the prophetic office4 ,this was the only command of the three which he fulfilled in person2 the other two were carried out by his successor4#i ,after the call of ,elisha the narrative contains no notice of ,elijah for several years1 although the ,,lxx41 by placing #a ,kings xxi4 before ch4 xx41 proceeds at once to the tragic story of ,naboth's vineyard 7see ,,jezebel74 ,he is now the champion of freedom and purity of life1 like ,nathan when he confronted ,david for the murder of ,uriah4 ,without any indication of whence or how he came1 he again appeared1 as usual with startling abruptness1 in the vineyard when ,ahab entered to take possession of it1 and pronounced upon the king and his house that awful doom 7#a ,kings xxi4 #ag-bd7 which1 though deferred for a time1 was ultimately fulfilled to the letter 7see ,,jehu74 ,with one more denunciation of the house of ,ahab1 ,elijah's function as a messenger of wrath was fully discharged 7#b ,kings i474 ,when ,ahaziah1 the son of ,ahab1 having injured himself by falling through a lattice1 sent to inquire of ,baal-zebub1 the god of ,ekron1 whether he should recover1 the prophet was commanded to appear to the messengers and tell them that1 for this resort to a false god1 the king should die4 ,the effect of his appearance was such that they turned back without attempting to fulfil their errand4 ,ahaziah despatched a captain with a band of fifty to arrest him4 ,they came upon ,elijah seated on the mount1--probably ,carmel4 ,the imperious terms in which he was summoned to come down were punished by fire from heaven1 which descended at the bidding of ,elijah and consumed the whole land4 ,a second captain and fifty were despatched1 behaved in a similar way1 and met the same fate4 ,the leader of a third troop took a humbler tone1 sued for mercy1 and obtained it4 ,elijah then went with them to the king1 but only to repeat before his face the doom he had already made known to his messengers1 which was almost immediately afterwards fulfilled4 ,the spirit1 even the style of this narrative1 points unmistakably to its being of late origin4 ,it shocks the moral sense with its sanguinary character more than1 perhaps1 any other ,old ,testament story4 ,the only mention of ,elijah's name in the book of ,chronicles 7#b ,chronicles xxi4 #ab-ae7 is where he is represented as sending a letter of rebuke and denunciation to ,jehoram1 son of ,jehoshaphat1 king of ,judah4 ,the chronological difficulties which are involved suggest that the floating traditions of this great personality were easily attached to well-known names whether strictly contemporary or not4 ,it was before the death of ,jehoshaphat that the last grand scene in ,elijah's life occurred 7#b ,kings ii41 see iii4 #a74 ,he had taken up his residence with ,elisha at one of the prophetic guilds at ,gilgal4 ,his approaching end seems to have been known to the guilds at ,bethel and ,jericho1 both of which they visited in their last journey4 ,at the ,jordan1 ,elijah1 wrapping his prophet's mantle together1 smote the water with it1 and so by a last miracle passed over on dry ground4 ,when they had crossed the master desired the disciple to ask some parting blessing4 ,the request for a double portion 7i4e4 probably a first-born's portion1 ,deut4 xxi4 #ag7aj of the prophet's spirit ,elijah characterized as a hard thing2 but he promised to grant it if ,elisha should see him when he was taken away4 ,the end is told in words of simple sublimity3 ,and it came to pass1 as they still went on and talked1 that1 behold1 there appeared a chariot of fire1 and horses of fire1 which parted them both asunder2 and ,elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven 7#b ,kings ii4 #aa74 ,it is scarcely necessary to point out1 however1 that through the figure the narrative evidently means to convey as fact that ,elijah passed from earth1 not by the gates of death1 but by miraculous translation4 ,such a supernatural close is in perfect harmony with a career into every stage of which the supernatural enters as an essential feature4 ,for whatever explanation may be offered of the miraculous element in ,elijah's life1 it must obviously be one that accounts not for a few miraculous incidents only1 which might be mere excrescences1 but for a series of miraculous events so closely connected and so continuous as to form the main thread of the history4 ,elijah occupied an altogether peculiar place in later ,jewish history and tradition4 ,for the general belief that he should return for the restoration of ,israel cf4 ,mal4 iv4 #e-f2 ,matt4 xi4 #ad1 xvi4 #ad2 ,luke ix4 #h2 ,john i4 #ba1 and on the development of the thought see ,bousset1 ,antichrist1 s4v41 and the ,jewish ,encyc4 vol4 v4 p4 #abf4 ,in ,mahommedan tradition ,elijah is the everlasting youthful el-,khidr or el-,khadir4 ,elijah is canonized both in the ,greek and in the ,latin ,churches1 his festival being kept in both on the #bjth ,july--the date of his ascension in the nineteenth year of ,jehoshaphat1 according to ,cornelius a ,lapide4 ,the natural and most reliable estimate of the career of ,elijah is that which is based upon a critical examination of the narratives2 see1 in addition to ,robertson ,smith1 ,prophets of ,israel7#b71 pp4 #ge sqq41 ,cheyne1 ,hallowing of ,criticism1 the articles by ,addis in ,encyc4 ,bib41 and ,j4 ,strachan1 ,hastings' ,dict4 ,bib41 ,h4 ,gunkel1 ,elias1 ,yahve u4 ,baal 7,tubingen1 #aijf71 the literature to ,,kings1 ,,books ,,of1 and the histories referred to in ,,jews4 ,there is difference of opinion as to the historical importance of both ,elijah and ,elisha2 for a useful summary of views1 as also for fuller bibliographical information1 see ,w4,r4 ,harper1 ,amos and ,hosea 7,internat4 ,crit4 ,comm471 pp4 xxxiv4-xlix41 and article ,,hebrew ,,religion4 7,w4 ,r4 ,s42 ,s4 ,a4 ,c47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the text is uncertain4 ,according to the ,,lxx41 he was a native of ,tishbeh in ,gilead2 a more natural reading4 ,klostermann's conjecture that the original name of his home was ,jabesh-,gilead is attractive but unnecessary4 ,his appearance in the narrative1 like ,melchizedek1 without father1 without mother 7,heb4 vii4 #c71 gave rise to various rabbinical traditions1 such as that he was ,phinehas1 the grandson of ,aaron1 returned to earth1 or that he was an angel in human form4 #b ,its duration is vaguely stated2 from ,luke iv4 #be1 ,james v4 #ag1 we learn that it lasted three years and a half2 but according to ,phoenician tradition 7,jos4 ,ant4 viii4 #ac4 #b7 only one year4 #c ,the rationalistic view that the word translated ravens should be ,arabians is improbable4 ,cheyne's suggestion that the unknown brook ,cherith should be placed to the south of ,judah agrees with ,josephus 7,ant4 viii4 #ac4 #b1 he departed into the southern parts7 and with #a ,kings xix4 #c1 #h2 ,jordan may refer to another river1 if it be not a gloss2 see ,cheyne1 ,ency4 ,bib41 s4v4 ,cherith4 #d ,the sudden introduction of ,elijah in xvii4 #a may be accounted for by the supposition that the commencement of the narrative had been omitted by the editor of xvi4 #bi sqq4 ,hence we are not told the cause of ,ahab's hostility towards ,elijah1 nor is the allusion to ,jezebel's massacre of the prophets 7xviii4 #c1 #ac7 explained4 ,it would appear from ,obadiah's words in ver4 #i that he himself was in fear of his life4 ,later tradition supposed he was the captain of #b ,kings i4 #ac1 or that the widow of #b ,kings iv4 #a had been his wife4 #e ,the definition of time by the stated oblation 7xviii4 #bi1 #cf7 is very noteworthy 7cp4 #b ,kings iii4 #bj74 #f ,it is obvious that a purely rationalistic interpretation of the great sign whereby ,jahweh manifested himself would be out of place4 ,but there is an interesting parallel in the legend of the kindling of the sacred fire and the igniting of the thick water in the time of ,nehemiah 7#b ,macc4 i4 #ah-cf74 ,elsewhere1 there were sacred fires kindled by the aid of magical invocations 7e4g4 ,hypaepa1 ,pausanias v4 #bg4 #c74 #g ,yahweh is here supposed to have his seat on the ancient mountain4 ,it was the ,god of the ,exodus to whom he appealed1 the ancient ,king of ,israel in the journeyings through the wilderness4 ,for the cave1 cp4 ,ex4 xxxiii4 #bb4 #h ,the theophany is clearly no rebuke to an impatient prophet1 nor a lesson that the kingdom of heaven was to be built up by the slow and gentle operation of spiritual forces4 ,it expresses the spirituality of ,yahweh in a way that indicates a marked advance in the conception of his nature4 ,see ,skinner1 ,century ,bible1 ,kings1 ad loc4 #i ,the geographical indications imply that in one account the journey to ,damascus and the anointing of ,hazael and ,jehu must have intervened1 and were omitted because another account ascribed these acts to ,elisha 7#b ,kings viii4 ix474 ,in the latter we possess a more historical account of the anointing of ,jehu1 and ,robertson ,smith observes3 ,when the history in #a ,kings represents ,elijah as personally commissioned to inaugurate the revolution by anointing ,jehu and ,hazael as well as ,elisha1 we see that the author's design is to gather up the whole contest between ,yahweh and ,baal in an ideal picture of ,elijah and his work 7,ency4 ,brit4 7#i7 art4 ,kings1 vol4 xiv4 p4 #he74 #aj ,understood in ,eccles4 xlviii4 #ab 7,heb47 to mean that ,elisha was twice as great as ,elijah4 ,,elijah ,,wilna1 or ,,elijah ,,ben ,,solomon1 best known as the ,,gaon ,,elijah ,,of ,,wilna 7#agbj-agig71 a noted ,talmudist who hovered between the new and the old schools of thought4 ,orthodox in practice and feeling1 his critical treatment of the rabbinic literature prepared the way for the scientific investigations of the #aith century4 ,as a teacher he was one of the first to discriminate between the various strata in rabbinic records2 to him was due the revival of interest in the older ,midrash 7q4v47 and in the ,palestinian ,talmud 7q4v471 interest in which had been weak for some centuries before his time4 ,he was an ascetic1 and was a keen opponent of the emotional mysticism which was known as the new ,hassidism4 ,see ,s4 ,schechter's ,studies in ,judaism 7,london1 #ahif74 ,his voluminous writings are classified in the ,jewish ,encyclopedia1 v4 #acd4 7,i4 ,a47 ,,eliot1 ,,charles ,,william 7#ahcd- 71 ,american educationalist1 the son of ,samuel ,atkins ,eliot 7#agih-ahfb71 mayor of ,boston1 representative in ,congress1 and in #ahdb-ahec treasurer of ,harvard1 was born in ,boston on the #bjth of ,march #ahcd4 ,he graduated in #ahec at ,harvard ,college1 where he was successively tutor 7#ahed-aheh7 and assistant professor of chemistry 7#aheh-ahfc74 ,he studied chemistry and foreign educational methods in ,europe in #ahfc-ahfe1 was professor of analytical chemistry in the newly established ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology 7#ahfe-ahfi71 although absent fourteen months in ,europe in #ahfg-ahfh2 and in #ahfi was elected president of ,harvard ,university1 a choice remarkable at once for his youth and his being a layman and scientist4 ,with ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 ,harvard1 in his presidency1 led in the work of efficient graduate schools4 ,its elective system1 which has spread far1 although not originated by ,president ,eliot1 was thoroughly established by him1 and is only one of many radical changes which he championed with great success4 ,the raising of entrance requirements1 which led to a corresponding raising of the standards of secondary schools1 and the introduction of an element of choice in these entrance requirements1 which allowed a limited election of studies to secondary pupils1 became national tendencies primarily through ,president ,eliot's potent influence4 ,as chairman of a national ,committee of ,ten 7#ahij7 on secondary school studies1 he urged the abandonment of brief disconnected information courses1 the correlation of subjects taught1 the equal rank in college requirements of subjects in which equal time1 consecutiveness and concentration were demanded1 and a more thorough study of ,english composition2 and to a large degree he secured national sanction for these reforms and their working out by experts into a practicable and applicable system4 ,he laboured to unify the entire educational system1 minimize prescription1 cast out monotony1 and introduce freedom and enthusiasm2 and he emphasized the need of special training for special work4 ,he was first to suggest 7#ahid7 co-operation by colleges in holding common entrance examinations throughout the country1 and it was largely through his efforts that standards were so approximated that this became possible4 ,he contended that secondary schools maintained by public funds should shape their courses for the benefit of students whose education goes no further than such high schools1 and not be mere training schools for the universities4 ,his success as administrator and man of affairs and as an educational reformer made him one of the great figures of his time1 in whose opinions on any topic the deepest interest was felt throughout the country4 ,in ,november #aijh he resigned the presidency of ,harvard1 and retired from the position early in #aiji1 when he was succeeded by ,professor ,abbott ,lawrence ,lowell4 ,in ,december #aijh he was elected president of the ,national ,civil ,service ,reform ,league4 ,his writings include ,the ,happy ,life 7#ahif72 ,five ,american ,contributions to ,civilization1 and ,other ,essays and ,addresses 7#ahig72 ,educational ,reform1 ,essays and ,addresses #ahfi-ahig 7#ahih72 ,more ,money for the ,public ,schools 7#aijc72 ,four ,american ,leaders 7#aijf71 chapters on ,franklin1 ,washington1 ,channing and ,emerson2 ,university ,administration 7#aijh72 and with ,f4,h4 ,storer1 a ,compendious ,manual of ,qualitative ,chemical ,analysis 7,boston1 #ahfi2 many times reissued and revised74 ,his annual reports as ,president of ,harvard were notable contributions to the literature of education in ,america1 and he delivered numerous public addresses1 many of which have been reprinted4 ,see ,president ,eliot's ,administration1 by different hands1 a summary of his work at ,harvard in #ahfi-ahid1 in ,the ,harvard ,graduates' ,magazine1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #ddi-ejd 7,boston1 ,mass41 #ahid72 and ,e4 ,kuhnemann1 ,charles ,w4 ,eliot1 ,president of ,harvard 7,boston1 #aiji74 ,his son1 ,,charles ,,eliot 7#ahei-ahig71 graduated at ,harvard in #ahhb1 studied landscape architecture at the ,bussey ,institution of ,harvard and in ,europe1 successfully urged the incorporation of the ,massachusetts ,trustees of ,public ,reservations 7#ahia7 and of the ,metropolitan ,park ,commission 7#ahib7 of ,boston1 became landscape architect to the ,metropolitan ,park ,commission in #ahib1 and in #ahic1 with ,f4,l4 ,olmsted and ,j4,c4 ,olmsted1 formed the firm of ,olmsted1 ,olmsted ,eliot1 which was employed by the ,metropolitan ,commission4 ,his life was written by his father1 ,charles ,eliot1 ,landscape ,architect 7,boston1 #aijb74 ,,eliot1 ,,george1 the pen-name of the famous ,english writer1 nee ,mary ,ann 7or ,marian7 ,evans 7#ahai-ahhj71 afterwards ,mrs ,j4,w4 ,cross1 born at ,arbury ,farm1 in ,warwickshire1 on the #bbnd of ,november #ahai4 ,her father1 ,robert ,evans1 was the agent of ,mr ,francis ,newdigate1 and the first twenty-one years of the great novelist's life were spent on the ,arbury estate4 ,she received an ordinary education at respectable schools till the age of seventeen1 when her mother's death1 and the marriage of her elder sister1 called her home in the character of housekeeper4 ,this1 though it must have sharpened her sense1 already too acute1 of responsibility1 was an immense advantage to her mind1 and1 later1 to her career1 for1 delivered from the tiresome routine of lessons and class-work1 she was able to work without pedantic interruptions at ,german1 ,italian and music1 and to follow her unusually good taste in reading4 ,the life1 inasmuch as she was a girl still in her teens1 was no doubt monotonous1 even unhappy4 ,just as ,cardinal ,newman felt1 with such different results1 the sadness and chain of evangelical influences from his boyhood till the end of his days1 so ,marian ,evans was subdued all through her youth by a severe religious training which1 while it pinched her mind and crushed her spirit1 attracted her idealism by the very hardness of its perfect counsels4 ,it is not surprising to find1 therefore1 that when ,mr ,evans moved to ,coventry in #ahda1 and so enlarged the circle of their acquaintance1 she became much interested in some new friends1 ,mr and ,mrs ,charles ,bray and ,mr ,charles ,hennell4 ,mr ,bray had literary taste and wrote works on the ,education of the ,feelings1 the ,philosophy of ,necessity1 and the like4 ,mr ,hennell had published in #ahch ,an ,enquiry concerning the ,origin of ,christianity4 ,miss ,evans1 then twenty-two1 absorbed immediately these unexpected1 and1 at that time1 daring habits of thought4 ,so compelling was the atmosphere that it led to a complete change in her opinions4 ,kind in her affection1 she was relentless in argument4 ,she refused to go to church 7for some time1 at least71 wrote painful letters to a former governess--the pious ,miss ,lewis--and barely avoided an irremediable quarrel with her father1 a churchman of the old school4 ,here was rebellion indeed4 ,but rebels come1 for the most part1 from the provinces where petty tyranny1 exercised by small souls1 show the scheme of the universe on the meanest possible scale4 ,george ,eliot was never orthodox again2 she abandoned1 with fierce determination1 every creed1 and although she passed1 later1 through various phases1 she remained incessantly a rationalist in matters of faith and in all other matters4 ,it is nevertheless true that she wrote admirably about religion and religious persons4 ,she had learnt the evangelical point of view2 she knew--none better--the strength of religious motives2 vulgar doubts of this fact were as distasteful to her as they were to another eminent writer1 to whom she refers in one of her letters 7dated #ahec7 as a ,mr ,huxley1 who was the centre of interest at some agreeable evening4 ,her books abound in tributes to ,christian virtue1 and one of her own favourite characters was ,dinah ,morris in ,adam ,bede4 ,she undertook1 about the beginning of #ahdd1 the translation of ,strauss's ,leben ,jesu4 ,this work1 published in #ahdf1 was considered scholarly1 but it met1 in the nature of things1 with no popular success4 ,on the death of ,mr ,evans in #ahdi1 she went abroad for some time1 and we hear of no more literary ventures till #ahea1 when she accepted the assistant-editorship of the ,westminster ,review4 ,for a while she had lodgings at the offices of that publication in the ,strand1 ,london4 ,she wrote several notable papers1 and became acquainted with many distinguished authors of that period--among them ,herbert ,spencer1 ,carlyle1 ,harriet ,martineau1 ,francis ,newman and ,george ,henry ,lewes4 ,her friendship with the last-named led to a closer relationship which she regarded as a marriage4 ,among the many criticisms passed upon this step 7in view of the fact1 among other considerations1 that ,lewes had a wife living at the time71 no one has denied her courage in defying the law1 or questioned the quality of her tact in a singularly false position4 ,that she felt the deepest affection for ,lewes is evident2 that we owe the development of her genius to his influence and constant sympathy is all but certain4 ,yet it is also sure that what she gained from his intimate companionship was heavily paid for in the unceasing consciousness that most people thought her guilty of a grave mistake1 and found her written words1 with their endorsement of traditional morality1 wholly at variance with the circumstances of her private life4 ,doubts of her suffering in this respect will be at once dismissed after a study of her journal and letters4 ,stilted and unnatural as these are to a tragic degree1 one can read well enough between the lines1 and also in the elaborate dedication of each manuscript to my husband 7in terms of the strongest love71 that self-repression1 coupled with audacity1 does not make for peace4 ,her sensitiveness to criticism was extreme2 a flippant paragraph or an illiterate review with regard to her work actually affected her for days4 ,the whole history of her union with ,lewes is a complete illustration of the force of sheer will--in that case partly her own and not inconsiderably his--over a nature essentially unfitted for a bold stand against attacks4 ,at first she and the man whom she had described as a sort of miniature ,mirabeau in appearance1 went abroad to ,weimar and ,berlin1 but they returned to ,england the same year and settled1 after several moves1 in lodgings at ,east ,sheen4 ,in #ahed she published ,the ,essence of ,christianity1 a translation from ,feuerbach1 a philosopher to whom she had been introduced by ,charles ,bray4 ,during #ahee she translated ,spinoza's ,ethics1 wrote articles for the ,leader1 the ,westminster ,review1 and the ,saturday ,review--then a new thing4 ,it was not until the following year that she attempted the writing of fiction1 and produced ,the ,sad ,fortunes of the ,reverend ,amos ,barton--the first of the ,scenes of ,clerical ,life4 ,these1 published in ,blackwood's ,magazine1 were issued in two volumes in #aheh4 ,the press in general extended a languid welcome to this work1 and although the author received much encouragement from private sources1 notably from ,charles ,dickens1 the critics were mostly non-committal1 and it was not until the publication of ,adam ,bede in #ahei that enthusiasm was attracted to the quality of the earlier production4 ,adam ,bede1 in the judgment of many ,george ,eliot's masterpiece1 met with a success 7in her own words7 triumphantly beyond anything she had dreamed of4 ,in #ahfj appeared ,the ,mill on the ,floss4 ,after the sensational good fortune of ,adam ,bede1 the criticism applied to the new novel seems to have been disappointing4 ,we find ,miss ,evans telling her publisher that she does not wish to see any newspaper articles4 ,but the book made its way1 and prepared an ever-growing army of readers for ,silas ,marner 7#ahfa71 ,romola 7#ahfb-ahfc71 and ,felix ,holt 7#ahff74 ,silas ,marner shows a reversion to her early manner--the manner of ,scenes of ,clerical ,life4 ,romola1 which is what is called an historical novel1 owes its vitality not to the portraits of ,savonarola or of the heroine1 or to its vigorous pictures of ,florentine life in the #aeth century1 but to its superb presentment of the treacherous1 handsome ,tito ,melema1 who belongs not to any one period but to every generation4 ,felix ,holt1 a novel dealing with political questions1 is strained by a painfulness too severe for any reader's pleasure4 ,where other eminent authors have produced mechanical books1 or books which were mere repetitions of their most popular effort1 she erred only on the side of the ponderous and the distressing4 ,felix ,holt is both1 and it is the only one of her novels which lacks an unforgettable human note4 ,the ,spanish ,gypsy 7#ahfh71 a drama in blank verse1 received more public response than most compositions of the kind executed by those connected with the drama or with poetry only2 and she published in #ahgd another volume of verses1 ,the ,legend of ,jubal and other ,poems4 ,any depression which the author may have felt with regard to the faults found with some of the last-named books was completely cured by the praise bestowed on ,middlemarch 7#ahgb74 ,this profound study of certain types of ,english character was supreme at the time of its writing1 and it remains supreme1 of its school1 in ,european literature4 ,thackeray is brilliant2 ,tolstoi is vivid to a point where life-likeness overwhelms any consideration of art2 ,balzac created a whole world2 ,george ,eliot did not create1 but her exposition of the upper and middle class minds of her day is a masterpiece of scientific psychology4 ,daniel ,deronda 7#ahgf71 a production on the same lines1 was less satisfactory4 ,it exhibited the same human insight1 the passionate earnestness1 the insinuated special pleading for hard cases1 the same intellectual strength1 but the subject was unwieldy1 almost forbidding1 and1 as a result1 the novel1 in spite of its distinction1 has never been thoroughly liked4 ,the death of ,mr ,lewes in #ahgh was also the death-blow to her artistic vitality4 ,she corrected the proofs of ,theophrastus ,such 7a collection of essays71 but she wrote no more4 ,about two years later1 however1 she married ,mr ,j4,w4 ,cross1 a gentleman whose friendship was especially congenial to a temperament so abnormally dependent on affectionate understanding as ,george ,eliot's4 ,but she never really recovered from her shock at the loss of ,george ,lewes1 and died at #d ,cheyne ,walk1 ,chelsea1 on the #bbnd of ,december #ahhj4 ,no right estimate of her1 whether as a woman1 an artist or a philosopher1 can be formed without a steady recollection of her infinite capacity for mental suffering1 and her need of human support4 ,the statement that there is no sex in genius1 is on the face of it1 absurd4 ,george ,sand1 certainly the most independent and dazzling of all women authors1 neither felt1 nor wrote1 nor thought as a man4 ,saint ,teresa1 another great writer on a totally different plane1 was pre-eminently feminine in every word and idea4 ,george ,eliot1 less reckless1 less romantic than the ,frenchwoman1 less spiritual than the ,spanish saint1 was more masculine in style than either2 but her outlook was not1 for a moment1 the man's outlook2 her sincerity1 with its odd reserves1 was not quite the same as a man's sincerity1 nor was her humour that genial1 broad1 unequivocal humour which is peculiarly virile4 ,hers approximated1 curiously enough1 to the satire of ,jane ,austen1 both for its irony and its application to little everyday affairs4 ,men's humour1 in its classic manifestations1 is on the heroic rather than on the average scale3 it is for the uncommon situations1 not for the daily tea-table4 ,her method of attacking a subject shows the influence of ,jane ,austen1 especially in parts of ,middlemarch2 one can detect also the stronger influence of ,mrs ,gaskell1 of ,charlotte ,bronte1 and of ,miss ,edgeworth4 ,it was1 however1 but an influence1 and no more than a man writer1 anxious to acquire a knowledge of the feminine point of view1 might have absorbed from a study of these women novelists4 ,one often hears that she is not artistic2 that her characterization is less distinct than ,jane ,austen's2 that she tells more than should be known of her heroes and heroines4 ,but it should be remembered that ,jane ,austen dealt with familiar domestic types1 whereas ,george ,eliot excelled in the presentation of extraordinary souls4 ,one woman drew members of polite society with correct notions1 while the other woman depicted social rebels with ideas and ideals4 ,in every one of ,george ,eliot's books1 the protagonists1 tortured by dreams of perfection1 are in revolt against the prudent compromises of the worldly4 ,all through her stories1 one hears the clash of the heroic for earth too high1 and the desperate philosophy1 disguised it is true1 of ,omar ,khayyam4 ,in her day1 ,epicureanism had not reached the life of the people1 nor passed into the education of the mob4 ,few dared to confess that the pursuit of pleasure1 whether real or imagined1 was the aim of mankind4 ,the charm of ,jane ,austen is the charm of the untroubled and well-to-do materialist1 who sees in a rich marriage1 a comfortable house1 carriages and an assured income the best to strive for2 and in a fickle lover of either sex or the loss of money the severest calamities which can befall the human spirit4 ,jane ,austen despised the greater number of her characters3 ,george ,eliot suffered with each of hers4 ,here1 perhaps1 we find the reason why she is accused of being inartistic4 ,she could not be impersonal4 ,again1 ,george ,eliot was a little scornful to those of both sexes who had neither special missions nor the consciousness of this deprivation4 ,men are seldom in favour of missions in any field4 ,she demanded1 too strenuously from the very beginning1 an aim1 more or less altruistic1 from every individual2 and as she advanced in life this claim became the more imperative1 till at last it overpowered her art1 and transformed a great delineator of humanity into an eloquent observer with far too many personal prejudices4 ,but she was altogether free from cynicism1 bitterness1 or the least tendency to pride of intellect4 ,she suffered from bodily weakness the greater part of her life1 and1 but for an extraordinary mental health--inherited from the fine yeoman stock from which she sprang--it is impossible that she could have retained1 at all times1 so sane a view of human conduct1 or been the least sentimental among women writers of the first rank--the one wholly without morbidity in any disguise4 ,the accumulation of mere book knowledge1 as opposed to the friction of a life spent among all sorts and conditions of men1 drove ,george ,eliot at last to write as a specialist for specialists3 joy was lost in the consuming desire for strict accuracy3 her genius became more and more speculative1 less and less emotional4 ,the highly trained brain suppressed the impulsive heart1--the heart described with such candour and pathos as ,maggie ,tulliver's in ,the ,mill on the ,floss4 ,for this reason--chiefly because philosophy is popularly associated with inactive depression1 whereas human nature is held to be eternally exhilarating--her later works have not received so much praise as her earlier productions4 ,but one has only to compare ,romola or ,daniel ,deronda with the compositions of any author except herself to realize the greatness of her designs1 and the astonishing gifts brought to their final accomplishment4 ,see also the ,life of ,george ,eliot1 edited by ,j4,w4 ,cross 7#c vols41 #ahhe-ahhg72 ,george ,eliot1 by ,sir ,leslie ,stephen1 in the ,english ,men of ,letters series 7#aijb72 by ,oscar ,browning1 ,great ,writers series 7#ahij71 with a bibliography by ,j4,p4 ,anderson2 by ,mathilde ,blind1 ,eminent ,women series1 a new edition of which also contains a bibliography 7,boston1 ,mass41 #aijd74 7,p4 ,m4 ,t4 ,c47 ,,eliot1 ,,sir ,,john 7#aeib-afcb71 ,english statesman1 son of ,richard ,eliot1 a member of an old ,devonshire family lately settled in ,cornwall1 was born at his father's seat at ,port ,eliot in ,cornwall in #aeib4 ,he matriculated at ,exeter ,college1 ,oxford1 on the #dth of ,december #afjg1 and leaving the university after a residence of three years he studied law at one of the inns of court4 ,he also spent some months travelling in ,france1 ,spain and ,italy1 in company1 for part of the time1 with young ,george ,villiers1 afterwards duke of ,buckingham4 ,he was only twenty-two when he began his parliamentary career as member for ,st ,germans in the addled parliament of #afad4 ,in #afah he was knighted1 and next year through the patronage of ,buckingham he obtained the appointment of vice-admiral of ,devon1 with large powers for the defence and control of the commerce of the county4 ,it was not long before the characteristic energy with which he performed the duties in his office involved him in difficulties4 ,after many attempts1 in #afbc he succeeded by a clever but dangerous manoeuvre in entrapping the famous pirate ,john ,nutt1 who had for years infested the southern coast1 inflicting immense damage upon ,english commerce4 ,the issue is noteworthy4 ,the pirate1 having a powerful protector at court in ,sir ,george ,calvert1 the secretary of state1 was pardoned2 while the vice-admiral1 upon charges which could not be substantiated1 was flung into the ,marshalsea1 and detained there nearly four months4 ,a few weeks after his release ,eliot was elected member of parliament for ,newport 7,february #afbd74 ,on the #bgth of ,february he delivered his first speech1 in which he at once revealed his great powers as an orator1 demanding boldly that the liberties and privileges of parliament1 repudiated by ,james ,i4 in the former parliament1 should be secured4 ,in the first parliament of ,charles ,i41 in #afbe1 he urged the enforcement of the laws against the ,roman ,catholics4 ,meanwhile he had continued the friend and supporter of ,buckingham and greatly approved of the war with ,spain4 ,buckingham's incompetence1 however1 and the bad faith with which both he and the king continued to treat the parliament1 alienated ,eliot completely from the administration4 ,distrust of his former friend quickly grew in ,eliot's excitable mind to a certainty of his criminal ambition and treason to his country4 ,returned to the parliament of #afbf as member for ,st ,germans1 he found himself1 in the absence of other chiefs of the opposition whom the king had secured by nominating them sheriffs1 the leader of the ,house4 ,he immediately demanded an inquiry into the recent disaster at ,cadiz4 ,on the #bgth of ,march he made an open and daring attack upon ,buckingham and his evil administration4 ,he was not intimidated by the king's threatening intervention on the #bith1 and persuaded the ,house to defer the actual grant of the subsidies and to present a remonstrance to the king1 declaring its right to examine the conduct of ministers4 ,on the #hth of ,may he was one of the managers who carried ,buckingham's impeachment to the ,lords1 and on the #ajth he delivered the charges against him1 comparing him in the course of his speech to ,sejanus4 ,next day ,eliot was sent to the ,tower4 ,on the ,commons declining to proceed with business as long as ,eliot and ,sir ,dudley ,digges 7who had been imprisoned with him7 were in confinement1 they were released1 and parliament was dissolved on the #aeth of ,june4 ,eliot was immediately dismissed from his office of vice-admiral of ,devon1 and in #afbg he was again imprisoned for refusing to pay a forced loan1 but liberated shortly before the assembling of the parliament of #afbh1 to which he was returned as member for ,cornwall4 ,he joined in the resistance now organized to arbitrary taxation1 was foremost in the promotion of the ,petition of ,right1 continued his outspoken censure of ,buckingham1 and after the latter's assassination in ,august1 led the attack in the session of #afbi on the ritualists and ,arminians4 ,in ,february the great question of the right of the king to levy tonnage and poundage came up for discussion2 and on the king ordering an adjournment of parliament1 the speaker1 ,sir ,john ,finch1 was held down in the chair while ,eliot's resolutions against illegal taxation and innovations in religion were read to the ,house by ,holles 7q4v474 ,in consequence1 ,eliot1 with eight other members1 was imprisoned on the #dth of ,march in the ,tower4 ,he refused to answer in his examination1 relying on his privilege of parliament1 and on the #bith of ,october was removed to the ,marshalsea4 ,on the #bfth of ,january he appeared at the bar of the king's bench1 with ,holles and ,valentine1 to answer a charge of conspiracy to resist the king's order1 and refusing to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the court he was fined ,l#bjjj and ordered to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure and till he had made submission4 ,this he steadfastly refused4 ,while some of the prisoners appear to have had certain liberty allowed to them1 ,eliot's confinement in the ,tower was made exceptionally severe4 ,charles's anger had been from the first directed chiefly against him1 not only as his own political antagonist but as the prosecutor and bitter enemy of ,buckingham2 an outlawed man1 he described him1 desperate in mind and fortune4 ,eliot languished in prison for some time1 during which he wrote several works1 his ,negotium posterorum1 an account of the parliament in #afbe2 ,the ,monarchie of ,man1 a political treatise2 ,de jure majestatis1 a ,political ,treatise of ,government2 and ,an ,apology for ,socrates1 his own defence4 ,in the spring of #afcb he fell into a decline4 ,in ,october he petitioned ,charles for permission to go into the country1 but leave could only be obtained at the price of submission1 and was finally refused4 ,he died on the #bgth of ,november #afcb4 ,when his son requested permission to move the body to ,port ,eliot1 ,charles1 whose resentment still survived1 returned the curt refusal3 ,let ,sir ,john ,eliot be buried in the church of that parish where he died4 ,the manner of ,eliot's death1 not without suspicion of foul play1 and as the result of the king's implacability and the severe treatment to which he had been subjected1 had more effect1 probably1 than any other single incident in embittering and precipitating the dispute between king and parliament2 and the tragic sacrifice of a man so gifted and patriotic1 and actuated originally by no antagonistic feeling against the monarchy or the church1 is the surest condemnation of the king's policy and administration4 ,eliot was essentially a great orator1 inspired by enthusiasm and high ideals1 which he was able to communicate to his hearers by his eloquence1 but1 like ,chatham afterwards1 he had not only the gifts but the failings of the orator1 was incapable of well-reasoned and balanced judgment1 and1 though one of the greatest personalities of the time1 was inferior to ,pym both as a party leader and as a statesman4 ,eliot married ,rhadagund1 daughter of ,richard ,gedie of ,trebursye in ,cornwall1 by whom he had five sons1 from the youngest of whom ,nicholas the present earl of ,st ,germans is descended1 and four daughters4 ,the ,life of ,sir ,j4 ,eliot1 by ,j4 ,forster 7#ahfd71 is supplemented and corrected by ,gardiner's ,history of ,england1 vols4 v4-vii41 and the article in the ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biog41 by the same author4 ,eliot's writings1 together with his ,letter-,book1 have been edited by ,dr ,grosart4 ,,eliot1 ,,john 7#afjd-afij71 ,american colonial clergyman1 known as the ,apostle to the ,indians1 was born probably at ,widford1 ,hertfordshire1 ,england1 where he was baptized on the #eth of ,august #afjd4 ,he was the son of ,bennett ,eliot1 a middle-class farmer4 ,little is known of his boyhood and early manhood except that he took his degree of ,b4,a4 at ,jesus ,college1 ,cambridge1 in #afbb4 ,it seems probable that he entered the ministry of the ,established ,church1 but there is nothing definitely known of him until #afbi-afcj1 when he became an usher or assistant at the school of the ,rev4 ,thomas ,hooker1 at ,little ,baddow1 near ,chelmsford4 ,the influence of ,hooker apparently determined him to become a ,puritan1 but his connexion with the school ceased in #afcj1 when ,laud's persecutions drove ,hooker into exile4 ,the realization of the difficulties in the way of a non-conforming clergyman in ,england undoubtedly determined ,eliot to emigrate to ,america in the autumn of #afca1 where he settled first at ,boston1 assisting for a time at the ,first ,church4 ,in ,november #afcb he became teacher to the church at ,roxbury1 with which his connexion lasted until his death4 ,there he married ,hannah ,mulford1 who had been betrothed to him in ,england1 and who became his constant helper4 ,in the care of the ,roxbury church he was associated with ,thomas ,welde from #afcb to #afda1 with ,samuel ,danforth 7#afbf-afgd7 from #afdi to #afgd1 and with ,nehemiah ,walter 7#affc-agej7 from #afhh to #afij4 ,inspired with the idea of converting the ,indians1 his first step was to perfect himself in their dialects1 which he did by the assistance of a young ,indian whom he received into his home4 ,with his aid he translated the ,ten ,commandments and the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,he first successfully preached to the ,indians in their own tongue at ,nonantum 7,newton7 in ,october #afdf4 ,at the third meeting several ,indians declared themselves converted1 and were soon followed by many others4 ,eliot induced the ,massachusetts ,general ,court to set aside land for their residence1 the same body also voting him ,l#aj to prosecute the work1 and directing that two clergymen be annually elected by the clergy as preachers to the ,indians4 ,as soon as the success of ,eliot's endeavours became known1 the necessary funds flowed in upon him from private sources in both ,old and ,new ,england4 ,in ,july #afdi parliament incorporated the ,society for the ,propagation of the ,gospel in ,new ,england1 which henceforth supported and directed the work inaugurated by ,eliot4 ,the first appeal for aid brought contributions of ,l#aa1jjj4 ,in #afea the ,christian ,indian town founded by ,eliot was removed from ,nonantum to ,natick1 where residences1 a meeting-house1 and a school-house were erected1 and where ,eliot preached1 when able1 once in every two weeks as long as he lived4 ,to this community ,eliot applied a plan of government by means of tens1 fifties and hundreds1 which he subsequently advocated as suitable for all ,england4 ,eliot's missionary labours encouraged others to follow in his footsteps4 ,a second town under his direction was established at ,ponkapog 7,stoughton7 in #afed1 in which he had the assistance of ,daniel ,gookin 7c4 #afab-afhg74 ,his success was duplicated in ,martha's ,vineyard and ,nantucket by the ,mayhews1 and by #afgd the unofficial census of the praying ,indians numbered #djjj4 ,king ,philip's ,war 7#afge-gf7 was a staggering blow to all missionary enterprise2 and although few of the converted ,indians proved disloyal1 it was some years before adequate support could again be enlisted4 ,yet at ,eliot's death1 which occurred at ,roxbury on the #bast of ,may #afij1 the missions were at the height of their prosperity1 and that the results of his labours were not permanent was due only to the racial traits of the ,new ,england tribes4 ,of wider influence and more lasting value than his personal labours as a missionary was ,eliot's work as a translator of the ,bible and various religious works into the ,massachusetts dialect of the ,algonquian language4 ,the first work completed was the ,catechism1 published in #afec at ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts1 the first book to be printed in the ,indian tongue4 ,several years elapsed before ,eliot completed his task of translating the ,bible4 ,the ,new ,testament was at last issued in #affa1 and the ,old ,testament followed two years later4 ,the ,new ,testament was bound with it1 and thus the whole ,bible was completed4 ,to it were added a ,catechism and a metrical version of the ,psalms4 ,the title of this ,bible1 now a great rarity1 is ,mamussee ,wunneetupanatamwe ,up-,biblum ,god naneeswe ,nukkone ,testament kah wonk ,wusku ,testament-,ne quoshkinnumuk nashpe ,wuttinneumoh ,christ noh assoowesit ,john ,eliot2 literally translated1 ,the ,whole ,holy ,his-,bible ,god1 both ,old ,testament and also ,new ,testament4 ,this turned by the-servant-of-,christ1 who is called ,john ,eliot4 ,this book was printed in #affc at ,cambridge1 ,mass41 by ,samuel ,green and ,marmaduke ,johnson1 and was the first ,bible printed in ,america4 ,in #afhe appeared a second edition1 in the preparation of which ,eliot was assisted by the ,rev4 ,john ,cotton 7#afdj-afii71 the younger1 of ,plymouth1 who also had a wide knowledge of the ,indian tongue4 ,besides his ,bible1 ,eliot published at ,cambridge in #affd a translation of ,baxter's ,call to the ,unconverted1 and in #affe an abridged translation of ,bishop ,bayly's ,practice of ,piety4 ,with the assistance of his sons he completed 7#affd7 his well-known ,indian ,grammar ,begun1 printed at ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts1 in #afff4 ,it was reprinted in vol4 ix4 of the ,collections of the ,massachusetts ,historical ,society4 ,the ,indian ,primer1 comprising an exposition of the ,lord's ,prayer and a translation of the ,larger ,catechism1 was published at ,cambridge in #affi1 and was reprinted under the editorial superintendence of ,mr ,john ,small of the university of ,edinburgh in #ahgg4 ,in #afga ,eliot printed in ,english a little volume entitled ,indian ,dialogues1 followed in #afgb by his ,logick ,primer1 both of which were intended for the instruction of the ,indians in ,english4 ,his last translation was ,thomas ,shepard's ,sincere ,convert1 completed and published by ,grindal ,rawson in #afhi4 ,eliot's literary activity1 however1 extended into other fields than that of ,indian instruction4 ,he was1 with ,richard ,mather1 one of the editors of the ,bay ,psalm ,book 7#afdj74 ,several tracts written wholly or in part by him in the nature of reports to the society which supported his missions were published at various times in ,england4 ,in #affj he published a curious treatise on government entitled ,the ,christian ,commonwealth1 in which he found the ideal of government in the ancient ,jewish state1 and proposed the reorganization of the ,english government on the basis of a numerical subdivision of the inhabitants4 ,his ,harmony of the ,gospels 7#afgh7 was a life of ,jesus ,christ4 ,,bibliography4--,an account of ,eliot's life and work is contained in ,williston ,walker's ,ten ,new ,england ,leaders 7,new ,york1 #aija74 ,there is a ,life of ,john ,eliot1 by ,convers ,francis1 in ,sparks' ,american ,biography1 vol4 v4 7,new ,york1 #ahec72 another by ,n4 ,adams 7,boston1 #ahdg72 and a sketch in ,cotton ,mather's ,magnalia 7,london1 #agjb74 ,for a good account of his publications in the ,indian language see the chapter on ,the ,indian ,tongue and its ,literature1 by ,j4,h4 ,trumbull1 in vol4 i4 of the ,memorial ,history of ,boston 7#ahhb74 7,w4 ,wr47 ,,elis1 or ,,eleia1 an ancient district of southern ,greece1 bounded on the ,n4 by ,achaea1 ,e4 by ,arcadia1 ,s4 by ,messenia1 and ,w4 by the ,ionian ,sea4 ,the local form of the name was ,valis1 or ,valeia1 and its meaning1 in all probability1 the lowland4 ,in its physical constitution ,elis is practically one with ,achaea and ,arcadia2 its mountains are mere offshoots of the ,arcadian highlands1 and its principal rivers are fed by ,arcadian springs4 ,from ,erymanthus in the north1 ,skollis 7now known as ,mavri and ,santameri in different parts of its length7 stretches toward the west1 and ,pholoe along the eastern frontier2 in the south a prolongation of ,mount ,lycaeon bore in ancient times the names of ,minthe and ,lapithus1 which have given place respectively to ,alvena and to ,kaiapha and ,smerna4 ,these mountains are well clothed with vegetation1 and present a soft and pleasing appearance in contrast to the picturesque wildness of the parent ranges4 ,they gradually sink towards the west and die off into what was one of the richest alluvial tracts in the ,peloponnesus4 ,except where it is broken by the rocky promontories of ,chelonatas 7now ,chlemutzi7 and ,ichthys 7now ,katakolo71 the coast lies low1 with stretches of sand in the north and lagoons and marshes towards the south4 ,during the summer months communication with the sea being established by means of canals1 these lagoons yield a rich harvest of fish to the inhabitants1 who at the same time1 however1 are almost driven from the coast by the swarms of gnats4 ,the district for administrative purposes forms part of the nome of ,elis and ,achaea 7see ,,greece74 ,elis was divided into three districts--,hollow or ,lowland ,elis 7,greek3 he kohile ,elis71 ,pisatis1 or the territory of ,pisa1 and ,triphylia1 or the country of the three tribes4 7#a7 ,hollow ,elis1 the largest and most northern of the three1 was watered by the ,peneus and its tributary the ,ladon1 whose united stream forms the modern ,gastouni4 ,it included not only the champaign country originally designated by its name1 but also the mountainous region of ,acrorea1 occupied by the offshoots of ,erymanthus4 ,besides the capital city of ,elis1 it contained ,cyllene1 an ,arcadian settlement on the sea-coast1 whose inhabitants worshipped ,hermes under the phallic symbol2 ,pylus1 at the junction of the ,peneus and the ,ladon1 which1 like so many other places of the same name1 claimed to be the city of ,nestor1 and the fortified frontier town of ,lasion1 the ruins of which are still visible at ,kuti1 near the village of ,kumani4 ,the district was famous in antiquity for its cattle and horses2 and its byssus1 supposed to have been introduced by the ,phoenicians1 was inferior only to that of ,palestine4 7#b7 ,pisatis extended south from ,hollow ,elis to the right bank of the ,alpheus1 and was divided into eight departments called after as many towns4 ,of these ,salmone1 ,heraclea1 ,cicysion1 ,dyspontium and ,harpina are known--the last being the reputed burial-place of ,marmax1 the suitor of ,hippodamia4 ,from the time of the early investigators it has been disputed whether ,pisa1 which gave its name to the district1 has ever been a city1 or was only a fountain or a hill4 ,by far the most important spot in ,pisatis was the scene of the great ,olympic games1 on the northern bank of the ,alpheus 7see ,,olympia74 7#c7 ,triphylia stretches south from the ,alpheus to the ,neda1 which forms the boundary towards ,messenia4 ,of the nine towns mentioned by ,polybius1 only two attained to any considerable influence--,lepreum and ,macistus1 which gave the names of ,lepreatis and ,macistia to the southern and northern halves of ,triphylia4 ,the former was the seat of a strongly independent population1 and continued to take every opportunity of resisting the supremacy of the ,eleans4 ,in the time of ,pausanias it was in a very decadent condition1 and possessed only a poor brick-built temple of ,demeter2 but considerable remains of its outer walls are still in existence near the village of ,strovitzi1 on a part of the ,minthe range4 ,the original inhabitants of ,elis were called ,caucones and ,paroreatae4 ,they are mentioned for the first time in ,greek history under the title of ,epeians1 as setting out for the ,trojan ,war1 and they are described by ,homer as living in a state of constant hostility with their neighbours the ,pylians4 ,at the close of the #aath century ,b4,c4 the ,dorians invaded the ,peloponnesus1 and ,elis fell to the share of ,oxylus and the ,aetolians4 ,these people1 amalgamating with the ,epeians1 formed a powerful kingdom in the north of ,elis4 ,after this many changes took place in the political distribution of the country1 till at length it came to acknowledge only three tribes1 each independent of the others4 ,these tribes were the ,epeians1 ,minyae and ,eleans4 ,before the end of the #hth century ,b4,c41 however1 the ,eleans had vanquished both their rivals1 and established their supremacy over the whole country4 ,among the other advantages which they thus gained was the right of celebrating the ,olympic games1 which had formerly been the prerogative of the ,pisatans4 ,the attempts which this people made to recover their lost privilege1 during a period of nearly two hundred years1 ended at length in the total destruction of their city by the ,eleans4 ,from the time of this event 7#egb ,b4,c47 till the ,peloponnesian ,war1 the peace of ,elis remained undisturbed4 ,in that great contest ,elis sided at first with ,sparta2 but that power1 jealous of the increasing prosperity of its ally1 availed itself of the first pretext to pick a quarrel4 ,at the battle of ,mantinea 7#dah ,b4,c47 the ,eleans fought against the ,spartans1 who1 as soon as the war came to a close1 took vengeance upon them by depriving them of ,triphylia and the towns of the ,acrorea4 ,the ,eleans made no attempt to re-establish their authority over these places1 till the star of ,thebes rose in the ascendant after the battle of ,leuctra 7#cga ,b4,c474 ,it is not unlikely that they would have effected their purpose had not the ,arcadian confederacy come to the assistance of the ,triphylians4 ,in #cff ,b4,c4 hostilities broke out between them1 and though the ,eleans were at first successful1 they were soon overpowered1 and their capital very nearly fell into the hands of the enemy4 ,unable to make head against their opponents1 they applied for assistance to the ,spartans1 who invaded ,arcadia1 and forced the ,arcadians to recall their troops from ,elis4 ,the general result of this war was the restoration of their territory to the ,eleans1 who were also again invested with the right of holding the ,olympic games4 ,during the ,macedonian supremacy in ,greece they sided with the victors1 but refused to fight against their countrymen4 ,after the death of ,alexander they renounced the ,macedonian alliance4 ,at a subsequent period they joined the ,aetolian ,league1 but persistently refused to identify themselves with the ,achaeans4 ,when the whole of ,greece fell under the ,roman yoke1 the sanctity of ,olympia secured for the ,eleans a certain amount of indulgence4 ,the games still continued to attract to the country large numbers of strangers1 until they were finally put down by ,theodosius in #cid1 two years previous to the utter destruction of the country by the ,gothic invasion under ,alaric4 ,in later times ,elis fell successively into the hands of the ,franks and the ,venetians1 under whose rule it recovered to some extent its ancient prosperity4 ,by the latter people the province of ,belvedere on the ,peneus was called1 in consequence of its fertility1 the milch cow of the ,morea4 ,,elis1 the chief city of the ancient ,greek district of ,elis1 was situated on the river ,peneus1 just where it passes from the mountainous district of ,acrorea into the champaign below4 ,according to native tradition1 it was originally founded by ,oxylus1 the leader of the ,aetolians1 whose statue stood in the market-place4 ,in #dga ,b4,c4 it received a great extension by the incorporation 7synoecism7 of various small hamlets1 whose inhabitants took up their abode in the city4 ,up to this date it only occupied the ridge of the hill now called ,kalaskopi1 to the south of the ,peneus1 but afterwards it spread out in several suburbs1 and even to the other side of the stream4 ,as all the athletes who intended to take part in the ,olympic games were obliged to undergo a month's training in the city1 its gymnasiums were among its principal institutions4 ,they were three in number--the ,xystos1 with its avenues of plane-trees1 its plethrion or wrestling-place1 its altars to ,heracles1 to ,eros and ,anteros1 to ,demeter and ,kore 7,cora71 and its cenotaph of ,achilles2 the ,tetragonon1 appropriated to boxing exercises2 and the ,maltho1 in the interior of which was a hall or council chamber called ,lalichmion after its founder4 ,the market-place was of the old-fashioned type1 with porticoes at intervals and paths leading between them4 ,it was called the ,hippodrome because it was commonly used for exercising horses4 ,among the other objects of interest were the temple of ,artemis ,philomirax2 the ,hellanodicaeon1 or office of the ,hellanodicae2 the ,corcyrean ,hall1 a building in the ,dorian style with two facades1 built of spoils from ,corcyra2 a temple of ,apollo ,acesius2 a temple of ,silenus2 an ancient structure supported on oaken pillars and reputed to be the burial-place of ,oxylus2 the building where the sixteen women of ,elis were wont to weave a robe for the statue of ,hera at ,olympia2 the temple of ,aphrodite1 with a statue of the goddess by ,pheidias as ,urania with a tortoise beneath her foot1 and by ,scopas as ,pandemos1 riding on a goat2 and the shrine of ,dionysus1 whose festival1 the ,thyia1 was yearly celebrated in the neighbourhood4 ,on the acropolis was a temple of ,athena1 with a gold and ivory statue by ,pheidias4 ,the history of the town is closely identified with that of the country4 ,in #cii ,b4,c4 it was occupied by ,agis1 king of ,sparta4 ,the acropolis was fortified in #cab by ,telesphorus1 the admiral of ,antigonus1 but it was shortly afterwards dismantled by ,philemon1 another of his generals4 ,a view of the site is given by ,stanhope4 ,it is now called ,palaeopolis4 ,no traces of any buildings can be identified1 the only remains visible dating from ,roman times4 ,see ,pausanias vi4 #bc-bf2 ,j4 ,spencer ,stanhope1 ,olympia and ,elis 7#ahbd71 folio2 ,w4,m4 ,leake1 ,morea 7#ahcj72 ,e4 ,curtius1 ,peloponnesus 7#ahea-aheb72 ,schiller1 ,stamme und ,staaten ,griechenlands2 ,c4 ,bursian1 ,geographie von ,griechenland 7#ahfh-ahgb72 ,p4 ,gardner1 ,the ,coins of ,elis1 in ,num4 ,chr4 7#ahgi74 7,e4 ,gr47 ,,elis1 ,,philosophical ,,school ,,of4 ,this school was founded by ,phaedo1 a pupil of ,socrates4 ,it existed for a very short time and was then transferred by ,menedemus to ,eretria1 where it became known as the ,eretrian school4 ,its chief members1 beside ,phaedo1 were ,anchipylus1 ,moschus and ,pleistanus 7see ,,phaedo and ,,menedemus74 ,,elisavetgrad1 a fortress and town of ,russia1 in the government of ,kherson1 #bif m4 by rail ,n4,e4 of ,odessa on the ,balta-,kremenchug railway1 and on the ,ingul river1 in #dh deg4 #ca' ,n4 and #cb deg4 #aj' ,e4 ,the population increased from #bc1gbe in #ahfj to #ff1ahb in #aijj4 ,the town is regularly built1 with wide streets1 some of them lined with trees1 and is a wealthy town1 which has become an industrial centre for the region especially on account of its steam flour-mills1 in which it is second only to ,odessa1 its distilleries1 mechanical workshops1 tobacco and tallow factories and brickworks4 ,it is an important centre for trade in cereals and flour for export1 and in sheep1 cattle1 wool1 leather and timber4 ,five fairs are held annually4 ,it has a military school1 a first-class meteorological station and a botanical garden4 ,the town was founded in #aged and named after the empress ,elizabeth4 ,the fortifications are now decayed4 ,,elisavetpol1 a government of ,russia1 ,transcaucasia1 having the governments of ,tiflis and ,daghestan on the ,n41 ,baku on the ,e41 and ,erivan and ,tiflis on the ,w4 and ,persia on the ,s4 ,area1 #af1gba sq4 m4 ,it includes3 7a7 the southern slope of the main ,caucasus range in the north-east1 where ,bazardyuzi 7#ad1ggj ft47 and other peaks rise above the snow-line2 7b7 the arid and unproductive steppes beside the ,kura1 reaching #ajjj ft4 of altitude in the west and sinking to #ajj-bjj ft4 in the east1 where irrigation is necessary2 and 7c7 the northern slopes of the ,transcaucasian escarpment and portions of the ,armenian plateau1 which is intersected towards its western boundary1 near ,lake ,gok-cha1 by chains of mountains consisting of trachytes and various crystalline rocks1 and reaching #ab1hde ft4 in ,mount ,kapujikh4 ,elsewhere the country has the character of a plateau1 #gjjj to #hjjj ft4 high1 deeply trenched by tributaries of the ,aras4 ,all varieties of climate are found from that of the snowclad peaks1 ,alpine meadows1 and stony deserts of the high levels1 to that of the hill slopes1 clothed with gardens and vineyards1 and of the arid ,caspian steppes4 ,thus1 at ,shusha1 on the plateau1 at an altitude of #cfhj ft41 the average temperatures are3 year #dh deg41 ,january #bf deg41 ,july #ff deg42 annual rainfall1 #bf4d2 while at ,elisavetpol1 in the valley of the ,kura1 they are3 year #ee deg41 ,january #cb deg4 #b1 ,july #gg deg4 and rainfall only #aj4c in4 ,nearly one-fifth of the surface is under forests4 ,the population which was #hhe1cgi in #ahig 7only #cib1abd women2 #hd1acj urban71 and was estimated at #iec1cjj in #aijf1 consists chiefly of ,tatars 7#ef7 and ,armenians 7#cc74 ,the remainder are ,kurds 7#d4g71 ,russians and a few ,germans1 ,jews1 ,kurins1 ,udins and ,tates4 ,peasants form the great bulk of the population4 ,some of the ,tatars and the ,kurds are nomadic4 ,wheat1 maize1 barley1 oats and rye are grown1 also rice4 ,cultivation of cotton has begun1 but the rearing of silkworms is of old standing1 especially at ,nukha 7#afej tons of cocoons on the average are obtained every year74 ,nearly #hjjj acres are under vines1 the yield of wine averaging #hb-a_/b million gallons annually4 ,gardening reaches a high standard of perfection4 ,liquorice root is obtained to the extent of about #ce1jjj tons annually4 ,the rearing of live-stock is largely carried on on the steppes4 ,copper1 magnetic iron ore1 cobalt and a small quantity of naphtha are extracted1 and nearly #aj1jjj persons are employed in manufacturing industry--copper works and silk-mills4 ,carpet-weaving is widely spread4 ,owing to the ,transcaucasian railway1 which crosses the government1 trade1 both in the interior and with ,persia1 is very brisk4 ,the government is divided into eight districts1 ,elisavetpol1 ,aresh1 ,jebrail1 ,jevanshir1 ,kazakh1 ,nukha1 ,shusha and ,zangezur4 ,the only towns1 besides the capital1 are ,nukha 7#bd1haa inhabitants in #ahig7 and ,shusha 7#be1fef74 ,,elisavetpol 7formerly ,ganja1 alternative names being ,,kenjeh and ,,kanga71 a town of ,russia1 capital of the government of the same name1 #aah m4 by rail ,s4,e4 of ,tiflis and #c-a_/b m4 from the railway1 at an altitude of #addf ft4 ,pop4 7#ahgc7 #ae1dci2 7#ahig7 #cc1jij4 ,it is a very old town1 which changed hands between ,persians1 ,khazars and ,arabs even in the #gth century1 and later fell into the possession of ,mongols1 ,georgians1 ,persians and ,turks successively1 until the ,russians took it in #ahjd1 when the change of name was made4 ,it is a badly built place1 with narrow streets and low-roofed1 windowless houses1 and is situated in a very unhealthy locality1 but has been much improved1 a new ,european quarter having been built on the site of the old fortress 7erected by the ,turks in #agab-agbd74 ,the inhabitants are chiefly ,tatars and ,armenians1 famed for their excellent gardening1 and also for silkworm breeding4 ,it has a beautiful mosque1 built by ,shah ,abbas of ,persia in #afbj2 and a renowned ,green ,mosque amidst the ruins of old ,ganja1 #d m4 distant4 ,the ,persian poet1 ,shah ,nizam 7,nizam-ed-,din71 was born here in #aada1 and is said to have been buried 7#abjc7 close to the town4 ,the ,persians were defeated by the ,russians under ,paskevich outside this town in #ahbf4 ,,elisha 7a ,hebrew name meaning ,god is deliverance71 in the ,bible1 the disciple and successor of ,elijah1 was the son of ,shaphat of ,abel-meholah in the valley of the ,jordan4 ,he was symbolically elected to the prophetic office by ,elijah some time during the reign of ,ahab 7#a ,kings xix4 #ai-ba71 and he survived until the reign of ,joash4 ,his career thus appears to have extended over a period of nearly sixty years4 ,the relation between ,elijah and ,elisha was of a particularly close kind1 but the difference between them is much more striking than the resemblance4 ,elijah is the prophet of the wilderness1 wandering1 rugged and austere2 ,elisha is the prophet of civilized life1 of the city and the court1 with the dress1 manners and appearance of ordinary grave citizens4 ,elijah is the messenger of vengeance--sudden1 fierce and overwhelming2 ,elisha is the messenger of mercy and restoration4 ,elijah's miracles1 with few exceptions1 are works of wrath and destruction2 ,elisha's miracles1 with but one notable exception1 are works of beneficence and healing4 ,elijah is the prophet as fire 7,ecclus1 xlviii4 #a71 an abnormal agent working for exceptional ends2 ,elisha is the holy man of ,god which passeth by us continually 7#b ,kings iv4 #i71 mixing in the common life of the people4 ,it is impossible to draw up a detailed chronology of his life4 ,in most of the events narrated no further indication of time is given than by the words the king of ,israel1 the name not being specified4 ,there are some instances in which the order of time is obviously the reverse of the order of narrative1 and there are other grounds for concluding that the narrative as we now have it is confused and incomplete4 ,this may serve not only to explain the chronological difficulties1 but also to throw some light on the altogether exceptional character of the miraculous element in ,elisha's history4 ,on the literary questions1 see further ,,kings4 ,not only are ,elisha's miracles very numerous1 even more so than those of ,elijah1 but they stand in a peculiar relation to the man and his work4 ,with all the other prophets the primary function is spiritual teaching2 miracles1 even though numerous and many of them symbolical like ,elisha's1 are only accessory4 ,with ,elisha1 on the other hand1 miracles seem the principal function1 and the teaching is altogether subsidiary4 ,an explanation of the superabundance of miracles in ,elisha's life is suggested by the fact that several of them were merely repetitions or doubles of those of his predecessor4 ,such were3 his first miracle1 when1 returning across the ,jordan1 he made a dry path for himself in the same manner as ,elijah 7#b ,kings ii4 #ad72 the increase of the widow's pot of oil 7iv4 #a-g72 and the restoration of the son of the woman of ,shunem to life 7iv4 #ah-cg74 ,the theory that stories from the earlier life have been imported by mistake into the later1 even if tenable1 applies only to three of the miracles1 and leaves unexplained a much larger number which are not only not repetitions of those of ,elijah1 but have an entirely opposite character4 ,the healing of the water of ,jericho by putting salt in it 7ii4 #ai-bb71 the provision of water for the army of ,jehoshaphat in the arid desert 7iii4 #f-bj71 the neutralizing by meal of the poison in the pottage of the famine-stricken sons of the prophets at ,jericho 7iv4 #ch-da71 the healing of ,naaman the ,syrian 7v4 #a-ai71 and the recovery of the iron axehead that had sunk in the water 7vi4 #a-g71 are all instances of the beneficence which was the general characteristic of ,elisha's wonder-working activity in contrast to that of ,elijah4 ,another miracle of the same class1 the feeding of a hundred men with twenty loaves so that something was left over 7iv4 #db-dd71 deserves mention as the most striking though not the only instance of a resemblance between the work of ,elisha and that of ,jesus 7,matt4 xiv4 #ac-ba74 ,the one distinct exception to the general beneficence of ,elisha's activity--the destruction of the forty-two children who mocked him as he was going up to ,bethel 7#b ,kings ii4 #bc-be7--presents an ethical difficulty which is scarcely removed by the suggestion that the narrative has lost some particulars which would have shown the real enormity of the children's offence4 ,we may prefer to imagine that among the homely stories told of him was one which had for its main object the inculcation of respect for one's elders4#a ,the leprosy brought upon ,gehazi 7v4 #bj-bg71 though a miracle of judgment1 scarcely belongs to the same class as the other2 and it will be observed that ,gehazi's subsequent relations with the court 7viii4 #a-f7 ignore the disease1 a fatal hindrance to intercourse4 ,further1 the healing of ,naaman 7alluded to in ,luke iv4 #bg7 presupposes peaceful relations between ,israel and the ,syrians1 with which1 however1 contrast ch4 vi4 ,the wonder-working power of ,elisha is represented as continuing even after his death4 ,as the feeding of the hundred men and the cure of leprosy connect his work with that of ,jesus1 so the story that a dead man who was cast into his sepulchre was brought to life by the mere contact with his bones 7#b ,kings xiii4 #ba1 cf4 ,ecclus4 xlviii4 #ab-ad7 is the most striking instance of an analogy between his miracles and those recorded of medieval saints4 ,stanley 7,jewish ,church1 #dth ed41 ii4 #bgf7 in reference to this has remarked that in the life of ,elisha alone in the sacred history the gulf between biblical and ecclesiastical miracles almost disappears4 ,the place which ,elisha filled in contemporary history was one of great influence and importance1 and several narratives testify to his great reputation in ,israel4 ,on one occasion1 when he delivered the army that had been brought out against ,moab from a threatened dearth of water 7#b ,kings iii471#b he plainly intimates that1 but for his regard to ,jehoshaphat1 the king of ,judah1 who was in alliance with ,israel1 he would not have interfered4 ,whether he was with the army or was supposed to be living in the desert is left obscure4 ,an interesting touch is the influence of music upon the prophetic mind 7v4 #ae74 ,his next signal interference was during the incursions of the ,syrians1 when he disclosed the plans of the invaders to the king of ,israel with such effect that they were again and again baffled4 ,when the king of ,syria was informed that ,elisha1 the prophet that is in ,israel1 telleth the king of ,israel the words that thou speakest in thy bed-chamber1 he at once sent an army to take him captive in ,dothan4 ,at ,elisha's prayer his terrified servant beheld an army of horses and chariots of fire surrounding the prophet4 ,at a second prayer the invaders were struck blind1 and in this state they were led by ,elisha to ,samaria1 where their sight was restored4 ,their lives were spared at the command of the prophet1 and they returned home so impressed that their incursions thenceforward ceased 7vi4 #h-bc74 ,this is immediately followed by the siege of ,samaria by ,benhadad which caused a famine of the severest kind4 ,the calamity was imputed by the king of ,israel to the influence of ,elisha1 and he ordered the prophet to be immediately put to death4 ,forewarned of the danger1 ,elisha ordered the messenger who had been sent to slay him to be detained at the door1 and1 when1 immediately afterwards1 the king himself came 7messenger in vi4 #cc should rather be king71 predicted a great plenty within twenty-four hours4 ,this was fulfilled by the flight of the ,syrian army under the circumstances stated in ch4 vii4 ,after the episode with regard to the woman of ,shunem 7viii4 #a-f71 which is out of its chronological order1 ,elisha is represented as at ,damascus 7viii4 #g-ae74 ,the reverence with which the foreign monarch ,benhadad addressed ,elisha deserves to be noted as showing the extent of the prophet's influence4 ,in sending to know the issue of his illness1 the king caused himself to be styled thy son ,benhadad4 ,equally remarkable is the very ambiguous nature of ,elisha's reply 7viii4 #aj74c ,the most important interference of ,elisha in the history of his country constituted the fulfilment of the third of the commands laid upon ,elijah4 ,the work of anointing ,jehu to be king over ,israel was performed by deputy 7ix4 #a-c74 ,during the forty-five years which the chronological scheme allows for the reigns of ,jehu and ,jehoahaz the narratives contain no notice of ,elisha1 but from the circumstances of his death 7xiii4 #ad-ba7 it is clear that he had continued to enjoy the esteem of the dynasty which he had helped to found4 ,joash1 the grandson of ,jehu1 waited on him on his death-bed1 and addressed him in the words which he himself had used to ,elijah3 ,my father1 my father1 the chariot of ,israel and the horsemen thereof 7cf4 ii4 #ab74 ,by the result of a symbolic discharge of arrows he informed the king of his coming success against ,syria1 and immediately thereafter he died4 ,the explicit statement that he was buried completes the contrast between him and his greater predecessor4 ,on the narratives1 see ,,kings4 ,in general those where the prophet appears as on friendly terms with the king1 and possessed of influence at court 7e4g4 #b ,kings iv4 #ac1 vi4 #i1 vi4 #ba1 compared with xiii4 #ad71 plainly belong to the time of ,jehu's dynasty1 though they are related before the fall of the house of ,omri4 ,we can distinguish portions of an historical narrative which speaks of ,elisha in connexion with events of public interest1 without making him the central figure1 and a series of anecdotes of properly biographical character4444 ,in the latter we may distinguish one circle connected with ,gilgal1 ,jericho and the ,jordan valley to which ,abel-,meholah belongs 7iv4 #a-g8 #ch-dd1 v48 vi4 #a-g74 ,here ,elisha appears as the head of the prophetic gilds1 having his fixed residence at ,gilgal4#d ,another circle1 which presupposes the accession of the house of ,jehu1 places him at ,dothan or ,carmel1 and represents him as a personage of almost superhuman dignity4 ,here there is an obvious parallelism with the history of ,elijah1 especially with his ascension 7cf4 #b ,kings vi4 #ag with ii4 #aa2 xiii4 #ad with ii4 #ab72 and it is to this group of narratives that the ascension of ,elijah forms the introduction 7,robertson ,smith1 ,ency4 ,brit41 #ith ed41 art4 ,,kings1 vol4 xiv4 p4 #ahf74 ,this twofold representation finds a parallel in the narratives of ,samuel1 whose history and the conditions reflected therein are analogous to the life and times of ,elisha4 ,elisha is canonized in the ,orthodox ,eastern ,church1 his festival being on the #adth of ,june1 under which date his life is entered in the ,acta sanctorum4 ,see especially1 ,w4,r4 ,smith1 ,prophets of ,israel 7,index1 s4v471 and the literature to ,,elijah2 ,,kings1 ,,books ,,of2 ,,prophet4 7,w4 ,r4 ,s42 ,s4 ,a4 ,c47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,similarly ,elijah enforces respect for the prophetic office in i4 #i sqq4 ,prof4 ,kennett points out to the present writer that the epithet bald-head may refer to the sign of mourning for ,elisha's lost master 7cf4 ,ez4 vii4 #ah1 ,deut4 xiv4 #a72 ,go up is perhaps to be taken literally 7in reference to ,elijah's translation74 #b ,the method of obtaining water 7v4 #af sq47 is that which still gives its name to the ,wadi el-,ahsa 7valley of water pits7 at the southern end of the ,dead ,sea 7,old ,test4 ,jew4 ,church1 #bnd ed41 #adg74 ,on the other hand1 see ,burney1 ,heb4 ,text of ,kings1 p4 #bgj4 #c ,r4 ,v4 marg4 is an alteration to remove from ,elisha the suggestion of an untruth4 #d ,the ,gilgal of ,elisha is near the ,jordan--comp4 vi4 #a with iv4 #ch1 ,hebrew3 shavim lefanaiv1--and cannot be other than the great sanctuary #b m4 from ,jericho1 the local holiness of which is still attested in the ,onomastica4 ,it is true that in #b ,kings ii4 #a ,bethel seems to lie between ,gilgal and ,jericho2 but v4 #be shows that ,gilgal was not originally represented as ,elisha's residence in this narrative1 which belongs to the ,carmel-,dothan series4 ,on the other hand1 for the identification with the ,gilgal 7,jiljilia7 ,s4,w4 of ,shiloh1 see ,g4,a4 ,smith1 ,ency4 ,bib4 7s4v4 ,gilgal72 ,burney1 op4 cit41 p4 #bfd2 ,skinner1 ,century ,bible3 ,kings1 p4 #bgh4 ,,elisha ,,ben ,,abuyah 7c4 ,a4,d4 #ajj71 a unique figure among the ,palestinian ,jews of the first ,christian century4 ,he was born before the destruction of the ,temple 7which occurred in ,a4,d4 #gj7 and survived into the #bnd century4 ,it is not easy to decide as to his exact attitude towards ,judaism4 ,that he refused to accept the current rabbinical views is certain1 though the ,talmud cites his legal decisions4 ,most authorities believe that he was a ,gnostic2 but while it is certain that he was not a ,christian1 it is possible that he was simply a ,sadducee1 and thus an opponent not of ,judaism but of ,pharisaism4 ,his disciple1 the famous ,pharisee ,meir1 remained his steadfast friend1 and his efforts to reclaim his former master are among the most pathetic incidents in the ,talmud4 ,in later ages ,elisha 7aher the other1 as he was named7 was regarded as the type of a heretic whose pride of intellect betrayed him into infidelity to law and morals4 ,without much appropriateness ,elisha has been sometimes described as the ,faust of the ,talmud4 7,i4 ,a47 ,,elixir 7from the ,arabic al-iksir1 probably an adaptation of the ,gr4 ,greek3 xerion1 a powder used for drying wounds1 from ,greek3 xeros1 dry71 in alchemy1 the medium which would effect the transmutation of base metals into gold2 it probably included all such substances--vapours1 liquids1 c4--and had a wider meaning than philosopher's stone4 ,the same term1 more fully elixir vitae1 elixir of life1 was given to the substance which would indefinitely prolong life2 it was considered to be closely related to1 or even identical with1 the substance for transmuting metals4 ,in pharmacy the word was formerly given to a strong extract or tincture1 but it is only used now for an aromatic sweet preparation1 containing one or more drugs1 and in such expressions as elixir of vitriol1 a mixture of sulphuric acid1 cinnamon1 ginger and alcohol4 ,,elizabeth 7#aecc-afjc71 queen of ,england and ,ireland1 born on ,sunday the #gth of ,september #aecc1 and1 like all the ,tudors except ,henry ,,vii41 at ,greenwich ,palace1 was the only surviving child of ,henry ,,viii4 by his second queen1 ,anne ,boleyn4 ,with such a mother and with ,cranmer as her godfather she represented from her birth the principle of revolt from ,rome1 but the opponents of that movement attached little importance to her advent into the world4 ,charles ,v4's ambassador1 ,chapuys1 hardly deigned to mention the fact that the king's amie had given birth to a daughter1 and both her parents were bitterly disappointed with her sex4 ,she was1 however1 given precedence over ,mary1 her elder sister by sixteen years1 and ,mary never forgave the infant's offence4 ,even this dubious advantage only lasted three years until her mother was beheaded1 and by a much more serious freak on ,henry's part divorced4 ,elizabeth has been censured for having made no effort in later years to clear her mother's memory2 but no vindication of ,anne's character could have rehabilitated ,elizabeth's legitimacy4 ,her mother was not divorced for her alleged adultery1 because that crime was no ground for divorce by ,roman or ,english canon law4 ,the marriage was declared invalid ab initio either on the ground of ,anne's precontract with ,lord ,percy or more probably on the ground of the affinity established between ,henry and ,anne by ,henry's previous relations with ,mary ,boleyn4 ,elizabeth thus lost all hereditary title to the throne1 and her early years of childhood can hardly have been happier than ,mary's4 ,nor was her legitimacy ever legally established2 but after ,jane ,seymour's death1 when ,henry seemed likely to have no further issue1 she was by act of parliament placed next in order of the succession after ,edward and ,mary and their issue2 and this statutory arrangement was confirmed by the will which ,henry ,,viii4 was empowered by statute to make4 ,queen ,catherine ,parr introduced some humanity into ,henry's household1 and ,edward and ,elizabeth were well and happily educated together1 principally at old ,hatfield ,house1 which is now the marquess of ,salisbury's stables4 ,they were there when ,henry's death called ,edward ,,vi4 away to greater dignities1 and ,elizabeth was left in the care of ,catherine ,parr1 who married in indecent haste ,thomas1 ,lord ,seymour1 brother of the protector ,somerset4 ,this unprincipled adventurer1 even before ,catherine's death in ,september #aedh1 paid indelicate attentions to ,elizabeth4 ,any attempt to marry her without the council's leave would have been treason on his part and would have deprived ,elizabeth of her contingent right to the succession4 ,accordingly1 when ,seymour's other misbehaviour led to his arrest1 his relations with ,elizabeth were made the subject of a very trying investigation1 which gave ,elizabeth her first lessons in the feminine arts of self-defence4 ,she proved equal to the occasion1 partly because she was in all probability innocent of anything worse than a qualified acquiescence in ,seymour's improprieties and a girlish admiration for his handsome face4 ,he or his tragic fate may have touched a deeper chord1 but it was carefully concealed2 and although in later years ,elizabeth seems to have cherished his memory1 and certainly showed no love for his brother's children1 at the time she only showed resentment at the indignities inflicted on herself4 ,for the rest of ,edward's reign ,elizabeth's life was less tempestuous4 ,she hardly rivalled ,lady ,jane ,grey as the ideal ,puritan maiden1 but she swam with the stream1 and was regarded as a foil to her stubborn ,catholic sister4 ,she thus avoided the enmity and the still more dangerous favour of ,northumberland2 and some unknown history lies behind the duke's preference of the ,lady ,jane to ,elizabeth as his son's wife and his own puppet for the throne4 ,she thus escaped shipwreck in his crazy vessel1 and rode by ,mary's side in triumph into ,london on the failure of the plot4 ,for a time she was safe enough2 she would not renounce her ,protestantism until ,catholicism had been made the law of the land1 but she followed ,gardiner's advice to her father when he said it was better that he should make the law his will than try to make his will the law4 ,as a presumptive ruler of ,england she was1 like ,cecil1 and for that matter the future archbishop ,parker also1 too shrewd to commit herself to passive or active resistance to the law2 and they merely anticipated ,hobbes in holding that the individual committed no sin in subordinating his conscience to the will of the state1 for the responsibility for the law was not his but the state's4 ,their position was well enough understood in those days2 it was known that they were heretics at heart1 and that when their turn came they would once more overthrow ,catholicism and expect a similar submission from the ,catholics4 ,it was not so much ,elizabeth's religion as her nearness to the throne and the circumstances of her birth that endangered her life in ,mary's reign4 ,while ,mary was popular ,elizabeth was safe2 but as soon as the ,spanish marriage project had turned away ,english hearts ,elizabeth inevitably became the centre of plots and the hope of the plotters4 ,had not ,lady ,jane still been alive to take off the edge of ,mary's indignation and suspicion ,elizabeth might have paid forfeit for ,wyat's rebellion with her life instead of imprisonment4 ,she may have had interviews with ,french agents who helped to foment the insurrection2 but she was strong and wary enough to avoid ,henry ,,ii4's1 as she had avoided ,northumberland's1 toils2 for even in case of success she would have been the ,french king's puppet1 placed on the throne1 if at all1 merely to keep it warm for ,henry's prospective daughter-in-law1 ,mary ,stuart4 ,this did not make ,mary ,tudor any more friendly1 and1 although the story that ,elizabeth favoured ,courtenay and that ,mary was jealous is a ridiculous fiction1 the ,spaniards cried loud and long for ,elizabeth's execution4 ,she was sent to the ,tower in ,march #aeed1 but few ,englishmen were fanatic enough to want a ,tudor beheaded4 ,the great nobles1 the ,howards1 and ,gardiner would not hear of such a proposal2 and all the efforts of the court throughout ,mary's reign failed to induce parliament to listen to the suggestion that ,elizabeth should be deprived of her legal right to the succession4 ,after two months in the ,tower she was transferred to ,sir ,henry ,bedingfield's charge at ,woodstock1 and at ,christmas1 when the realm had been reconciled to ,rome and ,mary was expecting issue1 ,elizabeth was once more received at court4 ,in the autumn of #aeee she went down to ,hatfield1 where she spent most of the rest of ,mary's reign1 enjoying the lessons of ,ascham and ,baldassare ,castiglione1 and planting trees which still survive4 ,she had only to bide her time while ,mary made straight her successor's path by uprooting whatever affection the ,english people had for the ,catholic faith1 ,roman jurisdiction and ,spanish control4 ,the ,protestant martyrs and ,calais between them removed all the alternatives to an insular national ,english policy in church and in state2 and no sovereign was better qualified to lead such a cause than the queen who ascended the throne amid universal1 and the ,spaniards thought indecent1 rejoicings at ,mary's death on the #agth of ,november #aeeh4 ,mere ,english she boasted of being1 and after ,englishmen's recent experience there was no surer title to popular favour4 ,no sovereign since ,harold had been so purely ,english in blood2 her nearest foreign ancestor was ,catherine of ,france1 the widow of ,henry ,v41 and no ,english king or queen was more superbly insular in character or in policy4 ,she was the unmistakable child of the age so far as ,englishmen shared in its characteristics1 for with her ,english aims she combined some ,italian methods and ideas4 ,an ,englishman ,italianate1 ran the current jingle1 is a devil incarnate1 and ,elizabeth was well versed in ,italian scholarship and statecraft4 ,italians1 especially ,bernardino ,ochino1 had given her religious instruction1 and the ,italians who rejected ,catholicism usually adopted far more advanced forms of heresy than ,lutheranism1 ,zwinglianism1 or even ,calvinism4 ,elizabeth herself patronized ,giacomo ,acontio1 who thought dogma a stratagema ,satanae1 and her last favourite1 ,essex was accused of being the ringleader of a damnable crew of atheists4 ,a ,spanish ambassador early in the reign thought that ,elizabeth's own religion was equally negative1 though she told him she agreed with nearly everything in the ,augsburg ,confession4 ,she was probably not at liberty to say what she really thought1 but she made up by saying a great many things which she did not mean4 ,it is clear enough that1 although1 like her father1 she was fond of ritual1 she was absolutely devoid of the religious temperament1 and that her ecclesiastical preferences were dictated by political considerations4 ,she was sincere enough in her dislike of ,roman jurisdiction and of ,calvinism2 a daughter of ,anne ,boleyn could have little affection for a system which made her a bastard1 and all monarchs agreed at heart with ,james ,i4's aphorism about no bishop1 no king4 ,it was convenient1 too1 to profess ,lutheran sympathies1 for ,lutheranism was now an established1 monarchical and comparatively respectable religion1 very different from the ,calvinism against which monarchs directed the ,counter-reformation from political motives4 ,lutheran dogma1 however1 had few adherents in ,england1 though its political theory coincided with that of ,anglicanism in the #afth century4 ,the compromise that resulted from these conflicting forces suited ,elizabeth very well2 she had little dislike of ,catholics who repudiated the papacy1 but she was forced to rely mainly on ,protestants1 and had little respect for any form of ecclesiastical self-government4 ,she valued uniformity in religion1 not as a safeguard against heresy1 but as a guarantee of the unity of the state4 ,she respected the bishops only as supporters of her throne2 and1 although the well-known letter beginning ,proud ,prelate is an #ahth-century forgery1 it is hardly a travesty of ,elizabeth's attitude4 ,the outlines of her foreign policy are sketched elsewhere 7see ,,english ,,history71 and her courtships were diplomatic4 ,contemporary gossip1 which was probably justified1 said that she was debarred from matrimony by a physical defect2 and her cry when she heard that ,mary queen of ,scots had given birth to a son is the most womanly thing recorded of ,elizabeth4 ,her features were as handsome as ,mary's1 but she had little fascination1 and in spite of her many suitors no man lost his head over ,elizabeth as men did over ,mary4 ,she was far too masculine in mind and temperament1 and her extravagant addiction to the outward trappings of femininity was probably due to the absence or atrophy of deeper feminine instincts4 ,in the same way the impossibility of marriage made her all the freer with her flirtations1 and she carried some of them to lengths that scandalized a public unconscious of ,elizabeth's security4 ,she had every reason to keep them in the dark1 and to convince other courts that she could and would marry if the provocation were sufficient4 ,she could not marry ,philip ,,ii41 but she held out hopes to more than one of his ,austrian cousins whenever ,france or ,mary ,stuart seemed to threaten2 and later she encouraged two ,french princes when ,philip had lost patience with ,elizabeth and made ,mary ,stuart his protegee4 ,her other suitors were less important1 except ,leicester1 who appealed to the least intellectual side of ,elizabeth and was always a cause of distraction in her policy and her ministers4 ,elizabeth was terribly handicapped by having no heirs of her body and no obvious ,english successor4 ,she could not afford to recognize ,mary's claim1 for that would have been to alienate the ,protestants1 double the number of ,catholics1 and1 in her own phrase1 to spread a winding-sheet before her eyes2 for all would have turned to the rising sun4 ,mary was dangerous enough as it was1 and no one would willingly make his rival his heir4 ,elizabeth could hardly be expected to go out of her way and ask parliament to repeal its own acts for ,mary's sake2 probably it would have refused4 ,nor was it personal enmity on ,elizabeth's part that brought ,mary to the block4 ,parliament had long been ferociously demanding ,mary's execution1 not because she was guilty but because she was dangerous to the public peace4 ,she alone could have given the ,spanish ,armada any real chance of success2 and as the prospect of invasion loomed larger on the horizon1 fiercer grew the popular determination to remove the only possible centre of a domestic rising1 without which the external attack was bound to be a failure4 ,elizabeth resisted the demand1 not from compassion or qualms of conscience1 but because she dreaded the responsibility for ,mary's death4 ,she wished ,paulet would manage the business on his own account1 and when at last her signature was extorted she made a scapegoat of her secretary ,davison who had the warrant executed4 ,the other great difficulty1 apart from the succession1 with which ,elizabeth had to deal arose from the exuberant aggressiveness of ,england1 which she could not1 and perhaps did not want to1 repress4 ,religion was not really the cause of her external dangers1 for the time had passed for crusades1 and no foreign power seriously contemplated an armed invasion of ,england for religion's sake4 ,but no state could long tolerate the affronts which ,english seamen offered ,spain4 ,the common view that the ,british ,empire has been won by purely defensive action is not tenable1 and from the beginning of her reign ,englishmen had taken the offensive1 partly from religious but also from other motives4 ,they were determined to break up the ,spanish monopoly in the new world1 and in the pursuit of this endeavour they were led to challenge ,spain in the old4 ,for nearly thirty years ,philip put up with the capture of his treasure-ships1 the raiding of his colonies and the open assistance rendered to his rebels4 ,only when he had reached the conclusion that his power would never be secure in the ,netherlands or the ,new ,world until ,england was conquered1 did he despatch the ,spanish ,armada4 ,elizabeth delayed the breach as long as she could1 probably because she knew that war meant taxation1 and that taxation was the most prolific parent of revolt4 ,with the defeat of the ,spanish ,armada ,elizabeth's work was done1 and during the last fifteen years of her reign she got more out of touch with her people4 ,that period was one of gradual transition to the conditions of ,stuart times2 during it practically every claim was put forward that was made under the first two ,stuarts either on behalf of parliament or the prerogative1 and ,elizabeth's attitude towards the ,puritans was hardly distinguishable from ,james ,i4's4 ,but her past was in her favour1 and so were her sex and her ,tudor tact1 which checked the growth of discontent and made ,essex's rebellion a ridiculous fiasco4 ,he was the last and the most wilful but perhaps the best of her favourites1 and his tragic fate deepened the gloom of her closing years4 ,the loneliness of a queen who had no husband or children and no relatives to mention must at all times have been oppressive2 it grew desolating in old age after the deaths of ,leicester1 ,walsingham1 ,burghley and ,essex1 and ,elizabeth died1 the last of her race1 on the #bdth of ,march #afjc4 ,bishop ,creighton's ,queen ,elizabeth 7#ahif7 is the best biography2 there are others by ,e4,s4 ,beesly 7,twelve ,english ,statesmen1 #ahib72 ,lucy ,aikin1 ,memoirs of the ,court of ,queen ,elizabeth 7#ahah72 and ,t4 ,wright1 ,queen ,elizabeth and her ,times 7#ahch74 ,see also ,a4 ,jessopp's article in the ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog4 7,a4 ,f4 ,p47 ,,elizabeth ,,petrovna 7#agji-agfb71 ,,empress ,,of ,,russia1 the daughter of ,peter the ,great and ,martha ,skovronskaya1 born at ,kolomenskoye1 near ,moscow1 on the #ahth of ,december #agji4 ,even as a child her parts were good1 if not brilliant1 but unfortunately her education was both imperfect and desultory4 ,her father had no leisure to devote to her training1 and her mother was too illiterate to superintend her studies4 ,she had a ,french governess1 however1 and at a later day picked up some ,italian1 ,german and ,swedish1 and could converse in these languages with more fluency than accuracy4 ,from her earliest years she delighted every one by her extraordinary beauty and vivacity4 ,it was ,peter's intention to marry his second daughter to the young ,french king ,louis ,,xv41 but the pride of the ,bourbons revolted against any such alliance4 ,other connubial speculations foundered on the personal dislike of the princess for the various suitors proposed to her1 so that on the death of her mother 7,may #agbg7 and the departure to ,holstein of her beloved sister ,anne1 her only remaining near relation1 the princess found herself at the age of eighteen practically her own mistress4 ,so long as ,menshikov remained in power1 she was treated with liberality and distinction by the government of ,peter ,,ii41 but the ,dolgorukis1 who supplanted ,menshikov and hated the memory of ,peter the ,great1 practically banished ,peter's daughter from court4 ,elizabeth had inherited her father's sensual temperament and1 being free from all control1 abandoned herself to her appetites without reserve4 ,while still in her teens1 she made a lover of ,alexius ,shubin1 a sergeant in the ,semenovsky ,guards1 and after his banishment to ,siberia1 minus his tongue1 by order of the empress ,anne1 consoled herself with a handsome young ,cossack1 ,alexius ,razumovski1 who1 there is good reason to believe1 subsequently became her husband4 ,during the reign of her cousin ,anne 7#agcj-agdj71 ,elizabeth effaced herself as much as possible2 but under the regency of ,anne ,leopoldovna the course of events compelled the indolent but by no means incapable beauty to overthrow the existing government4 ,the idea seems to have been first suggested to her by the ,french ambassador1 ,la ,chetardie1 who was plotting to destroy the ,austrian influence then dominant at the ,russian court4 ,it is a mistake to suppose1 however1 that ,la ,chetardie took a leading part in the revolution which placed the daughter of ,peter the ,great on the ,russian throne4 ,as a matter of fact1 beyond lending the tsesarevna #bjjj ducats1 instead of the #ae1jjj she demanded of him1 he took no part whatever in the actual coup d'etat which was as great a surprise to him as to every one else4 ,the merit and glory of that singular affair belong to ,elizabeth alone4 ,the fear of being imprisoned in a convent for the rest of her life was the determining cause of her irresistible outburst of energy4 ,at midnight on the #fth of ,december #agda1 with a few personal friends1 including her physician1 ,armand ,lestocq1 her chamberlain1 ,michael ,ilarionvich ,vorontsov1 her future husband1 ,alexius ,razumovski1 and ,alexander and ,peter ,shuvalov1 two of the gentlemen of her household1 she drove to the barracks of the ,preobrazhensky ,guards1 enlisted their sympathies by a stirring speech1 and led them to the ,winter ,palace1 where the regent was reposing in absolute security4 ,having on the way thither had all the ministers arrested1 she seized the regent and her children in their beds1 and summoned all the notables1 civil and ecclesiastical1 to her presence4 ,so swiftly and noiselessly indeed had the whole revolution proceeded that as late as eight o'clock the next morning very few people in the city were aware of it4 ,thus1 at the age of three-and-thirty1 this naturally indolent and self-indulgent woman1 with little knowledge and no experience of affairs1 suddenly found herself at the head of a great empire at one of the most critical periods of its existence4 ,fortunately for herself1 and for ,russia1 ,elizabeth ,petrovna1 with all her shortcomings1 had inherited some of her father's genius for government4 ,her usually keen judgment and her diplomatic tact again and again recall ,peter the ,great4 ,what in her sometimes seemed irresolution and procrastination1 was1 most often1 a wise suspense of judgment under exceptionally difficult circumstances2 and to this may be added that she was ever ready to sacrifice the prejudices of the woman to the duty of the sovereign4 ,after abolishing the cabinet council system in favour during the rule of the two ,annes1 and reconstituting the senate as it had been under ,peter the ,great1--with the chiefs of the departments of state1 all of them now ,russians again1 as ex-officio members under the presidency of the sovereign1--the first care of the new empress was to compose her quarrel with ,sweden4 ,on the #bcrd of ,january #agdc1 direct negotiations between the two powers were opened at ,abo1 and on the #gth of ,august #agdc ,sweden ceded to ,russia all the southern part of ,finland east of the river ,kymmene1 which thus became the boundary between the two states1 including the fortresses of ,villmanstrand and ,fredrikshamn4 ,this triumphant issue was mainly due to the diplomatic ability of the new vice chancellor1 ,alexius ,bestuzhev-,ryumin 7q4v471 whom ,elizabeth1 much as she disliked him personally1 had wisely placed at the head of foreign affairs immediately after her accession4 ,he represented the anti-,franco-,prussian portion of her council1 and his object was to bring about an ,anglo-,austro-,russian alliance which1 at that time1 was undoubtedly ,russia's proper system4 ,hence the reiterated attempts of ,frederick the ,great and ,louis ,,xv4 to get rid of ,bestuzhev1 which made the ,russian court during the earlier years of ,elizabeth's reign the centre of a tangle of intrigue impossible to unravel by those who do not possess the clue to it 7see ,,bestuzhev-,,ryumin1 ,,alexius74 ,ultimately1 however1 the minister1 strong in the support of ,elizabeth1 prevailed1 and his faultless diplomacy1 backed by the despatch of an auxiliary ,russian corps of #cj1jjj men to the ,rhine1 greatly accelerated the peace negotiations which led to the treaty of ,aix-la-,chapelle 7,october #ah1 #agdh74 ,by sheer tenacity of purpose1 ,bestuzhev had extricated his country from the ,swedish imbroglio2 reconciled his imperial mistress with the courts of ,vienna and ,london1 her natural allies2 enabled ,russia to assert herself effectually in ,poland1 ,turkey and ,sweden1 and isolated the restless king of ,prussia by environing him with hostile alliances4 ,but all this would have been impossible but for the steady support of ,elizabeth1 who trusted him implicitly1 despite the insinuations of the chancellor's innumerable enemies1 most of whom were her personal friends4 ,the great event of ,elizabeth's later years was the ,seven ,years' ,war4 ,elizabeth rightly regarded the treaty of ,westminster 7,january #af1 #agef1 whereby ,great ,britain and ,prussia agreed to unite their forces to oppose the entry into1 or the passage through1 ,germany of the troops of every foreign power7 as utterly subversive of the previous conventions between ,great ,britain and ,russia4 ,a by no means unwarrantable fear of the king of ,prussia1 who was to be reduced within proper limits1 so that he might be no longer a danger to the empire1 induced ,elizabeth to accede to the treaty of ,versailles1 in other words the ,franco-,austrian league against ,prussia1 and on the #agth of ,may #ageg the ,russian army1 #he1jjj strong1 advanced against ,konigsberg4 ,neither the serious illness of the empress1 which began with a fainting-fit at ,tsarskoe ,selo 7,september #ai1 #ageg71 nor the fall of ,bestuzhev 7,february #ba1 #ageh71 nor the cabals and intrigues of the various foreign powers at ,st ,petersburg1 interfered with the progress of the war1 and the crushing defeat of ,kunersdorf 7,august #ab1 #agei7 at last brought ,frederick to the verge of ruin4 ,from that day forth he despaired of success1 though he was saved for the moment by the jealousies of the ,russian and ,austrian commanders1 which ruined the military plans of the allies4 ,on the other hand1 it is not too much to say that1 from the end of #agei to the end of #agfa1 the unshakable firmness of the ,russian empress was the one constraining political force which held together the heterogeneous1 incessantly jarring elements of the anti-,prussian combination4 ,from the ,russian point of view1 ,elizabeth's greatness as a statesman consists in her steady appreciation of ,russian interests1 and her determination to promote them at all hazards4 ,she insisted throughout that the king of ,prussia must be rendered harmless to his neighbours for the future1 and that the only way to bring this about was to reduce him to the rank of an elector4 ,frederick himself was quite alive to his danger4 ,i am at the end of my resources1 he wrote at the beginning of #agfj1 the continuance of this war means for me utter ruin4 ,things may drag on perhaps till ,july1 but then a catastrophe must come4 ,on the #bast of ,may #agfj a fresh convention was signed between ,russia and ,austria1 a secret clause of which1 never communicated to the court of ,versailles1 guaranteed ,east ,prussia to ,russia1 as an indemnity for war expenses4 ,the failure of the campaign of #agfj1 so far as ,russia and ,france were concerned1 induced the court of ,versailles1 on the evening of the #bbnd of ,january #agfa1 to present to the court of ,st ,petersburg a despatch to the effect that the king of ,france by reason of the condition of his dominions absolutely desired peace4 ,on the following day the ,austrian ambassador1 ,esterhazy1 presented a despatch of a similar tenor from his court4 ,the ,russian empress's reply was delivered to the two ambassadors on the #abth of ,february4 ,it was inspired by the most uncompromising hostility towards the king of ,prussia4 ,elizabeth would not consent to any pacific overtures until the original object of the league had been accomplished4 ,simultaneously1 ,elizabeth caused to be conveyed to ,louis ,,xv4 a confidential letter in which she proposed the signature of a new treaty of alliance of a more comprehensive and explicit nature than the preceding treaties between the two powers1 without the knowledge of ,austria4 ,elizabeth's object in this mysterious negotiation seems to have been to reconcile ,france and ,great ,britain1 in return for which signal service ,france was to throw all her forces into the ,german war4 ,this project1 which lacked neither ability nor audacity1 foundered upon ,louis ,,xv4's invincible jealousy of the growth of ,russian influence in eastern ,europe and his fear of offending the ,porte4 ,it was finally arranged by the allies that their envoys at ,paris should fix the date for the assembling of a peace congress1 and that1 in the meantime1 the war against ,prussia should be vigorously prosecuted4 ,the campaign of #agfa was almost as abortive as the campaign of #agfj4 ,frederick acted on the defensive with consummate skill1 and the capture of the ,prussian fortress of ,kolberg on ,christmas day ,o4,s4 #agfa1 by ,rumyantsev1 was the sole ,russian success4 ,frederick1 however1 was now at the last gasp4 ,on the #fth of ,january #agfb1 he wrote to ,finkenstein1 ,we ought now to think of preserving for my nephew1 by way of negotiation1 whatever fragments of my territory we can save from the avidity of my enemies1 which means1 if words mean anything1 that he was resolved to seek a soldier's death on the first opportunity4 ,a fortnight later he wrote to ,prince ,ferdinand of ,brunswick1 ,the sky begins to clear4 ,courage1 my dear fellow4 ,i have received the news of a great event4 ,the great event which snatched him from destruction was the death of the ,russian empress 7,january #e1 #agfb74 ,see ,robert ,nisbet ,bain1 ,the ,daughter of ,peter the ,great 7,london1 #ahii72 ,sergyei ,solovev1 ,history of ,russia 7,rus471 vols4 xx4-xxii4 7,st ,petersburg1 #aheg-ahgg72 ,politische ,correspondenz ,friedrichs des ,grossen1 vols4 i4-xxi4 7,berlin1 #ahgi1 c472 ,colonel ,masslowski1 ,der siebenjahrige ,krieg nach russischer ,darstellung 7,berlin1 #ahhh-ahic72 ,kazinsierz ,waliszewski1 ,la ,derniere des ,romanov 7,paris1 #aijb74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,elizabeth ,,amelie ,,eugenie 7#ahcg-ahih71 consort of ,francis ,joseph1 emperor of ,austria and king of ,hungary1 was the daughter of ,duke ,maximilian ,joseph of ,bavaria and ,louisa ,wilhelmina1 daughter of ,maximilian ,i4 of ,bavaria1 and was born on the #bdth of ,december #ahcg at the castle of ,possenhofen on ,lake ,starnberg4 ,she inherited the quick intelligence and artistic taste displayed in general by members of the ,wittelsbach royal house1 and her education was the reverse of conventional4 ,she accompanied her eccentric father on his hunting expeditions1 becoming an expert rider and climber1 visiting the peasants in their huts and sharing in rustic pleasures4 ,the emperor of ,austria1 ,francis ,joseph1 met the ,bavarian ducal family at ,ischl in ,august #ahec1 and immediately fell in love with ,elizabeth1 then a girl of sixteen1 and reported to be the most beautiful princess in ,europe4 ,the marriage took place in ,vienna on the #bdth of ,april #ahed4 ,in the early days of her married life she frequently came into collision with ,viennese prejudice4 ,her attempts to modify court etiquette1 and her extreme fondness for horsemanship and frequent visits to the imperial riding school1 scandalized ,austrian society1 while her predilection for ,hungary and for everything ,hungarian offended ,german sentiment4 ,there is no doubt that her influence helped the establishment of the ,ausgleich with ,hungary1 but outside ,hungarian affairs the empress took small part in politics4 ,she first visited ,hungary in #aheg1 and ten years later was crowned queen4 ,her popularity with the ,hungarians remained unchanged throughout her life2 and the castle of ,godollo1 presented as a coronation gift1 was one of her favourite residences4 ,elizabeth was one of the most charitable of royal ladies1 and her popularity with her ,austrian subjects was more than restored by her assiduous care for the wounded in the campaign of #ahff4 ,besides her public benefactions she constantly exercised personal and private charity4 ,her eldest daughter died in infancy2 ,gisela 7b4 #ahef7 married the ,prince ,leopold of ,bavaria2 and her youngest daughter ,marie ,valerie 7b4 #ahfh7 married the ,archduke ,franz ,salvator4 ,the tragic death of her only son1 the crown prince ,rudolph1 in #ahhi1 was a shock from which she never really recovered4 ,she was also deeply affected by the suicide of her cousin ,louis ,,ii4 of ,bavaria1 and again by the fate of her sister ,sophia1 duchess of ,alencon1 who perished in the fire of the ,paris charity bazaar in #ahig4 ,the empress had shown signs of lung disease in #ahfa1 when she spent some months in ,madeira2 but she was able to resume her outdoor sports1 and for some years before #ahhb1 when she had to give up riding1 was a frequent visitor on ,english and ,irish hunting fields4 ,in her later years her dislike of publicity increased4 ,much of her time was spent in travel or at the ,achilleion1 the palace she had built in the ,greek style in ,corfu4 ,she was walking from her hotel at ,geneva to the steamer when she was stabbed by the anarchist ,luigi ,luccheni1 on the #ajth of ,september #ahih1 and died of the wound within a few hours4 ,this aimless and dastardly crime completed the list of misfortunes of the ,austrian house1 and aroused intense indignation throughout ,europe4 ,see ,a4 de ,burgh1 ,elizabeth1 ,empress of ,austria1 a ,memoir 7,london1 #ahih72 ,e4 ,friedmann and ,j4 ,paves1 ,kaiserin ,elisabeth 7,berlin1 #ahih72 and the anonymous ,martyrdom of an ,empress 7#ahii71 containing a quantity of court gossip4 ,,elizabeth 7#aeif-affb71 consort of ,frederick ,v41 elector palatine and titular king of ,bohemia1 was the eldest daughter of ,james ,i4 of ,great ,britain and of ,anne of ,denmark1 and was born at ,falkland ,castle in ,fifeshire in ,august #aeif4 ,she was entrusted to the care of the earl of ,linlithgow1 and after the departure of the royal family to ,england1 to the countess of ,kildare1 subsequently residing with ,lord and ,lady ,harington at ,combe ,abbey in ,warwickshire4 ,in ,november #afje the ,gunpowder ,plot conspirators formed a plan to seize her person and proclaim her queen after the explosion1 in consequence of which she was removed by ,lord ,harington to ,coventry4 ,in #afjh she appeared at court1 where her beauty soon attracted admiration and became the theme of the poets1 her suitors including the dauphin1 ,maurice1 prince of ,orange1 ,gustavus ,adolphus1 ,philip ,,iii4 of ,spain1 and ,frederick ,v41 the elector palatine4 ,a union with the last-named was finally arranged1 in spite of the queen's opposition1 in order to strengthen the alliance with the ,protestant powers in ,germany1 and the marriage took place on the #adth of ,february #afac midst great rejoicing and festivities4 ,the prince and princess entered ,heidelberg on the #agth of ,june1 and ,elizabeth1 by means of her ,english annuity1 enjoyed five years of pleasure and of extravagant gaiety to which the small ,german court was totally unaccustomed4 ,on the #bfth of ,august #afah1 ,frederick1 as a leading ,protestant prince1 was chosen king by the ,bohemians1 who deposed the emperor ,ferdinand1 then archduke of ,styria4 ,there is no evidence to show that his acceptance was instigated by the princess or that she had any influence in her husband's political career4 ,she accompanied ,frederick to ,prague in ,october #afai1 and was crowned on the #gth of ,november4 ,here her unrestrainable high spirits and levity gave great offence to the citizens4 ,on the approach of misfortune1 however1 she showed great courage and fortitude4 ,she left ,prague on the #hth of ,november #afbj1 after the fatal battle of the ,white ,hill1 for ,kustrin1 travelling thence to ,berlin and ,wolfenbuttel1 finally with ,frederick taking refuge at the ,hague with ,prince ,maurice of ,orange4 ,the help sought from ,james came only in the shape of useless embassies and negotiations2 the two ,palatinates were soon occupied by the ,spaniards and the duke of ,bavaria2 and the romantic attachment and services of ,duke ,christian of ,brunswick1 of the #ast earl of ,craven1 and of other chivalrous young champions who were inspired by the beauty and grace of the ,queen of ,hearts1 as ,elizabeth was now called1 availed nothing4 ,her residence was at ,rhenen near ,arnheim1 where she received many ,english visitors and endeavoured to maintain her spirits and fortitude1 with straitened means and in spite of frequent disappointments4 ,the victories of ,gustavus ,adolphus secured no permanent advantage1 and his death at ,lutzen was followed by that of the elector at ,mainz on the #bith of ,november #afcb4 ,subsequent attempts of the princess to reinstate her son in his dominions were unsuccessful1 and it was not till the peace of ,westphalia in #afdh that he regained a portion of them1 the ,rhenish ,palatinate4 ,meanwhile1 ,elizabeth's position in ,holland grew more and more unsatisfactory4 ,the payment of her ,english annuity of ,l#ab1jjj ceased after the outbreak of the troubles with the parliament2 the death of ,charles ,i4 in #afdi put an end to all hopes from that quarter2 and the pension allowed her by the house of ,orange ceased in #afej4 ,her children1 in consequence of disputes1 abandoned her1 and her eldest son ,charles ,louis refused her a home in his restored electorate4 ,nor did ,charles ,,ii4 at his restoration show any desire to receive her in ,england4 ,parliament voted her ,l#bj1jjj in #affj for the payment of her debts1 but ,elizabeth did not receive the money1 and on the #aith of ,may #affa she left the ,hague for ,england1 in spite of the king's attempts to hinder her journey1 receiving no official welcome on her arrival in ,london and being lodged at ,lord ,craven's house in ,drury ,lane4 ,charles1 however1 subsequently granted her a pension and treated her with kindness4 ,on the #hth of ,february #affb she removed to ,leicester ,house in ,leicester ,fields1 and died shortly afterwards on the #acth of the same month1 being buried in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,her beauty1 grace and vivacity exercised a great charm over her contemporaries1 the enthusiasm for her1 however1 being probably not merely personal but one inspired also by her misfortunes and by the fact that these misfortunes were incurred in defence of the ,protestant cause2 later1 as the ancestress of the ,protestant ,hanoverian dynasty1 she obtained a conspicuous place in ,english history4 ,she had thirteen children--,frederick ,henry1 drowned at sea in #afbi2 ,charles ,louis1 elector palatine1 whose daughter married ,philip1 duke of ,orleans1 and became the ancestress of the elder and ,roman ,catholic branch of the royal family of ,england2 ,elizabeth1 abbess and friend of ,descartes2 ,prince ,rupert and ,prince ,maurice1 who died unmarried2 ,louisa1 abbess2 ,edward1 who married ,anne de ,gonzaga1 princesse palatine1 and had children2 ,henrietta ,maria1 who married ,count ,sigismund ,ragotzki but died childless2 ,philip and ,charlotte1 who died childless2 ,sophia1 who married ,ernest ,augustus1 elector of ,hanover1 and was mother of ,george ,i4 of ,england2 and two others who died young4 ,bibliography4--,see the article in ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biography and authorities there collected2 ,five ,stuart ,princesses1 ed4 by ,r4,s4 ,rait 7#aijb72 ,briefe der ,elizabeth ,stuart 444 an 444 den ,kurfursten ,carl ,ludwig von der ,pfalz1 by ,a4 ,wendland 7,bibliothek des literarischen ,vereins1 #bbh1 ,stuttgart1 #aijb72 ,elizabeth ,stuart1 by ,j4,o4 ,opel1 in ,sybel's ,historische ,zeitschrift1 xxiii4 #bhi2 ,thomason ,tracts 7,brit4 ,mus471 ,e41 #ach 7#ad71 #abb 7#ab71 #aah 7#dj71 #aai 7#ah74 ,important material regarding the princess exists in the ,,mss4 of the earl of ,craven1 at ,combe ,abbey4 ,,elizabeth ,,pauline ,,elizabeth ,,ottilie ,,louise 7#ahdc- 71 consort of ,king ,charles ,i4 7q4v47 of ,rumania1 widely known by her literary name of ,carmen ,sylva1 was born on the #bith of ,december #ahdc4 ,she was the daughter of ,prince ,hermann of ,neuwied4 ,she first met the future king of ,rumania at ,berlin in #ahfa1 and was married to him on the #aeth of ,november #ahfi4 ,her only child1 a daughter1 died in #ahgd4 ,in the ,russo-,turkish ,war of #ahgg-ahgh she devoted herself to the care of the wounded1 and founded the ,order of ,elizabeth 7a gold cross on a blue ribbon7 to reward distinguished service in such work4 ,she fostered the higher education of women in ,rumania1 and established societies for various charitable objects4 ,early distinguished by her excellence as a pianist1 organist and singer1 she also showed considerable ability in painting and illuminating2 but a lively poetic imagination led her to the path of literature1 and more especially to poetry1 folk-lore and ballads4 ,in addition to numerous original works she put into literary form many of the legends current among the ,rumanian peasantry4 ,carmen ,sylva wrote with facility in ,german1 ,rumanian1 ,french and ,english4 ,a few of her voluminous writings1 which include poems1 plays1 novels1 short stories1 essays1 collections of aphorisms1 c41 may be singled out for special mention4 ,her earliest publications were ,sappho and ,hammerstein1 two poems which appeared at ,leipzig in #ahhj4 ,in #ahhh she received the ,prix ,botta1 a prize awarded triennially by the ,french ,academy1 for her volume of prose aphorisms ,les ,pensees d'une reine 7,paris1 #ahhb71 a ,german version of which is entitled ,vom ,amboss 7,bonn1 #ahij74 ,cuvinte ,sufletesci1 religious meditations in ,rumanian 7,bucharest1 #ahhh71 was also translated into ,german 7,bonn1 #ahij71 under the name of ,seelen-,gesprache4 ,several of the works of ,carmen ,sylva were written in collaboration with ,mite ,kremnitz1 one of her maids of honour1 who was born at ,greifswald in #aheg1 and married ,dr ,kremnitz of ,bucharest2 these were published between #ahha and #ahhh1 in some cases under the pseudonyms ,dito et ,idem1 and includes the novel ,aus zwei ,welten 7,leipzig1 #ahhd71 ,anna ,boleyn 7,bonn1 #ahhf71 a tragedy1 ,in der ,irre 7,bonn1 #ahhh71 a collection of short stories1 c4 ,edleen ,vaughan1 or ,paths of ,peril1 a novel 7,london1 #ahid71 and ,sweet ,hours1 poems 7,london1 #aijd71 were written in ,english4 ,among the translations made by ,carmen ,sylva are ,german versions of ,pierre ,loti's romance ,pecheur d',islande1 and of ,paul de ,st ,victor's dramatic criticisms ,les ,deux ,masques 7,paris1 #ahha-ahhd72 and in particular ,the ,bard of the ,dimbovitza1 a fine ,english version by ,carmen ,sylva and ,alma ,strettell of ,helene ,vacarescu's collection of ,rumanian folk-songs1 c41 entitled ,lieder aus dem ,dimbovitzathal 7,bonn1 #ahhi74 ,the ,bard of the ,dimbovitza was first published in #ahia1 and was soon reissued and expanded4 ,translations from the original works of ,carmen ,sylva have appeared in all the principal languages of ,europe and in ,armenian4 ,see ,,rumania3 ,history2 also ,m4 ,kremnitz1 ,carmen ,sylva--eine ,biographie 7,leipzig1 #aijc72 and1 for a full bibliography1 ,g4 ,bengescu1 ,carmen ,sylva--bibliographie et extraits de ses oeuvres 7,paris1 #aijd74 ,,elizabeth 7#afce-afej71 ,english princess1 second daughter of ,charles ,i41 was born on the #bhth of ,december #afce at ,st ,james's ,palace4 ,on the outbreak of the ,civil ,war and the departure of the king from ,london1 while the two elder princes accompanied their father1 the princess and the infant duke of ,gloucester were left under the care of the parliament4 ,in ,october #afdb ,elizabeth sent a letter to the ,house of ,lords begging that her old attendants might not be removed4 ,in ,july #afdd the royal children were sent to ,sir ,john ,danvers at ,chelsea1 and in #afde to the earl and countess of ,northumberland4 ,after the final defeat of the king they were joined in #afdf by ,james1 and during #afdg paid several visits to the king at ,caversham1 near ,reading1 and ,hampton ,court1 but were again separated by ,charles's imprisonment at ,carisbrooke ,castle4 ,on the #bast of ,april #afdh ,james was persuaded to escape by ,elizabeth1 who declared that were she a boy she would not long remain in confinement4 ,the last sad meeting between ,charles and his two children1 at which the princess was overcome with grief1 and of which she wrote a short and touching account1 took place on the #bith of ,january #afdi1 the day before his execution4 ,in ,june she was entrusted to the care of the earl and countess of ,leicester at ,penshurst1 but in #afej1 upon the landing of ,charles ,,ii4 in ,scotland1 the parliament ordered the royal children to be taken for security to ,carisbrooke ,castle4 ,the princess fell ill from a wetting almost immediately upon her arrival1 and died of fever on the #hth of ,september4 ,she was buried in ,st ,thomas's church at ,newport1 ,isle of ,wight1 where the initials ,e4,s4 alone marked her grave till #ahef1 when a monument was erected to her memory by ,queen ,victoria4 ,the princess's sorrowful career and early death have attracted general interest and sympathy4 ,she was said to have acquired considerable proficiency in ,greek1 ,hebrew and ,latin1 as well as in ,italian and ,french1 and several books were dedicated to her1 including the translation of the ,electra of ,sophocles by ,christopher ,wase in #afdi4 ,her mild nature and gentleness towards her father's enemies gained her the name of ,temperance4 ,see ,lives of the ,princesses of ,england1 by ,m4,a4,e4 ,green 7#ahee71 vol4 vi42 ,notes and ,queries1 #gth ser41 ix4 #ddd1 x4 #ae4 ,,elizabeth ,elisabeth ,philippine ,marie ,helene of ,france 7#agfd-agid71 commonly called ,,madame ,,elizabeth1 daughter of ,louis the ,dauphin and ,marie ,josephine of ,saxony1 and sister of ,louis ,,xvi41 was born at ,versailles on the #crd of ,may #agfd4 ,left an orphan at the age of three1 she was brought up by ,madame de ,mackau1 and had a residence at ,montreuil1 where she gave many proofs of her benevolent character4 ,she refused all offers of marriage so that she might remain by the side of her brother1 whom she loved passionately4 ,at the outset of the ,revolution she foresaw the gravity of events1 and refused to leave the king1 whom she accompanied in his flight on the #bjth of ,june #agib1 and with whom she was arrested at ,varennes4 ,she was present at the ,legislative ,assembly when ,louis was suspended1 and was imprisoned in the ,temple with the royal family4 ,by the execution of the king and the removal of ,marie ,antoinette to the ,conciergerie1 ,madame ,elizabeth was deprived of her companions in the ,temple prison1 and on the #ith of ,may #agid she was herself transferred to the ,conciergerie1 and haled before the revolutionary tribunal4 ,accused of assisting the king's flight1 of supplying emigres with funds1 and of encouraging the resistance of the royal troops on the #ajth of ,august #agib1 she was condemned to death1 and executed on the #ajth of ,may #agid4 ,like her brother1 she had all the domestic virtues1 and1 as was to be expected of a sister of ,louis ,,xvi41 she was in favour of absolutist principles4 ,hers was one of the most touching tragedies of the ,revolution2 she perished because she was the sister of the king4 ,the ,memoires de ,madame ,elisabeth 7,paris1 #aheh71 by ,f4 de ,barghon and ,fort-,rion1 are of doubtful authenticity2 and the collection of letters and documents published in #ahfe by ,f4 ,feuillet de ,conches must be used with caution 7see the bibliographical note to the article ,,marie ,,antoinette74 ,see le ,comte ,a4,f4,c4 ,ferrand1 ,eloge historique de ,madame ,elisabeth 7#ahad1 containing #id letters2 #bnd ed41 #ahfa1 containing additional letters1 but correspondence mutilated72 ,du ,fresne de ,beaucourt1 ,etude sur ,madame ,elisabeth 7,paris1 #ahfd72 ,a4 de ,beauchesne1 ,vie de ,madame ,elisabeth 7#ahfi72 ,la comtesse d',armaille1 ,madame ,elisabeth 7,paris1 #ahhf72 ,madame d',arvor1 ,madame ,elisabeth 7,paris1 #ahih72 and ,hon4 ,mrs ,maxwell-,scott1 ,madame ,elizabeth of ,france 7#aijh74 ,,elizabeth1 ,,saint 7#abjg-abca71 daughter of ,andrew ,,ii41 king of ,hungary 7d4 #abce71 by his first wife1 ,gertrude of ,andechs-,meran 7d4 #abac71 was born in ,pressburg in #abjg4 ,at four years of age she was betrothed to ,louis ,,iv41 landgrave of ,thuringia1 and conducted to the ,wartburg1 near ,eisenach1 to be educated under the direction of his parents4 ,in spite of her decidedly worldly surroundings at the ,thuringian court1 she evinced from the first an aversion from even the most innocent pleasures1 and stimulated by the example of her mother's sister1 ,st ,hedwig1 wife of ,henry ,,vi41 duke of ,silesia-,breslau1 devoted her whole time to religion and to works of charity4 ,she was married at the age of fourteen1 and acquired such influence over her husband that he adopted her point of view and zealously assisted her in all her charitable endeavours4 ,according to the legend1 much celebrated in ,german art1 ,louis at first desired to curtail her excessive charities1 and forbade her unbounded gifts to the poor4 ,one day1 returning from hunting1 he met his wife descending from the ,wartburg with a heavy bundle filled with bread4 ,he sternly bade her open it2 she did so1 and he saw nothing but a mass of red roses4 ,the miracle completed his conversion4 ,on the death of ,louis the ,saint in #abbg1 ,elizabeth was deprived of the regency by his brother1 ,henry ,raspe ,,iv4 7d4 #abdg71 on the pretext that she was wasting the estates by her alms2 and with her three infant children she was driven from her home without being allowed to carry with her even the barest necessaries of life4 ,she lived for some time in great hardship1 but ultimately her maternal uncle1 ,egbert1 bishop of ,bamberg1 offered her an asylum in a house adjoining his palace4 ,through the intercession of some of the principal barons1 the regency was again offered her1 and her son ,hermann was declared heir to the landgraviate2 but renouncing all power1 and making use of her wealth only for charitable purposes1 she preferred to live in seclusion at ,marburg under the direction of her confessor1 the bigoted persecutor ,conrad of ,marburg4 ,there she spent the remainder of her days in penances of unusual severity1 and in ministrations to the sick1 especially those afflicted with the most loathsome diseases4 ,she died at ,marburg on the #aith of ,november #abca1 and four years afterwards was canonized by ,gregory ,,ix4 on account of the frequent miracles reported to have been performed at her tomb4 ,the exhibition in the ,royal ,academy of ,p4,h4 ,calderon's picture1 ,st ,elizabeth of ,hungary's ,great ,act of ,renunciation1 now in the ,tate ,gallery in ,london1 roused considerable protest among ,catholics4 ,the saint is represented as kneeling nude before the altar1 in the presence of her confessor and a couple of nuns4 ,the passage this is intended to illustrate is in ,lib4 iv4 ,s #a of ,dietrich of ,apolda's ,vita1 which relates how1 on a certain ,good ,friday1 she went into a chapel and1 in the presence of some ,franciscan brothers1 laid her hands on the bare altar1 renounced her own will1 her parents1 children1 relations1 and all pomps of this kind 7hujus modi7 in imitation of ,christ2 and stripped herself utterly naked 7omnino se exuit et nudavit7 in order to follow ,him naked1 in the steps of poverty4 ,a literal interpretation of this passage is not impossible2 for ecstatic mystics of all ages have indulged in a like ,greek3 kenosis1 and ,conrad1 who revelled in inflicting religious tortures1 was quite capable of imposing this crowning humiliation upon his gentle victim4 ,it is far more probable1 however1 that the passage is not to be taken literally4 ,lives of ,st ,elizabeth were written by ,theodoricus 7,dietrich7 of ,apolda 7b4 #abbh71 ,caesarius of ,heisterbach 7d4 c4 #abdj71 ,conrad of ,marburg and others 7see ,potthast1 ,bibl4 ,hist4 ,med4 ,aev4 p4 #abhd74 ,a metrical life in ,german exists by ,johann ,rothe 7d4 c4 #addj71 chaplain to the ,landgravine ,anne of ,thuringia 7,potthast1 p4 #ihe74 ,l',histoire de ,sainte ,elisabeth de ,hongrie1 by ,montalembert1 was published at ,paris in #ahcf4 ,her life has also supplied the materials for a dramatic poem by ,charles ,kingsley1 entitled the ,saint's ,tragedy4 ,the edition of this in vol4 xvi4 of the ,life and ,works of ,charles ,kingsley 7,london1 #aijb7 has valuable notes1 with many extracts from the original sources4 ,,elizabeth1 a city and the county-seat of ,union county1 ,new ,jersey1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,elizabeth river1 ,newark ,bay1 and ,arthur ,kill1 #aj m4 ,s4,w4 of ,jersey ,city4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #cg1gfd2 7#aijj7 #eb1acj1 of whom #ad1ggj were foreign-born and #aaci were negroes2 7#aiaj census7 #gc1dji4 ,it is served by the ,pennsylvania1 the ,lehigh ,valley and the ,central of ,new ,jersey railways4 ,the site is level and the streets are broad and shaded4 ,there are many residences of ,new ,york business men1 and several historic buildings1 including ,liberty ,hall1 the mansion of ,william ,livingston1 first governor of the state2 ,boxwood ,hall 7now used as a home for aged women71 the former home of ,elias ,boudinot2 the old brick mansion of ,jonathan ,belcher 7#afha-ageg71 governor of the province from #agdg to #ageg2 the ,first ,presbyterian ,church2 and the house occupied at different times by ,general ,winfield ,scott4 ,the city has several parks1 the ,union county court house 7#aije71 a public library and several charitable institutions4 ,elizabethport1 that part of the city on ,staten ,island ,sound1 about #b m4 ,s4,e4 of the centre of ,elizabeth1 has a port open to vessels of #cjj tons2 it is an outlet of the ,pennsylvania coal fields and is thus one of the most important coal shipping depots in the ,united ,states4 ,here1 too1 are a plant 7covering more than #hjj acres7 of the ,standard ,oil ,company and a large establishment for the manufacture of the ,singer sewing machine--according to the ,u4,s4 census the largest manufactory of sewing machines in the world--employing more than #fjjj workmen in #aije2 among the other manufactures of ,elizabeth are foundry and machine shop products 7value in #aije1 #c1hhg1aci71 wire1 oil 7value in #aije1 #b1chg1fef71 refined and smelted copper1 the output of railway repair shops1 edge tools and lager beer4 ,the value of the manufactured products was #aj1dhi1cfd in #ahij2 #bb1hfa1cge 7factory product7 in #aijj2 and #bi1cjj1hja 7factory product7 in #aije4 ,elizabeth was settled in #affe by a company from ,long ,island for whom the land had been purchased from the ,indians and a grant had been obtained from ,richard ,nicolls as agent for the duke of ,york4 ,but about the same time the duke conveyed the entire province to ,john1 ,lord ,berkeley1 and ,sir ,george ,carteret1 and these two conflicting grants gave rise to a long-continued controversy 7see ,,new ,,jersey74 ,the town was named in honour of ,elizabeth1 wife of ,sir ,george ,carteret1 and was first known as ,elizabethtown4 ,from #affe to #afhf it was the seat of government of the province1 and the legislature sat here occasionally until #agij4 ,in the home of the ,rev4 ,jonathan ,dickinson 7#afhh-agdg71 its first president1 the first sessions of the ,college of ,new ,jersey 7now ,princeton ,university7 were held in #agdg1 but immediately afterwards the college removed to ,newark4 ,in ,december #aggf and twice in ,june #aghj the ,british entered ,elizabeth and made it a base of operations1 but on each occasion they were soon driven out4 ,elizabeth became a free town and borough in #agci2 the borough charter was confirmed by the legislature in #aghi and repealed in #agij1 and ,elizabeth was chartered as a city in #ahee4 ,see ,e4,f4 ,hatfield1 ,history of ,elizabeth1 ,new ,jersey 7,new ,york1 #ahfh74 ,,elizabethan ,,style1 in architecture1 the term given to the early ,renaissance style in ,england1 which flourished chiefly during the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth2 it followed the ,tudor style1 and was succeeded in the beginning of the #afth century by the purer ,italian style introduced by ,inigo ,jones4 ,it responds to the ,cinque-,cento period in ,italy1 the ,francois ,i4 style in ,france1 and the ,plateresque or ,silversmith's style in ,spain4 ,during the reigns of ,henry ,,viii4 and ,edward ,,vi4 many ,italian artists came over1 who carried out various decorative features at ,hampton ,court2 ,layer ,marney1 ,suffolk 7#aebb-aebe72 ,sutton ,place1 ,surrey 7#aebi72 ,nonsuch ,palace and elsewhere4 ,later in the century ,flemish craftsmen succeeded the ,italians1 and the ,royal ,exchange in ,london 7#aeff-aegj7 is one of the first important buildings designed by ,henri de ,paschen1 an architect from ,antwerp4 ,longford ,castle1 ,wollaton1 ,hatfield1 ,blickling1 ,audley ,end1 and ,charterhouse 7,london7 all show the style introduced by ,flemish workmen4 ,,elizabeth ,,city1 a town1 port of entry and the county-seat of ,pasquotank county1 ,north ,carolina1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,pasquotank river1 at the head of navigation1 #df m4 ,s4 by ,e4 of ,norfolk1 ,virginia4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #cbea2 7#aijj7 #fcdh 7#cafd negroes72 7#aiaj7 #hdab4 ,it is served by the ,norfolk ,southern1 and the ,suffolk ,carolina railways1 and is on the ,dismal ,swamp and ,albemarle ,chesapeake canals4 ,elizabeth ,city is a winter meeting-place for hunters4 ,it is the seat of a state normal school for negroes and of the ,atlantic ,collegiate ,institute1 is a trucking centre1 has shipyards1 and has a large wholesale trade in clothing1 groceries and general merchandise2 from it are shipped considerable quantities of fish1 cotton and lumber4 ,the town is the port of entry of the ,albemarle customs district1 but its foreign trade is unimportant4 ,among its manufactures are cotton goods1 iron1 lumber1 nets and twine1 bricks1 and carriages and wagons4 ,the oyster fisheries in the vicinity are of considerable importance4 ,elizabeth ,city was settled in #agic1 and was first incorporated in the same year4 ,,elk1 or ,,moose1 the largest of all the deer tribe1 distinguished from other members of the ,cervidae by the form of the antlers of the males4 ,these arise as cylindrical beams projecting on each side at right angles to the middle line of the skull1 which after a short distance divide in a fork-like manner4 ,the lower prong of this fork may be either simple1 or divided into two or three tines1 with some flattening4 ,in the ,east ,siberian elk 7,alces machlis bedfordiae7 the posterior division of the main fork divides into three tines1 with no distinct flattening4 ,in the common elk 7,a4 machlis or ,a4 alces71 on the other hand1 this branch usually expands into a broad palmation1 with one large tine at the base1 and a number of smaller snags on the free border2 there is1 however1 a phase of the ,scandinavian elk in which the antlers are simpler1 and recall those of the ,east ,siberian race4 ,the palmation appears to be more marked in the ,north ,american race 7,a4 m4 americanus7 than in the typical ,scandinavian elk4 ,the largest of all is the ,alaskan race 7,a4 m4 gigas71 which is said to stand #h ft4 in height1 with a span of #f ft4 across the antlers4 ,the great length of the legs gives a decidedly ungainly appearance to the elk4 ,the muzzle is long and fleshy1 with only a very small triangular naked patch below the nostrils2 and the males have a peculiar sac1 known as the bell1 hanging from the neck4 ,from the shortness of their necks1 elks are unable to graze1 and their chief food consists of young shoots and leaves of willow and birch4 ,in ,north ,america during the winter one male and several females form a moose-yard in the forest1 which they keep open by trampling the snow4 ,although generally timid1 the males become very bold during the breeding season1 when the females utter a loud call2 and at such times they fight both with their antlers and their hoofs4 ,the usual pace is a shambling trot1 but when pressed elks break into a gallop4 ,the female gives birth to one or two young at a time1 which are not spotted4 ,in ,america the elk is known as the moose1 and the former name is transferred to the wapiti deer4 7,r4 ,l4997 ,,elkhart1 a city of ,elkhart county1 ,indiana1 ,u4,s4,a41 at the confluence of the ,elkhart and ,st ,joseph rivers1 about #ajj m4 ,e4 of ,chicago4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #aa1cfj2 7#aijj7 #ae1ahd1 of whom #acec were foreign-born2 7#aiaj census7 #ai1bhb4 ,elkhart is at the junction of the western division with the main line of the ,lake ,shore ,michigan ,southern railway1 and is served by the ,cleveland1 ,cincinnati1 ,chicago ,st ,louis1 and the ,northern ,indiana railways 7the latter electric74 ,it is attractively situated and has fine business and public buildings1 including a ,carnegie library and the ,clark hospital1 with which a nurses' training school is connected4 ,it has also several parks1 including the beautiful ,island ,park and ,mc,naughton ,park1 the latter the annual meeting-place of the ,st ,joseph ,valley ,chautauqua4 ,a valuable water-power is utilized for manufacturing purposes4 ,there are extensive railway-car shops and iron and brass foundries1 and the manufactures include band instruments1 furniture1 telephone supplies1 electric transformers1 bridges1 paper1 flour1 starch1 rubber goods1 acetylene gas machines1 printing presses1 drugs and carriages4 ,the total value of the factory product was #d1cde1dff in #aije1 an increase of #aj4e since #aijj4 ,at ,elkhart is the main publishing house of the ,mennonite ,church in ,america1 two weekly periodicals being issued1 one in ,english1 ,the ,herald of ,truth1 and one in ,german1 the ,mennonitische ,rundschau4 ,the first settlement was made here about #ahcd2 and ,elkhart was chartered as a city in #ahge4 ,,elkington1 ,,george ,,richards 7#ahja-ahfe71 founder of the electroplating industry in ,england1 was born in ,birmingham on the #agth of ,october #ahja1 the son of a spectacle manufacturer4 ,apprenticed to his uncles1 silver platers in ,birmingham1 he became1 on their death1 sole proprietor of the business1 but subsequently took his cousin1 ,henry ,elkington1 into partnership4 ,the science of electrometallurgy was then in its infancy1 but the ,elkingtons were quick to recognize its possibilities4 ,they had already taken out certain patents for the application of electricity to metals when1 in #ahdj1 ,john ,wright1 a ,birmingham surgeon1 discovered the valuable properties of a solution of cyanide of silver in cyanide of potassium for electroplating purposes4 ,the ,elkingtons purchased and patented ,wright's process1 subsequently acquiring the rights of other processes and improvements4 ,large new works for electroplating and electrogilding were opened in ,birmingham in #ahda1 and in the following year ,josiah ,mason became a partner in the firm4 ,george ,richards ,elkington died on the #bbnd of ,september #ahfe1 and ,henry ,elkington on the #bfth of ,october #aheb4 ,,ella1 or ,,aella1 the name of three ,anglo-,saxon kings4 ,,ella 7d4 c4 #ead71 king of the ,south ,saxons and founder of the kingdom of ,sussex1 was a ,saxon ealdorman1 who landed near ,arundel in ,sussex with his three sons in #dgg4 ,defeating the ,britons1 who were driven into the forest of ,andredsweald1 ,ella and his followers established themselves along the south coast1 although their progress was slow and difficult4 ,however1 in #dia1 strengthened by the arrival of fresh bands of immigrants1 they captured the ,roman city of ,anderida and slew all that were therein4 ,ella1 who is reckoned as the first ,bretwalda1 then became king of the ,south ,saxons1 and1 when he died about #ead1 he was succeeded by his son ,cissa4 ,,ella 7d4 #ehh71 king of the ,deirans1 was the son of an ealdorman named ,iffa1 and became the first king of ,deira when1 in #eei1 the ,deirans separated themselves from the neighbouring kingdom of ,bernicia4 ,the ,english slaves1 who aroused the interest of ,pope ,gregory ,i4 at ,rome1 were subjects of ,ella1 and on this occasion the pope1 punning the name of their king1 suggested that ,alleluia should be sung in his land4 ,when ,ella died in #ehh ,deira was conquered by ,bernicia4 ,one of his sons was ,edwin1 afterwards king of the ,northumbrians4 ,,ella 7d4 #hfg71 king of the ,northumbrians1 became king about #hfb on the deposition of ,osbert1 although he was not of royal birth4 ,afterwards he became reconciled with ,osbert1 and together they attacked the ,danes1 who had invaded ,northumbria1 and drove them into ,york4 ,rallying1 however1 the ,danes defeated the ,northumbrians1 and in the encounter both ,ella and ,osbert were slain4 ,in certain legends ,ella is represented as having brought about the ,danish invasion of ,northumbria by cruel and unjust actions4 ,see ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1 edited by ,c4 ,plummer 7,oxford1 #ahib-ahii72 ,bede1 ,historiae ecclesiasticae1 edited by ,c4 ,plummer 7,oxford1 #ahif72 ,henry of ,huntingdon1 ,historia ,anglorum1 edited by ,t4 ,arnold1 ,rolls ,series 7,london1 #ahgi72 ,asser1 ,de rebus gestis ,aelfredi1 edited by ,w4,h4 ,stevenson 7,oxford1 #aijd72 ,j4,r4 ,green1 ,the ,making of ,england 7,london1 #ahig71 and the ,dictionary of ,national ,biography1 vol4 i4 7,london1 #ahie74 ,,elland1 an urban district in the ,elland parliamentary division of ,yorkshire1 ,england1 on the ,calder1 #b-a_/b m4 ,s4 of ,halifax by the ,lancashire ,yorkshire railway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #aj1dab4 ,the church of ,st ,mary is ,decorated and ,perpendicular4 ,cotton-mills1 woollen-factories1 ironworks1 flagstone quarries at ,elland ,edge1 and fire-clay works employ the industrial population4 ,elland ,hall1 though almost rebuilt1 retains the recollection of a remarkable family feud between the ,ellands and the ,beaumonts of ,crosland ,hall1 the site of which may be traced in the vicinity4 ,a nephew of ,sir ,john ,elland1 in #acdb1 met death at the hands of a relative of the ,beaumonts upon whom ,sir ,john took vengeance1 as also upon the heads of the allied houses of ,lockwood and ,quarmby4 ,the children of these families were educated in the hope of avenging their parents1 and after many years succeeded in doing so1 cutting off ,sir ,john ,elland and his heir4 ,,ellenborough1 ,,edward ,,law1 #a,,st ,,baron 7#agej-ahah71 ,english judge1 was born on the #afth of ,november #agej1 at ,great ,salkeld1 in ,cumberland1 of which place his father1 ,edmund ,law 7#agjc-aghg71 afterwards bishop of ,carlisle1 was at the time rector4 ,educated at the ,charterhouse and at ,peterhouse1 ,cambridge1 he passed as third wrangler1 and was soon afterwards elected to a fellowship at ,trinity4 ,in spite of his father's strong wish that he should take orders1 he chose the legal profession1 and on quitting the university was entered at ,lincoln's ,inn4 ,after spending five years as a special pleader under the bar1 he was called to the bar in #aghj4 ,he chose the northern circuit1 and in a very short time obtained a lucrative practice and a high reputation4 ,in #aghg he was appointed principal counsel for ,warren ,hastings in the celebrated impeachment trial before the ,house of ,lords1 and the ability with which he conducted the defence was universally recognized4 ,he had begun his political career as a ,whig1 but1 like many others1 he saw in the ,french ,revolution a reason for changing sides1 and became a supporter of ,pitt4 ,on the formation of the ,addington ministry in #ahja1 he was appointed attorney-general and shortly afterwards was returned to the ,house of ,commons as member for ,newtown in the ,isle of ,wight4 ,in #ahjb he succeeded ,lord ,kenyon as chief justice of the king's bench4 ,on being raised to the bench he was created a peer1 taking his title from the village of ,ellenborough in ,cumberland1 where his maternal ancestors had long held a small patrimony4 ,in #ahjf1 on the formation of ,lord ,grenville's ministry of all the talents1 ,lord ,ellenborough declined the offer of the great seal1 but accepted a seat in the cabinet4 ,his doing so while he retained the chief justiceship was much criticized at the time1 and1 though not without precedent1 was open to such obvious objections on constitutional grounds that the experiment has not since been repeated4 ,as a judge he had grave faults1 though his decisions displayed profound legal knowledge1 and in mercantile law especially were reckoned of high authority4 ,he was harsh and overbearing to counsel1 and in the political trials which were so frequent in his time showed an unmistakable bias against the accused4 ,in the trial of ,william ,hone 7q4v47 for blasphemy in #ahag1 ,ellenborough directed the jury to find a verdict of guilty1 and their acquittal of the prisoner is generally said to have hastened his death4 ,he resigned his judicial office in ,november #ahah1 and died on the #acth of ,december following4 ,ellenborough was succeeded as #bnd baron by his eldest son1 ,edward1 afterwards earl of ,ellenborough2 another son was ,charles ,ewan ,law 7#agib-ahej71 recorder of ,london and member of parliament for ,cambridge ,university from #ahce until his death in ,august #ahej4 ,three of ,ellenborough's brothers attained some degree of fame4 ,these were ,john ,law 7#agde-ahaj71 bishop of ,elphin2 ,thomas ,law 7#agei-ahcd71 who settled in the ,united ,states in #agic1 and married1 as his second wife1 ,anne1 a granddaughter of ,martha ,washington2 and ,george ,henry ,law 7#agfa-ahde71 bishop of ,chester and of ,bath and ,wells4 ,the connexion of the ,law family with the ,english ,church was kept up by ,george ,henry's sons1 three of whom took orders4 ,two of these were ,henry ,law 7#agig-ahhd71 dean of ,gloucester1 and ,james ,thomas ,law 7#agij-ahgf71 chancellor of the diocese of ,lichfield4 ,,ellenborough1 ,,edward ,,law1 ,earl of 7#agij-ahga71 the eldest son of the #ast ,lord ,ellenborough1 was born on the #hth of ,september #agij4 ,he was educated at ,eton and ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,he represented the subsequently disfranchised borough of ,st ,michael's1 ,cornwall1 in the ,house of ,commons1 until the death of his father in #ahah gave him a seat in the ,house of ,lords4 ,he was twice married2 his only child died young2 his second wife was divorced by act of parliament in #ahcj4 ,in the ,wellington administration of #ahbh ,ellenborough was made lord privy seal2 he took a considerable share in the business of the foreign office1 as an unofficial assistant to ,wellington1 who was a great admirer of his talents4 ,he aimed at succeeding ,lord ,dudley at the foreign office1 but was forced to content himself with the presidency of the board of control1 which he retained until the fall of the ministry in #ahcj4 ,ellenborough was an active administrator1 and took a lively interest in questions of ,indian policy4 ,the revision of the company's charter was approaching1 and he held that the government of ,india should be transferred directly to the crown4 ,he was impressed with the growing importance of a knowledge of central ,asia1 in the event of a ,russian advance towards the ,indian frontier1 and despatched ,burnes on an exploring mission to that district4 ,ellenborough subsequently returned to the board of control in ,peel's first and second administrations4 ,he had only held office for a month on the third occasion when he was appointed by the court of directors to succeed ,lord ,auckland as governor-general of ,india4 ,his ,indian administration of two and a half years1 or half the usual term of service1 was from first to last a subject of hostile criticism4 ,his own letters sent monthly to the queen1 and his correspondence with the duke of ,wellington1 published in #ahgd1 afford material for an intelligent and impartial judgment of his meteoric career4 ,the events chiefly in dispute are his policy towards ,afghanistan and the army and captives there1 his conquest of ,sind1 and his campaign in ,gwalior4 ,ellenborough went to ,india in order to restore peace to ,asia1 but the whole term of his office was occupied in war4 ,on his arrival there the news that greeted him was that of the massacre of ,kabul1 and the sieges of ,ghazni and ,jalalabad1 while the sepoys of ,madras were on the verge of open mutiny4 ,in his proclamation of the #aeth of ,march #ahdb1 as in his memorandum for the queen dated the #ahth1 he stated with characteristic clearness and eloquence the duty of first inflicting some signal and decisive blow on the ,afghans1 and then leaving them to govern themselves under the sovereign of their own choice4 ,unhappily1 when he left his council for upper ,india1 and learned the trifling failure of ,general ,england1 he instructed ,pollock and ,nott1 who were advancing triumphantly with their avenging columns to rescue the ,british captives1 to fall back4 ,the army proved true to the governor-general's earlier proclamation rather than to his later fears2 the hostages were rescued1 the scene of ,sir ,alexander ,burnes's murder in the heart of ,kabul was burned down4 ,dost ,mahommed was quietly dismissed from a prison in ,calcutta to the throne in the ,bala ,hissar1 and ,ellenborough presided over the painting of the elephants for an unprecedented military spectacle at ,ferozepur1 on the south bank of the ,sutlej4 ,but this was not the only piece of theatrical display which capped with ridicule the horrors and the follies of these four years in ,afghanistan4 ,when ,sultan ,mahmud1 in #ajbd1 sacked the ,hindu temple of ,somnath on the north-west coast of ,india1 he carried off1 with the treasures1 the richly studded sandal-wood gates of the fane1 and set them up in his capital of ,ghazni4 ,the ,mahommedan puppet of the ,english1 ,shah ,shuja1 had been asked1 when ruler of ,afghanistan1 to restore them to ,india2 and what he had failed to do the ,christian ruler of opposing ,mahommedans and ,hindus resolved to effect in the most solemn and public manner4 ,in vain had ,major 7afterwards ,sir ,henry7 ,rawlinson proved that they were only reproductions of the original gates1 to which the ,ghazni moulvies clung merely as a source of offerings from the faithful who visited the old conqueror's tomb4 ,in vain did the ,hindu sepoys show the most chilling indifference to the belauded restoration4 ,ellenborough could not resist the temptation to copy ,napoleon's magniloquent proclamation under the pyramids4 ,the fraudulent folding doors were conveyed on a triumphal car to the fort of ,agra1 where they were found to be made not of sandalwood but of deal4 ,that ,somnath proclamation 7immortalized in a speech by ,macaulay7 was the first step towards its author's recall4 ,hardly had ,ellenborough issued his medal with the legend ,pax ,asiae ,restituta when he was at war with the amirs of ,sind4 ,the tributary amirs had on the whole been faithful1 for ,major 7afterwards ,sir ,james7 ,outram controlled them4 ,but he had reported the opposition of a few1 and ,ellenborough ordered an inquiry4 ,his instructions were admirable1 in equity as well as energy1 and if ,outram had been left to carry them out all would have been well4 ,but the duty was entrusted to ,sir ,charles ,napier1 with full political as well as military powers4 ,and to add to the evil1 ,mir ,ali ,morad intrigued with both sides so effectually that he betrayed the amirs on the one hand1 while he deluded ,sir ,charles ,napier to their destruction on the other4 ,ellenborough was led on till events were beyond his control1 and his own just and merciful instructions were forgotten4 ,sir ,charles ,napier made more than one confession like this3 ,we have no right to seize ,sind1 yet we shall do so1 and a very advantageous1 useful and humane piece of rascality it will be4 ,the battles of ,meeanee and ,hyderabad followed2 and the ,indus became a ,british river from ,karachi to ,multan4 ,sind had hardly been disposed of when troubles arose on both sides of the governor-general1 who was then at ,agra4 ,on the north the disordered kingdom of the ,sikhs was threatening the frontier4 ,in ,gwalior to the south1 the feudatory ,mahratta state1 there were a large mutinous army1 a ,ranee only twelve years of age1 an adopted chief of eight1 and factions in the council of ministers4 ,these conditions brought ,gwalior to the verge of civil war4 ,ellenborough reviewed the danger in the minute of the #ast of ,november #ahde1 and told ,sir ,hugh ,gough to advance4 ,further treachery and military licence rendered the battles of ,maharajpur and ,punniar1 fought on the same day1 inevitable though they were1 a surprise to the combatants4 ,the treaty that followed was as merciful as it was wise4 ,the pacification of ,gwalior also had its effect beyond the ,sutlej1 where anarchy was restrained for yet another year1 and the work of civilization was left to ,ellenborough's two successors4 ,but by this time the patience of the directors was exhausted4 ,they had no control over ,ellenborough's policy2 his despatches to them were haughty and disrespectful2 and in ,june #ahdd they exercised their power of recalling him4 ,on his return to ,england ,ellenborough was created an earl and received the thanks of parliament2 but his administration speedily became the theme of hostile debates1 though it was successfully vindicated by ,peel and ,wellington4 ,when ,peel's cabinet was reconstituted in #ahdf ,ellenborough became first lord of the admiralty4 ,in #aheh he took office under ,lord ,derby as president of the board of control1 for the fourth time4 ,it was then his congenial task to draft the new scheme for the government of ,india which the mutiny had rendered necessary4 ,but his old fault of impetuosity again proved his stumbling-block4 ,he wrote a caustic despatch censuring ,lord ,canning for the ,oudh proclamation1 and allowed it to be published in ,the ,times without consulting his colleagues1 who disavowed his action in this respect4 ,general disapprobation was excited2 votes of censure were announced in both ,houses2 and1 to save the cabinet1 ,ellenborough resigned4 ,but for this act of rashness he might have enjoyed the task of carrying into effect the home constitution for the government of ,india which he sketched in his evidence before the select committee of the ,house of ,commons on ,indian territories on the #hth of ,june #aheb4 ,paying off his old score against the ,east ,india ,company1 he then advocated the abolition of the court of directors as a governing body1 the opening of the civil service to the army1 the transference of the government to the crown1 and the appointment of a council to advise the minister who should take the place of the president of the board of control4 ,these suggestions of #aheb were carried out by his successor ,lord ,stanley1 afterwards earl of ,derby1 in #aheh1 so closely even in details1 that ,lord ,ellenborough must be pronounced the author1 for good or evil1 of the present home constitution of the government of ,india4 ,though acknowledged to be one of the foremost orators in the ,house of ,lords1 and taking a frequent part in debate1 ,ellenborough never held office again4 ,he died at his seat1 ,southam ,house1 near ,cheltenham1 on the #bbnd of ,december #ahga1 when the barony reverted to his nephew ,charles ,edmund ,law 7#ahbj-ahij71 the earldom becoming extinct4 ,see ,history of the ,indian ,administration 7,bentley1 #ahgd71 edited by ,lord ,colchester2 ,minutes of ,evidence taken before the ,select ,committee on ,indian ,territories 7,june #aheb72 volume i4 of the ,calcutta ,review2 the ,friend of ,india1 during the years #ahdb-ahde2 and ,john ,hope1 ,the ,house of ,scindea3 ,a ,sketch 7,longmans1 #ahfc74 ,the numerous books by and against ,sir ,charles ,napier1 on the conquest of ,sind1 should be consulted4 ,,ellery1 ,,william 7#agbg-ahbj71 ,american politician1 a signer of the ,declaration of ,independence1 was born in ,newport1 ,rhode ,island1 on the #bbnd of ,december #agbg4 ,he graduated from ,harvard in #agdg1 engaged in trade1 studied law1 and was admitted to the bar in #aggj4 ,he was a member of the ,rhode ,island committee of safety in #agge-aggf1 and was a delegate in ,congress in #aggf-agha and again in #aghc-aghe4 ,just after his first election to ,congress1 he was placed on the important marine committee1 and he was made a member of the board of admiralty when it was established in #aggi4 ,in ,april #aghf he was elected commissioner of the continental loan office for the state of ,rhode ,island and from #agij until his death at ,newport1 on the #aeth of ,february #ahbj1 he was collector of the customs for the district of ,newport4 ,see ,edward ,t4 ,channing1 ,life of ,william ,ellery1 in vol4 #f of ,jared ,sparks's ,american ,biography 7,boston and ,london1 #ahcf74 ,,ellesmere1 ,,francis ,,egerton1 #a,,st ,,earl ,,of 7#ahjj-aheg71 born in ,london on the #ast of ,january #ahjj1 was the second son of the #ast duke of ,sutherland4 ,he was known by his patronymic as ,lord ,francis ,leveson ,gower until #ahcc1 when he assumed the surname of ,egerton alone1 having succeeded on the death of his father to the estates which the latter inherited from the duke of ,bridgewater4 ,educated at ,eton and at ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 he entered parliament soon after attaining his majority as member for the pocket borough of ,bletchingly in ,surrey4 ,he afterwards sat for ,sutherlandshire and for ,south ,lancashire1 which he represented when he was elevated to the peerage as earl of ,ellesmere and ,viscount ,brackley in #ahdf4 ,in politics he was a moderate ,conservative of independent views1 as was shown by his supporting the proposal for establishing the university of ,london1 by his making and carrying a motion for the endowment of the ,roman ,catholic clergy in ,ireland1 and by his advocating free trade long before ,sir ,robert ,peel yielded on the question4 ,appointed a lord of the treasury in #ahbg1 he held the post of chief secretary for ,ireland from #ahbh till ,july #ahcj1 when he became secretary-at-war for a short time4 ,his claims to remembrance are founded chiefly on his services to literature and the fine arts4 ,before he was twenty he printed for private circulation a volume of poems1 which he followed up after a short interval by the publication of a translation of ,goethe's ,faust1 one of the earliest that appeared in ,england1 with some translations of ,german lyrics and a few original poems4 ,in #ahci he visited the ,mediterranean and the ,holy ,land4 ,his impressions of travel were recorded in his very agreeably written ,mediterranean ,sketches 7#ahdc71 and in the notes to a poem entitled ,the ,pilgrimage4 ,he published several other works in prose and verse1 all displaying a fine literary taste4 ,his literary reputation secured for him the position of rector of ,aberdeen ,university in #ahda4 ,lord ,ellesmere was a munificent and yet discriminating patron of artists4 ,to the splendid collection of pictures which he inherited from his great-uncle1 the #crd duke of ,bridgewater1 he made numerous additions1 and he built a noble gallery to which the public were allowed free access4 ,lord ,ellesmere served as president of the ,royal ,geographical ,society and as president of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 and he was a trustee of the ,national ,gallery4 ,he died on the #ahth of ,february #aheg4 ,he was succeeded by his son 7#ahbc-ahfb7 as #bnd earl1 and his grandson 7b4 #ahdg7 as #crd earl4 ,,ellesmere1 a market town in the ,oswestry parliamentary division of ,shropshire1 ,england1 on the main line of the ,cambrian railway1 #ahb m4 ,n4,w4 from ,london4 ,pop4 of urban district 7#aija7 #aide4 ,it is prettily situated on the west shore of the mere or small lake from which it takes its name1 while in the neighbourhood are other sheets of water1 as ,blake ,mere1 ,cole ,mere1 ,white ,mere1 ,newton ,mere and ,crose ,mere4 ,the church of ,st ,mary is of various styles from ,norman onward1 but was partly rebuilt in #ahdh4 ,the site of the castle is occupied by pleasure gardens1 commanding an extensive view from high ground4 ,the town hall contains a library and a natural history collection4 ,the college is a large boys' school4 ,the town is an important agricultural centre4 ,ellesmere canal1 a famous work of ,thomas ,telford1 connects the ,severn with the ,mersey1 crossing the ,vale of ,llangollen by an immense aqueduct1 #ccf yds4 long and #abg ft4 high4 ,the manor of ,ellesmere 7,ellesmeles7 belonged before the ,conquest to ,earl ,edwin of ,mercia1 and was granted by ,william the ,conqueror to ,roger1 earl of ,shrewsbury1 whose son1 ,robert de ,belesme1 forfeited it in #aaab for treason against ,henry ,i4 ,in #aagg ,henry ,,ii4 gave it with his sister in marriage to ,david1 son of ,owen1 prince of ,north ,wales1 after whose death it was retained by ,king ,john1 who in #abjf granted it to his daughter ,joan on her marriage with ,llewellyn1 prince of ,north ,wales2 it was finally surrendered to ,henry ,,iii4 by ,david1 son of ,llewellyn1 about #abdj4 ,ellesmere owed its early importance to its position on the ,welsh borders and to its castle1 which was in ruins1 however1 in #acdi4 ,while ,ellesmere was in the hands of ,joan1 lady of ,wales1 she granted to the borough all the free customs of ,breteuil4 ,the town was governed by a bailiff appointed by a jury at one of the court leets of the lord of the manor1 until a local board was formed in #ahei4 ,in #abba ,henry ,,iii4 granted ,llewellyn1 prince of ,wales1 a market on ,thursdays in ,ellesmere4 ,the inquisition taken in #achc after the death of ,roger le ,straunge 7,lord ,strange71 lord of ,ellesmere1 shows that he also held two fairs there on the feasts of ,st ,martin and the ,nativity of the ,virgin ,mary4 ,by #aeig the market had been discontinued on account of the plague by which many of the inhabitants had died1 and the queen granted that ,sir ,edward ,kynaston1 ,kt41 and thirteen others might hold a market every ,thursday and a fair on the #crd of ,november4 ,since #agib both have been discontinued4 ,the commerce of ,ellesmere has always been chiefly agricultural4 ,,ellice 7,,lagoon7 ,,islands1 an archipelago of the ,pacific ,ocean1 lying between #e deg4 and #aa deg4 ,s4 and about #agh deg4 ,e41 nearly midway between ,fiji and ,gilbert4 ,it is under ,british protection1 being annexed in #ahib4 ,it comprises a large number of low coralline islands and atolls1 which are disposed in nine clusters extending over a distance of about #djj m4 in the direction from ,n4,w4 to ,s4,e4 ,their total area is #ad sq4 m4 and the population is about #bdjj4 ,the chief groups1 all yielding coco-nuts1 pandanus fruit and yams1 are ,funafuti or ,ellice1 ,nukulailai or ,mitchell1 ,nurakita or ,sophia1 ,nukufetau or ,de ,peyster1 ,nui or ,egg1 ,nanomana or ,hudson1 and ,niutao or ,lynx4 ,nearly all the natives are ,christians1 ,protestant missions having been long established in several of the islands4 ,those of ,nui speak the language of the ,gilbert islanders1 and have a tradition that they came some generations ago from that group4 ,all the others are of ,samoan speech1 and their tradition that they came thirty generations back from ,samoa is supported by recent research4 ,they have an ancient spear which they believe was brought from ,samoa1 and they actually name the valley from which their ancestors started4 ,a missionary visiting the ,samoan valley found there a tradition of a party who put to sea never to return1 and he also found the wood of which the staff was made growing plentifully in the district4 ,borings and soundings taken at ,funafuti in #ahig indicate almost beyond doubt that the whole of this ,polynesian region is an area of comparatively recent subsidence4 ,see ,geographical ,journal1 passim2 and ,atoll of ,funafuti3 ,borings into a ,coral ,reef 7,report of ,coral ,reef ,committee of ,royal ,society1 ,london1 #aijd74 ,,ellichpur1 or ,,illichpur1 a town of ,india in the ,amraoti district of ,berar4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #bf1jhb4 ,it is first mentioned authentically in the #acth century as one of the famous cities of the ,deccan4 ,though tributary to the ,mahommedans after #abid1 it remained under ,hindu administration till #acah1 when it came directly under the ,mahommedans4 ,it was afterwards capital of the province of ,berar at intervals until the ,mogul occupation1 when the seat of the provincial governor was moved to ,balapur4 ,the town retains many relics of the nawabs of ,berar4 ,it has ginning factories and a considerable trade in cotton and forest produce4 ,it is connected by good roads with ,amraoti and ,chikalda4 ,it was formerly the headquarters of the district of ,ellichpur1 which had an area of #bfje sq4 m4 and a population in #aija of #big1djc4 ,this district1 however1 was merged in that of ,amraoti in #aije4 ,the civil station of ,paratwada1 #b m4 from the town of ,ellichpur1 contains the principal public buildings4 ,,elliotson1 ,,john 7#agia-ahfh71 ,english physician1 was born at ,southwark1 ,london1 on the #bith of ,october #agia4 ,he studied medicine first at ,edinburgh and then at ,cambridge1 in both which places he took the degree of ,m4,d41 and subsequently in ,london at ,st ,thomas's and ,guy's hospitals4 ,in #ahca he was elected professor of the principles and practice of physic in ,london ,university1 and in #ahcd he became physician to ,university ,college hospital4 ,he was a student of phrenology and mesmerism1 and his interest in the latter eventually brought him into collision with the medical committee of the hospital1 a circumstance which led him1 in ,december #ahch1 to resign the offices held by him there and at the university4 ,but he continued the practice of mesmerism1 holding seances in his home and editing a magazine1 ,the ,zoist1 devoted to the subject1 and in #ahdi he founded a mesmeric hospital4 ,he died in ,london on the #bith of ,july #ahfh4 ,elliotson was one of the first teachers in ,london to appreciate the value of clinical lecturing1 and one of the earliest among ,british physicians to advocate the employment of the stethoscope4 ,he wrote a translation of ,blumenbach's ,institutiones ,physiologicae 7#ahag72 ,cases of the ,hydrocyanic or ,prussic ,acid 7#ahbj72 ,lectures on ,diseases of the ,heart 7#ahcj72 ,principles and ,practice of ,medicine 7#ahci72 ,human ,physiology 7#ahdj72 and ,surgical ,operations in the ,mesmeric ,state without ,pain 7#ahdc74 ,he was the author of numerous papers in the ,transactions of the ,medico-,chirurgical ,society1 of which he was at one time president2 and he was also a fellow both of the ,royal ,college of ,physicians and ,royal ,society1 and founder and president of the ,phrenological ,society4 ,w4,m4 ,thackeray's ,pendennis was dedicated to him4 ,,elliott1 ,,ebenezer 7#agha-ahdi71 ,english poet1 the corn-law rhymer1 was born at ,masborough1 near ,rotherham1 ,yorkshire1 on the #agth of ,march #agha4 ,his father1 who was an extreme ,calvinist and a strong radical1 was engaged in the iron trade4 ,young ,ebenezer1 although one of a large family1 had a solitary and rather morbid childhood4 ,he was sent to various schools1 but was generally regarded as a dunce1 and when he was sixteen years of age he entered his father's foundry1 working for seven years with no wages beyond a little pocket money4 ,in a fragment of autobiography printed in the ,athenaeum 7#abth of ,january #ahej7 he says that he was entirely self-taught1 and attributes his poetic development to long country walks undertaken in search of wild flowers1 and to a collection of books1 including the works of ,young1 ,barrow1 ,shenstone and ,milton1 bequeathed to his father by a poor clergyman4 ,at seventeen he wrote his ,vernal ,walk in imitation of ,thomson4 ,his earlier volumes of poems1 dealing with romantic themes1 received little but unfriendly comment4 ,the faults of ,night1 the earliest of these1 are pointed out in a long and friendly letter 7#cjth of ,january #ahai7 from ,robert ,southey to the author4 ,elliott's wife brought him some money1 which was invested in his father's share of the iron foundry4 ,but the affairs of the firm were then in a desperate condition1 and money difficulties hastened his father's death4 ,elliott lost all his money1 and when he was forty years old began business again in ,sheffield on a small borrowed capital4 ,he attributed his father's pecuniary losses and his own to the operation of the corn laws4 ,he took an active part in the ,chartist agitation1 but withdrew his support when the agitation for the repeal of the corn laws was removed from the ,chartist programme4 ,the fervour of his political convictions effected a change in the style and tenor of his verse4 ,the ,corn-,law ,rhymes 7#crd ed41 #ahca71 inspired by a fierce hatred of injustice1 are vigorous1 simple and full of vivid description4 ,in #ahcc-ahce he published ,the ,splendid ,village2 ,corn-,law ,rhymes1 and other ,poems 7#c vols471 which included ,the ,village ,patriarch 7#ahbi71 ,the ,ranter1 an unsuccessful drama1 ,keronah1 and other pieces4 ,he contributed verses from time to time to ,tait's ,magazine and to the ,sheffield and ,rotherham ,independent4 ,in the meantime he had been successful in business1 but he remained the sturdy champion of the poor4 ,in #ahcg he again lost a great deal of money4 ,this misfortune was also ascribed to the corn laws4 ,he retired in #ahda with a small fortune and settled at ,great ,houghton1 near ,barnsley1 where he died on the #ast of ,december #ahdi4 ,in #ahej appeared two volumes of ,more ,prose and ,verse by the ,corn-,law ,rhymer4 ,elliott lives by his determined opposition to the bread-tax1 as he called it1 and his poems on the subject are saved from the common fate of political poetry by their transparent sincerity and passionate earnestness4 ,an article by ,thomas ,carlyle in the ,edinburgh ,review 7,july #ahcb7 is the best criticism on ,elliott4 ,carlyle was attracted by ,elliott's homely sincerity and genuine power1 though he had small opinion of his political philosophy1 and lamented his lack of humour and of the sense of proportion4 ,he thought his poetry too imitative1 detecting not only the truthful severity of ,crabbe1 but a slight bravura dash of the fair tuneful ,hemans4 ,his descriptions of his native county reveal close observation and a vivid perception of natural beauty4 ,see an obituary notice in the ,gentleman's ,magazine 7,feb4 #ahej74 ,two biographies were published in #ahej1 one by his son-in-law1 ,john ,watkins1 and another by ,january ,searle 7,g4,s4 ,phillips74 ,a new edition of his works by his son1 ,edwin ,elliott1 appeared in #ahgf4 ,,ellipse 7adapted from ,gr4 ,greek3 elleipsis1 a deficiency1 ,greek3 elleipein1 to fall behind71 in mathematics1 a conic section1 having the form of a closed oval4 ,it admits of several definitions framed according to the aspect from which the curve is considered4 ,in solido1 i4e4 as a section of a cone or cylinder1 it may be defined1 after ,menaechmus1 as the perpendicular section of an acute-angled cone2 or1 after ,apollonius of ,perga1 as the section of any cone by a plane at a less inclination to the base than a generator2 or as an oblique section of a right cylinder4 ,definitions in plano are generally more useful2 of these the most important are3 7#a7 the ellipse is the conic section which has its eccentricity less than unity3 this involves the notion of one directrix and one focus2 7#b7 the ellipse is the locus of a point the sum of whose distances from two fixed points is constant3 this involves the notion of two foci4 ,other geometrical definitions are3 it is the oblique projection of a circle2 the polar reciprocal of a circle for a point within it2 and the conic which intersects the line at infinity in two imaginary points4 ,analytically it is defined by an equation of the second degree of which the highest terms represent two imaginary lines4 ,the curve has important mechanical relations1 in particular it is the orbit of a particle moving under the influence of a central force which varies inversely as the square of the distance of the particle2 this is the gravitational law of force1 and the curve consequently represents the orbits of the planets if only an individual planet and the sun be considered2 the other planets1 however1 disturb this orbit 7see ,,mechanics74 ,the relation of the ellipse to the other conic sections is treated in the articles ,,conic ,,section and ,,geometry2 in this article a summary of the properties of the curve will be given4 ,to investigate the form of the curve use may be made of the definition3 the ellipse is the locus of a point which moves so that the ratio of its distance from a fixed point 7the focus7 to its distance from a straight line 7the directrix7 is constant and is less than unity4 ,this ratio is termed the eccentricity1 and will be denoted by e4 ,let ,,kx 7fig4 #a7 be the directrix1 ,s the focus1 and ,x the foot of the perpendicular from ,s to ,,kx4 ,if ,,sx be divided at ,a so that ,,sa_/,,ax e1 then ,a is a point on the curve4 ,,sx may be also divided externally at ,a'1 so that ,,sa'_/,a',x e1 since e is less than unity2 the points ,a and ,a' are the vertices1 and the line ,,aa' the major axis of the curve4 ,it is obvious that the curve is symmetrical about ,,aa'4 ,if ,,aa' be bisected at ,c1 and the line ,,bcb' be drawn perpendicular to ,,aa'1 then it is readily seen that the curve is symmetrical about this line also2 since if we take ,s' on ,,aa' so that ,s',a' ,,sa1 and a line ,k',x' parallel to ,,kx such that ,,ax ,a',x'1 then the same curve will be described if we regard ,k',x' and ,s' as the given directrix and focus1 the eccentricity remaining the same4 ,if ,b and ,b' be points on the curve1 ,,bb' is the minor axis and ,c the centre of the curve4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,metrical relations between the axes1 eccentricity1 distance between the foci1 and between these quantities and the co-ordinates of points on the curve 7referred to the axes and the centre71 and focal distances are readily obtained by the methods of geometrical conics or analytically4 ,the semi-major axis is generally denoted by a1 and the semi-minor axis by b1 and we have the relation b#b a#b7a - e#b74 ,also a#b ,,cs4,,cx1 i4e4 the square on the semi-major axis equals the rectangle contained by the distances of the focus and directrix from the centre2 and #b;a ,,sp ,s',p1 where ,p is any point on the curve1 i4e4 the sum of the focal distances of any point on the curve equals the major axis4 ,the most important relation between the co-ordinates of a point on an ellipse is3 if ,n be the foot of the perpendicular from a point ,p1 then the square on ,,pn bears a constant ratio to the product of the segments ,,an1 ,,na' of the major axis1 this ratio being the square of the ratio of the minor to the major axis2 symbolically ,,pn#b ,,an4,,na'7,,cb_/,,ca7#b4 ,from this or otherwise it is readily deduced that the ordinates of an ellipse and of the circle described on the major axis are in the ratio of the minor to the major axis4 ,this circle is termed the auxiliary circle4 ,of the properties of a tangent it may be noticed that the tangent at any point is equally inclined to the focal distances of that point2 that the feet of the perpendiculars from the foci on any tangent always lie on the auxiliary circle1 and the product of these perpendiculars is constant1 and equal to the product of the distances of a focus from the two vertices4 ,from any point without the curve two1 and only two1 tangents can be drawn2 if ,,op1 ,,op' be two tangents from ,o1 and ,s1 ,s' the foci1 then the angles ,,osp1 ,,osp' are equal and also ,,sop1 ,s',,op'4 ,if the tangents be at right angles1 then the locus of the point is a circle having the same centre as the ellipse2 this is named the director circle4 ,the middle points of a system of parallel chords is a straight line1 and the tangent at the point where this line meets the curve is parallel to the chords4 ,the straight line and the line through the centre parallel to the chords are named conjugate diameters2 each bisects the chords parallel to the other4 ,an important metrical property of conjugate diameters is the sum of their squares equals the sum of the squares of the major and minor axis4 ,in analytical geometry1 the equation ax#b #b;hxy by#b #b;gx #b;fy c #j represents an ellipse when ab h#b2 if the centre of the curve be the origin1 the equation is a#ax#b #b;h#axy b#ay#b ,c#a1 and if in addition a pair of conjugate diameters are the axes1 the equation is further simplified to ,ax#b ,by#b ,c4 ,the simplest form is x#b_/;a#b y#b_/;b#b #a1 in which the centre is the origin and the major and minor axes the axes of co-ordinates4 ,it is obvious that the co-ordinates of any point on an ellipse may be expressed in terms of a single parameter1 the abscissa being a cos phi1 and the ordinate b sin phi1 since on eliminating phi between x a cos phi and y b sin phi we obtain the equation to the ellipse4 ,the angle phi is termed the eccentric angle1 and is geometrically represented as the angle between the axis of x 7the major axis of the ellipse7 and the radius of a point on the auxiliary circle which has the same abscissa as the point on the ellipse4 ,the equation to the tangent at theta is x cos theta_/a y sin theta_/b #a1 and to the normal ax_/cos theta - by_/sin theta a#b - b#b4 ,the area of the ellipse is piab1 where a1 b are the semi-axes2 this result may be deduced by regarding the ellipse as the orthogonal projection of a circle1 or by means of the calculus4 ,the perimeter can only be expressed as a series1 the analytical evaluation leading to an integral termed elliptic 7see ,,function1 ii4 ,complex74 ,there are several approximation formulae3--,s pi7a b7 makes the perimeter about #a_/bjjth too small2 s piroot7a#b;b#b7 about #a_/bjjth too great2 #bs pi7a b7 piroot7a#b b#b7 is within #a_/cj1jjj of the truth4 ,an ellipse can generally be described to satisfy any five conditions4 ,if five points be given1 ,pascal's theorem affords a solution2 if five tangents1 ,brianchon's theorem is employed4 ,the principle of involution solves such constructions as3 given four tangents and one point1 three tangents and two points1 c4 ,if a tangent and its point of contact be given1 it is only necessary to remember that a double point on the curve is given4 ,a focus or directrix is equal to two conditions2 hence such problems as3 given a focus and three points2 a focus1 two points and one tangent2 and a focus1 one point and two tangents are soluble 7very conveniently by employing the principle of reciprocation74 ,of practical importance are the following constructions3--7#a7 ,given the axes2 7#b7 given the major axis and the foci2 7#c7 given the focus1 eccentricity and directrix2 7#d7 to construct an ellipse 7approximately7 by means of circular arcs4 7#a7 ,if the axes be given1 we may avail ourselves of several constructions1 7a7 ,let ,,aa'1 ,,bb' be the axes intersecting at right angles in a point ,c4 ,take a strip of paper or rule and mark off from a point ,p1 distances ,pa and ,pb equal respectively to ,,ca and ,,cb4 ,if now the strip be moved so that the point a is always on the minor axis1 and the point b on the major axis1 the point ,p describes the ellipse4 ,this is known as the trammel construction4 7b7 ,let ,,aa'1 ,,bb' be the axes as before2 describe on each as diameter a circle4 ,draw any number of radii of the two circles1 and from the points of intersection with the major circle draw lines parallel to the minor axis1 and from the points of intersection with the minor circle draw lines parallel to the major axis4 ,the intersections of the lines drawn from corresponding points are points on the ellipse4 7#b7 ,if the major axis and foci be given1 there is a convenient mechanical construction based on the property that the sum of the focal distances of any point is constant and equal to the major axis4 ,let ,,aa' be the axis and ,s1 ,s' the foci4 ,take a piece of thread of length ,,aa'1 and fix it at its extremities by means of pins at the foci4 ,the thread is now stretched taut by a pencil1 and the pencil moved2 the curve traced out is the desired ellipse4 7#c7 ,if the directrix1 focus and eccentricity be given1 we may employ the general method for constructing a conic4 ,let ,s 7fig4 #b7 be the focus1 ,,kx the directrix1 ,x being the foot of the perpendicular from ,s to the directrix4 ,divide ,,sx internally at ,a and externally at ,a'1 so that the ratios ,,sa_/,,ax and ,,sa'_/,a',x are each equal to the eccentricity4 ,then ,a1 ,a' are the vertices of the curve4 ,take any point ,r on the directrix1 and draw the lines ,,ram1 ,,rsn2 draw ,,sl so that the angle ,,lsn angle ,,nsa'4 ,let ,p be the intersection of the line ,,sl with the line ,,ram1 then it can be readily shown that ,p is a point on the ellipse4 ,for1 draw through ,p a line parallel to ,,aa'1 intersecting the directrix in ,q and the line ,,rsn in ,t4 ,then since ,,xs and ,,qt are parallel and are intersected by the lines ,,rk1 ,,rm1 ,,rn1 we have ,,sa_/,,ax ,,tp_/,,pq ,,sp_/,,pq1 since the angle ,,pst angle ,,pts4 ,by varying the position of ,r other points can be found1 and1 since the curve is symmetrical about both the major and minor axes1 it is obvious that any point may be reflected in both the axes1 thus giving #c additional points4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 7#d7 ,if the axes be given1 the curve can be approximately constructed by circular arcs in the following manner3--,let ,,aa'1 ,,bb' be the axes2 determine ,d the intersection of lines through ,b and ,a parallel to the major and minor axes respectively4 ,bisect ,,ad at ,e and join ,,eb4 ,then the intersection of ,,eb and ,,db' determines a point ,p on the 7true7 curve4 ,bisect the chord ,,pb at ,g1 and draw through ,g a line perpendicular to ,,pb1 intersecting ,,bb' in ,o4 ,an arc with centre ,o and radius ,,ob forms part of a curve4 ,let this arc on the reverse side to ,p intersect a line through ,o parallel to the major axis in a point ,h4 ,then ,,ha#a will cut the circular arc in ,j4 ,let ,,jo intersect the major axis in ,o#a4 ,then with centre ,o#a and radius ,,oj ,,oa#a1 describe an arc4 ,by reflecting the two arcs thus described over the centre the ellipse is approximately described4 ,,ellipsoid1 a quadric surface whose sections are ellipses4 ,analytically1 it has for its equation x#b_/;a#b y#b_/;b#b z#b_/;c#b #a1 a1 b1 c being its axes2 the name is also given to the solid contained by this surface 7see ,,geometry3 ,analytical74 ,the solids and surfaces of revolution of the ellipse are sometimes termed ellipsoids1 but it is advisable to use the name spheroid 7q4v474 ,the ellipsoid appears in the mathematical investigation of physical properties of media in which the particular property varies in three directions within the media2 such properties are the elasticity1 giving rise to the strain ellipsoid1 thermal expansion1 ellipsoid of expansion1 thermal conduction1 refractive index 7see ,,crystallography71 c4 ,in mechanics1 the ellipsoid of gyration or inertia is such that the perpendicular from the centre to a tangent plane is equal to the radius of gyration of the given body about the perpendicular as axis2 the momental ellipsoid1 also termed the inverse ellipsoid of inertia or ,poinsot's ellipsoid1 has the perpendicular inversely proportional to the radius of gyration2 the equimomental ellipsoid is such that its moments of inertia about all axes are the same as those of a given body4 7,see ,,mechanics47 ,,ellipticity1 in astronomy1 deviation from a circular or spherical form2 applied to the elliptic orbits of heavenly bodies1 or the spheroidal form of such bodies4 7,see also ,,compression47 ,,ellis 7originally ,,sharpe71 ,,alexander ,,john 7#ahad-ahij71 ,english philologist1 mathematician1 musician and writer on phonetics1 was born at ,hoxton on the #adth of ,june #ahad4 ,he was educated at ,shrewsbury1 ,eton1 and ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 and took his degree in high mathematical honours4 ,he was connected with many learned societies as member or president1 and was governor of ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,he was the first in ,england to reduce the study of phonetics to a science4 ,his most important work1 to which the greater part of his life was devoted1 is ,on ,early ,english ,pronunciation1 with special reference to ,shakespeare and ,chaucer 7#ahfi-ahhi71 in five parts1 which he intended to supplement by a sixth1 containing an abstract of the whole1 an account of the views and criticisms of other inquirers in the same field1 and a complete index1 but ill-health prevented him from carrying out his intention4 ,he had long been associated with ,isaac ,pitman in his attempts to reform ,english spelling1 and published ,a ,plea for ,phonotypy and ,phonography 7#ahde7 and ,a ,plea for ,phonetic ,spelling 7#ahdh72 and contributed the articles on ,phonetics and ,speech-sounds to the #ith edition of the ,ency4 ,brit4 ,he translated 7with considerable additions7 ,helmholtz's ,sensations of ,tone as a physiological ,basis for the ,theory of ,music 7#bnd ed41 #ahhe72 and was the author of several smaller works on music1 chiefly in connexion with his favourite subject phonetics4 ,he died in ,london on the #bhth of ,october #ahij4 ,,ellis1 ,,george 7#agec-ahae71 ,english author1 was born in ,london in #agec4 ,educated at ,westminster school and at ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 he began his literary career by some satirical verses on ,bath society published in #aggg1 and ,poetical ,tales1 by ,sir ,gregory ,gander1 in #aggh4 ,he contributed to the ,rolliad and the ,probationary ,odes political satires directed against ,pitt's administration4 ,he was employed in diplomatic business at the ,hague in #aghd2 and in #agig he accompanied ,lord ,malmesbury to ,lille as secretary to the embassy4 ,on his return he was introduced to ,pitt1 and the episode of the ,rolliad1 which had not been forgotten1 was explained4 ,he found continued scope for his powers as a political caricaturist in the columns of the ,anti-,jacobin1 a weekly paper which he founded in connexion with ,george ,canning and ,william ,gifford4 ,for some years before the ,anti-,jacobin was started ,ellis had been working in the congenial field of ,early ,english literature1 in which he was one of the first to arouse interest4 ,the first edition of his ,specimens of the ,early ,english ,poets appeared in #agij2 and this was followed by ,specimens of ,early ,english ,metrical ,romances 7#ahje74 ,he also edited ,gregory ,lewis ,way's translation of select ,fabliaux in #agif4 ,ellis was an intimate friend of ,sir ,walter ,scott1 who styled him the first converser ,i ever saw1 and dedicated to him the fifth canto of ,marmion4 ,some of the correspondence between them is to be found in ,lockhart's ,life4 ,he died on the #ajth of ,april #ahae4 ,the monument erected to his memory in the parish church of ,gunning ,hill1 ,berks1 bears a fine inscription by ,canning4 ,,ellis1 ,,sir ,,henry 7#aggg-ahfi71 ,english antiquary1 was born in ,london on the #bith of ,november #aggg4 ,he was educated at ,merchant ,taylors' school1 and at ,st ,john's ,college1 ,oxford1 of which he was elected a fellow4 ,after having held for a few months a sub-librarianship in the ,bodleian1 he was in #ahjj appointed to a similar post in the ,british ,museum4 ,in #ahbg he became chief librarian1 and held that post until #ahef1 when he resigned on account of advancing age4 ,in #ahcb ,william ,,iv4 made him a knight of ,hanover1 and in the following year he received an ,english knighthood4 ,he died on the #aeth of ,january #ahfi4 ,sir ,henry ,ellis's life was one of very considerable literary activity4 ,his first work of importance was the preparation of a new edition of ,brand's ,popular ,antiquities1 which appeared in #ahac4 ,in #ahaf he was selected by the commissioners of public records to write the introduction to ,domesday ,book1 a task which he discharged with much learning1 though several of his views have not stood the test of later criticism4 ,his ,original ,letters ,illustrative of ,english ,history 7first series1 #ahbd2 second series1 #ahbg2 third series1 #ahdf7 are compiled chiefly from manuscripts in the ,british ,museum and the ,state ,paper ,office1 and have been of considerable service to historical writers4 ,to the ,library of ,entertaining ,knowledge he contributed four volumes on the ,elgin and ,townley ,marbles4 ,sir ,henry was for many years a director and joint-secretary of the ,society of ,antiquaries4 ,,ellis1 ,,robinson 7#ahcd- 71 ,english classical scholar1 was born at ,barming1 near ,maidstone1 on the #eth of ,september #ahcd4 ,he was educated at ,elizabeth ,college1 ,guernsey1 ,rugby1 and ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,in #aheh he became fellow of ,trinity ,college1 ,oxford1 and in #ahgj professor of ,latin at ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,in #ahgf he returned to ,oxford1 where from #ahhc to #ahic he held the university readership in ,latin4 ,in #ahic he succeeded ,henry ,nettleship as professor4 ,his chief work has been on ,catullus1 whom he began to study in #ahei4 ,his first ,commentary on ,catullus 7#ahgf7 aroused great interest1 and called forth a flood of criticism4 ,in #ahhi appeared a second and enlarged edition1 which placed its author in the first rank of authorities on ,catullus4 ,professor ,ellis quotes largely from the early ,italian commentators1 maintaining that the land where the ,renaissance originated had done more for scholarship than is commonly recognized4 ,he has supplemented his critical work by a translation 7#ahga1 dedicated to ,tennyson7 of the poems in the metres of the originals4 ,another author to whom ,professor ,ellis has devoted many years' study is ,manilius1 the astrological poet4 ,in #ahia he published ,noctes ,manilianae1 a series of dissertations on the ,astronomica1 with emendations4 ,he has also treated ,avianus1 ,velleius ,paterculus and the ,christian poet ,orientius1 whom he edited for the ,vienna ,corpus ,scriptorum ,ecclesiasticorum4 ,he edited the ,ibis of ,ovid1 the ,aetna of the younger ,lucilius1 and contributed to the ,anecdota ,oxoniensia various unedited ,bodleian and other manuscripts4 ,in #aijg he published ,appendix ,vergiliana 7an edition of the minor poems72 in #aijh ,the ,annalist ,licinianus4 ,,ellis1 ,,william 7#agid-ahgb71 ,english ,nonconformist missionary1 was born in ,london on the #bith of ,august #agid4 ,his boyhood and youth were spent at ,wisbeach1 where he worked as a market-gardener4 ,in #ahad he offered himself to the ,london ,missionary ,society1 and was accepted4 ,during a year's training he acquired some knowledge of theology and of various practical arts1 such as printing and bookbinding4 ,he sailed for the ,south ,sea ,islands in ,january #ahaf1 and remained in ,polynesia1 occupying various stations in succession1 until #ahbd1 when he was compelled to return home on account of the state of his wife's health4 ,though the period of his residence in the islands was thus comparatively short1 his labours were very fruitful1 contributing perhaps as much as those of any other missionary to bring about the extraordinary improvement in the religious1 moral and social condition of the ,pacific ,archipelago that took place during the #aith century4 ,besides promoting the spiritual object of his mission1 he introduced many other aids to the improvement of the condition of the people4 ,his gardening experience enabled him successfully to acclimatize many species of tropical fruits and plants1 and he set up and worked the first printing press in the ,south ,seas4 ,returning home by way of the ,united ,states1 where he advocated his work1 ,ellis was for some years employed as a travelling agent of the ,london ,missionary ,society1 and in #ahcb was appointed foreign secretary to the society1 an office which he held for seven years4 ,in #ahcg he married his second wife1 ,sarah ,stickney1 a writer and teacher of some note in her generation4 ,in #ahda he went to live at ,hoddesdon1 ,herts1 and ministered to a small ,congregational church there4 ,on behalf of the ,london ,missionary ,society he paid three visits to ,madagascar 7#ahec-aheg71 inquiring into the prospects for resuming the work that had been suspended by ,queen ,ranavolona's hostility4 ,a further visit was paid in #ahfc4 ,ellis wrote accounts of all his travels1 and ,southey's praise 7in the ,quarterly ,review7 of his ,polynesian ,researches 7#b vols41 #ahbi7 finds many echoes4 ,he was a fearless1 upright and tactful man1 and a keen observer of nature4 ,he died on the #beth of ,june #ahgb4 ,,elliston1 ,,robert ,,william 7#aggd-ahca71 ,english actor1 was born in ,london on the #gth of ,april #aggd1 the son of a watchmaker4 ,he was educated at ,st ,paul's school1 but ran away from home and made his first appearance on the stage as ,tressel in ,richard ,,iii4 at ,bath in #agia4 ,here he was later seen as ,romeo1 and in other leading parts1 both comic and tragic1 and he repeated his successes in ,london from #agif4 ,he acted at ,drury ,lane from #ahjd to #ahji1 and again from #ahab2 and from #ahai he was the lessee of the house1 presenting ,kean1 ,mme ,vestris and ,macready4 ,ill-health and misfortune culminated in his bankruptcy in #ahbf1 when he made his last appearance at ,drury ,lane as ,falstaff4 ,but as lessee of the ,surrey theatre he acted almost up to his death1 which was hastened by intemperance4 ,leigh ,hunt compared him favourably with ,garrick2 ,byron thought him inimitable in high comedy2 ,macready praised his versatility4 ,elliston was the author of ,the ,venetian ,outlaw 7#ahje71 and1 with ,francis ,godolphin ,waldron1 of ,no ,prelude 7#ahjc71 in both of which plays he appeared4 ,,ellora1 a village of ,india in the native state of ,hyderabad1 near the city of ,daulatabad1 famous for its rock temples1 which are among the finest in ,india4 ,they are first mentioned by ,ma'sudi1 the ,arabic geographer of the #ajth century1 but merely as a celebrated place of pilgrimage4 ,the caves differ from those of ,ajanta in consequence of their being excavated in the sloping sides of a hill and not in a nearly perpendicular cliff4 ,they extend along the face of the hill for a mile and a quarter1 and are divided into three distinct series1 the ,buddhist1 the ,brahmanical and the ,jain1 and are arranged almost chronologically4 ,the most splendid of the whole series is the ,kailas1 a perfect ,dravidian temple1 complete in all its parts1 characterized by ,fergusson as one of the most wonderful and interesting monuments of architectural art in ,india4 ,it is not a mere interior chamber cut in the rock1 but is a model of a complete temple such as might have been erected on the plain4 ,in other words1 the rock has been cut away externally as well as internally4 ,first the great sunken court measuring #bgf ft4 by #aed ft4 was hewn out of the solid trap-rock of the hillside1 leaving the rock mass of the temple wholly detached in a cloistered court like a colossal boulder1 save that a rock bridge once connected the upper storey of the temple with the upper row of galleried chambers surrounding three sides of the court4 ,colossal elephants and obelisks stand on either side of the open mandapam1 or pavilion1 containing the sacred bull2 and beyond rises the monolithic ,dravidian temple to ,siva1 #ij ft4 in height1 hollowed into vestibule1 chamber and image-cells1 all lavishly carved4 ,time and earthquakes have weathered and broken away bits of the great monument1 and ,moslem zealots strove to destroy the carved figures1 but these defects are hardly noticed4 ,the temple was built by ,krishna ,i41 ,rashtrakuta1 king of ,malkhed in #gfj-ghc4 ,,ellore1 a town of ,british ,india1 in the ,kistna district of ,madras1 on the ,east ,coast railway1 #cjc m4 from ,madras4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #cc1eba4 ,the two canal systems of the ,godavari and the ,kistna deltas meet here4 ,there are manufactures of cotton and saltpetre1 and an important ,church of ,england high school4 ,ellore was formerly a military station1 and the capital of the ,northern ,circars4 ,at ,pedda ,vegi to the north of it are extensive ruins1 which are believed to be remains of the ,buddhist kingdom of ,vengi4 ,from these the ,mahommedans1 after their conquest of the district in #adgj1 obtained material for building a fort at ,ellore4 ,,ellsworth1 ,,oliver 7#agde-ahjg71 ,american statesman and jurist1 was born at ,windsor1 ,connecticut1 on the #bith of ,april #agde4 ,he studied at ,yale and ,princeton1 graduating from the latter in #agff1 studied theology for a year1 then law1 and began to practise at ,hartford in #agga4 ,he was state's attorney for ,hartford county from #aggg to #aghe1 and achieved extraordinary success at the bar1 amassing what was for his day a large fortune4 ,from #aggc to #agge he represented the town of ,windsor in the general assembly of ,connecticut1 and in the latter year became a member of the important commission known as the ,pay ,table1 which supervised the colony's expenditures for military purposes during the ,war of ,independence4 ,in #aggi he again sat in the assembly1 this time representing ,hartford4 ,from #aggg to #aghc he was a member of the ,continental ,congress1 and in this body he served on three important committees1 the marine committee1 the board of treasury1 and the committee of appeals1 the predecessors respectively of the navy and treasury departments and the ,supreme ,court under the ,federal ,constitution4 ,from #aghj to #aghe he was a member of the governor's council of ,connecticut1 which1 with the lower house before #aghd and alone from #aghd to #ahjg1 constituted a supreme court of errors2 and from #aghe to #aghi he was a judge of the state superior court4 ,in #aghg1 with ,roger ,sherman and ,william ,samuel ,johnson 7#agbg-ahai71 he was one of ,connecticut's delegates to the constitutional convention at ,philadelphia1 in which his services were numerous and important4 ,in particular1 when disagreement seemed inevitable on the question of representation1 he1 with ,roger ,sherman1 proposed what is known as the ,connecticut ,compromise1 by which the ,federal legislature was made to consist of two houses1 the upper having equal representation from each state1 the lower being chosen on the basis of population4 ,ellsworth also made a determined stand against a national paper currency4 ,being compelled to leave the convention before its adjournment1 he did not sign the instrument1 but used his influence to secure its ratification by his native state4 ,from #aghi to #agif he was one of the first senators from ,connecticut under the new ,constitution4 ,in the senate he was looked upon as ,president ,washington's personal spokesman and as the leader of the ,administration party4 ,his most important service to his country was without a doubt in connexion with the establishment of the ,federal judiciary4 ,as chairman of the committee having the matter in charge1 he drafted the bill by the enactment of which the system of ,federal courts1 almost as it is to-day1 was established4 ,he also took a leading part in the senate in securing the passage of laws for funding the national debt1 assuming the state debts and establishing a ,united ,states bank4 ,it was ,ellsworth who suggested to ,washington the sending of ,john ,jay to ,england to negotiate a new treaty with ,great ,britain1 and he probably did more than any other man to induce the senate1 despite widespread and violent opposition1 to ratify that treaty when negotiated4 ,by ,president ,washington's appointment he became chief justice of the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states in ,march #agif1 and in #agii ,president ,john ,adams sent him1 with ,william ,vans ,murray 7#agfb-ahjc7 and ,william ,r4 ,davie 7#agef-ahbj71 to negotiate a new treaty with ,france4 ,it was largely through the influence of ,ellsworth1 who took the principal part in the negotiations1 that ,napoleon consented to a convention1 of the #cjth of ,september #ahjj1 which secured for citizens of the ,united ,states their ships captured by ,france but not yet condemned as prizes1 provided for freedom of commerce between the two nations1 stipulated that free ships shall give a freedom to goods1 and contained provisions favourable to neutral commerce4 ,while he was abroad1 failing health compelled him 7#ahjj7 to resign the chief-justiceship1 and after some months in ,england he returned to ,america in #ahja4 ,in #ahjc he was again elected to the governor's council1 and in #ahjg1 on the reorganization of the ,connecticut judiciary1 was appointed chief justice of the new ,supreme ,court4 ,he never took office1 however1 but died at his home in ,windsor on the #bgth of ,november #ahjg4 ,see ,w4,g4 ,brown's ,oliver ,ellsworth 7,new ,york1 #aije71 an excellent biography4 ,there is also an appreciative account of ,ellsworth's life and work in ,h4,c4 ,lodge's ,a ,fighting ,frigate1 and ,other ,essays and ,addresses 7,new ,york1 #aijb71 which contains in an appendix an interesting letter by ,senator ,george ,f4 ,hoar concerning ,ellsworth's work in the constitutional convention4 ,,ellsworth1 a city1 port of entry and the county seat of ,hancock county1 ,maine1 ,u4,s4,a41 at the head of navigation on the ,union river 7and about #c-c_/d m4 from its mouth71 about #cj m4 ,s4,e4 of ,bangor4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #dhjd2 7#aijj7 #dbig 7#ahi foreign-born72 7#aiaj7 #cedi4 ,it is served by the ,maine ,central railway4 ,the fall of the river1 about #he ft4 in #b m41 furnishes good water-power1 and the city has various manufactures1 including lumber1 shoes1 woollens1 sails1 carriages and foundry and machine shop products1 besides a large lumber trade4 ,shipbuilding was formerly important4 ,there is a large ,united ,states fish hatchery here4 ,the city is the port of entry for the ,frenchman's ,bay customs district1 but its foreign trade is unimportant4 ,ellsworth was first settled in #agfc and for some time was called ,new ,bowdoin2 but when it was incorporated as a town in #ahjj the present name was adopted in honour of ,oliver ,ellsworth4 ,a city charter was secured in #ahfi4 ,,ellwangen1 a town of ,germany in the kingdom of ,wurttemberg1 on the ,jagst1 #ab m4 ,s4,s4,e4 from ,crailsheim on the railway to ,goldshofe4 ,pop4 #ejjj4 ,it is romantically situated between two hills1 one crowned by the castle of ,hohen-,ellwangen1 built in #aced and now used as an agricultural college1 and the other1 the ,schonenberg1 by the pilgrimage church of ,our ,lady of ,loreto1 in the ,jesuit style of architecture4 ,the town possesses one ,evangelical and five ,roman ,catholic churches1 among the latter the ,stiftskirche1 the old abbey church1 a ,romanesque building dating from #aabd1 and the ,gothic ,st ,wolfgangskirche4 ,the classical and modern schools 7,gymnasium and ,realschule7 occupy the buildings of a suppressed ,jesuit college4 ,the industries include the making of parchment covers1 of envelopes1 of wooden hafts and handles for tools1 c41 and tanneries4 ,there are also a wool-market and a horse-market1 the latter famous in ,germany4 ,the ,benedictine abbey of ,ellwangen is said to have been founded in #gfd by ,herulf1 bishop of ,langres2 there is1 however1 no record of it before #had4 ,in #adfj the abbey was converted1 with the consent of ,pope ,pius ,,ii41 into a ,ritterstift 7college or institution for noble pensioners7 under a secular provost1 who1 in #aeee1 was raised to the dignity of a prince of the ,empire4 ,the provostship was secularized in #ahjc and its territories were assigned to ,wurttemberg4 ,the town of ,ellwangen1 which grew up round the abbey and received the status of a town about the middle of the #adth century1 was until #ahjc the capital of the provostship4 ,see ,seckler1 ,beschreibung der gefursteten ,probstei ,ellwangen 7,stuttgart1 #ahfd72 ,beschreibung des ,oberamts ,ellwangen1 published by the statistical bureau 7,landesamt7 at ,ellwangen 7#ahhh74 ,for a list of the abbots and provosts see ,stokvis1 ,manuel d'histoire 7,leiden1 #ahij-ahic71 iii4 p4 #bdb4 ,,ellwood1 ,,thomas 7#afci-agad71 ,english author1 was born at ,crowell1 in ,oxfordshire1 in #afci4 ,he is chiefly celebrated for his connexion with ,milton1 and the principal facts of his life are related in a very interesting autobiography1 which contains much information as to his intercourse with the poet4 ,while he was still young his father removed to ,london1 where ,thomas became acquainted with a ,quaker family named ,pennington1 and was led to join the ,society of ,friends1 a connexion which subjected him to much persecution4 ,it was through the ,penningtons that he was introduced in #affb to ,milton in the capacity of ,latin reader4 ,he spent nearly every afternoon in the poet's house in ,jewin ,street1 until the intercourse was interrupted by an illness which compelled him to go to the country4 ,after a period of imprisonment in the old ,bridewell prison and in ,newgate for ,quakerism1 ,ellwood resumed his visits to ,milton1 who was now residing at a house his friend had taken for him at ,chalfont ,st ,giles4 ,in #affe ,ellwood was again arrested and imprisoned in ,aylesbury gaol4 ,when he visited ,milton after his release the poet gave him the manuscript of the ,paradise ,lost to read4 ,on returning the manuscript ,ellwood said1 ,thou hast said much here of ,paradise lost2 but what hast thou to say of ,paradise found8 and when ,milton long afterwards in ,london showed him ,paradise ,regained1 it was with the remark1 ,this is owing to you1 for you put it into my head at ,chalfont4 ,ellwood was the friend of ,fox and ,penn1 and was the author of several polemical works in defence of the ,quaker position1 of which ,forgery no ,christianity 7#afgd7 and ,the ,foundation of ,tithes ,shaken 7#afgh7 deserve mention4 ,his ,sacred ,histories of the ,old and ,new ,testaments appeared in #agje and #agji4 ,he also published some volumes of poems1 among them a ,davideis in five books4 ,he died on the #ast of ,march #agad4 ,the ,history of the ,life of ,thomas ,ellwood3 written by his own hand 7#agad7 has been many times reprinted4 ,,elm1 the popular name for the trees and shrubs constituting the genus ,ulmus1 of the natural order ,ulmaceae4 ,the genus contains fifteen or sixteen species widely distributed throughout the north temperate zone1 with the exception of western ,north ,america1 and extending southwards as far as ,mexico in the ,new and the ,sikkim ,himalayas in the ,old ,world4 ,the common elm1 ,u4 campestris1 a doubtful native of ,england1 is found throughout a great part of ,europe1 in ,north ,africa and in ,asia ,minor1 whence it ranges as far east as north ,asia and ,japan4 ,it grows in woods and hedge-rows1 especially in the southern portion of ,britain1 and on almost all soils1 but thrives best on a rich loam1 in open1 low-lying1 moderately moist situations1 attaining a height of #fj to #ajj1 and in some few cases as much as #acj or #aej ft4 ,the branches are numerous and spreading1 and often pendulous at the extremities2 the bark is rugged2 the leaves are alternate1 ovate1 rough1 doubly serrate1 and1 as in other species of ,ulmus1 unequal at the base4 ,the flowers are small1 hermaphrodite1 numerous1 in purplish-brown tufts1 and each with a fringed basal bract2 the bell-shaped calyx is often four-toothed and surrounds four free stamens2 the pistil bears two spreading hairy styles4 ,they appear before the leaves in ,march and ,april4 ,the seed-vessels are green1 membranous1 one-seeded and deeply cleft4 ,unlike the wych elm1 the common elm rarely perfects its seed in ,england1 where it is propagated by means of root suckers from old trees1 or preferably by layers from stools4 ,in the first ten years of its growth it ordinarily reaches a height of #be to #cj ft4 ,the wood1 at first brownish white1 becomes1 with growth1 of a brown colour having a greenish shade4 ,it is close-grained1 free from knots1 without apparent medullary rays1 and is hard and tough1 but will not take a polish4 ,all parts of the trunk1 including the sapwood1 are available in carpentry4 ,by drying1 the wood loses over #fj of its weight1 and has then a specific gravity of #j4ehh4 ,it has considerable transverse strength1 does not crack when once seasoned1 and is remarkably durable under water1 or if kept quite dry2 though it decays rapidly on exposure to the weather1 which in ten to eighteen months causes the bark to fall off1 and gives to the wood a yellowish colour--a sign of deterioration in quality4 ,to prevent shrinking and warping it may be preserved in water or mud1 but it is best worked up soon after felling4 ,analyses of the ash of the wood have given a percentage of #dg4h of lime1 #ba4i of potash1 and #ac4g of soda4 ,in summer1 elm trees often exude an alkaline gummy substance1 which by the action of the air becomes the brown insoluble body termed ulmin4 ,elm wood is used for keels and bilge-planks1 the blocks and dead-eyes of rigging1 and ships' pumps1 for coffins1 wheels1 furniture1 carved and turned articles1 and for general carpenters' work2 and previous to the common employment of cast iron was much in request for waterpipes4 ,the inner bark of the elm is made into bast mats and ropes4 ,it contains mucilage1 with a little tannic acid1 and was formerly much employed for the preparation of an antiscorbutic decoction1 now obsolete4 ,the bark of ,ulmus fulva1 the slippery or red elm of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 serves the ,north ,american ,indians for the same purpose1 and also as a vulnerary4 ,the leaves as well as the young shoots of elms have been found a suitable food for live stock4 ,for ornamental purposes elm trees are frequently planted1 and in avenues1 as at the park of ,stratfieldsaye1 in ,hampshire1 are highly effective4 ,they were first used in ,france for the adornment of public walks in the reign of ,francis ,i4 ,in ,italy1 as in ancient times1 it is still customary to train the vine upon the elm--a practice to which frequent allusion has been made by the poets4 ,the cork-barked elm1 ,u4 campestris1 var4 suberosa1 is distinguished chiefly by the thick deeply fissured bark with which its branches are covered4 ,there are numerous cultivated forms differing in size and shape of leaf1 and manner of growth4 ,the ,scotch or wych elm1 ,u4 montana1 is indigenous to ,britain and is the common elm of the northern portion of the island2 it usually attains a height of about #ej ft41 but among tall-growing trees may reach #abj ft4 ,it has drooping branches and a smoother and thinner bark1 larger and more tapering leaves1 and a far less deeply notched seed-vessel than ,u4 campestris4 ,the wood1 though more porous than in that species1 is a tough and hard material when properly seasoned1 and1 being very flexible when steamed1 is well adapted for boat-building4 ,branches of the wych elm were formerly manufactured into bows1 and if forked were employed as divining-rods4 ,the weeping elm1 the most ornamental member of the genus1 is a variety of this species4 ,the ,dutch or sand elm is a tree very similar to the wych elm1 but produces inferior timber4 ,the ,american or white elm1 ,u4 americana1 is a hardy and very handsome species1 of which the old tree on ,boston 7,mass47 ,common was a representative4 ,this tree is supposed to have been in existence before the settlement of ,boston1 and at the time of its destruction by the storm of the #aeth of ,february #ahgf measured #bb ft4 in circumference4 ,,elmacin 7,,elmakin or ,,elmacinus71 ,,george 7c4 #abbc-abgd71 author of a history of the ,saracens1 which extends from the time of ,mahomet to the year #aaah of our era4 ,he was a ,christian of ,egypt1 where he was born2 is known in the east as ,ibn-,amid2 and after holding an official position under the sultans of ,egypt1 died at ,damascus4 ,his history is principally occupied with the affairs of the ,saracen empire1 but it contains passages which relate to the ,eastern ,christians4 ,it was published in ,arabic and ,latin at ,leiden in #afbe4 ,the ,latin version is a translation by ,erpenius1 under the title1 ,historia saracenica1 and from this a ,french translation was made by ,wattier as ,l',histoire mahometane 7,paris1 #afeg74 ,,elmali 7apple-town71 a small town of ,asia ,minor in the vilayet of ,konia1 the present administrative centre of the ancient ,lycia1 but not itself corresponding to any known ancient city4 ,it lies about #be m4 inland1 at the head of a long upland valley 7#ejjj ft47 inhabited by direct descendants of the ancient ,lycians1 who have preserved a distinctive facial type1 noticeable at once in the town population4 ,there are about fifty ,greek families1 the rest of the population 7#djjj7 being ,moslem4 ,the district is agricultural and has no manufactures of importance4 ,,elmes1 ,,harvey ,,lonsdale 7#ahac-ahdg71 ,british architect1 son of ,james ,elmes 7q4v471 was born at ,chichester in #ahac4 ,after serving some time in his father's office1 and under a surveyor at ,bedford and an architect at ,bath1 he became partner with his father in #ahce1 and in the following year he was successful among #hf competitors for a design for ,st ,george's ,hall1 ,liverpool4 ,the foundation stone of this building was laid en the #bhth of ,june #ahch1 but1 ,elmes being successful in a competition for the ,assize ,courts in the same city1 it was finally decided to include the hall and courts in a single building4 ,in accordance with this idea1 ,elmes prepared a fresh design1 and the work of erection commenced in #ahda4 ,he superintended its progress till #ahdg1 when from failing health he was compelled to delegate his duties to ,charles ,robert ,cockerell1 and leave for ,jamaica1 where he died of consumption on the #bfth of ,november #ahdg4 ,,elmes1 ,,james 7#aghb-ahfb71 ,british architect1 civil engineer1 and writer on the arts1 was born in ,london on the #aeth of ,october #aghb4 ,he was educated at ,merchant ,taylors' school1 and1 after studying building under his father1 and architecture under ,george ,gibson1 became a student at the ,royal ,academy1 where he gained the silver medal in #ahjd4 ,he designed a large number of buildings in the metropolis1 and was surveyor and civil engineer to the port of ,london1 but is best known as a writer on the arts4 ,in #ahji he became vice-president of the ,royal ,architectural ,society1 but this office1 as well as that of surveyor of the port of ,london1 he was compelled through partial loss of sight to resign in #ahbh4 ,he died at ,greenwich on the #bnd of ,april #ahfb4 ,his publications were3--,sir ,christopher ,wren and his ,times 7#ahbc72 ,lectures on ,architecture 7#ahbc72 ,the ,arts and ,artists 7#ahbe72 ,general and ,biographical ,dictionary of the ,fine ,arts 7#ahbf72 ,treatise on ,architectural ,jurisprudence 7#ahbg71 and ,thomas ,clarkson3 a ,monograph 7#ahed74 ,,elmham1 ,,thomas 7d4 c4 #adbj71 ,english chronicler1 was probably born at ,north ,elmham in ,norfolk4 ,he became a ,benedictine monk at ,canterbury1 and then joining the ,cluniacs1 was prior of ,lenton ,abbey1 near ,nottingham2 he was chaplain to ,henry ,v41 whom he accompanied to ,france in #adae1 being present at ,agincourt4 ,elmham wrote a history of the monastery of ,st ,augustine at ,canterbury1 which has been edited by ,c4 ,hardwick for the ,rolls ,series 7#aheh72 and a ,liber metricus de ,henrico ,v41 edited by ,c4,a4 ,cole in the ,memorials of ,henry ,v4 7#aheh74 ,it is very probable that ,elmham wrote the famous ,gesta ,henrici ,quinti1 which is the best authority for the life of ,henry ,v4 from his accession to #adaf4 ,this work1 often referred to as the chaplain's life1 and thought by some to have been written by ,jean de ,bordin1 has been published for the ,english ,historical ,society by ,b4 ,williams 7#ahej74 ,elmham1 however1 did not write the ,vita et ,gesta ,henrici ,v41 which was attributed to him by ,t4 ,hearne and others4 ,see ,c4,l4 ,kingsford1 ,henry ,v4 7#aija74 ,,elmina1 a town on the ,gold ,coast1 ,british ,west ,africa1 in #e deg4 #d' ,n41 #a deg4 #bj' ,w4 and about #h m4 ,w4 of ,cape ,coast4 ,pop4 about #djjj4 ,facing the ,atlantic on a rocky peninsula is ,fort ,st ,george1 considered the finest fort on the ,guinea coast4 ,it is built square with high walls1 and has accommodation for #bjj soldiers4 ,on the land side were formerly two moats1 cut in the rock on which the castle stands4 ,the castle is the residence of the commissioner of the district and other officials4 ,the houses in the native quarter are mostly built of stone1 that material being plentiful in the vicinity4 ,elmina is the earliest ,european settlement on the ,gold ,coast1 and was visited by the ,portuguese in #adha4 ,christopher ,columbus is believed to have been one of the officers who took part in this voyage4 ,the ,portuguese at once began to build the castle now known as ,fort ,st ,george1 but it was not completed till eighty years afterwards4 ,another defensive work is ,fort ,st ,jago1 built in #afff1 which is behind the town and at some distance from the coast4 7,in the latter half of the #aith century it was converted into a prison47 ,elmina was captured by the ,dutch in #afcg1 and ceded to them by treaty in #afdj4 ,they made it the chief port for the produce of ,ashanti4 ,with the other ,dutch possessions on the ,guinea coast1 it was transferred to ,great ,britain in ,april #ahgb4 ,the king of ,ashanti1 claiming to be ground landlord1 objected to its transfer1 and the result was the ,ashanti war of #ahgc-ahgd4 ,for many years the greatest output of gold from this coast came from ,elmina4 ,the annual export is said to have been nearly ,l#c1jjj1jjj in the early years of the #ahth century1 but the figure is probably exaggerated4 ,since #aijj the bulk of the export trade in gold has been transferred to ,sekondi 7q4v474 ,prempeh1 the ex-king of ,ashanti1 was detained in the castle 7#ahif7 until his removal to the ,seychelles4 7,see ,,ashanti3 ,history1 and ,,gold ,,coast3 ,history47 ,,elmira1 a city and the county-seat of ,chemung county1 ,new ,york1 ,u4,s4,a41 #ajj m4 ,s4,e4 of ,rochester1 on the ,chemung river1 about #hej ft4 above sea-level4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #cj1hic2 7#aijj7 #ce1fgb1 of whom #eeaa were foreign-born 7#aihh ,irish and #abjh ,german72 7#aiaj census7 #cg1agf4 ,it is served by the ,erie1 the ,pennsylvania1 the ,delaware1 ,lackawanna ,western1 the ,lehigh ,valley1 and the ,tioga ,division railways1 the last of which connects it with the ,pennsylvania coalfields #dh m4 away4 ,the city is attractively situated on both sides of the river1 and has a fine water-supply and park system1 among the parks being ,eldridge1 ,rorick's ,glen1 ,riverside1 ,brand1 ,diven1 ,grove1 ,maple ,avenue and ,wisner2 in the last-named is a statue of ,thomas ,k4 ,beecher by ,j4,s4 ,hartley4 ,the city contains a ,federal building1 a state armoury1 the ,chemung county court house and other county buildings1 the ,elmira orphans' home1 the ,steele memorial library1 home for the aged1 the ,arnot-,ogden memorial hospital1 the ,elmira free academy1 and the ,railway ,commercial training school4 ,here1 also1 is ,elmira ,college 7,presbyterian7 for women1 founded in #ahee4 ,this institution1 chartered in #aheb as ,auburn ,female ,university and then situated in ,auburn1 was rechartered in #ahee as the ,elmira ,female ,college2 it was established largely through the influence and persistent efforts of the ,rev4 ,samuel ,robbins ,brown 7#ahaj-ahhj7 and his associates1 notably ,simeon ,benjamin of ,elmira1 who gave generously to the newly founded college1 and was the first distinctively collegiate institution for women in the ,united ,states1 and the first1 apparently1 to grant degrees to women4 ,the most widely known institution in the city is the ,elmira reformatory1 a state prison for first offenders between the ages of sixteen and thirty1 on a system of general indeterminate sentences4 ,authorized by the state legislature in #ahff and opened in #ahgf under the direction of ,zebulon ,reed ,brockway 7b4 #ahbg71 it was the first institution of the sort and has served as a model for many similar institutions both in the ,united ,states and in other countries 7see ,,juvenile ,,offenders74 ,elmira is an important railway centre1 with large repair shops1 and has also extensive manufactories 7value of production in #aijj1 #h1eeh1ghf1 of which #f1eif1fjc was produced under the factory system2 in #aije1 under the factory system1 #f1ihd1jie71 including boot and shoe factories1 a large factory for fire-extinguishing apparatus1 iron and steel bridge works1 steel rolling mills1 large valve works1 steel plate mills1 knitting mills1 furniture1 glass and boiler factories1 breweries and silk mills4 ,near the site of ,elmira occurred on the #bith of ,august #aggi the battle of ,newtown1 in which ,general ,john ,sullivan decisively defeated a force of ,indians and ,tories under ,sir ,john ,johnson and ,joseph ,brant4 ,there were some settlers here at the close of the ,war of ,independence1 but no permanent settlement was made until #aghh4 ,the village was incorporated as ,newtown in #ahae1 and was reincorporated as ,elmira in #ahbh4 ,a city charter was secured in #ahfd4 ,in #ahfa a state military camp was established here1 and in #ahfd-ahfe there was a prison camp here for ,confederate soldiers4 ,,elmshorn1 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,schleswig-,holstein1 on the ,kruckau1 #ai m4 by rail ,n4,w4 from ,altona4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #ac1fdj4 ,its industries include weaving1 dyeing1 brewing1 iron-founding and the manufacture of leather goods1 boots and shoes and machines4 ,there is a considerable shipping trade4 ,,elmsley1 ,,peter 7#aggc-ahbe71 ,english classical scholar4 ,he was educated at ,westminster and ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 and having inherited a fortune from his uncle1 a well-known bookseller1 devoted himself to the study of classical authors and manuscripts4 ,in #agih he was appointed to the chapelry of ,little ,horkesley in ,essex1 which he held till his death4 ,he travelled extensively in ,france and ,italy1 and spent the winter of #ahah in examining the ,,mss4 in the ,laurentian library at ,florence4 ,in #ahai he was commissioned1 with ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 to decipher the papyri found at ,herculaneum1 but the results proved insignificant4 ,in #ahbc he was appointed principal of ,st ,alban's ,hall1 ,oxford1 and ,camden professor of ancient history4 ,he died in ,oxford on the #hth of ,march #ahbe4 ,elmsley was a man of most extensive learning and ,european reputation1 and was considered to be the best ecclesiastical scholar in ,england4 ,but it is chiefly by his collation of the ,,mss4 of the ,greek tragedians and his critical labours on the restoration of their text that he will be remembered4 ,he edited the ,acharnians of ,aristophanes1 and several of the plays and scholia of ,sophocles and ,euripides4 ,he was the first to recognize the importance of the ,laurentian ,,ms4 7see ,sandys1 ,hist4 of ,class4 ,schol4 iii4 7#aijh74 ,,elne1 a town of south-western ,france in the department of ,pyrenees-,orientales1 #aj m4 ,s4,s4,e4 of ,perpignan by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #cjbf4 ,the hill on which it stands1 once washed by the sea1 which is now over #c m4 distant1 commands a fine view over the plain of ,roussillon4 ,from the #fth century till #afjb the town was the seat of a bishopric1 which was transferred to ,perpignan4 ,the cathedral of ,st ,eulalie1 a ,romanesque building completed about the beginning of the #abth century1 has a beautiful cloister in the same style1 with interesting sculptures and three early ,christian sarcophagi4 ,remains of the ancient ramparts flanked by towers are still to be seen4 ,silk-worm cultivation is carried on4 ,elne1 the ancient ,illiberis1 was named ,helena by the emperor ,constantine in memory of his mother4 ,hannibal encamped under its walls on his march to ,rome in #bah ,b4,c4 ,the emperor ,constans was assassinated there in ,a4,d4 #cej4 ,the town several times sustained siege and capture between its occupation by the ,moors in the #hth century and its capitulation in #afda to the troops of ,louis ,,xiii4 ,,el ,,obeid1 chief town of the mudiria 7province7 of ,kordofan1 ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan1 and #bcj m4 ,s4,w4 by ,s4 of ,khartum in a direct line4 ,pop4 7#aije7 about #aj1jjj4 ,it is situated about #bjjj ft4 above the sea1 at the northern foot of ,jebel ,kordofan1 in #ac deg4 #aa' ,n4 and #cj deg4 #ad' ,e4 ,it is an important trade centre1 the chief articles of commerce being gum1 ivory1 cattle and ostrich feathers4 ,a considerable part of the trade of ,darfur with ,egypt passes through ,el ,obeid4 ,el ,obeid1 which appears to be a place of considerable antiquity and the ancient capital of the country1 was garrisoned by the ,egyptians on their conquest of ,kordofan in #ahba4 ,in ,september #ahhb the town was assaulted by the troops of the mahdi1 who1 being repulsed1 laid siege to the place1 which capitulated on the #agth of ,january #ahhc4 ,during the ,mahdia the city was destroyed and deserted1 and when ,kordofan passed1 in #ahii1 into the possession of the ,anglo-,egyptian authorities nothing was left of ,el ,obeid but a part of the old government offices4 ,a new town was laid out in squares1 the mudiria repaired and barracks built4 7,see ,,kordofan1 and ,,sudan3 ,anglo-,egyptian47 ,,eloi ,,eligius1 ,,saint 7#ehh-fei71 apostle of the ,belgians and ,frisians1 was born at ,cadillac1 near ,limoges1 in #ehh4 ,having at an early age shown artistic talent he was placed by his parents with the master of the mint at ,limoges1 where he made rapid progress in goldsmith's work4 ,he became coiner to ,clotaire ,,ii41 king of the ,franks1 and treasurer to his successor ,dagobert4 ,both kings entrusted him with important works1 among which were the composition of the bas-reliefs which ornament the tomb of ,st ,germain1 bishop of ,paris1 and the execution 7for ,clotaire7 of two chairs of gold1 adorned with jewels1 which at that time were reckoned chefs-d'oeuvre4 ,though he was amassing great wealth1 ,eloi acquired a distaste for a worldly life1 and resolved to become a priest4 ,at first he retired to a monastery1 but in #fdj was raised to the bishopric of ,noyon4 ,he made frequent missionary excursions to the pagans of the ,low ,countries1 and also founded a great many monasteries and churches4 ,he died on the #ast of ,december #fei4 ,a mass of legend has gathered round the life of ,st ,eloi1 who as the patron saint of goldsmiths is still very popular4 ,his life was written by his friend and contemporary ,st ,ouen 7,audoenus72 ,french translations of the ,vita ,s4 ,eligii auctore ,audoeno were published by ,l4 de ,montigny 7,paris1 #afbf71 by ,c4 ,barthelemy in ,etudes hist41 litt4 et art4 7ib4 #ahdg71 and by ,parenty1 with notes 7#bnd ed41 ib4 #ahgj74 ,for bibliography see ,potthast1 ,bibliotheca hist4 med4 aevi 7,berlin1 #ahif71 s4v4 ,vita ,s4 ,eligii ,noviomensis1 and ,ulysse ,chevalier1 ,rep4 des sources hist41 ,bio-bibl4 7,paris1 #ahid71 s4 ,eloi4 ,,elongation1 strictly lengthening2 in astronomy1 the apparent angular distance of a heavenly body from its centre of motion1 as seen from the earth2 designating especially the angular distance of the planet ,mercury or ,venus from the sun1 or the apparent angle between a satellite and its primary4 ,the greatest elongation of ,venus is about #de deg42 that of ,mercury generally ranges between #ah deg4 and #bg deg4 ,,el ,,paso1 a city1 port of entry1 and the county-seat of ,el ,paso county1 ,texas1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,e4 bank of the ,rio ,grande1 in the extreme ,w4 part of the state1 at an altitude of #cgaj ft4 ,pop4 7#ahhj7 #gcf2 7#ahij7 #aj1cch2 7#aijj7 #ae1ijf1 of whom #fcji were foreign-born and #dff were negroes2 7#aiaj census7 #ci1bgi4 ,many of the inhabitants are of ,mexican descent4 ,el ,paso is an important railway centre and is served by the following railways3 the ,atchison1 ,topeka ,santa ,fe1 of which it is the ,s4 terminus2 the ,el ,paso ,south-,western1 which connects with the ,chicago1 ,rock ,island ,el ,paso 7of the ,rock ,island system72 the ,galveston1 ,harrisburg ,san ,antonio1 of which it is the ,w4 terminus2 the ,mexican ,central1 of which it is the ,n4 terminus2 the ,texas ,pacific1 of which it is the ,w4 terminus2 a branch of the ,southern ,pacific1 of which it is the ,e4 terminus2 and the short ,rio ,grande1 ,sierra ,madre ,pacific1 of which it is the ,n4 terminus4 ,the city is regularly laid out on level bottom lands1 stretching to the table-lands and slopes to the ,n4,e4 and ,n4,w4 of the city4 ,opposite1 on the ,w4 bank of the river1 is the ,mexican town of ,ciudad ,juarez 7until #ahhe known as ,paso del ,norte71 with which ,el ,paso is connected by bridges and by electric railway4 ,the climate is mild1 warm and dry1 ,el ,paso being well known as a health resort1 particularly for sufferers from pulmonary complaints4 ,among the city's public buildings are a handsome ,federal building1 a county court house1 a city hall1 a ,y4,m4,c4,a4 building1 a public library1 a sanatorium for consumptives1 and the ,hotel ,dieu1 a hospital maintained by ,roman ,catholics4 ,el ,paso is the seat of ,st ,joseph's ,academy and of the ,el ,paso ,military ,institute4 ,three miles ,e4 of the city limits is ,fort ,bliss1 a ,u4,s4 military post1 with a reservation of about #b sq4 m4 ,el ,paso's situation on the ,mexican frontier gives it a large trade with ,mexico2 it is the port of entry of the ,paso del ,norte customs district1 one of the larger ,mexican border districts1 and in #aijh its imports were valued at #b1fgg1ghd and its exports at #e1ffa1ija4 ,wheat1 boots and shoes1 mining machinery1 cement1 lime1 lumber1 beer1 and denatured alcohol are among the varied exports2 the principal imports are ore1 sugar1 cigars1 oranges1 drawn work and ,mexican curios4 ,el ,paso has extensive manufactories1 especially railway car shops1 which in #aije employed #cd4e of the factory wage-earners4 ,just outside the city limits are important lead smelting works1 to which are brought ores for treatment from western ,texas1 northern ,mexico1 ,new ,mexico and ,arizona4 ,among the city's manufactures are cement1 denatured alcohol1 ether1 varnish1 clothing and canned goods4 ,the value of the city's total factory product in #aije was #b1cgg1hac1 #if greater than that in #aijj4 ,el ,paso lies in a fertile agricultural valley1 and in #aijh the erection of an immense dam was begun near ,engle1 ,new ,mexico 7#ajj m4 above ,el ,paso71 by the ,u4,s4 government1 to store the flood waters of the ,rio ,grande for irrigating this area4 ,before the ,mexican ,war1 following which the first ,united ,states settlement was made1 the site of ,el ,paso was known as ,ponce de ,leon ,ranch1 the land being owned by the ,ponce de ,leon family4 ,el ,paso was first chartered as a city in #ahgc1 and in #aijg adopted the commission form of government4 ,,elphinstone1 ,,mountstuart 7#aggi-ahei71 ,indian statesman and historian1 fourth son of the #aath ,baron ,elphinstone in the peerage of ,scotland1 was born in #aggi4 ,having received an appointment in the civil service of the ,east ,india ,company1 of which one of his uncles was a director1 he reached ,calcutta in the beginning of #agif4 ,after filling several subordinate posts1 he was appointed in #ahja assistant to the ,british resident at ,poona1 at the court of the peshwa1 the most powerful of the ,mahratta princes4 ,here he obtained his first opportunity of distinction1 being attached in the capacity of diplomatist to the mission of ,sir ,arthur ,wellesley to the ,mahrattas4 ,when1 on the failure of negotiations1 war broke out1 ,elphinstone1 though a civilian1 acted as virtual aide-de-camp to ,general ,wellesley4 ,he was present at the battle of ,assaye1 and displayed such courage and knowledge of tactics throughout the whole campaign that ,wellesley told him he had mistaken his profession1 and that he ought to have been a soldier4 ,in #ahjd1 when the war closed1 he was appointed ,british resident at ,nagpur4 ,here1 the times being uneventful and his duties light1 he occupied much of his leisure in reading classical and general literature1 and acquired those studious habits which clung to him throughout life4 ,in #ahjh he was appointed the first ,british envoy to the court of ,kabul1 with the object of securing a friendly alliance with the ,afghans2 but this proved of little value1 because ,shah ,shuja was driven from the throne by his brother before it could be ratified4 ,the most valuable permanent result of the embassy was the literary fruit it bore several years afterwards in ,elphinstone's great work on ,kabul4 ,after spending about a year in ,calcutta arranging the report of his mission1 ,elphinstone was appointed in #ahaa to the important and difficult post of resident at ,poona4 ,the difficulty arose from the general complication of ,mahratta politics1 and especially from the weak and treacherous character of the peshwa1 which ,elphinstone rightly read from the first4 ,while the mask of friendship was kept up ,elphinstone carried out the only suitable policy1 that of vigilant quiescence1 with admirable tact and patience2 when in #ahag the mask was thrown aside and the peshwa ventured to declare war1 the ,english resident proved for the second time the truth of ,wellesley's assertion that he was born a soldier4 ,though his own account of his share in the campaign is characteristically modest1 one can gather from it that the success of the ,british troops was chiefly owing to his assuming the command at an important crisis during the battle of ,kirkee4 ,the peshwa being driven from his throne1 his territories were annexed to the ,british dominions1 and ,elphinstone was nominated commissioner to administer them4 ,he discharged the responsible task with rare judgment and ability4 ,in #ahai he was appointed lieutenant-governor of ,bombay and held this post till #ahbg1 his principal achievement being the compilation of the ,elphinstone code4 ,he may fairly be regarded as the founder of the system of state education in ,india1 and he probably did more than any other ,indian administrator to further every likely scheme for the promotion of native education4 ,his connexion with the ,bombay presidency was appropriately commemorated in the endowment of the ,elphinstone ,college by the native communities1 and in the erection of a marble statue by the ,european inhabitants4 ,returning to ,england in #ahbi1 after an interval of two years' travel1 ,elphinstone retained in his retirement and enfeebled health an important influence on public affairs4 ,he twice refused the offer of the governor-generalship of ,india4 ,long before his return he had made his reputation as an author by his ,account of the ,kingdom of ,cabul and its ,dependencies in ,persia and ,india 7#ahae74 ,soon after his arrival in ,england he commenced the preparation of a work of wider scope1 a history of ,india1 which was published in #ahda4 ,it embraces the ,hindu and ,mahommedan periods1 and is still a work of high authority4 ,he died on the #bjth of ,november #ahei4 ,see ,j4,s4 ,cotton1 ,mountstuart ,elphinstone 7,rulers of ,india series71 7#ahib72 ,t4,e4 ,colebrooke1 ,life of ,mountstuart ,elphinstone 7#ahhd72 and ,g4,w4 ,forrest1 ,official ,writings of ,mountstuart ,elphinstone 7#ahhd74 ,,elphinstone1 ,,william 7#adca-aead71 ,scottish statesman and prelate1 founder of the university of ,aberdeen1 was born in ,glasgow1 and educated at the university of his native city1 taking the degree of ,m4,a4 in #adeb4 ,after practising for a short time as a lawyer in the church courts1 he was ordained priest1 becoming rector of ,st ,michael's church1 ,trongate1 ,glasgow1 in #adfe4 ,four years later he went to continue his studies at the university of ,paris1 where he became reader in canon law1 and then1 proceeding to ,orleans1 became lecturer in the university there4 ,before #adgd he had returned to ,scotland1 and was made rector of the university1 and official of the see of ,glasgow4 ,further promotion followed1 but soon more important duties were entrusted to ,elphinstone1 who was made bishop of ,ross in #adha4 ,he was a member of the ,scots parliament1 and was sent by ,king ,james ,,iii4 on diplomatic errands to ,louis ,,xi4 of ,france1 and to ,edward ,,iv4 of ,england2 in #adhc he was appointed bishop of ,aberdeen1 although his consecration was delayed for four years2 and he was sent on missions to ,england1 both before and after the death of ,richard ,,iii4 in #adhe4 ,although he attended the meetings of parliament with great regularity he did not neglect his episcopal duties1 and the fabric of the cathedral of ,aberdeen owes much to his care4 ,early in #adhh the bishop was made lord high chancellor1 but on the king's death in the following ,june he vacated this office1 and retired to ,aberdeen4 ,as a diplomatist of repute1 however1 his services were quickly required by the new king1 ,james ,,iv41 in whose interests he visited the kings of ,england and ,france1 and the ,german king1 ,maximilian ,i4 ,having been made keeper of the privy seal in #adib1 and having arranged a dispute between the ,scotch and the ,dutch1 the bishop's concluding years were mainly spent in the foundation of the university of ,aberdeen4 ,the papal bull for this purpose was obtained in #adid1 and the royal charter which made old ,aberdeen the seat of a university is dated #adih4 ,a small endowment was provided by the king1 and the university1 modelled on that of ,paris and intended principally to be a school of law1 soon became the most famous and popular of the ,scots seats of learning1 a result which was largely due to the wide experience and ripe wisdom of ,elphinstone and of his friend1 ,hector ,boece1 the first rector4 ,the building of the college of the ,holy ,virgin in ,nativity1 now ,king's ,college1 was completed in #aejf1 and the bishop also rebuilt the choir of his cathedral1 and built a bridge over the ,dee4 ,continuing to participate in public affairs he opposed the policy of hostility towards ,england which led to the disaster at ,flodden in ,september #aeac1 and died in ,edinburgh on the #beth of ,october #aead4 ,elphinstone was partly responsible for the introduction of printing into ,scotland1 and for the production of the ,breviarium ,aberdonense4 ,he may have written some of the lives in this collection1 and gathered together materials concerning the history of ,scotland2 but he did not1 as some have thought1 continue the ,scotichronicon1 nor did he write the ,lives of ,scottish ,saints4 ,see ,hector ,boece1 ,murthlacensium et ,aberdonensium episcoporum vitae1 edited and translated by ,j4 ,moir 7,aberdeen1 #ahid72 ,fasti ,aberdonenses1 edited by ,c4 ,innes 7,aberdeen1 #ahed72 and ,a4 ,gardyne1 ,theatre of ,scottish ,worthies and ,lyf of ,w4 ,elphinston1 edited by ,d4 ,laing 7,aberdeen1 #ahgh74 ,,el ,,reno1 a city and the county-seat of ,canadian county1 ,oklahoma1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,n4 fork of the ,canadian river1 about #bf m4 ,w4 of ,oklahoma ,city4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #bhe2 7#aijj7 #cchc2 7#aijg7 #ecgj 7#dja were of negro descent and #g were ,indians72 7#aiaj7 #ghgb4 ,it is served by the ,chicago1 ,rock ,island ,pacific1 the ,choctaw1 ,oklahoma ,gulf 7owned by the ,chicago1 ,rock ,island ,pacific71 and the ,st ,louis1 ,el ,reno ,western railways1 the last extending from ,el ,reno to ,guthrie4 ,el ,reno lies on the rolling prairie lands1 about #acfj ft4 above the sea1 in an ,indian corn1 wheat1 oats and cotton-producing and dairying region1 and has a large grain elevator1 a cotton compress1 and various manufacturing establishments1 among the products being flour1 canned goods and crockery4 ,el ,reno has a ,carnegie library1 and within the city's limits is ,bellamy's ,lake 7#ahj acres71 a favourite resort4 ,near the city is a ,government boarding school for the ,indians of the ,cheyenne and the ,arapahoe ,reservation4 ,fort ,reno1 a ,u4,s4 military post1 was established near ,el ,reno in #ahgf1 and in #aijh became a supply depot of the quartermaster's department under the name of ,fort ,reno ,remount ,depot4 ,the first settlement here1 apart from the fort1 was made in the autumn of #ahhi2 in #ahib ,el ,reno received a city charter4 ,,elsfleth1 a maritime town of ,germany1 in the grand-duchy of ,oldenburg1 in a fertile district at the confluence of the ,hunte with the ,weser1 on the railway ,hude-,nordenham4 ,pop4 #bjjj4 ,it has an ,evangelical church1 a school of navigation1 a harbour and docks4 ,it has considerable trade in corn and timber and is one of the centres of the ,north ,sea herring fishery4 ,,elsinore 7,dan4 ,helsingor71 a seaport of ,denmark in the amt 7county7 of ,frederiksborg1 on the east coast of the island of ,zealand1 #bh m4 ,n4 of ,copenhagen by rail4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ac1ijb4 ,it stands at the narrowest part of the ,sound1 opposite the ,swedish town of ,helsingborg1 #c m4 distant4 ,communication is maintained by means of a steam ferry4 ,its harbour admits vessels of #bj ft4 draught1 and the roadstead affords excellent anchorage4 ,there are shipbuilding yards1 with foundry1 engineering shops1 c42 the chief export is agricultural produce2 imports1 iron1 coal1 cereals and yarn4 ,helsingor received town-privileges in #adbe4 ,in #aebb it was taken and burnt by ,lubeck1 but in #aece was retaken by ,christian ,,ii4 ,it is celebrated as the ,elsinore of ,shakespeare's tragedy of ,hamlet1 and was the birthplace of ,saxo ,grammaticus1 from whose history the story of ,hamlet is derived4 ,a pile of rocks surrounded by trees is shown as the grave of ,hamlet1 and ,ophelia's brook is also pointed out1 but both are1 of course1 inventions4 ,on a tongue of land east of the town stands the castle of ,kronberg or ,kronenberg1 a magnificent1 solid and venerable ,gothic structure built by ,frederick ,,ii4 towards the end of the #afth century1 and extensively restored by ,christian ,,iv4 after a fire in #afcg4 ,it was taken by the ,swedes in #afeh1 but its possession was again given up to the ,danes in #affj4 ,from its turrets1 one of which serves as a lighthouse1 there are fine views of the straits and of the neighbouring countries4 ,the ,flag ,battery is the platform before the castle where the ghost appears in ,hamlet4 ,within it the principal object of interest is the apartment in which ,matilda1 queen of ,christian ,,vii4 and sister of ,george ,,iii4 of ,england1 was imprisoned before she was taken to ,hanover4 ,the chapel contains fine wood-carving of the #agth century4 ,north-west of the town is ,marienlyst1 originally a royal chateau1 but now a seaside resort4 ,,elssler1 ,,fanny 7#ahaj-ahhd71 ,austrian dancer1 was born in ,vienna on the #bcrd of ,june #ahaj4 ,from her earliest years she was trained for the ballet1 and made her appearance at the ,karntner-,thor theatre in ,vienna before she was seven4 ,she almost invariably danced with her sister ,theresa1 who was two years her senior2 and1 after some years' experience together in ,vienna1 the two went in #ahbg to ,naples4 ,their success there--to which ,fanny contributed more largely than her sister1 who used to efface herself in order to heighten the effect of ,fanny's more brilliant powers--led to an engagement in ,berlin in #ahcj4 ,this was the beginning of a series of triumphs for ,fanny's personal beauty and skill in dancing4 ,after captivating all hearts in ,berlin and ,vienna1 and inspiring the aged statesman ,friedrich von ,gentz 7q4v47 with a remarkable passion1 she paid a visit to ,london1 where she received much kindness at the hands of ,mr and ,mrs ,grote1 who practically adopted the little girl who was born three months after the mother's arrival in ,england4 ,in ,september #ahcd ,fanny ,elssler appeared at the ,opera in ,paris1 a step to which she looked forward with much misgiving on account of ,taglioni's supremacy on that stage4 ,the result1 however1 was another triumph for her1 and the temporary eclipse of ,taglioni1 who1 although the finer artist of the two1 could not for the moment compete with the newcomer's personal fascination4 ,it was conspicuously in her performance of the ,spanish cachuca that ,fanny ,elssler outshone all rivals4 ,in #ahdj she sailed with her sister for ,new ,york1 and after two years' unmixed success they returned to ,europe1 where during the following five years ,fanny appeared in ,germany1 ,austria1 ,france1 ,england and ,russia4 ,in #ahde1 having amassed a fortune1 she retired from the stage and settled near ,hamburg4 ,a few years later her sister ,theresa contracted a morganatic marriage with ,prince ,adalbert of ,prussia1 and was ennobled under the title of ,baroness von ,barnim4 ,fanny ,elssler died at ,vienna on the #bgth of ,november #ahhd4 ,theresa was left a widow in #ahgc1 and died on the #aith of ,november #ahgh4 ,,elster1 the name of two rivers of ,germany4 7#a7 ,the ,schwarze 7,black7 ,elster rises in the ,lausitz range1 on the southern border of ,saxony1 flows ,n4 and ,n4,w41 and after a course of #aab m4 enters the ,elbe a little above ,wittenberg4 ,it is a sluggish stream1 winding its way through sandy soil and frequently along a divided channel4 7#b7 ,the ,weisse 7,white7 ,elster rises in the north-western corner of ,bohemia1 a little north of ,eger1 cuts through the ,vogtland in a deep and picturesque valley1 passing ,plauen1 ,greiz1 ,gera and ,zeitz on its way north to ,leipzig1 just below which city it receives its most important tributary1 the ,pleisse4 ,at ,leipzig it divides1 the main stream turning north-west and entering the ,saale from the right a little above ,halle2 the other arm1 the ,luppe1 flowing parallel to the main stream and south of it enters the ,saale below ,merseburg4 ,total length1 #aba m42 total descent1 #abhf ft4 ,,elster1 a spa and inland watering-place of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,saxony1 on the ,weisse ,elster1 close to the ,bohemian frontier on the railway ,plauen-,eger1 and #bj m4 ,s4 of the former4 ,it has some industries of lace-making and weaving1 and a population of about #bjjj1 in addition to visitors4 ,the mineral springs1 saline-chalybeate1 specific in cases of nervous disorders and feminine ailments1 have been lately supplemented by baths of various kinds1 and these1 together with the natural attractions of the place as a climatic health resort1 have combined to make it a fashionable watering-place during the summer season4 ,the number of visitors amounts annually to about #aj1jjj4 ,see ,flechsig1 ,bad ,elster 7,leipzig1 #ahhd74 ,,elswick1 a ward of the city of ,newcastle-upon-,tyne1 ,england1 in the western part of the borough1 bordering the river ,tyne4 ,the name is well known in connexion with the great ordnance and naval works of ,sir ,w4,g4 ,armstrong1 ,mitchell ,co4 ,elswick ,park1 attached to the old mansion of the same name1 is now a public recreation ground4 ,,el ,,teb1 a halting-place in the ,anglo-,egyptian ,sudan near the coast of the ,red ,sea1 #i m4 ,s4,w4 of the port of ,trinkitat on the road to ,tokar4 ,at ,el ,teb1 on the #dth of ,february #ahhd1 a heterogeneous force under ,general ,valentine ,baker1 marching to the relief of the ,egyptian garrison of ,tokar1 was completely routed by the ,mahdists 7see ,,egypt3 ,military ,operations74 ,,elton1 ,,charles ,,isaac 7#ahci-aijj71 ,english lawyer and antiquary1 was born at ,southampton on the #fth of ,december #ahci4 ,educated at ,cheltenham and ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford1 he was elected a fellow of ,queen's ,college in #ahfb4 ,he was called to the bar at ,lincoln's ,inn in #ahfe4 ,his remarkable knowledge of old real property law and custom helped him to an extensive conveyancing practice and he took silk in #ahhe4 ,he sat in the ,house of ,commons for ,west ,somerset in #ahhd-ahhe and from #ahhf to #ahib4 ,in #ahfi he succeeded to his uncle's property of ,whitestaunton1 near ,chard1 in ,somerset4 ,during the later years of his life he retired to a great extent from legal practice1 and devoted much of his time to literary work4 ,he died at ,whitestaunton on the #bcrd of ,april #aijj4 ,elton's principal works were ,the ,tenures of ,kent 7#ahfg72 ,treatise on ,commons and ,waste ,lands 7#ahfh72 ,law of ,copyholds 7#ahgd72 ,origins of ,english ,history 7#ahhb72 ,custom and ,tenant ,right 7#ahhb74 ,,eltville 7,,elfeld71 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,hesse-,nassau1 on the right bank of the ,rhine1 #e m4 ,s4,w4 from ,wiesbaden1 on the railway ,frankfort-on-,main-,cologne1 and with a branch to ,schlangenbad4 ,pop4 #cgjj4 ,it has a ,roman ,catholic and a ,protestant church1 ruins of a feudal castle1 a ,latin school1 and a monument to ,gutenberg4 ,it has a considerable trade in the wines of the district and two manufactories of sparkling wines4 ,eltville 7originally ,adeldvile1 ,lat4 ,altavilla7 is first mentioned in a record of the year #hhb4 ,it was given by the emperor ,otto ,i4 to the archbishops of ,mainz1 who often resided here4 ,it received town rights in #acca and was a place of importance during the middle ages4 ,in #adfe ,gutenberg set up his press at ,eltville1 under the patronage of ,archbishop ,adolphus of ,nassau1 shortly afterwards handing over its use to the brothers ,heinrich and ,nikolaus ,bechtermunz4 ,several costly early examples of printed books issued by this press survive1 the earliest being the ,vocabularium ,latino-,teutonicum1 first printed in #adfg4 ,,eltz1 a small river of ,germany1 a left bank tributary of the ,mosel4 ,it rises in the ,eifel range1 and1 after a course of #e m41 joins the latter river at ,moselkern4 ,just above its confluence stands the romantic castle of ,eltz1 crowning a rocky summit #ijj ft4 high1 and famous as being one of the best preserved medieval strongholds of ,germany4 ,it is the ancestral seat of the counts of ,eltz and contains numerous antiquities4 ,see ,roth1 ,geschichte der ,herren und ,grafen zu ,eltz 7#b vols41 ,mainz1 #ahhi-ahij74 ,,elvas1 an episcopal city and frontier fortress of ,portugal1 in the district of ,portalegre and formerly included in the province of ,alemtejo2 #agj m4 ,e4 of ,lisbon1 and #aj m4 ,w4 of the ,spanish fortress of ,badajoz1 by the ,madrid-,badajoz-,lisbon railway4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #ac1iha4 ,elvas is finely situated on a hill #e m4 ,n4,w4 of the river ,guadiana4 ,it is defended by seven bastions and the two forts of ,santa ,luzia and ,nossa ,senhora da ,graca4 ,its late ,gothic cathedral1 which has also many traces of ,moorish influence in its architecture1 dates from the reign of ,emmanuel ,i4 7#adie-aeba74 ,a fine aqueduct1 #d m4 long1 supplies the city with pure water2 it was begun early in the #aeth century and completed in #afbb4 ,for some distance it includes four tiers of superimposed arches1 with a total height of #abj ft4 ,the surrounding lowlands are very fertile1 and ,elvas is celebrated for its excellent olives and plums1 the last-named being exported1 either fresh or dried1 in large quantities4 ,brandy is distilled and pottery manufactured in the city4 ,the fortress of ,campo ,maior1 #aj m4 ,n4,e41 is famous for its siege by the ,french and relief by the ,british under ,marshal ,beresford in #ahaa--;an exploit commemorated in a ballad by ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,elvas is the ,roman ,alpesa or ,helvas1 the ,moorish ,balesh1 the ,spanish ,yelves4 ,it was wrested from the ,moors by ,alphonso ,,viii4 of ,castile in #aaff2 but was temporarily recaptured before its final occupation by the ,portuguese in #abbf4 ,in #aegj it became an episcopal see4 ,from #afdb until modern times it was the chief frontier fortress ,s4 of the ,tagus2 and it twice withstood sieges by the ,spanish1 in #afeh and #agaa4 ,the ,french under ,marshal ,junot took it in ,march #ahjh1 but evacuated it in ,august1 after the conclusion of the convention of ,cintra 7see ,,peninsular ,,war74 ,,elvey1 ,,sir ,,george ,,job 7#ahaf-ahic71 ,english organist and composer1 was born at ,canterbury on the #bgth of ,march #ahaf4 ,he was a chorister at ,canterbury cathedral under ,highmore ,skeats1 the organist4 ,subsequently he became a pupil of his elder brother1 ,stephen1 and then studied at the ,royal ,academy of ,music under ,cipriani ,potter and ,dr ,crotch4 ,in #ahcd he gained the ,gresham prize medal for his anthem1 ,bow down thine ear1 and in #ahce was appointed organist of ,st ,george's chapel1 ,windsor1 a post he filled for #dg years1 retiring in #ahhb4 ,he took the degree of ,mus4 ,b4 at ,oxford in #ahch1 and in #ahdj that of ,mus4 ,d4 ,anthems of his were commissioned for the ,three ,choirs ,festivals of #ahec and #aheg1 and in #ahga he received the honour of knighthood4 ,he died at ,windlesham in ,surrey on the #ith of ,december #ahic4 ,his works1 which are nearly all for the ,church1 include two oratorios1 a great number of anthems and services1 and some pieces for the organ4 ,a memoir of him1 by his widow1 was published in #ahid4 ,,elvira1 ,,synod ,,of1 an ecclesiastical synod held in ,spain1 the date of which cannot be determined with exactness4 ,the solution of the question hinges upon the interpretation of the canons1 that is1 upon whether they are to be taken as reflecting a recent1 or as pointing to an imminent1 persecution4 ,thus some argue for a date between #cjj and #cjc1 i4e4 before the ,diocletian persecution2 others for a date between #cjc and #cad1 after the persecution1 but before the synod of ,arles2 still others for a date between the synod of ,arles and the council of ,nicaea1 #cbe4 ,mansi1 ,hardouin1 ,hefele and ,dale are in substantial agreement upon #cje or #cjf1 and this is probably the closest approximation possible in the present state of the evidence4 ,the place of meeting1 ,elvira1 was not far from the modern ,granada1 if not1 as ,dale thinks1 actually identical with it4 ,there the nineteen bishops and twenty-four presbyters1 from all parts of ,spain1 but chiefly from the south1 assembled1 probably at the instigation of ,hosius of ,cordova1 but under the presidency of ,felix of ,accis1 with a view to restoring order and discipline in the church4 ,the eighty-one canons which were adopted reflect with considerable fulness the internal life and external relations of the ,spanish ,church of the #dth century4 ,the social environment of ,christians may be inferred from the canons prohibiting marriage and other intercourse with ,jews1 pagans and heretics1 closing the offices of flamen and duumvir to ,christians1 forbidding all contact with idolatry and likewise participation in pagan festivals and public games4 ,the state of morals is mirrored in the canons denouncing prevalent vices4 ,the canons respecting the clergy exhibit the clergy as already a special class with peculiar privileges1 a more exacting moral standard1 heavier penalties for delinquency4 ,the bishop has acquired control of the sacraments1 presbyters and deacons acting only under his orders2 the episcopate appears as a unit1 bishops being bound to respect one another's disciplinary decrees4 ,worthy of special note are canon #cc1 enjoining celibacy upon all clerics and all who minister at the altar 7the most ancient canon of celibacy72 canon #cf1 forbidding pictures in churches2 canon #ch1 permitting lay baptism under certain conditions2 and canon #ec1 forbidding one bishop to restore a person excommunicated by another4 ,see ,mansi ii4 pp4 #a-djf2 ,hardouin i4 pp4 #bdg-beh2 ,hefele 7#bnd ed47 i4 pp4 #adh sqq4 7,english translation1 i4 pp4 #aca sqq472 ,dale1 ,the ,synod of ,elvira 7,london1 #ahhb72 and ,hennecke1 in ,herzog-,hauck1 ,realencyklopadie 7#crd ed471 s4v4 ,elvira1 especially bibliography4 7,t4 ,f4 ,c47 ,,el ,,wad1 a town in the ,algerian ,sahara1 #abe m4 in a straight line ,s4,s4,e4 of ,biskra1 and #aij m4 ,w4 by ,s4 of ,gabes4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #gehf4 ,el ,wad is one of the most interesting places in ,algeria4 ,it is surrounded by huge hollows containing noble palm groves2 and beyond these on every side stretches the limitless desert with its great billows of sand1 the encroachments of which on the oasis are only held at bay by ceaseless toil4 ,the town itself consists of a mass of one-storeyed stone houses1 each surmounted by a little dome1 clustering round the market-place with its mosque and minaret4 ,by an exception rare in ,saharan settlements1 there are no defensive works save the fort containing the government offices1 which the ,french have built on the south side of the town4 ,the inhabitants are of two distinct tribes1 one1 the ,aduan1 of ,berber stock1 the other a branch of the ,shaambah ,arabs4 ,el ,wad possesses a curious currency known as flous1 consisting of obsolete copper coins of ,algerian and ,tunisian dynasties4 ,seven flous are regarded as equal to the ,french five-centime piece4 ,el ,wad oasis is one of a group known collectively as the ,suf4 ,five miles ,n4,w4 is ,kuinine 7pop4 #ceda7 and #f m4 farther ,n4,w4 ,guemar 7pop4 #fhhe71 an ancient fortified town noted for its manufacture of carpets4 ,linen weaving is carried on extensively in the ,suf4 ,administratively ,el ,wad is the capital of an annexe to the territory of ,tuggurt4 ,,elwood1 a city of ,madison county1 ,indiana1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,duck ,creek1 about #ch m4 ,n4,e4 of ,indianapolis4 ,pop4 7#ahhj7 #gea2 7#ahij7 #bbhd2 7#aijj7 #ab1iej 7#achf foreign-born72 7#aiaj7 #aa1jbh4 ,elwood is served by the ,lake ,erie ,western and the ,pittsburg1 ,cincinnati1 ,chicago ,st ,louis railways1 and by an interurban electric line4 ,its rapid growth in population and as a manufacturing centre was due largely to its situation in the natural gas region2 the failure of the gas supply in #aijc caused a decrease in manufacturing1 but the city gradually adjusted itself to new conditions4 ,it has large tin plate mills1 iron and steel foundries1 saw and planing mills1 wooden-ware and furniture factories1 bottling works and lamp-chimney factories1 flour mills and packing houses4 ,in #aije the value of the city's factory product was #f1aaa1jhc2 in #aijj it was #i1dcc1eac2 the glass product was valued at #bbc1gff in #aije1 and at #a1jaa1hjc in #aijj4 ,there are extensive brick-yards in the vicinity1 and the surrounding agricultural country furnishes large supplies of grain1 live-stock1 poultry and produce1 for which ,elwood is the shipping centre4 ,the site was first settled under the name of ,quincy2 the present name was adopted in #ahfi2 and in #ahia ,elwood received a city charter4 ,,ely1 ,,richard ,,theodore 7#ahed- 71 ,american economist1 was born at ,ripley1 ,new ,york1 on the #acth of ,april #ahed4 ,educated at ,columbia and ,heidelberg universities1 he held the professorship of economics at ,johns ,hopkins ,university from #ahha to #ahib1 and was subsequently professor of economics at ,wisconsin ,university4 ,professor ,ely took an active part in the formation of the ,american ,economic ,association1 was secretary from #ahhe to #ahib and president from #ahii to #aija4 ,he published a useful ,introduction to ,political ,economy 7#ahhi72 ,outlines of ,economics 7#ahic72 ,the ,labour ,movement in ,america 7#ahhc72 ,problems of ,to-day 7#ahhh72 ,social ,aspects of ,christianity 7#ahhi72 ,socialism and ,social ,reform 7#ahid72 ,monopolies and ,trusts 7#aijj71 and ,studies in the ,evolution of ,industrial ,society 7#aijc74 ,,ely1 a cathedral city and market-town1 in the ,newmarket parliamentary division of ,cambridgeshire1 ,england1 #af m4 ,n4,n4,e4 of ,cambridge by the ,great ,eastern railway4 ,pop4 of urban district 7#aija7 #ggac4 ,it stands on a considerable eminence on the west 7left7 bank of the ,ouse1 in the ,isle of ,ely1 which rises above the surrounding fens4 ,thus its situation1 before the great drainage operations of the #agth century1 was practically insular4 ,the magnificent cathedral1 towering above the town1 is a landmark far over the wide surrounding level4 ,the soil in the vicinity is fertile and market-gardening is carried on1 fruit and vegetables 7especially asparagus7 being sent to the ,london markets4 ,the town has a considerable manufacture of tobacco pipes and earthenware1 and there are in the neighbourhood mills for the preparation of oil from flax1 hemp and cole-seed4 ,besides the cathedral ,ely has in ,st ,mary's church1 lying almost under the shadow of the greater building1 a fine structure ranging in style from ,norman to ,perpendicular1 but in the main ,early ,english4 ,the sessions house and corn exchange are the principal public buildings4 ,the grammar school1 founded by ,henry ,,viii4 in #aeda1 occupies 7together with other buildings7 the room over the gateway of the monastery1 known as the ,porta1 and the chapel built by ,prior ,john de ,cranden 7#acba-acda7 is restored to use as a school chapel4 ,a theological college was founded in #ahgf and opened in #ahha4 ,the foundation of the present cathedral was laid by its first ,norman abbot1 ,simeon1 in #ajhc4 ,but the reputation of ,ely had been established long before ,etheldreda 7,aethelthryth71 daughter of ,anna1 king of ,east ,anglia1 was married to ,ecgfrith1 king of ,northumbria1 against her will1 as she had vowed herself wholly to a religious life4 ,her husband opposed himself to her vow1 but with the help of ,wilfrid1 archbishop of ,york1 she took the veil1 and found refuge from her husband in the marsh-girt ,isle of ,ely4 ,here she founded a religious house1 in all probability a mixed community1 in #fgc1 becoming its first abbess1 and giving the whole ,isle of ,ely to the foundation4 ,in #hgj the monastery was destroyed by the ,danes1 as were also the neighbouring foundations at ,soham1 ,thorney1 ,crowland and ,peterborough1 and it remained in ruins till #igj1 when ,aethelwold1 bishop of ,winchester1 founded a new ,benedictine monastery here4 ,king ,edgar in #igj endowed the monks with the former possessions of the convent and also granted them the secular causes of two hundreds within and of five hundreds without the marshes1 all charges belonging to the king in secular disputes in all their lands and every fourth penny of public revenue in the province of ,grantecestre4 ,the wealth and importance of ,ely rose1 and its abbots held the post of chancellors of the king's court alternately with the abbots of ,glastonbury and of ,st ,augustine's1 ,canterbury4 ,but ,ely again became a scene of contest in the desperate final struggle against ,william the ,conqueror of which ,hereward the ,wake was the hero4 ,finally1 in #ajga1 the monks agreed to surrender the ,isle of ,ely to the king on condition of the confirmation of all the possessions and privileges1 held by them in the time of ,edward the ,confessor4 ,abbot ,simeon 7#ajha-ajid71 who now began the reconstruction of the church1 was related to ,william and brother to ,walkelin1 first ,norman bishop of ,winchester4 ,under ,abbot ,richard 7#aajj-aajg7 the translation from the ,saxon church of the bodies of ,st ,etheldreda and of the two abbesses who had followed her1 and their enshrinement in the new edifice1 took place2 and it was due to the honour in which the memory of the foundresses was held that ,ely maintained the position of dignity which it kept henceforth until the dissolution of the monasteries4 ,the feast of ,st ,etheldreda1 or ,st ,awdrey as she was generally called1 was the occasion every year for a large fair here1 at which trifling objects were sold to pilgrims by way of souvenirs2 whence the word tawdrey1 a contraction of ,st ,awdrey4 ,in #aaji the ,isle of ,ely1 most of ,cambridgeshire1 and the abbeys of ,thorney and ,cetricht were separated from the diocese of ,lincoln1 and converted into a new diocese1 ,ely being the seat of the bishopric1 and after the dissolution of the monasteries ,henry ,,viii4 converted the conventual church into a cathedral 7#aeda74 ,the diocese is extensive4 ,it covers nearly the whole of ,cambridgeshire1 ,huntingdonshire and ,bedfordshire1 part of ,suffolk1 and small portions of ,essex1 ,norfolk1 ,northamptonshire1 ,hertfordshire and ,buckinghamshire4 ,the cathedral is a cruciform structure1 #ecg ft4 long and #aij ft4 across the great transepts 7exterior measurements74 ,a relic of the ,saxon foundation is preserved in the cross of ,st ,osyth 7c4 #fgj71 and a pre-,norman window is kept in the triforium1 having been dug up near the cathedral4 ,of the work of the first two ,norman abbots all that remains is the early ,norman lower storey of the main transept4 ,the foundations of ,abbot ,simeon's apse were discovered below the present choir4 ,the nave1 which is ,norman throughout1 is #bjh ft4 in length1 #gb ft4 #i in4 to the top of the walls1 and #gg ft4 #c in4 broad1 including the aisles4 ,the upper parts of the western tower and the transept were begun by ,bishop ,geoffrey ,ridel 7d4 #aahi71 and continued by his successor ,william ,longchamp1 chancellor of ,england4 ,the tower1 which is #bae ft4 high1 is surmounted by a ,decorated octagon with partly detached side turrets1 and underwent alteration and strengthening in the ,perpendicular period4 ,the north-western transept wing is in ruins2 it is not known when it fell4 ,the ,galilee1 or western porch1 by which the cathedral is entered1 is the work of ,bishop ,eustace 7d4 #abae71 and is a perfect example of ,early ,english style4 ,in #acbb the ,norman central tower1 erected by ,abbot ,simeon1 fell4 ,alan of ,walsingham1 sacrist of the church1 designed its restoration in the form of the present octagon1 a beautiful and unique conception4 ,instead of the ordinary four-arched central crossing1 an octagon is formed at the crossing1 the arches of the nave aisles and choir aisles being set obliquely4 ,both without and within1 the octagon is the principal feature in the unusual general appearance of the cathedral1 which gives it a peculiar eminence among ,english churches4 ,the octagon was completed in #acbh1 and upon the ribbed vaulting of wood above it rose the lofty lantern1 octagonal also1 with its angles set opposite those of the octagon below4 ,the total height of the structure is #agj ft4 #g in4 ,alan of ,walsingham was further employed by ,bishop ,john of ,hotham 7d4 #accg7 as architect of the ,lady chapel1 a beautiful example of ,decorated work1 which served from #aeff onward as a parish church4 ,of the seven bays of the choir the four easternmost1 as well as the two beyond forming the retrochoir1 were built by ,bishop ,hugh of ,northwold 7d4 #abed74 ,the three western bays were destroyed by the fall of the tower in #acba1 and were rebuilt by ,alan of ,walsingham4 ,the earlier portion is a superb example of ,early ,english work1 while the later is perhaps the best example of pure ,decorated in ,england4 ,the wooden canopies of the choir stalls are ,decorated 7#accg7 and very elaborate4 ,the ,perpendicular style is represented by windows and certain other details1 including supporting arches to the western tower4 ,there are also some splendid chantry chapels and tombs in this style--the chapels of ,bishop ,john ,alcock 7d4 #aejj7 and ,bishop ,nicolas ,west 7d4 #aecd71 in the north and south choir aisles respectively1 are completely covered with the most delicate ornamentation2 while the tomb of ,bishop ,richard ,redman 7d4 #aeje7 has a remarkably beautiful canopy4 ,among earlier monuments the canopied tomb of ,bishop ,william de ,luda 7#abij-abih7 and the finely-carved effigy of ,bishop ,northwold 7#abed7 are notable4 ,between #ahde and #ahhd the cathedral underwent restoration under the direction of ,sir ,gilbert ,scott4 ,the work included the erection of the modern reredos and choir-screen1 both designed by ,scott1 and the painting of the nave roof by ,styleman le ,strange 7d4 #ahfb71 who was succeeded by ,gambier ,parry4 ,parry also richly ornamented the octagon and lantern in the style of the #adth century4 ,remains of the monastic buildings are fragmentary but numerous4 ,mention has been made of the ,ely ,porta or gateway 7#acif71 which is occupied by the grammar school1 and of ,prior ,john de ,cranden's beautiful little ,decorated chapel4 ,but many of the remains1 the bulk of which are incorporated in the deanery and canons' and other residences to the south of the cathedral1 are of much earlier date4 ,thus the fine early ,norman undercroft of the prior's hall is probably of the time of ,abbot ,simeon4 ,another notable fragment is the transitional ,norman chancel of the infirmary chapel4 ,the remnants of the cloisters show a reconstruction in the #aeth century1 but the prior's and monks' doorways from the cloisters into the cathedral are highly decorated late ,norman4 ,the bishop's palace to the west of the cathedral has towers erected by ,bishop ,alcock at the close of the #aeth century4 ,in the muniment room of the chapter is preserved1 among many ancient documents of great interest1 the liber ,eliensis1 a history of the monastery by the monk known as ,thomas of ,ely 7d4 c4 #aagd71 of which the first part1 which extends to the year #ifj1 contains a life of ,st ,etheldreda1 while the second is continued to the year #aajg4 ,ely1 which according to ,bede 7,hist4 eccl4 iv4 #ai7 derives its name from the quantity of eels in the waters about it 7,a4,s4 ael1 eel1 -ig1 island71 was a borough by prescription at least as early as the reign of ,william the ,conqueror4 ,it owed its importance entirely to the monastery1 and for a long time the abbot and afterwards the bishop had almost absolute power in the town4 ,the bailiff who governed the town was chosen by the bishop until #ahej1 when a local board was appointed4 ,richard ,i4 granted the bishop of ,ely a fair there1 and in #acai-acbj ,john of ,hotham1 a later bishop1 received licence to hold a fair on the vigil and day of ,ascension and for twenty days following4 ,the markets are claimed by an undated charter by the bishop1 who also continues to hold the fairs4 ,in #abie ,ely sent two members to parliament1 but has never been represented since4 ,see ,c4,w4 ,stubbs1 ,ely ,cathedral 7,london1 #ahig72 ,victoria ,county ,history1 ,cambridgeshire4 ,,elyot1 ,,sir ,,thomas 7c4 #adij-aedf71 ,english diplomatist and scholar4 ,his father1 ,sir ,richard ,elyot 7d4 #aebb71 who held considerable estates in ,wiltshire1 was made 7#aejc7 serjeant-at-law and attorney-general to the queen consort1 and soon afterwards was commissioned to act as justice of assize on the western circuit1 becoming in #aeac judge of common pleas4 ,thomas was the son of his first marriage with ,alice ,fynderne1 but neither the date nor place of his birth is accurately known4 ,anthony a ,wood claimed him as an alumnus of ,st ,mary ,hall1 ,oxford1 while ,c4,h4 ,cooper in the ,athenae ,cantabrigienses put in a claim for ,jesus ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,elyot himself says in the preface to his ,dictionary that he was educated under the paternal roof1 and was from the age of twelve his own tutor4 ,he supplies1 in the introduction to his ,castell of ,helth1 a list of the authors he had read in philosophy and medicine1 adding that a worshipful physician read to him ,galen and some other authors4 ,in #aeaa he accompanied his father on the western circuit as clerk to the assize1 and he held this position until #aebh4 ,in addition to his father's lands in ,wiltshire and ,oxfordshire he inherited in #aebc the ,cambridge estates of his cousin1 ,thomas ,fynderne4 ,his title was disputed1 but ,wolsey decided in his favour1 and also made him clerk of the privy council4 ,elyot1 in a letter addressed to ,thomas ,cromwell1 says that he never received the emoluments of this office1 while the barren honour of knighthood conferred on him when he was displaced in #aecj merely put him to further expense4 ,in that year he sat on the commission appointed to inquire into the ,cambridgeshire estates of his former patron1 ,cardinal ,wolsey4 ,he married ,margaret ,barrow1 who is described 7,stapleton1 ,vita ,thomae ,mori1 p4 #ei1 ed4 #aeeh7 as a student in the school of ,sir ,thomas ,more4 ,in #aeca he produced the ,boke named the ,governour1 dedicated to ,king ,henry ,,viii4 ,the work advanced him in the king's favour1 and in the close of the year he received instructions to proceed to the court of the emperor ,charles ,v4 to induce him to take a more favourable view of ,henry's projected divorce from ,catherine of ,aragon4 ,with this was combined another commission1 on which one of the king's agents1 ,stephen ,vaughan1 was already engaged4 ,he was1 if possible1 to apprehend ,william ,tyndale4 ,it is probable that ,elyot was suspected1 as ,vaughan certainly was1 of lukewarmness in carrying out the king's wishes1 but this has not prevented his being much abused by ,protestant writers4 ,as ambassador ,elyot had been involved in ruinous expense1 and on his return he wrote to ,thomas ,cromwell1 begging to be excused from serving as sheriff of ,cambridgeshire and ,huntingdonshire1 on the score of his poverty4 ,the request was not granted4 ,he was one of the commissioners in the inquiry instituted by ,cromwell prior to the suppression of the monasteries1 but he did not obtain any share of the spoils4 ,there is little doubt that his known friendship for ,thomas ,more militated against his chances of success1 for in a letter addressed to ,cromwell he admitted his friendship for ,more1 but protested that he rated higher his duty to the king4 ,william ,roper1 in his ,life of ,more1 says that ,elyot was on a second embassy to ,charles ,v41 in the winter of #aece-aecf1 when he received at ,naples the news of ,more's execution4 ,he had been kept in the dark by his own government1 but heard the news from the emperor4 ,the story of an earlier embassy to ,rome 7#aecb71 mentioned by ,burnet1 rests on a late endorsement of instructions dated from that year1 which cannot be regarded as authoritative4 ,in #aedb he represented the borough of ,cambridge in parliament4 ,he had purchased from ,cromwell the manor of ,carleton in ,cambridgeshire1 where he died on the #bfth of ,march #aedf4 ,sir ,thomas ,elyot received little reward for his services to the state1 but his scholarship and his books were held in high esteem by his contemporaries4 ,the ,boke named the ,governour was printed by ,thomas ,berthelet 7#aeca1 #aecd1 #aecf1 #aedd1 c474 ,it is a treatise on moral philosophy1 intended to direct the education of those destined to fill high positions1 and to inculcate those moral principles which alone could fit them for the performance of their duties4 ,the subject was a favourite one in the #afth century1 and the book1 which contained many citations from classical authors1 was very popular4 ,elyot expressly acknowledges his obligations to ,erasmus's ,institutio ,principis ,christiani2 but he makes no reference to the ,de regno et regis institutione of ,francesco ,patrizzi 7d4 #adid71 bishop of ,gaeta1 on which his work was undoubtedly modelled4 ,as a prose writer1 ,elyot enriched the ,english language with many new words4 ,in #aecd he published ,the ,castell of ,helth1 a popular treatise on medicine1 intended to place a scientific knowledge of the art within the reach of those unacquainted with ,greek4 ,this work1 though scoffed at by the faculty1 was appreciated by the general public1 and speedily went through many editions4 ,his ,latin ,dictionary1 the earliest comprehensive dictionary of the language1 was completed in #aech4 ,the copy of the first edition in the ,british ,museum contains an autograph letter from ,elyot to ,thomas ,cromwell1 to whom it originally belonged4 ,it was edited and enlarged in #aedh by ,thomas ,cooper1 bishop of ,winchester1 who called it ,bibliotheca ,eliotae1 and it formed the basis in #aefe of ,cooper's ,thesaurus linguae ,romanae et ,britannicae4 ,elyot's translations include3--,the ,doctrinal of ,princes 7#aecd71 from ,isocrates2 ,cyprianus1 ,a ,swete and ,devoute ,sermon of ,holy ,saynt ,ciprian of the ,mortalitie of ,man 7#aecd72 ,rules of a ,christian ,life 7#aecd71 from ,pico della ,mirandola2 ,the ,education or ,bringing up of ,children 7c4 #aece71 from ,plutarch2 and ,howe one may take ,profite of his ,enymes 7#aece71 from the same author is generally attributed to him4 ,he also wrote3 ,the ,knowledge which maketh a ,wise ,man and ,pasquyll the ,playne 7#aecc72 ,the ,bankette of ,sapience 7#aecd71 a collection of moral sayings2 ,preservative agaynste ,deth 7#aede71 which contains many quotations from the ,fathers2 ,defence of ,good ,women 7#aede74 ,his ,image of ,governance1 compiled of the ,actes and ,sentences notable of the most noble ,emperor ,alexander ,severus 7#aedj7 professed to be a translation from a ,greek ,,ms4 of the emperor's secretary ,encolpius 7or ,eucolpius1 as ,elyot calls him71 which had been lent him by a gentleman of ,naples1 called ,pudericus1 who asked to have it back before the translation was complete4 ,in these circumstances ,elyot1 as he asserts in his preface1 supplied the other maxims from different sources4 ,he was violently assailed by ,humphrey ,hody and later by ,william ,wotton for putting forward a pseudo-translation2 but ,mr ,h4,h4,s4 ,croft has discovered that there was a ,neapolitan gentleman at that time bearing the name of ,poderico1 or1 ,latinized1 ,pudericus1 with whom ,elyot may well have been acquainted4 ,roger ,ascham mentions his ,de rebus memorabilibus ,angliae2 and ,webbe quotes a few lines of a lost translation of the ,ars poetica of ,horace4 ,a learned edition of the ,governour 7#b vols41 #ahhj71 by ,h4,h4,s4 ,croft1 contains1 besides copious notes1 a valuable glossary of #afth century ,english words4 ,,elyria1 a city and the county-seat of ,lorain county1 ,ohio1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,black river1 #h m4 from ,lake ,erie1 and about #be m4 ,w4,s4,w4 of ,cleveland4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #efaa2 7#aijj7 #hgia1 of whom #acig were foreign-born2 7#aiaj census7 #ad1hbe4 ,it is served by the ,baltimore ,ohio1 and the ,lake ,shore ,michigan ,southern railways4 ,elyria is about #gbj ft4 above sea-level1 and lies at the junction of the two forks of the ,black river1 each of which falls about #ej ft4 here1 furnishing water-power4 ,among the city's manufactures are oxide of tin and other chemicals1 iron and steel1 leather goods1 automobiles and bicycles1 electrical and telephone supplies1 butted tubing1 gas engines1 screws and bolts1 silk1 lace and hosiery4 ,in #aije the city's factory products were valued at #b1icc1dej--adj4b more than their value in #aijj4 ,flagging1 building-stones and grindstones1 taken from quarries in the vicinity 7known as the ,berea ,grit quarries71 are shipped from ,elyria in large quantities4 ,elyria was founded about #ahai by ,heman ,ely1 in whose honour it was named2 it was selected as the site for the county seat in #ahbc1 and was chartered as a city in #ahib4 ,,elysium1 in ,greek mythology1 the ,elysian fields1 the abode of the righteous after their removal from earth4 ,in ,homer 7,od4 iv4 #efc7 this region is a plain at the farthest end of the earth on the banks of the river ,oceanus1 where the fair-haired ,rhadamanthys rules1 and where the people are vexed by neither snow nor storm1 heat nor cold1 the air being always tempered by the zephyr wafted from the ocean4 ,it is no dwelling of the dead nor part of the lower world1 but distinguished heroes are translated thither without dying1 to live a life of perfect happiness4 ,in ,hesiod 7,w4 and ,d4 #aff7 the same description is given of the ,islands of the ,blessed under the rule of ,cronus1 which yield three harvests yearly4 ,here1 according to ,pindar1 ,rhadamanthys sits by the side of his father ,cronus and administers judgment 7,ol4 ii4 #fa1 ,frag4 #ie74 ,all who have successfully gone through a triple probation on earth are admitted to share these blessings4 ,in later accounts 7,aeneid1 vi4 #eda7 ,elysium was regarded as part of the underworld1 the home of the righteous dead adjudged worthy of it by the tribunal of ,minos1 ,rhadamanthys and ,aeacus4 ,those who had lived evil lives were thrust down into ,tartarus1 where they suffered endless torments4 ,,elze1 ,,karl 7#ahba-ahhi71 ,german scholar and ,shakespearian critic1 was born at ,dessau on the #bbnd of ,may #ahba4 ,having studied 7#ahci-ahdc7 classical philology1 and modern1 but especially ,english1 literature at the university of ,leipzig1 he was a master for a time in the ,gymnasium 7classical school7 at ,dessau1 and in #ahge was appointed extraordinary1 and in #ahgf ordinary1 professor of ,english philology at the university of ,halle1 in which city he died on the #bast of ,january #ahhi4 ,elze began his literary career with the ,englischer ,liederschatz 7#ahea71 an anthology of ,english lyrics1 edited for a while a critical periodical ,atlantis1 and in #aheg published an edition of ,shakespeare's ,hamlet with critical notes4 ,he also edited ,chapman's ,alphonsus 7#ahfg7 and wrote biographies of ,walter ,scott1 ,byron and ,shakespeare2 ,abhandlungen zu ,shakespeare 7,english translation by ,d4 ,schmitz1 as ,essays on ,shakespeare1 ,london1 #ahgd71 and the excellent treatise1 ,notes on ,elizabethan ,dramatists with conjectural emendations of the text 7#c vols41 ,halle1 #ahhj-ahhf1 new ed4 #ahhi74 ,,elzevir1 the name of a celebrated family of ,dutch printers belonging to the #agth century4 ,the original name of the family was ,elsevier1 or ,elzevier1 and their ,french editions mostly retain this name2 but in their ,latin editions1 which are the more numerous1 the name is spelt ,elzeverius1 which was gradually corrupted in ,english into ,elzevir as a generic term for their books4 ,the family originally came from ,louvain1 and there ,louis1 who first made the name ,elzevir famous1 was born in #aedj4 ,he learned the business of a bookbinder1 and having been compelled in #aehj1 on account of his ,protestantism and his adherence to the cause of the insurgent provinces1 to leave his native country1 he established himself as bookbinder and bookseller in ,leiden4 ,his ,eutropius1 which appeared in #aeib1 was long regarded as the earliest ,elzevir1 but the first is now known to be ,drusii ,ebraicarum quaestionum ac responsionum libri duo1 which was produced in #aehc4 ,in all he published about #aej works4 ,he died on the #dth of ,february #afag4 ,of his five sons1 ,matthieu1 ,louis1 ,gilles1 ,joost and ,bonaventure1 who all adopted their father's profession1 ,bonaventure1 who was born in #aehc1 is the most celebrated4 ,he began business as a printer in #afjh1 and in #afbf took into partnership ,abraham1 a son of ,matthieu1 born at ,leiden in #aeib4 ,abraham died on the #adth of ,august #afeb1 and ,bonaventure about a month afterwards4 ,the fame of the ,elzevir editions rests chiefly on the works issued by this firm4 ,their ,greek and ,hebrew impressions are considered inferior to those of the ,aldi and the ,estiennes1 but their small editions in #abmo1 #afmo and #bdmo1 for elegance of design1 neatness1 clearness and regularity of type1 and beauty of paper1 cannot be surpassed4 ,especially may be mentioned the two editions of the ,new ,testament in ,greek 7,greek3 ,he kaine diatheke1 ,novum ,testamentum1 c471 published in #afbd and #afcc1 of which the latter is the more beautiful and the more sought after2 the ,psalterium ,davidis1 #afec2 ,virgilii opera1 #afcf2 ,terentii comediae1 #afce2 but the works which gave their press its chief celebrity are their collection of ,french authors on history and politics in #bdmo1 known under the name of the ,petites ,republiques1 and their series of ,latin1 ,french and ,italian classics in small #abmo4 ,jean1 son of ,abraham1 born in #afbb1 had since #afdg been in partnership with his father and uncle1 and when they died ,daniel1 son of ,bonaventure1 born in #afbf1 joined him4 ,their partnership did not last more than two years1 and after its dissolution ,jean carried on the business alone till his death in #affa4 ,in #afed ,daniel joined his cousin ,louis 7the third of that name and son of the second ,louis71 who was born in #afjd1 and had established a printing press at ,amsterdam in #afch4 ,from #afee to #afff they published a series of ,latin classics in #hvo1 cum notis variorum2 ,cicero in #dto2 the ,etymologicon linguae ,latinae2 and a magnificent ,corpus juris civilis in folio1 #b vols41 #affc4 ,louis died in #afgj1 and ,daniel in #afhj4 ,besides ,bonaventure1 another son of ,matthieu1 ,isaac1 born in #aeic1 established a printing press at ,leiden1 where he carried on business from #afaf to #afbe2 but none of his editions attained much fame4 ,the last representatives of the ,elzevir printers were ,peter1 grandson of ,joost1 who from #affg to #afge was a bookseller at ,utrecht1 and printed seven or eight volumes of little consequence2 and ,abraham1 son of the first ,abraham1 who from #afha to #agab was university printer at ,leiden4 ,some of the ,elzevir editions bear no other typographical mark than simply the words ,apud ,elzeverios1 or ,ex officina ,elseveriana1 under the rubrique of the town4 ,but the majority bear one of their special devices1 four of which are recognized as in common use4 ,louis ,elzevir1 the founder of the family1 usually adopted the arms of the ,united ,provinces1 an eagle on a cippus holding in its claws a sheaf of seven arrows1 with the motto ,concordia res parvae crescunt4 ,about #afbj the ,leiden ,elzevirs adopted a new device1 known as the solitary1 and consisting of an elm tree1 a fruitful vine and a man alone1 with a motto ,non solus4 ,they also used another device1 a palm tree with the motto1 ,assurgo pressa4 ,the ,elzevirs of ,amsterdam used for their principal device a figure of ,minerva with owl1 shield and olive tree1 and the motto1 ,ne extra oleas4 ,the earliest productions of the ,elzevir press are marked with an angel bearing a book and a scythe1 and various other devices occur at different times4 ,when the ,elzevirs did not wish to put their name to their works they generally marked them with a sphere1 but of course the mere fact that a work printed in the #agth century bears this mark is no proof that it is theirs4 ,the total number of works of all kinds which came from the presses of the ,elzevirs is given by ,willems as #afjh2 there were also many forgeries4 ,see ,notice de la collection d'auteurs latins1 francais1 et italiens1 imprimee de format petit en #ab1 par les ,elsevier1 in ,brunet's ,manuel du libraire 7,paris1 #ahbj72 ,a4 de ,reume1 ,recherches historiques1 genealogiques1 et bibliographiques sur les ,elsevier 7,brussels1 #ahdg72 ,paul ,dupont1 ,histoire de l'imprimerie1 in two vols4 7,paris1 #ahed72 ,pieters1 ,annales de l'imprimerie ,elsevirienne 7#bnd ed41 ,ghent1 #aheh72 ,walther1 ,les ,elseviriennes de la bibliotheque imperiale de ,st-,petersbourg 7,st ,petersburg1 #ahfd72 ,alphonse ,willems1 ,les ,elzevier 7,brussels1 #ahhj71 with a history of the ,elzevir family and their printing establishments1 a chronological list and detailed description of all works printed by them1 their various typographical marks1 and a plate illustrating the types used by them2 ,kelchner1 ,catalogus librorum officinae ,elsevirianae 7,paris1 #ahhj72 ,frick1 ,die ,elzevirschen ,republiken 7,halle1 #ahib72 ,berghman1 ,etudes sur la bibliographie ,elzevirienne 7,stockholm1 #ahhe71 and ,nouvelles etudes1 c4 7ib4 #ahig74 ,,emanation 7,lat4 emanatio1 from e-1 out1 manare1 to flow71 in philosophy and theology1 the name of one of the three chief theories of existence1 i4e4 of the relation between ,god and men--the ,one and the ,many1 the ,universal and the ,particular4 ,this theory has been propounded in many forms1 but the central idea is that the universe of individuals consists of the involuntary outpourings of the ultimate divine essence4 ,that essence is not only all-inclusive1 but absolutely perfect1 while the emanated individuals degenerate in proportion to the degree of their distance from the essence4 ,the existence of evil in opposition to the perfect goodness of ,god1 as thus explained1 need not be attributed to ,god's agency1 inasmuch as the whole emanation-process is governed by necessary--as it were mechanical--laws1 which may be compared to those of the physical universe4 ,the doctrine of emanation is thus to be distinguished from the cosmogonic theory of ,judaism and ,christianity1 which explains human existence as due to a single creative act of a moral agent4 ,the ,god of ,judaism and ,christianity is essentially a person in close personal relation to his creatures2 emanation is the denial of personality both for ,god and for man4 ,the emanation theory is to be contrasted1 on the other hand1 with the theory of evolution4 ,the two theories are alike in so far as both recognize the existence of individuals as due to a necessary process of differentiation and a scale of existence4 ,they differ1 however1 fundamentally in this respect1 that1 whereas evolution regards the process as from the indeterminate lower towards the determinate higher1 emanation regards it as from the highest to the indefinitely lower4 ,there is considerable superficial similarity between evolution and emanation1 especially in their formal statements4 ,the process of evolution from the indeterminate to the determinate is often expressed as a progress from the universal to the particular4 ,thus the primordial matter assumed by the early ,greek physicists may be said to be the universal substance out of which particular things arise4 ,the doctrine of emanation also regards the world as a process of particularization4 ,yet the resemblance is more apparent than real4 ,the universal is1 as ,herbert ,spencer remarked1 a subjective idea1 and the general forms1 existing ante res1 which play so prominent a part in ,greek and medieval philosophy1 do not in the least correspond to the homogeneous matter of the physical evolutionists4 ,the one process is a logical operation1 the other a physical4 ,the theory of emanation1 which had its source in certain moral and religious ideas1 aims first of all at explaining the origin of mental or spiritual existence as an effluence from the divine and absolute spirit4 ,in the next place1 it seeks to account for the general laws of the world1 for the universal forms of existence1 as ideas which emanate from the ,deity4 ,by some it was developed into a complete philosophy of the world1 in which matter itself is viewed as the lowest emanation from the absolute4 ,in this form it stands in sharp antithesis to the doctrine of evolution1 both because the former views the world of particular things and events as essentially unreal and illusory1 and because the latter1 so far as it goes1 looks on matter as eternal1 and seeks to explain the general forms of things as we perceive them by help of simpler assumptions4 ,in certain theories known as doctrines of emanation1 only mental existence is referred to the absolute source1 while matter is viewed as eternal and distinct from the divine nature4 ,in this form the doctrine of emanation approaches certain forms of the evolution theory 7see ,,evolution74 ,the doctrine of emanation is correctly described as of oriental origin4 ,it appears in various forms in ,indian philosophy1 and is the characteristically oriental element in syncretic systems like ,neoplatonism and ,gnosticism4 ,none the less it is easy to find it in embryo in the speculations of the essentially ,european philosophers of ,greece4 ,plato1 whose philosophy was strongly opposed to the evolution theory1 distinctly inclines to the emanation idea in his doctrine that each particular thing is what it is in virtue of a pre-existent idea1 and that the particulars are the lowest in the scale of existence1 at the head of1 or above1 which is the idea of the good4 ,the view of ,xenocrates is based on the same ideas4 ,or again1 we may compare the ,stoic doctrine of ,greek3 aporroiai 7literally emanations7 from the divine essence4 ,it is1 however1 only in the last eclectic period of ,greek philosophy that the emanation doctrine was definitely established in the doctrines1 e4g4 ,plotinus4 ,see especially articles ,,evolution1 ,,neoplatonism1 ,,gnosticism4 ,,emanuel ,i4 ,portuguese ,manoel 7#adfi-aeba71 fourteenth king of ,portugal1 surnamed the ,happy1 knight of the ,garter and of the ,golden ,fleece1 was the son of ,duke ,ferdinand of ,vizeu and of ,beatrice of ,beja1 grandchildren of ,john ,i4 of ,portugal4 ,he was born at ,alcochete on the #crd of ,may #adfi1 or1 according to ,barbosa ,machado1 on the #ast of ,june4 ,his early education was directed by a ,sicilian named ,cataldo4 ,in #adie he became king in succession to his cousin ,john ,,ii4 ,in #adig he married ,isabella1 daughter of ,ferdinand and ,isabella of ,castile1 who had previously been married to ,alphonso1 the heir of ,john ,,ii4 ,she died in the next year in giving birth to a son named ,miguel1 who until his death two years later was considered heir to the entire ,iberian ,peninsula4 ,emanuel's next wife was ,maria1 another daughter of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 whom he married in #aejj4 ,two of their children1 ,john and ,henry1 later became kings of ,portugal4 ,maria died in #aeaf1 and in #aeah her niece ,leonora1 a sister of the emperor ,charles ,v41 became ,emanuel's third wife4 ,emanuel's reign is noteworthy for the continuance of the ,portuguese discoveries and the extension of their chain of trading-posts1 ,vasco da ,gama's opening an all-sea route to ,india1 ,cabral's landing in ,brazil1 ,corte-,real's voyage to ,labrador1 the exploration of the ,indian seas and the opening of commercial relations with ,persia and ,china1 bringing ,portugal international prominence1 colonial pre-eminence and a hitherto unparalleled degree of national prosperity4 ,his intense religious zeal variously manifested itself in his persecutions of the ,jews1 whom at the beginning of his reign he had been disposed to tolerate1 his strenuous endeavours to promote an international crusade against the ,turks1 his eager missionary enterprise throughout his new possessions1 and his erection of twenty-six monasteries and two cathedrals1 including the stately monastic church of the ,jeronymos at ,belem 7see ,,lisbon74 ,his jealously despotic character was accentuated by the enormous increase the ,indies furnished to his personal wealth1 and exemplified in his assumption of new titles and in a magnificent embassy to ,pope ,leo ,x4 ,he died at ,lisbon on the #acth of ,december #aeba4 ,the best authorities for the history of ,emanuel's reign are the contemporary #afth-century ,chronica d'el ,rei ,d4 ,manoel1 by ,damiao de ,goes1 and ,de rebus ,emanuelis1 by ,j4 ,osorio4 ,el ,rei ,d4 ,manoel1 by ,m4,b4 ,branco 7,lisbon1 #ahhh71 is a valuable but ill-arranged biography4 ,see also the ,ordenacoes do ,s4,r4,d4 ,manoel 7,coimbra ,university ,press1 #agig74 ,for further bibliography see ,barbosa ,machado1 ,bibliographica ,lusitana1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #afa-aff4 ,,embalming 7,gr4 ,greek3 balsamon1 balsam2 ,ger4 ,einbalsamiren2 ,fr4 embaumement71 the art of preparing dead bodies1 chiefly by the use of medicaments1 in order to preserve them from putrefaction and the attacks of insects4 ,the ancient ,egyptians carried the art to great perfection1 and embalmed not only human beings1 but cats1 crocodiles1 ichneumons1 and other sacred animals4 ,it was at one time suggested that the origin of embalming in ,egypt was to be traced to a want of fuel for the purpose of cremation1 to the inadvisability or at some times impossibility of burial in a soil annually disturbed by the inundation of the ,nile1 and to the necessity1 for sanitary reasons1 of preventing the decomposition of the bodies of the dead when placed in open sepulchres4 ,as1 however1 the corpses of the embalmed must have constituted but a small proportion of the aggregate mass of animal matter daily to be disposed of1 the above explanation would in any case be far from satisfactory2 and there is no doubt 7see ,,mummy7 that embalming originated in the idea of preserving the body for a future life4 ,according to ,w4,h4 ,prescott1 it was a belief in a resurrection of the body that led the ancient ,peruvians to preserve the air-dried corpses of their dead with so much solicitude 7see ,conquest of ,peru1 bk4 i4 chap4 iii474 ,and ,j4,c4 ,prichard 7,egyptian ,mythology1 p4 #bjj7 properly compared the ,egyptian practice with the views which rendered the ,greeks and ,romans so anxious to perform the usual rites of sepulture to their departed warriors1 namely1 444 that these solemnities expedited the journey of the soul to the appointed region1 where it was to receive judgment for its former deeds1 and to have its future doom fixed accordingly4 ,it has been supposed by some that the discovery of the preservation of bodies interred in saline soils may have been the immediate origin of embalming in ,egypt4 ,in that country certain classes of the community were specially appointed for the practice of the art4 ,joseph1 we are told in ,gen4 l4 #b1 commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his father4 ,herodotus 7ii4 #hf7 gives an account of three of the methods of embalming followed by the ,egyptians4 ,the most expensive of these1 which cost a talent of silver 7,l#bdc3 #aes471 was as follows4 ,the brains were in part removed through the nostrils by means of a bent iron implement1 and in part by the injection of drugs4 ,the intestines having been drawn out through an incision in the left side1 the abdomen was cleansed with palm-wine1 and filled with myrrh1 cassia and other materials1 and the opening was sewed up4 ,this done1 the body was steeped seventy days in a solution of litron or natron4#a ,diodorus 7i4 #ia7 relates that the cutter 7,greek3 paraschistes7 appointed to make the incision in the flank for the removal of the intestines1 as soon as he had performed his office1 was pursued with stones and curses by those about him1 it being held by the ,egyptians a detestable thing to commit any violence or inflict a wound on the body4 ,after the steeping1 the body was washed1 and handed over to the swathers1 a peculiar class of the lowest order of priests1 called by ,plutarch cholchytae1 by whom it was bandaged in gummed cloth2 it was then ready for the coffin4 ,mummies thus prepared were considered to represent ,osiris4 ,in another method of embalming1 costing twenty-two minae 7about ,l#ij71 the abdomen was injected with cedar-tree pitch 7,greek3 kedria71 which1 as it would seem from ,pliny 7,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #ba71 was the liquid distillate of the pitch-pine4 ,this is stated by ,herodotus to have had a corrosive and solvent action on the viscera4 ,after injection the body was steeped a certain number of days in natron2 the contents of the abdomen were allowed to escape2 and the process was then complete4 ,the preparation of the bodies of the poorest consisted simply in placing them in natron for seventy days1 after a previous rinsing of the abdomen with syrmaea4 ,the material principally used in the costlier modes of embalming appears to have been asphalt2 wax was more rarely employed4 ,in some cases embalming seems to have been effected by immersing the body in a bath of molten bitumen4 ,tanning also was resorted to4 ,occasionally the viscera1 after treatment1 were in part or wholly replaced in the body1 together with wax figures of the four genii of ,amenti4 ,more commonly they were embalmed in a mixture of sand and asphalt1 and buried in vases1 or canopi1 placed near the mummy1 the abdomen being filled with chips and sawdust of cedar and a small quantity of natron4 ,in one jar were placed the stomach and large intestine2 in another1 the small intestines2 in a third1 the lungs and heart2 in a fourth1 the gall-bladder and liver4 ,porphyry 7,de abstinentia1 iv4 #aj7 mentions a custom of enclosing the intestines in a box and consigning them to the ,nile1 after a prayer uttered by one of the embalmers1 but his statement is regarded by ,sir ,j4,g4 ,wilkinson as unworthy of belief4 ,the body of ,nero's wife ,poppaea1 contrary to the usage of the ,romans1 was not burnt1 but as customary among other nations with the bodies of potentates1 was honoured with embalmment 7see ,tacitus1 ,ann4 xvi4 #f74 ,the body of ,alexander the ,great is said to have been embalmed with honey 7,statius1 ,silv4 iii4 #b4 #aag71 and the same material was used to preserve the corpse of ,agesipolis ,i4 during its conveyance to ,sparta for burial4 ,herodotus states 7iii4 #bd7 that the ,ethiopians1 in embalming1 dried the body1 rubbed it with gypsum 7or chalk71 and1 having painted it1 placed it in a block of some transparent substance4 ,the ,guanches1 the aborigines of the ,canaries1 employed a mode of embalming similar to that of the ,egyptians1 filling the hollow caused by the removal of the viscera with salt and an absorbent vegetable powder 7see ,bory de ,saint ,vincent1 ,essais sur les ,iles ,fortunees1 #ahjc1 p4 #die74 ,embalming was still in vogue among the ,egyptians in the time of ,st ,augustine1 who says that they termed mummies gabbarae 7,serm4 #abj1 cap4 #ab74 ,in modern times numerous methods of embalming have been practised4 ,dr ,frederick ,ruysch of ,amsterdam 7#affe-agag7 is said to have utilized alcohol for this purpose4 ,by ,william ,hunter essential oils1 alcohol1 cinnabar1 camphor1 saltpetre and pitch or rosin were employed1 and the final desiccation of the body was effected by means of roasted gypsum placed in its coffin4 ,j4,p4 ,boudet 7#aggh-ahdi7 embalmed with tan1 salt1 asphalt and ,peruvian bark1 camphor1 cinnamon and other aromatics and corrosive sublimate4 ,the last-mentioned drug1 chloride and sulphate of zinc1 acetate and sulphate of alumina1 and creasote and carbolic acid have all been recommended by various modern embalmers4 ,see ,,mummy2 ,louis ,penicher1 ,traite des embaumements 7,paris1 #affi72 ,s4 ,blancard1 ,anatomia reformata1 et de balsamatione nova methodus 7,lugd4 ,bat41 #afie72 ,thomas ,greenhill1 ,the ,art of ,embalming 7,london1 #agje72 ,j4,n4 ,marjolin1 ,manuel d'anatomie 7,paris1 #ahaj72 ,pettigrew1 ,history of ,mummies 7,london1 #ahcd72 ,gannal1 ,traite d'embaumements 7,paris1 #ahch2 #bnd ed41 #ahda72 ,magnus1 ,das ,einbalsamiren der ,leichen 7,brunsw41 #ahci72 ,sucquet1 ,embaumement 7,paris1 #ahgb72 ,lessley1 ,embalming 7,toledo1 ,ohio1 #ahhd72 ,myers1 ,textbook of ,embalming 7,springfield1 ,ohio1 #aijj72 ,rawlinson1 ,herodotus1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ada2 ,g4 ,elliot ,smith1 ,a ,contribution to the ,study of ,mummification in ,egypt 7,cairo1 #aijf74 ,,footnote3 #a ,neutral carbonate of sodium1 ,na#b;,,co#c1 found at the natron lakes in the ,libyan desert1 and at ,el ,hegs1 in ,upper ,egypt4 ,,embankment1 in engineering1 a mound of earth or stone1 usually narrow in comparison with its length1 artificially raised above the prevailing level of the ground4 ,embankments serve for two main classes of purpose4 ,on the one hand1 they are used to preserve the level of railways1 canals and roads1 in cases where a valley or piece of low-lying ground has to be crossed4 ,on the other1 they are employed to stop or limit the flow of water1 either constituting the retaining wells of reservoirs constructed in connexion with water-supply schemes1 or protecting low-lying tracts of land from river floods or the encroachments of the sea4 ,the word embankment has thus come to be used for the mass of material1 faced and supported by a stone wall and protected by a parapet1 placed along the banks of a river where it passes through a city1 whether to guard against floods or to gain additional space4 ,such is the ,thames ,embankment in ,london1 which carries a broad roadway1 while under it runs the ,underground railway4 ,in this sense an embankment is distinguished from a quay1 though the mechanical construction may be the same1 the latter word being confined to places where ships are loaded and unloaded1 thus differing from the ,french quai1 which is used both of embankments and quays1 e4g4 the ,quais along the ,seine at ,paris4 ,,embargo 7a ,spanish word meaning stoppage71 in international law1 the detention by a state of vessels within its ports as a measure of public1 as distinguished from private1 utility4 ,in practice it serves as a mode of coercing a weaker state4 ,in the middle ages war1 being regarded as a complete rupture between belligerent states1 operated as a suspension of all respect for the person and property of private citizens2 an article of ,magna ,carta 7#abae7 provided that 444 if there shall be found any such merchants in our land in the beginning of a war1 they shall be attached1 without damage to their bodies or goods1 until it may be known unto us1 or our ,chief ,justiciary1 how our