,transcriber's notes3 ,obvious typographical errors have been corrected1 but otherwise the author's spelling has been preserved4 ,a ,,guide ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,animals ,,by ,a ,,committee ,,from ,,the ,,biology ,,round ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,chicago ,,high ,,schools ,,worrallo ,,whitney1 ,chairman ,,bowen ,,high ,,school ,,frederic ,c4 ,,lucas ,,englewood ,,high ,,school ,,harold ,b4 ,,shinn ,,schurz ,,high ,,school ,,mabel ,e4 ,,smallwood ,,lane ,,technical ,,high ,,school ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,co41 ,,publishers ,,boston -- ,,new ,,york -- ,,chicago ,copyright1 #aiaa1 ,by ,d4 ,c4 ,heath ,co4 #a ,e #c ,,preface ,the following guide to the study of animals is intended for pupils in secondary schools4 ,it was prepared by the authors at the request of the ,biology ,round ,table1 an association composed of the teachers of ,biology in the ,chicago ,high ,schools1 to whom the authors wish to take this opportunity of expressing their appreciation of the many helpful suggestions and criticisms of the manuscript4 ,the time has passed when a high school course in zology consists simply of a somewhat simplified edition of a similar course in college4 ,all teachers now recognize that the motivization of any course should be its adaptability to the needs of the student1 and that zology must be taught from the standpoint of the student rather than that of the subject4 ,in preparing this guide1 the authors have tried to keep these points in mind4 ,the matter of presentation1 the order of topics1 and the choice of material has been much discussed1 but the trend of opinion has finally set in toward an ecological rather than a type study of animals2 that there should be in the case of young students a brief study of rather a large number of animals to bring out some general biological law1 rather than an exhaustive study of a very few types4 ,it is further recognized that the use of a reference library is absolutely essential in connection with and to supplement the laboratory work1 as there are some topics beyond the ability of the young student for original investigation as well as impossible in the amount of time usually allotted to the subject in our crowded curricula4 ,of great importance is the economic side of zology1 especially its bearing upon the applied sciences of medicine1 sanitation1 household science1 and agriculture1 and this phase has received special attention in this guide4 ,the desirability of field work has always been recognized1 but the special conditions under which schools must work are so variable as to make any set directions for field work of little value1 and so they have in most cases been omitted in this work4 ,each teacher can easily give such special direction for collecting material and study in the field as the locality of the school and the time available for it shall determine4 ,since zology will probably be the pupil's first laboratory science1 the authors have preceded the more formal portion of the manual with a series of short exercises on familiar and easily obtained animals in order to introduce the pupil to the laboratory method and to stimulate his interest1 training him at the outset to be constantly on the outlook for specimens and to show him how much may be learned from common things right around him1 if he will only use his eyes4 ,we have also begun the more formal portion of the guide with insects1 since in the fall they are easily collected and may be studied alive4 ,they illustrate1 moreover1 the principles of classification and method of using keys and other means of finding out the names of animals4 ,this would seem to be pedagogically sound1 for some recent experiments with pupils show that the first question that comes into a child's mind upon seeing a new or strange specimen is ,what is it8 ,a larger portion of the guide is given to the chordates than is usually the case4 ,the authors also believe that this is correct and in accord with the natural interest of the pupil4 ,it will serve to connect his zology more closely with his daily experiences4 ,there is material enough provided to allow the teacher a chance to select that best adapted to his purposes or conditions as well as to provide for those schools that give more than one year to zology4 ,,contents ,,page ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,,studies ,,of ,,living ,,animals #a ,fly1 #a2 ,maggot1 #c2 ,cockroach1 #d2 ,spider1 #e2 ,cricket1 #f2 ,grasshopper1 #g2 ,butterfly or ,moth1 #i2 ,caterpillar1 #aj2 ,tussock ,moth1 #aa2 ,beetle1 #ac2 ,damsel ,fly ,larva1 #ad2 ,plant ,lice and ,scale ,bugs1 #ae2 ,water ,bugs and ,beetles1 #ag2 ,getting ,acquainted with the ,library1 #ah4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,studies ,,of ,,insects #bj ,field ,studies1 #bj2 ,grasshoppers or ,locusts1 #bc2 ,comparative ,study of ,orthoptera1 #bh2 ,key to ,orthoptera1 #bi2 ,dragon ,fly1 #cj2 ,honeybee1 #ca2 ,general ,study of ,insects1 #cc2 ,review of ,insects1 #ce2 ,key to ,principal ,orders1 #cf2 ,some ,common ,butterflies1 #ch2 ,summary of ,insects1 #cg2 ,general ,review and ,library ,exercise1 #dj4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,connection ,,between ,,structure ,,and ,,function #dd ,protozoa3 ,a ,study of the ,cell1 #dd2 ,comparative ,study1 #dh2 ,review and ,library ,exercise1 #di2 ,sponges1 #ea2 ,review and ,library ,exercise1 #ec4 ,coelenterates3 ,hydra1 #ed2 ,comparative ,study1 #eh2 ,review and ,library ,exercise1 #ei4 ,worms3 ,living ,earthworm1 #fa2 ,external ,morphology1 #fd2 ,internal ,morphology1 #fd2 ,microscopic ,anatomy1 #ff2 ,summary1 #fh2 ,review and ,library ,exercise1 #gj2 ,connection between ,structure and ,function1 #gb4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,adaptation ,,to ,,surroundings #gc ,crayfishes3 ,living ,crayfish1 #gc2 ,morphology1 #ge2 ,summary1 #gi2 ,review and ,library ,exercise1 #ha4 ,,chapter ,v ,,adaptation ,,for ,,protection ,,from ,,enemies #hc ,mollusca3 ,clam1 #hc2 ,snail1 #hg2 ,squid1 #hi2 ,comparative ,study1 #ia2 ,review and ,library ,exercise1 #ib4 ,comparative ,study of ,exoskeletons1 #ic2 ,protective ,coloration1 #id2 ,animal ,associations1 #if2 ,protective ,habits and ,powers1 #ih2 ,defensive ,structures1 #ii2 ,thesis3 ,adaptation for ,protection1 #ii4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,vertebrates #aja ,fishes3 ,living ,fish1 #aja2 ,external ,structure1 #ajc2 ,mouth and ,gills1 #aje2 ,alimentary ,canal and ,circulatory ,system1 #ajg2 ,review and ,library ,exercise1 #aaj4 ,primitive ,chordates1 #aab4 ,amphibia3 ,living ,frog or ,toad1 #aad2 ,mouth1 #aaf2 ,organs of ,digestion1 ,absorption1 and ,excretion1 #aag2 ,organs of ,circulation and ,respiration1 #abj2 ,nervous ,system1 #abc2 ,endoskeleton1 #abe2 ,comparative ,study1 #abi2 ,general ,review and ,library ,exercise1 #abi4 ,reptiles3 ,living ,snake1 ,lizard1 and ,turtle1 #acj2 ,review and ,library ,exercise1 #acb4 ,birds3 ,living ,pigeon1 #acc2 ,plumage1 #acf2 ,birds and ,migration1 #aci2 ,laboratory ,exercise1 #aci2 ,field ,work1 #ada2 ,review and ,library ,exercise1 #adb2 ,migration in ,general1 #ade4 ,mammals3 ,rodents3 ,domestic ,rabbit1 #adf2 ,wild ,rabbit1 #adh2 ,guinea ,pig or ,white ,rat1 #adi2 ,squirrel1 #aej2 ,library ,exercise1 #aeb4 ,carnivora3 ,laboratory ,exercise1 #aec2 ,library ,exercise1 #aee4 ,ungulates3 ,laboratory ,exercise1 #aeg2 ,library ,exercise1 #afj4 ,the ,horse1 #afb4 ,homology of the ,vertebrate ,skeleton1 #afh4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,adaptations ,,for ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,the ,,species #agj ,methods of ,reproduction3 ,simple or ,asexual ,method1 #agj2 ,complex or ,sexual ,method1 #aga4 ,development3 ,structure of an ,egg1 #agb2 ,development of an ,egg1 #agc2 ,metamorphosis of a ,mosquito1 #agd2 ,metamorphosis of a ,butterfly1 #agf2 ,development of the ,chick1 #agg4 ,protection and ,care of ,young3 ,library ,exercise1 #agi4 ,adaptation for the ,preservation of the ,species3 ,review and ,library ,exercise1 #ahj4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,poultry #ahb 99 99 99 99 99 ,,glossary #ahi ,a ,,guide ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,animals ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,,studies ,,of ,,living ,,animals ,in the following brief exercises the primary purpose is to arouse an active1 attentive interest on the part of the pupil in various forms of animal life which may be at hand1 reminding him of what and how various creatures eat1 how they breathe1 how they get ideas of the world1 how they get about1 and perhaps how they succeed where others fail4 ,of secondary importance is the introduction of laboratory methods by easy stages4 ,the pupil should feel that his natural curiosity is only being directed to definite ends and that he is free to investigate in his own way4 ,the types here given are only a few of the many to be found in the early fall1 and these exercises in several cases may be used for other forms than those definitely mentioned4 ,there should be a great deal of promiscuous collecting by the class1 and in the mass of material gathered the following types will probably be fairly abundant4 ,,the ,,living ,,fly ,materials4 ,living flies in cages and individual specimens in small wide-mouth vials with cotton stoppers for the admission of air4 ,sugar crystals may be used for feeding4 ,simple lenses4 ,observations4 ,notice the division of the body into three regions3 head1 thorax1 and abdomen4 ,the six legs1 the large wings1 and the small feelers may be easily found1 as are the large eyes1 the extensible mouth1 and beneath the larger wings the small undeveloped ones looking like tiny knobs4 #a4 ,state the general color of your specimen and give any special markings on its body4 #b4 ,is the body smooth or has it a covering of any kind8 ,do you regard the fly as a cleanly animal8 ,why8 #c4 ,under what conditions does the fly use its legs8 its wings8 ,what enables it to walk upside down8 ,what use can you assign to the small wings8 #d4 ,judging by the relative size of the feelers and the eyes1 do you think the fly relies more upon its sight or its feeling8 ,since the eyes can probably see you any place where you see them1 determine through how much of a circle the fly can see4 #e4 ,how does the fly eat8 ,does it eat solid or liquid food8 #f4 ,where is the extensible mouth 7proboscis7 kept when not in use8 ,what is the fly doing when washing its face8 #g4 ,from your own observation in the barn and the alley what do you know about the fly's cleanliness in choosing its food8 ,how would it affect articles in the pantry8 #h4 ,from the foregoing statements show how flies may be a serious factor in dealing with disease4 #i4 ,what means may be employed as protection against adult flies8 against their breeding places and maggots8 ,suggested drawing4 a4 ,the entire fly1 seen from above1 #d4 ,,the ,,living ,,maggot ,materials4 ,living specimens in pans or cotton-stoppered bottles1 with some food material and moist cloth or paper2 lenses4 ,observations4 ,notice the general worm-like form of the maggot1 or grub1 the plain and uniform color1 and the absence of all elaborate structures1 as wings and feelers4 #a4 ,since this creature is destined to become a flying or walking insect1 what organs will have to appear8 ,is there any indication of these structures at present8 #b4 ,give the color of the specimen1 and explain how the presence or absence of strong light seems to have affected the color4 ,is this effect usual in animals or plants that you know8 #c4 ,tell how the animal gets from place to place1 describing any special structures you find which aid in this work4 #d4 ,how can you tell the head end8 ,tell how the amount of work that the mouth and mouth parts do affects their size and indirectly that of the region where they are4 #e4 ,what senses and sense organs has the maggot8 ,test any of these senses or organs gently1 by any means at your disposal1 or recall any experience you have had along this line4 ,which senses or organs seem to be best developed8 #f4 ,explain briefly how the active or sluggish habits either determine or are determined by the condition of the senses or sense organs4 #g4 ,since ,mother ,nature seems to want maggots to develop rapidly1 tell how she economizes in energy and material when forming them4 #h4 ,show how the development of maggots in refuse matter is actually beneficial4 #i4 ,from the standpoint of flies and human welfare1 show why maggots should not be allowed to live1--stating how they may be prevented4 #aj4 ,look up the story of the pupa of the house fly2 the development and work of the botfly2 of the ox-warble2 of the tsetse fly4 ,suggested drawing4 a4 ,the maggot or grub1 side view1 #d4 ,,the ,,living ,,cockroach ,materials4 ,individual specimens in cages1 jars1 or wide-mouth vials with cotton stoppers to admit air4 ,several roaches in large cages with material for food and concealment4 ,observations4 #a4 ,what is the general color and the average size of cockroaches8 #b4 ,during what time of the day are roaches most active8 ,where do they hide at other times8 ,how do their shape and color aid concealment8 ,note any odd or striking colors or marks which might make them distinguishable to their mates4 #c4 ,is the roach a quick or a slow moving animal8 ,how does it get about1--by running1 jumping1 walking1 crawling1 swimming1 or flying8 ,turn your specimen on its back and see how it recovers its proper position4 ,notice the relative size and development of the wings and their use in flying4 #d4 ,if uninjured1 your specimen has six legs4 ,why don't they step on each other8 ,notice the stiff hairs on the legs and the white pads under the feet4 ,how would these structures be useful to the animal8 #e4 ,the large1 black1 shiny eyes are on the front and sides of the head2 the long horns1 or feelers1 are attached just below the eyes4 ,upon which sense1 sight or feeling1 do you think the roach depends more8 ,explain your statement4 #f4 ,beside the mouth are a long and a short pair of feelers2 perhaps these are for tasting or smelling4 ,what do roaches like to eat8 ,do they choose their food8 ,what damage do they do8 #g4 ,how can a house be rid of cockroaches8 ,suggested drawing4 a4 ,a cockroach1 seen from above4 ,,the ,,living ,,spider ,materials4 ,living spiders1 preferably large ones1 in cages2 individual specimens in battery jars or wide-mouth bottles4 ,cocoons4 ,simple lenses4 ,observations4 ,each pupil may feel sure that if treated fairly any of the common spiders may be handled without fear of bite or injury4 #a4 ,note that the spider's body is of two regions1 the head-thorax and the abdomen1 and that it is supported by eight legs4 ,to what part of the body are the legs attached8 #b4 ,find the feelers2 if they are club-shaped1 your specimen is a male4 ,state their number and tell where they are attached4 ,what is the sex of your spider8 #c4 ,usually there are eight tiny near-sighted eyes on the front of the head4 ,state the color of the eyes and by a diagram indicate their arrangement4 #d4 ,with what kind of material is the body covered 7use the lens78 #e4 ,what is the color of your specimen8 ,what special markings has it8 ,find out the name of your kind of spider4 #f4 ,holding the spider aloft in your fingers1 allow it to drop upon the thread it will spin1 and watch it climb and spin4 ,record the number of the spinners1 their situation1 and how they act4 ,are the threads sticky8 ,if so1 why doesn't the spider stick to its web8 ,is the web used for a home or for a snare8 #g4 ,try to discover how the feet are enabled to cling to the thread4 #h4 ,examine a cocoon1 noting its outer form and structure1 and look for an opening at the top4 ,if you can open a cocoon carefully with scissors1 look for its two coats and inspect its contents4 #i4 ,state three uses for the spider's silk4 #aj4 ,what is the work of spiders amongst the animal population of the earth1 or of what use are they8 #aa4 ,out of doors find webs of various kinds3 wheel web1 tent web1 triangle web1 etc4 #ab4 ,how do the jumping spiders differ from others in their spinning and feeding habits8 #ac4 ,look up what is meant by ballooning spiders4 ,find out when ballooning occurs and what is accomplished by it4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,the entire spider1 seen from above4 b4 ,a cocoon4 ,,the ,,living ,,cricket ,materials4 ,living crickets in cages1 with materials for food and concealment1 and individual specimens in wide-mouth bottles or vials with cotton stoppers4 ,observations4 #a4 ,what is the average size and the general color of crickets8 #b4 ,just what do they do when you try to catch them8 ,what structures enable them to do these things8 #c4 ,of the three pairs of legs1 which extend sidewise for running or grasping1 and which backward for jumping or climbing8 ,what structures have the legs to enable them to do their work properly8 #d4 ,notice how well developed the cricket's wings are1 and state how much they are used or how they influence the habits of the animal4 #e4 ,how many projecting spines are there on the hinder end of the body8 ,are they ornamental or useful8 how8 ,the female crickets have a special spear-shaped spine for depositing eggs4 #f4 ,in a column make a list of the senses 7sight1 feeling1 etc471 and opposite each state what kind of an organ is used and where it is located4 ,the ears are oblong white spots on the second long piece of the front legs4 #g4 ,find out whether the cricket chews solid food or sucks liquid food1 and whether it has biting jaws or protrusible lips4 ,see whether it will attack a toothpick or your finger1 and if the crickets have been confined long1 whether there has been any attempt at cannabalism4 ,is its natural food animal or vegetable matter8 #h4 ,how do crickets chirp8 #i4 ,what work do they do in nature8 #aj4 ,how does a baby cricket develop8 ,,the ,,living ,,grasshopper ,,or ,,locust ,materials4 ,individual specimens in wide-mouth bottles or jars1 and other specimens in cages1 with turf or foliage for food and concealment4 ,simple lenses4 ,observations4 ,notice the form and size of your specimen1 its color1 the number of its legs and of its feelers4 ,find the eyes2 the two large eyes1 a tiny one between the two feelers1 and near the inner edge of each large eye1 another tiny one4 ,with a lens notice the markings on the large eyes4 ,find the mouth1 and note its lips and finger-like feelers4 ,draw out an outer wing1 and then carefully draw out the delicate under wing1 allowing them both to fold into place again4 ,under the wings find the circular or crescent-shaped membranes1 the eardrums4 ,watch the grasshopper's body expand and contract in breathing1 and find the small breathing holes along each side the body4 ,compare its rate of breathing with your own4 ,questions4 #a4 ,in what surroundings and how does the grasshopper's color protect it8 ,what color markings has it which might serve for other grasshoppers to see as signals8 ,explain how this signaling is done4 #b4 ,explain how the legs are placed so as to act as springs in jumping and alighting4 #c4 ,what advantages in having the wings attached on the upper side and the legs on the under side of the body8 #d4 ,explain how the small wings are protective1 and how the large ones are protected4 #e4 ,why is it better for the grasshopper to have its mouth on the under side of its head instead of in front8 #f4 ,the large eyes are supposed to be far-sighted1 the small ones near-sighted4 ,state how the large eyes have the more advantageous position1 and around how much of a circle they can see4 #g4 ,describe how the grasshopper breathes4 ,,the ,,living ,,butterfly ,,or ,,moth ,materials4 ,individual specimens in large jars or cages1 and other specimens in cages with foliage2 simple lenses and a needle or pin4 ,observations4 ,butterflies may generally be distinguished from moths by their habit of holding their wings together above them when at rest1 by the feelers which are knobbed at the end1 and by the rather slender abdomen4 ,moths generally either fold their wings or hold them outstretched1 their feelers are not knobbed1 and their bodies are rather bulky4 ,observe these points in your specimen and the colors of the upper and under sides of the wings4 ,find the large eyes and examine them with a lens4 ,with the needle or pin carefully uncoil the sucking tube which you may find under the head between two shields4 ,note the fuzziness of the body and the dust which covers the wings4 ,examine some of this dust under a lens4 ,questions4 #a4 ,is your specimen a butterfly or a moth8 ,prove your statement4 ,if possible1 give the name of your specimen4 #b4 ,write a description of your specimen--its size1 general color1 and special color pattern4 #c4 ,describe the sucking tube1 or proboscis1 and name some flowers from which it might obtain nectar4 ,try to find out how the tube is operated4 #d4 ,why is it that moths and butterflies never bite8 ,do they sting8 ,how do you think they protect themselves from enemies8 #e4 ,state how the fuzz and dust on your specimen might influence a bird's liking for it4 #f4 ,contrast the size and usefulness of the wings of the butterfly with those of some other insect you know about2 contrast their legs2 state how development of one set of structures may cause another set to be simple or feeble4 #g4 ,most moths are active by night4 ,what explanation can you give for their large eyes and expanded feelers8 ,feelers of insects may be for any or all of the following3 touch1 taste1 smell1 and hearing4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,the butterfly or moth4 b4 ,an antenna 7feeler74 ,,the ,,living ,,caterpillar ,materials4 ,living caterpillars in cages or covered jars for individual study1 and other specimens in cages with foliage for food or concealment4 ,observations4 ,the pupil should observe the general form and external construction of the caterpillar1 watching it feeding1 in action1 and at rest4 ,notice how the creature moves4 ,find its head1 its segments 7similar divisions of the body71 and its breathing holes along the sides of the body4 ,try to find its eyes1 any feelers1 wings or paddles4 ,try to loosen it from its support2 find the tiny hooks on the feet for clinging fast4 ,questions4 #a4 ,give the general color of your specimen and explain how this color may make it conspicuous or may aid its concealment4 #b4 ,describe the outer surface or covering of the caterpillar4 ,what structures1 if any1 are there1 which might make the animal distasteful or inedible8 #c4 ,how many pairs of legs are there8 ,how are they distributed along the body8 ,counting the segments1 state which ones bear no legs4 #d4 ,to what extent do the legs act in locomotion8 ,are they mere organs for attachment while the body swings forward and backward1 or do the legs do this1 as in a horse8 ,make a complete statement4 #e4 ,notice the openings of the internal breathing tubes4 ,how are they protected against dust and other foreign matter8 #f4 ,does the caterpillar seem to be a warm-blooded animal8 ,state how the free access of air along the body would influence internal temperature4 #g4 ,what do you know about a caterpillar's appetite8 ,how might caterpillars be beneficial or harmful8 ,what means has nature of holding their numbers in check8 #h4 ,recalling that caterpillars finally sleep for several days or weeks and awaken as winged creatures1 how can you account for their appetites8 ,,the ,,tussock ,,moth ,materials4 ,directions for the study of the caterpillar stage will be found in the exercise ,the ,living ,caterpillar1 and directions for the study of the adult male form will be found in the exercise ,the ,living ,butterfly or ,moth4 ,the female tussock moth is a wingless1 thick-bodied creature1 gray in color1 very downy1 and about three fourths of an inch long4 ,the following directions apply more particularly to the study of the cocoons and the general harmfulness of the tussock moth4 ,this exercise may be done best outside of the classroom1 the pupil answering the questions on scrap paper and rewriting these notes in the laboratory4 ,living caterpillars1 cocoons1 some of them bearing their frothy masses of wax and eggs1 pup1 and adult moths of both sexes may be used in the laboratory4 ,observations and ,questions4 #a4 ,on what kinds of trees are the cocoons and the caterpillars generally found8 ,what effect have the caterpillars on the trees1 and what may possibly be the final effect upon the trees of the locality or the entire district8 #b4 ,upon what part of the tree are the cocoons made1 and why8 ,where on the bark are they1 and why8 #c4 ,is the opening of the cocoon at the upper or the lower end8 ,what reason can you assign for this8 #d4 ,count the number of cocoons upon the entire tree or estimate it by counting those upon a part of the tree4 ,now count the number of eggs on a cocoon4 ,assuming that one half of the cocoons bear eggs1 calculate the number of caterpillars on a tree next year4 #e4 ,how is the waxy covering of the eggs a particularly good protection against winter weather8 #f4 ,investigate the interiors of several cocoons and state what you find4 #g4 ,on the pupa find the jointed and tapering hinder end1 abdomen1 and at the head region and lying along the under side1 the marks of the legs and the feelers1 and possibly the wings1 all pressed close against the body4 ,find also the breathing pores along the sides of the abdomen4 #h4 ,unlikeness between male and female is called sexual dimorphism4 ,explain how the tussock moth shows this4 ,for what work does each form seem particularly adapted8 #i4 ,what methods would you use that the tussock moth might be destroyed or kept out of a community8 ,the numerous small worm-like creatures often found are the caterpillar stages of another insect1 an ichneumon fly1 which laid its eggs under the skin of the tussock caterpillar4 ,how has their development affected that of the tussock moth8 ,what great result does nature accomplish by this arrangement8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,a caterpillar1 #b4 b4 ,a cocoon with its egg mass4 c4 ,a pupa as seen from the under side4 d4 ,an adult moth1 either male or female4 ,,the ,,living ,,beetle ,materials4 ,living beetles in cages1 together with portions of the plant upon which they are found2 or if water beetles are used1 they should be kept in aquaria4 ,individual specimens in battery jars or wide-mouth bottles1 and preserved beetles in pans or vials for reference4 ,observations4 #a4 ,upon what plant or in what surroundings is your kind of beetle generally found8 ,if you can1 give its common name4 #b4 ,what is the length1 breadth1 and thickness of your beetle8 ,would you describe it as a small insect or a large one8 #c4 ,of what general color is it8 ,describe any color markings you see4 #d4 ,if any of the legs differ from the others or are of peculiar shape or length1 describe them and tell what you think they may be fitted to do4 #e4 ,as a rule1 beetles have harder shells than other insects4 ,does this shell completely inclose the body1 or can you find any soft parts exposed8 ,how are the head1 thorax1 and abdomen joined so as to carry out the apparent purpose of protection8 ,what is the outline of the body--a continuous line or one with many irregularities8 #f4 ,if possible1 try to lift up one side of the shell from the hinder end of the body4 ,you will discover that this portion of the shell is a pair of hard sheath wings1 and beneath them is another pair4 ,how are the under ones unlike the upper in size and texture8 in use8 in arrangement when not in use8 #g4 ,does a beetle spend most of its life on the wing1 like bees and flies8 ,how might the body covering and the structure of the outer wings affect or determine the beetle's habits1 even against its will8 #h4 ,are the feelers or are the eyes of your specimen more easily distinguished8 ,upon which of the special senses does it seem to place most dependence8 #i4 ,is your kind of beetle good for anything1 either in nature or in human affairs8 ,make a statement regarding what good or what harm it may do4 ,,the ,,damsel ,,fly ,,larva ,materials4 ,living larv of the damsel fly in shallow watch glasses of water for individual use1 and others in large pans or aquaria4 ,simple lenses or dissecting microscopes4 ,observations4 #a4 ,what is the color and the shape of the larva8 how long is it8 ,notice in what surroundings in the water the larva lives1 and answer to yourself how its form and color would protect it in those surroundings4 #b4 ,since the larva is an insect1 though immature1 its body is composed of three regions3 head1 thorax1 and abdomen4 ,how do these regions differ from each other8 #c4 ,what structures has your specimen to enable it to move from place to place8 ,if fully developed wings are not present1 what indication is there of their being formed8 #d4 ,what sense organs has the larva8 ,which ones seem to be the largest and most useful8 #e4 ,although the aquatic larva is preparing for adult life in the air1 there should be some arrangement for securing air in the water4 ,where do you find outgrowths of the skin which might increase the air-absorbing surface8 ,how many of these structures are there8 ,look within them for the air tubes1--fine branching black lines4 #f4 ,if possible1 without injury to the specimen1 examine the larva's mouth4 ,try to discover how it is used and how it is protected when not in use4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,the entire larva1 #d4 b4 ,a gill1 as seen through the microscope4 c4 ,the feeding apparatus1 #aj4 ,,plant ,,lice ,,and ,,scale ,,bugs ,plant ,lice 7,aphids7 ,materials4 ,plant lice on various kinds of plants1 such as house plants1 golden glow1 and other plants from the garden or field4 ,garden asters with root lice 7the asters should be transplanted into pots74 ,observations4 #a4 ,describe the size1 appearance1 and colors of the plant lice in your collection and their relation to the host plant4 #b4 ,are the lice active or sluggish8 7,compare with a house fly1 for instance47 ,what proportion of them have wings8 ,what is the usual method of locomotion8 #c4 ,examining a single winged specimen1 how many wings do you find8 ,how do they fold8 ,what is the character of the wings8 #d4 ,what is the food of the plant lice8 ,how is the food obtained8 7,with a hand lens identify the piercing organ47 ,on what parts of the plants are they found8 ,does the plant show any indication of being harmed by the lice8 ,if so1 how8 #e4 ,make a count of the plant lice upon a portion of a plant and estimate the whole number upon a plant4 ,why are plant lice a very serious pest8 #f4 ,if any plant lice have ants associated with them1 study the behavior of the ants in this curious relationship4 ,what advantages result from this relationship of ant and aphis to either or both insects8 ,scale ,bugs ,materials4 ,twigs of trees1 leaves1 fruit1 ferns1 etc41 infested with these bugs4 ,if possible1 have samples of ,san ,jos scales1 maple scales1 and oyster scales4 ,observations4 #a4 ,what is the general size and appearance of the various scale bugs in your collection8 ,how do they differ in form and size and color8 #b4 ,remove a scale and study it carefully with a lens4 ,what is under the scale8 ,of what is the scale composed8 ,what do you discover about these bugs to indicate that they are really insects8 #c4 ,what can be said about the number of scale bugs8 ,why are they difficult to exterminate8 ,how can they be distributed from one place to another1 as from orchard to orchard1 since only the males have wings8 ,drawings suggested4 a4 ,a single aphis as seen with hand lens4 b4 ,various scale bugs as seen with a hand lens4 c4 ,twigs showing the distribution and numbers of scale bugs4 ,,water ,,bugs ,,and ,,beetles ,water ,bugs ,materials4 ,water bugs and beetles of several species in small aquaria covered with a wire net4 ,observations4 #a4 ,with what legs does the bug swim8 ,describe their appearance and tell how used and how fitted for this use4 ,which legs are not used in swimming8 #b4 ,remove the bug from the water for a moment to test other methods of locomotion1 as jumping1 crawling1 flying4 ,what do you discover8 #c4 ,watch the bug as it gets a fresh supply of air1 and describe the process4 ,where is the air stored for use when under water8 ,does the bug sink or rise when it stops swimming8 ,why8 #d4 ,identify the bug's mouth parts4 ,what is their appearance and probable manner of use8 ,how are the forelegs fitted for grasping food8 #e4 ,what is the shape of the body8 ,what is the position of the wings8 ,do the two cover 7fore7 wings meet in a straight line or do they cross at their tips8 ,are they smooth throughout and sheath-like1 or are they thick at the base and thin at the tips8 ,summary4 ,summarize your study of the bug by enumerating the various ways the bug is adapted for life in the water4 ,water ,beetles ,use the same questions for the study of water beetles as for water bugs4 ,in addition answer the following3-- #a4 ,identify the eyes of the whirligig beetle and note their peculiar construction4 ,how can you explain this peculiar form of the eyes on the basis of use8 ,why are the antenn of both water bugs and beetles so small8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,the dorsal view of both bug and beetle4 b4 ,ventral view of the bug's head to show the beak and first pair of legs4 ,,getting ,,acquainted ,,with ,,the ,,library ,directions4 ,the books in a zological library may be roughly divided into three groups3-- #a4 ,reference books4 a4 ,advanced textbooks4 b4 ,elementary textbooks4 c4 ,natural histories4 d4 ,books for classifying or naming animals4 #b4 ,descriptive books4 e4 ,life histories and habits of animals4 f4 ,adventures with animals--popular accounts of animals seen on walks and travels4 #c4 ,economic zology4 g4 ,books on harmful animals and methods of destroying them4 h4 ,books on useful nondomesticated animals and their products4 i4 ,books on domestic animals4 j4 ,books of a general nature not included in the above4 ,examine as many of the books in your library as you can and record for each one in your notebook3-- #a4 ,title of the book2 author's name2 publisher2 date of publication4 #b4 ,the kind of book as classified above4 #c4 ,what it includes or what animals or topics are covered by the book4 #d4 ,whether the style is popular or technical1 i4e4 whether it is easy for you to read4 #e4 ,the general character of its illustrations and whether they appear to be especially helpful4 #f4 ,comments on the value or interest of the book as it appears to you4 #g4 ,select a book which interests you1 for future reading4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,studies ,,of ,,insects ,the effect of great numbers upon the structure and habits of animals4 ,the use of keys in finding the names of animals4 #a4 ,,field ,,studies ,materials4 #a4 ,boxes for carrying insects4 #b4 ,a net4 ,this may be homemade1 using mosquito netting or fish net and a stout wire4 ,if it is to be used for a dragnet for water insects1 the wire must be stout and the netting strong4 ,make the net twice as long as wide4 #c4 ,a cyanide jar for killing insects4 #d4 ,a few paper triangles for carrying butterflies4 #e4 ,a notebook4 ,note4--,your instructor will give directions for obtaining the material called for in #c1 #d1 and #e4 ,directions4 ,look carefully and quietly in the various situations noted below4 ,do not be in a hurry4 ,weedy meadows or vacant lots and neglected roadsides are good places for your first trips4 ,note concerning each insect found3 7a7 its name or something by which to identify it1 7b7 where you found it1 7c7 what it was doing1 7d7 its probable food4 ,record these observations in your notebook4 ,make a special study of such insects as your instructor may designate4 ,where to look for ,various ,insects ,grasshoppers1 locusts1 katydids4 ,look along roadsides1 waste places1 gardens1 especially weedy ones1 weedy lots1 and grassy meadows and pastures4 ,crickets4 ,under old boards1 along the edges of board or stone walks1 along fences4 ,beetles4 ,same locations as for crickets1 and also on flowering plants1 under loose bark of trees and stumps1 in rotten logs1 etc4 ,for water beetles drag edges of ponds and streams4 ,dragon flies4 ,along water-courses1 ponds1 and swamps4 ,drag ponds and ditches for larv4 ,bees4 ,on flowering plants1 especially on large patches of wild asters1 