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ionlubricat#jjlewi   ,transcriber's     
note3        ,text enclosed by tilde    
characters is in bold face 7bold74      
,text enclosed by underscores is in     
italics 7italics74      ,,friction1     
,,lubrication ,,and ,,the ,,lubricants  
,,in ,,horology4  by  ,w4 ,t4 ,,lewis1  
,prest4 ,philadelphia ,horological      
,society4  ,illustrated with            
,half-,tones and ,drawings by the       
,author4        ,chicago3 ,geo4 ,k4     
,hazlitt  ,co4 #ahif4  ,copyrighted     
#ahif1 by ,w4 ,t4 ,lewis4  ,copyrighted 

#ahif1 by ,geo4 ,k4 ,hazlitt  ,co4      
,,contents4                             
,page4     ,,introduction1              
#g     ,,chapter ,i4    ,lubricants in  
,horology--their ,source and ,methods of
 ,refinement1  #i     ,,chapter ,,ii4   
,elementary ,physics ,relating to       
,friction and ,lubrication1        #ba  
,,chapter ,,iii4    ,friction--its      
,nature and ,theory1                    
#bi     ,,chapter ,,iv4    ,application 
of the ,laws of ,friction and           
,lubrication in    ,horology1           
#dc     ,,chapter ,v4    ,the           
,properties and ,relative ,values of    
,lubricants in ,horology1   #fa         
,,introduction4   ,many books have been 
written on the various escapements1     
describing their action1 construction   
and proportion1 and the laws governing  
the same2 learned writers have          
contributed much valuable information on
 adjusting2 excellent attachments for   
the various lathes have been invented2  
and factories have expended fortunes to 

produce machinery of wonderful          
construction to finish all the parts of 
a watch in the most approved manner2 but
 all this scientific research1 all this 
painstaking effort1 all this care and   
labor1 are rendered abortive by the     
maker or repairer of a time piece if he 
does not thoroughly understand and apply
 the physical laws which govern the     
science of lubrication4  ,many a watch1 
or chronometer1 most excellent in all   
other respects1 has come to an untimely 
end by an almost criminal neglect on the
 part of its maker to provide against   
wear in its various parts by such       
construction as would retain the oil at 
the places needed4  ,how often the      
repairer--clean he his work as well as  
he may--replace he the broken or worn   
part to put the time piece in as good   
condition as new--finds that its rate   
changes1 that is loses time before long1
 and1 at the end of one year is badly   
out of repair1 solely the result of lack
 of knowledge1 or negligence1 in        

properly lubricating1 or on account of  
an oil having been used which was not   
suitable4  ,the object of this paper is 
to present in concise form the best of  
that which is furnished by the          
literature of the profession1 together  
with that which has been written on     
friction and lubrication in general 7so 
far as it may be applicable71 by those  
not connected with this particular      
vocation2 as well as the result of the  
practical experience of the             
manufacturers of time pieces in this    
country most of whom have furnished much
 useful data in answer to queries on the
 subject4 ,the manufacturers of oils    
have also assisted by contributing      
valuable information4  ,the result of   
the author's experience1 observation and
 experiments will also be incorporated2 
and he will be grateful to any who may  
read this work1 who will call attention1
 through the trade papers1 to any errors
 of omission or commission that they may
 find therein4     ,,chapter ,i4        

,,lubricants ,,in ,,horology--,,their   
,,source ,,and ,,method ,,of            
,,refinement4   #a4 ,as but little is to
 be found on the subject in the         
literature accessible to most of the    
craft1 a few remarks concerning the     
source and general methods of refining  
the oils used in horology will1 no      
doubt1 be of interest4  ,a mechanic who 
would work intelligently should possess 
a thorough knowledge of the materials   
constantly used1 and oil is used on     
every horological mechanism4 ,in order  
that this paper may be of maximum       
benefit and interest1 the author has    
spared no pains in procuring useful     
data4   #b4 ,porpoise ,jaw ,oil and     
,black ,fish ,melon ,oil 7#fd7 have     
become widely known and justly          
celebrated in all parts of the world1 as
 they were found to be better adapted   
for the purpose of lubricating fine and 
delicate machinery than any substance   
previously used4   #c4 ,blackfish-,melon
 ,oil#a derives its name from the mass  

taken from the top of the head of the   
animal reaching from the spout hole to  
the end of the nose1 and from the top of
 the head down to the upper jaw1 from   
which it is extracted4 ,when taken off  
in one piece this mass represents a half
 watermelon1 weighing about twenty-five 
pounds ordinarily4 ,when the knife is   
put into the center of this melon the   
oil runs out more freely than the water 
does from a very nice watermelon4       
,porpoise jaw oil and blackfish melon   
oil are worth from #e to #ae per gallon1
 according to supply4 ,they are not only
 used in horology1 but by manufacturers 
of fine firearms1 philosophical         
apparatus1 and in government lighthouses
 for the clocks of revolving lights4    
#d4 ,the ,blubber1 or fat1 taken from   
the jaw of the porpoise or the head of  
the blackfish was formerly rendered in  
iron pots over a fire1 but the modern   
method of extracting the oil by steam is
 said to be much superior4 ,the oil is  
washed with water by thorough agitation1

 after which it is allowed to stand for 
several days1 when it is drawn off and  
the last traces of water removed by     
distillation4 ,the oil is then subjected
 to a very cold temperature and pressed 
through flannel cloths1 by which process
 the oleine is separated from the       
stearine1 the resulting oil being more  
or less limpid as the former or latter  
constituent predominates4   #e4 ,john   
,wing1 of ,new ,bedford1 ,mass41        
son-in-law of1 and successor to1 the    
late ,ezra ,kelley1 states in answer to 
inquiries1 that their supply of oil     
comes from the porpoise and blackfish   
taken during the summer months on the   
coast of ,africa1 above the equator2 and
 that they find that this oil contains  
less glutinous matter than that obtained
 in and about the ,st4 ,lawrence river1 
which fact he attributes to the         
difference in the food of the fish1     
which in turn affects the oil4   #f4 ,d4
 ,c4 ,stull1 of ,provincetown1 ,mass41  
in answer to inquiries on the subject1  

has kindly furnished the following      
information and series of views3        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,buying a    
,porpoise from a ,fisherman4  ,the      
supply of porpoise-jaw oil and          
blackfish-melon oil comes mostly from   
,massachusetts ,bay1 the trap and gill  
net fishermen bringing them into        
,provincetown1 sometimes alive1 as shown
 at ,fig4 #a4 ,the capture of fifteen   
hundred blackfish1 ,fig4 #b1 by the     
people of ,provincetown1 ,truro and     
,wellsfleet1 was one of the most        
exciting scenes in the annals of coast  
fishery4 ,the fish were attracted to    
these shores by the large quantity of   
squid and herring1 on which they feed4  
,it is estimated that the catch was     
worth #be1jjj1 some of the fish weighing
 two tons each4 ,the relative size of a 
blackfish and a man is shown at ,fig4   
#c4 ,seafaring men and whaling captains 
who catch the porpoise at sea1 extract  
the oil from the head and jaw only1 and 
bring it to the factories to be         

manufactured4  ,fig4 #d is a good view  
of a modern factory4 ,the fat is cut    
from the head and jaw1 7,fig4 #e17      
washed in fresh water and put into      
covered tin cans1 then into iron        
retorts1 7,fig4 #f47 ,these retorts are 
then closed1 screwed up tightly1 and    
live steam turned on from the boiler4   
,the fat is cooked by steam for five    
hours1 with ten pounds pressure1 at #bcj
 deg4 ,f4 ,by this means the crude oil  
is extracted from the fat4   #g4 ,sperm 
,oil is the best known of all the       
lubricants and is1 for general purposes1
 one of the most excellent4  ,the large 
cavity in the head of the sperm whale   
contains oil and solid fat1 from which  
the former is separated1 without        
heating1 by pressure and crystalization4
 ,as it is not at present used to any   
great extent in horology1 a more lengthy
 description of the method of refining  
will be omitted4 7#fe47   #h4 ,bone ,oil
 is made from the fat obtained by       
boiling the bones of animals4 ,the      

finest quality is obtained from the leg 
bones of recently killed1 healthy1 young
 cattle1 and the best method of         
treatment is given as follows#b3  ,fill 
a bottle one third full of the oil to be
 purified4 ,then pour clarified benzine 
in small portions upon the oil1 close   
the bottle and shake until the benzine  
has disappeared4 ,by again adding       
benzine and shaking1 a complete solution
 of the fat is finally effected4 ,that  
this has actually taken place is        
recognized by the contents of the bottle
 not separating after long standing4    
,the bottle is then exposed to a low    
temperature for several hours1 a solid  
fat deposits on the bottom1 and the     
lower the temperature the greater is the
 deposit4 ,alongside the bottle         
containing the oil1 place another bottle
 with a funnel1 the lower end of which  
is closed by a cotton stopper2 after    
thoroughly shaking the bottle with oil1 
pour the contents into the funnel2 the  
fluid portion runs into the bottle1     

while the solid portion is retained in  
the funnel by the cotton stopper4 ,the  
clear solution of bone oil in benzine   
collected in the bottle is then brought 
into a small retort which is connected  
with a thoroughly cooled receiver4      
,place the retort in a tin vessel filled
 with water and apply heat4 ,the benzine
 readily distills off1 leaving the      
purified bone oil in the retort4 7#ff47 
#i4 ,neat's-foot ,oil is largely used in
 the arts1 being one of the best of     
lubricants4 ,the best oil1 viz43 that   
used for clocks etc41 is extracted by   
placing the thoroughly cleaned feet of  
cattle in a covered vessel near the fire
 or in the sun4 ,the oil thus obtained  
is clarified by standing before         
bottling4 7#fg47  ,it was the practice  
of many olden time watchmakers to allow 
a large bottle of neat's-foot oil to    
stand in a position exposed to the      
direct rays of the sun in summer and to 
the extreme cold of the winter4 ,then   
after two or three years1 on a very cold

 winter day1 to pour off such oil as    
still remained fluid which was preserved
 for use4   #aj4 ,olive ,oil has been   
used as a lubricant since the early days
 of horology1 the older writers giving  
many methods of treating it4 ,it is     
obtained from the fruit of the ,olea    
,europea1 one of the jasmines1 which    
grows throughout ,southern ,europe and  
,northern ,africa and other tropical    
countries4  ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#b4--;,a #be1jjj ,catch of ,blackfish4  
,for the preparation of the finest oils1
 known as ,virgin oil1 only the pulp of 
olives picked by hand is used4 ,the pulp
 is packed in strong linen and the oil  
is expressed by twisting the linen      
together4 ,the pulp sometimes contains  
as high as #gj per cent of oil4  ,its   
last traces of adhering acid are removed
 by rigorous and repeated shaking with  
one hundredth part of their weight of   
caustic soda lye4 ,after the mixture has
 stood for several days a large quantity
 of water is added and the oil floating 

on the top is poured off4  ,though the  
oil is now free from acid1 it still     
contains coloring matter and other      
substances which would prove injurious4 
,it is then mixed with very strong      
alcohol1 ten parts of the former to two 
of the latter1 and thoroughly mixed by  
shaking4 ,the bottle containing the     
mixture is then placed in the sun and   
the mixture shaken several times a day4 
,in the course of two or three weeks the
 oil will have become white as water1   
when it is withdrawn from the alcohol1  
on the surface of which it floats4 ,the 
purified oil is placed in small bottles1
 tightly corked1 and kept in a dark1    
cool place4 7#fh47  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #c4--,relative ,size of a ,blackfish   
and ,man4  ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#d4--;,d4 ,c4 ,stull's ,watch ,oil      
,factory1 ,provincetown1 ,mass4  #aa4   
,mineral ,oils have of late years taken 
immense strides in the popular and      
merited estimation of consumers1 for    
general lubricating purposes4 ,their    

application in horology will be         
discussed in another part of this       
volume4 ,they are obtained from the     
residuum of petroleum distillation1 and 
vary so greatly in their properties that
 many of them are not applicable to     
delicate mechanism2 but as the lighter  
varieties seem to fulfill all the       
necessary conditions1 the writer will   
here consider their source and method of
 treatment4   #ab4 ,petroleums are      
obtained from many different localities1
 being fluid1 bituminous oils1 all      
having the same general characteristics 
and origin4 ,they are all hydrocarbons1 
and contain little or no oxygen4 ,as    
their origin is thoroughly discussed in 
many works on that subject1 and as there
 is such a diversity of opinion         
regarding it1 the reader is referred to 
such works4#c   #ac4 ,paraffine1 both   
liquid and solid1 is obtained by the    
distillation of crude petroleum by means
 of superheated steam4 ,when the heavier
 hydrocarbons begin to come over the    

receiver is changed and the butyraceous 
distillate is filtered through a long   
column of well dried animal charcoal4   
,the first portion of the percolate is  
colorless or nearly so4  ,the distillate
 is made water white by some refiners by
 an acid treatment1 followed by a       
water-and-alkali washing4 ,on exposing  
this mass to a low temperature it       
becomes thick1 somewhat like cosmoline  
but white4 7#ei47 ,it is then shoveled  
into cotton bags of very strong material
 and subjected to powerful pressure by  
means of a hydraulic press4 ,this       
operation divides the paraffine into two
 parts3 the solid paraffine wax from    
which candles1 etc41 are made remaining 
in the bags1 while that which is        
expressed is paraffine oil4 ,if the     
operation is carefully performed the oil
 will be free from crystaline paraffine 
at a very low temperature4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,extracting  
,oil from the ,head of a ,porpoise4     
#ad4 ,neutral ,oils#d are refined       

paraffine oils varying in specific      
gravity from #j4hfda to #j4hccc4 ,for   
the purpose for which these oils are    
employed it is especially necessary that
 they be thoroughly deodorized4 ,they   
are largely used for the purpose of     
mixing with animal and vegetable oils4  
,it is said that a mixture of #ie per   
cent of a good neutral oil of the right 
gravity1 and #e per cent of sperm oil1  
has been sold for pure sperm4 ,ordinary 
inspection as to the odor and general   
appearance would fail to detect the     
adulteration4 ,having been subjected to 
the usual process for the extraction of 
crystaline paraffine1 they will stand a 
very low cold test1 and having been     
passed through bone black cylinders1    
they are free from odor and have but    
little color4 ,they are usually exposed 
for a few days in open shallow tanks for
 the purpose of removing the flurescence
 of petroleum oils4 ,unmixed with       
heavier oils they are too light in body 
7especially the lighter varieties7 to be

 employed as spindle or machinery oils1 
but when mixed with such oils in the    
proper proportions they form admirable  
lubricating compounds for general       
lubricating purposes when very high     
speed is not required4 7#gj-ga47        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,rendering    
,room in ,d4 ,c4 ,stull's ,factory4     
,,footnotes3  #a ,brannt4 ,animal and   
,vegetable ,fats and ,oils4  #b ,brannt4
 ,animal and ,vegetable ,fats and ,oils4
  #c ,crew2 ,practical ,treatise on     
,petroleum4 ,lesquereaux2 ,transactions 
,american ,philosophical ,society4      
,winchell2 ,sketches of ,creation4      
,henry2 ,early and ,later ,history of   
,petroleum4  #d ,crew4 ,practical       
,treatise on ,petroleum4     ,,chapter  
,,ii4  ,,elementary ,,physics ,,relating
 ,,to ,,friction ,,and ,,lubrication4   
#ae4 ,most of those who may read this   
work1 are no doubt familiar with the    
laws of elementary physics2 but as all  
may not be1 for a better understanding  
of that which follows1 it may be well to

 treat briefly of some of the physical  
laws bearing on the subject4   #af4 ,the
 ,molecule4#e ,every visible body of    
matter is composed of exceedingly small 
particles called molecules4 ,this is the
 basis of the theory of the constitution
 of matter which physicists have usually
 adopted4 ,it is estimated that if we   
should attempt to count the number of   
molecules in a pin's head1 counting at  
the rate of #aj1jjj1jjj per second1 we  
should require #bej1jjj years4   #ag4   
,porosity4 ,the term pore in physics is 
restricted to the invisible space that  
separates molecules4 ,all matter is     
porous2 thus dense gold will absorb     
7#bd7 liquid mercury1 much as chalk will
 water2 but the cavities to be seen in a
 sponge are not pores4   #ah4           
,gravitation4 ,that attraction which is 
exerted on all matter1 at all distances1
 is called gravitation4 ,gravitation is 
universal1 that is1 every molecule of   
matter attracts every other molecule of 
matter in the universe4 ,the whole force