merchants are treated who happen to be in the country which is at war with us2 and if ours be safe there1 theirs shall be safe in our lands 7art4 #dh74 ,embargoes in anticipation of war have long since fallen into disuse1 and it is now customary on the outbreak of war for the belligerents even to grant a respite to the enemy's trading vessels to leave their ports at the outbreak of war1 so that neither ship nor cargo is any longer exposed to embargo4 ,this has been confirmed in one of the ,hague ,conventions of #aijg 7convention relative to the status of enemy merchant ships at the outbreak of hostilities1 ,oct4 #ah1 #aijg71 which provides that when a merchant ship belonging to one of the belligerent powers is at the commencement of hostilities in an enemy port1 it is desirable that it should be allowed to depart freely1 either immediately1 or after a reasonable number of days of grace1 and to proceed1 after being furnished with a pass1 direct to its port of destination1 or any other port indicated 7art4 #a74 ,the next article of the same convention limits the option apparently granted by the use of the word desirable1 providing that a merchant ship unable1 owing to circumstances of force majeure1 to leave the enemy port within the period contemplated 7in the previous article71 or which was not allowed to leave1 cannot be confiscated4 ,the belligerent may only detain it1 without compensation1 but subject to the obligation of restoring it after the war1 or requisition it on payment of compensation 7art4 #b74 7,t4 ,ba47 ,,embassy1 the office of an ambassador1 or1 more generally1 the mission on which an ambassador of one power is sent to another1 or the body of official personages attached to such a mission1 whether temporary or permanent4 ,hence embassy is often quite loosely used of any mission1 diplomatic or otherwise4 ,the word is also used of the official residence of an ambassador4 ,embassy was originally ambassy1 the form used in the #agth century1 but by the time of ,johnson considered quite obsolete4 ,ambassy is from the ,o4 ,fr4 ambassee1 derived through such forms as the ,port4 ambassada1 ,ital4 ambasciata from a lost ,med4 ,lat4 ambactiata1 ambactiare1 to go on a mission4 7,see further ,,ambassador1 ,,exterritoriality and ,,diplomacy47 ,,ember ,,days and ,,ember ,,weeks1 the four seasons set apart by the ,western ,church for special prayer and fasting1 and the ordination of clergy1 known in the medieval ,church as quatuor tempora1 or jejunia quatuor temporum4 ,the ,ember weeks are the complete weeks next following ,holy ,cross day 7,september #ad71 ,st ,lucy's day 7,december #ac71 the first ,sunday in ,lent and ,whitsun day4 ,the ,wednesdays1 ,fridays and ,saturdays of these weeks are the ,ember days distinctively1 the following ,sundays being the days of ordination4 ,these dates are given in the following memorial distich with a frank indifference to quantity and metre-- ,vult ,crux1 ,lucia1 ,cinis1 ,charismata dia ,quod det vota pia quarta sequens feria4 ,the word has been derived from the ,a4,s4 ymb-ren1 a circuit or revolution 7from ymb1 around1 and rennen1 to run72 or by process of agglutination and phonetic decay1 exemplified by the ,ger4 quatember1 ,dutch quatertemper and ,dan4 kvatember1 from the ,lat4 quatuor tempora4 ,the occurrence of the ,anglo-,saxon compounds ymbren-tid1 ymbren-wucan1 ymbren-faestan1 ymbren-dagas for ,ember tide1 weeks1 fasts1 days1 favours the former derivation1 which is also confirmed by the use of the word imbren in the acts of the council of ,aenham1 ,a4,d4 #ajji 7jejunia quatuor tempora quae imbren vocant74 ,it corresponds also with ,pope ,leo the ,great's definition1 jejunia ecclesiastica per totius anni circulum distributa4 ,the observance of the ,ember days is confined to the ,western ,church1 and had its origin as an ecclesiastical ordinance in ,rome4 ,they were probably at first merely the fasts preparatory to the three great festivals of ,christmas1 ,easter and ,pentecost4 ,a fourth was subsequently added1 for the sake of symmetry1 to make them correspond with the four seasons1 and they became known as the jejunium vernum1 aestivum1 autumnale and hiemale1 so that1 to quote ,pope ,leo's words1 the law of abstinence might apply to every season of the year4 ,an earlier mention of these fasts1 as four in number--the first known--is in the writings of ,philastrius1 bishop of ,brescia1 in the middle of the #dth century4 ,he also connects them with the great ,christian festivals 7,de haeres4 #aai74 ,in ,leo's time1 ,a4,d4 #ddj-dfa1 ,wednesday1 ,friday and ,saturday were already the days of special observance4 ,from ,rome the ,ember days gradually spread through the whole of ,western ,christendom4 ,uniformity of practice1 however1 was of somewhat slow growth4 ,neither in ,gaul nor ,spain do they seem to have been generally recognized much before the #hth century4 ,their introduction into ,britain appears to have been earlier1 dating from ,augustine1 ,a4,d4 #eig1 acting under the authority of ,gregory the ,great4 ,the general period of the four fasts being roughly fixed1 the precise date appears to have varied considerably1 and in some cases to have lost its connexion with the festivals altogether4 ,the ,ordo ,romanus fixes the spring fast in the first week of ,march 7then the first month72 the summer fast in the second week of ,june2 the autumnal fast in the third week of ,september2 and the winter fast in the complete week next before ,christmas eve4 ,other regulations prevailed in different countries1 until the inconveniences arising from the want of uniformity led to the rule now observed being laid down under ,pope ,urban ,,ii4 as the law of the church1 in the councils of ,piacenza and ,clermont1 ,a4,d4 #ajie4 ,the present rule which fixes the ordination of clergy in the ,ember weeks cannot be traced farther back than the time of ,pope ,gelasius1 ,a4,d4 #dib-dif4 ,in the early ages of the church ordinations took place at any season of the year whenever necessity required4 ,gelasius is stated by ritual writers to have been the first who limited them to these particular times1 the special solemnity of the season being in all probability the cause of the selection4 ,the rule once introduced commended itself to the mind of the church1 and its observance spread4 ,we find it laid down in the pontificate of ,archbishop ,ecgbert of ,york1 ,a4,d4 #gcb-gff1 and referred to as a canonical rule in a capitulary of ,charlemagne1 and it was finally established as a law of the church in the pontificate of ,gregory ,,vii41 c4 #ajhe4 ,,authorities4--,muratori1 ,dissert4 de jejun4 quat4 temp41 c4 vii41 anecdot4 tom4 ii4 p4 #bfb2 ,bingham1 ,antiq4 of the ,christ4 ,church1 bk4 iv4 ch4 vi4 ,s #f1 bk4 xxi4 ch4 ii4 ,,ss #a-g2 ,binterin1 ,denkwurdigkeiten1 vol4 v4 part #b1 pp4 #acc ff42 ,augusti1 ,handbuch der christlich4 ,archaol4 vol4 i4 p4 #dfe1 iii4 p4 #dhf4 7,e4 ,v47 ,,embezzlement 7,a4-,fr4 embesilement1 from beseler or besillier1 to destroy71 in ,english law1 a peculiar form of theft1 which is distinguished from the ordinary crime in two points3--7#a7 ,it is committed by a person who is in the position of clerk or servant to the owner of the property stolen2 and 7#b7 the property when stolen is in the possession of such clerk or servant4 ,the definition of embezzlement as a special form of theft arose out of the difficulties caused by the legal doctrine that to constitute larceny the property must be taken out of the possession of the owner4 ,servants and others were thus able to steal with impunity goods entrusted to them by their masters4 ,a statute of ,henry ,,viii4 7#aebi7 was passed to meet this case2 and it enacted that it should be felony in servants to convert to their own use caskets1 jewels1 money1 goods or chattels delivered to them by their masters4 ,this act1 says ,sir ,j4,f4 ,stephen 7,general ,view of the ,criminal ,law of ,england71 assisted by certain subtleties according to which the possession of the servant was taken under particular circumstances to be the possession of the master1 so that the servant by converting the goods to his own use took them out of his own possession qua servant 7which was his master's possession7 and put them into his own possession qua thief 7which was a felony71 was considered sufficient for practical purposes for more than #bjj years4 ,in #agii a clerk who had converted to his own use a cheque paid across the counter to him by a customer of his master was held to be not guilty of felony2 and in the same year an act was passed1 which1 meeting the difficulty in such cases1 enacted that if any clerk or servant1 or any person employed as clerk or servant1 should1 by virtue of such employment1 receive or take into his possession any money1 bonds1 bills1 c41 for or in the name or on account of his employers1 and should fraudulently embezzle the same1 every such offender should be deemed to have stolen the same4 ,the same definition is substantially repeated in a ,consolidation ,act passed in #ahbg4 ,numberless difficulties of interpretation arose under these acts1 e4g4 as to the meaning of clerk or servant1 as to the difference between theft and embezzlement1 c4 ,the law now in force1 or the ,larceny ,act #ahfa1 defines the offence thus 7section #fh73--,whosoever1 being a clerk or servant1 or being employed for the purpose or in the capacity of a clerk or servant1 shall fraudulently embezzle any chattel1 money or valuable security which shall be delivered to or received or taken into possession by him for or in the name or on the account of his master or employer1 or any part thereof1 shall be deemed to have feloniously stolen the same from his master or employer1 although such chattel1 money or security was not received into the possession of such master or employer otherwise than by the actual possession of his clerk1 servant or other person so employed1 and being convicted thereof shall be liable1 at the discretion of the court1 to be kept in penal servitude for any time not exceeding fourteen years1 and not less than three years1 or imprisonment with or without hard labour for not more than two years4 ,to constitute the offence thus described three things must concur3--7#a7 ,the offender must be a clerk or servant2 7#b7 he must receive into his possession some chattel on behalf of his master2 and 7#c7 he must fraudulently embezzle the same4 ,a clerk or servant has been defined to be a person bound either by an express contract of service or by conduct implying such a contract to obey the orders and submit to the control of his master in the transaction of the business which it is his duty as such clerk or servant to transact4 7,stephen's ,digest of the ,criminal ,law1 ,art4 #cji47 ,the ,larceny ,act #aija1 amending sections #ge and #gf of the ,larceny ,act #ahfa1 also describes similar offences on the part of persons1 not being clerks or servants1 to which the name embezzlement is not uncommonly applied4 ,the act makes the offence of fraudulently misappropriating property entrusted to a person by another1 or received by him on behalf of another a misdemeanour punishable by penal servitude for a term not exceeding seven years1 or to imprisonment1 with or without hard labour1 for a term not exceeding two years4 ,so also trustees fraudulently disposing of trust property1 and directors of companies fraudulently appropriating the company's property or keeping fraudulent accounts1 or wilfully destroying books or publishing fraudulent statements1 are misdemeanants punishable in the same way4 ,in the ,united ,states the law of embezzlement is founded mainly on the ,english statute passed in #agii1 but the statutes of most states are so framed that larceny includes embezzlement4 ,the latter is sometimes denominated statutory larceny4 ,the punishment varies in the different states1 otherwise there is little substantive difference in the laws of the two countries4 ,statutes have been passed in some states providing that one indicted for larceny may be convicted of embezzlement4 ,but it is doubtful whether such statutes are valid where the constitution of the state provides that the accused must be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him4 7,see also ,,larceny47 ,,emblem 7,gr4 ,greek3 emblema1 something put in or inserted1 from ,greek3 emballein1 to throw in71 a word originally applied in ,greek and ,latin 7emblema7 to a raised or inlaid ornament on vases and other vessels1 c41 and also to mosaic or tessellated work4 ,it is in ,english confined to a symbolical representation of some object1 particularly when used as a badge or heraldic device4 ,,emblements 7from ,o4 ,fr4 emblavence de bled1 i4e4 corn sprung up above ground71 a term applied in ,english law to the corn and other crops of the earth which are produced annually1 not spontaneously1 but by labour and industry4 ,emblements belong therefore to the class of fructus industriales1 or industrial growing crops 7,sale of ,goods ,act #ahic1 ,s #fb74 ,they include not only corn and grain of all kinds1 but everything of an artificial and annual profit that is produced by labour and manuring1 e4g4 hemp1 flax1 hops1 potatoes1 artificial grasses like clover1 but not fruit growing on trees1 which come under the general rule quicquid plantatur solo1 solo cedit4 ,emblements are included within the definition of goods in s4 #fb of the ,sale of ,goods ,act #ahic4 ,where an estate of uncertain duration terminates unexpectedly by the death of the tenant1 or some other event due to no fault of his own1 the law gives to the personal representative the profits of crops of this nature as compensation for the tilling1 manuring and sowing of the land4 ,if the estate1 although of uncertain duration1 is determined by the tenant's own acts1 the right to emblements does not arise4 ,the right to emblements has become of no importance in ,england since #ahea1 when it was provided by the ,landlord and ,tenant ,act #ahea 7s4 #a7 that any tenant at rack-rent1 whose lease was determined by the death or cesser of the estate1 of a landlord entitled only for his life1 or for any other uncertain interest1 shall1 instead of emblements1 be entitled to hold the lands until the expiration of the current year of his tenancy4 ,the right to emblements still exists1 however1 in favour of 7a7 a tenant not within the ,landlord and ,tenant ,act #ahea1 whose estate determines by an event which could not be foreseen1 7b7 the executor1 as against the heir of the owner in fee of land in his own occupation1 7c7 an execution creditor under a writ directing seizure of goods and chattels4 ,a person entitled to emblements may enter upon the lands after the determination of the tenancy for the purpose of cutting and carrying away the crops4 ,emblements are liable to distress by the landlord for arrears of rent1 or rent during the period of holding on under the act of #ahea 7the ,distress for ,rent ,act #agcg2 see ,bullen on ,distress1 #dth ed41 #ahic74 ,the term emblements is unknown in ,scots law1 but the heir or representative of a life-rent tenant1 a liferenter of lands1 has an analogous right to reap the crop 7on paying a proportion of the rent7 and a right to recompense for labour in tilling the ground4 ,the ,landlord and ,tenant ,act #ahea 7s4 #a7 was in force in ,ireland till #ahfj1 when it was replaced by the ,land ,act #ahfj1 which gave to the tenant an almost identical right to emblements 7s4 #cd74 ,in the ,united ,states the ,english common law of emblements has been generally preserved4 ,in ,north ,carolina there has been legislation on the lines of the ,english ,landlord and ,tenant ,act #ahea4 ,in some states the tenant is entitled to compensation also from the person succeeding to the possession4 ,under the ,french ,code ,civil1 the outgoing tenant is entitled to convenient housing for the consumption of his fodder and for the harvests remaining to be got in 7art4 #aggg74 ,the same rule is in force in ,belgium 7,code ,civil1 art4 #aggg72 and in ,holland 7,civil ,code1 art4 #afce7 and ,spain 7art4 #aegh74 ,similar rights are secured to the tenant under the ,german ,civil ,code 7arts4 #eib et seq474 ,french law is in force in ,mauritius4 ,the common law of ,england and the ,landlord and ,tenant ,act #ahea 7#ad #ae ,vict41 c4 #be1 s4 #a7 are in force in many of the ,british colonies acquired by settlement4 ,in other colonies they have been recognized by statute 7e4g4 ,victoria1 ,landlord and ,tenant ,act #ahij1 ,no4 #aajh1 ss4 #de-dh3 ,tasmania1 ,landlord and ,tenant ,act #ahgd1 #ch ,vict4 ,no4 #ab74 ,,authorities4--,english ,law3 ,fawcett on the ,law of ,landlord and ,tenant 7#crd ed41 ,london1 #aije72 ,foa1 ,landlord and ,tenant 7#dth ed41 ,london1 #aijg74 ,scots ,law3 ,bell's ,principles 7#ajth ed41 ,edinburgh1 #ahii74 ,irish ,law3 ,noland and ,kanes1 ,statutes relating to the ,law of ,landlord and ,tenant in ,ireland 7#ajth ed471 by ,kelly 7,dublin1 #ahih74 ,american ,law3 ,stimson1 ,american ,statute ,law 7,boston1 #ahhf72 ,bouvier1 ,law ,dictionary1 ed4 by ,rawle 7,boston and ,london1 #ahig72 ,ruling ,cases 7,london and ,boston1 #ahid-aija71 tit4 ,emblements 7,american ,notes74 7,a4 ,w4 ,r47 ,,embossing1 the art of producing raised portions or patterns on the surface of metal1 leather1 textile fabrics1 cardboard1 paper and similar substances4 ,strictly speaking1 the term is applicable only to raised impressions produced by means of engraved dies or plates brought forcibly to bear on the material to be embossed1 by various means1 according to the nature of the substance acted on4 ,thus raised patterns produced by carving1 chiselling1 casting and chasing or hammering are excluded from the range of embossed work4 ,embossing supplies a convenient and expeditious medium for producing elegant ornamental effects in many distinct industries2 and especially in its relations to paper and cardboard its applications are varied and important4 ,crests1 monograms1 addresses1 c41 are embossed on paper and envelopes from dies set in small handscrew presses1 a force or counter-die being prepared in leather faced with a coating of gutta-percha4 ,the dies to be used for plain embossing are generally cut deeper than those intended to be used with colours4 ,colour embossing is done in two ways--the first and ordinary kind that in which the ink is applied to the raised portion of the design4 ,the colour in this case is spread on the die with a brush and the whole surface is carefully cleaned1 leaving only ink in the depressed parts of the engraving4 ,in the second variety--called cameo embossing--the colour is applied to the flat parts of the design by means of a small printing roller1 and the letters or design in relief is left uncoloured4 ,in embossing large ornamental designs1 engraved plates or electrotypes therefrom are employed1 the force or counterpart being composed of mill-board faced with gutta-percha4 ,in working these1 powerful screw-presses1 in principle like coining or medal-striking presses1 are employed4 ,embossing is also most extensively practised for ornamental purposes in the art of bookbinding4 ,the blocked ornaments on cloth covers for books1 and the blocking or imitation tooling on the cheaper kinds of leather work1 are effected by means of powerful embossing or arming presses4 7,see ,,book-,,binding47 ,for impressing embossed patterns on wall-papers1 textiles of various kinds1 and felt1 cylinders of copper1 engraved with the patterns to be raised1 are employed1 and these are mounted in calender frames1 in which they press against rollers having a yielding surface1 or so constructed that depressions in the engraved cylinders fit into corresponding elevations in those against which they press4 ,the operations of embossing and colour printing are also sometimes effected together in a modification of the ordinary cylinder printing machine used in calico-printing1 in which it is only necessary to introduce suitably engraved cylinders4 ,for many purposes the embossing rollers must be maintained at a high temperature while in operation2 and they are heated either by steam1 by gas jets1 or by the introduction of red-hot irons within them4 ,the stamped or struck ornaments in sheet metal1 used especially in connexion with the brass and ,britannia-metal trades1 are obtained by a process of embossing--hard steel dies with forces or counterparts of soft metal being used in their production4 ,a kind of embossed ornament is formed on the surface of soft wood by first compressing and consequently sinking the parts intended to be embossed1 then planing the whole surface level1 after which1 when the wood is placed in water1 the previously depressed portion swells up and rises to its original level4 ,thus an embossed pattern is produced which may be subsequently sharpened and finished by the ordinary process of carving 7see ,,chasing and ,,repousse74 ,,embracery 7from the ,o4 ,fr4 embraseour1 an embracer1 i4e4 one who excites or instigates1 literally one who sets on fire1 from embraser1 to kindle a fire2 embrace1 i4e4 to hold or clasp in the arms1 is from ,o4 ,fr4 embracer1 ,lat4 in and bracchia1 arms71 in law1 the attempting to influence a juryman corruptly to give his verdict in favour of one side or the other in a trial1 by promise1 persuasions1 entreaties1 money1 entertainments and the like4 ,it is an offence both at common law and by statute1 and punishable by fine and imprisonment4 ,as a statutory offence it dates back to #acfj4 ,the offence is complete1 whether any verdict has been given or not1 and whether the verdict is in accordance with the weight of evidence or otherwise4 ,the person making the attempt1 and any juryman who consents1 are equally punishable4 ,the false verdict of a jury1 whether occasioned by embracery or otherwise1 was formerly considered criminal1 and jurors were severely punished1 being proceeded against by writ of attaint 7q4v474 ,the ,juries ,act of #ahbe1 in abolishing writs of attaint1 made a special exemption as regards jurors guilty of embracery 7,s #fa74 ,prosecution for the offence has been so extremely rare that when a case occurred in #ahia 7,r4 v4 ,baker1 #aac1 ,cent4 ,crim4 ,ct4 ,sess4 ,pap4 #cgd7 it was stated that no precedent could be found for the indictment4 ,the defendant was fined ,l#bjj1 afterwards reduced to ,l#ajj4 ,,embrasure1 in architecture1 the opening in a battlement between the two raised solid portions or merlons1 sometimes called a crenelle 7see ,,battlement1 ,,crenelle72 also the splay of a window4 ,,embroidery 7,m4,e4 embrouderie1 from ,o4 ,fr4 embroder1 ,mod4 ,fr4 broder71 the ornamentation of textile fabrics and other materials with needlework4 ,the beginnings of the art of embroidery probably date back to a very primitive stage in the history of all peoples1 since plain stitching must have been one of the earliest attainments of mankind1 and from that it is but a short step to decorative needlework of some kind4 ,the discovery of needles among the relics of ,swiss lake-dwellings shows that their primitive inhabitants were at least acquainted with the art of stitching4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4 ,,fig4 #f4--,,panel ,,of ,,petit-,,point ,,embroidery1 ,,with ,a ,,representation ,,of ,,courtly ,,figures ,,in ,a ,,landscape4 ,english work of the end of the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,scale3 #a_/fth4 ,,fig4 #g4--,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,bayeux ,,tapestry1 ,a ,,band ,,of ,,embroidery ,,with ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,norman ,,conquest ,,of ,,england4 ,in the museum at ,bayeux1 #aath century work4 ,scale3 #a_/dth4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,hanging ,,of ,,woollen ,,cloth1 ,,embroidered ,,with ,,the ,,five ,,wise ,,and ,,the ,,five ,,foolish ,,virgins4 ,german work1 dated #aeih4 ,scale3 #a_/ajth4 ,,fig4 #i4--,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,orphrey ,,of ,,the ,,syon ,,cope1 ,,embroidered ,,with ,,shields ,,of ,,arms4 ,the cope1 formerly in the monastery of ,syon near ,isleworth1 is now in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,english work of the #acth century4 ,scale3 #e_/afths4 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,portion ,,of ,a ,,band ,,of ,,loose ,,linen1 ,,embroidered ,,in ,,white ,,thread ,,with ,,figures ,,and ,,animals4 ,german work of the later part of the #adth century4 ,scale3 #b_/gths4 ,in concerning ourselves solely with those periods of which examples survive1 we must pass over a wide gap and begin with the anciently-civilized land of ,egypt4 ,the sandy soil and dry climate of that country have led to the preservation of woven stuffs and embroideries of unique historic interest4 ,the principal1 and by far the earliest1 known pieces which have a bearing on the present subject1 found in #aijc in the tomb of ,tethmosis 7,thoutmosis1 or ,thothmes7 ,,iv4 at ,thebes1 are now in the ,cairo ,museum4 ,there are three fragments1 entirely of linen1 inwrought with patterns in blue1 red1 green and black 7fig4 #a74 ,a kind of tapestry method is used1 the patterns being wrought upon the warp threads of the ground1 instead of upon the finished web or woven material4 ,such a process1 generally supplemented1 as in this case1 by a few stitches of fine needlework1 was still in common use at a far later time4 ,the largest of the three fragments at ,cairo bears1 in addition to rows of lotus flowers and papyrus inflorescences1 a cartouche containing the name of ,amenophis 7,amenhotep7 ,,ii4 7c4 #aeth century ,b4,c472 another is inwrought with the name of ,tethmosis ,,iii4 7c4 #afth century ,b4,c474#a ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,fragment of a linen robe1 found in the tomb of ,tethmosis 7,thothmes7 ,,iv4 at ,thebes1 and now in the ,cairo ,museum4 ,the cartouche has the name of ,amenophis 7,amenhotep7 ,,ii4 7c4 #aeth century ,b4,c474 ,no other embroidered stuffs which can be assigned to so early a date have hitherto come to light in the ,nile valley 7nor indeed elsewhere71 and the student who wishes to gain a fuller knowledge of the textile patterns of the ancient ,egyptians must be referred to the wall-paintings and sculptured reliefs which have been preserved in considerable numbers4 ,from the ancient civilizations of ,babylon and ,assyria no fragments of embroidery1 nor even of woven stuffs1 have come down to us4 ,the fine series of wall-reliefs from ,nineveh in the ,british ,museum give some idea of the geometrical and floral patterns and diapers which adorned the robes of the ancient ,assyrians4 ,the discovery of the ruins of the palace of ,darius ,i4 7#eba-dhe ,b4,c47 at ,susa in #ahhe has thrown some light upon the textile art of the ancient ,persians4 ,they evidently owed much to the nations whom they had supplanted4 ,the famous relief from this palace 7now in the ,louvre7 represents a procession of archers1 wearing long robes covered with small diaper patterns1 perhaps of embroidery4 ,the exact significance of the words used in the book of ,exodus in describing the robes of ,aaron 7ch4 xxviii47 and the hangings and ornaments of the ,tabernacle 7ch4 xxvi47 cannot be determined1 and the broidered work of the prophecy of ,ezekiel 7ch4 xxvii47 at a later time is also of uncertain meaning4 ,it seems likely that much of this ancient work was of the tapestry class1 such as we have found in the early fragments from ,thebes4 ,the methods of the ancient ,greek embroiderer1 or variegator 7,greek3 poikiltes7 to whom woven garments were submitted for enrichment1 can only be conjectured4 ,the peplos or woven cloth made every fifth year to cover or shade the statue of ,athena in the ,parthenon at ,athens1 and carried at the ,panathenaic festival1#b was ornamented with the battles of the gods and giants4 ,the late ,dr ,j4,h4 ,middleton thought that very possibly most of the elaborate work upon these peploi was done by the needle4 ,that true embroidery1 in the modern sense--the decoration by means of the needle of a finished woven material--was practised among the ancient ,greeks1 has been demonstrated by the finding of some textile fragments in graves in the ,crimea2 these are now in the ,hermitage at ,st ,petersburg4 ,one of them1 of purple woollen material1 from a tomb assigned to the #dth century ,b4,c41 is embroidered in wools of different colours with a man on horseback1 honeysuckle ornament and tendrils4 ,another woollen piece1 attributed to the following century1 has a stem and arrow-head leaves worked in gold thread4#c ,in turning to ancient ,rome1 it is well first briefly to notice ,pliny's account of the craft 7,nat4 ,hist4 viii471 as recording the views current in ,rome at his time 7#ast century ,a4,d474 ,after relating that ,homer mentions embroidered garments 7pictas vestes71 he states that the ,phrygians first used the needle for embroidered robes1 which were thence called ,phrygionian 7,phrygioniae71 and that ,attalic garments were named from ,attalus ,,ii41 king of ,pergamum 7#aei-ach ,b4,c471 the inventor of the art of embroidering in gold4 ,he further relates that ,babylon gave the name to embroideries of divers colours1 for the production of which that city was famous4 ,by the ,romans the art was designated as painting with the needle 7acu pingere71 a term used by ,virgil in speaking of the decoration of robes1 by ,ovid 7who describes it as an art taught by ,minerva71 and by ,roman writers generally when referring to embroidery4#d ,it is to be regretted that no examples have been discovered in the neighbourhood of the ,roman capital4 ,for embroideries made under ,roman influence we must again look to ,egypt4 ,they formed the decoration of garments#e and mummy-wrappings from the cemeteries in ,upper and ,middle ,egypt1 which have been so extensively rifled of late years4 ,those of ,roman type date approximately from the first five centuries of the ,christian era4 ,the earliest represent human figures1 animals1 birds1 geometrical and interlacing ornaments1 vases1 fruit1 flowers and foliage 7especially the vine74 ,they are generally done in purple wool and undyed linen thread by the tapestry process employed in ,egypt at least fifteen centuries earlier1 as we have seen2 most of the patterns have had the lines more clearly marked out by the ordinary method of needlework4 ,towards the end of this period a greater choice of colours is seen1 and ,christian symbols appear4 ,at this time examples worked entirely upon the finished web are found 7fig4 #b74 ,the transition is easy from such work to the veritable needle-paintings1 representing scenes from the gospels1 produced in ,egypt shortly after 7fig4 #c74 ,such embroideries are evidently akin to those mentioned by ,bishop ,asterius 7#ccj-daj71 who describes the garments worn by effeminate ,christians as painted like the walls of their houses4#f ,from the time of ,justinian 7#ebg-efe7 onwards for some centuries1 the art of ,europe1 embroidery with the rest1 was dominated by that of the ,byzantine empire4 ,to trace the progress of the highly conventionalized ,byzantine style1 becoming more rigid and stereotyped as time passes1 belongs to the general history of art1 and such a task cannot be attempted here4 ,perhaps the most remarkable example of all which have survived to illustrate the work of the ,byzantine embroiderers is the blue silk robe known as the dalmatic of ,charlemagne or of ,leo ,,iii41 in the sacristy of ,st ,peter's at ,rome 7fig4 #d74 ,according to the present consensus of opinion it belongs to a later time than either of those dignitaries1 dating most probably from the #abth century4#g ,in front is represented ,christ enthroned as ,judge of the world1 a youthful but majestic figure2 on the back is the ,transfiguration4 ,these1 as well as the minor subjects1 are explained by ,greek inscriptions4 ,the wide influence of ,byzantine art gradually died out after the ,latin sack of ,constantinople in the year #abjd1 although the style lingered1 and lingers still1 in certain localities1 notably at ,mount ,athos4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,embroidered panel from a linen garment1 with a representation of the ,annunciation and the ,salutation4 ,found in a cemetery in ,egypt4 ,coptic work of the #fth or #gth century ,a4,d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,embroidered panel from a linen garment1 with a jewelled cross and two birds within a wreath4 ,found in a cemetery at ,akhmim1 ,upper ,egypt4 ,egypto-,roman work of the #dth or #eth century ,a4,d4 ,palermo in ,sicily succeeded ,byzantium as the capital of the arts in ,europe1 although its ascendancy was of brief duration4 ,under the ,norman kings of ,sicily the style was strongly oriental1 consequent upon the earlier occupation of the island by the ,saracens1 and upon the employment of ,saracenic craftsmen by the ,normans4 ,the magnificent red silk mantle at ,vienna1 embroidered in gold thread with a date-palm and two lions springing upon camels1 and enriched with pearls and enamel plaques1 bears round the edge an ,arabic inscription1 recording that it was made in the royal factory of the capital of ,sicily 7,palermo7 in the year #ebh 7 ,a4,d4 #aacd74 ,at that time ,roger1 the first ,norman king1 was on the throne4 ,another of the imperial coronation-robes--a linen alb with gold embroidery--is also at ,vienna4#h ,an inscription in ,latin and ,arabic states that it was made in the year #aaha1 under the reign of ,william ,,ii4 7,norman king of ,sicily1 #aaff-aahi74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,embroidered robe known as the ,dalmatic of ,charlemagne1 or of ,leo ,,iii41 preserved in the sacristy of ,st ,peter's at ,rome4 ,byzantine work1 probably of the #abth century4 ,from about that time distinct national styles began to develop in different places4 ,in tracing the progress of the embroiderer's art during the middle ages we must rely mainly upon the many fine examples of ecclesiastical work which have been preserved4 ,the costumes of men and women1 as well as curtains and hangings and such articles of domestic use1 were often richly adorned with embroidery4 ,these have mostly perished2 while the careful preservation and comparatively infrequent use of the vestments and other objects devoted to the service of the church have given us tangible evidence of the attainments of the medieval embroiderer4 ,much of this work was produced in convents1 but old documents show that in monasteries also were to be found men known for their skill in needlework4 ,other names1 both of men and women1 are recorded1 showing that the craft was by no means exclusively confined to monastic foundations4 ,gilds of embroiderers existed far back in medieval times4 ,in ,england the craft has been a favourite employment for many centuries1 and persons of all ranks have occupied their spare hours at needlework4 ,some embroidered fragments1 found in #ahbf-ahbg in the tomb of ,st ,cuthbert at ,durham1 and now kept in the cathedral library1 were worked1 chiefly in gold thread1 by order of ,aelfflaeda1 queen of ,edward the ,elder1 for ,fridestan1 bishop of ,winchester1 early in the #ajth century4 ,in the later part of the following century the ,bayeux tapestry was produced--a work of unique importance 7,plate ,i4 fig4 #g74 ,it is a band of linen1 more than #bcj ft4 long1 embroidered in coloured wools with the story of the ,norman conquest of ,england4 7,see ,,bayeux ,,tapestry47 ,some fragments of metallic embroidery on silk1 of the #abth and #acth centuries1 may be seen in the library of ,worcester cathedral4 ,they were removed from the coffins of two bishops1 ,william de ,blois 7#abah-abcf7 and ,walter de ,cantelupe 7#abcf-abff74 ,a fragment of gold embroidery from the tomb of the latter bishop is preserved in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum at ,south ,kensington1 and others are in the ,british ,museum4 ,in the #acth century ,english embroidery was famous throughout western ,europe1 and many embroidered objects are described in inventories of that time as being de opere anglicano4 ,during that century1 and the early part of the next1 ,english work was at its best4 ,the most famous example is the ,syon cope at ,south ,kensington1 belonging to the latter half of the #acth century 7see ,,cope1 ,plate ,i4 fig4 #b74 ,it represents the coronation of the ,virgin1 the ,crucifixion1 the archangel ,michael transfixing the dragon1 the death and burial of the ,virgin1 our ,lord meeting ,mary ,magdalene in the garden1 the ,apostles and the hierarchies of angels4 ,the broad orphrey is embroidered with a series of heraldic shields 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #i74 ,other embroideries of the period are at ,steeple ,aston1 ,chesterfield 7,col4 ,butler-,bowden71 ,victoria and ,albert and ,british museums1 ,rome 7,st ,john ,lateran71 ,bologna1 ,pienza1 ,anagni1 ,ascoli1 ,st ,bertrand de ,comminges1 ,lyons museum1 ,madrid 7archaeological museum71 ,toledo and ,vich4 ,during the course of the #adth and #aeth centuries embroideries produced in ,england were not equal to the earlier work4 ,towards the end of the latter century1 and until the dissolution of the monasteries in the next1 much ecclesiastical embroidery of effective design was done1 and many examples are still to be seen in churches throughout the country4 ,in the ,tudor period the costumes of the wealthy were often richly adorned with needlework4 ,the portraits of ,king ,henry ,,viii41 ,queen ,elizabeth and their courtiers show how magnificent was the embroidery used for such purposes4 ,many examples1 especially of the latter reign1 worked with very effective and beautiful floral patterns1 have come down to these times4 ,a kind of embroidery known as black work1 done in black silk on linen1 was popular during the same reign4 ,a tunic embroidered for ,queen ,elizabeth1 with devices copied from contemporary woodcuts1 is an excellent example of this work4 ,it now belongs to the ,viscount ,falkland4 ,another class of work1 popular at the same time1 was closely worked in wools and silks on open-mesh material like canvas1 which was entirely covered by the embroidery4 ,figures in rich costume were often introduced 7,plate ,i4 fig4 #f74 ,this method was much practised in ,france1 and the term applied to it in that country1 au petit point1 has become generally used4 ,throughout the #agth and #ahth centuries embroidery in ,england1 though sometimes lacking in good taste1 maintained generally a high standard1 and that done to-day1 based on the study of old examples1 need not fear comparison with any modern work4 ,during these three centuries bold floral patterns for hangings1 curtains and coverlets have been usual 7,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #ac71 but smaller works1 such as samplers1 covers of work-boxes1 and pictorial and landscape subjects 7fig4 #e71 have been produced in large numbers4 ,in the #ahth century gentlemen's coats and waistcoats and ladies' dresses were extensively embroidered4 ,in ,france1 embroidery1 like all the arts practised by that nation1 has been characterized by much grace and beauty1 and many good specimens belonging to different periods are known4 ,the vestments associated with the name of ,st ,thomas of ,canterbury at ,sens may be either of ,french or ,english work 7#abth century74 ,to the later part of the following century belongs a band of embroidery1 representing the coronation of the ,virgin1 the ,adoration of the ,magi1 the presentation in the ,temple1 and other subjects beneath ,gothic arches1 preserved in the ,hotel-,dieu at ,chateau ,thierry4 ,the mitre of ,jean de ,marigny1 archbishop of ,rouen 7#acdg-acea71 in the museum at ,evreux1 embroidered with figures of ,st ,peter and ,st ,eloy1 may be regarded as representative of #adth-century work4 ,an altar-frontal with the ,annunciation embroidered in silks and gold and silver upon a blue silk damask ground1 now in the museum at ,lille1 is a very beautiful example of ,franco-,flemish art in the second half of the #aeth century4 ,it was originally in the church at ,noyelles-lez-,seclin4 ,an embroidery more characteristically ,french1 and belonging to the same century1 is in the museum at ,chartres4 ,it is a triptych1 having in the middle a pieta1 on the left wing ,st ,john the ,evangelist1 and on the right ,st ,catherine of ,alexandria4 ,each leaf has a canopy of architecture represented in perspective4 ,in the #afth century an effective style of embroidery was practised in ,france2 the pattern is generally a graceful combination of floral and scroll forms1 cut out of velvet1 satin or silk1 and applied to a thick woollen cloth4 ,later work1 chiefly of a floral character1 has served for the decoration of costumes1 ecclesiastical vestments1 curtains and hangings1 and the seats and backs of chairs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,oval picture in silk embroidery3 ,fame scattering ,flowers over ,shakespeare's ,tomb4 ,english work of the #ahth century4 ,under the rule of the dukes of ,burgundy in the #aeth century art in the southern provinces of the ,netherlands prospered greatly1 and able artists were found to meet the wishes of those munificent rulers4 ,the local schools of painting1 which flourished under their patronage1 appear to have very considerably influenced the embroiderers' art4 ,great care and pains were given to reproduce as accurately as possible the painted cartoon or picture which served as the model4 ,the heads are individualized1 and the folds of the draperies are laboriously worked out in detail4 ,the masonry of buildings1 the veinings of marble1 and the architectural enrichments are often represented with careful fidelity1 and landscape backgrounds are shown in every detail4 ,as in the case of the tapestries of the ,netherlands--the finest which the world has seen--there can be no doubt that patrons of art and donors1 when requiring embroideries to be made1 secured the services of eminent painters for the designs4 ,there are many examples of such careful work4 ,a set of vestments known as the ornement de la ,toison d',or1 now in the ,hof-museum at ,vienna1 is embroidered in the most minute manner with sacred subjects and figures of saints and angels4 ,the stiff disposal of many of these figures1 within flattened hexagons arranged in zones1 is not pleasing1 but the needlework is most remarkable for skill and carefulness4 ,they are of #aeth-century work4 ,a cope belonging to the second half of that century was given to the cathedral of ,tournay by ,guillaume ,fillatre1 abbot of ,st ,bertin at ,st ,omer1 and bishop of ,tournay 7d4 #adgc74 ,it is now in the museum there4 ,upon the orphreys and hood are represented the seven ,works of ,mercy4 ,the body of the cope1 of plain red velvet1 is powdered with stags' heads and martlets 7the heraldic bearings of the bishop72 between the antlers of the stags is worked in each case the initial letter of the bishop's name1 and the morse is embroidered with his arms4 ,some panels of embroidery1 once decorating an altar in the abbey of ,grimbergen1 and now at ,brussels1 illustrate the best class of ,flemish needlework in the #afth century4 ,the scenes are taken from the ,gospel3 the marriage at ,cana1 ,christ in the house of the ,pharisee1 ,christ in the house of ,zacchaeus1 the ,last ,supper1 and the supper at ,emmaus4 ,in the museum at ,bern there are some embroideries of great historic and artistic interest1 found in the tent of ,charles the ,bold1 duke of ,burgundy1 after his defeat at ,granson in #adgf4 ,they include some armorial panels and two tabards or heralds' coats4 ,a tabard of the following century1 with the royal arms of ,spain in applied work1 and most probably of ,flemish origin1 is preserved in the archaeological museum at ,ghent4 ,the later art of ,holland was largely influenced by the ,dutch conquests in the ,east ,indies at the end of the #afth century1 and the subsequent founding of the ,dutch ,east ,india ,company4 ,embroideries were among the articles produced in the ,east under ,dutch influence for exportation to ,holland4 ,much embroidery for ecclesiastical purposes has been executed in ,belgium of late years4 ,it follows medieval models1 but is lacking in the qualities which make those of so much importance in the history of the art4 ,there is perhaps little worthy of special notice in ,italy before the beginning of the #adth century1 but the embroideries produced at that time show great skill and are very beautiful4 ,the names of two ,florentine embroiderers of the #adth century--both men--have come down to us1 inscribed upon their handiwork4 ,a fine frontal for an altar1 very delicately worked in gold and silver and silks of many colours1 is preserved in the archaeological museum at ,florence4 ,the subject in the middle is the coronation of the ,virgin2 on either side is an arcade with figures of apostles and saints4 ,the embroiderer's name is worked under the central subject3 ,jacobus ,cambi de ,floretia me fecit ,,mcccxxxviii4 ,the other example is in the basilica at ,manresa in ,spain4 ,it also is an altar-frontal1 worked in silk and gold upon an embroidered gold ground4 ,there is a large central panel representing the ,crucifixion1 with nine scenes from the ,gospel on each side4 ,the embroidered inscription is as follows3 ,geri ,lapi rachamatore me fecit in ,florentia4 ,it is of #adth-century work4 ,an embroidered orphrey in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum belongs to the early part of the same century4 ,it represents the ,annunciation1 the coronation of the ,virgin and figures of apostles and saints beneath arches4 ,in the spandrels are the orders of angels with their names in ,italian4 ,in the best period of ,italian art successful painters did not disdain to design for embroidery4 ,francesco ,squarcione 7#acid-adgd71 the founder of the ,paduan school of painting1 and master of ,mantegna1 is called in a document of the year #adbc a tailor and embroiderer 7sartor et recamator74 ,it is recorded that ,antonio del ,pollaiuolo painted cartoons which were carried out in embroidery1#i and ,pierino del ,vaga1 according to ,vasari1 did likewise4 ,in the #afth and #agth centuries large numbers of towels and linen covers were embroidered in red1 green or brown silk with borders of floral patterns1 sometimes 7especially in the southern provinces7 combined with figure subjects and bird and animal forms 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #ae74 ,another type of embroidery popular at the same time1 both in ,italy and ,spain1 is known as applique 7or applied7 work4 ,the pattern is cut out and applied to a bright-coloured ground1 frequently of velvet1 as in the example illustrated 7,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #ad74 ,the later embroidery of ,sicily follows that of the mainland4 ,a remarkable coverlet1 quilted and padded with wool so as to throw the design into relief1 is shown to be of ,sicilian origin by the inscriptions which it bears 7,plate ,,vi4 fig4 #ah74 ,it represents scenes from the story of ,tristan1 agreeing in the main part with the novella entitled ,la ,tavola ,rotonda o l'istoria di ,tristano4 ,the quilt dates from the end of the #adth century4 ,many pattern-books for embroidery and lace were published in ,italy in the #afth and #agth centuries4#aj ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,silk ,,panel1 ,,embroidered ,,with ,a ,,hanging ,,lantern4 ,chinese work of the #agth or #ahth century4 ,scale3 #a_/dth4 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,portion ,,of ,a ,,large ,,hanging1 ,,embroidered ,,with ,,figures ,,within ,,medallions1 ,,and ,,inscriptions4 ,from a church in ,iceland1 probably #agth century4 ,scale3 #a_/hth4 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,portion ,,of ,a ,,bed-,,hanging1 ,,embroidered ,,with ,,flowering ,,trees ,,growing ,,from ,,mounds4 ,english work of the later part of the #agth century4 ,scale3 #a_/abth4 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,,apparel ,,for ,a ,,dalmatic ,,of ,,green ,,velvet1 ,,embroidered ,,with ,,an ,,applique ,,pattern4 ,italian work of the #afth century4 ,scale3 #a_/dth4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,border ,,of ,a ,,linen ,,cover1 ,,embroidered ,,with ,a ,,figure ,,of ,,st ,,catherine ,,of ,,alexandria ,,and ,,kneeling ,,votaries4 ,italian work of the #afth century4 ,scale3 #b_/eths4 ,,fig4 #af4--,,linen ,,border1 ,,embroidered ,,with ,,debased ,,figures1 ,,birds ,,and ,,animals ,,amid ,,flowers4 ,cretan work1 dated #agfb4 ,scale3 #d_/iths4 ,in the greater part of the ,spanish peninsula art was for many centuries dominated by the ,arabs1 who overran the country in the #hth century1 and were not finally subdued until the end of the #aeth4 ,hispano-,moorish embroideries of the medieval period usually have interlacing patterns combined with ,arabic inscriptions4 ,in the #aeth and #afth centuries ,italian influence becomes evident4 ,later the effects of the ,spanish conquests in ,asia are seen4 ,eastern influence is1 however1 stronger in the case of the ,portuguese1 who seized ,goa1 on the west coast of the ,indian peninsula1 early in the #afth century1 and during the whole of that century held the monopoly of the eastern trade4 ,many large embroideries were produced in the ,indies1 showing eastern floral patterns mingled with representations of ,europeans1 ships and coats of arms4 ,embroideries done in ,portugal in the #afth and #agth centuries strongly reflect the influence of oriental patterns4 ,german embroidery of the #abth and #acth centuries adheres closely to the traditions of ,byzantine art4 ,a peculiarity of much medieval ,german work is a tendency to treat the draperies of the figures as flat surfaces to be covered with diaper patterns1 showing no folds4 ,a cope from ,hildesheim cathedral1 now in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 is a typical illustration of such work1 dating from the end of the #acth century4 ,it is embroidered in silk upon linen with the martyrdom of apostles and saints4 ,other specimens of embroidery in this manner may be seen at ,halberstadt4 ,an altar-frontal from ,rupertsburg 7,bingen71 belonging to the earlier years of the #acth century1 is now in the ,brussels museum4 ,it is of purple silk1 embroidered with ,christ in majesty and figures of saints4 ,it was no doubt made in the time of ,siegfried1 archbishop of ,mainz 7#abja-abcj71 who is represented upon it4 ,a type of medieval ,german embroidery is done in white linen thread on a loose linen ground--a sort of darning-work 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #aj74 ,earlier specimens of this work are often diversified by using a variety of stitches tending to form diaper patterns4 ,the use of long scrolling bands with inscriptions explaining the subjects represented is more usual in ,german work than in that of any other country4 ,in the #aeth century much fine embroidery was produced in the neighbourhood of ,cologne4 ,later ,german work shows a preference for bold floral patterns1 sometimes mingled with heraldry2 the larger examples are often worked in wool on a woollen cloth ground 7,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #h74 ,the embroidery of the northern nations 7,denmark1 ,scandinavia1 ,iceland7 was later in development than that of the southern peoples4 ,figure subjects evidently belonging to as late a period as the #agth century are still disposed in formal rows of circles1 and accompanied by primitive ornamental forms 7,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #ab74 ,a remarkable early embroidered fabric covers the relics of ,st ,knud 7,canute1 king of ,denmark1 #ajhj-ajhf7 in his shrine in the church dedicated to him at ,odense4 ,it is apparently contemporary work4 ,the pattern consists of displayed eagles within oval compartments1 in blue on a red ground4 ,in ,greece and the islands of the eastern ,mediterranean embroidery has been much employed for the decoration of costumes1 portieres and bed-curtains4 ,large numbers have been acquired in ,crete 7,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #af71 and patterns of a distinctive character are also found in ,rhodes1 ,cos1 ,patmos and other islands4 ,some examples show traces of the influence of the ,venetian trading settlements in the archipelago in the #afth and #agth centuries4 ,among the ,turks a great development of the arts followed upon the conquest of ,asia ,minor and the ,byzantine territory in ,europe4 ,their embroideries show a preference for floral forms--chiefly roses1 tulips1 carnations and hyacinths--which are treated with great decorative skill4 ,the use of embroidery in ,asia--especially in ,india1 ,china1 ,turkestan and ,persia--dates back to very early times4 ,the conservatism of all these peoples renders the date of surviving examples often difficult to establish1 but the greater number of such embroideries now to be seen in ,europe are certainly of no great age4 ,india has produced vast quantities of embroideries of varying excellence4 ,the fine woollen shawls of ,kashmir are widely famed2 their first production is supposed to date back to a remote period4 ,the somewhat gaudy effect of many ,indian embroideries is at times intensified by the addition of beetles' wings1 tinsel or fragments of looking-glass4 ,china is the original home of the silkworm1 and the textile arts there reached an advanced stage at a date long before that of any equally skilful work in ,europe4 ,embroideries worked there are generally in silk threads on a ground of the same material4 ,such work is largely used for various articles of costume1 and for coverlets1 screens1 banners1 chair-covers and table-hangings4 ,the ornaments upon the robes especially are prescribed according to the rank of the wearer4 ,the designs include elaborate landscapes with buildings and figures1 dragons1 birds1 animals1 symbolic devices1 and especially flowers 7,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #aa74 ,dr ,bushell states that the stuff to be embroidered is first stretched upon a frame1 on pivots1 and that pattern-books with woodcuts have been published for the workers' guidance4 ,a kind of embroidery exported in large quantities from ,canton to ,europe rivals painting in the variety and gradation of its colours1 and in the smoothness and regularity of its surface4 ,embroidery in ,japan resembles in many ways that of ,china1 the country which probably supplied its first models4 ,as a general rule1 ,japanese work is more pictorial and fanciful than that of ,china1 and the stitching is looser4 ,it frequently happens that the brush has been used to add to the variety of the embroidered work1 and in other cases the needle has been an accessory upon a fabric already ornamented with printing or painting4 ,japanese work is characterized generally by bold and broad treatment1 and especial skill is shown in the representation of landscapes--figures1 rocks1 waterfalls1 animals1 birds1 trees1 flowers and clouds being each rendered by a few lines4 ,more elaborate are the large temple hangings1 the pattern being frequently thrown into relief1 and completely covering the ground material4 ,embroidery in ,persia has been used to a great extent for the decoration of carpets1 for prayer or for use at the bath 7,plate ,v4 fig4 #ag74 ,robes1 hangings1 curtains1 tablecovers and portieres are also embroidered4 ,a preference is shown for floral patterns1 but the ,mahommedans of ,persia had no scruples about introducing the forms of men and animals--the former engaged in hawking or hunting1 or feasting in gardens4 ,panels embroidered with close diagonal bands of flowers were made into loose trousers for women1 now obsolete4 ,the embroidered shawls of ,kerman are widely celebrated4 ,hangings and covers of cloth patchwork have been embroidered in many parts of ,persia1 more particularly at ,resht and ,ispahan4 ,in ,turkestan1 and especially at ,bokhara1 excellent embroideries have been1 and are1 produced1 some patterns being of a bold floral type1 and others conventionalized into hooked and serrated outlines4 ,the work is most usually in bright-coloured silks1 red predominating1 on a linen material4 ,in ,north ,africa the embroidery of ,morocco and ,algeria deserves notice2 the former inclines more to geometrical forms and the latter to patterns of a floral character4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,linen ,,prayer ,,carpet1 ,,quilted ,,and ,,embroidered ,,in ,,chain ,,stitch ,,with ,,coloured ,,silks1 ,,chiefly ,,white1 ,,yellow1 ,,green ,,and ,,red4 ,the border consists of a wide band set between two narrow ones1 each with a waved continuous stem with blossoms in the wavings4 ,similar floral scrolling and leafy stem ornament fills the space beyond the pointed shape at the upper end1 which is edged with acanthus leaf devices4 ,the main ground below the niche or pointed shape is a blossoming plant1 with balanced bunches of flowers between which are leaves1 formally arranged in a pointed oval shape4 ,persian work1 #ahth century1 #d ft4 #f in4 ,x #b ft4 #aa in4 7,victoria and ,albert ,museum47 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,part ,,of ,a ,,sicilian ,,coverlet1 ,,of ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the #ad,,th ,,century4 ,it is of white linen1 quilted and padded in wool so as to throw the design into relief4 ,the scenes represented1 taken from the ,story of ,tristan1 with inscriptions in the ,sicilian dialect1 are as follows3--7#a7 ,,comu3 ,,lu ,,amoroldu ,,fa ,,bandiri3 ,,lu ,,osti3 ,,in ,,cornuualgia 7,how the ,morold made the host to go to ,cornwall72 7#b7 ,,comu3 ,,lu ,,rre3 ,,languis3 ,,cumanda3 ,,chi ,,uaia3 ,,lo ,,osti4 ,,cornuaglia 7,how ,king ,languis ordered that the host should go to ,cornwall72 7#c7 ,,comu3 ,,lu ,,rre3 ,,languis3 ,,manda3 ,,per ,,lu ,,trabutu ,,in ,,cornualia 7,how ,king ,languis sent to ,cornwall for the tribute72 7#d7 ,,comu3 7,,li ,m7 ,,issagieri3 ,,so ,,uinnti3 ,,al ,,rre3 ,,marcu3 ,,per ,,lu ,,tributu ,,di ,,secti ,,anni 7,how the ambassadors are come to ,king ,mark for the tribute of seven years72 7#e7 ,,comu3 ,,lu ,,amoroldu ,,uai3 ,,in ,,cornuualgia 7,how the ,morold comes to ,cornwall72 7#f7 ,,comu3 ,,lu ,,amoroldu3 ,,fa ,,suldari3 ,,la ,,genti 7,how the ,morold made the people pay72 7#g7 ,,comu3 ,t7,,ristainu73 ,,dai3 ,,lu ,,guantu ,,allu ,,amoroldu ,,dela ,,bactaglia 7,how ,tristan gives the glove of battle to the ,morold72 7#h7 ,,comu3 ,,lu ,,amoroldu3 ,e ,,uinutu3 ,,in ,,cornuualgia3 ,,cum ,,xxxx ,,galei3 7,how the ,morold is come to ,cornwall with forty galleys72 7#i7 ,,comu ,,tristainu ,,bucta3 ,,la ,,uarca3 ,,arretu3 ,,intu3 ,,allu ,,maru 7,how ,tristan struck his boat behind him into the sea72 7#aj7 ,,comu3 ,,tristainu3 ,,aspecta3 ,,lu ,,amoroldu3 ,,alla ,,isola ,,di ,,lu ,,maru3 ,,sansa ,,uintura 7,how ,tristan awaits the ,morold on the isle ,sanza ,ventura in the sea72 7#aa7 ,,comu3 ,,tristainu ,,feriu ,,lu ,,amorolldu ,,in ,,testa 7,how ,tristan wounded the ,morold in the head72 7#ab7 ,,comu3 ,,lu ,,inna 787 ,,delu ,,amoroldu3 ,,aspecttaua ,,lu ,,patrunu 7,how the ,morold's page 787 awaited his master72 7#ac7 ,,comu ,,lu ,,amorodu ,,feriu3 ,,tristainu ,a ,,tradimantu 7,how the ,morold wounded ,tristan by treachery72 7#ad7 444 ,,sita3 ,,in ,,airlandia 7 444 in ,ireland74 ,,bibliography4--,lady ,alford1 ,needlework as ,art 7,london1 #ahhf72 ,mrs ,m4 ,barber1 ,some ,drawings of ,ancient ,embroidery 7ib41 #ahhj72 ,p4 ,blanchet1 ,tissus antiques et du haut moyen-age 7,paris1 #ahig72 ,f4 ,bock1 ,die ,kleinodien des ,heiligen ,romischen ,reiches ,deutscher ,nation 7,vienna1 #ahfd72 ,m4 ,charles1 ,les ,broderies et les dentelles 7,paris1 #aije72 ,mrs ,christie1 ,embroidery and ,tapestry ,weaving 7,london1 #aijf72 ,a4,s4 ,cole1 ,c4,b41 ,some ,aspects of ,ancient and ,modern ,embroidery 7,soc4 of ,arts ,journal1 liii41 #aije1 pp4 #ief-igc72 ,r4 ,cox1 ,l',art de decorer les tissus 7,paris1 ,lyons1 #aijj72 ,l4,f4 ,day1 ,art in ,needlework 7,london1 #aijj72 ,a4 ,dolby1 ,church ,embroidery 7ib41 #ahfg71 and ,church ,vestments 7ib41 #ahfh72 ,m4 ,dreger1 ,kunstlerische ,entwicklung der ,weberei und ,stickerei 7,vienna1 #aijd72 ,madame ,i4 ,errera1 ,collection de broderies anciennes 7,brussels1 #aije72 ,l4 de ,farcy1 ,la ,broderie 7,paris1 #ahij72 ,r4 ,forrer1 ,die ,graber und ,textilfunde von ,achmim-,panopolis 7,strassburg1 #ahia72 ,f4,r4 ,fowke1 ,the ,bayeux ,tapestry 7,london1 #ahih72 ,rev4 ,c4,h4 ,hartshorne1 ,on ,english ,medieval ,embroidery 7ib41 #ahdh72 ,m4,b4 ,huish1 ,samplers and ,tapestry ,embroideries 7ib41 #aijj72 ,a4,f4 ,kendrick1 ,english ,embroidery 7ib41 #aije72 ,english ,embroidery executed prior to the ,middle of the #afth ,century 7,burlington ,fine ,arts ,club ,exhibition1 #aije1 introduction by ,a4,f4 ,kendrick72 ,e4 ,lefebure1 ,embroideries and ,lace1 translated by ,a4,s4 ,cole1 ,c4,b4 7,london1 #ahhh72 ,f4 ,marshall1 ,old ,english ,embroidery 7ib41 #ahid72 ,e4,m4 ,rogge1 ,moderne ,kunst-,nadelarbeiten 7,amsterdam1 #aije72 ,south ,kensington ,museum1 ,catalogue of ,special ,loan ,exhibition of ,decorative ,art ,needlework 7#ahgd72 ,w4,g4,p4 ,townshend1 ,embroidery 7,london1 #ahii74 ,for further examples of ecclesiastical embroidery see the articles ,,chasuble1 ,,cope1 ,,dalmatic and ,,mitre4 7,a4 ,f4 ,k42 ,a4 ,s4 ,c47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,see ,h4 ,carter and ,p4,e4 ,newberry1 ,cat4 gen4 des ant4 egypt4 du musee du ,caire 7#aijd71 pl4 i4 and xxviii4 ,a remarkable piece of ,egyptian needlework1 the funeral tent of ,queen ,isi em ,kheb 7,x,x,ist ,dynasty71 was discovered at ,deir el ,bahri some years ago4 ,it is described as a mosaic of leatherwork--pieces of gazelle hide of several colours1 stitched together 7see ,villiers ,stuart1 ,the ,funeral ,tent of an ,egyptian ,queen1 #ahhb74 #b ,the procession at this festival is represented upon the frieze of the ,parthenon4 #c ,see ,compte rendu de la ,comm4 ,imp4 ,arch41 #ahgh-ahgi 7,st ,petersburg71 pl4 iii4 and v4 #d ,for an account of the conditions under which ,greek and ,roman embroiderers worked1 see ,alan ,s4 ,cole1 ,some ,aspects of ,ancient and ,modern ,embroidery1 ,journal of the ,society of ,arts1 vol4 liii41 #aije1 pp4 #ieh1 #iei4 #e ,chiefly tunics with vertical bands 7clavi7 and medallions 7orbiculae71 and an ample outer robe or cloak4 #f ,the ,adoration of the ,magi is represented upon the lower border of the long robe worn by the empress ,theodora 7wife of ,justinian7 in the mosaic in the church of ,s4 ,vitale at ,ravenna4 #g ,writers have assigned different dates to this vestment3 ,lady ,alford1 ,needlework as ,art 7earlier than the #acth century72 ,f4 ,bock1 ,die ,kleinodien 7#abth century72 ,s4 ,boisseree1 ,uber die ,kaiser-,dalmatica in der ,st ,peterskirche zu ,rom 7#abth or first half of #acth century72 ,a4,s4 ,cole1 ,cantor ,lectures at ,society of ,arts1 #aije 7possibly of #ith century72 ,lord ,lindsay1 ,christian ,art 7#abth or early #acth century72 ,a4 ,venturi1 ,storia dell' arte 7#ajth or #aath century72 ,t4 ,braun1 ,liturg4 ,gewandung1 p4 #cje and note 7late #adth or early #aeth century74 #h ,both are illustrated in ,f4 ,bock1 ,die ,kleinodien4 #i ,some embroideries from vestments1 designed by ,pollaiuolo1 are still preserved in the ,museo dell' ,opera del ,duomo1 ,florence4 #aj ,others1 sometimes with the same illustrations1 appeared in ,france and ,germany1 and no doubt forwarded the general tendency towards ,italian models at the time4 ,a few pattern-books were also published in ,england4 ,,embrun1 a town in the department of the ,hautes ,alpes in ,s4,e4 ,france4 ,it is built at a height of #bhed ft4 on a plateau that rises above the right bank of the ,durance4 ,it is #bg-a_/b m4 by rail from ,briancon and #bd m4 from ,gap4 ,its ramparts were demolished in #ahhd4 ,in #aijf the communal pop4 7including the garrison7 was #cgeb4 ,besides the ,tour ,brune 7#aath century7 and the old archiepiscopal palace1 now occupied by government offices1 barracks1 c41 the chief object of interest in ,embrun is its splendid cathedral church1 which dates from the second half of the #abth century4 ,above its side door1 called the ,real1 there existed till #aehe 7when it was destroyed by the ,huguenots7 a fresco1 probably painted in the #acth century1 representing the ,madonna3 this was the object of a celebrated pilgrimage for many centuries4 ,louis ,,xi4 habitually wore on his hat a leaden image of this ,madonna1 for which he had a very great veneration1 since between #addj and #adfa1 during the lifetime of his father1 he had been the dauphin1 and as such ruler of this province4 ,embrun was the ,eburodunum or ,ebredunum of the ,romans1 and the chief town of the province of the ,maritime ,alps4 ,the episcopal see was founded in the #dth century1 and became an archbishopric about #hjj4 ,in #aadg the archbishops obtained from the emperor ,conrad ,,iii4 very extensive temporal rights1 and the rank of princes of the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,in #abcb the county of the ,embrunais passed by marriage to the dauphins of ,viennois4 ,in #agia the archiepiscopal see was suppressed1 the region being then transferred to the diocese of ,gap1 so that the once metropolitan cathedral church is now simply a parish church4 ,the town was sacked in #aehe by the ,huguenots and in #afib by the duke of ,savoy4 ,henri ,arnaud 7#afda-agba71 the ,waldensian pastor and general1 was born at ,embrun4 ,see ,a4 ,albert1 ,histoire du diocese d',embrun 7#b vols41 ,embrun1 #aghc72 ,m4 ,fornier1 ,histoire generale des ,alpes ,maritimes ou ,cottiennes et particuliere de leur metropolitaine ,embrun 7written #afbf-afdc71 published by the ,abbe ,paul ,guillaume 7#c vols41 ,paris and ,gap1 #ahij-ahia72 ,a4 ,fabre1 ,recherches historiques sur le pelerinage des rois de ,france a ,n4,d4 d',embrun 7,grenoble1 #ahei72 ,a4 ,sauret1 ,essai historique sur la ville d',embrun 7,gap1 #ahfj74 7,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,embryology4 ,the word embryo is derived from the ,gr4 ,greek3 embryon1 which signified the fruit of the womb before birth4 ,in its strict sense1 therefore1 embryology is the study of the intrauterine young or embryo1 and can only be pursued in those animals in which the offspring are retained in the uterus of the mother until they have acquired1 or nearly acquired1 the form of the parent4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the word has a much wider application than would be gathered from its derivation4 ,all animals above the ,protozoa undergo at the beginning of their existence rapid growth and considerable changes of form and structure4 ,during these changes1 which constitute the development of the animal1 the young organism may be incapable of leading a free life and obtaining its own food4 ,in such cases it is either contained in the body of the parent or it is protruded and lies quiescent within the egg membranes2 or it may be capable of leading an independent life1 possessing in a functional condition all the organs necessary for the maintenance of its existence4 ,in the former case the young organism is called an embryo1#a in the latter a larva4 ,it might thus be concluded that embryology would exclude the study of larvae1 in which the whole or the greater part of the development takes place outside the parent and outside the egg4 ,but this is not the case2 embryology includes not only a study of embryos as just defined1 but also a study of larvae4 ,in this way the scope of the subject is still further widened4 ,as long as embryology confines its attention to embryos1 it is easy to fix its limits1 at any rate in the higher animals4 ,the domain of embryology ceases in the case of viviparous animals at birth1 in the case of oviparous animals at hatching2 it ceases as soon as the young form acquires the power of existing when separated from the parent1 or when removed from the protection of the egg membranes4 ,but as soon as post-embryonic developmental changes are admitted within the scope of the subject1 it becomes on close consideration difficult to limit its range4 ,it must include all the developmental processes which take place as a result of sexual reproduction4 ,a man at birth1 when he ceases to be an embryo1 has still many changes besides those of simple growth to pass through4 ,the same remark applies to a young frog at the metamorphosis4 ,a chick even1 which can run about and feed almost immediately after hatching1 possesses a plumage very different from that of the full-grown bird2 a starfish at the metamorphosis is in many of its features quite different from the form with which we are familiar4 ,it might be attempted to meet this difficulty by limiting embryology to a study of all those changes which occur in the organism before the attainment of the adult state4 ,but this merely shifts the difficulty to another quarter1 and makes it necessary to define what is meant by the adult state4 ,at first sight this may seem easy1 and no doubt it is not difficult when man and the higher animals alone are in question1 for in these the adult state may be defined comparatively sharply as the stage of sexual maturity4 ,after that period1 though changes in the organism still continue1 they are retrogressive changes1 and as such might fairly be excluded from any account of development1 which clearly implies progression1 not retrogression4 ,but1 as so often happens in the study of organisms1 formulae which apply quite satisfactorily to one group require modifications when others are considered4 ,does sexual maturity always mark the attainment of the adult state8 ,is the ,axolotl adult when it acquires its reproductive organs8 ,can a larval ,ctenophore1 which acquires functional reproductive glands and still possesses the power of passing into the form ordinarily described as adult in that group1 be considered to have reached the end of its development8 ,or--to take the case of those animals1 such as ,amphioxus1 ,balanoglossus1 and many segmented worms in which important developmental processes occur1 e4g4 formation of new gill slits1 of gonadial sacs1 or even of whole segments of the body1 long after the power of reproduction has been acquired--how is the attainment of the adult state to be defined1 for it is clear that in them the attainment of sexual maturity does not correspond with the end of growth and development8 ,if1 then1 embryology is to be regarded as including not only the study of embryos1 but also that of larvae1 i4e4 if it includes the study of the whole developmental history of the individual--and it is impossible to treat the subject rationally unless it is so regarded--it becomes exceeding difficult to fix any definite limit to the period of life with which embryology concerns itself4 ,the beginning of this period can be fixed1 but not the end1 unless it be the end of life itself1 i4e4 death4 ,the science of embryology1 then1 is the science of individual development1 and includes within its purview all those changes of form and structure1 whether embryonic1 larval or post-larval1 which characterize the life of the individual4 ,the beginning of this period is precise and definite--it is the completion of the fertilization of the ovum1 in which the life of the individual has its start4 ,the end1 on the other hand1 is vague and cannot be precisely defined1 unless it be death1 in which case the period of life with which embryology concerns itself is coincident with the life of the individual4 ,to use the words of ,huxley 7,cell ,theory1 ,collected ,works1 vol4 i4 p4 #bfg73 ,development1 therefore1 and life are1 strictly speaking1 one thing1 though we are accustomed to limit the former to the progressive half of life merely1 and to speak of the retrogressive half as decay1 considering an imaginary resting-point between the two as the adult or perfect state4 ,reproduction4 ,there are two kinds of reproduction1 the sexual and the asexual4 ,the sexual method has for its results an increase of the number of kinds of individual or organism1 whereas the asexual affords an increase in the number of individuals of the same kind4 ,if the asexual method of reproduction alone existed1 there would1 so far as our knowledge at present extends1 be no increase in the number of kinds of organism3 no new individuality could arise4 ,the first establishment of a new kind of individual by the sexual process is effected in a very similar manner in all ,metazoa4 ,the parent produces by a process of unequal fission1 which takes place at a part of the body called the reproductive gland1 a small living organism called the reproductive cell4 ,there are always two kinds of reproductive cells1 and these are generally produced by different animals called the male and female respectively 7when they are produced by the same animal it is said to be hermaphrodite74 ,the reproductive cell produced by the male is called the spermatozoon1 and that produced by the female1 the ovum4 ,these two organisms agree in being small uninucleated masses of protoplasm1 but differ considerably in form4 ,they are without the organs of nutrition1 c41 which characterize their parents1 but the ovum nearly always possesses1 stored up within its protoplasm1 a greater or less quantity of vitelline matter or food-yolk1 while the spermatozoon possesses in almost all cases the power of locomotion4 ,the object with which these two minute and simple organisms are produced is to fuse with one another and give rise to one resultant uninucleated 7for the nuclei fuse7 organism or cell1 which is called the zygote4 ,this process of fusion between the two kinds of reproductive cells1 which are termed gametes1 is called conjugation3 it is the process which is sometimes spoken of as the fertilization of the ovum1 and its result is the establishment of a new individual4 ,this new individual at first is simply a uninucleated mass of living matter1 which always contains a certain amount of food-yolk1 and is generally bounded by a delicate cuticular membrane called the vitelline membrane4 ,in form the newly established zygote resembles the female gamete or ovum--so much so1 indeed1 that it is frequently called the ovum2 but it must be clearly understood that although the bulk of its matter has been derived from the ovum1 it consists of ovum and spermatozoon1 and1 as shown by its subsequent behaviour1 the spermatozoon has quite as much to do with determining its vital properties as the ovum4 ,to the unaided eye the main difference between the newly formed zygotes of different species of animals is that of bulk1 and this is due to the amount of food-yolk held in suspension in the protoplasm4 ,the ovum of the fowl is #cj mm4 in diameter1 that of the frog #a4ge mm41 while the ova of the rabbit and ,amphioxus have a diameter of 4l mm4 ,the food-yolk is deposited in the ovum as a result of the vital activity of its protoplasm1 while the ovum is still a part of the ovary of the parent4 ,it is an inert substance which is used as food later on by the developing embryo1 and it acts as a dilutant of the living matter of the ovum4 ,it has a profound influence on the subsequent developmental process4 ,the newly formed zygotes of different species of animals have undoubtedly1 as staved above1 a certain family resemblance to one another2 but however great this superficial resemblance may be1 the differences must be most profound1 and this fact becomes at once obvious when the properties of these remarkable masses of matter are closely investigated4 ,causes of development4 ,as in the case of so many other forms of matter1 the more important properties of the zygote do not become apparent until it is submitted to the action of external forces4 ,these forces constitute the external conditions of existence1 and the properties which are called forth by their action are called the acquired characters of the organism4 ,the investigation of these properties1 particularly of those which are called forth in the early stages of the process1 constitutes the science of ,embryology4 ,with regard to the manifestation of these properties1 certain points must be clearly understood at the outset3--7#a7 ,if the zygote is withheld from the appropriate external influences1 e4g4 if a plant-seed be kept in a box free from moisture or at a low temperature1 no properties are evolved1 and the zygote remains apparently unchanged2 7#b7 the acquisition of the properties which constitutes the growth and development of the organism proceeds in a perfectly definite sequence1 which1 so far as is known1 cannot be altered2 7#c7 just as the features of the growing organism change under the continued action of the external conditions1 so the external conditions themselves must change as the organism is progressively evolved4 ,with regard to this last change1 it may be said generally that it is usually1 if not always1 effected by the organism itself1 making use of the properties which it has acquired at earlier stages of its growth1 and acting in response to the external conditions4 ,there is1 to use a phrase of ,mr ,herbert ,spencer1 a continuous adjustment between the external and internal relations4 ,for every organism a certain succession of conditions is necessary if the complete and normal evolution of properties is to take place4 ,within certain limits1 these conditions may vary without interfering with the normal evolution of the properties1 though such variations are generally responded to by slight but unimportant variation of the properties 7variation of acquired characters74 ,but if the variation of the conditions is too great1 the evolved properties become abnormal1 and are of such a nature as to preclude the normal evolution of the organism2 in other words1 the action of the conditions upon the organism is injurious1 causing abortions and1 ultimately1 death4 ,for many organisms the conditions of existence are well known for all stages of life1 and can be easily imitated1 so that they can be reared artificially and kept alive and made to breed in confinement--e4g4 the common fowl4 ,but in a large number of cases it is not possible1 through ignorance of the proper conditions1 or on account of the difficulty of imitating them1 to make the organism evolve all its properties4 ,for instance1 there are many marine larvae which have never been reared beyond a certain point1 and there are some organisms which1 even when nearly full-grown--a stage of life at which it is generally most easy to ascertain and imitate the natural conditions--will not live1 or at any rate will not breed1 in captivity4 ,of late years some naturalists have largely occupied themselves with experimental observation of the effects on certain organisms of marked and definite changes of the conditions1 and the name of ,developmental ,mechanics 7or ,physiology of ,development7 has been applied to this branch of study 7see below74 ,gametogeny4 ,in normal fertilization1 as a rule1 only one spermatozoon fuses with the ovum4 ,it has been observed in some eggs that a membrane1 formed round the ovum immediately after the entrance of the spermatozoon1 prevents the entrance of others4 ,if than one spermatozoon enters1 a corresponding number of male pronuclei are formed1 and the subsequent development1 if it takes place at all1 is abnormal and soon ceases4 ,an egg by ill-treatment 7influence of chloroform1 carbonic acid1 c47 can be made to take more than one spermatozoon4 ,in some animals it appears that several spermatozoa may normally enter the ovum 7some ,arthropoda1 ,selachians1 ,amphibians and ,mammals71 but of these only one forms a male pronucleus 7see below71 the rest being absorbed4 ,gametogeny is the name applied to the formation of the gametes1 i4e4 of the ova and spermatozoa4 ,the cells of the reproductive glands are the germ cells 7oogonia1 spermatogonia74 ,they undergo division and give rise to the progametes1 which in the case of the female are sometimes called oocytes1 in the case of the male spermatocytes4 ,the oocytes are more familiarly called the ovarian ova4 ,the nucleus of the oocyte is called the germinal vesicle4 ,the oocyte 7progamete7 gives rise by division to the ovum or true gamete1 the nucleus of which is called the female pronucleus4 ,as a general rule the oocyte divides unequally twice1 giving rise to two small cells called polar bodies1 and to the ovum4 ,the first formed polar body frequently divides when the oocyte undergoes its second and final division1 so that there are three polar bodies as well as the ovum resulting from the division of the oocyte or progamete4 ,sometimes the ovum arises from the oocyte by one division only1 and there is only one polar body 7e4g4 mouse1 ,sobotta1 ,arch4 f4 mikr4 ,anat41 #ahie1 p4 #ae74 ,the polar bodies are oval1 but as a rule they are so small as to be incapable of fertilization4 ,they may therefore be regarded as abortive ova4 ,in one case1 however 7see ,francotte1 ,bull4 ,acad4 ,belg4 7#c71 xxxiii41 #ahig1 p4 #bgh71 the first formed polar body is nearly as large as the ovum1 and is sometimes fertilized and develops4 ,the spermatogonia are the cells of the testis2 these produce by division the spermatocytes 7progametes71 which divide and give rise to the spermatids4 ,in most cases which have been investigated the divisions by which the spermatids arise from the spermatocytes are two in number1 so that each spermatocyte gives origin to four spermatids4 ,each spermatid becomes a functional spermatozoon or male gamete4 ,the gametogeny of the male therefore closely resembles that of the female1 differing from it only in the fact that all the four products of the progamete become functional gametes1 whereas in the female only one1 the ovum1 becomes functional1 the other three 7polar bodies7 being abortive4 ,in the spermatogenesis of the bee1 however1 the spermatocyte only divides once1 giving rise to a small polar-body-like structure and one spermatid 7,meves1 ,anat4 ,anzeiger1 #bd1 #aijd1 pp4 #bi-cb74 ,the nucleus of the male gamete is not called the male pronucleus1 as would be expected1 that term being reserved for the second nucleus which appears in the ovum after fertilization4 ,as this is in all probability derived entirely from the nucleus of the spermatozoon1 we should be almost justified in calling the nucleus of the spermatozoon the male pronucleus4 ,in most forms in which the formation of the gametes from the progamete has been accurately followed1 and in which the progamete of both sexes divides twice in forming the gametes1 the division of the nucleus presents certain peculiarities4 ,in the first place1 between the first division and the second it does not enter into the resting state1 but immediately proceeds to the second division4 ,in the second place1 the number of chromosomes which appear in the final divisions of the progametes and assist in constituting the nuclei of the gametes is half the number which go to constitute the new nuclei in the ordinary nuclear divisions of the animal4 ,the number of chromosomes of the nucleus of the gamete is therefore reduced1 and the divisions by which the gametes arise from the progametes are called reducing 7maiotic7 divisions4 ,it is not certain1 however1 that this phenomenon is of universal occurrence1 or has the significance which is ordinarily attributed to it4 ,in the parthenogenetic ova of certain insects1 e4g4 ,rhodites rosae 7,henking71 ,nematus lacteus 7,doncaster1 ,quart4 ,journal ,mic4 ,science1 #di1 #aijf1 pp4 #efa-ehi71 reduction does not occur1 though two polar bodies are formed4 ,fertilization4 ,as soon as the spermatozoon has conjugated with the ovum1 a second nucleus appears in the ovum4 ,this is undoubtedly derived from the spermatozoon1 possibly from its nucleus only1 and is called the male pronucleus4 ,it possesses in the adjacent protoplasm a well-marked centrosome4 ,the general rule appears to be that the female pronucleus is without a centrosome1 and that no centrosome appears in the female in the divisions by which the gamete arises from the progamete4 ,if this is true1 the centrosome of the zygote nucleus must be entirely derived from that of the male pronucleus4 ,this accounts for the fact1 which has been often observed1 that the female pronucleus is not surrounded by protoplasmic radiations1 whereas such radiations are present round the male pronucleus in its approach to the female4 ,in the mouse the subsequent events are as follow3--,both pronuclei assume the resting form1 the chromatin being distributed over the nuclear network1 and the nuclei come to lie side by side in the centre of the egg4 ,a long loop of chromatin then appears in each nucleus and divides up into twelve pieces1 the chromosomes4 ,the centrosome now divides1 the membranes of both nuclei disappear1 and a spindle is formed4 ,the twenty-four chromosomes arrange themselves at the centre of this spindle and split longitudinally1 so that forty-eight chromosomes are formed4 ,twenty-four of these1 twelve male and twelve female1 as it is supposed1 travel to each pole of the spindle and assist in giving rise to the two nuclei4 ,at the next nuclear division twenty-four chromosomes appear in each nucleus1 each of which divides longitudinally2 and so in all subsequent divisions4 ,the fusion of the two pronuclei is sometimes effected in a manner slightly different from that described for the mouse4 ,in ,echinus1 for instance1 the two pronuclei fuse1 and the spindle and chromosomes are formed from the zygote nucleus1 whereas in the mouse the two pronuclei retain their distinctness during the formation of the chromosomes4 ,there appears1 however1 to be some variation in this respect3 cases have been observed in the mouse in which fusion of the pronuclei occurs before the separation of the chromosomes4 ,parthenogenesis4 ,parthenogenesis1 or development of the female gamete without fertilization1 is known to occur in many groups of the animal kingdom4 ,attempts have been made to connect this phenomenon with peculiarities in the gametogeny4 ,for instance1 it has been said that parthenogenetic ova form only one polar body4 ,but1 as we have seen1 this is sometimes the case in eggs which are fertilized1 and parthenogenetic ova are known which form two polar bodies1 e4g4 ova of the honey-bee which produce drones 7,morph4 ,jahrb4 xv41 #ahhi1 p4 #he74 ova of ,rotifera which produce males 7,zool4 ,anzeiger1 xx41 #ahig1 p4 #dee71 ova of some saw-flies and gall flies which produce females 7,l4 ,doncaster1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,mic4 ,sc41 #di1 #aijf1 pp4 #efa-ehi74 ,again it has been asserted that in parthenogenetic eggs the polar bodies are not extruded from the ovum2 in such cases1 though the nucleus divides1 those of its products which would in other cases be extruded in polar bodies remain in the protoplasm of the ovum4 ,but this is not a universal rule1 for in some cases of parthenogenesis polar bodies are extruded in the usual way 7,aphis1 some ,lepidoptera71 and in some fertilized eggs the polar bodies are retained in the ovum4 ,it is quite probable that parthenogenesis is more common than has been supposed1 and it appears that there is some evidence to show that ova1 which in normal conditions are incapable of developing without fertilization1 may yet develop if subjected to an altered environment4 ,for instance1 it has been asserted that the addition of a certain quantity of chloride of magnesium and other substances to sea-water will cause the unfertilized ova of certain marine animals 7,arbacia1 ,chaetopterus7 to develop 7,j4 ,loeb1 ,american ,journal of ,physiology1 ix41 #aija1 p4 #dbc72 and according to ,m4,y4 ,delage 7,comptes rendus1 #ace1 #aijb4 ,nos4 #ae and #af7 such development may occur after the formation of polar bodies1 the chromosomes undergoing reduction and the full number being regained in the segmenting stage4 ,these experiments1 if authenticated1 suggest that ova have the power of development1 but are not able to exercise it in their normal surroundings4 ,there is reason to believe that the same assertion may be made of spermatozoa4 ,phenomena of the nature of parthenogenesis have never been observed in the male gamete1 but it has been suggested by ,a4 ,giard 7,cinquantenaire de la ,soc4 de ,biol41 #aijj7 that the phenomenon of the so-called fertilization of an enucleated ovum which has been described by ,t4 ,boveri and ,delage in various eggs1 and which results in development up to the larval form 7merogony71 is in reality a case in which the male gamete1 unable to undergo development in ordinary circumstances on account of its small size and specialization of structure has obtained a nutritive environment which enables it to display its latent power of development4 ,moreover1 ,a4,m4 ,giard suggests that in some cases of apparently normal fertilization one of the pronuclei may degenerate1 the resultant embryo being the product of one pronucleus only4 ,in this way he explains certain cases of hybridization in which the paternal 7rarely the maternal7 type is exclusively reproduced4 ,for instance1 in the batrachiate ,amphibia1 ,heron ,royer succeeded in #ahhc in rearing1 out of a vast number of attempts1 a few hybrids between a female ,pelobates fuscus and a male ,rana fusca2 the product was a ,rana fusca4 ,he also crossed a female ,bufo vulgaris with a male ,bufo calamita2 in the few cases which reached maturity the product was obviously a ,bufo calamita4 ,finally1 ,h4,e4 ,ziegler 7,arch4 f4 ,ent4-,mech41 #ahih1 p4 #bdi7 divided the just-fertilized ovum of a sea-urchin in such a way that each half had one pronucleus2 the half with the male pronucleus segmented and formed a blastula1 the other degenerated4 ,it is said that in a few species of animals males do not occur1 and that parthenogenesis is the sole means of reproduction 7a species of ,ostracoda among ,crustacea2 species of ,tenthredinidae1 ,cynipidae and ,coccidae among ,insecta72 this is the thelytoky of ,k4,t4,e4 von ,siebold4 ,the number of species in which males are unknown is constantly decreasing1 and it is quite possible that the phenomenon does not exist4 ,parthenogenesis1 however1 is undoubtedly of frequent occurrence1 and is of four kinds1 namely1 7#a7 that in which males alone are produced1 e4g4 honey-bees 7arrhenotoky72 7#b7 that in which females only are produced 7thelytoky71 as in some saw-flies2 7#c7 that in which both sexes are produced 7deuterotoky71 as in some saw-flies2 7#d7 that in which there is an alternation of sexual and parthenogenetic generations1 as in ,aphidae1 many ,cynipidae1 c4 ,it would appear that parthenogenesis does not favour the production of one sex more than another1 but it is clear that it decidedly favours the production of a brood that is entirely of one sex1 but which sex that is differs according to circumstances 7,d4 ,sharp1 ,cambridge ,natural ,history1 ,insects1 pt4 i4 p4 #dih74 ,in some ,insecta and ,crustacea exceptional parthenogenesis occurs3 a certain proportion of the eggs laid are capable of undergoing either the whole or a part of development parthenogenetically1 e4g4 ,bombyx mori1 c4 7,a4 ,brauer1 ,arch4 f4 mikr4 ,anat41 #ahic2 consult also ,e4 ,maupas on parthenogenesis of ,rotifera1 ,comp4 rend41 #ahhi-ahia1 and ,r4 ,lauterborn1 ,biol4 ,centralblatt1 xviii41 #ahih1 p4 #agc74 ,determination of sex4 ,the question of the determination of sex may be alluded to here4 ,is sex determined at the act of conjugation of the two gametes8 ,is it1 in other words1 an unalterable property of the zygote1 a genetic character8 ,or does it depend upon the conditions to which the zygote is subjected in its development8 ,in other words1 is it an acquired character8 ,it is impossible in the present state of knowledge to answer these questions satisfactorily1 but the balance of evidence appears to favour the view that sex is an unalterable1 inborn character4 ,thus those twins which are believed to come from a split zygote are always of the same sex1 members of the same litter which have been submitted to exactly similar conditions are of different sexes1 and all attempts to determine the sex of offspring in the higher animals by treatment have failed4 ,on the other hand1 the male bee is a portion of a female zygote--the queen-bee4 ,the same remark applies to the male ,rotifer1 in which the zygote always gives rise to a female1 from which the male arises parthenogenetically1 but in these cases it does not appear that the production of males is in any way affected by external conditions 7see ,r4,c4 ,punnett1 ,proc4 ,royal ,soc41 #gh ,b1 #aijf1 p4 #bbc74 ,it is said that in human societies the number of males born increases after wars and famines1 but this1 if true1 is probably due to an affection of the gametes and not of the young zygote4 ,for a review of the whole subject see ,l4 ,cuenot1 ,bull4 sci4 ,france et ,belgique1 xxxii41 #ahii1 pp4 #dfb-ece4 ,cleavage4 ,the first change the zygote undergoes in all animals is what is generally called the segmentation or cleavage of the ovum4 ,this consists essentially of the division of the nucleus into a number of nuclei1 around which the protoplasm sooner or later becomes arranged in the manner ordinarily spoken of as cellular4 ,this division of the nucleus is effected by the process called binary fission2 that is to say1 it first divides into two1 then each of these divides simultaneously again into two1 giving four nuclei2 each of these after a pause again simultaneously divides into two4 ,so the process continues for some time until the ovum becomes possessed of a large number of nuclei1 all of which have proceeded from the original nucleus by a series of binary fissions4 ,this division of the nucleus1 which constitutes the essential part of the cleavage of the ovum1 continues through the whole of life1 but it is only in the earliest period that it is distinguished by a distinct name and used to characterize a stage of development4 ,the nuclear division of cleavage is usually at first a rhythmical process2 all the nuclei divide simultaneously1 and periods of nuclear activity alternate with periods of rest4 ,nuclear divisions may be said to be of three kinds1 according to the accompanying changes in the surrounding protoplasm3 7#a7 accompanied by no visible change1 e4g4 the multinucleated ,protozoon ,actinosphaerium2 7#b7 accompanied by a rearrangement of the protoplasm around each nucleus1 but not by its division into two separate masses1 e4g4 the division which results in the formation of a colony of ,protozoa2 7#c7 accompanied by the division of the protoplasm into two parts1 so that two distinct cells result1 e4g4 the divisions by which the free wandering leucocytes are produced1 the reproduction of uninuclear ,protozoa1 c4 ,in the cleavage of the ovum the first two of these methods of division are found1 but probably not the third4 ,at one time it was thought that the nuclear divisions of cleavage were always of the third kind1 and the result of cleavage was supposed to be a mass of isolated cells1 which became reunited in the subsequent development to give rise to the later connexion between the tissues which were known to exist4 ,but in #ahhe it was noticed that in the ovum of ,peripatus capensis 7,a4 ,sedgwick1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,mic4 ,science1 xxv41 #ahhe1 p4 #ddi7 the extra-nuclear protoplasm did not divide in the cleavage of the ovum1 but merely became rearranged round the increasing nuclei2 the continuity of the protoplasm was not broken1 but persisted into the later stages of growth1 and gave rise to the tissue-connexions which undoubtedly exist in the adult4 ,this discovery was of some importance1 because it rendered intelligible the unity of the embryo so far as its developmental processes are concerned1 the maintenance of this unity being somewhat surprising on the previous view4 ,on further inquiry and examination it was found that the ova of many other animals presented a cleavage essentially similar to that of ,peripatus4 ,indeed1 it was found that the nuclear divisions of cleavage were of the first two kinds just described4 ,in some eggs1 e4g4 the ,alcyonaria1 the first nuclear divisions are effected on the first plan1 i4e4 they take place without at first producing any visible effect upon the protoplasm of the egg4 ,but in the later stages of cleavage the protoplasm becomes arranged around each nucleus and related to it as to a centre4 ,in the majority of eggs1 however1 the protoplasm1 though not undergoing complete cleavage1 becomes rearranged round each nucleus as these are formed4 ,the best and clearest instance of this is afforded by many ,arthropodan eggs1 in which the nucleus of the just-formed zygote takes up a central position1 where it undergoes its first division1 subsequent divisions taking place entirely within the egg and not in any way affecting its exterior4 ,the result is to give rise to a nucleated network or foam-work of protoplasm1 ramifying through the yolk-particles and containing these in its meshes4 ,in other ,arthropodan eggs the cleavage is on the so-called centrolecithal type1 in which the dividing nuclei pass to the cortex of the ovum1 and the surface of the ovum becomes indented with grooves corresponding to each nucleus4 ,in this kind of cleavage all the so-called segments are continuous with the central undivided yolk-mass4 ,it sometimes happens that in ,arthropods the egg breaks up into masses1 which cannot be said to have the value of cells1 as they are frequently without nuclei4 ,in other eggs1 characterized by a considerable amount of yolk1 e4g4 the ova of ,cephalopoda1 and of the ,vertebrata with much yolk1 the first nucleus takes up an eccentric position in a small patch of protoplasm which is comparatively free from yolk-particles4 ,this patch is the germinal disc1 and the nuclear divisions are confined to it and to the transitional region1 where it merges into the denser yolk which makes up the bulk of the egg4 ,at the close of segmentation the germinal disc consists of a number of nuclei1 each surrounded by its own mass of protoplasm1 which is1 however1 not separated from the protoplasm round the neighbouring nuclei1 as was formerly supposed1 but is continuous at the points of contact4 ,in this manner the germinal disc has become converted into the blastoderm1 which consists of a small watch-glass-shaped mass of so-called cells resting on1 but continuous with1 the large yolk-mass4 ,it is characteristic of this kind of ovum that there is always a row of nuclei1 called the yolk-nuclei1 placed in the denser yolk immediately adjacent to the blastoderm4 ,these nuclei are continually undergoing division1 one of the products of division1 together with a little of the sparse yolk protoplasm1 passing into the blastoderm to reinforce it 7so-called formative cells74 ,the other product of the dividing yolk-nuclei remains in the yolk1 in readiness for the next division4 ,in this manner nucleated masses of protoplasm are continually being added to the periphery of the blastoderm and assisting in its growth4 ,but it must be borne in mind that all the nucleated masses of which the blastoderm consists are in continuity with each other and with the sparse protoplasmic reticulum of the subjacent yolk4 ,in the great majority of eggs1 then1 the nuclear division of cleavage is not accompanied by a complete division of the ovum into separate cells1 but only by a rearrangement of the protoplasm1 which produces1 indeed1 the so-called cellular arrangement1 and an appearance only of separate cells4 ,but there still remain to be mentioned those small eggs in which the amount of yolk is inconsiderable1 and in which division of the nuclei does appear to be accompanied by a complete division of the surrounding protoplasm into separate unconnected cells--ova of many ,annelida1 ,mollusca1 ,echinoderma1 c41 and of ,mammalia amongst ,vertebrata4 ,in the case of these also 7,g4,f4 ,andrews1 ,zool4 ,bulletin1 ii41 #ahih7 it has been shown that the apparently separate spheres are connected by a number of fine anastomosing threads of a hyaline protoplasm1 which are not easy to detect and are readily destroyed by the action of reagents4 ,it is therefore probable that the divisions of the nuclei in cleavage are in no case accompanied by complete division of the surrounding protoplasm1 and the organism in the cleavage stage is a continuous whole1 as it is in all the other stages of its existence4 ,division of embryo4 ,of late years a great number of experiments have been made to discover the effects of dividing the embryo during its cleavage1 and of destroying certain portions of it4 ,these experiments have been made with the object of testing the view1 held by some authorities1 that certain segments are already set apart in cleavage to give rise to certain adult organs1 so that if they were destroyed the organs in question could not be developed4 ,the results obtained have not borne out this view4 ,speaking generally1 it may be said that they have been different according to the stage at which the separation was effected and the conditions under which the experiment was carried out4 ,if the experiment be made at a sufficiently early stage1 each part1 if not too small1 will develop into a normal1 though small1 embryo4 ,in some cases the embryo remained imperfect for a certain time after the experiment1 but the loss is eventually made good by regeneration4 7,for a summary of the work done on this subject see ,r4,s4 ,bergh1 ,zool4 ,centralblatt1 vii41 #aijj1 p4 #a47 ,the layer theory4 ,the end of cleavage is marked by the commencement of the differentiation of the organs4 ,the first differentiation is the formation of the layers4 ,these are three in number1 being called respectively the ectoderm1 endoderm and mesoderm1 or1 in embryos in which at their first appearance they lie like sheets one above the other1 the epiblast1 hypoblast and mesoblast4 ,the layers are sometimes spoken of as the primary organs1 and their importance lies in the fact that they are supposed to be generally homologous throughout the series of the ,metazoa4 ,this view1 which is based partly on their origin and partly on their fate1 had great influence on the science of comparative anatomy during the last thirty years of the #aith century1 for the homology of the layers being admitted1 they afforded a kind of final court of appeal in determining questions of doubtful homologies between adult organs4 ,great importance was therefore attached to them by embryologists1 and both their mode of development and the part which they play in forming the adult organs were examined with the greatest care4 ,it is very unusual for all the layers to be established at the same time4 ,as a general rule the ectoderm and endoderm1 which may be called the primary layers1 come first1 and later the mesoderm is developed from one or other of them4 ,there are two main methods in which the first two are differentiated--invagination and delamination4 ,the former is generally found in small eggs1 in which the embryo at the close of cleavage assumes the form of a sphere1 having a fluid or gelatinous material in its centre1 and bounded externally by a thin layer of protoplasm1 in which all the nuclei are contained4 ,such a sphere is called a blastosphere1 and may be regarded as a spherical mass of protoplasm1 of which the central portion is so much vacuolated that it seems to consist entirely of fluid4 ,the central part of the blastosphere is called the segmentation cavity or blastocoel4 ,the blastosphere soon gives rise1 by the invagination of one part of its wall upon the other1 and a consequent obliteration of the segmentation cavity1 to a double-walled cup with a wide opening1 which1 however1 soon becomes narrowed to a small pore4 ,this cup-stage is called the gastrula stage2 the outer wall of the gastrula is the ectoderm1 and its inner the endoderm2 while its cavity is the enteron1 and the opening to the exterior the blastopore4 ,origin of the primary layers by delamination occurs universally in eggs with large yolks 7,cephalopoda and many ,vertebrata71 and occasionally in others4 ,in it cleavage gives rise to a solid mass1 which divides by delamination into two layers1 the ectoderm and endoderm4 ,the main difference between the two methods of development lies in the fact that in the first of them the endoderm at its first origin shows the relations which it possesses in the adult1 namely1 of forming the epithelial wall of the enteric space1 whereas in the second method the endoderm is at first a solid mass1 in which the enteric space makes its appearance later by excavation4 ,in the delaminate method the enteric space is at first without a blastopore1 and sometimes it never acquires this opening1 but a blastopore is frequently formed1 and the two-layered gastrula stage is reached1 though by a very different route from that taken in the formation of the invaginate gastrula4 ,according to the layer-theory1 these two layers are homologous throughout the series of ,metazoa2 their limits can always be accurately defined1 they give rise to the same organs in all cases1 and the adult organs 7excluding the mesodermal organs7 can be traced back to one or other of them with absolute precision4 ,thus the ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis1 to the nervous system1 and to the lining of the stomodaeum and proctodaeum1 if such parts of the alimentary canal are present4 ,the endoderm1 on the other hand1 gives rise to the lining of the enteron1 and of the glands which open into it4 ,mesoderm4 ,so far as these two layers are concerned1 and excluding the mesoderm1 it would appear that the layer-theory does apply in a very remarkable manner to the whole of the ,metazoa4 ,but even here1 when the actual facts are closely scanned1 there are found to be difficulties1 which appear to indicate that the theory may not perhaps be such an infallible guide as it seems at first sight4 ,leaving out of consideration the case of the ,mammalia1 in which the differentiation of the segmented ovum is not into ectoderm and endoderm1 and the case of the sponges1 the most important of these difficulties concern the stomodaeum and proctodaeum4 ,the best case to examine is that of ,peripatus capensis1 in which the blastopore is at first a long slit1 and gives rise to both the mouth and the anus of the adult4 ,here there is always found at the lips of the blastopore1 and extending for a short distance inwards as enteric lining1 a certain amount of tissue1 which by its characters must be regarded as ectoderm4 ,now1 in the closure of the blastopore between the mouth and anus1 this tissue1 which at the mouth and anus develops into the lining of the stomodaeum and proctodaeum1 is left inside1 and actually gives rise to the median ventral epithelium of the alimentary canal4 ,hence the development of ,peripatus capensis suggests the conclusion1 if we strictly apply the layer-theory1 that a considerable portion of the true mesenteron is lined by ectoderm1 and is not homologous with the corresponding portion of the mesenteron of other animals--a conclusion which will on all hands be admitted to be absurd4 ,the difficulties in the application of the layer-theory become vastly greater when the origin and fate of the mesoderm is considered4 ,the mesoderm is1 if we may judge from the number of organs which are derived from it1 much the most important of the three layers4 ,it generally arises later than the others1 and in its very origin presents difficulties to the theory1 which are much increased when we consider its history4 ,it is generally1 though not always1 developed from the endoderm1 either as hollow outgrowths containing prolongations of the enteric cavity1 which become the coelom1 or as solid proliferations4 ,but in some groups the mesoderm is actually laid down in cleavage1 and is present at the end of that process4 ,in others it is entirely derived from the ectoderm 7,peripatus capensis74 ,in yet others it is partly derived from endoderm and partly from ectoderm 7primitive streak of amniotic ,vertebrates74 ,finally1 in whatever manner the first rudiments are developed1 it frequently receives considerable reinforcements from one of the primary layers4 ,for instance1 the structure known as the nerve crest of the vertebrate embryo is not1 as was formerly supposed1 exclusively concerned with the formation of the spinal nerves and ganglia1 but contributes largely to the mesoderm of the axial region of the body4 ,this is particularly clearly seen in the case of the anterior part of the head of ,elasmobranch and probably of other vertebrate embryos1 where all the mesoderm present is derived from the anterior part of the neural crest 7,quart4 ,journ4 ,mic4 ,science1 xxxvii4 p4 #ib74 ,the layer-theory1 then1 will not bear critical examination4 ,it is clear1 both from their origin and history1 that the layers or masses of cells called ectoderm1 endoderm and mesoderm have not the same value in different animals2 indeed1 it is misleading to speak of three layers4 ,at the most we can only speak of two1 for the mesoderm is formed after the others1 has a composite origin1 and has no more claim to be considered an embryonic layer than has the rudiment of the central nervous system1 which in some animals1 indeed1 appears as soon as the mesoderm4 ,arguments as to homology1 based on derivation or non-derivation from the same embryonic layer1 have therefore in themselves but little value4 ,it has frequently been asserted that the reproductive cells are marked off at a very early stage of the development 7,sagitta1 certain ,crustacea1 ,scorpio74 ,recently it has been asserted that in ,ascaris 7,t4 ,boveri1 ,kuppfer's ,festschrift1 #ahii1 p4 #chc7 the reproductive cells are set apart after the first cleavage1 and that they can be traced by certain peculiarities of their nuclei into the adult reproductive glands4 ,mesenchyme4 ,it has been already stated that the mesoderm is a composite tissue4 ,this fact is frequently conspicuous at its first establishment4 ,in many ,coelomata it is present under two forms from the beginning4 ,one of these is epithelial in character1 while the other has the form of a network of protoplasm1 with nuclei at the nodes4 ,the former is called simply epithelial mesoderm1 the latter mesenchyme4 ,sometimes the epithelial mesoderm is the first formed1 and what little mesenchyme there is is developed from it 7,amphioxus1 ,balanoglossus1 c47 ,sometimes the mesenchyme is the first to arise1 the epithelial mesoderm developing from it 7most1 if not all1 ,vertebrates74 ,finally1 it sometimes happens that these two kinds of tissue arise separately from one or other of the primary layers 7,echinodermata74 ,as already hinted1 in ,balanoglossus and ,amphioxus the whole of the mesoderm of the body is at first in an epithelial condition1 being developed as an outgrowth of the gut-wall4 ,in ,peripatus capensis also1 and possibly in other ,arthropods1 it has at first an intermediate form1 being derived from a primitive streak and not from the gut-wall1 but it rapidly assumes an epithelial structure1 from which all the mesodermal tissues are developed4 ,in ,annelids the bulk of the mesoderm has at first a modified epithelial form similar to that of ,arthropods1 but it is formed1 not from a primitive streak1 but from some peculiar cells produced in cleavage1 called pole-cells4 ,in ,annelids with trochosphere larvae a certain amount of mesenchyme is formed at an earlier stage and gives rise to the muscular bands of the young larva4 ,in ,echinodermata a certain amount of mesenchyme appears before the epithelial mesoderm1 which is formed later as gut-diverticula4 ,in these forms the mesenchyme is said to arise as wandering amoeboid cells1 which are budded into the blastocoel by the endoderm just before and during its invagination1 but the writer has reason to believe that this account of it does not quite describe what happens4 ,it would seem to be more probable that the mesenchyme arises in these forms1 as it certainly does in the case of the later-formed mesenchyme of the ,vertebrate embryo1 as a protoplasmic outflow from its tissue of origin1 passing at first along the line of pre-existent protoplasmic strands which traverse the blastocoel1 and sending out at the same time processes which branch and anastomose with neighbouring processes 7see ,e4,w4 ,mac,bride1 ,proc4 ,camb4 ,phil4 ,soc41 #ahif1 p4 #aec74 ,in the ,vertebrata the whole of the mesoderm has at first the mesenchyme form4 ,afterwards1 when the body-cavity split appears1 the bulk of it assumes a kind of modified epithelial condition1 which later on yields1 by a process of outflow very similar in its character to what has been supposed to occur in the ,echinoderm blastula1 a considerable mesenchyme of the reticulate character4 ,mesenchyme is the tissue which in ,vertebrate embryology has frequently been called embryonic connective tissue4 ,this name is no doubt due to the fact that it was supposed to consist of isolated stellate cells4 ,it is1 however1 in no sense of the word connective tissue1 because it gives rise to many organs having nothing whatever to do with connective tissue4 ,for instance1 in ,vertebrata this tissue gives rise to nervous tissue1 blood-vessels1 renal tubules1 smooth muscular fibres1 and other structures1 as well as to connective and skeletal tissues4 ,the ,vertebrata1 indeed1 are remarkable for the fact that the epithelial tissues of the so-called mesoderm1 e4g4 the epithelial lining of the body-cavity1 and of the renal tubules and urogenital tracts1 all pass through the mesenchymatous condition1 whereas in ,amphioxus1 ,balanoglossus and presumably ,sagitta and the ,brachiopoda1 all the mesodermal tissues pass through the epithelial condition1 most of the mesodermal tissues of the adult retaining this condition permanently4 ,as has been implied in the above account1 mesenchyme is usually formed from epithelial mesoderm or from endoderm1 or from tissue destined to form endoderm4 ,it is also sometimes formed from ectoderm1 as in the ,vertebrata at the nerve crest and other places4 ,in some ,coelenterata also it appears certain that the ectoderm does furnish tissue of a mesenchymatous nature which passes into the jelly1 but this phenomenon takes place comparatively late in life1 at any rate after the embryonic period4 ,in this connexion it may be interesting to point out that in many ,coelenterates all the tissues of the body retain throughout life the epithelial condition1 nothing comparable to mesenchyme ever being formed4 ,continuity of the layers4 ,finally1 before leaving this branch of the subject1 the fact that the three germinal layers are continuous with one another1 and not isolated masses of tissue1 may be emphasized4 ,indeed1 an embryo may be defined as a multinucleated protoplasmic mass1 in which the protoplasm at any surface--whether internal or external--is in the form of a relatively dense layer1 while that in the interior is much vacuolated and reduced to a more or less sparse reticulum1 the nuclei either being exclusively found in the surface protoplasm1 or if the embryo has any bulk and the internal reticulum is at all well developed1 at the nodes of the internal reticulum as well4 ,mouth and anus4 ,the origin of some of the more important organs may now be considered4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the mouth and anus develop in the most diverse ways in different groups1 but as a rule either one or both of them can be traced into relation with the blastopore1 the history of which must therefore be examined4 ,in most1 if not all1 the great groups of the animal kingdom1 e4g4 in ,coelenterata1 ,annelida1 ,mollusca1 ,vertebrata1 and in ,arthropoda1 the blastopore or its representative is placed on the neural surface of the body1 and1 as will be shown later on1 within the limits of the central nerve rudiment4 ,here it undergoes the most diverse fate1 even in members of the same group4 ,for instance1 in ,peripatus capensis it extends as a slit along the ventral surface1 which closes up in the middle1 but remains open at the two ends as the permanent mouth and anus4 ,in other ,arthropods1 though full details have not yet in all cases been worked out1 the following general statement may be made3--,a blastopore 7certain ,crustacea7 or its representative is formed on the neural surface of the embryo and always becomes closed1 the mouth and anus arising as independent perforations later4 ,here no one would doubt the homology of the mouth and anus throughout the group2 yet within the limits of a single genus--,peripatus--they show the most diverse modes of development4 ,in ,annelids the blastopore sometimes becomes the mouth 7most ,chaetopoda72 sometimes it becomes the anus 7,serpula72 sometimes it closes up1 giving rise to neither1 though in this case it may assume the form of a long slit along the ventral surface before disappearing4 ,in ,mollusca its fate presents the same variations as in ,annelida4 ,now in these groups no zoologist would deny the homology of the mouth and anus in the different forms1 and yet how very different is their history even in closely allied animals4 ,how are these apparently diverse facts to be reconciled8 ,the only satisfactory explanation which has been offered 7,sedgwick1 ,quart4 ,j4 ,mic4 ,science1 xxiv41 #ahhd1 p4 #dc7 is that the blastopore is homologous in all the groups mentioned1 and is the representative of the original single opening into the enteric cavity1 such as at present characterizes the ,coelenterata4 ,from it the mouth and anus have been derived1 as is indicated by its history in ,peripatus capensis1 and by the variability in its behaviour in closely allied forms2 such variability in its subsequent history is due to its specialization as a larval organ1 as a result of which it has lost its capacity to give rise to both mouth and anus1 and sometimes to either4 ,that the blastopore does become specialized as a larval organ is obvious in those cases in which it becomes transformed into the single opening with which some larvae are1 for a time at least1 alone provided1 e4g4 ,pilidium1 ,echinoderm larvae1 c41 and that larval characters have been the principal causes of the form of embryonic characters1 strong reason to believe will be adduced later on4 ,in the ,vertebrata the behaviour of the blastopore 7anus of ,rusconi7 is also variable in a very remarkable manner4 ,as a rule it is slit-like in form and closes completely1 but in most cases one portion of it remains open longer than the rest1 as the neurenteric canal4 ,in a few forms 7e4g4 ,newt1 ,lepidosiren1 c47 the very hindermost portion of the slit-like blastopore remains permanently open as the anus1 and from such cases it can be shown that the neurenteric aperture 7when present7 is derived from a portion of the blastopore just anterior to its hindermost end4 ,the words hindermost and anterior are used on the assumption that the whole blastopore has retained its dorsal position2 as a matter of fact the hindermost part of it--the part which persists or reopens as the anus--loses this position in the course of development and becomes shifted on to the ventral surface4 ,this is clearly seen in ,lepidosiren 7,kerr1 ,phil4 ,trans4 cxcii41 #aijj71 in ,elasmobranchii1 and in ,amniota 7primitive streak74 ,moreover1 in ,lepidosiren1 and possibly in some other forms1 the anus1 i4e4 the hind end of the blastopore1 is at first contained within the medullary plate and bounded behind by the medullary folds4 ,later the portions of the medullary plate in the neighbourhood of the anus completely atrophy1 and this relation is lost4 ,this extension of the hind end of the blastopore on to the ventral surface1 and atrophy of the portion of the medullary plate in relation with it1 is a highly important phenomenon1 and one to which attention will be again called when the relation of the mouth to the blastopore is being considered4 ,the remarkable fact about the ,vertebrata1 a feature which that group shares in common with all other ,chordata 7,amphioxus1 ,tunicata1 ,enteropneusta7 and with the ,echinodermata1 is that the mouth has never been traced into relation with the blastopore4 ,for this reason1 among others1 it has been held by some zoologists that the mouth of the ,vertebrata is not homologous with the mouth of such groups as the ,annelida1 ,arthropoda and ,mollusca4 ,but1 as has been explained above1 in face of the extraordinary variability in the history of the mouth and anus in these groups1 this view cannot be regarded as in any way established4 ,on the contrary1 there are distinct reasons for thinking that the ,vertebrate mouth is a derivate of the blastopore4 ,in the first place1 in ,elasmobranchii 7,sedgwick1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,mic4 ,sci4 xxxiii41 #ahib1 p4 #eei71 and in a less conspicuous form in other vertebrate groups1 the mouth has at first a slit-like form1 extending from the anterior end of the central nerve-tube backwards along the ventral surface of the anterior part of the embryo4 ,this slit-like rudiment1 recalling as it does the form which the blastopore assumes in so many groups and in many ,vertebrata1 does suggest the view that possibly the mouth of the ,vertebrata may in reality be derived from a portion of an originally long slit-like neural blastopore1 which has become extended anteriorly on to the ventral surface and has lost its original relation to the nerve rudiment1 as has undoubtedly happened with the posterior part1 which persists as the anus4 ,central nervous system4 ,of the other organs which develop from the two primary layers it is only possible to notice here the central nervous system4 ,this in almost all animals develops from the ectoderm4 ,in ,cephalopods among ,mollusca--the development of which is remarkable from the almost complete absence of features which are supposed to have an ancestral significance--and in one or two other forms1 it has been said to develop from the mesoderm2 but apart from these exceptional and perhaps doubtful cases1 the central nervous system of all embryos arises as thickenings of the ectoderm1 and in the groups above mentioned1 namely1 ,annelida1 ,mollusca1 ,arthropoda and ,vertebrata1 and probably others1 from the ectoderm of the blastoporal surface of the body4 ,this surface generally becomes the ventral surface1 but in ,vertebrata it becomes the dorsal4 ,these thickened tracts of ectoderm in ,peripatus and a few other forms can be clearly seen to surround the blastopore4 ,this relation is retained in the adult in ,peripatus1 some ,mollusca and some ,nemertines1 in which the main lateral nerve cords are united behind the anus as well as in front of the mouth2 in other forms it cannot always be demonstrated1 but it can1 as in the case of the ,vertebrata just referred to1 always be inferred2 only1 in the ,invertebrate groups the part of the nerve rudiment which has to be inferred is the posterior part behind the blastopore1 whereas in ,vertebrata it is the anterior part1 namely1 that in front of the blastopore1 assuming that the mouth is a blastoporal derivate4 ,in the ,echinodermata1 ,enteropneusta and one or two other groups1 it is not possible1 in the present state of knowledge1 to bring the mouth into relation with the blastopore1 nor can the blastopore be shown to be a perforation of the neural surface4 ,for the ,echinoderms1 at any rate1 this fact loses some of the importance which might at first sight be attributed to it when the remarkable organization of the adult and the sharp contrast which exists between it and the larva is remembered4 ,in some ,annelids the central nervous system remains throughout life as part of the outer epidermis1 but as a general rule it becomes separated from the epidermis and embedded in the mesodermal tissues4 ,the mode in which this separation is effected varies according to the form and structure of the central nervous system4 ,in the ,vertebrata1 in which this organ has the form of a tube extending along the dorsal surface of the body1 it arises as a groove of the medullary plate1 which becomes constricted into a canal4 ,the wall of this canal consists of ectoderm1 which at an earlier stage formed part of the outer surface of the body1 but which after invagination thickens1 to give rise to the epithelial lining of the canal and to the nervous tissue which forms the bulk of the canal wall4 ,the fact that the blastopore remains open at the hind end of the medullary plate explains to a certain extent the peculiar relation which always exists in the embryo between the hind end of the neural and alimentary canals4 ,this communication between the hind end of the neural tube and the gut is one of the most remarkable and constant features of the ,vertebrate embryo4 ,as has been pointed out1 it is not altogether unintelligible when we remember the relation of the blastopore to the medullary plate of the earlier stage1 but to give a complete explanation of it is1 and probably always will be1 impossible4 ,it is no doubt the impress of some remarkable larval condition of the blastopore of a stage of evolution now long past4 ,in ,ceratodus the open part of the blastopore is enclosed by the medullary folds1 as in ,lepidosiren1 and probably persists as the anus1 the portion of the folds around the anus undergoing atrophy 7,semon1 ,zool4 ,forschungsreisen in ,australien1 #ahic1 ,bd4 i4 p4 #ci74 ,in ,urodeles the blastopore persists as anus1 so far as is known1 but the relation to the medullary folds has not been noticed4 ,the same may be said of ,petromyzon 7,a4,e4 ,shipley1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,mic4 ,sci4 xxviii41 #ahhg74 ,cranial flexure4 ,the nerve tube of the ,vertebrata at a certain early stage of the embryo becomes bent ventralwards in its anterior portion1 in such a manner that the anterior end1 which is represented in the adult by the infundibulum1 comes to project backwards beneath the mid-brain4 ,this bend1 which is called the cranial flexure1 takes place through the mid-brain1 so that the hind-brain is unaffected by it4 ,the cranial flexure is not1 however1 confined to the brain3 the anterior end of the notochord1 which at first extends almost to the front end of the nerve tube 7this extension1 which is quite obvious in the young embryo of ,elasmobranchs1 becomes masked in the later stages by the extraordinary modifications which the parts undergo71 is also affected by it4 ,moreover1 it affects even other parts1 as may be seen by the oblique1 almost antero-posterior1 direction of the anterior gill slits as compared with the transverse direction of those behind4 ,no satisfactory explanation has ever been offered of the cranial flexure4 ,it is found in all ,vertebrates1 and is effected at an early stage of the development4 ,in the later stages and in the adult it ceases to be noticeable1 on account of an alteration of the relative sizes of parts of the brain4 ,this is due almost entirely to the enormous growth of the cerebral vesicle1 which is an outgrowth of the dorsal wall of the fore-brain just short of its anterior end4 ,the anterior end of the fore-brain remains relatively small throughout life as the infundibulum1 and the junction of this part of the fore-brain with the part which is so largely developed1 as the rudiment of the cerebrum1 is marked by the attachment of the optic chiasma4 ,the optic nerve1 indeed1 is morphologically the first cranial nerve1 the olfactory being the second2 both are attached to what is morphologically the dorsal side of the nerve tube4 ,the morphological anterior end of the central nerve tube is the point of the infundibulum which is in contact with the pituitary body4 ,while on the subject of the cranial flexure1 it may be pointed out that there is a similar downward curve of the hind end of the nervous axis1 which leads into the hind end of the enteron4 ,if it be supposed that originally there was a communication between the infundibulum and pituitary body1 then the ventral flexure found at both ends of the nerve axis would originally have had the same result1 namely1 of placing the neural and alimentary canals in communication4 ,moreover1 the mouth would have had much the same relation to this imaginary anterior neurenteric canal that the anus has to the actual posterior one4 ,in ,amphioxus and the ,tunicata the early development of the central nervous system is very much like that of the ,vertebrata1 but the later stages are simpler1 being without the cranial flexure4 ,the ,tunicata are remarkable for the fact that the nervous system1 though at first hollow1 becomes quite solid in the adult4 ,in ,balanoglossus the central nervous system is in part tubular1 the canal being open at each end4 ,it arises1 however1 by delamination from the ectoderm1 the tube being a secondary acquisition4 ,this is probably due to a shortening of development1 for the same feature is found in some ,vertebrata 7,teleostei1 ,lepidosteus1 c471 where the central canal is secondarily hollowed out in the solid keel-like mass which is separated from the ectoderm4 ,parts of the central nervous system arise by invagination in other groups2 for instance1 the cerebral ganglia of ,dentalium are formed from the walls of two invaginations of ectoderm1 which eventually disappear at the anterior end of the body 7,a4 ,kowalevsky1 ,ann4 ,mus4 ,hist4 ,nat4 ,marseilles1 ,zoology1 vol4 i474 ,in ,peripatus the cerebral ganglia arise in a similar way1 but in this case the cavities of the invagination become separated from the skin and persist as two hollow appendages on the lower side of the cerebral ganglia4 ,in other ,arthropods the cerebral ganglia arise in a similar way1 but the invaginations disappear in the adult4 ,in ,nemertines the cerebral ganglia contain a cavity which communicates with the exterior by a narrow canal4 ,finally1 in certain ,echinodermata the ventral part of the central nervous system arises by the invagination of a linear streak of ectoderm1 the cavity of the invagination persisting as the epineural canal4 ,peripheral nervous system4 ,although the central nervous system is almost always developed from the ectoderm of the embryo1 the same cannot be said of the peripheral nerve trunks4 ,these structures arise from the mesoblastic reticulum already described 7,sedgwick1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,mic4 ,sci4 xxxvii4 #ib74 ,inasmuch as this reticulum is perfectly continuous with the precisely similar though denser tissue in the ectoderm and endoderm1 it may well be that a portion of the nerve trunks should be described as being ectodermal and endodermal in origin1 though the bulk of them are undoubtedly formed from that portion of the reticulum commonly described as mesoblastic4 ,but1 however that may be1 the tissue from which the great nerve trunks are developed is continuous on all sides with a similar tissue which pervades all the organs of the body1 and in which the nuclei of these organs are contained4 ,in the early stages of development this tissue is very sparse and not easily seen4 ,it would appear1 indeed1 that it is of a very delicate texture and readily destroyed by reagents4 ,it is for this reason that the layers of the ,vertebrate embryo are commonly represented as being quite isolated from one another1 and that the medullary canal is nearly always represented as being completely isolated at certain stages from the surrounding tissues4 ,in reality the layers are all connected together by this delicate tissue--in a sparse form1 it is true--which not only extends between them1 but also in a denser and more distinct form pervades them4 ,in the germinal layers themselves1 and in the organs developing from them1 this tissue is in the young stages almost entirely obscured by the densely packed nuclei which it contains4 ,for instance1 in the wall of the medullary canal in the ,vertebrate embryo1 in the splanchnic and somatic layers of mesoderm of the same embryo1 and in the developing nerve cords of the ,peripatus embryo1 the nuclei are at first so densely crowded together that it is almost impossible to see the protoplasmic framework in which they rest1 but as development proceeds this extra-nuclear tissue becomes more largely developed1 and the nuclei are forced apart1 so that it becomes visible and receives various names according to its position4 ,in the wall of the medullary canal of the ,vertebrate embryo1 on the outside of which it becomes especially conspicuous in certain places1 and on the dorsal side of the developing nerve cords of the ,peripatus embryo1 it constitutes the white matter of the developing nerve cord2 in the mesoblastic tissue outside1 where it at the same time becomes more conspicuous 7,sedgwick1 ,monograph of the ,development of ,peripatus capensis1 ,studies from the ,morph4 ,lab4 of the ,university of ,cambridge1 iv41 #ahhi1 p4 #aca71 it forms the looser network of the mesoblastic reticulum2 and connecting the two1 in place of the few and delicate strands of this tissue of the former stage1 there are at certain places well-marked cords of a relatively dense texture1 with the meshes of the reticulum elongated in the direction of the cord4 ,this latter structure is an incipient nerve trunk4 ,it can be traced outwards into the mesoblastic reticulum1 from the strands of which it is indeed developed1 and with which it is continuous not only at its free end1 but also along its whole course4 ,in this way the nerve trunks are developed--by a gathering up1 so to speak1 of the fibres of the reticulum into bundles4 ,these bundles are generally marked by the possession of nuclei1 especially in their cortical parts1 which become no doubt the nuclei of the nerve sheath1 and1 in the neighbourhood of the ganglia1 of nerve cells4 ,from this account of the early development of the nerves1 it is apparent that they are in their origin continuous with all the other tissues of the body1 with that of the central nervous system and with that which becomes transformed into muscular tissue and connective and epithelial tissues4 ,all these tissues are developed from the general reticulum1 which in the young embryo can be seen to pervade the whole body1 not being confined to the mesoderm1 but extending between the nuclei of the ectoderm and endoderm1 and forming the extra-nuclear1 so-called cellular1 protoplasm of those layers4 ,moreover1 it must be remarked that in the stages of the embryo with which we are here concerned the so-called cellular constitution of the tissues1 which is such a marked feature of the older embryo and adult1 has not been arrived at4 ,it is true1 indications of it may be seen in some of the earlier-formed epithelia1 but of nerve cells1 muscular cells1 and many kinds of gland cells no distinct signs are yet visible4 ,this remark particularly applies to nerve cells1 which do not make their appearance until a much later stage--not1 indeed1 until some time after the principal nerve trunks and ganglia are indicated as tracts of pale fibrous substance and aggregations of nuclei respectively4 ,the embryos of ,elasmobranchs--particularly of ,scyllium--are the best objects in which to study the development of nerves4 ,in many embryos it is difficult to make out what happens1 because the various parts of the body remain so close together that the process is obscured1 and the loosening of the mesoblastic nuclei is deferred until after the nerves have begun to be differentiated4 ,the process may also be traced in the embryos of ,peripatus1 where the main features are essentially similar to those above described 7op4 cit4 p4 #aca74 ,the development of the motor nerves has been worked out in ,lepidosiren by ,j4 ,graham ,kerr 7,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 of ,edinburgh1 #da1 #aijd4 p4 #aai74 ,to sum up1 the development of nerves is not1 as has been recently urged1 an outgrowth of cell processes from certain cells1 but is a differentiation of a substance which was already in position1 and from which all other organs of the body have been and are developed4 ,it frequently happens that the young nerve tracts can be seen sooner near the central organ than elsewhere1 but it is doubtful if any importance can be attached to this fact1 since it is not constantly observed4 ,for instance1 in the case of the third nerve of ,scyllium the differentiation appears to take place earliest near the ciliary ganglion1 and to proceed from that point to the base of the mid-brain4 ,coelom4 ,there are two main methods in which new organs are developed4 ,in the one1 which indicates the possibility of physiological continuity1 the organ arises by the direct modification of a portion of a pre-existing organ2 the development of the central nervous system of the ,vertebrata from a groove in the embryonic ectoderm may be taken as an example of this method4 ,in the other method there is no continuity which can be in any way interpreted as physiological2 a centre of growth appears in one of the parts of the embryo1 and gives rise to a mass of tissue which gradually shapes itself into the required organ4 ,the development of the central nervous system in ,teleosteans and in other similar exceptional cases may be mentioned as an example of the second plan4 ,such a centre of growth is frequently called a blastema1 and consists of a mass of closely packed nuclei which have arisen by the growth-activity of the nuclei in the neighbourhood4 ,the coelom1 an organ which is found in the so-called coelomate animals1 and which in the adult is usually divided up more or less completely into three parts1 namely1 body-cavity1 renal organs1 generative glands1 presents in different animals both these methods of development4 ,in certain animals it develops by the direct modification of a part of the primitive enteron1 while in others it arises by the gradual shaping of a mass of tissue which consists of a compact mass of nuclei derived by nuclear proliferation from one or more of the pre-existing tissues of the body4 ,inasmuch as the first rudiment of the coelom nearly always makes its appearance at an early stage1 when the ectoderm and endoderm are almost the only tissues present1 and as it then bulks relatively very large and frequently contains within itself the potential centres of growth of other organs1 e4g4 mesenchymal organs 7see above71 it has come to be regarded by embryologists as being the forerunner of all the so-called mesodermal organs of the body1 and has been dignified with the somewhat mysterious rank which attaches to the conception of a germinal layer4 ,its prominence and importance at an early stage led embryologists1 as has already been explained1 to overlook the fact that although some of the centres of growth for the formation of other non-coelomic mesodermal organs and tissues may be contained within it1 all are not so contained1 and that there are centres of mesodermal growth still left in the ectoderm and endoderm after its establishment4 ,if these considerations1 and others like them1 are correct1 it would seem to follow that the conception implied by the word mesoderm has no objective existence1 that the tissue of the embryo called mesoderm1 though sometimes mainly the rudiment of the coelom1 is often much more than this1 and contains within itself the rudiment of many1 sometimes of all1 of the organs appertaining to the mesenchyme4 ,in thus containing within itself the potential centres of growth of other organs and tissues which are commonly ranked as mesodermal1 it is not different from the rudiments of the two other organs already formed1 namely1 the ectoderm and endoderm2 for these contain within themselves centres of growth for the production of so-called mesodermal tissues1 as witness the nerve-crest of ,vertebrata1 the growing-point of the pronephric duct1 and the formation of blood-vessels from the hypoblast described for some members of the same group4 ,in ,echinodermata1 ,amphioxus1 ,enteropneusta1 and a few other groups1 the coelom develops from a portion or portions of the primitive enteron1 which eventually becomes separated from the rest and forms a variable number of closed sacs lying between the gut and the ectoderm4 ,the number of these sacs varies in different animals1 but the evidence at present available seems to show that the maximum number is five--an unpaired one in front and two pairs behind--and1 further1 that if a less number of sacs is actually separated from the enteron1 the rule is for these sacs so to divide up that they give rise to five sacs arranged in the manner indicated4 ,the ,enteropneusta present us with the clearest case of the separation of five sacs from the primitive enteron 7,w4 ,bateson1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,mic4 ,sci4 xxiv41 #ahhd74 ,in ,amphioxus1 according to the important researches of ,e4,w4 ,mac,bride 7,quart4 ,journ4 ,mic4 ,sci4 xl4 #ehi71 it appears that a similar process occurs1 though it is complicated by the fact that the sacs of the posterior pair become divided up at an early stage into many pairs4 ,in ,phoronis there are indications of the same phenomenon 7,a4,t4 ,masterman1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,mic4 ,sci4 xliii4 #cge74 ,in the ,chaetognatha a single sac only is separated from the enteron1 but soon becomes divided up4 ,in the ,brachiopoda one pair of sacs is separated from the enteron1 but our knowledge of their later history is not sufficient to enable us to say whether they divide up into the typically arranged five sacs4 ,in ,echinodermata the number of sacs separated from the enteron varies from one to three2 but though the history of these shows considerable differences1 there are reasons to believe that the typical final arrangement is one unpaired and two paired sacs4 ,but however many sacs may arise from the primitive enteron1 and however these sacs may ultimately divide up and arrange themselves1 the important point of development common to all these animals1 about which there can be no dispute1 is that the coelom is a direct differentiation of a portion of the enteron4 ,in the majority of the ,coelomata the coelomic rudiment does not arise by the simple differentiation of a pre-existing organ1 and there is considerable variation in its method of formation4 ,speaking generally1 it may be said to arise by the differentiation of a blastema 7see above71 which develops at an early stage as a nuclear proliferation from one or more growth-centres in one or both of the primary layers4 ,it appears in this tissue as a sac or as a series of sacs1 which become transformed into the body-cavity 7except in the ,arthropoda71 into the renal organs 7with the possible exception1 again1 of some ,arthropoda71 and into the reproductive glands4 ,in metamerically segmented animals the appearance of the cavities of these sacs is synchronous with1 and indeed determines1 the appearance of metameric segmentation4 ,in all segmented animals in which the mesoderm 7coelomic rudiment7 appears as a continuous sheet or band of tissue on each side of the body1 the coelomic cavity makes its first appearance not as a continuous space on each side1 which later becomes divided up into the structures called mesoblastic somites1 but as a series of paired spaces round which the coelomic tissue arranges itself in an epithelial manner4 ,in the ,vertebrata1 it is true1 the ventral portion of the coelom appears at first as a continuous space1 at any rate behind the region of the two anterior pairs of somites1 but in the dorsal portion the coelomic cavity is developed in the usual way1 the coelomic tissue becoming transformed into the muscle plates and rudimentary renal tubules of the later stages4 ,with regard to this ventral portion of the coelom in ,vertebrata1 it is to be noticed that the cavity in it never becomes divided up1 but always remains continuous1 forming the perivisceral portion of the coelom4 ,the probable explanation of this peculiarity in the development of the ,vertebrate coelom1 as compared with that of ,amphioxus and other segmented animals1 is that the segmented stage of the ventral portion of the coelom is omitted4 ,this explanation derives some support from the fact that even in animals in which the coelom is at its first appearance wholly segmented1 it frequently happens that in the adult the perivisceral portion of it is unsegmented1 i4e4 it loses during development the segmentation which it at first possesses4 ,this happens in many ,annelida and in ,amphioxus4 ,the lesson1 then1 which the early history of the coelom in segmented animals teaches is1 that however the coelomic cavity first makes its appearance1 whether by evaginations from the primitive enteron1 or by the hollowing out of a solid blastema-like tissue which has developed from one or both of the primary layers1 it is in its first origin segmented1 and forms the basis on which the segments of the adult are moulded4 ,in ,arthropoda the origin of the coelom is similar to that of ,annelids1 but its history is not completely known in any group1 with the exception of ,peripatus4 ,in this genus it develops no perivisceral portion1 as in other groups1 but gives rise solely to the nephridia and to the reproductive organs4 ,it is probable1 though not certainly proved1 that the history of the coelom in other ,arthropods is essentially similar to that of ,peripatus1 allowance being made for the fact that the nephridial portion does not attain full development in those forms which are without nephridia in the adult4 ,with regard to the development of the vascular system1 little can be said here1 except that it appears to arise from the spaces of the mesoblastic reticulum4 ,when this reticulum is sparse or so delicate as to give way in manipulation1 these spaces appear to be represented by a continuous space which in the earliest stages of development is frequently spoken of as the blastocoel or segmentation cavity4 ,they acquire special epithelial walls1 and form the main trunks and network of smaller vessels found in animals with a canalicular vascular system1 or the large sinus-like spaces characteristic of animals with a haemocoelic body-cavity4 ,transient embryonic organs4 ,the existence of a phase at the beginning of life during which a young animal acquires its equipment by a process of growth of the germ is of course intelligible enough2 such a phase is seen in the formation of buds1 and in the sexual reproduction of both animals and plants4 ,the remarkable point is that while in most cases this embryonic growth is a direct and simple process--e4g4 animal and plant buds1 embryonic development of plant seeds--in many cases of sexual reproduction of animals it is not direct1 and the embryonic phase shows stages of structure which seem to possess a meaning other than that of being merely phases of growth4 ,the fact that these stages of structure through which the embryo passes sometimes present for a short time features which are permanent in other members of the same group1 adds very largely to the interest of the phenomenon and necessitates its careful examination4 ,this may be divided into two heads3 7#a7 in relation to embryos1 7#b7 in relation to larvae4 ,so far as embryos are concerned1 we shall limit ourselves mainly to a consideration of the ,vertebrata1 because in them are found most instances of that remarkable phenomenon1 the temporary assumption by certain organs of the embryo of stages of structure which are permanent in other members of the same group4 ,as is well known1 the embryos of the higher ,vertebrata possess in the structure of the pharynx and of the heart and vascular system certain features--namely1 paired pharyngeal apertures1 a simple tubular heart1 and a single ventral aorta giving off right and left a number of branches which pass between the pharyngeal apertures--which permanently characterize those organs in fishes4 ,the skeleton1 largely bony in the adult1 passes through a stage in which it is entirely without bone1 and consists mainly of cartilage--the form which it permanently possesses in certain fishes4 ,further1 the ,vertebrate embryo possesses for a time a notochord1 a segmented muscular system1 a continuity between the pericardium and the posterior part of the perivisceral cavity--all features which characterize certain groups of ,pisces in the adult state4 ,instances of this kind might be multiplied1 for the work of anatomists and embryologists has of late years been largely devoted to adding to them4 ,examples of embryonic characters which are not found in the adults of other ,vertebrates are the following3--,at a certain stage of development the central nervous system has the form of a groove in the skin1 there is a communication at the hind end of the body between the neural and alimentary canals1 the mouth aperture has at first the form of an elongated slit1 the growing end of the ,wolffian duct is in some groups continuous with the ectoderm1 and the retina is at one stage a portion of the wall of the medullary canal4 ,in the embryos of the lower ,vertebrates many other instances of the same interesting character might be mentioned2 for instance1 the presence of a coelomic sac close to the eye1 of another in the jaw1 and of a third near the ear 7,elasmobranchs71 the opening of the ,mullerian duct into the front end of the ,wolffian duct1 and the presence of an aperture of communication between the muscle-plate coelom and the nephridial coelom4 ,recapitulation theory4 ,the interest attaching to these remarkable facts is much increased by the explanation which has been given of them4 ,that explanation1 which is a deduction from the theory of evolution1 is to the effect that the peculiar embryonic structures and relations just mentioned are due to the retention by the embryo of features which1 once possessed by the adult ancestor1 have been lost in the course of evolution4 ,this explanation1 which at once suggests itself when we are dealing with structures actually present in adult members of other groups1 does not so obviously apply to those features which are found in no adult animal whatsoever4 ,nevertheless it has been extended to them1 because they are of a nature which it is not impossible to suppose might have existed in a working animal4 ,now this explanation1 which1 it will be observed1 can only be entertained on the assumption that the evolution theory is true1 has been still further extended by embryologists in a remarkable and frequently unjustifiable manner1 and has been applied to all embryonic processes1 finally leading to the so-called recapitulation theory1 which asserts that embryonic history is a shortened recapitulation of ancestral history1 or1 to use the language of modern zoology1 that the ontogeny or development of the individual contains an abbreviated record of the phylogeny or development of the race4 ,a theory so important and far-reaching as this requires very careful examination4 ,when we come to look for the facts upon which it is based1 we find that they are non-existent1 for the ancestors of all living animals are dead1 and we have no means of knowing what they were like4 ,it is true there are fossil remains of animals which have lived1 but these are so imperfect as to be practically useless for the present requirements4 ,moreover1 if they were perfectly preserved1 there would be no evidence to show that they were ancestors of the animals now living4 ,they might have been animals which have become extinct and left no descendants4 ,thus the explanation ordinarily given of the embryonic structures referred to is purely a deduction from the evolution theory4 ,indeed1 it is even less than this1 for all that can be said is something of this kind3 if the evolution theory is true1 then it in conceivable that the reason why the embryo of a bird passes through a stage in which its pharynx presents some resemblance to that of a fish is that a remote ancestor of the bird possessed a pharynx with lateral apertures such as are at present found in fishes4 ,but the explanation is sometimes pushed even further1 and it is said that these pharyngeal apertures of the ancestral bird had the same respiratory function as the