golden-rods1 and thistles4 ,wasps4 ,sandy stretches1--especially along the water1--among flowering plants1 under the eaves and roofs of outbuildings4 ,nests may be found in these latter places4 ,butterflies and moths4 ,in fields where there are many flowering plants2 look carefully on the leaves of plants for caterpillars1 and for eggs4 ,also look very carefully on the under side of leaves1 on twigs1 and on the bark of trees for chrysalids of butterflies and cocoons of moths4 ,bugs4 ,in same locations as for bees and grasshoppers and water beetles4 ,also on fruit4 ,aphids4 ,on the fresh growing tops of plants4 ,tree hoppers4 ,on trees and shrubs4 ,hold your net on the under side of branches and shake the branch vigorously4 ,flies4 ,around decaying substances1 as garbage1 fruit1 etc42 on flowering plants4 ,ants4 ,sandy waste places1 decayed logs1 along walks1 often in kitchens4 ,note4--,at night many kinds of insects fly around electric lights or into open windows1 attracted by the light and may easily be collected4 ,form for ,field ,trip ,report ,the notes taken on a field trip may be conveniently tabulated for permanent record in the form indicated below3-- ,,field ,,trip ,,report ,date ,time ,locality ,pupil's ,name ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,name of ,insect ,where ,found ,what it was ,doing ,probable ,food ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,in case the name of the insect is not known to you1 use a number and some designation as to color or other mark by which it may be known until you have leisure to look up its name by means of keys or books on insects4 ,special ,field ,studies ,the questions below may be used for a more careful field study of any insect4 #a4 ,just where was the insect found8 #b4 ,note carefully what the insects are doing before they are disturbed by your presence4 ,what did the insects do when you disturbed them8 ,if you think this related to securing safety1 explain what leads you to think so4 #c4 ,what senses do you conclude are well developed8 ,reason for your conclusion4 #d4 ,has the insect a home8 ,if so1 what is its character8 #e4 ,what is the color8 ,what is the relation between the color of the insect and its surroundings8 #f4 ,is the insect solitary in its habits or associated with others of the same species8 ,if in association with others1 note the numbers1 and what they are doing4 #g4 ,what modes of locomotion do you observe in this insect8 ,which is the most common8 ,if it flies or jumps1 note the distance4 #h4 ,if you find the young1 note whether they differ from the adult in general appearance1 and if so1 in what ways they differ4 ,do they differ in food8 #i4 ,what other insects do you find in the same habitat8 #b4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,grasshoppers 7,,locusts7 ,insects adapted to ,life in ,grassy ,meadows and ,fields ,materials4 ,both living and dead specimens of grasshoppers4 ,various stages of young grasshoppers either dead or living4 ,some mounted specimens with wings spread4 ,the wings of grasshoppers mounted in pairs between two glass slides for use with microscope or hand lens4 ,mounted preparations of mouth parts and trache4 ,definitions4 ,orthoptera1 straight-winged insects1 order to which belong grasshoppers1 locusts1 katydids1 crickets1 cockroaches1 etc4 ,vivarium1 a cage in which living animals are kept4 ,anterior1 toward the head of an animal4 ,posterior1 opposite to anterior4 ,dorsal1 the upper surface of an animal4 ,ventral1 opposite to dorsal4 ,regions1 principal divisions of the body of an animal4 ,head1 thorax1 and abdomen1 the three distinct regions into which the body of a grasshopper is divided4 ,somite1 a ring-like division of the body of an animal4 ,prothorax1 mesothorax1 and metathorax1 the three divisions or somites into which the thorax of any insect is divided4 ,a pair of legs is borne on each division4 ,exoskeleton1 an external skeleton4 ,femur1 tibia1 and tarsus1 the three principal divisions of the leg corresponding to thigh1 shank1 and foot4 ,veins1 thread-like thickenings of the wings4 ,ocelli1 the single or simple eyes of an insect1 composed of a single eye element4 ,compound eyes1 made up of many eye elements4 ,auditory sacs1 organs for hearing in many animals4 ,antenn1 the feelers borne on the head4 ,labrum1 the upper lip4 ,labium1 the lower lip1 formed by the growing together of the second maxill4 ,mandibles1 primary jaws situated under the labrum4 ,maxill1 secondary jaws just in front of the labium1 each composed of three parts1 a palp1 a spoon1 and a tooth4 ,palps1 the jointed finger-like structures used to handle food1 one pair on the labium and one pair on the maxill4 ,spiracles1 openings into the trachea found along the sides of the abdomen and thorax4 ,trache1 slender tubes used for breathing organs among insects4 ,they carry the air direct to the tissues in all parts of the body4 ,ovipositors1 structures on the posterior end of the abdomen of a female1 used to deposit eggs4 ,metamorphosis1 refers to the development of the young of animals when striking changes in structure occur in the course of their growth4 ,metamorphosis is called complete when the young have no resemblance to the adults1 and incomplete when there is a resemblance to the adult4 ,in complete metamorphosis the stages are larva1 pupa1 and adult4 ,in incomplete metamorphosis the stages are nymph and adult4 ,observations4 ,the ,body4 #a4 ,show how the shape of the grasshopper's body is well adapted to its needs4 #b4 ,which region of the body is the thickest8 ,what seems to be the reason for this8 ,which regions are capable of movement8 ,locomotion4 #c4 ,what are the various kinds of locomotion a grasshopper can use8 ,which are used in the vivarium and which when free in the laboratory8 #d4 ,which legs are used in jumping8 ,how are these legs especially adapted to this1 in length1 structure and direction8 ,could a grasshopper jump if the third pair of legs were arranged like the other two pairs8 ,why8 #e4 ,how is the animal able to cling to grass stems and not slip down8 ,what is the direction of the body in relation to the stem or grass blade8 #f4 ,what is the position of the wings when at rest8 when in use8 ,how do the hind wings fold8 ,how are the principal veins of the wings arranged to permit or facilitate this folding8 #g4 ,contrast the fore and hind wings with respect to thickness1 size1 and use4 #h4 ,to which somites of the thorax are the wings attached8 ,nearer which surface1 the dorsal or ventral8 ,why8 ,sense ,organs4 #i4 ,discover all you can about the uses of the antenn by carefully observing grasshoppers at rest1 feeding1 jumping and crawling1 approaching an object or another grasshopper1 etc4 #aj4 ,how many compound eyes has the grasshopper8 ,how many simple eyes8 ,where are they located8 ,examine a preparation of the compound eye with the low power or as demonstrated with the stereopticon4 ,what is the shape of an eye element of the compound eye8 ,about how many eye elements are there in a compound eye8 ,feeding4 #aa4 ,do grasshoppers eat and drink while in captivity8 ,put a fresh bunch of grass which has been sprinkled with water in a vivarium with grasshoppers that have had no food or drink for twenty-four hours and watch results4 #ab4 ,what is the position of the grasshoppers in feeding8 ,in what direction do the jaws move in feeding8 ,compare this with the direction of movement of your own jaws4 ,what is the use of the palps8 ,what do you think is the use of the molasses or saliva that flows from the mouth8 ,respiration4 #ac4 ,describe the breathing movements of a grasshopper and explain the relation of the movements to inhalation and exhalation of air4 #ad4 ,find the exact location and number of spiracles on the abdomen4 ,there are two pairs of spiracles on the thorax4 ,find them4 ,how do the spiracles prevent the entrance of dust8 ,describe a trachea as seen in a mounted preparation with the aid of a microscope or stereopticon4 ,protection4 #ae4 ,explain how the colors of the grasshopper may be protective or useful when at rest in its natural habitat and when in flight4 #af4 ,does the shell cover the entire body8 ,what are the advantages of such a covering8 ,a shell is likely to hinder activity1 sensitiveness1 and growth4 ,how are such disadvantages overcome in this case8 #ag4 ,what senses are probably most relied upon to detect approaching danger8 ,give evidence to support your answer4 #ah4 ,what is the position of the hind legs when at rest8 ,what relation has this to safety8 ,reproduction and ,development4 #ai4 ,describe the ovipositors and the probable method of their use4 ,describe the egg packets of grasshoppers1 if discovered4 ,about how many eggs in one8 7,they are sometimes seen against the glass sides of the vivaria47 #bj4 ,if you have young grasshoppers of various ages1 arrange a set of them in what seems to you to be the order of their development4 ,how do young grasshoppers differ from adults8 ,what changes take place as they develop8 ,what kind of metamorphosis is this8 ,summary of ,important ,points in the ,study of the ,grasshopper #a4 ,how many and what distinct regions of the body are there8 #b4 ,how many antenn8 ,compare their length with that of the body4 ,what other sense organs did you discover8 #c4 ,how many legs8 ,for what specially adapted8 ,how8 #d4 ,how many wings8 ,what is their resting position8 ,how do the fore wings differ from the hind wings8 ,how do the hind wings fold8 #e4 ,to what kind of feeding are they adapted1 biting or sucking the food8 ,how many and what sets of mouth parts are there8 #f4 ,how is air necessary for respiration obtained8 #g4 ,in what various ways are grasshoppers fitted for life in meadows and weed plots8 #h4 ,how do they meet winter conditions8 #i4 ,what kind of metamorphosis has the grasshopper8 ,drawings suggested4 a4 ,side view with the legs and wings removed4 ,label all parts shown in this drawing4 7,see ,definitions on pages #bc and #bd for names of parts47 b4 ,face view of the head1 showing the simple and compound eyes1 the antenn1 labrum1 and palps4 c4 ,one of the third pair of legs4 ,label parts4 d4 ,a fore and a hind wing arranged in natural position4 e4 ,a young grasshopper4 #c4 ,,comparative ,,study ,,of ,,orthoptera ,materials4 ,mounted specimens of various common species of orthoptera4 ,observations4 #a4 ,where does the insect live8 ,what is its color8 #b4 ,what is the size and shape as compared with the grasshopper8 #c4 ,what is the length of the antenn as compared with the length of the body8 #d4 ,to what kind of locomotion are the legs adapted8 ,how8 ,are the forelegs specially adapted for grasping8 #e4 ,what is the position of the wings when at rest8 ,are they large or small as compared with the size of the body8 #f4 ,are the ovipositors long or short8 7,compare with those of the grasshopper47 #g4 ,find the group to which the insect belongs and its name by the key in the following section4 #d4 ,,key ,,to ,,some ,,common ,,orthoptera ,a4 ,groups ,,legs ,,antenn ,,other ,,characters ,,groups ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,similar1 fitted ,long ,body flattened1 wings folded on ,cockroaches for running dorsal surface of the abdomen 7,blattid7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,first pair of ,rather ,prothorax long and slender1 ,mantis legs enlarged long wings folded on dorsal 7,mantid7 for grasping surface of abdomen ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,similar1 fitted ,body usually greatly elongated ,walking stick for walking ,long and stick-like1 usually no 7,phasmid7 wings ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,hind legs fitted ,body somewhat compressed1 ,short-horned for jumping ,short wings folded on side of grasshoppers abdomen 7,acridid7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,body compressed1 wings folded ,long-horned ,long on sides1 tarsus four-jointed grasshoppers 7,locustid7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,body somewhat flattened1 wings ,crickets ,long folded on the back1 tarsus 7,gryllid7 three-jointed ,b4 ,species or ,genera ,,characters ,,of ,,species ,,common ,,name ,,groups ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,large size1 brown color ,american cockroach ,small size1 pale brown ,croton bug ,cockroaches ,dark color1 often wingless ,oriental cockroach ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,body long1 anterior portion slender ,mantis or rear horse ,mantis ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,long body1 long legs1 no wings ,walking stick ,walking sticks ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,very large size1 wings very small ,lubber grasshopper ,small to medium size1 legs marked ,red-legged with red grasshopper ,short-horned ,large size1 greenish brown color ,differential locust grasshoppers ,medium to large size1 sand color ,carolina locusts 7gray7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,rather large1 green1 wings large ,angle-wing katydid and angled ,long-horned ,small to rather large1 usually green ,meadow grasshopper grasshoppers ,wingless1 brown color ,cricket grasshopper ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,usually rather large1 black ,field cricket ,crickets ,wingless1 front legs shovel-shaped ,mole cricket #e4 ,,the ,,dragon ,,fly ,an ,insect adapted to ,aerial ,life ,materials4 ,mounted specimens of dragon flies1 some moist preserved specimens1 living specimens if practicable1 simple lenses4 ,observations4 #a4 ,identify the three regions of the body and note the presence of a distinct neck4 ,what is the length of the insect8 ,what is its general form8 ,if you have living specimens1 discover what movements the head and abdomen are capable of making4 #b4 ,what is the position and general character of the wings8 ,explain how these wings are made very efficient for flying4 ,why should they not fold8 #c4 ,for what do the legs seem best adapted8 ,why8 #d4 ,note the size of the eyes and of the antenn8 ,how do you account for the great size of the eyes and the relatively small antenn8 #e4 ,what is the type of mouth parts1 biting or sucking8 ,if you have living dragon flies1 try feeding them flies or mosquitoes and note how they are seized4 #f4 ,the food of dragon flies is mosquitoes and flies caught while on the wing4 ,in what various ways is the dragon fly specialized for getting food in this manner8 ,summary4 ,how is the dragon fly fitted for its aerial life with respect to its body1 means and method of locomotion1 sense organs1 kind of food and manner of obtaining it8 ,suggested drawing4 a4 ,dorsal view1 showing veining of one wing4 #f4 ,,the ,,honeybee ,a ,study of ,adaptations for ,community ,life ,materials4 ,preserved specimens of workers in small vials and in watch glasses1 and some mounted specimens4 ,a demonstration case showing the three kinds of members of the community1 stages in the development of the workers and queens and the cells in which they are reared1 specimens of the comb4 ,small pieces of beeswax1 a box of honey1 and specimens of comb free for examination4 ,mounted preparations of mouth parts and stings4 ,simple lenses and compound microscopes4 ,observations4 ,the ,worker ,bee4 #a4 ,observe and describe the form1 size1 regions1 and covering of the bee4 ,what are its colors8 #b4 ,observe and describe the texture1 veining1 relative size1 and position of the wings4 ,discover how the fore and hind wings are hooked together4 ,what advantage in having them hooked together8 #c4 ,for what kind of locomotion are the legs best adapted8 #d4 ,find the pollen basket on the tarsus of a hind leg4 ,how is it fitted for carrying pollen8 ,what are the wax shears8 a4 ,examine and describe the structure at the posterior end of the body used for stinging4 7,use a mounted preparation for this with low-power of microscope47 b4 ,the mouth parts are fitted for both biting and sucking4 ,find what makes this possible4 7,use mounted preparation47 #e4 ,describe the antenn and the number1 position1 and shape of the eyes4 ,are the eyes fitted for keen sight8 ,give reason for answer4 #f4 ,the worker bee gathers honey and pollen and defends the entire community from enemies4 ,what various adaptations fit it for this work8 ,the ,community of ,bees4 #g4 ,how do the workers1 drones1 and queen differ in general appearance8 #h4 ,describe the appearance of the comb and the arrangement and shape of the cells4 ,why this shape8 ,how are the cells closed when full of honey8 #i4 ,how do the cells used for rearing worker bees differ from those used for rearing queens8 ,what is the appearance of the larv8 ,of the pupa8 #aj4 ,examine and test in various ways a small piece of beeswax4 ,what are the qualities possessed by this wax which make it suitable for making comb and protecting the home from storms8 ,supplementary ,studies of ,bees ,materials4 ,for this study an observation hive of bees or opportunity to visit an apiary will be helpful4 ,if neither are practicable1 then look up the answers in books4 ,there are government bulletins on bee-keeping and much helpful information can be obtained from large dealers in bees and bee supplies4 ,observations4 #a4 ,how do bees protect their hives from rain and storm and light8 #b4 ,what are honey boxes8 ,where are they placed in the hive8 ,can the honey be removed late in the fall8 #c4 ,how is it safe to approach and handle bees in removing honey and caring for them8 #d4 ,what are their habits in entering and leaving the hive8 ,what is the appearance of a returning loaded worker bee8 #e4 ,how do bees survive the winter8 ,why are the drones driven away or killed8 #f4 ,watch bees gathering nectar and pollen from flowers and describe the process4 ,try following a bee on its journeys4 #g4 ,when the bees are in the hive1 how may you know the queen and drones from the workers8 #h4 ,what is swarming8 ,when does it take place8 ,how is the swarm hived8 #i4 ,what is the home of wild honeybees8 ,how found8 ,summary of the ,study of ,honeybees ,how is the work of the community of bees divided among the bees8 ,how is each fitted for the work8 ,what do you think of the success of this kind of life8 ,give reasons for your answer4 #g4 ,,general ,,study ,,of ,,insects#a #a ,this study is intended for an alternative study in case it is not practicable to use the studies of living insects4 ,with slight adaptation it can be made useful for any insect1 either preserved or living4 ,materials4 ,both living and preserved specimens of the insects studied should be at hand1 if practicable4 ,there also should be specimens of the young4 ,observations4 ,the ,body4 #a4 ,what is the shape and size of the insect and the number of regions in its body8 ,does the shape seem to be in any way adapted to the mode of life of the insect8 ,if so1 how8 ,locomotion4 #b4 ,what methods of locomotion has the insect8 ,which is the most used8 #c4 ,what is the position of the wings when at rest8 ,what is the texture 7e4g4 thick1 smooth1 leathery1 shell-like1 membranous7 of the fore and hind wings8 #d4 ,for what kind of locomotion are the legs fitted8 ,how8 ,sense ,organs4 #e4 ,how many antenn has the insect8 ,what is their character as to shape and length8 ,how many simple and compound eyes8 ,feeding4 #f4 ,what is the food of the insect8 ,how are the mouth parts specially adapted to obtaining this food8 ,note4--,the mouth parts of insects may be jaws for biting1 or may form a tube for sucking1 or a beak for piercing and sucking4 ,respiration4 #g4 ,look for movements of the body indicating breathing1 and describe what you find4 ,discover the location of the spiracles4 ,protection4 #h4 ,what are the enemies of this insect8 7,among the most important enemies of insects are birds1 certain other insects1 and various small vertebrates such as frogs1 snakes1 lizards1 turtles1 etc47 ,how does the insect protect itself from these enemies8 #i4 ,describe the shell with respect to thickness and flexibility4 ,what is the character of the surface as to roughness or smoothness or covering of hairs or scales8 ,reproduction and ,development4 ,note4--,it may be necessary to get answers to these questions from books4 #aj4 ,where are the eggs deposited8 ,what is the number of the eggs8 ,how soon do they hatch8 #aa4 ,what is the food of the larva or nymph8 ,are the food habits of the insects harmful to man8 ,if so1 how8 #ab4 ,describe the larva as to form1 color1 and appendages4 ,is it capable of locomotion8 #ac4 ,is the metamorphosis complete or incomplete8 ,if complete1 describe the pupa and tell where it may be found4 ,drawings4 ,there should be one drawing of the insect to show its general characteristics2 usually a dorsal view is best4 ,for other drawings ask your instructor4 #h4 ,a ,,review ,,of ,,insects ,directions4 ,the answers to questions in this study may be conveniently written in the form of a table4 ,construct this table by placing the topics at the left and the names of insects at the top4 ,allow ample space1 about one half inch for the horizontal spaces and one and one half inches in width for the vertical columns4 ,use one or two insects from each of the principal orders1 letting the table extend across two opposite pages4 ,topics4 #a4 ,what is the habitat8 #b4 ,what regions has the body8 #c4 ,how many antenn8 ,what is their form8 #d4 ,what kinds of eyes has the insect8 ,how many of each kind8 #e4 ,how many legs8 #f4 ,for what kind of locomotion are the legs adapted8 ,which legs are thus used8 #g4 ,how many wings8 ,membranous or thickened8 #h4 ,what is the position of the wings when at rest8 #i4 ,if the fore wings are thickened1 what is their texture1--leathery1 smooth and sheath-like1 partly membranous1 covered with scales8 #aj4 ,what kind of mouth parts1--jaws for biting1 a beak for piercing1 a tube for sucking1 adapted for both sucking and biting8 #aa4 ,by what means is respiration accomplished8 ,summary of ,important ,points from the ,table #a4 ,what characters are common to all the insects described in the table8 #b4 ,what are the various types of wings8 ,why do they vary8 #c4 ,what are the various types of legs8 ,how are they characterized8 #d4 ,what are the various types of mouth parts8 #e4 ,show how the variations in insects are related to the habitat and mode of life of the insect4 #i4 ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,principal ,,orders ,,of ,,insects ,a#a ,insects with no wings4 7,see list below47 ,a#b ,insects with wings ,b ,b#a ,with two pairs of wings4 7,see ,note #a below47 ,c ,b#b ,with one pair of wings ,diptera ,c#a ,both pairs of wings alike in structure1 either membranous or scaly ,d ,c#b ,fore and hind wings unlike in texture1 fore wings fold over hind wings ,e ,d#a ,both pairs of wings membranous1 not covered with scales ,f ,d#b ,both pairs of wings covered with scales2 mouth parts tubular for sucking ,lepidoptera ,e#a ,fore wings very smooth1 sheath or shell-like1 meeting in a straight line when folded2 legs adapted for walking1 running1 or swimming2 mouth parts for biting ,coleoptera ,e#b ,wings not as in ,e#a ,i ,f#a ,wings membranous1 usually folded or partly folded2 few nerves ,g ,f#b ,both pairs of membranous wings usually outspread1 many nerves2 mouth parts for biting ,h ,g#a ,wings membranous1 hooked together and partly folded1 or outspread1 few nerves in the wings2 mouth parts for both biting and sucking2 regions of the body usually very distinct ,hymenoptera ,g#b ,wings membranous1 usually folded1 few nerves2 mouth parts1 a beak for sucking and piercing ,hemiptera ,h#a ,outspread membranous wings1 nearly equal in size2 antenn very short and inconspicuous ,odonata ,h#b ,as in ,f#b1 but antenn not short2 wings sometimes folded ,neuroptera ,h#c ,both pairs of wings membranous1 folded above the back2 fore wings much larger than hind wings2 ovipositors long2 mouth parts rudimentary ,ephemerida ,i#a ,fore wings folded over hind wings1 crossing at their tips1 which are membranous1 base of wings thickened1 mouth parts a beak for piercing ,hemiptera ,i#b ,fore wings leathery1 folding either at side of body or on the back2 mouth parts for biting1 legs often adapted for jumping ,orthoptera ,note #a4--,when wings are folded1 it will be helpful to remember that thickened fore or cover wings always have membranous wings folded beneath them4 ,insects with no wings ,order a4 ,body long and slender1 stick-like2 legs for walking4 ,walking stick ,orthoptera b4 ,grasshopper-like4 ,cricket grasshopper ,orthoptera c4 ,small size2 regions very distinct2 abdomen spindle-shape4 ,ants ,hymenoptera d4 ,small size2 ant-like in appearance2 pale white4 ,white ants ,isoptera e4 ,flattened body1 small size2 no compound eyes4 ,springtails and fish moths ,thysanura #aj4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,studies ,,of ,,insects ,the ,effect of ,great ,numbers #a4 ,take some insect for illustration1 as the house fly1 mosquito1 tussock moth1 or aphis1 and show how insects increase in numbers with great rapidity4 #b4 ,what can be said about the number of species of insects8 #c4 ,there is said to be great competition among insects4 ,why8 ,for what8 #d4 ,how is the great increase of insects held in check by natural means8 #e4 ,what are the various habitats of insects8 ,give as many as you can with examples of insects that use the habitat4 #f4 ,give examples to show how greatly the food of insects and the method of obtaining it varies4 #g4 ,give some illustrations of the great muscular development of insects4 ,why is this needed8 #h4 ,in what various ways are insects protected against their enemies8 ,give examples to illustrate your statement4 #i4 ,show how and why the great numbers of insects have affected the structure and mode of life of the insects4 ,classification #a4 ,by means of illustrations from your studies of insects show how classification is based upon likeness of structure4 #b4 ,in the same manner show how differences in structure affect classification4 #c4 ,show how variation in the wings and mouth parts is used to separate insects into orders4 #d4 ,what are the principles of classification8 #aa4 ,,review ,,and ,,library ,,exercise ,,on ,,insects ,general ,topics #a4 ,general characteristics of insects4 #b4 ,principal orders of insects with characteristics and examples of each order4 #c4 ,respiration and air sacs of insects4 ,use of air sacs in flight4 #d4 ,the heart and blood of insects4 ,how the function of the blood differs from that of other animals1 as man4 #e4 ,special senses of insects3 their character1 location1 and efficiency4 #f4 ,sound-making organs of insects4 #g4 ,power of communication among insects1 as among ants1 for example4 #h4 ,organs for depositing eggs1 ovipositors4 ,how they vary4 #i4 ,homes of insects4 ,evidences of architecture in some of the homes4 #aj4 ,how some plants make homes for insects4 ,galls and gall insects4 #aa4 ,in what various ways do insects survive the winter8 ,illustrate with examples4 #ab4 ,community life among insects4 ,types of communities4 #ac4 ,pollination of flowers by insects4 ,why insects do this work and how the flowers compel them to do it in the right manner4 ,value to the plants4 ,types of insects useful for this purpose4 #ad4 ,adaptations for protection against enemies4 ,classify these adaptations and illustrate with examples4 #ae4 ,the principal insect pests of the orchard and their work4 #af4 ,the principal insect pests of the garden and the work of each4 #ag4 ,the principal insect pests of shade trees and their characteristics4 #ah4 ,the principal insect pests of the household and methods of extermination4 #ai4 ,the work of birds in helping to keep the number of harmful insects down4 #bj4 ,a spraying table showing what poisons are used1 when and for what plants and insects4 #ba4 ,the principal beneficial insects and the ways in which they are beneficial4 ,special ,topics ,much of the information called for by the topics below may be obtained from ,united ,states and state government bulletins4 ,most of these may be obtained free from the ,department of ,agriculture and from various state agricultural colleges1 while others may be obtained by purchase at a nominal price4 ,orthoptera4 #a4 ,locust migrations and their cause4 #b4 ,the locust plagues of the great plains4 #c4 ,crickets and their songs4 ,hemiptera4 #d4 ,the fight against the orange scale of ,california4 #e4 ,history of the introduction and spread of the ,san ,jos scale bug and the efforts to find a natural enemy4 ,how people fight the pest4 #f4 ,aphids4 #g4 ,relations of ants and aphids4 #h4 ,phylloxera and its work4 #i4 ,the methods of fighting the chinch bug4 #aj4 ,scale bugs4 #aa4 ,cochineal bug and the lacs4 ,coleoptera4 #ab4 ,the carrion beetle and its peculiar habits4 #ac4 ,fireflies4 #ad4 ,egyptian scarabs4 #ae4 ,the curculio and methods of fighting it4 #af4 ,the weevils and their work4 #ag4 ,history of the ,colorado potato beetle4 #ah4 ,lady-bird beetles1 their habits and use in exterminating harmful pests4 ,diptera4 #ai4 ,the investigations in ,cuba of the cause of yellow fever4 #bj4 ,the fight against yellow fever in ,new ,orleans4 #ba4 ,methods of preventing plagues of mosquitoes4 #bb4 ,how flies are carriers of disease4 ,methods of preventing plagues of flies4 #bc4 ,the tsetse fly4 #bd4 ,sleeping sickness4 #be4 ,the house fly and typhoid4 #bf4 ,parasitic larv of flies4 ,lepidoptera4 #bg4 ,the silkworm and the silk industry4 #bh4 ,story of the gypsy moth4 #bi4 ,life history of the clothes moth4 #cj4 ,harmful butterflies4 #ca4 ,the tussock moth and its history4 #cb4 ,blastophaga and fig culture4 #cc4 ,the codling moth and its work4 #cd4 ,cutworms4 #ce4 ,the brown-tail moth4 ,hymenoptera4 #cf4 ,the honeybee and honey making4 #cg4 ,gall and gall insects4 #ch4 ,the habits of the digger wasp4 #ci4 ,the homes of ants4 ,habits of ants4 #dj4 ,slavery among ants4 #da4 ,agricultural ants4 #db4 ,homes of bees4 #dc4 ,ichneumon flies and their beneficial habit4 #dd4 ,evidences of intelligence among ants4 ,,some ,,common ,,butterflies--,a ,reference ,table and ,key ,,group ,,common ,,name ,,wing ,,expanse,,broods ,,food ,,plants ,,of ,,haunts ,,of ,,the ,,in ,,inches ,,caterpillar ,,butterfly ,,characteristic ,,colors1 ,,markings1 ,,etc4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,milkweed ,butterflies ,monarch #d--d-a_/b ,may and ,oct,milkweed and ,open fields dogbane everywhere ,brick-red color1 veins black1 borders of wings black ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,fritillaries or ,silver ,spots ,variegated #a-c_/d--b-a_/b;,august ,passion flower ,low fields fritillary ,orange-brown color1 checkered with black1 no silver spots4 ,a southern species ,regal fritillary #c--d ,july1,aug ,violets1 pansies ,low fields ,upper side of wings reddish with wavy black lines1 hind wing dark ,great spangled #c--d ,july1,aug ,violets1 pansies ,meadows fritillary ,similar to idalia1 but hind wings lighter4 ,silver spots on under surface of wings ,silver-bordered #a-a_/b ,jul1,aug1,sep,violets1 pansies ,meadows1 fritillary hillsides ,edge of wings tipped with silver1 silver spots below ,meadow fritillary#a-c_/d ,jul1,aug1,sep,violets1 pansies ,meadows ,no silver border1 silver below ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,checker ,spots ,baltimore #a-a_/d--b-a_/b;,june1,july ,turtlehead and ,swamps aster ,groundwork of black with many red and white spots4 ,conspicuous border of red spots ,harris checker #a-a_/b ,june ,aster and daisy ,clover meadows spot ,wings dark bordered1 lighter band across middle of wings ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,crescent ,spots ,silver crescent #a-a_/d--b ,july ,asters ,roadsides ,groundwork of orange-red mottled with black1 silver crescents on under margin of hind wings ,pearl crescent #a-a_/d--a-e_/h;,july1,sep ,asters1 daisy ,roadsides ,similar to silver crescent but colors are paler ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,angle wings ,comma #b ,may1,jun1,aug,elm1 nettle1 hop ,along woods and waste places ,pale red1 angled wings1 under surface light gray marked with silver commas ,interrogation #b-a_/b ,may1,jul1,aug,elm1 nettle1 hop ,near trees ,similar to comma1 but marked with silver semi-colons ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,tortoise ,shells ,compton's #b-c_/d ,feb1,oct ,willow ,near water tortoise ,looks much like the angle wings1 but has no silver spots ,milberts's #a-c_/d ,may1,june1 ,nettle ,roadsides tortoise ,aug1,sep ,broad1 reddish yellow band across both wings ,mourning cloak #c ,apr1,jul1,sep,willow1 poplar ,everywhere ,black with yellow or cream-bordered wings ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,the ,beauties ,red admiral #b ,may1,jul1,sep,nettle1 elm ,waste land ,bright red band circling across both wings ,painted beauty #b ,may1,jul1,sep,everlasting1 ,thistles thistle1 burdock ,mottled with pink1 black and white1 under surface mottled1 two large spots on under surface of hind wing ,thistle butterfly#b--b-a_/d ,may1,jul1,sep,thistles ,pastures ,like the painted beauty1 but has several small eye spots ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,the ,white ,admirals ,red-spotted #c ,july ,wild cherry1 ,near trees purple apple1 etc4 ,purple and blue above1 six red spots on under surface of wings ,banded purple #b-a_/b ,july ,hawthorn ,open woods ,a broad white band across both wings ,viceroy #b-a_/b ,june1,aug ,poplar1 willow ,roadsides ,imitates the monarch1 but is smaller and has a black line across the hind wings ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,the ,satyrs ,grass nymph #a-c_/d ,july ,grass ,meadows ,dull brown1 twenty spots in two rows across the wings ,little wood satyr#a-c_/d ,july ,grass ,hillsides ,dull brown1 six spots ,wood nymph #b ,july ,grass ,hillsides ,dull brown1 two eye spots on each fore wing in a larger yellow spot ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,hairstreaks ,hop hairstreak #a-a_/h ,may1,july ,hop ,about shrubbery ,dark color1 hind wings have slender tail-like projection and black spots crowned with crimson ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,the ,coppers ,american copper #a ,may1,jun1,sep,sorrel ,everywhere ,orange-red fore wings spotted with black1 hind wing with orange border ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,the ,blues ,common blue #a ,may1,july ,pea ,roadsides ,male light violet1 female lighter with reddish bordered wings ,tailed blue #a ,may1,aug1,sep,clover1 etc4 ,roadsides1 fields ,purplish violet color1 has small tail-like projection on hind wings ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,the ,whites ,common white #b ,may1,jul1,sep,mustard family ,gardens ,white checkered with black on fore wings1 female brownish ,cabbage butterfly#b ,may1,jul1,sep,cabbage1 etc4 ,gardens ,white1 black tip on fore wing1 one or two spots on hind wing ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,the ,sulphurs ,common sulphur m4 #a-c_/d1 ,may1,jun1,sep,clover ,meadows f4 #b-a_/d ,yellow1 bordered with black ,cloudless sulphur#b-a_/b ,july ,cassia and legumes,fields ,canary-yellow color ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,the ,swallowtails ,tiger swallowtail#c--e ,june1,aug ,cherry1 tulip tree,open woods ,yellow with black lines across wings ,black swallowtail#c--d ,june1,aug ,parsley ,gardens1 roadsides ,black with two bands of yellow spots and one band of blue spots ,green-clouded #c-c_/d--d-c_/d;,june1,sep ,spice bush1 ,open woods swallowtail sassafras ,black1 one row yellow spots1 hind wing clouded with green ,blue swallowtail #c-c_/d--d-a_/d;,july1,sep ,dutchman's pipe ,near houses vine ,black shaded with blue green1 one row whitish spots ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,connection ,,between ,,structure ,,and ,,function #a4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,cell ,,and ,,of ,,protozoa ,to show what ,single ,cells can ,do ,materials4 ,some single cells of plant or animal tissue1 stained to show structure4 ,slides of a one-celled animal1 stained4 ,living one-celled animals4 ,definitions4 ,cell1 the smallest living unit4 ,protoplasm1 the living material composing the cell4 ,nucleus1 a dense bit of protoplasm1 usually near the center of the cell1 often staining dark4 ,cytoplasm1 the less dense protoplasm outside of the nucleus1 usually taking a lighter stain4 ,nucleolus1 paranucleus or micronucleus1 a very small1 dense1 dark-staining body1 either within the nucleus 7nucleolus7 or near it 7paranucleus or micronucleus7 ,cell wall1 the lifeless membrane surrounding many cells1 secreted by the