 with which two bodies attract one      
another is the sum of the attraction of 
their molecules1 and depends upon the   
number of molecules the two bodies      
collectively contain1 and the mass of   
each molecule4 ,hence1 all bodies       
attract1 and are attracted by1 all other
 bodies4  ,in a ball suspended from the 
ceiling by a thread an attraction exists
 between the ball and the ceiling1 but  
on account of a greater attraction      
existing between the ball and the earth1
 if we cut the thread the ball will move
 toward the earth1 or in the direction  
of the greater attraction4   #ai4 ,the  
,effect of ,distance4 ,gravitation      
varies inversely with the distance by   
which two bodies are separated4  ,as the
 sun is many times greater than the     
earth1 the attraction between the ball  
7#ah7 and the sun would cause the ball  
to leave the earth and move toward the  
sun were it not for the fact that the   
ball is so much nearer to the earth than
 to the sun4   #bj4 ,cohesion4 ,the     

attraction which holds the molecules of 
the same substance together so as to    
form larger bodies is called cohesion4  
,it acts only at insensible distances   
and is strictly a molecular force4 ,it  
is that force which prevents solid      
bodies from falling apart4 ,liquids like
 molasses and honey possess more        
cohesive force among the molecules of   
which they are composed than limpid     
liquids like water and alcohol4 ,the    
former are said to be viscous1 or to    
possess viscosity4   #ba4 ,adhesion4    
,that force which causes unlike         
substances to cling together is called  
adhesion4 ,it is that force which keeps 
nails1 driven into wood1 in their       
places4 ,you can climb a pole because of
 the adhesion between your hands and the
 pole4 ,we could not pick anything up if
 it were not for adhesion4 ,glue1 when  
dry1 possesses both cohesion and        
adhesion to a great degree4   #bb4      
,capillarity4 ,examine the surface of   
water in a vessel4 ,you find the surface

 level1 except around the edge next the 
glass1 as at ,a 7,fig4 #g47             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #h4  #a4 ,thrust vertically into 
water three glass tubes1 ,a1 ,b and ,c  
7,fig4 #h71 open at both ends4 ,you     
notice the water ascends in each to a   
different height1 and that the ascension
 varies inversely as the diameter of the
 bore2 i4 e41 the smaller the bore1 the 
higher the water ascends4  #b4 ,seal one
 of the tubes at its upper end4 ,the    
water enters but little1 as shown at ,d 
7,fig4 #h71 on account of the resistance
 of the air pressure within the tube4   
#c4 ,thrust vertically two plates of    
glass into water1 and gradually bring   
the surfaces near to each other4 ,soon  
the water rises between the plates1 and 
rises higher as the plates are brought  
nearer4 ,if their surfaces be mutually  
parallel and vertical1 the water rises  
to the same height at all points between
 the plates1 as shown at ,a 7,fig4 #i47 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4  #d4 ,if the   

plates be united by a hinge1 and form an
 angle1 the height to which the water   
ascends increases as the distance       
between the plates decreases up to their
 line of junction1 where it attains a   
maximum1 as shown at ,b 7,fig4 #i47  #e4
 ,decrease the angle between the plates1
 and the water ascends higher1 as shown 
at ,c 7,fig4 #i47 ,thus it is seen that 
the ascension varies inversely with the 
angle between the plates2 i4 e41 the    
smaller the angle1 the higher the water 
ascends4  #f4 ,when a drop of oil is    
placed between two glass plates arranged
 as shown at ,a 7,fig4 #aj71 if the     
surfaces are not too far distant1 and if
 the oil touches both surfaces1 it will 
be seen to work its way to the junction 
of the plates2 showing that oil between 
surfaces has a tendency to flow towards 
the apex of the angle4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #aj4  #g4 ,place a drop of oil on 
a taper piece of metal1 as shown at ,b  
7,fig4 #aj74 ,the oil will gradually    
recede from the point to a place where  

there is more metal1 showing that oil on
 surfaces has a tendency to flow towards
 the largest part4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #aa4  #h4 ,when a drop of oil is placed
 between two watch glasses arranged with
 flat and convex sides adjacent1 as at  
,a 7,fig4 #aa71 or with convex sides    
adjacent1 as at ,b 7,fig4 #aa71 if the  
glasses are rigidly fixed in their      
relative positions the drop of oil can  
be shaken from its location only with   
great difficulty2 the oil at ,c holding 
its place with greater tenacity than the
 oil at ,d4  ,the foregoing phenomena   
are called capillary action1 or         
capillarity4 ,capillary action is due to
 the forces of cohesion 7#bj71 and to   
the forces of adhesion 7#ba47   #bc4    
,centrifugal ,force4--,the tendency of a
 body rotating round a point to escape  
from that point is called centrifugal   
force4  ,place a small quantity of oil  
on the arm of a balance1 near the arbor4
 ,rotate the wheel rapidly4 ,the oil is 
seen to flow towards the rim of the     

wheel4   #bd4 ,absorption of ,gases by  
,liquids depends on molecular attraction
 and motion4 ,water at a temperature of 
#j deg4 cen4 7#cb deg4 f471 is capable  
of condensing in its pores 7#ag7 six    
hundred times its own bulk of ammonia   
gas4 ,the absorption of oxygen from the 
air causes some oils to become more     
viscous1 to eventually become solid1    
without losing in weight1 in fact       
sometimes gaining4 ,other oils dry up1  
or evaporate1 leaving little or no      
residue4   #be4 ,force4--,force is that 
which can produce1 change or destroy    
motion4  ,we see a body move2 we know   
there must be a cause2 that cause we    
call force4 ,we see a body in motion    
come to rest2 this effect must have had 
a cause2 that cause we attribute to     
force4 ,the forces acting in machines   
are distinguished into driving and      
resisting forces4 ,that component of the
 force which does the work is called the
 effort4  #bf4 ,friction is usually a   
resisting 7#bi7 force1 tending to       

destroy motion2 but it is sometimes the 
means of the transmission of motion4    
#bg4 ,work is the result of force acting
 through space4 ,when force produces    
motion1 the result is work4 ,work is    
measured by the product of the          
resistance into the space through which 
it is overcome4   #bh4 ,energy1 which is
 defined#f as the capacity for doing    
work1 is either actual or potential4    
,actual or kinetic energy is the energy 
of an actually moving body1 and is      
measured by the work which it is capable
 of performing while being brought to   
rest under the action of a retarding    
force4  ,potential ,energy is the       
capacity for doing work possessed by a  
body in virtue of its position1 of its  
condition1 or of its intrinsic          
properties4 ,a bent bow or a coiled     
spring has potential energy1 which      
becomes actual in the impulsion of the  
arrow or is expended in the work of the 
mechanism driven by the machine4 ,a     
clock weight1 condensed air and         

gunpowder are examples4  ,this form of  
energy appears in every moving part of  
every machine and its variations often  
seriously affect the working of         
machinery4 7#hd47  ,,footnotes3  #e     
,this and some of the definitions that  
follow are adapted from ,elements of    
,physics by ,a4 ,p4 ,gage4  #f          
,thurston4 ,friction and ,lost ,work in 
,machinery1 from which excellent work   
much of the next chapter is adapted4    
,,chapter ,,iii4  ,,friction--,,its     
,,nature ,,and ,,theory4   #bi4         
,friction4 ,the relative motion of one  
particle or body in forced contact with 
another is always retarded1 or          
prevented1 by a resisting force called  
friction4  ,friction manifests itself in
 three ways3 ,between solids it is      
called sliding and rolling friction2    
between the particles of liquids1 or of 
gasses1 when they move in contact with  
each other1 or with other bodies1 it is 
called fluid friction4 ,quite different 
laws govern these three kinds of        

friction1 as they are quite different in
 character4  ,friction can never of     
itself produce or accelerate motion1    
being always a resisting force1 acting  
at the surfaces of contact of the two   
particles1 or masses1 between which it  
occurs1 and in the direction of their   
common tangent1 resisting relative      
motion in whichever direction it may be 
attempted to produce it4 ,the greatest  
loss of energy in a timepiece in which  
all the parts are rigid enough to       
prevent permanent distortion1 is that   
occurring through friction4 ,another    
source of loss of energy is the         
reduction in elasticity of springs      
caused by a rise of temperature4   #cj4 
,the ,cause of ,sliding ,friction is the
 interlocking of the asperities of one  
surface with those of another2 and only 
by the riding of one set over the other1
 or by a rubbing down or tearing off of 
projecting parts1 can motion take place4
 ,it follows1 then1 that roughness is   
conducive to friction2 and that the     

smoother the surface the less the       
friction will be4   #ca4 ,the ,cause of 
,rolling ,friction is the irregularity  
and lack of symmetry of the surfaces    
between which it occurs4 ,it acts as a  
resisting1 or retarding1 force when a   
smoothly curved surface rolls upon      
another surface1 plane or curved4       
,motion is prevented1 or retarded1 by   
the irregular variation of the distance 
between the center of gravity and the   
line of motion in the common tangent of 
the two bodies at the point of contact1 
caused by the irregularity of form1 or  
of surface1 in the one or the other     
body4 ,rolling friction is small where  
hard1 smooth1 symmetrical surfaces are  
in contact1 and increases as the        
surfaces are soft1 rough or irregular4  
,in a knife edge support1 seen in some  
forms of pendulums1 is exhibited a form 
of rolling friction4   #cb4 ,solid      
,friction1 either sliding or rolling1   
could be overcome if it were possible to
 produce absolutely smooth surfaces4 ,it

 is evident1 then1 that the character of
 the material1 as well as the form of   
their surfaces1 determines the amount of
 friction4  ,in all time-keeping        
mechanism both sliding and rolling      
friction manifest themselves2 the former
 principally between the surfaces of    
pivots and bearings and in the          
escapements1 the latter mainly between  
the surfaces of the teeth of wheels1 and
 to some extent in some of the pivots1  
and sometimes in parts of escapements4  
,it is not the intention of the author  
to treat of the proper shape of the     
teeth of wheels1 leaves of pinions1 or  
the proportions of the escapements1 the 
nature and scope of this work not       
permitting of it2 but he will confine   
his remarks principally to the parts    
that involve lubrication4   #cc4 ,the   
,laws of ,sliding ,friction1 as given by
 ,thurston1#g with solid1 unlubricated  
surfaces1 are1 up to the point of       
abrasion1 as follows3  #a4 ,the         
direction of frictional resisting forces

 is in the common tangent plane of the  
two surfaces1 and directly opposed to   
their relative motion4  #b4 ,the point1 
or surface1 of application of this      
resistance is the point1 or the surface1
 on which contact occurs4  #c4 ,the     
greatest magnitude of this resisting    
force is dependent on the character of  
the surfaces1 and is directly           
proportional to the force with which two
 surfaces are pressed together4  #d4    
,the maximum frictional resistance is   
independent of the area of contact1 the 
velocity of rubbing1 or any other       
conditions than intensity of pressure   
and condition of surfaces4  #e4 ,the    
friction of rest or quiescence1 statical
 friction1 is greater than that of      
motion1 or kinetic friction4  ,he       
further states that these laws are not  
absolutely exact1 as here stated1 so far
 as they affect the magnitude of        
frictional resistance4 ,it is found that
 some evidence exists indicating the    
continuous nature of the friction of    

rest and of motion4  ,when the pressure 
exceeds a certain amount1 fixed for each
 pair of surfaces1 abrasion of the      
softer surface or other change of form  
takes place1 the resistance becomes     
greater and is no longer wholly         
frictional4  ,when the pressure falls   
below a certain other and lower limit   
the resistance may be principally due to
 adhesion1 an entirely different force1 
which may enter into the total          
resistance at all pressures1 but which  
does not always appreciably modify the  
law at high pressures4  ,this limitation
 is seldom observable with solid1       
unlubricated surfaces1 but may often be 
observed with lubricated surfaces1 the  
friction of which1 as will presently be 
seen 7#da71 follows different laws4 ,the
 upper limit should never be approached 
in machinery4  ,the coefficient of      
friction is that quantity which1 being  
multiplied by the total pressure acting 
normally to the surfaces in contact1    
will give the measure of the maximum    

frictional resistance to motion4   #cd4 
,sliding ,friction is ,proportional to  
,pressure according to the third law    
quoted above4 ,this is easily           
demonstrated by ascertaining what force 
is necessary to produce1 or continue1   
motion in a body lying on a plane       
surface2 double the weight of the body  
and the force required to produce1 or   
continue1 motion1 will have to be       
doubled4 ,the converse is also true     
7#cf74   #ce4 ,sliding ,friction is     
,independent of the ,area ,of ,contact1 
the pressure remaining the same 7law #d1
 #cc74  ,this is accounted for by the   
fact that if1 for example1 the area of  
contact be doubled1 though twice the    
number of asperities will present       
themselves1 each individual retarding   
force is only half of what it was       
previously1 and the general effect is   
the same 7#cf74   #cf4 ,the ,intensity  
of ,sliding ,friction is ,independent of
 ,velocity4 7,law #d1 #cc47 ,this is    
explained by the fact that the          

interlocking of the asperities on each  
surface has a shorter time to take place
 in increased speed1 and consequently   
cannot be so effective as with slow     
speed4 ,but with high speed more        
asperities are presented than in low    
speed1 so the effect is the same in both
 cases4  ,the above 7#cc-cf7 are not    
exact1 being the statement of           
experimental laws1 and admit of         
considerable modification when applied  
in horological science1 as will be shown
 7#da-db47  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4   
#cg4 ,the ,effect of a ,loose ,bearing  
is an increase of friction1 and         
consequently a loss of energy1 resulting
 in the wear of one or both surfaces in 
contact1 according to conditions4 ,in   
,fig4 #ab1 ,a is a loose bearing1 ,b a  
journal at rest and ,c the point of     
contact4 ,if the journal be now turned  
in the direction of the arrow by the    
motive force1 it will have a tendency to
 roll over a short arc of the bearing to
 a new point of contact1 as at ,d1 when 

it begins to slide2 so long as the      
coefficient of friction is unchanged it 
retains this position2 but approaches or
 retreats from the point ,c1 as the     
coefficient of friction diminishes or   
increases1 continually finding new      
conditions of equilibrium4 ,the arc of  
contact is thus too small to withstand  
the pressure without abrasion of one or 
both surfaces4  ,it will thus be seen   
that the journal1 or pivot1 should fit  
its bearing closely2 but it should be   
borne in mind that no tendency to bind  
should be produced1 the fitting being   
such that the wheel will turn readily   
with a minimum pressure4  ,the film of  
oil which must be interposed between the
 bearing surfaces of the journal1 or    
pivot1 and its bearing1 will also occupy
 some space2 and this must be           
remembered1 particularly in the case of 
pivots in the escapement4   #ch4 ,the   
,laws of ,rolling ,friction are not as  
yet definitely established1 because of  
the uncertainty of the results of       

experiments1 as to the amount of        
friction due to 7#a7 roughness of       
surface1 7#b7 irregularity of form1 7#c7
 distortion under pressure4  ,the first 
and second of these quantities vary     
inversely as the radius2 and the third  
depends upon the character of the       
material composing the two surfaces in  
contact4  ,it follows1 then1 that in    
such minute mechanical contrivances as  
are used in horology1 as the motive     
force is in some cases very light1 the  
horologist should endeavor to produce1  
where rolling friction takes place1 the 
maximum--smoothness of                  
surface--regularity of form--adaptation 
of surfaces 7#ca47  ,there are many     
other points on which the writer would  
like to dwell1 as engaging and          
disengaging friction1 internal friction1
 etc41 etc41 but the scope of this paper
 will not permit4   #ci4 ,the ,friction 
,of ,fluids in horology is of grave     
importance4 ,it is subject to quite     
different laws from those met with in   

the motion of solids in contact4 ,when a
 fluid moves in contact with a solid the
 resistance to motion experienced is due
 to relative motion of layers of fluid  
moving in contact with each other4 ,at  
surfaces of contact with a solid the    
fluid lies against the solid without    
appreciable relative motion2 as the     
distance from the surface is increased  
by layer upon layer of the fluid1 the   
relative velocity of the solid and the  
fluid becomes greater4 ,fluid friction  
is1 therefore1 the friction of adjacent 
bodies of fluid in relative motion4     
,while fluid friction acts as a         
retarding force in mechanism it converts
 the mechanical energy required to      
produce it into its heat equivalent1    
thus raising the temperature of the mass
 in a greater or lesser degree4  ,the   
resisting property which thus effects   
this conversion1 and which is the cause 
of fluid friction1 is called viceosity4 
,it is thus apparent that a variation of
 the viceosity of the oil used on a     

watch would cause a variation of fluid  
friction and consequently a variation of
 the effort 7#aa71 and would seriously  
interfere with the rate of the watch4   
,this will be discussed 7#hd7 more      
thoroughly in another paragraph4   #dj4 
,the ,laws of ,fluid ,friction are3  #a4
 ,fluid friction is independent of the  
pressure between the masses in contact4 
#b4 ,fluid friction is directly         
proportional to the surfaces between    
which it occurs4  #c4 ,this resistance  
is proportional to the square of the    
relative velocity at moderate and high  
speeds1 and to the velocity nearly at   
very low speeds4  #d4 ,it is independent
 of the nature of the surfaces of the   
solid against which the stream may flow1
 but it is dependent to some extent upon
 the degree of roughness of those       
surfaces4  #e4 ,it is proportional to   
the density of the fluid and is related 
in some way to its viscosity4   #da4    
,the ,compound ,friction of ,lubricated 
,surfaces1 as ,thurston terms it1 or    