corresponding structures in modern fishes4 ,that this is going too far a little reflection will show4 ,for if it be admitted that all so-called vestigial structures had once the same function as the homologous structures when fully developed in other animals1 it becomes necessary to admit that male mammals must once have had fully developed mammary glands and suckled the young1 that female mammals formerly were provided with a functional penis1 and that in species in which the females have a trace of the secondary sexual characters of the male the latter were once common to both sexes4 ,the second and more extended form of the explanation plainly introduces a considerable amount of contentious matter1 and it will be advisable1 in the first instance1 at any rate1 to confine ourselves to a critical examination of the less ambitious conception4 ,this explanation obviously implies the view that in the course of evolution the tendency has been for structures to persist in the embryo after they have been lost in the adult4 ,is there any justification for this view8 ,it is clearly impossible to get any direct evidence1 because1 as explained above1 we have no knowledge of the ancestors of living animals2 but if we assume the evolution theory to be true1 there is a certain amount of indirect evidence which is distinctly opposed to the view4 ,as is well known1 living birds are without teeth1 but it is generally assumed that their edentulous condition has been comparatively recently acquired1 and that they are descended from animals which1 at a time not very remote from the present1 possessed teeth4 ,considering the resemblance of birds to other terrestrial vertebrates1 and the fact that extinct birds1 not greatly differing from birds now living1 are known to have had teeth1 it must be allowed that there is some warrant for the assumption4 ,yet in no single case has it been certainly shown that any trace of teeth has been developed in the embryo4 ,the same remark applies to a large number of similar cases2 for instance1 the reduced digits of the bird's hand and foot and the limbs of snakes4 ,moreover1 organs which are supposed to have become recently reduced and functionless in the adult are also reduced in the embryo2 for instance1 digits #c and #d of the horse's foot1 the hind limbs of whales 7,g4,a4 ,guldberg and ,f4 ,nansen1 ,on the ,development and ,structure of ,whales1 ,bergen ,museum1 #ahid71 the spiracle of ,elasmobranchii4 ,in fact1 considerations of this kind distinctly point to the view that any tendency to the reduction or enlargement of an organ in the adult is shared approximately to the same extent by the embryo4 ,but there are undoubtedly some1 though not many1 cases in which organs which were presumably present in an ancestral adult have persisted in the embryo of the modern form4 ,as an instance may be mentioned the presence in whale-bone whales of imperfectly formed teeth1 which are absorbed comparatively early in foetal life 7,julin1 ,arch4 biologie1 i41 #ahhj1 p4 #ge74 ,it therefore becomes necessary to inquire why in some cases an organ is retained by the embryo after its loss by the adult1 whereas in other cases it dwindles and presumably disappears simultaneously in the embryo and the adult4 ,the whole question is examined and discussed by the present writer in the ,quarterly ,journal of ,microscopical ,science1 xxxvi41 #ahid1 p4 #ce1 and the conclusions there reached are as follows3--,a disappearing adult organ is not retained in a relatively greater development by an organism in the earlier stages of its individual growth unless it is of functional importance to the young form4 ,in cases in which the whole development is embryonic this rarely happens1 because the conditions of embryonic life are so different from free life that functional embryonic organs are usually organs sui generis1 e4g4 the placenta1 amnion1 c41 which cannot be traced to a modification of organs previously present in the adult4 ,it does1 however1 appear to have happened sometimes1 and as an instance of it may be mentioned the ductus arteriosus of the ,sauropsidan and ,mammalian embryo4 ,on the other hand1 when there is a considerable period of larval life1 it does appear that there is a strong case for thinking that organs which have been lost by the adult may be retained and made use of by the larva4 ,the best-known example that can be given of this is the tadpole of the frog4 ,here we find organs1 viz4 gills and gill-slits1 which are universally regarded as having been attributes of all terrestrial ,vertebrata in an earlier and aquatic condition1 and we also notice that their retention is due to their being useful on account of the supposed ancient conditions of life having been retained4 ,many other instances1 more or less plausible1 of a like retention of ancestral features by larvae might be mentioned1 and it must be conceded that there are strong reasons for supposing that larvae often retain traces1 more or less complete1 of ancestral stages of structure4 ,but this admission does not carry with it any obligation to accept the widely prevalent view that larval history can in any way be regarded as a recapitulation of ancestral history4 ,far from it1 for larvae in retaining some ancestral features are in no way different from adults2 they only differ from adults in the features which they have retained4 ,both larvae and adults retain ancestral features1 and both have been modified by an adaptation to their respective conditions of life which has ever been becoming more perfect4 ,the conclusion1 then1 has been reached1 that whereas larvae frequently retain traces of ancestral stages of adult structure1 embryos will rarely do so2 and we are confronted again with the question1 ,how are we to account for the presence in the embryo of numerous functionless organs which cannot be explained otherwise than as having been inherited from a previous condition in which they were functional8 ,the answer is that the only organs of this kind which have been retained are organs which have been retained by the larvae of the ancestors after they have been lost by the adult1 and have become in this way impressed upon the development4 ,as an illustration taken from current natural history of the manner in which larval characters are in actual process of becoming embryonic may be mentioned the case of the viviparous salamander 7,salamander atra71 in which the gills1 c41 are all developed but never used1 the animal being born without them4 ,in other and closely allied species of salamander there is a considerable period of larval life in which the gills and gill-slits are functional1 but in this species the larval stage1 for the existence of which there was a distinct reason1 viz4 the entirely aquatic habits of life in the young state1 has become at one stroke embryonic by its simple absorption into the embryonic period4 ,the view1 then1 that embryonic development is essentially a recapitulation of ancestral history must be given up2 it contains only a few references to ancestral history1 namely1 those which have been preserved probably in a much modified form by previous larvae4 ,law of v4 ,baer4 ,we must now pass to the consideration of another supposed law of embryology--the so-called law of v4 ,baer4 ,this generalization is usually stated as follows3--,embryos of different species of the same group are more alike than adults1 and the resemblances are greater the younger the embryo examined4 ,great importance has been attached to this generalization by embryologists and naturalists1 and it is very widely accepted4 ,nevertheless1 it is open to serious criticism4 ,if it were true1 we should expect to find that embryos of closely similar species would be indistinguishable1 but this is notoriously not the case4 ,on the contrary1 they often differ more than do the adults1 in support of which statement the embryos of the different species of ,peripatus may be referred to4 ,the generalization undoubtedly had its origin in the fact that there is what may be called a family resemblance between embryos1 but this resemblance1 which is by no means exact1 is purely superficial1 and does not extend to anatomical detail4 ,on the contrary1 it may be fairly argued that in some cases embryos of widely dissimilar members of the same group present anatomical differences of a higher morphological value than do the adults 7see ,sedgwick1 loc4 cit471 and1 as stated above the embryos of closely allied animals are distinguishable at all stages of development1 though the distinguishing features are not the same as those which distinguish the adults4 ,to say that the development of the organism and of its component parts is a progress from the simple to the complex is to state a truism1 but to state that it is also a progress from the general to the special is to go altogether beyond the facts4 ,the bipinnaria larva of an echinoderm1 the trochosphere larva of an annelid1 the blastodermic vesicle of a mammal are all as highly specialized as their respective adults1 but the specialization is for a different purpose1 and of a different kind to that which characterizes the adult4 ,history of embryology4 ,in its scientific and systematic form embryology may be considered as having only taken birth within the last century1 although the germ from which it sprung was already formed nearly half a century earlier4 ,the ancients1 it is true1 as we see by the writings of ,aristotle and ,galen1 pursued the subject with interest1 and the indefatigable ,greek naturalist and philosopher had even made continued series of observations on the progressive stages of development in the incubated egg1 and on the reproduction of various animals2 but although1 after the revival of learning1 various anatomists and physiologists from time to time made contributions to the knowledge of the foetal structure in its larger organs1 yet from the minuteness of the observations required for embryological research1 it was not till the microscope came into use for the investigation of organic structure that any intimate knowledge was attained of the nature of organogenesis4 ,it is not to be wondered at1 therefore1 that during a long period1 in this as in other branches of physical inquiry1 vague speculations took the place of direct observation and more solid information4 ,this is apparent in most of the works treating of generation during the #afth and part of the #agth centuries4#b ,harvey was the first to give1 in the middle of the latter century1 a new life and direction to investigation of this subject1 by his discovery of the connexion between the cicatricula of the yolk and the rudiments of the chick1 and by his faithful description of the successive stages of development as observed in the incubated egg1 as well as of the progress of gestation in some ,mammalia4 ,he had also the merit of fixing the attention of physiologists upon general laws of development as deduced from actual observation of the phenomena1 by the enunciation of two important propositions1 viz4--7#a7 that all animals are produced out of ova1 and 7#b7 that the organs of the embryo arise by new formation1 or epigenesis1 and not by mere enlargement out of a pre-existing invisible condition 7,exercitationes de generatione animalium1 ,amstelodami1 #afea74 ,harvey's observations1 however1 were aided only by the use of magnifying glasses 7perspecillae71 probably of no great power1 and he saw nothing of the earliest appearances of the embryo in the first thirty-six hours1 and believed the blood and the heart to be the parts first formed4 ,the influence of the work of ,harvey1 and of the successful application of the microscope to embryological investigation1 was soon afterwards apparent in the admirable researches of ,malpighi of ,bologna1 as evinced by his communications to the ,royal ,society of ,london in #afgb1 ,de ovo incubato1 and ,de formatione pulli1 and more especially in his delineations of some of the earlier phenomena of development1 in which1 as in many other parts of minute anatomy1 he partially or wholly anticipated discoveries1 the full development of which has only been accomplished in the present century4 ,malpighi traced the origin of the embryo almost to its very commencement in the formation of the cerebro-spinal groove within the cicatricula1 which he removed from the opaque mass of the yolk2 and he only erred in supposing the embryonal rudiments to have pre-existed as such in the egg1 in consequence1 apparently1 of his having employed for observation1 in very warm weather1 eggs which1 though he believed them to be unincubated1 had in reality undergone some of the earlier developmental changes4 ,the works of ,walter ,needham 7#affg71 ,regnier de ,graaf 7#afgc71 ,swammerdam 7#afhe71 ,vallisneri 7#afhi7--;following upon those of ,harvey--all contain important contributions to the knowledge of our subject1 as tending to show the similarity in the mode of production from ova in a variety of animals with that previously best known in birds4 ,the observations more especially of de ,graaf1 ,nicolas ,steno and ,j4 van ,horne gave much greater precision to the knowledge of the connexion between the origin of the ovum of quadrupeds and the vesicles of the ovary now termed ,graafian1 which de ,graaf showed always burst and discharged their contents on the occurrence of pregnancy4 ,these observations bring us to the period of ,boerhaave and ,albinus in the earlier part of the #ahth century1 and in the succeeding years to that of ,haller1 whose vast erudition and varied and accurate original observations threw light upon the entire process of reproduction in animals1 and brought its history into a more systematic and intelligible form4 ,a considerable part of the seventh and the whole of the eighth volumes of ,haller's great work1 the ,elementa physiologiae1 published at successive times from #ageg to #agff1 are occupied with the general view of the function of generation1 while his special contributions to embryology are contained in his ,deux memoires sur la formation du coeur dans le poulet and ,deux memoires sur la formation des os1 both published at ,lausanne in #ageh1 and republished in an extended and altered form1 together with his ,observations on the early condition of the ,embryo in ,quadrupeds1 made along with ,kuhlemann1 in the ,opera minora 7#agfb-agfh74 ,though originally educated as a believer in the doctrine of preformation by his teacher ,boerhaave1 ,haller was soon led to abandon that view in favour of epigenesis or new formation1 as may be seen in various parts of his works published before the middle of the century2 see especially a long note explanatory of the grounds of his change of opinion in his edition of ,boerhaave's ,praelectiones academicae1 vol4 v4 part #b1 p4 #dig 7#agdd71 and his ,primae lineae physiologiae 7#agdg74 ,but some years later1 and after having been engaged in observing the phenomena of development in the incubated egg1 he again changed his views1 and during the remainder of his life was a keen opponent of the system of epigenesis1 and a defender and exponent of the theory of evolution1 as it was then named--a theory very different from that now bearing the name1 and which implied belief in the pre-existence of the organs of the embryo in the germ1 according to the theory of encasement 7emboitement7 or inclusion supported by ,leibnitz and ,bonnet4 7,see the interesting work of ,bonnet1 ,considerations sur les corps organises1 ,amsterdam1 #agfb1 for an account of his own views and those of ,haller47 ,it was reserved for ,caspar ,frederick ,wolff 7#agcc-agid71 a ,german by birth1 but naturalized afterwards in ,russia1 to bring forward observations which1 though almost entirely neglected for a long time after their publication1 and in some measure discredited under the influence of ,haller's authority1 were sixty years later acknowledged to have established the theory of epigenesis upon the secure basis of ascertained facts1 and to have laid the first foundation of the morphological science of embryology4 ,wolff's work1 entitled ,theoria generationis1 first published as an inaugural ,dissertation at ,berlin in #agei1 was republished with additions in ,german at ,berlin in #agfd1 and again in ,latin at ,halle in #aggd4 ,wolff also wrote a ,memoir on the ,development of the ,intestine in ,nov4 comment4 acad4 ,petropol41 #agfh and #agfi4 ,but it was not till the latter work was translated into ,german by ,j4,f4 ,meckel1 and appeared in his ,archiv for #ahab1 that ,wolff's peculiar merits as the founder of modern embryology came to be known or fully appreciated4 ,the special novelty of ,wolff's discoveries consisted mainly in this1 that he showed that the germinal part of the bird's egg forms a layer of united granules or organized particles 7cells of the modern histologist71 presenting at first no semblance of the form or structure of the future embryo1 but gradually converted by various morphological changes in the formative material1 which are all capable of being traced by observation1 into the several rudimentary organs and systems of the embryo4 ,the earlier form of the embryo he delineated with accuracy2 the actual mode of formation he traced in more than one organ1 as for example in the alimentary canal1 and he was the discoverer of several new and important embryological facts1 as in the instance of the primordial kidneys1 which have thus been named the ,wolffian bodies4 ,wolff further showed that the growing parts of plants owe their origin to organized particles or cells1 so that he was led to the great generalization that the processes of embryonic formation and of adult growth and nutrition are all of a like nature in both plants and animals4 ,no advance1 however1 was made upon the basis of ,wolff's discoveries till the year #ahag1 when the researches of ,c4,h4 ,pander on the development of the chick gave a fuller and more exact view of the phenomena less clearly indicated by ,wolff1 and laid down with greater precision a plan of the formation of parts in the embryo of birds1 which may be regarded as the foundation of the views of all subsequent embryologists4 ,but although the minuter investigation of the nature and true theory of the process of embryonic development was thus held in abeyance for more than half a century1 the interval was not unproductive of observations having an important bearing on the knowledge of the anatomy of the foetus and the function of reproduction4 ,the great work of ,william ,hunter on the human gravid uterus1 containing unequalled pictorial illustrations of its subject from the pencil of ,rymsdyk and other artists1 was published in #agge2c and during a large part of the same period numerous communications to the ,memoirs of the ,royal ,society testified to the activity and genius of his brother1 ,john ,hunter1 in the investigation of various parts of comparative embryology4 ,but it is mainly in his rich museum1 and in the manuscripts and drawings which he left1 and which have been in part described and published in the catalogue of his wonderful collection1 that we obtain any adequate idea of the unexampled industry and wide scope of research of that great anatomist and physiologist4 ,as belonging to a somewhat later period1 but still before the time when the more strict investigation of embryological phenomena was resumed by ,pander1 there fall to be noticed1 as indicative of the rapid progress that was making1 the experiments of ,l4 ,spallanzani1 #aghi2 the researches of ,j4,h4 von ,autenrieth1 #agig1 and of ,soemmering1 #agii1 on the human foetus2 the observations of ,senff on the formation of the skeleton1 #ahja2 those of ,l4 ,oken and ,d4,g4 ,kieser on the intestine and other organs1 #ahjf2 ,oken's remarkable work on the bones of the head1 #ahjg 7with the views promulgated in which ,goethe's name is also intimately connected72 ,j4,f4 ,meckel's numerous and valuable contributions to embryology and comparative anatomy1 extending over a long series of years2 and ,f4 ,tiedemann's classical work on the development of the brain1 #ahaf4 ,the observations of the ,russian naturalist1 ,christian ,heinrich ,pander 7#agid-ahfe71 were made at the instance and under the immediate supervision of ,prof4 ,dollinger at ,wurzburg1 and we learn from von ,baer's autobiography that he1 being an early friend of ,pander's1 and knowing his qualifications for the task1 had pointed him out to ,dollinger as well fitted to carry out the investigation of development which that professor was desirous of having accomplished4 ,pander's inaugural dissertation was entitled ,historia metamorphoseos quam ovum incubatum prioribus quinque diebus subit 7,virceburgi1 #ahag72 and it was also published in ,german under the title of ,beitrage zur ,entwickelungsgeschichte des ,huhnchens im ,eie 7,wurzburg1 #ahag74 ,the beautiful plates illustrating the latter work were executed by the elder ,e4,j4 d',alton1 well known for his skill in scientific observation1 delineation and engraving4 ,pander observed the germinal membrane or blastoderm1 as he for the first time called it1 of the fowl's egg to acquire three layers of organized substance in the earlier period of incubation4 ,these he named respectively the serous or outer1 the vascular or middle1 and the mucous or inner layers2 and he traced with great skill and care the origin of the principal rudimentary organs and systems from each of these layers1 pointing out shortly1 but much more distinctly than ,wolff had done1 the actual nature of the changes occurring in the process of development4 ,karl ,ernest von ,baer 7q4v471 the greatest of modern embryologists1 was1 as already remarked1 the early friend of ,pander1 and1 at the time when the latter was engaged in his researches at ,wurzburg1 was associated with ,dollinger as prosector1 and engaged with him in the study of comparative anatomy4 ,he witnessed1 therefore1 though he did not actually take part in1 ,pander's researches2 and the latter having afterwards abandoned the inquiry1 von ,baer took it up for himself in the year #ahai1 when he had obtained an appointment in the university of ,konigsberg1 where he was the colleague of ,burdach and ,rathke1 both of whom were able coadjutors in the investigation of the subject of his choice4 7,see v4 ,baer's interesting autobiography1 published on his retirement from ,st ,petersburg to ,dorpat in #ahfd47 ,von ,baer's observations were carried on at various times from #ahai to #ahbf and #ahbg1 when he published the first results in a description of the development of the chick in the first edition of ,burdach's ,physiology4 ,it was at this time that von ,baer made the important discovery of the ovarian ovum of mammals and of man1 totally unknown before his time1 and was thus able to prove as matter of exact observation what had only been surmised previously1 viz4 the entire similarity in the mode of origin of these animals with others lower in the scale4 7,epistola de ovi mammalium et hominis genesi1 ,lipsiae1 #ahbg4 ,see also the interesting commentary on or supplement to the ,epistola in ,heusinger's ,journal1 and the translation in ,breschet's ,repertoire1 ,paris1 #ahbi47 ,in #ahbi von ,baer published the first part of his great work1 entitled ,beobachtungen und ,reflexionen uber die ,entwickelungsgeschichte der ,thiere1 the second part of which1 still leaving the work incomplete1 did not appear till #ahch4 ,in this work1 distinguished by the fulness1 richness and extreme accuracy of the observations and descriptions1 as well as by the breadth and soundness of the general views on embryology and allied branches of biology which it presents1 he gave a detailed account not only of the whole progress of development of the chick as observed day by day during the incubation of the egg1 but he also described what was known1 and what he himself had investigated by numerous and varied observations1 of the whole course of formation of the young in other vertebrate animals4 ,his work is in fact a system of comparative embryology1 replete with new discoveries in almost every part4 ,von ,baer's account of the layers of the blastoderm differs somewhat from that of ,pander1 and appears to be more consistent with the further researches which have lately been made than was at one time supposed1 in this respect1 that he distinguished from a very early period two primitive or fundamental layers1 viz4 the animal or upper1 and the vegetative or lower1 from each of which1 in connexion with two intermediate layers derived from them1 the fundamental organs and systems of the embryo are derived3--the animal layer1 with its derivative1 supplying the dermal1 neural1 osseous and muscular2 the vegetative layer1 with its derivative1 the vascular and mucous 7intestinal7 systems4 ,he laid down the general morphological principle that the fundamental organs have essentially the shape of tubular cavities1 as appears in the first form of the central organ of the nervous system1 in the two muscular and osseous tubes which form the walls of the body1 and in the intestinal canal2 and he followed out with admirable clearness the steps by which from these fundamental systems the other organs arise secondarily1 such as the organs of sense1 the glands1 lungs1 heart1 vascular glands1 ,wolffian bodies1 kidneys and generative organs4 ,to complete von ,baer's system there was mainly wanting a more minute knowledge of the intimate structure of the elementary tissues1 but this had not yet been acquired by biologists1 and it remained for ,theodor ,schwann of ,liege in #ahci1 along with whom should be mentioned those who1 like ,robert ,brown and ,m4,j4 ,schleiden1 prepared the way for his great discovery1 to point out the uniformity in histological structure of the simpler forms of plants and animals1 the nature of the organized animal and vegetable cell1 the cellular constitution of the primitive ovum of animals1 and the derivation of the various tissues1 complex as well as simple1 from the transformation or1 as it is now called1 differentiation of simple cellular elements1--discoveries which have exercised a powerful and lasting influence on the whole progress of biological knowledge in our time1 and have contributed in an eminent degree to promote the advance of embryology itself4 ,to ,k4,b4 ,reichert of ,berlin more particularly is due the first application of the newer histological views to the explanation of the phenomena of development1 #ahdj4 ,to him and to ,r4,a4 von ,kolliker and ,r4 ,virchow is due the ascertainment of the general principle that there is no free-cell formation in embryonic development and growth1 but that all organs are derived from the multiplication1 combination and transformation of cells1 and that all cells giving rise to organs are the descendants or progeny of previously existing cells1 and that these may be traced back to the original cell or cell-substance of the ovum4 ,it may be that modern research has somewhat modified the views taken by biologists of the statements of ,schwann as to the constitution of the organized cell1 especially as regards its simplest or most elementary form1 and has indicated more exactly the nature of the protoplasmic material which constitutes its living basis2 but it has not caused any very wide departure from the general principles enunciated by that physiologist4 ,schwann's treatise1 entitled ,microscopical ,researches into the ,accordance in the ,structure and ,growths of ,animals and ,plants1 was published in ,german at ,berlin in #ahci1 and was translated into ,english by ,henry ,smith1 and printed for the ,sydenham ,society in #ahdg1 along with a translation of ,schleiden's memoir1 ,contributions to ,phytogenesis1 which originally appeared in #ahch in ,muller's ,archiv for that year1 and which had also been published in ,english in ,taylor and ,francis's ,scientific ,memoirs1 vol4 ii4 part vi4 ,among the newer observations of the same period which contributed to a more exact knowledge of the structure of the ovum itself may be mentioned--first the discovery of the germinal vesicle1 or nucleus1 in the germ-disk of birds by ,j4,e4 von ,purkinje 7,symbolae ad ovi avium historiam ante incubationem1 ,vratislaviae1 #ahbe1 and republished at ,leipzig in #ahcj72 second1 von ,baer's discovery of the mammiferous ovum in #ahbg1 already referred to2 third1 the discovery of the germinal vesicle of mammals by ,j4,v4 ,coste in #ahcd1 and its independent observation by ,wharton ,jones in #ahce2 and fourth1 the observation in the same year by ,rudolph ,wagner of the germinal macula or nucleus4 ,coste's discovery of the germinal vesicle of ,mammalia was first communicated to the public in the ,comptes rendus of the ,french ,academy for #ahcc1 and was more fully described in the ,recherches sur la generation des mammiferes1 by ,delpech and ,coste 7,paris1 #ahcd74 ,thomas ,wharton ,jones's observations1 made in the autumn of #ahcd1 without a knowledge of ,coste's communication1 were presented to the ,royal ,society in #ahce4 ,this discovery was also confirmed and extended by ,g4,g4 ,valentin and ,bernardt1 as recorded by the latter in his work ,symb4 ad ovi mammal4 hist4 ante praegnationem4 ,rudolph ,wagner's observations first appeared in his ,textbook of ,comparative ,anatomy1 published at ,leipzig in #ahcd-ahce1 and in ,muller's ,archiv for the latter year4 ,his more extended researches are described in his work ,prodromus hist4 generationis hominis atque animalium 7,leipzig1 #ahcf71 and in a memoir inserted in the ,trans4 of the ,roy4 ,bavarian ,acad4 of ,sciences 7,munich1 #ahcg74 ,the two decades of years from #ahbj to #ahdj were peculiarly fertile in contributions to the anatomy of the foetus and the progress of embryological knowledge4 ,the researches of ,prevost and ,dumas on the ova and primary stages of development of ,batrachia1 birds and mammals1 made as early as #ahbd1 deserve especial notice as important steps in advance1 both in the discovery of the process of yolk segmentation in the batrachian ovum1 and in their having shown almost with the force of demonstration1 previous to the discovery of the mammiferous ovarian ovum by von ,baer1 that that body must exist as a minute spherule in the ,graafian follicle of the ovary1 although they did not actually succeed in bringing the ova clearly under observation4 ,the works of ,pockels 7#ahbe71 of ,seiler 7#ahca71 of ,g4 ,breschet 7#ahcb71 of ,a4,a4,l4,m4 ,velpeau 7#ahcc71 of ,t4,l4,w4 ,bischoff 7#ahcd7--;all bearing upon human embryology2 the researches of ,coste in comparative embryology in #ahcd1 already referred to1 and those published by the same author in #ahcg2 the publication of ,johannes ,muller's great work on physiology1 and ,rudolph ,wagner's smaller text-book1 in both of which the subject of embryology received a very full treatment1 together with the excellent ,manual of the ,development of the ,foetus1 by ,valentin1 in #ahce1 the first separate and systematic work on the whole subject1 now secured to embryology its permanent place among the biological sciences on the ,continent2 while in this country attention was drawn to the subject by the memoirs of ,allen ,thomson 7#ahca71 ,th4 ,wharton ,jones 7#ahce-ahch7 and ,martin ,barry 7#ahci-ahdj74 ,among the more remarkable special discoveries which belong to the period now referred to1 a few may be mentioned1 as1 for example1 that of the chorda dorsalis by von ,baer1 a most important one1 which may be regarded as the key to the whole of vertebral morphology2 the phenomenon of yolk segmentation1 now known to be universal among animals1 but which was only first carefully observed in ,batrachia by ,prevost and ,dumas 7though previously casually noticed by ,swammerdam71 and was soon afterwards followed out by ,rusconi and von ,baer in fishes2 the discovery of the branchial clefts1 plates and vascular arches in the embryos of the higher abranchiate animals by ,h4 ,rathke in #ahbe-ahbg2 the able investigation of the transformations of these arches by ,reichert in #ahcg2 and the researches on the origin and development of the urinary and generative organs by ,johannes ,muller in #ahbi-ahcj4 ,on entering the fifth decade of the #aith century1 the number of original contributions and systematic treatises becomes so great as to render the attempt to enumerate even a selection of the more important of them quite unsuitable to the limits of the present article4 ,we must be satisfied1 therefore1 with a reference to one or two which seem to stand out with greater prominence than the rest as landmarks in the progress of embryological discovery4 ,among these may first be mentioned the researches of ,theodor ,l4,w4 von ,bischoff1 formerly of ,giessen and later of ,munich1 on the development of the ovum in ,mammalia1 in which a series of the most laborious1 minute and accurate observations furnished a greatly novel and very full history of the formative process in several animals of that class4 ,these researches are contained in four memoirs1 treating separately of the development of the rabbit1 the dog1 the guinea-pig and the roe-deer1 and appeared in succession in the years #ahdb1 #ahde1 #aheb and #ahed4 ,next may be mentioned the great work of ,coste1 entitled ,histoire gen4 et particul4 du developpement des animaux1 of which1 however1 only four fasciculi appeared between the years #ahdg and #ahei1 leaving the work incomplete4 ,in this work1 in the large folio form1 beautiful representations are given of the author's valuable observations on human embryology1 and on that of various mammals1 birds and fishes1 and of the author's discovery in #ahdg of the process of partial yolk segmentation in the germinal disk of the fowl's egg during its descent through the oviduct1 and his observations on the same phenomenon in fishes and mammals4 ,the development of reptiles received important elucidation from the researches of ,rathke1 in his history of the development of serpents1 published at ,konigsberg in #ahci1 and in a similar work on the turtle in #ahdh1 as well as in a later one on the crocodile in #ahff1 along with which may be associated the observations of ,h4,j4 ,clark on the ,embryology of the ,turtle1 published in ,agassiz's ,contributions to ,natural ,history1 c41 #aheg4 ,the phenomena of yolk segmentation1 to which reference has more than once been made1 and to which later researches give more and more importance in connexion with the fundamental phenomena of development1 received great elucidation during this period1 first from the observations of ,c4,t4,e4 von ,siebold and those of ,bagge on the complete yolk segmentation of the egg in nematoid worms in #ahda1 and more fully by the observations of ,kolliker in the same animals in #ahdc4 ,the nature of partial segmentation of the yolk was first made known by ,kolliker in his work on the development of the ,cephalopoda in #ahdd1 and1 as has already been mentioned1 the phenomena were observed by ,coste in the eggs of birds4 ,the latter observations have since been confirmed by those of ,oellacher1 ,gotte and ,kolliker4 ,further researches in a vast number of animals give every reason to believe that the phenomenon of segmentation is in some shape or other the invariable precursor of embryonic formation4 ,the first considerable work on the development of a division of the invertebrates was that of ,maurice ,herold of ,marburg on spiders1 ,de generatione aranearum ex ovo1 published at ,marburg in #ahbd1 in which the whole phenomena of the formative processes in that animal are described with remarkable clearness and completeness4 ,a few years later an important series of contributions to the history of the development of invertebrate animals appeared in the second volume of ,burdach's work on ,physiology1 of which the first edition was published in #ahbh1 and in this the history of the development of the ,entozoa was the production of ,ch4 ,theod4 von ,siebold1 and that of most of the other invertebrates was compiled by ,h4 ,rathke from the results of his own observations and those of others4 ,these memoirs1 together with others subsequently published by ,rathke1 notably that ,uber die ,bildung und ,entwickelungsgeschichte d4 ,flusskrebses 7,leipzig1 #ahbi71 in which an attempt is made to extend the doctrine of the derivation of the organs from the germinal layers to the invertebrata1 entitle him to be regarded as the founder of invertebrate embryology4 ,a large body of facts having by this time been ascertained with respect to the more obvious processes of development1 a further attempt to refer the phenomena of organogenesis to morphological and histological principles became desirable4 ,more especially was the need felt to point out with greater minuteness and accuracy the relation in which the origin of the fundamental organs of the embryo stands to the layers of the blastoderm2 and this we find accomplished with signal success in the researches of ,r4 ,remak on the development of the chick and frog1 published between the years #ahej and #ahee4 ,starting from ,pander's discovery of the trilaminate blastoderm1 ,remak worked out the development of the chick in the light of the cell-theory of ,schleiden and ,schwann4 ,he observed the division of the middle layer into two by a split which subsequently gives rise to the body-cavity 7pleuro-peritoneal space7 of the adult2 and traced the principal organs which came from these two layers 7,hautfaserblatt and ,darmfaserblatt7 respectively4 ,in this manner the foundations of the germ-layer theory were established in their modern form4 ,a great step forward was made in #ahei by ,t4,h4 ,huxley1 who compared the serous and mucous layers of ,pander with the ectoderm and endoderm of the ,coelenterata4 ,but in spite of this comparison it was generally held that germinal layers similar to those of the vertebrata were not found in invertebrate animals1 and it was not until the publication in #ahga of ,kowalewsky's researches 7see below7 that the germinal layer theory was applied to the embryos of all the ,metazoa4 ,but the year #ahei will be for ever memorable in the history of science as the year of the publication of the ,origin of ,species4 ,if the enunciation of the cell-theory may be said to have marked a first from a second period in the history of embryology1 the publication of ,darwin's great idea ushered in a third4 ,whereas hitherto the facts of anatomy and development were loosely held together by the theory of types which owed its origin and maintenance to ,cuvier1 ,l4 ,agassiz1 ,j4 ,muller and ,r4 ,owen1 they were now combined into one organic whole by the theory of descent and by the hypothesis of recapitulation which was deduced from that theory4 ,first clearly enunciated by ,johann ,muller in his well-known work ,fur ,darwin published in #ahfd 7rendered in ,england as ,facts for ,darwin1 #ahfi71 the view that a knowledge of embryonic and larval histories would lay bare the secrets of race history and enable the course of evolution to be traced and so lead to the discovery of the natural system of classification1 gave a powerful stimulus to embryological research4 ,the first fruits of this impetus were gathered by ,alexander ,agassiz1 ,a4 ,kowalewsky and ,e4 ,metschnikoff4 ,agassiz1 in his memoir on the ,embryology of the ,starfish published in #ahfd1 showed that the body-cavity in ,echinodermata arises as a differentiation of the enteron of the larva and so laid the foundations of our present knowledge of the coelom4 ,this discovery was confirmed in #ahfi by ,metschnikoff 7,studien ub4 d4 ,entwick4 d4 ,echinodermen u4 ,nemertinen1 ,mem4 ,ac4 ,petersbourg 7#g71 #da1 #ahfi71 and extended by him to ,tornaria1 the larva of ,balanoglossus in #ahgj 7,untersuchungen ub4 d4 ,metamorphose einiger ,seethiere1 ,zeit4 f4 wiss4 ,zoologie1 #bj1 #ahgj74 ,in #ahga ,kowalewsky in his classical memoir1 entitled ,embryologische ,studien an ,wurmern und ,arthropoden 7,mem4 ,acad4 ,petersbourg 7#g71 #af1 #ahga71 proved the same fact for ,sagitta and added immensely to our knowledge of the early stages of development of the ,invertebrata4 ,these memoirs formed the basis on which subsequent workers took their stand4 ,amongst the most important of these was ,f4,m4 ,balfour 7#ahea-ahhb74 ,led to the study of embryology by his teacher1 ,m4 ,foster1 in association with whom he published in #ahgd the ,elements of ,embryology1 ,balfour was one of the first to take advantage of the facilities for research offered by ,dr4 ,a4 ,dohrn's ,zoological ,station at ,naples which has since become so celebrated4 ,here he did the work which was subsequently published in #ahgh in his ,monograph of the ,development of ,elasmobranch ,fishes1 and which constituted the most important addition to vertebrate morphology since the days of ,johannes ,muller4 ,this was followed in #ahgi and #ahha by the publication of his ,treatise on ,comparative ,embryology1 the first work in which the facts of the rapidly growing science were clearly and philosophically put together1 and the greatest4 ,the influence of ,balfour's work on embryology was immense and is still felt4 ,he was an active worker in every department of it1 and there are few groups of the animal kingdom on which he has not left the impress of his genius4 ,in the period under consideration the output of embryological work has been enormous4 ,no group of the animal kingdom has escaped exhaustive examination1 and no effort has been spared to obtain the embryos of isolated and out of the way forms1 the development of which might have a bearing upon important questions of phylogeny and classification4 ,of this work it is impossible to speak in detail in this summary4 ,it is only possible to call attention to some of its more important features1 to mention the more important advances1 and to refer to some of the more striking memoirs4 ,marine zoological stations have been established1 expeditions have been sent to distant countries1 and the methods of investigation have been greatly improved4 ,since ,anton ,dohrn founded the ,stazione ,zoologica at ,naples in #ahgb1 observatories for the study of marine organisms have been established in most countries4 ,of journeys which have been made to distant countries and which have resulted in important contributions to embryology1 may be mentioned the expedition 7#ahhd-ahhf7 of the cousins ,sarasin to ,ceylon 7development of ,gymnophiona71 of ,e4 ,selenka to ,brazil and the ,east ,indies 7development of ,marsupials1 ,primates and other mammals1 #ahgg1 #ahhi1 #ahib71 of ,a4,a4,w4 ,hubrecht to the ,east ,indies 7#ahij1 development of ,tarsius71 of ,w4,h4 ,caldwell to ,australia 7#ahhc-ahhd1 discovery of the nature of the ovum and oviposition of ,echidna and of ,ceratodus71 of ,a4 ,sedgwick to the ,cape 7#ahhc1 development of ,peripatus71 of ,j4 ,graham ,kerr to ,paraguay 7#ahif1 development of ,lepidosiren71 of ,r4 ,semon to ,australia and the ,malay ,archipelago 7#ahia-ahic1 development of ,monotremata1 ,marsupialia71 and of ,j4,s4 ,budgett to ,africa 7#ahih1 #aijj1 #aija1 #aijc1 development of ,polypterus74 ,in methods1 while great improvements have been made in the processes of hardening and staining embryos1 the principal advance has been the introduction in #ahhc by ,w4,h4 ,caldwell in his work on the development of ,phoronis of the method of making tape-worm like strings of sections as a result of which the process of mounting in order all the sections obtained from an embryo was much facilitated1 and the use of an automatic microtome rendered possible4 ,the method of ,golgi for the investigation of the nervous system1 introduced in #ahge1 must also be mentioned here4 ,the word coelom 7q4v47 was introduced into zoology by ,e4 ,haeckel in #ahgb 7,kalkschwamme1 p4 #dfh7 as a convenient term for the body-cavity 7pleuro-peritoneal74 ,the word was generally adopted1 and was applied alike to the blood-containing body-cavity of ,arthropods and to the body-cavity of ,vertebrata and segmented worms1 in which there is no blood4 ,in #ahge ,huxley 7,quarterly ,journ4 of ,mic4 ,science1 #ae1 p4 #ec71 relying on the researches of ,agassiz1 ,metschnikoff and ,kowalewsky above mentioned1 put forward the idea that according to their development three kinds of body-cavity ought to be distinguished3 7#a7 the enterocoelic which arises from enteric diverticula1 7#b7 the schizocoelic which develops as a split in the embryonic mesoblast1 and 7#c7 the epicoelic which was enclosed by folds of the skin and lined by ectoderm 7e4g4 atrial cavity of ,tunicates1 c474 ,this suggestion was of great importance1 because it led the embryologists of the day 7,balfour1 the brothers ,hertwig1 ,lankester and others7 to discuss the question as to whether there was not more than one kind of body-cavity4 ,the ,hertwigs 7,coelomtheorie1 ,jena1 #ahha7 distinguished two kinds1 the enterocoel and the pseudocoel4 ,the former1 to which they limited the use of the word coelom1 and which is developed directly or indirectly from the enteron1 is found in ,annelida1 ,arthropoda1 ,echinodermata1 ,chordata1 c4 ,the latter they regarded as something quite different from the coelom and as arising by a split in what they called for the first time mesenchyme2 the mesenchyme being the non-epithelial mesoderm1 which they described as consisting of amoeboid cells1 but which we now know to consist of a continuous reticulum4 ,the next step was made by ,e4 ,ray ,lankester1 who in #ahhd 7,zoologischer ,anzeiger7 showed that the pericardium of ,mollusca does not contain blood1 and therein differs from the rest of the body-cavity which does contain blood1 but no suggestion is made that the blood-containing space is not coelomic4 ,in fact it was generally held by the anatomists of the day that the coelom and the vascular system were different parts of the same primitive organ1 though separate from it in the adult except in ,arthropoda and ,mollusca4 ,in the ,mollusca1 it is true1 the pericardial part of the coelom was held to be separate from the vascular1 and the ,hertwigs had reached the correct conception that the pericardium of these animals was alone true coelom1 the vascular part being pseudocoel4 ,this was the state of morphological opinion until #ahhf1 when it was shown 7,proc4 ,cambridge ,phil4 ,soc41 #f1 #ahhf1 p4 #bg7 7#a7 that the coelom of ,peripatus gives rise to the nephridia and generative glands only1 and to no other part of the body-cavity of the adult1 7#b7 that the nephridia of the adult do not open as had been supposed into the body-cavity1 7#c7 that the body-cavity is entirely formed of the blood-containing space1 the coelom having no perivisceral portion4 ,these results were extended by the same author 7,quart4 ,journ4 ,mic4 ,sci41 #bg1 #ahhg1 pp4 #dhf-edj7 to other ,arthropods and to the ,mollusca1 and the modern theory of the coelom was finally established4 ,an increased precision was given to the conception of coelom by the discovery in #ahhj 7,quart4 ,journ4 ,mic4 ,sci41 #bj1 p4 #afd7 that the nephridia of ,elasmobranchs are a direct differentiation of a portion of it4 ,in #ahhf this was extended to ,peripatus 7,proc4 ,camb4 ,phil4 ,soc41 #f1 p4 #bg7 and doubtless holds universally4 ,in #ahfd it was suggested by ,v4 ,hensen 7,virchow's ,archiv1 #ca7 that the rudiments of nerve-fibres are present from the beginning of development as persistent remains of connexions between the incompletely separated cells of the segmented ovum4 ,this suggestion fell to the ground because it was held by embryologists that the cleavage of the ovum resulted in the formation of completely separate cells1 and that the connexions between the adult cells were secondary4 ,in #ahhf it was shown 7,quarterly ,journ4 ,mic4 ,sci41 #bf1 p4 #ahb7 that in ,peripatus ,capensis the cells of the segmenting ovum do not separate from one another1 but remain connected by a loose protoplasmic network4 ,this discovery has since been extended to other ova1 even to the small so-called holoblastic ova1 and a basis of fact was found for ,hensen's suggestion as to the embryonic origin of nerves 7,quart4 ,journ4 ,mic4 ,sci41 #cc1 #ahib1 pp4 #eha-ehd74 ,an extension and further application of the new views as to the cell-theory and the embryonic origin of nerves thus necessitated was made in #ahid 7,quart4 ,journ4 ,mic4 ,sci41 #cg1 p4 #hg71 and in #aijd ,j4 ,graham ,kerr showed that the motor nerves in the dipnoan fish ,lepidosiren arise in an essentially similar manner 7,trans4 ,roy4 ,society of ,edinburgh1 #da1 p4 #aai74 ,in #ahhc ,elie ,metschnikoff published his researches on the intracellular digestion of invertebrates 7,arbeiten a4 d4 zoologischen ,inst4 ,wien1 #e2 and ,biologisches ,centralblatt1 #c1 p4 #efj72 these formed the basis of his theory of inflammation and phagocytosis1 which has had such an important influence on pathology4 ,as he himself has told us1 he was led to make these investigations by his precedent researches on the development of sponges and other invertebrates4 ,to quote his own words3 ,having long studied the problem of the germinal layers in the animal series1 ,i sought to give some idea of their origin and significance4 ,the part played by the ectoderm and endoderm appeared quite clear1 and the former might reasonably be regarded as the cutaneous investment of primitive multicellular animals1 while the latter might be regarded as their organ of digestion4 ,the discovery of intracellular digestion in many of the lower animals led me to regard this phenomenon as characteristic of those ancestral animals from which might be derived all the known types of the animal kingdom 7excepting1 of course1 the ,protozoa74 ,the origin and part played by the mesoderm appeared the most obscure4 ,thus certain embryologists supposed that this layer corresponded to the reproductive organs of primitive animals3 others regarded it as the prototype of the organs of locomotion4 ,my embryological and physiological studies on sponges led me to the conclusion that the mesoderm must function in the hypothetically primitive animals as a mass of digestive cells1 in all points similar to those of the endoderm4 ,this hypothesis necessarily attracted my attention to the power of seizing foreign corpuscles possessed by the mesodermic cells 7,immunity in ,infective ,diseases1 ,english translation1 ,cambridge1 #aije74 ,the branch of embryology which concerns itself with the study of the origin1 history and conjugation of the individuals 7gametes7 which are concerned in the reproduction of the species has made great advances4 ,these began in #ahge and following years with a careful examination of the behaviour of the germinal vesicle in the maturation and fertilization of the ovum4 ,the history of the polar bodies1 the origin of the female pronucleus1 the presence in the ovum of a second nucleus1 the male pronucleus1 which gave rise to the first segmentation nucleus by fusion with the female pronucleus1 were discovered 7,e4 van ,beneden1 ,o4 ,butschli1 ,o4 ,hertwig1 ,h4 ,fol71 and in #ahgf ,o4 ,hertwig 7,morphologisches ,jahrbuch1 #c1 #ahgf7 for the first time observed the entrance of a spermatozoon into the egg and the formation of the male pronucleus from it4 ,the centrosome was discovered by ,w4 ,flemming in #ahge in the egg of the fresh-water mussel1 and independently in #ahgf by ,e4 van ,beneden in ,dicyemids4 ,in #ahhc came ,e4 van ,beneden's celebrated discovery 7,arch4 ,biologie1 #d7 of the reduction of the number of chromosomes in the nucleus of both male and female gametes1 and of the fact that the male and female pronuclei contribute the same number of chromosomes to the zygote-nucleus4 ,he also showed that the gametogenesis in the male is a similar process to that in the female1 and paved the way for the acceptation of the view 7due to ,butschli7 that polar bodies are aborted female gametes4 ,these discoveries were extended and completed by subsequent workers1 among whom may be mentioned ,e4 van ,beneden1 ,j4,b4 ,carnoy1 ,g4 ,platner1 ,t4 ,boveri1 ,o4 ,hertwig1 ,a4 ,brauer4 ,the subject is still being actively pursued1 and hopes are entertained that some relation may be found between the behaviour of the chromosomes and the facts of heredity4 ,since #ahgd 7,w4 ,his1 ,unsere ,korperform und das physiologische ,problem ihrer ,entstehung7 a new branch of embryology1 which concerns itself with the physiology of development1 has arisen 7experimental embryology74 ,the principal workers in this field have been ,w4 ,roux1 who in #ahid founded the ,archiv fur ,entwickelungsmechanik der ,organismen1 ,t4 ,boveri and ,y4 ,delage who discovered and elucidated the phenomenon of merogony1 ,j4 ,loeb who discovered artificial parthenogenesis1 ,o4 and ,r4 ,hertwig1 ,h4 ,driesch1 ,c4 ,herbst1 ,e4 ,maupas1 ,a4 ,weismann1 ,t4,h4 ,morgan1 ,c4,b4 ,davenport 7,experimental ,morphology1 #b vols41 #ahii7 and many others4 ,in the elucidation of remarkable life-histories we may point in the first place to the work of ,a4 ,kowalewsky on the development of the ,tunicata 7,entwickelungsgeschichte d4 einfachen ,ascidien1 ,mem4 ,acad4 ,petersbourg 7#g71 #aj1 #ahff1 and ,arch4 f4 ,mic4 ,anatomie1 #g1 #ahga71 in which was demonstrated for the first time the vertebrate relationship of the ,tunicata 7possession of a notochord1 method of development of the central nervous system7 and which led to the establishment of the group ,chordata4 ,we may also mention the work of ,y4 ,delage in the metamorphosis of ,sacculina 7,arch4 zool4 exp4 7#b7 #b1 #ahhd71 ,a4 ,giard 7,comptes rendus1 #abc1 #ahif1 p4 #hcf7 and of ,a4 ,malaquin on ,monstrilla 7,arch4 zool4 exp4 7#c71 #i1 p4 #ha1 #aija71 of ,delage 7,comptes rendus1 #ajc1 #ahhf1 p4 #fih7 and ,grassi and ,calandruccio 7,rend4 ,acc4 ,lincei 7#e71 #f1 #ahig1 p4 #dc71 on the development of the eels1 and of ,p4 ,pergande on the life-history of the ,aphidae 7,bull4 ,u4,s4 ,dep4 ,agric4 ,ent41 technical series1 #i1 #aija74 ,the work of ,c4 ,grobben 7,arbeiten zool4 ,inst4 ,wien1 #d1 #ahhb7 and of ,b4 ,uljanin 7,die ,arten der ,gattung ,doliolum1 ,fauna u4 ,flora des ,golfes von ,neapel1 #ahhd7 on the extraordinary life-history and migration of the buds in ,doliolum must also be mentioned4 ,in pure embryological morphology we have had ,heymons' elucidation of the ,arthropod head1 the work of ,hatschek on ,annelid and other larvae1 the works of ,h4 ,bury and of ,e4,w4 ,mac,bride which have marked a distinct advance in our knowledge of the development of ,echinodermata1 of ,k4 ,mitsukuri1 who has founded since #ahhb an important school of embryology in ,japan1 on the early development of ,chelonia and ,aves1 of ,a4 ,brauer and ,g4,c4 ,price on the development of vertebrate excretory organs1 of ,th4 ,w4 ,bischoff1 ,e4 van ,beneden1 ,e4 ,selenka1 ,a4,a4,w4 ,hubrecht1 ,r4 ,bonnet1 ,f4 ,keibel and ,r4 ,assheton on the development of mammals1 of ,a4,a4,w4 ,hubrecht and ,e4 ,selenka on the early development and placentation of the ,primates1 of ,j4 ,graham ,kerr and of ,j4,s4 ,budgett on the development of ,dipnoan and ,ganoid fishes1 of ,a4 ,kowalewsky1 ,b4 ,hatschek1 ,a4 ,willey and ,e4,w4 ,mac,bride on the development of ,amphioxus1 of ,b4 ,dean on the development of ,bdellostoma1 of ,a4 ,gotte on the development of ,amphibia1 of ,h4 ,strahl and ,l4 ,will on the early development of reptiles1 of ,t4,h4 ,huxley1 ,c4 ,gegenbaur and ,w4,k4 ,parker on the development of the vertebrate skeleton1 of van ,wijhe on the segmentation of the vertebrate head1 by which the modern theory of head-segmentation1 previously adumbrated by ,balfour1 was first established1 of ,leche and ,rose on the development of mammalian dentitions4 ,we may also specially notice ,w4 ,bateson's work on the development of ,balanoglossus and his inclusion of this genus among the ,chordata 7#ahhd71 the discovery by ,j4,p4 ,hill of a placenta in the marsupial genus ,perameles 7#ahie71 the work of ,p4 ,marchal 7#aijd7 on the asexual increase by fission of the early embryos of certain parasitic ,hymenoptera 7so called germinogony71 a phenomenon which had been long ago shown to occur in ,lumbricus trapezoides by ,n4 ,kleinenberg 7#ahgi7 and by ,s4,f4 ,harmer in ,polyzoa 7#ahic74 ,the work on cell-lineage which has been so actively pursued in ,america may be mentioned here4 ,it has consisted mainly of an extension of the early work of ,a4 ,kowalewsky and ,b4 ,hatschek on the formation of the layers1 being a more minute and detailed examination of the origin of the embryonic tissues4 ,the most important text-books and summaries which have appeared in this period have been ,korschelt and ,heider's ,lehrbuch der vergleichenden ,entwickelungsgeschichte der wirbellosen ,tiere 7#ahij-aijb71 ,c4,s4 ,minot's ,human ,embryology 7#ahib71 and the ,handbuch der vergleichenden und experimentellen ,entwickelungslehre der ,wirbeltiere1 edited by ,o4 ,hertwig 7#aija1 et seq474 ,see also ,k4,e4 von ,baer1 ,uber ,entwicklungsgeschichte der ,tiere 7,konigsberg1 #ahbh1 #ahcg72 ,f4,m4 ,balfour1 ,a ,monograph on the ,development of ,elasmobranch ,fishes 7,london1 #ahgh72 ,a ,treatise on ,comparative ,embryology1 vols4 i4 and ii4 7,london1 #ahhe7 7still the most important work on ,vertebrate ,embryology72 ,m4 ,duval1 ,atlas d',embryologie 7,paris1 #ahhi72 ,m4 ,foster and ,f4,m4 ,balfour1 ,elements of ,embryology 7,london1 #ahhc72 ,o4 ,hertwig1 ,lehrbuch der ,entwicklungsgeschichte des ,menschen u4 der ,wirbeltiere 7#fth ed41 ,jena1 #ahih72 ,a4 ,kolliker1 ,entwicklungsgeschichte des ,menschen u4 der hoheren ,tiere 7,leipzig1 #ahgi72 ,a4,m4 ,marshall1 ,vertebrate ,embryology 7,london1 #ahic74 7,a4 ,se4997 ,,physiology ,,of ,,development ,physiology of ,development in ,german1 ,entwicklungsmechanik 7,w4 ,roux71 ,entwicklungsphysiologie 7,h4 ,driesch71 physiologische ,morphologie 7,j4 ,loeb7 is1 in the broadest meaning of the word1 the experimental science of morphogenesis1 i4e4 of the laws that govern morphological differentiation4 ,in this sense it embraces the study of regeneration and variation1 and would1 as a whole1 best be called rational morphology4 ,here we shall treat of the ,physiology of ,development in a narrower sense1 as the study of the laws that govern the development of the adult organism from the egg1 ,,regeneration and ,,variation ,,and ,,selection forming the subjects of special articles4 ,after the work done by ,w4 ,his1 ,a4 ,goette and ,e4,f4,w4 ,pfluger1 who gave a sort of general outline and orientation of the subject1 the first to study developmental problems properly in a systematical way1 and with full conviction of their great importance1 was ,wilhelm ,roux4 ,this observer1 having found by a full analysis of the facts of development that the first special problem to be worked out was the question when and where the first differentiation appeared1 got as his main result that1 when one of the two first blastomeres 7cleavage cells7 of the frog's egg was killed1 the living one developed into a typical half-embryo1 i4e4 an embryo that was either the right or the left part of a whole one4 ,from that ,roux concluded that the first cleavage plane determined already the median plane of the adult2 and that the basis of all differentiation was given by an unequal division of the nuclear substances during karyokinesis1 a result that was also attained on a purely theoretical basis by ,a4 ,weismann4 ,hans ,driesch repeated ,roux's fundamental experiment with a different method on the sea-urchin's egg1 with a result that was absolutely contrary to that of ,roux3 the isolated blastomere cleaved like half the egg1 but it resulted in a whole blastula and a whole embryo1 which differed from a normal one only in its small size4 ,driesch's result was obtained in somewhat the same manner by ,e4,b4 ,wilson with the egg of ,amphioxus1 by ,zoja with the egg of ,medusae1 c4 ,it thus became very probable that an inequality of nuclear division could not be the basis of differentiation4 ,the following experiments were still more fatal to the theories of ,roux and of ,weismann4 ,driesch found that even when the first eight or sixteen cells of the cleaving egg of the sea-urchin were brought into quite abnormal positions with regard to one another1 still a quite normal embryo was developed2 ,driesch and ,t4,h4 ,morgan discovered jointly that in the ,ctenophore egg one isolated blastomere developed into a half-embryo1 but that the same was the case if a portion of protoplasm was cut off from the fertilized egg not yet in cleavage2 last1 but not of least importance1 in the case of the frog's egg which had been ,roux's actual subject of experiment1 conditions were discovered by ,o4 ,schultze and ,o4 ,hertwig under which one of the two first blastomeres of this egg developed into a whole embryo of half size4 ,this result was made still more decisive by ,morgan1 who showed that it was quite in the power of the experimenter to get either a half-embryo or a whole one of half size1 the latter dependent only upon giving to the blastomere the opportunity for a rearrangement of its matter by turning it over4 ,thus we may say that the general result of the introductory series of experiments in the physiology of development is the following3--,in many forms1 e4g4 ,echinoderms1 ,amphioxus1 ,ascidians1 ,fishes and ,medusae1 the potentiality 7prospective ,potenz--,driesch7 of all the blastomeres of the segmented egg is the same1 i4e4 each of them may play any or every part in the future development2 the prospective value 7prosp4 ,bedeutung--,d47 of each blastomere depends upon1 or is a function of1 its position in the whole of the segmented egg2 we can term the whole of the egg after cleavage an aequipotential system 7,driesch74 ,but though aequipotential1 the whole of the segmented egg is nevertheless not devoid of orientation or direction2 the general law of causality compels us to assume a general orientation of the smallest parts of the egg1 even in cases where we are not able to see it4 ,it has been experimentally proved that external stimuli 7light1 heat1 pressure1 c47 are not responsible for the first differentiation of organs in the embryo2 thus1 should the segmented egg be absolutely equal in itself1 it would be incomprehensible that the first organs should be formed at one special point of it and not at another4 ,besides this general argument1 we see a sort of orientation in the typical forms of the polar or bilateral cleavage stages4 ,differentiation1 therefore1 depends on a primary1 i4e4 innate1 orientation of the egg's plasma in those forms1 the segmented eggs of which represent aequipotential systems2 this orientation is capable of a sort of regulation or restoration after disturbances of any sort2 in the egg of the ,ctenophora such a regulation is not possible1 and in the frog's egg it is facultative1 i4e4 possible under certain conditions1 but impossible under others4 ,should this interpretation be right1 the difference between the eggs of different animals would not be so great as it seemed at first3 differences with regard to the potentialities of the blastomeres would only be differences with regard to the capability of regulation or restoration of the egg's protoplasm4 ,the foundation of physiological embryology being laid1 we now can shortly deal with the whole series of special problems offered to us by a general analysis of that science1 but at present worked out only to a very small extent4 ,we may ask the following questions3--,what are the general conditions of development8 ,on what general factors does it depend8 ,how do the different organs of the partly developed embryo stand with regard to their future fate8 ,what are the stimuli 7,reize7 effecting differentiation8 ,what is to be said about the specific character of the different formative effects8 ,and as the most important question of all3 ,are all the problems offered to us in the physiology of development to be solved with the aid of the laws known hitherto in science1 or do we want specifically new vitalistic factors8 ,conditions of differentiation4 ,energy in different forms is required for development1 and is provided by the surrounding medium4 ,light1 though of no influence on the cleavage 7,driesch71 has a great effect on later stages of development1 and is also necessary for the formation of polyps in ,eudendrium 7,j4 ,loeb74 ,that a certain temperature is necessary for ontogeny has long been known2 this was carefully studied by ,o4 ,hertwig1 as was also the influence of heat on the rate of development4 ,oxygen is also wanted1 either from a certain stage of development or from the very beginning of it1 though very nearly related forms differ in this respect 7,loeb74 ,the great influence of osmotic pressure on growth was studied by ,j4 ,loeb1 ,c4 ,herbst and ,c4,h4 ,davenport4 ,in all these cases energy may be necessary for development in general1 or a specific form of energy may be necessary for the formation of a specific organ2 it is clear that1 especially in the latter case1 energy is shown to be a proper factor for morphogenesis4 ,besides energy1 a certain chemical condition of the medium1 whether offered by the water in which the egg lives or 7especially in later stages7 by the food1 is of great importance for normal ontogeny2 the only careful study in this respect was carried out by ,herbst for the development of the egg of ,echinids4 ,this investigator has shown that all salts of the sea water are of great importance for development1 and most of them specifically and typically2 for instance1 calcium is absolutely necessary for holding together the embryonic cells1 and without calcium all cells will fall apart1 though they do not die1 but live to develop further4 ,what we have dealt with may be called external factors of development2 as to their complement1 the internal factors1 it is clear that every elementary factor of general physiology may be regarded as one of them4 ,chemical metamorphosis plays1 of course1 a great part in differentiation1 especially in the form of secretions2 but very little has been carefully studied in this respect4 ,movement of living matter1 whether of cells or of intracellular substance1 is another important factor 7,o4 ,butschli1 ,f4 ,dreyer1 ,l4 ,rhumbler47 ,cell-division is another1 its differences in direction1 rate and quantity being of great importance for differentiation4 ,we know very little about it2 a so-called law of ,o4 ,hertwig1 that a cell would divide at right angles to its longest diameter1 though experimentally stated in some cases1 does not hold for all1 and the only thing we can say is1 that the unknown primary organization of the egg is here responsible4 7,compare the papers on cell-lineage of ,e4,b4 ,wilson1 ,f4,r4 ,lillie1 ,h4,s4 ,jennings1 ,o4 ,zurstrassen and others47 ,of the inner factors of ontogeny there is another category that may be called physical1 that already spoken of being physiological4 ,the most important of these is the capillarity of the cell surfaces4 ,berthold was the first to call attention to its role in the arrangement of cell composites1 and afterwards the matter was more carefully studied by ,dreyer1 ,driesch1 and especially ,w4 ,roux1 with the result that the arrangement of cells follows the principle of surfaces minimae areae 7,plateau7 as much as is reconcilable with the conditions of the system4 ,potentialities of embryonic cells4 ,it has already been shown that in many cases the embryo after cleavage1 i4e4 the blastula1 is an aequipotential system4 ,it was shown that in the egg of ,echinids there existed such an absolute lack of determination of the cleavage cells that 7a7 the cells may be put in quite abnormal positions with reference to one another without disturbing development2 7b7 a quarter blastomere gives a quite normal little pluteus1 even a sixteenth yields a gastrula2 7c7 two eggs may fuse in the early blastula stage1 giving one single normal embryo of double size4 ,our next question concerns the distribution of potentiality1 when the embryo is developed further than the blastula stage4 ,in this case it has been shown that the potentialities of the different embryonic organs are different3 that1 for instance1 in ,echinoderms or ,amphibians the ectoderm1 when isolated1 is not able to form endoderm1 and so on 7,driesch1 ,d4 ,barfurth72 but it has been shown at the same time that the ectoderm in itself1 the intestine in itself of ,echinoderms 7,driesch71 the medullary plate in itself of ,triton 7,h4 ,spemann71 is as aequipotential as was the blastula3 that any part whatever of these organs may be taken away without disturbing the development of the rest into a normal and proportional embryonic part1 except for its smaller size4 ,formative stimuli4 ,if the single phases of differentiation are to be regarded as effects1 we must ask for the causes1 or stimuli1 of these effects4 ,for a full account of the subject we refer to ,herbst1 by whom also the whole botanical literature1 much more important than the zoological1 is critically reviewed4 ,we have already seen that when the blastula represents an aequipotential system1 there must be some sort of primary organization of the egg1 recoverable after disturbances1 that directs and localizes the formation of the first embryonic organs2 we do not know much about this organization4 ,directive stimuli 7,richtungsreize7 play a great role in ontogeny2 ,herbst has analysed many cases where their existence is probable4 ,they have been experimentally proved in two cases4 ,the chromatic cells of the yolk sac of ,fundulus are attracted by the oxygen of the arteriae 7,loeb72 the mesenchyme cells of ,echinus are attracted by some specific parts of the ectoderm1 for they move towards them also when removed from their original positions to any point of the blastocoel by shaking 7,driesch74 ,many directive stimuli might be discovered by a careful study of grafting experiments1 such as have been made by ,born1 ,joest1 ,harrison and others1 but at present these experiments have not been carried out far enough to get exact results4 ,formative stimuli in a narrower meaning of the word1 i4e4 stimuli affecting the origin of embryonic organs1 have long been known in botany2 in zoology we know 7especially from ,loeb7 a good deal about the influence of light1 gravitation1 contact1 c41 on the formation of organs in hydroids1 but these forms are very plant-like in many respects2 as to free-living animals1 ,herbst proved that the formation of the arms of the pluteus larva depends on the existence of the calcareous tetrahedra1 and made in other cases 7lens of vertebrate eye1 nerves and muscles1 c47 the existence of formative stimuli very probable4 ,many of the facts generally known as functional adaptation 7functionelle ,anpassung--,roux7 in botany and zoology may also belong to this category1 i4e4 be the effects of some external stimulus1 but they are far from having been analysed in a satisfactory manner4 ,that the structure of parts of the vertebrate skeleton is always in relation to their function1 even under abnormal conditions1 is well known2 what is the real cause of differentiation in this case is difficult to say4 ,specific characters4 ,it is obvious that we cannot answer the question why the different ontogenetic effects are just what they are4 ,developmental physiology takes the specific nature of form for granted1 and it may be left for a really rational theory of the evolution of species in the future to answer the problem of species1 as far as it is answerable at all4 ,what we intend to do here is only to say in a few words wherein consists the specific character of embryonic organs4 ,that embryonic parts are specific or typical in regard to their protoplasm is obvious1 and is well proved by the fact that the different parts of the embryo react differently to the same chemical or other reagents 7,herbst1 ,loeb74 ,that they may be typical also in regard to their nuclei was shown by ,boveri for the generative cells of ,ascaris2 we are not able at present to say anything definite about the importance of this fact4 ,the specific nature of an embryonic organ consists to a high degree in the number of cells composing it2 it was shown for many cases that this number1 and also the size of cells1 is constant under constant conditions1 and that under inconstant conditions the number is variable1 the size constant2 for instance1 embryos which have developed from one of the two first blastomeres show only half the normal number of cells in their organs 7,morgan1 ,driesch74 ,self-differentiation4 ,we have learnt that the successive steps of embryonic development are to be regarded as effects1 caused by stimuli1 which partly exist in the embryo itself4 ,but it must be noted that not every part of the embryo is dependent on every other one1 but that there exists a great independence of the parts1 to a varying degree in every case4 ,this partial independence has been called self-differentiation 7,selbstdifferenzierung7 by ,roux1 and is certainly a characteristic feature of ontogeny4 ,at the same time it must not be forgotten that the word is only relative1 and that it only expresses our recognition of a negation4 ,for instance1 we know that the ectoderm of ,echinus may develop further if the endoderm is taken away2 in other words1 that it develops by self-differentiation in regard to the endoderm1 that its differentiation is not dependent on the endoderm2 but it would be obviously more important to know the factors on which this differentiation is actually dependent than to know one factor on which it is not4 ,the same is true for all other experiments on self-differentiation1 whether analytical 7,loeb1 ,schaper1 ,driesch7 or not 7grafting experiments1 ,born1 ,joest1 c474 ,vitalism4 ,can we understand differentiation by means of the laws of natural phenomena offered to us by physics and chemistry8 ,most people would say yes1 though not yet4 ,driesch has tried to show that we are absolutely not able to understand development1 at any rate one part of it1 i4e4 the localization of the various successive steps of differentiation4 ,but it is impossible to give any idea of this argument in a few words1 and we can only say here that it is based on the experiments upon isolated blastomeres1 c41 and on an analysis of the character of aequipotential systems4 ,in this way physiology of development would lead us straight on into vitalism4 ,,references4--,an account of the subject1 with full literature1 is given by ,h4 ,driesch1 ,resultate und ,probleme der ,entwicklungsphysiologie der ,tiere in ,ergebnissen der ,anat4 u4 ,entw4-,gesch4 7#ahii74 ,other works are3 ,c4,h4 ,davenport1 ,experimental ,morphology 7,new ,york1 #ahig-ahii72 ,y4 ,delage1 ,la ,structure du protoplasma1 c4 7#ahie72 ,driesch1 ,mathem4 mech4 ,betrachtung morpholog4 ,probleme 7,jena1 #ahia72 ,entwicklungsmechan4 ,studien 7#ahia-ahic72 ,analytische ,theorie d4 organ4 ,entw4 7,leipzig1 #ahid72 ,studien uber d4 ,regulationsvermogen 7#ahig-aijj71 c42 ,c4 ,herbst1 ,uber die ,bedeutung d4 ,reizphysiologie fur die kausale ,auffassung von ,vorgangen i4 d4 tier4 ,ontogenese1 ,biolog4 ,centralblatt1 vols4 xiv4 u4 xv4 7,leipzig1 #ahid74 ,many papers on influence of salts on development in ,arch4 f4 ,entw4-,mech42 ,o4 ,hertwig1 ,papers in ,arch4 f4 mikr4 ,anat41 ,die ,zelle und die ,gewebe1 ii4 7,jena1 #ahig72 ,w4 ,his1 ,unsere ,korperform 7,leipzig1 #ahge72 ,j4 ,loeb1 ,untersuch4 z4 physiol4 ,morph4 7,wurzburg1 #ahia-ahib74 ,papers in ,arch4 f4 ,entw4-,mech4 and ,pfluger's ,archiv2 ,t4,h4 ,morgan1 ,the ,development of the ,frog's ,egg 7,new ,york1 #ahig72 ,papers in ,arch4 f4 ,entw4-,mech42 ,roux1 ,gesammelte ,abhandlungen 7,leipzig1 #ahie72 ,papers in ,arch4 f4 ,entw4-,mech42 ,a4 ,weismann1 ,das ,keimplasma 7,jena1 #ahib72 ,e4,b4 ,wilson1 papers in ,journ4 ,morph41 ,the ,cell in ,development and ,inheritance 7,new ,york1 #ahif74 7,h4 ,a4 ,e4 ,d47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,in the mammalia the word foetus is often employed in the same signification as embryo2 it is especially applied to the embryo in the later stages of uterine development4 #b ,it may be proper to mention1 as authors of this period who made special researches on the development of the embryo--7#a7 ,volcher ,coiter of ,groningen1 who1 along with ,aldrovandus of ,bologna1 made a series of observations on the formation of the chick1 day by day1 in the incubated egg1 which were described in a work published in #aegc1 and 7#b7 ,hieronymus ,fabricius 7ab ,aquapendente71 who1 in his work ,de formato foetu1 first published at ,padua in #afjj1 gave an interesting account1 illustrated by many fine engravings1 of uterogestation and the foetus of a number of quadrupeds and other animals1 and in a posthumous work entitled ,de formatione ovi et pulli1 edited by ,j4 ,prevost and published at ,padua in #afba1 described and illustrated by engravings the daily changes of the egg in incubation4 ,it is enough1 however1 to say that ,fabricius was entirely ignorant of the earlier phenomena of development which occur in the first two or three days1 and even of the source of the embryonic rudiments1 which he conceived to spring1 not from the yolk or true ovum1 but from the chalazae or twisted1 deepest part of the white4 ,the cicatricula he looked upon as merely the vestige of the pedicle by which the yolk had previously been attached to the ovary4 #c ,along with the work of ,w4 ,hunter must be mentioned a large collection of unpublished observations by ,dr ,james ,douglas1 which are preserved in the ,hunterian ,museum of ,glasgow ,university4 ,,emden1 a maritime town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,hanover1 near the mouth of the ,ems1 #di m4 ,n4,w4 from ,oldenburg by rail4 ,pop4 7#ahhe7 #ad1jai2 7#aije7 #bj1ged4 ,the ,ems once flowed beneath its walls1 but is now #b m4 distant1 and connected with the town by a broad and deep canal1 divided into the inner 7or dock7 harbour and the outer 7or free port7 harbour4 ,the latter is #c_/d m4 in length1 has a breadth of nearly #djj ft41 and since the construction of the ,ems-,jade and ,dortmund-,ems canals1 has been deepened to #ch ft41 thus allowing the largest sea-going vessels to approach its wharves4 ,the town is intersected by canals 7crossed by numerous bridges71 which bring it into communication with most of the towns in ,east ,friesland1 of which it is the commercial capital4 ,the waterways which traverse and surround it and the character of its numerous gabled medieval houses give it the appearance of an old ,dutch1 rather than of a ,german1 town4 ,of its churches the most noteworthy are the ,reformed ,great ,church 7,grosse ,kirche71 a large ,gothic building completed in #adee1 containing the tomb of ,enno ,,ii4 7d4 #aedj71 count of ,east ,friesland2 the ,gasthauskirche1 formerly the church of a ,franciscan friary founded in #acag2 and the ,neue ,kirche 7#afdc-afdg74 ,of its secular buildings1 the ,rathaus 7town-hall71 built in #aegd-aegf1 on the model of that of ,antwerp1 with a lofty tower1 and containing an interesting collection of arms and armour1 is particularly remarkable4 ,there are numerous educational institutions1 including classical and modern schools1 and schools of commerce1 navigation and telegraphy4 ,the town has two interesting museums4 ,emden is the seat of an active trade in agricultural produce and live-stock1 horses1 timber1 coal1 tea and wine4 ,the deep-sea fishing industry of the town is important1 the fishing fleet in #aijb numbering #fg vessels4 ,machinery1 cement1 cordage1 wire ropes1 tobacco1 leather1 c4 are manufactured4 ,emden is also of importance as the station of the submarine cables connecting ,germany with ,england1 ,north ,america and ,spain4 ,it has a regular steamboat service with ,borkum and ,norderney4 ,emden 7,emuden1 ,emetha7 is first mentioned in the #abth century1 when it was the capital of the ,eemsgo 7,emsgau1 or county of the ,ems71 one of the three hereditary countships into which ,east ,friesland had been divided by the emperor4 ,in #abeb the countship was sold to the bishops of ,munster2 but their rule soon became little more than nominal1 and in ,emden itself the family of ,abdena1 the episcopal provosts and castellans1 established their practical independence4 ,towards the end of the #adth century the town gained a considerable trade owing to the permission given by the provost to the pirates known as ,viktualienbruder to make it their market1 after they had been driven out of ,gothland by the ,teutonic ,order4 ,in #adjb1 after the defeat of the pirates off ,heligoland by the fleet of ,hamburg1 ,emden was besieged1 but it was not reduced by ,hamburg1 with the aid of ,edzard ,cirksena of ,greetsyl1 until #adca4 ,the town was held jointly by its captors till #adec1 when ,hamburg sold its rights to ,ulrich ,cirksena1 created count of ,east ,friesland by the emperor ,frederick ,,iii4 in #aded4 ,in #aedd the ,reformation was introduced1 and in the following years numerous ,protestant refugees from the ,low ,countries found their way to the town4 ,in #aeie ,emden became a free imperial city under the protection of ,holland1 and was occupied by a ,dutch garrison until #agdd when1 with ,east ,friesland1 it was transferred to ,prussia4 ,in #ahaj ,emden became the chief town of the ,french department of ,ems ,oriental2 in #ahae it was assigned to ,hanover1 and in #ahff was annexed with that kingdom by ,prussia4 ,see ,furbringer1 ,die ,stadt ,emden in ,gegenwart und ,vergangenheit 7,emden1 #ahib74 ,,emerald1 a bright green variety of beryl1 much valued as a gem-stone4 ,the word comes indirectly from the ,gr4 ,greek3 smaragdos 7,arabic zumurrud71 but this seems to have been a name vaguely given to a number of stones having little in common except a green colour4 ,pliny's smaragdus undoubtedly included several distinct species4 ,much confusion has arisen with respect to the emerald of the ,scriptures4 ,the ,hebrew word nophek1 rendered emerald in the ,authorized ,version1 probably meant the carbuncle3 it is indeed translated ,greek3 anthrax in the ,septuagint1 and a marginal reading in the ,revised ,version gives carbuncle4 ,on the other hand1 the word bareqath1 rendered ,greek3 smaragdos in the ,,lxx41 appears in the ,a4,v4 as carbuncle1 with the alternative reading of emerald in the ,r4,v4 ,it may have referred to the true emerald1 but ,flinders ,petrie suggests that it meant rock-crystal4 ,the properties of emerald are mostly the same as those described under ,,beryl4 ,the crystals often show simply the hexagonal prism and basal plane4 ,the prisms cleave1 though imperfectly1 at right angles to the geometrical axis2 and hexagonal slices were formerly worn in the ,east4 ,compared with most gems1 the emerald is rather soft1 its hardness 7#g4e7 being but slightly above that of quartz4 ,the specific gravity is low1 varying slightly in stones from different localities1 but being for the ,muzo emerald about #b4fg4 ,the refractive and dispersive powers are not high1 so that the cut stones display little brilliancy or fire4 ,the emerald is dichroic1 giving in the dichroscope a bluish-green and a yellowish-green image4 ,the magnificent colour which gives extraordinary value to this gem1 is probably due to chromium4 ,f4 ,wohler found #j4ahf of ,cr#b,o#c in the emerald of ,muzo1--a proportion which1 though small1 is sufficient to impart an emerald-green colour to glass4 ,the stone loses colour when strongly heated1 and ,m4 ,lewy suggested that the colour was due to an organic pigment4 ,greville ,williams showed that emeralds lost about #i of their weight on fusion1 the specific gravity being reduced to about #b4d4 ,the ancients appear to have obtained the emerald from ,upper ,egypt1 where it is said to have been worked as early as #afej ,b4,c4 ,it is known that ,greek miners were at work in the time of ,alexander the ,great1 and in later times the mines yielded their gems to ,cleopatra4 ,remains of extensive workings were discovered in the northern ,etbai by the ,french traveller1 ,f4 ,cailliaud1 in #ahag1 and the mines were re-opened for a short time under ,mehemet ,ali4 ,cleopatra's ,mines are situated in ,jebel ,sikait and ,jebel ,zabara near the ,red ,sea coast east of ,assuan4 ,they were visited in #ahia by ,e4,a4 ,floyer1 and the ,sikait workings were explored in #aijj by ,d4,a4 ,mac,alister and others4 ,the ,egyptian emeralds occur in mica-schist and talc-schist4 ,on the ,spanish conquest of ,south ,america vast quantities of emeralds were taken from the ,peruvians1 but the exact locality which yielded the stones was never discovered4 ,the only ,south ,american emeralds now known occur near ,bogota1 the capital of ,colombia4 ,the most famous mine is at ,muzo1 but workings are known also at ,coscuez and ,somondoco4 ,the emerald occurs in nests of calcite in a black bituminous limestone containing ammonites of ,lower ,cretaceous age4 ,the mineral is associated with quartz1 dolomite1 pyrites1 and the rare mineral called parisite--a fluo-carbonate of the cerium metals1 occurring in brownish-yellow hexagonal crystals1 and named after ,j4,j4 ,paris1 who worked the emeralds4 ,it has been suggested that the ,colombian emerald is not in its original matrix4 ,the fine stones are called canutillos and the inferior ones morallion4 ,in #ahcj emeralds were accidentally discovered in the ,ural ,mountains4 ,at the present time they are worked on the river ,takovaya1 about #fj m4 ,n4,e4 of ,ekaterinburg1 where they occur in mica-schist1 associated with aquamarine1 alexandrite1 phenacite1 c4 ,emerald is found also in mica-schist in the ,habachthal1 in the ,salzburg ,alps1 and in granite at ,eidsvold in ,norway4 ,emerald has been worked in a vein of pegmatite1 piercing slaty rocks1 near ,emmaville1 in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,the crystals occurred in association with topaz1 fluorspar and cassiterite2 but they were mostly of rather pale colour4 ,in the ,united ,states1 emerald has occasionally been found1 and fine crystals have been obtained from the workings for hiddenite at ,stonypoint1 ,alexander county1 ,n4,c4 ,many virtues were formerly ascribed to the emerald4 ,when worn1 it was held to be a preservative against epilepsy1 it cured dysentery1 it assisted women in childbirth1 it drove away evil spirits1 and preserved the chastity of the wearer4 ,administered internally it was reputed to have great medicinal value4 ,in consequence of its refreshing green colour it was naturally said to be good for the eyesight4 ,the stone known as ,oriental emerald is a green corundum4 ,lithia emerald is the mineral called hiddenite2 ,uralian emerald is a name given to demantoid2 ,brazilian emerald is merely green tourmaline2 evening emerald is the peridot2 pyro-emerald is fluorspar which phosphoresces with a green glow when heated2 and mother of emerald is generally a green quartz or perhaps in some cases a green felspar4 ,see ,,aquamarine1 ,,beryl4 7,f4 ,w4 ,r4997 ,,emeric-,,david1 ,,toussaint-,,bernard 7#agee-ahci71 ,french archaeologist and writer on art1 was born at ,aix1 in ,provence1 on the #bjth of ,august #agee4 ,he was destined for the legal profession1 and having gone in #agge to ,paris to complete his legal education1 he acquired there a taste for art which influenced his whole future career1 and he went to ,italy1 where he continued his art studies4 ,he soon returned1 however1 to his native village1 and followed for some time the profession of an advocate2 but in #aghg he succeeded his uncle ,antoine ,david as printer to the parlement4 ,he was elected mayor of ,aix in #agia2 and although he speedily resigned his office1 he was in #agic threatened with arrest1 and had for some time to adopt a vagrant life4 ,when danger was past he returned to ,aix1 sold his printing business1 and engaged in general commercial pursuits2 but he was not long in renouncing these also1 in order to devote himself exclusively to literature and art4 ,from #ahji to #ahad1 under the ,empire1 he represented his department in the ,lower ,house 7,corps legislatif72 in #ahad he voted for the downfall of ,napoleon2 in #ahae he retired into private life1 and in #ahaf he was elected a member of the ,institute4 ,he died in ,paris on the #bnd of ,april #ahci4 ,emeric-,david was placed in #ahbe on the commission appointed to continue ,l',histoire litteraire de la ,france4 ,his principal works are ,recherches sur l'art statuaire1 considere chez les anciens et les modernes 7,paris1 #ahje71 a work which obtained the prize of the ,institute2 ,suite d'etudes calquees et dessinees d'apres cinq tableaux de ,raphael 7,paris1 #ahah-ahba71 in #f vols4 fol42 ,jupiter1 ou recherches sur ce dieu1 sur son culte1 c4 7,paris1 #ahcc71 #b vols4 #hvo1 illustrated2 and ,vulcain 7,paris1 #ahcg74 ,,emeritus 7,lat4 from emereri1 to serve out one's time1 to earn thoroughly71 a term used of ,roman soldiers and public officials who had earned their discharge from the service1 a veteran1 and hence applied1 in modern times1 to a university professor 7professor emeritus7 who has vacated his chair1 on account of long service1 age or infirmity1 and1 in the ,presbyterian church1 to a minister who has for like reason given up his charge4 ,,emerson1 ,,ralph ,,waldo 7#ahjc-ahhb71 ,american poet and essayist1 was born in ,boston1 ,massachusetts1 on the #beth of ,may #ahjc4 ,seven of his ancestors were ministers of ,new ,england churches4 ,among them were some of those men of mark who made the backbone of the ,american character3 the sturdy ,puritan1 ,peter ,bulkeley1 sometime rector of ,odell in ,bedfordshire1 and afterward pastor of the church in the wilderness at ,concord1 ,new ,hampshire2 the zealous evangelist1 ,father ,samuel ,moody of ,agamenticus in ,maine1 who pursued graceless sinners even into the alehouse2 ,joseph ,emerson of ,malden1 a heroic scholar1 who prayed every night that no descendant of his might ever be rich2 and ,william ,emerson of ,concord1 ,mass41 the patriot preacher1 who died while serving in the army of the ,revolution4 ,sprung from such stock1 ,emerson inherited qualities of self-reliance1 love of liberty1 strenuous virtue1 sincerity1 sobriety and fearless loyalty to ideals4 ,the form of his ideals was modified by the metamorphic glow of ,transcendentalism which passed through the region of ,boston in the second quarter of the #aith century4 ,but the spirit in which ,emerson conceived the laws of life1 reverenced them and lived them out1 was the ,puritan spirit1 elevated1 enlarged and beautified by the poetic temperament4 ,his father was the ,rev4 ,william ,emerson1 minister of the ,first ,church 7,unitarian7 in ,boston4 ,ralph ,waldo was the fourth child in a family of eight1 of whom at least three gave evidence of extraordinary mental powers4 ,he was brought up in an atmosphere of hard work1 of moral discipline1 and 7after his father's death in #ahaa7 of that wholesome self-sacrifice which is a condition of life for those who are poor in money and rich in spirit4 ,his aunt1 ,miss ,mary ,moody ,emerson1 a brilliant old maid1 an eccentric saint1 was a potent factor in his education4 ,loving him1 believing in his powers1 passionately desiring for him a successful career1 but clinging with both hands to the old forms of faith from which he floated away1 this solitary1 intense woman did as much as any one to form1 by action and reaction1 the mind and character of the young ,emerson4 ,in #ahag he entered ,harvard ,college1 and graduated in #ahba4 ,in scholarship he ranked about the middle of his class4 ,in literature and oratory he was more distinguished1 receiving a ,boylston prize for declamation1 and two ,bowdoin prizes for dissertations1 the first essay being on ,the ,character of ,socrates and the second on ,the ,present ,state of ,ethical ,philosophy--both rather dull1 formal1 didactic productions4 ,he was fond of reading and of writing verse1 and was chosen as the poet for class-day4 ,his cheerful serenity of manner1 his tranquil mirthfulness1 and the steady charm of his personality made him a favourite with his fellows1 in spite of a certain reserve4 ,his literary taste was conventional1 including the standard ,british writers1 with a preference for ,shakespeare among the poets1 ,berkeley among the philosophers1 and ,montaigne 7in ,cotton's translation7 among the essayists4 ,his particular admiration among the college professors was the stately rhetorician1 ,edward ,everett2 and this predilection had much to do with his early ambition to be a professor of rhetoric and elocution4 ,immediately after graduation he became an assistant in his brother ,william's school for young ladies in ,boston1 and continued teaching1 with much inward reluctance and discomfort1 for three years4 ,the routine was distasteful2 he despised the superficial details which claimed so much of his time4 ,the bonds of conventionalism were silently dissolving in the rising glow of his poetic nature4 ,independence1 sincerity1 reality1 grew more and more necessary to him4 ,his aunt urged him to seek retirement1 self-reliance1 friendship with nature2 to be no longer the nursling of surrounding circumstances1 but to prepare a celestial abode for the muse4 ,the passion for spiritual leadership stirred within him4 ,the ministry seemed to offer the fairest field for its satisfaction4 ,in #ahbe he entered the divinity school at ,cambridge1 to prepare himself for the ,unitarian pulpit4 ,his course was much interrupted by ill-health4 ,his studies were irregular1 and far more philosophical and literary than theological4 ,in ,october #ahbf he was approbated to preach by the ,middlesex ,association of ,ministers4 ,the same year a threatened consumption compelled him to take a long journey in the south4 ,returning in #ahbg1 he continued his studies1 preached as a candidate in various churches1 and improved in health4 ,in #ahbi he married a beautiful but delicate young woman1 ,miss ,ellen ,tucker of ,concord1 and was installed as associate minister of the ,second ,church 7,unitarian7 in ,boston4 ,the retirement of his senior colleague soon left him the sole pastor4 ,emerson's early sermons were simple1 direct1 unconventional4 ,he dealt freely with the things of the spirit4 ,there was a homely elevation in his discourses1 a natural freshness in his piety1 a quiet enthusiasm in his manner1 that charmed thoughtful hearers4 ,early in #ahcb he lost his wife1 a sorrow that deeply depressed him in health and spirits4 ,following his passion for independence and sincerity1 he arrived at the conviction that the ,lord's ,supper was not intended by ,christ to be a permanent sacrament4 ,to him1 at least1 it had become an outgrown form4 ,he was willing to continue the service only if the use of the elements should be dropped and the rite made simply an act of spiritual remembrance4 ,setting forth these views1 candidly and calmly1 in a sermon1 he found his congregation1 not unnaturally1 reluctant to agree with him1 and therefore retired1 not without some disappointment1 from the pastoral office4 ,he never again took charge of a parish2 but he continued to preach1 as opportunity offered1 until #ahdg4 ,in fact1 he was always a preacher1 though of a singular order4 ,his supreme task was to befriend and guide the inner life of man4 ,the strongest influences in his development about this time were the liberating philosophy of ,coleridge1 the mystical visions of ,swedenborg1 the intimate poetry of ,wordsworth1 and the stimulating essays of ,carlyle4 ,on ,christmas ,day #ahcb he took passage in a sailing vessel for the ,mediterranean4 ,he travelled through ,italy1 visited ,paris1 spent two months in ,scotland and ,england1 and saw the four men whom he most desired to see--,landor1 ,coleridge1 ,carlyle and ,wordsworth4 ,the comfort of meeting such men of genius as these1 he wrote1 is that they talk sincerely4 ,but he adds that he found all four of them1 in different degrees1 deficient in insight into religious truth4 ,his visit to ,carlyle1 in the lonely farm-house at ,craigenputtock1 was the memorable beginning of a lifelong friendship4 ,emerson published ,carlyle's first books in ,america4 ,carlyle introduced ,emerson's ,essays into ,england4 ,the two men were bound together by a mutual respect deeper than a sympathy of tastes1 and a community of spirit stronger than a similarity of opinions4 ,emerson was a sweet-tempered ,carlyle1 living in the sunshine4 ,carlyle was a militant ,emerson1 moving amid thunderclouds4 ,the things that each most admired in the other were self-reliance1 directness1 moral courage4 ,a passage in ,emerson's ,diary1 written on his homeward voyage1 strikes the keynote of his remaining life4 ,a man contains all that is needful to his government within himself4444 ,all real good or evil that can befall him must be from himself4444 ,there is a correspondence between the human soul and everything that exists in the world2 more properly1 everything that is known to man4 ,instead of studying things without1 the principles of them all may be penetrated into within him4444 ,the purpose of life seems to be to acquaint man with himself4444 ,the highest revelation is that ,god is in every man4 ,here is the essence of that intuitional philosophy1 commonly called ,transcendentalism4 ,emerson disclaimed allegiance to that philosophy4 ,he called it the saturnalia1 or excess of faith4 ,his practical common sense recoiled from the amazing conclusions which were drawn from it by many of its more eccentric advocates4 ,his independence revolted against being bound to any scheme or system of doctrine1 however nebulous4 ,he said3 ,i wish to say what ,i feel and think to-day1 with the proviso that to-morrow perhaps ,i shall contradict it all4 ,but this very wish commits him to the doctrine of the inner light4 ,all through his life he navigated the ,transcendental sea1 piloted by a clear moral sense1 warned off the rocks by the saving grace of humour1 and kept from capsizing by a good ballast of ,new ,england prudence4 ,after his return from ,england in #ahcc he went to live with his mother at the old manse in ,concord1 ,mass41 and began his career as a lecturer in ,boston4 ,his first discourses were delivered before the ,society of ,natural ,history and the ,mechanics' ,institute4 ,they were chiefly on scientific subjects1 approached in a poetic spirit4 ,in the autumn of #ahce he married ,miss ,lydia ,jackson of ,plymouth1 having previously purchased a spacious old house and garden at ,concord4 ,there he spent the remainder of his life1 a devoted husband1 a wise and tender father1 a careful house-holder1 a virtuous villager1 a friendly neighbour1 and1 spite of all his disclaimers1 the central and luminous figure among the ,transcendentalists4 ,the doctrine which in others seemed to produce all sorts of extravagances--communistic experiments at ,brook ,farm and ,fruitlands1 weird schemes of political reform1 long hair on men and short hair on women--in his sane1 well-balanced nature served only to lend an ideal charm to the familiar outline of a plain1 orderly ,new ,england life4 ,some mild departures from established routine he tranquilly tested and as tranquilly abandoned4 ,he tried vegetarianism for a while1 but gave it up when he found that it did him no particular good4 ,an attempt to illustrate household equality by having the servants sit at table with the rest of the family was frustrated by the dislike of his two sensible domestics for such an inconvenient arrangement4 ,his theory that manual labour should form part of the scholar's life was checked by the personal discovery that hard labour in the fields meant poor work in the study4 ,the writer shall not dig1 was his practical conclusion4 ,intellectual independence was what he chiefly desired2 and this1 he found1 could be attained in a manner of living not outwardly different from that of the average college professor or country minister4 ,and yet it was to this property-holding1 debt-paying1 law-abiding1 well-dressed1 courteous-mannered citizen of ,concord that the ardent and enthusiastic turned as the prophet of the new idealism4 ,the influence of other ,transcendental teachers1 ,dr ,hedge1 ,dr ,ripley1 ,bronson ,alcott1 ,orestes ,brownson1 ,theodore ,parker1 ,margaret ,fuller1 ,henry ,thoreau1 ,jones ,very1 was narrow and parochial compared with that of ,emerson4 ,something in his imperturbable1 kindly presence1 his angelic look1 his musical voice1 his commanding style of thought and speech1 announced him as the possessor of the great secret which many were seeking--the secret of a freer1 deeper1 more harmonious life4 ,more and more1 as his fame spread1 those who would live in the spirit came to listen to the voice1 and to sit at the feet1 of the ,sage of ,concord4 ,it was on the lecture-platform that he found his power and won his fame4 ,the courses of lectures that he delivered at the ,masonic ,temple in ,boston1 during the winters of #ahce and #ahcf1 on ,great ,men1 ,english ,literature1 and ,the ,philosophy of ,history1 were well attended and admired4 ,they were followed by two discourses which commanded for him immediate recognition1 part friendly and part hostile1 as a new and potent personality4 ,his ,phi ,beta ,kappa oration at ,harvard ,college in ,august #ahcg1 on ,the ,american ,scholar1 was an eloquent appeal for independence1 sincerity1 realism1 in the intellectual life of ,america4 ,his address before the graduating class of the divinity school at ,cambridge1 in #ahch1 was an impassioned protest against what he called the defects of historical ,christianity 7its undue reliance upon the personal authority of ,jesus1 and its failure to explore the moral nature of man as the fountain of established teaching71 and a daring plea for absolute self-reliance and a new inspiration of religion4 ,in the soul1 he said1 let redemption be sought4 ,wherever a man comes1 there comes revolution4 ,the old is for slaves4 ,go alone4 ,refuse the good models1 even those which are sacred in the imagination of men4 ,cast conformity behind you1 and acquaint men at first hand with ,deity4 ,in this address ,emerson laid his hand on the sensitive point of ,unitarianism1 which rejected the divinity of ,jesus1 but held fast to his supreme authority4 ,a blaze of controversy sprang up at once4 ,conservatives attacked him2 ,radicals defended him4 ,emerson made no reply4 ,but amid this somewhat fierce illumination he went forward steadily as a public lecturer4 ,it was not his negations that made him popular2 it was the eloquence with which he presented the positive side of his doctrine4 ,whatever the titles of his discourses1 ,literary ,ethics1 ,man the ,reformer1 ,the ,present ,age1 ,the ,method of ,nature1 ,representative ,men1 ,the ,conduct of ,life1 their theme was always the same1 namely1 the infinitude of the private man4 ,those who thought him astray on the subject of religion listened to him with delight when he poetized the commonplaces of art1 politics1 literature or the household4 ,his utterance was ,delphic1 inspirational4 ,there was magic in his elocution4 ,the simplicity and symmetry of his sentences1 the modulations of his thrilling voice1 the radiance of his fine face1 even his slight hesitations and pauses over his manuscript1 lent a strange charm to his speech4 ,for more than a generation he went about the country lecturing in cities1 towns and villages1 before learned societies1 rustic lyceums and colleges2 and there was no man on the platform in ,america who excelled him in distinction1 in authority1 or in stimulating eloquence4 ,in #ahdg ,emerson visited ,great ,britain for the second time1 was welcomed by ,carlyle1 lectured to appreciative audiences in ,manchester1 ,liverpool1 ,edinburgh and ,london1 made many new friends among the best ,english people1 paid a brief visit to ,paris1 and returned home in ,july #ahdh4 ,i leave ,england1 he wrote1 with increased respect for the ,englishman4 ,his stuff or substance seems to be the best in the world4 ,i forgive him all his pride4 ,my respect is the more generous that ,i have no sympathy with him1 only an admiration4 ,the impressions of this journey were embodied in a book called ,english ,traits1 published in #ahef4 ,it might be called ,english ,traits and ,american ,confessions1 for nowhere does ,emerson's ,americanism come out more strongly4 ,but the ,america that he loved and admired was the ideal1 the potential ,america4 ,for the actual conditions of social and political life in his own time he had a fine scorn4 ,he was an intellectual ,brahmin4 ,his principles were democratic1 his tastes aristocratic4 ,he did not like crowds1 streets1 hotels--the people who fill them oppress me with their excessive civility4 ,humanity was his hero4 ,he loved man1 but be was not fond of men4 ,he had grave doubts about universal suffrage4 ,he took a sincere interest in social and political reform1 but towards specific reforms his attitude was somewhat remote and visionary4 ,on the subject of temperance he held aloof from the intemperate methods of the violent prohibitionists4 ,he was a believer in woman's rights1 but he was lukewarm towards conventions in favour of woman suffrage4 ,even in regard to slavery he had serious hesitations about the ways of the abolitionists1 and for a long time refused to be identified with them4 ,but as the irrepressible conflict drew to a head ,emerson's hesitation vanished4 ,he said in #ahef1 ,i think we must get rid of slavery1 or we must get rid of freedom4 ,with the outbreak of the ,civil ,war he became an ardent and powerful advocate of the cause of the ,union4 ,james ,russell ,lowell said1 ,to him more than to all other causes did the young martyrs of our ,civil ,war owe the sustaining strength of thoughtful heroism that is so touching in every record of their lives4 ,emerson the essayist was a condensation of ,emerson the lecturer4 ,his prose works1 with the exception of the slender volume entitled ,nature 7#ahcf71 were collected and arranged from the manuscripts of his lectures4 ,his method of writing was characteristic4 ,he planted a subject in his mind1 and waited for thoughts and illustrations to come to it1 as birds or insects to a plant or flower4 ,when an idea appeared1 he followed it1 as a boy might hunt a butterfly2 when it was captured he pinned it in his ,thought-book4 ,the writings of other men he used more for stimulus than for guidance4 ,he said that books were for the scholar's idle times4 ,i value them1 he said1 to make my top spin4 ,his favourite reading was poetry and mystical philosophy3 ,shakespeare1 ,dante1 ,george ,herbert1 ,goethe1 ,berkeley1 ,coleridge1 ,swedenborg1 ,jakob ,boehme1 ,plato1 the new ,platonists1 and the religious books of the ,east 7in translation74 ,next to these he valued books of biography and anecdote3 ,plutarch1 ,grimm1 ,st ,simon1 ,varnhagen von ,ense4 ,he had some odd dislikes1 and could find nothing in ,aristophanes1 ,cervantes1 ,shelley1 ,scott1 ,miss ,austen1 ,dickens4 ,novels he seldom read4 ,he was a follower of none1 an original borrower from all4 ,his illustrations were drawn from near and far4 ,the zodiac of ,denderah2 the ,savoyards who carved their pine-forests into toys2 the naked ,derar1 horsed on an idea1 charging a troop of ,roman cavalry2 the long1 austere ,pythagorean lustrum of silence2 ,napoleon on the deck of the ,bellerophon1 observing the drill of the ,english soldiers2 the ,egyptian doctrine that every man has two pairs of eyes2 ,empedocles and his shoe2 the horizontal stratification of the earth2 a soft mushroom pushing its way through the hard ground1--all these allusions and a thousand more are found in the same volume4 ,on his pages1 close beside the ,parthenon1 the ,sphinx1 ,st ,paul's1 ,etna and ,vesuvius1 you will find the ,white ,mountains1 ,monadnock1 ,agiocochook1 ,katahdin1 the pickerel-weed in bloom1 the wild geese honking through the sky1 the chick-a-dee braving the snow1 ,wall ,street and ,state ,street1 cotton-mills1 railroads and ,quincy granite4 ,for an abstract thinker he was strangely in love with the concrete facts of life4 ,idealism in him assumed the form of a vivid illumination of the real4 ,from the pages of his teeming note-books he took the material for his lectures1 arranging and rearranging it under such titles as ,nature1 ,school1 ,home1 ,genius1 ,beauty and ,manners1 ,self-,possession1 ,duty1 ,the ,superlative1 ,truth1 ,the ,anglo-,saxon1 ,the ,young ,american4 ,when the lectures had served their purpose he rearranged the material in essays and published them4 ,thus appeared in succession the following volumes3 ,essays 7,first ,series7 7#ahda72 ,essays 7,second ,series7 7#ahdd72 ,representative ,men 7#ahej72 ,english ,traits 7#ahef72 ,the ,conduct of ,life 7#ahfj72 ,society and ,solitude 7#ahgj72 ,letters and ,social ,aims 7#ahgf74 ,besides these1 many other lectures were printed in separate form and in various combinations4 ,emerson's style is brilliant1 epigrammatic1 gem-like2 clear in sentences1 obscure in paragraphs4 ,he was a sporadic observer4 ,he saw by flashes4 ,he said1 ,i do not know what arguments mean in reference to any expression of a thought4 ,the coherence of his writing lies in his personality4 ,his work is fused by a steady glow of optimism4 ,yet he states this optimism moderately4 ,the genius which preserves and guides the human race indicates itself by a small excess of good1 a small balance in brute facts always favourable to the side of reason4 ,his verse1 though in form inferior to his prose1 was perhaps a truer expression of his genius4 ,he said1 ,i am born a poet2 and again1 writing to ,carlyle1 he called himself half a bard4 ,he had the vision1 but not the faculty divine which translates the vision into music4 ,in his two volumes of verse 7,poems1 #ahdf2 ,may ,day and other ,pieces1 #ahfg7 there are many passages of beautiful insight and profound feeling1 some lines of surprising splendour1 and a few poems1 like ,the ,rhodora1 ,the ,snowstorm1 ,ode to ,beauty1 ,terminus1 ,the ,concord ,ode1 and the marvellous ,threnody on the death of his first-born boy1 of beauty unmarred and penetrating truth4 ,but the total value of his poetical work is discounted by the imperfection of metrical form1 the presence of incongruous images1 the predominance of the intellectual over the emotional element1 and the lack of flow4 ,it is the material of poetry not thoroughly worked out4 ,but the genius from which it came--the swift faculty of perception1 the lofty imagination1 the idealizing spirit enamoured of reality--was the secret source of all ,emerson's greatness as a speaker and as a writer4 ,whatever verdict time may pass upon the bulk of his poetry1 ,emerson himself must be recognized as an original and true poet of a high order4 ,his latter years were passed in peaceful honour at ,concord4 ,in #ahff ,harvard ,college conferred upon him the degree of ,,ll4,d41 and in #ahfg he was elected an overseer4 ,in #ahgj he delivered a course of lectures before the university on ,the ,natural ,history of the ,intellect4 ,in #ahgb his house was burned down1 and was rebuilt by popular subscription4 ,in the same year he went on his third foreign journey1 going as far as ,egypt4 ,about this time began a failure in his powers1 especially in his memory4 ,but his character remained serene and unshaken in dignity4 ,steadily1 tranquilly1 cheerfully1 he finished the voyage of life4 ,i trim myself to the storm of time1 ,i man the rudder1 reef the sail1 ,obey the voice at eve obeyed at prime3 ',lowly faithful1 banish fear1 ,right onward drive unharmed2 ,the port1 well worth the cruise1 is near4 ,and every wave is charmed4' ,emerson died on the #bgth of ,april #ahhb1 and his body was laid to rest in the peaceful cemetery of ,sleepy ,hollow1 in a grove on the edge of the village of ,concord4 ,,authorities4--,emerson's ,complete ,works1 ,riverside edition1 edited by ,j4,e4 ,cabot 7#aa vols41 ,boston1 #ahhc-ahhd72 another edition 7,london1 #e vols41 #aijf71 by ,g4 ,sampson1 in ,bohn's ,libraries2 ,the ,correspondence of ,thomas ,carlyle and ,ralph ,waldo ,emerson1 edited by ,charles ,eliot ,norton 7,boston1 #ahhc72 ,george ,willis ,cooke1 ,ralph ,waldo ,emerson3 ,his ,life1 ,writings and ,philosophy 7,boston1 #ahha72 ,alexander ,ireland1 ,ralph ,waldo ,emerson3 ,his ,life1 ,genius and ,writings 7,london1 #ahhb72 ,a4 ,bronson ,alcott1 ,ralph ,waldo ,emerson1 ,philosopher and ,seer 7,boston1 #ahhb72 ,moncure ,daniel ,conway1 ,emerson at ,home and ,abroad 7,boston1 #ahhb72 ,joel ,benton1 ,emerson as a ,poet 7,new ,york1 #ahhc72 ,f4,b4 ,sanborn 7editor71 ,the ,genius and ,character of ,emerson3 ,lectures at the ,concord ,school of ,philosophy 7,boston1 #ahhe72 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes1 ,ralph ,waldo ,emerson 7,american ,men of ,letters series7 7,boston1 #ahhe72 ,james ,elliott ,cabot1 ,a ,memoir of ,ralph ,waldo ,emerson1 #b vols4 7the authorized biography7 7,boston1 #ahhg72 ,edward ,waldo ,emerson1 ,emerson in ,concord 7,boston1 #ahhi72 ,richard ,garnett1 ,life of ,ralph ,waldo ,emerson 7,london1 #ahhh72 ,g4,e4 ,woodberry1 ,ralph ,waldo ,emerson 7#aijg74 ,critical estimates are also to be found in ,matthew ,arnold's ,discourses in ,america1 ,john ,morley's ,critical ,miscellanies1 ,henry ,james's ,partial ,portraits1 ,lowell's ,my ,study ,windows1 ,birrell's ,obiter ,dicta 7#bnd series71 ,stedman's ,poets of ,america1 ,whipple's ,american ,literature1 c4 ,there is a ,bibliography of ,ralph ,waldo ,emerson1 by ,g4,w4 ,cooke 7,boston1 #aijh74 7,h4 van ,d47 ,,emerson1 ,,william 7#agja-aghb71 ,english mathematician1 was born on the #adth of ,may #agja at ,hurworth1 near ,darlington1 where his father1 ,dudley ,emerson1 also a mathematician1 taught a school4 ,unsuccessful as a teacher he devoted himself entirely to studious retirement1 and published many works which are singularly free from errata4 ,in mechanics he never advanced a proposition which he had not previously tested in practice1 nor published an invention without first proving its effects by a model4 ,he was skilled in the science of music1 the theory of sounds1 and the ancient and modern scales2 but he never attained any excellence as a performer4 ,he died on the #bjth of ,may #aghb at his native village4 ,emerson was eccentric and indeed clownish1 but he possessed remarkable independence of character and intellectual energy4 ,the boldness with which he expressed his opinions on religious subjects led to his being charged with scepticism1 but for this there was no foundation4 ,emerson's works include ,the ,doctrine of ,fluxions 7#agdh72 ,the ,projection of the ,sphere1 ,orthographic1 ,stereographic and ,gnomical 7#agdi72 ,the ,elements of ,trigonometry 7#agdi72 ,the ,principles of ,mechanics 7#aged72 ,a ,treatise of ,navigation 7#agee72 ,a ,treatise of ,algebra1 in two books 7#agfe72 ,the ,arithmetic of ,infinites1 and the ,differential ,method1 illustrated by ,examples 7#agfg72 ,mechanics1 or the ,doctrine of ,motion 7#agfi72 ,the ,elements of ,optics1 in four books 7#agfh72 ,a ,system of ,astronomy 7#agfi72 ,the ,laws of ,centripetal and ,centrifugal ,force 7#agfi72 ,the ,mathematical ,principles of ,geography 7#aggj72 ,tracts 7#aggj72 ,cyclomathesis1 or an ,easy ,introduction to the several branches of the ,mathematics 7#aggj71 in ten vols42 ,a ,short ,comment on ,sir ,isaac ,newton's ,principia2 to which is added1 ,a ,defence of ,sir ,isaac against the objections that have been made to several parts of his works 7#aggj72 ,a ,miscellaneous ,treatise containing several ,mathematical ,subjects 7#aggf74 ,,emery 7,ger4 ,smirgel71 an impure variety of corundum1 much used as an abrasive agent4 ,it was known to the ,greeks under the name of ,greek3 smyris or ,greek3 smiris1 which is defined by ,dioscorides as a stone used in gem-engraving4 ,the ,hebrew word shamir 7related to the ,egyptian asmir71 where translated in our versions of the ,old ,testament adamant and diamond1 probably signified the emery-stone or corundum4 ,emery occurs as a granular or massive1 dark-coloured1 dense substance1 having much the appearance of an iron-ore4 ,its specific gravity varies with its composition from #c4g to #d4c4 ,under the microscope1 it is seen to be a mechanical aggregate of corundum1 usually in grains or minute crystals of a bluish colour1 with magnetite1 which also is granular and crystalline4 ,other iron oxides1 like haematite and limonite1 may be present as alteration-products of the magnetite4 ,some of the alumina and iron oxide may occasionally be chemically combined1 so as to form an iron spinel1 or hercynite4 ,in addition to these minerals emery sometimes contains quartz1 mica1 tourmaline1 cassiterite1 c4 ,indeed emery may be regarded as a rock rather than a definite mineral species4 ,the hardness of emery is about #h1 whereas that of pure corundum is #i4 ,the abrasive power1 or effective hardness1 of emery is by no means proportional to the amount of alumina which it contains1 but seems rather to depend on its physical condition4 ,thus1 taking the effective hardness of sapphire as #ajj1 ,dr ,j4 ,lawrence ,smith found that the emery of ,samos with #gj4aj of alumina had a corresponding hardness of #ef2 that of ,naxos1 with #fh4ec of ,al#b,o#c1 a hardness of #df2 and that of ,gumach with #gg4hb of ,al#b,o#c1 a hardness of #dg4 ,emery has been worked from a very remote period in the ,isle of ,naxos1 one of the ,cyclades1 whence the stone was called naxium by ,pliny and other ,roman writers4 ,the mineral occurs as loose blocks and as lenticular masses or irregular beds in granular limestone1 associated with crystalline schists4 ,the ,naxos emery has been described by ,professor ,g4 ,tschermak4 ,from a chemical analysis of a sample it has been calculated that the emery contained #eb4d of corundum1 #cb4a of magnetite1 #aa4e of tourmaline1 #b of muscovite and #b of margarite4 ,important deposits of corundum were discovered in ,asia ,minor by ,j4 ,lawrence ,smith1 when investigating ,turkish mineral resources about #ahdg4 ,the chief sources of emery there are ,gumach ,dagh1 a mountain about #ab m4 ,e4 of ,ephesus2 ,kula1 near ,ala-shehr2 and the mines in the hills between ,thyra and ,cosbonnar1 south of ,smyrna4 ,the occurrence is similar to that in ,naxos4 ,the emery is found as detached blocks in a reddish soil1 and as rounded masses embedded in a crystalline limestone associated with mica-schist1 gneiss and granite4 ,the proportion of corundum in this emery is said to vary from #cg to #eg4 ,emery is worked at several localities in the ,united ,states1 especially near ,chester1 in ,hampden county1 ,mass41 where it is associated with peridotites4 ,the corundum and magnetite are regarded by ,dr ,j4,h4 ,pratt as basic segregations from an igneous magma4 ,the deposits were discovered by ,h4,s4 ,lucas in #ahfd4 ,the hardness and toughness of emery render it difficult to work1 but it may be extracted from the rock by blasting in holes bored with diamond drills4 ,in the ,east fire-setting is employed4 ,the emery after being broken up is carefully picked by hand1 and then ground or stamped1 and separated into grades by wire sieves4 ,the higher grades are prepared by washing and eleutriation1 the finest being known as flour of emery4 ,a very fine emery dust is collected in the stamping room1 where it is deposited after floating in the air4 ,the fine powder is used by lapidaries and plate-glass manufacturers4 ,emery-wheels are made by consolidating the powdered mineral with an agglutinating medium like shellac or silicate of soda or vulcanized india-rubber4 ,such wheels are not only used by dentists and lapidaries but are employed on a large scale in mechanical workshops for grinding1 shaping and polishing steel4 ,emery-sticks1 emery-cloth and emery-paper are made by coating the several materials with powdered emery mixed with glue1 or other adhesive media4 7,see ,,corundum47 7,f4 ,w4 ,r4997 ,,emetics 7from ,gr4 ,greek3 emetikos1 causing vomit71 the term given to substances which are administered for the purpose of producing vomiting4 ,it is customary to divide emetics into two classes1 those which produce their effect by acting on the vomiting centre in the medulla1 and those which act directly on the stomach itself4 ,there is considerable confusion in the nomenclature of these two divisions1 but all are agreed in calling the former class central emetics1 and the latter gastric4 ,the gastric emetics in common use are alum1 ammonium carbonate1 zinc sulphate1 sodium chloride 7common salt71 mustard and warm water4 ,copper sulphate has been purposely omitted from this list1 since unless it produces vomiting very shortly after administration1 being itself a violent gastro-intestinal irritant1 some other emetic must promptly be administered4 ,the central emetics are apomorphine1 tartar emetic1 ipecacuanha1 senega and squill4 ,of these tartar emetic and ipecacuanha come under both heads3 when taken by the mouth they act as gastric emetics before absorption into the blood1 and later produce a further and more vigorous effect by stimulation of the medullary centre4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that1 valuable though these drugs are1 their action is accompanied by so much depression1 they should never be administered except under medical advice4 ,emetics have two main uses3 that of emptying the stomach1 especially in cases of poisoning1 and that of expelling the contents of the air passages1 more especially in children before they have learnt or have the strength to expectorate4 ,where a physician is in attendance1 the first of these uses is nearly always replaced by lavage of the stomach1 whereby any subsequent depression is avoided4 ,emetics still have their place1 however1 in the treatment of bronchitis1 laryngitis and diphtheria in children1 as they aid in the expulsion of the morbid products4 ,occasionally also they are administered when a foreign body has got into the larynx4 ,their use is contra-indicated in the case of anyone suffering from aneurism1 hernia or arterio-sclerosis1 or where there is any tendency to haemorrhage4 ,,emeu1 evidently from the ,port4 ,ema1#a a name which has in turn been applied to each of the earlier-known forms of ,ratite birds1 but has finally settled upon that which inhabits ,australia1 though1 up to the close of the #ahth century1 it was given by most authors to the bird now commonly called cassowary--this last word being a corrupted form of the ,malayan ,suwari 7see ,crawfurd1 ,gramm4 and ,dict4 ,malay ,language1 ii4 pp4 #agh and #be71 apparently first printed as ,casoaris by ,bontius in #afeh 7,hist4 nat4 et med4 ,ind4 ,orient4 p4 #ga74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,ceram ,cassowary4#b ,the cassowaries 7,casuariidae7 and emeus 7,dromaeidae7--as the latter name is now used--have much structural resemblance1 and form the order ,megistanes1#c which is peculiar to the ,australian ,region4 ,huxley showed 7,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc41 #ahfg1 pp4 #dbb1 #dbc17 that they agree in differing from the other ,ratitae in many important characters2 one of the most obvious of them is that each contour-feather appears to be double1 its hyporachis1 or aftershaft1 being as long as the main shaft--a feature noticed in the case of either form so soon as examples were brought to ,europe4 ,the external distinctions of the two families are1 however1 equally plain4 ,the cassowaries1 when adult1 bear a horny helmet on their head2 they have some part of the neck bare1 generally more or less ornamented with caruncles1 and the claw of the inner toe is remarkably elongated4 ,the emeus have no helmet1 their head is feathered1 their neck has no caruncles1 and their inner toes bear a claw of no singular character4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,emeu4 ,the type of the ,casuariidae is the species named by ,linnaeus ,struthio casuarius and by ,john ,latham ,casuarius emeu4 ,vieillot subsequently called it ,c4 galeatus1 and his epithet has been very commonly adopted by writers1 to the exclusion of the older specific appellation4 ,it seems to be peculiar to the island of ,ceram1 and was made known to naturalists1 as we learn from ,clusius1 in #aeig1 by the first ,dutch expedition to the ,east ,indies1 when an example was brought from ,banda1 whither it had doubtless been conveyed from its native island4 ,it was said to have been called by the inhabitants ,emeu1 or ,ema1 but this name they must have had from the earlier ,portuguese navigators4#d ,since that time examples have been continually imported into ,europe1 so that it has become one of the best-known members of the subclass ,ratitae4 ,for a long time its glossy1 but coarse and hair-like1 black plumage1 its lofty helmet1 the gaudily-coloured caruncles of its neck1 and the four or five barbless quills which represent its wing-feathers1 made it appear unique among birds4 ,but in #aheg ,dr ,george ,bennett certified the existence of a second and perfectly distinct species of cassowary1 an inhabitant of ,new ,britain1 where it was known to the natives as the ,mooruk1 and in his honour it was named by ,john ,gould ,c4 bennetti4 ,several examples were soon after received in ,england1 and these confirmed the view of it already taken4 ,a considerable number of other species of the genus have since been described from various localities in the same subregion4 ,conspicuous among them from its large size and lofty helmet is the ,c4 australis1 from the northern parts of ,australia4 ,its existence indeed had been ascertained1 by ,t4,s4 ,wall1 in #ahed1 but the specimen obtained by that unfortunate explorer was lost1 and it was not until #ahfg that an example was submitted to competent naturalists4 ,not much seems to be known of the habits of any of the cassowaries in a state of nature4 ,though the old species occurs rather plentifully over the whole of the interior of ,ceram1 ,a4,r4 ,wallace was unable to obtain or even to see an example4 ,they all appear to bear captivity well1 and the hens in confinement frequently lay their dark-green and rough-shelled eggs1 which1 according to the custom of the ,ratitae1 are incubated by the cocks4 ,the nestling plumage is mottled 7,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc41 #ahfc1 pl4 xlii471 and when about half-grown they are clothed in dishevelled feathers of a deep tawny colour4 ,of the emeus 7as the word is now restricted7 the best known is the ,casuarius novae-hollandiae of ,john ,latham1 made by ,vieillot the type of his genus ,dromaeus1#e whence the name of the family 7,dromaeidae7 is taken4 ,this bird immediately after the colonization of ,new ,south ,wales 7in #aghh7 was found to inhabit the south-eastern portion of ,australia1 where1 according to ,john ,hunter 7,hist4 ,journ41 c41 pp4 #dji1 #dac71 the natives call it ,maracry1 ,marryang or ,maroang2 but it has now been so hunted down that not an example remains at large in the districts that have been fully settled4 ,it is said to have existed also on the islands of ,bass ,straits and in ,tasmania1 but it has been exterminated in both1 without1 so far as is known1 any ornithologist having had the opportunity of determining whether the race inhabiting those localities was specifically identical with that of the mainland or distinct4 ,next to the ostrich the largest of existing birds1 the common emeu is an inhabitant of the more open country1 feeding on fruits1 roots and herbage1 and generally keeping in small companies4 ,the nest is a shallow pit scraped in the ground1 and from nine to thirteen eggs1 in colour varying from a bluish-green to a dark bottle-green1 are laid therein4 ,these are hatched by the cock-bird1 the period of incubation lasting from #gj to #hj days4 ,the young at birth are striped longitudinally with dark markings on a light ground4 ,a remarkable structure in ,dromaeus is a singular opening in the front of the windpipe1 communicating with a tracheal pouch4 ,this has attracted the attention of several anatomists1 and has been well described by ,dr ,murie 7,proc4 ,zool4 ,soc41 #ahfg1 pp4 #dje-dae74 ,various conjectures have been made as to its function1 the most probable of which seems to be that it is an organ of sound in the breeding-season1 at which time the hen-bird has long been known to utter a remarkably loud booming note4 ,due convenience being afforded to it1 the emeu thrives well1 and readily propagates its kind in ,europe4 ,like other ,ratite birds it will take to the water1 and examples have been seen voluntarily swimming a wide river4 7,a4 ,n47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,by ,moraes 7#agif7 and ,sousa 7#ahcj7 the word is said to be from the ,arabic ,na'ama or ,na'ema1 an ostrich 7,struthio camelus72 but no additional evidence in support of the assertion is given by ,dozy in #ahfi 7,glossaire des mots espagnols et portugais derives de l'arabe1 #bnd ed41 p4 #bfj74 ,according to ,gesner in #aeee 7lib4 iii4 p4 #gji71 it was the ,portuguese name of the crane 7,grus communis71 and had been transferred with the qualifying addition of di ,gei 7i4e4 ground-crane7 to the ostrich4 ,this statement is confirmed by ,aldrovandus 7lib4 ix4 cap4 #b74 ,subsequently1 but in what order can scarcely now be determined1 the name was naturally enough used for the ostrich-like birds inhabiting the lands discovered by the ,portuguese1 both in the ,old and in the ,new ,world4 ,the last of these are now known as rheas1 and the preceding as cassowaries4 #b ,the figures are taken1 by permission1 from ,messrs ,mosenthal and ,harting's ,ostriches and ,ostrich ,farming 7,trubner ,co41 #ahgg74 #c ,ann4 and ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hist4 ser4 #d1 xx4 p4 #ejj4 #d ,it is known that the ,portuguese preceded the ,dutch in their voyages to the ,east1 and it is almost certain that the latter were assisted by pilots of the former nation1 whose names for places and various natural objects would be imparted to their employers 7see ,,dodo74 #e ,the obvious misprint of ,dromeicus in this author's work 7,analyse1 c41 p4 #ed7 was foolishly followed by many naturalists1 forgetful that he corrected it a few pages farther on 7p4 #gj7 to ,dromaius--the properly latinized form of which is ,dromaeus4 ,,emigration 7from ,lat4 emigrare2 e1 ex1 out of1 and migrare1 to depart71 the movement of population out of one country into another 7see ,,migration74 ,,emilia1 a territorial division 7compartimento7 of ,italy1 bounded by ,venetia and ,lombardy on the ,n41 ,liguria on the ,w41 ,tuscany on the ,s41 the ,marches on the ,s4,e41 and the ,adriatic ,sea on the ,e4 ,it has an area of #gifg sq4 m41 and a population of #b1dgg1fij 7#aija71 embracing eight provinces1 as follows3--7#a7 ,bologna 7pop4 #ebi1fab2 #fa communes72 7#b7 ,ferrara 7#bgj1eeh2 #af communes72 7#c7 ,forli 7#bhc1iif2 #da communes72 7#d7 ,modena 7#cbc1eih2 #de communes72 7#e7 ,parma 7#cjc1fid2 #ej communes72 7#f7 ,piacenza 7#bej1dia2 #dg communes72 7#g7 ,ravenna 7#bcd1fef2 #ah communes72 7#h7 ,reggio nell' ,emilia 7#bha1jhe2 #dc communes74 ,in these provinces the chief towns1 with communal populations1 are as follows3-- 7#a7 ,bologna 7#adg1hih71 ,imola 7#cc1add71 ,budrio 7#ag1jgg71 ,s4 ,giovanni in ,persiceto 7#ae1igh71 ,castelfranco 7#ac1dhd71 ,castel ,s4 ,pietro 7#ac1dbf71 ,medicina 7#ab1ege71 ,molinella 7#ab1jha71 ,crevalcore 7#aa1djh74 7#b7 ,ferrara 7#hf1fge71 ,copparo 7#ci1bbb71 ,argenta 7#bj1dgd71 ,portomaggiore 7#bj1ada71 ,cento 7#ai1jgh71 ,bondeno 7#ae1fhb71 ,comacchio 7#aj1gde74 7#c7 ,forli 7#dc1cba71 ,rimini 7#dc1eie74 ,cesena 7#db1eji74 7#d7 ,modena 7#fc1jab71 ,carpi 7#bb1hgf71 ,mirandola 7#ac1gba71 ,finale nell' ,emilia 7#ab1hif71 ,pavullo nel ,frignano 7#ab1jcd74 7#e7 ,parma 7#dh1ebc71 ,borgo ,s4 ,donnino 7#ab1jai74 7#f7 ,piacenza 7#ce1fdg744 7#g7 ,ravenna 7#fc1cfd71 ,faenza 7#ci1geg71 ,lugo 7#bg1bdd71 ,bagnacavallo 7#ae1agf71 ,brisighella 7#ac1hae71 ,alfonsine 7#aj1cfi74 7#h7 ,reggio nell' ,emilia 7#eh1iic71 ,correggio 7#ad1dde71 ,guastalla 7#aa1jia74 ,the northern portion of ,emilia is entirely formed by a great plain stretching from the ,via ,aemilia to the ,po2 its highest point is not more than #bjj ft4 above sea-level1 while along the ,e4 coast are the lagoons at the mouth of the ,po and those called the ,valli di ,comacchio to the ,s4 of them1 and to the ,s4 again the plain round ,ravenna 7#aj ft471 which continues as far as ,rimini1 where the mountains come down to the coast4 ,immediately to the ,s4,e4 of the ,via ,aemilia the mountains begin to rise1 culminating in the central chain of the ,ligurian and ,tuscan ,apennines4 ,the boundary of ,emilia follows the highest summits of the chain in the provinces of ,parma1 ,reggio and ,modena1 passing over the ,monte ,bue 7#eiae ft47 and the ,monte ,cimone 7#gajc ft471 while in the provinces of ,bologna and ,forli it keeps somewhat lower along the ,n4,e4 slopes of the chain4 ,with the exception of the ,po1 the main rivers of ,emilia descend from this portion of the ,apennines1 the majority of them being tributaries of the ,po2 the ,trebbia 7which rises in the province of ,genoa71 ,taro1 ,secchia and ,panaro are the most important4 ,even the ,reno1 ,ronco and ,montone1 which now flow directly into the ,adriatic1 were1 in ,roman times1 tributaries of the ,po1 and the ,savio and ,rubicone seem to be the only streams of any importance from these slopes of the ,tuscan ,apennines which ran directly into the sea in ,roman times 7see ,,apennines74 ,railway communication in the plain of ,emilia is unattended by engineering difficulties 7except for the bridging of rivers7 and is mainly afforded by the line from ,piacenza to ,rimini4 ,this1 as far as ,bologna1 forms part of the main route from ,milan to ,florence and ,rome1 while beyond ,rimini it follows the ,s4,e4 coast of ,italy past ,ancona as far as ,brindisi and ,lecce4 ,the description follows this main line in a ,s4,e4 direction4 ,piacenza1 being immediately ,s4 of a bridge over the ,po1 is an important centre2 a line runs to the ,w4 to ,voghera1 through which it communicates with the lines of ,w4 ,lombardy and ,piedmont1 and immediately ,n4 of the ,po a line goes off to ,cremona4 ,a new bridge over the ,po carries a direct line from ,cremona to ,borgo ,s4 ,donnino4 ,from ,parma starts a main line1 followed by expresses from ,milan to ,rome1 which crosses the ,apennines to ,spezia 7and ,sarzana1 for ,pisa and ,rome71 tunnelling under the pass of ,la ,cisa1 while in a ,n4 and ,n4,e4 direction lines run to ,brescia and ,suzzara4 ,from ,reggio branch lines run to ,guastalla1 ,carpi and ,sassuolo1 there being also a line from ,sassuolo to ,modena4 ,at ,modena the main line to ,verona through ,suzzara and ,mantua diverges to the ,n42 there is also a branch ,n4,n4,e4 to ,mirandola1 and another ,s4 to ,vignola4 ,bologna is1 however1 the most important railway centre2 besides the line ,s4 to ,pistoia and ,florence over the ,apennines and the line ,s4,e4 to ,rimini1 ,ancona and ,brindisi1 there is the main line ,n4,n4,e4 to ,ferrara1 ,padua and ,venice1 and there are branches to ,budrio and ,portomaggiore to the ,n4,e41 and to ,s4 ,felice sul ,panaro and ,poggio ,rusco to the ,n41 which connect the main lines of the district4 ,at ,castel ,bolognese1 #e m4 ,n4,w4 of ,faenza1 a branch goes off to ,lugo1 whence there are connexions with ,budrio1 ,lavezzola 7on the line between ,ravenna and ,ferrara7 and ,ravenna1 and at ,faenza a line1 not traversed by express trains1 goes across the ,apennines to ,florence4 ,rimini is connected by a direct line with ,ravenna and ,ferrara2 and ,ferrara1 besides the main line ,s4,s4,w4 to ,bologna and ,n4 by ,e4 to ,padua1 has a branch to ,poggio ,rusco1 which goes on to ,suzzara1 a station on the main line between ,modena and ,verona4 ,there are also many steam tramways in the flatter part of the province1 the fertility and agricultural activity of which are considerable4 ,the main products of the plain are cereals1 wine1 and1 in the marshy districts near the ,po1 rice2 the system prevailing is that of the mezzadria--half the produce to the owner and half to the cultivator4 ,the ancient ,roman divisions of the fields are still preserved in some places4 ,there are also considerable pastures1 and cheese is produced1 especially ,parmesan4 ,flax1 hemp and silkworms are also cultivated1 and a considerable quantity of poultry kept4 ,the hill districts produce cereals1 vines1 olives and fruit2 while on the mountains are considerable chestnut and other forests1 and extensive summer pastures1 the flocks going in part to the ,maremma in summer1 and in part to the pastures of the plain of the ,emilia4 ,the name ,emilia comes from the ,via ,aemilia 7q4v471 the ,roman road from ,ariminum to ,placentia1 which traversed the entire district from ,s4,e4 to ,n4,w41 its line being closely followed by the modern railway4 ,the name was transferred to the district 7which formed the eighth ,augustan region of ,italy7 as early as the time of ,martial1 in popular usage 7,epigr4 vi4 #he4 #e71 and in the #bnd and #crd centuries it is frequently named as a district under imperial judges 7iuridici71 generally in combination with ,flaminia or ,liguria and ,tuscia4 ,the district of ,ravenna was1 as a rule1 from the #crd to the #eth century1 not treated as part of ,aemilia1 the chief town of the latter being ,placentia4 ,in the #dth century ,aemilia and ,liguria were joined to form a consular province2 after that ,aemilia stood alone1 ,ravenna being sometimes temporarily added to it4 ,the boundaries of the ancient district correspond approximately with those of the modern4 ,in the ,byzantine period ,ravenna became the seat of an exarch2 and after the ,lombards had for two centuries attempted to subdue the ,pentapolis 7,ravenna1 ,bologna1 ,forli1 ,faenza1 ,rimini71 ,pippin took these cities from ,aistulf and gave them1 with the ,march of ,ancona1 to the papacy in #gee1 to which1 under the name of ,romagna1 they continued to belong4 ,at first1 however1 the archbishop of ,ravenna was in reality supreme4 ,the other chief cities of ,emilia--,ferrara1 ,modena1 ,reggio1 ,parma1 ,piacenza--were1 on the other hand1 independent1 and in the period of the communal independence of the individual towns of ,italy each of the chief cities of ,emilia1 whether belonging to ,romagna or not1 had a history of its own2 and1 notwithstanding the feuds of ,guelphs and ,ghibellines1 prospered considerably4 ,the study of ,roman law1 especially at ,bologna1 acquired great importance4 ,the imperial influence kept the papal power in check4 ,nicholas ,,iii4 obtained control of the ,romagna in #abgh1 but the papal dominion almost fell during the ,avignon period1 and was only maintained by the efforts of ,cardinal ,albornoz1 a ,spaniard sent to ,italy by ,innocent ,,vi4 in #acec4 ,even so1 however1 the papal supremacy was little more than a name2 and this state of things only ceased when ,caesar ,borgia1 the natural son of ,alexander ,,vi41 crushed most of the petty princes of ,romagna1 intending to found there a dynasty of his own2 but on the death of ,alexander ,,vi4 it was his successors in the papacy who carried on and profited by what ,caesar ,borgia had begun4 ,the towns were thenceforth subject to the church and administered by cardinal legates4 ,ferrara and ,comacchio remained under the house of ,este until the death of ,alphonso ,,ii4 in #aeig1 when they were claimed by ,pope ,clement ,,viii4 as vacant fiefs4 ,modena and ,reggio1 which had formed part of the ,ferrara duchy1 were thenceforth a separate duchy under a branch of the house of ,este1 which was descended from a natural son of ,alphonso ,i4 ,carpi and ,mirandola were small principalities1 the former of which passed to the house of ,este in #aebe1 in which year ,charles ,v4 expelled the ,pio family1 while the last of the ,pico dynasty of ,mirandola1 ,francesco ,maria1 having sided with the ,french in the war of ,spanish ,succession1 was deprived of his duchy in #agji by the emperor ,joseph ,i41 who sold it to the house of ,este in #agaj4 ,parma and ,piacenza were at first under the ,farnese1 ,pope ,paul ,,iii4 having placed his natural son ,pier ,luigi therein #aede1 and then1 after the extinction of the family in #agca1 under a secondary branch of the ,bourbons of ,spain4 ,in #agif-ahad1 ,emilia was first incorporated in the ,italian republic and then in the ,napoleonic ,italian kingdom2 after #ahae there was a return to the status quo ante1 ,romagna returning to the papacy and its ecclesiastical government1 the duchy of ,parma being given to ,marie ,louise1 wife of the deposed ,napoleon1 and ,modena to the archduke ,francis of ,austria1 the heir of the last ,este4 ,in ,romagna and ,modena the government was oppressive1 arbitrary1 corrupt and unprogressive1 while in ,parma things were better4 ,in #ahba and #ahca there were unsuccessful attempts at revolt in ,emilia1 which were sternly and cruelly repressed2 chronic discontent continued and the people joined again in the movement of #ahdh-ahdi1 which was crushed by ,austrian troops4 ,in #ahei the struggle for independence was finally successful1 ,emilia passing to the ,italian kingdom almost without resistance4 ,,eminence 7,lat4 eminentia71 a title of honour now confined to the cardinals of the ,church of ,rome4 ,it was originally given as a complimentary title to emperors1 kings1 and then to less conspicuous persons4 ,the ,roman empire of the #dth century adopted from the vanity of the ,east the forms and ceremonies of ostentatious greatness4 ,gibbon includes in the profusion of epithets by which the purity of the ,latin language was debased1 and which were lavished on the principal officers of the empire1 your ,sincerity1 your ,gravity1 your ,excellency1 your ,eminence1 your sublime and wonderful ,magnitude1 your illustrious and magnificent ,highness4 ,from the notitia dignitatum it passed into the ,latin of the middle ages as a flattering epithet1 and was applied in the church and by the popes to the dignified clergy at large1 and sometimes as a pure form of civility to churchmen of modest rank4 ,on the #ajth of ,june #afcj1 ,urban ,,viii4 confined the use of the titles ,eminentiae and ,eminentissimi to the cardinals1 to imperial electors1 and to the master of the ,hospital of ,st ,john of ,jerusalem 7order of the ,knights of ,malta74 ,since the dissolution of the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 and the entire change1 if not actual destruction1 of the order of ,st ,john1 the title eminence has become strictly confined to the cardinals4 ,before #afcj the members of the ,sacred ,college were ,illustrissimi and ,reverendissimi4 ,it is1 therefore1 not correct to speak of a cardinal who lived before that time as his ,eminence4 ,see du ,cange1 ,glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis 7,niort and ,london1 #ahhd71 s4v4 ,eminentia4 ,,eminent ,,domain 7,lat4 eminens1 rising high above surrounding objects3 and dominium1 domain71 a term applied in law to the sovereign right of a state to appropriate private property to public uses1 whether the owner consents or not4 ,it is repeatedly employed by ,grotius 7e4g4 ,de jure belli1 bk4 iii4 c4 #bj1 s4 #g71 ,bynkershoek 7,quaest4 jur4 pub4 bk4 #b1 c4 #ae71 and ,puffendorf 7,de jure naturae et gentium1 bk4 i4 c4 #a1 s4 #ai71--the two latter1 however1 preferring the word imperium to dominium2 and by other ,dutch jurists4 ,but in modern times it is chiefly in the ,united ,states of ,america that the doctrine of eminent domain has received its application1 and it is chiefly to ,american law that the following remarks refer 7see also the article ,,compensation74 ,eminent domain is distinguishable alike from the police power1 by which restrictions are imposed on private property in the public interest1 e4g4 in connexion with the liquor traffic or public health 7see re ,haff 7#aijd71 #aig ,u4,s4 #dhh72 from the power of taxation1 by which the owner of private property is compelled to contribute a portion of it for public purposes2 and from the war-power1 involving the destruction of private property in the course of military operations4 ,the police power fetters rights of property2 eminent domain takes them away4 ,the power of taxation is analogous to eminent domain as regards the purposes to which the contribution of the tax-payer is to be applied4 ,but1 unlike eminent domain1 it does not necessarily involve a taking of specific property for those purposes4 ,the destruction of property in military operations--or in the discharge by ,government of other duties in cases of necessity1 e4g4 in order to check the progress of a fire in a city--clearly cannot be said to be an exercise of the power of eminent domain4 ,the question whether the element of compensation is necessarily involved in the idea of eminent domain has in modern times aroused much controversy4 ,according to one school of thought 7see ,lewis1 ,eminent ,domain1 s4 #aj71 this question must be answered in the negative4 ,according to a second1 whose view has the support of the civilians 7see ,randolph1 ,eminent ,domain1 s4 #bbg2 ,mills1 ,eminent ,domain1 s4 #a7 compensation is an inherent attribute of the power4 ,an intermediate view is advocated by ,professor ,thayer 7,cases on ,constitutional ,law1 vol4 #a1 #iec71 according to which eminent domain springs from the necessities of government1 while the obligation to reimburse rests upon the natural right of individuals4 ,the right to compensation is thus not a component part of the power to take1 but arises at the same time and the latter cannot exist without it4 ,the relation between the two is that of substance and shadow4 ,the matter is not1 however1 of great practical importance1 for the ,federal ,constitution prohibits the exercise of the power without just compensation 7#eth ,amendment71 while in most of the states the ,state constitution or other legislation has imposed upon it a similar limitation3 and the tendency of modern judicial decisions is in favour of the view that the absence of such a limitation will make an enactment so far unconstitutional and invalid4 ,in order to justify the exercise of the power of eminent domain1 the purposes to which the property taken is to be applied must be public1 i4e4 primarily public1 and not primarily of private interest and merely incidentally beneficial to the public 7,madisonville ,traction ,co4 v4 ,mining ,co41 #aijd1 #aif ,u4,s4 #bci74 ,subject to this definition1 the term public receives a wide interpretation4 ,all kinds of property may be taken2 and the procedure indicated by the different legislatures must be followed4 ,any contravention of this rule would involve a breach of the #eth ,amendment of the ,federal ,constitution1 which provides that no person 444 shall be 444 deprived of 444 property1 without due process of law4 ,it may be added that if the performance of a covenant is rendered impossible by an act of eminent domain the covenantor is excused4 ,in ,english law1 the only exact analogue to the doctrine of eminent domain is to be found in the prerogative right of the crown to enter upon the lands of subjects or to interfere with their enjoyment for the defence of the realm 7see ,a4,g4 v4 ,tomline2 #ahgi2 #ab ,ch4 ,d4 #bad74 ,no attempt is made to exercise this prerogative1 and lands are acquired for state purposes by statute usually framed on or incorporating the ,lands ,clauses ,acts 7see ,,compensation74 ,the ,french ,code ,civil secures compensation to the owner of property in cases of expropriation pour cause d'utilite publique 7art4 #ede71 and there is similar provision in ,belgium 7,const4 ,law1 art4 ,,ii471 ,holland 7,fundamental ,law1 art4 #adg71 ,spain 7,civil ,code1 art4 #cdi1 and ,law of #crd ,may1 #ahda71 and most other ,european states4 ,it has been held in ,france that the right to compensation does not arise under art4 #ede of the ,code ,civil where only a servitude d'utilite publique is created on a private individual's land4 ,in addition to the authorities cited in the text1 see ,lewis1 ,eminent ,domain 7#bnd ed41 ,chicago1 #aijj72 ,mills1 ,eminent ,domain 7#bnd ed41 ,st ,louis1 #ahhh72 ,randolph1 ,eminent ,domain in the ,united ,states 7,boston1 #ahid74 7,a4 ,w4 ,r47 ,,eminescu1 ,,michail 7#ahdi-ahhi71 the greatest ,rumanian poet of the #aith century1 was born on the #bjth of ,december in ,ipateshti near ,botoshani1 in the north of ,moldavia4 ,he was of ,turco-,tatar origin1 and his surname was originally ,emin2 this was changed to ,eminovich and finally to the ,rumanian form ,eminescu4 ,he was educated for a time in ,czernowitz1 and then entered the civil service4 ,in #ahfd he resumed his studies in ,transylvania1 but soon joined a roving theatrical company where he played in turn the roles of actor1 prompter and stage-manager4 ,after a few years he went to ,vienna1 ,jena and ,berlin1 where he attended lectures1 especially on philosophy4 ,in #ahgd he was appointed school inspector and librarian at the university of ,jassy1 but was soon turned out through the change of government1 and took charge1 as editor in chief1 of the ,conservative paper ,timpul 7,times74 ,in #ahhc he had the first attack of the insanity hereditary in his family1 and in #ahhi he died in a private institution in ,bucharest4 ,in #ahgj his great poetical talent was revealed by two contributions to the ,convorbiri literare1 the organ of the ,junimist party in ,jassy2 these were the poems ,venera si ,madona and ,epigonii4 ,other poems followed and soon established his claim to be the first among the modern poets of his country4 ,he was thoroughly acquainted with the chronicles of the past1 had a complete mastery of the ,rumanian language1 and was a lover and admirer of ,rumanian popular poetry4 ,influenced by these studies and by the philosophy of ,schopenhauer1 he introduced a new spirit into ,rumanian poetry4 ,mystically inclined and himself of a melancholy disposition1 he lived in the glory of the medieval ,rumanian past2 stifled by the artificiality of the world around him1 he rebelled against the conventionality of society and his surroundings4 ,in inimitable language he denounced the vileness of the present and painted in glowing pictures the heroism of the past2 he also surprised nature in its primitive beauty1 and he gave expression to stirring emotions in lyrics couched in the language and metre of popular poetry4 ,he further proved himself an unsurpassed master in satire4 ,over all his poetry hangs a cloud of sadness1 the sense of coming doom4 ,simplicity of language1 masterly handling of rhyme and verse1 deep thought and plastic expression made ,eminescu the creator of a school of poetry which dominated the thought of ,rumania and the expression of ,rumanian writers and poets at the end of the #aith century and the beginning of the #bjth4 ,five editions of his collected poems appeared after #ahij4 ,some of them were translated into ,german by ,carmen ,sylva and ,mite ,kremnitz1 and others have also been translated into several other languages4 ,eminescu also wrote two short novels1 real poems in prose 7,jassy1 #ahij74 7,m4 ,g47 ,,emin ,,pasha ,,eduard ,,schnitzer 7#ahdj-ahib71 ,german traveller1 administrator and naturalist1 was the son of ,ludwig ,schnitzer1 a merchant of ,oppeln in ,silesia1 and was born in ,oppeln on the #bhth of ,march #ahdj4 ,he was educated at the universities of ,breslau1 ,berlin and ,konigsberg1 and took the degree of ,m4,d4 at ,berlin4 ,he displayed an early predilection for zoology and ornithology1 and in later life became a skilled and enthusiastic collector1 particularly of ,african plants and birds4 ,when he was four-and-twenty he determined to seek his fortunes abroad1 and made his way to ,turkey1 where1 after practising medicine on his own account for a short time1 he was appointed 7in #ahfe7 quarantine medical officer at ,antivari4 ,the duties of the post were not heavy1 and allowed him leisure for a diligent study of ,turkish1 ,arabic and ,persian4 ,from #ahgj to #ahgd he was in the service of the governor of northern ,albania1 had adopted a ,turkish name 7though not that by which he afterwards became so widely known71 and was practically naturalized as a ,turk4 ,after a visit home in #ahge he went to ,cairo1 and then to ,khartum1 in the hope of an opportunity for travelling