protoplasm4 ,food balls1 bits of food inside the cells of many one-celled animals1 usually showing through the walls4 ,food vacuole1 a small drop of water containing digestive material and a food ball4 ,contracting or pulsating vacuoles1 small1 clear spots in the cell1 filled with water4 ,in the living cell these disappear at intervals and then appear again4 ,oral groove1 a funnel-shaped groove in one side of some one-celled animals1 conducting food to the mouth4 ,in paramecium it often shows as an oblique line when the animal rolls4 ,gullet1 the inner end of the oral groove4 ,cilia1 numerous minute1 vibrating1 protoplasmic hairs on the surface of many cells4 ,respiration1 the passage of oxygen into the tissues of a living organism and of carbon dioxide out of them4 ,these gases can pass through any thin1 moist1 organic membrane4 ,when such a membrane separates two fluids which differ in the amount of oxygen they contain1 oxygen passes to the fluid containing the smaller amount4#b ,the same is true of carbon dioxide4 ,respiration is believed to occur in all living organisms4 #b ,this passage of fluids through membranes is known as osmosis4 ,digestion1 the process of making food materials soluble1 so that they can pass through membranes and be used to build up protoplasm4 ,a few forms of cells are able to take in solid food and digest it in their protoplasm1 but most cells can admit only fluid food4 ,fission1 a method of reproduction used in all cells1 by which a cell divides itself into two1 usually through the center4 ,in some one-celled animals this may be preceded by conjugation1 when two animals unite temporarily and exchange nuclear substance2 or in some forms two cells may fuse and the resulting cell may divide4 ,budding is a form of fission in which a small projection is formed on the parent cell and then cut off1 making a new individual4 ,protozoa 7first animals71 animals of one cell1 existing alone or in loose colonies4 ,observations4 #a4 ,examine a single cell1 stained to show structure4 ,identify the nucleus1 cytoplasm1 and1 if present1 the nucleolus or the micronucleus1 and the cell wall4 ,draw to show the form of the cell and the details of its structure4 ,label all details4 #b4 ,examine some stained paramecia4 ,select a typical one and identify in it nucleus1 micronucleus1 cytoplasm1 and cell wall or cell membrane4 ,you may also be able to see vacuoles1 looking like holes in the stained protoplasm4 ,give reasons for considering this animal to be a single cell4 ,draw one1 to show its cellular structure4 ,label all details4 #c4 ,clean a slide and cover glass1 place a drop of water containing living paramecia on the slide1 cover it1 and examine4 ,what structures do you see which you saw in the stained paramecia8 ,what structures do not show8 ,identify any new structures you may observe4 ,identify also the leading end and the side containing the oral groove4 #d4 ,describe the shape of the animal4 ,what is the actual length of the animal8 #e4 ,after watching the animal for some time1 describe the path followed by a given specimen as it crosses the field of the microscope4 ,what reason can you see1 if any1 why this paramecium is moving8 ,what external factors1 if any1 seem to determine the path it follows8 #f4 ,how rapidly do paramecia really move8 ,what structures do they use in locomotion8 ,how do they manage to move in one direction1 instead of alternately backward and forward8 ,how do they manage to move in a straight line1 though their bodies are not symmetrical8 #g4 ,what is the food of the paramecia8 ,how do they find it8 ,find a specimen at rest and watch the oral groove4 ,suggest a method by which food may be collected into it4 ,if possible1 note the process of swallowing1 and the resulting food ball4 ,note4--,if powdered carmine be placed in the water with some paramecia1 it can be seen in the food balls a half hour or so later4 #h4 ,where are the food balls located8 ,watch them in an individual until you notice their motion4 ,where are the larger food balls8 the smaller ones8 ,assuming them to have been of approximately equal sizes when they were taken in1 how can you account for differences now8 #i4 ,where are the contracting vacuoles8 ,how many are there8 ,how often does one contract8 ,what is their function8 #aj4 ,as you have been studying paramecia1 to what external influences 7as contact1 heat1 light1 etc47 have you seen them respond8 ,how do they show it when they do respond8 ,is such a response an advantage to them or not8 ,what would be the result if they were not able to detect changes in their surroundings8 #aa4 ,where does respiration occur in paramecia8 ,where do they obtain their supply of oxygen8 #ab4 ,among the paramecia you are studying you usually find at least one in the process of fission4 ,watch it until the halves separate1 if you can4 ,compare the halves4 ,do they rank as parent and offspring8 ,if so1 which is which8 ,if not1 which are they1 parent or offspring8 #ac4 ,if you happen to find a pair conjugating1 notice the process1 as far as you can1 in the living animals4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,a drawing to show all the details seen in the living paramecium4 b4 ,a diagram to show the path followed by a paramecium to get around some obstacle4 c4 ,drawings to show that paramecia are constant in shape and yet flexible4 d4 ,a drawing to show at least one stage in fission4 ,this may be from a permanent preparation4 e4 ,a drawing to show paramecia conjugating4 ,this also may be from a permanent preparation4 f4 ,instead of all these separate drawings they may be combined into one4 ,represent the field of the microscope1 and in it draw all necessary figures1 to show the facts called for in the first five drawings and any other facts you have observed about living protozoa4 ,make the whole drawing to scale4 ,summary of ,important ,points in the ,study of ,paramecia #a4 ,look back over your study of paramecia and list the different kinds of work you saw paramecia doing2 also the kinds of work you infer they can do4 ,what organs have they to use8 ,when there is no organ to do a given thing1 e4g4 to digest food1 how is the work done8 #b4 ,what conditions are favorable to paramecia8 ,why are they so numerous under favorable conditions8 #c4 ,what would you call a successful animal8 ,are paramecia successful8 ,give reasons why they are or are not4 ,comparative ,study of ,protozoa ,to enlarge your idea of what a cell can do1 spend as much more time on the one-celled animals as your course will permit4 ,any stagnant water may furnish several kinds4 ,by means of reference books1 identify as many as you can4 ,in each case notice3-- #a4 ,its size1 shape and general appearance1 comparing and contrasting it with paramecium4 #b4 ,its usual surroundings1 i4e4 the conditions it has to meet4 #c4 ,the means it has of finding out facts about its surroundings4 #d4 ,the means it has of adjusting itself to its surroundings4 ,for example1 is it stationary8 ,if so1 what does it do when conditions change8 ,is it locomotory8 ,if so1 how effective is its locomotion8 #e4 ,what is its food8 ,how does it find food8 #f4 ,can it do as many kinds of work as paramecium can8 ,can it do any that paramecium cannot do8 ,if so1 what8 ,review and ,library ,questions on ,protozoa #a4 ,what are the characteristics which distinguish protozoa from other animals8 #b4 ,what are the classes of protozoa8 ,characteristics of each class8 #c4 ,what is digestion8 ,where does it take place in the protozoa8 #d4 ,what results from the fact that the amoeba has no cell wall8 7,give at least two points47 #e4 ,in what ways are paramecia more specialized than amoeba are8 ,how does their greater specialization show in their work8 #f4 ,what different methods of locomotion are shown among protozoa8 ,by what means is locomotion accomplished in each case8 #g4 ,what is encysting8 ,name some protozoa which encyst4 ,how long may an encysted animal live8 ,when do they encyst8 ,why8 #h4 ,give methods of reproduction among protozoa4 ,which method is fitted for rapid multiplication1 for withstanding drouth2 for renewing vitality8 #i4 ,many scientists speak of protozoa as immortal4 ,what argument is there to support such a statement8 #aj4 ,why are no protozoa large animals8 ,give at least two reasons4 #aa4 ,why are protozoa so numerous8 ,why more numerous in stagnant water8 #ab4 ,where are protozoa found8 #ac4 ,why are protozoa so widely distributed8 #ad4 ,write the probable history of a piece of chalk4 #ae4 ,what connection is there between protozoa and some polishing powders8 #af4 ,where in the human body are malarial protozoa found8 ,how are they transferred from one human being to another8 ,why is there likely to be more malaria in newly settled regions than in older ones8 ,if you were obliged to spend some time in a region where malaria existed1 what precautions would you take8 #ag4 ,name other diseases caused by protozoa4 ,how are they fought8 #ah4 ,what beneficial effect have some protozoa upon the water of stagnant ponds and ditches8 ,how may some forms injure water for household purposes8 #ai4 ,give at least three reasons for thinking that protozoa are the most ancient animals4 #bj4 ,why are protozoa of great importance to the world8 #b4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,sponges ,to show how cells loosely associated may work together4 ,materials4 ,the simplest of the many-celled animals are the sponges1 which1 with one exception1 are salt-water forms4 ,that one1 the spongilla1 is not easily found and is very difficult to maintain in the laboratory4 ,for these reasons the material for this study is very meager1 except at the seashore1 and much of the work must be done from diagrams and reference books4 ,small simple preserved sponges and complex toilet sponge skeletons will also be used4 ,definitions4 ,body wall1 the outer wall in bodies of the many-celled animals4 ,central cavity1 the cavity surrounded by the body wall in the simpler many-celled animals1 as in the sponges4 ,canals1 channels through the body walls of sponges4 ,inhalent pores1 the outer ends of the canals4 ,ostia1 the inner ends of the canals4 ,osculum1 the large opening of the central cavity1 at the distal end of the sponge4 ,spicules1 tiny needles of mineral substance found in the walls of many sponges4 ,fibers1 flexible threads of horny material found in the walls of many sponges4 ,endoderm cells1 cells lining the canals4 ,they have cilia or flagella 7projections larger than cilia74 ,ectoderm cells1 cells covering the outside of sponges and some other animals4 ,in sponges it is believed that endoderm and ectoderm cells are able to exchange positions and functions4 ,mesoglea1 a jelly-like layer between the endoderm and ectoderm layers4 ,in the sponges this contains many wandering cells1 probably from the other layers4 ,porifera 7pore bearers71 animals with many more or less independent cells1 supported by solid skeletal parts and penetrated by a system of canals which open on the surface as pores4 ,directions4 ,study a simple sponge to see the shape1 size1 and point of attachment4 ,identify the osculum4 ,in a diagram of a long section of a simple sponge identify the central cavity1 body walls1 canals1 inhalent pores1 ostia1 and osculum4 ,in a simple sponge cut like the diagram identify the same structures4 ,do the same for the toilet sponge4 ,study a diagram of a portion of the body wall1 considerably enlarged4 ,identify the endoderm and ectoderm cells1 the spicules or fibers1 and1 among the spicules or fibers1 irregular amoeboid cells1 sometimes called mesoderm cells4 ,examine a fragment or section of each kind of sponge under the microscope4 ,notice the arrangement1 shape1 and length of the spicules and of the fibers4 ,test both kinds of sponges by dropping a bit of each into weak acid1 and noting the results4 ,also burn a bit of each and notice the odor4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what is the shape of a simple sponge8 ,what enables a mass of cells to retain such a definite shape8 #b4 ,what seems to be the composition of the skeletons8 ,why is one type of skeleton rigid and the other elastic8 #c4 ,since sponges are attached for most of their lives to stationary objects1 suggest means for obtaining food and oxygen1 and for getting rid of waste matter4 #d4 ,although individual cells are sensitive1 a sponge as a whole is not4 ,what connection has this fact with the fact that sponges are stationary8 #e4 ,compare simple and complex sponges4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,a view of a simple sponge4 ,label everything shown4 b4 ,a diagram of a simple sponge split in halves4 ,show by arrows the path followed by the water as it passes through the sponge4 c4 ,a few spicules4 d4 ,a few fibers4 ,summary of ,important ,points in the ,study of ,sponges #a4 ,what are two functions of the spicules or fibers8 #b4 ,what are at least two of the functions of the endoderm cells8 #c4 ,what can you suggest as functions for the ectoderm cells8 #d4 ,in what cases do cells show team work in accomplishing an object8 #e4 ,what degree of specialization is indicated by the fact that the cells may exchange positions and functions8 #f4 ,what work can any single cell of a sponge do8 ,compare the work done by such a cell with that done by a paramecium4 #g4 ,what work can a whole sponge do8 ,compare that with the work done by a paramecium4 ,review and ,library ,exercise on ,sponges #a4 ,what are the distinguishing characteristics of ,porifera8 #b4 ,sponges were once supposed to be plants4 ,in what respect are they plant-like8 ,what made students finally class them as animals8 #c4 ,how do sponges reproduce8 ,how are they distributed to new locations8 #d4 ,where1 as to depth of water1 do most sponges grow8 ,where1 as to oceans8 ,where1 as to latitude8 #e4 ,what are some of the difficulties which confront a stationary animal8 ,how are they overcome8 #f4 ,to what class of sponges do the toilet sponges belong8 ,why8 #g4 ,what conditions are necessary for toilet sponges to thrive8 ,where are the best ones found8 ,where are they most numerous8 ,how are they collected8 ,how are they prepared for market8 #h4 ,what is man able to do toward raising good sponges for market8 #i4 ,using reference books and museum specimens1 describe some especially odd sponges4 #c4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,coelenterates ,to show cells working together more definitely than in ,sponges ,a ,study of ,hydra ,materials4 ,living hydras in permanent aquaria1 undisturbed4 ,living hydras in small aquaria1 i4e4 tumblers1 test tubes1 watch glasses1 etc41 with pieces of water weed and if possible some of the microscopic animals found in water where hydras are abundant4 ,if kept cool1 hydras may live several days in such aquaria4 ,permanent slides of hydras2 some whole1 some in sections1 and some showing the organs of reproduction4 ,definitions4 ,proximal end1 the end by which an animal is attached to an object4 ,distal end1 the end opposite the proximal end4 ,tentacles1 slender projections around the distal end4 ,mouth1 the opening through the distal end1 into the central cavity4 ,bud1 a small hydra or other coelenterate growing out from the wall of the parent4 ,mesoglea1 a thin1 gluey partition1 without wandering cells1 between the ectoderm and the endoderm4 ,nettle cells1 very small cells1 chiefly in the tentacles1 easily identified in permanent preparations as clear cells with small hairs projecting from them4 ,see text-books for details of their structure4 ,spermary1 the region or organ where the sperm cells are formed4 ,ovary1 the region or organ where the egg cells are formed4 ,coelenterates 7hollow bowels71 sac-shaped animals1 the digestive tract having only one opening2 the body wall is of two layers4 ,directions4 ,take a small aquarium to your table1 set it down carefully and leave it undisturbed4 ,identify a hydra and watch it for some time4 ,observations on the living animals4 #a4 ,describe the size and shape of a hydra when expanded4 ,disturb it slightly by shaking the aquarium a little1 and describe its shape when contracted4 ,notice also the flexibility of the body4 ,what do you infer concerning the hydra's possession of a skeleton8 ,what advantage can it be to have a body so flexible8 #b4 ,how many tentacles has the hydra that you are studying8 ,what does the hydra do with these tentacles when it is expanded8 ,what is the probable object of such actions8 #c4 ,how does a hydra respond to contact8 ,what seems to be the object of such a response8 #d4 ,notice the location of the hydras in the large1 undisturbed aquaria4 ,where are they placed as regards the light side of the aquarium8 ,of what value is such a response to light in their case8 #e4 ,how can a hydra locate the small animals which are its food8 ,how can it capture them8 #f4 ,what motions may a hydra perform1 while remaining attached by its base8 ,what are the results of these movements8 #g4 ,if you have happened to see a hydra move from one place to another1 describe the process4 ,if not1 give the facts which lead you to believe that it is able to do so4 ,suggest all the methods you think it may be able to use4 ,what is your opinion of the hydra's power of locomotion8 ,of what use is it in getting food2 in escaping enemies2 in following the fluctuations of the water supply8 ,if you had to class the hydra as either one1 would you call it a stationary or a locomotory animal8 #h4 ,study budding hydras4 ,compare the bud with the parent hydra as to size1 form and number and size of tentacles4 ,notice whether the bud moves independently or only with the parent4 ,when does it separate from the parent8 #i4 ,in hydras collected late in the fall you may see another method of reproduction4 ,if such material is at hand1 notice small swellings near the proximal end and others near the tentacles4 ,eggs are produced in the lower one1 the ovary1 and sperm cells in the upper one1 the spermary4 ,refer to your text-book for further details4 ,details of structure4 #a4 ,using an entire mounted specimen and a section of hydra1 identify the body wall and the central cavity4 ,what is the extent of the central cavity8 7,examine both the body and the tentacles47 ,where does it open to the outside8 ,what do you think is its use8 #b4 ,in the body wall1 identify the endodermal and ectodermal layers of cells1 separated by the mesoglea1 which is usually stained more deeply4 ,study these cell layers carefully4 ,what work ought each to do8 ,what can you discover in its structure which would fit each layer to do its work8 #c4 ,in the tentacles1 identify the nettle cells4 ,where are they8 ,how are they arranged8 ,about how many of them would be discharged if a small animal were to bump into a tentacle8 ,summary of ,important ,points in the ,study of ,hydra #a4 ,name the different kinds of cells in a hydra4 ,which kind differs most from such a cell as the starfish egg8 ,what work does this specialized cell do8 #b4 ,how much of a hydra's body may be set in action by touching a tentacle8 ,contrast this with the sponge4 ,what do you infer concerning the nervous power of these two animals8 #c4 ,look back over your notes and list the different kinds of work a hydra can do4 #d4 ,can it do any more kinds of work than a paramecium or a sponge can8 ,if so1 give further details4 #e4 ,can it do any of its work in any better way8 ,would you expect it to be able to8 ,why1 or why not8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,hydra undisturbed1 and hydra after being touched or shaken4 b4 ,a hydra in successive poses to show its flexibility4 c4 ,a hydra taking food4 d4 ,hydras to show reproduction in one or both ways4 e4 ,a section of hydra1 showing details4 ,comparative ,study of ,coelenterates ,materials4 ,various coelenterates1 such as hydroids1 hydro-medus1 jellyfishes1 sea anemones1 corals1 sea fans1 etc4 ,since nearly all the coelenterates except hydras are marine forms1 these will usually have to be dead specimens1 preserved in formalin or alcohol1 or put up as permanent preparations for the microscope4 ,definitions4 ,colony1 as used in this group1 a number of individuals descended by budding from an original one1 and remaining connected4 ,polyp1 an individual coelenterate2 one of the individuals in a colony4 ,observations4 #a4 ,how large is an individual specimen in the form you are studying8 ,if the form is colonial1 how large is the colony or portion of a colony you are studying8 ,estimate the number of individuals in it4 ,is the colony free-swimming or attached8 ,if attached1 to what is it usually fastened8 #b4 ,compare the individual you are studying with a hydra1 as to size and shape of the body1 the location of the mouth1 and the size1 number1 and arrangement of the tentacles4 #c4 ,is there a skeleton8 ,if so1 describe it4 ,what appears to be its use8 ,in corals1 notice the radiating partitions4 #d4 ,has the specimen any nettle cells8 ,if so1 where are they located8 #e4 ,are all the polyps of the colony alike8 ,if not1 how many kinds are there8 ,how do they differ8 ,what is each kind best fitted to do8 ,what is the probable result of this differentiation8 #f4 ,what kinds of reproduction1 if any1 does the specimen you are studying show8 ,find out from books what other forms of reproduction are sometimes used by this animal4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,at least one drawing of each coelenterate you study4 ,summary of the ,comparative ,study of ,coelenterates #a4 ,how may polyps in colonial forms differ from polyps which live singly8 #b4 ,what variations in methods of reproduction are shown in this group8 #c4 ,which of the polyps you have studied shows the greatest differentiation8 ,in what ways8 #d4 ,what characteristic do you find common to all the coelenterates you have studied8 ,review and ,library ,exercise on ,coelenterates #a4 ,what are the characteristics which distinguish coelenterates8 #b4 ,give the classes of coelenterates1 with the characteristics and an example of each4 #c4 ,what enables a hydra to stick to a support by its foot8 #d4 ,what are the processes in a hydra by which food is captured1 swallowed1 and digested8 #e4 ,what is the chief fact of interest about ,hydra viridis8 #f4 ,why do hydras reproduce all summer by budding and in the late fall by eggs8 #g4 ,what change would have developed a hydra and its offspring into a plant-like colony instead of into a group of individuals8 #h4 ,why are ctenophores more easily seen in the night than other coelenterates are8 #i4 ,what relations may exist between hydroids and hydro-medus8 #aj4 ,what are the advantages of a sedentary life8 ,of a locomotory one8 #aa4 ,what is meant by the expression alternation of generations8 ,which animals are likely to develop alternation of generations1 sedentary ones or locomotory ones8 ,why8 #ab4 ,give at least two differences between hydro-medus and true jellyfishes4 #ac4 ,in the association between a hydractinia colony and a hermit crab1 what advantages are derived by the hydractinia8 by the crab8 ,define symbiosis4 ,give another illustration of it4 #ad4 ,how are new coral colonies started8 ,how are large colonies formed8 #ae4 ,what are the conditions of life under which corals can grow vigorously8 #af4 ,where are corals most abundant8 ,note4--,show by coloring the regions on a blank map of the world4 #ag4 ,how may corals form a reef8 ,why do they1 as a rule1 form a reef instead of adding directly to the mainland8 #ah4 ,give ,darwin's theory regarding the way a coral atoll may have been formed4 #ai4 ,where are fossil corals found in abundance8 ,what does their presence prove8 #bj4 ,what is polymorphism8 ,give an illustration4 ,what may be a disadvantage of polymorphism8 ,what may be an advantage8 #ba4 ,in what ways is this group of economic importance8 #d4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,worms ,to show cells associated even more closely than in coelenterates1 forming tissues and systems of organs4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,earthworms ,the ,living ,earthworm ,materials4 ,living earthworms1 some of which are left undisturbed from day to day1 in damp earth with leaves of various plants scattered upon it4 ,definitions4 ,anterior end1 the head end1 usually the leading end4 ,posterior end1 the end opposite the anterior end4 ,ventral surface1 the lower surface1 usually the one which contains the mouth4 ,dorsal surface1 the one opposite the ventral surface4 ,somites1 the rings or segments of which some animal bodies are composed4 ,bilateral symmetry1 the symmetry usually shown by animals which have differentiated dorsal and ventral surfaces1 and right and left sides4 ,animals which do not have such differentiated surfaces are usually radially symmetrical1 but sometimes asymmetrical 7without symmetry74 ,girdle1 the somewhat transparent band frequently found near the anterior end of an earthworm4 ,anal opening1 the posterior opening of the food canal4 ,set 7singular form1 seta71 small bristles or stiff hairs4 ,in the earthworm these are set in the body wall at definite intervals1 and aid in locomotion4 ,cuticle1 in the earthworm a delicate1 shining cover over the body4 ,egg capsules1 small1 light-colored1 spindle-shaped sacks1 about the size and somewhat the shape of a grain of wheat1 containing the eggs or young of earthworms4 ,directions4 ,take a living earthworm to your table and keep it damp by placing it in a wet tray or upon moist paper4 ,identify the anterior and posterior ends1 the dorsal and ventral surfaces1 and the right and left sides4 ,identify also the somites and the girdle1 the mouth with its projecting lip1 and the anal opening4 ,observations4 #a4 ,watch a living worm for some time4 ,does it seem to have a definite object in its moving8 ,if so1 what is it8 ,upon what sense or senses does it seem to depend for guidance8 ,which end usually leads8 ,why8 #b4 ,over what sort of surface does it move most easily8 ,why8 ,watch it closely for some time and discover how it is able to move from place to place4 7,suggestion4 ,what is the function of the set in this process8 ,how can you explain the alternate contraction and expansion of parts87 #c4 ,from time to time1 for perhaps a week1 examine the leaves which were scattered where the worms could reach them4 ,have the worms moved them about at all8 ,if so1 where are the leaves left8 ,have any been eaten1 in part or entirely8 ,if so1 is there any evidence of selection1 either as to the kind of leaf or the portion of leaf eaten8 ,if earthworms select food1 what senses would be useful for the purpose8 ,have you any evidence that earthworms possess such senses8 #d4 ,looking through the dorsal wall1 notice the meandering red line1 seen more easily in some regions than in others4 ,this is the dorsal blood vessel4 ,how long is it8 ,where is it wider8 ,where narrower8 ,notice its pulsations4 ,how many times per minute does it pulsate8 ,in which direction is the blood forced8 ,is there a corresponding ventral blood vessel8 ,place a small worm between two pieces of glass1 so that you may see through it more easily1 and identify the blood vessels encircling the digestive canal1 near the anterior end4 ,these are the so-called hearts of the earthworm4 ,if possible1 decide in which direction the blood flows through them4 #e4 ,the food canal1 or alimentary canal1 lies underneath the dorsal blood vessel1 and is usually easily seen1 especially if it is full of food4 ,notice it when the worm is fully stretched and again when it is contracted4 ,how long is the canal8 ,why does it wrinkle when the worm contracts8 ,where does it open to the outside8 ,why does it need to8 #f4 ,where do you infer respiration must take place in this animal8 ,why do you think so8 ,what fits this surface for such a purpose8 ,why does an earthworm seem so uncomfortable when it is too dry8 #g4 ,where do earthworms live8 ,what conditions are necessary in their habitat8 #h4 ,when do earthworms usually leave their burrows8 ,why at that particular time rather than at another8 ,why does the early bird catch the worm8 #i4 ,what enemies do earthworms have8 ,how are they protected against these enemies8 #aj4 ,if you have found egg capsules when collecting worms1 describe them4 ,external ,morphology of ,earthworms ,materials4 ,preserved earthworms1 the larger the better4 ,observations4 #a4 ,in what respects are the dorsal and ventral surfaces alike8 ,in what respects different8 ,why8 #b4 ,why are the right and left sides alike8 #c4 ,in what respects are the two ends alike8 ,in what different8 ,why8 #d4 ,how many somites are there from the anterior end to the girdle8 ,how many under the girdle8 ,how many from the girdle to the posterior end8 #e4 ,where are the set located in a somite8 ,how are they distributed over the body8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,an earthworm1 dorsal aspect4 b4 ,an earthworm1 ventral aspect4 c4 ,an outline diagram of a cross section1 to show the location of the set1 the blood vessels and the alimentary canal4 ,internal ,morphology or ,anatomy ,materials4 7#a7 ,preserved earthworms1 as large as you can obtain4 7#b7 ,cross sections of earthworms4 7#c7 ,longitudinal sections of earthworms4 ,definitions4 ,body cavity1 the space between the body wall and the alimentary canal4 ,septa 7singular1 septum71 the thin walls between somites1 seen when the worm is opened4 ,pharynx1 the hard-walled1 rather bulbous1 anterior portion of the alimentary canal4 ,esophagus1 the portion of the alimentary canal extending back from the pharynx with thinner walls and smaller diameter4 ,crop1 the short1 wide portion of the canal back of the esophagus4 ,gizzard1 the hard-walled1 short region1 just back of the crop4 ,stomach-intestine1 the portion of the canal reaching from the gizzard to the anus4 ,ventral nerve cord1 a light-colored thread lying against the inner surface of the ventral body wall4 ,nerve ganglia 7singular1 ganglion71 slight swellings on the ventral nerve cord4 ,nerve ring or collar1 a pair of nerves extending from the ventral nerve cord around the pharynx to a pair of ganglia 7often called the brain7 in the dorsal region of the anterior end4 ,kidney tubes or nephridia1 the excretory organs of the earthworm1 occurring as slender1 paired tubes in nearly every somite4 ,directions4 ,select a large worm and cut carefully through the body wall along one side1 midway between the dorsal and ventral surfaces1 from the anterior end to the posterior4 ,lay the worm on any convenient fairly soft surface 7a piece of pine1 cork1 peat1 paraffin71 preferably under water1 and pin out the walls so that you can see into the interior4 ,identify the structures defined above1 as well as the dorsal and ventral blood vessels and the hearts4 ,the nephridia are not easily distinguished1 though they are very numerous4 ,they are long1 slender1 coiled tubes1 two in each somite1 lying in the body cavity1 one on each side of the alimentary canal4 ,if possible1 identify them4 ,notice that most of the internal organs are free from the body wall1 lying free in the body cavity4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what is the extent of the body cavity1 anteriorly and posteriorly8 ,what is its shape8 #b4 ,what1 in general1 is the shape of the food canal8 ,how many external openings has it8 #c4 ,into what regions is the food canal differentiated8 ,suggest one advantage of having these specialized regions4 #d4 ,how is the alimentary canal of the worm kept away from the body walls8 ,why have it thus supported8 #e4 ,what is a septum8 ,how many septa are there8 ,what vessels and tubes pass through a septum8 #f4 ,locate the nerve cord4 ,how long is it8 ,how frequently do the ganglia occur on it8 ,which end of the living worm is the more sensitive4 ,suggest the connection between this fact and the location of ganglia4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,earthworm1 showing structures mentioned in this study4 ,details of ,structure--,microscopic ,anatomy ,materials4 ,sections of earthworms1 preferably both cross sections and dorso-ventral1 longitudinal ones4 ,directions4 ,in a section under a simple lens1 identify the dorsal and ventral surfaces1 the body wall1 the body cavity1 the alimentary canal1 and1 if possible1 the dorsal and ventral blood vessels and the ventral nerve cord4 ,under a microscope identify the same structures4 ,notice that the body wall consists of three layers of cells3 an outer single layer1 the epidermis2 a middle layer1 the circular muscles2 and an inner one1 the longitudinal muscles4 ,the nephridia show as loosely scattered fragments in the body cavity1 at the right and left of the alimentary canal4 ,if you happen to have a section which shows one or more set1 identify the muscles which operate it1 and the group of glandular cells at its inner end1 which are known as setigerous 7from seta7 cells4 ,questions4 #a4 ,describe the epidermal cells4 ,what is their probable function8 ,among them notice larger cells1 clear and rounded4 ,these are the mucous 7slime7 cells4 ,what is the use of mucus to the worm8 #b4 ,describe the muscle cells4 ,in which direction do the muscle fibers extend8 ,what is their function8 ,which layer of muscle cells is thicker1 the circular or the longitudinal8 ,why should it be8 #c4 ,notice the cells in the walls of the alimentary canal4 ,what layers do you find8 ,how are they arranged8 #d4 ,if the section you are studying is a cross section from the region back of the gizzard1 the alimentary canal will look horseshoe shaped1 indented from the dorsal surface4 ,what is the effect of this indentation upon the amount of surface in the alimentary canal8 #e4 ,study the cells of the nerve cord4 ,how do they compare in size and shape with the muscle cells8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,a diagram of a cross section1 showing the relation of the organs4 b4 ,a diagram of a longitudinal section1 at least through the body wall1 to show the arrangement of muscle fibers4 c4 ,a drawing of a portion of the body wall1 to show details4 ,summary of ,important ,points in ,study of the ,earthworm #a4 ,compared with a hydra1 how many cells has an earthworm8 #b4 ,compared with a hydra1 how much are the cells of an earthworm differentiated8 #c4 ,how are these differentiated cells usually arranged with respect to one another8 ,what advantage is there in this arrangement8 #d4 ,recall the kinds of work done by paramecium1 sponge1 hydra1 and worm1 and at the same time consider also the efficiency of each4 ,can earthworms do any more kinds of work than any of the others8 ,can they do any more work8 ,can they do any of it better8 ,give the probable reasons for this8 ,comparative ,study of ,worms ,materials4 ,as many different kinds of worms as you can get1 living or dead4 ,directions4 ,identify your specimens4 ,then study as many as your time will allow1 using these general questions for each3-- ,questions4 #a4 ,how large is the specimen and what is its shape8 #b4 ,can you distinguish a head or a head end8 ,if so1 by what peculiarities8 #c4 ,state whether the body is segmented or not1 and1 if it is1 whether the segments are alike in form and appearance1 i4e4 whether the segments are uniform4 #d4 ,state whether the animal is bilaterally symmetrical1 radially symmetrical1 or without symmetry4 #e4 ,compare this worm with the earthworm as to sense organs4 #f4 ,what organs for respiration has it8 #g4 ,what special protective devices has it8 #h4 ,if possible1 find out and state where this worm lives4 ,what can you see in the structure of this worm which enables it to live where it does8 ,summary of the ,comparative ,study of ,worms #a4 ,name the different worms you have studied4 ,what characteristics have they in common8 #b4 ,what different methods of obtaining food do they show8 #c4 ,what variations do they show in senses8 in sense organs8 #d4 ,which one seems to you best adapted to its habitat8 ,in what ways8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,one drawing of each worm studied4 ,review and ,library ,work on ,worms #a4 ,what are the distinguishing characteristics of worms8 #b4 ,give the classes of worms1 and the authority for this classification4 #c4 ,what kind of soil do earthworms seem to prefer8 ,why should they8 ,how do they form their burrows8 ,what are the castings around the mouth of a burrow8 ,how are they placed there8 #d4 ,in what ways do earthworms benefit the soil8 ,how great is their effect estimated to be8 #e4 ,give a brief sketch of the life of ,charles ,darwin1 noting especially the