,transcriber's note ,this is derived from a copy on the ,internet ,archive3 http3_/_/www4archive4org_/details_/educa tionhowold#jjwalsgoog ,page numbers in this book are indicated by numbers enclosed in curly braces1 e4g4 #ii4 ,they have been located where page breaks occurred in the original book4 ,obvious spelling errors have been corrected but inventive and inconsistent spelling is left unchanged4 ,unusual use of quotation marks is also unchanged4 ,extended quotations and citations are indented4 ,footnotes have been renumbered to avoid ambiguity1 and relocated to the end of the enclosing paragraph4 ,end ,transcriber's note ,,education ,,how ,,old ,,the ,,new ,,by ,,james ,j4 ,,walsh1 ,m4,d41 ,ph4,d41 ,litt4 ,d4 ,dean and ,professor of the ,history of ,medicine and of ,nervous ,diseases at ,fordham ,university ,school of ,medicine2 ,professor of ,physiological ,psychology at the ,cathedral ,college1 ,new ,york4 ,,second ,,impression ,,new ,,york ,,fordham ,,university ,,press #aiaa ,,copyright4 #aiaj1 ,,by ,,james ,j4 ,,walsh ,published ,october #bjth1 #aiaj ,second ,impression ,march #bjth1 #aiaa ,,the ,,quinn ,,boden ,,co4 ,,press ,,ramway1 ,n4,j4 ,,to ,,the ,xavier ,alumni ,sodality ,most of the thoughts contained in this volume were originally expressed at our breakfasts4 ,it seems only fitting1 then1 that on presentation to a larger audience they should be dedicated to you4 ,j4 ,j4 ,w4 ,our ,lady's ,day4 ,august #ae1 #aiaj v ,,preface ,the reason for publishing this volume of lectures and addresses is the persuasion that present-day educators are viewing the history of education with short-sighted vision4 ,an impression prevails that only the last few generations have done work of serious significance in education4 ,the history of old-time education is neglected1 or is treated as of at most antiquarian interest and there is a failure to understand its true value4 ,the connecting link between the lectures and addresses is the effort to express in terms of the present what educators were doing in the past4 ,once upon a time1 when ,i proclaimed the happiness of the ,english workmen of the ,middle ,ages1 the very positive objection was raised1 ,how could they be happy since their wages were only a few cents a day8 ,for response it was only necessary to point out that for his eight cents1 the minimum wage by act of ,parliament1 the workman could buy a pair of handmade shoes1 that being the maximum price established by law1 and other necessaries at similar prices4 ,if old-time education is studied with this same care to translate its meaning into modern values1 then the very oldest education of which we have any record takes on significance even for our time4 vi ,while it is generally supposed that there are many new features in modern education1 it requires but slight familiarity with educational history to know that there is very little that is novel4 ,such supposedly new phases as nature-study and technical training and science1 physical as well as ethical1 are all old stories1 though they have had negative phases during which it would be hard to to trace them4 ,the more we know about the history of education the greater is our respect for educators at all times4 ,nearly always they had a perfectly clear idea of what they were trying to do1 they faced the problems of education in quite the same spirit that we do and often solved them very well4 ,indeed the results of many periods of old-time education are much better than our own1 even when judged by our standards4 ,unfortunately there exists a very common persuasion that evolution plays a large role in education and that we1 the heirs of all the ages in the foremost files of time1 are necessarily in the forefront of educational advance4 ,there has been much progress in education in the last century1 but it would1 indeed1 be a hopeless world if there had not been progress out of the depths in which education was plunged in the eighteenth century4 ,there were a number of reformers in education at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,it was rather easy to be an educational reformer at that time4 ,the lowest period in the history of vii education was about the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,it has been assumed that since we are far ahead of that generation we must be still farther ahead of the people who preceded them4 ,that is the mistake4 ,there are periods of education of very great significance centuries long before that time4 ,in educational lectures and addresses for the past five years1 ,i have been trying to translate into modern terms the meaning of these old periods of education4 ,a great many teachers have thought the ideas valuable and suggestive and so ,i am tempted to publish them in book form4 ,there is an additional reason1 that of wishing to create a bond of sympathy between the two systems of education that have grown up in this country4 ,for some three generations now ,catholic educators have been independently building up a system of education from the elementary schools to the university4 ,the ,american world of education is coming to recognize how much they have accomplished4 ,there has even been some curiosity expressed as to how it was all done in spite of apparently insuperable obstacles4 ,one phase of ,catholic education1 its thorough-going conservatism and definite effort to value the past properly and take advantage of its precious lessons1 is here represented4 ,my own educational interests have been taken up much more of late years with medicine than with other phases of this subject4 ,hence the viii volume contains certain addresses relating to the history of medical education4 ,they are more intimately linked with the general subject of education than might perhaps be thought4 ,we have had finely organized medical education at a number of times in the past1 and1 indeed1 at the present moment can find inspiration and incentive in studying the legal regulation of medicine and of medical education in what might seem to be so-unpromising a time as the thirteenth century4 ,for true educational progress there has always been need of close sympathy between the non-professional and the professional department of universities4 ,only when the professional schools are real graduate departments1 requiring under-graduate training for admission1 is the university doing its work properly4 ,this was the rule in the past--hence the precious lessons for the present in the story of these old-time universities4 ,these lectures and addresses were actually delivered1 not merely read4 ,they were written with that purpose4 ,certain repetitions that would have been avoided if the articles had been prepared directly for reading and not for an audience1 may be noted4 ,some of the subjects overlap and certain phases had to be treated usually in variant form in different lectures4 ,for these faults the reader's indulgence is craved4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,education1 ,,how ,,old ,,the ,,new #h ,,ii4 ,,the ,,first ,,modern ,,university #fc ,,iii4 ,,mediaeval ,,scientific ,,universities #ic ,,iv4 ,,ideal ,,popular ,,education #aee ,v4 ,,cycles ,,of ,,feminine ,,education ,,and ,,influence #aii ,,vi4 ,,the ,,church ,,and ,,feminine ,,education #bgc ,,vii4 ,,origins ,,in ,,american ,,education #bii ,,viii4 ,,the ,,medical ,,profession ,,for ,,six ,,thousand ,,years #cdi ,,ix4 ,,university ,,medical ,,schools #cgg ,x4 ,,the ,,college ,,man ,,in ,,life #djc ,,xi4 ,,new ,,englandism #dcc ,,education1 ,,how ,,old ,,the ,,new ,nothing under the sun is new1 neither is any man able to say3 ,behold this is new3 ,for it hath already gone before in the ages that were before us4 --,ecclesiastes i3#aj4 ,nullum est jam dictum1 quod non dictum sit prius4 --,terence1 ,eun4 ,prol41 #da4 ,nothing is now said which was not said before4 ,st4 ,jerome relates that his preceptor ,donatus1 commenting on this passage of ,terence1 used to say3 ,pereant qui ante nos nostra dixerunt4 ,may they perish who said our good things before us4 #c ,,education1 ,,how ,,old ,,the ,,new ,footnote #a ,footnote #a3 ,material for this lecture was gathered for one of a course of lectures on ,phases of ,education delivered at ,st ,mary's ,college1 ,south ,bend1 ,ind41 at the ,sacred ,heart ,academy1 ,kenwood1 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 and at ,st4 ,mary's ,college1 ,monroe1 ,mich1 #aiji4 ,in somewhat developed form it was delivered to the public school teachers of ,new ,orleans at the beginning of #aiaj4 ,in very nearly its present form it was the opening lecture at the course of the ,brooklyn ,institute of ,arts and ,sciences1 on ,how ,old the ,new ,is1 delivered in the spring of #aiaj4 ,popular lectures are usually on some very up-to-date subject4 ,indeed1 as a rule they are on subjects that are developing at the moment1 and the main aim of the lecturer is to forecast the future4 ,it is before a thing has happened that we want to know about it now1 and though1 as not infrequently occurs1 the lecturer's forecast does not in the event prove him a prophet nor the son of a prophet1 for nature usually accomplishes her purposes more simply than the closet philosopher anticipates1 at least we have the satisfaction for the moment of thinking that not only are we up to date but a little ahead of it4 ,unfortunately ,i have to claim your indulgence this evening in this matter1 for taking just the opposite course4 ,i am to talk about the oldest book in the world1 its old-fashioned yet novel contents1 its up-to-date applications1 and its significance for the history of the race and1 above all1 the history of education4 ,the #d one interesting feature1 as ,i hope1 of what ,i have to say1 is that old-time methods in education as suggested by this little volume are strangely familiar and its contents are as significant now as they were in the old time from which it comes4 ,the book was written almost as long before ,solomon as ,solomon is before us1 yet there is a depth of practical wisdom about it that eminently recalls the expression there is nothing new under the sun4 ,so much attention has been given to education in recent years1 we have made such a prominent feature of it in life1 have spent so much money on it1 have devoted so much time and thought to its development and organization1 that we feel very sure that what we are doing now in every line of educational effort represents--indeed must represent--a great advance over anything and everything that was ever accomplished in the past4 ,to say anything else would seem to most people pure pessimism4 ,it would mean that in spite of all the efforts of men we were not making advances4 ,as a matter of fact1 all of us know that it is quite possible to make heroic efforts so sadly misdirected that they accomplish nothing and get us nowhere4 ,progress depends not on effort but on the proper direction of the effort4 ,we are supposed1 however1 to represent one phase and that at the front rank of an inevitable advance in things human1 pushed forward1 as it were1 by the wheel of evolution in its ceaseless progress1 and bound #e therefore to make advancement4 ,it is with this idea1 so commonly accepted1 that ,i would take issue by showing how much was accomplished in the past that anticipates much of what we are occupied with at the present time1 and that serves to show what men can accomplish at any time when they set themselves to doing things with high ideals1 well-considered purpose and strenuous effort4 ,there are those who insist that unless men have the encouraging feeling that they are making progress1 their efforts are likely to be less strenuous than would otherwise be the case4 ,there are those who think apparently that compliments make the best incentive for successful effort4 ,some of us who know that the world's best work1 or at least the work of many of the world's great men1 has been done in the midst of opposition1 in the very teeth of criticism1 in spite of discouragement1 may not agree with that opinion4 ,the history of successful accomplishment seems to show1 indeed1 that incentive is all the stronger as the result of the opposition which arouses to renewed efforts and the criticism which strips whatever is new of errors that inevitably cling to it at the beginning4 ,on the other hand1 if there is anything that the lessons of history make clear it is that self-complacency is the very worst thing1 above all for intellectual effort of any kind1 and that criticism1 when judicious1 is always beneficial4 ,above all1 comparisons are likely to be #f chastening in their effects to make us realize that what we are doing at any particular time does not mean so much more than what many others have done and may indeed even mean less4 ,it is rather interesting1 then1 to set our complacent assurance that we are doing such wonderful work in education and represent such magnificent progress over against some of the educational work of the past4 ,after all we are not nearly so self-congratulatory about our education1 its ways and methods and1 above all1 its success as we were a dozen years ago4 ,there are many jarring notes of discordant criticism of methods heard1 there are many deprecatory remarks passed with regard to our supposed success1 and there have been some educators unkind enough1--and1 unfortunately1 they are often of the inner circle of our educational life1--to say that we are lacking in scholarship to a great degree1 and that much of our so-called educational progress has been a tendency toward an accumulation of superficial information rather than a training of the intellect for power4 ,the absolute need of the distinction between education for information and for power has been coming home to us4 ,above all1 we have felt that we were not a little deceived by appearances in education and so are more ready to listen to suggestions of various kinds4 ,under these circumstances it has seemed to me1 that a calling of attention to what was accomplished at certain long-past periods for #g education1 would not only be of interest as information for teachers1 but might possibly be helpful or at least suggestive1 in the midst of the somewhat disordered state of mind that has resulted from recent criticisms of our educational methods and success1 by men whose interest in education cannot be doubted and whose opportunities for knowing are the best4 ,for we are in a time when nearly every important educator1 president of a university1 dean of a department1 old-time teacher or old1 thoughtful pupil with the interest of ,alma ,mater at heart1 who has had something to say with regard to education has said it in rather derogatory fashion4 ,perhaps1 then1 it will do us good to study the periods of the past and see what they did1 how their methods differed or still more often were like our own1 what their success was like and what we may learn from them4 ,the surprising thing is the number of repetitions of present-day experiences in education that we shall find in the past4 ,this is true1 however1 in every mode of thinking quite as well as in education1 once careful investigation of conditions is made4 ,if we begin at the beginning and take what is sometimes called the oldest book in the world1 we shall see how early definite educational ideas took form4 ,it is a set of moral lessons or instructions given1 or supposed to be given1 by a father to his son4 ,the father's name was ,ptah ,hotep4 ,he was a vizier of ,king ,itosi of the ,fifth ,dynasty in ,egypt1 some time about #cejj ,b4,c4 #h ,the ,egyptologists used to date him earlier than that1 but in recent years they have been clipping centuries off ,egyptian dates until perhaps ,king ,itosi must be considered as having lived probably not earlier than #ccej ,b4,c4 ,that makes very little difference for our purpose1 however4 ,the oldest manuscript copy of the book was written apparently not later than #bijj b4c4 ,it exists as the famous ,prisse ,papyrus in the ,bibliotheque ,nationale in ,paris4 ,there is another copy in the ,british ,museum4 ,there is a pretty thorough agreement as to these dates1 so that we can be sure that this little book which has come to be known as the ,instruction of ,ptah ,hotep1 or the ,proverbs of ,ptah ,hotpu--another form of his name with a variation in the title--represents the wisdom of the generations who lived in ,egypt about #ejjj years ago4 ,it was written1 as ,i have said1 almost as long before ,solomon as ,solomon is before us1 so that the character of the moral instructions which it contains is extremely interesting4 ,there must have been a number of copies of it made4 ,this and books like it were used as schoolbooks in ,egypt4 ,they were employed somewhat as we employ copybooks4 ,the writing of the manuscript is the old hieratic1 cursive writing of the ,egyptians1 not their hieroglyphics1 and the children used portions of this book as copies1 listened to dictation from it and learned to write the language by imitating it4 ,of books similar to it we have a number of manuscript copies4 ,some #i of these copies preserved from before #bjjj ,b4,c4 are full of errors such as school children would make in taking down dictation4 ,this was their method of teaching spelling1 and after the children had spelled the words the teacher went over them and corrected the mistakes4 ,these corrections were made in a different colored ink from that used by the pupils6 ,the whole system of teaching1 as it thus comes before us1 resembles our own elementary school teaching much more than we might think possible4 ,spelling1 writing1 composition are all taught in this way yet1 or at least they were when ,i was at school1 and while ,i have heard that some of the old-fashioned methods were going out1 ,i have also received some hints of the reaction by which they are coming in again1 so that the ,egyptian methods take on a new interest4 ,perhaps there is no more interesting feature of the education of that olden time than the fact that these books which were used as copybooks in the school contain moral lessons4 ,we have been neglecting these in our schools and have come to recognize the danger of such neglect4 ,definite efforts at the organization of moral teaching in some form are being made by many teachers1 and their necessity is recognized by all educators4 ,all of these old ,egyptian books1 then1 will have a special claim on our interest at the present time4 ,above all1 the oldest of them1 though it is literally the oldest book in the world1 merits #aj our attention1 because its moral teaching is very clear-cut and its emphasis on ethical precepts very pronounced4 ,we would be very prone to think that what an old father has to say to his boy over fifty centuries ago would have1 at most1 only an antiquarian interest for us4 ,it is not easy even to imagine that the old gentleman could have known human nature so well and written from so close to the heart of humanity because of his love for his boy1 that his words would always have a practical application in life4 ,such1 however1 is actually the case4 ,any father of the modern time would be proud to be able to give to his boy the eminently practical maxims that this old father has written down4 ,if there is any advice that will be helpful for youth1 for the young usually demand that they shall have their own experience and not take it at second hand1 this is the advice that is of value4 ,only fools1 it is said1 learn by their own experience1 but then there is good ,scripture warrant for believing that they were not all wise men in the olden time1 and we are pretty well agreed that all the fools are not dead yet4 ,if advice can be of service1 however1 from one generation to another1 then here is the wisdom of age for the inexperience of youth4 ,at least it will serve after the event to show youth that it was properly warned and that it is entirely its own fault if it has been making a fool of itself--as other generations have done before4 #aa ,it might be expected that at least in form these old-time maxims would be rude and crude1 expressed with an old man's loquaciousness and with many personal foibles4 ,fortunately for us1 while to his son ,ptah ,hotep was very probably an old man1 he was not what most of us would call old4 ,in ,egypt they married comparatively young4 ,this boy was probably the oldest son4 ,it is usually for the oldest that such advice is treasured up and written out4 ,the father then1 giving his advice just as his son was leaving the paternal household when he had married a wife and was about to set up a home of his own1 was probably not more than forty4 ,to seventeen or eighteen1 forty is quite ancient4 ,to most of the rest of us it is entirely too young to be trusted absolutely in serious matters4 ,aristotle declared that a man's body reaches physical perfection at thirty-five and his mind reaches intellectual maturity at forty-nine4 ,his students were inclined to think that this age was entirely too old1 his philosophic contemporaries of his own generation and the members of national academies and learned societies of most of the generations since1 have been quite sure that the term set was entirely too young4 ,ptah ,hotep's son1 then1 very probably looked on his father as most sons under twenty are prone to do1 as a dear old-fashioned gentleman 7he does not like to use the word old fogy for his father1 reserving it for the fathers of others71 who would #ab be quite tolerable if he only had a little more sympathy with the wonderful advance that is in the world in this new generation4 ,the real young man of the time1 however1 was the father who wrote his maxims1 the condensed wisdom of his experience of life1 with a directness1 an absolute clarity1 an occasional appeal to figures of speech and a variety of expression so striking as to make his work literature4 ,as such it has come down to us4 ,it is eminently human in every way1 and while there is here and there an unfortunate tendency to repeat words of similar sound and different meaning1 after the fashion of what we call punning1 this is pardonable enough since so many of our friends indulge in it and give us practice in pardoning1 while1 on the whole1 the old man wrote as wisely as ,polonius1 and in a style not quite as artificial as that which ,shakespeare has invented as suitable to the old ,danish ,prime ,minister1 whom the ancient vizier of ,egypt recalls so vividly in many ways4 ,no idea is probably more ingrained in modern thinking1 no opinion is more generally accepted1 no conclusion is surer to most people1 than that we are in the midst of marvellous progress in this little world of ours1 and that our generation is somewhere at the apex of the ,pyramid of ,progress1 elevated thereto by the attainments of the generations that have preceded us4 ,as the ,poet ,laureate put it at the close of the nineteenth century1 we are the heirs of all the ages in the #ac foremost files of time2 and because we have the advantage of our predecessors' progress in their time1 we are1 of course1 in all that makes for human happiness and fulness of life1 very far ahead of those gone before us4 ,the farther back we go in history1 then1 the lower down men are supposed to be found in all that stands for intellectuality and in all that represents the possibilities of human achievement at its best4 ,it is now well understood that the generations of the past are not so much to be blamed for their backwardness as to be pitied for the misfortune that1 having come earlier in the world's history1 they could not have the advantages that we enjoy1 and therefore could only attain much lower stages in human progress than ours4 ,apparently1 there are very few people who do not share in the opinions thus expressed4 ,the nineteenth century has been proclaimed the century of evolution2 and the idea of evolution has become so much a part of the thought of our time that man also is assumed to be in the midst of it1 and history is presumed to show distinctly the wonderful advance that humanity has made4 ,as a matter of fact1 it is extremely difficult to point out definitely where progress in humanity may be observed4 ,ambassador ,bryce was asked1 two years ago1 to deliver an address before ,phi ,beta ,kappa at ,harvard1 and took for his subject ,what is ,progress8 ,phi ,beta ,kappa is the fraternity that admits into its classes only the best #ad students1--men who have proved their ability by success4 ,mr4 ,bryce1 speaking to the most intelligent university graduates1 might be expected to make much of our wonderful recent progress4 ,the address subsequently appeared in the ,atlantic ,monthly for ,august1 #aijg4 ,far from any glorification of progress1 the historian of the ,american ,commonwealth1 who has demonstrated his breadth of view and his notable lack of ,british insularity by the large way he has written about us1 so that we have adopted his work as a text-book of information about ourselves1 is very dubious as to whether there is any progress in the world4 ,there is certainly no progress in man's highest expressions of his intelligence4 ,as ,mr4 ,bryce says3 ,the poetry of the early ,hebrews and of the early ,greeks has never been surpassed and hardly ever equalled4 ,neither has the philosophy of ,plato and ,aristotle1 nor the speeches of ,demosthenes and ,cicero4 ,no one pretends that there is any progress in art4 ,the masterpieces of architecture1 sculpture1 and painting date as a rule from long before our time1 some of them nearly twenty-five hundred years back4 ,as has been very well said1 the man who talks much about progress in our time usually knows only the history of human thought in his own generation1 and not very much about that4 ,in nearly every important phase of human achievement1 we are1 in present accomplishment1 far behind the great predecessors4 ,in our generation1 #ae we are confessedly imitators in every phase of aesthetic expression4 ,in painting1 sculpture1 art and literature1 our models are all in the past1 and we are quite frank in confessing that we are doing no work at all so good as the work of our forefathers of many generations and sometimes many centuries ago4 ,whence1 then1 comes the idea of progress8 ,it has obtained most of its vogue from the theory of evolution2 and the lack of evidence for evolution in general1 in spite of the persuasion on the part of many educated people that there are proofs for it1 can be very well judged from the corresponding lack of evidence with regard to progress in humanity4 ,there is complete absence of proof for this latter1 when the situation with regard to human achievement in the really great things of human life is examined4 ,indeed1 it would be amusing were it not amazing to think how readily we have come to accept notions for which there is so little substantiation4 ,to many this will doubtless seem a surprising declaration to make1 after all that has been written1 and universally accepted as most people think1 with regard to evolution by the great minds of the nineteenth century4 ,what evolution means1 however1 is summed up in the theory of descent1 that is that living things as we know them now1 have all come from simpler forms and perhaps all from a single form4 ,the only other phase of interest in evolution is what concerns the theory of natural selection1 which is supposed by many people to #af have been demonstrated in the nineteenth century4 ,it may be well for those who think thus to have recalled to them what a recent writer on the subject1 himself a distinguished investigator in biology1 a professor at ,leland ,stanford ,university1 where under the influence of ,president ,jordan biology is thoroughly yet conservatively cultivated1 has to say with regard to these theories and the objective evidence for them4 ,professor ,vernon ,l4 ,kellogg in his ,darwinism ,to-day1 ,footnote #b p4 #ah1 though himself an evolutionist and a ,darwinian1 says3 ,what may for the moment detain us1 however1 is a reference to the curiously almost completely subjective character of the evidence for both the theory of descent and natural selection4 ,biology has been until now a science of observation2 it is beginning to be one of observation plus experiment4 ,the evidence for its principal theories might be expected to be thoroughly objective in character2 to be of the nature of positive1 observed and perhaps experimentally proved1 facts4 ,how is it actually8 ,speaking by and large1 we only tell the general truth when we declare that no indubitable cases of species forming or transforming1 that is of descent1 have been observed2 and that no recognized case of natural selection really selecting has been observed4 ,i hasten to repeat the names of the ,ancon sheep1 the ,paraguay cattle1 the ,porto ,santo rabbit1 the ,artemias of ,schmankewitch and the de ,vriesian #ag evening primroses to show that ,i know my list of classic possible exceptions to this denial of observed species forming1 and to refer to ,weldon's broad-and-narrow fronted crabs as a case of what may be an observation of selection at work4 ,but such a list1 even if it could be extended to a score1 or to a hundred1 of cases1 is ludicrous as objective proof of that descent and selection1 under whose domination the forming of millions of species is supposed to have occurred4 7,italics mine47 ,footnote #b3 ,henry ,holt and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijg4 ,mr4 ,kellogg1 as might be expected from this1 objects very much to the application that has been so heedlessly made of certain supposed principles of evolution to pedagogy4 ,in practically every science to which ,darwinian principles have been applied it is the weakest of the principles that have been appealed to as the foundation for presumedly new developments in the particular science4 ,with regard to the so-called science of education ,professor ,kellogg says3 ,in ,pedagogy it is also the theory of descent rather than the selection theory which has been drawn on for some rather remarkable developments in child study and instruction4 ,unfortunately it is on that weakest of the three foundation pillars of descent1 namely the science of embryology with its ,muellerian-,haeckelian capitulation theory or biogenetic law1 that the child-study pedagogues have builded4 ,the species recapitulates in the ontogeny 7development7 of each of its individuals the course or history of its #ah phylogeny 7descent or evolution74 ,hence the child corresponds in different periods of its development to the phyletic stages in the descent of man4 ,as the child is fortunately well by its fish1 dog and monkey stages before it comes into the care of the pedagogue1 he has to concern himself only with safe progress through the various stages of prehistoric and barbarous man4 ,detect the precise phyletic stage cave-man1 stone-age man1 hunter and roamer1 pastoral man1 agriculturalist1 and treat with the little barbarian accordingly6 ,what simplicity6 ,only one trouble here for the pedagogue3 the recapitulation theory is mostly wrong and what is right in it is mostly so covered up by the wrong part1 that few biologists longer have any confidence in discovering the right4 ,what1 then1 of our generalizing friends1 the pedagogues8 ,it is in educational matters1 above all1 then1 that we must be careful about assumptions with regard to evolution and supposed inevitable progress because we must1 forsooth1 be taking advantage of the accumulated experience of previous generations4 ,there is no inevitability about progress in any line4 ,the attainment of any generation depends absolutely on what that generation tries to do1 the ideals that it has and the fidelity with which it sets itself to work4 ,we can make just as egregious mistakes1 and we have made them1 as any generation of the past4 ,we can foster delusions with regard to our all-knowingness just as #ai many another foolish people before us have done1 and our one hope of real accomplishment for ourselves and our generation is to choose our purposes carefully and then set about their accomplishment with strenuous effort4 ,the lessons of the past in history are extremely precious not only because they show us where others made mistakes but also because they show us the successes of the past4 ,the better we know these1 the deeper our admiration for them1 the better the outlook for ourselves and our accomplishment4 ,this is the ideal that ,i would like to emphasize in this series of lectures and addresses and in this1 far from there being any pessimism1 there is1 as it seems to me1 the highest optimism4 ,any generation that wants to can do well1 but it must want to do efficaciously4 ,any one who thinks that education1 in the sense of training of character or advice with regard to practical1 every-day life1 has evoluted in the course of time1 should read this little book that ,i bring to you this evening4 ,indeed1 it is as the first chapter in the history of education that it finds its most valuable place in literature4 ,this teacher of the old-time1 who had his boy's best interest at heart1 not only knew what to say but how to say it so as to attract a young man's attention4 ,of course it is probable that1 even with all this good advice1 the young man went his way in his own fashion2 for that is ever the mode of the young4 ,but1 so far as the experience of another #bj could supply for that personal experience which every human being craves1 and will have1 no matter what the cost1 surely this oldest book in the world supplies the best possible material4 ,as literature1 it has a finish that is quite surprising4 ,art is said to be the elimination of the superfluous4 ,surely1 then1 this is artful1 in the best sense of that word1 to a supreme degree4 ,it is surprising how few repetitions there are1 how few tergiversations1 how few unnecessary words2 and yet the style is not so austere as to be dry and lacking in human interest4 ,probably the most interesting feature of the book is the fact that in it ,god is always spoken of in the singular4 ,it is not the gods who help men1 who punish them1 who command and must be obeyed1 whose providence is so wonderful1 but it is always ,god4 ,the latest editor1,footnote #c ,mr4 ,battiscombe ,g4 ,gunn1 in his version always inserts the definite article before the word ,god because1 he says1 in different places there were different local gods1 and the idea of the writer was to emphasize the fact that the god of any particular locality would act as he declared in his instructions4 ,there are many distinguished ,egyptologists1 however1 who insist that the expression the ,god1 which occurs not only in this but in many other very early ,egyptian writings1 is a #ba monotheistic deity whose name is above all names1 and transcends all the power of humanity to name him1 and hence is spoken of always without a name but with the definite article4 ,footnote #c3 ,the ,instructions of ,ptah ,hotep4 ,translated from the ,egyptian1 with an ,introduction and an ,appendix1 by ,battiscombe ,g4 ,gunn4 ,e4 ,p4 ,dutton ,co4 ,wisdom of the ,east ,series1 #aiji4 ,it is curious indeed to find that the very first bit of instruction given to his son by this wise father is1 not to be conceited about what he knows4 ,how striking the expression of his first sentence of this oldest book3 ,be not proud because thou art learned4 ,and the second is like unto the first3 ,but discourse with the ignorant man as with the sage4 ,and then at the end of this very first paragraph comes the first figure of speech in human literature that has been presented for us4 ,it is as beautiful in its simplicity and illuminating quality as any of the subsequent time4 ,fair speech 7by which is meant evidently kindly speech toward those who know less than we do7 is more rare than the emerald that is found by slave maidens on the pebbles4 ,then there comes a series of directions as to how the young man should treat his superiors1 his equals and his inferiors4 ,if in argument he is worsted by some one who knows more than himself1 he is cautioned4 ,be not angry4 ,if some one talks nonsense4 ,correct him4 ,if an ignorant man insists on arguing1 ,be not scornful with him1 but let him alone2 then shall he confound himself2 for it is shameful to confuse a mean mind4 ,the advice may be summed up4 ,do not argue with your superiors1 it does no good2 nor with #bb your equals1 state your case and let it go2 but above all1 not with your inferiors2 let them talk and they will make fools of themselves4 ,kindness is always insisted on as the quality most indispensable to a man4 ,live therefore1 says the father1 in the house of kindliness1 and men shall come and give gifts of themselves4 ,there are lessons in politeness as well as in kindliness4 ,for instance3 ,if thou be among the guests of a great man1 pierce him not with many glances4 ,it is abhorred of the soul to stare at him4 ,speak not till he address thee4 ,speak when he questioneth thee2 so shalt thou be good in his opinion4 ,again1 he wants his son not to eat the bread of idleness3 ,fill not thy mouth at thy neighbor's table4 ,he insists much on the lesson that ,god helps those who help themselves4 ,behold1 he says1 riches come not of themselves4 ,it is their rule to come to him that actively desires4 ,if he bestir him and collect them himself1 ,god shall make him prosperous2 but ,he shall punish him if he be slothful4 ,on the other hand1 the gaining of riches for riches' sake is not worth the while4 ,when riches are gained1 follow the heart2 for riches are of no avail if one be weary4 ,as much as to say1 after having gained a competency1 do not spend further time in amassing wealth1 but enjoy in a reasonable way that which has been obtained4 ,there are certain things1 however1 that a man should not follow2 they are unworthy of his #bc nature as a man4 ,as to the man whose heart obeyeth his belly1 he causeth disgust in place of love4 ,his heart is wretched1 his body is gross4 ,he is insolent toward those endowed by ,god4 ,he that obeyeth his belly hath an enemy4 ,while the old man warns his son against gluttony and against sloth1 he has much to say with regard to covetousness3 ,if thou desire that thine actions may be good1 save thyself from all malice1 and beware of the quality of covetousness1 which is a grievous inner malady4 ,this expression is rendered still more striking by what is added to it2 for the father insists that it is particularly relatives-in-law who quarrel over money4 ,covetousness setteth at variance fathers-in-law and the kinsmen of the daughter-in-law4 ,it sundereth the wife and the husband2 it gathereth unto itself all evils4 ,it is the girdle of all wickedness4 ,it needed only the next sentence to make these expressions supremely modern3 ,be not covetous as touching shares1 in seizing that which is not thine own property4 ,the ,god of this earliest book that we have from the hand of man has nearly all the interesting and important qualities that we refer to the ,deity4 ,he is looked up to as the giver of all good things4 ,he loves his creation1 and above all loves man1 and observes men's actions very carefully1 and rewards or punishes them according to their deserts4 ,he desires men to be fruitful1 and to multiply upon the earth for their own good and #bd for his glory4 ,nothing unworthy of the ,deity1 as he is known by the most educated people1 is attributed to this ,god1 who transcends a personal name4 ,there is an utter disregard of all trivial mythology and of all mysterious riddles1 though these trimmings of truth are to be found constantly in other ,egyptian works of later date4 ,indeed1 the picture of ,god is as striking a presentation of the fatherliness and the providence of the ,almighty and of most of the lovable characteristics of the ,deity as there is to be found anywhere in literature until the coming of the ,saviour4 ,one might think that after having warned his son about most of the ,seven ,deadly ,sins as we know them--pride1 covetousness1 gluttony1 envy1 sloth and anger1--at least we should not find lust touched on in the modern way4 ,there is1 however1 in this matter an extremely chaste bit of advice that sums up the whole situation as well as a father can tell his son4 ,the writer says3 ,no place prospereth wherein lust is allowed to work its way4 ,a thousand men have been ruined for the pleasure of a little time short as a dream4 ,even death is reached thereby4 ,it is a wretched thing4 ,as for the lustful liver1 every one leaveth him for what he doeth2 he is avoided4 ,if his desires be not gratified1 he regardeth no laws4 ,the father tells his son1 straightforwardly and emphatically1 that indulgence in this vice inevitably leads to loss of friends1 of health1 of #be everything that the world holds good2 and that once a man has started down this path he has no regard for law or order or decency or self-respect4 ,this eighteenth paragraph on a thorny subject is probably one of the most wonderful passages in this advice of a father to his son4 ,fathers of the modern time ask what shall they say to their boys4 ,here is something to tell them that does not excite pruriency1 that does set the full state of the case before them and represents probably all that can be said with assurance and safety4 ,in recent years we have heard much of moral and social prophylaxis and the necessity for giving precious information with regard to this subject that may prove helpful to young people4 ,most people are sure to think that this is the first time in the history of the race that there has been an awakening to the necessity for this4 ,of course there is no doubt that owing to delayed marriages and unfortunate social conditions in our large cities we have more need of it than past generations1 yet here in this old schoolbook from ,egypt we have very definite and very wise teaching in the matter4 ,a physician is prone to wonder what did the old man mean by a thousand men have been ruined for the pleasure of a little time short as a dream4 ,even death is reached thereby4 ,is it possible that he knew something of the physical1 or let us rather say1 the pathological dangers of the vice8 ,in the discussion of the pictures of old-time surgery in #bf ,the ,journal of the ,american ,medical ,association ,i suggested that these generations seem to have known more about this phase of pathology than we are inclined to admit4 ,on the other hand1 the father emphatically warns his son that his happiness will depend on loving his wife and caring for her to the best of his ability2 though some of the details of that advice are so naively modern in their expression that it seems almost impossible to believe that they should have been spoken nearly six thousand years ago4 ,he says3 ,if thou would be wise1 provide for thine house1 and love thy wife4 ,give her what she wants to eat1 get her what she wants to wear literally1 fill her stomach1 clothe her back4 ,gladden her heart during thy lifetime1 for she is an estate profitable unto its lord4 ,be not harsh1 for gentleness mastereth her more than strength4 ,there is a variant translation of this passage quoted in ,maspero's ,the ,dawn of ,civilization1 which brings out even more clearly the ideas that seem most modern1 and which makes it very sure that it is not the translator who has found in vague old expressions thoughts that1 when put into modern words1 have modernized old ideas4 ,maspero reads3 ,if thou art wise1 thou wilt go up into thine house and love thy wife at home2 thou wilt give her abundance of food2 thou wilt clothe her back with garments2 all that covers her limbs1 her perfumes1 are the joy of her life4 ,as #bg long as thou lookest to this1 she is as a profitable field to her lord master4 ,the old gentleman's idea evidently was that1 looked at merely from a material standpoint1 it was worth a man's while to spend as much time caring for his wife as for his estate4 ,she meant just as much for his happiness in the end and might mean probably more for his unhappiness4 ,it is a very practical way of looking at the subject and perhaps the romancists might think it sordid4 ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that this is only the secondary motive suggested4 ,at the beginning he commands him to love his wife for her own sake1 and then1 after suggesting the material benefit that comes from caring for her1 he says that gentleness mastereth her more than strength4 ,immediately after this valuable advice with regard to the care of the principal member of his household the old man turns to the question of the care of his servants4 ,we are surely prone to think that the servant problem at least is a new development in this little world of ours4 ,many literary works serve to foster the impression that in the old days servants were easy to obtain1 that they were always respectful1 that they could readily be managed and life with them was1 if not one sweet song1 at least a very smooth course4 ,men1 however1 have always been men1 and women and even servants have always had minds of their own1 and strange as it may seem to us there has always #bh been a servant problem and there was one in ,egypt #e1ejj years ago4 ,ptah ,hotep said3 ,satisfy thine hired servants out of such things as thou hast2 it is the duty of one that hath been favored of ,god4 ,in sooth1 it is hard to satisfy hired servants4 ,for one saith1 'he is a lavish person2 one knoweth not that which may come from him4' ,but on the morrow he thinketh1 'he is a person of exactitude 7parsimony71 content therein4' ,and when favors have been shown unto servants1 they say 'we go4' 7,italics mine47 ,peace dwelleth not in that town wherein dwell servants that are wretched4 ,a difficult problem2 presents will not solve it but only complicate it1 exact justice is necessary1 but the peace that follows is worth the trouble it entails4 ,the principle would be valuable in many a squabble of corporate employer and hosts of servants in the modern time4 ,for domestic happiness1 it needed only the advice given a little later in this instruction3 ,let thy face be bright what time thou livest4 ,bread is to be shared4 ,he that is grasping in entertainment himself shall have an empty belly4 ,he that causeth strife cometh himself to sorrow4 ,take not such a one for thy companion4 ,it is a man's kindly acts that are remembered of him in the years after his life4 ,there is one phase of life in which ,ptah ,hotep differs entirely from the present generation1--at least if we are to judge the present generation #bi from its results in this matter4 ,of course there are many of us who consider that1 in spite of six thousand years of distance in time1 the old ,egyptian prime minister is far ahead of our contemporaries in this important subject4 ,he thought that obedience was the most important thing in life4 ,for him independence of spirit1 in a young person particularly1 was an abomination4 ,in spite of the tendency to loquacity and to repeat itself1 often said to be so characteristic of old age1 the father1 who in all his instructions has never sinned against this literary canon1 almost seems to do so when it comes to the question of obedience4 ,over and over again he insists that obedience is the one quality that must characterize a man if he is to get on in life1 and if he is to secure happiness1 and have a happy generation of his own group around him4 ,the sentences read more like a ,kempis or some mediaeval writer on spirituality1 and seem meant for monks under obedience rather than for a young man of the world1 the son of a prime minister1 just about to enter on his life work in business and politics4 ,two of the paragraphs are well worth quoting here3 ,a splendid thing is the obedience of an obedient son2 he cometh in and listeneth obediently4 ,excellent in hearing1 excellent in speaking1 is every man that obeyeth what is noble4 ,the obedience of an obeyer is a noble thing4 ,obedience is better than all things that are2 it maketh good will4 ,how good it is that a son should take #cj that from his father by which he hath reached old age obedience6 ,that which is desired by the ,god is obedience2 disobedience is abhorred of the ,god4 ,verily1 it is the heart that maketh its master to obey or to disobey2 for the safe-and-sound life of a man is his heart4 ,it is the obedient man that obeyeth what is said2 he that loveth to obey1 the same shall carry out commands4 ,he that obeyeth becometh one obeyed4 ,it is good indeed when a son obeyeth his father2 and he 7his father7 that hath spoken hath great joy of it4 ,such a son shall be mild as a master1 and he that heareth him shall obey him that hath spoken4 ,he shall be comely in body and honored by his father4 ,his memory shall be in the mouths of the living1 those upon earth1 as long as they exist4 ,as for the fool1 devoid of obedience1 he doeth nothing4 ,knowledge he regardeth as ignorance1 profitable things as hurtful things4 ,he doeth all kind of errors1 so that he is rebuked therefor every day4 ,he liveth in death therewith4 ,it is his food4 ,at chattering speech he marvelleth1 as at the wisdom of princes1 living in death every day4 ,he is shunned because of his misfortunes1 by reason of the multitude of afflictions that cometh upon him every day4 ,of one thing the old prime minister was especially sure4 ,it was that employment at no single occupation1 no matter what it was or how interesting soever it might be1 could satisfy a man or even keep him in good health4 ,he felt1 #ca probably by experience1 the necessity for diversity of mind and of occupation1 if there was to be any happiness or any real success in life4 ,he has a quiet way of putting it1 but he says1 as confidently as the most modern of pedagogues1 that all work and no play makes ,jack a dull boy1 and all play and no work makes it impossible for ,jack to get on4 ,but a proper mixture of both makes life livable2 and if a man has only the work that he cares for1 and can get some of his pleasure in life out of his work1 then is all well4 ,one that reckoneth accounts all the day passeth not an happy moment4 ,one that gladdeneth his heart all the day provideth not for his house4 ,the bowman hitteth the mark1 as the steersman reacheth land1 by diversity of aim4 ,he that obeyeth his heart shall command4 ,there are some conclusions in the philosophy of life that we are very much inclined to think are the products of modern practical wisdom1 and it is rather surprising to find them stated plainly in this old-time advice of the father to his boy4 ,if there is one idea more than another that we are confident is modern1 and are almost sure to attribute to the social development of our own generation1 it is that riches do not belong to the man who makes them to be used for his own purpose alone1 but their possession is justified only if he uses them for the benefit of the community4 ,this is so up-to-date an idea indeed that it is startling to find it expressed in all its #cb completeness in this oldest of books4 ,ptah ,hotep said3 ,if thou be great after being of no account1 and hast gotten riches after poverty1 being foremost in these in the city1 and hast knowledge concerning useful matters so that promotion is come unto thee1 then swathe not thine heart in thine hoard1 for thou art become the steward of the endowments of ,god4 ,thou art not the last2 another shall be thine equal1 and to him shall come the like fortune and station4 ,after all this it may be necessary to trace the pedigree of the book1 since it might seem to be possible that it was a modern invention4 ,the original of it is the so-called ,prisse ,papyrus1 which is well known by name to all students of archaeology and especially of ,egyptology1 and the contents of which are familiar to all who are acquainted with ,egyptian history and literature4 ,it appears to have been found at ,thebes1 but the exact place is not known4 ,m4 ,prisse d',avennes1 the well-known ,french archaeologist after whom it is named1 is said to have bought it from one of the ,egyptian native workmen1 or fellahin1 whom he had hired to make excavations in the tombs of ,thebes4 ,egyptologists generally have accepted the idea that it was actually taken by this workman from the tomb of one of the ,kings ,entef1 who were of the ,eleventh ,dynasty and reigned about #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,this is not certain1 however4 ,after publishing a translation in #ahdg1 ,m4 ,prisse presented the precious papyrus to the #cc ,bibliotheque ,royale 7now ,nationale74 ,there it may still be seen4 ,spread out flat1 it measures about twenty-four feet in length and six inches in width4 ,there are about eighteen pages of clear red and black writing in the ,hieratic character4 ,the first part of this manuscript is a portion of another book1 the so-called ,instructions of ,ke'gemni4 ,footnote #d ,this is1 however1 only a short fragment1 though probably of even older date than the ,instructions of ,ptah ,hotep4 ,this work we have in its entirety4 ,doubtless its preservation was due to the fact that many copies of it had been made1 though only two have come down to us4 ,footnote #d3 ,these ,egyptian names are spelled differently by different modern scholars1 according to their idea of the value of certain sounds of the older language as they should be expressed in the modern tongue to which they are most familiar4 ,many ,english scholars spell this as ,i have done1 ,ke'gemni4 ,maspero1 however1 and most of the ,french scholars1 spell it ,qaqimni4 ,maspero prefers the form ,phtah-,hotpu to that of ,ptah ,hotep1 which has been adopted by ,english scholars4 ,there is a second manuscript of the ,instructions of ,ptah ,hotep1--or the ,proverbs of ,phtahhotpu1 as the book is called by ,maspero4 ,this was discovered not long ago in the ,british ,museum1 by ,mr4 ,griffith2 and1 while it is not so complete as the ,french copy1 there is such an agreement between the two manuscripts that there is no doubt about the authenticity of the book and of the fact that it represents the oldest book in the world4 ,its date would be about #cfej ,b4,c4 if we were #cd to follow1--as does the translator of the most easily procurable ,english edition1 ,mr4 ,gunn1--the chronology of ,flinders ,petrie4 ,recent advances in our knowledge of ,egyptology1 however1 have brought the dates nearer to us than they were placed before4 ,such men as ,breasted of ,chicago1 and ,maspero1 would probably take from three hundred to five hundred years from this date4 ,there is a definite tendency in all the histories to bring dates much nearer to the present than before4 ,for a time1 the older one could place a date the more scholarly seemed to be the appeal of such an opinion4 ,now the tendency is all the other way4 ,even the latest date that can be given for ,ptah ,hotep1 or ,phtahhotpu1 would still make his little book the oldest book in the world1 however4 ,fortunately for us the manuscripts of the instructions of ,ptah ,hotep that have come down to us are in much better condition than those of most of the other instructions of similar kinds formerly used in the schools that have been preserved4 ,in some of these there are a great many errors of writing1 spelling and grammar with the corrections of the master above in a different-colored ink4 ,verily1 education has not changed much in spite of six millenniums1 or very nearly so1 of supposed progress since these were written1 for the whole process is as familiar as it can be4 ,as ,mr4 ,battiscombe ,gunn says in his ,introduction to his edition a schoolboy's scrawl over #c1jjj years #ce old is no easy thing to translate4 ,we would seem1 however1 to have been blessed in the preservation of this oldest book in the world1 either of the original copies set by the masters or of such copies as were made by advanced students4 ,the series of lucky chances that have combined to bring to us1 in the comparatively perfect form in which it exists1 this oldest book in the world is interesting to contemplate4 ,without them we would have no idea of how closely the first people of whom we have any definite records in history resembled us in every essential quality of humanity1 even to the ways and modes by which they tried to lift humanity out of the barbaric selfishness inherent in it to what is higher and nobler in its nature4 ,with this surprising resurrection of our school-teaching methods from the past it is interesting to study other phases of the education of these early times1 and at the same time to note the accomplishments of the men1 of the period1 their tastes1 the state of their culture as regards the arts and crafts and personal adornment and the decoration of their houses and buildings of various kinds4 ,flinders ,petrie1 the distinguished ,english ,egyptologist1 in an article on ,the ,romance of ,early ,civilization1 printed recently in ,the ,independent 7,new ,york71 said3 ,we have now before us a view of the powers of man at the earliest point to which we can trace written history1 and what strikes us most is how very little his nature or abilities have changed in #cf seven thousand years2 what he admired we admire2 what were his limits in fine handiwork are also ours4 ,we may have a wider outlook1 a greater understanding of things1 our interests may have extended in this interval2 but as far as human nature and tastes go1 man is essentially unchanged in this interval4 ,we have enough of the products of the arts and crafts of these early ,egyptian generations to show us that there must have been no inconsiderable training of the men of this time in the making of beautiful art objects4 ,for instance1 the interior decoration of their tombs shows us men skilled as designers1 clever in the use of colors1 with a rather extensive knowledge of pigments and with a definite tendency not to repeat designs but to create new ones4 ,most of the diapered designs of modern interior decorations were original with the ,egyptians1 and some of those found in the tombs uncovered in recent years have been adopted and adapted by modern designers4 ,it is in the matter of jewelry particularly that the ability and the training of the old ,egyptian workmen are most evident4 ,it would be quite incredible to think that these workmen developed their artistic craftsmanship without training1 and therefore there was at least the germ of a technical school or set of schools in oldest ,egypt4 ,it would be quite impossible to believe this only that we know so much more about other features of ,egyptian education as anticipations of our own4 #cg ,a special word about their jewelry then1 because it illustrates a definite training quite different from that of our time1 will not be out of place4 ,their jewelry1 it may be said at once1 is in striking contrast with what we call jewelry in our time4 ,it is true that we are in the midst of one of the worst periods of jewelry-making1 but then we are so prone to think of anything very modern as representing the highest evolution1 that the contrast is chastening and illuminating4 ,mr4 ,petrie has insisted on the beautiful jewelry1 carved precious stones and gold ornaments of the very early period in ,egypt4 ,in our time we have no jewelry that deserves the name4 ,i doubt whether we even know the real definition of jewelry1 so ,i venture to repeat it4 ,jewels are precious stones themselves of value1 usually of a high degree of hardness so that they do not deteriorate with time or wear1 to which a greatly enhanced value is added by the handiwork of man4 ,jewels are made by artistic carving and cutting so that besides their precious quality as beautiful colored stones1 they have an added charm and interest from human workmanship4 ,we wear no such jewelry in our generation4 ,what we have are merely precious stones4 ,these by an artificial rigging of the market and a combination of the great commercial agencies that control the sale of diamonds and other precious stones1 remain very expensive in spite of their comparative abundance4 ,they are worn only because they are a display of the #ch amount of money that a person can afford to spend for mere ornaments4 ,there is nothing in these precious stones themselves that carries an appeal to the educated mind4 ,it is true that they are pretty1 but only with the prettiness of the play of rainbow colors that delights a childish or uncultured eye4 ,it requires no taste to like them1 no culture to appreciate them1 and their cost alone gives them value4 ,this is so true that those who possess a magnificent parure of diamonds often also have an imitation of them in cheaper stones that may be worn on most occasions4 ,the danger of loss or the risk of robbery is so great that it has seemed worth while to have this imitation made in many cases4 ,no one except an expert will recognize the difference1 and if you are known to possess the real stones it will of course be supposed that you are wearing them4 ,what gives them value as an adornment in the eye of the possessor1 and presumably also of the onlookers1 is the fact that they must have cost such a large sum of money4 ,they are a vulgar display of wealth4 ,they are typically barbaric and1 worn in the profusion now so common1 carry us back to the uncultured peoples who like to wear gaudy things4 ,the taste is perhaps a little better1 but the essential quality of mind that dictates the wearing of heavy brass rings and strings of beads and that which impels to the display of many diamonds1 is hard to differentiate4 ,artistic objects produce a sense of pleasure in #ci the beholder1 an appreciation of the beautiful handiwork of man4 ,precious stones worn as is now the custom produce only a sense of envy4 ,of course envy comes only to baser minds1 but it is perfectly clear that most of those who are supposed to be affected by the sight of diamonds worn in profusion have this particular quality rather well developed4 ,this distinction is often forgotten4 ,personal adornment as well as the adornment of one's house should be in order to give pleasure to others1 and not merely a display of wealth for wealth's sake in such a way as is likely to produce envy4 ,the old ,egyptians made their jewelry with the true artistic sense4 ,flinders ,petrie has told how beautifully they carved hard gems of various kinds and how the remains of these show us a people of good taste1 even though their technique in the manufacture of such objects may have left something to be desired4 ,in connection with this oldest of books it is important to recall this1 for it shows that not alone in the applied wisdom of life and the knowledge gained from personal experience were these ,egyptians of over #e1jjj years ago brothers and sisters beyond whose wise saws we have not advanced1 but also in the realm of art their work takes its place beside what is best in the modern time4 ,some may be inclined to say that while the ,egyptians may1 as indeed we must admit they did1 know many things about art and literature and practical wisdom1 yet they did not have exact #dj knowledge4 ,their knowledge1 though large and liberal1 had not become scientific4 ,this will scarcely be maintained1 however1 by any one who realizes how much of applied science there was in the building of the old temples and pyramids and how much they must have developed mechanics1 applied and theoretic1 in order to accomplish the tasks they thus set themselves4 ,cantor1 the ,german historian of mathematics1 acknowledged this and paid a worthy tribute to the old ,egyptians' development of mathematics1 pure and applied1 in discussing the expression that had been used by ,democritus1 the early ,greek geometer1 who once declared that ,in the construction of plane figures with demonstrations no one has yet surpassed me1 not even the rope fasteners 7harpedonaptai7 of ,egypt4 ,for a long time this word harpedonaptai was a mystery1 but ,professor ,cantor cleared it up1 and explaining for us the exact meaning of the compound which means literally either rope fasteners or rope stretchers1 he says1 ,there is no doubt that the ,egyptians were very careful about the exact orientations of their temples and other public buildings4 ,old inscriptions seem to show that only the ,north and ,south lines were drawn by actual observation of the stars4 ,the ,east and ,west lines were drawn at right angles to the others4 ,now it appears from the practice of ,heron of ,alexandria and of the ancient ,indian and probably also the ,chinese geometers1 that a common method of #da securing a right angle between two very long lines was to stretch round three pegs a rope measured in three portions which were to one another in the ratio #c3d3e4 ,the triangle thus formed is right-angled4 ,further the operation of rope stretching is mentioned in ,egypt1 without explanation1 at an extremely early time 7,amenemhat ,i74 ,if this be the correct explanation of it1 then the ,egyptians were acquainted #b1jjj years ,b4,c41 with a particular case of the proposition now known as the ,pythagorean theorem4 ,this may not seem to mean very much4 ,yet what it illustrates is just this4 ,these men wanted a certain development of mathematics4 ,they needed it for the work that they were engaged at4 ,they set themselves to the solution of certain problems and in doing so evolved a theorem in pure mathematics and an application of it which greatly simplified construction and gave an impetus to mechanics4 ,in so doing they anticipated the work of a long after time4 ,this is what ,i would insist is always true with regard to man4 ,when he needs some intellectual development he makes it4 ,when he requires an application of it he succeeds in working it out4 ,later ages may go farther1 but had he needed further developments he evidently had the power to make them and probably would have made them4 ,the old ,greeks had a much better opportunity to study ,egyptian remains than we have1 and especially was this true after the foundation of #db ,alexandria4 ,there must have been a lively interest in things ,egyptian aroused in the ,greek minds by this ,greek settlement in old ,egypt4 ,it is not surprising1 then1 to find some magnificent compliments to the old ,egyptians in the mouths of some of the writers about the time of the foundation of ,alexandria4 ,eudemus1 for instance1 the pupil of ,aristotle1 wrote the history of ,geometry in which he traces its invention to the ,egyptians1 and states that the reason for its invention was its necessity in the remeasurement of land demanded after the removal of landmarks by the annual rise of the ,nile4 ,always does one find this1 that when there is a serious demand for an invention in theory or practice men make it4 ,it is not a change or development in man that brings about inventions1 but a change in his environment which causes new necessities to arise1 and then he proceeds with an ability always the same to respond properly to those necessities4 ,eudemus says3 ,geometry is said by many to have been invented among the ,egyptians1 its origin being due to the measurement of plots of land4 ,this was necessary there because of the rising of the ,nile1 which obliterated the boundaries appertaining to separate owners4 ,nor is it marvellous that the discovery of this and other sciences should have arisen from such an occasion1 since everything which moves in development will advance from the imperfect to the #dc perfect4 ,from mere sense-perception to calculation1 and from this to reasoning1 is a natural transition4 ,the old ,egyptians made some fine developments of arithmetic4 ,these were afterwards lost and were reinvented probably several times4 ,i have already quoted from ,cantor the opinion that the ,egyptians were familiar with the properties of the right triangle whose sides were in the ratio #c3d3e over #d1jjj years ago4 ,in the ,papyrus of ,ahmes1 whose contents probably come from before #bdjj ,b4,c41 there are the solutions of many problems which show how far the ,egyptians had gone in arithmetical calculations4 ,for instance1 there are methods of calculating the solid contents of barns4 ,the solutions are not absolute but are very closely approximate4 ,ahmes has problems that were solved in connection with the pyramids1 which make it very clear that the old ,egyptians had more than a little knowledge of the principles of proportion1 of certain geometrical figures and probably were familiar also with the simpler phases at least of trigonometry4 ,the area of a circle is found in ,ahmes by deducting from the diameter one-ninth and squaring the remainder1 which gives a value for the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle much more nearly correct than that used by most writers until comparatively recent times4 ,as a teacher of the history of medicine with certain administrative functions in a medical #dd school1 ,i have been very much interested in the old-time medicine and above all the details of medical education that we find among the ,egyptians4 ,ordinarily it would be assumed that there was so little of anything like medical education that it could be scarcely worth while talking about it4 ,on the contrary1 we find so much that is being constantly added to by discoverers1 that it is a never-ending source of surprise4 ,there is a well-grounded tradition founded on inscriptions that ,athothis1 the son of ,menes1 one of the early kings1 wrote a work on anatomy4 ,this king is said to have died about #daej ,b4,c4 ,there are traces of the existence of hospitals at that time in which diseases were studied and medical attendants trained4 ,even earlier than this there was a great physician1 the first physician of whom we have record in history1 whose name was ,i-,em-,hetep1 which means the ,bringer of ,peace4 ,he had two other titles1 one of which was the ,master of ,secrets1 partly because he possessed the secrets of health and disease1 very probably also because so many things had to be confided to him as a physician4 ,another of his titles was that of ,the ,scribe of ,numbers1 in reference1 doubtless1 to the fact that he had to use numbers so carefully in making out his prescriptions4 ,his first title1 that of the bringer of peace1 shows that very early in the history of medicine it was recognized that the physician's first duty was to bring peace of mind to his patients4 ,a #de distinguished ,french physician 7,director7 of the department of physiology of the ,university of ,paris1 ,professor ,richet1 said not long since1 that physicians can seldom cure1 they can often relieve1 but they can always console1 and evidently this oldest physician took his duty of consolation seriously and successfully4 ,he lived in the reign of ,king ,tehser1 a monarch of the ,third ,dynasty in ,egypt1 who reigned about #dejj ,b4,c4 or a little later4 ,how much this first physician was thought of will be best appreciated from the fact that the well-known step pyramid at ,sakkara1 the old cemetery near ,memphis1 is called by his name4 ,so great indeed was the honor paid to him that after his death he was worshipped as a god1 and so we have statues of him seated with a scroll on his knees1 with an air of benignant knowledge1 a placid-looking man with a certain divine expression of sympathy well suited to his name1 the bringer of peace4 ,while they raised him to their altars he does not wear a beard as did all their gods and their kings when they were raised to the godly dignity1 but evidently they felt that his humanity was of supreme interest to them4 ,there is another monument at ,sakkara that is of special interest to us in its consideration of old-time medicine4 ,i discussed it and its inscriptions in the ,journal of the ,american ,medical ,association 7,nov4 #h1 #aijg74 ,it is the tomb of a surgeon1 decorated within with pictures of surgical operations4 ,the grandeur of the tomb and its #df location show us that the surgeon must have held a very prominent place in the community of that time4 ,the date of this tomb is not later than #bejj ,b4,c4 ,certain of the surgical operations resembled those done at the present time4 ,there is the opening of a carbuncle at the back of the neck which shows how old are men's diseases and the modes of their treatment4 ,after this the oldest monument in the history of medicine is documentary1 the ,ebers ,papyrus1 the writing of which is probably not much later than #agjj ,b4,c4 ,this consists1 moreover1 of a collection of older texts and suggestions in medicine1 and some of the idioms are said to belong to several distant periods4 ,it is probable that certain portions of this papyrus were composed not much later than the oldest book in the world1 and that they date from nearly #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,this papyrus is as interesting and as startling in its anticipation of some of our modern medical wisdom as is the ,instruction of ,ptah ,hotep in the practical wisdom of life4 ,this seems a good deal to say1 but there is ample evidence for it4 ,according to ,dr4 ,carl von ,klein1 who discussed the ,medical ,features of the ,ebers ,papyrus in some detail in the ,journal of the ,american ,medical ,association about five years ago1 over #gjj different substances are mentioned as of remedial value in this old-time medical work4 ,there is scarcely a disease of any important organ with which we are familiar in the modern #dg time that is not mentioned here4 ,while the significance of diseases of such organs as the spleen1 the ductless glands1 and the appendix was of course missed1 nearly every other pathological condition was either expressly named or at least hinted at4 ,the papyrus insists very much on the value of history-taking in medicine1 and hints that the reason why physicians fail to cure is often because they have not studied their cases sufficiently4 ,while the treatment was mainly symptomatic1 it was not more so than is a great deal of therapeutics at the present time1 even in the regular school of medicine4 ,the number and variety of their remedies and of their modes of administering them is so marvellous1 that ,i prefer to quote ,dr4 von ,klein's enumeration of them for you3 ,in this papyrus are mentioned over #gjj different substances from the animal1 vegetable and mineral kingdoms which act as stimulants1 sedatives1 motor excitants1 motor depressants1 narcotics1 hypnotics1 analgesics1 anodynes1 antispasmodics1 mydriatics1 myotics1 expectorants1 tonics1 dentifrices1 sialogogues1 antisialics1 refrigerants1 emetics1 antiemetics1 carminatives1 cathartics1 purgatives1 astringents1 cholagogues1 anthelmintics1 restoratives1 haematics1 alteratives1 antipyretics1 antiphlogistics1 antiperiodics1 diuretics1 diluents1 diaphoretics1 sudorifics1 anhydrotics1 emmenagogues1 oxytocics1 ecbolics1 galactagogues1 irritants1 escharotics1 caustics1 styptics1 haemostatics1 emollients1 demulcents1 protectives1 antizymotics1 #dh disinfectants1 deodorants1 parasiticides1 antidotes and antagonists4 ,scarcely less interesting than the variety of remedies were their methods of administration3 ,medicines are directed to be administered internally in the form of decoctions1 infusions1 injections1 pills1 tablets1 troches1 capsules1 powders1 potions and inhalations2 and externally1 as lotions1 ointments1 plasters1 etc4 ,they are to be eaten1 drunk1 masticated or swallowed1 to be taken often once only--often for many days--and the time is occasionally designated--to be taken mornings1 evenings or at bedtime4 ,formulas to disguise bad tasting medicaments are also given4 ,we have no advantages over the early ,egyptians even in elegant prescribing4 ,the traditions with regard to ,egyptian medicine which came to the ,greeks seemed so incredible as we found them in the older historians that they used to be joked about4 ,herodotus came in for a good deal of this scoffing4 ,he was said to be entirely too credulous and prone to exaggerate in order to add interest to his history1 but every advance in our knowledge in modern time has confirmed what ,herodotus has to say4 ,in the eighteenth century ,voltaire said of him1 ,the ,father of history1 nay1 rather the ,father of lies4 ,that was ,voltaire's way4 ,anything that was above him he scoffed at4 ,homer was a wandering minstrel such as you might find in the streets of ,paris1 ,dante was a mediaeval barbarian1 #di our own ,shakespeare was a dramatic butcher1 producing his effects by bloodshed and cruelty upon the stage4 ,the nineteenth century has reversed ,voltaire in every point of this1 though some still listen to him in other matters4 ,above all1 ,herodotus has been amply justified by modern investigations4 ,herodotus tells us of the tradition of the number of different kinds of medical specialists in existence among the ,egyptians4 ,we are very prone to think that specialism is a development of modern medicine4 ,what we know of ,egypt shows us how old it is and makes it very clear that there must have been specialized modes of medical education for these many doctors who treated only very limited portions of the body and no other4 ,herodotus tells us1 to quote for you the quaint ,english of one of the old translations3 ,physicke is so studied and practised with the ,egyptians that every disease hath his several physician1 who striveth to excell in healing that one disease and not to be expert in curing many4 ,whereof it cometh that every corner of that country is full of physicians4 ,some for the eyes1 others for the head1 many for the teeth1 not a few for the stomach and the inwards4 ,the ,ebers ,papyrus shows us that the specialties were by no means scantily developed4 ,we have traditions of operations upon the nose1 of remedies for the eyes there are many and the diagnosis and treatment of eye diseases are rather well #ej developed4 ,the filling of teeth seems even to have been practised1 ,footnote #e and while the traditions in this matter are a little dubious1 the evidence has been accepted by some good authorities4 ,this specialism in ,egyptian medicine probably existed long before ,herodotus1 for he seems to speak of it as a very old-time institution in his time1 and indeed ,egypt had degenerated so much that it would be hard to believe that there was any such development there in his time4 ,in the old temples they seem to have used many modes of treatment that we are likely to think of as very modern4 ,music for instance was used to soothe the worried1 amusements of various kinds were employed to influence the disturbed mind favorably4 ,in many ways some of the old temples resembled our modern health resorts4 ,to them many patients flocked and were treated and talked about their ailments and went back each year for the cure once more1 all the while being more benefited1 as is true also in our own time1 by the regularity of life1 the regulation of diet and the mental influence of the place1 than by any of the drugs or even the curative waters4 ,footnote #e3 ,burdett3 ,history of ,hospitals4 ,in a word1 our study of old ,egypt and ,egyptian education shows us men doing things just about the way that our generation does them and succeeding just about as well as we succeed4 ,they taught writing1 spelling and composition as we do and the moral content of their teaching is admirable4 ,they had training schools for the arts #ea and crafts1 their taste is better than ours in many things1 above all1 they trained workmen very well1 and the remains of their achievements are still the subject of our admiration4 ,they solved mechanical problems in the building of the pyramids quite as well as we do4 ,they made enough experiments that we would call chemical1 to find enduring pigments for decorative purposes and they succeeded in making tools that enabled them to carve stonework beautifully4 ,even their professional education was not very different from our own and its results1 particularly in the line of specialism1 are startling anticipations of the most modern phase of medicine4 ,they anticipated our interests in psychotherapy and some of them were mental healers1 and more of them used the influence of the mind on the body than our physicians have been accustomed to until very recent years4 ,their physicians and surgeons were held in the highest veneration1 and what we know of them shows that the judgment of the old ,egyptians in this matter was very good and better than the average appreciation of physicians at the present time4 ,after all is said no one with any pretence to knowledge of the past would claim for a moment that we were doing better work in anything than men have done at many times in the history of culture4 ,our idea of progress is just one of these vague bits of self-sufficiency that each generation has had in its own time and that has made it feel #eb that somehow what it is accomplishing means much in the world's history4 ,it is rather amusing to compare the estimate that any generation has of itself with the appreciation of it by succeeding generations4 ,especially is this true for generations separated by #ajj years or more4 ,generations are only made up of men and women1 and what man or woman is there who has not thought many times during life that though his or her work might not be estimated very highly by those close to it1 this was due but to a sad lack of proper appreciation1 since it represented certain qualities that well deserved admiration8 ,we