in the interior of ,africa4 ,this came to him in the following year1 when ,general ,charles ,george ,gordon1 who had recently succeeded ,sir ,samuel ,baker as governor of the equatorial provinces of ,egypt1 invited ,schnitzer1 who was now known as ,emin ,effendi1 to join him at ,lado on the upper ,nile4 ,although nominally ,gordon's medical officer1 ,emin was soon entrusted with political missions of some importance to ,uganda and ,unyoro4 ,in these he acquitted himself so well that when1 in #ahgh1 ,gordon's successor at ,lado was deprived of his office on account of malpractices 7,gordon himself having been made governor-general of the ,sudan71 ,emin was chosen to fill the post of governor of the ,equatorial ,province 7i4e4 the old equatorial provinces minus the ,bahr-el-,ghazal7 and given the title of bey4 ,he proved an energetic and enterprising governor2 indeed1 his enterprise on more than one occasion brought him into conflict with ,gordon1 who eventually decided to remove ,emin to ,suakin4 ,before the change could be effected1 however1 ,gordon resigned his post in the ,sudan1 and his successor revoked the order4 ,the next three or four years were employed by ,emin in various journeys through his province1 and in the initiation of schemes for its development1 until in #ahhb1 on his return from a visit to ,khartum1 he became aware that the ,mahdist rising1 which had originated in ,kordofan1 was spreading southward4 ,the effect of the rising was1 of course1 more markedly felt in ,emin's province after the abandonment of the ,sudan by the ,egyptian government in #ahhd4 ,he was obliged to give up several of his stations in face of the ,mahdist advance1 and ultimately to retire from ,lado1 which had been his capital1 to ,wadelai4 ,this last step followed upon his receipt of a letter from ,nubar ,pasha1 informing him that it was impossible for the ,egyptian government to send him help1 and that he must stay in his province or retire towards the coast as best he could4 ,emin 7who about this time was raised to the rank of pasha7 had some thoughts of a retreat to ,zanzibar1 but decided to remain where he was and endeavour to hold his own4 ,to this end he carried on protracted negotiations with neighbouring native potentates4 ,when1 in #ahhg1 7,sir7 ,h4,m4 ,stanley's expedition was on its way to relieve him1 it is clear from ,emin's diary that he had no wish to leave his province1 even if relieved4 ,he had done good work there1 and established a position which he believed himself able to maintain4 ,he hoped1 however1 that the presence of ,stanley's force1 when it came1 would strengthen his position2 but the condition of the relieving party1 when it arrived in ,april #ahhh1 did not seem to ,emin to promise this4 ,stanley's proposal to ,emin1 as stated in the latter's diary1 was that ,emin should either remain as governor-general on behalf of the king of the ,belgians1 or establish himself on ,victoria ,nyanza on behalf of a group of ,english merchants who wished to start an enterprise in ,africa on the model of the ,east ,india ,company4 ,after much hesitation1 and prompted by a growing disaffection amongst the natives 7owing1 as he maintained1 to his loss of prestige after the arrival of ,stanley's force71 ,emin decided to accompany ,stanley to the coast1 where the expedition arrived in ,december #ahhi4 ,unfortunately1 on the evening of a reception dinner given in his honour1 ,emin met with an accident which resulted in fracture of the skull4 ,careful nursing gradually restored him to health1 and on his convalescence he resolutely maintained his decision to remain in ,africa1 and1 if possible1 to work there in future on behalf of the ,german government4 ,the seal was definitely set upon this decision by his formal engagement on behalf of his native country1 early in #ahij4 ,preparations for a new expedition into the interior were set on foot1 and meanwhile ,emin was honoured in various ways by learned societies in ,germany and elsewhere4 ,the object of the new expedition was 7to quote ,emin's instructions7 to secure on behalf of ,germany the territories situated south of and along ,victoria ,nyanza up to ,albert ,nyanza1 and to make known to the population there that they were placed under ,german supremacy and protection1 and to break or undermine ,arab influence as far as possible4 ,the force1 which was well equipped1 started at the end of ,april #ahij4 ,but before it had penetrated far inland the political reasons for sending the expedition vanished with the signature1 on the #ast of ,july #ahij1 of the ,anglo-,german agreement defining the spheres of influence of the two nations1 an agreement which excluded the ,albert ,nyanza region from the ,german sphere4 ,for a time things went well enough with the expedition2 ,emin occupied the important town of ,tabora on the route from the coast to ,tanganyika and established the post of ,bukoba on ,victoria ,nyanza1 but by degrees ill-fortune clouded its prospects4 ,difficulties on the route2 dissensions between ,emin and the authorities in ,german ,east ,africa1 and misunderstandings on the part of both2 epidemics of disease in ,emin's force1 followed by a growing spirit of mutiny among his native followers2 an illness of a painful nature which attacked him--all these gradually undermined ,emin's courage1 and his diaries at the close of #ahia reflect a gloomy and almost hopeless spirit4 ,in ,may that year he had crossed into the ,congo ,state by the south shore of ,albert ,edward ,nyanza1 and many months were spent on the borders of the great ,congo ,forest and in the ,undusuma country south-west of ,albert ,nyanza1 breaking ground new to ,europeans4 ,in ,december #ahia he sent off his companion1 ,dr ,stuhlmann1 with the bulk of the caravan1 on the way back to the east coast4 ,emin remained behind with the sick1 and with a very reduced following left the lake district in ,march #ahib for the ,congo river4 ,on reaching ,ipoto on the ,ituri he came within the region of the ,arab slave raiders and ivory hunters1 in whose company he at times travelled4 ,these gentry were incensed against ,emin for the energetic way in which he had dealt with their comrades while in ,german territory1 and against ,europeans generally by the campaign for their suppression begun by the ,congo ,state4 ,at the instigation of one of these ,arabs ,emin was murdered on the #bcrd or #bdth of ,october #ahib at ,kinena1 a place about #hj m4 ,e4,s4,e4 of ,stanley ,falls4 ,see ,emin ,pasha1 his ,life and ,work1 by ,georg ,schweitzer1 with introduction by ,r4,w4 ,felkin 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahih72 ,emin ,pasha in ,central ,africa 7,london1 #ahhh71 a collection of ,emin's papers contributed to scientific journals2 and ,mit ,emin ,pascha ins ,herz von ,afrika 7,berlin1 #ahid71 by ,dr ,franz ,stuhlmann4 ,major ,g4 ,casati 7#ahch-aijb71 an ,italian officer who spent several years with ,emin1 and accompanied him and ,stanley to the coast1 narrated his experiences in ,dieci anni in ,equatoria 7,english edition1 ,ten ,years in ,equatoria and the ,return with ,emin ,pasha1 ,london1 #ahia74 ,,emlyn1 ,,thomas 7#affc-agda71 ,english nonconformist divine1 was born at ,stamford1 ,lincolnshire4 ,he served as chaplain to the presbyterian ,letitia1 countess of ,donegal1 and then to ,sir ,robert ,rich1 afterwards 7#afia7 becoming colleague to ,joseph ,boyse1 presbyterian minister in ,dublin4 ,from this office he was virtually dismissed on his own confession of unitarianism1 and for publishing ,an ,humble ,inquiry into the ,scripture ,account of ,jesus ,christ 7#agjb7 was sentenced to a year's imprisonment and a fine of ,l#ajjj4 ,thanks to the intervention of ,boyse he was released in #agje on payment of ,l#ij4 ,he is said to have been the first ,english preacher definitely to describe himself as unitarian1 and writes in his diary1 ,i thank ,god that ,he did not call me to this lot of suffering till ,i had arrived at maturity of judgment and firmness of resolution1 and that ,he did not desert me when my friends did4 ,he never let me be so cast down as to renounce the truth or to waver in my faith4 ,of ,christ he writes1 ,we may regard with fervent gratitude so great a benefactor1 but our esteem and rational love must ascend higher and not rest till it centre in his ,god and ours4 ,emlyn preached a good deal in ,paul's ,alley1 ,barbican1 in his later years1 and died in ,london in #agda4 ,,emmanuel1 or ,,immanuel1 a ,hebrew symbolical proper name1 meaning ,god 7is7 with us4 ,when in #gcd-gcc ,b4,c4 ,ahaz1 king of ,judah1 alarmed at the preparations made against him by the ,syro-,ephraimitish alliance1 was inclined to seek aid from ,tiglath-pileser of ,assyria1 the prophet ,isaiah endeavoured to allay his fear by telling him that the danger would pass away1 and as a sign from ,yahweh that this should be so1 any young woman who should within the year bear a son1 might call his name ,immanuel in token of the divine protection accorded to ,judah4 ,for before the infant should come to even the immature intelligence of childhood the lands of the foe would be laid waste 7,isaiah vii4 #ad-af74 ,for other interpretations1 especially as regards the mother1 see ,ency4 ,bib4 col4 #bafb-c1 and the commentaries4 ,in the post-exilic period the historical meaning of the passage was forgotten1 and a new significance was given to it in accordance with the gradually developing eschatological doctrine4 ,this new interpretation finds expression in ,matt4 i4 #bc1 where the name is applied to ,jesus as the ,messiah4 ,at the close of ,isaiah viii4 #h for of thy land1 ,o ,immanuel1 we should probably read of the land1 for ,god is with us4 ,the three passages quoted are the only instances where this word occurs in ,scripture2 it is frequent in hymns and devotional literature as a title of ,jesus ,christ4 ,,emmanuel ,,philibert 7#aebh-aehj71 duke of ,savoy1 son of ,charles ,,iii4 and ,beatrice of ,portugal1 one of the most renowned princes of the later ,renaissance1 was born on the #hth of ,july #aebh4 ,charles1 after trying in vain to remain neutral in the wars between ,france and the emperor ,charles ,v41 had been forced to side with the latter1 whereupon his duchy was overrun with foreign soldiery and became the battlefield of the rival armies4 ,prince ,emmanuel took service with the emperor in #aede and distinguished himself in ,germany1 ,france and the ,low ,countries4 ,on the death of his father in #aeec he succeeded to the title1 little more than an empty one1 and continued in the emperor's service4 ,having been refused the command of the imperial troops in ,piedmont1 he tried in vain to negotiate a separate peace with ,france2 but in #aeef ,france and ,spain concluded a five years' truce1 by which each was to retain what it then occupied4 ,this would have been the end of ,savoy1 but within a year the two powers were again at war4 ,the chief events of the campaign were the successful resistance of ,cuneo1 held for the duke by ,count ,luserna1 and the victory of ,st ,quentin 7#aeeg71 won by ,emmanuel ,philibert himself against the ,french4 ,at last in #aeeh the powers agreed to an armistice1 and in #aeei the peace of ,cateau-,cambresis was made1 by which ,emmanuel regained his duchy1 but on onerous terms1 for ,france was to occupy several ,piedmontese fortresses1 including ,turin and ,pinerolo1 for not more than three years1 and a marriage was arranged between the duke and ,margaret1 duchess of ,berry1 sister of the ,french king2 while ,spain was to garrison ,asti and ,vercelli 7afterwards exchanged for ,santhia7 until ,france evacuated the above-mentioned fortresses4 ,the duke's marriage took place in ,paris a few months later2 and after the ,french evacuation he re-entered his dominions amidst the rejoicings of the people4 ,the condition of ,piedmont at that time was deplorable2 for wars1 the exactions and devastations of the foreign soldiery1 and religious antagonism between ,catholics and ,protestants had wrought terrible havoc4 ,uncultivated1 wrote the ,venetian ambassador1 quoted by ,e4 ,ricotti1 no citizens in the cities1 neither man nor beast in the fields1 all the land forest-clad and wild2 one sees no houses1 for most of them are burnt1 and of nearly all the castles only the walls are visible2 of the inhabitants1 once so numerous1 some have died of the plague or of hunger1 some by the sword1 and some have fled elsewhere preferring to beg their bread abroad rather than support misery at home which is worse than death4 ,there was no army1 the administration was chaotic1 and the finances were in a hopeless state4 ,the duke set to work to put his house in order1 and inaugurated a series of useful reforms1 ably assisted by his minister1 ,niccolo ,balbo4 ,but progress was slow1 and was accompanied by measures which abolished the states general1 the last survival of feudal liberties4 ,savoy1 following the tendency of the other states of ,europe at that time1 became thenceforth an absolute monarchy1 but without that transformation the achievement of complete independence from foreign powers would have been impossible4 ,one of the first questions with which he had to deal was the religious difficulty4 ,the inhabitants of the ,pellice and ,chisone valleys had long professed a primitive form of ,christianity which the orthodox regarded as heretical1 and had been subject to numerous persecutions in consequence 7see ,,waldenses74 ,at the time of the ,reformation they had gone over to ,protestantism1 and during the wars of the #afth century the new religion made great progress in ,piedmont4 ,the duke as a devout ,catholic desired to purge the state of heresy1 and initiated repressive measures against the ,waldenses1 but after some severe and not very successful fighting he ended by allowing them a measure of religious liberty in those valleys 7#aefa74 ,at the pope's instigation he recommenced persecution some years later1 but his duchess and some ,german princes pleaded successfully in favour of the ,protestants4 ,he next turned his attention to getting rid of the ,french garrisons2 the negotiations proved long and troublesome1 but in ,december #aefb the ,french departed on payment of #ajj1jjj scudi1 retaining only ,pinerolo and ,savigliano1 and ,turin became the capital once more4 ,there remained the ,bernese1 who had occupied some of the duke's territories in ,savoy and ,vaud1 and in ,geneva1 over which he claimed certain rights4 ,with ,bern he made a compromise1 regaining ,gex1 the ,chablais1 and the ,genevois1 on condition that ,protestantism should be tolerated there1 but he renounced ,vaud and some other districts 7#aeff74 ,disagreements with the ,valais were settled in a similar way in #aefi2 but the ,genevans refused to recognize ,savoyard suzerainty4 ,emmanuel reformed the currency1 reorganized justice1 prepared the way for the emancipation of the serfs1 raised the standing army to #be1jjj men1 and fortified the frontiers1 ostensibly against ,huguenot raids1 but in reality from fear of ,france4 ,on the death of ,charles ,,ix4 of ,france in #aegd the new king1 ,henry ,,iii41 passed through ,piedmont on his way from ,poland2 ,emmanuel gave him a magnificent reception1 and obtained from him a promise that ,pinerolo and ,savigliano should be evacuated1 which was carried out at the end of the year4 ,philip of ,spain was likewise induced to evacuate ,asti and ,santhia in #aege4 ,thus1 after being more or less under foreign occupation for #ci years1 the duchy was at last free4 ,the duke rounded off his dominions by the purchase of ,tenda and ,oneglia1 which increased his seaboard1 and the last years of his life were spent in fruitless negotiations to obtain ,monferrato1 held by the ,gonzagas under ,spanish protection1 and ,saluzzo1 which was a ,french fief4 ,he died on the #cjth of ,august #aehj1 and was succeeded by his son ,charles ,emmanuel ,i4 ,as a statesman ,emmanuel ,philibert was able1 business-like and energetic2 but he has been criticized for his duplicity1 although in this respect he was no worse than most other ,european princes1 whose ends were far more questionable4 ,he was autocratic1 but just and very patriotic4 ,during his reign the duchy1 which had been more than half ,french1 became predominantly ,italian4 ,by diplomacy1 which1 although he was a capable and brave soldier1 he preferred to war1 he succeeded in freeing his country1 and converting it from a ruined and divided land into a respectable independent power of the second rank1 and1 after ,venice1 the best-governed state in ,italy4 ,the most accurate biography of ,emmanuel ,philibert is contained in ,e4 ,ricotti's ,storia della monarchia ,piemontese1 vol4 ii4 7,florence1 #ahfa71 which is well done and based on documents2 cf4 ,claretta's ,la ,successione di ,emanuele ,filiberto 7,turin1 #ahhd74 ,,emmaus1 the name of two places in ,palestine4 #a4 ,a village mentioned by ,luke 7xxiv4 #ac71 without any indication of direction1 as being #fj stadia 7almost #g m471 or according to some ,,mss4#a #afj stadia1 from ,jerusalem4 ,its identification is a matter of mere guesswork3 it has been sought at 7a7 ,emmaus-,nicopolis 7see #b below71 distant #agf stadia from ,jerusalem2 7b7 ,kuryet el-',enab1 distant #ff stadia1 on the carriage road to ,jaffa2 7c7 ,kulonieh1 distant #cf stadia1 on the same road2 7d7 el-,kubeibeh1 distant #fc stadia1 on the ,roman road to ,lydda2 7e7 ',urtas1 distant #fj stadia2 and 7f7 ,khurbet el-,khamasa1 distant #hf stadia1 on the ,roman road to ,eleutheropolis4 ,of these1 el-,kubeibeh or ',urtas seems the most probable1 though many favour ,kulonieh because of its nearness to ,bet ,mizza1 in which name there is similarity with ,emmaus1 and because of a reading 7#cj stadia7 in ,josephus4 #b4 ,emmaus-,nicopolis1 now ',amwas1 a town on the maritime plain1 and a place of importance during the ,maccabaean and ,jewish wars4 ,near it ,judas ,maccabaeus defeated ,gorgias in #afd ,b4,c41 and ,vespasian established a fortified camp in ,a4,d4 #fi4 ,it was afterwards rebuilt and named ,nicopolis1 and became an episcopal see4 ,it was also noted for a healing spring4 ,,footnote3 #a ,including ,codex ,hebrew3 alef4 ,but this distance is too great for the conditions of ,luke's narrative and the reading 7#afj7 is evidently an attempt to harmonize with the traditional identification of ,emmaus-,nicopolis held by ,eusebius and ,jerome4 ,for a curious reading in three old ,latin ,,mss1 which makes ,emmaus the name of the second traveller on the journey1 see ,expos4 ,times1 xiii4 #dbi1 #dgg1 #efa4 ,,emmendingen1 a town of ,germany1 in the grand-duchy of ,baden1 close to the ,black ,forest1 on the ,elz and the main line of railway ,mannheim-,constance4 ,pop4 #fbjj4 ,it has a ,protestant church with a fine spire1 a ,roman ,catholic church1 a handsome town-hall1 an old castle 7now a hospital71 once the residence of the counts of ,hochberg1 spinning mills1 tanneries and manufactures of photographic instruments1 paper1 machinery and cigars4 ,there is also a considerable trade in timber and cattle4 ,here the author ,johann ,georg ,schlosser 7#agci-agii71 the husband of ,goethe's sister ,cornelia 7who died in #aggg and is interred in the old graveyard71 was ,oberamtmann 7bailiff7 for a few years4 ,emmendingen was formerly the seat of the counts of ,hochberg1 a cadet branch of the margraves of ,baden4 ,in #adah it received market rights from the emperor1 and in #aeij was raised to the status of a town1 and walled1 by ,margrave ,jacob ,,iii4 ,,emmerich 7the ancient ,embrica71 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian ,rhine province1 on the right bank of the ,rhine and the railway from ,cologne to ,amsterdam1 #e m4 ,n4,e4 of ,cleves4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #ab1egh4 ,it has a considerable shipping trade1 and manufactories of tobacco and cigars1 chocolate1 margarine1 oil1 chemicals1 brushes1 vinegar1 soap1 guano and perfumery4 ,there are also iron foundries and machine factories4 ,the old minster church1 built in the middle of the #aath century1 contains some fine choir stalls4 ,emmerich1 formerly called ,embrika and ,emrik1 originally a ,roman colony1 is mentioned in records so early as the #gth century4 ,st ,willibrord founded a monastery and church here4 ,in #abcc the place came into the possession of the dukes of ,gelderland and received the status of a town in #abdg4 ,in #acga it fell to the duchy of ,cleves1 and passed with it in #afji to ,brandenburg4 ,the town joined the ,hanseatic ,league in #adjg4 ,in #agid it was bombarded by the ,french under ,general ,vandamme1 and in #ahjf it was assigned to the grand-duchy of ,berg4 ,it passed into the possession of ,prussia in #ahae4 ,see ,a4 ,dederich1 ,annalen der ,stadt ,emmerich 7,emmerich1 #ahfg74 ,,emmet1 ,,robert 7#aggh-ahjc71 ,irish rebel1 youngest son of ,robert ,emmet1 physician to the lord-lieutenant of ,ireland1 was born in ,dublin in #aggh1 and entered ,trinity ,college in ,october #agic1 where he had a distinguished academic career1 showing special aptitude for mathematics and chemistry1 and acquiring a reputation as an orator4 ,without taking a degree he removed his name from the college books in ,april #agih1 as a protest against the inquisitorial examination of the political views of the students conducted by ,lord ,clare as chancellor of the university4 ,thus cut off from entering a learned profession1 he turned towards political intrigue1 being already to some extent in the secrets of the ,united ,irishmen1 of whom his elder brother ,thomas ,addis ,emmet 7see below7 was one of the most prominent4 ,in ,april #agii a warrant was issued for his arrest1 but was not executed2 and in #ahjj and the following year he travelled on the continent of ,europe1 where he entered into relations with the leaders of the ,united ,irishmen1 exiled since the rebellion of #agih1 who were planning a fresh outbreak in ,ireland in expectation of support from ,france4 ,emmet went to ,paris in ,october #ahjb1 where he had an interview with ,bonaparte which convinced him that the peace of ,amiens would be of short duration and that a ,french invasion of ,england might be looked for in ,august #ahjc4 ,the councils of the conspirators were weakened by divided opinions as to the ultimate aim of their policy2 and no clearly thought-out scheme of operations appears to have been arrived at when ,emmet left ,paris for ,ireland in ,october #ahjb4 ,those in his confidence afterwards denied that ,emmet was himself the originator of the plan on which he acted2 and several of the ablest of the ,united ,irishmen held aloof1 believing the project to be impracticable4 ,among the latter was ,lord ,cloncurry1 at one time on the executive of the ,united ,irishmen1 with whom ,emmet dined the night before he left ,paris1 and to whom he spoke of his plans with intense enthusiasm and excitement4 ,emmet's lack of discretion was shown by his revealing his intentions in detail to an ,englishman named ,lawrence1 resident near ,honfleur1 with whom he sought shelter when travelling on foot on his way to ,ireland4 ,arriving in ,dublin at the end of ,october he received information to the effect that seventeen counties were ready to take up arms if a successful effort were made in ,dublin4 ,for some time he remained concealed in his father's house near ,miltown1 making his preparations4 ,a large number of pikes were collected and stored in ,dublin during the spring of #ahjc1 but fire-arms and ammunition were not plentiful4 ,the probability of a ,french invasion in ,august was increased by the renewal of the war in ,may1 ,emmet's brother ,thomas being then in ,paris in communication with ,talleyrand and ,bonaparte4 ,but a discovery by the government of concealed arms1 and an explosion at one of ,emmet's depots in ,patrick ,street on the #afth of ,july1 necessitated immediate action1 and the #bcrd of that month was accordingly fixed for the projected rising4 ,an elaborate plan of operations1 which he described in detail in a letter to his brother after his arrest1 had been prepared by ,emmet1 the leading feature of which was a simultaneous attack on the castle1 the ,pigeon ,house and the artillery barracks at ,island bridge2 while bodies of insurgents from the neighbouring counties were to march on the capital4 ,but the whole scheme miscarried4 ,some of ,emmet's bolder proposals1 such as a plan for capturing the commander-in-chief1 were vetoed by the timidity of his associates1 none of whom were men of any ability4 ,on the #bcrd of ,july all was confusion at the depots1 and the leaders were divided as to the course to be pursued2 orders were not obeyed2 a trusted messenger despatched for arms absconded with the money committed to him to pay for them2 treachery1 quite unsuspected by ,emmet1 honeycombed the conspiracy2 the ,wicklow contingent failed to appear2 the ,kildare men turned back on hearing that the rising had been postponed2 a signal expected by a contingent at the ,broadstone was never given4 ,in this hopeless state of affairs a false report reached ,emmet at one of his depots at nine o'clock in the evening that the military were approaching4 ,without taking any step to verify it1 ,emmet put on a green and white uniform and placed himself at the head of some eighty men1 who marched towards the castle1 being joined in the streets by a second body of about equal strength4 ,none of these insurgents had any discipline1 and many of them were drunk4 ,lord ,kilwarden1 proceeding to a hastily summoned meeting of the privy council1 was dragged from his carriage by this rabble and murdered1 together with his nephew ,richard ,wolfe2 his daughter who accompanied him being conveyed to safety by ,emmet himself4 ,emmet1 now seeing that the rising had become a mere street brawl1 made his escape2 a detachment of soldiers quickly dispersed his followers4 ,after hiding for some days in the ,wicklow mountains ,emmet repaired to the house of a ,mrs ,palmer at ,harold's ,cross1 in order to be near the residence of ,john ,philpot ,curran 7q4v471 to whose daughter ,sarah he had for some time been secretly attached1 and with whom he had carried on a voluminous correspondence1 afterwards seized by the authorities at her father's house4 ,attempting without success to persuade this lady to fly with him to ,america1 ,emmet lingered in the neighbourhood till the #beth of ,august1 when he was apprehended by ,major ,h4,c4 ,sirr1 the same officer who had captured ,lord ,edward ,fitzgerald in #agih4 ,at his trial he was defended and betrayed by the infamous ,leonard ,mac,nally 7q4v471 and was convicted of treason2 and after delivering an eloquent speech from the dock1 was hanged on the #bjth of ,september #ahjc4 ,by the universal testimony of his friends1 ,robert ,emmet was a youth of modest character1 pure motives and winning personality4 ,but he was entirely lacking in practical statesmanship4 ,brought up in a revolutionary atmosphere1 his enthusiasm was uncontrolled by judgment4 ,thomas ,moore1 who warmly eulogizes ,emmet1 with whom he was a student at ,trinity ,college1 records that one day when he was playing on the piano the melody ,let ,erin remember1 ,emmet started up exclaiming passionately1 ,oh1 that ,i were at the head of #bj1jjj men marching to that air6 ,he had no knowledge of the world or of men2 he trusted every one with child-like simplicity2 except personal courage he had none of the qualities essential to leadership in such an enterprise as armed rebellion4 ,the romance of his love affair with ,sarah ,curran--who afterwards married ,robert ,henry ,sturgeon1 an officer distinguished in the ,peninsular ,war--has cast a glamour over the memory of ,robert ,emmet2 and it inspired ,thomas ,moore's well-known songs1 ,she is far from the land where her young hero sleeps1 and ,oh1 breathe not his name2 it is also the subject of ,washington ,irving's ,the ,broken ,heart4 ,emmet was short and slight in figure2 his face was marked by smallpox1 and he was described in #ahjc for the purpose of identification as being of an ugly1 sour countenance and dirty brown complexion4 ,a few poems by ,emmet of little merit are appended to ,madden's biography4 ,see ,r4,r4 ,madden1 ,the ,united ,irishmen1 their ,lives and ,times 7#bnd ed4 #d vols41 ,dublin1 #aheh-ahfj72 ,charles ,phillips1 ,recollections of ,curran and ,some of his ,contemporaries 7#bnd ed41 ,london1 #ahbb72 ,henry ,grattan1 ,memoirs of the ,life and ,times of the ,right ,hon4 ,h4 ,grattan 7#e vols41 ,london1 #ahci-ahdf72 ,w4,h4 ,maxwell1 ,history of the ,irish ,rebellion in #agih2 with ,memoirs of the ,union and ,emmet's ,insurrection in #ahjc 7,london1 #ahde72 ,w4,h4 ,curran1 ,life of ,j4,p4 ,curran 7#b vols41 ,edinburgh1 #ahbb72 ,thomas ,moore1 ,life and ,death of ,lord ,edward ,fitzgerald 7#b vols4 #crd ed41 ,london1 #ahcb72 and ,memoirs1 ,journals and ,correspondence of ,thomas ,moore1 edited by ,lord ,john ,russell 7#h vols41 ,london1 #ahec-ahef74 7,r4 ,j4 ,m47 ,,emmet1 ,,thomas ,,addis 7#agfd-ahbg71 ,irish lawyer and politician1 second son of ,robert ,emmet1 physician to the lord-lieutenant of ,ireland1 and elder brother of ,robert ,emmet 7q4v471 the rebel1 was born at ,cork on the #bdth of ,april #agfd1 and was educated at ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 and at ,edinburgh ,university1 where he studied medicine and was a pupil of ,dugald ,stewart in philosophy4 ,after visiting the chief medical schools on the continent1 he returned to ,ireland in #aghh2 but the sudden death of his elder brother1 ,christopher ,temple ,emmet 7#agfa-aghh71 a barrister of some distinction1 induced him to follow the advice of ,sir ,james ,mackintosh to forsake medicine for the law as a profession4 ,he was called to the ,irish bar in #agij1 and quickly obtained a practice1 principally as counsel for prisoners charged with political offences1 and became the legal adviser of the leading ,united ,irishmen4 ,when the ,dublin corporation issued a declaration of ,protestant ascendancy in #agib1 the counter-manifesto of the ,united ,irishmen was drawn up by ,emmet2 and in #agie he took the oath of the society in open court1 becoming secretary in the same year and a member of the executive in #agig4 ,although ,grattan had a profound contempt for ,emmet's political understanding1 describing him as a quack in politics who set up his own crude notions as settled rules1 ,emmet was among the more prudent of the ,united ,irishmen on the eve of the rebellion4 ,it was only when convinced that parliamentary reform and ,catholic emancipation were not to be obtained by constitutional methods1 that he reluctantly engaged in treasonable conspiracy2 and in opposition to bolder spirits like ,lord ,edward ,fitzgerald1 he discountenanced the taking up of arms until help should be obtained from ,france4 ,though not among those taken at the house of ,oliver ,bond on the #abth of ,march #agih 7see ,,fitzgerald1 ,,lord ,,edward71 he was arrested about the same time1 and he was one of the leaders who after the rebellion were imprisoned at ,fort ,george till #ahjb4 ,being then released1 he went to ,brussels1 where he was visited by his brother ,robert in ,october of that year2 and he was in the secrets of those who were preparing for a fresh rising in ,ireland in conjunction with ,french aid4 ,after the failure of ,robert ,emmet's rising in ,july #ahjc1 the news of which reached him in ,paris1 where he was in communication with ,bonaparte1 he emigrated to the ,united ,states4 ,joining the ,new ,york bar he obtained a lucrative practice and in #ahab-ac was attorney-general of ,new ,york2 his abilities and success being such that ,judge ,story declared him to be by universal consent in the first rank of ,american advocates4 ,he died while conducting a case in court on the #adth of ,november #ahbg4 ,thomas ,emmet married1 in #agia1 ,jane1 daughter of the ,rev4 ,john ,patten1 of ,clonmel4 ,see authorities under ,,emmet1 ,,robert2 also ,alfred ,webb1 ,compendium of ,irish ,biography 7,dublin1 #ahgh72 ,c4,s4 ,haynes1 ,memoirs of ,thomas ,addis ,emmet 7,london1 #ahbi72 ,theobald ,wolfe ,tone1 ,memoirs1 edited by ,w4,t4,w4 ,tone 7#b vols41 ,london1 #ahbg72 ,w4,e4,h4 ,lecky1 ,hist4 of ,ireland in the ,eighteenth ,century1 vol4 iv4 7,cabinet edition1 #e vols41 ,london1 #ahib74 7,r4 ,j4 ,m47 ,,emmett1 ,,daniel ,,decatur 7#ahae-aijd71 ,american songwriter1 was born at ,mount ,vernon1 ,ohio4 ,he started the negro minstrel performances1 which from #ahdb onwards became so popular in ,america and ,england1 and he composed a number of songs which had a great temporary vogue4 ,he is remembered particularly as the writer of the famous ,southern war-song ,dixie1 which he composed in #ahei4 ,,emmitsburg1 a town in ,frederick county1 ,maryland1 ,u4,s4,a41 #fa m4 by rail ,w4 by ,n4 of ,baltimore1 and #a-a_/b m4 ,s4 of the northern boundary of the state4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #hdi2 7#aiaj7 #ajed4 ,it is served by the ,emmitsburg railway 7#g m4 long7 to ,rocky ,ridge on the ,western ,maryland railway4 ,the town is in a picturesque region on the eastern slope of the ,blue ,ridge ,mountains4 ,two miles ,s4,w4 is ,mount ,st4 ,mary's ,college 7,roman ,catholic71 founded in #ahjh by the ,rev4 ,john du ,bois 7#agfd-ahdb7--;its president until #ahbf1 when he became bishop of ,new ,york--and chartered by the state in #ahcj4 ,the ,ecclesiastical ,seminary of the college has been a great training school1 and has been called the ,nursery of ,bishops2 among its graduates have been ,bishop ,hughes1 ,cardinal ,mc,closkey and ,archbishop ,corrigan4 ,in #aijh the college had #be instructors and #cej students1 of whom #eg were in the ,ecclesiastical ,seminary1 and #fa in the ,minim ,department4 ,half a mile ,s4 of the town is ,st ,joseph's ,college and ,academy 7incorporated in #ahaf71 for young women1 which is conducted by the ,sisters of ,charity--this order was introduced into the ,united ,states at ,emmitsburg by ,mrs ,elizabeth ,ann ,seton in #ahji4 ,the first settlement at ,emmitsburg was made about #aggc4 ,it was at first called ,silver ,fancy1 and then for a time was known as ,poplar ,fields2 but in #aghf the present name was adopted in honour of ,william ,emmitt1 one of the original settlers4 ,the town was incorporated in #ahbd4 ,,emmius1 ,,ubbo 7#aedg-afbe71 ,dutch historian and geographer1 was born at ,gretha in ,east ,friesland on the #eth of ,december #aedg4 ,after studying at ,rostock1 he spent two years in ,geneva1 where he became intimate with ,theodore ,beza2 and returning to the ,netherlands was appointed the principal of a college at ,norden1 a position which he lost in #aehg because1 as a ,calvinist1 he would not subscribe to the confession of ,augsburg4 ,subsequently he was head of a college at ,leer1 and in #aeid became rector of the college at ,groningen1 and when in #afad this college became a university he was chosen principal and professor of history and ,greek1 and by his wise guidance and his learning speedily raised the new university to a position of eminence4 ,he was on friendly terms with ,louis1 count of ,nassau2 corresponded with many of the learned men of his time2 and died at ,groningen on the #ith of ,december #afbe4 ,he was twice married1 and left a son and a daughter4 ,the chief works of ,emmius are3 ,rerum ,frisicarum historiae decades1 in six parts1 a complete edition of which was published at ,leiden in #afaf2 ,opus chronologicum 7,groningen1 #afai72 ,vetus ,graecia illustrata 7,leiden1 #afbf72 and ,historia temporis nostri1 which was first published at ,groningen in #agcb4 ,an account of his life1 written by ,nicholas ,mulerius1 was published1 with the lives of other professors of ,groningen1 at ,groningen in #afch4 ,see ,n4,g4 van ,kampen1 ,geschiedenis der letteren en wetenschappen in de ,nederlanden 7,the ,hague1 #ahba-ahbf74 ,,emmons1 ,,ebenezer 7#ahjj-ahfc71 ,american geologist1 was born at ,middlefield1 ,massachusetts1 on the #afth of ,may #ahjj4 ,he studied medicine at ,albany1 and after taking his degree practised for some years in ,berkshire county4 ,his interest in geology was kindled in early life1 and in #ahbd he had assisted ,prof4 ,chester ,dewey 7#aghd-ahfg7 in preparing a geological map of ,berkshire county1 in which the first attempt was made to classify the rocks of the ,taconic area4 ,while thus giving much of his time to natural science1 undertaking professional work in natural history and geology in ,williams ,college1 he also accepted the professorship of chemistry and afterwards of obstetrics in the ,albany ,medical ,college4 ,the chief work of his life was1 however1 in geology1 and he has been designated by ,jules ,marcou as the founder of ,american palaeozoic stratigraphy1 and the first discoverer of the primordial fauna in any country4 ,in #ahcf he became attached to the ,geological ,survey of the ,state of ,new ,york1 and after lengthened study he grouped the local strata 7#ahdb7 into the ,taconic and overlying ,new ,york systems4 ,the latter system was subdivided into several groups that were by no means well defined4 ,emmons had previously described the ,potsdam sandstone 7#ahch71 and this was placed at the base of the ,new ,york system4 ,it is now regarded as ,upper ,cambrian4 ,in #ahdd ,emmons for the first time obtained fossils in his ,taconic system3 a notable discovery because the species obtained were found to differ from all then-known ,palaeozoic fossils1 and they were regarded as representing the primordial group4 ,marcou was thus led to advocate that the term ,taconic be generally adopted in place of ,cambrian4 ,nevertheless the ,taconic fauna of ,emmons has proved to include only the lower part of ,sedgwick's ,cambrian4 ,considerable discussion has taken place on the question of the ,taconic system1 and whether the term should be adopted2 and the general opinion has been adverse4 ,emmons made contributions on agriculture and geology to a series of volumes on the natural history of ,new ,york4 ,he also issued a work entitled ,american ,geology2 containing a statement of the principles of the ,science1 with full illustrations of the characteristic ,american ,fossils 7#ahee-aheg74 ,from #ahea to #ahfj he was state geologist of ,north ,carolina4 ,he died at ,brunswick1 ,north ,carolina1 on the #ast of ,october #ahfc4 ,see the ,biographical ,notice of ,ebenezer ,emmons1 by ,j4 ,marcou2 ,amer4 ,geologist1 vol4 vii4 7,jan41 #ahia71 p4 #a 7with portrait and list of publications74 ,,emmons1 ,,nathanael 7#agde-ahdj71 ,american theologian1 was born at ,east ,haddam1 ,connecticut1 on the #bjth of ,april #agde4 ,he graduated at ,yale in #agfg1 studied theology under the ,rev4 ,john ,smalley 7#agcd-ahbj7 at ,berlin1 ,connecticut1 and was licensed to preach in #agfi4 ,after preaching four years in ,new ,york and ,new ,hampshire1 he became1 in ,april #aggc1 pastor of the ,second church at ,franklin 7until #aggh a part of ,wrentham1 ,massachusetts71 of which he remained in charge until ,may #ahbg1 when failing health compelled his relinquishment of active ministerial cares4 ,he lived1 however1 for many years thereafter1 dying of old age at ,franklin on the #bcrd of ,september #ahdj4 ,it was as a theologian that ,dr ,emmons was best known1 and for half a century probably no clergyman in ,new ,england exerted so wide an influence4 ,he developed an original system of divinity1 somewhat on the structural plan of that of ,samuel ,hopkins1 and1 in ,emmons's own belief1 contained in and evolved from ,hopkinsianism4 ,while by no means abandoning the tenets of the old ,calvinistic faith1 he came to be looked upon as the chief representative of what was then known as the new school of theologians4 ,his system declared that holiness and sin are free voluntary exercises2 that men act freely under the divine agency2 that the slightest transgression deserves eternal punishment2 that it is through ,god's mere grace that the penitent believer is pardoned and justified2 that1 in spite of total depravity1 sinners ought to repent2 and that regeneration is active1 not passive1 with the believer4 ,emmonsism was spread and perpetuated by more than a hundred clergymen1 whom he personally trained4 ,politically1 he was an ardent patriot during the ,war of ,independence1 and a strong ,federalist afterwards1 several of his political discourses attracting wide attention4 ,he was a founder and the first president of the ,massachusetts ,missionary ,society1 and was influential in the establishment of ,andover ,theological ,seminary4 ,more than two hundred of his sermons and addresses were published during his lifetime4 ,his ,works were published in #f vols4 7,boston1 #ahdb2 new edition1 #ahfa74 ,see also the ,memoir1 by ,dr ,e4,a4 ,park 7,andover1 #ahfa74 ,,empedocles 7c4 #dij-dcj ,b4,c471 ,greek philosopher and statesman1 was ,born at ,agrigentum 7,acragas1 ,girgenti7 in ,sicily of a distinguished family1 then at the height of its glory4 ,his grandfather ,empedocles was victorious in the ,olympian chariot race in #dif2 in #dgj his father ,meto was largely instrumental in the overthrow of the tyrant ,thrasydaeus4 ,we know almost nothing of his life4 ,the numerous legends which have grown up round his name yield very little that can fairly be regarded as authentic4 ,it seems that he carried on the democratic tradition of his house by helping to overthrow an oligarchic government which succeeded the tyranny in ,agrigentum1 and was invited by the citizens to become their king4 ,that he refused the honour may have been due to a real enthusiasm for free institutions or to the prudential recognition of the peril which in those turbulent times surrounded the royal dignity4 ,ultimately a change in the balance of parties compelled him to leave the city1 and he died in the ,peloponnese of the results of an accident in #dcj4 ,of his poem on nature 7,greek3 physis7 there are left about #djj lines in unequal fragments out of the original #ejjj2 of the hymns of purification 7,greek3 katharmoi7 less than #ajj verses remain2 of the other works1 improbably assigned to him1 nothing is known4 ,his grand but obscure hexameters1 after the example of ,parmenides1 delighted ,lucretius4 ,aristotle1 it is said1 called him the father of rhetoric4 ,but it was as at once statesman1 prophet1 physicist1 physician and reformer that he most impressed the popular imagination4 ,to his contemporaries1 as to himself1 he seemed more than a mere man4 ,the ,sicilians honoured his august aspect as he moved amongst them with purple robes and golden girdle1 with long hair bound by a ,delphic garland1 and brazen sandals on his feet1 and with a retinue of slaves behind him4 ,stories were told of the ingenuity and generosity by which he had made the marshes round ,selinus salubrious1 of the grotesque device by which he laid the winds that ruined the harvests of ,agrigentum1 and of the almost miraculous restoration to life of a woman who had long lain in a death-like trance4 ,legends stranger still told of his disappearance from among men4 ,empedocles1 according to one story1 was one midnight1 after a feast held in his honour1 called away in a blaze of glory to the gods2 according to another1 he had only thrown himself into the crater of ,etna1 in the hope that men1 finding no traces of his end1 would suppose him translated to heaven4 ,but his hopes were cheated by the volcano1 which cast forth his brazen sandals and betrayed his secret 7,diog4 ,laert4 viii4 #fg74 ,the people of ,agrigentum have never ceased to honour his name1 and even in modern times he has been celebrated by followers of ,mazzini as the democrat of antiquity par excellence4 ,as his history is uncertain1 so his doctrines are hard to put together4 ,he does not belong to any one definite school4 ,while1 on one hand1 he combines much that had been suggested by ,parmenides1 ,pythagoras and the ,ionic schools1 he has germs of truth that ,plato and ,aristotle afterwards developed2 he is at once a firm believer in ,orphic mysteries1 and a scientific thinker1 precursor of the physical scientists4 ,there are1 according to ,empedocles1 four ultimate elements1 four primal divinities1 of which are made all structures in the world--fire1 air1 water1 earth4 ,these four elements are eternally brought into union1 and eternally parted from each other1 by two divine beings or powers1 love and hatred--an attractive and a repulsive force which the ordinary eye can see working amongst men1 but which really pervade the whole world4 ,according to the different proportions in which these four indestructible and unchangeable matters are combined with each other is the difference of the organic structure produced2 e4g4 flesh and blood are made of equal 7in weight but not in volume7 parts of all four elements1 whereas bones are one-half fire1 one-fourth earth1 and one-fourth water4 ,it is in the aggregation and segregation of elements thus arising that ,empedocles1 like the atomists1 finds the real process which corresponds to what is popularly termed growth1 increase or decrease4 ,nothing new comes or can come into being2 the only change that can occur is a change in the juxtaposition of element with element4 ,empedocles apparently regarded love 7,greek3 philotes7 and discord 7,greek3 neikos7 as alternately holding the empire over things1--neither1 however1 being ever quite absent4 ,as the best and original state1 he seems to have conceived a period when love was predominant1 and all the elements formed one great sphere or globe4 ,since that period discord had gained more sway2 and the actual world was full of contrasts and oppositions1 due to the combined action of both principles4 ,his theory attempted to explain the separation of elements1 the formation of earth and sea1 of sun and moon1 of atmosphere4 ,but the most interesting and most matured part of his views dealt with the first origin of plants and animals1 and with the physiology of man4 ,as the elements 7his deities7 entered into combinations1 there appeared quaint results--heads without necks1 arms without shoulders4 ,then as these fragmentary structures met1 there were seen horned heads on human bodies1 bodies of oxen with men's heads1 and figures of double sex4 ,but most of these products of natural forces disappeared as suddenly as they arose2 only in those rare cases where the several parts were found adapted to each other1 and casual member fitted into casual member1 did the complex structures thus formed last4 ,thus from spontaneous aggregations of casual aggregates1 which suited each other as if this had been intended1 did the organic universe originally spring4 ,soon various influences reduced the creatures of double sex to a male and a female1 and the world was replenished with organic life4 ,it is impossible not to see in this theory a crude anticipation of the survival of the fittest theory of modern evolutionists4 ,as man1 animal and plant are composed of the same elements in different proportions1 there is an identity of nature in them all4 ,they all have sense and understanding2 in man1 however1 and especially in the blood at his heart1 mind has its peculiar seat4 ,but mind is always dependent upon the body1 and varies with its changing constitution4 ,hence the precepts of morality are with ,empedocles largely dietetic4 ,knowledge is explained by the principle that the several elements in the things outside us are perceived by the corresponding elements in ourselves4 ,we know only in so far as we have within us a nature cognate to the object of knowledge4 ,like is known by like4 ,the whole body is full of pores1 and hence respiration takes place over the whole frame4 ,but in the organs of sense these pores are specially adapted to receive the effluxes which are continually rising from bodies around us2 and in this way perception is somewhat obscurely explained4 ,the theory1 however unsatisfactory as an explanation1 has one great merit1 that it recognizes between the eye1 for instance1 and the object seen an intermediate something4 ,certain particles go forth from the eye to meet similar particles given forth from the object1 and the resultant contact constitutes vision4 ,this idea contains within it the germ of the modern idea of the subjectivity of sense-given data2 perception is not merely a passive reflection of external objects4 ,it is not easy to harmonize these quasi-scientific theories with the theory of transmigration of souls which ,empedocles seems to expound4 ,probably the doctrine that the divinity 7,greek3 daimon7 passes from element to element1 nowhere finding a home1 is a mystical way of teaching the continued identity of the principles which are at the bottom of every phase of development from inorganic nature to man4 ,at the top of the scale are the prophet and the physician1 those who have best learned the secret of life2 they are next to the divine4 ,one law1 an identity of elements1 pervades all nature2 existence is one from end to end2 the plant and the animal are links in a chain where man is a link too2 and even the distinction between male and female is transcended4 ,the beasts are kindred with man2 he who eats their flesh is not much better than a cannibal4 ,looking at the opposition between these and the ordinary opinions1 we are not surprised that ,empedocles notes the limitation and narrowness of human perceptions4 ,we see1 he says1 but a part1 and fancy that we have grasped the whole4 ,but the senses cannot lead to truth2 thought and reflection must look at the thing on every side4 ,it is the business of a philosopher1 while he lays bare the fundamental difference of elements1 to display the identity that subsists between what seem unconnected parts of the universe4 ,see ,diog4 ,laert4 viii4 #ea-gg2 ,sext4 ,empiric4 ,adv4 math4 vii4 #abc2 ,simplicius1 ,phys4 f4 #bd1 f4 #gf4 ,for text ,simon ,karsten1 ,empedoclis ,agrigenti carminum reliquiae1 in ,reliq4 phil4 vet4 7,amsterdam1 #ahch72 ,f4,w4,a4 ,mullach1 ,fragmenta philosophorum ,graecorum1 vol4 i42 ,h4 ,stein1 ,empedoclis ,agrigenti fragmenta 7,bonn1 #ahhb72 ,h4 ,ritter and ,l4 ,preller1 ,historia philosophiae 7#dth ed41 ,gotha1 #ahfi71 chap4 iii4 ad fin42 ,a4 ,fairbanks1 ,the ,first ,philosophers of ,greece 7#ahih74 ,verse translation1 ,w4,e4 ,leonard 7#aijh74 ,for criticism ,e4 ,zeller1 ,phil4 der ,griechen 7,eng4 trans4 ,s4,f4 ,alleyne1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahha72 ,a4,w4 ,benn1 ,greek ,philosophers 7#ahhb72 ,j4,a4 ,symonds1 ,studies of the ,greek ,poets 7#crd ed41 #ahic71 vol4 i4 chap4 #g2 ,c4,b4 ,renouvier1 ,manuel de philosophie ancienne 7,paris1 #ahdd72 ,t4 ,gomperz1 ,greek ,thinkers1 vol4 i4 7,eng4 trans4 ,l4 ,magnus1 #aija72 ,w4 ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,phil4 7,eng4 trans4 #ahie72 many articles in periodicals 7see ,baldwin's ,dict4 of ,philos4 vol4 iii4 p4 #aij74 7,w4 ,w42 ,x47 ,,emperor 7,fr4 empereur1 from the ,lat4 imperator71 a title formerly borne by the sovereigns of the ,roman empire 7see ,,empire71 and since their time1 partly by derivation1 partly by imitation1 used by a variety of other sovereigns4 ,under the ,republic1 the term imperator applied in theory to any magistrate vested with imperium2 but in practice it was only used of a magistrate who was acting abroad 7militiae7 and was thus in command of troops4 ,the term imperator was the natural and regular designation employed by his troops in addressing such a magistrate2 but it was more particularly and specially employed by them to salute him after a victory2 and when he had been thus saluted he could use the title of imperator in public till the day of his triumph at ,rome1 after which it would lapse along with his imperium4 ,the senate itself might1 in the later ,republic1 invite a victorious general to assume the title2 and in these two customs--the salutation of the troops1 and the invitation of the senate--we see in the germ the two methods by which under the ,empire the princeps was designated2 while in the military connotation attaching to the name even under the ,republic we can detect in advance the military character by which the emperor and the ,empire were afterwards distinguished4 ,julius ,caesar was the first who used the title continuously 7from #eh ,b4,c4 to his death in #dd ,b4,c471 as well domi as militiae2 and his nephew ,augustus took a further step when he made the term imperator a praenomen1 a practice which after the time of ,nero becomes regular4 ,but apart from this amalgamation of the term with his regular name1 and the private right to its use which that bestowed1 every emperor had an additional and double right to the title on public grounds1 possessed as he was of an imperium infinitum majus1 and commanding as he did all the troops of the ,empire4 ,from the latter point of view--as generalissimo of the forces of ,rome1 he had the right to the insignia of the commander 7the laurel wreath and the fasces71 and to the protection of a bodyguard1 the praetoriani4 ,this public title of imperator was normally conferred by the senate2 and an emperor normally dates his reign from the day of his salutation by the senate4 ,but the troops were also regarded as still retaining the right of saluting an imperator2 and there were emperors who regarded themselves as created by such salutation and dated their reigns accordingly4 ,the military associations of the term thus resulted1 only too often1 in making the emperor the nominee of a turbulent soldiery4 ,augustus had been designated 7not indeed officially1 but none the less regularly7 as princeps--the first citizen or foremost man of the state4 ,the designation suited the early years of the ,empire1 in which a dyarchy of princeps and senate had been maintained4 ,but by the #bnd century the dyarchy is passing into a monarchy3 the title of princeps recedes1 and the title of imperator comes into prominence to designate not merely the possessor of a certain imperium1 or the general of troops1 but the simple monarch in the fulness of his power as head of the state4 ,from the days of ,diocletian one finds occasionally two emperors1 but not1 at any rate in theory1 two ,empires2 the two emperors are the dual sovereigns of a single realm4 ,but from the time of ,arcadius and ,honorius 7,a4,d4 #cie7 there are in reality 7though not in theory7 two ,empires as well as two emperors1 one of the ,east and one of the ,west4 ,when ,greek became the sole language of the ,east ,roman ,empire1 imperator was rendered sometimes by ,greek3 basileus and sometimes by ,greek3 autokrator1 the former word being the usual designation of a sovereign1 the latter specially denoting that despotic power which the imperator held1 and being in fact the official translation of imperator4 ,justinian uses ,greek3 autokrator as his formal title1 and ,greek3 basileus as the popular term4 ,on the revival of the ,roman empire in the ,west by ,charlemagne in #hjj1 the title 7at first in the form imperator1 or imperator ,augustus1 afterwards ,romanorum imperator ,augustus7 was taken by him and by his ,frankish1 ,italian and ,german successors1 heads of the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 down to the abdication of the emperor ,francis ,,ii4 in #ahjf4 ,the doctrine had1 however1 grown up in the earlier middle ages 7about the time of the emperor ,henry ,,ii41 #ajjb-ajbd7 that although the emperor was chosen in ,germany 7at first by the nation1 afterwards by a small body of electors71 and entitled from the moment of his election to be crowned in ,rome by the pope1 he could not use the title of emperor until that coronation had actually taken place4 ,the ,german sovereign1 therefore1 though he exercised1 as soon as chosen1 full imperial powers both in ,germany and ,italy1 called himself merely king of the ,romans 7,romanorum rex semper ,augustus7 until he had received the sacred crown in the sacred city4 ,in #aejh ,maximilian ,i41 being refused a passage to ,rome by the ,venetians1 obtained from ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 a bull permitting him to style himself emperor elect 7imperator electus1 erwahlter ,kaiser74 ,this title was taken by ,ferdinand ,i4 7#aeeh7 and all succeeding emperors1 immediately upon their coronation in ,germany2 and it was until #ahjf their strict legal designation1 and was always employed by them in proclamations and other official documents4 ,the term elect was1 however1 omitted even in formal documents when the sovereign was addressed or was spoken of in the third person4 ,in medieval times the emperor1 conceived as vicegerent of ,god and co-regent with the pope in government of the ,christian people committed to his charge1 might almost be regarded as an ecclesiastical officer4 ,not only was his function regarded as consisting in the defence and extension of true religion2 he was himself arrayed in ecclesiastical vestments at his coronation2 he was ordained a subdeacon2 and assisting the pope in the celebration of the ,eucharist1 he communicated in both kinds as a clerk4 ,the same sort of ecclesiastical character came also to be attached to the tsars#a of ,russia1 who--especially in their relations with the ,orthodox ,eastern ,church--may vindicate for themselves 7though the sultans of ,turkey have disputed the claim7 the succession to the ,east ,roman emperors 7see ,empire74 ,but the title of emperor was also used in the middle ages1 and is still used1 in a loose and vague sense1 without any ecclesiastical connotation or hint of connexion with ,rome 7the two attributes which should properly distinguish an emperor71 and merely in order to designate a non-,european ruler with a large extent of territory4 ,it was thus applied1 and is still applied1 to the rulers of ,china and ,japan2 it was attributed to the ,mogul sovereigns of ,india2 and since #ahgf it has been used by ,british monarchs in their capacity of sovereigns of ,india 7,kaiser-i-,hind74#b ,since the ,french ,revolution and during the course of the #aith century the term emperor has had an eventful history4 ,in #ahjd ,napoleon took the title of ,emperor of the ,french1 and posed as the reviver of the ,empire of ,charlemagne4 ,afraid that ,napoleon would next proceed to deprive him of his title of ,holy ,roman ,emperor1 ,francis ,,ii4 first took the step1 in #ahjd1 of investing himself with a new title1 that of ,hereditary ,emperor of ,austria1 and then1 in #ahjf1 proceeded to the further step of abdicating his old historical title and dissolving the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,thus the old and true sense of the term emperor--the sense in which it was connected with the church in the present and with ,rome in the past--finally perished2 and the term became partly an apanage of ,bonapartism 7,louis ,napoleon resuscitated it as ,napoleon ,,iii4 in #ahec71 and partly a personal title of the ,habsburgs as rulers of their various family territories4 ,in #ahgj1 however1 a new and most important use of the title was begun1 when the union of ,germany was achieved1 and the ,prussian king1 who became the head of united ,germany1 received in that capacity the title of ,german ,emperor4 ,here the title of emperor designates the president of a federal state2 and here the ,holy ,roman emperor of the #agth and #ahth centuries1 the president of a loose confederation of ,german states1 may be said to have found his successor4 ,but the term has been widely and loosely used in the course of the #aith century4 ,it was the style from #ahba to #ahhi of the princes of the house of ,braganza who ruled in ,brazil2 it has been assumed by usurpers in ,haiti1 and in ,mexico it was borne by ,augustin ,iturbide in #ahbb and #ahbc1 and by the ill-fated ,archduke ,maximilian of ,austria from #ahfd to #ahfg4 ,it can hardly1 therefore1 be said to have any definite descriptive force at the present time1 such as it had in the middle ages4 ,so far as it has any such force in ,europe1 it may be said partly to be connected with ,bonapartism1 and to denote a popular but military dictatorship1 partly to be connected with the federal idea1 and to denote a precedence over other kings possessed by a ruler standing at the head of a composite state which may embrace kings among its members4 ,it is in this latter sense that it is used of ,germany1 and of ,britain in respect of ,india2 it is in something approaching this latter sense that it may be said to be used of ,austria4 ,see ,j4 ,selden1 ,titles of ,honour 7#afgb72 ,j4 ,bryce1 ,holy ,roman ,empire 7,london1 #aijd72 and ,sir ,e4 ,colebrooke1 ,on ,imperial and ,other ,titles in the ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society 7#ahgg74 ,see also the articles on ,imperator and ,princeps in ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities 7#ahij74 7,e4 ,br47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the word ,tsar1 like the ,german ,kaiser1 is derived from ,caesar 7see ,,tsar74 ,peter the ,great introduced the use of the style ,imperator1 and the official designation is now ,emperor of all the ,russias1 ,tsar of ,poland1 and ,grand ,duke of ,finland1 though the term tsar is still popularly used in ,russia4 #b ,for the titles of ,greek3 ,basileus1 imperator ,augustus1 c41 applied in the #ajth century to the ,anglo-,saxon kings1 see ,,empire 7note74 ,the claim to the style of emperor1 as a badge of equal rank1 played a considerable part in the diplomatic relations between the ,sultan and certain ,european sovereigns4 ,thus1 at a time when this style 7,padishah7 was refused by the ,sultan to the tsars of ,russia1 and even to the ,holy ,roman ,emperor himself1 it was allowed to the ,french kings1 who in diplomatic correspondence and treaties with ,turkey called themselves emperor of ,france 7empereur de ,france74--,,ed44 ,,emphysema 7,gr4 ,greek3 emphysan to inflate7 is a word vaguely meaning the abnormal presence of air in certain parts of the body4 ,at the present day1 however1 there are two conditions to which it refers1 pulmonary emphysema 7and the word pulmonary is often omitted7 and surgical emphysema4 ,of pulmonary emphysema there are two forms1 true vesicular and interstitial 7or interlobular74 ,vesicular emphysema signifies that there is an enlargement of air-vesicles1 resulting either from their excessive distension1 from destruction of the septa1 or from both causes combined 7see ,,respiratory ,,system74 ,in interstitial emphysema the air is infiltrated into the connective tissue beneath the pleura and between the pulmonary air-cells4 ,the former variety is by far the more common1 and appears to be capable of being produced by various causes1 the chief of which are the following3-- #a4 ,where a portion of the lung has become wasted1 or its vesicular structure permanently obliterated by disease1 without corresponding falling in of the chest wall1 the neighbouring air-vesicles or some of them undergo dilatation to fill the vacuum 7vicarious emphysema74 #b4 ,in some cases of bronchitis1 where numbers of the smaller bronchial tubes become obstructed1 the air in the pulmonary vesicles remains imprisoned1 the force of expiration being insufficient to expel it2 while1 on the other hand1 the stronger force of inspiration being adequate to overcome the resistance1 the air-cells tend to become more and more distended1 and permanent alterations in their structure1 including emphysema1 are the result 7inspiratory theory74 #c4 ,emphysema also arises from exertion involving violent expiratory efforts1 during which the glottis is constricted1 as in paroxysms of coughing1 in straining1 and in lifting heavy weights 7expiratory theory74 ,whooping-cough is well known as the exciting cause of emphysema in many persons4 #d4 ,another view1 known as the nutritive theory1 maintains that emphysema depends essentially on a primary nutritive change in the walls of the air-vesicles4 ,thus these are impaired in their resisting power1 and are far more likely to become distended by any force acting on them from within4 #e4 ,again in certain cases the cartilages of the chest become hypertrophied and rigid1 thus causing a primary chronic enlargement1 and the lungs become emphysematous in order to fill up the increased space 7,freund's theory74 ,in whatever manner produced1 this disease gives rise to important morbid changes in the affected portions of the lungs1 especially the loss of the natural elasticity of the air-cells1 and likewise the destruction of many of the pulmonary capillary blood-vessels1 and the diminution of aerating surface for the blood4 ,as a consequence an increased strain is thrown on the right ventricle with a consequent dilatation leading on to heart failure and all its attendant troubles4 ,the chief symptom in this complaint is shortness of breath1 more or less constant but greatly aggravated by exertion1 and by attacks of bronchitis1 to which persons suffering from emphysema appear to be specially liable4 ,the respiration is of similar character to that already described in the case of asthma4 ,in severe forms of the disease the patient comes to acquire a peculiar puffy or bloated appearance1 and the configuration of the chest is altered1 assuming the character known as the barrel-shaped or emphysematous chest4 ,the main element in the treatment of emphysema consists in attention to the general condition of the health1 and in the avoidance of all causes likely to aggravate the disease or induce its complications4 ,compressed air baths and expiration into rarefied air may be useful4 ,during attacks of urgent dyspnoea and lividity1 with engorgement of veins1 the patient should be repeatedly bled until relief is obtained4 ,interstitial emphysema arising from the rupture of air-cells in the immediate neighbourhood of the pleura may occur as a complication of the vesicular form1 or separately as the result of some sudden expulsive effort1 such as a fit of coughing1 or1 as has frequently happened1 in parturition4 ,gangrene or post-mortem decomposition may lead to the presence of air in the interstitial tissue of the lung4 ,occasionally the air infiltrates the cellular tissue of the posterior mediastinum1 and thence comes to distend the integument of the whole surface of the body 7surgical emphysema74 ,surgical emphysema signifies the effusion of air into the general connective tissues of the body4 ,the commonest causes are a wound of some air-passage1 or a penetrating wound of the chest wall without injury to the lung4 ,it may1 however1 occur in any situation of the body and in many other ways4 ,its severity varies from very slight cases where only a little crepitation may be felt under the skin1 to extreme cases where the whole body is blown up and death is imminent from impeded respiration and failure of the action of the heart4 ,in the milder cases no treatment is necessary as the air gradually becomes absorbed1 but in the more severe cases incisions must be made in the swollen cellular tissues to allow the air to escape4 ,,empire1 a term now used to denote a state of large size and also 7as a rule7 of composite character1 often1 but not necessarily1 ruled by an emperor--a state which may be a federation1 like the ,german empire1 or a unitary state1 like the ,russian1 or even1 like the ,british empire1 a loose commonwealth of free states united to a number of subordinate dependencies4 ,for many centuries the writers of the ,church1 basing themselves on the ,apocalyptic writings1 conceived of a cycle of four empires1 generally explained--though there was no absolute unanimity with regard to the members of the cycle--as the ,assyrian1 the ,persian1 the ,macedonian and the ,roman4 ,but in reality the conception of ,empire1 like the term itself 7,lat4 imperium71 is of ,roman origin4 ,the empire of ,alexander had indeed in some ways anticipated the empire of ,rome4 ,in his later years1 ,professor ,bury writes1 ,alexander formed the notion of an empire1 both ,european and ,asiatic1 in which the ,asiatics should not be dominated by the ,european invaders1 but ,europeans and ,asiatics alike should be ruled on an equality by a monarch1 indifferent to the distinction of ,greek and barbarian1 and looked upon as their own king by ,persians as well as by ,macedonians4 ,the contemporary ,cynic philosophy of cosmopolitanism harmonized with this notion1 as ,stoicism did later with the practice of the ,roman empire2 and ,alexander1 like ,diocletian and ,constantine1 accustomed a ,western people to the forms of an ,oriental court1 while1 like the earlier ,caesars1 he claimed and received the recognition of his own divinity4 ,but when he died in #cbc1 his empire1 which had barely lasted ten years1 died with him2 and it was divided among ,diadochi who1 if in some other respects 7for instance1 the ,hellenization of the ,east7 they were heirs of their master's policy1 were destitute of the imperial conception4 ,the work of ,alexander was rather that of the forerunner than the founder4 ,he prepared the way for the world-empire of ,rome2 he made possible the rise of a universal religion4 ,and these are the two factors which1 throughout the middle ages1 went together to make the thing which men called ,empire4 ,the ,roman empire4 ,at ,rome the term imperium signified generally1 in its earlier use1 the sovereignty of the state over the individual1 a sovereignty which the ,romans had disengaged with singular clearness from all other kinds of authority4 ,each of the higher magistrates of the ,roman people was vested1 by a lex curiata 7for power was distinctly conceived as resident in1 and delegated by1 the community71 with an imperium both civil and military1 which varied in degree with the magnitude of his office4 ,in the later days of the ,republic such imperium was enjoyed1 partly in ,rome by the resident consuls and praetors1 partly in the provinces by the various proconsuls or propraetors4 ,there was thus a certain morcellement of imperium1 delegated as it was by the people to a number of magistrates3 the coming of the ,empire meant the reintegration of this imperium1 and its unification1 by a gradual process1 in the hands of the princeps1 or emperor4 ,the means by which this process was achieved had already been anticipated under the ,republic4 ,already in the days of ,pompey it had been found convenient to grant to an extraordinary officer an imperium aequum or majus over a large area1 and that officer thus received powers1 within that area1 equal to1 or greater than1 the powers of the provincial governors4 ,this precedent was followed by ,augustus in the year #bg ,b4,c41 when he acquired for himself sole imperium in a certain number of provinces 7the imperial provinces71 and an infinitum imperium majus in the remaining provinces 7which were termed senatorial74 ,as a result1 ,augustus enjoyed an imperium coextensive indeed with the whole of the ,roman world1 but concurrent1 in part of that world1 with the imperium of the senatorial proconsuls2 and the early ,empire may thus be described as a dyarchy4 ,but the distinction between imperial and senatorial provinces finally disappeared2 by the time of ,constantine the emperor enjoyed sole imperium1 and an absolute monarchy had been established4 ,we shall not1 however1 fully understand the significance of the ,roman empire1 unless we realize the importance of its military aspect4 ,all the soldiers of ,rome had from the first to swear in verba ,caesaris ,augusti2 and thus the whole of the ,roman army was his army1 regiments of which he might indeed lend1 but of which he was sole ,imperator 7see under ,,emperor74 ,thus regarded as a permanent commander-in-chief1 the emperor enjoyed the privileges1 and suffered from the weaknesses1 of his position4 ,he had the power of the sword behind him2 but he became more and more liable to be deposed1 and to be replaced by a new commander1 at the will of those who bore the sword in his service4 ,development under ,diocletian and ,constantine4 ,division of the ,empire4 ,the period which is marked by the reigns of ,diocletian and ,constantine 7,a4,d4 #bhd-ccg7 marks a great transformation in the character of the ,empire4 ,the old dyarchy1 under which the emperor might still be regarded as an official of the respublica ,romana1 passed into a new monarchy1 in which all political power became1 as it were1 the private property of the monarch4 ,there was now no distinction of provinces2 and the old public aerarium became merely a municipal treasury1 while the fiscus of the emperor became the exchequer of the ,empire4 ,the officers of the imperial praetorium1 or bodyguard1 are now the great officers of state2 his private council becomes the public consistory1 or supreme court of appeal2 and the comites of his court are the administrators of his empire4 ,all is in him1 and all comes from him1 as our own year-books say of the medieval king2 his household1 for instance1 is not only a household1 but also an administration4 ,on the other hand1 this unification seems to be accompanied by a new bifurcation4 ,the exigencies of frontier defence had long been drawing the ,empire towards the troubled ,east2 and this tendency reached its culmination when a new ,rome arose by the ,bosporus1 and ,constantinople became the centre of what seemed a second ,empire in the ,east 7,a4,d4 #cbd74 ,particularly after the division of the ,empire between ,arcadius and ,honorius in #cie does this bifurcation appear to be marked2 and one naturally speaks of the two ,empires of the ,west and the ,east4 ,yet it cannot be too much emphasized that in reality such language is utterly inexact4 ,the ,roman empire was1 and always continued to be1 ideally one and indivisible4 ,there were two emperors1 but one ,empire--two persons1 but one power4 ,the point is of great importance for the understanding of the whole of the middle ages3 there only is1 and can be1 one ,empire1 which may indeed1 for convenience1 be ruled conjointly by two emperors1 resident1 again for convenience1 in two separate capitals4 ,and1 as a matter of fact1 not only did the residence of an emperor in the ,east not spell bifurcation1 it actually fostered the tendency towards unification4 ,it helped forward the transformation of the ,empire into an absolute and quasi-,asiatic monarchy1 under which all its subjects fell into a single level of loyal submission3 it helped to give the emperor a gorgeous court1 marked by all the ceremony and the servility of the ,east4#a ,the deification of the emperor himself dates from the days of ,augustus2 by the time of ,constantine it has infected the court and the government4 ,each emperor1 again1 had from the first enjoyed the sacrosanct position which was attached to the tribunate2 but now his palace1 his chamber1 his charities1 his letters1 are all sacred1 and one might almost speak in advance of a ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,influence of ,christianity4 ,but there is one factor1 the greatest of all1 which still remains to be added1 before we have counted the sum of the forces that made the world think in terms of empire for centuries to come2 and that is the reception of ,christianity into the ,roman empire by ,constantine4 ,that reception added a new sanction to the existence of the ,empire and the position of the emperor4 ,the ,empire1 already one and indivisible in its aspect of a political society1 was welded still more firmly together when it was informed and permeated by a common ,christianity1 and unified by the force of a spiritual bond4 ,the ,empire was now the ,church2 it was now indeed indestructible1 for1 if it perished as an empire1 it would live as a church4 ,but the ,church made it certain that it would not perish1 even as an empire1 for many centuries to come4 ,on the one hand the ,church thought in terms of empire and taught the millions of its disciples 7including the barbarians themselves7 to think in the same terms4 ,no other political conception--no conception of a ,greek3 polis or of a nation--was any longer possible4 ,when the ,church gained its hold of the ,roman world1 the ,empire1 as it has been well said1 was already not only a government1 but a fashion of conceiving the world3 it had stood for three centuries1 and no man could think of any other form of political association4 ,moreover1 the gospel of ,st ,paul--that there is one ,church1 whereof ,christ is the ,head1 and we are all members--could not but reinforce for the ,christian the conception of a necessary political unity of all the world under a single head4 ,una ,chiesa in uno ,stato--such1 then1 was the theory of the ,church4 ,but not only did the ,church perpetuate the conception of empire by making it a part of its own theory of the world3 it perpetuated that conception equally by materializing it in its own organization of itself4 ,growing up under the shadow of the ,empire1 the ,church too became an empire1 as the ,empire had become a church4 ,as it took over something of the old pagan ceremonial1 so it took over much of the old secular organization4 ,the pope borrowed his title of pontifex maximus from the emperor3 what is far more1 he made himself gradually1 and in the course of centuries1 the ,caesar and ,imperator of the ,church4 ,the offices and the dioceses of the ,church are parallel to the offices and dioceses of the ,diocletian empire3 the whole spirit of orderly hierarchy and regular organization1 which breathes in the ,roman ,church1 is the heritage of ancient ,rome4 ,the ,donation of ,constantine is a forgery2 but it expresses a great truth when it represents ,constantine as giving to the pope the imperial palace and insignia1 and to the clergy the ornaments of the imperial army 7see ,,donation ,,of ,,constantine74 ,barbarian invasions4 ,upon this world1 informed by these ideas1 there finally descended1 in the #eth century1 the avalanche of barbaric invasion4 ,its impact seemed to split the ,empire into fragmentary kingdoms2 yet it left the universal ,church intact1 and with it the conception of empire4 ,with that conception1 indeed1 the barbarians had already been for centuries familiar3 service in ,roman armies1 and settlement in ,roman territories1 had made the ,roman empire for them1 as much as for the civilized provincial1 part of the order of the world4 ,one of the barbarian invaders1 ,odoacer 7,odovakar71 might seem1 in #dgf1 to have swept away the ,empire from the ,west1 when he commanded the abdication of ,romulus ,augustulus2 and the date #dgf has indeed been generally emphasized as marking the fall of the ,western empire4 ,other invaders1 again1 men like the ,frank ,clovis or the great ,ostrogoth ,theodoric1 might seem1 in succeeding years1 to have completed the work of ,odoacer1 and to have shattered the sorry scheme of the later ,empire1 by remoulding it into national kingdoms4 ,de facto1 there is some truth in such a view3 de jure1 there is none4#b ,all that ,odoacer did was to abolish one of the two joint rulers of the indivisible ,empire1 and to make the remaining ruler at ,constantinople sole emperor from the ,bosporus to the pillars of ,hercules4 ,he abolished the dual sovereignty which had been inaugurated by ,diocletian1 and returned to the unity of the ,empire in the days of ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,he did not abolish the ,roman empire in the ,west3 he only abolished its separate ruler1 and1 leaving the ,empire itself subsisting1 under the sway 7nominal1 it is true1 but none the less acknowledged7 of the emperor resident at ,constantinople1 he claimed to act as his vicar1 under the name of patrician1 in the administration of the ,italian provinces4#c ,as ,odoacer thus fitted himself into the scheme of empire1 so did both ,clovis and ,theodoric4 ,they do not claim to be emperors 7that was reserved for ,charlemagne73 they claim to be the vicars and lieutenants of the ,empire4 ,theodoric spoke of himself to ,zeno as imperio vestro famulans2 he left justice and administration in ,roman hands1 and maintained two annual consuls in ,rome4 ,clovis received the title of consul from ,anastasius2 the ,visigothic kings of ,spain 7like the kings of the savage ,lombards7 styled themselves ,flavii1 and permitted the cities of their eastern coast to send tribute to ,constantinople4 ,yet it must be admitted that1 as a matter of fact1 this adhesion of the new barbaric kings to the ,empire was little more than a form4 ,the ,empire maintained its ideal unity by treating them as its vicars2 but they themselves were forming separate and independent kingdoms within its borders4 ,the ,italy of the ,ostrogoths cannot have belonged1 in any real sense1 to the ,empire2 otherwise ,justinian would never have needed to attempt its reconquest4 ,and in the #gth and #hth centuries the form of adhesion itself decayed3 the emperor was retiring upon the ,greek world of the ,east1 and the ,german conquerors1 settled within their kingdoms1 lost the width of outlook of their old migratory days4 ,the ,church and the ,empire4 ,growing divergence between ,east and ,west4 ,the popes4 ,it is here that the action of the ,church becomes of supreme importance4 ,the ,church had not ceased to believe in the continuous life of the ,empire4 ,the ,fathers had taught that when the cycle of empires was finally ended by the disappearance of the empire of ,rome1 the days of ,antichrist would dawn2 and1 since ,antichrist was not yet come1 the ,church believed that the ,empire still lived1 and would continue to live till his coming4 ,meanwhile the ,eastern emperor1 ever since ,justinian's reconquest of ,italy1 had been able to maintain his hold on the centre of ,italy2 and ,rome itself1 the seat of the head of the ,church1 still ranked as one of the cities under his sway4 ,the imperialist theory of the ,church found its satisfaction in this connexion of its head with ,constantinople2 and as long as this connexion continued to satisfy the ,church1 there was little prospect of any change4 ,for many years after their invasion of #efh1 the pressure which the ,lombards maintained on central ,italy1 from their kingdom in the valley of the ,po1 kept the popes steadily faithful to the emperor of the ,east and his representative in ,italy1 the exarch of ,ravenna4 ,but it was not in the nature of things that such fidelity should continue unimpaired4 ,the development of the ,east and the ,west could not but proceed along constantly diverging lines1 until the point was reached when their connexion must snap4 ,on the one hand1 the development of the ,west set towards the increase of the powers of the bishop of ,rome until he reached a height at which subjection to the emperor at ,constantinople became impossible4 ,residence in ,rome1 the old seat of empire1 had in itself given him a great prestige2 and to this prestige ,st ,gregory 7pope from #eij to #fjd7 had added in a number of ways4 ,he was one of the ,fathers of the ,church1 and turned its theology into the channels in which it was to flow for centuries2 he had acquired for his church the great spiritual colony of ,england by the mission of ,st ,augustine2 he had been the protector of ,italy against the ,lombards4 ,as the popes thus became more and more spiritual emperors of the ,west1 they found themselves less and less able to remain the subjects of the lay emperor of the ,east4 ,meanwhile the emperors of the ,east were led to interfere in ecclesiastical affairs in a manner which the popes and the ,western ,church refused to tolerate4 ,brought into contact with the pure monotheism of ,mahommedanism1 ,leo the ,isaurian 7#gah-gda7 was stimulated into a crusade against image-worship1 in order to remove from the ,christian ,church the charge of idolatry4 ,the ,west clung to its images3 the popes revolted against his decrees2 and the breach rapidly became irreparable4 ,as the hold of the ,eastern emperor on central ,italy began to be shaken1 the popes may have begun to cherish the hope of becoming their successors and of founding a temporal dominion2 and that hope can only have contributed to the final dissolution of their connexion with the ,eastern empire4 ,coronation of ,charlemagne as emperor of the ,west4 ,thus1 in the course of the #hth century1 the ,empire1 as represented by the emperors at ,constantinople1 had begun to fade utterly out of the ,west4 ,it had been forgotten by lay sovereigns2 it was being abandoned by the pope1 who had been its chosen apostle4 ,but it did not follow that1 because the ,eastern emperor ceased to be the representative of the ,empire for the ,west1 the conception of ,empire itself therefore perished4 ,the popes only abandoned the representative2 they did not abandon the conception4 ,if they had abandoned the conception1 they would have abandoned the idea that there was an order of the world2 they would have committed themselves to a belief in the coming of ,antichrist4 ,the conception of the world as a single ,empire-,church remained3 what had to be discovered was a new representative of one of the two sides of that conception4 ,for a brief time1 it would seem1 the pope himself cherished the idea of becoming1 in his own person1 the successor of the ancient ,caesars in their own old capital4 ,by the aid of the ,frankish kings1 he had been able to stop the ,lombards from acquiring the succession to the derelict territories of the ,eastern emperor in ,italy 7from which their last exarch had fled overseas in #geb71 and he had become the temporal sovereign of those territories4 ,successor to the ,eastern emperor in central ,italy1 why should he not also become his successor as representative of the ,empire--all the more1 since he was the head of the ,church1 which was coextensive with the ,empire8 ,some such hope seems to inspire the ,donation of ,constantine1 a document forged between #ged and #ggd1 in which ,constantine is represented as having conferred on ,silvester ,i4 the imperial palace and insignia1 and therewith omnes ,italiae seu occidentalium regionum provincias loca et civitates4 ,but the hope1 if it ever was cherished1 proved to be futile4 ,the popes had not the material force at their command which would have made them adequate to the position4 ,the strong arm of the ,frankish kings had alone delivered them from the ,lombards3 the same strong arm1 they found1 was needed to deliver them from the wild nobility of their own city4 ,so they turned to the power which was strong enough to undertake the task which they could not themselves attempt1 and they invited the ,frankish king to become the representative of the imperial conception they cherished4#d ,in the year #hjj central ,italy ceased to date its documents by the regnal years of the ,eastern emperors2 for ,charlemagne was crowned emperor in their stead4 ,the king of the ,franks was well fitted for the position which he was chosen to fill4 ,he was king of a stock which had been from the first ,athanasian1 and had never been tainted1 like most of the ,germanic tribes1 by the adoption of ,arian tenets4 ,his grandfather1 ,charles ,martel1 had saved ,europe from the danger of a ,mahommedan conquest by his victory at ,poitiers 7#gcb72 his father1 ,pippin the ,short1 had helped the ,english missionary ,boniface to achieve the conversion of ,germany4 ,the popes themselves had turned to the ,frankish kings for support again and again in the course of the #hth century4 ,gregory ,,iii41 involved in bitter hostilities with the iconoclastic reformers of the ,east1 appealed to ,charles ,martel for aid1 and even offered the king1 it is said1 the titles of consul and patrician4 ,zacharias pronounced the deposition of the last of the ,merovingians1 and gave to ,pippin the title of king 7#gea72 while his successor1 ,stephen ,,ii41 hard pressed by the ,lombards1 who were eager to replace the ,eastern emperors in the possession of central ,italy1 not only asked and received the aid of the new king1 but also acquired1 in virtue of ,pippin's donation 7#ged71 the disputed exarchate itself4 ,thus was laid the foundation of the ,states of the ,church2 and the grateful pope rewarded the donation by the gift of the title of patricius ,romanorum1 which conferred on its recipient the duty and the privilege of protecting the ,roman ,church1 along with some undefined measure of authority in ,rome itself4#e ,finally1 in #ggc1 ,pope ,adrian ,i4 had to appeal to ,charles1 the successor of ,pippin1 against the aggressions of the last of the ,lombard kings2 and in #ggd ,charles conquered the ,lombard kingdom1 and himself assumed its iron crown4 ,thus by the end of the #hth century the ,frankish king stood on the very steps of the imperial throne4 ,he ruled a realm which extended from the ,pyrenees to the ,harz1 and from ,hamburg to ,rome--a realm which might be regarded as in itself a de facto empire4 ,he bore the title of patricius1 and he had shown that he did not bear it in vain by his vigorous defence of the papacy in #ggd4 ,here there stood1 ready to hand1 a natural representative of the conception of ,empire2 and ,leo ,,iii41 finding that he needed the aid of ,charlemagne to maintain himself against his own ,romans1 finally took the decisive step of crowning him emperor1 as he knelt in prayer at ,st ,peter's1 on ,christmas ,day1 #hjj4 ,theory of the ,carolingian empire4 ,the coronation of ,charlemagne in #hjj marks the coalescence into a single unity of two facts1 or rather1 more strictly speaking1 of a fact and a theory4 ,the fact is ,german and secular3 it is the wide de facto empire1 which the ,frankish sword had conquered1 and ,frankish policy had organized as a single whole4 ,the theory is ,latin and ecclesiastical3 it is a theory of the necessary political unity of the world1 and its necessary representation in the person of an emperor--a theory half springing from the unity of the old ,roman empire1 and half derived from the unity of the ,christian ,church as conceived in the ,new ,testament4 ,if we seek for the force which caused this fact and this theory to coalesce in the ,carolingian empire1 we can only answer--the papacy4 ,the idea of ,empire was in the ,church2 and the head of the ,church translated this idea into fact4 ,if1 however1 we seek to conceive the event of #hjj from a political or legal point of view1 and to determine the residence of the right of constituting an emperor1 we at once drift into the fogs of centuries of controversy4 ,three answers are possible from three points of view2 and all have their truth1 according to the point of view4 ,from the ecclesiastical point of view1 the right resides with the pope4 ,this theory was not promulgated 7indeed no theory was promulgated7 until the struggles of ,papacy and ,empire in the course of the middle ages2 but by the time of ,innocent ,,iii4 it is becoming an established doctrine that a translatio ,imperii took place in #hjj1 whereby the pope transferred the ,roman empire from the ,greeks to the ,germans in the person of the magnificent ,charles4#f ,one can only say that1 as a matter of fact1 the popes ceased to recognize the ,eastern emperors1 and recognized ,charles instead1 in the year #hjj2 that1 again1 this recognition alone made ,charles emperor1 as nothing else could have done2 but that no question arose1 at the time1 of any right of the pope to give the ,empire to ,charlemagne1 for the simple reason that neither of the actors was acting or thinking in a legal spirit4 ,if we now turn to study the point of view of the civil lawyer1 animated by such a spirit1 and basing himself on the code of ,justinian1 we shall find that an emperor must derive his institution and power from a lex regia passed by the populus ,romanus2 and such a view1 strictly interpreted1 will lead us to the conclusion that the citizens of ,rome had given the crown to ,charlemagne in #hjj1 and continued to bestow it on successive emperors afterwards4 ,there is indeed some speech1 in the contemporary accounts of ,charlemagne's coronation1 of the presence of ancients among the ,romans and of the faithful people2 but they are merely present to witness or applaud1 and the conception of the ,roman people as the source of ,empire is one that was only championed1 at a far later date1 by antiquarian idealists like ,arnold of ,brescia and ,cola di ,rienzi4 ,the faex ,romuli1 a population of lodging-house keepers1 living upon pilgrims to the papal court1 could hardly be conceived1 except by an ardent imagination1 as heir to the ,quirites of the past4 ,finally1 from the point of view of the ,german tribesman1 we must admit that the ,empire was something which1 once received by his king 7no matter how71 descended in the royal family as an heirloom2 or to which 7when the kingship became elective7 a title was conferred1 along with the kingship1 by the vote of electors4#g ,relations of the ,carolingian to the ,eastern empire4 ,but apart from these questions of origin1 two difficulties have still to be faced with regard to the nature and position of the ,carolingian empire4 ,did ,charlemagne and his successors enter into a new relation with their subjects1 in virtue of their coronation8 ,and what was the nature of the relation between the new emperor now established in the ,west and the old emperor still reigning in the ,east8 ,it is true that ,charlemagne exacted a new oath of allegiance from his subjects after his coronation1 and again that he had a revision of all the laws of his dominions made in #hjb4 ,but the revision did not amount to much in bulk3 what there was contained little that was ,roman2 and1 on the whole1 it hardly seems probable that ,charlemagne entered into any new relation with his subjects4 ,the relation of his empire to the empire in the ,east is a more difficult and important problem4 ,in #gig the empress ,irene had deposed and blinded her son1 ,constantine ,,vi41 and usurped his throne4 ,now it would seem that ,charlemagne1 whose thoughts were already set on ,empire1 hoped to depose and succeed ,irene1 and thus to become sole representative of the conception of ,empire1 both for the ,east and for the ,west4 ,suddenly there came1 in #hjj1 his own coronation as emperor1 an act apparently unpremeditated at the moment1 taking him by surprise1 as one gathers from ,einhard's ,vita ,karoli1 and interrupting his plans4 ,it left him representative of the ,empire for the ,west only1 confronting another representative in the ,east4 ,such a position he did not desire3 there had been a single ,empire vested in a single person since #dgf1 and he desired that there should still continue to be a single ,empire1 vested only in his own person4 ,he now sought to achieve this unity by a proposal of marriage to ,irene4 ,the proposal failed1 and he had to content himself with a recognition of his imperial title by the two successors of the empress4 ,this did not1 however1 mean 7at any rate in the issue7 that henceforth there were to be two conjoint rulers1 amicably ruling as colleagues a single ,empire1 in the manner of ,arcadius and ,honorius4 ,the dual government of a single ,empire established by ,diocletian had finally vanished in #dgf2 and the unity of the ,empire was now conceived1 as it had been conceived before the days of ,diocletian1 to demand a single representative4 ,henceforth there were two rulers1 one at ,aix-la-,chapelle and one at ,constantinople1 each claiming1 whatever temporary concessions he might make1 to be the sole ruler and representative of the ,roman empire4 ,on the one hand1 the ,western emperors held that1 upon the deposition of ,constantine ,,vi41 ,charlemagne had succeeded him1 after a slight interval1 in the government of the whole ,empire1 both in the ,east and in the ,west2 on the other hand1 the ,eastern emperors1 in spite of their grudging recognition of ,charlemagne at the moment1 regarded themselves as the only lawful successors of ,constantine ,,vi41 and viewed the ,carolings and their later successors as upstarts and usurpers1 with no right to their imperial pretensions4 ,henceforth two halves confronted one another1 each claiming to be the whole2 two finite bodies touched1 and each yet claimed to be infinite4 ,character of the ,carolingian empire4 ,break-up of the ,carolingian empire4 ,attitude of the papacy4 ,if1 as has been suggested1 ,charlemagne did not enter into any fundamentally new relations with his subjects after his coronation1 it follows that the results of his coronation1 in the sphere of policy and administration1 cannot have been considerable4 ,the ,empire added a new sanction to a policy and administration already developed4 ,charlemagne had already showed himself episcopus episcoporum1 anxious not only to suppress heresy and supervise the clergy within his borders1 but also to extend true ,christianity without them even before the year when his imperial coronation gave him a new title to supreme governorship in all cases ecclesiastical4 ,he had already organized his empire on a new uniform system of counties1 and the missi dominici were already at work to superintend the action of the counts1 even before the renovatio imperii ,romani came to suggest such uniformity and centralization4 ,charlemagne had a new title2 but his subjects still obeyed the king of the ,franks1 and lived by ,frankish law1 in the old fashion4 ,in their eyes1 and in the eyes of ,charlemagne's own descendants1 the ,empire was something appendant to the kingship of the ,franks1 which made that kingship unique among others1 but did not radically alter its character4 ,true1 the kingship might be divided among brothers by the old ,germanic custom of partition1 while the ,empire must inhere in one person2 but that was the one difference1 and the one difficulty1 which might easily be solved by attaching the name of emperor to the eldest brother4 ,such was the conception of the ,carolings3 such was not1 however1 the conception of the ,church4 ,to the popes the ,empire was a solemn office1 to which the kings of the ,franks might most naturally be called1 in view of their power and the traditions of their house1 but which by no means remained in their hands as a personal property4 ,by thus seeking to dissociate the ,empire from any indissoluble connexion with the ,carolingian house1 the popes were able to save it4 ,civil wars raged among the descendants of ,charlemagne3 partitions recurred3 the ,empire was finally dissolved1 in the sense that the old realm of ,charlemagne fell asunder1 in #hhh4 ,but the ,empire1 as an office1 did not perish4 ,during the #ith century the popes had insisted1 as each emperor died1 that the new emperor needed coronation at their hands2 and they had thus kept alive the conception of the ,empire as an office to which they invited1 if they did not appoint1 each successive emperor4 ,the quarrels of the ,carolingian house helped them to make good their claim4 ,john ,,viii4 was able to select ,charles the ,bald in preference to other claimants in #hge2 and before the end of his pontificate he could write that he who is to be ordained by us to the ,empire must be by us first and foremost invited and elected4 ,thus was the unity of the ,empire preserved1 and the conception of a united ,empire continued1 in spite of the eventual dissolution of the realm of ,charlemagne4 ,when the ,carolingian emperors disappeared1 ,benedict ,,iv4 could crown ,louis of ,provence 7#ija7 and ,john ,x4 could invite to the vacant throne an ,italian potentate like ,berengar of ,friuli 7#iae72 and even when ,berengar died in #ibd1 and the ,empire was vacant of an emperor1 they could hold1 and hold with truth1 that the ,empire was not dead1 but only suspended1 until such time as they should invite a new ruler to assume the office4 ,the ,german kingdom and the empire4 ,the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,various causes had contributed to the dissolution of the realm of ,charlemagne4 ,partitions had split it2 feudalism had begun to honeycomb it2 incessant wars had destroyed its core1 the fighting ,franks of ,austrasia4 ,but1 above all1 the rise of divisions within the realm1 which1 whether animated by the spirit of nationality or no1 were ultimately destined to develop into nations1 had silently undermined the structure of ,pippin and ,charlemagne4 ,already in #hdb the oath of ,strassburg shows us one ,caroling king swearing in ,french and another in ,german3 already in #hgj the partition of ,mersen shows us the kings of ,france and ,germany dividing the middle kingdom which lay between the two countries by the linguistic frontier of the ,meuse and ,moselle4 ,the year #hhh is the birth-year of modern ,europe4 ,france1 ,germany1 ,italy1 stood distinct as three separate units1 with ,burgundy and ,lorraine as debatable lands1 as they were destined to remain for centuries to come4 ,if the conception of ,empire was still to survive1 the pope must ultimately invite the ruler of the strongest of these three units to assume the imperial crown2 and this was what happened when in #ifb ,pope ,john ,,xii4 invited ,otto ,i4 of ,germany to renew once more the ,roman ,empire4 ,as the imperial strength of the whole ,frankish tribe had given them the ,empire in #hjj1 so did the national strength of the ,east ,frankish kingdom1 now resting indeed on a ,saxon rather than a ,frankish basis1 bring the ,empire to its ruler in #ifb4 ,the centre of political gravity had already been shifting to the east of the ,rhine in the course of the #ith century4 ,while the ,northmen had carried their arms along the rivers and into the heart of ,france1 ,louis the ,german had consolidated his kingdom in a long reign of sixty years 7#hag-hgf72 and at the end of the #ith century two kings of ,germany had already worn the imperial crown4 ,early in the #ajth century the kingship of ,germany had come to the vigorous ,saxon dukes 7#iai72 and strong in their ,saxon basis ,henry ,i4 and his son ,otto had built a realm which1 disunited as it was1 was far more compact than that which the ,carolings of the ,west ruled from ,laon4 ,henry ,i4 had thought in his later years of going to ,rome for the imperial crown3 under ,otto ,i4 the imperial idea becomes manifest4 ,on the one hand1 he established a semi-imperial position in the ,west3 by #idf ,louis ,,iv4 d',outremer is his protege1 and it is his arms which maintain the young ,conrad of ,burgundy on his throne4 ,on the other hand1 he showed1 by his policy towards the ,german ,church1 that he was the true heir of the ,carolingian traditions4 ,he made churchmen his ministers2 he established missionary bishoprics on the ,elbe which should spread ,christianity among the ,wends2 and his dearest project was a new archbishopric of ,magdeburg4 ,the one thing needful was that he should1 like ,charlemagne1 acquire the throne of ,italy2 and the dissolute condition of that country during the first half of the #ajth century made its acquisition not only possible1 but almost imperative4 ,begun in #ieb1 the acquisition was completed ten years later2 and all the conditions were now present for ,otto's assumption of the imperial throne4 ,he was crowned by ,john ,,xii4 on ,candlemas ,day #ifb1 and thus was begun the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 which lasted henceforth with a continuous life until #ahjf4h ,the ,empire and feudalism4 ,the same ideas underlay the new empire which had underlain that of ,charlemagne1 strengthened and reinforced by the fact that they had already found a visible expression before in that earlier empire4 ,historically1 there was the tradition of the old ,roman empire1 preserved by the ,church as an idea1 and preserved in the ,church1 and its imperial organization1 as an actual fact4 ,ecclesiastically1 there was the ,pauline conception of a single ,christian ,church1 one in subjection to ,christ as its ,head1 and needing 7so men still thought7 a secular counterpart of its indivisible unity4#i ,to these two sanctions philosophy later added a third2 and the doctrine of ,realism1 that the one universal is the true abiding substance--the doctrine which pervades the ,de monarchia of ,dante1--reinforced the feeling which demanded that ,europe should be conceived as a single political unity4 ,but if the ,holy ,roman empire of the ,german nation has the old foundations1 it is none the less a thing sui generis4 ,externally1 it meant far less than the empire of ,charlemagne2 it meant simply a union of ,germany and northern ,italy 7to which1 after #ajcb1 one must also add ,burgundy1 though the addition is in reality nominal7 under a single rule4 ,historians of the #aith century1 during the years in which the modern ,german empire was in travail1 disputed sorely on the advantages of this union2 but whatever its advantages or disadvantages1 the fact remains that the union of ,teutonic ,germany and ,latin ,italy was1 from an external point of view1 the essential fact in the structure of the medieval ,empire4 ,internally1 again1 the ,empire of the ,ottos and their successors was new and unprecedented4 ,if ,latin imperialism had been combined with ,frankish tribalism in the ,empire of ,charlemagne1 it now met and blended with feudalism4 ,the ,holy ,roman emperor of the middle ages1 as ,frederick ,i4 proudly told the ,roman envoys1 found his senate in the diet of the ,german baronage1 his equites in the ranks of the ,german knights4 ,feudalism1 indeed1 came in time to invade the very conception of ,empire itself4 ,the emperors began to believe that their position of emperor made them feudal overlords of other kings and princes2 and they came to be regarded as the topmost summit of the feudal pyramid1 from whom kings held their kingdoms1 while they themselves held directly of ,god4 ,in this way the old conception of the world as a single political society entered upon a new phase3 but the translation of that conception into feudal terms1 which might have made ,diocletian gasp1 only gave it the greater hold on the feudal society of the middle ages4 ,yet in one way the feudal conception was a source of weakness to the ,empire2 for the popes1 from the middle of the #abth century onwards1 began to claim for themselves a feudal overlordship of the world1 and to regard the emperor as the chief of their vassals4 ,the theory of the ,translatio buttressed their claim to be overlords of the ,empire2 and the emperors found that their very duty to defend the ,papacy turned them into its vassals--for was not the advocatus who defended the lands of an abbey or church its tenant by feudal service1 and might not analogy extend the feudal relation to the imperial advocate himself8 ,the ,empire and the ,papacy4 ,the relation of the ,empire to the ,papacy is indeed the cardinal fact in its history for the three centuries which followed the coronation of ,otto ,i4 7#ifb-abej74 ,for a century 7#ifb-ajgf7 the relation was one of amity4 ,the pope and the emperor stood as co-ordinate sovereigns1 ruling together the commonwealth of ,europe4#aj ,if either stood before the other1 the emperor stood before the pope4 ,the ,romans had sworn to ,otto ,i4 that they would never elect or ordain a pope without his consent2 and the rights over papal elections conceived to belong to the office of patricius1 which they generally held1 enabled the emperors1 upon occasion1 to nominate the pope of their choice4 ,the partnership of ,otto ,,iii41 son of a ,byzantine princess1 and his nominee ,silvester ,,ii4 7already distinguished as ,gerbert1 scholasticus of the chapter school of ,reims7 forms a remarkable page in the annals of ,empire and ,papacy4 ,otto1 once the pupil of ,silvester in classical studies1 and taught by his mother the traditions of the ,byzantine empire1 dreamed of renewing the ,empire of ,constantine1 with ,rome itself for its centre2 and this antiquarian idealism 7which ,arnold of ,brescia and ,cola di ,rienzi were afterwards1 though with some difference of aim1 to share7 was encouraged in his pupil by the pope4 ,tradition afterwards ascribed to the two the first project of a crusade1 and the institution of the seven electors3 in truth their faces were turned to the past rather than to the future1 and they sought not to create1 but to renovate4 ,the dream of restoring the age of ,constantine passed with the premature death of ,otto2 and after the death of ,silvester ,,ii4 the papacy was degraded into an appendage of the ,tusculan family4 ,from that degradation the ,church was rescued by ,henry ,,iii4 7the second emperor of the new ,salian house1 which reigned from #ajbd to #aabe71 when in #ajdf he caused the deposition of three competing popes1 and afterwards filled the papal chair with his own nominees2 but it was rescued more effectually by itself1 when in #ajei the celebrated bull ,in nomine ,domini of ,nicholas ,,ii4 reserved the right of electing the popes to the college of cardinals 7see ,,conclave74 ,a new era of the ,papacy begins with the decree1 and that era found its exponent in ,hildebrand4 ,if under ,henry ,,iii4 the ,empire stands in many respects at its zenith1 and the emperor nominates to the ,papacy1 it sinks1 under ,henry ,,iv41 almost to the nadir of its fortunes1 and a pope attempts1 with no little success1 to fight and defeat an emperor4 ,the ,investiture contest4 ,the rise of the ,papacy1 which the action of ,henry ,,iii4 in #ajdf had helped to begin1 and the bull of #ajei had greatly promoted1 was ultimately due to an ecclesiastical revival1 which goes by the name of the ,cluniac movement4 ,the aim of that movement was to separate the ,church from the world1 and thus to make it independent of the laity and the lay power2 and it sought to realize its aim first by the prohibition of clerical marriage and simony1 and ultimately by the prohibition of lay investiture4 ,a decree of ,gregory ,,vii4 in #ajge forbade emperor1 king or prince to presume to give investiture of bishoprics1 under pain of excommunication2 and ,henry ,,iv41 contravening the decree1 fell under the penalty1 and the ,war of ,investitures began 7#ajgf-aabb74 ,whether or no ,henry humiliated himself at ,canossa 7and the opinion of ,german historians now inclines to regard the traditional account as exaggerated7 the ,empire certainly suffered in his reign a great loss of prestige4 ,the emperor lost his hold over ,germany1 where the aid of the pope strengthened the hands of the discontented nobility3 he lost his hold over ,italy1 where the ,lombard towns gradually acquired municipal independence1 and the donation of the ,countess ,matilda gave the popes the germ of a new and stronger dominium temporale4 ,the ,first ,crusade came1 and the emperor1 its natural leader1 could not lead it2 while the centre of learning and civilization1 in the course of the fifty years' ,war of ,investitures1 gradually shifted to ,france4 ,the struggle was finally ended by a compromise--the ,concordat of ,worms--in #aabb2 but the ,papacy1 which had fought the long ,war of ,investitures and inspired the ,first ,crusade1 was a far greater power than it had been at the beginning of the struggle1 and the emperor1 shaken in his hold on ,germany and ,italy1 had lost both power and prestige 7see ,,investiture74 ,it is significant that a theory of the feudal subjection of the emperor to the pope1 foreshadowed in the pontificate of ,innocent ,,ii41 and definitely enounced by the envoys of ,adrian ,,iv4 at the diet of ,besancon in #aaeg1 now begins to arise4 ,the popes1 who had called the emperors to be heads of the ,european commonwealth in #hjj and again in #ifb1 begin to vindicate that headship for themselves4 ,gregory ,,vii4 had already claimed that the pope stood to the emperor1 as the sun to the moon2 and gradually the old co-ordination disappeared in a new subordination of the ,empire to the papal plenitudo potestatis4 ,the claim of ecclesiastical independence of the middle of the #aath century was rapidly becoming a claim of ecclesiastical supremacy in the middle of the #abth3 the imperial claim to nominate popes1 which had lasted till #ajei1 was turning into the papal claim to nominate emperors4 ,yet at this very time a new period of splendour dawned for the ,empire2 and the rule of the three ,hohenstaufen emperors1 ,frederick ,i41 ,henry ,,vi4 and ,frederick ,,ii4 7#aaeb-abej71 marks the period of its history which attracts most sympathy and admiration4 ,the ,hohenstaufen emperors4 ,overthrow of the ,empire in ,italy4 ,frederick ,i4 regained a new strength in ,germany1 partly because he united in his veins the blood of the two great contending families1 the ,welfs and the ,waiblingens2 partly because he had acquired large patrimonial possessions in ,swabia1 which took the place of the last ,saxon demesne2 partly because he had a greater control over the ,german episcopate than his predecessors had enjoyed for many years past4 ,at the same time the revival of interest in the study of ,roman law gave the emperor1 as source and centre of that law1 a new dignity and prestige1 particularly in ,italy1 the home and hearth of the revival4 ,confident in this new strength1 he attempted to vindicate his claims on ,italy1 and sought1 by uniting the two under his sway1 to inspire with new life the old ,ottonian ,empire4 ,he failed to crush ,lombard municipal independence3 defeated at ,legnano in #aagf1 he had to recognize his defeat at the treaty of ,constance in #aahc4 ,he failed to acquire control over the ,papacy3 a new struggle of ,empire and ,papacy1 begun in the pontificate of ,adrian ,,iv4 on the question of control over ,rome1 and continued in the pontificate of ,alexander ,,iii41 because ,frederick recognized an anti-pope1 ended in the emperor's recognition of his defeat at ,venice in #aagg4 ,the one success was the acquisition of the ,norman kingdom for ,henry ,,vi41 who was married to its heiress1 ,constance4 ,but the one success of ,frederick's ,italian policy proved the ruin of his house in the reign of his grandson ,frederick ,,ii4 ,on the one hand1 the possession of ,sicily induced ,frederick ,,ii4 to neglect ,germany2 and by two documents1 one of #abbj and one of #abca1 he practically abdicated his sovereign powers to the ,german princes in order to conciliate their support for his ,italian policy4 ,on the other hand1 the possession of ,sicily involved him in the third great struggle of ,empire and ,papacy4 ,strong in his ,sicilian kingdom in the south1 and seeking1 like his grandfather1 to establish his power in ,lombardy1 ,frederick practically aimed at the unification of ,italy1 a policy which threatened to engulf the ,states of the ,church and to reduce the ,papacy to impotence4 ,the popes excommunicated the emperor3 they aided the ,lombard towns to maintain their independence2 finally1 after ,frederick's death 7#abej71 they summoned ,charles of ,anjou into ,sicily to exterminate his house4 ,by #abfh he had done his work1 and the medieval ,empire was practically at an end4 ,when ,rudolph of ,habsburg succeeded in #abgc1 he was only the head of a federation of princes in ,germany1 while in ,italy he abandoned all claims over the centre and south1 and only retained titular rights in the ,lombard plain4 ,thus ended the first great chapter in the history of the ,holy ,roman ,empire which ,otto had founded in #ifb4 ,in those three centuries the great fact had been its relation to the ,papacy3 in the last two of those three centuries the relation had been one of enmity4 ,the basis of the enmity had been the papal claim to supreme headship of ,latin ,christianity1 and to an independent temporal demesne in ,italy as the condition of that headship4 ,because they desired supreme headship1 the popes had sought to reduce the emperor's headship to something lower than1 and dependent upon1 their own--to a mere fief held of ,st ,peter3 because they desired a temporal demesne1 they had sought to expel him from ,italy1 since any imperial hold on ,italy threatened their independence4 ,they had succeeded in defeating the ,empire1 but they had also destroyed the ,papacy2 for the ,french aid which they had invoked against the ,hohenstaufen developed1 within fifty years of the fall of that house1 into ,french control1 and the captivity at ,avignon 7#acjh-acgh7 was the logical result of the final victory of ,charles of ,anjou at ,tagliacozzo4 ,the struggle seemed to have ended in nothing but the exhaustion of both combatants4 ,yet in many respects it had in reality made for progress4 ,it had set men thinking of the respective limits of church and state1 as the many libelli de lite imperatorum et pontificum show2 and from that thought had issued a new conception of the state1 as existing in its own right and supreme in its own sphere1 a conception which is the necessary basis of the modern nation-state4 ,if it had dislocated ,germany into a number of territorial principalities1 it had produced a college of electors to represent the cause of unity3 if it had helped to prevent the unification of ,italy1 and had left to ,italy the fatal legacy of ,guelph and ,ghibelline feuds1 it had equally helped to produce ,italian municipal independence4 ,the ,empire from the election of ,rudolph of ,habsburg1 #abgc4 ,a new chapter of the history of the ,empire fills the three centuries from #abgc to #aeef--;from the accession of ,rudolph of ,habsburg to the abdication of ,charles ,v4 ,italy was now lost3 the ,empire had now no peculiar connexion with ,rome1 and far less touch with the ,papacy4 ,a new ,germany had risen4 ,the extinction of several royal stocks and the nomination of anti-kings in the course of civil wars had made the monarchy elective1 and raised to the side of the emperor a college of electors 7see ,,electors71 which appears as definitely established soon after #abej4 ,with ,italy lost1 and ,germany thus transmuted1 why should the ,empire have still continued to exist8 ,in the first place1 it continued to exist because the ,germans still found a king necessary and because1 the ,german king having been called for three centuries emperor1 it seemed necessary that he should still continue to bear the name4 ,in this sense the ,empire existed as the presidency of a ,germanic confederation1 and as something analogous to the modern ,german empire1 with the one great difference that the ,hohenzollerns now derive from ,prussia a strength which enables them to make their imperial position a reality1 while no ,luxemburg or ,habsburg was able to make his imperial position otherwise than honorary and nominal4 ,in the second place1 it continued to exist because the conception of the unity of western ,europe still lingered1 and was still conceived to need an exponent4 ,in this sense the ,empire existed as a presidency1 still more honorary and still more nominal1 of the nations of western ,europe4 ,in both capacities the emperor existed to a great extent because he was a legal necessity--because1 in ,germany1 he was necessary for the investiture of princes with their principalities1 and because1 in ,europe1 he was necessary1 as the source of all rights1 to bestow crowns upon would-be kings1 or to act as the head of the great orders of chivalry1 or to give patents to notaries4 ,with the history of the ,empire regarded as a ,german confederation we are not here concerned4 ,the reigns of the ,habsburg1 ,luxemburg and ,wittelsbach emperors belong to the history of ,germany4 ,yet two of these emperors1 ,henry ,,vii4 and ,louis ,,iv41 should not pass without notice1 the one for his own sake1 the other for the sake of his adherents1 and both because1 by interfering in ,italy1 and coming into conflict with the ,papacy1 they brought once more into prominence the ,european aspect of the ,empire4 ,henry ,,vii41 the contemporary and the hero of ,dante1 descended into ,italy in #acaj1 partly because he had no power and no occupation in ,germany1 partly because he was deeply imbued with the sense of his imperial dignity4 ,coming as a peacemaker and mediator1 he was driven by ,guelph opposition into a ,ghibelline role2 and he came into conflict with ,clement ,v41 the first of the ,avignonese popes1 who under the pressure of ,france attempted to enforce upon ,henry a recognition of his feudal subjection4 ,henry asserted his independence3 he claimed ,rome for his capital1 and the lordship of the world for his right2 but1 just as a struggle seemed impending1 he died1 in #acac4 ,during the reign of his successor1 ,louis ,,iv41 the struggle came4 ,louis had been excommunicated by ,john ,,xxii4 in #acbd for acting as emperor before he had received papal recognition4 ,none the less1 in #acbh1 he came to ,rome for his coronation4 ,he had gathered round him strange allies2 on the one hand1 the more advanced ,franciscans1 apostles of the cause of clerical disendowment1 and inimical to a wealthy papacy2 on the other hand1 jurists like ,marsilius of ,padua and ,john of ,jandun1 who brought to the cause of ,louis the spirit and the doctrines which had already been used in the struggle between ,boniface ,,viii4 and ,philip ,,iv4 of ,france4 ,marsilius in particular1 in a treatise called the ,defensor ,pacis1 insisted on the majesty of the lay state1 and even on its superiority to the ,church4 ,perhaps it was ,marsilius1 learned as he was in ,roman law1 and remembering the lex regia by which the ,roman people had of old conferred its power on the emperor1 who suggested to ,louis the policy1 which he followed1 of receiving the imperial crown by the decree and at the hands of the ,roman people4 ,the policy was remarkable3 ,louis embraced an alliance which ,frederick ,barbarossa had spurned1 and recognized the medieval ,romans as the source of imperial power4 ,not less remarkable was the new attitude of the ,german electors1 who for the first time supported an emperor against the pope1 because they now felt menaced in their own electoral rights2 and the one permanent result which finally flowed from the struggle was the enunciation and definition of the rights and privileges of the electors in the ,golden ,bull of #acef 7see ,,golden ,,bull74 ,the ,empire and the rise of the idea of national states4 ,in this struggle with the ,papacy the ,empire had shown something of its old universal aspect4 ,it had come into connexion with ,italy1 and into close connexion with ,rome3 it had enlisted in defence of its rights at once an ,italian like ,marsilius and an ,englishman like ,ockham4 ,the same universal aspect appeared once more in the age of the conciliar movement1 at the beginning of the #aeth century4 ,one of the essential duties of the emperor1 as defender of the ,church1 was to help the assembling and the deliberations of general councils of the ,church4 ,this was the duty discharged by ,sigismund1 when he forced ,john ,,xxiii4 to summon a council at ,constance in #adad1 and sought1 though in vain1 to guide its deliberations4 ,the journey which ,sigismund undertook in the interests of the council 7#adae-adag7 is particularly noteworthy4 ,he sought to make peace throughout western ,europe1 acting as international arbitrator--in virtue of his presidency of western ,europe--between ,england and ,france1 between ,burgundians and ,armagnacs2 but he failed in his aim1 and when he returned to the council1 it was only to witness the defeat of the party of reform which he championed4 ,national feeling and national antipathies proved too strong for ,sigismund's attempt to revive the medieval empire for the purposes of international arbitration3 the same feeling1 the same antipathies1 made inevitable the failure of the council itself1 in which western ,europe had sought to meet once more as a single religious commonwealth4 ,early in the #aeth century1 therefore1 the conception of the unity of western ,europe1 as a single ,empire-,church1 was already waning in both its aspects4 ,the unity of the ,church ,universal was dissolving1 and the conception of the nation-church arising 7as the separate concordats granted by ,martin ,v4 to the different nations prove72 while the unity of the ,empire was proved a dream1 by the powerlessness of the emperor in the face of the struggle of ,england and ,france4 ,influence of the ,reformation4 ,renaissance and ,reformation combined to complete the fall which the failure of ,sigismund to guide the conciliar movement had already foreshadowed4 ,the ,renaissance1 revolting against the medievalism of the studium and not sparing even the sacerdotium of the middle ages1 had little respect for the medieval imperium2 and1 going back to pure ,latin and original ,greek1 it went back beyond even the classical empire to find its ideals and inspirations4 ,but it is the coming of the ,reformation1 and with it of the nation-church1 which finally marks the epoch at which the last vestige of the old conception of the political unity of the world disappears before the nation-state4 ,externally indeed it seemed1 at the time of the ,reformation1 as if the old ,empire had been revived in the person of ,charles ,v41 who owned territories as vast as those of ,charlemagne4 ,but ,charles's dominions were a dynastic agglomeration1 knit together by no vivifying conception2 and1 though ,charles was a champion of the one ,catholic ,church against the ,reformation1 he did not in any way seek to revive the power of the medieval empire4 ,meanwhile the reforming monarchs1 while they cast off the ,roman ,church1 cast off with it the ,roman empire4 ,henry ,,viii4 declared himself free1 not only of the pope1 but of all other foreign power2 not only so1 but as he sought to take the place of the pope with regard to his own church1 so he sought to take the place of the emperor with regard to his kingdom1 and spoke of his imperial crown1 a style which recurs in later ,tudor reigns4#aa ,the conception of one ,empire passed out of ,europe1 or1 if it remained1 it remained only in an honorary precedence accorded by other sovereigns to the king of ,germany1 who still entitled himself emperor4 ,in ,germany itself the honorary presidency which the emperor enjoyed over the princes came to mean still less than before1 when religious differences divided the country1 and the principle of cujus regio ejus religio accentuated the local autonomy of the prince4 ,when ,charles abdicated in #aeef1 the change which the accession of ,rudolph of ,habsburg had already marked was complete3 there was no empire except in ,germany1 and in ,germany the ,empire was nothing more than a convenient legal conception4 ,the ,reformation1 by sweeping away the spiritual unity of western ,christendom1 had swept away any real conception of its political unity1 and with that conception it had swept away the ,empire2 while it had also1 by splitting ,germany into two religious camps1 and making the emperor at the most the head of a religious faction1 dissipated the last vestiges of a real ,empire in the country which had1 since #ifb1 been its peculiar home4 ,the ,empire as a ,german confederation4 ,from #aeef to #ahjf the ,empire means a loose federation of the different princes of ,germany1 lay and ecclesiastical1 under the presidency1 elective in theory but hereditary in practice1 of the house of ,habsburg4 ,it is an empire much in the same sense as the modern ,german empire1 with a diet somewhat analogous to the modern ,bundesrat1 and a cumbrous imperial chamber for purposes of justice1 hardly at all analogous to the highly organized system of federal justice which prevails in ,germany to-day4 ,the dissolution of the ,holy ,roman ,empire into this loose federation had already been anticipated by the concessions made to the princes by ,frederick ,,ii4 in #abbj and #abca2 but the final organization of ,germany on federal lines was only attained in the treaty of ,westphalia of #afdh4 ,the attempt of ,ferdinand ,,ii41 in the course of the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 to assert a practically monarchical authority over the princes of ,germany1 only led to the regular vindication by the princes of their own monarchical authority4 ,the emperor1 who had tried in the #aeth century to be the international authority of all ,europe1 now sank to the position of less than inter-state arbitrator in ,germany4 ,that the ,empire and the emperor were retained at all1 when the princes became so many independent sovereigns1 was due partly to a lingering sense of quasi-national sentiment for a magni nominis umbra1 partly to the need of some authority which should combine in one whole principalities of very different sizes and strengths1 and should protect the weak from the strong1 and all from ,france4 ,but this authority only found its symbol in the emperor4 ,such real federal authority as there was remained with the diet1 a congress of sovereign princes through their accredited representatives2 and the emperor's sole rights1 as emperor1 were those of granting titles and confirming tolls4 ,the ,habsburgs1 emperors in each successive generation1 never pursued an imperial1 but always a dynastic policy2 and they were perfectly ready to sacrifice to the aggrandizement of their house the honour of the ,empire1 as when they ceded ,lorraine to ,france in return for ,tuscany 7#agce74 ,end of the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,it needed the cataclysm of the ,french ,revolution finally to overthrow the ,empire4 ,throughout the #ahth century it lasted1 a thing of long-winded protocols and never-ending lawsuits1 neither ,holy1 nor ,roman1 nor an ,empire4 ,but with ,napoleon came its destroyer4 ,as far back as the end of the #acth century1 ,french kings had been scheming to annex the title or at any rate absorb the territories of the ,empire3 at the beginning of the #aith century the annexation of the title by ,napoleon seemed very imminent4 ,posing as the ,new ,charlemagne 7because1 like ,charlemagne1 ,i unite the crown of ,france to that of the ,lombards1 and my ,empire marches with the ,east71 he resolved in #ahjf1 during the dissolution and recomposition of ,germany which followed the peace of ,luneville1 to oust ,francis ,,ii4 from his title1 and to make the ,holy ,roman ,empire part and parcel of the ,napoleonic idea4 ,he was anticipated1 however1 by the prompt action of the proud ,habsburg1 who was equally resolved that no other should wear the crown which he himself was powerless to defend1 and accordingly1 on the #fth of ,august #ahjf1 ,francis resigned the imperial dignity4 ,so perished the ,empire4 ,out of its ashes sprang the ,austrian ,empire1 for ,francis1 in #ahjd1 partly to counter ,napoleon's assumption of the title of ,emperor of the ,french1 partly to prepare for the impending dissolution of the old ,empire1 had assumed the title of ,hereditary ,emperor of ,austria4 ,and in yet more recent times the ,german empire may be regarded1 in a still more real sense than ,austria1 as the descendant and representative of the old ,empire of the ,german nation4 ,general influence of the ,empire4 ,what had been the results of the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 in the course of its long history1 upon ,germany and upon ,europe8 ,it has been a vexata quaestio among ,german historians1 whether or no the ,empire ruined ,germany4 ,some have argued that it diverted the attention of the ,german kings from their own country to ,italy1 and that1 by bringing them into conflict with the popes1 and by thus strengthening the hands of their rebellious baronage with a papal alliance1 it prevented the development of a national ,german monarchy1 such as other sovereigns of western ,europe were able to found4 ,others again have emphasized the racial division of ,saxon and ,frank1 of ,high ,german and ,low ,german1 as the great cause of the failure of ,germany to grow into a united national whole1 and have sought to ascribe to the influence of the ,empire such unity as was achieved2 while they have attributed the learning1 the trade1 the pre-eminence of medieval ,germany to the ,italian connexion and the prestige which the ,empire brought4 ,it is difficult to pronounce on either side2 but one feels that the old localism and individualism which characterized the early ,german1 and had never1 on ,german soil1 been combined with and counteracted by a large measure of ,roman population and ,roman civilization1 as they were in ,gaul and ,spain1 would in any case have continued to divide and disturb ,germany till late in her history1 even if the ,empire had never come to reside within her borders4 ,of the larger question of the influence of the ,empire on ,europe we can here only say that it worked for good4 ,an ,empire which represented1 as a ,holy ,empire1 the unity of all the faithful as one body in their secular1 no less than in their religious life--an ,empire which1 again1 as a ,roman ,empire1 represented with an unbroken continuity the order of ,roman administration and law--such an empire could not but make for the betterment of the world4 ,it was not an empire resting on force1 a military empire2 it was not1 as in modern times empires have sometimes been1 an autocracy warranted and stamped by the plebiscite of the mob4 ,it was an empire resting neither on the sword nor on the ballot-box1 but on two great ideas1 taught by the clergy and received by the laity1 that all believers in ,christ form one body politic1 and that the one model and type for the organization of that body is to be found in the past of ,rome4 ,it was indeed the weakness of the ,empire that its roots were only the thoughts of men2 for the lack of material force1 from which it always suffered1 hindered it from doing work it might well have done--the work1 for instance1 of international arbitration4 ,yet1 on the other hand1 it was the strength and glory of the ,empire that it lived1 all through the middle ages1 an unconquerable idea of the mind of man4 ,because it was a being of their thought1 it stirred men to reflection3 the ,empire1 particularly in its clash with the ,papacy1 produced a political consciousness and a political speculation reflected for us in the many libelli de lite imperatorum et pontificum1 and in the pages of ,dante and ,marsilius of ,padua4 ,roman1 it perpetuated the greatest monument of ,roman thought--that ordered scheme of law1 which either became1 as in ,england1 the model for the building of a native system1 or1 as in ,germany from the end of the #aeth century onwards1 was received in its integrity and administered in the courts4 ,holy1 it fortified and consolidated ,christian thought1 by giving a visible expression to the kingdom of ,god upon earth2 and not only so1 but it maintained1 however imperfectly1 some idea of international obligation1 and some conception of a commonwealth of ,europe4#ab ,the ,holy ,roman ,empire of western ,europe had in its own day a contemporary and a rival--that east ,roman empire of which we have already spoken4 ,from ,arcadius to ,john ,palaeologus1 from ,a4,d4 #cie to #adec1 the ,roman empire was continued at ,constantinople--not as a theory and an idea1 but as a simple and daily reality of politics and administration4 ,in one sense the ,east ,roman ,empire was more lineally and really ,roman than the ,west3 it was absolutely continuous from ancient times4 ,in another sense the ,western ,empire was the most ,roman2 for its capital--in theory at least--was ,rome itself1 and the ,roman ,church stood by its side1 while ,constantinople was ,hellenic and even ,oriental4 ,between the two ,empires there was fixed an impassable gulf2 and they were divided by deep differences of thought and temper1 which appeared most particularly in the sphere of religion1 and expressed themselves in the cleavage between the ,catholic and the ,orthodox ,churches4 ,yet1 as when ,rome fell1 the ,catholic ,church survived1 and ultimately found for itself a new ,empire of the ,west1 so1 when ,constantinople fell1 the ,orthodox ,church continued its life1 and found for itself a new ,empire of the ,east--the ,empire of ,russia4 ,under ,ivan the ,great 7#adfb-aeje7 ,moscow became the metropolis of ,orthodoxy2 ,byzantine law influenced his code2 and he took for his cognizance the double-headed eagle4 ,ivan the ,terrible1 his grandson1 finally assumed in #aedg the title of ,tsar2 and henceforth the ,russian emperor is1 in theory and very largely in fact1 the successor of the old ,east ,roman emperor1#ac the head of the ,orthodox ,church1 with the mission of vengeance on ,islam for the fall of ,constantinople4 ,modern ,empires4 ,in the #aith century the word empire has had a large and important bearing in politics4 ,in ,france it has been the apanage of the ,bonapartes1 and has meant a centralized system of government by an efficient ,caesar1 resting immediately on the people1 and annihilating the powers of the people's representatives4 ,under ,napoleon ,i4 this conception had a ,carolingian colour3 under ,napoleon ,,iii4 there is less of ,carolingianism1 and more of ,caesarism--more of a popular dictatorship4 ,while in modern ,france ,empire has meant autocracy instead of representative government1 in ,germany it has meant a greater national unity and a federal government in the place of a confederation4 ,the modern ,german empire is at once like and unlike the old ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,it is unlike the old medieval ,empire2 for it has no connexion with the ,catholic ,church1 and no relation to ,rome4 ,but it is like the ,holy ,roman ,empire of the #agth and #ahth centuries--for it represents a federation1 but a more real and more unitary federation1 of the several states of ,germany4 ,the likeness is perhaps more striking than the dissimilarity2 and in virtue of this likeness1 and because the memory of the old ,german ,kaiserzeit was a driving force in #ahgj1 we may speak of the modern ,german empire as the successor of the old ,holy ,roman ,empire1 if we remember that we are speaking of that ,empire in its last two centuries of existence4 ,the modern ,empire of ,austria1 on the other hand1 does not connote an empire in the sense of a federation1 but is a convenient designation for the sum of the territories ruled by a single sovereign under various titles 7king of ,bohemia1 archduke of ,austria1 c47 and unified in a single political system4#ad ,the title of ,emperor was assumed1 as we have seen1 through an historical accident2 and1 though the ,habsburgs of to-day are personally the lineal descendants of the old ,holy ,roman emperors1 they do not in any way possess an empire that represents the old ,holy ,empire4 ,in ,england1 of recent years1 the term ,empire and the conception of imperialism have become prominent and crucial4 ,to ,englishmen to-day1 as to ,germans before #ahgj1 the term and the conception stand for the greater unity and definitely federal government of a number of separate states4 ,for the ,german1 indeed1 ,empire has meant1 in great measure1 the strengthening of a loose federal institution by the addition of a common personal superior3 to us it means the turning of a loose union of separate states already under a common personal superior--the ,king--into a federal commonwealth living under some common federal institutions4 ,but the aim is much the same2 it is the integration of a people under a single scheme which shall be consistent with a large measure of political autonomy4 ,we speak of imperial federation2 and indeed our modern imperialism is closely allied to federalism4 ,yet we do well to cling to the term empire rather than federation2 for the one term emphasizes the whole and its unity1 the other the part and its independence4 ,this imperialism1 which is federalism viewed as making for a single whole1 is very different from that ,bonapartist imperialism1 which means autocracy2 for its essence is free co-ordination1 and the self-government of each co-ordinated part4 ,the ,british ,empire 7q4v47 is1 in a sense1 an aspiration rather than a reality1 a thought rather than a fact2 but1 just for that reason1 it is like the old ,empire of which we have spoken2 and though it be neither ,roman nor ,holy1 yet it has1 like its prototype1 one law1 if not the law of ,rome--one faith1 if not in matters of religion1 at any rate in the field of political and social ideals4 ,authorities4--,see1 in the first place1 ,j4 ,bryce1 ,holy ,roman ,empire 7#aijd edition72 ,j4 von ,dollinger1 article on ,the ,empire of ,charles the ,great 7in ,essays on ,historical and ,literary ,subjects1 translated by ,margaret ,warre1 #ahid72 ,h4 ,fisher1 ,the ,medieval ,empire 7#ahih72 ,e4 ,gibbon1 ,the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 edited by ,j4,b4 ,bury4 ,it would be impossible to refer to all the books bearing on the article1 but one may select 7i47 for the period down to #dgf1 ,stuart ,jones1 ,the ,roman ,empire 7#aijh71 an excellent brief sketch2 ,h4 ,schiller1 ,geschichte der romischen ,kaiserzeit 7#ahhc-ahhh72 ,o4 ,seeck1 ,geschichte des ,untergangs der antiken ,welt 7,band ,i41 ,berlin1 #ahig-ahih1 ,band ,,ii41 #aija7 7a remarkable and stimulating book72 and the two excellent articles on ,imperium and ,princeps in ,smith's ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities 7#ahij72 7ii47 for the period from #dgf down to #hhh1 ,t4 ,hodgkin1 ,italy and her ,invaders 7#ahhj-aijj72 ,f4 ,gregorovius1 ,geschichte der ,stadt ,rom im ,mittelalter 7#ahhf-ahid2 ,eng4 trans41 ,london1 #ahid-aijj72 ,e4 ,lavisse1 ,histoire de ,france1 ,,ii4 i4 7#aija72 ,j4,b4 ,bury1 ,history of the ,later ,roman ,empire 7#ahhi72 7iii47 for the ,holy ,roman ,empire of the ,german nation1 ,w4 von ,giesebrecht1 ,geschichte der deutschen ,kaiserzeit 7#ahha-ahij72 ,j4 ,zeller1 ,histoire d',allemagne 7#ahgb-ahia72 ,r4,l4 ,poole1 ,illustrations of ,medieval ,thought 7#ahhd72 ,s4 ,riezler1 ,die literarischen ,widersacher der ,papste zur ,zeit ,ludwigs des ,baiers 7#ahgd72 ,j4 ,jannsen1 ,geschichte des deutschen ,volkes seit dem ,ausgang des ,mittelalters 7#ahhe-ahid72 ,l4 von ,ranke1 ,deutsche ,geschichte im ,zeitalter der ,reformation 7#ahci-ahdg71 and ,zur deutschen ,geschichte4 ,vom ,religionsfrieden bis zum dreissigjahrigen ,krieg 7#ahfi72 and ,t4 ,carlyle1 ,frederick the ,great 7#ahgb-ahgc74 ,on the fall of the ,roman ,empire and the transition to the modern ,german ,empire see ,sir ,j4,r4 ,seeley1 ,life and ,times of ,stein 7#ahgh72 ,h4 von ,treitschke1 ,deutsche ,geschichte 7#ahgi-ahid72 and ,h4 von ,sybel1 ,die ,begrundung des deutschen ,reichs 7#ahij-ahid1 ,eng4 trans41 ,the ,founding of the ,germ4 ,emp41 ,new ,york1 #ahij-ahia74 ,for institutional history1 see ,r4 ,schroder1 ,lehrbuch der deutschen ,rechtsgeschichte 7#ahid74 ,on the influence of the ,holy ,roman ,empire upon the history of ,germany1 see ,j4 ,ficker1 ,das deutsche ,kaiserreich 7#ahfa71 and ,deutsches ,konigtum und ,kaisertum 7#ahfb72 and ,h4 von ,sybel1 ,die deutsche ,nation und das ,kaiserreich 7#ahfa74 7,e4 ,br47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,bryce points out1 with much subtlety and truth1 that the rise of a second ,rome in the ,east not only helped to perpetuate the ,empire by providing a new centre which would take the place of ,rome when ,rome fell1 but also tended to make it more universal2 for1 having lost its local centre1 it subsisted no longer by historic right only1 but1 so to speak1 naturally1 as a part of an order of things which a change in external conditions seemed incapable of disturbing 7,holy ,roman ,empire1 p4 #h of the edition of #aijd74 #b ,the de facto importance of the event of #dgf can only be seen in the light of later events1 and it was not therefore noticed by contemporaries4 ,marcellinus is the only contemporary who remarks on its importance1 cf4 ,marcellini ,chronicon 7,mon4 ,germ4 ,hist41 ,chronica minora4 ii4 #ia71 ,hesperium ,romanae gentis imperium 444 cum hoc ,augustulo periit 444 ,gothorum dehinc regibus ,romam tenentibus4 #c ,a passage in ,malchus1 a ,byzantine historian 7quoted by ,bryce1 ,holy ,roman ,empire1 p4 #be1 note u1 in the edition of #aijd71 expresses this truth exactly4 ,the envoys sent to ,zeno by ,odoacer urge ,greek3 os hidias men autois basileias ou deoi koinos de hapochresei monos on autokrator hep amphoterois tois perasi4 ,the envoys then suggest the name of ,odoacer1 as one able to manage their affairs1 and ask ,zeno to give him1 as an officer of the ,empire1 the title of ,patricius and the administration of ,italy4 #d ,according to the view here followed1 the ,church was the ark in which the conception of ,empire was saved during the dark ages between #fjj and #hjj4 ,some influence should perhaps also be assigned to ,roman law1 which continued to be administered during these centuries1 especially in the towns1 and maintained the imperial tradition4 ,but the influence of the ,church is the essential fact4 #e ,in the #eth century the title patricius came to attach particularly to the head of the ,roman army 7magister utriusque militiae7 to men like ,aetius and ,ricimer1 who made and unmade emperors 7cf4 ,mommsen1 ,gesammelte ,schriften1 iv4 #ecg1 #ede sqq474 ,later it had been borne by the ,greek exarchs of ,ravenna4 ,the concession to ,pippin of this great title makes him military head of the ,western empire1 in the sense in which the title was used in the #eth century2 it makes him representative of the ,empire for ,italy1 in the sense in which it had been used of the exarchs4 #f ,see the famous bull ,venerabilem 7,corp4 ,jur4 ,canon4 ,decr4 ,greg4 i4 #f1 c4 #cd74 #g ,even on this view1 an imperial coronation at the hands of the pope was necessary to complete the title2 but this was regarded by the ,germans 7though not by the pope7 as a form which necessarily followed4 #h ,it is a curious fact that imperial titles 7imperator and basileus7 are used in the ,anglo-,saxon diplomata of the #ajth century4 ,edred1 for instance 7#idf-iee7 is imperator1 cyning and casere totius ,britanniae1 basileus ,anglorum hujusque insulae barbarorum3 ,edgar is totius ,albionis imperator ,augustus 7cf4 ,stubbs1 ,const4 ,hist4 i4 c4 vii4 ,s #ga74 ,these titles partly show the turgidity of ,english ,latinity in the #ajth century1 partly indicate the quasi-imperial position held by the ,wessex kings after the reconquest of the ,dane-law4 ,but there seems to be no real ground for ,freeman's view 7,norman ,conquest1 i4 #edh sqq471 that ,england was regarded as a third ,empire1 side by side with the other ,empires of ,west and ,east ,europe4 ,that the titles were assumed in order to repudiate possible claims of the ,western ,empire to the overlordship of ,england is disproved by the fact that they are assumed at a time when there is no ,western emperor4 ,the assumption of an imperial style by ,henry ,,viii41 which is mentioned below1 is explained by the ,reformation1 and does not mean any recurrence to a forgotten ,anglo-,saxon style4 #i ,it is in virtue of this aspect that the ,empire is holy4 ,the term sacrum imperium seems to have been first used about the time of ,frederick ,i41 when the emperors were anxious to magnify the sanctity of their office in answer to papal opposition4 ,the emperor himself 7see under ,,emperor7 was always regarded1 and at his coronation treated1 as a persona ecclesiastica4 #aj ,the emperor claimed suzerainty over the greater part of ,europe at various dates4 ,hungary and ,poland1 ,france and ,spain1 the ,scandinavian peninsula1 the ,british ,isles1 were all claimed for the ,empire at different times 7see ,bryce1 ,holy ,roman ,empire1 c4 xii474 ,the effective empire1 if indeed it may be called effective1 embraced only ,germany1 ,burgundy and the regnum ,italiae 7the old ,lombard kingdom in the valley of the ,po74 #aa ,cf4 the ,act #be ,henry ,,viii4 c4 #bb1 ,s #a3 the lawful kings and emperors of this realm4 #ab ,the ,papacy1 consistent to the last1 formally protested at the ,congress of ,vienna in #ahae against the failure of the ,powers to restore the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 the centre of political unity 7,ed474 #ac ,the ,turks1 occupying ,constantinople1 have also claimed to be the heirs of the old emperors of ,constantinople2 and their sultans have styled themselves ,keisar-i-,rum4 #ad ,this does not1 of course1 apply to ,hungary1 which since #ahfg has not formed part of the ,austrian empire and is ruled by the head of the house of ,habsburg not as emperor1 but as king of ,hungary4 ,,empiricism 7from ,gr4 ,greek3 empeiros1 skilled in1 from ,greek3 peira1 experiment71 in philosophy1 the theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-given data4 ,it is opposed to all forms of intuitionalism1 and holds that the mind is originally an absolute blank 7tabula rasa71 on which1 as it were1 sense-given impressions are mechanically recorded1 without any action on the part of the mind4 ,the process by which the mind is thus stored consists of an infinity of individual impressions4 ,the frequent or invariable recurrence of similar series of events gives birth in the mind to what are wrongly called laws2 in fact1 these laws are merely statements of experience gathered together by association1 and have no other kind of validity4 ,in other words from the empirical standpoint the statement of such a law does not contain the word must2 it merely asserts that such and such series have been invariably observed4 ,in this theory there can strictly be no causation2 one thing is observed to succeed another1 but observations cannot assert that it is caused by that thing2 it is post hoc1 but not propter hoc4 ,the idea of necessary connexion is a purely mental idea1 an a priori conception1 in which observation of empirical data takes no part2 empiricism in ethics likewise does away with the idea of the absolute authority of the moral law as conceived by the intuitionalists4 ,the moral law is merely a collection of rules of conduct based on an infinite number of special cases in which the convenience of society or its rulers has subordinated the inclination of individuals4 ,the fundamental objection to empiricism is that it fails to give an accurate explanation of experience2 individual impressions as such are momentary1 and their connexion into a body of coherent knowledge presupposes mental action distinct from mere receptivity4 ,empiricism was characteristic of all early speculation in ,greece4 ,during the middle ages the empiric spirit was in abeyance1 but it revived from the time of ,francis ,bacon and was systematized especially in the ,english philosophers1 ,locke1 ,hume1 the two ,mills1 ,bentham and the associationist school generally4 ,see ,,association ,,of ,,ideas2 ,,metaphysics2 ,,psychology2 ,,logic2 besides the biographies of the empirical philosophers4 ,in medicine1 the term is applied to a school of physicians who1 in the time of ,celsus and ,galen1 advocated accurate observation of the phenomena of health and disease in the belief that only by the collection of a vast mass of instances would a true science of medicine be attained4 ,this point of view was carried to extremes by those who discarded all real study1 and based their treatment on rules of thumb4 ,hence the modern sense of empirical as applied to the guess work of an untrained quack or charlatan4 ,,employers' ,,liability1 and ,,workmen',s ,,compensation4#a ,the law of ,england as to the liability of employers in respect of personal injuries to their servants is regulated partly by the common law and partly by statute2 but by the ,employers' ,liability ,act #ahhj1 such exceptions have been grafted upon the common law1 and by the ,workmen's ,compensation ,act #aijf1 principles so alien to the common law have been applied to most employments that it is impossible now to present any view of this branch of the law as a logical whole4 ,all that can be done is to state the nature of the liability at common law4 the extension of it effected by the ,employers' ,liability ,act #ahhj1 and the new liabilities introduced by later acts4 ,common law4 ,at common law the liability of a master is of a very limited character4 ,there is1 of course1 nothing to prevent a master and servant from providing by special contract in any way they please for their mutual rights in cases of personal injury to the servant4 ,in such cases the liability will depend upon the terms of the special contract4 ,but apart from any special agreement1 it may be broadly stated that a master is liable to his servants only for injuries caused by his own negligence4 ,injuries to a servant may arise from accident1 from the nature of the service1 or from negligence2 and this negligence may be of the