work he did with earthworms4 ,why is ,darwin's work on earthworms noteworthy3 because it is such a large proportion of the work he did1 or because it is so much of the work which has been done on earthworms8 #f4 ,how are earthworms protected against the cold of our winters8 ,what limits the northern range of earthworms8 #g4 ,where are earthworms found geographically8 ,why are they so widely distributed8 ,by what means are they extended from one locality to another8 #h4 ,how do earthworms reproduce8 ,what care do they take of their young8 #i4 ,what tissues or organs of earthworms correspond in function with the ectoderm of hydra2 with the endoderm8 ,why does an earthworm need a system of blood circulation more than a hydra does8 #aj4 ,contrast the number of openings in an earthworm's alimentary canal with the number in a hydra's digestive cavity4 ,which plan seems a better one8 ,in what respects8 #aa4 ,contrast a cross section of hydra with one of earthworm as to the number of cavities4 ,which seems to you the better plan8 ,why8 #ab4 ,why does a nereis need more respiratory surface than an earthworm does8 #ac4 ,comparing earthworm and nereis1 in what respects is the earthworm degenerate8 ,how does it manage to succeed so well with such a degenerate body8 #ad4 ,what is a parasite8 ,how many hosts does a typical parasite require for its development8 ,which host is known as the intermediate one8 #ae4 ,trace the history of a tapeworm from the egg to the adult4 ,at what stage are they most likely to be destroyed8 ,what provision is there for this8 ,what advantages are there to the host in the fact that a tapeworm's egg cannot develop in the original host8 ,what advantages to the parasite8 #af4 ,what organs has a parasite lost1 if it ever had them8 ,how does it succeed without them8 ,what connection is there between parasitism and degeneration8 ,can you decide which is cause and which is effect8 ,if so1 which is8 #ag4 ,why do worms so easily become parasitic8 ,what advantages are there in becoming a parasite8 ,what disadvantages8 #ah4 ,what is radial symmetry8 ,name two animals which show it4 ,what is bilateral symmetry8 ,name two animals which show it4 ,what is the relation between locomotion and symmetry8 #ai4 ,what is meant in biology by the term regeneration8 ,to what extent have we this power8 ,to what extent have hydra and earthworm8 ,what are the results of this power8 #bj4 ,name various methods of locomotion among worms4 ,give examples4 ,name a fixed or sedentary worm4 #ba4 ,what is the economic importance of worms8 ,consider here not only earthworms and tapeworms1 but also the stomach worms of sheep1 liver flukes1 trichin1 hookworms1 vinegar eels1 and as many others as you have time and books to look up4 #e4 ,,the ,,connection ,,between ,,structure ,,and ,,function ,a ,review of the ,work done on the ,first ,four ,groups of ,animals ,review all your studies on the protozoa1 sponges1 coelenterates1 and worms4 ,write the results in the following summary3-- #a4 ,what work1 i4e4 labor1 must an animal do to live8 #b4 ,how many cells are necessary to do this work8 #c4 ,when this work is divided among a number of cells1 what is the effect upon the quantity and quality of work accomplished8 #d4 ,when this work is divided among a number of cells1 how does the structure of the cells show it8 ,how does the arrangement of the cells also show it8 ,give examples4 #e4 ,the technical expression for this specialization of cells1 giving them different functions1 is division of labor4 ,formulate a clear definition for this expression1 giving an example to illustrate it4 #f4 ,is division of labor a good thing for an animal body1 or is it not8 ,give reasons for your opinion1 with examples for illustration4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,adaptation ,,to ,,surroundings ,a ,,study ,,of ,,crustacea ,to ,show the ,general ,adaptation of an ,invertebrate to its ,surroundings #a4 ,a ,,study ,,of ,,crayfishes ,materials4 ,crayfishes1 living and preserved4 ,some of the living crayfishes should be established in conditions as natural as possible i4e4 in an inch or so of fresh water1 with rocks1 weeds1 etc41 and left undisturbed4 ,small crayfishes are desirable to show locomotion in water4 ,living ,crayfishes ,directions and observations4 #a4 ,observe living crayfishes in their usual habitat or in a large aquarium1 without disturbing them1 and see where they stay when they are free to choose4 ,notice their position4 ,what senses are on guard8 ,what is the color of the head and claws8 ,how may this color aid the animal in getting food or in escaping enemies8 ,why is the color of the posterior region less important than the color of the anterior8 #b4 ,offer them bits of meat4 ,if one takes food1 notice the appendages it uses4 ,how does it discover the food8 ,with what appendages does it grasp the food8 ,how is the food conveyed to the mouth8 ,with what senses1 if any1 does the animal test the food as it eats it8 #c4 ,if the crayfishes are in plenty of water and you startle them in any way1 some of them may swim4 ,watch for such an occurrence and notice it carefully4 ,how is swimming accomplished8 ,which end leads in swimming8 ,how far does the animal swim at a stroke8 ,how long does it continue to swim8 ,where does it go8 ,does it see where it is going8 ,for what purpose would this method of locomotion be useful8 #d4 ,place a living crayfish in a tray with water to cover it1 and take it to your table4 ,watch the crayfish as it walks about in the water1 then take it out and let it walk out of water4 ,compare the two processes4 ,what causes the differences8 #e4 ,how many appendages are used in walking8 ,what order1 if any1 is there in moving the legs8 ,which method1 walking or swimming1 does it use in going to some particular spot1 e4g4 in going to find food or cover8 ,why8 #f4 ,gently turn the animal on its back and watch the movements of its appendages as it rights itself4 ,which appendages does it use and how does it use them8 ,how can it manage to use so many appendages in harmony1 for one result8 #g4 ,for what different purposes have you seen the crayfishes use their large claws8 ,for which does the claw seem best fitted8 ,can you think of any change which would make it more efficient for its main purpose8 ,if so1 describe the change and tell how it would work4 #h4 ,test the distribution of the sense of feeling4 ,is it anywhere especially acute8 ,if so1 where8 ,why have two pairs of feelers8 ,where is each pair carried when the animal is at rest2 when it is in motion8 ,how much territory can the two pairs guard8 #i4 ,touch the eyes4 ,compare their sensitiveness with that of your own eyes4 ,what movements can the eyes perform8 ,how are they protected8 ,what range of territory can they guard8 #aj4 ,what other senses1 if any1 do you think a crayfish has8 ,why do you think so8 #aa4 ,early in the spring crayfishes may be found carrying eggs or young4 ,if such a specimen is at hand1 notice where and how the eggs or young are attached4 ,how many are there8 ,how are they cared for8 ,can the young crayfish let go8 ,if removed1 can they attach themselves again8 ,how much care does the mother give them when they are removed8 ,morphology of a ,crayfish ,definitions4 ,cephalo-thorax1 the anterior half of the body1 divided into the head and the thorax4 ,cervical groove1 the groove dividing the head from the thorax4 ,abdomen1 the posterior half of the body1 consisting of a number of somites4 ,note4--,the central part of the tail fin is usually included as a somite4 ,carapace1 the continuous shell-like portion of the exoskeleton covering the cephalo-thorax4 ,rostrum1 the sharp projection of the carapace at the anterior end4 ,gill chamber1 a pocket on each side of the thorax1 covered by a flap of the carapace4 ,appendages1 paired structures attached to the body4 ,they are named as follows3-- ,eyestalks4 7,these are not classed as appendages by all students47 ,antennules1 the small feelers4 ,antenn1 the large feelers4 ,mandibles1 the jaws1 one on each side of the mouth4 ,maxill1 the two pairs of small mouth parts just back of the mandibles4 ,maxillipeds1 the three pairs of appendages between the maxill and the large claws4 ,chelipeds1 the large claws or pinchers4 ,walking legs1 the four pairs of appendages back of the chelipeds4 ,swimmerets1 the appendages on the abdomen4 ,openings1 five on the ventral surface1 as follows3-- ,the openings from the excretory organs1 through small white cones on the bases of the antenn4 ,the mouth1 farther back1 between the maxillipeds4 ,the anal opening1 in the last segment of the abdomen4 ,the opening from the reproductive gland1 toward the posterior part of the thorax4 ,observations4 #a4 ,how large is your specimen8 ,how does it compare in size with other crayfishes in the laboratory8 #b4 ,describe the shape of the body1 contrasting the anterior end with the posterior1 and the dorsal surface with the ventral4 #c4 ,study the amount of motion permitted in different parts of the body4 ,what prevents motion8 ,what permits it8 ,where is the body most flexible8 ,why8 ,where is it most rigid8 ,why8 #d4 ,how much of the surface is covered with exoskeleton8 ,what arrangement is there to permit the animal to feel contact8 ,how can the animal grow with such an exoskeleton8 #e4 ,place a dead crayfish in dilute acid for a few hours4 ,what is the result8 ,what has the acid done8 ,explain the fact that crayfishes are often found alive and well with a soft shell8 #f4 ,compare the cephalo-thorax with the abdomen as to size1 shape1 and flexibility4 #g4 ,how many somites are there in the abdomen8 ,which way does it bend8 ,study the somite shells on every side and then state what there is in their construction which determines the direction and amount of their motion4 ,how are the somite shells arranged to protect the body during bending8 ,how is the ventral surface of the abdomen protected8 #h4 ,where are the appendages attached8 ,study a walking leg and describe its general construction1 the number and kind of joints1 the direction of motion in each joint1 and the range of motion for the whole leg4 ,study an antenna in the same way4 ,what methods are used in the crayfish to secure a wide range of motion8 ,to secure flexibility8 #i4 ,carefully split a crayfish into right and left halves4 ,to do this1 first cut through the ventral exoskeleton from end to end with scissors1 then with a sharp knife or razor cut through to the dorsal exoskeleton and cut that with the scissors4 ,study one half1 to get a better idea of the attachment of the appendages4 ,these may then be removed and placed in order on a piece of paper upon which a list of the appendages has been written4 #aj4 ,how many pairs of appendages are there8 ,how may they be grouped according to location2 how grouped according to function8 ,how many pairs are there in each group8 #aa4 ,what similarities of structure do you find in nearly all of the appendages8 ,assuming a swimmeret of the third1 fourth1 or fifth somite to be the least changed from the primitive type1 what changes were necessary to make the sixth swimmeret2 the third maxilliped2 the walking legs2 the antenn2 the antennules8 #ab4 ,remove the part of the carapace which covers a gill chamber4 ,what are the boundaries of the chamber8 ,where does it open to the water8 #ac4 ,describe the appearance and the texture of a gill4 ,how are the gills kept moist when the crayfish is in water2 when it is on land8 ,why should they be kept moist8 #ad4 ,would you class the gills as external structures or as internal8 ,why do you think so8 ,to what are they attached8 ,how are the gills affected by the motion of the legs8 #ae4 ,what work goes on in the gills8 ,how is the supply of oxygen renewed8 ,in this connection1 try a live crayfish1 kept quiet in water just about deep enough to cover it4 ,float bits of paper near it or carefully place a drop of ink in the water near it4 ,by some such method currents of water may usually be shown1 and their direction determined4 ,consider also the habitual motions of mouth parts and swimmerets1 the bubbles sometimes seen when a crayfish is dropped into water and the habit crayfishes have of lying on one side1 close to the surface of the water4 ,summary of the ,study of ,crayfishes ,to summarize your study1 write a connected account of the relations of crayfishes to their environments1 under the following topics3-- #a4 ,what are the varying conditions in their surroundings which crayfishes must meet8 ,which are most important8 #b4 ,what conditions must be maintained in order that crayfishes may succeed1 i4e4 may live and reproduce8 #c4 ,how does a crayfish know what are the conditions around it8 #d4 ,how is it fitted to meet these conditions8 7,answer in the following details73-- a4 ,how wide a food range has it1 i4e4 how many kinds of food does it eat8 ,how does it find its food8 ,how does it reach it8 ,how does it take its food8 ,how does it make food small enough to be eaten8 b4 ,what are the organs for taking in oxygen8 ,where are they8 ,how are they attached8 ,how is the supply of oxygen kept up8 ,how are the organs kept from drying1 from clogging1 and from mechanical injury8 c4 ,what ranges of temperature can crayfishes endure8 ,what temperature is best8 ,how do they avoid fatal extremes8 d4 ,what are the enemies of crayfishes8 ,what protection against these have they8 e4 ,how often do crayfishes reproduce8 ,about how many times during a normal lifetime8 ,about how many eggs are there and how many of them hatch8 ,what care is given to the eggs and to the young8 ,about how many of the young reach maturity8 7,suggestion4 ,do the crayfishes of a region vary noticeably in numbers from year to year87 #e4 ,what limits the range of crayfishes1 north and south8 ,what limits it on land8 ,what in water8 #f4 ,when the crayfishes of a given locality are not well adapted to it1 what can they do8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,the whole animal1 dorsal surface1 preferably without appendages4 b4 ,one of each pair of appendages1 except where they duplicate4 c4 ,the tail-fin4 ,label the sixth swimmerets1 the sixth and seventh somites4 d4 ,the gill chamber1 with gills in position4 ,show circulation of water by arrows4 e4 ,a gill1 to show construction4 #b4 ,,comparative ,,study ,,of ,,crustacea ,materials4 ,get together all the different specimens of crustacea you can collect1 and identify the material4 ,then study each specimen as follows3-- ,questions4 #a4 ,briefly describe the exoskeleton1 if there is one4 #b4 ,what region or regions are clearly segmented8 #c4 ,how much of the body is covered by a carapace8 #d4 ,has it segmented appendages8 ,classify the appendages as to their use4 #e4 ,are the cephalo-thorax and abdomen equally developed8 ,if not1 which is more developed8 #f4 ,how many antenn has it8 ,are the eyes stalked1 or are they sessile8 #g4 ,what organs of respiration has it8 ,where are they attached8 #h4 ,how many thoracic appendages has it1 if any8 #i4 ,what methods of locomotion does it use8 ,summary4 #a4 ,does this animal seem to be adapted to life on land or in water1 or both8 ,give your reasons for your opinion4 #b4 ,what characteristics are common to all the crustacea you have studied8 #c4 ,,review ,,and ,,library ,,work ,,on ,,crustacea #a4 ,what are arthropods8 #b4 ,give the classes of arthropods with an example of each4 #c4 ,what are the distinguishing characteristics of the class crustacea8 #d4 ,in what respects are most of the appendages of the crayfish homologous1 i4e4 alike in the plan of structure8 ,which do you consider the simplest1 and why do you8 ,which do you consider the most specialized1 and why8 #e4 ,which somite of the crayfish is without appendages8 ,how many somites are there in a crayfish's body1 if each somite bears only one pair of appendages1 as many scientists believe8 ,how many of these are in the head2 thorax2 abdomen8 #f4 ,compare the nervous system of the crayfish with that of the earthworm as regards efficiency4 ,upon what do you base your answer8 #g4 ,name two points in which earthworms and crayfishes are alike4 ,name three in which they differ4 #h4 ,how are crayfishes caught for market8 ,where do those sold in ,chicago usually come from8 ,how are they shipped8 #i4 ,compare the young forms of a crayfish and a crab4 #aj4 ,describe any five different crustacea4 #aa4 ,describe the work done by the ,united ,states government and by the state governments to protect and to perpetuate the lobster4 ,why is it thought necessary to do this8 #ab4 ,discuss the process and the advantages and disadvantages of molting1 as seen in the crustacea4 #ac4 ,name two advantages in having such a shell as crustacea have4 ,name two disadvantages4 ,on the whole1 is such a shell favorable to an animal's chances of success or is it not8 #ad4 ,give the curious myth about goose barnacles4 #ae4 ,what crustacea are parasitic8 ,give an account of one4 #af4 ,why are barnacles classed among crustacea8 ,where were they once classed8 ,why may they be considered degenerate1 even though not parasitic8 ,how do they manage to succeed8 ,what is their economic importance8 ,how are their effects checked or prevented8 #ag4 ,describe some of the odd means of self-protection shown among crustacea4 #ah4 ,describe a compound eye4 ,give two theories as to what can be seen with a compound eye4 ,why do we not know1 instead of theorizing8 #ai4 ,what is the economic value of the very small crustacea8 #bj4 ,discuss the value to man of the various forms of crustacea4 ,,chapter ,v ,,adaptations ,,for ,,protection ,,from ,,enemies ,a4 ,,the ,,exoskeleton #a4 ,,the ,,clam--,a ,,type ,,of ,,mollusca ,to ,show the ,effect of a ,heavy ,exoskeleton ,materials4 ,living clams in aquaria1 with enough moist sand to cover the clams1 preserved clams1 sets of matched clamshells1 a few shells with the hinge unbroken1 evaporating dishes1 hydrochloric acid4 ,definitions4 ,mollusca1 a branch of the animal kingdom including those animals with soft1 unsegmented bodies1 inclosed in two folds of skin known as the mantle4 ,they are often called shellfish as most of the forms have a shell4 ,lamellibranchiata or ,pelecypoda1 names given to the class of ,mollusca to which the clam belongs4 ,the former term refers to the broad1 flap-like gills and the latter to the hatchet-like foot4 ,valve1 one of two parts of the clamshell4 ,hinge ligament1 the elastic structure which fastens the valves together at the dorsal margin4 ,umbones1 a pair of elevations near the anterior end of the shell4 ,lines of growth1 concentric lines around the umbones4 ,siphons1 two openings at the posterior end of the clam1 the upper opening is the excurrent opening and the lower the incurrent4 ,in the salt water clam the siphons form a long tube1 usually called the neck4 ,hinge teeth1 projections near the dorsal margin on the inner surface of the shell4 ,the anterior irregular structure is the cardinal and the more posterior blade-like structure is the lateral tooth4 ,muscle scars1 scar-like markings on the inner surface of the shell indicating the point where muscles were attached4 ,the large scar just in front of the cardinal tooth is the anterior adductor muscle scar1 and the one just back of the lateral tooth is the posterior adductor muscle scar4 ,pallial line1 a line connecting the two muscle scars4 ,mantle1 folds of skin covering the body of the clam and lying close to the inner surface of the valves4 ,foot1 a hatchet-shaped structure extending from the ventral edge of the body4 ,gills1 broad flap-like structures for respiration1 situated each side of the body in the mantle cavity4 ,they consist of a double fold of membrane through which run many perforations lined with cilia4 ,the waving of these cilia cause the current of water needed for respiration4 ,palps1 small flap-like structures near the anterior end of the clam4 ,they surround the mouth4 ,on their surface are cilia which cause currents of water toward the mouth4 ,adductor muscles1 large muscles extending from valve to valve4 ,observations4 ,identify anterior and posterior ends1 dorsal and ventral surfaces1 right and left sides4 #a4 ,why may a clam be called a bivalve8 #b4 ,what is the position of the clam in the mud8 ,what is the position of the foot if the clam is undisturbed8 ,are the two valves tightly closed or slightly open at this time8 #c4 ,what changes take place in the shell as the clam grows8 ,what markings on the surface of the shell indicate this8 #d4 ,where is the clam sensitive to touch or tactile stimulus8 ,why has the clam no eyes8 ,zologists have found a structure in clams which they have supposed to be an ear4 ,where do you think the structure is located8 ,why is the clam successful without eyes8 7,there are many bivalves which have them47 #e4 ,examine several clams until you find some with enlargements in the gills4 ,break off a small part of an enlargement with your forceps and examine under the compound microscope4 ,describe what you see4 #f4 ,drop some powdered chalk or carmine in the water just above the siphon1 watch the siphons for several minutes1 and note what happens4 ,what do you conclude to be the use of the siphons8 ,recalling what took place in sponges1 what would you suggest as the probable cause of these currents8 ,what does the clam thus probably obtain8 ,how do the two siphons differ8 ,why8 #g4 ,place a clam in water sufficient to cover it and heat slowly to about #dj degrees ,centigrade1 until the valves open slightly4 ,remove and proceed as follows3 ,raise one valve1 separate the mantle from it1 and then cut through the two large firm structures 7adductor muscles7 found at each end4 ,what does the valve do when the muscles are cut8 ,what is the cause of this8 ,state your theory as to how a clam opens and closes its shell4 #h4 ,note the texture of the mantle4 ,how many lobes has it8 ,what is their extent8 ,how are the lobes related to the valves8 #i4 ,remove or lift up one mantle lobe4 ,identify the soft body1 the foot1 the gills1 the palps1 and the mouth4 ,which of these structures are arranged in pairs8 #aj4 ,determine the structure and composition of the shell as follows3-- a4 ,break a thick clamshell and examine the broken edge4 ,identify the inner or pearly layer and the outer or chalky layers4 ,what gives color to the shell in the living clam8 b4 ,burn a small piece of shell in an evaporating dish over a bunsen burner4 ,what is the appearance of the shell after burning8 ,what has been burned1 animal or mineral matter8 ,what then is the residue8 c4 ,place a small piece of shell in acid4 ,what results8 ,is there a large amount of residue8 ,what constitutes the greater part of the shell1 animal or mineral matter8 d4 7,optional7 ,devise some method and determine the approximate per cent of mineral and of animal matter in the clamshell4 ,summary4 #a4 ,why did we study the clam8 7,see title of exercise47 #b4 ,how has the heavy shell of the clam affected3-- a4 ,the character of the clam's body1 b4 the locomotion1 c4 the development of sense organs4 #c4 ,what special problems has the clam as regards getting food and oxygen8 ,how are these problems solved8 #d4 ,how does the clam protect the young clam during development8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,dorsal margin of the clam4 b4 ,side view of the clam4 c4 ,the clam with one valve removed or lifted back4 d4 ,the clam with one valve and one mantle lobe removed4 e4 ,the edge of a broken shell4 f4 ,diagram of cross sections4 #b4 ,,the ,,snail--,a ,,type ,,of ,,mollusca ,to show ,another ,type of ,exoskeleton ,materials4 ,specimens of pond snails1 edible snails1 and slugs1 and other land snails1 and a collection of shells of various types4 ,definitions4 ,gasteropoda1 the name of the class to which the snail belongs4 ,spire1 the coiled portion of the snail shell4 ,aperture1 the opening of the shell4 ,lip1 the edge of the shell forming the margin of the aperture4 ,whorl1 a single coil of the spire4 ,suture1 the depression between the whorls4 ,foot1 the flat disk-like structure on which a snail creeps4 ,breathing pore1 an opening in the mantle used in respiration4 ,lingual ribbon1 the rasp or file like tongue of the snail4 ,observations4 #a4 ,why is a snail called a univalve8 #b4 ,identify the head and mouth of the snail4 ,watch the snail feeding and examine the mouth of the snail with a lens4 ,what do you notice8 ,if your aquarium in which the pond snail is living has a green coating 7alg7 on the side1 describe its appearance after the snail has been crawling up and down over it4 ,explain4 #c4 ,how many tentacles has a pond snail8 a land snail8 ,where are the eyes located in each case8 ,what movements of the tentacles do you notice8 ,what is their purpose8 #d4 ,how does the rate of locomotion of the snail compare with that of the clam8 ,find out if the snail can creep backwards or on the surface of the water4 ,does there seem to be any tendency for the snail to go up and down the sides of the aquaria vertically rather than to the right or left8 #e4 ,what does a snail do when disturbed8 ,what is gained by this action8 #f4 ,search for pond snail's eggs on the side of the aquaria4 ,lift up the bits of cabbage on which the slugs are feeding and search for eggs4 ,describe what you find in each case1 noting the size1 appearance1 and whether the eggs are laid singly or in masses4 #g4 ,find the breathing pore4 ,describe its position and appearance4 #h4 ,contrast the various types of shells1 and note with care in what respects they differ4 ,holding the shell with the aperture toward you and the spire pointing up1 determine whether each shell has the aperture on the right 7right-handed shell7 or on the left 7left-handed shell74 ,is the right-handed or the left-handed shell more common8 #i4 7,optional7 ,by means of some book in the laboratory1 determine the scientific name of each of the snails found in the various aquaria in the laboratory4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,drawings to show the pond snail in various positions in the aquarium4 b4 ,a drawing of the slug4 c4 ,at least three different types of snail shell4 ,summary4 #a4 ,in what respects does a snail show resemblance to a clam8 #b4 ,what are the chief points of difference8 #c4 ,what reasons can you suggest for the better development of the sense organs8 #d4 ,what advantage has a snail over a clam in the matter of getting food8 #e4 ,how does the shell of the snail compare with that of the clam as an organ for protection8 #c4 ,,the ,,squid--,a ,,type ,,of ,,mollusca ,to show the ,effect of a ,much ,reduced or ,rudimentary ,skeleton ,materials4 ,small squids1 and a few large specimens for comparison and dissection4 ,definitions4 ,cephalopoda1 the name of the class to which the squid belongs4 ,caudal fin1 a horizontal structure at the posterior end of the squid4 ,chromatophores1 irregular cells in the mantle which give color to the squid4 ,exhalent siphon1 a funnel or tube opening on the ventral side just below the base of the arms or tentacles4 ,pen1 a remnant of an exoskeleton imbedded in the mantle along the dorsal side4 ,ink sac1 a sac containing a dark1 sticky liquid which may be thrown out through the funnel into the water4 ,the opening is near the inner opening of the funnel4 ,observations4 #a4 ,what is the shape of the squid8 ,to what is this shape adapted8 #b4 ,identify the head and the well-developed eyes4 #c4 ,how many arms or tentacles are there8 ,how are they arranged with reference to the mouth8 ,what do you find on the distal ends of the arms8 ,how do the arms vary as to size8 ,what does the position and arrangement of the arms suggest as to their function8 #d4 ,identify the exhalent siphon4 ,where may water enter the mantle cavity8 ,recalling the action of the siphons in the clam1 suggest a method by which a squid is propelled through the water4 ,in what direction must it swim8 #e4 ,split the mantle along the ventral surface and spread apart4 ,identify the long plume-like gills1 the ink sac1 and the inner opening of the exhalent siphon4 ,how many gills do you find8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,the squid side view4 b4 ,the squid from the ventral side with the mantle split open1 arrows to show direction of water4 ,summary4 #a4 ,in what ways does a squid show relationship to the clam and the snail8 #b4 ,what has a squid gained through the reduction of its exoskeleton8 ,what has it lost8 ,what changes were necessary in its structure to offset the loss of an exoskeleton8 #d4 ,a ,,comparative ,,study ,,of ,,mollusca ,materials4 ,specimens of as many different kinds of mollusks as possible1 charts1 books4 ,observations4 #a4 ,what is the symmetry8#c #c ,this and the following questions are to be answered for each specimen4 ,the answers may be tabulated if desired4 #b4 ,is the body segmented or unsegmented8 #c4 ,are lateral appendages present or wanting8 #d4 ,is an exoskeleton present or wanting8 ,if present1 is it univalve or bivalve2 if absent1 what other means of protection has been developed to take its place8 #e4 ,is the animal fixed1 or is it free to move8 ,if fixed1 in what way8 ,if it moves1 what is the method and organ of locomotion8 #f4 ,what are the organs of respiration8 ,what is their character8 #g4 ,how is food obtained8 #h4 ,what senses are probably present8 ,what sense organs are present8 #i4 ,what is the habitat8 #aj4 ,in what ways if any does the animal show degeneration8 ,summary4 #a4 ,what characters are common to all mollusks8 #b4 ,what is the principal means of protection among mollusks8 #c4 ,name three causes of degeneration among mollusks4 #e4 ,,mollusca3 ,,review ,,and ,,library ,,exercise ,characteristics4 #a4 ,what are the general characteristics of mollusks8 #b4 ,name the principal classes and give the characteristics of each4 ,morphology4 #c4 ,what is peculiar about the structure of a clam's heart8 ,what is its position8 ,contrast with the heart of a crayfish4 #d4 ,make cross-sectional diagrams to show the arrangement of parts in a clam3 7a7 in the region of the umbone2 7b7 in the region just in front of the posterior muscle2 7c7 in the region of the anterior muscle4 #e4 ,describe the various types of eyes found in mollusks1 and their location4 #f4 ,describe the tongue or lingual ribbon of the snail1 and its use4 #g4 ,what is the operculum of snails8 its use8 ,physiology4 #h4 ,describe the circulation of water through the siphons and mantle cavity of a clam4 ,how is it caused8 ,what three uses has it8 #i4 ,what are the principal facts about the development of fresh-water clams8 #aj4 ,describe the circulation of blood in a clam4 #aa4 ,what various methods of locomotion are found among mollusca8 ,economics4 ,write a short account of the following3-- #ab4 ,oyster culture4 #ac4 ,typhoid-fever and oysters4 #ad4 ,clams1 scallops1 and other edible shellfish4 #ae4 ,pearls and pearl fisheries4 #af4 ,fresh-water clams and the button industry4 #ag4 ,sepia1 ,tyrian dye1 etc4 #ah4 ,harmful and useful mollusks4 #ai4 ,the work of ,u4 ,s4 ,fish ,commission in propagating clams4 ,natural history4 #bj4 ,give the class1 habitat1 and some important fact about each of the following3 ,pectens2 wing shells2 ,tridacna gigas2 abalones2 limpets2 oyster drill2 periwinkle2 mussel2 cuttle fish2 octopus2 nautilus2 argonaut4 #f4 ,a ,,comparative ,,study ,,of ,,exoskeletons ,materials4 ,charts1 specimens1 etc4 ,since this is partly a review exercise1 your notes and drawings of invertebrates should be at hand4 ,definitions4 ,exoskeleton1 a protective covering developed on the outside of an animal4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what are foraminifera2 radiolaria8 ,how do they differ from other protozoans8 ,of what two substances are the shells of protozoans composed8 #b4 ,how are the spicules formed in a simple sponge8 ,what are glass sponges8 ,give reasons why the skeletons of sponges may or may not be considered exoskeletons8 #c4 ,what are stone corals8 ,what is the relation of the coral polyp to the skeleton8 ,what is the appearance of the coral when expanded as compared with its appearance when contracted8 ,of what substance is the coral composed8 #d4 ,describe the exoskeleton of a starfish4 ,contrast the exoskeleton of the sea urchin and the starfish4 ,why does a sea cucumber need no well-developed exoskeleton8 #e4 ,what structure in an earthworm may be considered an exoskeleton8 ,what other types of exoskeletons are found in segmented worms8 #f4 ,of what substance is the exoskeleton of arthropods composed8 ,what additional substance is found deposited in the shell in the case of crustaceans8 ,what advantage in the arthropod type of exoskeleton8 #g4 ,why are mollusks so commonly called shellfish8 ,what advantage in the mollusk type of skeleton8 ,what disadvantages8 ,summary4 #a4 ,what type of exoskeleton is common among invertebrates8 #b4 ,what are the general purposes of exoskeletons8 #c4 ,what is the explanation of the various forms of exoskeletons found8 #d4 ,of what substances are exoskeletons composed8 ,b4 ,,protective ,,coloration ,to show how ,color may be ,protective ,materials4 ,specimens such as the ,kny-,scheerer mimicry collections1 diagrams1 etc4 ,definitions4 ,general protective resemblance1 the general resemblance between the color of an animal and its surroundings4 ,variable protective resemblance1 the changing of the color of an animal to correspond to the change in its background4 ,special protective resemblance1 the resemblance of an animal to some object found in its background in color and form4 ,mimicry1 the resemblance of an unprotected animal to a well-protected one4 ,warning colors1 bright colors which protect animals by causing other animals to avoid it4 ,questions4 #a4 ,show how the transparent color of a paramecium1 the green color of a cabbage worm1 or the green color of a certain species of hydra may result in protecting an animal from its enemies4 ,mention as many other examples as you can4 #b4 ,what is gained by the ability of a squid to change its color8 ,how is this change brought about8 #c4 ,explain the protective coloration of the following3 ,dead-leaf butterfly1 walking stick1 geometrid larva4 ,hunt up other examples4 #d4 ,explain the protective coloration in the following3 ,hover flies1 clear-winged moths1 viceroy butterflies4 #e4 ,make a list of several invertebrates that are protected by their bright color4 ,explain the reason for the bright color4 #f4 ,how may the difference between the color of the upper and lower surfaces of animals be explained on the basis of use to the animal8 #g4 7,optional7 ,find out some other uses of color to an animal aside from protection4 ,summary4 #a4 ,name four uses of color4 #b4 ,name four ways an animal is protected by being like its background4 #c4 ,name one way it is protected by being unlike its background4 #d4 ,what disadvantages in this method of protection8 ,c4 ,,animal ,,associations ,to show ,another ,method of ,protection from ,enemies ,materials4 ,specimens1 charts1 etc41 illustrating animal associations4 ,definitions4 ,animal communities1 associations of many animals of the same species in communities in which there is a greater or less division of labor4 ,gregarious1 associations where there is but little division of labor4 ,parasitism1 an association where one animal lives at the expense of the other4 ,the animal on which the parasite lives is called the host4 ,if there are two hosts during the life cycle of the parasite1 the second host is called an intermediate host4 ,symbiosis1 an association where two animals live together in mutually helpful relations4 ,commensalism1 an association where two animals live together in relations not mutually helpful but without injury to either4 ,observations and questions4 ,note4--,to find answers to many of these questions it will be necessary to refer to the reference books in the laboratory4 #a4 ,examine a specimen of ,volvox4 ,why may this be considered a colonial protozoan and not a many-celled animal8 ,what is gained by the colonial habit8 #b4 ,is the colonial habit common or rare in sponges and coelenterates8 ,what is chiefly gained8 #c4 ,describe the community life in one of the insects in each of the following groups3-- a4 ant1 honeybee1 termite4 b4 bumblebee1 paper wasp1 hornet4 c4 mining bee4 d4 carpenter bee1 mud wasp1 digger wasp4 #d4 ,name the host or hosts in the following cases3 trichina1 liver fluke1 malarial parasite1 tapeworm1 hook worm4 ,give the life history of one or more of the parasites just enumerated4 ,what is the effect of parasitism on the