friction due to the action of surfaces  
of solids partly separated by a fluid1  
is observed in all cases in which the   
rubbing surfaces are lubricated4 ,the   
solids1 in such instances1 though partly
 supported by the layer of lubricant    
which is retained in place by adhesion  
7#ba7 and cohesion 7#bj71 usually rub on
 each other more or less1 as they are   
usually not completely separated by the 
liquid film interposed between them4    
,wear is produced by the rubbing        
together of the two solids2 and the rate
 at which the lubricant becomes         
discolored and charged with abraded     
metal indicates the amount of wear4     
,the journal and bearing are forced into
 close contact in the case of heavy     
pressures and slow speeds1 as is shown  
by their worn condition2 while the      
journal floats on the film of fluid     
which is continually interposed between 
it and the bearing1 in the case of very 
light pressures1 and high velocities2 in
 the latter instance the friction occurs

 between two fluid layers1 one moving   
with each surface4  ,with heavy         
machinery1 as the hardness and degree of
 polish of the surfaces cannot be       
increased in proportion to their weight1
 the solid friction is so great that    
while the interposition of a lubricant  
between the surfaces adds fluid         
friction1 it also reduces the solid     
friction2 and as the fluid friction is  
so insignificant as compared to the     
solid friction1 the former is almost    
completely masked by the latter4 ,in    
this case the laws of solid friction are
 more nearly applicable4  ,but in a     
delicate machine like a watch1          
especially in the escapement1 where the 
power is so light1 and where the rubbing
 surfaces are so hard1 smooth and       
regular1 the solid friction is so minute
 as compared to the fluid friction1 that
 the former is relatively very slight1  
as compared with the latter4 ,the laws  
of fluid friction are more nearly       
applicable in this instance4  ,there are

 thus1 evidently1 two limiting cases    
between which all examples of           
satisfactorily lubricated surfaces fall2
 the one limit is that of purely solid  
friction1 which limit being passed1 and 
sometimes before1 abrasion ensues2 the  
other limit is that at which the        
resistance is entirely due to the       
friction of the film of fluid which     
separates the surfaces of the solids    
completely4   #db4 ,the ,laws of        
,friction of ,lubricated ,surfaces are  
evidently neither those of solid        
friction nor those of fluid friction1   
but will resemble more nearly the one or
 the other1 as the limits described in  
the previous paragraph are approached4  
,the value of the coefficient of        
friction varies with every change of    
velocity1 of pressure1 and of           
temperature1 as well as with the change 
of character of the surfaces in contact4
  ,for perfectly lubricated surfaces1   
were such attainable1 assuming it       
practicable with complete separation of 

the surfaces1 the laws of friction1     
according to ,thurston1 would become3   
#a4 ,the coefficient is inversely as the
 intensity of the pressure1 and the     
resistance is independent of the        
pressure4  #b4 ,the friction coefficient
 varies as the square of the speed4  #c4
 ,the friction varies directly as the   
area of the journal bearing4  #d4 ,the  
friction varies as the temperature      
rises1 and as the viscosity of the      
lubricant is thus decreased 7#hj74      
#dc4 ,the ,methods of ,reducing ,waste  
of ,energy ,caused by ,friction in time 
keeping mechanisms are based upon a few 
simple principles4 ,it is evident that  
to make the work and power so lost a    
minimum1 it is necessary to adopt the   
following precautions3  #a4 ,proper     
choice of materials for rubbing surfaces
 7#bi-cb74  #b4 ,smooth finish and      
symmetrical shape of surfaces in contact
 7#bi-cb and #ch74  #c4 ,the use of a   
lubricant the viscosity of which is     
adapted to the pressure between the     

bearing surfaces 7#hj74  #d4 ,the best  
methods for retaining the lubricant at  
the places required1 and for providing  
for a continual supply of the lubricant4
  #e4 ,the bearing surfaces of such     
proportions that the lubricant will not 
be expelled at normal pressure4  #f4    
,the reducing of the diameters of all   
journals1 shoulders and pivots1 to the  
smallest size compatible with the       
foregoing conditions1 and with the      
stresses they are expected to sustain1  
thus reducing the space1 through which  
the fluid friction acts1 to a minimum   
7#dj72 as well as reducing the distance 
from the axis of the arbor or pinion at 
which the friction1 both solid and      
fluid1 acts4 ,the work done is          
independent of the length of the        
journal2 except as it may modify        
pressure1 and thus the coefficient of   
friction4  #g4 ,proper fitting of       
bearing surfaces 7#cg74  #h4 ,the       
reducing of the rubbing surfaces in     
escapements as much as the nature of the

 materials will allow without abrasion  
in the course of time 7#ee74   #dd4     
,friction ,between ,surfaces ,moving at 
,very ,slow ,speed1 has been            
investigated by ,fleming ,jenkin and ,j4
 ,a4 ,ewing4 ,a contrivance1 which would
 be very excellent with some            
improvement1 for the determination of   
the amount of friction under such       
conditions1 is given in a paper#h read  
before the ,royal ,society of ,london4  
,the arrangement employed by them was   
composed of a cast iron disk two feet in
 diameter and weighing #hf pounds4 ,this
 disk1 being turned true on its         
circumference1 was supported by a       
spindle terminating in pivots #j4be ,c4 
,m4 in diameter1 the pivots resting in  
small rectangular bearings composed of  
the material the friction of which with 
steel is to be determined4  ,a tracing  
of ink was produced on a strip of paper 
which surrounded the disk1 the ink being
 supplied by a pen actuated electrically
 by a pendulum1 as in the syphon        

recorder4  ,as the traces thus left on  
the paper were produced without in any  
way interfering with the freedom of     
motion of the disk1 they afforded a     
means of determining the velocity of    
rotation4  ,the relative velocities of  
the pivot to the bearing surfaces varied
 from 4#jjf ,c4 ,m4 to #j4c ,c4 ,m4 per 
second1 being the velocities met with in
 the various parts of time keeping      
devices4  ,experiments were made with   
the bearing surfaces successively in    
three different conditions3 viz4 #a1    
dry2 #b1 wet with water2 and #c1 wet    
with oil2 and gave the following        
results3   ,,table ,i4                  
----------------------------------------
-----------------          ,,surfaces4  
,,coefficient ,,of ,,friction4          
----------------------------------------
----------------    ,,journal4          
,,bearing4       ,,dry4   ,,water4      
,,oil4                                  
----------------------------------------
-------------  ,steel        ,steel     

#j4cea   #j4bjh   #j4aah                
,brass           #j4aie   #j4aje        
#j4adf              ,polished ,agate    
#j4bjj   #j4aff   #j4ajg                
----------------------------------------
-----------------  ,several facts of    
great interest to the horologist are    
here shown4 #i ,edward ,rigg has this to
 say in regard to the apparatus of      
,jenkin and ,ewing4 ,the friction1 then1
 is true sliding friction without any   
rolling1 and it will be evident that if 
the bearing were a circular hole just   
large enough to admit the pivot freely1 
the character of the friction would be  
in no way changed4 ,in both a watch and 
clock the pivots are pressed against the
 sides of the pivot holes1 either by the
 motive force or by gravity4 ,there is  
no rolling round the pivot holes1 so    
that the friction is all of the first   
kind4 ,jenkin's experiments are1 then1  
strictly applicable to the case of      
pivots1#aj and they constitute1 so far  
as ,i am aware1 the first scientific    

determination of the friction that      
occurs in time-keepers1 and even in     
these experiments1 the pressure1 due to 
the weight of #hf pounds1 is evidently  
too great1 and thus too little regard is
 paid to the influence of adhesion4  ,e4
 ,rigg further states that1 reverting to
 the preceding table1 we notice the     
following points of interest3--  #a4    
,when the oil has dried up1 the friction
 of a steel pivot in brass is actually  
less than in agate4  #b4 ,a greater     
diminution of friction1 by the          
application of oil1 is effected when    
steel is used with steel1 than where    
steel is used with brass or agate2      
although the fluid friction is probably 
equal in the three cases1 when oil is   
used4  #c4 ,with a perfect1 non-drying1 
non-oxidizing lubricant1 steel bearings 
for pivots would be preferable to brass 
bearings4 ,hence1 with anything short of
 an approximately perfect oil1 the brass
 is most serviceable4  #d4 ,brass pivot 
holes are much less affected by the     

drying of the oil than agate holes would
 be2 and1 in the absence of experiment1 
we must assume that this would be the   
case with ruby or other jewels4  #e4    
,when the oil is perfectly fresh1 agate 
and steel have a very low coefficient of
 friction4  ,how much these results     
would be altered by the use of a disk of
 such weight1 and pivots of such        
proportionate size1 as to meet the      
actual requirements in horology1 remains
 to be ascertained4  ,certainly the     
experiments of ,jenkin1 are not         
applicable to the pivots of a watch1 as 
stated by ,e4 ,rigg2 especially are they
 not applicable to the friction of      
pivots in the escapement1 where the laws
 of fluid friction are more nearly      
applicable2 and when it is remembered   
that the weight of the disk was #hf     
pounds1 and the pivots 4#be c4 m4 in    
diameter1 7or about the size of pivot of
 a large barrel arbor17 it is evident   
that the solid friction produced was    
much in excess of that produced in even 

the heavy part of the train of a watch4 
,furthermore1 even ,jenkin and ,ewing1  
in their paper1 state that1 owing to the
 very great intensity of the pressure on
 the small bearing surfaces of the axle1
 the lubricants must have been to a     
great extent forced out4 ,in a properly 
made watch1 with a good lubricant1 this 
does not occur4  ,but there can be no   
doubt that if the apparatus above       
described were so constructed as to meet
 the actual conditions in time recording
 instruments1 very valuable data could  
be thereby secured4 ,this could be done 
by reducing the weight of the disk1 so  
as to make the weight bear the proper   
relation to the size of the pivots4     
,,footnotes3  #g ,thurston4 ,friction   
and ,lost ,work in ,machinery4  #h      
,philosophical ,transactions1 #ahgg1    
,vol4 ,,clxvii41 p4 #ejb4  #i ,the      
,horological ,journal1 ,apr41 #ahha4    
,vol4 ,,xxiii41 page #ih4  #aj ,the     
writer has italicised this phrase4      
,,chapter ,,iv4  ,,application ,,of     

,,the ,,law ,,of ,,friction ,,and       
,,lubrication ,,in ,,horology4   #de4   
,the scope of this work will not permit 
the discussion of the proper size1 shape
 and construction of each and every part
 of all the various kinds of            
time-keeping mechanisms which have been 
produced4 ,however a number of          
representative cases of friction and    
lubrication will be considered1 and the 
laws applying to the same will be       
demonstrated4 ,practical methods of     
obtaining the best results will be shown
 and mistakes to be avoided will be     
pointed out4  ,the knowledge of what we 
ought not to do is sometimes of vastly  
greater importance than it is usually   
considered to be4   #df4 ,the           
,proportions of ,pivots1 ,shoulders and 
,bearings1 where the bearings are not   
capped jewels1 should be such that the  
coefficient 7#cc7 of the combined solid 
and fluid friction will be a minimum1   
and such that the lubricant will not be 
expelled at normal pressure1 while the  

fit 7#cg7 must be good4  #a4 ,the       
diameters of all pivots should be of the
 smallest size compatible 7#dc1f7 with  
the foregoing condition1 and with the   
stresses which they are expected to     
sustain4  #b4 ,the length of bearing    
surfaces is regulated by the pressures  
which may occur 7#dc7 between them1 and 
by the nature of the materials of which 
they may be composed4  #c4 ,given the   
diameter and the pressure1 the length of
 the bearing surfaces can be so         
proportioned as to prevent abrasion and 
to present surfaces1 between which the  
film of oil is interposed1 of such      
magnitude that the lubricant will not be
 expelled at normal pressure4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4  #d4 ,in ,fig4
 #ac the length of bearing surface of   
the pivot is equal to its diameter1 but 
the proportion must be varied according 
to conditions4  #e4 ,the barrel arbor   
pivots are sometimes necessarily of     
large diameter1 and the bearing surfaces
 can be made shorter in proportion1 as  

the surfaces will then be great enough  
to give good results as well as to      
retain 7#dh7 the oil4  #f4 ,in the      
center pinion 7#di7 where the diameter  
of the the pivots is made small for     
reasons explained 7#dc1 #f71 the length 
of the bearing surfaces must be such    
that abrasion will not occur1 and that  
the oil will not be expelled4  #g4 ,the 
rest of the train is subject to the same
 laws4 ,the length of the bearing       
surfaces of the pivots remote from the  
motive force can be made shorter in     
proportion4  #h4 ,the diameter of the   
shoulder ,s1 ,fig4 #ac1 is reduced to as
 small a size as will properly sustain  
the end thrust1 thus reducing the       
friction1 both solid and fluid1 to a    
minimum1 at the same time reducing the  
distance from the center of the arbor   
7#dc1 #f7 at which the friction acts4   
#i4 ,the above proportions vary with the
 nature of the material2 where jewels   
are employed a shorter bearing surface  
may be used1 if it be desired to reduce 

friction1 but the pressure on the oil is
 the same with jewel as with brass      
bearings1 so that it must not be made so
 short that the oil will be expelled4   
#dg4 ,the ,shape of ,pivots1 ,shoulders 
and ,bearings1 where the bearings are   
not capped jewels1 should be such as to 
produce as little friction as possible4 
,they should be hard1 symmetrical1 and  
smooth 7#cj74  ,the construction should 
be such that a considerable amount of   
oil may be applied without having a     
tendency to spread4  ,the advantages of 
the construction shown at ,fig4 #ac are3
  #a4 ,the oil sink ,o is deep and      
narrow1 rather than wide and flat--thus 
causing the oil to be drawn towards the 
apex of the angle1 i4 e4 towards the    
pivot1 with greater force 7#bb1 #e7 than
 if the oil sink were wide and shallow1 
in which case the oil would have a      
tendency to spread1 as too often occurs4
  #b4 ,the total length of the pivot is 
to the length of its bearing surface as 
#e is to #c1 thus further reducing the  

angle1 which produces a greater tendency
 7#bb1 #e7 in the oil to stay in the    
oil-sink4  #c4 ,a circular groove ,g is 
cut around the oil sink1 which produces 
a still greater tendency on the part of 
the oil to stay in the sink1 by removing
 metal which would otherwise exert an   
attraction 7#ai7 on the oil4  #d4 ,the  
beveled portion ,p is comparatively     
large--while the shoulder ,s is         
relatively small--thus forming the angle
 ,o' of about #bj deg4 with the flat    
surface of the bearing4 ,this will cause
 the oil to have a tendency to flow     
towards the pivot1 for the reason given 
in considering the oil-sink4  #e4 ,the  
boss ,b is made to diminish the         
liability of the oil to spread1 by a    
reduction 7#ah-ai7 of the amount of     
metal which would otherwise cause it4   
#f4 ,the back taper ,t is made for the  
same reason4 ,some watchmakers 787 seem 
to think this is added only for         
ornament1 but it is a very important    
factor in producing longevity of the    

oil4  #g4 ,the slight chamfer ,c1 in the
 bearing1 serves two purposes2 it       
becomes a reservoir for oil and removes 
any burr that might otherwise exist in a
 metal bearing1 without in any way      
altering its effectiveness4  #h4 ,it    
will thus be seen that the oil          
reservoirs ,o1 ,o' and ,c are made to   
contain1 and retain1 the maximum amount 
of oil1 and the supply of the lubricant 
is thus increased to a maximum length of
 time4  ,the application of these       
principles to each part to which they   
relate will be considered4   #dh4 ,the  
,barrel ,arbor1 with its bearing1 should
 be so constructed that the oil will not
 spread to the contiguous parts4 ,the   
oil sink1 with circular groove cut      
around the outside 7#df-dg71 both in the
 barrel and its cover1 should not be    
neglected4  ,it is well to apply oil to 
the bottom and on the cover of the      
barrel1 as well as on the coils of the  
spring2 and before putting on the cover1
 a small amount applied on the arbor nut