are all gifted with this precious self-conceit1 which is not so bad a thing1 after all1 since it makes us work better than if we had a proper but much less exalted appreciation of our real worth4 ,it is much easier to encourage people to do things than to scold or criticise them into doing them4 ,we shall not quarrel with our generation1 then1 for being self-conceited1--it is made up of human beings1--but we shall try and not let a due appreciation of our accomplishment be smothered entirely1 by this self-conceit4 ,after all1 did not our favorite ,english poet of the late nineteenth century declare us to be the heirs of all the ages in the foremost files of time1 and how could it be otherwise than that we should be far ahead of the past1 not only because the evolution of man made him more capable of handling difficult problems1 but also because we #ec had the advantage of the accumulated wisdom such as it was of the past1 of the observations and the conclusions of our forefathers and1 of course1 we were far ahead of them4 ,this idea1 however1 so widely diffused that it might almost be spoken of as universal1 has received many jolts in recent times1 since we have come to try to develop the taste and the intellect of our people and not merely our material comforts and our satisfaction with ourselves4 ,it has been pointed out1 over and over again1 in recent years that1 of course1 there is no such thing as progress in literature1 that in art we are far behind many generations of the past1 that in architecture there is not a new idea in the world since the sixteenth century1 that in all these modes of human expression we are mere imitators and not originators4 ,our drama is literally and literarily a farce1 and no drama that any one expects to live has been written for more than a century4 ,our buildings are replicas of old-time structures1 no matter what their purpose1 whether it be ecclesiastical1 or educational1 or municipal1 or beneficiary4 ,of course from the scientific standpoint this is1 after all1 what we might expect4 ,in all the years of history of which we have any record there has been no change in the nature of man and no modification of his being that would lead us to expect from him anything different from what had been accomplished by man in the past4 ,there is no change in man's structure1 in the size of his #ed body in any way1 in his anatomy or his physiology1 in his customs1 or ways of life1 or in his health4 ,the healthy still have about the same expectation of life1 to use the life insurance term1 and though we have increased the general average duration of life this has been at the expense of other precious qualities of the race4 ,the healthy live longer1 but the unhealthy also live longer4 ,the weaklings in mind and body whom nature used to eliminate early are now a burden that must be cared for4 ,in general it may be said1 and ,virchow1 the great ,german pathologist1 who was one of the world's great living anthropologists of his time--and that but a few years ago--used to insist1 that man's skeleton and1 above all1 his skull as we can study them in the mummy of the olden time1 were exactly the same as those that the race has now4 ,man cannot by thinking add a cubit to his stature1 nor an inch to the circumference of his skull4 ,the seventh generation of an academic family each member of which has been at the university in his time1 is not any more likely to have special faculties for the intellectual life1 indeed it is sometimes hinted that he has less of a chance than if his parents had been peasants for as long as the history of the family can be traced4 ,of course this has no proper bearing on evolution from the biological standpoint1 for the length of time that we have in human history may be conceded to be entirely inadequate to produce any noticeable changes on man's body or mind1 #ee granting that such were in progress4 ,at the most we have #g1jjj years of history and the evolutionists would tell us that this is as nothing in the unnumbered aeons of evolution4 ,in the popular estimation1 however1 evolution can almost be seen at work just as if one could see blades of grass growing by watching them closely enough4 ,this impression of man's progress supposed to be supported by the theory of evolution is entirely unfounded4 ,just as his body is the same and his brain the same size1 and the relative proportion of brain weight to body weight or at least to skull capacity the same now as they were #f1jjj years ago2 and this is true for both sexes1 so that because women have smaller bodies by one-eighth they also have smaller skulls1 and this1 too1 occurs among the mummies in ,egypt quite as in our own time2 so in what he is able to do with body and mind man is unchanged4 ,something of dexterity1 of facility1 of self-confidence and assurance of results is gained from time to time in history1 but lost as often1 because a few generations fail to be interested in what interested their immediate predecessors immensely4 ,it is not surprising1 then1 that history should show us at all times men doing work about like that which they did at any other time--provided they were deeply interested enough4 ,the wisdom of the oldest book in the world1 a father's advice to his son1 is as practical in most ways as ,gorgon ,graham's letters to his boy--and ever so much #ef more ethical and true to life4 ,the decorations of the old ,egyptian tombs1 the architecture of their temples1 their ways and habits of life so far as we know them1 all proclaim them men and women just like ourselves1 certainly not separated from us by any gulf or even streamlet of evolution4 ,what are more interesting than any supposed progress in mankind1 are the curious ups and downs of interest in particular subjects which follow one another with almost definite regularity in history as we know it4 ,men become occupied with some phase of the expression of life1 literature1 architecture1 government1 sometimes in two or three of these at the same time1 and then there comes a wonderful period of development4 ,just when this epoch reaches an acme of power of expression there come a self-consciousness and a refinement1 welcomed at first as new progress1 but that seem to hamper originality4 ,then follows a period of distinct decadence1 but with a development of criticism of what was done in the past1 with the formulation of certain principles of criticism4 ,just when by this conscious reflection it might be expected that man would surely advance rapidly1 further decay takes place and there is a negative phase of power of expression1 out of which man is lifted by a new generation usually neglectful of the immediate past1 sometimes indeed deprecating it bitterly1 though this new phase may have been awakened by a further past1 which gets back to nature and to expression for itself4 #eg ,the most interesting feature of history is how men have done things1 wonderful things that subsequent generations are sure to admire and continue to admire whenever they have sense and training enough1 yet forget about them4 ,this is true not only for artistic productions but also for practical applications in science1 for inventions1 useful discoveries and the like4 ,in surgery1 for instance1 though we have a continuous history of medicine1 all of our instruments have been re-invented at least three or four times4 ,after the reinvention we have been surprised to discover that previous generations had used these instruments long before us4 ,even the ,suez ,canal was undoubtedly open at least once before our time4 ,personally ,i feel sure that ,america was discovered at least twice before ,columbus' time and that during several centuries there was considerable intercourse between ,europe and ,america4 ,it is extremely important for us then to realize these cycles in human progress and not to deceive ourselves with the idea that because we are doing something that immediately preceding generations knew nothing of1 therefore we are doing something that never was done in the world before4 ,this is particularly important for us now1 for in my estimation the eighteenth was one of the lowest of centuries in human accomplishment1 and therefore we may easily deceive ourselves as to our place in human history in this century4 #eh ,reflections of this kind are1 it seems to me1 particularly important for educators1 especially in the midst of our tendency to accept evolution unthinkingly in this generation4 ,man's skull has not changed1 his body has not been modified1 his soft tissues are the same as they used to be4 ,his brain is no different4 ,why1 then1 should he not have done things in the olden time just about as he does them now8 ,we do not think that acquired characters are inherited4 ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes talks of ,emerson as the seventh generation of an academic family1 but there are none of us who think that this made it any easier for ,emerson to acquire an education1 or gave him a better development of mind4 ,those of us who have experience in education know that the descendant of a family of peasants for centuries or of farmers for many generations1 easily outstrips some of the scions of academic families in intellect4 ,it is the man that counts and not his descent4 ,just this is true of generations as well as of individuals4 ,whenever men have set themselves to doing things they have accomplished about as good results at any time in history as at any other4 ,we apparently do not benefit by the accumulation of the experience of our predecessors4 ,at least we can find no trace of that in history4 ,for a certain number of enterprising generations there is manifest upward progress4 ,then something always happens to disturb the succession of ideas1 sometimes it is nothing more than #ei an over-refinement that leads to bad taste1 and decadence takes the place of progress4 ,the accomplishment of any particular generation1 then1 depends not on its place in any real or fancied scheme of evolution1 but on its own ideals and its determined efforts to achieve them4 ,there are people who insist that this doctrine is pessimistic and discouraging and that1 if we do not keep before men the consoling feeling that they are advancing beyond their forebears1 there is not the same incentive to work as there would be under other circumstances4 ,on the contrary1 as it seems to me1 this other idea that everything depends on ourselves and not on our predecessors1 constitutes the highest form of incentive4 ,we at the present time are far below many preceding generations in art1 literature1 architecture1 arts and crafts and many developments of taste4 ,here is no evolution1 but the story of how each generation sets itself to work4 ,why1 then1 should we think that in education1 one of the highest of the arts1 the moulding of the human mind into beautiful shapes instead of the moulding of more plastic material1 we should be far ahead of the past and1 therefore1 in a position to find no precious lessons in it8 ,the history of education not alone of the last three centuries of education1 but of at least #f1jjj years of education1 is worth while knowing and it magnificently exemplifies how old is the new in education4 #fj #fa ,,the ,,first ,,modern ,,university #fb ,what is it that hath been8 ,the same thing that shall be4 ,what is it that hath been done8 ,the same that shall be done4 --,ecclesiastes i3#aj4 ,to one small people 4 4 4 it was given to create the principle of ,progress4 ,that people was the ,greek4 ,except the blind forces of nature1 nothing moves in this world which is not ,greek in its origin4 --,maine4 #fc ,,the ,,first ,,modern ,,university ,footnote #f ,footnote #f3 ,the material for this address was gathered for lectures on the ,history of ,education at ,st4 ,mary's ,seminary1 ,scranton1 ,pa41 and ,st4 ,joseph's ,college1 ,chestnut ,hill1 ,philadelphia4 ,it was largely added to for the introductory lecture in a course to the teachers of the parochial schools of ,philadelphia1 ,march1 #aiaj4 ,very nearly in its present form it was delivered before the ,brooklyn ,institute of ,arts and ,sciences as the second lecture in the course on ,how ,old ,the ,new ,is1 ,april1 #aiaj4 ,we are very prone to think that our universities represent new developments in the history of humanity4 ,we are aware that there were great educational institutions in the world at many times before the present1 and that some of them profoundly affected the intellectual life of their time2 we are likely to think1 however1 that these institutions were very different from our modern universities4 ,they were not so well organized1 they lacked endowments1 their departments were not co-ordinated1 they did not have the libraries and1 of course1 not the laboratory facilities that our modern universities have1 and then1 above all1 they did not devote themselves to that one department of knowledge1 physical science1 in which absolute truth can be reached1 and in which each advance in knowledge as made can be chronicled and set down as a sure basis for future work and workers in the same line for all time4 #fd ,the older institutions of learning were given up to speculation1 to idealism1 to metaphysics1 and1 of course1 therefore1 their work1 as many educated people are now prone to look at it1 was too shadowy to last1 too cloudy to serve as a foundation for any enduring scientific knowledge4 ,i do not think that ,i exaggerate when ,i make this as the statement of the thought of a good many people of our time who are at least supposed to be educated and who consider that they are reasonably familiar with the educational institutions of the past4 ,it has seemed to me1 then1 that it would be interesting and opportune to trace the origin1 the development and the accomplishments of the first institution of learning that is very similar to our own2 and to retrace some of the achievements of its professors1 the circumstances in which they were done and the conditions surrounding an ancient school which ,i think our study will make clear as well deserving of the title of the first modern university4 ,this was not the collection of schools at ,athens1 though there is no doubt at all that great intellectual and educational work was accomplished there1 but not in our modern university sense4 ,the schools were independent1 and while the rivalry engendered by this undoubtedly did good so long as genius ruled in the schools1 it brought about a degeneration into sophistry1 from here comes the word1 and argumentativeness1 once the great master had been #fe displaced by disciples who were sure that they knew their master's mind1 and probably thought1 as disciples always do1 that they were going beyond their master1 but who really occupied themselves with curious and trifling tergiversations of mind within the narrow circle of ideas laid down by the master1--as has nearly always been the case4 ,the first modern university was that of ,alexandria4 ,it was quite as much under ,greek influence as the schools of ,athens4 ,there have been commentators on the story of ,cleopatra1 who have suggested that her ,african cast of countenance did not prove a deterrent to her success as a conqueror of hearts1 and who argue from this to the fact that it is not physical charm but personality that counts in woman's power over men1 quite forgetting1 if they ever knew1 that ,cleopatra was a ,greek of the ,greeks1 a daughter of the line of the ,ptolemys1 probably a direct descendant though with the bar sinister of ,philip of ,macedon1 born of a house so watchful over its ,greek blood and so resentful of any possible admixture of anything less noble with itself1 that for generations it had been the custom for brother to marry sister1 in order that the race of the ,ptolemys might be perpetuated in absolute purity4 ,alexandria1 while a cosmopolitan city in the inhabitants who dwelt in it and in the wide diffusion of commercial interests that centred there as a mart for ,east and ,west1 was absolutely ruled by ,greeks and represents for many centuries after #ff the decline of ,athens had come1 the brightest focus of ,greek intellectual life1 ,greek culture and art1 ,greek letters and education and every phase of that ,greek influence in aesthetics which has always meant so much in the world's history4 ,the interesting fact about ,alexandria in the history of education1 is that it was the home of a modern university in every sense of that term1 having particularly the features that many people are prone to think of as representing modern evolution in education4 ,the buildings of the university were erected practically by a legacy left by the great ,conqueror himself1 ,alexander4 ,the central point of interest in the university was a great library1 the nucleus of which was the library of ,aristotle1 tutor of ,alexander1 which had been collected with the help of that great ,conqueror and was the finest collection of books in the world of that time4 ,the main subject of interest in the university was physical science and its sister subject mathematics1 which raises mere nature-study into the realm of science1 and this scientific physical education was conducted in connection with the great museum or collection of objects of interest to scientists that had also been made partly by ,aristotle himself and partly for his loved tutor by the gratitude of ,alexander during his conquering expeditions in the far ,east4 ,finally professors were attracted to ,alexandria by the offer of a better salary than had ever been paid at educational institutions before this1 and #fg by the additional offer of a palace to live in1 supplied by the ruler of the country4 ,it is no wonder1 then1 that in attendance also1 as well as in the prestige of its professors1 ,alexandria resembled a modern university4 ,it was its devotion to science1 however1 that especially characterized this first great institution of learning of which we have definite records4 ,this devotion to science went so far that even literature was studied from the scientific standpoint4 ,such details as we have of the instruction at ,alexandria and the books that have come down to us1 all show men interested in philology1 in comparative literature1 in grammar and comparative grammar1 rather than in the idealistic modes of knowledge4 ,we have commentaries on the great authors1 but no great original works of genius in literature from the professors of ,alexandria4 ,the translation of the ,septuagint version of the ,old ,testament is a typical example of the sort of work that was being done at ,alexandria4 ,they collected the documents of the nations and translated them for purposes of comparative study4 ,it was an education for information rather than for power4 ,the main idea of the time and place was to know as much as possible about literature1 rather than to know what it represented in terms of life1 and the real meaning of both literature and life was obscured in the study about and about them4 ,people studied books about books rather than the books #fh themselves4 ,there was much writing of books about books1 and it was nearly always comparatively trivial things in the great authors that attracted most attention from the many scholiasts1 critics1 editors1 commentators1 lecturers of the time4 ,personally ,i could well understand such an incident happening at ,alexandria as is said to have happened at a well-known ,english 7of course not ,american67 university not long ago4 ,the class was construing ,shakespeare and one of the students asked the professor what the meaning of a particular figure used by the great dramatist was4 ,the professor replied that they were there to construe ,shakespeare's language and not bother about his meaning--yet it was a class in literature4 ,literature in recent years as studied at the universities has come to be quite as scientific in its modes and methods as it was at the ,university of ,alexandria4 ,may ,i also add that it has become quite as sterile of results of any importance4 ,there is very little real study of literature1 practically no encouragement of the attempt to draw inspiration from the great authors1 but all devotion to the grammar1 to the philology1 to comparative literature as exemplified in the old writers4 ,books were the great essentials at ,alexandria4 ,this is not surprising seeing that the university was founded around a great library1 and that this library continued to be the greatest in the world in its time4 ,every student who came to ,alexandria bringing a book with him of which there was #fi no copy in the library1 was required by a decree of the authorities to leave a copy behind him4 ,in all the university towns of the times--and there were many founded in the rising eastern cities of ,alexander's empire1 as it gradually crumbled into smaller pieces providing new capitals with less power but with quite as much national feeling as the capital cities of larger states1 libraries became the fashion and a city's main claim to prestige in education and the intellectual life was the number of its books4 ,antioch1 ,tarsus1 ,cos1 ,cnidos and ,pergamos are examples of this state of affairs4 ,pergamos was so jealous of the prestige of the ,alexandrian ,library that it forbade the exportation of parchment1 an invention of ,pergamos which received its name from that city4 ,petty jealousies were quite as much the rule among educational institutions then as they have been at any time since4 ,to many people it will seem quite absurd to talk of ,alexandria as having done serious scientific work because the methods of science and scientific investigation are supposed to have been1 as they think1 discovered by ,lord ,bacon in the seventeenth century4 ,it is curious how many educated people1 or at least supposedly educated people1 have this as their basic notion of the history of science4 ,men wandered in the mazes of inductive reasoning utterly unable to bring observations together in such a way as to discover laws1 utterly incompetent to note phenomena and #gj bring them into relations to one another so as to show their scientific bearing1 until ,queen ,elizabeth's ,lord ,chancellor came to show the way out of the labyrinth and leave the precious cord through its corridors1 by which others may easily thread their way into the free air of scientific truth4 ,i know nothing that is more absurd than this4 ,it is a commonplace among educators1 however2 it is frequently referred to in educational addresses as if it were a universally accepted proposition1 and to dispute it would seem the rankest kind of scientific heresy to these narrow minds4 ,fortunately there are two writers1 ,macaulay and ,huxley1 to whom even these people are likely to listen1 who have expressed themselves with regard to this precious historic superstition that ,lord ,bacon invented the inductive method of reasoning with what my long-worded friend would call appropriate opprobrium4 ,macaulay says3 ,the inductive method has been practised ever since the beginning of the world by every human being4 ,it is constantly practised by the most ignorant clown1 by the most thoughtless schoolboy1 by the very child at the breast4 ,that method leads the clown to the conclusion that if he sows barley he shall not reap wheat4 ,by that method the schoolboy learns that a cloudy day is the best for catching trout4 ,the very infant1 we imagine1 is led by induction to expect milk from his mother or nurse1 and none from his father4 ,not only is it not true that #ga ,bacon invented the inductive method2 but it is not true that he was the first person who correctly analyzed that method and explained its uses4 ,aristotle had long before pointed out the absurdity of supposing that syllogistic reasoning could ever conduct men to the discovery of any new principle1 had shown that such discoveries must be made by induction1 and by induction alone1 and had given the history of the inductive process1 concisely indeed1 but with great perspicuity and precision4 ,and ,huxley quite as emphatically points out3 ,the method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of the necessary mode of working of the human mind4 ,it is simply the mode by which all phenomena are reasoned about--rendered precise and exact4 ,while the whole trend of education1 even that of literature1 was scientific at ,alexandria1 the principal feature of the teaching was1 as we have said1 concerned with the physical sciences and mathematics4 ,it is in mathematics that the greatest triumphs were secured4 ,euclid's ,geometry1 as we use it at the present time in our colleges and universities1 was put into form by ,euclid teaching at the ,university of ,alexandria in the early days of the institution4 ,euclid's setting forth of geometry was so perfect that it has remained for over #b1jjj years the model on which all text-books of geometry of all the later times have been written4 ,there seems no doubt that #gb writers on the history of mathematics are quite justified in proclaiming ,euclid's ,geometry as one of the greatest intellectual works that ever came from the hand of man4 ,the first ,ptolemy was fortunate in having secured this man as the founder of the mathematical department of his university4 ,his example1 the wonderful incentive of his work1 the absolute perfection of his conclusions1 must have proved marvellous emulative factors for the students who flocked to ,alexandria4 ,commonly mathematicians are said to be impractical geniuses so occupied with mathematical ideas that their influence in other ways counts for little in university life4 ,if we are to believe the stories that come to us with regard to ,euclid1 however1 and there is every reason to believe them1 for some of them come from men who are almost contemporaries1 or from men who had their information from contemporaries1 ,euclid's influence in the university must have been for all that is best in education4 ,proclus tells the story of ,king ,ptolemy once having asked ,euclid1 if there was any shorter way to obtain a knowledge of geometry than through the rather difficult avenue of ,euclid's own text-book1 and the great mathematician replied that there was no royal road to geometry4 ,stobaeus relates the story of a student who1 having learned the first theorem1 asked but what shall ,i make by learning these things8 ,the question is so modern that ,euclid's #gc answer deserves to be in the memory of all those who are interested in education4 ,euclid called his slave and said1 ,give him twopence1 since he must make something out of everything that he does1 even the improvement of his mind4 ,probably even more significant than the tradition that ,euclid did his work at this first modern university1 and that besides being a mathematician he was a man of very practical ideas in education1 is the fact that he was appreciated by the men of his time and that his work was looked up to with highest reverence by his contemporaries and immediate successors as representing great achievement4 ,it is not ever thus4 ,far from resenting in any way the magnificent synthesis that he had made of many rather vague notions in mathematics before his time1 his contemporaries united in doing him honor4 ,they realized that his teaching created a proper scientific habit of mind4 ,pappus says of ,apollonius that he spent a long time as a pupil of ,euclid at ,alexandria and it was thus that he acquired a thorough scientific habit of mind4 ,after ,euclid's time the value of his discoveries as a means of training the mind was thoroughly appreciated4 ,the ,greek philosophers are said to have posted on the doors of their schools ,let no one enter here who does not know his ,euclid4 ,in the midst of the crumbling of old-fashioned methods of education in the introduction of the elective system1 in the modern time1 many of our best educators have insisted #gd that at least this portion of mathematics1 ,euclid's contribution to the science1 should be a required study1 and most educators feel1 even when there is question of law or medical study1 that one of the best preparations is to be found in a thorough knowledge of ,euclid4 ,almost as wonderful as the work of ,euclid was that of the second great mathematician of the ,alexandrian school1 ,archimedes1 who not only developed pure mathematics but applied mathematical principles to mechanics and proved besides to have wonderful mechanical ability and inventive genius4 ,it was ,archimedes of whom ,cicero spoke so feelingly in his ,tusculan ,disputations1 when about a century and a quarter after ,archimedes' death1 he succeeded in finding1 his tomb in the old cemetery at ,syracuse during his quaestorship there4 ,how curious it is to think that after so short a time as #abg years from the date of his death ,archimedes was absolutely forgotten by his fellow-,syracusans1 who resolutely denied that any trace of ,archimedes' tomb existed4 ,this stranger from ,rome knew much more of ,archimedes than his fellow-citizens a scant four generations after his time4 ,not how men advance1 but how they forget even great advance that has been made1 lose sight of it entirely at times and only too often have to rediscover it1 is the most interesting phase of history4 ,cicero says1 ,thus one of the noblest cities of ,greece and one which at one time had been very #ge celebrated for learning1 knew nothing of the monument of its greatest genius until it was rediscovered for them by a native of ,arpinum--,cicero's modest designation for himself4 ,we have known much more about ,archimedes' inventions than about his mathematical works4 ,the ,archimedian screw1 a spiral tube for pumping water1 invented by him1 is still used in ,egypt4 ,the old story with regard to his having succeeded in making burning mirrors by which he was enabled to set the ,roman vessels on fire during the siege of ,syracuse1 used to be doubted very seriously and1 indeed1 by many considered a quite incredible feat1 clearly an historical exaggeration1 until ,cuvier and others in the early part of the nineteenth century succeeded in making a mirror by which in an experiment in the ,jardin des ,plantes in ,paris wood was set on fire at a distance of #adj feet4 ,as the ,roman vessels were very small1 propelled only by oars or at least with very small sail capacity1 and as their means of offence was most crude and they had to approach surely within #ajj feet of the wall to be effective1 the old story therefore is probably entirely true4 ,the other phase of history according to which ,archimedes succeeded in constructing instruments by which the ,roman vessels were lifted bodily out of the water1 is probably also true1 and certainly comes with great credibility of the man of whom it is told that1 after having studied the lever1 he declared that if he only had #gf some place to rest his lever1 he could move the world4 ,the well-known story of his discovery in hydrostatics1 by which he was enabled to tell the ,king whether the royal goldsmiths had made his crown of solid gold or not1 is very well authenticated4 ,archimedes realized the application of the principle of specific gravity in the solution of such problems while he was taking a bath4 ,quite forgetful of his state of nudity he ran through the streets1 crying ,eureka6 ,eureka6 ,i have found it6 ,i have found it6 ,there are many other significant developments of hydrostatics and mechanics1 besides specific gravity and the lever1 the germs of which are at least attributed to ,archimedes4 ,he seems to have been one of the world's great eminent practical geniuses4 ,that he should have been a product of ,alexandria and should even have been a professor there would be a great surprise if we did not know ,alexandria as a great scientific university4 ,as it is1 it is quite easy to understand how naturally he finds his place in the history of that university and how proud any modern university would be to have on the rolls of its students and professors a man who not only developed pure science but who made a series of practical applications that are of great value to mankind4 ,such men our modern universities appropriately claim the right to vaunt proudly as the products of their training4 ,when we analyze something of the work in #gg pure mathematics that was accomplished by ,archimedes our estimation of him is greatly enhanced4 ,his work ,on the ,quadrature1 that is the finding of the area of a segment of the parabola1 is probably his most significant contribution to mathematical knowledge4 ,his proof of the principal theorem in this is obtained by the method of exhaustion1 which had been invented by ,eudoxus but was greatly developed by ,archimedes4 ,this method contains in itself the germ of that most powerful instrument of mathematical analysis in the modern time1 the calculus4 ,another very important work was ,the ,sphere and the ,cylinder4 ,this was more appreciated in his own time1 and as a consequence1 after his death the figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder was cut on his tomb in commemoration of his favorite theorem1 that the volume of the sphere is two-thirds that of the cylinder and its surface is four times that of the base of the cylinder4 ,it was by searching for this symbol1 famous in antiquity1 that ,cicero was enabled to find his tomb according to the story that ,i have already related4 ,within the last few years the reputation of ,archimedes in pure mathematics has been greatly enhanced by the discovery by ,professor ,heiberg of a lost work of the great ,alexandrian professor in ,constantinople4 ,archimedes himself stated in a dedication of the work to ,eratosthenes the method employed in this4 ,he says3 ,i have thought it well to analyze and lay down for you #gh in this same book a peculiar method by means of which it will be possible for you to derive instruction as to how certain mathematical questions may be investigated by means of mechanics4 ,and ,i am convinced that this is equally profitable in demonstrating a proposition itself1 for much that was made evident to me through the medium of mechanics was later proved by means of geometry1 because the treatment by the former method had not yet been established by way of a demonstration4 ,for of course it is easier to establish a proof1 if one has in this way previously obtained a conception of the questions1 than for him to seek it without such a preliminary notion4 4 4 4 ,indeed1 ,i assume that some one among the investigators of to-day or in the future1 will discover by the method here set forth still other propositions which have not yet occurred to me4 ,on this ,professor ,smith comments3 ,perhaps in all the history of mathematics no such prophetic truth was ever put into words4 ,it would almost seem as if ,archimedes must have seen as in a vision the methods of ,galileo1 ,cavalieri1 ,pascal1 ,newton1 and many other great makers of the mathematics of the ,renaissance and the present time4 ,many other distinguished professors of mathematics have1 since this declaration of ,archimedes came under their notice1 declared that he must have had almost a prophetic vision of certain developments of mathematics and especially applied #gi mathematics and mechanics and their relation to one another1 that were only to come in much later and indeed comparatively modern times4 ,undoubtedly ,archimedes' works proved the germ of magnificent development not only immediately after his own time but in the long-after time of the ,renaissance1 when their translation awakened minds to mathematical problems and their solutions that would not otherwise have come4 ,we know much less of the life of the third of the great trio of teachers and students of ,alexandria1 ,apollonius of ,perga4 ,perhaps it should be enough for us to know that his contemporaries spoke of him as the great geometer1 though they were familiar with ,euclid's book and with ,archimedes' mighty work4 ,apollonius was surely a student of ,alexandria for many years and he was probably also a professor of mathematics there4 ,he developed especially what we know now as conic sections4 ,his book on the subject contains practically all of the theorems to be found in our text-books of analytical geometry or conic sections of the present time4 ,it was developed with rigorous mathematical logic and ,euclidean conclusiveness4 ,these three men show us beyond all doubt how finely the mathematical side of the university developed4 ,after ,archimedes the greatest mechanical genius of the ,university of ,alexandria was ,heron4 ,to him we owe a series of inventions and discoveries in hydrostatics and the #hj construction of various mechanical toys that have been used in the laboratories since4 ,there is even a little engine run by steam--the aeolipile--invented by him1 which shows how close the old ,greeks were to the underlying principles of discoveries that were destined to come only after the development of industries created a demand for them in the after time4 ,heron's engine is a globe of copper mounted on pivots1 containing water1 which on being heated produces steam that finds its way out through tubes bent so as to open in opposite directions on each side of the globe4 ,the impact of the escaping steam on the air sets the globe revolving1 and the principle of the turbine engine at work is clear4 ,we have used steam for nearly #bjj years always with a reciprocating type of movement1 so that to apply energy in one direction the engine has had to move its parts backwards and forwards1 but here was a direct-motion turbine engine in the long ago4 ,our great steamboats1 the ,lusitania and the ,mauretania1 now cross the ocean by the use of this principle and not by the reciprocating engine1 and it is evident that it is along these lines the future developments of the application of steam are to take place4 ,another extremely interesting invention made by ,heron is the famous fountain called by his name1 and which still is used to illustrate principles in pneumatics in our classrooms and laboratories4 ,by means of condensed air water is made #ha to spring from a jet in a continuous stream and seems paradoxically to rise higher than its source4 ,probably his best work in the domain of physics is that on pneumatics in which are given not only a series of discussions1 but of experiments and demonstrations on the elasticity of air and of steam4 ,these experiments could only have been conducted in what we now call a physical laboratory4 ,indeed these inventions of his are still used in laboratories for demonstration purposes4 ,while we may think1 then1 that the foundation of laboratories was reserved to our day1 there is abundant evidence for their existence at the ,university of ,alexandria4 ,we shall return to this subject a little later1 when the evidence from other departments has been presented1 and then it will be clear1 ,i think1 that the laboratory methods were favorite modes of teaching at the ,university of ,alexandria and were in use in nearly all departments of science both for research and for demonstration purposes4 ,the work of the other great teacher at ,alexandria which was to influence mankind next to that of ,euclid1 was not destined to withstand the critical study of succeeding generations1 though it served for some #a1ejj years as the basis of their thinking in astronomy4 ,this was the work of ,ptolemy1 the great professor of astronomy at ,alexandria of the first century after ,christ4 ,it is easy for us now to see the absurdity of ,ptolemy's system4 ,it is even hard for us to #hb understand how men could have accepted it4 ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that it solved all the astronomical problems of fifteen centuries and that it even enabled men1 by its application1 to foretell events in the heavens1 and scientific prophecy is sometimes claimed to be the highest test of the truth of a system of scientific thought4 ,even so late as #afbj ,francis ,bacon refused to accept ,copernicanism1 already before the world for more than a century1 because it did not1 as it seemed to him1 solve all the difficulties1 while ,ptolemy's system did4 ,as great an astronomer as ,tycho ,brahe living in the century after ,copernicus still clung to ,ptolemy's teaching4 ,it must not be forgotten that when ,galileo restated ,copernicanism1 the reason for the rejection of his teaching by all the astronomers of ,europe almost without exception1 was that his reasons were not conclusive4 ,they preferred to hold on to the old which had been so satisfying than to accept the new which seemed dubious4 ,their wisdom in this will be best appreciated from the fact that none of ,galileo's reasons maintained themselves4 ,though his system has been rejected1 still ,ptolemy must be looked up to as one of the great teachers of mankind and his work the ,almagest as one of the great contributions to human knowledge4 ,the fact that he represented a climax of astronomical development at ,alexandria some four centuries after the foundation of #hc that university1 serves to show how much that first modern university occupied itself for all the centuries of its highest prestige1 with physical science as well as with mathematics4 ,astronomy1 physics1 especially hydrostatics and mechanics1 were all wonderfully developed4 ,generations of professors had given themselves to research and to the publication of important works quite as in the modern time1 and ,alexandria may well claim the right to be placed beside any university for what it accomplished in physical science1 and rank high if not highest in the list of great research institutions adding new knowledge to old1 leading men across the borderland of the unknown in science and furnishing that precious incentive to growing youth to occupy itself with the scientific problems of the world around it4 ,the most important part of the scientific work of the ,university of ,alexandria to my mind remains to be spoken of1 and that is the medical department4 ,it is a well-known law in the history of medicine that1 whenever medical schools are attached to universities in such a way that students who come to the medical department have been thoroughly trained by preliminary studies and have such standards of scholarship as obtain in genuine university work1 then great progress in medicine and in medical education is accomplished4 ,this was eminently the case at ,alexandria4 ,the departments of the arts1 of linguistics and of philosophy were gathered #hd around the great building known in ,greek as the ,mouseion1 a word that has come to us through the ,latin under the guise of ,museum4 ,this temple of the ,muses contained collections of various kinds and near it was situated the great library4 ,not far away was the ,serapeum1 or ,temple of ,serapis1 the ,goddess of ,life1 around which were centred the biological sciences1 and close by was the medical school4 ,as teachers for this medical school some of the greatest physicians of the time were secured by the first ,ptolemy and a great period in medical history began4 ,the practical wisdom guiding the ,ptolemys in the organization of this medical school will be best appreciated from the fact that they took the first step by inviting two distinguished physicians1 the products of the two greatest medical schools of the time1 to lay the foundations at ,alexandria4 ,they were probably the best investigators of their time and they had behind them fine traditions of research1 thorough observation and conservative reasoning and theorizing on scientific subjects4 ,erasistratos was a disciple of ,metrodoros1 the son-in-law of ,aristotle4 ,he had studied for a time under another great teacher1 ,chrysippos of ,cnidos4 ,we are likely to know much more of ,cos than of ,cnidos because of the reputation in the after time of ,hippocrates1 whose name is so closely connected with ,cos that the two are almost invariably associated1 but ,cnidos was one of the great university towns of the later ,greek #he civilization4 ,eudoxus the astronomer1 ,ctesias the writer on ,persian history1 and ,sostratos the builder of the great lighthouse1 one of the seven wonders of the world1 the ,pharos at ,alexandria1 were products of this university4 ,its medical school was famous when ,cos had somewhat declined1 and ,chrysippos was one of the leading physicians of the world and one of the acknowledged great teachers of medicine when ,erasistratos studied under him at ,cnidos1 and obtained that scientific training and incentive to original research which was to prove so valuable to ,alexandria4 ,his colleague1 ,herophilos1 was quite as distinguished as ,erasistratos and owed his training to the rival school of ,cos4 ,whether it was intentional or not to secure these two products of rival schools for the healthy spirit of competition that would come from it1 and because they wanted to have at ,alexandria the emulation that would naturally be aroused by such a condition1 is not known1 but there can be no doubt of the wisdom of the choice and of the foresight which dictated it4 ,herophilos had studied medicine under ,praxagoras1 one of the best-known successors of ,hippocrates4 ,while distinguished as a surgeon he had more influence on medicine than almost any man of his time1 except possibly ,erasistratos4 ,he was1 however1 a great anatomist and1 above all1 a zoologist who1 according to tradition1 had obtained his knowledge of animals from the most #hf careful zootomy of literally thousands of specimens4 ,his fair fame is blackened by the other tradition that he practised vivisection on human beings--criminals being turned over to him for that purpose by the ,ptolemys1 who were deeply interested in his researches4 ,the traditions in this matter1 however1 serve to confirm the idea of his zeal as an investigator and his ardent labors in medical science4 ,tertullian declares that he dissected at least #fjj living persons4 ,we know that he did much dissection of human cadavers and there is question whether ,tertullian's statement was not gross exaggeration due to confusion between dissection and vivisection4 ,both of these men did some magnificent work upon the brain4 ,this being the first period in the history of humanity when human beings could be dissected freely1 it is not surprising that they should take up brain anatomy with ardent devotion1 in the hope to solve some of the many human problems that seemed to centre in this complex organ4 ,before this anatomy had been learned mainly from animals1 and as human beings differ most widely from animals by their brain1 naturally1 as soon as the opportunity presented itself1 anatomists gave themselves to thorough work on this structure where so many discoveries were waiting to be made4 ,after the brain and nervous system the heart was studied1 and ,erasistratos' description of its valves1 of its general structure and even of its physiology1 show how much he #hg knew4 ,to know something of the work of these two anatomists is to see at once what is accomplished in a university medical school where medical science1 and not the mere practice of medicine alone1 is the object of teachers and students4 ,i have told the story of this in my address before the graduates of the ,st4 ,louis ,medical ,university ,medical ,school1 and here ,i shall simply refer you to that4 ,footnote #g ,footnote #g3 ,the details of what was accomplished in the ,medical ,department at ,alexandria were given to some extent at least in the lecture in ,brooklyn1 but are omitted here in order to avoid repetitions in the printed copy4 ,of course all these studies at the university could not be conducted without laboratory equipment4 ,of itself the dissecting room is a laboratory and until very recent years it was the only laboratory that most of the medical schools had4 ,the numerous experiments in vivisection1 if they really took place1 required special arrangements and could only be conducted in what we now call a laboratory of physiology4 ,this is not idle talk but represents the realities of the situation4 ,other laboratories there must have been4 ,it would be quite impossible to conceive of a man like ,archimedes carrying on his work1 especially of the application of mathematical principles to mechanics1 of the demonstration of mechanical principles themselves and of the invention of the many interesting machines which he made1 without what we call laboratory facilities4 ,the ,ptolemys were #hh interested in his work1 they supplied him with a place to do it1 many of his advanced students at least must have been interested in this work so that1 as ,i see it1 there was what we would now call a physical laboratory in connection with his teaching at the ,university of ,alexandria4 ,what we know about the development of zoology under ,erasistratos and ,herophilos would seem to indicate that there must have been such special facilities for the investigation of zoological problems as we would call a laboratory of physiology4 ,a magnificent collection of plants was made for the university and these were studied and classified1 and while we hear nothing of their dissection1 there were at least botanical rooms for methodical study1 if not botanical laboratories4 ,ptolemy's work represented the culmination of astronomical information which had been gathered for several centuries4 ,this could only be brought together in what we would now call an observatory and this represents another laboratory of physical science4 ,our laboratory work1 therefore1 must have been anticipated to a great extent4 ,we must not forget that our university laboratories are only a couple of generations old altogether and that they represent a very recent development of educational work4 ,it is extremely interesting1 therefore1 to find them anticipated in germ at least1 if not in actuality1 at the first modern university of which we have sufficiently complete records to enable us to #hi appreciate just the sort of work that was being done and the ways and modes of its education4 ,i think that even this comparatively meagre description of the first university of which we have knowledge makes it very clear that ,alexandria deserves the name of the ,first ,modern ,university4 ,it resembled our own in so many ways that ,i1 for one1 find it impossible to discover any essential difference between them4 ,at ,alexandria they anticipated every phase of modern university education4 ,their literature was studied from a scientific standpoint4 ,they devoted themselves to an overwhelming extent to the study of the physical sciences and mathematics1 their professors were inventors1 developers of practical applications of science1 experts to whom appeal was made when important scientific questions had to be settled1 and their teaching was done with demonstrations and a laboratory system very like our own4 ,nothing that ,i know illustrates better the tendency of human achievement not to represent advance but to occur in cycles than the story of this first modern university4 ,that is why ,i have tried to tell it to you as an exquisite illustration of ,how ,old the ,new ,is in ,education4 #ij #ia ,,mediaeval ,,scientific ,,universities #ib ,qui ad pauca respiciunt faciliter pronuntiant4 --,,an ,,old ,,philosopher4 ,those who know little readily pronounce judgment4 #ic ,,mediaeval ,,scientific ,,universities ,footnote #h ,footnote #h3 ,the material for this address was originally gathered for a lecture in a course on the ,history of ,education delivered to the ,sisters of ,charity of ,mount ,st4 ,vincent's1 some #ejj in number2 teachers in the ,catholic public schools of ,new ,york ,city1 and for corresponding lectures to the ,academy of the ,sacred ,heart1 ,kenwood4 ,the address was delivered substantially in its present form at the ,catholic ,club of ,cornell ,university1 under the title ,the ,relations of the ,church to ,science4 ,probably nothing is more surprising to any one who knows the history of science and of scientific education than the attitude of mind of the present generations1 educated as they are mainly along scientific lines1 toward the supposed lack of interest of preceding generations in science4 ,our scholars and professors seem to be almost universally of the opinion that the last few generations are the first who ever devoted themselves seriously to the study of science1 or who1 indeed1 were free enough from superstitions and persuasions and beliefs of many kinds to give themselves up freely to scientific investigation4 ,in the light of what we know or1 perhaps ,i should say1 what we are coming to know now with regard to the educational interests of the men of the various times1 this would be an amusing1 if it were not an amazing1 presumption on our part4 ,over and over again in the world's history men have been #id interested in science1 both in pure science and in applied science1 in the culture sciences and in the practical sciences4 ,apparently men forget that philosophy is science and ethics is science and metaphysics is scientific and logic is science and there is a science of language4 ,of course the protest that will be heard at once is that what we now mean by science is physical science4 ,even taking the word science in this narrower sense1 however1 how can people forget that our mathematics comes to us from the old ,greeks1 that old ,greek contributions to medicine and1 above all1 to the scientific side of it still remain valuable1 that physical science1 pure and applied1 developed wonderfully at the ,university of ,alexandria1 that there was a beginning of chemistry and the great foundations of astronomy laid in the long ago1 and that men evidently were quite as much interested in the problems of nature around them as they have been at any time3 ,archimedes insisting that if he only had some place to rest his lever he could move the world1 inventing the screw pump1 fashioning his great burning-mirrors1 and a little later ,heron inventing the first germ of the turbine engine1 while all the time their colleagues and contemporaries were developing the mathematics in connection with them1 are studying both pure and applied science4 ,it is simply failure to state in terms of the present what was accomplished in the past1 that has permitted people to retain #ie curious notions of the absence of science in antiquity4 ,probably most people would be quite ready to concede1 and especially after even a brief calling to their attention of some educational facts1 that the old ,greeks did enjoy a scientific educational development2 it would probably even be admitted that the traditions of science of various kinds from ,egypt1 from ,chaldea1 from ,babylonia point to previous eras of scientific development4 ,they would probably still insist1 however1 that there had been a long interval of utter neglect of science lasting nearly #b1jjj years and that our interest is properly a resurrection of science-study after a long burial4 ,they do not even hesitate to blame the educational authorities of the interval for their failure to occupy themselves with scientific ideas and are prone to find reasons of various kinds to account for this failure4 ,as the ,church was dominant in education during the ,middle ,ages this makes a ready scapegoat1 and so we have heard much of the repression of scientific study by the ecclesiastical authorities1 and the determined effort made to keep men from inquiring about the problems of nature around them1 because this would lead them to think for themselves and have doubts with regard to faith4 ,indeed this attitude of mind in the history of science is so usual that it is a commonplace1 and men who are supposed to be scholars talk off-handedly of direct ,church opposition to science4 #if ,there is no doubt at all that the ,church was the commanding influence in education during the ,middle ,ages4 ,whatever was studied was taken up because the ,church authorities were interested in it4 ,whatever was not studied was absent from the curriculum because of their lack of interest4 ,while study was magnificently encouraged there were many subjects1 though not near so many as is often thought1 that were repressed4 ,the ,church must certainly be held responsible in every way for the teaching of the ,middle ,ages1 both as regards its extent and its limitations4 ,the charters of the universities were granted by the ,popes4 ,the universities themselves usually were cathedral schools which had developed1 and to which had become attached various graduate departments4 ,the ecclesiastical authorities were in control of them4 ,the rector of the university was usually the archdeacon of the cathedral or the chancellor of the diocese4 ,the professors at the universities were practically all of them in clerical orders1 and the great body of the students were clerics1 in the sense that they had assumed at least minor orders and were supposed to be in preparation for a clerical life4 ,this was1 indeed1 the one sure way to secure exemption from the military duties of the time and to prevent interference of various kinds by the civil power with the leisure necessary for study4 ,no man had any essential rights in the ,middle ,ages except such as were conferred on him by some organization #ig to which he belonged1 and the clerical order was particularly powerful4 ,now the interesting phase of the education afforded by these universities under ecclesiastical control with clerical students and professors constituting the large majority of members1 with the influence of the religious orders paramount for centuries1 is that it was entirely scientific in character and largely occupied with the physical sciences1 though the culture sciences formed the basis of it4 ,huxley1 though he is surely the last man of recent times who would be suspected for a moment of exaggerating the scientific significance of mediaeval education1 recognized this fact very well and stated it very emphatically4 ,in his ,inaugural ,address on ,universities ,actual and ,ideal1 delivered as ,rector of ,aberdeen ,university after discussing the subject with evident careful preparation1 he said3 ,the scholars of the mediaeval universities seem to have studied grammar1 logic and rhetoric2 arithmetic and geometry2 astronomy1 theology and music4 ,thus1 their work1 however imperfect and faulty1 judged by modern lights1 it may have been1 brought them face to face with all the leading aspects of the many-sided mind of man4 ,for these studies did really contain1 at any rate in embryo1 sometimes it may be in caricature1 what we now call philosophy1 mathematical and physical science and art4 #ih ,and ,i doubt if the curriculum of any modern university shows so clear and generous a comprehension of what is meant by culture1 as this old ,trivium and ,quadrivium does4 7,italics mine47 ,of course ,huxley says1 sometimes it may be in caricature4 ,we must not forget1 however1 that first even ,huxley hesitates to say that it is caricature1 for he knows how easy it is to be mistaken in our estimation of the true significance of an old-time mode of thought1 and then1 too1 he knew comparatively how little we were sure of the real thoughts and conclusions of these men of the olden time because of defective sympathy and even defective knowledge of their work4 ,our knowledge in this matter has greatly increased since his time4 ,as a matter of fact1 the more we know about these old masters and the mediaeval universities the less are we likely to think of their work as lacking in seriousness in any sense4 ,the quarter of a century that has elapsed since ,huxley so cogently urged this at ,aberdeen has brought many facts unknown to us before and has shown us what good work1 even in the physical sciences1 was accomplished in these old-time universities4 ,for instance1 nothing is more common in the mouths of certain kinds of scholars than the expressions of wonder as to why men did not study nature more assiduously before our time4 ,here is a magnificent open book full of the most alluring lessons which any one may study for himself1 and that somehow it is presumed men neglected #ii down to our time4 ,we are the age of nature students1 and preceding times are looked at askance for having neglected the opportunities that lay so invitingly open to them in this subject4 ,it has always been a wonder to me how people dare to talk this way4 ,our old literatures are full of observations on nature4 ,in my book on ,the ,popes and ,science ,i take ,dante as a typical product of the universities of the thirteenth century1 and show without any difficulty as it seems to me1 that there is no poet of the modern time who can draw figures from nature which demand even a detailed knowledge of nature with so much confidence as ,dante4 ,he knows the most intimate details about the birds1 about many animals1 about the ways of flowers1 about children1 describes some experiments in science1 has a wide knowledge of astronomy and in general is familiar with nature quite as much if not more than any modern writer not ex professo a naturalist4 ,he describes the metamorphosis of insects1 how the ants communicate with one another1 knows the secrets of the bees and exhibits wide knowledge of the secrets of bird life4 ,the presumption that people did not study nature in the olden time is quite unjustified4 ,they did not write long books about trivial subjects of nature-study4 ,they did not conclude that because they were seeing something for the first time1 that that was the first time in the world's history it had ever been seen4 ,they were gentle1 #ajj kindly scholars who assumed that others had eyes and saw too1 and as fortunately there was no printing press there was not that hurried rushing into print1 with superficial observations and still more superficial conclusions1 which has characterized so much of our recent literature of nature-study and that has been so well dubbed nature faking4 ,of course we have had faking of the same kind in nearly everything else3 we have history faking in our supposed historical romances1 science faking in our pseudo-science1 science-history faking in our ready presumption that the men of the olden time could not have had our interests1 and1 above all--may ,i now say it8--in our cheap conclusion that there must have been some reason for their lack of interest in science1 and then the assumption without anything further1 that it must have been because of the ,church4 ,just as soon as there is question of there having been any serious scientific study during the ,middle ,ages1 in the sense of observations in physical science1 investigation of the physical phenomena of nature and the drawing of conclusions from them and the evolving of laws1 there are a large number of people who consider themselves very well informed1 who will at once object that this must be quite absurd1 since at this time ,lord ,chancellor ,bacon had not as yet laid down the great foundations of the physical sciences in his discussion of inductive reasoning4 ,i have already #aja ventured to suggest1 in the address on ,the ,first ,modern ,university1 how utterly ridiculous any such notion is4 ,i have quoted ,lord ,macaulay and ,huxley as ridiculing those who entertained such an idea4 ,here ,i may be permitted to recur to the subject by quotations from the same authorities4 ,i have often found that anything ,i myself said in this matter was at once considered as quite incredible1 since my feelings were entirely too favorable toward the ,middle ,ages and then my religious affiliations are somehow supposed to unfit me for scientific thinking4 ,fortunately ,macaulay and ,huxley have expressed themselves in this matter even more vigorously than ,i would be likely to1 and so ,i may simply quote them4 ,as ,lord ,macaulay wrote in his well-known essay3 ,the vulgar notion about ,bacon we take to be this1 that he invented a new method of arriving at truth1 which method is called induction1 and that he detected some fallacy in the syllogistic reasoning which had been in vogue before his time4 ,this notion is as well founded as that of the people who1 in the ,middle ,ages1 imagined that ,virgil was a great conjurer4 ,many who are far too well informed to talk such extravagant nonsense entertain what we think incorrect notions as to what ,bacon really effected in this matter4 ,still more apposite is what ,professor ,huxley has to say4 ,discoursing on the phenomena of #ajb organic nature1 after warning his auditors not to suppose that scientific investigation is some kind of modern black art1 he adds3 ,i say that you might easily gather this impression from the manner in which many persons speak of scientific inquiry1 or talk about inductive and deductive philosophy1 or the principles of the ',baconian philosophy4' ,to hear people talk about the great ,chancellor--and a very great man he certainly was--you would think that it was he who had invented science1 and that there was no such thing as sound reasoning before the time of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,there are many men who1 though knowing absolutely nothing of the subject with which they may be dealing1 wish nevertheless to damage the author of some view with which they think fit to disagree4 ,what they do is not to go and learn something about the subject2 4 4 4 but they abuse the originator of the view they question1 in a general manner1 and wind up by saying that1 ',after all1 you know1 the principles and method of this author are totally opposed to the canons of the ,baconian philosophy4' ,then everybody applauds1 as a matter of course1 and agrees that it must be so4 ,lord ,bacon himself so little understood true science that he condemned ,copernicanism because it failed to solve the problems of the universe1 and condemned ,dr4 ,gilbert1 the great founder in ,magnetism1 whose work was the best #ajc exemplification of inductive science of that time4 ,of course ,bacon did not invent science nor its methods4 ,he was only a publicist popularizing them4 ,they had existed in the minds of all logical thinkers from the beginning4 ,his great namesake1 ,friar ,bacon1 much better deserves to be thought a pioneer in modern physical science than the chancellor1--and he was a mediaeval university man4 ,we are prone to think of the old-time universities as classical or literary schools with certain limited post-graduate features1 more or less distantly smacking of science4 ,the reason for this is easy to understand4 ,it is because out of such classical and literary colleges our present universities1 with their devotion to science1 were developed or transformed during the last generation or two4 ,it is to be utterly ignorant of mediaeval education1 however1 to think that the classical and literary schools are types of university work in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the original universities of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries paid no attention to language at all except inasmuch as ,latin1 the universal language1 was studied in order that there might be a common ground of understanding4 ,latin was not studied at all1 however1 from its literary side2 to style as such the professors in the old mediaeval universities and the writers of the books of the time paid no attention4 ,indeed it was because of this neglect of style in literature and of the niceties of classical ,latin that the university men of recent centuries before our own1 #ajd so bitterly condemned the old1 mediaeval teachers and were so utterly unsympathetic with their teaching and methods4 ,we1 however1 have come once more into a time when style means little1 indeed1 entirely too little1 and when the matter is supposed to be everything1 and we should have more sympathy with our older forefathers in education who were in the same boat4 ,we have inherited traditions of misunderstanding in this matter1 but we should know the reasons for them and then they will disappear4 ,as a matter of fact1 exactly the same thing happened in our modern change of university interests during the latter half of the nineteenth century as happened in the latter half of the fifteenth century in ,italy1 and in the next century throughout ,europe4 ,with the fall of ,constantinople the ,greeks were sent packing by the ,turks and they carried with them into ,italy manuscripts of the old ,greek authors1 examples of old ,greek art and the classic spirit of devotion to literature as such4 ,a new educational movement termed the study of the humanities had been making some way in ,italy during the preceding half-century before the fall of ,constantinople1 but now interest in it came with a rush4 ,the clergymen1 the nobility1 even the women of the time became interested in the ,new ,learning1 as it was called4 ,private schools of various kinds were opened for the study of it1 and everybody considered that it was the one thing that people who #aje wanted to keep up to date1 smart people1 for they have always been with us1 should not fail to be familiar with4 ,the humanities became the fashion1 just as science became the fashion in the nineteenth century4 ,fashion has a wonderfully pervasive power and it runs in cycles in intellectual matters as well as in clothes4 ,the devotees of the ,new ,learning demanded a place for it in the universities4 ,university faculties perfectly confident1 as university faculties always are1 that what they had in the curriculum was quite good enough1 and conservative enough to think that what had been good enough for their forefathers was surely good enough also for this generation1 refused to admit the new studies4 ,for a considerable period1 therefore1 the humanities had to be pursued in institutions apart from the universities4 ,indeed it was not until the ,jesuits showed how valuable classical studies might be made for developmental purposes and true education that they were admitted into the universities4 ,note the similarity with certain events in our own time in all this4 ,two generations ago the universities refused to admit science4 ,they were training men in their undergraduate departments by means of classical literature4 ,they argued exactly as did the old mediaeval universities with regard to the new learning1 that they had no place for science4 ,science had to be learned1 then1 in separate institutions for a time4 ,the scientific #ajf educational movement made its way1 however1 until finally it was admitted into the university curricula4 ,now we are in the midst of an educational period when the classics are losing in favor so rapidly that it seems as though it would not be long before they would be entirely replaced by the sciences1 except1 in so far as those are concerned who are looking for education in literature and the classic languages for special purposes4 ,it will be interesting1 then1 to trace the story of the old mediaeval universities as far as the science in their curriculum was concerned1 because it represents much more closely than we might have imagined1 or than is ordinarily thought1 the preceding phase of education to the classical period which we have seen go out of fashion to so great an extent in the last two generations4 ,we shall readily find that at least as much time was devoted in the mediaeval universities to the physical sciences as in our own1 and that the culture sciences filled up the rest of the curriculum4 ,philosophy1 which occupied so prominent a place in older university life1 was not only a culture science1 but physical science as well1 as indeed the name natural philosophy1 which remained almost down to our day1 attests4 ,physical science was not the sole object of these mediaeval institutions of learning1 but they were thoroughly scientific4 ,the main object of the universities in the olden time was to secure such #ajg discussion of the problems of man's relation to the universe1 to his ,creator1 to his fellow-creatures and to the material world as would enable him to appreciate his rights and duties and to use his powers4 ,huxley declared that the trivium and quadrivium1 the seven liberal arts studied in the mediaeval universities1 probably demonstrate a clearer and more generous comprehension of what is meant by culture than the curriculum of any modern university4 ,language was learned through grammar1 the science of language4 ,reasoning was learned through logic1 the science of reasoning2 the art of expression through rhetoric1 a combination of art and science with applications to practical life4 ,mathematics was studied with a zeal and a success that only those who know the history of mediaeval mathematics can at all appreciate4 ,cantor1 the ,german historian of mathematics1 in hundreds of pages of a large volume1 has told the story of the development of mathematics during the centuries before the ,renaissance1 that is from the thirteenth to the fifteenth1 in a way that makes it very clear that the teaching at the universities in this subject was not dry and sterile1 but eminently productive1 successful in research1 and with constant additions to knowledge such as live universities ought to make4 ,then there was astronomy1 metaphysics1 theology1 music and law and medicine4 ,the science of law was developed and1 above all1 great #ajh collections of laws made for purposes of scientific study4 ,of astronomy every one was expected to know much1 of medicine we shall have considerable to say hereafter1 but in the meantime it is well to recall that these mediaeval centuries maintained a high standard of medical education and brought some wonderful developments in the sciences allied to medicine and above all in their applications to therapeutics4 ,surgery never reached so high a plane of achievement down to our own time1 as during the period when it was studied so faithfully and developed so marvellously at the mediaeval universities4 ,it was inasmuch as a knowledge of physics was needed for the development of metaphysics that the mediaeval schoolmen devoted themselves to the study of nature4 ,they turned with as much ardor and devotion as did ,herbert ,spencer in the nineteenth century1 to the accumulation of such information with regard to nature as would enable them to draw conclusions1 establish general principles and lay firm foundations for reasonings with regard to the creature and the ,creator4 ,it is1 above all1 this phase of mediaeval teaching work1 of the schoolmen's ardent interest that is misunderstood1 often ignored and only too frequently misrepresented in the modern time4 ,for instance1 in the discussion of the status of matter in the universe the scholastics and notably ,thomas ,aquinas had come to the conclusion that matter was absolutely indestructible4 ,he #aji even went so far as to say that man could not destroy it1 and ,god would not annihilate it4 ,nihil omnino in nihilum redigetur--nothing at all will ever be reduced to nothingness1 was his dictum as the conclusion of a course of lectures on this subject4 ,he saw the changes in matter all round him that were supposed to be destructive1 the burnings1 the vaporizations1 the solutions1 the putrefactions and all the rest1 but he knew that these only brought changes in matter and not destruction of the underlying substance4 ,for him1 as for all the scholastic philosophers1 matter was composed of two principles1 as they were called4 ,one of these was prime matter and the other form4 ,to prime matter1 one of these1 matter or substance owed all its negative qualities1 inertia and the like4 ,to form1 the dynamic element or principle1 it owed all its individuating qualities4 ,prime matter was the same in all things4 ,form was the energy or bundle of energies1 the dynamic principle1 as we have said1 which entering into prime matter1 made the different kinds of matter that we speak of4 ,it is extremely interesting to compare this old scholastic teaching with the modern ideas of the composition of matter and especially the notions which have come to us from researches in physical chemistry in recent years4 ,our scientists no longer believe that we have some eighty different elements1 essentially different kinds of matter1 that cannot by any chance or process be changed one #aaj into another4 ,we have seen one form of elementary matter changing into another1 helium emanations becoming radium1 have heard of ,professor ,ramsay's transmutation of various elements1 and have about come to the conclusion that in the radio-active substances we have a wonderful transmuting power4 ,a prominent ,american professor of chemistry declared not long since that he would like to treat a large quantity of lead ore in order to extract from it all the silver which so constantly occurs in connection with it in the natural state1 and then having put the lead ore aside for a score of years1 would like to examine it again1 confident that he would find traces of silver in it once more1 which had developed as a consequence of the radio-activity present in the substance and which is constantly changing lead into silver in small quantities4 ,newton's declaration1 when he saw crystals of gold in connection with copper1 that gold had been developed from the copper1 seemed very foolish a century ago1 but no one would consider it so at the present moment4 ,we are prone to think that these old mediaeval philosophers accepting to some extent at least the philosopher's stone with its supposed capacity for changing baser metals into precious1 and with their acceptance of the transmutation of substances1 cannot have had any real scientific bent of mind4 ,we are coming to the realization1 however1 that in many ways by pure reasoning1 in #aaa conjunction with such observation as they had at hand1 they anticipated our most recent conclusions in very marvellous ways4 ,we know now that radium1 or at least radio-active substances1 represent the philosopher's stone of the olden time4 ,we are not surprised at the transmutation of metals and of substances1 on the contrary1 we are looking for it4 ,i remember once stating the old theory of matter and form to a distinguished professor in chemistry in this country1 and he was struck by the similarity of it to what are the present accepted ideas of the composition of matter4 ,he asked why this teaching was not more generally known4 ,i had to tell him that in every ,catholic school of philosophy1 it was taught as a basic doctrine1 and that far from being concealed it was the very touchstone of ,catholic philosophic teaching1 and had often been the subject of deprecation and contemptuous remarks on the part of those who thought that it represented somewhat foolish old-fashioned teaching handed down to us from the backwardness and abysm of time4 ,we have demonstrated the indestructibility of matter in modern times by experimental methods4 ,the mediaeval schoolmen reached similar conclusions1 however1 by strict reasoning from the premises of observation that they had in the olden times4 ,we may be apt to think that they knew very little about nature and the details of physical science1 but that will be only because we do not #aab know their great books4 ,albertus ,magnus is a typical example of a renowned teacher of the thirteenth century who was1 however1 at the same time a highly respected member of his order1 holding important official positions in it and thoroughly honored and respected by his ecclesiastical superiors so that he was made a bishop1 yet writing volumes of observation with regard to nearly every phase of physical science4 ,a list of his books reads like a section of a catalogue of a library of physical science4 ,i have told the story of his career in the second series of ,catholic ,churchmen in ,science1 but the names of his volumes are sufficient to show what sort of work he was doing4 ,he has volumes on chemistry1 botany1 on physics1 on cosmography1 on animal locomotion1 on respiration1 on generation and corruption1 on age and death and life1 on phases of psychology1 the soul1 sense and sensation1 memory1 sleep1 the intellect and many another subject4 ,those who think that there was no attention paid to science in the ,middle ,ages must know nothing at all of ,albertus ,magnus' work4 ,above all1 those who talk thus are entirely ignorant of all that ,roger ,bacon did4 ,roger ,bacon himself was a student of the ,university of ,paris4 ,he was a professor there4 ,he corresponded with the scientists of ,europe quite as frequently or at least as significantly as professors of the modern time do with each other4 ,students submitted their discoveries to him4 ,we #aac have ,peregrinus' letter to him with regard to magnetism and electricity and know of others4 ,we have his own books1 in which he treats not only the scientific problems1 but inventions and applied science of all kinds4 ,at the present time his interest in aeronautics has a special appeal to us4 ,he was sure that men would sometime make a successful airship4 ,he even thought that he could make one himself1 but his experiments proved unsuccessful4 ,his theory of it was very interesting4 ,in his work ,de ,secretis ,artis et ,naturae ,operibus he writes that a machine could be constructed in which a man sitting in the centre might move wings by means of a crank and thus1 quite after the fashion of birds1 fly through the air4 ,it was he who wrote that the time would come when