master1 of another servant of the master1 or of a stranger4 ,if the injury is purely accidental the loss lies where it falls4 ,if it arises from the nature of the service1 the servant must bear it himself2 he has undertaken a service to which certain risks are necessarily incident2 if he is injured thereby1 it is the fortune of war1 and no one can be made responsible4 ,if the injury is caused by the negligence of a stranger1 the servant has his ordinary remedy against the wrong-doer or any one who is responsible as a principal for the conduct of the wrong-doer4 ,if it is caused by the negligence of a fellow-servant1 he likewise has his ordinary remedy against the actual wrong-doer2 but1 by virtue of what is known as the doctrine of common employment1 he cannot at common law make the master liable as a principal4 ,the only case 7independently of modern legislation3 see below7 in which he can recover damages from the master is where the injury has been caused by negligence of the master himself4 ,a master is negligent if he fails to exercise that skill and care which1 in the circumstances of the particular employment1 are used by employers of ordinary skill and carefulness4 ,if he himself takes part in the work1 he must act with such skill and care as may reasonably be demanded of one who takes upon himself to do work of that kind4 ,if he entrusts the work to other servants1 he must be careful in their selection1 and must not negligently employ persons who are incompetent4 ,he must take proper care so to arrange the system of work that his servants are not exposed to unnecessary danger4 ,if tools or machinery are used1 he must take proper care to provide such as are fit and proper for the work1 and must either himself see that they are maintained in a fit condition or employ competent servants to do so for him4 ,if he is bound by statute to take precautions for the safety of his servants1 he must himself see that that obligation is discharged4 ,for breach of any of these duties a master is liable to his servant who is injured thereby1 but his liability extends no further4 ,common employment4 ,that his obligations to a servant are so much less than to a stranger is chiefly due to the doctrine of common employment4 ,as a rule a master is responsible for the negligence of his servant acting in the course of his employment2 but1 from about the middle of the #aith century1 it became firmly rooted in the law that this principle did not apply where the person injured was himself a servant of the master and engaged in a common employment with the servant guilty of the negligence4 ,in effect this rule protects a master as against his servant from the consequences of negligence on the part of any other of his servants2 to this there is no qualification except that1 for the rule to apply1 both the injured and the negligent servant must be acting in pursuance of a common employment4 ,they must both be working for a common object though not necessarily upon the same work4 ,it is not easy to define precisely what constitutes a common employment in this sense1 and there is peculiarly little judicial authority as to the limit at which work for the same employer ceases to be work in a common employment4 ,it does not depend on difference in grade2 all engaged in one business1 from the manager to the apprentice1 are within the rule4 ,it does not depend on difference in work1 if the work each is doing is part of one larger operation2 all the servants of a railway company1 whether employed on the trains1 or at the stations1 or on the line1 are in a common employment4 ,it does not necessarily depend on difference of locality2 a servant who packs goods at the factory and a servant who unpacks them in the shop may well be in a common employment4 ,on the other hand1 it is not enough that the two servants are working for the same employer1 if there is nothing in common between them except that they are making money for the same man2 apart from special circumstances1 the crews of two ships owned by the same company are probably not in common employment while navigating their respective ships4 ,the test in each case must be derived from the view1 invented by the courts1 upon which the doctrine was based1 namely1 that the servant by entering upon the service consented to run all the risks incidental to it1 including the risk of negligence on the part of fellow-servants2 if the relation between the two servants is such that the safety of the one may1 in the ordinary course of things1 be affected by the negligence of the other1 that negligence must be taken to be one of the risks of the employment assented to by the servant1 and both are engaged in a common employment4 ,in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred it will be found that the doctrine is applicable1 and the master protected from liability4 ,it is thus seen that1 in general1 no action will lie against a master at the suit of his servant1 unless the servant can prove personal negligence on the part of the master causing injury to the servant4 ,and in such action the master may avail himself of those defences which he has against a stranger4 ,he may rely upon contributory negligence1 and show that the servant was himself negligent1 and that1 notwithstanding the negligence of the master1 the injury was proximately caused by the negligence of the servant4 ,or 7except in cases where the injury results from a breach of a statutory duty7 he may prove such facts as establish the defence expressed in the maxim1 volenti non fit injuria2 that is1 he may prove that the injured servant knew and appreciated the particular risk he was running1 and incurred it voluntarily with full understanding of its nature4 ,mere knowledge on the part of the servant1 or even his continuing to work with knowledge1 does not necessarily establish this defence2 it must be knowledge of such a kind and in such circumstances that it can be inferred that the servant contracted to take the risk upon himself4 ,the action at common law is subject to the general rule that personal actions die with the person2 except so far as the remedy for money loss caused by death by negligence has been preserved in favour of a husband or wife and certain near relatives1 under ,lord ,campbell's ,act 7,fatal ,accidents ,act #ahdf74 ,the act of #ahhj4 ,such was the law up to #ahhj4 ,so long as industry was conducted on a small scale1 and the master worked with his men1 or was himself the manager1 its hardship was perhaps little felt2 his personal negligence could in many cases be established4 ,but with the development of the factory system1 and the ever-growing expansion of the scale on which all industries were conducted1 it became increasingly difficult to bring home individual responsibility to the employer4 ,as industry passed largely into the control of corporations1 difficulty became almost impossibility4 ,the employer was not liable to a servant for the negligence of a fellow-servant1 and therefore1 in most cases of injury1 was not liable at all4 ,it is not surprising that the condition of things thus brought about1 partly by the growth of modern industry and partly by the decisions of the courts1 caused grave dissatisfaction4 ,the justice of the doctrine of common employment was vigorously called in question4 ,in the result the ,employers' ,liability ,act #ahhj was passed4 ,the effect of this act is to destroy the defence of common employment in certain specified cases4 ,it does not abolish the doctrine altogether1 nor1 on the other hand1 does it impose upon the master any new standard of duty which does not exist as regards strangers4 ,all that it does is to place the servant1 in certain cases1 in the position of a stranger1 making the master liable for the negligence of his servants notwithstanding the fact that they are in common employment with the servant injured4 ,it is still necessary under the act1 as at common law1 to prove negligence1 and the master may still rely upon the defences of contributory negligence and volenti non fit injuria4 ,but under the act he cannot1 as against the workmen who come within it and in the cases to which it applies1 set up the defence that the negligence complained of was the negligence of a servant in a common employment4 ,the act does not apply to all servants4 ,it does not apply to domestic or menial servants1 or to seamen1 or to any except railway servants and any person who1 being a labourer1 servant in husbandry1 journeyman1 artificer1 handicraftsman1 miner1 or otherwise engaged in manual labour 444 has entered into or works under a contract with an employer1 whether the contract be oral or in writing1 and be a contract of service or a contract personally to execute any work or labour4 ,whether a servant1 not being one of those specially named1 is within the act depends on whether manual labour is the real and substantial employment1 or whether it is merely incidental thereto2 thus a carman who handles the goods he carries may be within the act1 but a tramcar driver or an omnibus conductor is not4 ,the act does not make the master liable for the negligence of all his servants1 but1 speaking generally1 only for the negligent discharge of their duties by such as are entrusted with the supervision of machinery and plant1 or with superintendence1 or the power of giving orders1 with the addition1 in the case of a railway1 of the negligence of those who are given the charge or control of signals1 points1 locomotive engines or trains4 ,the cases dealt with by the act are five in number2 in the first and fourth the words are wide enough to include negligence of the employer himself1 for which1 as has been seen1 he is liable at common law4 ,in such instances the workman has an alternative remedy either at common law or under the act1 but in all other respects the rights given by the act are new1 being limitations upon the defence of common employment1 and can be enforced only under the act4 ,the first case is where the injury is caused by reason of any defect in the condition of the ways1 works1 machinery or plant connected with or used in the business of the employer1 provided that such defect arises from1 or has not been discovered or remedied owing to the negligence of the employer1 or of some person in the service of the employer and entrusted by him with the duty of seeing that the ways1 works1 machinery or plant are in proper condition4 ,the second case is where the injury is caused by reason of the negligence of any person in the service of the employer who has any superintendence entrusted to him 7that is1 a person whose sole or principal duty is that of superintendence1 and who is not ordinarily engaged in manual labour7 whilst in the exercise of such superintendence4 ,the third case is where the injury is caused by reason of the negligence of any person in the service of the employer to whose orders or directions the workman at the time of the injury is bound to conform and does conform1 where such injury results from his so conforming4 ,the fourth case is where the injury is caused by reason of the act or omission of any person in the service of the employer done or made in obedience to the rules or by-laws of the employer1 or in obedience to particular instructions given by any person delegated with the authority of the employer in that behalf1 provided that the injury results from some impropriety or defect in such rules1 by-laws or instructions4 ,the fifth case is where the injury is caused by reason of the negligence of any person in the service of the employer who has the charge or control of any signal1 points1 locomotive engine or train upon a railway4 ,in all these cases it is provided that the employer shall not be liable if it can be shown that the workman knew of the defect or negligence which caused his injury1 and failed within a reasonable time to give1 or cause to be given1 information thereof to the employer or some person superior to himself in the service of the employer1 unless he was aware that the employer or such superior already knew of the said defect or negligence4 ,it was inevitable that these provisions should call for judicial interpretation1 and a considerable body of authority has grown up about the act4 ,where general words are used1 it must always occur that1 between the cases which are obviously within and those which are obviously without the words1 there are many on the border line4 ,thus1 under the act1 the courts have been called upon to determine the precise meaning of way1 works1 machinery1 plant1 and to say what is precisely meant by a defect in the condition of each of them4 ,they have had to say what is included in railway and in train1 what is meant by having charge or control1 and to what extent one whose principal duty is superintendence may participate in manual labour without losing his character of superintendent1 and what is the precise meaning of negligence in superintendence4 ,these are only illustrations of many points of detail which1 having called for judicial interpretation1 will be found fully dealt with in the text-books on the subject4 ,a workman who1 being within the act1 is injured by such negligence of a fellow-servant as is included in one or other of the five cases mentioned above1 has against his employer the remedies which the act gives him4 ,these are not necessarily the same as those which a stranger would have in the like circumstances2 the amount of compensation is not left at large for a jury to determine1 but is limited to an amount not exceeding such sum as may be found to be equivalent to the estimated earnings1 during the three years preceding the injury1 of a person in the same grade employed during those years in the like employment and in the district in which the workman is employed at the time of the injury4 ,moreover1 the right to recover is hedged about with technicalities which are unknown at the common law2 proceedings must be taken in the county court1 within a strictly limited time1 and are maintainable only if certain elaborate provisions as to notice of injury have been complied with4 ,where the injury causes death the action is maintainable for the benefit of the like persons as are entitled under ,lord ,campbell's act in an action at common law4 ,acts of #ahig to #aijf4 ,the law continued in this condition up to #ahig4 ,in the majority of cases of injury to a servant1 the doctrine of common employment still protected the master2 and where1 under the ,employers' ,liability ,act1 it failed to do so1 the liability was of a limited character and often1 owing to technicalities of procedure1 difficult to enforce4 ,moreover1 there is nothing in the act to prevent master and servant from entering into any special contract they please2 and in many trades it became a common practice for contracts to be made wholly excluding the operation of the act4 ,in #ahic an attempt was made to alter the law by a total abolition of the defence of common employment1 so as to make a master as liable to a servant as to a stranger for the negligence of any of his servants acting in the course of their employment1 and at the same time to prohibit any agreements to forego the rights so given to the servant4 ,the bill did not become law1 and no further change was made until1 in #ahig1 parliament took the first step in what has been a complete revolution in the law of employers' liability4 ,up to that year1 as has been seen1 the foundation of a master's liability was negligence1 either of the master himself1 or1 in certain cases1 of his servants4 ,but by the ,workmen's ,compensation ,act #ahig1 a new principle was introduced1 whereby certain servants in certain employments were given a right to compensation for injuries1 wholly irrespective of any consideration of negligence or contributory negligence4 ,as regards such servants in such employments the master was in effect made an insurer against accidental injuries4 ,the act was confessedly tentative and partial2 it dealt only with selected industries1 and even within these industries was not of universal application4 ,but where it did apply1 it gave a right to a limited compensation in every case of injury by accident arising out of and in the course of the employment1 whether that accident had been brought about by negligence or not1 and whether the injured servant had or had not contributed to it by his own negligence4 ,the act applied only to employment on1 or in1 or about certain localities where1 at the same time1 the employer was what the act called an undertaker1 that is1 the person whose business was there being carried on4 ,if we wanted to know whether a workman was within the act1 we had to ask1 first1 was he employed on1 or in1 or about a railway1 or a factory1 or a mine1 or a quarry1 or an engineering shop1 or a building of the kind mentioned in the act2 secondly1 was he employed by one who was1 in relation to that railway1 c41 the undertaker as defined by the act2 and thirdly1 was he at the time of the accident at work on1 or in1 or about that railway1 c4 ,unless these three conditions were fulfilled the employment was not within the act4 ,the employments to which the act applied comprised railways1 factories 7which included docks1 warehouses and steam laundries71 mines1 engineering works and most kinds of buildings4 ,workman included every person engaged in an employment to which the act applied1 whether by manual labour or otherwise1 and whether his agreement was one of service or apprenticeship or otherwise1 expressed or implied1 oral or in writing4 ,by the ,workmen's ,compensation ,act #aijj1 the benefits of the act of #ahig were extended to agricultural labourers4 ,the ,workmen's ,compensation ,act #aijf 7which came into force on the #ast of ,july #aijg7 extended the right of compensation for injuries practically to all persons in service1 and also introduced many provisions not contained in the acts of #ahig and #aijj 7repealed74 ,it does not apply to persons in the naval or military service of the crown 7s4 #i71 or persons employed otherwise than by way of manual labour whose remuneration exceeds two hundred and fifty pounds a year1 or persons whose employment is of a casual nature1 and who are employed otherwise than for the purposes of the employer's trade or business1 or members of a police force1 or out-workers1 or members of the employer's family dwelling in his house4 ,but it expressly applies to seamen4 ,conditions of claim4 ,to entitle a workman engaged in an employment to which the act applies to compensation all the following conditions must be fulfilled3 7#a7 ,there must be personal injury by accident4 ,this will exclude injury wilfully inflicted1 unless the injury results in death or serious and permanent disablement1 but the act introduces a new provision by making the suspension or disablement from work or death caused by certain industrial diseases accidents within the meaning of the act4 ,the industrial diseases specified in the #crd schedule of the act were anthrax1 ankylostomiasis1 and lead1 mercury1 phosphorus and arsenic poisoning or their sequelae4 ,but ,s #h of the act authorized the secretary of state to make orders from time to time including other industrial diseases1 and such orders have embraced glass workers' cataract1 telegraphists' cramp1 eczematous ulceration of the skin produced by dust or liquid1 ulceration of the mucous membrane of the nose or mouth produced by dust1 c4 ,to render the employer liable the workman must either obtain a certificate of disablement or be suspended or die by reason of the disease4 ,if the disease has been contracted by a gradual process1 all the employers who have employed the workman during the previous twelve months in the employment to which the disease was due are liable to contribute a share of the compensation to the employer primarily liable4 7#b7 ,the accident must arise out of and in the course of the employment4 ,in each case it will have to be determined whether the workman was at the time of the accident in the course of his employment1 and whether the accident arose out of the employment4 ,it will have to be considered when and where the particular employment began and ended4 ,other difficulties have arisen and will frequently arise when the workman at the time of the accident is doing something which is no part of the work he is employed to do4 ,so far as the decisions have gone1 they indicate that if what the workman is doing is no act of service1 but merely for his own pleasure1 or if he is improperly meddling with that which is no part of his work1 the accident does not arise out of and in the course of his employment2 but if1 while on his master's work1 he upon an emergency acts in his master's interest1 though what he does is no part of the work he is employed to do1 the accident does arise out of and in the course of his employment4 7#c7 ,the injury must be such as disables the workman for a period of at least one week from earning full wages at the work at which he was employed4 7#d7 ,notice of the accident must be given as soon as practicable after the happening thereof1 and before the workman has voluntarily left the employment in which he was injured2 and the claim for compensation 7by which is meant notice that he claims compensation under the act addressed by the workman to the employer7 must be made within six months from the occurrence of the accident or1 in case of death1 from the time of death4 ,want of notice of the accident or defects in it are not to be a bar to proceedings1 if occasioned by mistake or other reasonable cause1 and the employer is not prejudiced thereby4 ,but want of notice of a claim for compensation is a bar to proceedings1 unless the employer by his conduct has estopped himself from relying upon it4 7#e7 ,an injured workman must1 if so required by the employer1 submit himself to medical examination4 ,when these conditions are fulfilled1 an employer who is within the act has no answer unless he can prove that the injury arose from the serious and wilful misconduct of the workman4 ,the precise effect of these terms is not clear2 but mere negligence is not within them4 ,where the injury causes death1 the right to compensation belongs to the workman's dependents2 that is1 such of the members of the workman's family as were at the time of the death wholly or in part dependent upon the earnings of the workman for their maintenance4 ,members of a family means wife or husband1 father1 mother1 grandfather1 grandmother1 step-father1 step-mother1 son1 daughter1 grandson1 granddaughter1 step-son1 step-daughter1 brother1 sister1 half-brother1 half-sister4 ,the act of #aijf makes also a very remarkable departure in including illegitimate relations in the direct line among dependents1 for where a workman1 being the parent or grandparent of an illegitimate child1 leaves such a child dependent upon his earnings1 or1 being an illegitimate child1 leaves a parent or grandparent so dependent upon his earnings1 such child or parent is to be included in the members of a family4 ,amount4 ,under the act compensation is for loss of wages only1 and is1 as has been said1 based upon the actual previous earnings of the injured workman in the employment of the employers for whom he is working at the time of the injury4 ,in case of death1 if the workman leaves dependents who were wholly dependent on his earnings1 the amount recovered is a sum equal to his earnings in the employment of the same employer during the three years next preceding the injury1 or the sum of ,l#aej1 whichever is the larger1 but not exceeding ,l#cjj2 if the period of his employment by the same employer has been less than three years1 then the amount of his earnings during the three years is to be deemed to be #aef times his average weekly earnings during the period of his actual employment under the said employer4 ,if the workman leaves only dependents who were not wholly dependent1 the amount recovered is such sum as may be reasonable and proportionate to the injury to them1 but not exceeding the amount payable in the previous case4 ,if the workman leaves no dependents1 the amount recoverable is the reasonable expenses of his medical attendance and burial1 not exceeding ,l#aj4 ,in case of total or partial incapacity for work resulting from the injury1 what is recovered is a weekly payment during the incapacity after the second week not exceeding #ej of the workman's average weekly earnings during the previous twelve months1 if he has been so long employed1 but if not1 then for any less period during which he has been in the continuous employment of the same employer2 such weekly payment is not to exceed ,l#a--;and in fixing it regard is to be had to the difference between the amount of his average weekly earnings before the accident and the average amount which he is able to earn after the accident4 ,any payments1 not being wages1 made by the employer in respect of the injury must also be taken into account4 ,the weekly payment may from time to time be reviewed at the request of either party1 upon evidence of a change in the circumstances since the award was made1 and after six months may be redeemed by the employer by payment of a lump sum4 ,a workman is within the act although at the time of the injury he has been in the employment for less than two weeks1 and although there are no actual earnings from the same employer upon which a weekly average can be computed4 ,but how are the average weekly earnings which he would have earned from the same employer to be estimated8 ,the question must be determined as one of fact by reference to all the circumstances of the particular case4 ,suppose the workman to be engaged at six shillings a day and injured on the first day4 ,if it can be inferred that he would have remained in such employment for a whole week1 his average weekly earnings from the same employer may be taken at thirty shillings4 ,if it can be inferred that he would have worked one day and no more1 his average weekly earnings from the same employer may be taken at six shillings4 ,all questions as to liability or otherwise under the act1 if not settled by agreement1 are referred to arbitration in accordance with a scheme prescribed by the act4 ,contracting out is not permitted1 save in one event3 where a scheme of compensation1 benefit or insurance for the workmen of an employer has been certified by the ,registrar of ,friendly ,societies to be not less favourable to the workmen and their dependents than the provisions of the act1 and that where the scheme provides for contributions by the workmen1 it confers benefits at least equal to those contributions1 in addition to the benefits to which the workmen would have been entitled under the act1 and that a majority 7to be ascertained by ballot7 of the workmen to whom the scheme is applicable are in favour of it1 the employer may contract with any of his workmen that the provisions of the scheme shall be substituted for the act2 such certificate may not be for more than five years1 and may in certain circumstances be revoked4 ,the act does not touch the workman's rights at common law or under the ,employers' ,liability ,act1 but the workman1 if more than one remedy is open to him1 can enforce only one4 ,when the circumstances create a legal liability in some other person1 e4g4 where the injury is caused by the negligence of a sub-contractor or of a stranger1 in such cases the employer1 if required to pay compensation under the act1 is entitled to be indemnified by such other person4 ,under the ,factory ,acts1 offences1 when they result in death or bodily injury to health1 may be punished by fine not exceeding ,l#ajj1 and the whole or any part of such fine may be applied for the benefit of the injured person or his family1 or otherwise as the secretary of state determines4 ,similar provisions occur in the ,mines ,acts4 ,any sum so applied must be taken into account in estimating compensation under the ,employers' ,liability and ,workmen's ,compensation ,acts4 ,germany4 ,law in ,other ,countries4--,in ,germany 7q4v47 there is a system of compulsory state insurance against accidents to workmen4 ,the law dates from #ahhd1 being amended from time to time 7#ahhe1 #ahhf1 #ahhg1 #aijj1 #aijc7 to embrace different classes of employment4 ,occupations are grouped into 7#a7 industry2 7#b7 agriculture2 7#c7 building2 7#d7 marine1 to all of which one general law1 with variations necessary to the particular occupation in question1 is applicable4 ,there are also special provisions for prisoners and government officials4 ,practically every kind of working-man is thus included1 with the exception of domestic servants and artisans or labourers working on their own account4 ,all workmen and officials whose salary does not exceed ,l#aej a year come within the law4 ,no compensation is payable where an accident is caused through a person's own gross carelessness1 and where an accident has been contributed to by a criminal act or intentional wrongdoing the compensation may be refused or only partially allowed4 ,with these exceptions1 compensation for injury is payable in case of injury so long as the injured is unfit to work2 in case of total incapacity an allowance is made equal to two-thirds of the injured person's annual earnings1 in case of partial incapacity1 in proportion to the degree that his wage-earning capacity has been affected4 ,in case of death the compensation is either burial money or an allowance to the family varying in amount from #bj to #fj of the annual earnings according to circumstances4 ,the provision of compensation for accidents falls entirely upon employers1 and in order to lighten the burden thus falling upon them1 and at the same time to guard against the possible insolvency of an individual employer1 associations or self-administering bodies of employers have been formed--usually all the employers of each particular branch of industry in a district4 ,these associations fix the amount of compensation after each accident1 and at the end of the year assess the amount upon the individual employers4 ,there is an appeal from the association to an arbitration court1 and in particularly complicated cases there may be a further appeal to the imperial insurance department4 ,no allowance is paid until after the lapse of thirteen weeks from the accident1 and in the meantime the injured person is supported from a sick fund to which the employers contribute one-third1 the employee contributing two-thirds4 ,in ,germany quite twelve millions of workpeople are insured2 in #aije a sum of nearly eight millions sterling was paid for accidents1 and a million and a half to the families of those killed in accidents4 ,austria4 ,in ,austria the compulsory insurance of workmen was provided for by a law of #ahhg1 with subsequent amendments4 ,briefly1 nearly every class of industrial worker is included under the ,austrian law1 which is administered by special territorial insurance institutions1 each of them embracing particular classes of industries or workers4 ,the institutions are managed by committees1 one-third of the members of each committee being chosen by the minister of the interior1 one-third by the employers and one-third by the workers4 ,compensation is payable1 in case of accidents1 on a scale proportionate to the injured person's wages during the preceding year4 ,in case of death1 a certain sum is paid for funeral expenses1 an annuity to the widow1 if one is left1 equal to #bj of the deceased's annual wages--if the widow remarries1 she receives a lump sum equal to three annual payments in liquidation of the annuity--an annuity to each legitimate child equal to #ae1 or1 if the child has no mother1 equal to #bj of the father's wages2 an annuity to the father or mother1 if dependent on the deceased for support1 equal to #bj of the annual wages4 ,as in the ,english act of #aijf illegitimate children are recognized by being granted an annuity in the case of the death of a father equal to #aj of his wages4 ,in no case can the total amount of the annuities exceed #ej of the deceased's annual wages4 ,where the accident has resulted in total incapacity1 the workman receives an annuity equal to #fj of his wages4 ,no allowance is paid until after the fourth week1 during which time the injured is supported by the sick-insurance institutions4 ,the provision for the system is raised by contributions to the extent of nine-tenths by the employers and one-tenth by the workers1 deducted from their wages4 ,instead of the ,german method by which an annual payment equal to the amount disbursed is required from each employer1 he is required to provide the full amount necessary for the complete payment of the pension1 this amount being placed to the credit of a special insurance fund4 ,france4 ,in ,france a system of compulsory state insurance against accidents was created by a law of #ahih4 ,the principal feature in the ,french law is the attempt to meet the possible insolvency of the employer by the establishment of a special guarantee fund1 created by a small addition to the business tax 7contribution des patentes71 and1 in the case of the mining industry1 by a small tax on mines4 ,norway4 ,norway1 by a law of #ahid1 amended in #ahig and #ahii1 adopted a system of compulsory insurance modelled to a great extent on the ,german system4 ,instead1 however1 of a trade association as in ,germany1 or a district insurance association as in ,austria1 there is a government insurance office1 in which employers have to insure their workmen4 ,denmark4 ,in ,denmark a law was passed in #ahig rendering employers personally liable for the amount of compensation for accidents1 but employers may relieve themselves of this liability by insuring workmen in an assurance association approved of by the minister of the interior4 ,this course1 however1 is discretionary with employers4 ,italy4 ,in ,italy1 although many attempts were made between #ahhi and #ahih to introduce a system of compulsory insurance1 it was not until the latter year that the principle was adopted4 ,there is a ,national ,bank for the ,insurance of ,working men against ,accident 7,cassa ,nazionale di ,assicurazione per gli infortuni degli operaji sul lavoro71 created under a law of #ahhc4 ,it has special privileges1 such as exemption from taxation and the employment of the branch offices of the state post-office savings bank as local offices4 ,under the law of #ahih there is a primary obligation on the employer to insure his workmen with the ,national ,bank1 but he may1 if he prefers1 insure with other societies approved by government4 ,employers employing about five hundred workmen may1 instead of insuring1 establish a fund for the payment of not less than the statutory compensation1 subject to giving adequate security for the sufficiency of the fund4 ,exemption from compulsory insurance is granted to employers who have established a mutual insurance association1 which must comply with certain prescribed conditions4 ,railway companies1 also1 are exempt1 if they have relief funds which conform with the provisions of the act4 ,spain4 ,in ,spain an act of the #cjth of ,january #aijj1 adopted the principle of the personal responsibility of the employer for accidents to workmen other than those due to vis major4 ,the act also lays down regulations for preventing accidents in dangerous trades1 and releases the employer from personal liability on effecting adequate insurance of his workmen with an approved insurance company4 ,holland4 ,holland has adopted the principle of compulsory insurance by a law of the #bnd of ,january #aija4 ,an employer has to pay the necessary premium to the ,state ,insurance ,office1 or by depositing adequate security with the ,state ,office he may undertake the payment of the prescribed compensation himself4 ,or he may transfer his liability to an insurance company1 provided the company deposit adequate security with the ,state ,office4 ,the ,state ,insurance ,office is under the management of directors appointed by the crown1 and decides on all questions as to compensation2 there is also a ,supervisory ,board of the ,state ,office with joint representation of employers and workmen4 ,there is an appeal from the ,state ,office to ,councils of ,appeal1 and from them to a ,national ,board of ,appeal4 ,greece4 ,greece has a law of the #bast of ,february #aija1 providing for compensation for accidents causing incapacity of more than four days' duration to workmen in mines1 quarries and smelting works4 ,the employer is exclusively liable for such compensation and for medical expenses during the first three months2 after that time he is liable for one-half1 the other half being borne by a miners' provident fund1 supported by certain taxes on the properties affected1 fines1 c4 ,sweden4 ,by a law of the #eth of ,july #aija1 ,sweden adopted the principle of the personal liability of the employer for industrial accidents4 ,the employer can1 however1 insure himself against liability in the ,royal ,insurance ,institute4 ,compensation becomes payable after the expiration of sixty days from the date of the accident4 ,russia4 ,russia has a law which came into force on the #ast of ,january #aijd4 ,under this law employers in certain specified industries are bound to indemnify workers for incapacity of more than three days' duration due to injury arising out of their work4 ,employers are exempt from liability by insuring their workmen in insurance companies whose terms are not less favourable than those laid down by the law4 ,belgium4 ,belgium passed a law dealing with industrial accidents on the #bdth of ,december #aijc4 ,it adopts the principle of the personal liability of the employer in certain specified trades or industries4 ,there is a power of extension to such other undertakings as may be declared dangerous by the ,commission on ,labour ,accidents4 ,employers may exempt themselves from their liability by contracting for the payment of compensation by an insurance company approved by the government or by the ,national ,savings and ,pension ,fund4 ,where an employer does not so contract1 he must 7with certain exemptions7 contribute to a special insurance fund4 ,the law of #aijc also established a permanent ,commission on ,labour ,accidents4 ,switzerland4 ,switzerland in #ahii adopted a law providing for accident insurance1 but it was defeated on referendum in ,may #aijj4 ,united ,states4 ,in the ,united ,states the law mainly depends on the doctrine of common employment1 and the extent to which this doctrine is applied varies considerably in the different states1 more particularly as to who are and who are not to be regarded as fellow-servants4 ,the tendency1 however1 has been to increase the liability of the employer for the negligence of a fellow-servant1 and in the case of employment on railways many states have passed laws either modifying or abrogating the doctrine4 ,colorado1 by a law of #aija1 has entirely abrogated it2 and ,alabama1 ,massachusetts and ,new ,york have laws generally similar to the ,english act of #ahhj4 ,but the greatest departure1 due to the initiative of ,president ,roosevelt1 has been the passing by the ,federal ,congress of the laws of ,april #bb and ,may #cj1 #aijh1 one giving damages to injured employees of interstate carriers by railroad1 and common carriers by railroad in ,territories1 the ,district of ,columbia1 the ,canal ,zone and other territory governed by ,congress1 and the other giving regular wages for not more than one year to injured employees of the ,u4,s4 government in arsenals1 navy yards1 construction work on rivers1 harbours and fortifications1 hazardous work in connexion with the ,panama ,canal or ,reclamation ,service1 and in government manufacturing establishments4 ,these national laws1 which were intended to serve as an example to the states1 specifically provided for employers' liability and for the non-recognition of the doctrine of common employment4 ,british ,colonies4 ,most of the ,british colonial states have adopted the principle of the ,english ,workmen's ,compensation ,act of #ahig1 and the various colonial acts are closely modelled on the ,english act1 with more or less important variations in detail4 ,the ,new ,zealand ,act was passed in #aijj1 and amended in #aija1 #aijb1 #aijc and #aije4 ,the act of #aije 7,no4 #ej7 fixes the minimum compensation for total or partial disablement at ,l#a a week when the worker's previous remuneration was not less than #cjs4 a week4 ,south ,australia passed a ,workmen's ,compensation ,act in #aijj and ,western ,australia one in #aijb4 ,new ,south ,wales passed one in #aije1 and ,british ,columbia in #aijb4 ,,footnote3 #a ,employ comes through ,fr4 from ,lat4 implicare1 to enfold1 ,late ,lat4 to direct upon something4 ,,empoli1 a town of ,tuscany1 ,italy1 in the province of ,florence1 from which it is #bj m4 ,w4 by ,s4 by rail4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #gjje 7town72 #bj1cja 7commune74 ,it is situated #hi ft4 above sea-level1 to the ,s4 of the ,arno4 ,the principal church1 the ,collegiata1 or ,pieve di ,s4 ,andrea1 founded in #ajic1 still preserves the lower part of the original arcaded facade in black1 white and coloured marble4 ,the works of art which it once contained are most of them preserved in a gallery close by4 ,some of the other churches contain interesting works of art4 ,the principal square is surrounded by old houses with arcades4 ,the painter ,jacopo ,chimenti 7,jacopo da ,empoli71 #aeed-afdj1 was born here4 ,empoli is on the main railway line from ,florence to ,pisa1 and is the point of divergence of a line to ,siena4 ,,emporia1 a city and the county-seat of ,lyon county1 ,kansas1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,neosho river1 about #fj m4 ,s4,w4 of ,topeka4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #geea2 7#aijj7 #hbbc1 of whom #fhf were foreign-born and #ffc were negroes2 7#aiaj ,u4,s4 census7 #ijeh4 ,it is served by the ,atchison1 ,topeka ,santa ,fe1 and the ,missouri1 ,kansas ,texas railways4 ,the city has a ,carnegie library1 and is the seat of the state normal school and of the ,college of ,emporia 7,presbyterian2 #ahhc74 ,emporia's industrial interests are mainly centred in commerce with the surrounding farming region2 but there are small flour mills1 machine shops1 foundries and other manufacturing establishments1--in #aije the value of the factory product was #ega1fja4 ,the municipality owns and operates the water-works and the electric-lighting plant4 ,emporia was settled in #ahef and was chartered as a city in #ahgj4 ,the ,emporia ,gazette1 established in #ahij1 was purchased in #ahid by ,william ,allen ,white 7b4 #ahfh71 a native of ,emporia1 who took over the editorship and made a great stir in #ahif by his editorial entitled ,what's the matter with ,kansas82 he also wrote several volumes of excellent short stories1 particularly ,the ,court of ,boyville 7#ahhi71 ,stratagems and ,spoils 7#aija7 and ,in ,our ,town 7#aijf74 ,,emporium 7a ,latin adaptation of the ,gr4 ,greek3 emporion1 from ,greek3 en1 in1 and stem of ,greek3 poreuesthai1 to travel for purpose of trade7 a trade-centre such as a commercial city1 to which buyers and dealers resort for transaction of business from all parts of the world4 ,the word is often applied to a large shop4 ,,empson1 ,,sir ,,richard 7d4 #aeaj71 minister of ,henry ,,vii41 king of ,england1 was a son of ,peter ,empson1 an influential inhabitant of ,towcester4 ,educated as a lawyer he soon attained considerable success in his profession1 and in #adia was one of the members of parliament for ,northamptonshire and speaker of the ,house of ,commons4 ,early in the reign of ,henry ,,vii4 he became associated with ,edmund ,dudley 7q4v47 in carrying out the king's rigorous and arbitrary system of taxation1 and in consequence he became very unpopular4 ,retaining the royal favour1 however1 he was made a knight in #aejd1 and was soon high steward of the university of ,cambridge1 and chancellor of the duchy of ,lancaster2 but his official career ended with ,henry's death in ,april #aeji4 ,thrown into prison by order of the new king1 ,henry ,,viii41 he was charged1 like ,dudley1 with the crime of constructive treason1 and was convicted at ,northampton in ,october #aeji4 ,his attainder by the parliament followed1 and he was beheaded on the #agth or #ahth of ,august #aeaj4 ,empson left1 so far as is known1 a family of two sons and four daughters1 and about #aeac his estates were restored to his elder son1 ,thomas4 ,see ,francis ,bacon1 ,history of ,henry ,,vii41 edited by ,j4,r4 ,lumby 7,cambridge1 #ahha72 and ,j4,s4 ,brewer1 ,the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii41 edited by ,j4 ,gairdner 7,london1 #ahhd74 ,,empyema 7from ,gr4 ,greek3 en1 within1 and ,greek3 pyon1 pus71 a term in medicine applied to an accumulation of purulent fluid within the cavity of the pleura 7see ,,lung3 ,surgery74 ,,empyrean 7from the ,med4 ,lat4 empyreus1 an adaptation of the ,gr4 ,greek3 erpnros1 in or on the fire1 ,greek3 pyr71 the place in the highest heaven1 which in ancient cosmologies was supposed to be occupied by the element of fire4 ,it was thus used as a name for the firmament1 and in ,christian literature for the dwelling-place of ,god and the blessed1 and as the source of light4 ,the word is used both as a substantive and as an adjective4 ,having the same ,greek origin are the scientific words empyreuma and empyreumatic1 applied to the characteristic smell of burning or charring vegetable or animal matter4 ,,ems1 a river of ,germany1 rising on the south slope of the ,teutoburger ,wald1 at an altitude of #ceh ft41 and flowing generally north-west and north through ,westphalia and ,hanover to the east side of the ,dollart1 immediately south of ,emden4 ,after passing through the ,dollart the navigable stream bifurcates1 the eastern ,ems going to the east1 and the western ,ems to the west1 of the island of ,borkum to the ,north ,sea4 ,length1 #bjj m4 ,between #ahib and #ahii the river was canalized along its right bank for a distance of #dc m4 ,at the same time1 and as part of the same general plan1 a canal1 the ,,dortmund-,,ems ,,canal1 was dug to connect the river 7from ,munster7 with ,herne in the ,westphalian coal-field4 ,at ,henrichenburg a branch from ,herne 7#e m4 long7 connects with another branch from ,dortmund 7#aj-a_/b m4 long74 ,another branch1 from ,olfen 7north of ,dortmund71 connects with ,duisburg1 and so with the ,rhine4 ,there is1 however1 a difference in elevation of #df ft4 between the two branches first named1 and vessels are transferred from the one to the other by means of a huge lift4 ,the canal1 which was constructed to carry small steamers and boats up to #bbj ft4 in length and #gej tons burden1 measures #afi m4 in length1 of which #ajh-a_/b m4 were actually dug1 and cost altogether ,l#c1gbh1gej4 ,the surface width throughout is #ih-a_/b ft41 the bottom width #ei ft41 and the depth #h-a_/f ft4 ,see ,victor ,kurs1 ,die kunstlichen ,wasserstrassen des deutschen ,reichs1 in ,geog4 ,zeitschrift 7#ahih71 pp4 #fja-fag and #ffe-fid2 and ,deutsche ,rundschau f4 ,geog4 und ,stat4 7#ahih71 pp4 #acj-aca4 ,,ems1 a town and watering-place of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,hesse-,nassau1 romantically situated on both banks of the ,lahn1 in a valley surrounded by wooded mountains and vine-clad hills1 #aa m4 ,e4 from ,coblenz on the railway to ,cassel and ,berlin4 ,pop4 #fejj4 ,it has two ,evangelical1 a ,roman ,catholic1 an ,english and a ,russian church4 ,there is some mining industry 7silver and lead74 ,ems is one of the most delightful and fashionable watering-places of ,europe4 ,its waters--hot alkaline springs about twenty in number--are used both for drinking and bathing1 and are efficacious in chronic nervous disorders1 feminine complaints and affections of the liver and respiratory organs4 ,on the right bank of the river lies the ,kursaal with pretty gardens4 ,a stone let into the promenade close by marks the spot where1 on the #acth of ,july #ahgj1 ,king ,william of ,prussia had the famous interview with the ,french ambassador ,count ,benedetti 7q4v47 which resulted in the war of #ahgj-ahga4 ,a funicular railway runs up to the ,malberg 7#ajjj ft471 where is a sanatorium and whence extensive views are obtained over the ,rhine valley4 ,ems is largely frequented in the summer months by visitors from all parts of the world--the numbers amounting to about #aa1jjj annually--and many handsome villas have been erected for their accommodation4 ,in ,august #aghf ,ems was the scene of the conference of the delegates of the four ,german archbishops1 known as the congress of ,ems1 which issued 7,august #be7 in the famous joint pronouncement1 known as the ,punctation of ,ems1 against the interference of the papacy in the affairs of the ,catholic ,church in ,germany 7see ,,febronianism74 ,see ,vogler1 ,ems1 seine ,heilquellen1 ,kureinrichtungen1 c4 7,ems1 #ahhh72 and ,hess1 ,zur ,geschichte der ,stadt ,ems 7,ems1 #ahie74 ,,emser1 ,,jerome1 or ,,hieronymus 7#adgg-aebg71 antagonist of ,luther1 was born of a good family at ,ulm on the #bjth of ,march #adgg4 ,he studied ,greek at ,tubingen and jurisprudence at ,basel1 and after acting for three years as chaplain and secretary to ,raymond ,peraudi1 cardinal of ,gurk1 he began lecturing on classics in #aejd at ,erfurt1 where ,luther may have been among his audience4 ,in the same year he became secretary to ,duke ,george of ,albertine ,saxony1 who1 unlike his cousin ,frederick the ,wise1 the elector of ,ernestine ,saxony1 remained the stanchest defender of ,roman ,catholicism among the princes of northern ,germany4 ,duke ,george at this time was bent on securing the canonization of ,bishop ,benno of ,meissen1 and at his instance ,emser travelled through ,saxony and ,bohemia in search of materials for a life of ,benno1 which he subsequently published in ,german and ,latin4 ,in pursuit of the same object he made an unsuccessful visit to ,rome in #aeaj4 ,meanwhile he had also been lecturing on classics at ,leipzig1 but gradually turned his attention to theology and canon law4 ,a prebend at ,dresden 7#aeji7 and another at ,meissen1 which he obtained through ,duke ,george's influence1 gave him means and leisure to pursue his studies4 ,at first ,emser was on the side of the reformers1 but like his patron he desired a practical reformation of the clergy without any doctrinal breach with the past or the church2 and his liberal sympathies were mainly humanistic1 like those of ,erasmus and others who parted company with ,luther after #aeai4 ,as late as that year ,luther referred to him as ,emser noster1 but the disputation at ,leipzig in that year completed the breach between them4 ,emser warned his ,bohemian friends against ,luther1 and ,luther retorted with an attack on ,emser which outdid in scurrility all his polemical writings4 ,emser1 who was further embittered by an attack of the ,leipzig students1 imitated ,luther's violence1 and asserted that ,luther's whole crusade originated in nothing more than enmity to the ,dominicans1 ,luther's reply was to burn ,emser's books along with ,leo ,x4's bull of excommunication4 ,emser next1 in #aeba1 published an attack on ,luther's ,appeal to the ,german ,nobility1 and eight works followed from his pen in the controversy1 in which he defended the ,roman doctrine of the ,mass and the primacy of the pope4 ,at ,duke ,george's instance he prepared1 in #aebc1 a ,german translation of ,henry ,,viii4's ,assertio ,septem ,sacramentorum contra ,lutherum1 and criticized ,luther's ,new ,testament4 ,he also entered into a controversy with ,zwingli4 ,he took an active part in organizing a reformed ,roman ,catholic ,church in ,germany1 and in #aebg published a ,german version of the ,new ,testament as a counterblast to ,luther's4 ,he died on the #hth of ,november in that year and was buried at ,dresden4 ,emser was a vigorous controversialist1 and next to ,eck the most eminent of the ,german divines who stood by the old church4 ,but he was hardly a great scholar2 the errors he detected in ,luther's ,new ,testament were for the most part legitimate variations from the ,vulgate1 and his own version is merely ,luther's adapted to ,vulgate requirements4 ,bibliography4--,waldau1 ,nachricht von ,hieronymus ,emsers ,leben und ,schriften 7,anspach1 #aghc72 ,kawerau1 ,hieronymus ,emser 7,halle1 #ahih72 ,akten und ,briefe zur ,kirchenpolitik ,herzog ,georgs von ,sachsen 7,leipzig1 #aije72 ,allgemeine deutsche ,biographie1 vi4 #if-ih 7#ahgg74 ,all histories of the ,reformation in ,germany contain notices of ,emser2 see especially ,friedensburg1 ,beitrage zum ,briefwechsel der katholischen ,gelehrten ,deutschlands im ,reformationszeitalter4 7,a4 ,f4 ,p47 ,,enamel 7formerly amel1 derived through the ,fr4 amail1 esmal1 esmail1 from a ,latin word smaltum1 first found in a #ith-century life of ,leo ,,iv471 a term1 strictly speaking1 given to the hard vitreous compound1 which is fused upon the surface of metallic objects either for the purpose of decoration or utility4 ,this compound is a form of glass made of silica1 minium and potash1 which is stained by the chemical combination of various metallic oxides whilst in a melted condition in the crucible4 ,this strict application of the term was widened to signify the metal object coated with enamel1 so that to-day the term an enamel generally implies a work of art in enamel upon metal4 ,the composition of the substance enamel which is used upon metal does not vary to any great extent from the enamels employed upon pottery and faience4 ,but they differ in this respect1 that the pottery enamel is usually applied to the biscuit surface of the ware in a raw state2 that is1 the compound has not been previously run down or vitrified in the crucible by heat1 as is the case with enamelling upon metal1 although1 in most of the enamelled iron advertisement tablets1 the enamel is in the raw state and is treated in a similar manner to that employed upon pottery4 ,examination of the enamels upon brick of the ,assyrians shows that they were applied unvitrified4 ,it was upon pottery and brick that the ancient ,egyptians and ,assyrians achieved their greatest work in enamelling4 ,for as yet no work of such magnificence as the great enamelled walls of the palace of ,rameses ,,iii4 at ,tell el-,yehudia in the ,delta of the ,nile1 or the palace of ,nimrod in ,babylon1 has been discovered upon metal of any kind4 ,but there were gold ornaments and jewelry enamelled of noble design in opaque turquoise1 cobalt1 emerald green and purple1 some of which can be seen at the ,british ,museum and the ,louvre4 ,an example is shown in ,plate ,i4 fig4 #c4 ,in the subsequent ,greek and ,roman civilizations enamel was also applied to articles of personal adornment4 ,many pieces of jewelry1 exquisite in workmanship1 have been found4 ,but a greater application was made of it by the ,greek sculptors in the #dth and #eth centuries ,b4,c4 ,for we find1 in many instances1 that not only were the eyes made of enamel--which 7artistically speaking7 is a somewhat doubtful manner of employing it1--as in the fine bronze head found at ,anticythera 7,cerigotto7 in #aijb1 but in the colossal figure of ,zeus for the temple at ,olympia made by ,pheidias the gold drapery was gorgeously enamelled with figures and flowers4 ,this wonderful work by the greatest sculptor the world has ever seen was destroyed1 as so many priceless works of art in enamel have been3 doubtless on account of the precious metal upon which they were made4 ,it was in all probability the crowning triumph of a long series of essays in this material4 ,the art of ancient ,rome lacked the inspiration of ,greece1 being mainly confined to copying ,greek forms and style1 and in the case of enamelling it did not depart from this attitude4 ,but the ,roman and ,etruscan glass has many beautiful qualities of form and colour that do not seem entirely borrowed1 and the enamel work upon them so far as we can discern is of graceful design and rich colour4 ,no doubt1 were it not1 as has been remarked1 for the fact that enamelling was generally done upon gold and silver1 there would still be many works to testify to the art of that period4 ,such as there are1 however1 show a rare appreciation of enamel as a beautiful material4 ,with the decline of this civilization the art of enamelling probably died out4 ,for it has ever been one of those exquisite arts which exist only under the sunshine of an opulent luxurious time or sheltered from the rude winds of a poorer age by the affluence of patrons4 ,the next time we hear of it is in an oft-quoted passage 7c4 ,a4,d4 #bdj7 from the writings of the great sophist ,philostratus1 who says 7,icones1 i4 #bh73--;,it is said that the barbarians in the ocean pour these colours into bronze moulds1 that the colours become as hard as stone1 preserving the designs1--a more or less inaccurate description of the process of champleve4 ,this has been understood 7from an interpretation given to a passage in the commentary on it by ,olearius7 to refer to the ,celts of the ,british ,islands4 ,it also goes to prove that enamelling was not practised at this day in ,greece4 ,we have no ,british enamels to show so early as this1 but belonging to a later period1 from the #fth to the #ith century1 a number of the finest gold and bronze ornaments1 horse trappings1 shields1 fibulae and ciboria have been discovered of ,celtic and ,saxon make4 ,the ,saxon work has nothing to show so exquisitely wrought as that found in ,ireland1 where one or two pieces are to be seen now in the ,dublin ,museum1 notably the ,ardagh chalice and some gold brooches4 ,in the chalice the enamel is of a minute inlaid character1 and appears to have been made first in the form of a multi-colour bead1 which was fused to the surface of its setting1 and then polished down4 ,many of the pieces seem to have been made after this fashion1 which does not speak very highly of the technical knowledge of enamelling1 but it is none the less true enamelling of an elementary character4 ,the shield at the ,british ,museum has an inlay of red enamel which is remarkable in its quality4 ,for centuries such a fine opaque red has not been discovered4 ,an example of ,irish work is shown in ,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #aj4 ,from ,ireland the art was transferred to ,byzantium1 which is to be seen by the close resemblance of method1 style1 design and colour4 ,the style and design changed in course of time1 but the craft remained4 ,it was at ,byzantium that it flourished for several centuries4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,byzantine ,cloisonne ,cross 7c4 #aath century7 7,south ,kensington ,museum74 ,the finest work we know of belonging to this period is the ,pala d',oro at ,st ,mark's1 ,venice1 believed to have been brought from ,constantinople to ,venice about #aaje4 ,this magnificent altar-piece is in cloisonne enamel4 ,a typical example is the ciborium and chalice belonging to the ,south ,kensington loan collection4 ,the design entirely covers the whole of the surface in one rich mass composed of circular or vesica-shaped medallions filled with sacred subjects and foliated scrolls4 ,these are engraved and enamelled1 and the metal bands of the scrolls and figures are engraved and gilt4 ,the characteristic quality of the colour scheme is that it is composed almost wholly of primaries4 ,red1 blue and yellow predominate1 with a little white and black4 ,occasionally the secondaries1 green and purple1 are used1 but through the whole period of ,byzantine enamelling there is a total absence of what to-day is termed subtle colouring4 ,the arrangement of the enamels is also distinct1 in that the divisions of the colours are not always made by the cloison1 but are frequently laid in side by side without the adjoining colours mingling or running together whilst being melted4 ,for instance1 in a leaf pattern or in the drapery1 the dress may be cobalt1 heightened with turquoise or green4 ,thus it is interesting to observe that the artist employed the metal dividing lines frequently for the sake of aesthetic result1 and was not much hampered by technical difficulties4 ,this was the rule when opaque enamels were used4 ,it is also worthy of remark that these opaque enamels differ from those in common use to-day1 in that they are not nearly so opaque4 ,this quality1 together with a dull1 instead of a highly polished surface1 gives a much softer appearance to the enamels4 ,again1 the whole tone of the enamels is darker and richer4 ,many examples of ,byzantine work 7see fig4 #a47 are to be seen in the public and private art collections throughout ,europe4 ,they are principally upon ecclesiastical objects1 missal covers1 croziers1 chalices1 ciboria1 pyx1 candlesticks1 crosses and tabernacles4 ,in most instances the enamels are made in separate little plates rudely fastened with nails1 screws or rivets to a metal or wooden foundation4 ,theophilus1 a monk of the #acth century1 describes the process of enamelling as it was understood by the ,byzantines of his time1 which probably differed but little from earlier methods4 ,the design and drawing of the figures in ,byzantine enamels is similar to the mosaic and carving4 ,the figures are treated entirely as decorations1 with scarcely ever the least semblance of expression1 although here and there an intention of piety or sorrow is to be descried through the awkward postures in which they are placed4 ,in spite of this1 the sense of decorative design1 the simplicity of conception1 the strength of the general character1 and the richness of the colour1 places this period as one of the finest which the art of enamelling has seen1 and it leads us to lay stress upon the principle that the simplest methods in design and manipulation attain a higher end than those which are elaborate and intricate4 ,it might be asserted with truth that this style never arrived at the degree of delicacy and refinement of later styles4 ,but the refinement was often at the expense of higher qualities4 ,the next great application of these kinds of enamelling was at ,cologne1 for there we find not only the renowned work of ,nicolas of ,verdun1 the altar front at ,klosterneuberg1 which consists of fifty plates in champleve enamel1 but in that ,rhenish province there are many shrines of magnificent conception4 ,from here the secrets of the craft were taken to ,limoges1 where the greatest activity was displayed1 as numerous examples are found throughout ,england1 ,france and ,spain1 which no doubt were made there 7see ,plate ,i4 fig4 #f47 ,but no new method or distinct advance is to be noticed1 during these successive revivals at ,byzantium1 ,cologne or ,limoges1 and it is to early #adth-century ,italy that we owe one of the most beautiful developments1 that of the process subsequently called basse-taille1 which signifies a low-cut relief upon which transparent enamel is fused4 ,in this process enamelling passed from a decorative to a fine art4 ,for it demanded the highest knowledge of an artist with the consummate skill of both sculptor and enameller4 ,witness the superb gold cup1 called the ,king's ,cup1 now in the ,british ,museum1 and the silver cup at ,king's ,lynn4 ,the first is in an excellent state of preservation1 as it is upon gold1 but the latter1 like most of the ancient enamelling upon silver1 has lost most of its enamel4 ,this was due--as the present writer believes after much experiment--to the impurity of the silver employed4 ,the ,king's ,cup is one of the finest works in enamelling extant4 ,it consists of a gold cup and cover1 hammered out of pure gold2 and around the bowl1 base and cover there are bands of figures1 illustrating the scenes from the life of ,st ,agnes4 ,the hands and faces are of pale jasper1 which over the carved gold gives a beautiful flesh tone4 ,the draperies are in most resplendent ruby1 sapphire1 emerald1 ivory1 black and orange4 ,the stem was subsequently altered by an additional piece inserted and enamelled with ,tudor roses4 ,it is a work of the #acth century1 and belonged to ,jean1 duc de ,berry1 who gave it to his nephew1 ,charles ,,vi4 of ,france1 in #acia4 ,it afterwards came into the possession of the kings of ,england1 from ,henry ,,vi4 to ,james ,i41 who gave it to ,don ,juan ,velasco1 constable of ,castile4 ,it was purchased by subscription with the aid of the treasury for the ,british ,museum4 ,other well-known pieces are the silver horn in the possession of the marquess of ,aylesbury1 and the crozier of ,william of ,wykeham at ,new ,college1 ,oxford4 ,the discovery about the same time of the process called plique-a-jour forms another most interesting and beautiful development4 ,owing to the difficulty of its manufacture and its extreme fragility there are very few examples left4 ,one of the finest specimens is now at the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington4 ,it is in the form of two bands of emerald green enamel which decorate a silver beaker4 ,they are in the form of little stained glass windows1 the cloisons forming 7as it were7 the leads4 ,these fine cloisons and shapes are most correct in form1 and the whole piece shows a perfection of craftsmanship rarely equalled4 ,the end of the #aeth century saw a development in enamelling which was not only remarkable1 but revolutionary in its method4 ,for until then the whole theory of enamelling had been that it relied upon the enclosing edges of the metal or the cloison to hold it to the metal ground and in part to preserve it in the shape of the pattern1 much in the same way as a setting holds a stone or a jewel4 ,all the enamel before this date had been sunk into cells or cloisons4 ,two discoveries were made2 first1 that enamels could be made which require no enclosing ribbon of metal1 but that merely the enamel should be fused on both sides of the metal object2 secondly1 that after an enamel had been fused to a surface of metal1 another could be superimposed and fused to the first layer without any danger of separation from each or from the metal ground4 ,it is true that such processes had been employed upon glass on which enamel had been applied1 as well as upon pottery2 and it is probably due to the influence of a knowledge of both enamelling upon metal and upon glass or pottery that the discovery was made4 ,in most of these enamel paintings the subject was laid on with a white enamel upon a dark ground4 ,the white was modulated2 so that possessing a slight degree of translucency1 it was grey in the thin parts and white in the thick4 ,thus was obtained a certain amount of light and shade4 ,this gave the process called grisaille4 ,but strange to say1 it was not until a later period that this was practised alone1 and then the modelling of the figures and draperies became very elaborate4 ,at first it was only done in a slight degree1 just sufficiently to give expression and to add to the richness of the form4 ,for the enamellers were thinking of a plate upon which to put their wonderful colours1 and not only of form4 ,the painting in white was therefore invariably coloured with enamels4 ,probably the earliest painter in enamel was ,nardon ,penicaud1 many of whose works 7one of them1 dated #aejc1 is in the ,cluny ,museum7 have been preserved with great care4 ,he had many followers1 the most distinguished of whom was ,leonard ,limosin 7i4e4 of ,limoges74 ,he excelled in portraiture4 ,examples of his work 7between #aecb and #aegd7 are to be found in most of the larger public and private collections4 ,leonard ,limosin and his ,limoges contemporaries were very largely addicted to the employment of foil1 which became too largely used1 thus spoiling their otherwise fine serious work4 ,the family of ,jean ,penicaud1 ,jean ,court de ,vigier1 ,pierre ,raymond and ,pierre ,courteys were all great names of artists who excelled in the grisaille process4 ,grisaille is similar to pate-sur-pate in pottery1 and depends for its attractive quality entirely upon form and composition4 ,no comparison should be made with enamels in colour1 for they occupy a different category--similar to cameo4 ,the casket shown in ,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #i is by ,jean ,penicaud4 ,it is a fine example of the enamelling in this style1 very beautiful in colour4 ,the hands and faces are in opaque white enamel2 the draperies1 garlands and flowers are in transparent green1 turquoise blue1 purple and cobalt over foil4 ,the background is in transparent violet over white enamel ground1 which is seme with gold stars4 ,the draperies are also heightened with gold4 ,one of the most marvellous pieces of brilliant craft is the missal cover 7,plate ,i4 fig4 #e7 at the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 said to have belonged to ,henrietta ,maria1 queen of ,charles ,i4 ,the subjects are the ,creation of ,adam and ,eve and the ,fountain of ,youth4 ,it is about #d in4 by #g when opened out4 ,the enamel is encrusted upon the figures1 ornament and flowers which are beaten up in pure gold into high relief4 ,the extraordinary minuteness and skill of handling1 and the extreme brilliancy of the enamels1 which are as brilliant to-day as on the day they were made1 together form one of the unique specimens of art craftsmanship of the world4 ,to the subdued taste of to-day1 however1 the effect is tawdry4 ,the conception and design are also alike unworthy of the execution4 ,since the ,assyrian and ,egyptian civilizations1 there has been a succession of luxurious developments followed by lapses into the decline and death of the art of enamelling upon metals4 ,in each revival there has been something added to that which was known and practised before4 ,the last revival took place five hundred years ago1 accompanying the rebirth of learning and the arts2 but after flourishing for over a century1 the art gradually fell into disuse1 and remained so until the recent revival and further development4 ,the development consists1 first1 in the more complete knowledge of the technical processes1 following upon the great advances which science has made2 and secondly1 in a finer and more subtly artistic treatment of them4 ,the advance in technical knowledge comprises greater facility and perfection in the production of the substance enamel1 and its subsequent application to metal surfaces2 more intimate knowledge of metals and their alloys to which it is applied1 and greater ease in obtaining them from the metalliferous ores and reducing them to suitable dimensions and surfaces4 ,for instance1 it is now a simple matter to obtain perfectly pure copper by means of electricity4 ,again1 formerly a flat sheet of metal was obtained by hammering1 which involved an infinite amount of hard labour1 whereas it is accomplished to-day with ease by means of flatting and rolling mills3 i4e4 after the metal has been obtained from the ore in the form of an ingot1 it is stretched equally to any degree of thinness by steel rollers4 ,further1 the furnaces have been greatly improved by the introduction of gas and electricity as the heating power1 instead of the wood or charcoal employed4 ,illustration3 ,plate ,i4 ,fig4 #c4--;,,graeco-,,bactrian ,,gold ,,amulet1 ,,showing ,,the ,,gold ,,strip ,,for ,,setting ,,stones1 ,,which ,,exemplifies ,,the ,,manner ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,cloisons ,,are ,,soldered ,,for ,,cloisonne4 ,fig4 #d4--;,,chinese ,,cloisonne ,,bowl4 ,fig4 #e4--,,missal ,,cover1 ,,encrusted ,,enamel4 7,french1 #agth century4 ,debased style47 ,fig4 #f4--;,,box ,,in ,,copper ,,partly ,,enamelled ,,in ,,opaque ,,enamels ,,champleve ,,with ,,coats ,,of ,,arms4 7#acth century1 ,english or ,german4 ,south ,kensington ,museum47 ,fig4 #g4--,,prayer-,,book ,,cover ,,in ,,enamel ,,and ,,silver ,,gilt1 ,,set ,,with ,,rubies ,,and ,,emeralds1 ,,by ,,alexander ,,fisher4 7,size1 closed1 #d ,x #c in47 ,illustration3 ,plate ,,ii4 ,fig4 #h4--,,overmantel 7#bd ,x #ah-a_/b in47 ,,in ,,champleve ,,enamel ,,on ,,silver4 ,,subject3 ,,the ,,garden ,,of ,,the ,,soul4 ,,by ,,alexander ,,fisher4 ,fig4 #i4--,,painted ,,enamel ,,casket ,,by ,,jean ,,penicaud4 7#afth century47 ,fig4 #aj4--;,,celtic ,,champleve ,,enamelled ,,crozier4 7,irish1 #ith century47 ,in the manufacture of the substance enamel a much greater advance has been made1 for whereas the colours1 and consequently the schemes of colour1 were extremely limited1 we now possess an infinite gradation in the colours1 as well as the transparency and opacity1 the hardness and softness of enamels4 ,there are only two colours which cannot yet be obtained2 these are opaque vermilion and lemon yellow in a vitrified state4 ,many of the colours we now employ were not known by enamellers such as ,leonard ,limosin4 ,our enamels are also perfect in purity1 brilliancy and durability1 qualities which are largely due to the perfect knowledge of the proportion of parts composing an enamel and their complete combination4 ,it is this complete combination1 together with the absence of any destructible matter1 which gives the enamel its lasting quality4 ,the base of enamel is a clear1 colourless1 transparent vitreous compound called flux1 which is composed of silica1 minium and potash4 ,this flux or base--termed fondant in ,france--is coloured by the addition of oxides of metals while in a state of fusion1 which stain the flux throughout its mass4 ,enamels are either hard or soft1 according to the proportion of the silica to the other parts in its composition4 ,they are termed hard when the temperature required to fuse them is very high4 ,the harder the enamel the less liable is it to be affected by atmospheric agencies1 which in soft enamels produce a decomposition of the surface first and ultimately of the whole enamel4 ,it is therefore advisable to use hard enamels in all cases4 ,this involves the employment of pure--or almost pure--metals for the plates1 which are in most respects the best to receive and retain the enamel4 ,for if there is an excess of alloy1 either the metal will possibly melt before the enamel is fused or afterwards they will part company4 ,to the inferior quality of old silver may be attributed the fact that in all cases the enamel has flown off it2 if it has not yet wholly disappeared it will scale off in time4 ,it is therefore essential that metals should be pure and the enamels hard4 ,it is also noteworthy that enamels composed of a great amount of soda or potash1 as compared with those wherein red lead is in greater proportion1 are more liable to crack and have less cohesion to the metals4 ,it is better not to use silver as a base1 although it is capable of reflecting a higher and more brilliant white light than any other metal4 ,fine gold and pure copper as thin as possible are the best metals upon which to enamel4 ,if silver is to be used1 it should be fine silver1 treated in the methods called champleve and cloisonne4 ,the brilliancy of the substance enamel depends upon the perfect combination and proportion of its component parts4 ,the intimacy of the combination depends upon an equal temperature being maintained throughout its fusion in the crucible4 ,for this purpose it is better to obtain a flux which has been already fused and most carefully prepared1 and afterwards to add the colouring oxides1 which stain it dark or light according to the amount of oxide introduced4 ,many of the enamels are changed in colour by the difference of the proportion of the parts composing the flux1 rather than by the change of the oxides4 ,for instance1 turquoise blue is obtained from the black oxide of copper by using a comparatively large proportion of carbonate of soda1 and a yellow green from the same oxide by increasing the proportionate amount of the red lead4 ,all transparent enamels are made opaque by the addition of calx1 which is a mixture of tin and lead calcined4 ,white enamel is made by the addition of stannic and arsenious acids to the flux4 ,the amount of acid regulates the density or opacity of the enamel4 ,to elucidate the development which has occurred1 it will be necessary to describe some of the processes4 ,after the enamel has been procured in the lump1 the next stage in the process1 common to all methods of enamelling1 is to pulverize it4 ,to do this properly the enamel must first be placed in an agate mortar and covered with water2 next1 with a wooden mallet a number of sharp blows must be given to a pestle held vertically over the enamel1 to break it2 then holding the mortar firmly in the left hand1 the pestle must be rotated with the right1 with as much pressure as possible on the enamel1 grinding it until the particles are reduced to a fine grain4 ,the powder is then subjected to a series of washings in distilled water1 until all the floury particles are removed4 ,after this the metal is cleaned by immersion in acid and water4 ,for copper1 nitric acid is used2 for silver1 sulphuric1 and for gold hydrochloric acid4 ,all trace of acid is then removed1 first by scratching with a brush and water1 and finally by drying in warm oak sawdust4 ,after this the pulverized enamel is carefully and evenly spread over those parts of the metal designed to receive it1 in sufficient thickness just to cover them and no more4 ,the piece is then dried in front of the furnace1 and when dry is placed gently on a fire-clay or iron planche1 and introduced carefully into the muffle of the furnace1 which is heated to a bright pale red4 ,it is now attentively watched until the enamel shines all over1 when it is withdrawn from the furnace4 ,the firing of enamel1 unlike that of glass or pottery1 takes only a few minutes1 and in nearly all processes no annealing is required4 ,the following are the different modes of enamelling3 champleve1 cloisonne1 basse-taille1 plique-a-jour1 painted enamel1 encrusted1 and miniature-painted4 ,these processes were known at successive periods of ancient art in the order in which they are named4 ,to-day they are known in their entirety4 ,each has been largely developed and improved4 ,no new method has been discovered1 although variations have been introduced into all4 ,the most important are those connected with painted enamels1 encrusted enamels and plique-a-jour4 ,champleve enamelling is done by cutting away troughs or cells in the plate1 leaving a metal line raised between them1 which forms the outline of the design4 ,in these cells the pulverized enamel is laid and then fused2 afterwards it is filed with a corundum file1 then smoothed with a pumice stone and polished by means of crocus powder and rouge4 ,an example is shown in ,plate ,,ii4 fig4 #h4 ,in cloisonne enamel1 upon a metal plate or shape1 thin metal strips are bent to the outline of the pattern1 then fixed by silver solder or by the enamel itself4 ,these strips form a raised outline1 giving cells as in the case of champleve4 ,the rest of the process is identical with that of champleve enamelling4 ,an example is shown in ,plate ,i4 fig4 #d4 ,the basse-taille process is also a combination of metal work in the form of engraving1 carving and enamelling4 ,the metal1 either silver or gold1 is engraved with a design1 and then carved into a bas-relief 7below the general surface of the metal like an ,egyptian bas-relief7 so that when the enamel is fused it is level with the uncarved parts of the design enamel1 and the design shows through the transparent enamel4 ,painted enamels are different from any of these processes both in method and in result4 ,the metal in this case is either copper1 silver or gold1 but usually copper4 ,it is cut with shears into a plate of the size required1 and slightly domed with a burnisher or hammer1 after which it is cleaned by acid and water4 ,then the enamel is laid equally over the whole surface both back and front1 and afterwards fired4 ,the first coat of enamel being fixed1 the design is carried out1 first by laying it in white enamel or any other which is opaque and most advantageous for subsequent coloration4 ,in the case of a grisaille painted enamel the white is mixed with water or turpentine1 or spike oil of lavender1 or essential oil of petroleum 7according to the taste of the artist7 and the white is painted thickly in the light parts and thinly in the grey ones1 whereby a slight sense of relief is obtained and a great degree of light and shade4 ,in coloured painted enamels the white is coloured by transparent enamels spread over the grisaille treatment1 parts of which when fired are heightened by touches of gold1 usually painted in lines4 ,other parts can be made more brilliant by the use of foil1 over which the transparent enamels are placed and then fired4 ,an example is shown in ,plate ,i4 fig4 #g4 ,enamels by the plique-a-jour method might be best described as translucent cloisonne enamels2 for they are similar to cloisonne1 except that the ground upon which they are fired is removed1 thus making them transparent like stained glass4 ,two new processes have been the subject of the present writer's study and experiment for several years1 which he has lately brought to fruition4 ,the first is an inlay of transparent enamels similar to plique-a-jour without cloisons to divide the colours4 ,for if enamels do not run together whilst in a melted state1 as is seen in the case of painted and basse-taille enamels1 there should be no necessity for it in this process4 ,the result is a clear transparent subject in colour4 ,the other process consists of a coloured enamel relief4 ,it resembles the della ,robbia relief1 with this important difference1 that the colour of the enamel by its nature permeates the whole depth of the relief1 whereas in the della ,robbia ware it is only on the surface4 ,it also has a fresco surface1 instead of one highly glazed4 ,the quality of the enamel is as rare and unlike anything else as it is beautiful4 ,it is in point of fact the only coloured sculpture in which the whole of its parts are one solid homogeneous mass1 and through which the colour is one with the substance and is not applied4 ,the process consists of the shapes of the various parts of the relief being selected for the different enamels1 and these enamels melted together1 in the mould of the relief1 which is finished with lapidary's tools4 ,miniature enamel painting is not true enamelling1 for after the white enamel is fired upon the gold plate1 the colours used are not vitreous compounds--not enamels in fact--as is the case in any other form of metal enamelling2 but they are either raw oxides or other forms of metal1 with a little flux added1 not combined4 ,these colours are painted on the white enamel1 and afterwards made to adhere to the surface by partially fusing the enamel1 which when in a state of partial fusion becomes viscous4 ,there are many of these so-called enamels to-day1 which are much easier of accomplishment than the true enamel1 but they possess none of the beautiful quality of the latter4 ,it is most apparent when parts of a work are true enamels and parts are done in the manner described above4 ,these enamel paintings on enamel are afterwards coated over with a transparent flux1 which gives them a surface of enamel4 ,many are done in this way for the market4 ,all these methods were used formerly1 before the present revival2 but they were not so completely understood or carried so far as they are to-day4 ,nor were the whole methods practised by any artist as they are now4 ,the greatest advance has been in painted enamels4 ,this process requires that both sides of the metal plate shall be covered with enamel2 for this reason the plate is made convex on the top1 so that the concave side does not touch the planche on which it is supported for firing1 but rests on its edges throughout4 ,there are several reasons why these plates are bombe1 the principal one being that in the firing they resist the tendency to warp and curl up at the edges as a flat thin plate would do4 ,further1 the enamel having been fused to both sides is not so liable to crack or to splint in subsequent firings4 ,this is most important1 for otherwise the white which is placed on afterwards would be a network of cracks4 ,the manner of firing has also to do with this1 but not nearly so much as the preliminary care and mechanical perfection with which a plate is prepared4 ,nearly all the old enamels are seen to be cracked in the white if minutely examined4 ,to obviate this the following points must be observed3 ,the plate must be of an excellent quality of metal1 equal in thickness throughout1 and perfectly regular in shape4 ,it must be arched equally from end to end4 ,the first coat of enamel must be of a perfectly regular equal thickness on both sides1 entirely covering the plate4 ,whatever the medium employed in painting the white on to the enamel1 it must be completely evaporated before the plate is placed in the furnace4 ,the furnace must be heated to a bright red heat1 and the planche must be red-hot before being taken out for the enamel to be placed upon it1 and then quickly returned to the furnace and the muffle door shut tight so as to allow no draught of cool air to enter it4 ,then as soon as it has begun to fuse1 which if a small piece1 it would do in a minute or so1 the muffle door is slightly opened to afford a view of it4 ,as soon as it shines all over its surface1 it is withdrawn from the muffle4 ,the method of laying a white upon the enamel ground is a matter of individual taste1 so far as the medium is concerned4 ,by some1 pure distilled water is preferred to any other liquid for mixing the enamel4 ,otherwise1 turpentine and the fat oil of turpentine1 as well as spike oil of lavender4 ,the oil mixture takes longer to dry1 and thus gives a greater chance for modelling into fine shades than the water4 ,but it has several drawbacks4 ,firstly1 there is the difficulty of drying the oil out--a process which takes some time and increases the risk of cracking in the drying process2 and secondly1 the enamel is not so fresh and clear after it is fired as when pure water has been employed4 ,besides there is a great difference in the result2 the water involves a quick1 decided1 direct touch and method1 which carries with it its own charm4 ,the oil medium1 besides giving an effect of laborious rounded stippled surfaces1 is apt partly to reduce the enamel1 thus giving it a dull surface4 ,the coloration of the white is comparatively simple and is done by transparent enamels finely ground and evenly spread over the white after the latter has been fused4 ,the only danger to be avoided is that of over-firing1 which is produced by too great heat of a prolonged duration of firing1 which causes the stannic and arsenious acids in the white to volatilize4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,modern ,french plique-a-jour bowl1 by ,fernand ,thesmar4 ,plique-a-jour enamelling is done in the same way as cloisonne enamelling1 except that the wires or strips of metal which enclose the enamel are not soldered to the metal base1 but are soldered to each other only4 ,then these are simply placed upon a sheet of platinum1 copper1 silver1 gold or hard brass1 which1 after the enamel is fused and sufficiently annealed and cooled1 is easily removed4 ,for small pieces of plique-a-jour there is no necessity to apply any metallic base1 as the particles of enamel quickly fuse1 become viscous1 and when drawn out set quite hard4 ,neither is there any need for annealing1 as would be the case in larger work4 ,for an example1 see fig4 #b4 ,commercially there has lately been an activity in enamels such as has never before occurred4 ,this has been the case throughout ,europe1 ,japan and the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,in ,london there has been a demand for a cheap form of gaudy coloured enamel1 fused into sunk spaces of metal obtained by stamping with a steel die2 this has been applied to small objects of cheap jewelry1 in the form of brooches1 bracelets and the like4 ,there has also been a great demand for enamel watch-cases and small pendants1 done mainly by hand1 of a better class of work4 ,many of these have been produced in ,birmingham1 ,berlin1 ,paris and ,london4 ,in ,paris copies of pictures in black and white enamel1 with a little gold paint in the draperies and background1 have been manufactured in very large quantities and sometimes of great dimensions4 ,another curious demand1 followed by as astonishing a production1 is that of the imitations 7a harder name for which is forgeries7 of old enamels1 made with much skill1 giving all the technical excellence of the originals1 even to the cracks and scratches incidental to age4 ,these are duly signed1 and will deceive the most expert4 ,they are copies of enamels by ,nardon and ,jean ,penicaud1 ,leonard ,limosin1 ,pierre ,raymond1 ,courtois and others4 ,the same artificers also produce copies of old ,chinese cloisonne and champleve enamels1 as well as old ,battersea enamel snuff-boxes1 patch-boxes1 and indeed every kind of enamelling formerly practised4 ,it is advisable for the collector never to purchase any piece of enamelling as the work of an old master without having a pedigree extending at least over forty years4 ,from ,japan there has been a continuous flow of cloisonne enamelled vases1 boxes and plates1 either entirely covered with enamel or applied in parts4 ,compared with this enormous output1 only a few small pieces of jewelry have come from ,jaipur and other towns in ,india4 ,there has also been a great quantity of plique-a-jour enamelling manufactured in ,russia1 ,norway and ,sweden4 ,and finally1 it has been used in an unprecedented manner in large pieces upon iron and copper for purposes of advertisement4 ,amongst the chief workers in the modern revival of this art are ,claudius ,popelin1 ,alfred ,meyer1 ,paul ,grandhomme1 ,fernand ,thesmar1 ,hubert von ,herkomer and ,alexander ,fisher4 ,the work of ,claudius ,popelin is characterized by good technical skill1 correctness1 and a careful copying of the work of the old masters4 ,consequently it suffers from a lack of invention and individuality4 ,his work was devoted to the rendering of mythological subjects and fanciful portraits of historical people4 ,alfred ,meyer and ,grandhomme are both accomplished and careful enamellers2 the former is a painter enameller and the author of a book dealing technically with enamelling4 ,grandhomme paints mythological subjects and portraits in a very tender manner1 with considerably more artistic feeling than either ,meyer or ,popelin4 ,there is a specimen of his work in the ,luxemburg ,museum4 ,fernand ,thesmar is the great reviver of plique-a-jour enamelling in ,france4 ,specimens of his work are possessed by the art museums throughout ,europe1 and one is to be seen in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,london4 ,they are principally valued on account of their perfect technical achievement4 ,lucien ,falize was an employer of artists and craftsmen1 and to him we are indebted for the production of specimens of basse-taille enamel upon silver and gold1 as well as for a book reviewing the revival of the art in ,france1 bearing particularly on the work of ,claudius ,popelin4 ,until within recent years there was a clear division between the art and the crafts in the system of producing art objects4 ,the artist was one person and the workman another4 ,it is now acknowledged that the artist must also be the craftsman1 especially in the higher branches of enamelling4 ,m4 ,falize initiated the production of a gold cup which was enamelled in the basse-taille manner4 ,the band of figures was designed by ,olivier ,merson1 the painter1 and carved by a metal carver and enamelled by an enameller1 both able craftsmen employed by ,m4 ,falize4 ,other pieces of enamelling in champleve and cloisonne were also produced under his supervision and on this system2 therefore lacking the one quality which would make them complete as an expression of artistic emotion by the artist's own hands4 ,m4 ,rene ,lalique is among the jewellers who have applied enamelling to their work in a peculiarly technically perfect manner4 ,in ,england1 ,professor ,hubert von ,herkomer has produced painted enamels of considerable dimensions1 aiming at the execution of pictures in enamel1 such as have been generally regarded as peculiar to the province of oil or water-colour painting4 ,among numerous works is a large shield1 into which plaques of enamel are inserted1 as well as several portraits1 one of which1 made in several pieces1 is #f ft4 high--a portrait of the emperor ,william ,,ii4 of ,germany4 ,the present writer rediscovered the making of many enamels1 the secrets of which had been jealously guarded4 ,he has worked in all these processes1 developing them from the art side1 and helping to make enamelling not only a decorative adjunct to metal-work1 but raising it to a fine art4 ,his work may be seen in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 and ,brussels ,museum4 ,others who have been enamelling with success in various branches1 and who have shown individuality in their work1 are ,mr ,john ,eyre1 ,mrs ,nelson ,dawson1 ,miss ,hart4 ,,literature4--,among older books on enamelling1 apart from the works of ,neri and ,benvenuto ,cellini1 are ,j4-,p4 ,ferrand1 ,l',art du feu1 ou de peindre en email 7#agba72 ,labarte1 ,recherches sur la peinture en email 7,paris1 #ahef72 ,marquis de ,laborde1 ,notice des emaux du ,louvre 7,paris1 #aheb72 ,reboulleau1 ,nouveau manuel complet de la peinture en verre1 sur porcelaine et sur email 7ed4 by ,magnier1 ,paris1 #ahff72 ,claudius ,popelin1 ,l',email des peintres 7,paris1 #ahff72 ,emil ,molinier1 ,dictionnaire des emailleurs 7#ahhe74 ,among useful recent books are ,h4 ,cunynghame's ,art of ,enamelling on ,metals 7#aijf72 ,l4 ,falize1 ,claudius ,popelin et la renaissance des emaux peints2 ,l4 ,dalpayrat1 ,limoges ,enamels2 ,alexander ,fisher1 ,the ,art of ,enamelling upon ,metal 7#aijf1 ,the ,studio1 ,london74 7,a4 ,fi49974 ,,encaenia1 a festival commemorating a dedication1 in ,greek ,greek3 ta henkainia 7,greek3 kainos1 new71 particularly used of the anniversary of the dedication of a church 7see ,,dedication74 ,the term is also used at the university of ,oxford of the annual ,commemoration1 held in ,june1 of founders and benefactors 7see ,,oxford74 ,,encaustic ,,painting4 ,the name encaustic 7from the ,greek for burnt in7 is applied to paintings executed with vehicles in which wax is the chief ingredient4 ,the term was appropriately applied to the ancient methods of painting in wax1 because these required heat to effect them4 ,wax may be used as a vehicle for painting without heat being requisite2 nevertheless the ancient term encaustic has been retained1 and is indiscriminately applied to all methods of painting in wax4 ,the durability of wax1 and its power of resisting the effects of the atmosphere1 were well known to the ,greeks1 who used it for the protection of their sculptures4 ,as a vehicle for painting it was commonly employed by them and by the ,romans and ,egyptians2 but in recent times it has met with only a limited application4 ,of modern encaustic paintings those by ,schnorr in the ,residenz at ,munich are the most important4 ,modern paintings in wax1 in their chromatic range and in their general effect1 occupy a middle place between those executed in oil and in fresco4 ,wax painting is not so easy as oil1 but presents fewer technical difficulties than fresco4 ,ancient authors often make mention of encaustic1 which1 if it had been described by the word inurere1 to burn in1 one might have supposed to have been a species of enamel painting4 ,but the expressions incausto pingere1 pictura encaustica1 ceris pingere1 pictura inurere1 used by ,pliny and other ancient writers1 make it clear that some other species of painting is meant4 ,pliny distinguishes three species of encaustic painting4 ,in the first they used a stylus1 and painted either on ivory or on polished wood1 previously saturated with some certain colour2 the point of the stylus or stigma served for this operation1 and its broad or blade end cleared off the small filaments which arose from the outlines made by the stylus in the wax preparation4 ,in the second method it appears that the wax colours1 being prepared beforehand1 and formed into small cylinders for use1 were smoothly spread by the spatula after the outlines were determined1 and thus the picture was proceeded with and finished4 ,by the side of the painter stood a brazier which was used to heat the spatula and probably the prepared colours4 ,this is the method which was probably used by the painters who decorated the houses of ,herculaneum and of ,pompeii1 as artists practising this method of painting are depicted in the decorations4 ,the third method was by painting by a brush dipped into wax liquefied by heat2 the colours so applied attained considerable hardness1 and could not be damaged either by the heat of the sun or by the effects of sea-water4 ,it was thus that ships were decorated2 and this kind of encaustic was therefore styled ship-painting4 ,about the year #agdi ,count ,caylus and ,j4,j4 ,bachelier1 a painter1 made some experiments in encaustic painting1 and the count undertook to explain an obscure passage in ,pliny1 supposed to be the following 7xxxv4 #ci73--;,ceris pingere ac picturam inurere quis primus excogitaverit non constat4 ,quidam ,aristidis inventum putant1 postea consummatum a ,praxitele2 sed aliquanto vetustiores encausticae picturae exstitere1 ut ,polygnoti et ,nicanoris et ,arcesilai ,pariorum4 ,lysippus quoque ,aeginae picturae suae inscripsit ,greek3 enekausen1 quod profecto non fecisset nisi encaustica inventa4 ,there are other passages in ,pliny bearing upon this subject1 in one of which 7xxi4 #di7 he gives an account of the preparation of ,punica cera4 ,the nature of this ,punic wax1 which was the essential ingredient of the ancient painting in encaustic1 has not been definitely ascertained4 ,the chevalier ,lorgna1 who investigated the subject in a small but valuable tract1 asserts that the nitron which ,pliny mentions is not the nitre of the moderns1 but the natron of the ancients1 viz4 the native salt which is found crystallized in ,egypt and other hot countries in sands surrounding lakes of salt water4 ,this substance the ,carthaginians1 according to ,pliny1 used in preparing their wax1 and hence the name ,punic seems to be derived4 ,lorgna made a number of experiments with this salt1 using from three to twenty parts of white melted wax with one of natron4 ,he held the mixture in an iron vessel over a slow fire1 stirring it gently with a wooden spatula1 till the mass assumed the consistency of butter and the colour of milk4 ,he then removed it from the fire1 and put it in the shade in the open air to harden4 ,the wax being cooled liquefied in water1 and a milky emulsion resulted from it like that which could be made with the best ,venetian soap4 ,experiments1 it is said1 were made with this wax in painting in encaustic in the apartments of the ,count ,giovanni ,battista ,gasola by the ,italian painter ,antonio ,paccheri1 who dissolved the ,punic wax when it was not so much hardened as to require to be igni resoluta1 as expressed by ,pliny1 with pure water slightly infused with gum-arabic1 instead of sarcocolla1 mentioned by ,pliny4 ,he afterwards mixed the colours with this wax so liquefied as he would have done with oil1 and proceeded to paint in the same manner2 nor were the colours seen to run or alter in the least2 and the mixture was so flexible that the pencil ran smoother than it would have done with oil4 ,the painting being dry1 he treated it with caustic1 and rubbed it with linen cloths1 by which the colours acquired peculiar vivacity and brightness4 ,about the year #agee further experiments were made by ,count ,caylus and several ,french artists4 ,one method was to melt wax with oil of turpentine as a vehicle for the colours4 ,it is well known that wax may be dissolved in spirit and used as a medium1 but it dries too quickly to allow of perfect blending1 and would by the evaporation of the spirit be prejudicial to the artist's health4 ,another method suggested about this time1 and one which seems to tally very well with ,pliny's description1 is the following4 ,melt the wax with strong solution of salt of tartar1 and let the colours be ground up in it4 ,place the picture when finished before the fire till by degrees the wax melts1 swells1 and is bloated up upon the picture2 the picture is then gradually removed from the fire1 and the colours1 without being injuriously affected by the operation of the fire1 become unalterable1 spirits of wine having been burnt upon them without doing the least harm4 ,count ,caylus's method was different1 and much simpler3 7#a7 the cloth or wood designed for the picture is waxed over1 by rubbing it simply with a piece of beeswax2 7#b7 the colours are mixed up with pure water2 but as these colours will not adhere to the wax1 the whole ground must be rubbed over with chalk or whiting before the colour is applied2 and 7#c7 when the picture is dry it is put near the fire1 whereby the wax is melted and absorbs the colours4 ,it must be allowed that nothing could well be simpler than this process1 and it was thought that this kind of painting would be capable of withstanding the weather and of lasting longer than oil painting4 ,this kind of painting has not the gloss of oil painting1 so that the picture may be seen in any light1 a quality of the very first importance in all methods of mural painting4 ,the colours too1 when so secured1 are firm1 and will bear washing1 and have a property which is perhaps more important still1 viz4 that exposure to smoke and foul vapours merely leaves a deposit on the surface without injuring the work4 ,the encausto pingendi of the ancients could not have been enamelling1 as the word inurere1 taken in its rigorous sense1 might at first lead one to suppose1 nor could it have been painting produced in the same manner as encaustic tiles or encaustic tesserae2 but that it must have been something akin to the count's process would appear from the words of ,pliny already quoted1 ,ceris pingere ac picturam inurere4 ,werner of ,neustadt found the following process very effectual in making wax soluble in water4 ,for each pound of white wax he took twenty-four ounces of potash1 which he dissolved in two pints of water1 warming it gently4 ,in this ley he boiled the wax1 cut into little bits1 for half an hour1 after which he removed it from the fire and allowed it to cool4 ,the wax floated on the surface of the liquor in the form of a white saponaceous matter2 and this being triturated with water produced a sort of emulsion1 which he called wax milk1 or encaustic wax4 ,this preparation may be mixed with all kinds of colours1 and consequently can be applied in a single operation4 ,mrs ,hooker of ,rottingdean1 at the end of the #ahth century1 made many experiments to establish a method of painting in wax1 and received a gold palette from the ,society of ,arts for her investigations in this branch of art4 ,her account is printed in the tenth volume of the ,society's ,transactions 7#agib71 under the name of ,miss ,emma ,jane ,greenland4 ,see also ,lorgna1 ,un ,discorso sulla cera punica2 ,pittore ,vicenzo ,requeno1 ,saggi sul ristabilimento dell' antica arte de' ,greci e ,romani 7,parma1 #aghg72 ,phil4 ,trans4 vol4 xlix4 part #b2 ,muntz on ,encaustic ,painting2 ,w4 ,cave ,thomas1 ,methods of ,mural ,decoration 7,london1 #ahfi72 ,cros and ,henry1 ,l',encaustique1 c4 7#ahhd72 ,donner von ,richter1 ,uber ,technisches in der ,malerei der ,alten 7#ahhe74 7,w4 ,c4 ,t47 ,,enceinte 7,lat4 in1 within1 cinctus1 girdled2 to be distinguished from the word meaning pregnant1 from in1 not1 and cinctus1 i4e4 with girdle loosened71 a ,french term used technically in fortification for the inner ring of fortifications surrounding a town4 ,strictly the term was applied to the continuous line of bastions and curtains forming the body of the place1 this last expression being often used as synonymous with enceinte4 ,the outworks1 however1 close to the enceinte were not considered as forming part of it4 ,in modern fortification the enceinte is usually simply the innermost continuous line of fortifications4 ,in architecture generally an enceinte is the close or precinct of a cathedral1 abbey1 castle1 c4 ,,encina1 ,,juan ,,del 7#adfi-;c4 #aecc71 often called the founder of the ,spanish drama1 was born in #adfi near ,salamanca probably at ,encinas4 ,on leaving the university of ,salamanca he became a member of the household of the second duke of ,alva4 ,in #adib the poet entertained his patron with a dramatic piece1 the ,triunfo de la fama1 written to commemorate the fall of ,granada4 ,in #adif he published his ,cancionero1 a collection of dramatic and lyrical poems4 ,some years afterwards he visited ,rome1 attracted the attention of ,alexander ,,vi4 by his skill in music1 and was appointed choirmaster4 ,about #aeah ,encina took orders1 and made a pilgrimage to ,jerusalem1 where he said his first mass4 ,since #aeji he had held a lay canonry at ,malaga2 in #aeai he was appointed prior of ,leon and is said to have died at ,salamanca about #aecc4 ,his ,cancionero is preceded by a prose treatise 7,arte de trobar7 on the condition of the poetic art in ,spain4 ,his fourteen dramatic pieces mark the transition from the purely ecclesiastical to the secular stage4 ,the ,aucto del ,repelon and the ,egloga de ,fileno dramatize the adventures of shepherds2 the latter1 like ,placida y ,vitoriano1 is strongly influenced by the ,celestina4 ,the intrinsic interest of ,encina's plays is slight1 but they are important from the historical point of view1 for the lay pieces form a new departure1 and the devout eclogues prepare the way for the autos of the #agth century4 ,moreover1 ,encina's lyrical poems are remarkable for their intense sincerity and devout grace4 ,bibliography4--,teatro completo de ,juan del ,encina 7,madrid1 #ahic71 edited by ,f4 ,asenjo ,barbieri2 ,cancionero musical de los siglos ,,xv y ,,xvi 7,madrid1 #ahid71 edited by ,f4 ,asenjo ,barbieri2 ,r4 ,mitjana1 ,sobre ,juan del ,encina1 musico y poeta 7,malaga1 #ahie72 ,m4 ,menendez y ,pelayo1 ,antologia depoetas liricos castellanos 7,madrid1 #ahij-aijc71 vol4 vii4 ,,encke1 ,,johann ,,franz 7#agia-ahfe71 ,german astronomer1 was born at ,hamburg on the #bcrd of ,september #agia4 ,matriculating at the university of ,gottingen in #ahaa1 he began by devoting himself to astronomy under ,carl ,friedrich ,gauss2 but he enlisted in the ,hanseatic ,legion for the campaign of #ahac-ad1 and became lieutenant of artillery in the ,prussian service in #ahae4 ,having returned to ,gottingen in #ahaf1 he was at once appointed by ,benhardt von ,lindenau his assistant in the observatory of ,seeberg near ,gotha4 ,there he completed his investigation of the comet of #afhj1 for which the ,cotta prize was awarded to him in #ahag2 he correctly assigned a period of #ga years to the comet of #ahab2 and discovered the swift circulation of the remarkable comet which bears his name 7see ,comet74 ,eight masterly treatises on its movements were published by him in the ,berlin ,abhandlungen 7#ahbi-ahei74 ,from a fresh discussion of the transits of ,venus in #agfa and #agfi he deduced 7#ahbb-ahbd7 a solar parallax of #h4eg1 long accepted as authoritative4 ,in #ahbb he became director of the ,seeberg observatory1 and in #ahbe was promoted to a corresponding position at ,berlin1 where a new observatory1 built under his superintendence1 was inaugurated in #ahce4 ,he directed the preparation of the star-maps of the ,berlin academy #ahcj-ahei1 edited from #ahcj and greatly improved the ,astronomisches ,jahrbuch1 and issued four volumes of the ,astronomische ,beobachtungen of the ,berlin observatory 7#ahdj-aheg74 ,much labour was bestowed by him upon facilitating the computation of the movements of the asteroids4 ,with this end in view he expounded to the ,berlin academy in #ahdi a mode of determining an elliptic orbit from three observations1 and communicated to that body in #ahea a new method of calculating planetary perturbations by means of rectangular co-ordinates 7republished in ,w4 ,ostwald's ,klassiker der exacten ,wissenschaften1 ,no4 #ada1 #aijc74 ,encke visited ,england in #ahdj4 ,incipient brain-disease compelled him to withdraw from official life in ,november #ahfc1 and he died at ,spandau on the #bfth of ,august #ahfe4 ,he contributed extensively to the periodical literature of astronomy1 and was twice1 in #ahbc and #ahcj1 the recipient of the ,royal ,astronomical ,society's gold medal4 ,see ,johann ,franz ,encke1 sein ,leben und ,wirken1 von ,dr ,c4 ,bruhns 7,leipzig1 #ahfi71 to which a list of his writings is appended4 ,also1 ,month4 ,notices ,roy4 ,astr4 ,society1 xxvi4 #abi2 ,v4,j4,s4 ,astr4 ,gesellschaft1 iv4 #bbg2 ,berlin4 ,abhandlungen 7#ahff71 i41 ,g4 ,hagen2 ,sitzungsberichte1 ,munich ,acad4 7#ahff71 i4 p4 #cie1 c4 7,a4 ,m4 ,c47 ,,enclave 7a ,french word from enclaver1 to enclose71 a term signifying a country or1 more commonly1 an outlying portion of a country1 entirely surrounded by the territories of a foreign or other power1 such as the detached portions of ,prussia1 ,saxony1 c1 enclosed in the ,thuringian ,states4 7,from the point of view of the states possessing such detached portions of territory these become exclaves47 ,enclave is1 however1 generally used in a looser sense to describe a colony or other territory of a state1 which1 while possessing a seaboard1 is entirely surrounded landward by the possession of some other power2 or1 if inland territory1 nearly though not entirely so enclosed1 e4g4 the ,lado ,enclave in equatorial ,africa4 ,,encoignure1 in furniture1 literally the angle1 or return1 formed by the junction of two walls4 ,the word is now chiefly used to designate a small armoire1 commode1 cabinet or cupboard made to fit a corner2 a chaise encoignure is called in ,english a three-cornered chair4 ,in its origin the thing1 like the word1 is ,french1 and the delightful ,louis ,quinze or ,louis ,seize encoignure in lacquer or in mahogany elaborately mounted in gilded bronze is not the least alluring piece of the great period of ,french furniture4 ,it was made in a vast variety of forms so far as the front was concerned2 in other respects it was strictly limited by its destination4 ,as a rule these delicate and dainty receptacles were in pairs and placed in opposite angles2 more often than not the top was formed of a slab of coloured marble4 ,,encyclical 7from ,late ,lat4 encyclicus1 for encyclius ,gr4 ,greek3 enkyklios1 from ,greek3 en and ,greek3 kyklos1 a circle71 an ecclesiastical epistle intended for general circulation1 now almost exclusively used of such letters issued by the pope4 ,the forms encyclica and encyclic are sometimes1 but more rarely1 used4 ,the old adjectival use of the word in the sense of general 7encircling7 is now obsolete1 though it survives in the term encyclopaedia4 ,,encyclopaedia4 ,the ,greeks seem to have understood by encyclopaedia 7,greek3 enkyklopaideia1 or ,greek3 enkyklios paideia7 instruction in the whole circle 7,greek3 en kyklo7 or complete system of learning--education in arts and sciences4 ,thus ,pliny1 in the preface to his ,natural ,history1 says that his book treated of all the subjects of the encyclopaedia of the ,greeks1 ,jam omnia attingenda quae ,graeci ,greek3 tes enkyklopaideias vocant4 ,quintilian 7,inst4 ,orat4 i4 #aj7 directs that before boys are placed under the rhetorician they should be instructed in the other arts1 ut efficiatur orbis ille doctrinae quam ,graeci ,greek3 enkyklopaideian vocant4 ,galen 7,de victus ratione in morbis acutis1 c4 #aa7 speaks of those who are not educated ,greek3 en te enkyklopaideia4 ,in these passages of ,pliny and ,quintilian1 however1 from one or both of which the modern use of the word seems to have been taken1 ,greek3 enkyklios paideia is now read1 and this seems to have been the usual expression4 ,vitruvius 7lib4 vi4 praef47 calls the encyclios or ,greek3 enkyklios paideia of the ,greeks doctrinarum omnium disciplina1 instruction in all branches of learning4 ,strabo 7lib4 iv4 cap4 #aj7 speaks of philosophy ,greek3 kai ten allen paideian enkyklion4 ,tzetzes 7,chiliades1 xi4 #ebg71 quoting from ,porphyry's ,lives of the ,philosophers1 says that ,greek3 enkyklia mathemata was the circle of grammar1 rhetoric1 philosophy and the four arts under it1 arithmetic1 music1 geometry and astronomy4 ,zonaras explains it as grammar1 poetry1 rhetoric1 philosophy1 mathematics and simply every art and science 7,greek3 aplos pasa techne kai episteme71 because sophists go through them as through a circle4 ,the idea seems to be a complete course of instruction in all parts of knowledge4 ,an epic poem was called cyclic when it contained the whole mythology2 and among physicians ,greek3 kyklo therapeuein1 cyclo curare 7,vegetius1 ,de arte veterinaria1 ii4 #e1 #f71 meant a cure effected by a regular and prescribed course of diet and medicine 7see ,wower1 ,de polymathia1 c4 #bd1 ,s #ad74 ,the word encyclopaedia was probably first used in ,english by ,sir ,thomas ,elyot4 ,in an oratour is required to be a heape of all maner of lernyng3 whiche of some is called the worlde of science1 of other the circle of doctrine1 whiche is in one worde of greke ,encyclopedia 7,the ,governour1 bk4 i4 chap4 xiii474 ,in his ,latin dictionary1 #aech1 he explains ,encyclios et ,encyclia1 the cykle or course of all doctrines1 and ,encyclopedia1 that lernynge whiche comprehendeth all lyberall science and studies4 ,the term does not seem to have been used as the title of a book by the ancients or in the middle ages4 ,the edition of the works of ,joachimus ,fortius ,ringelbergius1 printed at ,basel in #aeda1 is called on the title-page ,lucubrationes vel potius absolutissima ,greek3 kyklopaideia4 ,paulus ,scalichius de ,lika1 an ,hungarian count1 wrote ,encyclopaediae seu orbis disciplinarum epistemon 7,basileae1 #aeii1 #dto74 ,alsted published in #afjh ,encyclopaedia cursus philosophici1 and afterwards expanded this into his great work1 noticed below1 calling it without any limitation ,encyclopaedia1 because it treats of everything that can be learned by man in this life4 ,this is now the most usual sense in which the word encyclopaedia is used--a book treating of all the various kinds of knowledge4 ,the form cyclopaedia is not merely without any appearance of classical authority1 but is etymologically less definite1 complete and correct4 ,for as ,cyropaedia means the instruction of ,cyrus1 so cyclopaedia may mean instruction of a circle4 ,vossius says1 ,cyclopaedia is sometimes found1 but the best writers say encyclopaedia 7,de vitiis sermonis1 #afde1 p4 #djb74 ,gesner says1 ,greek3 kyklos est circulus1 quae figura est simplicissima et perfectissima simul3 nam incipi potest ubicunque in illa et ubicunque cohaeret4 ,cyclopaedia itaque significat omnem doctrinarum scientiam inter se cohaerere2 ,encyclopaedia est institutio in illo circulo4 7,isagoge1 #aggd1 i4 #dj74 ,in a more restricted sense1 encyclopaedia means a system or classification of the various branches of knowledge1 a subject on which many books have been published1 especially in ,germany1 as ,schmid's ,allgemeine ,encyklopadie und ,methodologie der ,wissenschaften 7,jena1 #ahaj1 #dto1 #bda pages74 ,in this sense the ,novum ,organum of ,bacon has often been called an encyclopaedia4 ,but it is a grammar only of the sciences3 a cyclopaedia is not a grammar1 but a dictionary2 and to confuse the meanings of grammar and dictionary is to lose the benefit of a distinction which it is fortunate that terms have been coined to convey 7,quarterly ,review1 cxiii4 #ced74 ,fortunius ,licetus1 an ,italian physician1 entitled several of his dissertations on ,roman altars and other antiquities encyclopaedias 7as1 for instance1 ,encyclopaedia ad4 ,aram mysticam ,nonarii1 ,pataviae1 #afca1 #dto71 because in composing them he borrowed the aid of all the sciences4 ,the ,encyclopaedia moralis of ,marcellinus de ,pise 7,paris1 #afdf1 fol41 #d vols47 is a series of sermons4 ,encyclopaedia is often used to mean a book which is1 or professes to be1 a complete or very full collection or treatise relating to some particular subject1 as ,blaine's work1 ,the ,encyclopaedia of ,rural ,sports 7,london1 #aheb72 ,the ,encyclopaedia of ,wit 7,london1 #ahjc72 ,the ,vocal ,encyclopaedia 7,london1 #ahjg1 #afmo71 a collection of songs1 catches1 c4 ,the word is frequently used for an alphabetical dictionary treating fully of some science or subject1 as ,murray1 ,encyclopaedia of ,geography 7,london1 #ahcd72 ,lefebvre ,laboulaye1 ,encyclopedie technologique3 ,dictionnaire des arts et manufactures 7,paris1 #ahde-ahdg74 ,whether under the name of dictionary or encyclopaedia large numbers of this class of reference-work have been published4 ,these are essentially encyclopaedic1 being subject books and not word-books4 ,the important books of this character are referred to in the articles dealing with the respective subjects1 but the following may be mentioned here3 the ,jewish ,encyclopedia1 in #ab vols4 7#aija71 a descriptive record of the history1 religion1 literature and customs of the ,jewish people from the earliest times2 the ,encyclopaedia of ,sport1 #b vols4 7#ahig-ahih72 ,holtzendorff's ,encyklopadie der ,rechtswissenschaft 7#ahgj2 an edition in #b vols41 #aijd72 the ,dictionary of ,political ,economy1 edited by ,r4,h4 ,inglis ,palgrave1 #c vols4 7#ahid2 reprinted #aija72 the ,encyclopaedia ,biblica1 edited by ,t4,k4 ,cheyne and ,j4 ,sutherland ,black1 #d vols4 7#ahii-aijc72 the ,dictionary of the ,bible1 edited by ,james ,hastings1 #d vols41 with a supplementary volume 7#aijd72 an interesting series is the ,repertoire general du commerce1 dealing with the foreign trade of ,france1 of which one part1 the ,encyclopaedia of ,trade between the ,united ,states of ,america and ,france1 with a preface by ,m4 ,gabriel ,hanotaux1 appeared1 in ,french and ,english1 in #aijd4 ,the great ,chinese encyclopaedias are referred to in the article on ,,chinese ,,literature4 ,it will be sufficient to mention here the ,wen hien t'ung k'ao1 compiled by ,ma ,twa-lin in the #adth century1 the encyclopaedia ordered to be compiled by the ,emperor ,yung-loh in the #aeth century1 and the ,ku ,kin t'u shu thi ch'eng prepared for the ,emperor ,k'ang-hi 7d4 #agba71 in #ejbj volumes4 ,a copy of this enormous work1 bound in some #gjj volumes1 is in the ,british ,museum4 ,the most ancient encyclopaedia extant is ,pliny's ,natural ,history in #cg books 7including the preface7 and #bdic chapters1 which may be thus described generally3--book #a1 preface2 book #b1 cosmography1 astronomy and meteorology2 books #c to #f1 geography2 books #g to #aa1 zoology1 including man1 and the invention of the arts2 books #ab to #ai1 botany2 books #bj to #cb1 medicines1 vegetable and animal remedies1 medical authors and magic2 books #cc to #cg1 metals1 fine arts1 mineralogy and mineral remedies4 ,pliny1 who died ,a4,d4 #gi1 was not a naturalist1 a physician or an artist1 and collected his work in his leisure intervals while engaged in public affairs4 ,he says it contains #bj1jjj facts 7too small a number by half1 says ,lemaire71 collected from #bjjj books by #ajj authors4 ,hardouin has given a list of #dfd authors quoted by him4 ,his work was a very high authority in the middle ages1 and #dc editions of it were printed before #aecf4 ,martianus ,minneus ,felix ,capella1 an ,african1 wrote 7early in the #eth cent471 in verse and prose1 a sort of encyclopaedia1 which is important from having been regarded in the middle ages as a model storehouse of learning1 and used in the schools1 where the scholars had to learn the verses by heart1 as a text-book of high-class education in the arts4 ,it is sometimes entitled ,satyra1 or ,satyricon1 but is usually known as ,de nuptiis ,philologiae et ,mercurii1 though this title is sometimes confined to the first two books1 a rather confused allegory ending with the apotheosis of ,philologia and the celebration of her marriage in the milky way1 where ,apollo presents to her the seven liberal arts1 who1 in the succeeding seven books1 describe their respective branches of knowledge1 namely1 grammar1 dialectics 7divided into metaphysics and logic71 rhetoric1 geometry 7geography1 with some single geometrical propositions71 arithmetic 7chiefly the properties of numbers71 astronomy and music 7including poetry74 ,the style is that of an ,african of the #eth century1 full of grandiloquence1 metaphors and strange words4 ,he seldom mentions his authorities1 and sometimes quotes authors whom he does not even seem to have read4 ,his work was frequently copied in the middle ages by ignorant transcribers1 and was eight times printed from #adii to #aeii4 ,the best annotated edition is by ,kopp 7,frankfort1 #ahcf1 #dto71 and the most convenient and the best text is that of ,eysserhardt 7,lipsiae1 #ahff1 #hvo74 ,isidore1 bishop of ,seville from #fjj to #fcj1 wrote ,etymologiarum libri ,,xx4 7often also entitled his ,origines7 at the request of his friend ,braulio1 bishop of ,saragossa1 who after ,isidore's death divided the work into books1 as it was left unfinished1 and divided only into titles4 ,the tenth book is an alphabet of #fbe ,latin words1 not belonging to his other subjects1 with their explanations as known to him1 and often with their etymologies1 frequently very absurd4 ,the other books contain #ddh chapters1 and are3--#a1 grammar 7,latin72 #b1 rhetoric and dialectics2 #c1 the four mathematical disciplines--arithmetic1 geometry1 music and astronomy2 #d1 medicine2 #e1 laws and times 7chronology71 with a short chronicle ending in #fbg2 #f1 ecclesiastical books and offices2 #g1 ,god1 angels and the orders of the faithful2 #h1 the church and sects2 #i1 languages1 society and relationships2 #aa1 man and portents2 #ab1 animals1 in eight classes1 namely1 pecora et jumenta1 beasts1 small animals 7including spiders1 crickets and ants71 serpents1 worms1 fishes1 birds and small winged creatures1 chiefly insects2 #ac1 the world and its parts2 #ad1 the earth and its parts1 containing chapters on ,asia1 ,europe and ,libya1 that is1 ,africa2 #ae1 buildings1 fields and their measures2 #af1 stones 7of which one is echo7 and metals2 #ag1 de rebus rusticis2 #ah1 war and games2 #ai1 ships1 buildings and garments2 #bj1 provisions1 domestic and rustic instruments4 ,isidore appears to have known ,hebrew and ,greek1 and to have been familiar with the ,latin classical poets1 but he is a mere collector1 and his derivations given all through the work are not unfrequently absurd1 and1 unless when very obvious1 will not bear criticism4 ,he seldom mentions his authorities except when he quotes the poets or historians4 ,yet his work was a great one for the time1 and for many centuries was a much valued authority and a rich source of material for other works1 and he had a high reputation for learning both in his own time and in subsequent ages4 ,his ,etymologies were often imitated1 quoted and copied4 ,,mss4 are very numerous3 ,antonio 7whose editor1 ,bayer1 saw nearly #dj7 says1 plures passimque reperiuntur in bibliothecarum angulis4 ,this work was printed nine times before #aebi4 ,hrabanus ,maurus1 whose family name was ,magnentius1 was educated in the abbey of ,fulda1 ordained deacon in #hjb 7,annales ,francorum in ,bouquet1 ,historiens de la ,france1 v4 #ff71 sent to the school of ,st ,martin of ,tours1 then directed by ,alcuin1 where he seems to have learned ,greek1 and is said by ,trithemius to have been taught ,hebrew1 ,syriac and ,chaldee by ,theophilus an ,ephesian4 ,in his ,commentaries on ,joshua 7lib4 ii4 c4 #e7 he speaks of having resided at ,sidon4 ,he returned to ,fulda and taught the school there4 ,he became abbot of ,fulda in #hbb1 resigned in ,april #hdb1 was ordained archbishop of ,mainz on the #bfth of ,july #hdg1 and died on the #dth of ,february #hef4 ,he compiled an encyclopaedia ,de universo 7also called in some ,,mss4 ,de universali natura1 ,de natura rerum1 and ,de origine rerum7 in #bb books and #cbe chapters4 ,it is chiefly a rearrangement of ,isidore's ,etymologies1 omitting the first four books1 half of the fifth and the tenth 7the seven liberal arts1 law1 medicine and the alphabet of words71 and copying the rest1 beginning with the seventh book1 verbally1 though with great omissions1 and adding 7according to ,ritter1 ,geschichte der ,philosophie1 vii4 #aic1 from ,alcuin1 ,augustine or some other accessible source7 the meanings given in the ,bible to the subject matter of the chapter2 while things not mentioned in ,scripture1 especially such as belong to classical antiquity1 are omitted1 so that his work seems to be formed of two alternating parts4 ,his arrangement of beginning with ,god and the angels long prevailed in methodical encyclopaedias4 ,his last six books follow very closely the order of the last five of ,isidore1 from which they are taken4 ,his omissions are characteristic of the diminished literary activity and more contracted knowledge of his time4 ,his work was presented to ,louis the ,german1 king of ,bavaria1 at ,hersfeld in ,october #hdg1 and was printed in #adgc1 fol41 probably at ,venice1 and again at ,strassburg by ,mentelin about #adgb-adge1 fol41 #ccd pages4 ,michael ,constantine ,psellus1 the younger1 wrote ,greek3 ,didaskalia pantodape1 dedicated to the emperor ,michael ,ducas1 who reigned #ajga-ajgh4 ,it was printed by ,fabricius in his ,bibliotheca ,graeca 7#agab71 vol4 v41 in #ahf pages #dto and #aic chapters1 each containing a question and answer4 ,beginning with divinity1 it goes on through natural history and astronomy1 and ends with chapters on excessive hunger1 and why flesh hung from a fig-tree becomes tender4 ,as collation with a ,turin ,,ms4 showed that #ce chapters were wanting1 ,harles has omitted the text in his edition of ,fabricius1 and gives only the titles of the chapters 7x4 #hd-hh74 ,the author of the most famous encyclopaedia of the middle ages was ,vincent 7q4v47 of ,beauvais 7c4 #aaij-;c4 #abfd71 whose work ,bibliotheca mundi or ,speculum majus--divided1 as we have it1 into four parts1 ,speculum naturale1 ,speculum doctrinale1 ,speculum morale 7this part should be ascribed to a later hand71 and ,speculum historiale--was the great compendium of mid-#acth century knowledge4 ,vincent of ,beauvais preserved several works of the middle ages and gives extracts from many lost classics and valuable readings of others1 and did more than any other medieval writer to awaken a taste for classical literature4 ,fabricius 7,bibl4 ,graeca1 #agbh1 xiv4 pp4 #ajg-abe7 has given a list of #cbh authors1 ,hebrew1 ,arabic1 ,greek and ,latin1 quoted in the ,speculum naturale4 ,to these should be added about #ajj more for the doctrinale and historiale4 ,as ,vincent did not know ,greek or ,arabic1 he used ,latin translations4 ,this work is dealt with separately in the article on ,,vincent ,,of ,,beauvais4 ,brunetto ,latini of ,florence 7born #abcj1 died #abid71 the master of ,dante and ,guido ,cavalcanti1 while an exile in ,france between #abfj and #abfg1 wrote in ,french ,li ,livres dou ,tresor1 in #c books and #dac chapters4 ,book i4 contains the origin of the world1 the history of the ,bible and of the foundation of governments1 astronomy1 geography1 and lastly natural history1 taken from ,aristotle1 ,pliny1 and the old ,french ,bestiaries4 ,the first part of ,book ii41 on morality1 is from the ,ethics of ,aristotle1 which ,brunetto had translated into ,italian4 ,the second part is little more than a copy of the well-known collection of extracts from ancient and modern moralists1 called the ,moralities of the ,philosophers1 of which there are many ,,mss4 in prose and verse4 ,book iii41 on politics1 begins with a treatise on rhetoric1 chiefly from ,cicero ,de inventione1 with many extracts from other writers and ,brunetto's remarks4 ,the last part1 the most original and interesting of all1 treats of the government of the ,italian republics of the time4 ,like many of his contemporaries1 ,brunetto revised his work1 so that there are two editions1 the second made after his return from exile4 ,,mss4 are singularly numerous1 and exist in all the dialects then used in ,france4 ,others were written in ,italy4 ,it was translated into ,italian in the latter part of the #acth century by ,bono ,giamboni1 and was printed at ,trevigi1 #adgd1 fol41 ,venice1 #aebh and #aecc4 ,the ,tesoro of ,brunetto must not be confounded with his ,tesoretto1 an ,italian poem of #bicg short lines4 ,napoleon ,i4 had intended to have the ,french text of the ,tesoro printed with commentaries1 and appointed a commission for the purpose4 ,it was at last published in the ,collection des documents inedits 7,paris1 #ahfc1 #dto1 #ggb pages71 edited by ,chabaille from #db ,,mss4 ,bartholomew de ,glanville1 an ,english ,franciscan friar1 wrote about #acfj a most popular work1 ,de proprietatibus rerum1 in #ai books and #abcj chapters4 ,book #a relates to ,god2 #b1 angels2 #c1 the soul2 #d1 the substance of the body2 #e1 anatomy2 #f1 ages2 #g1 diseases2 #h1 the heavens 7astronomy and astrology72 #i1 time2 #aj1 matter and form2 #aa1 air2 #ab1 birds 7including insects1 #ch names1 ,aquila to ,vespertilio72 #ac1 water 7with fishes72 #ad1 the earth 7#db mountains1 ,ararath to ,ziph72 #ae1 provinces 7#aga countries1 ,asia to ,zeugia72 #af1 precious stones 7including coral1 pearl1 salt1 #ajd names1 ,arena to ,zinguttes72 #ag1 trees and herbs 7#aig1 ,arbor to ,zucarum72 #ah1 animals 7#aad1 ,aries to ,vipera72 #ai1 colours1 scents1 flavours and liquors1 with a list of #cf eggs 7,aspis to ,vultur74 ,some editions add book #bj1 accidents of things1 that is1 numbers1 measures1 weights and sounds4 ,the ,paris edition of #aegd has a book on bees4 ,there were #ae editions before #aejj4 ,an ,english translation was completed #aath ,february #acih by ,john ,trevisa1 and printed by ,wynkyn de ,worde1 ,westminster1 #adie8 fol42 ,london1 #aecc1 fol42 and with considerable additions by ,stephen ,batman1 a physician1 ,london1 #aehb1 fol4 ,it was translated into ,french by ,jehan ,corbichon at the command of ,charles ,v4 of ,france1 and printed #ad times from #adhb to #aeef4 ,a ,dutch translation was printed in #adgi1 and again at ,haarlem1 #adhe1 fol42 and a ,spanish translation by ,padre ,vincente de ,burgos1 ,tholosa1 #adid1 fol4 ,pierre ,bersuire 7,berchorius71 a ,benedictine1 prior of the abbey of ,st ,eloi in ,paris1 where he died in #acfb1 wrote a kind of encyclopaedia1 chiefly relating to divinity1 in three parts3--,reductorium morale super totam ,bibliam1 #dbh moralitates in #cd books on the ,bible from ,genesis to ,apocalypse2 ,reductorium morale de proprietatibus rerum1 in #ad books and #ieh chapters1 a methodical encyclopaedia or system of nature on the plan of ,bartholomew de ,glanville1 and chiefly taken from him 7,berchorius places animals next after fishes in books #i and #aj1 and adopts as natural classes volatilia1 natatilia and gressibilia72 ,dictionarius1 an alphabetical dictionary of #cead words used in the ,bible with moral expositions1 occupying in the last edition #aeeh folio pages4 ,the first part was printed #aa times from #adgd to #aeae1 and the third #d times4 ,the three parts were printed together as ,petri ,berchorii opera omnia 7an incorrect title1 for he wrote much besides71 ,moguntiae1 #afji1 fol41 #c vols41 #bgai pages2 ,coloniae ,agrippinae1 #afca1 fol41 #c vols42 ib4 #agcj-agca1 fol41 #f vols41 #begj pages4 ,a very popular small encyclopaedia1 ,margarita philosophica1 in #ab books1 divided into #bf tractates and #egc chapters1 was written by ,georg ,reisch1 a ,german1 prior of the ,carthusians of ,freiburg1 and confessor of the emperor ,maximilian ,i4 ,books #a-g treat of the seven liberal arts2 #h1 #i1 principles and origin of natural things2 #aj1 #aa1 the soul1 vegetative1 sensitive and intellectual2 #ab1 moral philosophy4 ,the first edition1 ,heidelberg1 #adif1 #dto1 was followed by #h others to #aece4 ,an ,italian translation by the astronomer ,giovanno ,paolo ,gallucci was published at ,venice in #aeid1 #aach small quarto pages1 of which #cdc consist of additional tracts appended by the translator4 ,raphael ,maffei1 called ,volaterranus1 being a native of ,volterra1 where he was born in #adea and died #eth ,january #aebb1 wrote ,commentarii ,urbani 7,rome1 #aejf1 fol41 in #ch books71 so called because written at ,rome4 ,this encyclopaedia1 printed eight times up to #afjc1 is remarkable for the great importance given to geography1 and also to biography1 a subject not included in previous encyclopaedias4 ,indeed1 the book is formed of three nearly equal parts1--geographia1 #aa books2 anthropologia 7biography71 #aa books2 and philologia1 #ae books4 ,the books are not divided into short chapters in the ancient manner1 like those of its predecessors4 ,the edition of #afjc contains #had folio pages4 ,the first book consists of the table of contents and a classed index2 books #b-ab1 geography2 #ac-bc1 lives of illustrious men1 the popes occupying book #bb1 and the emperors book #bc2 #bd-bg1 animals and plants2 #bh1 metals1 gems1 stones1 houses and other inanimate things2 #cd1 de scientiis cyclicis 7grammar and rhetoric72 #ce1 de scientiis mathematicis1 arithmetic1 geometry1 optica1 catoptrica1 astronomy and astrology2 #cf-ch1 ,aristotelica 7on the works of ,aristotle74 ,giorgio ,valla1 born about #adcj at ,placentia1 and therefore called ,placentinus1 died at ,venice in #adii while lecturing on the immortality of the soul4 ,aldus published his work1 edited by his son ,giovanni ,pietro ,valla1 ,de expetendis et fugiendis rebus1 ,venetiis1 #aeja1 fol4 #b vols4 ,it contains #di books and #baai chapters4 ,book #a is introductory1 on knowledge1 philosophy and mathematics1 considered generally 7he divides everything to be sought or avoided into three kinds--those which are in the mind1 in the body by nature or habit1 and thirdly1 external1 coming from without72 books #b-d1 arithmetic2 #e-i1 music2 #aj-ae1 geometry1 including ,euclid and mechanics--book #ae being in three long chapters--de spiritualibus1 that is1 pneumatics and hydraulics1 de catoptricis1 and de optice2 #af-ai1 astrology 7with the structure and use of the astrolabe72 #bj-bc1 physics 7including metaphysics72 #bd-cj1 medicine2 #ca-cd1 grammar2 #ce-cg1 dialectics2 #ch1 poetry2 #ci1 #dj1 rhetoric2 #da1 moral philosophy2 #db-dd1 economics2 #de1 politics2 #df-dh1 de corporis commodis et incommodis1 on the good and evil of the body 7and soul72 #di1 de rebus externis1 as glory1 grandeur1 c4 ,antonio ,zara1 born #aegd1 made bishop of ,petina in ,istria #afjj1 finished on the #agth of ,january #afad a work published as ,anatomia ingeniorum et scientiarum1 ,venetiis1 #afae1 #dto1 #ffd pages1 in four sections and #ed membra4 ,the first section1 on the dignity and excellence of man1 in #af membra1 considers him in all his bodily and mental aspects4 ,the first membrum describes his structure and his soul1 and in the latter part contains the author's preface1 the deeds of his ancestors1 an account of himself1 and the dedication of his book to ,ferdinand1 archduke of ,austria4 ,four membra treat of the discovery of character by chiromancy1 physiognomy1 dreams and astrology4 ,the second section treats of #af sciences of the imagination--writing1 magic1 poetry1 oratory1 courtiership 7aulicitas71 theoretical and mystic arithmetic1 geometry1 architecture1 optics1 cosmography1 astrology1 practical medicine1 war1 government4 ,the third section treats of #h sciences of intellect--logic1 physics1 metaphysics1 theoretical medicine1 ethics1 practical jurisprudence1 judicature1 theoretical theology4 ,the fourth section treats of #ab sciences of memory--grammar1 practical arithmetic1 human history1 sacred canons1 practical theology1 sacred history1 and lastly the creation and the final catastrophe4 ,the book1 now very rare1 is well arranged1 with a copious index1 and is full of curious learning4 ,johann ,heinrich ,alsted1 born #aehh1 died #afch1 published ,encyclopaedia septem tomis distincta1 ,herbornae ,nassoviorum1 #afcj1 fol4 #g vols41 #bedc pages of very small type4 ,it is in #ce books1 divided into #g classes1 preceded by #dh synoptical tables of the whole1 and followed by an index of #aai pages4 ,i4 ,praecognita disciplinarum1 #d books1 hexilogia1 technologia1 archelogia1 didactica1 that is1 on intellectual habits and on the classification1 origin and study of the arts4 ,,ii4 ,philology1 #f books1 lexica1 grammar1 rhetoric1 logic1 oratory and poetry2 book #e1 lexica1 contains dictionaries explained in ,latin of #ajgf ,hebrew1 #hdb ,syriac1 #aicd ,arabic1 #aibc ,greek and #bjib ,latin words1 and also nomenclator technologiae1 c41 a classified vocabulary of terms used in the arts and sciences1 in ,latin1 ,greek and ,hebrew1 filling #cd pages2 book #f contains ,hebrew1 ,aramaic1 ,greek1 ,latin and ,german grammars2 book #aj1 poetica1 contains a list of #fa ,rotwelsch words4 ,,iii4 ,theoretic philosophy1 #aj books3--book #aa1 metaphysics2 #ab1 pneumatics 7on spirits72 #ac1 physics2 #ad1 arithmetic2 #ae1 geometry2 #af1 cosmography2 #ag1 uranometria 7astronomy and astrology72 #ah1 geography 7with maps of the ,old ,world1 eastern ,mediterranean1 and ,palestine under the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 and a plate of ,noah's ark72 #ai1 optics2 #bj1 music4 ,,iv4 ,practical philosophy1 #d books3--#ba1 ethics2 #bb1 economics 7on relationships72 #bc1 politics1 with florilegium politicum1 #aai pages of extracts from historians1 philosophers and orators2 #bd1 scholastics 7on education1 with a florilegium of #be pages74 ,v4 ,the three superior faculties3--#be1 theology2 #bf1 jurisprudence2 #bg1 medicine 7ending with the rules of the ,salernian school74 ,,vi4 ,mechanical arts in general3--book #bh1 mathematical mechanical arts2 book #bi1 agriculture1 gardening1 care of animals1 baking1 brewing1 preparing medicines1 metallurgy 7with mining72 book #cj1 physical mechanical arts--printing1 dialling1 c4 ,under paedutica 7games7 is ,vida's ,latin poem on chess1 and one by ,leuschner on the ludus ,lorzius4 ,,vii4 ,farragines disciplinarum1 #e books3--#ca1 mnemonics2 #cb1 history2 #cc1 chronology2 #cd1 architecture2 #ce1 quodlibetica1 miscellaneous arts1 as magic1 cabbala1 alchemy1 magnetism1 c41 with others apparently distinguished and named by himself1 as1 paradoxologia1 the art of explaining paradoxes2 dipnosophistica1 the art of philosophizing while feasting2 cyclognomica1 the art of conversing well de quovis scibili2 tabacologia1 the nature1 use and abuse of tobacco1 c4--in all #ce articles in this book4 ,alsted's encyclopaedia was received with very great applause1 and was highly valued4 ,lami 7,entretiens1 #afhd1 p4 #ahh7 thought it almost the only encyclopaedia which did not deserve to be despised4 ,alsted's learning was very various1 and his reading was very extensive and diversified4 ,he gives few references1 and ,thomasius charges him with plagiarism1 as he often copies literally without any acknowledgment4 ,he wrote not long before the appearance of encyclopaedias in modern languages superseded his own and other ,latin books1 and but a short time before the alphabetical arrangement began to prevail over the methodical4 ,his book was reprinted1 ,lugduni1 #afdi1 fol4 #d vols41 #bfjh pages4 ,jean de ,magnon1 historiographer to the king of ,france1 undertook to write an encyclopaedia in ,french heroic verse1 which was to fill ten volumes of #bj1jjj lines each1 and to render libraries merely a useless ornament4 ,but he did not live to finish it1 as he was killed at night by robbers on the ,pont ,neuf in ,paris1 in ,april #affb4 ,the part he left was printed as ,la ,science universelle1 ,paris1 #affc1 fol41 #cdh pages1--#aj books containing about #aa1jjj lines4 ,they begin with the nature of ,god1 and end with the history of the fall of man4 ,his verses1 say ,chaudon and ,delandine1 are perhaps the most nerveless1 incorrect1 obscure and flat in ,french poetry2 yet the author had been the friend of ,moliere1 and had acted with him in comedy4 ,louis ,moreri 7born on the #beth of ,march #afdc at ,bargemont1 in the diocese of ,frejus1 died on the #ajth of ,july #afhj at ,paris7 wrote a dictionary of history1 genealogy and biography1 ,le ,grand ,dictionnaire historique1 ou le melange curieux de l'histoire sacree et profane1 ,lyons1 #afgd1 fol4 ,he began a second edition on a larger scale1 published at ,lyons in #afha1 in two volumes folio2 the sixth edition was edited by ,jean le ,clerc1 ,amsterdam1 #afia1 fol4 #d vols42 the twentieth and last edition1 ,paris1 #agei1 fol4 #aj vols4 ,moreri's dictionary1 still very useful1 was of great value and importance1 although not the first of the kind4 ,it superseded the very inferior compilation of ,juigne-,broissinere1 ,dictionnaire theologique1 historique1 poetique1 cosmographique1 et chronologique1 ,paris1 #afdd1 #dto2 ,rouen1 #affh1 c41--a translation1 with additions1 of the ,dictionarium historicum1 geographicum1 et poeticum of ,charles ,estienne1 published in #aeec1 #dto1 and often afterwards4 ,as such a work was much wanted1 ,juigne's book went through twelve editions in less than thirty years1 notwithstanding its want of criticism1 errors1 anachronisms1 defects and inferior style4 ,johann ,jacob ,hofmann 7born on the #aath of ,september #afce1 died on the #ajth of ,march #agjf71 son of a schoolmaster at ,basel1 which he is said never to have left1 and where he was professor of ,greek and ,history1 wrote ,lexicon universale historico-geographico-chronologico-poeti co-philologicum1 ,basileae1 #afgg1 fol4 #b vols41 #ahbc pages1 a dictionary of history1 biography1 geography1 genealogies of princely families1 chronology1 mythology and philology4 ,at the end is ,nomenclator ,greek3 ,mixoglottos1 an index of names of places1 people1 c41 in many languages1 carefully collected1 and explained in ,latin1 filling #aaj pages2 with an index of subjects not forming separate articles1 occupying #cd pages4 ,in #afhc he published a continuation in #b vols4 fol41 #bbic pages1 containing1 besides additions to the subjects given in his lexicon1 the history of animals1 plants1 stones1 metals1 elements1 stars1 and especially of man and his affairs1 arts1 honours1 laws1 magic1 music1 rites and a vast number of other subjects4 ,in #afih he published a second edition1 ,lugduni ,batavorum1 fol4 #d vols41 #cgdb pages1 incorporating the continuation with additions4 ,from the great extent of his plan1 many articles1 especially in history1 are superficial and faulty4 ,etienne ,chauvin was born at ,nismes on the #ahth of ,april #afdj4 ,he fled to ,rotterdam on the revocation of the edict of ,nantes1 and in #afhh supplied ,bayle's place in his lectures on philosophy4 ,in #afie he was invited by the elector of ,brandenburg to go as professor of philosophy to ,berlin1 where he became the representative of the ,cartesian philosophy1 and died on the #fth of ,april #agbe4 ,he wrote ,lexicon rationale1 sive thesaurus philosophicus ordine alphabetico digestus1 ,rotterdami1 #afib1 fol41 #gdf pages and #cj plates4 ,an improved and enlarged edition was printed as ,lexicon philosophicum secundis curis1 ,leovardiae1 #agac1 large folio1 #gbe pages and #cj plates4 ,this great work may be considered as a dictionary of the ,cartesian philosophy1 and was very much used by ,brucker and other earlier historians of philosophy4 ,it is written in a very dry and scholastic style1 and seldom names authorities4 ,the great dictionary of ,french1 begun by the ,french ,academy on the #gth of ,february #afci1 excluded all words especially belonging to science and the arts4 ,but the success of the rival dictionary of ,furetiere1 which1 as its title-page1 as well as that of the ,essais published in #afhd1 conspicuously announced1 professed to give les termes de toutes les ,sciences et des ,arts1 induced ,thomas ,corneille1 a member of the ,academy1 to compile ,le ,dictionnaire des arts et des sciences1 which the ,academy published with the first edition of their dictionary1 ,paris1 #afid1 folio1 as a supplement in two volumes containing #abcf pages4 ,it was reprinted at ,amsterdam1 #afif1 fol4 #b vols41 and at ,paris in #agbj1 and again in #agcb1 revised by ,fontenelle4 ,a long series of dictionaries of arts and sciences have followed ,corneille in placing in their titles the arts before the sciences1 which he probably did merely in order to differ from ,furetiere4 ,corneille professed to quote no author whom he had not consulted2 to take plants from ,dioscorides and ,matthiolus1 medicine from ,ettmuller1 chemistry from a ,,ms4 of ,perrault1 and architecture1 painting and sculpture from ,felibien2 and to give an abridged history of animals1 birds and fishes1 and an account of all religious and military orders and their statutes1 heresiarchs and heresies1 and dignities and charges ancient and modern4 ,pierre ,bayle 7born on the #ahth of ,november #afdg1 died on the #bhth of ,december #agjf7 wrote a very important and valuable work1 ,dictionnaire historique et critique1 ,rotterdam1 #afig1 fol4 #b vols4 ,his design was to make a dictionary of the errors and omissions of ,moreri and others1 but he was much embarrassed by the numerous editions and supplements of ,moreri4 ,a second edition with an additional volume appeared at ,amsterdam in #agjb1 fol4 #c vols4 ,the fourth edition1 ,rotterdam1 #agbj1 fol4 #d vols41 was much enlarged from his manuscripts1 and was edited by ,prosper ,marchand4 ,it contains #cacb pages besides tables1 c4 ,the ninth edition was published at ,basel1 #agda1 fol4 #aj vols4 ,it was translated into ,english from the second edition1 ,london1 #agji1 fol4 #d vols41 with some slight additions and corrections by the author2 and again from the fifth edition of #agcj by ,birch and ,lockman1 ,london1 #agcd-agdj1 fol4 #e vols4 ,j4,g4 de ,chaufepie published ,nouveau ,dictionnaire historique1 ,amsterdam1 #agej-agef1 fol4 #d vols41 as a supplement to ,bayle4 ,it chiefly consists of the articles added by the ,english translators with many corrections and additions1 and about #ejj new articles added by himself1 and contains in all about #adjj articles4 ,prosper ,marchand1 editor of the fourth edition1 left at his death on the #adth of ,january #agef materials for a supplementary ,dictionnaire historique1 ,la ,haye1 #ageh1 fol4 #b vols41 #hia pages1 #acf articles4 ,it had occupied his leisure moments for forty years4 ,much of his work was written on small scraps of paper1 sometimes #bj in half a page and no larger than a nail1 in such small characters that not only the editor but the printer had to use powerful magnifiers4 ,bayle's dictionary was also translated into ,german1 ,leipzig1 #agda-agdd1 fol4 #d vols41 with a preface by ,j4,c4 ,gottsched4 ,it is still a work of great importance and value4 ,vincenzo ,maria ,coronelli1 a ,franciscan friar1 who was born in ,venice about #afej1 made cosmographer to the republic in #afhe1 became general of his order in #agjb1 and was found dead at his study table on the #ith of ,december #agah1 began in #agja to publish a general alphabetical encyclopaedia1 written in ,italian1 at which he had been working for thirty years1 ,biblioteca universale sacro-profana4 ,it was to explain more than #cjj1jjj words1 to include history and biography as well as all other subjects1 and to extend to #de volumes folio4 ,volumes #a-ci were to contain the dictionary ,a to ,z2 #dj1 #da1 the supplement2 #db1 retractations and corrections2 #dc1 universal index2 #dd1 index divided into matters2 #de1 index in various languages4 ,but seven volumes only were published1 ,venezia1 #agja-agjf1 fol41 #efji pages1 ,a to ,caque4 ,the first six volumes have each an index of from #bh to #dh pages 7in all #bbd pages7 of subjects1 whether forming articles or incidental4 ,the articles in each are numbered1 and amount to #cj1bfi in the six volumes1 which complete the letter ,b4 ,on an average #c pages contain #bb articles4 ,each volume is dedicated to a different patron--the pope1 the doge1 the king of ,spain1 c4 ,this work is remarkable for the extent and completeness of its plan1 and for being the first great alphabetical encyclopaedia1 as well as for being written in a modern language1 but it was hastily written and very incorrect4 ,never1 perhaps1 says ,tiraboschi 7,storia della letteratura italiana1 viii4 #edf71 was there so quick a writer2 he composed a folio volume as easily as others would a page1 but he never perfected his works1 and what we have of this book will not induce us to regret the want of the remainder4 ,the first alphabetical encyclopaedia written in ,english was the work of a ,london clergyman1 ,john ,harris 7born about #affg1 elected first secretary of the ,royal ,society on the #cjth of ,november #agji1 died on the #gth of ,september #agai71 ,lexicon technicum1 or an universal ,english ,dictionary of ,arts and ,sciences1 ,london1 #agjd1 fol41 #abbj pages1 #d plates1 with many diagrams and figures printed in the text4 ,like many subsequent ,english encyclopaedias the pages are not numbered4 ,it professes not merely to explain the terms used in the arts and sciences1 but the arts and sciences themselves4 ,the author complains that he found much less help from previous dictionaries than one would suppose1 that ,chauvin is full of obsolete school terms1 and ,corneille gives only bare explanations of terms1 which often relate only to simple ideas and common things4 ,he omits theology1 antiquity1 biography and poetry2 gives only technical history1 geography and chronology2 and in logic1 metaphysics1 ethics1 grammar and rhetoric1 merely explains the terms used4 ,in mathematics and anatomy he professes to be very full1 but says that the catalogues and places of the stars are very imperfect1 as ,flamsteed refused to assist him4 ,in botany he gave from ,ray1 ,morrison and ,tournefort a pretty exact botanick lexicon1 which was what we really wanted before1 with an account of all the kinds and subalternate species of plants1 and their specific differences on ,ray's method4 ,he gave a table of fossils from ,dr ,woodward1 professor of medicine in ,gresham ,college1 and took great pains to describe the parts of a ship accurately and particularly1 going often on board himself for the purpose4 ,in law he abridged from the best writers what he thought necessary4 ,he meant to have given at the end an alphabet for each art and science1 and some more plates of anatomy and ships1 but the undertaker could not afford it at the price4 ,a review of his work1 extending to the unusual length of four pages1 appeared in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 #agjd1 p4 #afii4 ,this volume was reprinted in #agjh4 ,a second volume of #adai pages and #d plates appeared in #agaj1 with a list of about #acjj subscribers4 ,great part of it consisted of mathematical and astronomical tables1 as he intended his work to serve as a small mathematical library4 ,he was allowed by ,sir ,isaac ,newton to print his treatise on acids4 ,he gives a table of logarithms to seven figures of decimals 7#dd pages71 and one of sines1 tangents and secants 7#abj pages71 a list of books filling two pages1 and an index of the articles in both volumes under #bf heads1 filling #ej pages4 ,the longest lists are law 7#agjj articles71 chyrurgery1 anatomy1 geometry1 fortification1 botany and music4 ,the mathematical and physical part is considered very able4 ,he often mentions his authorities1 and gives lists of books on particular subjects1 as botany and chronology4 ,his dictionary was long very popular4 ,the fifth edition was published in #agcf1 fol4 #b vols4 ,a supplement1 including no new subjects1 appeared in #agdd1 ,london1 fol41 #iif pages1 #f plates4 ,it was intended to rival ,ephraim ,chambers's work 7see below71 but1 being considered a bookseller's speculation1 was not well received4 ,johann ,hubner1 