 at the shoulders will assist greatly in
 causing the oil to be at once drawn to 
its proper place4  ,care must be        
exercised while and after cleaning the  
mainspring1 in order that it may come in
 contact with the fingers as little as  
possible1 as the acids contained in     
perspiration are liable to be           
transferred to the spring and so work   
serious injury by contaminating the oil4
  ,a part frequently neglected is the   
point of contact of the click spring    
with the click4 ,if this part be not    
oiled rust is likely to form1 and many  
instances have occurred where rust has  
found its way all through the movement  
from this cause4 ,in fact1 this may be  
said of the point of contact of all     
springs1 with few exceptions1 both in   
plain and complicated work4  ,if the    
watch has a chain and fusee1 these both 
should be looked after2 the former can  
be well oiled1 and the surplus wiped off
 so as to leave a minute quantity in the
 interstices of the links2 while the    

latter should have oil on its clicks1 as
 well as on the arbor where it passes   
through the wheel4 ,if the ratchet of   
the maintaining power be of brass it    
should not be oiled2 while if it is of  
steel oil should be applied4 ,its click 
should have the pivots of its arbor     
oiled1 while what was said of clicks in 
general will apply here4   #di4 ,the    
,center ,pinion ,pivots1 with their     
bearings1 should be very carefully      
constructed1 as this is the vulnerable  
point of most watches4 ,with proper     
precautions 7#df-dg7 these parts can be 
made so as to wear as long as the rest  
of the watch4  ,in a high-priced watch  
the bearings should be jewels2 but in a 
cheap watch1 where the price will not   
warrant correct work and careful        
fitting1 the bearings are preferably of 
brass or some other metal4  ,where the  
bearings of the center pinions are of   
brass or nickel1 there is little        
difficulty experienced in making them   
perfectly upright--a condition necessary

 to produce a minimum amount of         
friction--while1 if the bearings are    
jewels which are not upright1 the       
friction1 and consequent wear1 will be  
increased4 ,properly jeweled bearings   
produce a maximum durability1 as they   
cause the least friction2 while the     
coefficient of friction is subject to   
much less fluctuation on account of the 
harder1 smoother surface of the jewel1  
7#dc1 #df1 #dg and #fa74  ,where there  
is a brass bearing for the lower pivot1 
in watches having a solid center arbor  
on which the cannon pinion revolves in  
setting1 the length of the bearing may  
be profitably increased by making a boss
 on the outer side of the lower plate1  
provision for which is then made in the 
cannon pinion by a suitable recess4 ,in 
either case the laws previously given   
should be complied with4  ,a source of  
mischief in many watches is the manner  
in which the minute wheel is made2 the  
construction being such that its teeth  
touch the plate so near the bearing of  

the center arbor that capillary         
attraction 7#ai1 #bb7 is produced1 which
 causes all the oil to leave the lower  
bearing of the center arbor4 ,this can  
be avoided by cutting off the lower     
parts of the teeth of the minute wheel2 
or1 by turning a groove in the plate    
which will be concentric with the minute
 wheel post1 and which will pass under  
the teeth of the wheel1 but not near    
enough to the bearing of the center     
arbor to injure the latter4  ,the oil   
from the stem wind mechanism1 also1     
sometimes flows under the minute wheel1 
and from there into the center arbor    
bearing2 and1 when the oil is used up in
 the former place1 it is drawn up again 
out of the latter place leaving it dry4 
,a means of preventing this will be     
discussed 7#ei7 later4  ,another and    
very frequent cause of the lower center 
pivot cutting1 particularly in new      
watches1 is the neglect to remove the   
polishing material from the cannon      
pinion where the center arbor is solid4 

,a small portion of oil should be       
applied to the bearings of the minute   
wheel1 7where its pinion1 or the pivot  
on which it revolves1 is steel71 hour   
wheel1 and cannon pinion where the      
center arbor is solid1 and to the set   
hands arbor where the center arbor is   
hollow4 ,the safety pinion should always
 be oiled1 as it may not otherwise be of
 much service4   #ej4 ,the ,third       
,pinion ,pivots are sometimes the source
 of mischief4 ,when the center wheel is 
placed above or below the barrel1 the   
upper or lower pivot of the third pinion
 receives such great stress that the oil
 is forced out in many cases4 ,by       
increasing the length of the pivot this 
could be obviated4 ,the minute wheel is 
sometimes so close to the lower bearing 
of this pinion as to absorb the oil4    
,this can be remedied by cutting a      
recess in the lower side of the minute  
wheel4 ,where it is possible to do so   
the wheels should be so placed on their 
pinions and arbors1 and at such a       

distance from the bearing surfaces of   
the latter1 that the stress on each     
pivot--the combined result of the weight
 of the wheel and the forces acting on  
it--will be equal4   #ea4 ,the ,fourth  
,pinion ,pivots should follow the same  
general laws as that given for the rest 
of the train2 but it should be borne in 
mind that fluid friction acts as a      
retarding force much more perceptibly in
 the lighter parts of the train2        
consequently if no second-hand is to be 
carried1 very small bearing surfaces    
should be the rule in this case4   #eb4 
,the ',scape ,pinion ,pivots as well as 
the shoulders should not be too large1  
while there should be sufficient back   
taper to insure the oil remaining at the
 pivots4 ,a very small quantity of oil  
should be applied1 as1 when too much is 
used1 it is liable to work up into the  
pinion where the latter is short1 as in 
very thin watches1 thus producing1 when 
very fine dust is added1 a mixture that 
acts much like oil stone power and oil1 

which cuts away the leaves of the       
pinion4   #ec4 ,the ,lever ,arbor       
,pivots should also be small1 with small
 shoulders so as to reduce fluid        
friction to a minimum4  ,it may be well 
to add that in all uncapped bearings of 
pivots in the train1 whether they be of 
jewels or of brass1 a slight convex     
shape can profitably be given to the    
surface where the shoulder of the arbor1
 or pinion1 touches the bearing1 thereby
 reducing not only the surface of       
contact at the shoulder1 and            
consequently diminishing the cause of   
friction 7#da71 but by reducing the     
distance from the center1 at which the  
friction acts1 the retarding effect of  
the friction is much less 7#df71 thus   
obtaining a greater effort 7#be74   #ed4
 ,the ,balance ,arbor ,pivots and       
,bearings1 as well as those of the lever
 and scape wheel where their pivots run 
in capped jewels1 deserve particular    
attention4 ,fig4 #ad shows hole and cap 
jewels in settings1 but what applies to 

them is equally applicable to all capped
 jewels1 with few exceptions4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4  ,in ,fig4 #ad
 all the laws of capillary action are   
applied4 ,it has been shown 7#bb1h7     
that1 when two watch glasses are fixed  
rigidly relatively with their convex    
sides adjacent1 if a drop of oil be     
placed near their centers it can be     
shaken from its position only with great
 difficulty4  ,the jewels1 in this      
instance1 present much the same form1   
though only a minute quantity of oil1   
instead of a drop1 is involved2 but the 
same influences are at work in both     
cases4  ,this reservoir1 if properly    
made1 will contain enough oil to last a 
long time2 as1 when the oil in the      
center is used up1 that which is nearer 
the settings will be drawn to the pivot4
 ,the writer has said nearer the        
settings2 but it is very important that 
the oil should never touch the setting  
7#eh74  ,both settings are cut away at  
aa'1 in order that as little attractive 

influence 7#bb7 as possible may be      
exerted on the oil by the metal in the  
settings4  ,where the adjacent surfaces 
of the hole and cap jewel are flat and  
parallel the oil will usually have a    
tendency to be drawn to the setting--the
 evil effect of which will be shown     
7#eh7 later--especially if the hole and 
cap jewel are at any appreciable        
distance from each other2 while if they 
are too close together1 the reservoir   
will not be sufficiently large4  ,the   
conical pivot shown is the usual form in
 the finer grades of ,american watches2 
and as this form of pivot combines      
strength with a minimum tendency to     
attract the oil from the jewel hole1 it 
is to be highly recommended4 ,the       
back-taper ,t should never be neglected 
for reasons previously 7#dg1 #f7 given4 
,the proportions that should exist      
between the diameter of the pivot and   
the length of its bearing surface1 as   
well as the shape of the end of the     
pivot1 cannot be discussed here1 as the 

scope of this work will not permit2 but 
it should be borne in mind that the     
smaller the pivots1 consistent with     
strength1 the less the fluid friction   
will be4 ,the sides of the pivots should
 be straight and parallel for a minute  
distance from their bearing surfaces2   
while the form of the rest of the pivot 
should be a gradually increasing curve1 
terminating at the point where the      
back-taper begins4  ,the proper         
proportion of the diameter of the pivot 
to the diameter of the jewel hole varies
 according to conditions2 but it has    
been previously 7#cg7 shown in a general
 way what this should be4   #ee4 ,the   
,escapements should be constructed in   
such a way that a maximum durability of 
oil may be secured4 ,the acting surfaces
 of the teeth of the scape wheels should
 be made as small as possible consistent
 with durability 7#dc1 #h72 while enough
 metal should be left near the acting   
surfaces to be sufficient to retain the 
oil and prevent its attraction to the   

web of the wheel4 ,the teeth of         
chronometer scape wheels should not be  
oiled1 as it is liable to seriously     
alter the rate4 ,when the oil becomes   
viscous by oxidation or by cold it would
 produce too much variation of fluid    
friction and so diminish the effort     
7#be7 of the mechanism4 ,some           
watchmakers oil the fork of the lever in
 anchor escapements very slightly1 by   
applying oil and then using pith to     
remove any surplus1 while others never  
oil the fork4 ,the writer has frequently
 observed ferric oxide or rust on the   
roller1 fork1 and on the plate or       
potance2 but whether this was the result
 of not oiling or of oil having been    
applied which afterward become gummed1  
or evaporated1 it would be interesting  
to know4   #ef4 ,the ,curb ,pins        
sometimes produce the ferric oxide      
mentioned by their action on the        
hairspring4 ,this has been remedied by  
the same method as used in the fork just
 referred to1 and if a very minute      

quantity of oil can be applied--such a  
minute quantity that if the whole spring
 were equally covered by a coating of   
oil equally thin1 such film being so    
thin that it would have no tendency to  
cause the coils to adhere1 or to cause  
small particles of matter to            
adhere--then it may be that this method 
deserves notice4  ,by making a solution 
of benzine and oil 7#ajj drops of the   
former with #a to #aj drops of the      
latter7 and by immersing the hairspring 
in this solution and on withdrawing it  
dry it quickly between soft1 fine linen1
 it will be found that the coils of the 
hairspring do not adhere to each other4 
,the effect that this would produce on  
the whole spring by way of preventing   
rust in damp1 warm climates1 will be    
stated 7#gh7 later4   #eg4 ,the         
,application ,of ,oil must be attended  
with great care4 ,the shoulders of the  
barrel and center arbors may be         
profitably oiled before putting them in 
their places1 applying an additional    

small amount afterward4 ,the rest of the
 pivots should be oiled after the       
movement is set up--except in the case  
of capped jewels--as if oil is applied  
to each pivot as the wheel is put in    
position it would be difficult to keep  
the oil in good condition and at its    
proper place if it should be necessary  
to take the movement apart again for any
 purpose4  ,the oil is more evenly      
distributed on the teeth of scape       
wheels1 where such require lubrication1 
if a small quantity of oil be applied to
 each tooth1 or every second or third   
tooth4 ,a small amount added to the     
surfaces on which the teeth act will in 
most cases be beneficial4 ,if it be     
necessary to take the movement partially
 apart for any purpose1 after it has    
been oiled1 care should be taken not to 
give the train a too rapid motion1 as   
the centrifugal force 7#bc7 resulting   
from the rapid circular motion of the   
wheels will be liable to cause the oil  
to leave the jewel holes and spread upon

 the surfaces of the jewels1 and also   
cause the oil to fly off the teeth of   
the scape wheel to its determent and    
that of other parts which are better    
without oil4   #eh4 ,the ,method of     
,oiling ,capped ,jewels has been given  
by ,saunier1 as follows3#aa ,when a drop
 of oil is introduced into the oil cup  
of the balance pivot-hole1 insert a very
 fine pegwood point1 so as to cause the 
descent of the oil4 ,when this          
precaution is not taken1 it frequently  
happens that in inserting the balance   
pivot its conical shoulder draws away   
some of the oil1 and there is a         
deficiency both in the hole and on the  
endstone4 ,in both the ,english and     
,american editions1 this erroneous      
method is repeated4  ,by this means1    
only an insufficient quantity of oil can
 be caused to flow into the reservoir1  
as the pressure of the air inside will  
prevent the oil flowing in2 as1 in the  
case of a glass tube with the upper end 
sealed up1 it has been shown 7#bb1 #b7  

that the water refused to be drawn up   
the tube1 even with the added pressure  
caused by the lower end of the tube     
being below the water line4 ,again1 the 
point of pegwood is liable to have      
minute fibres of wood adhering to it1   
which will be incorporated with the oil2
 and its liability to break off1 and    
remain in the jewel hole1 is another    
reason why pegwood should never be used4
 ,the author advances a method1 which is
 not open to these objections1 as       
follows3 ,when about to place the cap   
jewel in position--after the hole jewel 
is in place if it be in a setting--a    
small quantity of oil is placed ,,on    
,,the ,,cap ,,jewel1 as shown at ,o1    
,fig4 #ad1 being very careful to allow  
no oil to spread upon the cap jewel     
setting4 ,this setting is then carefully
 placed in position2 when the oil1 if   
the operation has been skillfully       
performed1 is seen to be collected in   
the reservoir ,r and in the jewel hole4 
,the appearance which it will assume is 

shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,the advantages     
which this method possesses are3 the    
reservoir can by this means be made to  
contain the maximum quantity of oil2 and
 the oil cup or sink ,s is left with its
 surface dry1 thereby exposing less oil 
to the influences of the air2 and1 at   
the same time the tendency of the oil to
 flow towards the shoulder of the pivot 
is decreased4  ,skill is necessary in   
order to judge of and place the         
requisite amount of oil on the cap jewel
 before putting it in position2 as1 if  
too much is used it is worse than if too
 little is employed1 because the oil    
would then flow on to the setting1 and  
from there between the settings at b1   
when it will rapidly be all drawn from  
the bearing1 leaving it dry1 while the  
settings are copiously supplied4 ,the   
approximate relative position which the 
oil should occupy is shown at d1 ,fig4  
#ad1 in section2 and this can be seen by
 looking through the jewels with a      
double eye-glass1 when a true circle1   

concentric with the jewel hole1 will be 
seen to have formed4 ,this circle       
represents the limit of the distance    
which the oil has flowed from the jewel 
hole4 ,when too much oil has been       
applied1 this limit is not a circle1 but
 represents a ,u4  ,in the example      
given1 the upper surface of the cap     
jewel is made flat1 while the lower     
surface is made convex with a flat space
 in the center2 as a better view of the 
end of the pivot and the condition of   
the oil can be thereby obtained4  ,in no
 case should the contiguous surfaces of 
the hole and cap jewel be both made     
flat2 as1 when their planes are         
vertical1 the oil will be drawn         
downwards by gravitation 7#ah71 there   
being no counteracting force 7#bb7 to   
keep the oil in place4 ,the author has  
remedied this defect1 in many instances1
 by cutting a groove around the jewel1  
leaving only enough metal near the jewel
 to hold it1 and enough near the edge of
 the setting to rest solidly against the

 other setting4  ,in some watches1      
particularly those of ,swiss make1 the  
jewel bezels--both cap and hole--are    
brought well up around the jewel1 while 
a groove is cut around the jewel bezel4 
,in this instance the oil may be made to
 cover the whole inside surface of both 
jewels1 as the groove will prevent the  
oil from flowing away to parts where it 
is not required4  ,the reprehensible    
practice of replacing a broken cap jewel
 by cutting away the bezel and placing  
the new jewel in loosely1 cannot be too 
severely condemned4 ,the new cheap      
foreign-made watches contain this       
objectionable feature in many instances4
  ,where the jewels are in settings1    
sharp instruments1 as tweezers1 etc41   
should never be used to push the        
settings in place2 as the projections   
produced in this manner would not only  
injure the appearance of the settings1  
but would prevent their close contact4  
,thoroughly clean1 well-finished jewel  
pushers are indispensable2 as even      

pegwood is liable to leave fibres at    
least4  ,the shape of the oiler is a    
matter of some importance2 as with a    
poorly-made oiler it is next to         
impossible to do work satisfactorily4   
,the tip is preferably of gold1 tapering
 towards the end to about the size of a 
second's hand pivot of an eighteen size 
,american movement2 but at the end it   
should be about three times as wide and 
flat4 ,a nickel fastened to the end of a
 lead-pencil will give the idea         
approximately4 ,this large end will     
cause the oil to remain where it may be 
readily applied to the bearing surface1 
instead of flowing back on the oiler    
towards the handle1 as it would 7#bb1   
#g7 if the point were tapering4   #ei4  
,the ,stem ,winding ,mechanism should be
 thoroughly well made1 always keeping in
 view that the laws of capillary        
attraction must be complied with4       
,wherever an angle can be formed1 with  
its apex pointing towards the place     
where the oil is required to remain1 it 