carriages would move along the roads without men or horses to pull them4 ,at the moment he was experimenting with gunpowder4 ,he realized1 therefore1 that sometime men would harness explosives and use them for motor purposes4 ,that is1 of course1 just what we are doing with gasolene4 ,he suggested that boats would run over the water without oars and without sails4 ,he was anticipating our motor boat4 ,he taught that light moves with a definite rate of velocity1 though that fact was not demonstrated for several centuries after his time4 ,he worked out most of the theory of lenses as we have it at the present time4 ,he was sure that experiment and #aad observation constituted the only way by which knowledge of nature could be obtained4 ,in this he was but following his great teacher ,albertus ,magnus1 who insisted that in natural philosophy experiment alone brought sure knowledge2 ,experimentum solum certificat in talibus4 are his own words4 ,roger ,bacon's devotion to mathematics shows how thoroughly scientific was the trend of his mind4 ,without mathematics he was sure that one could not reach scientific knowledge1 or that what one did get was without certainty4 ,some of his expressions in this matter are strikingly modern4 ,it is no wonder that his writings and teachings were so great a surprise to his generation that the ,pope ordered him to write out his knowledge in books4 ,without this order we would not have had ,roger ,bacon's great works1 for his vow of poverty voluntarily taken forbade him to be possessed of sufficient money to enable him to purchase writing materials1 which were then very expensive4 ,indeed the mathematics of the mediaeval universities is the best proof of the seriousness of their devotion to science and1 may it also be said1 of their success4 ,cantor1 in his ,history of ,mathematics1 and he is the great authority in the matter1 devotes nearly #ajj pages of his second volume to the mathematicians of the thirteenth century alone1 two of whom1 ,leonard of ,pisa and ,jordanus ,nemorarius1 did so much in arithmetic1 in the theory of numbers1 and in geometry1 #aae as to work a revolution in mathematics4 ,they had great disciples like ,john of ,holywood 7probably a town near ,dublin71 ,johannes ,campanus and others4 ,no wonder that at the end of the century ,roger ,bacon said1 ,for without mathematics nothing worth knowing in philosophy can be obtained1 and again1 for he who knows not mathematics cannot know any other science2 what is more1 he cannot discover his own ignorance or find its proper remedy4 ,the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries saw even more important work done4 ,cantor has half a dozen men in the fifteenth century to whom he devotes more than twenty-five pages each4 ,how the place of this in mediaeval teaching can have escaped the notice of those who insist so much on the neglect of science during the ,middle ,ages1 is hard to understand4 ,this alone would convict them of ignorance of what they are talking about4 ,the educational genius of the great university century1 the thirteenth1 the man who influenced his contemporaries and succeeding generations more than any other1 was ,thomas ,aquinas1 to whom the ,church1 for his knowledge and goodness1 gave the title of saint4 ,if any further proof that these centuries were interested in science were needed1 or that the universities in which he was the leading light as scholar and professor in the thirteenth century1 and as the great master to whom all looked reverentially after1 were developing scientific studies1 it would be found in #aaf his works4 ,philosophy is developed scientifically in his ,contra ,gentes and theology1 scientifically in his great ,summa4 ,it is the very austerity of the scientific qualities of these books that have made them forbidding for many modern readers1 who1 therefore1 have failed to understand the scientific spirit of the time4 ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 however1 was1 as ,i suggested at the beginning of this1 deeply interested in every form of information with regard to what we now call physical science4 ,he evidently drank in with avidity all that had been observed with regard to living creatures and1 when we come to analyze his works with care and read his books with the devotion of his own students1 we find many anticipations of what is most modern in our science4 ,the indestructibility of matter1 matter and form1 that is the doctrine of the unity of the basis of matter1 the conservation of energy in the sense that the forms of matter change but do not disappear1 all these were commonplaces in his thought and teaching4 ,i have recently had occasion to point out how close he came to that thought in modern biology which is probably considered to be one of our most modern contributions to the theory of evolution4 ,it is expressed by the formula of ,herbert ,spencer1 ,ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny4 ,according to this the completed human being repeats in the course of its development the history of the race1 that is to say1 the varying phases of foetal development #aag in the human embryo1 from the single cell in which it originates up to the perfect being as it is born into the world1 retrace the history by which from the single-cell being man has gradually developed4 ,the whole theory of evolution is supposed by many people to be modern1 but of course it is not4 ,this particular phase of it1 however1 is thought surely to be modern4 ,it is sometimes spoken of as the fundamental law of biogeny4 ,in recent years serious doubts have been thrown on it1 but with that we have nothing to do here4 ,it is very curious to find1 however1 that ,st4 ,thomas1 in his teaching with regard to the origin and development of the human being1 says1 almost exactly1 what the most ardent supporters of this so-called fundamental biogenetic law proclaimed in recent years4 ,he says that the higher a form is in the scale of being and the farther it is removed from mere material form1 the more intermediate forms must be passed through before the finally perfect form is reached4 ,therefore1 in the generation of animal and man--these having the most perfect forms--there occur many intermediate forms in generations and consequently destruction1 because the generation of one being is the destruction of another4 ,st4 ,thomas does not hesitate to draw his conclusions from this doctrine without hesitation4 ,he proclaims that the human material is first animated by a vegetative soul or principle of life1 and then by an animal soul and only ultimately1 when the matter has #aah been properly prepared for it1 by a rational soul4 ,he said3 ,the vegetative soul1 therefore1 which is first in the embryo1 while it lives the life of a plant1 is destroyed1 and there succeeds a more perfect soul1 which is at once nutrient and sentient1 and for that time the embryo lives the life of an animal3 upon the destruction of this there succeeds the rational soul1 infused from without4 ,his discussion of the position of the ,church and of faith to science is extremely interesting1 because here once more he faces a modern problem4 ,aquinas was very sensitive with regard to the imposition upon ,christians of things which supposedly they had to believe on the score of faith1 though they were really not of faith at all4 ,some of his expressions in this matter are very strong and he was especially fond of quoting ,st4 ,augustine1 who was very emphatic on this point4 ,one of these typical passages deserves to find a place here because1 while the word philosophy is used1 it is evidently science in our modern sense of the word that is intended4 ,augustine talks of what the philosophers have said of the heavens or the stars and the motion of the sun and moon1 meaning of course the astronomers1 who were in the old days classed as natural philosophers4 ,this passage1 then1 which contains the opinions of the two greatest teachers of the ,church in the ,west may well serve as a guide for those who are interested in science1 and a warning for those who would #aai obtrude faith too far into scientific questions1 and thus limit investigation and hamper that freedom of intellect which is so important for the development of science4 ,st4 ,thomas said in his introduction to the reply to ,master ,john of ,vercelli3 ,i have endeavored to reply but with this protest at the outset1 that many of these articles do not pertain to the teachings of faith1 but rather to the dogmas of the philosophers4 ,but it works a great injury either to assert or deny as belonging to sacred doctrine such things as do not bear upon the doctrine of piety4 ,for ,augustine says1 ',when ,i hear certain ,christians ignorant of those things 7namely1 what philosophers have said of the heavens1 or the stars1 or the motion of the sun and moon7 or misunderstanding them1 ,i look with patience upon such men3 nor do ,i see any reason to hinder them1 when of thee1 ,lord ,creator of all things1 they do not believe unworthy things1 if perhaps they be ignorant of the structure1 and condition of corporal creatures4 ,but they are a hindrance if they think these things belong to the very doctrine of piety2 and more1 pertinaciously1 dare to affirm that of which they are ignorant4' ,but that they may be the cause of injury ,augustine shows4 ',it is very disgraceful1' he says1 'and pernicious and especially to be avoided1 that a ,christian speaking of these things as though according to ,christian teaching should so rave that any infidel may hear2 so that1 as it is said1 seeing him altogether in the wrong1 he may #abj scarcely contain his mirth4 ,and it is not so hurtful that one man should be seen to err1 as that our writers are believed by those who are without the ,church to have such opinions1 and to the ruin of those whose salvation is our care they are scorned and contemned as unlearned4' ,whence it seems safer to me that those things which philosophers have commonly held1 and are not repugnant to our faith1 should neither be asserted as dogmas of faith1 although at times they may be introduced under the names of the philosophers1 nor so denied as contrary to the faith1 as to give occasion to the wise of this world of contemning the teaching of the faith4 ,is it any wonder that ,professor ,saintsbury of the ,university of ,edinburgh1 whose training in the old ,scotch universities has given him a breadth of sympathy not common in our time1 and whose wide knowledge of the literature of that period as well as its philosophy and education1 and whose training in the discussion of the criticism of all time in his ,history of ,criticism has made his opinion of special value1 should have sympathetically turned to these old teachers and deprecated a little bitterly the modern attitude towards them8 ,he said3 ,yet there has always in generous souls who have some tincture of philosophy1 subsisted a curious kind of sympathy and yearning over the work of these generations of mainly disinterested scholars1 who1 whatever they were1 were #aba thorough1 and whatever they could not do1 could think4 ,and there have even1 in these latter days1 been some graceless ones who have asked whether the science of the nineteenth century1 after an equal interval1 will be of any more positive value--whether it will not have even less comparative interest than that which appertains to the scholasticism of the thirteenth4 ,i have always considered1 however1 that the easiest way to show the modern student of science how supremely scientific in his temper was ,st4 ,thomas1 is to quote for him the passage from that great teacher with regard to the ,resurrection4 ,in every way1 that is typically modern4 ,st4 ,thomas faces the question that after death men's bodies decay1 the material of them is taken up and used in many other living beings1 so that how can we dare to believe that we shall rise again on the last day with the same bodies that we now have8 ,st4 ,thomas discusses this knotty problem straightforwardly and solves it more satisfactorily1 even for all the knowledge that we have of it now1 than has ever been done4 ,what does not bar numerical unity in a man while he lives on uninterruptedly clearly can be no bar to the identity of the arisen man with the man that was4 ,in a man's body while he lives there are not only the same parts in respect of matter1 but also in respect of species4 ,in respect of matter there is a flux and reflux of parts4 ,still that fact does not bar the man's numerical unity #abb from the beginning to the end of his life4 ,the form and species of the several parts continue throughout life1 but the matter of the parts is dissolved by the natural heat1 and new matter accrues through nourishment4 ,yet the man is not numerically different by the difference of his component parts at different ages1 although it is true that the material composition of the man at one stage of his life is not his material composition at another4 ,addition is made from without to the stature of a boy without prejudice to his identity1 for the boy and the adult are numerically the same man4 ,the most important feature of the scientific teachings of the mediaeval universities has been left till the last because it is the clinching confirmation of a claim that these were essentially scientific universities4 ,it is to be found in the position of the medical schools and the state of medical teaching during the ,middle ,ages4 ,so curiously has the history of education been written1 and1 above all1 of medical education1 that to most people this would seem to be surely the department of education which would prove just the opposite4 ,we have heard so much about ,church opposition to anatomy and ,church opposition to surgery1 of its repression of the development of medical science and even medical art1 because the ,church wanted to make people believe in the value of masses1 relics and prayers--and pay for them--that most people are quite sure that there #abc was no medical education of any significance in the ,middle ,ages4 ,nothing shows more clearly how viciously the history of education has been written than the existence of such false impressions4 ,not only are they utterly unfounded1 but they are based on supreme ignorance of one of the greatest periods in the history of medicine that we have in all the world's history4 ,not only were the schools excellent and the teaching progressive1 but there was a fine development of medical science and1 above all1 of surgery4 ,surgery is supposed to be particularly the department of medicine that did not develop4 ,we have learned better in recent years1 and now we know that there was no greater period in the history of surgery than that from #abjj to #adjj when1 alas6 following so-called history1 we used to think there was no surgery4 ,the first question that any one who knows anything about the subject asks with regard to the progress in medicine of a particular time or country is1 what was the standard of its medical education8 ,what was the standard of admission to the medical schools1 how many years of medical studies were required8 ,to this question the ,middle ,ages have a wonderful answer that has not been realized until recent years4 ,we now have ,frederick ,,ii's famous law for the regulation of the practice of medicine and the maintaining of standards in medical schools4 ,this law was promulgated in the ,two ,sicilies1 the southern part of #abd ,italy and ,sicily proper4 ,according to it no one was allowed to practise medicine who had not studied for four years in a recognized university and then practised for one year with a physician before receiving his license to practise by himself4 ,if he wanted to practise surgery he had to spend an additional special year in the study of anatomy4 ,the university medical schools were graduate schools and did not admit a student unless he had completed the undergraduate course4 ,of course it may be thought that this was due entirely to the great ,emperor ,frederick1 who was far ahead of his time and who1 therefore1 anticipated the progress of medical teaching by many centuries4 ,we have1 however1 many other documents which illustrate the state of medical education at this time4 ,the charters of the medical schools were granted by the ,popes and were very explicit in what they required of the new faculties in order that standards might be maintained4 ,pope ,john ,,xxii1 for instance1 at the beginning of the fourteenth century1 issued charters for medical schools at ,perugia and ,cahors4 ,he required that there should be four years of medical study and three years of preliminary work4 ,he went into details to secure the maintenance of standards4 ,the original faculties of these schools would all have to be doctors in medicine from either ,paris or ,bologna1 and it must be their duty to establish in the new schools the standards of their #abe ,almae ,matres4 ,examinations were to be conducted under oath1 men were not to be granted degrees unless they deserved them1 the votes of professors rejecting candidates or graduating them were to be under oath-bound secrecy1 so as to have them absolutely free from personal influence1 and every precaution was taken to secure the highest possible standards4 ,it was as a consequence of their direct attachment to these old mediaeval medical schools that the medical schools founded here in ,america in the sixteenth century at once began with high standards4 ,three years of preliminary work was required and four years of medicine4 ,in the ,united ,states no preliminary requirements were demanded2 and for a full century only two years of medical study1 which really consisted of but two terms of four months each1 was the requirement4 ,the old mediaeval medical schools were originally attached to the universities1 and it is a well-known rule in the history of education that whenever the medical schools are independent then standards are sure to be low4 ,whenever the university controls the medical school and it is a real graduate department1 then standards of admission and of graduation are properly maintained4 ,it is surprising to think that the old mediaeval universities should be able to give us lessons in this matter and should put us to shame for our slip-shod nineteenth-century medical education in the ,united ,states1 but this is a simple fact4 ,contrast #abf the ,south ,american countries where the mediaeval traditions with which they were founded constrained them to give four1 five and even six years to medicine before granting a degree4 ,go a step further and see how devoted to science were the ,universities of ,lima 7,peru7 and ,mexico1 centuries before we did any serious scientific work in the ,united ,states1 and all because they were direct descendants of the old mediaeval universities4 ,the feeling of certain modern educators would be that it did not matter how much time these mediaeval universities gave to medicine since1 after all1 they had nothing of any value to teach in medicine4 ,even educated people have been led to believe that there was nothing in medicine and1 above all1 in the surgery of those times to be of any value4 ,probably no opinion is more foolishly ignorant or more ridiculously absurd than this1 though it is a commonplace among people who are sure they know something about history1 and1 above all1 among those who consider themselves authorities in the history of education1 and of the development of science4 ,in surgery a magnificent development was made at this time of which ,i shall have something to say later4 ,in medicine there was much less anticipation of our modern progress1 but even here there was much that demands our respect4 ,one of the university men1 ,simon of ,genoa1 worked out the dosage of opium and indicated its uses4 ,anodyne drugs were #abg employed much more generally and successfully than we are apt to think2 various methods of anaesthesia1 one of them by inhalation1 of which ,i shall say more when talking of surgery1 were invented and a large number of drugs and simples were experimented with4 ,down at ,montpellier ,bernard ,gordon suggested red light for smallpox4 ,this is not much of a record1 perhaps1 but we must not forget what ,professor ,richet1 the ,director of the ,physiological ,laboratory of the ,university of ,paris1 said not long since in an article on ,physicians and ,medicine in ,la ,revue de ,deux ,mondes4 ,it is startling but chasteningly true4 ,the therapeutics of any generation has always been quite absurd to the second succeeding generation4 ,indeed it is one of the almost disheartening things in the history of medicine to see how treatments come in1 are widely accepted and hailed as great advances in therapeutics and then gradually disappear4 ,they bled a great deal and they purged not a little1 in accordance with the teaching in the medical schools of the universities of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 but then they bled a great deal and purged a great deal more1 according to the teaching of the medical schools of the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,there have been many periods in the interval when purging and bleeding were1 and very properly1 not nearly so popular4 ,it was in preventive medicine particularly that #abh these progressive medical men of the early university days secured their triumphs4 ,they made separate hospitals for the lepers all over ,europe1 and by segregation succeeded in wiping out that disease1 though it was as widely spread as tuberculosis in our day and presented just as serious a problem4 ,indeed the most encouraging incentive for our present tuberculosis campaign is drawn by many authorities from the experience with leprosy1 which was eventually obliterated as an endemic popular disease1 by strict segregation methods4 ,these same generations created special hospitals for erysipelas and thus prevented the spread of this disease in the ordinary hospitals1 where it used to be so serious a factor for morbidity if not for mortality4 ,men forgot this later and the disease became a serious problem once more in all the hospitals of even a generation ago4 ,the hospital organization worked out by these university men is the finest jewel in the crown of their accomplishment as applied scientists4 ,pope ,innocent ,,iii1 himself a ,university of ,paris man1 founded the ,santo ,spirito ,hospital in ,rome1 summoning for that purpose the best authority on hospitals in ,europe1 ,guy of ,montpellier1 and then required the bishops of the world to erect similar hospitals in their dioceses4 ,this was done1 and it is ,virchow1 whose sympathies were anything but favorable to the ,popes1 who has been most loud in his praise of the wonderful hospital organization of these centuries4 ,every town in #abi ,europe of #e1jjj inhabitants or more had a hospital1 and there were hospitals in many of the smaller towns4 ,it would be easy to think that these hospitals were rudely built1 were badly ventilated1 were ill-arranged and1 above all1 were likely to be houses for the perpetuation of disease rather than for the regaining of health4 ,we are prone to think that we are the first generation to solve the problem of hospital construction4 ,we know what poorly-constructed1 badly-planned institutions were the hospitals of three generations ago4 ,what1 then1 must have been the hospital buildings of centuries ago8 ,this argument has no place in history2 the worst hospitals in the world and in history were erected at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,some of the best hospitals ever constructed date from the thirteenth1 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries4 ,this was a time when great architects were successfully solving the construction problems for cathedrals1 municipal buildings1 colleges and the like1 and they solved them quite as successfully for hospitals4 ,some of these hospitals were models in their way4 ,one of them1 built toward the end of the thirteenth century1 by the sister of ,st4 ,louis1 ,marguerite of ,bourgogne1 with its large windows high in the walls1 in single-story buildings1 with arrangements for the segregation of patients1 with the kitchens in a separate building1 with beautiful #acj frescoes on the walls so that patients' minds might be occupied and not left to their own often disturbing devices as with our bare wall1 with a stream of running water divided so as to pass on both sides of the hospital1 is a model of construction for all time4 ,it was in surgery rather than medicine1 however1 that these great mediaeval university medical schools left their impress upon the history of medicine4 ,during the thirteenth1 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries we have a series of wonderful teachers of surgery1 whose achievements we know not by tradition nor by fragments of their writings1 but by the text-books which they wrote and which constituted the teaching for generations and sometimes for centuries after their time4 ,gurlt1 the great ,german historian of surgery1 devotes some #cjj pages of the first volume of his ,history of ,surgery to the surgical accomplishments of the ,middle ,ages4 ,he even protests that space compels him to abbreviate the story of what these old-time masters of surgery did to lay the foundation of modern surgical practices4 ,it is a commonplace in the ,american writing of history that there was no surgery at this time4 ,president ,white says that1 for over a thousand years surgery was considered dishonorable until the ,german ,emperor ,wenceslas1 in #adjc1 ordered that it should be held in honor again4 ,the two centuries immediately preceding this date represent the #aca greatest period in the history of surgery down to our own time1 and because of its originality probably greater in real achievement than even our vaunted age4 ,it is sometimes the custom to say that this surgery was derived from the ,arabs4 ,this is supposed to rob the mediaeval universities of any prestige that may come to them for this marvellous progress4 ,gurlt1 however1 in his ,history of ,surgery1 in his sketch of ,roger 7,ruggiero71 who was the first of the great surgeons of the thirteenth century1 who taught at the ,italian universities1 says3 ,though ,arabian writings on surgery had been brought over to ,italy by ,constantine ,africanus #ajj years before ,roger's time1 these exercised no influence over ,italian surgery in the next century1 and there is not a trace of the influence of the ,arabs to be found in ,roger's work4 ,when ,gurlt says this it is because he has deliberately studied the question1 and we can be absolutely sure1 therefore1 that whatever we find in surgery at this time comes to us from these great mediaeval universities themselves1 and is not imported from abroad4 ,after ,roger1 who was at ,bologna for a time after having been in ,paris1 and who then became a ,papal physician1 there are a series of great names that deserve to be mentioned4 ,four names are connected together by association as master and pupil for what may be termed four generations of surgical progress4 ,from the birth #acb of the first to the death of the last represents about #ajj years4 ,that #ajj years is a gloriously fruitful century in the history of surgery4 ,the first of the group is ,william of ,salicet1 of whom ,professor ,clifford ,allbutt1 the ,regius ,professor of ,physic at the ,university of ,cambridge1 in his address on the ,historical ,relations of ,medicine and ,surgery to the ,end of the ,sixteenth ,century1 delivered by special invitation at the ,congress of ,arts and ,sciences at the ,world's ,fair in ,st4 ,louis in #aijd1 has the highest praise4 ,allbutt says3 ,like ,lanfranc and the other great surgeons of the ,italian tradition1 and unlike ,franco and ,pare1 ,william had the advantage of the liberal university education of ,italy2 but like ,pare and ,wurtz1 he had a large practical experience in hospitals and on the battlefield and fully recognized that surgery cannot be learned from books only4 ,allbutt praises him and rightly for his careful notes of cases and then tells us something of his accomplishments in surgery4 ,he says3 ,william discovered that dropsy may be due to a durities renum six centuries before ,bright2 he substituted the knife for the ,arabist abuse of the cautery2 he investigated the causes of the failure of healing by first intention 7,italics ours71 he described the danger of wounds of the neck2 he sutured divided nerves2 he forwarded the diagnosis of suppurative diseases of the hip2 and he referred chancre and phagedaena to their proper causes4 #acc ,his pupil ,lanfranc equalled his master in devotion to practical surgery and surpassed him in his development of the great science of medicine4 ,pagel1 the well-known ,german historian of medicine1 says that1 in his text-book ,lanfranc has excellent chapters on the affections of the eyes1 the ears and mouth1 the nose1 even the teeth1 and treats of hernia in a very practical common-sense way4 ,he warns against the radical operation and says1 in words that come home to us with strange familiarity at the present time1 that many surgeons decide on operations too easily1 not for the sake of the patient but for the sake of the money that is in them4 ,lanfranc's discussion of cystotomy1 ,pagel characterizes as prudent but rational1 for he considers that the operations should not be feared too much but not delayed too long4 ,in patients suffering from the inconvenience which comes from large quantities of fluid in the abdomen he advises paracentesis abdominis1 but warns against putting the patient in danger from such an operation without due consideration4 ,pagel says that ,lanfranc must be considered as one of the greatest surgeons of the ,middle ,ages and the real establisher of the prestige of the ,french school of surgery which maintained its prominence down to the nineteenth century4 ,lanfranc had been invited to ,paris to take the chair of surgery1 because the authorities of the university wanted to add prestige to the medical school1 which was not as well known as the school #acd of philosophy4 ,the fame of ,william of ,salicet had spread throughout academic ,europe1 and so ,lanfranc was offered the chair at the ,university of ,paris in order to carry his master's message there4 ,the next in the succession of great teachers at ,paris was ,mondeville1 who found less to do in an original way than his master ,lanfranc and his protomaster ,william1 but who accomplished much for surgery4 ,all that he did was thrown into the shade by what was accomplished for succeeding generations by the next in the series1 ,guy de ,chauliac1 who studied for a time in ,paris under ,mondeville1 though his early medical education was obtained at ,montpellier1 but had also had the advantage of spending a year in ,italy at the various medical schools which were famous at that time4 ,these two incidents1 ,lanfranc's invitation to ,paris to be a teacher there from ,italy more than a thousand miles away1 and ,guy de ,chauliac's studies in all the important universities of ,europe of the time before he took up his own work1 illustrate better than any words of ours can the ardent enthusiasm for study1 the thoroughgoing anticipation of our most modern methods in education4 ,mondeville1 like ,chauliac1 had made very nearly the same round of the universities4 ,it is a custom1 not a chance incident1 that we have to deal with here4 ,guy de ,chauliac has been given the name of the father of modern surgery4 ,any one who wants to see why should read the text-book on surgery that #ace ,chauliac wrote and which for two centuries after his time 7he died about the middle of the fourteenth century7 continued to be the most used text-book of surgery in the medical schools of ,europe4 ,chauliac1 for instance1 describes the treatment of conditions within all three of the important cavities of the body1 the skull1 the thorax and the abdomen4 ,pagel has three closely-printed pages in small type of titles alone of subjects in surgery which ,chauliac treated with distinction4 ,his description of instruments and methods of operation is especially full and suggestive4 ,he describes the passage of a catheter1 for instance1 with the accuracy and complete technique of a man who knew the difficulties of it in complicated cases from practical experience4 ,he even recognizes the dangers for the patient from the presence of anatomical anomalies of various kinds and describes certain of the more important of them4 ,he has very exact indications for trephining4 ,for empyema he advises opening of the chest and indicates where and how4 ,he says very frankly that in wounds of the abdomen the patient will die if the intestines have been perforated and left untreated1 and he describes a method of suturing wounds of the intestines in order to save the patient's life4 ,his treatment of bone surgery and of fractures and dislocations is especially interesting and shows how far these very practical men had reached conclusions resembling those of our time4 #acf ,it was in hernia particularly that ,chauliac's surgical genius manifested itself4 ,he operated for hernia and its radical cure1 placing the patient in an exaggerated ,trendelenberg position1 head down1 feet fastened to a slanting board4 ,for such work anatomy had to be known very well1 and ,chauliac had made special studies at ,bologna under ,bertruccio1 the successor of ,mondino4 ,chauliac once declared that the surgeon ignorant of anatomy carves the human body as a blind man would carve wood4 ,of ulcers of all kinds ,chauliac writes from a knowledge evidently derived from experience4 ,of ulcers due to cancer he has much to say4 ,he considers them hopeless unless they can be excised at a very early stage and the incision followed by caustics4 ,for carcinomatous ulcers there is not much that we can do beyond this1 even in our day4 ,it is no wonder that the great historians of medicine have been unanimous in praise of this wonderful scientific genius4 ,for my lecture on ,old-,time ,medical ,education1 before the ,johns ,hopkins ,historical ,club1 last year1 ,i quoted some of those opinions4 ,portal1 for instance1 says of him1 ,it may be averred that ,guy de ,chauliac said nearly everything that modern surgeons say and that his work is of infinite price1 but unfortunately too little pondered4 ,malgaigne declares ,chauliac's ,chirurgia ,magna1 ,a masterpiece of learned and luminous writing4 ,pagel says1 ,chauliac represents the summit of attainment in mediaeval #acg surgery1 and he laid the foundation of that primacy in surgery which the ,french maintained down to the nineteenth century4 ,professor ,clifford ,allbutt says of ,chauliac's treatise1 ,this great work ,i have studied carefully and not without prejudice2 yet ,i cannot wonder that ,fallopius compared the author with ,hippocrates or that ,john ,freind calls him the prince of surgeons4 ,the book is rich1 aphoristic1 orderly and precise4 ,in a word it has all the qualities that are usually said to be lacking in the work of mediaeval scientists1 and it is a standing reproach to those who ignorantly have made so little of the work of these wonderful men of the olden time1 who anticipated so many of the features of our modern medicine and surgery that we are prone to think of as representing climaxes in human progress1 indications of a wonderful human evolution4 ,two other names of great professors of surgery deserve to be mentioned because they make it very clear that this wonderful development of surgery was not confined to ,france and ,italy1 but made itself felt all over ,europe4 ,one of these is ,john ,ypermann1 a surgeon of the early fourteenth century1 of whom almost nothing was known until about twenty-five years ago1 when the ,belgian historian1 ,broeck1 brought to light his works and gathered some details of his life4 ,he was a pupil of ,lanfranc1 and at the end of the thirteenth century studied at ,paris on a scholarship voted by his native town of ,ypres1 #ach which provided maintenance and tuition fees for him at the great ,french university expressly in order that he might become expert in surgery4 ,we are likely to think of ,ypres as an unimportant town1 but it was one of the great industrial centres of ,europe and one of the most populous1 busy towns of ,flanders in the ,middle ,ages1 noted for its manufacture of linens and fine laces4 ,the famous ,cloth ,hall1 erected in the thirteenth century1 one of the most beautiful architectural monuments in ,europe1 and one of the finest buildings of its kind in the world1 was the result of the same spirit that sent ,ypermann to ,paris4 ,after his return ,ypermann settled down in his native town and obtained great renown not only at home1 so that in that part of the country an expert surgeon is still spoken of as an ,ypermann1 but he became famous throughout all the ,teutonic countries4 ,he is the author of two books in ,flemish4 ,one of these is on medicine4 ,pagel calls it an unimportant compilation4 ,the terms that occur in it1 however1 are enough to show us how much more than we are likely to think1 these old masters in medicine discussed problems that are still puzzling us4 ,he treats of dropsy1 rheumatism1 under which occur the terms coryza and catarrh1 icterus1 phthisis 7he calls the tuberculous tysiken71 apoplexy1 epilepsy1 frenzy1 lethargy1 fallen palate1 cough1 shortness of breath1 lung abscess1 hemorrhage1 blood-spitting1 liver abscess1 hardening of the spleen1 affections of the kidney1 #aci bloody urine1 diabetes1 incontinence of urine1 dysuria1 strangury1 gonorrhea and involuntary seminal emissions--all these terms are quoted directly from ,pagel4 ,his work in medicine1 however1 is as nothing compared to his writings on surgery4 ,a special feature of his book is the presence of seventy illustrations of instruments of the most various kinds1 together with a plate showing the anatomical features of the stitching of a wound in the head4 ,even ,pagel's brief account of its contents will be a source of never-ending surprise for those who think that surgery has developed entirely in our time4 ,even in this work on surgery1 however1 there are many things that we now treat under medicine4 ,as this gives us an opportunity to show how much more of medicine was known at this time than is usually thought1 ,i venture to quote some of ,pagel's brief resume of the contents of a single chapter4 ,this is a chapter devoted to intoxications1 which includes the effect of cantharides as well as alcohol1 and treats of the bites of snakes1 scorpions and of the fatal effects of wounds due to the bite of mad dogs4 ,the other great surgeon and surgical writer of the time1 for there must have been many distinguished surgeons and only a few writers1 if we can trust to common experience in that matter1 was ,john ,ardern1 an ,english surgeon4 ,he was educated in ,montpellier1 practised for a time in ,france1 then settled for some years in the #adj small town of ,newark in ,nottinghamshire1 and then for nearly thirty years in ,london4 ,his ,practice of ,surgery1 as yet existing only in manuscript1 is another one of these wonderful contributions to the applied sciences of anatomy and medicine at a time when such applications are often supposed to have been absent4 ,he was an expert operator and had a wide reputation for his success in the treatment of diseases of the rectum4 ,he was the inventor of a new clyster apparatus4 ,daremberg1 the medical historian1 who saw a copy of ,ardern's manuscript in ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,oxford1 says that it contained numerous illustrations of instruments and operations4 ,we fortunately possess an excellent manuscript copy in the ,surgeon ,general's ,library at ,washington1 and sometime it is hoped this will be edited and published4 ,the most interesting feature of the work of all of these men is their dependence on personal observation and not on authority4 ,guy de ,chauliac's position in this matter can be very well appreciated from his criticism of ,john of ,gaddesden's book in which he bewails the blind following of those who had gone before4 ,his bitterest reproach for many of his predecessors was that1 ,they followed one another like cranes1 whether for fear or love he would not say4 ,pagel praises ,ypermann for the well-marked striving which he has noted in him to free himself from the bondage of authority1 and because most of his therapeutic #ada descriptions rest upon his own experience4 ,william of ,salicet1 at the beginning of this great period of surgery1 had insisted that notes of cases were the most valuable sources of wisdom in medicine and surgery4 ,the last of them1 ,ardern1 gave statistics of his cases and was quite as proud as any modern surgeon of the large number that he had operated on4 ,he gives these carefully and accurately4 ,i have dwelt on the medical side of these universities mainly1 of course1 because this is more familiar to me as a historian of medicine than their work in other scientific departments1 but also to a great extent because the medical schools gathered unto themselves nearly all the scientific knowledge of the time4 ,botany1 mineralogy1 climatology1 meteorology were all studied for the sake of what could be learned from them for the benefit of medicine4 ,even astronomy which was then the old astrology1 was cultivated seriously1 because of the supposed effect of the stars on human constitutions4 ,for this we surely cannot blame these mediaeval students of science since four centuries later ,galileo and even ,kepler were still making horoscopes for their patrons and laying down laws from astronomy that were supposed to be applicable to medicine4 ,even ,copernicus studied astronomy and medicine side by side and this combination of studies was not at all infrequent4 ,the medical schools1 then1 are the real index of #adb the serious interest of the mediaeval universities in science4 ,our scientific departments in modern universities have developed other interests1 because of various applications that these have to life and its concerns4 ,always in scientific universities applied science is sure to encroach upon the domain of pure science1 and no one knows that better than we do1 for we have been bewailing the presence of machine shops and boiler factories on the university grounds4 ,the old universities did not teach applied mechanics or engineering1 but that does not mean that these subjects were not taught4 ,there were special technical schools conducted by the gilds by means of apprenticeship and the journeyman training1 which enabled them to teach those who cared to have it all the knowledge necessary for construction work of various kinds4 ,the wonderful architectural engineering exhibited in the cathedrals1 university buildings1 town halls and castles of this time1 and the magnificent bridges1 some of which are still in existence1 show us that the technical subjects were by no means neglected4 ,footnote #i ,our mediaeval forefathers in education had the wisdom not to let the technical subjects interfere with pure science too much1 as they inevitably do whenever the two are brought too closely together4 ,culture is always overshadowed by the practical1 but not to the ultimate benefit of the race4 ,footnote #i3 ,see ,address on ,ideal ,education of the ,masses4 ,the proof for us here in ,america1 close at #adc hand1 that these universities of the ,middle ,ages were thoroughly scientific in spirit and not only capable of1 but actually active and successful in scientific investigation1 is to be found in our earliest ,american universities4 ,we are prone to think1 because of the curiously defective way in which our histories of education have been written1 that the only things worth while talking about in the origins of education here in ,america are to be found in ,english ,america4 ,recent investigations have shown how utterly deceived we were by foolish self-conceit in this matter4 ,long before the ,english-,american universities were founded1 and still longer before they began to do any serious work in education1 there were important universities having literally thousands of students in attendance in the ,spanish-,american countries4 ,the ,university of ,mexico and the ,university of ,lima in ,peru were both founded about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,harvard came nearly a century later1 ,yale a full century and a half1 ,princeton more than two centuries4 ,the contrast between our ,english-,american institutions of learning1 however1 and their ,spanish-,american rivals in accomplishment and numbers in attendance is still more striking than the mere dates of foundation4 ,of course there were chairs of many sciences1 strange as that may seem to us with our ridiculous traditions with regard to the history of education4 ,these ,spanish-,american universities were #add the direct descendants of the old mediaeval universities4 ,they were in close relationship with ,salamanca1 ,valladolid and ,alcala4 ,they were the progeny of scientific universities and they were1 of course1 occupied mainly with science4 ,in spite of the fact that already the influence of the ,renaissance1 with its classical studies as the basis of education1 had begun to make itself felt1 these ,spanish-,american universities retained1 to a great extent1 the scientific curriculum4 ,nor must it be thought that they were shilly-shally institutions of learning1 doing nothing in reality1 but making a great pretence of studying many things4 ,to know the very opposite we turn to ,bourne1 himself at the time a professor at ,yale1 and writing one of the volumes of a series edited by ,professor ,albert ,bushnell ,hart1 who holds the chair of history at ,harvard1 to be told in very definite emphatic terms how successfully investigations in science and scientific education were carried on in ,mexico4 ,professor ,bourne says3 ,not all the institutions of learning founded in ,mexico in the sixteenth century can be enumerated here1 but it is not too much to say that in number1 range of studies and standard of attainments by the officers they surpassed anything existing in ,english ,america until the nineteenth century4 ,mexican scholars made distinguished achievements in some branches of science1 particularly medicine and surgery1 but pre-eminently linguistics1 history and anthropology4 #ade ,dictionaries and grammars of the native languages and histories of the ,mexican institutions are an imposing proof of their scholarly devotion and intellectual activity4 ,conspicuous are ,toribio de ,motolinia's ',historia de las ,indias de ,nueva ,espana1' ,duran's ',historia de las ,indias de ,nueva ,espana1' but most important of all ,sahagun's great work on ,mexican life and religion4 ,the scientific products of these universities in ,america are interesting because almost as a rule we know absolutely nothing about them in ,english ,america1 and1 therefore1 conclude there must have been none4 ,the first book written on a medical topic in ,america was the ,secretos de ,chirurgia1 written by ,dr4 ,pedrarias de ,benavides1 which was published at ,valladolid in ,spain in #aefg4 ,the first book on medicine actually published in this country was ,opera ,medicinalia1 by ,francisco ,bravo4 ,footnote #aj ,on ,columbus' second expedition1 however1 a ,dr4 ,chanca who had been physician-in-ordinary to the ,king and ,queen of ,spain1 was sent with the expedition as what we would now call a scientific attache4 ,on his return he wrote a volume of scientific observations that he had made in ,america4 ,some of these were doubtless written while he was over here1 though the book was published in ,spain4 ,dr4 ,ybarra of ,new ,york recently published a resume of this in the ,smithsonian ,publications and an article on it in the ,journal of the ,american ,medical ,association4 #adf ,it shows very well how wide were the scientific interests of the physicians of the time and how ardent their investigation of science1 for there is scarcely a phase of modern science that would be touched on by the corps of scientists now attached to such an expedition which does not receive some serious treatment in ,dr4 ,chanca's book4 ,thus early did the ,spanish-,americans take up scientific investigation seriously4 ,footnote #aj3 ,published in ,mexico1 #aegj4 ,professor ,bourne of ,yale1 in his chapter on the ,transmission of the ,european ,culture1 in the third volume of the ,american ,nation ,series1 ,footnote #aa says 7p4 #ag73 ,early in the eighteenth century the ,lima ,university ,lima1 ,peru counted nearly #b1jjj students and numbered about one hundred and eighty doctors in its faculty in theology1 civil and canon law1 medicine and the arts4 ,ulloa reports that 'the university makes a stately appearance from without1 and its inside is decorated with suitable ornaments4' ,there were chairs of all the sciences1 and 'some of the professors have1 notwithstanding the vast distance1 gained the applause of the literati of ,europe4' ,the coming of the ,jesuits contributed much to the real educational work in ,america4 ,they established colleges1 one of which1 the little ,jesuit ,college at ,juli1 on ,lake ,titicaca1 became a seat of genuine learning4 ,footnote #aa3 ,harpers1 ,new ,york1 #aijh4 ,a distinguished professor of medicine in this country to whose attention this state of medical #adg education in the ,spanish-,american countries1 so different from what is thought1 was called1 said3 ,what a surprise it is to find that while we have been accustomed to think that the primum mobile the active initiative in education in this country came from the ,anglo-,saxons1 we now find that they were long anticipated in every department of education by the ,spaniards1 though we have been rather accustomed to despise them for their backwardness4 ,with regard to the establishment of the first ,american medical school1 it is no longer a surprise to find that it was established in ,mexico1 just as soon as we realize that the ,mexican ,university was closely in touch with the traditions of the mediaeval universities generally and these all established medical schools as university departments4 ,the standards of these mediaeval medical schools were transported to ,america and maintained4 ,our medical schools in the ,united ,states got away from the universities1 became mere preparatory institutions1 granted degrees for just as little study as possible1 two terms of four months each in most cases1 sometimes given in the same calendar year and requiring no preliminary training4 ,we are reforming this now for a generation1 but just inasmuch as we are1 far from advancing1 we are going straight back to the mediaeval universities and their standards and methods4 ,with all this evidence before us it seems perfectly clear that these old mediaeval universities #adh must be considered to have been scientific universities in our fullest modern sense of the term4 ,they devoted all their time to the study of phenomena around them and the attempt to find the principles underlying them4 ,they went at it somewhat differently in many departments of science than those which are now employed1 but in all their practical work at least1 they anticipated our methods as well as many of our results4 ,the great professors wrote text-books and students who were ardent in the pursuit of knowledge copied out those text-books by hand4 ,they had no way of easily multiplying them almost indefinitely1 as we have at the present time4 ,probably nothing shows so well the enthusiastic zeal of these times in the pursuit of scientific knowledge as the fact that so many copies of these textbooks still remain for us4 ,much has been lost by war and fire1 and still more by wanton destruction by people who could not understand1 for there were many intervening generations that sold these old manuscripts by the ton for the use of grocers to wrap up butter and any other commodity4 ,if we only had the wealth of manuscript that was originally created it would be easy to fill in the gaps in our knowledge1 and show the wonderful scientific scholarship of these mediaeval universities4 ,as it is1 there cannot be the slightest doubt that these were great scientific universities4 ,how1 then1 has the opposite tradition of science only #adi coming to cultivation in our time obtained a foothold2 above all1 how has it happened that men have insisted that there was no science in these old days because the ,church was opposed to science and would not permit its study or allow of scientific investigation8 ,if we were to believe many writers who have been taken very seriously1 anatomy was conducted only under the pain of death1 chemistry made one liable to all sorts of penalties and other forms of science were absolutely banned4 ,there is no reason at all for any such declarations from what we know of the history of science4 ,the place where such groundless assertions are found is in the so-called history of religion4 ,the odium theologicum was very bitter1 and ignorant men said things without knowing1 and then their statements were copied by others who knew even less4 ,probably there is no more serious blot on the history of education and1 above all1 the history of science1 than the fact that men supposed to be scholarly have been so ready to accept absolutely ignorant statements with regard to the state of science during the ,middle ,ages4 ,it would be amusing1 if it were not so amazing1 to recall the utter lack of scholarship that characterized the men who wrote such things1 but above all the generations that accepted such history as solemn truth and even conferred academic dignities and degrees on such men4 ,take a book like ,dr4 ,draper's ,conflict of ,science and ,religion4 ,it #aej is founded on the uttermost lack of knowledge of the subjects of which he speaks4 ,it is true that he has consulted historical writers4 ,they were all secondary authorities4 ,he had never gone back to look up a single original document of any kind4 ,he was a physician2 supposedly at least1 then1 he should know the history of medicine4 ,he knows nothing at all about the great medical schools of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries2 of the great period of surgery that occurred at this time he has no inkling4 ,had he cared really to know anything about the period he could have seen some of the text-books written by these men4 ,instead we have an exhibition1 in his book1 of the most consummate assumption of knowledge associated with sublime ignorance and bitter condemnation for old institutions1 educational and ecclesiastical1 in matters of which he knows nothing1 though if he did know1 his opinion would surely be just the opposite to that he has expressed4 ,to a great degree this is true of ,president ,white's ,a ,history of the ,warfare of ,science with ,theology4 ,secondary authorities constantly figure in it1 and they are quoted from1 as a rule1 with the definite idea of proving a particular thesis--that theology is opposed to science4 ,of course it is very different to that of ,draper1 there is much more of true scholarship in it1 but it is sad to think that the prestige of a president of a great university who had been a professor of #aea history should have been lent to statements so egregiously misleading as those which are constantly to be found in his work4 ,even sadder it is to think that this has been accepted by many people as a scholarly work and as representing the last word on the subject4 ,the ,cambridge ,modern ,history in its preface said1 that history has been a long conspiracy against the truth and that we must now go back once more to the original documents4 ,it has become impossible1 the editors declare1 for the historical writers of the present age to trust without reserve even to the most respected secondary authorities4 ,the honest student continually finds himself deserted1 retarded1 misled1 by the classics of historical literature1 and has to hew his own way through multitudinous transactions1 periodicals and official publications in order to reach the truth4 ,in no department of history is this expression more true than in that of education1 and especially of science and the relation of educational institutions to scientific development4 ,no man should now dare venture to say anything about the state of science at any time in the world's history who has not seen some of the books written at that time4 ,above all1 no one should venture to make little of the past on the strength of what religiously prejudiced writers have said about it4 ,this story of the mediaeval universities is most illuminating from that standpoint4 ,they were #aeb scientific universities closely resembling our own4 ,it has become the custom to talk of them as if they were institutions of learning that accomplished nothing1 and wasted their time over trifles4 ,we often hear of how much time was wasted in dialectics in the ,middle-,age universities1 but surely it was not more than is wasted over technics in our modern university4 ,hundreds of books were written about the quips and quiddities of logic1 but thousands of volumes are full of technics and most of our scientific journals are crowded with it4 ,let us1 then1 if for no other reason than our fraternity with them1 begin to do justice to these old universities4 ,their scholars were ardent and zealous1 their professors were enthusiastic and laborious4 ,the tomes they issued were larger and their writings more voluminous than those of our own professors4 ,they are hard reading1 but no one must dare to criticise them unless he has read them1 and1 above all1 no one must make little of them without knowing something about them at first hand4 ,this is scholarship2 the secondary information that has been popular is sciolism4 ,let us get back to scholarship4 ,that is what we need just now in ,america4 #aec ,,ideal ,,popular ,,education #aed ,according to my view he who would be good at anything must practise that thing from his youth upwards1 both in sport and earnest1 in the particular way which the work requires3 for example1 he who is to be a good builder1 should play at building children's houses2 and he who is to be a good husbandman at tilling the ground2 those who have the care of their education should provide them when young with mimic tools4 ,and they should learn beforehand the knowledge which they will afterwards require for their art4 ,for example1 the future carpenter should learn to measure or apply the line in play2 and the future warrior should learn riding or some other exercise for amusement1 and the teacher should endeavor to direct the children's inclinations and pleasures by the help of amusements to their final aim in life4 ,the sum of education is right training in the nursery4 ,the soul of the child in his play should be trained to that sort of excellence in which1 when he grows up to manhood1 he will have to be perfected4 ,do you agree with me thus far8--,plato1 ,laws 7,jowett71 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #agc4 ,scribner1 #aijh4 ,there will be gymnasia and schools in the midst of the city1 and outside the city circuses 7playgrounds7 and open spaces for riding places and archery4 ,in all of these there should be instructors of the young4--,plato1 ,laws 7,jowett71 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #hb4 ,scribner1 #aijb4 #aee ,,ideal ,,popular ,,education ,footnote #ab ,footnote #ab3 ,the material for this lecture was collected for a course on the ,history of ,education delivered to the ,sisters of ,charity of ,mount ,st4 ,vincent's1 at ,st ,stephen's ,hall1 ,new ,york ,city1 in ,january and ,february1 #aiji4 ,the material was subsequently developed for a similar set of lectures for the religious teachers in the parochial schools of ,philadelphia in the spring of #aiaj4 ,we have come to realize in recent years that in many ways our education of the masses is a failure4 ,teaching people to read and write and occupying them with books till they are fifteen years of age1 when all that they will use their power to read for is to devote themselves to three or four editions of the daily paper and the huge1 overgrown ,sunday papers on their only day of leisure1 with perhaps occasional recourse to a cheap magazine or a cheaper novel1 in order to kill time1 as they frankly declare1 is scarcely worth while4 ,indeed we have even come to realize that such education gives opportunity rather for the development of discontent than of happiness4 ,the learning to write which enables a man to be a clerk1 or a bookkeeper1 the occupations that are1 as a rule1 the least lucrative1 that are so full that there is no question of organizing them1 that confine men for long hours in dark rooms very often and furnish the least possible opportunity to rise1 is of itself not ideal4 ,with some rather #aef disconnected information this is practically all that our ordinary education teaches people1 and yet we spend eight years and large sums of money on it4 ,we are just beginning to realize that other forms of education and not these superficial introductions to supposed scholarship1 which can mean so little1 constitute realities in education4 ,we have come to realize that ,germany1 where it is said that more than sixty per cent4 of the population has its opportunity for some technical training1 so that men are taught the rudiments of a trade or a handicraft or some occupation other than that which shall make them mere routine servants of some one else1 does far better than this4 ,by contrast it is remarked that less than one per cent4 of our children have the opportunity for such training4 ,we are very prone to think1 however1 that the technical school is a modern idea4 ,we assume that it owes its origin to the development of mankind in the process of evolution to a point where the recognition of the value of handiwork and craftsmanship has at length arisen4 ,nothing could well be less true than this4 ,it is true that the eighteenth century saw practically no education of this kind and it was only at the end of the nineteenth century that any modern nation even began to wake up to the necessity for it4 ,in the older times1 however1 and1 above all1 in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 there was a magnificent training afforded the masses of the people in all sorts of arts and #aeg crafts and trades and occupations1 such as can now be obtained only in technical schools4 ,they did not call these teaching institutions technical schools1 but they had all the benefits that we would now derive from such schools4 ,this training the people of these times owed to the gilds4 ,these were1 of course1 of many forms1 the ,arts ,gilds1 the ,crafts ,gilds1 the ,merchants ,gilds1 and then the various ,trades ,gilds4 ,boys were apprenticed to men following such an occupation as the youth had expressed a liking for1 or that he seemed to be adapted to1 or that his parents chose for him1 and then began his training4 ,it was conducted for five or six years usually in the house of the master or tradesman to whom he was apprenticed4 ,the master provided him with board and clothes1 at least1 after the first year1 and he gradually trained him in the trade or craft or industry1 whatever it might be4 ,after his apprenticeship was over the young man of eighteen or so became a journeyman workman and usually wandered from his native town to other places1 sometimes going even over seas in order to learn the foreign secrets of his craft or art or trade1 and after three years of this1 when ready to settle down1 presented evidence as to his accomplishments1 and if this was accepted he became a master in his gild4 ,if he were a craftsman or an artisan he made a lock or a bolt or some more artistic piece of work in the metals base or precious1 and if this sample was #aeh considered worthy of them by his fellow-gildsmen he was admitted as a master in the gild4 ,this was the highest rank of workman1 and the men who held it were supposed to be able to do anything that had been done by fellow-workmen up to that time4 ,the piece that he presented was then called a masterpiece1 and it is from this that our good old ,english word masterpiece was derived4 ,this might seem a very inadequate training1 and perhaps appeal to many as not deserving of the name of technical training or schooling4 ,the only way to decide as to that1 however1 is to appreciate the products turned out by these workmen4 ,it was these graduates of the apprentice-journeyman system of technical training who produced the great series of marvellous art objects which adorn the ,english cathedrals1 the ,english municipal buildings1 the castles and the palaces and the monasteries of the thirteenth century4 ,it was the graduates of these schools1 or at least of this method of schooling1 who produced the wonderful stained glass1 the beautiful bells1 the finished ironwork1 the surpassing woodwork1 the sculpture1 the decoration1--in a word1 all the artistic details of the architecture of the wonderful ,gothic periods of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1--which we have learned to value so highly in recent years4 ,if we wanted to produce such work in our large cities now1 we would have to import the workmen4 ,these wonderful #aei products were made in cities so small that we would be apt to think them scarcely more than insignificant towns in our time4 ,no town in ,england during the thirteenth century1 with the possible exception of ,london1 had more than #be1jjj1 and most of the cathedral towns were under #ae1jjj in population and many of them had less than #aj1jjj4 ,the extent to which this teaching went and how much it partook of the nature of real technical training can be very well appreciated from recent studies of these early times4 ,there has probably never been more beautiful handicraftsmanship nor better products of what we now call the arts and crafts than during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 when this system of educating the masses became thoroughly organized4 ,any one who knows the details of the decoration of the great ,gothic cathedrals or of the monasteries and castles and municipal buildings of these centuries will be well acquainted with these marvels of accomplishment1 scattered everywhere throughout ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,italy and ,spain in this period4 ,something of the story of it all ,i tried to tell1 as far as the cathedrals are concerned1 in my book1 ,the ,thirteenth the ,greatest of ,centuries4 ,those who care to see another side of it will find it in ,mr4 ,a4 ,ralph ,adams ,cram's ,the ,ruined ,abbeys of ,great ,britain4 ,footnote #ac ,mr4 ,cram1 himself a #afj successful modern architect1 does not hesitate to declare some of this work as among the most beautiful that ever was made1 even including the ancient ,greek and ,roman productions4 ,in his searches into the ruins of these old abbeys he has found mutilated fragments so consummate in their faultless art that they deserve a place with the masterpieces of sculpture of every age4 ,footnote #ac3 ,new ,york1 ,the ,churchman ,company1 #aije4 ,it was not alone1 however1 in the arts of sculpture and decoration1 that is in those finer accomplishments that would occupy only a few of the workmen1 but in every detail of adornment that these artistic craftsmen excelled4 ,the locks and bolts1 the latches and hinges1 the grilles1 even the very fences and gates made in wrought iron1 are beautiful in every line and in the artistic efficiency of their designs4 ,the carved woodwork is in many places a marvel4 ,when a gate has to be moved1 or a hinge is no longer used1 or a lock or even a key from these early times goes out of commission1 we would consider it almost a sacrilege to throw it away2 it is transported to the museum--not alone because of its value as an antique but1 as a rule1 also because of its charm as a work of art4 ,when a bench-end is no longer needed it1 too1 finds its way into the museum4 ,as ,rev4 ,augustus ,jessopp has shown very clearly in his studies of the old ,english parishes1 these marvels of iron and woodwork were made1 in most cases1 respectively by the village blacksmith and the village carpenter4 ,in the archives of #afa some of the parishes of the ,middle ,ages the accounts are found showing that these men were paid for them4 ,when the village blacksmith and the village carpenter becomes the artist artisan capable of producing such good work1 then indeed is there an ideal education at work and a technical training that may be boasted of4 ,the most important feature of this education remains to be spoken of1 however4 ,it consisted of the fine development and occupation of the mind that came from this system4 ,men found happiness in their work4 ,in a population of less than #c1jjj1jjj of people many thousands of workmen1 engaged in building these magnificent monuments of that old time1 reaped a blessed pleasure in the doing of beautiful things4 ,they1 too1 had a share in the great monument of which their town was worthily proud and the opportunity to make something worth while for it4 ,instead of idly envying others they devoted themselves to making whatever their contribution might be as beautiful as possible4 ,it might be only the hinges for the doors or the latch for the gates1 it might be only the stonework for the bases of pillars1 though it might be the beautiful decoration of their capitals2 but everything was being done beautifully and an artist hand was required everywhere4 ,men must have tried over and over again to make such fine things4 ,they were not done at haphazard nor at one trial4 ,there must have been many a spoiled piece #afb rejected1 not so much by the foreman as by the critical1 educated taste of the workmen themselves who were able to make such beautiful things4 ,men who could make such artistic products must have labored much and begun over and over again4 ,this must have made the finest occupation of mind that a great mass of people has ever had in all the world's history4 ,american millionaires model the gates of their parks and the grille doors of their palaces under the wise direction of modern architects who fortunately know enough to follow the designs created by these village workmen of the olden time4 ,modern palatial residences are glad to have samples of the wood-carving of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries as models for their decoration1 and as attractive pieces around which present-day work may be done4 ,we have to import our workmen1 even our large cities cannot supply all that we want of them1 and yet little towns of a few thousand inhabitants had them in sufficient abundance in the olden time to enable them to make every portion of their great monumental buildings1 cathedrals1 abbeys1 universities1 castles and town halls beautiful in every way4 ,this represents the triumph of a technical training afforded by the gilds of workmen of the olden time4 ,we have to insist on this because our present generation has been so sure that ours was the first generation that gave any serious attention to the education of the masses1 that it is important to show by #afc contrast how much of a mistake we have made and how well an older generation accomplished its purpose4 ,the chapter of the ,lost ,arts might well be told with regard to this old time4 ,they had secrets in glass-making which were the tradition of the teaching of particular gilds that we have been unable to find again in the modern time4 ,there is a jewel-like lustre to their colors that is sometimes simply marvellous in its depth and purity4 ,at ,lincoln the contrast between old and new glass can be seen very well4 ,the old windows of the thirteenth century time were stoned out by the ,parliamentarians when they captured the town1 because forsooth they could have no such idolatry as that in their presence4 ,the old sexton1 who as man and boy for over sixty years had lived his life under the beautiful tints of the old glass1 now saw it scattered upon the floor in fragments4 ,he could not part with it thus and so he gathered it up into bags1 broken to pieces though it was1 and hid it away in the crypt4 ,in the nineteenth century when they were restoring the cathedral they found these fragments of the old windows4 ,they pieced them together and they proved to be so beautiful that1 though they could not fit them as they were in the olden time1 at least they succeeded in making a beautiful patchwork of colored glass4 ,over on the other side of ,lincoln ,cathedral they then placed some new windows of the #afd modern time4 ,these were made in ,france1 ,i believe4 ,they were made about the middle of the nineteenth century1 when stained-glass making was almost at its lowest ebb4 ,they were considered to be very beautiful1 however1 and something like ,l#bj1jjj sterling was paid for them4 ,the contrast between the two sets of windows is very striking4 ,the old windows are so beautiful1 the new ones are so commonplace4 ,the visitor1 even though he knows nothing about art1 notices the contrast and1 if he has an eye for color1 views with something of a shock this attempt of the nineteenth century to do something that had been so well done by the gild-trained workmen of the technical schools of the ,middle ,ages4 ,though they are represented here only by patched fragments of their work he can scarcely repress a smile at the effect of their work in cheapening the modern4 ,everywhere it is the same way4 ,mr4 ,f4 ,rolfe1 writing from ,venice1 where he has been studying thirteenth-century glass1 and talking of its wonderful beauty as compared to anything modern1 says3 ,there are also fragments of two windows1 pieced together and the missing parts filled in with the best which modern ,murano can do4 ,these show the celebrated ,beroviero ,ruby ,glass 7secret lost7 of marvellous depth and brilliancy in comparison with which the modern work is merely watery4 7,the ancient is just like a decanter of port wine47 ,this is the story1 no matter where one goes1 #afe throughout ,europe4 ,at ,york they would not surrender the town to the ,parliamentary army until a guarantee had been given them that their cathedral would not be devastated as had been the case elsewhere4 ,besides ,general ,ireton was a friend of the ,yorkists and he was ready to agree to the stipulation4 ,the agreement was not fully carried out1 fanatic soldiers could not be entirely restrained1 but some of the old glass remains4 ,there is probably nothing more beautiful in all the realm of artistic glass-making than the famous ,five ,sisters window at ,york4 ,in ,france the ,revolution repeated what the ,puritans accomplished of ruin in ,england4 ,notre ,dame has no trace of its old glass4 ,in some of the cathedrals1 however1 there has fortunately been preserved for us enough of it to know how wonderfully the makers of it must have been trained1 and to let us realize how much of experiment1 of investigation1 of study that we would now call applied chemistry must have gone to the making of this wonderful old glass4 ,these technical schools were not merely passing on arts and crafts traditions1 but each generation was adding to the secrets of the gilds by original research of its own4 ,we are prone to think that such work of original investigation was reserved for our time1 but that is only because of the foolish self-complacency which blinds us to what other generations did4 ,the stained glass of the cathedrals of ,bourges #aff and of ,chartres shows the marvellous success of these old workers in glass and their power to make enduring products4 ,it is a mystery to see how their blues have lasted while the sun has shone through them all these years and caused no deterioration or only such as softens and adds to beauty but not really causes to fade4 ,blue had to be used in great profusion on the windows because the symbolism of color was well determined and blue stood for the virtue of purity and was the ,blessed ,virgin's color4 ,it had to come in1 therefore1 on nearly all occasions4 ,usually by irradiation blue causes surrounding colors to lose something of their tint1 and by contrast often spoils what would ordinarily be expected to prove beautiful color effects4 ,these old workmen had found the secret of using it in such a way as not thus to spoil surrounding colors1 not to permit it to be too assertive1 yet we have wonderful enduring blues that have come down to us practically unchanged through all these centuries4 ,where the workmen of the old time set themselves producing pure color effects1 their windows look like jewels and coruscate in the light of the setting sun--for their most charming effects were particularly obtained in the west windows--with a glorious beauty that has appealed to every generation since4 ,it was not alone in the building trades1 however1 that these fine things were accomplished4 ,bookmaking reached a degree of perfection that #afg has never been excelled4 ,humphreys1 the authority on illuminated books1 declares that the manuscript volumes of the thirteenth century1 illuminated as they are by the patient labor and the finely developed taste of this time1 are the most beautiful ever made4 ,we have one example of the thirteenth-century illuminated book in the ,lenox ,library in ,new ,york for which1 ,i believe1 the museum authorities were quite willing to pay some #ah1jjj1 and it is worth much more than that now1 for it is a wondrously beautiful example of the illuminations of the time4 ,like the glassmakers1 these bookmakers had secrets that have been lost1 and that we with all our knowledge of science and of art in the modern time1 or at least our fondly complacent notion of our knowledge of art and science1 are unable to find the formulas for4 ,they used blues in their illuminating work that have never faded1 though blues are so prone to fade on parchment4 ,they managed their blues in wonderful way and they still are as fresh and as undisturbing of the harmony of other colors as in the long ago4 ,they could burnish gold and it stays as bright as when it was first applied to the leaves1 even after seven centuries4 ,we have lost the art of burnishing gold in such applied work and ours becomes dull after a time4 ,nor was this teaching of technics confined only to the men4 ,from this period we have the most beautiful needlework in the world4 ,the famous #afh ,cope of ,ascoli has recently attracted wide attention4 ,mr4 ,pierpont ,morgan purchased it and was willing to pay #fj1jjj for it1 though the jewels that had been on it originally had been removed4 ,his experts assured him that it was the most beautiful piece of needlework in the world4 ,afterwards it was found to have been stolen1 and so he restored it to the ,italian ,government1 who did not return it to the little convent of ,ascoli in ,north ,central ,italy1 from which it had been stolen and where it was made at the end of the thirteenth century 7#abhd71 ,elsewhere in ,europe they were doing just as charming work with the needle4 ,in fact ,england1 not ,italy1 was the acknowledged home of it4 ,the ,english ,cope of ,cyon is another notable example of needlework from this time4 ,thirteenth-century work with the needle is famous in the history of the art4 ,it was the product of just the same forces that gave us the wonderful stained glass4 ,they1 too1 used colors and applied great art principles to this unpromising mode of expression and accomplished great results4 ,i have had the privilege of seeing the copy of the ,cope of ,ascoli that was made while in ,mr4 ,morgan's possession1 and1 like the stained glass of ,york or ,bourges or ,chartres1 it is one of the things not likely ever to be forgotten1 so beautiful a realization is it of what is best in taste and art4 ,the supremely interesting feature of this popular education was its effect upon the lives1 and #afi minds1 and happiness of the workmen4 ,men got up to their work in the morning not as to a routine occupation in which they did the same things over and over again1 until they were so tired that they could scarcely do them any more1 and then came home to rest from fatigue in weariness of mind and of body4 ,but they awoke from sound sleep with the memory that ideas had been coming to them the day before1 and especially towards evening that1 now with fresh bodies1 they might be able to execute better1 and that it would surely be a pleasure to work out4 ,they came to their work with an artist's spirit1 hopeful that they would be able to express in the material what they saw so clearly with their mind's eye4 ,it was tiresome working but the hours were not long1 and always there was the thought of accomplishment worthy of the cathedral or the abbey or the town hall1 worthy to be placed beside the masterpieces in the best sense of that dear old word1 that their fellow-workmen of the other gilds were accomplishing around them4 ,they went to bed healthily tired but not weary1 sometimes to dream of their work1 not as a nightmare1 but as something that represented possibilities of accomplishment4 ,when technical schools can lift men up to this plane then1 indeed1 there is a chance for happiness even for the workmen4 ,compare with this for a moment the lot of the modern workman4 ,he goes out in the morning to work that seldom is interesting1 that he #agj practically never cares to do only that he must get money enough to support himself and his family1 and that requires the frequent repetition of routine movements until he is weary1 body and soul4 ,he must work or starve4 ,he has very little interest in it as a rule1 often none at all1 and sometimes he is thoroughly disgusted with it4 ,he must earn money enough to get bread to live to-day so that he shall be able to go and work again tomorrow4 ,and so the humdrum round from day to day with nothing to relieve the prospect until the darkness comes when no man can work4 ,as to dreams of accomplishment or pleasure in his work1 as the artist has1 there is practically none4 ,he needs must go on1 and that is all about it4 ,is it any wonder that this breeds discontent8 ,happy is the man who has found his work4 ,there is only one happiness in this little life of ours and that consists in having work to do that one cares to do1 and the chance to do it in such order and with such rewards as make life reasonably pleasant1 satisfying from the material side4 ,there are no pleasures in life equal to the joy of the worker in his work when he cares for it4 ,pleasures are at most but passing incidents4 ,the work is what counts4 ,these workmen of the ,middle ,ages taught in the technical schools of that olden time had chances for happiness1 chances that were well taken1 such as perhaps no other generation of workmen could have4 ,of course it may be said that1 after all1 there #aga were only opportunities for a few to work at the great architectural monuments of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries4 ,in a sense this is true1 but it must not be forgotten that without modern mechanical means and with the slow1 patient laborious effort required to raise these huge edifices1 much time and many men were required4 ,besides the cathedrals and the abbeys there were many private castles and town halls1 and then in many places the homes of the gilds themselves1 some of which1 as1 for instance1 the famous hall of the clothmakers at ,ypres1 are among the most beautiful monuments of the architecture of that period4 ,in everything1 however1 the workmen had a chance to do beautiful work4 ,in the textile industries this is the time when some of the most beautiful cloth ever made was invented and brought to perfection4 ,linen was woven with wonderful skill1 satin was invented and brought to perfection1 silk brocades of marvellous designs of many kinds were made1 threads of gold and silver were introduced into the textures1 wonderfully fine effects were studied out and applied in the industries1 and just as in the decorative arts so in the arts of cloth-weaving and of many other forms of human endeavor1 there was an artistic craftsmanship such as we have lost sight of to a great extent in our age of machinery4 ,the ,irish poet1 ,yeats1 in bidding a group of ,american friends good-bye some five years ago1 said that we had many opportunities for culture #agb in life here in ,america1 but we must be careful to take them fully and not deceive ourselves with counterfeits1 or we would surely miss something of the precious privilege and development that might be ours4 ,among other things he said1 that we must not forget that until the very utensils in the kitchen are useful as well as beautiful no nation can think of itself as really cultured4 ,if men and women can bear without constraint to handle things that are merely useful without beauty in them1 there is something seriously lacking in their culture4 ,whatever is merely useful is hideous4 ,nature never made anything that was merely useful in all the world's history4 ,the things of nature around us are all wonderful utilities and yet charmingly beautiful4 ,the pretty flowers are seed envelopes meant to attract birds and insects1 so that the seeds may be scattered4 ,the beautiful fruits are other seed envelopes meant to attract man and the animals1 so that the seeds may be carried far and wide4 ,the leaves of trees are eminently useful as lungs and stomach and yet are beautiful and have a wondrous variety and a charm all their own4 ,this precious lesson of nature they seem to have understood well in the ,middle ,ages and applied it with marvellous perfection4 ,it has often been called to attention that portions of ,gothic edifices in dark corners1 out of the sight of the ordinary visitor1 are just as beautifully decorated in their own way as those which are #agc especially on exhibition4 ,the gravestones in their churches1 though meant to be trodden under foot and often covered by the dirt from the shoes of passersby1 yet had bronze ornaments that are so beautiful that in the modern time artists take rubbings of them so as to carry the designs away with them4 ,while every portion of the church is beautiful1 the same thing was true in the castles and to a great extent in their own homes4 ,the furniture of that time1 even in the houses of smaller tradesmen1 was beautiful in its simplicity1 its solidity1 its charm of line1 and then1 above all1 its absolute rejection of all pretence of seeming to be anything other than it was4 ,their drinking cups were beautiful1 their domestic utensils of various kinds had charming lines and1 though they did not have as many as we have in the modern time1 what they had were so beautiful that now we find them on exhibition in museums1 and we are beginning to imitate them in order that the wealthy may have as bric-a-brac ornaments in their houses1 the utensils which were in ordinary use in the homes of the middle classes of the thirteenth century4 ,there was a satisfaction for the workman in making all these beauteous things4 ,he knew1 as a rule1 for whom they were to be made4 ,he knew where they were to be placed4 ,he often saw his handiwork afterwards4 ,his reputation depended on it4 ,there was a happiness then in doing it well1 and in taking his time to it1 that surpasses #agd any idle pleasure away from his work1 as happiness always surpasses pleasure4 ,there was the joy of the doing1 and joys we are coming to appreciate mean ever so much more than pleasures4 ,what we want at the present time are more joys and less pleasures4 ,how many men and women were blessed in that time because they had found their work4 ,that is the only real happiness in life4 ,how profusely it was scattered over the mediaeval world4 ,almost nothing that was made was of a character that could be done by mere routine4 ,a man had to occupy both mind and body in the making of the textiles1 of the kitchen utensils1 of the furniture1 of the various metal utensils required for houses1 and so for nearly everything else4 ,it is the workman who has mere routine work that has opportunity to think about other things and brood over his lot and grow more and more dissatisfied4 ,it is the man who does not have to give his mind to what he is doing1 but who while his body grows more and more tired accomplishing a limited set of constantly repeated movements1 may allow his mind to ponder gloomily over his condition1 compare it with that of others and grow envious1 who has the worst possible seeds of discontent in his occupation4 ,men who did this sort of work that required active mental attention1 learned to think for themselves4 ,when they had moments of leisure1 not having newspapers and superficial shallow books #age to waste their time on1 they did some thinking4 ,any one who has had a little intimate contact with the old-fashioned artisans1 the shoemakers1 the harnessmakers1 the cabinetmakers who work at benches1 the woodcarvers1 men who have real trades1 knows how often one finds among them a deep1 serious thinker with regard to the problems of life around4 ,they do not drink in other people's opinions and then think that they are thinking1 because they are able to repeat some formulas of words4 ,such men are not easily led4 ,they make good jurymen1 they have logic2 above all1 they are thoughtful4 ,there must have been much of this in the old time among the handicraftsmen of the ,middle ,ages4 ,it is doubtless to this that we owe the fact that these men were gradually organized in many wonderful ways into the basic democracy on which the liberties of the ,english-speaking people of the world are founded4 ,we shall have much more to say of this in treating of the wonderful fraternal organizations1 with solutions for nearly every problem of social need1 which these men succeeded in working out for themselves in times considered to have been benighted4 ,there was another phase of the education of these members of the gilds that is even more interesting because it trenches particularly on the intellectual side of life1 the provision of entertainment and solves an important social problem4 ,this was the organization of dramatic #agf performances for the people in which the members of the gilds took part4 ,the stories of the ,old ,testament and of the ,new1 and of the lives of the ,saints1 and of various incidents connected with ,church history1 were worked up into plays and were presented in the various cities4 ,we have the remains of many cycles of these plays4 ,they represent the beginnings of our modern dramatic literature4 ,they were simple and very naive1 but they were interesting and they concerned some of the deepest and most beautiful thoughts with which man has ever been concerned4 ,the members of the gilds and their families took part in them4 ,the principal sets of plays were given in the springtime at the various festivals of the ,church1 so frequent then4 ,most of the spare time from ,christmas on1 especially the long hours of the winter evenings1 were occupied in preparations of various kinds for these spring dramatic performances4 ,it is impossible to conceive of anything more likely to give people innocent and joyful yet absorbing occupations of mind than these preparations4 ,some of the young men and women were chosen as the actors and had to learn their parts and be rehearsing them4 ,choruses had to be trained1 costumes had to be made1 some scenery had to be arranged1 everything was done by the members of the particular gild for each special portion of the cycle of the play assigned to them4 ,garments had actually to be manufactured out of the wool1 #agg the dyeing of them had to be managed1 spangles had to be made for them1 there must have been busy occupation of the most interesting kind for many hands4 ,of course it is easy to say that these naive productions could not have meant very much for the people4 ,any one who thinks so1 however1 has had no experience with private theatricals1 and above all has never had the opportunity to see how much they mean for the occupation of young folks' minds and the keeping of them out of mischief during the winter months when they are much indoors4 ,when the ,jesuits founded their great schools in ,europe they laid it down as one of the rules of the institute to be observed in all their schools1 that plays in certain number should be given every year1 partly for the sake of the educational effect of such occupation with dramatic literature1 but mainly because of the interest aroused by them and the occupation of mind for young folks which they involve4 ,as to how much they may mean1 perhaps the best way for those of our day to realize it is to take the example of ,oberammergau with its great ,passion ,play still given4 ,here we have a typical instance of a ,passion play of the olden time maintaining itself4 ,the preparations for it occupy the villagers in their mountain home not for months only1 but for years before it is given4 ,it represents the centre of the village life1 is the main portion of its activities4 ,the place of a #agh family with regard to the play constitutes its position in the village aristocracy4 ,something of this must have been true in the gilds of the ,middle ,ages in these dramatic performances4 ,just as at ,oberammergau nearly every one of the villagers has something to do or is in some way connected with the preparation of the play1 so most of the members of the particular gilds and probably their families had some connection with their plays4 ,the children had their interest and curiosity aroused and were allowed to help in their measure1 and then when the glorious day of the performance came1 there must have been joy in the hearts of all and rejoicing over its success4 ,this is the sort of occupation of mind that we would like to be able to provide for our people in the cities and towns1 but circumstances are such that we cannot4 ,those who would think that these old ,passion and mystery plays meant very little for the people who did not take part in them and1 above all1 very little for the spectators1 in an educational way1 forget entirely that this side of the work of the old plays can also be studied at ,oberammergau4 ,this little town of #a1djj inhabitants occupies itself for years to such good effect that1 when the performances are given crowds flock from all over the world to witness them4 ,when ,i was there in #aijj ,i think that ,i saw the most cosmopolitan gathering that ,i had ever been in1 though ,i have been to several ,international #agi ,medical ,congresses4 ,there were ,russians and ,poles1 and ,scandinavians and ,americans and ,australians1 and there stayed in the house with us a little party from ,buenos ,ayres1 and our seat companions in the train were ,english1 who had been born in ,india1 and they pointed out to us some ,south ,africans who had come to see the ,passion ,play4 ,this village of #a1djj inhabitants succeeds in producing actors who are capable of arousing thus the interest of the world1 and they have artistic taste enough to mount it well1 and they manage their performances in thoroughly dignified fashion1 and yet in many ways they have the simplicity and1 above all1 the dear old simple faith of the mediaeval people from whom they come4 ,this is the best possible evidence that we could have of the place of the old plays in the life of the people4 ,we have another form of evidence that is extremely interesting4 ,out of these old mystery plays1 dramas of the ,nativity and of the ,passion with the introductions and interludes to these central facts of creation1 there developed first the morality plays and then the drama of the modern time4 ,twice in the history of the world1 each time quite independent of the other1 the drama has originated anew out of religious ceremonials4 ,in old ,greece this is the origin of the drama2 in the ,middle ,ages exactly the same thing happened4 ,nor was this origin unworthy in any way of the great development that came4 ,some of the old #ahj mystery plays were written with wonderful dramatic insight and with a capacity to bring out dramatic moments that is very admirable4 ,as for the morality plays we have had one of them repeated to us in recent years1 ,everyman1 and well it has served to show how able was the genius of these old dramatic writers4 ,people of the modern sordid time listened for two hours enraptured and then went away1 paying the tribute of silence to this wonderful arrangement of the ideas connected with such a familiar theme as the four last things to be remembered--death1 judgment1 heaven and hell4 ,fine as is ,everyman1 there are some critics who think the ,castle of ,perseverance1 written about the same time1 the latter part of the fifteenth century1 an even greater play4 ,the most important feature of this work in dramatics of the old gilds was not the entertainment1 though with what we know of how low entertainment can sink and how much it can mean for degradation1 surely that would be sufficient1 but the fact that all of the workmen and their families in the towns were occupied with the high thoughts and the beautiful phrases and the uplifting motives and the deep significance of the ,bible stories4 ,these are so simple that no one could fail to understand4 ,they are written so close to the heart of human nature that even the simplest child can appreciate their meaning4 ,they are full of the most precious lessons1 yet without #aha any of that moralizing that is often so sterile and so characteristic of what we call mere preaching4 ,all the townspeople were occupied for months beforehand with these stories4 ,they got ever closer and closer to the heart of the mystery in them4 ,they got closer thus to the heart of the mystery of life4 ,they were made to feel the presence of the ,creator and of ,providence while occupying themselves with thoughts that are the essence of deepest poetry4 ,what would one not give to be able to occupy a great number of people1 for many hours every winter1 with such thoughts1 not alone for their moral effect but their real educational value4 ,they did not add useless information to useless information1 but they did bring development of mind and1 above all1 heart4 ,in my book ,the ,thirteenth the ,greatest of ,centuries1 ,footnote #ad ,i tell the story of how the various trades gilds in the towns divided these phases of the mystery plays among themselves4 ,every one had an opportunity to do something4 ,they were the tanners and the plasterers1 the cardmakers and the fullers1 the coopers1 the armorers1 the gaunters and glovers1 the shipwrights1 the pessners1 fishmongers and mariners1 the parchment-makers and bookbinders1 the hosiers1 the spicers1 the pewterers and founders1 the tylers and smiths1 the chandlers1 the orfevers1 the goldsmiths1 the goldbeaters1 the money-makers1 and then many other trades whose names sound curious to us of #ahb the modern time4 ,the bowyers or makers of bows2 the fletchers or arrow featherers2 the hay-resters or workers in horsehair1 the bowlers or bowlmakers1 the feystours1 makers of saddle-trees2 the verrours1 glaciers2 the dubbers1 refurbishers of clothes2 the lumniners or illuminators1 the scriveners or public writers2 the drapers1 the mercers2 the lorymers or bridle-makers2 the spurriers1 makers of spurs2 the cordwaners2 the bladesmiths2 the curriers2 the scalers1 and many others1 all had their chances to take part in these old plays4 ,footnote #ad3 ,catholic ,summer ,school ,press1 ,new ,york1 #aijg4 ,they were not being entertained1 but were themselves active agents in the doing of things for themselves and for others4 ,this is what brings real contentment with it4 ,superficial entertainment that occupies the surface of the mind for the moment means very little for real recreation of mind4 ,what men need is to have something that makes them think along lines different to those in which they are engaged in their daily work4 ,this gives real rest4 ,the blood gets away from parts of the brain where it has been all day1 flows to new parts1 and recreation is the result4 ,such entertainment1 however1 must occupy the very centre of interest for the moment and not be something seen in passing and then forgotten4 ,the modern psychotherapeutist would say1 that no better amusement than this could possibly be obtained since it brought real diversion of mind4 ,above all1 we of the modern time who know how vicious1 how immoral in its tendencies1 how #ahc suggestive of all that is evil1 how familiarizing with what is worst in men until familiarity begets contempt1 commercial entertainment in the shape of dramatics1 so-called at least1 may be1 cannot help but admire and envy and would emulate1 if we could1 this fine solution of a very pressing social problem that the gilds found in an educational feature that is of surpassing value4 ,there are three post-graduate courses in modern life that are quite beyond the control of our educational authorities1 though we talk much of our interest and our accomplishments in education4 ,these three have more influence over the people than all of our popular education4 ,they are the newspaper1 the library and the theatre4 ,some of us who know what the library is doing are not at all satisfied with it4 ,we are spending an immense amount of money mainly to furnish the cheapest kind of mere superficial amusement to the people of our cities4 ,in so doing we are probably hurting their power of concentration of mind instead of helping it1 and it is this concentration of mind that is the best fruit of education4 ,this is1 however1 another story4 ,of the newspaper1 as we now have it1 the less said the better4 ,it is bringing our young people particularly into intimate contact with many of the vicious and brutalizing things of life1 the sex crimes1 brutal murders and prize-fights1 so that uplift and refinement almost become impossible4 ,as for the theatre1 no one now thinks of it as #ahd educationally valuable4 ,our plays are such superficial presentations of the life around us that once they have had their run no one thinks of reviving them4 ,this is the better side of the theatre4 ,the worst side is absolutely in the hands of the powers of evil and is confessedly growing worse all the time4 ,besides these indirect educational features the gilds encouraged certain formal educational institutions that are of great interest1 and that have been misunderstood for several centuries until recent years4 ,in many places they maintained grammar schools and these grammar schools were eminently successful in helping to make scholars of such of the sons of the members of the gilds as wanted to lift themselves above their trades into the intellectual life4 ,we know more about the grammar school at ,stratford-on-,avon than of any of the others4 ,the reason for this is that we have been interested in the antiquities of ,shakespeare's town and the conditions which obtained in it1 before as well as during his lifetime4 ,the ,gild of the ,holy ,cross of ,stratford maintained a grammar school in which many pupils were educated4 ,that this was not a singular feature of gild work is evident from what we know of many other gilds4 ,these gild schools were suppressed in the reformation time and then later had to be replaced by the so-called ,edward ,,vi grammar schools1 in one of which it is usually said that ,shakespeare was educated4 ,as the ,english #ahe historian ,gairdner declared not long since in his ,history of the ,pre-,reformation ,times in ,england1 ,edward has obtained a reputation for foundations in charity and in education that he by no means deserved4 ,the schools founded by him particularly were nothing more than re-establishments of popular schools of the olden time whose endowment had been confiscated4 ,the new foundations were makeshifts to appease popular clamor4 ,the old gilds did not believe in devoting all the early years of children to mere book-learning4 ,some few with special aptitudes for this were provided with opportunities4 ,the rest were educated in various ways at home until their apprenticeship to a trade began1 and then their real education commenced4 ,our own experience with education in the early years from six to eight or nine is not particularly favorable4 ,children who enter school a little later than the legal age graduate sooner and with even higher marks than those who begin at the age of six4 ,this has been shown by statistics in ,england in many cities4 ,what is learned with so much fuss and worry and bother for the children and the teachers from six to eight1 is rapidly picked up in a few months at the age of eight or nine1 and then is better assimilated4 ,the grammar schools of the gilds took the children about the age of nine or ten and then gave them education in letters4 ,that education1 by the way1 began at six in the morning and1 #ahf with two hours of intervals1 continued until four in the afternoon4 ,they believed in the eight-hour day for children1 but they began it good and early so that artificial light might not constitute a problem4 ,the best schooling1 however1 afforded by the gilds1 after that in self-help of course1 was that in mutual aid4 ,we are establishing schools of philanthropy in the modern time and we talk much about the organization of charity and other phases of mutual aid4 ,in this as in everything else we map out1 as ,george ,eliot once said1 our ignorance of things1 or at least our gropings after solutions of problems1 in long ,greek names1 which often serve to produce the idea that we know ever so much more about these subjects than we really do4 ,the training in brotherly love and helpfulness in the old gilds was a fine school4 ,those who think that it is only now that ideas of mutuality in sharing responsibilities1 of co-operation and co-ordination of effort for the benefit of all1 of community interests1 are new1 should study ,toulmin ,smith's work on the gilds1 or read ,brentano on the foreign gilds4 ,there is not a phase of our organization of charity in the modern time that was not well anticipated by the members of the gilds1 and that1 too1 in ways such as we cannot even hope to rival unless we change the basis on which our helpfulness is founded4 ,theirs was not a stooping down of supposed better1 or so-called upper classes1 to help the lower1 #ahg but organization among the people to help themselves so that there was in no sense a pauperization4 ,every phase of human need was looked to4 ,we are just beginning to realize our obligations to care for the old1 and the last twenty years has seen various efforts on the part of governments to provide old-age pensions4 ,in the ,middle ,ages according to the laws of the gilds the man who had paid his dues for seven years would then draw a weekly pension equal to something more than five dollars now1 for all the rest of his life if he were disabled by injury1 or had become incapacitated from old age or illness4 ,then there were gilds to provide insurance against loss by fire1 loss by robbery on land and also on sea1 loss by shipwreck1 loss even by imprisonment and all other phases of human needs4 ,if the workman were injured his family nursed him during the day but a brother member of the gild1 as we have said1 was sent to care for him at night1 and a good portion of his wages went on1 paid to him out of the gild chest4 ,if he died his widow and orphans were cared for by a special pension4 ,the widow did not have to break up the family and send the children to orphan asylums4 ,there were practically no orphan asylums4 ,the gilds cared for the children of dead members4 ,as the boys grew up special attention was given them so as to provide a trade for them1 and they were given earlier opportunities than others to get on in life4 #ahh ,the orphans were the favorite children of the gilds1 and instead of a child being handicapped by the loss of his parents when he was young1 it sometimes happened that he got better opportunities than if his parents lived4 ,these gilds provided opportunities for social entertainment and friendly intercourse and for such acquaintanceship as would afford mutual pleasure and give opportunities for the meeting of the young folks1--sons and daughters of the members of the gild4 ,they had their yearly benefit at which the wives of the members and their sweethearts were supposed by rule to come1 and then they had other meetings and social gatherings--picnics in the country in the summer1 dances in the winter time and all in a circle where every one knew every one else1 and all went well4 ,these are some social features of these gilds educational in the highest sense that we can well envy in the modern time1 when we find it so difficult to secure innocent1 happy pleasures for young people that will not leave a bad taste in the mouth afterwards4 ,when a member of the gild died his brother members attended the ,mass which was said for him and gave a certain amount in charity that was meant to be applied for his benefit4 ,the whole outlook on life was eminently brotherly4 ,there has never been such a teaching of true fraternity1 of the brotherhood of man1 of the necessity for mutual aid and then of such practice of it as makes it easy1 as among these old gilds4 #ahi ,the finest result of this teaching is to be seen in the democratic spirit that gradually arose as a consequence of these gilds and their teaching of self-government in all local affairs to the people4 ,the gilds were arranged and organized in the various parishes4 ,these parishes were independent communities for local affairs who had charge of the police system1 the health1 the road-making1 the path-keeping1 the boundary-guarding and1 in general1 the comfort and convenience of the community4 ,the gildsmen1 more than any others1 were the factors in these parishes4 ,they accumulated money for the various purposes and had great influence in the development of the community life and the solution of local government problems4 ,it would be very easy to think that the gilds could not have fulfilled all these duties and subserved all these needs4 ,if we recall1 however1 that there were #hj1jjj gilds in ,england at the end of the fifteenth century1 when there were not more than #d1jjj1jjj of people in the whole country1 then we can see how much could be accomplished4 ,alas1 at the beginning of the next century all their moneys were confiscated1 and because they were ,church societies1 every one of them requiring attendance at ,church duties and at ,mass1 as well as at the ,masses for the dead1 but1 above all1 for the crime of having money in their treasuries at a time when the ,king needed money and his appetite had been whetted by the spoil of the #aij monasteries and the churches1 the gilds were obliterated4 ,only a few of them in ,london that had powerful protectors and that escaped on the plea that they were commercial organizations and not religious societies1 were able to preserve something of their old-time integrity4 ,these are now so rich that they are the wonder of those who know them4 ,they give us a good idea1 however1 of the deep foundations that had been established out of the common chest in the purchase of property for these gilds4 ,in solving the problems of industrial insurance1 of providing for the widows and the orphans1 of securing annuities when they would be needed1 these gilds set us an example that it would be well for us to follow4 ,the insurance money was not accumulated in such huge sums that it would be a constant temptation for exploitation on the part of officials4 ,it was distributed in comparatively small sums in many thousands of treasuries1 and was under the surveillance of those most interested in it4 ,the old-age pensions were not governmental1 issued in large numbers and open to inevitable abuses1 but were given by those who knew1 to those whose necessities were well known4 ,no wonder that we find democratic government developing co-ordinately with these gilds4 ,at the beginning of the thirteenth century ,magna ,charta was signed4 ,about the middle of it the first ,english ,parliament met1 before the end of it the proper representation of the cities and #aia towns which were mainly controlled by the gilds was secured and during the last quarter of it the ,english ,common ,law came into effect so as to secure the rights of all4 ,bracton's great ,digest of the ,english ,common ,law was written about #abhj1 and it is still the great sourcebook of the principles of law in ,english-speaking countries4 ,in many of the ,states of our ,union the ,supreme ,courts still make their decisions on the basis of the ,english ,common ,law1 and until a decade or two ago all of them did4 ,the people's rights were secured by the education of the people and the property laws and those for the guardianship of the person and for the prevention of autocratic interference with liberty were all of them put into effect as a consequence of this education in democracy4 ,this1 then1 was surely an ideal teaching of the masses1 a teaching of the arts and crafts1 a teaching of mutual aid1 a teaching of true fraternity1 a teaching of book-learning whenever that was considered necessary or advisable1 a teaching of the rights of man and a wonderful development of laws as a consequence1 and all of this accomplished not by the upper classes1 stooping to lift the lower classes1 but out of the conscious development of the lower classes themselves1 so that there came a true evolution and not merely a superficial influence from without4 ,if we want to know how to teach the masses and to help them to contentment1 happiness1 occupation of mind1 #aib uplifting entertainment1 cheerful amusement and1 above all1 to conscious democratic government1 here is the model of it as it can be found nowhere else4 ,i commend it to those who are teaching and who1 realizing the failure of our modern education in many ways1 are looking about for the remedies that will help to make our popular education more efficient4 ,the soul of this ideal education of the masses was the training of character4 ,they had no illusions that the mere imparting of information would make people better nor that the knowing of many things would make them more desirable citizens4 ,probably they did not consciously reason much about these subjects1 but their instincts led them straight4 ,mr4 ,edward ,o4 ,sisson1 writing in the ,atlantic ,monthly for ,july1 #aiaj1 says that the final question regarding education is whether it avails to produce the type of character required by the republic 7nation7 and the race4 ,to accomplish this we need to fit our practice to ,herbart's great formula that1 the chief business of education is the ethical revelation of the universe4 ,take any part of this system of education that ,i have called the ideal education of the masses and try it by that standard and see how high its mark will be4 ,their handiwork is mainly an act of devotion to the ,god of the universe and its products are the most beautiful gifts that ever were offered to him4 ,cathedral stonework1 glass-work1 ironwork1 beautiful sacred vessels1 handsomest #aic vestments ever made1 needlework1 lacework1 the beautiful setting of the cathedral2 what an act of worship it all was6 ,when it was finished1 it belonged to no class but to the whole people4 ,it was theirs to be proud of and to worship in4 ,their very amusements were often acts of worship4 ,their plays concerned the revelations of ,god to man1 for they were all founded on the ,bible1 and even for those who may not accept those revelations as divine the fact that the men and women1 the masses1 the handworkmen and the little traders1 were for many months in each year engaged with the high ethical thoughts that constitute the greatest contribution to the ethical revelation of the universe that we have in literature1 must of itself be an eminently satisfying feature of this old-time education4 ,as regards the ,creator1 these people were constantly made familiar with ,him1 ,his works and ways4 ,their holidays were holy-days4 ,they were anniversaries in the life of the ,god-,man or ,his chosen servants4 ,the men and women whom they celebrated on those days were chosen characters who had devoted themselves unselfishly to others1 so that the after-time hailed them as saints because of their forgetfulness of self4 ,we know what this constantly recurring reminder of the lives of great men and women may be1 and then we must not forget that on these days in their great cathedral they heard the story of the life of the saint of the day1 and often a discourse on the qualities that #aid stamped him or her as worthy of admiration4 ,let us remember1 above all1 that there were as many women saints as men1 and that these were held up for the admiration and emulation of growing youth4 ,this was ethical training at every turn in life4 ,above all1 there was constant training in that thoughtfulness for others that means so much in any true system of education4 ,when members of the gilds fell ill1 their families nursed them during the day1 but members of the gilds chosen for that purpose nursed them at night4 ,it was felt that the family did quite enough not to exhaust itself by night watching4 ,when brother members of the gild died their fellows attended their funeral in a body1 and1 above all1 took part in the ,mass for their souls4 ,people who do not understand the ,catholic idea of ,mass for the dead will not appreciate this in the way that ,catholics do1 but at least they will understand the brotherliness of the act and the beautiful purpose that prompted so many to gather1 in order that even after death they might do whatever they could for this departed brother4 ,besides the death of a brother gildsman was the signal for the giving of alms because the merit of these alms1 it was felt1 could be transferred to his account1 and so the bond of fraternity continued even in the life beyond4 ,the ethical effect of all this on the minds of people who sincerely believed can scarcely be exaggerated4 ,here is a training of the will and #aie of character1 and a teaching of the relationship of man to man and of man to the ,creator carried out into all the smallest details of life4 ,above all1 these generations had a training in personal service for one another4 ,every one exercised charity4 ,it was not a few of the very wealthy who practised philanthropy4 ,they had safeguards which1 as far as is possible1 prevented abuse of this charity4 ,the alms1 for instance1 that was given on the occasion of a brother's funeral was not distributed hit or miss and all at one time1 but members of the gild bought from the treasurer tokens which might be redeemed in bread and meat or in cast-off clothing or in some other way4 ,these were distributed to the poor as they seemed to need them4 ,if you met a poor man who seemed really in want you could give him one or more of these tokens and then be sure that while he would get whatever was necessary to supply his absolute needs1 he would not be able to abuse charity4 ,in our time we constantly have stories of large accumulations on the part of street beggars who own valuable property and have accounts in savings banks and the like4 ,there was no possibility of this under the mediaeval system and yet charity was widely exercised1 every one took some part in it1 and there was that training1 not only in effective pity for affliction1 but also in helpfulness for others1 which means so much more than the exercise of occasional charity1 because1 for the moment1 one is touched by the #aif sight of suffering or has remorse because one feels that one has been indulging one's self and wants the precious satisfaction that will come from a little making up for luxurious extravagance4 ,in our time1 when we have gradually excluded moral teaching and training almost entirely from our schools and our methods of education1 this phase of the ideal education of the masses is particularly interesting4 ,milton declared that the main skill and groundwork of education will be to temper the pupils with such lectures and explanations as will draw them into willing obedience1 inflamed with the study of learning and the admiration of virtue1 stirred up with high hopes of living to be brave men and worthy patriots4 ,their great stone-books1 the cathedrals1 where all who came could read the life of the ,lord1 the frequent reminders of the lives of the saints1 doers among men who forgot themselves and thought of others1 the fraternal obligations of the gilds and their intercourse with each other1 all these constituted the essence of an education as nearly like that demanded by ,milton as can well be imagined4 ,it seems far-fetched to go back five1 six1 even seven centuries to find such ideals in practice1 but the educator who is serious and candid with himself will find it easy to discover the elements of a wonderful intellectual and1 above all1 moral training of the people1 that is the whole people from the lowest to the highest1 in these early days4 #aig ,,cycles ,,of ,,feminine ,,education ,,and ,,influence #aih ,and if ,i am right nothing can be more foolish than our modern fashion of training men and women differently1 whereby one-half of the power of the city is lost4 ,for reflect--if women are not to have the education of men some other must be found for them1 and what other can we propose8 --,plato1 ,laws 7,jowett71 p4 #hb4 ,scribner1 #aijb4 #aii ,,cycles ,,of ,,feminine ,,education ,,and ,,influence ,footnote #ae ,footnote #ae3 ,the material for this was gathered for a lecture on the ,history of ,education delivered for the ,academy of the ,sacred ,heart1 ,kenwood1 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y41 and ,st4 ,joseph's ,college1 ,chestnut ,hill1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,very nearly in its present form the address was delivered before the ,league for the ,civic ,education of ,women1 at the ,colony ,club1 ,new ,york ,city1 in the winter of #aiaj4 ,nothing is commoner than to suppose that what we are doing at the present day is an improvement over whatever they were doing at any time in the past in the same line4 ,we were rather proud during the nineteenth century to talk of that century as the century of evolution4 ,evolutionary terms of all kinds found their way even into everyday speech and a very general impression was produced that we are in the midst of progress so rapid and unerring1 that even from decade to decade it is possible to trace the wonderful advance that man is making4 ,we look back on the early nineteenth century as quite hopelessly backward4 ,they had no railroads1 no street-car lines1 no public street lighting1 no modes of heating buildings that gave any comfort in the cold weather1 no elevators1 and when we compare our present comfortable condition with the discomforts of that not so distant period1 we feel how much evolution has done for us1 and inevitably #bjj conclude that just as much progress as has been made in transportation and in comfort1 has also been made in the things of the mind1 and1 above all1 in education1 so that1 while the millennium is not yet here1 it cannot surely be far off2 and men are attaining at last1 with giant strides1 the great purpose that runs through the ages4 ,probably in nothing is the assumption that we are doing something far beyond what was ever accomplished before1 more emphatically expressed than in the ordinary opinions as to what is being done by and for women in our generation4 ,we have come to think that at last in the course of evolution woman is beginning to come into something of her rights1 she is at last getting her opportunity for the higher education and for professional education so far as she wants it1 and as a consequence is securing that influence which1 as the equal of man1 she should have in the world4 ,now there is just one thing with regard to this very general impression which deserves to be called particularly to attention4 ,this is not the first time in the world's history1 nor the first by many times1 that woman has had the opportunity for the higher education and has taken it very well4 ,neither is it the first time that she has insisted on having an influence in public affairs1 but on the contrary1 we can readily find a very curious series of cycles of feminine education and of the exercise of public influence by women1 with intervals of almost negative phases in these matters that #bja are rather difficult to explain4 ,let us before trying to understand what the feministic movement means in our own time and1 above all1 before trying to sum up its ultimate significance for the race1 study some of the corresponding movements in former times4 ,the most interesting phase of the woman movement in history is that which occurred at the time of the ,renaissance4 ,because it is typical of the phases of the feministic movement at all times1 and then1 too1 because it is closer to us and the records of it are more complete1 it will be extremely interesting to follow out some of the details of it4 ,it may be necessary for that to make a little excursion into the history of the period4 ,during the early fifteenth century the ,turks were bothering ,constantinople so much1 that ,greek scholars1 rendered uncomfortable at home1 began making their way over into ,italy rather frequently1 bringing with them precious manuscripts and remains of old ,greek art4 ,besides commerce aroused by the ,crusades was making the intercourse between ,east and ,west much more intimate than it had been and1 as a result1 a taste for ,greek letters and art was beginning to be felt in certain portions of ,italy4 ,when ,constantinople fell1 about the middle of the fifteenth century1 the prestige of the old capital of the ,greek empire was lost1 and scholars abandoned it for ,italy in large numbers4 ,this is the time of the ,renaissance4 ,the rebirth that the word #bjb signifies1 is not a rebirth of art and architecture and literature into the modern world1 as if there had been nothing before1 for ,gothic art and architecture and literature is quite as wonderful1 if not more so1 than anything that came after1 and there are good authorities who insist that the ,renaissance hurt1 rather than helped1 ,europe4 ,the ,renaissance was a rebirth of ,greek ideas and ideals in aesthetics into the ,european world1 and while we may not agree with ,sir ,henry ,maine that whatever lives and moves in the intellectual world is ,greek in origin1 there is no doubt that ,greek can be the source of most wonderful incentive and such it proved to be during the fifteenth century4 ,men and women began to study ,greek and they paid much more attention as a consequence to the ,latin classics modelled on the ,greek1 and so the ,new ,learning1 the so-called humanities1 became the centre of intellectual interest4 ,they were studied first in private schools1 but before long a place for these new studies was demanded in the curriculum of the universities4 ,the universities1 however1 were occupied with the so-called seven liberal arts1 which were really scientific studies4 ,there was geometry1 astronomy1 music1 grammar1 rhetoric1 logic and metaphysics1 with considerable ethics and political science1 so that they resembled in many ways our modern universities as they have been transformed since the re-introduction of scientific studies into them4 #bjc ,the university faculties were content and conservative after the fashion of universities ever1 and they quite naturally refused to entertain the notion of such a radical change as the introduction of classical studies into the curriculum4 ,this is just exactly what the classical universities of the early nineteenth century did when they were asked by scientific enthusiasts to re-introduce scientific studies into the curriculum1 which in the course of #hjj years had come to be made up almost exclusively of classical studies4 ,in this curious way does history repeat itself4 ,unable to obtain a place for the studies in humanism in the universities1 ruling princes and wealthy members of the nobility proceeded to found special schools for these subjects4 ,in these schools without the traditions of the past1 the women asked and obtained the privilege of studying4 ,there had come a noteworthy change in intellectual interest1 a novelty was introduced into education4 ,whenever that happens woman always asks and always obtains the privilege of the higher education4 ,during the ,renaissance period she proceeded to show her intellectual power4 ,many of the women of the ,renaissance became distinguished for scholarship4 ,perhaps one thing should be noted with regard to that4 ,their reputation for scholarship was largely confined to their younger years4 ,they were more precocious1 or applied themselves better to their studies1 and accordingly knew more of the classics #bjd at twenty than their male relatives who had the same opportunities4 ,indeed we hear of them as brilliant scholars at sixteen and seventeen and eighteen4 ,they took part in ,latin plays that were brilliantly performed before the nobility1 higher ecclesiastics1 cardinals and even the ,popes4 ,they were brilliant in music1 in the languages and in their taste for art4 ,later on in life we do not hear so much of them4 ,they evidently were ready to leave the serious work of scholarship to the men and content themselves with being enlightened patrons of literature1 beneficent advocates of the arts1 liberal customers of the artistic geniuses of the time4 ,above all1 we find no great original works from them4 ,they are charming appreciators but not good inventors--at this time1 of course4 ,while they do not occupy themselves with dry-as-dust scholarship1 there is no doubt at all that much of the glory of the ,renaissance1 with its great revivals in art and letters1 is due to the women of the time4 ,it was they who insisted on the building of the town houses1 finely decorated and with charming objects of art in them4 ,it was for them that the artists of the time made many beautiful things4 ,they were very often the patrons who enabled churches to obtain from artists the wonderful paintings of the time4 ,the sculptors made for them many charming pieces of bric-a-brac4 ,the artists laid out beautiful gardens that we are only just beginning to #bje appreciate again now that our taste for outdoor life is being properly cultivated4 ,they bought the books that were issued by the ,manutiuses at ,venice4 ,isabella ,d',este had a standing order that all the books issued from this great ,venetian press should be sent to her4 ,books were costly treasures in these times4 ,a single volume of one of these incunabula of printing so beautifully issued from ,manutius's printing establishment was worth nearly one hundred dollars in our money4 ,the women designed their own dresses4 ,they encouraged the miniature painting of the time and the illumination of books and occasionally took up these arts themselves4 ,they fostered the development of textile industries1 lacemaking and the various kinds of figured cloth1 so that we have some of the most beautiful inventions in this kind at this time4 ,tapestry-making took on a new vigor and beauty because of their patronage4 ,they wanted beautiful glass1 and new periods of marvellous development of glass-tinting and making were ushered in4 ,as can be readily understood these are the sort of things that men are not interested in1 and whenever in the history of the race we find a period of development of this kind we can be sure that educated women are responsible for it4 ,these women of the ,renaissance decorated their homes beautifully1 had them built substantially1 with wonderful taste and1 above all1 had them set charmingly in the ,italian #bjf ,renaissance gardens that are so deservedly admired4 ,while they were thus occupied with the beautiful things of life some of them wrote poetry that has lived 7,lucrezia ,tornabuoni dei ,medici1 ,vittoria ,colonna71 some of them indulged in fiction 7,marguerite of ,navarre7 that is still read1 and a great epoch of fiction-writing responded to their interest as readers2 some of them mixed in politics and proved their power1 at times some of them acted as regents for their sons 7,forli1 ,d',este71 and succeeded magnificently1 so that we have every phase of development of woman's power4 ,there can be no doubt that at this period woman was afforded every opportunity for the development of her intellectual life1 and that she took her opportunities with great success4 ,we have from this time probably the names of more distinguished women than from any other corresponding period in the world's history4 ,there was a wonderful group of women at the ,court of ,giovanna of ,naples in the first half of the fifteenth century1 because ,naples got her ,renaissance impulses first1 being closer by sea to ,constantinople and having many ,greek traditions from the old days when ,southern ,italy was ,magna ,graecia4 ,then there are a series of finely educated women connected with the ,medici household at ,florence4 ,the mother of the great ,lorenzo is the best known of them1 and her poems show real literary power4 ,the ,d',este family is #bjg better known generally1 and then there were the ,gonzagas1 some of the women of the house of ,forli1 ,vittoria ,colonna1 whose influence over art and artists shows her genius quite as well as does her writing1 and many others4 ,everywhere women are on a footing with men as regards the intellectual life4 ,everywhere they direct conversations seriously with regard to literary and artistic subjects1 and1 indeed1 it is they who1 in what we would now call salons1 serve to make intellectual subjects fashionable1 and so concentrate attention on them and secure the patronage so necessary for artists and writers if they are to subsist while doing their work4 ,it would be a great mistake1 however1 to think for a moment that it was in ,italy alone that such opportunities for higher education and intellectual influence were allowed to women4 ,just as the ,renaissance movement itself spread throughout ,europe affecting the education1 the literature1 the art1 the architecture1 the arts and crafts of the time and the nations1 so did the feministic movement spread1 and everywhere we find striking expressions of it4 ,in ,france1 for instance1 the ,renaissance can be traced very easily in letters and architecture1 and was not much behind ,italy in feminine education4 ,queen ,anne of ,bretagne organized the ,court ,school of the time1 and interest in literature became the fashion of the hour4 ,marguerite of ,navarre is a woman of the ,renaissance1 and so is ,renee of ,anjou1 while the name #bjh of ,louise ,la ,cordiere shows1 for la cordiere means the cord-wainer's daughter1 that higher education for women was not confined to the nobility4 ,mary ,queen of ,scots1 educated in ,france1 whose letters and whose poetry with occasional excursions into ,latin1 show us how thoroughly educated she was1--it must not be forgotten that she was put into prison at twenty-four and never again got out1--is a typical woman of the ,french ,renaissance4 ,sichel has told the story of these women of ,france very well1 and those who want to know the details of the feministic movement of the time should turn to him4 ,in ,spain1 too1 the ,renaissance movement made itself felt in every department4 ,most of ,spain's cathedrals were finished during the ,renaissance time1 and some of the work is the admiration of the world4 ,spain's literary ,renaissance came a little later1 but when it did it contributed at least two great names to the world literature--,cervantes and ,calderon4 ,the women of the nation were also affected1 and ,queen ,isabella was a deeply intellectual woman of many interests4 ,spain contributed to the feministic movement probably the greatest name in the history of feminine intellectuality in ,st4 ,teresa4 ,how much of sympathy there was with this great expression of feminine intelligence will be best appreciated from the fact that ,spanish ecclesiastics talk of ,teresa as their ,spanish ,doctor of the ,church1 and that in ,rome there is amongst the statues #bji of the ,doctors and the ,fathers in the ,church one woman figure1 that of ,st4 ,teresa1 with the title mater spiritualium--mother of spiritual things4 ,her books1 profoundly admired by the ,spaniards1 ,were the favorite reading for such extremely different minds as ,fenelon and ,bossuet1 and have been the storehouse ever since for ,german mystics4 ,they were beautifully translated by ,crashaw into ,english1 and have been the subject of great interest during the present feministic movement1 especially since ,george ,eliot's reference to her in the preface of ,middlemarch4 ,in ,england the ,renaissance did not affect art much1 nor architecture1 though it did profoundly stir the men of letters1 and the great ,elizabethan period of ,english literature is really an expression of the ,renaissance in ,england4 ,here almost more than anywhere else in ,europe the women shared in the uplift and devotion to things intellectual that developed4 ,queen ,mary was a well-educated woman1 ,queen ,elizabeth read ,greek as well as ,latin easily1 ,lady ,jane ,grey preferred her lessons in ,greek1 under ,roger ,ascham1 to going to balls and routs and hunting parties1 and was a blue-stocking in the veriest sense of the term4 ,it has been hinted that it was perhaps this that disturbed her feminine common sense and allowed her to be led so easily into the foolish conspiracy in which she lost her life4 ,the losing of one's head in things deeply intellectual may sometimes mean the losing of it #baj more literally when crowns are at stake4 ,there are many other names of noble women of this time that might be mentioned and that are well known for their intellectual development4 ,that the movement did not confine itself to the higher nobility we can be sure1 for when the better classes do ill they are imitated1 but so also are they imitated when they do well4 ,besides1 the story that we have of ,margaret ,more and her friends shows that the middle classes were also stirred to interest in things intellectual4 ,the usual objection1 when this story of the ,renaissance and the feministic movement connected with it is told1 if the narrator would urge that here was an earlier period of feminine education than ours1 is that1 after all1 the education of this period was confined to only a few of the nobility4 ,this is not true1 and there are many reasons why it is not true4 ,first1 the upper classes are always imitated by the others1 and if there was a fashion for education we can be sure that it spread4 ,we have not the records of many educated women1 but those that we have all make it clear that education was not confined to a few1 and that those of the middle classes who wanted it could readily secure it4 ,there were probably as many women to the population of ,europe at that time enjoying the higher education as there are proportionately in ,america at the present time4 ,europe had but a small population altogether in the fifteenth century4 ,there #baa were probably less than #d1jjj1jjj of people in ,england at the end1 even1 of the sixteenth century4 ,in ,elizabeth's time when the census was taken1 because of the ,spanish ,armada1 these were the figures4 ,there were not many more people in all ,europe then than there are now in ,england4 ,if out of these few1 comparatively1 we can pick out the group of distinguished women whom ,i have just spoken of1 then there must have been a great many sharing in the privileges of the higher education4 ,footnote #af ,footnote #af3 ,what an interesting reflection on the notion of supposed progress is the fact pointed out by ,ambassador ,bryce in his address on ,progress 7,atlantic ,july1 #aijg71 that while out of #dj1jjj1jjj of people there were so many genius men and women accomplishing work that the world will never willingly let die1 we with a population ten times as great cannot show anything like as many4 ,most of the great names that are most familiar to the modern mind come in a single century1--the sixteenth4 ,at the present time the western civilization then represented by #dj1jjj1jjj has near to #ejj1jjj1jjj of people4 ,we make no pretension at all1 however1 to the claim that we have more great men than they had4 ,we should have ten times as many1 but on the contrary we are quite willing to concede that we have very few compared to their number and almost none1 if indeed there are any1 who measure up to the high standards of achievement of that time more than four centuries ago4 ,it is thoughts of this kind that show one how much we must correct the ordinarily accepted notions with regard to progress and inevitable development1 and each generation improving on its predecessors and the like1 that are so commonly diffused but that represent no reality in history at all4 ,it is true that it was1 as a rule1 only the daughters of the nobility who received the opportunity for the higher education1 or at least obtained it with facility4 ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 just what the nobility of ,italy1 and1 #bab indeed1 of other countries also1 represented4 ,the conditions there are most typical and it is worth while studying them out4 ,the ,medici1 for instance1 of ,florence1 whose women folk were so well educated1 were members of the gilds of the apothecaries1 as their name indicates1 who made a fortune on drugs and precious stones and beautiful stuffs from the ,east1 and then became the bankers of ,europe4 ,noblemen were created because of success in war1 success in politics1 success in diplomacy1 but also because of success in commerce1 and occasionally success in the arts4 ,not many educators and artists were among them any more than in our time1 because they were not1 as a rule1 possessed of the fortune properly to keep up the dignity of a patent of nobility4 ,the daughters of the nobility of ,italy1 however1 were not very different1 certainly their origin was very similar to that of the daughters of the wealthy men of ,america1 who are1 after all1 the only ones who can take advantage of the higher education in our time4 ,we must not forget that1 compared to the whole population1 the number of women securing the higher education is very limited4 ,to think that the ,renaissance with this provision of ample opportunities for feminine education was the first epoch of this kind in the world's history would be to miss sadly a host of historical facts and their significance4 ,unfortunately history has been so written from the standpoint of #bac man and his interests1 that this phase of history is not well known and probably less understood4 ,history has been too much a mere accumulation of facts with regard to war1 diplomacy and politics4 ,while we have known much of heroes and battles1 we have known little of education1 of art1 of artistic achievement of all kinds4 ,we have known even less of popular movements4 ,we have known almost nothing of the great uplift of the masses which created the magnificent arts and crafts of the ,middle ,ages1 that we are just beginning to admire so much once more1 and our admiration of them is the best measure of our own serious artistic development4 ,kings and warriors and kings' mistresses and ugly diplomacy and rotten politics1 have occupied the centre of the stage in history4 ,surely we are coming to a time when other matters1 the human things and not the animal instincts1 will be the main subject of history2 when fighting and sex and acquisitiveness and selfishness shall give place in history to mutual aid1 uplift1 unselfishness and thoughtfulness for others4 ,as soon as history is studied from the standpoint of the larger human interests and not that of political history1 it is easy to find not only traces but detailed stories of feminine education at many times4 ,before the ,renaissance the great phase of education had been that of the universities4 ,the first of the universities was founded down at ,salerno around a medical school1 the #bad second that of ,bologna around a law school and the third that of ,paris with a school of philosophy and theology as a nucleus4 ,this seems to be about the way that man's interests manifest themselves in an era of development4 ,first1 he is occupied mainly with his body and its needs2 then his property and its rights1 and finally1 as he lifts himself up to higher things1 his relations to his fellow-man and to his ,creator come to be profound vital interests4 ,such1 at least1 is the story of the origin of the universities in the thirteenth century4 ,the surprise for us who are considering the story of feminine education and influence is what happened at ,salerno4 ,here some twenty miles back from ,naples1 in a salubrious climate1 not far from the ,mediterranean1 where old ,greek traditions had maintained themselves1 for ,southern ,italy was called ,magna ,graecia1 where the intercourse with the ,arabs and with the northern shores of ,africa and with the ,near ,east1 brought the medical secrets of many climes to a focus1 the first modern medical school came into existence4 ,in the department of women's diseases women professors taught1 wrote text-books and evidently were considered1 in every sense of the word1 co-ordinate professors in the university4 ,we have the text-book of one of them1 ,trotula1 who is hailed as the founder of the ,salernitan ,school of ,women ,physicians1 the word school being used in the same sense as when we talk of a school of #bae painting1 and not at all in the sense of our modern women's medical schools4 ,trotula was the wife of the professor of medicine at the university1 ,plataerius ,i1 and the mother of another professor at the university1 ,plataerius ,,ii1 herself a professor like them4 ,there are many other names of women professors at the ,university of ,salerno in this department4 ,women1 however1 were not alone allowed to practise this single phase of medicine1 but we have licenses granted to women in ,naples1 of which at this time ,salerno was the university1 to practise both medicine and surgery4 ,it seems to have been quite common1 ,i should say1 at least as common as in our own time for women to study and practise medicine1 and their place in the university and the estimation in which their books were held1 show us that all the difficulties in the way of professional education for women had been removed and that they were accepted by their masculine colleagues on a footing of absolute equality4 ,probably the most interesting feature of this surprising and unexpected development of professional education for women is to be found in the conditions out of which ,salerno developed4 ,the school was originally a monastic school under the influence of the ,benedictine monks from ,monte ,cassino not far away4 ,the great ,archbishop ,alphanus ,i1 who was the most prominent patron and who had been a professor there1 was himself #baf a ,benedictine monk4 ,how intimately the relations of the monks to the school were maintained can be realized from the fact that when the greatest medical teacher and writer of ,salerno1 ,constantine ,africanus1 wanted to have leisure to write his great works in medicine1 he retired from his professorship to the monastery of ,monte ,cassino4 ,his great friend ,desiderius was the abbot there1 and his influence was still very strong at ,salerno4 ,desiderius afterwards became ,pope1 and continued his beneficent patronage of this ,southern ,italian university4 ,in a word1 it was in the midst of the most intimate ecclesiastical and monastic influence that this handing over of the department of women's diseases to women in a great teaching institution occurred4 ,the wise old monks were thoroughly practical1 and though eminently conservative1 knew the needs of mankind very well1 and worked out this solution of one series of problems4 ,when the next great university1 that of ,bologna1 was founded1 it developed1 as ,i have suggested1 around a law school4 ,irnerius revived the study of the old ,roman law1 and his teaching of it attracted so much attention that students from all over ,europe flocked to ,bologna4 ,law is different from medicine in many respects4 ,the right of women to study medicine will readily be granted1 their place in a system of medical education is manifest4 ,with regard to law1 however1 there can scarcely be grave question as to the #bag advisability of woman studying it unless economic conditions force her to it4 ,this was particularly true at a time when woman could own no property and had no rights until she married4 ,in spite of the many inherent improbabilities of this development1 the law school was scarcely opened at ,bologna before women became students in it4 ,probably ,irnerius' daughter and some of her friends were the first students1 but after a time others came and the facilities seem to have been quite open to them4 ,as out of the law school the university gradually developed1 opportunities for study in the other higher branches were accorded to women at ,bologna4 ,we have the story of their success in mathematics1 in philosophy1 in music and in astronomy4 ,according to a well-known and apparently well authenticated tradition1 one distinguished woman student of ,bologna1 ,maria ,di ,novella1 achieved such success in mathematics about the middle of the thirteenth century that she was appointed professor of mathematics4 ,apparently the faculty of ,bologna had no qualms of educational conscience nor betook themselves to such halfway measures as one of our modern faculties1 which accords a certificate to a woman that she has passed better in the mathematical tripos than the ,senior ,wrangler1 though they do not accord her the ,senior ,wranglership4 ,the story goes on to say that ,signorina ,di ,novella1 knowing that she was pretty1 and fearing that her #bah beauty would disturb the minds1 at least1 of her male students1 arranged to lecture from behind a curtain4 ,this would seem to indicate that the blue-stockings of the olden time could be as surpassingly modest as they were intelligent4 ,i remember once telling this story before a convent audience4 ,the dear old ,mother ,superior1 who had known me for many years1 ventured to ask me afterwards1 ,did you say that she was young8 and ,i said yes1 according to the tradition2 and handsome8 and ,i nodded the affirmative1 ,well1 then1 she said1 ,i do not believe the rest of the story4 ,but then1 after all1 what do dear old ,mothers ,superior know about the world or its ways1 or about handsome young women or their ways1 or about the significance of traditions which serve to show us that even pretty1 intelligent women can be as modestly retiring and as ready to conceal their charms as they are to be charmingly courteous and careful of the feelings of others8 ,it was not alone in law and mathematics1 however1 that women were given opportunities for the higher education and even for professional work at the ,university of ,bologna4 ,in medicine1 as well as in law1 women reached distinction4 ,the first great professor of anatomy of modern times is ,mondino1 whose text-book on dissection1 published at the beginning of the fourteenth century1 continued to be used in the medical schools for two centuries4 ,one of his assistants was #bai ,alessandra ,giliani1 one of the two university prosectors in anatomy4 ,at the ,surgeon ,general's ,library in ,washington1 in one of the early printed editions of ,mondino's work1 the frontispiece shows a young woman making the dissection before him preparatory to his lecture4 ,to her1 according to an old ,italian chronicle1 we owe the invention of methods of varnishing and painting the tissues of cadavers so that they would resemble more their appearance in the living state1 that they might be preserved for further use1 thus avoiding to some extent the necessity for constant repetition of the deterrent work of dissection1 even more deterrent at that time4 ,it is curiously interesting to find that another great improvement in the teaching of anatomy1 invented in ,italy nearly four centuries later1 came also from a woman teaching at an ,italian university1 ,madame ,manzolini4 ,the tradition connecting these two women is unbroken4 ,there is not a century from the thirteenth to the eighteenth in which there were not distinguished women professors at the universities of ,italy1 and1 therefore1 also students in large numbers4 ,just how many women students there were we do not know4 ,it might seem to be a comparatively easy problem to find out just how many there were at any given time by looking up the registers of the universities4 ,once in ,bologna itself ,i got hold of the old university registers1 confident that now ,i would learn just what was #bbj the proportion of women students at the university4 ,i was utterly disappointed1 however1 ,italian mothers had1 so far as the settlement of this question is concerned1 the unfortunate habit occasionally of giving boys' names to girls1 and girls' names to boys4 ,they called their children after favorite saints4 ,a girl might well be called ,antonio1 for the feminine form was not in common use in earlier times4 ,many boys had for first name ,maria4 ,it used to be the custom in ,venice for every child1 no matter what its sex1 to receive from the ,church the two names ,maria ,giovanni1 and then the parents might add what other names they pleased4 ,the names of royalty1 with their frequent use of mingled masculine and feminine names1 show how much confusion can be worked to any scheme for the determination of the sex of students at the old universities by this1 for us1 unfortunate habit4 ,curiously enough1 it was during the thirteenth century when the development of feminine education in the early university period was at its height1 that certain changes in the domestic economy of the ,bolognese are worthy of notice4 ,two kinds of prepared food became popular1 if they were not1 indeed1 both invented at this time4 ,one of them1 bearing the classic name ,bologna1 is still with us1 has spread throughout the world1 and is likely to continue to be an important article of food for many centuries more4 ,another form of prepared food was a sort of dessert called ,bologna #bba pudding1 prepared from cereals1 and which can still be purchased in ,bologna1 though foreigners1 as a rule1 do not care much for it4 ,these two articles of food modified materially the preparation of food for meals at this time4 ,it was possible to buy both of these1 as now1 ready made1 and so the housewife was spared the bother and trouble and expenditure of time required for this work4 ,we have here one phase of the origin of the delicatessen stores4 ,this sort of change in domestic economy has always been noted whenever women have gone out of the home for other occupations and have become something less--or more--than the housewives and mothers they were before4 ,such changes in the dietary1 however1 in the direction of ready-made food are never popular with men4 ,one ,german historical writer has been unkind enough to say that this is one of the reasons why the higher education gradually became much less popular1 or at least attracted less attention than before4 ,women want things for themselves1 and if they are opposed insist on getting them1 is the way this cynic ,teuton puts it4 ,if1 after a time1 however1 having got what they want1 they find that the men do not like them to have it1 they gradually abandon it4 ,according to him ,bologna and ,bologna pudding saved the stooping over the kitchen range1 or whatever took its place in those days1 and gave all classes of women more opportunity for intellectual development or at least #bbb for occupation with things different from household duties1 but after a time the more or less resentful attitude of the men brought about a change4 ,however that may be is hard to say4 ,another interesting feature of the history of these times connected in some way with feminine education or1 at least1 with feminine occupation with other things besides their households1 was a great devotion to a particular breed of pet dogs of which one hears much in the accounts of the life at ,bologna at this time4 ,here1 once more1 the ,german cynic has had his say4 ,he has suggested that1 whenever women became occupied with things outside their home1 with a consequent diminution in the number of children1 they are almost sure to find an outlet for their affections in devotion to dogs and other pets4 ,apparently he would suggest that they literally go to the dogs4 ,it is very curious that just during this thirteenth century1 when feminine education at ,bologna is at its height1 one hears so much of these pets4 ,at other times in the world's history1 when women have taken to intellectual interests and especially when there has been a fall in the birth-rate1 this same attention to pet animals is worthy of study4 ,after the thirteenth century there seems to have been a reaction against these pets4 ,it is to be hoped that there is no connection between this and the prepared foods spoken of1 but the decline in the popularity of pets and of woman's #bbc occupation with intellectual interests went hand in hand4 ,for all of this ,i am indebted to ,german authorities whose attitude towards feminine education may somewhat prejudice them and1 indeed1 probably does so1 but these things are only mentioned as showing certain views that are held4 ,the interesting thing for us is that after a period of somewhat more than a century of rather intense interest on the part of the women in nearly every phase of the intellectual life1 there is then a diminution of interest1 so that by the end of the fourteenth century women1 even where feminine intellectual life was vigorous1 are occupied almost without exception as they were before the university period1 mainly with domestic concerns4 ,while feminine education was so common in the ecclesiastically ruled universities of ,italy1 the custom did not spread in ,western ,europe4 ,the reason is not far to seek4 ,all of the western universities owe their origins to ,paris4 ,oxford was due to a withdrawal of ,english students from ,paris1 ,cambridge to a similar withdrawal from ,oxford4 ,many of the ,scotch universities are grandchildren of ,paris4 ,all of the ,french universities are direct descendants1 except ,montpellier4 ,the ,spanish universities have a similar relation4 ,the experience with feminine education at ,paris had been unfortunate4 ,the ,heloise and ,abelard incident came in a formative stage of the university4 ,it settled unfavorably the #bbd whole question of feminine attendance at universities for the west4 ,it seems a small thing to have such a wide and far-reaching influence1 but it is very often on little things that the success or failure of great social movements of any kind depends4 ,we have practically no record of any relaxation of university regulations in this matter in the west4 ,perhaps the ,teutonic character was opposed to it1 perhaps the ,teutonic women were less anxious for it1 being more occupied with ,church and children and their home1 but there was none1 and its absence is responsible for the feeling so common among us1 that now for the first time in the world women are enjoying the opportunity for the higher education4 ,even the university epoch1 however1 is not the first phase of opportunities for the education of woman in modern history4 ,far from it1 indeed1 we can find much more than traces of a feminist movement in other centuries before this1 and1 indeed1 in many of them4 ,when ,charlemagne established schools for his people and invited ,alcuin1 the ,english monk1 to develop educational institutions for his people1 the first and most important school was that of the imperial palace where ,alcuin himself taught4 ,in this the women of ,paris were given opportunities quite as well as the men2 indeed1 they seem to have taken a more vivid interest and their example seems to have been the highest incentive for many of the men to take up a work so foreign to their natures1 #bbe for as yet they had all the barbarous instincts of their ,gothic ancestors1 only slightly tamed and modified by two or three centuries of gradual uplift and religious training of character4 ,there are letters from the women of the palace1 and especially ,charlemagne's daughter1 to ,alcuin1 discussing phases of his teaching and suggesting problems and questions with regard to the matters which he had been making the subject of his instruction4 ,it would be easy to think that this incident of the ,palace ,school did not mean very much and that its passing influence did not make itself felt widely nor for long4 ,the state of education at this time must not be forgotten4 ,only the clergy1 as a rule1 had leisure for it4 ,all the rest of the world were engaged either in the frequent wars or in a tireless struggle for subsistence as farmers1 merchants and craftsmen4 ,the nobility neglected education just as much as the upper classes always do1 though there were certain fashions which gained a foothold and that seem to show that they had some interest4 ,many a nobleman of the mediaeval centuries1 however1 boasted that he could not sign his own name4 ,he was rather proud of the fact that he had not lowered himself to mere book knowledge4 ,there were large numbers of the clergy and the monks1 however1 and these were the scholars of the period4 ,there were also at this time large numbers of religious women1 and these in their leisure hours #bbf spent much time at educational matters and some of them accomplished lasting results4 ,the mother of the family1 the court dame1 the wife of the nobleman1 whose castle was much more the home of work than it has ever been at any time since1 had but little leisure for the intellectual life4 ,the nuns devoted themselves to beautiful handiwork1 to the composition as well as the transcription of books and to the cultural interests generally4 ,it has always been true1 as a rule1 that the woman who accomplished anything in the intellectual life must be either a celibate1 or at most1 the mother of but a child or two4 ,the mother of a large family1 unless she is extremely exceptional1 cannot be expected to be productive in the intellectual life4 ,she has not the time for original work1 and still less for the filing process necessary for appropriate expression4 ,there are rare exceptions1 but they only prove the rule4 ,one of the two forms of production apparently women must