rector of the ,johanneum in ,hamburg1 born on the #agth of ,march #affh1 wrote prefaces to two dictionaries written in ,german1 which bore his name1 and were long popular4 ,the first was ,reales ,staats ,zeitungs- und ,conversations-,lexicon1 ,leipzig1 #agjd1 #hvo2 second edition1 #agjf1 #idg pages2 at the end a register of arms1 and indexes of ,latin and ,french words2 fifth edition1 #agaa2 fifteenth edition #agce1 #aaai pages4 ,the thirty-first edition was edited and enlarged by ,f4,a4 ,ruder1 and published by ,brockhaus1 ,leipzig1 #ahbd-ahbh1 #hvo1 #d vols41 #cjhh pages4 ,it was translated into ,hungarian by ,fejer1 ,pesten1 #ahaf1 #hvo1 #e vols41 #bieh pages4 ,the second1 published as a supplement1 was ,curieuses und reales ,natur- ,kunst- ,berg- ,gewerb- und ,handlungs-,lexicon1 ,leipzig1 #agab1 #hvo1 #ghh pages1 frequently reprinted to #agib4 ,the first relates to the political state of the world1 as religion1 orders1 states1 rivers1 towns1 castles1 mountains1 genealogy1 war1 ships2 the second to nature1 science1 art and commerce4 ,they were the work of many authors1 of whom ,paul ,jacob ,marpurger1 a celebrated and voluminous writer on trade and commerce1 born at ,nuremberg on the #bgth of ,june #afef1 was an extensive contributor1 and is the only one named by ,hubner4 ,johann ,theodor ,jablonski1 who was born at ,danzig on the #aeth of ,december #afed1 appointed secretary to the newly founded ,prussian ,academy in #agjj1 when he went to ,berlin1 where he died on the #bhth of ,april #agca1 published ,allgemeines ,lexicon der ,kunste und ,wissenschaften1 ,leipzig1 #agba1 #dto1 a short but excellent encyclopaedia still valued in ,germany4 ,it does not include theology1 history1 geography1 biography and genealogy4 ,he not only names his authorities1 but gives a list of their works4 ,a new edition in #agdh was increased one-third to #aejh pages4 ,an improved edition1 ,konigsberg and ,leipzig1 #agfg1 #dto1 #b vols41 #aheb pages1 was edited by ,j4,j4 ,schwabe1 public teacher of philosophy at ,leipzig4 ,ephraim ,chambers 7q4v47 published his ,cyclopaedia2 or an ,universal ,dictionary of ,art and ,sciences1 containing an ,explication of the ,terms and an ,account of the ,things ,signified thereby in the several ,arts1 ,liberal and ,mechanical1 and the several ,sciences1 ,human and ,divine1 ,london1 #agbh1 fol4 #b vols4 ,the dedication to the king is dated ,october #ae1 #agbg4 ,chambers endeavoured to connect the scattered articles relating to each subject by a system of references1 and to consider the several matters1 not only in themselves1 but relatively1 or as they respect each other2 both to treat them as so many wholes and as so many parts of some greater whole4 ,under each article he refers to the subject to which it belongs1 and also to its subordinate parts2 thus ,copyhold has a reference to ,tenure1 of which it is a particular kind1 and other references to ,rolls1 ,custom1 ,manor1 ,fine1 ,charter-land and ,freehold4 ,in his preface he gives an analysis of the divisions of knowledge1 #dg in number1 with classed lists of the articles belonging to each1 intended to serve as table of contents and also as a rubric or directory indicating the order in which the articles should be read4 ,but it does so very imperfectly1 as the lists are curtailed by many et caeteras2 thus #ai occur in a list of #aai articles under ,anatomy1 which has nearly #bbjj articles in ,rees's index4 ,he omits etymologies unless they appeared of some significance2 he gives only one grammatical form of each word1 unless peculiar ideas are arbitrarily attached to different forms1 as precipitate1 precipitant1 precipitation1 when each has an article2 and he omits complex ideas generally known1 and thus gets free of a vast load of plebeian words4 ,his work1 he says1 is a collection1 not the produce of one man's wit1 for that would go but a little way1 but of the whole commonwealth of learning4 ,nobody that fell in my way has been spared1 antient or modern1 foreign nor domestic1 ,christian or ,jew nor heathen4 ,to the subjects given by ,harris he adds theology1 metaphysics1 ethics1 politics1 logic1 grammar1 rhetoric and poetry1 but excludes history1 biography1 genealogy1 geography and chronology1 except their technical parts4 ,a second edition appeared in #agch1 fol4 #b vols41 #bdff pages1 retouched and amended in a thousand places4 ,a few articles are added and some others enlarged1 but he was prevented from doing more because the booksellers were alarmed with a bill in parliament containing a clause to oblige the publishers of all improved editions of books to print their improvements separately4 ,the bill after passing the ,commons was unexpectedly thrown out by the ,lords2 but fearing that it might be revived1 the booksellers thought it best to retreat though more than twenty sheets had been printed4 ,five other editions were published in ,london1 #agci to #agea-ageb1 besides one in ,dublin1 #agdb1 all in #b vols4 fol4 ,an ,italian translation1 ,venezia1 #agdh-agdi1 #dto1 #i vols41 was the first complete ,italian encyclopaedia4 ,when ,chambers was in ,france in #agci he rejected very favourable proposals to publish an edition there dedicated to ,louis ,,xv4 ,his work was judiciously1 honestly and carefully done1 and long maintained its popularity4 ,but it had many defects and omissions1 as he was well aware2 and at his death1 on the #aeth of ,may #agdj1 he had collected and arranged materials for seven new volumes4 ,john ,lewis ,scott was employed by the booksellers to select such articles as were fit for the press and to supply others4 ,he is said to have done this very efficiently until appointed sub-preceptor to the prince of ,wales and ,prince ,edward4 ,his task was entrusted to ,dr 7afterwards called ,sir ,john7 ,hill1 who performed it very hastily1 and with characteristic carelessness and self-sufficiency1 copying freely from his own writings4 ,the ,supplement was published in ,london1 #agec1 fol4 #b vols41 #ccjg pages and #ab plates4 ,as ,hill was a botanist1 the botanical part1 which had been very defective in the ,cyclopaedia1 was the best4 ,abraham ,rees 7#agdc-ahbe71 a famous ,nonconformist minister1 published a revised and enlarged edition1 with the supplement and modern improvements incorporated in one alphabet1 ,london1 #aggh-aghh1 fol4 #b vols41 #ejaj pages 7but not paginated71 #aei plates4 ,it was published in #dah numbers at #f;d4 each4 ,rees says that he has added more than #ddjj new articles4 ,at the end he gives an index of articles1 classed under #ajj heads1 numbering about #eg1jjj and filling #hj pages4 ,the heads1 with #ci cross references1 are arranged alphabetically4 ,subsequently there were reprints4 ,one of the largest and most comprehensive encyclopaedias was undertaken and in a great measure completed by ,johann ,heinrich ,zedler1 a bookseller of ,leipzig1 who was born at ,breslau #gth ,january #agjf1 made a ,prussian commerzienrath in #agca1 and died at ,leipzig in #agfj1--;,grosses vollstandiges ,universal ,lexicon ,aller ,wissenschaften und ,kunste welche bishero durch menschlichen ,verstand und ,witz erfunden und verbessert worden1 ,halle and ,leipzig1 #agcb-agej1 fol4 #fd vols41 #fd1cji pages2 and ,nothige ,supplement1 ib4 #agea-aged1 vols4 i4 to iv41 ,a to ,caq1 #cjaf pages4 ,the columns1 two in a page1 are numbered1 varying from #acef in vol4 li4 to #behh in vol4 xlix4 ,each volume has a dedication1 with a portrait4 ,the first nine are the emperor1 the kings of ,prussia and ,poland1 the empress of ,russia1 and the kings of ,england1 ,france1 ,poland1 ,denmark and ,sweden4 ,the dedications1 of which two are in verse1 and all are signed by ,zedler1 amount to #dei pages4 ,the supplement has no dedications or portraits4 ,the preface to the first volume of the work is by ,johann ,peter von ,ludewig1 chancellor of the university of ,halle 7born #aeth ,august #afij1 died #fth ,september #agdc74 ,nine editors were employed1 whom ,ludewig compares to the nine muses2 and the whole of each subject was entrusted to the same person1 that all its parts might be uniformly treated4 ,carl ,gunther ,ludovici 7born at ,leipzig #gth ,august #agjg1 public teacher of philosophy there from #agcd1 died #crd ,july #aggh7 edited the work from vol4 xix41 beginning the letter ,m1 and published in #agci1 to the end1 and also the supplement4 ,the work was published by subscription4 ,johann ,heinrich ,wolff1 an eminent merchant and shopkeeper in ,leipzig1 born there on the #bith of ,april #afij1 came to ,zedler's assistance by advancing the funds for expenses and becoming answerable for the subscriptions1 and spared no cost that the work might be complete4 ,zedler very truly says1 in his preface to vol4 xviii41 that his ,universal ,lexicon was a work such as no time and no nation could show1 and both in its plan and execution it is much more comprehensive and complete than any previous encyclopaedia4 ,colleges1 says ,ludewig1 where all sciences are taught and studied1 are on that account called universities1 and their teaching is called studium universale2 but the ,universal ,lexicon contains not only what they teach in theology1 jurisprudence1 medicine1 philosophy1 history1 mathematics1 c41 but also many other things belonging to courts1 chanceries1 hunting1 forests1 war and peace1 and to artists1 artizans1 housekeepers and merchants not thought of in colleges4 ,its plan embraces not only history1 geography and biography1 but also genealogy1 topography1 and from vol4 xviii41 published in #agch1 lives of illustrious living persons4 ,zedler inquires why death alone should make a deserving man capable of having his services and worthy deeds made known to the world in print4 ,the lives of the dead1 he says1 are to be found in books1 but those of the living are not to be met with anywhere1 and would often be more useful if known4 ,in consequence of this preface1 many lives and genealogies were sent to him for publication4 ,cross references generally give not only the article referred to1 but also the volume and column1 and1 when necessary1 such brief information as may distinguish the word referred to from others similar but of different meaning4 ,lists of authorities1 often long1 exact and valuable are frequently appended to the articles4 ,this work1 which is well and carefully compiled1 and very trustworthy1 is still a most valuable book of reference on many subjects1 especially topography1 genealogy and biography4 ,the genealogies and family histories are excellent1 and many particulars are given of the lives and works of authors not easily found elsewhere4 ,a work on a new plan was published by ,dennis de ,coetlogon1 a ,frenchman naturalized in ,england1 who styled himself ,knight of ,st ,lazare1 ,m4,d41 and member of the ,royal ,academy of ,angers--,an ,universal ,history of ,arts and ,sciences1 ,london1 #agde1 fol4 #b vols41 #bebi pages1 #cc plates and #afa articles arranged alphabetically4 ,he endeavours to render each treatise as complete as possible1 avoiding above all things needless repetitions1 and never puzzling the reader with the least reference4 ,theology is divided into several treatises2 ,philosophy into ,ethicks1 ,logick and ,metaphysick1 each under its letter2 and ,physick is subdivided into ,anatomy1 ,botany1 ,geography1 ,geometry1 c4 ,military ,art is divided into ,army1 ,fortification1 ,gunnery4 ,the royal licence is dated #acth ,march #agdj-agda1 the dedication is to the duke of ,gisors1 the pages are numbered1 there is an appendix of #ce pages of astronomical tables1 and the two indexes1 one to each volume1 fill #fi pages1 and contain about #ijjj subjects4 ,the type is large and the style diffuse1 but the subject matter is sometimes curious4 ,the author says that his work is the only one of the kind1 and that he wrote out with his own hand every line1 even the index4 ,but notwithstanding the novelty of his plan1 his work does not seem ever to have been popular4 ,gianfrancesco ,pivati1 born at ,padua in #afhi1 died at ,venice in #agfd1 secretary of the ,academy of ,sciences at ,venice1 who had published in #agdd a #dto volume containing a ,dizionario universale1 wrote ,nuovo dizionario scientifico e curioso sacro-profano1 ,venezia1 #agdf-agea1 fol4 #aj vols41 #ggia pages1 #eig plates4 ,it is a general encyclopaedia1 including geography1 but not history or biography4 ,he gives frequent references to his authorities and much curious information4 ,his preliminary discourse 7#hj pages7 contains a history of the several sciences from mathematics to geography4 ,the book was published by subscription1 and at the end of the last volume is a ,catalogo dei ,signori ,associati1 #beb in number1 who took #bff copies4 ,it is also remarkable for the number of its plates1 which are engraved on copper4 ,in each volume they are placed together at the end1 and are preceded by an explanatory index of subjects referring to the plates and to the articles they illustrate4 ,one of the greatest and most remarkable literary enterprises of the #ahth century1 the famous ,french ,encyclopedie1 originated in a ,french translation of ,ephraim ,chambers's ,cyclopaedia1 begun in #agdc and finished in #agde by ,john ,mills1 an ,englishman resident in ,france1 assisted by ,gottfried ,sellius1 a very learned native of ,danzig1 who1 after being a professor at ,halle and ,gottingen1 and residing in ,holland1 had settled in ,paris4 ,they applied to ,lebreton1 the king's printer1 to publish the work1 to fulfil the formalities required by ,french law1 with which1 as foreigners1 they were not acquainted1 and to solicit a royal privilege4 ,this he obtained1 but in his own name alone4 ,mills complained so loudly and bitterly of this deception that ,lebreton had to acknowledge formally that the privilege belonged en toute propriete to ,john ,mills4 ,but1 as he again took care not to acquaint ,mills with the necessary legal formalities1 this title soon became invalid4 ,mills then agreed to grant him part of his privilege1 and in ,may #agde the work was announced as ,encyclopedie ou dictionnaire universel des arts et des sciences1 folio1 four volumes of #bej to #bfj sheets each1 with a fifth of at least #abj plates1 and a vocabulary or list of articles in ,french1 ,latin1 ,german1 ,italian and ,spanish1 with other lists for each language explained in ,french1 so that foreigners might easily find any article wanted4 ,it was to be published by subscription at #ace livres1 but for large paper copies #bjj livres1 the first volume to be delivered in ,june #agdf1 and the two last at the end of #agdh4 ,the subscription list1 which was considerable1 closed on the #cast of ,december #agde4 ,mills demanded an account1 which ,lebreton1 who had again omitted certain formalities1 insultingly refused4 ,mills brought an action against him1 but before it was decided ,lebreton procured the revocation of the privilege as informal1 and obtained another for himself dated the #bast of ,january #agdf4 ,thus1 for unwittingly contravening regulations with which his unscrupulous publisher ought to have made him acquainted1 ,mills was despoiled of the work he had both planned and executed1 and had to return to ,england4 ,jean ,paul de ,gua de ,malves1 professor of philosophy in the college of ,france 7born at ,carcassonne in #agac1 died on the #aeth of ,june #aghe71 was then engaged as editor merely to correct errors and add new discoveries4 ,but he proposed a thorough revision1 and obtained the assistance of many learned men and artists1 among whom ,desessarts names ,louis1 ,condillac1 d',alembert and ,diderot4 ,but the publishers did not think his reputation high enough to ensure success1 withheld their confidence1 and often opposed his plans as too expensive4 ,tired at last of disputes1 and too easily offended1 de ,gua resigned the editorship4 ,the publishers1 who had already made heavy advances1 offered it to ,diderot1 who was probably recommended to them by his very well received ,dictionnaire universel de medicine1 ,paris1 #agdf-agdh1 fol4 #f vols41 published by ,briasson1 ,david and ,durand1 with notes and additions by ,julien ,busson1 doctor regent of the faculty of medicine of ,paris4 ,it was a translation1 made with the assistance of ,eidous and ,toussaint1 of the celebrated work of ,dr ,robert ,james1 inventor of the fever powders1 ,a ,medicinal ,dictionary1 ,london1 #agdc-agde1 fol4 #c vols41 #cbge pages and #ih plates1 comprising a history of drugs1 with chemistry1 botany and natural history so far as they relate to medicine1 and with an historical preface of #ii pages 7in the translation #acf74 ,the proposed work was to have been similar in character4 ,de ,gua's papers were handed over to ,diderot in great confusion4 ,he soon persuaded the publishers to undertake a far more original and comprehensive work4 ,his friend d',alembert undertook to edit the mathematics4 ,other subjects were allotted to #ba contributors1 each of whom received the articles on this subject in ,mills' translation to serve as a basis for his work4 ,but they were in most cases so badly composed and translated1 so full of errors and omissions1 that they were not used4 ,the contributions were to be finished in three months1 but none was ready in time1 except ,music by ,rousseau1 which he admits was hastily and badly done4 ,diderot was imprisoned at ,vincennes1 on the #bith of ,july #agdi1 for his ,lettre sur les aveugles4 ,he was closely confined for #bh days1 and was then for three months and ten days a prisoner on parole in the castle4 ,this did not stop the printing1 though it caused delay4 ,the prospectus by ,diderot appeared in ,november #agej4 ,the work was to form #h vols4 fol41 with at least #fjj plates4 ,the first volume was published in ,july #agea1 and delivered to the subscribers in ,august4 ,the second appeared in ,january #ageb4 ,an arret of the council1 #ith of ,february1 suppressed both volumes as injurious to the king's authority and to religion4 ,malesherbes1 director-general of the ,librairie1 stopped the issue of volume ii41 #ith of ,february1 and on the #bast went with a lettre de cachet to ,lebreton's to seize the plates and the ,,mss41 but did not find1 says ,barbier1 even those of volume iii41 as they had been taken to his own house by ,diderot and one of the publishers4 ,the ,jesuits tried to continue the work1 but in vain4 ,it was less easy1 says ,grimm1 than to ruin philosophers4 ,the ,dictionnaire de ,trevoux pronounced the completion of the ,encyclopedie impossible1 and the project ridiculous 7#eth edition1 #ageb1 iii1 #gej74 ,the government had to request the editors to resume the work as one honourable to the nation4 ,the marquis d',argenson writes1 #gth of ,may #ageb1 that ,mme de ,pompadour had been urging them to proceed1 and at the end of ,june he reports them as again at work4 ,volume iii41 rather improved by the delay1 appeared in ,october #agec2 and volume vii41 completing ,g1 in ,november #ageg4 ,the clamours against the work soon recommenced4 ,d' ,alembert retired in ,january #ageh1 weary of sermons1 satires and intolerant and absurd censors4 ,the parlement of ,paris1 by an arret1 #bcrd of ,january #agei1 stopped the sale and distribution of the ,encyclopedie1 ,helvetius's ,de l',esprit1 and six other books2 and by an arret1 #fth ,february1 ordered them all to be burnt1 but referred the ,encyclopedie for examination to a commission of nine4 ,an arret du conseil1 #gth of ,march1 revoked the privilege of #agdf1 and stopped the printing4 ,volume viii4 was then in the press4 ,malesherbes warned ,diderot that he would have his papers seized next day2 and when ,diderot said he could not make a selection1 or find a place of safety at such short notice1 ,malesherbes said1 ,send them to me1 they will not look for them there4 ,this1 according to ,mme de ,vandeul1 ,diderot's daughter1 was done with perfect success4 ,in the article ,pardonner ,diderot refers to these persecutions1 and says1 ,in the space of some months we have seen our honour1 fortune1 liberty and life imperilled4 ,malesherbes1 ,choiseul and ,mme de ,pompadour protected the work2 ,diderot obtained private permission to go on printing1 but with a strict charge not to publish any part until the whole was finished4 ,the ,jesuits were condemned by the parlement of ,paris in #agfb1 and by the king in ,november #agfd4 ,volume i4 of plates appeared in #agfb1 and volumes viii4 to xvii41 ten volumes of text1 #idjh pages1 completing the work1 with the #dth volume of plates in #agfe1 when there were #dbej subscribers4 ,the work circulated freely in the provinces and in foreign countries1 and was secretly distributed in ,paris and ,versailles4 ,the general assembly of the clergy1 on the #bjth of ,june #agfe1 approved articles in which it was condemned1 and on the #bgth of ,september adopted a memoire to be presented to the king4 ,they were forbidden to publish their acts which favoured the ,jesuits1 but ,lebreton was required to give a list of his subscribers1 and was put into the ,bastille for eight days in #agff4 ,a royal order was sent to the subscribers to deliver their copies to the lieutenant of police4 ,voltaire in #aggd relates that1 at a petit souper of the king at ,trianon1 there was a debate on the composition of gunpowder4 ,mme de ,pompadour said she did not know how her rouge or her silk stockings were made4 ,the duc de la ,valliere regretted that the king had confiscated their encyclopaedias1 which could decide everything4 ,the king said he had been told that the work was most dangerous1 but as he wished to judge for himself1 he sent for a copy4 ,three servants with difficulty brought in the #ba volumes4 ,the company found everything they looked for1 and the king allowed the confiscated copies to be returned4 ,mme de ,pompadour died on the #aeth of ,april #agfd4 ,lebreton had half of the property in the work1 and ,durand1 ,david and ,briasson had the rest4 ,lebreton1 who had the largest printing office in ,paris1 employed #ej workmen in printing the last ten volumes4 ,he had the articles set in type exactly as the authors sent them in1 and when ,diderot had corrected the last proof of each sheet1 he and his foreman1 hastily1 secretly and by night1 unknown to his partners in the work1 cut out whatever seemed to them daring1 or likely to give offence1 mutilated most of the best articles without any regard to the consecutiveness of what was left1 and burnt the manuscript as they proceeded4 ,the printing of the work was nearly finished when ,diderot1 having to consult one of his great philosophical articles in the letter ,s1 found it entirely mutilated4 ,he was confounded1 says ,grimm1 at discovering the atrocity of the printer2 all the best articles were in the same confusion4 ,this discovery put him into a state of frenzy and despair from rage and grief4 ,his daughter never heard him speak coolly on the subject1 and after twenty years it still made him angry4 ,he believed that every one knew as well as he did what was wanting in each article1 but in fact the mutilation was not perceived even by the authors1 and for many years was known to few persons4 ,diderot at first refused to correct the remaining proofs1 or to do more than write the explanations of the plates4 ,he required1 according to ,mme de ,vandeul1 that a copy1 now at ,st ,petersburg with his library1 should be printed with columns in which all was restored4 ,the mutilations began as far back as the article ,intendant4 ,but how far1 says ,rosenkranz1 this murderous1 incredible and infamous operation was carried cannot now be exactly ascertained4 ,diderot's articles1 not including those on arts and trades1 were reprinted in ,naigeon's edition 7,paris1 #ahba1 #hvo1 #bb vols474 ,they fill #dacb pages1 and number #aaci1 of which #fja were written for the last ten volumes4 ,they are on very many subjects1 but principally on grammar1 history1 morality1 philosophy1 literature and metaphysics4 ,as a contributor1 his special department of the work was philosophy1 and arts and trades4 ,he passed whole days in workshops1 and began by examining a machine carefully1 then he had it taken to pieces and put together again1 then he watched it at work1 and lastly worked it himself4 ,he thus learned to use such complicated machines as the stocking and cut velvet looms4 ,he at first received #abjj livres a year as editor1 but afterwards #bejj livres a volume1 besides a final sum of #bj1jjj livres4 ,although after his engagement he did not suffer from poverty as he had done before1 he was obliged to sell his library in order to provide for his daughter4 ,de ,jaucourt spared neither time1 trouble nor expense in perfecting the work1 for which he received nothing1 and he employed several secretaries at it for ten years4 ,to pay them he had to sell his house in ,paris1 which ,lebreton bought with the profits derived from ,de ,jaucourt's work4 ,all the publishers made large fortunes2 their expenses amounted to #a1aeh1jjj livres and their profits to #b1afb1jjj4 ,d',alembert's ,discours ,preliminaire1 #de pages1 written in #agej1 prefixed to the first volume1 and delivered before the ,french ,academy on his reception on the #aith of ,december #aged1 consists of a systematic arrangement of the various branches of knowledge1 and an account of their progress since their revival4 ,his system1 chiefly taken from ,bacon1 divides them into three classes1 under memory1 reason and imagination4 ,arts and trades are placed under natural history1 superstition and magic under science de ,dieu1 and orthography and heraldry under logic4 ,the literary world is divided into three corresponding classes--erudits1 philosophes and beaux esprits4 ,as in ,ephraim ,chambers's ,cyclopaedia1 history and biography were excluded1 except incidentally2 thus ,aristotle's life is given in the article ,aristotelisme4 ,the science to which an article belongs is generally named at the beginning of it1 references are given to other articles1 and the authors' names are marked by initials1 of which lists are given in the earlier volumes1 but sometimes their names are subscribed in full4 ,articles by ,diderot have no mark1 and those inserted by him as editor have an asterisk prefixed4 ,among the contributors were ,voltaire1 ,euler1 ,marmontel1 ,montesquieu1 ,d',anville1 ,d',holbach and ,turgot1 the leader of the new school of economists which made its first appearance in the pages of the ,encyclopedie4 ,louis wrote the surgery1 ,daubenton natural history1 ,eidous heraldry and art1 ,toussaint jurisprudence1 and ,condamine articles on ,south ,america4 ,no encyclopaedia perhaps has been of such political importance1 or has occupied so conspicuous a place in the civil and literary history of its century4 ,it sought not only to give information1 but to guide opinion4 ,it was1 as ,rosenkranz says 7,diderot1 i4 #aeg71 theistic and heretical4 ,it was opposed to the church1 then all-powerful in ,france1 and it treated dogma historically4 ,it was1 as ,desnoiresterres says 7,voltaire1 v4 #afd71 a war machine2 as it progressed1 its attacks both on the church and the still more despotic government1 as well as on ,christianity itself1 became bolder and more undisguised1 and it was met by opposition and persecution unparalleled in the history of encyclopaedias4 ,its execution is very unequal1 and its articles of very different value4 ,it was not constructed on a regular plan1 or subjected to sufficient supervision2 articles were sent in by the contributors1 and not seen by the editors until they were in type4 ,in each subject there are some excellent articles1 but others are very inferior or altogether omitted1 and references are often given to articles which do not exist4 ,thus marine is said to be more than three-fourths deficient2 and in geography errors and omissions abound--even capitals and sovereign states are overlooked1 while villages are given as towns1 and towns are described which never existed4 ,the style is too generally loose1 digressive and inexact2 dates are seldom given2 and discursiveness1 verbosity and dogmatism are frequent faults4 ,voltaire was constantly demanding truth1 brevity and method1 and said it was built half of marble and half of wood4 ,d',alembert compared it to a harlequin's coat1 in which there is some good stuff but too many rags4 ,diderot was dissatisfied with it as a whole2 much of it was compiled in haste2 and carelessly written articles and incompetent contributors were admitted for want of money to pay good writers4 ,zedler's ,universal ,lexicon is on the whole much more useful for reference than its far more brilliant successor4 ,the permanent value of encyclopaedias depends on the proportion of exact and precise facts they contain and on their systematic regularity4 ,the first edition of the ,encyclopedie1 in #ag vols4 folio1 #af1bhh pages1 was imitated by a counterfeit edition printed at ,geneva as the volumes appeared in ,paris4 ,eleven folio volumes of plates were published at ,paris 7#agfb to #aggb71 containing #bhhh plates and #ibc pages of explanation1 c4 ,a supplement was printed at ,amsterdam and ,paris 7#aggf-aggg71 fol4 #e vols41 #chgd pages1 with #bbd plates4 ,history was introduced at the wish of the public1 but only the general features which mark epochs in the annals of the world4 ,the astronomy was by ,delalande1 mathematics by ,condorcet1 tables by ,bernouilli1 natural history by ,adanson1 anatomy and physiology by ,haller4 ,daubenton1 ,condamine1 ,marmontel and other old contributors wrote many articles1 and several were taken from foreign editions4 ,a very full and elaborate index of the articles and subjects of the #cc volumes was printed at ,amsterdam in #aghj1 fol4 #b vols4 #aheb pages4 ,it was made by ,pierre ,mouchon1 who was born at ,geneva on the #cjth of ,july #agce1 consecrated minister on the #ahth of ,august #ageh1 pastor of the ,french church at ,basel #agff1 elected a pastor in ,geneva on the #fth of ,march #aghh1 principal of the college there #bbnd of ,april #agia1 died on the #bjth of ,august #agig4 ,this ,table analytique1 which took him five years to make1 was undertaken for the publishers ,cramer and ,de ,tournes1 who gave him #hjj louis for it4 ,though very exact and full1 he designedly omits the attacks on ,christianity4 ,this index was rendered more useful and indispensable by the very diffuse and digressive style of the work1 and by the vast number of its articles4 ,a complete copy of the first edition of the ,encyclopedie consists of #ce vols4 fol41 printed #agea-aghj1 containing #bc1ace pages and #cacb plates4 ,it was written by about #afj contributors4 ,about #agfa ,panckoucke and other publishers in ,paris proposed a new and revised edition1 and bought the plates for #bej1jjj livres4 ,but1 as ,diderot indignantly refused to edit what he considered a fraud on the subscribers to the as yet unfinished work1 they began simply to reprint the work1 promising supplementary volumes4 ,when three volumes were printed the whole was seized in #aggj by the government at the complaint of the clergy1 and was lodged in the ,bastille4 ,the plan of a second ,french edition was laid aside then1 to be revived twenty years later in a very different form4 ,foreign editions of the ,encyclopedie are numerous1 and it is difficult to enumerate them correctly4 ,one1 with notes by ,ottavio ,diodati1 ,dr ,sebastiano ,paoli and ,carlo ,giuliani1 appeared at ,lucca 7#ageh-agga71 fol4 #ag vols4 of text and #aj of plates4 ,though it was very much expurgated1 all engaged in it were excommunicated by the pope in #agei4 ,an attempt made at ,siena to publish an ,italian translation failed4 ,an addition by the abbe ,serafini and ,dr ,gonnella 7,livourne1 #aggj71 c41 fol4 #cc vols41 returned a profit of #fj1jjj piastres1 and was protected by ,leopold ,,ii41 who secured the pope's silence4 ,other editions are ,geneve1 ,cramer 7#aggb-aggf71 a facsimile reprint4 ,geneve1 ,pellet 7#aggg-aggi71 #dto1 #cf vols4 of text and #c of plates1 with #f vols4 of ,mouchon's index 7,lyon1 #aghj71 #dto2 ,geneve et ,neufchatel1 ,pellet 7#aggh-aggi71 #dto1 #cf vols4 of text and #c of plates2 ,lausanne 7#aggh-agha71 #cf vols4 #dto1 or #gb octavo1 of text and #c of plates 7#aggi-aghj72 ,lausanne et ,bern1 chez les ,societes ,typographiques 7#aghj-aghb71 #cf vols4 #hvo of text and #c vols4 #dto of plates 7#aghb74 ,these four editions have the supplement incorporated4 ,fortune ,barthelemy de ,felice1 an ,italian monk1 born at ,rome on the #bdth of ,august #agbc1 who had been professor at ,rome and ,naples1 and had become a ,protestant1 printed a very incorrect though successful edition 7,yverdun1 #aggj-aghj7 #dto1 #db vols4 of text1 #e of supplement and #aj of plates4 ,it professed to be a new work1 standing in the same relationship to the ,encyclopedie as that did to ,chambers's1 which is far from being the case4 ,sir ,joseph ,ayloffe issued proposals1 #adth ,december #agea1 for an ,english translation of the ,encyclopedie1 to be finished by ,christmas #agef1 in #aj vols4 #dto1 with at least #fjj plates4 ,no4 #a appeared in ,january #ageb1 but met with little success4 ,several selections of articles and extracts have been published under the title of ,l',esprit de l',encyclopedie4 ,the last was by ,hennequin 7,paris1 #ahbb-ahbc71 #hvo1 #ae vols4 ,an ,english selection is ,select ,essays from the ,encyclopedy 7,london1 #aggc71 #hvo4 ,the articles of most of the principal contributors have been reprinted in the editions of their respective works4 ,voltaire wrote #h vols4 #hvo of a kind of fragmentary supplement1 ,questions sur l',encyclopedie1 frequently printed1 and usually included in editions of his works1 together with his contributions to the ,encyclopedie and his ,dictionnaire philosophique4 ,several special dictionaries have been formed from the ,encyclopedie1 as the ,dictionnaire portatif des arts et metiers 7,paris1 #agff71 #hvo1 #b vols4 about #acjj pages1 by ,philippe ,macquer1 brother of the author of the ,dict4 de chimie4 ,an enlarged edition by the abbe ,jaubert 7,paris1 #aggc71 #e vols4 #hvo1 #cjag pages1 was much valued and often reprinted4 ,the books attacking and defending the ,encyclopedie are very many4 ,no original work of the #ahth century1 says ,lanfrey1 has been more depreciated1 ridiculed and calumniated4 ,it has been called chaos1 nothingness1 the ,tower of ,babel1 a work of disorder and destruction1 the gospel of ,satan and even the ruins of ,palmyra4 ,the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 by a society of gentlemen in ,scotland1 printed in ,edinburgh for ,a4 ,bell and ,c4 ,macfarquhar1 and sold by ,colin ,macfarquhar at his printing office in ,nicolson ,street1 was completed in #agga in #c volumes #dto1 containing #bfgj pages1 and #afj copperplates engraved by ,andrew ,bell4 ,it was published in numbers1 of which the two first were issued in ,december #agfh1 price #f;d4 each1 or #h;d on a finer paper1 and was to be completed in #ajj weekly numbers4 ,it was compiled1 as the title-page says1 on a new plan4 ,the different sciences and arts were digested into distinct treatises or systems1 of which there are #de with cross headings1 that is1 titles printed across the page1 and about #cj other articles more than three pages long4 ,the longest are ,anatomy1 #aff pages1 and ,surgery1 #bch pages4 ,the various technical terms1 c41 are explained as they occur in the order of the alphabet4 ,instead of dismembering the sciences1 by attempting to treat them intelligibly under a multitude of technical terms1 they have digested the principles of every science in the form of systems or distinct treatises1 and explained the terms as they occur in the order of the alphabet1 with references to the sciences to which they belong4 ,this plan1 as the compilers say1 differs from that of all the previous dictionaries of arts and sciences4 ,its merit and novelty consist in the combination of ,de ,coetlogon's plan with that in common use1--on the one hand keeping important subjects together1 and on the other facilitating reference by numerous separate articles4 ,it is doubtful to whom the credit of this plan is due4 ,the editor1 ,william ,smellie1 a printer 7born in #agdj1 died on the #bdth of ,june #agie71 afterwards secretary and superintendent of natural history to the ,society of ,scottish ,antiquaries1 is said by his biographer to have devised the plan and written or compiled all the chief articles2 and he prints1 but without date1 part of a letter written and signed by ,andrew ,bell by which he was engaged in the work3--,sir1 ,as we are engaged in publishing a dictionary of the arts and sciences1 and as you have informed us that there are fifteen capital sciences which you will undertake for and write up the subdivisions and detached parts of these conform to your plan1 and likewise to prepare the whole work for the press1 c41 c41 we hereby agree to allow you ,l#bjj for your trouble1 c4 ,prof4 ,macvey ,napier says that ,smellie was more likely to have suggested that great improvement than any of his known coadjutors4 ,archibald ,constable1 who was interested in the work from #aghh1 and was afterwards intimately acquainted with ,bell1 says ,colin ,macfarquhar was the actual projector of the ,encyclopaedia1 and the editor of the two first editions1 while ,smellie was merely a contributor for hire 7,memoirs1 ii4 #caa74 ,dr ,gleig1 in his preface to the third edition1 says3 ,the idea had been conceived by him 7,colin ,macfarquhar7 and his friend ,mr ,andrew ,bell1 engraver4 ,by whom these gentlemen were assisted in digesting the plan which attracted to that work so much public attention1 or whether they had any assistance1 are questions in which our readers cannot be interested4 ,macfarquhar1 according to ,constable1 was a person of excellent taste and very general knowledge1 though at starting he had little or no capital1 and was obliged to associate ,bell1 then the principal engraver in ,edinburgh1 as a partner in his undertaking4 ,the second edition was begun in #aggf1 and was published in numbers1 of which the first was issued on the #bast of ,june #aggg1 and the last1 ,no4 #aha1 on the #ahth of ,september #aghd1 forming #aj vols4 #dto1 dated #aggh to #aghc1 and containing #heie pages and #cdj plates4 ,the pagination is continuous1 ending with page #ibjj1 but #bie pages are inserted in various places1 and page #gjii is followed by #hjjj4 ,the number and length of the articles were much increased1 #gb have cross headings1 and more than #aej others may be classed as long articles4 ,at the end is an appendix 7,abatement to ,wood7 of #bjj pages1 containing1 under the heading ,botanical ,table1 a list of the #ica genera included in the #eh natural orders of ,linnaeus1 and followed by a list of #ebf books1 said to have been the principal authorities used4 ,all the maps are placed together under the article ,geography 7#aie pages74 ,most of the long articles have numbered marginal titles2 ,scotland1 #hd pages1 has #hcg4 ,medicine1 #cji pages1 and ,pharmacy have each an index4 ,the plan of the work was enlarged by the addition of history and biography1 which encyclopaedias in general had long omitted4 ,from the time of the second edition of this work1 every cyclopaedia of note1 in ,england and elsewhere1 has been a cyclopaedia1 not solely of arts and sciences1 but of the whole wide circle of general learning and miscellaneous information 7,quarterly ,review1 cxiii4 #cfb74 ,smellie was applied to by ,bell to edit the second edition1 and to take a share of one-third in the work2 but he refused1 because the other persons concerned in it1 at the suggestion of a very distinguished nobleman of very high rank 7said by ,professor ,napier to have been the duke of ,buccleuch71 insisted upon the introduction of a system of general biography which he considered inconsistent with the character of a dictionary of arts and sciences4 ,james ,tytler1 ,m4,a41 seems to have been selected as the next most eligible compiler4 ,his father1 a man of extensive knowledge1 was #ec years minister of ,fearn in ,forfarshire1 and died in #aghe4 ,tytler 7outlawed by the ,high ,court of ,justiciary1 #gth of ,january #agic1 buried at ,salem in ,massachusetts on the #aath of ,january #ahjd1 aged fifty-eight7 wrote1 says ,watt1 many of the scientific treatises and histories1 and almost all the minor articles 7,bibliotheca ,brit474 ,after about a year's preparation1 the third edition was announced in #aghg2 the first number was published early in #aghh1 and the first volume in ,october #aghh4 ,there were to be #cjj weekly numbers1 price #as4 each1 forming #cj parts at #ajs4 #f;d4 each1 and #ae volumes1 with #cfj plates4 ,it was completed in #agig in #ah vols4 #dto1 containing #ad1egi pages and #edb plates4 ,among the multifarious articles represented in the frontispiece1 which was required by the traditional fashion of the period1 is a balloon4 ,the maps are1 as in subsequent editions1 distributed among the articles relating to the respective countries4 ,it was edited by ,colin ,macfarquhar as far as the article ,mysteries 7by ,dr ,doig1 vol4 xii471 when he died1 on the #bnd of ,april #agic1 in his forty-eighth year1 worn out1 says ,constable1 by fatigue and anxiety of mind4 ,his children's trustees and ,andrew ,bell requested ,george ,gleig of ,stirling 7consecrated on the #cjth of ,october #ahjh assistant and successor to the bishop of ,brechin71 who had written about twelve articles1 to edit the rest of the work2 and for the time1 and the limited sum allowed him for the reward of contributors1 his part in the work was considered very well done 7,constable1 ii4 #cab74 ,professor ,robison was induced by ,gleig to become a contributor4 ,he first revised the article ,optics1 and then wrote a series of articles on natural philosophy1 which attracted great attention and were long highly esteemed by scientific men4 ,the sub-editors were ,james ,walker 7,primus ,scotiae ,episcopus #bgth of ,may #ahcg1 died on the #eth of ,march #ahda1 aged seventy7 until #agie1 then ,james ,thomson1 succeeded in ,november #agif by his brother ,thomas1 afterwards professor of chemistry at ,glasgow1 who remained connected with the ,encyclopaedia until #ahjj4 ,according to ,kerr 7,smellie's ,life1 i4 #cfd-cfe71 #aj1jjj copies were printed1 and the profit to the proprietors was ,l#db1jjj1 besides the payments for their respective work in the conduct of the publication as tradesmen1--,bell as engraver of all the plates1 and ,macfarquhar as sole printer4 ,according to ,constable 7,memoirs1 ii4 #cab71 the impression was begun at #ejjj copies1 and concluded with a sale of #ac1jjj4 ,james ,hunter1 an active bookseller of no character1 who had a shop in ,middle ,row1 ,holborn1 sold the book to the trade1 and on his failure ,thomson ,bonar1 a wine merchant1 who had married ,bell's daughter1 became the seller of the book4 ,he quarrelled with his father-in-law1 who would not see him for ten years before his death in #ahji4 ,when the edition was completed1 the copyright and remaining books were sold in order to wind up the concern1 and the whole was purchased by ,bell1 who gave ,l#ac a copy1 sold all the complete copies to the trade1 printed up the odd volumes1 and thus kept the work in the market for several years 7,constable1 ii4 #cab7 ,the supplement of the third edition1 printed for ,thomson ,bonar1 and edited by ,gleig1 was published in #ahja in #b vols4 #dto1 containing #afbd pages and #ej copperplates engraved by ,d4 ,lizars4 ,in the dedication to the king1 dated ,stirling1 #ajth ,december #ahjj1 ,dr ,gleig says3 ,the ,french ,encyclopedie had been accused1 and justly accused1 of having disseminated far and wide the seeds of anarchy and atheism4 ,if the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica shall in any degree counteract the tendency of that pestiferous work1 even these two volumes will not be wholly unworthy of your ,majesty's attention4 ,professor ,robison added #ai articles to the series he had begun when the third edition was so far advanced4 ,professor ,playfair assisted in ,mathematics4 ,dr ,thomas ,thomson wrote ,chemistry1 ,mineralogy and other articles1 in which the use of symbols was for the first time introduced into chemistry2 and these articles formed the first outline of his ,system of ,chemistry1 published at ,edinburgh in #ahjb1 #hvo1 #d vols42 the sixth edition1 #ahba4 ,the fourth edition1 printed for ,andrew ,bell1 was begun in #ahjj or #ahja1 and finished in #ahaj in #bj vols4 #dto1 containing #af1jcc pages1 with #eha plates engraved by ,bell4 ,the dedication to the king1 signed ,andrew ,bell1 is dated ,lauristoun1 ,edinburgh1 #ahji4 ,the preface is that of the third edition with the necessary alterations and additions in the latter part4 ,no articles were reprinted from the supplement1 as ,bell had not the copyright4 ,professor ,wallace's articles on mathematics were much valued1 and raised the scientific character of the work4 ,dr ,thomas ,thomson declined the editorship1 and recommended ,dr ,james ,millar1 afterwards editor of the ,encyclopaedia ,edinensis 7died on the #acth of ,july #ahbg74 ,he was fond of natural history and a good chemist1 but1 according to ,constable1 slow and dilatory and not well qualified4 ,andrew ,bell died on the #ajth of ,june #ahji1 aged eighty-three1 leaving1 says ,constable1 two sets of trustees1 one literary to make the money1 the other legal to lay it out after it was made4 ,the edition began with #abej copies and concluded at #djjj1 of which two-thirds passed through the hands of ,constable's firm4 ,early in #ahjd ,andrew ,bell had offered ,constable and his partner ,hunter the copyright of the work1 printing materials1 c41 and all that was then printed of the fourth edition1 for ,l#bj1jjj4 ,this offer was in agitation in ,march #ahjd1 when the two partners were in ,london4 ,on the #eth of ,may #ahjd1 after ,lord ,jeffrey's arrival in ,edinburgh1 as he relates to ,francis ,horner1 they entrusted him with a design1 on which he found that most of his friends had embarked with great eagerness1 for publishing an entire new encyclopaedia upon an improved plan4 ,stewart1 ,i understand1 is to lend his name1 and to write the preliminary discourse1 besides other articles4 ,playfair is to superintend the mathematical department1 and ,robison the natural philosophy4 ,thomas ,thomson is extremely zealous in the cause4 ,w4 ,scott has embraced it with great affection4444 ,the authors are to be paid at least as well as reviewers1 and are to retain the copyright of their articles for separate publication if they think proper 7,cockburn1 ,life of ,lord ,jeffrey1 #aheb1 ii4 #ij74 ,it was then1 perhaps1 that ,constable gave ,l#ajj to ,bonar for the copyright of the supplement4 ,the fifth edition was begun immediately after the fourth as a mere reprint4 ,the management of the edition1 or rather mismanagement1 went on under the lawyer trustees for several years1 and at last the whole property was again brought to the market by public sale4 ,there were about #ahjj copies printed of the five first volumes1 which formed one lot1 the copyright formed another lot1 and so on4 ,the whole was purchased by myself and in my name for between ,l#ac1jjj and ,l#ad1jjj1 and it was said by the wise booksellers of ,edinburgh and others that ,i had completely ruined myself and all connected with me by a purchase to such an enormous amount2 this was early in #ahab 7,constable1 ii4 #cad74 ,bonar1 who lived next door to the printing office1 thought he could conduct the book1 and had resolved on the purchase4 ,having a good deal of money1 he seemed to ,constable a formidable rival1 whose alliance was to be secured4 ,after sundry interviews it was agreed that ,constable should buy the copyright in his own name1 and that ,bonar should have one-third1 and also one-third of the copyright of the supplement1 for which he gave ,l#bjj4 ,dr ,james ,millar corrected and revised the last #ae volumes4 ,the preface is dated the #ast of ,december #ahad4 ,the printing was superintended by ,bonar1 who died on the #bfth of ,july #ahad4 ,his trustees were repaid his advances on the work1 about ,l#fjjj1 and the copyright was valued at ,l#aa1jjj1 of which they received one-third1 ,constable adding ,l#ejj1 as the book had been so extremely successful4 ,it was published in #bj vols41 #af1jag pages1 #ehb plates1 price ,l#cf1 and dated #ahag4 ,soon after the purchase of the copyright1 ,constable began to prepare for the publication of a supplement1 to be of four or1 at the very utmost1 five volumes4 ,the first article arranged for was one on ',chemistry' by ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 but he went abroad in ,october #ahac and ,i released him from his engagement1 and employed ,mr ,brande2 the second article was ,mr ,stewart's ,dissertation1 for which ,i agreed to pay him ,l#ajjj1 leaving the extent of it to himself1 but with this understanding1 that it was not to be under ten sheets1 and might extend to twenty 7,constable1 ii4 #cah74 ,dugald ,stewart1 in a letter to ,constable1 the #aeth of ,november #ahab1 though he declines to engage to execute any of his own suggestions1 recommends that four discourses should stand in front1 forming a general map of the various departments of human knowledge1 similar to the excellent discourse prefixed by ,d',alembert to the ,french ,encyclopedie1 together with historical sketches of the progress since ,bacon's time of modern discoveries in metaphysical1 moral and political philosophy1 in mathematics and physics1 in chemistry1 and in zoology1 botany and mineralogy4 ,he would only promise to undertake the general map and the first historical sketch1 if his health and other engagements permitted1 after the second volume of his ,philosophy of the ,human ,mind 7published in #ahac7 had gone to press4 ,for the second he recommended ,playfair1 for chemistry ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,he received ,l#ajjj for the first part of his dissertation 7#aff pages71 and ,l#gjj for the second 7#beg pages71 the right of publication being limited to the ,supplement and ,encyclopaedia4 ,constable next contracted with ,professor ,playfair for a dissertation to be equal in length or not to ,mr ,stewart's1 for ,l#bej2 but a short time afterwards ,i felt that to pay one eminent individual ,l#ajjj because he would not take less would be quite unfair1 and ,i wrote to the worthy ,professor that ,i had fixed his payment at ,l#ejj4 ,constable gave him ,l#ejj for the first part 7#abg pages71 and would have given as much for the second 7#ij pages7 if it had been as long4 ,his next object was to find out the greatest defects in the book1 and he gave ,professor ,leslie ,l#bjj and ,graham ,dalyell ,l#ajj for looking over it4 ,he then wrote out a prospectus and submitted it in print to ,stewart1 but the cautious philosopher referred him to ,playfair1 who returned it next day very greatly improved4 ,for this ,constable sent him six dozen of very fine old sherry1 only feeling regret that he had nothing better to offer4 ,he at first intended to have two editors1 one for the strictly literary and the other for the scientific department4 ,he applied to ,dr ,thomas ,brown1 who preferred writing trash of poetry to useful and lucrative employment4 ,at last he fixed on ,mr ,macvey ,napier 7born #aggg71 whom he had known from #agih1 and who had been a hard student1 and at college laid a good foundation for his future career1 though more perhaps in general information than in what would be1 strictly speaking1 called scholarship2 this1 however1 does not fit him the less for his present task4 ,constable1 in a letter dated the #aath of ,june #ahac1 offered him ,l#cjj before the first part went to press1 ,l#aej on the completion at press of each of the eight half volumes1 ,l#ejj if the work was reprinted or extended beyond #gjjj copies and ,l#bjj for incidental expenses4 ,in this way the composition of the four volumes1 including the introductory dissertations1 will amount to considerably more than ,l#ijjj4 ,in a postscript the certain payment is characteristically increased to ,l#aege1 the contingent to ,l#gce1 and the allowance for incidental expenses to ,l#cjj 7,constable1 ii4 #cbf74 ,napier went to ,london1 and obtained the co-operation of many literary men4 ,the supplement was published in half-volume parts from ,december #ahaf to ,april #ahbd4 ,it formed six volumes #dto1 containing #dicc pages1 #abe plates1 #i maps1 three dissertations and #ffi articles1 of which a list is given at the end4 ,the first dissertation1 on the progress of metaphysical1 ethical and political philosophy1 was by ,stewart1 who completed his plan only in respect to metaphysics4 ,he had thought it would be easy to adapt the intellectual map or general survey of human knowledge1 sketched by ,bacon and improved by ,d',alembert1 to the advanced state of the sciences1 while its unrivalled authority would have softened criticism4 ,but on closer examination he found the logical views on which this systematic arrangement was based essentially erroneous2 and1 doubting whether the time had come for a successful repetition of this bold experiment1 he forebore to substitute a new scheme of his own4 ,sir ,james ,mackintosh characterized this discourse as the most splendid of ,mr4 ,stewart's works1 a composition which no other living writer of ,english prose has equalled 7,edinburgh ,review1 xxvii4 #aia1 ,september #ahaf74 ,the second dissertation1 ,on the progress of mathematics and physics1 was by ,playfair1 who died #aith ,july #ahai1 when he had only finished the period of ,newton and ,leibnitz4 ,the third1 by ,professor ,brande1 ,on the progress of chemistry from the early middle ages to #ahjj1 was the only one completed4 ,these historical dissertations were admirable and delightful compositions1 and important and interesting additions to the ,encyclopaedia2 but it is difficult to see why they should form a separate department distinct from the general alphabet4 ,the preface1 dated ,march #ahbd1 begins with an account of the more important previous encyclopaedias1 relates the history of this to the sixth edition1 describes the preparation for the supplement and gives an outline of the contents1 and mentions under each great division of knowledge the principal articles and their authors' names1 often with remarks on the characters of both4 ,among the distinguished contributors were ,leslie1 ,playfair1 ,ivory1 ,sir ,john ,barrow1 ,tredgold1 ,jeffrey1 ,john ,bird ,sumner1 ,blanco ,white1 ,hamilton ,smith and ,hazlitt4 ,sir ,walter ,scott1 to gratify his generous friend ,constable1 laid aside ,waverley1 which he was completing for publication1 and in ,april and ,may #ahad wrote ,chivalry4 ,he also wrote ,drama in ,november #ahah1 and ,romance in the summer of #ahbc4 ,as it seemed to the editor that encyclopaedias had previously attended little to political philosophy1 he wrote ,balance of ,power1 and procured from ,james ,mill ,banks for ,savings1 ,education1 ,law of ,nations1 ,liberty of the ,press1 and other articles1 which1 reprinted cheaply1 had a wide circulation4 ,m',culloch wrote ,corn ,laws1 ,interest1 ,money1 ,political ,economy1 c4 ,mr ,ricardo wrote ,commerce and ,funding ,system1 and ,professor ,malthus1 in his article ,population1 gave a comprehensive summary of the facts and reasonings on which his theory rested4 ,in the article ,egypt ,dr ,thomas ,young first gave to the public an extended view of the results of his successful interpretation of the hieroglyphic characters on the stone of ,rosetta1 with a vocabulary of #bba words in ,english1 ,coptic1 ,hieroglyphic and ,enchorial1 engraved on four plates4 ,there were about #afj biographies1 chiefly of persons who had died within the preceding #cj years4 ,constable wished short biographical notices of the first founders of this great work1 but they were1 in the opinion of my editor1 too insignificant to entitle them to the rank which such separate notice1 it was supposed1 would have given them as literary men1 although his own consequence in the world had its origin in their exertions 7,memoirs1 ii4 #cbf74 ,it is to be regretted that this wish was not carried out1 as was done in the latter volumes of ,zedler4 ,arago wrote ,double ,refraction and ,polarization of ,light1 a note to which mentions his name as author4 ,playfair wrote ,aepinus1 and ,physical ,astronomy4 ,biot wrote ,electricity and ,pendulum4 ,he gave his assistance with alacrity1 though his articles had to be translated4 ,signatures1 on the plan of the ,encyclopedie1 were annexed to each article1 the list forming a triple alphabet1 ,a to ,,xxx1 with the full names of the #gb contributors arranged apparently in the order of their first occurrence4 ,at the end of vol4 vi4 are ,addenda and ,corrigenda1 including ,interpolation1 by ,leslie1 and ,polarization of ,light1 by ,arago4 ,the sixth edition1 revised1 corrected and improved1 appeared in half-volume parts1 price #afs4 in boards1 vol4 xx4 part ii4 completing the work in ,may #ahbc4 ,constable1 thinking it not wise to reprint so large a book year after year without correction1 in #ahbj selected ,mr ,charles ,maclaren 7#aghb-ahff71 as editor4 ,his attention was chiefly directed to the historical and geographical articles4 ,he was to keep the press going1 and have the whole completed in three years4 ,he wrote ,america1 ,greece1 ,troy1 c4 ,many of the large articles as ,agriculture1 ,chemistry1 ,conchology1 were new or nearly so2 and references were given to the supplement4 ,a new edition in #be vols4 was contemplated1 not to be announced till a certain time after the supplement was finished2 but ,constable's house stopped payment on the #aith of ,january #ahbf1 and his copyrights were sold by auction4 ,those of the ,encyclopaedia were bought by contract1 on the #afth of ,july #ahbh1 for ,l#faej1 by ,thomas ,allan1 proprietor of the ,caledonian ,mercury1 ,adam ,black1 ,abram ,thomson1 bookbinder1 and ,alexander ,wight1 banker1 who1 with the trustee of ,constable's estate1 had previously begun the seventh edition4 ,not many years later ,mr ,black purchased all the shares and became sole proprietor4 ,the seventh edition1 #ba vols4 #dto 7with an index of #ahg pages1 compiled by ,robert ,cox71 containing #ag1aja pages and #ejf plates1 edited by ,macvey ,napier1 assisted by ,james ,browne1 ,,ll4,d41 was begun in #ahbg1 and published from ,march #ahcj to ,january #ahdb4 ,it was reset throughout and stereotyped4 ,mathematical diagrams were printed in the text from woodcuts4 ,the first half of the preface was nearly that of the supplement4 ,the list of signatures1 containing #afg names1 consists of four alphabets with additions1 and differs altogether from that in the supplement3 many names are omitted1 the order is changed and #ajc are added4 ,a list follows of over #cjj articles1 without signatures1 by #hg writers4 ,the dissertations--#ast1 ,stewart's1 #bhi pages2 #bnd1 ,ethics 7#acf pages71 by ,sir ,james ,mackintosh1 whose death prevented the addition of ,political ,philosophy2 #crd1 ,playfair's1 #aci pages2 #dth1 its continuation by ,sir ,john ,leslie1 #ajj pages--and their index of #cj pages1 fill vol4 i4 ,as they did not include ,greek philosophy1 ,aristotle1 ,plato and ,socrates were supplied by ,dr ,hampden1 afterwards bishop of ,hereford4 ,among the numerous contributors of eminence1 mention may be made of ,sir ,david ,brewster1 ,prof4 ,phillips1 ,prof4 ,spalding1 ,john ,hill ,burton1 ,thomas ,de ,quincey1 ,patrick ,fraser ,tytler1 ,capt4 ,basil ,hall1 ,sir ,thomas ,dick ,lauder1 ,antonio ,panizzi1 ,john ,scott ,russell and ,robert ,stephenson4 ,zoology was divided into #aa chief articles1 ,mammalia1 ,ornithology1 ,reptilia1 ,ichthyology1 ,mollusca1 ,crustacea1 ,arachnides1 ,entomology1 ,helminthology1 ,zoophytes1 and ,animalcule--all by ,james ,wilson4 ,the eighth edition1 #ahec-ahfj1 #dto1 #ba vols4 7and index of #bci pages1 #ahfa71 containing #ag1ieg pages and #djb plates1 with many woodcuts1 was edited by ,dr ,thomas ,stewart ,traill1 professor of medical jurisprudence in ,edinburgh ,university4 ,the dissertations were reprinted1 with one on the ,rise1 ,progress and ,corruptions of ,christianity 7#ig pages71 by ,archbishop ,whately1 and a continuation of ,leslie's to #ahej1 by ,professor ,james ,david ,forbes1 #aih pages1 the work of nearly three years1 called by himself his magnum opus 7,life1 pp4 #cfa1 #cff74 ,lord ,macaulay1 ,charles ,kingsley1 ,isaac ,taylor1 ,hepworth ,dixon1 ,robert ,chambers1 ,rev4 ,charles ,merivale1 ,rev4 ,f4,w4 ,farrar1 ,sir ,john ,richardson1 ,dr ,scoresby1 ,dr ,hooker1 ,henry ,austin ,layard1 ,edw4 ,b4 ,eastwick1 ,john ,crawfurd1 ,augustus ,petermann1 ,baron ,bunsen1 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 ,dr ,lankester1 ,professors ,owen1 ,rankine1 ,william ,thomson1 ,aytoun1 ,blackie1 ,daniel ,wilson and ,jukes1 were some of the many eminent new contributors found among the #cdd authors1 of whom an alphabetical list is given1 with a key to the signatures4 ,in the preface a list of #bgi articles by #ahi writers1 classed under #ae heads1 is given4 ,this edition was not wholly reset like the seventh1 but many long articles were retained almost or entirely intact4 ,the publication of the ninth edition 7,a4 ,c4 ,black7 was commenced in ,january #ahge1 under the editorship of ,thomas ,spencer ,baynes until #ahhj1 and subsequently of ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 and completed in #ahhi1 #bd vols41 with index4 ,this great edition retained a certain amount of the valuable material in the eighth1 but was substantially a new work2 and it was universally acknowledged to stand in the forefront of the scholarship of its time4 ,its contributors included the most distinguished men of letters and of science4 ,in #ahih a reprint1 sold at about half the original price1 and on the plan of payment by instalments1 was issued by ,the ,times of ,london2 and in #aijb1 under the joint editorship of ,sir ,donald ,mackenzie ,wallace1 ,president ,arthur ,t4 ,hadley of ,yale ,university1 and ,hugh ,chisholm1 eleven supplementary volumes were published1 forming1 with the #bd vols4 of the ninth edition1 a tenth edition of #ce volumes4 ,these included a volume of maps1 and an elaborate index 7vol4 #ce7 to the whole edition1 comprising some #fjj1jjj entries4 ,in ,may #aijc a start was made with the preparation of the #aath edition1 under the general editorship of ,hugh ,chisholm1 with ,w4 ,alison ,phillips as chief assistant-editor1 and a staff of editorial assistants1 the whole work of organization being conducted up to ,december #aiji from ,the ,times office4 ,arrangements were then made by which the copyright and control of the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica passed to ,cambridge ,university1 for the publication at the ,university ,press in #aiaj-aiaa of the #bi volumes 7one being ,index7 of the #aath edition1 a distinctive feature of this issue being the appearance of the whole series of volumes practically at the same time4 ,a new and enlarged edition of the ,encyclopedie arranged as a system of separate dictionaries1 and entitled ,encyclopedie methodique ou par ordre de matieres1 was undertaken by ,charles ,joseph ,panckoucke1 a publisher of ,paris 7born at ,lille on the #bfth of ,november #agcf1 died on the #aith of ,december #agih74 ,his privilege was dated the #bjth of ,june #aghj4 ,the articles belonging to different subjects would readily form distinct dictionaries1 although1 having been constructed for an alphabetical plan1 they seemed unsuited for any system wholly methodical4 ,two copies of the book and its supplement were cut up into articles1 which were sorted into subjects4 ,the division adopted was3 #a1 mathematics2 #b physics2 #c1 medicine2 #d1 anatomy and physiology2 #e1 surgery2 #f1 chemistry1 metallurgy and pharmacy2 #g1 agriculture2 #h1 natural history of animals1 in six parts2 #i1 botany2 #aj1 minerals2 #aa1 physical geography2 #ab1 ancient and modern geography2 #ac1 antiquities2 #ad1 history2 #ae1 theology2 #af1 philosophy2 #ag1 metaphysics1 logic and morality2 #ah1 grammar and literature2 #ai1 law2 #bj1 finance2 #ba1 political economy2 #bb1 commerce2 #bc1 marine2 #bd1 art militaire2 #be1 beaux arts2 #bf1 arts et metiers--all forming distinct dictionaries entrusted to different editors4 ,the first object of each editor was to exclude all articles belonging to other subjects1 and to take care that those of a doubtful nature should not be omitted by all4 ,in some words 7such as air1 which belonged equally to chemistry1 physics and medicine7 the methodical arrangement has the unexpected effect of breaking up the single article into several widely separated4 ,each dictionary was to have an introduction and a classified table of the principal articles4 ,history and its minor parts1 as inscriptions1 fables1 medals1 were to be included4 ,theology1 which was neither complete1 exact nor orthodox1 was to be by the abbe ,bergier1 confessor to ,monsieur4 ,the whole work was to be completed and connected together by a ,vocabulaire ,universel1 #a vol4 #dto1 with references to all the places where each word occurred1 and a very exact history of the ,encyclopedie and its editions by ,panckoucke4 ,the prospectus1 issued early in #aghb1 proposed three editions--#hd vols4 #hvo1 #dc vols4 #dto with #c columns to a page1 and #ec vols4 #dto of about #ajj sheets with #b columns to a page1 each edition having #g vols4 #dto of #bej to #cjj plates each4 ,the subscription was to be #fgb livres from the #aeth of ,march to ,july #aghb1 then #gea1 and #hhh after ,april #aghc4 ,it was to be issued in livraisons of #b vols4 each1 the first 7jurisprudence1 vol4 i41 literature1 vol4 i47 to appear in ,july #aghb1 and the whole to be finished in #aghg4 ,the number of subscribers1 #djgb1 was so great that the subscription list of #fgb livres was closed on the #cjth of ,april4 ,twenty-five printing offices were employed1 and in ,november #aghb the #ast livraison 7jurisprudence1 vol4 i41 and half vol4 each of arts et metiers and histoire naturelle7 was issued4 ,a ,spanish prospectus was sent out1 and obtained #ccj ,spanish subscribers1 with the inquisitor-general at their head4 ,the complaints of the subscribers and his own heavy advances1 over #aej1jjj livres1 induced ,panckoucke1 in ,november #aghh1 to appeal to the authors to finish the work4 ,those en retard made new contracts1 giving their word of honour to put their parts to press in #aghh1 and to continue them without interruption1 so that ,panckoucke hoped to finish the whole1 including the vocabulary 7#d or #e vols471 in #agib4 ,whole sciences1 as architecture1 engineering1 hunting1 police1 games1 c41 had been overlooked in the prospectus2 a new division was made in #dd parts1 to contain #ea dictionaries and about #abd vols4 ,permission was obtained on the #bgth of ,february #aghi1 to receive subscriptions for the separate dictionaries4 ,two thousand subscribers were lost by the ,revolution4 ,the #ejth livraison appeared on the #bcrd of ,july #agib1 when all the dictionaries eventually published had been begun except seven--jeux familiers and mathematiques1 physics1 art oratoire1 physical geography1 chasses and peches2 and #ah were finished1--mathematics1 games1 surgery1 ancient and modern geography1 history1 theology1 logic1 grammar1 jurisprudence1 finance1 political economy1 commerce1 marine1 arts militaires1 arts academiques1 arts et metiers1 encyclopediana4 ,supplements were added to military art in #agig1 and to history in #ahjg1 but not to any of the other #af1 though required for most long before #ahcb4 ,the publication was continued by ,henri ,agasse1 ,panckoucke's son-in-law1 from #agid to #ahac1 and then by ,mme ,agasse1 his widow1 to #ahcb1 when it was completed in #ajb livraisons or #ccg parts1 forming #aff-a_/b vols4 of text1 and #ea parts containing #fdci plates4 ,the letterpress issued with the plates amounts to #edeh pages1 making with the text #abd1baj pages4 ,to save expense the plates belonging to architecture were not published4 ,pharmacy 7separated from chemistry71 minerals1 education1 ponts et chaussees had been announced but were not published1 neither was the ,vocabulaire ,universel1 the key and index to the whole work1 so that it is difficult to carry out any research or to find all the articles on any subject4 ,the original parts have been so often subdivided1 and have been so added to by other dictionaries1 supplements and appendices1 that1 without going into great detail1 an exact account cannot be given of the work1 which contains #hh alphabets1 with #hc indexes1 and #aff introductions1 discourses1 prefaces1 c4 ,many dictionaries have a classed index of articles2 that of economie politique is very excellent1 giving the contents of each article1 so that any passage can be found easily4 ,the largest dictionaries are medicine1 #ac vols41 #aj1ccj pages2 zoology1 #g dictionaries1 #ac1fde pages1 #abjf plates2 botany1 #ab1jjb pages1 #ajjj plates 7#cd only of cryptogamic plants72 geography1 #c dictionaries and #b atlases1 #ijij pages1 #aic maps and plates2 jurisprudence 7with police and municipalities71 #aj vols41 #gfjg pages4 ,anatomy1 #d vols41 #bhff pages1 is not a dictionary but a series of systematic treatises4 ,assemblee ,nationale was to be in three parts1--7#a7 the history of the ,revolution1 7#b7 debates1 and 7#c7 laws and decrees4 ,only vol4 ii41 debates1 appeared1 #agib1 #hjd pages1 ,absens to ,aurillac4 ,ten volumes of a ,spanish translation with a vol4 of plates were published at ,madrid to #ahjf--viz4 historia natural1 i4 ii42 grammatica1 i42 arte militar1 i41 ii42 geografia1 i4-iii42 fabricas1 i41 ii41 plates1 vol4 i4 ,a ,french edition was printed at ,padua1 with the plates1 says ,peignot1 very carefully engraved4 ,probably no more unmanageable body of dictionaries has ever been published except ,migne's ,encyclopedie theologique1 ,paris1 #ahdd-ahge1 #dto1 #afh vols41 #aja dictionaries1 #aai1jei pages4 ,no work of reference has been more useful and successful1 or more frequently copied1 imitated and translated1 than that known as the ,conversations ,lexikon of ,brockhaus4 ,it was begun as ,conversations ,lexikon mit vorzuglicher ,rucksicht auf die gegenwartigen ,zeiten1 ,leipzig1 #agif to #ahjh1 #hvo1 #f vols41 #bgfb pages1 by ,dr ,gotthelf ,renatus ,lobel 7born on the #ast of ,april #agfg at ,thalwitz near ,wurzen in ,saxony1 died on the #adth of ,february #agii71 who intended to supersede ,hubner1 and included geography1 history1 and in part biography1 besides mythology1 philosophy1 natural history1 c4 ,vols4 i4-iv4 7,a to ,r7 appeared #agif to #ahjj1 vol4 v4 in #ahjf4 ,friedrich ,arnold ,brockhaus 7q4v47 bought the work with its copyright on the #beth of ,october #ahjh1 for #ahjj thalers from the printer1 who seems to have got it in payment of his bill4 ,the editor1 ,christian ,wilhelm ,franke1 by contract dated the #afth of ,november1 was to finish vol4 vi4 by the #eth of ,december1 and the already projected supplement1 #b vols41 by ,michaelmas #ahji1 for #h thalers a printed sheet4 ,no penalty was specified1 but1 says his grandson1 ,brockhaus was to learn that such contracts1 whether under penalty or not1 are not kept1 for the supplement was finished only in #ahaa4 ,brockhaus issued a new impression as ,conversations ,lexikon oder kurzgefasstes ,handworterbuch1 c1 #ahji-ahaa1 and on removing to ,altenburg in #ahaa began himself to edit the #bnd edition 7#ahab-ahai1 #aj vols471 and1 when vol4 iv4 was published1 the #crd 7#ahad-ahai74 ,he carried on both editions together until #ahag1 when he removed to ,leipzig1 and began the #dth edition as ,allgemeine deutsche ,realencyclopadie fur die gebildeten ,stande4 ,conversations ,lexikon4 ,this title was1 in the #adth edition1 changed to that of ,brockhaus' ,konversations ,lexicon4 ,the #eth edition was at once begun1 and was finished in eighteen months4 ,dr ,ludwig ,hain assisted in editing the #dth and #eth editions until he left ,leipzig in ,april #ahbj1 when ,professor ,f4,c4 ,hasse took his place4 ,the #ab1jjj copies of the #eth edition being exhausted while vol4 x4 was at press1 a #bnd unaltered impression of #aj1jjj was required in #ahbj and a #crd of #aj1jjj in #ahbb4 ,the #fth edition1 #aj vols41 was begun in ,september #ahbb4 ,brockhaus died in #ahbc1 and his two eldest sons1 ,friedrich and ,heinrich1 who carried on the business for the heirs and became sole possessors in #ahbi1 finished the edition with ,hasse's assistance in ,september #ahbc4 ,the #gth edition 7#ahbg-ahbi1 #ab vols41 #aj1dhi pages1 #ac1jjj copies1 #bnd impression #ad1jjj7 was edited by ,hasse4 ,the #hth edition 7#ahcc-ahcf1 #ab vols41 #aj1fhi pages1 #ca1jjj copies to #ahdb71 begun in the autumn of #ahcb1 ended ,may #ahcg1 was edited by ,dr ,karl ,august ,espe 7born ,february #ahjd1 died in the ,irrenanstalt at ,stotteritz near ,leipzig on the #bdth of ,november #ahej7 with the aid of many learned and distinguished writers4 ,a general index1 ,universal ,register1 #bdb pages1 was added in #ahci4 ,the #ith edition 7#ahdc-ahdg1 #ae vols41 #aa1dgj pages1 over #cj1jjj copies7 was edited by ,dr ,espe4 ,the #ajth edition 7#ahea-ahee1 #ab1efd pages7 was also in #ae vols41 for convenience in reference1 and was edited by ,dr ,august ,kurtzel aided by ,oskar ,pilz4 ,friedrich ,brockhaus had retired in #ahdi2 ,dr ,heinrich ,edward1 the elder son of ,heinrich1 made partner in #ahed1 assisted in this edition1 and ,heinrich ,rudolf1 the younger son1 partner since #ahfc1 in the #aath 7#ahfd-ahfh1 #ae vols4 of #fj sheets1 #ac1cff pages74 ,kurtzel died on the #bdth of ,april #ahga1 and ,pilz was sole editor until ,march #ahgb1 when ,dr ,gustav ,stockmann joined1 who was alone from ,april until joined by ,dr ,karl ,wippermann in ,october4 ,besides the ,universal ,register of #acf pages and about #ej1jjj articles1 each volume has an index4 ,the supplement1 #b vols1 #agfd pages1 was begun in ,february #ahga1 and finished in ,april #ahgc4 ,the #abth edition1 begun in #ahge1 was completed in #ahgi in #ae vols41 the #acth edition 7#ahhb-ahhg71 in #af vols41 and the #adth 7#aija-aijc7 in #af vols4 with a supplementary volume in #aijd4 ,the ,conversations ,lexicon is intended1 not for scientific use1 but to promote general mental improvement by giving the results of research and discovery in a simple and popular form without extended details4 ,the articles1 often too brief1 are very excellent and trustworthy1 especially on ,german subjects1 give references to the best books1 and include biographies of living men4 ,one of the best ,german encyclopaedias is that of ,meyer1 ,neues ,konversations-,lexicon4 ,the first edition1 in #cg vols41 was published in #ahci-aheb4 ,the later editions1 following closely the arrangement of ,brockhaus1 are the #dth 7#ahhe-ahij1 #ag vols471 the #eth 7#ahid-ahih1 #ah vols471 and the #fth 7begun in #aijb74 ,the most copious ,german encyclopaedia is ,ersch and ,gruber's ,allgemeine ,encyklopadie der ,wissenschaften und ,kunste1 ,leipzig4 ,it was designed and begun in #ahac by ,professor ,johann ,samuel ,ersch 7born at ,gross ,glogau on the #bcrd of ,june #agff1 chief librarian at ,halle1 died on the #afth of ,january #ahbh7 to satisfy the wants of ,germans1 only in part supplied by foreign works4 ,it was stopped by the war until #ahaf1 when ,professor ,hufeland 7born at ,danzig on the #aith of ,october #agfj7 joined1 but he died on the #beth of ,november #ahag while the specimen part was at press4 ,the editors of the different sections at various times have been some of the best-known men of learning in ,germany1 including ,j4,g4 ,gruber1 ,m4,h4,e4 ,meier1 ,hermann ,brockhaus1 ,w4 ,muller and ,a4,g4 ,hoffmann of ,jena4 ,the work is divided into three sections 7#a7 ,a-,g1 of which #ii vols4 had appeared by #aije1 7#b7 ,h-,n1 #dc vols41 7#c7 ,o-,z1 #be vols4 ,all articles bear the authors' names1 and those not ready in time were placed at the end of their letter4 ,the longest in the work is ,griechenland1 vols4 #hj-hg1 #cffh pages1 with a table of contents4 ,it began to appear after vol4 #gc 7,gotze to ,gondouin71 and hence does not come in its proper place1 which is in vol4 #ia4 ,gross ,britannien contains #gjj pages1 and ,indien by ,benfey #cef4 ,the ,encyclopaedia ,metropolitana 7,london1 #ahde1 #dto1 #bh vols41 issued in #ei parts in #ahag-ahde1 #bb1dbf pages1 #efe plates7 professed to give sciences and systematic arts entire and in their natural sequence1 as shown in the introductory treatise on method by ,s4,t4 ,coleridge4 ,the plan was the proposal of the poet ,coleridge1 and it had at least enough of a poetical character to be eminently unpractical 7,quarterly ,review1 cxiii41 #cgi74 ,however defective the plan1 the excellence of many of the treatises by ,archbishop ,whately1 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 ,professors ,barlow1 ,peacock1 de ,morgan1 c41 is undoubted4 ,it is in four divisions1 the last only being alphabetical3--,i4 ,pure ,sciences1 #b vols41 #ahac pages1 #af plates1 #bh treatises1 includes grammar1 law and theology2 ,,ii4 ,mixed and ,applied ,sciences1 #h vols41 #ecia pages1 #dcg plates1 #db treatises1 including fine arts1 useful arts1 natural history and its application1 the medical sciences2 ,,iii4 ,history and ,biography1 #e vols41 #ddeh pages1 #g maps1 containing biography 7#ace essays7 chronologically arranged 7to ,thomas ,aquinas in vol4 #c71 and interspersed with 7#baj7 chapters on history 7to #ahae71 as the most philosophical1 interesting and natural form 7but modern lives were so many that the plan broke down1 and a division of biography1 to be in #b vols41 was announced but not published72 ,,iv4 ,miscellaneous1 #ab vols41 #aj1cch pages1 #aje plates1 including geography1 a dictionary of ,english 7the first form of ,richardson's7 and descriptive natural history4 ,the index1 #cfd pages1 contains about #ijjj articles4 ,a re-issue in #ch vols4 #dto1 was announced in #ahdi4 ,of a second edition #db vols4 #hvo1 #ad1gdd pages1 belonging to divisions i4 to iii41 were published in #ahdi-aheh4 ,the very excellent and useful ,english ,cyclopaedia 7,london1 #ahed-ahfb1 #dto1 #bc vols41 #ab1aag pages2 supplements1 #ahfi-ahgc1 #d vols41 #bheh pages71 conducted by ,charles ,knight1 based on the ,penny ,cyclopaedia 7,london1 #ahcc-ahdf1 #dto1 #bi vols41 #ae1fbe pages71 of which he had the copyright1 is in four divisions all alphabetical1 and evidently very unequal as classes3--#a1 geography2 #b1 natural history2 #c1 biography 7with #gjc lives of living persons72 #d1 arts and sciences4 ,the synoptical index1 #afh pages1 has four columns on a page1 one for each division1 so that the order is alphabetical and yet the words are classed4 ,chambers's ,encyclopaedia 7,edinburgh1 ,w4 ,r4 ,chambers71 #ahfj-ahfh1 #hvo1 #aj vols41 #hbhc pages1 edited in part by the publishers1 but under the charge of ,dr ,andrew ,findlater as acting editor throughout1 was founded on the #ajth edition of ,brockhaus4 ,a revised edition appeared in #ahgd1 #hcbj pages4 ,in the list of #abf contributors were ,j4,h4 ,burton1 ,emmanuel ,deutsch1 ,professor ,goldstucker1 c4 ,the index of matters not having special articles contained about #aejj headings4 ,the articles were generally excellent1 more especially on ,jewish literature1 folk-lore and practical science2 but1 as in ,brockhaus1 the scope of the work did not allow extended treatment4 ,a further revision took place1 and in #ahhh-ahib an entirely new edition was published1 in #aj vols41 still further new editions being issued in #ahie and in #aija4 ,an excellent brief compilation1 the ,harmsworth ,encyclopaedia 7#aije71 was published in #dj fortnightly parts 7sevenpence each7 in ,england1 and as ,nelson's ,encyclopaedia 7revised7 in #ab vols4 7#aijf7 in ,america4 ,it was originally prepared for ,messrs ,nelson of ,edinburgh and for the ,carmelite ,press1 ,london4 ,in the ,united ,states various encyclopaedias have been published1 but without rivalling there the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 the #ith edition of which was extensively pirated4 ,several ,american ,supplements were also issued4 ,the ,new ,american ,cyclopaedia1 ,new ,york 7,appleton ,co471 #aheh-ahfc1 #af vols41 #ab1geb pages1 was the work of the editors1 ,george ,ripley and ,charles ,anderson ,dana1 and #cfd contributors1 chiefly ,american4 ,a supplementary work1 the ,american ,annual ,cyclopaedia1 a yearly #hvo vol4 of about #hjj pages and #bej articles1 was started in #ahfa1 but ceased in #aijb4 ,in a new edition1 the ,american ,cyclopaedia1 #ahgc-ahgf1 #hvo1 #af vols41 #ac1dhd pages1 by the same editors1 #d associate editors1 #ca revisers and a librarian1 each article passed through the hands of #f or #h revisers4 ,other ,american encyclopaedias are ,alvin ,j4 ,johnson's ,new ,universal ,cyclopaedia1 #ahge-ahgg1 in #d vols41 a new edition of which 7excellently planned7 was published in #h vols41 #ahic-ahie1 under the name of ,johnson's ,universal ,cyclopaedia2 the ,encyclopaedia ,americana1 edited by ,francis ,lieber1 which appeared in #ahci-ahdg in #ad vols42 a new work under the same title1 published in #aijc-aijd in #af vols42 the ,international ,cyclopaedia1 first published in #ahhd 7revised in #ahia1 #ahid and #ahih71 and superseded in #aijb 7revised1 #aijf7 by the ,new ,international ,encyclopaedia in #ag vols4 ,in ,europe a great impetus was given to the compilation of encyclopaedias by the appearance of ,brockhaus' ,conversations-,lexicon 7see above71 which1 as a begetter of these works1 must rank1 in the #aith century1 with the ,cyclopaedia of ,ephraim ,chambers in the #ahth4 ,the following1 although in no sense an exhaustive list1 may be here mentioned4 ,in ,france1 ,le ,grand ,dictionnaire universel du ,,xixe siecle1 of ,pierre ,larousse 7#ae vols41 #ahff-ahgf71 with supplementary volumes in #ahgg1 #ahhg and #ahij2 the ,nouveau ,larousse illustre1 dictionnaire universel encyclopedique 7#g vols41 #aija-aijd71 7this is in no way a re-issue or an abridgment of ,le ,grand ,dictionnaire of ,pierre ,larousse72 ,la ,grande ,encyclopedie1 inventaire raisonne des sciences1 des lettres1 et des arts1 in #ca vols4 7#ahhf-aijc74 ,in ,italy1 the ,nuova ,enciclopedia ,italiana 7#ad vols41 #ahda-ahea1 and in #be vols41 #ahge-ahhh74 ,in ,spain1 the ,diccionario enciclopedico ,hispano-,americano de litteratura1 ciencias y artes1 published at ,barcelona 7#be vols41 #ahgg-ahii74 ,the ,russian encyclopaedia1 ,russkiy ,entsiklopedicheskiy ,slovar 7#da vols41 #aije1 #b supplementary vols41 #aijh7 was begun in #ahij as a ,russian version of ,brockhaus' ,conversations-,lexicon1 but has become a monumental encyclopaedia1 to which all the best ,russian men of science and letters have contributed4 ,elaborate encyclopaedias have also appeared in the ,polish1 ,hungarian1 ,bohemian and ,rumanian languages4 ,of ,scandinavian encyclopaedias there have been re-issues of the ,nordesk ,conversations-,lexicon1 first published in #aheh-ahfc1 and of the ,svenskt ,conversations-,lexicon1 first published in #ahde-ahea4 ,,endecott1 ,,john 7c4 #aehh-affe71 ,english colonial governor in ,america1 was born probably at ,dorchester1 ,dorsetshire1 ,england1 about #aehh4 ,little is known of him before #afbh1 when he was one of the six joint adventurers who purchased from the ,plymouth ,company a strip of land about #fj m4 wide along the ,massachusetts coast and extending westward to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,by his associates ,endecott was entrusted with the responsibility of leading the first colonists to the region1 and with some sixty persons proceeded to ,naumkeag 7later ,salem7 where ,roger ,conant1 a seceder from the colony at ,plymouth1 had begun a settlement two years earlier4 ,endecott experienced some trouble with the previous settlers and with ,thomas ,morton's settlement at ,merry ,mount 7,mount ,wollaston1 now ,quincy71 where1 in accordance with his strict ,puritanical tenets1 he cut down the maypole and dispersed the merrymakers4 ,he was the local governor of the ,massachusetts ,bay ,colony from the #cjth of ,april #afbi to the #abth of ,june #afcj1 when ,john ,winthrop1 who had succeeded ,matthew ,cradock as governor of the company on the #bjth of ,october #afbi1 brought the charter to ,salem and became governor of the colony as well as of the company4 ,in the years immediately following he continued to take a prominent part in the affairs of the colony1 serving as an assistant and as a military commissioner1 and commanding1 although with little success1 an expedition against the ,pequots in #afcf4 ,at ,salem he was a member of the congregation of ,roger ,williams1 whom he resolutely defended in his trouble with the ,new ,england clerical hierarchy1 and excited by ,williams's teachings1 cut the cross of ,st ,george from the ,english flag in token of his hatred of all symbols of ,romanism4 ,he was deputy-governor in #afda-afdd1 and governor in #afdd-afde1 and served also as sergeant-major-general 7commander-in-chief7 of the militia and as one of the commissioners of the ,united ,colonies of ,new ,england1 of which in #afeh he was president4 ,on the death of ,john ,winthrop in #afdi he became governor1 and by annual re-elections served continuously until his death1 with the exception of two years 7#afej-afea and #afed-afee71 when he was deputy-governor4 ,under his authority the colony of ,massachusetts ,bay made rapid progress1 and except in the matter of religious intolerance--he showed great bigotry and harshness1 particularly towards the ,quakers--his rule was just and praiseworthy4 ,of him ,edward ,eggleston says3 ,a strange mixture of rashness1 pious zeal1 genial manners1 hot temper1 and harsh bigotry1 his extravagances supply the condiment of humour to a very serious history--it is perhaps the principal debt posterity owes him4 ,he died on the #aeth of ,march #affe4 ,see ,c4,m4 ,endicott1 ,memoirs of ,john ,endecott 7,salem1 #ahdg71 and a ,memoir of ,john ,endecott in ,antiquarian ,papers of the ,american ,antiquarian ,society 7,worcester1 ,mass41 #ahgi74 ,a lineal descendant1 ,,william ,,crowninshield ,,endicott 7#ahbf-aijj71 graduated at ,harvard in #ahdg1 was a justice of the ,massachusetts supreme court in #ahgc-ahhb1 and was secretary of war in ,president ,cleveland's cabinet from #ahhe to #ahhi4 ,his daughter1 ,mary ,crowninshield ,endicott1 was married to the ,english statesman ,mr ,joseph ,chamberlain in #ahhh4 ,,endive1 ,cichorium ,endivia1 an annual esculent plant of the natural order ,compositae1 commonly reputed to have been introduced into ,europe from the ,east ,indies1 but1 according to some authorities1 more probably indigenous to ,egypt4 ,it has been cultivated in ,england for more than three hundred years1 and is mentioned by ,john ,gerarde in his ,herbal 7#aeig74 ,there are numerous varieties of the endive1 forming two groups1 namely1 the curled or narrow-leaved 7var4 crispa71 and the ,batavian or broad-leaved 7var4 latifolia71 the leaves of which are not curled4 ,the former varieties are those most used for salads1 the latter being grown chiefly for culinary purposes4 ,the plant requires a light1 rich and dry soil1 in an unshaded situation4 ,in the climate of ,england sowing for the main crop should begin about the second or third week in ,june2 but for plants required to be used young it may be as early as the latter half of ,april1 and for winter crops up to the middle of ,august4 ,the seed should be finely spread in drills #d in4 asunder1 and then lightly covered4 ,after reaching an inch in height the young plants are thinned2 and when about a month old they may be placed out at distances of #ab or #ae in41 in drills #c in4 in depth1 care being taken in removing them from the seed-bed to disturb their roots as little as possible4 ,the ,batavian require more room than the curled-leaved varieties4 ,transplantation1 where early crops are required1 has been found inadvisable4 ,rapidity of growth is promoted by the application of liquid manures4 ,the bleaching of endive1 in order to prevent the development of the natural bitter taste of the leaves1 and to improve their appearance1 is begun about three months after the sowing1 and is best effected either by tying the outer leaves around the inner1 or1 as in damp seasons1 by the use of the bleaching-pot4 ,the bleaching may be completed in ten days or so in summer1 but in winter it takes three or four weeks4 ,for late crops1 protection from frost is requisite2 and to secure fine winter endive1 it has been recommended to take up the full-grown plants in ,november1 and to place them under shelter1 in a soil of moderately dry sand or of half-decayed peat earth4 ,where forcing-houses are employed1 endive may be sown in ,january1 so as to procure by the end of the following month plants ready for use4 ,,endoeus1 an early sculptor1 who worked at ,athens in the middle of the #fth century ,b4,c4 ,we are told that he made an image of ,athena dedicated by ,callias the contemporary of ,pisistratus at ,athens about #efd ,b4,c4 ,an inscription bearing his name has been found at ,athens1 written in ,ionian dialect4 ,the tradition which made him a pupil of ,daedalus is apparently misleading1 since ,daedalus had no connexion with ,ionic art4 ,,endogamy 7,gr4 ,greek3 endon1 within1 and ,greek3 gamos1 marriage71 marriage within the tribe or community1 the term adopted to express the custom compelling those of a tribe to marry among themselves4 ,endogamy was probably characteristic of the very early stages of social organization 7see ,,family71 and is to-day found only among races low in the scale of civilization4 ,as a custom it is believed to have been preceded in most lands by the far more general rule of ,exogamy 7q4v474 ,lord ,avebury 7,origin of ,civilisation1 p4 #aed7 points out that there is not the opposition between exogamy and endogamy which ,mr ,mc,lennan supposed4 ,some races which are endogamous as regards the tribe are exogamous as regards the gens4 ,thus the ,abors1 ,kochs1 ,hos and other peoples of ,india1 are forbidden to marry out of the tribe2 but the tribe itself is divided into keelis or clans1 and no man is allowed to take as wife a girl of his own keeli4 ,endogamy must have in most cases arisen from racial pride1 and a contempt1 either well or ill founded1 for the surrounding peoples4 ,among the ,ahtena of ,alaska1 though the tribes are extremely militant and constantly at war1 the captured women are never made wives1 but are used as slaves4 ,endogamy also prevails among tribes of ,central ,america4 ,with the ,yerkalas of southern ,india a custom prevails by which the first two daughters of a family may be claimed by the maternal uncle as wives for his sons4 ,the value of a wife is fixed at twenty pagodas 7a #afth-century ,indian coin equivalent to about five shillings71 and should the uncle forgo his claim he is entitled to share in the price paid for his nieces4 ,among some of the ,karen tribes marriages between near relatives are usual4 ,the ,douignaks1 a branch of the ,chukmas1 seem to have practised endogamy2 and they abandoned the parent stem during the chiefship of ,janubrix ,khan about #aghb4 ,the reason of this split was a disagreement on the subject of marriages4 ,the chief passed an order that the ,douignaks should intermarry with the tribe in general4 ,this was contrary to an ancient custom and caused discontent and eventually a break in the tribe 7,lewin's ,hill ,tracts of ,chittagong1 p4 #fe74 ,this is interesting as being one of the few cases in which evidence of a change in this respect is available4 ,the ,kalangs of ,java are endogamous1 and every man must first prove his common descent before he can enter a family4 ,the ,manchu ,tatars prohibit those who have the same family names from marrying4 ,among the ,bedouins a man has an exclusive right to the hand of his cousin4 ,hottentots seldom marry out of their own kraal1 and ,david ,livingstone quotes other examples4 ,endogamy seems to have existed in the ,sandwich ,islands and in ,new ,zealand4 ,a community of ,javans near ,surabaya1 on the ,teugger ,hills1 numbering about #abjj persons1 distributed in about forty villages1 and still following the ancient ,hindu religion1 is endogamous4 ,good examples of what biologists call in-and-in breeding are to be found in various fishing villages in ,great ,britain1 such as ,itchinferry1 near ,southampton1 ,portland ,island1 ,bentham in ,yorkshire1 ,mousehole and ,newlyn in ,mountsbay1 ,cornwall1 ,boulmer near ,alnwick 7where almost all the inhabitants are called ,stephenson1 ,stanton or ,stewart71 ,burnmouth1 ,ross and 7to some extent7 ,eyemouth in ,berwickshire1 ,boyndie in ,banffshire1 ,rathen in ,aberdeenshire1 ,buckhaven in ,fifeshire1 ,portmahomack and ,balnabruach in ,eastern ,ross4 ,in ,france may be mentioned the commune of ,batz1 near ,le ,broisic in ,loire-,inferieur1 many of the central cantons of ,bretagne1 and the singular society called ,foreatines--supposed to be of ,irish descent--living between ,st ,arnaud and ,bourges4 ,many other ,european examples might be mentioned1 such as the ,marans of ,auvergne1 a race of ,spanish converted ,jews accused of introducing syphilis into ,france2 the ,burins and ,sermoyers1 chiefly cattle-breeders1 scattered over the department of ,ain and especially in the arrondissement of ,bourg-en-,bresse2 the ,vaqueros1 shepherds in the ,asturias ,mountains2 and the ,jewish ,chuetas of ,majorca4 ,see ,gilbert ,malcolm ,sproat's ,scenes and ,studies of ,savage ,life2 ,westermarck's ,history of ,human ,marriage 7#ahid72 ,lord ,avebury's ,origin of ,civilisation 7#aijb72 ,j4,f4 ,mc,lennan's ,primitive ,marriage 7#ahfe74 ,,endor1 an ancient town of ,palestine1 chiefly memorable as the abode of the sorceress whom ,saul consulted on the eve of the battle of ,gilboa1 in which he perished 7#a ,sam4 xxviii4 #e-be74 ,according to a psalmist 7,ps4 lxxxiii4 #i7 it was the scene of the rout of ,jabin and ,sisera4 ,although situated in the territory of the tribe of ,issachar1 it was assigned to ,manasseh4 ,in the time of ,eusebius and ,jerome ,endor existed as a large village #e m4 south of ,mount ,tabor2 there is still a poor village of the same name on the slope of ,jebel ,dahi1 near which are numerous caves4 ,for a description of the locality see ,stanley1 ,sinai and ,palestine1 p4 #ccg4 ,,endospora1 a natural group or class of the ,sporozoa1 consisting of the orders ,myxosporidia1 ,actinomyxidia1 ,sarcosporidia and ,haplosporidia1 together with various insufficiently-known forms 7,sero- and ,exosporidia71 regarded at present as ,sporozoa incertae sedis4 ,the distinguishing feature of the group is that the spore-mother-cells 7pansporoblasts7 arise in the interior of the body of the parent-individual2 in other words1 sporulation is endogenous4 ,another very general character--though not so universal--is that the adult trophozoite possesses more than one nucleus1 usually many 7i4e4 it is multinucleate74 ,in the majority of forms1 though apparently not in all 7e4g4 certain ,microsporidia71 sporulation goes on coincidently with growth and trophic life4 ,with regard to the origin of the group1 the probability is greatly in favour of a ,rhizopod ancestry4 ,the entire absence1 at any known period1 of a flagellate or even gregariniform phase2 on the other hand1 the amoeboid nature of the trophozoites in very many cases together with the formation of pseudopodia2 and1 lastly1 the simple endogenous spore-formation characteristic of the primitive forms1--are all points which support this view1 and exclude any hypothesis of a ,flagellate origin1 such as1 on the contrary1 is probably the case in the ,ectospora 7q4v474 #a4 ,order ,myxosporidia4 ,the ,myxosporidia1 or1 more correctly1 the dense masses formed by their spores1 were well known to the earlier zoological observers4 ,the parasites in fishes were called by ,muller fish-psorosperms1 a name which has stuck to them ever since1 although1 as is evident from the meaning of the term 7mange-seed71 ,muller had little idea of the true nature of the bodies4 ,other examples1 infesting silkworms1 have also long been known as ,pebrine-corpuscles1 from the ravaging disease which they produce in those caterpillars in ,france1 in connexion with which ,pasteur did such valuable work4 ,the foundation of our present morphological and biological knowledge of the order was well laid by the admirable researches of ,thelohan in #ahie4 ,in spite1 however1 of the contributions of numerous workers since then 7e4g4 ,doflein1 ,cohn1 ,stempell and others71 there are still one or two very important points1 such as the occurrence of sexual conjugation1 upon which light is required4 ,occurrence and habitat4 ,although pre-eminently parasites of fishes1 ,myxosporidia also occur1 in a few cases1 in other ,vertebrates 7frogs and reptiles72 no instance of their presence in a warm-blooded ,vertebrate has1 however1 yet been described4 ,one suborder 7the ,microsporidia or ,cryptocystes7 is pretty equally distributed between fishes on the one hand and ,invertebrates--chiefly1 but not exclusively1 ,arthropods--on the other4 ,the parasites are frequently the cause of severe and fatal illness in their hosts1 and devastating epidemics of myxosporidiosis have often been reported 7e4g4 among carp and barbel in continental rivers1 due to a ,myxobolus1 and among crayfish in ,france1 to ,thelohania74 ,the seat of the invasion and the mode of parasitism are extremely varied4 ,practically any organ or tissue may be attacked1 excepting1 apparently1 the testis and cartilage and bone4 ,in one instance at least 7that of ,nosema bombycis of the silkworm7 the parasites penetrate into the ova1 so that true hereditary infection occurs1 the progeny being born with the disease4 ,the parasites may be either free in some lumen1 such as that of the gall bladder or urinary bladder 7not of the alimentary canal1 or the body-cavity itself71 when they are known as coelozoic forms2 or in intimate relation with some tissue1 intracellular while young but becoming intercellular in the adult phase 7histozoic forms72 or entirely intracellular 7cytozoic forms74 ,among the histozoic and cytozoic types1 moreover1 two well-defined conditions1 concentration and diffuse infiltration1 occur4 ,in the former1 the parasitic zone is strictly limited1 and well-marked cysts are formed2 in the latter1 the infection spreads throughout the neighbouring tissue1 and the parasitic development becomes inextricably commingled with the host's cells4 ,sometimes1 as shown by ,woodcock 7#de71 there may be an attempt on the part of the host's tissue to circumscribe and check the growth of these parasitic areas1 which results in the formation of pseudocysts1 quite different in character from true cysts4 ,illustration3 ,from ,lankester's ,treatise on ,zoology1 vol4 ,protozoa1 from ,wasielewski1 after ,thelohan4 ,,fig4 #a4--,transverse section of a stickle-back 7,gasterosteus aculeatus71 showing two cysts of ,glugea anomala1 ,moniez 7kk71 in the body musculature on the right side4 ,illustration3 ,from ,lankester's ,treatise on ,zoology1 vol4 ,protozoa4 ,,fig4 #b4--,portion of a section through a muscle fibre of ,cottus scorpius invaded by ,pleistophora typicalis1 ,gurley4 m1 f1 ,muscle fibrils1 retaining their striation4 myx1 ,cysts of the parasite1 lying between the fibrils4 ,morphology4 ,the most noticeable feature about the ,myxosporidian trophozoite is its amoeboid and ,rhizopod-like character4 ,pseudopodia of various kinds1 from long slender ones 7fig4 #c1 ,b7 to short blunt lobose ones1 are of general occurrence1 being most easily observed1 of course1 in the free-living forms4 ,the pseudopodia serve chiefly for movement and attachment1 and never1 it should be noted1 for the injection of solid food-particles1 as in the case of ,amoebae4 ,the general protoplasm is divisible into ectoplasm and endoplasm4 ,the former is a clear1 finely-granular layer1 of which the pseudopodia are mainly constituted 7fig4 #c1 ,a74 ,in one or two instances 7e4g4 ,myxidium lieberkuhnii7 the ectoplasm shows a vertical striation1 and in the older trophozoites breaks down partially1 appearing like a fur of delicate1 non-motile filaments4 ,a somewhat similar modification is found in ,myxocystis4 ,the endoplasm is more fluid1 and contains numerous inclusions of a granular nature1 as well as vacuoles of varying size4 ,in the endoplasm are lodged the nuclei1 of which in an adult trophozoite there may be very many2 they are all derived by multiplication from the single nucleus with which the young individuals begin life1 the number increasing as growth proceeds4 ,illustration3 ,from ,wasielewski1 ,sporozoenkunde4 ,,fig4 #c4--;,a4 ,trophozoite of ,sphaerospora divergens1 ,thel4 7par4 ,blennius and ,crenilabrus71 ,x #gej4 ec1 ,ectoplasm2 en1 endoplasm2 sp1 spores1 each with four pole capsules4 ,from ,lankester's ,treatise on ,zoology1 vol4 ,protozoa4 ,b4 ,spore-bearing trophozoite of ,leptotheca agilis1 ,thel4 7par4 ,trygon and ,scorpaena71 ,x #gej4 ps1 ,pseudopodia localized at the anterior end2 f4gr1 fatty granules similarly localized2 r4gr1 refringent granules2 sp1 spores1 two in number4 ,spore-formation2 multiplicative processes4 ,spore-formation goes on entirely in the endoplasm4 ,the number of spores formed is very variable4 ,it may be as low as two 7as in free-living forms1 e4g4 ,leptotheca71 in which case a large amount of trophic protoplasm is unconverted into spores2 or1 on the other hand1 the number of spores may be very great 7as in tissue-parasites71 practically the whole of the parent-body being thus used up4 ,the sporont may or may not encyst at the commencement of sporulation4 ,in the free-living forms there is no cyst-membrane secreted2 but in certain ,glugeidae1 on the other hand1 the ectoplasm becomes altered into a firm1 enclosing layer1 the ectorind1 which forms a thick cyst-wall 7fig4 #e74 ,the process of sporulation begins by the segregation of small quantities of endoplasm around certain of the nuclei1 to form little1 rounded bodies1 the pansporoblasts4 ,there may be either very many or only few pansporoblasts developed2 in some cases1 indeed1 there is only one1 the sporont either itself becoming a pansporoblast 7certain ,microsporidia71 or giving rise to a solitary one 7,ceratomyxidae74 ,the pansporoblast constituted1 nuclear multiplication goes on preparatory to the formation of sporoblasts1 which in their turn become spores 7see figs4 #d and #e74 ,not all the nuclei thus formed1 however1 are made use of4 ,in the ,phaenocystes there are always two sporoblasts developed in each pansporoblast2 in the ,cryptocystes there may be from one to several4 ,around each sporoblast a spore-membrane is secreted1 which usually has the form of two valves4 ,it has recently been shown by ,leger and ,hesse 7#bi;b7 that1 in many ,phaenocystes at any rate1 each of these valves is formed by a definite nucleated portion of the sporoblast4 ,the spores themselves vary greatly in size and shape 7figs4 #g and #h74 ,they may be as small as #a4e mu by #a mu 7as in a species of ,nosema71 or as large as #ajj mu by #ab mu 7as in ,ceratomyxa74 ,a conspicuous feature in the structure of a fully-developed spore is the polar-capsules1 of which there may be either #a1 #b1 or #d to each4 ,in the ,phaenocystes the polar-capsules are visible in the fresh condition1 but not in the ,cryptocystes4 ,the polar-capsule is an organella which recalls the nematocyst of a ,hydrozoan1 containing a spirally-coiled filament1 often of great length1 which is shot out on the application of a suitable stimulus4 ,normally1 as was ingeniously shown by ,thelohan 7#dc71 the digestive juices of the fresh host serve this purpose1 but various artificial means may suffice4 ,the function of the everted filament is probably to secure the attachment of the spore to the epithelium of the new host4 ,in the ,phaenocystes1 in connexion with each polar-capsule1 a small nuclear body can be generally made out2 these two little nuclei are those of the two capsulogenous areas of the protoplasm of the pansporoblast1 which formed the capsules4 ,the sporoplasm1 representing the sporozoite1 is always single4 ,nevertheless1 in the ,phaenocystes it is invariably binuclear2 and1 in the ,microsporidia1 the nucleus1 at first single1 gives rise later to four nuclei1 two of which are regarded by ,stempell 7#db7 as corresponding to those of two polar-capsules 7of which only one is developed in the spore71 the remaining two representing germ-nuclei4 ,hence it is possible that the ,myxosporidian sporoplasm really consists of two1 incompletely-divided 7sister7 germs4 ,moreover1 it is supposed by some that these two nuclei fuse together later1 this act representing a sexual conjugation2 since the earliest known phases of young trophozoites 7amoebulae7 have been described as uninuclear4 ,illustration3 ,from ,lankester's ,treatise on ,zoology1 vol4 ,protozoa1 after ,thelohan4 ,,fig4 #d4--,stages in spore-formation4 ,all the figures are from ,myxobolus ellipsoides1 except a and f1 which are from ,m4 pfeifferi4 a1 ,differentiation of the pansporoblast 7p4sp74 b1 ,pansporoblast with two nuclei4 c and d1 ,pansporoblasts with six and ten nuclei respectively2 in d1 four of the nuclei are degenerating4 e1 ,pansporoblast segmented into two definitive sporoblasts1 each with three nuclei4 ,in the next four figures the definitive sporoblast1 or the spore produced from it1 is alone figured4 f1 ,definitive sporoblast segmented into three masses1 the capsulogenous cells 7c4g4c7 and the sporoplasm 7sp4p71 within an envelope1 the spore membrane 7sp4m74 g1 ,more advanced stage4 h1 ,spore completely developed1 with two polar capsules and sporoplasm containing an iodinophilous vacuole4 i1 ,abnormal spore containing six polar capsules4 n1 ,nuclei4 sp4bl1 ,definitive sporoblast4 r4n1 ,residuary nuclei4 vac1 ,vacuole4 r4p4c1 ,rudiment of p4c1 polar capsule4 n4p4c1 ,nuclei of polar capsules4 iod4vac1 ,iodinophilous vacuole4 n4sp1 ,nuclei of sporoplasm4 ,illustration3 ,from ,woodcock1 ,proc4 and ,trans4 of the ,liverpool ,biological ,society1 #aijd4 ,,fig4 #e4--,part of the periphery of a cyst of ,glugea stephani1 in the intestinal wall of the plaice1 showing sporoblast and spore-formation4 ect1 ,ectorind4 end1 ,endoplasm4 endoth1 ,fold of the mucous membrane1 normal in character4 p4sp4bl1 ,various stages in the development of the pansporoblasts4 sp1 ,ripe spores1 filling the greater part of the cyst4 n1 ,large 7vegetative7 nuclei4 ,illustration3 ,from ,lankester's ,treatise on ,zoology1 vol4 ,protozoa4 ,,fig4 #f4--;,formation of buds by multiple plasmotomy in ,myxidium lieberkuhnii1 ,butschli 7par4 ,esox and ,lota7 after ,cohn4 b1 ,buds4 end1 ,endoplasm2 the clear outer portion represents the ectoplasm4 ,in addition to spore-formation1 two or three modes of endogenous reproduction1 serving for auto-infection1 have been made known4 ,one1 termed by ,doflein plasmotomy1 consists either in the division of the 7multinucleate7 trophozoite into two1 by more or less equal fission 7simple plasmotomy71 or in the budding-off1 from the parent trophozoite1 of several portions 7example3 ,myxidium lieberkuhnii1 fig4 #f74 ,a variety of this method has been described by ,stempell 7#dj7 in the case of the young trophozoites 7meronts7 of ,thelohania mulleri1 which may divide into two while still uninuclear2 and by rapid successive divisions chains of meronts may be formed1 the different individuals being incompletely separated4 ,another method1 which is probably chiefly responsible for the rapid spread of tissue-parasites and cell-parasites 7such as ,myxobolidae and ,glugeidae7 through their host's tissue in the condition of diffuse infiltration1 consists in multiple nuclear division1 and the liberation of amoebulae while the parasite is yet quite young and possesses only few nuclei4 ,as ,woodcock has pointed out in considering the case of ,glugea stephani1 it is very probable that this multiplicative reproduction1 in diffuse infiltration1 is to be looked upon as a separation of the pansporoblast-rudiments as daughter-individuals2 i4e4 that the pansporoblasts are1 in certain circumstances1 capable of independent existence as little sporonts4 ,a further stage in this direction of evolution is seen1 according to ,stempell1 in ,thelohania1 ,pleistophora and other types where the whole individual becomes one reproductive organella2 such forms are to be considered as examples of a phylogenetic individualization of the pansporoblasts1 which now exist as solitary sporonts4 ,an extreme case of this reduction of the individual is found1 apparently in the genus ,nosema1 as lately characterized by ,perez 7#cd71 where vast numbers of minute entirely independent sporonts 7pansporoblasts7 are produced1 each of which gives rise to only a single spore4 ,the ,myxosporidia are divided into two suborders1 the ,phaenocystes and the ,cryptocystes4 ,some authors have of late years separated these two divisions and raised each to the rank of a distinct order1 considering that they are not more closely related to each other than to other ,endosporan orders4 ,we think this is a mistake2 and it is very interesting to find that ,leger and ,hesse 7#aijh7 have described 7#bi;a7 a new genus of ,phaenocystes1 ,coccomyxa1 which represents a type intermediate between these two suborders1 and shows that they are closely connected4 ,classification4 ,suborder #a3 ,phaenocystes1 ,gurley4 ,spores relatively large1 with generally two or four polar-capsules1 visible in the fresh condition4 ,there are nearly always two spores formed in each pansporoblast4 ,section 7a73 ,disporea4 ,only two spores 7i4e4 one pansporoblast7 produced in each individual trophozoite4 ,the greatest length of the spore is at right angles to the plane of the suture4 ,one family1 ,ceratomyxidae1 including two genera1 ,ceratomyxa 7fig4 #c1 ,b7 and ,leptotheca1 typically free parasites1 mostly from the gall bladders of fishes4 ,the valves of the spore in the former genus are prolonged into hollow cones4 ,the type-species of this genus is ,c4 sphaerulosa1 from ,mustelus and ,galeus2 that of ,leptotheca is ,l4 agilis1 from ,trygon4 ,section 7b73 ,polysporea4 ,more than two spores1 generally very many1 are produced typically by each individual trophozoite4 ,the greatest length of the spore is usually in the sutural plane4 ,family1 ,myxidiidae4 ,spores with two polar-capsules1 and without an iodinophilous vacuole in the sporoplasm4 ,mostly free parasites4 ,gen4 ,sphaerospora4 ,four or five species are known1 from the kidneys or gall bladder of fishes 7fig4 #c1 ,a74 ,one1 ,s4 elegans1 is interesting in that it affords a transition between the two sections1 being disporous4 ,gen4 ,myxidium2 spores elongated and fusiform1 with a polar capsule at each extremity4 ,the best-known species is ,m4 lieberkuhnii1 from the urinary bladder of the pike4 ,one or two species occur in reptiles4 ,other genera are ,sphaeromyxa1 ,cystodiscus1 ,myxosoma and ,myxoproteus4 ,family1 ,chloromyxidae4 ,spores with four polar capsules and no iodinophilous vacuole4 ,one genus1 ,chloromyxum1 of which several species are known2 the type being ,c4 leydigi1 from the gall bladder of various ,elasmobranchs 7fig4 #g1 ,b74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,a4 ,spore of ,ceratomyxa sphaerulosa1 ,thel4 7par4 ,mustelus and ,galeus71 ,x #gej1 after ,thelohan4 sp4p1 ,sporoplasm2 p4c1 polar capsules2 s1 suture2 x1 irregular1 pale masses1 of undetermined origin4 ,from ,lankester's ,treatise on ,zoology1 vol4 ,protozoa4 ,b4 ,spores of ,chloromyxidae1 after ,thelohan4 a1 ,chloromyxum leydigi1 ,ming41 seen from the sutural aspect1 ,x #bbej2 b1 ,c4 caudatum1 ,thel41 ,x #aijj4 p4c1 ,polar capsules2 s1 suture2 f1 filaments2 p4s1 tail-like process of the spore envelope4 ,from ,wasielewski's ,sporozoenkunde4 ,c4 ,spores of ,myxobolus ellipsoides1 ,thel4 ,the spores on the left and right are lying with the sutural plane horizontal1 that in the middle with the sutural plane vertical4 ,family1 ,myxobolidae4 ,spores with two polar-capsules 7exceptionally one71 and with a characteristic iodinophilous vacuole in the sporoplasm4 ,typically tissue parasites of ,teleosteans1 often very dangerous4 ,genus ,myxobolus4 ,spores oval or rounded1 without a tail-like process4 ,very many species are known1 which are grouped into three subsections3 7a7 forms with only one polar-capsule1 such as ,m4 piriformis1 of the tench2 7b7 forms with two unequal capsules1 e4g4 ,m4 dispar from ,cyprinus and ,leuciscus2 and 7c7 the great majority of species with two equal polar-capsules1 including ,m4 mulleri1 the type-species1 from different fish1 ,m4 cyprini and ,m4 pfeifferi1 the cause of deadly disease in carp and barbel respectively and others4 ,other genera are ,henneguya and ,hoferellus1 differing from ,myxobolus in having1 respectively1 one or two tail-like processes to the spore4 ,lentospora1 according to ,plehn 7#cg71 lacks an iodinophilous vacuole4 ,family ,coccomyxidae4 ,the pansporoblasts produce 7probably7 only one spore4 ,spore oval1 large 7#ad mu by #e4e mu71 with a single very large polar-capsule4 ,sporoplasm with no vacuole4 ,single genus ,coccomyxa1 with the characters of the family4 ,one species1 ,c4 morovi1 ,leger and ,hesse1 from the gall bladder of the sardine4 ,the spore greatly resembles a ,cryptocystid spore4 ,suborder #b3 ,cryptocystes1 ,gurley 7 ,microsporidia1 ,balbiani74 ,spores minute1 usually pear-shaped1 with only one polar-capsule1 which is visible only after treatment with reagents4 ,the number of spores formed in each pansporoblast varies greatly in different forms4 ,section 7a73 ,polysporogenea4 ,the trophozoite produces numerous pansporoblasts1 each of which gives rise to many spores4 ,genus ,glugea1 with numerous species1 of which the best-known is ,g4 anomala1 from the stickleback 7fig4 #a74 ,the genus ,myxocystis1 which has been shown by ,hesse 7#bd7 to be a true ,microsporidian1 is placed by ,perez in this section1 but this is a little premature1 as ,hesse does not describe the exact character of the sporulation1 i4e4 with regard to the number of pansporoblasts and the spores they produce4 ,section 7b73 ,oligosporogenea4 ,the trophozoite becomes itself the 7single7 pansporoblast4 ,in ,pleistophora1 the pansporoblast produces many spores2 ,p4 typicalis1 from the muscles of various fishes 7fig4 #b71 is the type-species4 ,in ,thelohania1 eight spores are formed2 the different species are parasitic in ,crustacea4 ,in ,gurleya1 parasitic in ,daphnia1 only four are formed2 and1 lastly1 in ,nosema 7exs4 ,n4 pulvis1 from ,carcinus1 and1 most likely1 ,n4 bombycis1 of the silkworm71 each pansporoblast produces only a single spore4 #b4 ,order--,actinomyxidia4 ,this order comprises a peculiar group of parasites1 first described by ,a4 ,stolc in #ahii1 which are restricted to ,oligochaete worms of the family ,tubificidae4 ,most forms attack the intestinal wall1 often destroying its epithelium over considerable areas2 but one genus1 ,sphaeractinomyxon1 inhabits the body-cavity of its host4 ,the researches of ,caullery and ,mesnil 7#aj-ab7 and of ,leger 7#bh and #bi7 have shown that the parasites exhibit the typical features of the ,endospora1 and the spores possess the characteristic polar-capsules of the ,myxosporidian spore1 but differ therefrom by their more complicated structure4 ,illustration3 ,from ,lankester's ,treatise on ,zoology1 vol4 ,protozoa4 ,,fig4 #h4--,spores of various ,glugeidae1 ,x #aejj 7after ,thelohan74 a and b1 ,pleistophora typicalis1 ,gurley2 a in the fresh condition1 b after treatment with iodine water1 causing extrusion of the filament4 c and d1 ,thelohania octospora1 ,henneguy2 c fresh1 d treated with ether4 e1 ,glugea depressa1 ,thel41 fresh4 f1 ,g4 acuta1 ,thel4 ,the growth and development of an ,actinomyxidian have been recently worked out by ,caullery and ,mesnil in the case of ,sphaeractinomyxon stolci4 ,a noteworthy point is the differentiation of an external 7covering7 cellular layer1 which affords1 perhaps1 the nearest approach to distinct tissue-formation known among ,protozoa4 ,this envelope is formed soon after nuclear multiplication of the young trophozoite has begun1 and is constituted by two nuclei and a thin1 peripheral layer of cytoplasm4 ,it remains binuclear throughout the entire period of development1 and serves as a delicate cyst-membrane4 ,the multiplication of the internal nuclei is accompanied by a corresponding division of the cytoplasm2 so that instead of a multinucleate or plasmodial condition1 distinct uninucleate cellules are formed1 up to sixteen in number4 ,these cellules1 as a matter of fact1 are sexual elements or gametes2 and eight of them can be distinguished from the other eight by slight differences in the nuclei4 ,the gametes unite in couples1 each couple being most probably composed of dissimilar members3 in other words1 conjugation is slightly anisogamous4 ,each of these eight copulae gives rise to a spore4 ,as the name of the order implies1 there are always eight spores formed4 ,these differ from other ,endosporan spores in having invariably a ternary symmetry and constitution 7fig4 #i74 ,the wall of the spore is composed of three valves1 each formed from an enveloping cell1 and three capsular cells1 placed at the upper or anterior pole1 and containing each a polar-capsule1 visible in the fresh condition4 ,the valves are usually prolonged into processes or appendages1 whose form and arrangement characterize the genus2 but in ,sphaeractinomyxon the spore is spherical and lacks processes4 ,the sporoplasm may be either a plasmodial mass1 with numerous nuclei1 or may form a certain number of uninuclear sporozoites4 ,a remarkable feature in the development of the spore is that the germinal tissue 7sporoplasm7 arises separate from and outside the cellules which give rise to the spore-wall2 later1 when the envelopes are nearly developed1 the sporoplasm penetrates into the spore4 ,four genera have been made known4 7#a7 ,hexactinomyxon1 ,stolc4 ,spores having the form of an anchor with six arms2 sporoplasm plasmodial1 situate near the anterior pole of the spore4 ,one sp4 ,h4 psammoryctis1 from ,psammoryctes4 7#b7 ,triactinomyxon1 ,st4 ,spores having the form of an anchor with three arms2 distinct sporozoites1 disposed near the anterior pole4 ,t4 ignotum1 with eight spores1 from ,tubifex tubifex1 and also from an unspecified ,tubificid2 another sp41 unnamed1 with #cb sporozoites1 also from ,t4 t4 7#c7 ,synactinomyxon1 ,st4 ,spores united to one another1 each having two aliform appendages2 sporoplasm plasmodial4 ,one sp41 ,s4 tubificis1 from ,t4 rivulorum4 7#d7 ,sphaeractinomyxon1 ,c4 and ,m4 ,spores spherical1 without aliform prolongations2 sporoplasm gives rise to very many sporozoites1 occupying the whole spore4 ,one sp41 ,s4 stolci1 from ,clitellio and ,hemitubifex4 ,illustration3 ,from ,lankester's ,treatise on ,zoology1 vol4 ,protozoa4 ,,fig4 #i4--,spores of ,actinomyxidia 7after ,stolc74 a1 ,hexactinomyxon psammoryctis 7par4 ,psammoryctes barbatus74 b1 ,synactinomyxon tubificis 7par4 ,tubifex rivulorum72 the mass of united spores4 c1 ,triactinomyxon ignotum 7par4 ,clitellio1 sp474 d1 ,upper portion of ,hexactinomyxon1 showing two of the three polar capsules1 one with filament discharged4 ,illustration3 ,from ,wasielewski's ,sporozoenkunde4 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,a4 ,sarcosporidia in the ox2 a transverse section of the oesophagus1 natural size1 showing the parasites in the outer 7a1 b1 c1 d1 e7 and inner 7f1 g1 h7 muscular coats4 ,b4 ,longitudinal section of a muscle-fibre containing a ,sarcosporidian parasite1 ,x #fj4 #c4 ,order--,sarcosporidia4 ,with the exception of one or two forms occurring in reptiles1 these parasites are always found in warm-blooded ,vertebrates1 usually ,mammals4 ,they are of common occurrence in domestic animals1 such as pigs1 sheep1 horses and 7sometimes7 cattle4 ,a ,sarcosporidian has also been described from man4 ,the characteristic habitat is the striped muscle1 generally of the oesophagus 7fig4 #aj1 ,a7 and heart1 but in acute cases the parasites overrun the general musculature4 ,when this occurs1 as often happens in mice1 the result is usually fatal4 ,unless1 however1 the organisms thus spread throughout the body1 the host does not appear to suffer any serious consequences4 ,in addition to the effects produced by the general disturbance to the tissues1 the attacked animals have apparently to contend--at any rate in the case of ,sarcocystis tenella in the sheep--with a poison secreted by the parasite4 ,for ,laveran and ,mesnil 7#bg7 have isolated a toxine from this form1 which they have termed sarcocystin4 ,in the early stages of growth1 a ,sarcosporidian appears as an elongated whitish body lodged in the substance of a muscle-fibre2 this phase has long been known as a ,miescher's tube1 or ,miescheria4 ,the youngest trophozoites that have been yet observed 7by ,bertram1 #a7 were multinucleate 7fig4 #aa1 ,a71 but there is no reason to doubt that they begin life in a uninuclear condition4 ,the protoplasm is limited by a delicate cuticle4 ,with growth1 organellae corresponding to the ,myxosporidian pansporoblasts are formed by the segregation internally of little uninuclear spheres of protoplasm4 ,at the same time1 a thick striated envelope is developed around the parasite1 which later comes to look like a fur of fine filaments4 ,the probable explanation of this feature 7given by ,vuillemin1 #dd7 is that it is due to the partial breaking down of a stiff1 vertically 7or radially7 striated external layer 7fig4 #ab1 ,a71 such as is seen in ,myxidium lieberkuhnii4 ,immediately internal to this is a thin1 homogeneous membrane1 which sends numerous partitions or septa inwards2 these divide up the endoplasm into somewhat angular chambers or alveoli 7fig4 #ab74 ,in each chamber is a pansporoblast1 which divides up to produce many spores2 hence the spores formed from different pansporoblasts are kept more or less separate4 ,the pansporoblasts originate1 in a growing ,sarcosporidian1 at the two poles of the body1 where the peripheral endoplasm with its nuclei is chiefly aggregated4 ,more internally1 spore-formation is in progress2 and in the centre1 pansporoblasts full of ripe spores are found4 ,by this time the parasite has greatly distended the muscle-fibre in which it has hitherto lain1 absorbing1 with its growth1 practically all the contractile-substance1 until it is surrounded only by the sarcolemma and sarcoplasm4 ,it next passes into the adjacent connective-tissue1 and in this phase has been distinguished from ,miescheria as ,balbiania1 under the impression that the two forms were quite distinct4 ,in the later stages1 the parasite may become more rounded1 and a cyst may be secreted around it by the host's tissue4 ,in these older forms1 the most centrally placed spores degenerate and die1 having become over-ripe and stale4 ,illustration3 ,after ,bertram1 from ,wasielewski's ,sporozoenkunde4 ,,fig4 #aa4--,stages in the growth of ,sarcocystis tenella of the sheep4 ,a1 ,youngest observed stage in which the radially striated outer coat has not appeared2 the body of the trophozoite is already divided into a number of cells or pansporoblasts 7k74 ,b and ,c1 ,older stages with numerous pansporoblasts and two envelopes1 an inner membrane and an outer radially striated layer4 ,with regard to the spores themselves and what becomes of them1 our knowledge is defective4 ,two kinds of reproductive germ have been described1 termed respectively gymnospores 7so-called sporozoites1 ,rainey's corpuscles7 and chlamydospores1 or simply spores4 ,it seems probable that the former serve for endogenous or auto-infection1 and the latter for infecting fresh hosts4 ,unfortunately1 however1 both kinds of germ are not yet known in the case of any one species4 ,the gymnospores1 which are the more commonly found 7e4g4 in ,s4 muris1 ,s4 miescheriana of the pig1 and other forms71 are small sickle-shaped or reniform bodies which are more or less amoeboid1 and capable of active movement at certain temperatures4 ,they appear to be naked1 and consist of finely granular protoplasm1 containing a single nucleus and one or two vacuoles4 ,the chlamydospores1 or true spores1 occur in ,s4 tenella of sheep 7fig4 #ac71 and have been described by ,laveran and ,mesnil 7#bf74 ,they also are falciform1 but one extremity is rounded1 the other pointed4 ,there is a very thin1 delicate membrane1 most unlike a typical1 resistant spore-wall2 and the spores themselves are extremely fragile and easily acted upon and deformed by reagents1 even by distilled water4 ,the rounded end of the spore contains a large nucleus1 while at the other end is an oval1 clear space1 which1 in the fresh condition1 shows a distinct spiral striation4 ,the exact significance of this structure has been much debated4 ,in position and appearance it recalls the polar-capsule of a ,myxosporidian spore4 ,the proof of this interpretation would be the expulsion of a filament on suitably stimulating the spore2 while1 however1 some investigators have asserted that such a filament is extruded1 this cannot be regarded as at all certain4 ,hence it is still doubtful whether this striated body really corresponds to a polar-capsule4 ,illustration3 ,from ,wasielewski's ,sporozoenkunde4 ,fig4 #ab4--;,a1 ,sarcocystis miescheriana 7,kuhn7 from the pig3 late stage in which the body has become divided up into numerous chambers or alveoli1 each containing a number of germs4 ,b1 ,sarcocystis of the ox3 section of a stage similar to fig4 #ab4 a1 ,substance of muscle-fibre2 b1 envelope of parasite2 c1 nuclei of the muscle2 d1 parasitic germs 7gymnospores72 e1 walls of the alveoli4 ,in the peripheral alveoli are seen immature germs4 ,illustration3 7,after ,laveran and ,mesnil1 from ,lankester's ,treatise on ,zoology1 vol4 ,protozoa47 ,,fig4 #ac4--,spores of ,sarcocystis tenella1 ,raill41 from the sheep4 a1 ,spore in the fresh condition1 showing a clear nucleus 7n7 and a striated body or capsule 7c74 b1 ,stained spore2 the nucleus 7n7 shows a central karyosome2 the striations of the polar capsule 7c7 are not visible4 ,nothing whatever is known as to the natural means by which infection with ,sarcosporidia is brought about4 ,smith 7#ci7 showed that mice can be infected with ,sarcocystis muris by simply feeding them on the flesh of infected mice4 ,it is not very likely1 however1 that this represents the natural mode1 even in the case of mice2 and it certainly cannot do so in the case of ,herbivora4 ,the difficulty in the way is the delicacy of the spores1 which seem totally unfitted to withstand external conditions4 ,it may be that some alternative 7intermediate7 host is concerned in dispersal2 but this has yet to be ascertained4 ,all known ,sarcosporidia are included in a single genus ,sarcocystis1 ,lank4 7 ,miescheria ,balbiania1 ,blanchard47 ,some of the principal species are3 ,s4 miescheriana1 from pigs2 ,s4 tenella1 from sheep2 ,s4 bertrami1 from horses2 ,s4 blanchardi1 from ,bovines2 ,s4 muris1 from mice2 ,s4 platydactyli1 from the gecko2 and lastly1 ,s4 lindemanni1 described from man4 #d4 ,order--,haplosporidia4 ,the ,sporozoa included in this order are characterized by the general simplicity of their development1 and by the undifferentiated character of their spores4 ,the order includes a good many forms1 whose arrangement and classification have been recently undertaken by ,caullery and ,mesnil 7#ae71 to whom1 indeed1 most of our knowledge relating to the ,haplosporidia is due4 ,the habitat of the parasites is sufficiently varied2 ,rotifers1 ,crustacea1 ,annelids and fishes furnishing most of the hosts4 ,a recent addition to the list of ,protozoa causing injury to man1 a ,haplosporidian1 has been described by ,minchin and ,fantham 7#bi;d71 who have termed the parasite ,rhinosporidium1 from its habitat in the nasal septum1 where it produces pedunculate tumours4 ,illustration3 ,from ,minchin1 in ,lankester's ,treatise on ,zoology1 vol4 ,protozoa4 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,bertramia ,asperospora 7,fritsch7 from the body-cavity of ,brachionus4 ,x #ajdj4 a1 ,young form with opaque1 evenly-granulated protoplasm and few refringent granules2 the nuclei 7n7 are small1 and appear to be surrounded each by a clear space4 b and c1 ,full-grown specimens with large nuclei and clearer protoplasm1 containing numerous refringent granules 7r4 gr474 d and e1 ,morula stages1 derived from b and c by division of the body into segments centred round the nuclei1 each cell so formed being a spore4 ,between the spores a certain amount of intercellular substance or residual protoplasm is left1 in which the refringent granules seem to be embedded4 ,the morula may break up forthwith and scatter the spores1 or may first round itself off and form a spherical cyst with a tough1 fairly thick wall4 f1 ,empty1 slightly shrunken cyst1 from which the spores have escaped4 g1 ,free spore or youngest unicellular trophozoite4 h1 i1 j1 ,commencing growth of the trophozoite1 with multiplication of the nuclei1 which results ultimately in forms such as a and b4 ,bertramia1 a well-known parasite of the body-cavity of ,rotifers1 will serve very well to give a general idea of the life-cycle so far as it has yet been made out 7fig4 #ad74 ,the trophozoite begins life as a small1 rounded uninucleate corpuscle1 which as it grows1 becomes multinucleate4 ,the multinuclear body generally assumes a definite shape1 often that of a sausage4 ,later1 the protoplasm becomes segregated around each of the nuclei1 giving the parasite a mulberry-like aspect2 hence this stage is frequently known as a morula4 ,the uninuclear cellules thus formed are the spores1 which are ultimately liberated by the break-up of the parent body4 ,each is of quite simple1 undifferentiated structure1 possesses a large1 easily-visible nucleus1 and gives rise in due course to another young trophozoite4 ,in some instances1 as described by ,minchin1 the sporulating parasite becomes rounded off and forms a protective cyst1 doubtless for the protection of the spores during dissemination4 ,in some forms 7e4g4 ,haplosporidium and ,rhinosporidium7 the spore-mother-cells1 instead of becoming each a single spore1 as in ,bertramia1 give rise to several1 four in the first case1 many in the latter4 ,sometimes1 again1 the spore1 while preserving the essentially simple character of the sporoplasm1 may be enclosed in a spore-case2 this may have the form of a little box with a lid or operculum1 as in some species of ,haplosporidium1 or may possess a long process or tail1 as in ,urosporidium 7fig4 #ae74 ,illustration3 ,from ,caullery and ,mesnil1 ,archives de zoologie experimentale1 vol4 #d1 #aije1 by permission of ,schleicher ,freres et ,cie1 ,paris4 ,,fig4 #ae4--,spores of various ,haplosporidia4 #a4 ,haplosporidium heterocirri3 a1 on liberation2 b1 after being in sea-water4 #b1 ,h4 scolopli4 #c1 ,h4 vejdovskii4 #d1 ,urosporidium fuliginosum3 a1 surface-view2 b1 side-view4 ,x #ajjj4 ,the ,haplosporidia are divided by ,caullery and ,mesnil into three families1 ,haplosporidiidae1 ,bertramiidae and ,coelosporidiidae2 one or two genera are also included whose exact position is doubtful4 7a7 ,haplosporidiidae3 #c genera1 ,haplosporidium1 type-species ,h4 heterocirri2 ,urosporidium1 with one sp41 ,u4 fuliginosum2 all parasitic in various ,annelids2 and ,anurosporidium1 with the species ,a4 pelseneeri1 from the sporocysts of a ,trematode1 parasitic on ,donax4 7b7 ,bertramiidae3 #b genera1 ,bertramia1 with ,b4 capitellae from an ,annelid and ,b4 asperospora1 the ,rotiferan parasite above described2 and ,ichthyosporidium1 with ,i4 gasterophilum and ,i4 phymogenes1 parasitic in various fish4 7c7 ,coelosporidiiae3 genera ,coelosporidium1 type-species ,c4 chydoriclola2 and ,polycaryum1 type-species ,p4 branchiopodianum4 ,these forms are parasitic in small ,crustacea4 ,the genus ,blastulidium is referred1 doubtfully1 by ,caullery and ,mesnil to this family2 but certain phases of this organism seem to indicate rather a vegetable nature4 ,the genus ,rhinosporidium should probably be placed in a distinct family4 ,the only species so far described is ,r4 kinealyi from the nasal septum of man1 to which reference has above been made4 ,another form1 ,neurosporidium cephalodisci1 agreeing in some respects with ,rhinosporidium1 has been described by ,ridewood and ,fantham 7#cg;a7 from the nervous system of ,cephalodiscus4 ,a parasite whose affinities are doubtful1 but which is regarded by ,caullery and ,mesnil as allied to the ,haplosporidia1 is the curious parasite originally described by ,schewiakoff as endoparasitic tubes of ,cyclops2 it has been named by ,caullery and ,mesnil1 ,scheviakovella4 ,this organism is remarkable in one or two ways3 it possesses a contractile vacuole2 the amoeboid trophozoites tend to form plasmodia2 and the spores1 of the usual simple type1 may apparently divide by binary fission4 #e4 ,there remain1 lastly1 certain forms1 which are conveniently grouped together as ,sporozoa incertae sedis1 either for the reason that it is impossible to place them in any of the well-defined orders1 or because their life-cycle is at present too insufficiently known4 ,serosporidia is the name given by ,pfeiffer to certain minute parasites of the body-cavity of ,crustacea2 they include ,serosporidium1 ,blanchardina and ,botellus4 ,lymphosporidium1 a form with distributed nucleus1 causing virulent epidemics among brook-trout1 is considered by ,calkins7#c7 to be suitably placed here4 ,another parasite of lymphatic spaces and channels is the remarkable ,lymphocystis1 described by ,woodcock 7#df71 from plaice and flounders1 which in some respects rather recalls a ,gregarine4 ,the group ,exosporidia was founded by ,perrier to include a peculiar organism1 ectoparasitic on ,arthropods1 to which the name of ,amoebidium had been given by ,cienkowsky4 ,it has recently been shown1 however1 that this organism is most probably an ,alga4 ,another genus1 ,exosporidium1 described by ,sand 7#ch71 is placed at present in this group4 ,for details of the structure of these forms and others like ,siedleckia1 ,toxosporidium1 ,chitonicium ,joyeuxella and ,metschnikovella1 a comprehensive treatise on the ,sporozoa1 such as that of ,minchin1 should be consulted4 ,to complete this article1 it will be sufficient to mention various enigmatical bodies1 associated with different diseases1 which are regarded by their describers as ,protozoa4 ,among such is the ,histosporidium carcinomatosum of ,feinberg1 which he finds in cancerous growths4 ,cytoryctes1 the name given to ,guarnieri's bodies in small-pox and vaccinia1 has been recently investigated by ,calkins 7#c;a71 who has described a complex life-cycle for the alleged parasite4 ,other workers1 however1 such as ,siegel1 give a quite different account of these bodies1 and1 moreover1 find similar ones in scarlet-fever1 syphilis1 c42 while yet others 7e4g4 ,prowazek7 deny that they are parasitic organisms at all4 ,,bibliography4--7,for general works see under ,,sporozoa47 7#a7 ,bertram1 ,beitrage zur ,kenntnis der ,sarcosporidien1 ,zool4 ,jahrb4 ,anat4 #e1 #aijb2 7#b7 ,l4 ,brasil1 ,joyeuxella toxoides1 7n4g41 n4sp471 ,arch4 zool4 exp4 ,n4 et ,r4 7#c7 #aj1 p4 #e1 #g figs41 #aijb2 7#c7 ,g4,n4 ,calkins1 ,lymphosporidium truttae1 7n4g41 n4sp471 ,zool4 ,anz4 #bc1 p4 #eac1 #f figs41 #aijc2 7#c;a7 ib4 ,the ,life-,history of ,cytoryctes ,variolae2 ,guarnieri1 ,studies path4 etiol4 variola1 ,j4 ,med4 ,research 7,boston1 #aijd71 p4 #acf1 #d pls42 7#c;b7 ,m4 ,caullery and ,a4 ,chappellier1 ,anurosporidium pelseneeri1 7n4g41 n4sp471 ,haplosporidie1 c41 ,c4 ,r4 soc4 biol4 #fj1 p4 #cbe1 #aijf2 7#d7 ,m4 ,caullery and ,f4 ,mesnil1 ,sur un type nouveau 7,metchnikovella1 n4g471 ,c4 ,r4 ac4 sci4 #abe1 p4 #ghg1 #aj figs41 #ahig2 7#e7 ib4 ,sur trois ,sporozoaires parasites de la ,capitella1 ,c4 ,r4 soc4 biol4 #di1 p4 #ajje1 #ahgg2 7#f7 ib4 ,sur un ,sporozoaire aberrant 7,siedleckia1 n4g471 op4 cit4 #ej1 p4 #ajic1 #g figs41 #ahih2 7#g7 ib4 ,sur le genre ,aplosporidium 7nov471 op4 cit4 #ea1 p4 #ghi1 #ahii2 7#h7 ib4 ,sur les ,aplosporidies1 ,c4 ,r4 ac4 sci4 #abi1 p4 #faf1 #ahii2 7#i7 ib4 ,sur les parasites intimes des ,annelides 7,siedleckia1 ,toxosporidium71 ,c4 ,r4 ass4 franc41 #ahii1 p4 #dia1 #aijj2 7#aj7 ib4 ,sur un type nouveau 7,sphaeractinomyxon1 n4g47 d',actinomyxidies1 ,c4 ,r4 soc4 biol4 #ef1 p4 #djh1 #aijd2 7#aa7 ib4 ,phenomenes de sexualite dans le developpement des ,actinomyxidies1 op4 cit4 #eh1 p4 #hhi1 #aije2 7#ab7 ib4 ,recherches sur les ,actinomyxidies1 ,arch4 ,protistenk4 #f1 p4 #bgb1 pl4 #ae1 #aije2 7#ac7 ib4 ,sur quelques nouvelles ,haplosporidies d',annelides1 ,c4 ,r4 soc4 biol4 #eh1 p4 #ehj1 #f figs41 #aije2 7#ad7 ib4 ,sur des ,haplosporidies parasites de poissons marins1 ib4 p4 #fdj1 #aije2 7#ae7 ib4 ,recherches sur les ,haplosporidies1 ,arch4 zool4 exp4 7#d7 #d1 p4 #aja1 pls4 #aa-ac1 #aije2 7#af7 ,l4 ,cohn1 ,uber die ,myxosporidien von ,esox lucius1 ,zool4 ,jahr4 ,anat4 #i1 p4 #bbg1 #b pls41 #ahif2 7#ag7 ib4 ,zur ,kenntniss der ,myxosporidien1 ,centrbl4 ,bakt4 #a1 ,orig4 #cb1 p4 #fbh1 #c figs41 #aijb2 7#ah7 ib4 ,protozoen als ,parasiten in ,rotatorien1 ,zool4 ,anz4 #be1 p4 #dig1 #aijb2 7#ai7 ,f4 ,doflein1 ,uber ,myxosporidien1 ,zool4 ,jahr4 ,anat4 #aa1 p4 #bha1 #f pls41 #ahih2 7#bj7 ib4 ,fortschritte auf dem ,gebiete der ,myxosporidienkunde1 ,zool4 ,centrbl4 #g1 p4 #cfa1 #ahii2 7#ba7 ,r4 ,gurley1 ,the ,myxosporidia1 ,bull4 ,u4,s4 ,fish4 ,comm41 #ahib1 p4 #fe1 #dg pls41 #ahid2 7#bb7 ,e4 ,hesse1 ,sur une nouvelle ,microsporidie tetrasporee du genre ,gurleya1 ,c4 ,r4 soc4 biol4 #ee1 p4 #die1 #aijc2 7#bc7 ib4 ,thelohania legeri 7n4sp471 op4 cit4 #eg1 pp4 #egj-egb1 #aj figs41 #aijd2 7#bd7 ib4 ,sur ,myxocystis ,mrazeki ,hesse1 c41 op4 cit4 #eh1 p4 #ab1 #i figs41 #aije2 7#be7 ,a4 ,laveran and ,f4 ,mesnil1 ,sur la multiplication endogene des ,myxosporidies1 op4 cit4 #ed1 p4 #dfi1 #e figs41 #aijb2 7#bf7 ib4 ,sur la morphologie des ,sarcosporidies1 op4 cit4 #ea1 p4 #bde1 #ahii2 7#bg7 ib4 ,de la ,sarcocystin1 op4 cit4 p4 #caa1 #ahii2 7#bh7 ,l4 ,leger1 ,sur la sporulation du ,triactinomyxon1 op4 cit4 #ef1 p4 #hdd1 #d figs41 #aijd2 7#bi7 ib4 ,considerations sur 444 les ,actinomyxidies1 op4 cit4 p4 #hdf1 #aijd2 7#bi;a7 ,l4 ,leger and ,e4 ,hesse1 ,sur une nouvelle ,myxosporidie1 ,coccomyxa1 n4g41 ,c4 ,r4 ac4 sci41 #ast ,july #aijg2 7#bi;b7 ib4 ,sur la structure de la paroisporale des ,myxosporidies1 op4 cit4 #adb1 p4 #gbj1 #aijf2 7#bi;c7 ,a4 ,lutz and ,a4 ,splendore1 ,uber ',pebrine' and verwandte ,mikrosporidien1 ,centrbl4 ,bakt4 #a1 #cc1 ,orig4 p4 #aej1 #aijc1 and #cf1 ,orig4 p4 #fde1 #b pls41 #aijd2 7#bi;d7 ,e4,a4 ,minchin and ,h4,b4 ,fantham1 ,rhinosporidium kinealyi 7n4g41 n4sp471 ,q4 ,j4 ,micr4 ,sci4 #di1 p4 #eba1 #b pls41 #aije2 7#cj7 ,a4 ,mrazek1 ,uber eine neue ,sporozoenform 7,myxocystis71 ,s4 ,b4 ,bohm4 ,ges4 #h1 #e pp41 #i figs41 #ahig2 7#ca7 ib4 ,glugea lophii1 ,doflein1 op4 cit4 #aj1 #h pp41 #a pl41 #ahii2 7#cb7 ,c4 ,perez1 ,sur un organisme nouveau1 ,blastulidium1 ,c4 ,r4 soc4 biol4 #ee1 p4 #gae1 #e figs41 #aijc2 7#cc7 ib4 ,sur nouvelles ,glugeidees1 op4 cit4 #eh1 pp4 #adf-aea1 #aije2 7#cd7 ib4 ,microsporidies parasites des crabes1 ,bull4 sta4 biol4 d',arcachon1 #h1 #bb pp41 #ad figs41 #aije2 7#ce7 ,w4,s4 ,perrin1 ,pleistophora periplanetae1 ,q4 ,j4 ,micr4 ,sci4 #di1 p4 #fae1 #b pls41 #aijf2 7#cf7 ,l4 ,plate1 ,uber einen einzelligen ,zellparasiten 7,chitonicium71 ,fauna ,chilensis1 #b1 pp4 #fja1 pls41 #aija2 7#cg7 ,m4 ,plehn1 ,uber die ,drehkrankheit der ,salmoniden 7,lentospora1 n4g471 ,arch4 ,protistenk4 #e1 p4 #ade1 pl4 #e1 #aijd2 7#cg;a7 ,w4,j4 ,ridewood and ,h4,b4 ,fantham1 ,neurosporidium cephalodisci1 n4g41 n4sp41 ,q4 ,j4 ,micr4 ,sci4 #ea1 p4 #ha1 pl4 #g1 #aijg2 7#ch7 ,r4 ,sand1 ,exosporidium marinum 7n4g41 n4sp471 ,bull4 soc4 micr4 belge1 #bd1 p4 #aaf1 #ahih2 7#ci7 ,t4 ,smith1 ,the production of sarcosporidiosis in the mouse1 c41 ,j4 ,exp4 ,med4 #f1 p4 #a1 #d pls41 #aija2 7#dj7 ,w4 ,stempell1 ,uber ,thelohania mulleri1 ,zool4 ,jahr4 ,anat4 #af1 p4 #bce1 pl4 #be1 #aijb2 7#da7 ib4 ,uber ,polycaryum branchiopodianum 7n4g41 n4sp471 ,zool4 ,jahrb4 ,syst4 #ae1 p4 #eia1 pl4 #ca1 #aijb2 7#db7 ib4 ,uber ,nosema anomalum1 ,arch4 ,protistenk1 #d1 p4 #a1 pls4 #a-c1 #aijd2 7#dc7 ,p4 ,thelohan1 ,recherches sur les ,myxosporidies1 ,bull4 sci4 ,france belg4 #bf1 p4 #ajj1 #c pls41 #ahie2 7#dd7 ,p4 ,vuillemin1 ,le ,sarcocystis tenella1 parasite de l'homme1 ,c4 ,r4 ac4 sci4 #acd1 p4 #aaeb1 #aijb2 7#de7 ,h4,m4 ,woodcock1 ,on ,myxosporidia in flat fish1 ,proc4 ,liverp4 ,biol4 ,soc4 #ah1 p4 #abf1 pl4 #b1 #aijd2 7#df7 ib4 ,on a remarkable parasite 7,lymphocystis71 op4 cit4 p4 #adc1 pl4 #c1 #aijd4 7,h4 ,m4 ,wo47 ,,endymion1 in ,greek mythology1 son of ,aethlius and king of ,elis4 ,he was loved by ,selene1 goddess of the moon1 by whom he had fifty daughters1 supposed to represent the fifty moons of the ,olympian festal cycle4 ,in other versions1 ,endymion was a beautiful youth1 a shepherd or hunter whom ,selene visited every night while he lay asleep in a cave on ,mount ,latmus in ,caria 7,pausanias v4 #a2 ,ovid1 ,ars am4 iii4 #hc74 ,zeus left him free to choose anything he might desire1 and he chose an everlasting sleep1 in which he might remain youthful for ever 7,apollodorus i4 #g74 ,according to others1 ,endymion's eternal sleep was a punishment inflicted by ,zeus upon him because he ventured to fall in love with ,hera1 when he was admitted to the society of the ,olympian gods 7,schol4 ,theocritus iii4 #di74 ,the usual form of the legend1 however1 represents ,endymion as having been put to sleep by ,selene herself in order that she might enjoy his society undisturbed 7,cicero1 ,tusc4 disp4 i4 #ch74 ,some see in ,endymion the sun1 setting opposite to the rising moon1 the ,latmian cave being the cave of forgetfulness1 into which the sun plunges beneath the sea2 others regard him as the personification of sleep or death 7see ,mayor on ,juvenal x4 #cah74 ,,energetics4 ,the most fundamental result attained by the progress of physical science in the #aith century was the definite enunciation and development of the doctrine of energy1 which is now paramount both in mechanics and in thermodynamics4 ,for a discussion of the elementary ideas underlying this conception see the separate heading ,,energy4 ,ever since physical speculation began in the atomic theories of the ,greeks1 its main problem has been that of unravelling the nature of the underlying correlation which binds together the various natural agencies4 ,but it is only in recent times that scientific investigation has definitely established that there is a quantitative relation of simple equivalence between them1 whereby each is expressible in terms of heat or mechanical power2 that there is a certain measurable quantity associated with each type of physical activity which is always numerically identical with a corresponding quantity belonging to the new type into which it is transformed1 so that the energy1 as it is called1 is conserved in unaltered amount4 ,the main obstacle in the way of an earlier recognition and development of this principle had been the doctrine of caloric1 which was suggested by the principles and practice of calorimetry1 and taught that heat is a substance that can be transferred from one body to another1 but cannot be created or destroyed1 though it may become latent4 ,so long as this idea maintained itself1 there was no possible compensation for the destruction of mechanical power by friction2 it appeared that mechanical effect had there definitely been lost4 ,the idea that heat is itself convertible into power1 and is in fact energy of motion of the minute invisible parts of bodies1 had been held by ,newton and in a vaguer sense by ,bacon1 and indeed long before their time2 but it dropped out of the ordinary creed of science in the following century4 ,it held a place1 like many other anticipations of subsequent discovery1 in the system of ,natural ,philosophy of ,thomas ,young 7#ahjd72 and the discrepancies attending current explanations on the caloric theory were insisted on1 about the same time1 by ,count ,rumford and ,sir ,h4 ,davy4 ,but it was not till the actual experiments of ,joule verified the same exact equivalence between heat produced and mechanical energy destroyed1 by whatever process that was accomplished1 that the idea of caloric had to be definitely abandoned4 ,some time previously ,r4 ,mayer1 physician1 of ,heilbronn1 had founded a weighty theoretical argument on the production of mechanical power in the animal system from the food consumed2 he had1 moreover1 even calculated the value of a unit of heat1 in terms of its equivalent in power1 from the data afforded by ,regnault's determinations of the specific heats of air at constant pressure and at constant volume1 the former being the greater on ,mayer's hypothesis 7of which his calculation in fact constituted the verification7 solely on account of the power required for the work of expansion of the gas against the surrounding constant pressure4 ,about the same time ,helmholtz1 in his early memoir on the ,conservation of ,energy1 constructed a cumulative argument by tracing the ramifications of the principle of conservation of energy throughout the whole range of physical science4 ,mechanical and ,thermal ,energy4--,the amount of energy1 defined in this sense by convertibility with mechanical work1 which is contained in a material system1 must be a function of its physical state and chemical constitution and of its temperature4 ,the change in this amount1 arising from a given transformation in the system1 is usually measured by degrading the energy that leaves the system into heat2 for it is always possible to do this1 while the conversion of heat back again into other forms of energy is impossible without assistance1 taking the form of compensating degradation elsewhere4 ,we may adopt the provisional view which is the basis of abstract physics1 that all these other forms of energy are in their essence mechanical1 that is1 arise from the motion or strain of material or ethereal media2 then their distinction from heat will lie in the fact that these motions or strains are simply co-ordinated1 so that they can be traced and controlled or manipulated in detail1 while the thermal energy subsists in irregular motions of the molecules or smallest portions of matter1 which we cannot trace on account of the bluntness of our sensual perceptions1 but can only measure as regards total amount4 ,historical3 ,abstract ,dynamics4--,even in the case of a purely mechanical system1 capable only of a finite number of definite types of disturbance1 the principle of the conservation of energy is very far from giving a complete account of its motions2 it forms only one among the equations that are required to determine their course4 ,in its application to the kinetics of invariable systems1 after the time of ,newton1 the principle was emphasized as fundamental by ,leibnitz1 was then improved and generalized by the ,bernoullis and by ,euler1 and was ultimately expressed in its widest form by ,lagrange4 ,it is recorded by ,helmholtz that it was largely his acquaintance in early years with the works of those mathematical physicists of the previous century1 who had formulated and generalized the principle as a help towards the theoretical dynamics of complex systems of masses1 that started him on the track of extending the principle throughout the whole range of natural phenomena4 ,on the other hand1 the ascertained validity of this extension to new types of phenomena1 such as those of electrodynamics1 now forms a main foundation of our belief in a mechanical basis for these sciences4 ,in the hands of ,lagrange the mathematical expression for the manner in which the energy is connected with the geometrical constitution of the material system became a sufficient basis for a complete knowledge of its dynamical phenomena4 ,so far as statics was concerned1 this doctrine took its rise as far back as ,galileo1 who recognized in the simpler cases that the work expended in the steady driving of a frictionless mechanical system is equal to its output4 ,the expression of this fact was generalized in a brief statement by ,newton in the ,principia1 and more in detail by the ,bernoullis1 until1 in the analytical guise of the so-called principle of virtual velocities or virtual work1 it finally became the basis of ,lagrange's general formulation of dynamics4 ,in its application to kinetics a purely physical principle1 also indicated by ,newton1 but developed long after with masterly applications by d',alembert1 that the reactions of the infinitesimal parts of the system against the accelerations of their motions statically equilibrate the forces applied to the system as a whole1 was required in order to form a sufficient basis1 and one which ,lagrange soon afterwards condensed into the single relation of ,least ,action4 ,as a matter of history1 however1 the complete formulation of the subject of abstract dynamics actually arose 7in #ageh7 from ,lagrange's precise demonstration of the principle of ,least ,action for a particle1 and its immediate extension1 on the basis of his new ,calculus of ,variations1 to a system of connected particles such as might be taken as a representation of any material system2 but here too the same physical as distinct from mechanical considerations come into play as in d',alembert's principle4 7,see ,,dynamics3 ,analytical47 ,it is in the cases of systems whose state is changing so slowly that reactions arising from changing motions can be neglected1 that the conditions are by far the simplest4 ,in such systems1 whether stationary or in a state of steady motion1 the energy depends on the configuration alone1 and its mathematical expression can be determined from measurement of the work required for a sufficient number of simple transformations2 once it is thus found1 all the statical relations of the system are implicitly determined along with it1 and the results of all other transformations can be predicted4 ,the general development of such relations is conveniently classed as a separate branch of physics under the name ,energetics1 first invented by ,w4,j4,m4 ,rankine2 but the essential limitations of this method have not always been observed4 ,as regards statical change1 the complete specification of a mechanical system is involved in its geometrical configuration and the function expressing its mechanical energy in terms thereof4 ,systems which have statical energy-functions of the same analytical form behave in corresponding ways1 and can serve as models or representations of one another4 ,extension to ,thermal and ,chemical ,systems4--,this dominant position of the principle of energy1 in ordinary statical problems1 has in recent times been extended to transformations involving change of physical state or chemical constitution as well as change of geometrical configuration4 ,in this wider field we cannot assert that mechanical 7or available7 energy is never lost1 for it may be degraded into thermal energy2 but we can use the principle that on the other hand it can never spontaneously increase4 ,if this were not so1 cyclic processes might theoretically be arranged which would continue to supply mechanical power so long as energy of any kind remained in the system2 whereas the irregular and uncontrollable character of the molecular motions and strains which constitute thermal energy1 in combination with the vast number of the molecules1 must place an effectual bar on their unlimited co-ordination4 ,to establish a doctrine of energetics that shall form a sufficient foundation for a theory of the trend of chemical and physical change1 we have1 therefore1 to impart precision to this motion of available energy4 ,carnot's ,principle3 ,entropy4--,the whole subject is involved in the new principle contributed to theoretical physics by ,sadi ,carnot in #ahbd1 in which the far-reaching modern conception of cyclic processes was first scientifically developed4 ,it was shown by ,carnot1 on the basis of certain axioms1 whose theoretical foundations were subsequently corrected