structure of the parasite8 #e4 ,what is the relation between ants and plant lice8 ,show how this relation is mutually helpful4 ,mention other cases of symbiosis that you have come across4 #f4 ,with what animal are barnacles often associated8 ,what is the habit of the pea or oyster crab8 ,what are guest bees8 ,what structure is lacking that is found in other bees8 ,what are often found in the cavities of sponges8 ,why are these associations called commensalism rather than symbiosis8 ,summary4 #a4 ,into what groups can animal associations be divided based upon the number of species concerned8 #b4 ,from the standpoint of protection1 is this a good or a bad method of protection8 #c4 ,what disadvantages can you see in this method of protection4 ,d4 ,,protective ,,habits ,,and ,,powers ,materials4 ,specimens1 charts1 and books1 showing habits of invertebrates4 ,definitions4 ,regeneration1 the power to grow new parts of the body when parts have been lost or injured4 ,masking1 the covering of an animal by some object or organism so as to hide its identity4 ,nocturnal habits1 the habit of hiding in the daytime and coming out at night to feed4 ,terrifying attitudes1 the protective attitudes assumed at times by animals in order to ward off attack4 ,observations and questions4 #a4 ,how are ,sabella and ,serpula protected8 ,what advantages and disadvantages in this habit8 ,what changes in structure are associated with this tube-dwelling habit8 #b4 ,what two protective habits has the earthworm8 ,name some other animals that have similar habits4 #c4 ,describe the protective habits of the caddis-fly larva2 of the leaf-roller moth4 ,what benefit to the hermit crab is the colony of hydractinia growing on the snail shell which it inhabits8 ,give other similar cases4 #d4 ,name as many cases of regeneration as you can4 #e4 ,what peculiar habits has a puss-moth larva8 a dragon fly8 ,give other examples4 ,summary4 #a4 ,name the various protective habits4 #b4 ,state any advantages or disadvantages you can with reference to these protective habits4 ,e4 ,,defensive ,,structures ,another ,method of ,protection from ,enemies ,materials4 ,specimens1 charts1 books1 etc41 to illustrate the various defensive organs found among invertebrates4 ,observations and questions4 #a4 ,describe the stinging hairs of the paramecium4 #b4 ,describe the action and structure of nettle cells4 ,where are they located in the case of hydra2 of jellyfish8 #c4 ,what defensive organs are found among the arthropods8 #d4 ,what are stinkbugs8 ,what peculiar organs of defense have the caterpillars of the swallowtail butterflies8 #e4 ,where is the sting of a hornet located8 ,to what in a grasshopper does it correspond8 ,why does a hornet or bee inflict so painful a wound8 #f4 ,what peculiar organ of defense has a squid8 #g4 ,find other examples of defensive structures4 ,summary4 #a4 ,what advantages have organs of defense as a method of protection8 #b4 ,what disadvantages8 ,f4 ,,thesis ,to sum up the ,important ,points in the ,study of ,adaptations for ,protection ,directions4 ,write a connected account of what you have found out about protection of animals from their enemies1 using the following outline3-- #a4 ,the struggle for existence-- a4 its cause1 b4 its threefold nature1 c4 the various kinds of adaptations4 #b4 ,the various methods of protection from enemies4 a4 ,the exoskeleton4 b4 ,protective coloration4 c4 ,animal associations4 d4 ,protective habits4 e4 ,defensive structures4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,vertebrates ,a4 ,,studies ,,of ,,fishes ,,the ,,living ,,fish ,vertebrates adapted to ,water ,life ,materials4 ,living goldfishes or other fishes in small aquaria for individual study and a few fishes in a large aquarium where they have considerable freedom of motion4 ,definitions4 ,trunk1 the portion of the body between the head and the tail4 ,compressed1 a term used to describe the shape of the body when it is narrower from side to side than from dorsal to ventral surface4 ,when the opposite is true1 the body is said to be flattened4 ,median fins1 the unpaired fins situated on the median line1 dorsal and ventral1 including the tail or caudal fin1 the dorsal fin1 and the anal fin4 ,paired fins1 fins occurring in pairs of which the more anterior are the pectoral fins and the posterior are the pelvic fins4 ,fin rays1 the framework or skeleton of the fins over which membrane is stretched to form the fins4 ,fin rays are of two kinds3 those composed of bone and those composed of cartilage4 ,lateral line1 a sense organ extending along each side of the fish in a line indicated by tubes or perforations in the scales4 ,gills1 respiratory organs adapted for taking oxygen from the water4 ,operculum1 the flaps covering the gills on each side of the head4 ,pigment1 a substance which gives color to an object4 ,observations4 ,locomotion4 #a4 ,watch the fishes in the large aquarium and determine which fins are most used and how they are used 7a7 in swimming forward1 7b7 in swimming upward and downward1 7c7 in maintaining balance1 7d7 in remaining at rest1 and 7e7 in guiding the movements of the fish4 #b4 ,what advantages are there to the fish 7a7 in the power to open and close the dorsal and anal fins1 7b7 in having no neck1 and 7c7 in having a compressed form8 #c4 ,enumerate the various ways by which the body of the fish is adapted to rapid movement through the water4 ,feeding4 #d4 ,what is the food of the fishes you are studying8 ,feed them and watch them eat4 ,why is the upper jaw often called a lip8 ,what is the shape and size of the mouth when opened in feeding8 ,does the fish chew its food8 ,describe in detail the fishes' method of feeding4 ,respiration4 #e4 ,identify the opercula and the gill openings4 ,watch the movements of the opercula and mouth1 and determine what movements are concerned in breathing and their order4 ,describe in detail the circulation of water used in breathing and how it is caused4 ,sense ,organs4 #f4 ,identify the eyes1 nostrils1 and lateral line4 ,how many nostrils are there and where located8 ,what is the position and extent of the lateral line8 #g4 ,describe the location of the eyes4 ,what is the shape of the outer surface of the eyes8 ,why this shape8 ,can the eyes be moved1 i4e4 can they be rotated1 rolled1 or retracted8 ,from what direction might an enemy approach without being seen8 ,how would such an enemy be detected8 ,protection4 #h4 ,with what protective structures is the body covered8 ,do they hinder the movements of the fish8 ,what are the advantages of the scale covering of fishes over the shell covering of grasshoppers or crayfishes8 #i4 ,in what other ways are the fishes you are studying protected against enemies8 ,since you cannot account for the red color of goldfishes on the basis of use to the fish1 then how do you account for this bright color8 ,the ,body4 #aj4 ,what is the symmetry of the fish8 ,into what regions is the body divided8 ,summary of the study of the living fish4 ,enumerate in one column the different adaptations which fit the fish for life in water and in a second column state the special purpose of each adaption4 ,the ,external ,structure of the ,fish ,materials4 ,freshly killed or preserved fish in dishes or shallow pans with enough water to prevent drying4 ,simple or compound microscopes1 forceps1 and a bristle4 ,directions4 ,examine the fins and identify the membrane and the supporting rods1 or rays1 of bone or cartilage4 ,notice how the ends of the cartilaginous rays keep the membrane from tearing4 ,investigate the scales as to their arrangement1 number1 and size4 ,remove a small patch of scales along the lateral line to find how they are attached1 where the fish's color is situated1 and how access to the sensory organs of the line is permitted4 ,examine a scale under the microscope4 ,observe the eyes and identify the parts similar to those of the human eye3 lid1 lash1 tear-duct1 cornea1 iris1 and pupil4 ,in front of and between the eyes1 find the nostrils4 ,by means of a bristle determine whether these are connected and whether they do or do not open into the mouth or the throat4 ,questions4 #a4 ,make a list of the fins1 classifying them according to their structure4 #b4 ,bearing in mind the differences in structure and consequent action1--what can you say regarding the adaptation of the several fins for protection8 for rigidity or flexibility in locomotion8 #c4 ,state how much of the body is covered with scales1 and where the largest and the smallest ones are found4 #d4 ,how are the scales arranged with reference to each other8 ,what benefit is derived from this in protection8 in locomotion8 ,if you have noticed any mucus or slime upon the body1 state its use4 #e4 ,do the scales or the skin bear the pigment8 ,give the color pattern of the kind of fish used in class4 ,how would this be useful to the fish in its natural home8 #f4 ,describe the structure of a scale and state how it is attached to the skin4 ,in what way is the lateral-line scale specialized8 #g4 ,state how1 when the fish is swimming1 the nostrils catch odors4 ,by means of a diagram1 with arrows show the probable direction of the water current through the nose4 #h4 ,state which of the structures of your eye are present in the fish's eye1 and which are missing4 ,could a fish weep8 wink8 ,how would a fish sleep8 #i4 ,inasmuch as light penetrates water but a little way1 so that objects can be distinguished only within about thirty feet1 would the fish be nearsighted or farsighted8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,a side view of the entire fish1 fully labeled4 b4 ,a bony rayed and a cartilaginous rayed fin4 c4 ,a scale1 showing its minute structure4 d4 ,a dorsal or a lateral view of the head1 showing the sense organs4 ,the ,mouth and the ,gills of the ,fish ,materials4 ,the same materials as those used in the preceding exercise may be used here4 ,directions4 ,the mouth1 its structure and its action1 can be seen by pulling the upper jaw upward and forward until the mouth and the gill chambers open fully4 ,examine the structure and action of the jaws1 the tongue1 the throat1 and the teeth on each jaw and on the roof of the mouth4 ,investigate the breathing apparatus from the throat side and from the exterior1 noting the number1 form1 and structure of the gills1 their attachment and their protection4 ,the mouth may be kept open by a short splinter or a ball of paper4 ,the pupil should identify the following structures3-- #a4 ,gill1 an organ for breathing the air dissolved in water4 #b4 ,gill arch1 an arch of bone or cartilage supporting the gills4 #c4 ,gill filaments1 fringe-like structures attached to the gill arches1 forming the gills4 #d4 ,gill raker1 lateral projections from the gill arches4 #e4 ,gill-slits1 openings between the gill arches for the passage of water4 #f4 ,operculum1 the flap-like covering of the gills on each side of the head4 ,questions4 #a4 ,compared with the size of its body1 how wide can the fish open its mouth8 ,what do you infer as to the size of its bite8 #b4 ,are the jaws rigidly affixed to the skull8 ,why should they be so attached1 or why not8 #c4 ,of how many pieces is the upper jaw composed8 the under jaw8 #d4 ,where are the teeth8 ,judging from their form1 size1 and situation1 what do you think must be their use8 #e4 ,do you think the tongue is used to assist in mastication8 in tasting8 in speech8 in swallowing8 #f4 ,how many gills are there1 and where are they situated8 ,how are they attached8 ,which one is not free from the body throughout its length8 #g4 ,what probably causes the color of the gill filaments8 ,what is there in their number and texture which fits them for their function8 #h4 ,what is the direction of the water current through the gill chamber8 ,of what use are the gill rakers8 #i4 ,how are the gills protected8 ,summary4 ,write a complete account of how the fish eats and how it breathes4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,a front view of the fish's face1 with the mouth fully open4 b4 ,a side view1 as above4 c4 ,a ventral view of the head1 with both gill-chambers wide open and the gills separated from each other4 ,indicate currents by arrows4 d4 ,a single gill4 ,the ,alimentary ,canal and the ,circulatory ,system of the ,fish ,materials4 ,small fresh fish1 shallow pans or dishes of water1 forceps1 and scissors4 ,directions4 ,if the instructor has not opened the fish previously1 this is to be done by the student as follows3 ,on the ventral side1 insert the scissors in the vent 7in front of the anal fin7 and cut straight forward to a point between the opercula4 ,care must be exercised in opening the chamber about the heart2 this lies between the gill chambers4 ,the various organs1 so far as possible1 should be carefully drawn out and separated1 in order that their structure may be distinguished4 ,the pupil should identify the following parts3-- #a4 ,body cavity1 the entire internal space1 divided by a membrane1 false diaphragm1 into a large abdominal cavity and a small chamber1 pericardial chamber1 between the gill chambers4 #b4 ,liver1 a large red or pink mass lying at the front end of the abdominal cavity1 and divided into two unequal lobes4 ,the gall-bladder1 thin-walled and green1 may be seen between these lobes4 #c4 ,alimentary canal4 a4 ,mouth4 b4 ,esophagus1 in the fish a very short tube4 c4 ,stomach1 white and muscular1 beginning with a very short esophagus and ending as a blind sac4 ,if it is much distended1 open it to see what the fish may have eaten4 d4 ,small intestine1 thin-walled1 tubular1 and somewhat coiled4 e4 ,large intestine1 a short1 thin-walled expansion at the posterior end of the small intestine2 usually less than half an inch long4 f4 ,coeca1 from two to several small pouches attached where the small intestine leaves the stomach4 #d4 ,spleen1 a reddish brown globule between the folds of the intestine4 #e4 ,swim bladder1 an elongated chamber lying against the backbone1 partitioned off from the cavity below by a delicate membrane4 #f4 ,peritoneum1 the delicate1 silvery membrane which lines the abdominal cavity and enfolds the viscera4 ,note its spots of pigment4 #g4 ,pericardial chamber1 the chamber around the heart2 see #a above4 #h4 ,heart4 ,as the fish is placed belly upward in the pan the ventricle faces you1 pink1 conical1 and muscular4 ,posterior to it1 on the dorsal side1 is the auricle1 a membranous sac4 #i4 ,ventral aorta1 arising on the anterior surface of the ventricle as a white muscular cord 7really a tube7 which is enlarged close to the heart into a bulb1 the arterial bulb4 ,you should follow up this aorta until you see it divide right and left to send its branches outward into the gills1 the branches being called gill arteries4 ,questions4 #a4 ,the fish frequently swallows its food alive4 ,why should the stomach be muscular8 ,why is it better that the intestine does not leave the stomach at the end opposite the esophagus8 #b4 ,of what use can the coeca be8 ,what structure of the human intestine do you recall that is at all like them in form or use8 #c4 ,how many times the length of the body is the length of the alimentary canal8 ,does this indicate that the fish is compelled to eat a great deal of poor food or that its food is highly nutritious1 so that little need be taken8 #d4 ,near which end of the fish's body is the heart8 ,is this the usual or the unusual condition among animals you know about8 ,what advantages can you think of in this arrangement8 #e4 ,what advantages are there in having the heart in a chamber separated from the other vital organs8 #f4 ,of how many chambers does the heart consist8 ,why should at least one of them be muscular8 #g4 ,how many times does the blood pass through the heart in making a complete circuit of the body8 ,would you call this a single or a double circulation8 #h4 ,does the heart force the blood onward or does it draw blood into itself1 i4e4 is the heart a force pump or is it a suction pump8 #i4 ,how is circulation made complete8 ,if the heart is a force pump1 is its power sufficient to drive blood through artery1 capillary1 vein1 and into auricle1 if the capillaries can stand the pressure1 or is another action concerned8 ,if it is a suction pump1 why does the blood leave the heart8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,the body cavity1 with viscera undisturbed4 b4 ,the alimentary canal extended4 c4 ,the anterior end of the fish with the sinus held open1 to show the general situation of the parts4 d4 ,the heart in its chamber1 with the outgoing vessels as far as dissected4 ,use arrows to show direction of circulation4 e4 ,a copy of some good diagram or chart which illustrates the heart of the fish with the connecting veins and arteries4 ,fishes3 ,a ,general ,review and ,library ,exercise #a4 ,food and the feeding habits of young and of adult fishes4 #b4 ,the diet and habits of cod2 lantern-fish2 swordfish2 ramora2 hagfish2 angler2 gar-pike2 sturgeon2 shark2 sawfish2 paddle-fish4 #c4 ,the variations1 real or apparent1 in the breathing habits of the porcupine-fish2 the climbing-fish2 the lung-fish4 #d4 ,peculiarities in swimming as seen in the flying-fish2 the flounder2 the sea-horse4 #e4 ,intensity of sound under water1 and the corresponding structure of the fish's ear4 #f4 ,light and sight under water 7as in #e74 #g4 ,protection of fishes3 sting-ray2 torpedo2 coral-fish2 sturgeon2 lava-fish2 swordfish2 sawfish2 pipefish4 #h4 ,the social instinct of fishes1 and schools4 #i4 ,the breeding habits of salmon2 eel2 stickle-back2 sturgeon2 whitefish2 shark2 sea-horse2 sunfish4 #aj4 ,the fishing industries of the ,great ,lakes or of the cold oceans1 with a list of the fishes caught and their values4 #aa4 ,fish nets and traps3 seine2 gill-net2 pound-net2 trawl1 ,french or ,english2 fish-wheel2 fish-weir2 spear2 dip-net2 set-line2 spoon2 fly4 #ab4 ,the ,u4,s4 ,bureau of ,fisheries3 its locations1 its problems1 and its methods4 #ac4 ,the ,state ,fish ,commission1 as above4 #ad4 ,game and fish laws2 their purpose and their enforcement4 #ae4 ,game fish of the fresh waters2 trout1 bass1 pickerel1 and muskellunge4 #af4 ,game fish of the ocean3 tarpon1 tuna1 sea-bass1 swordfish1 and bluefish4 #ag4 ,fish as food4 #ah4 ,fish diet and leprosy4 #ai4 ,fish diet and parasitic worms4 #bj4 ,fish nuisances3 carp1 catfish1 and dogfish4 #ba4 ,commercial products of fishes1 their preparation and their uses3 caviar1 shagreen1 cod liver oil1 isinglass1 and glue4 #bb4 ,the geographic distribution of fishes1 with means of dispersal and restriction4 #bc4 ,the faunal regions of the lake 7or ocean71 with characteristic forms4 #bd4 ,fishes of ancient times2 of the ,devonian period4 #be4 ,the story of the early life of ,louis ,agassiz2 of ,d4 ,s4 ,jordan2 of ,c4 ,h4 ,eigenmann2 of ,bashford ,dean4 #bf4 ,goldfish3 their origin2 how to care for them4 #bg4 ,fashions in fish tails1 old and new4 #bh4 ,development and variation in scales2 fashions in scales4 #bi4 ,the common orders of fishes1 with examples4 ,primitive ,chordates ,materials4 ,an acorn-tongued worm1 a lancelet1 a lamprey1 a shark1 and a perch4 ,if individual specimens are not available1 the pupil's text-book and charts are to be used4 ,observations4 ,acorn-tongued worm3 ,notice the very simple form and structure of the symmetrical body1 the proboscis1 the collar surrounding the neck with its simple rod of cartilage1 the marks of internal gills and gill slits extending some distance along the body1 and the presence or absence of sense organs4 ,the acorn-tongued worm 7,balanoglossus7 lives in the sand of the seashore and in shallow water in temperate and tropical regions4 ,lancelet3 ,observe the form of the body1 of the fin1 and of the mouth2 note the presence or absence of sense organs1 and find out the number of gills or gill slits4 ,the lancelet 7,amphioxus7 is similar in habit to the acorn-tongued worm4 ,by day it lies buried with only the mouth exposed1 but at night it swims actively about4 ,it is somewhat more confined to the tropics4 ,lamprey3 ,observe here also the primitive or unspecialized form of the body1 of the fin1 of the jawless mouth1 the number of gill slits1 and the sense organs4 ,shark3 ,examine the body1 noting its form and differentiation into regions1 its covering1 its fins1 mouth1 gill slits1 and sense organs4 ,perch3 ,if you have not already studied the bony fish1 the points suggested for the shark will be sufficient for this exercise4 ,in each case1 find out the condition of the skeleton4 ,questions4 #a4 ,which of these animals seem most simple in form1 and which most complex8 ,give a reason for your answer4 #b4 ,give the stages which show how the fold of skin develops into separate fins4 #c4 ,how does the number of gills and gill slits change in the series8 7,give definite numbers47 ,how may the reduction in the number of gills be compensated for in the amount of surface exposed for the exchange of gases in breathing8 #d4 ,how is protection afforded the delicate structure of the gills in the final form8 #e4 ,give the stages in the formation of a definite1 symmetrical mouth with jaws of equal size4 #f4 ,the presence of sense organs may be taken to indicate that there is an organ of control1 or brain4 ,how is the development of this organ like or unlike that of the other structures in the series8 #g4 ,for the developing brain and nervous system what protection and support is afforded in each case8 ,the foregoing questions may be answered in tabular form by arranging the names of the animals in a line and the questions in a column4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,acorn-tongued worm1 #a4 b4 ,lancelet1 #a4 c4 ,lamprey1 #a_/b4 d4 ,shark3 #a1 head as far as the pectoral fins2 #b1 the tail4 e4 ,perch1 as directed for shark4 ,b4 ,,studies ,,of ,,amphibia ,progress from ,water-living ,animals to ,land-living ,animals ,the ,living ,frog or ,toad ,to show how an ,animal may be adapted to both ,land and ,water ,life ,materials4 ,living frogs in small cages or aquaria2 living toads2 some pungent liquid1 as ammonia4 ,observations4 ,the ,body4 #a4 ,contrast the body of the frog with that of the fish as to regions1 shape1 and compactness4 ,how do you account for the differences8 ,locomotion4 #b4 ,what kinds of locomotion can a frog use8 ,why is it difficult for a frog to crawl or walk8 ,how far can a frog jump8 ,how are swimming and jumping accomplished8 ,what do you think is the use of the hump on the back8 #c4 ,identify in the legs the thigh1 shank1 ankle1 foot1 toes1 and web1 and in the arm1 the upper arm1 forearm1 wrist1 hand1 and fingers4 ,state in detail the differences in structure and in position between the fore and hind limbs4 ,how do you account for these differences8 ,feeding4 #d4 ,induce a frog or toad to eat by dangling food1 such as a piece of raw meat or meal worms1 small earthworms1 etc41 before it4 ,how does it seize the food8 ,what will it eat8 ,how is the mouth adapted to this manner of feeding8 ,respiration4 #e4 ,the frog has no diaphragm1 and therefore no chest cavity2 watch very carefully the movements of the mouth1 the nostrils1 the throat1 and the sides of the body to determine how the problem of breathing 7how the air is gotten into and out of the lungs7 without a diaphragm is solved4 ,write a detailed account of the frog's method of breathing which shall explain just how the air is forced into the lungs4 #f4 ,what would be the effect of propping open the mouth of the frog8 ,why8 ,does the frog breathe in the usual manner while under the water8 ,if not1 how do you explain its ability to remain under water for a long period of time8 ,sense ,organs4 #g4 ,investigate the efficiency of the five special senses in the frog by devising experiments to test each sense2 as1 for example1 giving a frog its liberty on the floor and trying to catch it again1 to test the sense of sight4 ,write an account of your experiments and their results4 ,which of the senses is best developed8 ,give reasons for your answer4 #h4 ,compare the eye of the frog with respect to its shape1 movements1 parts1 and protective structures with that of the fish4 ,in what respects are they similar8 in what respects different8 ,why should they differ8 #i4 ,where are the frogs' ears located8 ,what do you think of the efficiency of an eardrum situated on the surface of the body8 ,why8 #aj4 ,the frog has certain other responses4 ,try turning the jar or cage containing a frog around to face the frog in another direction4 ,what happens8 ,how do you explain this response on the basis of use8 ,what other responses have you noticed8 ,protection4 #aa4 ,has the frog an exoskeleton8 ,describe the color scheme of the frog and explain how it may be protective4 ,why are frogs brighter in spring than in fall8 #ab4 ,why do frogs usually live near water8 ,do they ever leave the vicinity of streams8 ,if so1 when8 ,summary4 ,in what ways is the frog adapted to water life8 ,in what ways to life on land8 ,in what respects do toads differ from frogs8 ,the ,frog's ,mouth ,materials4 ,preserved or freshly killed frogs in dishes or shallow pans of water2 forceps and a bristle4 ,observations4 ,open the frog's mouth as widely as possible and1 if necessary1 insert a splinter to hold the jaws apart4 ,identify the following structures3-- ,tongue4 ,draw it forward until the free end extends from the mouth and is outspread2 observe its form1 extent1 and attachment4 ,teeth4 ,find those on the jaws and on the roof of the mouth4 ,nostrils4 ,push the bristle inward through a nostril to determine its direction and extent4 ,vocal cords4 ,these form a hard white mass in the floor of the mouth1 well back behind the tongue4 ,glottis1 the slit inclosed between the vocal cords1 opening into the trachea4 ,esophagus1 the passage to the stomach1 at the posterior end of the mouth4 ,eustachian tubes1 small passages outward to the ears at the junction of the upper and lower jaws4 ,questions4 #a4 ,describe the probable action of the frog's tongue in catching a bug4 #b4 ,what advantage can you ascribe to the peculiar mode of attachment of the tongue8 #c4 ,of what use is the notch in the inner end of the tongue8 7,note its position when the tongue lies at rest in the mouth47 #d4 ,if the frog chewed its food1 how would the existing structure of the nostrils be very inconvenient8 #e4 ,recall either the frog's habit of feeding or the structure of the nostrils4 ,do you think the nostrils are of much service in smelling8 ,state the reason for your answer4 #f4 ,of what use are the vocal cords and why are they so muscular8 ,consider their use in sound making and also their condition during swallowing4 #g4 ,of what use are the teeth8 ,recall the form and use of the fish's teeth4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,the mouth1 wide open and with tongue extended4 b4 ,a diagram showing the path of air and of food through the frog's mouth4 ,the ,organs of ,digestion1 ,absorption1 and ,excretion ,materials4 ,freshly killed or preserved frogs in dishes or shallow pans of water1 forceps1 and1 if the pupil is to do any dissecting1 scissors4 ,directions and ,observations4 ,the specimens may have been opened by the teacher1 or may be dissected by the pupil as follows3-- ,placing the frog on its back1 with forceps firmly grasp the skin of the abdomen and the muscles beneath1 just in front of the hind legs1 and with the scissors cut straight forward in the middle line until the floor of the mouth is reached2 this will separate the arms4 ,care must be taken not to cut too deeply1 but this may be avoided by keeping the skin uplifted4 ,now cut sidewise in front of each hind leg in order that the body wall may be laid aside4 ,under the arms the heart will be seen2 it will be studied as a part of the circulatory system4 99 99 99 99 99 ,identify the following organs3-- ,liver1 the large red or brown mass1 consisting of several divisions and lying close up under the arms4 ,bile sac1 small1 green1 and between the liver lobes4 ,alimentary canal4 #a4 ,mouth4 #b4 ,esophagus4 #c4 ,stomach1 the elongated1 light-colored1 firm1 and muscular portion4 #d4 ,small intestine1 a slender1 more or less closely coiled1 tubular portion4 #e4 ,large intestine1 a thin-walled enlargement at the posterior end of the canal4 #f4 ,duodenum4 ,this is a muscular portion of the small intestine immediately following the stomach1 against which it is folded4 ,pancreas1 a yellowish1 pulpy mass lying in the fold between the stomach and the duodenum4 ,spleen1 a dark red globule1 usually smaller than a pea1 lying nearly free among the folds of the small intestine4 ,fat bodies1 yellow fringe-like structures1 sometimes found near the stomach4 ,kidneys1 a pair of elongated dark red organs1 behind the spleen and against the back4 ,note their numerous blood vessels4 ,possibly the ureters1 or urinal ducts1 can be discovered and traced to their junction with the bladder1 a clear membranous sac in the posterior extremity of the body cavity4 ,peritoneum1 a thin membrane lining the body cavity and attaching the vital organs to the backbone4 ,note4--,specimens secured in late fall1 winter1 or early spring may contain1 if female1 a large number of dark-colored eggs2 or if male1 two white testes1 located near the kidneys and similar to them in form1 though smaller4 ,questions4 #a4 ,name the parts of the frog's alimentary canal4 #b4 ,name the glands or organs which are accessory to the canal4 #c4 ,how long is the esophagus8 ,how does the presence or absence of a neck affect the esophagus8 #d4 ,how does the thickness of the stomach wall compare with that of the intestine1 and how do you account for the difference8 #e4 ,measure the length of the trunk of the frog's body and that of the outstretched alimentary canal4 ,how many times the length of the one is that of the other8 ,how does this ratio compare with that of an herbivorous animal8 7,the sheep's food canal is about thirty-two times the length of its body47 #f4 ,what is the color of the bile1 as seen through the walls of the bile sac8 ,this color is characteristic of carnivorous animals2 in herbivorous forms it is yellow4 ,find its color in some omnivorous form1 as man4 #g4 ,name the organs concerned in excretion4 #h4 ,what holds the internal organs in place1 and from what are they suspended8 #i4 ,the spleen is called a ductless gland4 ,give its function1 and explain why a duct is not necessary to it4 #aj4 ,since the frog swallows its food alive and entire1 what work must the stomach do8 ,what digestive organs would be absent from the mouth1 or else poorly developed8 #aa4 ,since the frog is carnivorous1 what digestive ferments are probably present1 and what ones absent from the alimentary canal8 #ab4 ,fat bodies are largest in the fall1 and are rarely found in the spring4 ,how can you account for this8 #ac4 ,when through with the general study of the alimentary canal1 you may open the stomach by cutting it lengthwise4 ,describe the character of the stomach lining as to folds and villi1 stating the advantage of each being present and the reason for the direction of the folds4 ,tell how the food is propelled onward through the alimentary canal4 ,give the scientific name for this action4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,the viscera 7internal organs7 undisturbed4 b4 ,the alimentary canal extended4 c4 ,the excretory system4 ,the ,organs of ,circulation and ,respiration of the ,frog ,materials4 ,the materials used in this exercise are the same as those used in the preceding exercise4 ,observations4 ,the pupil should identify the following structures3-- ,pericardium1 a membrane that surrounds the heart and1 in the case of the frog1 separates the body cavity into two portions1 the abdomen and the pericardial chamber4 ,heart1 lying between the shoulders and in front of the false diaphragm4 ,it is conical in form and composed of three chambers4 ,ventricle1 the pink1 conical1 and muscular portion of the heart1 pointing backward and outward4 ,auricles1 right and left4 ,these are anterior and dorsal to the ventricle1 thin1 membranous1 and dark-colored4 ,arterial trunk1 the single large blood vessel1 usually empty of blood1 and white4 ,note its origin and trace it as far as possible1 at least until you see it divide to encircle the throat4 ,sinus venosus1 a large membranous sac dorsal to the heart and connected with the right auricle4 ,lungs1 two small oblong1 pink1 spongy sacs1 lying between and behind the shoulders4 ,the pupil may also identify the following structures if a specimen is available which has the blood vessels injected4 ,conus arteriosus1 or arterial trunk1 a large artery passing obliquely forward from the ventricle1 and dividing into three branches on each side4 ,carotid arteries1 the first branches of the conus1 to the head and neck4 ,aortas1 the second branches of the conus1 to the dorsal region4 ,pulmocutaneous arteries1 the third branches of the conus1 to the lungs and skin4 ,dorsal aorta1 the large artery along the back1 formed by the union of the two aortas4 ,iliac1 or femoral arteries1 the two posterior divisions of the dorsal aorta1 supplying the legs4 ,posterior 7ascending7 vena cava1 a large vein close to the dorsal aorta1 passing forward from the kidneys4 ,hepatic veins1 large veins connecting the liver with the posterior vena cava4 ,anterior 7descending7 ven cav1 large veins formed by the junction of the veins from the arm1 neck1 and head on the right and left sides4 ,subclavian veins1 from the arms4 ,jugular veins1 from the neck4 ,questions4 #a4 ,of how many chambers does the frog's heart consist8 ,name them1 and describe them as to size1 color1 and structure4 #b4 ,which chamber receives blood from the body1 and which receives blood from the lungs8 #c4 ,name the large arteries and give the regions which they supply4 ,name the large veins and give the regions from which they come4 #d4 ,describe the lungs as to size1 both when inflated and when uninflated4 ,describe their color2 entirety or subdivision2 texture4 #e4 ,in the inflated lung1 notice the interior partitions or chambers1 which are called vesicles4 ,how do they affect the amount of surface exposed for gas exchange in breathing8 #f4 ,measuring the lung collapsed and again when inflated1 calculate its approximate volume in each case and state how much air it may take in during an inspiration4 #g4 ,describe the diaphragm and state its probable use as a factor in respiration or as a partition4 ,advanced questions4 #h4 ,apparently the pure and the impure blood must commingle upon entering the single ventricle1 but by a simple device this scarcely occurs4 ,how would such commingling affect the purity of the blood as it reached the tissues1 and hence affect waste removal1 oxidation1 body temperature1 activity1 and intelligence8 #i4 ,what are the chambers of the fish's heart8 of the mammalian 7human7 heart8 ,how may the heart of the frog be regarded as intermediate between these others8 ,how and where might the growth of a partition within it bring about the higher structure8 7,this actually occurs in certain reptiles47 #aj4 ,the lungs are said to be outgrowths of the alimentary canal4 ,explain how their connection would tend to show this4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,the heart and lungs in their normal position4 b4 ,the circulatory system1 as seen in the injected specimen4 c4 ,a copy of the diagram or model of the circulatory system4 d4 ,a diagram of the respiratory tract from the nostrils to the lungs1 by arrows showing the course of the air4 ,the ,nervous ,system of the ,frog ,materials4 ,specimens which have the brain exposed and other specimens whose viscera have been removed so that the spinal nerves can be seen2 pans or shallow dishes of water and forceps4 ,observations4 ,the nerve tissues are generally white in color unless they have been specially treated and stained4 ,the pupil should identify the following structures3-- ,a4 ,brain1 those enlargements of nerve tissue situated in the head and composed of four principal parts1 as follows3-- #a4 ,cerebral hemispheres1 a pair of elongated lobes1 the anterior enlargements4 #b4 ,mid brain1 or optic lobes1 a pair of large ovoid structures1 projecting diagonally forward and sidewise4 #c4 ,cerebellum1 a slender1 transverse ridge1 close behind the midbrain4 #d4 ,medulla1 the anterior end of the spinal cord1 widest in front and containing a triangular depression4 7,frequently a pair of smaller enlargements is to be seen in front of the cerebral hemispheres2 they are the olfactory lobes1 and from them nerves pass forward to the nasal chamber47 ,b4 ,spinal