give up to devote themselves to the other4 ,the nuns in the ,middle ,ages1 in the retirement of their convents1 gave themselves much more than we are likely to think possible1 to literary and scientific production4 ,within the past year ,i have published sketches of two distinguished women of the tenth and twelfth centuries whose books show us the intellectual interests of the women of this time4 ,only that women were having opportunities for mental development #bbg these would not have been written1 and as they were written for women1 it is evident that those interests were quite widely diffused4 ,one of these two authors comes in what is sometimes called the darkest of the ,dark ,ages1 the tenth century2 the other was born in the eleventh4 ,they serve to show how much more intense than we are likely to think was the interest of the time in things intellectual4 ,without printing and without any proper means of publication1 somehow these women succeeded in making literary monuments that have outlasted the wreck and ruin of time1 and that have been of sufficient interest to mankind to be preserved among vicissitudes which seemed surely destined to destroy them4 ,one of the two ladies was ,roswitha1 or ,hrotswitha1 a nun of ,gandersheim1 in what is now ,hanover1 who in the tenth century wrote a series of comedies in imitation of ,terence1 probably not meant to be played but to be read4 ,she says in the preface that the reason for writing them was that so many religious were reading the indecent literature of classical ,rome1 with the excuse that it was necessary for the cultivation of style or for the completion of their education1 that she wanted and had striven to write something moral and ,christian to replace the older writings4 ,that preface of itself ought to be enough to show us that in the nunneries along the ,rhine1 of which we know that there were many1 there must have been a much more #bbh widespread and ardent interest in literature1 and1 above all1 in classic literature1 than we have had any idea of until recently4 ,hrotswitha1 to give her her ,saxon name1 was only a young woman of twenty-five when she wrote the series of stories and plays thus prefaced1 and while her style1 of course1 does not compare with the classics1 worse ,latin has often been written by people who were sure that they knew more about ,latinity than any nun of the obscure tenth century could possibly have known4 ,the other woman writer of about this time was ,hildegarde1 the abbess of a monastery along the ,rhine1 born at the end of the eleventh century1 who wrote a text-book of medicine1 which was the most important document in the history of medicine in this century4 ,the nuns were the nurses and the hospital attendants and in the country places1 to a great extent1 the physicians of this time4 ,in the cities there were regular practitioners of medicine1 but the infirmarian of a monastery cared for the ailing monks and the people on the monastery estates when ill1 and often they were many in number1 and the infirmarian of a convent did the same thing for the sisters and for at least the women folk among the people of the neighborhood4 ,it was in order to gather together and preserve the medical traditions of the monasteries and convents that ,hildegarde1 who afterwards came to be known as ,st4 ,hildegarde1 wrote her volume on medicine4 ,it has been recently #bbi issued in the collection of old writings called ,migne's ,patrologia1 and has drawn many praises from historical critics for the amount of information which it contains4 ,these two1 ,hroswitha and ,hildegarde1 furnish abundant evidence of the intellectual life of the convents of this old time and more than hint at how much has been lost that might have helped us to a larger knowledge of them4 ,with this in mind it will be easier to understand a preceding phase of the history of feminine education in ,europe4 ,the first nation that was converted to ,christianity in a body1 so that ,christian ideas and ideals had a chance for assertion and application in the life of the people1 was ,ireland4 ,christianity when introduced into ,rome met with the determined opposition of old paganism4 ,after the migration of nations and the coming down of the barbarians upon the ,roman ,empire1 there was little opportunity for ,christianity to assert itself until after these ,teutonic peoples had been lifted out of their barbarism to a higher plane of civilization4 ,in ,ireland1 however1 not only did conversion to ,christianity convert the whole people1 but it came to a people who possessed already a high degree of civilization and culture1 a literature that we have been learning to think more and more of in recent years1 many arts1 and the development of science1 in the form of medicine at least1 to a high degree4 ,the law and music1 the language and the literature of #bcj the early ,irish all show us a highly cultivated people4 ,when ,christianity came to them1 then1 education became its watchword4 ,schools were opened everywhere on the island4 ,ireland became ,the ,island of ,saints and of ,scholars1 and literally thousands of students flocked from ,england and the mainland to these ,irish schools4 ,the first and the greatest of these was that founded by ,st4 ,patrick himself at ,armagh4 ,during the century after his death there were probably at one time as many as #e1jjj students at ,armagh4 ,only next in importance to this great school of the ,irish apostle was that of his great feminine co-worker1 ,st4 ,brigid1 who did for the women of ,ireland what ,st4 ,patrick had been doing for the men4 ,it is probable that there were #h1jjj students at ,kildare1 ,brigid's great school1 at one time4 ,it is curious to think that there should have been something like co-education #a1ejj years ago1 and1 above all1 in ,ireland1 but ,kildare seems to have had a system not unlike that in vogue at many of our universities in the modern time4 ,the male and female students were thoroughly segregated1--may ,i say this is not the last time in the world's history that segregation was the distinguishing trait of co-education1--but the teachers of the men at ,kildare seem also to have lectured to the women4 ,the men occupied an entirely subsidiary position1 however2 even the bishops of ,kildare in ,brigid's time were appointed on her recommendation4 ,for centuries #bca afterwards the ,abbess of ,kildare1 ,brigid's successor1 had the privilege of a commanding voice in the selection of the bishop4 ,the school at ,kildare was conducted mainly by and for women1 though there were men in the neighboring monastery who taught both classes of pupils4 ,perhaps the most interesting feature of the education of ,kildare is that it was not concerned exclusively1 nor even for the major part apparently1 with book-learning4 ,the book-learning of the ,irish schools was celebrated4 ,down at ,kildare1 however1 certain of the arts and crafts were cultivated with special success4 ,lace-making and the illumination of books were two of the favorite occupations of these students at ,kildare in which marvellous success was achieved4 ,the tradition of ,irish lace-making which has maintained itself during all the centuries began1 or at least1 secured its first great prestige1 in ,brigid's time4 ,gerald the ,welshman1 sometimes spoken of as ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 told of having seen during a journey in ,ireland centuries after ,brigid's time1 but nearly a thousand years ago1 a copy of the ,scriptures that was wonderfully illuminated4 ,he thought it the most beautiful book in the world4 ,his description tallies very closely with that of the ,book of ,kells4 ,some have even ventured to suggest that he actually saw the ,book of ,kells at ,kildare4 ,this is extremely improbable1 however1 and the ,book of ,kells almost surely originated elsewhere4 ,there #bcb seems1 however1 to have been at ,kildare some book nearly as beautiful as the ,book of ,kells1 made there1 and establishing peradventure the thoroughness of the artistic education given at ,kildare at this time4 ,so much for feminine influence and education under ,christianity4 ,most people are likely to know much more of the place of women in ,greece and ,rome than during ,christian times4 ,we are prone1 however1 to exaggerate the dependence of woman among both ,latins and ,greeks and to think that she had very few opportunities for intellectual development and almost none for expression of her personality and the exertion of her influence4 ,here1 once more1 as in many other phases of this subject we are1 through ignorance1 assuming conditions in the past that are quite unlike those which actually existed4 ,recently in the ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,mrs4 ,emily ,james ,putnam1 sometime the ,dean of ,barnard1 in an article on ,the ,roman ,lady1 ,footnote #ag has completely undermined usual notions with regard to the position of the ,roman woman4 ,the ,roman matrons had rights all their own1 and succeeded in asserting themselves in many ways4 ,there was never any seclusion of the women in ,rome and the ,roman matrona at all times enjoyed personal freedom1 entertained her husband's guests1 had a voice in his affairs1 managed his house and came and went as she pleased4 ,mrs4 ,putnam suggests that in #bcc early days she shared the labors and the dangers of the insecure life of a weak people among hostile neighbors4 ,it may not be fanciful to say that the liberty of the ,roman woman of classical times was the inherited reward of the prowess of a pioneer ancestress1 in the same way as the social freedom of the ,american woman to-day comes to her from the brave ,colonial housemother1 able to work and1 when need was1 to fight4 ,footnote #ag3 ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,june1 #aiaj4 ,indeed the more one studies social life in ,rome the more clear does it become that conditions were very similar for women to what they are in this latest of the republics here in ,america4 ,this will not be surprising if we but learn to realize that the circumstances of the development of ,rome itself1 the environment in which the women were placed resembled ours of the later time much more closely than we have had any idea of until recent years4 ,the ,italian historian1 ,ferrero1 has read new lessons into ,roman history for us by showing us the past in terms of the present4 ,the conditions that developed at ,rome1 as ,i have said1 were very similar to those which developed in the modern ,american republic4 ,riches came1 luxury arose4 ,eastern slaves came to do all the work in the household that could formerly be accomplished by the women1 ,greek hand-maidens particularly took every solicitude out of her hands1 and then the ,roman matron looked around for something to occupy herself with1 and #bcd it was not long before we have expressions from the men that would remind us of many things that have been said in the last generation or so4 ,there is a well-known speech of ,cato delivered in opposition to the repeal of the ,oppian ,law which forbade women to hold property1 that is reported by ,livy and sounds strangely modern4 ,mrs4 ,putnam talks of it very aptly1 as an expression of the ever recurrent uneasiness of the male in the presence of the insurgent female4 ',if1 ,romans1' said he1 'every individual among us had made it a rule to maintain the prerogative and authority of a husband with respect to his own wife1 we should have less trouble with the whole sex4 ,it was not without painful emotions of shame that ,i just now made my way into the forum through a crowd of women4 ,had ,i not been restrained by respect for the modesty and dignity of some individuals among them1 ,i should have said to them1 ,what sort of practice is this1 of running out into public1 besetting the streets1 and addressing other women's husbands8 ,could not each have made the same request to her husband at home8 ,are your blandishments more seductive in public than in private1 and with other women's husbands than your own8 ',our ancestors thought it not proper that women should transact any1 even private business1 without a director4 ,we1 it seems1 suffer them now to interfere in the management of state #bce affairs4 ,will you give the reins to their untractable nature and their uncontrolled passions8 ,this is the smallest of the injunctions laid on them by usage or the laws1 all of which women bear with impatience2 they long for liberty1 or rather for license4 ,what will they not attempt if they win this victory8 ,the moment they have arrived at an equality with men1 they will become your superiors4' ,the social conditions which developed at ,rome are indeed so strangely like those with which we are now familiar as to be quite startling4 ,as a mere man ,i should hesitate to suggest this1 since it refers particularly to feminine affairs and domestic concerns1 but since it has been betrayed by one of the sex perhaps ,i may venture to quote it4 ,once more ,i turn to ,mrs4 ,putnam for an apt expression of the conditions4 ,she says3 ,the ,greeks1 who1 to be sure1 had nothing in their dwellings that was not beautiful1 had still supposed the great works of art were for public places4 ,with the ,romans began the private collection of chefs-d'oeuvre in its most snobbish aspect4 ,the parts played by the sexes in this enterprise sometimes showed the same division of labor that prevails very largely in a certain great nation of our own day that shall be nameless3 the husband paid for the best art that money could buy1 and the wife learned to talk about it and to entertain the artist4 ,it is true that the ,roman lady began also to improve her mind4 ,she #bcf studied ,greek1 and hired ,greek masters to teach her history and philosophy4 ,ladies flocked to hear lectures on all sorts of subjects1 originating the odd connection between scholarship and fashion which still persists4 ,this subject may be pursued with ever-increasing recognition of similarity between that time and our own4 ,for instance1 ,mrs4 ,putnam says3 ,a woman of fashion1 we are told1 reckoned it among her ornaments if it were said of her that she was well read and a thinker1 and that she wrote lyrics almost worthy of ,sappho4 ,she1 too1 must have her hired escort of teachers1 and listen to them now and then1 at table or while she was having her hair dressed1--at other times she was too busy4 ,and often while the philosopher was discussing high ethical themes her maid would come in with a love-letter1 and the argument must wait till it was answered4 ,nothing very important in the way of production resulted from all the lady's literary activity4 ,the verses1 if ,sulpicia's they be1 are the sole surviving evidence of creative effort among her kind2 and1 respectable as they are1 they need not disturb ,sappho's repose4 ,it was indirectly that the ,roman lady affected literature1 since kinds began to be produced to her special taste2 for it is hardly an accident that the vers de societe should expand1 and the novel originate1 in periods when for the first time women were a large element in the reading public4 #bcg ,in our time it has been said1 that one of the reasons why the young man does not marry is often that he is fearful of the superiority of the college-bred young woman4 ,he knows that he himself has no more intelligence than is absolutely necessary for the proper conduct of life1 and he fears that his breaks in grammar1 in literature1 in taste for art1 in social things1 may make him the laughing-stock of the educated woman4 ,we would be reasonably sure1 most of us1 that at least this is the first time in the world's history that anything like this has happened4 ,it is rather interesting1 however1 to read some of the reflections of the ,roman satiric poets on the state of affairs that developed in ,rome as a consequence of study and lectures and at least supposed scholarship becoming the fashion4 ,i hate the woman1 says ,juvenal1 who is always turning back to the grammatical rules of ,palaemon and consulting them2 the feminine antiquary who recalls verses unknown to me1 and corrects the words of an unpolished friend which even a man would not observe4 ,let a husband be allowed to make a solecism in peace4 ,i recommend the reading of ,juvenal to the college young woman of the modern time1 not only for its classic but for its social value4 ,among the ,greeks the position of women was quite different from what is usually supposed4 ,it is only too often the custom to think that the ,greek women1 confined to a great degree to their #bch houses1 sharing little in the public discussions1 coming very slightly into public in any way1 were more or less despised by the men and tolerated1 but surely not much respected4 ,the place of women in life at any time can be best judged from the position assigned them by the dramatic poets of any period4 ,the larger the mind of the dramatic poet1 the more of a genius he is1 the more surely does his estimate expressed in literature represent life as he saw it4 ,ruskin pointed out that ,shakespeare has no heroes and many heroines2 that1 while he has no men that stand in unmarred perfection of character1 there is scarcely a play that has not a perfect woman in it1 steadfast in grave hope and errorless purpose2 conceived in the highest heroic type of humanity4 ,what is thus true of ,shakespeare is just as true of the great dramatic poets of the ,greeks4 ,in practically all the extant plays of ,a,eschylus1 ,sophocles and ,euripides1 women are the heroines4 ,they are represented as nobler1 braver1 more capable of suffering1 with a better appreciation of their ethical surroundings and the realities of life1 than the men around them4 ,as much as ,antigone is superior to her quarrelsome brothers1 as ,alcestis rises above her selfish husband1 as ,tecmessa is superior to and would have saved ,ajax if only he had permitted her1 so everywhere do we find women occupying not a place of equality but a position of superiority4 ,these plays were written by men4 ,just as in #bci the case of ,shakespeare they were written by men mainly to be witnessed by men1 for while three-fourths of our audiences at theatres now are women1 at least three-fourths of the audience in ,shakespeare's time were men1 and in the old ,greek theatre the men largely exceeded the women in attendance4 ,these were masculine pictures of the place of woman1 painted not in empty compliment but with profoundest respect and deepest understanding4 ,we honor these writers as the greatest in the history of literature because they saw life so clearly and so truly4 ,literature is only great when it mirrors life to the nail4 ,what the ,greek dramatists had done1 ,homer had done before them4 ,his picture of the older ,greek women shows us that they were on an absolute equality in their households with the men1 that not only were they thoroughly respected and loved for themselves1 but1 to repeat ,ruskin1 they were looked up to as infallibly wise counsellors1 as the best possible advisers to whom a man could go1 provided they themselves were of high character and their hearts1 as well as their intellects1 were interested in the problems involved4 ,there are1 of course1 in all of the dramatists some wicked women4 ,in the whole round of ,shakespeare's characters there are only three wicked women who have degraded their womanhood among the principal figures4 ,these are ,lady ,macbeth1 ,regan and ,goneril4 ,we have corresponding characters in the ,greek dramatists4 #bdj ,clytemnestra is the ,lady ,macbeth of ,greek ,tragedy4 ,euripides1 the feminist as he has been called1 has shown us1 as feminists ever1 more of the worst side of women than his greater predecessors ,a,eschylus and ,sophocles4 ,he has exhibited the extent to which religious over-enthusiasm can carry women in the ,bacchae1 and was the first to introduce the sex problem4 ,in general it may be said1 as ,ruskin says of ,shakespeare1 that when a ,greek dramatist pictures wicked women they are at once felt to be frightful exceptions to the ordinary laws of life2 fatal in their influence also in proportion to the power for good which they had abandoned4 ,indeed tragedy1 as we see it in the great tragic poets1 might be defined as the failure on the part of a good woman to save the men who are nearest and dearest to her from the faults into which their characters impel them4 ,all the great dramatists1 ancient and modern1 represent women once more in ,ruskin's words as infallibly faithful and wise counsellors--incorruptibly just and pure examples--strong always to sanctify1 even when they cannot save4 ,how little there is in any question of evolution having brought new influence or higher place to woman may be very well realized from this position of women among the old ,greeks4 ,gladstone has called attention to it very forcibly in his ,essay on the ,place of ,ancient ,greece in the ,providential ,order1 when he says1 ,outside #bda the pale of ,christianity1 it would be difficult to find a parallel in point of elevation to the ,greek women of the heroic age4 ,he has taken the place of woman as representing the criterion by which the civilization and the culture of a people at any time may be judged1 though he does not at all think that one finds a constant upward tendency in history in this regard4 ,he says3 ,for when we are seeking to ascertain the measure of that conception which any given race has formed of our nature1 there is1 perhaps1 no single test so effective1 as the position which it assigns to woman4 ,for as the law of force is the law of brute creation1 so in proportion as he is under the yoke of that law does man approximate to the brute4 ,and in proportion1 on the other hand1 as he has escaped from its dominion1 is he ascending into the higher sphere of being and claiming relationship with ,deity4 ,but the emancipation and due ascendency of woman are not a mere fact1 they are the emphatic assertion of a principle1 and that principle is the dethronement of the law of force and the enthronement of other and higher laws in its place and its despite4 ,of course1 of the formal education of the women of ,greece we know very little4 ,we do know that they would not have been respected as they were1 looked up to by their sons and their husbands1 honored as the poets have shown them to be1 put upon the stage as the heroines of the race1 only that they had been intellectually as well as #bdb morally the equals--nay1 the superiors--of the men around them4 ,we do not know much about the teaching of women before and during the classical period1 but we can understand very well from what we know of them that they must have had good opportunities for education4 ,plato1 of course1 insists that women should be educated in every way exactly as the men4 ,he mentions specifically gymnastics and horseback riding1 and says that women should be trained in these as well as things intellectual1 for they should have their bodies developed as well as their minds4 ,his reason for demanding equal education is very interesting1 because it is an anticipation of what is being said rather emphatically at the present time4 ,he says3 ,if ,i am right nothing can be more foolish than our modern fashion of training men and women differently1 whereby one-half of the power of the city is lost4 ,for reflect if women are not to have the education of men some other must be found for them1 and what other can we propose8 ,his idea evidently was that only one-half those who ought to be citizens were properly trained for civic duties if the education of women were neglected4 ,it is extremely interesting in the light of this to read some of ,aristophanes' plays4 ,three of them1 ,lysistrata1 the ,thesmophoriazusae1 which has a simpler name ,the ,women's ,festival1 for it referred to the great feast of ,thesmophoria in honor of ,ceres and ,proserpine1 and #bdc the ,ecclesiazusae4 ,this last title may be rendered a little freely ,the ,female ,parliament1 for in it women secure1 by a little fraud1 the right to vote and vote themselves into office as the main portion of the plot of the play4 ,all three of these plays refer particularly to the question of women's rights1 and though ,the ,women's ,festival was written as a satire on ,euripides it is evident that only this subject was about as prominently before the people of ,athens as the question of votes for women is in our time1 ,aristophanes would not have written these satiric comedies4 ,the subjects of his plays are always the very latest actuality in ,athens4 ,socrates was satirized in ,the ,clouds within a few months of his death4 ,the ,war was written while ,athens was actually engaged in it1 and ,the ,peace was written within a few months after the signing of the treaty4 ,votes for women must actually have been on the very centre of the carpet when ,aristophanes wrote his ,ecclesiazusae or ,feminine ,parliament4 ,lest it should be thought that ,i intrude myself in any way in trying to boil down for you the old satiric comedy1 or that ,i am modernizing ,aristophanes in order to adapt the ideas of this play more fully to conditions that are around us at the present time1 ,i shall read to you the excellent condensation of it made by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,lucas ,collins1 ,m4,a41 in his ,aristophanes1 in the series of ,ancient ,classics for ,english #bdd ,readers1 that scholarly introduction to the classic authors of which ,mr4 ,collins is the editor4 ,he says3 ,the women have determined1 under the leadership of a clever lady named ,praxagora1 to reform the constitution of ,athens4 ,for this purpose they will dress like men--beards included--and occupy the seats in the ,pnyx1 so as to be able to command a majority of votes in the next public assembly1 the parliament of ,athens4 ,praxagora is strongly of opinion with the modern ,mrs4 ,poyser1 that on the point of speaking1 at all events1 the women have great natural advantages over the men2 that 'when they have anything to say they can mostly find words to say it in4' ,they hold a midnight meeting for the purpose of rehearsing their intended speeches and getting accustomed to their new clothes4 ,two or three of the most ambitious orators unfortunately break down at the very outset1 much to their leader's disgust1 by addressing the assembly as 'ladies' and swearing female oaths and using many other unparliamentary expressions quite unbefitting their masculine attire4 ,praxagora herself1 however1 makes a speech which is very generally admired4 ,she complains of the mismanagement hitherto of public affairs1 and asserts that the only hope of salvation for the state is to put the government into the hands of the women2 arguing1 like ,lysistrata in the comedy of that name1 that those who have so long managed the domestic establishment #bde successfully are best fitted to undertake the same duties on a larger scale4 ,the women1 too1 are shown by their advocate to be highly conservative1 and1 therefore1 safe guardians of the public interests3 ,they roast and boil after the good old fashion1 ,they keep the holidays that were kept of old4 ,they make their cheesecakes by the old receipts4 ,they keep a private bottle like their mothers4 ,they plague their husbands--as they always did4 ,even in the management of a campaign1 they will be found more prudent and more competent than the men3 ,being mothers1 they'll be chary of the blood ,of their own sons1 our soldiers2 being mothers1 ,they will take care their children do not starve ,when they're on service2 and1 for ways and means1 ,trust us1 there's nothing cleverer than a woman3 ,and as for diplomacy1 they'll be hard indeed ,to cheat--they know too many tricks themselves4 ,her speech is unanimously applauded2 she is elected lady-president on the spot1 by public acclamation1 and the chorus of ladies march off towards the ,pnyx to secure their places like the old gentlemen in ',the ,wasps' ready for the daybreak4 ,in the next scene1 two of the husbands enter in great perplexity1 one wrapped in his wife's dressing gown1 and the other with only his under-garment #bdf on and without his shoes4 ,they both want to go to the assembly but cannot find their clothes4 ,while they are wondering what in the world their wives can have done with them1 and what is become of the ladies themselves1 a third neighbor1 ,chremes1 comes in4 ,he has been to the assembly2 but even he was too late to get the threepence which was allowed out of the public treasury to all who took their seat in good time1 and which all ,athenian citizens1 if we may trust their satirist1 were so ludicrously eager to secure4 ,the place was quite full already1 and of strange faces1 too4 ,and a handsome fair-faced youth 7,praxagora in disguise1 we are to understand7 had got up1 and amid the loud cheers of those unknown voters had proposed and carried a resolution1 that the government of the state should be placed in the hands of a committee of ladies1--an experiment which had found favor also with others1 chiefly because it was 'the only change which had not as yet been tried at ,athens4' ,his two neighbors are somewhat confounded at his news1 but congratulate themselves on the fact that the wives will now1 at all events1 have to see to the maintenance of the children1 and that 'the gods sometimes bring good out of evil4' ,the women return1 and get home as quickly as they can to change their costume so that the trick by which the passing of this new decree has been secured may not be detected4 ,praxagora succeeds in persuading her husband that she had #bdg been sent for in a hurry to attend a sick neighbor1 and only borrowed his coat to put on 'because the night was so cold' and his strong shoes and staff1 in order that any evil-disposed person might take her for a man as she tramped along1 and so not interfere with her4 ,she at first affects not to have heard of the reform which has been just carried1 but when her husband explains it1 declares it will make ,athens a paradise4 ,then she confesses to him that she has herself been chosen1 in full assembly1 ',generalissima of the state4' ,she puts the question1 however1 just as we have all seen it put by a modern actress1--'will this house agree to it8' ,and if ,praxagora was at all attractively got up1 we may be sure it was carried by acclamation in the affirmative4 ,then1 in the first place1 there shall be no more poverty2 there shall be community of goods1 and so there shall be no law suits1 and no gambling and no informers4 7,they promised more even than our suffragettes--if possible47 ,moreover1 there shall be community of wives1--and all the ugly wives shall have the first choice of husbands4 ,so she goes off to her public duties1 to see that these resolutions are carried out forthwith2 the good citizen begging leave to follow close at her side1 so that all who see him may say1 ',what a fine fellow is our ,generalissima's husband6' ,the scene changes to another street in ,athens1 where the citizens are bringing out all their property1 to be carried into the market-place #bdh and inventoried for the common stock4 ,citizen ',a' dances with delight as he marshals his dilapidated chattels into a mock procession--from the meal sieve1 which he kisses1 it looks so pretty with its powdered hair1 to the iron pot which looks as black 'as if ,lysimachus' 7some well-known fop of the day1 possibly present among the audience7 'had been boiling his hair dye in it4' ,this patriot1 at least1 has not much to lose1 and hopes he may have something to gain1 under these female communists4 ,but his neighbor1 who is better off1 is in no such hurry4 ,the ,athenians1 as he remarks1 are always making new laws and abrogating them2 what has been passed to-day very likely will be repealed to-morrow4 ,besides it is a good old national habit to take1 not to give4 ,he will wait a while before he gives in an inventory of his possessions4 7,one might think of an income tax law in the ,united ,states in the twentieth century47 ,but at this point comes the city-beadle 7an appointment now held1 of course1 by a lady7 with a summons to a banquet provided for all citizens out of the public funds3 and amongst the items in the bill of fare is one dish whose name is composed of seventy-seven syllables--which ,aristophanes gives us1 but which the reader shall be spared4 7,it has been boiled down by the ,american schoolboy to just 'hash4'7 ,citizen ',b' at once delivers it as his opinion that 'every #bdi man of proper feeling should support the constitution to the utmost of his ability1' and hurries to take his place at the feast4 ,there are some difficulties caused1 very naturally by the new communistic regulations as to providing for the old and ugly women1 but with these we need not deal4 ,the piece ends with an invitation1 issued by direction of ,praxagora through her lady-chamberlain1 to the public generally1 spectators included1 to join the national banquet which is to inaugurate the new order of things4 ,in a previous comedy ,aristophanes had told of another interference of women in the political life of ,athens that contains so many reminders of the modern time1 and shows so definitely how old the new is1 that it deserves a place here4 ,above all1 the desertions from the cause of the women when they find that their political duties interfere with their home duties1 and that they have to sacrifice many of the joys of life even though they are duties that may at times seem irksome enough1--children1 household work1 etc41--for these newer obligations with which they have so little sympathy1 is especially interesting4 ,once more ,i prefer to take the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,collins' summary of the play in order that it may be clear that ,aristophanes' meaning is not being stretched for the purpose of making points with regard to present-day conditions4 ,after all1 ,mr4 ,collins' little book was written very nearly thirty years ago1 when very little of the present feministic #bej movement1 at least in the form in which we are now familiar with it1 had asserted itself4 ,they determine1 under the leading of the clever ,lysistrata1 wife to one of the magistrates1 to take the question 7of the ending of the war7 into their own hands4 ,they resolve upon a voluntary separation from their husbands--a practical divorce a mensa et thoro--until peace with ,sparta shall be proclaimed4 ,it is resolved that a body of the elder matrons shall seize the ,acropolis and make themselves masters of the public treasury4 ,these form one of the two choruses in the play1 the other being composed of the old men of ,athens4 ,the latter proceed 7with a good deal of comic difficulty1 owing to the steepness of the ascent and their shortness of breath7 to attack the ,acropolis1 armed with torches and fagots and pans of charcoal1 with which they hope to smoke out the occupants4 ,but the women have provided themselves with buckets of water1 which they empty on the heads of their assailants1 who soon retire discomfited to call the police4 ,but the police are1 in their turn1 repulsed by these resolute insurgents1 whom they do not exactly know how to deal with4 ,at last a member of the public committee comes forward to parley1 and a dialogue takes place between him and ,lysistrata4 ',why1' he asks1 'have they thus taken possession of the citadel8' ',they have resolved henceforth to manage the public revenues themselves1' is the #bea reply1 'and not allow them to be applied to carrying on this ruinous war4' ',that is no business for women1' argues the magistrate4 ',why not8' says ,lysistrata2 'the wives have long had the management of the private purses of the husbands1 to the great advantage of both4' ,in short1 the women have made up their minds to have their voice no longer ignored1 as hitherto1 in questions of peace and war4 ,their remonstrances have always been met with the taunt that 'war is the business of men2' and to any question they have ventured to ask their husbands on such points1 the answer has always been the old cry--old as the days of ,homer--',go spin1 you jade1 go spin6' ,but they will put up with it no longer4 ,as they have always had wit enough to clear the tangled threads in their work1 so they have no doubt of settling all these difficulties and complications in international disputes1 if it is left to them4 ,but what concern1 her opponent asks1 can women have with war1 who contribute nothing to its dangers and hardships8 ',contribute1 indeed6' says the lady2 'we contribute the sons who carry it on4' ,and she throws down to her adversary her hood1 her basket and her spindle1 and bids him 'go home and card wool1'--it is all such old men are fit for2 henceforth the proverb 7of the men's making7 shall be reversed1--',war shall be the care of the women4' ,the magistrate retires not having got the best of it1 very naturally1 in an encounter of words2 and the chorus of elders raise the cry--#beb well known as a popular partisan cry at ,athens1 and sure to call forth a hearty laugh in such juxtaposition--that the women are designing to 'set up a tyranny6' ,but poor ,lysistrata soon has her troubles4 ,her unworthy recruits are fast deserting her4 ,they are going off to their husbands in the most sneaky manner--creeping out through the little hole under the citadel which led to the celebrated cave of ,pan1 and letting themselves down from the walls by ropes at the risk of breaking their necks4 ,those who are caught all have excellent excuses4 ,one has some fleeces of fine ,milesian wool at home which must be seen to1--she is sure the moths are eating them4 ,another has urgent occasion for the doctor2 a third cannot sleep alone for fear of the owls--of which1 as every one knows1 there were really a great many at ,athens4 ,the husbands1 too1 are getting uncomfortable without their housekeepers2 there is no one to cook their victuals2 and one poor soul comes and humbly entreats his wife at least to come home and wash and dress the baby4 ,it is becoming plain that either the war or the wives' resolution will soon give way1 when there arrives an embassy from ,sparta4 ,they cannot stand this general strike of the wives4 ,they are agreed already with their enemies1 the ,athenians1 on one point--as to the women--that the old ,greek comedian's proverb1 which we have borrowed and translated freely1 is true1-- ,there is no living with 'em--or without 'em4 #bec ,they are come to offer terms of peace4 ,when two parties are already of one mind1 as ,lysistrata observes1 they are not long in coming to an understanding4 ,a treaty is made on the spot1 with remarkably few preliminaries4 ,whenever we have sufficient remains to illustrate the life of any period of history with reasonable completeness1 we find women occupying a much more important place than is usually conceded to them4 ,the trouble is that we assume that we know something about the past1 because we have somewhere obtained a vague notion of it and then we fill in details in accordance with that preconceived notion4 ,the general rule1 unfortunately1 is to make as little of the past as possible and to consider that1 of course1 they must have been very different from us1 and surely far behind us in everything4 ,the more one really knows of history1 however1 the less does one think this4 ,we must not let our complacent self-satisfaction with our own generation disturb our proper appreciation of past generations1 however4 ,an ,english writer said not very long ago1 and now that we have reviewed various periods in the history of feminine influence and of education1 ,i think that you will recognize the justice of what he said1 ,it is too much the easy custom of the present self-admiring day--not a bit more self-satisfied1 after all1 than each day has been in its #bed turn--to hold the women of the past as something little better than dolls for their attainments1 a little dearer than slaves for their position and despicably content therein4 ,nothing could well be less true than this4 ,what is apt to strike us1 however1 after a review of the phases of feminine education and influence such as ,i have sketched1 is that there are undoubtedly times during which very little is heard of feminine influence and almost nothing at all of feminine education4 ,there are periods on the other hand when these subjects are the very centre of human interest4 ,this interest waxes to a certain climax and then apparently wanes4 ,what is the reason for these waxings and wanings8 ,is there anything that we know about them that will help us to account for them8 ,if women have once achieved a certain position and have once secured certain privileges in the matter of education1 it might reasonably be expected that1 barring some great cataclysm or political upheaval1 that completely disrupted society1 they would not abandon these hard-won rights and precious privileges1 and so we should not have to be going through the storm and stress of another period of discussion1 controversy1 opposition with regard to woman's rights4 ,how is it that rights once attained--and never unless after a struggle1 for no matter how civilized a period or how cultured a people1 they do not grant rights to any class unless forced to do so-- that these rights have afterwards been lost1 or at least greatly diminished and partly forgotten8 #bee ,in this we come upon one of the mysteries of history and of the life of man4 ,how is it that men secure certain knowledge and then forget it--literally forget all about it--how is it that men make discoveries and then lose sight of them so that they have to be made over again2 how is it that men even make useful inventions of all kinds and these are lost sight of and the invention has to be made over again in succeeding generations8 ,how is it that the ,suez ,canal was opened at least once before our time and then allowed to fill up with sand1 and we had to do the work all over again two generations ago8 ,how is it that ,america was discovered at least twice1 probably oftener1 before ,columbus' time1 and yet his was a real discovery8 ,we actually have ,papal documents addressed to bishops in ,greenland from ,popes in the thirteenth century1 mentioning missions on the mainland of ,america4 ,there are traditions that seem to point beyond all doubt to the fact that the ,irish monks were here in ,america in the eighth and ninth centuries4 ,those traditions come from three or four different sources4 ,there was a reverence for the cross among the ,indians in certain parts of the country4 ,a tradition of white-robed priests who came from over the sea4 ,the ,norse name for ,america was ,irland it ,mikla1 ,ireland the ,great1 #bef that is1 the island of the ,irish1 much larger than ,ireland itself and lying beyond it in the seas4 ,how is it1 indeed1 that there are many discoveries and rediscoveries of the same principle in science8 ,heron's engine at ,alexandria was an anticipation of the turbine principle in the application of steam4 ,when we dug up surgical instruments at ,pompeii we were surprised to find that they had the form of many instruments that we thought we had invented in our time4 ,in glass-making1 in iron-working1 in all the arts and crafts precious secrets are discovered1 then lost1 then rediscovered1 and this may even happen several times4 ,we find no sign of a continuous progress1 but recurring phases that represent ups and downs in man's interest in certain things and his achievements corresponding to the intensity of his interest4 ,such a thing as a regular progressive advance one finds nowhere in history4 ,nations do not maintain their power after they have achieved it4 ,just as soon as the struggle to maintain themselves is over1 internal troubles of various kinds set disintegrating factors at work and it is not long before decadence can be noted and then the disappearance of the people or at least of its national prominence becomes inevitable4 ,we shall not be surprised to find ups and downs in the history of feminine influence and education1 for this is the rule of history4 ,we have only been laboring under the false notion that definite progress was the rule because of #beg over-absorption in the evolution theory--but it is not4 ,there seems to be in this matter a certain check upon the occupation of woman with interests external to her household that would tempt her to occupy herself much with duties extraneous to the family life4 ,after all1 one thing is perfectly clear4 ,only women can be mothers4 ,we have not succeeded even in getting the slightest possible hint of any method of continuing the race except by the ordinary process of maternity4 ,whatever of direct evolution the advocates of the theory of evolution have suggested as coming in humanity so that it may be the subject of observation1 has been due in their minds to the lengthening of the period during which the young of the race are cared for4 ,as we go up in the scale of life from the lowest to the highest1 infancy-- meaning by that the period during which the offspring is cared for by the parents--lengthens4 ,in the very small beings there is none4 ,as we ascend in the scale we find traces of parental care4 ,then comes occupation of the parents with their offspring from a few hours up to a day or two1 and then finally months and years1 until in the human race infancy has been gradually prolonged to twenty years4 ,this is ,herbert ,spencer's observation and it is interesting and suggestive4 ,a mother then especially1 though also a father1 must care for children1 not alone for months before and after birth1 but for a score of years4 #beh ,occupation with other things1 though necessary1 detracts from this care of children1 and if exaggerated leads to the celibate condition or that approaching it1 the limitation of families within narrow bounds4 ,the mother of but two or three children may occupy herself with other things and1 indeed1 has to find other occupation of mind4 ,at certain periods in the world's history a certain number of these women accumulate and the tendency to celibacy or to very limited maternity makes itself felt1 and then this class of people usually fails to propagate enough of the species like themselves to take their places in the world4 ,it is a matter of common comment at the present moment that if the women's colleges were to depend on the progeny of their graduates to fill the classes in succeeding years1 the numbers at the schools not only would not increase but would constantly tend to decrease4 ,of course this same thing is true of the descendants of the male graduates of many of our ,eastern universities1 and ,i believe that attention has been particularly called to it with regard to our three oldest universities4 ,such are the risks of life and the fatalities incident to disease1 even with our present improved hygienic conditions1 that anything less than five or six children in a family will not prove sufficient eventually to replace the parents in their activities4 ,when to small families is added the number of celibates consequent upon absorption in self-improvement1 then the failure of the #bei cultured classes even to replace themselves becomes very manifest1 and hence our dwindling native populations1 if we take that word to mean the families that have been in the country for more than two generations4 ,nature does not confide conditions in humanity entirely to man1 however4 ,this would be to leave mankind subject to certain whims and fashions and the caprices of times and people4 ,there are many biological checks which maintain mankind in a certain equilibrium4 ,a typical example of it is the regulation of the number of each sex born4 ,in general the proportion of the sexes to one another maintains a ratio very near that of equality under ordinary natural conditions4 ,this obtains in spite of the fact that man is so much more subject to accidents than woman1 so much more likely to catch and succumb to disease and so much more likely to wear himself out prematurely as the result of his labors4 ,the death-rate among women at all ages is lower than that of men1 yet a constant1 definite equilibrium of the sexes is maintained with accurate nicety4 ,there is evidently some check existing in nature itself that prevents any disturbance of this fixed ratio4 ,not only is nature able to maintain this1 but in cases where1 because of some serious disturbance of natural conditions1 a decided inequality of the ratio occurs by accident1 nature is able to restore conditions to the previous normal1 without our being quite able to understand just how this is #bfj accomplished4 ,we do not know how sex is determined4 ,there have been many explanations offered1 but all of them have proved inadequate and most of them quite nugatory4 ,in spite of our lack of knowledge there have been times in history when a striking manifestation of nature's power has occurred4 ,for instance1 after the ,thirty ,years' ,war in ,germany the ratio between the sexes had been so much disturbed that1 according to some historians1 there were probably nearly twice as many women as men in existence in the ,germanic countries4 ,the men had been cut off by the war itself1 by famines consequent upon it1 by extreme and unusual efforts to support their families and by epidemic diseases in camps and campaigns4 ,the disproportion was so great that a relaxation of the marriage laws was permitted for a time in certain of the countries and men were allowed to have two wives4 ,under these conditions nature at once began to reassert herself1 the number of male births was greatly increased and the disproportion between the sexes immediately began to lessen4 ,at the end of scarcely more than three generations the normal equilibrium of the sexes was restored and there was about an equal number of men and women again4 ,here we have the effect of one of these curiously interesting biological checks upon man's foolish quarrelsomeness which might result in a too great disproportion of the sexes4 ,we shall not be surprised1 then1 if we find other #bfa such biological checks and compensations exerting themselves4 ,in recent years ,sir ,francis ,galton1 the cousin of ,darwin1 who is recognized as the best living authority in statistical biology1 and ,professor ,karl ,pearson1 who has done more than any one else to bring out many curious and interesting but very important biological laws by the study of statistics1 have insisted in their studies of the effect of the law of primogeniture1 that when there are small families1 the children are more likely to be nervous1 oftener have an inclination to mental disease and have less resistive vitality against disease in general than the average child of the larger families4 ,there is a small but significant advantage in vitality that accrues to later children of a family4 ,this is so contrary to the frequently expressed opinion that only the children of small families can be brought up properly to resist disease and have such advantages in their education and nutrition as to be of better health1 that ,i should hesitate to quote it1 only that it has behind it the authority of such distinguished scientists as ,galton and ,pearson4 ,they are both conservative ,englishmen1 they have no theory of their own that they are supporting1 they have no axe to grind in things social and political for the launching of the new theory1 they are only making observations on the facts presented and the data that have been collected4 ,here is another striking example of a check on certain tendencies in humanity that apparently #bfb nature does not approve of1 or to avoid personifying a process1 we had better say are not according to nature's laws4 ,the small family does not perpetuate itself4 ,it has certain natural disadvantages that work against it4 ,it gradually disappears and the races of larger families maintain themselves4 ,we need not have had recourse to ,galton's and ,pearson's principle in this matter1 for we see the results of the small family in present-day history4 ,france is decreasing in population4 ,our own ,puritan families are dying out4 ,american families generally of more than three generations are not perpetuating themselves4 ,the teeming fertility of the poor immigrants who come to us is1 with immigration itself1 supplying our increase in population4 ,our nation is1 as a result1 gradually becoming something very different from what our forefathers anticipated4 ,what has apparently happened1 then1 in the history of feminine education and influence is that1 whenever women became occupied with such modes of education1 or the cultivation of phases of feminine influence that took them out of their houses1 away from family life and far from the hearthstone1 the particular classes of women who thus became interested did not propagate themselves1 or propagated themselves to such a limited degree that1 after a time1 their kind disappeared to a great extent4 ,the domestic woman with tendencies to care much more for her maternal duties than for any extra-domiciliary successes #bfc propagated herself1 raised her children with her ideals1 cultivated domesticity and consciously or unconsciously fostered the mother idea as the main feature of woman's life and her principal source not only of occupation1 but of joy in the living1 of consolation and of genuine accomplishment4 ,the tendency1 as can readily be seen in our own time1 of the other class of woman is largely to foster1 often unconsciously1 but of course often consciously also1 the opposite notions4 ,she talks of the slavery of child-raising1 the limitations of the home woman1 the drudgery of domestic life1 forgetting that life is work and that the only happiness in life is to have work that you want to do1 whatever it may be1 but all this talk has its inevitable effect upon all but the born mother woman1 and the result is the fad for public occupation instead of domestic life4 ,it is easy to see what the result of the opposite opinion is4 ,every tendency of the intellectual woman so-called is to repress such natural instincts as lead to the propagation of the race and the continuance of her kind4 ,of course it will be said that intellectual women are quite willing to have one or two children4 ,first1 this is not true for a great many of them4 ,secondly1 for those who have one or two children losses by death and failure to marry in the second generation1 because of conscious or unconscious discouragements and the exaggeration of ideas with regard to the danger of maternity1 lead often to a complete #bfd suppression of the family in the second or third generation4 ,apparently the rule of history is that there are four or five generations of women interested in intellectual things particularly1 who follow one another in these periods of special feminine education and exertion of influence outside of the home4 ,then there comes a distinct decadence of the feminist movement1 because of the gradual diminution in number of women who are interested in such things1 and then1 while there are always certain women who develop great intellectual abilities which require a larger stage than the home for their display1 and while there are always some who find an intellectual career or rather make it1 very little is heard of feminism and women's claims4 ,they are satisfied to rule their husbands1 to raise their children1 to be saints to their sons and elder sisters to their daughters1 and the feminine world has its simple joys and not much fuss about rights4 ,it may seem far-fetched thus to appeal to a biological check or a great underlying natural law in a matter of this kind1 but in recent years biology has so often been appealed to to justify unsocial conditions that its true application needs to be pointed out4 ,we have heard1 for instance1 much of the struggle for life and the competition that is supposed to be inevitable in nature1 while all the time it has apparently been forgotten that there is no struggle for life within the species #bfe except when there is some disturbance of the ordinary order of nature1 as in times of famine1 or when a mother is foraging for her children4 ,on the contrary1 mutual aid is the rule within the species and there is no animal small or large1 from the ant to the elephant1 that does not help its kind and has not certain wonderful instincts for helpfulness1 the origin of which we do not know1 but which are founded in nature itself4 ,man justifies inhumanity to man by the supposed struggle for life1 while all the time nature teaches us the opposite law4 ,nature's way is that of elimination4 ,her interest is the race4 ,she cares very little for the individual and guards only her great purpose of securing the propagation of the race4 ,apparently such intense preoccupation with the intellectual life as provides opportunity for serious education1 for literary work and for the exertion of diffuse influence in a community1 does not make for the propagation of the race or its proper preservation4 ,we can see this easily in the world around us1 in the limited progeny of those who live the intellectual or selfish life to the exclusion of racial interests4 ,this is opposed to nature's purpose and she proceeds to eliminate those who stand in her way4 ,this is not done by any cataclysmic process but by a law of nature4 ,those involved in the influence disturbing to her purpose eliminate themselves4 ,this is as true for indulgence in toxic substances that produce certain personal #bff momentary good feelings1 as for the more deliberate avoidance of certain of nature's burdens which brings about a certain negative pleasure at least by lessening the amount of pain that has to be borne and trouble to be endured4 ,to these pains and troubles nature has attached some of the best of the compensations of life4 ,the domestic joys are properly man's highest source of unalloyed pleasure without remorse4 ,our review of the phases of feminine education and influence would seem to show that there has occurred a series of cycles about three centuries apart in the history of the race1 during which women become very much occupied with things external to their household4 ,such cycles are represented by our own period1 that of the ,renaissance in the sixteenth century1 that of the university period in the thirteenth century1 and then that at ,charlemagne's court earlier1 though the barbaric conditions following the migration of nations probably did not allow a natural expression of the tendencies at this time4 ,earlier in history1 in the first century before ,christ and just after and in the fourth century before ,christ in ,greece1 there had been1 as we have pointed out1 such cycles4 ,during the intervening centuries there is a negative phase in the movement1 so that feminism1 under which is understood woman's expression of herself outside of her home and the exertion of her influence apart from her family and immediate friends1 is very little in #bfg evidence4 ,during these times the domestic woman reasserts herself4 ,during the positive phases of the movement she continues to have her children1 the feminists do not1 or at least not to the same extent4 ,they and their kind are gradually eliminated1 at least to a great degree1 and so the negative phase comes on4 ,this is not an argument and is not meant as such4 ,it is meant to be a scientific reading of the meaning of certain phases of the history of the race as they can be studied4 ,i would be the last in the world to think that ,i could influence present-day activities by any such indications of a great law in the history of the race that takes three centuries from phase to phase4 ,after all1 who cares for a law that does not affect our generation1 but at most the third and fourth succeeding generations1 and the manifestation of whose phenomena can only be recognized in three-century periods8 ,what ,i have tried to do is to point out just what are the cycles of feminine influence and education in the world's history1 and then to work out the reasons why1 quite contrary to what might be expected1 these phases have not continued1 but are interrupted by periods of utter decadence of feminine influence or interest in public life and education4 ,perhaps in our time we are going to change all that4 ,that is the feeling that we are prone to have4 ,others may have made progress and forgotten about it1 or #bfh may have made mistakes and been eliminated for them1 but we are so consciously active in our affairs that we cannot think of ourselves as likely to suffer the fate of our predecessors4 ,there is much of that feeling abroad in the present day1 there has always been much of that feeling abroad in every other day1 for each succeeding generation in its turn is perfectly sure that what it is doing means more than ever before1 though it can see very clearly the mistakes made by its predecessors4 ,it is somewhat like our feeling towards other persons and their accomplishments in life as compared to our own4 ,most of us are quite sure that whatever we are doing is quite significant1 though we can see plainly that what most of our friends are doing1 or are trying to do1 is altogether trivial and insignificant4 ,in recent years we have come to realize more and more how much history needs to be studied in the light of biology4 ,the decadence of ,greece was probably due1 to a great extent1 to the bringing back by ,alexander's conquering soldiers of malaria from the ,orient1 and thus the vanquished proved the ruin of their conquerors4 ,the great plagues of the olden time which sometimes carried away nearly one-half the human race in a single visitation1 were due to insect pests of various kinds1 which all unknown to men conveyed the disease and diffused it widely4 ,it will not be easy always to read the lessons of biology in history aright4 ,whether ,i have done so for you #bfi or not1 in this matter of the history of feminism1 ,i cannot tell4 ,the story1 however1 has been interesting to work out1 and ,i do not think that its conclusions have ever been presented to the public in quite this form before4 ,they are now presented not with the idea that they should be accepted as absolute1 but for the criticism and consideration of those who are most vitally interested and who want to know all that can be known about the conditions surrounding woman's influence in the world and her place for good in the history of the race4 #bgj #bga ,,the ,,church ,,and ,,feminine ,,education #bgb ,it is your duty to see that your daughter loves study and work1 securing this by the promise of rewards or some other means of emulation4 ,above all you must take care not to give her disgust for study for fear that this may continue as she grows older4 ,let her not learn in her childhood what she should unlearn later in life4 --,letter of ,st4 ,jerome to ,leta1 the wife of ,toxolus1 the son of ,st4 ,paula4 ,the sum of education is right training in the nursery4 ,the soul of the child in his play should be trained to that sort of excellence in which1 when he grows up to manhood1 he will have to be perfected4 --,plato1 ,laws 7,jowett71 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #agd4 ,scribner1 #aijb4 ,the minds of children are most of all influenced by the training they receive at home4 --,pope ,leo ,,xiii4 #bgc ,,the ,,church ,,and ,,feminine ,,education ,footnote #ah ,footnote #ah3 ,the material for this address was gathered originally for the normal courses on the ,history of ,education for many of the teaching sisterhoods in this country4 ,in its present form it was the address to the graduates of ,st4 ,elizabeth's ,college1 ,convent ,station1 ,n4 ,j41 on the occasion of the celebration of the jubilee of the foundation of its teaching work4 ,lady ,bachelors3 ,i have had frequent occasions to address all sorts of bachelors on their graduation1 of science and arts and letters and pedagogy1 but this is my first opportunity to address ladies crowned1 at least symbolically1 with the laurel berries of the bachelorhood in art4 ,we are apt to think of young ladies rather as masters of arts innumerable1 and as needing no degree to attest their abilities4 ,while ,i am glad1 indeed1 to address you as lady bachelors ,i do so with the fondest hope that you will all proceed to further degrees either academic or domestic and not remain in that nondescript class of bachelor-maids4 ,i should like to be able to tell you how much pleasure it gives me to have the privilege of addressing you on this ,fiftieth ,anniversary of the ,foundation of ,st4 ,elizabeth's4 ,there is an apt illustration of the ,communion of ,saints in your title as a college4 ,founded in honor of that noble1 saintly ,american woman1 ,elizabeth ,seton1 #bgd and yet called particularly after that ,saint ,elizabeth whom the ,mother of the ,lord set out to visit as the first act of her ,motherhood of the ,church1 there always rises in my mind besides1 the thought of that other ,saint ,elizabeth whom the ,germans delight to call the dear ,saint ,elizabeth1 who1 though she died when she was scarcely twenty-four1 has left a name undying in the annals of helpfulness for others4 ,this ,st4 ,elizabeth1 whose name ,i recall with special willingness now that ,i see you ready to go out to do your world's work1 lived in the midst of what has been until quite recent years the despised ,middle ,ages1 out of which as little good might be expected as out of ,nazareth in the olden time1 yet she so stamped her personality on the world of her day that now the after-time1 neglectful1 as a rule1 of the individual1 so careless even of the world's 7supposed7 great ones1 will not willingly let her name die4 ,she is still with us as a great living force4 ,they read a sketch of her life1 ,i have heard1 at the meeting of the ,neighborhood ,house in ,new ,york within the last few months1 as an incentive to that devotion to the needy that characterized her4 ,she was a woman who thought not at all of herself1 but all of others4 ,as a consequence1 mankind in its better moods has never ceased to turn to her4 ,evidently the formula for being remembered is to forget yourself4 ,i am sure1 however1 that that has been brought home to you so well during your #bge years at ,st4 ,elizabeth's that it would1 indeed1 be bringing coals to ,newcastle for me to say anything about it in the few minutes ,i have to talk to you4 ,what ,i have chosen to say to you refers to that higher ,catholic education for women of which you are now going out as the representatives4 ,i do it all the more readily because1 through the kindness of your beloved teachers1 ,i have had the privilege of co-operating a little in that education1 for ,i appreciate that privilege very much4 ,apparently a good many people cherish the idea that the ,catholic ,church is opposed to feminine education1 or at least to the higher education of women as we know it now1 and that in the past her influence has been constantly and consistently exerted against any development of this phase of human accomplishment4 ,in the liturgy of the ,church women are usually spoken of as the devout female sex1 and it is supposed that the one effort of the ,church itself1 the unerring purpose of ecclesiastical authorities1 was to prevent women from becoming learned lest they should lose something of their devoutness4 ,apparently it is forgotten that some of the greatest devotees in the ,church1 the saintly women who were held up to the admiration and emulation of their sisters in the after-time1 women like ,st4 ,catherine of ,sienna1 ,st4 ,angela ,merici1 ,st4 ,jane ,frances ,de ,chantal and1 above all1 ,st4 ,teresa1 #bgf were eminently intellectual women as well as models of devotion4 ,this same idea as to the ,church deliberately fostering ignorance has been quite common in the writings of certain types of historians with regard to other departments of education1 and those of us who are interested in the history of medicine have been rather surprised to be told that1 because the ,church wanted to keep people in readiness to look to ,masses and prayers and relics and shrines for the cure of their ailments1--and1 of course1 pay for the privilege of taking advantage of these1--the development of medicine was discouraged1 the people were kept in ignorance and all progress in scientific knowledge was hampered4 ,it is1 indeed1 amusing to hear this when one knows that for seven centuries the greatest contributors to medical science have been the ,papal physicians1 deliberately called to ,rome1 many of them1 because they were the great medical scientists of their day1 and the ,popes would have no others near4 ,for centuries the ,papal ,medical ,school was the finest in the world for the original research done there1 and ,bologna at the height of its fame was in the ,papal ,states4 ,with so many other presumptions with regard to the position of the ,church towards education1 it is not surprising that there should be a complete misunderstanding of her attitude toward feminine education1 an absolute ignoring of the realities of the history of education1 which show #bgg exactly the opposite of anything like opposition to be true4 ,i have had a good deal to do in laboring at least to correct many false ideas with regard to the history of education1 and1 above all1 with what concerns supposed ,church opposition to various phases of educational advance4 ,i know no presumption of opposition on the part of the ,church to education that is so groundless1 however1 as that which would insist that it is only now with what people are pleased to call the breaking up of ,church influence generally1 so that even the ,catholic ,church has to bow1 though unwillingly1 to the spirit of the times and to modern progress1 that feminine education is receiving its due share of attention4 ,most people seem to be quite sure that the first serious development of opportunities for the higher education of women came in our time4 ,they presume that never before has there been anything worth while talking about in this matter4 ,just inasmuch as they do they are completely perverting the realities of the history of education1 which are in this matter particularly interesting and by no means lacking in detail4 ,whenever there is any question of ,church influence in education1 or of the spirit of the ,church with regard to education1 those who wish to talk knowingly of the subject should turn to the period in which the ,church was a predominant factor in human affairs throughout ,europe4 ,this is1 as is well known1 the thirteenth century4 ,the #bgh ,pope who was on the throne at the beginning of this century1 ,innocent ,,iii1 is famous in history for having set down kings from their thrones1 dictated many modifications of political policy to the countries of ,europe whenever secular governments were violating certain great principles of justice1 and in general1 was looked up to as the most powerful of rulers in temporal as well as in spiritual affairs4 ,a typical example of the place occupied by the ,church is to be seen when ,philip ,augustus of ,france repudiated his lawful wife to marry another4 ,pope ,innocent set himself sternly against the injustice1 and the proud ,french ,king1 at the time one of the most powerful sovereigns of ,europe1 had to take back the neglected wife from the ,scandinavian countries1 the distance and weakness of whose relatives would seem to make it so easy for a determined monarch to put her aside4 ,when ,king ,john in ,england violated the rights of his people1 ,innocent put the country under an ,interdict1 released ,john's subjects from their allegiance and promptly brought the shifty ,plantagenet to terms4 ,the ,pope at the end of the century1 the great ,boniface ,,viii1 was scarcely less assertive of the rights of the ,church and of the ,papacy than the first of the thirteenth-century ,pontiffs4 ,while he was not so successful as his great predecessor in maintaining his rights1 the policy of the ,church evidently had not changed4 ,most of the ,popes of the interval wielded an immense influence for good #bgi that was felt in every sphere of life in ,europe in their time4 ,now it is with regard to this period that it is fair to ask the question1 ,what was the attitude of the ,church toward education8 ,owing to her acknowledged supremacy in spiritual matters and the extension of the spiritual authority even over the temporal authorities whenever the essential principles of ethics or any question of morals was concerned1 the ,church could absolutely dictate the educational policy of ,europe4 ,now1 this is the century when the universities arose and received their most magnificent development4 ,the great ,lateran ,council1 held at the beginning of the century1 required every bishop to establish professorships equivalent to what we now call a college in connection with his cathedral4 ,the metropolitan archbishops were expected to develop university courses in connection with their colleges4 ,everywhere1 then1 in ,europe universities arose1 and there was the liveliest appreciation and the most ardent enthusiasm for education1 so that not only were ample opportunities provided1 but these were taken gloriously and the culture of modern ,europe awoke and bloomed wonderfully4 ,some idea of the extension of university opportunities can be judged from the fact that1 according to the best and most conservative statistics available1 there were more students at the universities of ,oxford and ,cambridge to the population of the ,england of that day1 than there are #bhj to the population of even such an educationally well provided city as ,greater ,new ,york in the present year of grace #aiaj4 ,this seems astounding to our modern ideas1 but it is absolutely true if there is any truth in history4 ,the statistics are provided by men who are not at all favorable to ,catholic education or the ,church's influence for education4 ,at this same time there were probably more than #ae1jjj students at the ,university of ,bologna1 and almost beyond a doubt #bj1jjj at the ,university of ,paris4 ,we have not reached such figures for university attendance again1 even down to the present4 ,students came from all over the world to these universities1 but more than twenty other universities were founded throughout ,europe in this century4 ,the population was very scanty compared to what it is at the present time2 there were probably not more than #be1jjj1jjj of people on the whole continent4 ,england had less than #c1jjj1jjj of people and1 as we know very well by the census made before the coming of the ,armada1 had only slightly more than #d1jjj1jjj even in ,elizabeth's time1 some two centuries later4 ,here is abundant evidence of the attitude of the ,church towards education4 ,now comes the question for us4 ,what about feminine education at the time of this great new awakening of educational purpose throughout ,europe8 ,if we can find no trace of it1 then are we justified in saying that if the ,church did not oppose1 at least she did not #bha favor the higher education for women4 ,let us see what we find4 ,the first university in our modern sense of the word came into existence down at ,salerno around the great medical school which had existed there for several centuries4 ,probably the most interesting feature of the teaching at ,salerno is the fact that the department of the diseases of women in the great medical school was in charge of women professors for several centuries1 and we have the books they wrote on this subject1 and know much of the position they occupied4 ,the most distinguished of them1 ,trotula1 left us a text-book on her subject which contained many interesting details of the medicine of the period1 and we know of her that she was the wife of one professor of medicine at ,salerno and the mother of another4 ,she was the foundress of what was called the school of ,salernitan women physicians1 using the word school in the same sense in which it is employed when we talk of a school of painters4 ,this is all the more interesting because the ,university of ,salerno was mainly under monastic influence4 ,originally the schools in connection with the school of medicine were founded from the great ,benedictine monastery of ,monte ,cassino not far away4 ,the first great teacher of medicine at ,salerno1 ,constantine ,africanus1 whose influence was dominant in his own time and continued afterwards through his writings1 became a ,benedictine monk in his early middle age4 ,the #bhb preparatory schools for the medical courses at ,salerno were largely in the hands of the ,benedictines4 ,the university itself was under the influence of the ,archbishop of ,salerno more than any other1 and the one who did most for it1 the great ,alphanus1 had been a ,benedictine monk4 ,ordinarily this would be presumed to preclude any possibility of the development of a great phase of education for women1 and especially professional education for women at the ,university of ,salerno4 ,just the contrary happened4 ,the wise monks1 who knew human life and appreciated its difficulties1 recognized the necessity1 or at least the advisability1 for women as medical attendants on women and children1 and so the first great modern school of medicine1 mainly under monastic influence1 had the department of women's diseases in the hands of women themselves4 ,in ,naples women were allowed to practise medicine1 and we have some of the licenses which show the formal permission granted by the government in this matter4 ,an almost exactly similar state of affairs to that thus seen at ,salerno developed at ,bologna1 only there the university was founded round the law school1 and the first women students were in that school4 ,when ,irnerius established his great lectureship of ,roman ,law at ,bologna1 to which students were attracted from all over ,europe1 he seems to have seen no objection to allow women to attend his courses1 and we have the names of his daughter #bhc and several other women who reached distinction in the law school4 ,as the other departments of the ,university of ,bologna developed we find women as students and teachers in these4 ,one of the assistants to the first great professor of anatomy at ,bologna1 ,mondino1 whose text-book of anatomy was used in the schools for two centuries after this time1 was a young woman1 ,alessandra ,giliani4 ,it is to her that we owe an early method for the injection of bodies in such a way as to preserve them1 and she also varnished and colored them so that the deterrent work of dissection would not have to be carried on to such an extent as before1 yet the actual human tissues might be used for demonstrating purposes4 ,as the result of the traditions in feminine education thus established women continued to enjoy abundant opportunities at the universities of ,italy1 and there is not a single century since the thirteenth when there have not been some distinguished women professors at the ,italian universities4 ,nearly five centuries after the youthful assistant in anatomy of whom we have spoken1 whose invention meant so much for making the study of medicine less deterrent and dangerous1 came ,madame ,manzolini1 who invented the method of making wax models of human tissues so that these might be studied for anatomical purposes4 ,made in the natural colors1 these were eminently helpful4 ,in the meantime many women professors of many subjects had come and gone at #bhd the ,italian universities4 ,in the thirteenth century there was a great teacher of mathematics who was so young and handsome that1 in order not to disturb the minds of her students1 she lectured from behind a curtain4 ,it is evident that the educated women of the ,middle ,ages could be as modest as they were intelligent and thoughtful of others1 quite as much as if they had devoted their lives to gentle charity and not to the higher education4 ,women physicians1 educators1 mathematicians1 professors of literature1 astronomers1 all these are to be found at the universities of ,italy while the ,church and the ecclesiastics were the dominating influences in these universities4 ,unfortunately the spread of this feminine educational movement from ,italy to the west of ,europe was disturbed by the ,heloise and ,abelard incident at the ,university of ,paris1 and as all the western universities owe their origin to ,paris1 they took the tradition created there after ,abelard's time1 that women should not be allowed to enter the university4 ,when1 however1 three centuries later1 the ,renaissance brought in the new learning1 the schools of humanism independent of the universities admitted women on absolute terms of equality with men1 and some of the women became the distinguished scholars of the time4 ,the ,church's influence is plainly to be seen in this1 and the women took part in plays given in ,greek and classic ,latin before the cardinals and prominent ecclesiastics1 and everywhere the #bhe feeling developed that1 if women wanted to have the higher education of the humanities or1 as it was then called1 the ,new ,learning1 they should have it4 ,this feminine educational movement spread all over ,europe4 ,anne of ,bretagne organized a school at the ,french ,court for the women of the court1 and such women as ,mary ,queen of ,scots1 ,margaret of ,navarre1 ,renee of ,anjou1 ,louise ,la ,cordiere are a few of the ,french women of the ,renaissance who attained distinction for broad culture and education at this time4 ,spain1 too1 had its women of the ,renaissance4 ,one of the first of them was ,isabella of ,castile1 whose assistance to ,columbus was no mere accident1 nor due so much to personal influence exerted on her1 as to her own broad interest in the things of the mind in her time4 ,her daughter ,catherine1 who became ,queen of ,england1 was deeply educated1 while her daughter1 ,queen ,mary of ,england1 knew the classics and especially ,latin very well4 ,during her time in ,england many of the nobility of the higher classes were distinguished for education4 ,lady ,jane ,grey preferred to study ,greek to going to balls and routs1 and sacrificed hunting parties for her lessons under ,roger ,ascham1 in the great ,greek authors4 ,queen ,elizabeth knew ,greek and ,latin very well4 ,the famous ,countess of ,arundell at this time was a distinguished scholar4 ,margaret ,more is a bright example of opportunities for the higher education given and taken in the lower classes of #bhf the nobility of the ,england of her time4 ,one thing we can be sure of in the ,england of that time1 if the ,queen and the highest nobility were interested in education and devoted their time to it so sedulously and successfully1 then without doubt those beneath them in rank did so likewise4 ,the upper classes are not alone imitated in things unworthy1 but also in what is best if they only provide the good example4 ,to anyone who knows the history of the ,church1 however1 these incidents in feminine education will not be surprising4 ,every time1 as a rule1 that there has been a great new awakening in education1 women1 too1 have demanded the right to have their share in it1 and the ,church1 far from discouraging1 has always helped to provide educational opportunities4 ,when in the ninth century ,charlemagne reorganized the education of ,europe1 or1 at least1 reinstituted it for his people1 the women of the ,palace had their opportunities to attend the ,palace school as well as the men4 ,that ,palace school was a very wonderful travelling university1 wandering wherever the ,court went4 ,it was at ,aix1 it was probably at ,paris for a time2 when ,charlemagne went down to ,italy it went with him and seems to have held some sessions even while he was in ,rome2 there is a tradition of its existence while he stayed one winter in ,verona4 ,though the teachers in it were monks1 for ,charlemagne and ,alfred1 the great1 broad-minded rulers1 who did so much for #bhg their people1 had no illusions about the high place that the monks held in life in their time1 women were taught at the schools as well as men4 ,charlemagne and ,alfred were in the best possible position to know who were the best teachers in their time1 and they turned with confidence to the monks4 ,people generally1 and1 above all1 their great rulers1 knew nothing of the condemnation of the monks in the ,dark ,ages which came a thousand years after their time2 from people who knew nothing about them and who had even less sympathy with them4 ,they both knew them and sympathized with all they were doing1 therefore their cordial encouragement of them4 ,their attitude was eminently justified by the fact that the monks were broad enough1 in spite of their monastic habits and their supposed lack of appreciation for women1 to take up to a great extent even the teaching of women4 ,there are letters from the women of the court of ,charlemagne written to ,alcuin and to other teachers of the time1 which show how interested were the women in the school work4 ,this is not surprising if we recall that1 when ,benedict founded the monks of the west1 who were to provide the homes where culture was to be maintained and the classics preserved for us and education gradually diffused1 his sister ,st4 ,scholastica did the same thing for the women as her brother was doing for the men4 ,anyone who knows the story of the ,benedictine convents for #bhh women and the books there produced1 plays1 stories1 even works on medicine and other sciences1 will realize how much was accomplished for the higher education of women in these institutions in unpromising times4 ,the women who wanted to follow the intellectual life were given the opportunity and many of them did excellent work4 ,within the last year ,i have written and published sketches of the lives of ,st4 ,hildegarde1 who wrote books on medicine in the twelfth century1 and of ,hroswitha1 the nun of ,gandersheim1 who wrote ,latin comedies in imitation of ,terence in the tenth century4 ,these serious literary and scientific writings by women in what is usually presumed to be the darkest period of the so-called ,dark ,ages1 and preserved for us out of the wreck and ruin that came down on nearly everything produced in those times1 shows us very clearly how much more than we have been accustomed to think these women of the ,middle ,ages were interested in the intellectual life4 ,books are written only when there are readers and appreciation for them1 and the interest of contemporaries and the hope of future interest as an incentive4 ,of course1 even before the foundation of the ,benedictines we have a great living example of the encouragement of the ,church for the higher education of women4 ,it came at a time and under circumstances that furnish abundant evidence of how much the ,church appreciates and is ready to encourage education and how precious she realizes #bhi it is for her children4 ,when the first nation was converted as a whole to ,christianity1 when the ,irish people came over under the ,apostolic ,patrick's wonderful missionary zeal1 the first thing that was done in this first ,christian nation was to found schools4 ,ireland became the ,island of ,saints and of ,scholars4 ,while the barbarians had overrun ,europe and destroyed the schools there1 ,ireland became the home of the best teachers in the world and men flocked to her from all over ,europe4 ,these schools1 however1 were not reserved for the men1 but abundant opportunities were also afforded women for scholarship and for culture of every kind4 ,only second in importance to ,st4 ,patrick's great school at ,armagh during the first century in the history of ,ireland as a ,christian nation was ,st4 ,brigid's school at ,kildare4 ,we know from ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 now better known as ,gerald the ,welshman1 that1 in his travels in ,ireland centuries afterwards1 but before the destruction of ,kildare1 he saw many wonderful evidences of the intellectual life of that institution4 ,above all1 he saw a famous copy of the ,holy ,scripture so beautifully illuminated that he thought it the finest book in the world4 ,his description would show us that if this copy of the ,scriptures which ,gerald saw was not the book of ,kells as some have ventured to suggest1 it was at least a copy not unlike that famous illuminated volume which is1 perhaps1 the most #bij beautiful book that ever came from the hand of man4 ,the arts and the crafts evidently were studied and practised as well as book-learning at ,kildare1 and ,brigid's influence brought to her at her college of ,kildare1 literally thousands of the daughters of the nobility of ,ireland1 of ,england and of portions of the ,continent1 attracted by her sanctity and her scholarship and the wonderful intellectual and artistic work that was being accomplished there4 ,with these facts in mind it is easy to see that the ,church1 far from opposing in any way the higher education for women1 has not only encouraged but actually patronized it whenever there is a demand for it on the part of any generation in history4 ,feminine education comes and goes1 so though in less markedly cyclical fashion does masculine education4 ,just what the law behind these cycles is we do not know as yet4 ,one thing is sure1 now that another cycle of interest has come to feminine education in the world1 the ,church is not only willing but anxious to give her children the benefit of it1 and the growth of the higher education among ,catholics for ,catholic young women in ,america in the last decade is the best evidence of this4 ,our teaching ,sisterhoods in this country have nobly lifted themselves up to the occasion demanded1 and we may well be proud of our ,catholic colleges for women4 ,personally ,i know what is being done at some half a dozen of them1 and ,i have no hesitation #bia in saying that they are giving a better1 solider1 though perhaps1 a less showy education than their secular rivals4 ,of your work at ,st4 ,elizabeth's ,i have had such personal information as makes me realize how thorough are the efforts to provide every possible opportunity for higher feminine education and how successful they are4 ,only less absurd than the notion that the ,church is in any way opposed to feminine education is the thought that seems to be in many people's minds in our day1 that the ,church would prefer to keep woman in the background and does not want her to do great influential things when those are demanded of her4 ,the feeling seems to be that only modern evolution has brought such opportunities for women to exert the precious humanitarian influence that is sometimes possible for her4 ,how much those who talk thus forget the history of the ,church if they ever knew it1 but also of feminine influence in the world1 is very clear from even a short resume of feminine achievements in ,christian times4 ,whenever there has been a great movement in the ,church that meant much for the men and women of a time1 beside the man who initiated it1 if she was not1 indeed1 the initiator herself1 stood a great woman only a little less significant in influence1 as a rule1 and sometimes even greater than he4 ,in the conversion of the first people to ,christianity1 beside ,st4 ,patrick stood ,st4 ,brigid4 ,in the foundation of the monks of the west that #bib great institution that meant so much for the ,church and for ,europe1 beside ,st4 ,benedict stood ,st4 ,scholastica1 his sister1 doing and organizing for the women of her time and succeeding generations1 what her brother did for the men4 ,when1 in the newer dispensation of the foundation of the ,mendicant ,religious ,orders1 ,st4 ,francis came to bring a great new message to the world1 beside him and only a little less influential than he in his lifetime1 and saving his work for its genuine mission after his death1 came ,st4 ,clare4 ,when the tide of the religious revolt spreading down from ,germany1 was pushed back in ,spain1 beside ,st4 ,teresa1 for here the greater protagonist of the movement was a woman1 stood ,st4 ,john of ,god4 ,when ,st4 ,francis ,de ,sales came to do his great work for education and for the uplift of the better classes1 beside him and scarcely less influential than he in every way1 was ,st4 ,jane ,frances ,de ,chantal4 ,in the great new organization of modern charity under ,st4 ,vincent ,de ,paul beside that wonderful friend of the poor whose work is the underlying impulse of all modern organized charity in the best sense of that much abused term1 stood the modest and humble but strongly beautiful woman1 the foundress of the ,sisters of ,charity1 ,madame ,le ,gras4 ,even in the nineteenth century with the newer organizations of education demanded by changed conditions1 when such foundations as those of the ,sacred ,heart and of the ,sisters of ,notre ,dame #bic came into existence1 men and women co-operated in these works and only now are we realizing to the full the sanctity of such women as ,blessed ,madame ,barat or the ,venerable ,julie ,billiart and their adviser and friend1 ,father ,varin1 the ,jesuit4 ,nor was it only in connection with work accomplished by men or initiated by them that we find women doing great work4 ,it must not be forgotten that many of the religious orders which are accomplishing fine work in every line of helpful endeavor1 often hundreds of years after their foundations1 in conditions very different from those in which they were established1 originated in the minds of women and had their constitutions worked out practically without any help from men1 and often1 indeed1 against the judgment of men4 ,the world of our day is not prone to appreciate at its proper worth these great works of women who took for an aim in life unselfish purpose1 rather than any more personal ambition4 ,it must not be forgotten1 then1 that the first settlement worker of modern times1 the dear ,st4 ,elizabeth of ,hungary1 is one of the great influences that will never die4 ,the cathedral erected in her honor within a few years after her death is the most beautiful monument to woman anywhere in the world4 ,what ,st4 ,elizabeth was to the thirteenth century1 ,st4 ,catherine of ,sienna was to the fourteenth4 ,without her influence and her place in it1 it would be impossible to #bid understand the history of that century1 though sometimes history has been written without a mention of her4 ,in the fifteenth century came ,joan of ,arc1 in the sixteenth and seventeenth some of the brave women who founded great humanitarian works in connection with the early missionaries in this country4 ,everywhere in history you find ,catholic women accomplishing great things4 ,after all1 this is only what is to be anticipated from what is symbolized and prefigured in the story of the foundation of the ,church4 ,when the ,son of ,god came as the ,redeemer of ,mankind1 beside ,him in ,his life and mission1 the highest of mortals in the influence that she was to have over all succeeding generations1 stood the ,woman1 whose seed was to crush the serpent's head1 the ,mother from whom ,he had chosen to take ,his human flesh4 ,the ,mother of the ,messiah became the ,mother of the infant ,church and the ,mother of all ,christians ever since4 ,surely this was given for a sign not to be contradicted in the after-time4 ,as the ,mother beside the ,son1 so was woman ever to stand as the most precious influence in the work of ,christianity4 ,as the great scheme of redemption was dependent on her consent1 so ever was woman to be ,god's greatest auxiliary in the accomplishment of good for humanity4 ,you can understand1 then1 that when ,i say to you graduates of ,st4 ,elizabeth's1 go out and fulfill your missions1 whatever they may be1 ,i mean #bie that you shall be ready to take up any work for which your education and your training fit you1 and ,god grant it may bring you such opportunities for good as have been exemplified in the lives of so many ,catholic women all down the ages4 ,there is nothing more than this that ,i could say to you4 ,our mother ,church1 far from wanting to keep women in the background1 has always accorded them full and equal rights in their own domains and1 above all1 has given them absolute independence in the religious organizations as far as that is compatible with effective co-operation in good work4 ,you may be sure1 then1 that any work that you find to do worthy of you1 and that you take up whole-heartedly1 will have not only her blessing but you shall find every encouragement4 ,the glorious examples of the ,catholic women of the past1 educated1 intellectual women1 some of whom like ,st4 ,teresa1 ,st4 ,catherine of ,sienna1 ,st4 ,jane ,frances ,de ,chantal and ,st4 ,brigid are high among the greatest intellectual women that ever lived1 will be your guiding stars1 and if you keep them in mind you shall not go wrong4 ,remember that we expect much and we have a right to expect much of the women graduates of our ,catholic ,women's ,colleges--you have a great mission1 you have put your hand to the plow1 do not look back1--onward and upward4 ,god's in his world and all's well4 ,only our co-operation is needed4 #bif #big ,,origins ,,in ,,american ,,education #bih ,libenter homines id quod volunt credunt4 --,caesar1 ,bell4 ,gall41 iii3#h4 ,men believe readily what they want to4 ,great additions have of late been made to our knowledge of the past2 the long conspiracy against the revelation of truth has gradually given away 4444 ,it has become impossible for the historical writer of the present age to trust without reserve even to the most respected secondary authorities4 ,the honest student finds himself continually deserted1 retarded1 misled by the classics of historical literature4 --,preface of ,cambridge ,modern ,history4 #bii ,,origins ,,in ,,american ,,education ,footnote #ai ,footnote #ai3 ,the material for this address was collected for a lecture on the ,history of ,education for the ,sisters of ,charity of ,mount ,st4 ,vincent's1 ,new ,york1 and the ,sacred ,heart ,academy1 ,kenwood1 ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,subsequently it was developed for an address to the parochial school teachers of ,new ,orleans and for the summer normal courses of ,st4 ,mary's ,college1 ,south ,bend1 ,ind41 and ,st4 ,mary's ,college1 ,monroe1 ,mich4 ,very nearly in its present form the address was delivered in a course at ,boston ,college in the spring of #aiaj4 ,here in the ,united ,states we have been somewhat amazingly ignorant of our brother ,americans of ,mexico and of ,south ,america4 ,our ignorance has been so complete as to have the usual result of quite intolerant bigotry with regard to the significance of what was being done in these ,spanish-,american countries4 ,a distinguished ex-president of one of our ,american universities said in his autobiography1 that a favorite maxim of his for his own guidance was1 ,the man ,i don't like is the man ,i don't know4 ,if we only know enough about people1 we always find out quite enough about them that is admirable to make us like them4 ,whenever we are tempted to conclude that somebody is hopelessly insignificant then what we need to correct is our judgment by better knowledge of them4 ,for most ,americans1 for we have arrogated to ourselves the title of ,americans to the exclusion of any possible share #cjj in it of our ,south ,american brethren1 ,spanish ,america has been so hopelessly backward1 so out of all comparison with ourselves1 as to be quite undeserving of our notice unless it be for profound deprecation4 ,fortunately for us in recent years our knowledge of ,spanish ,america has become larger and deeper and more genuine1 and as a consequence there has been less assumption of knowledge founded on ignorance4 ,every gain in knowledge of ,spanish ,america has raised ,spanish ,america and her peoples in our estimation4 ,not long since at a public dinner the president of a great ,american university said1 ,we have only just discovered ,spanish ,america4 ,this is literally true4 ,we have thought that we knew much about it1 and that that much showed us how little deserving of our attention was ,spanish ,america1 while all the while a precious mine of information with regard to the beginnings of the history of education1 of literature1 of culture1 nay1 even of physical science on this continent1 remained to be studied in these countries and not our own4 ,our scholars are now engaged in bringing together the materials out of which a real history of ,spanish ,america can be constructed for their fellow-,americans of the ,north1 and their surprise when it is placed before them is likely to be supreme4 ,in the meantime there are some phases of this information that1 ,i think1 it will be interesting to bring together for you4 #cja ,josh ,billings1 writing as ,uncle ,esek in the ,century ,magazine some twenty-five years ago1 made use of an expression which deserves to be frequently recalled4 ,he said3 ,it is not so much the ignorance of mankind that makes them ridiculous as the knowin' so many things that ain't so4 ,we have a very typical illustration of the wisdom of this fine old saw in the history of education here in ,america as it is being developed by scholarly historical research at the present time4 ,the consultation of original documents and of first-hand authorities in the history of ,spanish-,american education has fairly worked a revolution in the ideas formerly held on this subject4 ,the new developments bring out very forcibly how supremely necessary it is to know something definite about a subject before writing about it1 and yet how many intelligent and supposedly educated men continue to talk about things with an assumption of knowledge when they know nothing at all about them4 ,catholics are supposed by the generality of ,americans to have come late into the field of education in this country4 ,whatever there is of education on this continent is ordinarily supposed to be due entirely to the efforts of what has been called the ,anglo-,saxon element here4 ,at last1 however1 knowledge is growing of what the ,catholic ,spaniards did for education in ,america and as a consequence the face of the history of education is being completely changed4 ,every #cjb advance in history in recent years has made for the advantage of the ,catholic ,church4 ,modern historical methods insist on the consultation of original documents and give very little weight to the quotation of second-hand authorities4 ,we are getting at enduring history as far as that is possible1 and the real position of the ,church is coming to light4 ,in no portion of human accomplishment is the modification of history more striking than with regard to education4 ,there was much more education in the past centuries than we have thought and the ,catholic ,church was always an important factor in it4 ,nowhere is this truth more striking than with regard to education here in ,america in the ,spanish-,american countries4 ,professor ,edward ,gaylord ,bourne1 professor of history at ,yale ,university1 wrote the volume on ,spain in ,america which constitutes the third volume of ,the ,american ,nation1 a history of this country in twenty-seven volumes edited by ,professor ,albert ,bushnell ,hart1 who holds the chair of history at ,harvard ,university4 ,professor ,bourne has no illusions with regard to the relative value of ,anglo-,saxon and ,spanish education in this country4 ,in his chapter on ,the ,transmission of ,european ,culture he says3 ,early in the eighteenth century the ,lima ,university 7,lima1 ,peru7 counted nearly two thousand students and numbered about one hundred and eighty doctors 7in its faculty7 in theology1 civil and canon law1 medicine and the arts4 ,ulloa #cjc reports that the university makes a stately appearance from without and its inside is decorated with suitable ornaments4 ,there were chairs of all the sciences and some of the professors have1 notwithstanding the vast distance1 gained the applause of the literati of ,europe4 ,the coming of the ,jesuits contributed much to the real educational work in ,america4 ,they established colleges1 one of which1 the little ,jesuit college at ,juli1 on ,lake ,titicaca1 became a seat of genuine learning4 7,bourne47 ,he does not hesitate to emphasize the contrast between ,spanish ,america and ,english ,america with regard to education and culture1 and the most interesting feature of his comparison is that ,spanish ,america surpassed the ,north completely and anticipated by nearly two centuries some of the progress that we are so proud of in the nineteenth century4 ,what a startling paragraph1 for instance1 is the following for those who have been accustomed to make little of the ,church's interest in education and to attribute the backwardness of ,south ,america1 as they presumed they knew it1 to the presence of the ,church and her influence there4 ,not all the institutions of learning founded in ,mexico in the sixteenth century can be enumerated here1 but it is not too much to say that in number1 range of studies and standard of attainments by the officers they surpassed anything existing in ,english ,america until the nineteenth #cjd century4 ,mexican scholars made distinguished achievements in some branches of science1 particularly medicine and surgery1 but pre-eminently linguistics1 history and anthropology4 ,dictionaries and grammars of the native languages and histories of the ,mexican institutions are an imposing proof of their scholarly devotion and intellectual activity4 ,conspicuous are ,toribio de ,motolinia's ',historia de las ,indias de ,nueva ,espana1' ,duran's ',historia de las ,indias de ,nueva ,espana1' but most important of all ,sahagun's great work on ,mexican life and religion4 ,indeed1 it is with regard to science in various forms that one finds the most surprising contributions from these old-time scholars4 ,while the ,english in ,america were paying practically no attention to science1 the ,spaniards were deeply interested in it4 ,dr4 ,chanca1 a physician who had been for several years physician-in-ordinary to the ,king and ,queen and was looked upon as one of the leaders of his profession in ,spain1 joined ,columbus' second expedition in order to make scientific notes4 ,the little volume that he issued as the report of this scientific excursion is a valuable contribution to the science of the time and furnishes precious information with regard to ,indian medicine1 ,indian customs1 their knowledge of botany and of metals1 certain phases of zoology1 and the like1 that show how wide was the interest in science of this ,spanish physician of over four hundred years ago4 #cje ,after reading paragraphs such as ,professor ,bourne has written with regard to education in ,spanish ,america1 how amusing it is to reflect that one of the principal arguments against the ,catholic ,church has been that she keeps nations backward and unprogressive and uneducated--and the ,south ,american countries have been held up derisively and conclusively as horrible examples of this4 ,even we ,catholics have been prone to take on an apologetic mood with regard to them4 ,the teaching of history in ,english-speaking countries has been so untrue to the realities that we have accepted the impression that the ,spanish-,american countries were far behind in all the ways that were claimed4 ,now we find that instead of presenting grounds for apology they are triumphant examples of how soon and how energetically the ,church gets to work at the great problems of education wherever she gains a position of authority or even a foothold of influence4 ,instead of needing to be ashamed of them1 as we have perhaps ignorantly been1 there is a reason to be deservedly proud of them4 ,their education far outstripped our own in all the centuries down to the nineteenth1 and the culture of the ,spanish-,americans1 quite a different thing from education1 is deeper than ours even at the present time4 ,it is hard for ,north ,america to permit herself to be persuaded of this1 but there is no doubt of its absolute truth4 ,it is only since the days of steam that the #cjf ,english-speaking races in ,america have come to possess a certain material progress above that of the ,spanish-,american countries4 ,bourne says3 ,if we compare ,spanish ,america with the ,united ,states a hundred years ago we must recognize that while in the ,north there was a sounder body politic1 a purer social life and a more general dissemination of elementary education1 yet in ,spanish ,america there were both vastly greater wealth and greater poverty1 more imposing monuments of civilization1 such as public buildings1 institutions of learning and hospitals1 more populous and richer cities1 a higher attainment in certain branches of science4 ,no one can read ,humboldt's account of the ,city of ,mexico and its establishments for the promotion of science and the fine arts without realizing that whatever may be the superiorities of the ,united ,states over ,mexico in these respects1 they have been mostly the gains of the age of steam4 ,while we are prone to think that a republican form of government is the great foster-mother of progress and that whatever development may have come in ,south ,american countries has been the result of the foundation of the ,south ,american republics1 ,professor ,bourne is not of that opinion and is inclined to think that if the ,spanish ,colonial ,government could have been maintained at its best until the coming of the age of steam or well on into the nineteenth century1 then the ,south ,american republics would have been serious #cjg rivals of the ,united ,states and have been kept from being so hampered as they were by their internal political dissensions4 ,his paragraph on this matter is so contradictory of ordinary impressions1 here in the ,united ,states particularly1 that it seems worth while calling attention to it because it contains that most precious of suggestions1 a thought that is entirely different from any that most people have had before4 ,he says3 ,during the first half-century after the application of steam to transportation ,mexico weltered in domestic turmoils arising out of the crash of the old regime4 ,if the rule of ,spain could have lasted half a century longer1 being progressively as it was during the reign of ,charles ,,iii2 if a succession of such viceroys as ,revilla ,gigedo1 in ,mexico1 and ,de ,croix and ,de ,taboaday ,lemos1 in ,peru1 could have borne sway in ,america until railroads could have been built1 intercolonial intercourse ramified and a distinctly ,spanish-,american spirit developed1 a great ,spanish-,american federal state might possibly have been created1 capable of self-defense against ,europe1 and inviting co-operation rather than aggression from the neighbor in the ,north4 ,lima was the great centre for education in ,south ,america1 and ,mexico1 in ,spanish ,north ,america1 was not far at all behind4 ,the tracing of the steps of the development of education in ,mexico emphasizes especially the difference between the ,spaniards and the ,englishmen in their #cjh relation to the ,indian4 ,bishop ,zumaraga wanted a college for ,indians in his bishopric1 and it was because of this beneficent purpose that the first institution for higher education in the ,new ,world was founded as early as #aece4 ,at that time the need for education for the whites was not felt so much1 since only adults as a rule were in the colony1 the number of children and growing youths being as yet very small4 ,accordingly1 the ,college of ,santa ,cruz1 in ,tlaltelolco1 one of the quarters of the ,city of ,mexico reserved for the ,indians1 was founded under the bishop's patronage4 ,among the faculty were graduates of the ,university of ,paris and of ,salamanca1 two of the greatest universities of ,europe of this time1 and they had not only the ambition to teach1 but also to follow out that other purpose of a university--to investigate and write4 ,among them were such eminent scholars as ,bernardino de ,sahagun1 the founder of ,american anthropology1 and ,juan de ,torquemada1 who is himself a product of ,mexican education1 whose ,monarquia ,indiana is a great storehouse of facts concerning ,mexico before the coming of the whites1 and precious details with regard to ,mexican antiquities4 ,knowing this1 it is not surprising that the curriculum was broad and liberal4 ,besides the elementary branches and grammar and rhetoric1 instruction was provided in ,latin1 philosophy1 ,mexican medicine1 music1 botany 7especially with #cji reference to native plants71 the zoology of ,mexico1 some principles of agriculture1 and the native languages4 ,it is not surprising to be told that many of the graduates of this college became ,alcaldes and ,governors in the ,indian towns1 and that they did much to spread civilization and culture among their compatriots4 ,the ,english-speaking ,americans furnished nothing of this kind1 and our colleges for ,indians came only in the nineteenth century4 ,it is true that ,harvard1 according to its charter1 was for the education of the ,indian youth of this country in knowledge and godliness1 but the ,indians were entirely neglected and no serious effort was ever made to give them any education4 ,it was a son of the ,puritans who said that his forefathers first fell on their knees and then on the aborigines1 and the difference in the treatment of the ,indians by the ,english and the ,spaniards is a marked note in all their history4 ,during the next few years schools were established also for the education of mestizo children1 that is1 of the mixed race who are now called ,creoles4 ,in fact1 in #aecf a fund from the ,royal ,exchequer was given for the teaching of these children4 ,strange as it may seem1 for we are apt to think that the teaching of girls is a modern idea1 schools were also established for ,indian girls4 ,all of these schools continued to flourish1 and gradually spread beyond the ,city of ,mexico itself into the villages of the ,indians4 ,as a #caj matter of fact1 wherever a mission was established a school was also founded4 ,every town1 ,indian as well as ,spanish1 was by law required to have its church1 hospital and school for teaching ,indian children ,spanish and the elements of religion4 ,the teaching and parish work in the ,indian villages was in charge of two or more friars1 as a rule1 and was well done4 ,the remains of the monasteries with their magnificent ,spanish-,american architecture1 are still to be seen in many portions of ,mexico and of the ,spanish territories that have been incorporated with the ,united ,states1 in places where they might be least expected1 and they show the influence for culture and education that gradually extended all over the ,mexican country4 ,in the course of time the necessity for advanced teaching for the constantly growing number of native whites began to be felt1 and so during the fifth decade of the sixteenth century a number of schools for them came into existence in the ,city of ,mexico4 ,the need was felt for some central institution4 ,accordingly1 the ,spanish ,crown was petitioned to establish authoritatively a university4 ,such a step would have been utterly out of the question in ,english ,america1 because the ,crown was so little interested in colonial affairs4 ,in the ,spanish country1 however1 the ,crown was deeply interested in making the colonists feel that though they were at a distance from the centre of government1 their rulers were interested in #caa securing for them1 as far as possible1 all the opportunities of life at home in ,spain4 ,this is so different from what is ordinarily presumed to have been the attitude of ,spain towards its colonies as to be quite a surprise for those who have depended on old-fashioned history1 but there can be no doubt of its truth4 ,accordingly1 the ,university of ,mexico received its royal charter the same year as the ,university of ,lima 7#aeea74 ,mexico was not formally organized as a university until #aeec4 ,in the light of these dates1 it is rather amusing to have the ,century ,dictionary1 under the word ,harvard ,university1 speak of that institution as the oldest and largest institution of learning in ,america4 ,it had been preceded by almost a century1 not only in ,south ,america1 but also in ,north ,america4 ,the importance of ,harvard was as nothing compared to the universities of ,lima and ,mexico1 and indeed for a century after its foundation ,harvard was scarcely more than a small theological school1 with a hundred or so of pupils1 sometimes having no graduating class1 practically never graduating more than eight or ten pupils1 while the two ,spanish-,american universities counted their students by the thousand and their annual graduates by the hundred4 ,the reason for the success of these ,south ,american universities above that of ,harvard is to be found in the fact that ,harvard's sphere of usefulness was extremely limited because of #cab religious differences and shades of differences4 ,this had hampered all education in ,protestant countries very seriously4 ,professor ,paulsen1 who holds the chair of philosophy at the ,university of ,berlin1 calls attention to the fact that the ,reformation had anything but the effect of favoring education that has often been said4 ,the picture that he draws of conditions in ,germany a century before the foundation of ,harvard would serve very well as a lively prototype of the factors at work in preventing ,harvard from becoming such an educational institution as the universities of ,lima and ,mexico so naturally became4 ,he says1 in ,german ,universities and ,university ,studies3 ,during this period after ,luther's revolt a more determined effort was made to control instruction than at any period before or since4 ,the fear of heresy1 the extraordinary anxiety to keep instruction well within orthodox lines1 was not less intense at the ,lutheran than at the ,catholic institutions2 perhaps it was even more so1 because here doctrine was not so well established1 apostasy was possible in either of two directions1 toward ,catholicism or ,calvinism4 ,even the philosophic faculty felt the pressure of this demand for correctness of doctrines4 ,thus came about these restrictions within the petty states and their narrow-minded established churches which well-nigh stifled the intellectual life of the ,german people4 ,because of this and the fact that the attendance #cac at the college did not justify it1 the school of medicine at ,harvard was not opened until after the ,revolution 7#aghc74 ,the law school was not opened until #ahag4 ,this is sometimes spoken of as the earliest law school connected with a university on this continent1 but1 of course1 only by those who know nothing at all about the history of the ,spanish-,american universities4 ,in the ,spanish countries the chairs in law were established very early2 indeed1 before those of medicine4 ,canon law was always an important subject in ,spanish universities1 and civil law was so closely connected with it that it was never neglected4 ,when the charter of the ,university of ,lima was granted by the ,emperor ,charles ,v1 in #aeea1 the town was scarcely more than fifteen years old4 ,it had been founded in #aece4 ,curiously enough1 just about the same interval had elapsed between the foundation of the ,massachusetts colony by the ,pilgrims and the legal establishment of the college afterward known as ,harvard by the ,general ,court of the colony4 ,it is evident that in both cases it was the needs of the rising generation who had come to be from twelve to sixteen years of age that led to the establishment of these institutions of higher education4 ,the actual foundation of ,harvard did not come for two years later1 and the intention of the founders was not nearly so broad as that of the founders of the ,university of ,lima4 ,already at ,lima schools had been #cad established by the religious orders1 and it was with the idea of organizing the education as it was being given that the charter from the ,crown was obtained4 ,with regard to both ,lima and ,mexico1 within a few years a bull of approval and confirmation was asked and obtained from the ,pope4 ,the ,university of ,lima continued to develop with wonderful success4 ,in the middle of the seventeenth century it had more than a thousand students1 at the beginning of the eighteenth it had two thousand students1 and there is no doubt at all of its successful accomplishment of all that a university is supposed to do4 ,juan ,antonio ,ribeyro1 who was the rector of the ,university of ,lima forty years ago1 said in the introduction to ,the ,university ,annals for #ahfi that1 ,it cannot be denied that the ,university of ,peru during its early history filled a large role of direct intervention for the formation of laws1 for the amelioration of customs and in directing all the principal acts of civil and private society1 forming the religious beliefs1 rendering them free from superstitions and errors and influencing all the institutions of the country to the common good4 ,certainly this is all that would be demanded of a university as an influence for uplift1 and the fact that such an ideal should have been cherished shows how well the purpose of an educational institution had been realized4 ,the scholarly work done by some of these professors at ,spanish-,american universities still #cae remains a model of true university work4 ,it is the duty of the university to add to knowledge as well as to disseminate it4 ,that ideal of university existence is supposed to be a creation of the nineteenth century1 and indeed is often said to have been brought into the history of education by the example of the ,german universities4 ,we find1 however1 that the professors of the ,spanish-,american universities accomplished much in this matter and that their works remain as precious storehouses of information for after generations4 ,professor ,bourne has given but a short list of them in addition to those that have already been mentioned1 but even this furnishes an excellent idea of how much the university professors of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in ,spanish ,america were taking to heart the duty of gathering1 arranging and classifying knowledge for after generations4 ,they did more in the sciences than in anything else4 ,it is often thought that our knowledge of the ethnology and anthropology of the ,indians is entirely the creation of recent investigators1 but that is true only if one leaves out of account the work of these old ,spanish-,american scholars4 ,professor ,bourne says3 ,the most famous of the earlier ,peruvian writers were ,acosta1 the historian1 the author of the ',natural and ,civil ,history of the ,indies'2 the mestizo ,garciasso de la ,vega1 who was educated in ,spain and wrote of the ,inca ,empire and ,de ,soto's expedition2 ,sandoval1 the author of the #caf first work on ,africa and the negro written in ,america2 ,antonio ,leon ,pinelo1 the first ,american bibliographer1 and one of the greatest as well of the indefatigable codifiers of the old legislation of the ,indies4 ,pinelo was born in ,peru and educated at the ,jesuit ,college in ,lima1 but spent his literary life in ,spain4 ,of the ,university of ,mexico more details are available than of ,peru1 and the fact that it was situated here in ,north ,america and that the culture which it influenced has had its effect on certain portions of the ,united ,states1 has made it seem worth while to devote considerable space to it4 ,the ,university was called the ,royal and ,pontifical ,university of ,mexico1 because1 while it was founded under the charter of the ,king of ,spain1 this had been confirmed by a bull from the ,pope1 who took the new university directly under the patronage of the ,holy ,see4 ,the reason for the foundation of the university1 as the men at that time saw it1 is contained in the opening chapter of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel1 which is quoted as the preamble of the constitutions of the university3 ,in the beginning was the ,word1 and the ,word was with ,god4 ,the same was in the beginning with ,god4 ,all things were made by ,him and without ,him was made nothing that was made4 ,in ,him was ,life1 and the ,life was the light of men4 ,this they considered ample reason for the erection of a university and the spread of knowledge with ,god's own sanction4 #cag ,the patron saints of the university1 as so declared by the first article of the constitutions1 were ,st4 ,paul the ,apostle1 and ,st4 ,catherine the ,martyr4 ,among the patrons1 however1 were also mentioned in special manner two other saints--,st4 ,john ,nepomucen1 who died rather than reveal the secrets of the confessional1 and ,st4 ,aloysius ,gonzaga1 the special patron of students4 ,it is evident that these two patrons had been chosen with a particular idea that devotion to them would encourage the practice of such virtues and devotion to duty as would be especially useful to the students1 clerical and secular1 of the university4 ,on all four of the feast days of these patrons the university had a holiday4 ,this would seem to be adding notably to the number of free days in a modern university1 but must have meant very little at the ,university of ,mexico1 they had so many other free days4 ,the most striking difference between the calendar of the ,university of ,mexico and that of a modern university would be the number of days in the year in which no lectures were given4 ,there were some forty of these altogether4 ,besides the four patron saint days1 the feast day of every ,apostle was a holiday4 ,besides these1 all the ,fathers and ,doctors of the ,church gave reasons for holidays4 ,then there was ,st4 ,sebastian's ,day1 in order that young men might be brave1 ,st4 ,joseph's ,day1 the ,annunciation1 the ,expectation1 the ,assumption and the ,nativity of the ,blessed ,virgin1 the #cah ,invention of the ,holy ,cross1 the ,three ,rogation ,days and the ,feast of ,our ,lady of the ,snows4 ,besides1 there were ,st4 ,magdalen's1 ,st4 ,ann's1 ,st4 ,ignatius' and ,st4 ,lawrence's ,day4 ,these were not all1 but this will give an idea how closely connected with the ,church were the lectures at the university1 or1 rather1 the intermission from the lectures4 ,it might be said that this was a serious waste of precious time1 and that our universities in the modern time would not think of imitating them1 but such a remark could come but from some one who did not realize the real condition that obtained in the old-time universities4 ,at the present time our universities finish their scholastic year about the middle of ,may and do not begin again until ,october--nearly twenty weeks4 ,at these old universities their annual intermission between scholastic years lasted only the six weeks from the ,feast of the ,nativity of the ,blessed ,virgin1 ,september #h1 to ,st ,luke's ,day1 ,october #ah4 ,they had five weeks at ,easter time and two weeks at ,christmas time4 ,they spread their year out over a longer period and compensated for shorter vacations by granting holidays during the year4 ,their year's labor was less intense and spread out over more ground than ours4 ,the development of the ,university of ,mexico into a real university in the full sense of the old studium generale1 in which all forms of human knowledge might be pursued1 is very interesting #cai and shows the thoroughgoing determination of the ,spanish ,americans to make for themselves and their children an institute of learning worthy of themselves and their magnificent new country4 ,chartered in #aeea1 it was not formally opened until #aeec4 ,chairs were established in this year in theology1 ,sacred ,scripture1 canon law and decretals1 laws1 art1 rhetoric and grammar4 ,both ,spanish and ,latin were taught in the classes of grammar and rhetoric4 ,to these was added very shortly a chair in ,mexican ,indian languages1 in accordance with the special provisions of the imperial charter4 ,the university continued to develop and added further chairs and departments as time went on4 ,it had a chair of jurisprudence at the beginning1 but its law department was completed in #aefi by the addition of two other chairs1 one in the institutes of law1 the other in codes of law4 ,in the meantime the university had begun to make itself felt as a corporate body for general uplift by publications of various kinds4 ,its professor of rhetoric1 ,dr4 ,cervantes ,salazer1 published in #aeee three interesting ,latin dialogues in imitation of ,erasmus' dialogues4 ,at the moment ,erasmus' ,colloquia was the most admired academic work in the university world of the time4 ,the first of these dialogues described the ,university of ,mexico1 and the other two1 taking up ,mexico ,city and its environments1 gave an excellent idea of #cbj what the ,spanish-,american capital of ,mexico was three centuries and a half ago4 ,the early promoters of education and missions did not rely upon the distant ,european presses for the publication of their manuals4 ,the printing press was introduced into the ,new ,world probably as early as #aecf1 and it seems likely that the first book1 an elementary ,christian doctrine called ',la ,escala ,espiritual' 7the ladder of the spirit71 was issued in #aecg4 ,no copy of it1 however1 is known to exist4 ,seven different printers plied their craft in ,new ,spain in the sixteenth century4 ,among the notable issues of these presses1 besides the religious works and church service works1 were dictionaries and grammars of the ,mexican languages1 ,puga's ',cedulario' in #aefc1 a compilation of royal ordinances1 ,farfan's ',tractado de ,medicina4' ,in #afje appeared the first text-book published in ,america for instruction in ,latin1 a manual of poetics with illustrative examples from heathen and ,christian poets4 7,bourne47 ,with the light thrown on the early history of printing on this continent by a paragraph like this1 how amusing it is to be told that the tradition among the printers and the publishers and even the bibliophiles of the ,united ,states is that the first book printed in ,america was the ,massachusetts ,bay ,psalm ,book printed1 ,i believe1 in #afcg4 ,there were no less than seven printing presses at work in ,mexico during the sixteenth #cba century1 fully fifty years before the ,massachusetts ,bay ,psalm ,book was issued4 ,how interesting it is for those who still like to insist that the ,catholic ,church is opposed to the distribution of the ,scriptures to the people or its printing in the vernacular1 to find how many editions of it were printed in ,mexico and in ,south ,america during the sixteenth century4 ,this story of the printing press in ,spanish ,america in the early days would of itself make a most interesting chapter in a volume on ,american origins1 which could probably be extended into a very valuable little manual of bibliography and bibliophilic information that would arouse new interest in the accumulation of early ,american books4 ,the university had been founded just twenty-five years when provision was made for the establishment of the medical department4 ,according to most of the chronicles the first chair in medicine was founded ,june #ba1 #aegh1 although there are some authorities who state that this establishment came only in #aehj4 ,i am a graduate of the ,university of ,pennsylvania ,medical ,school myself1 and ,i yield to none of her sons in veneration for my ,alma ,mater1 but ,i cannot pass over this statement of the foundation of the medical school in ,mexico without recalling that we have been rather proud at the ,university of ,pennsylvania to be known as the ,first ,american ,medical ,school4 ,this is1 of course1 only due to our fond ,united ,states way of assuming #cbb ourselves to be all ,america and utterly neglecting any knowledge of ,spanish ,america4 ,i believe that there are tablets erected at the ,university of ,pennsylvania chronicling our priority4 ,one of them is to the first graduating class1 the other to the first faculty of the medical school4 ,i believe that between the erection of the two tablets there had come to be some suspicion of the possibility that ,south ,america was ahead of us in this respect and so the second tablet specifically mentions ,north ,america4 ,when ,i talked some time ago before the ,college of ,physicians of ,philadelphia on this subject one of my friends1 who was a teacher at the university1 asked me what they should do with their tablets4 ,i suggested that1 by all means1 they should be allowed to remain1 and that as soon as possible an opportunity should be secured to erect the third tablet containing a statement of the real facts with regard to the place of the ,university of ,pennsylvania as the protagonist in medicine in the ,united ,states4 ,the tablets will then serve to show the gradual evolution of our knowledge of the true history of medical education in this country4 ,it is all the more important that this should be the arrangement because the ,university of ,pennsylvania has been a leader in the discovery of ,south ,america that has been made by us in the last few years4 ,between the date of the foundation of the first chair in medicine at the beginning of the #cbc last quarter of the sixteenth century and the foundation of the city1 ,mexico had not been without provision of physicians4 ,in the very first year of the existence of the ,university of ,mexico1 though there was no formal faculty of medicine1 two doctors received their degrees in medicine from the university4 ,they had been students in ,spain and were able to satisfy the faculty of their ability4 ,this shows that the institution was considered to have the power to confer these degrees upon those who brought evidence of having completed the necessary studies1 though it was not in a position to provide facilities for these studies4 ,it is evident that this custom continued in subsequent years until the necessity for medical studies at home became evident4 ,the intimate connection between the universities of old ,spain and of ,new ,spain is a very interesting subject in the educational history of the time4 ,even before the foundation of the university1 however1 definite efforts were made by the authorities to secure proper medical service for the colonists and to prevent their exploitation by quacks and charlatans4 ,strict medical regulations were established by the ,municipal ,council of the ,city of ,mexico in #aebg so as to prevent quacks from ,europe1 who might think to exploit the ills of the settlers in the new colony1 from practising medicine4 ,licenses to practise were issued only to those who showed the possession of a university degree4 #cbd ,this strict regulation of medical practice was extended also to the apothecaries in #aebi4 ,even before this1 arrangements had been made for the regular teaching of barber-surgeons1 so that injuries and wounds of various kinds might be treated properly1 and so that emergencies might be promptly met1 even in the absence of a physician1 by these barber-surgeons4 ,dr4 ,bandelier1 in his article on ,francisco ,bravo in the second volume of the ,catholic ,encyclopedia1 calls attention to some important details with regard to medicine in ,mexico in the early part of the sixteenth century1 and especially to this distinguished physician who published the first book on medicine in that city in #aegj4 ,three years before that time ,dr4 ,pedrarius de ,benavides had published his ,secretos de ,chirurgia at ,valladolid1 in ,spain1 a work which had been written in ,america and contained an immense amount of knowledge that is invaluable with regard to ,indian medicinal practice4 ,dr4 ,bravo's work1 however1 has the distinction of being the first medical treatise printed in ,america4 ,the issuance of these books shows the intense interest in medicine in the sixteenth century1 but there are other details which serve to show how thorough and practical were the efforts of the authorities in securing the best possible medical practice4 ,in #aebd there was founded in the ,city of ,mexico a hospital1 which still stands and which was a model in its way4 ,that way was #cbe much better than the mode of the construction of hospitals in the eighteenth century1 for instance1 when hospitals and care for the ailing reached the lowest ebb in modern times4 ,other hospitals besides this foundation by ,cortez soon arose1 and the wards of these hospitals were used for purposes of clinical teaching4 ,clinical or bedside teaching in medicine is supposed to be a comparatively recent feature of medical education4 ,there are traces of it1 however1 at all times in history and while at times when theory ruled the practical application of observation waned1 it was constantly coming back whenever men took medical education seriously4 ,its employment in ,mexico seems to have been an obvious development of their very practical methods1 which began with the teaching of first aid to the injured and developed through special studies of the particular diseases of the country and of the methods of curing them by native drugs4 ,a chair of botany existed already in connection with the university1 and this1 with the lectures on medicine1 constituted the medical training until #aeii1 when a second medical lectureship was added4 ,during the course of the next twenty years altogether seven chairs in medicine were founded1 so that besides the two lectureships in medicine there was a chair of anatomy and surgery1 a special chair of dissection1 a chair of therapeutics1 the special duty of which was to lecture on ,galen ,de ,methodo ,medendi1 a #cbf chair of mathematics and astrology1 for the stars were supposed to influence human constitutions by all the learned men of this time and even ,kepler and ,galileo and ,tycho-,brahe were within this decade making horoscopes for important people in ,europe1 and1 finally1 a chair of prognostics4 ,most of the teaching was founded on ,hippocrates and ,galen1 and lest this should seem sufficient to condemn it as hopelessly backward in the minds of many1 it may be recalled that during the century following this time ,sydenham1 in ,england1 and ,boerhaave1 in ,holland1 the most distinguished medical men of their time and looked on with great reverence by the teachers of ours1 were both of them pleading for a return to ,hippocrates and ,galen4 ,as a matter of fact1 the medical school of the ,university of ,mexico was furnishing quite as good a medical training as the average medical school in ,europe at that time1 at least so far as the subjects lectured on are concerned4 ,indeed1 it was modelled closely after the ,spanish universities1 which were considered well up to the standard of the time4 ,in the meantime additional chairs in university subjects continued to be founded4 ,another chair in arts was established in #aehf1 and further chairs in law and grammar were added at the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,the ,spanish ,crown was very much interested in ,mexican education1 and ,king ,philip ,,ii of ,spain1 who is usually mentioned in ,english history for quite #cbg other qualities than his interest in culture and education1 was especially liberal in his provision from the ,crown revenues of funds for the university4 ,at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 according to ,flores in his ,history of ,medicine in ,mexico from the ,indian ,times ,down to the ,present1 the total amount of income from the ,crown allowed the ,university of ,mexico was nearly #aj1jjj4 ,this was about ,shakespeare's time1 and so we have readily available calculations as to the buying power of money at that time compared to our own4 ,it is usually said that the money of ,elizabeth's time had eight to ten times the trading value of ours4 ,this would mean that the ,university of ,mexico had nearly an income of #ajj1jjj apart from fees and other sources of revenue4 ,this would not be considered contemptible even in our own day for a university having less than twenty professorships4 ,the number of students at the ,university of ,mexico is not absolutely known1 but1 as we have seen1 ,professor ,bourne calculates that the ,university of ,lima had at the beginning of the eighteenth century more than #b1jjj students4 ,the ,university of ,mexico at the same time probably had more than #a1jjj students1 and both of these universities were larger in number than any institution of learning within the boundaries of the present ,united ,states until after the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,after all1 we began to have universities in the real sense of #cbh that word--that is1 educational institutions giving opportunities in undergraduate work and the graduate departments of law1 medicine and theology--not until nearly the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century4 ,our medical and law schools did not1 as a rule1 become attached to our universities until the second half of the nineteenth century1 and even late in that4 ,this was to the serious detriment of post-graduate work1 and especially detrimental to the preliminary training required for it1 and consequently to the products of these schools4 ,before a student could enter one of the post-graduate departments at the ,university of ,mexico in law or medicine1 he was required to have made at least three years of studies in the undergraduate departments4 ,when we contrast this regulation with the custom in the ,united ,states1 the result is a little startling4 ,until the last quarter of the nineteenth century students might enter our medical schools straight from the plow or the smithy or the mechanic's bench1 and without any preliminary education1 after two terms of medical lectures consisting of four months each1 be given a degree which was a license to practise medicine4 ,the abuses of such a system are manifest1 and actually came into existence4 ,they were not permitted in ,mexico even in the seventeenth century4 ,it might perhaps be thought that these magnificent opportunities in education were provided #cbi only for the higher classes1 or concerned only book learning and the liberal and professional studies4 ,far from any such exclusiveness as this1 their schools were thoroughly rounded and gave instruction in the arts and crafts and recognized the value of manual training4 ,we have only come to appreciate in the last few decades how much we have lost in education in ,america by neglecting these features of education for the masses4 ,while ,germany has manual training for over fifty per cent4 of the children who go to her schools1 here in the ,united ,states we provide it for something less than one per cent1 of our children4 ,they made no such mistake as this in the ,spanish-,american countries4 ,indeed1 ,professor ,bourne's paragraph on this subject is perhaps the most interesting feature of what he has to say with regard to education in ,spanish ,america4 ,the objective methods of education1 as he depicts them1 the thoroughly practical content of education1 and the fact that the ,church was one of the main factors in bringing about this well-rounded education1 is of itself a startling commentary on the curiously perverted notions that have been held in the past with regard to the comparative value of education in ,spanish and in ,english ,america and the attitude of the ,church toward these educational questions3 ,both the ,crown and the ,church were solicitous for education in the colonies1 and provisions were made for its promotion on a far greater #ccj scale than was possible or even attempted in the ,english colonies4 ,the early ,franciscan missionaries built a school beside each church1 and in their teaching abundant use was made of signs1 drawings and paintings4 ,the native languages were reduced to writing1 and in a few years ,indians were learning to read and write4 ,pedro de ,gante1 a ,flemish lay brother and a relative of ,charles ,v1 founded and conducted in the ,indian quarter in ,mexico a great school1 attended by over a thousand ,indian boys1 which combined instruction in elementary and higher branches1 the mechanical and fine arts4 ,in its workshops the boys were taught to be tailors1 carpenters1 blacksmiths1 shoemakers and painters4 ,if there was all this of progress in education in ,spanish-,american countries in advance of what we had in the ,united ,states1 people will be prone to ask where1 then1 are the products of the ,spanish-,american education8 ,this is only a fair question1 and if the products cannot be shown1 their education1 however pretentious1 must have been merely superficial or hollow1 and must have meant nothing for the culture of their people4 ,we are sure that most people would consider the question itself quite sufficient for argument1 for it would be supposed to be unanswerable4 ,such has been the state of mind created by history as it is written for ,english-speaking people1 that we are not at all prepared to think that there #cca can possibly be in existence certain great products of ,spanish-,american education that show very clearly how much better educational systems were developed in ,spanish than in ,english ,america4 ,the fact that we do not know them1 however1 is only another evidence of the one-sidedness of ,american education in the ,north1 even at the present time4 ,our whole attitude toward the ,south ,american people1 our complacent self-sufficiency from which we look down on them1 our thoroughgoing condescension for their ignorance and backwardness1 is all founded on our lack of real knowledge with regard to them4 ,the most striking product of ,south ,american education was the architectural structures which the ,spanish-,american people erected as ornaments of their towns1 memorials of their culture and evidences of their education4 ,the cathedrals in the ,spanish towns of ,south ,america and ,mexico are structures1 as a rule1 fairly comparable with the ecclesiastical buildings erected by towns of the same size in ,europe4 ,as a rule1 they were planned at least in the sixteenth century1 and most of them were finished in the seventeenth century4 ,their cathedrals are handsome architectural structures worthy of their faith and enduring evidence of their taste and love of beauty4 ,the ecclesiastical buildings1 the houses of their bishops and archbishops and their monasteries were worthy of their cathedrals and churches4 ,most of them are beautiful1 all of them are dignified1 all of them had #ccb a permanent character that has made them endure down to our day and has made them an unfailing ornament of the towns in which they are4 ,their municipal buildings partook of this same type4 ,some of them are very handsome structures4 ,of their universities we have already heard that they were imposing buildings from without1 handsomely decorated within4 ,it must not be forgotten that the ,spanish ,americans practically invented the new style of architecture4 ,how effective that style is1 we had abundant opportunity to see when it was employed for the building of the ,pan-,american ,exposition at ,buffalo4 ,that style is essentially ,american4 ,it is the only new thing that ,america has contributed to construction since its settlement4 ,how thoroughly suitable it was for the climate for which it was invented1 those who have had experience of it in the new hotels erected in ,florida1 in the last decade or so1 can judge very well4 ,many of its effects are an adaptation of classical formulae to buildings for the warm1 yet uncertain climate of many parts of ,south ,america4 ,some of the old monasteries constructed after this style are beautiful examples of architecture in every sense of the word4 ,if the ,spanish-,american monks had done nothing else but leave us this handsome new model in architecture they would not have lived in vain1 nor would their influence in ,american life have been without its enduring effects4 ,this is a typical #ccc product of the higher culture of the ,south ,spanish-,american people4 ,with regard to the churches1 it may be said that the spirit of the ,puritans was entirely opposed to anything like the ornamentation of their churches1 and that1 indeed1 these were not churches in the usual sense of the word1 but were merely meeting houses4 ,hence there was not the same impulse to make them beautiful as lifted the ,spanish ,americans into their magnificent expressions of architectural beauty4 ,on the other hand1 there are other buildings in regard to which1 if there had been any real culture in the minds of the ,english ,americans1 we have a right to expect some beauty as well as usefulness4 ,if we contrast for a moment the hospitals of ,english and ,spanish ,america the difference is so striking as to show the lack of some important quality in the minds of the builders at the north4 ,spanish-,american hospitals are among the beautiful structures with which they began to adorn their towns early1 and some of them remain at the present day as examples of the architectural taste of their builders4 ,they were usually low1 often of but one story in height1 with a courtyard and with ample porticos for convalescents1 and thick walls to defend them from the heat of the climate4 ,in many features they surpass many hospitals that have been built in ,america until very recent years4 ,they were modelled on the old mediaeval hospitals1 some of which are very beautiful #ccd examples of how to build places for the care of the ailing4 ,contrast for a moment with this the state of affairs that has existed with regard to our church buildings and our public structures of all kinds in ,north ,america1 down to the latter half of the nineteenth century4 ,we have no buildings dating from before the nineteenth century that have any pretension to architectural beauty4 ,they were built merely for utility4 ,some of them still have an interest for us because of historical associations1 but they are a standing evidence of the lack of taste of our ,anglo-,saxon ancestors4 ,the ,english poet1 ,yeats1 said at a little dinner given to him just before he left this country ten years ago1 that no nation can pretend to being cultured until the very utensils in the kitchen are beautiful as well as useful4 ,what is to be said1 then1 of a nation that erects public buildings that are to be merely useful8 ,as a matter of fact1 most of them were barracks4 ,the ,american people woke up somewhat in the nineteenth century1 but the awakening was very slow4 ,a few handsome structures were erected1 but it is not until the last decade or two that we have been able to awaken public taste to the necessity for having all our public buildings beautiful as well as useful4 ,the effect of this taste for structural beauty on the appearance of the streets of their towns was an important element in making them very different from our cramped and narrow pathways4 #cce ,the late ,mr4 ,ernest ,crosby once expressed this very emphatically in an after-dinner speech1 by detailing his experience with regard to ,havana4 ,he had visited the ,cuban capital some twenty years ago1 and found it very picturesque in its old ,spanish ways4 ,it is true the streets were dirty and the death-rate was somewhat high1 but the vista that you saw when you came around the corner of a street1 was not the same that you had seen around every other corner for twenty miles2 it was different4 ,it was largely a city of homes1 with some thought of life being made happy1 rather than merely being laborious4 ,it was a place to live in and enjoy life while it lasted1 and not merely a place to exist in and make money4 ,he came north by land4 ,the first town that he struck on the mainland1 he said1 reminded him of ,hoboken4 ,every other town that he struck in the ,north reminded him more and more of ,hoboken1 until he came to the immortal ,hoboken itself4 ,the ,american end of the ,anglo-,saxon idea seemed to him to make all the towns like ,hoboken as far as possible4 ,there is only one town in this country that is not like ,hoboken1 and that is ,washington2 and whenever we let the politicians work their wills on that--witness the ,pension ,building--it has a tendency to grow more and more like ,hoboken4 ,perhaps we shall be able to save it4 ,as for ,havana1 he said he understood that the death-rate had been cut in two1 and that yellow fever was no longer #ccf epidemic there1 but he understood also that the town was growing more and more like ,hoboken1 so that he scarcely dared go back to see it4 ,the parable has a lesson that is well worth driving home for our people1 for it emphasizes a notable lack of culture among the ,american people1 which did not exist among the ,spanish ,americans1 a lack which we did not realize until the last decade or two1 though it is an important index of true culture4 ,the hideous buildings that we have allowed ourselves to live in in ,america1 and1 above all1 that we have erected as representing the dignity of city1 and only too often even of state1 together with the awful evidence of graft1 whenever an attempt has been made to correct this false taste and erect something worthy of us1 the graft usually spoiling to a very great extent our best purposes1 proclaim an absence of culture in ,american life that amounts to a conviction of failure of our education to be liberal in the true sense of the word4 ,there were other products of ,spanish-,american education quite as striking as the architectural beauties with which ,mexicans and ,south ,americans adorned their towns4 ,quite as interesting1 indeed1 as their architecture is their literature4 ,ordinarily we are apt to assume that because we have heard almost nothing of ,spanish-,american literature1 there must be very little of it1 and what little there is must have very little significance4 ,this is only another one of these examples #ccg of how ridiculous it is to know something that ain't so4 ,spanish-,american literature is very rich4 ,it begins very early in the history of the ,spanish settlement4 ,it is especially noteworthy for its serious products1 and when the world's account of the enduring literature of the past four centuries will be made up much more of what was written in ,south ,america will live than what has been produced in ,north ,america4 ,this seems quite unpatriotic1 but it is only an expression of proper estimation of values1 without any of that amusing self-complacency which so commonly characterizes ,north ,american estimation of anything that is done by our people4 ,south ,american literature1 in the best sense of that much abused term1 begins shortly after the middle of the sixteenth century1 with the writing of the ,spanish poet1 ,ercilla's1 epic1 ,araucana1 which was composed in ,south ,america during the decade from #aeej to #aefj4 ,this is a literary work of genuine merit1 that has attracted the attention of critics and scholars of all kinds and has given its author a significant place even in the limited field of epic poetry among the few great names that the world cares to recall in this literary mode4 ,voltaire considered this epic poem a great contribution to literature1 and in the prefatorial essay to his own epic1 the ,henriade1 he praises it very highly4 ,the poem takes its name from the ,araucanos ,indians1 who had risen in revolt against the ,spaniards in ,chile1 and #cch against whom the poet served for nearly ten years4 ,he did not learn to despise them1 and while the literature which does justice to the lofty sentiments which sometimes flowed from mouths of great ,indian chiefs1 is supposed to be much more recent1 ,ercilla's most enthusiastically extolled passage is the noble speech which he has given to the aged chief1 ,colocolo1 in the ,araucana4 ,the expedition against the ,araucanos inspired two other fine poems--that of ,pedro de ,ona1 ,arauco ,domado1 written near the end of the century1 and ,araucana1 written by ,diego de ,santisteban1 whose poem also saw the light before the seventeenth century opened4 ,a fourth poet1 ,juan de ,castellanos1 better than either of these1 wrote ,elegias de ,varones ,ilustres de ,indias4 ,he was a priest who had served in ,america1 and who remembered some of the magnificent traits of the ,indians that he had observed during his life among them1 and made them the subject of his poetry4 ,this was only the beginning of a serious ,spanish-,american literature1 that has continued ever since4 ,father ,charles ,warren ,currier1 in a series of lectures at the ,catholic ,summer ,school three years ago1 did not hesitate to say that the body of ,spanish-,american literature was much larger and much more important1 and much more of it was destined to endure than of our ,english-,american literature4 ,in the light of what these ,spaniards had done for education in their universities1 and for the beauty of life in #cci their cities by their architecture1 this is not so surprising a saying as it might otherwise be4 ,all of these things stand together and are confirmations one of the other4 ,the most interesting product of ,spanish-,american education1 however1--the one which shows that it really stood for a higher civilization than ours1--remains to be spoken of4 ,it consists of their treatment of the ,indians4 ,from the very beginning1 as we have just shown1 their literature in ,spanish ,america did justice to the ,indians4 ,they saw his better traits4 ,it is true they had a better class of ,indians1 as a rule1 to deal with1 but there is no doubt also that they did much to keep him on a higher level1 while everything in ,north ,america that was done by the settlers was prone to reduce the native in the scale of civilization4 ,he was taught the vices and not the virtues of civilization1 and little was attempted to uplift him4 ,just as the literary men were interested in the better side of his character1 so the ,spanish-,american scientists were interested in his folklore1 in his medicine1 in his arts and crafts1 in his ethnology and anthropology--in a word1 in all that ,north ,americans have only come to be interested in during the nineteenth century4 ,books on all these subjects were published1 and now constitute a precious fund of knowledge with regard to the aborigines that would have been lost only for the devotion of ,spanish-,american scholars4 ,it is not surprising1 then1 that the ,indian #cdj himself1 with all this interest in him1 did not disappear1 as in ,north ,america1 but has remained to constitute the basis of ,south ,american peoples4 ,if the ,south ,american peoples are behind our own in anything1 it is because large elements in them have been raised from a state of semi-barbarism into civilization1 while our people have all come from nations that were long civilized and we have none at all of the natives left4 ,wherever the ,english went always the aborigines disappeared before them4 ,the story is the same in ,new ,zealand and ,australia as it is in ,north ,america1 and it would be the same in ,india1 only for the teeming millions that live in that peninsula1 for whom ,anglo-,saxon civilization has never meant an uplift in any sense of the word1 but rather the contrary4 ,the white man's burden has been to carry the ,indian1 instilling into him all the vices1 until no longer he could cling to his shifty master and was shaken off to destruction4 ,this story of the contrast of the treatment of the ,indian at the ,north and the ,south is probably the best evidence for the real depth of culture that the magnificent education of the ,spaniards1 so early and so thoroughly organized in their colonies1 accomplished for this continent4 ,alone it would stand as the highest possible evidence of the interest of the ,spanish ,government and the ,spanish ,church in the organization not only of education1 but of government in such a way as to bring happiness and uplift for #cda both natives and colonists in the ,spanish-,american countries4 ,abuses there were1 as there always will be where men are concerned and where a superior race comes in contact with an inferior4 ,these abuses1 however1 were exceptions and not the rule4 ,the policy instituted by the ,spaniards and maintained in spite of the tendencies of men to degenerate into tyranny and misuse of the natives is well worthy of admiration4 ,english-speaking history has known very little of it until comparatively recent years4 ,mr4 ,sidney ,lee1 the editor of the ,english ,biographical ,dictionary and the author of a series of works on ,shakespeare which has gained for him recognition as probably the best living authority on the history of the ,elizabethan times1 wrote a series of articles which appeared in ,scribner's last year on ,the ,call of the ,west4 ,this was meant to undo much of the prejudice which exists in regard to ,spanish colonization in this country and to mitigate the undue reverence in which the ,english explorers and colonists have been held by comparison4 ,there seems every reason to think1 then1 that this newer1 truer view of history is gradually going to find its way into circulation4 ,in the meantime it is amusing to look back and realize how much prejudice has been allowed to warp ,english history in this matter1 and how1 as a consequence of the determined1 deliberate efforts to blacken the ,spanish name1 we have had to accept as history exactly the opposite view to the #cdb reality in this matter4 ,lest we should be thought to be exaggerating1 we venture to quote one of the opening paragraphs of ,mr4 ,sidney ,lee's article as it appeared in ,scribner's for ,may1 #aijg3 ,especially has theological bias justified neglect or facilitated misconception of ,spain's role in the sixteenth century drama of ,american history4 ,spain's initial adventures in the ,new ,world are often consciously or unconsciously overlooked or underrated in order that she may figure on the stage of history as the benighted champion of a false and obsolete faith1 which was vanquished under divine protecting ,providence by ,english defenders of the true religion4 ,many are the hostile critics who have painted sixteenth century ,spain as the avaricious accumulator of ,american gold and silver1 to which she had no right1 as the monopolist of ,american trade1 of which she robbed others1 and as the oppressor and exterminator of the weak and innocent aborigines of the new continent who deplored her presence among them4 ,cruelty in all its hideous forms is1 indeed1 commonly set forth as ,spain's only instrument of rule in her sixteenth century empire4 ,on the other hand1 the ,english adventurer has been credited by the same pens with a touching humanity1 with the purest religious aspirations1 with a romantic