and strengthened by ,clausius and ,lord ,kelvin1 that a reversible mechanical process1 working in a cycle by means of thermal transfers1 which takes heat1 say ,h#a1 into the material system at a given temperature ,t#a1 and delivers the part of it not utilized1 say ,h#b1 at a lower given temperature ,t#b1 is more efficient1 considered as a working engine1 than any other such process1 operating between the same two temperatures but not reversible1 could be4 ,this relation of inequality involves a definite law of equality1 that the mechanical efficiencies of all reversible cyclic processes are the same1 whatever be the nature of their operation or the material substances involved in them2 that in fact the efficiency is a function solely of the two temperatures at which the cyclically working system takes in and gives out heat4 ,these considerations constitute a fundamental general principle to which all possible slow reversible processes1 so far as they concern matter in bulk1 must conform in all their stages2 its application is almost coextensive with the scope of general physics1 the special kinetic theories in which inertia is involved1 being excepted4 7,see ,,thermodynamics47 ,if the working system is an ideal gas-engine1 in which a perfect gas 7known from experience to be a possible state of matter7 is passed through the cycle1 and if temperature is measured from the absolute zero by the expansion of this gas1 then simple direct calculation on the basis of the laws of ideal gases shows that ,h#a_/,t#a ,h#b_/,t#b2 and as by the conservation of energy the work done is ,h#a - ,h#b1 it follows that the efficiency1 measured as the ratio of the work done to the supply of heat1 is #a - ,t#b_/,t#a4 ,if we change the sign of ,h#a and thus consider heat as positive when it is restored to the system as is ,h#b1 the fundamental equation becomes ,h#a_/,t#a ,h#b_/,t#b #j2 and as any complex reversible working system may be considered as compounded in various ways of chains of elementary systems of this type1 whose effects are additive1 the general proposition follows1 that in any reversible complete cyclic change which involves the taking in of heat by the system of which the amount is delta,h1 when its temperature ranges between ,tr and ,tr delta,t1 the equation ,sigmadelta,hr_/,tr - #j holds good4 ,moreover1 if the changes are not reversible1 the proportion of the heat supply that is utilized for mechanical work will be smaller1 so that more heat will be restored to the system1 and ,sigmadelta,hr_/,tr or1 as it may be expressed1 intd,h_/,t1 must have a larger value1 and must thus be positive4 ,the first statement involves further1 that for all reversible paths of change of the system from one state ,c to another state ,d1 the value of intd,h_/,t must be the same1 because any one of these paths and any other one reversed would form a cycle2 whereas for any irreversible path of change between the same states this integral must have a greater value 7and so exceed the difference of entropies at the ends of the path74 ,the definite quantity represented by this integral for a reversible path was introduced by ,clausius in #ahed 7also adumbrated by ,kelvin's investigations about the same time71 and was named afterwards by him the increase of the entropy of the system in passing from the state ,c to the state ,d4 ,this increase1 being thus the same for the unlimited number of possible reversible paths involving independent variation of all its finite co-ordinates1 along which the system can pass1 can depend only on the terminal states4 ,the entropy belonging to a given state is therefore a function of that state alone1 irrespective of the manner in which it has been reached2 and this is the justification of the assignment to it of a special name1 connoting a property of the system depending on its actual condition and not on its previous history4 ,every reversible change in an isolated system thus maintains the entropy of that system unaltered2 no possible spontaneous change can involve decrease of the entropy2 while any defect of reversibility1 arising from diffusion of matter or motion in the system1 necessarily leads to increase of entropy4 ,for a physical or chemical system only those changes are spontaneously possible which would lead to increase of the entropy2 if the entropy is already a maximum for the given total energy1 and so incapable of further continuous increase under the conditions imposed upon the system1 there must be stable equilibrium4 ,this definite quantity belonging to a material system1 its entropy phi1 is thus concomitant with its energy ,e1 which is also a definite function of its actual state by the law of conservation of energy2 these1 along with its temperature ,t1 and the various co-ordinates expressing its geometrical configuration and its physical and chemical constitution1 are the quantities with which the thermodynamics of the system deals4 ,that branch of science develops the consequences involved in just two principles3 7i47 that the energy of every isolated system is constant1 and 7ii47 that its entropy can never diminish2 any complication that may be involved arises from complexity in the systems to which these two laws have to be applied4 ,the ,general ,thermodynamic ,equation4--,when any physical or chemical system undergoes an infinitesimal change of state1 we have delta,e delta,h delta,u1 where delta,h is the energy that has been acquired as heat from sources extraneous to the system during the change1 and delta,u is the energy that has been imparted by reversible agencies such as mechanical or electric work4 ,it is1 however1 not usually possible to discriminate permanently between heat acquired and work imparted1 for 7unless for isothermal transformations7 neither delta,h nor delta,u is the exact differential of a function of the constitution of the system and so independent of its previous history1 although their sum delta,e is such2 but we can utilize the fact that delta,h is equal to ,tdeltaphi where deltaphi is such1 as has just been seen4 ,thus ,e and phi represent properties of the system which1 along with temperature1 pressure and other independent data specifying its constitution1 must form the variables of an analytical exposition4 ,we have1 therefore1 to substitute ,tdeltaphi for delta,h2 also the change of internal energy is determined by the change of constitution1 involving a differential relation of type delta,u -pdeltav delta,w mu#a;deltam#a mu#b;deltam#b 444 mundeltamn1 when the system consists of an intimate mixture 7solution7 of masses m#a1 m#b1 444 mn of given constituents1 which differ physically or chemically but may be partially transformable into each other by chemical or physical action during the changes under consideration1 the whole being of volume v and under extraneous pressure p1 while ,w is potential energy arising from physical forces such as those of gravity1 capillarity1 c4 ,the variables m#a1 m#b1 444 mn may not be all independent2 for example1 if the system were chloride of ammonium gas existing along with its gaseous products of dissociation1 hydrochloric acid and ammonia1 only one of the three masses would be independently variable4 ,the sufficient number of these variables 7independent components7 together with two other variables1 which may be v and ,t1 or v and phi1 specifies and determines the state of the system1 considered as matter in bulk1 at each instant4 ,it is usual to include delta,w in mu#a;deltam#a 4442 in all cases where this is possible the single equation delta,e ,tdeltaphi - pdeltav mu#a;deltam#a mu#b;deltam#b 444 mundeltamn 7#a7 thus expresses the complete variation of the energy-function ,e arising from change of state2 and when the part involving the n constitutive differentials has been expressed in terms of the number of them that are really independent1 this equation by itself becomes the unique expression of all the thermodynamic relations of the system4 ,these are in fact the various relations ensuring that the right-hand side is an exact differential1 and are of the type of reciprocal relations such as dmur_/dphi d,t_/dmr4 ,the condition that the state of the system be one of stable equilibrium is that deltaphi1 the variation of entropy1 be negative for all formally imaginable infinitesimal transformations which make delta,e vanish2 for as deltaphi cannot actually be negative for any spontaneous variation1 none of these transformations can then occur4 ,from the form of the equation1 this condition is the same as that delta,e - ,tdeltaphi must be positive for all possible variations of state of the system as above defined in terms of co-ordinates representing its constitution in bulk1 without restriction4 ,we can change one of the independent variables expressing the state of the system from phi to ,t by subtracting delta7phi,t7 from both sides of the equation of variation3 then delta7,e - ,tphi7 - phidelta,t - pdeltav mu#a;deltam#a 444 mundeltamn4 ,it follows that for isothermal changes1 i4e4 those for which delta,t is maintained null by an environment at constant temperature1 the condition of stable equilibrium is that the function ,e - ,tphi shall be a minimum4 ,if the system is subject to an external pressure p1 which as well as the temperature is imposed constant from without and thus incapable of variation through internal changes1 the condition of stable equilibrium is similarly that ,e - ,tphi pv shall be a minimum4 ,a chemical system maintained at constant temperature by communication of heat from its environment may thus have several states of stable equilibrium corresponding to different minima of the function here considered1 just as there may be several minima of elevation on a landscape1 one at the bottom of each depression2 in fact1 this analogy1 when extended to space of n dimensions1 exactly fits the case4 ,if the system is sufficiently disturbed1 for example1 by electric shock1 it may pass over 7explosively7 from a higher to a lower minimum1 but never 7without compensation from outside7 in the opposite direction4 ,the former passage1 moreover1 is often effected by introducing a new substance into the system2 sometimes that substance is recovered unaltered at the end of the process1 and then its action is said to be purely catalytic2 its presence modifies the form of the function ,e - ,tphi so as to obliterate the ridge between the two equilibrium states in the graphical representation4 ,there are systems in which the equilibrium states are but very slightly dependent on temperature and pressure within wide limits1 outside which reaction takes place4 ,thus while there are cases in which a state of mobile dissociation exists in the system which changes continuously as a function of these variables1 there are others in which change does not sensibly occur at all until a certain temperature of reaction is attained1 after which it proceeds very rapidly owing to the heat developed1 and the system soon becomes sensibly permanent in a transformed phase by completion of the reaction4 ,in some cases of this latter type the cause of the delay in starting lies possibly in passive resistance to change1 of the nature of viscosity or friction1 which is competent to convert an unstable mechanical equilibrium into a moderately stable one2 but in most such reactions there seems to be no exact equilibrium at any temperature1 short of the ultimate state of dissipated energy in which the reaction is completed1 although the velocity of reaction is found to diminish exponentially with change of temperature1 and thus becomes insignificant at a small interval from the temperature of pronounced activity4 ,free ,energy4--,the quantity ,e - ,tphi thus plays the same fundamental part in the thermal statics of general chemical systems at uniform temperature that the potential energy plays in the statics of mechanical systems of unchanging constitution4 ,it is a function of the geometrical co-ordinates1 the physical and chemical constitution1 and the temperature of the system1 which determines the conditions of stable equilibrium at each temperature2 it is1 in fact1 the potential energy generalized so as to include temperature1 and thus be a single function relating to each temperature but at the same time affording a basis of connexion between the properties of the system at different temperatures4 ,it has been called the free energy of the system by ,helmholtz1 for it is the part of the energy whose variation is connected with changes in the bodily structure of the system represented by the variables m#a1 m#b1 444 mn1 and not with the irregular molecular motions represented by heat1 so that it can take part freely in physical transformations4 ,yet this holds good only subject to the condition that the temperature is not varied2 it has been seen above that for the more general variation neither delta,h nor delta,u is an exact differential1 and no line of separation can be drawn between thermal and mechanical energies4 ,the study of the evolution of ideas in this1 the most abstract branch of modern mathematical physics1 is rendered difficult in the manner of most purely philosophical subjects by the variety of terminology1 much of it only partially appropriate1 that has been employed to express the fundamental principles by different investigators and at different stages of the development4 ,attentive examination will show1 what is indeed hardly surprising1 that the principles of the theory of free energy of ,gibbs and ,helmholtz had been already grasped and exemplified by ,lord ,kelvin in the very early days of the subject 7see the paper ,on the ,thermoelastic and ,thermomagnetic ,properties of ,matter1 ,part ,i4 ,quarterly ,journal of ,mathematics1 ,no4 #a1 ,april #ahee2 reprinted in ,phil4 ,mag41 ,january #ahgh1 and in ,math4 and ,phys4 ,papers1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bia1 seq474 ,thus the striking new advance contained in the more modern work of ,j4 ,willard ,gibbs 7#ahge-ahgg7 and of ,helmholtz 7#ahhb7 was rather the sustained general application of these ideas to chemical systems1 such as the galvanic cell and dissociating gaseous systems1 and in general fashion to heterogeneous concomitant phases4 ,the fundamental paper of ,kelvin connecting the electromotive force of the cell with the energy of chemical transformation is of date #ahea1 some years before the distinction between free energy and total energy had definitely crystallized out2 and1 possibly satisfied with the approximate exactness of his imperfect formula when applied to a ,daniell's cell 7infra71 and deterred by absence of experimental data1 he did not return to the subject4 ,in #aheb he briefly announced 7,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,edin47 the principle of the dissipation of mechanical 7or available7 energy1 including the necessity of compensation elsewhere when restoration occurs1 in the form that any restoration of mechanical energy1 without more than an equivalent of dissipation1 is impossible--probably even in vital activity2 but a sufficient specification of available energy 7cf4 infra7 was not then developed4 ,in the paper above referred to1 where this was done1 and illustrated by full application to solid elastic systems1 the total energy is represented by c and is named the intrinsic energy1 the energy taken in during an isothermal transformation is represented by e1 of which ,h is taken in as heat1 while the remainder1 the change of free 7or mechanical or available7 energy of the system is the unnamed quantity denoted by the symbol w1 which is the work done by the applied forces at uniform temperature4 ,it is pointed out that it is w and not e that is the potential energy-function for isothermal change1 of which the form can be determined directly by dynamical and physical experiment1 and from which alone the criteria of equilibrium and stress are to be derived--simply for the reason that for all reversible paths at constant temperature between the same terminal configurations1 there must1 by ,carnot's principle1 be the same gain or loss of heat4 ,and a system of formulae are given 7#e7 to 7#aa7--;,ex4 gr4 e w - t7dw_/dt7 ,j ints dt for finding the total energy e for any temperature t when w and the thermal capacity s of the system1 in a standard state1 have thus been ascertained1 and another for establishing connexion between the form of w for one temperature and its form for adjacent temperatures--which are identical with those developed by ,helmholtz long afterwards1 in #ahhb1 except that the entropy appears only as an unnamed integral4 ,the progress of physical science is formally identified with the exploration of this function w for physical systems1 with continually increasing exactness and range--except where pure kinetic considerations prevail1 in which cases the wider ,hamiltonian dynamical formulation is fundamental4 ,another aspect of the matter will be developed below4 ,a somewhat different procedure1 in terms of entropy as fundamental1 has been adopted and developed by ,planck4 ,in an isolated system the trend of change must be in the direction which increases the entropy phi1 by ,clausius' form of the principle4 ,but in experiment it is a system at constant temperature rather than an adiabatic one that usually is involved2 this can be attained formally by including in the isolated system 7cf4 infra7 a source of heat at that temperature and of unlimited capacity1 when the energy of the original system increases by delta,e this source must give up heat of amount delta,e1 and its entropy therefore diminishes delta,e_/,t4 ,thus for the original system maintained at constant temperature ,t it is deltaphi - delta,e_/,t that must always be positive in spontaneous change1 which is the same criterion as was reached above4 ,reference may also be made to ,h4,a4 ,lorentz's ,collected ,scientific ,papers1 part i4 ,a striking anticipation1 almost contemporaneous1 of ,gibbs's thermodynamic potential theory 7infra7 was made by ,clerk ,maxwell in connexion with the discussion of ,andrews's experiments on the critical temperature of mixed gases1 in a letter published in ,sir ,g4,g4 ,stokes's ,scientific ,correspondence 7vol4 ii4 p4 #cd74 ,available ,energy4--,the same quantity phi1 which ,clausius named the entropy1 arose in various ways in the early development of the subject1 in the train of ideas of ,rankine and ,kelvin relating to the expression of the available energy ,a of the material system4 ,suppose there were accessible an auxiliary system containing an unlimited quantity of heat at absolute temperature ,t#j1 forming a condenser into which heat can be discharged from the working system1 or from which it may be recovered at that temperature3 we proceed to find how much of the heat of our system is available for transformation into mechanical work1 in a process which reduces the whole system to the temperature of this condenser4 ,provided the process of reduction is performed reversibly1 it is immaterial1 by ,carnot's principle1 in what manner it is effected3 thus in following it out in detail we can consider each elementary quantity of heat delta,h removed from the system as set aside at its actual temperature between ,t and ,t delta,t for the production of mechanical work delta,w and the residue of it delta,h#j as directly discharged into the condenser at ,t#j4 ,the principle of ,carnot gives delta,h_/,t delta,h#j_/,t#j1 so that the portion of the heat delta,h that is not available for work is delta,h#j1 equal to ,t#j;delta,h_/,t4 ,in the whole process the part not available in connexion with the condenser at ,t#j is therefore ,t#j;intdelta,h_/,t4 ,this quantity must be the same whatever reversible process is employed3 thus1 for example1 we may first transform the system reversibly from the state ,c to the state ,d1 and then from the state ,d to the final state of uniform temperature ,t#j4 ,it follows that the value of ,t#j;intd,h_/,t1 representing the heat degraded1 is the same along all reversible paths of transformation from the state ,c to the state ,d2 so that the function intd,h_/,t is the excess of a definite quantity phi connected with the system in the former state as compared with the latter4 ,it is usual to change the law of sign of delta,h so that gain of heat by the system is reckoned positive2 then1 relative to a condenser of unlimited capacity at ,t#j1 the state ,c contains more mechanically available energy than the state ,d by the amount ,e,c - ,e,d ,t#j intd,h_/,t1 that is1 by ,e,c - ,e,d - ,t#j7phi,c - phi,d74 ,in this way the existence of an entropy function with a definite value for each state of the system is again seen to be the direct analytical equivalent of ,carnot's axiom that no process can be more efficient than a reversible process between the same initial and final states4 ,the name motivity of a system was proposed by ,lord ,kelvin in #ahgi for this conception of available energy4 ,it is here specified as relative to a condenser of unlimited capacity at an assigned temperature ,t#j3 some such specification is necessary to the definition2 in fact1 if ,t#j were the absolute zero1 all the energy would be mechanically available4 ,but we can obtain an intrinsically different and self-contained comparison of the available energies in a system in two different states at different temperatures1 by ascertaining how much energy would be dissipated in each in a reduction to the same standard state of the system itself1 at a standard temperature ,t#j4 ,we have only to reverse the operation1 and change back this standard state to each of the others in turn4 ,this will involve abstractions of heat delta,h#j from the various portions of the system in the standard state1 and returns of delta,h to the state at ,t#j2 if this return were delta,h#j,t_/,t#j instead of delta,h1 there would be no loss of availability in the direct process2 hence there is actual dissipation delta,h - delta,h#j,t_/,t#j1 that is ,t7deltaphi - deltaphi#j74 ,on passing from state #a to state #b through this standard state #j the difference of these dissipations will represent the energy of the system that has become unavailable4 ,thus in this sense ,e - ,tphi ,tphi#j const4 represents for each state the amount of energy that is available2 but instead of implying an unlimited source of heat at the standard temperature ,t#j1 it implies that there is no extraneous source4 ,the available energy thus defined differs from ,e - ,tphi1 the free energy of ,helmholtz1 or the work function of the applied forces of ,kelvin1 which involves no reference to any standard state1 by a simple linear function of the temperature alone which is immaterial as regards its applications4 ,the determination of the available mechanical energy arising from differences of temperature between the parts of the same system is a more complex problem1 because it involves a determination of the common temperature to which reversible processes will ultimately reduce them2 for the simple case in which no changes of state occur the solution was given by ,lord ,kelvin in #ahec1 in connexion with the above train of ideas 7cf4 ,tait's ,thermodynamics1 ,s#agi74 ,in the present exposition the system is sensibly in equilibrium at each stage1 so that its temperature ,t is always uniform throughout2 isolated portions at different temperatures would be treated as different systems4 ,thermodynamic ,potentials4--,we have now to develop the relations involved in the general equation 7#a7 of thermodynamics4 ,suppose the material system includes two coexistent states or phases1 with opportunity for free interchange of constituents--for example1 a salt solution and the aqueous vapour in equilibrium with it4 ,then in equilibrium a slight transfer deltam of the water-substance of mass mr constituting the vapour1 into the water-substance of mass ms1 existing in the solution1 should not produce any alteration of the first order in delta,e - ,tdeltaphi2 therefore mur must be equal to mus4 ,the quantity mur is called by ,willard ,gibbs the potential of the corresponding substance of mass mr2 it may be defined as its marginal available energy per unit mass at the given temperature4 ,if then a system involves in this way coexistent phases which remain permanently separate1 the potentials of any constituent must be the same in all of them in which that constituent exists1 for otherwise it would tend to pass from the phases in which its potential is higher to those in which it is lower4 ,if the constituent is non-existent in any phase1 its potential when in that phase would have to be higher than in the others in which it is actually present2 but as the potential increases logarithmically when the density of the constituent is indefinitely diminished1 this condition is automatically satisfied--or1 more strictly1 the constitutent cannot be entirely absent1 but the presence of the merest trace will suffice to satisfy the condition of equality of potential4 ,when the action of the force of gravity is taken into account1 the potential of each constituent must include the gravitational potential gh2 in the equilibrium state the total potential of each constituent1 including this part1 must be the same throughout all parts of the system into which it is freely mobile4 ,an example is ,dalton's law of the independent distributions of the gases in the atmosphere1 if it were in a state of rest4 ,a similar statement applies to other forms of mechanical potential energy arising from actions at a distance4 ,when a slight constitutive change occurs in a galvanic element at given temperature1 producing available energy of electric current1 in a reversible manner and isothermally1 at the expense of chemical energy1 it is the free energy of the system ,e - ,tphi1 not its total intrinsic energy1 whose value must be conserved during the process4 ,thus the electromotive force is equal to the change of this free energy per electrochemical equivalent of reaction in the cell4 ,this proposition1 developed by ,gibbs and later by ,helmholtz1 modifies the earlier one of ,kelvin--which tacitly assumed all the energy of reaction to be available--except in the cases such as that of a ,daniell's cell1 in which the magnitude of the electromotive force does not depend sensibly on the temperature4 ,the effects produced on electromotive forces by difference of concentrations in dilute solutions can thus be accounted for and traced out1 from the knowledge of the form of the free energy for such cases2 as also the effects of pressure in the case of gas batteries4 ,the free energy does not sensibly depend on whether the substance is solid or fused--for the two states are in equilibrium at the temperature of fusion--though the total energy differs in these two cases by the heat of fusion2 for this reason1 as ,gibbs pointed out1 voltaic potential-differences are the same for the fused as for the solid state of the substances concerned4 ,relations involving ,constitution only4--,the potential of a component in a given solution can depend only on the temperature and pressure of the solution1 and the densities of the various components1 including itself2 as no distance-actions are usually involved in chemical physics1 it will not depend on the aggregate masses present4 ,the example above mentioned1 of two coexistent phases liquid and vapour1 indicates that there may thus be relations between the constitutions of the phases present in a chemical system which do not involve their total masses4 ,these are developed in a very direct manner in ,willard ,gibbs's original procedure4 ,in so far as attractions at a distance 7a uniform force such as gravity being excepted7 and capillary actions at the interfaces between the phases are inoperative1 the fundamental equation 7#a7 can be integrated4 ,increasing the volume k times1 and all the masses to the same extent--in fact1 placing alongside each other k identical systems at the same temperature and pressure--will increase phi and ,e in the same ratio k2 thus ,e must be a homogeneous function of the first degree of the independent variables phi1 v1 m#a1 4441 mn1 and therefore by ,euler's theorem relating to such functions ,e ,tphi - pv mu#am#a 444 munmn4 ,this integral equation merely expresses the additive character of the energies and entropies of adjacent portions of the system at uniform temperature1 and thus depends only on the absence of sensible physical action directly across finite distances4 ,if we form from it the expression for the complete differential delta,e1 and subtract 7#a71 there remains the relation #j phidelta,t - vdeltap m#a;deltamu#a 444 mndeltamun4 7#b7 ,this implies that in each phase the change of pressure depends on and is determined by the changes in ,t1 mu#a1 444 mun alone2 as we know beforehand that a physical property like pressure is an analytical function of the state of the system1 it is therefore a function of these n #a quantities4 ,when they are all independently variable1 the densities of the various constituents and of the entropy in the phase are expressed by the partial fluxions of p with respect to them3 thus phi dp mr dp ----- --1 --- -------4 v d,t v dmur ,but when1 as in the case above referred to of chloride of ammonium gas existing partially dissociated along with its constituents1 the masses are not independent1 necessary linear relations1 furnished by the laws of definite combining proportions1 subsist between the partial fluxions1 and the form of the function which expresses p is thus restricted1 in a manner which is easily expressible in each special case4 ,this proposition that the pressure in any phase is a function of the temperature and of the potentials of the independent constituents1 thus appears as a consequence of ,carnot's axiom combined with the energy principle and the absence of effective actions at a distance4 ,it shows that at a given temperature and pressure the potentials are not all independent1 that there is a necessary relation connecting them4 ,this is the equation of state or constitution of the phase1 whose existence forms one mode of expression of ,carnot's principle1 and in which all the properties of the phase are involved and can thence be derived by simple differentiation4 ,the ,phase ,rule4--,when the material system contains only a single phase1 the number of independent variations1 in addition to change of temperature and pressure1 that can spontaneously occur in its constitution is thus one less than the number of its independent constituents4 ,but where several phases coexist in contact in the same system1 the number of possible independent variations may be much smaller4 ,the present independent variables mu#a1 4441 mun are specially appropriate in this problem1 because each of them has the same value in all the phases4 ,now each phase has its own characteristic equation1 giving a relation between deltap1 delta,t1 and deltamu#a1 444 deltamun1 or such of the latter as are independent2 if r phases coexist1 there are r such relations2 hence the number of possible independent variations1 including those of v and ,t1 is reduced to m - r #b1 where m is the number of independently variable chemical constituents which the system contains4 ,this number of degrees of constitutive freedom cannot be negative2 therefore the number of possible phases that can coexist alongside each other cannot exceed m #b4 ,if m #b phases actually coexist1 there is no variable quantity in the system1 thus the temperature and pressure and constitutions of the phases are all determined2 such is the triple point at which ice1 water and vapour exist in presence of each other4 ,if there are m #a coexistent phases1 the system can vary in one respect only2 for example1 at any temperature of water-substance different from the triple point two phases only1 say liquid and vapour1 or liquid and solid1 coexist1 and the pressure is definite1 as also are the densities and potentials of the components4 ,finally1 when but one phase1 say water1 is present1 both pressure and temperature can vary independently4 ,the first example illustrates the case of systems1 physical or chemical1 in which there is only one possible state of equilibrium1 forming a point of transition between different constitutions2 in the second type each temperature has its own completely determined state of equilibrium2 in other cases the constitution in the equilibrium state is indeterminate as regards the corresponding number of degrees of freedom4 ,by aid of this phase rule of ,gibbs the number of different chemical substances actually interacting in a given complex system can be determined from observation of the degree of spontaneous variation which it exhibits2 the rule thus lies at the foundation of the modern subject of chemical equilibrium and continuous chemical change in mixtures or alloys1 and in this connexion it has been widely applied and developed in the experimental investigations of ,roozeboom and van 't ,hoff and other physical chemists1 mainly of the ,dutch school4 ,extent to which the ,theory can be practically developed4--,it is only in systems in which the number of independent variables is small that the forms of the various potentials1--or the form of the fundamental characteristic equation expressing the energy of the system in terms of its entropy and constitution1 or the pressure in terms of the temperature and the potentials1 which includes them all1--can be readily approximated to by experimental determinations4 ,even in the case of the simple system water-vapour1 which is fundamental for the theory of the steam-engine1 this has not yet been completely accomplished4 ,the general theory is thus largely confined1 as above1 to defining the restrictions on the degree of variability of a complex chemical system which the principle of ,carnot imposes4 ,the tracing out of these general relations of continuity of state is much facilitated by geometrical diagrams1 such as ,james ,thomson first introduced in order to exhibit and explain ,andrews' results as to the range of coexistent phases in carbonic acid4 ,gibbs's earliest thermodynamic surface had for its co-ordinates volume1 entropy and energy2 it was constructed to scale by ,maxwell for water-substance1 and is fully explained in later editions of the ,theory of ,heat 7#ahge72 it forms a relief map which1 by simple inspection1 reveals the course of the transformations of water1 with the corresponding mechanical and thermal changes1 in its three coexistent states of solid1 liquid and gas4 ,in the general case1 when the substance has more than one independently variable constituent1 there are more than three variables to be represented2 but ,gibbs has shown the utility of surfaces representing1 for instance1 the entropy in terms of the constitutive variables when temperature and pressure are maintained constant4 ,such graphical methods are now of fundamental importance in connexion with the phase rule1 for the experimental exploration of the trend of the changes of constitution of complex mixtures with interacting components1 which arise as the physical conditions are altered1 as1 for example in modern metallurgy1 in the theory of alloys4 ,the study of the phenomena of condensation in a mixture of two gases or vapours1 initiated by ,andrews and developed in this manner by van der ,waals and his pupils1 forms a case in point 7see ,,condensation ,,of ,,gases74 ,dilute ,components3 ,perfect ,gases and ,dilute ,solutions4--,there are1 however1 two simple limiting cases1 in which the theory can be completed by a determination of the functions involved in it1 which throw much light on the phenomena of actual systems not far removed from these ideal limits4 ,they are the cases of mixtures of perfect gases1 and of very dilute solutions4 ,if1 following ,gibbs1 we apply his equation 7#b7 expressing the pressure in terms of the temperature and the potentials1 to a very dilute solution of substances m#b1 m#c1 444 mn in a solvent substance m#a1 and vary the co-ordinate mr alone1 p and ,t remaining unvaried1 we have in the equilibrium state dmur dmu#a dmun mr------- m#a------ 444 mn------- #j1 dmr dmr dmr in which every m except m#a is very small1 while dmu#a_/;dmr is presumably finite4 ,as the second term is thus finite1 this requires that the total potential of each component mr1 which is mr dmur_/dmr1 shall be finite1 say kr1 in the limit when mr is null4 ,thus for very small concentrations the potential mur of a dilute component must be of the form kr log mr_/v1 being proportional to the logarithm of the density of that component2 it thus tends logarithmically to an infinite value at evanescent concentrations1 showing that removal of the last traces of any impurity would demand infinite proportionate expenditure of available energy1 and is therefore practically impossible with finite intensities of force4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that this argument applies only to fluid phases1 for in the case of deposition of a solid mr is not uniformly distributed throughout the phase2 thus it remains possible for the growth of a crystal at its surface in aqueous solution to extrude all the water except such as is in some form of chemical combination4 ,the precise value of this logarithmic expression for the potential can be readily determined for the case of a perfect gas from its characteristic properties1 and can be thence extended to other dilute forms of matter4 ,we have pv ,r_/m4,t for unit mass of the gas1 where m is the molecular weight1 being #b for hydrogen1 and ,r is a constant equal to #hb ,x #ajf in ,c4,g4,s4 dynamical units1 or #b calories approximately in thermal energy units1 which is the same for all gases because they have all the same number of molecules per unit volume4 ,the increment of heat received by the unit mass of the gas is delta,h pdeltav kappadelta,t1 kappa being thus the specific heat at constant volume1 which can be a function only of the temperature4 ,thus phi intd,h_/,t ,r_/m4log v intkappa,t7-#a7;d,t2 and the available energy ,a per unit mass is ,e - ,tphi ,tphi#j where ,e epsilon intkappad,t1 the integral being for a standard state1 and epsilon being intrinsic energy of chemical constitution2 so that ,a epsilon phi#j,t intkappad,t - ,t intkappa,t7-#a7;d,t - ,r_/m4,t log v4 ,if there are nu molecules in the unit mass1 and ,n per unit volume1 we have mnu ,nmv1 each being #b nu'1 where nu' is the number of molecules per unit mass in hydrogen2 thus the free energy per molecule is a' ,r',t log b,n1 where b m_/#bnu'1 ,r' ,r_/#bnu'1 and a' is a function of ,t alone4 ,it is customary to avoid introducing the unknown molecular constant nu' by working with the available energy per gramme-molecule1 that is1 for a number of grammes expressed by the molecular weight of the substance2 this is a constant multiple of the available energy per molecule1 and is a ,,rt logrho1 rho being the density equal to b,n where b m_/#bnu'4 ,this formula may now be extended by simple summation to a mixture of gases1 on the ground of ,dalton's experimental principle that each of the components behaves in presence of the others as it would do in a vacuum4 ,the components are1 in fact1 actually separable wholly or partially in reversible ways which may be combined into cycles1 for example1 either 7i47 by diffusion through a porous partition1 taking account of the work of the pressures1 or 7ii47 by utilizing the modified constitution towards the top of a long column of the mixture arising from the action of gravity1 or 7iii47 by reversible absorption of a single component4 ,if we employ in place of available energy the form of characteristic equation which gives the pressure in terms of the temperature and potentials1 the pressure of the mixture is expressed as the sum of those belonging to its components3 this equation was made by ,gibbs the basis of his analytical theory of gas mixtures1 which he tested by its application to the only data then available1 those of the equilibrium of dissociation of nitrogen peroxide 7#b,,no#b -- ,n#b,o#d7 vapour4 ,van 't ,hoff's ,osmotic ,principle3 ,theoretical ,explanation4--,we proceed to examine how far the same formulae as hold for gases apply to the available energy of matter in solution which is so dilute that each molecule of the dissolved substance1 though possibly the centre of a complex of molecules of the solvent1 is for nearly all the time beyond the sphere of direct influence of the other molecules of the dissolved substance4 ,the available energy is a function only of the co-ordinates of the matter in bulk and the temperature2 its change on further dilution1 with which alone we are concerned in the transformations of dilute solutions1 can depend only on the further separation of these molecular complexes in space that is thereby produced1 as no one of them is in itself altered4 ,the change is therefore a function only of the number ,n of the dissolved molecules per unit volume1 and of the temperature1 and is1 per molecule1 expressible in a form entirely independent of their constitution and of that of the medium in which they are dissolved4 ,this suggests that the expression for the change on dilution is the same as the known one for a gas1 in which the same molecules would exist free and in the main outside each other's spheres of influence2 which confirms and is verified by the experimental principle of van 't ,hoff1 that osmotic pressure obeys the laws of gaseous pressure with identically the same physical constants as those of gases4 ,it can be held1 in fact1 that this suggestion does not fall short of a demonstration1 on the basis of ,carnot's principle1 and independent of special molecular theory1 that in all cases where the molecules of a component1 whether it be of a gas or of a solution1 are outside each other's spheres of influence1 the available energy1 so far as regards dilution1 must have a common form1 and the physical constants must therefore be the known gas-constants4 ,the customary exposition derives this principle1 by an argument involving cycles1 from ,henry's law of solution of gases2 it is sensibly restricted to such solutes as appear concomitantly in the free gaseous state1 but theoretically it becomes general when it is remembered that no solute can be absolutely non-volatile4 ,source of the ,idea of ,temperature4--,the single new element that thermodynamics introduces into the ordinary dynamical specification of a material system is temperature4 ,this conception is akin to that of potential1 except that it is given to us directly by our sense of heat4 ,but if that were not so1 we could still demonstrate1 on the basis of ,carnot's principle1 that there is a definite function of the state of a body which must be the same for all of a series of connected bodies1 when thermal equilibrium has become established so that there is no tendency for heat to flow from one to another4 ,for we can by mere geometrical displacement change the order of the bodies so as to bring different ones into direct contact4 ,if this disturbed the thermal equilibrium1 we could construct cyclic processes to take advantage of the resulting flow of heat to do mechanical work1 and such processes might be carried on without limit4 ,thus it is proved that if a body ,a is in temperature-equilibrium with ,b1 and ,b with ,c1 then ,a must be in equilibrium with ,c directly4 ,this argument can be applied1 by aid of adiabatic partitions1 even when the bodies are in a field of force so that mechanical work is required to change their geometrical arrangement2 it was in fact employed by ,maxwell to extend from the case of a gas to that of any other system the proposition that the temperature is the same all along a vertical column in equilibrium under gravity4 ,it had been shown from the kinetic theory by ,maxwell that in a gas-column the mean kinetic energy of the molecules is the same at all heights4 ,if the only test of equality of temperature consisted in bringing the bodies into contact1 this would be rather a proof that thermal temperature is of the same physical nature in all parts of the field of force2 but temperature can also be equalized across a distance by radiation1 so that this law for gases is itself already necessitated by ,carnot's general principle1 and merely confirmed or verified by the special gas-theory4 ,but without introducing into the argument the existence of radiation1 the uniformity of temperature throughout all phases in equilibrium is necessitated by the doctrine of energetics alone1 as otherwise1 for example1 the raising of a quantity of gas to the top of the gravitational column in an adiabatic enclosure together with the lowering of an equal mass to the bottom would be a source of power1 capable of unlimited repetition4 ,laws of ,chemical ,equilibrium based on ,available ,energy4--,the complete theory of chemical and physical equilibrium in gaseous mixtures and in very dilute solutions may readily be developed in terms of available energy 7cf4 ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahig1 ,a1 pp4 #bff-bhj71 which forms perhaps the most vivid and most direct procedure4 ,the available energy per molecule of any kind1 in a mixture of perfect gases in which there are ,n molecules of that kind per unit volume1 has been found to be a' ,r',t logb,n where ,r' is the universal physical constant connected with ,r above4 ,this expression represents the marginal increase of available energy due to the introduction of one more molecule of that kind into the system as actually constituted4 ,the same formula also applies1 by what has already been stated1 to substances in dilute solution in any given solvent4 ,in any isolated system in a mobile state of reaction or of internal dissociation1 the condition of chemical equilibrium is that the available energy at constant temperature is a minimum1 therefore that it is stationary1 and slight change arising from fresh reaction would not sensibly alter it4 ,suppose that this reaction1 per molecule affected by it1 is equivalent to introducing n#a molecules of type ,n#a1 n#b of type ,n#b1 c41 into the system1 n#a1 n#b1 444 being the numbers of molecules of the different types that take part in the reaction1 as shown by its chemical equation1 reckoned positive when they appear1 negative when they disappear4 ,then in the state of equilibrium n#a7;a'#a ,r',t log b#a,n#a7 n#b7;a'#b ,r',t log b#b,n#b7 444 must vanish4 ,therefore ,n#a7n#a7 ,n#b7n#b7 444 must be equal to ,k1 a function of the temperature alone4 ,this law1 originally based by ,guldberg and ,waage on direct statistics of molecular interaction1 expresses for each temperature the relation connecting the densities of the interacting substances1 in dilution comparable as regards density with the perfect gaseous state1 when the reaction has come to the state of mobile equilibrium4 ,all properties of any system1 including the heat of reaction1 are expressible in terms of its available energy ,a1 equal to ,e - ,tphi phi#j,t4 ,thus as the constitution of the system changes with the temperature1 we have d,a d,e dphi -- -- - ,t------ - 7phi - phi#j7 d,t d,t d,t where delta,e delta,h delta,w1 delta,h ,tdeltaphi1 delta,h being heat and delta,w mechanical and chemical energy imparted to the system at constant temperature2 hence d7,a - ,w7 d7,a - ,w7 -------- -7phi - phi#j71 so that ,a ,e ,t--------1 d,t d,t which is equivalent to d _/,a - ,w ,e - ,w -,t#b -- 7-------74 d,t ,t _/ ,this general formula1 applied differentially1 expresses the heat delta,e - delta,w absorbed by a reaction in terms of delta,a1 the change produced by it in the available energy of the system1 and of delta,w1 the mechanical and electrical work done on the system during its progress4 ,in the problem of reaction in gaseous systems or in very dilute solution1 the change of available energy per molecule of reaction has just been found to be delta,a delta,a#j ,r',t log ,k'1 where ,k' b#a7n#a7 b#b7n#b7 444 ,k2 thus1 when the reaction is spontaneous without requiring external work1 the heat absorbed per molecule of reaction is d delta,a#j d -,t#b -- ---------1 or -,r',t#b -- log ,k4 d,t ,t d,t ,this formula has been utilized by van 't ,hoff to determine1 in terms of the heat of reaction1 the displacement of equilibrium in various systems arising from change of temperature2 for ,k1 equal to ,n#a7n#a7 ,n#b7n#b7 4441 is the reaction-parameter through which alone the temperature affects the law of chemical equilibrium in dilute systems4 ,interfacial ,phenomena3 ,liquid ,films4--,the characteristic equation hitherto developed refers to the state of an element of mass in the interior of a homogeneous substance3 it does not apply to matter in the neighbourhood of the transition between two adjacent phases4 ,a remarkable analysis has been developed by ,j4,w4 ,gibbs in which the present methods concerning matter in bulk are extended to the phenomena at such an interface1 without the introduction of any molecular theory2 it forms the thermodynamic completion of ,gauss's mechanical theory of capillarity1 based on the early form of the principle of total energy4 ,the validity of the fundamental doctrine of available energy1 so far as regards all mechanical actions in bulk such as surface tensions1 is postulated1 even when applied to interfacial layers so thin as to be beyond our means of measurement2 the argument from perpetual motions being available here also1 as soon as we have experimentally ascertained that the said tensions are definite physical properties of the state of the interface and not merely accidental phenomena4 ,the procedure will then consist in assuming a definite excess of energy1 of entropy1 and of the masses of the various components1 each per unit surface1 at the interface1 the potential of each component being of necessity1 in equilibrium1 the same as it is in the adjacent masses4 ,the interfacial transition layer thus provides in a sense a new surface-phase coexistent with those on each side of it1 and having its own characteristic equation4 ,it is only the extent of the interface and not its curvatures that need enter into this relation1 because any slight influence of the latter can be eliminated from the equation by slightly displacing the position of the surface which is taken to represent the interface geometrically4 ,by an argument similar to one given above1 it is shown that one of the forms of the characteristic equation is a relation expressing the surface tension as a function of the temperature and the potentials of the various components present on the two sides of the interface2 and from the differentiation of this the surface densities of the superficial distributions of these components 7as above defined7 can be obtained4 ,the conditions that a specified new phase may become developed when two other given ones are brought into contact1 i4e4 that a chemical reaction may start at the interface1 are thence formally expressed in terms of the surface tensions of the three transition layers and the pressures in the three phases4 ,in the case of a thin soap-film1 sudden extension of any part reduces the interfacial density of each component at each surface of the film1 and so alters the surface tension1 which requires time to recover by the very slow diffusion of dissolved material from other parts of the thin film2 the system being stable1 this change must be an increase of tension1 and constitutes a species of elasticity in the film4 ,thus in a vertical film the surface tension must be greater in the higher parts1 as they have to sustain the weight of the lower parts2 the upper parts1 in fact1 stretch until the superficial densities of the components there situated are reduced to the amounts that correspond to the tension required for this purpose4 ,such a film could not therefore consist of pure water4 ,but there is a limit to these processes3 if the film becomes so thin that there is no water in bulk between its surfaces1 the tensions cannot adjust themselves in this slow way by migration of components from one part of the film to another2 if the film can survive at all after it has become of molecular thickness1 it must be as a definite molecular structure all across its thickness4 ,of such type are the black spots that break out in soap-films 7suggested by ,gibbs and proved by the measures of ,reinold and ,rucker73 the spots increase in size because their tension is less than that of the surrounding film1 but their indefinite increase is presumably stopped in practice by some clogging or viscous agency at their boundary4 ,transition to ,molecular ,theory4--,the subject of energetics1 based on the doctrine of available energy1 deals with matter in bulk and is not concerned with its molecular constitution1 which it is expressly designed to eliminate from the problem4 ,this analysis of the phenomena of surface tension shows how far the principle of negation of perpetual motions can carry us1 into regions which at first sight might be classed as molecular4 ,but1 as in other cases1 it is limited to pointing out the general scheme of relations within which the phenomena can have their play4 ,there is now a considerable body of knowledge correlating surface tension with chemical constitution1 especially to a certain extent with the numerical density of the distribution of molecules2 thus ,r4 ,eotvos has shown that a law of proportionality exists for wide classes of substances between the temperature-gradient of the surface tension and the density of the molecules over the surface layer1 which varies as the two-thirds power of the number per unit volume 7see ,,chemistry3 ,physical74 ,this takes us into the sphere of molecular science1 where at present we have only such indications largely derived from experiment1 if we except the mere notion of inter-atomic forces of unknown character on which the older theories of capillarity1 those of ,laplace and ,poisson1 were constructed4 ,in other topics the same restrictions on the scope of the simple statical theory of energy appear4 ,from the ascertained behaviour in certain respects of gaseous media we are able to construct their characteristic equation1 and correlate their remaining relations by means of its consequences4 ,part of the experimental knowledge required for this purpose is the values of the gas-constants1 which prove to be the same for all nearly perfect gases4 ,the doctrine of energetics by itself can give no clue as to why this should be so2 it can only construct a scheme for each simple or complex medium on the basis of its own experimentally determined characteristic equation4 ,the explanation of uniformities in the intrinsic constitutions of various media belongs to molecular theory1 which is a distinct and in the main more complex and more speculative department of knowledge4 ,when we proceed further and find1 with van 't ,hoff1 that these same universal gas-constants reappear in the relations of very dilute solutions1 our demand for an explanation such as can only be provided by molecular theory 7as supra7 is intensely stimulated4 ,but except in respects such as these the doctrine of energetics gives a complete synthesis of the course and relations of the chemical reactions of matter in bulk1 from which we can eliminate atomism altogether by restating the merely numerical atomic theory of ,dalton as a principle of equivalent combining proportions4 ,of recent years there has been a considerable school of chemists who insist on this procedure as a purification of their science from the hypothetical ideas as to atoms and molecules1 in terms of which its experimental facts have come to be expressed4 ,a complete system of doctrine can be developed in this manner1 but its scope will be limited4 ,it makes use of one principle of correlation1 the doctrine of available energy1 and discards another such principle1 the atomic theory4 ,nor can it be said that the one principle is really more certain and definite than the other4 ,this may be illustrated by what has sometimes by ,german writers been called ,gibbs's paradox3 the energy that is available for mechanical effect in the inter-diffusion of given volumes of two gases depends only on these volumes and their pressures1 and is independent of what the gases are2 if the gases differed only infinitesimally in constitution it would still be the same1 and the question arises where we are to stop1 for we cannot suppose the inter-diffusion of two identical gases to be a source of power4 ,this then looks like a real failure1 or rather limitation1 of the principle2 and there are other such1 that can only be satisfactorily explained by aid of the complementary doctrine of molecular theory4 ,that theory1 in fact1 shows that the more nearly identical the gases are1 the slower will be the process of inter-diffusion1 so that the mechanical energy will indeed be available1 but only after a time that becomes indefinitely prolonged4 ,it is a case in which the simple doctrine of energetics becomes inadequate before the limit is reached4 ,the phenomena of highly rarefied gases provide other cases4 ,and in fact the only reason hitherto thought of for the invariable tendency of available energy to diminish1 is that it represents the general principle that in the kinetic play of a vast assemblage of independent molecules individually beyond our control1 the normal tendency is for the regularities to diminish and the motions to become less correlated3 short of some such reason1 it is an unexplained empirical principle4 ,in the special departments of dynamical physics on the other hand1 the molecular theory1 there dynamical and therefore much more difficult and less definite1 is an indispensable part of the framework of science2 and even experimental chemistry now leans more and more on new physical methods and instruments4 ,without molecular theory the clue which has developed into spectrum analysis1 bringing with it stellar chemistry and a new physical astronomy1 would not have been available2 nor would the laws of diffusion and conduction in gases have attained more than an empirical form2 nor would it have been possible to weave the phenomena of electrodynamics and radiation into an entirely rational theory4 ,the doctrine of available energy1 as the expression of thermodynamic theory1 is directly implied in ,carnot's ,essai of #ahbd1 and constitutes1 in fact1 its main theme2 it took a fresh start1 in the light of fuller experimental knowledge regarding the nature of heat1 in the early memoirs of ,rankine and ,lord ,kelvin1 which may be found in their ,collected ,scientific ,papers2 a subsequent exposition occurs in ,maxwell's ,theory of ,heat2 its most familiar form of statement is ,lord ,kelvin's principle of the dissipation of available energy4 ,its principles were very early applied by ,james ,thomson to a physico-chemical problem1 that of the influence of stress on the growth of crystals in their mother liquor4 ,the thermodynamic function introduced by ,rankine into its development is the same as the entropy of the material system1 independently defined by ,clausius about the same time4 ,clausius's form of the principle1 that in an adiabatic system the entropy tends continually to increase1 has been placed by ,professor ,willard ,gibbs1 of ,yale ,university1 at the foundation of his magnificent but complex and difficult development of the theory4 ,his monumental memoir ,on the ,equilibrium of ,heterogeneous ,substances1 first published in ,trans4 ,connecticut ,academy 7#ahgf-ahgh71 made a clean sweep of the subject2 and workers in the modern experimental science of physical chemistry have returned to it again and again to find their empirical principles forecasted in the light of pure theory1 and to derive fresh inspiration for new departures4 ,as specially preparatory to ,gibbs's general discussion may be mentioned ,lord ,rayleigh's memoir on the thermodynamics of gaseous diffusion 7,phil4 ,mag41 #ahgf71 which was expounded by ,maxwell in the #ith edition of the ,ency4 ,brit4 7art4 ,,diffusion74 ,the fundamental importance of the doctrine of dissipation of energy for the theory of chemical reaction had already been insisted on in general terms by ,rayleigh2 subsequent to1 but independently of1 ,gibbs's work it had been elaborated by von ,helmholtz 7,gesamm4 ,abhandl4 ii4 and iii47 in connexion with the thermodynamics of voltaic cells1 and more particularly in the calculation of the free or available energy of solutions from data of vapour-pressure1 with a view to the application to the theory of concentration cells1 therein also coming close to the doctrine of osmotic pressure4 ,this form of the general theory has here been traced back substantially to ,lord ,kelvin under date #ahee4 ,expositions and developments on various lines will be found in papers by ,riecke and by ,planck in ,annalen der ,physik between #ahij and #aijj1 in the course of a memoir by ,larmor1 ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahig1 ,a1 in ,voigt's ,compendium der ,physik and his more recent ,thermodynamik1 in ,planck's ,vorlesungen uber ,thermodynamik1 in ,duhem's elaborate ,traite de mecanique chimique and ,le ,potential thermodynamique1 in ,whetham's ,theory of ,solution and in ,bryan's ,thermodynamics4 ,numerous applications to special problems are expounded in van't ,hoff's ,lectures on ,theoretical and ,physical ,chemistry4 ,the theory of energetics1 which puts a diminishing limit on the amount of energy available for mechanical purposes1 is closely implicated in the discovery of natural radioactive substances by ,h4 ,becquerel1 and their isolation in the very potent form of radium salts by ,m4 and ,mme ,curie4 ,the slow degradation of radium has been found by the latter to be concomitant with an evolution of heat1 in amount enormous compared with other chemical changes4 ,this heat has been shown by ,e4 ,rutherford to be about what must be due to the stoppage of the alpha and beta particles1 which are emitted from the substance with velocities almost of the same scale as that of light4 ,if they struck an ideal rigid target1 their lost kinetic energy must all be sent away as radiation2 but when they become entangled among the molecules of actual matter1 it will1 to a large extent1 be shared among them as heat1 with availability reduced accordingly4 ,in any case the particles that escape into the surrounding space are so few and their velocity so uniform that we can1 to some extent1 treat their energy as directly available mechanically1 in contradistinction to the energy of individual molecules of a gas 7cf4 ,maxwell's demons71 e4g4 for driving a vane1 as in ,crookes's experiment with the cathode rays4 ,indeed1 on account of the high velocity of projection of the particles from a radium salt1 the actions concerned would find their equilibrium at such enormously high temperatures that any influence of actually available differences of temperature is not sensibly a feature of the phenomena4 ,such actions1 however1 like explosive actions in general1 are beyond our powers of actual direct measurement as regards the degradation of availability of the energy4 ,it has been pointed out by ,rutherford1 ,r4,j4 ,strutt and others1 that the energy of degradation of even a very minute admixture of active radium would entirely dominate and mask all other cosmical modes of transformation of energy2 for example1 it far outweighs that arising from the exhaustion of gravitational energy1 which has been shown by ,helmholtz and ,kelvin to be an ample source for all the activities of our cosmical system1 and to be itself far greater than the energy of any ordinary chemical rearrangements consequent on a fall of temperature3 a circumstance that makes the existence and properties of this substance under settled cosmic conditions still more anomalous 7see ,,radioactivity74 ,theoretically it is possible to obtain unlimited concentration of availability of energy at the expense of an equivalent amount of degradation spread over a wider field2 the potency of electric furnaces1 which have recently opened up a new department of chemistry1 and are limited only by the refractoriness of the materials of which they are constituted1 forms a case in point4 ,in radium we have the very remarkable phenomenon of far higher concentration occurring naturally in very minute permanent amounts1 so that merely chemical sifting is needed to produce its aggregation4 ,even in pitchblende only one molecule in #aji seems to be of radium1 renewable1 however1 when lost1 by internal transformation4 ,the energetics of ,,radiation is treated under that heading4 ,see also ,,thermodynamics4 7,j4 ,l4997 ,,energici1 or ,,energumens 7,gr4 possessed by a spirit71 the name given in the early ,church to those suffering from different forms of insanity1 who were popularly supposed to be under the control of some indwelling spirit other than their own4 ,among primitive races everywhere disease is explained in this way1 and its removal supposed to be effected by priestly prayers and incantations4 ,they were sometimes called ,greek3 ,cheimazomenoi1 as being tossed by the waves of uncontrollable impulse4 ,persons afflicted in this way were restricted from entering the church1 but might share the shelter of the porch with lepers and persons of offensive life 7,hefele1 ,conciliengeschichte1 vol4 i4 ,s #af74 ,after the prayers1 if quiet1 they might come in to receive the bishop's blessing 7,apost4 ,const4 viii4 #f1 #g1 #cb7 and listen to the sermon4 ,they were daily fed and prayed over by the exorcists1 and1 in case of recovery1 after a fast of from #bj to #dj days1 were admitted to the eucharist1 and their names and cures entered in the church records4 ,a note on the ,new ,testament use of the word ,greek3 energein and its cognates will be found in ,j4,a4 ,robinson's edition of ,the ,epistle to the ,ephesians1 pp4 #bda-bdg2 an excursus on ,the ,conflict with ,demons in ,a4 ,harnack1 ,the ,expansion of ,christianity1 i4 #aeb-ahj4 ,cf4 ,,exorcism4 ,,energy 7from the ,gr4 ,greek3 energeia2 ,greek3 en1 in1 ,greek3 ergon1 work71 in physical science1 a term which may be defined as accumulated mechanical work1 which1 however1 may be only partially available for use4 ,a bent spring possesses energy1 for it is capable of doing work in returning to its natural form2 a charge of gunpowder possesses energy1 for it is capable of doing work in exploding2 a ,leyden jar charged with electricity possesses energy1 for it is capable of doing work in being discharged4 ,the motions of bodies1 or of the ultimate parts of bodies1 also involve energy1 for stopping them would be a source of work4 ,all kinds of energy are ultimately measured in terms of work4 ,if we raise #a lb4 of matter through a foot we do a certain amount of work against the earth's attraction2 if we raise #b lb4 through the same height we do twice this amount of work1 and so on4 ,also1 the work done in raising #a lb4 through #b ft4 will be double of that done in raising it #a ft4 ,thus we recognize that the work done varies as the resistance overcome and the distance through which it is overcome conjointly4 ,now1 we may select any definite quantity of work we please as our unit1 as1 for example1 the work done in lifting a pound a foot high from the sea-level in the latitude of ,london1 which is the unit of work generally adopted by ,british engineers1 and is called the foot-pound4 ,the most appropriate unit for scientific purposes is one which depends only on the fundamental units of length1 mass and time1 and is hence called an absolute unit4 ,such a unit is independent of gravity or of any other quantity which varies with the locality4 ,taking the centimetre1 gramme and second as our fundamental units1 the most convenient unit of force is that which1 acting on a gramme for a second1 produces in it a velocity of a centimetre per second2 this is called a ,dyne4 ,the unit of work is that which is required to overcome a resistance of a dyne over a centimetre1 and is called an ,erg4 ,in the latitude of ,paris the dyne is equal to the weight of about #a_/iha of a gramme1 and the erg is the amount of work required to raise #a_/iha of a gramme vertically through one centimetre4 ,energy is the capacity for doing work4 ,the unit of energy should therefore be the same as that of work1 and the centimetre-gramme-second 7,c4,g4,s47 unit of energy is the erg4 ,the forms of energy which are most readily recognized are of course those in which the energy can be most directly employed in doing mechanical work2 and it is manifest that masses of matter which are large enough to be seen and handled are more readily dealt with mechanically than are smaller masses4 ,hence when useful work can be obtained from a system by simply connecting visible portions of it by a train of mechanism1 such energy is more readily recognized than is that which would compel us to control the behaviour of molecules before we could transform it into useful work4 ,this leads up to the fundamental distinction1 introduced by ,lord ,kelvin1 between available energy1 which we can turn to mechanical effect1 and diffuse energy1 which is useless for that purpose4 ,the conception of work and of energy was originally derived from observation of purely mechanical phenomena1 that is to say1 phenomena in which the relative positions and motions of visible portions of matter were all that were taken into consideration4 ,hence it is not surprising that1 in those more subtle forms in which energy cannot be readily or completely converted into work1 the universality of the principle of energy1 its conservation1 as regards amount1 should for a long while have escaped recognition after it had become familiar in pure dynamics4 ,if a pound weight be suspended by a string passing over pulley1 in descending through #aj ft4 it is capable of raising nearly a pound weight attached to the other end of the string1 through the same height1 and thus can do nearly #aj foot-pounds of work4 ,the smoother we make the pulley the more nearly does the amount of useful work which the weight is capable of doing approach #aj foot-pounds1 and if we take into account the work done against the friction of the pulley1 we may say that the work done by the descending weight is #aj foot-pounds1 and hence when the weight is in its elevated position we have at disposal #aj foot-pounds more energy than when it is in the lower position4 ,it should be noticed1 however1 that this energy is possessed by the system consisting of the earth and pound together1 in virtue of their separation1 and that neither could do work without the other to attract it4 ,the system consisting of the earth and the pound therefore possesses an amount of energy which depends on the relative positions of its two parts1 on account of the latent physical connexion existing between them4 ,in most mechanical systems the working stresses acting between the parts can be determined when the relative positions of all the parts are known2 and the energy which a system possesses in virtue of the relative positions of its parts1 or its configuration1 is classified as potential energy1 to distinguish it from energy of motion which we shall presently consider4 ,the word potential does not imply that this energy is not real2 it exists in potentiality only in the sense that it is stored away in some latent manner2 but it can be drawn upon without limit for mechanical work4 ,it is a fundamental result in dynamics that1 if a body be projected vertically upwards in vacuo1 with a velocity of v centimetres per second1 it will rise to a height of v#b_/b;g centimetres1 where g represents the numerical value of the acceleration produced by gravity in centimetre-second units4 ,now1 if m represent the mass of the body in grammes its weight will be mg dynes1 for it will require a force of mg dynes to produce in it the acceleration denoted by g4 ,hence the work done in raising the mass will be represented by mg4v#b_/b;g1 that is1 #a_/b mv#b ergs4 ,now1 whatever be the direction in which a body is moving1 a frictionless constraint1 like a string attached to the body1 can cause its velocity to be changed into the vertical direction without any change taking place in the magnitude of the velocity4 ,thus it is merely in virtue of the velocity that the mass is capable of rising against the resistance of gravity1 and hence we recognize that on account of its motion the body possessed #a_/b mv#b units of energy4 ,energy of motion is usually called kinetic energy4 ,a simple example of the transformation of kinetic energy into potential energy1 and vice versa1 is afforded by the pendulum4 ,when at the limits of its swing1 the pendulum is for an instant at rest1 and all the energy of the oscillation is static or potential4 ,when passing through its position of equilibrium1 since gravity can do no more work upon it without changing its fixed point of support1 all the energy of oscillation is kinetic4 ,at intermediate positions the energy is partly kinetic and partly potential4 ,available kinetic energy is possessed by a system of two or more bodies in virtue of the relative motion of its parts4 ,since our conception of velocity is essentially relative1 it is plain that any property possessed by a body in virtue of its motion can be effectively possessed by it only in relation to those bodies with respect to which it is moving4 ,if a body whose mass is m grammes be moving with a velocity of v centimetres per second relative to the earth1 the available kinetic energy possessed by the system is #a_/b mv#b ergs if m be small relative to the earth4 ,but if we consider two bodies each of mass m and one of them moving with velocity v relative to the other1 only #a_/d mv#b units of work is available from this system alone4 ,thus the estimation of kinetic energy is intimately affected by the choice of our base of measurement4 ,when the stresses acting between the parts of a system depend only on the relative positions of those parts1 the sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of the system is always the same1 provided the system be not acted upon by anything outside it4 ,such a system is called conservative1 and is well illustrated by the swinging pendulum above referred to4 ,but there are stresses which depend on the relative motion of the visible bodies between which they appear to act4 ,when work is done against these forces no full equivalent of potential energy may be produced2 this applies especially to frictional forces1 for if the motion of the system be reversed the forces will be also reversed and will still oppose the motion4 ,it was long believed that work done against such forces was lost1 and it was not till the #aith century that the energy thus transformed was traced2 the conservation of energy has become the master-key to unlock the connexions in inanimate nature4 ,it was pointed out by ,thomson 7,lord ,kelvin7 and ,p4,g4 ,tait that ,newton had divined the principle of the conservation of energy1 so far as it belongs purely to mechanics4 ,but what became of the work done against friction and such non-conservative forces remained obscure1 while the chemical doctrine that heat was an indestructible substance afterwards led to the idea that it was lost4 ,there was1 however1 even before ,newton's time1 more than a suspicion that heat was a form of energy4 ,francis ,bacon expressed his conviction that heat consists of a kind of motion or brisk agitation of the particles of matter4 ,in the ,novum ,organum1 after giving a long list of the sources of heat1 he says3 ,from these examples1 taken collectively as well as singly1 the nature whose limit is heat appears to be motion4444 ,it must not be thought that heat generates motion or motion heat 7though in some respects this is true71 but the very essence of heat1 or the substantial self of heat1 is motion and nothing else4 ,after ,newton's time the first vigorous effort to restore the universality of the doctrine of energy was made by ,benjamin ,thompson1 ,count ,rumford1 and was published in the ,phil4 ,trans4 for #agih4 ,rumford was engaged in superintending the boring of cannon in the military arsenal at ,munich1 and was struck by the amount of heat produced by the action of the boring bar upon the brass castings4 ,in order to see whether the heat came out of the chips he compared the capacity for heat of the chips abraded by the boring bar with that of an equal quantity of the metal cut from the block by a fine saw1 and obtained the same result in the two cases1 from which he concluded that the heat produced could not possibly have been furnished at the expense of the latent heat of the metallic chips4 ,rumford then turned up a hollow cylinder which was cast in one piece with a brass six-pounder1 and having reduced the connexion between the cylinder and cannon to a narrow neck of metal1 he caused a blunt borer to press against the hollow of the cylinder with a force equal to the weight of about #aj1jjj lb41 while the casting was made to rotate in a lathe4 ,by this means the mean temperature of the brass was raised through about #gj deg4 ,fahr41 while the amount of metal abraded was only #hcg grains4 ,in order to be sure that the heat was not due to the action of the air upon the newly exposed metallic surface1 the cylinder and the end of the boring bar were immersed in #ah4gg lb4 of water contained in an oak box4 ,the temperature of the water at the commencement of the experiment was #fj deg4 ,fahr41 and after two horses had turned the lathe for #b-a_/b hours the water boiled4 ,taking into account the heat absorbed by the box and the metal1 ,rumford calculated that the heat developed was sufficient to raise #bf4eh lb4 of water from the freezing to the boiling point1 and in this calculation the heat lost by radiation and conduction was neglected4 ,since one horse was capable of doing the work required1 ,rumford remarked that one horse can generate heat as rapidly as nine wax candles burning in the ordinary manner4 ,finally1 ,rumford reviewed all the sources from which the heat might have been supposed to be derived1 and concluded that it was simply produced by the friction1 and that the supply was inexhaustible4 ,it is hardly necessary to add1 he remarks1 that anything which any insulated body or system of bodies can continue to furnish without limitation cannot possibly be a material substance2 and it appears to me to be extremely difficult1 if not quite impossible1 to form any distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and communicated in the manner that heat was excited and communicated in these experiments1 except it be motion4 ,about the same time ,davy showed that two pieces of ice could be melted by rubbing them together in a vacuum1 although everything surrounding them was at a temperature below the freezing point4 ,he did not1 however1 infer that since the heat could not have been supplied by the ice1 for ice absorbs heat in melting1 this experiment afforded conclusive proof against the substantial nature of heat4 ,though we may allow that the results obtained by ,rumford and ,davy demonstrate satisfactorily that heat is in some way due to motion1 yet they do not tell us to what particular dynamical quantity heat corresponds4 ,for example1 does the heat generated by friction vary as the friction and the time during which it acts1 or is it proportional to the friction and the distance through which the rubbing bodies are displaced--that is1 to the work done against friction--or does it involve any other conditions8 ,if it can be shown that1 however the duration and all other conditions of the experiment may be varied1 the same amount of heat can in the end be always produced when the same amount of energy is expended1 then1 and only then1 can we infer that heat is a form of energy1 and that the energy consumed has been really transformed into heat4 ,this was left for ,j4,p4 ,joule to achieve2 his experiments conclusively prove that heat and energy are of the same nature1 and that all other forms of energy can be transformed into an equivalent amount of heat4 ,the quantity of energy which1 if entirely converted into heat1 is capable of raising the temperature of the unit mass of water from #j deg4 ,c4 to #a deg4 ,c4 is called the mechanical equivalent of heat4 ,one of the first who took in hand the determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat was ,marc4 ,seguin1 a nephew of ,j4,m4 ,montgolfier4 ,he argued that1 if heat be energy1 then1 when it is employed in doing work1 as in a steam-engine1 some of the heat must itself be consumed in the operation4 ,hence he inferred that the amount of heat given up to the condenser of an engine when the engine is doing work must be less than when the same amount of steam is blown through the engine without doing any work4 ,seguin was unable to verify this experimentally1 but in #aheg ,g4,a4 ,hirn succeeded1 not only in showing that such a difference exists1 but in measuring it1 and hence determining a tolerably approximate value of the mechanical equivalent of heat4 ,in #ahci ,seguin endeavoured to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat from the loss of heat suffered by steam in expanding1 assuming that the whole of the heat so lost was consumed in doing external work against the pressure to which the steam was exposed4 ,this assumption1 however1 cannot be justified1 because it neglected to take account of work which might possibly have to be done within the steam itself during the expansion4 ,in #ahdb ,r4 ,mayer1 a physician at ,heilbronn1 published an attempt to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat from the heat produced when air is compressed4 ,mayer made an assumption the converse of that of ,seguin1 asserting that the whole of the work done in compressing the air was converted into heat1 and neglecting the possibility of heat being consumed in doing work within the air itself or being produced by the transformation of internal potential energy4 ,joule afterwards proved 7see below7 that ,mayer's assumption was in accordance with fact1 so that his method was a sound one as far as experiment was concerned2 and it was only on account of the values of the specific heats of air at constant pressure and at constant volume employed by him being very inexact that the value of the mechanical equivalent of heat obtained by ,mayer was very far from the truth4 ,passing over ,l4,a4 ,colding1 who in #ahdc presented to the ,royal ,society of ,copenhagen a paper entitled ,theses concerning ,force1 which clearly stated the principle of the perpetuity of energy1 and who also performed a series of experiments for the purpose of determining the heat developed by the compression of various bodies1 which entitle him to be mentioned among the founders of the modern theory of energy1 we come to ,dr ,james ,prescott ,joule of ,manchester1 to whom we are indebted more than to any other for the establishment of the principle of the conservation of energy on the broad basis on which it has since stood4 ,the best-known of ,joule's experiments was that in which a brass paddle consisting of eight arms rotated in a cylindrical vessel of water containing four fixed vanes1 which allowed the passage of the arms of the paddle but prevented the water from rotating as a whole4 ,the paddle was driven by weights1 and the temperature of the water was observed by thermometers which could indicate #a_/bjjth of a degree ,fahrenheit4 ,special experiments were made to determine the work done against resistances outside the vessel of water1 which amounted to about 4#jjf of the whole1 and corrections were made for the loss of heat by radiation1 the buoyancy of the air affecting the descending weights1 and the energy dissipated when the weights struck the floor with a finite velocity4 ,from these experiments ,joule obtained #gb4fib foot-pounds in the latitude of ,manchester as equivalent to the amount of heat required to raise #a lb4 of water through #a deg4 ,fahr1 from the freezing point4 ,adopting the centigrade scale1 this gives #acij4hdf foot-pounds4 ,with an apparatus similar to the above1 but smaller1 made of iron and filled with mercury1 ,joule obtained results varying from #ggb4had foot-pounds when driving weights of about #eh lb4 were employed to #gge4ceb foot-pounds when the driving weights were only about #ai-a_/b lb4 ,by causing two conical surfaces of cast-iron immersed in mercury and contained in an iron vessel to rub against one another when pressed together by a lever1 ,joule obtained #ggf4jde foot-pounds for the mechanical equivalent of heat when the heavy weights were used1 and #ggd4ic foot-pounds with the small driving weights4 ,in this experiment a great noise was produced1 corresponding to a loss of energy1 and ,joule endeavoured to determine the amount of energy necessary to produce an equal amount of sound from the string of a violoncello and to apply a corresponding correction4 ,the close agreement between the results at least indicates that the amount of heat produced by friction is proportional to the work done and independent of the nature of the rubbing surfaces4 ,joule inferred from them that the mechanical equivalent of heat is probably about #ggb foot-pounds1 or1 employing the centigrade scale1 about #acij foot-pounds4 ,previous to determining the mechanical equivalent of heat by the most accurate experimental method at his command1 ,joule established a series of cases in which the production of one kind of energy was accompanied by a disappearance of some other form4 ,in #ahdj he showed that when an electric current was produced by means of a dynamo-magneto-electric machine the heat generated in the conductor1 when no external work was done by the current1 was the same as if the energy employed in producing the current had been converted into heat by friction1 thus showing that electric currents conform to the principle of the conservation of energy1 since energy can neither be created nor destroyed by them4 ,he also determined a roughly approximate value for the mechanical equivalent of heat from the results of these experiments4 ,extending his investigations to the currents produced by batteries1 he found that the total voltaic heat generated in any circuit was proportional to the number of electrochemical equivalents electrolysed in each cell multiplied by the electromotive force of the battery4 ,now1 we know that the number of electrochemical equivalents electrolysed is proportional to the whole amount of electricity which passed through the circuit1 and the product of this by the electromotive force of the battery is the work done by the latter1 so that in this case also ,joule showed that the heat generated was proportional to the work done4 ,in #ahdd and #ahde ,joule published a series of researches on the compression and expansion of air4 ,a metal vessel was placed in a calorimeter and air forced into it1 the amount of energy expended in compressing the air being measured4 ,assuming that the whole of the energy was converted into heat1 when the air was subjected to a pressure of #ba4e atmospheres ,joule obtained for the mechanical equivalent of heat about #hbd4h foot-pounds1 and when a pressure of only #aj4e atmospheres was employed the result was #gif4i foot-pounds4 ,in the next experiment the air was compressed as before1 and then allowed to escape through a long lead tube immersed in the water of a calorimeter1 and finally collected in a bell jar4 ,the amount of heat absorbed by the air could thus be measured1 while the work done by it in expanding could be readily calculated4 ,in allowing the air to expand from a pressure of #ba atmospheres to that of #a atmosphere the value of the mechanical equivalent of heat obtained was #hba4hi foot-pounds4 ,between #aj atmospheres and #a it was #hae4hge foot-pounds1 and between #bc and #ad atmospheres #gfa4gd foot-pounds4 ,but1 unlike ,mayer and ,seguin1 ,joule was not content with assuming that when air is compressed or allowed to expand the heat generated or absorbed is the equivalent of the work done and of that only1 no change being made in the internal energy of the air itself when the temperature is kept constant4 ,to test this two vessels similar to that used in the last experiment were placed in the same calorimeter and connected by a tube with a stop-cock4 ,one contained air at a pressure of #bb atmospheres1 while the other was exhausted4 ,on opening the stop-cock no work was done by the expanding air against external forces1 since it expanded into a vacuum1 and it was found that no heat was generated or absorbed4 ,this showed that ,mayer's assumption was true4 ,on repeating the experiment when the two vessels were placed in different calorimeters1 it was found that heat was absorbed by the vessel containing the compressed air1 while an equal quantity of heat was produced in the calorimeter containing the exhausted vessel4 ,the heat absorbed was consumed in giving motion to the issuing stream of air1 and was reproduced by the impact of the particles on the sides of the exhausted vessel4 ,the subsequent researches of ,dr ,joule and ,lord ,kelvin 7,phil4 ,trans41 #ahec1 p4 #ceg1 #ahed1 p4 #cba1 and #ahfb1 p4 #egi7 showed that the statement that no internal work is done when a gas expands or contracts is not quite true1 but the amount is very small in the cases of those gases which1 like oxygen1 hydrogen and nitrogen1 can only be liquefied by intense cold and pressure4 ,for a long time the final result deduced by ,joule by these varied and careful investigations was accepted as the standard value of the mechanical equivalent of heat4 ,recent determinations by ,h4,a4 ,rowland and others1 necessitated by modern requirements1 have shown that it is in error1 but by less than #a4 ,the writings of ,joule1 which thus occupy the place of honour in the practical establishment of the conservation of energy1 have been collected into two volumes published by the ,physical ,society of ,london4 ,on the theoretical side the greatest stimulus came from the publication in #ahdg1 without knowledge of ,mayer or ,joule1 of ,helmholtz's great memoir1 ,uber die ,erhaltung der ,kraft1 followed immediately 7#ahdh-aheb7 by the establishment of the science of thermodynamics 7q4v471 mainly by ,r4 ,clausius and ,lord ,kelvin on the basis of ,carnot's principle 7#ahbd71 modified in expression so as to be consistent with the conservation of energy 7see ,,energetics74 ,though we can convert the whole of the energy possessed by any mechanical system into heat1 it is not in our power to perform the inverse operation1 and to utilize the whole of the heat in doing mechanical work4 ,thus we see that different forms of energy are not equally valuable for conversion into work4 ,the ratio of the portion of the energy of a system which can under given conditions be converted into mechanical work to the whole amount of energy operated upon may be called the availability of the energy4 ,if a system be removed from all communication with anything outside of itself1 the whole amount of energy possessed by it will remain constant1 but will of its own accord tend to undergo such transformations as will diminish its availability4 ,this general law1 known as the principle of the dissipation of energy1 was first adequately pointed out by ,lord ,kelvin in #aheb2 and was applied by him to some of the principal problems of cosmical physics4 ,though controlling all phenomena of which we have any experience1 the principle of the dissipation of energy rests on a very different foundation from that of the conservation of energy2 for while we may conceive of no means of circumventing the latter principle1 it seems that the actions of intelligent beings are subject to the former only in consequence of the rudeness of the machinery which they have at their disposal for controlling the behaviour of those ultimate portions of matter1 in virtue of the motions or positions of which the energy with which they have to deal exists4 ,if we have a weight capable of falling through a certain distance1 we can employ the mutual forces of the system consisting of the earth and weight to do an amount of useful work which is less than the full amount of potential energy possessed by the system only in consequence of the friction of the constraints1 so that the limit of availability in this case is determined only by the friction which is unavoidable4 ,here we have to deal with a transformation with which we can grapple1 and which can be controlled for our purposes4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we have to deal with a system of molecules of whose motions in the aggregate we become conscious only by indirect means1 while we know absolutely nothing either of the motions or positions of any individual molecule1 it is obvious that we cannot grasp single molecules and control their movements so as to derive the full amount of work from the system4 ,all we can do in such cases is to place the system under certain conditions of transformation1 and be content with the amount of work which it is1 as it were1 willing to render up under those conditions4 ,thus the principle of ,carnot involves the conclusion that a greater proportion of the heat possessed by a body at a high temperature can be converted into work than in the case of an equal quantity of heat possessed by a body at a low temperature1 so that the availability of heat increases with the temperature4 ,clerk ,maxwell supposed two compartments1 ,a and ,b1 to be filled with gas at the same temperature1 and to be separated by an ideal1 infinitely thin partition containing a number of exceedingly small trap-doors1 each of which could be opened or closed without any expenditure of energy4 ,an intelligent creature1 or demon1 possessed of unlimited powers of vision1 is placed in charge of each door1 with instructions to open the door whenever a particle in ,a comes towards it with more than a certain velocity ,v1 and to keep it closed against all particles in ,a moving with less than this velocity1 but1 on the other hand1 to open the door whenever a particle in ,b approaches it with less than a certain velocity v1 which is not greater than ,v1 and to keep it closed against all particles in ,b moving with a greater velocity than this4 ,by continuing this process every unit of mass which enters ,b will carry with it more energy than each unit which leaves ,b1 and hence the temperature of the gas in ,b will be raised and that of the gas in ,a lowered1 while no heat is lost and no energy expended2 so that by the application of intelligence alone a portion of gas of uniform pressure and temperature may be sifted into two parts1 in which both the temperature and the pressure are different1 and from which1 therefore1 work can be obtained at the expense of heat4 ,this shows that the principle of the dissipation of energy has control over the actions of those agents only whose faculties are too gross to enable them to grapple individually with the minute portions of matter which are the seat of energy4 ,in #ahge ,lord ,rayleigh published an investigation on the work which may be gained during the mixing of gases4 ,in the preface he states the position that whenever1 then1 two gases are allowed to mix without the performance of work1 there is dissipation of energy1 and an opportunity of doing work at the expense of low temperature heat has been for ever lost4 ,he shows that the amount of work obtainable is equal to that which can be done by the first gas in expanding into the space occupied by the second 7supposed vacuous7 together with that done by the second in expanding into the space occupied by the first4 ,in the experiment imagined by ,lord ,rayleigh a porous diaphragm takes the place of the partition and trap-doors imagined by ,clerk ,maxwell1 and the molecules sort themselves automatically on account of the difference in their average velocities for the two gases4 ,when the pressure on one side of the diaphragm thus becomes greater than that on the other1 work may be done at the expense of heat in pushing the diaphragm1 and the operation carried on with continual gain of work until the gases are uniformly diffused4 ,there is this difference1 however1 between this experiment and the operation imagined by ,maxwell1 that when the gases have diffused the experiment cannot be repeated2 and it is no more contrary to the dissipation of energy than is the fact that work may be derived at the expense of heat when a gas expands into a vacuum1 for the working substance is not finally restored to its original condition2 while ,maxwell's demons may operate without limit4 ,in such experiments the molecular energy of a gas is converted into work only in virtue of the molecules being separated into classes in which their velocities are different1 and these classes then allowed to act upon one another through the intervention of a suitable heat-engine4 ,this sorting can occur spontaneously to a limited extent2 while if we could carry it out as far as we pleased we might transform the whole of the heat of a body into work4 ,the theoretical availability of heat is limited only by our power of bringing those particles whose motions constitute heat in bodies to rest relatively to one another2 and we have precisely similar practical limits to the availability of the energy due to the motion of visible and tangible bodies1 though theoretically we can then trace all the stages4 ,if a battery of electromotive force ,e maintain a current ,c in a conductor1 and no other electromotive force exist in the circuit1 the whole of the work done will be converted into heat1 and the amount of work done per second will be ,,ec4 ,if ,r denote the resistance of the whole circuit1 ,e ,,cr1 and the heat generated per second is ,c#b,r4 ,if the current drive an electromagnetic engine1 the reaction of the engine will produce an electromotive force opposing the current4 ,suppose the current to be thus reduced to ,c'4 ,then the work done by the battery per second will be ,,ec' or ,,cc',r1 while the heat generated per second will be ,c'#b,r1 so that we have the difference 7,c-,c'7,c',r for the energy consumed in driving the engine4 ,the ratio of this to the whole work done by the battery is 7,c-,c'7_/,c1 so that the efficiency is increased by diminishing ,c'4 ,if we could drive the engine so fast as to reduce ,c' to zero1 the whole of the energy of the battery would be available1 no heat being produced in the wires1 but the horse-power of the engine would be indefinitely small4 ,the reason why the whole of the energy of the current is not available is that heat must always be generated in a wire in which a finite current is flowing1 so that1 in the case of a battery in which the whole of the energy of chemical affinity is employed in producing a current1 the availability of the energy is limited only on account of the resistance of the conductors1 and may be increased by diminishing this resistance4 ,the availability of the energy of electrical separation in a charged ,leyden jar is also limited only by the resistance of conductors1 in virtue of which an amount of heat is necessarily produced1 which is greater the less the time occupied in discharging the jar4 ,the availability of the energy of magnetization is limited by the coercive force of the magnetized material1 in virtue of which any change in the intensity of magnetization is accompanied by the production of heat4 ,in all cases there is a general tendency for other forms of energy to be transformed into heat on account of the friction of rough surfaces1 the resistance of conductors1 or similar causes1 and thus to lose availability4 ,in some cases1 as when heat is converted into the kinetic energy of moving machinery or the potential energy of raised weights1 there is an ascent of energy from the less available form of heat to the more available form of mechanical energy1 but in all cases this is accompanied by the transfer of other heat from a body at a high temperature to one at a lower temperature1 thus losing availability to an extent that more than compensates for the rise4 ,it is practically important to consider the rate at which energy may be transformed into useful work1 or the horse-power of the agent4 ,it generally happens that to obtain the greatest possible amount of work from a given supply of energy1 and to obtain it at the greatest rate1 are conflicting interests4 ,we have seen that the efficiency of an electromagnetic engine is greatest when the current is indefinitely small1 and then the rate at which it works is also indefinitely small4 ,m4,h4 von ,jacobi showed that for a given electromotive force in the battery the horse-power is greatest when the current is reduced to one-half of what it would be if the engine were at rest4 ,a similar condition obtains in the steam-engine1 in which a great rate of working necessitates the dissipation of a large amount of energy4 7,w4 ,g42 ,j4 ,l4997 ,,enfantin1 ,,barthelemy ,,prosper 7#agif-ahfd71 ,french social reformer1 one of the founders of ,saint-,simonism1 was born at ,paris on the #hth of ,february #agif4 ,he was the son of a banker of ,dauphiny1 and after receiving his early education at a lyceum1 was sent in #ahac to the ,ecole ,polytechnique4 ,in ,march #ahad he was one of the band of students who1 on the heights of ,montmartre and ,saint-,chaumont1 attempted resistance to the armies of the allies then engaged in the investment of ,paris4 ,in consequence of this outbreak of patriotic enthusiasm1 the school was soon after closed by ,louis ,,xviii41 and the young student was compelled to seek some other career instead of that of the soldier4 ,he first engaged himself to a country wine merchant1 for whom he travelled in ,germany1 ,russia and the ,netherlands4 ,in #ahba he entered a banking-house newly established at ,st ,petersburg1 but returned two years later to ,paris1 where he was appointed cashier to the ,caisse ,hypothecaire4 ,at the same time he became a member of the secret society of the ,carbonari4 ,in #ahbe a new turn was given to his thoughts and his life by the friendship which he formed with ,olinde ,rodriguez1 who introduced him to ,saint-,simon4 ,he embraced the new doctrines with ardour1 and by #ahbi had become one of the acknowledged heads of the sect 7see ,,saint-,,simon74 ,after the ,revolution of #ahcj ,enfantin resigned his office of cashier1 and devoted himself wholly to his cause4 ,besides contributing to the ,globe newspaper1 he made appeals to the people by systematic preaching1 and organized centres of action in some of the principal cities of ,france4 ,the headquarters in ,paris were removed from the modest rooms in the ,rue ,taranne1 and established in large halls near the ,boulevard ,italien4 ,enfantin and ,bazard 7q4v47 were proclaimed ,peres ,supremes4 ,this union of the supreme fathers1 however1 was only nominal4 ,a divergence was already manifest1 which rapidly increased to serious difference and dissension4 ,bazard had devoted himself to political reform1 ,enfantin to social and moral change2 ,bazard was organizer and governor1 ,enfantin was teacher and consoler2 the former attracted reverence1 the latter love4 ,a hopeless antagonism arose between them1 which was widened by ,enfantin's announcement of his theory of the relation of man and woman1 which would substitute for the tyranny of marriage a system of free love4 ,bazard now separated from his colleague1 and in his withdrawal was followed by all those whose chief aim was philosophical and political4 ,enfantin thus became sole father1 and the few who were chiefly attracted by his religious pretensions and aims still adhered to him4 ,new converts joined them1 and ,enfantin assumed that his followers in ,france numbered #dj1jjj4 ,he wore on his breast a badge with his title of ,pere1 was spoken of by his preachers as the living law1 declared1 and probably believed1 himself to be the chosen of ,god1 and sent out emissaries in a quest of a woman predestined to be the female ,messiah1 and the mother of a new ,saviour4 ,the quest was very costly and altogether fruitless4 ,no such woman was discoverable4 ,meanwhile believers in ,enfantin and his new religion were multiplying in all parts of ,europe4 ,his extravagances and success at length brought down upon him the hand of the law4 ,public morality was in peril1 and in ,may #ahcb the halls of the new sect were closed by the government1 and the father1 with some of his followers1 appeared before the tribunals4 ,he now retired to his estate at ,menilmontant1 near ,paris1 where with forty disciples1 all of them men1 he continued to carry out his socialistic views4 ,in ,august of the same year he was again arrested1 and on his appearance in court he desired his defence to be undertaken by two women who were with him1 alleging that the matter was of special concern to women4 ,this was of course refused4 ,the trial occupied two days and resulted in a verdict of guilty1 and a sentence of imprisonment for a year with a small fine4 ,this prosecution finally discredited the new society4 ,enfantin was released in a few months1 and then1 accompanied by some of his followers1 he went to ,egypt4 ,he stayed there two years1 and might have entered the service of the viceroy if he would have professed himself1 as a few of his friends did1 a ,mahommedan4 ,on his return to ,france1 a sadder and practically a wiser man1 he settled down to very prosaic work4 ,he became first a postmaster near ,lyons1 and in #ahda was appointed1 through the influence of some of his friends who had risen to posts of power1 member of a scientific commission on ,algeria1 which led him to engage in researches concerning ,north ,africa and colonization in general4 in #ahde he was appointed a director of the ,paris ,lyons railway4 ,three years later he established1 in conjunction with ,duveyrier1 a daily journal1 entitled ,le ,credit1 which was discontinued in #ahej4 ,he was afterwards attached to the administration of the railway from ,lyons to the ,mediterranean4 ,father ,enfantin held fast by his ideal to the end1 but he had renounced the hope of giving it a local habitation and a name in the degenerate obstinate world4 ,his personal influence over those who associated with him was immense4 ,he was a man of a noble presence1 with finely formed and expressive features4 ,he was gentle and insinuating in manner1 and possessed a calm1 graceful and winning delivery 7,gent4 ,mag41 ,jan4 #ahfe74 ,his evident sincerity1 his genuine enthusiasm1 gave him his marvellous ascendancy4 ,not a few of his disciples ranked afterwards amongst the most distinguished men of ,france4 ,he died suddenly at ,paris on the #ast of ,september #ahfd4 ,amongst his works are--,doctrine de ,saint-,simon 7written in conjunction with several of his followers71 published in #ahcj1 and several times republished2 ,economie politique et politique ,saint-,simonienne 7#ahca72 ,correspondance politique 7#ahce-ahdj72 ,corresp4 philos4 et religieuse 7#ahdc-ahde72 and ,la ,vie eternelle passee1 presente1 future 7#ahfa74 ,a large number of articles by his hand appeared in ,le ,producteur1 ,l',organisateur1 ,le ,globe1 and other periodicals4 ,he also wrote in #ahcb ,le ,livre nouveau1 intended as a substitute for the ,christian ,scriptures1 but it was not published4 ,see ,g4 ,weill1 ,l',ecole ,saint-,simonienne1 son histoire1 son influence1 jusqu' a nos jours 7,paris1 #ahif74 ,,enfidaville ,dar-el-,bey1 a town of ,tunisia1 on the railway between ,tunis and ,susa1 #cj m4 ,n4,e4 of the last-named place and #e m4 inland from the ,gulf of ,hammamet4 ,enfidaville is the chief settlement on the ,enfida estate1 a property of over #cjj1jjj acres in the ,sahel district of ,tunisia1 forming a rectangle between the towns of ,hammamet1 ,susa1 ,kairawan and ,zaghwan4 ,on this estate1 devoted to the cultivation of cereals1 olives1 vines and to pasturage1 are colonies of ,europeans and natives4 ,at ,enfidaville1 where was1 as its native name indicates1 a palace of the beys of ,tunis1 there is a large horse-breeding establishment and a much-frequented weekly market4 ,about #e m4 ,n4 of ,enfidaville is ,henshir ,fraga 7anc4 ,uppenna71 where are ruins of a large fortress and of a church in which were found mosaics with epitaphs of various bishops and martyrs4 ,the ,enfida estate was granted by the bey ,mahommed-es-,sadok to his chief minister ,khaireddin ,pasha 7q4v47 in return for the confirmation by the sultan of ,turkey in #ahga1 through the instrumentality of the pasha1 of the right of succession to the beylik of members of ,es-,sadok's family4 ,when1 some years later1 ,khaireddin left ,tunisia for ,constantinople he sold the estate to a ,marseilles company1 which resold it to the ,societe ,franco-africaine4 ,,enfield1 a township of ,hartford county1 ,connecticut1 ,u4,s4,a41 in the ,n4 part of the state1 on the ,e4 bank of the ,connecticut river1 #bj m4 ,n4 of ,hartford4 ,it has an area of #ce sq4 m41 with three villages--,thompsonville1 ,hazardville and ,enfield4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #gaii2 7#aijj7 #ffii 7#ahab foreign-born72 7#aiaj7 #igai4 ,its principal manufactures are gunpowder1 carpets1 brick1 cotton press machinery1 and coffin hardware4 ,in ,enfield and its vicinity much tobacco is grown4 ,first settled in #afgi1 ,enfield was a part of the township of ,springfield1 ,massachusetts1 until #afhc1 when it was made a separate township2 in #agdi it became a part of ,connecticut4 ,at a town meeting on the #aath of ,july #aggd it was resolved that a firm and inviolable union of our colonies is absolutely necessary for the defence of our civil rights1 and that the most effectual measures to defeat the machinations of the enemies of ,his ,majesty's government and the liberties of ,america is to break off all commercial intercourse with ,great ,britain and the ,west ,indies until these oppressive acts for raising a revenue in ,america are repealed4 ,a ,shaker community was established in the township in #agha1 at what is now called ,shaker ,station4 ,see ,francis ,olcutt ,allen1 ,history of ,enfield 7,lancaster1 ,pa41 #aijj74 ,,enfield1 a market town in the ,enfield parliamentary division of ,middlesex1 ,england1 #aa m4 ,n4 of ,london ,bridge1 on the ,great ,northern and ,great ,eastern railways4 ,pop4 of urban district1 7#ahia7 #ca1ecf1 7#aija7 #db1gch4 ,it is picturesquely situated on the western slope of the ,lea valley1 with a considerable extension towards the river1 mainly consisting of artisans' dwellings 7,churchbury1 ,ponder's ,end1 and ,enfield ,highway on the ,old ,north ,road74 ,great numbers of villas occupied by those whose work lies in ,london have grown up2 and many of the inhabitants are employed in the ,royal ,small ,arms factory at ,enfield ,lock4 ,the church of ,st ,andrew is mainly ,perpendicular1 but has ,early ,english portions2 it contains several ancient monuments and brasses1 and flanks the market-place1 with its modern cross4 ,enfield ,palace fronts the ,high ,street2 it retains portions of the building of ,edward ,,vi41 but has been greatly altered4 ,the grammer school1 near the church1 was founded in #aeeg4 ,the ,new ,river flows through the parish1 and ,sir ,hugh ,myddleton1 its projector1 was for some time resident here4 ,middleton ,house1 named after him1 is one of several fine mansions in the vicinity4 ,of these1 ,forty ,hall1 in splendidly timbered grounds1 is from the designs of ,inigo ,jones2 and a former mansion occupying the site of ,white ,webbs ,house was suspected as the scene of the hatching of ,gunpowder ,plot4 ,the parish is of great extent 7#ab1fec acres74 ,an ,anglo-,saxon derivation1 signifying forest clearing1 is indicated for the name4 ,enfield ,chase was a royal preserve1 disafforested in #aggg4 ,the principal manor of ,enfield1 which was held by ,asgar1 ,edward the ,confessor's master of horse1 was in the hands of the ,norman baron ,geoffrey de ,mandeville at the time of ,domesday1 and belonged to the ,bohun family in the #abth and #acth centuries4 ,it came1 by succession and marriage1 into the possession of the crown under ,henry ,,iv41 and was included in the duchy of ,lancaster4 ,there were1 however1 seven other manors1 and of these one1 ,worcesters1 came to the crown in the time of ,henry ,,viii41 whose children resided at the manor-house1 ,elsynge ,hall4 ,edward ,,vi41 settling both manors upon the princess ,elizabeth1 rebuilt ,enfield ,palace for her4 ,she was a frequent resident here not only before but after her accession to the throne4 ,about #affd the palace was occupied as a school by ,robert ,uvedale 7#afdb-agbb71 who was also an eminent horticulturist1 planted the magnificent cedar still standing in the palace grounds1 and formed a herbarium now in the ,sloane collection at the ,british ,museum4 ,the town received grants of markets from ,edward ,i4 and ,james ,i4 ,,enfilade 7a ,french word1 from enfiler1 to thread1 and so to pass through from end to end71 a military term used to express the direction of fire along an enemy's line1 or parapet4 ,this species of fire is most demoralizing and destructive1 since1 from its direction1 very few guns or rifles can be brought to bear to meet it4 ,if any considerable body of men changes front1 it immediately lays itself open to enfilade from the enemy whom it originally faced4 ,against entrenchments1 or the parapets of fortifications1 enfilade is still more effective1 as the enemy is deprived of the protection given by his works and is no better covered than if he were in the open4 ,banks of earth1 built perpendicular to the line of defence 7called traverses71 are usually employed to protect parapets or trenches against enfilade4 ,,engadine 7,ger4 ,engadin2 ,ital4 ,engadina2 ,ladin1 ,engiadina71 the name of the upper or ,swiss portion of the valley of the ,inn1 which forms part of the ,swiss canton of the ,grisons4 ,its length by carriage road from the ,maloja plateau 7#eice ft47 at its south-western end to ,martinsbruck 7#cdjf ft47 at its north-eastern extremity is about #ei m4 ,it is to be noted that up to and including ,st ,moritz 7#fjcg ft41 the highest7 all the villages 7save ,sils-,baseglia7 at its south-western end are higher than the ,maloja plateau itself4 ,the uppermost portion of the valley contains several lakes1 which1 as one descends1 gradually diminish in size1 those of ,sils1 ,silvaplana and ,st ,moritz4 ,but both the ,maloja plateau and the south-western half of the lake of ,sils belong to the commune of ,stampa in the ,val ,bregaglia1 and are included in the ,bregaglia administrative district1 so that1 from a political point of view1 ,sils is the first village that is included in the ,engadine4 ,the rest of the ,engadine forms the districts of the ,upper ,engadine with eleven communes1 and of the ,inn 7i4e4 the ,lower ,engadine71 subdivided into the ,ob ,tasna1 ,remus1 and ,unter ,tasna circles1 and containing twelve communes4 ,in #aijj the total population of the ,engadine was #aa1gab1 of whom #edbi were in the ,upper ,engadine and #fbhc in the ,lower ,engadine4 ,in point of religion #heid were ,protestants 7#dibc in the ,lower ,engadine and #cfga in the ,upper ,engadine71 and #cjhf ,romanists 7#agbh in the ,upper ,engadine and #aceh in the ,lower ,engadine71 while there were #ab ,jews in the ,upper ,engadine and #b in the ,lower ,engadine3 in the ,upper ,engadine the majority in each commune was ,protestant 7the ,romanists strongest in ,st ,moritz71 as also in the case of the ,lower ,engadine1 save ,tarasp and ,samnaun1 where the ,romanists prevail4 ,in point of language #gfji inhabitants 7#ejaj in the ,lower ,engadine and #beii in the ,upper ,engadine7 spoke the curious ,ladin dialect 7a survival of a primitive ,romance tongue71 and #bbba ,german 7#abfe in the ,upper ,engadine and #ief in the ,lower ,engadine74 ,the capital of the ,upper ,engadine is ,samaden 7#ifg inhabitants71 and that of the ,lower ,engadine1 ,schuls 7#aaag inhabitants74 ,in #aijh there were no railways in the ,engadine1 save about #h m4 7from the mouth of the tunnel past ,bevers and ,samaden to ,st ,moritz village7 of the railway pierced 7#ahih-aijb7 beneath 7#eihg ft47 the ,albula ,pass 7#geie ft471 which now affords the easiest means of access from ,coire to ,st ,moritz 7#ef m472 but many railways in and to the ,engadine have been planned4 ,the valley is reached by many passes 7over which excellent carriage roads were constructed #ahbj-ahgb74 ,the ,maloja 7#eice ft47 is the route from ,chiavenna and the ,lake of ,como to the ,upper ,engadine1 which is also reached from ,coire by the ,julier 7#gejd ft47 and the ,albula ,passes 7#geie ft47 as well as from ,tirano in the ,valtellina by the ,bernina ,pass 7#gfde ft474 ,on the other hand1 the ,lower ,engadine is accessible from ,davos over the ,fluela ,pass 7#ghch ft47 and from ,mals at the head of the ,adige valley 7or the ,vintschgau7 by the ,ofen ,pass 7#gjga ft471 while from ,martinsbruck1 the last ,swiss village1 a carriage road leads up to ,nauders 7#e m471 whence it is #bg m4 by road down the ,inn valley to ,landeck on the ,arlberg railway1 or #ag-a_/b m4 over the ,reschen ,scheideck ,pass 7#dijb ft47 to ,mals in the ,vintschgau4 ,the ,upper ,engadine consists of a long1 straight1 nearly level trough of #bf m41 varying from a mile to half a mile in breadth1 through which flows the ,inn4 ,on the south-east this trough is limited by the lofty glacier-clad ,bernina group 7culminating in the ,piz ,bernina1 #ac1cjd ft47 and the range rising between the ,inn valley and that of ,livigno to the south-east1 while on the north-west the boundary is the extensive ,albula group 7culminating in ,piz ,kesch1 #aa1bbh ft474 ,the ,lower ,engadine is far more picturesque and romantic than the ,upper ,engadine1 the ,inn valley being here much narrower and the fall greater4 ,on its north-west rises the last bit of the ,albula group 7culminating in ,piz ,vadret1 #aj1ehd ft471 and on the north the ,silvretta group 7culminating in ,piz ,linard1 #aa1bja ft471 while to the east and south are the ranges on either side of the ,ofen ,pass 7culminating in ,piz ,sesvenna1 #aj1efh ft474 ,in the ,upper ,engadine the villages are on the floor of the valley1 but in the ,lower ,engadine many are perched high above the bed of the river on terraces1 and are cut off from each other by deep ravines4 ,the ,upper ,engadine is far better known to foreign visitors than the ,lower ,engadine1 and is consequently much richer and more prosperous4 ,the mineral waters of ,st ,moritz 7q4v47 were known and employed in the #afth century1 and long formed the great attraction of the region4 ,but about the middle of the #aith century the ,upper ,engadine came into fashion as a great air-cure1 and now ,maloja1 ,sils1 ,silvaplana1 ,campfer and ,st ,moritz are all well known2 those who desire to explore the glaciers of the ,bernina group mostly resort to ,pontresina1 on the ,flatzbach1 the stream descending from the ,bernina ,pass4 ,yet1 owing to its great elevation1 the scenery of the ,upper ,engadine has a bleak1 northern aspect4 ,pines and larches alone flourish1 garden vegetables are grown only in sunny spots1 and there is no tillage4 ,the ,alpine flora is very rich and varied4 ,but snow falls even in ,august1 and the climate is well described in the proverb1 nine months winter1 and three months cold weather4 ,the villages are built entirely of stone 7as also in the ,lower ,engadine71 chiefly to guard against destructive fires that were formerly frequent in this narrow1 wind-swept valley4 ,the wealth of the inhabitants consists in their hay meadows and pastures4 ,the lower pastures support large herds of cows1 while the higher are let out 7in both parts of the valley7 to ,bergamasque shepherds1 who come thither every summer with their flocks4 ,in the ,lower ,engadine the chief attraction is formed by the mineral springs at ,schuls below ,tarasp1 which are much frequented during the summer4 ,the wild gorge of ,finstermunz separates the last ,swiss village1 ,martinsbruck1 from the first ,tirolese village1 ,pfunds1 the gorge being passable only on foot1 while the carriage road makes a great detour by way of ,nauders1 so that the two villages named are #ac m4 by road from each other4 ,the earliest full description of the country by an ,english traveller is that by ,archdeacon ,w4 ,coxe1 in ,travels in ,switzerland 7,london1 #aghi74 ,the ,upper ,engadine is not mentioned in authentic documents till #aaci1 the bishop of ,coire being then the great lord1 and1 from the #acth century1 having as his bailiffs the family of ,planta1 the original seat of which was at ,zuz4 ,the valley obtained its freedom from both in #adhf 7,planta7 and in #aebf1 when the temporal powers of the bishop were abolished4 ,in #acfg it 7as well as the bishop's vassals in the ,lower ,engadine7 joined the newly founded ,league of ,god's ,house or ,gotteshausbund 7see ,,grisons71 one of the #c ,raetian ,leagues1 which lasted till #agii-ahja1 when the whole ,engadine became part of ,canton ,raetia of the ,helvetic ,republic1 which1 in #ahjc1 altered its name to that of ,grisons or ,graubunden1 and then first entered the ,swiss ,confederation4 ,in the ,upper ,engadine the ,referendum existed as between the different villages composing a bailiwick 7,hochgericht74 ,the history of the ,lower ,engadine is for long quite different4 ,though always comprised in the diocese of ,coire1 it formed from the early #ith century onwards 7with the ,vintschgau7 a separate county1 which was gradually absorbed in that which1 later1 took the name of the county of ,tirol4 ,the limit between the ,upper ,engadine and the ,tirolese ,lower ,engadine was definitively fixed in #abhb at the ,punt' ,ota 7the high bridge7 just above ,brail1 and mentioned in #aaci already4 ,in #acfc ,tirol came into the possession of the ,habsburgers1 who were troublesome neighbours both to the ,upper ,engadine and to the ,league of ,god's ,house4 ,their power was stemmed in #adii at the battle of the ,calven gorge 7above ,mals71 though it was only in #afeb that the ,lower ,engadine bought up the remaining rights of the ,habsburgers4 ,but the castle of ,tarasp 7acquired by them in #adfd7 was excepted3 the lordship was given by them in #afhg to the ,dietrichstein family1 and held by it till #ahja1 when ,austria ceded it to ,france1 which1 in #ahjc1 handed it over to the ,swiss ,confederation1 by which it was incorporated in #ahji with the ,canton of the ,grisons4 ,this long connexion with ,tirol accounts for the fact that ,tarasp is still mainly ,romanist1 while the lonely ,swiss valley of ,samnaun 7above ,martinsbruck7 has given up its ,protestantism and its ,ladin speech owing to communications with ,tirol being easier than with ,switzerland4 ,the bears in the bear pit at ,bern come from the forests in the lower ,spol valley1 above ,zernez1 in the ,lower ,engadine1 on the way to the ,ofen ,pass4 ,the upper ,spol valley 7,livigno7 is ,italian 7see ,,valtellina74 ,,authorities4--,m4 ,caviezel1 ,das ,oberengadin1 #gth edition 7,coire1 #ahif72 ,c4 ,decurtius1 ,ratoromanische ,chrestomathie1 vols4 v4-ix4 7,erlangen1 #ahii-aijh71 deals with the two divisions of the ,engadine from the #afth century to modern times2 ,mrs ,h4 ,freshfield1 ,a ,summer ,tour in the ,grisons and the ,italian ,valleys of the ,bernina 7,london1 #ahfb72 ,e4 ,imhof1 ,itinerarium des ,s4,a4,c4 fur die ,albulagruppe 7,bern1 #ahic71 and ,itinerarium des ,s4,a4,c4 fur die ,silvretta- und ,ofenpassgruppe 7,mountains of the ,lower ,engadine7 7,bern1 #ahih72 ,e4 ,lechner1 ,das ,oberengadin in der ,vergangenheit und ,gegenwart 7,leipzig1 #aijj72 ,a4 ,lorria and ,e4,a4 ,martel1 ,le ,massif de la ,bernina 7complete monograph on the ,upper ,engadine1 with full bibliography7 7,zurich1 #ahid72 ,p4,c4 von ,planta1 ,die ,curratischen ,herrschaften in der ,feudalzeit 7,bern1 #ahha72 ,z4 and ,e4 ,pallioppi1 ,dizionari dels ,idioms ,romauntschs d',engiadina ota e bassa1 c4 7,samaden1 #ahie72 ,f4 de ,b4 ,strickland1 ,the ,engadine1 #bnd edition 7,london and ,samaden1 #ahia72 ,j4 ,ulrich1 ,ratoromanische ,chrestomathie1 vol4 ii4 7,halle1 #ahhb74 7,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,engaged ,,column1 in architecture1 a form of column1 sometimes defined as semi or three-quarter detached according to its projection2 the term implies that the column is partly attached to a pier or wall4 ,it is rarely found in ,greek work1 and then only in exceptional cases1 but it exists in profusion in ,roman architecture4 ,in the temples it is attached to the cella walls4 repeating the columns of the peristyle1 and in the theatres and amphitheatres1 where they subdivided the arched openings3 in all these cases engaged columns are utilized as a decorative feature1 and as a rule the same proportions are maintained as if they had been isolated columns4 ,in ,romanesque work the classic proportions are no longer adhered to2 the engaged column1 attached to the piers1 has always a special function to perform1 either to support subsidiary arches1 or1 raised to the vault1 to carry its transverse or diagonal ribs4 ,the same constructional object is followed in the earlier ,gothic styles1 in which they become merged into the mouldings4 ,being virtually always ready made1 so far as their design is concerned1 they were much affected by the ,italian revivalists4 ,,engel1 ,,ernst 7#ahba-ahif71 ,german political economist and statistician1 was born in ,dresden on the #bast of ,march #ahba4 ,he studied at the famous mining academy of ,freiberg1 in ,saxony1 and on completing his curriculum travelled in ,germany and ,france4 ,immediately after the revolution of #ahdh he was attached to the royal commission in ,saxony appointed to determine the relations between trade and labour4 ,in #ahej he was directed by the government to assist in the organization of the ,german ,industrial ,exhibition of ,leipzig 7the first of its kind74 ,the success which crowned his efforts was so great that in #ahed he was induced to enter the government service1 as chief of the newly instituted statistical department4 ,he retired1 however1 from the office in #aheh4 ,he founded at ,dresden the first ,mortgage ,insurance ,society 7,hypotheken-,versicherungsgesellschaft7 1 and as a result of the success of his work was summoned in #ahfj to ,berlin as director of the statistical department1 in succession to ,karl ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,dieterici 7#agij-ahei74 ,in his new office he made himself a name of world-wide reputation4 ,raised to the rank of ,geheimer ,regierungsrat1 he retired in #ahhb and lived henceforward in ,radebeul near ,dresden1 where he died on the #hth of ,december #ahif4 ,engel was a voluminous writer on the subjects with which his name is connected1 but his statistical papers are mostly published in the periodicals which he himself established1 viz4 ,preuss4 ,statistik 7in #ahfa72 ,zeitschrift des ,statistischen ,bureaus1 and ,zeitschrift des ,statistischen ,bureaus des ,konigreichs ,sachsen4 ,,engel1 ,,johann ,,jakob 7#agda-ahjb71 ,german author1 was born at ,parchim1 in ,mecklenburg1 on the #aath of ,september #agda4 ,he studied theology at ,rostock and ,butzow1 and philosophy at ,leipzig1 where he took his doctor's degree4 ,in #aggf he was appointed professor of moral philosophy and belles-lettres in the ,joachimstal gymnasium at ,berlin1 and a few years later he became tutor to the crown prince of ,prussia1 afterwards ,frederick ,william ,,iii4 ,the lessons which he gave his royal pupil in ethics and politics were published in #agih under the title ,furstenspiegel1 and are a favourable specimen of his powers as a popular philosophical writer4 ,in #aghg he was admitted a member of the ,academy of ,sciences of ,berlin1 and in the same year he became director of the royal theatre1 an office he resigned in #agid4 ,he died on the #bhth of ,june #ahjb4 ,besides numerous dramas1 some of which had a considerable success1 ,engel wrote several valuable books on aesthetic subjects4 ,his ,anfangsgrunde einer ,theorie der ,dichtungsarten 7#aghc7 showed fine taste and acute critical faculty if it lacked imagination and poetic insight4 ,the same excellences and the same defects were apparent in his ,ideen zu einer ,mimik 7#aghe71 written in the form of letters4 ,his most popular work was ,der ,philosoph fur die ,welt 7#agge71 which consists chiefly of dialogues on men and morals1 written from the utilitarian standpoint of the philosophy of the day4 ,his last work1 a romance entitled ,herr ,lorenz ,stark 7#agie71 achieved a great success1 by virtue of the marked individuality of its characters and its appeal to middle-class sentiment4 ,engel's ,samtliche ,schriften were published in #ab volumes at ,berlin in #ahja-ahjf2 a new edition appeared at ,frankfort in #ahea4 ,see ,k4 ,schroder1 ,johann ,jakob ,engel 7,vortrag7 7#ahig74 ,,engelberg1 an ,alpine village and valley in central ,switzerland1 much frequented by visitors in summer and to some extent in winter4 ,it is #ad m4 by electric railway from ,stansstad1 on the ,lake of ,lucerne1 past ,stans4 ,the village 7#ccdc ft47 is in a mountain basin1 shut in on all sides by lofty mountains 7the highest is the ,titlis1 #aj1fbg ft4 in the south-east71 so that it is often hot in summer4 ,it communicates by the ,surenen ,pass 7#gefc ft47 with ,wassen1 on the ,st ,gotthard railway1 and by the ,joch ,pass 7#gbfg ft47 past the favourite summer resort of the ,engstlen ,alp 7#fjcd ft471 with ,meiringen in the ,bernese ,oberland4 ,the village has clustered round the great ,benedictine monastery which gives its name to the valley1 from the legend that its site was fixed by angels1 so that the spot was named ,mons ,angelorum4 ,the monastery was founded about #aabj and still survives1 though the buildings date only from the early #ahth century4 ,its library suffered much at the hands of the ,french in #agih4 ,from #adfb onwards it was under the protectorate of ,lucerne1 ,schwyz1 ,unterwalden and ,uri4 ,in #agih the abbot lost all his temporal powers1 and his domains were annexed to the ,obwalden division of ,unterwalden1 but in #ahjc were transferred to the ,nidwalden division4 ,however1 in #ahaf1 in consequence of the desperate resistance made by the ,nidwalden men to the new ,federal ,pact of #ahae1 they were punished by the fresh transfer of the valley to ,obwalden1 part of which it still forms4 ,as the pastures forming the upper portion of the ,engelberg valley have for ages belonged to ,uri1 the actual valley itself is politically isolated between ,uri and ,nidwalden4 ,the monastery is still directly dependent on the pope4 ,in #aijj the valley had #aigc inhabitants1 practically all ,german-speaking and ,romanists4 7,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,engelbrechtsdatter1 ,,dorthe 7#afcd-agaf71 ,norwegian poet1 was born at ,bergen on the #afth of ,january #afcd2 her father1 ,engelbrecht ,jorgensen1 was originally rector of the high school in that city1 and afterwards dean of the cathedral4 ,in #afeb she married ,ambrosius ,hardenbech1 a theological writer famous for his flowery funeral sermons1 who succeeded her father at the cathedral in #afei4 ,they had five sons and four daughters4 ,in #afgh her first volume appeared1 ,sjaelens aandelige ,sangoffer 7,the ,soul's ,spiritual ,offering of ,song7 published at ,copenhagen4 ,this volume of hymns and devotional pieces1 very modestly brought out1 had an unparalleled success4 ,the fortunate poetess was invited to ,denmark1 and on her arrival at ,copenhagen was presented at ,court4 ,she was also introduced to ,thomas ,kingo1 the father of ,danish poetry1 and the two greeted one another with improvised couplets1 which have been preserved1 and of which the poetess's reply is incomparably the neater4 ,in #afhc her husband died1 and before #afih she had buried all her nine children4 ,in the midst of her troubles appeared her second work1 the ,taareoffer 7,sacrifice of ,tears71 which is a continuous religious poem in four books4 ,this was combined with the ,sangoffer1 and no fewer than three editions of the united works were published before her death1 and many after it4 ,in #afih she brought out a third volume of sacred verse1 ,et kristeligt ,valet fra ,verden 7,a ,christian ,farewell to the ,world71 a very tame production4 ,she died on the #aith of ,february #agaf4 ,the first verses of ,dorthe ,engelbrechtsdatter are the best2 her ,sangoffer was dedicated to ,jesus1 the ,taareoffer to ,queen ,charlotte ,amalia2 this is significant of her changed position in the eyes of the world4 ,,engelhardt1 ,,johann ,,georg ,,veit 7#agia-ahee71 ,german theologian1 was born at ,neustadt-on-the-,aisch on the #abth of ,november #agia1 and was educated at ,erlangen1 where he afterwards taught in the gymnasium 7#ahag71 and became professor of theology in the university 7#ahba74 ,his two great works were a ,handbuch der ,kirchengeschichte in #d vols4 7#ahcc-ahcd71 and a ,dogmengeschichte in #b vols4 7#ahci74 ,he died at ,erlangen on the #acth of ,september #ahee4 ,,enghien1 ,,louis ,,antoine ,,henri ,,de ,,bourbon ,,conde1 ,,duc ,d' 7#aggb-ahjd71 was the only son of ,henri ,louis ,joseph1 prince of ,conde1 and of ,louise ,marie ,therese ,mathilde1 sister of the duke of ,orleans 7,philippe ,egalite71 and was born at ,chantilly on the #bnd of ,august #aggb4 ,he was educated privately by the abbe ,millot1 and received a military training from the commodore de ,virieux4 ,he early showed the warlike spirit of the house of ,conde1 and began his military career in #aghh4 ,on the outbreak of the ,french ,revolution he emigrated with very many of the nobles a few days after the fall of the ,bastille1 and remained in exile1 seeking to raise forces for the invasion of ,france and the restoration of the old monarchy4 ,in #agib1 on the outbreak of war1 he held a command in the force of emigres 7styled the ,french royal army7 which shared in the duke of ,brunswick's unsuccessful invasion of ,france4 ,he continued to serve under his father and grandfather in what was known as the ,conde army1 and on several occasions distinguished himself by his bravery and ardour in the vanguard4 ,on the dissolution of that force after the peace of ,luneville 7,february #ahja7 he married privately the princess ,charlotte1 niece of ,cardinal de ,rohan1 and took up his residence at ,ettenheim in ,baden1 near the ,rhine4 ,early in the year #ahjd ,napoleon1 then ,first ,consul of ,france1 heard news which seemed to connect the young duke with the ,cadoudal-,pichegru conspiracy then being tracked by the ,french police4 ,the news ran that the duke was in company with ,dumouriez and made secret journeys into ,france4 ,this was false2 the acquaintance was ,thumery1 a harmless old man1 and the duke had no dealings with ,cadoudal or ,pichegru4 ,napoleon gave orders for the seizure of the duke4 ,french mounted gendarmes crossed the ,rhine secretly1 surrounded his house and brought him to ,strassburg 7#aeth of ,march #ahjd71 and thence to the castle of ,vincennes1 near ,paris4 ,there a commission of ,french colonels was hastily gathered to try him4 ,meanwhile ,napoleon had found out the true facts of the case1 and the ground of the accusation was hastily changed4 ,the duke was now charged chiefly with bearing arms against ,france in the late war1 and with intending to take part in the new coalition then proposed against ,france4 ,the colonels hastily and most informally drew up the act of condemnation1 being incited thereto by orders from ,savary 7q4v471 who had come charged with instructions4 ,savary intervened to prevent all chance of an interview between the condemned and the ,first ,consul2 and the duke was shot in the moat of the castle1 near a grave which had already been prepared4 ,with him ended the house of ,conde4 ,in #ahaf the bones were exhumed and placed in the chapel of the castle4 ,it is now known that ,josephine and ,mme de ,remusat had begged ,napoleon for mercy towards the duke2 but nothing would bend his will4 ,the blame which the apologists of the emperor have thrown on ,talleyrand or ,savary is undeserved4 ,on his way to ,st ,helena and at ,longwood he asserted that1 in the same circumstances1 he would do the same again2 he inserted a similar declaration in his will4 ,see ,h4 ,welschinger1 ,le ,due d',enghien #aggb-ahjd 7,paris1 #ahhh72 ,a4 ,nougaret de ,fayet1 ,recherches historiques sur le proces et la condamnation du duc d',enghien1 #b vols4 7,paris1 #ahdd72 ,comte ,a4 ,boulay de la ,meurthe1 ,les ,dernieres ,annees du due d',enghien #ahja-ahjd 7,paris1 #ahhf74 ,for documents see ,la ,catastrophe du duc d',enghien in the edition of ,memoires edited by ,m4,f4 ,barriere1 also the edition of the duke's letters1 c41 by ,count ,boulay de la ,meurthe 7tome i41 ,paris1 #aijd2 tome ii41 #aijh74 7,j4 ,hl4 ,r47 ,,enghien1 a town in the province of ,hainaut1 ,belgium1 lying south of ,grammont4 ,pop4 7#aijd7 #deda4 ,it is the centre of considerable lace1 linen and cotton industries4 ,there is a fine park outside the town belonging to the duke of ,arenberg1 whose ancestor1 ,charles de ,ligne1 bought it from ,henry ,,iv4 in #afjg1 but the chateau in which the duke of ,arenberg of the #ahth century entertained ,voltaire no longer exists4 ,curiously enough the cottage1 a stone building1 built by the same duke for ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau1 still stands in the park1 while the ducal residence was burnt down by the sans-culottes4 ,a fine pavilion or kiosk1 named de l',etoile1 has also survived4 ,the great ,conde was given1 for a victory gained near this place1 the right to use the style of ,enghien among his subsidiary titles4 ,,engine 7,lat4 ingenium71 a term which in the time of ,chaucer had the meaning of natural talent or ability1 corresponding to the ,latin from which it is derived 7cf4 ,a man hath sapiences thre1 ,memorie1 engin1 and intellect also1 ,second ,nun's ,tale1 #cci72 in this sense it is now obsolete4 ,it also denoted a mechanical tool or contrivance1 and especially a weapon of war2 this use may be compared with that of ingenium in classical ,latin to mean a clever idea or device1 and in later ,latin1 as in ,tertullian1 for a warlike instrument or machine4 ,in the #aith century it came to have1 when employed alone1 a specific reference to the steam-engine 7q4v471 but it is also used of other prime movers such as the air-engine1 gas-engine and oil-engine 7qq4v474 ,,engineering1 a term for the action of the verb to engineer1 which in its early uses referred specially to the operations of those who constructed engines of war and executed works intended to serve military purposes4 ,such military engineers were long the only ones to whom the title was applied4 ,but about the middle of the #ahth century there began to arise a new class of engineers who concerned themselves with works which1 though they might be in some cases1 as in the making of roads1 of the same character as those undertaken by military engineers1 were neither exclusively military in purpose nor executed by soldiers1 and those men by way of distinction came to be known as civil engineers4 ,no better definition of their aims and functions can be given than that which is contained in the charter 7dated #ahbh7 of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers 7,london71 where civil engineering is described as the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man1 as the means of production and of traffic in states1 both for external and internal trade1 as applied in the construction of roads1 bridges1 aqueducts1 canals1 river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange1 and in the construction of ports1 harbours1 moles1 breakwaters and lighthouses1 and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce1 and in the construction and adaptation of machinery1 and in the drainage of cities and towns4 ,wide as is this enumeration1 the practice of a civil engineer in the earlier part of the #aith century might cover many or even most of the subjects it contains4 ,but gradually specialization set in4 ,perhaps the first branch to be recognized as separate was mechanical engineering1 which is concerned with steam-engines1 machine tools1 mill-work and moving machinery in general1 and it was soon followed by mining engineering1 which deals with the location and working of coal1 ore and other minerals4 ,subsequently numerous other more or less strictly defined groups and subdivisions came into existence1 such as naval architecture dealing with the design of ships1 marine engineering with the engines for propelling steamers1 sanitary engineering with water-supply and disposal of sewage and other refuse1 gas engineering with the manufacture and distribution of illuminating gas1 and chemical engineering with the design and erection of the plant required for the manufacture of such chemical products as alkali1 acids and dyes1 and for the working of a wide range of industrial processes4 ,the last great new branch is electrical engineering1 which touches on the older branches at so many points that it has been said that all engineers must be electricians4 ,,engineers1 ,,military4 ,from the earliest times engineers have been employed both in the field of war and on field defences4 ,in modern times1 however1 the application of numerous scientific and engineering devices to warfare has resulted in the creation of many minor branches of military engineering1 some of them almost rivalling in importance their primary duty of fortification and siegecraft1 such as the field telegraph1 the balloon service1 nearly all demolitions1 the building of pontoon and other bridges1 and the construction and working of military roads1 railways1 piers1 c4 ,all these branches requiring special knowledge1 the modern tendency is to divide a corps of engineers in accordance with such requirements4 ,the field companies and fortress companies of the ,r4,e4 represent the traditional tactical application of their arm to works of offence and defence in field and siege warfare4 ,the balloon1 telegraph1 and other branches1 also organized on a permanent footing1 represent the modern application of scientific aids in warfare4 7,see ,,fortification ,,and ,,siegecraft2 ,,tactics2 ,,infantry1 c47 ,history4--,it is difficult to distinguish between military and civil engineers in the earlier ages of modern history1 for all engineers acted as builders of castles and defensible strongholds1 as well as manufacturers and directors of engines of war with which to attack or defend them4 ,the annals of fortification show professors1 artists1 c41 as well as soldiers and architects1 as designers and builders of innumerable systems of fortification4 ,by the middle of the #acth century there was in ,england an organized body of skilled workmen employed under a chief engineer4 ,at the siege of ,calais in #acdg this corps consisted of masons1 carpenters1 smiths1 tentmakers1 miners1 armourers1 gunners and artillerymen4 ,at the siege of ,harfleur in #adae the chief engineer was designated ,master of the ,king's ,works1 ,guns and ,ordnance1 and the corps under him numbered #ejj men1 including #ba foot-archers4 ,headquarters of engineers existed at the ,tower of ,london before #acej1 and a century later developed into the ,office of ,ordnance 7afterwards the ,board of ,ordnance71 whose duty was to administer all matters connected with fortifications1 artillery and ordnance stores4 ,henry ,,viii4 employed many engineers 7of whom ,sir ,richard ,lee is the best known7 in constructing coast defences from ,penzance to the ,thames and thence to ,berwick-on-,tweed1 and in strengthening the fortresses of ,calais and ,guines in ,france4 ,he also added to the organization a body of pioneers under trench-masters and a master trenchmaster4 ,charles ,,ii4 increased the peace establishment of engineers and formed a separate one for ,ireland1 with a chief engineer who was also surveyor-general of the ,king's ,works4 ,in both countries only a small permanent establishment was maintained1 a special ordnance train being enrolled in war-time for each expedition and disbanded on its termination4 ,the commander of an ordnance train was frequently1 but not necessarily1 an engineer1 but there was always a chief engineer of each train4 ,at ,blenheim 7#agjd7 ,marlborough's ordnance train was commanded by ,holcroft ,blood1 a distinguished engineer4 ,but after the rebellion of #agae it was decided to separate the artillery from the engineers1 and the royal warrant of #bfth ,may #agaf established two companies of artillery as a separate regiment1 and an engineer corps composed of #a chief engineer1 #c directors1 #f engineers-in-ordinary1 #f engineers extraordinary1 #f sub-engineers and #f practitioner engineers4 ,until the #adth of ,may #ageg officers of engineers frequently held1 in addition to their military rank in the corps of engineers1 commissions in foot regiments2 but on and after that date all engineer officers were gazetted to army as well as engineer rank--the chief engineer as colonel of foot1 directors as lieutenant-colonel1 and so forth down to practitioners as ensigns4 ,on the #ahth of ,november #aghb engineer grades1 except that of chief engineer1 were abolished1 and the establishment was fixed at #a chief engineer and colonel1 #f colonels commandant1 #f lieutenant-colonels1 #i captains1 #i captain lieutenants 7afterwards second captains71 #bb first lieutenants1 and #bb second lieutenants4 ,ten years later a small invalid corps was formed4 ,in #aghg the designation ,royal was conferred upon the engineers1 and its precedence settled to be on the right of the army1 with the royal artillery4 ,in #ahjb the title of chief engineer was changed to inspector-general of fortifications4 ,from this time to the conclusion of the ,crimean ,war various augmentations took place1 consequent on the increasing and widely extending duties thrown upon the officers4 ,these1 in addition to ordinary military duties1 comprised the construction and maintenance of fortifications1 barrack and ordnance store buildings1 and all engineering services connected with them4 ,the cadastral survey of the ,united ,kingdom 7called the ,ordnance ,survey7 had been entrusted to the engineers as far back as #aghd1 and absorbed many officers in its execution4 ,in #aggb the formation at ,gibraltar of ,the ,company of ,soldier ,artificers1 officered by ,royal ,engineers1 was authorized1 and a second company was added soon afterwards4 ,in #aghg by royal warrant ,the ,corps of ,royal ,military ,artificers was established at home1 consisting of six companies1 with which the ,gibraltar companies were amalgamated4 ,in #ahjf this corps was doubled1 and in #ahaa increased to #cb companies4 ,in #ahac its title was changed to ,the ,royal ,sappers and ,miners4 ,in #ahef1 at the close of the ,crimean ,war1 it was incorporated with ,the ,corps of ,royal ,engineers1 by whom it had always been officered4 ,at that date the corps numbered about #cdj officers and #djjj non-commissioned officers and men1 in #a troop and #cb companies4 ,in #aggj the ,east ,india ,company reorganized the engineer corps of the three presidencies1 composed of officers only4 ,native corps of sappers or pioneers were formed later1 and officered principally by engineers4 ,the officers of engineers were employed in peacetime on the public works of the country1 their services when required being placed at the disposal of the military authorities4 ,the ,indian ,engineers have not only distinguished themselves in the operations of war1 but have left monuments of engineering skill in the irrigation works1 railways1 surveys1 roads1 bridges1 public buildings and defences of the country4 ,when ,indian administration was transferred to the crown 7#ahfb7 the ,indian ,engineers became ,royal1 so that there now exists but one corps1 the ,royal ,engineers4 ,this is composed of about #ajjj officers and #ggjj warrant and non-commissioned officers and men4 ,of the officers some #bbj are attached to units1 about #djj employed either at home or in the colonies on engineering duties in military commands1 on the staff1 or on special duty1 and about #cgj on the ,indian establishment4 ,the supreme technical control of the ,royal ,engineers is exercised from the ,war ,office4 ,see also ,,united ,,kingdom2 ,,army4 ,the history of the ,french engineers shows a somewhat similar line of development4 ,originally selected officers of infantry were given brevets as engineers1 and these men performed military and also civil duties for the king's service by the aid of companies of workmen enlisted and discharged from time to time4 ,vauban 7q4v47 was the founder of the famous corps de ,genie 7#afij74 ,its members were selected officers and civilians1 employed in all branches of military and naval services1 and it soon achieved its ,european reputation as the first school of fortification and siegecraft4 ,it received a special uniform in #agcb4 ,about #agee it was for a time merged in the artillery4 ,in #agff the title of ,genie was conferred upon the officers1 and the same name 7troupes de ,genie7 was given to the previously existing companies of sappers and miners in #ahja4 ,in the ,united ,states the separate ,corps of ,engineers 7since #agid there had been a ,corps of ,artillerists and ,engineers7 was organized in #ahjb1 starting with a small body stationed at ,west ,point1 which in #ahch and #ahdf was gradually increased1 and in #ahfa given three additional companies4 ,in #ahff they were formed into a battalion and stationed at ,willets ,point1 ,n4,y4 ,in #aija they were reorganized in three battalions1 with a total strength of #abhb4 ,the ,u4,s4 ,engineer ,school1 formerly at ,willets ,point1 was transferred in #aija to ,washington4 ,until #ahff the military academy at ,west ,point was under the supervision of the ,corps of ,engineers1 but from that time its direction was thrown open2 but the highest branch at ,west ,point is still regarded as that of the engineers4 ,the ,corps of ,engineers has done a great deal of highly important work in the ,united ,states1 notably in building forts1 and improving rivers and harbours for navigation4 ,see ,maj4-,gen4 ,r4,w4 ,porter1 ,hist1 of the ,corps of ,royal ,engineers 7,chatham1 #ahhi72 ,c4 ,lecomte1 ,les ,ingenieurs militaires de la ,france 7,paris1 #aijc72 ,h4 ,frobenius1 ,geschichte der ,k4 preuss4 ,ingenieur- und ,pioneer-,korps 7,berlin1 #aijf74 ,,engis1 a cave on the banks of the ,meuse near ,liege1 ,belgium1 where in #ahcb ,dr ,p4,c4 ,schmerling found human remains in deposits belonging to the ,quaternary period4 ,bones of the cave-bear1 mammoth1 rhinoceros and hyena were discovered in association with parts of a man's skeleton and a human skull4 ,this1 known as the ,engis ,skull1 gave rise to much discussion among anthropologists1 since it has characteristics of both high and low development1 the forehead1 low and narrow1 indicating slight intelligence1 while the abnormally large brain cavity contradicts this conclusion4 ,of it ,huxley wrote3 ,there is no mark of degradation about any part of its structure4 ,it is a fair average human skull1 which might have belonged to a philosopher1 or might have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage4 ,dr ,schmerling concluded that the human remains were those of man who had been contemporary with the extinct mammals4 ,as1 however1 fragments of coarse pottery were found in the cave which bore other evidence of having been used by neolithic man1 by whom the cave-floor and its contents might have been disturbed and mixed1 his arguments have not been regarded as conclusive4 ,there is1 however1 no doubt as to the great age of the ,engis ,skull4 ,discoveries of a like nature were made by ,dr ,schmerling in the neighbourhood in the caves of ,engihoul1 ,chokier and others4 ,see ,p4,c4 ,schmerling1 ,recherches sur les ossements decouverts dans les cavernes de la province ,liege 7#ahcc72 ,huxley1 ,man's ,place in ,nature1 p4 #aef2 ,lord ,avebury1 ,prehistoric ,times1 p4 #cag 7#aijj74