should be done4  ,a very good lubricant 
for stem wind parts is found in         
stearine1 from which the animal oils are
 expressed at cold temperatures1 as it  
is very thickly fluid at ordinary       
temperatures2 while an excellent        
lubricant for this purpose is           
paraffine--not the wax nor the oil1 but 
that white1 soft substance from which   
both are obtained 7#ac  #gc74 ,stearine 
and paraffine both possess great        
viscosity2 and1 though the fluid        
friction is increased by their use1 the 
solid friction is diminished4 ,then1    
too1 the tendency to spread is very much
 less4   #fj4 ,the ,pendant is          
frequently a cause of trouble to the    
watchmaker4 ,it is very important that  
the winding stem be lubricated with a   
substance that will not spread at       
ordinary temperatures4 ,the lubricant   
should be applied at all places where   
steel rubs on steel or other metal4 ,the
 winding stem and case spring1 and the  
sleeve if present should have as much as

 can be safely applied2 as they are so  
much exposed that rust often forms1     
which finds its way down through the    
movement1 frequently resulting in       
serious damage to the delicate parts4   
,the bearings of collet on stem and the 
pendant screw should also be lubricated4
  ,attention to these details will also 
prevent that squeaking sound which1     
sometimes occurring shortly after a     
watch has been repaired1 causes the     
owner to believe that the work was not  
done properly4  ,the lubricants just    
mentioned 7#ei7 serve admirably for this
 purpose4   #fa4 ,the ,cause of the     
,cutting of ,pivots1 in addition to the 
effect of friction 7#cb1 #a7 and other  
causes which have been mentioned 7#di71 
may be that minute currents of static   
electricity are induced between the     
surfaces of the pivot and bearing1 the  
oil acting as the electrolyte4  ,if this
 be the case1 the cause of pivots       
turning black would appear to be        
explained--the molecules of iron        

becoming electrically disassociated from
 the molecules of carbon1 the latter    
being by their nature black1 and being  
now on the surface in sufficient        
quantities to make themselves evident1  
give the surface the black color4 ,such 
is the first stage of cutting4  ,the    
molecules of iron1 becoming incorporated
 in the now thick and viscous oil or    
imbedding themselves in the bearing1 act
 as an abrasive2 the black surface is   
removed1 making the pivot again bright1 
but ringed4 ,the molecules of iron1     
uniting with the molecules of oxygen    
which exist in the oil in its oxidized  
state1 forms ferric oxide4  ,ferric     
oxide is known as colcothar1            
,english-,roth1 rouge1 crocus1 etc4     
,the above theory is advanced by the    
author for what it may be worth1 as it  
seems to explain this curious           
phenomenon4  ,,footnotes3  #aa ,saunier4
 ,watchmakers' ,handbook4     ,,chapter 
,v4  ,,the ,,properties ,,and ,,relative
 ,,values ,,of ,,lubricants ,,in        

,,horology4   #fb4 ,lubrication has for 
its objects1 both the reduction of      
friction and the prevention of excessive
 injury from wear2 and the mechanician  
resorts to the expedient of interposing 
between the rubbing surfaces a substance
 having the lowest possible coefficient 
of friction with the greatest possible  
capacity for preventing wear4  ,the     
valuable qualities of lubricants are    
determined by their power of reducing   
friction1 and by their endurance as well
 as that of the surfaces on which they  
are used4 ,the amount of frictional     
resistance to the motion of machinery is
 obviously determined by the character  
of the lubricating material4#ab   #fc4  
,the ,animal ,oils have had a wide and  
varied application in general machinery1
 and much testimony might be produced to
 show the superiority of any one kind   
over all the other kinds4 ,each variety 
has some particular property which some 
of the others may not have to such a    
degree4   #fd4 ,porpoise ,jaw ,oil#ac   

and ,blackfish ,melon ,oil have certain 
good qualities which have made them very
 popular1 particularly on this side of  
the ,atlantic4 ,when properly refined   
7#d-f7 they are no doubt very suitable  
for the work of reducing friction in    
small and delicate mechanism4   #fe4    
,sperm ,oil 7#g7 had been used to some  
extent as a lubricant for time-keeping  
contrivances2 in fact1 many tower clock 
experts still employ it on the heavier  
bearings4 ,a4 ,long1 writing to the     
,british ,horological ,journal1         
describes a trip to the ,arctic regions 
in #ahad and #ahae1 in which he states  
that a certain portion of the sperm oil 
they obtained never congealed1 which    
they preserved and applied to their     
chronometers1 and thus kept them going  
through the winter4  ,others have       
experimented with it1 and it was at one 
time largely used2 while some tower     
clock makers claim that they find it    
satisfactory4 ,it is1 however1 open to  
the objection that it would produce     

serious variation when used in          
time-keeping mechanisms1 as its         
viscosity varies greatly with varying   
temperatures caused by the alteration of
 the spermaceti it contains1 thus       
causing sudden fluctuations of its      
coefficient of friction 7#ha74 ,it also 
absorbs oxygen rapidly when it is       
exposed to the air and loses quality    
seriously1 gradually becoming gummed or 
resinous4 ,a gain of two to three per   
cent in weight in twelve hours when     
exposed to the air at #adj deg4 ,f4 7#fj
 ,c71 is caused by this absorption of   
oxygen 7#aj74   #ff4 ,bone ,oil 7#h7 has
 been widely used both in this country  
and in ,europe1 and possesses some good 
qualities1 not the least of which is the
 property of resisting evaporation and  
oxidation4   #fg4 ,neatsfoot ,oil 7#i7  
has been largely used1 especially in    
,europe4 ,the writer regrets that he has
 not procured samples in order to       
ascertain its relative value4   #fh4    
,olive ,oil 7#aj7 has at least one good 

quality4 ,it is one of the most         
perfectly non-drying of all the oils1   
resisting both oxidation and evaporation
 7#bd74 ,but it is next to impossible to
 entirely remove its acid qualities1    
small traces of which remain after the  
most thorough treatment4 ,it is also    
liable to decomposition1 generating     
acids even after refinement4   #fi4     
,mineral ,oil 7#aa7 has been used as a  
lubricant for time keeping mechanism2   
but as there are so many varieties on   
the market1 each differing from the     
others and possessing properties        
peculiar to itself1 and as many have    
made experiments which have not         
demonstrated that such oils possess all 
the essential qualities of a perfect    
lubricant in horology1 the author       
believes that the abundance of kinds and
 qualities of mineral oils has in the   
past been more or less confusing to the 
majority of those who have experimented2
 and believes further1 that if the      
proper kind and quality of such oils had

 been used1 all that could be desired in
 a lubricant would have been shown to   
have been contained therein4  ,past     
experience has shown that many          
lubricants remained for years unused for
 special purposes to which1 when tried1 
they were found specially adapted4      
,though ,e4 ,rigg was probably in error 
in the matter previously discussed 7#dd7
 his otherwise excellent lecture        
contains the following3--#ad  ,but there
 is another subject that has a still    
closer bearing on friction as met with  
in time keeping instruments1 and ,i     
cannot bring my lecture to a close      
without reference to that most fruitful 
source of trouble to the                
watchmaker--oil4 ,breguet1 a very famous
 horologist1 and ,d',arcet1 an equally  
celebrated chemist1 worked together at  
this problem and what was the result8   
,they produced an oil that was1         
according to their theory1 perfect2 but 
when applied to watches it proved to be 
worse than the ordinary oils of         

commerce4 ,since their day the chemistry
 of oil has not made much progress1 and 
the methods recommended for testing oil 
are still very ineffectual4 ,the only   
test of any use is actual trial for a   
long period1 and under varying          
conditions as to temperature1 nature of 
atmosphere1 etc42 and there are several 
oils on the market more or less         
satisfying the required conditions4 ,so 
far as my knowledge goes1 however1 all  
are liable to dry2 and this prompts me  
to draw your attention to a lubricator  
that has come into use for heavy        
machinery in recent years1 in the hope  
that it may afford a suggestion for the 
improvement of watch oils4 ,i allude to 
the mixture of certain kinds of mineral 
oil with an oil that has a tendency to  
dry4 ,even a small percentage is        
asserted to entirely check this tendency
 and the resulting mixture is said to   
have the property of not in any way     
acting on or damaging the metal to which
 it is applied4 ,the thickness1 or      

'body1' is made to vary according to the
 pressure to which the oil is subjected4
 99 99 99 99 ,would it be oversanguine  
to hope that some such mixture1 prepared
 from perfectly pure materials1 might   
help even the chronometer maker to      
secure more uniform rates8 ,absolute    
freedom from acidity means a reduction  
of such electrical action as may occur  
at the pivots1 and1 therefore1 a greater
 permanency of the oil from this point  
of view4   #gj4 ,neutral ,oil 7#ad7     
seems to be especially adapted for use  
in horology4 ,used in a pure state1 or  
mixed in variable quantities with a good
 animal oil1 it can readily be made to  
fulfill the various conditions required 
in all parts of watches1 chronometers1  
mantel and tower clocks4  ,it is usually
 sold as such1 but sometimes under the  
names liquid paraffine1 glycoline1      
albolene1 etc41 while solid paraffine1  
white cosmoline1 solid alboline1 are the
 names given to the thick butyraceous   
mass from which neutral oils are made4  

,sometimes this substance1 as well as   
the liquid paraffine1 is medicated or   
perfumed2 but it is hardly necessary to 
state that when thus treated it is unfit
 for use in horology4   #ga4 ,the       
,properties of ,neutral ,oil are stated 
to be3#ae  ,it is a clear oily liquid1  
having a specific gravity of not less   
than #j4hdj and boiling not below #cfj  
deg4 ,c4 7#fhj deg4 ,f474 ,it should be 
free from colored1 fluorescing1 and     
odorous compounds4  ,when heated for a  
day by means of a water bath1 the       
paraffine should not become dark        
colored1 and the sulphuric acid should  
become only slightly brownish4 ,metallic
 sodium treated in a similar manner     
should retain its metallic lustre4      
,alcohol boiled with paraffine should   
not have an acid reaction4   #gb4 ,the  
,properties of ,solid ,paraffine 7#ac7  
are given as follows3#af  ,the melting  
point of commercial paraffine varies    
much4 ,obtained from the residuum of    
petroleum distillation it is usually #dc

 deg4 ,c4 7#aji4d ,f471 or somewhat     
higher4  ,the acid and metallic sodium  
tests given for liquid paraffine will   
apply to the solid paraffine4   #gc4    
,the ,value of a ,lubricant as a        
lubricant is independent of the market  
price2 and it is at a maximum1 according
 to ,thurston1 when it possesses the    
following characteristics3  #a4 ,enough 
body1 or combined capillarity and       
viscosity 7#hb71 to keep the surfaces   
between which it is interposed from     
coming in contact at maximum pressures4 
#b4 ,the greatest fluidity consistent   
with the preceding requirements1 i4 e41 
the least fluid friction allowable4  #c4
 ,the lowest possible coefficient of    
friction under the conditions in actual 
use1 i4 e41 the sum of the two          
components1 solid and fluid friction1   
should be a minimum4  #d4 ,a maximum    
capacity for receiving1 transmitting1   
storing and carrying away heat4  #e4    
,freedom from tendency to decompose or  
to change in composition by gumming or  

otherwise1 on exposure to the air 7#gi7 
while in use4  #f4 ,entire absence of   
acid or other properties liable to      
produce injury of materials or metals   
7#gg7 with which they may be brought in 
contact4  #g4 ,a high temperature of    
vaporization and a low temperature 7#hc7
 of solidification4  #h4 ,special       
adaptation as to speed and pressure of  
rubbing surfaces under which the unguent
 is to be used4  #i4 ,it must be free   
from grit and from all foreign matter4  
,the author will add that for use in    
horology3  #aj4 ,it must possess a      
minimum variation of viscosity 7#hd7 in 
varying temperatures4  ,the writer can  
see no reason why a mineral oil which   
has been properly refined and of the    
proper consistency1 either alone or     
mixed with animal oil1 could not be used
 to great advantage in horology4        
,indeed1 the possibilities in this      
direction seem to be so pregnant with   
promises of good results that some space
 will be devoted to the matter4   #gd4  

,the ,special ,advantages of ,mineral   
,oils as lubricants in horology are3    
#a4 ,mineral oils can be made entirely  
pure1 and possess uniform and known     
properties when derived from the same or
 a similar source2 while the quality of 
animal and vegetable oils varies from   
year to year1 depending1 in animal oils1
 on the season of the year when the     
crude oil is obtained1 on the age and   
condition of the animal1 and on the     
kind1 quality and quantity of food which
 it had 7#e7 recently consumed2 and in  
vegetable oils on the season1 soil1     
climate and method of treatment4  #b4   
,according to ,thurston ,all vegetable  
and animal oils are compounds of        
glycerine with fatty acids4 ,when they  
become old1 decomposition takes place   
and the acid is set free1 by which      
action the oils become rancid4 ,this    
rancid oil or acid will attack and      
injure machinery4 ,again1 all animal    
oils contain more or less gummy matter1 
which accumulates when exposed to the   

action of the atmosphere1 and will1     
consequently1 retard the motion of the  
machinery4  #c4 ,spon1 in his           
,encyclopedia of the ,arts1 gives his   
views to the effect that ,the best oil  
is that which has the greatest adhesion 
to metallic surfaces and the least      
cohesion in its own particles4 ,in this 
respect fine mineral oils stand first1  
sperm oil second1 neatsfoot oil third4  
,consequently the best mineral oils are 
the best for light bearings4 ,the best  
oil to give body to fine mineral oils is
 sperm oil4  #d4 ,mineral oils do not   
absorb oxygen1 and consequently do not  
gum or become viscous4--,thurston4  #e4 
,mineral oils never become rancid in any
 climate1 as they possess no fatty      
acids4  #f4 ,mineral oils produce very  
little fluid friction4  #g4 ,mineral    
oils withstand a high temperature       
without decomposition or vaporization1  
and a low temperature without           
solidification4  #h4 ,properly prepared 
mineral oils are free from grit and all 

foreign substances4  #i4 ,in addition to
 the above1 a minor property of mineral 
oil is that they are very cheap         
comparatively1 while they do not possess
 any odor if properly refined4  #aj4    
,the variation of viscosity in varying  
temperatures is less in mineral oils    
than in animal or vegetable oils4   #ge4
 ,methods of ,testing ,oils are         
necessary in order to determine which   
may be adapted to a specific purpose4   
,their peculiar characteristics must be 
studied in order to know which will best
 fulfill the conditions arising in      
actual practice4 ,experiments are       
necessary in which the oil is subjected 
to conditions approximating1 as nearly  
as possible1 to the conditions proposed 
in its actual use4  ,saunier states#ag  
that success depends largely on the     
skill of the manipulator2 and if he is  
not endowed with the power of judging1  
mainly by the taste1 whether oil        
satisfies certain prescribed conditions1
 he can never be certain of the result4 