courage which was always at the disposal of the oppressed native4 ,no such picture is recognized when we apply the touchstone of the oral traditions1 printed #cdc books1 maps and manuscripts concerning ,america which circulated in ,shakespeare's ,england4 ,there a predilection for romantic adventure is found to sway the ,spaniards in even greater degree than it swayed the ,elizabethan4 ,religious zeal is seen to inspirit the ,spaniards more constantly and conspicuously than it stimulated his ,english contemporary4 ,the motives of each nation are barely distinguishable one from another4 ,neither deserves to be credited with any monopoly of virtue or vice4 ,above all1 the study of contemporary authorities brings into a dazzling light which illumes every corner of the picture the commanding facts of the ,spaniard's priority as explorer1 as scientific navigator1 as conqueror1 as settler4 ,here is magnificent praise from one who cannot be suspected of national or creed affinities to bias his judgment4 ,he has studied the facts and not the prejudiced statements of his countrymen4 ,the more carefully the work of the ,spaniards in ,america during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is studied1 the more praise is bestowed upon them4 ,the more a writer knows of actual conditions the more does he feel poignantly the injustice that has been done by the ,protestant tradition which abused the good that was accomplished by the ,catholic ,spanish and which neglected1 distorted and calumniated his deeds and motives4 ,this bit of ,protestant tradition is1 after all1 only suffering the fate that every other #cdd ,protestant position has undergone during the course of the development of scientific historical criticism4 ,every step toward the newer1 truer history has added striking details to the picture of the beneficent influences of the ,church upon her people in every way4 ,it has shown up pitilessly the subterfuges1 the misstatements and the positive ignorance which have enabled ,protestantism to maintain the opposite impression in people's minds in order to show how impossible was agreement with the ,catholic ,church1 since it stood for backwardness and ignorance and utter lack of sympathy with intellectual development4 ,now we find everywhere that just the opposite was true4 ,whenever the ,reformation had the opportunity to exert itself to the full1 education and culture suffered4 ,erasmus said in his time1 ,wherever ,lutheranism reigns there is an end of literature4 ,churches and cathedrals that used to be marvellous expressions of the artistic and poetic feeling of the people became the ugliest kind of mere meeting houses4 ,rev4 ,augustus ,jessop1 himself an ,anglican clergyman1 tells how art died out in rural ,england after the ,reformation1 which he calls ,the ,great ,pillage1 and ,king ,whitewash and ,queen ,ugliness ruled supreme for centuries4 ,the same thing happened in ,germany1 and education was affected quite as much as art4 ,german national development was delayed1 and she has come to take her place in world influence only in the nineteenth #cde century1 after most of the influence of the religious revolt led by ,luther in the sixteenth century has passed away4 ,these are but a few of the striking differences in recent history that are so well typified by the contrast between what was accomplished for art and culture and architecture and education by the ,catholic ,spaniard and the ,english ,protestant here in ,america during the sixteenth1 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,truth is coming to her own at last1 and it is in the history of education particularly that advances are being made which change the whole aspect of the significance of history during the past #cej years4 #cdf #cdg ,,the ,,medical ,,profession ,,for ,,six ,,thousand ,,years #cdh ,tu recte vivis si curas esse quod audis2 ,neve putes alium sapiente bonoque beatum4 --,horace1 ,ep41 #a1 #af4 ,you are living right if you take care to be what people say you are4 ,do not imagine that any one who is really happy is other than wise and good4 ,quod ipse sis1 non quod habearis1 interest4 --,publius ,syrus4 ,the question is what you are1 not what you are thought to be4 ,may you so raise your character1 that you may help to make the next age a better thing1 and leave posterity in your debt for the advantage it shall receive by your example4 --,lord ,halifax4 #cdi ,,the ,,medical ,,profession ,,for ,,six ,,thousand ,,years ,footnote #bj ,footnote #bj3 ,this was the address to the graduates at the ,first ,commencement of the ,fordham ,university ,school of ,medicine1 ,june #i1 #aiji4 ,i have felt that the first graduation of the youngest of the medical schools might very well be occupied with the consideration of the place of the medical profession in history4 ,we are rather apt in the modern time to neglect the lessons of history and1 above all1 of the history of science1 first because it is not always easy to get definite information with regard to it1 and secondly and mainly because we are likely to imagine that scientific and medical history can mean very little for us4 ,in ,america particularly we have neglected the history of medicine and it has been one of the definite efforts at ,fordham ,university ,school of ,medicine to renew interest in this subject4 ,it is entirely too important to be neglected and it has valuable lessons for all generations1 but especially for a generation so occupied with itself1 that it does not properly consider the claims of the past to recognition for fine work accomplished1 and for the exhibition of some of the best qualities of the human intellect in the pursuit of scientific and practical medical knowledge in previous generations4 #cej ,at the earliest dawn of history we find institutions called temples in which men were being treated for their ailments4 ,those who treated them we have been accustomed to speak of as priests4 ,and such they were1 since their functions included the direction of religious services4 ,these religious services1 however1 were not the exercises of religion as we know them now1 but were special services meant to propitiate certain gods who were supposed to rule over health and disease4 ,there were other kinds of temples besides these4 ,we still talk of temples of justice meaning our law courts1 and our phrase comes from an older time when people went to have their differences of opinion adjudicated by men who conducted the services of praise and prayer for particular deities who were supposed to mete out justice to men1 but the temple attendants were at the same time expert in deciding causes1 knowing right and wrong1 wise in declaring how justice should be done4 ,these early temples1 then1 in which the ailing were treated and over which experts in disease and its treatment presided1 were not temples in our modern sense1 but were much like hospitals as we know them now4 ,they would remind us of the hospitals conducted by religious orders1 trained to care for the illnesses of mankind and yet deeply interested in the worship of ,god4 ,human institutions are never so different from one another1 even in spite of long distance of time #cea or place1 as they are usually presumed to be4 ,men and women have not changed in all the period of human history that we know1 and their modes and ways of life often have a startling similarity if we but find the key for the significance of customs that seem to be very different4 ,these temples of the gods of health and of disease1 then1 were places where patients congregated and men studied diseases for generations1 and passed on their knowledge from one to another1 and accumulated information1 and elaborated theories1 and came to conclusions1 often on insufficient premises1 and did many other things that we are doing at the present time4 ,the medical profession is directly descended from these institutions4 ,they are among the oldest that we know of in human history4 ,these special temples are only a little less ancient than other forms of temples if1 indeed1 they were not the first to be founded1 for man's first most clamorous reason for appeal to the gods has ever been himself and his own health4 ,with the reception of your diplomas this evening you now belong to what is therefore probably the oldest profession in the world4 ,in welcoming you into it let me call your attention particularly to the fact that the history of our profession can be traced back to the very beginning of the course of time1 for as long as we have any account of men's actions in an organized social order4 #ceb ,we are very prone in the modern time to think that what we are doing in each successive generation is of so much greater significance than what was accomplished before our time that it is really scarcely worth while to give much attention to the past4 ,this self-sufficient complacency with regard to the present would be quite unbearable only that each successive generation in its turn has had the same tendency and has expiated its fault by being thought little of by subsequent generations4 ,we shall have our turn with those we affect to despise4 ,it is supposed to be particularly true in every department of science and1 above all1 in medicine that there is such a wide chasm between what we are doing now and what was accomplished by our forebears1 no matter how intelligent they were in the long ago1 that to occupy ourselves seriously with the history of medicine may be a pleasant occupation for an elderly physician who has nothing better to do1 but can mean very little for the young man entering upon practice or for the physician busy with his patients4 ,medical history may be good enough for some book-worm interested in dry-as-dust details for their own sake and perhaps because he rejoices in the fact that other people do not know them1 but can have very little significance for the up-to-date physician4 ,this is an impression that is dying hard just now1 but it is dying4 ,we are learning that there is very little that we are #cec doing even now that has not been done before us and that1 above all1 the great physicians1 no matter how long ago they wrote1 always have precious lessons for us that we cannot afford to neglect1 even though they be #cjj or #fjj or #a1hjj or even #b1ejj years ago4 ,at all of these dates in the past there were physicians whose works will never die4 ,in every department of human history the impression that we are the only ones whose work is significant has been receiving a sad jolt in recent years1 and perhaps in no branch of science is this so true as in medicine4 ,we are coming to realize how much the physicians and surgeons of long distant times accomplished1 and1 above all1 we are learning to appreciate that they approached problems in medicine at many periods of medical history in the best scientific temper of the modern time4 ,of course there were abuses1 but1 then1 the ,lord knows1 there are abuses now4 ,of course their therapeutics had many absurdities in it1 but1 then1 let us not forget that ,professor ,charles ,richet1 the director of the department of physiology at the ,university of ,paris1 declared not long ago in an article in the best known of ,french magazines1 the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 that the therapeutics of any generation of the world's history always contained many absurdities--for the second succeeding generation4 ,the curious thing about it is that some of these supposed absurdities afterward come #ced back into vogue and prove to be precious germs of discovery1 or remedies of value that occasionally even develop into excellent systems of treatment4 ,of course there were superstitions in the old days1 but1 then1 there have been superstitions in medicine at all times4 ,any one who thinks that we are without superstitions in medicine at the present time1 superstitions that are confidently accepted by many regular practising physicians1 must1 indeed1 be innocent4 ,a superstition is in its etymology a survival4 ,it comes from the ,latin superstes1 a survivor4 ,it is the acceptance of some doctrine the reasons for which have disappeared in the progress of knowledge or the development of science1 though the doctrine itself still maintains a hold on the minds of man4 ,superstition has nothing necessarily to do with religion1 though it is with regard to religion that doctrines are particularly apt to be accepted after the reasons for them have disappeared4 ,in medicine1 however1 superstitions are almost as common as in religion4 ,i shall never forget a discussion with two of the most prominent physicians of this country on this subject4 ,one of them was our greatest pathologist1 the other a great teacher of clinical medicine1 who came into medicine through chemistry and therefore had a right to opinions with regard to the chemical side of medicine4 ,we had been discussing the question of how much serious medical #cee education there was in the ,middle ,ages and how1 in spite of the magnificent work done1 so many superstitions in medicine continued to maintain themselves4 ,i remarked that it seemed impossible to teach truths to large bodies of men without having them accept certain doctrines which they thought truths but which were only theories and which they insisted on holding after the reasons for them had passed away4 ,i even ventured to say that ,i thought that there were as many superstitions now1 and such as there were1 were of as great significance as those that maintained themselves in the ,middle ,ages4 ,my chemical clinician brother on the right side said1 ,let us not forget in this regard the hold the uric acid diathesis has on the ,english-speaking medical profession4 ,and the brother pathologist on the left side3 ,well1 and what shall we say of intestinal auto-intoxication8 ,perhaps you will not realize all the force of these expressions at the present time1 but after you have been five years in the practice of medicine and have been flooded by the literature of the advertising manufacturing pharmacist and by the samples of the detail man and his advice and suggestion of principles of practice1 if you will listen to them1 perhaps you will appreciate how much such frank expressions mean as portraying the medical superstitions of our time4 ,surely we who have for years been much occupied with the superstition1 for such it now #cef turns out to be1 of heredity in medicine1 will not be supercilious toward older generations and their superstitions4 ,until a few years ago we were perfectly sure that a number of diseases were inherited directly4 ,tuberculosis1 rheumatism1 gout1 various nutritional disturbances all were supposed to pass from father to son and from mother to daughter1 or sometimes to cross the sex line4 ,for a time cancer was deemed to be surely hereditary to some degree at least4 ,now most of us know that probably no disease is directly inherited1 that acquired characters are almost surely not transmitted1 and that while defects may be the subject of heredity1 disease never is4 ,not only this1 biological investigations have served to show that what is the subject of inheritance is just the opposite1--resistance to disease4 ,a person whose father and mother had suffered from tuberculosis used to think it almost inevitable that he too should suffer from it4 ,if they had died that he too would die4 ,our experts in tuberculosis declare now1 that if tuberculosis has existed in the preceding generation there is a much better chance of the patient recovering from it1 or at least resisting it for a long time1 than if there had been no tuberculosis in the family4 ,we had been harboring the superstition of heredity1 the surviver opinion from a preceding generation1 until we learned better by observation4 ,let us turn from such discussion to the #ceg beginnings of the story of our medical profession as it has been revealed to us in recent years4 ,the first picture that we have of a physician in history is1 indeed1 one to make us proud of our profession4 ,the first physician was ,i-em-,hetep1 whose name means the bringer of peace4 ,he had two other titles according to tradition1 one of which was the master of secrets1 evidently in reference to the fact that more or less necessarily many secrets must be entrusted to the physician1 but also1 doubtless1 in connection with the knowledge of the secrets of therapeutics which he was supposed to possess4 ,another of his titles was that of the scribe of numbers1 by which1 perhaps1 reference is made to his prescriptions1 which may have been lengthy1 for there are many calendar prescriptions in the early days1 but may only refer to the necessity of his knowing weights and measures and numbers very exactly for professional purposes4 ,i-em-,hetep lived in the reign of ,king ,tchser1 a monarch of the third dynasty in ,egypt1 the date of which is somewhat uncertain1 but is about #dejj ,b4,c4 ,how distinguished this first physician was in his time may be gathered from the fact that the well-known step pyramid at ,sakkara1 the old cemetery near ,memphis1 is attributed to him4 ,so great was the honor paid to him that1 after his death he was worshipped as a god1 and so we have statues of him as a placid-looking man with a certain divine expression1 seated with a #ceh scroll on his knees and an air of benignant knowledge well suited to his profession4 ,i called attention in #aijg ,footnote #ba to the fact that the earliest pictures of surgical operations extant had recently been uncovered in the cemetery of ,sakkara near ,memphis in ,egypt4 ,these pictures show that surgery was probably an organized branch of medicine thus early1 and the fact that they are found in a very important tomb shows how prominent a place in the community the surgeon held at that time4 ,the oldest document after that which we have with regard to medicine is the ,ebers ,papyrus1 the writing of which was done probably about #afjj ,b4,c4 ,this1 however1 is only a copy of an older manuscript or series of manuscripts1 and there seems to be no doubt that the text1 which contains idioms of a much older period1 or1 indeed1 several periods1 probably represents accumulations of information made during #b1jjj or even #c1jjj years before the date of our manuscript4 ,indeed1 it is not improbable that the oldest portions of the ,ebers ,papyrus owe their origin to men of the first ,egyptian dynasties1 nearly #e1jjj years ,b4,c4 ,to be members of a profession that can thus trace its earliest written documents to a time nearly some #g1jjj years ago1 is an honor that may be readily appreciated and that may allow of some complacency4 ,footnote #ba3 ,journal of the ,american ,medical ,association1 ,november #h1 #aijg4 ,there is a well-grounded tradition which shows #cei us that an ,egyptian monarch with whose name even we are familiar1 though we may not be able to pronounce it very well--he was ,athothis1 the son of ,menes--wrote a work on anatomy4 ,the exact date of this monarch's death is sometimes said to be #daeg b4c4 ,we have traces of hospitals in existence at this time and something of the nature of a medical school4 ,indeed1 one may fairly infer that medical education1 which had been developing for some time1 probably for some centuries1 took a definite form at this time in connection with the temples of ,saturn4 ,priests and physicians were the same1 or at least physicians formed one of the orders of the clergy and the teachers of medicine particularly were clergymen4 ,this tradition of close affiliation between religion and medicine continued down to the fifteenth century4 ,how few of us there are who realize that until the fourteenth century the professors of medicine at the great universities were not married men1 because members of the faculty1 as is true at the present time of many members of the faculty in the ,english universities1 were not allowed to marry4 ,the old clerical tradition was still maintaining itself even with regard to the medical teachers4 ,perhaps the most interesting thing about this early history of medicine in ,egypt is that1 with the very earliest dawn of medical history1 we have traces of highly developed specialism in medicine4 ,there were thirty-six departments of medicine1 or #cfj at least there were thirty-six medical divinities who presided over the particular parts of the human body4 ,in the larger temples1 at least1 there was a special corps of priest physicians for each one of these departments4 ,herodotus1 the ,father of ,history1 is particularly full in his details of ,egyptian history1 and though he wrote about #djj ,b4,c41 nearly #b1cjj years ago1 his attention was attracted by this highly developed specialism among the ,egyptians4 ,he tells us in quaint fashion1 ,physicke is so studied and practised with the ,egyptians that every disease hath his several physician1 who striveth to excell in healing that one disease and not to be expert in curing many4 ,whereof it cometh that every corner of that country is full of physicians4 ,some for the eyes1 others for the head1 many for the teeth1 not a few for the stomach and the inwards4 ,it is interesting to realize that the same state of affairs upon which you young graduates will come now that you are going out to find an opportunity to practise for yourselves at the end of the first decade of the twentieth century1 is not very different from that which the great ,father of ,history chronicles as the state of affairs among the ,egyptians between #fjj and #a1jjj before ,christ1--let us say about #c1jjj years ago4 ,you1 too1 will find that every corner is full of physicians1 some for the eyes1 others for the head1 many for the teeth1 not a few for the stomach and everything else under the sun quite as in #cfa ancient ,egypt4 ,after a time you will probably find that some little corner has been left for you1 and you will work hard enough to get into it first1 and then to fill it afterward4 ,the story of how young physicians have got on in their first few years has probably been interesting at all times in the world's history4 ,i think that ,i know about it at five different periods1 and in every one of these there seemed to be no possible room1 and yet somehow room was eventually found1 though only after there had been a struggle1 in the midst of which a certain number of the young physicians found another sphere of activity besides medicine4 ,of course it is easy to think that these specialties did not amount to much1 but any such thought is the merest assumption4 ,a single instance will show you how completely at fault this assumption is4 ,dentistry is presumed to be a very modern profession4 ,as a matter of fact mummies were found in the cemetery of ,thebes whose bodies probably come from before #cjjj ,b4,c41 who have in their teeth the remains of gold fillings that were well put in1 and show good workmanship1 nearly #e1jjj years ago4 ,footnote #bb ,after dentistry1 the specialty that we would be sure could not have had any significant existence so long ago would be that of ophthalmology4 ,as a matter of fact1 it is with regard to the knowledge of eye diseases displayed by these early teachers of #cfb medicine that the ,ebers ,papyrus is most startling4 ,it is especially full in diagnosis and contained many valuable hints for treatment4 ,as for laryngology and rhinology1 one of the earliest medical records that we have1 is the rewarding by one of the kings of ,egypt of an early dynasty 7nearly #djjj ,b4,c471 of a physician who had cured him of a trouble of the nose of long standing1 that seems to have interfered with his breathing4 ,footnote #bb3 ,burdett3 ,history of ,hospitals4 ,it is easy to think in spite of all this1 that the ,egyptians did not know much medicine2 but only one who knows nothing about it thinks so4 ,according to ,dr4 ,carl von ,klein1 who discussed the ,medical ,features of the ,ebers ,papyrus in the ,journal of the ,american ,medical ,association about five years ago1 over #gjj different substances are mentioned as of remedial value in this old-time medical work4 ,there is scarcely a disease of any important organ with which we are familiar in the modern time that is not mentioned here4 ,while the significance of diseases of such organs as the spleen1 the ductless glands1 and the appendix was1 of course1 missed1 nearly every other pathological condition was either expressly named or at least hinted at4 ,the papyrus insists very much on the value of history-taking in medicine1 and hints that the reason why physicians fail to cure is often because they have not studied their cases sufficiently4 ,while the treatment was mainly symptomatic1 it was not more so than is a great deal of therapeutics #cfc at the present time1 even in the regular school of medicine4 ,the number and variety of their remedies and of their modes of administering them is so marvellous1 that ,i prefer to quote ,dr4 von ,klein's enumeration of them for you3 ,in this papyrus are mentioned over #gjj different substances from the animal1 vegetable and mineral kingdoms which act as stimulants1 sedatives1 motor excitants1 motor depressants1 narcotics1 hypnotics1 analgesics1 anodynes1 antispasmodics1 mydriatics1 myotics1 expectorants1 tonics1 dentifrices1 sialogogues1 antisialics1 refrigerants1 emetics1 antiemetics1 carminatives1 cathartics1 purgatives1 astringents1 cholagogues1 anthelmintics1 restoratives1 haematics1 alteratives1 antipyretics1 antiphlogistics1 antiperiodics1 diuretics1 diluents1 diaphoretics1 sudorifics1 anhydrotics1 emmenagogues1 oxytocics1 caustics1 ecbolics1 galactagogues1 irritants1 escharotics1 caustics1 styptics1 haemostatics1 emollients1 demulcents1 protectives1 antizymotics1 disinfectants1 deodorants1 parasiticides1 antidotes and antagonists4 ,scarcely less interesting than the variety of remedies were their methods of administration3 ,medicines are directed to be administered internally in the form of decoctions1 infusions1 injections1 pills1 tablets1 troches1 capsules1 powders1 potions and inhalations2 and externally1 as lotions1 ointments1 plasters1 etc4 ,they are to be eaten1 drunk1 masticated or swallowed1 to be taken often once only--often for many days--and the time #cfd is occasionally designated--to be taken mornings1 evenings or at bedtime4 ,formulas to disguise bad tasting medicaments are also given4 ,we have no advantage over the early ,egyptians even in elegant prescribing4 ,with all this activity in ,egypt1 it is easy to understand that the other great nations of antiquity also have important chapters in the history of medicine4 ,the earliest accounts would seem to indicate that the ,chaldeans1 the ,assyrians and the ,babylonians all made significant advances in medicine4 ,it seems clear that a work on anatomy was written in ,china about the year #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,some of the other ,eastern nations made great progress4 ,the ,hindoos in particular have in recent years been shown to have accomplished very good work in medicine itself4 ,charaka1 a ,hindu surgeon1 who lived not later than #cjj ,b4,c41 made some fine contributions to the medical literature in ,hindostani4 ,there were hospitals in all these countries1 and these provided opportunities for the practice of surgery4 ,laparotomy was very commonly done by ,hindu surgeons1 and one of the rules enjoined by ,hindu students was the constant habit of visiting the sick and seeing them treated by experienced physicians4 ,clinical teaching is often spoken of as a modern invention1 but it is as old as hospital systems1 and they go back to the dawn of history4 ,it is among the ,greeks1 however1 that the most #cfe important advances in medicine1 so far as we are concerned1 were made4 ,this is1 however1 not so much because of what they did as from the fact that they were more given to writing1 and then their writings have been better preserved for us than those of other nations4 ,the first great physician among the ,greeks was ,a,esculapius1 of whom1 however1 we have only traditions4 ,he is fabled to have been the son of ,apollo1 the god of music and the arts1 and therefore to have been a near relative of the ,muses4 ,the connection is rather interesting1 because sometimes people try to remove medicine from among the arts that minister to the happiness of man1 and place it among the sciences whose application is for his profit4 ,medicine still remains an art1 however4 ,the temples of ,a,esculapius were the first hospitals1 though the priests were not the only ones who practised medicine1 for there were laymen who1 after having served for some time in the hospitals1 wandered through the country under the name of ,asclepiads1 treating people who were not able to go to the hospitals or shrines4 ,these evidently1 then1 were the first medical schools in ,greece as well as the first hospitals4 ,six hundred years after ,a,esculapius came ,hippocrates1 of ,cos1 the ,father of ,medicine4 ,he undoubtedly had the advantage of many ,egyptian medical traditions and other ,oriental medical sources1 as well as the observations made in the hospitals and shrines of ,a,esculapius4 ,he #cff wrote some great works in medicine that have never grown old1 ,young men do not read them1 old men who are over-persuaded of how much progress is being made by their own generation in medicine neglect them4 ,the busy practitioner has no time for them4 ,the great teachers of medicine whom all the professors look up to and who think for us in each generation turn fondly back to ,hippocrates1 and marvel at his acumen of observation and his wonderful knowledge of men and disease4 ,sydenham thought that no one had ever written like him1 and in our turn we honor ,sydenham by calling him the ,english ,hippocrates4 ,boerhaave1 ,van ,swieten1 ,liancisi1 the great fathers of modern clinical medicine1 turned with as much reverence to ,hippocrates as does ,osler1 the ,regius ,professor of ,medicine at ,oxford1 in our twentieth century4 ,hippocrates wrote #b1ejj years ago1 but his writing is eternal in interest and value4 ,the famous oath of ,hippocrates1 which used to be read to all the graduates of medicine1 well deserved that honor1 for it represents the highest expression of professional dignity and obligation4 ,there is a lofty sense of professional honor expressed in it that cannot be excelled at any period in the world's history4 ,among other things that ,hippocrates required his adepts in medicine1 his medical students when they graduated into physicians1 to swear to was the following3 ,i will follow the system of regimen which #cfg according to my ability and judgment ,i consider for the benefit of my patients1 and abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous4 ,i will give no deadly medicine to man1 woman1 or child born or unborn4 ,with purity and with holiness ,i will pass my life and practise my art1 ,whatever in connection with my professional practice1 or not in connection with it1 ,i see or hear in the life of men which ought not to be spoken of abroad1 ,i shall not divulge1 as reckoning that all such should be kept secret4 ,while ,i continue to keep this oath inviolate may it be granted to me to enjoy life and the practice of my art respected by all men in all times2 but should ,i trespass and violate this oath may the reverse be my lot4 ,it is sometimes thought that after the ,roman medicine1 which was an imitation of the ,greek 7though ,galen well deserves a place by himself1 and ,galen is usually thought of as a ,roman though he wrote in ,greek and had obtained his education at ,pergamos in ,asia ,minor71 there was an interregnum in medicine until our own time4 ,this is1 however1 quite as much of an assumption as to suppose that the ,egyptians had no medicine--as we used to until we knew more about them--or that old-time medicine is quite negligible because we were ignorant of its value1 ,the ,middle ,ages had much more of medicine than we are likely to think1 and just as soon as the great universities arose at the end of the #cfh twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth centuries1 medicine gained a new impetus and flourished marvellously4 ,these university medical schools of the later ,middle ,ages are models in their way1 and put us to shame in many things4 ,according to a law of the ,emperor ,frederick ,,ii issued for the ,two ,sicilies in #abda1 ,footnote #bc three years of preliminary study were required at the university before a student might take up the medical course1 and then he had to spend four years at medicine1 and practise for a year under the supervision of a physician of experience before he was allowed to practise for himself4 ,the story of the medicine of this time is all the more wonderful because subsequent generations forgot about it until recent years1 and supposed that all of this period was shrouded in darkness4 ,it was probably one of the most brilliant periods in medical history4 ,some of the men who worked and taught in medicine at this time will never be forgotten4 ,footnote #bc3 ,for the complete text of this law1 the first regulating the practice of medicine in modern times1 also the first pure drug law1 see ,walsh's ,the ,popes and ,science1 ,new ,york1 ,fordham ,university ,press1 #aijh4 ,probably the greatest of them was ,guy de ,chauliac1 a ,papal chamberlain1 whom succeeding generations have honored with the title of ,father of ,surgery4 ,his great text-book1 the ,chirurgia ,magna1 was in common use for several centuries after his death1 and is full of surgical teaching that we are prone to think much #cfi more modern4 ,he trephined the skull1 opened the thorax1 operated within the abdomen1 declared that patients suffering from wounds of the intestines would die unless these were sewed up1 operated often for hernia in an exaggerated ,trendelenberg position1 with the patient's head down on a board1 but said that many more patients were operated upon for hernia for the benefit of the surgeon's purse than for the good of the patient4 ,his directions for the treatment of fractures and for taxis in hernia were followed for full four centuries after his time4 ,no wonder that ,pagel1 the great ,german historian1 declared that ,chauliac laid the foundation of that primacy in surgery which the ,french maintained down to the nineteenth century4 ,portal1 in his ,history of ,surgery1 declares that ,guy de ,chauliac said nearly everything which modern surgeons say1 and his work is of infinite price1 but unfortunately too little read1 too little pondered4 ,malgaigne declared the ',chirurgia ,magna' a masterpiece of learned and luminous writing4 ,chauliac's ,footnote #bd personal character1 however1 is even more admirable than his surgical knowledge4 ,he was at ,avignon when the black death occurred and carried away one-half the population4 ,he was one of the few physicians who had the #cgj courage to stay4 ,he tells us very simply that he did stay not because he had no fear1 for he was dreadfully afraid1 but he thought it his duty to stay4 ,toward the end of the epidemic1 he caught the fever but survived it and has written a fine description of it4 ,he was looked upon as the leader of surgery in his time1 and this is his advice as to what the surgeon should be as given in the introductory chapter of his ,chirurgia ,magna3 ,the surgeon should be learned1 skilled1 ingenious and of good morals2 be bold in things that are sure1 cautious in dangers2 avoid evil cures and practices2 be gracious to the sick1 obliging to his colleagues1 wise in his predictions2 be chaste1 sober1 pitiful and merciful2 not covetous nor extortionate of money2 but let the recompense be moderate1 according to the work1 the means of the sick1 the character of the issue or event and its dignity4 ,no wonder that ,malgaigne says of him3 ,never since ,hippocrates has medicine heard such language filled with so much nobility and so full of matter in so few words4 ,footnote #bd3 ,for sketch of ,chauliac see ,johns ,hopkins ,hospital ,bulletin1 #aiji1 or ,catholic ,churchmen in ,science1 second series4 ,dolphin ,press1 ,philadelphia1 #aiji4 ,the old-time medical traditions of education which in the mediaeval universities produced such men as ,william of ,salicet and ,lanfranc and ,mondeville and ,guy de ,chauliac1 persisted during the next two centuries in the southern countries of ,europe1 and then were transferred to ,america through ,spain4 ,the first ,american medical school was not1 as has so often been said1 at my own ,alma ,mater1 the ,university of #cga ,pennsylvania1 which had its first lectures in #agfg1 while the ,physicians and ,surgeons of ,new ,york did not come for some ten years later and ,harvard only in the following decade1 but in the medical school of the ,university of ,mexico1 where the first lectures were held in #aegh1 and where a full medical school was organized before the end of the sixteenth century4 ,in this medical school1 which during the seventeenth century came to have several hundred students1 the university tradition of the olden time was well preserved4 ,three years of preliminary study at the university were required before a student could take up the course in medicine1 and four years of medical study were required before graduation4 ,we have some of the text-books1 and know much about the curriculum of this old medical school1 and in every way it is worthy of the old university traditions4 ,unfortunately our universities in what is now the ,united ,states developed very slowly4 ,king's ,college 7,columbia7 did not become a university in the sense of having law and medical schools as well as an undergraduate department until the nineteenth century had almost begun4 ,harvard did not have a law school affiliated with it until the first quarter of the nineteenth century had almost run its course4 ,the affiliations between the medical schools and the universities in these cases was only very slight1 and the medical schools were entirely in the hands of the #cgb medical faculty1 whose main purpose during a great part of the nineteenth century was to make medical studies as short as possible and as inexpensive as they could possibly be made for the faculty1 because that left so much more of the fees to be absorbed by the historic septennate of professors who ruled and managed the university4 ,the consequence was that during most of the nineteenth century two terms of four months each were all that was required for the diploma in medicine in most ,american medical schools4 ,three schools maintained a very high standard by requiring twenty weeks in each of two calendar years4 ,the medical school that was considered one of the best in the country1 and whose graduates obtained the highest marks in the army and navy examinations1 that of the ,university of ,virginia1 required but two terms of four and one-half months each which might be taken in the same calendar year1 and then gave the doctor's degree4 ,it may be as well to say that the doctor's degree or diploma was a license to practise4 ,there were no ,state regulations for the practice of medicine1 and no matter how obtained1 a diploma allowed practise4 ,as some one has well said the diploma1 then1 was a license to practise1 not medicine1 the ,lord knows6 but to practise on one's patients until one had learned some medicine4 ,it is out of this slough of despond in medical education that we have climbed in the last thirty-five years4 ,we are getting back to the #cgc old-time university traditions4 ,let us hope that we shall not allow ourselves to get away from them again4 ,there are ups and downs in medical practice and medical fashions and medical education1 and all depends on the men who compose the profession at any one time and not on any mythical progress that holds them up and compels them to do better than those who went before them4 ,the highest compliment that can be paid to ,american medicine and medical men is that1 in spite of this handicap of education they did not utterly degenerate1 but1 on the contrary1 somehow managed to maintain the dignity of the profession and do much good work4 ,it is to you to-day1 entering on this profession1 that we look to do your share in keeping up the dignity of the medical profession and in maintaining standards in medical education4 ,we have a glorious tradition of #f1jjj years behind us with the great men of the profession worshipped as gods at the beginning1 because men thought so much of them1 and remembered fondly as great masters when they came in the after-time4 ,from ,i-em-,hetep through ,a,esculapius and ,hippocrates and ,galen and ,guy de ,chauliac and ,sydenham and ,boerhaave down to our own time1 the men whom we delight to honor are the ones who did not work with an eye single to their own success1 but who tried1 above all1 to do things for humanity and for the profession to which they belonged4 ,the man who is successful as a #cgd money-maker in his profession is only doing half his duty4 ,he must make medicine as well as money1 that is1 he must by his observations help others to recognize and treat disease better than they did before2 he must labor for the benefit of humanity1 and1 above all1 he must see that there are no decadence of professional spirit and no deterioration of medical education as far as his influence can go4 ,it is men of this kind that we hope to send forth from ,fordham1 and you stand in the van of them all1 and ,i wish you ,god-speed4 #cge ,,university ,,medical ,,schools #cgf ,knowledge comes but wisdom lingers4 --,tennyson1 ,locksley ,hall4 ,the foundation stones of the whole modern structure of human wisdom have all been laid by the architects of yesterday4 ,thrice wise is he who knows the quarries and builders of by-gone ages and is able to differentiate the stones which have been rejected from those which have been utilized4 --,anon4 ,ideo ,medico id in primis curandum1 ut ab aegro circumstantias omnes accurate intelligat1 intellectas consideret1 ut inter curandum media illa adhibeat1 quae tollendo morbo apta sunt1 ne ex medicina nocumentum proveniat4 --,basil ,valentine1 ,triumphal ,chariot of ,antimony4 ,the physician must therefore especially take care that he understand all the circumstances of his patient very clearly1 and after understanding them weigh them well1 so that during his treatment he may use those means which are especially suited to control the disease1 lest any harm should come from his medicine4 #cgg ,,university ,,medical ,,schools ,footnote #be ,footnote #be3 ,address to the graduates of ,st4 ,louis ,university ,medical and ,dental ,schools1 ,may #ca1 #aiaj1 at the ,odeon1 ,st4 ,louis4 ,it affords me great pleasure to accept the invitation of your ,faculty to address the graduates of a university medical school here in the ,middle ,west4 ,i wondered1 of course1 what ,i should talk to you about1 and have come to the conclusion that as an historian of medicine any message ,i may have for you is likely to come from my own subject4 ,it so happens that we are just beginning to realize that the history of medicine may have much greater significance for us than we have usually been accustomed to think1 and1 above all1 that it may mean much in furnishing incentive for the maintaining and raising of standards in medical education4 ,in recent years there has come a very decided improvement in medical education in the ,united ,states4 ,it is not hard to understand that the foreigner lifts his eyebrows in surprise when he is told that most of our medical schools a generation ago required but two terms of four months each1 and that there was then just beginning to be a demand for a little more complete course and better facilities4 ,there was a large number of medical schools1 turning out graduates every year with the degree #cgh of doctor of medicine1 which was a license to practise in every state in the ,union1 for there were no state or federal laws regulating the practice of medicine4 ,as for preliminary requirements the less said the better4 ,if a man could write his name and1 indeed1 he did not have to write it very plainly1 he found it easy to matriculate in a medical school and to be graduated at the end of two scant terms of four months each4 ,he might come from the mines1 or from the farm1 or from before the mast1 or from the smithy1 or the carpenter shop2 he need know nothing of chemistry1 nor physics1 nor of botany1 nor of ,english and1 above all1 of ,english grammar1 and he was at once admitted to what was called a professional school and graduated when he had served his time4 ,practically no one was plucked4 ,the desire of the faculty for numbers of students forbade that in most cases4 ,the two terms in medicine were not even successive courses4 ,the second-year student listened1 as a rule1 to the same lectures that he might have heard the preceding year4 ,we all know the reason now for this extremely low standard of medical education4 ,proprietary medical schools made it their one business in life to make just as much out of medical education as possible and the historic septennate of professors1 or sometimes the ,dean1 pocketed the fees 7,i came near saying spoils7 every year1 and robbed medical ,american education of #cgi whatever possibilities it might have for the real training of young men in the science and art and practice of medicine4 ,perhaps the most interesting feature of this maintenance of extremely low standards in medical education1 however1 is the fact that in spite of it1 men1 or at least some of them1 succeeded in obtaining a good foundation in medicine and then by personal work afterwards came to be excellent practitioners of medicine4 ,professor ,welch said not long since3 ,one can decry the system of those days1 the inadequate preliminary requirements1 the short courses1 the dominance of the didactic lecture1 the meagre appliances for demonstrative and practical instruction1 but the results were better than the system4 ,our teachers were men of fine character devoted to their duties2 they inspired us with enthusiasm1 interest in our studies and hard work1 and they imparted to us sound traditions of our profession4 ,nothing that ,i know is a better compliment to ,american enterprise and power of overcoming the difficulties of the situation than the life stories of some of the men who came from these completely inadequate schools4 ,if with the maimed training and incomplete education given a generation ago ,american medicine not only succeeded in maintaining the dignity of the profession to a noteworthy degree1 but also developed many men who made distinct contributions to world medicine1 what will we not do now that #chj our medical education is gradually being lifted up out of the slough of despond in which it was and the preliminary education for medical studies set at a standard where real work of thoroughly scientific character can be looked for1 from the very beginning of the medical course8 ,is it any wonder1 then1 that those of us who have the best interests of ,american medicine at heart are watching with careful solicitude the movement that is now reforming medical education in this country8 ,the one hope of medical education is1 and always has been1 organic connection with a university4 ,real ,university ,medical ,schools1 that is medical schools as the genuine ,post-,graduate ,departments of ,universities with the fine training that they give1 have opened our eyes to what is needed in medical education in this country4 ,some of the old-time medical schools here in the ,united ,states had been connected by name with universities but this was more apparent than real1 and the medical faculty ruled absolutely in its own department and throttled medical education and divided the income of the college among themselves1 devoting as little as possible to equipment1 to laboratories1 to all that was needed for medical education4 ,now has come the epoch of university medical schools in this country4 ,i came near saying ,america1 but we must not forget that the ,spanish-,american countries1 having adopted their educational systems from the mother ,latin country1 #cha have always maintained the organic connection of the medical school with their universities1 and as a consequence a good preliminary education1 the equivalent of three years of college work with us1 is required and has always been1 and then some four years in the medical school and1 indeed1 in most of the countries five or six years and in one at least seven years of medical study required4 ,i have thought1 however1 that this story of medical education in connection with universities and real university work will be especially interesting to the graduates of this thorough ,western university1 whose work in medicine is acknowledged as up to some of the best standards of professional attainment and whose organic connection with a great university assures not only the continuance1 but the future development of medical education here along lines that shall place this among the serious progressive medical schools of the world4 ,the first university medical school that well deserves that name is the one that came into existence in connection with the ,university of ,alexandria4 ,i have been at some pains1 because it is so delightfully amusing1 to point out how closely the ,university of ,alexandria resembles our modern universities in most particulars4 ,it was founded by a great conqueror1 who had gone forth to conquer the world1 and having attained almost universal dominion sighed for more worlds to conquer4 ,then he set about the foundation of #chb a great city that was to be the capital of his empire1 and endowed a great institution of learning in that capital that was to attract students from all over the world4 ,when he died prematurely the ,ptolemys1 who inherited the ,african portion of his vast dominions1 carried out his wishes4 ,money was no object at ,alexandria3 they put up magnificent buildings1 founded a great library1 bought a lot of first editions of books in the shape of author's original manuscripts1 stole the archives at ,athens1 used ,alexander's collection 7made for ,aristotle7 as the foundation of what we would call a museum1 paid professors better salaries than they received at that time anywhere else and housed them in palaces4 ,what a strangely familiar sound all this has6 ,then ,alexandria proceeded to do scientific work4 ,euclid wrote his geometry1 and1 unchanged1 it has come down to us and we still use it as a text-book in our colleges4 ,archimedes1 following up ,euclid's work1 laid the foundation1 of mechanics in his study of the lever and the screw1 and of hydrostatics and of optics in his studies of specific gravity and burning mirrors and lenses4 ,he made a series of marvellous inventions showing that he was a practical as well as a theoretic genius1 who would be gladly welcomed1 nay1 eagerly sought for1 as a member of the faculty even of a university of the highest rank or largest income in our modern times4 ,ptolemy elaborated the system of astronomy that had been so ably #chc developed by teachers at ,alexandria before his time1 and ,heron invented his engines1 which we have had as toys in our laboratories for centuries4 ,we realized the true significance of one of them only when the turbine engine was invented and we found that the principle of it was in the toy engine of this old natural philosopher of ,alexandria4 ,they even did their literature scientifically at the ,university of ,alexandria4 ,we have no great original works from them in literature1 but they invented comparative literature2 for this making the ,septuagint translation of the ,holy ,scriptures and doing the same for many other religious documents of the surrounding nations for comparative study4 ,it is rather easy to understand1 then1 that a medical school arose in connection with this scientific university1 and that it did excellent work4 ,the collections of ,aristotle contained many illustrations which served as the basis for zoology1 botany1 comparative anatomy and probably even comparative physiology4 ,the ,ptolemys were very liberal and allowed dissection of the human body1 so that human anatomy developed from a definite scientific standpoint better then ever before4 ,the number of strangers in the town and the rather unhealthy climate of ,egypt left many unclaimed bodies4 ,it has always been the difficulty of obtaining bodies much more than prejudice against the violation of the human body on any general principle1 that has been the reason #chd for the absence of human dissection in many periods of the world's history4 ,we object to having the bodies of friends cut up1 but we do not mind much if the bodies of those who are unknown to us are treated in that way4 ,so long as men did not travel much there were few unclaimed bodies4 ,with the advent of travel came abundant material for dissection and the ,ptolemys allowed the medical school to use it4 ,two great anatomists built up the structure of scientific human anatomy on the rather good foundation that had been laid on animal anatomy in the foretime4 ,after all1 the anatomy of the animal resembles that of man so much that very precious knowledge had been gained from zootomies in the previous ages4 ,these two anatomists were ,erasistratos and ,herophilos4 ,both of them studied the brain especially1 as might have been expected4 ,for just as soon as the opportunity for dissecting man was provided1 this1 his most complex structure1 attracted instant attention4 ,herophilos has named after him the torcular herophili1 and the name he gave the curious appearance in the floor of the fourth ventricle--the calamus scriptorius--is still retained4 ,he describes the membranes of the brain1 the various sinuses1 the choroid plexuses1 the cerbral ventricles and traced the origin of the nerves from the brain and the spinal cord1 recognizing1 according to well-grounded tradition1 the distinction between nerves of sensation and motion4 #che ,he described the eye and especially the vitreous body1 the choroid and the retina4 ,he did not neglect other portions of anatomy1 however1 and his power of exact observation1 as well as his detailed study1 may be judged from his remark that the left spermatic vein in certain cases joins the renal4 ,erasistratos1 his colleague1 was perhaps even a more successful investigator than ,herophilos4 ,he represented the best tradition of ,greek medicine of the time4 ,he had two distinguished teachers1 one of them ,metrodoros1 the son-in-law of ,aristotle4 ,it was probably through this influence that ,erasistratos received his invitation from the first ,ptolemy to come to ,alexandria4 ,the scientific work of ,alexandria was founded on ,aristotle's collections1 on his books1 for his library was brought to ,alexandria as the foundation of the great ,university ,library1 and then best of all on the direct tradition of his scientific teaching through this pupil of his son-in-law4 ,erasistratos' other great teacher was the well-known ,chrysippos of ,cnidos4 ,cnidos was the great rival medical school to that of ,cos4 ,owing to the reputation of ,hippocrates we know of ,cos1 but we must not ignore ,cnidos4 ,erasistratos' discoveries were more in connection with the heart than anything else4 ,he came very near discovering the circulation4 ,his description of the valves and of their function is very clear4 ,he looked for large-sized #chf anastomoses between veins and arteries and1 of course1 did not discover the minute capillaries which required ,malpighi's microscope to reveal them nearly #b1jjj years after4 ,like ,herophilos1 ,erasistratos also studied the brain very faithfully4 ,one story that we have of ,erasistratos deserves to be in the minds of young graduates in medicine1 because it illustrates the practical character of the man and also how much more important at times it may be in the practice of medicine to know men well rather than to know medical science alone4 ,erasistratos was summoned on a consultation to ,antioch to see the son of ,king ,seleucus4 ,seleucus was one of the four of ,alexander's generals who1 like ,ptolemy1 had divided the world among them after the young conqueror's death4 ,his portion of the ,eastern world1 with its capital at ,antioch1 was probably the richest region of that time4 ,there had been no happiness1 however1 in the royal household for months because the scion of the ,seleucidae1 the heir to the throne1 was ill and no physician had been able to tell what was the matter with him1 and1 above all1 no one had been able to do anything to awaken him from a lethargy that was stealing over him1 making him quite incapable of the ordinary occupations of men1 or to dispel an apathy which was causing him to lose all interest in affairs around him4 ,he was losing in weight1 he looked miserable1 he seemed really to have been stricken by one of #chg the serious diseases as yet undifferentiated at that time which were expressed by the word phthisis1 which referred to any wasting disease4 ,as a last hope then almost1 ,erasistratos was summoned from distant ,alexandria as a consultant in the case of young ,seleucus4 ,the proceeding1 after all1 is very similar to what happens in our own time4 ,the head of an important department in medicine at a university is asked to go a long distance to see the son of a reigning monarch1 or of a millionaire prince in industry1 or perhaps a coal baron1 or a railroad king1 and a special train is supplied for him and every convenience consulted4 ,a caravan was sent to bring ,erasistratos over the desert to ,antioch4 ,it is such consultations that count in a physician's life4 ,i hope sincerely that you shall have many of them and that you shall conduct them as successfully as ,erasistratos this one4 ,the young prince's case proved as puzzling to ,erasistratos for a time as it had to so many other physicians before him4 ,like the experienced practitioner he was1 he did not make his diagnosis at once1 however4 ,will you remember that when you1 too1 have a puzzling case8 ,it is when we do not take time to make our diagnosis that it often proves erroneous4 ,not ignorance1 but failure to investigate properly1 is responsible for most of our errors4 ,he asked to see the patient a number of times1 and saw him under varying conditions4 ,finally1 one day1 while he was #chh examining the young man's pulse--and ,i may tell you that ,erasistratos made a special study of the pulse and knew many things about it that it is unfortunate that the moderns neglect--his patient's pulse gave a sudden leap and then continued to go much faster than it had gone before4 ,at the same time there came a rising color to the young man's cheek4 ,erasistratos looked up to see what was the cause of this striking change1 and found that the young wife of the ,king ,seleucus1 the prince's stepmother1 had just come into the room4 ,seleucus1 as an old man1 had married a very handsome young woman1 and it was evident that the young man's heart was touched in her regard1 and that here was the cause of the trouble4 ,erasistratos did not proclaim his discovery at once4 ,he did announce that now he knew the cause of the trouble1 that it was an affection of the heart that would be cured by travel1 and he proposed to take young ,seleucus back with him to ,alexandria4 ,in private1 very probably1 he told his young patient that he had discovered his secret1 and then persuaded him that absence would be the thing for him4 ,very probably the young man considered that cure was impossible1 and with many misgivings he consented to go to ,alexandria1 and as has happened many times before and since1 in spite of the patient's assurance to the contrary1 the travel cure proved effective even for the heart affection4 #chi ,i hope sincerely that you shall have as much tact1 as much knowledge of men and women and as much success as this great teacher at the first of our modern university medical schools1 when the great consultations do come your way1 for it is easy to understand that when the young man recovered under the kindly ministrations of ,erasistratos and the good effect of absence from the disturbing heart factor1 ,erasistratos was loaded with the wealth of the ,east and acquired a reputation that made him known throughout all the world of that time4 ,there is a curious commentary on this story that ,i think you should also know4 ,it is ,galen who has preserved the incident for us4 ,he does so in the book on the pulse1 mainly in order to show1 as he thinks1 the fatuity of such observations4 ,after giving the details he says1 ,of course1 there is no special pulse of love4 ,poor ,galen1 how his wits must have been wool-gathering1 or how forgetful he must have been of his own youth writing in the serenity of age1 or how lacking in ordinary human experience if that is his serious meaning4 ,the older man was by far the better observer1 and ,i hope that you shall not forget in the time to come that there are many things that affect men and women besides bacteria and auto-intoxications of various kinds and metabolic disturbances and nutritional changes4 ,erasistratos seems to have known very well how much the mind1 or as they called it in the older terminology1 and we #cij still cling to the phrase1 the heart1 meant for many a phenomenon of existence supposed to be physically pathologic and yet really only representing psychologic influences apart from the physical side of the being4 ,i may say to you that the more you know about these old teachers of medicine the more you will appreciate and value their largeness of view1 their breadth of knowledge of humanity and their practical ways4 ,it is no wonder that students from all over the world were attracted to ,alexandria for the next three centuries because of the opportunities1 for the study of medicine afforded them there4 ,after the first century of its existence not as much was accomplished as at the beginning1 because what always happens in the history of medicine after a period of successful investigation1 happened also there4 ,men concluded that nearly everything that could be1 had been discovered and began to theorize4 ,they were sure that their theories explained things4 ,men have persisted in spinning theories in medicine4 ,theories have almost never helped us and they always have wasted our time4 ,observation6 ,observation is the one thing that counts1 ,alexandria continued to have her reputation1 however1 and in the first century of the ,christian era was the centre of medical interest4 ,it was probably here that ,st4 ,luke was educated1 and as we know now from the careful examination of the #cia ,third ,gospel and of the ,acts1 he knew his ,greek medical terms very well4 ,harnack has shown us recently once more how thoroughly ,luke converted the ordinary popular terms of the other ,evangelists into the ,greek medical terms of his time4 ,luke must have known medicine very well4 ,his testimony to the miracles of ,christ is therefore all the more valuable1 and so the ,alexandrian medical school has its special place in the order of ,providence4 ,we are prone to think because of the curious way in which not only the histories of medical education1 but of all education1 have been written1 that while there were some medical schools in the interval from the days of ,alexandria and ,rome down to the modern time1 these were so hampered by unfortunate conditions that men practically did nothing in education and1 above all1 scientific and medical education until comparatively recent times4 ,nothing could well be more absurd than such an opinion4 ,the great universities founded during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries attracted more students to the population of the countries of the time than go to our universities to the number of our population in the present time4 ,these universities are the model of our universities of the present time and1 indeed1 the history of many of the old ,european universities is continuous for seven centuries4 ,they had an undergraduate department in which students were trained in grammar1 rhetoric1 logic1 #cib arithmetic1 astronomy1 music and gymnastics1 and graduate departments of law1 theology and medicine4 ,professor ,huxley1 reviewing mediaeval education1 once said that the undergraduate education of the mediaeval universities was better than our own4 ,he doubted that the curriculum of any modern university shows so clear and generous a comprehension of what is meant by culture as this old trivium and quadrivium did4 ,their post-graduate work was just as fine as their undergraduate work4 ,they made the law of the world in the thirteenth century1 and laid the foundations on which the philosophy and theology of the after-time have been built up4 ,strange as it may seem to many accustomed to give credence to far different traditions1 they did the same thing in medicine4 ,take as a single example what they did for the regulation of medical education and practice4 ,a law of the ,emperor ,frederick ,,ii1 issued in #abda for the ,two ,sicilies 7,southern ,italy and ,sicily proper71 required three years of preliminary training in the ordinary undergraduate course at the university before a man was allowed to take up medicine1 and four years at medicine before he got his degree4 ,but even this was not all2 after graduation1 a year of practice with a physician was required before he was allowed to practise for himself4 ,if he were going to practise surgery an extra year of the study of anatomy was required4 ,but it may #cic be said by those who cannot persuade themselves that the ,middle ,ages so far anticipated us3 since they knew almost nothing of medicine and surgery1 what did they spend their time at during these four years8 ,the more we know about the details of that early teaching1 the more we respect them and the more we admire the magnificent work of the old-time professors and their schools4 ,probably the most surprising feature of their teaching was surgery4 ,we are rather likely to think that the development of surgery was reserved for our day4 ,nothing could be more untrue4 ,the greatest period in the history of surgery1 with the possible exception of our own time1 is the century and a half from #abej to #adjj4 ,what they taught in surgery we know not from tradition1 but from the text-books of the great teachers which have been preserved for us1 and which have been recently republished4 ,three men stand out pre-eminent3 ,william of ,salicet2 ,lanfranc1 who taught at ,paris1 having been invited there from ,italy1 where he had been a pupil of ,william of ,salicet1 and ,guy de ,chauliac1 to whom has been given by universal accord the title of ,father of ,modern ,surgery4 ,there is practically nothing in modern surgery that these men did not touch in their text-books4 ,perhaps the most surprising thing is to find that ,william of ,salicet1 in discussing his #cid cases1 suggested that sometimes he succeeded in obtaining union by first intention by keeping his wounds clean4 ,alas for the surgery of succeeding centuries1 ,guy de ,chauliac1 a greater mechanical genius than ,william1 insisted that union by first intention was an illusion and that it could only come through pus formation4 ,laudable pus became the shibboleth of surgery for centuries1 imposed upon it by the genius of a great man4 ,most men think that they think1 they really follow leaders1 and so we followed blindly after ,guy until ,lister came and showed us our mistake4 ,guy was the professor of surgery down at ,montpellier1 and also the physician to the ,popes1 who for the time were at ,avignon4 ,his text-book of surgery is full of expressions that reveal the man and the teacher4 ,he said the surgeon who cuts the human body without a knowledge of anatomy is like a blind carpenter carving wood4 ,he insisted that men should make observations for themselves and not blindly follow others4 ,he discussed operations on the head1 the thorax and the abdomen4 ,he said that wounds of the intestines would surely be fatal unless sewed up1 and he described the technique of suture for them4 ,his specialty was operation for hernia4 ,there are pictures still extant of operations for hernia done about this time in an exaggerated ,trendelenberg position4 ,the patient is fastened to a board by the legs1 head down1 the board at an angle of #cie forty-five degrees against the wall4 ,the intestines dropped back from the site of operation and allowed the surgeon to proceed without danger4 ,guy said that more patients were operated on for the sake of the doctor's pocket in hernia cases than for their own benefit4 ,his instructions to his students1 his high standard of professional advice1 all show us one of the great physicians of all time and historians of medicine are unanimous in their praise of him4 ,the next great development in medicine came at the time of the ,renaissance with the reorganization of the universities4 ,in the sixteenth century ,italy particularly did magnificent work in the universities1 stimulated by close touch with old ,greek medicine4 ,at ,padua1 at ,bologna1 above all1 at ,rome1 the great foundations of the modern medical sciences were laid4 ,i need only mention the names of ,vesalius1 ,varolius1 ,eustachius1 ,fallopius1 ,columbus 7who discovered the circulation of the blood in the lungs71 ,caesalpinus1 to whom and rightly the ,italians attribute the discovery of the systemic circulation nearly half a century before ,harvey4 ,these men all of them did fine work1 everywhere in ,italy4 ,they were doing original investigation of the greatest value4 ,whenever anybody anywhere in ,europe at this time wanted to do good work in science of any kind1--astronomy1 mathematics1 physics and1 above all1 in any of the medical sciences1--he went down to ,italy2 ,italy was and continued for five #cif centuries after the thirteenth to be what ,france was for a scant half a century in the nineteenth1 and ,germany for a corresponding period just before our own time4 ,how curiously the history of science and of medicine was written when it seems to contradict this4 ,above all1 what ridiculous nonsense has been talked about ,papal opposition to science4 ,the great universities of ,italy in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries had charters from the ,popes4 ,they were immediately under ecclesiastical influence1 yet they did fine work in anatomy and surgery4 ,the ,father of ,modern ,surgery was a ,papal physician4 ,the ,papal physicians for seven centuries have been the greatest contributors to medicine4 ,the ,popes deliberately selected as their physicians the greatest investigators of the time4 ,besides ,guy de ,chauliac such men as ,eustachius1 ,varolius1 ,columbus1 ,caesalpinus1 ,lancisi1 ,malpighi were ,papal physicians4 ,we have even a more striking testimony to the ,papal patronage and encouragement of medicine and to the ,church's fostering care of medical education1 here in ,america4 ,the first university medical school in ,america was not1 as has so often been said1 the medical school of the ,university of ,pennsylvania founded in #agfg1 but the medical school of the ,university of ,mexico1 where medical lectures were first delivered in #aegh4 ,our medical schools in this country have only become genuine university medical schools in the sense #cig of being organic portions of the university in the last twenty-five years4 ,before that their courses were brief and unworthy and no preliminary education was required4 ,the universities of ,spanish ,america from the very beginning required three years of preliminary training in the university before medicine could be taken up1 and then four years of medical studies4 ,these four years became five and six years in certain countries1 and at no time during the nineteenth century did the medical education of ,spanish ,america sink to the low level unfortunately reached in the ,united ,states4 ,the lesson of it is clear4 ,when medical education is seriously undertaken as a university department1 all is well4 ,when it is not1 the results are disastrous4 ,in our day and country another great awakening of university life has come and with it a drawing together in intimate union of universities and their graduate departments4 ,above all1 the medical schools have profited by this closer connection with university work1 and the prospects for medical education in the ,united ,states and a new period of wonderful progress in it are very bright4 ,you have my hearty congratulations1 then1 on your graduation from a great university medical school here in the ,west1 and ,i hope sincerely that you shall prove worthy of ,alma ,mater4 ,you have had the privileges of university education and these involve duties4 #cih ,this is ever true1 though unfortunately it is somewhat seldom realized4 ,noblesse oblige4 ,we hear much in these days of the stewardship of wealth1 and do not let us forget that there is a stewardship of talent and education4 ,much more will be demanded of you because of your opportunities1 and we look for an accomplishment on your part far above the ordinary in medical work and maintenance and uplift of professional dignity1 that shall mean much for your fellows4 ,remember that you are doing only half your duty if you but make your living or even make money4 ,you are bound besides to make medicine4 ,for all that the forefathers have done for us we in this generation must make return by a broadening of their medical views for the benefit of posterity4 ,if you were graduates of some fourth-rate proprietary medical school1 perhaps it would be sufficient if you succeeded in making your living out of your profession4 ,perhaps even your teachers would then be quite satisfied with you4 ,no such meagre accomplishment can possibly satisfy those who are sending you out to-day4 ,above all1 you must remember that your education is not for yourself1 but for the benefit of others as well4 ,if1 somehow1 its influence becomes narrowed so as only to affect yourself and your intimate friends then it is essentially a failure4 ,you must not only live your lives for yourselves1 but so that at the end of them the community shall have been benefited and medicine #cii and its beneficent mission to mankind shall be broader and more significant because you have lived4 ,with this message1 then1 ,i welcome you as brother physicians and bid you ,god-speed in your professional work4 #djj #dja ,,the ,,college ,,man ,,in ,,life #djb ,non scholae sed vitae discimus4 --,seneca1 ,epist41 #ajf4 ,we learn for life not for school4 ,nec si non obstatur1 propterea etiam permittitur4 --,cicero1 ,philip41 xiii1 #f4 ,and because a thing is not forbidden that does not make it permissible4 ,ubicunque homo est ibi beneficio locus est4 --,seneca1 ,de ,vita ,beata1 #bd4 ,wherever man is there is room to do good4 ,then let us not leave the meaning of education ambiguous or ill-defined4 ,at present1 when we speak in terms of praise or blame about the bringing up of each person1 we call one man educated and another uneducated1 although the uneducated man may sometimes be very well educated for the calling of a retail trader1 or of a captain of a ship1 and the like4 ,for we are not speaking of education in this sense of the word1 but of that other education in virtue from youth upwards1 which makes a man eagerly pursue the ideal perfection of citizenship and teaches him how rightly to rule and how to obey4 ,this is the only training1 which upon our view would be characterized as education2 that other sort of training1 which aims at the acquisition of wealth or bodily strength1 or mere cleverness apart from intelligence and justice1 is mean and illiberal1 and is not worthy to be called education at all4 ,but let us not quarrel with one another about the name1 provided that the proposition which has just been granted hold good3 to wit1 that those who are rightly educated generally become good men4 ,neither must we cast a slight upon education1 which is the first and fairest thing that the best of men can ever have1 and which1 though liable to take a wrong direction1 is capable of reformation4 ,and this work of reformation is the great business of every man while he lives4 --,plato1 ,laws 7,jowett71 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #agd4 ,scribner1 #aijb4 #djc ,,the ,,college ,,man ,,in ,,life ,footnote #bf ,footnote #bf3 ,this was the address to the graduates at ,boston ,college1 ,june #bi1 #aiaj ,gentlemen of the ,graduating ,class3 ,the custom is1 ,i fear1 for the orator who addresses the graduating class to talk over the heads of those who have received their degree to the larger audience who are assembled for the academic function4 ,now1 that ,i do not propose to do4 ,what ,i have to say is to you4 ,my message is meant entirely for you4 ,since your friends are present ,i have to raise my voice so that they shall hear what ,i have to say1 but ,i consider that they are here only on sufferance and that ,i am here to say whatever ,i can that may mean something for you in the careers that are opening up to you4 ,now1 ,i am not of those who think that the main purpose of the eld is to give advice to the young4 ,man is so fashioned that he wants to get his own experience for himself4 ,it is true that only fools learn by their own experience1 wise men learn by that of others4 ,but then we have divine warrant for saying that there used to be a goodly proportion of fools in the world and human experience agrees in our own time that not all the fools are dead yet4 ,our advice may not be taken in all its literalness2 that would be too much to #djd expect1 but it has become an academic custom to give it1 in the hope that it will be a landmark1 perhaps an incentive1 it may be a warning1 surely some time a precious memory in the time to come4 ,few men who ever lived were less likely to think that their advice might mean very much than dear old ,bobbie ,burns1 to whom one of your number referred1 and yet some time ,i hope that in some serious mood you'll read and think well on the poetic epistle of advice to his youthful friend4 ,there are some lines at the beginning of it that have haunted me at times these many years when ,i have been asked to address studious youth at the commencement1 as our term for the occasion so well declares1 of their real education in the post-graduate courses of that ,university of ,hard ,knocks which valedictorians at this season of the year are so prone to call the cold1 cold world4 ,the ,scottish ploughman bard said in the choice ,english he could so well assume on occasion3 ,i long hae tho't1 my youthful friend1 ,a something to hae sent you4 ,though it may serve no ither end ,than as a kind memento2 ,but how the subject theme may gang4 ,let time and chance determine2 ,perhaps it may turn out a sang ,perhaps turn out a sermon4 ,one thing is sure1 whatever ,i shall say to you shall not be a song1 though1 alas6 addresses #dje of advice are prone to sound like sermons4 ,yet the sermon1 after all1 in the old ,latin word sermo is only a discourse1 and ,i am going to make mine as brief as possible4 ,it shall1 ,i hope1 serve to round out some of the things that you yourselves have been saying with regard to ,catholics and social works and1 above all4 ,catholic college men in social works4 ,we are rightly getting to estimate the value of a man in our time in terms of what he accomplishes for others much more than for himself4 ,almost any one who devotes himself with sufficient exclusiveness to the business of helping himself will make a success of it1 though some may doubt of the value of that success4 ,what is difficult above all in our time1 when the spirit of individualism is so rampant1 is to make a success of helpfulness for others while making life flow on with reasonable smoothness for one's self4 ,i do not hope to be able to impart to you the precious secret of how surely to do this1 but something that ,i may say may be helpful to you in leading a larger than a mere selfish life1 so that when the end shall come1 as come it must1 though one would never suspect it from the ways of men1 the world will be a little better at least because you have lived4 ,education has become the fetish of the day and the shibboleth by which the ,philistine is recognized from the chosen people of culture and refinement4 ,popular education has become the #djf watchword of the time1 and all things are fondly hoped for and confidently promised in its name4 ,we are somewhat in doubt as to the mode of education that will be surely effective for all good and we are not quite certain as to how the results are exactly to be obtained1 but education is to make the world better2 to get rid gradually1 yet inevitably1 of the evil that is in it2 to lift men up to the higher plane of knowledge where selfishness is at least not supposed to exist1 or surely to be greatly minimized1 where crime1 of course1 shall disappear1 and where even the minor evils so hide their diminished heads that the millennium can not be far distant4 ,it is true that some of these glorious promises seem long in fulfilment to those who are a little sceptical of the influence of particular forms of education that are now popular1 but1 of course1 the response to that is1 that so far we have not had the time to have the full benefit of education