cord1 extending along the spine1 giving rise to nerves4 ,c4 ,spinal nerves1 ten pairs of nerves which are connected with the cord through dorsal 7sensory7 and ventral 7motor7 roots1 and which penetrate the body and its appendages4 ,the first enters the neck2 the second and third join and enter the arm2 the fourth to sixth penetrate the skin and muscles of the trunk2 the seventh to ninth join by a plexus to form the sciatic nerve which supplies the leg1 and the tenth enters the posterior portion of the body4 ,questions4 #a4 ,which lobes of the brain are paired8 ,give at least two possible causes or reasons for their double structure4 #b4 ,the optic lobes are connected with the eyes4 ,compare their size with that of the other parts4 ,of how much use do you think they are to the frog8 #c4 ,if folds or convolutions in the surface of the cerebrum indicate intelligence1 thoughtfulness1 or mind1 what do you infer as to the frog's mental condition and power to think8 #d4 ,has the frog brain or brains8 ,explain4 #e4 ,name several things done by an animal's brain4 #f4 ,which of the spinal nerves are specially large8 ,why should they be large8 #g4 ,what advantages are there in the frog's having a dorsal nerve cord instead of a ventral one1 as the earthworm has8 ,what would be the effect of cutting or breaking the dorsal root of a spinal nerve8 the ventral root8 the entire spinal cord8 ,how do you explain the convulsions of the brainless 7beheaded7 chicken or frog8 #h4 ,what kinds of impulses originate outside of the nerve center1 and what kinds in the center8 #i4 ,sensations reach the cord and brain through the dorsal root of the spinal nerve4 ,what kinds of messages travel through the ventral root1 and in what direction do they go8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,the brain4 b4 ,the spinal cord and its nerves4 c4 ,the nervous system4 d4 ,a diagram of the cord and its nerves1 showing the kinds and the directions of the nerve impulses4 ,the ,endoskeleton of the ,frog ,materials4 ,prepared frog skeletons mounted in glass-covered boxes or in other cases suitable for individual study2 other vertebrate skeletons for reference4 ,observations4 ,the pupil should examine his specimen and identify the following structures3-- ,a4 ,skull3-- #a4 ,cranium1 or brain case1 the central and hinder portion4 #b4 ,nasal bone1 a triangular bone lying in front of each large opening1 or eye orbit1 and attached to the anterior end of the cranium4 #c4 ,premaxillaries1 a pair of small bones which form the tip of the nose4 #d4 ,maxillary1 a slender bone forming the side of the upper jaw4 #e4 ,dentary1 the bone of the lower jaw1 corresponding to the maxillary4 #f4 ,occipital foramen1 the posterior opening or entrance into the cranium1 normally covered dorsally by cartilage and most easily seen in a separate skull4 ,b4 ,vertebral ,column3-- #a4 ,cervical vertebra1 the first vertebra1 supporting the skull4 #b4 ,dorso-lumbar vertebr1 vertebr with small lateral processes4 #c4 ,sacrum1 the ninth vertebra1 bearing extra long lateral processes or arms4 #d4 ,urostyle1 the last vertebra1 lying in the median line1 a long1 slender1 blade-like bone1 really formed by the fusion of several vertebr4 ,c4 ,vertebra3-- #a4 ,centrum1 the solid1 nearly circular portion4 #b4 ,lateral process1 one of the paired projections1 extending outward on either side4 #c4 ,neural spine1 the single projection1 extending toward the dorsal side4 #d4 ,neural arch1 formed largely by a connection between the lateral process and the neural spine4 ,the arch above and the centrum below inclose the neural canal4 ,d4 ,pectoral1 or ,shoulder1 ,girdle3-- #a4 ,sternum1 the breastbone1 extending along the median ventral line4 #b4 ,coracoid1 a heavy bone extending from the sternum sidewise to support the arm4 #c4 ,clavicle1 the collar bone1 a light bone in front of the coracoid4 #d4 ,scapula1 the shoulder blade1 a broad1 thin bone which arches around to the dorsal side4 ,e4 ,pelvic1 or ,hip1 ,girdle3-- #a4 ,ilium1 a long1 slender1 curved bone1 with its mate uniting to form an inverted wishbone2 it is joined to the sacrum4 #b4 ,pelvis1 the region of the socket at the junction of the ilia4 ,f4 ,fore ,leg1 or ,arm3-- #a4 ,humerus1 the single bone of the upper arm4 #b4 ,radius1 the bone of the lower arm on the thumb side2 in the frog united to the ulna4 #c4 ,ulna1 the bone of the forearm opposite the radius4 #d4 ,carpals1 small bones of the wrist4 #e4 ,metacarpals1 a single series of long bones forming the palm of the hand4 #f4 ,phalanges1 the bones of the fingers and thumb 7singular phalanx74 ,g4 ,hind ,leg3-- #a4 ,femur1 the thigh bone1 next to the body4 #b4 ,tibia1 the larger bone of the lower leg on the inner side2 in the frog united to the fibula4 #c4 ,fibula1 the smaller bone of the lower leg4 #d4 ,tarsals1 the small bones of the instep4 #e4 ,metatarsals1 the long bones of the instep4 #f4 ,phalanges1 the bones of the toes4 ,questions4 #a4 ,whereabouts in the frog has nature made an attempt to inclose delicate or vital structures in bony cases8 #b4 ,examining the inside of the mouth1 find the teeth4 ,judging from their size and structure1 of what use are these teeth8 #c4 ,what advantages can you see in having the arms and legs attached to girdles instead of having them fastened directly to the vertebral column8 ,how has their development affected the shape of the trunk1 as opposed to that of the fish8 #d4 ,make a comparison of the two girdles as to their attachment to the spine and their consequent rigidity or freedom of movement4 #e4 ,how many vertebr are there in the spinal column8 ,what advantage can you see in having the column composed of many small vertebr instead of a few large ones8 ,enumerate those having a special form or structure1 and state the use of each4 #f4 ,on the vertebr notice any irregularities1 prominences1 or roughenings4 ,for what are such bones better adapted than smooth bones would be8 #g4 ,how is the frog's humping permitted8 ,how are the urostyle and the pelvis connected1 if at all8 ,has this any effect on motion8 7,see living frog47 #h4 ,in parallel columns1 keeping corresponding parts in a line1 tabulate the bones of the fore and hind limbs4 #i4 ,state how extra length has been attained in the hind leg1 and give the purpose or the result of this lengthening4 #aj4 ,in the forearm notice the fusing of the radius and ulna4 ,how would these parts act in rotating the hand1 as compared with your own1 where they are free8 ,compare also the tibia and fibula4 ,where in the frog's leg is turning made possible by the use of parallel bones8 #aa4 ,compare the frog's hand and foot as to number of fingers and toes2 as to length and spread4 ,have any fingers or toes only two phalanges8 #ab4 ,how would an inner skeleton affect the growth and the size of an animal1 as compared with an outer skeleton1 like the clam's8 #ac4 ,how would the lack of an outer skeleton influence sensitiveness1 activity1 and intelligence8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,the skull and trunk1 with appendages of one side4 b4 ,each set of bones separately1 as the skull1 the column1 etc4 ,comparative ,study of ,amphibia ,materials4 ,various amphibia1 either dead or alive1 such as newts1 mud puppies 7necturus71 salamanders1 and several species of frogs and toads1 especially tree toads4 ,observations4 ,answer the following questions with respect to each animal3-- #a4 ,what regions of the body are present8 ,what is the general shape and size of the body8 #b4 ,for what kind of locomotion are the limbs fitted8 ,how8 #c4 ,have the hands and feet any special adaptations8 ,if so1 what are they and for what purpose8 #d4 ,with what organs does the animal breathe8 ,if with gills1 are they external or internal8 #e4 ,judging from the specimen1 what do you think is the habitat8 ,give reason for your answer4 ,summary from the ,comparative ,study of ,amphibia #a4 ,which of the amphibia in this study are fish-like in character8 ,what are the fish-like characters8 ,do you think these fish-like amphibia are of a lower or higher type than the others8 ,give reasons for your answer4 #b4 ,show how the variation in 7a7 the form of the body1 7b7 color patterns1 and 7c7 the structure of the legs and arms of the amphibia are related to habitat and mode of life4 ,amphibia3 ,a ,general ,review and ,library ,exercise #a4 ,the usefulness of the ,american toad4 #b4 ,the breeding habits of the common frog2 of the ,surinam toad2 of the obstetrical toad2 of the smith4 #c4 ,the development of the axolotl4 #d4 ,the habits of the tree frogs and their variable coloration4 #e4 ,the croaking of frogs and of toads4 #f4 ,the flying frog of ,ceylon4 #g4 ,the distribution and habits of the hellbender2 of the mud puppy2 of the ,congo snake4 #h4 ,the general absence of the amphibia from arid regions4 #i4 ,frog farming for city markets4 #aj4 ,protective devices of various amphibia4 #aa4 ,toads and warts4 #ab4 ,the homing and water instincts of toads4 #ac4 ,hibernation1 seasonal or prolonged1 of toads and frogs4 #ad4 ,the changes in the respiratory and circulatory system during metamorphosis4 #ae4 ,ontogeny and phylogeny1 as illustrated by amphibia4 #af4 ,the structural defects which would prevent an ambitious frog from becoming a highly trained and skillful animal4 #ag4 ,the classification of amphibia1 with examples4 #ah4 ,the kinds of frogs and toads found in the region where you live4 ,c4 ,,studies ,,of ,,living ,,reptiles ,showing ,diversity of ,adaptation among closely related ,animals ,the ,snake #a4 ,what is the shape8 ,what regions are present8 ,how do you distinguish between the trunk and the tail8 ,has the tail any use8 ,what are the advantages of a body without limbs8 #b4 ,describe the snake's path in locomotion4 ,how is locomotion accomplished8 ,is the absence of limbs a hindrance to the animal in its locomotory activity8 #c4 ,describe the appearance and movements of the tongue4 ,of what use are these movements of the tongue8 #d4 ,what evidence is there that the snake breathes with lungs8 #e4 ,what sense organs do you find8 ,compare the ears and eyes with those of the frog4 ,what explains the peculiar staring appearance of the eyes8 #f4 ,what is the color scheme8 ,does it appear to be protective8 ,if so1 how8 #g4 ,of what does the exoskeleton consist8 ,how are the scales arranged8 ,what variations in the size of the scales do you find8 ,what special use have some of the scales8 ,how fitted for this8 ,how does a snake moult8 ,appearance before and after moulting4 ,the ,florida ,lizard #a4 ,describe the body as to regions and shape4 ,is the tail of use8 #b4 ,what are the lizard's locomotory abilities8 ,how is it fitted for living in trees8 #c4 ,feed the lizard flies or meal worms and describe its method of capturing them4 #d4 ,compare the lizard's respiration and sense organs with those of the snake and frog4 #e4 ,what is the usual color of the lizard8 ,what have you discovered about its power to change colors8 ,how may this be of use to it8 #f4 ,of what does the exoskeleton consist8 ,is the entire body covered8 ,how are the scales arranged8 ,how does the lizard moult8 ,the ,turtle #a4 ,in what important ways does the body of the turtle differ from those of the snake and lizard8 #b4 ,what methods of locomotion has the turtle8 ,for which method is it best fitted8 ,how8 ,why are its movements in water so much less clumsy than on land8 7,compare weight on land with weight in water47 ,compare the efficiency of the locomotion of a turtle with that of a lizard and suggest a reason for the difference4 #c4 ,what do turtles eat while in the laboratory8 ,since turtles have no teeth1 how can they bite off their food8 #d4 ,what can you discover with respect to the respiration of the turtle8 ,does it breathe when under water8 #e4 ,what sense organs has a turtle8 ,which appears to be most highly developed8 ,how do you know8 #f4 ,in what various ways is the turtle protected against enemies8 7,you should state several47 ,are you afraid of a turtle8 ,if so1 why8 ,why does the turtle need more protection than the snake or lizard8 #g4 ,describe the color pattern of the turtle you are studying4 ,is this arrangement of colors the same for others of the same species8 #h4 ,describe the arrangement of the epidermal plates of the turtle's shell4 ,are the arrangement1 number1 and form of plates the same for all turtles of this species8 ,compare with the plates of other species4 ,what variations do you find8 ,reptiles3 ,a ,general ,review and ,library ,exercise #a4 ,characteristics of reptiles4 #b4 ,orders of reptiles4 ,characteristics and examples of each order4 #c4 ,poisonous snakes found in the ,united ,states4 ,the poison fangs of a rattlesnake4 ,habits of the rattlesnake4 #d4 ,cures for snake bites1 fabled and real4 #e4 ,snake charming4 #f4 ,famous poisonous snakes and their habits4 #g4 ,the characteristics and habits of alligators4 #h4 ,the characteristics and habits of marine turtles4 ,how they differ from pond turtles4 #i4 ,for what is each of the following noted8 ,where does it live8 ,the terrapins8 the horned toad8 the ,gila monster8 the chameleon8 the glass snake8 #aj4 ,reptiles of former 7geological7 times compared with those of the present4 #aa4 ,care of eggs and young4 ,swallowing of young by snakes4 #ab4 ,food of snakes4 ,defend the proposition that non-poisonous snakes are beneficial and should not be killed wantonly4 #ac4 ,investigate and write an account of the economic value of reptiles4 ,d4 ,,studies ,,of ,,birds ,vertebrates specialized for ,flight ,the ,living ,pigeon ,materials4 ,living pigeons in cages1 and1 if practicable1 other birds such as chickens1 canaries1 and sparrows4 ,the ,body4 #a4 ,what divisions of the body are present8 ,compare the relative size of these divisions with that of other vertebrates studied4 ,can you account for the great increase in bulk of the trunk over the other divisions8 ,how do you account for the longer neck8 ,flight4 #b4 ,what is the shape of the body8 ,how is the body made smooth8 ,to what is the shape and smoothness adapted8 7,recall the appearance of a plucked pigeon or chicken47 #c4 ,observe the size of the wings by measuring their width and spread 7measured from tip to tip when outspread74 ,where on the body are they attached8 ,how is this point of attachment advantageous8 ,what is the shape of the upper surface of a wing when spread8 of the lower surface8 ,how is this shape advantageous in flight8 #d4 ,where are the largest and strongest feathers8 ,how are they arranged with respect to each other3 7a7 to prevent air passing through on the down stroke of the wing8 7b7 to permit folding8 #e4 ,what is the shape and width of the tail when outspread8 when folded8 ,in what way does the tail assist in flight8 ,walking and ,perching4 #f4 ,identify the parts of the leg as in the frog4 7,see study of frog47 ,with what exoskeletal structures is each part covered8 ,how many toes are there8 ,does the pigeon walk on its foot or on its toes8 ,where is the ankle joint8 #g4 ,the bird's legs are arranged to support the body4 ,how is this brought about8 ,compare with the lizard and frog in this respect4 #h4 ,explain how the legs are adapted 7a7 to preserve the balance of the body1 and 7b7 for perching4 ,are they well or poorly adapted for locomotion8 ,explain4 ,for what other purposes are the legs sometimes used8 ,feeding and ,drinking4 #i4 ,what is the form and character of the jaws of the pigeon 7called the beak78 ,offer food1 and watch the pigeons eat4 ,how does a pigeon seize and swallow food8 ,does it chew the food8 ,locate the crop4 ,if the pigeon chewed its food1 would it have a crop8 ,why8 ,how does a pigeon drink8 ,how does the chicken drink8 ,respiration4 #aj4 ,what parts move in breathing8 #aa4 ,compare roughly the body temperature 7by touch7 of man1 the pigeon1 and the frog4 ,which has the highest temperature8 which the lowest8 ,how can you account for the higher temperature of the bird8 7,which of the three must be able to endure long-sustained effort8 ,what is the effect on your own body of long-continued effort87 ,sense ,organs4 #ab4 ,identify the eyes1 ears1 and nostrils1 and describe their location4 ,what are the advantages in having the eardrum at the bottom of a canal8 ,is there any disadvantage8 ,what is the probable function of the inner thin eyelid8 ,how does it work8 #ac4 ,investigate the power of response of the special senses4 ,which seems to be the most alert8 ,state the experiments which you used and your reasons for your answers to this question4 ,which senses are most serviceable in finding food8 in protecting against enemies8 ,protection4 #ad4 ,in what different ways are feathers protective to the bird8 ,study the arrangement of the feathers to find how protection is increased in this way4 ,how do the feathers and parts of feathers which lie next the body differ from those which are on the outer surface8 ,what parts of the body are unprotected by feathers8 ,how are these protected1 if at all8 #ae4 ,note the flexibility of the neck4 ,through what part of the arc of a circle can the pigeon turn its head8 ,how is this especially important to birds8 #af4 ,what means of defense has the pigeon when attacked8 ,summary4 #a4 ,make a list of the important adaptations of the pigeon1 7a7 to flight1 7b7 to feeding1 7c7 to perching1 and 7d7 to protection4 #b4 ,which is the most highly specialized1 the fish1 frog1 snake1 or bird8 ,give reasons for your answers4 #c4 ,in what various ways are feathers of use to the bird8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,side view of the head4 b4 ,a foot4 c4 ,a wing4 d4 ,side view of the pigeon4 ,supplementary ,studies of the ,pigeon ,these topics and questions should be answered from experience with pigeons and observations of their habits and behavior1 and from books to be obtained from the school and public libraries4 #a4 ,the homing instinct of the common blue pigeon and of carrier pigeons4 #b4 ,nesting habits1 number of broods and number of young in each brood1 feeding the young4 ,why is this method of feeding the young necessary8 #c4 ,varieties or breeds of pigeons4 ,how the various varieties were produced2 how they are kept true2 reversions of type4 #d4 ,darwin's experiments with the pigeons2 object of the experiment4 ,whitman's experiments4 ,the ,exoskeleton of the ,bird3 ,plumage ,materials4 ,living birds1 as perhaps pigeons1 or mounted or stuffed skins1 separate feathers1 portions of feathers1 microscopes4 ,observations4 ,the pupils should study the arrangement of the feathers and their variations in form and size1 and should identify the following principal kinds3-- ,contour feathers1 those feathers1 generally broad1 which cover the body1 giving to it its outline and color4 ,coverts1 those feathers which cover joints1 such as the joints of the wing and tail4 ,primaries or pinions1 the long stiff feathers of the outside of the wing1 used in sustaining the bird in flight4 ,secondaries1 the shorter1 more symmetrical feathers lying next and over the primaries4 ,down1 soft feathers found on young birds and next to the skin on some adults4 ,thread feathers1 best seen about the eyes1 ears1 and beak4 ,quill1 the bare stiff portion1 one end of which is inserted in the skin4 ,examine its internal structure4 ,vane1 the broad expanded portion1 the part ordinarily seen on the bird4 ,shaft1 the mid-rib of the vane4 ,barbs1 the delicate outgrowths of the shaft making up the vane4 ,barbules1 the subdivisions of the barbs1 some of which are provided with hooklets4 ,these may well be studied microscopically4 ,questions4 #a4 ,how is the plumage arranged to offer least resistance to the air in flight8 ,how does a bird sit when exposed to the wind8 #b4 ,in a column write the names of the parts of a feather1 and opposite each part state its particular use4 #c4 ,of what use are the hooklets on the barbules8 #d4 ,state and explain the peculiar position of the shaft of the primary feather2 of that of a contour feather4 ,the plumage of many birds contains all stages of feather specialization1 from down to pinion4 ,find as many of them as you can on your specimen4 #e4 ,what reason can you assign for the fluffy base and the compact end of the contour feather8 #f4 ,how much of the feather of a full-grown bird seems to be supplied with blood vessels8 ,how does this bloodless or full-blooded condition affect the weight of the feather2 of the plumage2 of the bird8 #g4 ,how would the above condition affect the temperature of the blood and of the body8 ,would it tend to cool the animal or to conserve its heat8 #h4 ,show how the air lying motionless amongst the plumage may serve the same purpose as that in the packing of a fireless cooker or a thermos bottle4 #i4 ,how would the above condition affect the growth and repair of the feather8 ,what connection has it with moulting8 #aj4 ,what kind of feathers forms most birds' baby clothes8 ,what kind forms the adults' underclothes8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,a typical feather4 b4 ,a feather of each kind4 c4 ,a bird with wings outspread1 showing positions of feathers4 d4 ,the minute structure of a feather4 ,birds and ,migration ,to illustrate ,distribution ,work in the ,laboratory ,materials4 ,bird skins or mounted birds1 at least one representative of each order and1 better still1 of each family of the birds which pass through or remain in your neighborhood2 specimens in a museum may also be used4 ,some guide to the identification of birds1 as ,walter's ,wild ,birds in ,city ,parks or ,reed's ,bird ,guide4 ,a good diagram of a bird4 ,directions4 ,your object here is to familiarize yourself with the appearance of birds of different types1 and with the terms used in describing them4 ,study first a diagram of a bird and learn the terms and their applications4 ,an important item in the description of a bird is its length4 ,this is obtained by measuring from the tip of the beak1 over the curve of the head1 to the end of the tail4 ,this measures a curved line and gives a greater length for a bird than the straight line you would naturally estimate4 ,train your eye by watching house sparrows 7so-called ,english sparrows7 and fixing their length as a unit4 ,they are called six inches long1 and in the field other birds may be measured by them4 ,the robin is ten inches long1 and may be used to measure the larger birds4 ,in describing the colors of birds1 great discussions often arise because pupils do not use terms correctly4 ,consult ,chapman's ,birds of ,eastern ,north ,america for a color key or chart1 and train yourself to observe colors carefully and name them correctly4 ,you will find more colors among birds than are given there1 but the chart will help you a great deal4 ,study in the laboratory as many birds as you can4 ,try to get one of each order at least and1 among the perching birds1 one of each family4 ,the answers to the following questions should be recorded upon the blank outlines of birds1 or else in the form of a table4 ,questions4 #a4 ,how long is the bird8 #b4 ,what is the general color of the upper surface2 of the lower8 #c4 ,what are the markings or peculiarities of the head1 if there are any8 #d4 ,note any peculiarities of the tail1 as to shape1 length1 or color1 if there are any4 #e4 ,if the wings are not like the back1 note their color1 and1 if there are wing bars1 note their number and color4 #f4 ,what are the markings on the breast1 if there are any8 #g4 ,note any other markings1 as rump spot1 etc4 #h4 ,what sort of beak has the bird8 #i4 ,what sort of feet has it8 #aj4 ,identify the bird1 using any key or guide you have4 ,do not ask any one to help you until you have exhausted your own resources4 ,comparative ,study of ,birds #a4 ,in what ways do the feet of birds vary8 ,give examples to illustrate your answer4 ,what are the principal results of these variations8 #b4 ,in what ways do the beaks of birds vary8 ,give examples of the variations and of the special uses of the beaks4 #c4 ,how do water birds differ from land birds2 flesh-eating birds from seed eaters2 insect-eating birds from seed eaters2 shore and swamp birds from land birds8 ,work in the ,field ,materials4 7#a7 ,birds in the field1 field or opera glasses1 and bird guides4 7#b7 ,some extra time1 as field work is rather slow4 7#c7 ,considerable energy1 as birds rise early and may be up and away before the usual hour for your appearance4 ,directions4 ,the object of this work is to become acquainted with the living bird1 to learn not only its name1 but also some of its ways4 ,you will need to spend time to do this1 and as a rule the more time you spend the more you will see4 ,every time you go out after birds1 record at the time every kind of bird you see1 so that at the end of the season you will know not only when each kind of bird came1 but also how long it staid4 ,when you see a new bird1 record immediately its colors1 markings1 actions1 notes1 and anything else which may help you later to identify it4 ,do not trust to memory nor to the inspiration of the classroom4 ,after weeks of observation1 write the following summary4 ,summary of the ,results of ,field ,study of ,birds #a4 ,over what length of time have your observations extended8 ,where have you studied8 ,what have you found to be the best conditions for studying birds8 ,how many birds have you identified8 #b4 ,when in the year do birds migrate2 when in the twenty-four hours8 #c4 ,in spring migration which birds come first2 which come last8 ,what reason is there for this order8 #d4 ,what may retard migration8 ,what may hasten it8 #e4 ,what could prevent certain birds from ever coming here1 or1 if they did come1 from staying8 #f4 ,name some birds which stay here permanently2 some which come only for the winter2 some which come for the summers2 some which merely pass through1 going and coming4 #g4 ,can you see anything which may determine whether a bird will nest here or farther north8 ,if so1 what is it8 #h4 ,why is the house sparrow so successful8 #i4 ,why are blue jays so nomadic in winter8 #aj4 ,what months do the herring gulls stay here8 ,when do they leave8 ,where do they go when they leave8 ,what do they do while they are gone8 ,when do they return8 ,what is their economic value8 #aa4 ,how many birds' nests have you seen this spring8 ,to what kinds of birds did they belong8 ,if you have been able to study one in particular1 give its history as far as you know it4 #ab4 ,tell what you have learned by your own observation this spring concerning the kinds of food birds eat1 and their methods of obtaining food4 #ac4 ,what bird songs have you learned to know8 ,when do these birds sing most8 ,does a bird have more than one song8 #ad4 ,what birds have you seen near your home8 ,what attached them to the vicinity8 ,how might you attract more birds8 ,birds2 ,review and ,library ,exercise #a4 ,what are the distinguishing characteristics of birds8 #b4 ,give the orders of birds1 with the characteristics of each order and an example of each4 #c4 ,define and give illustrations of the meaning of the expressions3 land birds2 water birds2 shore birds2 swamp birds2 scavengers2 policemen of the air4 #d4 ,discuss the temperature of birds1 the amount of energy they show1 and the oxygen they use4 #e4 ,beaks of birds4 #f4 ,feet of birds4 #g4 ,the crop and gizzard4 ,why absent in many birds8 #h4 ,what is there in a bird's construction which enables it to twist its head so far around8 ,what are the advantages in being able to do so8 #i4 ,account for the oiliness of plumage of water birds2 for the complete feathering of legs and feet in some forms4 #aj4 ,define moulting and discuss its advantages and disadvantages4 #aa4 ,give reasons why you would not expect a bird to hibernate4 #ab4 ,name two or more kinds of birds which show recognition marks4 ,what sort of birds would you expect to find with such marks8 ,why8 #ac4 ,is a bird's egg alive when it is laid8 ,why does it have so much food stored in it8 ,what direct interest have we in this fact8 #ad4 ,how are the eggs of various birds protected while they are developing8 ,note4--,do not be satisfied with only one way4 ,a bird seldom is4 #ae4 ,compare prcocial and altricial birds as to their stage of development when hatched2 the location and character of the nest2 the care given by the parents2 the singing habit of the parents2 the success of the type4 #af4 ,name at least three insect-eating birds and tell how many insects it is estimated each will destroy in a day4 ,effect in a garden8 #ag4 ,if you had an orchard to protect from insects would you spray it with poison1 or would you police it with birds8 ,note4--,consider both sides4 ,there is much to be said on each4 ,if you decided that you needed more birds1 how would you get them8 #ah4 ,suppose you had a city lot in the suburbs1 #ej feet wide by #bjj feet deep1 with a house covering the first #ej feet4 ,make a plan of the back yard to show what you could do to attract the birds to it in the summer2 in the winter4 ,remember that birds must have protection against enemies as well as against changes in weather1 etc4 #ai4 ,for what purposes are birds killed by man8 ,which of these do you consider legitimate8 ,which birds may not legally be killed at any time of the year in this state8 ,which may at certain seasons8 ,which may at any time8 ,when should an open season be permitted8 ,how long should it last8 #bj4 ,give a short biography of ,audubon4 ,describe the purpose of the ,audubon ,society and some of the work accomplished by it4 #ba4 ,when were the house sparrows1 or1 as we call them1 the ,english sparrows1 introduced into this country8 ,where8 ,why8 ,have they proved a success from our standpoint8 ,from their own8 ,why have they increased so enormously8 ,what part of the country is still free from them8 ,why8 ,give the reasons for and the methods of fighting ,english sparrows4 #bb4 ,the history of the passenger pigeon4 #bc4 ,what has the quail or bobwhite to do with our food supply8 #bd4 ,poultry keeping4 #be4 ,name three bird magazines and give a characteristic of each one4 #bf4 ,fossil birds and the light they shed on the probable ancestry of birds4 ,study of the ,migration of ,animals in ,general ,the migration of birds is only one case of a phenomenon which is comparatively common4 ,from your text and reference books find other examples of migration4 ,what are the causes which make animals migrate8 ,what methods do various animals use8 ,what are some results of these migrations8 ,summarize your study in the following thesis3-- ,the distribution of animals4 #a4 ,the necessity for this distribution4 #b4 ,methods of distribution--voluntary--involuntary4 ,note4--,see in review the methods used to spread corals1 hydroids1 and other sedentary forms1 starfish1 clams1 etc41 as well as those used by the various vertebrates4 #c4 ,time when migration occurs4 ,consider here the young of most animals1 and the movements of many birds1 as well as movements caused by some accidental occurrence4 #d4 ,distance that animals move from the place of their birth4 #e4 ,factors which determine the routes of distribution4 #f4 ,factors which limit distribution4 ,migration maps4 #a4 ,a map to show the migration route of the birds of your region4 #b4 ,a map to show the migration of the potato beetle 7or ,english sparrow or any other animal the extension of whose range has been studied74 #c4 ,a map of the world1 showing the zonal areas4 #d4 ,a map of ,north ,america1 showing the distribution of the ungulates1 with the boundaries and barriers marked4 #e4 ,a map of ,north ,america1 showing the distribution of the fur-bearing animals4 #f4 ,a map of the world1 showing the distribution of the human races4 ,e4 ,,studies ,,of ,,mammals ,to illustrate ,man's ,relation to ,other ,animals2 the ,connection between ,mode of ,life and ,structure ,the ,rabbit ,the effects of domestication upon an animal4 ,a burrowing type of rodent4 ,materials4 ,living rabbits--young rabbits are more desirable for laboratory study4 ,observations4 ,the ,body4 #a4 ,what divisions of the body are there8 ,compare the length and use of the neck with that of the pigeon4 ,describe the character and length of the tail4 ,what use has it1 if any8 ,locomotion4 #b4 ,what methods of locomotion has the rabbit8 ,which is most commonly used8 #c4 ,study the limbs1 and find the ankle and wrist4 ,does the rabbit walk on its foot or its toes8 ,note the number and character of the toes and fingers and their claws4 ,what is the effect of the nonretractile power of the claws upon the uses to which claws can be put8 #d4 ,what uses have the fore or the hind limbs other than locomotion8 ,explain how the usual sitting or resting posture is advantageous for quick locomotion4 #e4 ,by means of printer's or writing ink smeared over the soles of the feet1 and a long piece of clean white paper get prints of a rabbit's tracks as it hops over the paper4 ,explain how the peculiar formation of the tracks occurs4 ,feeding4 #f4 ,offer a rabbit various kinds of food4 ,how does it test the food before eating8 ,does the rabbit ever use its forelimbs to assist in feeding8 ,if so1 when and how8 ,how is the food eaten8 ,how are the teeth fitted for the rabbit's method of feeding8 ,does your rabbit drink8 ,if so1 how8 ,respiration4 #g4 ,what movements of the body are concerned in breathing8 #h4 ,compare the frequency of the breathing movements with your own4 ,can you distinguish the heart beats8 ,if so1 how and where8 ,count them4 ,sense ,organs4 #i4 ,note the position of the eyes1 shape of their surface1 shape and size of the pupil4 ,what external protecting structures are present1--such as eyelids1 eyelashes1 eyebrows8 ,study the movements of the eyelids4 ,is there a third eyelid as in the bird8 ,compare the use of the neck in enlarging the range of vision with that of the bird4 ,is the rabbit's range of vision greater or less than your own8 #aj4 ,what is the location of the nostrils8 ,what advantages are gained by the prolongation of the face forward8 ,note any peculiarity in the form or movement of the nostrils4 ,how do you explain these movements8 ,are the nostrils more or less useful than those of other vertebrates you have studied8 ,how8 #aa4 ,note the shape1 size1 and position of the external ears and explain what relation1 if any1 these characters of the ears have to hearing4 ,note the various movements of the ears and the reasons for these movements4 #ab4 ,what special organs for touch has the rabbit8 ,under what circumstances are these of use8 ,what parts of the body are most sensitive to touch8 ,protection4 #ac4 ,what home-making habits do you observe in the rabbit8 ,what habits relating to secrecy1 comfort1 and safety1 do you observe8 #ad4 ,study the fur and hair of the rabbit4 ,how do you distinguish between fur and hair8 ,what variations do you find in the fur and hair8 ,what parts of the body are uncovered8 ,why8 ,what are the various functions of the fur and hair covering of rabbit8 #ae4 ,have rabbits any means of defense or offense8 ,explain4 ,social ,habits4 #af4 ,notice and describe anything in the behavior of the rabbits which may be classed as social1--such as play1 fondness for company1 display of affection1 homing instincts1 care of young1 etc4 ,supplementary ,study of ,wild ,rabbits ,if you cannot answer these questions from observations of wild rabbits1 the answers may be obtained by reading some good natural history4 ,ernest ,thompson ,seton's story of a rabbit's life is good for the purpose4 #a4 ,what method of locomotion is more highly developed in wild rabbits than in domestic rabbits8 ,why8 #b4 ,when do wild rabbits do their feeding8 ,why8 ,in what ways do they sometimes do damage in feeding8 #c4 ,what senses will probably be more alert than those of the domestic rabbit8 ,why8 #d4 ,where do wild rabbits usually make their homes8 ,why8 ,how do they guard against being cornered in their homes8 #e4 ,in what ways do they guard against surprise when feeding8 ,what are the principal enemies of rabbits8 ,what devices do they employ to escape enemies when pursued by them8 ,what is thumping8 ,when used8 #f4 ,how many young rabbits are usually produced at one time8 ,how many litters in a season8 ,how long does it take a young rabbit to mature8 #g4 ,how are the young of rabbits guarded against danger from enemies and weather8 ,what are the various causes that tend to keep down the numbers of rabbits8 #h4 ,give an account of the plagues of rabbits in ,colorado and ,australia1 including the reasons for the great increase in numbers and the methods used to destroy the rabbits4 ,summary of the ,study of ,rabbits #a4 ,what has been the general effect of domestication upon rabbits8 #b4 ,what are the most important characters and habits that fit the wild rabbit for its life8 ,the ,guinea ,pig or ,white ,rat ,materials4 ,living animals4 ,observations4 #a4 ,what regions of the body can you identify8 ,what is the relative length of the neck1 ears1 legs8 ,what about the tail8 #b4 ,describe the color scheme of the animal4 ,is it protective or the result of breeding8 ,what is the character of the covering8 #c4 ,describe the method and rate of locomotion4 ,would this method of locomotion enable the animal to escape from enemies 7e4g4 dogs78 #d4 ,what is the shape of the foot8 ,what is the shape and length of the claws8 ,for what are they adapted8 #e4 ,what sounds do the animals make8 #f4 ,what is the appearance and shape of the eye8 ,what is the color of the eye8 #g4 ,state the size and shape of the external ear4 ,what movements are characteristic8 #h4 ,what motions of the nostrils do you see8 #i4 ,feed the animal various kinds of food4 ,how does it eat8 ,state any facts you observed1 to show that it has or has not a choice as to food4 #aj4 ,watch the animal for some time to determine its mental characteristics4 ,is it alert8 curious8 timid8 ,does it show much intelligence8 affection8 ,what is the relation between mental development and success in the struggle for existence8 ,summary4 #a4 ,what are the general characteristics of the animal8 #b4 ,to what kind of life is it adapted8 #c4 ,what are some of the characteristics that make the animal a good pet8 ,the ,squirrel ,materials4 ,living specimens in cages1 mounted specimens1 pictures1 charts1 lantern slides1 etc4 ,directions4 ,before taking up the study of the squirrel in the laboratory a trip should be made to some park or wooded region and the habits of squirrels noted4 ,take your camera and try to take some snapshots4 ,after the laboratory exercise visit some museum or zological garden and study the relatives of the squirrel4 ,observations based upon field work4 #a4 ,what different postures does the squirrel assume8 #b4 ,what does it do when frightened8 #c4 ,what use have the forelegs other than locomotion8 #d4 ,how does a squirrel go up a tree8 down8 from branch to branch8 ,state all the forms of locomotion you have noticed4 #e4 ,what is the appearance of the tail8 ,what is the position of the tail when the squirrel is sitting8 running8 on a branch8 ,describe any motions of the tail you noticed4 ,is there anything expressed by these motions or are they without meaning8 #f4 ,tempt the squirrel with some nuts4 ,state the evidence that leads you to think that the squirrel is alert1 timid1 curious4 ,do you think the squirrel acts most from instinct or as the result of intelligence8 #g4 ,in what various ways does a squirrel attempt to escape notice8 ,what does it do when you chase it8 ,observations in the laboratory4 #a4 ,what divisions are there to the body8 ,what is the length of the neck8 the length and appearance of the tail8 #b4 ,what is the relative length of the legs as compared with the body8 ,how does the length of the front and hind legs compare8 #c4 ,does the animal walk on its toes or on the sole of its foot8 ,how many toes on each foot8 ,what is the length of the claws8 ,for what could they be used8 #d4 ,offer the squirrel various kinds of food and see if it has a choice4 ,describe its methods of eating4 #e4 ,note the position of the eyes1 the shape of their surface1 and the shape and size of the pupil4 ,how many eyelids do you notice8 ,why do the squirrel's eyes appear so bright8 ,are eyebrows1 eyelashes1 or tear glands present8 #f4 ,note the size1 shape1 and appearance of the squirrel's external ears4 #g4 ,what movements of the nostrils do you notice8 ,for what does a squirrel chiefly use his nostrils8 ,what explanation can you suggest for the nostrils1 eyes1 and ears having the same relative position in all vertebrates8 #h4 ,how does a squirrel protect itself8 #i4 ,smear the feet of a squirrel with ink and allow it to run over a roll of clean paper as in the case of the rabbit4 ,how do its tracks differ from those of the rabbit8 ,summary4 #a4 ,what are the general characteristics of the squirrel8 #b4 ,to what kind of life is it adapted8 #c4 ,what adaptations has the squirrel to protect it from its enemies8 #d4 ,what characteristics make the squirrel a good pet8 ,what objections to it8 ,library ,exercise on ,rodents #a4 ,general characteristics and examples of rodents4 ,the teeth of rodents4 #b4 ,show how variation in habitat depends upon structure among rodents by comparing1 for example1 squirrels1 beavers1 and woodchucks4 #c4 ,variations in the tails of rodents4 ,what are the causes of this variation8 #d4 ,pocket gophers and their economic relations4 #e4 ,species of mice4 ,their habits4 #f4 ,the dancing mouse4 #g4 ,damage by mice4 ,plagues of field mice in ,nevada4 ,method of extermination4 #h4 ,habits and kinds of rats4 #i4 ,economic importance of rats4 ,methods of extermination4 #aj4 ,rats and the bubonic plague4 #aa4 ,squirrels1 kinds and habits4 #ab4 ,the economic value of rabbits4 #ac4 ,the groundhog myth4 ,habits of woodchucks4 #ad4 ,the beaver--their habits and sagacity4 ,methods of trapping them4 #ae4 ,prairie dogs--their habits and economic importance4 ,how exterminated8 #af4 ,what are porcupines8 #ag4 ,variation in the homes among rodents4 ,usual means of defense4 #ah4 ,make a list of rodents in a column1 and in another column opposite each name write the various ways the animal is of economic importance4 ,sum up with a statement showing the most important ways rodents are of value to man and harmful to man4 #ai4 ,defend the proposition that rodents are on the whole harmful animals and should be exterminated4 #bj4 ,how some rodents contribute to the science of medicine1 more especially to bacteriology4 ,the ,cat or ,dog--,carnivora ,materials4 ,living specimens of cats or dogs4 ,pictures1 books1 lantern slides1 etc4 ,supplement the laboratory study with trips to museums and zological gardens to observe the relatives of the cat4 ,definitions4 ,carnivora4 ,an order of mammals1 chiefly flesh-eating1 with claws and well-developed canine teeth4 ,carnivorous1 flesh-eating4 ,herbivorous1 plant-eating4 ,omnivorous1 eating both plants and animal food4 ,digitigrade1 walking on the toes4 ,plantigrade1 walking on the soles of the feet4 ,vibriss1 long hairs on the face--whiskers4 ,observations4 #a4 ,into what regions is the body divided8 #b4 ,what is the shape of the head and the length of the neck8 #c4 ,are the legs relatively long or short8 ,how do the front and hind legs compare in length8 ,how many toes on each foot8 ,is the cat digitigrade or plantigrade8 #d4 ,how many pads on the sole of the foot8 ,what use can you suggest for these structures8 ,what is the size and shape of the claws8 ,are they retractile or nonretractile8 ,for what purposes may the claws be used8 #e4 ,describe the tail as to length and appearance4 ,movements4 #f4 ,what is the size and appearance of the external ears8 ,what movement do you notice8 #g4 ,are the eyes large or small8 ,what eyelids can you find8 ,what other accessory structures8 ,what is the shape and direction of the pupil8 #h4 ,what other sensory structures do you find8 ,what is their function8 #i4 ,watch the animal eat4 ,does it chew or fletcherize its food8 ,what teeth seem well developed8 ,is the movement of the jaws simply up and down1 or is there a lateral movement as well8 #aj4 ,try to find out some of the mental characteristics of the animal1 i4e4 is it sluggish or active8 ,is it alert8 ,does it show curiosity8 fear8 ,what evidence of intelligence8 ,supplementary studies4 a4 ,smear the feet of a cat with ink and allow it to run on a sheet of clean paper4 ,make a diagram to show tracks4 ,do the same in case of a dog4 ,how do these tracks differ8 ,why8 b4 ,what is the difference between a cat and a dog as to the manner of eating a bone8 c4 ,as you see dogs and cats outside do you see any evidence in either case of a tendency to gather in packs 7gregariousness78 d4 ,what different emotions are expressed by a dog's tail8 a cat's tail8 e4 ,what sounds do cats and dogs make8 ,significance8 f4 ,contrast the sleeping habits of cats and dogs4 g4 ,how large is the litter in case of dogs and cats8 ,condition of young at birth8 ,how long before the eyes of the young are open8 ,care of young4 ,summary4 ,to what kind of life does a cat or dog seem best adapted3 7a7 as to food8 7b7 protection from enemies8 ,carnivora2 ,review and ,library ,exercise ,characteristics4 #a4 ,the general characters of carnivora4 #b4 ,five important families4 ,the characteristics and examples of each family4 ,morphology and physiology4 #c4 ,the dentition of the cat1 the dog1 and the bear4 ,variation in the chewing teeth4 #d4 ,three types of paired appendages among carnivora4 ,relation to habitat4 #e4 ,the difference in structure and use of the posterior legs of the seal and walrus4 #f4 ,the alimentary canal of a cat and rabbit compared4 #g4 ,the tongue of cats and dogs contrasted as to structure and use4 ,economics4 #h4 ,the difference between hair and fur4 #i4 ,the fur-bearing carnivora4 ,families1 and habitat4 #aj4 ,trapping4 #aa4 ,game laws and game wardens4 ,hunters' licenses4 #ab4 ,hunting big game4 #ac4 ,carnivora harmful to man4 #ad4 ,carnivora useful to man4 #ae4 ,carnivora as pets4 #af4 ,chief types or breeds of domesticated dogs4 ,characteristics4 ,special value of each4 #ag4 ,chief types or breeds of domesticated cats4 #ah4 ,dogs as burden bearers4 ,natural ,history4 #ai4 ,distribution and range of carnivora4 ,carnivora of the ,united ,states4 #bj4 ,winter habits among carnivora4 #ba4 ,food of carnivora4 ,various methods of obtaining it4 #bb4 ,the hunting habits of the dog and cat family4 #bc4 ,the habits and distribution of the raccoons4 #bd4 ,the color schemes of the more important families of the carnivora4 #be4 ,seasonal variation in color4 #bf4 ,distribution and habits of the ferrets and weasels4 #bg4 ,how carnivora protect themselves from enemies4 ,which carnivora have been most successful in resisting man's advance8 #bh4 ,peculiar and interesting carnivora to be seen in museums and zological gardens4 #bi4 ,origin of the domestic dog4 #cj4 ,intelligence of dogs4 #ca4 ,fox-hunting4 #cb4 ,coyotes and their relation to stock raising1 etc4 ,the ,ungulates ,materials4 ,pictures1 charts1 lantern slides1 and books showing cow1 sheep1 hog1 goat1 horse1 etc4 ,diagram of skeleton4 ,directions4 ,since it is impossible to have living ungulates in the laboratory1 this study should be supplemented by trips to a museum and to a zological garden4 ,observe also such hoofed animals as may be common in your neighborhood4 ,use your camera and make snapshots1 showing characteristic attitudes of these animals4 ,definitions4 ,ungulates1 an order of mammals characterized by the possession of hoofs4 ,ruminant1 a division of ungulates1 which chew the cud4 ,perissodactyl1 a division of ungulates with an odd number of toes4 ,artiodactyl1 a division of ungulates with an even number of toes4 ,carnivorous1 flesh-eating4 ,herbivorous1 plant-eating4 ,omnivorous1 eating both plant and animal food4 ,observations in the laboratory4 ,note4--,answer the following questions for one or more of the following3 ,the cow1 sheep1 goat1 hog1 and horse4 ,if desired1 the questions may be answered in the form of a table4 #a4 ,what is the relative length of the neck8 ,what is its direction with reference to the body8 ,of what importance is this length and direction8 #b4 ,what is the length and appearance of the tail8 ,what is its use8 #c4 ,what is the relative length of the legs8 ,locate the heel1 knee1 and elbow4 7,reference should be made to a diagram of a skeleton47 ,when the leg is long1 in which bone is this lengthening accomplished 7compared with human skeleton78 #d4 ,how many toes on each foot8 ,is the animal an artiodactyl or a perissodactyl8 ,is it plantigrade or digitigrade8 #e4 ,what is the relative size and position of the ears 7external ear78 #f4 ,what is the relative size and position of the eyes8 nostrils8 #g4 ,are horns of any kind present8 ,if so1 note the size1 shape1 and direction4 ,are they present in both sexes8 ,if not1 in which one8 ,if in both1 note any differences distinguishing the sexes4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,head1 side view4 b4 ,entire animal1 side view4 ,observations in the field or at home4 #a4 ,note how the animal uses its lips1 tongue1 and teeth in feeding4 ,is it a ruminant8 #b4 ,in what order does the animal use its feet8 ,look up the definition of walk1 run1 gallop1 canter1 trot1 lope1 single foot1 pace4 ,which of these forms of locomotion are optional with the animal8 #c4 ,describe the process when the animal lies down and gets up4 #d4 ,describe the covering of the animal1 noting its length1 fineness1 etc4 ,what variations in different regions of the body8 #e4 ,is the animal alert or sluggish8 ,upon what senses does it most depend8 ,what mental characteristics are most marked1 e4g4 curiosity1 fear1 suspicion4 #f4 ,note any movements of the ear4 ,what is gained by these movements8 #g4 ,what is the position of the eye8 ,what is the shape and direction of the pupil8 ,reason8 #h4 ,what means has the animal for getting away from its enemies4 ,observations based upon museum trip or natural history4 #a4 ,identify as many ungulates as you can2 for example1 buffalo1 musk ox1 big-horn sheep1 ,rocky ,mountain goat1 chamois1 antelope1 giraffe1 red deer1 elk1 moose1 reindeer1 wild boar1 peccary1 rhinoceros1 zebra1 hippopotamus4 #b4 ,answer the following questions about each3-- a4 ,what is the family1 scientific name8 b4 ,what is the size of the animal8 the relative length of the hind and fore legs8 the relative length of the neck8 c4 ,what is the nature of the covering of the animal8 d4 ,are any horns developed8 ,if present1 what is their size1 shape1 direction1 and appearance8 e4 ,what is the habitat of the animal8 its distribution and social life8 ,summary4 ,in a short thesis summarize the facts you have found out about ungulates1 using the following outline3-- #a4 ,why called ungulates8 ,variation in number of toes4 #b4 ,general fact about the food of ungulates4 ,the two divisions4 #c4 ,the general adaptations for protection4 #d4 ,the social life of the ungulates4 #e4 ,the native ungulates of the ,united ,states4 #f4 ,commercial uses and value4 ,ungulates3 ,review and ,library ,exercise ,characteristics4 #a4 ,classification of ungulates based upon number of toes1 kind of horns1 chewing the cud1 etc4 ,some of the more important families with examples4 ,morphology and physiology4 #b4 ,the variation in the number and kinds of teeth4 ,the dentition 7or dental formula7 of horse and cow4 #c4 ,the various types of horns4 ,shedding of horns and sexual variation4 #d4 ,the structure and function of the stomach of a ruminant4 ,meaning of the cud-chewing habit4 #e4 ,the structure of the stomach of a camel4 ,economics4 #f4 ,ungulates which have been domesticated4 #g4 ,breeds of cattle--their distinguishing marks and valuable points4 #h4 ,breeds of horses--their distinguishing marks and valuable points4 #i4 ,breeds of sheep--their distinguishing marks and valuable points4 #aj4 ,breeds of hogs--their distinguishing marks and valuable points4 #aa4 ,angora goats4 #ab4 ,the making of butter and cheese4 ,kinds of cheese4 ,substitutes for butter4 #ac4 ,the packing industry4 ,ungulates useful as food4 #ad4 ,the various methods of preserving meat4 #ae4 ,cattle ranches and round-ups4 ,free cattle in winter4 #af4 ,cattle raising in your state2 in other countries4 #ag4 ,transportation of cattle4 ,stock cars1 care and feeding4 #ah4 ,useful products derived from ungulates4 #ai4 ,tanning4 ,varieties and use of leather4 #bj4 ,diagrams showing chief cuts of meats4 #ba4 ,sheep husbandry4 ,shearing4 #bb4 ,ungulates as beasts of burden4 ,advantages and disadvantages4 #bc4 ,government inspection--quarantine4 ,natural ,history4 #bd4 ,geographical distribution of ungulates4 ,habitat and range4 #be4 ,native ungulates of ,north ,america4 #bf4 ,how1 when1 and by whom cattle and horses were introduced into ,america4 #bg4 ,the geological history of the horse4 #bh4 ,the story of the buffalo4 #bi4 ,deer hunting4 #cj4 ,methods of protection from enemies among ungulates4 #ca4 ,breeding habits and care of young in case of ungulates4 #cb4 ,intelligence in the case of horses4 #cc4 ,strange and peculiar ungulates to be seen in museums and zological gardens4 ,the ,horse ,the pupil is expected to study carefully the account of ,eohippus or ,hyracotherium in his text or any other available reference book1 and to supplement that work and this brief sketch with original observations upon horses on the street1 at a local store1 or wherever possible or convenient4 ,from the early horses which migrated from ,north ,america there arose in ,asia and ,africa the ass1 famous in the history of early civilization and still used in some localities as beasts of burden or for the breeding of mules1 which are the crosses between ass and horse4 ,there also arose the zebra and the most primitive of modern horses1 ,przewalskii's horse1 a wild pony of western ,china1 about forty inches high and almost identical with the drawings of the horse made by early man1 #cj1jjj years ago4 ,doubtless the modern ponies of ,ireland1 ,iceland1 and ,shetland are descendants of the original ,przewalskii type and not1 as is often claimed1 true horses stunted by rigors of climate and scant fare4 ,the horse is characterized largely by the presence of a lock of hair between the ears1 a full mane and tail1 small ears1 large hoofs1 and peculiar neigh4 ,the ass has no forelock1 a scanty mane and tail1 long ears1 small hoofs1 and a distinct bray4 ,by means of various crusades and raids1 the modern horse was introduced into ,europe from ,asia1 where it is clearly traced in history to the reign of ,king ,solomon4 ,here1 in ,europe1 because of local conditions and demands1 it assumed differing type forms4 ,the roadster type is closest to the ,arabian in character4 ,the draft or heavy type was bred in western ,europe when heavy armor came into use for rider and horse1 and the coach or carriage type was developed when armor was abandoned for gunpowder4 ,finally explorers and colonists brought the horse back to ,america1 its original home4 ,the various types and varieties may be briefly described4 ,a4 ,the draft type has short legs1 short neck1 large round body1 and ranges in weight from #adjj pounds to #bjjj pounds4 ,varieties3-- #a4 ,percheron3 generally about #agjj pounds in weight1 #af hands 7#fd inches7 high1 gray or black1 blocky body1 steep rump1 clean legs1 and quick action4 #b4 ,shire3 generally about #ahjj pounds in weight1 #ag hands high1 bay or brown1 white marked feet and face1 hairy legs and feet1 and slow action4 #c4 ,belgian3 generally about #ahjj pounds in weight1 #af hands high1 chestnut or roan in color1 compact body1 short1 steep rump1 and small feet4 ,b4 ,the coach or carriage type has legs and neck of medium length1 a body full-chested but not blocky1 and a weight varying from #aaej pounds to #adjj pounds4 ,varieties3-- #a4 ,hackney3 generally of full1 broad1 powerful body1 short legs and back1 high action and high carriage of neck and head1 bay or chestnut in color1 #ae hands high1 and #adjj pounds in weight4 #b4 ,coach3 generally lighter than the ,hackney1 with longer legs and long stride2 height1 #af hands2 weight1 #acjj pounds4 #c4 ,cleveland bay3 averaging #af-a_/b hands in height1 #acej pounds in weight1 high1 broad hips1 strong action1 and bay color4 ,c4 ,the roadster type is long and lean of limb and body1 and averages about #aajj pounds in weight4 ,varieties3-- #a4 ,thoroughbred3 of small head1 long neck1 level back1 of variable color1 #ad-a_/b--af-a_/b hands high1 about #ajjj pounds in weight4 #b4 ,american saddle3 an ,american production2 not a distinct breed1 but a roadster of high quality4 #c4 ,american trotter3 a superior type of good speed4 ,the off forefoot and the nigh hind foot act together1 the nigh fore and the off hind feet together1 giving a two-beat gait4 #d4 ,pacer3 similar to the trotter1 but using both off feet and both nigh feet together1 giving a swinging gait4 ,the horse is very similar to man in its physical and mental character1 being subject to the same ailments and treatment and having the same impulses of affection1 hatred1 fear1 jealousy1 obedience1 willfulness1 memory1 and perhaps reason4 ,it is of all animals most careful in its eating and drinking2 because its stomach is small1 the food should not be bulky but concentrated1 grain forming a goodly portion of the ration4 ,perhaps the most important point in the structure of the horse is the form of the leg and foot4 ,the shoulder should slope slightly backward and the pastern joint1 immediately above the hoof1 slightly backward4 ,the hips1 or quarters1 should slope downward somewhat1 and the hock should be comparatively wide to afford ample leverage for the pulling muscles4 ,the legs should be straight as pillars when seen from front or rear4 ,the outer walls of the hoof support most of the weight though the frog should normally touch the ground4 ,in nature the hoof wears away properly of itself1 but the shod hoof needs regular trimming attention1 while the frog must not be trimmed1 for it is the soft growing part that nourishes the hoof4 ,in this treatment the foot is comparable with the human finger and finger nail4 ,observations4 ,if access to a living animal is impossible or inconvenient1 the pupil may use reference book or pictures for most of these points4 ,a measuring tape or ruler should be at hand1 and the assistance of an experienced person is a valuable aid4 ,if several horses are studied1 they should be distinguished by name or number4 ,record the color1 condition1 weight1 and height of the horse at the shoulder4 7,height is given in hands1 a hand being the breadth of the palm1 or #d inches47 ,note the slope of the shoulder1 of the back and the hips1 the general form of the head and neck1 and the facial expression4 ,find the chestnuts1 warty growths on the inside of each leg4 ,examine the foot1 finding the ,v-shaped frog in the center1 surrounded by the horny hoof4 ,find the pulse by passing the fingers downward from the upper curve of the neck1 along the inside of the jaw2 count the pulse4 ,notice the position and motion of the ears with their lining of hair1 and the position of the eyes1 the form of the pupil1 and the probable range of vision4 ,watch the horse use its lips1 and examine the mouth and teeth1 finding the grinding teeth far back in the mouth1 the incisors in front1 and the space where the canines are missing4 ,the male may have canines in the upper jaw4 ,on the surfaces of the incisors are the depressions1 or cups1 by means of which age is determined4 ,at six years the cups leave the lower center teeth2 at seven the adjoining teeth2 and at eight1 the outer lower teeth4 ,at nine years they leave the upper center incisors2 at ten1 the adjoining teeth2 and at eleven1 the outer teeth above4 ,at the age of ten years a spot appears in the outer upper incisors1 at fifteen years the groove has worn to the center of the tooth1 and at twenty-one years the groove is worn to the bottom of the tooth4 ,questions4 #a4 ,describe the horse you studied as to its name or number1 its color1 markings1 weight1 and size4 ,of what type and breed is it a specimen8 #b4 ,upon how much of the foot does the horse walk8 ,how does this affect ease or speed of action8 ,how does an athlete imitate this in sprinting8 #c4 ,how many toes has each foot8 ,what advantage or disadvantage can you see in this unusual structure8 #d4 ,how is the hoof constructed to distribute the weight over a surface broader than the leg8 ,how general is this among terrestrial animals8 #e4 ,what is the difference in the position of the chestnuts of the fore and hind legs8 #f4 ,where in the foreleg is a springiness permitted by curvature8 ,where does the back leg accomplish the same thing8 #g4 ,how do you account for the elongating of the face8 #h4 ,explain the uses of the lips1 telling how they are fitted for their work4 #i4 ,tell where the bit lies in the horse's mouth1 and how the structure permits this4 #aj4 ,where are the ears situated8 ,how does this peculiar position affect the range of hearing and general alertness8 ,of how much movement are they capable8 ,describe the lining of the ear1 and state its use4 #aa4 ,what is the rate of the pulse8 #ab4 ,measure the height at shoulder and at croup1 length of body from withers to rump1 of head1 of neck2 thickness of body from the shoulder to the chest and of distance of chest from ground4 ,point out any equalities or ratios you find4 ,topics for investigation4 #a4 ,the meaning of the terms gee1 haw1 nigh1 off1 run1 gallop1 trot1 pace1 single foot1 rack4 #b4 ,the location1 cause1 and effect of these troubles3 heaves1 blind staggers1 knee sprung1 shoe boil1 quitter1 ring bone1 spavin1 capped hock1 flat foot1 hoof bound1 glanders1 mange1 sweeny1 hide bound1 and thrush4 #c4 ,the record time for a trotted and a paced mile4 #d4 ,the meaning of one horse power4 ,how much a horse can pull on good roads4 #e4 ,record prices for valuable horses4 #f4 ,current prices for horses2 for ponies2 for mules4 #g4 ,the origin and the use of the mule4 #h4 ,balanced rations4 #i4 ,the number and care of the young1 and their relative development at birth4 #aj4 ,other animals used as beasts of burden in peculiar conditions or localities4 ,homology of the ,vertebrate ,skeleton ,materials4 ,prepared skeletons of an amphibian1 a reptile1 a bird1 another mammal1 and man4 ,if any of these be lacking1 lantern-slide illustrations may be used in a partially darkened room4 ,observations4 ,having studied the frog's skeleton in detail1 the student can readily compare each of these types with it4 ,compare in a very general way the skulls1 the girdles1 and the limbs2 their form and use4 ,note variations in the form and number of the vertebr and the number of the ribs4 ,questions4 #a4 ,in which types of vertebrates are the joints between the skull bones bound with cartilage8 ,how does the joining change in later types8 #b4 ,what dissimilarities occur in the series as regards closure or boxing in of the eye orbits1 nostrils1 and skull bones8 ,how would these changes in joining and closure affect strength1 rigidity1 and protection8 #c4 ,what evidence is there that such improvement has affected brain capacity and intelligence8 #d4 ,state how the attachment of the skull to the vertebral column changes as the animal man assumes an erect position4 #e4 ,are the vertebr of these types alike in structure8 ,what is the general form of an horizontally placed vertebra1 as in the horse or a reptile1 and of a vertically placed one1 as in man8 ,if you see any differences1 account for them4 #f4 ,wherever possible1 find the vertebr of the neck 7cervical71 and note the number of them in each case4 #g4 ,how is flexibility of the column accomplished in certain types or in certain places of one type8 ,how is rigidity gained8 ,state instances in each answer4 #h4 ,examining the interior of the turtle's shell1 find out and explain how the vertebr have been modified to form the upper shell4 ,how has the under portion 7plastron7 been formed8 #i4 ,in round numbers1 which skeleton has the greatest number of vertebr and which the least8 #aj4 ,which skeleton has the greatest number of ribs1 and which has the least8 #aa4 ,in a summarizing statement explain any variations you find in the pectoral and pelvic girdle for strength 7rigidity72 flexibility4 ,this answer may be written as a table1 naming the bones1 opposite each stating its condition1 and then what it affords or is adapted to4 #ab4 ,what is accomplished by having two bones in the shank of the leg8 ,in what types or forms is there but one1 and which one is it8 #ac4 ,can you assign any advantages in power1 agility1 length of leg1 or position of leg and foot accruing from a long ankle8 7,see horse1 frog1 et al47 #ad4 ,enumerate the types or forms1 and opposite each state the number of fingers and toes4 #ae4 ,make a table1 heading one column ,form or type2 another1 ,habitat2 and a third1 ,habit4 ,judging from the structure which you see or from your previous knowledge or experience1 fill in the table1 stating whether the type is aquatic1 terrestrial1 or arial2 whether it burrows1 walks1 runs1 or climbs1 etc4 #af4 ,from your statements in #ae1 explain how the peculiar mode of life affects the structure of these types4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,adaptations ,,for ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,the ,,species ,a4 ,,methods ,,of ,,reproduction #a4 ,the ,simple or ,asexual ,method of ,reproduction ,materials4 ,slides or diagrams1 showing a dividing amoeba1 a dividing paramecium1 a dividing vorticella1 reproduction in some form of sporozoa1 budding hydra1 gemmules of spongilla1 and some species of worm as ,dero or ,nereis in the process of dividing4 ,definitions4 ,spore1 a cell capable of developing into a new organism4 ,asexual reproduction1 reproduction by division of the cell or body4 ,sexual reproduction1 reproduction by means of the conjugation of two reproductive cells known as the egg and sperm cells4 ,fertilization1 the fusion of the male or sperm cell with the egg or female cell4 ,ovary1 an organ producing eggs4 ,spermary1 an organ producing sperm cells4 ,cross fertilization1 fertilization in which the sperm and egg cells are produced by different individuals4 ,dioecious1 the different kinds of reproductive organs found in different individuals4 ,monoecious1 the different kinds of reproductive organs found in the same individual4 ,directions4 ,note4--,refer to your notes1 if the animals mentioned in these exercises have been already studied4 ,this exercise may be largely review4 ,study the methods of reproduction in the specimens or diagrams before you4 ,determine first1 in what respects the methods of reproduction are similar in all2 second1 in what respects there is a variation4 ,questions4 #a4 ,what has an amoeba gained by dividing8 ,what powers has each new cell that the original amoeba had lost8 ,what would have been the fate of the amoeba if it had not divided into new cells8 #b4 ,what various forms of cell division did you find8 #c4 ,what is the simplest method of reproduction8 #b4 ,the ,complex or ,sexual ,method of ,reproduction ,materials4 ,slides or diagrams showing hydra and sponge reproducing sexually4 ,conjugating paramecia1 fertilized and unfertilized starfish eggs4 ,directions4 ,identify the reproductive organs or gonads of the hydra4 ,these are slight swellings on the surface4 ,the one nearer to the mouth end is the spermary and that near the attached end is the ovary4 ,questions4 #a4 ,how is an egg cell produced in hydra8 ,in general how do the reproductive cells of sponges and hydra originate8 #b4 ,what is gained by limiting the process of reproduction to special cells8 #c4 ,what is the difference between the appearance of the nucleus of the fertilized and the unfertilized egg8 #d4 ,what is the advantage of cross fertilization8 ,how accomplished in ,hydra8 ,what reason can you suggest for the spermary's position8 #e4 ,describe the conjugation of a paramecium4 #f4 ,describe the process of maturation and fertilization in a starfish egg4 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,diving ,amoeba or ,paramecium4 b4 ,budding ,hydra4 c4 ,hydra showing gonads4 d4 ,starfish egg--fertilized and unfertilized4 ,summary of important points in the study of methods of reproduction3-- #a4 ,what are the two principal methods of reproduction8 ,how do they differ8 #b4 ,why is reproduction necessary8 ,b4 ,,development #a4 ,the ,hen's ,egg ,materials4 ,hen's eggs1 hydrochloric acid4 ,definitions4 ,germ spot1 a white spot1 imbedded in the yolk4 ,this is the point at which development begins4 ,yolk1 the yellow portion of a bird's egg4 ,this is a food material1 rich in fat4 ,albumen1 the white1 viscous portion of a bird's egg4 ,chalaza1 the spiral portion of albumen always seen in the bird's egg4 ,directions4 ,boil an egg at least ten minutes in water deep enough to cover it4 ,note which side is uppermost and mark this part of the shell for reference4 ,remove the egg and pick away the shell from about half the egg1 leaving the shell on that portion which was underneath when placed in water4 ,with a sharp knife remove this half of the egg4 ,note the thickness of the shell4 ,test its composition 7use hydrochloric acid74 ,find the membrane lining the shell and note that at one end it separates into two parts to inclose an air space4 #a4 ,what is this for8 ,how does it change after an egg has been incubated for a week or more8 ,break an uncooked egg in a saucer4 ,note the germ spot4 ,note also the difference in the consistency of the white 7albumen7 and yellow portion 7yolk74 #b4 ,why does the latter retain its shape8 #c4 ,why do the white and yolk not mix unless shaken or beaten together8 #d4 ,look for the chalaza4 #e4 ,what do you think is the use of this structure8 ,weigh a fresh egg1 place it in a dry atmosphere for a week1 and weigh it again4 ,record result4 ,why may eggs be kept a long time perfectly fresh if coated with paraffin or if put in water glass8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,the egg as it appears in the saucer4 b4 ,the egg after part of the shell has been removed4 #b4 ,early ,embryonic ,development of an ,egg ,materials4 ,slides or diagrams1 showing various stages in the development of some animal through the gastrula stage4 ,definitions4 ,cleavage stages1 two1 four1 eight1 sixteen cells1 etc41 arising by repeated division1 starting with the egg4 ,blastula1 a hollow sphere1 the wall of which is composed of a single layer of cells4 ,gastrula1 a stage formed from the blastula by pushing in one side of the latter1 so as to form a more or less cup-shape structure4 ,observations4 #a4 ,is there any considerable difference between the size of the egg and the size of the blastula and gastrula8 ,has development taken place by an increase of size or by an increase of complexity8 #b4 ,contrast the blastula and gastrula as to number of cavities1 number of cell layers1 number of external openings4 #c4 ,suggest protozoans that resemble the egg and blastula respectively4 ,what invertebrates resemble the gastrula in body plan8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,some of the cleavage stages4 b4 ,a blastula4 c4 ,a gastrula4 #c4 ,postembryonic ,development or ,metamorphosis of a ,mosquito ,materials4 ,some specimens of the larv and pup of the mosquito1 ordinarily known as wrigglers4 ,either specimens or diagrams of egg packets should also be provided4 ,mounted specimens of adult of both sexes4 ,definitions4 ,postembryonic development1 the changes taking place in the development of an animal after birth or hatching4 ,larva1 the active feeding stage4 ,it is the first stage in postembryonic development1 and follows the gastrula stage4 ,pupa1 usually a resting or quiescent stage4 ,it is the stage following the larva stage4 ,observations4 #a4 ,describe the appearance of the egg packet both as seen with the unaided eye and with a hand lens4 ,find the trapdoor4 #b4 ,what is the difference between the appearance of the larva and the pupa8 ,how do their resting positions differ8 #c4 ,what does the larva do when disturbed8 ,describe any characteristic motions that you notice4 #d4 ,contrast the pupa with the larva under the same conditions and note any differences4 #e4 ,where do you think the external openings of the respiratory organs of the larva and those of the pupa are located8 ,give reasons for your answer4 #f4 ,into what does the pupa change8 ,where must the pupa be at this time8 ,is it easier for the pupa to stay at the surface or at the bottom8 #g4 ,examine an adult mosquito4 ,state the kind of mouth parts1 the number and appearance of the wings1 the appearance of the antenn4 ,how does the male and female differ in this respect8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,a diagrammatic drawing representing the jar of water and showing the various positions assumed by the wrigglers4 b4 ,careful drawings of each stage4 #d4 ,postembryonic ,development or ,metamorphosis of a ,butterfly or ,moth ,materials4 ,the eggs1 caterpillars1 pup1 cocoons1 and adult of some moth or similar stages of a butterfly4 ,definitions4 ,prolegs1 short1 unsegmented