,as the author's abilities in this      
regard are not up to the required       
standard1 and as some oils are sometimes
 in such a state of decomposition that  
even the odor is unpleasant1 he has used
 other1 and perhaps more satisfactory1  
methods of determining the relative     
values of the various oils4  ,the       
following experiments show the relative 
values of oils that have been1 or may   
be1 used in horology3  ,j4 ,j4 ,redwood 
has made experiments on the action of   
oils upon metals1 especially for the    
purpose of determining which oils were  
best adapted for use on the various     
metals and for ascertaining which oils  
were most suitable for mixing as        
lubricants4 ,he has tabulated the       
results of his researches in two tables1
 which show that3#ah  ,mineral oil has  
no effect upon copper and zinc1 and     
attacks lead most4  ,olive oil attacks  
copper most1 tin least4  ,sperm oil     
attacks zinc most1 copper least4  ,the  
experiments show1 on the other hand1    

that3  ,brass is attacked most by olive 
oil4  ,copper is not attacked by mineral
 lubricating oil1 least by sperm oil4#ai
 ,dr4 ,watson states in regard to this  
action3  #a4 ,that of the oils used1    
viz41 olive sperm1 neat's-foot1 and     
paraffine1 the samples of paraffine oil 
on copper was least affected1 and that  
sperm was next in order of inaction4    
#b4 ,that the appearances of the        
paraffine oil and the copper were not   
changed after an exposure of #gg days4  
,he later#bj experimented further with  
the following results noted1 after one  
day's exposure1 with iron3--  #a4       
,neat's-foot4--,considerable brown      
irregular deposit on metal4 ,the oil    
slightly more brown than when first     
applied4  #b4 ,sperm4--,slight brown    
deposit with irregular markings on the  
metal4 ,oil of dark brown color4  #c4   
,olive4--,clear and bleached by exposure
 to light and air4 ,the appearance of   
metal the same as when first immersed4  
#d4 ,paraffine4--,oil bright yellow and 

contains a little brown deposit4  ,the  
action of oils on iron exposed to their 
action for twenty-four hours and on     
copper after ten day's exposure was     
found to have been3--   ,,table ,,ii4   
,,action ,,of ,,oils ,,on ,,metals4     
----------------------------------------
-----    ,,oils4     ,,iron ,,dissolved 
,,copper ,,dissolved               ,,in 
#bd ,,hours4     ,,in #aj ,,days4       
----------------------------------------
----- ,neat's foot   4#jhge grain4      
4#aajj grain4 ,sperm         4#jdfj     
4#jjcj    ,olive         4#jjfb         
4#bbjj    ,paraffine     4#jjde         
4#jjae                                  
----------------------------------------
-----   #gf4 ,various ,experiments have 
been made by the writer with a number of
 oils that may be1 or have been1 used in
 horology1 as well as with the principal
 watch oils on the market4 ,at first he 
did not intend to mention the names of  
the manufacturers2 but1 after seeking   
advice of several eminent watchmakers1  

and on mature consideration1 he decided 
to do so for the following reasons3--   
#a4 ,the object of the ,society before  
which these lectures were delivered#ba  
is to promote and to secure concerted   
action for the purpose of mutual        
improvement in the practice of our      
profession as horologists1 by a study of
 both the practical and theoretical     
divisions of the science and art of     
horology2 to publish the results of such
 study for the benefit of all in the    
profession2 to preserve the same for the
 use of our successors2 to elevate the  
standard of workmanship2 and to         
encourage in the members a higher       
conception of what our art really is4   
,as this object cannot be attained      
without the names of manufacturers being
 mentioned in connection with their     
oils1 the author considers that this is 
sufficient justification4  #b4 ,no      
injustice can have been done the        
manufacturers when the author states    
that the results obtained by him are not

 to be considered as conclusive evidence
 regarding the properties of the oils   
tested1 as the samples he used may have 
been better than1 or not so good as1 the
 usual output of the manufacturers whose
 names were on the labels4  #c4 ,some of
 the manufacturers of oils sent samples 
subject to the condition of the         
publication of the results1 with the    
request that the oils should be         
submitted to test1 and if found wanting1
 they 7the manufacturers7 certainly     
wished to know it4   ,,table ,,iii4     
,,for ,,reference4   ,transcriber's     
note3 ,table ,split for ,text file      
----------------------------------------
----------------------                  
,,manufacturer4                         
----------------------------------------
       ,,symbols                        
,,employed4                ,,name4      
,,location4                             
----------------------------------------
--------------------- ,b,e4 ,k4 w       
,ezra ,kelley     ,new ,bedford1 ,mass4 

,b,w4 ,f4 ,n4 w               ,w4 ,f4   
,nye      ,new ,bedford1 ,mass4         
,a,d4 ,c4 ,s4 w              ,d4 ,c4    
,stull    ,provincetown1 ,mass4         
,a,d4 ,c4 ,s4 ch             ,d4 ,c4    
,stull    ,provincetown1 ,mass4         
,a,d4 ,c4 ,s4 cl             ,d4 ,c4    
,stull    ,provincetown1 ,mass4         
,b,w4 ,c4 w                 ,w4 ,cuypers
       ,dresden1 ,germany               
,a,b4  ,k4 w            ,breitinger     
,kunz  ,philadelphia1 ,pa4              
,a,s4 ,b4  ,co4 wc     ,stevenson ,bro4 
,co4 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4                
,a,c4 ,l4 ,co4 w           ,chem4 ,lub'g
 ,co4    ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4             
,a,c,c4 ,l4 ,co4 ,no 4 #a   ,chem4      
,lub'g ,co4    ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4       
,a,c,glyc             ,bullock          
,crenshaw  ,philadelphia1 ,pa4          
,b,c,alb4 f           ,mc,kesson        
,robbins  ,philadelphia1 ,pa4           
,b,c,alb4 s           ,mc,kesson        
,robbins  ,philadelphia1 ,pa4           
,b,c,sp                      ----8      

----8                                   
,b,c,ol                      ----8      
----8                                   
----------------------------------------
---------------------                   
----------------------------------------
------------------------------------    
,,oil4                                  
----------------------------------------
---------------       ,,symbols         
,,source4      ,,employed4              
,,kind4         ,,name4                 
--------------------------              
,,generic4    ,,specific4               
----------------------------------------
---------------------------------- ,b,e4
 ,k4 w               ,watch             
,superfine     ,animal  ,porpoise jaw or
                                        
blackfish--melon                        
,b,w4 ,f4 ,n4 w            ,watch       
,superior      ,animal  ,porpoise jaw or
                                        
blackfish--melon                        
,a,d4 ,c4 ,s4 w            ,watch       

,superfine     ,animal  ,porpoise jaw or
                                        
blackfish--melon                        
,a,d4 ,c4 ,s4 ch        ,chronometer    
,superfine     ,animal  ,porpoise jaw or
                                        
blackfish--melon                        
,a,d4 ,c4 ,s4 cl           ,clock       
,superfine     ,animal  ,porpoise jaw or
                                        
blackfish--melon                        
,b,w4 ,c4 w               ,watch        
,superfine     ,animal       ,bone      
,a,b4  ,k4 w             ,watch         
,superfine     ,animal       ,bone      
,a,s4 ,b4  ,co4 wc    ,watch  clock     
,album      ,mineral      ,neutral      
,a,c4 ,l4 ,co4 w           ,watch       
,perfect      ,mixed  ,neutral  ---- 8  
,a,c,c4 ,l4 ,co4 ,no4 #a ,lubricating   
,no4 #a ,synolene ,mineral      ,neutral
                                        
,a,c,glyc            ,lubricating       
,glycolene    ,mineral      ,neutral    
,b,c,alb4 f          ,lubricating ,fluid

 alboline  ,mineral      ,neutral       
,b,c,alb4 s          ,lubricating ,solid
 alboline  ,mineral     ,paraffine      
,b,c,sp              ,lubricating       
----8       ,animal   ,sperm1 whale     
,b,c,ol              ,lubricating       
----8     ,vegetable      ,olive        
----------------------------------------
----------------------------------      
,note ,a3 ,obtained as sample from      
manufacturer4  ,note ,b3 ,purchased in  
open market4  ,note ,c3 ,not sold as    
watch oil4  #d4 ,on hearing of these    
experiments1 others in the profession   
may be tempted to make similar or other 
investigations and publish them4  #e4   
,in that case1 if the results of many   
experiments demonstrate the superiority 
of one particular kind of oil1 the whole
 profession will be profited thereby4   
#f4 ,the manufacturers of oils may be   
caused to exert their utmost to keep    
abreast of the times1 and will see for  
themselves in what way their oils may   
not fulfill the required conditions1    

thereby being the better prepared to    
overcome the difficulties with which    
they meet4  ,for the sake of convenience
 the author has tabulated a list of the 
oils which he has subjected to various  
tests1 showing the name1 kind and source
 of each oil tested2 also those which   
were obtained as samples1 and those     
which were purchased in open market1 as 
well as those which were not sold as    
watch oils1 but which may be tried4     
,this is shown in table ,,iii4   #gg4   
,the ,action ,of ,oils ,on ,brass has   
been determined by the author by using a
 piece of good sheet brass into which   
suitable recesses were made for the     
retention of the various oils4 ,this    
plate was submitted to the action of the
 air at temperatures varying from #bd   
deg4 to #cg4e deg4 ,c4 7about #gf deg4  
to #ajj deg4 ,f471 for #ajj days4  ,the 
results of this test are shown in ,table
 ,,iv4 ,a further test1 under different 
conditions1 gave results as shown in    
,table ,v4   ,,table ,,iv4  ,,action    

,,of ,,oils ,,on ,,brass4  ,temp4 #ba   
deg4 to #cg4e deg4 ,c4  #gj deg4 to #ajj
 deg4 ,f4 ,time #ajj days4              
----------------------------------------
-------------    ,,symbols              
,,condition4  ,,according ,,to          
------------------------------------    
,,table ,,iii4       ,,of ,,oil4        
,,of ,,brass4                           
----------------------------------------
------------ ,e4 ,k4            ,light  
brown4        ,brown4 ,w4 ,f4 ,n4       
,w4 ,c4                                 
,light brown4 ,b4  ,k4                  
,c4 ,l4 ,co4 w4       ,spread4          
,c4 ,l4 ,co4 ,no4 #a   ,unaltered4      
,glyc4                                  
,sp4              ,light brown4         
,greenish-brown4 ,ol4                   
,green4     ,dark greenish-brown4       
----------------------------------------
------------   ,,table ,v4  ,,action    
,,of ,,oils ,,on ,,brass4  ,temp4 #e4e  
deg4 to #ba deg4 ,c4  #dj deg4 to #gj   
deg4 ,f4 ,time #be days4                

----------------------------------------
--------------------    ,,symbols       
,,condition4  ,,according ,,to          
--------------------------------------  
,,table ,,iii4               ,,of ,,oil4
             ,,of ,,brass4              
----------------------------------------
------------------- ,e4 ,k4 w4          
,very ,light ,brown4      ,no change4   
,w4 ,f4 ,n4 w4                          
,d4 ,c4 ,s4 w4                          
,d4 ,c4 ,s4 ch4                         
,d4 ,c4 ,s4 cl4                         
,w4 ,c4 w4                 ,no change4  
,b4  ,k4 w4                             
,s4 ,b4  ,co4 w4  cl4                   
,c4 ,l4 ,co4 w4                         
,c4 ,l4 ,co4 ,no4 #a                    
,glyc4                                  
,alb4 f4                                
,very light brown4 ,alb4 s4             
,unaltered4                             
----------------------------------------
-------------------   #gh4 ,the ,effect 
of ,oils on ,steel1 with a view of      

ascertaining their rust preventing      
properties1 especially to see if the    
treatment of hairsprings with a very    
slight film of oil 7#ef71 would prevent 
rust in warm1 damp climates was         
ascertained by the author1 as follows3  
,each of twelve brass pins1 stuck       
vertically in a block of wood1 had a    
colleted hairspring on its upper end4   
,the block of wood was allowed to float 
in water and covered by a glass4 ,one   
hairspring was left as it came from the 
factory1 while each of the others had   
been treated with a solution of porpoise
 jaw oil and benzine1 varying           
proportions of one to ten per cent of   
oil being used1 the balance being       
benzine4 ,the hairsprings were dipped   
into the solution1 and1 on withdrawing1 
were immediately placed between two     
folds of soft linen cloth4 ,in any case 
not enough oil remained on the          
hairsprings to cause the coils to       
adhere4 ,one per cent of nitric acid was
 added to the water1 and after ten days 

the hairsprings showed on examination   
that they had rusted in proportion to   
the amount of oil that had been used4   
,another trial1 without acid in the     
water1 and with one hairspring treated  
with ether1 one with benzine1 one each  
with one1 two1 five and ten per cent of 
porpoise jaw oil in benzine1 and one    
each with the same quantity of mineral  
oil in benzine1 showed after thirty days
 that the hairspring treated with ten   
per cent mineral oil was slightly       
rusted1 while those treated with ether  
and benzine were badly rusted1 and all  
the others were rusted more or less4    
#gi4 ,the ,gumming and ,drying of ,oils 
is a very important consideration1 the  
former being caused by oxidation1 while 
the latter is due to evaporation4  ,in  
order to determine these properties in  
various oils the author used a number of
 watch glasses1 their convex side being 
glued to a board4 ,two drops of oil were
 placed in each watch glass and spread  
over its concave surface1 and the board 

placed in a covered box in which        
suitable air holes had been made1 and   
allowed to remain in a temperature      
varying from #ba deg4 to #cg4e deg4 ,c4 
7 #gj deg4 to #aaj deg4 ,f47 for #ajj   
days1 and at the end of that time the   
results shown in table ,,vi were noted4 
,,table ,,vi4  ,,gumming ,,and ,,drying 
,,of ,,oils4  ,temp4 #ba deg4 ,c4 to    
#cg4e deg4 ,c4  #gj deg4 ,f4 to #aaj    
deg4 ,f4 ,time #ajj ,days4              
----------------------------------------
--------------------- ,,symbols         
,,according ,,to ,,table ,,iii4         
,,condition4                            
----------------------------------------
--------------------- ,e4 ,k4 w4        
,slightly dried4 ,w4 ,f4 ,n4 w4         
,very slightly dried4 ,w4 ,c4 w4        
,slightly gummed4 ,b4  ,k4 w4           
,no change4 ,c4 ,l4 ,co4 w4             
,slightly dried1 and spread4 ,c4 ,l4    
,co4 ,no4 #a4                 ,no       
change4 ,glyc4                          
,no change4 ,sp4                        

,slightly gummed4 ,ol4                  
,no change4                             
----------------------------------------
---------------------   #hj4 ,the       
,viscosity ,of ,oils denotes an         
approximate measurement of their        
relative lubricating power4  ,professor 
,thurston states#bb that large consumers
 of oil sometimes purchase on the basis 
of this kind of test solely4 ,it is     
regarded as satisfactory and reliable as
 any single physical or chemical test   
known1 and is second only to the best   
testing machine methods4  ,the less the 
viscosity1 consistently with the use of 
the oil under the maximum pressure to be
 anticipated1 the less is1 usually1 the 
friction4 ,the best lubricant1 as a     
rule1 is that having the least viscosity
 combined with the greatest             
adhesiveness4 ,vegetable oils are more  
viscous than animal1 and animal more so 
than mineral oils4 ,the fluidity of an  
oil is thus1 to a large extent1 a       
measure of its value4  ,the relation    

between the viscosity and the friction  
reducing power of oils has been         
determined by ,mr4 ,n4 ,c4 ,waite#bc and
 others to be very close4  ,an oil      
having little viscosity is suitable for 
the escapement and lighter parts of the 
train1 but is not a good lubricant for  
the bearings of the center pinion and   
barrel arbor and the mainspring1 which  
require a more viscous lubricant2 while 
a still greater viscosity renders it    
more serviceable on the stem winding    
mechanism 7#ei7 and in the pendant      
7#fj74  ,again1 an oil that possesses   
sufficient body1 or combined capillarity
 7#cb7 and viscosity1 to resist the     
tendency to be squeezed from between the
 bearing surfaces in the heavier parts  
of the mechanism will produce a great   
excess of fluid friction in the lighter 
parts of the train and in the           
escapement4   #ha4 ,the ,relative       
,viscosity of ,oils is determined in    
several ways4 ,various machines have    
been devised for testing the lubricating

 properties of oils1 but as the cheap   
ones are of no use1 and as those which  
are reliable are so expensive as to     
prohibit their general use except in    
laboratories and large factories1 a     
simple method of ascertaining the       
relative viscosity of oils is desirable4
  ,the author used a piece of plate     
glass of suitable size on which one drop
 of each oil to be tested was placed    
near its end4 ,the glass inclined from  
the horizontal1 longitudinally--the     
angle of inclination being #f           
degrees--and was placed in a constant   
temperature of #ae4e deg4 ,c4 7 #fj deg4
 ,f47  ,the total distance in           
centimeters which each had traveled by  
the end of each day1 as well as the     
appearance of the track which it had    
left is shown in table ,,vii4   ,,table 
,,vii4  ,,relative ,,viscosity ,,and    
,,gumming ,,of ,,oils4  ,temp4 #ae4e    
deg4 ,c4  #fj deg4 ,f4 ,inclination #f  
degrees4 ,time #g days4                 
----------------------------------------

--------------------------     ,,symbols
             ,,distance ,,in ,,cm4      
,,according ,,to    ,,traveled ,,by     
,,oil ,,at ,,the ,,end                  
,,width    ,,table ,,iii4               
,,of ,,each ,,day4                      
,,of                                    
,,track4                                
----------------------------------------
--------------------     ,,days4        
#a   #b    #c    #d    #e    #f    #g   
----------------------------------------
-------------------- ,e4 ,k4 w4         
#af  #ah  ,stat4 444  444  444  #ah     
,medium4 ,w4 ,f4 ,n4 w4     #ae  #af4e  
#ah   #ai   #bj  ,stat4 #bj       ,w4   
,c4 w4        #ag4eai   #bj  ,stat4 444 
444  #bj   ,narrow4 ,b4  ,k4 w4         
#ab4eae   #ag4e #bj  ,stat4 444  #bj    
,c4 ,l4 ,co4 w4     #g4eaj   #ab4e #ae  
#ag4e,stat4 #ag4e ,very wide4 ,c4 ,l4   
,co4 ,no4 #a4ae  #af4e #ah  ,stat4 444  
444  #ah   ,medium4 ,glyc4           #ae
  #af4e #ah  ,stat4 444  444  #ah       
,sp4              #j   #b4e  #e    #g4e 