exert itself4 ,at the end of the eighteenth century the ,encyclopedists in ,france1 in their great campaign for the diffusion of information among the people and the spread of what they were pleased to call education1 though some of us are prone to think that they hopelessly confused the distinction between education for power and education for information1 confidently promised that when men knew enough1 poverty1 of course1 would disappear and in its train would go all the attendant evils1 #djg vice and crime and immorality1 and with them1 of course1 unhappiness would disappear from the world4 ,that is considerably over a century now1 but we have not found it advisable as yet to do away with courts of law1 nor jails1 nor policemen1 nor any of the mechanism of the law for the suppression of crime and immorality4 ,indeed1 there are those who are unkind enough to say1 that we now have to make use of more means than ever in proportion to the population for the suppression of vice and crime1 and that they are more emphatically demanded even than at the time of the ,encyclopedists4 ,as for unhappiness and poverty1 recent investigations in our large cities show so large a proportion of people willing yet unable to obtain a decent living wage1 that it is quite startling4 ,our insane asylums are growing much more rapidly than the population1 and not a few of the inmates are there because of immorality4 ,suicide is on the increase faster than the population and unfortunately the greatest increase is noted in the younger years4 ,it is between fifteen and twenty-five that suicides are multiplying4 ,of course the answer to this is1 that education is not as yet carried to that extent among the great mass of people which would enable it to have its full beneficial effects4 ,our common school education is not enough to bring people under the beneficent influence of this great civilizing factor for the development of mankind4 #djh ,educators would urge that it is the higher education which serves to obliterate the ills that human flesh is heir to1 moral as well as physical1 as far1 of course1 as that is possible in so imperfect a world as this4 ,if we could but extend the advantages of the higher education1 of college and university training to the majority of the people1 then say the advocates of education as a panacea for human ills1 we would surely have that approach to the millennium which intellectual development by the diffusion of information can and must give4 ,it is worth while analyzing that proposition a little and applying it to present-day conditions as we know them4 ,after all we have been turning out a large number of those who have had the benefit of the higher education from our colleges and universities during the last generation or so4 ,they have gone out by the thousand to influence their fellows and presumably to be shining lights for profound improvement of life1 striking examples that surely will prove an incentive and a source of emulation to others to do the right1 avoid the wrong1 be helpful instead of selfish and1 in general1 show the world how much education means for the happiness of all4 ,there is a slang expression familiar in ,new ,york just now that you in ,new ,england may not know1 for ,i understand that even the owls near ,boston do not say to-whit-to-whoo but to-whit-to-whoom1 that may be quoted here3 ,some men are born good1 #dji some make good and some are caught with the goods on them4 ,not all of the graduates of colleges and universities were born good1 of course4 ,i wonder what we shall find with regard to the other two phases of existence4 ,there are not a few who are critically perverse enough to say that1 while many have made good1 too many have been caught with the goods on them4 ,let us take the subject that is so strikingly brought before us in our everyday life in recent years1 the question of political corruption4 ,of course it is to be presumed that it is the non-college men who are both corruptors and corrupted4 ,it is1 of course1 just as confidently to be presumed1 on the other hand1 that it is the college men who are the forerunners in all the exposures of recent years4 ,alas6 for human nature1 it is just the contrary4 ,the leaders in big corruption1 the mainstays of what has come to be called big political business1 have nearly all been college men4 ,this has been true in ,california1 in ,missouri1 in ,pennsylvania1 in ,new ,york1 in ,illinois4 ,it would be easy to add other states1 but ,i am only mentioning those where investigations are not yet forgotten1 though we ,american people have cultivated a really marvellous power of forgetting4 ,the states are sufficiently far apart from one another to make it very clear that the condition is not limited to a particular locality but is practically universal4 ,in recent years we have been getting closer to the #daj man higher up4 ,in a great many of the cases1 ,i should say in a majority of them1 he has proved to be a university man1 and if not1 then university men have been his right hands in the accomplishment of evil4 ,the boards of directors of corporations1 life insurance1 fire insurance1 railroads1 great industries and manufactures1 even banks1 who have known that laws were being violated and who have not cared because it was money in their pockets1 have in many cases1 perhaps even in the majority of cases1 been college men4 ,certainly college graduates have not proved to be the little leaven that would leaven the whole mass for righteousness4 ,in the even more dangerous evils of our time that have risked the very existence of democratic government1 in the imposition on the people by the privileged classes of indirect taxes and tariffs that make life hard for the poor1 but add largely to the wealth of the rich1 college men have only too often been the active agents4 ,without their active co-operation certainly these crying injustices to the poor would never have been accomplished4 ,they have often been adding useless millions to useless millions simply for the game2 not caring how much the poor had to suffer4 ,they have been accumulating at the expense of the working classes what ,governor ,hughes of ,new ,york so well called1 not long since1 a corruption fund for their children4 ,they have been the prime factors in many agencies #daa for evil and they have not been the guardians of the rights of others1 the weaker ones1 that we have a right to expect of them4 ,in the awful evils that have been exposed as a consequence of the fellow-servant doctrine and the contributory negligence principle at law1 which have been the root of so much suffering in the world1 college men have not helped to point out evils and organized for the solution of them1 though they have been closely in contact with all the problems of them as judges1 lawyers1 directors of railroad companies1 and industrial concerns4 ,in general1 while they have been in a position to know and alleviate some of the worst ills of our social system1 they have done very little4 ,they helped to bind fetters4 ,it is men of much lower social station and education who have awakened us4 ,the investigations of recent years as to the condition of wage-earners have shown us many unfortunate evils4 ,it was known that one in four of the population in ,london was living in dire poverty and this was thought to be due to the special circumstances in ,london4 ,an investigation of ,york in ,england showed1 however1 that smaller towns1 even cathedral towns1 that were supposed to be almost without poverty1 were hot-beds of it and were nearly as bad as ,london4 ,then1 we took the flattering unction to our souls that these were altogether foreign conditions4 ,such investigations as we could make in ,new ,york1 however1 showed that we were little if any #dab better than the reports from ,england and ,germany revealed abroad4 ,then it was said that the large city1 that brood-oven of vice and misery1 was responsible4 ,pittsburg1 for instance1 set up the claim that while great fortunes were made there the workmen were paid better wages than any place else in the world4 ,alas for the fallibility of human judgment in social affairs6 ,the ,pittsburg ,survey was made and it was found that while a few of the better-class workmen were paid very well1 the great mass of the workmen were awfully underpaid1 and it was impossible for the majority of them to live decently on what they received4 ,further investigations into industrial conditions have only emphasized the conclusions obtained from the ,survey4 ,human life has become very cheap in this country4 ,a prominent clergyman said not very long ago that it was safer to be a murderer in the ,united ,states than a brakeman4 ,the expression is true if the proportion of brakemen who lose their lives to murderers who lose theirs in this country is taken4 ,we are careless of the lives of the honest workman1 and sentimentally over-careful of the lives and comfort of the criminal4 ,every now and then there are inevitable reactions against this laxity of the law1 and as a consequence1 while ,canada has no lynchings and there are none in ,england1 while peoples of our stock have no need to appeal to force1 we lynch many more than we execute in this #dac country4 ,the leaders of many of the mobs1 as the directors of the industrial companies who knowingly allow the waste of life to go on1 have had the benefit of our ,american education1 such as it is4 ,educated people are responsible for things that are and unless they meet their responsibilities there will be no improvement4 ,some of these abuses have risen to a climax4 ,not long ago a story was told that illustrates1 as it seems to me1 some present-day feelings very well4 ,a great steel company having a contract for a bridge in the ,far ,east1 was rushing the last steel beams for the completion of the contract4 ,america is noted for its marvellous power to do work rapidly that other countries take time for4 ,there was a heavy penalty attached if they did not complete the contract on time4 ,a fast steamer was waiting in ,new ,york harbor all ready to take this last consignment out with it4 ,a special train was standing in the yards of the steel plant1 to be rushed to ,new ,york just as soon as the beams were completed4 ,in the midst of all the hurry and bustle a workman got his foot caught in the huge crane which transports the immense beams from one portion of the plant to the other4 ,an examination of the manner in which he was caught showed clearly that he could not be released without taking the crane apart4 ,that would mean that thirty-six hours would have to be spent in the mechanical handling of that crane4 ,if that were done it would be #dad quite impossible to make the shipment on time1 so closely was the period of completion calculated4 ,not only was there a heavy money penalty1 but there would be a decided loss of ,american prestige4 ,the workman who was caught was only a foreigner4 ,he was only getting #a4be a day4 ,just one thing was to be done evidently1 because that steamer had to sail on time and that freight train had to get out the next morning4 ,the other foreign workmen were put out of the shops1 only the confidential men were left1 an ambulance was summoned2 as it appeared in sight the crane was run over the portion of the foot that was caught1 the man was removed to the care of the surgeon1 his wound was dressed at the hospital1 the contract was completed on time and ,american enterprise and power to do things faster than all the world was vindicated4 ,we are making money4 ,in the meantime the directors of companies under whom such things are done are mainly college men4 ,whether they feel it or not they are personally responsible for everything that happens in their business1 for it is their business by which human life is sacrificed or human suffering increased1 or human morality deteriorated4 ,probably the majority of the stockholders in the companies are college men4 ,some of them are college women4 ,they are deriving incomes from forms of injustice1 from conditions that cause human suffering that #dae might be avoided4 ,they are1 whether they know it or not1 committing one of the crimes that calls to heaven for vengeance--defrauding laborers of their wages2 because to pay a man less than a decent living wage is to defraud that laborer of his wages4 ,no man has a right to go into the labor market and buy labor as cheaply as he can4 ,men must live1 they must support their families1 and to compel them to take less than a decent living wage is to hold them in slavery4 ,every man who derives an income from such sources must know whether there is injustice at work or not in whatever he benefits by4 ,it is easy to plead ignorance1 but the ignorance is no justification4 ,when we take money from something we must know that that money has no taint of injustice about it4 ,there is a startling passage in the ,scriptures that ,i have often thought should be repeated more frequently in our time4 ,it is1 ,from the sins we know not of1 ,o ,lord deliver us4 ,there are many things that are done for the educated rich in our time1 things that are full of injustice1 yet from which the rich derive great benefits for which they will be held responsible4 ,i cannot see it else4 ,we hear much in our time of the stewardship of wealth1 of the fact that if a man has much more money than others he is bound thereby to do more good with it1 just inasmuch as he has superfluous means must he accomplish not only actually more but #daf proportionately more than those who are less wealthy around him4 ,what is true thus of material wealth is even truer of intellectual wealth4 ,the man who has more education than his neighbors is bound thereby to be helpful to his neighbors1 to uplift them--how much one hesitates to use that much-abused word1--to help solve their problems1 to make life happier for them2 he is bound to use his faculties1 ,god-given as they are and developed by intellectual opportunities1 not for himself alone1 but for all those around him4 ,unfortunately recent generations of college men have not taken this responsibility seriously1 or have not seen the duty that lay before them and the burden imposed on them by the very necessity of conditions4 ,as a consequence they have often been leaders in evil4 ,they have almost invariably been protagonists of selfishness and of individualism4 ,so long as they have gotten much out of life they have not cared whether others have had the paths for even reasonable happiness and some opportunities in life made smooth4 ,only too often they have been a stumbling block in the road for others less educated than they4 ,they have been the men higher up1 the bribers who are ever so much worse than the bribed1 the company directors who have turned aside and seen evil and injustice and pretended in smug propriety that it was no affair of theirs1 or perhaps have said in self-justification--and such self-justification6--that if they did not do it #dag others would2 the wealthy men who have used every means to get around the law to oppress the poor1 to add useless wealth to useless wealth at the cost of others1 even at the risk of subverting liberty1 overturning government and ruining this latest experiment in democracy4 ,i am not a muckraker1 but we cannot hide from ourselves and we must not miss the real meaning of the events in the life around us as it really is4 ,when ,i think of the situation ,i am prone to compare with it other generations of college men and what they accomplished4 ,history is not worth while if it tells us only of the past4 ,it is of no more value than any other story1 real or fictitious4 ,history is significant only when the lessons of the past are valuable to the present4 ,we are prone to think of education as influencing deeply only recent generations4 ,let me try and tell you briefly the story of some generations of college men who accomplished things that it will be worth while for us to consider to-day4 ,when the universities came into existence in the early thirteenth century social conditions were about as bad as can well be imagined4 ,the incursions of the ,goths had rubbed out all the old ,roman law and the customs of the various nations had been obliterated in the disorder of the migration of the nations1 when might absolutely made right4 ,gradually out of the inevitable lawlessness of the ,dark ,ages the ,church1 by her beneficent influence1 brought the beginnings of #dah law and order so far as barbarous peoples could be lifted up4 ,in the sixth century there was nearly everywhere in ,europe social chaos4 ,during the next centuries came the gradual uplift4 ,christianity in ,ireland did much even in the preceding century1 and then helped in the regeneration of ,europe in the succeeding centuries4 ,charlemagne helped greatly1 as his name chronicles1 and ,alfred1 well deserving of the name the ,great1 carried on his work4 ,in the tenth century everywhere the dawn of better things was to be seen4 ,in the eleventh century organization of civil rights begins to make itself felt2 in the twelfth century the universities were coming into existence2 and then with the thirteenth century there was a great rejuvenescence of humanity in every department1 but1 above all1 in the social order4 ,under feudalism men had no rights of themselves except such as were conferred on them by some external agency4 ,in the thirteenth century the essential rights of man begin to make themselves felt and find confident assertion4 ,it is not hard to trace the steps of the development4 ,magna ,charta was signed in #abae4 ,the ,first ,english ,parliament met in #abeg4 ,the representative nature of that parliament became complete in the next twenty years4 ,the ,english ,common ,law was put into form about the beginning of the last quarter of the century and in #abhb ,bracton published his great digest of it4 ,the principle there shall be no taxation without #dai representation1 our own basis for the ,declaration of ,independence five centuries later1 was proclaimed as early as #abfj and was emphasized by the great ,pope ,boniface ,,viii at the end of the century4 ,early in the century1 the great ,lateran ,council decreed that every diocese in the world should have a college and that the ,metropolitan ,sees at least should have such opportunities for post-graduate study as we now call universities4 ,the first great ,pope of the century1 ,innocent ,,iii1 laid the foundation of a great ,city ,hospital in ,rome and required that every bishop throughout the world should have one in his ,see and that the model of it should be that of the ,santo ,spirito ,hospital in ,rome4 ,leprosy was an epidemic disease among the people1 somewhat as tuberculosis is now2 measures were taken for the segregation of lepers1 leper hospitals were built for them outside of the town1 and these great generations solved a problem in hygiene as difficult as is ours with regard to tuberculosis4 ,above all1 the rights of the people were assured to them4 ,at the beginning of the century probably the most striking thing among the population of the various towns1 if a modern had a chance to visit them1 would be the number of the maimed and the halt and the blind4 ,we would be apt to wonder where were the industrial and manufacturing plants responsible for all this maiming of the people1 and look in vain for the belching chimneys of factories or trains4 ,it was #dbj another form of selfishness that produced cripples in the twelfth century4 ,punishment was by maiming4 ,for offences against property a man lost an eye1 or a hand1 or a leg4 ,very often the offences were of a kind that we would resent punishment for in the modern time4 ,if a man were caught poaching on a nobleman's preserves of game1 and sometimes it was the hunger of his children that drove him to it1 he lost a hand4 ,for a second offence1 he lost an eye4 ,for failures to pay various taxes1 if the offence were repeated1 maiming was likely to be the consequence4 ,all this was in as perfect accordance with law as our fellow-servant or contributory-negligence doctrines4 ,so that the sight of the maimed person might deter others from following this example of recalcitrancy1 it was hoped that these cripples would not die1 though in the imperfect surgery of the time they often did4 ,always the selfish pleasures of the upper classes so-called1 when they are thoughtless1 mean the loss of all possibilities of happiness for the lower classes4 ,the ways of it all may be different from age to age1 the results and the responsibility are always the same4 ,in the thirteenth century all this was changed4 ,st4 ,louis of ,france sent one of his greatest noblemen who had unreasonably punished student poachers on a penitential pilgrimage to the ,holy ,land and inflicted a heavy fine1 and all notwithstanding the protest of the most powerful nobles #dba of his kingdom whose rights were invaded4 ,how we do always hear about the invasion of the rights of the entrenched classes4 ,in ,england men1 even men without any patent of nobility or clerical privilege1 began to have rights and others had duties towards them4 ,above all1 men were given opportunities to bring out what was best in them4 ,the great cathedrals were built1 the great monasteries1 some of the greatest castles1 some of the fine colleges at the universities4 ,many of the municipal buildings were erected in the glorious architecture of the times4 ,at these men were employed in what is probably the happiest work that a man can do4 ,they had the chance to express themselves in the beautiful achievements of their hands4 ,the village blacksmith made gates1 and locks1 and bolts1 and hinges for cathedrals that are so beautiful that all the world has wondered at them ever since4 ,the stained glass is the finest ever made4 ,the illuminated books are beautiful beyond description1 the handsomest of all times4 ,the needlework of the vestments stands out as the most beautiful in history4 ,the men and women who did these things were happy in the execution of beautiful works of art1 and as the population was only scanty a large proportion of them were closer to beautiful things than the world has ever known4 ,blessed is the man who has found his work4 ,these men had found their work and were happy4 ,instead of going out to the deadly routine of #dbb work they did not like1 but that they had to do1 because they must earn enough so as to get bread enough to eat for themselves and family1 so that they might live and go out and work once more to-morrow and to-morrow1 and so on to the end of recorded time1 the workman dreamt of the beauty that he might express2 went out hoping to achieve it2 failed often but still hoped1 and hope is life's best consolation2 came away reluctantly1 thinking that surely he would accomplish something on the morrow4 ,it is the difference between mere routine work and the handicraftsmanship that satisfies because it occupies the whole man4 ,is it any wonder that our workman is discontented2 is it any wonder that the ,england of that time should be called merry ,england and the ,france and ,italy gay ,france and ,italy8 ,all this organization of the workmen was accomplished by the university men of the time4 ,they were mainly clergymen1 but they had in them not only the wish1 but the faculty to help those around them1 and so there arose the beautiful creations of that time in art1 architecture1 literature and political freedom which did so much for the masses of the people4 ,there were more students at the universities at the end of the thirteenth century to the population of the various countries of ,europe than there are at the present time4 ,that seems impossible1 but so do all the other achievements of the thirteenth century1--their cathedrals1 their arts and crafts1 their #dbc universities1 their literature1--until you go back to study them4 ,there is absolutely no doubt about these statistics4 ,these university men were trained to self-government and to the government of others in the university life of the time4 ,they took that training out with them1 not for selfish purposes alone1 but for the help of others4 ,what they accomplished is to be found in the social uplift that followed4 ,there is scarcely a right or a development of liberty that we have now that cannot be found1 in germ at least1 often in complete evolution1 in the thirteenth century4 ,the ,supreme ,courts of most of our states still make their decisions following the old ,english common law which was laid down in that century4 ,but it will be said1 while so much was done for the workman1 have we not heard that his wages were a few cents1 almost nothing1 and that his hours were long and he was little better than a slave8 ,only the first portion of this has any truth in it4 ,he did get what seems to us a mere pittance for his day's wages4 ,as pointed out by ,m4 ,urbain ,gohier1 the ,french socialist1 when he visited this country to lecture a few years ago1 the workmen of this time had already obtained the eight-hour day1 the three eights as they are called1 eight hours of work1 eight hours for sleep and eight hours for themselves4 ,besides they had the ,saturday half-holiday1 or at least1 after the ,vesper hour1 work could not be required of them1 and there was more than one holy-day of #dbd obligation every two weeks1 on which they did not work1 and on the ,vigil of which work ceased at four o'clock4 ,as for their wages1 by ,act of ,parliament they got fourpence a day at the end of the century and this does not seem much1 but the same ,act of ,parliament set the minimum wage and the maximum price that could be charged for the necessities of life4 ,a pair of hand-made shoes could be bought for fourpence1 and no workman can do anything like that for a day's wage at the present or usually for more than double his daily wages4 ,a fat goose cost but twopence halfpenny1 and when the father of a family can buy two fat geese for his daily wages1 there is no danger of the family starving4 ,our wages are higher1 but the necessities of life have gone up so high that the wages can scarcely touch them4 ,in the parliament that passed these laws the greater proportion were college men4 ,i suppose probably three-fourths of the members of both houses had been at the university4 ,now that the question of the abolition of the ,house of ,lords is occupying much attention1 we sometimes hear of it as a mediaeval institution4 ,it is spoken of as an inheritance from an earlier and ruder time4 ,i wonder how much the people who talk thus know about the realities4 ,they must be densely ignorant of what the ,house of ,lords used to be4 ,at the present moment there are in the ,english ,house of ,lords #fbg members1 only #dbe #ge of whom do not owe their position directly or solely to the accident of birth4 ,even about half of this seventy-five can only be selected from the hereditary nobility of ,scotland and of ,ireland4 ,in the ,middle ,ages it was quite different4 ,until the reformation so-called the ,lords ,spiritual formed a majority of the ,house of ,lords4 ,they consisted not only of the bishops but of the abbots and priors of monasteries and the masters of the various religious and knightly orders4 ,this upper chamber of the olden time was elected in the best possible sense of the word4 ,they were usually men who had risen from the ranks of the people and who had been chosen because of their unselfishness to be heads of religious houses and religious orders4 ,there were abuses by which some of these ,lords ,spiritual obtained their places by what we now call pull1 but the great majority of them were selected for their virtues1 and because they had shown their power to rule over themselves had been chosen to rule over others4 ,they were men who could own nothing for themselves and families1 and in whom every motive1 human and divine1 appealed to make life as happy as possible for others4 ,they were all of them university men4 ,compare for a moment the present ,house of ,lords with that ,house of ,lords and you will see the difference between the old time and the present4 ,no wonder ,england was merry ,england1 no wonder historian #dbf after historian has declared that the people were happier at this time than they have ever been before or since1 no wonder men had leisure to make great monuments of genius in architecture1 in the arts and in literature4 ,no wonder the universities1 in the form in which they have been useful to mankind ever since1 were organized in this century2 no wonder all our rights and liberties come to us4 ,great generations of the university men nobly did their work4 ,young men1 you are graduating from a college that is literally a lineal descendant of those old-time universities4 ,you have had the training of heart and of will as well as of mind that was given to these students of the olden times4 ,you have been taught that the end of life is not self1 but that life shall mean something for others as well as yourself1 that every action shall be looked at from the standpoint of what it means for others as well as for yourselves1 and that you shall never do anything that will even remotely injure others4 ,you are not only going to lead honest but honorable lives4 ,you are going to be true to yourselves first1 but absolutely faithful to others4 ,they are telling a story in ,new ,york now that1 perhaps1 some of you have heard4 ,it is of the young man who had graduated at the head of his class at the high school and delighted his old father's heart4 ,he kept up the good work1 and came out first in his class at college4 ,then1 when #dbg he led a large class at the law school1 you can understand how proud the old gentleman was4 ,tom came home to practise law in a long-established firm where there was an opening for him4 ,some six months later he said1 one day1 to his father1 ,well1 ,i made #aj1jjj to-day1 and the old gentleman said1 ,well1 ,tom1 that is a good deal of money to make4 ,i hope you made it honestly4 ,the young man lifted his head and said1 ,you can be sure that ,i would not make it dishonestly4 ,that is right1 the old man said4 ,tell us how it came about4 ,then ,tom told how he knew that a trolley line was going to run out far from town and that he had secured an option on some property through which it was going to pass4 ,you know old ,farmer ,simpson out on the ,plank ,road8 he said4 ,his boys have left him and gone to the city2 he cannot work his farm any longer himself1 and he cannot hire men for it1 and he wants to get rid of it4 ,i got positive information yesterday through one of our clients that a trolley line is going out through that farm4 ,when ,i went out to see the old man he knew me at once1 spoke about you1 and when ,i offered to try to sell the farm for him and suggested the advisability of signing an option on it to me at a definite figure1 so that ,i may be able to close the price with any one who wanted it1 he signed at once at a ridiculously low figure because1 though1 as he said1 he did not care to sign the papers for lawyer folk1 #dbh he knew ,i was different4 ,i have got the farm at so low a price that #aj1jjj is the smallest profit ,i can look for4 ,i think ,i will get that profit out of the company for the right of way1 and then ,i will have the rest of the farm for myself4 ,it will make a mighty nice country place4 ,then there was a pause4 ,the old gentleman did not lighten up any over the story1 as ,tom seemed to think he would4 ,after a minute's silence the old man said1 ,well1 ,tom1 that was not what ,i sent you to college and law school for1 to come out here and take advantage of my old neighbors4 ,i thought that you would be helpful to us all1 and that there would be more of happiness in the world because of your education4 ,you may call that transaction honest1 and perhaps it is legal1 but ,i know that it is dishonorable4 ,tom1 if you don't give ,farmer ,simpson back his option ,i do not think ,i want you to live here with me any more4 ,somehow ,i couldn't feel as if ,i could hold up my head if ever ,i passed ,farmer ,simpson and his wife1 if you did4 ,you may act as his attorney if you will and take a good fair fee for it1 but you must not absorb all the profits just because the old man is in trouble and is glad to trust an old neighbor's son4 ,of course ,tom's father was dreadfully old-fashioned and out of date4 ,of course there are some people who will say that this sort of thing is quixotic4 ,now1 this sort of thing is what higher education should mean1 and does mean1 in a #dbi ,catholic college4 ,your principles are not taught you for the sake of exercises of piety1 nor attendance at religious duties4 ,these you have got to do anyhow1 but they are meant to inflow into every action of your life and to make the basic principle of them all1 ,thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself4 ,you are graduating from a ,catholic college with high aims1 you have had many advantages1 more than are accorded usually in our time to men of your years in the training of heart and will as well as intellect1 and much is expected of you4 ,you are rich in real education and a stewardship of great intellectual and moral wealth is given over to you1 and you must be better than others and be1 above all1 ever helpful to others4 ,your education was not given for your benefit1 but for that of the community4 ,your neighbors are all round you4 ,see that at the end of your life they shall all be happier because you have lived4 ,if you do not do so you shall sadly disappoint the hopes of your teachers and1 above all1 you shall be false to the trust that has been confided to you4 ,pass on the torch of charity4 ,let all the world be dear to you in the old-fashioned sense of that dear old word charity1 not merely distantly friendly in the new-fangled sense of the long ,greek term philanthropy4 ,be just while you are living your lives and you will not have the burden of philanthropy that so many rich men are now complaining of in your older years1 and1 above all1 #dcj you will not have the contempt and aversion of those who may accept your bounty1 but who know how questionably you acquired the means of giving it and are not really thankful4 ,i have done but for just one word4 ,be just and fear not4 ,if you will be just in your dealing with men1 you will have no need for further advice and no need for repentance4 ,i thank you4 #dca ,,new ,,englandism #dcb ,it isn't so much the ignorance of mankind that makes them ridiculous as the knowing so many things that ain't so4 --,josh ,billings1 writing as ,uncle ,esek in the ,century4 #dcc ,,new ,,englandism ,footnote #bg ,footnote #bg3 ,the material for this was collected for a banquet address in ,boston on ,evacuation ,day1 #aiji1 before the ,knights of ,columbus4 ,it was developed for various lectures on the history of education1 in order to illustrate how easy it is to produce a tradition which is not supported by historical documents4 ,in its present form it appeared as an article in the ,west ,coast ,magazine for ,july1 #aiaj1 at the request of the editor1 ,mr4 ,john ,s4 ,mc,groarty1 with whom1 more years ago than either of us care to recall now1 ,i had learned the ,new ,england brand of ,united ,states history at a country school4 ,there is a little story told of a supposed recent celestial experience1 that seems1 to some people1 at least--perhaps it may be said without exaggeration1 to most of those alas6 not born in ,new ,england--to illustrate very well the attitude of ,new ,englanders1 and especially of the ,bostonese portion of the ,new ,england population1 towards all the rest of the world and the heavens besides4 ,st4 ,peter1 the celestial gate-keeper1 is supposed to be disturbed from the slumbers that have been possible so much oftener of late years because of the infrequent admissions since the world has lost interest in other-worldliness1 by an imperious knocking at the gate4 ,who's there8 he asks in a very mild voice1 for he knows by long experience that that kind of knocking usually comes from some grand dame from the terrestrial regions4 ,the reply1 in rather imperative #dcd tone1 is1 ,i am ,mrs4 ,beacon from ,boston1 with emphasis on the ,boston1 ,well1 madam1 ,peter says in reply1 you may come in1 but1 he adds with a wisdom learned doubtless from many previous incidents of the same kind1 you won't like it4 ,of course1 the thoroughgoing admiration of ,new ,england people1 and especially of ,bostonians1 for all that is ,new ,england1 and1 above all1 all that is ,boston1 has been well recognized for a long while and has not failed of proper appreciation1 to some degree at least1 even in ,new ,england itself4 ,to ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes we owe that delightful characterization of it in the ,autocrat of the ,breakfast ,table1 ,boston ,state ,house is the hub of the solar system4 ,you could not pry that out of a ,boston man 7and a fortiori ,i think it may be said out of a ,boston woman7 if you had the tire of all creation straightened out for a crowbar4 ,james ,russell ,lowell expressed the same idea very forcibly in other words in some expressions of his essay on ,a ,certain ,condescension in ,foreigners1 that have been perhaps oftenest quoted and are dear to every true ,new ,englander's heart4 ,of course1 he meant it a great deal more than half in jest1 but who of us who know our ,down ,easterners doubt that most of them take it considerably more than half in earnest8 ,their attitude shows us very well how much the daughter ,new ,england was ready to take after mother ,england in #dce the matter of thinking so much of herself that she must perforce be condescending to others4 ,lowell's expression is worthy to be placed beside that of ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes for the guidance of ,american minds4 ,they are keys to the situation4 ,i know one person1 said ,lowell1 who is singular enough to think ,cambridge 7,mass47 the very best spot on the habitable globe4 ',doubtless ,god could have made a better1 but doubtless he never did4' ,it only needed his next sentence fully to complete the significance of ,boston and its academic suburb in the eyes of every good ,bostonian4 ,the full tide of human existence may be felt here as keenly as ,johnson felt it at ,charing ,cross and in a larger sense4 ,of course there is no insuperable objection to allowing ,new ,englanders to add to the gayety of nations in this supreme occupation with themselves1 and we would gladly suffer them if only they would not intrude their ,new ,englandism on some of the most important concerns of the nation4 ,but that is impossible1 for ,new ,englandism is most obtrusive4 ,it is ,new ,england that has written most of the history of this country and its influence has been paramount on most of our education4 ,it has supplied most of the writers of history and moulded most of the school-teachers of the country4 ,the consequence has been a stamping of ,new ,englandism all over our history and on the minds of rising generations for the better part of a century1 with a #dcf perversion of the realities of history in favor of ,new ,england that is quite startling when attention is particularly directed to it4 ,the editors of the ,cambridge modern ,history1 in their preface1 called attention to the immense differences between what may be called documentary and traditional history4 ,they declare that it has become impossible for historical writers of the present age to trust without reserve even to the most respected secondary authorities4 ,the honest student finds himself continually deserted1 retarded1 misled1 by the classics of historical literature1 and has to hew his own way through multitudinous transactions1 periodicals1 and official publications in order to reach the truth4 ,most people reading this would be prone to think that any such arraignment of ,american history1 as is thus made by the distinguished ,cambridge editors of history in general1 would be quite out of the question4 ,after all1 our history1 properly speaking1 extends only over a couple of centuries and we would presumably be too close to the events for any serious distortion of them to have been made4 ,for that reason it is interesting to realize what an unfortunate influence the fact that our writers have come mainly from ,new ,england and have been full of the ,new ,england spirit has had on our ,american history4 ,every ,american schoolboy is likely to be possessed of the idea that the first blood shed in the ,revolution was in the so-called ,boston ,massacre4 #dcg ,it is well known that that event thus described was nothing more than a street brawl in which five totally unarmed passers-by were shot down without their making the slightest resistance1 as an act of retaliation on the part of drunken soldiers annoyed by boys throwing snowballs at them4 ,this has been magnified into an important historical event4 ,two months before it1 however1 there was an encounter in ,new ,york with the citizens under arms as well as the soldiers1 and it was at ,golden ,hill on ,manhattan ,island and not in ,boston that the first blood of the ,revolution was shed4 ,miss ,mary ,l4 ,booth1 in her ,history of the ,city of ,new ,york1 says3 ,thus ended the ,battle of ,golden ,hill1 a conflict of two days' duration1 which1 originating as it did in the defense of a principle1 was an affair of which ,new ,yorkers have just reason to be proud1 and which is worthy of far more prominence than has usually been given it by standard historians4 ,it was not until nearly two months after that the ,boston ,massacre occurred1 a contest which has been glorified and perpetuated in history1 yet this was second both in date and in significance to the ,new ,york ,battle of ,golden ,hill4 ,practically every other incident of these times has been treated in just this way1 in our school histories at least4 ,every ,american schoolboy knows of the ,boston tea party1 and usually can and does tell the story with great gusto because #dch it delights his youthful dramatic sense4 ,not only the children1 but every one else seems to think that the organization of the tea party was entirely due to the ,new ,england spirit of resistance to taxation without representation4 ,how few of them are taught that this destruction of the tea had been definitely agreed upon by all the colonies and that it was only by chance that ,massachusetts happened to be first in the execution of the project4 ,my friend1 ,dr4 ,thomas ,addis ,emmet1 in his article on ,some ,popular ,myths of ,american ,history1 in the ,magazine of ,history 7,february1 #aije71 has stated this aspect of the question very forcibly4 ,previous to the arrival of the ships in ,boston1 concerted action had been agreed upon1 as has been already shown1 in regard to the destruction of the tea1 from ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c41 to ,portsmouth1 ,n4 ,h4 ,the people of ,philadelphia had been far more active and outspoken at the outset than they of ,boston1 and it was this decisiveness which caused the people of ,boston to act1 after they had freely sought beforehand the advice and moral support of the other colonies4 ,it would be utterly unjust to limit the movement which culminated in the ,boston ,tea ,party to any one or even several of the colonies2 to make so much of the ,boston incident is to falsify history in fact1 but1 above all1 in the impression produced upon the rising generation that ,boston was a leader in this movement4 ,the first #dci tea-ship arrived in ,boston ,november #bh1 #aggc1 and two others shortly after1 but it was not until the evening of ,december #afth that their contents were thrown overboard4 ,over six weeks before this a precisely similar occurrence had taken place in ,new ,york without any such delay1 and though the movement proved futile because it was undertaken on a false alarm1 it is easy to understand that due credit should be given to those who took part in it for their thoroughgoing spirit of opposition to ,british measures4 ,on this subject once more ,dr4 ,emmet1 whose great collection of ,americana made him probably more familiar with he sources of ,american history than any one of our generation1 has been1 in the article already quoted1 especially emphatic4 ,on ,november #e1 #aggc1 an alarm was raised in the ,city of ,new ,york to the effect that a tea-ship had entered the harbor4 ,a large assembly of people at once occurred1 among whom those in charge of the movement were disguised as ,mohawk ,indians4 ,this alarm proved a false one1 but at a meeting then organized a series of resolutions was adopted which was received by the other colonies as the initiative in the plan of resistance already determined upon throughout the country4 ,our schoolbooks are chiefly responsible for the almost universal impression that the destruction of tea1 which occurred in ,boston ,harbor1 was an episode confined to that city1 while the fact is that the tea sent to this country was either #ddj destroyed or sent back to ,england from every seaport in the colonies4 ,the first tea-ship happened to arrive in ,boston and the first tea was destroyed there2 for this circumstance due credit should be given the ,bostonians4 ,but the fact that the actors in this affair were disguised as ,mohawk ,indians shows that they were but following the lead of ,new ,york1 where this particular disguise had been adopted forty-one days before1 for the same purpose4 ,just as the ,boston ,massacre has been insistently pointed out as the first blood shed for ,american liberty1 so the ,battle of ,lexington has been drilled into our school children's minds as the first organized armed resistance to the ,british4 ,without wishing at all to detract from the glory of those who fought at ,lexington1 there is every reason not to let the youth of this country grow up with the notion that ,massachusetts was the first to put itself formally under arms against the mother country4 ,lexington was not fought until ,april #ai1 #agge4 ,the battle of ,alamance1 ,n4 ,c41 which occurred on ,may #af1 #agga1 deserves much more to be considered as the first organized resistance to ,british oppression4 ,the ,north ,carolina ,regulators rather than the ,new ,england ,minute ,men should have the honor of priority as the first armed defenders of their rights against encroachment4 ,the subject is all the more interesting because the ,british leader who tried to ride rough-shod over stout ,americans in ,north ,carolina and met #dda with open opposition was the infamous ,general ,tryon of subsequent ,connecticut fame4 ,every one knows of his pernicious activity in ,connecticut1 very few that he had been previously active in ,north ,carolina4 ,that is the difference between history as it has been written for ,new ,england and the ,south4 ,that the ,battle of ,alamance was no mere chance engagement1 and that the ,north ,carolinians were aflame with the real spirit that finally gave freedom to the colonies1 can be best realized from the fact that the first ,declaration of ,independence was made at ,mecklenberg in ,north ,carolina1 and that some of its sentiments1 and even perhaps its phrases1 were adopted in the subsequent formal ,declaration of ,independence of all the colonies4 ,for those who may be surprised that ,north ,carolina should have been so prominent in these first steps in ,revolutionary history and these primary developments of the great movement that led to the freedom of the ,colonies1 for we are accustomed to think of ,north ,carolina as one of the backward1 unimportant portions of the country1 it may be well to say that at the time of the ,revolution she was the third ,state in the ,union in population1 following ,virginia and ,pennsylvania in the number of inhabitants1 exceeding ,new ,york in population by the total census of ,new ,york ,city and ,long ,island1 and ahead of ,massachusetts1 which immediately followed it in the list by almost as many4 ,the sturdy #ddb inhabitants of the northern of the ,carolinas had been for a decade before the ,revolution constantly a thorn in the side of the ,british government and had been recognized as leaders in the great movement that was gradually being organized to bring all the colonies together for mutual help against the encroachments of the ,british government on their rights4 ,our school children fail almost entirely to know this because they have been absorbed by ,massachusetts history--but then ,north ,carolina did not have the good fortune to have writers of history4 ,new ,england had them and to spare1 and with a patriotic zeal for their native heath beyond even their numbers4 ,of course it may be said that these are old-time historical traditions which have found their way into history and are difficult to get out1 though most of those who know any history realize their absurdity1 and the modern historian1 even though he may be from ,new ,england1 holds the balance much more equitably between the different portions of the country4 ,apparently this is just what is not true1 for ,new ,england professors of history and writers of history still continue to write in the same old strain of such surpassing admiration for ,new ,englanders that every other portion of the country is cast into shadow4 ,it was a distinguished professor of history at ,harvard who1 within five years1 in an important historical work1 ,footnote #bh said3 ,whatever the social mixture #ddc of the future1 one thing is certain2 the standards1 aspirations and moral and political ideas of the original ,english settlers not only dominate their own descendants1 but permeate the body of immigrants of other races--the ,puritans have furnished the little leaven that leavens the whole lump4 ,footnote #bh3 ,the ,american ,nation1 #bg vols4 ,one wonders just what such a sentence means and1 of course1 finds it in many ways amazingly amusing4 ,one would think that the only ,english settlers were the ,puritans1 and that they had had great influence in the origin of our government4 ,apparently1 for the moment at least1 this ,harvard professor forgot in his enthusiasm for the forefathers in ,massachusetts that the other branch of ,english settlers1 those of ,virginia1 were ever so much more important in the colonial times and for long afterwards1 than the ,puritans4 ,of the first five ,presidents four were from ,virginia4 ,it is possible they forget now1 in ,massachusetts1 that only one was from ,massachusetts1 and that that one did more to disturb government of the people1 by the people1 and for the people than any other1 so that after four short years the country would have no more of him and no more of these ,massachusetts ,puritans for more than a quarter of a century4 ,this dear1 good professor of ,harvard has deliberately called all the non-,english elements in our population foreigners because of his absorption in ,new ,england4 ,he said3 ,if the list of ,american #ddd great men be scanned the contribution of the foreigner stands out clearly4 ,the two greatest financiers of ,america have been the ,english ,west ,indian ,alexander ,hamilton and the ,genevan ,albert ,gallatin4 ,two ,presidents1 ,van ,buren and ,roosevelt1 are of ,dutch stock2 five others1 ,jackson1 ,buchanan1 ,grant1 ,arthur and ,mc,kinley of ,scotch and ,scotch-,irish descent4 ,all foreigners except the ,new ,englanders6 ,save the mark6 ,it is rather interesting to find that their contemporaries of the ,revolutionary period did not share that high estimation of the ,new ,englanders which they themselves clung to so tenaciously and have writ so large in our history that the tradition of ,new ,england's unselfish wonder-working in that olden time has never perished4 ,most of us are likely to know something about the rather low estimation1 at most toleration1 in which during the ,revolutionary period many of the members of ,congress from ,new ,england were held by fellow-members of ,congress from other portions of the country4 ,they were the most difficult to bring into harmony with others1 the slowest to see anything that did not directly enhance the interests of ,new ,england2 they were more constantly in opposition to great movements that meant much for the future of the colonies themselves and the government of the ,united ,states afterward than any others4 ,we are prone to excuse this1 however1 on the score #dde of their intolerant ,puritanism1 and taught by our ,new ,england schoolmasters1 most of us1 at least1 fondly cherish the notion that all the ,new ,englanders made supreme sacrifices for the country and did it with a whole-hearted spirit of self-forgetfulness that made every man1 above all in ,massachusetts1 an out-and-out patriot4 ,it is curious to find how different were the opinions of those from other portions of the country who came in contact with ,new ,englanders at this time1 from that which is to be found in their histories4 ,washington1 for instance1 had by no means the same high opinion of the ,new ,englanders1 and1 above all1 of the ,new ,england troops1 that they had of themselves and that their historians have so carefully presented of them4 ,it is said that ,sparks edited many of ,washington's criticisms of ,new ,englanders out of his edition of the ,life and ,letters4 ,certain it is that some of the letters which ,sparks did not consider it proper to quote from1 contain material that is very interesting for the modern historian who wants to get at contemporary documents1 and for whom contemporary opinions such as that of ,washington cannot but seem especially valuable4 ,in a letter from the camp at ,cambridge1 ,august #bj1 #agge1 to ,lund ,washington at ,mt4 ,vernon1 ,washington said3 ,the people of this ,government ,massachusetts have obtained a character which they by no means deserve2 their officers1 generally #ddf speaking1 are the most indifferent kind of people ,i ever saw4 ,i have already broke one colonel and five captains for cowardice1 and for drawing more pay and provisions than they had men in their companies4 ,there are two more colonels now under arrest and to be tried for the same offenses2 in short1 they are by no means such troops1 in any respect1 as you are led to believe of them from the accounts which are published2 but ,i need not make myself enemies among them by this declaration1 although it is consistent with truth4 ,i dare say the men would fight very well 7if properly officered71 although they are an exceedingly dirty and nasty people4 ,had they been properly conducted at ,bunker's ,hill 7on the #agth of ,june7 or those that were there properly supported1 the regulars would have met with a shameful defeat1 and a much more considerable loss than they did1 which is now known to be exactly #a1jeg1 killed and wounded4 ,it was for their behavior on that occasion that the above officers were broke1 for ,i never spared one that was accused of cowardice1 but brought them to immediate trial4 ,one of the most interesting perversions of the history written by ,new ,englanders is that in their emphasis of ,new ,englandism they have sometimes signally failed to write even their own history as the documents show it4 ,there has been much insistence1 for instance1 on the supposed absolute purity of the ,english origin of #ddg the settlers in ,new ,england and especially in ,massachusetts until long after the ,revolution4 ,palfrey1 in the introduction to his ,history of ,new ,england1 says3 ,the people of ,new ,england are a singularly unmixed race4 ,there is probably not a county in ,england occupied by a population of purer ,english blood than they are4 ,senator ,lodge1 forty years later1 in his ,history of the ,revolution1 re-echoes ,mr4 ,palfrey's words1 and says that the people were of almost pure ,english blood1 with a small infusion of ,huguenots and a slight mingling in ,new ,hampshire of ,scotch-,irish from ,londonderry4 ,during the past ten years the ,secretary of ,state of ,massachusetts1 by order of the ,legislature1 has been compiling from the state archives the muster roll of the ,massachusetts soldiers and sailors of the ,revolutionary ,war4 ,this does not bear out at all what ,mr4 ,palfrey and ,mr4 ,lodge have asserted so emphatically as to the exclusively ,english origin of the population of ,new ,england and1 above all1 of ,massachusetts at this critical time4 ,there is not a familiar ,irish name that does not occur many times4 ,the fighting race was well represented4 ,there were #afg ,kellys and #gi ,burkes1 though by some unaccountable circumstance only #bd ,sheas4 ,there were #chh ,o',briens and other ,o's and ,macs galore4 ,there are ,aherns and ,brannigans and ,bannons and ,careys and ,carrolls and ,connellys1 ,connors and ,corcorans and ,costellos and ,cosgroves and #ddh ,costigans1 and so on right through the alphabet4 ,curiously enough there are no ,lodges on the muster roll1 but there is not an ,irish name beginning with ,l that is not represented4 ,there are no less than #fi ,larkins and some #bj ,learys and ,lonergans and ,lanigans and all the other ,celtic patronymics in ,l4 ,dr4 ,emmet1 who has investigated very carefully the question of the deportation of the ,irish to this country under ,cromwell1 says that many shiploads of them were sent to ,massachusetts in the seventeenth century4 ,he declares that enough ,irish girls were sent over to ,massachusetts at this time to furnish wives for all the immediate descendants of the ,puritans4 ,there are certainly many more ,irish names than are dreamt of in the very early times4 ,priscilla ,alden's name before she tempted ,john to give her his rather pretty name1 has never found its way into poetry because no poetry would stand it--it was ,mullen or ,mullins4 ,even after the ,revolution the place of ,new ,england1 but especially ,massachusetts1 in the ,republic has been sadly misrepresented in our ,american history as a rule1 because our school historians at least have usually been ,bostonians4 ,when ,washington1 in #aghi1 made his first visit as ,president of the ,united ,states to ,new ,england1 he was received very enthusiastically in ,connecticut1 though this state had not been wholly favorable to the new government1 but in #ddi ,massachusetts his reception was distinctly cold1 and indeed1 almost insulting4 ,john ,hancock was ,governor of this ,state and he absolutely refused to meet the ,president at the ,state line1 though most other ,governors had done this1 and while ,president ,washington was in ,boston he declined even to call on him4 ,the reason for this was the assumption of a characteristic ,massachusetts attitude4 ,there seems no doubt now that ,john ,hancock1 not because he was pompous ,john ,hancock1 not because he was the ,governor of ,massachusetts--and this idea had been fostered among his people--honestly believed that the ,governor of ,massachusetts was a greater man in every way than the ,president of the nation4 ,there are many who might say that this state of mind has endured even to the present time4 ,certainly ,massachusetts' representative men have constantly set the interests of their commonwealth above those of the ,union4 ,new ,england has always had a tendency that way4 ,during the newspaper agitation over the recent tariff bill one of the cartoonists represented the ,united ,states as a puppy dog with ,new ,england as the tail1 with the caption1 ,how long is the tail going to wag the dog8 ,during the second war with ,great ,britain in #ahab ,new ,england was the most recalcitrant portion of the ,union1 and another conceited ,governor of the ,state hampered the nation in every way4 ,our histories for #dej schools1 at least1 have been so written as to produce the impression that only the ,south ever was dissatisfied with the ,union1 inclined to be rebellious and ready to talk about the nullification of the compact which bound the states together4 ,the ,hartford convention is mentioned1 but not given near the place that it deserves1 since it represents the feeling1 very rife at that time1 that such a procedure as nullification was quite justifiable4 ,twelve delegates from ,massachusetts were present in this convention and there was a decided spirit of rebellion against the general government because1 forsooth1 the war had injured ,boston's business4 ,it is not alone in history1 however1 that ,new ,england's thoroughgoing admiration for herself has served to disturb the attainment of truth by the rising generation of ,americans4 ,besides exaggerating the comparative influence of ,new ,england in the affairs of the country1 they have exaggerated the place of favorite ,new ,england authors in the literature of the world to such a degree that growing young ,america cannot help but have a number of false notions of comparative literary values1 which he has to rid himself of before he is able to attain any proper appreciation of world literature or even of ,english literature4 ,a little group of ,new ,england literary folk came into prominence about the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,because they were the best that ,new ,england could produce1 #dea apparently they were considered by ,new ,englanders as the best in the world4 ,english critics1 of course1 laughed at their self-complacency1 but our ,new ,england schoolmasters took ,new ,england's writers so seriously and proceeded to write so much about them and make them so much the subject of teaching not alone in ,new ,england but in every part of the country1 that now it is almost impossible to get our people to accept any true standards1 since admiration for these quite unimportant ,new ,england writers has ruined any proper critical literary appreciation4 ,as a consequence our rising generations for some time have been inclined to take ,emerson seriously as a great philosopher1 writer and thinker4 ,they have been very prone to accept dear old ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes1 kindliest of men1 charmingest of writers1 as a great literary man4 ,there have literally been hundreds of ,english writers such as these in the past three centuries of ,english literary history1 who now take up at most but a few lines in even large histories of ,english literature4 ,taking ,emerson seriously is fortunately going out of fashion4 ,if one wanted a criterion of the depth of thought of the generation that accepted him originally and passed him along as a significant philosophic prophet1 then surely one need go no farther4 ,our optimistic ,carlyle1 writing in a minor key1 looms up so much smaller now than a generation ago that we can readily realize how #deb ,new ,englandism infected literary and philosophic standards4 ,what is thus said of ,emerson may be repeated1 with perhaps a little less emphasis1 of the other writers whom ,new ,england has insisted on proclaiming to the world as representative of all that was best and highest in literature--because for a moment they commanded attention in ,new ,england4 ,there was a time1 not so long ago1 when it was considered the proper thing in this country to talk of ,longfellow as a great poet4 ,of course1 no one does so any more4 ,the devotion to him of so much time in our schools1 while so many much more important contributions to our ,english poetry have but scanty attention paid them1 is still producing not only a false impression on children's minds as to his proper place in literature1 but is playing sad havoc with literary standards generally1 so far as they may be the subject of teaching4 ,longfellow was1 of course1 nothing more than a pleasant balladist and a writer of conventional thoughts on rather commonplace themes in reasonably smooth verse4 ,for really profound thought ,longfellow's poetry has never a place4 ,his loftiest flights of imagination do not bring him anywhere near the great mysteries of human life or the deep thoughts that run through men's minds when they are touched to the quick4 ,of the sterner passions of men he had scarcely an inkling4 ,whittier1 of course1 has much more real poetry #dec in his little store of verse than ,longfellow1 but ,whittier's voice is only a very low treble and his religious training was too narrow to permit him any breadth of poetic feeling4 ,no one thinks now that anything that ,whittier wrote will live to be read by any but curious students of certain anti-slavery movements in connection with the history of our civil war4 ,he will have an interest for antiquarian litterateurs1 scarcely more than that4 ,of ,james ,russell ,lowell's rather charming academic verse one would prefer to say nothing1 only that the serious study of it in our schools leads the present generation to think that he1 too1 must be considered seriously as a poet4 ,it is doubtful if ,russell ,lowell ever thought of himself as a poet at all4 ,appropriate thoughts charmingly expressed for occasions1 in verse reasonably tuneful1 he could do better than most men of his time in ,america--that was all4 ,of real poetic quality there is almost none4 ,lowell's verse will not be read at all except by the professional critic before another generation has passed1 and ,i am sure that no one realized this better than ,lowell himself4 ,what ,longfellow and ,lowell will be remembered for in the history of nineteenth century literature1 most of the rising generation of ,americans know very little about and the great majority of them completely ignore4 ,it is for their critical and expository work in introducing great foreign authors--really great poets--to the #ded knowledge of their countrymen that both ,longfellow and ,lowell will deserve the gratitude of all future generations and some of their work in this regard will endure when their verse is forgotten4 ,longfellow's edition of ,dante was not only well worth all the time he gave to it during thirty years1 but represents a monument in ,american literature that will be fondly looked back to by many a generation of ,english-speaking people4 ,very probably of his work in verse the ,golden ,legend will mean more to a future generation than almost anything else that ,longfellow has done4 ,above all1 it was precious in making ,americans realize how profound and how beautiful had been the work of the poets of ,europe seven centuries ago4 ,in the light of this gradual reduction of the value of ,new ,england's literature to its lowest terms it is extremely amusing to find occasionally expressions of the value of the ,new ,england period in ,english literature as expressed by enthusiastic ,new ,englanders and1 above all1 by ardent--what1 for want of a better term we must call--,new ,englanderesses4 ,one of these1 ,miss ,helen ,winslow1 has recently and quite deservedly been made great fun of by ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,horwin in an article in the ,national ,review 7,england71 headed1 ,are ,americans ,provincial8 which brings home a few truths to us in what concerns our complacent self-satisfaction with ourselves4 ,miss ,winslow declares that the #dee great ,bostonian period was a literary epoch1 the like of which has scarcely been known since the ,elizabethan period4 ,she proclaims that ,the ,papyrus ,club of ,boston is known to men of letters and attainments everywhere4 ,she notes that ,scott1 ,balzac and ,thackeray received a legal training1 just when she is going to add that ,robert ,grant is also a lawyer4 ,she adds that young people everywhere adore the name of ,sophie ,sweet 7whoever she may be74 ,is it any wonder that the ordinary non-,new-,england ,american gets hot under the collar for his countrymen under such circumstances8 ,two really great masters of literature we had in ,america during the nineteenth century1 ,poe and ,hawthorne4 ,because of our ,new ,england schoolmasters1 as it seems to most of us1 ,poe has never come into his own proper appreciation in this country4 ,the ,french consider him the great master of the short story1 and that has come to occupy such a prominent place in our so-called literature in ,america1 that one might look for an apotheosis of ,poe4 ,he is the one writer whose works in both prose and verse have influenced deeply the literary men of other countries besides our own4 ,no other ,american writer has been given the tribute of more than a perfunctory notice in the non-,english-speaking countries4 ,in spite of this ,poe's name was kept out of the ,hall of ,fame at ,new ,york ,university1 #def which was meant to enshrine the memory of our greatest thinkers and literary men1 though we had generally supposed that the national selection of the jury to decide those whose names should be honored1 would preclude all possibility of any narrow sectional influence perverting the true purpose of the institution4 ,poe has never been popular in ,new ,england1 nor has he been appreciated at his true worth by the literary circles of ,new ,england4 ,their schoolmasterly influence has been pervasive enough to keep from ,poe his true meed of praise among our people generally1 though all our poets and literary men look up to him as our greatest poetic genius4 ,as for ,hawthorne1 there is no doubt that he is our greatest ,american writer in prose4 ,he was the one man in ,new ,england with a great message4 ,his writings came from deep down in the human heart1 from the very wellsprings of human passion1 and had their origin not far from where soul touches body in this human compound4 ,the ,english1 usually supposed to be slow of recognition for things ,american1 acknowledged his high worth almost at once4 ,some of us here in ,america1 indeed1 have had the feeling that to a great extent our people have had to learn the lesson of proper appreciation for ,hawthorne from the ,english-speaking people across the water4 ,to ,americans1 for years1 he was little more than a story-writer1 not so popular as #deg many another writer of stories1 and his really great qualities were to a great extent ignored4 ,because ,puritan ,new ,england was out of sympathy with the mystical spirit of his writings only a late and quite inadequate appreciation of the value of his work was formed by his countrymen4 ,something of this unfortunate lack of appreciation crept into the schoolmastering of the country1 and ,hawthorne is probably not as highly valued in his native land as he is in ,england1 though ,france and ,germany have learned to look up to him as our greatest of ,american literary men--the one of our writers who1 with ,poe1 attracts a world audience4 ,when there is question of anything else besides literature1 of course1 ,new ,england has no claims at all to make1 and she has stood for many unfortunate austere tendencies in ,american life4 ,for anything like public spirit for art or music or aesthetics in any department the ,puritan soul had no use4 ,consequently our artistic development was seriously delayed as a nation by the influence that ,new ,england had as the schoolmaster of the country4 ,the consequence was that our churches were bare and ugly1 our homes lacking in the spirit of beauty and our municipalities mere places to live and make money in1 but with no provision for the enjoyment of life4 ,it is in this that ,new ,england has doubtless done us most harm and it is for this reason that many people will re-echo that expression of a #deh descendant of the ,puritans who declares that it would have been an awfully good thing when the ,puritans landed on ,plymouth ,rock if only ,plymouth ,rock had landed on the ,puritans4 ,it would have saved us an immense deal of inhibition of all the art impulses of this country1 which were almost completely choked off for so long by the narrow ,puritanism so rampant in ,new ,england and so diffusively potent in our educational system4 ,in conclusion one feels like recalling once more ,lowell's ,essay on a ,certain ,condescension in ,foreigners4 ,surely the daughter ,new ,england1 consciously or unconsciously1 has treated the rest of the country very much like ,mother ,england used to treat nascent ,english ,america long ago4 ,there are many of us who in recent years have come to know ,new ,englandism and its proneness to be condescending1 who have felt very much like paraphrasing1 with the addition of the adjective new here and there1 certain of ,lowell's best-known sentences4 ,the new version will make quite as satisfactory a bit of satire on our ,down ,east compatriots as ,lowell's hits on the mother country and our ,english cousins across the water4 ,very probably there are more people who will appreciate the satire in this new application of the great ,american essayist's words than they did in its original form3 ,it will take 7,new7 ,england a great while to get over her airs of patronage toward us1 or even passably #dei to conceal them4 ,she has a conviction that whatever good there is in us is wholly 7,new7 ,english1 when the truth is that we are worth nothing except so far as we have disinfected ourselves of 7,neo-7 ,anglicanism4 ,additional ,material ,,the ,,popes ,,and ,,science--,the story of the ,papal ,relations to ,science from the ,middle ,ages down to the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,by ,james ,j4 ,walsh1 ,m4 ,d41 ,ph4 ,d41 ,,ll4 ,d4 #ddj pp4 ,price4 #b4jj net4 ,prof4 ,pagel1 ,professor of ,history at the ,university of ,berlin3 ,this book represents the most serious contribution to the history of medicine that has ever come out of ,america4 ,sir ,clifford ,allbutt1 ,regius ,professor of ,physic at the ,university of ,cambridge 7,england73 ,the book as a whole is a fair as well as a scholarly argument4 ,the ,evening ,post 7,new ,york7 says3 ,however strong the reader's prejudice 99 99 99 99 he cannot lay down ,prof4 ,walsh's volume without at least conceding that the author has driven his pen hard and deep into the 'academic superstition' about ,papal ,opposition to science4 ,in a previous issue it had said3 ,we venture to prophesy that all who swear by ,dr4 ,andrew ,d4 ,white's ,history of the ,warfare of ,science with ,theology in ,christendom will find their hands full1 if they attempt to answer ,dr4 ,james ,j4 ,walsh's ,the ,popes and ,science4 ,the ,literary ,digest said3 ,the book is well worth reading for its extensive learning and the vigor of its style4 ,the ,southern ,messenger says3 ,books like this make it clear that it is ignorance alone that makes people1 even supposedly educated people1 still cling to the old calumnies4 ,the ,nation 7,new ,york7 says3 ,the learned ,fordham ,physician has at command an enormous mass of facts1 and he orders them with logic1 force and literary ease4 ,prof4 ,walsh convicts his opponents of hasty generalizing if not anti-clerical zeal4 ,the ,pittsburg ,post says3 ,with the fair attitude of mind and influenced only by the student's desire to procure knowledge1 this book becomes at once something to fascinate4 ,on every page authoritative facts confute the stereotyped statement of the purely theological publications4 ,prof4 ,welch1 of ,johns ,hopkins1 quoting ,martial1 said3 ,it is pleasant indeed to drink at the living fountain-heads of knowledge after previously having had only the stagnant pools of second-hand authority4 ,prof4 ,piersol1 ,professor of ,anatomy at the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 said3 ,i have been reading the book with the keenest interest1 for it indeed presents many subjects in what to me at least is a new light4 ,every man of science looks to the beacon--truth--as his guiding mark1 and every opportunity to replace even time-honored misconceptions by what is really the truth must be welcomed4 ,the ,independent 7,new ,york7 said3 ,dr4 ,walsh's books should be read in connection with attacks upon the ,popes in the matter of science by those who want to get both sides4 ,,makers ,,of ,,electricity--,by ,brother ,potamian1 ,f4 ,c4 ,s41 ,sc4 ,d4 7,london71 ,professor of ,physics in ,manhattan ,college1 and ,james ,j4 ,walsh1 ,m4 ,d44 ,ph4 ,d44 ,litt4 ,d44 ,dean and ,professor of the ,history of ,medicine and of ,nervous ,diseases at ,fordham ,university ,school of ,medicine1 ,new ,york4 ,fordham ,university ,press1 #aaj ,west #gdth ,street ,illustrated4 ,price1 #b4jj net4 ,postage4 #ae cents extra4 ,the ,scientific ,american3 ,one will find in this book very good sketches of the lives of the great pioneers in ,electricity1 with a clear presentation of how it was that these men came to make their fundamental experiments1 and how we now reach conclusions in ,science that would have been impossible until their work of revealing was done4 ,the biographies are those of ,peregrinus1 ,columbus1 ,norman and ,gilbert1 ,franklin and some contemporaries1 ,galvini1 ,volta1 ,coulomb1 ,oersted1 ,ampere1 ,ohm1 ,faraday1 ,clerk ,maxwell1 and ,kelvin4 ,the ,boston ,globe3 ,the book is of surpassing interest ,the ,new ,york ,sun3 ,the researches of ,brother ,potamian among the pioneers in antiquity and the ,middle ,ages are perhaps more interesting than ,dr4 ,walsh's admirable summaries of the accomplishment of the heroes of modern science4 ,the book testifies to the excellence of ,catholic scholarship4 ,the ,evening ,post3 ,it is a matter of importance that the work and lives of men like ,gilbert1 ,franklin1 ,galvini1 ,volta1 ,ampere and others should be made known to the students of ,electricity1 and this office has been well fulfilled by the present authors4 ,the book is no mere compilation1 but brings out many interesting and obscure facts1 especially about the earlier men4 ,the ,philadelphia ,record3 ,it is a glance at the whole field of ,electricity by men who are noted for the thoroughness of their research1 and it should be made accessible to every reader capable of taking a serious interest in the wonderful phenomena of nature4 ,electrical ,world3 ,aside from the intrinsic interest of its matter1 the book is delightful to read owing to the graceful literary style common to both authors4 ,one not having the slightest acquaintance with electrical science will find the book of absorbing interest as treating in a human way and with literary art the life work of some of the greatest men of modern times2 and1 moreover1 in the course of his reading he will incidentally obtain a sound knowledge of the main principles upon which almost all present-day electrical development is based4 ,it is a shining example of how science can be popularized without the slightest twisting of facts or distortion of perspective4 ,electrical readers will find the book also a scholarly treatise on the evolution of electrical science1 and a most refreshing change from the 'engineering ,english' of the typical technical writer4 ,,catholic ,,summer ,,school ,,press ,,series ,the highest value attaches to historical research on the lines you so ably indicate1 especially at the present time1 when the enemies of ,holy ,church are making renewed efforts to show her antagonism to science and human progress generally4 ,i shall have much pleasure in perusing your work entitled ,the ,thirteenth ,greatest of ,centuries4 ,wishing you every blessing1 ,i am1 ,yours sincerely in ,xt41 ,r4 ,card4 ,merry ,del ,val4 ,rome1 ,january #ahth1 #aijh4 ,jas4 ,j4 ,walsh1 ,esq41 ,new ,york4 ,,the ,,thirteenth ,,greatest ,,of ,,centuries --,by ,james ,j4 ,walsh4 ,m4 ,d41 ,ph4 ,d41 ,litt4 ,d44 ,dean and ,professor of ,nervous ,diseases and of the ,history of ,medicine at ,fordham ,university ,school of ,medicine2 ,professor of ,physiological ,psychology at ,cathedral ,college1 ,new ,york4 ,catholic ,summer ,school ,press4 #aaj ,west #gdth ,street1 ,n4 ,t41 ,georgetown ,university ,edition4 ,over #ajj additional illustrations and twenty-six chapters that might have been1 nearly #fjj pages4 ,price1 #c4ej1 post free4 ,prof4 ,william ,osler1 of ,oxford1 delivering the ,linacre ,lecture before the ,university of ,cambridge1 said3 ,that good son of the ,church and of the profession1 ,dr4 ,james ,j4 ,walsh1 has recently published a charming book on ,the ,thirteenth as the ,greatest of ,centuries4 ,he makes a very good case for what is called the ,first ,renaissance4 ,the ,saturday ,review 7of ,london73 ,the volume contains a mass of interesting facts that will start a train of profitable thought in many readers' minds4 ,the ,educational ,review said3 ,the title of ,dr4 ,walsh's book1 ,the ,thirteenth ,greatest of ,centuries1 will startle many readers1 but we respectfully commend to the open-minded his presentation of that great epoch4 ,a century that witnessed such extraordinary achievements in architecture1 in arts and crafts1 in education1 and in literature and law1 as did the ,thirteenth1 is not to be lightly dismissed or unfavorably compared with periods nearer our own4 ,the ,pittsburg ,post said3 ,dr4 ,walsh writes infused with all the learning of the past1 enthusiastic in modern research1 and sympathetic1 in true scholarly style1 with investigation in every line4 ,one need only run over a few of the topical headings to feel how plausible the thesis is4 ,the assemblage of the facts and the elucidation of their mutual relations by ,dr4 ,walsh shows the master's skill4 ,the work bristles on every page with facts that may be familiar to many1 but which were never before so arranged in just perspective with their convincing force so clearly shown4 ,cardinal ,moran1 of ,sydney1 ,australia3 ,just the sort of literature we want for ,english readers at the present day4