appendages found in the larva4 ,caterpillar1 the larva of a moth or butterfly4 ,spiracles1 openings into the trach or breathing tubes4 ,tubercles1 knob-like projections4 ,chrysalis1 the pupa stage of a butterfly4 ,cocoons1 the covering spun by the larva before changing to the pupa4 ,observations4 #a4 ,state the color and appearance of the larva4 ,if tubercles or spines are present1 state where4 ,where are the spiracles8 ,how do you distinguish the head1 thorax1 and abdomen in the case of the caterpillar8 #b4 ,what kind of mouth parts has the caterpillar8 #c4 ,how many prolegs has the caterpillar8 ,of what use are they8 ,how does the number of prolegs differ from that of the caterpillar in the case of the grub8 maggot8 currant worm8 #d4 ,what is the advantage of the cocoon8 ,what is its color1 appearance1 and material8 ,is it composed of a tough substance1 or is it easily torn8 ,where are cocoons found out of doors8 ,where would you look for chrysalids8 7,explain differences in locations47 ,describe the cocoons of tussock moth1 clothes moth1 leaf roller4 #e4 ,what is the difference between a ,cecropia cocoon which contains a living pupa and one that has been parasitized8 ,what is the appearance of a parasitized caterpillar8 #f4 ,what rudimentary structures can you identify in the pupa8 ,what kind of mouth parts has this stage8 #g4 ,which of these stages is the active stage8 ,which stage is quiescent8 ,what is really going on in the quiescent stage8 ,in which stage does the insect grow8 feed8 ,if the insect were harmful1 in which stage would it do the damage8 ,how8 #h4 ,describe what occurs when the pupa changes into the adult4 ,what is the appearance of the wings in the beginning8 ,what changes take place8 #i4 ,what kind of mouth parts has the adult8 ,describe4 #aj4 ,describe the antenn4 ,how do the antenn of moths and butterflies vary8 #aa4 ,what is the size and appearance of the eggs8 ,are they laid singly or in groups8 ,suggested drawings4 a4 ,a caterpillar1 side view4 b4 ,a pupa1 ventral view4 c4 ,an adult1 dorsal view4 d4 ,a few eggs4 #e4 ,development of the ,chick ,materials4 ,an incubator1 a brooder1 a setting of eggs4 ,directions4 ,read carefully the directions for setting up and regulating the incubator4 ,remember that the temperature should average #ajc degrees and should not vary more than two or three degrees above or below this4 ,candle the eggs from time to time and note difference in appearance1 as development proceeds1 especially as to transparency and size of the air space4 ,an egg that is transparent after ten days is probably infertile and should be removed4 ,eggs which are developing properly will show from this time on a well developed air space1 and will be quite opaque4 ,the veins often give a spider-web appearance4 ,twice each day remove the tray of eggs and allow to cool slightly4 ,once a day the eggs should be turned before the tray is returned to the incubator4 ,questions4 #a4 ,describe the appearance of the shell when the chick is about to come out4 ,in about how many days after you put the eggs in the incubator did you first note this change8 ,you should watch the incubator carefully from the eighteenth day on4 #b4 ,what proportion of the eggs hatched8 ,what reasons can you suggest for the failure of some to hatch8 ,did any which were pipped fail to hatch8 ,if so1 break them open and see if you can discover the trouble4 #c4 ,how does the chick get out of the shell8 ,how long does it take for it to get out after the shell is chipped8 ,how does a chick look as soon as it has come out of the shell8 #d4 ,with what is a chick covered when it is first hatched8 ,how long before feathers begin to develop8 #e4 ,how long before a chick needs food8 ,how does it recognize it8 ,summary4 #a4 ,what are the two kinds of development8 #b4 ,what are the stages in embryonic development8 #c4 ,what two general types of postembryonic development as determined by the amount of the food supplied in the egg8 ,c4 ,,protection ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,young ,library ,exercise ,materials4 ,books and diagrams showing as many methods for the care of young as possible4 ,observations4 #a4 ,to what extent is care given to the eggs and young in the case of fish8 ,is the number of eggs large or small8 ,contrast this condition with that of the robin4 ,what general conclusion is suggested8 #b4 ,describe the egg-laying habits of five or more of the following3 grasshopper1 cecropia moth1 tussock moth1 leaf miner1 case bearer1 leaf roller1 sphinx moth1 gall insects1 ichneumon flies1 spiders1 earthworm4 ,how is the developing animal protected in each case8 ,how is food assured8 #c4 ,contrast the method of the honeybee and the solitary wasp as to the method of caring for and feeding the young4 #d4 ,describe the nests of five or more of the following3 spider1 honeybee1 bumblebee1 paper wasp1 mud dauber1 digger wasp4 #e4 ,describe the nests of the following3 stickleback fish1 sunfish4 #f4 ,describe the nests of ten birds common to your neighborhood4 #g4 ,describe the homes of the following3 woodchuck1 mole1 squirrel1 rabbit1 muskrat1 prairie dog1 beaver1 bear4 #h4 ,in case of birds which of the parent birds builds the nest and cares for the little birds8 #i4 ,how are the young cared for in the following cases3 crayfish1 cyclops1 pipefish1 ,surinam toad8 ,summary4 #a4 ,what general methods are there for protecting the young8 #b4 ,what various devices for assuring plenty of food for the developing animal8 #c4 ,what is the relation between the care given the young and the number of eggs produced8 ,d4 ,,adaptations ,,for ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,the ,,species ,review ,questions and ,library ,exercise #a4 ,show how the sexual method of reproduction tends to produce variations4 #b4 ,what is meant by the term heredity8 #c4 ,what are chromosomes8 ,what do some zologists believe to be the relation between these chromosomes and heredity8 #d4 ,what are dominant and recessive characters8 ,what is meant by ,mendel law of heredity8 #e4 ,what is meant by the term parthenogenesis8 ,what are some of its advantages and under what conditions does it take place8 ,name some animal in which parthenogenesis commonly takes place4 #f4 ,what is sex dimorphism8 ,give some examples4 #g4 ,what were the experiments of ,professor ,loeb and others in connection with artificially fertilized eggs8 #h4 ,how do eggs vary as to the kind of shell1 amount of food1 size1 etc48 ,what is the effect of the amount of food upon the rate of development8 ,on the stage of development at which the egg is hatched8 #i4 ,contrast prcocial and altricial birds4 #aj4 ,what is the effect of ground nesting and tree nesting upon the number of eggs and the care of the young8 #aa4 ,describe the metamorphosis of grasshopper1 ,june beetle1 honeybee1 dragon-fly1 cicada1 may-fly1 ant-lion1 caddis fly4 #ab4 ,compare the development of the crayfish1 crab1 and lobster4 ,what names are given to the larv8 ,what is the significance in the fact that the lobster hatches in the mysis stage8 #ac4 ,what are some of the peculiar names given to the larv in the case of echinoderms1 worms1 and mollusks8 ,why should these have received special names8 #ad4 ,name the three primitive germ layers4 ,state the principal organs derived from each in the higher animals4 #ae4 ,what is ontogeny8 phylogeny8 ,what is the meaning of the law ,the ontogeny is an epitome of the phylogeny8 #af4 ,who was ,weissman8 ,what important contribution did he make to zology8 #ag4 ,with what phase of zology is the name of ,t4 ,h4 ,morgan associated8 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,poultry ,materials4 ,either pictures or specimens of the different breeds of fowl4 ,general ,information4 ,under the term poultry are included chickens as well as turkeys1 pigeons1 ducks1 geese1 etc4 ,chickens are most generally raised1 since they do not require such special conditions as the others4 ,in this exercise only this form of poultry is considered4 ,the hen has been domesticated from prehistoric times1 being probably derived from the so-called jungle fowl of ,india 7,gallus bankiva71 which is still to be found in its native habitat4 ,through constant attempts to improve the domestic fowl along the lines of greater egg-production1 size1 etc41 there have been developed a great many different breeds of fowl4 ,these may be divided into seven groups1 as follows3 #a4 ,the ,american ,class4 #b4 ,the ,asiatic ,class4 #c4 ,the ,mediterranean ,class4 #d4 ,the ,english ,class4 #e4 ,the ,dutch ,class4 #f4 ,the ,french ,class4 #g4 ,the ,ornamental and ,exhibition ,classes4 ,the ,american ,class includes fowls raised both for egg-production and for eating4 ,it includes the following well-known breeds3 the ,plymouth ,rocks1 the ,wyandottes1 the ,rhode ,island ,reds1 and the less-known breeds of ,javas1 ,dominiques1 and ,jersey ,blues4 ,these all lay good-sized brown eggs1 are good winter layers1 and stand confinement well4 ,the standard weight varies from six and one half pounds to seven and one half pounds for the hen1 and from eight and one half pounds to nine and one half pounds for the cock1 the ,plymouth ,rocks being the heaviest of the breeds4 ,there are three principal varieties of ,plymouth ,rocks--the ,barred ,rocks1 with grayish-white plumage regularly crossed with bars of blue-black1 the ,white ,rocks1 and the ,buff ,rocks4 ,all have single upright combs1 which1 with the wattles and the ear lobes1 are bright red1 a large bright eye1 and yellow legs4 ,there are also three principal varieties of ,wyandottes4 ,the ,silver-laced ,wyandotte has a silvery-white plumage1 with black markings in various parts of the body4 ,the ,golden ,wyandotte is similar in its markings1 but has yellow where the ,silver-laced has white4 ,the ,white ,wyandotte is pure white4 ,all have rose combs1 red ear lobes1 and yellow legs4 ,they are on the average about a pound lighter than the ,plymouth ,rocks4 ,the ,rhode ,island ,reds are a much more recent breed that has of late become very popular4 ,they are of a reddish-brown color1 about the weight of the ,wyandotte1 with yellow legs4 ,there are both single combed and rose combed varieties4 ,the ,asiatic ,class includes those breeds raised chiefly for the table4 ,the ,brahmas1 ,cochins1 and ,langshans are the chief breeds4 ,they are considerably heavier than other breeds1 and are specially characterized by the feathers on the legs and feet4 ,they all lay brown eggs1 and are in many cases good layers4 ,the ,brahmas include two principal varieties1 the light and the dark4 ,the general color is black and white1 and they have yellow legs1 red wattles1 ear lobes1 and comb1 the latter being of the kind called a pea-comb1 which is of small size in the cock4 ,there are four varieties of ,cochins1 the ,buff being much more raised than the ,partridge1 the ,white1 or the ,black4 ,the ,partridge somewhat resembles a dark ,brahma1 but has red and brown plumage4 ,cochins have single combs1 yellow legs1 and a general fluffy character to the plumage1 that of saddle and hackle meeting1 thus giving a characteristic appearance to these fowls4 ,the eggs are not quite so large as the other two breeds of this class4 ,the ,langshans are smaller and more active than the two breeds just described4 ,they have black legs1 the feet are not so heavily feathered1 and in general these fowls are much less awkward in appearance4 ,there are two varieties1 the ,white and the ,black4 ,the ,mediterranean ,class includes those breeds raised chiefly because of their great egg-production4 ,they are active birds1 often troublesome because of their ability to fly over high enclosures1 so that when kept in the city it is usually necessary to clip one wing4 ,they are not so good winter layers as a rule1 but are non-setters4 ,they all lay white eggs4 ,the chief breeds included are the ,leghorns1 the ,minorcas1 and the ,black ,spanish4 ,the ,leghorns--the most popular of these breeds--include two chief varieties1 the ,brown and the ,white4 ,the comb is most commonly single1 falling to one side in the hen1 the wattles long and pendulous1 the ear lobes white1 and the legs yellow4 ,the ,minorcas are glossy black in color1 with a large drooping comb in the hen1 and long1 thin1 pendulous wattle4 ,they lay a very large egg4 ,the ,black ,spanish resemble the ,minorcas1 but are distinguished by the white face and cheeks and the white on the inner edge of the wattles4 ,the ,english ,class includes the ,orpingtons and the ,dorkings4 ,the ,dorkings are one of the oldest breeds of fowl1 and sufficiently identified by the presence of a fifth toe4 ,there are three varieties--the ,white1 the ,silver-gray1 and the ,colored4 ,the ,white ,dorking has a rose comb2 the ,silver-gray has a single comb and silvery-gray plumage with black markings1 the hen having a salmon-colored breast2 the ,colored ,dorkings have sometimes single and sometimes rose combs1 the plumage of the cock being black and straw-colored and that of the hen being black and gray with the breast salmon marked with black4 ,the ,orpingtons are short legged1 with close plumage4 ,they are of large size1 the hens being from seven to eight pounds and the cocks from nine to ten pounds4 ,there are three varieties--the black1 the buff1 and the white4 ,the black1 except for shape1 might be mistaken for a ,minorca1 but has red ear lobes and black shanks4 ,the ,orpingtons have the reputation of maturing early1 some strains being known to lay when four months old4 ,the ,dutch ,class includes the ,red-caps1 the ,campines1 and the various varieties of the ,hamburgs--of which there are six3 the ,golden ,spangled1 the ,silver ,spangled1 the ,golden ,penciled1 the ,silver ,penciled1 the ,black and the ,white4 ,they are all good layers and non-setters1 but lay a small egg1 white in color4 ,they are readily recognized by their peculiar rose comb with its long1 spikelike projection in the back1 their red face1 white ear lobes1 and bluish legs4 ,the prevailing color of the golden varieties is a reddish bay marked with black and of the silver varieties white marked with black4 ,the cock usually has more dark markings than the hen4 ,the ,red-caps are large fowl with a red and black plumage4 ,the comb is similar to the ,hamburg's but larger1 and the ear lobes are red4 ,the ,campines resemble the ,hamburgs1 but have a single comb4 ,the ,french ,class includes the ,houdans1 the ,crevecoeurs1 and the ,la ,fleche4 ,the ,houdans are mottled black and white with pinkish white legs1 with a fifth toe like the ,dorkings1 and are easily recognized by their peculiar crest4 ,the other breeds of fowl1 like the crested ,polish1 ,bantams1 and game fowl1 have less interest for the poultry raiser1 though often seen in exhibitions and poultry shows4 ,to sum up1 we may group all these breeds according to their value into 7#a7 the egg breeds1 including the ,leghorn1 ,minorca1 ,spanish1 and ,red-cap2 7#b7 the meat breeds1 including the ,brahmas1 ,cochins1 and ,langshans2 7#c7 the general purpose breeds1 including the ,plymouth ,rocks1 ,wyandottes1 ,rhode ,island ,reds1 ,dorkings1 and ,orpingtons2 and 7#d7 the fancy breeds1 including the ,polish1 ,bantams1 ,games1 etc4 ,definitions4 ,american ,standard of ,perfection1 an illustrated volume published by the ,american ,poultry ,association1 indicating the desirable points of each recognized breed of fowl4 ,comb1 the fleshy outgrowth on the head4 ,single comb1 a thin1 upright comb4 ,rose comb1 a flat comb with a rough or corrugated surface4 ,pea comb1 resembling three single combs1 united at the back4 ,wattles1 the fleshy outgrowths from the underside of the throat4 ,ear lobes1 the fleshy structure in the region of the ear4 ,under-color1 the color noted when the coverts are raised4 ,hackle1 the feathers on the neck4 ,cape1 the feathers back of the hackle4 ,saddle1 the feathers in the posterior region of the back4 ,sickle1 the curved feathers of the tail in the cock4 ,penciling1 small stripes or color markings on the feather4 ,spangling1 large spots or splotches of color on the feather4 ,shanks1 the exposed scaly portions of the legs1 usually spoken of as the legs4 ,questions and observations4 #a4 ,make a diagrammatic sketch of a fowl and locate the principal regions used in the description of the various breeds4 #b4 ,observing the specimens or the pictures of the fowls at hand1 note the size and kind of comb1 the appearance of the wattles1 the color of the eyes and ear lobes1 the color in the various regions of the body1 the color and any peculiarity of the legs and feet4 ,if you wish1 you may record your answers in tabular form4 ,topics for investigation4 #a4 ,look up and report upon the average number of eggs laid annually1 and the number of eggs to the pound1 in the case of the ,plymouth ,rock1 ,wyandotte1 ,rhode ,island ,red1 ,dorking1 ,brahma1 ,leghorn1 and ,minorca4 #b4 ,explain the terms non-setter and winter layer4 #c4 ,when do hens moult8 ,how does this affect the laying8 ,what schemes have poultry men to bring this moulting at the most favorable season8 #d4 ,what is a balanced ration as applied to fowls8 ,what are some methods of feeding which tend to secure greater egg-production8 #e4 ,explain some of the special features of such methods of housing and keeping chickens as the ,philo ,system1 ,corning ,system1 etc4 #f4 ,what precautions must be taken in raising chickens so as to prevent disease and attacks of enemies8 #g4 ,what does it cost per year to keep a dozen hens8 ,how many can a person keep profitably on a city lot1 if he is not to make a special business of chicken raising8 #h4 ,how do chickens solve the problem of the garbage can8 #i4 ,what are some of the objections made to keeping chickens in the city8 ,are these objections well founded1 and if so how may they be met8 #aj4 ,find out what breeds of chickens are kept in your neighborhood1 and note some of the reasons that are given for keeping these particular breeds4 ,,glossary ,ab do' men1 7#a7 the hinder portion of the body of an invertebrate2 7#b7 of higher animals1 the region or cavity containing the stomach1 intestine1 etc4 ,al bu' men1 7#a7 a proteid substance2 7#b7 white of egg4 ,a' nal1 pertaining to the anus1 or hinder opening of the intestine4 ,anal fin1 a ventral median fin of fishes1 just back of the anus4 ,animal ,communities1 associations of many animals of the same species4 ,an ten' na1 a segmented sensory appendage on the head of an arthropod4 ,an ten' nule1 a small antenna4 ,an te' ri or1 farther forward1 in front of2 at the head or forward end4 ,a or' ta1 a large artery arising at the heart and forming the trunk of the arterial system4 ,ap' er ture1 an opening4 ,ap pend' age1 a projection from the body1 usually one of a pair4 ,ar throp' o da1 a group of animals with a segmented trunk and paired1 segmented appendages4 ,ar ti o dac' tyl1 an ungulate with an even number of toes4 ,a sex' u al1 without sex4 ,au' di to ry1 pertaining to hearing4 ,barb1 one of the lateral outgrowths of the shaft of a feather1 forming the vane4 ,barb ule1 a small outgrowth of the barb of a feather4 ,bi lat' er al sym' me try1 having the right and left sides mirror images one of the other4 ,body cavity1 the space between the body wall and the alimentary canal4 ,body-wall1 the outer wall in bodies of the many-celled animals4 ,budding1 a form of fission in which a cell or portion of the body forms a small protuberance or bud1 which is then cut off from the parent and forms a new individual4 ,canals1 channels through the body-walls of sponges4 ,car' a pace1 the shell which covers a portion or all of the cephalo-thorax in crustaceans4 ,car' di nal1 pertaining to a cardo or hinge4 ,car niv' or ous1 flesh-eating4 ,car ot' id1 a large artery which supplies the brain and head with blood4 ,car' pal1 a bone of the wrist4 ,cat' er pil lar1 the larva of a butterfly or moth4 ,caud al1 pertaining to the tail4 ,cell1 the smallest living unit4 ,cell-wall1 the lifeless membrane surrounding many cells1 secreted by the protoplasm4 ,central cavity1 the cavity surrounded by the body-wall in the simpler many-celled animals1 as in the sponges4 ,ceph a lop' o da1 the class to which the squid1 octopus1 nautilus1 etc41 belong4 ,ceph' al o-tho' rax1 the division of the body formed by the fused head and thorax in many arthropoda4 ,cer' vi cal groove1 the groove marking the place of union when head and thorax are merged into a cephalo-thorax4 ,cha la' za1 one of the spiral masses of albumen found at the two ends of a bird's egg4 ,che' li peds1 the large claws in many crustaceans4 ,chor-date1 animals with a notochord1 present throughout life or disappearing4 ,chro mat' o phore1 color body4 ,chrys' a lis1 the pupa stage of a butterfly4 ,cil' i um 7pl4 cilia71 a minute vibrating hair on the surface of many cells4 ,co coon' 1 the envelope spun by certain larval insects in which they are inclosed during the pupa stage4 ,a similar structure1 as the egg-case of spiders1 earthworms1 etc4 ,coe' cum 7se' kum71 a blind pouch or bag2 a sac open at one end4 ,coe len te ra' ta1 rather simple1 sac-like animals with nettle cells in the body walls4 ,co le op' te ra1 beetles4 ,col' o ny1 a group of animals of the same kind found in one locality1 usually related to each other and often actually connected4 ,com men' sal ism1 an association of two animals1 not mutually helpful1 but without injury to either4 ,com pound eye1 an eye made up of many simple eyes or eye elements4 ,com pressed' 1 narrower from side to side than from dorsal to ventral surface4 ,con ju ga' tion1 a process occurring in some one-celled animals1 preceding reproduction4 ,in this process two animals unite temporarily and exchange nuclear substance1 or in some forms the two cells fuse into one4 ,after this exchange or fusion fission occurs1 usually more rapidly than before4 ,contracting or pulsating vacuoles1 small1 clear spots in a cell1 filled with a watery fluid4 ,in the living animal these alternately disappear and then reappear4 ,co' nus ar te ri o' sus1 a cone-shaped artery connected with the ventricle of the heart4 ,cov' ert1 a feather overlying the base of the large feathers of the wing or tail4 ,cra' ni um1 the skull1 particularly that part of it inclosing the brain4 ,crop1 an enlarged portion of the esophagus4 ,cross fertilization1 a form of fertilization in which the male and female elements are produced by different individuals4 ,crus ta' ce a1 aquatic1 gill-bearing arthropods1 with two pairs of antenn4 ,cu' ti cle1 the thin outer skin4 ,cy' to plasm1 the portion of the protoplasm of a cell which is outside of the nucleus1 less dense than the nucleus and usually taking a lighter stain4 ,den' ta ry1 the terminal portion or bone of the lower jaw of vertebrates lower than mammals1 containing all or most of the teeth4 ,di a phragm1 a muscular partition separating the abdomen and thorax1 in mammals4 ,dig' i ti grade1 walking on the toes4 ,di oe' cious1 reproductive organs in different individuals4 ,dip' te ra1 insects with two wings1 including flies1 mosquitoes1 etc4 ,dis' tal end1 the free end of any object which is attached by one end4 ,dor' sal surface1 the upper surface2 the back4 ,du' o de' num1 the first portion of the small intestine4 ,ec' to derm cells1 cells covering the outside of sponges and some other simple animals4 ,egg cell1 the large1 non-motile reproductive cell1 with which a sperm cell fuses4 ,em bry on' ic1 development within the egg or in the body of the mother4 ,en' do derm cells1 cells lining inner cavities in the many-celled animals4 ,as a rule they have cilia or flagella4 ,e soph' a gus1 the portion of the alimentary canal connecting the mouth 7or the pharynx7 with the stomach4 ,eu sta' chi an 7eu sta' kian7 tube1 a passage between the pharynx and the middle ear4 ,ex ha' lent1 flowing or moving away from the body4 ,ex' o skel' e ton1 an external skeleton4 ,eye stalk1 an appendage which bears an eye on its free end4 ,fe' mur1 7#a7 the thigh bone2 7#b7 the third joint of an insect's leg4 ,fer ti li za' tion1 the fusion of male and female elements in reproduction4 ,fi' bers1 flexible threads2 fibers of a horny material are found in the walls of many of the sponges4 ,fib' u la1 the outer of the two long bones of the lower leg4 ,fin1 a paddle-like structure for swimming4 ,fin-rays1 the framework of the fins of fishes4 ,fis' sion1 a method of reproduction used in all cells1 by which a cell divides itself into two1 usually through the center4 ,see also ,conjugation and ,budding4 ,fla gel' lum 7pl4 flagella71 vibrating hairs larger than cilia and less numerous4 ,food-balls1 bits of food inside the cells of many one-celled animals1 usually showing through the walls4 ,food-vacuole1 a small drop of water containing digestive material and a food-ball4 ,fo ra' men1 an opening or short passage4 ,gall-bladder1 a membranous sac for the storage of gall1 or bile1 at the lower edge of the liver 7syn4 bile sac74 ,gas ter op' o da1 the class to which the snail belongs4 ,ge' nus 7pl4 genera71 a group of closely related species4 ,germ-spot1 the region in the bird's egg in which development first takes place4 ,gill1 an apparatus for breathing the air dissolved in water4 ,gill-cham' ber1 a pocket or cavity covered by a flap1 in which the gills lie4 ,gir' dle1 the name applied to the smooth band often occurring near the anterior end of an earthworm4 ,giz' zard1 a portion of the alimentary canal with especially thickened muscular walls4 ,glot' tis1 the opening between the vocal cords1 or the mouth of the windpipe4 ,gre ga' ri ous1 associations of animals with little division of labor2 gathering in flocks1 herds1 etc4 ,gullet1 the inner end of the oral groove4 ,he mip' te ra1 insects with a piercing organ for sucking their food1 ,bugs4 ,he pat' ic1 pertaining to the liver4 ,her biv' o rous1 plant-eating4 ,hock1 the joint of the hind leg situated between the tibia and tarsus1 corresponding to the ankle in man4 ,hu' me rus1 the long bone of the upper part of the arm or fore limb4 ,hy men op' te ra1 order of insects to which belong bees1 ants1 and wasps4 ,ich neu' mon 7ic nu' mon71 an insect that deposits its eggs upon or in other insects1 upon which its larv will feed4 ,in ha' lent1 flowing or moving toward the body4 ,in ha' lent pores1 the outer ends of the canals in the body-walls of sponges4 ,ink-sac1 a defensive structure found in the squid4 ,ju' gu lar1 pertaining to the throat4 ,la' bi um1 lower lip4 ,la' brum1 upper lip4 ,la mell' i branch i a' ta1 the class to which the clam1 oyster1 etc41 belong2 bivalves1 sometimes called pelecypoda4 ,lar' va1 7#a7 the early form of an animal when it is unlike the parent1 or undergoes a metamorphosis2 7#b7 the first stage of postembryonic development4 ,lat' er al1 7#a7 situated to one side of the median plane2 7#b7 situated in the region of the hinge in a bivalve shell4 ,lep i dop' te ra1 butterflies and moths4 ,lig' a ment1 a strong band or cord binding two structures together4 ,lin' gual1 pertaining to the tongue4 ,lip1 any structure that bounds an orifice4 ,mam' mal1 vertebrates with a covering of hair or fur4 ,man' di ble1 a jaw or a jaw-like mouth-part4 ,man' tle1 folds of skin covering the body of a bivalve4 ,masking1 the covering of an animal by some object so as to hide its identity4 ,max il' l1 the appendages just back of the mandibles in arthropods4 ,max' il la ry1 pertaining to or situated near the jaw4 ,max il' li peds1 the appendages back of the maxill in crustaceans4 ,me' di an1 pertaining to the middle4 ,mes o gle' a1 a non-cellular layer between ectoderm and endoderm cells4 ,mes o tho' rax1 the middle division of the thorax4 ,met a car' pal1 one of the bones between the wrist 7carpus7 and the fingers 7phalanges74 ,met a mor' pho sis1 the series of changes which take place in the development of some animals after they are hatched4 ,met a tar' sal1 one of the bones of the metatarsus1 between the ankle and the toes4 ,met a tho' rax1 the most posterior region of the thorax4 ,mi cro nu' cle us1 see ,nucleolus4 ,mimicry1 a method of protection due to the resemblance of an unprotected to a well-protected animal4 ,mol lus' ca1 the branch of animals to which clams1 snails1 etc41 belong4 ,mo noe' cious1 reproductive organs in different regions of the same individual4 ,mouth1 the anterior opening into the digestive cavity4 ,neph rid' i um 7pl4 neph rid' i a71 a tubule functioning as a kidney in some of the worms4 ,net' tle cells1 the stinging cells found in the coelenterates4 ,noc tur' nal1 pertaining to night4 ,nu cle' o lus 7pl4 nucleoli71 a very small1 dense1 dark-staining body1 either within the nucleus or near it4 ,in the latter case it is often called the paranucleus or micronucleus4 ,nu' cle us 7pl4 nuclei71 a dense bit of protoplasm usually near the center of a cell1 often staining dark4 ,o cel' lus1 a simple eye4 ,om niv' o rous1 eating or living upon food of all kinds4 ,o per' cu lum1 a lid or cover4 ,o' ral1 pertaining to the mouth4 ,oral groove1 a funnel-shaped groove in one side of some one-celled animals conducting food to the mouth4 ,or' der1 a term in classification used to designate a group of genera4 ,or thop' ter a1 the order to which locusts1 grasshoppers1 etc41 belong4 ,os' cu lum 7pl4 oscula71 the large opening from the central cavity in sponges4 ,os mo' sis1 the process by which fluids of different densities become equally diffused when separated by an organic membrane or by a porous structure4 ,os' ti a 7sing4 ostium71 the inner ends of the canals in the body-walls of sponges4 ,o' va ry1 the organ in which the egg cells are developed4 ,o vi pos' i tors1 organs used to deposit eggs4 ,pal' li al1 a line connecting the two muscle scars in a bivalve shell4 ,palp1 7#a7 a jointed finger-like structure on the oral appendages of arthropods2 7#b7 oral appendages found in mollusca4 ,pan' cre as1 one of the glands of the digestive system4 ,par a nu' cle us1 see ,nucleolus4 ,par' a si tism1 an association of two animals1 one living at the expense of the other4 ,pec' to ral1 7#a7 pertaining to the thorax or breast2 7#b7 the anterior of the paired fins of fishes4 ,pelvic1 7#a7 pertaining to the pelvis2 7#b7 the posterior paired fins of fishes4 ,pen1 a remnant of exoskeleton found in the squid4 ,per i car' di um1 a membranous bag surrounding the heart4 ,per is so dac' tyl1 ungulates with an odd number of toes4 ,per' i to ne' um1 a membrane that lines the body cavity4 ,pha' lanx 7pl4 phalanges71 one of the bones of the fingers or toes4 ,phar' ynx1 the region of the alimentary canal just back of the mouth cavity4 ,pigment1 a substance which gives color to an object4 ,plan' ti grade1 walking on the soles of the feet2 flat-footed4 ,pol' len bas ket1 the flattened hairy tibia of the hind legs of honey bees1 used for carrying pollen4 ,pol' lin na tion1 the transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower to the stigma4 ,polyp1 any radially symmetrical animal1 but usually an individual in a connected colony4 ,po rif' e ra1 the sponges1 distinguished by the canals which perforate the body wall4 ,post em bry on' ic1 development after birth or hatching4 ,pos te' ri or1 situated behind or toward the hinder part4 ,pro bos' cis1 a prolonged1 flexible snout or a tubular structure1 protruding from the head4 ,pro' leg1 an unsegmented appendage found in the larv of some insects4 ,protective resemblance1 a method of protection due to the resemblance of an animal to its background4 ,pro tho' rax1 the most anterior division of the thorax4 ,pro' to plasm1 the living material composing the cell2 the physical basis of life4 ,pro to zo' a 7sing4 protozon71 animals of one cell1 existing alone or in loose colonies4 ,prox' i mal end1 the attached end of anything which has also a free end4 ,pulsating vacuoles1 see ,contracting vacuoles4 ,pu' pa1 the stage in the development of an insect immediately preceding the adult4 ,quill1 one of the large1 stiff1 strong flight feathers or tail feathers of a bird2 the hollow1 basal part of a feather2 a large1 hollow1 sharp spine4 ,ra' di al sym' me try1 having the organs or parts arranged symmetrically around a center4 ,re gen er a' tion1 the power to grow new parts or organs4 ,re' gions1 the principal divisions of the body1 head1 thorax1 and abdomen4 ,res pi ra' tion1 the passage of oxygen into the tissues of a living organism and of carbon dioxide out of them4 ,these gases can pass through any thin1 moist1 organic membrane4 ,when such a membrane separates two fluids which differ in the amount of oxygen they contain1 oxygen passes to the fluid containing the smaller amount4 ,the same is true of carbon dioxide4 ,respiration is believed to occur in all living organisms4 ,ro' dent1 mammals with curved self-sharpening incisor teeth1 order including mice1 rats1 squirrels1 rabbits1 etc4 ,ros' trum1 a beak-like projection or snout4 ,ru' mi nant1 chewing the cud4 ,sac1 a cavity or pouch4 ,sa' crum1 a composite bone formed by the union of vertebr in the region of hips4 ,scap' u la1 the shoulder-blade4 ,sep' tum 7pl4 sep' ta71 a wall or partition between two cavities4 ,se' ta 7pl4 se' tae71 small bristles or stiff hairs4 ,sex' u al1 pertaining to sex4 ,si' nus ve no' sus1 an enlargement of the termination of the large veins4 ,si' phon1 a tube-like organ4 ,so' mites1 the serial segments or rings composing the bodies of many animals4 ,spe' ci es1 a word used in classification to designate a group of animals differing only in minor details4 ,sper' ma ry1 the organ in which sperm cells are developed4 ,sperm cells1 the small1 often motile1 reproductive cell1 which fuses with the egg cell4 ,spic' ules1 tiny needles of mineral substance found in the walls of many animals1 notably sponges4 ,spi' ra cle1 an opening into the tracheal breathing organs of insects4 ,spire1 the coiled portion of a gasteropod shell4 ,spore1 a cell capable of developing into a new organism4 ,sternum1 a bone extending along the lower middle line of the chest region4 ,stom' ach1 the region of the alimentary canal especially adapted to digest food4 ,stom' ach-in tes' tine1 a region of the alimentary canal adapted to both digest and absorb food4 ,sub cla' vi an1 situated beneath the clavicle4 ,su' ture1 the junction of two contiguous structures4 ,swim' mer ets1 the abdominal appendages in crustaceans4 ,sym bi o' sis1 an association of two animals which is mutually helpful4 ,tar' sal1 one of the bones of the tarsus or ankle4 ,tar' sus1 7#a7 the ankle2 7#b7 the fifth or terminal joint in an insect's leg4 ,ten' ta cles1 special organs for touch2 also used sometimes for other purposes4 ,terrifying attitudes1 protective attitudes assumed by some animals4 ,tho' rax1 the region of the body between the head and abdomen4 ,tib' i a1 7#a7 the shin-bone2 7#b7 the fourth joint of an insect's leg4 ,tooth1 7#a7 an organ used in mastication2 7#b7 a tooth-like projection4 ,tra' che a1 a tube which carries air either to the respiratory organ or to the tissues4 ,trunk1 the portion of the body between head and tail4 ,tu' ber cle1 a knob-like projection4 ,ul' na1 that bone of the forearm which is on the same side as the little finger4 ,um' bo 7pl4 umbones71 an elevation near the anterior end of a bivalve shell4 ,un' gu lates1 hoofed mammals4 ,u re' ter1 a duct connecting the kidney with the urinary bladder4 ,u' ro style1 a long bone forming the hinder extremity of the vertebral column of tailless amphibia4 ,vac' u oles1 small1 clear spots in cells1 filled with a watery fluid4 ,see ,food-vacuoles and ,contracting vacuoles4 ,valve1 7#a7 a membranous fold which allows the blood1 or other fluids1 to flow in only one direction2 7#b7 one of the two parts of the shell of a bivalve4 ,vein1 7#a7 a blood-vessel carrying blood toward the heart2 7#b7 one of the tubular thickenings of an insect's wing4 ,ve' na ca' va1 a large vein emptying into the right auricle of the heart4 ,ven' tral1 situated on the under surface4 ,ven' tri cle1 any cavity of a hollow organ1 as of the brain or heart4 ,ver' mes1 the worms1 a poorly defined group of animals1 showing bilateral symmetry but without segmented appendages4 ,ver' te bra1 one of the bones of the spinal column4 ,ver' te brates1 animals having a backbone4 ,vi bris' s1 long hairs on the face4 ,vis' ce ra 7pl4 of viscus71 the organs of one of the great cavities of the body 7the abdomen1 the thorax1 or the cranium71 usually meaning those of the abdomen4 ,vi va' ri um1 a cage in which living animals are kept4 ,warning colors1 bright colors which render an animal free from attack4 ,whorl1 a single coil in the spire of a gasteropod shell4 ,yolk1 food material of an egg4