#i   #aj   #aa   ,narrow4 ,ol4          
#e   #f4e  #g  ,stat4 444  444   #g     
----------------------------------------
--------------------  ,table ,,vii not  
only shows the relative viscosity of the
 various oils1 but also their tendency  
to gum or dry 7#gi47 ,the width of the  
track left by the oil is an indication  
of the cohesion 7#bj7 and adhesion 7#ba7
 which exists1 respectively1 in the oil 
and between the oil and the glass4 ,a   
narrow track denotes great cohesion and 
little adhesion2 a wide track denotes   
great adhesion and little cohesion2     
while a medium track indicates that both
 properties are more nearly equal4  ,if 
an oil possess great adhesion and little
 cohesion it is more liable to resist   
the tendency to be squeezed out of      
bearings1 but it is also more likely to 
spread4  ,another test made in the      
manner just described 7table ,,vii7 gave
 results as shown in table ,,viii3      
,,table ,,viii4  ,,relative ,,viscosity 
,,and ,,gumming ,,of ,,oils4  ,temp4 #bd

 deg4 ,c4  #ge deg4 ,f4 ,inclination #g 
degrees4 ,time #g4c days4               
----------------------------------------
--------------------      ,,symbols     
,,distance ,,in ,,cm4    ,,according    
,,to       ,,traveled ,,by ,,the ,,oil  
,,at ,,the ,,end     ,,table ,,iii4     
,,of ,,each ,,day4                      
----------------------------------------
-------------       ,,days4        #j4c 
#a4c #b4c #c4c #d4c #e4c #f4c  #g4c     
----------------------------------------
------------- ,e4 ,k4 w4          #ad   
#bc  #bf4ebh4ebi4eca4ecb4e #cc ,w4 ,f4  
,n4 w4       #ab4ebj  #bf4ebi  #ca      
#cb4ecc4e #cd ,w4 ,c4 w4          #ai   
#bd  #bf4ebh  #bi  #cj4ecb   #cc ,b4    
,k4 w4        #ad  #ag4ebe  #bg         
#bi4eca4ecc   #cc4e ,s4 ,b4  ,co4 w4 c4 
#aj  #bj  #bf  #bf4ebg  #bg4ebh   #bh4e 
,c4 ,l4 ,co4 w4      #bi  #ch           
#dj4edb4edc  #dc4e,stat4#dc4e ,c4 ,l4   
,co4 ,no4 #a4  #ag4ebc  #bg  #bh  #bi   
#cj  #ca   #cb ,glyc4                   
#ag4ebc  #bh  #cj  #cb  #cd  #ce   #ce4b

 ,alb4 f4           #ae  #bj  #bi  #cc  
#ce  #cg  #ch   #ch4e                   
----------------------------------------
-------------  ,the author once heard a 
watchmaker say to a customer1 when the  
latter called for a clock which had been
 left for repairs1 ,i have cleaned your 
clock thoroughly2 and1 as you are a good
 customer1 ,i made as good a job of it  
as ,i could4 ,i even oiled it with watch
 oil4 ,this watchmaker evidently thought
 he was right4 ,it is hardly necessary  
to mention that a stock of oils of      
different viscosity should be kept on   
hand and intelligently used2 the        
different bearings in any time keeping  
mechanism requiring oils of different   
viscosity4 ,it is not to be supposed    
that the author means each bearing in a 
watch is to have a separate oil applied2
 but a distinction should be made       
between the light and heavy pressures4  
#hb4 ,the ,effect ,of ,heat ,on ,oils is
 very marked in all cases2 some oils    
being much more subject to change than  

others1 in viscosity and other          
properties1 under the influence of an   
increase of temperature4  ,the          
lubricating power of an oil is          
decreased1 while its tendency to spread 
is increased1 with a rise of            
temperature4 ,in order to ascertain the 
relative values of various oils in this 
respect the writer used a plate of glass
 #bh cm4 x #dj cm41 placed it flat on a 
table1 and1 depositing one drop of each 
oil near one of its longer edges1       
allowed it to remain in a temperature of
 #ba deg4 ,c4 7 #gj deg4 ,f47 for #cj   
minutes4 ,at the end of this time the   
glass plate was placed in a vertical    
position1 with its edge near which the  
drops of oil had been deposited         
uppermost and horizontal4 ,the time     
required by each oil to run down to the 
bottom1 a distance of #be cm41 was      
noted4 ,the width of the track1 at a    
point #c cm4 from the location of the   
drop at the start1 was measured when the
 oil had passed that point1 and again   

measured at the same point when the oil 
had reached the bottom4  ,the same test 
was repeated1 with all the conditions   
similar except that the temperature of  
the room was raised to #ch deg4 ,c4 7   
#ajj deg4 ,f47 before the oil was placed
 on the glass2 but the glass was allowed
 to remain in this temperature also for 
#cj minutes4  ,the results of both      
experiments are shown in table ,,ix4    
,,table ,,ix4  ,,relative ,,viscosity1  
,,cohesion ,,and ,,adhesion ,,of ,,oils4
  ,temp4 #ba deg4 ,c47 #gj deg4 ,f47 and
 #ch deg4 ,c4 7 #ajj deg4 ,f47          
,inclination ,vertical4                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,,symbols      ,,minutes ,,required     
,,width ,,of ,,track ,,in ,,mm4 ,,at ,a 
,,point   ,,according ,,to    ,,to      
,,flow #be ,,cm4        #c ,,cm4 ,,below
 ,,starting    ,,table ,,iii4    ,,at ,a
 ,,temperature   ,,place ,,when ,,the   
,,oil ,,had ,,flowed                    
,,of                                    

--------------------------------------  
,temp4 #ba deg4 ,c ,temp4 #ch deg4 ,c4  
7#gj deg4 ,f47   7#ajj deg4 ,f47        
----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
#ba     #ch                             
deg4 ,c4 deg4 ,c4                       
#gj    #ajj    #c ,,cm4  #be ,,cm4   #c 
,,cm4  #be ,,cm4                  deg4  
,f4 deg4 ,f4                            
----------------------------------------
---------------------------- ,e4 ,k4 w4 
#ba     #ad      #e       #e       #e   
#e ,w4 ,f4 ,n4 w4        #ah     #ab    
#e       #e       #e       #e ,d4 ,c4   
,s4 w4        #bj     #ac      #e       
#e       #e       #e ,d4 ,c4 ,s4 ch4    
#ae     #aj      #e       #e       #e   
#e ,d4 ,c4 ,s4 cl4       #bj     #aa    
#e       #e       #e       #e ,w4 ,c4 w4
           #ac      #h      #e       #a 
#e       #a ,b4  ,k4 w4         #ac     
#aa      #e       #j       #e       #j  
,s4 ,b4  ,co4 w4 c4  #ae     #aa      #f
       #f       #f       #h ,c4 ,l4 ,co4

 w4       #ag     #ae      #f       #g  
#g       #h ,c4 ,l4 ,co4 ,no4 #a4   #ae 
#aj      #f       #f       #e       #e  
,glyc4              #ad     #aj      #f 
#f       #e       #h ,alb4 f4           
#ad     #aj      #f       #f       #e   
#f ,sp4                #aj      #g      
#f       #a       #e       #j ,ol4      
#ad     #ab      #e       #b       #e   
#a                                      
----------------------------------------
----------------------------  ,while the
 relative viscosity of oils in varying  
high temperatures is shown in table     
,,ix1 the width of the track indicates  
the same properties as were explained in
 reference to table ,,vii4 ,thus it is  
seen that the third and fifth columns of
 figures denote the relative adhesion of
 the oils1 approximately according to   
the value of the figures2 while the     
fourth and sixth columns exhibit their  
relative cohesion1 and absence of       
adhesion1 approximately according to the
 inverse value of the figures4 ,thus the

 tendency of the oil to spread1 in the  
warm temperature to which time keeping  
mechanisms are frequently subjected1 is 
indicated4   #hc4 ,the ,effect ,of ,cold
 ,on ,oils is very observable in some   
varieties1 converting them into greases1
 or even into hard1 waxy solids4 ,for   
out-of-door work unguents must be       
selected that will feed at any          
temperature to which they are exposed in
 the working of the bearings to which   
they are applied4  ,the author has      
subjected various oils to a low degree  
of temperature1 using a sufficient      
number of thin glass test tubes of #c   
cubic centimeters capacity1#bd into each
 of which #b cubic centimeters of the   
oils to be tested were poured4 ,the test
 tubes were then tightly corked and     
properly secured to a thin board1 and   
placed in a temperature of -#ae deg4 ,c4
 7 #e deg4 ,f47 the condition of the    
oils being noted at various intervals1  
the result of which is shown in table   
,x4   #hd4 ,the ,variations of          

,viscosity of ,oils in ,varying         
,temperatures always create fluctuations
 of their friction reducing power2 while
 the variations of fluid friction which 
result are also of great importance in  
horology4 ,when it is known that the    
viscosity and lubricating power of an   
oil are usually 7#hj7 very closely      
related1 it is seen that change of      
temperature has an exceedingly important
 effect upon oils1 even for general     
lubricating purposes2 but particularly  
so when they are applied to small and   
delicate mechanisms4  ,an oil of the    
proper viscosity at ordinary            
temperatures may be very unsuitable in  
an extreme of heat1 or cold1 to which   
timepieces are frequently subjected--on 
account of being too limpid in high     
temperatures to properly separate the   
rubbing surfaces2 while in low          
temperatures it may become so viscous as
 to seriously impede the motion of the  
escapement and the lighter parts of the 
train4   ,,table ,x4  ,,relative        

,,effect ,,of ,,cold ,,on ,,oils4       
,temp4 -#ae deg4 ,c4 7 #e deg4 ,f47     
,time of ,exposure  #f hours            
----------------------------------------
-------------------      ,,symbols      
,,according ,,to            ,,condition 
,,of ,,oil4     ,,table ,,iii4          
----------------------------------------
---------------       ,,time4      #ae  
,,min4#cj ,,min4#a ,,hour4#f            
,,hours4,,order ,,of                    
,,viscosity                             
----------------------------------------
--------------- ,e4 ,k4 ,w4 w4       444
     444    444    444      #b ,w4 ,f4  
,n4 w4       444     444    t-f4   t-f4 
#d ,d4 ,c4 ,s4 w4       444     444     
444    444      #b ,d4 ,c4 ,s4 ch4      
444     444    444    444      #b ,d4   
,c4 ,s4 cl4      s-s4    s-s4   s-s4    
s-s4     #f ,w4 ,c4 w4          444     
444    444    444      #b ,b4  ,k4 w4   
444     444    444    444      #b ,s4   
,b4  ,co4 w4 c4 444     444    444      
444      #a ,c4 ,l4 ,co4 w4      s-s4   

s-s4   s-s4   s-s4     #e ,c4 ,l4 ,co4  
,no4 #a4  s-s4    s-s4   s-s4   s-s4    
#g ,glyc4             444     444    444
    444      #a ,alb4 f4           444  
444    444    444      #c ,sp4          
s-s4    s-s4    s4    v-s4     #h ,ol4  
v-t-f4   s-s4    s4    v-s4     #i      
----------------------------------------
--------------       ,t4 ,f4  ,thickly  
fluid2 or like honey4 ,v4 ,t4 ,f4  ,very
      thickly fluid2 or like jelly4 ,s4 
,s4  ,semi-solid2 or like      butter at
 #fj deg4 ,f4 ,s4  ,solid2 or like      
butter at freezing      point4 ,v4 ,s4  
,very solid2 or like paraffin wax4      
,the figures in the last column denote  
the apparent relative      viscosity1 as
 ascertained by inverting the test tubes
      repeatedly4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#ae  ,again1 even if the oil were       
viscous enough in high temperatures to  
resist the tendency to be squeezed out  
of the bearings1 the rate of the        
timepiece would be seriously affected by
 the variation of solid and fluid       

friction--especially the latter--caused 
by a variable viscosity of the oil4     
,when a watch1 chronometer or clock has 
been so adjusted as to keep a maximum   
even rate1 the oil is one of the factors
 of the variation which has been        
overcome2 and it is obvious that if     
another oil be used1 in which a greater 
or less variation of viscosity exists   
than in the oil with which such         
timepiece was lubricated prior to       
adjustment1 the variation so produced   
will be more or less observable4  ,it   
is1 then1 evidently necessary to be able
 to ascertain1 with the greatest        
possible exactness1 what change in this 
respect is produced in the various oils 
by a change of temperature4 ,the means  
previously given 7#ha-hc7 have their    
value2 but when supplemented by a method
 for determining the particular property
 under consideration1 the results       
obtained are exceedingly interesting and
 valuable4 ,on account of the importance
 of this matter the author has made     

investigations in this direction1 using 
a viscosimeter as shown at ,fig4 #ae1   
and of which the following is a         
description3  ,,aa represents an        
ordinary retort stand1 with adjustable  
arms1 ,,bb1 for holding in position the 
thermometer ,c1 and the funnel ,,dd     
capable of holding about one pint of    
water4 ,,ee is the viscosimeter proper1 
a glass tube1 swollen at the lower end1 
and terminating in a circular orifice of
 #a millimeter 7 4#jd inch7 in          
diameter2#be being a pipette holding one
 cubic centimeter of oil between the    
dotted lines ,u and ,o4  ,f is a        
flexible gum elastic tube fitting with  
an air-tight joint to the upper end of  
the glass tube4 ,the funnel is closed at
 its lower end by a tightly-fitting cork
 ,h1 in which an opening is made1       
through which opening the pipette passes
 and projects slightly below4 ,g is a   
small1 shallow vessel1 preferably of    
glass1 of sufficient capacity to receive
 the contents of the pipette4 ,s is a   

syphon composed of a glass tube in two  
sections--united by a short piece of    
rubber tube on which the device ,p      
pinches by the adjustment of the lever  
,l--the bent section beginning near the 
bottom of the funnel1 while the straight
 section terminates below the level of  
the table on which the retort stand is  
placed4  ,in operating with this1 the   
author proceeded as follows3 ,the funnel
 was partially filled with water1 and   
hot water added until its temperature   
reached #dc deg4 ,c4 7 #aaj deg4 ,f74 ,a
 sufficient quantity of the oil to be   
tested was placed in the glass vessel   
,g1 and drawn into the viscosimeter by  
gentle suction of the mouth until it    
exactly reached the line ,u1 where it   
was retained1 by a slight pressure with 
the thumb and finger1 for five minutes1 
the temperature of the water in the     
funnel being kept constant4 ,at the end 
of that time1 after being sure that all 
the conditions as to temperature and    
quantity of oil were satisfied1 the     

pressure of the thumb and finger was    
relaxed1 when the oil began to drop     
through the lower end of the pipette4   
,the time required for the upper surface
 of the oil to fall from ,u to ,o was   
carefully ascertained by means of a stop
 watch1 and the number of seconds noted4
 ,in case of doubt the test was         
repeated4  ,the temperature of the water
 in the funnel was then lowered by the  
addition of ice1 to #ch deg4 ,c4 7 #ajj 
deg4 ,f471 when the operation was again 
performed as just described4 ,this was  
repeated at regular intervals of        
temperature down to #d deg4 ,c4 7 #dj   
deg4 ,f71 when the water was again      
heated1 the pipette thoroughly cleansed 
by introducing benzine into the pipette 
in a manner similar to that by which the
 oil was introduced4 ,the surplus water 
which accumulated in the funnel was     
allowed to escape through the syphon by 
relaxing the lever of the pinching      
device4 ,it is obvious that the number  
of seconds1 in each case1 corresponds to

 the viscosity4 ,other oils were put    
through the same course1 the results    
obtained being shown in table ,,xi4     
,,table ,,xi4  ,,relative ,,variations  
,,of ,,viscosity ,,of ,,oils ,,in       
,,varying ,,temperatures4               
----------------------------------------
-----------------------      ,,symbols  
,,seconds ,,required ,,for #a ,c4 ,c4   
,,of ,,oil ,,to ,,flow    ,,according   
,,to     ,,through ,,an ,,orifice ,,of  
#a ,,mm4 7 4#jd ,,in47     ,,table      
,,iii4                                  
----------------------------------------
---------------           ,,cent4  #d4e 
#aj   #ae4e #ba   #bf4e #cb   #cg4e #dc 
,,temp4,a                               
----------------------------------------
------           ,,fahr4  #dj  #ej   #fj
   #gj   #hj   #ij   #ajj  #aaj         
----------------------------------------
--------------- ,e4 ,k4 w4          #be 
#bj   #ag   #ae   #aj    #h4e  #g   #f  
,w4 ,f4 ,n4 w4       #bg  #bj   #ad     
#aa    #i    #h    #g   #f ,d4 ,c4 ,s4  

w4       #cb  #bc4e #ai   #ae   #ab4e   
#aa4e  #i4e #h ,d4 ,c4 ,s4 ch4      #bh 
#bc   #ag   #ad   #aa4e  #i    #g   #f  
,d4 ,c4 ,s4 cl4      #bi  #bj   #ag     
#ad4e #aa    #h4e  #g   #f4e ,w4 ,c4 w4 
#bd  #bj   #ah   #ac   #aa4e #aj    #h  
#g ,b  ,k4 w4         #df  #ce   #be    
#bj   #ag   #ae   #aa4eaj ,s4 ,b4  ,co4 
w4 c4 #ba  #af   #aa4e #aj    #i    #h  
#g   #f4e ,c4 ,l4 ,co4 w4      #ad  #aj 
#i    #f4e  #e    #d4e  #d   #c4e ,c4   
,l4 ,co4 ,no4 #a4  #cb  #bh   #ab4e #aj 
#h4e  #g4e  #f4e #f ,glyc4              
#ai  #ac   #aj    #i4e  #g4e  #f4e  #e4e
 #e ,alb4 f4           #be  #ai   #af   
#ac   #aj    #h    #f4e #e4e            
----------------------------------------
----------------  ,note ,a3 ,the        
readings of the ,centigrade and         
,fahrenheit scales given here are not   
exactly equivalent2 but they are near   
enough for all practical purposes4      
#he4 ,mixed ,oils have been tried by    
many who have been desirous of obtaining
 a better lubricant4 ,a mixture of      

different kinds of animal or vegetable  
oils--or a combination of both--has     
usually proved worse than any single one
 of the components2 as1 when it is known
 that alterations#bf of composition     
occur in the animal and vegetable oils  
with exposure to air and light and with 
advancing age 7#gd-b71 it is obvious    
that this chemical action is accelerated
 by a mixture4  ,the mineral oils are   
not subject to such alterations to any  
serious extent2 and1 when they are      
compounded with animal or vegetable     
oils1 the resulting mixture partakes of 
the good qualities of both1 according to
 experiments which the author has made4 
,it would make this paper#bg too lengthy
 to insert the results2 however1 a      
future opportunity may not be wanting4  
#hf4 ,various ,manufacturers of watches1
 chronometers and clocks1 have favored  
the writer with more or less valuable   
information in answer to queries on the 
subject1 which has been tabulated and   
which is shown in table ,,xii4  ,it is  

necessary to know just what kind of oil 
has been used by the manufacturer of a  
time piece for three reasons3--  7#a47  
,if some of the bearings need a small   
quantity of oil1 being otherwise in such
 good condition--because of never having
 been used1 in fact new--that it is     
unnecessary to take all the mechanism   
apart and clean it1 it is very important
 that the operator know what kind1 or   
variety1 of lubricant has been          
previously used1 in order not to mix    
oils2 or1 if a mixture is thus made1 to 
make it intelligently4 7#he47  7#b47    
,when the oil which has been applied in 
the factory has not performed its       
functions properly in any part of a time
 piece1 it is necessary to know what    
particular variety of lubricant has been
 used in order to substitute an oil     
which possesses the properties lacked by
 the oil previously used4 7#fa47  7#c47 
,in a watch which has been so adjusted  
as to keep a maximum even rate1 the oil 
is one of the factors of the variation  

which has been overcome4 ,it is         
necessary1 then1 on putting the watch in
 order1 to employ a lubricant which     
possesses the same variation of         
viscosity as the oil which was used     
during adjustment4 7#hd47  ,some other  
interesting facts are shown in table    
,,xii1 as well as the foregoing4 ,the   
queries were as follows3--  ,,questions 
,,asked4       #a4 ,what oil do you use8
      #b4 ,what oils have you tried8    
#c4 ,what has been your experience with 
mixed oils8      #d4 ,do you use the    
same grade of oil on all parts of your  
----8      #e4 ,if not1 what is your    
practice8      #f4 ,what amount of oil  
do you use annually8  ,the answers are  
given in ,table ,,xii4   #hg4           
,impurities in ,oils and all foreign    
matter exert a very injurious effect4   
,the method of sealing the bottles with 
sealing wax or gum labels should be     
avoided2 the former1 as the wax is      
brittle and liable to break in very fine
 pieces which lodge around the cork from

 whence they get into the oil2 and the  
latter because the gum with which it is 
caused to adhere remains on the bottle1 
only to be absorbed by the oil4         
,paraffin wax makes a very good sealing 
material1 as it is not brittle1 and     
keeps the oil protected from the air4   
,an extra long cork should accompany    
each bottle4   ,,table ,,xii4--,,answers
 ,,to ,,questions4   ,,manufacturer4    
#a          #b        #c      #d        
#e          #f                          
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,heavier oil     ,american              
on barrel      #h    ,waltham           
,several4  ,several4   ,small4   ,no4   
arbors and   quarts   ,watch ,co4       
winding                                 
,wheels4                                
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,kelley's4                ,light oil on 
,elgin    ,smith's on ,cook's4          
escapements1    ,national   fine work4  

,nye's4            ,no4  and oil with   
#a-a_/b   ,watch ,co4    ,nye's4        
,wheeler's4               more body in  
gallons4                                
,smith's4                  mainspring   
boards4                                 
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,hampden                       ,unsatis-
                         ,watch         
,kelley's4 ,kelley's4  factory ,yes4    
,co4                                    
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,illinois             ,kelley's4  ,do   
not                         ,watch      
,nye's4   ,cook's4  use ,mixed          
#c      ,co4                  ,and      
,oils4                     quarts4      
others4                                 
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,chronometer  #a gross     ,new         
,nye's4                 oil on stem-    
bottles   ,columbus     ,nye's4         

,kelley's4   ,none4   ,no4  wind and do 
regular   ,watch ,co4                   
no experi-   size4                      
menting4                                
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,watch oil on    ,new ,york             
train pivots1    #b   ,standard         
,kelley's4 ,kelley's4   ,none4   ,no4   
and clock   quarts   ,watch ,co4        
oil on stem   each4                     
wind4                                   
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,kelley's                               
,rockford   ,kelley's4  ,ayer's4        
,yes4                  ,watch ,co4      
,guyjers8                               
,smith's4                               
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------   ,trenton
      ,nye's4                     ,yes4 
,watch ,co4                             
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           

,kelley's4                              
,waterbury    ,smith's4   ,nye's4   ,not
 a                         #a   ,watch  
,co4             ,smith's4 ,success4    
,yes4               gallon4             
,and                                    
others4                                 
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,yes4 ,watches1 light                   
grade4       ,seth ,thomas   ,nye's4    
,most      ,none4  ,yes4    ,clocks1    
,clock ,co4             others4         
medium grade4                           
,yes4 ,tower ,clocks1                   
heavy grade4                            
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------   ,,table 
,,xii4--,,answers ,,to                  
,,questions4--,,continued4              
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,manufacturer4    #a          #b        
#c      #d        #e          #f        
----------------------------------------

-----------------------------           
,steven-                 ,on all bear-  
son's4                ings the same     
#a,sine ,dolo   ,black-    ,none4   ,no4
  oil1 but on    #a                     
fish4                   mainspring      
gallon4   ,e4 ,howard                   
,porpoise-                 a rock oil4  
,watch              jaw4 ,rock4         
,clock ,co4                             
----------------------------------------
----------------           #b,kelley's4 
,none4  ,yes4                  #a       
gallon4                                 
----------------------------------------
----------------           #c,rock ,oil4
            ,satis-  ,yes4              
#aj                                     
factory4                    gallons4    
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,light oil for   ,h4 ,h4 ,hein-         
,every kind,unsatis-       small pivots 
rich1,chrono-  ,stull's4   in the       
factory4  ,no4  and heavier  #a pint4   

meter ,maker4             market4       
oil for larger                          
pivots4                                 
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,stull's4          ,yes4 ,a light oil on
   ,new ,haven   ,stull's4   ,black-    
,unsatis-      clock-watches4   #bj     
,clock ,co4  ,kelley's4   fish4         
factory4 -------------------gallons4    
,porpoise4          ,yes4 ,a heavy oil  
on                                      
clocks4                                 
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,ingraham                ,rock4         
,unsatis-                       #ab     
,clock ,co4  ,porpoise4   ,mixed4       
factory4 ,yes4               gallons4   
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------           
,stull's4                               
,waterbury   ,stull's4  ,smith's4       
,none4  ,yes4                #ae-bj     
,clock ,co4             ,steven-        

gals4                          son's4   
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------  ,wm4 ,l4 
,gil-             ,nye's4               
bert ,clock    ,nye's4   ,smith's4      
#aj-ab      ,co4                        
,kelley's4                              
gals4                        ,comstock's
                                        
----------------------------------------
-----------------------------  ,note #a3
 ,watch4  ,note #b3 ,regulator4  ,note  
#c3 ,tower ,clock4  ,then again some    
workmen leave the oil bottle standing   
open1 which is obviously a very careless
 proceeding4 ,the author has seen a     
bottle one quarter full of dust1 the oil
 still being used from the top4 ,when   
oil is to be placed in the oil-cup1 it  
should be done by using a small1 clean  
glass rod--kept for the purpose--and    
never poured out of the bottle4  ,the   
oil cup should always have the cover on 
except when taking oil from it4 ,before 
it is refilled it should be very        

carefully cleaned4  ,the oiler should be
 perfectly clean1 that kind which has a 
hexagonal nut on the handle and a gold  
tip being very excellent4 ,some careless
 workmen wipe the oiler on the back of  
the hand1 on the clothes1 on a dirty    
rag1 on an old chamois1 etc4 ,the tip of
 the oiler should never touch the hand  
or fingers1 as the acids in the         
perspiration are sure to cause a bad    
effect on the oil4  ,the following is a 
list of oilers which the author has seen
 used3--,peg wood1 broom straw1 quill1  
toothpick1 match-stick1 screw driver1   
tweezers1 rat-tail file1 piece of copper
 wire1 horse-shoe nail1 steel pen4  ,if 
dust be on the bench paper1 or in the   
movement tray1 the pivots will surely   
transfer some of it to the bearings when
 the wheels are being put to place4     
,the scape-wheel1 mainspring and other  
parts1 the rubbing surfaces of which may
 come in contact with the fingers1      
should be so handled as to allow no     
perspiration to become deposited on any 

surface which may afterwards require    
oiling1 as the acids contained in the   
perspiration will exert an injurious    
effect on the oil4  ,the owners of      
watches sometimes subject them to very  
hard treatment by using perfumes1 etc41 
and then some people perspire more than 
others1 while the perspiration of some  
persons contains more acids1 or is more 
rancid1 than that of others4 ,for these 
reasons the method of testing oil by    
putting it on watches kept to loan to   
customers as ,saunier recommends cannot 
be relied on4  ,oils should be kept in a
 clean1 cool1 dark place4 ,the wrapper  
or label on the bottle should be dark   
blue or black1 to exclude all light1 as1
 if this is not done1 the oil will be   
more liable to decomposition1 except in 
the case of a mineral oil1 which is not 
affected by light4 ,all vegetable and   
animal oil which has been bleached by   
exposure to the light is more liable to 
decomposition on exposure to air than   
that which is unbleached4   #hh4 ,the   

,effect of ,age on ,oils4 ,writing on   
this subject ,mr4 ,henry ,g4 ,abbott#bh 
states as follows3 ,there is a popular  
fallacy existing in the trade that oils 
should be used when fresh1 and even that
 acknowledged authority1 ,saunier1 says1
 'do not buy from motives of economy    
bottles that have laid for years in the 
shop4' ,this may be true and probably is
 in regard to animal and vegetable oils1
 which are likely to become rancid if   
kept for a long time1 but ,william ,f4  
,nye1 one of the largest and most       
celebrated manufacturers of fine watch  
and chronometer oils in the world1      
declares that blackfish oils are        
improved by age1 and his oils are seldom
 placed on the market in the same year  
as obtained4 ,we are indebted to the    
same authority for the statement that   
oils of this kind are clearer and more  
brilliant after some years than fresh   
oils4 ,though ,mr4 ,abbott has made some
 very valuable additions to the         
literature of the profession1 the author

 begs permission to call attention1 in  
reference to this1 to the following     
facts3  ,mr4 ,abbott says that vegetable
 and animal oils are likely to become   
rancid if kept for a long time1 but     
blackfish oils are not4 ,brant#bi states
 that the porpoise or ,phocoena         
communis1 ,cuv41 and the blackfish1 or  
,phocoena globiceps1 are of the         
subdivision ,delphinodea1 or dolphins1  
of the family of ,cetacea1 or whales1 an
 order of the vertebrated mammiferous   
marine animals4 ,adler ,wright#cj states
 that the term 'train oil1' strictly    
speaking1 applies to any oil extracted  
from the blubber of cetaceans and the   
allied marine mammalia1 such as the     
seal1 porpoise1 dolphin and walrus4     
,huxley classes among cetacea the       
dolphins1 porpoises1 grampus and        
narwhal4 ,authorities might be quoted ad
 infinitum to show1 not only that       
porpoise-jaw oil and blackfish-melon oil
 are animal oils1 but that they possess 
properties similar to other animal oils 

as far as their liability to decompose  
by age1 more or less1 is concerned4     
,furthermore1 ,thurston#ca states that  
all vegetable and animal oils are       
compounds of glycerine and the fatty    
acids4 ,when they become old            
decomposition takes place1 and acid is  
set free1 by which action1 as is        
commonly said1 the oils become rancid4  
,thus ,saunier is borne out in his      
admonition4   #hi4 ,in ,conclusion1 the 
author wishes to state1 that as he has  
been able to find but little in the     
literature of the craft in ,english1    
,french or ,german1 he has pursued the  
study of the properties and relative    
values of lubricants in horology upon   
lines which have suggested themselves as
 being best adapted to give good        
results4 ,as much that is herein        
contained is new and original in its    
application in horology1 the theories   
advanced may be in some respects        
incorrect4 ,the tests of various oils   
have1 no doubt1 been subject to personal

 error2 but it has been the earnest     
desire of the author to give the subject
 the attention it deserves4  ,in order  
that truth may prevail and that justice 
may be done to the various manufacturers
 of oils1 as well as to the author and  
his subject1 he will again request      
criticism through the trade press in any
 matter in which he may seem to be at   
fault4 ,he further wishes that others   
may become interested1 and that the     
makers and repairers of watches1        
chronometers and clocks1 as well as the 
manufacturers of oil1 will further      
assist in these investigations by making
 similar or other experiments1 and      
report the result of the same through   
the trade press in order that this very 
important subject may be thoroughly     
understood4  ,in furtherance of this    
object the author will furnish samples  
of oils free to anyone wishing to make  
experimental tests of any kind1 on      
condition that the results of such tests
 shall be published or communicated to  

the author for future publication4      
,address1 ,w4 ,t4 ,lewis1 ,president    
,philadelphia ,horological ,society1    
,philadelphia1 ,pa4  ,,footnotes3  #ab  
,thurston4 ,friction and ,lost ,work in 
,machinery4  #ac ,as the fish from which
 these oils are obtained are of the     
mammalia order1 their oils are classed  
among the animal oils4  #ad ,the        
,horological ,journal1 ,apr41 #ahha4    
,vol4 xxiii4 ,page #ih4  #ae            
,pharmacopoea ,germanica4 #ahhb4  #af   
,the ,national ,dispensatory4 #ahhd4    
#ag ,saunier1 ,watchmaker's ,hand-,book1
 p4 #ajd1 ,eng4 ,edition2 p4 #abi1 ,am4 
,edition4  #ah ,brannt4 ,animal and     
,vegetable ,fats and ,oils4  #ai ,paper 
read in the ,chemical ,section1 ,british
 ,association1 ,plymouth ,meeting1      
#ahgi4  #bj ,swansea ,meeting4 ,british 
,association1 #ahhj4  #ba ,this work is 
compiled from a course of lectures      
delivered by the author before the      
,philadelphia ,horological ,society1    
#ahif4  #bb ,thurston4 ,friction and    

,lost ,work in ,machinery4  #bc         
,proceedings ,n4 ,e4 ,cotton            
,manufacturers' ,association1 ,nov4 #bh1
 #ahhj4  #bd ,the average teaspoon holds
 #e cubic centimeters4  #be #a          
millimeter  4#jci  inch4  #bf ,thurston4
 ,friction and ,lost ,work in           
,machinery4  #bg ,this work is compiled 
from a series of papers read and        
lectures delivered by the author before 
the ,philadelphia ,horological ,society1
 #ahif4  #bh ,abbott4 ,the ,american    
,watchmaker and ,jeweler1 #ahib1 page   
#bdi4  #bi ,brant4 ,animal and          
,vegetable ,fats and ,oils1 pages       
#big-bii4  #cj ,adler ,wright4 ,oils1   
,fats and ,waxes1 and ,their            
,manufactured ,products1 p4 #bib-bic4   
#ca ,friction and ,lost ,work in        
,machinery4